)^^i\m^j^mmm^i^^^ 
 
 I 1 
 
 i 
 
<^^^y^ c>^^^^^:^^^ 
 
 ^L^^^^^t^^^> 
 
 University of California • Berkeley 
 
 Gift of 
 
 
 Dr. & Mrs. John 
 
 C. Craig 
 
AN ACCOUNT 
 
 OF THE 
 
 CULTIVATION AND MANUFACTURE 
 
 OF 
 
 TEA 
 
 IN CHINA. 
 
^ 
 
 London : ^ 
 
 Sfottiswoode and Shaw, 
 New-Street-Square. 
 
•■J^; -f: 
 
 'f^wm,. 
 
AN ACCOUNT 
 
 OF THE 
 
 CULTIVATION AND MANUFACTURE 
 
 OF 
 
 T E A 
 
 IN CHINA: 
 
 DERIVED FROM PERSONAL OBSERVATION 
 
 DURING AN OFFICIAL RESIDENCE IN THAT COUNTRY FROM 1804 TO 1826 ; 
 And illustrated l)y the best Authoi iti?s, Chineie as well as European : 
 
 WITH 
 
 REMARKS ON THE EXPERIMENTS NOW MAKING 
 
 FOR THE INTRODUCTION OF THE CULTURE OF THE TEA TREE IN 
 
 OTHER PARTS OF THE WORLD. 
 
 BY 
 
 SAMUEL BALL, ESQ. 
 
 LATE INSPECTOR OF TEAS TO THE HON. UNITED EAST INDIA COMPANV 
 
 IN CHINA. 
 
 LONDON: 
 
 PRINTED FOR 
 
 LONGMAN, BROWN, GREEN, AND LONGMANS, 
 
 PATEK>OSTER-KOW. 
 1848. 
 
Digitized by the Internet Arciiive 
 
 in 2008 witii funding from 
 
 IVIicrosoft Corporation 
 
 http://www.arcliive.org/details/accountofcultivaOOballricli 
 
TO 
 
 SIR GEORGE THOMAS STAUNTON, BART. M.P. 
 
 LL.D. F.R.S. 
 
 &c. &c. 
 IN TESTIMONY Or SINCERE REGARD AND ESTEEM, 
 
 THIS VOLUME IS INSCRIBED 
 
 BY 
 HIS OBLIGED AND ATTACHED FRIEND AND SERVANT 
 
 THE AUTHOR. 
 
 A 3 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 In laying before the public the following pages 
 on the Cultivation and Manufacture of Tea in 
 China, I have been actuated by a hope of dispelling 
 some of the prevalent errors and misconceptions 
 with which this subject has hitherto been involved ; 
 but mainly by a desire of supplying to the culti- 
 vator a desideratum, long and ineffectually sought, 
 in aid of those attempts which are now in progress 
 for the cultivation of the tea tree, on an extended 
 scale, in British India, and other parts of the 
 world. 
 
 The immediate aim, then, of this book is utility 
 rather than amusement ; and yet the general 
 reader in turning over its pages may unexpectedly 
 find his attention arrested by matter not altogether 
 devoid of interest to him; while such as are sti- 
 mulated by the gratification of a natural curiosity 
 to seek some acquaintance with the modes of ma- 
 nipulating the fragrant leaf which " smokes as an 
 infusion on our tables," may possibly find some- 
 thing which may instruct as well as amuse. At all 
 events they will meet with a rational answer to a 
 
 A 4 
 
Vlll PREFACE. 
 
 question frequently discussed at the tea-table, 
 namely, " In what consists the difference between 
 black and green tea ? " To the wholesale and retail 
 dealer, if the task has been fairly executed, each 
 page ought to have its interest ; and the merchant 
 will find, on reference to the heads of chapters, 
 more than is promised by the title-page, on subjects 
 regarding price, and other topics of trade. For 
 the chemist some experiments are detailed, and a 
 novel theory is submitted for further development 
 from his science, as to a change in the constituents 
 of black tea, which is traced to a process of mani- 
 pulation previous to roasting, on which its darkness 
 and redness of colour in leaf and infusion, as well 
 as flavour, is supposed to depend. In the de- 
 velopment, however, of this theory, I must claim 
 the indulgence of the man of science, a character 
 to which I make no claim. 
 
 The highly responsible and laborious official 
 duties of my appointment under the East India 
 Company, left me little leisure for literary pursuits 
 during the season of activity at Canton; and 
 during the recess at Macao, it must be acknow- 
 ledged that I found the enervating effects of a 
 hot climate on a northern constitution indispose 
 both body and mind to much exertion. It must also 
 be confessed that the extreme retirement of my 
 former life in China, with the absence of com- 
 munion with literary and scientific men, as well as 
 an imperfect supply of books, were great drawbacks 
 
PKEFACE. IX 
 
 to any preparation for appearing before the public 
 as an author. 
 
 Still, having by labour, perseverance, and long- 
 continued exertion, expressly directed to this sub- 
 ject, collected something which may be useful, and 
 seeing no probability of the same being obtained in 
 a more effectual manner, and exhibited under more 
 attractive forms, I feel induced, with an absence, 
 however, of all pretension, to bring that something 
 forward. 
 
 It will be seen by dates incidentally adverted to, 
 that the facts, and most of the materials of this 
 work, were established and collected thirty years 
 ago. As regards the processes of manipulation, 
 they were at all times noted down by me during 
 the performance of the several stages of the pro- 
 cess. These facts, as well as other materials, were 
 derived from conversation with growers and mani- 
 pulators from the tea districts ; from written 
 documeuts furnished by Chinese ; from published 
 works in the same language diligently sought out ; 
 and also from correspondence with a Spanish mis- 
 sionary long resident in the province of Fokien. 
 These were all put into their present form full 
 twenty years ago, and were read to one or two 
 friends during my residence in China. They have 
 since that time received very little alteration, either 
 in arrangement or expression. 
 
 They were not, however, so arranged with any 
 view to immediate publication ; on the contrary, I 
 
X PREFACE. 
 
 am too sensible, even at the present moment, of 
 their great imperfection ; but this arises not from 
 any want of perseverance or diligence on my part, 
 but from the peculiarly unfavourable situation in 
 which foreigners were formerly placed at Canton. 
 They were thus disposed as the best mode of re- 
 cording and keeping together, in an intelligible 
 form, the facts and materials I had collected. It 
 was my wish to try some experiments on other 
 leaves, which I have since done, as subservient to 
 the development of the particular theory which I 
 then entertained, and which I believe I have now 
 successfully established. 
 
 On my return to England circumstances induced 
 me to lay aside for a time my investigation relative 
 to this subject. In the year 1839 the publication 
 of the Parliamentary Papers on the " Tea Cultiva- 
 tion" at Assam attracted my attention, and di- 
 rected my thoughts once more to this pursuit. 
 
 Since this period I have systematically and re- 
 gularly pursued my inquiries, but for a long time 
 without much success. No more publications 
 issued from the India press relative to the cultiva- 
 tion of tea. Mr. Bruce's report of the manufacture 
 of black tea is minutely and well described, but it 
 contained nothing novel to me. My endeavours to 
 obtain information from Java were equally fruit- 
 less ; I consulted M. Guillemin's account of the cul- 
 tivation of tea at the Brazils ; and also Von Siebold's 
 
PREFACE. XI 
 
 work on Japan, but altogether without advantage 
 as regards the processes of manipulation. 
 
 Mulder's excellent analysis of tea, though it did 
 not determine points on which I sought instruction 
 and confirmation of my own views, was neverthe- 
 less of the highest importance in directing my 
 thoughts in the right channel ; and to this paper 
 and also to Liebig's Chemistry of Agriculture, I 
 am indebted for the means of working out the 
 theory concerning black tea, which I now place 
 before the reader. 
 
 But it was not till the year 1844, when I re- 
 ceived from a very old friend, Mr Bletterman, for- 
 merly chief of the Dutch Establishment at Canton, 
 Mr. Jacobson's Handbook on the cultivation of tea 
 at Java, that I found my own views so far con- 
 firmed, and my information such as to justify me 
 in bringing my labours to a close. It will be seen 
 by the large extracts in the form of notes, which I 
 have subjoined to some chapters, how much I am 
 indebted to this useful work. 
 
 It is unnecessary here to particularize what parts 
 of my work were written in China, and what since ; 
 the subjects sufficiently explain themselves, and 
 will be for the most part intelligible to the reader. 
 
 It has not formed any part of my plan to make 
 quotations except from original sources; but I 
 cannot pass over in silence the excellent work 
 written by Dr. Lettsom ; nor the able chapters on 
 this subject contained in Dr. Royle's work on the 
 
Xll PREFACE. 
 
 " Botany of the Himalayan Mountains ; " and in 
 his "Productive Eesources of India." It would 
 be unjust to this able and scientific author to say 
 that I had derived no assistance from these valu- 
 able works. 
 
 For the translation of Mr. Jacobson's treatise, 
 written in the Dutch language, I am indebted to Mr. 
 Bruggermeyer, principal clerk to Messrs. Hofman 
 and Schenk of the city of London. This work was 
 published at Batavia in 1843 in three volumes. 
 The first is an epitome of the other two. It is now 
 under translation by Mr. Frith in Bengal* ; but 
 unless that gentleman translates the other two 
 volumes, he will convey a very imperfect idea of 
 the merits and matter of the work itself. The se- 
 cond and third volumes consist of 587 pages. I have 
 made an abstract of them through an oral transla- 
 tion, and have compressed them into about eighty 
 pages, having, as I believe, seized on " all the mate- 
 rial points. The notes given will enable the reader 
 to judge how this task has been performed. 
 
 For a translation of Yon Siebold's chapter on 
 Tea, contained in his " Nippon," and for Mulder's 
 analysis, I have been indebted to friends. 
 
 The plates belonging to this work were engraved 
 from drawings made by Mr. J. W. Archer from 
 Chinese sketches. The two views of the " Inner 
 
 * See Journal of the Agricultural and Horticultural Society of 
 India, vol. v. parts 3 and 4. 
 
PREFACE. XUl 
 
 Eange " of the Boliea Mountains were engraved 
 by Mr. James Willmore, A. R. A., and the figures 
 manipulating tea by Mr. Mason Jackson. They 
 were executed con amore^ and do credit to these 
 able artists : and I avail myself of this mode of 
 expressing my obligations to these gentlemen for 
 the able and skilful manner in which they have 
 preserved the spirit and character of the originals, 
 while reducing them to the rules of art. 
 
 In conclusion, I would only observe that if this 
 work should in any degree accomplish the objects 
 for which it has been undertaken, I shall not 
 regret the time and labour which I have devoted 
 to its execution. 
 
 London, Dec. 30. 1847. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 Discovery and early history of the tea tree in China — Intro- 
 duction and gradual improvements of the processes required 
 in its manipulation — Geographical distribution of the tree 
 in China — Its extensive use, and mode of using it in China 
 — At Japan — Von Siebold's opinion, that the tea tree was 
 originally introduced into China from Corea, examined — 
 Proved to be indigenous — Identity of Assam tree doubtful 
 — Extensive geographical distribution of the Chinese tree- 
 
 Page 1 
 
 CHAP. II. 
 
 Climate of China influenced by monsoon winds — No wet and 
 dry season as in India — Quantity of rain at Canton — At 
 Peking — Increase of temperature and humidity great from 
 March to May — Temperature at Peking — At Canton — In 
 the green and black tea countries — Foo-chew-foo — Amoy — 
 Frost severe but not continuous — Ice preserved through the 
 summer — Temperature of Shang-hai — Chusan — Great 
 variation of temperature principally in winter — Daily 
 variation small — Climate generally salubrious — Tea tree 
 exposed to great differences of climate — Climate most suit- 
 able - - - - - - 19 
 
 CHAP. III. 
 
 Black tea — Districts where the best kinds are found and culti- 
 vated — What situations are the most favourable — Exposure 
 and nature of the soil — Accounts given in Chinese works — 
 By European missionaries — The various opinions as to the 
 most suitable soil examined — Attempt to reconcile some 
 
XVI CONTENTS. 
 
 of these differences — Soil the most suitable — Analysis of 
 tea soils from China and Japan - - Page 40 
 
 CHAP. IV. 
 
 Culture — Accounts given in Chinese works ■ — By European 
 missionaries — Plantations seen by Mr. Gordon at Amoy — 
 Cultivation of green tea different from black — Mode prac- 
 tised in Japan — In Java - - - 78 
 
 CHAP. V. 
 
 Time of gathering — Three gatherings — Difference of quality 
 of the gatherings — Only young succulent leaves fit for tea 
 — Mode at Java - - - - - 91 
 
 CHAP. VI. 
 
 Manipulation previously to roasting — Mode described by a 
 Chinese — Exposure or non-exposure to sun — Expedi- 
 ents adopted in rainy weather — Description of the several 
 processes — Fragrance, none in fresh leaves — Developed by 
 manipulation — Personal observation of the several processes 
 
 — Redness of the leaf - - - - 103 
 
 CHAP. VII. 
 
 Roasting and final drying of the leaves — Two processes — 
 Roasting vessels and stoves described — Mode of roasting 
 
 — Mode of rolling — Process of Ta-ching — Final drying 
 
 — Stoves and instruments used — Mode of drying — Markets 
 established — Packing of the tea at the village of Sing-csun 
 — Remarks on the processes of manipulation — Variations in 
 the mode of manipulation — Observations on the modes 
 described by Mr. Fortune — Some teas wholly manipulated in 
 the sun — Experiments on this mode, and deductions there- 
 from ------ 120 
 
 CHAP. VIII. 
 
 Manipulation of Pekoe, Caper, Nao-csce, and Long-csin teas — 
 The scenting of tc^ — Bolwa tea — Originally brought from 
 
CONTENTS. XVll 
 
 the tea country unmanipulated — Attempts to procure it 
 manipulated — Size of chests found too large for inland 
 carriage — Brought by sea — Also large quantities of Congou 
 
 — Jealousy of Chinese government at this innovation — 
 Imperial edict prohibiting the shipment by sea from the 
 port of Foo-chew-foo — Importance of this port — Doubts 
 regarding the port examined and answered — Mode of 
 roasting and drying Bohea tea at Canton — Brick-tp.a — Its 
 form and manipulation — Its extensive use in Mongolia — 
 "Description of a fete at Ourga — Caravans of this tea fre- 
 quently fallen in with by travellers — Employed as a circu- 
 lating medium — As money at horse races, feats of strength, 
 and archery — Establishments of tea houses across the desert 
 of Gobi frequent — Extensive use in Tibet — Mode of pre- 
 paration for use throughout central Asia — Mixed with 
 butter and flour, and churned — Capt. Turner's opinion of 
 it — Mr. Manning's opinion — Teapots employed highly 
 ornamented — TeaofBisahar - - - Page 154 
 
 CHAP. IX. 
 
 Green tea — The Hyson shrub is the Singlo shrub improved by 
 cultivation — Gathering and manipulation — Roasting vessels 
 described — Mode of manipulation of Hyson tea — Colour 
 not factitious — Manipulation continued — Assortment of 
 leaves into gunpowder, Hyson, Hyson skin, and young Hyson, 
 by sifting and winnowing — Twankay tea — Mode of mani- 
 pulation described by a Chinese — Factitious colouring of 
 green tea — Experiments to determine on what the peculiar 
 colour of green tea depends — Factitious colouring of green 
 tea continued — IVIr. Warington's examination of this subject 
 
 — Experiments with steam — Observations on the use 
 of machinery as abridgments of labour - - 206 
 
 CHAP. X. 
 
 Heat employed in the manipulation of tea in China — at Java 
 
 — Absorption of heat by the leaves limited by evaporation — 
 Proved by experiment — Cause of leaves not burning — 
 Amount of heat regulated according to the succulency of the 
 
 a 
 
XVlll CONTENTS. 
 
 leaves — Heat employed at Java too low for green tea — 
 Difficulty^ in determining the requisite amount of heat — 
 Temperature recommended — Used at Java — Mode of 
 measuring it^liable to error - - Page 246 
 
 CHAP. XL 
 
 Review of P. 'Mulder's analysis of tea — Colour of black tea 
 not due to high temperature — Black tea not dried at a higher 
 temperature than green — Gunpowder tea dried at the highest 
 point of the scale of temperature, and Pekoe tea at the lowest 
 — ^The red or brown colouring matter of black tea not due to 
 high drying — The term black a misnomer — Analysis of tea 
 — Odorous principle derived from a volatile oil — Developed 
 in coffee by high temperature — The red or brown colouring 
 matter of black tea in leaf and infusion traced to chemical 
 causes — Other parts of the analysis reconciled with the 
 preceding theory — Flavour dependent mainly on manipula- 
 tion — Recapitulation of the modes of manufacturing black 
 and green tea — Difference of quality of tea traced to vari- 
 ous causes - - - - - 270 
 
 CHAP. XII. 
 
 Observations on the botanical and specific difference of tea — 
 Opinion of the Chinese, soil the only cause of difference — 
 Analogous cases in other vegetable productions — No differ- 
 ence at Java — No certainty that we possess true specimens of 
 the black and green tea shrub of commerce — The Thea Bohea 
 a Canton plant — The Assam plant doubtful as to species — 
 Examination of the grounds on which botanists have estab- 
 lished a specific difference — Opposed to actual observation 
 at Japan, Java, and the Brazils — Probably only one species 
 but several varieties — All botanical difference destroyed in 
 the course of packing — Probability that superior shrubs do 
 exist in the Bohea and Hyson districts, the effect of long and 
 careful cultivation _ . - - 307. 
 
 CHAP. XIII. 
 
 Introduction of the cultivation and manipulation of tea into 
 India — Supposed low rate of wages in China, and great 
 
CONTENTS. XIX 
 
 cost of production examined — Mode of living of the Hindoo 
 cultivator — Of the Chinese cultivator — Comparative rate of 
 wages in the two countries — Sketch of the trade under the 
 East India company — Effects on price since the abolition of 
 the charter — Great profits of the Hong merchant — Expense 
 of transport of tea from the tea country to Canton and Foo- 
 chew-foo compared — Cost of tea at its seat of growth — Cost 
 to the European at Canton — At Foo-chew-foo — Price with 
 which the cultivator will have to compete — Cost of pro- 
 duction at Assam — Kamaon — Java and the Brazils. 
 
 Page 333 
 Appendix - - - - - 369 
 
ERRATA. 
 
 Page 91. note, line 3., for " Ting Hing " read " Tien Hing." 
 273. line 6., for " higher " read "high." 
 324. line 13., for "at Japan" read "in Japan." 
 
AN ACCOUNT 
 
 OF THE 
 
 CULTIVATION AND MANUFACTURE 
 
 OF 
 
 TEA m CHIT^A. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 DISCOVERY AND EARLY HISTORY OF THE TEA TREE IN CHINA 
 
 INTRODUCTION AND GRADUAL IMPROVEMENTS OF THE PROCESSES 
 REQUIRED IN ITS MANIPULATION GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBU- 
 TION OF THE TREE IN CHINA ITS EXTENSIVE USE, AND 
 
 MODE OF USING IT IN CHINA AT JAPAN VON SIEBOLD's 
 
 OPINION, THAT THE TEA TREE WAS ORIGINALLY INTRODUCED 
 INTO CHINA FROM COREA, EXA3IINED PROVED TO BE INDI- 
 GENOUS IDENTITY OF ASSAM TREE DOUBTFUL EXTENSIVE 
 
 GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF THE CHLNESE TREE. 
 
 The origin of the use of tea, as collectecl from the 
 works of the Chinese, is traced to the fabulous 
 period of their history ; not, however, so much 
 from the vanity of assigning to it a high antiquity, 
 as to a kind of courtesy sanctioned by ancient 
 usage and oral tradition, which ascribes the dis- 
 
 B 
 
2 EARLY HISTORY 
 
 covery of numerous medicinal plants, and of tea 
 among the rest, to the Emperor Shin Nong *, es- 
 teemed as the inventor of agriculture, and author 
 of physic : — for the Chinese themselves admit 
 their chronology of this period to be defective, 
 and that they have no authentic histories prior 
 to the time of Yao and Shun.f It nevertheless is a 
 common practice among empirics, even at the 
 present day, to ascribe the discovery of their 
 several nostrums to the Emperor Shin Nong, 
 though all such pretension is treated as fabulous ; 
 and, with respect to tea in particular, receives no 
 sanction from the more recent Chinese accounts 
 of the history of that tree. 
 
 The earliest authentic account of tea, if any thing 
 so obscure and vague can be deemed authentic, 
 is contained in the She Kin 2:, one of the classical 
 works of high antiquity and veneration among the 
 Chinese, and compiled by their renowned philoso- 
 pher and great moralist Confucius. J This work, 
 however, contains no more than the following ob- 
 scure expression which is considered by the Chi- 
 nese commentators as having an allusion to tea — 
 ^'Who says the Tu is better, it is sweet as the 
 Csy." Now, we learn from other authorities, as 
 well as from the standard dictionary of the 
 country, published with the sanction of the Em- 
 
 * B. c. 3254. 
 
 f B. c. 2357, see translation of Du Halde, vol. i. page 143, note. 
 
 J Born 550 b. c. 
 
OF THE TEA TREE IN CHINA. 6 
 
 peror Gang Hi, that Tu K was the ancient 
 mode of writing Cha "^i^^ and that both cha- 
 racters were used indifferently in so remote a 
 period as that of Han, and down to the time of Lo- 
 yu *, who lived in the Tang dynasty ; when the 
 character Tu fell into disuse, and the term Cha 
 was substituted in lieu of it. This author wrote a 
 short and interesting treatise on tea, to which we 
 shall again refer. 
 
 In the Kuen Fang Pu, a work on natural his- 
 tory, there is a treatise called the Cha Pu, which 
 is the most elaborate account of tea I have met 
 with. In this treatise, under the article " Ancient 
 History of Tea," an absurd story is related of the 
 discovery of this tree in the Tsin dynasty. f Then 
 follow others of an equally uninteresting nature, 
 and of the same and subsequent periods ; when 
 mention is made of its being used as a medicine on 
 the recommendation of a priest of the sect of Fo, 
 by the Emperor Yen Ty J, who established the 
 dynasty of Suey, from which time its use as a 
 
 * A.D. 780. 
 
 •j" In the reign of Yuen Ty in the dynasty of Tsin (a.d. 217), 
 an old woman was accustomed to proceed every morning at day- 
 break to the market-place, carrying a cup of tea on the palm of her 
 hand. The people bought it eagerly ; and yet, from the break 
 of day to the close of evening, the cup was never exhausted. 
 The money received she distributed to the orphan and the needy 
 beggar frequenting the highways. The people seized and con- 
 fined her in prison. At night she flew through the prison 
 window with her little vase in her hand. 
 
 t A.D. 584. 
 
 B 2 
 
4 EARLY HISTORY 
 
 beverage became generally known. The same 
 work contains an allegory on tea, which ascribes its 
 discovery and introduction to Imperial notice in 
 the Heu Han dynasty * ; but it is designedly too full 
 of poetical anachronisms to be deemed of any weight 
 or authority. Nor does the author of this work 
 attach much importance to such fables, nor even 
 to accredited authorities which place the discovery 
 of the use of tea so early as the Heu Han dynasty ; 
 for he distinctly states, in a short preface to this 
 treatise, " That though tea is included in Shin 
 Nong's f account of aliments, yet it was first used 
 as a beverage in the reign of Suey Ty, or Yen Ty, 
 and acknowledged good, though not much es- 
 teemed ; but from that time, and during the dynasty 
 of Tang J, it gained in reputation, and was abun- 
 dant in that of Sung §, being esteemed and used 
 everywhere." 
 
 The preface here alluded to is immediately fol- 
 lowed by the Cha Kin, written by the learned 
 personage Lo-yu, already mentioned, who lived 
 in the dynasty of Tang, which is perhaps the most 
 ancient authentic description of tea contained in 
 the Chinese annals ; and as it also treats of the 
 qualities and eiFects of this plant, the reader may 
 not be unwilling to know what this writer says on 
 a subject which has occasioned such a diversity of 
 
 * A.D. 221 to 279. t ^'^- 3254. 
 
 J A.D. 618 to 906 § A.D, 960. 
 
OF THE TEA TKEE IN CHINA. 5 
 
 opinion in Europe, and some even in China. After 
 eulogising its fragrance and flavour, lie observes — 
 " It tempers the spirits, and harmonises the mind : 
 dispels lassitude, and relieves fatigue : awakens 
 thought, and prevents drowsiness: lightens or re- 
 freshes the body, and clears the perceptive facul- 
 ties." Again, in the allegory alluded to, one of 
 the emperors of the Han dynasty is made to say, 
 " The use of it grows upon me surprisingly : I know 
 not how it is, but my fancy is awakened and my 
 spirits exhilarated as if with wine." The learned 
 author Lo-yu then proceeds to state, that — " All tea 
 is gathered in the second, third, and fourth moons. 
 The leaves must not be gathered in rainy, or even 
 in cloudy weather, but when it is fair and clear. 
 Bruise and pat them with the hands ; roast them 
 over a fire {poey) ; pack and close them up. In 
 this manner tea is prepared ; and there are a thou- 
 sand and ten thousand different kinds." Then 
 follow other remarks and frivolous comparisons 
 not very intelligible — at least to me. It is 
 obvious, from the preceding account, that the 
 Chinese were well acquainted with tea at this pe- 
 riod ; and we also find from other authorities that 
 during the reign of Te Tsong, in the sam.e dynasty, 
 the consumption of tea was already so considerable 
 as to attract the notice of government as an advan- 
 tageous subject for impost. It is stated as a matter 
 of history in the Kaung-moo, an abridged history of 
 
 B 3 
 
6 EARLY HISTORY OF TEx\. 
 
 China, that a duty on tea was first levied in the 
 fourteenth year of that reign.* In the dynasty 
 of Sungf the duty was again increased, and tea 
 was first sent up as tribute, or as an annual ofiering 
 to the emperor. It must also be noticed, that the 
 Arabian travellers who passed into China in the 
 ninth century J, speak of tea as the common be- 
 verage of the country. 
 
 Now, from the reign of the Emperor Yen Ty, 
 who founded the dynasty of Suey, in whose reign 
 the author of the Cha Pu ascribes the first use of 
 this plant as a beverage to that of Te Tsong, in the 
 dynasty of Tang, when the first duty was levied, 
 two centuries had elapsed ; a period of time abun- 
 dantly sufficient for its introduction into general 
 use. This would place its origin as a beverage in 
 the sixth century of the Christian era ; and to pur- 
 sue this inquiry further, in order to elicit the truth 
 from the mass of confused and apparently contra- 
 dictory evidence contained in the Chinese works on 
 tea, would require a research which the subject 
 cannot be deemed to merit. We shall therefore 
 conclude, that although this plant may have been 
 known to the Chinese so early as the third and 
 fourth century of the Christian era, and occasion- 
 ally resorted to as a medicine, yet, agreeably to the 
 author of the Cha Pu, its use as a beverage was 
 not known prior to the sixth century ; that it be- 
 
 * A. D 783. t A= D. 960. j: A. D. 850. 
 
ANCIENT MODE OE MANIPULATION. 7 
 
 came abundant in the seventh and eighth, and 
 general over the empire in the ninth century. 
 
 If the origin of the use of tea is involved in 
 much obscurity, it may readily be imagined that 
 the early mode of manipulation is not less so. The 
 subject, however, being one of little interest, we 
 shall here adopt the opinion of the author of the 
 allegory before alluded to, — that tea was origmally 
 made into the form of cakes. Both prior and 
 subsequent to the time of Lo-yu, allusion is made 
 to this form among the early notices of tea ; and 
 also of these cakes being ground to powder, and 
 used as an infusion, sometimes as a medicine, and 
 sometimes at feasts and banquets ; though when 
 employed in early times at these entertainments, 
 it always, perhaps, had some reference to its 
 medicinal properties, as promoting digestion, or as 
 stimulating the appetite. In the like manner 
 camomile tea, and the Po-ul tea, are served in the 
 present day at those tables, where a style refined 
 and recherche is much studied. The ^^'iter has 
 been present at an entertainment of this nature, 
 where a strong infusion of camomile tea was served 
 round after a numerous succession of dishes, con- 
 stituting what may be called the first course, 
 which had lasted more than an hour ; and where, 
 among other luxuries, the opium pipe was ofi'ered 
 to such guests as were willing to enjoy it ; but this 
 was at a time when that fascinating- but noxious 
 
 o 
 
 B 4 
 
8 ANCIENT MODE 
 
 drug, from its great cost, was used only by the 
 rich and luxurious. 
 
 The only mode of manipulation spoken of in 
 early times is by the agency of steam. The leaves 
 were steamed, some say, to extract a bitter water 
 from them, then rolled with the hands, or in cloths, 
 and dried sometimes in the sun, and sometimes 
 over a charcoal fire {poey). Whether the leaves 
 were partially dried in the sun, or by fire, and 
 then reduced to a powder to be formed into cakes ; 
 or whether they were preserved entire, and then 
 rolled and moulded into the form of cakes or bricks, 
 does not appear. One author, in speaking of La 
 Cha*, says, " it is ground to powder and made into 
 cakes, which are dried in the sun, but it is better 
 to dry them over a fire." Another says, " the 
 leaves are steamed, afterwards dried over a charcoal 
 fire, and then reduced to a powder." By the first 
 method, I understand that the leaves were kept 
 entire, though formed into a cake ; by the second, 
 that the leaves were first reduced to a powder, and 
 then formed into a cake. But it may be presumed 
 that both these methods prevailed, since all these 
 modes, forms, and even names, exist in the present 
 day ; as we shall further have occasion to notice. 
 
 That the mode of manipulation as it exists at 
 the present time, where each leaf is preserved in 
 
 * It is doubtful whether the La Cha was made from the tea 
 tree or a substitute. 
 
OF JVLANIPULATION. 9 
 
 its individual state, also obtained at a remote period, 
 there seems no reason to doubt. The commonly 
 received opinion among the Chinese is, that it has 
 prevailed from the time of Lo-yu ; though we have 
 no authority for this opinion, as far as I have been 
 able to discover, beyond that of current belief and oral 
 tradition. This learned personage does not speak 
 of steaming the leaves, as other early authors 
 do; nor of forming tea into cakes, which modes 
 constitute an important difference. Nor does he 
 speak of rolling the leaves, which is doubtless an 
 omission, or an error which has crept into the cha- 
 racter or symbol used. Nor does he notice the 
 process of chao (the roasting of the leaves in an 
 iron vessel); but simply that oi poey (the drying of 
 the leaves over a charcoal fire). Neither do any of 
 the early writers make use of the term chao. So 
 that the method as described by Lo-yu in the 
 Cha-kin, is simply that of beating and patting the 
 leaves, and drying them over a charcoal fire ; unless 
 indeed, which is not improbable, the leaves were 
 rolled either before or during the process of drying. 
 Either of these modes would be sufficient to give 
 the leaf its tAvisted form, as at present used : 
 which form it is believed also prevailed at this 
 remote period. 
 
 There can be no doubt that the Pekoe tea was 
 early known to the Chinese, and was much es- 
 teemed by them. Indeed, they appear soon to 
 have made the discovery that the young and sue- 
 
10 PEKOE TEA. 
 
 culent leaves were the best ; or, as it is stated by 
 them, that " the convoluted bud of the leaf is the 
 best, and other leaves in propordon as least de- 
 veloped." It is obvious, also, that the bud of the 
 leaf, from its natural compactness of form, would 
 require no rolling, or formation into cakes, but 
 was very likely to have been kept in its natural 
 and individual state, as its different appellatives, 
 bird's tongue, ear of corn, grey eye-brows, falcon's 
 talons, and others, sufficiently indicate : and all 
 these names are of ancient as well as of modern 
 use. Any imitation of this tea for purposes of 
 fraud or commercial advantage, would soon lead 
 to a general introduction of the manipulation into 
 leaf, if found a superior method, as is universally 
 acknowledged. 
 
 Nor is there any reason to suppose that these 
 teas were not steamed like the rest, as this custom 
 also prevails in the present day. The Long-csin 
 tea of Che-kiang, and the Lien-czu-sin of Su-chao 
 in Kiang-nan, and the Udsi tea of Japan, are 
 examples of this mode of manipulation. These 
 teas are green teas ; but when the bud of the leaf 
 is roasted and dried agreeably to the method 
 practised in the Bohea country, it is a black tea, 
 and is known under the general denomination of 
 Pekoe tea. 
 
 The processes of chao and poey^ that is, the 
 roasting and drying of the leaves, as at present em- 
 ployed in the manipulation of tea, will be found fully 
 
PROCESSES OF CIIAO AND POEY. 11 
 
 explained under their respective articles. At wliat 
 period these methods were introduced does not 
 appear ; but the superiority of these modes is 
 acknowledged by the author of the Cha Pu. The 
 date of this work is not known to me. The author 
 observes, on the manufacture of tea, that, " The 
 leaves must be gathered just prior to the season 
 of Ko-yu, picked clean, and heated with steam. 
 When they change colour, spread them out, and 
 fan off the steam mth a fan ; then roll and dry 
 them over a charcoal fire {poey) ; and finally fold 
 them up with the leaves of the Jo plant. It is 
 said, that tea which is steamed in the first process 
 is not so good as that which is roasted in an iron 
 vessel (cJiao) : and in the second process, that 
 which is sun-dried is not so good as that which 
 is dried over a charcoal fire {poey). So that 
 which is first roasted in an iron vessel, and finally 
 dried over a charcoal fire is excellent." This latter 
 method is the mode now adopted in the black tea 
 districts for the preparation of the best teas. 
 
 Regarding the early geographical distribution 
 and discovery of the tea plant, we again select the 
 author of the Cha Pu as our guide. From this 
 work we learn, that the tea plant, though spread 
 over the " hills of note," was first discovered, or 
 first attracted attention in the Yu-ye, or Bohea 
 district (as Europeans have corrupted the name), 
 in the province of Fo-kien. And this author, 
 choosing to lend himself to fiction, partly from 
 
12 EARLY GEOGRAPHICAL 
 
 deference to certain prevailing popular opinions 
 and tradition, and partly, perhaps, to give a greater 
 eclat to his history, by connecting it with one of 
 the most celebrated and stirring periods of the 
 Chinese annals, has placed that discovery in the 
 dynasty of Han.* 
 
 It is further remarked by the same author, and 
 also by other authorities, that the tea plant was 
 discovered in the Mong-shan district of the pro- 
 vince of Szu-chuen in the reign of Te-tsongf : 
 again, in the Singlo Hill, or green tea district of 
 Kiang-nan, during the Sung dynasty J : and in 
 very early times, though the precise age, perhaps, 
 cannot be determined, it was found in the pro- 
 vinces of Fokien, Che-kiang, Kiang-nan, Kiang-sy, 
 in the northern and southern divisions of Hoo- 
 quong, and in Szu-chuen — every where among 
 the hills or mountains. § 
 
 Certain statistical works || and herbals also enu- 
 merate several places in all the provinces of the 
 empire where tea is produced, as far north as 
 Tang-chao-foo, in Shan-tong, 36° 30' N. lat. ; 
 as far south as Canton and Quong-sy, and as far 
 east as the province of Yunnan. The Jesuit 
 
 * A.D. 221 to 279. 
 
 I A. D. 780. vSo the Pen-csao-kiang-moo, and Knen Fang Pu. 
 
 I From the Moo-yuen-chy, a statistical work of that district. 
 § So the Pen-csao-kiang-moo. 
 
 II The Pen-csao-kiang-moo, Kuen Fang Pu, Iloa-king, and 
 others. 
 
DISTRIBUTION OF THE TEA TREE. 13 
 
 missionaries also state, that tea grows in the 
 province of Pe-chy-ly, though not in the imme- 
 mediate vicinity of the capital ; and all my inquiries 
 on the subject tend to confirm that opinion. I 
 was especially informed by the Pere Amiot of the 
 truth of tliis belief. Still the Chinese say, that 
 the northern provinces of Pe-chy-ly, Shan-sy, 
 Shen-sy, Shan-tong, and even Honan, are not 
 favourable for the growth of tea. Bell states that 
 he saw the tea plant in a garden at Peking, which 
 appeared like a currant bush ; but adds, " the 
 climate about that capital being too cold for this 
 shrub, there are only a few bushes of it found in 
 the gardens of the curious." (Bell's Travels, p. 235.) 
 There can be no doubt that the tea shrub is very 
 extensively cultivated in China ; and the pro- 
 bability is, that every province, by means of its 
 sheltered vallies, is enabled to contribute largely to 
 its own domestic consumption. Still the ground 
 allotted to the growth of this shrub, being com- 
 monly only such as is unproductive, hilly, or other- 
 wise unprofitable, as the embankments of arable 
 and cultivated ground ; and as every part of the 
 empire is not equally favourable to its growth, it 
 has often been questioned, how far the use of this 
 refreshing beverage is within the daily reach of the 
 lowest order of the people. It is without doubt 
 extensively used by all classes of the community, 
 even the lowest, in some form or other, throughout 
 this vast country ; but it is equally certain, that 
 
14 ITS EXTENSIVE USE. 
 
 innumerable other leaves are employed as substitutes 
 by many people among the poorer class, as fre- 
 quent experience shows. I examined many samples 
 of such tea brought down to Canton by the gentle- 
 men connected with Lord Amherst's embassy. 
 Long lists of plants, moreover, are found in many 
 of the Chinese herbals, to which the same term 
 "tea" is applied ; though the Chinese very well dis- 
 tinguish the true tea from its substitute, by observ- 
 ing, that the plants so used, " though they bear the 
 name of tea, are not of the tea species." In fact, 
 they use the term "tea" in a general sense as we 
 do, to signify any infusion of leaves, as balm, camo- 
 mile tea, and others. 
 
 Bell observes (Travels in China, pp. 297. 309,), 
 that he went to a public tea house at Peking, where 
 he saw many people drinking tea and smoking to- 
 bacco ; and adds, that Avith a cash (about the tenth 
 part of a penny English) a man can buy a dish of 
 hot tea. The late Sir George Staunton also informs 
 us, " That tea, like beer in England, is sold in pub- 
 lic houses in every town, and along public roads, 
 and the banks of rivers and canals ; nor is it un- 
 usual for the burdened and wearied traveller to 
 lay down his load, refresh himself with a cup of 
 warm tea, and then pursue his journey." * It has 
 already been observed, that the Arabian travellers 
 who entered China in the ninth century, speak ol 
 
 * Lord Macartney's Embassy to Peking, vol. ii. p. 9G. 
 
MODE OF USING IT IN CHINA. 15 
 
 r 
 
 tea as the common beverage of tlie country, even at 
 this early period ; and all recent travellers furnish 
 sufficient evidence of its general use in the present 
 day. The wealthy Chinese simply infuse the leaves 
 in an elegant porcelain cup, which has a cover of 
 the same material ; the leaves sink to the bottom 
 of the cup, and generally remain there without in- 
 convenience, though occasionally some may float or 
 rise to the surface. To prevent this inconvenience, 
 sometimes a thin piece of silver, of filagree or open 
 work, is placed immediately on them. Where 
 economy is necessary to be studied, the tea-pot is 
 used. The wealthy Japanese continue the ancient 
 mode of grinding the leaves to powder ; and after 
 infusion in a cup "it is whipped with a split 
 bamboo, or denticulated instrument, till it creams*, 
 when they drink both the infusion and powder, as 
 coiFee is used in many parts of Asia." 
 
 It may here be proper to remark that, on the 
 authority of certain Japanese authors, a doubt has 
 been raised by the Doctor Yon Siebold, an in- 
 telhgent botanist some time resident at Japan, as 
 to the tea plant being indigenous in China. All 
 are agreed that it is of exotic growth in Japan ; 
 and was introduced into that country from China, 
 in the sixth century, agreeably to Kaempferf , or 
 
 * Kssmpfer's Japan, Appendix, p. 15. ; also, Manners and 
 Customs of the Japanese in the Nineteenth Centurj, p. 187. 
 
 t Kcenipfer states (Japan, Appendix, p. 2.), that the tea plant 
 was introduced into Japan from China in the year a.d. 519, by a 
 prince of the name of Darma. It is remarkable that the Chinese 
 
16 OPINIONS WHETHER THE TEA TREE 
 
 the ninth century (which seems more probable) 
 according to Yon Siebold.* Both opinions are 
 grounded on Japanese authorities. The latter 
 author makes use of a very ingenious argument, 
 based on the physical condition of the plant as 
 exhibited at Japan, in further testimony of the 
 truth of those historical accounts which affirm the 
 tea plant to be of foreign introduction. 
 
 This intelligent author observes, that " the tea 
 plant is found in the southern provinces of Japan, 
 between the 30° and 35° of north latitude, growing 
 abundantly along field-paths, way-sides, and ridges, 
 as if. o,f spontaneous growth, and also planted in 
 fields in unproductive ground : but on further 
 advance towards the mountains it disappears." 
 Hence, he assumes, perhaps judiciously, though 
 not conclusively (the circumstances of climate 
 being nearly the same), that the tea plant is an 
 imported production at Japan. But the learned 
 author seems to have confided too much in the 
 
 chronicles speak of a person of that name, describing him as a 
 native of India, who visited China during the reign of Vu Ty, 
 of the Leang dynasty, a.d. 543. He was in all probability a 
 Fakir, and crossed over to Japan. During my residence at 
 Canton, a devotee of this description visited that city, and came 
 by sea. 
 
 * Mco-we, a Bonze, travelled into China, and brought back 
 tea seeds from China. They were planted on the hill of To- 
 ga-no-wo, in Jamasiro, about two leagues north-west of Mijako ; 
 also at Udsi, a district of that province. (Japanese Encyclo- 
 pcedia. Hak-buts-sin.) Another work states, " it was intro- 
 duced A.D. 810." (Von Siebold's Nippon, part 6.) 
 
IS INDIGENOUS IN CHINA. 17 
 
 authenticity of those Japanese authorities, which 
 state that the Chinese received the tea plant from 
 Corea. It has already been shown, that even a 
 tax was imposed on tea by imperial mandate, more 
 than thirty years prior to the assumed date of its 
 first introduction into China by the Coreans (a.d. 
 828). And if we adopt the same ingenious line 
 of argument with reference to China, which the 
 learned author has employed regarding Japan, the 
 converse of his proposition will be proved ; for the 
 Chinese accounts all agree that the tea tree was 
 first discovered where it is found growing in the 
 present day — every where among the hills and 
 mountains in the central provinces of the empire ; 
 and, consequently, is indigenous. 
 
 Recent^ discoveries in Assam* also seem to 
 justify the assumption, if nothing to the contrary 
 be known, that it has spontaneously extended its 
 growth along a continuous and almost uninter- 
 rupted mountainous range, but of moderate alti- 
 tude, nearly from the great river the Yang-cse- 
 
 * Dr. Falconer considers the Assam tea tree to be a distinct 
 species, and Mr. M'Cleland a native product. This author con- 
 cludes his interesting paper on the Assam tea plant in the following 
 words : — " In this way, we derive from zoology additional aid in 
 support of those views which the sister sciences afford, and are 
 taught to look upon the tea plant in Assam, thus associated with 
 the natural productions of Eastern Asia, not as an alien estranged 
 from its own climate, but as an indigenous plant, neglected it is 
 true by man, but in the full enjoyment from nature of all those 
 peculiar conditions on which its properties will be found under 
 proper management to depend." 
 
 C 
 
18 INDIGENOUS IN CHINA. 
 
 kiano; to the countries flankino; the south-western 
 frontier of China, where this range falls in with, 
 or, agreeably to the opinion of a well-informed and 
 scientific author. Dr. Royle, forms a continuation 
 of, the Himalaya range. But in those countries, 
 as in every part of China, if found in the plains, 
 or in the vicinity of habitations, and cultivated 
 grounds, it may fairly be assumed that it was 
 brought and propagated there by the agency and 
 industry of man. 
 
 Hence it appears that the tea tree is not only 
 indigenous in China, but that it is cidtivated 
 throughout the empire, in the northern climate 
 of Pe-chy-ly, and the southern one of Quong- 
 tong ; and that every province probably produces 
 much of its own tea for common domestic pur- 
 poses, though not for festive and ceremonial occa- 
 sions. If there be any exceptions to this suppo- 
 sition, it may be the provinces of Pe-chy-ly, Shan- 
 sy, and Shen-sy. It also grows at Japan, Corea, 
 and the Le-kieu Islands, the island of Chusan, at 
 Tonkin, and in Cochin-China. Thus it extends 
 over the vast space of 28 degrees of latitude, and 
 30 degrees of longitude ; and, consequently, is sub- 
 ject to great variations of heat and cold, and other 
 differences of climate. 
 
19 
 
 CHAP. 11. 
 
 CLIMATE OF CHINA INFLUENCED BY MONSOON WINDS NO AV£T 
 
 AND DRY SEASON AS IN INDIA QUANTITY OF RAIN AT CANTON 
 
 AT PEKING INCREASE OF TEMPERATURE AND HUMIDITY 
 
 GREAT FROM MARCH TO MAY TEMPERATURE AT PEKING 
 
 AT CANTON IN THE GREEN AND BLACK TEA COUNTRIES 
 
 FOO-CHEAV-FOO AMOY FROST SEVERE BUT NOT CONTINUOUS 
 
 ICE PRESERVED THROUGH THE SUMMER TEMPERATURE OF 
 
 SHANG-HAI — CHUSAN GREAT VARIATION OF TEMPERATURE 
 
 PRINCIPALLY IN WINTER — DAILY VARIATION SMALL CLIMATE 
 
 GENERALLY SALUBRIOUS — TEA TREE EXPOSED TO GREAT DIF- 
 FERENCES OF CLIMATE CLUMATE MOST SUITABLE. 
 
 The climate of China is greatly influenced by tlie 
 periodical winds termed monsoons, which are fa- 
 miliarly considered to prevail during six months of 
 the year from the X. to N. E., and throughout the 
 remaining portion from the S. to S.W. ; thus 
 stamping the same general features on the climate 
 of this extensive empire. The one is attended by 
 cold, frost, and dryness, thus giving a check to 
 vegetation ; and the other by heat and moisture, 
 stimulating its vitality in a high degree. These 
 divisions of the year, however, can hardly be con* 
 sidered as constituting a wet and dry season, similar 
 to those of India ; for in China it rains throughout 
 the year. Thus at Shanghai much rain and snow 
 is said to fall in the winter season ; and light pass- 
 ing showers are frequent at Canton and Macao, as 
 
 c 2 
 
20 MONSOON WINDS. 
 
 well as tropical rain during the S.W. monsoon; and 
 though the quantity which falls during the N.E. 
 monsoon is greatly disproportionate to that which 
 descends in the S.W. monsoon, it nevertheless, on 
 an average of seasons, equals the quantity which 
 falls in the neighbourhood of London for the same 
 period, from November to April inclusive. The 
 quantity which falls at Canton is 11*11 inches ; at 
 Macao 13*58 ; and in London 10'28 ; whereas at 
 Calcutta the quantity seldom reaches three inches.* 
 Still, in a country bordering on the tropics, as 
 Canton, this, from the activity of evaporation, to- 
 gether with the force and aridity of the northern 
 wind, is comparatively a state of dryness. 
 
 The quantity of rain which falls at Canton and 
 Macao during the S.W. monsoon, when the winds 
 come charged with moisture from the sea, amounts 
 to 67*85 inches; whereas during the N.E. mon- 
 soon, when the wind blows over the land> there 
 falls, as already stated, 11*11 inches ; thus making 
 the total quantity 78*96 inches. f 
 
 But the annual quantity which falls at Peking is 
 only 27*98 inches J, which is less than in England, 
 though that capital is situated further south by 
 sixteen degrees. 
 
 Hence it appears that the southerly winds, in 
 
 * See Bengal Asiatic Journal, 1836 to 1838. 
 "j" Kerr's Journal. 
 
 J Annuaire Magnetique et Meteorologique de I'Empire de 
 Kussie, anne 1842. 
 
TROPICAL KAINS. 21 
 
 their passage over this extensive empire, deposit 
 the moisture with which they are saturated gra- 
 dually and less copiously as they advance to the 
 north, till finally both one and the other become 
 exhausted as they reach Peking. 
 
 At Macao, from March to May the increase and 
 varying relations of temperature and humidity are 
 considerable ; and the quantity of rain which falls 
 during these months, agreeably to Mr. Beale's 
 journal*, increases in a geometrical progression. 
 Towards the end of March and beginning of April, 
 the atmosphere becomes stagnant, warm, and close ; 
 mists and fogs cover the sea in the mornings, and 
 sometimes in the day ; the hygrometer attains its 
 highest range of humidity, and the air being thus 
 saturated with aqueous vapours, a considerable de- 
 position of moisture is perceptible on the painted 
 walls of houses and other surrounding objects. 
 
 The increasing heat, evaporation, and alternation 
 of brio^ht weather and lioiit showers which now 
 accompany the progress of spring in April, produce 
 a warm humid state of atmosphere, the effects of 
 which are apparent in the vast stimulus given to 
 vegetation. At length commence those tropical 
 rains, accompanied with awful thunder and light- 
 ning, which precede the setting in of the S. W. 
 monsoon early in May, and continue at intervals 
 throughout that monsoon. 
 
 * Davis's " Chinese," second edition, p. 339. 
 c 3 
 
22 TEOFICAL EAINS. 
 
 The central provinces of the empire participate 
 in this state of atmosphere, and also in these reno- 
 vating rains, but less copiously, and somewhat 
 later. We learn from Fontaney that on arriving 
 at I-cheu, in lat. 35° 18', on the 6th of May, he 
 could get no meat to buy, because the sale of it 
 had been interdicted by the Mandarins of the city, 
 in hopes to obtain rain from that sort of fast.* 
 We find, also, in Monsieur Stanislas Julien's inte- 
 resting " Resume des principaux Trait es Chinois 
 sur la Culture des Miiriers et I'Education des Vers 
 a Sole," that much rain is expected in Chekiang in 
 April and May, " de peur que la pluie du troi- 
 sieme mois n'endommage I'ecorce," &c. p. 15. Again, 
 p. 47.; "pour empecher que les pluies du qua- 
 trieme mois ne penetrent le bois," &c. Further, De 
 Guignes states that while the Dutch embassy under 
 Yan Braam traversed this province in April, the 
 winds veered to the south, and brought rain.f The 
 green tea men also say that the winds become va- 
 riable in April and May, and that the tea harvest 
 commences between the 20th of April and the 5th 
 of May. Again, " by the middle of April at Ning 
 Po," says Mr. Fortune, " deciduous trees and 
 shrubs were covered with leaves, barley was in full 
 ear, and the oil plant (Brasica sinensis) was forming 
 masses of golden yellow on the sides of hills and 
 
 * Du Haldc, translation, vol. i. p. 50. 
 t Voyage a Peking, tome iii. p. 147. 
 
TEMPERATUKE OE CHINA. 23 
 
 on the plains, where the air was perfumed with the 
 fraofrance of its blossoms." * But north of Honan, 
 or north of lat. 34°, the character of the rains and 
 climate seems to partake more of that of extreme 
 northern latitudes. Wheat, barley, buckwheat, 
 maize, and millet, become the great staples of food 
 in lieu of rice ; and tropical products, as sugar and 
 cotton, are cultivated with diminished success. 
 
 Regarding the temperature of China, it is re- 
 marked by Baron Humboldt, in his paper on Iso- 
 thermal lines, that " the northern part of China, 
 like the Atlantic region of the United States, ex- 
 hibits excessive climates, and seasons strongly con- 
 trasted. At Peking, for example, where the mean 
 temperature of the year is that of the coast of 
 Brittany, the scorching heats of the summer are 
 greater than at Cairo, and the winter as rigorous 
 as at Upsal." (Brewster's Edinburgh Journal,) 
 
 Situated nearly a degree south of Naples, this 
 capital has her rivers frozen over from the middle 
 of November to the end of March f; and the 
 average degree of the thermometer is under 20° 
 in the night during the winter months ; and even 
 in the day-time is below freezing point. J In sum- 
 mer it is generally above 80°, sometimes 90°. 
 Humboldt gives the following as the result of five 
 
 * " Wanderings in China," p. 346. 
 
 t Du Halcle states from the end of November to the middle 
 of March, vol. i. p. Qo., translation. 
 \ Staunton's Embassy, vol. ii. p. 338. 
 
 c 4 
 
24 TEMPERATURE OF TEKING. 
 
 years' observations at Peking, made at his request, 
 by the Pere Amiot, one of the last missionaries 
 resident at that capitaL 
 
 Mean Tem'perature. 
 
 Winter 
 
 » 
 
 - 26°-42 
 
 "Warmest months 
 
 84°-38 
 
 Spring - 
 
 - 
 
 - 56°-30 
 
 Coldest months 
 
 24°'52 
 
 Summer 
 
 " 
 
 - 82°-58 
 
 Greatest variation - 
 
 59°-76 
 
 Autumn 
 
 - 
 
 - 54°-32 
 
 Annual temperature 
 
 54°- 9 
 
 Oct. 13° Cent, about 45° Fahrenheit. 
 • April 13°-9 „ 47° 
 
 Thus making a mean variation between the warmest 
 and coldest months of 59° 76', and a mean tem- 
 perature of 54° 9^ The severity of the winter 
 may also be judged of by the thickness of the ice, 
 and the difficulty with which it melts. The Father 
 Hyakinth states that " the rivers are covered with 
 ice two or three quarter ells thick ;"^ and large 
 solid blocks may be seen in the streets exposed for 
 sale, or employed to cool the fruits of the vender 
 during the great heats of summer, while the tem- 
 perature in the shade is seldom below 80 degrees, 
 and where every peasant and labourer may indulge 
 in the luxury of his slice of iced water-melon for 
 the third part of a penny. " Fish," says the Pere 
 Amiot, another missionary of the same name, 
 ^' brought from the rivers of Leau-toung, are kept 
 without salt in a frozen state for two or three 
 months together. Every morning at sunrise the 
 
 * Denkwurdigkeiten liber die Mongolie, p. 26. 
 
TEMPERATURE OF CANTON. 25 
 
 country in some districts of the province is subject 
 to nitrous impregnations, and is as white as if a 
 shght fall of snow covered the ground. The earth 
 is frozen for three or four feet deep; and, once 
 frozen, it does not thaw again till the end of March. 
 This is sufficient," he observes, " to explain why the 
 frost kills, in the vicinity of Peking, plants which 
 Linnaeus has raised in Sweden, which is nearly 20 
 degrees north of the Chinese capital." (Memoires 
 concernant les Chinois, tome vi. p. 339.) 
 
 At Canton, which borders on the tropics, N. lat. 
 23° 8^, and which is the most southern metropo- 
 litan city of the empire, as Peking is the capital 
 and most northern one, the average degree of the 
 thermometer is 53° in the morninfy durino; the 
 winter, and 82° at noon during the summer.* The 
 mean annual temperature may be stated at 71°, 
 the mean range from 57° to 84°, and the extreme 
 range from 29° to 94°. f The mean of four journals 
 kept at Canton and Macao by Messrs. Bletterman, 
 Beale, and Kerr (a respectable and intelligent gar- 
 dener, sent out by Sir Joseph Banks), for a series 
 of years, and Mr. Colledge's Journal for one year, 
 given in the Canton Register for 1838, furnish a 
 mean temperature for the four seasons as fol- 
 lows : — 
 
 Winter, 58; Spring, 71; Summer, 83; Autumn, 75; 
 Annual mean, 71^^ 
 
 * Sir George Staunton's manuscript Journal. 
 
 t Kerr's Journal, and Davis's "Chinese," second edition, p. 339. 
 
26 TEMPERATURE OE CANTON. 
 
 It is not exaggeration to say that every year the 
 rice fields in the neighbourhood are frozen for a 
 few days, and that ice the thickness of a crown 
 piece is occasionally seen carried through the streets 
 for sale. From the middle of December to the 
 end of March, Europeans are clad in their winter 
 garments, and their houses are furnished Avith 
 car^^ets, curtains, and fires. Nor is the thermo- 
 meter a correct index of the intensity of the cold 
 as regarding our sensations, owing to the force and 
 dryness of the wind. 
 
 Should this degree of cold appear extraordinary 
 in a country bordering on the tropics, it must be 
 remembered that the northern winds, which prevail 
 during five or six months of the year, come sweep- 
 ing over the frozen arid ste23pes of Mongolia, and 
 extend their influence throughout the China Sea 
 to within five degrees of the equator. The inter- 
 mediate provinces of the empire, being in many 
 parts mountainous, with ranges running parallel 
 with the monsoons, besides being greatly inter- 
 sected by extensive rivers and lakes, some of which 
 are occasionally frozen in the Avinter, must neces- 
 sarily tend to keep up and support the cold now 
 generated in more northern regions. Thus we 
 find that the mountains which separate the two 
 provinces of Quong-tong and Kiang-sy, though 
 situated only three degrees from the tropics, and 
 of moderate altitude, are occasionally covered with 
 snow in the winter season. Indeed, on some oc- 
 
TEMPERA TUKE OF CANTON. 27 
 
 casions, tlioiigli rare, snow has been known to fall 
 in the streets of Canton. Thus we read in the 
 Canton Register, that " on the morning of the 
 8th February, 1836, the roofs of the houses of that 
 city were covered with snow, which had fallen in 
 the night." The snow lay two inches deep. A 
 similar fall of snow was remembered to have taken 
 place about forty-six years previously, in the fifty- 
 "fifth year of the reign of Kien-Long. 
 
 In the centre of these two extremes, Peking and 
 Canton, and between the latitude 23° and 33° N., the 
 tea plant was found indigenous at a remote period 
 of the Chinese history. This comprises the central, 
 as well as the most populous and flourishing pro- 
 vinces of the empire; and includes that part most 
 suitable to its growth, and where it is found to 
 flourish in the present day. In this division of 
 the country, between N. lat. 27° and 31° are also 
 situated the districts connected with the foreion 
 trade, whence the greater part of the tea most 
 esteemed by the Chinese is also procured for their 
 home consumption. These districts are, however, 
 places of little note, remote from great cities and 
 highways, and untrodden, perhaps, by Europeans, 
 except, indeed, by those great and able men who 
 were employed in early times in framing those 
 highly valuable maps which we possess in the 
 present day. Thus it is not jDossible to furnish 
 any thing more than vague and general ideas of 
 the meteorological state of this part of the country 3 
 
28 TEMPERATURE OF THE TEA COUNTRIES. 
 
 but, in the absence of all scientific details, a few 
 general observations and facts may not prove un- 
 acceptable to those whose views may be directed 
 to the introduction and cultivation of the tea tree 
 in other parts of the world. 
 
 In the green tea country, situated in the district 
 of Whey-chew-fu, N. L. 29° 58^ 30^^ in the province 
 of Kiang-nan, the northern winds begin to prevail, 
 the Chinese say, in September. In October persons 
 in easy circumstances begin to clothe themselves in 
 their fur dresses ; and in November the winter 
 (or rather, perhaps, the N. E. monsoon) regularly 
 sets in ; when the young tea shrubs are said to be 
 bound round with wisps of straw, to prevent them 
 from being broken or injured by the Avind and snoAV 
 which falls in the winter season. The severity of 
 winter, however, is not felt before December. From 
 this time until March the weather continues cold ; 
 frost frequently prevails, and snow occasionally : 
 water freezes in the house ; but the Chinese houses 
 are badly put together; windows and doors are 
 roughly fitted ; in fact they are built for hot weather, 
 not for cold. The Chinese defend themselves against 
 cold by an additional quantity and difi'erent quality 
 of clothing : their houses being thus much exposed 
 to every change of temperature, a little tea acci- 
 dentally left in a tea- cup over-night in any of the 
 rooms will occasionally be found frozen in the 
 morning. If we may rely on the statements of the 
 Chinese (and recent accounts seem to confirm 
 
TEMPERATURE OF THE TEA COUNTRIES. 29 
 
 them), snow is sometimes two or three feet deep on 
 the plains, and several inches thick on the house- 
 tops. In cloudy weather it may thus remain on 
 the plains for ten days together ; but soon melts on 
 the re-appearance of the sun. They further state 
 that excessive cold is injurious to the plant; some 
 are occasionally killed, and others injured and 
 checked in their growth, by frost and snow. They 
 add, however, that this part of the country is not 
 subject to such sudden changes of temperature as 
 are experienced at Canton. In April and May the 
 winds begin to veer to the southward, and bring 
 occasional showers; but the south-west monsoon 
 does not set in steadily before the end of May, or 
 beginning of June. In this latter month the great 
 rains commence. In July the summer regularly 
 sets in, and the intensity of the heat is equal to 
 that of Canton. 
 
 The Bohea country, in Fokien, differs little from 
 the Hyson districts in point of temperature. The 
 tea men describe the cold as less severe ; and the 
 fall of snow, as well as the thickness of the ice, as 
 somewhat less. Indeed it is a mountainous dis- 
 trict, with sheltered vallies, fenced in and protected 
 from cold north-easterly and north-westerly winds 
 by the lofty and continuous range of mountains 
 which forms the barrier between this province and 
 those of Cliekiang and Kiangsee. December and 
 January are considered the coldest months. It is 
 said that the Kieu-kio-kee, a shallow stream which 
 
30 SNOW AND FROST 
 
 winds about the Bohea mountains, is annually 
 frozen over. Here vagrants are seen ranging them- 
 selves along the most frequented parts, begging alms, 
 and exciting the compassion of passengers by strew- 
 ing paddy-husk on the ice, to prevent slipping. 
 The summer is as hot as at Canton ; though the 
 mornings and evenings are sometimes sufficiently 
 cold to render a Ma-qua-czu (a kind of spencer) 
 necessary in traversing the hills. 
 
 I shall now subjoin an extract from a letter re- 
 ceived from the aged and reverend Father Carpina, 
 at this time the vicar-general of the province, and 
 long resident in the eastern part of it, to whom I 
 am also indebted for an account of the range of 
 the thermometer, and much valuable information 
 concerning the tea tree. He states, in answer to 
 some questions put to him, that '' The tea shrubs 
 were neither injured, nor the harvest retarded by 
 the cold of 1815, notwithstanding there fell in the 
 month of February four spans (about thirty-three 
 inches English) of snow in Fo-gan, lat. 27° 4' 48^^, 
 and six spans (forty-nine inches) in Ning-te ; so 
 that the covers to the indigo plants, strongly fixed 
 to protect them from the frost, sun, and wind, gave 
 way under the weight of snow. At the close of 
 the same year, about the middle of December, some 
 days of severe cold and frost occurred. Upon one 
 occasion, about three o'clock in the afternoon, on a 
 beautiful sunshiny day," he observes, " I saw two 
 boys, each with a piece of ice the size of a coach 
 
FREQUENT AT FO-GAN. 31 
 
 window, and an inch in thickness, which they had 
 taken out of the fields in the neighbourhood. I 
 also observed, on the 24th January of the present 
 year (1816) the surface of the water in the river 
 Mo-yang was frozen, breaking and flying about 
 like glass to the stroke of the oar. The volume of 
 water in this river is equal to that of the Guadal- 
 quiver, at the passage of Cordova. It freezes 
 in these parts very often. Snow is not so fre- 
 quent : this winter ive have had none^ except on 
 the great and lofty mountains. Yet in a residence 
 of twenty-four years I have twice seen snow on the 
 plains even on the very day of the vernal equinox. 
 Hoar frost frequently occurs between the month 
 of December and April ; and it has happened more 
 than once in my time that the recently planted rice 
 has been destroyed, and this in the month of May, 
 by the severity of the hoar frost." I observe, also, 
 on reference to my own oflicial correspondence, 
 that in 1809 the Chinese said that the leaves of the 
 first gathering were injured by the frost and snow 
 which had previously prevailed in the month of 
 April. 
 
 It may further be observed that the Dutch em- 
 bassy under Van Horn* remained from the 10th to 
 the 2 2d February 1667 at the town of Pu-ching- 
 hien, N. L. 28° 0' 30^' E. long, from Peking 2° 9' 10'^ 
 in this province, in consequence of snow and rain ) 
 
 * Ogilbj's China, p. 277. 
 
32 TEMPERATURE OE FOO-CHEW-EOO, ETC. 
 
 and that after crossing these mountains, when they 
 arrived at Kiu-cheu-fu, in Che-ldang, on the 5th 
 March, they observed that the adjacent hills were 
 all covered with snow.* 
 
 A register of the temperature kept at Fogan, N. 
 lat. 27° 4' 48^^ in the eastern part of the province, 
 furnishes a mean temperature so high as 70°. It 
 is remarked, however, that when the thermometer 
 in the open vestibule of the house fell to 37°, it 
 froze in the fields. The following is the mean for 
 
 each month : — 
 
 
 
 
 May - 77-J- June 
 July - 861 Aug. 
 Sept. - sr Oct. 
 
 - 771 
 
 - 84" 
 
 - 72 
 Mear 
 
 Nov. - 64 Dec. 
 Jan. - 66 ? 56 Feb. 
 Mp.rcli 57i April 
 I 70°. 
 
 - 57 
 
 - 581 
 
 - 641 
 
 Another, in a part of the province more N.W. : 
 Jan. - 52 Feb. - 50 Ma^'cli - 53 April - 54 
 
 At Foo chew-foo, lat. 26° 2', the extremes of tem- 
 perature extracted from Mr. Tray's journal exhibit 
 96 for the month of August, and 44 for the month 
 of January ; thus giving a mean of 70°f . But 
 during the Rev. George Smith's visit to this port, 
 ice was gathered for a few days. J 
 
 At Amoy, lat. 24° 27' 36'', which is a tea dis- 
 trict, producing teas suitable to the foreign markets, 
 and some of very delicate flavour, the temperature 
 seems hardly to vary from that of Canton. From 
 
 * Ogilby's China, p. 277. 
 
 ■j" Fortune's Wanderings in China, p. 382. 
 
 J Exploratory Visits in China, p. 328. 
 
FROST NOT CONTINUOUS. 33 
 
 a very elaborate and apparently carefully kept 
 register on board the Maharnoodie, at Ngo-tsoo, in 
 1844, the annual mean temperature was 69to° ; the 
 lowest temperature marked being 49° b\ and the 
 highest 90°. 
 
 The preceding accounts are sufficient to show, 
 that severe frost and occasional snow prevail in the 
 tea districts ; and on some occasions, though rare, 
 so late as the vernal equinox. Yet there is reason 
 to believe, on an average of seasons, that the frost 
 is not very intense, or of long duration. Ice the 
 thickness of an inch does not indicate great severity 
 of cold, or long continuous frost. In these lati- 
 tudes, from 27° to 31°, it must be remembered that 
 the sun, as well from its direct influence as from 
 the frequently unclouded state of the atmosphere, 
 has great power in the winter season ; so that in 
 the central provinces of the empire there is much 
 reason to believe that the frost, though occasionally 
 intense, is not sufficiently continuous to allow ice 
 of great thickness to form under the influence of 
 so powerful a sun : nor is the monsoon inland and 
 along the coast so steady but that the wind often 
 veers to the south, and brings with it compara- 
 tively warm damp weather, and rain. 
 
 Nevertheless it is now known that ice-houses of 
 very simple and efficient construction are formed 
 at Chusan and elsewhere. Ice is also collected 
 every year at the city of Nan-king, lat. 82° 4' 
 80^^, in sufficient quantity for the purpose of 
 
 D 
 
34 TEMPEKATURE OF SHANG-IIAI 
 
 packing fish, which is sent twice a week in the 
 months of April and May to Peking. (Du Halde, 
 translation, vol. i. p. 74.) Again, that in the 
 month of Dec. 1841, snow lay on the ground 
 " knee deep " in the vicinity of Ning Po, N. lat. 
 29° 56'; and that the thermometer ranged so low 
 during the night as from ten to twelve degrees 
 below freezing point. Still this frost only continued 
 a few days. (Sir H. Pottinger's despatches, 24th 
 Jan. 1842.) 
 
 It further appears that at Shanghai, N. lat. 31° 
 24', long. 121° 32' E., in the winter of 1845-6 
 the Woosung river was sufficiently frozen to aiford 
 the English an opportunity of indulging in the 
 amusement of skating ; but I was informed by Capt. 
 Balfour that there was no foundation for the report 
 that they were enabled to walk from their factories 
 to their ships. Further, in the Rev. George 
 Smith's instructive work on China, the thermo- 
 meter is there shown to have ranged from 24° to 
 100° of Fahrenheit, and that the mean annual 
 temperature was so low as 61^ degrees. The 
 temperature of the diiFerent seasons extracted from 
 the same work, may be arranged as follows : — 
 
 Spring, 57° ; Summer, 79° 4' ; Autumn, 66° 4' ; Winter, 41° 3'. 
 The Mean of the two hottest months, July and August, 83° 5^ 
 Do. do. coldest months, Jan. and Feb. - 40° 6'. 
 Mean of year, 62°. 
 
 I was also informed by Capt. Balfour, our late 
 consul at Shanghai, that snow will occasionally lie 
 
AND CHUSAN. 35 
 
 on the extensive alluvial plain of that district for 
 ten days together, and more than a foot deep. It 
 rains all the year, as at Canton, but the principal 
 rains set in in April and May. 
 
 The difference between the temperature of the 
 harbour of Chusan and that of Shanghai is con- 
 siderable: but registers kept on board ship seem 
 generally to exhibit a higher temperature than 
 those kept on shore. Commodore Chad's register 
 kept at that port exhibits the following tempera- 
 tures. 
 
 Spring, 64° 2'; Summer, 77° 6'; Autumn, 69° 5^ Winter, 53° 3\ 
 Mean, 66° 2'. 
 
 The hottest month, viz. August, 81° 5^ "I Mean, 
 
 The two coldest months, Jan. and Feb. 51°. J 66° 2'. 
 
 It may also be seen in the Appendix that a re- 
 markable agreement exists between the tempera- 
 ture of Shanghai and the port of Nangasacki in 
 Japan. 
 
 It is correctly stated by Capt. Loch, R.^.*, an 
 intelligent and accurate observer, that every change 
 of wind from the reo:ular monsoon occasions a 
 considerable depression or elevation of temperature ; 
 that is, when the wind shifts to opposite points 
 as here alluded to. The great changes of tempera- 
 ture described by Capt. Loch are not experienced 
 in the south during the S.W. monsoon. 
 
 If we examine the variation of the hio'hest and 
 
 * Campaign in China. 
 D 2 
 
36 VAKIATIONS OF TEMPERATURE. 
 
 lowest range of the thermometer as given in the 
 Appendix, we shall be surprised at the little variation 
 Avhich really occurs, at least in the south. The 
 variation of temperature which takes place in the 
 course of a day, and from day to day in England, 
 is frequently greater than that which happens 
 during a whole month at Canton and Macao. The 
 greatest variation occurs during the N.E. monsoon, 
 the monthly mean of which may be stated at 25°, 
 while that of the S.W. monsoon is about one half 
 or 13°. The mean variation of the three coldest 
 months may be stated at 30°, while the three 
 hottest months, June, July, and August, exhibit 
 only 11°. On some occasions at Canton, and ap- 
 parently throughout the empire, a depression of 
 thirty or more degrees has taken place within 
 twenty-four hours. But these great changes of 
 temperature are rare, and happen only during the 
 N.E. monsoon, when the season of cold and dryness 
 prevails, and vegetation is at rest. Indeed, the 
 few vicissitudes of temperature to which vegetation 
 is exposed during the period of its greatest activity 
 from spring to autumn, when stimulated by the 
 combined action of heat, bright sunshine, and 
 moisture, and the uninterrupted dryness of the 
 atmosphere, with some few exceptions on the sea- 
 coast, during the winter season, may account, at 
 least in an eminent degree, for the varied and 
 widely extended dis-ribution and intermixture of 
 inter and extra tropical products over this vast 
 
CLIMATE GENERALLY SALUBRIOUS. 37 
 
 empire. And though the climate of China doubt- 
 less is a strongly contrasted one, and excessive on 
 a comparison of the heat of summer with the cold 
 of winter, yet there is reason to think that, with 
 the exception of the extreme northern provinces, 
 the rise and fall of temperature is progressive and 
 gradual, and the daily variation remarkably little : 
 it probably seldom exceeds 8°, and on an average 
 is not more than 5°. Thus the climate of the 
 central provinces of the empire cannot be de- 
 signated otherwise than as a temperate climate. 
 Nor does it appear to me that even the Chinese of 
 Peking need any commiseration ; nor in truth does 
 the gifted Humboldt mean under the term excessive, 
 and when he employs * the words of Dante, to in- 
 clude them among the people condemned, 
 
 *' A sofferir tormenti caldi e geli." 
 
 Indeed I am disposed to believe that upon a 
 more intimate acquaintance with the climate of 
 China, it will be found that no portion of the 
 earth's surface of equal magnitude is upon the 
 whole more favoured in point of climate ; more 
 congenial to animal and vegetable life, or more 
 salubrious to man. 
 
 To vegetation pre-eminently is given a long 
 season of repose during the dormant state of the 
 sap ; brought about by a continued state of com- 
 parative dryness, low temperature, and occasional 
 
 * Cosmos — (Sabine's translation, p. 319.). 
 
 D 3 
 
38 TEA TKEE EXPOSED TO 
 
 frost, modified in its intensity and duration by 
 position as regarding latitude : while a gradually 
 increasing evolution of heat, accompanied by a 
 humid state of the atmosphere, succeeded by 
 copious rains, attend the renovation of its powers, 
 and the increasing activity of its vital energies. 
 
 Thus it appears that the tea tree is alike exposed 
 to intervals of severe frost, but of short duration, 
 and the intense heat of a vertical sun ; that it 
 grows in the neighbourhood of the sea-coast ; on 
 islands, as Chusan and Japan ; and in the interior 
 and western extremity of the empire, as in Szu- 
 chuen, beyond all influence of the sea. If in- 
 digenous in all these situations, and under such 
 variety of climate and circumstances, nothing can 
 more strongly prove the hardy nature of the tree 
 (so far at least as its vegetative powers are con- 
 cerned, as observed by Mr. M'Cleland) ; and, if 
 propagated by art and culture, what can more 
 clearly evince its great powers of adaptation to 
 climate, and ease of propagation ? It may, in- 
 deed, be variously modified with regard to flavour, 
 astringency, and other properties on which ex- 
 cellence of quality depends, but experiment alone 
 can determine that fact. It seems less injured by 
 cold than benefited by heat : that the part of China 
 most congenial to its growth is between 27° and 
 33° of north latitude, where the mean annual tem- 
 perature may perhaps be considered to range from 
 about 62° to 68° ; where copious rains happen in 
 
GREAT DIFFERENCES OF CLIMATE. 39 
 
 conjunction with a mean temperature, increasing 
 from 64° to 77° as the season advances, between 
 the vernal equinox and the summer solstice, or the 
 season of spring, when the vegetation of the shrub 
 is in its greatest state of activity ; and where in- 
 tervals of rain are followed by a succession of 
 bricfht weather and increasino; heat : the one beins: 
 necessary to the production of a rapid and luxuriant 
 growth of leaves, and the other to fragrance and 
 excellence of quality.* 
 
 * The climate found the most suitable at Java for the cul- 
 tivation of tea, is that of the mountainous regions situated at 
 3500 to 4000 feet above the sea ; where the air is so cool that 
 Fahrenheit's thermometer at sun-rise indicates 58° in the morn- 
 ing ; and 74° at two o'clock in the afternoon. On still higher 
 elevations, even 5000 feet and more, the tea will be highly fla- 
 voured : but in lower districts the flavour deteriorates in propor- 
 tion as the situation is low. Both this author and Von Siebold 
 agree that the tea tree requires an atmosphere of much fog and 
 dew, which is generally found in elevated sites. Mr. Jacobson 
 further observes that it requires much freshness, coolness, and 
 exposure to gentle breezes. {Handhoeli v. cl. Kultuur en fa- 
 brikatievon Thee, d. J. J. L. L. Jacobson, d. 2. § 15. Batavia, 
 1843.) 
 
 D 4 
 
40 
 
 CHAP. III. 
 
 BLACK TEA DISTRICTS AVIIERE THE BEST KINDS ARE FOUND 
 
 AND CULTIVATED WHAT SITUATIONS ARE THE MOST FAVOUR- 
 ABLE — EXPOSURE AND NATURE OF THE SOIL — ACCOUNTS 
 GIVEN IN CHINESE WORKS — BY EUROPEAN MISSIONARIES 
 
 THE VARIOUS OPINIONS AS TO THE MOST SUITABLE SOIL 
 
 EXAMINED — ATTEMPT TO RECONCILE SOME OP THESE DIF- 
 FERENCES SOIL THE MOST SUITABLE — ANALYSIS OF TEA 
 
 SOILS FROM CHINA AND JAPAN. 
 
 The teas generally known to foreigners may be 
 divided into two classes, the black and tlie green ; 
 and as the manipulation of these differs essentially, 
 it will be advisable to treat of each by itself. The 
 black tea, which forms eight-tenths of the tea im- 
 ported into England, is grown in the district of 
 Kien-ning-fu, in the province of Fo-kien. The 
 mountains of Vu-ye (or Bohea, as corrupted by 
 Europeans) are situated in a particular division of 
 that district, distant about two leagues from the 
 little town of Tsong-gan-hien, lat. 27° 47' 38^', ac- 
 cording to observations made on the spot by the 
 Jesuit missionaries, between the years 1710 and 
 1718.* 
 
 A Chinese manuscript thus describes the teas of 
 this district: — '' Of all the mountains of Fo-kien, 
 
 * Translation of Du Halde, vol. i. p. 10. 
 
WHERE BEST BLACK TEAS ARE FOUND. 41 
 
 those of Yu-ye are tlie finest, and its water the 
 best. They are awfully high and rugged, sur- 
 rounded by water, and seem as if excavated by 
 spirits : nothing more wonderful can be seen. 
 From the dynasty of Csin and Han, do^vn to the 
 present time, a succession of hermits and priests of 
 the sects of Tao-czu and Fo have here risen up 
 like the clouds of the air and the grass of the fields, 
 too numerous to enumerate. Its chief renown, 
 however, is derived from its productions, and of 
 these tea is the most celebrated. 
 
 " The town to the north of Csong Ngan is called 
 Sing-csun. Here are many houses, as well as 
 markets and fairs, where the merchants or factors 
 (Ke) resort. To the north of Sing-csun is situated 
 the Chung Ling Chy Ky (a range of mountains 
 so denominated), the country the most renowned. 
 It is surrounded by many rocks and mountains, 
 most extraordinary in their form, and irregular in 
 their height, extending for more than 50 ly.* 
 
 " In the middle of those designated the Yu-ye 
 mountains there is a rivulet which winds about 
 them (called the Kieu Kio Kee, i. e. the stream of 
 the nine windings), and divides the range into two 
 districts. Those to the north are called the North 
 Range, and the others to the south the Southern 
 Range. It is here that the priests of the sects of 
 Fo and Tao-czu select the level places upon which 
 
 * The Ij is about the third part of an English mile. 
 
42 WHEEE BEST BLACK TEAS AKE FOUND. 
 
 tliey erect their temples and religious houses. 
 Around these they plant the tea shrubs, the leaves 
 of which they gather every year. The north 
 range produces the best." 
 
 It is these mountains only which are properly 
 considered the Bohea mountains. It is here that the 
 Ming Yen tea and the finest Souchongs are pro- 
 cured, teas which rarely find their way to Europe, 
 and perhaps never but in very small quantities as 
 presents. This tea is commonly known to Euro- 
 peans under the denomination of Padre Souchong, 
 from its being cultivated by the bonzes or priests, 
 or Pao-chong tea, from being packed in small paper 
 parcels ; and to the Chinese, in addition to these 
 names, by the appellation of Yen or Gam tea, from 
 its growing on the Yen, or ledges and terraces 
 of mountains. Also Nei Shan tea, i. e. inner moun- 
 tain tea, or inner range tea. 
 
 It is here that the imperial enclosures are esta- 
 blished for the supply of the court of Peking, and 
 chains are said to be employed for the purpose of 
 collecting the leaves of shrubs growing on the 
 summits and ledges of inaccessible and precipitous 
 rocks. But it may be suspected, without much 
 detraction, that this is one of the many artifices 
 and devices here employed by the priests to in- 
 crease the interest of their secluded residences, and 
 to attract strangers and devout benefactors to 
 the spot, as well as to enhance the price of their 
 tea. 
 
'lUiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiH 
 
WHERE BEST BLACK TEAS ARE FOUND. 43 
 
 Du Halcle * thus speaks of these mountains : — 
 '' The priests, the better to compass their design 
 of making this mountain pass for the abode of the 
 immortal beings, have conveyed barks, chariots, 
 and other things of the same kind, into the clefts 
 of the steep rocks all along the sides of a rivulet 
 that runs between ; insomuch, that these fantastical 
 ornaments are looked upon by the stupid vulgar 
 as a real prodigy, believing it impossible that they 
 could be raised to such inaccessible places, but by 
 a power more than human." 
 
 The annexed plate, engraved from a Chinese 
 drawing, portrays some of the geological and 
 picturesque features of these rocks ; while the im- 
 press of gigantic hands exhibits some of the devices 
 here alluded to. 
 
 The Chinese manuscript continues thus: — "In 
 the surrounding country, extending twenty or 
 thirty ly, there is a range of mountains which en- 
 compass and shelter those of Yu-ye. The names 
 of the places are, Csao Tuon, Hoang Pe, Chy Yang, 
 Kung Kuon, Sin Cheu, Tu Pa, Chy She, &c. In 
 each of these, tea sheds or roasting houses are 
 erected, and shrubs planted. These mountains 
 are also of the same nature as those of Yu-ye, 
 and the tea is prepared in the best manner. It 
 is fragrant in smell, and sweet in flavour. This 
 tea is called Puon Shan tea, or Mid-hill tea, or 
 
 * VoL i. page 10., translation. 
 
44 WHEEE BEST BLACK TEAS ARE FOUND. 
 
 Mid-range tea, and is gathered to be made into 
 Souchong." Here, I imagine, most of the East 
 India Company's best Souchong teas, as the chop. 
 Lap Sing, &;c., were made. The districts now 
 about to be described are those where the Con- 
 gou teas are produced. The manuscript proceeds 
 thus : — " The towns, which extend about 70 ly 
 from Vu-ye Shan are called Py Kung, Tien Czu 
 Ty, Tong Moo Kuon, Nan-Ngan, Chang Ping, 
 Shu-Fang, &:c. The leaves are thin and small, and 
 of 7Z0 substance ; and, whether green "^ or black, or 
 7nade with much care, yet have no fragrance. "^ This 
 tea, however, is that used for Congou in quarter 
 chests, and is called Way Shan tea, i. e. outside-hill 
 tea, or outer-range tea. Tea is also produced as 
 far as Yen Ping, Shau-U, Keu-U, Geu Ning, Kien 
 Yang, Heu Shan, and other places, but is unfit 
 for use." There is reason to believe, however, that 
 the tea from the latter places is constantly mixed 
 with low Congou, and that many of the Congous 
 technically termed faint, whether the leaf be green 
 or black, come from these places, as will be seen 
 by the following account received from another 
 Chinese, where some of the above places are enu- 
 merated as producing tea forming a part of the tea 
 imported as Congou. 
 
 * By green is meant the green leaves found in black tea, 
 termed by the English dealers yellow leaf. 
 
 t Another Chinese observes that '' the flavour is bitter, the 
 leaf yellow, and the tea will not keep long." 
 
WHERE BEST BLACK TEAS ARE FOUND. 45 
 
 "The district of Kien Yang, adjoining Csong 
 Ngan, produces much tea. Some of the leaves are 
 fleshy and large, others thin and smalL This is 
 coarse tea. At Geu Ning, adjoining Kien Yang, 
 the leaf is thiii and small. This is coarse tea. At 
 Ta Ping Lu, and other adjacent places, the leaf 
 is thi7i and large, and no lahow^ can make it good. 
 Among the infused leaves very few will be found red, 
 and the dried leaves are open, yellow, and dull. 
 But all these teas serve as coarse, or ordinary tea." 
 
 The Yu-ye Shan Chy, a statistical account of 
 the black tea districts, enumerates several places 
 in the neighbourhood which produce good tea, but 
 observes that Yu-ye Shan is the best. In this work 
 the qualities of the Yu-ye tea are divided into Yen 
 and Cheu tea. " The rugged sides and terraces of 
 the mountains are called Yen, and the low grounds 
 Cheu. Yen tea is of superior, and Cheu tea of in- 
 ferior quality. The mountains are divided into 
 the northern and southern range. The tea from 
 the northern division of these mountains is excel- 
 lent ; that from the southern is not so good. The 
 mountains beyond Yen Shan are called AVay Shan ; 
 and the tea produced there is of indifferent quality. 
 The plantations require sun and wind ; yet not too 
 much wind, and if much sun, the tea loses its de- 
 licacy of flavour." 
 
 Thus the situation the most favourable for tea, 
 agreeably to the foregoing accounts, is on the Yen, 
 or terraces, of rocky hills or mountains ; not, how- 
 
46 SITUATIONS THE MOST FAVOURABLE. 
 
 ever, because the soil is stony, but most probably 
 because the alluvial deposit formed during rain 
 enriches the soil of these ledges. The hills whence 
 the greater part of the tea connected with Euro- 
 pean consumption is procured, agreeably to infor- 
 mation received from the tea merchants, are of 
 gentle ascent, and in no way remarkable for their 
 height; neither do they possess the rocky nature 
 or singularity of form of the Bohea Mountains. 
 
 I shall now subjoin some extracts from accounts 
 procured by me through the Koman Catholic mis- 
 sionaries resident in the province of Fo-kien in 
 answer to questions proposed to them on the sub- 
 ject of soil, situation, and manipulation of tea. 
 
 1. One observes — "The soil should consist of 
 a vegetable mould, sprinkled with sand, light and 
 loose, and rather moist, exposed to the wind, and 
 fronting the east." 
 
 2. Another — " That tea may be planted either 
 in a rich or a poor soil, sandy or garden soil ; but 
 that which is moist is the most suitable, and the 
 eastern aspect the best ; it need not be exposed to, 
 or sheltered from the wind, neither does it require 
 high hills or level ground ; either will do, but 
 garden ground, and the embankments of gardens 
 or fields, are the most favourable." 
 
 3. I shall here conclude these extracts with the 
 opinions of the Spanish missionary first alluded to, 
 whose account of the tea plant is so highly valu- 
 able. He observes : "In the province of Fo-kien 
 
NATURE OF THE SOIL. 47 
 
 there are many plantations, where the care and the 
 method of preparing tea are nearly the same, whilst 
 the tea is very different, whether we consider the 
 leaves, the flavour, or the effects which it produces ; 
 consequently the nature of the soil cannot be the 
 same. The Chinese themselves sufliciently prove 
 this, by their frequent declaration that the Ty Tu, 
 or soil, occasions the principal difference in the 
 quality of tea." * 
 
 4. " With regard to the soil which is the most 
 favourable, I shall explain first what I have seen 
 myself, and then what I have heard related of the 
 district of Kien Ning Fu. In the southern part 
 of the province there are many plantations in low 
 situations, some of which are sandy and stony, as 
 may be seen by those which are near rivers ; but 
 they are rendered sufficiently moist in consequence 
 of annual inundations. Others are placed in situa- 
 tions a little raised, yet level^ like those which are 
 seen at the foot of mountains ; the soil of which (as 
 the Chinese express it) is red or pale, rather cold 
 and damp. The other plantations, and these are 
 the most numerous, are situated amidst the decli- 
 vities of mountains, on sloping ground, many of 
 which are stony and sandy at the surface, but the 
 soil is deep, moist, and, in consequence of the fre- 
 quent winds, rather cold. Those that are on level 
 
 * This observation is confirmed by my own inquiries. Ask 
 a Chinese what causes the difference of quality in tea? and his 
 reply invariably is, the Ty Tu, i. e. the soil. 
 
48 NATURE OF THE SOIL. 
 
 ground, at the foot of mountains, are more busliy, 
 but the quality of the tea is nearly the same. 
 
 5. "It therefore follows that the tea shrub de- 
 lights in very high situations, a comj^act and rich 
 soil^ a temperature cold and humid^ and the aspect 
 the most favourable is that ^Yhioh. fronts the east,''^ 
 
 6. The Chinese speak thus of the soil of the in- 
 numerable plantations of Kien Ning Fu: — " There 
 are some plantations on plains rather low, the soil 
 of which is very compact^ a little muddy^ hlack^ 
 neither very cold nor very hot, and rather damp. 
 The tea of this place is worth tivo-thirds more than 
 that of other parts of Fo-kien ; but the best of all 
 is procured from plants which are upon high moun- 
 tains, in steep places, sometimes like precipices ; 
 and on this account iron chains are used to ascend 
 them, and to gather the leaves. These are the 
 famous mountains of Yu-ye, in the district of Kien 
 Ning Fu. It is in situations that front the East 
 that the tea of the first quality is procured. It is 
 there that the Imperial enclosures are found, and 
 the greatest part of that tea commonly called Pekoe. 
 As all the tea which is found upon the neighbour- 
 ing mountains is of quite a different kind, although 
 the temperature is the same, it necessarily follows 
 that the soil must be different." 
 
 The preceding accounts seem to agree, that a 
 compact rich soil is the soil most suitable to the 
 tea plant. Some difference of statement may exist 
 relative to its degree of compactness, and that 
 
NATURE OF THE SOIL. 49 
 
 again may depend on situation and circumstances. 
 These statements, however, all agree that the soil 
 should be moist or retentive of moisture, and that 
 an eastern aspect is the best. 
 
 Now this conclusion, that a rich compact soil is 
 favourable to the cultivation of tea, appears at 
 variance with the currently received opinions on 
 that subject ; for it has generally been believed 
 that tea succeeds best in a stony, gravelly, sandy, 
 or poor soil, where there is little accumulation of 
 vegetable mould. This also was the description of 
 soil which came under the observation of Dr. Abel 
 on his journey from Peking, in company with the 
 British embassy, under Lord Amherst; but he 
 acknowledged that his opportunities of seeing the 
 tea plant were few. Du Halde states that the 
 soil of the Bohea mountains is light, whitish, 
 and sandy. * I once received from that country a 
 fine specimen of the tea plant, the soil of which 
 corresponded very well \vith the above description, 
 and yielded by simple washing -^^ of a light 
 coloured fine sand. 
 
 Le Compte states that tea thrives best in a 
 gravelly soil, next in a light sandy soil, and worst 
 in a yellow soil. 
 
 The Pen Csao Kiang Moo observes that the 
 best tea grows in a stony soil ; the middling in a 
 
 * Vol. i. page 11., translation. 
 E 
 
50 NATURE OF THE SOIL. 
 
 garden and arable soil, and the worst in a yellow 
 soil.* 
 
 The opportunities afforded to the two British 
 embassies of seeing the tea plant were too few to 
 aid us in this inquiry. They, moreover, were not 
 fortunate enough even to enter the particular 
 districts connected with home or foreign supply. 
 Lord Amherst's embassy, especially, was remote 
 three degrees of longitude from the black tea 
 country, and that of Lord Macartney more than a 
 degree of latitude. Both routes were north and 
 west of the extensive range of mountains which 
 isolate, as it were, the province of Fokien from the 
 rest of the empire ; the transit of which mountains 
 alone occupies a three days' journey by the speediest 
 mode of conveyance, a light bamboo sedan chair. 
 Nor was either embassy within forty miles at least 
 of the nearest point of the green tea country. The 
 specimens they saw were, perhaps, with one ex- 
 ception, such as were cultivated for the domestic 
 use of the farms where they were grown, and 
 probably afforded neither good examples of the 
 plant nor of the soil. It is generally allowed by 
 the Chinese that, with the single exception of the 
 Hyson country, they employ only such ground for 
 the cultivation of the tea plant as is unsuitable to 
 more profitable culture ; and this explains why it 
 
 * This passage in Du Halde (vol. ii. p. 221. translation) is 
 rendered thus: — "the best grows in rocky places, and the 
 worst in a yellow soil." 
 
 1 
 
NATURE OF THE SOIL. 51 
 
 is often found growing on the sides and tops of 
 embankments of cultivated fields ; on tlie declivities 
 of hills, independently of its natural habitat ; and 
 such lands as are generally devoted to the growth 
 of timber. 
 
 The opinions given by the ancient Jesuits must 
 be deemed authentic, and of high authority. They 
 were men not only distinguished by natural talent 
 and great acquirements, but they were the only 
 Europeans who have had any opportunity of ex- 
 amining the tea plant in those particular sites, 
 where it more especially flourishes, and where it 
 is cultivated for foreign consumption. But whether 
 their information be derived from personal ob- 
 servation, from translations of Chinese works, or 
 from verbal accounts received from the Chinese, 
 does not appear, and this involves a very important 
 distinction. 
 
 On the other hand. Dr. Von Siebold* states, that 
 " the soil most congenial to the tea plant at Japan 
 consists of a clayey heavy soil, rich in iron, con- 
 taining fragments of wacke, basalt, basaltic horn- 
 blende, and fossils peculiar to the trap formation. 
 It is somewhat sandy and chalky, and on being 
 washed exhibits very little vegetable mouldV^ 
 
 A very elaborate analysis has since been made 
 by two able chemists. Dr. Yon Essenbech and L. C. 
 Marquart, of a specimen of soil brought home by 
 
 * Nippon, part 6. t Dammerde. 
 
 E 9 
 
52 NATURE OF THE SOIL. 
 
 Dr. Von Siebold. These scientific men describe the 
 soil as a " strong ferruginous clay in which no mix- 
 ture of sand was perceptible to the naked eye." After 
 analysis they classed it as " an intimate mixtiire of 
 siliceous earth and clay, with oxyde of iron and 
 manganese." The earth appeared like " atmo- 
 spherically dissolved slate," and " from its deficiency 
 of carbonic acid, humus, lime, and magnesia, could 
 not be classed as productive ;" and it was their 
 opinion " that it required stronger manure and an 
 addition of alkaline matter. Its water-retaining 
 property was considerable, on account of its great 
 portion of clay, but the soil was deficient in light- 
 ness from the absence of coarse sand."* 
 
 Several specimens of soil were obtained by me 
 through different channels from the province of 
 Fokien, some from the Bohea district. They were 
 procured by respectable parties ; but what depen- 
 dence can be placed upon them as being true or 
 good specimens I cannot determine. An analysis 
 of these soils, sufficient for agricultural purposes, 
 was obligingly made expressly for me by Mr. 
 Faraday, the result of which is appended to this 
 chapter. It is there stated by that profound chemist 
 that "the general character of these soils seems 
 to be that of a ferruginous clay, but easily crum- 
 bling, and falling down in water. None of them 
 contained worn pebbles or worn sand, though some 
 
 * See note appended to this chapter. 
 
NATURE OF THE SOIL. 53 
 
 included fragmented stones, as decomposing por- 
 phyritic rock, granite, and felspar, mica in a finely 
 divided state, small siliceous stones, and one or two 
 specimens of some heavy greenish black particles. 
 The proportion of sand differed very much, and 
 the quantity of oxyde of iron was also remarkable. 
 None gave evidence of containing carbonate of 
 lime, except one, and in that only a single piece 
 was observed, which was probably accidental." 
 
 Dr. Guillemin, botanical assistant at the Museum 
 of Natural History at Paris, was charged with a 
 mission to the Brazils with a view to obtain in- 
 formation respecting the culture and preparation 
 of the tea plant, and introduction of that shrub into 
 France. In his report to the minister of agricul- 
 ture and commerce, made on his return, he states, 
 that " the general character of the cultivated soil 
 at the Brazils is a ferruginous clay, derived from 
 the decomposition of granitic gneiss, and more or 
 less mixed with humus. This soil, which is ana- 
 logous to the strong earths of the departments of 
 ancient Brittany, is perfectly suitable to tea." He 
 saw ^' tea cultivated in different exposures which 
 received the mild winds of these countries, but the 
 sides of the hills with a sunny aspect seemed to 
 suit it best."* Whether this exposure had any in- 
 fluence on the quality of the plant, his inquiries 
 did not enable him to determine. This question. 
 
 * La Revue Agricole, Fevrier, 1840, p. 268. 
 E 3 
 
54 NATURE OF THE SOIL. 
 
 however, has already been answered in the affirm- 
 ative. He further adds, that " care is always 
 taken to hoe the ground well, and sometimes it is 
 manured."* 
 
 This botanist, however, observes in the course of 
 his report, that he visited the plantations of Major 
 da Luz at Nossa Senhora da Penha, which were 
 exceedingly well kept, and further states that "the 
 ground, which was almost level, had formerly been 
 under water, and had been drained at the expense 
 of much labour by Major da Luz. The soil here," 
 he adds, " is less argillaceous than in other places, 
 and the vast quantity of vegetable detritus which 
 remains in the uncultivated parts, gives it the 
 appearance of a soil richly manured. Besides which 
 the plants here have a vigour of growth I have not 
 observed elsewhere ; almost all have attained the 
 height of two or three metres." f But the ordinary 
 height of plants in the settlement generally does 
 not appear by the same author to exceed half that 
 size, or one and a half metres. The plants there- 
 fore of Major da Luz mark a great luxuriance of 
 growth, ascribable no doubt to the richness of the 
 soil, and the quantity of decomposed vegetable 
 matter which it contains. 
 
 * In his summary or concluding remarks he considers that 
 " an argillaceous ferruginous soil on the slopes of hills is more 
 suitable to the cultivation of tea than light soils and plains." — 
 La Rev. Agricole, Fevr. 1840, p. 272. 
 
 t lb. Janv. p. 218. 
 
NATUKE OF THE SOIL. 55 
 
 With this example before us, we must conclude 
 that the author, by his previous observations, means 
 more especially to point out the analogy which 
 exists between the strong soils of the department 
 of ancient Brittany and those of the Brazils, and 
 consequently their suitableness for the cultivation 
 of tea. He leaves the reader to draw his own con- 
 clusions respecting the superiority of Major da 
 Luz's plantations, they having less immediate 
 bearing on the object of his inquiry.* 
 
 The reader will doubtless recollect, that among 
 the documents procured from Fokien, a tea is 
 spoken of as being worth two thirds more than 
 that produced in other parts of that province, with 
 the exception of the Yen or Gam tea grown in the 
 inner range of the Bohea mountains. And the 
 plantations here alluded to are described as being 
 " on plains rather low, the soil of which is veiy 
 compact, a little muddy, black," &c. (p. 48. § 6.) 
 
 Thus a considerable discrepancy of opinion seems 
 to prevail regarding the soil the most favourable 
 for the cultivation of the tea plant ; but as it has 
 
 * With respect to climate, he considers the cool climate of 
 St. Paul's, and the Serra dos Orgaos as the most favourable. 
 He says, — "the vigour with which the plant grows there is 
 wonderful," Although I found myself at St. Paul's in the middle 
 of summer, I was not incommoded by the heat, and it seemed 
 to me as if I were living in the south of Europe. He ascribes 
 this not so much to the difference of latitude between St. Paul's 
 and Rio de Janeiro, as to the heights of the table land of this 
 province. — {La Rev. Agricole, Fevr. 1840, p. 268.) 
 
 E 4 
 
56 NATURE OF THE SOIL. 
 
 been shown that this shrub possesses great powers 
 of adaptation to climate, so also, as observed by 
 Dr. Wallich, " it may be easily satisfied with 
 respect to soil." * 
 
 Kcempfer f states that the tea shrub is planted 
 everywhere at Japan without regard to soil ; and 
 the same may be affirmed of China, when cultivated 
 by the farmer for his own domestic use. 
 
 The vine, which seems to partake somewhat of 
 the nature of the tea plant, as regards the extent 
 of its geographical distribution and adaptation to 
 climate, also shows great indifference with respect 
 to soil. De CandoUe observes, that " grapes may 
 be produced in almost any soil, provided the Vine 
 he of a nature to suit it. The vineyards of Bour- 
 deaux are planted in a gravelly soil, thence the 
 name of Yin de Grave ; those of Burgundy in cal- 
 careous clay ; Hermitage grows in granite ; and 
 Lachryma Christi is raised in the volcanic soil of 
 Mount Vesuvius. The vineyards of Switzerland 
 consist of a stiff compact calcareous earth." J 
 
 Mr. M'Cleland also, seeing the various condi- 
 tions under which the tea plant grows at Assam, 
 concludes that " there is a disposition in the plant 
 to accommodate itself to any soil, as far at least as 
 its vegetative powers are concerned." § And he 
 
 * Parliamentary Papers, Tea Culthation, 27th Feb. 1839. 
 f Japan, Appendix, p. 4. 
 J Marcet's Vegetable Physiology, p. 406. 
 § Transactions of the Agricultural and Horticultural Society 
 of India, vol. iv. p. 28. 
 
NATURE OF THE SOIL. 57 
 
 further observes, regarding the soil which came 
 under his inspection, '^ that the vegetable matter in 
 tea soils acts only as an absorbent of moisture, as 
 appears by the fact, that where the vegetable 
 matter is greatest, alumina^ the common absorbent 
 principle of soil, is least '^ ; and the quantity of 
 alumina is also in proportion to the degree of 
 insulation of the soil, in regard to moisture and 
 the greater drainage to which it is exposed ; '^ 
 whence Mr. M'Cleland concludes that " the nar- 
 rowest inference we can draw from this is, that the 
 same soil would not be suitable to the plant in 
 every situation." f 
 
 Now there are two circumstances elicited in this 
 inquiry, in which the several statements procured 
 from the missionaries in the province of Fokien 
 agree, and in which the Chinese coincide, viz. that 
 the tea plant delights in moisture, and that an 
 eastern aspect is the best. 
 
 Mr. Jacobson of Java states that the tea plant 
 requires a moist soil, but still one where water 
 filters freely. J 
 
 Mr. Bruce also observes, " that one thing is 
 worthy of notice, that all the Assam tea grows 
 near water, of which it appears to be very fond, 
 for wherever there is a small stream or jheel, tea is 
 sure to be there." § 
 
 * Page 33. t Page 34. 
 
 X Handboek v. d. Kult. en Fabrik. v. Thee, § 33. 
 § M. Guillemin states that "|the part of the botanic garden 
 at Rio de Janeiro devoted to the cultivation of tea contains only 
 
58 NATURE OF THE SOIL. 
 
 Then if this be true, which Mr. Wretgen believes, 
 and in which Linclley* coincides, that it is the 
 temperature and moisture of a soil, much more 
 than its mineralogical quality, which determines its 
 influence upon vegetation, an important fact is here 
 established. 
 
 It has been shown, that after a long and uninter- 
 rupted period of rest during the winter, copious 
 moisture and rain happen in conjunction with a 
 gradually increasing evolution of heat, at the com- 
 mencement of spring, when the tea shrub begins 
 to shoot forth its leaves ; circumstances which all 
 allow are favourable to the perfection of vegetation 
 and obviously so to the rapid growth of the leaf to 
 its size and succulency. 
 
 It is further known by the size and succulency 
 of the Pouchong, Souchong, and Gobee Hyson teas, 
 together with their acknowledged and undoubted 
 superiority, that these conditions can be combined 
 with the highest degree of flavour and quality. 
 
 Similar conditions are also necessary to the pro- 
 duction of quantity ; and quantity is no less impor- 
 tant than flavour to insure a lucrative cultivation 
 of tea. Indeed Europeans are unwilling to pay 
 the price which the Chinese obtain in their own 
 country for their high-flavoured teas ; nor is the 
 
 plants of a miserable appearance, perhaps owing to their situation 
 too near the sea, or from the nature of the soil, for in that part of 
 the garden which is near streams of running water vigorous plants 
 may be observed." — La Revue Agricole, Fevrier, 1840, p. 268. 
 * Theory of Horticulture, p. 112. 
 
NATURE OF THE SOIL. 59 
 
 delicate flavour of the Pouchong tea suited to our 
 mode of using tea, mixing it, as we do, with sugar 
 and milk. We require a strong tea, and strength 
 may depend more on astringency than aroma ; and 
 that quality, in all probability, may be less ex- 
 posed to injury by copious moisture, than the 
 volatile principle on which flavour is very generally 
 supposed to depend. 
 
 The soil then should be of a texture to receive and 
 part with water freely. It is on the just balance 
 between these extremes that its suitableness de- 
 pends ; and this again must be regulated by its 
 locality.* 
 
 There is a coarse kind of granite everywhere 
 found along the coast of China, which easily breaks 
 down and crumbles by the action of the atmosphere. 
 If the plant be found growing on mountains of this 
 description, in an elevated position, and on a some- 
 what rapid declivity, in a climate where the rains 
 are copious, and the sun ardent, we shall find the 
 soil broken down, and the alumina washed away, 
 
 * Mr. Gordon, who seems an acute observer, and wliose de- 
 scription of the tea plantations he saw at Amoy is exceedingly 
 valuable, comes to the conclusion that " the tea plant requires ab- 
 solutely a free soil, not ivet and 7iot dry, but of a texture to retain 
 moistiire, and the best site is one not so low as that at which 
 water is apt to spring from the sides of the hill, nor so high as to 
 be exposed to the violence of stormy weather. There is no use 
 in attempting to cultivate the plant in an easterly exposure, 
 though it is sufficiently hardy to bear any degree of dry cold." 
 — Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, vol. iv. 
 
60 NATURE OF THE SOIL. 
 
 in the form of a finely divided pulverulent clay ; 
 the exposed surface will consist of quartz in a finely 
 divided state, felspar, coarse sand and gravel ; 
 where indeed there may be little or no accumula- 
 tion of vegetable mould. But here the plant, sti- 
 mulated by light and heat, while the roots are 
 deprived of a corresponding supply of moisture, 
 becomes a bushy, stunted, and distorted shrub, with 
 leaves small and thick, like those specimens preserv- 
 ed in the British Museum, erroneously (I believe) 
 marked " Wild Plants." 
 
 The same degeneracy of the plant may be ob- 
 served in an arid soil, even on plains ; and similar 
 specimens may be obtained among the Honan plan- 
 tations at Canton, whence I imagine those in ques- 
 tion were procured. 
 
 So, on Mr. Gordon's excursion to the Ankoy tea 
 districts, he found some plantations in very sterile 
 ground. " One, in a very bleak situation with 
 nothing but coarse red sand by way of soil, seemed 
 abandoned. In another situation, some of the 
 shrubs scarcely rose to the height of a foot (cubit) 
 above the ground, so bushy, that a hand could not 
 be thrust between the branches, with leaves [only] 
 three quarters of an inch in length. In the same 
 bed, however, there were other plants four feet in 
 height, and about two in diameter, with leaves of 
 from one and a half to two inches in length." * 
 
 But this was in the month of November, when 
 
 * Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, vol. iv. 
 
NATURE OF THE SOIL. 61 
 
 the leaves were principally old leaves, having 
 attained their maturity of size and growth ; and 
 yet the largest of these leaves were only about 
 the size of the young and succulent leaves of Pou- 
 chong tea, whose leaves of full growth measure ^ve 
 inches. 
 
 We therefore here see the degenerating effect of 
 an arid soil. Indeed, Mr. Gordon observes that 
 ^' the best soil was little more than mere sand." 
 
 If we turn to Assam, we there find the effects of 
 the opposite extreme, excess of moisture. There 
 the plant, agreeably to Mr. M'Cleland, "grows 
 under the shade of dense forests and a gloomy and 
 excessively humid atmosphere, in 'a barren soil, 
 along the verge of rivers, lakes, and marshy lands *," 
 being never wholly inundated, but nearly so. 
 
 Thus the plant, "struggling for existencef," being 
 over-excited by excessive absorption of moisture by 
 the roots, while the leaves, deprived of the stimulus 
 of direct solar light and heat, are unable to throw 
 off a proportionate quantity of fluid by perspiration 
 and evaporation, the delicate stem forces its way 
 Avith difficulty through the dense brushwood, and 
 rises " a tall and slender tree, varying from ten to 
 twenty feet in height, and mostly under an inch in 
 diameter, with its branches high up," and with large 
 
 * Transactions of the Agricultural and Horticultural Society 
 of India, vol. iv. p. 35. 
 
 t Parliamentary Papers, Tea Cultivation, Feb. 27. 1839, 
 p. 112. 
 
62 NATURE OF THE SOIL. 
 
 delicate leaves from four to nine inches long. So 
 that these slender trees, as remarked by Mr. Bruce, 
 when deprived of their support from the surround- 
 ing jungle, — which in some instances had been cut 
 down, — seemed scarcely capable of sustaining their 
 own weight.^ 
 
 We here see examples of the two extremes of 
 dryness and moisture ; but it must be acknowledged, 
 that the plant seems to bear extreme moisture 
 better than excessive dryness ; and it has already 
 been remarked that tea is never found growing in 
 arid places. 
 
 Pursuing this investigation, and bearing in mind 
 the principle that the tea plant delights in a fertile 
 soil, retentive of moisture, but of easy filtration, 
 we may, perhaps, be enabled to reconcile some of 
 the apparent discrepancies on this subject. 
 
 In the first place, "a vegetable mould mixed 
 with sand, light and loose " (p. 46. § 1.), on plains 
 where the drainage is imperfect, or on the gentle 
 slopes and levels of hills, where it is slow, may 
 be a soil of a very suitable character. Indepen- 
 dently of the nutritive quality of such a soil, it 
 obviously afibrds easy filtration, the genial admis- 
 sion of air and heat to the roots, and free evapora- 
 tion. It will also be seen under the article " Green 
 
 * Parliamentary Papers, Tea Cultivation, p. 113. One of 
 the largest trees Mr. Bruce found to be two cubits in circum- 
 ference, and full forty cubits in height ; but he supposed that 
 few attained that size. (lb. p. 112.) 
 
NATURE OF THE SOIL. 63 
 
 Tea," that an immense improvement was effected 
 in that tea by transplanting it from the hills into 
 the plains, and by cultivating it in garden soil, fit 
 for vegetables ; moreover, by the use of manure. 
 The black tea, however, is not manured. 
 
 Again, in situations '' on the banks of rivers, 
 where the ground is level, and subject to inunda- 
 tion," the soil may be " sandy, and stony on the 
 surface " (p. 47. § 4.), but the subsoil being formed 
 and benefited by filtration from a rich alluvial 
 deposit, the plants are thereby furnished with an 
 inexhaustible source of nourishment; and while 
 the stony and sandy superstratum defends the roots 
 against the scorching heat of the sun, they receive 
 the genial influence of its rays, and are afforded 
 ventilation, evaporation, and filtration. 
 
 So on the ledges and terraces of the " inner 
 range " of the Bohea mountains, a light sandy soil, 
 as described by Du Halde, may be beneficial on 
 these flats. A light soil with a rocky bottom must 
 obviously favour filtration, which these levels or 
 easy slopes, in common with plains, more especially 
 demand ; and if in addition to the progressive dis- 
 integration which may naturally be supposed to be 
 going on in the rocky substratum by acid excre- 
 tions from the roots, and from the free action which 
 a light sandy soil affords to moisture and atmo- 
 spheric influence, these ledges or flats be enriched 
 by alluvial deposits from igneous or primitive rocks, 
 by alumina, and decomposed vegetable fibre from 
 
64 NATURE OF THE SOIL. 
 
 the adjacent and overhanging hills ; then the ele- 
 vated situations of these sites, enjoying an open 
 exposure to the morning sun — especially useful in 
 dispersing the mists and exhalations which collect 
 in the night in mountainous districts having 
 running streams — seem to combine most of those 
 advantages which the Chinese of this province deem 
 beneficial to the growth and perfection of the tea 
 tree. 
 
 It is to be regretted that we have not more au- 
 thentic and detailed accounts of this soil, or any 
 certain and satisfactory specimens of these rocks to 
 guide us as to its nature. Two or three specimens 
 sent to me with the soils in question, said to 
 be from this particular district, consisted, as has 
 already been observed, of worn pebbles of slate, 
 which were apparently taken out of the bed of a 
 river; and a piece of conglomerate sandstone, or 
 grauwacke, with a Chinese name written upon it, 
 stated to be the name of the tea hill, or rock 
 whence it was taken. 
 
 If we may be permitted, in the absence of posi- 
 tive information, to speculate on the nature of these 
 rocks from the views represented by the Chinese in 
 their drawings, or rather maps of this district, the 
 rocks and hills, from their laminated sides in some 
 cases, and their grotesque forms in others, appear 
 to consist of schistose and limestone formation. 
 Those of the more rounded and pointed forms may 
 be sandstone and granite. 
 
SOIL THE MOST SUITABLE. 65 
 
 But whatever the peculiarity of the structure of 
 these hills may be — and that they have such the 
 universal testimony of the Chinese will not allow 
 us to doubt — yet it may be fairly surmised that 
 the priests, who have selected this romantic spot 
 as the scene of their seclusion and devotion, have 
 lent a helping hand in rearing up that fame which 
 this particular site has exclusively acquired through- 
 out the empire for the superiority of the flavour 
 and quality of its tea. Careful cultiyation through 
 a period of a thousand or twelve hundred years, 
 has doubtless exercised an important influence in 
 modifying the original constituents of this soil, and 
 largely contributed to its improvement, and, per- 
 haps, to that of the plant. 
 
 In other situations in this neighbourhood, per- 
 haps in that part which is termed the " middle 
 range," it is said "there are some plantations on 
 plains rather low, the soil of which is very compact, 
 a little muddy, black, and rather damp. The tea 
 of this place is worth two-thirds more than that of 
 other parts of Fokien, with the exception of the 
 * inner range ' of the Bohea Mountains." * M. 
 Guillemin notices a similar description of soil at 
 St. Paul's, which had been recovered from a kind 
 of morass, where the shrubs exhibited great vigour 
 of growth. 
 
 These examples afford proof that the tea tree 
 
 * P. 48. § 6. 
 F 
 
66 SOIL THE MOST SUITABLE. 
 
 flourishes, and arrives at a high degree of excel- 
 lence in a soil rich in decomposed vegetable matter, 
 and comes in contradiction of the supposition that 
 a poor, sandy, or gravelly soil, with little accumu- 
 lation of vegetable mould, is alone favourable to 
 the cultivation of the tea plant.* 
 
 When cultivated on the embankments of garden 
 grounds or fields of grain, the soil obviously must 
 partake of the nature of those fields, being in some 
 cases a light garden mould, and in others of a more 
 compact and argillaceous character. 
 
 The embankments here alluded to are generally 
 about from six to eight feet wide on their summits, 
 and from their inclined position and construction 
 favour filtration. They form sometimes divisions 
 of fields, and sometimes fences, against the en- 
 croachments of rivers. They are mostly planted 
 with fruit trees, or other useful plants, as the tea, 
 the mulberry, the orange, and the plantain. 
 
 With respect to the outer range of the Bohea 
 
 * Mr. Fortune states that the soil of the plantations he saw 
 in Fokien and Chekiang consists of a rich sandy loam. He 
 moreover shows that the tea shrub requires a rich soil. ( Wan- 
 derings in China, p. 200, 201.) Mr. Jacobson of Java con- 
 siders that a " temper ate''^ and moderately fertile soil is the 
 best for tea. This may consist of a half or two thirds of a foot 
 of rich decayed vegetable matter or humus (which he also terms 
 moer-aarde (peat-earth ?), with a substratum of a compact brown 
 clay earth, which is sometimes termed mountain ground, not 
 rich but by no means poor, and which is of an adhesive character 
 without sticking, when rolled between the forefinger and the 
 thumb. (§22.) 
 
SOIL THE MOST SUITABLE. 67 
 
 Mountains, we have no data to reason upon beyond 
 those specimens of soil already referred to, the cha- 
 racter of which is a ferruginous clay mixed with 
 sand. If the "fragmented stones" they contain, 
 together with their ferruginous character, and the 
 quantity of oxyde of iron, be considered as indica- 
 tive of the rock of which they are formed, it may, 
 perhaps, be allowable to conclude, that the moun- 
 tains and hills of this particular district consist 
 of granitic, porphyritic, and sandstone formation. 
 These, indeed, with basalt, limestone, and schist 
 constitute the character of the mountains of China, 
 wherever they have come under the observation of 
 Europeans, whether at Canton, along the sea coast, 
 at Amoy, the island of Chusan, or in the interior.* 
 
 Thus there seems much analogy between the 
 specimens here alluded to and that brought from 
 Japan by Von Siebold ; also in the structure of the 
 rocks and mountains of these two countries, and 
 again between these and the rocks of San Paolo, 
 described by M. Guillemin, so far as their being- 
 all of igneous origin. 
 
 But though the constituents of any of these 
 rocks be the same, it is well known their com- 
 
 * Dr. Abel observes : " Judging from the specimens collected 
 in our route through the province of Kiang Nan, whence the 
 green tea is procured, its rocks consist chiefly of sandstone, 
 schistus, and granite." " The plantations were always at some 
 elevation above the plains on a kind of gravelly soil, formed in 
 some places by disintegrated sandstone, and in others by the 
 debris of primitive rock." {Journey in China, p. 224.) 
 
 F 2 
 
68 SOIL THE MOST SUITABLE. 
 
 ponent parts may differ widely in tlieir relative 
 proportions ; and again, as the slope and undulation 
 of liills receive more or less inclination, so may the 
 earth differ in quality and compactness, and thus 
 constitute soils of various degrees of fertility ; and 
 hence it may be, that the specimens alluded to 
 vary so much in their proportions of sand. It is 
 obvious that the rich and soluble parts of the soil 
 will be the first precipitated and carried forward 
 to the level parts and plains. In the progress of 
 disintegration the broken and detached masses of 
 rock, deprived of their earthy support, are hurled 
 headlong down the mountain to its base, where 
 they collect in large masses, as may be seen every 
 where along the sea- shore at Macao ; while the 
 stones and coarse gravelly parts will be left behind, 
 to wait later effects of disintegration and pre- 
 cipitation by rain, wind, and other atmospheric 
 influences. 
 
 Thus it is not surprising, when we are informed 
 of the fact, that the tea tree should be found " to 
 grow with more luxuriance at the base " of granitic 
 hills, and " with more vigour during the heats of 
 summer than on the summits," or that " the soil 
 here should be found more compact and rich." 
 
 Mr. Gordon also observes of the Ankoy districts 
 near Amoy, that the plantations he saw were 
 generally at the bottom of hills, where there was 
 a good deal of shelter on two sides, and the slopes 
 comparatively easy. He reckoned the highest 
 
SOIL THE MOST SUITABLE. 69 
 
 plantations to be about 700 feet above the plains, 
 [and here, we may add, the plains are nearly level 
 with the sea,] but in those that were less high the 
 shrubs appeared more thriving, probably from 
 having a somewhat better soil.* 
 
 Again ; if we examine the roots of the tea shrub, 
 we shall find them to consist of innumerable small 
 fibres with fleshy spongioles extending themselves 
 in a circle not far removed from the stem, which 
 indicates that the plant is not one like the vine, 
 which sends forth its roots to a distance in search of 
 food, or that it penetrates deeply into the earth ; 
 but that it requires to meet with its aliment within 
 narrow limits, and near the surface of the soil 
 which it inhabits.! 
 
 If we further consider the important part which 
 the leaves play in the vegetable economy, that they 
 are in fact the lungs and stomach of the plant, and 
 exercise the important functions of respiration and 
 assimilation ; and then reflect on the severe coercion 
 to which it will be seen that the shrub is subjected, 
 during periods of from ten to fifteen consecutive 
 days, of being stripped of its young succulent 
 leaves so soon as they attain their proper size for 
 
 * Mr. Fortune states that the plantations he saw in Chekiaug, 
 Chusan, and Fokien were situated on the lower sides of the hills, 
 and never on low grounds. (^Wande things in China, p. 201.) 
 
 I I am indebted to Mr. Scott, Sir George Staunton's principal 
 gardener, an intelligent and distinguished man in his art, for 
 pointing out this peculiarity to me ; and for many other useful 
 
 and sensible suggestions. 
 
 F 3 
 
70 SOIL THE MOST SUITABLE. 
 
 manipulation, and that this treatment is repeated 
 at certain intervals three times between spring and 
 autumn, we acknowledge it is difficult to com- 
 prehend how this shrub can preserve its vigour, 
 without all the aids favourable to vegetation which 
 fertility of soil, heat, and moisture afford. 
 
 It is judiciously observed by Mr. Fortune that 
 this frequent " gathering of the leaves is very 
 detrimental to the shrubs, and, in fact, ultimately 
 kills them. Hence a principal object with the 
 grower is to keep his bushes in as robust health as 
 possible, and this cannot be done in a poor soil." * 
 
 Moreover ; if it be true, as stated by Liebig, that 
 trees, the leaves of which are renewed annually, 
 require for their leaves six to ten times more 
 alkalies than the fir tree or the pine, then the tea 
 tree, by the unnatural treatment it receives as here 
 alluded to, is placed, though an evergreen, in the 
 condition of a deciduous tree. Consequently, it 
 ought to require more alkalies than if left in its 
 natural state, and be less likely to flourish in sandy 
 and calcareous soils upon which the pine thrives. f 
 
 Thus there seems little reason to doubt the con- 
 clusion drawn by Von Essenbeck after analysis of 
 the Japanese soil, brought home by Yon Siebold, 
 that tea soils deficient in lightness require the 
 addition of coarse sand ; and failing in nutritive 
 properties, that strong manure and alkaline matter 
 
 * Wanderings in Cliina, 201. 
 
 1- Agricultural Chemistry, 2d ed. 132. 
 
SOIL THE MOST SUITABLE. 71 
 
 may be employed with advantage *, in which 
 opinion I am disposed tb coincide even as regards 
 black tea, though the Chinese universally affirm 
 that manure, is not employed for that tea, and is in- 
 jurious to its flavour. Further, as has been shown 
 in this investigation, a knowledge of the surface 
 soil only, as in cultivation generally, whether by 
 analysis or otherwise, affords but very inadequate 
 data, unless due attention be also paid to the nature 
 of the substratum rock and subsoil as reo^ardino: 
 drainage and nutritive properties. 
 
 If by '' shelter on two sides " t be meant open 
 vallies, or hills converging together, with a southern 
 exposure to the sun, we should deem such favourable 
 to the cultivation of tea. But if " shady declivities 
 of hills in moist vallies," J or contracted sheltered 
 vallies, where ventilation is imperfect, and the sun 
 has little influence, be found favourable, which 
 I am disposed to doubt, may it not be because 
 such situations are moist, not because they are 
 shady or sheltered ? Whether protection from 
 easterly winds may not be necessary immediately 
 in the neighbourhood of the sea-coast, as at Amoy, 
 I cannot determine ; but all inquiry and in- 
 formation on the subject tend to show that, inland, 
 such shelter is unnecessary. The Chinese, however, 
 do say, that an easterly gale is much to be dreaded, 
 
 * See note at the end of this chapter, p. 76. 
 
 f Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, vol. iv. p. 103. 
 
 j Parliamentary Papers, "Tea Cultivation," Feb. 1839. 
 
 !■ 4 
 
72 SOIL THE MOST SUITABLE. 
 
 but these gales occur but seldom, and only during 
 the great heats of summer, from July to September, 
 when the principal gatherings of the leaves are over.* 
 
 Yon Siebold (Nippon, part 6.) observes that the 
 Japanese husbandmen consider that hilly sites, 
 elevated from about 700 to 800 feet above the 
 sea, and intersected by brooks and streams, are the 
 most suitable to the cultivation of tea, as in the 
 vicinity of Uresino ; and again, in the fertile valley 
 of the River Jodo, in the district of Udsi, where 
 the open flats, not the steep ridges of the hills, are 
 selected for this purpose, and the plantations so 
 arranged as to enjoy the morning sun.f 
 
 With respect to an eastern aspect being the 
 best, the Chinese possibly may not mean due east, 
 but any point between south and east, as south- 
 east. All the Chinese and Japanese accounts agree 
 that a full exposure to the sun is desirable, as 
 other circumstances will prove in the progress of 
 this examination. The morning sun is also sup- 
 posed to have a beneficial influence on vegetation, 
 while the dew is yet on the leaves, and especially on 
 flowers, as exciting their odorous secretions ; and if 
 
 * Mild and seasonable rains are desirable, and also gentle 
 breezes ; but easterly winds are to be dreaded. If a northerly- 
 wind blows in the night, the growth of the leaves is thereby 
 checked ; and should an easterly gale prevail, the quantity of 
 leaves will be diminished. (Mr. Reeves' M.S. Papers,) 
 
 t The tea tree delights particularly in vallies, or in the 
 declivities of hills, and upon the banks of rivers, where it enjoys 
 a southern exposure to the sun. (Lettsom on the Tea Tree.) 
 
SOIL THE MOST SUITABLE. 73 
 
 SO, may it not have tlier same on leaves ? At all 
 events it is useful as regarding tea, in dissipating the 
 mists from the atmosphere, as well as the moisture 
 from the leaves, before the gatherers begin to as- 
 semble on the hills. It will be seen in the process 
 of manipulation of black tea, that it is desirable to 
 evaporate as much moisture as possible from the 
 leaves before they are roasted. 
 
 Thus we come to nearly the same conclusions 
 as the Rev. Father Carpina, that the black tea tree 
 in China delights in hilly sites, though of moderate 
 elevation ; yet it is also successfully cultivated in 
 plains, under favourable circumstances, such as 
 along the banks of rivers, in a light stony soil, 
 subject to occasional inundation ; in an open ex- 
 posure to the sun, and the genial winds of a 
 somewhat hot climate, tempered by intervals of 
 rain, and exhalations during the night ; an aspect 
 fronting the south-east, or one benefited by the 
 morning sun ; a soil rich and somewhat compact, 
 or retentive of moisture, though of easy filtration ; 
 sufficiently porous to be permeable to the numerous 
 and delicate fibres of the roots of the plant, as well 
 as atmospheric influences ; and sufficiently tena- 
 cious to supply a healthy moisture to the plant, 
 without being liable to be dried up and baked 
 during the alternations of sun and rain, which 
 take place at no very remote intervals between the 
 vernal and autumnal equinoxes. 
 
74 ANALYSIS OF EARTHS FROM CHINA. 
 
 NOTES. 
 
 I subjoin a communication on the subjects of the preceding 
 chapter from Professor Faraday: — 
 
 Royjil Institution, May 11. 1827. 
 Specimens of Earths from China. 
 
 No. 1. vSpecimen from the Lapa, a hill near Macao. 
 
 No. 2. Specimen from the north-east part of the province of 
 Fokien. 
 
 No. 3. Ditto. 
 
 No. 4. taken out of a pot containing a tea plant from the 
 Bohea country. 
 
 No. 5. Bohea country, 1st quality. 
 
 No. 6. ditto 2d quality. 
 
 No. 7. ditto 3d quality. 
 
 These earths were all of similar ferruginous tints, i. e, of 
 light yellow or reddish brown, as the one formerly analysed, 
 excejDt No. 2., which was of a grey or brownish grey tint. 
 They were all of a clayey adhesive character, but easily crum- 
 bling and falling down in water. None of them contained worn 
 pebbles or w^orn sand, though some included fragmented stones, 
 and all of them sharp sabulous silicious particles. None of 
 them gave evidence of containing carbonate of lime except one, 
 and in that only a single piece of the carbonate was observed, 
 which was probably accidental. Their hygrometric state 
 appeared to be about that of the former sort, viz. 102. 
 
 No. 1. contained no stony fragments or pebbles; the aggre- 
 gated portions were, however, irregular and dissimilar, being 
 of different colours, as if the soil had either been purposely 
 mixed with other soil, or else cultivated and manured. It con- 
 
ANALYSIS OF EARTHS FROM CHINA. 
 
 75 
 
 tainecl also a few loose fibres. It contained also a trace of 
 sulphate of lime.* 
 
 No. 2. contained fragments of apparently a decomposing 
 porphyritic rock ; it was in this that the fragment of carbonate 
 of lime occurred. It included also several pieces of charcoal, 
 and a few portions of old decayed vegetable fibres. 
 
 No. 3. Included some long woody fibres, and a few irregular 
 fragments like those of No. 2. 
 
 No. 4. contained very few vegetable fibres, some angular 
 fragments of decomposing granite and felspar, and particles of 
 mica diffused through the soil. 
 
 No. 5. contained very few fibres ; no appearance of pebbles 
 or of mica ; but, by washing, a few heavy, greenish black mineral 
 particles were found, which had not before occurred. 
 
 No. 6. A few fibres ; no stones ; much mica in a finely 
 divided state, but no green particles. 
 
 No. 7. A few long, loose, woody fibres ; a few small silicious 
 stones ; particles of mica, and a recurrence of the same green 
 particles as in No. 5. 
 
 The proportions of sand in these soils varied very much, as 
 may be observed in the following table. The clay, &c. includes 
 not only the argillaceous particles, but destructible matter and 
 water. 
 
 Sand 
 
 Clay, &c. {ferru- 
 ginous) - 
 Fragments 
 
 Lapa. 
 
 N.E. Fokien. 
 
 Pot. 
 
 Bohea. 
 
 No. 1. 
 
 No- 2. 
 
 No. 3. 
 
 No. 4. 
 
 No. 5. 
 
 No. 6. 
 
 No. 7. 
 
 46-1 
 53-9 
 
 17-70 
 
 56-53 
 25-77 
 
 10 
 90 
 
 51-54 
 48-46 
 
 1st qual. 
 33-08 
 
 66-92 
 
 2d qual. 
 44-61 
 
 55-39 
 
 3d qual. 
 36-15 
 
 63-85 
 
 100-0 
 
 100-00 
 
 100 
 
 100-00 
 
 100-00 
 
 100-00 
 
 100-00 
 
 * This soil had been manured with goats' dung, and was taken 
 from the small plantation at the Lapa, described by Dr. Abel. 
 
76 ANALYSIS OF EARTHS FROM JAPAN. 
 
 Chemical A?ial?/sis of the Earth of a Japanese Tea Plantation^ 
 by Dr. Th. Fc. L. Nees Von Essenbeck and L. CI. Marquart.* 
 
 The earth given to us to analyse appeared a very uniform fine 
 grained mixture of a yellowish grey colour, having altogether 
 the appearance of a strong ferruginous clay, in which no 
 mixture of sand was perceptible to the naked eye. After the 
 removal of two small stones, one porphyry and the other 
 grauwacke, the weight of the earth amounted to 462 grains. 
 The specific gravity was decided at 2 325. 200 grains of air- 
 dried earth absorbed 165 grains of water. Of this water, in the 
 first five hours, under a temperature of from 15° to 18° Reaumur, 
 31 grains were lost ; after 24 hours, 100 grains ; after 48 hours, 
 still 24 grains remained ; and not till after 72 hours had all the 
 water disappeared. 
 
 Of these 200 grains, the parts soluble in cold water amounted to 
 scarcely one-eighth of a grain, consisting of humus and lime, with 
 traces of muriatic and sulphuric acid, clay and iron. 
 
 [Then follows a minute description of the analysis, giving the 
 undermentioned result.] 
 
 On placing together the constituent parts of the earth, we 
 find the following results. 100 grains of the earth contain 
 Silicious earth - - - - - 53 grs. 
 
 Oxyde of iron - - - - - 9 
 
 Clay - - - - - - 22 
 
 Oxyde of manganese and magnesia - _ o^ 
 
 Gypsum - - - - - - O^ 
 
 Humus - - - - - - 1 
 
 Phosphoric acid, traces of. 
 
 Hygrometric water - - - - 14 
 
 [He adds in a note.] On another portion of the earth we 
 succeeded in proving evident traces of kali. It does not appear, 
 however, as a fresh soluble combination of salt in the earth, but 
 is undoubtedly combined with clay and silex. 
 
 After we had by these means analysed the earth in its consti- 
 
 * See Von Siebold's Nippon, part vi. p. 17. 
 
ANALYSIS OF EARTJIS FROM JAPAN. 77 
 
 tiient parts, it appeared that it should be considered as an intimate 
 mixture of silicious earth and clay, with the oxyde of iron and 
 manganese (eisenhaltiges Aluminiumsilicat). The small portion of 
 magnesia is remarkable, and even this is closely combined in the 
 soil with the silicate mentioned. 
 
 Thus the earth appeared like atmospherically dissolved slate. 
 The phosphoric acid is well combined, and arises probably, as 
 well as the gypsum, from the manure in the soil. According to 
 Thaer's classification of soils, this earth belongs to the third 
 class, as a strong sandy clay soil. 
 
 The analysed earth is moreover, from its deficiency in carbonic 
 acid, humus, lime, and magnesia, not to be referred to the 
 productive, and assuredly requires stronger manure, and addition 
 of alkaline matter. Its water-retaining 23roj)erty is consider- 
 able on account of its great portion of clay, but the soil is 
 deficient in lightness from the absence of coarse sand. 
 
78 
 
 CHAP. IV. 
 
 CULTURE ACCOUNTS GIVEN IN CHINESE WORKS — BY EUROPEAN 
 
 MISSIONARIES— PLANTATIONS SEEN BY MR. GORDON AT AMOY 
 
 CULTIVATION OF GREEN TEA DIFFERENT FROM BLACK 
 
 MODE PRACTISED IN JAPAN — IN JAVA. 
 
 The only mode of propagation of the tea plant 
 mentioned in the Chinese works I have had an 
 opportunity of consulting, is by seed. The Chinese, 
 also, with whom I have conversed on this subject, 
 seem generally to admit that it is the best method, 
 though they affirm that this practice rarely obtains 
 in the Bohea district in the present day. The 
 plantations of Ho Nan, in the vicinity of Canton, 
 to the south, are propagated with seed. The soil 
 consists of coarse red sand and gravel, the situa- 
 tion is low and flat, and the heat of the climate 
 unfavourable. The shrubs are ragged and stunted 
 in their appearance, and the leaves thin and small, 
 producing tea altogether unsuitable for European 
 consumption. 
 
 The following instructions for planting are found 
 in the Kiun Fang Pu, under the article '^ Tea" : — 
 
 " Seeding. — The seed must be collected in Han 
 Lu (October), dried in the sun, then mixed up 
 with moistened sand, and packed in baskets. 
 
 " Planting. — Tea naturally dislikes water [to 
 
CULTIVATION OF 'tHE TEA PLANT. 79 
 
 collect about the roots]. It requires a rich soil^ 
 shady and sloping ground, to allow the water to 
 drain off. In sowing the seed use paddy husk and 
 parched earth. Put from six to ten seeds into 
 each hole, placing them about an inch below the 
 surface of the ground. When the plants begin to 
 germinate, the weeds ought not to be raked up. 
 If the season be dry, water them with water in 
 which rice has been washed, and manure them 
 often with manure in a liquid state, or with the 
 dung of silkworms. Water lodging about the 
 roots of the plants will inevitably destroy them. 
 After three years the leaves are fit for gathering. 
 The shrubs should be planted in sets, which are 
 separated about two cubits (28 inches) from each 
 other." 
 
 The above mode of culture appears to correspond 
 more with that of the green than the black .tea, 
 for the Chinese generally agree that the latter is 
 not manured. The Hoa King, under the article 
 "Tea," says — "That tea [black tea] is the most 
 fragrant which is not manured." 
 
 Let us now subjoin the accounts received from 
 the missionaries before quoted : — " Put four or 
 five seeds into one place. When the leaves shoot 
 out, and the plants have grown to the height of a 
 cubit (14 inches), bind them together. Weed them 
 at the four seasons of the year, turn up the ground 
 about the roots, and add new mould. Arrange 
 the binding, and take away the dead shoots. Tliere 
 
80 MODES ADOl'TED FOR CULTIVATING 
 
 is no occasion to trim or to water them." Another 
 gives the same account of the mode of sowing the 
 seed, but makes no mention of binding the plants. 
 He then proceeds as follows: — "When the aged 
 plants become dry and exhausted, cut them down 
 to the roots, and they will shoot again. The leaves 
 may afterwards be gathered in the second or third 
 year. In planting, it is unnecessary to take slips 
 for that purpose, but simply to cut down the [wild] 
 trees, and transplant the old roots. In the second 
 or third spring the leaves shoot forth in sufficient 
 abundance to admit of their being gathered. The 
 shrubs require neither lopping, watering, nor turn- 
 ing up the ground about the roots. They, how- 
 ever, require weeding ; and the old roots must be 
 watered for a few days at the time of transplanting, 
 when they never require it more." 
 
 I shall now conclude with the Rev. Yicar-Gene- 
 ral Carpina's account (the Spanish missionary so 
 frequently alluded to in these pages), which may 
 be considered the mode adopted in the part of the 
 province where he resided, at Fogan, about 240 
 miles south-east of the Bohea country. 
 
 " With respect to the duration of the plants, 
 in places which are suitable to them, and where 
 animals cannot destroy them, they will last fifty 
 years and more. When they are too old, if the 
 soil is ricli^ they are cut down close to the roots, 
 which is done at the winter solstice, and in the 
 following spring they shoot out vigorously. But 
 
THE TEA PLANT. 81 
 
 when the soil is sterile, the old roots are dug up 
 to be planted elsewhere. They easily take root 
 again. It is in this manner that the shrubs are 
 preserved and reproduced, and never by branches 
 that are slipped off. They may also be propagated 
 by seed ; but Avith less success, and much slower. 
 The cultivators of tea take no pains to prevent the 
 growth of the shrubs, for the larger they are the 
 more profitable ; but as, in the second or third 
 year after they have been planted or cut down, 
 the leaves are gathered once, and afterwards three 
 times a year, their growth is thereby checked. 
 Yet in plaiiis^ and on the mountains wliere the ground 
 is good, they grow to the height of more than 
 thirteen feet. 
 
 " With respect to the culture, it consists in this. 
 Every year in February and August the ground is 
 weeded, raking up even the grass. When the 
 ground is hilly, and appears exhausted and sterile, 
 after having weeded it in February, it is usual to 
 go and dig soil from a neighbouring mountain, and 
 bring it and place it around the roots of the shrubs. 
 If this new soil be previously exposed to the sun, 
 or even burnt, it improves it. Xo other manure or 
 watering is required, for the plantations are neither 
 so low, nor so flat, but they are easily irrigated. It 
 is on this account that no tea shrubs are found on dry 
 and arid places. We have seen the crops fail more 
 than once, because no rain had fallen between the 
 winter solstice and spring." The writer here means 
 
 G 
 
82 MODES ADOPTED FOR CULTIVATING 
 
 in the eastern part of the province, and near the 
 sea. 
 
 It is obvious from the preceding accounts that, 
 under ordinary circumstances, very little attention 
 is paid to the cultivation of tea in the province of 
 Fokien. In fact the original cost paid to the cul- 
 tivator for Congou or Souchong tea intended for 
 foreign consumption, would not admit of expensive 
 cultivation or costly manipulation. Thus all ac- 
 counts agree, that the Chinese do not employ any 
 of the ordinary means of selecting and propagating 
 accidental and superior varieties by cuttings, layers, 
 or grafts, though all these methods are understood 
 and practised by them in their garden cultivation. 
 It is not from ignorance, therefore, that none of 
 these methods are adopted. The speediest and 
 most successful practice, agreeably to the Eev. 
 Father Carpina, adopted by the farmers and cul- 
 tivators in his part>^ of the province, is by cutting 
 down to the roots the wild shrubs growing on the 
 hills and mountains, and transplanting them else- 
 where. This doubtless must be a quicker and 
 preferable mode to rearing from seed or any 
 other method where the wild shrubs are suffi- 
 ciently numerous, and where a quality suitable to 
 general consumption is merely sought. Hence we 
 may conclude that there are many parts of the pro- 
 vince of Fokien, where the tea tree has in all ages 
 been found growing spontaneously and abundantly 
 among the hills, but in situations remote or under 
 
THE TEA PLANT. 83 
 
 disadvantageous circumstances ; ^v^hence they have 
 been transplanted to other soils and sites which ex- 
 perience has shown to be more congenial or more 
 convenient, and which are now in the vicinity of 
 towns and hamlets in part, if not entirely, owing 
 their rise and present support to the cultivation of 
 that shrub. 
 
 In districts suitable to its growth it obviously 
 must be the endeavour of everv farmer to have his 
 little plantation of tea. Thus Von Siebold informs 
 us, that at Japan the husbandman grows his tea 
 for domestic use in hedges and detached parts 
 of his farm, which are less favourable for tillage. 
 He adds, it is principally from these plantations, 
 which appear to the traveller like scattered hedges 
 and bushes, that tea is rendered available to the 
 lower classes.* The farms which Mr. Fortune saw 
 in Fokien, " were all small, each consisting of from 
 one to four or five acres."f 
 
 Mr. Gordon saw at Amoy a little nursery at- 
 tached to each tea plantation, where plants were 
 " growing to the height of four or five inches, as 
 closely set as they could stand." It may also be 
 remarked, that the Chinese adopt the same practice 
 to bring forward their second crop of rice. Thus, 
 in harvest time, the young seedlings being ready 
 to transplant, reaping, threshing, irrigating, plough- 
 ing, and transplanting, may be seen all going on at 
 
 * Nippon, part 6. t Wanderings in China, p. 201. 
 
 G 2 
 
84 MODES ADOPTED TOR CULTIVATING 
 
 the same time, and at no great distance, in the 
 same rice field. 
 
 In the " Inner Range " of the Bohea Mountains 
 regular and well kept plantations prevail ; also on 
 plains and parts of hills sufficiently level to be 
 formed into beds ; but, for reasons already assigned, 
 the Chinese cannot afford the expense of forming 
 their hills into terraces for this purpose. Mr. 
 Gordon states, that the ground was not terraced 
 at Amoy, but formed into beds which were partly 
 levelled. The plantations were perfectly well 
 dressed as in garden cultivation, and each was sur- 
 rounded with a low stone fence and a trench. 
 
 The cultivation of green tea differs essentially 
 from that of the black, inasmuch as the finest de- 
 scription, denominated Hyson, is cultivated on plains 
 in a fertile soil, and manured. The price paid by 
 foreigners for this quality of tea affords sufficient 
 encouragement to the grower to induce him to ap- 
 propriate a more fruitful soil to its cultivation. 
 Why the cultivation of Souchong tea is not more 
 extended, I have never been able satisfactorily to 
 understand, except, as stated by the Chinese, that 
 the soil favourable to its growth is confined to a 
 locality of limited extent, whereas Hyson tea may 
 be produced in any quantity. Higher prices have 
 been paid by the East India Company for the finest 
 description of Souchong or Paochong tea, than 
 were ever given for green tea, and every pains 
 taken to encourage its growth. In a free trade these 
 
THE TEA PLANT. 85 
 
 high-flavoured teas are not likely to answer to the 
 importer, whose object is necessarily gain. They 
 will probably gradually disappear from the market ; 
 but it was a matter of principle with the East 
 India Company to sustain the character and quality 
 of their teas, and to consult the discriminating 
 taste of the rich, as well as to satisfy the demands 
 of the poor, without a strict regard to profit ; so 
 that they imported some teas, as they exported 
 woollens and other British products, at a loss. 
 Their aggregate profits enabled them to conduct 
 their trade on generous principles. 
 
 The usual mode of culture of the finest descrip- 
 tion of green tea, known to Europeans by the name 
 of Hyson, originally consisted in taking the shrubs 
 from particular hills favourable to their growth, 
 and transplanting them into fields, gardens, and 
 hedge-rows, a light garden loam being considered 
 the best. Seed is also employed to keep up the 
 plantation, and to renew decayed or exhausted 
 shrubs, when in three years the leaves are fit for 
 use. The shrubs are manured twice a year, in 
 spring and autumn ; the ground weeded and turned 
 up about the roots four times a year. In about 
 seven years they are cut down, nearly close to the 
 ground, to produce an exuberance of succulent 
 shoots and leaves ; and in about thirty years they 
 become useless, when they are rooted up. The in- 
 ferior Hyson teas, denominated by the Chinese 
 " hill tea," and the common Singlo or Twankay 
 
 G 3 
 
86 CULTIVATION OF THE TEA PLANT 
 
 shrubs receive no attention beyond that of weeding 
 twice a year, when the grass and weeds thus raked 
 up are placed about the roots where they are left 
 to rot.* 
 
 I shall here add a few notes on this subject. 
 It will be seen by Yon Siebold's account of the 
 cultivation of tea at Japan, that the mode of culture 
 adopted there accords more with that of green 
 tea in China, than black. Indeed, so far as my 
 information extends, the tea used in Japan, with 
 the exception of the bud of the leaf, is a green tea 
 of the class of Twankay. But we shall recur to 
 this subject in treating of the manipulation of 
 tea. 
 
 * Tien Hing states that the planters frequently purchase 
 seedlings, which are transplanted and are fit for gathering in two 
 years. The price is 100 cash, or about eight pence for a 
 bundle containing a hundred ; half the amount is paid at the 
 time of planting, and the remainder in three months for those 
 that live. He adds they are planted in rows about two 
 cubits (twenty-nine inches) apart, between which they grow 
 vegetables : but this space seems hardly sufficient. The usual 
 space appears to be about four feet. The plants are manured 
 once in the eighth moon (September), a cavity being made about 
 the roots, into which the manure in a liquid state is poured. 
 
AT JAPAN AND JAVA. 87 
 
 NOTES. 
 
 Tea is easily obtained from seed, which should be used as 
 soon as ripe, or in a short time after it has been collected ; for it 
 soon loses its power of germination. The shrubs produce such 
 an abundance of flowers and seeds, that many of the seeds fall 
 and germinate under the old shrubs, which serve to renew the 
 plantations. Rapport de M. Guillemin, D. M. ^-c. La Revue 
 Agricole. Fevrier, 1840, pp. 268, 269. 
 
 Von Siebold states, that the best mode of propagation of the 
 tea plant is by seed, at distances of four feet apart. At Japan 
 the shrubs flower from November to February, and the sowing 
 takes place in the following autumn, when the seed is ripe, and 
 the plants spring up in May or June. After the first year 
 the plants are topped, hoed, and manured. The manure is 
 used both in a liquid and dry state. It consists of a mixture of 
 mustard seed and dried sardels (a kind of herring), oilcakes of 
 the Brassica Orientalis and other coleworts, together with human 
 dung and urine. These manures are found by experience to 
 be suitable to the heavy soils congenial to the tea plant, and to 
 exercise a decided influence on the improvement of the shrub. — 
 Nippon, part 6. 
 
 Mr. Jacobson of Java states, that, as a general rule, the cul- 
 tivation of tea is conducted on the same principle as that of 
 cofiee. He justly observes, however, that as leaves are the 
 product of the harvest, and not fruit or flowers, whatever mode 
 of cultivation is suitable to that is the one to be adopted. In 
 plains it must be treated as rice, and irrigated, a greater 
 slope being allowed for drainage ; and yet not so much as to 
 wash away the earth and occasion a loss of soil. 
 
 The best mode of cultivation at Java, is from seed sown 
 in the ground where the plants are intended to grow, and not 
 from seedlings taken from nurseries ; because this latter mode 
 
 G 4 
 
88 CULTIVATION OF THE TEA PLANT 
 
 causes an unnecessary employment of labour. Seeds sown in 
 their capsules are better than without ; but either mode will do. 
 Each bush may produce about 250 capsules, containing on an 
 average 476 seeds ; 103 may contain only one seed eacli ; 80 
 may contain two seeds; 55 may contain three seeds; and 12 
 4 seeds. Each bush is formed either of 5 seedlings ; 10 
 fresh or dried seeds ; or of 8 or 9 capsules containing 14 to 
 17 seeds. 
 
 The bushes are placed 4 feet square apart, and extend to about 
 3 feet diameter ; so that an opening of only 1 foot remains 
 between each bush in the several rows. The cavities made 
 for the reception of the seedlings are about 1^ foot in depth, 
 and 1 foot diameter ; those for seed are 4 or 5 inches deep. 
 Clay earth taken out of the bed of rivers, put 4 or 5 inches deep 
 and covered one inch with soil, keeps white ants away : in such 
 cases the spaef^ required will be 7 inches in diameter, and 4 
 inches deep. Seeds steeped in katjang oil are also a preserva- 
 tive against white ants. 
 
 In cases where the bushes do not flourish, and where they 
 decay, seed may be sown near the roots of such shrubs ; and 
 when the seedlings become productive, the old bushes may be 
 cut down or rooted up altogether. 
 
 The bushes should not be allowed to grov/ higher than 3 
 feet, for the convenience of gathering the leaves. If higher, 
 men of ordinary stature and boys would not be able to gather 
 them. When the seedlings have attained a foot in height 
 and are strong, they must be stopped, or topped ; that is, the 
 crown or head of the young seedling must be nipped off with the 
 thumb-nail. This it may be necessary to repeat three or four 
 times during the first year, according to the rapidity of the growth 
 of the plant. In the first stopping or topping the plant must 
 not be reduced lower than f of a foot ; in the second, not lower 
 than 1^ foot ; and thus till 3 feet be attained. The term topping 
 is also applied to the branches as well as the stem. Here the 
 stopping of the lateral shoots should take place on the brown 
 part of the wood, about half an inch or an inch beloAV the green 
 part of the shoot. In this manner the young bushes are made 
 to extend their lateral growth to three feet in diameter, with an 
 exuberance of young delicate leaves. 
 
AT JAPAN AND JAVA. 89 
 
 In cases where tlie brown part of the shoot cannot be pinched 
 off, a knife or a pair of scissars may be used. 
 
 At Java the seed is sown in the month of November 
 when the ground has become somewhat compact after rain. 
 In plantations where the shrubs are regularly stopped, headed 
 back, and cut round, — in short where the leaves are cultivated to 
 the prejudice of the fruit, — little or no seed is produced. 
 It therefore becomes necessary to set apart a portion of the 
 plantation for this object. In such cases the bushes are placed 
 five or six feet apart and left to their natural growth, and the 
 leaves not gathered. After the third year, the plants should be 
 manured, and the manuring repeated every second year. 
 
 Should the bushes thus appropriated to the cultivation 
 of seed exhibit symptoms of exhaustion, which they sometimes 
 do after the third year, then they must be cut down to about 
 a foot and a half from the ground. In about five or six 
 weeks the shrubs shoot out leaves which may be gathered for 
 the harvest. On the other hand, an equal number of bushes 
 cultivated for leaf, must now be left to their natural growth, 
 and the leaves not gathered. In about twelve or fifteen months 
 they will produce seed. In this way the seed garden may be 
 changed when desirable. 
 
 Besides the topping or stopping of the young seedlings, the 
 productive bushes require regular 'priming. By pruning is 
 here meant cutting and heading back, and freeing the shrubs 
 from dirt, dust and larvae of insects^ and dead leaves. It is only 
 the work of two minutes for each bush. 
 
 The mode of doing it is, by taking as many branches as 
 the left hand can compass, even a hundred, then with the 
 knife to cut upwards, and reduce the bush to the height of the 
 knee, or two feet from the ground. Branches which run along 
 the ground, must be removed ; knotty distorted branches growing 
 within the shrubs must be cut out to within one foot from the 
 ground. Lateral branches should be cut within two feet from 
 their point of junction with the parent stem ; and all short 
 branches reduced until only one or two eyes or buds be left on 
 each. 
 
 After some years the bushes form thick and strong branches 
 low down, and the shrubs consequently decline. In such cases 
 
90 CULTIVATION AT JAPAN AND JAVA. 
 
 the ground must be ploughed up between the bushes, and the 
 prunings buried and used as manure. Should the plant not 
 recover, then an extra pruning must take place, by cutting the 
 bushes down to within a foot and a half of the ground. They 
 will then look like single stems. 
 
 In China it is said that by regular yearly cleaning, thinning 
 out, cutting round, and extra pruning, the shrubs maybe preserved 
 for sixty years. (Abstracted from the Handboek v. d. Kult. en 
 Fabrik. v. Thee.) 
 
91 
 
 CHAP. V. 
 
 TIME OF GATHERING THREE GATHERINGS — DIFFERENCE OP 
 
 QUALITY OF THE GATHERINGS — ONLY YOUNG SUCCULENT 
 LEAVES FIT FOR TEA MODE AT JAVA. 
 
 The Pun Csao Kiang Moo states, that for the 
 proper time of gathering flowers, fruits, leaves, and 
 the stalks of plants (for medicinal purposes), this 
 general rule may be observed, that they be gathered 
 in their perfect maturity. 
 
 We also say that the best time for gathering 
 simples is when the plant is at its highest state of 
 perfection ; and this we deem to be, as a general 
 rule, just at or after its efflorescence. 
 
 Now the tea shrub begins to flower in the south 
 generally about October, and seems to continue 
 flowering through the winter, for I have seen some 
 shrubs in flower so late as the beginning of March * ; 
 and the first gathering of the leaves for Pekoe tea 
 commences fifteen days after the vornal equinox. 
 
 The time of gathering the tea leaves, however, 
 
 * Cunningham states that the tea shrubs flower at Chusan from 
 October to January, and that the seed is ripe in September or 
 October. Tih^ Hing, a respectable green tea factor, states that 
 they flower from September to November ; another green tea 
 factor, so late as February. Koempfer observes that at Japan 
 the shrubs flower from August until late in th^ winter. Von 
 Siebold states from November to February. 
 
92 TIME OF GAIHERING. 
 
 seems not to be governed by any rule of this nature. 
 The gathering takes place during the season of 
 spring, when the rains fall copiously, and the shrubs 
 shoot forth their leaves vigorously and abundantly. 
 This period of gathering lasts at intervals of ten 
 or more days, from about fifteen days after the 
 vernal equinox to about the same number of days 
 after the summer solstice. There is also an au- 
 tumnal gathering ; but such teas are weak and not 
 esteemed of good quality. Most of the Chinese 
 accounts agree, that the gathering of the leaves 
 commences with the Pekoe tea, and lasts from the 
 5th to the 20th April. This tea consists of the 
 convoluted leaf-bud. The first gathering of the 
 expanded leaf commences between the 20th April 
 and the beginning of May ; the second, about the 
 6th June; the third, after the 21st June, or, in 
 other words, in the beginning of May, June, and 
 July respectively ; and the autumnal gathering in 
 August and September. The coarse leaves, which 
 form the common Bohea, are collected in September 
 and October. 
 
 The Chinese manuscript already quoted states, 
 " In the mild and temperate season of spring the 
 shrubs shoot forth their leaves, when such as are 
 young and delicate must be chosen. Those that 
 are partly unfolded, long like a needle and covered 
 with down, must be gathered to be made into 
 Pekoe. 
 
 " A few days after Ko Yu (20th April), the leaves 
 
THREE GATHERINGS. 93 
 
 become large, and are called the first gathering 
 {Teu Chun). These are thick and substantial, 
 fragrant in smell, and sweet in flavour. 
 
 " When the leaves of the first gathering are 
 exhausted, wait till they shoot out anew, about 
 Chung (6th June), when they must be gathered and 
 made. These are called the second gathering 
 ( Ul Chun), the flavour of which has no fragrance, 
 and the colour of the leaf is of a dingy black. 
 
 " The leaves shoot out again at the summer 
 solstice (Hia Chy) ; these are called the third 
 gathering {San Chun), and are of a light green 
 colour and coarse in smell." 
 
 The Yii Ye Shan Chy* (the statistical work of the 
 black tea country already alluded to) states that 
 
 " The first gathering is fragrant in smell and 
 full flavoured. 
 
 " The second has no smell and is weak in 
 flavour. 
 
 " The third has a little smell, but is also weak 
 in flavour." 
 
 A Chinese manuscript gives the following ac- 
 count of the qualities of the difi'erent gatherings of 
 the Congou tea which forms the bulk of the black 
 
 * This work also observes, that the leaves gathered between 
 Tsing JNIing and Ko Yu are called Teu Chun ; after Ly Hia, 
 Ul Chun ; and after Hia Chy, San Chun. Teu Chun, Ul Chun, 
 and San Chun, signify first, second, and third gatherings. Tsing 
 Ming, Ly Hia, and Hia Chy are periods of the year, viz : the 
 5th of April, the 5th of May, and the 21st of June. 
 
94 DIFFERENCE OF QUALITY OF 
 
 tea imported into England : — ^' The first gathering 
 may be divided into superior, middling, and low ; 
 the superior kind resembles the Souchong tea in 
 flavour and colour. The second gathering also 
 produces Pekoe and Souchong; the flavour has 
 a fire smell, and the leaf is coarse and dull. The 
 third gathering also produces Pekoe and Souchong, 
 though not much ; neither is it good : the flavour 
 is poor, and the infusion of a light green colour. 
 The autumnal or fourth gathering, Aug. and Sept. 
 (Csieu Loo) — The flavour is poor, and the infusion 
 of a pale yellow colour ; the colour of the leaves 
 is also plain and ordinary. In the eighth and ninth 
 moons (Sept. and Oct.), the shrubs are cut, whole 
 branches at a time ; the leaves are coarse and stiff, 
 and the flavour exceedingly common and bad." 
 This tea was formerly packed in baskets and sent 
 to Canton to be made into Bohea. It is now 
 packed in the country and sent down in chests. 
 
 Thus it appears, that in all the successive gather- 
 ings it is the young and succulent leaves only that 
 are chosen. If the leaves be permitted to attain 
 their full growth, they become harsh, fibrous, and 
 brittle, and cannot be made to assume the twisted 
 form in their manipulation, but remain flat, coarse, 
 or open and yellow, and are imfit for tea. The 
 coarseness of the leaves of this description found 
 in tea is chiefly owing to this circumstance. The 
 large succulent leaves of a reddish purple colour 
 are the best. The red or purple colour, however, 
 
THE GATHERINGS. 95 
 
 of the manipulated leaves does not arise from their 
 being so in the fresh or natural state, but is oc- 
 casioned by a particular mode of manipulation 
 previously to roasting. 
 
 Now it is obvious, that one great cause of dif- 
 ference in the quality of tea depends upon the time 
 of the year in which the leaves are gathered. 
 Thus the Chinese universally agree that the young 
 luxuriant leaves put forth and gathered in early 
 spring are the best, while the other gatherings 
 deteriorate in quality as they approach the autumn, 
 which are the worst. 
 
 In fact, on the return of spring, after a long dry 
 and cold winter, all vegetation acquires a high de- 
 gree of energy and excitability, Avhich is exhibited 
 in the power of producing a more vigorous foliage 
 than at any subsequent period of the year. The 
 sap is also in a more concentrated or inspissated 
 state from its accumulation during winter, than 
 subsequently, after its first and most vigorous 
 flow in early spring. 
 
 Thus it is not surprising that the Chinese should 
 find that the young succulent leaves of spring, 
 which, at this season in particular, have all the 
 important functions to perform which are neces- 
 sary to the elaboration of flowers fruits and wood, 
 as well as foliage, should furnish the heaviest and 
 the highest-flavoured tea, besides possessing all 
 those qualities on which excellence depends ; or 
 that, in subsequent periods, when the sap is in 
 
96 DIFFERENCE OF QUALITY OF 
 
 a more fluid and diluted state, the tea of this 
 season should be found weak and flavourless, and 
 the prepared leaves, like dead leaves, pale and 
 yellow. Thus we find it stated by Mr. Jacobson of 
 Java, that the leaves of the successive gatherings 
 diminish in quantity and size as well as weight : 
 " that the leaves of the third gathering are less 
 abundant than those of the second ; but not in the 
 same degree as those of the second are less than 
 those of the first."* 
 
 Again, as the excellence of all vegetable produc- 
 tions is so intimately connected with the state of 
 the weather, it will naturally suggest itself, that 
 the leaves of the tea shrub must also be greatly 
 influenced by it ; and consequently we find, that 
 the sun, so essentially requisite to the evolution 
 of the odorous principle of fruits and flowers, is 
 also deemed by the Chinese as indispensably ne- 
 cessary to the production of that fragrance and 
 quality which constitute the excellence of the finest 
 black teas. The Chinese say that the Yen or Padre 
 Souchong tea must be gathered not only in clear 
 and bright weather, but that those teas only are of 
 the first quality wliich are gathered during a conti- 
 nuation of fine weather, and even after noon, during 
 the greatest heat of the day. On the other hand, 
 a Chinese manuscript states, that " those which are 
 gathered in rainy weather are poor and tasteless, 
 
 * Ilandbock v. d. Kult. en Fabrik'. v. Tlicc, § 300. 
 
t 
 
 THE GATHERINGS. 97 
 
 and unfit for Pao Cliong or Padre Souchong ; though 
 they will, nevertheless, do for Siao Poey and Ta 
 Poey, or fine Souchong." And it may here be 
 observed, that the Chinese universally agree, that 
 such teas as are made under any unfavourable 
 circumstances of soil, quality of the leaves, or state 
 of the weather, cannot, by any manipulation, be 
 rendered of superior quality. The leaves, therefore, 
 which are gathered in unfavourable weather are 
 made with less care ; and such as are gathered after 
 or durino; much rain under o;o some difiference in 
 the mode of manipulation. 
 
 A further difference is also occasioned by the 
 selection of particular shrubs, and of the best or 
 most succulent leaves at the time of gathering. 
 It is said to be a common practice among those 
 merchants who are in the habit of frequenting the 
 habitations of the Priests or Bonzes, to contract for 
 the produce of certain known shrubs. These are 
 labelled according to their supposed resemblance in 
 flavour to particular flowers*; and at the season of 
 Tsing Ming in the early part of the year, they repair 
 to these plantations, where they prepare the tea 
 
 * I was informed by Puankhequa, an intelligent and highly 
 respectable Hong merchant, that sometimes teas are marked 
 scented (hoa-hicmg), not because they are really scented, but on 
 account of their supposed resemblance to the odour of certain 
 flowers. It is moreover stated in the Canton Chy (a statistical 
 work on Canton) that some teas resemble the odour of the 
 Yu-lan, Mo-ly, and Chu-lan flowers. Some teas are, however, 
 artificially scented with these flowers, which will be found ex- 
 plained under the article on " Scenting." 
 
 H 
 
98 SUCCULENT LEAVES ONLY FIT FOR TEA. 
 
 themselves. In these cases each leaf is said to be 
 plucked separately from the shrubs ; and the leaves 
 of such shrubs as are known to resemble each other 
 in flavour are mixed together and kept apart 
 throughout the whole manipulation. They are 
 also packed in small paper parcels, each weighing 
 about eight or twelve ounces, sometimes bearing 
 on them, in large flowing Chinese characters, the 
 name of the flower they are supposed to resemble 
 in odour ; and sometimes the name of the hill of 
 their growth in small neatly written characters. 
 These symbols can hardly have escaped the observa- 
 tion of the dealer and consumer. This care, how- 
 ever, is only bestowed on the finest description of 
 Paochong tea, which is collected in very small 
 quantities. It is evident, from the quantity of 
 stalks found in even the finest teas which formed a 
 part of the East India Company's Investment, or 
 even in most Paochong teas, that no such mode 
 had been adopted in their gathering. Nor is any 
 particular attention paid to the state of the weather, 
 so far as teas for the European markets are con- 
 cerned. It is generally admitted by the Chinese 
 that much Congou tea is hastily and rudely gathered, 
 some even by whole branches at a time, in all 
 weathers, and at any time of the day. It is obvious 
 that tlic Chinese must use their leaves, however 
 unfavourable the state of the weather may be ; and 
 thus a further difl'erence of quality is created, depend- 
 ent on season, as in all other vegetable productions. 
 
NOTES TO CHAP. V. 99 
 
 NOTES. 
 
 With respect to the mode of gathering the leaves for tea, it 
 is difficult to reconcile all the Chinese say on this subject with 
 what comes under our immediate observation. The finest black 
 teas are said to have their leaves plucked separately ; and yet 
 we find, in proportion as the tea is of superior quality, so is it 
 more mixed with tender and delicate stalks. In fact, the lux- 
 uriance and delicacy of the shrubs, or the contrary, may be 
 known and distinguished by the quality of the stalks found in 
 the manipulated tea to which they belong. The same may be 
 predicated by the infused leaf. In proportion as the tea is of 
 fine quality, and, consequently, the product of delicate shrubs, 
 the leaves, if masticated between the front teeth, aided by the 
 tongue, will be found soft and pulpy ; or harsh and fibrous, if 
 the product be of coarse shrubs. Thus in proportion as the 
 young shoots are tender and delicate, so is the risk increased 
 of tearing away part of the shoot in the act of plucking the 
 leaf. This might seem to account for the stalks found in Pao- 
 chong tea ; but the true reason I believe is, that the young 
 tender shoots bearing two or more leaves are nipped off" with 
 the forefinger and thumb, as described by Mr. Bruce at Assam, 
 and Mr. Jacobson at Java. This latter gentleman is of opinion 
 that the stalks of black tea should not be plucked ofi"; that they 
 favour the process of withering, and do not impede the rolling, 
 because they are succulent and pliant as the leaves. Mr. Jacob- 
 son also states, that the motion of the two hands, for both are 
 employed, is like the oscillation of a pendulum, and that a 
 hundred motions are made in a minute. I have seen the Honan 
 leaves gathered separately ; and all the leaves brought to me 
 in the course of experiments, which will hereafter be detailed, 
 were without their stalks. 
 
 I believe, however, the mode of gathering the leaves varies 
 according to the succulency of the shrubs, and the practice of 
 
 H 2 
 
100 NOTES TO CHAP. V. 
 
 different localities. In situations where the shrubs produce 
 long succulent green shoots with many leaves, the leaves are 
 pinched off in pairs with part of the shoot, and classed at the 
 time of gathering ; or the whole shoot may be gathered at once, 
 and the leaves plucked off, and classed afterwards by females 
 when received at the roasting sheds. Many Chinese drawings 
 and statements sanction this latter mode. The Hyson leaves 
 are said to be so gathered, and the stalks and shoots are sepa- 
 rated carefully, because the stalks would injure the tea in the 
 progress of manipulation ; but with black teas, the stalks and 
 shoots seem to be separated with less care, because attended 
 with no apparent detriment to quality. 
 
 In localities where the sln-ubs are of less luxuriant growth, 
 and, consequently, produce shorter and less succulent shoots, 
 and fewer leaves, the leaves may be plucked off separately ; 
 because it can be done with much less chance of tearing away 
 any part of the shoot, or of injuring the bud left for the for- 
 mation of new shoots, which will be found at the foot of the 
 leaf-stalk, or petiole. The quantity of rough, ragged stalks, 
 however, sifted from Twankay tea, which is a green tea, shows 
 that the leaves of this tea can hardly be gathered separately ; 
 and, moreover, from their hard, ligneous character, that the 
 leaves of this tea are the product of inferior shrubs, and that 
 even a knife may partly have been used in the gathering. In- 
 deed, it is said that the leaves of many of these teas are col- 
 lected whole branches at a time, and that the leaves are rudely 
 stripped off with the hands. The same is also said of some Congou 
 teas. But lam indisposed to give credence to these statements, 
 except in the case of very inferior teas, such as small farmers 
 and peasants use for their own consumption, or sell to others 
 of the same class, or are used for adulteration. The teas which 
 Mr. Fortune saw made in the provinces of Fokien and Chekiang 
 appear to have been so gathered. " They striji the leaves off 
 rapidly and promiscuously, and throw them into round baskets, 
 &c." ( Wanderings in China, p. 203.) 
 
 Mr. Jacobson observes, that when young shoots appear very 
 green and succulent, and deficient in brown wood, the gather- 
 ing had better be deferred for a few days. 
 
 § 290. When the leaves are fit for gathering, the third and 
 
NOTES TO CIIAr. V. 101 
 
 fourth leaves, if plucked upwards, will break a little above the 
 leaf-stalk or petiole, consequcntlj, above the bud ; thus the 
 leaf-stalk, with its fragmeiital leaf, is left to foster the bud, and 
 to act as a conduit of moisture during rain. "When the leaves 
 are harsh and fibrous, and, consequently, too old to be gathered, 
 then they generally break in the middle, leaving behind one 
 half of the leaf. This is a test that may be relied upon ; and 
 the gathering must be regulated accordingly. 
 
 § 291. The planter will soon know by his eye when the time 
 of gathering is arrived : still it is better to observe the above 
 rule. The plant first shoots forth and develops two leaves ; it 
 shoots again, and two more unfold ; and again in the same 
 manner, till nine or more leaves are produced on one shoot. 
 At this period, the lower part of the shoot becomes brown and 
 woody ; later, three or four buds send forth branches on either 
 side, and the whole together assumes a fan-like shape. Before 
 this state of growth arrives, the leaves should be gathered. 
 The plucking of the leaves from the shoots requires a certain 
 skill : yet women and children may do it. 
 
 § 296. The gathering is divided into three classes of leaves, 
 and each class is gathered by different men. First, the top-leaf, 
 consisting of the convoluted leaf-bud with its expanding or 
 expanded leaf ; then the fine-leaf tea, consisting of the second 
 and third leaves ; and, finally, the fourth and fifth leaves, which 
 form the middle-leaf tea. The coarse-leaf tea is the refuse of 
 these two classes after manipulation. It is the dut}^, also, of 
 the gatherers of the middle-leaf tea, as they are the last ga- 
 therers, to search for and gather any other delicate leaves which 
 may have been overlooked by the previous gatherers. The 
 mode of gathering is by turning the thumb downwards, and 
 nipping off the young green succulent shoot with the nail and 
 forefinger, first below the top-leaf, with its expanded or ex- 
 panding leaf Then below the second and third, and the fourth 
 and fifth leaves. If the sixth and seventh leaves are fit for tea, 
 they may be gathered also. 
 
 §§ 300. and 301. When the last leaves on the shoot are ga- 
 thered, they must not be nipped ofi', but plucked upwards, and 
 in such a manner as not to injure the buds; otherwise such 
 shoots or branches would be left without the power of repro- 
 
 H 3 
 
102 NOTES TO CHAP. V. 
 
 duction. It is desirable that two, but not more buds, should be 
 left on each shoot ; and the separation should be made about a 
 quarter of an inch from the nearest eye or bud intended to be 
 preserved for the reproduction of young shoots. The stalks of 
 the leaves of black tea must not be detached from the leaves, 
 because, in the process of withering, they improve the flavour 
 of the tea, and do not impede the rolling of the leaves, because 
 they are tender, pliant, and succulent. 
 
 § 302. The green tea leaves are gathered without their stalks, 
 because the withering of these leaves would be injurious. The 
 stalks are, consequently, not nipped off, but the leaves plucked 
 upwards. 
 
 §§ 305.— 308. The gatherers carry a small basket in front 
 of them, fastened round the body ; thus they are enabled to 
 gather the leaves with both hands, and to throw them quickly 
 into the basket- They must not be kept long in the hand, nor 
 in large parcels, lest they should heat and turn sour. Besides 
 the small basket strapped to the body, there are four large 
 baskets each carrying about three pounds of leaves, required for 
 each section of a garden ; so that two may remain while two are 
 sent off to the roasting- sheds : one is required for " fine-leaf," 
 and one for " middle-leaf." The Pekoe and Gunpowder leaves 
 are kept in " scoop-baskets,^^ their quantity being small. The 
 baskets containing the leaves of black tea may be left open and 
 exposed to the sun to hasten the withering ; but the leaves of 
 green tea must not be exposed to the sun, nor should they be 
 kept long in the garden ; nor must the black tea be allowed to 
 wither rapidly, lest they also heat and turn sour. 
 
 § 314. After the fourth gathering, the shrubs will once more 
 exhibit an abundant display of foliage ; but these leaves must 
 be left to restore the exhausted energy of the plant. (Abstracted 
 from the Handbook v. d. Kultuur en Fabrikatie van thee d. J. J. 
 L. L. Jacobson. Batavia, 1843.) 
 
103 
 
 CHAP. YI. 
 
 MANIPULATION PREVIOUSLY TO ROASTING MODE DESCRIBED 
 
 BY A CHINESE EXPOSURE OR NON-EXPOSURE TO SUN 
 
 EXPEDIENTS ADOPTED IN RAINY WEATHER DESCRIPTION 
 
 OF THE SEVERAL PROCESSES — FRAGRANCE, NONE IN FRESH 
 LEAVES DEVELOPED BY MANIPULATION — PERSONAL OBSER- 
 VATION OF THE SEVERAL PROCESSES REDNESS OF THE LEAF. 
 
 Loo Lan describes the method of preparing the 
 Yen or Pao Chong tea as follows. This account is 
 principally useful as containing most of the terms 
 of art employed by the Chinese in the manipulation 
 of tea. "After the leaves are gathered spread 
 them upon flat trays, and expose them to the air : 
 this is called Leang Ching. Toss them with both 
 hands, sift them, and carefully examine them with 
 a light to see if they be spotted with red, which is 
 necessary : this is called To Ching. Carefully put 
 them into small bamboo trays, and cover them up 
 quite close with a cloth, until they emit a fragrant 
 smell: this is called Oc Ching. Hand them to a 
 roaster (Chao Ching Fu), to roast them in a red 
 hot Kuo (an iron vessel). Throw about five ounces 
 (four tales) of leaves into the Kuo, then with a 
 bamboo brush sweep them out. Let them be well 
 rolled, and afterwards sent to the poey or drying- 
 house to be completely dried. This tea is called 
 Souchong and Paochong, and sells at from fifteen to 
 
 H 4 
 
104 MANIPULATION PREVIOUSLY TO ROASTING. 
 
 thirty shillings the pound (four and eight dollars 
 the catty) in the country where it is made." 
 
 Another Chinese, in the manuscript previously 
 quoted, thus describes the process of making the 
 Yen and Puon Shan Souchong: " Spread the leaves 
 about iive or six inches thick on bamboo trays 
 (Po Ky) in a proper place for the air to blow on 
 them. Hire a workman, or Ching Fu (to watch 
 them). Thus the leaves continue from noon until 
 six o'clock, when they begin to give out a fragrant 
 smell. They are then poured into large bamboo 
 trays (Po Lam), in which they are tossed with the 
 hands about three or four hundred times : this is 
 called To Ching. It is this operation which gives 
 the red edges and spots to the leaves. 
 
 "They are now carried to the Kuo and roasted ; 
 and afterwards poured on flat trays to be rolled. 
 
 '^The rolling is performed with both hands in a 
 circular direction about three or four hundred 
 times ; when the leaves are again carried to the 
 Kuo ; and thus roasted and rolled three times. If 
 the rolling be performed by a good workman, the 
 leaves will be close and well twisted ; if by an 
 inferior one, loose, open, straight, and ill-looking. 
 They are then conveyed to the Poey Long, the fire 
 fierce, and the leaves turned without intermission 
 until they are nearly eight-tenths dried. They are 
 afterwards spread on flat trays to dry until ^yq 
 o'clock, when the old, the yellow leaves, and the 
 stalks are picked out. At eight o'clock tliey are 
 
MODE DESCRIBED BY A CHINESE. 105 
 
 ' j)oeyed ' again over a slow fire. At noon tliey are 
 turned once, and then left in this state to dry until 
 three o'clock, when they are packed in chests. 
 They are now fit for sale." 
 
 By the preceding accounts it appears, that no 
 exposure of the leaves to the sun takes place pre- 
 viously to their being roasted. This opinion is 
 supported by many authorities, upon the ground 
 that the slightest fermentation would injure them. 
 Mr. Pigou, however, and many Chinese state, that 
 the leaves may be placed in the sun if not too ardent ; 
 or, if necessary, that is, if they require it. One 
 person says, "into each tray put ^ve tales of leaves 
 and place them in the sunshine." Another, in 
 speaking of the finest teas, observes, — ''If the 
 leaves require it, they must be placed in the sun to 
 dry. For this purpose they are thinly spread in 
 sieves, and whirled round. If then not sufiiciently 
 dry and flaccid, they must be exposed to the sun 
 again." (Chinese Manuscripts.) 
 
 The teas which I have seen made, and have made 
 myself after the manner of Souchong, have inva- 
 riably been exposed to the sun ; and some teas are 
 made altogether in the sun, though this is not es- 
 teemed a good method.* 
 
 * When I say that I have "seen made," I mean simply made to 
 explam the process to me. I wish the reader particularly to 
 understand that I have never seen tea made for sale, or which 
 was fit for sale. The tea districts are distant eight hundred or 
 more miles from Canton. 
 
106 
 
 EXPOSURE TO SUN. 
 
 It is also certain that the Congou teas are ex- 
 posed to the sun in the tea country, where large 
 stands are erected in the open air for this purpose. 
 Some are made horizontally, but more frequently 
 obliquely, and usually contain about three rows of 
 trays (Po Ky), each about two and a half feet dia- 
 meter. Mr. Bruce states that the inclination given 
 to these stands is such as to form an angle of 25°. 
 They are raised two feet from the ground, and 
 incline outwards, towards the sun, as here figured. 
 
 The apparent discrepancy, therefore, in these 
 accounts, like many other contradictions which 
 appear in the different relations concerning tea, 
 will be found to arise in most cases from a differ- 
 ence of manipulation dependent upon the state of 
 
EXPOSURE TO SUN. 107 
 
 the leaves, or on the kind or quality of tea required 
 to be made. 
 
 The Chinese seem to agree that the finest Sou- 
 chongs, the Yen or Padre Souchongs, or Pao- 
 chongs, when made under favourable circumstances, 
 would be injured by any exposure of the leaves to 
 the sun. But it must be remembered that these 
 teas are made from the finest shrubs, the young 
 leaves of which are described as being large, and of 
 great succulency, as well as extreme delicacy. 
 They are also gathered after a succession of bright 
 weather; and the best kinds during the greatest 
 heat of the day. That change, therefore, which is 
 necessary to be produced previously to the process 
 of Leang Ching, by exposing the leaves to the sun, 
 during which they " wither and give *," and be- 
 come soft and flaccid, may so far take place before 
 and after the gathering as to render a simple ex- 
 posure to the air sufficient. Indeed this exposure 
 to the shade and air may be necessary to check or 
 prevent fermentation, or some unfavourable change 
 which they might otherwise undergo. 
 
 On the other hand, leaves which are gathered from 
 shrubs of inferior delicacy, and are somewhat harsh 
 and fibrous in their texture, may be greatly im- 
 proved by exposure to the sun, especially if any 
 chemical change be sought. At any rate that state 
 of flaccidity which is desirable must be greatly ac- 
 
 * Pigou, Oriental Repertory, vol. ii. p. 288. 
 
108 EXPEDIENTS ADOPTED IN 
 
 celerated by such means ; and whether adopted 
 from motives of utility or economy, it may be 
 sufficient for all purposes of the present inquiry 
 to state the fact, as gathered from the testimony 
 of the Chinese, that the finest teas are not exposed 
 to the sun, but that many souchongs of excellent 
 quality commonly are, and the congous invariably. 
 
 Leaves gathered after rains more particularly 
 require exposure to the sun. I have seen the 
 Ho Nan leaves collected under such circumstances 
 so treated, and then kept twenty-four hours in 
 a cool place, and afterwards exposed to the sun 
 again Avith advantage. Indeed leaves which are 
 gathered during rains, or in cloudy weather after 
 much rain, must be dried before or over a fire pre- 
 viously to their being roasted. " To carry such 
 leaves thus turgid and full of juices to the Kuo," 
 said an excellent workman, ^' would be boiling them 
 instead of roasting them." 
 
 The houses and stoves erected for this last pur- 
 pose appear similar to those employed in the pro- 
 cess denominated poey, under which article a de- 
 scription of these houses will be found. 
 
 The manner of drying the leaves in this process 
 is differently described by different persons ; and I 
 imagine there may be many modes of performing 
 it. Some Chinese say that the stoves are built 
 in the centre, and the leaves placed on stands 
 erected on either side, as for the common Bohea ; 
 others, that the stands are placed over the fire, and 
 
RAINY WEATHER. 
 
 109 
 
 not apart from it, and some that stoves are not 
 used at all, but that the fire is wheeled about under 
 a kind of stand, or framework, fitted to the walls 
 of the building. Perhaps all these methods are used, 
 since this exposure to the fire is simply to produce 
 an evaporation of the exuberant juices acquired 
 during rain ; for in proportion as the leaves are 
 full of juices, so is the pain and difficulty, and even 
 expense, of manipulation increased. 
 
 The following plate exhibits a room fitted up for 
 this purpose, having a framework to receive the 
 sieves, with earthern chafing dishes or stoves, con- 
 taining charcoal placed underneath, taken from a 
 Chinese drawing : — 
 
 The manipulation now may be divided into — 
 1st, the process previously to roasting ; and 2ndly, 
 the process of roasting. The process previously to 
 
110 DESCRIPTION OF 
 
 roasting consists of Leang Ching, To Ching, and 
 Oc Ching. 
 
 The process of Leang Ching is literally that of 
 cooling the leaves, or keeping the leaves cool to 
 prevent or check fermentation. For this purpose 
 they are placed either in shady situations in the 
 open air, exposed to the wind, or in open buildings 
 which admit a draft through them. Easterly winds 
 are said to be unfavourable to this process. Tall 
 stands (Kia Czu), about six feet high, consisting of 
 many stages, are employed to receive the different 
 bamboo trays (Po Ky), in which the leaves are 
 placed in quantities agreeably to their qualities, and 
 the care intended to be bestowed on their manipu- 
 lation. The finest description of Yen or Padre 
 Souchong teas are thinly strewed over the trays ; 
 but inferior kinds of Yen and Puon Shan teas are 
 placed five or six inches thick. In this state they 
 are kept, until they begin to emit a slight degree 
 of fragrance, when they are sifted, to rid them of 
 any sand or dirt which may adhere to them, pre- 
 paratory to the operation of To Ching. 
 
 To Ching signifies the tossing about the leaves 
 with the hands.* The manner in which I have 
 
 * In composition the Chinese frequently acid another word 
 to the word To, which appears to be referable to some modifi- 
 cation of this part of the process. Some use To Pa, the tossing 
 and patting of the leaves ; others To Tuon, the tossing and collect- 
 ing them into a heap or parcel ; others To Nao, the tossing and 
 rubbing them: and again, To Lung, which means simply tossing, or 
 
THE SEVERAL PROCESSES. Ill 
 
 seen this process performed was thus : a man 
 collected together as many leaves as his hands 
 and arms could compass; these he turned over 
 and over, then raised them a considerable heio:ht, 
 and shook them on his hands : he then collected 
 them together again, tossed and turned them as 
 before. In the manuscript already quoted, it is 
 stated that this operation is continued about three 
 or four hundred times ; and that it is this part of 
 the process which produces the red edges and spots 
 on the dried leaves. 
 
 Another man whom I saw make tea, after having 
 completed the operation of To Ching, pressed the 
 leaves of each parcel together with a slight degree 
 of force into a heap or ball, which seems to agree 
 with what some Chinese call Tuon Ching. In both 
 cases they were kept until they emitted what the 
 workmen deemed the necessary degree of fragrance, 
 when they were roasted. With respect to the 
 quantity tossed at one time, the Chinese differ con- 
 siderably. Some say that the Siao Poey, Ta Poey, 
 with other Souchong teas, and Congou teas, are 
 made in large quantities. The leaves of six or seven 
 small trays are mixed, they say, together, and placed 
 
 literally tossing and tumbling about the leaves. Now the tossing, 
 patting, rubbing; collecting the leaves in a heap and covering 
 them up as in the process of Oc Ching, are doubtless different 
 methods used for the purpose of checking or hastening ferment- 
 ation, as the leaves may require. The finest descriptions of Yen 
 or Paochong tea are not handled at all, but are simply whirled 
 round in sieves. 
 
112 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF 
 
 in large trays (Po Lam), and two. three, four, 
 or more men, are employed to toss them. Some 
 say that six or seven pounds (five catties), and 
 others eleven or thirteen pounds (eight or ten 
 catties), are thus formed into one heap even for 
 fine Souchong. 
 
 The finest kinds of Yen or Pao Chong teas are 
 said to be placed in sieves in a long narrow close 
 room. Open shelves, made of bamboo, pass along 
 the walls, eighteen or twenty in height, upon which 
 sieves, or small trays, are placed. The leaves of 
 this tea being thinly strewed in the sieves, as al- 
 ready described in the process of Leang Ching, 
 
THE SEVERAL PROCESSES. 113 
 
 require no tossing, but are simply whirled round 
 and shaken to and fro, as in the act of sifting and 
 winnowing, which obviously would produce the 
 same effect. Thus the workman begins at one 
 end of the room, and proceeds in the manner 
 already described, until each sieve has passed 
 through his hands. He then returns to the first 
 sieve, and continues the process until the leaves 
 give out the requisite degree of fragrance.* 
 
 These teas, agreeably to the accounts of some 
 Chinese, then undergo another process previously 
 to their being roasted, denominated Oc Ching. 
 This consists in collecting the leaves of each sieve 
 into a heap, and covering them with a cloth. They 
 are then watched with the utinost care, and, as 
 this part of the process is continued during the 
 
 * Mr. Jacobson describes this process very accurately. It is 
 employed at Java for all descriptions of black tea, as well as 
 tossing the leaves with the hands. He states, the leaves are 
 strewed about two inches thick on circular trays, measuring 
 about 301 inches in diameter. An undulatory motion is given 
 to the tray from right to left, by a slight action of the arms 
 and hands. The leaves thus kept in constant motion, and whirled 
 round, turn as it were on a common axis, and rise in a cone- 
 like shape to the height of eight inches, occupying little more 
 than one half of the tray. He also observes, that one man may 
 work eighty trays containing 60 lbs. of leaves in this manner 
 in one hour. The leaves are first whirled from thirty to forty 
 times, then tossed from thirty-five to forty times, and so as long 
 as necessary ; but the last motion must be the whirling. TJiey 
 are then covered with a tray, and put aside for about an hour ; 
 but this must depend on the state of the leaves. {Handhoek 
 V. d. Kidtimr en Fabrikatie v,Thee, § 333.) 
 
 I 
 
114 FRAGRANCE, NONE IN FRESH LEAVES. 
 
 night, the workmen are described as constantly 
 proceeding round to the different sieves, with a 
 lamp in the hand, gently and carefully lifting up 
 so much of the cloth of each sieve as will permit 
 them to discern whether the leaves have become 
 spotted and tinged with red. So soon as they 
 begin to assume this appearance they also increase 
 in fragrance, and must be instantly roasted or the 
 tea would be injured.* 
 
 It may here be observed that the leaves of tea 
 have no kind of fragrance in their unmanipulated 
 state, but have a rank vegetable flavour both in 
 taste and smell. Nor is the frao;rance which is 
 evolved previously to roasting in any degree cor- 
 respondent with that, at least in my opinion, which 
 constitutes the flavour of tea after complete desic- 
 cation. 
 
 Thus the manipulation previously to roasting 
 
 * Lap Sing says, " It is only a common kind of tea that 
 undergoes the process of Oc Ching, and which is consumed 
 principally at Su-chao, in Kiang Nan." It is true, there is a 
 particular kind of common tea called Hong Cha, or Red Tea, 
 which I have seen, and which is said to be made by a longer 
 continuance of the process of Oc Ching, which is the tea he al- 
 ludes to. But many Chinese affirm that the Paochong tea is co- 
 vered with a cloth, as already described, and others with a tray. 
 Nor does Lap Sing's own account diiFer very materially ; for he 
 admits that, after the process of To Ching, the leaves are col- 
 lected together and suffered to remain in a heap, which he 
 denominates Tuon Ching, during which the leaves become 
 fragrant, and spotted with red. The difference seems only in 
 degree. 
 
DEVELOPED BY MANIPULATION. 115 
 
 seems to be for the purpose of evaporating as much 
 of the fluids as possible without injury to the 
 odorous principle, or aroma ; or rather, perhaps, 
 to induce a slight degree of incipient fermentation, 
 or analogous change, which partakes of the sac- 
 charine fermentation of hay, during which the 
 requisite degree of fragrance is evolved. But 
 whatever that change may be to which the fra- 
 grance of smell, and the red or brown appearance 
 of the leaves, which constitute the peculiarity of 
 black tea, may be due, it is on the management of 
 this change that the quality of the Yen, or Padre 
 Souchong teas, greatly dej^ends. To produce it 
 slowly, to know when to retard it, when to accele- 
 rate it, and in what degree, requires some expe- 
 rience ; and the Chinese universally consider the 
 management of the leaves of this fine tea previ- 
 ously to roasting, as the most important and diffi- 
 cult part of the whole manipulation. 
 
 We also find that the leaves of these teas, which 
 are of great delicacy and succulency, and gathered 
 during a succession of bright weather, are kept in 
 small parcels ; and the highest degree of fragrance 
 and incipient chemical change, of which they are 
 susceptible without injury, is induced, besides being 
 exposed to more than ' ordinary heat in the first 
 process of roasting, denominated Ta Ching ; they 
 consequently receive much care and attention 
 throughout every stage of the manipulation. 
 
 I 2 
 
116 PERSONAL OBSERVATION OF 
 
 On tlie other hand, teas which are made from in- 
 ferior shrubs, whose leaves are of a harsher and 
 more fibrous texture, and, consequently, less dis- 
 posed to chemical change or to heat, require less 
 care. Thus we find that Congou teas in particu- 
 lar, which form the bulk of those imported into 
 England, are gathered in all weathers, and exposed 
 to the sun or fire, as circumstances permit, to 
 hasten evaporation. They are also kept in large 
 parcels throughout the whole process of manipu- 
 lation, and less attention is paid to change of colour 
 and fragrance of smell. They nevertheless must 
 undergo the processes of To Ching and Leang 
 Ching, during which they "wither and give," and 
 partially become spotted and tinged with red ; for 
 this state of withering is no less necessary to Con- 
 gou than Souchong tea, and on the skilful manage- 
 ment of this process the excellence of quality of 
 all black tea depends. 
 
 Having now related what I have been enabled 
 to collect from the Chinese upon the subject of the 
 manipulation of the leaves previously to roasting, 
 it may also be satisfactory to point out what has 
 come under my own personal observation. I shall 
 therefore now describe the mode in which I have 
 seen this part of the process performed, on two 
 occasions, by men from the Bohea and Ankoy 
 countries. The leaves employed for this purpose 
 were collected from Honan, in the southern suburbs 
 of Canton, and Pack Yuen Shan, north of the city. 
 
THE SEVERAL PKOCESSES. 117 
 
 Nor did I perceive any material difference in the 
 mode of manipulation as performed by these men. 
 
 The newly gathered leaves were first spread 
 about an inch thick on small sieves, and suffered 
 to remain in the sun about twenty minutes. The 
 leaves of each sieve were then taken in succession, 
 and turned and tossed with the hands for a consi- 
 derable time, as already described in the process 
 of To Ching, when they were again spread out and 
 exposed to the sun. When the leaves began to 
 " wither and give," and become soft and flaccid, 
 the leaves of two or three sieves were then mixed 
 together, and the tossing of the leaves and exposure 
 to the sun again repeated until they began to emit 
 a slight degree of fragrance. They were then re- 
 moved into the shade, formed into still larger par- 
 cels, turned and tossed as before, and finally placed 
 on stands in a room exposed to a free current of 
 air, as in the process of Leang Ching. In a short 
 time they gave out what the workmen deemed the 
 requisite degree of fragrance, when each parcel 
 was again tossed in the shade, and roasted in suc- 
 cession. 
 
 No attention was paid to any change of colour 
 in the leaves, nor did any appear red or brown 
 previously to roasting, though some few had a 
 reddish purple appearance afterwards. The tea, 
 when completely dried, resembled a black leaf 
 Congou ; but, while the Honan tea was agreeable, 
 and drew a red infusion, the Pack Yuen Shan tea 
 
 I 3 
 
118 REDNESS OF THE LEAVES. 
 
 was not drinkable, and the infusion was almost 
 colourless. To what this difference is to be ascribed 
 I am unable to explain, but I am disposed to think 
 it arose from the high temperature employed in 
 roasting the latter tea, it being too great for the 
 then condition of the leaves. Subsequent experi- 
 ments seem to sanction this opinion. 
 
 The reddish-purple appearance of the leaves, 
 however, previously to roasting, is not absolutely 
 necessary to the redness of the leaves afterwards. 
 I once rolled a small parcel of leaves previously to 
 roasting them, in the same manner as it is per- 
 formed after roasting, and, upon holding them up 
 to the light, many appeared translucent in parts, 
 but not red. When completely roasted, they had 
 a rich reddish-purple appearance, and were more 
 fragrant in smell than other parcels of the same 
 tea roasted in the common manner. Nor did this 
 translucency appear to be occasioned by the leaves 
 having been bruised in the act of rolling, for the 
 same appearance was produced by placing a few 
 leaves under a wine glass exposed to the sun ; and, 
 by a still further exposure, the leaves became 
 spotted with red, particularly round the edges. 
 
 This experiment gave rise to others, which will 
 more fully develop the cause of the change of 
 colour, and the peculiar effects which accompanied 
 that change. Let it here suffice to say that this 
 state of withering is indispensably necessary to 
 black tea ; but whether it be necessary to wait 
 
REDNESS OF THE LEAVES. 119 
 
 till the leaves begin to be spotted witb red for 
 black leaf Congous may require further investiga- 
 tion. Mr. Jacobson deems it necessary for all 
 black tea. For Souchong I believe it is ; that is, 
 as soon as some few of the leaves begin to show 
 that disposition, it is time to prepare them for 
 roasting. There is an art in the management of 
 this process. 
 
 i 4 
 
120 
 
 CHAP. VII. 
 
 ROASTING AND FINAL DRYING OF THE LEAVES — TWO PROCESSES 
 
 ROASTING VESSELS AND STOVES DESCRIBED — MODE OP 
 
 ROASTING MODE OF ROLLING PROCESS OF TA-CHING 
 
 FINAL DRYING STOVES AND INSTRUMENTS USED MODE 
 
 OF DRYING MARKETS ESTABLISHED PACKING OF THE TEA 
 
 AT THE VILLAGE OF SING-CSUN REMARKS ON THE PROCESSES 
 
 OF MANIPULATION VARIATIONS IN THE MODE OF MANIPULA- 
 TION OBSERVATIONS ON THE MODES DESCRIBED BY MR. 
 
 FORTUNE — SOME TEAS WHOLLY MANIPULATED IN THE SUN 
 EXPERIMENTS ON THIS ]!fODE, AND DEDUCTIONS THEREFROM. 
 
 The roasting and drying of the leaves may be 
 divided into the two processes of Chao or Tsao and 
 Poey. The former takes place in a shallow iron 
 vessel called a Kuo ; and the latter in sieves over a 
 charcoal fire — a description of which will be found 
 under its proper article. The Kuo is a remarkably 
 thin vessel of cast iron of a circular form, differing 
 in no respect from those used in China for culinary 
 purposes : except that it has no handles. 
 
 The size most employed is about 2 feet 4 inches 
 in diameter, and 7^ inches deep ; but they vary 
 in size according to the quantity of leaves intended 
 
STOVES AND VESSELS USED. 121 
 
 to be roasted at one time. The stoves commonly 
 in use are said to consist of oblong pieces of brick- 
 work, resembling the Hyson stoves to be seen in 
 the Hong merchants' roasting houses at Honan, in 
 the district of Canton. The Kuo is fitted in hori- 
 zontally with its rim even with the upper surface of 
 the stove. The best constructed stoves have a small 
 ledge at the back part, for the purpose of holding 
 a lamp, as the roasting is generally continued until 
 a late hour, and frequently through the night. 
 The fire-places are at the back of the stove : so con- 
 structed as to leave an opening underneath for 
 wood or charcoal. As much tea is made by the 
 poor, and small farmers, it occasionally happens 
 that both the stove and the Kuo are identical with 
 those used for culinary purposes ; and the vessel, 
 which in the morning is employed to boil rice for 
 their breakfast, is in the evening used to roast tea. 
 Generally, however, separate vessels are used exclu- 
 sively for tea ; for great care must be taken to 
 keep the Kuo clean and free from every thing 
 which might communicate an objectionable flavour. 
 And as a yellowish viscid juice exudes from the 
 tea in the process of roasting and rolling, forming 
 when dry a whitish deposit which adheres to the 
 sides of the Kuo, it becomes necessary during the 
 several stages of the manipulation to wash the 
 vessel and other instruments used, and also the 
 hands. I did not observe any such deposit during 
 the experiments which I witnessed ; but I have no 
 
122 FIRST ROASTING. 
 
 doubt of its existence when the leaves are thick 
 and succulent. 
 
 In the first roasting of all black tea, the fire is 
 prepared with dry Avood, and kept exceedingly 
 brisk. The vessel is heated to a high temperature, 
 much above the boiling point ; but any heat may 
 suffice which produces the crackling of the leaves 
 described by Kosmpfer. 
 
 I shall now explain the mode in which I have 
 seen the Honan tea leaves roasted after the manner 
 of Souchong and Congou, by men from the Bohea 
 and Ankoy districts, to exemplify this process to 
 me. 
 
 The roaster stands on the side of the stove oppo- 
 site the fireplace, and taking about half a pound 
 of leaves between his hands, he throws them into 
 the Kuo. He then places his hands upon the leaves, 
 and with a slight degree of pressure, draws them 
 from the opposite side of the vessel across the 
 bottom to the side nearest himself. He then turns 
 them over and throws them back again, repeating 
 this action until the leaves are sufficiently roasted. 
 
 When the heat becomes excessive, and difficult 
 to bear, the roaster then raises the leaves some 
 height above the Kuo, and shaking them on his 
 hands, he lets them gradually fall, which serves to 
 dissipate the steam, and to cool them. There is 
 one circumstance which it is necessary here to 
 notice, as requiring the attention of the roaster. 
 Care must be taken to observe that none of the 
 
FIRST ROASTING. 
 
 123 
 
 leaves lodge or remain about the middle part of 
 the bottom of the Kuo, for this being the part most 
 heated, they soon begin to burn, and if not attended 
 to, might communicate a smoky or burnt flavour 
 to the tea; though in this early stage of the 
 process there is not much danger of producing 
 that evih This defect is easily perceived and 
 obviated ; for the smoke which arises from the 
 burnt leaves can readily be distinguished from the 
 steam produced by evaporation ; then by increasing 
 the pressure of the leaves against the heated part 
 of the vessel as they are drawn across, the roaster 
 is enabled to sweep away or remove such leaves as 
 
124 FIRST ROASTING. 
 
 may have lodged in the bottom ; and if he quicken 
 the motion at the same time, the smoke and burnt 
 smell will speedily disappear. 
 
 With respect to the degree of roasting which is 
 requisite, it may suffice to say, that the roasting 
 must be continued until the leaves give out a 
 fragrant smell, and become quite soft and flaccid, 
 when they are in a fit state to be rolled. 
 
 And here it may be important to observe, philo- 
 sophically as well as practically, that though the 
 leaves are fragrant when brought to the roasting 
 vessel, yet that fragrance is dispersed so soon as 
 the fluids are rapidly set in action, and they again 
 acquire their vegetable smell. The fragrance, how- 
 ever, returns after the loss of a certain amount of 
 moisture ; and its return, together with the flacci- 
 dity of the leaves, marks, as before observed, the 
 period when the leaves are in a fit state for rolling. 
 The same observation holds during the process of 
 rolling. Here, again, the fluids are discharged, but 
 by pressure, not heat, and the vegetable smell 
 returns. Thus, during the whole process of roast- 
 ing and rolling, these alterations of smell occur, till 
 the leaves are deprived of all moisture in their final 
 desiccation in the drying tubes, when the fragrance 
 becomes fixed. 
 
 In my own experiments, when I found the heat 
 more than I could bear, I removed the leaves from 
 the Kuo, and allowed them to cool a little ; as also 
 the Kuo from the fire. This I liave repeated two 
 
ROLLING OF THE LEAVES. 
 
 125 
 
 or three times during the first process of roasting 
 before the leaves were sufficiently roasted, without 
 any apparent injury to the tea. It is surprising 
 how great a degree of heat the men habitually em- 
 ployed in this occupation can bear ; and in my few 
 trials with these people, I always found they could 
 continue the roasting a considerable time after the 
 heat of the steam had obliged me to relinquish it, 
 even with the aid of a pair of thick cotton gloves. 
 After this first roasting (Chao), the leaves are 
 immediately rolled. Each roller is provided with 
 a circular tray of bamboo work, upon which he 
 places as many leaves as the two hands held together 
 in a concave position can cover. They then aU 
 fall to work, immediately rolling the leaves round 
 
 
 
 from left to right, using a slight degree of pressure, 
 and attentively keeping them in the form of a ball. 
 Some skill is required to preserve the leaves in this 
 
126 ROLLING OF THE LEAVES. 
 
 form : and it is the test of a good workman to keep 
 the leaves well collected together under the hand, 
 and not allow them to stray and spread themselves 
 
 over the tray ; for on this depends the leaves being 
 well or ill twisted. * When sufficiently rolled the 
 ball is shaken to pieces. The leaves are then found 
 twisted ; and the viscous juices expressed in the 
 process of rolling are sufficient to keep the leaves 
 in the twisted form. They are now spread out on 
 clean trays, and placed on stands several tiers in 
 height, until the whole of the fresh leaves have 
 been roasted, when they again undergo the process 
 
 * Mr. Bruce describes the process of rolling very minutely 
 and well. " The art," as he observes, " lies in giving the heap, 
 or ball, a circular motion, permitting it to turn under and in the 
 hand two or three whole revolutions before the arms are ex- 
 tended to their full length, and drawing the leaves quickly 
 back'without leaving a leaf behind. {Parliamentary Papers, 
 Feb. 1839. Tea Cultivation, p. 109.) 
 
 Mr. Fortune, also very aptly compares this action to that of 
 a baker kneading his dough. ( Wanderings in China, 2d edit, 
 p. 196.) 
 
SECOND ROASTING. 127 
 
 of Chao. * In the second roasting of all tea, the 
 heat of the iire is considerably diminished, and 
 charcoal used instead of wood. The heat of the 
 vessel, however, is considerable, and not support- 
 able to the touch. The fire requires no particular 
 attention. The leaves having now been deprived 
 of a considerable quantity of moisture, their bulk is 
 
 * It may here be observed that the form of a ball is not a 
 condition to which the Chinese attach any importance ; and tliat 
 may explain why they frc^quently make no mention of it. The 
 thing sought by them is the expression of the juices of the 
 leaves to save expense and labour in the process of roasting, 
 the form of a ball is simply an accident, and the twisting of 
 the leaves also ; both arising out cf the peculiar mode adopted 
 by the Chinese in the process of rolling the leaves, and which 
 after all may turn out to be not the best method, although a 
 natural one, and such as in a rude state of society is likely to 
 be adopted. But if the mode of expressing the juices is to be 
 by hand, it must be evident that no better mode could be adopted 
 than that of collecting the leaves into such a heap or parcel 
 as the hands can cover, pressing, rolling, and keeping them in 
 as compact a form as possible under the hand: the rest follows 
 as a necessary consequence, arising out of the glutinous quality 
 of the leaves, as experiment will show. 
 
 These remarks may also serve to prove the fallacy w^hich has 
 so long existed, even to the present day, viz. that each separate 
 leaf undergoes a i)rocess of rolling between the fingers and 
 thumb of a female : an operose method which no cheapness of 
 labour, when compared with the known cost of manufacturing 
 tea, would serve to explain. 
 
 It must be admitted, however, that the twisted form of the 
 leaf is now considered as a test of quality ; for experience has 
 shown, that the closely twisted leaves generally make the best 
 tea. The reason is, that good teas consist of the young leaves ; 
 and it is only the young, tender, and succulent leaves that can 
 be made to assume that form. 
 
128 SECOND ROASTING. 
 
 consequently much diminislied. As much therefore 
 may now be put into the Kuo at one time as was 
 roasted in three or four times during the first 
 roasting. The mode of roasting is precisely similar 
 to the first process, except that the leaves are fre- 
 quently shaken and strewed round the less heated 
 sides of the vessel to accelerate the evaporation of 
 the steam by the admission of air, and thus to cool 
 them. When sufficiently roasted, they are then 
 rolled as before ; and the roasting and rolling 
 repeated a third time ; which is applicable to all 
 teas, when the substance and good quality of the 
 leaves admit of it.* No measure of time can be 
 given by which the necessary degree of roasting 
 can be determined. The same may be said re- 
 garding the exposure of the leaves to the sun. 
 Both depend, as in every other stage of the pre- 
 paration, upon the state and quality of the leaves. 
 Thus, as we are informed, the Yen teas, whose leaves 
 are large and fleshy, are roasted and rolled three 
 
 * Mr. Jacobson states that at Java IJ or 2 lb. of leaves are 
 roasted at a time, and that this quantity is divided, afterwards, 
 between two men to roll them. He also observes, that after 
 rolling, the leaves are covered with a tray, which encourages 
 their heating, and that this heating improves the colour of the 
 leaf and infusion ; besides giving a fuller flavour to the tea. It 
 may here be remarked, that the Chinese differ much as to the 
 quantity roasted at one time. The accounts vary from three or 
 four tales, or ounces, to two, three, or even four pounds, for fine 
 teas. I should deem two pounds a full quantity even for 
 Congou tea. 
 
PROCESS OF TA CHING. 129 
 
 or four times ; whereas the best Congous are 
 roasted and rolled but twice, and the inferior 
 ones only once ; for, say the Chinese, ••' these leaves 
 being very thin, they would be broken and burnt 
 if roasted more." This simple rule may suffice : — 
 When no longer any juices can be freely expressed 
 in the process of rolling, the leaves are then in a 
 fit state to undergo the final desiccation denomi- 
 nated Poey. 
 
 Before closing this chapter, it must be observed, 
 that the finest kinds of Yen or Padre Souchong 
 teas are said to undergo in their first roasting a 
 modification of the process of Chao Ching, denomi- 
 nated by the Chinese Ta Ching and Pao Ching, 
 from the particular mode of handling the leaves. 
 In this particular part of the process, the roasting 
 vessel is heated to red heat. 
 
 In the operation of Ta Ching, a man standing on 
 the right of the roaster throws about two ounces 
 of leaves smartly against the Kuo ; the roaster 
 then seizes them with his hands, gives them 
 a brisk turn round the Kuo, and sweeps them 
 into a tray, which another man holds in readiness 
 to receive them. In the operation of Pao Ching, 
 the roasting is continued three or four seconds, 
 and about three or four ounces (Tales) of leaves 
 are roasted at one time. In this process, the in- 
 stant the leaves fall down to the brickwork, the 
 roaster receives them on his hands, and tosses 
 them back against the heated part of the vessel; 
 
 K 
 
130 
 
 PROCESS OF TA CHING. 
 
 which operation is repeated for a few seconds. 
 They are then collected together, and, having been 
 turned briskly two or three times round the less 
 heated part of the Kuo, they are swept out as before. 
 The leaves are now put aside to cool, and then 
 
 
 
 
 
 roasted (Chao) and rolled three times, as already 
 described. 
 
 Some of the Chinese say that the process of Ta 
 Ching is not used in the present day ; but that Pao 
 Ching is substituted in lieu of it. Others say that 
 these teas first undergo the process of Ta Ching, 
 and then are roasted and rolled three times, after 
 the manner of Pao Ching instead of Chao. These 
 
FINAL DESICCATION OF BLACK TEA. 131 
 
 modes do not seem to vary essentially from the 
 simple process of Chao, since they depend princi- 
 pally upon the quantity of leaves roasted at one 
 time, and the greater heat of the vessel. It is obvious 
 that the smaller the quantity of leaves used, and 
 the greater the heat employed, the greater nuist be 
 the risk of burning, which is sufficient to account 
 for the inclination given to the Kuo. It must, 
 however, produce a quicker evaporation of the 
 fluids ; and hence, perhaps, it may be inferred here, 
 as in the early parts of the process, that the Chinese 
 deem a quick evaporation of the fluids desirable. 
 
 But as this mode requires much care, attention, 
 expertness, and labour, it is not practised, so far as 
 my information extends, except with the finest teas, 
 such as rarely or never form a part of the teas of 
 foreign commerce. 
 
 THE FINAL DESICCATION OF BLACK TEA. 
 
 (Poey cliing or Poej tsing.) 
 
 It has already been observed that the process of 
 Poey is considered by the Chinese as a very import- 
 ant part of the manipulation of black tea. This, 
 however, does not arise from any particular nicety 
 of art or difficulty in this process; but simply 
 from this circumstance, that, as the leaves are 
 roasted in open sieves over a bright charcoal 
 fire, a certain degree of watchfulness is requisite, 
 
 K 2 
 
132 STOVES AND DRYING-TUBES. 
 
 to see that none of them accidentally fall through 
 the interstices of the sieves, which would occasion 
 smoke, and thereby injure the tea. 
 
 The instrument used for this purpose is a kind 
 of basket, called a Poey Long, about two and a 
 half feet in height, and one and a half in diameter, 
 open at both ends : or rather a tubular piece of 
 basket-work of those dimensions covered with paper, 
 which we may here denominate a " Drying Tube," 
 having a slight inclination from the ends to the 
 centre, thus making the centre the smallest cir- 
 cumference. In the inner part, a little above the 
 
 centre, are placed two cross wires for the purpose 
 of receiving the sieve which contains the tea, and 
 which is placed about fourteen inches above the 
 fire. When the tea is sufficiently prepared for this 
 process, the drying-tube is then placed over a low 
 stove built upon the ground to contain a small 
 quantity of charcoal. The stoves, consisting of 
 circular receptacles for charcoal, are constructed 
 
FINAL DESICCATION OF BLACK TEA. 133' 
 
 within a continuous piece of brickwork coated with 
 plaster, extended round three sides of a long narrow 
 room. The brickwork is about 5^ inches in height 
 and 2 or 3 feet in depth, from the front to the wall. 
 The receptacle for the charcoal must be in propor- 
 tion to the diameter of the drying- tube. Mr. Jacob- 
 son gives the following as the dimensions of the 
 tube used at Java: height 2ft. lO^in. ; diameter 
 2ft. 4 J in. ; diameter of centre, Ift. ll;|in. 
 
 The process of Poey is used for every denomination 
 of black tea, manufactured with care, whether Pao- 
 chong, Souchong, Sonchy, Pekoe or Congou. I 
 shall now describe this process as I have seen it 
 performed, and as I have performed it myself. 
 
 A bright charcoal fire is prepared in a common 
 Fu-Gong, or chafing-dish, containing about three or 
 four pounds of charcoal : the drying-tube is then 
 placed over the fire, one end resting on the ground. 
 The roaster then takes a quantity of leaves and 
 sifts them, to prevent any dust or small leaves from 
 falling into the fire. When properly sifted, he 
 first spreads them equally in the sieve, and then 
 makes a small aperture in the centre of the heap 
 with the finger, about an inch and a half in dia- 
 meter, in order to afford a free vent to any smoke 
 which may accidentally be formed. The sieve is 
 then placed in the Poey Long, upon the cross wires 
 before described. A circular flat bamboo tray is 
 placed over its mouth, about one third of which is 
 left open to admit a free evaporation of the steam 
 
 K 3 
 
134 FINAL DESICCATION OF BLACK TEA. 
 
 which arises from the leaves, for a considerable 
 degree of moisture still remains, though no more 
 can be expressed by the process of rolling. The 
 leaves also retain their green and vegetable ap- 
 pearance. 
 
 The leaves are thus suiFered to remain about 
 half an hour, when the drying-tube is removed 
 from the fire, the sieve taken out, and the leaves 
 turned. The turning is performed by the follow- 
 ing simple and effectual method. Another sieve of 
 equal size is placed over the one containing the 
 leaves ; and both held horizontally between the 
 hands. Then by a sudden turn, the two sieves are 
 reversed, the bottom one being brought to the top 
 in the action of turning. It is then removed, and 
 the leaves are found in the lower sieve completely 
 turned, without being mixed or scarcely deranged. 
 They are then placed over the fire, and suiFered to 
 remain as before.* 
 
 • 
 * Mr. Jacobson ridicules this mode of turning the leaves ; 
 
 to me, however, it seemed a simple and an effectual method. A 
 large quantity being contained in the sieve does not increase the 
 difficulty of turning it. Indeed I thought at the time it appeared 
 a preferable mode to the one very accurately described by him, 
 which I also saw practised by a man from the Ankoy country. 
 But I must defer to his opinion, because he has great practical 
 experience to guide him. The method here alluded to is de- 
 scribed by Mr. Jacobson (§ 400.) as follows : 
 
 When the second roasting is completed the leaves must no 
 longer be spread out, but be pressed closely together into small 
 heaps, a little flattened at the top. In placing them on the 
 drying sieves, each heap is taken up between the hands, and the 
 
FINAL DESICCATION OF BLACK TEA. 
 
 135 
 
 At the expiration of this time, they are again 
 taken out of the drying-tube, and rubbed and 
 
 ^'ff 
 
 twisted between the hands. * A great change has 
 now taken place in the colour of the leaves. They 
 
 leaves are allowed to fall loosely and gently down on the sieve. 
 An aperture of about an inch in diameter is made in the centre 
 of each parcel, and the heaps or half balls are thus placed round 
 the extreme edge of the sieve ; about fourteen of such parcels 
 thus occupying that space. Then a second row is placed within, 
 consisting of about ten heaps, which further admits of about 
 four or five more, forming a third circle ; and finally, an open 
 space is left in the centre of about four inches in diameter. 
 When the drying-tube is removed from the fire, it must be 
 placed on a tray. In turning the parcels the dryer turns the 
 drying-tube round, bringing each parcel in succession before 
 him, that they may all be turned in due order, but the sieve is 
 not removed from the drying-tube. As the leaves dry, it 
 becomes desirable to mix the leaves of two of the drying- 
 tubes together : this is done by pouring the contents of one 
 drying-tube on to those of another, and not by taking the 
 leaves out with the hand. The charcoal is well covered with 
 ash throughout the entire process of drying. 
 
 * The mode of rubbing and twisting the leaves between the 
 hands is rather difficult to explain. About a handful of leaves 
 
 K 4 
 
136 FINAL DESICCATION OF BLACK TEA. 
 
 have already begun to assume their black appear- 
 ance. A considerable quantity of moisture having 
 also been dissipated by this mode of drying, the fire 
 is now covered with the ash of charcoal or burnt 
 paddy husk, which not only serves to moderate its 
 heat, but prevents smoke in the event of any 
 leaves falling accidentally through the sieves. 
 
 The leaves are then sifted, and again undergo the 
 process of drying, twisting, and turning, as before ; 
 which is repeated once or twice more, until they 
 become quite black, well twisted, and perfectly 
 dry and crisp. As the leaves dry, they obviously 
 must occupy less space in the sieves : the quantity 
 is consequently increased from time to time, in 
 order that each sieve may be full. In this part of 
 the process, as the leaves give out little moisture, 
 the mouth of the drying-tube is nearly closed. 
 
 The drying-tube is always removed from the 
 fire, and placed on a tray on the ground, before 
 the sieve is taken out, when the tea requires turn- 
 should be taken up at one time, and placed between the hands 
 held side- ways, with the thumbs uppermost ; the left hand is 
 kept stationary, while the right is brought back, drawing back 
 the leaves at the same time, until the fingers touch the palm of 
 the left hand. It is then advanced, pressing the leaves slightly 
 against the left, until the palm is brought on a line with the 
 fingers of the left hand. The pressure is then relieved, and the 
 leaves brought back as before. This is done with much celerity, 
 and continued until no more leaves remain in the hands, for 
 the leaves are projected forward by this movement. The pres- 
 sure being all in one direction, the twist of the leaf becomes so 
 likewise. 
 
FINAL DESICCATION OF BLACK TEA. 137 
 
 ing ; and in the act of replacing it over the 
 fire, it is necessary to give it a smart tap on the 
 side, to get rid of any dust or leaf which may be in 
 a situation to fall. 
 
 When the leaves appear sufficiently dry, which is 
 ascertained by their crispness, they are then taken 
 from the fire and sifted ; and the old, the yellow, 
 and the chafiy leaves are winnowed ofi" by means 
 of a large circular bamboo tray. 
 
 The coarse leaves which remain are then, if ne- 
 cessary, picked out by hand, which is seldom, or 
 perhaps never, the case with any black teas forming 
 a part of the foreign investments. They certainly are 
 not hand-picked with the same care as green teas, 
 which is evident from the quantity of stalks they 
 cojitain, while none are found in either Twankay 
 or Hyson tea. The residue, which is the tea for 
 sale, is again placed over the remaining embers, 
 or over a very slow fire, but in still larger quan- 
 tities, for about two hours. In some cases they 
 remain throughout the night, the embers being 
 left to die away. In this part of the process the 
 drying-tube is completely closed with the tray. 
 
 The tea is then packed in chests or baskets ac- 
 cording to its quality, and the practice of the planter 
 or farmer. In this state they are carried to the 
 public markets for sale, and sold from two to one 
 hundred chests at a time, according to the size 
 of the farm or plantation. These markets have 
 
138 MARKETS AND PACKING AT SING-CSUN. 
 
 their regular and appointed times ; — as, for example, 
 at Ly Yuen there is a tea market every tenth day 
 during the season ; on the 2d, 12th, and 22d days 
 of one month, and on the 7th, 17th, and 27th 
 days of the following month ; and so on at other 
 places. 
 
 As the teas are packed and collected at these 
 country markets, they are sent to the village of 
 Sing-csun. Here the Canton Hong merchants and 
 tea factors have large packing establishments, where 
 the teas are finally packed suitably to the foreign 
 markets. Here, also, the Shan-see merchants or 
 factors procure and pack their teas for the Russian 
 markets. I believe it to be altogether an error to 
 suppose that any other part of China furnishes the 
 Congou and superior teas ; or that any other than 
 the Hyson districts of Moo-yuen and Yu-ning supply 
 the Hyson tea, and the districts in the immediate 
 vicinity, the Twankay tea. The rumours recently 
 spread, that some of these teas are now procured, 
 or ever were procured, from other parts of China, 
 I believe to be wholly undeserving of credit. It is 
 not easy in China to obtain accurate information 
 concerning remote districts. Some Congou teas are 
 also packed at the villages where the teas are col- 
 lected, as at To-pa, and some few other places. These 
 may generally be distinguished by the dark green 
 colour of the chests. The Sing-csun chests are of 
 a lighter colour, and somewhat yellow. The Pekoe 
 
MARKETS AND PACKING AT SING-CSUN. 139 
 
 kind of teas, formerly imported into England as 
 Congou, came from To-pa. 
 
 The Congous are packed in parcels, chops or 
 
 breaks^ of about 600 chests, each chest containing 
 
 about 80 lbs. of tea. Each parcel is divided into 
 
 two packings, consisting generally of 300 chests 
 
 each, sometimes 500 or 600 chests, according to the 
 
 size of the packing-house. The teas which are to 
 
 constitute one uniform quality of 600 or even 1000 
 
 chests consist of certain proportions of the three 
 
 gatherings, collected from the produce of various 
 
 farms and dilFerent localities. These teas having 
 
 been previously arranged and classed agreeably to 
 
 quality, and noted in a book, a sufficient quantity 
 
 to constitute a packing of 300 chests is now started 
 
 into a heap or pile, and so placed in different layers, 
 
 that, when raked down with a wooden rake for the 
 
 purpose of packing, their several and various 
 
 qualities may all mix and blend togeth^, so as to 
 
 form one uniform quality suited to a fixed and 
 
 settled price. The quantity put into each chest is 
 
 previously weighed, and the packing is performed 
 
 by men with their bare feet. I do not understand 
 
 that the black tea is packed hot ; or that it is 
 
 submitted to any further process of heating or 
 
 drying at the packing houses : it, nevertheless, must 
 
 be perfectly dry. In the event of damage or injury 
 
 to the tea, or the teas not having been sufficiently 
 
 dried, then they doubtless undergo a somewhat 
 
 similar process of drying in sieves in Poey Longs, 
 
140 REMARKS ON MODE OE MANIPULATION. 
 
 or on stands in drying-houses, as is practised at 
 Canton, to restore tea which has been slightly dam- 
 aged on its passage down the country. 
 
 Having now explained the manner in which the 
 Paochong, Souchong, and Congou teas are made 
 when manufactured with care, I feel I may have 
 impressed on the mind of the reader an exaggerated 
 sense of the difficulty of manipulating tea for the 
 European markets. Nor do I see how this was to 
 be avoided. It is surely desirable that the superior 
 methods should be known and fully described ; and 
 more especially since even the inferior modes are 
 regulated and governed by the same principles ; the 
 main difference being the more or less skill and care 
 bestowed on the several stages of the process. It 
 has been my aim so to describe every part of this 
 curious, and to us novel, art, that it may be rendered 
 useful and acceptable to the experimentalist and 
 cultivator, even at the risk of its being tedious to 
 the general reader. But it must be confessed that 
 minuteness of description, and long dwelling on the 
 superior modes of manipulation, may have the effect 
 of discouraging even the experimentalist. This, 
 however, seems to me a difficulty inherent in all 
 minute descriptions of art, even that of making 
 beer or cider. Nothing is more simple than to 
 sketch a general outline of the art of making wine ; 
 yet Chaptal devoted no less than ninety octavo 
 pages to the theory of fermentation. Agreeably to 
 this able author, if we seek a wine of high quality 
 
REMARKS ON MODE OF MANIPULATION. 141 
 
 and of good age, Nature must first be bountiful in 
 her season, and the fermentation so regulated that 
 the saccharine matter and the ferment may be both 
 destroyed, so that no second fermentation shall take 
 place. But here enters the nicety of the art : a 
 certain practical knowledge is required, which 
 though every operator does not possess, and some 
 never, yet is this art neither difficult to acquire, 
 nor are skilful workmen rare or expensive to 
 obtain. The same may be said of the first and 
 highest flavoured teas. But if we simply speak of 
 the art of making wine, in what does it consist ? 
 Press a quantity of grapes in a vat with the feet or 
 otherwise ; strain off the juice into a cask ; allow it 
 to ferment, and you have very good Vin de Pays. 
 Thus with tea : place the leaves in a sieve, expose 
 them to the sun and air ; toss them and turn them 
 as hay ; then place them in the shade till they give 
 out a certain degree of fragrance ; then roast them 
 in an iron vessel, roll them with the hands or feet, 
 and finally dry them over a charcoal fire, and you 
 have fair Congou tea. The cost of Congou tea at 
 its place of growth will show, when we come to 
 treat of that part of our subject, that not much 
 skill, labour, or expense are bestowed on its cul- 
 tivation and manipulation. At the same time it 
 must be obvious, that this art is not to be learned 
 from description : and that our only teachers are 
 the Chinese, such namely as belong to the Bohea 
 and, failing these, the Ankoy districts. Let us beware 
 
142 INFERIOR METHODS. 
 
 of giving too ready credence to assertions that the 
 art is easily taught. Simple as it may be, like 
 other arts, it requires an apprenticeship. 
 
 There are also many inferior methods which are 
 adopted with coarse teas. The best of these is, by 
 continuing the final process of drying in the roasting 
 pan, as in the final drying of green tea, in lieu of the 
 drying-tube employed for black. It is remarkable 
 that all the Chinese factors, whom I have ques- 
 tioned upon this subject, have invariably denied the 
 existence of this method. It nevertheless unques- 
 tionably exists ; and I shall now describe the 
 manner in which I have seen this process performed 
 by a man from the Bohea country. 
 
 The vessel and other circumstances were the same 
 as in the final process of roasting black tea, the 
 heat of the fire being reduced. The leaves were 
 then sprinkled round the sides and less heated 
 parts of the vessel, occasionally collected together, 
 and then stirred about with the hands. This was 
 repeated until the leaves became well twisted, and 
 the colour black ; the fire being still further dimi- 
 nished as the leaves dried. They were then win- 
 nowed and packed as before. - 
 
 Some Congou teas are rolled indifferently with the 
 hands or bare feet after roasting ; and are then, it 
 is said, dried in the sun, without any further ex- 
 posure to the fire. This, however, is only done 
 with the second and third gatherings of inferior 
 shrubs. But some teas are said to be wholly dried in 
 
MODES DESCRIBED BY MR. FORTUNE. 143 
 
 the sun : some in a coarse and careless manner, 
 doubtless for the use of the peasantry and others ; 
 and some by a laborious and expensive method. 
 
 There is also a mode of manipulating black tea 
 in cloths, as described by Mr. Bruce for the manu- 
 facture of green tea. But the Chinese all agree 
 that this mode is never adopted except with very 
 coarse and inferior leaves, and for the purpose of 
 fraudulent adulteration of good tea. 
 
 It may, perhaps, be expected that I should make 
 a few observations on the modes of manipulating 
 tea, as seen by Mr. Fortune in the provinces of 
 Fokien and Chekiang ; and this appears to be a 
 suitable place. It may be succinctly stated, that 
 the difference in the modes of roasting and drying 
 black and green tea arises from the black tea being 
 finally dried in sieves over a charcoal fire, and the 
 green tea in an iron vessel : and this is an essential 
 difference. The modes seen by Mr. Fortune in 
 Chekiang correspond with this rule, with the excep- 
 tion that a flat basket was used in lieu of a sieve, 
 but there, green teas were produced by both 
 methods. Now if we refer to Fokien, where the 
 same modes were employed, we there find that they 
 produced black teas. Thus it would appear a 
 matter of indifference which of the two methods 
 be adopted, which seems to me to strike the mind 
 at once as a fallacy. It is partly true with respect 
 to black tea, but wholly false as regarding green ; 
 and indeed that the results should be so different 
 
144 MODES DESCRIBED 
 
 where the means employed are the same, presents a 
 discrej)ancy which we find it embarrassing to recon- 
 cile. The only mode of doing this, is, by supposing 
 that some of the teas so manipulated were not truly 
 what we understand by black and green tea, but 
 were peculiarities, such as Lin-czu-sin or others, 
 made exclusively for Chinese consumption. Indeed, 
 Mr. Fortune speaks only of one tea in each pro- 
 vince, which seemed to correspond with the teas 
 of European consumption. It is true that black 
 tea may be produced in an iron pan, as we have 
 already seen; but the Chinese all agree that this is 
 an inferior method, of which the tea-men from the 
 Bohea district deny the usage. It therefore seems 
 probable, that Mr. Fortune was misinformed, when 
 he was told that this was the mode employed for 
 the manufacture of " our common black teas*," if 
 by that term be meant the black teas commonly in 
 use. It has been shown that the mode adopted in 
 the Bohea district for the final drying of black tea 
 is in sieves over a charcoal fire. 
 
 And with respect to green tea, it would be im- 
 possible to produce the peculiar and characteristic 
 colour of green tea, by any process of drying the 
 leaves in a sieve or basket. When Mr. Fortune 
 states, that the green teas which he saw manufactur- 
 ed in Chekiang were not the painted bloom-like teas 
 seen in our shops, which he so justly ridicules, the 
 
 * Wanderings in China, p. 210. 
 
BY MR. FORTUNE. 145 
 
 reader must nevertheless not imagine that there is 
 no natural foundation for this colour. The expres- 
 sion of Mr. Fortune is " the leaf has little or none 
 of what we call ^ the beautiful bloom ' upon it ; " * 
 but then it has some^ and be it ever so little, it is 
 naturally produced in the course of manufacture, 
 as I shall show under the article green tea. It is 
 evident that Europeans could never have suggested 
 to the Chinese to dye their teas blue, if there had 
 not been some foundation for it in the natural 
 process of manipulation. 
 
 I believe also that Mr. Fortune was misinformed, 
 when he was told that the districts in which he was, 
 formerly furnished a portion of the tea intended for 
 foreign consumption. But it is no disparagement 
 to Mr. Fortune even if he was misinformed. He 
 states what he saw and collected. In a paper on 
 the expediency of opening a second port in China, 
 printed in 1816 and published in 1840, I com- 
 puted that the black tea districts were about 240 
 miles from the city of Foo-chew-foo, and about 270 
 from the sea.f Mr. Fortune states that he pene- 
 trated into the interior about thirty or forty miles 
 north of that city ; consequently he must have been 
 at least 150 or 200 miles from the district which 
 supplies the foreign markets with black tea. 
 
 With respect to the exposure of the leaves for 
 
 * Wanderings in China, 2d edit. p. 200. 
 
 t Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, May, 1840, p. 38. 
 
 L 
 
146 MODES DESCEIBED 
 
 " two or three days on screens after they have been 
 roasted and rolled," and " while yet moist/' '^ this 
 assuredly is a mode not to be imitated. It has 
 been shown that in the Bohea district, so im- 
 portant is it considered to complete the roasting 
 and drying of the leaves on the day they are 
 gathered, that the work is often continued to a late 
 hour, and sometimes through the night. Under 
 the long exposure to air as seen by Mr. Fortune, 
 there must be a danger of the leaves turning sour ; 
 but at all events red, as the name of the tea " hong- 
 cha " (red tea) indicates, a species often made, as 
 already stated, for the Su-chao market. 
 
 I think the account already given of the manipu- 
 lation of black tea in the Bohea country, must be 
 sufficient to prove, that the dark colour of the leaf 
 and infusion of black tea, does not necessarily de- 
 pend on a long exposure of the leaves to the air, 
 while yet " in a soft and moist state," after they 
 have been roasted and rolled ; though I have little 
 doubt an increased redness of the leaf and infusion 
 may be produced, under proper management, by 
 such means, and may be employed for some teas. 
 Nor does it depend, as I think I shall be enabled 
 to prove, "on the leaves being subjected to a 
 greater degree of fire heat."f 
 
 I have seen a sample of black tea, and another of 
 green tea, which Mr. Fortune very handsomely 
 
 * Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, IMay, 1840, p. 212. 
 ■f Wanderings in China, 2d edit. p. 213. 
 
BY I*IR. FORTUNE. 147 
 
 showed to me. Unhappily they were not marked 
 with the name of the province whence they were 
 procured ; but on comparison with the preceding 
 accounts, I should imagine that the green tea was 
 brought from the province of Chekiang and the 
 black from Fokien. The green tea had been much 
 injured by damp, and w^as somewhat mouldy ; but 
 the bluish or greyish colour of the leaf was suffi- 
 ciently indicated to prove the class to which the 
 tea belonged. It was a coarsely made tea, not 
 very suitable to our market. The black tea, how- 
 ever, seemed a sufficiently well made tea. Thus 
 there is every reason to believe that Mr. Fortune 
 saw black and green tea made from the same 
 species or variety, that variety being the Thea 
 viridis, as stated by him. 
 
 But the fact of black and green tea being made 
 from the same leaves is not a novel discovery. Mr. 
 Bruce states, in his report on the cultivation of tea 
 at Assam*, " I am now plucking leaves for both 
 black and green tea from the same tract and from 
 the same plants ; the difference lies in the manu- 
 facture and nothing else." There are still more 
 early authorities on the same point, and so far 
 back as Dr. Abel's journey in China, 1818. 
 
 In conclusion I may say, that the tubs containing 
 charcoal used in the final drying of black tea or 
 green tea, and the shifting of the iron pan and 
 
 * Asiatic Journal, January, 1840, p. 26. 
 L 2 
 
148 MANIPULATION BY 
 
 employing tlie stove for the same purpose, though 
 in principle the same as the mode adopted in 
 the black tea district for drying black tea, yet 
 obviously indicate the employment of make-shifts, 
 and rough methods, fit only for peasants and small 
 plantations. It will also be seen, when we come to 
 examine into the mode of manipulating green tea, 
 that the forms of the stoves and vessels, used in 
 the Hyson district, differ essentially from those 
 seen by Mr. Fortune in the parts of China which 
 he visited. 
 
 I shall now explain the manner in which I have 
 seen black tea manipulated in the sun by a man 
 from the village of Puck-Uen-Hiang, in the district 
 of Sy-Chu-Shan, about a day's journey from Canton. 
 
 1. I first made him divide the leaves into three 
 parcels, with a view of trying some experiments. The 
 leaves of the first parcel were then placed in sieves 
 in the sun for three quarters of an hour. They were 
 afterwards rolled in the manner already described 
 under the article on "EolHng;" and upon the 
 ball being shaken to pieces, the leaves were equally 
 well twisted as if they had been previously roasted. 
 In the district where the man resided a square 
 stone channelled in a regular manner is used for 
 this purpose. The one I saw was a piece of granite 
 measuring eighteen inches by fourteen, and two 
 inches thick. The surface was channelled and made 
 rough. It was hollowed out on two sides to afford 
 a place for the hands to lift it. 
 
EXPOSURE TO THE SUN. 149 
 
 The leaves were then placed in the sun agani, and 
 thus rolled and exposed to the sun twice. The 
 leaves were afterwards divided into smaller parcels 
 in each sieve, and rolled up into small balls about 
 the size of a duck's egg, considerable pressure being 
 used for that purpose. They were then placed in 
 the sun again, and turned once during the expo- 
 sure. The balls were now partly broken to pieces 
 with the hands, spread out, and placed in the sun 
 again. During this process the leaves gradually 
 became black. They were then removed from the 
 sun, and rolled into balls the size of an orange, and 
 exposed to the sun again for a quarter of an hour. 
 The balls were then shaken to pieces, the leaves 
 spread out loosely in the sieves, and thus left to 
 dry. When completely and properly dried, they 
 were exposed to the air to cool, when they were 
 packed. This tea was fragrant in smell, and had 
 a rich reddish appearance, resembling in colour the 
 Hong-Moey pekoe : the infusion was a deepish red ; 
 and the flavour fragrant, but somewhat sweet, as 
 if mixed mth sugar ; nor did I think that tea so 
 made would keep. I have seen samples of tea, 
 which this man affirmed were made precisely in 
 the manner here described, which would have sold 
 at the East India Company's sales at Ss. lOd. the 
 
 L 3 
 
150 MANIPULATION BY 
 
 pound. This want of success in my presence he 
 ascribed to the unfitness of the Honan leaves for 
 the preparation of tea. 
 
 2. The leaves of the second parcel, after expo- 
 sure to sun, were roasted once in the usual manner, 
 at my suggestion, and the process completed as 
 above described by rolling and exposure to the sun. 
 This tea was less mixed with red leaves, and better 
 suited to the taste of Europeans ; and I thought 
 more likely to keep than the former parcel. 
 
 3. The leaves of the third parcel having been 
 exposed to the sun were by my desire, roasted 
 twice, and the desiccation completed by the pro- 
 cess of poey. But these leaves were of a paler 
 colour ; much mixed with green and yellow leaves, 
 and wholly without fragrance. The infusion also 
 was as light as green tea, and almost tasteless. 
 This inferiority of quality the workman ascribed to 
 the leaves having undergone the process of cliao 
 twice instead of once. 
 
 4. On a subsequent occasion, I saw the same 
 man, after having placed the leaves in the sun for 
 half an hour, roll and sun-dry them twice as al- 
 ready described, forming them into a ball, &c. 
 When completely dried in the sun, a kuo was slightly 
 heated, more to warm than to roast the tea. It must 
 here be remembered that the leaves were deprived 
 of much of their moisture, and consequently the 
 roasting now corresponded with the final process 
 of drying in the drying-tube, when a very moderate 
 
EXPOSURE TO THE SUN. 151 
 
 temperature is employed. The leaves were put 
 into the kuo, and kept constantly stirred, until the 
 vessel became too hot, though of a very moderate 
 temperature. It was then taken off the fire ; but 
 the leaves were gently stirred about until suffi- 
 ciently dry. 
 
 These leaves previously to roasting had a vege- 
 table smell, as if not sufficiently dried ; which, 
 however, the roasting entirely dissipated, and made 
 fragrant like tea. They were then packed warm : 
 and a piece of charcoal wrapped up in paper was 
 placed in the canister, to absorb any remaining 
 moisture in the leaves, or any humidity which 
 might penetrate. 
 
 This tea, like the first parcel, resembled a " Hong 
 Moey" pekoe, and was agreeable in flavour. The 
 manipulator informed me that lie could affi^rd to 
 sell tea of this description, though of superior 
 quality, for about 18 tales the pecul, which at 
 6s. Sd, the tale, or 5<§. 6c/. the ounce of silver, would 
 cost lO^d. the pound. 
 
 5. Now these experiments, though they do not 
 affi)rd examples of the best mode of manipulating 
 tea, seem nevertheless to me not devoid of interest, 
 nor without their utility. In fact I am disposed 
 to think, that they point to the true direction, in 
 which we must seek to discover the real cause of 
 the distinctive character and quality of black tea. 
 
 6. The first experiment shows, that, by expo- 
 sure to sun and the rolling or kneading of the 
 
 L 4 
 
152 DEDUCTIONS FROM THE 
 
 leaves, a sweet principle was either elaborated or 
 preserved ; and that the reddish-purple appearance 
 of the leaves, and the red infusion co-exist with 
 and may depend on this principle. And this ex- 
 periment serves to strengthen the opinion already 
 expressed, that the manipulation previously to 
 roasting may be to produce some slight chemical 
 change analogous to hay when stacked, or to the 
 germination of barley in the process of malting, on 
 which the sweetness and delicacy of flavour, the 
 red infusion, and the rich reddish-purple colour of 
 the leaves may depend. It also proves that the 
 colouring matter of black tea in leaf and infusion 
 is not necessarily due to the agency of heat ; and 
 still less to high temperature. 
 
 7. The second experiment shows that by the 
 application of heat the saccharine matter was di- 
 minished, and the leaves became less red ; but the 
 tea was improved thereby, and more likely to keep ; 
 thus indicating that a completely sun-drying pro- 
 cess is an inferior method ; also that the excellence 
 of black tea depends on the combined and skilful 
 management of the leaves previously to, and during 
 the process of roasting. Whereas green tea will 
 be found to depend solely on a peculiar manage- 
 ment of the leaves during the final process of 
 drying. 
 
 8. The third experiment shows that by an ap- 
 plication of heat too great for the then condition of 
 the leaves, though at a moderate temperature, the 
 
FOREGOING PROCESS. 153 
 
 saccharine matter was altogether destroyed, and 
 with it those elements on which excellence of qua- 
 lity depends. The dried leaves also became pallid 
 and yellow, the infusion as light-coloured as green 
 tea, and almost flavourless. This experiment fur- 
 ther proves, what has already been explained, that 
 no measure of time or degree of heat can be given 
 for the roasting and drying of tea : they both depend 
 on the state of the leaves, as reo^ardino; their succu- 
 lency and aqueous condition, the mode of manipu- 
 lation, and the kind of tea required to be made. 
 
 9. This example, moreover, shows that what was 
 here effected by excess of temperature, as con- 
 nected with the state of humidity of the leaves, 
 though at a low degree of heat, was not very dis- 
 similar to that which takes place in nature under 
 the ordinary conditions of decay. Thus in autumn 
 the leaves of deciduous trees having performed the 
 several functions for which they were destined in 
 the production of flowers, fruit, and wood, are no 
 longer required : assimilation is impeded, they 
 begin to absorb oxygen from the air, decay and 
 dryness follow, the leaves change colour and fall, 
 and nothing remains but red, or brown, or yellow 
 cellular tissue, and woody fibre. We will here 
 leave these experiments for the present, though we 
 shall have occasion to recur to them, when we come 
 to treat specifically of the degree of heat employed 
 in the manipulation of tea, and of its chemical 
 constituents after desiccation. 
 
154 
 
 CHAP. VIII. 
 
 MANIPULATION OF PEKOE, CAPER, NAO-CSEE, AND LONG-CSIN 
 
 TEAS THE SCENTING OF TEA BOHEA TEA ORIGINALLY 
 
 BROUGHT FROM THE TEA COUNTRY UNMANIPULATED 
 
 ATTEMPTS TO PROCURE IT MANIPULATED SIZE OF CHESTS 
 
 FOUND TOO LARGE FOR INLAND CARRIAGE BROUGHT BY 
 
 SEA — ALSO LARGE QUANTITIES OF CONGOU JEALOUSY OF 
 
 CHINESE GOVERNMENT AT THIS INNOVATION IMPERIAL EDICT 
 
 PROHIBITING THE SHIPMENT BY SEA FROM THE PORT OF 
 
 FOO-CHEW-FOO IMPORTANCE OP THIS PORT DOUBTS 
 
 REGARDING THE PORT EXAMINED AND ANSWERED MODE 
 
 OF ROASTING AND DRYING BOHEA TEA AT CANTON BRICK- 
 TEA ITS FORM AND MANIPULATION ITS EXTENSIVE USE 
 
 IN MONGOLIA — -DESCRIPTION OF A FETE AT OURGA — CARAVANS 
 OF THIS TEA FREQUENTLY FALLEN IN WITH BY TRAVELLERS 
 
 EMPLOYED AS A CIRCULATING MEDIUM — AS MONEY AT 
 
 HORSE RACES, FEATS OF STRENGTH, AND ARCHERY ES- 
 TABLISHMENTS OF TEA HOUSES ACROSS THE DESERT OF GOBI 
 FREQUENT EXTENSIVE USE IN TIBET MODE OF PREPARA- 
 TION FOR USE THROUGHOUT CENTRAL ASIA MIXED WITH 
 
 BUTTER AND FLOUR, AND CHURNED CAPT. TURNER'S 
 
 OPINION OF IT — MR. MANNING'S OPINION TEAPOTS EM- 
 PLOYED HIGHLY ORNAMENTED TEA OF BISAHAJR. 
 
 The Pekoe tea consists of the unexpanded terminal 
 leaf-bud, in which state the convoluted part is 
 covered with a white hair or down, whence its 
 name, Pe-hao (white hair), Pacdio, or Pekoe, as 
 corrupted by us, is derived. The white hairy ap- 
 pearance of the leaves found in this tea is termed 
 flower by the dealers in England ; which term, as 
 
PEKOE TEA. 155 
 
 well as that of Fleiir cle The, appears to have ori- 
 ginated in a supposition, that these white doT^aiy 
 leaves were the blossom of the tea. The Fleur de 
 The, so much esteemed on the Continent, and par- 
 ticularly in Russia, for its exquisite odour, is no 
 other than fine Pekoe tea. The tea blossom has 
 little fragrance at any time, and still less when 
 preserved in a dried state ; it is, therefore, quite 
 incapable of diffusing that delightful and powerful 
 scent ascribed to the Fleur de The. It is true, 
 however, that the blossom of tea has a slight fra- 
 grance, and is occasionally used by the Chinese in 
 their tea. Two or three of these dried flowers are 
 put into a cup of tea, not on account of their fra- 
 grance, but for their ornamental appearance, which 
 is certainly elegant, when seen in their expanded 
 state floating on the surface of the pure and bright 
 infusion of tea, as used by the Chinese, who do not 
 cloud and adulterate it with any admixture of 
 sugar and milk. 
 
 The manipulation of this tea is thus described 
 by an old and respectable Chinese tea factor : — 
 " After the leaves are gathered, they are spread 
 out on flat bamboo trays in the air to evaporate 
 the watery juices, which is termed Leang Ching ; 
 they are then roasted (chao) once over a slow fire, 
 spread out again in trays to cool, and are after- 
 wards dried in a poey long. They require no 
 rolling." 
 
 The usual mode of rolling is certainly not em- 
 
156 PEKOE TEA. 
 
 ployed in the manipulation of Pekoe tea ; it would 
 obviously injure the hair or down of the leaves. 
 If of superior quality, it evidently can require 
 none, for the bud is already more compact in its 
 natural state than any process of art can make it. 
 Yet, as I have seen tea made after the manner of 
 Pekoe, a slight, but very slight degree of rolling 
 or pressure took place during the process of chao, 
 whilst the leaves were yet in the roasting vessel; 
 and I imagine this mode may prevail with such 
 Pekoes as have little flower, and where the bud is 
 partly expanded. It has already been explained, 
 that the process of rolling is simply to express the 
 j uices from the leaves ; the twist of the leaf is a 
 mere accident. This tea requires little roasting, 
 and a very moderate fire. Its principal drying 
 takes place in the poey long. It may have been 
 remarked in England, as in China, that Pekoe teas, 
 and especially such as have much flower, have 
 sometimes a musty smell and flavour, which I 
 imagine arises from the juices not having been suf- 
 ficiently evaporated in the process of roasting, little 
 or no pressure being used. 
 
 The gathering of this tea properly takes place be- 
 tween the 5th and 20th of April (from Tsing Ming 
 to Ko Yu) ; though it is obvious that it may be 
 gathered at any time when the leaf is found in the 
 state of bud. Most Chinese say that the newly 
 gathered leaves are first placed in the sun, and 
 afterwards in the air to cool. The Hong Moey 
 
SONCHY, OR CAPER TEA. 157 
 
 Pekoe, much of which is made for the Russian 
 market, is gathered rather later, and consists of a 
 more expanded leaf. The peculiar red appearance 
 of this tea is produced by a lengthened process of 
 the operation of To-ching, that is, by tossing the 
 leaves on trays, or by whirling them round in a 
 sieve, and by covering them up with another tray, 
 to promote the withering. Eck Hing, the tea- 
 merchant who introduced the Pekoe-kio teas, in- 
 formed me that the Hong Moey teas were partly 
 dried in the sun after the first roasting (chao). 
 I am disposed to think that the peculiar flavour of 
 this tea, its redness of leaf and infusion, may be 
 derived from some such cause. A lengthened 
 process of To-ching, the leaves being collected in 
 a heap and covered with a tray, both before and 
 after each roasting, together with a slow process 
 of drying in the drying tubes, would produce the 
 effect here sought. Mr. Jacobson states that Pekoe 
 tea requires much exposure to the sun previously 
 to roasting ; it should also be placed in close 
 rooms, and not exposed to the air, but kept warm ; 
 because it is advisable to hasten and promote the 
 ivitlmnng of the leaves. 
 
 SONCHY, OR CAPER TEA. 
 
 Each leaf of the superior kind of Sonchy is said to 
 be plucked separately from the shrubs ; being nipped 
 off by women, leaving no part of the stalk. The 
 
158 SONCHY, OR CAPER TEA. 
 
 apex of the leaf is also said to be pinclied off after- 
 wards ; so that only the largest of the young suc- 
 culent leaves are fit for this tea. The preparation 
 of the leaves previously to roasting is similar to 
 that of the Souchong tea. They undergo the 
 process of Leang Ching. If the leaves are full of 
 juices they are not roasted until the second day, 
 and are exposed to the sun, if necessary. Teas 
 gathered during rain are considered unfit for 
 Sonchy. They are roasted and rolled three times 
 in the usual manner. 
 
 The difi*erence in the manipulation of this tea 
 takes place in the process of poey. I shall there- 
 fore now explain the manner in which I have seen 
 the process performed. After the first drying in 
 the poey long, which is understood to include the 
 turning and drying the leaves on both sides, the 
 roller divided the quantity dried into two parcels : 
 each parcel was then formed into a ball, which the 
 roller pressed and squeezed with all his strength 
 between his hands. The leaves were afterwards 
 separated and spread out again in the sieves, and 
 dried as before. In this manner they were dried 
 and rolled eight times. The leaves, hoAvever, were 
 not so long exposed to the fire during the several 
 dryings as is usual with other teas, for this reason : 
 the juices which now remain being of a viscous 
 nature assist in the adhesion of the leaves to each 
 other, which in this tea is desirable ; since the ulti- 
 mate object is to form them into lumps. As the 
 
SONCHY, OR CAPER TEA. 159 
 
 leaves dried, tliis mode of rolling them into a ball 
 seemed also to increase their tenacity, so that after 
 two or three of the last rollings, when it was neces- 
 sary to separate the leaves preparatory to the 
 farther roas tings, the balls broke into large lumps, 
 which were again broken down and shaken into 
 still smaller pieces. Such of these lumps as were 
 yet too large and unsightly, were then pressed and 
 rolled between the finger and thumb, into the small 
 round pieces of which this tea principally consists ; 
 and which, from some fanciful resemblance to the 
 caper, is supposed to derive its English name of 
 Caper tea. The rolling being thus completed, the 
 leaves were again roasted, turned once, and then 
 left to dry in the usual mode. The caper tea, 
 however, made in this manner is an expensive tea, 
 delightful in quality, but which rarely finds its way 
 to Europe. 
 
 The whole of the Caper or Sonchy teas, formerly 
 imported into England either by the E. I. Company 
 or the officers of the Company's ships, were the 
 produce of the Ankoy country. The best kinds of 
 these teas were all scented more or less with the 
 Chu-lan flower ( Clilorantlius inconspicuus) ; but 
 the majority were made in a very coarse manner, 
 purposely burnt to supply the deficiency of flavour, 
 and consisted mainly of the leaves of the third and 
 fourth gatherings. During the process of rolling, 
 as above described, the leaves of some of these teas 
 are said to be dried in the sun, and not by means of 
 
160 LONG-CSIN TEA. 
 
 the poey long. It is further said, that when the 
 leaves are old and coarse a little liquid starch made 
 of rice is used to make them adhere together. For 
 the manner of scenting these teas, see the article 
 on " Scenting." 
 
 THE LONG-TUON AND NAO-CSEE TEAS. 
 
 The Long-tuon tea sometimes called T^ong-yen, 
 is a tea made into small balls about the size of a 
 nutmeg. It is made somewhat in the above man- 
 ner, and also that which is formed into little 
 bundles like fagots (Nao-csee). After the last 
 process of chao, the leaves are rolled between the 
 fingers and thumb into the size required for the 
 ball, and the ball is screwed up in a piece of paper. 
 The leaves of the fagot tea are stretched out and 
 tied at the two ends into a bundle. In this state 
 both teas are placed in the poey long to dry, 
 care being taken to turn them occasionally, and to 
 remove the paper from the balls when the leaves 
 are sufficiently dry to admit of it. 
 
 LONG-CSIN TEA. 
 
 This is a description of tea to which we must 
 devote a few words. It is a green tea, and con- 
 sists of the bud of the leaf like Pekoe tea. It is 
 made in Kiangnan and Chekiang, and is occa- 
 sionally used by the high officers of the govern- 
 ment on visits of ceremony. It was sometimes 
 
LONG CSIX TEA. 161 
 
 sent as presents to the E. I. Company's agents in 
 China, packed in small canisters containing about a 
 pound or half a pound of tea, with the name of the 
 tea engraved on the canister. Mr. Abel met with 
 this tea on his journey from Peking ; and describes 
 it as beinof a tea of considerable streno^h. It is 
 not esteemed by Europeans. This tea is prepared 
 agreeably to the ancient mode of steaming the 
 leaves, and afterwards drying them in an iron pan. 
 Yon Siebold gives a sufficiently accurate account 
 as to the mode in which this tea is prepared at 
 Japan ; and which corresponds, with some slight 
 difference, to the mode said to be employed by the 
 Chinese. This author has fallen into an error, 
 however, in supposing that to this mode of steaming 
 the leaves the peculiarity of green tea may be due ; 
 and that black tea is manipulated by what he 
 terms the " dry method." The practice of steaming 
 the leaves must be considered as altogether pectiliar ; 
 and is little employed either in China or Japan. It 
 accords more with the earlv art of makino- tea, 
 than the usual mode in practice at the present day. 
 More nearly approximating to the two modes of 
 manufacturing black and green tea are those which 
 he describes as the two dry methods. In one case 
 the entire desiccation takes place in an iron vessel ; 
 in the other, the desiccation first takes place in an 
 iron vessel, and finallv in a kind of drvinsf chest 
 fitted up with square divisions or drawers having 
 paper bottoms placed over a charcoal fire. The 
 
 M 
 
162 THE SCENTING OF TEA. 
 
 mode as described by Koempfer may be considered 
 the one most, in use, which corresponds with the 
 mode of manufacturing Twankay tea in China. 
 
 THE SCENTING OF TEA. 
 
 The Chinese seem universally to agree, in ancient 
 as in modern times, that no factitious scent can be 
 given to tea which at all equals its natural fra- 
 grance ; in short, they say, that " only common tea 
 requires scenting." Those persons who have had 
 the opportunity of drinking some of the finest 
 kinds of Souchong tea, will perhaps agree with the 
 Chinese in this opinion. There are, however, many 
 scented teas, which, so far from being inferior, are 
 even costly, and much esteemed both in China 
 and in Europe. Of these the Chu Lan, or Cowslip 
 Hyson, may be considered the best. I shall there- 
 fore now explain the manner in which I have seen 
 this process performed ; which, indeed, does not 
 differ greatly from that in practice 900 years ago, 
 as described in the Keun-fang-pu, a Chinese herbal. 
 The flowers may be gathered at any time of the 
 day, but those are considered the best and most 
 fragrant which are gathered while the dew is yet 
 on the leaves. 
 
 The tea about to be scented must be taken hot 
 from the last roasting, which immediately precedes 
 the packing, and poured into a Hyson chest, so as 
 to form a layer of two inches in height from the 
 
THE SCENTING OF TEA. 1G3 
 
 bottom. A handful or more of the fresh flowers, 
 already separated from the stalks, is then strewed 
 over the tea. In this manner the tea and flowers 
 are placed in layers until the chest is quite full. 
 The mouth of the canister is then closed ; and the 
 tea thus remains twenty-four hours. The proper 
 proportion is three catties of flowers to one hundred 
 catties of tea. The next day the chest is emptied, 
 when the tea and flowers are mixed together. They 
 then undergo the process of Poey, about three 
 catties being put into one sieve. The Poey Long 
 is completely closed, and the tea and flowers are 
 thus roasted about from one to two hours, or 
 rather until the flowers become crisp. The flowers 
 are then sifted out, and the tea packed. If the 
 tea requires any further scenting, fresh flowers 
 must be used, and the process repeated as before. 
 The method of Poey is the same as tliat used for 
 the black tea, only that the bottom of the sieve is 
 covered with thin paper. The tea thus prepared 
 is then mixed with other tea in the proportion of 
 one part of scented tea to twenty of plain. The 
 whole is then slightly heated in a Kuo (Chao), and, 
 when packed, constitutes the description of tea 
 denominated in England Cowslip Hyson. Tea may 
 be scented at any time with this kind of tea, but 
 it must be previously heated or roasted about two 
 hours. 
 
 The mode of scenting black tea difl'ers from that 
 of green : and, so fiir as I understand, there are two 
 
 M 2 
 
164 THE SCENTING OF TEA. 
 
 or three methods of performing this process. The 
 Sonchy or Caper teas, the Tet Sioiig, and other teas 
 of the cowslip flavour, are also scented with the 
 Chu Lan flower (Chloranthus inconspicuus). 
 
 After gathering, the flowers are separated from 
 the stalks as before, when some people dry them in 
 the sun ; but the best mode is to dry them in a 
 Poey Long over a slow Are, taking care not to 
 change the yellow colour of the petals. When 
 dried, they are put aside to cool, and are afterwards 
 reduced to a powder. If this powder, the scent of 
 which is very powerful, be sprinkled over the leaves 
 previously to the last or two last roastings and roll- 
 ings in the process of Poey, the tea will be highly 
 scented : but this is an expensive mode on account 
 of the additional quantity of flowers required, and 
 therefore is seldom practised. The usual mode is by 
 sprinkling a small quantity of this powder over the 
 tea during the last process of Poey, which takes 
 place previously to packing. A small white 
 powder, frequently found in black teas of the caper 
 flavour, cannot have escaped the observation of the 
 tea-dealers in England : this powder is that of the 
 Chu Lan flower, whose colour has been changed to 
 white in the process of Poey. 
 
 There is another scented tea, of excellent flavour, 
 which is made in small quantities, and occasionally 
 sent to foreigners as presents. This is a Souchong 
 tea, scented Avith the flower of the Pac Sheem 
 (Gardenia florida). 
 
BOHEA TEA. I(j5 
 
 There are two other scented teas, also of fine 
 flavour : both Souchong teas, the one scented with 
 the Quy-fa or Kuey-hoa (Olea fragrans) ; and the 
 other with the Moo-Ly-Hoa (Jasininum Sambac). 
 Some people say that these three last teas are mixed 
 with the flowers, as the liyson tea is mixed with the 
 Chu Lan, and are scented in the same manner. But 
 others say that two sieves are placed in the Poey 
 Long, the lower one containing the flowers, and 
 the upper one the tea. The latter is the mode in 
 which the Pac Sheem tea, to which I have pre- 
 viously alluded, is scented. These are all the flowers 
 with which I am acquainted, which are employed 
 to scent tea ; but in the Keun Fang Pu and 
 Quang Tong Chy (or Canton Geographical History) 
 many others are enumerated as eligible for that 
 purpose. These works also observe that flowers so 
 used should be full blown. 
 
 BOHEA TEA. 
 
 In the early part of the eighteenth century, the 
 word Bohea was applied in general society to all 
 black tea in contradistinction to Singlo or green 
 tea; as may be seen by our poets and dramatists of 
 that age. 
 
 With merchants and dealers it has long since 
 been considered to mean the coarsest description 
 of tea imported into Europe. To the Chinese it 
 was known by the name of Ta Cha (large leaf tea), 
 
 M 3 
 
166 BOHEA TEA. 
 
 because it consisted of the old full-grown leaves 
 which remained on the shrubs after the regular tea 
 harvest had been gathered. It was formerly 
 brought from the Bohea country in baskets, in an 
 unmanipulated state, to be roasted and packed at 
 Canton. On its arrival, some had a heated sour 
 smell; some a musty, and others a saponaceous 
 smell : so that all this tea had, I imagine, under- 
 gone a partial, if not complete, fermentation. 
 Nevertheless it entirely lost this objectionable cha- 
 racter in the subsequent process of roasting, though 
 it still remained of very inferior quality. 
 
 Some years since a great improvement was 
 eiFected in the quality of this tea, as well as in all 
 the arrangements connected with it. An attempt 
 was made to discontinue the drying and packing at 
 Canton ; and to obtain it packed, and of suitable 
 quality, direct from the tea country. Instead of the 
 bulky chests containing 300 lbs. of tea, a size which 
 long custom had sanctioned without much reflec- 
 tion or consideration, others were now constructed 
 of dimensions more convenient, both for stowage on 
 board ship, and for transport down the country. 
 
 Mr. Elphinstone (to whom I am happy in having 
 an opportunity of alluding), then the president of 
 the Select Committee for the management of the 
 British affairs in China, a man of enlarged views, 
 of great firmness of character combined with a most 
 conciliating disposition and mild deportment, and 
 who was well known for his strenuous and success- 
 
BROUGHT BY SEA. 16T 
 
 ful resistance to the vexatious exactions and ob- 
 noxious and embarrassing policy of the officers of 
 the Canton government, has the merit of having 
 introduced this great improvement into the con- 
 duct of this part of the tea trade : to which I here 
 advert, because it led to consequences and bene- 
 fits at that time little contemplated or understood ; 
 viz. the discovery of the port of Foo-chew-foo, the 
 nearest port to the black tea districts, and the most 
 eligible for the shipment of the black teas. 
 
 The first experiment, so far as my memory serves, 
 Avas tried in season 1811 or 1812; but the large 
 chests, though greatly reduced in size, were still 
 found too cumbersome and inconvenient on account 
 of frequent transhipment by water, and portage 
 across the mountains, during the inland transport 
 of this tea to Canton. It happened, however, that 
 the coast at this period was no longer infested with 
 pirates, so that in subsequent years it was found 
 practicable to bring this improved description of 
 Bohea to Canton by sea. It Avas designated " up- 
 country Bohea," and was collected and made in the 
 neighbourhood of Fong Lock, north of Kien-ning- 
 foo. In three or four days it was transported down 
 the River Min direct from the Bohea district to the 
 city of Foo-chew-foo, the capital of the province. 
 Hence it was transhipped on Junks, carrying from 
 three to five thousand chests ; and in about 
 thirteen days it arrived at Canton. 
 
 The usual route, through the province of Kiang- 
 
 M 4 
 
168 BOHEA TEA, 
 
 sy, is a tedious and expensive journey of about 800 
 miles, occupying about forty days or two months. 
 
 The great saving of time and expense thus effected 
 by the conveyance of the Bohea tea by so novel 
 a route, immediately attracted the attention of the 
 Tea Men ; and during the four following years a 
 vast quantity of Congou tea was brought to Canton 
 by the same channel. 
 
 The jealousy of the Canton Government, however, 
 was soon excited by the Hong merchants; and 
 finally, in consequence of gross misrepresentations 
 transmitted to the Court of Peking, an Imperial 
 Edict was obtained, prohibiting the transit of tea 
 by sea to parts of the empire south of the port of 
 Foo-chew-foo. But for this interference, little doubt 
 can be entertained that the whole or the greater 
 part of the black teas would shortly have been 
 brought to Canton by sea. And were this edict 
 rescinded, or no longer in force, there seems little 
 reason to doubt that the black teas would again 
 find their way to Canton by this route, as formerly ; 
 and thus afibrd a practical illustration of the capa- 
 bilities of the internal navigation, the practicability 
 of the port, and the apparently exaggerated and 
 ungrounded reports and apprehensions Avith which 
 the Europeans resident at Canton are at present 
 assailed. 
 
 But in the present temper of the Imperial Govern- 
 ment, any rescinding of the edict may be hopeless, 
 though it may be prudent to keep the removal of 
 
TRANSPOET BY SEA PROHIBITED. 169 
 
 this restriction constantly in view. There is in the 
 minds of the Chinese an apprehension of evil from 
 the opening of this port ; and though neither the 
 Imperial nor the local Government might be dis- 
 posed to commit themselves by interposing any 
 direct impedhnents in the way of the trade, yet 
 they show no anxiety to favour its extension at 
 this port. 
 
 The edict alluded to, when first issued, pro- 
 hibited the shipment of all tea from this port. The 
 merchants engaged in the northern trade petitioned 
 against this prohibition, and obtained an exemption : 
 but the restriction remained in force against the 
 shipment of teas to the southward. The grounds 
 also on which the law was framed are offensive 
 to Europeans; and, since the motives for its con- 
 tinuance no longer prevail, in consequence of the 
 extension of our commercial privileges, no favour- 
 able ojDportunity should be lost sight of to procure 
 the repeal of this edict. 
 
 It appears, by a statement transmitted to the 
 Court of Peking by the Viceroy of the province of 
 Quong Tong, that the quantity of tea thus brought 
 by sea amounted in the year 1813 to 1,019,720 lbs. 
 English; and that in the year 1816 it had pro- 
 gressively increased to 8,965,200 lbs. : thus exhibit- 
 ing an increase of nearly nine-fold in three years. 
 In the report here alluded to, the Viceroy proceeded 
 to state that — " If the transit of tea coast ways be 
 permitted, there will be no security that traitorous 
 
170 IMPORTANCE OF THE PORT 
 
 natives may not combine with crafty foreigners, 
 and form an emporium for tea upon some island ; 
 and having succeeded in so doing, the proud 
 foreigners, getting their tea with such facility, may 
 become indifferent, and no longer respect or seek 
 the favour of China." * 
 
 About this period Puankhequa, who had been 
 the principal Hong merchant for many years, but 
 had obtained permission from the Imperial Govern- 
 ment to retire from business, was now recalled, and 
 to his interference, I am disposed to think, may be 
 ascribed the impediments now thrown in the way 
 of this mode of transit. This wealthy merchant 
 was an able man, and possessed many excellent 
 qualities. In his habits he was social and kind, and 
 in his control of foreigners not ungenerous: but 
 he was vain, and fond of power, and of keeping 
 foreigners under restraint. This wily politician 
 soon saw that if the teas were brought by sea from 
 Foo-chew-foo, Europeans could not fail to be struck 
 with the absurdity of a voyage so unnecessary and 
 disadvantageous, and would become the more im- 
 patient under the restrictive and vexatious policy 
 to which they had so long submitted ; but under 
 which, as they advanced in a knowledge of the lan- 
 guage, which had recently been cultivated with 
 much assiduity and success, they were daily be- 
 coming more impatient. He therefore determined 
 
 * Mr. Reeves's MSS. papers. 
 
OF FOO-CHEW-FOO. 171 
 
 to nip their hopes in the bud. His mode of ac- 
 complishing this object was, I believe, by bribing 
 the Custom-house officers at Sheu-chew-fu to 
 report to the Provincial Governments of Quong 
 Tong and Kiang Sy, that a considerable defalcation 
 had taken place in the transit duties in consequence 
 of the novel mode of transit of teas by sea. Nor 
 were the officers of the Canton Government less 
 alive to the threatened reduction of their emolu- 
 ments, in the event of the removal of the trade to 
 a northern port. The late negotiations also have 
 proved how reluctantly the Imperial Government 
 consented to the opening of the Port of Foo-chew- 
 foo : not, however, from any anticipated loss that 
 might accrue to the Imperial or Provincial Treasury 
 on account of a defalcation of the duties, for these 
 are small, and altogether insignificant ; the whole 
 amount of transit duty through the provinces of 
 Kiang Sy and Quong Tong not exceeding 2 mace 
 4 candereens the pecul, or half a farthing on the 
 pound avoirdupois ; but on a well-grounded appre- 
 hension that the opening of this port, and this 
 port alone, might accomplish what all the other 
 ports may fail to effect, viz. the removal of the 
 greater part of the black tea trade from the port of 
 Canton : thus occasioning the serious inconvenience 
 of throwing a number of men and boats out of 
 employ in the provinces through which the teas had 
 been so long conveyed; besides a depreciation of pro- 
 perty, and other disadvantages not easy to enume- 
 
172 PREJUDICES AGAINST FOO-CHEW-FOO 
 
 rate. In short, it cannot be doubted that the 
 readiness with which all other demands were 
 granted, and the resistance offered to the opening 
 of this port, mark its importance in the estimation of 
 the Imperial Government, as threatening the re- 
 moval of the black tea trade from the port of 
 Canton. And too much praise cannot be bestowed 
 on Sir Henry Pottinger for his great sagacity in at 
 once duly appreciating the importance of this port, 
 and for his firmness in risking a renewal of hos- 
 tilities to secure so great a privilege. It is to be 
 hoped that advantages thus obtained by arms, may 
 not be cast to the winds and rendered nugatory, 
 through the supineness and want of enterprise on 
 the part of the British merchants established at 
 Canton. 
 
 It must be acknowledged, however, that the 
 navigation of the river Min, both above and below 
 bridge, does appear to present certain difficulties ; 
 and the port, especially, is not so accessible as that 
 of Amoy or Shanghai ; but let these disadvantages 
 be examined dispassionately, and with a disposition 
 to counteract them, and we shall then find, perhaps, 
 that many ungrounded fears may vanish before a 
 strict and fair investigation, and that such as are 
 real, and remain, may be surmounted by the or- 
 dinary means and expedients which navigators are 
 compelled to adopt at even the most favoured 
 ports of the world. 
 
 But in this examination it must be borne in 
 
EXAMINED AND ANSWERED. 173 
 
 mind that this port has never been recommended 
 or selected as one favourable for the diffusion of 
 our manufactures over the empire (Shanghai is 
 the natural port for our imports into China), but 
 simply as the best port for the shipment of our 
 black teas ; in consequence of the great expense 
 of transporting so bulky an article across the 
 mountainous ranges which isolate, as it were, the 
 province from the rest of the empire. 
 
 First, Avith respect to the river Min above the 
 bridge of Foo-chew-foo, Ogilby observes, that, 
 " from the town of Pu-ching-hien to Kiu-keu, the 
 river falls with great force of water througli val- 
 ies, rocks, and cliffs ; but from thence glides on 
 but slowly. In three days they go from the above 
 town to Foo-chew-foo with the stream, whereas 
 they are fifteen days towing up against it." * 
 
 Kiu-keu I understand to be on the Pu-ching- 
 hien branch of the river, before its junction with 
 the other branch at Kien-ning-fu : consequently 
 these difficulties, if so considered, are not con- 
 nected Yv'ith the transport of the teas from the 
 Bohea country to Foo-chew-foo. 
 
 The Fokien merchants say that in spring, the 
 currents then being rapid, in four daj's the teas 
 are transported down to Foo-chew-foo, but that 
 in autumn it requires eight. 
 
 The Dutchembassy under Van Hoorn, in 1647 f, 
 
 * Ogilby's China, p. 267. t lb. 
 
174 PREJUDICES AGAINST FOO-CHEW-FOO 
 
 which passed up this river in the month of Feb- 
 ruary on their way to Peking, were (exclusive of 
 stop2:)ages in certain towns) about seventeen days on 
 their passage from Foo-chew-foo to Pu-ching-hien, 
 and seven days on their return in the month of 
 September and November. They met with rocks 
 and falls, and one boat was wrecked. 
 
 Here, then, we see nothing but a laborious 
 current to stem, and a descent requiring care and 
 a certain amount of skill. There may also be falls 
 and rapids, over which pilotage may be necessary, 
 dangers to which the teas are already exposed in 
 passing the She-pa-tan, or eighteen cataracts, in the 
 province of Kiang-sy, where pilots are hired, and 
 where the principal part of the damage takes place 
 on their transit to Canton. But whatever these 
 dangers may be, Mr. Alcock observes, " they are 
 made light of by the best informed. The loss of 
 a boat is of rare occurrence, and generally attri- 
 buted to carelessness, or the untrustworthy state 
 of the boat." * Moreover, the tea-men are ready 
 to conclude bargains in tea, taking all risk and 
 cost of transport on themselves, and to deliver 
 them at fixed prices at any part of the river where 
 it may best suit a ship of burden to lie for her 
 cargo (page 10.) ; and this at a rate much less 
 than the same can be purchased at Canton (page 
 8. ib.). 
 
 * Parliamentary papers on the returns of the China trade, 
 January, 1847, p. 8. 
 
EXAMINED AND ANS^\T:iiED. 175 
 
 But the surest test in all matters of risk and 
 clanger, whether by sea or land, is the rate of 
 insurance, or the cost of transport. This is an 
 unfailing measure of danger and difficulty, which 
 mercantile men will be unwilling to discredit. 
 
 With respect to the cost of transport of the 
 teas from the Bohea country to Foo-chew-foo it is 
 stated by Mr. Alcock to be about 9 mace the 
 pecul, a charge by no means exorbitant ; and only 
 one fourth of the simple expense of carriage to 
 Canton, viz. 36 mace. But I have reason to 
 think, on very good authority, that this charge 
 does not amount to more than 4 mace 3 candareens 
 the pecul* ; while the cost of carriage simply across 
 the mountains which separate the Bohea country 
 from the other provinces amounts to no less than 
 12 mace 5 candareens. Nor can the teas (as 
 already shown) be moved out of this province 
 without incurring an expense of carriage of five 
 times the amount necessary for shipping them from 
 the port of Foo-chew-foo. If these calculations, 
 coming from different sources, and at remote pe- 
 riods of time, be correct, how utterly insignificant 
 must the amount of dano-er be in the navio:ation 
 of the river Min, which entails so small an amount 
 of comparative cost. But, even admitting these 
 drawbacks to be greater than they appear to be, 
 
 * R.Asiatic Society's Journal, May, 1840, p. 36. A paper 
 of mine, whence much of the matter that follows is taken. 
 
176 PREeTUDICES AGAINST FOO-CHEW-rOO 
 
 still, supposing the trade once to be set in action 
 and progressing, tliey are not likely to present 
 serious and permanent obstacles to a people who 
 have carried the great wall of China over moun- 
 tains and through vallies for a distance of a 
 thousand miles ; who have constructed that great 
 work, the grand canal, extending in an irregular 
 line for five hundred miles, with its spacious quays 
 and locks of solid granite and marble ; who have 
 turned the course of a rapid river * ; directing, by 
 a happy conception of genius, one stream to flow 
 to the north, and the other to the south ; who 
 have cut capacious passes over lofty mountains, 
 as the Ta-moey-lingf, in Kiang-sy, and the pass of 
 Pu-ching-hien J, in Fokien, and other passes of the 
 empire, solely for the purpose of increasing the 
 facilities of communication and transport of goods. 
 Nor is it easy to And any part of the habitable 
 globe where the mountain streams and rivers have 
 been turned, by art and enterprise, to an equally 
 beneficial account for the economic purposes of 
 irrigation and navigation ; and still less where a 
 complete water-communication, perfectly uninter- 
 rupted and unimpeded by mountains and land 
 journeys, has been secured by a favourable confl- 
 
 * The River Luen, at the summit level of the Grand Canal. 
 See Staunton's Embassy to China, vol. ii. p. 387. 
 t Ibid. p. 507. 
 J Du Halde's China, vol. i. p. 87., translation. 
 
EXAMINED AND ANSWERED. 177 
 
 guration of the country, improved by art, skill, 
 and intelligence, to seven-tenths "of a population 
 reckoned at the lowest estimate to amount to 
 200,000,000 of souls. Nor shall we readily find 
 elsewhere boats of such various forms and con- 
 structions, some built Avith lofty and well-decked 
 prows to pass falls and rapids ; others long, low, 
 and narrow, for S23eed ; others broad and high, for 
 cargo ; and others for comfort and the convenience 
 of travelling, as well as some gaily ornamented, 
 for pleasure and amusement. 
 
 Again, if we test the navigable condition of the 
 river Min by the population on its banks, we find 
 the city of Foo-chew-foo rated at 500,000 souls. 
 The Rev. G. Smith is disposed to estimate it even 
 as high as 600,000, a population the two thirds of 
 • that of Paris, nearly double that of Vienna , and nearly 
 equal to that of Naples. The population of Ivien- 
 ning-fu was estimated by a census taken in 1790 to 
 contain 250,000 persons — a population superior to 
 Manchester, and nearly equal to Liverpool. The 
 population of Yen-ping-foo, the key of the pro- 
 vince, must also be considerable, and likewise the 
 towns of Kien-Yang-foo, Pu-ching-hien, and others ; 
 so that the population on the banks of the Min 
 alone may not be overstated at one and a lialf mil- 
 lion of souls. But if we turn to the map of the 
 province in Du Halde, or, still better, to Martini's 
 Geography of China, we shall perceive that the Min 
 and its tributaries cover tAvo thirds of the province ; 
 
 N 
 
178 PREJUDICES AGAINST FOO-CHEW-FOO 
 
 and if we reckon the whole population at 8,000,000, 
 agreeably to the Pere Allerstain *, in lieu of 
 15,000,000, as given by the highest modern authori- 
 ties, still even this estimate, low as it may be, would 
 furnish to the Min and its tributaries a popula- 
 tion of 5,500,000. And can a free and easy com- 
 munication with a population of this magnitude 
 be a matter of indifference, as affecting our imports 
 into China ? Or, is it probable that a commercial 
 population, of double the amount of that of the 
 second commercial city of Great Britain, could 
 have risen up in the principal city of the province, 
 without possessing, like Liverpool, all the attributes 
 which an extended commerce demands ? 
 
 Du Halde informs us, that no less than 10,000 
 porters are regularly employed at the town of Pu- 
 ching-hien, in the transport of goods across the 
 mountainous range which separates Fokien from 
 Chekiang, which is the direct route from Foo-chew- 
 foo to Hang-chew-foo and the grand canal. This 
 mountain pass extends for thirty leagues, and is 
 furnished with towns full of inns for lodging tra- 
 vellers, f Thus it is obvious, from the number of 
 towns, inns, and porters employed, that this route 
 must be a much-frequented one, and that consider- 
 able traffic consequently exists on the river Min, 
 to and from the province of Chekiang. 
 
 The trade of Foo-chew-foo is also considerable. 
 
 * Memoires des Chinois, torn. vi. p. 275. 
 
 I Du Hnlde's China, vol. i. p. 87., translation. 
 
EXAMINED AND ANSWERED. 179 
 
 It is stated in the parliamentary papers on the re- 
 tarns of the China trade, printed January, 1847, 
 that the actual quantity of imports in 1678 junks, is 
 valued at 3,177,145 dollars ; exports in 1281 junks, 
 at 11,654,653 dollars. The quantity of tea recorded 
 to be shipped from this port is so insignificant, that 
 I cannot but suspect that some concealment has been 
 practised by the Chinese with regard to the quantity 
 shipped to the northern ports. It seems inexplicable 
 that the northern merchants should petition against 
 a prohibition in which they had no interest. Thus 
 by whatever test we examine the practicability of the 
 navigation of this river, whether by the quantity 
 of tea brought down to be shipped to Canton from 
 the year 1813 to 1816; the rate of charge for 
 boat hire ; the amount of population on its banks ; 
 or the amount of the existing trade of the port, 
 and traffic on the river ; thev all furnish evidence 
 of great internal activity and prosperity, an actual 
 state of trade of considerable magnitude, and the 
 elements of great future increase; — deficient in one 
 point only, the energy and enterprise of British 
 merchants to develop it. 
 
 Let it also be remembered that Canton owes her 
 prosperity mainly to the foreign trade. It is neither 
 the place of consumption of our imports into China, 
 nor the seat of growth of any of our exports from 
 it ; but in whatever degree our trade has nursed and 
 reared up new domestic industry at Canton, the 
 habits, taste, and disposition of the people, being in 
 
 N 2 
 
180 PKEJUDICES AGAINST FOO-CHEW-FOO 
 
 these respects everywhere the same, similar effects 
 would be produced at any port to which our trade 
 may be extended. 
 
 Moreover, if we are to look to an extension of the 
 cultivation of tea, as a mode of payment for im- 
 ports, and as the principal means by which an ex- 
 tension of our imports into China may be rendered 
 profitable, where can we hope to accomplish this 
 end with the same promise of success, as in the 
 vicinity of the districts where it may be said, with- 
 out any exaggeration, that nearly the whole of our 
 black teas are manufactured, and whence, by a 
 circuitous, tedious, and expensive route, they are at 
 present procured ? The whole line of the river Min 
 and its tributaries, with their mountainous as- 
 pects, and their vallies, with running streams, may 
 afford suitable and untried sites for the cultivation 
 of tea ; and here, in fact, the tree may be seen 
 growing wild among its native hills. There is 
 much reason also to think, that superior modes of 
 manipulation prevail in the Bohea districts, which 
 must be adopted in other provinces before the teas 
 of such provinces can be rendered available to the 
 European. 
 
 With respect to the navigation up the river Min 
 beloAV bridge, and the approach from sea, Mr. Al- 
 cock observes — "I must believe from all the inform- 
 ation to which I have had access, that the entrance 
 to the river, and its navigation to Pagoda Island, 
 to an experienced pilot offers no insurmountable 
 
EXAMINED AND ANSWERED. 181 
 
 difficulty ; no clanger which is not equalled by 
 physical peculiarities of many flourishing ports in 
 different parts of the world. 
 
 " The bad approach and troublesome navigation 
 are, doubtless, disadvantages ; Avhich, together with 
 the long prevalence of the north-east monsoon, and 
 the want of a good harbour off the mouth in the 
 south-west, are unquestionably grave and serious 
 drawbacks, but no more." (Parliamentary Papers on 
 the Returns of the China Trade, January, 1847, 
 p. 10.) 
 
 But I learn from Capt. Collinson, R.N., who was 
 emploj^ed in making extensive surveys along the 
 east coast of China, that by fixing a " basket " on 
 some rocks visible, at low water, and by erecting 
 a small pagoda on one which is never covered 
 (privileges secured by treaty), ships may sail into 
 this port in a gale of wind without a pilot ; and 
 that by advancing up the river at a suitable time 
 of the tide, the navigation as high as Pagoda Island, 
 which is within ten miles of the city, is a less intri- 
 cate and less difficult navigation than either the 
 Thames or the Mersey. There are eddies and 
 currents in this river, but they offer no impediment 
 or difficulty at a proper time of the tide. 
 
 It was long since suggested, however, that the 
 islands at the mouth of the river, and especially 
 one now known by the name of Wo-ga, would afford 
 all the requisites for a port of trade. Here is an 
 ample supply of water, and the anchorage is as safe 
 
 N 3 
 
182 PEEJUDICES AGAINST FOO-CHEW-FOO 
 
 and good as in any part of the river ; the distance 
 is about the same as from Canton to the second 
 bar. Were it deemed advisable to establish the 
 trade at this point, it would not be difficult to in- 
 duce the tea-men to deliver their teas at this port : 
 the construction of a suitable form of boat would 
 offer no more impediment here, than it did at Can- 
 ton ; the chop-boat, as it is called, was constructed, 
 and is exclusively used, for the foreign trade. In 
 the event of any future collision with the Chinese, 
 it might be a matter for grave consideration, 
 whether this island might not be rendered an im- 
 portant commercial settlement in our hands. 
 
 Although far from meaning to advocate monopoly 
 in any form, 5^et justice compels me to say, that had 
 the privilege of trading to Foo-chew-foo been ob- 
 tained during the existence of the East India Com- 
 pany's charter, from the unity of action and energy 
 which a corporate body possesses over individual 
 traders pursuing their separate interests, the greater 
 part of the black teas would have been shipped from 
 this port in less than four years. The usual con- 
 tracts would have been made with the tea-men at 
 Canton, and the usual monies advanced; but with 
 this simple difference in the engagement, to deliver 
 their teas at Foo-chew-foo instead of bringing them 
 to Canton. And can it be doubted that these people 
 would gladly have hailed a change which ceased to 
 inflict on them the penalty of a tedious and harass- 
 ing journey, as well as a long and painful separa- 
 tion from their homes and families ? 
 
EXAMINED AND ANSWERED. 183 
 
 "But time alone can show," as observed by Mr. 
 Alcock, "how far the advantages of this port are of 
 a nature to excite the British mercantile commu- 
 nity to divert their capital from Canton, and em- 
 ploy the same amount of energy and intelligence at 
 Foo-chew-foo ; for on this, after all, must depend 
 the prospects of this port, as a mart for tea and 
 British produce." (Parliamentary Papers on the 
 Returns of the China Trade, January, 1847, p. 10.) 
 
 Venice preserved much of her commerce with 
 India for nearly half a century after the discovery 
 of the passage by the Cape of Good Hope. Thus 
 the apparent predilection still subsisting for Canton, 
 and the mistrust now operating against tlie port of 
 Foo-chew-foo, may furnish history with another 
 example, that — " When any branch of commerce 
 has got into a certain channel, although it may be 
 neither the most proper, nor the most commodious 
 one, it requires time and considerable efforts to 
 give it a different direction." 
 
 To return to our subject after a long digression, 
 though, I trust, not an unimportant or irrelevant 
 one : — the prohibition of the transport of tea by sea 
 rendered other arrangements necessary regarding 
 the Bohea. The large chests, even though reduced 
 in size and weight, were found too bulky and heavy 
 for inland conveyance. Finally, after a few more 
 experiments, it was found expedient to adopt the 
 form of the ordinary Congou chest. Consequently 
 a strong chest of this description was constructed, 
 
 N 4 
 
184 BOHEA TEA. 
 
 bearing a roughly printed cliop-mark or inscription, 
 in unusually large and conspicuous Chinese charac- 
 ters to distinguish these teas from the regular Congou 
 teas. Thus the large chests intended for the floor- 
 ing of the ships were again obliged to be prepared 
 and packed at Canton. But the packing was now 
 performed at the risk of the Hong merchant ; and 
 the price settled on examination of a sample of 
 packed, instead of unpacked tea, as in all other 
 cases. 
 
 The leaves of this tea, whether collected in the 
 Bohea or Wo Ping districts, all consist, as before 
 observed, of the old and coarse leaves left on the 
 shrubs after the gathering of the usual harvest. 
 Suey Lan states, that these leaves are plucked in 
 July and August, but not bought before Sep- 
 tember or October. They are gathered by bending 
 down the branches of the shrubs, stripping them in 
 the rudest manner, by passing the hand along the 
 branch, as described by Mr. Fortune, and sometimes 
 with a bamboo knife held between the forefinger 
 and the thumb. 
 
 They are then exposed to the sun, or air, a short 
 time, when they are packed in baskets. 
 
 In the Bohea country, it is the practice of the 
 merchant to send the tea, which he has contracted 
 for, or purchased in the rough state, to his own 
 packing houses, where it is roasted two days in 
 roasting houses constructed for that purpose. In 
 the Wo Ping country, it is packed sometimes in 
 
BOHEA TEA. 
 
 185 
 
 baskets, but generally in tubs, and sent to Canton, 
 where it undergoes a similar process of roasting. 
 Yfhen brought in tubs it is sifted, assorted, and 
 started into a pile, from which it is loosely repacked 
 into bamboo " barrel-shaped baskets " slightly put 
 together, and of somewhat open work, for the better 
 admission and circulation of heated air ; but the 
 inside is well lined with soft paper to prevent loss 
 of tea. 
 
 The houses constructed at Canton for this jDur- 
 pose consist of brick buildings divided into as many 
 chambers as may be required, all on the ground 
 floor. Each chamber has a door in front with a 
 small opening at the bottom, to which is fitted a 
 slide which opens and shuts at pleasure. This 
 small aperture is for the purpose of admitting a 
 
186 BOHEA TEA. 
 
 long rake, with which the charcoal when in a perfect 
 state of ignition is stirred and spread out. At the 
 end of each chamber, opposite the folding doors, is a 
 square opening or window which closes with a shut- 
 ter, opening outwards, so that a thorough draught 
 may be produced as required, to ignite the charcoal 
 or to cool the tea when sufficiently roasted. For 
 this latter purpose the doors are also opened to 
 produce a draught through the building. On the 
 ground, or tiled floor, a channel is constructed, or 
 a receptacle built up about sixteen inches in width, 
 extending nearly the whole length of each chamber. 
 Into this receptacle or open stove, the charcoal is 
 placed in heaps at convenient distances till properly 
 ignited, when it is raked and spread out. An open 
 frame-work rudely constructed of small spars, and 
 divided into six tiers, or heights, receives the baskets, 
 and thus occupies either side of each chamber, the 
 charcoal being placed in the centre between the 
 two fi^ames. These frames are raised on square 
 pillars of brick-work about two feet in height, and 
 at such intervals as may be necessary to support 
 the superincumbent weight. The baskets are 
 placed on the stands in single rows on their sides, 
 having their mouths towards the hre. The mouth 
 of each basket is closed with a thin sheet of lead, 
 mostly a piece of an old tea canister, in order to 
 protect the tea from the extreme heat of the fire. 
 The backs of the baskets are some inches distant 
 from the wall, so that a free circulation of heat may 
 
BOIIEA TEA. 187 
 
 be kept up throughout the stands and around every 
 part of the baskets. Each tier contains 20 baskets, 
 or 120 on either side of the chamber. The usual 
 quantity roasted at one time in the several chambers 
 is sufficient to pack 400 large chests of Bohea, each 
 weighing 132 catties; thus making the total quan- 
 tity in all the chambers 528 peculs, or 70,400 lbs. 
 of tea. 
 
 Goqua, a Hong merchant, informed me that each 
 of his chambers contained 300 baskets of fifty catties 
 each ; and that the roasting was continued three 
 days, the charcoal being renewed every six hours, 
 at the rate of two and a-half peculs each time, or 
 ten peculs the night and day ; thus making the 
 consumption of charcoal 30 peculs to 150 peculs 
 of tea, or as 1 to 5. A pecul is 1335 lt)s. 
 
 The folloAving are the dimensions of three sets 
 of chambers belonging to Conseequa, Chun qua, and 
 Goqua. 
 
 Conseeqi 
 
 iia. 
 
 Chunqua. 
 
 Goqua, 
 
 Cubits. 
 
 Feet. 
 
 Feet. 
 
 Feet. 
 
 Depth 28-5 
 
 34-9 
 
 32-5 
 
 41-5 
 
 Breadth 9 '5 
 
 11-7 
 
 11 
 
 14-7 
 
 Height 10 
 
 12-2 
 
 11-8 
 
 15-2 
 
 The window in Chunqua's roasting houses was 
 2*6 ft. by 1*10 ft. wide. Agreeably to Consee- 
 qua's statement, his chambers would only roast 
 240 baskets each, or 140 peculs of tea ; thus making 
 the contents of each basket 58^ instead of 50, as 
 stated by Goqua. 
 
188 BRICK OR TILE TEA. 
 
 The tea thus roasted is then mixed with a supe- 
 rior kind of Wo Ping tea roasted in the Wo Ping * 
 country, and brought down in tubs by water car- 
 riage; together with old and low Congou, and 
 sometimes with low green tea. This mixture 
 is regulated according to the quality required. 
 The proportions being determined, the tea is then 
 thrown into a heap or pile as already described, 
 so as to form a mixture of one uniform quality. 
 
 Each Hong merchant has a place fitted up in 
 one of his warehouses for this purpose. The floor 
 is boarded and a little raised above the general 
 level of the floor or ground of the warehouse. 
 This compartment is fitted in front with sliding 
 pannels for the purpose of retaining the tea, which 
 are removed by degrees as the tea is diminished in 
 bulk in the course of packing. Its dimensions 
 are about fifty feet long, twelve broad, and eight 
 hio^h. The tea is weierhed in baskets as filled from 
 the heap, to secure a uniform weight in the pack- 
 ing ; and each large or whole chest, as it is termed, 
 contains on an average about one hundred and 
 seventy-two pounds. 
 
 BRICK OR TILE TEA. 
 
 The name of this tea is obviously derived from 
 its form, and might be supposed to furnish a clue 
 
 * N. Lat. 24° 30', Long. 1° 35' west of Peking. 
 
BRICK OR TILE TEA. 189 
 
 to its bulk. It, nevertheless, varies much in form 
 as well as in Aveight. Pallas, Moorcroft, and a 
 Chinese with whom I was acquainted, who was 
 afterwards unfortunately banished for some years 
 to Hi, furnish an average length of 16 inches, 
 breadth 5^, depth 1^, and of weight 7^ lbs. 
 avoirdupois. But Dr. Falconer met with tablets 
 of this tea in cubes of nine inches. 
 
 Again, these tablets not only differ in size but 
 in appearance. Some seem composed of leaves as 
 if wetted, and in that state forcibly compressed ^ ; 
 others of leaves which have been rolled like tea ; 
 and some of leaves as if macerated in water and 
 reduced nearly to a state of pulp, or pulverised 
 while dry and then wetted. The angular form, 
 shape, and solidity of these tablets, clearly demon- 
 strate, that a mould and considerable pressure are 
 employed in their fonnation. Their cohesion is 
 supposed to be derived from a process of steeping 
 the leaves in the serum of the blood of animals, 
 agreeably to some ; or from their being sprinkled 
 with a solution of rice, according to others. Both 
 these expedients rnay be employed, when the leaves 
 are found deficient in viscidity, from age or other 
 defects. I have no information on which I can 
 rely concerning the manipulation of this tea ; but 
 I feel confident that when the leaves are young or 
 in a suitable state of maturity, as regarding growth, 
 
 * Moorcroft's Travels, vol. i. pp. 350, 35 1. 
 
190 BRICK OR TILE TEA. 
 
 the viscid juices which they naturally contain would 
 be found sufficient to preserve them in any form 
 impressed on them. Indeed, one of the incon- 
 veniences experienced in the manipulation of tea, 
 is the necessity of constant attention lest the 
 leaves agglutinate and form into lumps or masses. 
 On a small scale, as in Caper, Long-tuon, and Gun- 
 powder teas, we have known examples of this power 
 of natural cohesion ; and in fact the same may be 
 remarked of all tea, as the twist and curl of the 
 leaf is fixed and rendered permanent by the gluten 
 contained in it, aided by heat, and the processes of 
 manipulation. 
 
 But when we consider that this tea is for the 
 most part of very inferior quality, as I know from 
 personal examination, and may be classed with our 
 common Bohea, — consequently fabricated of leaves 
 deficient in natural gluten, — it is quite possible 
 that both the above expedients may be resorted to 
 in order to retain the leaves in a mass. Thus, the 
 use or otherwise of a gelatinous fluid may depend 
 entirely upon the quality of the tea. 
 
 Regarding the districts where this tea is produced, 
 all my inquiries induce the belief, that the bulk is 
 the produce of the province of Szu-chuen, one of 
 the border provinces adjoining Tibet. It is there 
 packed in bales or parcels, secured with a kind of 
 basket-work of grass : and in the country known 
 by the name of Sifan (Moorcroft says Lassa) it is 
 further packed in raw skins of the Yak, the hair 
 
BRICK Oil TILE TEA. 191 
 
 inwards, and the joints neatly secured by a sewing 
 of thongs.* The finer descriptions of brick tea 
 sent into Mongolia are packed in boxes and canis- 
 ters like other tea ; and probably come from other 
 parts of China. 
 
 At Hi, the principal place of banishment of the 
 Chinese, situated on the extreme western frontier of 
 Mongolia, the brick tea is known by the name of 
 Hu Cha: and, thus, my informant imagined it came 
 from Hu Quong, the adjoining province to Szu- 
 chuen. 
 
 Pallas gives us a translation of an inscription in 
 the Mongolian language, which he found printed on 
 the coarse yellow paper envelope of some brick tea ; 
 which, so far as can be judged from the ortho- 
 graphy given, indicates that the tea which this 
 paper enveloped was made in the province of 
 Kiang Nan. 
 
 I was informed by the Chinese that a superior 
 kind of brick tea is made in the Bohea or Black Tea 
 country. I have received specimens of this tea, 
 which were brought down from this district ex- 
 pressly for me. One exhibited the complete twist 
 and curl of the leaf, but forcibly compressed into 
 oblong masses ; the other bore no trace or form of 
 the leaf. Examples of these two conditions of leaf 
 maybe seen in a specimen of Po Ui tea, a medicinal 
 tea, and of brick tea in the Museum of the Royal 
 
 * Moorcroft's Travels, vol. i. p. 350. 
 
192 BRICK OR TILE TEA. 
 
 Asiatic Society. The two specimens first alluded 
 to were of different qualities ; the first superior 
 to many Congous imported into England, and was 
 employed by me for domestic use, so long as it 
 lasted ; the other was of inferior quality. This 
 indicates, as has already been surmised, that form 
 may have little to do with quality ; moreover, that 
 the compressed form of the brick tea may be 
 adopted in many cases with advantage. Again, it 
 is possible that the tea here alluded to was of the 
 same description as that spoken of by Moorcroft as 
 of superior quality, and as coming from Yarkand 
 to Bokhara ; which tea was packed in chests, not in 
 skins. 
 
 It may now be observed that the brick tea is 
 extensively used throughout every part of Central 
 Asia, from the Gulph of Corea and the great wall 
 of China on the east, to the Caspian Sea on the 
 west ; and from the Altai chain in the north, to 
 the Himalaya mountains on the south. It is also 
 largely used in Siberia, and somewhat in the Cau- 
 casus ; in short, wherever the Calmuc and Mongo- 
 lian races have extended themselves. " The Cal- 
 mucs," says Bergam, " are great consumers of this 
 tea." And it is truly observed by the Edinburgh 
 reviewer that, ^' like Boniface's ale, it is meat and 
 drink to them. It is mixed with milk, salt, and 
 butter, so that it forms a more substantial diet 
 than the fra^^rant fluid which smokes on our tables. 
 This preparation requires time and care, and the 
 
CARAVANS LADEN WITH BRICK TEA. 193 
 
 ' tea-cook ' is an important domestic in the train of 
 every substantial Calmuc." * 
 
 Thus this tea may be seen traversing Central 
 Asia in all directions. Mr. Manning, the only 
 English traveller who ever penetrated to Lassa, 
 the court of the Grand Lama of Tibet, fell in with 
 several caravans of oxen laden with this tea. 
 Again, Moorcroft, during his stay at Ladakh, speaks 
 of a caravan of traders which arrived there from 
 Lassa with many yaks laden with brick tea ; also 
 another caravan from Yarkand, of twenty-five 
 horses with shawl- wool, felt, tea, and silks. 
 
 Timkowksi on his journey with the Russian 
 embassy to Peking in 1828 also fell in frequently 
 with caravans of this tea ; and this road, though 
 not the post-road, according to this traveller, was 
 nevertheless much frequented by merchants and 
 travellers. 
 
 " On approaching Ourga they met with a splendid 
 troop of persons, consisting of a dzassak accompa- 
 nied by his mother, his wife, and young brother, 
 his sister, and a numerous suite, all mounted on 
 fine horses, and armed with bows and arrows. 
 The women in particular were remarkable for their 
 rosy countenances, and the richness of their 
 dresses. Their robes were of beautiful blue satin, 
 their caps of sable, their silken zones interwoven 
 with silver, and adorned with large cornelians, 
 
 * Edinburgh Review, Aug. 1817, p. 306, 
 O 
 
194 DESCRIPTION OF A 
 
 with which even their saddles were decorated. 
 The fair Amazons," adds Timkowski, " approached 
 us without timidity, and condescended to honour 
 us with their notice." * 
 
 During the sojourn of the embassy at Ourga, on 
 one of their excursions they met with a party of 
 Bucharians with 140 camels, on their way from 
 Ourga to Ouliassoutai with brick tea. (Vol. i. 
 p. 121.) On others, a caravan with 200 carts; 
 and again, belonging to another, he saw 400 oxen 
 grazing in the steppes. These latter were mer- 
 chants, natives of Shansy, carrying fine tea for the 
 Russian market. The coarse kinds he states to be 
 carried during the winter [?] on camels. And as 
 they drew near to Peking, all the way from Sue-hoa- 
 foo, distant about 340 ly, they constantly met with 
 caravans of camels laden with brick tea. 
 
 Timkowski describes a fete which took place on 
 the banks of the Orchon near Ourga in the year 
 1729, which description I here cite, because it is 
 not only interesting in itself, but as exhibiting 
 how much this brick tea enters into the economy 
 of Mongolian and Tibetan life. In fact from its 
 universal use, it is sometimes employed as a circu- 
 lating medium, or currency. The occasion here 
 alluded to happened during the celebration of the 
 manifestation [of the Deity in the person] of a 
 new Koutouktou or Grand Lama. After receiving 
 
 * Embassy to Peking, vol. i. p. 75. 
 
FETE AT OURGA. 195 
 
 the presents which were offered to him, the Kou- 
 touktou gave his benediction to the emperor by 
 laying both hands on the head of the amban (a 
 Chinese officer). He then gave his blessing to the 
 Lamas and the people.* The Chinese merchants 
 who were present at Ourga made an offering of 
 350 pieces of satin and 400 chests of brick tea.f 
 
 Wrestling, archery, and horse-racing followed. 
 The race-course was 18 versts in length (about 12 
 miles); 1110 horses ran at once. On another occa- 
 sion 1627 horses, of six years old, ran 16 versts: 
 and on a third, 985 of 4 vears old, ran 12 versts. 
 On all these occasions 100 horses were selected as 
 victors. 
 
 At the expiration of two days, when the games 
 were concluded (July 8.) all the Mongols returned 
 to Ourga. A richly decorated tent was erected, 
 into which the Koutouktou was conducted. Seve- 
 ral idols were carried before him, and incense was 
 burnt in silver censors. When he had entered the 
 tent and mounted the throne, all the nobles took 
 the places assigned to them. Brick tea in silver 
 cups was brought in, and presented to the Kou- 
 touktou and his sister. The former, after having 
 tasted it, returned it, and gave orders to pour a 
 part of it into each tea-pot. As soon as this was 
 done, a cup of this tea was presented, first to the 
 Koubilgon and the Dalama, and then to all the 
 
 * Embassy to Peking, vol. i. p. 100. f lb. p. 101. 
 
 o 2 
 
196 DESERT OF GOBI. 
 
 persons of distinction. As for those who had no 
 cups, some of the tea was poured into their hands. 
 Prizes were then distributed. The first wrestler 
 received for his reward a fowling piece, a cuirass, 
 15 oxen and cows, 15 horses, 100 sheep, a camel, 
 1000 bricks of tea, some pieces of satin, and several 
 fox and otter skins. The others received presents 
 proportional to their strength and agility. A similar 
 feast is celebrated every year by the Mongols, who 
 assemble near one of the obas of their horde.* 
 
 The road to Hi, the place of banishment for 
 Chinese criminals, is through Hami. Within the 
 Great Wall, or China Proper, the road is divided 
 off into stages of 100 ly ; but without the Great 
 Wall, and especially in crossing the sandy and 
 flinty desert of Gobi, the stages are irregular, ex- 
 tending to distances of 120 and 140 ly, in conse- 
 quence of the scarcity of water. Small inns are 
 established at intermediate stations, wherever water 
 can be procured on the spot, or from a distance of 
 a few leagues, and tea may be obtained at any 
 hour of the night ; for during the summer the 
 Chinese, in consequence of the scorching heat of 
 this desert, travel by night, and rest during the 
 day.f 
 
 In Tibet, Moorcroft informs us, that all classes 
 of Tibetans eat three meals a day : the first con- 
 sists of tea ; the second of tea, or of meal porridge, 
 
 * Embassy to Peking, vol. i. pp. 101. to 105. 
 \ Portuguese MS. in my possession. 
 
EXTENSIVE USE OF BRICK TEA. 197 
 
 if tea cannot be afforded ; the third of meat, rice, 
 vegetables, and bread, by the upper; and soup, 
 porridge, and bread, by the lower classes. At 
 breakfast each person drinks about five or ten cups 
 of tea, each cup containing about one third of a 
 pint ; and when the last is half finished, he mixes 
 with the remainder as much barley-meal as makes 
 a paste with it, which he eats.* At the mid-day 
 meal, those who can afford tea take it again, with 
 the wh eaten cakes, accompanied with a paste of 
 wheat flour, butter, and sugar, served hot. The 
 poorer people, instead of tea, boil two parts of 
 barley flower with one of water, or meat broth, 
 seasoned with salt, until it becomes of the thickness 
 of porridge. The evening meal of the upper classes 
 is formed of some preparation of the flesh of sheep, 
 goats, or yaks, and eaten with rice, vegetables, and 
 wheaten cakes, leavened or unleavened. The poorer 
 classes eat at night the same barley porridge as at 
 noon ; or a soup made of fresh vegetables, if pro- 
 curable, or of dried turnips, radishes, and cabbage, 
 boiled with salt and pepper, in water, along with 
 pieces of stiff dough and wheaten flour. The use 
 of tea has been common amongst the wealthy 
 Tibetans for some centuries, but it has been uni- 
 
 * The reason of this is, that " a rich fatty scum floats upon 
 the surface, which is too precious to be lost. It is blown aside 
 in drinking to be mixed with malt- meal, and well kneaded 
 with the fingers by way of conclusion to the feast." (Turner'5 
 Embassy to the Teshoo Lama, p. 176.) ^ 
 
 o 3 
 
198 MODE OF PREPARATION POR USE. 
 
 versal only within the last sixty years. It has ex- 
 tended itself within the same period to Bokhara 
 and Kashmir. In a simple state of infusion, its use 
 is becoming general in the Punjab and Kabul.* 
 Moreover, Capt. Mignon, in his journey through 
 Persia, the Caucasian Alps, and Georgia, states that 
 the use of tea as a beverage is becoming very ge- 
 neral throughout the northern parts of Persia, 
 although it bears a high price. He met with it at 
 Tebriz, and it is much used at Aserbijoum. Burns 
 says, the love of the Bokharians for tea is, he be- 
 lieves, without parallel, for they drink it at all times 
 and places, and in a half a dozen ways — with and 
 without sugar, with and without milk, with grease, 
 with salt, &c.f 
 
 For a breakfast of ten persons in Tibet, this, 
 says Moorcroft, would be the preparation: about 
 an ounce of brick tea, and a like quantity of soda, 
 are boiled in a quart of water for an hour, or until 
 the leaves of the tea are sufficiently steeped. It is 
 then strained, and mixed with ten quarts of boiling 
 water, in which an ounce and a half of fossil salt 
 has been previously dissolved. The whole is then 
 put into a narrow cylindrical churn, along with 
 the butter, and well stirred with a churning stick, 
 till it becomes a smooth, oily, and brown liquid of 
 the colour and consistence of chocolate, in which 
 
 * Moorcroft's Travels in the Himalayan Mountains, vol. i. 
 ppt 328—331. 
 
 t Travels into Bokhara, vol. i. p. 277. 
 
MODE OF PREPARATION FOR USE. 199 
 
 form it is transferred to a tea-pot for immediate 
 use.* 
 
 It will be observed that the mixture here de- 
 scribed contains no flour ; and Moorcroft decidedly 
 says that the Tibetans do not use milk. The 
 Mongols, however, do ; and one may imagine a 
 mixture of milk instead of water mth which to 
 dilute the strong decoction of tea would be an im- 
 provement, where the refreshment sought is not a 
 beverage, but a broth or meal. This, however, 
 may depend on taste, and other circumstances, as 
 in the use of chocolate, &c. 
 
 Mr. Manning described to me the mode of pre- 
 paring tea in Tibet, as follows: — A small quan- 
 tity of flour is put into an iron vessel over a slow 
 fire, and slightly parched ; to which is added a 
 small portion of butter. These two ingredients 
 are then stirred and formed into a paste ; to 
 which is added at intervals a portion of the 
 strong decoction of tea, the whole being constantly 
 stirred and well mixed, and blended together. It 
 is then diluted with milk or water, and churned 
 as already described. I also understood that it 
 is poured from one vessel into another backwards 
 and forwards several times. It obviously thus 
 /orms not merely a refreshing beverage, but a 
 somewhat nutritious meal. 
 
 When Mr. Turner, on his visit to the Teshoo 
 
 * Moorcroft's Travels in the Himalayan Mountains, vol. i. 
 p. 329. 
 
 o 4 
 
200 turner's description 
 
 Lama, first met witli this tea in Tibet, disappointed 
 at receiving a greasy broth in lieu of the fragrant 
 infusion he had been accustomed to drink under 
 that name, he turned from it with disgust ; but I 
 must quote this elegant author's own remarks on 
 this subject : — 
 
 " Presently a servant came, bearing a large tea- 
 pot of white metal, embossed, and highly orna- 
 mented with some other metal, of a yellow colour. 
 He approached the Raja, and then giving a cir- 
 cular turn to the tea-pot, so as to agitate and mix 
 its contents, he poured a quantity into the palm of 
 his hand, which he had contracted to form as deep 
 a concave as possible, and hastily sipped it up. 
 To account for a custom which has so little either 
 of grace or delicacy, in its observance, however 
 recommended by extensive fashion, we are obliged 
 to have recourse to the suspicions suggested in 
 remoter times, by the frequent and treacherous 
 use of poison. Hence originated a caution, in 
 which the national character of this people readily 
 disposed them to acquiesce ; and the same jealousy 
 and distrust which gave birth to its adoption has 
 contributed inviolably to preserve it to the present 
 day ; so that however humble or exalted the rank 
 of the person who introduces to his guests the re- 
 freshment of tea, the cup-bearer, which is an office 
 of the first credit, never presumes to offer it with- 
 out previously drinking some of the liquor that he 
 brings. 
 
OF BRICK TEA. 201 
 
 " The Raja held out upon the points of the 
 fingers of his right hand a shallow lacquered cup 
 of small circumference, which was filled with tea. 
 Three cups had been sent, and were set down before 
 us ; the Raja directed his servant to fill them also : 
 still holding the cup in his right hand, he repeated, 
 in a low and hollow tone of voice, a long invoca- 
 tion ; and afterwards dipping the point of his 
 finger three times into the cup, he threw as many 
 drops upon the floor, by way of oblation, and then 
 began to sip his tea. Taking this as a signal, we 
 followed the example, and partook of the dishes of 
 parched rice that were served up with it. We 
 found this liquor extremely unlike what we had 
 been used to drink under the same name ; it was 
 a compound of water, flour, butter, salt, and Bohea 
 tea, with some other astringent ingredients, all 
 boiled, beat up, and intimately blended together. 
 I confess the mixture was by no means to my 
 taste, and we had hitherto shunned, as much as 
 possible, these unpalatable libations, yet we now 
 deemed it necessary to submit to some constraint ; 
 and having at last with a tolerable grace swallowed 
 the tea, we yet found ourselves very deficient in 
 the conclusion of the ceremony. The Raja, with 
 surprising dexterity, turned the cup as he held it 
 fast betwixt his fingers, and in an instant passed 
 his tongue over every part of it : so that it was 
 sufficiently cleansed to be wrapped in a piece of 
 scarlet silk, which bore evident marks of having 
 
202 OPINIONS ON BUTTERED TEA. 
 
 been not very recently devoted to this service. 
 The officers who had entered with us were not 
 permitted to partake of this repast ; and, but for 
 the honour of it, we would willingly have declined 
 so flattering a distinction." * 
 
 In another part this author states — "Our Ti- 
 betan friends gave a preference to the buttered tea, 
 but we chose an infusion of rice, and drank deeply 
 from a cauldron of it, around which we sat, upon 
 the sod. Our grooms and other humble attendants 
 imitated the example, forming different groups, in 
 whiih their cups and pipes very cheerfully circu- 
 lated."! 
 
 It so happened, however, that this dire aversion 
 to buttered tea was soon converted into an opposite 
 feeling ; and, finally, Capt. Turner acknowledged in 
 these words — " That habit had not only rendered 
 this composition agreeable to our tastes, but ex- 
 perience most fully proved that warm liquids, at 
 all times, contribute to alleviate the sensation of 
 fatigue. I was never more disposed to praise the 
 comfortable practice of the country, having con- 
 stantly observed that the first object of attention 
 with every man at the end of a long journey is to 
 procure himself a dish of hot tea." J 
 
 It may here be remarked that Mr. Turner's dis- 
 gust, no doubt, arose simply from a feeling of dis- 
 appointment or incompatibility often experienced 
 
 * Turner's Embassy to the Teshoo Lama, p. 69. 
 t lb. p. 180. t lb. p. 195. 
 
OPINIONS ON BUTTERED TEA. 203 
 
 at one thing, thougli good in itself, being presented, 
 when another is desired or expected. A cup of 
 chocolate might have produced a similar effect ; 
 and this shows the errors to which travellers may 
 be exposed by trusting too much to first impres- 
 sions. 
 
 It is curious, also, to perceive that when Capt. 
 Turner afterwards discovered that buttered tea 
 was no such despicable thing on coming to a halt 
 after a long and fatiguing journey, still he seemed 
 to cling to his original prejudice ; and instead of 
 ascribing the alleviation from fatigue which he ex- 
 perienced in the use of tea to some inherent active 
 principle in the leaf, he was disposed to attribute 
 its virtues solely to hot water. 
 
 Mr. Manning found this mixture so agreeable 
 to his taste, that he frequently indulged in its use 
 for breakfast on his return to England ; and but 
 for the trouble of preparing it, this mode of using 
 tea might be found to furnish a refreshing, accept- 
 able, and economical meal to the labouring classes 
 of this country. To the Hindoo it would be a 
 very God-send, when we consider the spare and 
 little- varied diet on which superstition has hitherto 
 doomed that race to live. 
 
 The tea-pots used by the richer classes of society 
 are made of silver, or silvered copper or brass, or- 
 namented with flowers and foliage, and grotesque 
 figures of leopards, crocodiles, dragons, or heads of 
 elephants and the like, in embossed or filigree 
 
204 TEA-POTS USED. 
 
 work. The poorer people use plain brass or tinned 
 copper tea-pots. Each man carries his own cup 
 about his person either of China porcelain, or, 
 which is more common, made of the knot of the 
 horse-chestnut, edged or lined with silver, or plain. 
 About 5000 of these, in the rough, are annually 
 exported from Bisahar to Gardokh, and sold at the 
 rate of six for a rupee ; they are finished and orna- 
 mented in China.* 
 
 Moorcroft speaks of a discovery of much interest 
 made in the course of his inquiries into the tea 
 trade of Ladakh. It appeared that a considerable 
 importation of a vegetable product used as tea, 
 took place from the British dependency of Bisahar. 
 There were two kinds, green and black. The black 
 tea, however, he was informed by two intelligent 
 natives of that province, was the product of a de- 
 ciduous tree, and, consequently, could not be the 
 true tea- tree. The green tea was the product of 
 an evergreen ; but as it seldom exceeded the height 
 of four and a half feet, I should doubt it being the 
 tea-tree. It must always be borne in mind that a 
 height of from three to five feet is the cultivated 
 and stunted height of the tea-tree, and not the na- 
 tural height of its free and unrestrained growth. 
 
 That the tea-plant, says Moorcroft, grows more 
 extensively through the hill tracts than has hitherto 
 been imagined, is probable, from various circum- 
 
 * Moorcroft's Travels in the Himalayan Mountains, voL i. 
 p. 329. 
 
TEA OF BISAHAR. 205 
 
 stances ; and it is said that the Chinese troops re- 
 turning from Nepaul were observed to gather the 
 leaves of some shrub near Zigachi, which they used 
 as tea, disposing of their own country tea in ex- 
 change for tobacco. These statements were com- 
 municated to the Bengal government in 1821. 
 However this may be, the subject is of national 
 interest, and well entitled to the fullest investiga- 
 tion.* 
 
 * Moorcroft, vol. i. p. 351. 
 
206 
 
 CHAP. IX. 
 
 GREEN TEA THE HYSON SHRUB IS THE SINGLO SHRUB IM- 
 PROVED BY CULTIVATION — GATHERING AND MANIPULATION 
 
 ROASTING VESSELS DESCRIBED — MODE OF MANIPULATION 
 
 OF HYSON TEA — COLOUR NOT FACTITIOUS MANIPULATION 
 
 CONTINUED — ASSORTMENT OF LEAVES INTO GUNPOWDER, 
 HYSON, HYSON SKIN, AND lOUNG HYSON, BY SIFTING AND 
 WINNOWING T WANK AY TEA MODE OF MANIPULATION DE- 
 SCRIBED BY A CHINESE FACTITIOUS COLOURING OF GREEN 
 
 TEA EXPEREMENTS TO DETERMINE ON WHAT THE PECULIAR 
 
 COLOUR OF GREEN TEA DEPENDS. — FACTITIOUS COLOURING OP 
 
 GREEN TEA, CONTINUED MR. WARINGTON's EXAMINATION OF 
 
 THIS SUBJECT EXPERIMENTS WITH STEAM OBSERVATIONS 
 
 ON THE USE OF MACHINERY AS ABRIDGEMENTS OF LABOUR. 
 
 The green tea connected with the foreign markets 
 is grown in the southern part of the province of 
 Kiang Nan, in the district of Whey-chew-fu. The 
 Hyson tea is chiefly, if not entirely, brought from 
 the country in the immediate neighbourhood of 
 the two towns of Hieu Ning and Moo Yuen* ; 
 the former situated in lat. 29° 56', long. 118° 15' ; 
 and the latter in lat. 29° 12', long. 118° E. A 
 coarse kind of Singlo is also brought from the Hien, 
 or town of Tay Ping, situated in lat. 30° 15', 
 
 * In Du Halde see Yew-ning and Yu-ywen. 
 
GREEN TEA. 207 
 
 which is said to be the utmost northern limit 
 whence the tea sold to foreigners is procured. 
 
 The green tea known to foreigners may be 
 classed under two kinds, Hyson and Singlo ; all 
 other kinds are made from these shrubs, and there 
 is much reason to think that even the Hyson is 
 merely the Singlo shrub improved by soil and 
 cultivation. 
 
 It is universally admitted by the Chinese that 
 the term Hyson arose out of an accidental circum- 
 stance connected with their intercourse with fo- 
 reigners, which shall be hereafter explained. It 
 is also generally admitted by the Chinese that the 
 Singlo tea grows in every part of Kiang Nan ; but 
 some people assert that the tea produced on the 
 hills in the immediate neighbourhood of the two 
 towns of Hieu Ning and Moo Yuen differs from 
 the Singlo tea ; though this cannot be said to ap- 
 ply to all tea grown in this neighbourhood, for 
 the Singlo hill or mountain, where, agreeably to 
 Chinese authors, the green tea was first discovered, 
 and whence it derived its name, is seated in one 
 of these districts, Hieu Ning.* It seems, however, 
 
 * Hieu-ning or Yew-ning. Du Halcle places the Singlo 
 mountain in lat. 29° oS' — also the city of Whey-chew -fu, which 
 seems like an error. It is said by the tea-men to be in the 
 neighbourhood of Yew-ning, which is a few miles south of 
 Whey-chew-fu. Du Halde describes it as being " neither high 
 nor of great extent, but covered over with the tea shrubs, which 
 are cultivated on its sides, in the same manner as at the foot 
 of the neighbouring mountains." 
 
208 HYSON SHRUB, THE SINGLO SHRUB 
 
 that in very early times a new mode of culture 
 sprang up in the neighbourhood of these towns. 
 The wild shrubs were taken from the hills or 
 mountains, and planted in the plains, and round 
 the borders or embankments of fields, and manured ; 
 so that this improved mode of cultivation pro- 
 duced a great and favourable change in the shrub. 
 Hence arose a distinction between that grown on 
 the hills, which is called hill tea (Shan Cha), and 
 that grown on the plains, called garden tea (Yuen 
 Cha) ; so that the ancient term Singlo seems, in 
 these districts, so far to have given place to the 
 more recent classification into hill and garden tea, 
 that some of the Chinese of the present day are 
 unwilling to admit that these teas were originally 
 the same. 
 
 As the fact of their identity, therefore, cannot 
 be established on the universal testimony of the 
 tea factors, I shall simply state what I have col- 
 lected upon this subject. 
 
 In the first place, Du Halde observes that " there 
 are only two kinds of tea, the Singlo, which takes 
 its name from a mountain in Kiang Nan, and the 
 black tea, produced in the mountains of Yu Ye, 
 in Fokien." 
 
 In the Chinese statistical works of the districts 
 of Hieu Ning and Moo Yuen, the Hyson districts 
 of the present day, all that is said under the article 
 Tea is as follows : — 
 
IMPROVED BY CULTIVATION. 209 
 
 " There is plenty of common tea ; that which is 
 called Singlo tea is of excellent quality, and there- 
 fore requires a suitable soil, much labour, and is 
 not easy to make."* 
 
 " The hill or mountain where tea is produced 
 is called Singlo mountain. A Bonze of the sect 
 of Fo taught a Kiang Nan man, named Ko Ty, 
 the art of making tea ; and thus it was called 
 Singlo tea. The tea got speedily into great re- 
 pute, so that the Bonze became rich, and aban- 
 doned the profession of priest. The man is gone, 
 and only the name remains. Ye men of learning, 
 and travellers who seek Singlo tea, may now search 
 in vain ; that which is sold in the markets is a 
 mere counterfeit." f 
 
 Thus it appears that the Singlo tea, in addition 
 to its being the only tea named, was obviously 
 esteemed by these writers, and considered the best 
 description of tea produced in the Hyson districts 
 in their days. For it would have been a strange 
 omission in persons professing to make statistical 
 reports of a country, and especially one of so small 
 an extent, had they neglected to speak of a tea 
 which differed essentially from Singlo tea, and 
 more especially if it were superior to it. 
 
 In the Hoa King, a kind of herbal, published 
 
 * Moo Y.uen Hien Clij, published in the Dynasty of Sung, 
 A.D. 960—1278. 
 
 f Hieu Ning Hien Chy, published 32d year of Gang Hee, 
 A.D. 1693. 
 
210 HYSON SHKUB, THE SINGLO SHRUB 
 
 A.D. 1688, containing an account of a considerable 
 number of plants and flowers, under the article 
 " Tea" it is said, " The teas produced in Kiang 
 Nan are Sung lo (Singlo), Fu Long, Tien Chy, 
 Yang Sien, &:c. The colour is of a bluish green, 
 and very fragrant in flavour. It is said that if 
 Singlo tea be dried with the Chu Lan flower it will 
 improve its flavour. However, it cannot be said 
 that this flavour is so good as its natural one." 
 
 Here again we find the Singlo tea ranking first 
 among the teas produced in Kiang Nan, and it 
 is remarkable that the custom of scenting the green 
 tea with the Chu Lan flower obtains only with the 
 Hyson tea in the present day. This circumstance, 
 therefore, together with the excellence of its flavour, 
 described as being very fragrant, and not to be 
 improved by any factitious means, when combined 
 with the previous observations on the same sub- 
 ject, seems to indicate a care in the cultivation and 
 manipulation of this tea, which bears a greater 
 relation to Hyson tea than any kind of Singlo or 
 Twankay tea known as such in the present day. 
 Thus, as far as this question can be decided from 
 the Avorks of the Chinese, it appears that the best 
 tea grown in the province of Kiang Nan was ori- 
 ginally considered Singlo tea, deriving its name 
 from a hill or mountain so called in the district of 
 Hieu Ning, one of the Hyson districts of the pre- 
 sent day. 
 
 I shall now add the statement of one of the 
 
IMPROVED BY CULTIVATION. 211 
 
 oldest men in the trade, Cow Mow, upon this sub- 
 ject, whose age, known respectability of character, 
 and long intercourse with the East India Company, 
 must ever give weight to the opinions of that honest 
 merchant. The document states that " Tea has 
 been known from time immemorial. There is a 
 mountain called Singlo mountain. Tea was ori- 
 ginally produced here, so that the tea planted in 
 other places was called Singlo tea, also hill tea. 
 That which is called Yuen or garden tea is the 
 Singlo tea planted in gardens. This custom pre- 
 vailed so far back as the dynasty of Sung (960 — 
 1278). Hyson tea was formerly called garden 
 tea, and was first cultivated in the towns of 
 Hieu Ning and Moo Yuen. In the reign of Cang 
 Hee (1661 — 1722) a man used for his Chao Pay 
 (firm or sign) the two characters Hee Chun, or 
 Hyson. Shortly after all garden tea was called 
 Hee Chun, or Hyson." 
 
 Tien Hing, another highly respectable merchant, 
 states : " The green tea grown in the towns of 
 Moo Yuen, and Hieu Ning differs in its cultivation 
 from that of other places. This tea is divided into 
 two kinds, the hill tea and the garden tea. The 
 leaf of the hill tea is of a yellow colour, small 
 and thin, and vapid in flavour, and makes middling 
 and common Hyson. The garden tea is gro^vn in 
 vegetable gardens, and also on the borders and 
 embankments of fields. The ground must be 
 manured with the Tong Ping, and manure from 
 
 p 2 
 
212 HYSON TEA. 
 
 tanks constructed for that purpose. The leaf then 
 becomes thick, flat, and large, and the colour green. 
 The infusion is also clear and fragrant in smell and 
 flavour. The infused leaves are green, and greatly 
 superior to the hill tea. The garden tea was first 
 brought down to Canton in the present dynasty to 
 be sent to foreign places. The quantity then 
 gradually augmented until every village began to 
 plant it [that is, from the hills] and to manure the 
 ground. The leaves then became of a light green 
 colour, thick and shining, and pleasant in smell; 
 and the infusion sweet and fragrant in flavour." 
 Tien Hing also agrees as to the origin of the term 
 Hyson, and says the person's name was Lee, but 
 the name of his firm was Hee Chun. In fact no 
 difl*erence of opinion exists among the Chinese on 
 this subject, which they say " took place when the 
 trade was carried on at Ning Po."* "Perceiving," 
 they add, " that Europeans inquired eagerly after 
 a tea that bore the ' Chop Mark,' or characters of 
 a man's Chop or Firm, called Hee Chun, which was 
 garden tea, this induced the merchants generally 
 to adopt that term for that description of tea, as 
 well as to extend the improved mode of cultiva- 
 tion." To my mind these observations show conclu- 
 sively, that the Hyson shrub is no other than the 
 
 * This must have occurred prior to 1756, for no ship has 
 traded to Ning-po since that period (Horsburg, page 272.) : and 
 this agrees with Cow Mow's statement, that this custom first 
 arose in the reign of Gang Hee or between 1661 — 1722. 
 
GATHERING AND MANIPULATION. 213 
 
 Singlo improved by cultivation : but leaving this 
 question, we will now proceed to treat of tlie mani- 
 pulation of green tea. 
 
 There are only two gatherings of the leaves of green 
 tea : the first begins between the 20th of April and 
 the 5th of May (Ko Yu and Ly Hia), and lasts for 
 about ten or fifteen days : and the second at the sum- 
 mer solstice. The green tea factors universally agree 
 that the sooner the leaves of green tea are roasted 
 after gathering the better ; and that all exposure 
 to the air is unnecessary, and to the sun, injurious.* 
 But as all the leaves cannot be roasted at the same 
 moment, means are necessarily resorted to in order 
 to prevent their heating or turning yellow. They 
 are therefore thinly strewed on tiled floors, or 
 placed in flat bamboo trays on stands in shady 
 places exposed to the air, or on the low walls which 
 are commonly seen about Chinese houses and 
 gardens : which process, as the reader will recol- 
 lect, corresponds with that of Leang Ching, already 
 described under that article. A man or woman 
 occasionally passes round to examine the leaves ; 
 and if those at the bottom show the least disposi- 
 tion to heat or ferment and turn yellow, they are 
 then turned, otherwise they are allowed to remain 
 undisturbed. 
 
 * Tien Hing observes, if the roasting be deferred till the 
 following day, or if the leaves be exposed to the sun, the veins 
 become red and the flavour is injured. {MS.) 
 
 p 3 
 
214 ROASTING VESSELS. 
 
 It must be understood that the different parts of 
 the manipulation of tea, the roasting, rolling, sift- 
 ing, &c., are all carried on at the same moment, so 
 that a multitude of hands are employed. 
 
 Thus, while some women are employed in pre- 
 paring the leaves for the process of Leang Ching, 
 others are engaged in picking off any remaining 
 stalks which may be left on them. They are then 
 sifted to rid them of dust and dirt, after which they 
 are in a fit state to be roasted. The Chinese say 
 that the roasting requires a man who understands 
 his business, as the quality of the tea depends much 
 upon this process. 
 
 The Hyson Kuo is a thin vessel of cast iron, but 
 differing in form from that used in the manipula- 
 tion of black tea ; being considerably deeper, with 
 sides partly perpendicular, as may be seen in the 
 following plate : besides being fitted low down in 
 the stove. 
 
 ;U,_il!^ 
 
 The arms are flat pieces of iron, projecting 
 from the sides of the vessel, by which it is fitted 
 into a stove of brickwork. The surface of the 
 
ROASTING VESSELS. 215 
 
 stove is horizontal, and the mouth of the Kuo is 
 placed above five inches below the surface. The 
 depth of the Kuo is about ten inches, thus forming 
 a depth of fifteen inches from the surface of the 
 stove. The diameter is about sixteen inches. The 
 inside of the Kuo is said to be quite bright from 
 constant friction. 
 
 The Twankay Kuo is the same as that used for 
 black tea : but is placed obliquely in an angle of 
 about sixteen degrees, the surface of the stoves 
 being built with that inclination. The Kuo is placed 
 about nine inches below the surface, the depth of 
 the Kuo being about eight inches, and the diameter 
 twenty-four inches.* 
 
 I shall now describe the mode in which I have 
 seen the roasting of the honan leaves performed, 
 after the manner of Hyson tea, by men from the 
 green tea districts. The reader will here remember 
 that the same description of leaves were employed 
 in the manipulation of black tea ; and indeed the 
 honan leaves are never otherwise employed by the 
 Chinese. 
 
 The fire was prepared with dry wood, and kept 
 so very brisk that the flames rose above the surface 
 of the stove. The bottom of the Kuo soon became 
 red hot, and the heat intolerable. This excessive 
 heat, however, was not approved by the conductor 
 of the process. It must therefore be considered as 
 
 * See plates in Appendix, 
 p 4 
 
216 
 
 MANIPULATION OF HYSON TEA. 
 
 an example where the roaster wished to display his 
 skill, rather than as one to be imitated. The steam 
 also arising from the leaves was so considerable that 
 I could scarcely bear my hand over it for an instant. 
 This great accumulation of heat and steam, more 
 than in the manipulation of black tea, is solely to 
 
 be ascribed to the greater depth of the Kuo from 
 the surface of the stove, thereby confining the 
 steam, and preventing that rapid dispersion of the 
 fluids which takes place in a vessel of flatter con- 
 struction. 
 
 About half a pound of leaves were put into the 
 Kuo at one time, when they produced the crackling 
 
MANIPULATION OF HYSON TEA. 217 
 
 noise described by Koempfer ; and were quickly 
 stirred about, first with one hand, and then with 
 the other ; the roaster being frequently obliged to 
 change the hand on account of the excessive heat. 
 For the same reason, almost at the end of every 
 turn, he raised the leaves about six inches above 
 the surface of the stove, shaking them on the palm 
 of the hand to separate them, and to disperse the 
 steam. This process was continued until the heat 
 appeared to be more than the roaster could bear. 
 He then gave them two or three brisk turns round 
 the Kuo, when suddenly collecting them together 
 in a heap, he passed them to another man who 
 stood in readiness with a basket to receive them. 
 The few leaves which remained were speedily swept 
 out with a damp cloth, kept in readiness upon the 
 top of the stove for that purpose. 
 
 The process of rolling is much the same as that 
 employed in the roUing of black tea, the leaves 
 taking the form of a ball. After the ball was 
 shaken to pieces, these people twisted the leaves 
 again between the palms of the hands, the right 
 hand passing over the palm of the left, using a 
 slight degree of pressure, as the hand was advanced 
 from the body, and easing it again as it returned, 
 as described under the article Poey (p. 135.); so 
 that the leaves might be twisted regularly, and in 
 the same direction. They were then spread out in 
 sieves, and placed on stands in a cool room. 
 
 The sooner the leaves are roasted again after 
 
218 
 
 MANIPULATION OF HYSON TEA. 
 
 rolling the better ; but if the roaster have not 
 finished roasting all the fresh leaves, care must be 
 taken to turn those which have undergone the first 
 process of roasting, as the leaves which are at the 
 bottom of the sieves or trays are apt to spoil and 
 turn yellow. 
 
 Previously to the leaves being carried a second 
 time to the Kuo, the fire was considerably dimi- 
 nished ; and charcoal used instead of wood. The 
 Kuo, however, was still preserved hot enough not 
 to be endurable by the touch for more than perhaps 
 a second. Throughout the whole of this second 
 roasting, great attention was paid to the fire in 
 
 •*: 
 
MANIPULATION OF HYSON TEA. 219 
 
 order to preserve an equal degree of heat, a man 
 almost constantly attending it, sometimes increas- 
 ing and sometimes diminishing the fuel, agreeably 
 to the directions of the roaster. The leaves were 
 also constantly fanned by a boy who stood near.* 
 
 In this second roasting, the roaster began by 
 slightly pressing the leaves with the palms of both 
 hands against the bottom of the Kuo ; then drawing 
 them towards himself to the top of the stove, he 
 shook them on his hands to cool, and to separate 
 them. As the steam diminished, he pressed the 
 leaves against the opposite sides of the vessel, and 
 drew them round until the hands met, when he 
 raised them, and twisted them, as before described, 
 between the hands. When the leaves have lost so 
 much of their aqueous and viscous qualities as to 
 produce no sensible steam, they no longer retain 
 any disposition to adhere together ; but, on the con- 
 trary, having acquired a twisted form in the process 
 of rolling, the simple action of the fire naturally 
 disposes them to separate, twist, and curl of them- 
 selves. The operation, therefore, of twisting the 
 leaves with the hands, now becomes of minor 
 importance, and consequently the roaster here 
 twisted them but once to every four or five times 
 that he stirred them about in the Kuo. At length 
 
 * A Chinese manuscript observes, " In the second roasting 
 the fire must be moderate, and the roasting not hurried. The 
 fanning to hasten tlie cooling of the leaves also requires constant 
 attention." 
 
220 MANIPULATION OF HYSON TEA. 
 
 he discontinued altogether this action of twisting 
 the leaves ; and the remaining part of the process 
 in this as in the other consecutive roastings was 
 confined to the simple action of stirring them 
 about. This was performed by slightly pressing 
 the leaves against the sides of the vessel, and slowly 
 passing them round, sometimes from right to left 
 with one hand, and sometimes from left to right 
 with the other, turning them over the hand and 
 arm at the end of each revolution. This operation 
 was continued until the leaves became tolerably 
 dry. When taken from the Kuo, they appeared of 
 a dark olive colour, almost black. After being 
 sifted they were placed on stands as before, until 
 the whole of the leaves had undergone the second 
 roasting : when they were roasted a third time. 
 
 In the third roasting, which in fact is the final 
 drying, the heat of the fire was again diminished, 
 and reduced to that degree which the hand can bear 
 for some seconds without much inconvenience. The 
 quantity put into the Kuo was greatly increased, 
 and the time of roasting regulated by means of the 
 instrument denominated a Che Hiang. The fanning 
 and the mode of roasting were the same as in the 
 final part of the second roasting. It was now 
 curious to observe the chano-e of colour which 
 gradually took place in the leaves ; for it was in this 
 roasting that they began to assume that bluish 
 tint, resembling the bloom on fruit, which distin- 
 guishes this tea, and renders its appearance so 
 agreeable. 
 
COLOUR OF HYSON NOT FACTITIOUS. 221 
 
 Thus it is obvious that the peculiar colour of 
 green tea does not properly arise from the admix- 
 ture of colouring matter with the leaves, but na- 
 turally out of the process of manipulation. Indeed, 
 if we reflect a little, it must be evident, as before 
 observed, that it was quite impossible that Eu- 
 ropeans could suggest to the Chinese to colour 
 their teas blue. There must have been some 
 foundation for this practice originating with the 
 Chinese themselves. As a close twist and curl of 
 the leaf is one test of superior quality, so also is 
 brightness of colour. The factitious colouring, 
 then, of green teas has originated with the Chinese 
 to give a spurious superiority to inferior teas : 
 and it must be acknowledged that foreigners have 
 been too easily duped by these deceptions. It 
 would be wiser to appreciate strength and flavour 
 more, and colour less. It has been shown that 
 the Hoa-king, a Chinese herbal published in 1688, 
 speaks of Singlo tea being of a bluish green 
 colour. Again, Mr. Jacobson *, in describing the 
 change of colour which takes place during the 
 process of roasting, states: — '^ Now the colour 
 becomes greener and brighter ; but, properly speak- 
 ing, the infused leaf only is green, the dry leaf is 
 bluish. As the drying progresses, the leaves assume 
 a light blue tinge, resembling the bloom of grapes." 
 But we shall furnish proof of this fact a little later. 
 The factors say that the true colour is not thrown 
 
 * Handboek, § 456. 
 
222 MANIPULATION OF HYSON TEA. 
 
 out until about a month after the tea has been 
 roasted. No rest can be afforded the workmen 
 until this colour is produced ; for not until then 
 are the leaves properly dried. The three roastings 
 occupied about ten hours, and the original quan- 
 tity of leaves, 33 lbs. (25 catties), required the 
 constant labour of one roaster.* 
 
 In this state, the tea is usually packed in chests 
 in the tea country, and called Mao Cha, from its 
 being unsorted. The Ching Cha is the Hyson tea, 
 after the Hyson skin, young Hyson, and gun- 
 powder have been separated from it. Both kinds 
 are sold in the tea country, though it is commonly 
 sold by the farmers and peasantry in its gross or 
 unsorted state of Mao Cha ; and from the samples 
 
 * In the tea country, it appears that the Mao-cha or unpicked 
 tea undergoes but two roastings instead of three. Nor are any- 
 more necessary, if care be taken to moderate the fire as the 
 leaves dry. This slow process of drying at a low temperature 
 seems essentially requisite to the production of the delicate 
 bluish colour of the leaves, significantly termed bloom by the 
 dealers in England. The fanning also accelerates the formation 
 of the colour, as well as the drying process, by a quick evapora- 
 tion of the fluids. I found by experiment that the colour could 
 be produced without it, but less expeditiously. I also found 
 tliat the taking the leaves off the fire, just as the colour was 
 about to form, and suffering them to cool a little, had a tendency 
 to produce the same effect, when the roasting was again resumed ; 
 but the use of the fan was preferable. Koempfer observes, 
 that the Japanese fan the leaves for the purpose of cooling 
 them, and of fixing the curls ; but describes this process as 
 taking place during the rolling (Japan, Appendix, p. 11.) I am 
 disposed to think that Koempfer may have failed in his usual 
 accuracy on this point ; and that the fanning took place during 
 the roasting, or at any rate in both instances. 
 
MANIPULATION OF HYSON TEA. 223 
 
 of this tea which I have seen at Canton, I imagine 
 that many Hysons are sold to foreigners in this 
 state without any further sifting or separation. 
 
 "In about a fortnight," Tien Hing observes, 
 " every farm has completed its harvest, and sends 
 its tea to market ; at the same time the numerous 
 factors attend the diiferent villages to make their 
 purchases. There are all the various kinds of tea 
 sold, the Mao Cha, the Ching Cha, the picked, the 
 unpicked, the garden, and the hill tea ; and the 
 different kinds of Siuglo tea ; so that it requires a 
 complete acquaintance with the leaf and colour to 
 be enabled to make a judicious selection. When 
 the factors have concluded their purchases they 
 carry their tea home, where it is sifted, winnowed, 
 and assorted into different kinds suited to the 
 foreis^n markets. 
 
 " The large closely twisted leaves, of nearly 
 equal size and brightness of colour, form the Hyson 
 tea. 
 
 " The large, open, or coarsely twisted leaves, 
 and also the large, round, knobby leaves, of nearly 
 equal colour, form the superior Hyson skin teas ; 
 and the thin twisted leaves of good colour, with 
 the yellow and broken leaves, the middling kinds. 
 
 " The small, round, closely curled leaves, which 
 are bright in colour, form the round gunpowder ; 
 and the still smaller and more closely curled leaves, 
 the Che Ma, the hemp-seed, or small imperial 
 gunpowder. 
 
224 MANIPULATION OF HYSON TEA. 
 
 " The broken leaves, which are very thin and 
 small, and of a wiry nature, form the U Chien, or 
 young Hyson.* The fine dust, and part of a kind 
 of chaffy dust, is sold in the tea country ; also at 
 King-te-ching t, the celebrated town for the manu- 
 facture of porcelain, and other places. The re- 
 mainder of the dust is mixed with common Hyson 
 skin." 
 
 I shall now describe the manner in which I have 
 seen this process performed with the honan leaves ; 
 the roasting of which has already been described. 
 The leaves were first sifted in a fine sieve, and 
 passed a kind of dust, similar to that which is 
 described as being partly sold in the tea country, 
 and partly mixed with Hyson skin. 
 
 The returns of the first sieve were again sifted 
 through a second and coarser sieve, and passed the 
 young Hyson, which was tossed or winnowed on a 
 large circular bamboo tray, and threw off a flat 
 chaffy leaf, which was also disposed of by mixing 
 with Hyson skin. It was then roasted about forty- 
 five minutes (one che hiang), the heat of the Kuo 
 being the same as in the last roasting, when it 
 was winnowed as before, and fanned off more of 
 
 * Mr. Reeves justly observes, " tlie difference between the 
 gunpowder and the young hyson will be this : when fairly made 
 the young leaf which takes the long twist will form the young 
 hyson ; and that which takes the round twist will form the 
 gunpowder." {Parliamentary Papers, 1813. Evidence on East 
 India Compani/s Charter.^ 
 
 t Lat. 29° 15' N., long. 47' E. of Peking. 
 
ASSORTMENT OF LEAVES INTO HYSON TEA. 225 
 
 
 that quality called 
 Hyson skin. It was 
 then packed, and 
 formed what in the 
 tea country would 
 have corresponded 
 with the best kind of 
 young Hyson. The 
 skin fanned off in this 
 last process was of a superior kind to the former, 
 the leaf being better twisted. The flat and coarse 
 leaves were therefore picked out by hand, and the 
 residue formed an inferior kind of young Hyson. 
 
 During the above process of sifting and roasting 
 the young Hyson, other men were employed in 
 winnowing the remaining leaves to separate the 
 skin from the Hyson. It is here necessary to ob- 
 serve that only the light, flat, chaffy leaves are 
 fanned off in this process, so that the round knobby 
 leaves, the yellow twisted^ leaves, and the coarse 
 leaves, still remain mixed with the Hyson. The 
 whole of the remaining leaves were therefore all 
 
 Q 
 
226 ASSORTMENT OF LEAVES 
 
 poured upon a table, and four persons were em- 
 ployed in picking out, leaf by leaf, the remaining 
 Hyson skin leaves. This operation is in the tea 
 country performed by women ; and it is, most pro- 
 bably, from a drawing of this nature, which generally 
 accompanies the descriptive drawings of the mani- 
 pulation of tea, that the error has arisen, that each 
 separate leaf has passed through the hands of a 
 female, by whom it was twisted and curled. The 
 leaves, thus separated, were mixed with chaffy 
 leaves, and roasted forty-five minutes. The dust 
 was then sifted, and the tea packed, forming what 
 might be termed fine Hyson skin. 
 
 The remaining leaves, consisting of the even, the 
 well twisted, and bright leaves, formed the Hyson 
 tea, which was roasted one hour and a half, then 
 sifted, and afterwards packed. This tea, supposing 
 the leaves to have been gathered from shrubs equally 
 good with those of the tea country, would have 
 been equal in quality to the chop Cow Mow, and 
 teas of that class, for which the East India Company 
 usually paid 44 tales the pecul, or 25. Sd, the lb. 
 
 The finest Hysons, such as the chops or breaks, 
 Tien-Hing, and Lum-Hing, or teas for which the 
 East India Company paid 64 tales the pecul, or 
 35. 2cL the lb., undergo a still further selection, until 
 all the open and pale leaves are picked out, in the 
 same manner as the skin is separated from the 
 Hyson ; so that the " superior Hysons " require 
 much labour and attention, and are expensive to 
 
INTO HYSON lEA. 227 
 
 make. It obviously follows, also, that no tea of 
 this description can be brought to market, without 
 increasing, at the same time, the middling and 
 common Hysons, so that if an extensive sale did 
 not exist for middling teas, none of the superior 
 kinds could be made ; for it is difficult to conceive 
 of any price which foreigners would be willing to 
 pay, which would aiford an adequate compensation 
 for the labour of making the fine teas only. In- 
 deed, if any reliance can be placed on the reports 
 of the Hyson merchants, the Hyson tea grown in 
 garden soil is much affected by the fluctuations of 
 the foreign markets ; so that the shrubs are rooted 
 up and planted again just as the demand increases 
 or diminishes, which may have some foundation, in 
 truth, when it is considered that these teas are 
 principally made for foreign consumption ; and 
 that these shrubs occupy a rich and fertile soil, 
 easily convertible to other purposes, and too valu- 
 able to be permitted to remain idle. 
 
 The tea in question yielded very few knobby 
 skin leaves, and nothing that could properly be 
 termed gunpowder. There were a few round 
 leaves, closely rolled up and knitted together, re- 
 sembling that tea, but so small and flat as to be 
 useless. This inferiority was ascribed, as in the 
 leaves made into black tea, to the general smallness 
 and want of substance of the Honan leaves. It 
 must also be observed, that the colour was greatly 
 inferior in brightness to the tea usually imported 
 
 Q 2 
 
228 SEPARATION AND CLASSIFICATION 
 
 into England. In fact, it had somewhat the ap- 
 pearance of being artificially coloured, or, what is 
 technically termed, glazed. It, nevertheless, pro- 
 duced none that could mth propriety be termed 
 yellow leaves. 
 
 Having now described what I have seen myself, 
 I shall proceed to relate what I understand to be 
 the practice adopted in the Hyson districts for the 
 separation and classification of the difi'erent kinds 
 of Hyson tea. I have tmce seen a chest of Mao 
 Cha sifted at Canton, but I found it difficult to 
 note down the process, on account of the confusion 
 wdiich was created by all the different parts being 
 carried on at the same time, and from the number 
 of hands employed. Eight or nine persons were 
 all at work at the same time ; some sifting, some 
 roasting the leaves, others fanning off the skin 
 with a tray, some winnowing with a machine, and 
 others picking out the skin leaves ; and, though I 
 stopped the men occasionally, and took samples 
 through every stage of the process, as well as noted 
 down every particular at the time, yet I will not 
 be answerable that no mistake was made. The ac- 
 counts, as they were taken, will be found in the Ap- 
 pendix. In this examination I was aided by my 
 friend and colleague, Mr. John Reeves, whose state- 
 ment I have adopted as being more minute, and, I 
 believe, more accurate than my own. My present 
 observations will, therefore, be the result of general 
 inquiry, and wdiat I have been enabled to collect at 
 
OF HYSON TEAS. 229 
 
 different times, as well as what I witnessed on the 
 occasions here alluded to. 
 
 The factors say, that when they have concluded 
 their purchases, and brought home their Mao Cha, 
 they roast it three che hiang (two and a half 
 hours), and then pack it in canisters. In the course 
 of a month it is sifted. The number of sieves used 
 are four ; the three first retain the Hyson, and the 
 fourth the young Hyson ; the round gunpowder is 
 picked out from the third sieve ; and the che-ma 
 (hemp seed), or imperial gunpowder, is winnowed 
 from the fourth by means of a machine. Though 
 it is usual to speak of four sieves, yet the number 
 used must evidently depend upon the size and 
 quality of the leaves, as in all other parts of the 
 process. I understand that seven sieves are com- 
 monly used in the Hyson districts ; five and six I 
 have seen used mvself: and the reader will re- 
 member that the Honan leaves, from the thinness 
 and poorness of the leaf, required only two. Nor 
 must the writer's words be taken literally ; for all 
 that the Chinese mean by four sieves being used is, 
 that the tea is first divided by means of four sieves 
 into ^YQ principal divisions ; and not that only 
 four sieves are used. The order, too, in which 
 the sieves are used, difi*ers from that about to be 
 described ; the coarsest sieves being used first in 
 the Hyson country, agreeably to the foregoing ac- 
 count, whilst the finest were employed at Canton 
 to exhibit this process to me. 
 
 Q 3 
 
230 SEPARATION AND CLASSIFICATION 
 
 The first and finest sieve sifts the Mao Cha, and 
 passes young Hyson, Che Ma (hemp seed) or 
 smallest gunpowder and dust, which we will call 
 No. 1. 
 
 The second sieve sifts the returns of the first 
 sieve, and passes the small leaves of the Hyson 
 tea, and the large round gunpowder. No. 2. The 
 third sieve sifts the returns of the second sieve, 
 and passes the middling sized leaves of the Hyson, 
 No. 3. 
 
 The fourth sieve sifts the returns of the third 
 sieve, and passes large Hyson leaves'. No. 4 ; and 
 returns still larger leaves. No. 5. 
 
 No. 5. The largest Hyson leaves are then roasted 
 until the requisite excellence of colour is produced, 
 two or three catties (from three to four pounds) 
 being put into the Ivuo at one time, the heat of 
 the Kuo being about 90° of Fahrenheit. They are 
 then winnowed, whilst hot, with large circular bam- 
 boo trays, when a chaffy kind of skin, or large dust 
 (No. 6.), is fanned off. The leaves are then 
 strewed upon a table, when the large open leaves, 
 and large knobby leaves, are picked out by hand, 
 and form the finest description of Hyson skin.* 
 The remaining leaves are Hyson. 
 
 No. 4. The large Hyson leaves are next roasted, 
 the fire being somewhat diminished : they are then 
 winnowed, when the same kind of dust is fanned 
 
 * Pretty good bloom, briglitish Hyson kind mixed, knobby 
 leaf. 
 
OF HYSON TEAS 231 
 
 off as before, which we will also call No. 6. The 
 tea is then hand-picked, and yields knobby and 
 other fine skin leaves*, the residue being Hyson. f 
 
 No. 3. The middle-sized Hyson leaves are now 
 roasted, the heat of the fire being again diminished, 
 and the tea not roasted quite so long. They are 
 then winnowed, when a middling quality of skin 
 is fanned off J, leaving the Hyson as before. 
 
 No. 2. The smallest Hyson leaves are then 
 roasted and winnowed, Avhen a small, thin, twisted 
 skin leaf is fanned off.§ The residue is hand-picked, 
 to select the round gunpowder leaves ; and the 
 leaves that remain are Hyson. 
 
 No. 1. The young Hyson and small gunpowder 
 leaves are now winnowed by means of a machine 
 called a Fong Kuey, which is the same used to 
 separate the chaff from wheat, both in China and 
 in England. It is a well known fact that we are 
 indebted to the Chinese for this machine ; it is said 
 to have been first introduced into Belgium, and 
 thence into England. 
 
 * Middling to good middling, bloom brightish, mixed knobby 
 leaf. 
 
 •{• Middling bloom, brightish twisted leaf. 
 
 J But middling to middling bloom, small twisted wiry leaf. 
 
 § In the process of winnowing Nos. 4. & 5., besides the chaffy 
 dust that is fanned off, there is a light wiry kind of skin, or 
 dust, which is projected towards the extremity of the winnowing 
 tray. This is skimmed off by hand, and mixed with the chaffy 
 dust, and sold in the tea country, though sometimes mixed with 
 Hyson skin. 
 
 Q 4 
 
232 SEPARATION AND CLASSIFICATION 
 
 Those used for tea, some people say, have 
 three side mouths, besides the large one in front. 
 The heaviest leaves fall through the side mouth 
 nearest the fan, and so in succession, according to 
 their gravity ; the chaiF and dust being projected 
 from the mouth in front. The mouth of the hopper 
 is regulated in an ingenious manner by a lateral 
 piece of wood, the handle of which rests on a lon- 
 gitudinal slide, which widens and closes the mouth 
 at pleasure. As this machine has great power, the 
 handle of the fan is turned very slowly. 
 
 The first process is to separate the young Hyson 
 from the small skin and dust with which the tea is 
 mixed. For this purpose, the mouth of the hopper 
 is nearly closed, and the tea thus winnowed four 
 or five times. In the first winnowing, the tea 
 which falls through the second mouth is a chaffy 
 dust mixed with fine dust ; and nothing but fine 
 dust through the front one. In the other winnow- 
 ings, the tea which falls from the second mouth is 
 now mixed with a heavier skin, and that projected 
 from the front mouth mixed with chaffy dust. After 
 winnowing, the young Hyson is sifted again through 
 the same sieve as before, and a large twisted leaf 
 mixed with skin is skimmed off the top ; the 
 residue forming the young Hyson. The mouth of 
 the hopper is now widened, and the young Hyson 
 slowly winnowed again ; when the che-ma, or small 
 imperial gunpowder, falls through the first mouth, 
 and the young Hyson through the second. During 
 
OF HYSON TEAS. 233 
 
 the roastings of the Hyson tea, which take place 
 at this period of the siftings and classification, 
 great attention is paid to the colour ; and, though 
 the roastings are regulated by the measure of time 
 designated a che hiang (the one I tried burnt 
 forty-five minutes), yet that instrument is used 
 more as a guide than a rule ; for, as the time of 
 roasting draws to a close, each parcel is frequently 
 compared with a sample kept for that purpose, 
 and the roasting increased or diminished as the 
 colour approximates to that of the sample. The 
 superior Hysons (as Tien-Hing and Lum-Hing) 
 are afterwards picked from the third and fourth 
 sieves. It is hardly necessary to observe that the 
 more the teas are roasted the closer becomes the 
 curl. 
 
 The teas being now assimilated in colour and 
 leaf and properly assorted, are arranged according 
 to their classes of Hyson, Hyson skin, young Hyson 
 and gunpowder ; and these classes again arranged 
 and mixed agreeably to their qualities, which are 
 noted down previously to packing the tea in 
 canisters. 
 
 In about the sixth or seventh moon (July or 
 August), the tea harvest being concluded, the 
 qualities of the aggregated purchases are further 
 arranged, and the teas of suitable and nearly 
 equal qualities are started into a heap or pile in 
 sufficient quantities to form a chop or parcel of 
 one uniform quality, which in Hysons is about one 
 
234 PEOCESS OF PACKING. 
 
 hundred or more chests. The quantity packed in 
 each chest is previously weighed, that the weight 
 may be uniform. The green tea is not trodden 
 down with the feet, but is packed by simply 
 striking or shaking the chest against the ground. 
 The Hyson tea is said to be roasted three or four 
 che hiang previously to packing, and the young 
 Hyson ten. The tea is packed hot. The gun- 
 powder and Hyson skins are said not to be roasted 
 previously to packing ; but that, of course, must 
 depend upon circumstances, whether they require 
 it or not. 
 
 In this manner are the Hyson teas made, 
 whether the produce of the hills or the plains, as 
 also the Singlo Hysons and " Superior Twankay." 
 The latter have frequently a glazed appearance, as 
 also the Singlo gunpowders, which I imagine may 
 formerly have arisen more from the quality of the 
 leaf, than from any factitious means employed to 
 produce the colour. Still, in some cases a small 
 quantity of colouring matter may have been used. 
 It has also been shown that the tea made from the 
 Honan leaves had a glazed appearance. It never- 
 theless is true, that when the leaf is deficient in 
 the requisite colour the Chinese do not hesitate to 
 employ colouring matter to improve it. Those 
 Hysons which have a Singlo or Twankay flavour 
 are more or less mixed with Twankay teas, the 
 greater part of the Hyson skins, particularly those 
 which are yellow in leaf, are wholly of that descrip- 
 
SINGLO OR TWANKAY TEA. 235 
 
 tion. The yellow leaf in Hyson partly arises from 
 the age of the leaf, and partly from such leaves 
 being of the second gathering ; but principally 
 from some circumstance connected with soil.* 
 
 SINGLO OR TWANKAY TEA. 
 
 The Singlo or Twankay tea is grown in the 
 districts of Hoang Shan, Tuon Ky (Twankay), 
 Thie Ping, and Ning Kuo, in the province of Kiang 
 Nan ; the manipulation of which does not differ 
 essentially from that of Hyson tea, but is per- 
 formed with less care. And as I have already 
 given a circumstantial account of the mode of pre- 
 paring that tea, the following translation of a docu- 
 ment procured from a respectable tea merchant or 
 
 * Some of the Chinese say, that good Singlo tea cannot be 
 distinguished from Hyson ; and some of the dealers in England 
 have thought some chops of " superior Twankay '' to approxi- 
 mate to Hyson, as may be seen by their characters, viz., " pretty 
 good Twankay, brightish curled leaf, Hyson kind of leaf and 
 flavour." 
 
 The chop, Lum-Hing, frequently the finest chop of Hyson of 
 the season, had occasionally a tendency to Twankay flavour, 
 which most probably arose from some peculiarity of soil, which 
 improved cultivation could not subdue. I was informed that 
 this tea grew in the Twankay district. Since the tea plant is 
 propagated by seed, or by transplanting the wild shrub in favour- 
 able soils, it is highly probably that the young plants may long 
 retain their original flavour, though under improved cultivation, 
 and in some cases never entirely lose it. 
 
236 MODE OF MAKING 
 
 factor, Tien Hing, Avill suffice to describe the mode 
 of making the Twankay tea. 
 
 He observes — " The Singlo tea is grown in all 
 parts of Kiang Nan, bat Hoang Shan, and Tuon 
 Ky produce the best. The leaves begin to bud 
 every year in about the 5th of April (Tsing Ming) 
 and are gathered about the 20th of April (Ko Yu). 
 It is gathered by whole branches at a time, and 
 the leaves and stalks are afterwards stripped off 
 rudely with the hands. It is then roasted in a 
 Kuo, and rolled indifferently with the hands or 
 feet.* It is gathered and roasted every day, and 
 sold as soon as made. The factors who purchase 
 it, carry it home, and roast it again two or three 
 hours, when it is sifted (to take away the dust) 
 and packed in canisters. Some of the factors use 
 charcoal, others wood ; and there are some petty 
 dealers, who do not roast it immediately, but pile 
 it up in their houses and afterwards roast and 
 pack it.f It is sifted through four or five sieves. 
 
 * I have seen tea rolled with the feet with almost the same 
 dexterity as with the hands, always keeping the leaves well 
 collected together in the form of a ball. The use of the feet, 
 however, is only employed as a relief to the hands and arms 
 when tired ; and I believe principally practised with inferior 
 teas. 
 
 •j* That is, they do not roast and pack it in canisters as it is 
 purchased of the farmer, but keep their daily purchases in their 
 houses until they have a sufficient quantity to make a parcel 
 of 500 chests, when they roast, sift, and pack it at once 
 for the Canton market ; which is a careless and a bad mode. 
 
TWANKAY TEA. 
 
 237 
 
 While tlie sticks and stalks are being picked out by 
 hand from the first sieve *, the tea of the second 
 
 * Here, the order of the sieves is again reversed, the coarse 
 sieves being the first used. I shall here describe the manner 
 in which I saw a chest of Twankay sifted at Canton. 
 
 The leaves were first sifted through a fine sieve, which passed 
 the young hyson leaves and dust, No. 1. 
 
 The returns of the first sieve were sifted through a coarser 
 sieve, and passed Twankay small leaves. No. 2. 
 
 The third sieve sifted the returns of the second sieve, and 
 passed Twankay, No. 3. ; and returned the large leaves of the 
 Twankay, No. 4. 
 
238 MODE OF MAKING 
 
 and third sieves is roasted. The fire must be brisk, 
 and the change of colour carefully watched. The 
 stalks (remaining) on the leaves must be plucked 
 off by hand. The fourth and fifth siftings are also 
 roasted over a strong fire. They are then taken 
 from the Kuo and tossed or winnowed. Women 
 are now employed to pick them clean. Each 
 parcel is then carried to the Kuo, and roasted four 
 or five che hiang. The colours are then assorted, 
 and the tea packed in canisters. The colour of 
 the leaves is now of a bluish tinge, and the tea 
 pleasant in smell and flavour. 
 
 " In the seventh or eighth moon (August and 
 September) each parcel is compared together, when 
 such as correspond in quality and colour are formed 
 into one pile *, roasted three che hiang, the dust 
 sifted, and the tea packed [hot] in chests for Canton. 
 The leaves of the second gatherings have no juices, 
 
 No. 2. was roasted and winnowed on bamboo trays, and threw 
 off a chafFy skin and dust, which is sold in the tea country. 
 
 No. 3. was treated in the same manner. 
 
 Nos. 2. and 3. were then hand-picked, from which were taken 
 a vast quantity of sticks and stalks, many an inch long, and of 
 a hard and ligneous character. 
 
 No. 4. was roasted longer than the other parcels of leaves, and 
 the heat of the fire increased. It was then hand-picked to take 
 away the large skin leaves, which were mixed with Hyson 
 skin. 
 
 * The usual quantity packed at one time is about 300 chests, 
 and two of these packings constitute a chop or break. Some 
 chops consist of 1000 chests, each chest weighing about 80 lb. 
 
T WANK AY TEA. 2^9 
 
 are light, thin, and of no substance ; the infusion 
 weak and tasteless ; the colour red ; and the in- 
 fused leaves black. If very common and old, colour- 
 ing matter is then used ; and the tea is kept in the 
 * * * *. f The factitious colour is produced 
 by a mixture of Ma Ky Hoey J, Tien Hoa 
 (Indigo), and She Kao powder (calcined foliated 
 gypsum). The smallest quantity put into the Kuo 
 at one time is one or two tea-spoonfuls ; and the 
 largest three or four. The colour then changes to a 
 light blue.§ The lire must be made of charcoal, and 
 much attention paid to the roasting. Now, if the 
 chests be not in readiness, it is to be feared the 
 tea may be mixed wdth false leaves, the smell 
 thereby injured, and the tea rendered unhealthy. 
 But I must refer you to abler men than myself for 
 
 f Here follows some obscure expression which has an allu- 
 sion to the mode practised by petty dealers mentioned before. 
 
 I I am ignorant of the botanical name of this plant. 
 
 § The mode in which I have seen Twankay teas coloured 
 is as follows : — The gypsum was the foliated kind, calcined, and 
 reduced to a powder. It was then mixed in equal parts with 
 Chinese Indigo, also reduced to a powder. A common salt- 
 spoonful is enough to colour four lbs. ( three catties) of tea. 
 The colouring matter may be added at any time after the teas 
 are completely roasted and made. It is usually added in the 
 last process of roasting, whilst the tea is hot : but if the tea be 
 cold, it must then be roasted a few minutes till quite hot, when 
 the colouring matter is sprinkled over the leaves. The tea is 
 then briskly worked round the Kuo with the hand, and the 
 change of colour attentively watched, for the colour will be in- 
 jured if the tea be roasted too long. 
 
240 TWANKAY TEA. 
 
 instruction on that point. I have no information 
 on such practices." 
 
 It may here be observed, that most other mer- 
 chants or factors agree with the foregoing account 
 of the Twankay teas ; and particularly as to the cir- 
 cumstance of their being partly glazed or coloured 
 by factitious means ; and, also, that some chops 
 are mixed with leaves which are not tea leaves. 
 Others say, that some leaves are simply dried in the 
 sun. A factor furnished me with the following 
 account of the mixture of his tea, which was gene- 
 rally classed in the first class of contract teas pur- 
 chased by the East India Company : — 
 
 Two parts of the first gathei'ing of common Twankay shrubs 
 from Tuon Ky, Hoang Shan, and other places. 
 
 Two parts of the second gathering, ditto. 
 
 Three parts of leaves produced at Thie Ping, which is an unfa- 
 vourable district, and where teas are always glazed, and some 
 dried in the sun. 
 
 The chop Hong Sing (a well known and much 
 esteemed chop) was frequently what in my time 
 was considered very much glazed ; but which in the 
 present day would be called unglazed. Thus, the 
 Twankays imported into England consist of a mix- 
 ture of leaves of inferior shrubs gathered in a care- 
 less manner, some by whole branches at a time; 
 are indifferently rolled with the hands or feet; 
 some merely dried in the sun ; and all mixed more 
 or less with tea coloured by factitious means. 
 
 It may now be remarked, that it was long an 
 
EXPERIMENTS ON COLOUR. 241 
 
 established opinion in Europe that green tea derived 
 its grey or bluish appearance from being dried on 
 copper. The preceding accounts demonstrate that 
 such an opinion is altogether unfounded. The 
 same colour can be produced by drying the leaves 
 in a copper vessel, as I have proved by experiment ; 
 but the tea thus dried appeared to me to partake of 
 the flavour of the vessel ; and consequently a vessel 
 which produces a flavour so objectionable is not 
 likely to be employed. Nor does this peculiarity 
 of colour arise from any metallic influence of the 
 vessel in which the leaves are roasted, for I found 
 by experiment, that the same bloom-like colour 
 could be produced in an earthen vessel. 
 
 The reader will now remember, — and I wish to 
 draw his attention particularly to this fact, — that 
 one of the inferior methods of completing the final 
 desiccation of black tea was by means of the iron 
 vessel denominated a Kuo, in lieu of the poey long 
 or drying-tube commonly used: which inferior 
 method does not seem essentially diflferent from the 
 mode now described of making green tea. In order 
 therefore to discover to what so great a difl'erence 
 of colour, produced by means almost similar, was 
 due, I went through the following experiments. 
 
 1. I put a small parcel of Honan leaves into a 
 common culinary kuo, and after having roasted 
 and rolled them twice, I divided them into two 
 parcels. I then completed the roasting of one 
 parcel with as fierce a fire as I could bear, keeping 
 
 R 
 
242 TRUE CAUSE OF COLOUR. 
 
 the leaves in constant motion in the kuo : and of 
 the second with a moderate or slow fire in the same 
 manner ; and in both cases green tea was produced ; 
 but the colour produced by the slow fire was 
 preferable. 
 
 2. After the second roasting and rolling of an- 
 other parcel of leaves, I divided the kuo into two 
 equal parts by means of a thin partition of wood 
 fixed in the centre ; and then placed an equal 
 quantity of leaves on either side of the wood. The 
 one I kept in constant motion, the other in as 
 quiescent a state as possible, consistently with the 
 leaves not burning, as in the inferior method 
 already described of drying black tea. The leaves 
 kept in constant motion dried rapidly, and soon 
 assumed the colour and appearance of green tea. 
 The other parcel required a much longer drying ; 
 and when completed assumed the colour of black 
 tea. 
 
 Thus the difi'erence of colour in black and green 
 teas does not appear to be derived from any 
 management of heat, but from manipulation ; the 
 heat being the same in both cases. I therefore 
 conclude that the colour of black teas, when 
 roasted in the manner herein described, arises from 
 the quiescent state of the leaves during the final 
 desiccation ; and that of the green from incessant 
 motion — the former producing a slow, and the 
 latter a quick evaporation of the elastic fluids. 
 The fanning of the green tea seems also employed 
 
I 
 
 FACTITIOUS COLOUEING. 243 
 
 for the same purpose ; and it obviously may be 
 surmised, that the freer admission of light and air 
 may work very considerable chemical effects, alto- 
 gether sufficient to account for the different results 
 in these two processes. 
 
 So far as the characteristic colour of green tea is 
 concerned, the mode of producing it has here been 
 explained and established. If factitious means are 
 now generally or almost universally adopted to 
 imitate or to increase the effect of the natural 
 colour, it may be considered as a great and novel 
 abuse, and ought to be discouraged by brokers and 
 dealers. It is injurious to flavour. Whether the 
 Chinese do employ colouring matter or not for the 
 teas they use themselves, there can be no doubt 
 that the bulk of the Hyson teas of the present day, and, 
 indeed, all descriptions of green tea, are now glazed 
 to a degree that would have insured their rejection 
 by the agents of the East India Company during the 
 existence of their charter. Mr. Warington, che- 
 mical operator of Apothecaries' Hall, published an 
 interesting paper in the " Memoirs of the Chemical 
 Society" read February 1844, proving by chemical 
 examination and analysis the fact, that the Chinese 
 green teas are artificially coloured Avith ferrocyanide 
 of iron or prussian blue, and sulphate of lime or 
 gypsum — the greater part with the two combined, 
 some few mth sulphate of lime only, and some 
 with a yellow or orange-coloured vegetable sub- 
 
 R 2 
 
244 EXPERIMENTS WITH STEAM. 
 
 stance, but none with indigo as represented by 
 the green-tea merchants. 
 
 On what the colour of black tea more particu- 
 larly depends, when manipulated with care, I shall 
 attempt in a subsequent chapter to explain. 
 
 I next tried some experiments to ascertain how 
 far the agency of steam might be rendered subser- 
 vient to the manipulation of tea : but having no 
 other instruments at hand, than the rude vessels 
 already described, I had no means of confining the 
 steam, except with cloths, and thus endeavouring 
 to raise the heat above the boiling point. For the 
 first part of the process, the heat of boiling water 
 so employed was not sufiicient to produce the 
 crackling of the leaves described by Koempfer : nor 
 a sufficiently quick evaporation of the fluids, so 
 that it required considerable force to express the 
 remaining juices before the leaves could be perfectly 
 rolled. For the final drying of green tea, it seemed 
 to answer, and might perhaps be used with advan- 
 tage. It is necessary, however, to lower the heat 
 of the water as the leaves dry, for I found by this 
 experiment that the heat produced by boiling water 
 was too great for the final desiccation of green tea. 
 
 With respect to machinery, it is obvious that 
 sifting machines, in lieu of sieves worked by hand, 
 might be employed with advantage in separating 
 the difi^erent kinds of leaves of green tea, in addi- 
 tion to the winnowing machine already used for 
 the purpose of separating the young Hyson and 
 
USE OF MACHINERY. 245 
 
 imperial Gunpowder. Other simple contrivances 
 raio^ht be invented. Mr. Jacobson of Java has in- 
 vented an instrument, a kind of cylinder, for the 
 purpose of turning and tossing the leaves (To- 
 ching) especially after rainy weather, previously to 
 roasting.* He has also intimated his intention 
 of inventing an instrument to perform the whirling 
 motion which takes place in the sieves analogous 
 to the tossing and tumbling the leaves with the 
 hands. Novel modes of producing and regulating 
 the heat, and even of drying the leaves, may be 
 devised; but it is important first to learn, and render 
 familiar, the Chinese methods, before any experi- 
 ments are tried which are likely to afi'ect the quality 
 of the tea. 
 
 * See plate in the Appendix. 
 
 R 3 
 
246 
 
 CHAP. X. 
 
 HEAT EMPLOYED IN THE MANIPULATION OF TEA IN CHINA — • 
 
 AT JAVA ABSORPTION OF HEAT BY THE LEAVES LIMITED 
 
 BY EVAPORATION PROVED BY EXPERIMENT CAUSE OF 
 
 LEAVES NOT BURNING — AMOUNT OF HEAT REGULATED ACCORD- 
 ING TO THE SUCCULENCY OF THE LEAVES HEAT EMPLOYED 
 
 AT JAVA TOO LOW FOR GREEN TEA DIFFICULTY IN DE- 
 TERMINING THE REQUISITE AMOUNT OF HEAT TEMPERATURE 
 
 RECOMMENDED USED AT JAVA MODE OF MEASURING IT 
 
 LIABLE TO ERROR. 
 
 Having now described the mode in which the 
 black and green teas are prepared for general 
 consumption, it may be advisable here to make a 
 few observations on the ordinary temperature 
 employed by the Chinese in the manipulation of 
 tea, as well as on the heat employed at Java. 
 
 For the first part of the process of manipulation 
 by the application of heat, and so long as any 
 juices can be expressed in the act of roasting, I 
 have usually employed the word " Roasting," and 
 for the remaining and final desiccation I have used 
 the term " Drying." In this sense we will hence- 
 forth more precisely employ these terms. 
 
 Now in the first part of the process of roasting 
 the finest Souchong tea, denominated Paochong, we 
 have seen, that the Chinese do not hesitate to 
 employ so higli a temperature as the red heat of 
 
HEAT EMPLOYED IN THE MANIPULATION OF TEA. 247 
 
 iron ; and in order that this may not seem, or be 
 mistaken for, exaggeration or error, it may be 
 advisable now to state, that the knowledge of this 
 fact is derived from too many independent sources 
 of information to leave any room for doubt. 
 
 Mr. Bruce at Assam states*, that the Chinese 
 there affirm, that a red heat is employed in China 
 for the manufacture of Paochong tea. Mr. Reeves 
 possesses Chinese papers corroborative of this fact. 
 I also have several Chinese documents (See chap. vi. 
 p. 103.) procured from different persons, all conclu- 
 sive on the same point, besides having been on two 
 occasions an eye-witness of the red heat having been 
 so used by diiferent men, both from the green and 
 black tea districts. It is necessary, however, to 
 advert to the form of the vessel in which tea is 
 roasted. It is not flat but concave ; and it must 
 be borne in mind, that it is only the extreme point 
 or pole of this concavity, which is somewhat 
 flattened, that is even permitted to attain that 
 high temperature^ This heat is also a dull red 
 heat, though visible by daylight, and not extend- 
 ing more than six or eight inches in circumference 
 from the central point of the pan or vessel. 
 Further, the vessel is fitted into the stove in a 
 slanting position, having an angle of about forty- 
 five degrees. Thus the leaves which are simply 
 dashed and tossed against the heated part of the 
 
 * Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, vol. viii. p. 504. 
 
 R 4 
 
248 HEAT EMPLOYED IN THE 
 
 iron vessel in the process of Ta-ching, fall down 
 immediately to its extreme edge and the sides of 
 the brick work, which of course are less heated. 
 Positive contact, therefore, as in some analogous 
 cases, may not take place, or be only momentary. 
 It is observed by Brande, that " if a little water 
 be carefully dropped into a platinum crucible, 
 heated nearly to redness, the water lies quietly 
 upon the metal, so long as it is prevented coming 
 into perfect contact with it by the interposed layer 
 of steam ; but as soon as the crucible cools down 
 so as to admit the water to touch it, it instantly 
 boils off."* In this example we seem to have 
 strong evidence of the nonconducting power of 
 steam ; but as here the almost quiescent state of 
 the water is a necessary condition to the success 
 of the experiment, whereas the tea leaves are kept 
 in constant motion, it may be, that the true cause 
 of their not burning is due to a rapid conduction 
 of heat, which takes place through every particle and 
 pore of the leaf, by the sudden and copious gene- 
 ration of steam which is thus called into action ; as 
 in a well known and familiar experiment, heat by 
 rapid conduction may be transmitted innoxiously 
 through a sheet of paper, whereas if slowly 
 conducted the paper ignites. 
 
 But whether one or both of these causes may 
 operate, or to whatever cause the effect may be 
 
 * Manual of Chemistry, p. 158. 
 
MANIPULATION OF TEA. 249 
 
 ascribed, it is obviously due to a copious and 
 rapid evolution of steam that the leaves do not 
 burn. Still after much thought and inquiry, I am 
 disposed to believe, that the red heat is never 
 intended to be used for the green tea, nor even 
 for the black, which forms any part of European 
 consumption. Yet in the rude manner in which 
 the Chinese regulate the heat, especially in the 
 first process of roasting, when dry wood is used 
 instead of charcoal, it may occasionally happen, as 
 in the instances which I saw, that the roasting vessel 
 may attain a very high temperature, if not red 
 heat. Mr. Jacobson of Java states, that the 
 "Kwalie" or roasting vessel becomes red hot 
 in a quarter of an hour, and cools as rapidly. 
 In fact, from the excessive thinness of the vessel, 
 " not exceeding a line in thickness in the thickest 
 part,"* and the means employed to heat it, there 
 is a real difficulty in maintaining any fixed or 
 equable degree of heat. It necessarily must be, from 
 the means employed, a varying quantity having a 
 considerable range. In fact, it is in the dexterous 
 management of the leaves under these varying 
 conditions of temperature that the skill of the 
 roaster is displayed. A difi'erence of twenty or 
 thirty or even fifty degrees of heat is, I believe, of 
 little importance during any part of the process of 
 roasting. With respect to the amount of heat 
 
 * Handboek v. de Kult. en Fabrik. v. Thee. § 374. 
 
250 HEAT EMPLOYED IN THE 
 
 required, some vague and general idea may oe 
 given, but nothing fixed or positive. There must 
 be no lack of heat, that is the main point ; the 
 management of it must be left to the skill and 
 judgment of the roaster. If excessive, he can 
 compensate for this excess by increased action, 
 or other expedients within his reach ; but if defi- 
 cient, his power is paralysed and his skill lost. 
 Science may suggest much in reference to the 
 maintenance of a fixed and equable temperature, 
 with easy modes of raising or lowering it at pleasure, 
 but the control of it may ever remain dependent on 
 the skill of the operator, unless indeed new methods 
 be discovered, which is by no means improbable. 
 There are many experiments which in due season 
 may be tried in the manufacture of tea, by which 
 similar results may be obtained by less elaborate 
 means ; but the time is not yet arrived. Let it 
 be the object of every cultivator and experimentalist 
 to well introduce and disseminate the Chinese 
 methods before any such experiments be made. 
 These remarks, however, do not apply to simple 
 abridgements of labour by mechanical means. 
 
 On the other hand, Mr. Jacobson states that 
 at Java all tea is roasted at a temperature below 
 the boiling point (ib. § 379.), and it must be ac- 
 knowledged that teas of good quality are now made 
 at Java. Still I am disposed to think that the heat 
 employed there is of too low a temperature, or that 
 some error may exist in that intelligent author's 
 
MANIPULATION OF TEA. 251 
 
 mode of estimating the temperature. In China, 
 judging from what has come under my own obser- 
 vation as now described, and from certain experi- 
 ments which I have recently made in this country 
 with other leaves, I feel little hesitation in affirming 
 that, with the exception of Pekoe tea, a temperature 
 of from 300 to 400 degrees of Fahrenheit is used 
 in the first roasting of all tea of good quality 
 whether green or black. In fact, one may be almost 
 justified in concluding that the Chinese consider 
 no temperature too high in this stage of the process, 
 so long as they can manage the leaves and keep 
 them free from burning. 
 
 Thus finding it difficult to reconcile the high 
 temperature employed by the Chinese in this art 
 with the power of manipulation, since the men's 
 hands were neither burnt w^ith heat nor scalded 
 with steam, but seeing at the same time the rapid 
 and copious evolution of vapour which arose from 
 the leaves, I was induced to suspect, that they 
 could not attain a degree of heat approaching the 
 boiling point. It is familiarly known that steam 
 given out under the ordinary pressure of the atmo- 
 sphere cannot acquire a higher temperature. I 
 therefore tried the following experiments, which 
 were made with as much care as an unpractised 
 hand could perform them. 
 
 The occasion was one of those before alluded to, 
 when I saw black tea roasted by a man from Fokien. 
 The vessel was heated to a high temperature, but not 
 
252 ABSORPTION OF HEAT BY LEAVES 
 
 to red heat. The thermometer used was one of 
 Fahrenheit, graduated only to the boiling point ; 
 I could not obtain one graduated higher, or one 
 the bulb of which could be laid bare. On ap- 
 proaching the bulb of the thermometer carefully, 
 and placing it against the inner part of the iron 
 vessel, but remote from the centre or part most 
 heated, the mercury rose instantaneously to the 
 utmost range, so that I was obliged immediately 
 to withdraw it. This example may be sufficient 
 to mark the high temperature to which the vessel 
 was raised. After the first roasting I placed as 
 quickly as possible the thermometer in the parcel 
 of leaves about to be rolled, and slightly pressed 
 them against the bulb. The mercury rose only 
 to 138 degrees. I repeated the experiment with 
 another parcel of leaves in the same manner, and 
 the temperature indicated was 136°. After the 
 second roasting of the same leaves the thermometer 
 rose only to 132°. This lower temperature, how- 
 ever, I consider as accidental ; some allowance must 
 of course be made for loss of heat in carrying 
 the leaves from the roasting vessel. Still on a 
 recent occasion, I roasted some hawthorn leaves 
 at a temperature of 270°, and another thermometer 
 was kept above the boiling point in readiness for 
 use. At an agreed signal I raised the leaves from 
 the vessel, and an assistant immediately thrust the 
 heated thermometer into the leaves, which I gently 
 pressed against the bare bulb. The thermometer 
 
LIMITED BY EVAPORATION. 253 
 
 fell rapidly to 170°, and continued to fall slowly. 
 Thus taking the mean of the extremes of the cold 
 and hot thermometers 138° and 170° equal to 
 154°, the temperature thus given very little exceeds 
 the point at which steam is said to scald. Hence 
 it seems to me conclusive that, agreeably to the 
 mode of manipulation practised by the Chinese, a 
 very high temperature may be used without in- 
 curring the risk of raising the heat of the leaves 
 to any degree approaching the boiling point ; and, 
 consequently, agreeably to the commonly received 
 opinions of scientific and practical men (as a 
 general rule), without injury to the aroma. Indeed 
 it may be doubted whether there be any connexion 
 between the heat employed and the amount re- 
 ceived by the leaves ; that is, whether the leaves 
 have the power to receive above a certain amount 
 of heat, so long as copious evaporation be main- 
 tained. Analogy seems to favour this doubt. 
 Fluids in undergoing the change from a liquid 
 to a gaseous state send or carry off all superabun- 
 dant heat, and thus is kept down the temperature 
 of the body from which they emanate. Thus the 
 temperature of the body and blood cannot be 
 raised much above 98° or 100°*, so long as copious 
 perspiration bo maintained ; nor can water be 
 raised beyond 212° under the ordinary pressure 
 of the atmosphere — or ether above 98° f, and so 
 
 * Brande's Manual of Chemistry, p. 1337. 
 t lb. p. 1278. 
 
254 ABSORPTION OF HEAT BY LEAVES 
 
 on. So tea and other leaves, according to their 
 succulency and viscous qualities, may have their 
 determinate amounts of heat, so long as copious 
 evaporation continues ; and this, in the case of tea 
 leaves, seems to be between 150° and 170° 
 Fahrenheit at this particular stage of the process. 
 
 Thus the rapid evolution of steam and the 
 copious moisture with which the leaves are covered 
 and surrounded, must be considered as the cause 
 of their not burning. The dexterity of the work- 
 man, doubtless, has much to do in preventing this 
 evil. The mode of manipulation, as already de- 
 scribed, the constant stirring about the leaves in 
 the vessel ; the new surface, which is ever presented 
 to the heated part of it ; the raising them in the 
 air, shaking them on the hand, and scattering them 
 loosely in the fall, are all expedients of the roaster 
 to dissipate the steam, to spare his hands, and to 
 keep down the temperature. 
 
 Upon trying a similar expeiiment in the drying 
 tube, or poey long, used in the process of drying 
 black tea, I found that when one thermometer, 
 placed in the sieve immediately over the fire, 
 marked 250° of heat, the leaves, suddenly raised in 
 the same manner as just described, indicated, with 
 a cold thermometer, a temperature of 179°; thus 
 showing, as might be expected, that as the leaves 
 part with their moisture, their capacity for heat 
 increases ; and all agree that it is in the process of 
 drying, when a comparatively low temperature is 
 
LIMITED BY EVAPORATION. 255 
 
 employed, and not in the roasting, that tea more 
 frequently acquires a burnt smell and flavour. 
 
 Thus I am disposed to think that the main object 
 which the Chinese have in view in the use of a 
 high temperature is, first, to drive off the elastic 
 fluids as rapidly as possible, as every part of the 
 process indicates. The act of rolling is simply 
 with a view of hastening the drying by expressing 
 the juices ; and, secondly, that the temperature of 
 the steam, and, moreover, that of the leaves them- 
 selves, may not attain a degree of heat which would 
 render the manipulation unmanageable. Expe- 
 rience has taught them that a high temperature 
 favours this object, and may be employed bene- 
 ficially, and Avithout injury to the aroma. Perhaps 
 the best test for the temperature required, at least 
 the lowest temperature suitable, is that degree of 
 heat which bursts freely, quickly, and abundantly, 
 the parenchyma of the leaf ; and which bursting of 
 the leaf is the cause of the crackling noise decribed 
 by Kcempfer. This rule is also in accordance 
 with an observation already made, that no fixed 
 measure of heat can be given ; the amount required 
 depends on the succulency and aqueous condition 
 of the leaves. 
 
 If Pao chong tea is exposed to a higher tempera- 
 ture than any other tea, it is because the leaves are 
 of more luxuriant growth and greater succulency, 
 and also because a supposed chemical change has 
 been induced, and is going on in these delicate 
 
256 HEAT REGULATED BY THE 
 
 leaves with activity, but which it becomes neces- 
 sary suddenly and quickly to check, by the appli- 
 cation of intense heat ; as the germination of barley 
 is arrested by a moderate and gradually increasing 
 heat in the process of malting, or the saccharine 
 fermentation in the process of bread-making ; and 
 if Pekoe tea is roasted and dried at a lower tem- 
 perature than any other tea, whether green or 
 black, it is because this tea is made from the con- 
 voluted leaves of the unexpanded terminal bud of 
 the leaf or twig, and has little moisture to part 
 with. Thus, as before explained, young succulent 
 leaves require a high temperature, and dry, old, 
 coriaceous leaves, a low temperature ; so, again, 
 spring leaves more than autumnal. The yellowish 
 green leaves found in fine black tea are doubtless 
 due to similar causes. 
 
 All leaves cannot be gathered of the same age, 
 or under equally favourable circumstances and 
 condition. Thus the yellow or light green leaves 
 found in black tea of fine quality are doubtless 
 due to a higher temperature having been used than 
 was suitable to the condition of those particular 
 leaves, though favourable to the general mass. 
 Sometimes, however, it arises even in spring leaves 
 from too advanced a stage of maturity, their vir- 
 tues being partly lost. Spring leaves especially, 
 and the young leaves generally of black tea, at all 
 seasons of the year, from the course of manipula- 
 tion which they undergo previously to roasting, 
 
SUCCULENCY OF THE LEAVES. 257 
 
 are disposed to turn black, which is exemplified 
 in the Pekoe kinds of tea ; but the autumnal and 
 old leaves, green, brown, or yellow. The difference 
 in these effects must be ascribed to natural causes, 
 such as the different state of their constituent 
 properties at these two periods of the year. Per- 
 haps spring leaves may be considered to bear the 
 same relation to autumnal, that young leaves do to 
 old. Young leaves, says Liebig, contain more 
 alkalis than old ones ; and old leaves lose their 
 astringency. Again, Peligot states that Pekoe and 
 Gunpowder tea contain a larger proportion of 
 azote than any other tea.* In fact so long as the 
 leaves are engaged in the extension of their own 
 growth, they contain a larger amount, than at any 
 subsequent period, of organizable matter, as starch, 
 sugar, gum, and acids for the formation of their 
 own cellular tissue and woody fibre ; but when they 
 have attained their full maturity, the superabun- 
 dant quantity of this nutriment, above what was 
 necessary for their own formation, is sent off as 
 fast as assimilated for the production of cellular 
 tissue, wood, and new organs in other parts of the 
 tree. The sap is also in a more inspissated state, 
 as has already been observed, in the spring season, 
 than at any subsequent period. Similar effects are 
 also produced by different soils. Some soils will 
 not produce the finest quality of tea. And it is 
 
 * Monographic du The, par J. G. Houssaye, p. 101, 
 
 S 
 
258 HEAT REGULATED BY THE 
 
 observed bv Mulder, that in analysis the Cliinese 
 tea could not be distinguished from the Java tea 
 except by the ashes, and perhaps by the gum, and 
 that soil has much to do with this. 
 
 If the succulency of the leaves be unduly in- 
 creased, as by rains, such a condition on the appli- 
 cation of no more than the ordinary degree of heat 
 would operate like a dimintition of temperature. 
 Evaporation would go on slowly, and after the 
 usual time of roasting, the leaves would be found 
 too full of juices to be fit for rolling. It would be 
 necessary in fact to squeeze out the juices with the 
 hand, as practised at Java and at Rio de Janeiro, 
 and which also occurred to myself, when too low a 
 temperature was employed, in an experiment with 
 steam, already detailed. No such practice obtains 
 in the tea districts with which I am acquainted, nor 
 can I consider it a good method. It obviously 
 implies a deficiency of heat. On the other hand, if 
 the heat be raised to meet this turgid state of the 
 leaves, the temperature of the steam and heat of 
 the leaves might reach a point more than the 
 hands could bear. Indeed notwithstanding the low 
 temperature employed at Java in roasting tea, Mr. 
 Jacobson states that the green tea leaves become 
 "nearly as hot as boiling water*," that is, they 
 nearly scald. 
 
 Accordingly we find that in black tea, in which it 
 is here supposed that a certain amount of spon- 
 
 * Haudboek, § 444. 
 
SUCCULENCY OF THE LEAVES. 259 
 
 taneous heating may be beneficial to the leaves, 
 evaporation is hastened by exposure to the sun, and 
 after excessive rains to the action of fire, in each 
 case for the purpose of effecting that state of dry- 
 ness or relative moisture in the leaves which is fa- 
 vourable to the elaboration of a saccharine prin- 
 ciple, which is here surmised to be necessary to black 
 tea previously to roasting. But with green teas any 
 lengthened exposure to sun or air, or spontaneous 
 heating of the leaves, would be injurious. Thus we 
 find it to be the practice of the Chinese to keep such 
 leaves as cool as possible. If the leaves of these teas 
 are overcharged with aqueous fluid, evaporation is 
 hastened, not by sunshine or artificial heat as in 
 black tea, but by spreading the leaves loosely on 
 tiled floors, or on sieves, or stands, in cool places 
 exposed to a current of air ; and this Avhen neces- 
 sary even through the night, as the Chinese say, 
 without injury. At Java it is stated, however, 
 that the leaves there cannot be so exposed without 
 detriment. This may be due to the greater heat 
 of the climate, and even in China it is not desir- 
 able and cannot be done without risk. In ordinary 
 cases the green teas are roasted as soon as gathered, 
 even with the dew on the leaves. It is therefore 
 evident, from the difl'erence of treatment which 
 these two classes of tea receive previously to roast- 
 ing, that the green tea leaves are brought to the 
 roasting vessel more exuberant in juices than the 
 leaves of black tea. Consequently they ought to re- 
 
 s 2 
 
260 HEAT EMPLOYED AT JAVA 
 
 quire, and are, I believe, submitted to a higher tem- 
 perature. At Java this is stated most unequivo- 
 cally to be the fact. Still, notwithstanding the 
 higher temperature there employed, the green tea 
 leaves are found so full of juices after roasting, that 
 it becomes necessary to press out these juices with 
 the hands on sieves over a pail before they can be 
 rolled. So that we seem justified in supposing 
 that the heat employed there, especially for green 
 tea, is of too low a temperature. 
 
 If we examine the construction of the two ves- 
 sels employed in roasting these two classes of tea, 
 we shall find that the one used for black tea is 
 shallow and somewhat flat ; thus favouring a rapid 
 dispersion of the fluids as well as heat ; but the one 
 used for Hyson tea seems not known at Java nor at 
 Japan, nor does it appear that Mr. Fortune met with 
 it in the districts he visited in China. This vessel 
 is three times the depth of the other, besides having 
 perpendicular sides. It is also fitted low down in 
 the brick work, fiye inches below the surface of the 
 stove. Thus both the form and fitting of the 
 Hyson tea vessel are favourable to a concentration 
 of heat ; and it has already been remarked, that in 
 the example which I witnessed of the roasting of 
 green tea, the heat of the steam which issued from 
 the leaves was so great, that I could not bear my 
 hand exposed to it an instant. It must be acknow- 
 ledged, however, that the temperature employed 
 upon that occasion was much too high. The flatter 
 form of the black tea vessel demonstrates that a con- 
 
TOO LOW. 261 
 
 centration of heat is less important. It is singular 
 that Koempfer, so accurate in his description of the 
 manipulation of green tea at Japan, mistook the 
 Twankay roasting vessel used there for a flat iron 
 pan. The fact is, that when the vessel is fitted into 
 the stove in a slanting position, as it is used for the 
 manipulation of Twankay tea, it certainly resembles 
 and might easily be mistaken for, a flat piece of iron 
 turned up at the end. This is Koempfer's descrip- 
 tion of the vessel Avhich he saw used at Japan. It 
 may be seen, however, by the drawing given by Von 
 Siebold in his account of Japan, that the vessel and 
 inclination of the stove correspond with those adopted 
 for Twankay tea in the green tea districts in China. 
 
 With respect to handling leaves exposed to so 
 high a temperature, it may be observed, that the 
 leaves do not attain a higher temperature than the 
 hands of workmen accustomed to this occupation 
 can bear; and the quantity put into the vessel 
 at one time is sufficient, under due management, 
 to prevent any contact between the heated vessel 
 and the hands, though the intense heat which from 
 habit these men can endure is certainly surprising. 
 
 In the second and third processes of roasting, 
 charcoal is used instead of wood ; and the heat is 
 lowered as the leaves part with their moisture, but 
 a high temperature is still maintained so long as 
 any juices can be expressed in the act of rolling, 
 say from 220 to 250 degrees. Thus far the means 
 and temperature used are essentially the same for 
 
 s 3 
 
262 DIFFICULTY IN TESTING 
 
 both classes of tea, black and green, although the 
 green tea leaves require generally a somewhat 
 higher temperature, in consequence of their greater 
 humidity or aqueous condition, and because they 
 are roasted as soon as gathered, without any 
 previous evaporation of the fluids. 
 
 In the subsequent and iinal stages of the mani- 
 pulation, or the process of drying, an essential difl'er- 
 ence arises in the mode of manipulation, as well as in 
 the application of heat. On this depends, as already 
 demonstrated, the distinctive colour of green tea 
 more than on any management of the heat, or any 
 difference of temperature. The black is dried in 
 sieves through the interposition of one of the 
 slowest conducting powers of heat, — air; and 
 the green tea by contact with heated iron, one of 
 the quickest conducting powers. Moreover, the 
 leaves of the black tea are kept in a quiescent 
 state, receiving the full impression, though slowly, 
 of the heat thus transmitted; while those of the 
 green tea are kept in constant motion, besides 
 being fanned ; so that this latter tea is exposed 
 during the process of manipulation to the alternate 
 impressions of heat and cold in rapid succession, 
 by the free admission of air to every part of the 
 leaves. Thus a rapid evaporation of the fluids 
 is produced, and consequently raj^id desiccation. 
 But how this effect, or the amount of heat thus 
 impressed on the leaves in these alternations of a 
 heating and cooling process is to be measured, 
 seems to me a matter of no small difficulty. All 
 
THE HEAT EMPLOYED. 263 
 
 my attempts to appreciate this eiFect have proved 
 most unsatisfactor}' in their results. I mean the 
 results have differed, though the means employed 
 were apparently the same. Then again all en- 
 deavours to institute a comparison between the 
 heat employed in these two methods will be met 
 by similar difficulties. Without entering upon the 
 many failures which I have experienced in such 
 attempts, the general reader will sufficiently com- 
 prehend by the following experiments the difficulty 
 with which this subject is invested. 
 
 With four pounds of good strong charcoal, I 
 raised a drying-tube (Poey long) used for drying 
 black tea, to 220° Fahr. ; the thermometer being- 
 placed on the sieve, which was elevated 1 8 inches 
 above and immediately over the fire. At this 
 temperature I could bear my hand to rest on the 
 sieve without inconvenience, though water boils 
 at 212°. Indeed I have borne my hand in the 
 same position when the heat has been raised to 
 300° without feeling any sensation of pain. But 
 the iron roasting vessel heated to 180° I could 
 hardly bear to touch. Hence it follows that the 
 iron vessel heated to 180° transmits heat to the 
 leaves, in immediate contact with it, more rapidly, 
 and produces a much greater impression on them, 
 than when placed in the drying-tube, though the 
 heat may be raised to 220° by the conduction of 
 air. So much does the transmission of heat depend 
 on the conducting media. Indeed it is stated by 
 
264 THERMOMETRICAL TEST UNSATISEACTORY. 
 
 Brande* that iron heated to 120° is painful to the 
 touch, but that air may be heated to 250 and 300° 
 without being painful to our organs. He moreover 
 states that Sir F. Chan trey had a room for drying 
 his models for casts heated to 300° Fahr., which 
 the workmen were accustomed to enter in the 
 ordinary course of business. Thus if we take 
 the difference of temperature given by the ther- 
 mometer as indicative of the amount of heat im- 
 pressed on the leaves in these two methods, it is 
 obvious we shall be led to form very fallacious 
 conclusions. 
 
 Moreover, in these experiments much depends 
 on the strength of the charcoal, the state of the 
 atmosphere, force of wind, and other conditions, as 
 such experiments can only be conducted with 
 convenience in open sheds, where there is a free 
 current of air. Much also depends, I believe, on 
 the size, form, depth and thickness of the roasting 
 vessel as affecting its radiating powers and focus 
 of heat, not to speak of the many sources of error 
 to which all such experiments are exposed. 
 
 If any satisfactory comparisons can be instituted 
 on this subject, they are only to be obtained by the 
 joint efforts of a good practical chemist, and a 
 skilful manipulator, with an abundance of leaves 
 at their disposal, and with all the necessary imple- 
 ments at hand. 
 
 * Manual of Chemistry, p. 159. 
 
TEMPEEATUIIE RECOMMENDED. 
 
 265 
 
 It is now to Java and to India that our attention 
 must be directed in order to procure accurate 
 information on these points. It is there that 
 experiments may successfully be tried, where 
 Chinese acquainted with the art, though not per- 
 haps with the best methods, may be called to aid 
 these researches. Neither at one settlement nor the 
 other, nor at Kio de Janeiro, have the best methods 
 of preparing the green teas yet been introduced- 
 It has been already stated that the roasting vessel 
 used for Hyson tea seems unknown at Java. 
 
 If I may be allowed to offer a conjecture (for it 
 is nothing better), in the absence of more perfect 
 information, regarding the heat desirable to employ 
 in the process of drying black and green tea, I 
 should suggest the under-mentioned temperatures 
 to be tried. 
 
 For the drying oi black tea in the 
 drying tube (^Poey lone/). 
 
 1st. drying - - 230° 
 
 2d. - - - - 200° 
 
 3d. - - - - 170° 
 
 4tli. - - - - 100° 
 
 For drying gj-eoi tea 
 
 in 
 
 the iron 
 
 vessel. 
 
 
 
 1st. drying 
 
 
 - 220° 
 
 2d. - 
 
 
 - 200° 
 
 3d. - 
 
 
 - 190° 
 
 4th. - 
 
 
 - 90° 
 
 Mr. Jacobson gives the following temperatures 
 as those used at Java : 
 
 For drying 
 
 black tea in drying-tube. 
 
 For the 
 
 final drying of </) 
 iron vessel. 
 
 -een tea in 
 
 1st. ib. 
 
 - 180° 
 
 1st. ib. 
 
 - 
 
 - 196° 
 
 2d. - 
 
 - 168° 
 
 2d. 
 
 
 
 3d. - 
 
 - 156° 
 
 3d. - 
 
 - 
 
 - 176° 
 
 4tli. - 
 
 - 146 & 150° 
 
 4th. . 
 
 - 
 
 - 162° 
 
266 
 
 TEMPERATURE USED AT JAVA. 
 
 It has before been mentioned, that all tea at Java 
 is roasted and dried at a temperature below the 
 boiling point. 
 
 202° is given by Mr. Jacob- 
 son for the first roasting of 
 
 black tea, and 
 
 197° for the second roasting. 
 
 For the first roasting of green, 
 206° ; and it is observed that, 
 during the roasting the leaves 
 nearly attain the heat of boiling 
 water. 
 
 The second roasting of green 
 tea is stated at 190°. 
 
 For Pekoe tea, which undergoes only one roasting, 
 the temperature of 196°* is given by him, and 
 it is stated that even at that temperature the leaves 
 crackle when they are first put into the vessel. 
 The heat employed in the drying-tube is 142°. 
 About three quarters of a pound of leaves are used 
 at one time. 
 
 Supposing the above statement to be correct, 
 then, so far as the thermometer indicates, the ques- 
 tion whether black tea is roasted and dried at a 
 higher temperature than green, is here decided and 
 proved not to be the fact at Java. Further, I have 
 
 * I cannot but express my surprise, that the crackling of the 
 leaves should have been obtained at a temperature of 196°. 
 It has already been seen that this effect was not produced when 
 the heating medium was steam generated by rapidly boiling 
 water. It is possible, however, that after a certain amount of heat 
 had been absorbed, the radiation from the vessel was greater 
 than the absorption, so that the vessel did not attain a tempera- 
 ture equal to boiling water. I acknowledge it was a great 
 omission not to have determined this by experiment. 
 
EXAMINED. 267 
 
 already observed that the heat employed there for 
 green tea seems to me of too low a temperature. 
 
 Before closing these remarks on the heat employed 
 at Java, it is necessary to observe that in repeating 
 the experiment by which Mr. Jacobson determines 
 the heat required, his results and mine do not 
 coincide. 
 
 It is first remarked by him, that the thermometer 
 must not be used to determine the amount of heat. 
 The roaster should from habit be able to determine 
 that, by holding his hand one inch above the vessel 
 while he can count twenty. Now I heated a 
 roasting vessel to 350° of Fahrenheit, determined 
 by placing the bare bulb of a thermometer in 
 contact with the iron, and in the centre of the pan, 
 or the part m^ost heated. Another thermometer, 
 also with the bulb exposed, was held even with the 
 edge of the pan also over the centre, and it marked 
 only 180° of heat. With my hand held in this 
 position so long as I could bear it I deliberately 
 counted thirty. At 315°, the upper thermometer 
 marked 150°: at 300° the upper thermometer 
 marked 145°: and in order to guard against all 
 suspicion of error, I placed a piece of wood across 
 and resting on the edges of the pan. Then with 
 my hand held first above, and then below the 
 wood, I counted one hundred, and felt no incon- 
 venience. 
 
 Now I do not mean here to impugn in any 
 degree the accuracy of Mr. Jacobson's experiment. 
 
268 TEMPERATURE USED AT JAVA 
 
 On the contrary, I have great pleasure in bearing 
 testimony to the general exactness of his descrip- 
 tions and great minuteness of detail, as well as to 
 the philanthropic and benign spirit which pervades 
 his work — it is refreshing to hear the Planter in 
 a remote colony advocating the cause of the Peasant, 
 and upholding the Christian principle that " the 
 labourer is worthy of his hire. " In short his work 
 on the cultivation and manipulation of tea at Java 
 is well worthy of a literal translation into our own 
 language, and would form a useful manual in the 
 hands of all persons engaged in the cultivation of 
 tea. The difference between this author's results 
 and mine, I ascribe to the difference of size, thick- 
 ness, and depth of the vessel used ; and partly also 
 to his mode of holding the thermometer, which 
 indicates that it was one, the bulb of which could 
 not be laid bare. I have already observed that I 
 am disposed to believe that the temperature em- 
 ployed at Java, especially for green tea, is too low ; 
 or that there may be some error in the mode of 
 computing it. But we will here assume it to be 
 correct ; and as I have already admitted that some 
 Java teas, black and green, are equal to the average 
 quality of Chinese tea, then it may be asked — If 
 teas of equal quality can be produced at tempera- 
 tures so different, in what consists the advantage of 
 the Chinese methods over those of Java ? They 
 appear to be these — economy of time, labour and 
 fuel ; and consequently of expense. Moreover, the 
 
EXAMINED. 269 
 
 leaves of green tea remain so full of juices after the 
 first roasting, in consequence of the low tempe- 
 rature employed, that it becomes necessary to 
 squeeze them between the hands to express their 
 juices before they are found in a fit state for rolling. 
 Thus they agglutinate into a solid mass, which it is 
 necessary to separate and pull to pieces. Still 
 many adhere together, so that more " lumpy and 
 knobby" leaves than usual are thus formed; that 
 is, more hyson-skin, and less hyson, or more inferior 
 and less superior tea. 
 
 "With respect to black tea, the low temperature 
 used at Java may be in consequence of more of the 
 aqueous fluids having been evaporated in the 
 process previously to roasting, than takes place in 
 China. The redness of the leaf is carried to excess. 
 There are no teas (at least I have seen none) which 
 correspond with wliat is understood by black-leaf- 
 cono;ou. It may be also that the leaves are smaller 
 and less succulent than the Chinese: especially as it 
 is stated that they give out little or no juice in the 
 act of rolling. In short the first samples of these 
 teas which found their way to England exhibited a 
 complete failure. They resembled what the Chinese 
 term hong cha, i. e. red tea : a tea little used. It has 
 already been explained that the redness of the leaf 
 previously to roasting is not necessary to the red- 
 ness after : also, that the more the aqueous juices 
 are evaporated previously to roasting the less heat 
 is required in that process. 
 
270 
 
 CHAP. XL 
 
 REVIEW OF P. Mulder's analysis of tea. — colour of black 
 
 TEA NOT DUE TO HIGH TEMPERATURE. BLACK TEA NOT 
 
 DRIED AT A HIGHER TEMPERATURE THAN GREEN. GUN- 
 POWDER TEA DRIED AT THE HIGHEST POINT OF THE SCALE 
 
 OF TEMPERATURE, AND PEKOE TEA AT THE LOWEST. THE 
 
 RED OR BROWN COLOURING MATTER OF BLACK TEA NOT DUE 
 TO HIGH DRYING. THE TERM BLACK A MISNOMER. ANA- 
 LYSIS OF TEA. — ODOROUS PRINCIPLE DERIVED FROM A 
 VOLATILE OIL. — DEA^ELOPED IN COFFEE BY HIGH TEMPERA- 
 TURE. THE RED OR BROWN COLOURING MATTER OF BLACK 
 
 TEA IN LEAF AND INFUSION TRACED TO CHEMICAL CAUSES. 
 
 OTHER PARTS OF THE ANALYSIS RECONCILED WITH THE 
 
 PRECEDING THEORY. FLAVOUR DEPENDENT MAINLY ON 
 
 MANIPULATION. RECAPITULATION OF THE MODES OF MANU- 
 FACTURING BLACK AND GREEN TEA. — DIFFERENCE OF QUALITY 
 OF TEA TRACED TO VARIOUS CAUSES. 
 
 Let us now proceed to examine a very elaborate 
 analysis of tea made by an eminent chemist, P. 
 Mulder*, so far as that analysis is connected with 
 the belief that black tea is roasted and dried at a 
 higher temperature than green tea; that being 
 the cause of its darkness and redness of colour in 
 leaf and infusion. 
 
 It is stated by Mons. Peligot, Professor of Che- 
 mistry at the " Conservatoire des Arts et Metiers " 
 at Paris, that with the exception of some errors, 
 
 * Annalen der Pliysick unci Cliemie von J. C. Poggendorff. 
 Leipzig, 1838, B. 43. S 161—180, und 632—651. 
 
Mulder's analysis oe tea. 271 
 
 this analysis of tea is the best that has yet been 
 made. And I believe the same degree of merit is 
 awarded to it in this country. There are, however, 
 errors resulting from information derived from 
 questionable and imperfect sources, for which this 
 able chemist can hardly be deemed responsible. 
 
 It shall be my endeavour then to reconcile the 
 facts of the analysis with the account here given 
 of the manufacture of tea in China, and to show 
 that though the explanations and deductions 
 therein laid down are erroneous, because grounded 
 on false assumptions ; yet that these erroneous 
 deductions in no way detract from the merits and 
 accuracy of the analysis itself: nor do the results 
 of this analysis tend to contradict any of the facts 
 and principles developed in the course of this in- 
 quiry. 
 
 First, it is treated as a fact well established, 
 though Mulder * gives no authority for this belief, 
 that black tea is roasted and dried at a higher 
 temperature than green ; and that this is the cause 
 of its blackness of colour. 
 
 But it has been shown that the difference of 
 colour of black and green tea does not depend on 
 any due management of the heat, but on mani- 
 pulation ; since both teas have been made from 
 leaves out of the same parcel, simultaneously in 
 the same vessel and at the same temperature, 
 
 * lb. B. 43. S 161. 
 
272 COLOUR NOT DUE TO HIGH TEMPERATURE. 
 
 (chap. 9. p. 242. § 2). It may, however, be said that 
 the black tea leaves took a longer time to dry ; 
 and therefore received a greater amount of heat, 
 which is equal to higher temperature. But if the 
 capacity of the leaves for heat is dependent on 
 their aqueous condition, then the use of a high 
 or low temperature causes no other effect than to 
 produce, as in water, a quick or slow conversion of 
 the fluids into a gaseous state : no more heat is 
 received by the leaves in either case. The one is 
 a rapid process of drying by quick evaporation ; 
 the other a slow one by slow evaporation. It is 
 a question of time, not of heat. It is true that 
 slow evaporation causes a greater expenditure of 
 heat and fuel, but that is due to loss of heat, in 
 consequence of slow absorption. 
 
 Again, if equal states of dryness in tea require 
 equal amounts of heat, as some scientific and 
 practical men seem to believe, then there are no 
 solid grounds for supposing that green tea is less 
 perfectly dried than black. Indeed I have always 
 inclined to the opinion that the contrary is the 
 fact. As, however, Mulder considers black tea 
 more friable than green tea, and ascribes the quality 
 to high drying and high temperature, I was 
 induced to request the favour of Mr. Warington, 
 the chemical operator at Apothecaries' Hall, to put 
 this question to the test of experiment. After 
 experiment, it was his belief, though contrary to 
 his previous opinion, that both teas, black and 
 
COLOUR NOT DUE TO HIGH TEMPERATURE. 273 
 
 green, could be reduced to an equally fine powder. 
 He also observed very little difference between 
 tliem while working them under the hand. But, 
 as he justly remarked, the same degree of dryness 
 may be obtained by opposite methods, that is, by 
 a higher temperature employed for a short time, 
 or a low temperature continued for a long time. 
 It was his opinion that both teas were reduced 
 to an equal state of dryness. 
 
 The hygrometric state of tea can afford no solu- 
 tion to this question ; because, should any water 
 remain in the leaves after the usual processes of 
 desiccation, it could not be distinguished from water 
 afterwards absorbed from the atmosphere. It is well 
 knoAvn that tea readily imbibes moisture, even when 
 packed in chests containing leaden canisters well 
 soldered down. Tea kept through the summer at 
 Canton termed "winter-tea" increases in weight; 
 and as it is dried at a high temperature, the whole 
 of the water driven off in analysis is most probably 
 water of absorption. However, so far as this test 
 is concerned, the loss of water in green tea is less 
 than in black. Agreeably to Peligot, green tea 
 loses only eight per cent of water by desiccation, 
 whereas black tea loses ten per cent. Gunpowder 
 he states at six, and Souchong at 11*7 per cent.* 
 Mulder makes the loss of water and essential oil 
 very trifling, and nearly equal; viz. Hyson 4*44, 
 
 * Monographic du The, par J. G. Honssaye, p. 90. 
 
 T 
 
274 TEMPEEATURE FOR GUNPOWDER 
 
 and Congou 4*48. But if Hyson and Gunpowder 
 tea in analysis lose less water by desiccation than 
 black tea, tbis may arise as much from the leaves 
 of these teas being less absorbent of moisture in 
 consequence of their greater hardness and compact- 
 ness of form, as from high drying. 
 
 Still if we examine the close compact globular 
 form of Gunpowder tea, and bear in mind its con- 
 sequent superior gravity and ease of gravitation 
 among leaves kept in constant motion, the inference 
 seems to be, that this form, though first accidental, 
 must finally be derived from a greater impression 
 of heat. Moreover, if after breathing on these 
 leaves we examine their yellow discoloured speckled 
 appearance, which arises from burning, we shall 
 be the more confirmed in that opinion. In fine, 
 there can be no doubt that these leaves by reason 
 of their superior weight and roundness of form, 
 are constantly sifting through the other leaves, 
 and making their way to the sides and bottom of 
 the vessel in which they are dried; and thus 
 coming in frequent contact with the most heated 
 parts of a vessel of high thermal conducting power, 
 it necessarily follows, that they must be more 
 highly dried than the other leaves with which they 
 are mixed, and even occasionally become scorched 
 and burnt. It is familarly known to dealers that 
 Gunpowder tea frequently possesses an agreeable 
 burnt flavour, highly appreciated, and which en- 
 hances its value. Yet the Hyson leaves with 
 
HIGHER THAN FOR PEKOE. 275 
 
 which it has been mixed throughout the whole 
 process of manipulation, and of which it has formed 
 a part, may have no such flavour. Thus I am 
 disposed to think that on a more exact investigation 
 of this subject, Gunpowder tea may be found 
 to have received a greater impression of heat, and 
 to be more highly dried than any other tea, black 
 or green. 
 
 Then with regard to black tea, the Chinese, and 
 all who are conversant with the subject agree, that 
 Pekoe tea is roasted and dried at a lower temper- 
 ature than any other tea. Indeed it occasionally 
 happens, that newly manufactured Pekoe tea, even 
 in China, has a musty smell, alike indicative of 
 readiness to absorb moisture, as of insufficient 
 desiccation. 
 
 Here, then, we have Gunpowder and Pekoe tea, 
 the one a green and the other a black tea, at the 
 extreme points of the scale of temperature employed 
 in the manipulation of tea. No fairer comparison, 
 not even between Congou and Twankay, can be 
 made. These are teas as nearly resembling each 
 other in circumstances as possible. At Java they 
 are frequently identical in all other respects ; from 
 the same shrubs, of the same age, from the same 
 parcel of leaves, and in all other circumstances the 
 same. Yet we find there, as in China, Gunpowder 
 tea representing the highest point of the scale of 
 temperature, and Pekoe the lowest. Thus, so far 
 as the teas of commerce are concerned, there can 
 
 T 2 
 
276 RED COLOUR OF LEAF 
 
 be no doubt that green tea is manufactured at a 
 higher temperature than black. But in China 
 Paochong tea, which is a black tea, is submitted 
 for a few seconds to the red-heat of iron. Thus 
 it is obvious that the difference and apparent 
 blackness of colour of black tea must depend on 
 other causes than high or low temperature, or any 
 management of heat. 
 
 This able chemist proceeds to state, that a sub- 
 stance which he describes and terms "Apothem " 
 is obtained from " Extractive." It is found in 
 black tea, but not in green ; and it is this product 
 which gives the colouring matter, and red or brown 
 infusion to black tea. He further adds, that it is 
 not the product of analysis, but is due to manipu- 
 lation and high temperature : also that the proper- 
 ties of the extractive of black and green teas are 
 different. (lb. p. 639.) 
 
 But the red or brown colouring matter of black 
 tea, and the red infusion, have been shown to arise 
 from a particular treatment of the leaves by expo- 
 sure to sun and air, like hay (To Ching), previously 
 to roasting ; and that corresponding results have 
 been produced by exposure to sun, without the 
 action of fire. (P. 148. §§ 1 & 6.) 
 
 Again, so far from the black, brown and red 
 appearance of the dried leaves being the effect of 
 high temperature, even a moderate degree of heat, 
 if more than the aqueous condition of the leaves 
 can bear, has the effect of turning them pallid and 
 
NOT DUE TO HEAT. 277 
 
 yellow, and making the infusion as light as green 
 tea. (P. 150. § 3.) The yellow speckled leaf of 
 Twankay tea affords another example of the effect 
 of excess of temperature turning the burnt parts 
 not black, but yellow. 
 
 Mulder further states, that frequent effusions 
 and evaporations of the infused leaves of green tea, 
 by a continued application of heat at a low tempe- 
 rature, was found to darken their colour to that of 
 black tea ; and that " extractive " thus procured 
 yielded " apothem^^^ which experiment Mulder con- 
 sidered sufficient proof that black and green tea 
 could be made from the same parcel of leaves by 
 use of a high or low temperature, (lb. p. 639.) 
 
 That black and green tea can be made from the 
 same parcel of leaves, no longer admits of doubt. 
 Moreover, it is clear, that the difference of colour 
 does not arise from difference of temperature. These 
 facts have been sufficiently established in the course 
 of this examination. They also receive confirmation 
 from Mr. Jacobson at Java : this author distinctly 
 states, that black and green teas are made in the 
 same plantation, from shrubs propagated from the 
 same seed, and occasionally, as in Pekoe and Gun- 
 powder, from the same parcel of leaves : also, that 
 the colour of black tea is due to manipulation pre- 
 viouslv to roastino;. 
 
 That the leaves of green tea darken in colour 
 after infusion if re-dried, is also true ; for if after 
 
 T 3 
 
278 ANALYSIS. 
 
 infusion, or even before infusion, the bright bloom 
 colour of the leaves be injured by moisture, or even 
 by strongly breathing on them, it can never again 
 be restored. This is one of the occasions when the 
 Chinese have recourse to factitious means in order 
 to reproduce the colour. So if the infused leaves 
 of green tea be exposed to the air, and, still more, if 
 exposed to the action of heat, they darken in colour 
 in drying, even so as partially to resemble black 
 tea : but if infused again, they will not be found, like 
 black tea leaves, spotted and tinged" with red or 
 brown colour, which is more especially the charac- 
 teristic feature and colour peculiar to the infused 
 leaves of black tea. Indeed the term black is a mis- 
 nomer altogether ; the leaves are in no degree black, 
 as is readily proved by examination of the infused 
 leaves : they are not charred, as some persons seem 
 to imagine ; their colour is of a dark green partly 
 tinged with red or brown. It is a curious fact, 
 also, that the Germans as frequently employ the 
 term brown for this description of tea as that of 
 black. 
 
 The Analysis proceeds to state, that the princi- 
 pal constituents of tea consist of volatile oil, tannin, 
 gum, and extractive matter, all which properties 
 are found to exist in a larger amount in green tea 
 than in black. Hence this author infers that 
 the original properties of green tea are more inti- 
 mately preserved than those of black tea ; and 
 
ODOUR OF TEA. 
 
 279 
 
 that the loss in the latter is clue to high tem- 
 perature.* 
 
 With respect to the essential oil of tea, it may- 
 be desirable here to repeat, that the fresh unma- 
 nipulated tea leaf has no fragrance ; but has a raw 
 vegetable astringent and acrid flavour, which is 
 nauseous and disgusting : nor does the odour 
 emitted during the process of manipulation at all 
 correspond, at least in my opinion, with that which 
 constitutes the agreeable odour of tea after com- 
 
 * Peligot justly observes, that tea, practically consiclered, 
 contains two parts essentially distinct ; that which is soluble in 
 boiling water, and that which is not. The first contains the 
 essential oil, tannin, gum, thein, the extractive matter, and the 
 greater part of the salts. The other contains the Chlorophyll, 
 wax, resin, albumen, fibre, and cinder. (^Monographie du The, 
 par J, G. Houssaye, p. 89.) 
 
 Mulder's comparative analysis of Chinese and Java teas is 
 as follows : — (Poggendorf p. 169.) 
 
 Ethereal oil - 
 
 Chlorophyll ... - 
 
 Wax 
 
 Resin - . . _ . 
 Gum . _ _ _ _ 
 Tannin - - . - - 
 Thein . - . . . 
 Extractive . _ _ - 
 Apothem ... 
 Muriatic x\cid Extract 
 Alhumen - . . - 
 Fihrin . - . - . 
 Salts contained in the above-") 
 mentioned constituents J 
 
 Chinese. 
 
 Java. 
 
 Hyson. 
 
 Congou. 
 
 Hyson. 
 
 Congou. 
 
 0-79 
 
 2-22 
 
 0-28 
 
 2*22 
 
 8-56 
 
 17-80 
 
 0-43 
 
 22-80 
 
 traces 
 
 23-60 
 
 3-00 
 
 17-08 
 
 5-56 
 
 8-60 
 1-84 
 00 
 3-64 
 7-28 
 
 12-88 
 46 
 
 19-88 
 1-48 
 
 19-12 
 2-80 
 
 28-32 
 
 5-24 
 
 0-98 
 
 3-24 
 
 0-32 
 
 1-64 
 
 12-20 
 
 17-56 
 
 0-60 
 
 21-68 
 
 trace 
 
 20-36 
 
 3-64 
 
 18-20 
 
 4-76 
 
 0-65 
 1-28 
 0-00 
 2-44 
 
 11-08 
 
 14-80 
 065 
 
 18-64 
 1-64 
 
 18-24 
 1-28 
 
 27- 
 
 5-36 
 
 T 4 
 
280 ODOUR OF TEA. 
 
 plete desiccation. Thus, whether the essential oil of 
 tea be a product of manipulation ; or whether it be 
 one of the natural constituents of the plant, ana- 
 lysis has not yet determined. Naes von Essen- 
 bach, from an experiment which he tried by roasting 
 some newly gathered leaves taken from the botanic 
 garden at Bonn, doubts whether the fresh unroasted 
 tea leaves contain a volatile oil ; and considers the 
 aroma of tea analogous to that of coffee, requiring 
 a high temperature to develop it. He considers it, 
 moreover, the effect of a peculiar decomposition 
 analogous to fermentation.* 
 
 There is no doubt that, in either case, whether 
 generated or inherent in the plant, the aroma of 
 green tea is developed entirely by artificial heat : 
 but it becomes a subject worthy of investigation to 
 determine whether the odour of black tea be not 
 generated or developed, or at all events modified, 
 first, by the action of sun and air, and finally by 
 artificial heat. There is no doubt that the newly 
 gathered tea leaves have a strong tendency to heat 
 and ferment. It is obvious also by the fragrance 
 emitted during the process of manipulation of black 
 tea previously to roasting, that the odorous principle 
 is set in action by that process ; and consequently, 
 artificial heat does not appear to be necessary to 
 the elaboration of this principle ; however requisite 
 it may be to its perfection, its excellence and its 
 fixity. 
 
 * Von Siebold, Nippon t. 6. § 8. 
 
ODOUR or TEA. 281 
 
 Liebig is of opinion that the peculiar " odorous 
 principle of many vegetable substances is newly 
 formed during fermentation of the saccharine juices 
 of the plant. At all events," he observes, ^' it is a 
 fact that very small quantities of the blossoms of 
 the violet, elder, linden, or cowslip, added to a 
 fermenting liquid, are sufficient to communicate a 
 strong taste and smell, which the addition of the 
 water distilled from a quantity a hundred times 
 greater would not effect. The oil of the berries of 
 the elder-tree, many kinds of oil of turpentine, and 
 oil of lemons, possess a smell only during their 
 oxidation or decay." * 
 
 " The leaves of the tobacco plant present the 
 same phenomena : when fresh they possess little or 
 no smell; but when the same plant, after being 
 dried, is moistened with water, tied together in 
 small bundles, and placed in heaps, a peculiar pro- 
 cess of decomposition takes place. Fermentation 
 commences, and is accompanied by an absorption 
 of oxygen ; the leaves become warm, and emit the 
 characteristic smell of prepared tobacco and snuff. 
 When the fermentation is carefully promoted, and 
 too high a heat avoided, this smell increases, and 
 becomes more delicate ; and after fermentation is 
 completed, an oily azotised volatile matter, called 
 nicotine^ is found in the leaves. This substance, 
 nicotine, which possesses all the properties of a 
 
 * Liebig's Chemistry of Agriculture, translation, 2d edit, 
 p. 320. 
 
282 EXPERIMENT TRIED ON COEFEE. 
 
 base, was not present before the fermentation. 
 The different kinds of tobacco are distinguishable 
 from one another, like wines, by having very dif- 
 ferent odoriferous substances, which are generated 
 along with the nicotine." * 
 
 As connected with this subject, though depend- 
 ent on other causes, it may here be observed that 
 it is remarkable with what ease tea gives out its 
 own odour, and imbibes that of other substances 
 by contact or proximity, especially in a humid 
 state of atmosphere. Even a compound flavour 
 is sometimes formed, which neither resembles its 
 own nor the one it imbibes. It is well known that 
 turmeric, and some other drugs, deprive tea of its 
 agreeable odour, and change it into one resembling 
 that of herbs. This flavour may often have been 
 detected in tea during domestic use. This objec- 
 tionable smell and flavour is perfectly well known 
 to dealers, as well as its cause. 
 
 As, however, much stress is laid on aroma as 
 depending on a volatile oil, which, is known in 
 some cases, and is very generally supposed in 
 others, to be readily driven ofl* by high tempera- 
 ture, I was induced to try, through the assistance 
 of a friend, this experiment on coffee. 
 
 We pounded a few unroasted coffee berries in a 
 mortar, till they were reduced to a fine powder. 
 This was put into a glass tube, and both the tube 
 
 * Liebig's Chemistry of Agriculture, translation, 2d edit, 
 p. 319. 
 
EXPERIMENT TRIED ON COEFEE. 283 
 
 and the thermometer were placed in quicksilver, 
 heated by an Argand lamp. 
 
 It required a heat of between 450° to 470° of 
 Fahrenheit to produce any aroma, when the odour 
 increased rapidly. At about 370° the coffee had 
 not changed colour ; at 450° the aroma began to 
 form, and at 470° the coffee charred. It is fami- 
 liarly known that as coffee browns, and gives out 
 its odour, a fatty substance is formed. 
 
 This experiment also shows that the art of roast- 
 ing coffee is a delicate art ; a difference of about 
 20° leaves it either raw and tasteless, or destroys 
 the aroma altogether. This may be one reason 
 why in England we so rarely meet with good coffee ; 
 whereas on the Continent the art of roastino; and 
 making coffee is known to every common lackey : 
 still it must be remembered that coffee is the be- 
 verage of those countries ; and it is only fair to 
 the English to say, that on the Continent it is 
 as difficult to get boiling water for tea as it is to 
 procure good coffee in England. 
 
 With respect to the principle on which the odour 
 of coffee depends, we find in Brande's Chemistry 
 that " Schrader endeavoured to ascertain the par- 
 ticular principle to which the flavour and aroma of 
 roasted coffee are due, by exposing each of the 
 proximate principles of unroasted coffee separately 
 to heat ; but he found that no one of them yielded 
 any peculiar flavour; and that the ligneous residue 
 Avhen roasted acquired as much of the characteristic 
 
284 VOLATILE OIL, GUM, TANNIN. 
 
 flavour as when the other principles were retained ; 
 so that the flavour of roasted coifee must be 
 ascribed to the joint eflect upon all the consti- 
 tuents." 
 
 In fact Mulder, though he considers the odorous 
 principle of tea dependent on a volatile oil, never- 
 theless states, that the properties of tea are best 
 ascertained from the four principal constituents 
 already named. 
 
 The volatile oil of tea Mulder considers of a 
 highly poisonous character, and diflicult to ob- 
 tain : it possesses the flavour of tea in a high de- 
 gree, and in contact with the tongue causes a strong 
 taste of tea in the mouth, without astringency.* 
 
 To the astringent principle, however, he attaches 
 even more importance than to the essential oil. 
 He describes it as refreshing in the mouth, and 
 states that analysis and price both show that teas 
 are of superior or inferior quality in proportion to 
 the quantity of tannin they contain. 
 
 Gum, agreeably to this Author, also plays a very 
 
 * Mr. Jacobson. states, that a single drop of the juice ex- 
 pressed from the fresh leaves of inferior shrubs growing in low 
 clay grounds 2000 feet above the sea produces nausea ; but 
 that obtained from leaves of finer quality grown 4000 feet above 
 the sea in rich, brown, and particularly black ground (consist- 
 ing of decayed vegetable matter), may also be termed nauseous, 
 though in fact it is only harsh, and astringent in the throat, 
 and at length becomes sweet, (^Handhoeh v. d. Kuliuur en 
 Fabrikatie v. Thec^ § 463.) 
 
GUM, TANNIN. 285 
 
 important part in softening and cloaking tliis prin- 
 ciple ; so that the better sorts of tea are indebted 
 to gum for their agreeable flavour ; without which 
 they would be no better than a decoction of oak 
 bark. Those teas have the best flavour, which have 
 a tolerably large quantity of tannin, with enough 
 of gum to moderate the astringency on the tongue. 
 Culture, he states, has much to do with this. 
 
 The analysis shows that green tea is more astrin- 
 gent than black ; and that this principle is also less 
 covered or concealed ; for though the actual quantity 
 of gum is greater in green tea than in black, yet 
 the proportion of gum to tannin is less. In fine, 
 the Author concludes, that it is from a happy 
 combination of its four principal constituents that 
 an agreeable tea infusion is obtained. To which 
 he adds that cream and sugar contribute to mellow 
 the astringency. 
 
 The difference in the quantity of tannin contained 
 in black and green tea is remarkable ; viz. Congou 
 12'88, and Hyson 17*80.* Mulder considers that 
 part is converted into " apothem," a change which 
 likewise takes place in extractive ; and hence black 
 tea is less astringent than green. But this hardly 
 seems to account satisfactorily for the great 
 deficiency of tannin in black tea. The whole 
 
 * The comparison ought to be made between Congou and 
 Twankay ; between Souchong and Hyson ; and between Gun- 
 powder and Pekoe ; these being teas whose conditions and 
 circumstances relatively approximate most nearly to each other. 
 
286 CHEMICAL CAUSE 
 
 quantity of apotliem is only 1*48, whereas the 
 loss of tannin is about 30 per cent, of the whole 
 quantity. 
 
 To whatever cause this loss of tannin in black tea 
 may be due, in that will be found, I am disposed 
 to think, the true solution of the difference between 
 black and green tea. That this loss does not 
 depend on difference of temperature, or different 
 amounts of heat, has been abundantly proved. It 
 is then in that process which the black tea leaves 
 undergo previous to roasting, during which they 
 are treated as hay, that the true cause must be 
 sought. 
 
 This process (To Ching) has been aptly termed 
 " withering." It is in fact incipient change, fer- 
 mentation, or eremacausis. In a state of decay 
 all organic substances absorb oxygen from the 
 atmosphere, which, acting on the azotised elements 
 contained in these bodies, sets in motion a new 
 arrangement of their constituent parts ; absorbing 
 oxygen and evolving carbonic acid. There are 
 certain groups of vegetable substances also, whose 
 constituents are the same, varying only in their 
 quantity of the elements of water. These are held 
 together by very feeble affinities ; so that certain 
 transformations from one to the other easily take 
 place. Starch, Cane sugar. Gum, Sugar of milk, 
 and Grape sugar constitute one of these groups. 
 The ease with which starch is converted into sugar 
 is seen in the process of germination in the malting 
 
OF BLACK TEA. 287 
 
 of barley ; in the ripening of certain pulpy fruits ; 
 and by the action of acids. 
 
 Now there is no one substance so universally 
 diffused throughout the vegetable economy as 
 starch. It seems the very pabulum- of vegetable 
 life. It is found in roots, bulbs, seeds, stalks, 
 twigs, leaves, and fruit ; and even in solid wood. 
 It is abundant in all the green parts of plants, 
 especially leaves and fruit, so long as the functions 
 of these organs are required. Thus in Hay it is 
 found in the largest quantity just at the period 
 when the seed is perfected, which is the season for 
 cutting. In unripe fruits it is found so long as 
 the green growth continues ; but not a trace 
 when ripe. It is transformed into sugar ; and the 
 sweetness of the fruit when ripe will always be in 
 exact proportion to the quantity of starch which 
 it contains unripe. Ripeness, however, chemically 
 considered, ma,y be termed decay. When the seed 
 is capable of reproducing the species, the fleshy 
 covering in which it has been perfected begins from 
 that moment to decay ; and man avails himself of 
 this condition of decay to use the fruit in the most 
 palatable state. This change is effected by the 
 absorption of oxygen from the air, which converts 
 the starch into sugar. * 
 
 * The observations in this paragraph are principally taken 
 from the Maidstone Gazette, of December 1845, and January 
 1846 ; but from what authorities extracted I know not. 
 
288 CHEMICAL CAUSE 
 
 Liebig states that, though this change takes 
 place in nature during the vital action of plants, 
 it is nevertheless a purely chemical process. It 
 occurs equally in the dead as in the living plant : 
 in the dark as on exposure to solar light. * " The 
 green resinous principle of the leaf," says this able 
 chemist, " diminishes in quantity while oxygen is 
 absorbed, when fruits are ripened in the dark : red 
 yellow colouring matters are formed; tartaric, 
 citric, and tannic acids disappear, and are replaced 
 by sugar, amylin or starch, or gum."f Again — 
 " When the leaves of the poplar, the beech, the oak, 
 or the holly, are dried under the air-pump, with 
 exclusion of light, then moistened with water, and 
 placed under a glass globe filled with oxygen, they 
 are found to absorb that gas in proportion as they 
 change colour. The chemical nature of this process 
 is thus established. The oxygen unites with the 
 substances already in the state of oxides, or to the 
 oxidation of the hydrogen in those vegetable com- 
 pounds which contain it in excess. The fallen 
 brown or yellow leaves of the oak contain no longer 
 tannin, and those of the poplar no balsamic consti- 
 tuents." J 
 
 Here, then, it appears to me, that the true 
 
 * Liebig's Chemistry of Agriculture, translation, 2d edit, 
 pp. 30, 31. 
 
 t lb. p. 67. t lb. p. 33. 
 
OF BLACK TEA. 289 
 
 solution of the distinctive character and qualities 
 of black tea may be found. I employ the phrase- 
 ology of Liebig that the coincidence may appear 
 the more striking ; and also that the opinion now 
 given may derive countenance from his authority. 
 Newly gathered leaves exposed to sun and air soon 
 begin to suffer change ; and all organic substances 
 during this state of change absorb oxygen from the 
 atmosphere. " The green resinous principle of the 
 leaf disappears," and in leaves containing tannin, as 
 tea leaves, " red or brown colouring matters are 
 formed ; the tannic acid disappears, and is replaced 
 by sugar." Thus is the loss of tannin in black tea 
 accounted for ; and the red colouring matter of the 
 leaf, as well as the red infusion, explained.^ 
 
 * It is satisfactory to state, that the presence of sugar in the 
 teas of commerce was proved by analysis, obligingly undertaken 
 by Mr. Warington at my request, in the early part of the year 
 1846. It was found both in black and green tea in large quan- 
 tities, but not a trace of starch in either. My expectation was, 
 that the tannic acid might be found converted into starch in 
 green tea, and into sugar in black. In this expectation I was 
 disappointed ; and now I must leave all further research in the 
 hands of the chemist. Could the quantity of sugar be accu- 
 rately measured, it might lead to further and more certain 
 results ; but it appears that the power of accurately measuring 
 minute quantities of saccharine matter in vegetable substances 
 is still a desideratum in chemistry. It may be surmised, how- 
 ever, that a larger quantity is elaborated in black tea than in 
 green ; and that the excess is carried off by fermentation of the 
 saccharine juices, during the manipulation of the leaves pre- 
 viously to roasting ; and in some cases, as in the Hong Moey 
 teas, also during the manipulation after roasting and rolling while 
 
 U 
 
290 SACCHARINE FERMENTATION PRODUCED 
 
 Then, if the difference of black tea should be 
 found to be due to the elaboration and fermentation 
 of a saccharine principle, the reason becomes 
 obvious, why leaves gathered during bright weather, 
 and even in mid-day, should be more suitable for 
 this purpose than when collected during cloudy 
 or rainy weather. Liebig sta^tes, that during the 
 absence of solar light and heat, whether by night or 
 day, the leaves form acids, which during bright 
 sunshine and heat are converted into starch, gum, 
 and sugar. Thus in southern climes grapes contain 
 more saccharine matter, and those of northern 
 ones more acids. 
 
 Tea leaves gathered after heavy and long con- 
 tinuous rains, being exuberant in aqueous juices, 
 are not in a state to favour the elaboration of this 
 principle ; as we know by fruits, which under 
 similar circumstances do not ripen. The juices of 
 the leaves being too watery, they readily run into 
 the putrefactive fermentation. Thus it is obvious 
 why it may be beneficial under circumstances of 
 exuberant moisture to expose the leaves of black 
 tea to fire, as practised in China, to hasten evapora- 
 tion, in order to bring them quickly into that state 
 of relative moisture which favours the elaboration 
 
 the leaves are yet moist, if found necessary. But it has been 
 shown, that not only the saccharine principle, but also the red 
 colouring matter of the leaf and infusion may be diminislied and 
 even altogether destroyed, by a small excess of heat in the 
 process of roasting and drying. In such cases, the leaves turn 
 yellow, and the infusion is as liglit as green tea. 
 
BY TROCESS OF WITHERING. 291 
 
 of the saccharine principle, which the Chinese 
 unconsciously seek, though they are perfectly aware 
 that a heating or fermentation is necessary. It 
 moreover explains why the black teas are not roasted 
 as soon as gathered, like green tea. It is a well 
 established fact also, that black tea may be pre- 
 served without injury to flavour a longer time than 
 green tea. May not this quality be due to the 
 same cause, the effect of fermentation of the 
 saccharine juices of the leaves, as in hay, tobacco, 
 &c. ? 
 
 In the Hong Moey Pekoes it is apparent that 
 the process of vfithering borders on excess. This 
 is indicated by the greater redness of the leaf and 
 infusion ; and also by a compound flavour, which 
 partakes of a flavour between that of Pekoe and 
 Souchong. Occasionally these teas have been 
 significantly termed malty by the brokers. Many 
 Ankoy teas and some of Java participate in the 
 Hong Moey flavour. Thus the quality of this tea 
 may depend much on the management of this 
 process. If pushed to excess the leaves become 
 red, and the flavour sweet and vapid. Further, 
 the experiments already alluded to, made by ma- 
 nipulating leaves altogether in the sun without the 
 application of fire, show how the kneading and 
 working the leaves in the sun produced the redness 
 of leaf and infusion as well as an excess of sweet- 
 ness in the tea. 
 
 If we compare the black-leaf flowery Pekoe with 
 
 u 2 
 
292 SACCHARINE FERMENTATION PRODUCED 
 
 the Hong Moey Pekoe, we readily perceive that the 
 characteristic appearance of the Pekoe is marked 
 by the blackness of the leaf, and that peculiar 
 smell and flavour, which is familiarly known to 
 belong to that description of tea. On the other 
 hand, the Hong Moey Pekoe is distinguished by the 
 redness of its leaf, and its compound flavour: if 
 tasted against Pekoe tea, it is found to have little 
 or no flavour of Pekoe, but approximates more to 
 the fl.avour of Souchong. If tasted against Sou- 
 chong, however, the Pekoe flavour may then be 
 traced. Now this peculiarity in this tea cannot be 
 ascribed to the more expanded growth of the leaf; 
 because the Pekoe-kio consists of leaves perfectly 
 developed in form though of young growth ; yet it 
 does not possess the Hong Moey flavour. The 
 word kio means foot : the literal meaning, therefore, 
 of Pekoe-kio is, tea made of the expanded leaf found 
 at the foot of the Pekoe leaf or convoluted leaf- 
 bud. Moreover, as this difference may be produced 
 from the same parcel of leaves, it obviously can 
 only arise from a lengthened process of withering 
 in the case of the Hong Moey teas. 
 
 Now if we class all black teas under these two 
 denominations, conspicuous for the difference of 
 colour in the leaf, they would range in the following 
 orders — 
 
BY PROCESS OF WITIIERIKG. 
 
 9f! 
 
 93 
 
 Black-leaf teas. 
 
 Pekoe, with its different degrees 
 
 of flower. 
 Congou Pekoe-kio. 
 
 blackish leaf Pekoe 
 
 kind. 
 
 blackish leaf, strong. 
 
 blackish leaf. 
 Assam tea. 
 
 The above are more con- 
 spicuous for their strength 
 than delicacy of flavour : and 
 with the exception of the 
 Assam tea, partake more or 
 less of the Pekoe flavour. 
 
 Red-leaf teas. 
 
 Hong Moey Pekoe. 
 
 Pao Chong. 
 
 Souchong. 
 
 Sonchy (Bohea and Ankoy). 
 
 Some Campoi teas. 
 
 Congou or but mid. tea, Sou- 
 chong flavour. 
 
 Many Ankoy teas : as — 
 
 Ning Yong. 
 
 Orange Pekoe. 
 
 Shang Heong. 
 
 Java tea. 
 
 Kamaon tea in India. 
 
 The above are distinguished 
 
 for their delicacy of flavour ; 
 
 but are deficient in strength, 
 
 and are all more or less of 
 
 Souchong flavour. 
 
 Thus it can hardly be doubted that the manipu- 
 lation of the leaves previously to roasting, or the 
 process of "withering" (To Ching), exercises a 
 very important influence on the quality and flavour 
 of black tea. Nor does there appear any reason to 
 doubt the testimony of the Chinese, that the 
 management of the leaves of black tea previously 
 to roasting is the most difficult part of the whole 
 manipulation. And this leads me to suggest, 
 whether the Java teas (at least the first importa- 
 tions) may not have been withered too much, and 
 the Assam too little. A vast improvement has 
 
 u 3 
 
294 CHEMICAL ANALYSIS CONTINUED. 
 
 recently taken place in the quality of all the teas 
 now received from both these colonies,* 
 
 It further appears from the above classification 
 that the reel-leaf kinds are the product of superior 
 shrubs in the Bohea districts ; though the Ankoy 
 teas ranging with them are weak and peculiar in 
 flavour, and less esteemed. Soil unquestionably 
 has much to do with this. Thus we see how some 
 districts may be suitable for the production of 
 Souchong, and others for Congou ; just as the banks 
 of the Garonne are more favourable for wines of 
 delicacy and aroma, and the banks of the Douro 
 for those of strength and astringency. 
 
 Mulder attaches very little importance to what he 
 designates the " ines " of some chemists. The quan- 
 tity of thein he found in Chinese tea was small, viz. 
 0'43 in Hyson, and 0*46 in Congou. But Peligot 
 ascribes to this principle most of the virtues, 
 medical, and perhaps even nutritive, of this leaf. 
 He found in 100 parts of Hyson 2*79 of thein, 
 
 * It cannot be doubted that able Chinese manipulators are 
 there employed ; yet there is reason to think that these men 
 are from the Ankoy districts at Amoy, or from the province 
 of Kiang-sy ; and not from the Bohea districts. With resi:»ect 
 to green tea, it is certain they are unacquainted with the best 
 modes of preparing that tea. Still they are quite competent to 
 the manipulation of black tea. 
 
 I have lately seen two samples of tea, one black and the other 
 green, made at Karaaon, in the Upper Provinces of India. 
 They were both deficient in strength and flavour, but still ex- 
 cellent teas. The Hyson tea especially would find a good and 
 ready sale in India and England. 
 
LOSS OF VOLATILE OIL. 29 
 
 and in Gunpowder tea 3*00, and believed that even 
 this quantity was deficient. 
 
 This chemist moreover considers it of importance 
 to determine the quantity of nitrogenised matter 
 contained in tea. He found in 100 parts dried at 
 a temperature of 110°, that Pekoe contained 6*58, 
 and Gunpowder 6*62 of nitrogen ; which is a larger 
 amount than has been found in any vegetable which 
 has bQen examined up to this day. He also found 
 in the exhausted leaves a substance which appeared 
 to have some relation to caseum. From all which 
 circumstances he inferred that tea was a nutrient, 
 as well as a stimulant.* 
 
 The green colouring matter of leaves, Mulder 
 states, depends on a green cerin. The cause of the 
 loss of this green colouring matter of black tea 
 has now been explained ; and the wax after de- 
 composition may be driven off by heat in the pro- 
 cess of roasting. The loss of volatile oil is doubtless 
 due to the same cause. The odour emitted during 
 the process of manipulation, previously to roasting, 
 indicates that this principle is set in action : and 
 as all volatile oils absorb oxygen with avidity on 
 exposure to air, while they deposit a resin, the loss 
 of volatile oil and increase of resin in black tea 
 may be thus accounted for. 
 
 And may not an action of a similar kind account 
 for the black and coal- like appearance found in 
 
 * Monograpliie du The, par J. G. Houssaye, pp. 100 — 108. 
 
 u 4 
 
296 EXCESS OF EXTRACTIVE AKD 
 
 black tea, and not in green, which Mulder terms 
 Apothemf It would be desirable to know what 
 this product is. 
 
 The greater amount of extractive, and less 
 amount of lignin, contained in Hyson tea,- may be 
 traced to other than chemical causes. It may 
 depend on cultivation, or soil, or both. The com- 
 parison is made between Hyson and Congou : the 
 one a highly cultivated plant ; the other a compa- 
 ratively neglected shrub, which receives no atten- 
 tion beyond that of weeding. The leaf of the one 
 is soft, flaccid, and pulpy ; the other harsh, stiff, 
 coriaceous, fibrous, or even ligneous. Again : the 
 Hyson is a carefully selected tea ; all the old coarse 
 and badly curled leaves being separated from it 
 after skilful manipulation. The Congou tea is a 
 comparatively coarse cheap tea, in which all the 
 leaves remain mixed together. It also contains 
 many stalks, in common with all black tea ; which 
 are carefully sifted and separated from all green 
 tea. Thus it is clear how more extractive may 
 be obtained from Hyson tea, and more lignin from 
 Congou. 
 
 Again : the greater amount of soluble matter in 
 boiling water found in Hyson tea is doubtless due 
 to the greater delicacy of the leaf. Agreeably to 
 Peligot, Gunpowder tea contains 51*9 per cent, of 
 soluble matter. Hyson 47*7, and Twankay 42*2 : thus 
 affording also a test of quality. The quantity of 
 soluble matter found in black tea does not afford 
 
SOLUBLE MATTER IN GREEN TEA. 297 
 
 an equally satisfactory result. This may arise from 
 many causes, and partly from black teas being more 
 mixed with teas of different growths. The result, 
 however, is altogether unsatisfactory. Some of 
 the Pekoes contain less than the common Bohea, 
 which is improbable. Orange Pekoe is given at 
 48*7, while other Pekoes are marked at 34*6 and 
 38*1, Congou at 45, and best Bohea 44*4.* 
 
 The reason why fewer perfect leaves are found 
 in black tea than in green, though this assertion 
 does not accord with my own experience, but the 
 contrary, can hardly be ascribed to the greater 
 friability of black tea, in consequence of high 
 drying, as Mulder conceives. It is true that black 
 tea is more frangible than green, but not more 
 friable, as has been proved. It is more easily 
 broken down with the hand, as every dealer knows ; 
 but this arises from the longer twist of the black 
 tea leaf. It is also more crushed in the act of pack- 
 ing ; but still this would be insufficient to explain 
 why so few perfect leaves are found in green tea. 
 The true reason is, that they are broken and torn 
 asunder in the act of rolling, while yet humid ; 
 and not from the action of heat. The diiFerence 
 of form between black and green tea arises from 
 a different treatment of the leaves during the 
 process of drying. The black teas are placed in 
 sieves and allowed to remain quiescent ; thus they 
 
 * Monographic clu The, par J. G. Houssaye, p. 9L 
 
298 BROKEN LEAVES IN TEA. 
 
 twist longitudinally, and preserve somewhat the 
 original length and form of the leaf. But green 
 tea leaves, from an uninterrupted rotatory motion 
 which they receive in the act of manipulation in 
 the iron vessel in which they are dried, are con- 
 stantly exposed to friction against the heated sides 
 and bottom of the vessel, and against each other ; 
 thus they contract and curl. Some even double 
 their ends inwards, others form into knots at one 
 end, and others agglutinate and become round and 
 knobby, and form " Hyson-skin." The small young 
 leaves and the broken pieces of delicate ones adhere 
 together in the same manner as the Hyson-skin, and 
 assume a compact, hard, and altogether globular 
 form, constituting "Gunpowder" tea. Thus the 
 leaves of green tea are more compact and hard, as 
 well as shorter than black tea, and, measure for 
 measure or bulk for bulk, are heavier. Thus we 
 see why the comparatively long thin form of the 
 black tea leaf should render it more frangible than 
 the contracted compact form of the green tea leaf. 
 It must also have been very commonly remarked 
 that green tea on infusion gives out its strength 
 and flavour more slowly than black. It takes a 
 longer time for the leaves to unfold, in consequence 
 of their compactness and hardness. It cannot have 
 escaped observation that when black and green teas 
 are mixed prior to infusion, the flavour of green 
 tea predominates in proportion to the length of 
 time the tea is allowed to draw. If poured oif 
 
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN BLACK AND GREEN TEAS. 299 
 
 soon after infusion, the flavour of the green tea is 
 hardly perceptible. 
 
 Thus it does not appear, either from analysis or 
 otherwise, that there are any sufficient grounds for 
 believing that black tea is roasted and dried at a 
 higher temperature than green ; or that the cha- 
 racteristic peculiarities of black tea are due to any 
 condition or management of heat. They obviously 
 arise from no such cause : no more than the con- 
 version of barley into malt depends on high or low 
 drying. Without previous germination there could 
 be no malt. So black tea is here supposed to undergo, 
 previously to roasting, a change analogous to what 
 takes place in hay, during which a loss of tannin 
 occurs, and a saccharine principle is set in action. 
 On this change, its darker colour and mixture of 
 red and brown leaves, its redness of infusion, and 
 mildness of flavour, seem to depend ; independently 
 of the temperature employed, or any management of 
 heat. The manipulation of the leaves previously to 
 roasting, as already described, is indispensably ne- 
 cessary to constitute black tea of good quality. 
 Analogous effects may be produced by other means, 
 but they must be considered as inferior methods. 
 
 But green tea seems to derive the better preserva- 
 tion of its natural colour and peculiar flavour from 
 what approaches nearer to simple desiccation. 
 Whatever decomposition here takes place, it must 
 be sought for exclusively in the processes of roasting 
 and drying. The light bluish colour of the dried 
 
300 FLAVOUR MODIFIED 
 
 leaves, resembling the bloom on some fruits, is due 
 to a rapid process of drying, in consequence of a 
 free admission of light and air to every part of the 
 leaves while yet moist, and exposed to the action 
 of a moderate temperature. 
 
 If the aroma of tea be not inherent in the plant, 
 but generated during the process of manipulation, 
 then that change which is effected in black tea by 
 spontaneous heating, as in hay or tobacco, may in 
 green tea, like the aroma of coifee, be elaborated by 
 artificial heat by a process analogous to fermenta- 
 tion, as surmised by Von Essenbeck. 
 
 Hitherto, in tracing the causes of difference be- 
 tween black and green tea, I have endeavoured to 
 direct my investigations mainly to colour. Flavour 
 obviously depends on those general laws which 
 govern the odorous principle of all vegetable pro- 
 ductions. Some are the product of the plant itself; 
 others are generated by various processes of mani- 
 pulation. Thus, on what rests the characteristic 
 difference of flavour between black and green tea, 
 with all the modifications and varieties peculiar to 
 each class, we may not, in our present state of in- 
 formation, be able satisfactorily to explain. Nor 
 can anything short of a local examination of the 
 tree in the several districts wherein it is grown, 
 together with a chemical analysis of the leaf, in its 
 fresh as well as its manipulated state, be deemed 
 sufficient to satisfy any scientific research on that 
 subject. It has been demonstrated, however, that 
 
BY MANIPULATION. 301 
 
 an essential difference exists in the manipulation of 
 these teas sufficient to account mainly, if not en- 
 tirely, for their characteristic difference of flavour 
 and quality as classes. 
 
 It has, moreover, been stated that the fresh 
 unmanipulated leaves have no kind of fragrance in 
 their natural state : and in this particular resemble 
 each other, before and after manipulation, no more 
 than the smell of grass resembles the odour of hay ; 
 the odour of tobacco before, that after fermentation ; 
 the flavour of barley, beer ; the juice of the grape, 
 the characteristic flavour of wine ; or the aroma of 
 coffee before, that after roasting. 
 
 In black tea, we find a mild, bland, fragrant, and 
 agreeably astringent flavour, with a slight degree 
 of sweetness, and both leaf and infusion of a reddish 
 colour, apparently indicative of chemical change in 
 its original constituents : which change has now 
 been traced to a peculiar manipulation of the leaves 
 previously to roasting. 
 
 But if we attentively observe the flavour of 
 Hyson tea, however agreeable it may be when 
 blended with rich cream and highly refined sugar, 
 it undeniably possesses a raw astringent quality, 
 and (if I may be allowed the expression without 
 exciting alarm) even a poisonous flavour, which 
 reminds one of the flavour of bitter almonds, of 
 peach kernels, and laurel leaves. The manipulated 
 leaf also retains much of its original colour, and 
 the infusion is pale and yellow. Thus, both leaf 
 
302 FLAVOUR MODIFIED BY MANIPULATION. 
 
 and infusion seem to indicate little change in tlie 
 constituents of this tea, and the process it under- 
 goes seems more immediately connected with simple 
 desiccation. 
 
 Thus it appears probable, as well from analysis 
 as from manipulation, from examination of the 
 infused leaves, the infusion itself, and ■ the flavour, 
 that green tea retains more of its original vegetable 
 properties and character unaltered than black tea. 
 Hence if there be anything narcotic or deleterious 
 in the plant, as is generally surmised, these con- 
 ditions may serve to explain why green tea acts 
 more powerfully and detrimentally on some nervous 
 and irritable constitutions than black tea. It must 
 also be remembered that green tea contains a larger 
 quantity of the essential oil than black tea, which 
 Mulder considers of a highly poisonous character : 
 it also contains more tannin ; and green tea is used 
 somewhat stronger in infusion than black tea, the 
 quantity employed being regulated by measure, not 
 weight. 
 
 Analysis shows that the characteristic flavour or 
 aroma of tea is due to an essential oil ; which in 
 black tea is here supposed to be modified by fer- 
 mentation, or some analogous decomposition of a 
 saccharine principle, with which it unites ; but in 
 green tea the volatile oil and saccharine principle 
 both remain intact. We further perceive how 
 flavour may be variously modified by the fermenta- 
 tion of a saccharine principle in conjunction with 
 
RECAPITULATION OF PROCESSES. 303 
 
 a volatile oil : and, as in tobacco and wine, the 
 odoriferous principle of tea may be susceptible of 
 much variety by the management of this fermenta- 
 tion. It is, moreover, a fact, that black tea fur- 
 nishes a greater variety of flavours than green tea. 
 Strength or body seems to depend on the amount 
 and quality of the astringent principle, or tannin.* 
 
 Now the difl'erence of black and green tea, as 
 classes, having been traced to difference of mani- 
 pulation, it may be desirable here, in conclusion, 
 to recapitulate concisely the different processes to 
 which these teas are submitted. 
 
 The leaves of black tea are exposed to the sun 
 and air on circular traj^s, and treated as hay, 
 during which an incipient saccharine fermentation 
 is supposed to take place in conjunction with a 
 volatile oil. Various modifications of flavour are 
 thus produced by the management of this fermenta- 
 tion ; a loss of tannin takes place by the con- 
 version of a part of the tannic acid into sugar. 
 
 * In conclusion it may be asked : — 
 
 1. If the distinctive character of black tea be the result of 
 fermentation, may not some new principle be found in the leaf, 
 analogous to nicotina in tobacco, which was not present pre- 
 viously to fermentation ? 
 
 2. Whether the same or any other analogous principle be 
 found in green tea after desiccation, which Avas not previously 
 present ? 
 
 3. What is the nature of the grey or blue colouring matter 
 of green tea resembling the bloom on some fruits, when pro- 
 duced naturally in the regular course of manipulation ? 
 
 4. Does hay contain any product not found in grass ? 
 
304 RECAPITULATION OF PROCESSES. 
 
 During this change the leaves become flaccid, and 
 slightly tinged or spotted with red or brown co- 
 louring matter; and give out a peculiar odour, 
 approximating to, or, as some think, identical with, 
 the odour of tea. A certain change in this odour 
 is carefully watched by the workmen, this being an 
 indication that the roasting must not be delayed. 
 It is not necessary to wait till the leaves become 
 spotted with red. They are then roasted in an iron 
 vessel, and afterwards rolled with the hands, to 
 express their juices. The roasting and rolling are 
 repeated so long as any juices can be expressed 
 from the leaves in the act of rolling. Finally, they 
 are dried in sieves placed over a charcoal fire in 
 drying-tubes, during which the leaves are occasion- 
 ally taken from the fire, and turned until com- 
 pletely dried. It is in this last stage of the process 
 that the leaves turn black, though this change of 
 colour is mainly due to the process of manipulation 
 previously to roasting, and not to the action of 
 heat. 
 
 The leaves of the green teas are roasted, also, in 
 an iron vessel, but as soon as gathered, without 
 any previous manipulation, all heating or fermenta- 
 tion of the leaves being studiously avoided : they 
 are then rolled as black tea, and finally dried in 
 the same vessel in which they have been roasted, 
 by constantly stirring and moving thein about. 
 They are also fanned to hasten evaporation, and 
 the drying and formation of tlie peculiar charac- 
 
QUALITY DEPENDENT ON VARIOUS CAUSES. 805 
 
 teristic colour of this tea, which it gradually ac- 
 quires in this process, and Avhich resembles tlie 
 bloom on some fruits. This peculiar colour is the 
 result of a quick evaporation of the fluids, and the 
 admission of light and air to every part of the 
 leaves ; and which, it is surmised, may work certain 
 chemical effects altogether sufficient to account for 
 the different results in this process. The essential 
 oil of green tea, on which its aroma depends, ap- 
 pears to be developed, as in coffee, solely by arti- 
 ficial heat. 
 
 Thus the various known differences in tea may 
 now be classed in the following order : — 1 . Dif- 
 ferences arisino; from natural causes, — as the a^^e 
 of the leaf; for instance, the unexpanded convo- 
 luted bud of the leaf, as in Pekoe tea and Lono-- 
 csin tea, the one a black and the other a green tea; 
 — the fully expanded, though young leaf, in all 
 other teas ; — the young and succulent leaves being 
 only fit for tea: — and, the season of gathering, the 
 spring leaves being the best, and the autumnal the 
 worst. 
 
 2. Differences occasioned by atmospheric in- 
 fluences, as the state of the weather or season ; 
 the presence or absence of sun, rain, &c., in com- 
 mon with all other vegetable productions. 
 
 3. Differences caused by various modes of mani- 
 pulation, as the treatment of the leaves of black tea 
 as hay previously to roasting ; ~ a difference in the 
 processes of roasting and drying certain black teas, 
 
 X 
 
306 QUALITY DEPENDENT ON VARIOUS CAUSES. 
 
 as Paochong, Soncliy, Pekoe, Souchong, and Congou; 
 — a difference in the process of drying black and 
 green teas ; — a difference arising out of the assort- 
 ment and separation of the leaves of green tea, by 
 sifting and winnowing, into the classes of Gunpow- 
 der, Hyson, Young Hyson, and Hyson Skin ; the 
 same for Singlo and Twankay, when classed in the 
 same manner, into Hyson, &c. : — and, finally, that 
 difference in all teas, black and green, which is 
 occasioned by assortment and mixture of qualities 
 to suit particular standard qualities and prices. 
 
 But due allowance being made for all these dif- 
 ferences, though the mode of manipulation, care, 
 skill, and all other circumstances be the same, 
 yet, in common Avith all other vegetable produc- 
 tions, there remains a difference of quality which 
 can only be ascribed to situation, soil, and cultiva- 
 tion, or some natural or accidental difference in 
 the plant. Let us now proceed to examine this 
 subject. 
 
307 
 
 CHAP. XII. 
 
 OBSERVATIONS ON THE BOTANICAL AND SPECIFIC DIFFERENCE 
 
 OF TEA. OPINION OF THE CHINESE, SOIL THE ONLY CAUSE 
 
 OF DIFFERENCE. ANALOGOUS CASES IN OTHER VEGETABLE 
 
 PRODUCTIONS. NO DIFFERENCE AT JAVA. NO CERTAINTY 
 
 THAT WE POSSESS TRUE SPECBIENS OF THE BLACK AND GREEN 
 
 TEA SHRUB OF COMMERCE. THE THEA BOHEA A CANTON 
 
 PLANT. — THE ASSAM PLANT DOUBTFUL AS TO SPECIES 
 
 EXAIVIINATION OF THE GROUNDS ON WHICH BOTANISTS HAVE 
 ESTABLISHED A SPECIFIC DIFFERENCE. — OPPOSED TO ACTUAL 
 
 OBSERVATION AT JAPAN, JAVA, AND THE BRAZILS. PROBABLY 
 
 ONLY ONE SPECIES BUT SEVERAL VARIETIES. ALL BOTANICAL 
 
 DIFFERENCE DESTROYED IN THE COURSE OF PACKING 
 
 PROBABILITY THAT SUPERIOR SHRUBS DO EXIST IN THE BOHEA 
 AND HYSON DISTRICTS, THE EFFECT OF LONG AND CAREFUL 
 CULTIVATION. 
 
 It has already been observed, that the Chinese 
 universally agree, from remote antiquity to the 
 present day, that only the Bohea mountains pro- 
 duce the highest flavoured black tea. They more- 
 over affirm that it is only in the central division of 
 these mountains, which are known to the Chinese 
 by the appellation of Nuy Shan (inner mountains), 
 where the highest flavoured teas are produced ; 
 and that the teas deteriorate in quality as the 
 plantations diverge from that particular locality ; 
 till in some of the most remote districts, " the 
 leaves are thin and poor, have no fragrance or 
 
 X 2 
 
308 BOTANICAL DIFFERENCE. 
 
 sweetness in infusion ; and that no labour can 
 make them good." (pp. 44, 45.) The Ankoy teas 
 growing in the vicinity of Amoy in the same 
 province, are for the most part inferior ; and the 
 Honan and Wo-ping teas, both the growths of the 
 province of Quong Tong (or Canton), may be given 
 as examples of still greater inferiority. 
 
 Further, the Chinese profess to distinguish, even 
 in their manipulated state, the teas of certain dis- 
 tricts and situations, both in the black tea country 
 and in the green. It has also been shown, that 
 particular shrubs in the most favoured districts 
 of the Bohea country are said, in some few cases, 
 to be labelled, and designated after certain flowers, 
 which they are supposed to resemble in flavour ; 
 and that good judges of tea recognise the hill 
 or site of the growth of these and other teas, by 
 their flavour in infusion. 
 
 There can be no doubt that the Wo-ping and 
 Ankoy teas have their characteristic flavours ; and 
 that the latter teas especially, are distinguishable 
 by the general appearance and odour of the leaf, 
 as well as flavour in infusion. It is also remark- 
 able that this peculiarity in the character of the 
 leaf, and flavour in infusion, seems at present to be 
 retained at the plantations of Kamaon in India ; 
 which (as we learn from Dr. Falconer, who reared 
 up these plantations) were formed, as it is sup- 
 posed, from the seed of Ankoy plants brought by 
 Mr. Gordon from Amoy. 
 
BOTANICAL DIFFERENCE. S0\) 
 
 Now it has been shown, that all these differences 
 of flavour and quality, the Chinese most unequivo- 
 cally ascribe exclusively to soil. In the black tea 
 districts of the province of Fokien, they positively 
 affirm, that there is no difference in the plant. 
 Similar opinions almost universally obtain in the 
 green tea districts, nor do I see any reason to 
 discredit this belief on the part of the Chinese, 
 since they are perfectly conversant with the art 
 and necessity of propagating certain varieties of 
 plants by grafts and such like expedients. 
 
 Nor does this testimony of the Chinese differ 
 essentially from the commonly received opinions 
 entertained by scientific and practical men, regard- 
 ing the effect of soil and atmospheric influence 
 on vegetable economy, and known facts of other 
 plants, such as wheat, barley, rice, cotton, the vine, 
 coffee, the orange, the citron, &c. 
 
 It has been shown, that a vast improvement was 
 effected in green tea, by bringing the plants from 
 the hills into the plains, and by cultivation and 
 manure. This practice has existed for at least six 
 hundred years. It is, therefore, easy to conceive 
 that the cultivated plant, thus renewed, and propa- 
 gated for centuries from the seed of improved 
 plants under altered circumstances of site, atmo- 
 sphere, soil, and cultivation, may so far have 
 estranged itself from its original parent stock that, 
 even in the green tea districts, these two plants. 
 
 X 3 
 
310 BOTANICAL DIFFERENCE. 
 
 may have assumed, externally, all the distinctive 
 characters of two species. 
 
 Thus, botanists ignorant of the causes of this 
 difference, and left with no other means of judging 
 than the external characters of the plants, might, 
 having such specimens before them, very proba- 
 bly, and very justly, class them as two species. 
 
 The vast inferiority of the flavour of Twankay 
 tea, the product of the green tea plant growing on 
 the hills, with little or no attention paid to its cul- 
 ture, to that of the Hyson tea, the product of the 
 highly cultivated plant on the plains, would be ap- 
 parent and interesting to any one disposed to try 
 the experiment, by purchasing these two teas in any 
 well known and respectable grocer's shop ; viz. 
 common Twankay and fine Hyson at fair average 
 prices. 
 
 If, then, so great a change is effected in the plant 
 by soil and cultivation, and the opposite colours 
 and flavours which exist between black and green 
 teas are exclusively due to manipulation, as has 
 now been proved, not only by myself but in Java, 
 may not soil and cultivation be sufficient to account 
 for the difference, if any there be, between the 
 Congou and Twankay shrubs, — the two teas, black 
 and green, whose circumstances of situation and 
 cultivation approximate nearest to each other ? 
 So far as Java is concerned this question no longer 
 admits of doubt. It has been satisfactorily proved 
 that all the distinctive characters of black and 
 
BOTANICAL DIFFERENCE. 311 
 
 green tea are now produced there from the same 
 shrubs and the same leaves. Mr. Jacobson assures 
 us, that black and green teas are reared in Java 
 from the same seed ; and that all difference in tea 
 is due to soil and manipulation. * In a botanical 
 sense there is no difference of species. One part 
 of a plantation may produce highly flavoured teas ; 
 other parts only common tea. Both may be of 
 the nature of Souchong tea, or both of that of 
 Congou ; or one Souchong and another Congou. 
 As regards green tea, one may be of the nature 
 of Twankay ; and the other of Hyson, f Nor can 
 any thing be predicated of these plants, as being 
 more suitable to the manipulation of either of 
 these two classes of tea. Experiment, by the 
 ordinary course of manipulation, can alone deter- 
 mine what part of a plantation is more suitable 
 to black tea, and what to green. J 
 
 But if this be true regarding Java, it affords a 
 strong presumption that it may be equally true 
 with respect to China. 
 
 It may, moreover, be observed, that the Chinese 
 universally agree, that the consumption of green 
 tea in China is of very limited extent. The green 
 tea merchants and factors afhrm, that it is hardly 
 used out of the province where it is grown. A 
 little " superior Twankay" is sent to the Court of 
 
 * Handboek v. d. Kult. en Fabrik. v. Thee. § 6. 
 t lb. § 197. t lb. § 34. 
 
 X 4 
 
312 BOTANICAL DIFFERENCE. 
 
 Peking and into Tartary ; but the bulk of the 
 green tea made with care in the district of Whey- 
 chew-fu is intended for foreign consumption. So 
 if any particular species or variety found there 
 be necessary or advantageous for the manufacture 
 of green tea, it must then be conceded that this 
 species differs from all others in China ; or, that in 
 other parts of the Empire it is made into black 
 tea, or, indifferently, into black and green. * But 
 who can affirm whether all the different kinds — 
 species, or varieties — here alluded to, may not be 
 common both to the black and green tea countries ; 
 ^ and to the several districts in each, or even on 
 > each farm ; and that all these differences are for 
 
 * The Lo-gan tea, which is extensively used in the vicinity 
 of Macao in the province of Quong Tong, is a black tea grown 
 in that part of the province of Kiang Nan now called Ngan 
 Goey. It is packed and sold in small baskets containing about 
 1;^ lb. of tea. The Jesuit missionaries say, that they compared 
 this shrub with the tea grown in the district of Whey-chew-fu, 
 and did not find that it differed from that plant. I think it 
 proper to draw the reader's attention to this observation, though 
 I do not attach much importance to it myself, because, to deter- 
 mine whether there be any botanical difference between these 
 two shrubs, the one employed in the manipulation of black tea 
 and the other of green, they must be examined by a botanist. 
 To those who were acquainted with the little plantation reared 
 by me on the Lapa, but now I understand altogether 
 neglected, it may be useful to remark that the shrubs grown on 
 the little raised embankment on the left hand side of the planta- 
 tion, were said to be Lo-gan plants. They were remarkable 
 for their upright stems and large and coarse leaves. It has 
 before been remarked that these shrubs were manured, to which 
 their luxuriance of growth appeared to be mainly due. 
 
BOTANICAL DIFFEEENCE. 313 
 
 the most part disregarded by the Chinese, and all 
 mixed together in each country and on each farm, 
 in the course of manipulation and packing, like 
 many varieties of the apple in most cider orchards 
 in the making of cider ; or like different varieties of 
 the grape in making the vin de pays. I am much 
 disposed to believe that this may be found to be the 
 fact. 
 
 But we have no authentic information on this 
 subject ; no botanist has ever been able to penetrate 
 into those particular districts, where the tea shrub 
 is cultivated for foreign consumption. 
 
 So far as my information extends, there is not 
 even any certainty that specimens of the plant 
 from the black and green tea districts have been 
 examined and described by any botanist. It is an 
 undeniable fact that no reliance can be placed on 
 the genuineness of the numerous specimens sent 
 to Europe. The plants generally furnished and 
 sold by the Chinese as such, are mostly Canton 
 plants ; the Thea Bohea, or Stricta, being the 
 Honan plant, and the Yiridis or laxa, consisting 
 of plants procured from Sy-chin shan, Pe-yuen- 
 hiang, and other villages in the province of Quong 
 Tong ; the fresh leaves of which are of a light green 
 colour, though they are commonly employed to 
 make black tea for Chinese consumption. 
 
 That true specimens have been procured at 
 different periods from the tea districts cannot be 
 doubted, but the instances have been rare ; and 
 
314 BOTANICAL DIFFERENCE. ' . 
 
 no certain record has been kept, or at least pub- 
 lished, of which I am aware after dihgent inquiry, 
 of the locality of any such plants. It is obvious 
 from the remote distance of the tea provinces 
 situated 800 or 1000 miles from Canton (the only 
 port till lately accessible to Europeans), and the 
 jealousy and suspicion of the Chinese, in common 
 with all artisans and manufacturers on subjects 
 of craft, that specimens must be difficult to procure ; 
 and, even when obtained, a doubt must always 
 remain as to their being genuine or not. 
 • Thus, so far as Chinese testimony, and facts 
 collected from the Chinese are concerned, there 
 seems no reason for supposing that a natural dif- 
 ference exists in the plants in China, which furnish 
 the teas of commerce, any more than at Japan, 
 Java, or Rio de Janeiro. 
 
 To the general reader it may be advisable to 
 observe, that there are two points involved in this 
 investigation of a botanical difference of the tea 
 plant. 1. Whether there is a specific difference 
 between the plants called the Thea Bohea, and 
 Thea Viridis. 2. Whether there be a specific 
 difference between the plants from Avhich the black 
 and green teas are made. 
 
 If some botanists deem the difi'crence between 
 the Thea Bohea and the Thea Viridis, as seen in 
 our gardens, to be a specific difference, that is a 
 matter of fact which admits of no argument accord- 
 ing to their views and definitions of species. But 
 
BOTANICAL DIFFERENCE. 315 
 
 other botanists, having the same specimens before 
 them, dissent from that opinion, so that this point 
 must remain an open question among botanists. 
 
 With respect to the Thea Bohea of our gardens, 
 Mr. Reeves and myself have always been of opinion 
 that this plant is identical with the Honan plant. 
 It may now be considered that Mr. Fortune has 
 fully established the fact of the identity of cha- 
 racter of these two plants ; but whether this plant 
 represents the plants exclusively cultivated through- 
 out the province of Canton, and that the teas manu- 
 factured in that province are therefore the product 
 of the Thea Bohea, as Mr. Fortune appears to 
 consider*, seems to me to require much more 
 examination. It does not appear that Mr. Fortune 
 was enabled to penetrate into any parts of that 
 province not accessible to others, or that he visited 
 any other plantations than those of Honan. 
 
 Certainly the Thea Viridis is just as common in 
 the nursery gardens of Canton as the Thea Bohea. 
 It was a common practice among the captains and 
 officers of the E. I. Company's ships to make pur- 
 chases of both these varieties ; which the Chinese 
 ordinarily procure from the neighbouring districts, 
 and from which there is little reason to doubt, that 
 our public and private gardens have been mostly 
 stocked. It is true that a very ordinary kind of 
 green tea is made in this province, and which is 
 
 * Wanderings in China, 2d edition, pp. 189. 213. 219. 
 
316 BOTANICAL DIFFERENCE. 
 
 coloured at Canton for the American markets ; and 
 also different kinds of black teas for Chinese con- 
 sumption, but from what shrubs or in what lo- 
 calities is not precisely known. The places indicated 
 by the Chinese are, for the most part, remote from 
 the city, such as Tien-pack, Sam-ta-chok, Wo-ping, 
 &c. But this green tea never formed any part, at 
 least of late years, of the E. I. Company's invest- 
 ments ; nor did the black, which was Wo-ping tea, 
 except as a mixture with common Congou to pack as 
 common Bohea, the lowest quality of tea imported 
 into England. What is said of the manufacture 
 of black and green tea at Canton, and also of the 
 conversion of black into green, and green into black, 
 and the use of colouring matter for such purposes, 
 must not be confounded with the regular mode of 
 manipulating tea in the tea provinces. All such 
 transactions, however extensive, can only be viewed 
 as frauds practised on Europeans. 
 
 The total quantity of the teas manufactured in the 
 Canton province for the supply of foreigners must 
 be altogether insignificant. They are invariably 
 of the lowest description, and, properly considered, 
 do not constitute any of the teas of foreign com- 
 merce. 
 
 Nor can it be admitted as proved, as Mr. For- 
 tune would seem to think, " that the black and 
 green teas of the northern districts of China, 
 (those districts in which the greater part of the teas 
 for the foreign markets are made,) are both pro- 
 
BOTANICAL DIFFERENCE. 317 
 
 ducecl from the same variety, that variety being 
 the Thea Viridis."* 
 
 What Mr. Fortune has proved is, that the plants 
 he saw in the province of Fokien, on some farms 
 about from thirty to forty miles north of the city 
 of Foo-chew-foo, corresponded with plants seen in 
 the province of Che Kiang. They were all alike, 
 of the species Thea Yiridis, — on comparison " no 
 difference was to be observed."! It is hardly 
 necessary again to point out to the reader that the 
 hills and plantations here alluded to were at least 
 150 miles from these Bohea districts, where the black 
 teas for foreig consumption are almost exclu- 
 sively made. The Chinese say that none of this 
 tea is produced south of Kien-yang-fu : however, I 
 believe some inferior kinds are procured from loca- 
 lities not far north of Kien-ning-fu, but none south 
 of that city. 
 
 Still less can we accept the conclusion, that the 
 teas of the Ankoy district are the product of the 
 Thea Yiridis. J For it does not appear that this 
 district, which really does produce some of the teas 
 of commerce, or any other tea plantations in the 
 vicinity of Amoy, were visited by Mr. Fortune. 
 
 Thus, the question whether there be a specific 
 difference or not between the black and green tea, 
 connected with foreign consumption, seems to me 
 still to remain an open question. 
 
 * Wanderings in China, 2d edition, p. 189. 
 
 t Ibid. p. 260. I Ibid. p. 220. 
 
318 BOTANICAL DIFFERENCE. 
 
 The preceding remarks are not intended as any 
 disparagement of Mr. Fortune's work, which con- 
 veys in a lively and pleasant manner much inter- 
 esting information respecting the coast of China 
 and the districts in its vicinity, but introduced 
 merely to prevent erroneous conclusions being 
 drawn from the unavoidably partial and imperfect 
 intelligence he was enabled to pick up in the course 
 of his tour, on a subject of much real intricacy and 
 difficulty. 
 
 With respect to the Assam plant some botanists 
 and practical gardeners find it difficult to believe, 
 and with much show of reason, that a tree of from 
 thirty to forty feet in height, and eight inches in 
 diameter *, can be of the same species as the di- 
 minutive tea plant of China and Japan. Yet it is 
 affirmed to be identical by competent botanists, and 
 otherwise scientific men, sent expressly to determine 
 that doubt. 
 
 But whether the Assam tea tree be a distinct 
 species or not, it is evident that the form, height, 
 and circumstances under which it was found, are 
 those of a forced and unnatural growth. " When 
 the surrounding jungle was cut down," says Mr. 
 Bruce, 'Hhe long slender stems of the tea tree 
 seemed hardly capable of supporting their own 
 weight." 
 
 It is said on good authority f that the Chinese 
 
 * Journal of the Botanical and Horticultural Society of India, 
 p. 30. 
 
 t Private correspondence with Father Carpina. 
 
BOTANICAL DIFFERENCE. 319 
 
 tree attains a height of from 12 to 15 feet, in 
 places where it is undisturbed by cattle. The 
 Pen-csao-kiang-moo states, "from 20 to 30 feet 
 (literally many tens of feet) ; and some are so large 
 that two men cannot clasp them, but then they are 
 cut down as useless." These last, however, cannot 
 be deemed tea, and the authority of the compiler 
 is weakened by this classification. 
 
 It remains to be considered, whether the Assam 
 tea tree is a greater deviation from the ordinary 
 growth of the wild tree in China, than the wild 
 tree from the stunted cultivated shrub. Are we 
 not too much in the habit of considering the cul- 
 tivated form as the natural one ? And is not the 
 tea tree presented to our minds, as resembling 
 more a gooseberry or currant bush, than a tree 
 whose natural growth is from twelve to fifteen feet 
 in height ? Further, it may be questioned whether 
 this deviation in height and form is greater than 
 may be found in other trees, — such as the olive, 
 the apple, the pear, oak, &c. Liebig says we know 
 nothing of the size which trees are enabled to 
 attain ; and it must be acknowledged that our 
 acquaintance with the habits of the tea tree is very 
 limited. 
 
 If it be questioned whether a plant, indigenous 
 to a climate subject to severe frosts in the winter 
 season, can possibly be identical in species mth 
 one growing luxuriantly under a tropical sun, it is 
 perhaps some answer, that the tea tree is known to 
 
320 BOTANICAL DIFFERENCE. 
 
 be cultivated in Tonquin and Cochin China ; and 
 was, so far as regards its vegetative powers, suc- 
 cessfully propagated at Penang at low altitudes, 
 but its cultivation there was finally abandoned on 
 account of a total deficiency of flavour. 
 
 However, whether the Assam tree be a distinct 
 species or otherwise, it is certain that teas of 
 useful quality are now made at Assam. By 
 cutting down the stems of the old trees to encourage 
 the growth of young shoots, by exposure to direct 
 solar light and heat and free ventilation, and by 
 cultivation from seed, the character of the Assam 
 tree has been much improved, and now approxi- 
 mates more to the flavour and quality of Chinese 
 tea. It is diminished, however, in strength, and is 
 still very deficient in flavour. 
 
 Let us now examine on what ground the specific 
 difl'erence of black and green tea was originally 
 received and now stands. 
 
 The first classification of the tea plant of any 
 authority was by Linna3us, in his Species Plantar um 
 of 1753. He first classed it as one species (Thea 
 Sinensis), but in the second Edition, 1762, he was 
 induced, by reasons which do not appear, to alter his 
 specific arrangement to the Thea Bohea and Thea 
 Viridis. Up to that time he had seen no living 
 plant, but in October, 1763, he obtained living 
 specimens through C. G. Ekeberg, a captain of a 
 trading vessel, which were the first brought to 
 
BOTANICAL DIFFERENCE. 321 
 
 Europe, and were planted in the Botanic Garden 
 at Upsal. These, it appears from the edition of the 
 Sy sterna Yegetabilium, 1774, were of the Thea 
 Bohea, and the learned naturalist seems always to 
 have had a difficulty in discriminating his two 
 species. In the Amoenitates Academicae, Vol. vii. 
 239. t. 4. (1765), it is said that the two species are 
 so alike, that they might be considered to be va- 
 rieties only ; and he there states that in the specific 
 difference founded on the number of petals, he had 
 been guided by the authority of Hill, and not by 
 his own experience. In an interleaved copy of 
 the Species Plantarum which may be seen at the 
 Linnaean Society's House, he has made frequent 
 alterations in his specific characters, and there is 
 much reason to think he never satisfied himself in 
 this respect. 
 
 Loureiro, who saw the tea tree both in Cochin 
 China and at Canton, adopted the classification of 
 Linnaeus, making the specific difference to depend 
 upon the number of petals. He judiciously named 
 these plants after the places where he saw them — 
 Cochin Chinensis and Cantoniensis. But accord- 
 ing to the petalous classification, the Cantoniensis, 
 as it consists of seven, eight, and nine petals, ought, 
 agreeably to the Linna?an arrangement, to be the 
 green tea plant ; and probably was so considered 
 by Loureiro, as it has since been by many, if not 
 most botanists. (See Encyclopedic Methodique.) 
 
 But if it were from the Honan plantations that 
 
 Y 
 
822 BOTANICAL DIFFERENCE. 
 
 Loureiro framed his description, (and it was not 
 possible he could have seen any other,) everyone 
 conversant with the subject knows, that the leaves of 
 the Honan plant are exclusively made into black tea. 
 Further, it is believed by Mr. Reeves and myself, 
 that the Thea Bohea of our gardens, and the Stricta 
 of Aiton, are identical with the Honan plant ; and 
 I believe it may be asserted without much fear 
 of contradiction that both these are again identical 
 with the Cantoniensis of Loureiro. It seems to me 
 important that botanists should fully comprehend 
 the fact, that the Cantoniensis of Loureiro, the 
 Stricta of Aiton, and the Thea Bohea of our 
 gardens, are all identical with the Honan plant. 
 They are all descriptions of the same plant, taken 
 from the same plantations. Aiton does not give 
 the Stricta and Laxa as new varieties, but as new 
 terms, in lieu of those of Bohea and Yiridis; in 
 the same manner as Stricta and Diffusa are em- 
 ployed by Yon Siebold. Indeed it must be ac- 
 knowledged that the terms Bohea and Yiridis may 
 have been adopted too hastily. 
 
 No doubt much confusion has been introduced 
 into the botanical classification of the* tea plant, 
 in consequence of the imperfect sources of infor- 
 mation, from which botanists could alone draw 
 their conclusions. 
 
 Thus in the Encyclopaedic Methodique and other 
 works, we find the Cantoniensis (Lour.) regarded as a 
 variety of the Yiridis (Linn.), and by De Candolle 
 
BOTANICAL DIFFERENCE. 323 
 
 as the Boliea (Linn.). Again, De Candolle, though 
 he regards the Cantoniensis as the Thea Bohea, yet 
 considers the Striata of Aiton (which we have here 
 supposed to be identical) to be the Yiridis. In these 
 respects De Candolle adopted the views of Sims. 
 
 Moreover, botanists now agree that no specific 
 difference can be established on the number of 
 petals of polyandrous plants, in consequence of the 
 disposition of the stamens to transform into petals. 
 Then, if the corolla be rejected as a sign of species 
 when its character is not sufficiently permanent, 
 can it be said that the other characters of Loureiro 
 prove any thing more than that the Cochin Chinese 
 plant is one of luxuriant growth, and the Canton 
 a stunted distorted shrub ? " Arbor octo pedes 
 alta ; ramis diffusis," the one ; and '' Arbuscula 
 quatuor pedalis, ramosissima, tortuosa," the other. 
 
 Again, if we examine the shape, size, and form 
 of the serratures and colour of the leaf, we shall 
 find them, as it appears to me, from their incon- 
 stancy, equally unsatisfactory signs of species with 
 the corolla. Lettsom describes the leaf of the 
 Yiridis as " latitudine triplo longioribus," and Sims 
 the Bohea, " latitudine duplo longioribus ;" which 
 descriptions agree sufficiently well with that of 
 Linnaeus, " Bohea ovalia, Yiridis autem oblongiora 
 habet folia." But I have impressions of some 
 infused leaves of a fine Paochong tea in daily use 
 in the year 1823, taken accidentally and without 
 any definite object, which correspond not with the 
 
 Y 2 
 
S24 BOTANICAL DIFFERENCE. 
 
 description of black tea as given above, but with 
 that of the green tea. Other examples of leaves, 
 however, as in Congou tea, do accord better with 
 the descriptions of botanists ; but this only shows 
 again, that the form and size of the leaf are in- 
 constant. 
 
 Koempfer, who saw the tea tree at Japan, simply 
 describes it ; thus considering it of one species. 
 
 Thunberg also saw it at Japan, and he classed 
 it as one species, but two varieties, making the 
 difference to depend on the form and colour of the 
 leaf. 
 
 A very recent traveller #4'' Japan, Dr. Yon 
 Siebold, makes no less than four varieties depen- 
 dent also on the form of the leaf, but only one 
 species. * 
 
 M. Guillemin also states in a letter addressed 
 to a friend of mine, in answer to some questions 
 put at my instance, that only one species is culti- 
 vated at the Brazils, which is the Thea Yiridis. 
 The other species, the Thea Bohea, he considers as 
 a mere curiosity. " On ne cultive au Brazil qu'une 
 seule espece de The ; mais cette espece offre un grand 
 nombre de varietes quant a la forme des feuilles. 
 Cette espece est le Thea Viridis L. L'autre espece 
 botanique (Thea Bohea L.) est maintenant cultivee 
 en Europe. Cette plante est de pure curiosite. 
 Je ne sache pas qu'elle soit cultivee pour la pre- 
 
 * See Appendix. 
 
BOTANICAL DIFFEEENCE. 325 
 
 paration de ses feuilles ; du moins je ne I'ai pas vue 
 dans la culture Brasilienne." 
 
 Thus all botanists who have seen the tea plant 
 under extensive cultivation out of China agree, 
 (and Loureiro had no such opportunity in China) 
 that there is no specific difference in the tea plants 
 which came under their observation. And even 
 Loureiro states, that all the differences of the 
 Chinese Thea may be derived from a single botanical 
 species, consequent upon diversity of soil and 
 culture. Yon Siebold, moreover, observes that, in 
 a plant which has been cultivated for so many 
 centuries, and in such different climates, the number 
 of petals, the growth of the shrubs, and the shape 
 and largeness of the leaves, are not sufficiently 
 permanent characters to constitute signs of species. 
 
 It must, however, be acknowledged, in conclusion, 
 that botanists generally agree that there are two 
 distinct characters of the tea plant, whether spe- 
 cifically different or not, having for types the Thea 
 Bohea and Thea Yiridis. So far also as experience 
 of these plants in our gardens is concerned, they 
 differ in habits, as well as in appearance. The 
 Bohea is a more tender plant than the Yiridis. 
 The latter, under certain management, bears our 
 climate in the open air in winter ; the former not. 
 
 But whether the differences found in these 
 plants justify a classification into separate species, 
 must depend upon the views and opinions of bota- 
 nists as to what constitutes, or what conventionally, 
 
 Y 3 
 
326 BOTANICAL DIFFERENCE. 
 
 for accuracy of language and nomenclature, it may 
 be deemed convenient to make a specific difference. 
 
 I shall now describe what has come under my 
 own observation. 
 
 A curious and beautiful specimen of the tea 
 plant was brought to me from the Bohea country. 
 The leaves were large, broad, and luxuriant, and 
 their colour of a dark green. I was surprised to 
 find the leaf wrinkled (bullate) ; a character which 
 I had until that time, in common with others, con- 
 sidered peculiar to the green tea, but which I have 
 since had reason to think is not confined to that 
 species or variety. This plant was afterwards 
 placed in a good garden soil in an elevated situ- 
 ation at Macao, with a northern exposure. In the 
 course of a few months it changed colour, and the 
 leaves became of a bright green, and the plant 
 resembled those specimens I had seen in gardens 
 at Macao, which were considered green tea plants. 
 This plant was afterwards placed in a small plan- 
 tation on the Lapa, an island forming one side of 
 the harbour of Macao. It was here placed near an 
 excellent specimen of the green tea plant, brought 
 to me by a green tea merchant, Tien Hing, in 
 whom I had great confidence. These with many 
 other plants were seen by a skilful botanist and 
 scientific man, Dr. Abel, who accompanied Lord 
 Amherst on his embassy to Peking. His attention 
 was particularly directed to the two plants in 
 
BOTANICAL DIFFERENCE. 327 
 
 quewStion, concealing nothing from him as to their 
 origin ; but he saw nothing in the leaf or general 
 character of the plants on which he could establish 
 a specific difference. He nevertheless, on his 
 return to England, inclined to the opinion from 
 impressions received on his journey from Peking, 
 and from information obtained at Canton, that a 
 difference of species might be established. 
 
 It must be remembered, however, that this scien- 
 tific and well informed author suffered a severe fit 
 of illness during his journey doAvn the country, 
 and finally, the loss of many of his papers and 
 collections in the wreck of the Alceste. But if these 
 specimens were really what they were represented 
 to be, I do not know that a more satisfactory test 
 has ever been afforded of the specific identity of the 
 plants yielding the teas of commerce — so far as 
 that can be established on the comparison of only 
 two plants. For if we doubt the specimens pro- 
 cured by respectable parties, each from his own 
 country, how can this question ever be settled 
 except by a competent examination on the spot 
 in the particular districts where these teas are 
 grown ? 
 
 Mr. Reeves, whose contributions and labours as 
 a botanist and naturalist, while in China, are well 
 known and highly appreciated, is of opinion that 
 there are two strongly marked varieties, if not two 
 species, constituting the difference between black 
 and green tea. No one can doubt the respect due 
 
 Y 4 
 
328 BOTANICAL DIFFERENCE. 
 
 to the authority of this gentleman on such a point. 
 But it may be here observed, that Mr. Reeves 
 speaks doubtingly as regards species, and evidently 
 contends simply that manipulation would not be suf- 
 ficient to account for the dissimilar flavours found 
 in these teas, black and green, without some marked 
 and essential difference between the two plants. 
 But Mr. Reeves is willing to admit, as every other 
 botanist must be, that variety is sufficient to pro- 
 duce all the difference here required. There is a 
 diversity of flavour and quality found in the golden 
 pippin, the nonpareil, and the codling, and in the 
 common crab and the cultivated apple ; yet botani- 
 cally they are all of the same species ; and, again, in 
 difl'erent wines made from different varieties of the 
 grape. 
 
 All, therefore, that Mr. Reeves means to observe 
 is, that there must be a strongly marked diflerence 
 between plants yielding flavours so distinct as those 
 of black and green tea, whether there be a specific 
 distinction or not. 
 
 It was the opinion of Kerr the botanist, a highly 
 respectable and meritorious man, who was sent to 
 Canton by Sir Joseph Banks, and who resided there 
 several years under the protection of the British 
 Establishment, that there was only one species, but 
 many varieties, and this opinion was formed on 
 examination of plants seen at Canton. 
 
 Not having made botany a study, my opinion of 
 course is deserving of less weight, but having paid 
 
BOTANICAL DIFFERENCE. 329 
 
 some attention to the botanical question as con- 
 cerning the two species of the tea plant, and having 
 had the opportunity of seeing many different plants, 
 as well as hearing the opinions of men qualified to 
 judge, I may, perhaps, be excused for offering that 
 opinion here. 
 
 I incline, then, to the belief of Kerr that there is 
 only one species in China ; by which I mean, that 
 there is no natural difference in the plant. AVhether 
 any varieties have become permanent in the 'soils 
 where they grow, that is, capable of propagation 
 by seed, as appears to be the fact with the Honan 
 plant at Canton, and apparently with the Ankoy 
 plant near Amoy ; or whether the plants, found in 
 the black and green tea districts, vary from each 
 other, and are more suitable to the modes of mani- 
 pulation adopted in each, is a question which can 
 only be satisfactorily determined by examination 
 and experiment on the spot. 
 
 Enough, however, has been said to prove that the 
 modification of colour and form of the black and 
 green teas in their manipulated state, arises from a 
 different process of manipulation, independently of 
 any variety of the plant, or any quality of the soil. 
 And of flavour it may be said, that, all other cir- 
 cumstances being the same, the difference also arises 
 mainly from manipulation, though partly, perhaps, 
 from some accidental change produced in the plant 
 by atmospheric influence, soil, and cultivation. 
 
 But whatever diversity of flavour may be due to 
 
330 BOTANICAL DIFFERENCE. 
 
 diiference in tlie plants themselves, or however 
 much certain qualities may be confined to particu- 
 lar localities, both in the black and green tea 
 countries, yet it is very doubtful how far such 
 peculiarities affect the teas of commerce, except so 
 far as mixture is concerned in forming a particular 
 quality suited to a fixed price. 
 
 The Congou tea, which constitutes the bulk of 
 the tea imported into England, is formed into par- 
 cels, each sufficient to pack 600 chests, together 
 weighing 52,000 lbs. of tea, all of one uniform 
 quality, and purchased at the same price. Some 
 of these parcels are sufi&cient to pack 1000 chests. 
 Thus all difference of gathering, age of leaf, and 
 district, all individuality, botanical distinction, and 
 difference of quality must be lost in this mixture. 
 The same may be said of the Twankay teas in the 
 green tea country. 
 
 Still it is highly probable that a superior kind of 
 tree does exist in the central division of the Bohea 
 mountains, the product of long and careful cultiva- 
 tion carried on under favourable circumstances 
 through a period of at least one thousand years : 
 and the same in the green tea districts of Whey- 
 chew-fu. In these two districts, also, more skilful 
 as well as more careful modes of manipulation 
 prevail ; and to these circumstances, more than to 
 any natural difference in the plant, may be ascribed 
 the high estimation in which these teas, and espe- 
 cially those of the Bohea district, are held through- 
 
BOTANICAL DIFFERENCE. 331 
 
 out every part of the Chinese Empire, as well as to 
 the preference given them by Europeans. 
 
 It is probable therefore that, like the Chinese, we 
 may still be indebted to these districts for superior 
 teas, however successfully the shrub may be culti- 
 vated in other parts of the world. 
 
 At the same time it is impossible to foresee what 
 improvements may be made in the plant, by the 
 novel modes of cultivation which science has 
 introduced into Europe. It has already been 
 observed, more than once, that a vast improve- 
 ment was effected by the Chinese in the Singlo tea 
 by an improved mode of cultivation, by which its 
 value was enhanced in some cases nearly threefold. 
 And though the Chinese cultivators of black tea 
 may not have received sufficient encouragement to 
 attempt any great amelioration of the shrub by im- 
 proved methods of cultivation on an extensive scale 
 (the great profit on black tea having ahvays been 
 engrossed and monopolised by the Hong merchants 
 at Canton), yet it by no means follows, when the 
 superior activity, enterprise, skill, intelligence, and 
 capital of Europeans shall be brought to bear on 
 these points in our own colonies, that such efforts 
 may not be rewarded with eminent success. 
 
 It is encouraging, then, to reflect, that a field so 
 vast, with so goodly promise, is now opening to the 
 exercise of ingenuity, skill, and commercial advan- 
 tage of those enterprising individuals, and those en- 
 
332 BOTANICAL DIFFERENCE. 
 
 lightened governments whose thoughts are now 
 turned to this subject. 
 
 I shall now make a few observations on the 
 probable success which may attend the cultivation 
 of the tea tree in our colonies. 
 
333 
 
 CHAP. XIII. 
 
 INTRODUCTION OF THE CULTIVATION AND MANIPULATION OF TEA 
 
 INTO INDIA. SUPPOSED LOW RATE OF WAGES IN CHINA, 
 
 AND GREAT COST OF PRODUCTION EXAMINED. MODE OF 
 
 LIVING OF THE HINDOO CULTIVATOR OF THE CHINESE CUL- 
 TIVATOR. COMPARATIVE RATE OF WAGES IN THE TWO 
 
 COUNTRIES. — SKETCH OF THE TRADE UNDER THE EAST 
 
 INDIA COMPANY. EFFECTS ON PRICE SINCE THE ABOLITION 
 
 OF THE CHARTER GREAT PROFITS OF THE HONG MERCHANT. 
 
 EXPENSE OF TRANSPORT OF TEA FROM THE TEA COUNTRY 
 
 TO CANTON AND FOO-CHEW-FOO COMPARED. COST OF TEA 
 
 AT ITS SEAT OF GROWTH. — COST TO THE EUROPEAN AT CANTON 
 
 AT FOO-CHEW-FOO. PRICE AVITH WHICH THE CULTIVATOR 
 
 WILL HAVE TO COMPETE. COST OF PRODUCTION AT ASSAM 
 
 KAJVIAON — JAVA AND THE BRAZILS. 
 
 The discovery of the tea tree in Assam, and the 
 recent successful cultivation of the Chinese plant 
 at Kamaon, in the upper provinces of India, encou- 
 rage a well-grounded hope, that this valuable tree 
 may soon be enumerated among the useful products 
 of our extensive Eastern possessions, and thus 
 conduce to the comfort of the native inhabitants, 
 as well as to the internal prosperity and commercial 
 relations of the country. 
 
 It is generally admitted that the natives of India 
 have a decided predilection for tea ; and could this 
 article be afforded at a sufficiently low price, little 
 doubt is entertained that its consumption would 
 
334 INTRODUCTION INTO BRITISH INDIA. 
 
 rapidly spread over that immense peninsula ; and 
 when we consider the abstinence from animal food, 
 which is imposed on the Hindoo by his religion, 
 we cannot but think that the introduction and 
 adoption of the Mongolian method of using tea in 
 its broth-like form, mixed with butter and meal, 
 would furnish not only a refreshing, but a some- 
 what substantial adjunct to his meagre dietary ; 
 while the leaf used as an infusion, — 
 
 " the cups 
 That cheer, but not inebriate," 
 
 would administer greatly to his comfort, health, and 
 sobriety. 
 
 The population of British India and its dej)en- 
 dencies is computed at 114,430,000. Supposing 
 these to become, like the Chinese, all consumers of 
 tea, the impulse which this novel demand for 
 labour would give to a country mainly dependent 
 on its agricultural resources ; the new, unprofitable 
 and otherwise unoccupied mountain lands which 
 would thereby be brought under cultivation ; the 
 industrial activity its manipulation and preparation 
 would call forth ; as well as the new and indirect 
 demands on industry it would develop ; and lastly, 
 though least to be considered, but nevertheless of 
 high importance, the new sources of revenue it 
 would open to the government — are all considera- 
 tions of such vast interest, that it ought not to be 
 a matter of surprise, that the encouragement of the 
 cultivation of tea on an extensive scale, is daily 
 
INTRODUCTION INTO BRITISH INDIA. 335 
 
 becoming more and more a subject of anxious 
 solicitude on the part of the India Government. 
 
 Great as these immediate advantages may be to 
 India, as administering to the comfort and happi- 
 ness of its native population, yet its remote bene- 
 fits are not less pleasing and important to contem- 
 plate. 
 
 If tea can be produced in India at no greater 
 cost than in China, can it be doubted, that an 
 extensive cultivation of it must be greatly instru- 
 mental in promoting, and even forcing, an opening 
 to commercial intercourse with the whole extent of 
 Central Asia, and which may not be so readily 
 effected by other means ? 
 
 It would be easy to exchange our tea, woollens, 
 and perhaps felt and calicoes, for shawl- wool, horses, 
 metals, and other articles, as well as for rhubarb 
 and musk, which are already procured from Tibet 
 by way of Canton. 
 
 In a previous chapter, I have dwelt at some 
 length on the extensive use of tea in Mongolia and 
 Tibet, in order to show how much that particular 
 form of tea denominated " Brick-tea" has become 
 not only a necessary of life, but an article of daily, 
 and, even, of frequent use during the day, among 
 these people. 
 
 Indeed, this brick-tea may be seen traversing all 
 Central Asia in every direction from the Gulf 
 of Corea to the Caspian Sea. So far back as about 
 1818 or 1820, that learned and accomplished tra- 
 
336 INTRODUCTION INTO BRITISH INDIA. 
 
 veller, Mr. Manning, who penetrated to Lassa, 
 suggested to the directors of the East India Com- 
 pany that we might supply Tibet from Canton by 
 way of Calcutta and Bootan, at a lower rate than 
 the Chinese furnish it by the tedious and expensive 
 route at present pursued over-land, and which I 
 believe to be true. Still more advantageously, then, 
 could it be supplied as a product of India. 
 
 Nor does there appear much reason to doubt, 
 that we may even compete with China in the 
 British, European, and American markets, in the 
 supply of teas suited to general consumption, if not 
 in the highest flavoured teas. 
 
 We will now proceed to examine this latter sub- 
 ject in its different bearings. 
 
 The prominent argument put forth against a 
 successful cultivation of the tea tree in our colonies, 
 has chiefly been the great cheapness of labour in 
 China ; its dearness in our colonies, and an erro- 
 neous supposition that the process of manipulation 
 was a laborious and expensive art. It is un- 
 necessary here to enter into a detailed examination 
 of these supposed impediments, but it may be re- 
 marked in passing, that the successful competition 
 of any agricultural or manufacturing product does 
 not depend entirely or even mainly upon the dif- 
 ference of price of labour in the two countries 
 making the exchange. The relative value of the 
 commodities in the two markets between which 
 the exchange is made is a surer test, for example, 
 
DIFFERENCES OF CLIMATE. 337 
 
 the relative prices of woollens, or cotton yarn, and 
 tea in China, and their prices in England., Nor is 
 this a certain test, even if true in theory ; because a 
 number of disturbing causes aiFect and perplex the 
 calculation, such as monopolies, protective and dif- 
 ferential duties, bounties, and imposts generally. 
 
 Thus the higher price of labour alone in Europe 
 would not be an infallible test against the power 
 of successfully competing with China in the culti- 
 vation of tea, as I shall, by-and-by, incidentally 
 show. A far safer comparison for our pui'pose 
 seems to me to be the cost at its seat of growth, and 
 the price at its place of consumption. 
 
 The comparison, however, with which we have to 
 deal at present, is not between its cost of manipu- 
 lation in China and our colonies in general, but 
 between that country and India. 
 
 The climate of China, as already shown, is a 
 climate of extremes ; that is, the cold of winter and 
 heat of summer are both excessive. Thus, while 
 the inhabitants of Calcutta are experiencing com- 
 paratively warm weather in the winter season, the 
 Chinese of Canton, in about the same latitude, are 
 clothed in their fur garments, woollen and quilted 
 cottons. 
 
 Again, if we examine into the domestic com- 
 forts and habits of these two people, we find the 
 Hindoo satisfied with a small mud hut or shed, 
 which he hardly inhabits by day, preferring the 
 shade of a palm or other tree. An unformed piece 
 
 z 
 
338 CONTRAST OF HINDOO AND 
 
 of calico thrown about his half uncovered person 
 serves him for a garment, while a thin waxed calico 
 cap or small turban protects his head. Frequently 
 a small piece of cotton cloth, rolled and fastened 
 about the waist, is his only covering in the hot 
 season. In the cold season a coarse piece of wool- 
 len cloth, as it comes from the loom, and of the 
 manufacture of the country, serves to protect him 
 from the inclemency of the weather by day ; and 
 spread on the bare earth, or on a rough frame- 
 work raised a foot or more from the ground, is 
 made to supply the place of a bed and blanket at 
 night. Seated on the ground he requires no other 
 instrument than his fino;ers with which to eat his 
 food. This consists of rice savoured with a little 
 clarified butter, a few condiments, and some vege- 
 tables, no animal food — no flesh. Furniture he 
 has none, and his household utensils consist of a 
 brass or iron vessel in Avhich he boils his rice, and 
 an earthen platter to eat from. To these may be 
 added a brass or earthen vessel to contain the im- 
 pure water he is occasionally doomed to drink. 
 The dried leaf of a palm serves him for a fan to 
 cool himself with, and to beat off the musquitoes : 
 but a somewhat elaborate and luxurious instru- 
 ment containing tobacco administers to the com- 
 fort and indulgence of smoking.* 
 
 * Minutes of Evidence on the Renewal of the East India 
 Company's Charter, 1813 ; see Major General Kyd, Sir Thomas 
 Munro. Thomas Graham, Esq. and others. 
 
CHINESE MODES OF LIVING. 330 
 
 The Chinese, on the contrary, has a good sub- 
 stantial mud or brick house, generally thatched, 
 but not unfrequently tiled. Within are seen chairs, 
 stools, and tables, a moveable bedstead formed of 
 planking and bamboo, besides bedding. His shelves 
 are well stored with cups, saucers, tea-pots, jugs, 
 basins and jars ; and his culinary vessels consist of 
 iron and earthen pots, pans, and kettles. Nor are 
 his shelves altogether devoid of books. At his 
 meals he is seated in his chair or on a bench at 
 table, and uses two neatly turned little sticks of 
 lacquered-ware or bone, which he places between his 
 fingers, and uses with the same dexterity and effi- 
 ciency as the European his fork or spoon. He has 
 his little spoon, also, but made generally of glazed 
 earthenware, for soup or soy. And his frugal re- 
 past, though it consists mainly, like that of the 
 Hindoo, of rice in the south, or some form of wheat 
 in the northern provinces, yet two or three little 
 dishes, neatly served and agreeably cooked, consist- 
 ing of fresh or dried fish, dried water-fowl or other 
 dried meats, a little fat pork, and some vegetables, 
 complete the bill of fare. And, like a highly 
 polished people, to whom the Chinese have been 
 compared by very experienced judges, he closes 
 each meal, of which there are three in the course of 
 the day, not very dissimilar, with his iietit verrc^ or 
 small cup of samshew or spirit, but taken before 
 his tea instead of after coffee. In this manner live 
 the boatmen, the coolies or porters, the packers of 
 
340 THEIR RELATIVE REQUIREMENTS. 
 
 tea, and the few agriculturists who have come 
 under ray observation at Canton and Macao. His 
 dress consists of various cotton garments, light for 
 summer and quilted for winter ; and he wears on 
 his head a strong^ and well-made bamboo or straw 
 hat, broad enough to protect him both from sun 
 and rain. Nor is he without his great coat, which, 
 though not miade of costly materials, being of flags, 
 is nevertheless very effective in protecting him 
 from rain. 
 
 It must by no means, however, be inferred, that 
 the condition of the Hindoo is one of privation ; 
 on the contrary, slender as are his means, they are 
 adequate to his wants : nor ought he to be disad- 
 vantageously contrasted with the labourer of China 
 as regards the ease and comforts of life. It is 
 evident that the wants of the two people are neces- 
 sarily and widely different ; that the climate of 
 China calls for more warmth, a greater variety of 
 clothing, and more animal food. These greater 
 requirements of the Chinese labourer have stimu- 
 lated his industry ; and being favoured by the in- 
 stitutions of his country, he has been enabled to 
 secure to himself a greater amount of the comforts 
 and conveniences of life than the Hindoo, if not 
 more than some Europeans. He is raised in the 
 scale of humanity ; he feels his independence ; he 
 must be proportionately remunerated ; and he is too 
 active in mind and body to sink into indolence or 
 apathy ; preferring, as a last resource, expatriation 
 to abject poverty. 
 
COMPARATIVE VALUE OF LABOUR. 341 
 
 The following statement, may suffice to furnish 
 some general idea of the comparative value of 
 labour in India and China. 
 
 Sir Thomas Munro states the wages of an 
 agricultural labourer at Madras to be from As. to 
 6s. the month ; that the expense of a single 
 individual among the class of cultivators and 
 manufacturers does not exceed 275. the year ; and 
 among the lower classes ISs. including food, 
 clothing, furniture, and every thing else. Mr. 
 Cockburn states this expense at 32.5. Lord Teign- 
 mouth also states, that at Bengal 3-5. a month is 
 adequate for the support of a single person.* 
 Dr. Falconer informed me, that the pay of an 
 agricultural labourer at Kamoon is 8^. the month ; 
 and 85. Avill dress him from head to foot. 
 
 In the south of China it is very much the 
 practice to feed agricultural servants and work- 
 men. A labourer who can plough is a yearly 
 servant ; he has his dinner found him, but his other 
 meals he takes with his family ; and receives about 
 10s. the month. The packers of Bohea are allowed 
 three meals a day, and five pence wages. The 
 Hong merchants' coolies or porters are supplied 
 with three meals a day, their lodging, and 155. 
 the month. The East India Company's coolies 
 were lodged but not fed, and received 20^. the 
 month. A common carpenter or bricklayer re- 
 
 * Minutes of Evidence on the Renewal of the East India 
 Company's Charter in 1813. 
 
 z 3 
 
.342 comfaiiativp: states of the trade. 
 
 ceives his food and about seven pence the day. 
 These calculations are framed after the accustomed 
 mode of calculating the dollar at 5<§. 
 
 Thus, it appears, that so far as the wants of the 
 two people, and wages of labour are concerned, 
 India possesses no small advantage over China 
 for the successful cultivation of tea. 
 
 Before entering on the subject of the cost of tea 
 to the European in China, it may be desirable, to 
 make a rapid sketch of the comparative state of the 
 trade during the existence of the East India Com- 
 pany's Charter, and the non-restrictive system now 
 established in China. 
 
 It is familiarly known that the trade of China 
 was long conducted at the port of Canton by twelve 
 or fourteen Chinese merchants enjoying the ex- 
 clusive privilege of trade with foreigners. This 
 monopoly, however, does not aj)pear to have formed 
 any part of a general system of trade among the 
 Chinese, as may sometimes have been imagined, 
 but was purely accidental, and arose mainly out 
 of our ignorance of the language. Mr. Pigou 
 distinctly states that in early times there was no 
 association of merchants at Canton * ; and that 
 Europeans were at liberty to pay their own duties 
 and to deal openly with any merchants on the spot. 
 These facts are also confirmed by the East India 
 Company's records, to which I have recently been 
 
 * Oriental Repertory. 
 
THE KONG-SOO. 343 
 
 permitted to have access.* By association, Mr. 
 Pigou means no association of merchants with exclu- 
 sive privileges in connection with the European trade 
 — such as the Hong merchants were ultimately 
 enabled to establish by means of their Kong-soo. 
 
 The term Kong-soo signifies an association, 
 company, or brotherhood. Every trade may be 
 said to have its Kong-soo, — the Hong merchants 
 among the rest ; which associations are not very 
 dissimilar to our ancient guilds. They have their 
 public halls, to which sometimes, as in England, a 
 garden for recreation or ornament is attached. 
 Here the standard weights and measures belonging 
 to the particular department of trade are deposited, 
 and kept for comparison and reference. It rarely 
 happens, too, that goods are bought or sold without 
 such reference being made. Thus the Kong-soo 
 weights belonging to the foreign Hong merchants 
 may be seen daily passing through the streets of 
 Canton to their warehouses, in order to test the 
 Hong merchants' weights, for the satisfaction of 
 the tea merchant before his teas are weighed. At 
 the Kong-soo house or hall, the rules and regula- 
 tions of the association are kept, as well as all 
 public documents connected with the trade. Here 
 meetings are also held, with their own body, to 
 discuss and frame new laws ; and with others, to 
 settle disputes and make arrangements of trade. 
 
 * See Ship's Diaries, 1703. 
 z 4 
 
844 FUNCTIONS OF THE 
 
 They also meet to resist exaction or oppression on 
 the part of the officers of Government. In fine, it 
 is an association for the preservation and promotion 
 of the interests of the trade, and no more. Price is 
 not interfered with, and each individual maintains 
 a perfect independence in all his dealings. Further, 
 it appears to me, that the character and privileges 
 of the Hong merchant have in recent times been 
 greatly misunderstood. The term Hong merchant 
 is more especially applied to the particular class 
 of merchants connected with the maritime trade. 
 Properly considered, they are bonded warehouse 
 keepers, and not merchants. Occasionally they 
 act in both capacities. !N^or is the term simply 
 confined to merchants trading or dealing with 
 foreigners. Each maritime province, I was in- 
 formed, has its regularly appointed and licensed 
 Hongs throughout the empire, through which all 
 goods landed or shipped must pass by a proper 
 document or clearance from the Custom House. 
 Thus the particular set of merchants who were ap- 
 pointed at Canton to be the sureties for the payment 
 of duties on goods connected with foreign vessels 
 were termed foreign Hong merchants, in contra- 
 distinction to those from Fokien or Tien-sin o- 
 who were designated Fokien or Tien-sing Hong 
 merchants. Now, the Chinese importer has com- 
 plete control over his own goods, sells and buys 
 in the open market, and pays his own duties. The 
 office and privilege of the Hong merchant is to 
 
HONG MERCHANT. 345 
 
 guarantee to the Government the proper payment 
 of the duties before the goods are delivered, and 
 no other. 
 
 So far as the sanction of law and custom prevailed, 
 the European enjoyed all privileges in common 
 with the native trader. Nevertheless, it does 
 appear, that even in our earliest intercourse with 
 the Chinese, the right of free trade was imperfectly 
 and with difficulty maintained. Various and un- 
 tiring were the efforts of the Chinese to establish 
 some form of monopoly. On some occasions it 
 appeared in the person of a privileged individual 
 engrossing the whole trade, or granting licences to 
 others, in his capacity of imperial merchant; on 
 others, in the form of an association of the tea-men, 
 the dealers from remote provinces, the shopkeepers 
 of Canton, and the Hong merchants collectively ; 
 and, lastly, by the Hong merchants exclusively. 
 The former attempts failed ; but the Hong merchants 
 ultimately succeeded in obtaining the privilege of 
 exclusive trade ; which association was maintained, 
 under forms more or less stringent, for more 
 than a century. Consequently the non-restrictive 
 policy now obtained by the treaty of Nanking is 
 no more than a return to the original privilege of 
 free trade, Avhich we might have enjoyed had our 
 industry prompted us to master the language. 
 But Europeans, ignorant of the language, and 
 ignorant of the customs and regulations of the 
 empire, too readily suffered their transactions with 
 
346 EUROPEANS SUBJECT TO FRAUD. 
 
 the government and the country dealer to be 
 conducted by linguists and Hong merchants ; first, 
 as agents for the payment of their duties to the 
 government ; and again, as interpreters and brokers 
 for the sale and purchase of the commodities they 
 exchanged. Thus they became exposed to gross 
 frauds and much calumny in all their relations 
 with the government and the people, and speedily 
 fell completely into the power of these agents. 
 Mr. Pigou speaks with much naivete on this^ subject. 
 He observes, — " The English trading directly with 
 the merchant who brought his goods to Canton, 
 the agency of the Plong merchant was required, 
 because the country merchant did not speak English! " 
 
 Canton, also, being the capital of the province 
 and the residence of a viceroy, possessed an im^ 
 mense advantage over the other ports of trade, as 
 Amoy, Ning-po, and Chusan, in all that regards 
 influence at the court of Peking. The government 
 officers of these latter ports were altogether of a 
 very low grade. 
 
 Europeans also, finding that they were much 
 exposed to insult, vexation, and extortion from the 
 low and corrupt officers who presided over the 
 northern ports, often adopted the expedient of 
 anchoring their ships outside the port of Canton on 
 their way northward, in order first to try what 
 terms or arrangements they could effect with the 
 merchants and custom-house officers of that port ; 
 and, as it obviously was the interest of all parties 
 
ESTABLISHMENT OF A CO-HONG. 347 
 
 to eifect an accommodation, it is not surprising 
 that satisfactory arrangements were speedily con- 
 cluded ; and thus much of the trade was gradually 
 attracted to the port of Canton. 
 
 Finally, many of the Fokien merchants, an active 
 and enterprising class of Chinese, seeing that the 
 trade was gradually leaving Amoy, began to with- 
 draw themselves with their families from that port, 
 and to domicile at Canton. Here, also, they became 
 Hong merchants; and at length, receiving the 
 countenance and aid of the superior local officers 
 of the province, they ultimately succeeded in pro- 
 curing an Imperial edict, interdicting the trade at 
 all other ports; and securing to themselves the 
 right of exclusive trade with Europeans in the 
 capacity of a Joint Stock Company or " Co-hong," 
 by which latter term this association is known to 
 Europeans. 
 
 This association, however, did not trade openly 
 as a body, but as individuals. The prices were 
 fixed and regulated at the commencement of each 
 season, and the profits divided among the several 
 members of the company, agreeably to a scale 
 previously agreed upon. Thus, though the trade 
 bore a semblance to the European, of being for the 
 sole benefit of the individual Hong merchant dealt 
 with, the transactions, in fact, were with a company 
 who possessed all the advantages of the closest and 
 most objectionable form of monopoly. The records 
 of the East India Company, up to a very recent 
 
348 SUPPRESSION OF MONOPOLY. 
 
 period, aiFord ample proof of the struggles of their 
 agents in China to prevent the re-establishment of 
 this close monopoly or " Co-hong," and of the 
 Chinese Hong merchants to perpetuate it. 
 
 At length, at the period here alluded to, the Eu- 
 ropeans, by strong remonstrances and representa- 
 tions to the viceroy of the province, succeeded in 
 obtaining the suppression of this monopoly, at least 
 in its most objectionable form, that of a Joint 
 Stock Company. Its abolition appears to have 
 occurred, hy the East India Company's records, in 
 February 1771 ; but at a sacrifice on the part of 
 the Company of the almost incredible sum of 
 100,000 tales or 30,000^. Still the Hong merchants 
 possessed sufficient influence with the government 
 officers, to secure the retention of their exclusive 
 privileges, though each merchant henceforth traded 
 oh his own individual account. 
 
 This important and beneficial change having 
 been effected in the conduct of the trade, sufficient 
 competition and rivalry were now created among 
 the Hong merchants to secure to the foreigner 
 something like fair dealing. The exclusive pri- 
 vileges seemed altogether stripped of their odium. 
 Indeed this form of monopoly has hud its advocates 
 even in the present day; because, in return for the 
 exclusive privileges, the Hong merchants were 
 made by the government responsible for each other's 
 debts. Still, in the opinion of others, in which I 
 concur, this responsibility was objectionable. It 
 
WEALTH OF THE HONG MERCHANTS. 349 
 
 encouraged the foreigner to deal with embarrassed 
 and bankrupt merchants, and to obtain from them 
 higher prices than the market commanded. This 
 associated form also enabled the Imperial govern- 
 ment to levy contributions on these merchants as a 
 body, which were followed by additional charges 
 on the trade. Again, it enabled the local officers 
 to fix undue responsibility on them, so that they 
 finally became, not only sureties for the duties, but 
 responsible for all infringements of the law by 
 foreigners, and also for their general good conduct. 
 Thus an easy mode of exaction was afforded the 
 local officers ; and out of this form of association 
 arose frequent stoppages of trade, detention of ships 
 at great cost, and most of the disabilities, dis- 
 comforts, and vexations to which all classes of 
 foreigners were subject. But if the Imperial 
 government found in the monopoly granted to the 
 Hong merchants a convenient mode of taxation ; 
 and the local officers a ready means of exaction ; 
 it may easily be surmised, that the Hong merchant 
 did not fail to seek compensation and to avail 
 himself of all the advantages of his exclusive pri- 
 vileges. Thus the wealth of the judicious and able 
 members of this community was enormous, and al- 
 together without parallel except among the mer- 
 chant princes of the middle ages, or the • mil- 
 lionaires of our own days. Thus one considerable 
 item which entered into the cost of tea to the 
 foreigner, was the Hong merchant's profit ; which 
 
350 INCREASED CONSUMPTION OF TEA. 
 
 amounted to no less than 25 or 30 per cent, on the 
 cost of tea after payment of all duties and charges 
 of shipment. 
 
 These large profits on tea of course enabled the 
 Hong merchants to pay liberal prices on all imports 
 where tea was received in exchange ; and the East 
 India Company's agents did not fail to employ 
 their knowledge of the acquisition of these large 
 profits, as an argument to induce the Hong mer- 
 chant to participate in some degree in the heavy 
 loss annually sustained by the East India Company, 
 in their efforts to promote and extend the demand 
 for British manufactures. 
 
 Still it does not appear, agreeably to the opinions 
 of the best informed on the subject, not Avith standing 
 the assertions and belief of the contrary, that, prior 
 to the treaty of Nanking, any reduction of price 
 had been effected in tea since the abolition of the 
 East India Company's Charter ; but, on the con- 
 trary, that prices had advanced. 
 
 It must be borne in mind, however, that the 
 consumption of tea in England has been increased 
 fully one half since the period here alluded to, in 
 consequence of the reduced price at which it has 
 been afforded to the consumer. Nor has any great, 
 at least proportionate, reduction of price taken 
 place at Canton since the abrogation of the privi- 
 leges of the Hong merchants, and the abolition of 
 all monopoly. Still the introduction of free trade, 
 as now established on the solid basis of 'payment of 
 
GREAT COST OF TRANSIT. 351 
 
 duties tlirougli the Consuls, together with the 
 power of warehousing goods in our own warehouses, 
 and the privilege of trading to four new ports in 
 the empire, must ultimately have the effect of 
 reducing the price of tea obtained by the native 
 grower and factor to a fair mercantile remuneration. 
 What that price may be, or whether any reduction 
 may take place under the circumstances of an 
 increasing demand for tea at the different ports of 
 trade, in consequence of a forced introduction of 
 our imports into China, it is impossible to conjec- 
 ture ; but as a large annual balance of trade has to 
 be paid to India, there is reason to think that the 
 shipment of tea to England will afford for years to 
 come little more than a bare remittance. 
 
 Another considerable item which enters into all 
 calculations concerning the cost of tea to foreigners 
 at Canton, is the great cost of transit from the tea 
 provinces. The province of Fokien, especially, is 
 encompassed by lofty mountains on every side 
 towards the main, which seem to isolate it, as it 
 were, from the rest of the Empire : and perhaps the 
 difficulties of communication by land, added to the 
 natural sterility of the soil and mountainous asjDCct 
 of the country, may have tended in some degree to 
 create that superior hardihood and adventurous 
 spirit which the people of this province are said to 
 possess over the other inhabitants of the coast, and 
 which render them the great carriers by sea of the 
 produce of the neighbouring provinces, as well as 
 
352 GREAT COST OF TRANSIT. 
 
 the principal traders to Japan, Formosa, Manilla, 
 and the Eastern isles. 
 
 The expense of transit across these mountains 
 amounts to no less than 1 tale, 2 mace, 5 candareens 
 the pecul ; which is more than one third of the 
 whole expense of carriage, though the pass is not 
 one seventh of the whole distance, nor the time 
 occupied one fifth of the whole time necessary for 
 the transit of tea to Canton. Nor can the teas be 
 moved out of this province without incurring an 
 expense of five times the amount necessary for 
 shipping them from the port of Foo-chew-foo. 
 Such is the importance of this port : and whatever 
 contingent advantages may render other ports 
 desirable, still these advantages can never lessen 
 the importance of the port of Foo-chew-foo. The 
 saving which may be effected in boat-hire alone has 
 been shown to amount to 300,000/. per annum. 
 
 The usual route by which the black teas are 
 sent to Canton, is through the province of Kiang-sy. 
 They are first transported down the river Min in 
 Fokien to the small town of Tsong-gan-hien, whence 
 they are carried, by porters, an eight days' journey, 
 over mountain passes to Ho-keu, and the rivers of 
 Kiang-sy, which conduct to Nan-chang-foo and 
 Kan-chew- foo ; and then, sufi'ering many transship- 
 ments on their way, to the pass of Ta-moey-ling, 
 in that part of the same chain of mountains which 
 divides Kiang-sy from Quon-tong. At this pass 
 the teas are again carried by porters — the journey 
 
COST OF TEA AT SEAT OF GROWTH. 353 
 
 occupies one clay — ^ when they are re-shipped in 
 large vessels which convey them to Canton. The 
 time occupied in the entire transport from the 
 Bohea country to Canton is about six weeks or 
 two months ; and the whole expense is 3 tales, 
 9 mace, 2 candareens the pecul, or ''2d. the lb : 
 which amounts to no less than about one-third of 
 the cost of Congou tea at its seat of growth.* 
 
 Eegarding the cost of tea at its seat of growth it 
 will be unnecessary to embarrass the reader with 
 complicated details on this subject. The several 
 items are given in the Appendix. Let it suffice 
 here to state, that the cost of growth and ma- 
 nipulation of Congou tea, of good or average 
 quality, may be estimated at 12 tales the pecul, 
 or Id. the pound avoirdupois, reckoning the tale 
 at 65. 8 6?., or hs. 6d. the ounce of silver. Mr. 
 Pigou about fifty years ago estimated the cost of 
 the same description of tea at 11 tales. The ex- 
 pressions used by Mr. Pigou cast somewhat of a 
 doubt as to the precise amount of cost, but the 
 explanations given in the Appendix seem to justify 
 the conclusion I have adopted. 
 
 Thus the cost of tea to the Hong merchants at 
 Canton during the period of the East India Com- 
 pany's charter may be thus stated : — 
 
 * The foregoing remarks on the cost of transit are taken 
 almost literally, from a paper of mine in the Royal Asiatic 
 Society's Journal for May 1840, entitled : " Observations on 
 the Expediency of Opening a Second Port in China," originally 
 printed at Macao, in 1816. 
 
 A A 
 
354 COST OF TEA AT SEAT OF GROWTH. 
 
 Tales, m. c. c. 
 Cost of growth and manipulation - - 12 
 
 Cost of chests, canisters, and packing - - 1 3 1 6 
 
 Expense of transport from the black tea districts 
 
 to Canton - - - - -3920 
 
 Charges at Canton on account of government 
 
 duties. Hong merchants' expenses, and boat 
 
 hire to the ships - - - -3000 
 
 20 2 3 6 
 
 The cost of this description of tea to the East 
 India Company was about 27 tales the pecul ; thus 
 leaving the Hong merchant 6 tales, 8 mace, 
 the pecul ; or, as previously stated, about 30 per 
 cent, profit. This tea usually sold at the Company's 
 sales in England at three shillings the pound or 
 sixty tales the pecul ; thus yielding a large surplus 
 to the East India Company. But, it must be re- 
 membered, that at this period the Company's ships 
 were expensively fitted, and manned in a very 
 efiicient manner for defence as well as trade ; and 
 that every department of their establishment con- 
 nected with China was maintained on a munifi- 
 cent scale, though the charge did not exceed 2 
 per cent, on the trade. Further, that all above 
 10 per cent, dividend paid to the proprietors on 
 their capital stock was returned to the country, 
 — in the support of the Government of India; 
 on extensive surveys both by sea and land : in 
 the encouragement given to British manufactures 
 at a great loss ; and in an unbounded and liberal 
 
COST OF TEA AT SEAT OF GROWTH. 355 
 
 support to every branch of art and science connected 
 with their Eastern possessions. 
 
 Thus the total cost of tea at its seat of growth 
 amounted to no more than twelve tales the pecul ; 
 yet it sold for no less than sixty tales the pecul at 
 the East India Company's sales ; or about 500 ]Der 
 cent, on its cost. Thus, though labour might have 
 been five times dearer in England than in China, 
 yet, if difference in the price of labour had been 
 the only obstacle, it might have offered no impedi- 
 ment to the successful cultivation of the tree in 
 England, at the period here alluded to. Still less 
 would there have been any obstacle to the successful 
 cultivation of it in India. 
 
 We have now, however, to examine the question 
 of the cultivation of tea in India under a new and 
 less flattering aspect. The abolition of the mono- 
 poly of the Hong merchants in China, the intro- 
 duction of free trade, and the privilege of trading 
 to no less that ^yq ports of the Empire, now j)lace 
 the question of the cultivation of tea in our colonies 
 upon a new footing, and render its success of more 
 doubtful issue. 
 
 The privilege of trading to two ports in the 
 province of Fokien, has brought us into close contact 
 with the black tea districts. • The port of Amoy is 
 in the immediate vicinity of the Ankoy district; 
 and the port of Foo-chew-foo possesses the great 
 advantage of a direct and uninterrupted water 
 communication with the Bohea country at a 
 
 A A 2 
 
356 DIFFERENCE OF COST AT 
 
 distance of about 270 miles. The transit of the 
 teas occupies about four or five days ; and the 
 expense of conveyance does not exceed 4 mace, 
 3 candareens the pecul ; whereas, by the usual route 
 through the province of Kiangsy, it costs no less 
 than 3 tales, 9 mace, 2 candareens, as already shown. 
 The difference of cost of Congou tea at Canton 
 and at Foo-chew-foo, may be thus stated: — 
 
 Canton. Foo-chew-foo. 
 
 Tales, m. c. Tales, m. c. 
 
 Cost of cultivation and manipulation - 12 12 
 
 Cost of chests, canisters, and packing 13 1 13 1 
 
 Expense of transit - - -392 043 
 
 Government duties - - -200 200 
 Profit to factors or merchants, charges 
 
 of shipment, &c. 15 per cent, say - 2 2 
 
 21 2 3 17 7 4 
 
 Thus teas ought to be bought from 15 to 17 per 
 cent, cheaper at Foo-chew-foo than at Canton. 
 
 But there are savings on other items connected 
 with the transit of the teas to Canton, and those 
 considerable, the precise amount of which cannot 
 be estimated : such as the personal expenses of the 
 tea men ; those of their clerks and others attending 
 the boats ; loss of time, and loss of comfort in being 
 separated so far and so long from their homes and 
 families ; the expense of transport of silver from 
 Canton to the amount of 3,000,000 dollars annually ; 
 interest of money at a high rate, and damage of 
 goods. All these expenses fall, either directly or 
 indirectly, on the price of tea, and obviously must 
 
CANTON AND FOO-CHEW-FOO. 857 
 
 be greatly diminished by our trade being conducted 
 at the port nearest the spot where the black teas, 
 the principal article of export, are grown and ma- 
 nufactured. 
 
 It further appears, that good Congou tea, such as 
 used formerly to cost 27 tales the pecul at Canton, 
 ought now to be purchased at the port of Foo- 
 chew-foo at from 17 to 18 tales the pecul, or about 
 lOd. to lOf r/. the lb. This, then, should be the 
 price which the foreign merchants ought to pay at 
 this port : and this may be the probable price with 
 which the cultivator of tea in other parts of the 
 world may ultimately have to contend. 
 
 But should no more reduction take place in the 
 price of tea at Canton than has hitherto been 
 experienced, in consequence of the great compe- 
 tition which prevails among the purchasers of tea, 
 then the same description of tea, bought at 27 tales 
 the pecul, would cost no less than 16c/. at Canton ; 
 or 14:d. the pound, when purchased at the most 
 favourable port of the empire. It must be borne 
 in mind that these calculations are framed after 
 the usual mode of considering the value of the tale 
 to be Qs. 8cZ., or 55. QcL the ounce of silver. 
 
 Thus, it appears, that, under the most favorable 
 circumstances, the Chinese are not able to furnish 
 good teas, suitable to general consumption, at 
 a less cost than from lOd. to lid. the pound; 
 and, from the present state of our commercial 
 relations with China, it seems probable that the 
 
 A A 3 
 
358 COST or production at 
 
 cost may continue so high as from Is, 2d, to Is, Ad, 
 the pound. 
 
 The experiments on the cultivation of tea in 
 India have not yet furnished any results regarding 
 the actual cost of tea after manipulation, on an ex- 
 tensive scale, upon which we can satisfactorily rely. 
 The plantations of Kamaon in the north west 
 districts of the Himalayan Mountains, however 
 promising they may be, are yet in their infancy : 
 and those in Assam have been conducted ex- 
 pensively, and, to all appearance, injudiciously. 
 
 The actual quantity of tea manipulated at Assam 
 in the year 1846 amounted to 170,000 lbs., w^hich 
 cost in India, all charges included, 7,600/. ; thus 
 furnishing a cost price of about lO^d. the pound, 
 while it sold at an average price of 2^. the 
 pound in England. But there are certain charges 
 not included in this account : and the large expense 
 in Assam is said to be attributable to a fixed esta- 
 blishment of superintendence and management suf- 
 ficient for a cultivation of four times its present 
 extent. The wages paid to the manipulators of tea 
 are 5 rupees, to their assistant coolies 3 rupees, 
 and, to the labourers, from 3 to 4 rupees the 
 month ; and the chests cost only 1 rupee each. 
 
 With so low a rate of wages can there be any 
 doubt that, under a suitable and inexpensive system 
 of management, Assam ought to be able to com- 
 pete with China in the cultivation of tea ; provided 
 the plant be found to possess all the essential pro- 
 
ASSAM — KAMAON — 359 
 
 perties of the Chinese plant ? It is not for me to 
 point out modes of cultivation or suitable sites, but 
 it naturally suggests itself, that, agreeably to the 
 Chinese practice, the cutting down to the roots the 
 wild trees growing in inconvenient localities, and 
 transplanting the stools in the vacant spaces of plan- 
 tations already appropriated to cultivation, as well 
 as with seed, might be found advantageous. I think 
 also that the plantations should be as rapidly re- 
 newed from seed as circumstances will allow ; and 
 if tried in more healthy localities in the northern 
 plains of India, along the banks of rivers, the plant 
 might be found to yield all those properties which 
 are more essentially important to the manufacture 
 of brick tea, and its mode of use. Strength and 
 astringency are more important qualities in that 
 tea than flavour ; and the Assam tea tree seems to 
 possess both these in an eminent degree. Moreover, 
 it may be found a useful substitute to the native 
 population in sites and localities less favourable 
 to the cultivation of the Chinese plant. 
 
 With respect to the Kamaon tea, I must refer 
 the reader to the observations of Dr. Royle on that 
 subject. This intelligent and scientific author re- 
 commended, so far back as the year 1827, the intro- 
 duction of the tea plant into the north western 
 districts of the Himalaya range.* Dr. Falconer, 
 
 * Royle's Illustrations of the Botany of the Himalayan 
 Mountains. Also, Essay on the Productive Resources of India. 
 
 A A 4 
 
360 JAVA. 
 
 now the superintendent of the botanic garden at 
 Calcutta, who reared up the plantations at Kamaon, 
 also wrote an excellent paper on the same subject.* 
 I learn from him that tea may be produced there 
 at sixpence the pound, and that the expense of 
 transit to Calcutta would amount to about three 
 farthings the pound more. Dr. Jameson, now in 
 charge of these plantations, has recently confirmed 
 that statement in an estimate appended as a note 
 to this chapter. 
 
 The quantity of tea manufactured at Java from 
 1839 to 1844, exhibits an annual average of 
 218,000 lbs., so far as the contents of each package 
 can be established. f And Mr. Jacobson, the super- 
 intendent of the plantation, shows, by calculations 
 grounded on the actual cost of cultivation and 
 manipulation, the fact that tea may be shipped 
 from that island at eight pence the pound. These 
 statements are also appended to this chapter, and 
 are minute and satisfactory in their details ; and 
 there can be no reason why tea should not be pro- 
 duced in India at the same cost as at Java. 
 
 Indeed, if tea can be manipulated and packed in 
 China at its seat of growth, for seven or eight pence 
 the pound, as now shown, it may fairly be assumed, 
 so far as the price of labour is concerned, that the 
 
 * Parliamentary papers on the Cultivation of Tea in India, 
 printed February, 1839. 
 
 •f This statement is made from an account of the quantity 
 sold in Holland. 
 
CONCLUDING REMARKS. 361 
 
 same quality of tea ought to be shipped from India 
 at four or ^ye pence the pound. 
 
 Thus, it appears, from the habits and wants of 
 the two people — Chinese and Hindoo, — from 
 the rate of wages in the two countries, and from 
 actual experiments, — so far as these afford certainty 
 of result in conjunction with concurrent testimony 
 to the success of the cultivation of tea at Java, — 
 that India possesses an undoubted power of com- 
 peting with China in the European and American 
 markets in the cultivation of tea. 
 
 It, therefore, only remains for the enlightened 
 Government of Bengal, now enjoying the fruits of 
 peace, and turning its thoughts once more to the 
 moral and physical improvements of the people, to 
 extend its fostering help and encouragement, as 
 it has hitherto done, until the native population 
 shall have adopted and established the cultivation 
 of the tea-tree as a native product ; nothing doubt- 
 ing, that it will thereby be administering to the 
 comfort, happiness, and sobriety of the people of 
 India ; as well as to the increase of the wealth and 
 commercial prosperity of the mother country and 
 her cherished colony. 
 
NOTES. 
 
 Cost of Cultivation and Manufacture of Tea in Java, 
 
 Mr. Jacobson at Java has arranged his ground into planta- 
 tions, each consisting of one million bushes, planted in squares 
 of four feet. These he divides into ten gardens of 100,000 
 each, subdivided into parks or sections, regulated by the num* 
 ber of days in which the planter determines to establish his 
 gatherings. The calculation adopted by him is grounded on a 
 subdivision into 35 sections, each containing 2857 bushes ; and 
 that each gathering should continue 35 days during a season of 
 four gatherings. 
 
 Thus, a garden consisting of 100,000 bushes will yield 
 37,000 lbs. of fresh leaves, or 10,000 lbs. of tea. This is equal 
 to one pound of tea from ten bushes ; and 3| lbs. of fresh leaves 
 to 1 lb. of tea. 
 
 The total cost, including rent of manufactories, planting, re- 
 muneration, and cost of transport to the ship, would amount to 
 4000 florins, which, at Is. 8d. the florin, on 10,000 lbs. of tea 
 would be less than 8d, the pound, Rhine (which is about the 
 same as English) weight. But if the gatherers are skilful, and 
 gather ten catties the day, which they can easily do, then the cost 
 would be 3,500 florins, or less than 7d. the lb. And if the 
 planter can stimulate his workmen to diligence, he may make 
 one pound of tea from five instead of ten bushes, and thus 
 diminish his cost from 30 to 40 per cent. 
 
 In fact, the cultivation of tea at Java is a certain source of 
 gain ; on middling lands ten bushes will yield one pound of tea ; 
 but on good lands the same quantity may be procured from five 
 bushes. And, in another part (§ 186.), the author distinctly 
 states " That it may be taken for granted that 142 Amsterdam 
 lbs. may be made from ten bushes, which is equal to 1 lb. from 
 
NOTES. 363 
 
 five bushes." Farther, that a skilful gatherer may gather six- 
 teen catties the day ; though his calculations are grounded on 
 the supposition that each person gathers only seven catties the 
 day. One pound of tea requires for furnace drying 3 lbs. of 
 wood, and 1 lb. of charcoal. 
 
 At the same time this author observes that, unless attention 
 and skill be exercised in every part of the cultivation and ma- 
 nipulation, the teas will be found deficient in ■weight, and infe- 
 rior in quality. Thus, a plantation ill-pruned, which would 
 otherwise yield 100,000 lbs. of tea, reckoning 1 lb. to ten bushes, 
 would produce only 85,000 lbs. ; and, if badly manipulated, only 
 70,000 lbs ; and this quantity would, also be reduced in value 
 20 per cent., together making a loss of 4c?. the lb. In fact, the 
 plantation would not pay. The planter might ascribe the 
 failure to many chimerical fancies, but in truth it could only be 
 attributed to unskilfulness and indolence. (Par. 324.) 
 
 § 173 — 4. In the second year the topping or stopping must 
 be frequently repeated, so that the regular harvest may com- 
 mence the third year, and many implements made, as well as 
 the manufactories built. All this work is to be done by 
 twelve families which have been hired the first year, aided by the 
 women and children of another twelve families which have to be 
 engaged the second year. Thus, these people must be employed 
 in the service of the planter one year before the harvest. It is 
 highly important to the successful growth of the plant that the 
 stopping and pruning should not be neglected. This occupation, 
 ■while it afibrds an opportvmity of instructing the gatherers in 
 the mode of gathering, and of exercising the manipulators on 
 the leaves gathered, also furnishes to the planter the means of 
 testing and appreciating the skill and character of his people. 
 [Here follow excellent observations on the regulation and 
 management of the labourers.] 
 
 § 174. For a garden of 100,000 bushes, 26 families are re- 
 quired the second year ; — 
 
 1 foreman and 12 able men for the labour of the soil. 
 1 foreman and 12 able men for the manipulation. 
 26 women and 52 children for the gathering of the leaves 
 and other assistance. Total 104. 
 
 With respect to the women and children, three fourths of 
 
364 NOTES. 
 
 these are not obliged to labour. They are supported by the 
 wages of the men. But when they are employed they ought to be 
 paid full wages, since they do the work equally well with the 
 men ; and it is the interest of the planter to encourage them to 
 work. 
 
 § 175. [Observations on the beneficial effects produced on 
 the women by liberal treatment.] 
 
 § 176. Every encouragement should be given to settlers. A 
 cottage with a garden attached, may be let for four or five florins 
 the year. I The cultivation of coffee should be encouraged ; and, 
 for the cultivation of rice, the planter should lend a buffalo for 
 the ploughing, &c. 
 
 § 180. — 1. Those who keep the gardens and embankments in 
 order should be paid by daily wages ; the gatherers by the 
 pound of fresh leaves ; and the manipulators by the weight of 
 tea they make ; the rate per pound must be regulated relatively 
 to the wages paid to the gatherers and other labourers. The 
 payment for the erection of the buildings, and construction of 
 implements must be settled by agreement. 
 
 § 186. Supposing one park to consist of 2857 bushes, and the 
 garden to produce seventy-one Amsterdam pounds of tea for 
 each day's gathering, then the division of labour would be : 
 
 For keeping up the garden - 12 men. 
 
 daily carriage of fire-wood - 2 men. 
 
 making boxes and baskets - 2 men. 
 pinning together bamboo leaves 
 
 for tea canisters - - 2 women, 
 
 the gathering of the leaves - 14 women and 28 children, 
 
 carriage of leaves to the sheds 4 boys, 
 
 the manipulation of the tea - 8 men and 4 boys, 
 
 foremen - - - 2 
 
 78 
 
 Thus leaving 10 women and 16 children to complete the 
 total number of 104. 
 
 § 187. The expense of a plantation of ten gardens, containing 
 one million bushes would be, for the two first years, as follows : 
 
NOTES. 365 
 
 Florins. 
 Opening the soil and planting 24 bouws at 25 florins each - - 600 
 
 12 families, 5 florins for the men the month is 60 florins, or for 24 months 1440 
 
 1 family, 6 florins for a garden foreman the month, or for 24 months 144 
 
 12 families, 5 florins for the men the month, or for 12 months - 720 
 
 1 family, 6 florins for the foreman of the manufactory, or for ditto - 72 
 
 Cost of 26 cottages, 7 florins each - - - - - 1 82 
 
 1 manufactory for green tea, 110 florins, or for black 160 florins, say 
 
 average ----_.-. *150 
 
 Implements, including roasting vessels ; tea boxes ; lead and fuel sheds 232 
 
 Agricultural implements for maintenance of the garden - - 30 
 
 Unforeseen expenses - - - - - - -100 
 
 For one garden _ _ _ 3,670 
 
 At the above rate of expense for one garden, the total expense 
 for a plantation of ten gardens, would be florins 36,700 
 
 1 superintendent, 12 fl. the month, for 24 months - 288 
 1 packing house, with iron implements and scales - 512 
 1 dwelling house ----- 600 
 Allowance to the planter, or the paid planter, 300 fl. 
 
 the month, for 24 months - - - - 7,200 
 
 45,300 
 
 Though " families '' is the term employed in the above state- 
 ment, yet it is only the head of each family which enters into 
 the calculation of the number of persons employed. (Abstracted 
 from the Handboek v. d. Kult. en Fab. v. Thee.) 
 
 Cost of Cultivation and Manufacture of Tea in Kamaon and 
 
 Gurhwal. 
 
 Dr. Jameson, observes : — " The number of acres now in 
 cultivation in Kamaon, may be estimated at 118; which I 
 
 * For a plantation consisting often gardens and one million plants — 
 3 green tea manufactories are required, at a cost of - 330 Florins. 
 
 And 7 black, at - - - - - 1190 
 
 1520 
 
 Or 4 green, at - - - - - - 440 
 
 And 6 black, at - - - - - 1020 
 
 1460 
 
 thus giving an average of 150 florins for each manufactory as already stated. 
 
366 
 
 NOTES. 
 
 trust will be raised this season to 165, which will yield, when 
 all the plants come into full bearing as estimated, 165 maunds 
 of tea. This being sold at 3 rupees per seer, will realise 21,600 
 rupees. The present expenditure in Kamaon is as follows : — 
 
 Tea Cultivation. 
 Per month. Per annum. 
 
 Overseer - Rs. 100 
 
 Rs. 1,200 
 
 
 
 
 Mallees - - „ 247 
 
 „ 2,964 
 
 
 
 
 Contingencies - „ 60 
 
 » 720 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 4884 
 
 
 
 
 
 Tea Making and 
 
 Packing 
 
 
 10 Chinese ten makers Rs. 331 4 
 
 Rs. 3,975 
 
 
 
 
 2 Chinese tea-box 
 
 
 
 
 
 makers - „ 64 4 
 
 „ 771 
 
 
 
 
 4 Sawyers - „ 24 
 
 288 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 5034 
 
 
 
 
 
 Land Rent. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Present rent per annum 
 
 * 247 5 8 
 
 
 
 
 Rent of additional 50 acres, at 3 rupees pe 
 
 r acre - 150 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 397 
 
 5 
 
 8 
 
 
 Total expenditure 
 
 
 10,315 
 
 5 
 
 8 
 
 Omitted repair 
 
 s, &c, per annum 
 
 280 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 10,595 
 
 5 
 
 8 
 
 Amount realised 
 
 by the sale of tea 
 Balance 
 
 21,600 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 11,004 
 
 10 
 
 4 
 
 This balance, though good, is very far short of the amount 
 which would be realised were the establishments better adjusted. 
 
 The following is a calculation showing the rate at which six 
 thousand acres of land can be cultivated, the expense of carriage, 
 &c. and the return. 
 
 Cultivation of Tea, 
 
 
 Each per Month. 
 
 Per Month 
 
 
 Per Annum. 
 
 
 2 overseers 
 
 Rs. 100 
 
 Rs. 200 
 
 Rs 
 
 . 2,400 
 
 
 2 assistant ditto 
 
 - 60 
 
 120 
 
 
 1,440 
 
 
 8 moonshees 
 
 - 10 
 
 80 
 
 
 960 
 
 
 30 chowdrees 
 
 8 
 
 240 
 
 
 2,880 
 
 
 30 assistant ditto 
 
 7 
 
 210 
 
 
 2,520 
 
 
 1 600 mallees 
 
 - 4 
 
 6,400 
 
 
 76,800 
 
 87,000 
 
 * Some of the land is government land, and therefore free of rent. 
 
NOTES. 367 
 
 Making Tea. 
 
 10 Chinese manufac- Per Month. Per Month. Per Annum. 
 
 turers - Rs. 33 2 Rs. 331 4 Rs. 3,975 
 
 Packing Tea. 
 
 66 4 795 
 
 10 120 
 
 8 96 
 
 72 864 
 
 2 Chinese tea-box 
 
 
 makers. 
 
 33 2 
 
 1 chowdree carpenter 
 
 
 
 1 assistant 
 
 
 
 12 carpenters - 
 
 6 
 
 8 sawyers 
 
 4 
 
 32 384 
 
 2,259 
 
 Carriage. 
 
 Carriage of 6000 maunds of tea to Bhamoree at 
 
 1 rupee per maund - - - - 6,000 
 
 Carriage of 6000 maunds of tea to Ghurmuk- 
 tissur Ghaut at 25 maunds, to each 4 bullock 
 hackery, it being 8 stages, at 1.8 rupees per 
 stage = 12 rupees and of these 240 will be re- 
 quired, 240 x 1 2 = . - . 2,880 
 
 Hire of eleven 600 maund boats to transport 
 
 the tea to Calcutta, 220 rupees each, 220 x 11 2,420 
 
 Extraordiiiary contingent Expenses. 
 Wood for boxes, repairs, additional coolies, &c. 
 
 600 - - - - - 7,200 
 
 J .and Rent. 
 Land-rent of 6000 acres at 3 rupees per annnm 18,000 
 
 36,500 
 Total expenditure 1,29,734 
 Tovalueof6000maundsoftea, or 2,40,000 seers, at 2 rs. per seer 4,80,000 
 
 Balance 3,50,266 
 
 Or say that the tea is sold at 1 .8 rupees per seer, 
 
 2,40,000x1.8 - - - -3,60,000 
 
 Expenditure 1,29,734 
 
 Balance 2,30,266 
 
 This estimate is as accurately calculated as our data will 
 admit ; and not overrated. There would be no difficulty 
 in procuring the requisite numbers of labourers. Moreover, 
 the natives, by encouragement and by making advances, will 
 be induced to undertake the cultivation of the plant ; a cer- 
 tain sum per seer for kutcha leaves being paid them on liberal 
 
368 NOTES. 
 
 terms at the manufactory, they would receive five or six times 
 the amount procured elsewhere for any other produce. The 
 plant is thriving over about 4° of latitude and about 3° of lon- 
 gitude. It is a great mistake to suppose, that the quantity 
 of land available and adapted to tea cultivation in the hills is 
 small. The tea sold at Almorah from 3-2 rupees to 5*1 rupees 
 per seer. The quantity sold was small, amounting to 173 seers. 
 There are now three Chinese engaged in manufacturing tea in 
 Deyra." (Journal of the Agricultural and Horticultural Society 
 of India, Part IV. vol. iv. pp. 181—196.) 
 
 Brazils. 
 
 With respect to the green tea manufactured at Rio de Janiero, 
 it is simply necessary to state that the cost of manufacture in that 
 settlement is so great that its importation into England would 
 be attended with considerable loss. The cost of Hyson tea is 
 stated at prices varying from 35. Ad. to 6s. 6d., for teas valued 
 by respectable parties to be worth only from Is. 6d. to 2s. 6d. 
 the pound in the ordinary state of the market. 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 Climate — Canton and Macao. 
 
 The quantity of rain recorded by Kerr (a respectable 
 and intelligent gardener and botanist sent out by Sir 
 Joseph Banks) in his Meteorological Journal;, which fell 
 on the 10th of May, 1810, at Macao, is 12-10 inches; but 
 this I consider an error. I have, consequently, corrected 
 it by forming an average out of the quantit}^ which fell for 
 a few days before and after. The quantity, then, which 
 fell in inches for each month, from 1808 to 1811, say from 
 the middle of October to the middle of April at Canton, 
 and the remaining portion of the year at Macao (dividing 
 the year into monsoons), may be stated as follows : — 
 
 S. W. Monsoon. N. E. Monsoon. 
 
 May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Jan. Feb. Mar. Mean. 
 
 Kerr - 11-88 10-19 14-35 11-30 12-.5 6-54 1-32 019 0-65 1-20 3-14 78-96 
 
 Beal Macao 11-85 11-10 7-75 9-90 10-92 5-50 242 0-97 0-67 1-70 2-15 70-62 
 
 ^' M^T"'^ \ -^"'^^ quantity in 1812, 106-30. 1813, 54-30. 1814, 95-70. 1815, 54-50. 77-70 
 
 Temperature and its Monthly Variations. 
 
 I am induced here to give an extract of Mr. Bletterman's 
 Journal of the highest and lowest range of the thermometer 
 for each month dimng eleven years, from 1806 to 1808, 
 and 1810 to 1817, as exhibiting a remarkable coincidence 
 with the daily mean temperature as given by Kerr, from 
 1807 to 1811; also the monthly variation of temperature 
 as exhibited in these Journals. 
 
 B B 
 
370 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 
 May. 
 
 o 
 
 June. 
 
 o 
 
 July. 
 
 o 
 
 Augt. 
 
 o 
 
 Sept. 
 o 
 
 Oct. 
 
 
 
 Nov. 
 o 
 
 Dec. 
 
 o 
 
 Jan. 
 
 o 
 
 Feb. 
 
 o 
 
 Mar. 
 
 o 
 
 Apr. 
 
 o 
 
 Annual 
 Mean. 
 
 Lowest 
 Highest 
 
 Mean 
 
 Variation 
 Kerr's variation 
 
 Kerr's mean - 
 
 70 
 86 
 
 76 
 
 88 
 
 78 
 88 
 
 77 
 89 
 
 73 
 89 
 
 68 
 86 
 
 54 
 
 83 
 
 44 
 
 75 
 
 44 
 73 
 
 48 
 72 
 
 53 
 76 
 
 62 
 
 82 
 
 720 
 71 
 
 78 
 
 82 
 
 83 
 
 83 
 
 81 
 
 77 
 
 68 
 
 59 
 
 58 
 
 60 
 
 65 
 
 72 
 
 16 
 
 17 
 
 12 
 13 
 
 10 
 12 
 
 12 
 13 
 
 15 
 13 
 
 18 
 16 
 
 29 
 29 
 
 31 
 
 27 
 
 29 
 24 
 
 24 
 
 26 
 
 23 
 23 
 
 20 
 24 
 
 77 
 
 82 
 
 82 
 
 82 
 
 80 
 
 77 
 
 68 
 
 59 
 
 60 
 
 59 
 
 65 
 
 70 
 
 Mean variation N. E. Monsoon, Kerr's Journal 25°. 5. Mr. Bletterman's, 11 years, 25°.9. 
 S. W. „ „ 130.5. „ „ 130.9. 
 
 Temperature at Jajjan. 
 
 The following accounts of the temperature of the seasons 
 at Nangasacki in Japan are extracted from : — 
 
 1. French edition of Thunberg's Japan, edited by E. 
 Langles, vol. iii. pp. 1*^4 — 178. 
 
 2. lb. vol. iii. pp. 188 — 193, taken from the Memoirs 
 of the Batavian Society, in the year 1779. 
 
 3. Yon Siebold's Voyage au Japan, p. 326. 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 3 
 
 Winter 
 
 Spring. 
 
 Summer. 
 
 Autumn. 
 
 Lowest 
 Range. 
 
 Highest 
 Range. 
 
 Mean 
 
 of 
 Year. 
 
 5lo 
 
 42 
 
 44 
 
 63° 
 
 57 
 
 51 
 
 81° 
 
 83 
 
 79 
 
 710 
 
 74 
 
 66 
 
 January,35° 
 
 „ 27 
 
 August, 96° 
 98 
 
 66° 
 
 61 
 
 61 
 
 Yon Siebold also observes, that " The rains in the 
 Japanese Islands are more frequent in June, July, and 
 November, than at other times of the year. The rainy 
 season takes place during the first two of these months; 
 and in April and May a dense fog, common to these islands, 
 not unfrequently envelopes them for days together." 
 
 It may be advisable here to state, that a certain correc- 
 tion must be made in the results extracted from the 
 Canton and Macao Meteorological Journals, the general 
 temperature being somewhat too high. I liave not quoted 
 M. Riclmet's Journal, but to show the errors to which such 
 
APPENDIX. 371 
 
 observations are exposed, it is therein stated, that at 
 Macao on the 31st of December, 1811, the thermometer, 
 standing in its usual place in his room at Macao, marked 
 53° ; while another thermometer, placed in the ojoen air 
 against a window, stood at 38°; and, though at 38°, yet 
 ice was found on the terrace of a neighbouring house, and 
 other terraces in the town. Both thermometers were also 
 placed with a south-east aspect, and therefore in a situation 
 to favour a high temperature. 
 
 Again, in Kerr's Journal on the night of the 29th of 
 January, 1811, the thermometer at Canton in its usual 
 place on the ground floor, with a northern aspect and 
 in the open air, stood at 41° ; while another thermometer 
 placed on a platform elevated not more than thirty feet, in 
 the same pile of buildings, and not otherwise more ex- 
 posed, marked only 30°, and the next morning ice was 
 carried through the streets for sale. 
 
 Also, in Mr. Bletterman's Journal, the thermometer 
 which marked the greatest heat was placed in the upper 
 story of his house at Macao, the roof of which was directly 
 exposed to the influence of the sun's rays : and the one by 
 Avhich the greatest cold was observed, was placed in a 
 room on the ground floor. Thus, both thermometers 
 favoured extremes of temperature. 
 
 Further, the Rev. Vicar-General Carpina of Fokien, 
 observes, that when the thermometer stood at 37° in the 
 vestibule of his house at Fogan, it froze in the fields ; and 
 speaks of having seen ice an inch thick. Now, if we estimate 
 27° as the lowest range of the thermometer, and 95° as the 
 highest, this would give a mean of 61°; and even taking 
 32° as the lowest, still that would furnish a mean of 
 63^°, whereas the mean of his journal is stated at 70°. 
 
 Taking 29° as a mean latitude of the tea districts con- 
 nected with foreign supply (as correctly estimated by 
 Dr. Falconer), 61° may then, perhaps, be received as the 
 mean of the temperature. 
 
 B B 2 
 
372 APPENDIX. 
 
 Again, there is a difference of 5° between Thunberg's 
 Journal ; and the one furnished by the Memoirs of the 
 Batavian Society and that of Yon Siebold. 
 
 Thus, it is obvious that these Journals must be considered 
 as imperfect records of tlie true temperature of the at- 
 mosphere. Those of Canton and Macao were nevertheless 
 kept with care, and are deserving of equal attention with 
 the ordinary Journals of this description not kept by 
 scientific observers. 
 
 Elevation of the Tea Districts above the Sea Level. 
 
 I have not attempted to estimate the height of the tea 
 country above the level of the sea, because we have too 
 little data upon which any such calculation can be grounded. 
 But, as observed by Dr. Boyle, as the barometer stands 
 at about 30° in the Yang-cse-kiang, it may be assumed 
 that the green tea district does not rise much above the 
 level of the sea. The same remark holds good as regards 
 the southern part of the province in which the tea districts 
 are situated ; for we see that as Lord Macartney's embassy 
 skirted this part of the province, the barometer stood at 
 about the same height. Further, Du Halde states, that at 
 Kieu-kiang-fu, situated on the south banks of the Yang- 
 cse-kiang, in Kiang-sy, the tide regularly ebbs and flows 
 at the full and change of the moon, although the distance 
 from the sea is computed to be 100 French leagues, or 
 280 British miles ; which circumstance equally marks 
 the low level of the entire province of Kiang-nan, as well 
 as the slow current of this great river beyond the ordinary 
 influence of the tide. 
 
 With respect to the black tea district, calculating the 
 distance by the river Min at 270 miles from the sea, and 
 the current at even four miles the hour, which is a rapid 
 current, this might give (I am informed on very good 
 authority) an inclination of two and a half feet the mile ; 
 thus making the elevation of the Bohea district 675 feet 
 
APPENDIX. 373 
 
 above the level of the sea. And it has been shown that 
 some of the finest teas are produced on the plains. But 
 if we estimate the elevation of the hills, on which the teas 
 of commerce are grown, and which are said to be not 
 remarkable for their height, at from 700 to 800 feet more, 
 this would give an elevation of 1500 feet. For the high- 
 flavoured teas, the reader may indtdge his fancy at any 
 height above this. 
 
 Now, if we examine a good map in which the mountains 
 are indicated, we shall find that a continuous and some- 
 what lofty range extends nearly from the Yang-cse-kiang 
 to the western extremity of the empire, separating the 
 provinces of Kiang-soo, Che-kiang, Fokien, Quong-toiig, 
 Quong-sy, and Yun-nan, from the rest of the empire. 
 Then, if we imagine this great and extensive range, heaved 
 and raised up to irregular heights, varying perhaps from 
 4000 to 8000 feet above the sea, and examine the course 
 of the rivers, we shall find that all west and north of this 
 range discharge their waters into the great river, the 
 Yang-cse-kiang ; and all east and south disembogue into 
 the sea, thus indicating an inclination in opposite directions 
 on either side of this range. The province of Kiang-soo, 
 however, is almost a dead level from the mountains to the 
 sea. The green tea district is situated near the western 
 base of this range ; and the black tea districts, also, at the 
 base, but on the east. Then, if w^e imagine two other 
 ranges forking off from the principal range, running in a 
 direction east of north, and dividing the provinces of 
 Kiang-sy and Hu-quong, and the latter from Szu-chuen, 
 with inclinations inwards, as well as towards the Yang- 
 cse-kiang, we shall then, I believe, have some general, 
 though imperfect, idea of the face and inclination of that 
 part of the country, where the tea plant has been found 
 indigenous in all ages. The provinces of Szu-chuen, Kiang- 
 sy, Fokien, and Che-kiang are classed among the most 
 mountainous provinces of the empire. 
 
 B B 3 
 
374 APPENDIX. 
 
 Sifting and Winnowing of Hyson and Twankay Teas. 
 
 The following is Mr. Reeves's account of the sifting and 
 winnowing of Hyson and Twankay teas, to form Hyson ; 
 Gunpowder ; Hyson Skin ; and Young Hyson : also 
 Twankay ; and Twankay Hyson ; Gunpowder ; Skin ; 
 and young Hyson. 
 
 The tea as taken from the chest was put, by a catty or 
 two at a time, into a sieve, which the Chinese called 
 the fifth sieve ; so fine that only dust and very small 
 leaves could pass through ; and, as this will be the subject 
 of further operations, let us call it sample A. 
 
 The returns of the fifth sieve, or that which would not 
 pass through, was sifted in the fourth sieve, and passed 
 the sample B. 
 
 The returns of this sieve put into No. 3. passed the sample 
 
 C, and 
 
 The returns of this sieve sifted through No. 2. the sample 
 
 D, and 
 
 The remainder, which would not pass the sieve, formed 
 the sample E. 
 
 The samples B, C, and D, being tossed in large flat 
 baskets (as is done by the seedsmen in England), threw 
 off light leaves or skin of inferior quality ; and by giving 
 the baskets a circular motion, other leaves were brought 
 up to the middle of the sieve, whence they were skimmed 
 off; and the samples were then hand-picked to separate 
 the irregularly formed leaves too heavy to be separated by 
 the former processes, which form Skin of the better quahty, 
 and the Hyson only. 
 
 The skin of E is also hand-picked, as it is in general too 
 heavy to be separated by other means. 
 
 B, C, D, and E, are now Hyson tea, differing only in 
 size, according to the sieve which each has passed through ; 
 but requiring, on account of this difference, a longer or a 
 
APPENDIX. 875 
 
 shorter time in the following processes : the larger leaf 
 requiring the longer firing or roasting. 
 
 A sample of C from one and a half to two catties was 
 put into an iron pan, set over a charcoal fire, and kept con- 
 stantly stirred with the hand ; the fire being kept at an 
 equable degree of heat by occasionally slipping a tile 
 between it and the pan. This operation is called Chao, 
 and lasted fifty-eight minutes. The leaf by this opera- 
 tion becomes closer in the twist, and paler though 
 brighter in colour ; the proj^er degree being determined 
 by the eye, according to the judgment of the manu- 
 facturer. 
 
 When B, C, D, and E, have been each separately 
 roasted and sifted, to clear them from the dust occasioned 
 by friction against the sides of the pan, they are mixed to 
 form Hyson according to fancy or sample ; then roasted 
 again in their mixed state and packed hot into the chests. 
 The Chinese say it is necessary to pack it hot to preserve 
 the smell : the leaves also are not so apt to break as when 
 cold ; and they say the colour gets darker in a few 
 days. 
 
 The constant friction keeps the inside of the kuo clean, 
 and it is said, those long in use become as bright as 
 silver. 
 
 The sample A is put into a very fine sieve, which sepa- 
 rates the extreme fine dust, which is sold to the manu- 
 facturers of china-ware in Kiang-sy and Ho-nan, the 
 poorer class of whom use it by putting some into a tea cup 
 and pouring boiling water upon it, as is done with other 
 tea leaf at Canton. When this fine dust is separated, the 
 remainder is passed through a -wiunow^ing machine, the 
 supply being regulated by a sliding board at the bottom of 
 the hopper; and the fanner being set in motion, the 
 smallest broken leaf is blown out at the end, near which 
 the larger broken leaf falls : and the other is delivered, 
 according to the respective degrees of gravity, in young 
 
 B B 4 
 
376 APPENDIX. 
 
 Hyson and Gunpowder, at the side orifices. This process, 
 however, does not so completely divide the Gunpowder and 
 young Hyson, but it is necessary to separate them 
 afterwards by hand, or rather with the end of a feather. 
 
 The Gunpowder and young Hyson are then separately 
 roasted to give them a lighter twist and to bring out the 
 colour. This requires the roasting to be repeated, and 
 the pan to be made much hotter ; so that three men took 
 their turns in stirring the tea, relieving each other on 
 account of the heat. This roasting continued ten minutes, 
 during the whole of which the tea was kept stirred about 
 with a constant quick motion, and examined frequently 
 to see when done enough. 
 
 The Gunpowder consists of such young leaves as on the 
 original drying at the tea-farms take the round twist : 
 the young Hyson of such young leaves as take the long 
 twist, and, therefore, when truly made should consist of 
 whole leaves ; but very little is now made in this manner. 
 The demand for the Americans, who consume large quan- 
 tities of these teas, is so great that the manufacturers 
 cannot supply them, except by cutting up the leaves before 
 drying, and making imitations. 
 
 Twankay Tea. 
 
 The Twankay tea was passed through the same sieves as 
 the Hyson, but the roasting was done with a quicker 
 fire ; so that the leaf of the same size as the Hyson re- 
 quired only ten minutes instead of fifty-eight. The tea 
 was tossed hot to throw off the skin, as the makers say 
 the Twankay skin will not fly off when cold. 
 
 The tea from the second sieves was roasted separately 
 as the Hyson ; the larger leaf requiring the longer roast- 
 ing. After being mixed to fancy, it is roasted again and 
 packed hot. 
 
 The same process as in the Hyson forms the Twankay 
 
APPENDIX. 377 
 
 Gunpowder, and Tvvankay young Hyson ; and the dust 
 is sold to the porcelain manufacturers, as is the Hyson 
 dust also. 
 
 The manufacturer who showed this process has about 
 100 pans (kuo) at work; and employs 300 women during 
 the tea season, who can perform all the various operations, 
 even the roasting. Women are employed, as their pay is 
 cheaper, being only four or five candareens a day, whereas 
 the men charge one quarter of a dollar (say eighteen 
 candareens). Charcoal is used. 
 
 In the manufacturing of the finest Hyson tea, 100 
 catties of rough tea (Mao Cha, or as purchased of the 
 farmers,) will produce about, 
 
 35 to 36 catties of fine Hyson. 
 20 good Hyson. 
 
 25 to 26 Hyson Skin. 
 
 10 young Hyson. 
 
 5 of larare 1 r^ ^ 
 
 Sofsmlu) Gunpowder. 
 
 Second Quality. — 100 Catties. 
 
 50 catties of good and fair. 
 
 11 to 12 inferior, below Company's quality. 
 20 Hyson Skin. 
 
 10 to 14 young Hyson. 
 
 5 or 6 large and small Gunpowder. 
 
 Third Quality. — 100 Catties. 
 
 45 to 46 catties, if picked clean, quality below Company's. 
 35 to 36 Hyson Skin. 
 
 16 to 17 young Hyson. 
 
 3 to 4 Gunpowder. 
 
 In Twankay teas, 100 Catties. 
 
 ] catties Twankay Hyson, that is, leaf regular enough to 
 
 look like Hyson. 
 50 Twankay. 
 
 20 Skin. 
 
 10 young Hyson. 
 
 4 to 5 Gunpowder. 
 
378 APPENDIX. 
 
 Second Quality Twankay, — 100 Catties. 
 
 10 catties Twankay Hyson. 
 
 60 Twankay. 
 
 10 Skin. 
 
 10 young Hyson. ;] 
 
 4 to 5 Gunpowder. 
 
 Von Siehold's Botanical Classification of the Tea Tree. 
 (Nippon, p. vi. s. 12.) 
 
 THEA SINENSIS, Linn. 
 System. Artific. Linn. Class Monadelphia, Ord. Polyandria. 
 Famil. Natural. Camelliarum De Cand. 
 
 Chaeacter Generis. 
 
 Calyx pentasepalus ; Corolla hexa-seu enneapetala, 
 petalis basi cohserentibus, bi-seu triserealibus ; Stamina 
 numerosa, monadelphia, androphoro cum petalorum un- 
 quibus subcohaerente ; antherae subrotundae ; Germen 
 subrotundum ex ovariis 3 — 6- ovulatis compositum, 3- 
 loculare ; stylus e tribus coalitis, apice ad medium usque 
 trifidis formatus ; stigmata tria linearia reflexa. Capsula 
 tricocca, trilocularis, loculis abortu monospermis, dorso 
 (loculicide) deliiscentibus. Semina nuculiformia. 
 
 Character Speciel 
 Thea sinensis Linn. Foliis elliptico-oblongis, acutis 
 vel obtusis, serratis ; floribus in foliorum axillis binis vel 
 solitariis breve pedunculatis. 
 
 VaRIETATES jAPONICiE. 
 
 Foliis minoribus, saturatius viridibus. {Thea Bohea ali- 
 
 orum.) 
 
 a) Thea sinensis, stricta ; foliis elliptico-oblongis, 
 subrugosis, latitudine duplo longioribus, acutis ; ramis 
 strictis, erectis. 
 
APPENDIX. 379 
 
 13) Thea sinensis, rugosa; foliis ellipticis obovali- 
 busve, rugosis, latitudine vix duplo longioribus, obtusis ; 
 ramis erectis. 
 
 Foliis majoribus IcBtius viridibus. ( Thea viridis aliorum.) 
 7) Thea sinensis, diffusa ; foliis lanceolatis, planis, 
 
 latitudine triple longioribus, utrinque acuminatis ; ramis 
 
 diffusis. 
 
 h) Thea sinensis, macrophylla; foliis ellipticis, 
 
 magnis, latitudine triplo longioribus ; ramis erectis. 
 
 In addition to the above description, the botanist will 
 find in the original work many notes and observations 
 which may be useful : and, among the plates, the four 
 varieties here described are well figured in outline. 
 
 Cost of Tea in the Bohea District, 
 
 The teas which the Chinese class as Paochong and Sou- 
 chong are said to sell from 42 to 92 tales the pecul, or 
 from 2s. \d. to 45. Id. the lb. Such as the Chinese class 
 as Kong-fu or Congou, sell from 22 to 32 tales the pecul ; 
 and the teas known to us as Congou, sell from 7 to 13 tales 
 the pecul. These are the prices after the usual allowances 
 of trade have been deducted. 
 
 On teas selling above 20 tales the pecul, an allowance 
 is made from the seller to the buyer of 7 per cent. ; and 
 below 20 tales, the allowance is 20 per cent. A further 
 allowance is also made, on payment in cash, of 5 per cent. 
 There is also a gain to the Canton merchant on the dollar, 
 the value of the dollar being reckoned at Canton, at 
 7 mace, 2 candareens ; and in Fokien, at 8 mace, 2 canda- 
 reens. There is, moreover, a gain of 10 per cent, in the 
 weio"ht of tea. The fine teas are sold in quantities of 
 from 2 to 30 chests at a time ; and other teas from 5 to 
 130, or more chests. The first gatherings of these latter 
 
380 APPENDIX. 
 
 teas sell from 11 to 21 tales the pecul: the second gather- 
 ings from 12 to 13 : and the third gatherings from 10 to 
 1 1 tales the pecul ; from which the preceding allowances 
 have to be made. I shall now give one or two examples 
 of the mode of calculating these accounts : there may be 
 some little discrepancy in them, which I may not now be 
 able to reconcile, still they may be considered sufficiently 
 near approximations to truth ; and in China it is only by 
 comparison of such data furnished by different parties, and 
 at remote periods of time, that accurate accounts can be 
 established. 
 
 ": Tales, m. c. 
 Say that a chop of tea of 1000 chests, weighing 66,000 catties, 
 
 and bought at prices from 10 to 16 tales, cost - - 8147 7 
 
 Deduct 20 per cent. - 1 629 5 4 
 
 Deduct 5 per cent, on payment - 
 
 Tales 
 Add 10 months' interest, at 12 per cent. 
 Costs of chests and packing 
 
 The above example supposes that the Hong merchant 
 sends his own agent to the tea country, with ample funds 
 at his command, and that he buys with every -advantage. 
 This would make the cost of Congou tea, of the best 
 quality, after packing, about 10*3 tales the pecul, or about 
 6d. the pound, at its seat of growth. 
 
 Tales, m. c. 
 Another chop of 600 chests, or 396 peculs, bought at prices 
 
 varying from 16 to 21 tales, cost - - - -61 02 10 
 
 Deduct 20 per cent. 1 220 4 2 
 
 6518 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 325 
 
 
 
 
 
 6193 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 652 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 I 
 
 6846 
 
 4 
 
 7 
 
 Tales 4881 6 8 
 
APPENDIX. 38 1 
 
 Tales 4881 6 8 at 8 mace, 2 candareens = 5953^<|5 dollars. Tales, m. c. 
 
 Dollars 5953^ at 7 mace, 2 candareens - - . 4286 3 4 
 
 Net weight - - 321 peculs. 
 
 Gain on weight - - 32 5 
 
 353 5 Ta. m. c. 
 
 Part of a former chop - 42 95 at 11 6 7 - 501 2 2 
 
 396 Tales 4787 5 6 
 Chests and packing 10 9 
 
 Tales 4788 6 3 
 
 Tales, m. c. 
 Thus making the pecul of tea 12 9 
 
 In this statement the 5 per cent, is not deducted. 
 
 The contracts with tea-men were said to be effected by 
 the Hong merchants, in the season 1824-6, on the follow- 
 ing terms. 
 
 Tales, m. Tales, m. Tales, m. 
 
 Puiqua, advanced 4200 tales on account "1 i ^ r i -, r- i o c 
 
 owqua ditto ditto J 
 
 Chunqua ditto 2000 - - - 175 185 195 
 
 No advances - - - - 18 5 19 2 20 5 
 
 The several items of the account may be thus explained. 
 
 T. m. c. T. m. c. 
 
 Contract prices - - - - -20 50 1850 
 
 Cost of chests and packing - - -131 131 
 
 Interest at 18 per cent, for 10 months, on 400 
 
 peculs of tea, at 14 tales the pecul, or on 5600 
 
 tales 2 4 14 8* 
 
 Cost of transport and duties to Canton, the 
 
 pecul - - - - - 3 9 2 3 9 2 
 
 Interest 6 months on the above 1600 tales - 3 6 3 6 
 
 Tea-factors' profit - - - -060 060 
 
 Cost of tea previously to packing - -1191 10 83 
 
 20 5 18 5 
 
 * Interest at 12 per cent, for ten months, on 4200 tales, t. m. c. 
 
 advanced - - - - - -100 
 
 Interest at 18 per cent, for 8 months, on difference between 
 
 money advanced, and cost of tea, at 14 tales the pecul - 4 8 
 
 Tales 1 4 8 
 
1] 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 11 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 382 APPENDIX. 
 
 Further, I have a statement of the cost of 12 chops of 
 tea, varying in price from 10*2 to 14*4 tales, and furnishing 
 an average of 12'1 tales. The cost of chests is stated at 
 1*1 tales, together making the cost of tea packed, 13*2 
 tales the pecul. 
 
 T. m. c. 
 Mr. Pigou states, that the first gathering when brought to 
 
 Canton, commonly costs the Hong merchant 
 
 The second gathering . _ - _ 
 
 And the third gathering * - 
 
 In this account, I presume Mr. Pigou does not include 
 the cost of transports to Canton. I am disposed to think, 
 also, that the cost of chests is not included; and, moreover, 
 by first, second, and third gatherings, the merchant who 
 furnished the statements meant Congou teas of first, second, 
 and third qualities. These terms are not unfrequently so 
 used ; so explained the account does not differ essentially 
 from the statements herein given. 
 
 The inference, then, to be drawn from the preceding 
 statements is, that Congou tea, equal in quality to such 
 as the East India Company formerly received as contract 
 teas, cost on an average 12 tales the pecul in the tea 
 country previous to packing, or Id. the pound avoirdupois. 
 So there is no reason to suppose that the statements of 
 cost made at Java and in India are underrated. In fact, 
 they are too high. All new undertakings involve ex- 
 traordinary expenses, but if teas can be made in China 
 for 7 of. the pound, the greater cheapness of labour in India 
 ought to enable the Hindoo cultivator, when he has 
 become familiarised with the cultivation, and equals the 
 Chinese in skill, to furnish the same description of tea at 
 4:d. the pound. 
 
 * Oriental Repertory, vol. ii. p. 287. 
 THE END. 
 
 London: Spottiswoode and Shaw, New-street-Square. 
 
Fii?. 2 . 
 
 Fi^.] 
 
 r 
 
 ^^^^ 
 
 1 
 
 - x 
 
 1 
 
 
 ilaath of the 
 
 1 ' 
 
 
 
 Place for Wood , 
 
 f Sectiori 
 
 Fie 3, 
 
 TWAKKAY STOVE. 
 
 Fie 
 
 EDGE 05 STOVE . 
 A Brick used to dose the Mouth . 
 
 MOUTH or FIRE PLACE 
 
 \ I 
 
 n 
 
 Fig. 5. 
 
 I' 
 
 ^^ 
 
 V 
 
 ^ 
 
 HYSON STOVF. 
 
 ( Section 
 
 MRJACOBSONS MACHIME FOR THE PROCESS OF ■^MTHERI 
 A _ the end . 
 
 y y 
 
 ^P ^- - --.^ inches . 
 
DIRECTIONS TO THE BINDER. 
 
 Chinese gathering Tea-leaves - - Frontispiece. 
 View of a part of the " Inner Range " of the 
 
 Bohea Mountains _ _ _ To face page 43 
 
 Sections of Stoves - - - , At the end. 
 
39 Paterxostkr Eow, E.G. 
 LoxDOX, July 1865. 
 
 GENEEAL LIST OE WOKKS, 
 
 NEAV EOOKS AND NEAV EDITIONS, 
 
 PV BUSHED BY 
 
 Messrs. LOI&MANS, &REEI, EEAIER, and ITER. 
 
 Arts, Manufactures, &c 11 
 
 Astronomy, Meteorology, Popular 
 
 Geography, &e 7 
 
 Biography AND Memoirs 3 
 
 Chemistry, Medicine, Surgery', and 
 
 THE Allied Sciences 9 
 
 Commerce, Navigation, and Mercan- 
 tile Affairs 18 
 
 Criticism, Philology-, &c 4 
 
 Fine Arts and Illustrated Editions 10 
 
 Gener-\x and School Atlases 19 
 
 Historical Works 1 
 
 Index 21-24 
 
 Knowledge for the Young 20 
 
 Miscellaneous and Popular Meta- 
 
 PHY'siCAL Works ^ G 
 
 Natural History and Popular 
 
 Science 8 
 
 Periodical Publications 2o 
 
 Poetry and the Dra^fa 17 
 
 Religious Works 12 
 
 Rural Sports, &c 17 
 
 Travels, Voyages, &e lo 
 
 Works of Fiction 1 G 
 
 Works of Utility and General In- 
 formation 18 
 
 Historical Works. 
 
 The History of England from 
 
 the Fall of Wolsey to the Death of Eliza- 
 beth. By James Anthony Froude, M.A. 
 late Fellow of Exeter College, Oxford. 
 
 Vols. I. to IV. the Reign of Henry 
 VIII. Third Edition, 54s. 
 
 Vols. V. and VI. the Reigns of Edward 
 VI. and Mary. Second Edition, 28s. 
 
 VoT^. VII. and VIII. the Reign of 
 Elizabeth, Vols. I. and II. Third Edi- 
 tion, 28s. 
 
 The History of England from 
 
 the Accession of James II. By Lord 
 Macaulay. Three Editions, as follows. 
 
 Library Edition, 5 vols. 8vo. £1. 
 
 Cabinet Edition, 8 vols, post Svo. 48.s-. 
 
 People's Edition, 4 vols, crown Svo. IGs. 
 
 Kevolutions in English History. 
 By Robert Vaugiian, D.D. 3 vols. 8vo. 45s. 
 
 Vol. I. Revolutions of Race, 15s. 
 Vol. II. Revolutions in Religion, 15s. 
 Vol, III. Revolutions in Government, 15«. 
 
 An Essay on the History of the 
 
 English Government and Constitution, from 
 the Keign of Henry VII. to the Present 
 Time. By John Earl Russell. Third 
 Edition, revised, with New Introductioa. 
 Crown 8vo. (is. 
 
 The History of England during 
 
 the Reign of George the Third. By 
 William Massky', M.P. 4 vols. Svo. 48s. 
 
 The Constitutional History of 
 
 England, since the Accession of George III. 
 1700— 18G0. By Tho>l\s Erskink May, 
 C.B. Second Edition. 2 vols. Svo. 33s. 
 
 Historical Studies. I. On some of 
 
 the Precursors of the French Revolution; 
 II. Studies from the History of the Seven- 
 teenth Century; III. Leisure Hours of a 
 Tourist. By Herjlvn Merivale, M.A. 
 Svo. 12s. Qd. 
 
 Lectures on the History of Eng- 
 land. By William Longman. Vol. I. 
 from the Earliest Times to the Death of 
 King Edward II. with 6 Maps, a coloured 
 Plate, and 53 Woodcuts. Svo. 15s. 
 
NEW Vv^ORKS PUBLISHED BY LONGMANS and CO. 
 
 A Chronicle of England, from b.c. 
 
 55 to A.D. 1485 ; -wntleii and illustrated by 
 J. E. Doyle. With 81 Designs engraved 
 on Wood and printed in Colours by 
 E. Evans. 4to. 42s. 
 
 History of Civilization. By Henry 
 Thomas Buckle, 2 vols. £i 17s. 
 
 Vol. I. England ayid France, Fourth 
 Edition, 21s. 
 
 Vol. II, Spain and Scotland, Second 
 Edition, 16s, 
 
 Democracy in America. By Alexis 
 
 De Tocqueville. Translated b}^ Henry 
 Reeve, with an Introductory Notice by the 
 Translator, 2 vols, 8vo. 21s, 
 
 The Spanish Conquest in 
 
 America, and its Relation to the History of 
 Slavery and to the Government of Colonies. 
 By Arthur Helps, 4 vols, 8vo, £3. 
 Vols. I. & II. 28s. Vols. III. & IV. 16s. each. 
 
 History of the Reformation in 
 
 Europe in the Time of Calvin. By J. H. 
 Merle D'Aubigne, D.D. Vols. I. and 
 II. 8vo. 28s. and Vol. III. 12s. 
 
 Library History of France, in 
 
 5 vols. 8vo. By Eyre Evans Crowe, 
 Vol, I. 14s. Vol. II. 15s. Vol. HI. 18s. 
 Vol. IV. nearl}' ready. 
 
 Lectures on the History of 
 
 France. By the late Sir James Stephen, 
 LL.D. 2 vols, 8vo. 24s, 
 
 The History of Greece. By C, Thirl- 
 
 WALL, D.D. Lord Bishop of St. David's, 
 8 vols. 8vo. £3 ; or in 8 vols, fcp, 28s, 
 
 The Tale of the Great Persian 
 
 "War, from the Histories of Herodotus, By 
 George W, Cox, M,A, late Scholar of 
 Trin, Coll. Oxon, Fcp. 7s, 6d, 
 
 Ancient History of Egjrpt, As- 
 syria, and Babylonia. By the Author of 
 ♦Amy Herbert,' Fcp. 8vo. Qs. 
 
 Critical History of the Lan- 
 guage and Literature of Ancient Greece, 
 By William Mure, of Caldwell. 5 vols, 
 8vo. £3 Os. 
 
 History of the Literature of 
 
 Ancient Greece. By Professor K O, MIjller. 
 Translated by the Right Hon. Sir Geohge 
 Cop.NEWALL Lewis, Bart, and by J. W. 
 Donaldson, D.D. 3 vols. Svo. 3Gs. 
 
 History of the Romans ujider 
 
 the Empire. By Charles Merivale, B.D. 
 
 Chaplain to the Speaker. 
 
 Cabinet Edition, 8 vols, post Svo. 48s. 
 Library Edition, 7 vols. Svo. £5. lis. 
 
 The Fall of the Roman Re- 
 public : a Short History of the Last Cen- 
 tur}' of the Commonwealth. By the same 
 Author. 12mo. 7s, Gc?, 
 
 The Conversion of the Roman 
 
 Empire: the Bojde Lectures for the 3'ear 
 1864, delivered at the Chapel Royal, White- 
 hall, By the same, 2nd Edition, ^yo. 8s. 6rf. 
 
 Critical and Historical Essays 
 
 contributed to the Edinburgh Renew. By 
 the Right Hon. Lord Macaulay. 
 
 Library Edition, 3 vols. Svo. 86s. 
 
 Traveller's Edition, in 1 vol. 21s. 
 
 In Pocket Volumes, 3 vols. fcp. 21s. 
 
 People's Edition, 2 vols, crown Svo. 8s. 
 
 Historical and Philosophical 
 
 Essays. By Nassau W. Senior. 2 vols. 
 post Svo. 16s. 
 
 History of the Rise and Influence 
 
 of the Spirit of Rationalism in Europe. By 
 W, E. H. Lecky, M.A. Second Edition. 
 2 vols. Svo. 25s. 
 
 The Biographical History of 
 
 Philosophy, from its Origin in Greece to 
 the Present Day. B}' George Henry 
 Lewes. Revised and enlarged Edition. 
 Svo. 16s. 
 
 History of the Inductive Sciences. 
 
 By William Whewell, D.D. F.R.S, Master 
 of Trin. Coll. Cantab. Third Edition. 3 vols, 
 crown 8vo. 24s, 
 
 Egypt's Place in Universal His- 
 tory ; an Historical Investigation. By 
 C. C. J, BuNSEN, D,D. Translated by 
 C, H, CoTTRELL, M.A. With many Illus- 
 trations. 4 vols. Svo. £5 Ss. Vol. V. is 
 nearly ready, completing the work. 
 
 Maunder's Historical Treasury ; 
 
 comprising a General Introductory Outline 
 of Universal History, and a Series of Sepa- 
 rate Histories, Fcp. 10s. 
 
 Historical and Chronological En- 
 
 cj'clopaedia, presenting in a brief iind con- 
 venient form Chronological Notices of all 
 the Great Events of Universal History-. By 
 B. B. Woodward, F.S.A. Librarian to the 
 Queen. \_ln the press. 
 
NEW WORKS PUBLISHED BY LONGMANS and CO. 
 
 History of the Christian Church, 
 
 from the Ascension of Chrijst to the Cunver- 
 sion of Constantine. By E. Bukton, D.D. 
 kite Regius Prof, of Divinity in the Univer- 
 sity of Oxford. Eighth Edition. Fcp. 3s. (id. 
 
 Sketch of the History of the 
 
 Church of England to the Kevolution of 
 168^. By the Right Rev. T. V. Shout, D.D. 
 Lord Bishop of St. Asaph. Sixth. Edition. 
 Crown 8vo. 10s. Gd. 
 
 History of the Early Church, 
 
 from the First Preaching of the Gospel to 
 the Council of Niciea, a.d. 325. By the 
 Author of ' Amy Herbert.' Fcp. 4s. Qd. 
 
 The English Reformation. By 
 
 F. C. Massixgbekd, M.A. Chancellor of 
 Lincoln and Rector of South Ormsby. Third 
 Edition, revised and enlarged. Fcp. 6s. 
 
 History of Wesleyan Methodism. 
 
 By (iicoiJGic S.MirH, F.A.S. Fourth Edition, 
 with numerous Portraits. 3 vols, crov.u 
 8vo. 7s. each. 
 
 Villari's History of Savonarola 
 
 and of liis Times, translated from the Italian 
 by Leonard Hounku, F.R.S. with the co- 
 operation of the Author. 2 vols, post 8vo. 
 ■with Medallion, 18s. 
 
 Lectures on the History of Modern 
 
 Music, delivered at tiie Royal Instituticn. 
 By John Hullah, Professor of Vocal Music 
 in King's College and in Queen's College, 
 London. First Couusk, -with Chronolo- 
 gical Tables, post 8vo. Gs. Gd. Second 
 CouHSE, on the Transition Period, with 26 
 Specimens, 8vo. IGs. 
 
 Biography and Memoirs. 
 
 Letters and Life of Francis 
 
 Bacon, including all his Occasional Works. 
 Collected and edited, with a Commentary, 
 by J. Spedding, Trin. Coll. Cantab. Vols. 
 I. and II. 8vo. 24s. 
 
 Passages from the Life of a Phi- 
 losopher. By Charles Babbage, Esq. 
 M.A. F.R.S. &c. 8vo. 12s. 
 
 Life of Robert Stephenson, F.R.S. 
 
 By J. C. Jeaffreson, Barrister-at-Law, 
 and William Pole, F.R.S. Memb. Inst, 
 Civ. Eng. With 2 Portraits and 17 Illustra- 
 tions. 2 vols. 8vo. 32s. 
 
 Life of the Duke of Welling-ton. 
 
 By the Rev. G. R. Gleig, M.A. Popular 
 Edition, carefully revised ; with copious 
 Additions. Crown 8vo. with Portrait, bs. 
 
 Erialmont and Gleig's Life of the Duke 
 of Wellington. 4 vols. 8vo. with Illustra- 
 tions, £2 14s. 
 
 Life of the Duke of "Wellington, partly 
 from the French of M. Brialmonx, partly 
 from Original Documents. By the Rev. 
 G. R. Gleig, M.A. 8vo. with Portrait, 15s. 
 
 Historyof my Religious Opinions* 
 By J. H. Newman, D.D. Being the Sub- 
 stance of Apologia pro Vita Sua. Post 
 8vo. 6s. 
 
 Father Mathew : a Biography. 
 By John Francis Maguire, M.P. I'opular 
 Edition, Avith Portrait. Crown 8vo. 3s. <od. 
 
 Rome ; its Rollers and its Institutions. 
 By the same Author. New Edition in pre- 
 paration. 
 
 Memoirs, Miscellanies, and Let- 
 ters of the late Lucy Aikin ; includin.T; these 
 addressed to Dr. Channing from 1826 to 
 1842. Edited by P. II. Le Breton. Post 
 8vo. 8s. M. 
 
 Life of Amelia Wilhelmina Sieve - 
 
 king, from the German, Edited, with the 
 Author's sanction, by Catherine Wink- 
 AVORTH. Post 8vo. with Portrait, 12s. 
 
 Louis Spohr's Autobiography. 
 
 Translated from the German. 8vo. 14s. 
 
 Felix Mendelssohn's Letters from 
 
 Italy and Switzerland, and Letters from 1833 
 to 1847, translated by Lady Wallace. New 
 Edition, with Portrait. 2 vols, crown 8vo. 
 5s. each. 
 
 Diaries of a Lady of Quality, 
 
 from 17i)7 to 1844. Edited, with Xotes, by 
 A. Hayward, Q.C. Post Svo. 10s. Gd. 
 
 Recollections of the late "William 
 
 Wilberforce, M.P. for the County of York 
 during nearly 30 Years. By J. S. Harford, 
 F.R.S. Second i']dition. Post Svo. 7s. 
 
 Memoirs of Sir Henry Havelock, 
 
 K.C.B. By John Ci-aric Marshman. 
 Second Edition. Svo. with Portrait, 12s. CJ. 
 
 Thomas Moore's Memoirs, Jour- 
 nal, and Correspondence. Edited and 
 abridged from the First Edition by Earl 
 Russell. Square cro^vn Svo. with S Por- 
 traits, 12s. 6rf. 
 
NEW WORKS PUBLISHED BY LONGMANS and CO. 
 
 Memoir of tlie Rev. Sydney Smith. 
 
 By his Daughter, Lady Holland. With 
 a Selection from his Letters, edited by Mrs. 
 Austin. 2 vols. 8vo. 28*-. 
 
 Vicissitudes of Families. By Sir 
 
 Bernard Burke, Ulster King of Arms. 
 First, Second, and Third Series. 3 vols. 
 crown 8vo. 12a-. Gd. each. 
 
 Essays in Ecclesiastical Biogra- 
 phy. By the Right Hon. Sir J. Stephen, 
 LL.D. Fourth Edition. 8vo. 14s. 
 
 Biographical Sketches. By Nassau 
 W. Senior. Post 8vo. 10s. Gd. 
 
 Biographies of Distinguished Sci- 
 
 entilic Men. By Francois Arago. Trans- 
 lated by Admiral W. H. Smyth, F.R.S. the 
 Rev. B. Powell, M.A. and R. Grant, M.A 
 8vo. IBs. 
 
 Maunder's Biographical Trea- 
 sury : Memoirs, Sketchef, and Brief Notices 
 of above 12,000 Eminent Persons of AIL 
 Ages and Nations. Fcp. 8vo. 10s. 
 
 Criticism, Philosophy, Polity, cj'c?. 
 
 Papinian: a Dialogue on State Affairs 
 between a Constitutional Lawyer and a 
 Country Gentleman about to enter Public 
 Life. By GEonciE Aticinsok, B.A. Oxon. 
 Serjeant-at-Law. Post 8vo. os. 
 
 On Representative Government. 
 
 By John Stuart Mill, 'ihird Edition 
 
 8vo. 9s. crown 8vo. 2s. 
 On Liberty. By the same Author. Third, 
 
 Edition. Post 8vo. 7s. Gd, crown 8vo. 
 
 Is. Ad, 
 Principles of Political Economy. By the 
 
 same. Sixth Edition. 2 vols. 8vo. 30s. or 
 
 in 1 vol. crown 8vo. 5s. 
 A System of Logic, Patiocinative and 
 
 Inductive. By the same. Fifth Edition. 
 
 2 vols. 8vo. 25s. 
 Utilitarianism. By the same. 2dEdit. 8vo.5s. 
 Dissertations and Discussions. By the 
 
 same Author. 2 vols. 8vo. 24s. 
 Examination of Sir "W. Hamilton's 
 
 Philosophy, and of the Principal Philoso- 
 phical Questions discussed in his Writings. 
 
 By the same Author. 8vo. 14s. 
 
 Lord Bacon's Works, collected 
 
 and edited byR. L. Ellis, M.A. J. Spedding, 
 M.A. and D. D. HEATir. Vols. L to V. 
 Philosophical Works, 5 vols. 8vo. £4 6s. 
 Vols. VI. and VII. Literary and Profes- 
 sional Works, 2 vols. £1 16s. 
 
 Bacon's Essays, with Annotations. 
 
 By R. Whatkly, D.D. late Archbishop of 
 Dublin. Sixth Edition. 8vo. 10s. Q,d. 
 
 Elements of Logic. By R. Whately, 
 
 D.D. late Archbishop of Dublin. Ninth 
 Edition. 8vo. 10s. 6(/. crown 8vo. 4s. (Jd. 
 
 Elements of Blietoric. By tlic same 
 Author. Seventh Julition. 8vo. 10s. 6<i. 
 crown 8vo. 4s. 0(7. 
 
 English Synonymes. Edited by Arch- 
 bishop Whately. 5tli Edition. Fcp. 3s. 
 
 Miscellaneous Remains from the 
 
 Common-place Book of Richakd Whately, 
 D.D. late Archbishop of Dublin. Edited by 
 ]\iiss E. J. Whately. Post 8vo. 7s. Gd. 
 
 Essays on the Administrations of 
 
 Great Britain from 1783 to 1830. By the 
 Eight Hon.' Sir G. C. Lfavis, Bart. Edited 
 b}' the Right Hon. Sir E. Head, Bart. 8vo. 
 with Portrait, 15s. 
 
 By the same Author. 
 Best 
 
 A Dialogue on the 
 Government, 4s. Gd. 
 
 Form of 
 
 Essay on the Origin and Formation of 
 the Romance Languages, 7s. Gd. 
 
 Historical Survey of the Astronomy of 
 the Ancients, 15s. 
 
 Inquiry into the Credibility of the 
 Early Roman History, 2 vols. 30s. 
 
 On the Methods of Observation and 
 
 Reasoning in Politics, 2 vols. 28s. 
 
 Irish Disturbances and Irish Church 
 
 Question, Pis. 
 
 Remarks on the Use and Abuse of 
 some Political Terms, 9s. 
 
 On Foreign Jurisdiction and Extradi- 
 tion 6f Criminals, 2s. Gd. 
 
 The Fables of Babrius, Greek Text 
 with Latin Notes, Pap.t I. bs. Gd. PaktII. 
 3s. 0(7. 
 
 Suggestions for the Application of the 
 Egyptological Method to Modern History, Is. 
 
 An Outline of the ISTecessary 
 
 Laws of Thought : a Treatise on Pure and 
 Applied Logic. By the Most Rev. W. 
 Thomsox, D. D. Arciibishop of York. Crown 
 8vo. 5s Gd. 
 
NEW WORKS PUBUSHKD by LONGMANS and CO.; 
 
 The Elements of Logic. By Thomas 
 
 SiiEDDEN, M.A. of St. Peter's Coll. Cantab. 
 12mo. 4s. 6d 
 
 Analysis of Mr. Mill's System of 
 
 Logic. By VV. Stebuing, M.A. Fellow of 
 AVorcester College, Oxford. 12mo. 3s. 6rf. 
 
 The Election of Representatives, 
 
 Pailiameiitary and Municipal; a Treati.se. 
 By Thomas Haue, Barrister-at-Law. Third 
 Edition, -with Additions. Crown 8vo. Gs. 
 
 Speeches of the Right Hon. Lord 
 
 Macaulay, corrected by Himself. 8vo. 12s. 
 
 Lord Macaulay's Speeches on 
 
 Parliamentary lieform in 1831 and 1832. 
 IGmo. Is. 
 
 A Dictionary of the English 
 
 Language. By K. G. Latham, M.A. M.D. 
 F.R.S. Founded on the Dictionary of Dr. S. 
 JoHNsox, as edited by the Rev. H. J. Todd, 
 with numerous Emendations and Additions. 
 Publishing in 36 Parts, price 3s. 6(/. each, 
 to form 2 vols. 4to. 
 
 Thesaurus of English Words and 
 
 Phrases, classified and arranged so as to 
 facilitate the Expression of Ideas, and assist 
 in Literary Composition. By P. M. Roget, 
 M.D. 14th Edition, crown "Svo. 10s. Gd. 
 
 Lectures on the Science of Lan- 
 guage, delivered at the Royal In-stitution. 
 By Max Mijeler, M.A. Taylorian Professor 
 in the University cf Oxford. First Sekies, 
 Fourth Edition, 12s. Secoxd Sekies, 18s. 
 
 The Debater ; a Scries of Complete 
 Debates, Outlines of Debates, and Questions 
 for Discussion. By F. Roavton. Fcp. Gs. 
 
 Historical and Critical Commen- 
 tary on the Old 'iestament; with a New 
 Translation. By M. M. Kai.isch, Ph. D. 
 Vor.,. I. Genesis, Svo. 18.<!. or adapted for the 
 General Reader, 12s. Vol. H. Exodus, 15s. 
 or adapted for the General Reader, 12.v. 
 
 A Hebrew Grammar, with Exercises. 
 By the same. Part 1. Outlines ivit/i Exer- 
 cises, %\o. lis. Gd. Key, OS. Pakt IL .^.t- 
 ceptional luirnts and Constructions, 12s. Gd. 
 
 A Latin-English Dictionary. By 
 
 J. T. AVhiti:, M..\. of Corpus (Inisti Col- 
 lege, and J. Vj. Riddle, M.A. of St. Edmund 
 Hall, Oxford. Imp. 8vo. pp. 2,128, 42.v. 
 
 A TvTew Latin-English Dictionary, 
 abridged from the larger work of White and 
 Riddle (as above), by J. T. Whiti:, M.A. 
 Joint-Author. Medium Svo. pp. 1,0-18, 18s. 
 
 A Diam.ond Latin-English Dictionary, 
 
 or Guide to the Meaning, (Quality, and 
 Accentuation of Latin Classical Words. By 
 J. E. Riddle, M.A. 32mo. 2s. Gd. 
 
 An English- Greek Lexicon, con- 
 taining all the Greek Words used by Writers 
 of good authority. B}- C. D. Yonge, B.A. 
 Fifth Edition. 4to. 21s. 
 
 Mr. Yonge's New Lexicon, En- 
 glish and Greek, abridged from his larger 
 work (as above). Square 12mo. 8s. GJ. 
 
 A Greek-English Lexicon. Com- 
 piled by H. G LiDDELL, D.I). Dean of 
 Christ Church, and R. Scott, D.D. Master 
 of Balliol. Fifth Edition, crown 4to. Sis. Gd. 
 
 A Lexicon, Greek and English, 
 abridged fromLiDDELL and Scott's (Jrech- 
 English Lexicon. Eleventh Edition, square 
 12 mo. 7s. Gd. 
 
 A Course of English Reading, 
 
 adapted to ever}' taste and capacity ; or. 
 How and What to Read. By the Rev. J. 
 PvcuoiT, B.A. Fourth Edition, fcp. 5s. 
 
 Manual of English Literature, 
 
 Historical and Critical: ■with a Chapter on 
 English Metres. By Thomas Arnold, B.A. 
 Post 8vo. 10s. Gd. 
 
 Southey's Doctor, complete in One 
 
 Volume. Edited by the Rev. J.W. Wakter, 
 B.D. Square crown Svo. 12s. Gd, 
 
 A Practical Dictionary of the 
 
 French and English Languages. By L. 
 CoxTAKSEAU. 8th Edition, po:>t 8vo. lOs.Gd. 
 
 Contanseau's Pocket Dictionary, 
 French and English, abridged from tla* 
 above bv the Author. Xew Edition. ISmo. bs. 
 
 New Practical Dictionary of the 
 
 German Language ; Germai 
 English-German. By the Rev 
 TJr ir,..-Ti.-i'^ M.A., and ^- 
 
 bl.a.cklev, _ 
 Friedlander 
 
 German-English, and 
 the Rev. W. L. 
 Dr. Carl Maf{Ti.v 
 Post 8vo. [/« the press. 
 
NEW WORKS PUBLISHED BY LONGMANS and CO. 
 
 Miscellaneous Works and Poj)ular Metaphysics. 
 
 Recreations of a Country Parson : 
 
 being a Selection of the Contributions of 
 A. K. H. B. to Fraser's Blngazine. Second 
 Series. Crown 8vo. 3s. 6 J. 
 
 The Commonplace Philosoplier in 
 Town and Country. Bj the same Author. 
 Crown 8vo. 3s Gc?. 
 
 Leisure Hours in Town; Essays Consola- 
 tory, ^sthetical, Moral, Social, and Do- 
 mestic. By the same. Crown 8vo. 'ds. 6d. 
 
 The Autumn Holidays of a Country 
 Parson : Essays contributed to Fraser^ s Mag- 
 azine and to Good fFords, by the same. 
 Crown 8vo. 3s. Gd. 
 
 The Graver Thoughts of a Country 
 Parson, Second Seuies. By the same. 
 Crowu 8vo. 3s. 6d. 
 
 Critical Essays of a Coimtry Parson, 
 selected from Essays contributed to Fraser^s 
 3Iagazine, by the same. Post 8vo. 9s. 
 
 r 
 
 A Campaigner at Home. By Shir- 
 ley, Author of 'Thalatta' and 'Nugffl 
 Criticie.' Post 8vo. with Vignette, 7s, Q,d. 
 
 Friends in Council: a Series of 
 
 Readings and Discourses thereon. 2 vols. 
 fcp. 9s. 
 
 Friends in Council, Second Series. 
 2 vols, post 8vo. 14s. 
 
 Essays written in the Intervals of 
 Business. Fcp. 2s. 6d 
 
 Lord Macaulay's Miscellaneous 
 
 Writings. 
 Library Edition, 2 vols. 8vo. Portrait, 21s. 
 PEorLF/s Edition, 1 vol. crown 8vo. 4s. Gc?. 
 
 The Rev. Sydney Smith's Mis- 
 cellaneous Works ; including his Contribu- 
 tions to the Edinburgh Review. 
 
 Library Edition, 3 vols. 8vo. 36s. 
 
 Traveller's Edition, in 1 vol. 21s. 
 
 In Pocket Volumes, 3 vols. fcp. 21s. 
 
 People's Edition, 2 vols, crowu 8vo. 8s. 
 
 Elementary Sketches of Moral Philo- 
 sophy, delivered at the Royal Institution. 
 By the same Author. Fcp. 7s. 
 
 The "SSTit and Wisdom of the He v. 
 Sydney S.mith: a Selectioa of the most 
 memorable Passages in his Writings and 
 Conversation, 16mo. 7s. GJ. 
 
 The History of the Supernatural 
 
 in All Ages and Nations, and in Ail 
 Churches, Christian and Pagan; demon- 
 strating a Universal Faith. By William 
 Howitt. 2 vols, post 8vo. 18s. 
 
 The Superstitions of Witchcraft. 
 By Howard Williai^is, M.A. St. John's 
 Coll. Camb. Post 8vo. 7s. M. 
 
 Chapters on Mental Physiology. 
 
 By Sir Hejjky Holland, Bart. M.D. F.R.S. 
 
 Second Edition, Post 8vo. 8s. &d. 
 
 Essays selected from Contribu- 
 tions to the Edinburgh Review. By Henry 
 Rogers. Second Edition. 3 vols. fcp. 21s. 
 
 The Eclipse of Faith; or, a Visit to a 
 Religious Sceptic, ^y the same Author. 
 Tenth Edition. Fcp. bs. 
 
 Defence of the Eclipse of Faith, by its 
 Author ; a Rejoinder to Dr. Newman's 
 Reply. Third Edition. Fcp. 3s. 6c?. 
 
 Selections from the Correspondence 
 of R. E. H. (ireyson. By the same Author. 
 Third Edition. Crown 8vo. 7s. %d. 
 
 Fnlleriana, or the Wisdom and Wit of 
 Thomas FaLi-ER,with Essay on his Life and 
 Genius. By the same Author. 16mo. 2s. Qd. 
 
 The Secret of Hegel: being the 
 
 Hegelian S3'stem in Origin, Principle, Form, 
 and Matter. By James Hutchison Stir- 
 ling. 2 vols. 8vo. 28s. 
 
 An Introduction to Mental Phi- 
 losophy, on the Inductive Method. By 
 J. D. xMoRELL, M.A. LL.D. 8vo. 12s. 
 
 Elements of Psychology, containing the 
 Aualj'sis of the Intellectual Powers. By 
 the same Author. Post 8vo. 7s. 6</. 
 
 Sight and Touch: an Attempt to 
 
 Disprove the Received (or Berkeleian) 
 Theory of Vision. By Thomas K. Abbott, 
 M.A. Fellow and Tutor of Trin. Coll. Dublin. 
 8vo. with 21 Woodcuts, 5s. Q>d. 
 
 The Senses and the Intellect. 
 
 By Alexandkr Bain, M.A. Prof, of Logic 
 in the Univ. of Aberdeen. Second Edition. 
 8vo. 15s. 
 
 The Emotions and the 'Will, by the 
 same Author ; completing a Sj'steinatic 
 Exposition of the Huiuan Mind. 8vo. 15s. 
 
 On the Stxidy of Character, including 
 an Kstimate of Phrenology, iiy the same 
 Authoi\ 8vo. 9s. 
 
NEW WORKS PUBLISHED BY LONGMANS axd CO. 
 
 Time and Space: a 
 
 Essay. By Shadworth 
 
 8vo. pp 588, price 16a-. 
 
 Metaphysical 
 H. Hodgson. 
 
 Hours with the Mystics : a Contri- 
 bution to the History of Religious Opinion. 
 By Robert Alfred Vaitghan, B.A. Se- 
 cond Edition. 2 vols, crowa 8vo. 12^. 
 
 Psychological Inquiries. By the 
 
 late Sir Benj. C. Bkodie, Burt. 2 vols, or 
 Series, fep. 5s. each. 
 
 The Philosophy of Necessity; or, 
 
 Natural Law as applicable to Mental, Moral, 
 and Social Science. By Charles Bray. 
 Second Edition. 8vo. 9s. 
 
 Th.e Education of the Feelings and 
 Affections. By the same Author. Third 
 Edition. 8vo. 3s. Gd. 
 
 Christianity and Common Sense. 
 
 By Sir Willoughby Jone-s, Bart. M.A. 
 Trin. Coll. Cantab. 8vo. Gs. 
 
 Astronomy, Meteorology, Popular Geography, ^•c\ 
 
 Outlines of Astronom.y. By Sir 
 
 J. F. W. Herschel, Bart, M.A. Seventh 
 Edition, revised; with I'lates and Woodcuts. 
 8vo. 18s. 
 
 Arago's Popular Astronomy. 
 
 Translated bv Admiral W. H. Smyth, 
 F.K.S.and R. Grant, M.A. With 25 Plates 
 and 358 Woodcuts. 2 vols. 8vo. £2 5s. 
 
 Arago's Meteorological Essays, with 
 Introduction by Baron Humholdt. Trans- 
 lated under the superintendence of Major- 
 General E. Sabine, R.A. 8vo. 18s. 
 
 Saturn and its System. By Rich- 
 ard A. Proctor, B.A. late Scholar of St. 
 John's Coll. Camb. and King's Coll. London. 
 8vo. with 14 Plates, 14s. 
 
 The Weather-Book ; a Manual of 
 
 Practical Meteorology. Hy Rear-Admiral 
 Robert Fitz Rov, R.N.'f.R.S. Third 
 Edition, with 16 Diagrams. 8vo. 15s. 
 
 Sa,xby's Weather System, or Lunar 
 
 Litlueuce on Wear tier, by S. M. Saxby, 
 R..N. Instructor of Naval Engineers. Second 
 Edition. Post 8vo. 4s. 
 
 Dove's Law of Storms considered 
 
 in connexion with the ordinary Movements 
 of the Atmosphere. TransUited by K. H. 
 Scott, M.A. T.C.D. 8vo. 10s. Gd. 
 
 Celestial Objects for Common 
 
 Telescopes. By T. W. Webb, M.A. F.K.A.S. 
 "With ftlap of the Moon, and Woodcuts. 
 16mo. 7s. 
 
 Physical Geography for Schools 
 
 and General Readers. By M. F. Maury, 
 LL.D. Fcp, with 2 Charts, 2s. 6rf. 
 
 A Dictionary, Geographical, Sta- 
 tistical, and Historical, of the various Coun- 
 tries, Pbiccs, and principal Natural Objects 
 in the World. By J. R. M'Culloch. With 
 6 Maps. 2 vols. 8vo. G3s. 
 
 A General Dictionary of Geo- 
 graphy, Descriptive, Physical, Statistical, 
 and Historical ; forming a complete 
 Gazetteer of the World. By A. Keith 
 Johnston, F.R.S.E. 8vo. 31s. Gd, 
 
 A Manual of Geography, Physical, 
 
 Lniustrial, and Political. By W. Hughes, 
 F.R.G.S. Prof, of Geop;. in King's Coll. and in 
 Queen's Coll. Lond. With 6 Maps. Fcp. 7s. 6of. 
 
 Tlte Geography of British History ; a 
 Geographical Description of the British 
 Islinds at Successive Periods. By the same. 
 With 6 Maps. Fcp. Bs. Gd. 
 
 Abridged Text-Book of British Q-eo- 
 
 graphy. By the same. Fcp. Is. Gd. 
 
 The British Empire ; a Sketch of 
 
 the Geogra|)hy, Growth, Natural and Poli- 
 tical Features of the United Kingdom, its 
 Colonies .•nd Dependencies. By Caroline 
 Bray. With 5 Maps. Fcp. 7s. Gd. 
 
 Colonisation and Colonies : a Series 
 
 ofLectui-ps delivered before the University 
 of Oxford. By Herman Merivale, M.A. 
 Prcf. of Polit. Econ. 8vo. 18s. 
 
 Maunder's Treasury of Geogra- 
 
 phv, Pliysical, Historical, Descriptive, and 
 Politioah Edited by W. Hughes, F.R.G.S. 
 With 7 Maps and 16 Plate?. Fcp. 10s. 
 
NP:W works published by LONGMANS and CO. 
 
 Natural History and Popular Science. 
 
 The Elements of Physics or 
 
 Natural Philosophy. By Neil Aknott, 
 M.D. F.K.S. Physician Extniovdinary to 
 the Queen. Sixth Edition. Part I. 8yo. 
 10s. Gd 
 
 Heat Considered as a Mode of 
 
 Motion. By Professor John Tyndall, 
 F.R.S. LL.D. Second Edition. Crown 8yo. 
 with Woodcuts, 12s. Grf. 
 
 Volcanos, the Character of their 
 Phenomena, their Share in the Structure 
 and Composition of the Surface of the Globe, 
 &c. By G. PouLETT ScROPE, M.P. F.R.S. 
 Second Edition. 8vo. Avith Illustrations, 15s. 
 
 A Treatise on Electricity, in 
 
 Theory and Practice. By A. De la Rive, 
 Prof, in the Academy of Geneva. Trans- 
 lated by C. V. Walker, F.R.S. 3 vols. 
 8vo. with Woodcuts, £3 13s. 
 
 The Correlation of Physical 
 Forces. By W. B. Grove, Q.C. V.P.R.S. 
 Fourth Edition. 8vo. 7s. Gt/. 
 
 The Geological Magazine ; or, 
 
 Monthly Journal of Geology. Edited by 
 Henry Woodward, F.G.Srkz.S. British 
 Museum ; assisted by Professor J, Morris, 
 F.G.S. and R. Etiieridge, F.R.S.l':. F.G S. 
 8vo. price Is. monthly. 
 
 A Guide to Geology. By J. Phillips, 
 M.A. Prof, of Geol. in the Univ. of Oxford. 
 Fifth Edition ; with Plates and Diagrams. 
 Fcp. 4s. 
 
 A Glossary of Mineralogy. By 
 
 H. W. Bristoav, F.G.S. of the Geological 
 Survey of Great Britain. With 48G Figures. 
 Crown 8vo. 12s. 
 
 Phillips's Elementary Introduc- 
 tion to Mineralogy, with extensive Altera- 
 tions and Additions, by IL J. Brooke, 
 F.R.S. and W. H. IMiller, F.G.S. Post 
 8vo. with Woodcuts, 18s. 
 
 Van Der Hoeven's Handbook of 
 
 Zoology. Translated from the Second 
 Dutch Edition by the Rev. W. Clark, 
 M.D. F.R.S. 2 vols. 8vo. with 24 Plates of 
 Figures, 60s. 
 
 The Comparative Anatomy and 
 
 Physiology of the Vertebrate Animals. Bv 
 Richard Owen, F.R.S. D.C.L. 2 vols. 
 8vo. with upwards of 1,200 Woodcuts. 
 
 [/« the press. 
 
 Homes without Hands : an Account 
 
 of the Habitations constructed by various 
 Animals, classed according to their Princi- 
 ples of Construction. By Rev. J. G. Wood, 
 ]\I.A. F.L.S. Illustrations on Wood by G. 
 Pearson, from Drawings by F. W. Keyl 
 and E. A. Smith. In 20 Parts, Is. each. 
 
 Manual of Corals and Sea Jellies. 
 
 By J. R, Greene, B.A. Edited by the 
 Rev. J. A. Galbraith, M.A. and the Rev. 
 S. Haugiitox, M.D. Fcp. with 39 Wood- 
 cuts, OS. 
 
 Manual of Sponges and Animalculae ; 
 with a General Introduction on the Princi- 
 ples of Zoology. By the same Author and 
 Editors. Fcp. with 16 Woodcuts, 2s. 
 
 Manual of the Metalloids. By J. Apjohx, 
 M.D. F.R.S. and the same Editors. Fcp. 
 with 38 Woodcuts, 7s, 6tZ. 
 
 The Sea and its Living Wonders. 
 
 By Dr. G. Hartwig. Second (English) 
 Edition. 8vo. with man}' Illustrations, 18s. 
 
 The Tropical World. By the same 
 
 Author. With 8 Chromoxylographs and 
 172 Woodcuts. 8vo. 21s. 
 
 Sketches of the Natural History 
 
 of Ceylon. Bv Sir J. Emerson Tennent, 
 K.C.S. LL.D. ' With 82 Wood Engravings. 
 Post 8vo. 12s. Qd. 
 
 Ceylon. By tho same Autlior. 5tli Edition ; 
 with Maps, &c. and 90 Wood Engravings. 
 2 vols. 8vo. £2 10s. 
 
 A Familiar History of Birds. 
 
 By E. Stanlev, D.D. F.R.S. late Lord 
 Bishop of Norwich. Seventh Edition, with 
 Woodcuts. Fcp, 3s. Qd. 
 
 Marvels and Mysteries of In- 
 stinct; or. Curiosities of Animal Life. By 
 G. Garratt. Third Edition. Fcp. 7s. 
 
 Home Walks and Holiday Ram- 
 bles. By the Rev. C. A. Johns, B.A. F.L.S. 
 Fcp. with 10 Illustrations, 6s. 
 
2?EW WORKS PUBLISHED BY LONGMANS and CO. 
 
 Kirby and Spence's Introduction 
 
 to Entomology, or Elements of the Natural 
 Histor\' of Insects. Seventh Edition. Crown 
 8vo. 5s. 
 
 Maunder's Treasury of Natural 
 
 History, or Popular Dictionary of Zoology. 
 Revised and corrected by T. S. Coubold, 
 M.D. Fop. with 900 Woodcuts, 10s. 
 
 The Treasury of Botany, on the 
 
 Plan of M lunder's Treasury. Uy J. Lini>- 
 I.F.Y, M.D. and T. IMooRio, F.L.S. assisted 
 b}' other Practical Botanists. With IG 
 Plates, and many Woodcuts from designs 
 by W. H. Fitch. Fcp. [^lu the press. 
 
 The Rose Amateur's Guide. By 
 
 Thomas Rivers. 8th Edition. Fcp. 4s. . 
 The British Flora ; comprising the 
 
 Phisnogamous or Flowering Plants and the 
 I Ferns. By Sir W. J. Hookkk, K.II. and 
 G. A. Walker-Arnott, LL.D. 12mo. 
 ■with 12 Plates, 14s. or coloured, 21s. 
 
 Bryologia Britannica ; containing 
 
 the Mosses of Great Britain and Ireland, 
 arranged and described. By W. Wilson. 
 8vo. with Gl Plates, 42s. or coloured, £4 4s. 
 
 The Indoor Gardener. By Miss 
 
 Maling. Fcp. with Frontispiece, 5s. 
 
 Loudon's Encyclopsedia of Plants ; 
 
 comprising the Specific Character, Descrip- 
 tion. Culture, History', &c. of all tlie Plants 
 found in Great Britain. With upwards of 
 12,000 Woodcuts. 8vo. £3 13s. Grf. 
 
 Iioudon's Encyolopsedia of Trees and 
 Shrubs ; containing the Hardy Trees and 
 Shrubs of Great Britain scientilically and 
 popularly described. With 2,000 Woodcuts. 
 
 8vo. 50s. 
 
 Maunder' s Scientific and Lite- 
 rary' Treasury ; a Popular Encyclopaidia of 
 Science, Literature, and Art. Fcp. 10s. 
 
 A Dictionary of Science, Litera- 
 ture, and Art. Fourth Edition. Edited by 
 W. T. BuAXDE, D.C.L. and George W. 
 Cox, I\I.A., assisted by gentlemen of erai- 
 ueut Scientilic and Literary Acquirements. 
 In 12 Parts, each containing 240 pages, 
 price 5s. forming 3 vols, medium 8vo. price 
 21s. eacli. 
 
 Essays on Scientific and other 
 
 subjects, contributed to lieviews. By Sir II. 
 Holland, Bart. M.D. Second Edition. 
 8vo. 14s. 
 
 Essays from the Edinburgh and 
 
 Qnarierli/ Reviews ; witli Addresses and 
 other Pieces. By Sir J. F. W. Hekschel, 
 Bart. M.A. 8vo! 18s. 
 
 Chemistry, Medicine, Surgery, and the Allied Sciences. 
 
 A Dictionary of Chemistry and 
 
 the Allied Branches of other Sciences. By 
 Henry Watts, F.C.S. assisted by eminent 
 Contributors. 5 vols, medium 8vo. in 
 course of publication in Parts. Vol. I. 
 3s. M. Vol. II. 26s. and Vol. IIL 31s. Qd. 
 are now ready. 
 
 Handbook of Chemical Analysis, 
 
 adapted to the Unitary Svstem of Notation : 
 By F. T. CoxiNGTox, M.A. F.C.S. Post 
 ^vo. 7s. 6d. — Tables of Qualitative 
 Analysis adapted to the same, 2s. GfZ. 
 
 A Handbook of Volumetrical 
 
 Analysis, By Robert H. Scott, M.A. 
 T.C.i). Post 8vo. 4s. Gd 
 
 Elements of Chemistry, Theore- 
 tical and Practical. By William A. 
 Miller, M.D. LL.D. F.R.S. F.G.S. Pro- 
 
 fessor of Chemistry, King's College, London. 
 3 vols. 8vo. £2 13s. Part L Chemical 
 Physics, Third Edition, 12s. Part II. 
 Inorganic Chemistry^ 21.?. Part III. 
 Organic Chemistry, Second Edition, 20s. 
 
 A Manual of Chemistry, De- 
 scriptive and Theoretical. By William 
 Odling, M.B. F.R.S. Lecturer on Che- 
 mistry at St. Bartholomew's Hospital. Part 
 I. 8vo. 9s. 
 
 A Course of Practical Ctiemistry, for the 
 use of Medical Students. By the same 
 Author. Second Edition, with 70 new 
 Woodcuts. Crown 8vo. 7s. Grf. 
 
 The Diagnosis and Treatment of 
 
 the Diseases of Women; including the 
 Diagnosis of Pregnancy. ^y Gkau.v 
 Hewitt, JI.D. Physician to the British 
 Lying-in Hospital. 8vo. IGs. 
 
 Lectures on the Diseases of In- 
 fancy and Childhood. By Charles Wk.st, 
 M.D. &c. oth Edition, revised and Enlarged. 
 8vo. IGs. 
 
 Exposition of the Signs and 
 
 Symptoms of Pregnancy : with other Papers 
 on subjects connected with Midwifery. B}' 
 W. F. Montgomery, ALA. M.D. :m".R.I.A. 
 8vo. -Fith Illustrations, 25s. 
 
10 
 
 NEW WORKS PUBLISHED BY LONGMANS and CO. 
 
 A System of Surgery, Theoretical 
 
 and Practical, in Treatises by Various 
 Authors. Edited by T. Holmes, M.A. 
 Cantab. Assistant-Surgeon to St. George's 
 Hospital. 4 Tols. 8vo. £i 13s. 
 
 Vol. I. General Pathology, 21s. 
 
 Vol. II. Local Injuries : Gun-shot Wounds, 
 Injuries of the Head, Back, Face, Neck, 
 Chest, Abdomen, Pelvis, of the Upper and 
 Lower Extremities, and Diseases of the 
 Eye. 21s. 
 
 Vol. III. Operative Surgery. Diseases 
 of the Organs of Circulation, Locomotion, 
 &c. 21s. 
 
 Vol. IV. Diseases of tlie Organs of 
 Digestion, of the Genito-Urinary System, 
 and of the Breast, Thyroid Gland, and Skin ; 
 with Appendix and General Index. 30s. 
 
 Lectiu'es on the Principles and 
 
 Practice of Physic. By Thomas Watson, 
 M.D. Physician-Extraordinary to the 
 Queen. Fourth Edition. 2 vols. 8vo. 34s. 
 
 Lectures on Surgical Pathology. 
 
 By J. Paget, F.R.S. Surgeon-Extraordinary 
 to the Queen. Edited by W. Turner, M.B. 
 8vo. with 117 Woodcuts, 21s. 
 
 A Treatise on the Continued 
 
 Fevers of Great Britain. By C. iMurchison, 
 M.D. Senior Physician to the London Fever 
 Hospital. 8vo. with coloured Plates, 18s. 
 
 Anatomy, Descriptive and Sur- 
 gical. By Henry Gray, F.R.S. With 
 410 Wood Engravings from Dissections. 
 Third Edition, by T. Holmes, M.A. Cantab. 
 Royal 8vo. 28s. 
 
 The Cyclopgedia of Anatomy and 
 
 Physiology. Edited by the late R. B. Todd, 
 M.D. F.R.S. Assisted by nearly all the 
 most eminent cultivators of Physiological 
 Science of the present age. 5 vols. 8vo. 
 with 2,8.53 W^oodcuts, M Gs. 
 
 Physiological Anatomy and Phy- 
 siology of Man. By the late K. B. Todd, 
 M.D. F.R.S. and Vf. Bowman, F.R.S. of 
 
 King's College. With numerous Illustra- 
 tions. Vol. II. 8vo. 25s. 
 
 A Dictionary of Practical Medi- 
 cine. By J. Copland, M.D. F.R.S. 
 Abridged front the larger work by the 
 Author, assisted by J. C. Copland, M.R.C.S. 
 1 vol. 8vo. \_Li the press. 
 
 Dr. Copland's Dictionary of Practical 
 Medicine (the larger work), 3 vols. 8vo. 
 £5 lis. 
 
 The Works of Sir B. C. Brodie, 
 
 Bart, collected and arranged by Charles 
 Hawkins, F.R.C.S.E. 3 vols. 8vo. Avith 
 Medallion and Facsimile, 48s. 
 
 Autobiography of Sir B. C. Brodie, 
 
 Bart, printed from the Author's materials 
 left in MS. Fcp. 4s. 6cZ. 
 
 Medical Ifotes and Beflections. 
 
 By Sir H. Holland, Bart. M.D. Third 
 Edition. Svo. 18s. 
 
 A Manual of Materia Medica 
 
 and Therapeutics, abridged from Dr. 
 Pereira's Elements by F. J. Farre, M.D. 
 Cantab, assisted by R. Bentley, M.R.C.S. 
 and by R. Wakington, F.C.S. 1 vol. 
 8vo. \_In October. 
 
 Dr. Pereira's Elements of Materia 
 Medica and Therapeutics, Third Edition, by 
 A. S. Taylor, M.D. and G. 0. Rees, M.D. 
 3 vols. Svo. with Woodcuts, £3 los. 
 
 Thomson's Conspectus "of ihe 
 
 British Pharmacopoeia. Twenty-fouith 
 Edition, corrected and made conformable 
 throughout to the New Pharmacopoeia of 
 the General Council of IMedical Education. 
 By E. Lloyd Birkett, M.D. 18mo. bs. Gd. 
 
 Manual of the Domestic Practice 
 
 of ^ledicine. By W. B. Kesteven, 
 F.R.C.S.E. Second Edition, thoroughly 
 revised, with Additions. Fcp. 5s. 
 
 The Fine Aiis, and Ilhistrated Editions. 
 
 The "New Testament, illustrated with 
 
 Wood Engravings after the Early Masters, 
 chiefly of the Italian School. Crown 4to. 
 fiSs. cloth, gilt top; or £5 5s. elegantly 
 bound in morocco. 
 
 Lyra Germanica ; Hymns for"^ the 
 
 Sundci^'s and Chief Festivals of the Christian 
 Year. Translated by Catherinks Wixk- 
 avorth; 125 Illustrations on Wood drawD 
 by J. Leighton, F.S.A. Fcp. 4to. 21s. 
 
NEW WORKS PUBLISHED BY LONGMANS and CO. 
 
 11 
 
 Cats' and Farlie's Moral Em- 
 blems ; with Aphorisms, Adages, and Pro- 
 verbs of all Nations : comprising 121 
 Illustrations on Wood by J. Leighton, 
 F.S.A. with an appropriate Text by 
 E. PiGOT. Imperial 8vo, 3 Is. 6d. 
 
 Bunyan's Pilgrim's Progress : 
 
 with 126 Illustrations on Steel and Wood 
 by C. Bennett ; and a Preface by the Key. 
 C. KiNGSLEY. Fcp. 4to. 21s. 
 
 Shakspeare's Sentiments and 
 
 Similes printed iu Black and Gold and illu- 
 minated in the Missal style by Henry Noel 
 Humphreys. In massive covers, containing 
 the Medallion and Cj-phcr of Shakspeare. 
 Square post 8vo. 21s. 
 
 The History of Our Lord, as exem- 
 plified in Works of Art; with that of His 
 Types in the Old and New Testament. By 
 Mrs. Jameson and Lady Eastlake. Being 
 the concluding Series of * Sacred and 
 Legendary Art;' with 13 Etchings and 281 
 Woodcuts. 2 vols, square crown Svo. 42s. 
 
 1)1 the same Sei-ies, htj lilrs. Jameson. 
 Legends of the Saints and Martyrs, 
 Fourth Edition, with 19 Etchings and 187 
 Woodcuts. 2 vols. 31s. GJ. 
 
 Legends of the Monastic Orders. Third 
 Edition, with 11 Etchings and 88 Woodcuts. 
 1 vol. 21s. 
 
 Legends of the Madonna. Third Etiition. 
 with 27 Etchings and 1G5 Woodcuts. 
 1 vol. 21s. 
 
 Arts, Manufactures, (^r. 
 
 Encyclopaedia of Architecture, 
 
 Historical, Theoretical, and Practical. By j 
 
 Joseph Gwilt. With more than 1,000 j 
 Woodcuts. 8vo. 42s. 
 
 Tuscan Sculptors, their Lives, 
 
 Works, and Times. With 45 Etchings and 
 
 28 Woodcuts from Original Drawings and ' 
 
 Photographs. By Chari-es C. Perkins j 
 
 2 vols. imp. Svo. 63s, j 
 
 The Engineer's Handbook ; ex- I 
 
 plaining the Principles which should guide ! 
 
 the young Engineer in the Construction of \ 
 
 Machinery. By C.S.Lowndes. Post 8vo. 5s. j 
 
 The Elements of Mechanism. 
 
 By T. M. Goodeve, M.A. Prof, of Me- 
 chanics at the R M. Acad. Wool-wich, , 
 Second Edition, Avith 217 Woodcuts. Post j 
 8vo. 6s. 6d. i 
 
 Treatise on Mills and Millwork. 
 By W. FAiRr.AiRy, C.E. F.R.S. With 18 
 Plates and 322 Woodcuts. 2 vols. Svo. 32s. 
 
 Useftil Information for Engineers. l]y 
 the same Author. Fii:st and Second 
 Series, with many Plates and Woodcuts, 
 2 vols, crown Svo. 10s. 6d. each. 
 
 The Application of Cast and "Wrought 
 Iron to Building Purposes. By the janie 
 Author, Third Edition, with G Plates and 
 118 Woodcuts. Svo, IGs, 
 
 The Practical Mechanic's Jour- 
 nal : An Illustrated Record of Mechanical 
 and Engineering Science, and Epitome of 
 Patent Inventions. 4to, price Is. monthly. 
 
 The Practical Draughtsman's 
 
 Book of Industrial Design, By W. John- 
 son, Assoc. Inst. C.E. With many hundred 
 Illustrations. 4to, 28s. 6d. 
 
 Ure's Dictionary of Arts, Manu- 
 factures, and Mines. Re-written and en- 
 larged by Robert Hunt, F.R.S. , assisted 
 by numerous gentlemen eminent in Science 
 and the Arts, With 2,000 Woodcuts. 3 vols. 
 Svo. £4. 
 
 Encyclopeedia of Civil Engineer- 
 ing, Historical, Theoretical, and Practical. 
 By E. Cresy, C.E. With above 8,000 
 Woodcuts. Svo. 42s. 
 
 The Patentee's Manual : a Treatise 
 
 on the Law and Practice of Letters Patent 
 for the use of Patentees and Inventors. By 
 J. and J. H. Johnson. Post Svo. 7s. Gd. 
 
 The Artisan Club's Treatise on 
 
 the Steam Engine, in its various Applica- 
 tions to Mines, Mills, Steam Navigation, 
 Railways, and Agriculture. By J. Bourne, 
 C.E. Sixth Edition ; with 37 Plates and 
 546 Woodcuts. 4to. 42s. 
 
12 
 
 'NEW WORKS PUBLISHED BY LONGMANS and CO. 
 
 Catechism of the Steam Engine, 
 
 in its various Applications to Mines, Mills, 
 Steam Navigation, Railwa3-s, and Agricul- 
 ture. By J. Bourne. C.E. With 1 99 Wood- 
 cuts. Fcp.9s. The Intkoduction of Recent 
 Improvements' may be had separately, with 
 110 Woodcuts, price os. 6d. 
 
 Handbook of the Steam Engine, by the 
 same Author, forming a Key to the Cate- 
 chism of the Steam Engine, with 67 Wood- 
 cuts. Fcp. 9s. 
 
 The Theory of War Illustrated 
 
 b}- numerous Examples from History. By 
 Lieut.-Col. P. L. MacDougall. Third 
 Edition, with 10 Plans. Post 8vo. 10s. 6d. 
 
 Collieries and Colliers ; A Hand- 
 book of the Law and leading Cases relating 
 thereto. B}' J. C. Fowleu, Barrister-at- 
 Law, Stipendlar}- Magistrate. Fcp. 6s. 
 
 The Art of Perfumery ; the History 
 
 and Theory of Odours, and the Methods of 
 Extracting the Aromas of Plants. By 
 Dr. PiESSE, F.C.S. Third Edition, with 
 53 Woodcuts. Crown 8vo. 10s. Gd. 
 
 Cheniical, Natural, and Physical Magic, 
 for Juveniles during the Ilolidaj-s. B}' the 
 same Author. Third Edition, enlarged, 
 with 38 Woodcuts. Fcp. 6s. 
 
 The Laboratory of Chemical "Wonders : 
 A Scientific Melange for Young People. 
 B}^ the same. Crown 8vo. os. Gd. 
 
 Talpa ; or, the Chronicles of a CUiy 
 Farm. By C. W. Hoskyns, Esq. With 2i 
 Woodcuts from Designs b}' G. Cruik- 
 siiANK. 16mo. 5s. Gd. 
 
 H.R.H. the Prince Consort's 
 
 Farms ; an Agricultural Memoir. By John 
 Chalmers Morton. Dedicated by per- 
 mission to Her Majesty the Queen. With 
 40 Wood Engravings. 4to. 52s. Gd, 
 
 Loudon's Encyclopaedia of Agri- 
 culture : Comprising the Laying-out, Im- 
 provement, and Management of Landed 
 Propert}', and the Cultivation and Economy 
 of the Productions of Agriculture. With 
 1,100 Woodcuts. 8vo. 31s. Gd. 
 
 Loudon's Encyclopaedia of Gardening : 
 Comprising the Theory and Practice of 
 Horticulture, Floriculture, Arboriculture, 
 and Landscape Gardening. With 1,000 
 Woodcuts. 8vo. 31s. Gd. 
 
 Loudon's Encyclopaedia of Cottage, Farm, 
 and Villa Architecture and Furniture. With 
 more than 2,000 Woodcuts. 8vo. 42s. 
 
 History of Windsor Great Park 
 
 and Windsor Forest. B}' William Men- 
 zies, Resident Deput}' Surveyor. With 2 
 Maps and 20 Photographs. Imp. folio, £8 8s. 
 
 The Sanitary Management and Utili- 
 sation of Sewage : comprising Details of a 
 Sj'stem applicable to Cottages, Dwelling- 
 Houses, Public Buildings, and Towns ; Sug- 
 gestions relating to the Arterial Drainage 
 of the Country, and the Water Suppl}^ of 
 Rivers. By tlie same Author. Imp. 8vo. 
 with 9 Illustrations, 12s.6d. 
 
 Bayldon's Art of Valuing Rents 
 
 and Tillages, and Claims of Tenants upon 
 Quitting Farms, both at Michaelmas and 
 Lad^'-Day. Eighth Edition, revised by 
 J. C. Morton. 8vo. 10a-. Gd, 
 
 Religious and Moral Works, 
 
 An Exposition of the 39 Articles, 
 
 Historical and Doctrinal. By E. Harold 
 Browne, D.D. Lord Bishop oi'Ely. Sixth 
 Edition, 8vo. lOs. 
 
 The Pentateuch and the Elohistic 
 Psalms, in Reply to Bishop Colenso. By 
 the same. Second Edition. 8vo. 2s. 
 
 Examination Questions on Bishop 
 Browne's Exposition of the Articles, liy 
 the Rev. J. Gorle, M. A. Fcp. 3s. Gd. 
 
 Pive Lectures on the Character 
 
 of St. Paul ; being the Hulsean Lectures 
 for 1862. By the Rev. J. S. Howson, D.D. 
 Second Edition. 8vo. 9s. 
 
 The Life and Epistles of St. 
 
 Paul. By W. J. Conybeare, M.A. late 
 Fellow of Trin. Coll. Cantab, and J. S. 
 HowsoN, D.D. Principal of Liverpool Coll. 
 
 Library Edition, with all the Original 
 Illustrations, Maps, Landscapes on Steel, 
 Woodcuts, &c. 2 vols. 4to. 48s. 
 
 Intermedtate Edition, with a Selection 
 of Maps, Plates, and Woodcuts. 2 vols, 
 square crown 8vo. 31s. Gd. 
 
 People's Edition, revised and con- 
 densed, with 46 Illustrations and Maps. 
 2 vols, crown 8vo. 12s 
 
.NEW WOKKS ruBLisHi-D by LONGMANS and CO. 
 
 13 
 
 The Voyage and Shipwreck of 
 
 St. Paul ; with Dissertations on the Ships 
 and Navigation of the Ancients. By Jamhs 
 Smith, F.R.S. Crown 8vo. Charts, 8s. Gd. 
 
 A Critical and Grammatical Com- 
 mentary on St. Paul's Epistles. By C. J. 
 Ellicott, D.D. Lord Bishop of Gloucester 
 and Bristol. Svo, 
 
 Galatians, Third Edition, 8s. Gd. 
 
 Ephesians, Third Edition, 8s. Gd. 
 
 Pastoral Epistles, Third Edition, 10s. Gd. 
 
 Philippians, Colossians, and Philemon, 
 Third Edition, 10a-. Gd. 
 
 Thessalonians, Second Edition, 7^. Gd. 
 
 Historical Lectures on the Life of Our 
 Lord Jesus Christ: being the Halsean 
 Lectures for 1859. By the same Author. 
 Fourth Edition. 8vo. 10s. Gd. 
 
 The Destiny of the Creature ; and other 
 Sermons preached before the University of 
 Cambridge. By the same. Post Svo. 5s. 
 
 The Broad and the Narrow Way ; Two 
 Sermons preached before the University of 
 Cambridge. By the same. Crown Svo. 2s. 
 
 Rev. T. H. Home's Introduction 
 
 to the Critical Study and Knowledge of the 
 Holy Scriptures. Eleventh Edition, cor- 
 rected, and extended under careful Editorial 
 revision. With 4 Maps and 22 Woodcuts 
 and Facsimiles. 4 vols. Svo. £3 13s. Gd. 
 
 Rev. T. H. Home's Compendious In- 
 troduction to the Study of t!ie Bible, being 
 an Analysis of the larger work by the same 
 Author.* Re-edited by the liev. John 
 Ayre, M.A. With Maps, &c. Post Svo. 9s. 
 
 The Treasury of Bible Know- 
 ledge, on the plan of IMaunder's Treasuries. 
 By the Rev. Joiix Ayue, M.A. Ecp. Svo. 
 with Maps and Illustrations, [in the press. 
 
 The Greek Testament ; with Notes, 
 
 Grammatical and Exegetical. By the Rev. 
 W. NN'ebster, U.A. and the Rev. W. F. 
 Wirjvixsox, M.A. 2 vols. Svo. £2 4s. 
 
 Vol. I. the Gospels and Acts, 20s. 
 
 Vol. n. the Epistles and Apocalypse, 24s. 
 
 The Four Experiments in Church 
 
 and State ; and the Conflicts of Churches. 
 By Lord Robert Montagu, M.P. Svo. 12s. 
 
 Every-day Scriptxire Difficulties 
 
 explained and illustrated; Gospels of St. 
 INLitihew and St. Mark. By J. E. Prescott, 
 M.A. Svo. 9s. 
 
 The Pentateuch and Book of 
 
 Joshua Critically Examined. By the Right 
 Rev. J. W. CoLEN'.so, D.D. Lord Bishop of 
 Xatal. People's Edition, in 1 vol. crowu 
 Svo. Gs. or in 5 Parfs, Is. each. 
 
 The Pentateuch and Book of 
 
 Joshua Critically Examined. By Prof. A. 
 KuENEN', of Leyden. Translated from the 
 Dutch, and edited with Notes, by the Right 
 Rev. J. W. CoLENso, D.D. Bishop of Xatal. 
 Svo. 8s. Gd. 
 
 The Eormation of Christendom. 
 
 Part 1. By T. W. Aelixs. Svo. 12s. 
 
 Christendom's Divisions ; a Pliilo- 
 
 sophical Sketch of the Divisions of the 
 Christian Family in ICast and West. By 
 Edmund S. Ffoulkes, formerly Fellow and 
 Tutor of Jesus Coll. Oxford. Post 8vo. "s. Gd. 
 
 The Life of Christ, an Eclectic Go.«?- 
 
 pel, from the Old and New Testaments, 
 arranged on a Xew Principle, with .Analytical 
 Tables, S:c. By Charles Dk i.a Pi:y.me, 
 M.A. Trin. Coll. Camb. Revised Edition. 
 Svo. OS. 
 
 The Hidden Wisdom of Christ 
 
 and the Key of Knowledge; or. History t>f 
 the Apocrypha. By Ernest de Buns^kx. 
 2 vols. Svo. 28.S-. 
 
 Hippolytus and his Age ; or, the 
 
 Beginnings and Pro.spccts of Cliristianity. 
 By Baron Bunsen, D.D. 2 vols. Svo. oOs. 
 
 Outlines of the Philosophy of Uni- 
 versal History, applied to Language and 
 Religion: Containing an Account of the 
 Alphabetical Conferences. By the same 
 Author. 2 vols. Svo. 33s. 
 
 Analecta Ante-T^icaena. 
 Author, 3 vols. Svo. 42s. 
 
 Bv the same 
 
 Essays on Religion and Litera- 
 ture. Bv various ^\'ritt■rs. Edited by 
 11. E. M.\xxiNG, D.D. Svo. 10s. Gd. 
 
 Essays and Reviews. By the Rev. 
 
 W. Temi-le, D.D. the Rov. R. Wieu.v.ms, 
 B.D. the Rev. B. Poweet., M.A. the Rev. 
 H. B. WiT^ON, B.D. C. W. Goodwin, M.A. 
 the Rev. M. Pattison, B.D. and the Rev. 
 B.Jo\vett,M.A. 12th Edition, Fcp. Svo. 5s. 
 
 Mosheim's Ecclesiastical History. 
 
 ^luRDOCK and Soajies's Translation and 
 Notes, re-edited by the Rev. W. Stubbs, 
 M.A. 3 vols. Svo. 45s. 
 
14 
 
 NEW WORKS PUBLISHED BY LOXG^IANS and CO. 
 
 Bishop Jeremy Taylor's Entire 
 
 Works: With Life by Bishop Heber. 
 Kevised and corrected by the Rev. C. P. 
 Eden, 10 vols. £5 5s. 
 
 Passing Thoughts on Religion. 
 
 By the Author of ' Amy Herbert.' 8th Edi- 
 tion. Fcp. 5s. 
 
 Thoughts for the Holy "V^/''eek, for 
 Young Persons. By the same Author. 
 3d Edition. Fcp. 8vo. 2.9. 
 
 Night Lessons from Scripture. By the 
 same Author. 2d Edition. 32 mo. 3s. 
 
 Self-examination before Confirmation. 
 By the same Author. 32mo. Is. 6d. 
 
 Headings for a Month Preparatory to 
 Confirmation from Writers of the Karly and 
 English Church. By the same. Fcp. 4s. 
 
 Headings for Every Day in Lent, com- 
 piled from the Writings of Bishop Jeremy 
 TayloPv. By the same. Fcp. 5s. 
 
 Preparation for the Hoiy Communion ; 
 the Devotions chiefly from the works of 
 Jeremy Taylor. By the same. 82mo. 3s. 
 
 Morning Clouds. Second Edition. 
 Fcp. 5s. 
 
 Spring and Autumn. By the same Author. 
 Post 8vo. 6s. 
 
 The Wife's Manual ; or, Prayers, 
 
 Thoughts, and Songs on Several Occasions 
 of a Matron's Li|e. By the Rev. W. Cal- 
 vert, M.A. Crown 8vo. 10s. 6(7. 
 
 Spiritual Songs for the Sundays 
 
 and Holidays throughout the Year. By 
 J. S. B. Monsell, LL.D. Vicar of Eghani. 
 Fourth Edition. Fcp. 4.s. Qd. 
 
 The Beatitudes: Abasement before God: 
 SorroAV for Sin ; Meekness of Spirit ; Desire 
 for Holiness ; Gentleness ; Purity of Pleart ; 
 the Peace-makers ; Sufferings for Christ. 
 By the same. 2d Edition, fcp. 3s. 6d. 
 
 Hymnologia Christiana ; or, Psalms 
 
 and Hymns selected and arranged in the 
 order of the Christian Seasons. By B. H. 
 Kennedy, D.D. Prebendary of Lichfield. 
 Crown Svo. 7s. 6d. 
 
 Lyra Domestica ; Christian Songs for 
 Domestic Edification. Translated from the 
 Psaltery and Harp of C. J. P. Spitta, and 
 from other sources, by Richard Massie. 
 First and Second Series, fcp. 4s. Qd. each. 
 
 Lyra Sacra ; Hymns, Ancient and 
 Modern, Odes, and Fragments of Sacred 
 Poetry. Edited by the Rev B. W. Savile, 
 M,A. Fcp. 5s. 
 
 Ljrra Germanica, translated from the 
 
 Gt^rman by Miss C. Winkworth. First 
 Seriks, Hymns for the Sundays and Chief 
 Festivals ; Second Series, the Christian 
 Life. Fcp. OS. each Series. 
 Hymns from Lyra Germanica, 18mo. Is. 
 
 Historical K"otes to the *Lyra 
 
 Germanica : ' containing brief Memoirs of 
 the Authors of the Hymns, and Notices of 
 Remarkable Occasions on which some of 
 them have been used ; with Notices of other 
 German Hymn Writers. By Theodore 
 KUblePv. Fcp. 7s. 6d. 
 
 Lyra Eueharistica ; Hymns and 
 
 Vei'ses on the Holy Communion, Ancient 
 and Modern ; with other Poems. Edited by 
 the Rev. Okby Shipley, M.A. Second 
 Edition. Fcp. 7s. 6d. 
 
 Lyra Messianica ; Hymns and Verses on 
 the Life of Christ, Ancient and Modern ; 
 with other Poems. By the same Editor. 
 Fcp. 7s. 6d. 
 
 Lyra Mystica ; Hymns and Verses on Sacred 
 Subjects, Ancient and Modem. By the 
 same Editor. Fcp. 7s. Qd. 
 
 The Chorale Book for England ; 
 
 a complete Hjmm-Book in accordance with 
 the Services and Festivals of the Church of 
 England : the Hymns translated by Miss C. 
 WiNKWOKTH ; the Tunes arranged by Prof. 
 W. S. Bennett and Otto Goluschmidt. 
 Fcp. 4to. 12s. 6c?. 
 Congregational Edition. Pep. 2s. 
 
 The Catholic Doctrine of the 
 
 Atonement; an Historical Inquiry into its 
 Development in the Church : with an Intro- 
 duction on the Principle of Theological 
 Developments. By H. N. Oxknham, M.A. 
 formerly Scholar of Balliol College, Oxford. 
 8vo. 8s. ed. 
 
 From Sunday to Sunday; an attempt 
 
 to consider familiarly the Weekday Life 
 and Labours of a Country Clergyman. B^' 
 R. Gkk, M.A. Vicar of Abbott's Langley 
 and Rural Dean. Fcp. 5s. 
 
 First Sundays at Church; or. 
 
 Familiar Conversations on the Morning and 
 Evening Services of the Church of England. 
 By J. E Riddle, M.A. Fcp. 2s. 6rf. 
 
 The Judgment of Conscience, 
 
 and other 8ei inons. By Richaud Whately, 
 D.D. late Archbishop of Dublin. Crown 
 Svo. 4s. 6d. 
 
 Paley's Moral Philosophy, with 
 
 AiHiotations. P>y Richard Whatkly, D.D. 
 late Archbishop of Dublin. Svo. 7s. 
 
NEW WORKS PUBLISHED BY LONGMANS and CO. 
 
 15 
 
 Travels, Voyages, ^r. 
 
 Outline Sketches of the High 
 
 Alps of Dauphine. By T. G. Bonney, M.A. 
 F.G.S. M.A.C. Fellow of St. .John's Coll. 
 Canib. With 13 Plates and a Coloured Map. 
 Post 4to. 16s. 
 
 Ice Caves of France and Switzer- 
 land ; a narrative of Subterranean Explora- 
 tion. By the Rev. G. F. Buoavne, MA. 
 Fellow and Assistant-Tutor of St. Catherine's 
 Coll. Cambridge, M.A.C. With 11 Woodcuts. 
 Square crown 8vo. 12s. 6c/. 
 
 Village Life in Switzerland. By 
 Sophia D. Delmaud. Post 8vo. 9s. 6d. 
 
 How we Spent the Summer; or, 
 
 a Voj-age en Zigzag in Switzerland and 
 Tyrol with some Members of the Alpine 
 Club. From the Sketch-Book of one of the 
 Party. In oblong 4to. with about 300 Illus- 
 trations, 10s. Gd. 
 
 Map of the Chain of Mont Blanc, 
 
 from an actual Survey in 1863 — 1804. By 
 A. Adams-Reilly, F.R.G.S. M.A.C. Pub- 
 lished under the Authority of the Alpine 
 Club. In Chromolithography on extra stout 
 drawing-paper 28in. x 17in. price 10s. or 
 mounted on canvas in a folding case, 12s. Gd. 
 
 The Hunting Grounds of the Old 
 
 World ; First Sekies, Asia. By II. A. L. 
 the Old Shekarry. Third Edition, with 7 
 Illustrations. 8vo. 18s. 
 
 Camp and Cantonment ; a Journal 
 
 of Life in India in 1857 — 1859, with some 
 Account of the Way thither. By jSIrs. Leo- 
 pold Paget. To which is added a Short 
 Narrative of the Pursuit of the Rebels in 
 Central India by Major Paget, R.H.A. 
 Post 8vo. 10s. Gd. 
 
 Explorations in South - west 
 
 Africa, from Walvisch Bay to Lake Ngami 
 and the Victoria Falls. By Thomas Baines, 
 F.R.G.S. 8vo. with Maps and Illustra- 
 tions, 21s. 
 
 South American Sketches ; or, a 
 
 Visit to Rio Janeiro, the Organ Mountains, 
 La Plata, and the Parana. By Thomas W. 
 Hinchliff, M.A. F.R.G.S. Post Svo. with 
 Illustrations, 12s. Gd. 
 
 Vancouver Island and British 
 
 Columbia ; their History, Resources, and 
 Prospects. By Matthew Macfie, F.R.G.S. 
 With Maps and Illustrations. 8vo. 18s. 
 
 History of Discovery in our 
 
 Australasian Colonies, Australia, Tasmania, 
 and New Zealand, from the Earliest Date to 
 the Present Day. By William IIowitt. 
 With 3 IMaps of the Recent Explorations 
 from Official Sources. 2 vols. Svo. 28s. 
 
 The Capital of the Tycoon ; a 
 
 Narrative of a 3 Years' Residence in Japan. 
 By Sir Rutheuford Alcock, K.C.B. 
 2 vols. Svo. with numerous Illustrations, 42s. 
 
 Last Winter in Rome. By C. R. 
 
 Weld. With Portrait and Engravings on 
 Wood. Post Svo. 14s. 
 
 Autumn Rambles in North 
 
 Africa. By John Ormsby, of the Middle 
 Temple. With 16 Illustrations. Post Svo. 
 8s. Gd. 
 
 The Dolomite Mountains. Excur- 
 sions through Tyrol, Carinthia, Carniola,and 
 Friuli in 1861, 1862, and 1863. By J. 
 Gilbert and G. C. Churchill, F.R.G.S. 
 With numerous Illustrations. Square crown 
 Svo. 21s. 
 
 A Summer Tour in the G-risons 
 
 and Italian Valleys of the Bernina. By 
 I^Irs. Hen'ry Freshfield. With 2 Coloured 
 Maps and 4 Views. Post Svo. 10s. Gd. 
 
 Alpine Bjrways ; or, Light Loaves gathered 
 in 1859 and 1860. By the same Authoress. 
 Post Svo. with Illustrations, 10s. Gd. 
 
 A Lady's Tour Round Monte Rosa; 
 
 including Vi.sits to the Italian Valleys. 
 With Map and Illustrations. Post Svo. 14s. 
 
 Guide to the Pyrenees, for the use 
 
 of ^Mountaineers. By Charles Packe. 
 With Maps, &c. and Appendix. Fcp. 6s. 
 
 The Alpine Guide. By John Ball, 
 M.R.I.A. late President of the Alpine Club. 
 Post Svo. with Maps and other Illustrations. 
 
 Giiide to the "Western Alps, including 
 Mont Blanc, Monte Rosa, Zerraatt, &c. 
 7s. 6c?. 
 
 Guide to the Oberland and all Switzer- 
 land, excepting the Neighbourhood of 
 I\Ionte Rosa and the Great St. Bernard; 
 with Lombardy and the adjoining portion 
 of Tvrol. 7s. Gd. 
 
16 
 
 NEW WORKS PUBLISHED BY LONGMANS and CO. 
 
 Christopher Columbus ; his Life, 
 Voyages, and Discoveries. Kevised Edition, 
 •Nvith 4 Woodcuts. 18mo. 2s. 6d. 
 
 Captain James Cook; his Life, 
 
 Voyages, and Discoveries. Kevised Edition, 
 with numerous Woodcuts. 18mo. 2.'?. 6d. 
 
 Narratives of Shipwrecks of the 
 
 Royal Ndvy between 1793 and 1857, com- 
 piled from Official Documents in the Ad- 
 miraltv bA' W. O. S. Gilly; with a Preface 
 by W.'S.VxirxY, D.D. 3rd Edition, fcp. 5s. 
 
 A Week at the Land's End. 
 
 By J. T. Blight ; assisted by E. H. Rood, 
 R. Q. Couch, and J. Ralfs. With Map 
 and 9G Woodcuts. Fcp. Gs. Gd. 
 
 Visits to Remarkable Places : 
 
 Old Halls, Battle-Fields, and Scenes illus- 
 trative of Striking Passages in English 
 History and Poetrj'. By William Howitt. 
 2 vols, square crown 8vo. with Wood En- 
 gravings, 2os. 
 
 The Rural Life of England. 
 
 By the same Author. With Woodcuts by 
 Bewick and Williams. Medium 8vo. 12s. 6d, 
 
 Works of Fiction. 
 
 Late Laurels : a Talc. By the Author 
 of ' Wheat and Tares.' 2 vols, post 8vo. ,15s. 
 
 A First Friendship. [Reprinted from 
 Frastr^s 3Iagazhte.'] Crown 8vo. 7s. Gd. 
 
 Atherstone Priory. By L. N. Comyn. 
 2 vols, post 8vo. 21s. 
 
 Ellice : a Talc. By the same. Post 8vo. 95. 6d. 
 
 Stories and Tales by the Author 
 
 of ' Amy Herbert,' uniform Edition, each 
 Tale or Story complete in a single volume. 
 
 AaiY Herbert, 2s. 66?. I Katharine Ashtok, 
 Gertrude, 2s. Gd. 3s. Gd. 
 
 Earl's Daughter, Margaret Perci- 
 2s. Gd. j VAL, 5s. 
 
 Exi'ERIEXCE OF LiFE, i LaNETON PARSON- 
 
 2s. Gd. I AGE, 4s. 6c?. 
 
 Cleve Hall, Ss. Gd. I Ursula, 4s. Gd. 
 Ivors, 3s. Gd. \ 
 
 A. Glimpse of th.e World. By the Author 
 of ' Amy Herbert.' Fcp. 7s. Gd. 
 
 Essays on Fiction, reprinted chiefly 
 from Keviews, with Additions. By Nassau 
 W. Senior. Post 8vo. 10s. Gd. 
 
 Elihu Jan's Story; or, the Private 
 Life of an Eastern Queen. By Willi Am 
 Knighton, LL.D. Assistant-Commissioner 
 in Oudh. Post 8vo. 7s. Gd. 
 
 The Six Sisters of the Valleys: 
 
 an Historical Romance. By W. Bramley- 
 Moore, M.A. Incumbent of Gerrard's Cross, 
 Bucks. Third Edition, with 14 Illustrations. 
 Crown 8vo. 5s. 
 
 T he Gladiators : a Tale of Rome and 
 Judiea. By G. J. Whyte INIelville. 
 Crown 8vo. 5s. 
 
 Digby Grand, an Autobiography. By the 
 same Author. 1 vol. 5s. 
 
 Kate Coventry, an Autobio^i-aphy, By the 
 same. 1 vol. os. 
 
 General Bounce, or the Lady and the Lo- 
 custs. By the same. 1 vol. 5s. 
 
 Holmby Honse, a Talc of Old Northampton- 
 shire. 1 vol. OS. 
 
 Good for Nothing, or All Down Hill. By 
 the same. 1 vol. Os. 
 
 The Queen's Maries, a E-omancc of Holy- 
 rood. 1 vol. 6s. 
 
 The Interpreter, a Tale of the War. By 
 the same. 1 vol. 5s. 
 
 Tales from Greek Mythology. 
 By George W. Cox, M.A. late Scholar 
 of Trin. Coll. Oxon. Second Edition. Square 
 16 mo. 3s. Gd. 
 
 Tales of the Gods and Heroes. By the 
 same Author. Second Edition. Fcp. os. 
 
 Tales of Thebes and Argos. By the same 
 Author. Fcp. 4s. Gd. 
 
 The Warden : a Novel. By Anthony 
 Teollope, Crown 8vo. 3s. Gd. 
 
 Barchester Towers : a Sequel to 'The 
 Warden.' By the same Author. Crown 
 
 8vo. 5s. 
 
NEW WORKS ruRLisiiED by LONGMANS and CO. 
 
 17 
 
 Poetry and the Drama, 
 
 Select Works of the British Poets ; 
 
 with Biographical and Critical Prefaces by 
 Dr. AiKiN : with Supplement, of more 
 recent Selections, by LucyAikix. Medium 
 8vo. 18s. 
 
 Goethe's Second Faust. Translated 
 
 by John Axster, LL.D. M.R.I. A. Regius 
 Professor of Civil Law in the University of 
 Dublin. Post Svo. 15s. 
 
 Tasso's Jerusalem Delivered, 
 
 translated into English Verse by Sir J. 
 Kingston .James, Kt. M.A. 2 vols, fcp, 
 with Facsimile, 14s. 
 
 Poetical Works of John Edmund 
 
 Reade ; with final Revision and Additions. 
 3 vols. fcp. 18s. or each vol. separately, 6s. 
 
 Moore's Poetical Works, Clieapest 
 
 Editions complete in 1 vol. including the 
 Autobiographical Prefaces and Author's last 
 Notes, Avhich are still copyright. Crown 
 8vo. ruby type, Avith Portrait, 7s. 6d. or 
 People's Edition, in larger type, 12s. <jcl. 
 
 Moore's Poetical "Works, as above, Library 
 Edition, medium Svo. Avith Portrait and 
 Vignette, 14s. or in 10 vols. fcp. 3s. 6d. each 
 
 Tenniel's Edition of Moore's 
 
 Lalla Ronhh, with G8 Wood Engravings 
 from Original Drawings and other Illustra- 
 tions. Fcp. 4to. 21s. 
 
 Moore's Lialla Rookh. 32mo. Plate, 1^. 
 16mo. Vignette, 2s. 6c?. 
 
 Maclise's Edition of Moore's Irish 
 
 3Id()dies,\\\t\\ IGl Steel Plates from Uiiginal 
 Drawings. Super-royal Svo. 31s. GJ. 
 
 Moore's Irish Melodies, 32mo. Portrait, 
 Is. IGmo. Vignette, 2s. Cx/. 
 
 Southey's Poetical Works, v.ith 
 
 tho Author's last Corrections and coj>yriglit 
 Additions. Library Edition, in 1 vol. 
 medium Svo. with Portrait and Vi-nette, 
 14s. or in JO vols. fop. 3s. Gt/. each. 
 
 Lays of Ancient Rome ; with A/v/ 
 
 and the Armada. By the Right Hon. Loj:i) 
 jMacaulay. IGmo. As. Cd. 
 
 Lord Macaiilay's Lays of / ncient 
 Rome. With 00 Illustrations on Wood, 
 Original and from the Antique, fvom 
 Drawings by G. ScriAPa-'. Fcp. 4to. 21s. 
 
 Poems. By Jean Ingelow. Ninth Edi. 
 tion. Fcp. Svo. 5s. 
 
 Poetical Works of Letitia Eliza- 
 beth Landon (L.E.L.) 2 vols. IGmo. 10s. 
 
 Playtime with the Poets : a Sclec- 
 
 tion of the best English Poetry for the use 
 of Children. By a Lady'. Crown Svo. os. 
 
 Bowdler's Family Shakspeare, 
 
 cheaper Genuine Edition, complete in 1 vol. 
 large type, with 36 Woodcut Illustrations, 
 price 14s. or, with the same Illlsthations, 
 in G pocket vols. 3s. Gd. each. 
 
 Arundines Cami, sivc :\rusnrum Can- 
 
 tabrigiensium Lusus Canori. Collegit atque 
 edidit II. Diiuky. M.A. Editio Sexta, cu- 
 ravit II. J. Hodgson, M.A. Crown Svo. 
 7s. Gd. 
 
 Itural Sports, (j'c. 
 
 Encyclopaedia of Rui'al Sports ; 
 
 a Complete Account, Historical, Practical, 
 and Descriptive, of Hunting, Shooting, 
 Fishing, Racing, &c. By D. P. Blaine. 
 "With above GOO Woodcuts (20 from Designs 
 by John Leech). Svo. 42s. 
 
 Notes on Rifle Shooting. By Cap- 
 
 tain Hk.\ton, Adjutant of the Third Man- 
 chester Rifle Volunteer Corps. Fcp. 2s. Gd. 
 
 Col. Hawker's Instructions to 
 
 Young Sportsmen in all that relates to Gun^ 
 and Shooting. Revised by the Author's Son. 
 Square crown Svo. with Illustrations, ISs. 
 
 The Dead Shot,or Sportsman's Complete 
 Guide ; a Treatise on the Use of the Gun, 
 Dog-breaking, Pigeon-shooting, &c. B\ 
 Marks]>l\n. Fcp. Svo. with Plates, 5s. 
 
IS 
 
 NEW WORKS PUBLISHED BY LONGMANS and CO. 
 
 Tlie Fly - Fisher's Entomology. 
 
 Ry A1.FRED Ronalds. With coloured 
 Representations of tiie Natural and Artifi- 
 cial Insect. 6th Edition ; with 20 coloured 
 Plates. 8vo. 14s. 
 
 Hand-book of Angling : Teaching 
 
 Fly-fishing, Trolling, Bottom- fishing, Sal- 
 mon-fishing; with the Natural Historj^ of 
 River Fish, and the best modes of Catching 
 them. By Ephemera. Fcp. Woodcuts, 5s. 
 
 The Cricket Field ; or, the History 
 and the Science of the Game of Cricket. By 
 Jaimes Pyckoft, B.A. Trin. Coll. Oxon. 
 4th Edition, Fcp. 5s. 
 
 Tlie Cricket Tutor ; a Treatise exclusively 
 Practical. By the same. ISmo. Is. 
 
 Cricketana. By the same Author. 
 Portraits of Cricketers. Fcp. 5s. 
 
 With 7 
 
 The Horse : with a Treatise on Draught. 
 By Willia^m Youatt. New Edition, re- 
 vised and enlarged. 8vo. with numerous 
 Woodcuts, 10s. 6d. 
 
 Tlie Dog. By the same Author, 
 numerous Woodcuts, 6s. 
 
 8vo. with 
 
 The Horse's Foot, and how to keep 
 
 it Sound. By W. Miles, Esq. 9th Edition, 
 with Illustrations. Imp, 8vo. 12s. Gd. 
 
 A Plain Treatise on Horse-shoeing. By 
 the same Author. Post 8vo. with Illustra- 
 tions, 2s. Gd. 
 
 Stables and Stable Fittings. By the same. 
 Imp. 8vo. with 13 Plates, 15s. 
 
 Remarks on Horses' Teeth, addressed to 
 Purchasers. By the same. Post Svo. Is. Qd. 
 
 On Drill and Manoeuvres of 
 
 Cavahy, comhined with Horse Artillerj'. 
 By Major- Gen. Michael W. Smith, C.B. 
 Commanding the Poonah Division of the 
 Bombay Armj-. Svo. 12s. Qd. 
 
 The Dog in Health and Disease. 
 
 By Stonehenge. With 70 Wood En- 
 gravings. Square crown Svo. 15s. 
 
 The Greyhound in 1864. By the same 
 Author, With 24 Portraits of Greyhounds. 
 Square crown Svo. 21s. 
 
 The OXj his Diseases and their Treat- 
 ment ; with an Essav on Parturition in the 
 Cow. By J. R. DoBSOJf, M.R.C.V.S. Crown 
 Svo. with Illustrations, 7s. Gd. 
 
 Commerce^ Navigation^ and Mercantile Affaii's. 
 
 The Law of Nations Considered 
 
 as Independent Political Communities. B}'' 
 Travers Twiss, D.C.L. Regius Professor 
 of Civil Law in the University of Oxford. 
 2 vols. Svo. 30s. or separately, Part I. Peace, 
 12s. Part II. JFar, 18s. 
 
 A Nautical Dictionary, defining 
 
 the Technical Language relative to the 
 Building and Equipment of Sailing Vessels 
 and Steamers, &c. Bj' Arthur Young. 
 Second Edition ; with Plates and 150 Wood- 
 cuts. Svo. 18s, 
 
 A Dictionary, Practical, Theo- 
 retical, and Historical, of Commerce and 
 Commercial Navigation. By J. R, M'CuL- 
 LOCH. Svo. with Maps and Plans, 50s. 
 
 The Study of Steam and the 
 
 Marine Engine, for Young Sea Officers. B}-- 
 S. M. Saxby, R.N. Post Svo. with 87 
 Diagrams, 5s. Gd. 
 
 A Manual for Naval Cadets. By 
 
 J. M'Neil Boyd, late Captain R.N, Third 
 Edition ; with 240 Woodcuts, and 11 coloured 
 Plates. Post Svo, 12s. 6d. 
 
 WorJcs of Uiility and General Information, 
 
 Modern Cookery for Private 
 
 Families, reduced to a System of Eas}' 
 Practice in a Series of carefully-tested 
 Receipts. By Eliza Acton. Newly re- 
 vised and enlarged ; with 8 Plates, Figures, 
 and 150 Woodcuts. Fcp. 7s. Gd. 
 
 The Handbook of Dining ; or. Cor- 
 pulency and Leanness scientitically con- 
 sidered. By Brillat-Savarin, Author of 
 ' Pliysiologie du Gout.' Translated by 
 L. F. SiMPSOX. Revised Edition, with 
 Additions. Fcp. 3s. Gd, 
 
NEW WORKS PUBLISHED by LOXGMANS axd CO. 
 
 lO' 
 
 On Food and its Digestion ; an 
 
 Introduction to Dietetics. By W. Brintox, 
 M.D. Physician to St. Thomas's Hospital, 
 &c. With 48 Woodcuts. Post 8vo. 123. 
 
 Wine, the Vine, and the Cellar. 
 
 By TH03IAS G. Shaw. Second Edition, 
 revised and enlarged, -\vitli Frontispiece and 
 31 Illustrations on Wood. 8yo. IGs. 
 
 A Practical Treatise on Brewing ; 
 
 ■with Forraulse for Public Brewers, and In- 
 structions for Private Families. By W. 
 Black. 8vo. 10s. Gd. 
 
 Short Whist. By ]\Tajor A. The 
 Sixteenth Eilition, revised, with an Essay 
 on the Theory of the Modern Scientilic 
 Game by Pkof. P. Fcp. 8s. Qd. 
 
 Whist, What to Lead. By Cam. 
 Second Edition. 32mo. Is. 
 
 Hints on Etiquette and the 
 
 Usages of Society ; with a Glance at Bad 
 Habits. Revised, with Additions, by a Lady 
 of RA^'K. Fcp. 2s. Gd. 
 
 The Cabinet Lawyer ; a Popular 
 
 Digest of the Laws of England, Civil and 
 Criminal. 20 th Edition, extended by the 
 Author ; including the Acts of the Sessions 
 1863 and 1864. Fcp. 10s. 6d. 
 
 The Philosophy of Health ; or, an 
 
 Exposition of the Physiological and Sanitary 
 Conditions conducive to Human Longevity 
 and Happiness. By Southwood Smith, 
 M.D. Eleventh Edition, revised and en- 
 larged; with 113 Woodcuts. 8vo. 15s. 
 
 Hints to Mothers on the Manage- 
 ment of their Health during the Period of 
 Pregnancy and in the Lying-in Room. By 
 T. Bull, M.D. Fcp. 5s. 
 
 The Maternal Management of Children 
 in Health and Disease. By the same 
 Author. Fcp. os. 
 
 Notes on Hospitals. By Florence 
 
 KiGHTiNGALE. Third Edition, enlarged; 
 with 13 Plans. Post 4to. 18s. 
 
 C. M. Willich's Popular Tables 
 
 for Ascertaining the Value of Lifehold, 
 Leasehold, and Church Property, Renewal 
 Fines, &c. ; the Public Funds ; Annual 
 Average Price and Interest on Consols from 
 1731 to 1861 ; Chemical, Geographical, 
 Astronomical, Trigonometrical Tables, &c. 
 Post 8vo. 10s. 
 
 Thomson's Tables of Interest, 
 
 at Three, Four, Four and a Half, and Five 
 per Cent., from One Pound to Ten Thousand 
 and from 1 to 365 Days. 12mo. 3s. Gd. 
 
 Maunder's Treasury of Know- 
 ledge and Library of Reference : comprising 
 an English Dictionary and Grammar, Uni- 
 versal Gazetteer, Classical Dictionary, Chro- 
 nolog}'. Law Dictionary, Synopsis of the 
 Peerage, useful Tables, &c. Fcp. 10s. 
 
 General and School Atlases. 
 
 An Atlas of History and Geo- 
 graphy, representing the Political State of 
 the World at successive Epochs from the 
 commcncementof the Christian Era to the 
 Present Time, in a Series of 16 coloured 
 Maps. By J. S. Brewer, M.A. Third 
 Edition, revised, &c. by E. C. Brewer, 
 LL.D. Royal 8vo. 15s. 
 
 Bishop Butler's Atlas of Modern 
 
 Geography, in a Series of 33 full -coloured 
 Maps, accompanied by a complete Alpha- 
 betical Index. Xew Edition, corrected and 
 enlarged. Royal 8vo. 10s. Gd. 
 
 Bishop Butler's Atlas of Ancient 
 
 Geography, in a Series of 2-1 full-coloured 
 Maps, accompanied by a complete Accen- 
 tuated Index. Xev,- Edition, corrected and 
 enlarged. Royal 8vo. 12s. 
 
 School Atlas of Physical, Poli- 
 tical, and Commercial Geography, in 17 
 full-coloured i\Iaps, accompanied by de- 
 scriptive Letterpress. By E. Hughes 
 F.K.A.S. Royal 8vo. 10s. Gd. 
 
 Middle- Class Atlas of General 
 
 Geography, in a Series of 20 full-coloured 
 Maps, containing the most recent Terri- 
 torial Changes and Discoveries. By Walter 
 M'Lr.oD, F.R.G.S. 4to. 5s. 
 
 Physical Atlas of Great Britain 
 
 and Ireland ; comprising 30 full-coloured 
 Maps, with illustrative Letterpress, forming 
 a concise Synopsis of British Physical Geo- 
 graphy. By Walter M'Leod, F.R.G.S^ 
 Fcp. 4to. 7s. 667. 
 
20 
 
 XEW WORKS ruBMSHED by LONGMANS and CO. 
 
 Periodical Publications. 
 
 The Edinburgh Review, or Cri- 
 tical Journal, published Quarterly in Janu- 
 arys April, July, and October. 8vo. price 
 6s. each No. 
 
 The Geological Magazine, or 
 
 Monthly Journal of Geology, edited by 
 Henry Woodward, F.G.S. ; assisted by 
 Prof, J. Morris, F.G.S. and R. Etiikridge, 
 F.R S.E. F.G.S. 8vo. price Is. each No. 
 
 Eraser's Magazine for Town and 
 
 Country, published on the 1st of each 
 Month. 8vo. price 2s. Gd each No. 
 
 The Alpine Journal: a Eecord of 
 
 ftlountain Adventure and Scientific Obser- 
 vation. By Members of the Alpine Club. 
 Edited by H. B. George, M.A. Published 
 Quarterly, May 31, Aug. 31, Nov. 30, Feb. 
 28. 8vo. price Is. 6d. each No. 
 
 Knowledge for the Young. 
 
 The Stepping Stone to Knowledge: 
 
 Containing upwards of Seven Hundred 
 Questions and Answers on Miscellaneous 
 Subjects, adapted to the capacity of Infant 
 Minds. B}' a IMother. New Edition, 
 enlarged and improved. 18mo. price Is. 
 
 "The Stepping Stone to Geography : 
 Containing several Hundred Questions and 
 Answers on Geographical Subjects. 18mo. Is. 
 
 The Stepping Stone to English History : 
 Containing several Hundred Questions and 
 Answers on the History of England. Is. 
 
 The Stepping Stone to Bible Know- 
 ledge: Containing several Hundred Ques- 
 tions and Answers on the Old and New 
 Testaments. 18mo. Is. 
 
 The Stepping Stone to Biography: 
 
 Containing several Hundred Questions and 
 Answers on the Lives of Eminent Men and 
 Women. 18mo. Is. 
 
 .Second Series of the Stepping 
 
 Stone to Knowledge : containing upwards 
 of Eight Hundred Questions and Answers 
 on Miscellaneous Subjects not contained in 
 the First Series. I8mo. Is. 
 
 The Stepping Stone to French Pronun- 
 ciation and Conversation : Containing seve- 
 ral Hundred Questions and Answers. By 
 Mr. P. Sadler. 18mo. Is. 
 
 The Stepping Stone to English Gram- 
 mar : containing several Hundred Questions 
 and Answers on English Grammar. By 
 Mr. P. Sadler. 18ino. Is. 
 
 The Stepping Stone to Natural History : 
 
 ^'^EHTKllUATE Or BaCIvDONED AnIMALS. 
 
 Part T. Mammalia ; Part II. Birds, Rep- 
 tiles, Fishes. 18mo. Is. each Part. 
 
 The Instructor; or, Progressive Les- 
 sons in General Knowledge. Originally 
 published under the Direction of the Com- 
 mittee of General Literature and Education 
 of the Society for Promoting Christian 
 Knowledge. 7 vols. 18mo. freely illustrated 
 M'ith Woodcuts and Maps, price l-ls. 
 I. Exercises, Tales,and Conversations 
 on Familiar Subjects ; with Easy Les- 
 sons from History. Revised and im- 
 proved Edition. Price 2s. 
 II. Lessons on Dwelling-Houses and 
 the ISIaterials used in Building Them ; 
 on Articles of Furniture ; and on Food 
 and Clothing. Revised and improved 
 Edition. Price 2s. 
 
 III. Lessons on the Universe ; on the 
 
 Three Kingdoms of Nature, Ani- 
 mal, Vegetable, and Mineral ; on the 
 vStructure, Senses, and Habits of JIan ; 
 and on the Preservation of Health. 
 Revised and improved Edition. 2s. 
 
 IV. Lessons on the Calendar and Al- 
 
 manack; on the Twelve Months of the 
 Year ; and on the appearances of Na- 
 ture in the Four Seasons, Spring, 
 Summer, Autumn, and Winter. Re- 
 vised and improved Edition. Price 2s. 
 V. Descriptive Geography with Popu- 
 lar Statistics of the various Countries 
 and Divisions of the Globe, their Peo- 
 ple and Productions. Revised and 
 improved Edition, With G Maps. 2s. 
 
 VI. Elements of Ancient History, from 
 the Formation of the First Great Mo- 
 narchies to the Fall of the Roman 
 SCmpire. Revised and improved Edi- 
 tion. Price 2s. 
 
 VII- Elements of [Mediueval and] Mo- 
 dern History, from a.d. 406 to a.d. 
 1802 : with brief Notices of European . 
 Colonies. Revised and improved Edi» I 
 tion. Price 2s. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 Abbott on Sight and Touch 6 
 
 Acton's Modern Cookery 18 
 
 Ai kin's Select British Poets 17 
 
 Memoirs and Remains 3 
 
 Alcock's Residence in Japan 15 
 
 Allies on Formation of Christianity 13 
 
 Alpine Guide (The) 15 
 
 . Journal (The) 20 
 
 A p JOHN'S Manual of the Metalloids 8 
 
 Arago's Biographies of Scientific Men .... 4 
 
 Pojiular Astronomy 7 
 
 — — Meteorological Essays' 7 
 
 Arnold's Manual of English Literature.... 5 
 
 Arnott's Elements of Pliysics 8 
 
 Arundines Canil 17 
 
 Atherstone Priory 16 
 
 Atkinson's Papinian 4 
 
 Autumn Holidays of a Country Parson .... 6 
 
 A yre's Treasury of Bible Knowledge 13 
 
 Babbage's Life of a Philosopher 3 
 
 Bacon's Essays, by Whately 4 
 
 Life and Letters, by Spedding 3 
 
 Works, by Ellis, Spedding, and 
 
 Heath * 
 
 Bain on the Emotions and Will 6 
 
 on the Senses and Intellect 6 
 
 . on the Study of Character 6 
 
 Baines's Explorations iu S.W. Africa .... 15 
 
 Ball's Guide to the Central Alps 15 
 
 Guide to the Western Alps 15 
 
 Bayldon's Rents and Tillages 12 
 
 Black's Treatise on Brewing 19 
 
 Blackley and Friedlander's German 
 
 and English Dictionary 5 
 
 Blaine's Rural Sports 17 
 
 Blight's Week at the Land's End 16 
 
 Bonnev's Alpsof Dauphin(^ 15 
 
 Bourne's Catechism of the Steam Engine.. 12 
 
 Handbook ot Steam Engine 12 
 
 Treatise on the Steam Engine. ... 11 
 
 Bowdler's Family Shakspeare 17 
 
 Boyd's Manual for Naval Cadets 18 
 
 Bram ley-Moore's Six Sisters of the \alleys 16 
 Brande's Dictionary of Science, Literature, 
 
 and Art 9 
 
 Bray's (C.) Education of the Feelings 7 
 
 . Philosophy of Necessity 7 
 
 (Mrs.) British Empire 7 
 
 Brewer's Atlas of History and Geography 19 
 
 Brinton on Food and Digestion 19 
 
 Bristow's Glossary of Mineralogy 8 
 
 Brodxi-.'s (Sir C. B.) Psychological Inquiries 7 
 
 . Works 10 
 
 Autobiography 10 
 
 Browne's Ice Caves of France and Switzer- 
 land 15 
 
 Browne's Exposition 39 Articles 12 
 
 Pentateuch 1 2 
 
 Buckle's History of Civilization 2 
 
 Bull's Hints to Mothers 19 
 
 Mliternal Management of Children.. 19 
 
 Bunsen's Analecta Ante-Nica^na 13 
 
 Ancient Egypt 2 
 
 Hippolytus and his Age 13 
 
 Philo.sophy of Universal History 13 
 
 BuNSEN on Apocrypha 13 
 
 Bunyan's Pilgrim's Progress, illustrated by 
 
 Bennett 11 
 
 Burke's Vicissitudes of Families 4 
 
 Burton's Christian Church 3 
 
 Butler's Atlas of Ancient Geography .... 19 
 Modern Geography 19 
 
 Cabinet Lawyer 19 
 
 Calvert's Wife's Manual 14 
 
 Campaigner at Home G 
 
 Cats and Fa rlie's Moral Emblems II 
 
 Chorale Book for England 14 
 
 CoLENso (Bishop) on Pentateuch and Book 
 
 of Joshua 13 
 
 Columbus's Voyages 16 
 
 Commonplace Philosopher in Town and 
 
 Country 6 
 
 Conington's Handbook of Chemical Ana- 
 lysis 9 
 
 Contanseau's Pocket French and English 
 
 Dictionary 5 
 
 Practical ditto 5 
 
 CoNYBKAREandHowsON's Life and Epistles 
 
 ofSt.Paul 12 
 
 Cook's Voyages 16 
 
 Copland's Dictionaryof Practical Medicine 10 
 
 Abridgment of ditto 10 
 
 Cox's Tales of the Great Persian War 2 
 
 ~ Tales from Greek Mythology 16 
 
 Tales of the Gods and Heroes 16 
 
 Talesof Thebes and A rgos 16 
 
 Cresy's Encyclopedia of Civil Engineering 11 
 
 Critical Essays of a Country Parson G 
 
 Crowe's History of France 2 
 
 D'Audignk's History of the Reformation in 
 
 the time of Calvin 2 
 
 Dead Shot (The), by Marksman 17 
 
 De la Rive's Treatise on Electricity 8 
 
 Delmakd-'s Village Life in Switzerland.... 15 
 
 De la Pryme's Life of Christ l.> 
 
 De TocauEViLLE's Democracy in America 2 
 
 I Diaries of a Lady of Quality 3 
 
 DoBSON on the Ox 18 
 
 Dove's Law of Storms 7 
 
 Doyle's Chronicle of Flngland 2 
 
22 
 
 NEW WORKS PUBLISHED BY LONGMANS and CO. 
 
 Edinburgh Review (The) 20 
 
 Eliice, a Tale 16 
 
 Ellicott's Broad and Narrow Way 13 
 
 - ^— Commentary on Ephesians .. .. 13 
 
 Destiny of the Creature 13 
 
 Lectures on Life of Christ 13 
 
 Commentary on Galatians .... 13 
 
 Pastoral Epist. 13 
 
 Philippians,&c. 13 
 
 Thessalonians 13 
 
 Essays and Reviews 13 
 
 on Religion and Literature, edited by 
 
 Manning 13 
 
 written in the Intervals of Business 6 
 
 Fairbairn's Application of Cast and 
 
 Wrought Iron to Building *,.... 11 
 
 Information for Engineers .. 11 
 
 Treatise on Mills & Millworlc 11 
 
 Ffoulkks's Christendom's Divisions 13 
 
 First Friendship 16 
 
 FiTz Roy's Weather Book 7 
 
 Fowlkr's Collieries and Colliers 12 
 
 Eraser's Magazine 20 
 
 Fresh field's Alpine Byways 15 
 
 Tour in the Grisons 13 
 
 Friends in Council 6 
 
 Froude's History of England 1 
 
 Garratt's Marvels and Mysteries of Instinct 8 
 
 Gee's Sunday to Sunday 14 
 
 Geological Magazine 8, 20 
 
 GiLBERxand Churchill's Dolomite Moun- 
 tains 15 
 
 Gilly's ShipvYrecks of the Navy IS 
 
 GoETH e's Second F aust, by Anster 17 
 
 Goodeve's Elements of Mechanism 11 
 
 GoRLE'sQuestionson Browne's Exposition 
 
 of the 39 Articles 12 
 
 Graver Thoughts of a Country Parson 6 
 
 Gray's Anatomy 10 
 
 Greene's Corals and Sea Jellies 8 
 
 Sponges and Animalculae 8 
 
 Grove on Correlation of Physical Forces .. 8 
 
 Gwilt's Encyclopjedia of Architecture .... 11 
 
 Handbook of Angling, l>y Ephemera 18 
 
 Hare on Election of Representatives 5 
 
 Hartwig's Sea and its Living Wonders. ... 8 
 
 . Tropical World 8 
 
 Hawker's Instructions to Young Sports- 
 men 17 
 
 Heaton's Notes on Rifle Shooting 17 
 
 Helps's Spanish Conquest in America .... 2 
 Herschel's Essays from the Edinburgh and 
 
 Quarterly Reviews 9 
 
 • Outlines of Astronomy 7 
 
 Hewitt on the Diseases of W'omen 9 
 
 Hinchliff's South American Sketches.... 15 
 
 Hints on Etiquette 19 
 
 Hodgson's Time and Space 7 
 
 Holland's Chapters on Mental Physioloay 6 
 
 Essays on Scientific SuVijects . . 9 
 
 . Medical Notes and Reflections 10 
 
 Holmes's System of Surgery 10 
 
 Hooker and Walker-Arnott's British 
 
 Flora 9 
 
 Horn e's Introduction to the Scriptures .... 13 
 
 Horne's Compendium of the Scriptures .. 13 
 
 Hoskyns's Talpa 12 
 
 How we Spent the Summer 15 
 
 Homitt's Australian Discovery 15 
 
 History of the Supernatural .... 6 
 
 Rural Life of England 16 
 
 Visits to Rpmarkable Places .... 1& 
 
 Howson's Huisean Lectures on St. Paul.. .. 12 
 Hughes's (li.) At'.is of Physical, Political, 
 
 and Commercial Geogrnpby , 19 
 
 ' (W.) Geography of British His- 
 tory 7 
 
 Manual of Geography 7 
 
 Hullah's History of Modern Music 3 
 
 Transition fviusical Lectures 3 
 
 HumphR'Ys' Sentiments of Shakspeare. . .. 11 
 
 Hunting Grounds of the Old World 15 
 
 Hymns from Lyra Germanica l-t 
 
 Ingelow's Poems i7 
 
 Instructor (The) 20 
 
 Jameson's Legends of the Saints and Mar- 
 tyrs 11 
 
 Legends of the Madonna 11 
 
 Legends of the Monastic Orders 11 
 
 Jameson and Eastlake's History of Our 
 
 Lord 11 
 
 Johns's Home Walks and Holiday Rambles 8 
 
 Johnson's Patentee's Mai ual 11 
 
 Practical DrauL'htsman 11 
 
 Johnston's Gazetteer, or Geographical Dic- 
 tionary 7 
 
 Jones's Christianity and Common Sense .. 7 
 
 Kalisch's Commentary on the Old Testa- 
 ment 5 
 
 Hebrew Grammar 5 
 
 Kennedy's Hymnologia Christiana 14 
 
 Kesteven's Domestic Meilicine , 10 
 
 KiRBY and Spence's Entomology 9 
 
 Knighton's ."^tory of Eiihu Jan 1& 
 
 Ktbler's Notes to Lyra Germanica 14 
 
 KUENEN on Pentateuch and Joshua 13 
 
 Lady's Tour round Monte Rosa 15 
 
 Landon's (L. E. L.) Poetical Works 17 
 
 Late Laurels 16 
 
 Latham's English Dictionary 5 
 
 Leg ky's History of nationalism 2 
 
 6 
 2 
 4 
 
 Leis^ure Hours in Town 
 
 Lewes's Biographical History of Philosophy 
 Lewis on the Astronomy of the Ancients .. 
 on the Credibility of Early Roman 
 
 History 4 
 
 Dialogue on Government 4 
 
 on iilgyptolosfical Method 4 
 
 Essays on Administrations 4 
 
 Fables of Babrius 4 
 
 on Foreign Jurisdiction 4 
 
 . on Irish Disturbances 4 
 
 on Observation and Reasoning in 
 
 Politics 4 
 
 on Political Terms 4 
 
 on the Romance Languages 4 
 
 Li ddell and Scott's Greek-English Le.xicon 5^ 
 
 Abridged ditto 5 
 
 Lindley and Moore'.s Treasury of Botany, y- 
 
NEW WORKS PUBLISHED BY LONGMANS a^d CO. 
 
 23 
 
 Longman's Lectures on the History of Enjj- 
 
 land 1 
 
 Loudon's Encyclopaedia of Agriculture .. .. 12 
 
 Cottajxe, Farm, 
 
 and Villa Arcliitecture 12 
 
 Gardening' .... 12 
 
 Plants 9 
 
 ■ Trees and Shrubs 9 
 
 Lowndes's Knfrineer's Handbook 11 
 
 Lyra Domestica H 
 
 Encharistica 14 
 
 Gertnanica 11,14 
 
 Messianica 14 
 
 Mystica 14 
 
 • Sacra 14 
 
 Macaulay's (Lord) Essays 
 
 History of England 
 
 La^ s of Ancient R.me 
 
 Miscellaneous Writings 
 
 S;)eeches 
 
 Speeches on Tarliamentary 
 
 Keform 
 
 M AcnouGALL's Theory of War 
 
 Marshman's Li'eof Havelock 
 
 McLeod's Middle-Class Atlas of General 
 
 Geography 
 
 Physical Atlas of Great Britain 
 
 and Ireland 
 
 I^IcCulloch's Dictionary of Commerce.... 
 
 Geographical Dictionary.... 
 
 Macfie's Vancouver Island 
 
 Magu I re's Lite of Father .Matliew 
 
 Rome and its Slulers 
 
 Mali no's Iniloor Gardener 
 
 Massey's History of England 
 
 AlAssiNGBERD's Historynt the Reformation 
 
 MaUiNuer's Biographical Treasury 
 
 Geographical Treasury 
 
 Historical Treasury 
 
 Scientific and Literary Treasury '■ 
 
 Treasury of Knowledge 
 
 Treasury of Natural Hiotory .. 
 
 Maury's Physical Geography , 
 
 May's Constitutional History of England .. 
 
 Melville's Digby Grand 
 
 General Bounce 
 
 Gladiators 
 
 Good for Nothing 
 
 Holinby House 
 
 i Literprett-r 
 
 , . Kare Coventry 
 
 Queen's Maries 
 
 Mendelssohn's Letters 
 
 Menzies' VNiiulsor Great Park 
 
 on Sewage 
 
 Merivale's (H.) Colonisation and Colonies 
 
 . Histonci.l Studies 
 
 (C) Fallot theKouian Itepublic 
 
 Romans under the Empire 
 
 on Conversion of Kuman 
 
 Empire •• 
 
 on Horse's Foot. . 
 
 on Horse Shoeing 
 
 on Horses' Teeth 
 
 on Stables 
 
 rMiLLon Liberty 
 
 ■ on Representative Government 
 
 on Utilitarianism 
 
 2 
 1 
 
 17 
 6 
 5 
 
 12 
 3 
 
 19 
 
 19 
 
 15 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 9 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 7 
 
 2 
 
 9 
 
 19 
 
 9 
 
 7 
 
 1 
 
 16 
 
 16 
 
 16 
 
 16 
 
 16 
 
 16 
 
 16 
 
 16 
 
 3 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 7 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 18 
 
 18 
 
 18 
 
 18 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 M I ll's Dissertations and Discussions 4 
 
 Political Economy 4 
 
 System of Logic 4 
 
 Hamilton's Philosophy 4 
 
 M I ller's Elements of Chemistry 9 
 
 Monsell's Spiritual Songs 14 
 
 lieatitudes 14 
 
 Montagu's Experiments in Ciiurch and 
 
 State 13 
 
 Montgomery on the Signs and Symptoms 
 
 of Pregnancy 9 
 
 Moore's lrii<h Melodies 17 
 
 Lalla Rookh 17 
 
 Memoirs, Journal, and Correspon- 
 dence 3 
 
 Poetical Works 17 
 
 Morell's Elements of Psychology 6 
 
 Mental Philosophy C 
 
 Morning Clouds 14 
 
 Morton's I'rince Consort's Farms 12 
 
 Mosheim's Ecclesiastical History 13 
 
 Mullek's (Max) Lectures on the Science of 
 
 Language 5 
 
 (K. O.) Literature of Ancient 
 
 Greece 2 
 
 MuRCHisoN on Continued Fevers 10 
 
 Murk's Language and Literature of Greece 2 
 
 New Testament illustrated with Wood En- 
 gravings from the Old Masters 10 
 
 NEWMAN'sHistcry of his Religious Opinions 3 
 
 Nightingale's Notes on Hospitals 19 
 
 Odling's Course of Practical Chemistry. ... 9 
 
 Manual of Chemistry 9 
 
 Ormsby's Rambles in A.lgeria and Tunis .. 15 
 Owen's Comparative Anatomy and Physio- 
 logy of Verteljrate Animals 8 
 
 Oxenham on Atonement 14 
 
 Packe's Guide to the Pyrenees 15 
 
 Paget's Lectures on Surgical Pathology .. 10 
 
 Ciimp and Cantonment 15 
 
 Pereira's E,icments of Materia Medica.... 10 
 
 Manual of,Materia Medica 10 
 
 Perkins's Tuscan Sculpture 11 
 
 Phillips's Guide to G^eology 8 
 
 Introduction to Mineralogy. ... 8 
 
 Piesse's Art of Perfumery 12 
 
 Chemical, Natural, and Physical 
 
 Magic 12 
 
 L;iboratory of Chemical Wonders 12 
 
 Playtime with the Poets 17 
 
 Practical Mechanic's Journal 11 
 
 Prescott's Scripture Difficulties 13 
 
 Procto r's Saturn 7 
 
 Pycroft's Course of English Reading .... 5 
 
 Cricket Field 18 
 
 Cricket Tutor 18 
 
 Cricketana 18 
 
 Readr's Poetical Works 17 
 
 Recieations of a Country Parson, Second 
 
 Series 6 
 
 Reilly's yiap of Mont Blanc 15 
 
 Riddle's DiamondLatin-English Dictionary 5 
 
 First Sundays at Church 14 
 
 Rive RS's Rose Amateur's Guide 9 
 
24 
 
 NEW WORKS PUBLISHED BY LONGMANS and CO. 
 
 Rogers's Correspondence of Greyson 6 
 
 Eclipse of Faith 6 
 
 Defence of ditto 6 
 
 Essays from the Edinburgh Review 6 
 
 Fulleriana 6 
 
 Rooet's Thesaurus of Enjjlish Words and 
 
 Phrases 5 
 
 RoNALDs's Fly-Fisher's Entomology 18 
 
 Rowton's Debater 5 
 
 Russell on Government and Constitntion . 1 
 
 Saxby's Study of Steam 18 
 
 AVeather System 7 
 
 Scott's Handbook of Volumetrical Analysis 9 
 
 ScROPE on Volcanos 8 
 
 Senior's Biographical Sketches 4 
 
 Historical and Philosophical 
 
 Essays 2 
 
 Essays on Fiction... , 16 
 
 Sewell's Amy Herbert 16 
 
 Ancient History 2 
 
 CleveHall 16 
 
 Earl's Daughter 16 
 
 • Experience of Life 16 
 
 ^Gertrude 16 
 
 Glimpse of the World 16 
 
 History of the Early Church 3 
 
 Ivors 16 
 
 Katharine Ashton 16 
 
 — Laneton Parsonage 16 
 
 Margaret Percival 16 
 
 Night Lessons from Scripture 14 
 
 Passing Thoughts on Religion 14 
 
 Preparation for Communion , 14 
 
 Readings for Confirmation 14 
 
 Readings for Lent 14 
 
 Self -Examination before Confir- 
 mation 14 
 
 Stories and Tales 16 
 
 Thoughts for the Holy Week 14 
 
 Ursula 16 
 
 Shaw's Work on Wine 19 
 
 Shedden's Elements of Logic 5 
 
 ShortWhist 19 
 
 Short's Church History 3 
 
 SiEVKKiNo's (Amelia) Life, by Wink- 
 
 M'orth 3 
 
 Simpson's Handbook of Dining 18 
 
 SMiTH's(SouTHwooD)Philosophy of Health 19 
 
 (J.) Voyage and Shipwreck of St. 
 
 Paul 13 
 
 (G.) Wesleyan Methodism 3 
 
 (Sy dney) Memoir and Letters .... 4 
 
 . Miscellaneous Works .. 
 
 Sketches of Moral Philo- 
 sophy 6 
 
 • Wit and Wisdom 6 
 
 Smith on Cavalry Drill and Manoeuvres 18 
 
 Southey's (Doctor) 5 
 
 Poetical Works 17 
 
 Spohr's Autobiography 3 
 
 Spring and Autumn 14 
 
 Stanley's History of British Birds 8 
 
 StebbIng's Analysis of Mill's Logic 5 
 
 Stephenson's (R.) Life by Jkaffreson 
 
 and Pole 3 
 
 Stephen's Essays in Ecclesiastical Bio- 
 graphy 4 
 
 Stephen's Lectures on the History of 
 
 France 2 
 
 Stepping Stone to Knowledge, &c 20 
 
 Stirling's Secret of Hegel 6 
 
 Stonehenqe on the Dog 18 
 
 — — on the Greyhound 18 
 
 Tasso's Jerusalem, by James 17 
 
 Taylor's (Jeremy) Works, edited by Eden 14 
 
 Tennent's Ceylon 8 
 
 Natural History of Ceylon 8 
 
 Th I rlwall's History of Greece 2 
 
 Thomson's (Archbishop) Laws of Thought 4 
 
 (J.) Tables of Interest 19 
 
 Conspectus, by Birkett 10 
 
 Todd's Cyclopaedia of Anatomy and Piiysio- 
 
 logy 10 
 
 and Bowman's Anatomy and Phy- 
 siology of Man 10 
 
 Trollope's Barchester Towers 16 
 
 Warden 16 
 
 Twiss's Law of Nations 13 
 
 Tyndall's Lectures on Heat 8 
 
 Ure's Dictionary of Arts, Manufactures, and 
 
 Mines 11 
 
 ViN der Hoeven's Handbook of Zoology 8 
 Vaughan's (R.) Revolutions in English 
 
 History 1 
 
 (R. a.) Hours with the Mystics 7 
 
 ViLLARi's Savonarola 3 
 
 Watson's Principles and Practice of Physic 10 
 
 Watts's Dictionary of Ch emistry 9 
 
 Webb's Celestial Objects for Common Tele- 
 scopes 7 
 
 Webster & Wilkinson's Greek Testament 13 
 
 Weld's Last Winter in Rome 15 
 
 Wellington's Life, by Brialmont and 
 
 Gleig 3 
 
 : by Gleig 3 
 
 West on the Diseases of Infancy and Child- 
 hood 9 
 
 Whately's English Synonymes 4 
 
 Logic 4 
 
 Remains 4 
 
 Rhetoric 4 
 
 ■ • Sermons 14 
 
 Paley's Moral Phylosophy.... 14 
 
 Whewell's History of the Inductive Sci- 
 ences 2 
 
 Whist, what to lead, by Cam 19 
 
 White and Riddle's Latin-English Dic- 
 tionary 5 
 
 Wilberforce (W.) Recollections of, by 
 
 Harford •*> 
 
 Williams's Superstitions of Witchcrait .. fi 
 
 Willich's Popular Tables 19 
 
 Wilson's Bryologia Britannica 9 
 
 Wood's Homes without Hands 8 
 
 Woodward's Historical and Chronological ^ 
 
 Encyclopaedia ^ 
 
 Yonge's English-Greek Lexicon » 
 
 Abridged ditto & 
 
 Young's Nautical Dictionary 18 
 
 YouATT on the Dog 
 
 on the Horse ' 
 
 SPOTTISWOODB AND CO., PBISTEB^, WBW-STBBKT SQUARE, LONDOX 
 
T37.2 33^