B?0 G-8M- 1855 UC-NRLF $c m 101 Jo J ■ll ■1* —. § i / f THE LABOR-SAVING GRAMMAR: DESIGNED FOE SCHOOLS, FAMILIES AND PRIVATE LEARNERS. BY THE AUTHOR OF "GRAMMAR SIMPLIFIED." Fourth Edition—Enlarged and Improved. NEW YORK: SOLD BY ALL THE PRINCIPAL BOOKSELLERS IN NEW YORK AND BOSTON; AND AT WHOLESALE BY J. STEEN & .SON, BRATTLEBORO, VT. O. H. PLATT, PRINTER, BRATTLEBORO: 1855. Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1855, by JEREMIAH GREENLEAF, in the Clerk's Office, of the District Court of the District of Vermont. RECOMMENDATIONS OF "GRAMMAR SIMPLIFIED.'' FROM REV. W. ALLEN, PRESIDENT OF ROWDOIN COLLEGE. I have examined Mr. Greenleafs "Grammar Simplified," and have received from him some explanations of his mode of instruction, and am fully satisfied that his system is more simple, and is calculated to impart a knowledge of Grammar with "»»ore facility, and m a much shorter time, than any now'in use. ™ J 3 ' W. ALLEN. FROM REV. F. BEASLEY, PRESIDENT OF THE UNIVERSITY OF PENN- SYLVANIA, PHILADELPHIA. I have examined the plan of teaching Grammar drawn up by Mr. Greenleaf, and agree with those who have given their testimony in its.favor. It is the best sys- tem I have seen, for the use of elementary schools. It is not intended to supersede the study of Murray, or any other larger Grammar whiclr may be preferred in col- leges or higher schools ; but only to become preparatory to them with young per- sons, or those who do not expect to obtain a liberal education. Under this view of the subject, I can decidedly recommend the Grammar of Mr. Greenleaf as the best I have ever seen. FREDERICK BEASLEY. FROM REV. W. HARRIS, PRESIDENT COLUMBIA COLLEGE, N. Y. CITY. Having examined Mr. Greenleafs new system of English Grammar, I cheerfully concur in recommending it as a system well calculated to communicate a compe- tent knowledge of the subject, as to all practical purposes, and in a much shorter time than any now in use. WM. HARRIS. FROM REV. J. M. MASON, D. D., PRESIDENT OF CARLISLE COLLEGE. I have recently looked over, with some curiosity and attention, a little work by Mr. J. Greenleaf, entitled "Grammar Simplified." It is exceedingly brief," and proposes to teach the rudiments of that art in an almost incredibly short time. Considering the voluminous treatises on this subject, and the time usually spent in acquiring a tolerable knowledge of it, the author must necessarily encounter much public prejudice. It has unfortunately happened, that almost every man of obtuse intellect and strong powers of drudgery, thinks himself qualified to write a grammar, which, of course, he contrives to make as unintelligible as possible; and hence grammar, in- stead of being an inviting, becomes an intolerably irksome task. Children have to labor year after year, without much progress, through a litera- ry swamp, and when they grow weary, their steps are often quickened by the birch ; while the blame is wholly and solely to be attributed to the stupid method of in- struction. This little treatise proffers a relief. It does not pretend to conduct the pupil through the depths of grammatical science — not to make him a master of its philo- sophical principles, but to give him a competent knowledge of it Hot practical pur- poses — to familiarize the matter of it to his- mind — to put him in possession of those elements, without an accurate acquaintance with which, ulterior advances are im- practicable. The whole secret lies in stripping it of every thing but the very essentials — in placing these before the eye of the learner, and in accustoming him to the applica- tion of every thing as he goes along. The public may be assured that Mr. Greenleaf is no quack ; bat that he per- forms much more "than the modesty of his title would lead his reader to expect. J. M. MASON. FROM REV. E. D. GRIFFIN, PRESIDENT OF WILLIAMS COLLEGE. I have read, with some care, the second edition of Mr. Greenleafs Grammar Simplified. There is nothing miraculous or mysterious in it, nor in the effects which it is said to produce. The whole is comprehended in the following facts : Mr. Greenleif has attentively studied the principles of English Grammar; and, with the exception perhaps of a few minor details, has exhibited them with entire correctness. His manner of expressing them is short, lucid, and striking. He has brought together a greater number of principles than is found in almost any other grammar, and those happily selected ; and has presented them in a naked form, disencumbered of all unnecessary matter. There is nothing heavy, nothing per- plexed. The arrangement is new, and strikes me favorably. How "much is gained by this means, and particularly by speaking so much to the eye, I could better judge were I to see the effects exemplified in a school. Much will depend on the skill and adroitness of the teacher; but I am prepared to say, let him have the lively conception and aptness to teach, which are manifested in the compilation of this Grammar; let him, in short, be Mr. Greenleaf himself, and children will be likely to become initiated sooner and more thoroughly upon this plan than upon any other which I have seen. E. D. GRIFFIN. FROM REV. \V. STAUGHTONj PRESIDENT OF COLUMBIAN COLLEGE. I have perused the work, entitled " Grammar Simplified," bv Mr. Greenleaf. It is precisely what it declares itself, "An Ocular Analysis of the English Language." It is scarcely possible to enter the temple of grammatical knowledge by a more casv, or a more beautiful inlet. In my judgment, the interna! merit of the work must insure its circulation. WILLIAM STAUGHTON. FROM REV. C. A. GOODRICH, PROFESSOR IN YALE COLLEGE. From a cursory examination of Mr. Greenleafs method of instructing in Eng- lish Grammar, I am satisfied that it combines the advantages of greater simplicity, precision and correctness; and that, if successfully applied, it will advance the young student in the technical business of parsing, with more rapidity than any system within my knowledge. CHAUNCEY A. GOODRICH. RmWI feOWMte&wtt* -- - : '-' RECOMMENDATIONS OF THE "IMPROVED GRAMMAR." For the lat Edition. FROM WESLEYAN UNIVERSITY. Having examined "Greenleafs Improved Grammar," I think it calculated to impart a knowledge of the subject much quicker and much easier than any other system ever published. As an elementary work, I consider it by far the best Grammar extant ; and a great improve- ment upon " Grammar Simplified." WILBUR FISK, D. D., President. FROM CAMBRIDGE COLLEGE. When connected with Harvard College, President Kirkland and myself examined, and recommended Greenleafs new system of English Grammar, and thought it the best book of the kind, for beginners, we had ever seen : but having recently read his " Improved Gram- mar," so far as to understand the author's system and arrangement, I am well satisfied, that it offers considerable advantages over " Grammar Simplified." SIDNEY WILLARD, late Professor of the Learned Languages. FROM BROWN UNIVERSITY, PROVIDENCE. We have given Rome attention to Mr. Greenleafs system of teaching English Grammar, and are of the opinion, thatlt possesses peculiar advantages, and is worthy of public patron- age. H. B. HACKETT, Professor of the Learned Languages. WM. GAMMELL, Professor of Rhetoric and Oratory. For the 2d Edition. FROM BALTIMORE COLLEGE. Having examined " Greenleafs Improved Grammar," I think it is calculated to impart a knowledge of the subject in a much shorter time than any other system ever published. B.vltimoiie, Feb. 10, 1844. HORACE MORRISON, TtmUtmt. FROM THE UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA. I h:ive carefully perused Mr, Greenleafs "Improved Grammar," and have no hesitation to say, that, in my opinion, it incomparably excels all the Grammars of the English language that have ever come under my observation. Mr. Greenleafs efforts, on this very important subject, have been indefatigable, and cannot fail to be successful. S. B. WYLIE, Professor of the Learned Languages. Philadelphia, »March 14, 1844. FROM UNION COLLEGE. Schenectady, May 11, 1843. Having examined " Greenleafs Improved Grammar," it gives me pleasure to say. that, as an elementary work, I consider it admirably calculated, on account oi'its comprehensiveness, perspicuity and brevity, for the use of schools, and every way deserving of the public patronage. N. B. Absence at the South has prevented my having an opportunity to give your Gram- mar an earlier examination. Yours, very respectfully, J. Gbeenleaf, Esu- E. NOTT, President. PREFACE. -f£ s Several years since, I published a work entitled " Grammar Simplified,"* which claimed the merit of being calculated to impart a knowledge of Grammar with more facility, and in a much shorter time, than any other system ever before published. Many of the first literary men of the day, (among whom were the Presidents and Professors of twenty of our principal Colleges,) thought its claims were well founded, and recommended the work in a most flattering manner. It was drawn up on a plan entirely original, and so great were the advantages which it offered to beginners, that a competent knowledge of this important branch of edu- cation f could be acquired from it in three weeks. It was then supposed impossible " to enter the temple of grammatical knowl- edge by a shorter, more easy, or a more beautiful inlet." But Experience ■, that best of schoolmasters, has enabled me to present to the public a new and much better system, which imparts as much knowledge in one week, -as " Grammar Simplified " does in three. Hence its vast pre-eminence over all other works of the kind. For beginners, it is to all other grammars,! what a Railroad Gar is, in point of speed, to an Ox Cart ! It is constructed upon a plan entirely different, in many respects, from its predecessor, and its method of instruction is much easier and more pleasing, both to teacher and learner. The rapidity and ease with which novices progress from it is so truly astonishing, that it appears almost miraculous. In fact, this hitherto intolerably long and irksome study, is now ren- dered so very short, interesting and agreeable, that it becomes a mere matter of pleasure and amusement, rather than labor. However incredible it may seem, actual and well-tried experiments have demonstrated that a respectable knowledge of Etymology and Syntax can be acquired from this treatise, with the greatest facility, in the short period of six days : a to which fact many literary gentlemen can testify. It has also been ascertained, that a hundred can be taught from it, in a class, as easily as a dozen ; although ten or fifteen are as many as can profitably be taught at a time, from any other book of the kind — not even excepting u Grammar Simplified." Besides, should any one prefer teaching in the " good old way," it is so arranged that he can be accommodated ; while at the same time the drudgery of his pupils will be greatly abridged. It is likewise calculated to be mueh more useful in families and to private learners, than other Grammars. Having a Key, by which specimens of all the common and critical errors in syntax can be corrected at a glance, it will go very far, even without the aid of a teacher, towards purifying our language from those corruptions and provin- cialisms, to which all living languages are liable. The "Labor-Saving Grammar" has been submitted to six of our principal Colleges, and all agree in the opinion that it is a great improvement upon "Grammar Simplified," and that it incomparably excels all other systems extant. But notwithstanding the usual method of instruction is exceedingly stupid, and notwithstanding the labor of months, and even years, is now reduced to a delightful study of a few days, yet far be it from me, to detract from the merits of others. I have not labored to subvert systems (many of which are written with great ability,) but merely to simplify the subject, and to substitute a new and more expeditious mode of teaching. Not to introduce novelties and innovations, but merely to remove the impediments, and clear away the stumbling-blocks from the paths of Grammatical knowledge. Thus, to abridge toil and save cost, in acquiring the rudiments of English Grammar, was the sole object of this publication. In its construction, therefore, I have not found it necessary to indulge in idle theories or visionary speculations, but have adopted the general principles of our most approved authors. In other words, I have condemned the old and awkwardly constructed building, on account of its inconvenience, but have found sufficient good and sound materials therein, to build a new, splendid, and commodious one. As the preceding editions of the "Labor-Saving Grammar" contain but two parts, [Etymology and Syntax, 6 ] and as these are disencumbered of all non-essentials, the book is consequently exceedingly brief; — yet long experience has proved it to be sufficiently copious for all practical purposes. Many objections, however, have been raised against it, by those of " strong powers of drudgery." on account of its brevity and the omission of Orthography and Prosody. To obviate these cavilings, and at the same time to render it suitable also for High Schools, Academies, &c, the present edition is not only considerably enlarged, but the other parts are added. Some, perhaps, may think that those who learn in so quick a way, will be more apt to forget, than those who study in the old way. But this for reasons the most self-evident, is also a mistaken notion ; as the former have more of the practical part in one week, than the latter have in one year. In short, the improved system should not only be used in every school in which English Grammar is taught, but should be in the possession of every family and private learner. H§^ See Directions on the next page. THE AUTHOR. * This book is probably better recommended, and has had a more rapid sale, than any -work of the kind, ever before published. t Etymology and Syntax. t Except " Grammar Simplified." a Provided scholars possess common capacity to learn, be suitable readers, pay' strict attention, and have a competent teacher. b Because these are the only parts that are generally studied from grammar*? 021 ADVERTISEMENT. The studv of English grammar, in the usual way, is a long, dry, and irksome task. " Children have to labor year after year," says Dr. Mason, " without much progress, through a literary swamp, and when they grow weary, their steps are often quickened by the birch, while the blame is wholly and solely to be attribu- ted to the stupid method of msiruetion." Many attempts have been m«de of late, to simplify the subject- But all appear tehave failed. In fact,, some of oar mod- ern authors have absolutely rendered the sciencemore abstruse than ever. Instead of simplifying the subject, they have mystified it. Instead of clearing away the stumbling blocks from the crooked paths of grammatical knowledge, they have seemingly labored, with all their might to throw more obstacles in the way. It was very desirable, tlierefore, that a much shorter and easier method should be in- troduced. Mr. Greenleaf, alone, seems to have hit upon this desideratum. He has not only struck out a new and a straight path, but has completely removed all impediments therefrom. His " Grammar Simplified," published several years since, proffered a partial relief, but his " Labor-saving system," which is now pre sented to the public, offers relief in full. So great indeed, is the " railroad speed " with which beginners progress from it, that one week's agreeable study thene>- from, is fully equal to one year of irksome drudgery in the usual way. A great saving, forsooth, of time, labor, and expense ; and, " time," says Dr. Franklin, •' is money." But, notwithstanding the great advantages which this book offers, both in fami- lies and school rooms-,, over all other works of the kind, yet it will undoubtedly have to encounter much public prejudice; as many people (like the Dutchman who always went to mill with a great stone in one end of his bag.) are exceedingly prone to esteem the "good old way" the best, let it be ever- so stupid, foolish or ab- surd. Hence, it will probably be opposed,./?™**, by all teachers, and others, of ob- tuse intellects and strong powers of drudgery; secondly, by all those teachers whose interest it may be to keep their pupils drilling, as long as possible in grammar ; thirdly, by all superficial and quack teachers,, who (although they may find it no very difficult matter to teach from other grammars,, audi to keep up, perhaps,, with their pupils,) cannot even begin to teach from this system* without exposing their ignorance ; fourthly, by all the host of pretended simplifyers, from the days of Mur- ray to the present time. Thus it is to be expected, that many instructors will en- deavor to keep the " Labor-saving Grammar "out of their schools as long as possi- ble—some through stupidity, some through sinister motives-, some through ignorance, and* some- through envy. It is confidently believed, however,- that all teachers, ex- cept the above mentioned classes, as well as all other real friends of improvement, of whatever profession, will give it their most cordial approbation. "0, but," says teacher Snooks! ** I dislike this quick way of learning. grammar-^-becaHse, quickly learned, quickly forgotten — besides it strengthens- themeinory of pupils- to be a long time in acquiring a knowledge of the subject.' 1 ' Sheer nonsense. It strengthens his purse more like! With eqaal propriety he might say,, it would be better for a person wishing to go from Boston to Cape Cod, to take* the "round about" land way, on foot.,and be'* six or eight days on the journey — rather than take the "straight way," by steamboat, requiring but two or three hours on the trip, and at a> mfltctk 1 less expense. Perhaps the long route might strengthen his limb*, and- doubtless it would strengthen his memory, — inasmuch as he would probably never forget what a fool he had been ! But let the worth of theories and systems be*tested by their practical usefulness, and let them be appreciated accordingly- This done, and I am bold to declare, that Greenleaf's Improved Grammar will be immediately introduced into every school in- the* United States. Even by the usual process of teaching, it will be found to be far preferable to other grammars. Mr. G. has taught in all the principal cities in the "Union, and is probably better qualified for an undertaking of this kind, than any person living. We sincerely think, that his book is cheaper at one dollar, tnan any other grammar at one cent. The public may rest assured, it is absolutely what it professes to be — mullum inparvo, utile cum dulci. "A word to the wise is sufficient." PUBLISHER. New York, 1855.. EXPLANATIONS AND METHOD OF INSTRUCTION. Boor First is designed exclusively for beginners, and contains barely a suffi- cient quantity of Etymology and Syntax to enable them (with the aid of a compe- tent teacher,) to commence syntactical parsing. The unmavked Parsing; Lessons, however, [part or all,] are appropriate for more advanced scholars, and are more convenient for them, than to parse from other books. Book Second contains all the parts of grammar hi full, methodically arrang«d, without the least regard to Book i irst, or the least dependence upon it ;* being com- plete in itself, — designed to be studied during intermediate school hours, and occa- sionally to be referred to, while parsing. DIRECTIONS. After organizing a class, eominence by hearing your pupils read slowly, and* simultaneously, the definitions of all the parts of speech, bee p. 5 & 6. This should be repeated twice, and while going through, in this manner, the second time, the readings should be accompanied by such explanations and illustrations* from the teacher, as will enable them, with suitable promptings, (the parts of speech being designated,) to commence parsing. Then turn to page 7, and let them recite sev- eral times in concert, the initials of all the parts of speech ; thus — What does ar stand for? Answer, article — nt noun-—/?? pronoun, &c. In the next place, recite several times, in the same manner, the definition of the indicative mood, at the head of lesson 1st. Then commence syntactical parsing, in concert ; at parsing ar n v lesson 1st,— (A boy whispers.) What part of speech, says the teacher, is a I An- swer, an article. What kind, definite or indefinite ? Ans. indefimte. What noun does it belong to V Ans. to. boy. What is boy? Ans. a noun. What kind, com- mon or proper ? Ans. common. What gender* masculine or feminine * Ans. mas- culine. What person, the second or third t Ans. third person. What number, singular or plural? Ans. singular. What case, nominative or objective? Ans. nominative. Nominative to what verb? Ans. to whispers. According to Rule 1st, says the teacher; [repeat it.] What is whispers ? Ans.— What kind, transitive or in- transitive? Ans.— Regular or irregular? Ans.— What mood, indicative or *m6- junctive ? Ans.— What tense, present or imperfect ? Ans.— What person and num- ber ? Ans.— What does it agree with ? Ans.— According to Rule 2d— [repeat the rule.] As soon as the teacher may think it will answer, he should prompt in the * The teacher should never attempt to illustrate any thing to his pupils which he cannot make them understand. Hence the easy parts of grammar, only, should be explained in the first place, (barely enough to enable them, with suitable promptings, to commence syn- tactical parsing) and the more intricate parts should be explained progressively. He should always endeavor to keep their minds as unembarrassed as possible, and should often caution them against "getting puzzled :" and as a preventive, should frequently change from parsing to recitations. Tell them also that they must not try to understand any faster than they can do so, without the least perplexity of mind ; and that " practice makes perfect." Thus it appears, much depends on the skill and judgment of the teacher. following rnnnner. (Mary has written a letter )' What is Mary? Ans-. — What kind? Ans. — What gender, person, and number? Ans. — What case? <$»c. And as soon as sufficiently initiated, he should let them go- on without any,. or wifh but ar n v pr n very little prompting — thus, (The gentlemen live in Boston.) The is the- definite article-, and belongs to gentlemen — gentlemen is a common nonn, masculine ren- der, third person, plural number, and nominative ease to live? according to Rule 1st; [repeat the rule.} Live is an intrausitive regular verb, indicative mood, pres- ent tense, third person, plural nui»ber,and agrees with gentlemen; according to Rule 2d ; [repeat the rule.] It will not be advisable for the teacher, in the first place, to explain to his pupils any of the moods except the indicative and subjunc- tive, or any of the tenses except the present and imperfect. They should be in- fcrmed at the commencement, that every verb in Lesson 1st, is in the Ind. mood; and when they come to the first verb iir tlie perfect tense, they should all stop and commit to memory, and recite in concert, the signs of the different tenses near the bottom* of page 0. After going through with lesson' 1st, commence at lesson 2d, (committing and reciting in the first place, in concert, all that stands at the head of the same,) and so on, with toll the marked les*©fis. As a relaxation from parsing, the class should occasionally be exercised in a simultaneous recitation of the List of Prepositions, Conjunctions and Pronominal Adjectives, &c, on page 6; and when all these be thoroughly committed, turn occasionajly to Conjugation of verbs, Catalogue of irregular verbs, or to any thing the teacher may think best, and recite as above. By this meswis, and by giving short lessons to he learned during interme- diate school hours, all that is necessary can easily be committed to memory. The first nine Rules* should be committed, before leaving the marked lessons. Alter going through with all the marked lessons, as above, commence at the unmarked lessons, and continue to the cud of the same. In large classes, it has been ascer- tained, that beginners will learn much faster to parse, generally in concert. Even in small classes, it has been found, ther will learn faster to parse most of thelime in this way, especially during two or thres of the first days. But all classes, large or small, should always recite in concert, while practising as above. In common schools, the teacher can attend to his grammar p«pils once or twice a day, for ten or fifteen minutes at a time, and then let them go- to their other studies. If they be considerably advanced, perhaps the teacher may think it advisable not to have them go through with the "Marked Lessons:" — in which case they can commence parsing at any of the " Unmarked Lessons," and afterwards (if deemed necessary.) they can bring other books to parse from. Should he think that parsing, &c in concert disturbs the school too much; he can hear them *•*< < ite and parse separately. Should any one prefer teaching the usual way, he can let his pupils commit as much as he may think necessary, and then commence liaising at le>- son 1st. i ♦Sufficient to apply in Parsing. OOBL IF'IIFLST ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Question. What is Grammar ? Answer. Grammar is the art of speaking and writing correctly, or the proper use of words. Ques. How many words are there in the English language? Ans. About forty thousand. « Ques. How are words divided ? Ans. They are divided into ten parts or sorts, commonly called Parts of Speech ; viz. — the Article, Noun, Pronoun, Adjective, Verb, Participle, Adverb, Preposition, Conjunction, and Interjec- tion. Of these, the Noun and Verb are the most important. NOUN. Ques. "What is a Noun ? Ans. A noun is a word which is the name of any person, place, or thing ; as, John, London, house, virtue. VERB. Ques. What is a Verb ? Ans. A Verb is a word which expresses action or being ; as, birds fly, borses run, Peter lives. PRONOUN. Ques. What is a Pronoun ? Ans. A Pronoun is a word used instead of a noun, to avoid the too frequent repetition of the same word ; as, Dick is idle, and he must be punished. Ques. What are Common nouns ? Ans. Common nouns are the names of whole sorts, or species ; as, man, horse, dog, tree. Ques. What are Proper nouns ? Ans. Proper nouns are the names of individuals ; as, Thomas, Jane, Boston. Ques. What is the Masculine gender ? Ans. The masculine gender denotes males ; as, man, boy, lion. Ques. What is the Feminine gender ? Ans. The feminine gender denotes females; &s,woman, girl,lioness. Ques. What is the Neuter gender ? Ans. The neuter gender denotes things without sex ; as, chair, peach, table. Ques. What is the First person ? Ans. The first person denotes the person speaking ; as, /learn. Ques. What is the Second person ? Ans. The second person denotes the person spoken to ; as, you learn. Ques. What is the Third person ? Ans. The third person denotes the person or thing spoken of; as, he learns, the tree grows. [Nouns have but two persons, the second and third, but pronouns have three.] Ques. What is the Singular number ? Ans. The singular number denotes but one object ; as, pen, book. Ques. What is the Plural number ? Ans. The plural number denotes more objects than one; as, pens, books. Ques. What is the Nominative case ? Ans. The nominative case is the actor, or subject of the verb ; as, the boy runs ; — it generally comes before the verb. Ques. What is the Possessive case ? Ans. The possessive case denotes property or possession ; as, John's book, his cane. Ques. What is the Objective case ? Ans. The objective case is the object on which the action of a verb terminates ; as, Moses smote the rock. It generally comes after the verb. Ques. How are Personal pronouns distinguished from Relative pronouns ? Ans. Who, whose, whom, which, what, and that, are relatives, and all others are personals. Ques. What is a transitive verb ? Ans. A transitive verb denotes action or energy which termi- nates on some object ; as Peter struck Joseph. Ques. What is an Intransitive verb ? Ans. An intransitive verb denotes simple being or existence, or it denotes action which is limited to the nominative ; as, I am, he stands, the fish swims. Ques. What are Regular verbs ? Ans. Regular verbs are those which end in ed, when used in the past time ; as, I preached yesterday. Ques. What are Irregular verbs ? Ans. Irregular verbs are those which do not end in ed in the past time ; as, I torote yesterday. Ques. What is the Indicative Mood? Ans. The indicative mood simply indicates or declares a thing; as, I learn. Ques. What is the Subjunctive Mood? Ans. The subjunctive mood expresses action or being in a doubtful or conditional manner ; as, if I learn. Ques. What is the Present Tense? Ans. The present tense denotes present time ; as, I am writing. Ques. What is the Past or Imperfect Tense ? Ans. The past tense denotes past time ; as, I wrote yesterday. Ques. What is the Future Tense ? Ans. The future tense denotes future time ; as, I shall write to- morrow. ARTICLE. Ques. What is an Article ? Ans. An article is a word placed before nouns to limit their signification ; as, a garden, an eagle, the woman. Ques. How many articles are there ? Ans. Only three, viz. — a, an, and the [in reality but two, as a and an mean the same.] Ques. How are articles distinguished ? Ans. A or an is called the Indefinite article, and the is called the Definite. PARTICIPLE. Ques. What is a Participle ? Ans. A participle is a word derived from a verb, and partakes much of the nature of a verb ; as, I heard a child crying ; I saw the letter written. Ques. What is the difference between a present participle, and a past or perfect one ? BOOK FIRST. Ans. The present participle denotes present time, and ends in ing ; as speaking. The Past participle denotes past time, and does not end in ing ; as, spoken. ADJECTIVE. Ques. What is an Adjective ? Ans. An adjective is a word which expresses some quality or property of a noun ; as, a good boy, a bad girl, a sweet apple. ADVERB. Ques. What is an Adverb ? Ans. An adverb is a word used to qualify or modify the sense of verbs ; as, the man fought bravely ; the birds fly swiftly. PREPOSITION. Ques. What is a Preposition ? Ans. A preposition is a word which serves to connect words, and show the relation between them ; as, a bird on the tree ; a squirrel in the cage. CONJUNCTION. Ques. What is a Conjunction ? Ans. A conjuuction is a word chiefly used to connect senten- ces, joining two or more simple sentences into one compound one ; as, Henry works and George plays ; Jack will study, or go to sea. INTERJECTION. Ques. What is an Interjection ? Ans. An interjection is a word used to express passion or emo- tion; as, oh! alas! - A LIST OF THE PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES. One, other, another, each, every, either, neither, this, that, these, those, all, any, both, same, such, some, former, latter, none. A LIST OF THE PRINCIPAL PREPOSITIONS. Of, to, for, by, with, in, — into, within, without, over, under, through, — above, below, between, beneath, from, beyond, — at, up, down, before, behind, — on, or upon, among, after, about, against. A LIST OF THE PRINCIPAL CONJUNCTIONS. And, if, that, both, then, since, for, because, therefore, wherefore, — But, or, nor, as, than, lest, though, unless, either, neither, yet, notwithstanding. DECLENSION OF THE PERSONAL PRONOUNS. FIRST PERSON. Sing. Norn. I, Pass, my or mine, Obj. me. Plu. Nom. we, Poss. our or ours, Obj. us. SECOND PERSON. Sing. Nom. thou, Poss. thy or thine, Obj. thee. Plu. Nom. ye or you, Poss. your or yours, Obj. you. THIRD PERSON. Sing. Nom. he, Poss. his, Obj. him. Plu. Nom. they, Poss. their or theirs, Obj. them. TniRD PERSON. Sing. Nom. she, Poss. her or hers, Obj. her. Plu. Nom. they, Poss. their or theirs, Obj. them. THIRD PERSON. Sing. Nom it, Poss. its, Obj. it. Plu. Nom. they, Poss. their or theirs, Obj. them. DECLENSION OF THE RELATIVE PRONOUNS. Simgular and Plural. Nom. who, Poss. whose, Obj. whom. Nom. whoever, Poss. whosever, Obj. whomever, whosesoever, Obj. whomsoever. Nom. whosever, Poss. ' COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. Positive. Comparative. Superlative. Positive. Comparative. Superlative. wise, wiser, wisest. little, less or lesser, least. great, greater. greatest. much or many, more, most. virtuous, more virtuous, most virtuous near, nearer, ' nearest or next. amiable, less amiable, least amiable late, later, latest or last. good, better, best. far, farther, farthest. bad, wor=e, worst. SIGNS OF THE DIFFERENT TENSES. Have, hast and has, are signs of the perfect tense ; had and hadst, of the pluperfect ; shall and will, of the first future ; shall have and will have, of the second future ; [that is, when joined to other verbs, in the indicative and subjunctive moods.] A LIST OF THE AUXILIARY VERBS. May, can, must, might, coidd, would, shoidd, shall, do, be, have, will. [The last four are sometimes principal verbs.] DECLENSION OF NOUNS. Sing. Plu. Nom. king Nom. kings Poss. king's Poss. kings' Obj. king. Obj. kings. Sin/). Plu. Nom. man Nom. men. Poss. man's Poss. men's Obj. man. Obj. men. Errata. In the "Declension or the Bhahyi Pronouns," Nom. case, [ page 6 and 8,} for iviiosever T read whosoever. EXERCISES IN PARSING. RULE 1. The subject of the verb must always be in the nomina- tive casev RULE 2. The verb must agree with its nom- inative in number and person. RULE 3. Pronouns must agree with their an- tecedents, or the nouns they repre- sent, in gender and number. RULE 4. Transitive verbs, transitive partici- ples, and preposi- tions, govern the objective case. RULE 5. Two or more nouns, signifying the same thing, are put, by apposition, in the same case. RULE 6. When an address is made to a person, the noun or pro- noun is put in the nominative case in- dependent. RULE 7. A noun or pro- noun, joined with a participle, and standing indepen- dent of the rest of the sentence, is in the nominative case independent. RULE 8. A noun or pro- noun, signifying possession, must be put in the possess- ive case. RULE 9. The verbs which follow, bid, dare, feel, hear, let, make, need, see, &c, are used in the infini- tive mood, without having the sign to prefixed to them. ar n p a v pfc ad pp c i Article, Noun, Pronoun, Adjective, Verb, Participle, Adverb, Preposition, Conjunction, Interjection. LESSON 1. FOR THE INDICATIVE MOOD. The indicative mood simply indicates or declares a thing ; as, I learn. ar n v ar n v ar n v ar a n v ar a b v pp n n 1. A boy whispers. A man loves. The men walk. A good girl learns. The bad boys play in school. Harriet v n arnv n varan n v ar n ar a n v ar a 2. loves Eliza. The girls sing. Samson killed a young lion. Noah built the ark. An old ox hooked the white n ara n v n nvarn arn v a n earn 3. heifer. The black mare kicked Peter. Ned shot an Indian. The men are eating sour apples, and the women v a n ar n v pp n c pp n cpvppnn 4. are eating sweet oranges. The gentlemen live in Boston or in Charlestown, but they came from Troy. Ann's a nv ad pp p n nvadpa n p y u pp ar ii pp 5. pretty bird sings delightfully in his cage. Esther put on her royal apparel — she obtained favor in the sight of ar n pp a n n v ar n n v ' ar a nop T p pp ar 6. the King. In six days, God created the world. Mary has written a long letter, and she will send it to the n n var n ad ar n v n v pp n c p 7. post-office. Henry had received the intelligence before the mail arrived. Thomas is at school, but he will adv en v a n pp p aranvaraanvp n 8. soon return, and Lucy will give this book to him. The little girls cried, an old cross hen pecked us. Maria v ar n pt ar a a n pp p n pp ar a n c pp ar a n n n 9. saw a woman whipping an idle, saucy boy, on his back, with a large stick, or with a small cane. Cassar's troops vad nar n rppn araan vpn 10. fought bravely. Newton, the philosopher, lived in London. The strong, fat oxen, have broken their yoke. nvadara n p Tppn b PPP n c v p'ppn 11. John cut down the high trees which grew in Sarah's garden, with his hatchet, and sawed them into wood ppp nvarn n varn n varn n v 12. for her. Charles writes a letter. Charles wrote a letter. Charles has written a letter. Charles had written ar n n v ar n n v ar n n ad pt v a pp 13. a letter. Charles will write a letter. Charles will have written a letter. Words fitly- spoken are like unto n pp n pp n pp n ar n v ar a n p v ar n pp n 14. apples of gold in pictures of silver. The master ferruled the naughty boy who stole an apple from Abby's n ar n v ar n pp p p v v ad n v 15. pocket. The gentleman replied, " the ladies with whom we conversed, behaved genteelly." Frank broke n ncadpvpppp np v ad arn v p 16. Susan's watch, and then he bought it of her. Boys, you have learned rapidly. The girls replied, "we had v p n pt pp p ad ar n v n v ar a n v ad pp 17. committed our lessons, given to us, before the master returned." Samuel heard an orphan boy crying piteously, in arn npvadc ncn v n vpppaa aan 18. the street. Jane, you learn faster than Jack or Clara learns. Johnny said, •* I am afraid that great ugly dog vp narn vppnarn pvarn n v p 19. will bite me." Nathan, the prophet, said unto David, the King, " thou art the man." Edwin replied, " my ac a n vpppancp ad v ippn 20. kind and affectionate mother gave to me good advice, but I have often been occupied, alas ! with trifles." n ptpn ad vpppn npveaca 21. Ellen, having finished her studies, will immediately return to her father'^ house. It is neither hot nor cold. P vcvpppn c vppp np v pp n cpp.p 22. I will arise and go to my father, and will say unto him, father, I have sinned against heaven, and before thee. n v p v ar a ,a n p n v ad ad c p v pp p ar n 23. Caroline said, " I pity the poor little boy, whose book is torn so badly, and I have given to him an orange." an vpppn nvaraa a n nvara 24. Every tree is known by its fruit. James found a new, sharp, handsome penknife. Dick struck the wicked npv n n an p nar nva arnva cpn 25. fellow that tore Kitty's book. Dear sister, your uncle, the General, is sick. The book is useful, but its binding va ncn v pn ptpppec nncn 26. is cheap. Kate and Julia have committed their lessons given to them ; but neither Dick, Tom, nor Harry, has v pn*p vppppparn adnc n ▼ P n 27. committed his lesson which was given to him by the master. Then Paul and Barnabas rent their clothes, pt ad c pt n ad v p a n p ad v n pp a n PP P ar 28. crying out and saying, " Sirs, why do ye these things ? we also are men of like passions with you." The n pt ar n p v pp p v n n v ad pp p n 29. Colonel being slain, the soldiers who fought under him, were routed. Asa's dove flies swiftly to her nest. arnvpnadcarn v p ad inp vp 30. The boys soiled their books badly, and the mistress whipped them severely. O, Lord! thou scatterest thy n ppar a ca n pva'cpn v ad 31. blessings with an impartial and liberal hand — thou art just, and thy mercy endureth forever. BOOK FIRST. RULE l. The subject of the verb must always be in the nomina- tive case. RULE 2. The verb must agree with its nom- inative in number and person. RULE 3. Pronouns must agree with their an- tecedents, or the nouns they repre- sent, in gender and number. RULE 4. Transitive verbs, transiti/e partici- ples, and preposi- tions, govern the objective case. RULE 5. Two or more nouns, signifying the same thing, are put, by apposition, in the same case. RULE 6. When an address is made to a person, the noun or pronoun is put in the nomi- native case inde- pendent. RULE 7. A noun or pro- noun, joined with a participle, and standing indepen- dent of the rest of the sentence, is in the nominative case independent. RULE 8. A noun or pro- noun, signifying possession, must be put in the possessive case. RULE 9. The verbs which follow bid, dare, feel, hear, let, make, need, see, &c, are used in the infini- tive mood, without having the sign to prefixed to them. LESSON 2.— FOR THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD, The subjunctive mood expresses action or being, in a doubtful or conditional manner ; as, if I learn. , If, unless, except, &c, are signs of the subjunctive mood. c p n v a pn va cp vpen v pp p 1. If our desires be moderate, our wants will be few. Unless thou hast loved her. If John had spoken to me. c p v ar n pp ar a n c ar n v p n pp n 2. Unless he will do the work in a genteel manner. If the man shall have accomplished his work by midsummer. enen vp n ncn vpcpvpppn n 3. If James and Ned have lost their money, Jack or Robert will recover it, if it be in his power. Henry having pt pp n v pp ar n pp n c p n y c p v pp n c 4. graduated at college, will enter upon the study of divinity, if his health admit. If we contend about trifles, and ad ypnp y ad a n en ypnpn p 5. violently maintain our opinion, we shall gain but few friends. If greatness flatter our vanity, it multiplies our n cpvpppp v cara n t a pp a n n 6. dangers. If we look around us, we shall perceive that the whole universe is full of active powers. Gentlemen, pv a cpvarnpppp v cpvadarnpp n p 7. you are mistaken, if I be the person to whom you alluded. If we possess not the power of self-government, we varnppaa n ptpnpyppancn 8. shall be the prey of every evil propensity. Having resigned his office, he retired to pi-ivate life, if history v n c n vadn v a can a cp 9. speak truth. If youth be trifled away, manhood will be contemptible, and old age, miserable. Except he re- vp ad t eppa a narn nppnv y adpv 10. pent, he will not be saved. If, from any internal cause, a man's peace of mind be disturbed, in vain we load p pp n c n p pt p n ar n v c ar n ad v 11. him with riches or honor. He having ended his discourse, the ladies dispersed. If the mind be well cultivated, p v ar n pp n c ad p v pp n 12. it produces a store of fruit : if not, it is overrun with weeds. . LESSON 3.— FOR THE POTENTIAL MOOD. The potential mood declares the power, liberty, possibility or necessity of action or being; as, I may, can or must learn. May, can, must, might, could, would, should, are signs of the potential mood. nvada c adp vpp Tadnp v adn 1. Charles is not insincere, and therefore, we may trust him. It must be so ; Plato, thou reasonest well. Tim en adv p nppnpvp np v nva 2. and Jo could not accomplish their business in time. It was my direction he should submit. Amanda was ill, cpvp vp varnppnp v par 3. but I thought she might live. We can resist the allurements of vice. I may have misunderstood him. The n v. ar n ad c p ad vpadpypanc 4. man might have finished the work sooner, but he could not have done it better. I gave him good advice, but p advpppp v arnp ad Tppn 5. he would not hearken to it. They might have been honored. The man who is faithfully attached to religion, v ad pp a n an n vpppnp 6. may be relied on with humble confidence. This author's sentiments must be mistaken by his critic. We may v pt c pp ar a n pp n p v c t p ar n v 7. rest assured, that by the steady pursuit of virtue, we shall obtain and enjoy it. The physician may administer arno nad v p n pt p pp a np 8. the medicine, but Providence alone can bless its effects. Having exposed himself in different climes, he may vpnarn n v ar n n p pt ar n 9. have lost his health. The scholar's diligence must secure the tutor's approbation. She being absent, the busi- v ad pp a 10. ness was attended to by others. LESSON 4.— FOR THE INFINITIVE MOOD. The infinitive mood expresses a thing in a general and unlimited manner, having no nominative, consequently nei- ther number nor person ; as, I should like to learn. To is the sign of the infinitive mood. . . pppnpvn v en v pva v ar n pp 1. In our travels we saw much to approve, and much to condemn. It is delightful to contemplate the goodness of n p v vpara nenva^ vnppn 2. Providence. He was known to have loved her. A merciful man or woman is unwilling to give pain to man en ara n a nv vp n ac a pvadvp n^pp n ^ 3 or beast. The good parent's greatest joy is to see his children wise and virtuous. We dare not leave our studies without permis- pvadv n vhpv vpppt a v ara v * -ii 4. sion. We need not urge Charles to do good; he loves to do it. They being willing to improve, the study was rendered agreeable. n v p v n n ar v a n ad a ... c a v _ yarad a n 5. Compassion prompted us to relieve Norman's wants. A young man, so learned and virtuous, promises to be a very useful member ppn e ncan ypyarnn v ar 6. of society. Neither threatenings nor any promises could make him violate the truth. Darwin is supposed to have written the n ad p y pp n 7. letter, when he was at college. BOOK FIRST. LESSON 5.— FOR THE IMPERATIVE MOOD. The imperative mood commands, exhorts, or entreats ; as, learn, learn thou, or do thou learn. A verb in the imperative mood always agrees with tkon, ye, or goti, for its nominative, [generally understood.] p Si V a v ar n pp p n cv ad ar a pp p a ccn v p r 1. "My son," says Solomon, " hear the counsel of thy father, and forsake not the law of thy mother ; and if sinners entice thee to sin, v p ad c v ar a c v p a vac n cv pad n 2. consent thou not,— but fear the Lord and keep his commandments : get wisdom and understanding, and forsake them not" Martha v pp ,p a p v pp ar !i p v a ad vpppaaaavpp & said to her daughters, who went to a boarding-school, " You must be diligent ; also, engrave on your minds this sacred rule, ehaved like cowards, and all ran home but me. 75. Can we, untouched by *One fourth of a Roman mile. ^Doubtful — though in accordance with History. gratitude, view the profusion of good, which the Almighty hand bestows around us ? 76. This is the boy that steals apples* 77. If he and she were at home yesterday, he or' she is at home to-day, 78. Some talk of subjects they do not understand, others praise virtue who do not practise it. 79. George, let the lady hear you read, and then we will go home. 80. "An honest man is the no- blest work of God." " Helen's matchless charms Made nations fly to amis.'* LESSON 7. Obidah, the son of Abensina, left the caravansera early in the morning, and pursued his- journey through the plains of Indostan. He was fresh and vigorous with rest ; he was animated with hope ; he was incited by desire ; he walked swiftly forward over the val- leys, and saw the hills gradually rising before him. As he passed along, his ears were delighted with the morning song of the bird of paradise ; he was fanned by the last flutters of the sinking breeze, and sprinkled with dew from groves of spiees. He sometimes con- templated the towering height of the oak, monarch of the hills ; and sometimes caught the gentle fragrance of the primrose,, eldest daughter of the spring ; all his senses were gratified, and all care was banished from his heart. — Extract. LESSON 8. Omar, the son of Hassan, had passed seventy-five years, in hon- or and prosperity. The favor of three successive calif's had filled his house with gold and silver ; and wherever he appeared, the benedictions of the people proclaimed his passage. Terrestrial happiness is of short continuance. The brightness of the flame is wasting its fuel ; the fragrant flower is passing away in its own odors. The vigor of Omar began to fail ; the curls of beauty fell from his head ; strength departed from his hands, and agility from his feet. He gave back to the calif the keys of trust, and the seals of secrecy ; and sought no other pleasure for the remains of life, than the converse of the wise, and the grati- tude of the good. The powers of his mind were yet unimpaired. His chamber was filled with visitants, eager to catch the dictates of experience, and officious to pay the tribute of admiration. Caled, the son of the viceroy of Egypt, entered every day early, and retired late. He was beautiful and eloquent. Omar admired his wit, and loved his docility. " Tell me," said Caled, " thou to whose voice nations have listened, and whose wisdom is known to the extremities of Asia, tell me how 1 may resemble Omar the prudent." — Extract. LESSON 9. The midnight moon serenely smiles O'er Nature's soft repose ; No low'ring cloud obscures the sky, Nor ruffling tempest blows. Now every passion sinks to rest, The throbbing heart lies still ; And varying schemes of life no more Distract the lab'ring will. — Extract. The trembling grove confessed its fright, The wood-nymphs started at the sight ; The muses drop the learned lyre, And to their inmost shades retire. I lowe'er, the youth witli forward air, Bows to the sage, and mounts the car. The lash resounds, the coursers spring, The chariot marks the rolling ring; And gath'ring crowds, with eager eves And shouts, pursue him as he flies. Triumphant to the goal returned, With nobler thirst his bosom burned, And now along the indented plain, The self-same track he marks again, Pursues with care the nice design, Nor ever deviates from the line. Amazement seized the circling crowd ; The youths with emulation glowed ; Ev'n bearded sages hailed the boy ; And all but Plato gazed with joy, — Extract. LESSON 10. Remote from cities lived a swain, Unvexed with all the cares of gain ; His head was silvered o'er with age, And long experience made him sage. In summer's heat and winter's cold, He fed his flock and penned the fold ; His hours in cheerful labor flew, Nor envy nor ambition knew ; His wisdom and his honest fame Through all the country raised his name. A deep philosopher (whose rules Of moral life were drawn from schools) The shepherd's homely cottage sought, And thus explored his reach of thought : ■" "Whence is thy learning ? Hath thy toil O'er books consumed the midnight oil ? Hast thou old Greece and Rome surveyed And the vast sense of Plato weighed ? Hath Socrates thy soul refined ? And hast thou fathomed Tully's mind ? Or, like the wise Ulysses, thrown, By various fates, on realms unknown, Hast thou through many cities strayed, Their customs, laws, and manners weighed ? The shepherd modestly replied, " I ne'er the paths of learning tried ; Nor have I roamed in foreign parts, To read mankind, their laws and arts ; For man is practised in disguise, He cheats the most discerning eyes." — Extract. LESSON 11. PARAPHRASE OX THE TWEXTT-THIRD PSALM. The Lord my pasture shall prepare, And feed me with a shepherd's care ; His presence shall my wants supply, And guard me with a watchful eye ; My noon-day walks he shall attend, And all my midnight hours defend. When in the sultry glebe I faint, Or on the thirsty mountains pant : To fertile vales, and dewy meads, My weary wand'ring steps he leads ; Where peaceful rivers, soft and slow, Amid the verdant landscape flow. Though in the paths of death I tread, With gloomy horrors overspread, My steadfast heart shall fear no ill, For thou, O Lord, art with me still ; Thy friendly crook shall give me aid, And guide, me through the dreadful shade. Though in a bare and rugged way, Through devious, lonely wilds I stray, Thy bounty shall my pains beguile ; The barren wilderness shall smile, With sudden greens and herbage crowned, And streams shall murmur all around. — Addison. LESSON 12. A few examples, in which the same tvord, differently situated or applied, becomes different parts of speech. Damp air is injurious to health. Guilt sheds a damp upon our sprightliest hours. Let no disappointment damp your enterprise. Every being loves its like. The gospel makes like promises to all. I like to se» every human being happy. You should acquit yourselves like men. Those that would excel, must be attentive. I wish that that idea might be forcibly impressed. I wish that he would lend me that book that you sold him. I will submit, for submission brings peace. It is for our health to be temperate. We all hope to be happy hereafter. Hope is the last thing that dies in man. After a calm, we may expect a storm. It is easier to prevent passion than to calm it. A calm evening often succeeds a stormy day. Still waters are commonly the deepest. We should endeavor to still the angry passions. They are still afraid, though out of all danger. They returned before we expected them. She rode before her brother on a horse. He provided money for his journey. I will go, provided he will accompany me. It is much more blessed to give than to receive. Much money has been expended to little purpose. Where much is given, much will be required. The fair was numerously attended. His character is fair and honorable. The hail was very destructive. We hail you as friends and brothers. He has served them with his utmost ability. When we do our utmost, no more is required. Little things appear great to little minds. Little do the gay think of the misery around them. The scholars are employed in a very useful study. The industrious scholars study grammar. To-morrow may be better weather than to-day. I read to-day, but I shall write to-morrow. Mind what is dictated by Infinite Wisdom. Cultivate your mind, it will render old age happy. Bentlet. LESSON 13. GRATITUDE. When all thy mercies, my God, My rising soul surveys ; Transported with the view, I'm lost In wonder, love, and praise. Oh how shall words, with equal warmth, The gratitude declare, That glows within my ravish'd heart ! But thou canst read it there. Thy providence my life sustained, And all my wants redress'd, When in the silent womb I lay, And hung upon the breast. To all my weak complaints and cries, Thy mercy lent an ear, Ere yet my feeble thoughts had learned To form themselves in prayer. Unnumbered comforts to my soul Thy tender care bestowed, Before my infant heart conceived From whence those comforts flowed. When in the slipp'ry paths of youth, With heedless steps I ran, Thine arm, unseen, conveyed me safe, And led me up to man. Through hidden dangers, toils and death, It gently cleared my way, And through the pleasing snares of vice, More to be feared than they. When worn with sickness, oft hast thou With health renew'd my face ; And when in sin and sorrow sunk, Reviv'd my soul with grace. Thy bounteous hand with worldly bliss Has made my cup run o'er, And in a kind and faithful friend Has doubled all my store. Ten thousand thousand precious gifts My daily thanks employ ; Nor is the least a cheerful heart, That tastes those gifts with joy. Through every period of my life Thy goodness I'll pursue ; And after death, in distant worlds, The glorious theme renew. When nature fails, and day and night Divide thy works no more, My ever grateful heart, O Lord, Thy mercy shall adore. Through all eternity, to Thee A joyful song I'll raise ; For, O, eternity's too short, To utter all thy praise. — Addison. LESSON 14. OX PRIDE. Of all the causes which conspire to blind Man's erring judgment, and misguide the mind, What the weak head with strongest bias rules, Is Pride, the never-failing vice of fools. Whatever Nature has in worth denied, She gives in large recruits of needful pride ; For, as in bodies, thus in souls we find What wants in blood and spirits, swell'd with wind. Pride, where wit fails, steps in to our defence, And fills up all the mighty void of sense. If once right reason drives that cloud away, Truth breaks upon us with resistless day. Trust not yourself; but, your defects to know, Make use of ev'ry friend — and ev'ry foe. A little learning is a dangerous thing ; Drink deep, or taste not the Pierian spring. There shallow draughts intoxicate the bt'&tif And drinking largely sobers us again. Fir'd at first sight with what the Muse imparls* In fearless youths We tempt the heights of arts, While' from the bounded level of our mind, Short views we take,- nor see th6 lengths behind p But more advanc'd, behold, with stfange' surprise* New distant scenes of endless science rise. So, pleas'd at first, the towering Alps we try, Mount o'er the vales, and seem to tread the sky ; Th' eternal snows appear already past, And the first clouds and mountains seem the last ; But those attain'd, we tremble to survey The growing labors of the lengthen'd way ; Th' increasing prospect tires our wandering eyes, Hills peep o'er hills, and Alps on Alps arise. What conscience dictates to be done, Or warns me not to do ; This, teach me more than hell to shun, • That, more than heaven, pursue. — Pope, LESSON 15. SELFISHNESS REPROVED. Has God, thou fool ! work'd solely for thy good, Thy joy, thy pastime, thy attire, thy food ? Who for thy table feeds the wanton fawn, For him as kindly spread the flow'ry lawn. Ts it for thee, the lark ascends and sings? Joy tunes his voice, joy elevates his wings- Is it for thee, the linnet pours his throat ? Loves of his own, and raptures, swell the note. The bounding steed you pompously bestride, Shares with his lord the pleasure and the pride. Is thine alone the seed that strews the plain ? The birds of heav'n shall vindicate their grain. Thine the full harvest of the golden year ? Part pays, and justly, the deserving steer. The hog, that ploughs not, nor obeys thy call, Lives on the labors of this lord of all. Know, Nature's children all divide her care ; The fur that warms a monarch, warm'd a bear. While man exclaims, " See all things for my use !" " See man for mine !" replies a pamper'd goose. And just as short of reason he must fall, Who thinks all made for one, not one for all. Grant that the pow'rful still the weak control ; Be man the wit and tyrant of the whole ; Nature that tyrant. checks ; he only knows, And helps another creature's wants and woes. Say, will the falcon, stooping from above, Smit with her varying plumage, spare the dove ? Admires the jay the insect's gilded wings ? Or hears the hawk when Philomela sings ? Man eares for all ; to birds he gives his woods, To beasts his pastures, and to fish his floods. For some his int'rest prompts him to provide, For more his pleasure, yet for more his pride. All feed on one vain patron, and enjoy Th' extensive blessings of his luxury. That very life his learned hunger craves, He saves from famine, from the savage saves ; Nay, feasts the animal he dooms his feast ; And, till he ends the being, makes it blest ; Which sees no more the stroke, nor feels the pain, Than favor'd man by touch ethereal slain. BOOK FIRS?. 13 The creature had his feast of life before ; Thou, too, must perish when thy feast is o'er. — Pope. LESSON 16. PROVIDENCE VINDICATED IN THE PRESENT STATE OP MAN. Heav'n from all creatures hides the book of fate, All but the page prescrib'd their present state ; From brutes what men, from men what spirits know, Or Who could suffer being here below ? The lamb thy riot dooms to bleed to-day, Had he thy reason, would he skip and play ? Pleas'd to the last, he crops the flow'ry food, And licks the hand just rais'd to shed his blood. Oh, blindness to the future ! kindly given, That each may fill the circle mark'd by Heav'n ; Who sees with equal eye, as God of all, A hero perish, or a sparrow fall ; Atoms or systems into ruin hurl'd, And now a bubble burst, and now a world. Hope humbly then ; with trembling pinions soar ; Wait the great teacher Death ; and God adore. What future bliss, he gives not thee to know, But gives that hope to be thy blessing now. Hope springs eternal in the human breast, Man never is, but always to be blest : The soul, uneasy, and confin'd from home, Bests and expatiates in a life to come. Lo, the poor Indian ! whose untutor'd mind Sees God in clouds, or hears him in the wind ; His soul proud science never taught to stray Far as the Solar Walk or Milky Way ; Yet simple nature to his hope has giv'n, Behind the cloud-topt hill, an humbler heav'n ; Some safer world in depth of woods embrac'd, Some happier island in the wat'ry waste, Where slaves once more their native land behold, No fiends torment, no Christians thirst for gold. To be contents his natural desire ; He asks no angel's wing, no seraph's fire ; But thinks, admitted to that equar sky, His faithful dog shall bear him company. Go, wiser thou ! and in thy scale of sense, Weigh thy opinion against Providence ; Call imperfection what thou fanciest such, Say here he gives too little, there too much. In pride, in reas'ning pride, our error lies : All quit their sphere, and rush into the skies. Pride still is aiming at the blest abodes, Men would be angels, angels would be gods ; Aspiring to be gods, if angels fell, Aspiring to be angels, men rebel ; And who but wishes to invert the laws Of order, sins against th' eternal cause. — Pope. ADDRESSED TO ALL YOUNG LADIES AND GENTLEMEN WHO MAY STUDY THIS BOOK. " Labor for learning before you're too old ; As knowledge is better than silver or gold ; For silver and gold will vanish away, But learning's a. jewel that never'll decay." SB OOND- Grammar is the art of speaking and writing correctly. It is divided into four parts : — Orthography, Etymology, Syntax and Prosody. Orthography teaches the nature and powers of letters, and the just method of spelling words. Etymology treats of the different sorts of words, their various modifications, and their derivation. Stntax treats of the agreement, government, and proper arrangement of words and sentences. Prosody treats of the just pronunciation of words, and the laws of versification. ORTHOGRAPHY. A Letter is the first principle, or least part of a word. There are twenty-six letters in the English language, called the English Alphabet, namely, a, b, c, d, e,f, g, h, i, j, k, I, m, n, o,p, q, r, s, t, u, v, w, x, y, z ; and these are divided into vowels and consonants. A vowel is a letter which makes a full and distinct sound of itself. The vowels are a, e, i, o, u ; and w and y are considered as vowels, except at the beginning of words. A consonant is a letter which cannot make a distinct sound, without the help of a vowel. All letters except the vowels are consonants. Consonants are sometimes divided into mutes and semivowels. The mutes cannot be sounded at all without the help of a vowel. They are, b, p, t, d, h, and c and g hard. The semivowels have an imperfect sound of themselves. They are/, /, m, n, r, v, s, z, x, and c and g soft. Four of the semivowels, namely, /, m, n, r, are also distinguished by the name of liquids, from their readily uniting with other con- sonants, and flowing, as it were, into their sounds. A diphthong is the union of two vowels in one syllable ; as, ou in sound. A triphthong is the union of three vowels in one syllable ; as, eau in beauty. A proper diphthong is that in which both the vowels are sound- ed ; as, oi in voice. An improper diphthong has but one of the vowels sounded ; as, ea in eagle. SOUNDS OF THE LETTERS. A. A has five sounds. First, the long slender English sound, as in fate, paper, Sec. : Second, the long Italian sound, as in far, fa- ther, pa-pa, ma-ma : Third, the broad German sound, as in fall, wall, wa-ter : Fourth, the short Italian sound, as in fat, mat, mar- ry : Fifth, the long sound before r, as in care, fare, pare.* The long Italian sound of a is often styled the middle sound. * Although Walker makes no difference in the sound of a in Mayor and mare,— payer [one who pays] and pair,— prayer [one who prays] and prayer [a petition]— yet there is obviously a great difference; and I have taken the liberty of giving the Fifth sound of a, as above. There are two cases in which a varies from the above descrip- tion ; first, a in cedar and liar sounds like u short. Second, a in cabbage, fruitage, sounds like i short. Aa in proper names, generally, sounds like .« short ; as in Ba- laam, Canaan, Isaac ; but not in Baal, Gaal. Ae has the sound of long e. It is often found in Latin words. Some authors retain this form ; as, eenigma, (equator, JEsop, iVc. ; but others have laid it aside, and write enigma, Cesar, Eneas, &c Ai has the sound of a long First,f as in paid ; of a long Fifth, t A long FinU and a long Fifth, denote t\\o first nnd fifth sound of a. BOOK SECOND. 15 as in air ; of a short, in raillery ; of e short, in said, saith, again, waistcoat. Ao has the sound of a long First, as in gaol, pronounced jale. Au sounds like a long First, in guage; like o middle, in aunt, jaunt ; and like a broad, in laud, fraud, sauce, saucy. It has the sound of long o, in hautboy ; and that of o Bhort, in laurel, lau- danum, Sec Aw has always the sound of broad a ; as in bawl, scrawl, dawn, fawn, pawn* Ay, like its near relation ai, has the sound of a long First, as in day, pray, delay ; and of short c in says% B. B has but one unvaried sound, at the beginning, middle, and end of words ; as in baker, number, rhubarb. It is silent before t, and after m, in the same syllable ; as, lamb, debt, subtle. In other words, besides being silent, it lengthens the syllable ; as in climb, comb, tomb. c. C has two sounds ; hard like k, and soft like s. It is always sounded like k before a, o, and u ; as in cat, cot, cut, — and like s before e, i, and y ; as in cent, cider, cypher. It is also sounded like k before I, r, and t ; as in cloth, tract, craft. When c ends a word, or syllable, it is always hard, as in music, flaccid, siccity, pronounced mu-sik, flak-sid, sik-sity. It has sometimes the sound of sh ; as in ocean, social. C is silent in some words, as in Czar, victuals, indict. Ch is commonly sounded like tsh ; as in church, chin, chaff", charter : but in words derived from the Greek, it has the sound of k; as in chymist, scheme, chorus, chyle, distich : and in foreign names ; as, Achish, Baruch, Enoch, Sec It sounds like sh, after I, or n ; as, filch, branch, and in words derived from the French ; as in chaise, chagrin, chevalier, machine. Oh in arch, before a vowel, sounds like k; as in archangel, Archipelago, architect, archives, archetype ; except in arched, archery, archer, archenemy ': but be- fore a consonant it always sounds like tch ; as in archbishop, arch- duke, archpresbyter, Sec. In choir, and chorister, the ch is pro- nounced like qu ; in ostrich, like dgde, as if spelled ostridge. Ch is silent in schedule, schism, and yacht ; pronounced seddule, sizm, and got. D JD has one uniform sound, as in day, red ; unless it may be said to take the sound of t, in stuffed, stripped, Sec, pronounced stuff, stript, Sec. D, like t, to which it is so near related, when it comes after the accent, and is followed by the diphthongs ie, io, ia, or eou, slides in- to gzh, or the consonant j :* thus soldier, grandeur, are pronounced as if written sol-jer, gran-jeur ; and verdure, (where it must be re- membered that u is a diphthong,) as if written ver-jure ; and for the same reason, education is elegantly pronounced ed-jucation, although the accent comes after the d. But duke and reduce, pro- nounced juke and re-juce, where the accent is after the d, cannot be too much reprobated. E. E has two sounds. First, the long sound, as in me, here, me-tre, me-dium : Second, the short sound, as in met, let, get. E has a number of irregular sounds. It sounds like a long First, as in they, whey ; like a long Fifth, as in there, where, and e'er; like a middle, in clerk, sergeant, Sec; like i short, in yes, England, praises, faces, Sec. ; like u short, in her, and the unac- cented termination er, as in reader. E is always silent at the end of a word, except in monosyllables that have no other vowel ; as he, me, she ; or in word3 derived from the Greek ; as, catastrophe, * This rule is not universal. We are generally agreed in aspirating the d in comedian, and pronounce it comejean: but few, "if any, can bo found, who as- pirate in trajedmn, and pronounce it as if written trajejtan. epitome. It softens the foregoing consonants, and lengthens the preceding vowels ; as, force, rage, robe. Ea has the sound of a long First, as in great, steak ; of a long Fifth, as in bear, pear, swear, wear ; of a middle, in dearn, heart, hearth ; of e long, as in eat, beat, deacon, treason, plead, bohea ; and e short, in head, bread, cleanly, Sec Eau has the sound of long o ; as in beau, flambeau, portmanteau. In beauty and its compounds, it has the sound of long u. Ee sounds like e long, as in seek, sweet; and like i short, in been. Mi sounds like a long First, in vein, reign, feign, deign, reigns, eight, weight, veil, streight, freight, feint, skein, neigh, Sec. ; like a long Fifth, in heir, their ; like e long, in ceil, seize, fiend, deceit, either, neither, leisure, obeisance; like e short, in heifer; like i long, in height, sleight ; like i short, in teint , forfeit, surfeit, sove~ reignty, &c. Eo sounds like e long, in people ; like e short, in leopard, jeop- ardy ; and in the law terms, feoffee, feoffer, feoffment ; like o long, in yeoman ; and like u short, in surgeon, sturgeon, dudgeon, gud- geon, Sec Eu sounds like u long, in feud, deuce, eulogy, pleurisy. When it follows r, it sounds like oo ; as in rheum, rheumatism. Ew sounds like u long,.iny*ew, new, dew, Sec, pronounced fa, du, nu; and after j, r, or ch, it sounds like oo ; as in Jew, crew, chew ; like o long, in sew, shew, strew, shewn, shewbread. Ey, when the accent is on it, is always sounded like a long First, as in Bey, Bey, grey, prey, they, trey, whey, obey, convey, survey, purvey, Sec, except in key, ley, where it sounds like e long. When this diphthong is unaccented, it takes the sound of long e / as, al- ley, valley, barley. Eye sounds like i long. F. F has always the same sound ; as in fair ; except in of, where it sounds like v. G. G, like C, has two sounds, a hard and a soft one ; hard, as in gay, go ; soft, like j, as in gentle, giant. It has generally its soft sound before e, i, and y. In other situations, it has, generally, its hard sound, except when preceded by d, or followed by e. It is silent when it comes before m or n ; as in reign, gnat, foreign, as- sign, arraign, Sec Gh, at the beginning of a word, has the sound of the hard g ; as, ghost, ghastly, aghast, gherkin ; in the middle, and, sometimes, at the end, it is quite silent ; as in right, high, plough, mighty. At the end, it has often the sound of f ; as in laugh, cough, tough, enough, rough ; or like k, in hough, lough, shough, pronounced hock, lock, shock. Sometimes the g only is sounded ; as in burgh, burgh- er. Gn, at the end of a word, or syllable accented, gives the pre- ceding vowel a long sound ; as in resign, impugn, oppugn, impregn, impugned ; pronounced impune, imprene, Sec. H. H does not represent any particular sound, but is a mere effort of the breath, which modifies the sound of the following vowel ; as horse, heave, hat. It is always silent after r, and, frequently, when preceded by a vowel; as, rhetoric, rhyme, rhapsody, myrrh, fore- head. H final, preceded by a vowel, is always silent ; as, ah ! hah ! oh ! foh ! Sarah, Mesiah. At the beginning of words, it is always sounded, except in heir, heiress, honest, honesty, honor, honorable, herb, herbage, hospital, hostler, hour, humble, humor, hu- morous, humorsome. I. I has two sounds. First, the long diphthongal sound ; as in pine, title : Second, the short simple sound ; as in pin, tit-tie. It has a number of irregular sounds. Before r, it often sounds like u short, as in frst, flirt, sir. In some words it has the sound of e long ; as in fatigue, caprice, tontine, machine, bombazine, magazine. In a few words, it sounds like short a ; as in sirrah. 16 BOOK SECOND, id is frequently sounded like ya ; as in Christian, filial, pon- iard; pronounced Christ-yan, Sec. It has sometimes the sound of short % >• as in carriage, marriage, Parliament. le sounds like e long, in fiend, grieve, thieve fief liege, chief, field, grenadier ; like e short, in friend, tierce ; liket long, in die, hie, lie, pie, tie, vie ; like i short, in sieve. Ieii and iew, have the sound of long u ; as in Hew, view, adieu, purlieu. In one word, lieutenant, these letters are pronounced like short e, as if written lev-tenant. lo, when the accent is upon the first vowel, forms two distinct syllables; as, priory, violet, violent. The terminations tion, and sion, are sounded exactly like the word shun, except when the t is preceded by s or x ; as in question, digestion, combustion, mixtion, Sec. lou is sometimes pronounced distinctly in two syllables ; as in bilious, carious, abstemious : but these vowels often coalesce into one syllable, pronounced like shus ; thus, precious, factious, noxious, are sounded as if written presh-us, fac-shus, nok-shus. J. J sounds exactly like soft g ; except in hallelujah, where it has the sound of y. It is never silent. K- K has exactly the sound of hard c, and is used before e and i, where, according to English analogy, c would be soft ; as, kept king, skirts. It is silent hefore n, as in knife, know, knell, knocker. It is sometimes double in proper names ; as, Akkub, Bukkiah, Ha- bakkuk, Sec. ; but c is used before it, to shorten the vowel by a double consonant ; as, cockle, pickle, sucker. L. L has always a soft liquid sound ; as in love, billow, quarrel. Some irregularities attend this letter. It has the power of r in colonel, and is generally silent before /, k, m, and v , when preceded by a ; as in half, calf, behalf, talk, chalk, walk, folks, psalm, salmon, almond, calve, halve. It is silent in halser, chaldron, falcon, Sec, and in the auxiliary verbs could, would, should. The custom is to double the / at the end of monosyllables; as, mill, will, fall', ex- cept when a diphthong precedes it as, hail, toil, soil. Le, at the end of words, is pronounced like a weak el ; in which e is almost silent; as, table, shuttle. M. M has always the same sound : as, murmur, monumental ; ex- cept in comptroller, which is pronounced controller. N. N has two sounds : the one simple and pure ; as in man, net, Sec ; the other compounded and mixed like ng, as in hang, thank. The latter sound is heard when it is followed by c hard, g, k, q, or x\; as in concord, anger, blanket, conquer, lynx. N is silent when it ends a syllable, and is preceded by / or m ; as, kiln, hymn, limn, solemn, column, autumn, condemn, contemn. o. has four sounds. First, the long open sound ; as in no, note, notion. Second, the long close sound ; as in move, prove, which corresponds to the double o : Third, the long broad sound ; as in nor, for, or: Fourth, the short broad sound; as in not, hot, got. The long close sound of o is often styled the middle sound. Oa sounds like o long, in moat, boat, coat, oat, Sec ; and like a broad, in groat, broad, abroad, Sec. Oe sounds like o long, in doe, roe, foe, toe ; like oo in canoe, shoe, Sec; like u short, in does. It lias sometimes the sound of I ng e ; as in Phcetiix, foetus, Antceci ; and sometimes of short e ; in ceconomics, ecumenical. as 0% has almost universally the double sound of a broad and e long united ; as in boil, spoil, toil, oil, soil, joint, point, anoint ; which should never be pronounced as if written bile, spile, Sec. Oo almost always preserves its regular sound ; it is pronounced long, as in moon, soon, fool, rood, food, mood, Sec. This is its reg- ular sound. It sounds like o long, in door, floor, pronounced dore, flore : like u middle, in wool, wood, good, hood, foot, stood, under- stood, withstood, Sec, and like u short, in blood, flood. Ou has seven different sounds. The first and proper sound is equivalent to ow in down ; as in bound, found, surround, Sec. The second is that of short u ; as in enough, cousin, double, trouble, ad- journ, journey, touchy, courage, encourage, couple, scourge, flourish, nourish, southern, southward, country, famous, Sec. The third is that of oo ; as in soup, youth, bouse, bousy, surtout, croup, group, uncouth, wound, (a hurt,) throughly, you, your, amour, paramour, tour, tournament, rendezvous, accoutre, billetdoux, &c. The fourth is that of long o ; as in though, although, coulter, court, poultice, soul, source, resource, mourn, bourn, shoulder, borough, thorough, Sec. The fifth is like the noun awe, and is heard only in ought, bought, brought, sought, besought, fought, nought, thought, methought, wrought. The sixth sound is that of short oo, or the middle u, as heard only in the auxiliary verbs could, would, should, rhyming with good, hood, stood. The seventh sound is that of short o, and heard only in cough and trough, pronounced cof, trof; and in lough, shough, pronounced lock and shock. Ow is generally sounded like ou in thou ; as in vow, now, how, cow, sow, clown, frown, town, crown, drown, power, powder, vowel, prowess. It sounds like o long, in grow, blow, show, know, snow, flown, growth, low, below, owner, bestower, Sec. Oy is but another form for oi, and is pronounced exactly like it. P. P has but one sound, as in pen. It is. silent before s, and also before t, when preceded by m, as in psalter, empty. Ph is generally sounded like' jf ; as in philosophy, phantom, Sec. In nephew and Stephen, it has the sound of v. In diphthong, and triphthong, the sound of p only is heard ; in phthisis, phthisic, and phthisical, both letters are silent. In sapphire, the first p slides into ph. Q. Q has always the sound of k. It is constantly followed by u, pronounced like w ; and its general sound is heard in quack, quill, queen, Sec, pronounced kwack, kwill, kween, Sec Qu is sometimes sounded like k ; as in conquer, liquor, pro- nounced konkur, &c. R. R has two sounds, one rough, as in Rome, rage ; the other smooth, as in bard, card. Re, at the end of many words, is pronounced like a weak er ; as in theatre, sepulchre, massacre. s. S has two different sounds ; one a sharp, hissing sound, at the beginning of words ; as saint, sister, sell, sun ; the other, a soft and flat sound, like z ; as in is, his, was, these, those, commas. At the end of words it generally takes the soft sound. It sounds like z, before ion, if a vowel go before it ; as, intrusion ; but like * sharp, if a consonant precede it ; as, conversion. These two sounds, ac- companied by the aspirate, or h, form all the varieties which are found in authors upon this letter. S is silent in isle, island, aisle, viscount, demesne. Sc has the power of sk, before a, o, u, and r ; as in scale, scoff, sculpture, scribble ; like soft s, before e, i, and y ; as in scene, sci- ence, Scythian. T. T generally sounds as in take, temper. 7 1 before u, where the accent precedes, sounds like tch, or tsh ; as in nature, virtue, pro- BOOK SECOND. 17 nounced as if written, na-tshure, or na-tchure, virtshue, or vir- ichue. The same may be observed of t, when followed by eou, or uou ; as in righteous, piteous, plenteous, unctuous, presumptuous, Sec, pronounced righ-tcheous, pit-cheous, plen-tcheolis, nng-tchiious, pre- sump-tchuous, Sec. Nor is this tendency of t before long u found only where the accent immediately precedes ; for we hear the same aspiration in this letter in spiritual, spirituous, signature, ligature, forfeiture, as if written spiritshual, spiritshuous, Sec, where the ac- cent is two syllables before these letters ; and the only termination which seems to refuse this tendency of the t to the aspiration, is that in iude ; as latitude, longitude, multitude, Sec. FV before a vowel, preceded by s, x, or n, has the sound of tch, or tsh; as in bestial, celestial, frontier, admixtion, Sec, pronounced bes- tchial, celes-tchial, fron-tcheer, admix-tchion ; but when not preceded by s, x, or n, it sounds like sh ; as in nation, patient, notion ; except in such words as tierce, tiara, Sec, and excepting also derivatives from words ending in ty ; as, mighty, mightier ; I pity, thov pitiest, he pities ; twentieth, thirtieth, Sec. T is silent when preceded by s, and followed by the abbreviated terminations en and le ; as in hasten, chasten, fasten, listen christen, moisten, castle, nestle, wrestle, thistle, xohistle, epistle, apostle, bustle, Sec, which are pronounced as if written hace'n, chace'n, cassle, nes- sle, Sec In often, and soften, the t is silent : also, in mortgage, bank- ruptcy. Th has two sounds, one soft and flat ; as, thus, whether, hither, thither, Sec ; the other sharp ; as, breath, thick, throne, panther, ethics, Thursday. Th is sometimes pronounced like simple t ; as, T horn- as, thyme, Thames, asthma, Sec u. XI has three sounds. First, the long diphthongal sound ; as in tube, cube, cubic ; Second, the short simple sound ; as in tub, cup, sup ; Third, the middle, or obtuse sound; as in bull, full, pull: In this sound we do not pronounce the latter part of u quite so long as the oo in pool, nor so short as the u in dull; but with a middle sound between both, which is the true short sound of the oo in coo and woo, as may be heard by comparing woo and wool; the latter of which is a perfect rhyme to bull. XI has some irregular sounds. "When u accented follows r, or ch, in the same syllable, it sometimes has the long sound of oo ; as in true, rule. It has the sound of e short, in bury, and burial; pro- nounced berry, berrial; and of i short, in business ; pronounced biz- ness. Ua sounds like wa, in assuage, persuade, antiquary ; like mid- dle a, in guard, guardian, guarantee. Tie sounds like u long, in clue, cue, due, blue, true, flue, pursue, Sec, like we in quench, querist, conquest, Sec In a few words it is pronounced like e short; as in guest, guess. In some words it is entirely sunk ; as in antique, oblique, prorogue, catalogue, dia- logue, Sec. Ui sounds like u long, in suit, sluice^juice, pursuit, Sec When ui follows b or g, the u is silent, and the g has its hard sound ; as in guide, guile, guild, build, guilt, disguise, beguile, guinea, Sec ; It sounds like wi, in languid, anguish, quickly, extinguish, Sec ; like oo in fruit, bruise, recruit, Sec Uo sounds like wo ; as in quote, quorum, quondum, Sec. Uy has the sound of long e; as in obloquy, soliloquy; pronounced obloquee, &c, except buy, and its derivatives. Uai has the sound of wa ; as in quail, quaint, acquaintance. Ilea and uee sound like wee ; as in squeak, squeal, squeamish, squeeze, queer, Sec Uoi and uoy sound like woi ; as in quoif, quoiffure, quoit, quoin, and buoy. V. Fhas the sound of flat// and bears the same relation to it as z does to s. It has one uniform sound, as in voice, vanity, love ; and if ever silent, it is in the word twelvemonth, where both that letter and the e, are, in colloquial pronunciation, generally dropped, as if written tweT month. w. W, when a consonant, has nearly the sound of oo ; as, water re- sembles ooater. W before h is pronounced as if it were after the h ; as in why, when ; pronounced hwy, hwen. W before r is always silent ; as in wrack, wrangle, wrap, wrath, Sec, and before h and the vowel o, when long, as whole, who, Sec, pronounced hole, hoo, Sec. In sword, and answer, it is always si- lent: also in the preposition toward, and towards, pronounced as if written toard, and toards, rhyming with hoard and hoards ; but in the adjectives and adverbs, toward and towardly, froward and fro- wardly, the w is heard distinctly. It is sometimes dropped in the last syllable of awkward, as if written awkard; but this pronuncia- tion is vulgar. W is often joined to o, at the end of a syllable, with- out affecting the sound of that vowel ; as, crow, blow, grow, know, row, tow, Sec X. X has three sounds, viz ; It is sounded like z at the beginning of proper names of Greek original ; as in Xanthus, Xenophon, Xerxes. It has a sharp sound like ks, when it ends a syllable with the ac- cent upon it ; as, exit, exercise, excellence ; or when the accent is on the next syllable, if it begin with a consonant ; as, excuse, extent, expense. It has, generally, a flat sound like gz, when the accent is not on it, and the following syllable begins with a vowel ; as, exert, exist, example ; pronounced, egzert, egzist, egzample. Y. Y, when a consonant, has always the same sound ; as in young ; but, as a vowel, it has different sounds. "When it follows a conso- nant, and ends a word or syllable, it sounds like i long, as in defy, tyrant, reply, Sec. ; but when the accent does not fall on it, then it is sounded like e long, as folly, vanity. z. Z sounds like the flat s; as in freeze, frozen, brazen. OF SYLLABLES AND THE RULES FOR ARRANGING THEM. A syllable is a sound, either simple or compounded, pro- nounced by a single impulse of the voice, and constituting a word, or part of a word ; as a, an, ant. Spelling is the art of rightly dividing words into their syllables, or of expressing a word by its proper letters. The following are the general rules for the division of words in- to syllables. 1. A single consonant between two vowels,'must be joined to the latter syllable ; as, de-light, bri-dal, re-source ; except the letter x ; as, ex-ist, ex-amine: and except likewise words compounded; as, up-on, un-even, dis-ease. 2. Two consonants proper to begin a word, must not be separa- ted ; as, fa-ble, sti-fk. But when they come between two vowels, 18 BOOK SECOND, and are such as cannot begin a word, they mnst be divided ; as, ut- most, un-der, insect, er-ror, cof-fin, 3. When three consonants meet in the middle of a word, if they can begin a word, and the preceding vowel be pronounced long, they are not to be separated ; as, de-throne, destroy. But when the vowel of the preceding syllable is pronounced short, one of the consonants always belongs to that syllable; as, dis-tract, dis-prove, dis-train. 4. When three or four consonants, which are not proper to be- gin a syllable, meet between two vowels, such of them as can begin a syllable belong to the latter, the rest to the former syllable ; as, abstain, com-plete, em-broil, dan-dler, dap-ple, constrain, handsome, parch^ment. 5. Two vowels, not being a diphthong, must be divided into sep- arate syllables ; as, cru-el, de-ni-al, so-ci-e-ty. 6. Compounded words must be traced into the simple words of which they are composed; as, ice-house, glow-worm, over-power, never-the-less. 7. Grammatical, and other particular terminations, are general- ly separated ; as, teach-est, teaeh-eth r teach-ing, teach-er, contend-est T great-er, wretch-ed, good-ness, free-dom, false-hood. OF WORDS IN GENERAL AND THE RULES FOR SPELLING THEM. Words are articulate sounds, used by common consent, as signs of our ideas. A word of one syllable is termed a Monosyllable ; a word of two syllables, a Dissyllable ; a word of three syllables, a Trisyllable ; and a word of four or more syllables, a Polysyllable. All words are either primitive or derivative. A primitive word is that which cannot be reduced to any sim- pler word in the language ; as, man, good, content. A derivative word is that which may be reduced to another word in English of greater simplicity ; as, manful, goodness, con- tentment, Yorkshire,* The orthography of the English Language is attended with much uncertainty and perplexity. But a considerable part of this inconvenience may be remedied, by attending to the general laws of formation ; and, for this end, the learner is presented with a view of such general maxims in spelling primitive and derivative words, as have been almost universally received. Rule 1. Monosyllables ending withy, I, or s, preceded by a single vowel, double the final consonant ; as, staff", mill, pass, Sec. The only exceptions are, of, if, as, is, has, was, yes, his, this, us, and thus. Rule 2. Monosyllables ending with any consonant but f I, or s, and preceded by a single vowel, never double the final consonant ; excepting add, ebb, butt, egg, odd, err, inn, bunn, purr, and buzz. Rule 3. Words ending with y, preceded by a consonant, form the plurals of nouns, the persons of verbs, verbal nouns, past partici- ples, comparatives, and superlatives, by changing y into i ; as, spy, spies ; I carry, thou carriest, he carrieth, or carries ; carrier, carri- ed; happy, happier, happiest. The present participle in ing, retains the y, that I may not be doubled ; as, carry, carrying ; bury, burying, Sec. But y, preceded by a vowel, in such instances as the above, is not changed; as, boy, boys ; I cloy, he cloys, cloyed, &c. ; except in lay, pay, and say ; from which are formed, laid, paid, and said; and their compounds, unlaid, unpaid, unsaid, Sec. Rule 4. Words ending with y, preceded by a consonant, upon assuming an additional syllable beginning with a consonant, com- monly change y into i ; as, happy, happily, happiness. But wheny * A compound word is included under the head of derivative words ; as, pen lenife, teacup, kokingglass ; may be reduced to other words of greater simplicity. is preceded by a vowel, it is very rarely changed in the additional syllable; as, coy, coyly; boy, boyish, boyhood; annoy, annoyer, an- noyance ; joy, joyless, joyful. Rule 5. Monosyllables and words accented on the last sylla- ble, ending with a single consonant preceded by a single vowe^ double that consonant, when they take another syllable beginning with a vowel; as, wit, witty ; thin, thinnish ; to abet, an abettor; to begin, a beginner. But if a diphthong precedes, or the accent is on the preceding syllable, the consonant remains single ; as, to toil, toiling ; to offer ^ an offering ; maid, maiden, Sec. Rule 6. Words ending with any double letter but I, and taking ness, less, ly, or ful, after them, preserve the letter double ; as, harmlessness, carelessness, carelessly, stiffly, successful, distressful, &c. But those words which end with double I, and take ness, less, tyifd, after them, generally omit one I; as, fulness, stilness, fully, skilful, Sec. Rule 7. Ness, less, ly, and fid, added to words ending with si- lent e, do not cut it off; as, paleness, guileless, closely, peaceful ; ex- cept in a few words ; as, duly, truly, awful. Rule 8. Ment, added to words ending with silent e, generally preserves the e from elision ; as, abatement, chastisement, incitement, Sec. The words judgment, abridgment, acknowledgment, are devia- tions from the rule. Like other terminations, ment changes y into i, when preceded by a consonant ; as, accompany, accompaniment ; merry, merriment. Rule 9. Able and ible, when incorporated into words ending with silent e, almost always cut it off; as, blame, blamable ; cure y curable ; sense, sensible ; Sec, but if c or g soft comes before e in the original word, the e is then preserved in words compounded with able ; as, change, changeable ; peace, peaceable, Sec. Rule 10. When ing or ish is added to words ending with silent e, the e is almost universally omitted; as, place, placing ; lodge, lodging; slave, slavish ; prude, prudish. Rule 11. Words taken into composition, often drop those let- ters which were superfluous in the simple words ; as, handful, dung- hil, withal, also, chilblain, Sec. ETYMOLOGY. There are, in English, ten sorts of words ; or, as they are commonly called, Parts of Speech, namely]: — Article, Noun, Pronoun, Ad- jective, Verb; Participle, Adverb, Preposition, Conjunction and Interjection, ARTICLE. An Article is a word placed before nouns to limit their signi- fication ; as, a garden, an eagle, the woman. There are two articles, « or an, and the. A or an is called the indefinite article. The is called the definite article. The indefinite article limits the noun to one of a kind, but, gen- erally, to no particular one ; as, give me a book ; that is, any book. The definite article limits the noun to one or more particular ob- ject ; as, give me the book ; that is, some particular book. NOUN. A Noun is a word which is the name of any person, place, or thing; as, John, London, house, virtue. Nouns are of two kinds, common and proper. Common nouns are the names of whole sorts or species ; as, man, horse, tree. Proper nouns are the names of individuals ; as, T/iomas, Jane, Ihston. To nouns belong gender, person, number, and case. Gender is the distinction of sex. There are three genders, the masculine, feminine, and neuter. The masculine gender denotes males ; as, man, boy, lion. The feminine gender denotes females ; as, woman, girl, lioness. The neuter gender denotes tilings without sex ; as, chair, peach, table. Person is the quality of the noun which modifies the verb. There are three persons, the first, second, and third. The first person denotes the person speaking; as, /learn. The second person denotes the person or thing spoken to; as, you learn. The third person denotes the person or thing spoken of; as, he learns. Nouns have but two persons, the second and third ; but pronouns have three. Number is the distinction of one from many. Nouns have two numbers, the singular and pluraL The singular number denotes but one object ; as, pen, booh. The plural number denotes more objects than one ; as, pens, books. Case is the different state or situation of nouns with regard to other words. Nouns have three cases, the nominative, possessive, and objective. The nominative case is the actor, or subject of the verb ; as, the boy runs ; it generally comes before the verb. The possessive case denotes property or possession ; it is general- ly formed by adding s to a noun with an apostrophe ; thus, John's book ; when the plural ends in s, the apostrophe only is added ; as, on eagles' wings. The objective case is the object on which the action of a verb or participle terminates, or the object of a preposition; as, Moses smote the rock with his rod; it generally comes after the verb or preposition. PRONOUN. A Pronoun is a word used instead of a noun, to avoid the too frequent repetition of the same word ; as, Dick is idle, and he must be punished. There are two kinds of pronouns, personal and relative. Personal pronouns stand immediately for the name of some per- son or thing; as, Mary has long lessons, and she learns them well. Relative pronouns relate directly to some noun or personal pro- noun, called the antecedent ; as, the boy who studies. They are who, whose, whom, which, what, and that. The same that belong to nouns, belong also to pronouns.* ADJECTIVE. An Adjective is a word which expresses some quality or pro- perty of a noun ; as, a good boy, a bad girl, a sweet apple. Pronominal adjectives are those which are sometimes used as ad- jectives, and sometimes as pronouns. Adjectives are varied only to express the degrees of comparison. They have three degrees of comparison, the positive, compara- tive, and superlative. The positive degree expresses the quality of an object without any increase or diminution ; as, wise, great, good. The comparative degree increases or lessens the positive in signi- fication ; as, wiser, greater, better. The superlative degree increases or lessens the positive in the highest or lowest degree ; as, wisest, greatest, best. Some adjectives do not admit of comparison ; as, chief, perfect, supreme, square, &c VERB. A Verb is awordwhieh expresses action or being; as, birds fly, he runs, I live. Verbs are of two kinds, transitive and intransitive.! They are also divided into regular, irregular, and defective. A transitive verb denotes action or energy which terminates on some object ; as, Peter struck Joseph. An intransitive verb denotes simple being or existence, or it de- notes action which is limited to the subject ; as, I am, he stands, the fish swims. Regidar verbs are those whose imperfect tense and perfect parti- ciple end in ed; as, loved. Irregular verbs are those whose imperfect tense and perfect parti- ciple do not end in ed; as, wrote, written. All monosyllables are irregular, unless compounded. *Except articles. fTo these may be added a combination of verbs called the passive form, denoting action received or endured by the person or thing which is the nominative ; as, Samuel was kicked by a horse. It is formed by adding the perfect participle of a transitive verb to the verb to be, through all its various changes of number, person, mood, and tense. " The common distribution into active, neuter, and passive," says Dr. Webster, " is very objectionable. Many of our neuter verbs imply action in a pre-eminent de- gree ; as, to run, to walk, to fly ; and the young learner cannot easily conceive why such verbs should not be called active. "The only distribution which seems to be correct, and sufficiently comprehensive, is into transitive and intransitive. " 20 BOOK SECOND. Defective verbs are those which are used only in some of their moods and tenses ; as, ought, quoth, &c. To verbs, belong mood, tense, number, and person. Mood is the manner of representing action or being. There are five moods, namely: the indicative, subjunctive, po- tential, infinitive, and imperative. The indicative mood simply indicates or declares a thing, or asks a question ; as, I learn. The subjunctive mood expresses action or being, in a doubtful or conditional manner ; as, if I learn. The potential mood declares the power, liberty, possibility, or ne- cessity of action or being ; as, I may, can, or must learn. The infinitive mood expresses a thing in a general and unlimited manner, having no nominative, consequently, neither number nor person ; as, I should like to learn. The imperative mood commands, exhorts, or entreats ; as, learn, learn thou, or do thou learn. Tense is the division of time. There are six tenses, namely ; the present, imperfect, perfect, pluperfect, first future, and second future. The present tense denotes present time ; as, I write. The imperfect tense denotes past time, however distant; as, I wrote yesterday. The perfect tense denotes past time, but also conveys an allusion to the present; as, I have written to-day. The pluperfect tense denotes past time, but as prior to some other past time specified ; as, I had written before the messenger arrived. The first future tense denotes future time ; as, I shall write to- morrow. The second future tense denotes future time, but as prior to some other future time specified ; as, I shall have written before the post arrives. PARTICIPLE. A Participle is a word derived from a verb, and partakes of the nature of the verb, adjective, and noun ; as, I heard a child cry- ing ; I saw a letter written by William. Participles are of two kinds, present and perfect. The present participle denotes present time, and generally ends in ing ; as, loving. The perfect participle denotes past time, and, in regular verbs, corresponds exactly with the imperfect tense ; as, loved. Participles, like verbs, have a transitive, intransitive, and passive signification. ADVERB. An Adverb is a word generally used to qualify or modify the sense of verbs; as, the man fought bravely; the birds fly swiftly. It sometimes qualifies participles, adjectives, and other adverbs ; as, studying diligently, she committed her lesson ; extremely cold weath- er; he learns very rapidly. Some adverbs admit of comparison; as, soon, sooner, soonest. PREPOSITION. A Preposition is a word which serves to connect words, and show the relation between them, or to show the condition of things ; as, a bird on the tree ; a squirrel in the cage. CONJUNCTION. A Conjunction is a word that is chiefly used to connect sen- tences, joining two or more simple sentences into one compound one ; as, Henry works and George plays ; Jack will study or go to sea. INTERJECTION. An Interjection is a word used to express passion or emotion ; usually that which is violent or sudden ; as, oh! alas! ah! hush! lo! fie! O! behold! When Oh is used as an interjection, the poinfis generally placed immediately afler it ; but when is employed, the point is placed after one or more intervening words; as, " Oh! my offence is rank, it smells to heaven !" " But thou, hope ! with eyes so fair. " _ Note. Nouns composed of two or more words, separated by hyphens, are some- times called compound nouns ; as,- railroad,,- tea-pot f &c— those with some title added to them, complex notions ; as, Mr. Jones, Gen. Taylor, Judge White, J. Phelps, Esq., Dr. John Gilbert, &c. — those which are the names of some quality, ab- stract nouns ; as, virtue,- vice, cheerfulness, vanity, charity, goodness, &c. — those de- noting multitude, or many united in one body, collective nouns ; as, an army, a Jtock, a council, an assembly, &c. ; and those derived from verbs, verbal or participial nouns ; as, the ringing of bells, the singing of birds, &c. N. B. All the above, ex- cept complex nouns, [proper] are classed under the general head of common nouns. DECLENSION OF NOUNS. Sing. Nom. king Poss. king's Obj. king. Plu. Nom. kings Poss, kings' Obj. kings. Sing. Nom. man Poss. man's Obj. man. Plu. Nom. men Poss. men's Obj. men. Number. The plural .number of nouns is generally formed by adding*, or es 3 to the singular; as, book, books ; fox, foxes. All nouns which form their plurals in this manner, are called regular ; those which deviate from this, are called irregular. A CATALOGUE OF IRREGULAR NOUNS. Singular. Plural. Man, Men. woman, women, brother, brothers or brethren. ox, oxen, mouse, mice, tooth, teeth, beau, beaux, child, children, die, dice.* louse, lice, goose, geese. Many nouns, ending in f or fe, form their plurals by changing the termination into ves ; as, leaf, leaves ; wife, wives ; beef, beeves. Nouns ending with y, preceded by a consonant, change the y in- to ies ; as, lady, ladies; cherry, cherries; those preceded by a vowel have the regular plural ; as, attorney, attorneys ; turkey, turkeys. Some nouns have no plural ; as, wheat, gold, pride, milk, water, wine, &c. ;J and some have no singular ; as, ashes, tongs, shears. Others are alike in both numbers ; as, sheep, swine, deer, salmon, trout. N. B. Some of those having a plural ending only, may be used in the singular or plural ; as, bellows, gallows, &c. News and molasses are always singular. GENDER. The English language has three methods of distinguishing sex, namely: 1. By different words; as, Singular. Plural. Foot, Feet. criterion, criteria. phenomenon, parenthesis, ellipsis, emphasis, hypothesis, basis, phenomena. parentheses ellipses. emphases. hypotheses. bases. axis, axes. genius, radius, genii.f radii. Male. Female. Male. Female, Bachelor, Maid. Landlord, Landlady. beau, belle. lord, lady. boy, girl. man, woman. brother, sister. master, miss. buck, doe. master, mistress. drake, duck. nephew, niece. earl, countess. papa, mamma. father, mother. singer, songstress or singer. friar or monk, nun. sloven, slut. gander, goose. stag, hind. gentleman, lady. wizard, witch. lad, lass. * Small cubes for gaming:— die, used to stamp coin, has the regular plural ; as, die, dies. . t Genii, when denoting aerial spirits, gemmis when signifying persons of genius. JExcept when different kinds or varieties are spoken of ; as, ths u-ines of Europe, the teas of China. BOOK SECOND. 21 2. By a difference of termination ; as, Male. Female. Male. Female. Abbot, Abbess. Jew, Jewess, actor, actress. landgrave, landgravine, author, authoress. lion, lioness, administrator, administratrix, margrave, margravine, adulterer, adulteress. marquis, , marchioness, ambassador, ambassadress, monitor, monitress. arbiter, arbitress. mayor, mayoress, baron, baroness. negro, negress, bridegroom, bride. patron, patroness, benefactor, benefactress. peer peeress, carterer, carteress. poet, poetess, chanter, chantress. priest, priestess, conductor, conductress. prince, princess, count, countess. prior, prioress, czar, czarina prophet, prophetess, dauphin, dauphiness. protector, protectress, deacon, deaconess. shepherd, shepherdess, don, donna. songster, songstress, duke, duchess. sorcerer, sorceress, [tana, emperor, empress. sultan, sultaness or sul- enchanter, enchantress. tailor, tailoress. executor, executrix. testator, testatrix, editor, editress. tiger, tigress, giant, giantess. traitor, traitoress. governor, governess. tutor, tutoress, hero, heroine. viscount, viscountess, hunter, huntress. votary, votaress, host, hostess. widower, widow, instructer, instructress. 3. By prefixing some word indicating sex ; as, A man-servant, A maid-servant. A male-child, A female-child. A he-goat, A she-goat. The same noun is sometimes masculine and sometimes feminine. The words parent, child, cousin, friend, neighbor, servant, and seve- ral others, are used indifferently for males and females. Note. Some nouns, naturally neuter, are, by a figure of speech, converted in- to the masculine or feminine gender, as when we say of the sun, he is setting; and of a ship, she sails well. Figuratively, those nouns which are, by nature, strong and powerful, or conspicuous for the attributes of imparting or communicating, are called masculine ; as, Time, Death, the Sun, &c. Those which are peculiarly amiable or beautiful, or conspicuous for the attributes of containing or bringing forth, are called feminine ; as, Virtue, Fortune, Ship, the Earth, the Moon, &c. Case. When the possessive singular ends in es, or ss, the apos- trophe only is generally added ; as, Achilles' shield, for goodness' sake, Moses' rod. Also, in singulars not ending in s, which would occasion too much of a hissing sound, or increase the difficulty of pronunciation, the s is generally omitted ; as, for conscience' sake, Ajax' shield. Note. When the letter $, added as a sign of the possessive, will not coalesce with the name, it adds a syllable ; as, Thomas's bravery — pronounced as if writ- ten Thomases ; the church's property, churches property. DECLENSION OF THE PERSONAL PRONOUNS. FIRST PERSON. Sing. Nom. I, Poss. my or mine,* Obj. me. Plu. Nom. we, Poss. our or ours, Obj. us. SECOND PERSON. Sing. Nom. thou, Poss. thy or thine, Obj. thee. Plu. Nom. ye or you.f Poss. your or yours. Obj. you. THIRD PERSON. Sing. Nom. he, Poss. his, Obj. him. Plu. Nom. they, Poss. their or theirs, Obj. them. * My, thy, your, &c, become mine, thine, yours, when the nouns which they possess are not expressed ; thus, instead of saying, this is my book, we may say this is mine. t The pronoun you was formerly used in the plural number only, and is still classed as such in Murray and others, but it is now generally used in the singular number also— the sense alone determining the difference ; as, girls, you were in fault— or Kate, you were in fault. THIRD PERSON. Sing. Nom. she, Poss. her or hers, Obj. her. Plu. Nom. they, Poss. their or theirs, Obj. them. THIRD PERSON. Sing. Nom. it, Poss. its, Obj. it. Plu. Nom. they, Poss. their or theirs, Obj. them. "When the noun self is added to the personal pronouns, as him- self, myself, itself, themselves, Sec, they are used indifferently in the nominative or objective case, but have no possessive. DECLENSION OF THE RELATIVE PRONOUNS. Singular and Plural. Nom. who, Poss. whose, Obj. whom. Nom. whoever, Poss. whosever, Obj. whomever. Nom. whosoever, Poss. whosesoever, Obj. whomsoever. Which, what, and that, are of both numbers, and are used in the nom- inative or objective case, but have no possessive; except that whose is sometimes used as the possessive of which ; as, " The tree whose mortal taste brought death." When the word ever or soever is an- nexed to the relatives, they are sometimes called compound relatives. What is a kind of compound relative, including both the antece- dent and the relative, and is mostly equivalent to that which ; as, I have heard what has been alleged ; that is to say, I have heard that which has been alleged, or the thing which, &c. The word that is a relative pronoun when it may be changed into who or which, without destroying the sense; an adjective, when it belongs to a noun expressed or understood ; and in all other places it is a conjunction. Which and what are sometimes used as adjectives ; as, which book, what boy. N. B. When the relatives are used in asking questions, they are sometimes called Interrogative Pro- nouns — in which case they have no antecedents, but relate to the word which contains the answer ; as, who tore my book ? An- swer — John. Here who relates to John. Positive. wise, great, virtuous, amiable, good, bad, evil or ill, worse, little, less or lesser, much or many, more, COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. Comparative. Superlative. wiser, wisest, greater, greatest, more virtuous, most virtuous, less amiable, least amiable, better, best, worst, least, most. f nearest, [referring to place."] \ next, [in order.] ( latest, [referring to time.] \ last, [in order.] ( farthest, ( furthest. (foremost, [in place.] \ first, [in time or order.] ( oldest, t (eldest. J N. B. — Adjectives of more syllables than one are generally compared by more and most, or by less and least. Adjectives are regularly compared, when the comparative degree is formed by the addition of r or er, and the superlative by st or est ; or by prefix- ing more and most, or less and least. Some adjectives form the su- perlative by the suffix of most: as hind, hinder, hindermost, or * Farther, seems to take precedence in modern use, t Applied to persons or things. X Applied to persons only. late, far, fore, old, nearer, later, C farther,* \ further, former, ( older, ( elder, 22 BOOK SECOND. hindmost ; up, upper, uppermost or upmost ; in, inner, innermost or inmost ; nether, nethermost. An imperfect degree (less than the com- parative) is expressed by the ending ish : as, blackish, saltish, &c. A LIST OF THE PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES. One, other, another, each, every, either, neither, this, that, these, those, all, any, both, same, such, some, former, latter, none. Of these, one and other are declined the same as nouns. Thus : Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural. Nom. one Nom. ones Norn, other Nom. others Pos. one's Pos. ones' Pos. other's Pos. others' Obj. one. Obj. ones. Obj. other. Obj. others. Another is declined in the same manner, but wants the plural. Former and latter have sometimes a possessive case ; as, " The former's phlegm, was a check upon the latter's vivacity." AUXILIARY VERBS. Auxiliary or helping verbs, are those by the help of which the English verbs are principally conjugated. Those which are al- ways auxiliaries, are may, can, must, might, could, would, should and shall. Those which are sometimes auxiliaries, and sometimes prin- cipal verbs, are do, be, have and will. A transitive or an intransitive verb may be conjugated differently from the usual manner, by ad- ding its present participle to the auxiliary verb be, through all the moods and tenses ; as, instead of, I write, I wrote, I have written, &c, we may say, I am writing, I was writing, I have been writing, &c. This is called the tense definite ; as it marks the time with more precision than the tense indefinite. [The usual method.] When a verb of the indicative mood is used in the sacred or solemn style, the ending of the third person singular, present time, is ever in th ; as, He loveth, &c. The verb to be is an exception. Hath and doth are also used in the sacred or solemn style, instead of has and does ; as, He hath written, he doth love. Ought, quoth and several others, as well as all the auxiliaries, are defective verbs ; because they cannot be conjugated through all the moods and tenses. Participles have no nominative, number, nor person. Ex- amples of the present participle. — I heard a lady singing : Know- ing him to be in fault, I rebuked him. Examples of the past or perfect participle : " Words fitly spoken are like apples of gold," &c Having finished his work, he submitted it. A LIST OF THE PRINCIPAL ADVERBS. Of number. Once, twice, thrice, &c. Of order. First, secondly, thirdly, fourthly, fifthly, lastly, fi- nally, &c. Of place. Here, there, where, elsewhere, anywhere, some- where, nowhere, herein, whither, hither, thither, upward, downward, forward, backward, whence, hence, thence, whithersoever, &c. Of time. Of time present. Now, to-day, &c. Of time past. Already, before, lately, yesterday, heretofore, hitherto, long since, long ago, &c. Of time to come. To-morrow, not yet, hereafter, hencefor- ward, by and by, instantly, presently, immediately, straight- way, &c. Of time indefinite. Oft, often, oft-times, oftentimes, some- times, soon, seldom, daily, weekly, monthly, yearly, al- ways, when, then, ever, never, again, &c. Of quantity. Much, little, sufficiently, how much, how great, enough, abundantly, &c. Of manner or quality. Wisely, foolishly, justly, unjustly, quickly, slowly, &c. Adverbs of quality are the most numerous kind ; and they are generally formed by adding the termination ly to an adjective or participle, or changing le into ly ; as bad, badly ; cheerful, cheerfully ; able, ably; admirable, admirably. 4. 7. Of doubU Perhaps, peradventure, possibly, perchancei 8. Of affirmation. Verily, truly, undoubtedly, doubtless, certain- ly, yea, yes, surely, indeed, really, &c. 9. Of negation. Nay, no, not, by no means, not at all, in no wise, &c. 10. Of interrogation. How, why, wherefore, whether, &c. 11. Of comparison. More, most, better, best, worse, worst, less, least, very, almost, little, alike, &c. of to for by with in LIST OF THE PRINCIPAL PREPOSITIONS. into within without over under above below between beneath from at up down before behind through on or upon among after about against. beyond A LIST OF THE PRINCIPAL CONJUNCTIONS. And, * if, that, both, then, since, for, because, therefore, where- fore. But, or, nor, as, than, lest, though, unless, either, neither, yet, notwithstanding. REMARKS. Sometimes verbs, nouns and adjectives are used as interjections ; i. e. are uttered by way of exclamation, in a detached manner ; as, bless me I gracious heavens ! &c. Note. — The noun and verb are the two principal parts of speech ; that is to say, all other words are dependent on them, or added to them as auxiliaries. No com- plete sentence can be formed without the use of both, expressed or understood, unless when a pronoun is used for a noun. The same word, differently situated or applied, often becomes a different part of speech ; as, I have a book— I book Ten Dollars a day. *■• Derivation is when one word is derived from another ; as, from the noun wealth comes wealthy, from the verb to love comes lover, &c. Declension is the variation of nouns and pronouns — Conjugation is the variation of verbs. A CATALOGUE OF IRREGULAR VERBS. Present. Imperfect. Perfect Part. Abide, abode, abode. Am, was, been. Arise, arose, arisen. Awake, awoke, R. awaked. Bear, to bring forth, bore, born. Bear, to carry, bore, borne. Beat, beat, beaten, or beat. Begin, began, begun. Bend, bent, r. bent, R. Bereave, -bereft, R. bereft, r. Beseech, besought, besought. Bid, bid, or bade, bidden, or bid. Bind, bound, bound. Bite, bit, bitten, or bit. Bleed, bled, bled. Blow, blew, r. blown, R. Break, broke, broken. Breed, bred, bred. Bring, brought, brought. Build, built, R. built, R. Burst, burst, burst. Buy, bought, bought. Cast, cast, cast Catch, caught, R. caught, R. Chide, chid, chidden, or chid. Choose, chose, chosen. Cleave, to stick or") adhere, REGULAR. * Those in the first division, are generally called Copulative, and those in the second, Disjunctive conjunctions. BOOK SECOND. 23 PRESENT. Imperfect. Perfect Part. Present. Imperfect. Perfect Part. Cleave, to split, cleft, cleft, or cloven. Meet, met, met. Cling, clung. clung. Mow, mowed, mowed, or mown. Clothe, clothed, clothed, or clad. Pay, paid, paid. Come, came, come. Put, put, put. Cost, cost, cost. Quit, quitted, or quit, quitted, or quit. Crow, crowed, or crew, crowed. Read, read, read. Creep, crept, crept. Rend, rent, rent. Cut, cut, cut. Rid, rid, rid. Dare, to venture, durst, dared. Ride, rode, rode or ridden. Dare, to challenge^ R. Ring, rung, or rang, rung. Deal, dealt, R. dealt, R. Rise, rose, risen. Dig, dug, R. dug, R. Rive, rived, rived, or riven. Do, did, done. Run, ran, or run, run. Draw, drew, drawn. Saw, sawed, sawed, or sawn. Dream, dreampt, R. dreampt, R. Say, said, said. Drive, drove, driven. See, saw, seen. Drink, drank, drunk.* Seek, sought, , sought. DweU, dwelt, R. dwelt, R. Sell, sold, sold. Eat, ate, or eat, eaten. Send, sent, sent. Fall, fell, fallen. Set, set, set. Feed, fed, fed. Shake, shook, shaken. Feel, felt, felt. Shape, shaped, shaped, or shapen. Fight, fought, fought. Shave, shaved, shaved, or shaven, Find, found, found. Shear, sheared, sheared, or shorn. Flee, fled, fled. Shed, shed, shed. Fling, flung, flung. Shine, shone, R. shone, R. Fly, flew, flown. Show, showed, shown, R. Forget, forgot, forgotten, or forgot. Shoe, shod, shod. Forsake, forsook, forsaken. Shoot, shot, shot. Freeze, froze, frozen. Shrink, shrunk, shrunk. Get, got, got. Shred, shred, shred. Gild, gilt, R. gilt, R. Shut, shut, shut. Gird, girded, or girt, girded, or girt. Sing, sung, or sang, sung. Give, gave, given. Sink, sunk, or sank, sunk. Go, went, gone. Sit, sat, sat. Grave, graved, graven, r. Slay, slew, slain. Grind, ground, ground. Sleep, slept, slept. Grow, grew, grown. Slide, slid, slidden, or slid. Have, had, had. Sling, slung, slung. Hang, hung, R. hung, R. Slink, slunk, slunk. Hear, heard, heard. Slit, slit, R. slit, R. Heave, heaved, or hove, heaved. Smite, smote, smitten. Hew, hewed, hewed, or hewn. Sow, || to scatter, sowed, sowed, or sown. Hide, hid, hidden, or hid. Speak, spoke, spoken. Hit, hit, hit. Speed, sped, sped. Hold, held, held, or holden. Spend, spent, spent. Hurt, hurt, hurt. Spill, spilt, R. spilt, R. Keep, kept, kept. Spin, spun, spun. Kneel, kneeled, or knelt, kneeled, or knelt. Spit, spit spit. Knit, knit, r. knit, R. Split, split, split, Know, knew, known. Spread, spread, spread. Lade,f to load, laded, laden. Spring, sprung, or sprang, sprung. Lay, to place, laid, laid, Stand, stood, stood. Lead, led, led. Steal, stole, stolen. Leave, left. left. Stick, stuck, stuck. Lend, lent, lent. Sting, stung, stung. Let, let, let. Stink, stunk, stunk. Lie,J to lie down, lay, lain. Stride, strode, or strid, stridden, or strid. Light, lighted, or lit, lighted, or lit. Strike, struck, struck, or stricken, Load, REGULAR. String, strung, strung. Lose, lost, lost. Strive, strove, R. striven, r. Make, made, made. Strow, strowed, strowed, or strown. Mean, meant, meant. Strew, REGULAR. 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A relative may have a sentence or part of a sentence for its antecedent, and then it must be in the third person singular; as, We are required "to fear God and keep His Com- mandments" which is the whole duty of man. RULE 35. It is a general rule, that when we can change the verb which we make use of, into the verb to be, without destroying the sense, the word connected with it must be an adjective instead of an adverb ; as, The orange tastes [is~\ sour ; The clouds look [are'] dark. N. B. Some adjectives have a two-fold meaning — expressing the qual- ity of nouns — and at the same time modifying the action of verbs. RULE 36. Adjectives should be carefully applied to the nouns to which they properly belong; as, He purchased a pair of new boots, [not a new pair of boots.] When two or more adjective* relate to the same noun, that which is the most appropriate and expressive should be placed next to it ; as, A tall young woman, [not a young tall woman.] N. B. Double comparatives and superla- tives must never be used ; as, "•.After the most, strides! .-eel of our — — ' — r=raa BOOK SECOND. 31 religion, I lived a Pharisee." Some adjectives do not admit of comparison ; as, chief , perfect, round, square, &c. KULE 37. Adjectives, conveying unity or plurality of idea, must have nouns agreeing with them accordingly ; as, One foot, twenty feet, ten pounds, &c. [not twenty foot, ten pound, &c] Some technical terms, however, are exceptions : as, Twenty sail of vessels, ten head of cattle. N. B. The word means is singular or plural — therefore, it is proper to say, by this means or by these means ; but not without regard to unity or plurality ; as, He lived temperately and by this means, preserved his health : the scholars were atten- tive, industrious, and obedient to their tutors, and by these means acquired knowledge. The word mean signifies mediocrity, or mid- dle state, and is always singular : as, This is a mean between the two extremes. RULE 38. The adverbs here and there are often improperly used as nouns ; as, He left here yesterday, and went from there this morning, [this place, thatplace.~\ Where, here,, and there, should not be used for wherein, herein, and therein, or for in and which; as, I saw an ac- count where the truth was given. The adverb how should not be used for the conjunction that, nor instead of it ; as, We heard how he was coming. [tliat.~\ RULE 39. Different relations and different senses should be expressed by different prepositions. An accurate and appropriate use of these little words is of great importance, and requires more taste and judg- ment than is usually imagined. We converse with a person, upon a subject, in a house. To is made use of before nouns of place when they follow verbs and participles of motion ; as, I went to London, I am going to town. But the preposition at is generally used after the verb to be ; as, I have been at London, I was at the place appointed, I shall be at Paris. We likewise say, he touched, or arrived at such a place. The preposition in is set before coun- tries, states, counties, townships, cities, and large towns; as, He lives in Maine, in New York, in Baltimore, in Guilford. But be- fore villages and single houses, and before cities which are in dis- tant countries, at is used ; as, He lives at Brattleboro' east village; she resides at Paris. N. B. But is sometimes used as a preposi- tion ; as, they all went but me. Betwixt and between are to be us- ed when there are only two persons or things spoken of, and among and amongst, when there are more than two ; as, Divide the money between the two parents, or among the three children. Among should not be used before each, every, either, one, another, and other words expressing unity , as, Pride shows itself among every rank of society [in every rank.] RULE 40. Articles are often properly omitted; when used, they should be properly applied : as, Man is mortal, a man died ; sin is ruinous, a sin is a crime. A becomes an before a vowel or silent h ; as, an apple, an hour — except before a vowel sounded like w, as many a one — before u, sounded like you, as a unicorn — and before a diph- thong sounded like yu, as a eunuch. It also becomes an before h which is not silent, when the accent is on the second syllable ; as, an Herculean task. N. B. The indefinite article is prefixed to nouns in the singular number only, individually or collectively ; as, a man, a flock of birds. The is used before singular or plural nouns ; as, the boy, or the boys. RULE 41. When two or more nouns come together in the possessive case, whether in apposition or not, the sign of the possessive is generally annexed to the last only, and understood to the rest; as, "ForZ^a- vid, my servant's sake" ; Peter, John, and Andrew's occupation was that of fishermen. But when the latter part of the sentence is con- siderably extended, or when a pause is proper, the sign should be attached to the first only ; as, He emulates Caesar's glory, the greatest general of antiquity ; he left the parcel at Smith's, the sta- tioner and bookseller. When words intervene between the posses- sives, the sign is generally applied to each; as, I have my father's as well as mother's consent. Sometimes, though rarely, two or more nouns in ' the possessive, immediately succeed each other in the following form : as, '■'■Peter's ivife's mother lay sick of a fever ;" better expressed, generally, thus : the mother of Peter's wife, &c. The preposition of frequently expresses the relation of property ; thus, instead of saying, Virtue's reward, we may say, the reward of virtue. This form is sometimes much the more elegant; as, The condition of the kingdom, instead of the kingdom's condition. Sometimes we meet with several nouns in succession, connected by of; as. The severity of the distress of the son of the king touch- ed the nation. It would be much better to say, The severe distress of the king's son, &c. When of 'is used before the possessive case of nouns, there is a double possessive, the thing possessed not being repeated ; as, A friend of Edward's ; i. e. a friend of, or among Ed ward's friends : Vital air was a discovery of Priestly's. [making.] When property or possession is implied in the strictest sense, this idiom is proper ; otherwise, the sign of the possessive should gen- erally be omitted ; as, These pictures of the king's were sent to him from Italy ; This picture of the king does not much resemble him. N. B. Little explanatory circumstances are particularly awk- ward between a possessive and the word which follows it; as, She began to extol the farmer's (as she called him) excellent under- standing. It ought to be, The excellent understanding of the far- mer, as she called him. RULE 42. Conjunctions connect nouns and pronouns in the same case, and generally verbs, of like moods and tenses; as, He divided the mon- ey between him and me ; Candor is to be approved and practiced. RULE 43. Care must be taken not to make use of an improper mood, tense, preposition, or word of any kind; and that all words which are used, be properly modified, and properly placed, so that all the parts of sentences shall correspond to each other in a clear and perspic- uous manner. .t^.. 32 BOOK SECOND. FALSE GRAMMAR AND KEY. FALSE GRAMMAR ADAPTED TO THE RULES. ADAPTED TO RULE 1. 1. Her that is virtuous deserves esteem. 2. Them that oppress the poor, to increase their riches, shall come to want. 3. Peter and me went to church. 4. How dost thee do ? 5. I can run as fast as him. 6. You read better than her. 7. Thee must be more attentive to thy studies. 8. Edward is five years older than me. RULE 2. 1. Fifty pounds of wheat contains forty pounds of flour. 2. Crosses in trade damps the spirit of enterprise. 3. A variety of pleasing objects charm the sight. 4. The frogs in the pond makes a great noise. 5. The number of oysters increase. 6. The girls was here yesterday ; but they was in great haste. 7. Great pains has been taken to little purpose. 8. Has the cattle been taken care of ? 9. Thou should be more diligent in attending to thy studies. 10. Was you at church yesterday? 11. Where is Eli- za's shoes ? 12. How does the children behave? 13. Was the boys here yesterday ? 14. Where has the scholars all gone ? 15. Where was you last week? 16. Several places in the road wants repairing — we was all very much frightened yesterday. 17. The rules of the school was very strict. 18. Thou should love thy neighbor as thyself. 19. Thou hearest the sound of the wind, but canst not tell whence it comes or whither it goest. RULE 3. 1 Boys that behaves well in school will gain praise. 2. The men that was here yesterday, live in Boston. 3. O ! thou who ruleth on high, and who hates iniquity. 4. The book of poems, which were sent me yesterday, is very elegant. 5. He that ruleth his passions is better than he that takest a city. 6. Let every per- son mind their own business. 7. Every tree is known by their fruit. 8. Rebecca took goodly raiment which was with her in the house, and put them on Jacob. 9. No one speaks evil of them- selves. 10. " Take handfuls of ashes of the furnace, and let Mo- ses sprinkle it towards the heaven," &c. 11. An orator's tongue should be agreeable to the ears of their auditors. 12. Every girl should be rewarded according to their merits. 13. I heard a per- son say, that they thought you handsome. 14. Every person, whatever be their station, should attend to the duties of morality and religion. 15. He is a wise man which speaks little. 16. They which seek wisdom will certainly find her. 17. " Our Father which art in heaven." 18. These are beasts of prey, whom we sometimes hunt, and by whom we are sometimes hunted. RULE 4. 1. He and they we know, but who art thou ? 2. He invited my brother and I to see his garden. 3. The master loves thou, be- cause thou art diligent. 4. Who do you see ? 5. Who do you love ? 6. Who did he strike ? 7. Who is he courting ? 8. Who did she marry? 9. Who did you tell? 10. I thank ye, sir. 11. I es- teem him and her and they. 1 2. Who did they entertain so free- ly? 13. He who committed the offence, thou shouldst correct, not I who am innocent. 14. Who shall we send to the Legislature ? KEY, OR FALSE GRAMMAR CORRECTED. ACCORDING TO RULE 1. 1. She that is virtuous deserves esteem. 2. They that oppress the poor, to increase their riches, shall come to want. 3. Peter and /went to church. 4. How dost thou do? 5. lean run as fast as he. 6. You read better than she. 7. Thou must be more attentive to thy studies. 8. Edward is five years older than I. RULE 2. 1. Fifty pounds of wheat contain forty pounds of flour. 2. Crosses in trade damp the spirit of enterprise. 3. A variety of pleasing objects charms the sight. 4. The frogs in the pond mate a great noise. 6. The number of oysters increases. 6. The girls were here yesterday ; but they were in great haste. 7. Great pains have been taken to little purpose. 8. Have the cattle been taken care of ? 9. Thou shouldst be more diligent in attending to thy studies. 10. Were you at church yesterday? 11. Where are Eliza's shoes ? 12. How do the children behave? 13. Were the boys here yesterday ? 14. Where have the scholars all gone? 15. Where were you last week? 16. Several places in the road want repairing — we were all very much frightened yesterday. 17. The rules of the school were very strict. 18. Thou shouldst love thy neighbor as thyself. 19. Thou hearest the sound of the wind, but canst not tell whence it cometh or whither it goeth. RULE 3. 1. Boys that behave well in school will gain praise. 2. The men that were here yesterday, live in Boston. 3. O ! thou who rulest on high, and who hatest iniquity. 4. The book of poems, which was sent to me yesterday, is very elegant. 5. He that ruleth his passions is better than he that taketh a city. 6. Let every person mind his own business. 7. Every free is known by its fruit. 8. Rebecca took goodly raiment which was with her in the house, and put it on Jacob. 9. No one speaks evil of himself *. 10. "Take handfuls of ashes of the furnace, and let Moses sprinkle them to- wards the heaven," &c. 11. An orator's tongue should be agreea- ble to the ears of his auditors. 12. Every girl shall be rewarded according to her merits. 13. I heard a person say, that he or she thought you handsome. 14. Every person, whatever be his sta- tion, should attend to the duties of morality and religion. 15. He is a wise man who speaks little. 16. They who seek wisdom, will certainly find her. 17. "Our Father who art in heaven." 18. These are beasts of prey, which we sometimes hunt, and by which we are sometimes hunted. RULE 4. 1. Him and them we know, but who art thou? 2. He invited my brother and me to see his garden. 3. The master loves thee, because thou art diligent. 4. Whom do you see ? 5. Whom do you love? 6. Whom did he strike? 7. Whom is he courting? 8. Whom did she marry ? 9. Whom did you tell ? 10. I thank you, sir. 11. I esteem him and her and them. 12. Whom did they en- tertain so freely? 13. Him who committed the offence, thou shouldst correct, not me, who am innocent 14. Whom shall we send to the Legislature? 15. Suspecting not only us, but them BOOK SECOND. 33 15. Suspecting not only we, but they also, he was studious to avoid all intercourse. 16. You are displeased with me for admonishing ye. 17. From he that is needy and afflicted, turn not away. 18. He sent for you and I. 19. Who does he study with? 2(5. Who did you walk with? 21. Who did you ride with? 22. Who did you sit with ? 23. Who did you give it to ? 24. Who shall you send for ? 25. Who does she live with ? 26, Who are you talk- ing about ? 27. Who shall you vote for ? 28. Who are you writ- ing to ? 29. Who did you receive the news from ? 30. Does that boy know who he is speaking to? 31. What concord can subsist between those who commit crimes, and they who abhor them ? 32. From the character of those persons who you associate with, your own will be established. RULE 5. 1. I gave the book to James, my cousin, he who was here yes- terday. 2. Augustus, the Roman Emperor, him who succeeded Julius Caesar, is variously described. 3. The estate was left to Si- mon and John, the two eldest sons, they that had been to Europe. 4. These books are my friend's, he who keeps the library. 5. Art thou acquainted with Clarissa, the milliner, she whom we met in our walks this morning ? 6. It was not me that made the noise. 7. Thou art him who sold the books. 8. I believe it to be they. 9. I took it to be he. 10. It could not have been her. 11. It might have been him, but there is no proof of it. 12. Who do you think me to be? 13. Whom do men say that I am? 14. Let him be who he may, I am not afraid of him. RULE 6. 1, * Roman's, countrymen, and lovers', hear me for my cause." 2. O ! thee, who art so unmindful of thy duty. 3. Hail thee, that art highly favored. 4. O ! thee, who inhabitest eternity. RULE 7. 1. Him having ended his discourse, the assembly dispersed. 2. The sun's being risen, it became very warm. 3. They all had lib- erty to go, us only excepted. 4. William and her having engaged to call, we waited an hour. RULE 8. 1. Thy fathers offence will not condemn thee. 2. Hast thou read Cowpers poems ? 3. " Nevertheless Asa his heart was per- fect with the Lord." 4. Wisdoms precepts are the good boy's greatest delight. 5. A mans manner's frequently influence his for- tune. 6. A mothers tenderness and a fathers care, are Natures gift's for mans advantage. 7. The girls book's were kept in better order than the boys. RULE 9. 1. I bid him to shut the door. 2. I dare not to conclude too hastily. 3. I will make him to understand his business. 4. You need not to be very urgent. 5. He dares not to go. 6. I dare say we need not to urge John to study his grammar. RULE 10. 1. The committee was divided in its sentiments, and it has re- ferred the business to the general meeting. 2. The family was all well yesterday. 3. When the nation complain, the people should listen to their voice. 4. The flock, and not the fleece, are, or ought to be, the objects of the shepherd's care. RULE 11. 1. Sobriety and humility leads to honor. 2. Time and tide waits for no man. 3. A fool and his money is soon parted. 4. Coffee and sugar is imported from the West-Indies, and great quantities of it are used every year. 5. Peter and John was here yesterday. 6. Has Mary and Charles returned ? 7. Where has 5 also, he was studious to avoid all intercourse. 16. You are dis- pleased with me for admonishing you. 17. From him that is nee- dy and afflicted, turn not away. 18. He sent for you and me. 19. Whom does he study with ? * 20. Whom did you walk with ? 21. Whom did you ride with? 22. Whom did you sit with? 23. Whom did you give it to ? 24. Whom shall you send for ? 25. Whom does she live with ? 26. Whom are you talking about? 27. Whom shall you vote for? 28. Whom are you writing to? 29. W horn did you receive the news from? 30. Does that boy know whom he is speaking to? 31. What concord can subsist be- tween those who commit crimes, and those who abhor them ? 32. From the character of those persons whom you associate with, your own will be established. RULE 5. 1. I gave the book to James, my cousin, him who was here yes- terday. 2. Augustus, the Roman Emperor, he who succeeded Ju- lius Ca?sar, is variously described. 3. The estate was left to Si- mon and John, the two eldest sons, them that had been to Europe. 4. These books are my friend's, his who keeps the library. 5. Art thou acquainted with Clarissa, the milliner, her whom we met in our walks this morning ? 6. It was not / that made the noise. 7. Thou art he who sold the books. 8. I believe it to be them. 9. I took it to be him. 10. It could not have been she. 11. It might have been he, but there is no proof of it. 12. Whom do you think me to be ? 13. Who do men say that I am? 14. Let him be whom he may, I am not afraid of him. RULE 6. 1. u Romans, countrymen, and lovers, hear me for my cause." 2. O ! thou, who art so unmindful of thy duty. 3. Hail ! thou, that art highly favored. 4. O! thou, who inhabitest eternity. RULE 7. 1. He having ended his discourse, the assembly dispersed. 2. The sun being risen, it became very warm. 3. They all had lib- erty to go, we only excepted. 4. William and she having engaged to call, we waited an hour. RULE 8. 1. Thy father's offence will not condemn thee. 2. Hast thou' read Cowper's poems ? 3. " Nevertheless Asa's heart was per- fect with the Lord." 4. Wisdom's precepts are the good boy's greatest delight. 5. A man's manners frequently influence his for- tune. 6. A mother's tenderness and a father's care, are nature's gifts, for man's advantage. 7. The girls' books were kept in better order than the boys'. RULE 9. 1. I bid him shut the door. 2. I dare not conclude too hastily. 3. I will make him understand his business. 4. You need not be very urgent. 5. He dares not go. 6. I dare say we need not urge John to study his grammar. RULE 10. 1. The committee were divided in their sentiments, and they have referred the business to the general meeting. 2. The family were all well yesterday. 3. When the nation complains the people should listen to its voice. 4. The flock, and not the fleece, is, or ought to be, the object of the shepherd's care. RULE 11. 1. Sobriety and humility lead to honor. 2. Time and tide wait for no man. 3. A fool and his money are soon parted. 4. Coffee and sugar are imported from the West Indies, and great quantities of them are used every year. 5. Peter and John were here yes- terday. 6. Have Mary and Charles returned ? 7. Where have * Or, with whom does he study? 34 BOOK SECOND. Briggs and his wife been ? 8. Is Mr. Shaw and his wife at home ? 9. Was Sara and Ben at church yesterday? 10. Where is Har- riet and Eliza? 11. Idleness and ignorance are the parent of ma- ny vices. 12. Pride and revenge is hateful to, God and man. 13. Humility and love constitutes the essence of true religion. 14. Patience and diligence, like faith, removes mountains. RULE 12. 1. Man's happiness or misery are, in a great measure, put into his own hands. 2. Neither he nor she were at home. 3. Ignor- ance or negligence have been the causes of this mistake. 4. Nei- ther Helen nor Julia are the ladies whom we saw at their devotion. 5. Knowledge or virtue are preferable to riches ; strive, therefore, in early life, to attain them. 6. Neither wisdom nor wealth are to be obtained by idle wishes. 7. Neither they nor he was present. 8. Has the globe or the map$ been injured by the accident? 9. Neither the sailors nor the captain were saved. RULE 13. 1. Jane speaks very correct. 2. Ann sings delightful. 3. We have come agreeable to promise. 4. The weather is remarkable fine. 5. He speaks very fluent, but does not reason very coherent- ly. 6. He conducted himself very unsuitable to his profession. 7. Drink hearty, sir. 8. Alas ! they are miserable poor. 9. She was exceeding careful not to give offence. 1 0. You read that very good. 11. The cakes eat crisply. 12. The heavenly bodies are in motion perpetually. 13. We have been treated kindly. 14. I hope you will conclude to not go. 15. We ought to faithfully improve our precious time. RULE 14. 1. Instead of improving yourselves, you have been playing this two hours. 2. We do not approve of these kind of practices. 3. Please to give me that scissors. 4> Those sort of favors did real injury under the appearance of friendship. 5. Please to hand me them tongs. 6. Give me one of them apples. 7. If them books were mine, I would have them rebound. 8. See them birds on the tree. 9. I admire these paintings yonder, exceedingly, especially, this to the right. RULE 15. 1. Of two evils, let us choose the least. 2. He is the strongest of the two. 3. James is the tallest of the two brothers, although Henry is the oldest. 4. Gold and silver are both precious metals, but the former is by far the most valuable. 5. Mary is the best girl of the two. 6. Which of those three kites is the higher ? 7. Samuel and Thomas are both studying grammar ; but as the latter is the most diligent, he will probably obtain a knowledge of it the soonest. 8. His parents frequently visited him, but his mother much the oftenest. RULE 16. 1. I shall walk out to-day, unless it rains. 2. If Jane studies well, she will commit her lesson. 3. If the child cries, you must rock the cradle. 4. If the dog bites, I will whip him. 5. If the bird flies. 6. If the horse kicks. 7. If the cat scratches. 8. If George goes to Boston. 9. If my friend is in town. 10. If he is a good boy. 11. If lam in fault. 12. Unless thou art honest. 13. If Sam has a watch. 14. Unless he comes. 15. Except he repents. 16. If she was in fault. 17. If Peter was here we would play ball. 18. Was I to enumerate all her virtues, it would look like flattery. 19. Though the fact be extraordinary, it cer- tainly did happen. RULE 17. 1. Thomas has fell from the tree and broke his arm. 2. I have wrote a letter to send to the post-office. 3. Jack has . drove his horse fifty miles to-day. • 4. I have eat quite heartily. 5. I have drank a glass of water. 6. I have spoke the truth. 7. I begun Briggs and his wife been ? 8. Are Mr. Shaw, and his wife at home? 9. Were Sam and Ben at church yesterday ? 10. Where are Harriet and Eliza? 11. Idleness and ignorance are the pa- rents of many vices. 12. Pride and revenge are hateful to God and man. 13. Humility and love constitute the essence of true re- ligion. 14. Patience and diligence, like faith, remove mountains. RULE 12. 1. Man's happiness or misery is, in a great measure, put into his own hands. 2. Neither he nor she was at home. 3. Ignor- ance or negligence has been the cause of this mistake. 4. Neither Helen nor Julia is the lady whom we saw at her devotion. 5. Knowledge or virtue is preferable to riches ; strive, therefore, in early life to attain it. 6. Neither wisdom nor wealth is- to be ob- tained by idle wishes. 7. Neither he nor they were present. 8. Have the maps or the globe been injured by the accident ? 9. Neither the captain nor the sailors were saved. RULE 13. 1. Jane speaks very correctly. 2. Ann sings delightfully. 3. We have come agreeably to promise. 4. The weather is remarka- bly fine. 5. He speaks \evy fluently, but does not reason very co- herently. 6. He conducted himself very unsuitably to his profes- sion. 7. Drink heartily, sir. 8. Alas ! they are miserably poor. 9. She was exceedingly careful not to give offence. 10. You read that very well. 11. The cakes eat crisp. 12. The heavenly bodies are perpetually in motion. 13. We have been kindly treat- ed. 14. I hope you will conclude not to go. 15. We ought faith- fully to improve our precious time. RULE 14. 1. Instead of improving yourselves, you have been playing these two hours. 2. We do not approve of this kind of practices. 3. Please to give me those scissors. 4. That sort of favors did real injury under the appearance of friendship. 5. Please to hand me those tongs. 6. Give me one of those apples. 7. If those books were mine, I would have them re-bound. 8. See those birds on the tree. 9. I admire those paintings yonder exceedingly, espe- cially, that on the right. RULE 15. 1. Of two evils, let us choose the lesser. 2. He is the stronger of the two. 3. James is the taller of the two brothers, although Henry is the older. 4. Gold and silver are both precious metals, but the former is by far the more valuable. 5. Mary is the better girl of the two. 6. Which of those three kites is the highest ? 7. Samuel and Thomas are both studying grammar ; but as the latter is the more diligent, he will probably obtain a knowledge of it the sooner. 8. His parents frequently visited him, but his mother much the oftener. RULE 16. 1. I shall walk out to-day, unless it rain. 2. If Jane study well, she will commit her lesson. 3. If the child cry, you must rock the cradle. 4. If the dog bite, I will whip him. 5. If the bird fly. 6. If the horse kick. 7. If the cat scratch. 8. If George go to Boston. 9. If my friend be in town. 10. If he be a good boy. 11. If I be in fault. 12. Unless thou be honest. 13. If Sam have a watch. 14. Unless he come. 15. Except he re- pent. 16. If she were in fault. 17. If Peter were here, we would play ball. 18. Were I to enumerate all her virtues, it would look like flattery. 19. Though the fact is extraordinary, it certainly did happen. RULE 17. 1. Thomas has fallen from the tree and broken his arm. 2. 1 have written a letter to send to the post office. 3. Jack has drirrii his horse fifty miles to-day. 4. I have eaten quite heartily. 5. I have drunk a glass of water. 6. I have spoken the truth. 7. I BOOK SECOND. 35 ay school yesterday. 8. He would not have went, if he had known t. 9. Dick has froze his ears. 10. The house was shook by the dolence of the storm. 11. Harriet has wove twenty yards of loth to-day. 12. The bird has flew from the tree. 13. He has [rank no spirits these two years. 14. He had wrote and read auch on the subject. 15. The following toasts were drank at the ate celebration. RULE 18. 1. Please to set down and lie your hat on the table. 2. I thank ■ rou, sir, I had rather stand than set, for I am tired of setting. 3. We laid in bed this morning till breakfast time. 4. Where did rou set last Sabbath at Church? 5. I set with my brother. 6. le generally sets up very late evenings, and lays abed late morn- ngs. 7. James was tired, and he has just laid down to rest. 8. Please to set up to the table, ladies. 9. I set on the hind seat of he stage all day. 10. I have lain the book on the shelf. 11. It ays on the table. 12. I have sat things in order. 13. I see my ild friend last week. 14. I see that every thing was in order, and hen took my departure. RULE 19. 1. There is great danger of children being humored too much >y their mothers. 2. I read an account yesterday, of a woman taving been burnt to death by her clothes accidentally taking fire. !. There is official intelligence of a great battle having been fought tetween the two armies. RULE 20. 1. I found my friend in much better circumstances than I ex- acted to have found him. 2. I intended to have written by the ast mail. 3. George expected to have received an answer last peek. 4. The prisoner was acquitted, although he was supposed, iy many, to be concerned in the plot for which he was indicted. RULE 21. 1. By the exercising our judgment, it is improved. 2. By ob- erving of truth, thou wilt command esteem. 3. This was a be- raying the trust reposed in him. 4. A person cannot be wise or ;ood without the taking pains for it. 5. Learning of languages is ery difficult. RULE 22. 1. I do not envy nobody. 2. I think I cannot help him no aore. 3. Death never spareth none. 4. I cannot by no means illow him that privilege. RULE 23. 1. This writing is not as good as that. 2. The place is not as deasant as we expected. 3. Ben is not as tall as Cyp. 4. She s not as old as her husband. 5. Sophia does not behave as well is Mary. 6. Pompey was not as great a general as Caesar, nor as ;reat a man. 7. He is more beloved, but not so much admired as 3ynthio. 8. Sincerity is as valuable, and even more so, than knowledge. RULE 24. 1. I never saw such a tall man. 2. Did you ever see such beau- iful trees ? 3. He was such an extravagant young man, that he spent his whole patrimony in a few years. 4. I never saw such arge potatoes. 5. I never knew such a quarrelsome fellow. RULE 25. 1. Ah! wretched I, how ungrateful. 2. Oh! happy them, sur- rounded with so many blessings. 3. How swiftly our time passes iway, and ah ! we, how little concerned to improve it, 4. Alas ! dm, where is he now ? 5. Welcome thee, joyous spring. began my school yesterday. 8. He would not have gone, if he had known it. 9. Dick has frozen his ears. 10. The house was shaken by the violence of the storm. 11. Harriet has woven twen- ty yards of cloth to-day. 12. The bird has flow?i from the tree. 13. He has drunk no spirits these two years. 14. He had written and read much on the subject. 15. The following toasts were drunk at the late celebration. RULE 18. 1. Please to sit down and lay your hat on the table. 2. I thank you, sir, I would rather stand than sit for I am tired of sitting. 3. We lay in bed this morning till breakfast time. 4. Where did you sit last Sabbath at Church ? 5.1 sat with my brother. 6. He generally sits up very late evenings, and lies abed late mornings. 7. James was tired, and he has just lain down to rest. 8. Please to sit up to the table, ladies. 9. I sat on the hind seat of the stage all day. 10. I have laid the book on the shelf. 11. It lies on the table. 12. I have set things in order. 13. I saw my old friend last week. 14.1 saw that every thing was in order, and then took my departure. RULE 19. 1. There is great danger of children's being humored too much by their mothers. 2. I read an account yesterday, of a woman's having been burnt to death by her clothes' accidentally taking fire. 3. There is official intelligence of a great battle's having been fought between the two armies. RULE 20. 1. I found my friend in much better circumstances than I ex- pected to Jind him. 2. I intended to write by the last mail. 3. George expected to receive an answer last week. 4. The prisoner was acquitted, although he was supposed, by many, to have been concerned in the plot for which he was indicted. RULE 21. 1. By the exercising of our judgment, it is improved. 2. By the observing of truth, thou wilt command esteem. 3. This was a betraying of the trust reposed in him. 4. A person cannot be wise or good without the taking of pains for it. 5. The learning of languages is very difficult. RULE 22. 1. I do not envy any body. 2. I think I cannot help him any more. 3. Death spareth none. 4. I cannot by any means allow him that privilege. RULE 23. 1. This writirg is not so good as that. 2. The place is not so pleasant as we expected. 3. Ben is not so tall as Cyp. 4. She is not so old as her husband. 5. Sophia does not behave so well as Mary- 6. Pompey was not so great a general as Caesar, nor so great a man. 7'. He is more beloved than Cynthio, but not so much admired. 8. Sincerity is as valuable as knowledge, and even more so. RULE 24. 1. I never saw so tall a man. 2. Did you ever see so beauti- ful trees ? 3. He was so extravagant a young man, that he spent his whole patrimony in a few years. 4. I never saw so large po- tatoes. 5. I never knew so quarrelsome a fellow. RULE 25. 1. Ah! wretched me, how ungrateful. 2. O! happy they, sur- rounded with so many blessings. 3. How swiftly our time passes away, and ah ! us, how little concerned to improve it. 4. Alas ! he, where is he now ? 5. Welcome thou, joyous spring ! 36 BOOK SECOND. RULE 26. 1. The inquisitive is generally talkative. 2. The generous nev- er recounts, minutely, the actions they have done. EULE 27. 1. He that wishes to be great, let him pay diligent attention to his study. 2. Whoever entertains such an opinion, he judges er- roneously. RULE 28. 1. To live soberly, righteously, and piously, are required of all men. 2. To conquer or to die were his desperate resolution. RULE 29, # 1. On this occasion the pronoun is governed by, and consequent- ly agrees with, the preceding word, RULE 30. 1. Each day and hour of our lives bring new expressions of the divine munificence. 2. Every star and planet, that adorn the firmament, declare the glory of God. 3. You may take either of the three books. RULE 31. 1. I do not doubt but what he did it for the best. 2. I do not care whether he succeeds or no. 3. Whether I shall come or no, is altogether uncertain. RULE 32. 1. He or I is going to college. 2. I or thou have been greatly in fault. RULE 33. 1. Many words they darken speech. 2. Ignatius, who was bishop of Antioch, he came with the apostles. 3. John Baxter, his book. RULE 34. 1. His engagements were such that would not admit of his ab- sence. 2. We should avoid such persons who oppose the truth. 3. The Amazon as in South America, which is the largest river in the world. 4. Martha said that Mary had injured her friend. 5. The love of riches, which are the root of all evil, is a prevailing sin. RULE 35. 1. The apple tastes sweetly. 2. The moon looks brightly. 3. The fields appear very pleasantly. 4. The clouds look darkly. RULE 36. 1. Amanda lost a shawl and a new pair of gloves. 2. This is a fine piece of cloth. 3. Here is a superfine barrel of flour, a sweet firkin of butter, and a fresh hamper of eggs. 4. The two last are a present. 5. Senex is .an old, crabbed man. 6. Juliana is a lit- tle, excellent girl. 7. Parse the six first lines, and omit the three last. 8. Sing the four first verses. 9. I never had a worser pen. 10. Virtue is the chiefest good of man. 11. He is the most pru- dentest man in town. 12. This is the most usefulest book I ever read. 13. He is the chiefest among ten thousand. RULE 37. 1. Joseph is six foot and four inches high. 2. I sold my horse for one hundred pound in cash. RULE 38. 1. We left there at five, and arrived at New York about six in the evening. 2. We set out from there in the morning, and are to go from here in the evening. 3. Edward showed me a letter RULE 26. 1. The inquisitive are generally talkative. 2. The generous never recount, minutely, the actions they have doner RULE 27. 1. Let him that wishes to be great, pay diligent attention to his study. 2. Whoever entertains such an opinion, judges erroneously. RULE 28. 1. To live soberly, righteously, and piously, is required of all men. 2. To conquer or to die was his desperate resolution, RULE 29. 1. On this occasion, the pronoun is governed by the preceding word, and consequently agrees with it. RULE 30. 1. Each day and each hour of our lives brings new expressions of the divine munificence. 2. Every star and planet, that adorns the firmament, declares the glory of God. 3. You may take any one of the three books. RULE 31. 1. I do not doubt but that he did it for the best. 2. I do not care whether he succeed or not. 3. Whether I shall come or not, is altogether uncertain. RULE 32. 1. He or I am going to college. 2. I or thou hast been greatly in fault. RULE 33. 1. Many words darken speech. 2. Ignatius, who was Bishop of Antioch, came with the apostles. 3. John Baxter's book. RULE 34. 1. His engagements were such as would not admit of his ab- sence. 2. We should avoid such persons as oppose the truth. 3. The Amazon, which is the largest river in the world, is in South America. 4. Martha said that Mary had injured her own friend. 5. The love of riches, which is the root of all evil, is a prevailing sin. RULE 35. 1. The apple tastes sweet. 2. The moon looks bright. 3. The fields appear very pleasant. 4. The clouds look dark. RULE 36. 1. Amanda lost a shawl and a pair of nexc gloves. 2. This is a piece of fine cloth. 3. Here is a barrel of superfine flour, a firkin of sweet butter, and a hamper of fresh eggs. 4. The last tico are a present. 5. Senex is a crabbed old man. 6. Juliana is an ex- cellent little girl. 7 Parse the first six lines, and omit the last three. 8. Sing the first four verses. 9. I never had a worse pen. 10. Virtue is the chief good of man. 11. He is the most prudent man in town. 12. This is the most useful book I ever read. 13. He is the chief among ten thousand. RULE 37. 1. Joseph is six feet and four inches high. 2. I sold my horse for one hundred pounds in cash. RULE 38. 1. We left that place at five, and arrived at New York about six in the evening. 2. We set out from thai 'place in the morning and are to go from this place in the evening. 3. Edward showed BOOK SECOND, 37 where the account was given at large. 4. He said how I had in- jured him, and how he was determined to have satisfaction. RULE 39. 1. They all went to church but he. 2. They all behaved well but he and she. 3. He gave all a present but we. 4. Divide the money equally between the three brothers. RULE 40. 1. "We have within us an intelligent principle, distinct from body and from matter. 2. A humble Christian. 3. Reason was given to a man for the control of his passions. RULE 41. 1. My father's mother's, and uncle s advice. 2. The silk was ' purchased at Brown's the mercer's and haberdasher's. 3. This measure gained the king, as well as the people's approbation. 4. The world's government is not left to chance. 5. This is my wife's brother's partner's house. 6. The extent of the prerogative of the king of England is sufficiently ascertained. 7. This picture of the general's does not much resemble him. 8 These pictures of Na- poleon were sent to him from Italy. 9. This is the eldest son of the king of England's. 10. They implicitly obeyed their protec- tor's, as they called him, imperious mandates. RULE 42." 1. Between you and I, there is some disparity of years. 2. If he possess common capacity to learn, and is a good reader, he will soon acquire a competent knowledge of grammar. RULE 43. 1. I see my old friend, Warren, yesterday. 2. There was no water, and he died for thirst. 3. We can fully confide on none but the truly good. 4. Many have profited from good advice. 5. I have no occasion of his services. 6. Her sobriety is no derogation to her understanding. 7. The error was occasioned by compli- ance to earnest entreaty. 8. This is a principle that is consonant with our nature. 9. We should entertain no prejudice to simple and rustic persons. 10. I have written to my friend last week but have yet received no answer. 11. He is a person whom I re- member these many years. 12. I have been- in London a year, and seen the king last summer. 13. After we visited the city, we returned, content and thankful, to our peaceful habitation. 14. To-morrow is Friday. 15. Next week is the time for holding the annual meeting. 16. " Dismiss us from thy service, after we have again sung to thy praise." 17. John will earn his wages, when his service is completed. 18. I purpose to go to New York next week, and after I have finished there, to proceed to the southern states. 19. And he that was dead setup, and begun to speak. 20. His sea-sickness was so great, that I often feared he would have died, before our arrival. 21. I very much desire, that I might be more watchful in future. 22. Several alterations and additions have been made to the work. 23. The first proposal was essen- tially different, and inferior to the second. 24. Neither has he, nor any other persons, suspected so much dissimulation. 25. The intentions of some of these philosophers ; nay, of many, might, and probably were good. 2G. "The Lord hath given, and the Lord hath taken away." 27. If there be an honest man in the world, Charles is one. 28. Sweet apples are said to be as good, and even better, for swine, than potatoes. 29. If thou sincerely desire, and earn- estly pursuest virtue, she will assuredly be found of thee. 30. Be that as it will, he cannot justify his conduct. 31. I know a man that his hair was gray before he was eighteen. 32. A pair of stairs. 33. He is to blame. 34. He was bred and born in Troy. 35. Come above, or below stairs. 36. He has got to learn. 37. He meant to have gone. 38. His master learns him. 39. He took better than half. 40. He thinks just like she does. 41. I me a letter in which the account was given at large. 4. He said that I had injured him and that he was determined to have satis- faction. RULE 39. 1. They all went to church but him. 2. They all behaved well but him and her. 3. He gave all a present but us. 4. Divide the money equally among the three brothers. RULE 40. 1. We have within us an intelligent principle, distinct from the body and from matter. 2. An humble Christian. 3. Reason was given to man for the control of his passions. RULE 41. 1. My father, mother, and uncle's advice. 2. The silk was pur- chased at Brown's, the mercer and haberdasher. 3. This measure gained the king's, as well as the people's approbation. 4. The government of the world is not left to chance. 5. This house be- longs to the partner of my wife's brother. 6. The extent of the king of England's prerogative is sufficiently ascertained. 7. This picture of the general does not much resemble him. 8. These pictures of Napoleon's were sent to him from Italy. 9. This is the eldest son of the king of England. 10. They implicitly obeyed the imperious mandates of their protector, as they called him. RULE 42. 1. Between you and me, there is some disparity of years. 2. If he possess common capacity to learn, and be a good reader, he will soon acquire a competent knowledge of grammar. RULE 43. 1 . I saw my old friend, Warren, yesterday. 2. There was no water, and he died of thirst. 3. We can fully confide in none but the truly good. 4. Many have profited by good advice. 5. 1 have no occasion for his services 6. Her sobriety is no derogation/rom her understanding. 7. The error was occasioned by compliance with earnest entreaty. 8. This is a principle in unison with our nature. 9. We should entertain no prejudice against simple and rustic persons. 10. I wrote to my friend last week, but have yet received no answer. 11. He is a person whom I have remembered these many years. 12. I have been in London a year, and I saw the king last summer. 13. After we had visited the city, we re- turned, content and thankful, to our peaceful habitation. 14. To- morrow will be Friday. 15. Next week will be the time for hold- ing the annual meeting 16. " Dismiss us from thy service, after we shall have again sung to thy praise." 17. John will have earn- ed his wages, when his service is completed. 18. I purpose to go to New York next week, and after I shall have finished there, to proceed to the southern states. 19. And he that had been dead sat up, and began to speak. 20. His sea-sickness was so great, that I often feared he would die before our arrival. 21. I very much desire, that I may be more watchful in future. 22. The work has received several alterations and additions. 23. The first pro- posal was essentially different from the second, and inferior to it. 24 Neither has he, nor have any other persons, suspected so much dissimulation. 25. The intentions of some of these philosophers ; nay, of many, might have been, and probably were good. 26. "The Lord gave, and the Lord hath taken away." 27. If there is an honest man in the world, Charles is one. 28. Sweet apples are said to be as good for swine as potatoes, and even better. 29. If thou sincerely desire, and earnestly pursue virtue, she will assured- ly be found of thee. 30. Be that as it may, he cannot justify his conduct. 31. I know a man whose hair was gray before he was eighteen. 32. A flight or set of stairs. 33. He is blamable. 34. He was born and bred in Troy. 35. Come up or down stairs. 36. He must or shall learn. 37. He meant to go. 38. His master teaches him. 39. He took more than half. 40. He thinks just as 38 BOOK SECOND. am done. 42. You had as good go. 43. I will not go without you do. 44. The reason is because. 45. They went of an even- ing. 46. We will have fair weather. 47. I expect it was. 48. This is a very healthy country. 49. Apples are very plenty this year. 50. I am mistaken. 51. I saw a church, that the founda- tion is a solid rock. 52. The broad and narrow way are open be- fore us ; this leads to misery, that to happiness. 53. I had ought to go. 54. Those are very cheap goods.* 55. These houses, in the next square, are my brother's. 56. You no need to do it. 57. Less go home. 58. In religious concerns, or what is considered to be such, every man must stand or fall according to the decision of the great Judge. she does. 41. I have done. 42> You may as well go. 43. I will not go unless you do. 44. The reason is that. 45. They went on an evening. 46. We shall have fair weather. 47. I believe it was. 48. This is a very healthful country. 49. Apples are very plentiful this year. 50. I mistake, 51. I saw a church, the foun- dation of which is a solid rock. 52. The broad and narrow ways are open before us ; that leads to misery, and this to happiness. 53. I ought to go. 54. These are very cheap goods. 55. Those houses, in the next square are my brother's. 56. You need not do it. 57. Let's or let us go home. 58. In religious concerns, or what are considered to be such, every man must stand or fall, ac- cording to the decision of the great Judge. * Holding them in his hands. FALSE GKAMMAR, ADAPTED TO THE RULES OF ORTHOGRAPHY. RULE 1. It is no great merit to spel properly ; but a great defect to do it incorrectly. — Jacob worshipped his Creator, leaning on the top of his staf. — We may place too little as well as too much stres upon dreams. — Our manners should be neither gros, nor excessively re- fined. RULE 2. A carr signifies a chariot of war, or a small carriage of burden. In the names of druggs and plants, the mistake in a word may en- danger life. Nor undelightful is the ceaseless humm To him who muses through the woods at noon. The finn of a fish is the limb by which he balances his body, and moves in the water. — Many a trapp is laid to insnare the feet of youth. — Many thousand families are supported by the simple business of making matts. RULE 3. We should subject our fancys to the government of reason. — If thou art seeking for the living amongst the dead, thou wearyest thyself in vain. — If we have denyed ourselves sinful pleasures, we shall be great gainers in the end. — We shall not be the happyer for possessing talents and affluence, unless we make a right use of them. — The truly good mind is not dismaied by poverty, afflictions or death. , RULE 4. It is a great blessing to have a sound mind, uninfluenced by fan- cy ful humours. — Common calamities, and common blessings, fall heavyly upon the envious. — The comelyness of youth are modesty and frankness ; of age, condescension and dignity. — When we act against conscience, we become the destroiers of our own peace. — We may be plaiful, and yet innocent ; grave, and yet corrupt. — It is only from general conduct, that our true character can be por- traied. RULE. 5. When we bring the lawmaker into contempt, we have in effect annuled his laws. — By defering our repentance, we accumulate our sorrows. — The pupils of a certain ancient philosopher, were not, during their first years of study, permited to ask any questions. — We have all many faillings and lapses to lament and recover. — There is no affliction with which we are visitted, that may not be improved to our advantage. — The Christian Lawgiver has prohib- itted many things, which the heathen philosophers allowed. RULE 6. Restlesness of mind disqualifies us, both for the enjoyment of peace, and the performance of our duty. — The arrows of calumny fall harmlesly at the feet of virtue. — The road to the blisful re- gions, is as open to the peasant as the king. — A chillness or shiv- ering of the body generally precedes a fever. — To recommend virtue to others, our lights must shine brightly, not dullly. The silent stranger stood amaz'd to see. Contempt of wealth, and willful poverty. RULE 7. The warmth of disputation, destroys that sedatness of mind which is necessary to discover truth. AH these with ceasless praise his works behold, * Both day and night. In all our reasonings, our minds should be sincerly employed in the pursuit of truth. — Rude behavior, and indecent language, are peculiarly disgracful to youth of education. — The true wor- ship of God is an important and aweful service. — Wisdom alone is truely fair ; folly only appears so. RULE 8. The study of the English language is making daily advancment. A judicious arrangment of studies facilitates improvment. To shun allurments is not hard, To minds resolv'ed, forewarn'd, and well prepar'd. RULE 9. Every person and thing connected with self, is apt to appear good and desireable in our eyes. — Errors and misconduct are more excuseable in ignorant, than in well-instructed persons. — The di- *vine laws are not reverseible by those of men. — Gratitude is a for- ceible and active principle in good and generous minds. — Our nat- ural and involuntary defects of body, are chwgable upon us. — We are made to be servicable to others, as well as to ourselves. BOOK SECOND. 39 RULE 10. An obligeing and humble disposition, is totally unconnected with a servile and cringeing humour. — By solaceing the sorrows of oth- ers, the heart is improved at the same time that our duty is per- formed. — Labour and expense are lost upon a droneish spirit. — The inadvertancies of youth may be excused, but knaveish tricks should meet with severe reproof. RULE 11. Lov.e worketh no ill to our neighbor, and is the fullfilling of the law. — That which is sometimes expedient, is not allways so. — We may be hurtfull to others, by our example, as well as by personal injuries. — Where diligence opens the door of the understanding and impartiality, keeps it, truth finds an entrance and a wellcome too. REMARKS. The Rules of Syntax have been constructed so as to embrace all the varieties that generally occur in parsing; but as our language is acknowledged to be exceedingly anomalous, the "Notes, or Observations" which follow, are so framed as to include most of the irregularities that occur in composition. Hence, in parsing abstruse sentences, it may be necessary to refer to these note3, with which all scholars should eventually become familiar. NOTES, OR OBSERVATIONS. Note 1. The relative is generally the nominative case, when no nominative comes between it and the verb ; as, The trees which are planted : otherwise, in the objective, and governed by the next active verb or participle that follows it; (unless governed by a preposition,) as, The trees ichich I planted. N. B. When there are two antecedents of different persons to which a relative pronoun refers, the relative and verb following, as well as the possessive pro- noun, may agree in person with either, though usage may some- times offer a preference ; as, I am a man who mind my own busi- ness ; or, I am a man who minds his own business. But when one of the antecedents has been preferred, that agreement must be ob- served throughout the sentence ; as, I am he who counsels and ad- vises you well ; not, who counsels and advise you well. Note 2. Nouns that signify the time when or how long, or that signify space, are generally governed by prepositions understood ; as, He went home last week ; that is, on last week. He lived four years at college ; that is, during four years. Walk a mile ; that is, through the space of a mile. All the days of my appointed time will I wait ; that is, through all the days, or during all the days. Note 3. After the adjectives worth and like, there is an ellip- sis of of and to ; as, The book is worth a dollar ; that is, worthy of a dollar. She is like the lovely Thais ; that is, like to the lovely Thais. Prepositions are frequently understood ; as, We are going home; that is, to home. Buy him some books; that is, for him. He was banished the kingdom; that is from the kingdom. Note 4. The letter o before nouns in the phrases one o'clock, ten o'clock, &c, is a contraction of on ; the same as to say, one on the clock. The article a, before participles, in the phrases a fish- ing, a walking, a hunting, &c, and before nouns, as, a bed, a board, a shore, &c., is generally supposed to be a contraction of on or at. Note 5. Nouns of dimensions, and the like, stand without a governing word ; as, They built a wall ten feet high and 40 inches thick. He is ten years old. N. B. The verb needs is sometimes used without any nominative expressed or understood ; as, There is no evidence of the fact, and there needs none. Note 6. . * A verb in the infinitive mood may be governed by a verb, noun, adjective, or participle ; as, He loves to study — has an opportunity to study ; is apt to learn, and is endeavoring to learn. N. B. Than and as, and other indeclinable words, sometimes ap- pear to govern the infinitive mood ; as, Nothing makes a man sus- pect much, more than to know little ; an object so high as to be invisible. Note 7. A verb in the infinitive mood absolute, stands inde- pendent of the remaining part of the sentence ; as, To confess the truth, I was in fault. Note 8. Participles, like verbs, relate to nouns or pronouns ; as, I saw a man laboring in the field. They sometimes agree with a sentence, or part of a sentence ; as, According to history, Alex- ander conquered the Persians. But, frequently they do not de- pend upon any particular word or sentence ; being referable to either of the persons indefinitely ; as, Granting this to be true, it would help us but little. Note 9. ^Adverbs qualify verbs, participles, adjectives, and other adverbs ; as, He spoke eloquently ; Having lived prudently, he became rich ; She is unaffectedly polite ; She writes very cor- rectly. No exact rule can be given for tlie placing of adverbs, on all occasions — though the general rule may be of considerable use ; but the easy flow and perspicuity of the phrase are the things which ought to be chiefly regarded. When two auxiliaries are used, the adverb is usually placed after the second; as, We have been kindly treated. The adverb there is sometimes used as an ex- pletive, or as a word that adds nothing to the sense ; as, There is a person at the door. * This note, although in accordance with the best authority, is deemed of but little consequence. Mr. Comley's rule on the subject (if any be necessary) is con- sidered preferable, viz: A verb'in the infinitive mood is always governed by the preposition to. 40 BOOK SECOND. Note 10. Articles and adjectives belong to nouns, which they qualify or define ; as, Wise men; a King; this book. Adjectives sometimes belong to verbs in the infinitive mood, a sentence, or part of a sentence ; as, To see is pleasant ; To be blind is unfortunate. When nouns are taken in their most extensive signification, they do not admit articles before them ; as, Dogs are faithful ; Horses are useful ; Man is the Lord of creation. Proper nouns seldom admit articles before them ; being sufficiently definite of themselves. Sometimes, however, they are admissible ; as, The earth, the French, the illustrious Franklin, a Mr. Blake addressed the meet- ing- Note 11. The Relative Pronoun what, frequently has no an- tecedent, but stands, immediately, for some noun, or for some in- definite idea ; and should be parsed (except in name,) the same as a personal pronoun. What is sometimes used as an interjection ; as, What ! are you there ? Note 12. The pronoun it sometimes stands for a sentence, or part of a sentence ; as, I shall go to Boston, if business require it. It may be applied to any being or thing in the universe. It often represents the condition of persons or things ; as, It is hot — that is, the weather ; How is it with you ? &c. The personal pronouns are often used as antecedents ; as, He, who obeys not the laws, is a bad man. Note 13. The article a is used before few, many, dozen, Sic, indicating, collectively, one whole number ; as, A few days ; a hun- dred years, &c. The is sometimes used before adverbs, in order to mark the degree more strongly ; as, The more I read the book, the better I like it. N. B. A is nearly synonymous with one, and the with this or that. A often includes the meaning of every and each ; as, He clears six dollars a day. Note 14. Prepositions, in their original and literal sense, de- noted relation of place ; as, Christ was crucified between two thieves. But they are now used figuratively, to express other relations ; as, We serve under a good master. When two prepositions come to- gether, the first is used adverbially ; as, He came down from the mountain. Note 15. In English, many verbs are sometimes used in a transitive, and sometimes in an intransitive, signification — the con- struction, only, determining of which kind they are ; as, I wrote a letter ; He writes very fast. Note 16. A passive verb will always admit by or with after it, and make sense. Note 17. The natural division of time or tense is into three parts — the present, past and future ; as, Present, I am writing ; Past, I wrote, have written, or had written ; Future, I shall or will write, or shall have written. But, to mark time with more precis- ion, grammarians generally make use of six. Note 18. The Potential mood becomes Subjunctive, by means of the conjunctions if, unless, except, Sec, prefixed ; as, If I could deceive him, I should abhor it. Note 19. The distinguished use of the Conjunction is to save the repetition of words ; as, Tom, Dick, and Harry, live in York. The above contains three simple sentences — the same as to say, Tom lives in York, Dick lives in York, &c. Hence it appears, that conjunctions often connect sentences, when they appear to connect only words. Note 20. The adjective many, when followed by the article a, is joined to a singular noun ; as, Many a boy has been ruined, by keeping bad company. Note 21. Poets and some prose Avriters, occasionally take the license of using the plural form of the verb be when it has a singu- lar nominative ; as, " Seek not temptation then, which to avoid were better," i. e. would be better. Note 22. In forming the plural of complex nouns, usage is not uniform. Some good writers pluralize the name only ; as, the Miss Taylors; — others vary the title only; as, the Misses Taylor ; — while others vary both ; as, the Misses Taylors. Of these three methods, sometimes one may be preferable, and some- times another. Examples, The first method is preferable, when the numerals two or three, Sec, are prefixed ; as, the two Miss Browns ; the three Mr. Kings, Also when it lessens the difficulty of pronunciation ; as, the Dea. Smiths, the Gen. Scotts, Esq. Spragues. [Instead of the Deacons Smith, the Generals Scott, &c] Also when the abbreviated title, Mrs.* (having no corresponding plural) is applied to more than one, we are compelled to adopt this method ; as, the Mrs. Pratts. And when Miss or Mr. thus applied, is connected with Mrs. in such instances, the same method is usually observed ; as, the Mrs. and Miss Pratts ; the Mr. and Mrs. Pratts. This method, or the third, is likewise preferable when the second obscures the sense ; as, the Miss Makes, and cousins, or the Misses Makes, Sec [To say, the " Misses Blake and cousins," might imply one or more of the same name.] The second method should be adopted, when a singular name has the -plural form ; as, the Misses Woods, the Misses Jacobs, the Misses Brooks. In speaking of married ladies, in such instances, we say, the two Mrs. Woods. This method should also be used when it lessens the difficulty of pronunciation ; as, the Misses Moses, [in- stead of the Miss Moseses, or the Misses Moseses.~\ The third method, or the second, is generally adopted (especial- ly when applied to Companies or Co-partnerships) in the use of the title, Mr., which has an abbreviated French plural ; as, the Messrs.-f Harpers, or the Messrs. Harper; Messrs. Phillips, Sampson 8? Co. Also when complex nouns are common, the third method is generally used ; as, Messrs. Editors. N. B. As all titles partake somewhat of the nature of adjec- tives, which are seldom varied on account of number, and as it ev- idently tends more to uniformity (some titles having no abbreviat- ed plurals) the first method, with the above mentioned exceptions, is generally deemed the most eligible. Note 23. Letters and figures (used merely as nouns, without regard to their appropriate signification) generally form the plural with an apostrophe and the letter s ; as, the a's and the b's, the 2's and the 3's, dott i's and cross t's. Some good writers form the plu- ral of words also (when used as above) in the same manner: as the if's and the and's, the of's and the to's. Note 24. Compound nouns ending inful, as well as most oth- er compounds, have the regular plural ; as, spoon-fids, pail-fids, mouse-traps, tea-pots, Sec But when composed of two nouns con- nected by a preposition, the plural is generally formed by adding s to the first noun ; as, sons-in-law, mother s-in-lata. And when composed of an adjective and noun, some authors also pluralize the first, or principal word ; as, courts-marshal, knights-errand, cousins- german, aids-de-camp, Sec Though no good reason can be assign- ed, it is believed, why such compounds should not have the regular plural as well as coach-fuls, bag-fuls, Sec The same remarks will apply to other similar compounds ; such as two-year-old, three- year-old, Sec ; as, I own 10 two-year-olds, and 8 three-year-olds. Note 25. For sentences like the following — the book is print- ing, the house is building, Sec, some good writers substitute the passive form ; as, the book is being printed, the house is being built. But the first form is considered preferable, [a, the con- traction of at, being always expressed or understood in such cases : as, he has gone a hunting.] A is sometimes employed in the sense of the preposition of; as, Thomas a Becket [o/Becket] and sometimes in the sense of to ; as, flour sold at $4,50 a $4,58 — and occasionally it is used as a mere expletive prefix ; as, " Tom's a cold." * Pronounced M h$-sh. t Pronounced MitK wa. BOOK SECOND, 41 Note 26. The same word is sometimes common and sometimes proper. Examples^ — Alexander conquered the Persians ; I saw several Persians. In the first sentence, Persians is a proper noun, because it is used to distinguish a particular nation from all other nations ; but in the second sentence it becomes common, because it is a name common to all other individuals of the same nation. Proper nouns also generally become common, by annexing an ar- ticle to them ; as, She is reading the lives of the twelve Geesars ; he is a Otcerb. And common nouns become proper, when applied to the Deity ; as, King, Pother, Lord. Note 27. The adverbs, here, there, and where, are now gener- ally substituted in common writing and speaking, for hither, thither, or whither ; as, come here ; where are you going ? But in grave or solemn style, the latter are preferable ; as, " Come hitli&r all ye weary souls." " Whitfier shall ye flee ?" Note 28. The expressions, had rather, had better, had as lief, or as Uevt, though anomalous, are well authorized ; as, I had rather stay, but you had belter go ; because Mary had as lief take your place as not. But had ought is a gross vulgarism, and should al- ways be avoided ; as, He had ought to do it. It should be, He ought to do it. [Ought being a defective verb, and used only in the present and perfect tenses.] Had like and had as goods are also incorrect ; as, I had like to have gone ; you had as goods do it. The word, like or liked is sometimes improperly used without being joined to had ; as, I liked to have killed the squirrel with a stone. Note 29. Most authors, among whom is Webster, allow that some transitive verbs govern two objective cases, one expressing the person and the other the thing ; as, He asked John a guinea for the cane. Some however contend, that in all such cases, there is an ellipses of a preposition, as in the following sentence : He taught the bogs philosophy. That is, he taught philosophy to the boys ; or he taught to the boys philosophy. Many nouns do cer- tainly carry the appearance of being governed by a verb, when they are, in fact, governed by a preposition understood. Note 30. Intransitive verbs sometimes assume a transitive form, and may be said to govern, although the nouns which follow them are not strictly their objects ; as, Joseph dreamed a dream ; to live a life of virtue ; to run a race ; to sleep the sleep of death ; to die the death of the righteous ; he walked his horse ; he danced a hornpipe. Nearly allied to this idiom is that of using after transitive verbs, certain nouns which do not appear to be strictly the objects of the verbs, but still are called objective cases, and governed by them ; as, The piece of gold weighs a pound ; the cloth measures ten yards. Note 31. One or two authors make passive verbs govern the objective case ; as, He was asked a question ; she was denied admis- sion, &c. ; but in all such examples, according to our most approv- ed authors, the noun which follows is either governed by some preposition understood, or- stands without a governing word. Note 32. There are several nouns of multitude which do not vary their forms in the plural number ; as, Six Dozen ; Five Hun- dred ; Three Score and Ten. The words, cannon, shot, &c, and horse and foot, [denoting bodies of soldiers] although singular in form, are frequently used in a plural sense without any variation ; as, A body of 1000 foot and 500 horse, with a park of 10 cannon, was sent to reconnoiter the city, and several shot were fired. The wovd. fish has a plural form, but is frequently used in the plural sense without changing its singular form ; as, Pish are very plenti- ful. The names of all kmd of fish, when used in the plural, are seldom varied from the singular form ; as, shad, mackerel, hali- but, &c. Note 33. Two or more nouns connected by and, denoting the same person or thing, require singular verbs to agree with them ; as, The hero land patriot has breathed his last ; Why is dust and ashes proud ? Hum and molasses, well stirred together, is said to be good for a cold. Note 34. Proper nouns, generally, do not admit of a plural form, except the names of nations, societies, chains of mountains, and groups of islands ; as, the Russians, the Friends, the Appen- nines, the West Indies. Note 35. Adverbs are not unfrequently absolute ; that is, they qualify no particular word, but usually refer to the whole pre- ceding sentence ; as, yes, no, amen, &c, and not unfrequently they are expletives, — that is, qualify nothing ; as, " There came to the beach a poor exile of Erin." Sometimes several words are used together as an adverb, called an adverbial phrase ; as, by and by, from whence, &c. Note 36. Adjectives of number, as two, three, four, six, &c, are sometimes called Numeral Adjectives. Any adjective may be said to be used as a noun, or as a substitute, when the noun to which it belongs is not expressed ; as, Many were invited, but the wise only accepted. [That is, many people, wise people.] Note 37. When several adjectives belong to the same noun, the article should generally be used before the first only ; as, a large, sweet, mellow apple. But when the omission would occa- sion ambiguity, or when we wish to be emphatical, the article should be repeated before each ; as, a white and a red apple, [a white and red apple might imply but one apple, partly white and partly red.~\ The learned, the eloquent, the patriotic Catham. Also when one adjective or noun begins with a vowel or silent h and the other with a consonant, the indefinite article, if used, must be re- peated and changed from a to an, or from an to a, as the case may be ; as, a wise and an honest Prince ; an owl and a hawk ; a peach and an apple, [not a peach and apple, or an apple and peach.] In a comparison, limited to one individual, the article should not be repeated before the last noun ; as, He is a better farmer than sai- lor ; but when two persons are implied, the article should be used before the last as well as the first ; as, He is a better farmer than a sailor would be. Note 38. The subjunctive mood has no variation, in the form of the verb, from the indicative, except in the present tense of verbs generally, and the present and imperfect tenses of the verb to be. It may be of use to the learner to remark, that though we have used if only, in the conjugation of the verb in the subjunctive mood, yet any other conjunction, expressing doubt, may, with equal propriety, occasionally be used ; as, though, unless, &c The form of the present tense of the subjunctive mood, is fre- quently used to express future time, the auxiliary being suppress- ed ; thus, instead of saying, If he should be, if he should go, if he shoidd learn ; we frequently say, if he be, if he go, if he learn. Should is probably more used to form the future tense of the sub- junctive mood, than shall, or will. It should be noticed, that the sign of the subjunctive mood, is not always expressed ; supposition or hypothesis may be well ex- pressed without the conjunctions, if, though, unless, &c. ; as, Were it possible, for if it were possible. The potential mood becomes subjunctive, by means of the con- junctions if, though, unless, &c. prefixed to its tenses, without any variations from the potential inflections ; as, If I could deceive him, I should abhor it. In poetry and law style, the verb let, in the imperative mood, is frequently omitted ; as, "Perish the lore that deadens young desire ;" that is, " let the lore perish," &c. "Be ignorance thy choice, where knowledge leads to wo ;" that is, •' let ignorance be thy choice, &c." "Be it enacted ;" that is, " let it be enacted." Those tenses are called simple tenses, which are formed of the principal verb ; as, I learn, I learned. The compound tenses are such as cannot be formed without an auxiliary verb ; as, I have I -J HOOK SECOND. learned, I had learned, I shall or will learn, I may learn, I may be learned, I may have been learned, &c. These compounds MM, however, to be considered M only different forms of the same \< -rlis. Notk Iii>. The present tense is sometimes applied to represent the notions of persons long since dead, as transacting at the present, time; as, Seneca reasons well. It. is occasionally used to point out l lie relative time of a future action, as .brought into present view ; a . When the mail arrive*, We shall hear from home. In animat- ed historical narrations, it is also sometimes substituted for the im- perfect tenses as, lie enters the territory, jiyhts and conquers. NOTK 40. The perfect tense, and the imperfect, tense, both de- note time that is past; but the former denotes it in such a moaner, that there is still actually remaining some pari of the. lime lo slide away, wherein we declare the tiling has lieen done ; whereas the imperfect denotes the thing or action past, in such a manner, that nothing remains of thai time in which it, was done. If we speak of the present century, we say, Philosophers have made great discoveries in the present century : hut if we speak of the Ul8l century, we say, Philosophers made great discoveries in the last, century. He hat been much afflicted this year; I have this uiik read the king's proclamation ; I have heard great news this morning. In these instances, lie has been, 1 have read, and heard, denote tilings that are past ; hut they occurred in this year, in this week, and to-day; and still there remains a part of this year, week, and day, whereof I speak. In general, the perfect, tense may he applied wherever the action is connected with the present time, by the actual existence, either bf the author, or Of the work, though it, may have been performed many centuries ago; but if neither the. aulhor nor the work now remains, it cannot be used. We, may say, Cicero A as written ora- tions ; but we cannot say, Cicero has written poems; because the orations are in being, but the poems are l*st. Speaking of priests in general, we may say, They have in all ages claimed great powers; because the general order of the priesthood Still exists: Kul if we speak of the Druids, as any particular order of priests, which does not now exist, we cannot use this tense. We cannot say, The Druid priests have claimed great powers ; but must say, The Druid priests claimed great powers; because the order is now totally extinct. NoTI II. U'///, as auxiliary in the first person, intimates reso- lution and promising; in the second and third persons, it only fore- tells; at, We will remember benefits; "I //•/// reward the good ;" you or they Will have a pleasant walk. — Shall, on the contrary, in the firs! person, simply foretells ; in the second and third persons, jirumiscs, commands, or threatens ; as, We shall dine at home ; M Thou shall inherit the land ;" Ye shall do justice. — The foreign- er who fell into the Thames and cried out, " I will be drowned — no body shall help me," made a sad misapplication of the auxilia- ries. Will is not used in the first person of the second future tense; it, being incompatible with the nature of a promise. We cannot say, 1 will have written a year, on the first of October next ; but, I shall have written, is a common expression. Notk 42. The auxiliary verb did, should never be joined to any verb except, the present form; as, I did go, I did lie abed, | not did lay abed.] It would be proper to say, I lay abed yester- day, but not to say, 1 did lay <.Vc. ; because lay is here the past tense of the inlransitive verb lie, [to lie down.] But it would be correct to say, 1 did lay the book on the shelf; because lay is here the present tense of the transilive verb, lay [to put or to place. | See " Catalogue of Irregular Verbs." When joined to a single verb, the same may be said of the auxiliaries, may, can, must, might, could, would, should, shall and will ; as, 1 can learn, he must write, she should //,■ abed, you may lay I he book on the shelf. But this does not apply to compound verbs ; as, 1 might, have spoken, I shall have written. Notk. 48. Between the participle and the verb there is such a nice gradation, that young learners often tind it difficult to distin- guish the, difference. An illustration, on the subject, may be of service to the learner. It appears that the same word is some- times a participle, and sometimes a verb. Examples : John loved his book." Here loced is a verb; but, in the following sen- tence it is a participle: "John, loved by all who knew him, was greatly lamented." The Britons daily harrassed the enemy ; \erl>.~ The Britons, daily harrassed by the, PictS, were obliged to call in the Saxons ; Participle. I admired and applauded him; Verb. — Admired and applauded, he became vain; Par- ticiple, lie is heated with liquor; Verb. — The man, heated with liquor, could not, brook the offence ; Participle. He charg- ed the enemy, Vffrb* Charged with rich gifts from the king, he presents himself before the prophet, &c, Participle. They are jomed together; Verb. — Virtue joined to knowledge, and Wealth, Confers great honors and respectability; Participle. lie is ruiscil to greatness ; I'er/i. — liaised to greatness, he employ- ed his power, tVc ; Participle. 1 have erected i\ house; Verb. Von bouse, erected on the rising ground, drew me from my road; Participle. He lodged at the inn; Verb. — I found him lodged in prison ; Participle. In forming the moods and tenses, participles are often associated with verbs; in this case, they seem to lose their character as parti- ciples, and become \crbs. Hence, it may be remarked, that, when the participle performs the office of a verb through all the moods and tenses, implies the idea of time, and governs the objective rase of nouns and pronouns, in \\\v same manner as verbs do, it cannot properly be called a distinct part of speech; for it is manifest, in such cases, that it is a species or lorui of the verb, and therefore may be called a verb ; as in the following examples I "I am tvrit z ing, or I had written; He is teaching ; llu has spoken ; We have been loved ; They might have been taught." A word cannot be a perfect participle, unless it will admit of hare before it, and make sense. The participle often becomes an adjective ; as, a loving friend ; amoving spectacle; a heated imagination; lotting friendship. In such cases, it admits of comparison by more and most, less and least; as, A more admired artist; a most respected magistrate. It sometimes becomes a noun; as, The hunting of London was a distressing event. By trusting to bis honor 1 lost my money. In this usage, it takes the plural form J as, The overflowings of the Nile. He scelh all his goings. Sometimes the plural is used when an adverb is attached to the participle ; as, The goings out — the comings in. But this use Of the participle is not deemed elegant, nor is it common in collo- quial discourse. Many words, such as untouched, unvexed, &c, have the appear- ance of being part iciph's, which are, in fact, adjectives ; as, "Can we, untouched by gratitude, view the profusion of good which the Almighty hand bestows around." NOTK 44. When a numeral and a qualifying adjective both re- fer to the same noun, the numeral should be placed first ; as, the two young ladies ; the two tvisest men, [not the young two ladies, &c Notk 4. r >. Quoth, meaning tosay, is obsolete in prose, but in po- etry and burlesque, it is sometimes used in the third person singu- lar ; as, quoth he. Wot, meaning to know, is obsolete in modern style, but frequent- ly used in SCripture; as, "I WOt not who hath done this thing:" My master wottcth not what is with mc in the house. It is used In the present and.past tenses only. WiH, meaning to think or imagine, is seldom met with, but m the early English writings, and in the English bible 5 as, -Wist ye not that I must be about mv Father's business." In most languages there are some verbs which are defective with respect to persons. They are used Only in the third person, be- cause they refer to a subject peculiarly appropriate to that person ; at, U rains, it smacs, it hails, it lightens, & c. - BOOK SECOND. 43 b 4S. Care oust be taken not to employ Quotottofu, Pa- rentftese*. Brackets, or holies, too frequently in composition. Lie good wine, they should be used judiciously and sparingly : — other- hey may injure the sense and weaken the force of an argu- ment. All good writers observe a due caution, in this respect. Neither should foreign words or phrases be often quoted, or too many gualifying term* be used in writing and speaking. [ Adjec- md adverbs.] Very long sentences, between periods, should generally be avoided, — as they frequently obscure the sense. A few more Remark* with regard to (Jender, Number and Case. The following nouns and their compounds form their plural reg- ularly; — strife, fife, safe, brief, chief, grief handkerchief, mischief, dwarf, tearf. tnrf, turf, gulf roof; proof hoof, and such as end in ?pt staff, which has stores, though its compounds are regu- lar; a&, fag-staff, flagstaff*. Staff, as a military term, has staff*. The plural ending often makes an additional syllable ; as, hone, hone*. Nouns ending in o, preceded by a consonant, form their plural by adding e* to the singular; as, hero, heroes; negro, negroet; except Junto, memento, canto, tyro, grotto, portico. solo, zero, quarto, and octavo, which hare * only added for the plural ; also when the o is preceded by another rowel, the * only is added; a*, folio, folios. Some nouns hare two forms in the plural, with different significa- tions ; as, brother, brothers, [of one family,] brethren, [of one soci- ety] ; penny, pennies, [distinct species of coin,] pence, [m compu- tation J ; pea, pea*, [the seeds, as distinct objects ; as, five peas'] ; pease, [applied to a mass — die species; appease are dear.] Marty noun* from foreign language*, generally retain their original plural*. AluffjLU-. aicrririi. Analysis, analyses. Apex; AjCHMSj MBPMa * automata. A tfauMtan, Aii-. sit-. Index, * ajriNBMiona, Beau, beaux. Calx, f . (ealxes. Crisis, erism Criterion, \***?™' Datum, data. Desideratum, desiderata. Dogma, J*/*™* .Fungus, | fun ^ Gymnasium, ** yMina *? a ' y , _•• mnassusnsj Hypothesis, hypotheses. I .'■..-:■-,'. . -."•- " '-■ . indices, [referring to algebraic quantity.] indexes, [pointers, or tabJei of contents.] Larva, larvae- Lyceum, {^^ Medium, - < PMHUi Ibaonsdim, j , " enl0,a ^ Met am orpho si s, metamorphoses. M'-';,'-::!:jtH. ■MMtfK WmmrTmWk, ttnwwhL Ellipsis, ellipses. Emphasis, K III o ol>»iM-v«vl, Unit thr npoMronhio .« nvunontk ineivnsps the uiftionltv of pronunciation: — thu», in prononotaf tat word, .Vo»Ar, would nlso t>o ,-\n. uu-lv hard to pronounce; as, A,MIU$'$ •hi«ld { for rtgktt mm t u 'M take. t A verb not in the infinitive mood. in obliquely after a comma, a capital is unnecessary ; as, Solo- mon observes, that "pride goes before destruction." The first word of an example may also very properly begin with a capital; as, u Temptation proves our virtu*-." 6. The pronoun /, and the interjection 0, must always be capi- tals ; as, "I write; Hear, O- earth." 6. At the beginning of every line of poetry. 7. All names, epithets, or qualities of our Creator, are always begun, if not wholly written, with capitals; as, God, Loni>, Su- preme Being, Almighty, Most High, Divine Providence. The word hearen must always begin with a capital, when used as the name of the King of heaven ; as, •• May Heaven prosper you," Hut when it is used as the name of the abode of the blessed, it may begin with a small letter, except at the beginning of a sen- tence ; as, u The angels of heaven." "The Lord of heaven and earth." 8. All proper names, of whatever description, must begin with capitals; of persons, heathen gods and goddesses, brutes, the plan- ets,* the fixed stars and constellations, countries, kingdom.-, states, cities, towns, streets, islands, mountains, rivers, ships, seas, oceans, &c. ; as. Benjamin Franklin; Sir Isaac Newton ; the Alleghany Mountains; the Ohio Kiver; Lake Superior; the Red Sea; the Frigate Queniere. Also all adjectives rffiriTod from proper nemo j as, the Newtonian system ; Grecian, Human, American, French, Italian, \ c. 1). All titles of honor, professions, and callings of men, particu- larly when an address is made, ought to begin with capitals ; as, President, Governor, General, Judge, Esquire. Mr., "• - •"■--. *- then the l e p e titiu n af the article, am ■ both ■gcenmr /Vnd elegant ■ Bat of that day. and that hoar, knoweth no man : no. not fht angels, which are in heaven, at mm i the Son, bat the Father." rn:r?:5 of inr h \ > A mast &••■-.. A mool ImmmtHL r, and faithful are ▼erf tmphariril. will not admit the Christ, the power of God. and the wisdom of God." «Chrot far power mW wisdom •/ 6oaV is not so lanjihatinl He went to St Stephen's. He is dean of St. Paul's. Whose book is tins? It is Peter's. This is good elegant, than if the noons, omitted by the And. jet, in parsing, we most say, St. Stephen's Chapel; St Pauls' Church ; It is Peter's book. ELLIPSIS OF THE ABJECTIVE. In sentences of this kind, care should be taken, that the adjec- tives omitted, be as proper to qualify the latter, as the former noun. The ellipsis of adjectives should never be applied to nouns of mmBKvnf ■■in ELLIPSIS OF THE PEOXOOL - to h eigh t , nar de pth , nar any utht r creature, shall be able ta sep- ns from the love of God." Corresponding conjunctions should never be omitted: A few ex- cVuammmi ■ Ml ■ ..-.rr-r ■ mmtom nusFhlnuui ■ .-j- < I -: v He is as learned a man as you. He is to learned a you. Wnetner it were yon, or they, that played. Whether h were you, nor they, Ant played. he r nor. Xeither this man, nor his father. Xeither this ffirihjr or Choose emWr this, or that. Choose either tins, and* thaL Tkmnyh yet Thomyh he m not polite, oat he is virtuous. To ■apt he is not pohte, he is learned and So— mot Itismphun.motyoomostknow.it It ism yon moat know it 1 : : ::>:« ■ :v.-. ::.:■: >:t: > My house and fr n f m cntw to Ned. ily book, pen, ink, and pa- per. My father and mother, sisters and brothers. If the expressions demand a particular rmphnrin. we must dis- pense with the figure. "O, send out my fight and my truth." "The Lord is my fight and my salvation." ELLIPSIS OF THE VEBB. "Andknowest not that moo art wretched, and miserable, and poor, and blind, and naked." To omit verbs, in similar instances, is very proper. In the pre- ceding j w minus, the conjunction mot, the pronoun maw, and the verb art, are omitted in four different place it ; and yet there is no obscurity of sense. When several verbs, m su c c ess i on , are used in the mood, elega nc e r eq uir e s that m, the sign of the should be omitted before all but the first To love and fear God, is man's duty. ELLIPSIS OF THE JLDVEEB. He walks, speaks, and behaves, very tospefl, read, and write, ton e tn y . Ho ntw aw, ELLIPSIS OF THE COXJTXCTIOX. God is to be loved for las truth, goodness, mercy, aW grace. In all e mph a tica l expressions, the conjunction ought to be used. « For I am persuaded, that neither death, nor ~ To finmhhm e du c a tio n,, he nmde a tooT m^ nat England, France. Italy, Germany, and Holland." The repetition of the m e p oti ti on mr iw j a , before all these noons, would be mefegant And where neither sense nor perspicuity de- mands the use of a pr ep osi tion, it ■hoold be avoided. The following quotations are very elliptical. ■ Let us swallow them up alive as the grave, and whole as those mat go down into the ph." Supplied : Let moo as swallow them op alive as the grave snmnonom them an afire, ami In* men as maolmt mem up whole, as those ore i w nl W i s* 00 mfolr, that go down into the pit That the above verse cannot be parsed without supplying, in idea, the words that are omitted by the ellipsis, is evident to all ac- with the rales of Syntax. That we may enjoy ourselves, let us be temperate, erate ; that we may enjoy one another, let us be mane, charitable ; that we may enjoy God, let us be pious, devout and holy; detesti n g the vices, and despising the vanities of this worn. That we may enjoy ourselves, let us be enjoy omrtelre*. let as at chaste, ono* mac we let as he moderate; that we may enjoy one another, let us be benev- may enj oy one another, let m be charitable ; and that we may enjoy God ; let us be pious, mot we may enjoy God. let « le devout end mot me may enjoy God. let « % *e holy; deoMtmg the vices, and des- pising the vanities of this world. That the use of the grammatic stances, is necessary as well as Elegant, appears by this The repetition of the words in mnVri, obscures, m a measure, the sense; lessens the majesty of expression ; and greatly fatigues the ■nhaV PUNCTUATION. PrxcTrxTiox treats of the points or marks used in written j A Colon £] denotes a pauseof three syllables. composition, for the purpose of tended to be conveyed, and the clearly the sense in- in reading and A Comma [J denotes a pause of one syllable. A Semicolon [;} denotes a pause of two syllables. A Period [.3 denotes a pause of four syllables.* An Interrogation point f?] shows where a question is asked: as. Whom do you see? ♦ Le. WkoayoBan a. on 46 BOOK SECOND. An Exclamation point [!] is a mark of wonder or surprise ; as, the folly of sinners 1 N. B. The pause of these two last points is the same as a period. The Dash [ — ] marks a break in the sentence, or an abrupt turn ; as, " If thou art he — but Oh ! how fallen." " Here lies the great — false marble where ? Nothing but sordid dust lies here!" It is also used when a person is waiting for an answer ; as, "Hold up thy hand, make signal of thy hope — He dies and makes no sign." N. B. Modern writers often employ dashes in the place of the parenthesis. # A Parenthesis [()] includes words, not necessary to make sense, and should be read quicker, and in a weaker tone of voice ; as, " Know, then, this truth, (enough for man to know,) Virtue alone, is happiness below." Brackets or Books [ ] include words that serve to explain a foregoing word or sentence ; as, This event [the burning of Rome] occurred during the reign of Nero. He [John] lives in Boston. They [the Americans] &c. The Caret [A ]denotes an interlineation, and shows where to bring in what was omitted (through mistake, or otherwise,) in the a but first writing ; as, " Without friend, the world is a wilderness." A A The Byphen [-] is chiefly used to join the parts of a word to- gether, that are written partly in one line, and partly in another ; as, We are commanded to love and do good to those that are our ene- mies. It is also used to connect compound words ; as, lap-dog, tea- pot. Note. In dividing a word at the end of a line, the break should always be made between two syllables, and not between dif- ferent letters of the same syllable. An Apostrophe ['] is the sign of the possessive case ; as, Peter's cane. It also contracts words ; as, lov'd for loved, tho' for though. The Quotation or Double Comma [" "] includes a passage, taken from some other author, in his own words ; as, Remember this prov- erb, " Pride goes before destruction." " In my first parliament," said the King, " I was a novice." Note. When a quotation oc- curs within a quotation, it is distinguished by single commas ; as, the priest said, " forget not this law, ' Love one another,' and ye shall be blessed." If both quotations end together, it is indicated by three commas, thus — the priest said, " forget not this law, 'Love one another.' " If both begin together, it is indicated thus — the priest said, " ' Love one another,' and ye shall be blessed." If both begin and end together, it is indicated thus — the priest said, " 'Love one another.' " An Ellipses or the long Dash, [ ]is used when some letters in a word, or some words in a sentence,' are omitted; as, K g for King. The Brace [~- — ,] sometimes unites three poetical lines which have the same rhyme, or connects a number of words in prose with one common application ; as, ( mowed Cleave, to stick, \ Cleaved, cleaved. ( mown, or adhere, j ( " I wonder why the saints don't sing, < And make the heavenly arches ring, ( With loud hosannas to* their King; Who brought their souls to union !" The Section [§] is sometimes used to distinguish the parts into which a Book, Chapter, or Article is divided. The Paragraph [^[] is chiefly used in the Bible, and denotes the beginning of a new subject. In other books, paragraphs are dis- tinguished by commencing a new line farther from the margin than the beginning of other lines. This is called indenting* * Paragraphs were formerly much larger than at the present day, — frequently containing a number of modern ones. [See Book of "Kings."] Hut the tign or mark of the paragraph and section are now nearly obsolete; and as Articles Mow, mowed, A small Dash [--] when placed over a vowel, denotes that it is long ; as, noble. A Breeve J_«] placed over a vowel, shows that it is short \ as, folly. A mark of Accent ['] placed over a syllable, denotes that it re- quires particular stress in pronunciation ; as, fancy. A Diaresis [ •• ] placed over the latter of two successive vowels, indicates that they do not form a diphthong ; as, aerial. The Cedilla [ y ] is a mark which is sometimes placed under the letter c, to show that it has the sound of s ; as in chaise, facade. The Asterisk or Star, [*], Dagger [f], Double Dagger [j], Par- allel Lines [||], Letters of the Alphabet, Figures, &c, are used as references, directing the reader to some words or notes in the mar- gin, or at the bottom of the page. Two or more stars denote that something is wanting, defective, or immodest in the passage. The Index or Band [ be distinguished from the rest, it is generally printed in Roman letters, or SMALL CAPS : as, " To err it human; — tofort/ive. Divink," [ot divine.] BOOK SECOND. 47 EXCEPTIONS. 1. All parenthetical sentences, or parenthetical adjuncts, should be separated by commas ; as, The city of New York, within the last fifteen years, has increased rapidly in population : Within the last fifteen years, the city of New York has increased rapidly in popu- lation. 2. The nominative case independent, nouns in apposition, and the infinitive mood absolute, with their adjuncts, must be separat- ed by commas ; as, Colonel, your most obedient ; It must be so, Plato, thou reasonest well ; Dear Sir, your letter was received ; Your letter, my dear Sir, was duly received. His father dying, he succeeded to the estate : John, the Baptist, Was beheaded : To be candid, I think she was blamable. 3. When a verb of a sentence is understood, a comma should generally be inserted ; as, From law arises security — from securi- ty, curiosity, — and from curiosity, knowledge. RULE 2. A compound sentence must be resolved into simple ones, and separated by commas ; as, Virtue refines the affections, but vice de- bases them. EXCEPTIONS. 1. Two words of the same kind, immediately connected by a conjunction, though they may render the sentence a compound one, must not be separated by a comma ; as, Some men sin deliberately and. presumptuously. But if there be more than two, they must all be separated unless connected in pairs, in which case thepairs only must be separated ; as, Deaths of parents, friends, and compan- ions, are doubtless intended for our improvement: There is a nat- ural difference between merit and demerit, virtue and vice, wisdom and folly. 2. In comparative sentences, where the members are short, the comma is better omitted ; as, Wisdom is better than riches, [than riches are.~\ 3. Sentences connected by what cannot be separated; as, Eat what is set before you. And where the relative is understood, the comma is generally omitted ; as, Value duly the opportunities you enjoy, [which you enjoy.] 4. When a simple sentence stands as the object of a preceding verb, and its verb may be changed into the infinitive mood, the comma may be omitted ; as, When I supposed he was at rest : changed, when I supposed him to be at rest. RULE 3. When a longer pause than a comma is required, and yet the sense is incomplete, a semicolon may be used ; as, The wise man is happy, when he gains his own approbation ; the fool, when he gains the applause of those about him. RULE 4. The colon is used when the sense of the division of a period is complete, so as to admit of a full point, but something is added by way of illustration ; as, A brute arrives at a point of perfection that he can never pass : in a few years he has all the endowments he is capable of ; and were he to live ten thousand more, would be the same thing he is at present. Note. This point is of little use ; the difference between the colon and semicolon is so small, that the two pauses are frequently confounded, as may be seen by the present version of the Prov- erbs. We conceive the colon might be rejected without injury to the perspicuity of sentences ; and punctuation very plified. RULE 5. much sim- A sentence making in itself complete sense, requires a period after it ; as, " Fear God." " Honor the King." The period is used also after initials when used alone ; as after A. D., for Anno Domini ; Q. for question ; and after abbreviations ; as, Col. for Colonel ; Mr. for Mister ; Esq. for Esquire ; &c. for and so forth or et cetera. RULE 6. Interrogative sentences require a mark of interrogation ; and sentences expressing wonder or surprise, a mark of admiration af- ter them ; as, Whom do you see ? How wonderful is man ! EXERCISES IN PUNCTUATION. COMMA. The tutor by instruction and discipline lays the foundation of the pupil's future honor. Self-conceit presumption and obstinacy blast the prospects of many a youth. Deliberate slowly execute promptly. To live soberly righteously and piously comprehends the whole of our duty. The path of piety and virtue pursued with a firm and constant spirit will assuredly lead to happiness. Continue my dear child to make virtue thy principal study. Peace of mind being secured we may smile at misfortunes. He who is a stranger to industry may possess but he cannot enjoy. Beware of those rash and dangerous connexions which may af- terwards load thee with dishonor. SEMICOLON. » The path of truth is a plain and a safe path that of falsehood is a perplexing maze. Modesty is one of the chief ornaments of youth and has ever been esteemed a presage of rising merit. Heaven is the region of gentleness and friendship hell of fierce- ness and animosity. * • COLON. Often is the smile of gayety assumed whilst the heart aches within though folly may laugh guilt will sting. There is no mortal truly wise and restless at the same time wis- dom is the repose of minds. PERIOD. We ruin the happiness of life when we attempt to raise it too high a tolerable and comfortable state is all that we can propose to ourselves on earth peace and contentment not bliss nor transport are the full portion of man perfect joy is reserved for heaven. INTERROGATION AND EXCLAMATION. To lie down on the pillow after a day spent in temperance in be- neficence and in piety how sweet it is. We wait till to-morrow to be happy alas why not to-day shall we be younger are we sure we shall be healthier will our passions be- come feebler and our love of the world less. 48 BOOK SECOND, SPELLING. Good spelling, good punctuation, and good syntax, with a proper use of the capitals, should go hand in hand. But as the Rules of orthography are extremely vague, they are not wholly to be de- pended upon. Those, however, who may study this book, are most earnestly entreated not to neglect their spelling ; and although the rules may be of considerable use, yet the only way to become a good speller, is by observation and a dictionary. The following example, (a note from a woman, whose husband had just gone to sea, to her clergyman), will show how great a perversion of sense may be occasioned by the mis-spelling of a single word, and the mis-placing of a single point. " Captain Toby, having gone to see his wife, desires the prayers of this church and congregation," &c. It should have been, " Captain Toby, having gone to sea, his wife desires the prayers," &c. Even the mis-placing of a single com- ma, only, will sometimes entirely alter the meaning of a sentence. Example 1st. — " To war shalt thou go and thou shalt return, never in war shalt thou perish." Now by moving the comma one word farther forward, the meaning of the sentence is completely revers- ed. " To war shalt thou go, and thou shalt return never, in war shalt thou perish." Example 2d. — An ingenious expedient was once devised to save a prisoner charged with robbery, in the Crim- inal Court at Dublin. The principal thing that appeared in evi- dence against him, was a confession alledged to have been made by him at the police office, and taken down by a police officer, in writing, and the following passage was read from it : " Magnam said he never robbed but twice said it was Crawford." This, it will be observed, has no mark of the writer's having any notion of punctuation, but the meaning he attached to it, was this : " Magnam said he never robbed but twice : said it was Craw- ford." Mr. O'Gorman, the counsel for the prisoner, begged to look at the paper. He perused it, and rather astonished the police officer by asserting that so far from proving the guilt of the prisoner, it clearly proved his innocence. " This," said the legal gentleman, " is the fair and obvious read- ing of the sentence :" " Magnam said he never robbed, but twice said it was Crawford." This interpretation had its effect upon the jury ; and the man was acquitted. PROSODY. Prosody consists of two parts ; the former teaches the true pronunciation of words, comprising Accent, Quantity, Emphasis, Pause, and Tone ; and the latter, the laws of Versification. Accent. — Accent is the laying of a peculiar stress of the voice on a certain letter or syllable in a word, that it may be better heard than the rest, or distinguished from them ; as, in the word presume, the stress of the voice must be on the letter u, and the second syllable, swne, which takes the accent. Quantity. — The quantity of a syllable is that time which is oc- cupied in pronouncing it. It is considered as long or short. A vowel or syllable is long, when the accent is on the vowel ; which occasions it to be slowly joined, in pronunciation, to the fol- lowing letter ; as, Fall, bale, mood, house, feature. A syllable is short, when the accent is on the consonant ; which occasions the vowel to be quickly joined to the succeeding letter ; as, ant, bSnnet, hunger. A long syllable requires double the time of a short one in pro- nouncing it : Thus, Mate and Note should be pronounced as slowly again, as Mat and Not. Emphasis. — By emphasis is meant a stronger and fuller sound of voice, by which we distinguish some word or words on which we design to lay particular stress, and to show how they affect the rest of the sentence. Sometimes the emphatic words must be distin- guished by a particular tone of voice, as well as by a greater stress. Pauses. — Pauses or rests, in speaking and reading, are a total cessation of the voice, during a perceptible, and, in many cases, a measurable space of time. Tones. — Tones are different both from emphasis and pauses; consisting in the modulation of the voice, and in the notes or vari- ations of sound which we employ in the expression of our senti- ments. VERSIFICATION. Versification, or Poetry, is a species of composition, made according to certain harmonious measures, or proportions of sound. Rhyme is that kind of poetry in which the terminating sound of one line, agrees with that of another ; as, Go tell my son, said he, All thou hast heard of me. A verse, in poetry, is one line ; in prose, a short division of a compositon. A couplet or distich consists of two poetic lines, making complete sense ; as, Indulge the true ambition to excel In the best art — the art of thinking well. A triplet consists of three lines which rhyme together ; as, Of many things, some few I shall explain, Teach thee to shun the dangers of the main, And how at length the promis'd land to gain. A stanza is a combination of several lines, [generally but four,] constituting a regular division of a poem. In popular language, BOOK SECOND. 49 stanzas are frequently called verses ; as, Sing the first four verses. N. B. The word verse is sometimes used in the sense of poetry or rhyme ; as, The tale, which I will now rehearse, Was told by Jack, though not in verse. Blank verse, like other poetry, is measured, but does not rhyme ; as, All on earth is shadow ; all beyond Is substance : the reverse is folly's creed. OF POETICAL FEET. Afoot is a rhythmical division of a verse ; as, When all | thy mer | cies, O | my God ! My ri | sing s<5ul | surveys. A certain number of syllables, connected, form a foot. They are called feet, because it is by their aid that the voice, as it were, steps along through the verse in a measured pace : and it is neces- sary that the syllables, which mark this regular movement of the voice, should, in some way, be distinguished from the others. Feet are all reducible to eight kinds ; four of two syllables, and four of three syllables ; viz. A Trochee • * A Dactyl - w w An Iambus * - An Amphibrach <•> - ^ A Spondee An Anapaest « v - A Pyrrhic « V A Tribrach « v « A Trochee has the first syllable accented, and the last unaccent- ed ; as, hateful, pettish. Restless mortals toil for nought ; Bliss in vain from earth Is sought. An Iambus has the first syllable unaccented, and the last accent- ed ; as, delay, behold. And may at last my weary age, Find out the peaceful hermitage. A Spondee has both the words or syllables accented ; as, a high tree, the pale moon. See the bold youth strain up the threatnlng steep. Old time brings man t<5 his long home. A Pyrrhic has both the words or syllables unaccented ; as, Sn the tall tree. In a small stream, by the" side oT a mountain, We bath'd with delight. A Dactyl has the first syllable accented, and the last two unac- cented ; as, conqueror, horrible. From the low pleasures of this fallen nature, Rise we to higher, &c. An Amphibrach has the first and last syllable unaccented, and the middle one accented ; as, delightful, amazing. The piece you say is incorrect, why take It, I'm all submission, what you'd have it, make it An Anapaest has the first two syllables unaccented, and the last accented ; as, Incomm5de, contravene. May I govern my passions with absolute sway, And grow wiser and better as life fades away. A Tribrach has all its syllables unaccented ; as, unpardonable, innumerable. And rolls impetuous to the plain. Some of these feet may be denominated principal feet ; as pieces of poetry may be wholly, or chiefly formed of any of them. Such are the Trochee, Iambus, Dactyl, and Anapaest. They are capa- ble also of numerous variations, by mixing them with each other, and by the admission of the secondary feet. The Spondee, Pyr- rhic, Amphibrach, and Tribrach, are secondary feet. Measure, in poetry, is the number of syllables or feet contained in a line. The measures that are most in use, are those of ten, eight, and seven syllables : but the Iambic, Trochaic, and Ana- paestic verse, is sometimes very short, and sometimes long measure. Scanning is the resolving of verses into the several feet of which they are composed. OF PAUSES. There are two kinds of poetical pauses — one for the sense, call- ed the sentential pause, and known to us by the names of comma, semicolon, &c. — the other for the melody, called the harmonic pause. These are perfectly distinct from each other. The harmonic pause may be subdivided into the final pause and the ccesural pause. These sometimes coincide with the sen- tential pause, and sometimes have an independent state ; that is, exist where there is no stop in the sense. The final pause takes place at the end of the line, closes the verse, marks the measure, preserves the melody, without interfer- ing with the sense, and alone, on many occasions, marks the differ- ence between prose and verse ; which will be evident from the fol- lowing arrangement of a few poetical lines: "Of man's first disobedience, and the fruit of that forbidden tree, whose mortal taste brought death into the world, and all our woe, with loss of Eden, till one greater Man restore us, and regain the blissful seat, sing, heavenly muse !" A stranger to the poem would not easily discover that this was verse ; but would take it for poetical prose. By properly adjust- ing the final pause, we shall restore the passage to its true state of verse. Of man's first disobedience, and the fruit Of that forbidden tree, whose mortal taste Brought death into the world, and all our wo, With loss of Eden, till one greater Man Restore us, and regain the blissful seat, Sing, heavenly muse ! These examples show the necessity of reading verse, in such a manner, as to make every line sensible to the ear ; for, what is the use of melody, or for what end has the poet composed in verse, if, in reading his lines, we suppress his numbers, by omitting the final pause ; and degrade them, by our pronunciation, into mere prose? As this pause is made only by the suspension of the voice, not by a change, it prevents that monotony, that sameness of note at the end of lines, which, however pleasing to a rude, is disgusting to a delicate ear. The ca^sural pause divides the line into equal, or unequal parts, falling generally on the 4th, 5th, or 6th syllable, in heroic verse. Exemplification of the Ceesural Pauses : ["] The silver eel," in shining volumes roll'd, The yellow carp," in scales bedropp'd with gold. Round broken columns," clasping ivy twin'd, O'er heaps of ruins/ stalk'd the stately hind. Oh, say, what stranger cause," yet unexplor'd, Could make a gentle belle" reject a lord. The line is sometimes divided into four parts, by the introduction of what is called a demi-casura ; thus : Warms' in the sun," refreshes' in the breeze, Glows' in the stars," and blossoms' in the trees ; Lives' through all life," extends' through all extent, Spreads,' undivided," operates', unspent. RHETORIC AND ORATORY. Rhetoric, or oratory, is the art of speaking justly, method- ically, and elegantly, upon any subject ; so as to instruct, persuade, and please. A speech made according to the rules of this art, is called an Oration, and the speaker an Orator. The word rhetoric is derived from a Greek word of the same signification. A good orator must be eminent for invention, disposition, memo- ry, gesture, and elocution. 50 BOOK SECOND. Invention is the talent of forming, or selecting, such arguments, for the proving or illustrating of a subject, as will move the pas- sions, and conciliate or instruct the minds of the hearers. Disposition is the arrangement of the arguments, in the most orderly and advantageous manner. Gesture is the natural or the artificial, accommodation of the atti- tude to the several parts of a discourse ; — the "suiting of the action to the word." . Elocution is the art of expressing our ideas in a clear -and dis- tinct manner, and in harmonious, appropriate language. Elocution comprises, 1st. Composition; or the grammatical arrangement, plainness, and propriety of language. 2d. Elegance; which consists in the purity, perspicuity, and po- liteness of language, and is gained chiefly by studying the most cor- rect writers, conversing with polite, well-informed people, and mak- ing frequent and careful essays in composition. 3d. Dignity; which adorns language with sublime thoughts, rhetorical figures, &c. An oration has five parts ; the exordium, narration, confirma- tion, refutation, and peroration. The exordium, or preamble, is the beginning of the discourse ; serving to gain the good opinion of the hearers ; to secure their at- tention, and to give them a general notion of the subject. It ought to be clear, modest, and not too prolix. The narration is the recital of the facts as they happened ; or, as they are supposed to have happened. It ought to be perspicu- ous, probable, concise, and (on most subjects) entertaining. The confirmation is the proving by argument, example, or au- thority, the truth of the propositions advanced in the narration.* The refutation, or confutation, is the destroying of the arguments of the antagonists ; by denying what is apparently false, detecting some flaw in the reasoning, or showing the invalidity of the proof. It should be sharp and lively. The peroration, or conclusion, is a recapitulation of the principal arguments, concisely summed up with new force and weight; in order to excite the feeling of hatred or pity. TROPES, OR FIGURES OF SPEECH. Tropes, or figures of speech, always denote some departure from simplicity of expression ; as, "A good man enjoys comfort in the midst of adversity." This is simple language : but when I say — " To the upright there ariseth light in darkness," I express the same sentiment in a figurative, and in a more impressive and vivid manner. Figures, or tropes, greatly enliven and enrich lan- guage. The following are some of the principal figures — personification, apostrophe, hyperbole, 'simile, metaphor, allegory, irony, climax, me- tonymy, and synecdoche. Personification bestows life and action upon things inanimate ; as, The earth thirsts for rain. Cheer'd with the grateful smell, old ocean smiles. Behold, the morn, in russet mantle clad, Walks o'er the dew of yon high eastern hills. Apostrophe is a figure nearly allied to personification. It con- sists in bestowing an ideal presence upon real, either dead or ab- sent. We address them as if they stood before us, listening to the overflow of our passions ; as, " Retire ; for it is night my love, and the dark winds sigh in your hair. Retire to the hall of. my feast, and think of the times that are past; for I will not return till the storm of war is gone." — Os- SIAN. " Weep on the rocks of the roaring winds, O maid of Inistore ; bend thy fair head over the waves, thou fairer than the ghost of the hills, when it moves in a sun-beam at noon, over the silence of ♦Rhetoricians advise us to place our strongest arguments in the front, the weak- est in the middle, and to reserve some of the best till the close. Morven. He is fallen ; thy youth is low ; pale beneath the sword of Cuchullim" — Ossiax. The Hyperbole consists in magnifying or diminishing an object beyond reality. Hyperbole soars high, or creeps too slow ; Exceeds the truth, things wonderful to show. He touched the skies. A snail don't crawl so slow. • 1 found her on the floor, In all the storm of grief; yet beautiful ; Pouring forth tears, at such a lavish rate, That were the world on fire, they might have drown'd The wrath of Heaven, and quench'd the mighty ruin. — Lee. " He was owner of a piece of ground not larger than a Lacede- monian letter." A simile is a compai-ison, by which any thing is illustrated. This figure, equally familiar and beautiful, discovers resemblances, real or imaginary, between actions, which, in their general nature, are dissimilar ; as, " The music of Caryl was like the memory of joys that are past, pleasant and mournful to the soul." — Ossian. She never told her love ; But let concealment, like a worm i' the bud, Feed on her damask cheek : She pined in thought : And, with a green and yellow melancholy, She sat, like Patience on a monument, smiling at grief. — Shak. A metaphor* is the putting of the name of one thing for that of another ; so as to comprise a simile in a single word ; or, it is the application of a word to a use, to which, in its original import, it cannot be put ; as, Wallace was a thunderbolt of war ; Fingal, the gale of spring. A hero resembles a lion, and is often compared to one. Such a comparison is a simile , but imagine a hero to be a lion, instead of only resembling one, and you have a metaphor. " Like a mighty pillar, doth this one man uphold the State." [This is a simile.] " He is the sole pillar of this ponderous State." A metaphor.] An Allegory is a continued metaphor ; — or, it is the representa- tion of one thing by another, that resembles it, and that is made to stand for it. An allegory is a chain of tropes ; — I've passed the shoals ; fair gales now swell my hopes. " Venus grows cold without Ceres and Bacchus." i. e. — love grows cold without bread and wine. There cannot be a more beautiful and correct allegory than the following; in which the people are represented under the image of a vine. " Thou hast brought a vine out of Egypt ; thou hast cast out the heathen, and planted it : thou preparedst room before it, and didst cause it to take deep root, and it filled the land. The hills were covered with the shadow of it, and the boughs thereof were like the goodly cedars. She sent out her boughs unto the seas, and her branches unto the river. Why hast thou, then, broken down her hedges, so that all they who pass by the way do pluck her ? The boar out of the wood doth waste it ; and the wild beast of the field doth devour it. Return, we beseech thee, God of hosts ; look down from heaven, and behold, and visit this vine." — 80th Psalm. Irony is a mode of speech in which the meaning is contrary to the words. Irony, dissembling, with an air, Means otherwise than words declare. " Cry aloud ; for he is a god : either he is talking, or he is pur- * A metaphor differs from a simile in form only, not in substance: comparison is the foundation of both. BOOK SECOND. 51 suing a journey, or peradventure he sleepeth, and must be awaked." 1 Kings, xviii. 27. A Climax is a figure by which the sentence gradually rises. A climax, 'tis said, by gradation ascends. They were my countrymen, my neighbors, my friends. " France, amidst the ferocity of successive factions ; unaided by a single friend ; assailed, on all sides, by the strongest energies of surrounding kingdoms, preserved her territory uninjured." Metonymy puts the cause for the effect; the effect for the cause; the contains for the contained; or the sign for the thing signified; as, We are reading Virgil, — i. e. Virgil's works : Gray hairs, [i. e. old age] should be respected ; The kettle boils," — i. e. the water in the kettle ; He addressed the chair, — i. e. the person in the chair ; She assumed the sceptre, i. e. the royal authority. A Synecdoche puts a part for the whole, or the whole for a part; as, While o'er the roof, [house] loud thunders break. By the sweat of his brow, earns he his bread, [food, clothing, &c.] COMPOSITION. Composition is the forming of words together in grammatical order. Perspicuity is a fundamental quality in every piece of correct composition : a quality so essential that nothing can atone for the want of it. We are pleased with an author, just in proportion as he frees us from all fatigue in searching for his meaning, and car- ries us, as upon the swell of a sweet flowing style, without embar- rassment or confusion, through. his subject. Perspicuity and accuracy of expression, require attention to the purity, propriety and precision of language. Purity of language consists in the use of such words and con- structions as belong to the idiom of the language we speak, in op- position to words and phrases taken from other languages,* or that are ungrammatical, obsolete, new-coined, or used without proper authority ; as, incumberment, quoth he, delicatesse, &c. Propriety of language consists in the selection of such words and phrases as are best suited to express the ideas we mean to convey by them. In order to preserve propriety in our language, we must be careful, 1. To avoid the injudicious use of technical terms. 2. To avoid low expressions ; as, Topsy-turvy, hurly-burly, pell- mell, &c. ■ 3. To supply words that are wanting. 4. Not to use the same word too frequently, nor in different senses in the same sentence. 5. To avoid equivocal or ambiguous words. 6. To use no unintelligible or inconsistent words or phrases. * Foreign and learned words, unless where necessity requires them, should nev- er be admitted into our composition. On some occasions, they give an appear- ance of elevation and dignity of style : but they often render it stiff and appar- ently forced. 7. To employ only such words and phrases as are best adapted to the ideas we wish to communicate, and most expressive of them. Precision requires the retrenching of all superfluities; or the pruning of our language, so as to exhibit neither more nor less than the exact copy of the idea we mean to communicate. The words we use to express our ideas may be faulty in three respects ; viz : 1. They may not express the idea which we intend, but some other that resembles it. 2. They may express that idea, but not fully and completely. 3. They may express that idea, together with something more than is intended. Note. The great source of a loose style, in opposition to pre- cision, is the injudicious use of words termed synonymous. They are called synonymous, because they agree in expressing one prin- cipal idea ; but for the most part, if not always, they express it with some diversity of circumstance. SENTENCES. Remark 1. Sentences, in general, should neither be very long nor very short. Long sentences require a labored attention in or- der to our clearly perceiving the connexion and sense : while very short ones, on the contrary, break the connexion of thought, and in- jure the sense. Yet, occasionally, both may be introduced with ad- vantage. 2. A long train of sentences constructed in the same manner, and with the same number of members, tires the ear, and therefore should never be allowed in any composition. But a judicious mix- ture of periods, longer and shorter, and variously constructed, grat- ifies the ear, and gives force and animation to the style. 3. In the arrangement of a sentence, the words or members, most clearly related, should be placed as near to each other as pos- sible, and so as to make their mutual relation manifest. 4. Several circumstances should not be crowded together, but interspersed in different parts of the sentence, connected with the principal words on which they depend. 5. Never press into one sentence, things which have so little connexion as to admit of being divided into two or three. Long, involved, intricate sentences, are great blemishes in composition. 6. During Ihe course of the sentence, change the scene as often as possible ; and keep clear of all unnecessary parentheses. 7. The several words and members of which a sentence is com- posed, should be so arranged as that each may have its due weight and force, and the whole sense be brought out to the best advan- tage. 8. A weaker assertion or proposition should never come after a stronger one ; and, when a sentence consists of two, or more mem- bers, the longest should generally come last ; as, " When our pas- sions have forsaken us, we flatter ourselves with the belief that we have forsaken them. 9. Pleasing ideas and forcible reasoning can hardly be transmit- ted to the mind by means of harsh and disagreeable sounds : par- ticular attention ought therefore to be paid to the harmony and easy flow of the language. ERRATA. Note 47. When the verb ought is used in the present tense, the present of the infinitive mood should always follow; as, I ought to un-ite to-day. But when used in the imperfect, the ■^perfect of the infinitive should follow it; as, I ought to have written yesterday. When dare and need are transitive, they retain their personal terminations, and are both exceptions to the 9th rule; as, he dares me to enter the list; he needs me to assist him. But when intransitive the 9th rule applies, and in popular practice, the personal termination in the third person is frequently omitted; as, he dare not do it; nobody need be afraid. [Instead of d-ares and needs-] ■HMnMMaMMNfcMMHMM mm* mm