rj U PLICATE 
 
 NOV1 1932! 
 N. Y. S. l_ 
 
 THE LIBRARY 
 
 OF 
 
 THE UNIVERSITY 
 OF CALIFORNIA 
 
 LOS ANGELES
 

 
 AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION IN THE 
 PUBLIC SCHOOLS
 
 THE UNIVERSITY OP CHICAGO PRESS 
 CHICAGO, ILLINOIS 
 
 agents 
 THE BAKER & TAYLOR COMPANY 
 
 NEW YORK 
 
 THE CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS 
 
 LONDON AND EDINBURGH
 
 Agricultural Education 
 in the Public Schools 
 
 A Study of Its Development with 
 
 Particular Reference to the 
 
 Agencies Concerned 
 
 Professor of Agricultural Education in Miami University 
 
 WITH AN INTRODUCTION BY 
 
 CHARLES HUBBARD JUDD 
 
 Director of the School of Education 
 The University of Chicago 
 
 THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO PRESS 
 CHICAGO, ILLINOIS
 
 COPYRIGHT 191 a BY 
 THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO 
 
 All Rights Reserved 
 
 Published March 1912 
 
 Composed and Printed By 
 
 The University of Chicago Press 
 
 Chicago, Illinois, U.S.A.
 
 Education 
 Librarx 
 
 535 
 
 PREFACE P)-7Q 
 
 LxocnOL. 
 
 This work comprises a series of studies, carried on since the 
 fall of 1909, on agricultural education in the elementary and 
 secondary schools of the United States with special reference 
 to the various agencies promoting it. Much care has been taken 
 to make the bibliography representative of the literature of the 
 different phases of the subject, and to annotate each title so 
 as to give the reader a brief account of the original article or 
 book. This seemed more essential than to undertake to give 
 even an approximately complete summary of the literature of 
 the subject, especially since such a summary would include many 
 times the number of titles cited. 
 
 The writer has attempted, as 'the subtitle indicates, to bring 
 I together the work of the various agencies promoting agricultural 
 education in the public schools, and to > show the contribution 
 each has made or is making to its development. In this new 
 and rapidly developing subject of education it is important for 
 all who are interested to know the methods used and results 
 obtained in different parts of the country, and to recognize the 
 extent of public interest as expressed in federal, state, and 
 private activities in its behalf. 
 
 The demands for instruction in agriculture in elementary 
 and secondary schools have grown so rapidly as to present a 
 serious problem to teachers, both as to readjustment of their 
 school work and as to their own preparation to teach the sub- 
 ject. If this account of the development of agricultural educa- 
 tion, such as is actually taking place in different parts of the 
 country, with illustrations of types of instruction, and with 
 sources of further information, may be of some service to the 
 teachers of our rural schools, or to others interested in rural 
 education, the writer will feel well repaid for all his efforts. 
 
 The material for these studies has been gathered from all 
 
 865522
 
 vi PREFACE 
 
 available sources, much of it from personal correspondence. 
 The writer wishes to express his appreciation of the cordial and 
 ready response with which his numerous inquiries have been 
 met. He is under particular obligation to Director Charles H. 
 Judd, School of Education, the University of Chicago, for writ- 
 ing the introduction, and for his many helpful suggestions during 
 the progress of the work; to Mr. D. J. Crosby, United States 
 Department of Agriculture, for the critical reading of several 
 chapters, and for other assistance; to the United States Bureau 
 of Education, to the State Departments of Education, and to 
 many individuals who have furnished information not other- 
 wise accessible. 
 
 BENJAMIN MARSHALL DAVIS 
 
 MIAMI UNIVERSITY, OXFORD, OHIO 
 March, 1912
 
 TABLE OF CONTENTS 
 
 PAGE 
 
 INTRODUCTORY NOTE i 
 
 CHAPTER 
 
 I. THE UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE . 7 
 
 II. UNITED STATES BUREAU or EDUCATION 14 
 
 III. STATE DEPARTMENTS OF EDUCATION AND STATE LEGISLA- 
 TION 19 
 
 IV. SUMMARY OF STATE LEGISLATION AND OF WORK OF STATE 
 DEPARTMENTS OF EDUCATION FOR 1910-11 .... 27 
 
 V. AGRICULTURAL COLLEGES, INCLUDING EXTENSION WORK, 
 DEPARTMENTS OF AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION, AND SUMMER 
 
 SCHOOLS FOR TEACHERS 38 
 
 VI. STATE NORMAL SCHOOLS 47 
 
 VII. NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION STATE AND OTHER 
 
 TEACHERS' ASSOCIATIONS 58 
 
 VIII. EDUCATIONAL PERIODICALS 67 
 
 LX. PERIODICAL LITERATURE 75 
 
 X. STATE ORGANIZATIONS FOR AGRICULTURE-FARMERS' IN- 
 STITUTES 85 
 
 XI. AGRICULTURAL SOCIETIES 94 
 
 XII. BOYS' AGRICULTURAL CLUBS 105 
 
 XIII. ELEMENTARY AND SECONDARY SCHOOLS 115 
 
 XIV. TEXTBOOKS 127 
 
 BIBLIOGRAPHY 132 
 
 INDEX . 161
 
 INTRODUCTORY NOTE 
 
 Agricultural education is the most widely and energetically 
 cultivated form of industrial education in this country at the 
 present time. Federal and local grants have made possible 
 agricultural courses of different grades, and there is a large 
 body o>f literature relating to scientific agriculture. This de- 
 velopment of agricultural education is due, in the first place, 
 to the large number of people who are dependent upon agri- 
 culture for their livelihood. Any improvements which can be 
 made in the methods of raising crops or live stock are of im- 
 mediate importance to a large body of American citizens. In 
 the second place, the economic value of the products of agri- 
 culture has made it important for the community at large to 
 organdze agencies which shall improve agricultural conditions 
 throughout the country. Even the federal government has found 
 it expedient to organize bureaus of investigation, and these 
 bureaus of investigation have naturally come to be centers of 
 educational activity. There have thus arisen organized centers 
 for the collection and distribution of agricultural information. 
 In the third place, the social movement which has been carrying 
 the population in very large measure away from rural districts 
 to the cities has made everyone aware of the necessity of de- 
 veloping an educational system that shall make farm activities 
 attractive to intelligent and well-trained people. Finally, students 
 of education have come to see that the needs of children, quite 
 apart from the needs of society at large, dictate a greater em- 
 phasis upon outdoor experiences. The doctrine that children 
 need to come into contact with Nature has been presented in 
 different ways at different times. On the negative side it has 
 been said that children should be taken away from books and 
 from the artificial surroundings of large communities and should 
 be brought into contact with things and natural laws. This,
 
 2 AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS 
 
 we are told, can be accomplished best on the farm. Again, on 
 the affirmative side, it has been said that the resourcefulness 
 of the man who is engaged in the various occupations of the 
 farm cultivates breadth of character and initiative in dealing 
 with all the engagements of life. Whatever the terms em- 
 ployed, the professional educator has come to regard the op- 
 portunities which are presented in farm life as valuable means 
 of training children. 
 
 With the recognition of these numerous and strong motives 
 for the development of agriculture as a part of the educational 
 system, there comes a whole train of difficult problems of 
 organization. Even those who recognize the importance and 
 value of agricultural education are in doubt as to the best methods 
 of attaining the result that they regard as ideal. One of the 
 first questions that arises is the question of the level of training 
 at which agricultural courses shall be introduced. Is the study 
 of any phase of farming a suitable subject for elementary school 
 children, and, if so, what simple elements of the subject can 
 properly be taught at this early stage of school work? On 
 the other hand, the problem of finding suitable agricultural 
 courses for higher institutions is, no less difficult. The agri- 
 cultural colleges have found themselves in frequent conflict 
 with the traditional colleges. The agricultural colleges have 
 sometimes been criticized for conducting a lower grade of work 
 than that which is conducted by other institutions of higher 
 learning. In spite of these criticisms, in some quarters the 
 agricultural courses have developed to such an extent that the 
 conventional academic courses have almost disappeared from 
 the institutions in the state. In either of these cases the difficulty 
 of organizing advanced work is manifest. It has sometimes 
 been suggested that the agricultural high school is a better 
 means of promoting agricultural education than is the elementary 
 school or the university. When an agricultural high school 
 has been organized it has degenerated at times into an ordinary 
 high school with one or two theoretical courses in agriculture.
 
 INTRODUCTORY NOTE 3 
 
 In other cases the agricultural high school has differentiated 
 itself so completely from the conventional high school that 
 the students who graduate from these separate and distinct in- 
 stitutions have been unable to go forward to higher institutions. 
 All of these cases show the difficulty which is encountered in 
 organizing the work in agricultural education. 
 
 One of the cardinal difficulties in the organization of agri- 
 cultural education is the lack of trained teachers. Teachers who 
 have grown up in the normal schools or those who go into the 
 profession from colleges and high schools without a normal 
 training, very seldom have practical experience adequate to give 
 them a comprehension of farm problems. On the other hand, 
 those who have practical experience find it difficult to secure the 
 scientific training which is necessary to make instruction in 
 farming sufficiently advanced to justify calling it a science. 
 The graduates of agricultural colleges are either so much in de- 
 mand for practical positions, or so poorly qualified for the special 
 work of teaching, that they do not enter upon the teaching 
 profession after they complete their agricultural course. The 
 result of this whole situation is that there are many efforts being 
 made to teach agriculture from textbooks, and these efforts are 
 being criticized by practical people and educators alike as too 
 abstract. In other quarters instruction lacks that systematic 
 and progressive character which can come only from the study 
 of the sciences upon which farming must ultimately rest. Prac- 
 tical farmers are no better teachers than the abstract students 
 of textbooks. The situation requires a careful correlating of 
 the different agencies that have been working in the direction 
 of a more scientific and at the same time more practical course 
 of study in agriculture. 
 
 Professor Davis has attacked the problem of the co-ordina- 
 tion of all the agencies now at work on the problem of agri- 
 cultural education. He has performed in this book a service 
 which will be appreciated by all who have any large knowledge 
 of the problem and of the difficulties which the movement en-
 
 4 AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS 
 
 counters. He has made an effort to canvass the whole field 
 of agricultural education and to give a detailed exposition of 
 the agencies that are now at work in building up a rational course 
 of agricultural education. He has presented more fully than 
 anyone else the materials which define the problem and which 
 make it possible for the teacher to meet the problem intelligently. 
 The annotated bibliography at the end of the book, with text 
 references, will do much to make the best material available 
 for anyone who finds it necessary to get hold of this material 
 through independent study. Mr. Davis' statement of the work 
 that is being done by various organized agencies will make it 
 possible for the teacher to come in contact with all of the forces 
 that are working to build up this special type of training. The 
 book serves, therefore, as a general introduction to the study of 
 agricultural education. 
 
 Professor Davis' book is not a textbook of the ordinary 
 type, in which a limited body of materials is presented in detail, 
 but it is a type of textbook which is certain to become more 
 common in our normal schools and in the teachers' libraries. It 
 is a textbook which discusses the problems of education by dis- 
 cussing the situation into which education fits and the instruments 
 that may be used in solving its problems. It is an introductory 
 encyclopedia rather than a brief summary. The student in 
 the normal school who is trained not merely to understand the 
 content of a single textbook, but to take a bibliography in hand 
 and follow its guidance into the larger body of literature, will 
 have an independent mastery of the subject which cannot be 
 gained by any simple perusal of a single textbook. Professor 
 Davis has performed a genuine service, therefore, for normal 
 schools in preparing a type of textbook which encourages the 
 student to go to the original sources, and shows him how to 
 get at the different types of material which he will need in 
 his own practical professional life. 
 
 The teacher who has graduated from the normal school and 
 is in practical service often finds the textbooks that are offered
 
 INTRODUCTORY NOTE 5 
 
 for his instruction too elementary and too closely confined to the 
 kind of material with which he has already acquainted him- 
 self in earlier courses prior to his work as a teacher. Such a 
 book as that which Professor Davis has here presented overcomes 
 the difficulties which attach to the reading of such an elementary 
 book. He has opened up for the teacher not merely the possi- 
 bilities of reading his own book, but also the possibility of se- 
 curing without serious difficulty an extensive body of productive 
 literature to which this book serves as a stimulating introduction. 
 Finally, the professional student of education will find in 
 this book material which will give him a general view of one 
 phase of industrial education that will be very helpful to him 
 in the discussion of the whole matter of educational reform for 
 practical results. If one wishes to discuss the best methods of 
 organizing courses for the industrial classes he should certainly 
 begin with a careful review of that which has already been 
 undertaken in agriculture. There are some bibliographies of 
 agricultural literature, and there are scattered discussions of the 
 different organizations which deal with this problem, but nowhere 
 is there a carefully selected summary of the whole movement. 
 Professor Davis has in this respect performed a service which 
 will be appreciated by students of education and by the later 
 historian of education who wishes to secure in compact form a 
 statement of what is now being undertaken. 
 
 CHAS. H. JUDD 
 
 Chicago 
 March, 1912
 
 CHAPTER I 
 THE UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE 
 
 Historically the movement for agricultural education in the 
 United States dates back to 1785 when associations for the pro- 
 motion of agriculture began to be formed. A few years later, 
 in 1792, mainly in response to the agitation of these associations, 
 colleges undertook to provide for instruction in agriculture, first 
 Columbia, and then Harvard and Yale ( i ) - 1 
 
 It was not, however, until 1862 that the real movement for 
 scientific agriculture had its beginning. Congress of this year 
 authorized the establishment of a department of agriculture 
 (2, p. 57), and also passed the Morrill Act giving to each state 
 a grant of land with which to establish a state college of agri- 
 culture and mechanic arts (2, pp. 62-64). The Hatch Act of 
 1887 provided for agricultural experiment stations in each state 
 and territory (2, pp. 64-66), and during the following year the 
 Office of Experiment Stations was created as a separate bureau 
 of the Department to serve as the official head of all the agri- 
 cultural experiment stations. 
 
 On July i, 1862, the United States Department of Agri- 
 culture was organized. Its growth as expressed in terms of 
 people employed and total expenditures may be seen by com- 
 paring 29, the number employed the first year, with 17,819, the 
 number employed in 1908, and $63,704.21 expended the first year 
 with $13,628,696 expended in 1908. For the last twenty years 
 Congress has provided liberally for the maintenance of the De- 
 partment. It has been estimated that nearly $100,000,000 has 
 been spent during this time for agricultural research and edu- 
 cation, for the most part through the Department. This vast 
 expenditure, of course, would never have been made had it not 
 
 * Figures in parentheses refer to corresponding numbers in the annotated bibliography , 
 P- 132. 
 
 7
 
 8 AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS 
 
 been justified by results as measured in dollars and cents. In 
 1908 the agricultural products of our country amounted to 
 $7,778,000,000. The value of the corn crop alone amounted to 
 J $1,615,000,000. It may be readily seen that a very slight in- 
 crease in yield per acre would aggregate many times the run- 
 ning expenses of all the institutions engaged in promoting agri- 
 culture. The work of the Department has made possible not 
 only a slight increase but in nearly all kinds of production a 
 very large increase (2, pp. 44-46). 
 
 The aim of the Department has been twofold : first, scientific, 
 developing a scientific knowledge of every phase of agriculture ; 
 second, educational, conveying this knowledge to all the people. 
 In both these aspects of its work the Department has been closely 
 allied with the land-grant agricultural colleges. Indeed, the 
 Department and the agricultural experiment stations in differ- 
 ent states and territories, organized chiefly as departments of 
 land-grant colleges, stand at the head of our system of agri- 
 cultural research and education. 
 
 Since 1889 the Association of American Agricultural Col- 
 leges and Experiment Stations has been holding annual meet- 
 ings. Members of the Department take prominent part in these 
 meetings, and the proceedings are published through the Office 
 of Experiment Stations. The director of this office is chair- 
 man and the specialist in agricultural education is secretary. 
 The educational policy of agricultural colleges, such as terms of 
 admission, courses of study, matters of administration, etc., is 
 determined largely by a standing committee of this association 
 known as the "committee on instruction in agriculture." For 
 several years agricultural instruction of collegiate grade has 
 been well organized and on a good working basis. Recently the 
 efforts of this committee have been directed to a consideration 
 of instruction of secondary grade. A course of study has been 
 worked out in considerable detail to serve as a model for schools 
 contemplating such instruction (3, 4). Some attention has also 
 been given to work in elementary schools (5, 20).
 
 UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE 9 
 
 The Department is organized into eleven scientific bureaus 
 as follows : weather, animal industry, plant industry, forest serv- 
 ice, chemistry, soils, entomology, biological survey, statistics, 
 experimental stations, and public roads. All of these are doing 
 much to encourage and help agricultural education throughout 
 the country. In a general way they reach the people through 
 publications, a great many of which are distributed free (6, 7, 9) 
 while others are for sale at a nominal price (7, 8). Those for 
 free distribution are as a rule written in a popular style, free 
 from technical terms, and are easily understood by the aver- 
 age reader. The series known as "Farmers' Bulletins" contains 
 contributions from all the bureaus and there is scarcely any 
 phase of agriculture that has not received attention. These 
 bulletins are especially useful to elementary and secondary 
 schools giving instruction in agriculture (7). Many of them 
 dealing with such subjects as birds, insects, tree planting, school 
 gardening, and plant propagation would be useful in any ele- 
 mentary or high school. 
 
 Besides general contributions to agricultural education made 
 by all the bureaus of the Department, certain bureaus are taking 
 an active part in public education. 
 
 The Weather Bureau from its central office at Washington 
 and through its officials at various stations throughout the 
 country is doing much to encourage the study of meteorology. 
 
 During the school year a million or more children of the public schools 
 make weather observations and study the daily weather maps and fore- 
 casts. From its earliest days the Weather Bureau has co-operated to some 
 extent in public-school work, and during the past ten years this co-operation 
 has been widely extended. The public schools and the Weather Bureau 
 have a mutual interest in the matter. The school authorities have found 
 in the study of the weather with the assistance of the Weather Bureau a 
 means of satisfying part of the requirements of modern methods of study; 
 and the Weather Bureau is able through the school gradually to dispell 
 popular superstitions and fallacious beliefs that have hampered its work 
 .... and to enable both the commercial and the agricultural world to make 
 more intelligent and more complete use of the forecasts, special warnings, 
 weather maps, and climatological publications (10, p. 267).
 
 io AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS 
 
 About 15 per cent of the daily issue of weather maps is used 
 in the public schools. Lectures are given by officials of the 
 Weather Bureau at teachers' institutes and elsewhere. The 
 policy of this bureau has been to assist the public schools in 
 every way possible as far as general duties to the public will 
 permit. 
 
 The Forest Service is reaching the schools through its publi- 
 cations, lantern slides, and other illustrative material concerning 
 the conservation of the forests of our country. The Forest 
 Service believes that "the public school should treat forestry as 
 one of the important economic and public questions in the life 
 of the world" (n, p. 6), and that forestry should have a promi- 
 nent place in our education. "Below the secondary school 
 forestry should form part of nature-study, arithmetic, and gen- 
 eral geography; in the high school, of United States history, 
 civics, physical geography, commercial geography, botany, agri- 
 culture, and woodworking" (n, p. 7). One of the recent efforts 
 of the Forest Service to co-operate with the public schools is 
 through phenological studies of our native forest trees. On re- 
 quest the Forest Service will send to any school a set of blanks 
 on which to record observations on such matters as general 
 character of country, situation of trees, character of season, 
 date of swelling of buds, of bursting of buds, of beginning of 
 leafing out, of general leafing out, of blossoming, of change of 
 color in foliage, etc. (dates of fifteen special observations in all). 
 These blanks are accompanied by a circular giving complete 
 directions for study of trees and making records. This work 
 is of great value not only in encouraging pupils to make a close 
 acquaintance with trees, but also in the reaction that must come 
 to them in feeling that they are materially assisting the govern- 
 ment in its work. Similar phenological studies of common 
 flowering plants have been carried on very successfully for a 
 number of years by the public-school children of Canada under 
 the direction of the Botanical Club of Canada. Suggestions 
 for forest nurseries for public schools have also been prepared
 
 UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE n 
 
 by the Forest Service (12). Directions are given in considerable 
 detail showing just what to do to establish a nursery in con- 
 nection with an average school. Three other publications are 
 soon to be issued : Forestry in Nature-Study, Forestry in Agri- 
 culture, and Forestry in Geography. 
 
 The Bureau of Plant Industry has been especially active in 
 promoting the movement for school gardens. At Washington, 
 under direct supervision of the Bureau, experiments in school 
 gardening have been carried on for several years. A part of 
 the government grounds with a greenhouse has been devoted 
 to this work. The Bureau sends to schools throughout the 
 country special packages of vegetable and flower seeds accom- 
 panied by circulars containing directions for planting and care 
 of school gardens (13, 14). The Bureau also furnishes sets of 
 one hundred samples of seeds of economic and wild plants put up in glass 
 vials, labeled with Latin and common names and arranged in an herbarium 
 tray for reference purposes. The seeds and the work of preparation are 
 furnished by this office free of charge, but it is necessary for those desiring 
 sets to supply the tray and vials used. These can be obtained at a cost of 
 $1.50 from Messrs. Mackall Bros., Qth and H Streets, N.E., of this city 
 [Washington, D.C.],to whom remittances should be made direct with the 
 request that the material be forwarded to this office. At the same time 
 kindly notify us that such remittance has been made.* 
 
 Another phase of the work of this bureau is of especial 
 interest because of its remarkable development during 1910 
 and 1911. This is the Junior Demonstration Work among 
 the boys of the southern states (15). A brief summary of 
 this work is given in chap. xii. 
 
 The following is a good summary of the educational work of 
 the Office of Experiment Stations : 
 
 While the other bureaus of this Department are doing valuable educa- 
 tional work along the lines of research in which they are engaged the 
 Office of Experiment Stations is the general agency of the Department for 
 the promotion of agricultural education throughout the United States and 
 is constantly enlarging the scope and extent of this branch of its work. 
 
 ' From circular letter: "Seed Laboratory," Bureau of Pant Industry, United States De- 
 partment of Agriculture.
 
 12 AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS 
 
 The educational work of this Office is now organized into two branches, 
 one dealing with agricultural colleges and schools and the other with fann- 
 ers' institutes and other forms of extension work in agriculture. The 
 work of the Office relating to agricultural colleges and schools includes 
 four general classes: (i) The collection and publication of information 
 regarding the progress of agricultural education at home and abroad; 
 (2) studies of different grades of American and foreign schools in which 
 agriculture is taught; (3) work in co-operation with the Association of 
 Agricultural Colleges and Experiment Stations and other important asso- 
 ciations dealing with educational matters ; and (4) the giving aid to agricul- 
 tural colleges and local school authorities along the lines of agricultural 
 education. This work is in charge of Mr. D. J. Crosby, as specialist in 
 agricultural education. 
 
 This branch of the Office conducts a department of agricultural educa- 
 tion in the Experiment Station Record (17), prepares and publishes statistics, 
 courses of study, circulars of information, and other literature relating to 
 agricultural education, aids state and local school authorities in organizing 
 agricultural courses in schools and colleges and in securing competent teach- 
 ers, takes part in important agricultural conventions and conferences, aids 
 teachers in securing suitable agricultural literature for their work, and, in 
 short, acts as a clearing-house for agricultural education in this country 
 (16, pp. 7, 8). 
 
 The work of the Office dealing with farmers' institutes and 
 extension work is in charge of Professor John Hamilton, farm- 
 ers' institute specialist Although all the work undertaken by 
 this branch of the Office has to do with agricultural education 
 as presented to adults, it also reaches the public schools indirectly 
 through correspondence with persons interested in agricultural 
 education by distributing agricultural literature, by preparing 
 and editing bulletins, illustrated lectures, and courses of study 
 for movable schools of agriculture (133, 143). In the movable 
 schools of agriculture a course is offered for country school 
 teachers including nature-study, school gardens and grounds, 
 and school architecture, and sanitation (18, p. 6). 
 
 The attitude and interest of the Department toward unifying 
 our educational system, in so far as it concerns agriculture and 
 country life, into a complete system extending from the ele- 
 mentary schools, through the secondary schools, into the col-
 
 UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE 13 
 
 leges and graduate schools has been well expressed by Assistant 
 Secretary Willet M. Hays in a recent address (19, pp. 4, 5). 
 He says : 
 
 A movement is well begun to organize better, as a part of our great 
 American school system, the secondary schools as to meet especially the 
 needs of country life. This movement contemplates that, below and leading 
 to our more than 6b state colleges of agriculture already established, we 
 shall have 300 to 400 agricultural finishing schools practically one in each 
 country congressional district of ten or more counties, either separate or 
 as a strong department of an existing institution 
 
 But vastly more important is the larger movement to establish a system 
 of consolidated rural and village schools, and of courses in agriculture in 
 town and city schools so near the homes of farm youth that something 
 of instruction in agriculture, in home economics, and in social and civil 
 affairs, as well as in the accepted subjects of a so-called general education, 
 shall be taught to all the boys and girls of the farm. To meet this first 
 need the consolidated rural school in the open country and the consolida- 
 tion of rural schools about the villages and cities is rising rapidly into 
 prominence along with the vocational high school; and many city and non- 
 public schools of secondary and higher grade are seeking to add agricul- 
 tural instruction to their courses of study 
 
 It is conceded that the large and important task of supplying trained 
 teachers for approximately 30,000 consolidated rural schools in our rich 
 rural communities, for thousands of town and city schools, for 100,000 
 small rural schools in isolated and sparsely settled communities, for 300 or 
 400 large agricultural high schools, for 150 state normal schools, and for 
 60 state colleges of agriculture may be taken up in a practical way and 
 solved in one or two decades. The demand and organization for training 
 teachers going forward together will meet with only the usual pioneering 
 difficulties.
 
 CHAPTER II 
 THE UNITED STATES BUREAU OF EDUCATION 
 
 Agricultural education receives the attention of the Bureau 
 of Education in several ways. These may conveniently be 
 grouped under three heads : publications, land-grant colleges, and 
 legislation. 
 
 Having little administrative authority except that relating to 
 land-grant colleges the Bureau has confined its efforts mainly 
 to its publications and correspondence. "No other educational 
 office of the world has done so extensive literary work as this 
 office," is the fine tribute paid by the Royal Prussian Commission 
 of 1904 in its report to the Prussian Parliament. The Bureau's 
 publications consist of annual reports, special reports, circulars 
 of information, and bulletins. 
 
 The policy of the Bureau toward agricultural education re- 
 cently expressed by the commissioner applies especially to its 
 publications : 
 
 It can do its best I think as a co-ordinating influence. It can bring to the 
 notice of less favored institutions information concerning the experience of 
 more advanced institutions. It can call attention from time to time to 
 the relation of agricultural education to general education. It can survey the 
 educational field and possibly point out dangers to be averted or weak places 
 to be strengthened. It can, finally, discover things that need doing and are not 
 attended to by any other agency, and can see that some part of such lack is 
 supplied. So much as this I hope the Bureau of Education may be able to do 
 for agricultural education. And so much as this, I may say, it will undertake 
 to do as far as its resources will permit (22, p. 53). 
 
 The Bureau has done much already in two ways: one by 
 bringing to American educators the work of foreign countries, 
 and the other by reviewing the work being done in various parts 
 of this country. Of the former the most important are the 
 accounts of agricultural education in Austria, Belgium, Canada, 
 France, Germany, Great Britain, and Prussia. One of these 
 publications on school gardens deserves special mention (23). 
 
 14
 
 UNITED STATES BUREAU OF EDUCATION 15 
 
 It contains a very complete historical account of school gardens 
 and has been extensively quoted in the school-garden literature 
 of this country. Of the reviews of work in our own country 
 two are noteworthy. One written at the beginning of the move- 
 ment for instruction in elementary agriculture is made up chiefly 
 of reprints of leaflets from Purdue and Cornell universities (24). 
 The other, appearing in 1907, gives an account of the present 
 status of agricultural education throughout the world (25). 
 
 The first Morrill Act of 1862, the second Morrill Act of 1890, 
 and the Nelson Act of 1907 providing for government aid to 
 agricultural and mechanical colleges are administered by the 
 Department of the Interior (21, p. 31). 
 
 The annual payments under the acts of 1890 and 1907 are made on certifi- 
 cations of the Secretary of the Interior, which are based upon the proper ex- 
 penditure of preceding appropriations. All of these reports required to be 
 made by the act are collected and passed upon by the Commissioner of Educa- 
 tion, upon whose recommendation is based the action of the secretary 
 (ax, p. 32). 
 
 While the duties of the Commissioner of Education in his 
 relation to land-grant colleges consist chiefly in gathering sta- 
 tistics and making reports to the Secretary of the Interior he 
 has opportunities for making suggestions and recommendations 
 of importance to agricultural education. For example, in his 
 letter of April 17, 1907, to the presidents and boards of control 
 of state colleges of agriculture and mechanic arts he calls atten- 
 tion to a provision of . the act of 1907 "providing for courses for 
 special preparation of instructors for teaching the elements of 
 agriculture and mechanic arts" and adds, "With the increasing 
 number of secondary schools of agriculture and of industrial 
 and trade schools, there will arise a considerable demand for 
 specially prepared teachers to give instruction in special branches 
 of study" (26, p. 870). In his report of 1908 to the Secretary 
 of the Interior he gives an account of the action of several insti- 
 tutions taking advantage of this provision (27, pp. 740, 741). 
 
 On July i, 1909, the Bureau appointed a specialist in land- 
 grant college statistics who is expected also to pay attention to
 
 16 AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS 
 
 the general subject of agricultural education and to be able to 
 furnish information and advice concerning that subject. 
 
 The Commissioner of Education holds an important advisory 
 position with reference to any proposed national legislation con- 
 cerning education, particularly agricultural education. During 
 the sixtieth session of Congress several bills were introduced 
 providing for national aid to education in agriculture and other 
 industrial subjects. Of these the most important were the 
 Burkett bill (S. 3,392) providing for "the advancement of in- 
 struction in agriculture, manual training, and home economics 
 in the state normal schools of the United States," and the Davis 
 bill (H.R. 534) providing in a similar way for national aid to 
 agricultural and industrial education in the secondary schools 
 only. The latter was finally revised (H.R. 18,204) so as to 
 include the provisions of the Burkett bill (S. 3,392). 
 
 The Davis bill provides for annual appropriation of "ten 
 cents per capita of the population of each state and territory and 
 the District of Columbia" for aid to maintain instruction in 
 agriculture and home economics in agricultural schools of sec- 
 ondary grade, and an appropriation of one cent per capita to 
 maintain similar instruction in state and territorial normal 
 schools (24, pp. 85-87). 
 
 The large amount of money concerned, and the establishment 
 of separate schools not already a part of our national system of 
 education called for careful study and deliberation. The Bureau 
 of Education was freely consulted in the matter. No one had 
 a clearer insight into the far-reaching influence of the bill, a 
 clearer understanding of its importance upon the economic and 
 educational welfare of the nation, or a greater appreciation of 
 the principles involved in such legislation, than the Commissioner 
 of Education. In a letter dated September 26, 1907, to Mr. 
 Davis he says : 
 
 One strong argument in favor of such national aid, when extended to 
 special forms of education which are in special need of encouragement, may 
 be drawn from the workings of the appropriation for support of land-grant 
 colleges, contained in the second Morrill Act of August 30, 1890. The recent
 
 UNITED STATES BUREAU OF EDUCATION 17 
 
 effect of the national appropriations under that act has been to stimulate 
 greatly the support of the land-grant colleges by the states in which they 
 are situated. 
 
 He calls attention to a provision of the measure giving adminis- 
 trative authority over the appropriations therein provided to 
 the Department of Agriculture, whereas "appropriations which 
 are primarily for agriculture are now administered by the De- 
 partment of Agriculture, and these which are primarily for edu- 
 cation (land-grant colleges) are administered by the Bureau of 
 Education." 
 
 I think Che says] as matters now stand this is a good working division, 
 particularly as the relations between the Bureau of Education and the Office 
 of Experiment Stations of the Department of Agriculture are very close 
 and cordial. Educational interests are becoming so strongly unified through- 
 out this country, and in fact in foreign lands, that the present tendency 
 points to unifying of government activities of a purely educational sort, or 
 of predominantly educational sort, under the Office of Education. Another 
 reason for bringing the activities provided in your bill under the Bureau of 
 Education is that they deal not only with agricultural high schools but 
 with high schools of mechanic arts in cities as well. In institutions of 
 both classes, while industrial ends are sought and industrial means employed, 
 the main purpose, as I understand it, is educational. 
 
 It seems to me worth considering, also, the question whether it is 
 advisable that rural schools, to which the bill relates, should in all cases be 
 designated as agricultural high schools. There is still a good deal of differ- 
 ence of opinion as to whether high-school work in agriculture may be 
 done to best advantage in general high schools which are properly equipped 
 on the agricultural side, or in agricultural high schools which pay incidental 
 attention to studies other than agriculture. It is likely, in fact, that we 
 shall have institutions of both types for many years to come, and that both 
 of them will do good and efficient work in the promotion of agricultural 
 education. For this reason it seems to me doubtful whether it is wise to 
 limit the distribution of the fund by using the distinctive designation of 
 agricultural high school. 
 
 In a letter to Senator Proctor, dated March 4, 1908, the whole 
 matter of national aid as proposed by the Burkett bill and by the 
 Davis bill is carefully reviewed. The entire letter should be read 
 in order to form a just conclusion of the Commissioner's position. 
 After citing the difficulties arising from our complex industrial
 
 i8 AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS 
 
 situation, both urban and rural, he recognizes the probable need 
 of federal aid in the following words: 
 
 For all these reasons (referring to our industrial situation) the problem 
 of a better education of an industrial type, in both country and city, has 
 steadily become more acute. It is extremely doubtful whether these growing 
 needs can be met in the near future in the majority of the states, unless the 
 encouragement of federal appropriations be added to the efforts of the 
 states and of local communities. 
 
 While approving the measure in principle he urges "that any 
 forward step which the national government may take in the 
 encouragement of public education should be carefully weighed, 
 and given its proper place in a well-digested general policy." 
 Furthermore, the conditions in several states are widely different, 
 and any bill should be framed with a full knowledge of these 
 differing conditions in order that it may be made sufficiently 
 flexible to accomplish the best results in all parts of the country. 
 In order "to make possible for Congress to act on bills like S. 
 3,392 with full knowledge of the situation and needs of the 
 country" he recommends that a commission be appointed to make 
 a thorough investigation of the question and "report to Congress 
 on or before January I, 19 lo." 1 
 
 Neither the Davis bill nor the Commissioner's recommenda- 
 tion became a law. The bill was an indication of the interest of 
 the country at large in extending agricultural education into the 
 elementary and secondary schools. The attitude of the Bureau 
 of Education was one of accord with the general principles on 
 which the measure was based, but at the same time one of 
 caution, recognizing that national appropriation to agricultural 
 education, when given, should be of the greatest possible service. 2 
 
 1 For permission to quote from letters to Congressmen Davis and Senator Proctor, and for 
 other assistance in getting material for this chapter, the writer is indebted to Commissioner 
 Elmer Ellsworth Brown. A portion of his letter to Senator Proctor appears in the Commis- 
 sioner's Report of 1008. 
 
 "The provisions of the Davis bill have been revised and amended and presented at each 
 session of Congress. In its present form (Page bill, 1912) it has a much wider scope than the 
 original Davis bill. Dr. P. P. Claxton, United States Commissioner of Education, is not only 
 actively interested in the proposed legislation, but is making an active campaign for the 
 betterment of rural schools.
 
 CHAPTER III 
 
 STATE DEPARTMENTS OF EDUCATION AND STATE 
 LEGISLATION 
 
 Each state or territory has at the head of its school system a 
 central office. This office is administered in most states by a 
 state superintendent or state commissioner of education, and in 
 some states, as in Connecticut, Delaware, Rhode Island, and 
 Massachusetts, by a state board of education through its secre- 
 tary or commissioner (29). 
 
 These state offices vary in details and plan of organization, 
 and somewhat in authority over educational matters, but are alike 
 in essential respects. But however efficient the departmental 
 organizations, the personality and aggressiveness of those in 
 charge count for much in the influence that these offices exert 
 in the educational welfare of their respective states. 
 
 It is especially true that the introduction of a new subject of 
 instruction like agriculture may be greatly hindered or promoted 
 by the attitude taken by the state office. If favorable, the subject 
 may be recommended for legislation, it may be put in the course 
 of study, a textbook may be adopted, through personal influence 
 on local boards it may be introduced in certain sections of the 
 state, interest may be aroused by making it a reading-circle sub- 
 ject, special publications may be issued to help teachers who wish 
 to teach the subject, by promoting interest through clubs or other 
 organizations. The main facts concerning the efforts of all the 
 states and territories in the promotion of agricultural education 
 in the elementary and secondary schools through their central 
 offices of education and by legislation are indicated in the follow- 
 ing tabulation. 
 
 In Delaware interest in agricultural education has not seemed 
 to warrant any attention from its state department of educa- 
 tion. Kentucky, although it is an agricultural state, has 
 
 19
 
 20 AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS 
 
 
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 22 AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS 
 
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 24 AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS 
 
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 STATE DEPARTMENTS OF EDUCATION 25 
 
 apparently shown much less interest in agricultural education 
 than have other southern states. This may be readily explained 
 by the fact that until 1908 the public-school system was organized 
 under the old district plan. The schools were practically con- 
 trolled by about 25,000 school trustees, 5,000 of whom could 
 neither read nor write. The action of the legislature of 1908 
 has changed the whole aspect of the Kentucky educational situa- 
 tion, and already remarkable progress has been made toward 
 the improvement of her public schools. 
 
 A glance at the tabulation shows that the southern states have 
 been more active (at least recently) in the promotion of agri- 
 cultural education than the northern states. This activity is a 
 part of the general educational movement extending throughout 
 the South. Educational campaigns have recently been conducted 
 in several of these states and have done much to increase interest 
 in all educational matters. 
 
 The earliest legislation concerning introduction of agriculture 
 into elementary schools was the Nixon law of New York in 1897 
 (24, pp. 161014). It provided for the extension of agriculture 
 into the public schools under the direction of the Agricultural Col- 
 lege of Cornell University. It was carried out by means of visits 
 to schools and lectures before teachers' institutes, and by means 
 of teachers' and pupils' leaflets for use in rural schools. The 
 Cornell leaflets not only stimulated much interest in elementary 
 agriculture and nature-study in the state of New York but in 
 other states as well. Similar publications have since been issued 
 by agricultural colleges of several other states. 
 
 Requiring the teaching of elementary agriculture by law has 
 not met with unqualified success. In some states where it is 
 supposed to be in force little attention is paid to it on account of 
 lack of qualified teachers. The establishment of state secondary 
 schools of agriculture and provision for state aid to high schools 
 teaching agriculture is probably the most important recent legis- 
 lation concerning agricultural education. The latter form of 
 state aid seems to be growing in favor.
 
 26 AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS 
 
 Courses of study vary much in their treatment of agriculture 
 as a school subject. The newness of the subject is usually recog- 
 nized by special directions and suggestions for teaching. These 
 are generally given in a state school manual or handbook for 
 teachers. In some states they are in separate publications. In 
 New York, for example, suggestions are outlined in syllabi, one 
 for elementary schools and one for high schools. In other states 
 bulletins on certain phases of the subject are issued, as in Michi- 
 gan. 
 
 Perhaps the most significant fact showing the widespread 
 general interest in agricultural education in elementary and sec- 
 ondary schools is the attitude of the administrative officers of the 
 various state departments of education. Special mention of the 
 subject is made in nearly all of the latest annual or biennial re- 
 ports from these offices. In some reports considerable space is 
 given to discussions of industrial education with particular refer- 
 ence to agriculture. 
 
 Finally, if any interpretation is to be made of the attitude of 
 state departments of education toward agricultural education it 
 must be remembered that these offices represent the people, and 
 that any policy or action taken is in a certain sense an ex- 
 pression of public opinion.
 
 CHAPTER IV 
 
 SUMMARY OF STATE LEGISLATION AND OF WORK OF STATE 
 DEPARTMENTS OF EDUCATION FOR 1910-11' 
 
 The general discussion in the previous chapter of the attitude 
 of states toward agricultural education in elementary and sec- 
 ondary schools as shown by legislation and state departments of 
 education was based on data collected for the years previous 
 to 1910. In order to bring the subject up to date, and to show 
 the rate of progress in the development of agricultural education 
 in elementary and secondary schools as expressed in legislation 
 and in the activities of state departments of education the fol- 
 lowing summary by states is presented : 
 
 Arkansas. The four agricultural high schools provided for 
 by the legislature of 1909 opened in the fall of 1910 with a 
 large attendance. The state provides about $20,000 per year 
 for support and maintenance of each of these schools. State 
 aid is also provided for high schools meeting certain require- 
 ments fixed by the State Board of Education (Act 328, Laws 
 of 1911). Although the law does not specify that agriculture 
 shall be taught in these schools, the additional support re- 
 ceived by them will no doubt enable many to give instruction 
 in this subject as was suggested by the Educational Commission 
 of Arkansas in its report recommending the passage of this 
 act. The state office of education is active in its co-operation 
 with the boys' agricultural-club movement. In addition to the 
 boys' corn clubs already being promoted, rural-school poultry 
 clubs are to be organized in 1911-12. 
 
 California. High-school boards may prescribe an additional 
 course, or additional courses of study, "including instruction in 
 manual training, domestic science and art, agriculture, horti- 
 culture, and dairying, to be duly credited as part of such high- 
 
 1 Unless otherwise cited the authority for statements made in this chapter is contained in 
 letters received from state departments of education. 
 
 27
 
 28 AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS 
 
 school work" (Cal. Political Code, Sec. 1750, May i, 1911). 
 The state office of education is especially active in promoting 
 agricultural education, co-operating with the college of agri- 
 culture of the state university. 
 
 Idaho. Rural high schools are established with agricultural 
 instruction as part of the course of study. The subject of agri- 
 culture fe put on the list of subjects required in examination 
 for county certificates for teaching. 
 
 Iowa. An act of the last legislature provides for the es- 
 tablishment of departments for training of teachers in agriculture 
 and home economics in forty high schools, and appropriates 
 $500 special state aid for each of these schools. 
 
 Kansas. A sum of $250 annually is available to such high 
 schools maintaining normal training 2 as may organize courses in 
 agriculture and domestic science under rules and regulations 
 to be formulated by the state board of education. This pro- 
 vision is also extended to such high schools as may hereafter 
 introduce normal training. A law was also passed requiring 
 an examination in agriculture for all forms of county teachers' 
 certificates. 
 
 Louisiana. During the years 1910-11 agricultural depart- 
 ments were established in seventeen high schools, and the legisla- 
 ture of 1910 appropriated $25,000 per annum for the years 
 1910-11 to aid these schools. No more than twenty agricultural 
 departments will be recognized during the sessions of 1910-11 
 and 1911-12. The following is a summary of requirements 
 made by the state board of education for the departments of 
 agriculture of schools receiving state aid : A demonstration 
 farm of at least five acres, which must be tightly fenced, and 
 provided with barn containing full equipment; apparatus for 
 teaching science, with an addition of at least $100 worth of 
 apparatus especially for teaching agriculture ; at least $40 worth 
 of tools and $140 worth of farming implements, and $250 for 
 
 These departments for normal training in high schools were provided for by previous 
 legislature.
 
 SUMMARY OF STATE LEGISLATION 29 
 
 maintenance; the teacher of agriculture must be satisfactory to 
 the state department of education. To aid the department of 
 agriculture and home economics of these schools a course of 
 study, including state requirements for recognition, equipment, 
 courses of study and practicums, has been issued by the state 
 department of education (32). 
 
 Maine. State aid is given to high schools and incorporated 
 academies maintaining courses in agriculture. 
 
 Maryland. State aid, not to exceed $2,500 each, is extended 
 for the encouragement of high schools meeting the requirements 
 set forth by the state board of education. Among these re- 
 quirements is provision for manual-training and domestic-science 
 courses, and also a commercial or agricultural course, as may 
 be determined by the board of county commissioners. In the 
 suggested course of agriculture for high schools two recitations 
 of forty minutes each and one double laboratory period of eighty 
 minutes are devoted to this subject each week for four years. 
 The course is so arranged that a teacher of agriculture may 
 teach in more than one high school, giving not less than two- 
 fifths of his time to schools of the first group, and to no more 
 than four schools of the second group. The sum of $400 is 
 available to high schools of each group offering such instruction 
 (School Code and By-Laws of the Maryland State Board of 
 Education). 
 
 Massachusetts. An act of the legislature of 1911 provides 
 for agricultural departments in rural high schools. Such de- 
 partments must devote their entire time to the theory and 
 practice in agriculture. This work may be elected by pupils in 
 the school. The pupils are to take all their studies except the 
 training in practical farming in the regular classes of the 
 school. The work is to be given by a special instructor who 
 is to devote his entire time to the theory and practice of farming. 
 He will be expected to supervise certain projects on the farm 
 conducted by pupils, such as gardening, poultry-keeping, orchard- 
 ing, small animal husbandry, etc., and to give in the classroom
 
 30 AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS 
 
 the applied science, mathematics, etc., that may be necessary 
 in order to bring about the practice of right methods. This 
 teacher is not to teach any of the regular sciences in the 
 school or any other subject save those that may be neces- 
 sary to the group with which he deals in practical agri- 
 culture. The state is to pay two-thirds of the salary of the 
 instructor. The board of education has asked for $10,000 for 
 the years 1911-12 in order to test the worth of this scheme. 3 
 Some of the details of this plan for part time or project method 
 of agricultural instruction are given in chap, xiii, p. 125. In 
 addition to the Report of the State Board of Education on 
 Agricultural Education (166) referred to in chap, xiii, the 
 board has issued a bulletin on Agricultural Projects for Ele- 
 mentary Schools (33), the general scheme being the same as 
 for projects for high schools. 
 
 Michigan. The State Commission on Industrial and Agri- 
 cultural Education appointed by the governor of Michigan in 
 the summer of 1909 has made in its report the following 
 recommendations: (i) provision of at least one high school 
 with a four-year course in each township; (2) introduction as 
 soon as possible of agriculture, manual training, and home 
 economics into all high schools ; (3) certification of all teachers 
 of agricultural and industrial subjects; (4) state supervision 
 of all agricultural and industrial courses; (5) state aid for 
 schools introducing high-school courses in agriculture and home 
 economics, as follows: (a) the total not to exceed $30,000 
 for the first year, $50,000 for the third year, and $100,000 for 
 any subsequent year; (&) an equal division of the funds be- 
 tween agriculture and home economics on the one hand and 
 industrial courses on the other; (c) schools certified for aid 
 in agriculture and home economics to receive $500 for the first 
 teacher employed, and $250 for each other teacher employed, no 
 school to receive more than $1,000 in all (Rpt. Mich. State Com. 
 on Indus, and Agric., 1910). 
 
 From chap. 471, Massachusetts Code, and from letter of C. A. Prosser, deputy commis- 
 sioner of education.
 
 SUMMARY OF STATE LEGISLATION 31 
 
 Minnesota. Three important laws relating to teaching of 
 agriculture and industrial work were passed by the legislature 
 of 1911 : 
 
 1. The Putnam Act amends chap. 247, General Laws of 
 1909, providing for state aid of $2,500 annually to high schools 
 maintaining agricultural and industrial education, so as to author- 
 ize rural schools to become associated with such state-aided high 
 schools. The purpose of this amendment is to provide "training 
 and instruction in such agricultural and industrial departments 
 for pupils in rural schools, and to extend the supervision and 
 influence of state high or graded schools to rural schools; one 
 or more schools may become associated with a high or graded 
 school in which is maintained an agricultural and industrial de- 
 partment as herein provided." Each high school entitled to re- 
 ceive state aid of $2,500 per year may receive, in addition, $150 
 per year for each associated school district, and each , school 
 district forming such an association may receive $50 per year 
 (Putnam Act, Laws of 1911). Thirty high schools during 
 1911-12 will each receive $2,500 of state aid. A number of 
 these will receive additional state aid through their association 
 with school districts as provided for in the Putnam Act. 
 
 2. "Any high school or graded school which shall maintain 
 such a course as the High School Board of this state shall 
 prescribe in agriculture and either in home economics or in 
 manual training shall receive annually in addition to other aid 
 the sum of $1,000 for maintaining such industrial courses, to 
 be appropriated and paid from the appropriation made for state 
 aid to high and graded schools" (Benson-Lee Act, Laws of 
 1911). About sixty high schools will receive the benefits of 
 this law during the school year 1911-12. 
 
 3. Encouragement for consolidation of rural schools is ex- 
 tended by the state through the Holmberg Act. Schools are 
 classified as A, B, and C; schools of class A to have at least 
 four departments; those of class B, three departments; those 
 of class C, two departments. Each school of class A shall
 
 32 AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS 
 
 receive $1,500; of class B, $1,000; of class C, $750. The 
 principal of each school in any of these classes shall be qualified 
 "to teach the elements of agriculture as determined by the state 
 superintendent of public instruction" (Holmberg Act, Laws of 
 1911). 
 
 Mississippi. "An act to provide for the establishment of 
 county agricultural high schools and to provide for the equip- 
 ment and maintenance of the same" was approved March 16, 
 1910 (chap. 122, Annotated Code of School Laws of Missis- 
 sippi). According to provisions of this act any town or rural 
 community in a county may bid for the location of an agri- 
 cultural high school. But no bid will be considered that does 
 not guarantee to the county a donation of at least twenty acres 
 of land, suitable school building, and a dormitory with dining- 
 room facilities to accommodate forty boarders. If no com- 
 munity makes such a donation the above equipment may be 
 secured out of any tax levy made for agricultural high-school 
 purposes. When such a school is established it may receive state 
 aid to the amount of $1,500 annually. The state department 
 of public instruction has issued a course of study and general 
 directions for conduct of these schools (34). 
 
 Montana. The superintendent of public instruction urges 
 that the subject of agriculture be given the time assigned to 
 it in the state course of study. In this course the subject is 
 outlined for the pupils of the fifth, sixth, seventh, and eighth 
 grades. 
 
 Nebraska. Although there is no new legislation on agri- 
 cultural education, considerable interest is shown in the subject of 
 normal training courses (including agriculture) in high schools. 
 A bill somewhat similar to those passed in Kansas and Iowa 
 providing- for agricultural instruction in normal training 
 courses in high schools and including state aid was presented at 
 the last legislature, but failed to pass. 
 
 Nevada. Provision is made in the course of study for in- 
 struction in agriculture. Three high schools will give courses 
 in agriculture in 1911-12.
 
 SUMMARY OF STATE LEGISLATION 33 
 
 New Hampshire. During the years 1911-12 seven regularly 
 approved high schools will give courses in agriculture. An 
 approved school must employ only graduates of recognized agri- 
 cultural colleges to give instruction in agriculture. The high- 
 school law of 1901 makes it possible to introduce the subject 
 of agriculture into any high school of any community desiring 
 it. In the state course of study for elementary schools agri- 
 culture is given a place. 
 
 New Jersey. Legislation relating indirectly to agricultural 
 education is found in the provision made for a state commissioner 
 of education who has, with the consent of the state board of 
 education, the power to appoint four assistant commissioners, 
 one of whom is to devote his time "to the inspection of industrial 
 education, including agriculture." 
 
 New York. In 1910 the state made provision for state aid 
 to high schools giving instruction in agriculture. The sum of 
 $500 may be apportioned to any city or union free school 
 district maintaining a school of agriculture, mechanic arts, and 
 home-making for thirty-eight weeks in a year, subject to approval 
 of the state commissioner of education (162). Twenty schools 
 have definitely adopted the special agricultural course for the 
 year 1911-12, and will receive state aid. The New York plan 
 is discussed in some detail in chap, xiii, p. 123. In the law 
 of 1910 relating to agricultural education provision is also made 
 for the training of teachers of agriculture for high schools at 
 the state schools of agriculture at St. Lawrence University, at 
 Alford University, and at Morrisville. 
 
 North Carolina. An act was passed by the legislature of 
 1911 providing for the establishment and maintenance of county 
 farm-life schools and for the promotion of agriculture and home- 
 making (County Farm-Life School law, ratified March 3, 1911). 
 "The aim of said school shall be to prepare boys for agricultural 
 pursuits and farm life and to prepare the girls for home-making 
 and housekeeping on the farm. The course of study in said 
 school shall be subject to the approval of the state superintendent 
 of public instruction and an advisory board in farm-life schools,
 
 34 AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS 
 
 to be appointed by him; Provided, however, that the course of 
 study shall include practical work on the farm, and practical 
 work in all subjects relating to housekeeping and home-making 
 by the girls." The state appropriates $25,000 to each school 
 to aid in maintenance and support. The school cannot be lo- 
 cated in any city or town of more than one thousand inhabitants, 
 nor within two miles of any city or town of more than five 
 thousand inhabitants. A complete equipment consisting of 
 school building, dormitory buildings, barn and dairy building, 
 a farm of not less than twenty-five acres of good land, and neces- 
 sary furnishing, apparatus, and farm tools, all of which must 
 be approved by the state superintendent of public instruction. 
 Provision is also made for a high-school department to be 
 maintained in each farm-life school that may not be established at 
 the same place with some existing county high school. In addi- 
 tion to the aim already indicated, it is intended for each school 
 "to conduct agricultural and farm-life demonstration and ex- 
 tension work throughout the country; to hold township and 
 district meetings for the farmers and farmers' wives in all parts 
 of the county from time to time; to co-operate with the county 
 superintendent of public instruction and public-school teachers 
 in stimulating, directing, and supervising farm-life work in the 
 public high schools and elementary schools, and in providing 
 instruction in such work for the teachers through the County 
 Teachers' Association and through special short courses of study 
 for public-school teachers; to provide, also, at said school short 
 courses of study in farm-life subjects for adult farmers and 
 their wives, and to hold at the school county meetings for fanners 
 and their wives for instruction and demonstration work from 
 time to time." Under provisions of this law two counties have 
 voted for such schools, and several more have the matter under 
 consideration and will call elections later. 
 
 North Dakota. Three important measures in the interest of 
 agricultural education became laws in 1911. Agriculture is made 
 one of four optional subjects in examinations for first-grade 
 teachers' certificates. This will probably be amended later, mak-
 
 SUMMARY OF STATE LEGISLATION 35 
 
 ing agriculture one of the required subjects. State aid is to be 
 given to rural and graded schools. These are of two classes, 
 but among the requirements for both classes are courses in 
 domestic science, manual training, and elementary agriculture. 
 Provision is made for the establishment of county agricultural 
 and training schools. "Each of said schools shall receive state 
 
 aid in the sum of $2,500 Not more than five schools 
 
 shall be aided the first year nor more than five be added every 
 two years thereafter." A state agricultural and training board 
 is also created. This board "shall consist of the president of the 
 state agricultural college, the state superintendent of public in- 
 struction, and three practical farmers, who shall be appointed 
 by the governor of the state. 
 
 Ohio. An act to provide for the teaching of agriculture in 
 the common schools became a law in 1911, but does not apply 
 to city school districts of the state. The act requires "that the 
 state be divided into four agricultural districts to be mapped 
 out, located, and defined by the commissioner of common schools. 
 .... The state commissioner shall also superintend all such 
 agricultural education designated in this act and shall appoint 
 in each agricultural district a person known as district super- 
 visor of agriculture." Among the duties of this officer are 
 visiting and co-operating with the several boards of education 
 in his district in planning such a course of study in agriculture 
 as they may think best adapted to the needs of the people of the 
 respective school districts ; visiting the county teachers' institute 
 in every county in his district, and giving instruction in agri- 
 culture to the teachers of the several schools designated in this 
 act ; co-operating with the state board of agriculture, and giving 
 the state such time as may be necessary to lecture on agricultural 
 subjects as are related to teaching in the common schools; en- 
 couraging county agricultural societies in each county of his 
 district to establish school children's agricultural exhibits at 
 each annual county fair. The sections of the political code 
 relating to teachers' examinations is amended so as to include 
 "on and after September I, 1912, elementary agriculture."
 
 36 AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS 
 
 Pennsylvania. The new school code provides for the ap- 
 pointment of an expert assistant in agriculture for the state 
 department of education and makes agricultural education a 
 part of the objects to be promoted by the state board of education. 
 
 Texas. State aid to the amount of from $500 to $2,000 
 is given for one year to high schools providing approved in- 
 struction in agriculture. 
 
 Utah. Agriculture is made a part of the course of study 
 prepared by the state office of education for accredited high 
 schools. 
 
 Vermont. The state department of education has issued a 
 Manual of Agriculture for the Public Schools of. Vermont (35). 
 
 Washington. Elementary agriculture is made an optional 
 subject in the eighth grade of the public schools of the state. 
 
 Wisconsin. An act passed in 1911 makes available to each 
 school "maintaining a department of manual training, or do- 
 mestic economy or agriculture, or any or all of these departments 
 one-half the amount actually expended for instruction in such 
 department, not, however, to exceed $350 for each department 
 above named which shall have been maintained in connection 
 with the high school and the three upper grades below the high 
 school, but not to exceed $250 for each department named 
 maintained only in connection with the high school." It is 
 possible under this act for a school district maintaining courses 
 in these three subjects to receive $1,050 per year from the state. 
 No state aid may be given to any school for instruction in 
 agriculture, domestic economy, manual training, or industrial 
 branches unless the salary of every teacher giving instruction 
 in such subjects shall receive at least $60 per month. 
 
 The maximum state aid to any county school of agriculture 
 and domestic economy is raised from $4,000 per annum to $6,000- 
 $8,000 per annum, depending upon average daily attendance. 
 The Stout Institute located at Menomonie is to receive state 
 support, $30,000 for the current year and $55,000 per annum 
 thereafter.
 
 SUMMARY OF STATE LEGISLATION 
 
 37 
 
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 CHAPTER V 
 
 AGRICULTURAL COLLEGES, INCLUDING EXTENSION WORK, 
 
 DEPARTMENTS OF AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION, AND 
 
 SUMMER SCHOOLS FOR TEACHERS 
 
 Of the many agencies now promoting agricultural education 
 in elementary and secondary schools the most important are the 
 state agricultural colleges, for they are the "only teaching insti- 
 tutions that are in possession, at first hand, of the essential facts 
 of rational agriculture." Until recently they have been too busy 
 perfecting their own organization, and too greatly occupied in 
 developing and promoting the scientific aspects of agriculture to 
 give much attention to outside educational matters. It is difficult 
 to determine just when the agricultural colleges began to take an 
 active interest in the public schools. Dean L. H. Bailey says: 
 
 More than any other institutions they stand for democracy and native- 
 ness of education, for their purpose is nothing less than to reach the last 
 man on the last farm by means of the very things by which that man lives 
 (36, p. 40). 
 
 This idea of bringing the college to the people found its first 
 expression in various sorts of extension work dealing with the 
 farmers directly. Now this work is well organized and is doing 
 great service. Through farmers' institutes, farmers' conventions, 
 fanners' excursions to the college, instruction trains, demonstra- 
 tion farms, and other means, the man on the farm is having the 
 college brought to him. These efforts of the colleges are now 
 appreciated ; so much in fact, that it is often difficult for a college 
 to meet the demands for this kind of outside instruction. But 
 the farmer has not always had this friendly attitude. He was 
 slow to recognize the value of what he called "book farming." 
 Perhaps it was in these early days of agricultural extension that 
 some of those in charge thought it worth while to give some 
 attention to the coming generation of farmers, to the children in 
 the public schools. 
 
 38
 
 AGRICULTURAL COLLEGES AND EXTENSION WORK 39 
 
 Doubtless many individuals connected with agricultural col- 
 leges had put this idea into practice and had helped to introduce 
 agricultural subjects in some of the public schools long before 
 any college took official notice of this means of extension. The 
 first college to take this matter up was the Agricultural College 
 of Cornell University. Reference has already been made to 
 this work under the Nixon law of 1897.* It assumed consider- 
 able importance at once. The report of 1898 concerning this 
 work says : 
 
 Thirty thousand teachers are enrolled on our lists and have received 
 leaflets, and many have attended lectures explaining the methods of pre- 
 senting nature-study work in the schools. Sixteen thousand children have 
 received those leaflets which are especially adapted to their needs (24, p. 
 1611). 
 
 This work is administered by a department of the college 
 known as the Nature-Study Bureau and consists of publications, 
 correspondence, organization of boys' and girls' clubs, and lec- 
 tures and demonstrations for teachers. Other agricultural col- 
 leges soon took up similar work in their respective states until 
 now nearly all are doing more or less extension work among the 
 public schools. At present agricultural colleges are assisting 
 agricultural education in the elementary and secondary schools 
 (a) by various extension methods, (b) by organizing depart- 
 ments of agricultural education, and (c) by conducting summer 
 schools for teachers. 
 
 Extension methods vary somewhat in different states. This 
 is probably due to differences in local conditions, state support, 
 and policies of the colleges themselves. Usually each college 
 develops one particular method of reaching the schools although 
 it may use several. Several colleges follow the Cornell plan 
 (37> 38) of regular publications for teachers and pupils, for 
 example, the agricultural colleges of California (39), Kansas 
 (40), Ohio (41), New Hampshire (42), Rhode Island (43), 
 and West Virginia (44). Purdue University, Indiana, and 
 Pennsylvania State College published regularly for a while 
 
 1 Chap, iii, p. 25.
 
 40 AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS 
 
 leaflets on nature-study. Others publish occasional bulletins on 
 various phases of public-school agriculture, for example, the agri- 
 cultural colleges of Massachusetts (45, 46, 47, 48), Illinois (49). 
 Minnesota (53), Missouri (50), Pennsylvania (51), Tennessee 
 (52), and California (54, 55). Material designed to aid 
 teachers is sometimes prepared by faculty members of an agri- 
 cultural college, for example, of the agricultural colleges of 
 California (56), Illinois (58), and Michigan (57), to be pub- 
 lished by the state department of education or by some school 
 magazine. 
 
 These extension publications are distributed free of charge 
 and often large editions have to be reprinted to meet the 
 demand. The extension bulletin of Ohio State Agricultural 
 College (41), for example, is printed in editions of from 
 10,000 to 20,000. The maiiling-list is made up anew each year 
 from responses to notices that names will be dropped from 
 the mailing-list unless requests are renewed. Pupils of the 
 public schools are expected to carry on some work suggested 
 by the college and report upon this work in order to receive 
 the bulletin regularly. In this way the extension department 
 is kept in close touch with the teachers and pupils of the 
 state. The bulletin serves several purposes : it is a means of com- 
 munication between the college and the schools ; it presents vari- 
 ous phases of agriculture of interest to the pupils; it assists in 
 organizing agricultural clubs among the public-school children; 
 it is the organ for promoting interest in rural-school improve- 
 ment, such as consolidation of rural schools and beautifying 
 school grounds. 
 
 Each agricultural college has more or less correspondence 
 among teachers and pupils but some colleges have encouraged it 
 and made it a feature of their extension work. This method has 
 the advantage that conies from establishing a sort of personal 
 relation between the college and the individual. But the work 
 involved in a correspondence dealing with several thousand indi- 
 viduals is enormous and almost impossible for an agricultural
 
 AGRICULTURAL COLLEGES AND EXTENSION WORK 41 
 
 college, were personal answers given to each letter. A regular 
 publication is necessary to outline and suggest work to be re- 
 ported upon. The correspondence is really one-sided, for answers 
 to individual letters may be given in the next publication or in cir- 
 cular letters. Only a small percentage requires personal answers. 
 The office work is thus reduced to filing and checking reports and 
 preparing mailing-lists. The most extensive work of this kind 
 has been carried on by Cornell University. "Uncle John," who 
 is supposed to read the letters, is more widely known and is more 
 popular among the young people of New York rural communities 
 than any other member of the university. This method is also 
 used by the agricultural colleges of Ohio and Rhode Island. The 
 agricultural colleges of Florida, Kansas, and Pennsylvania (59) 
 conduct correspondence courses in agriculture for teachers. 
 
 The most successful form of agricultural extension among 
 public-school children has been agricultural clubs (60, 6i). 2 
 They are now organized in nearly every state and are not only a 
 means of imparting a knowledge of agriculture to their members, 
 but have a wholesome reaction on the communities in which 
 they are organized. The following is a statement of the work of 
 boys' clubs of Louisiana: 
 
 This year, 1909, we have about 2,000 boys in our agricultural clubs. 
 Next year we expect to have 10,000. I shall devote all of December, Jan- 
 uary, and February to the organization of these clubs in every parish in 
 Louisiana. The corn crop in Louisiana this year exceeds in yield by 50 
 per cent the crop of 1908, and it is generally admitted that a large part of 
 the increase is due to the interest created in corn during the last two years 
 by the boys that are in the boys' clubs. The best corn show ever held in 
 Louisiana was that of the boys' clubs at the State Fair at Shreveport the 
 first days of this month. 3 
 
 The agricultural colleges of all the southern states are active 
 in their co-operation with the government demonstration work 
 among boys. The most complete state organization of boys' and 
 girls' clubs is in Nebraska (60). Here the State Agricultural 
 
 'Boys' agricultural dubs are fully discussed in chap. xii. 
 
 'From a letter of Professor V. L. Roy, Department of Agricultural Education, State 
 Agricultural College of Louisiana.
 
 42 AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS 
 
 College and the State Department of Education work together. 
 The organization consists of a state association, and county and 
 local or district associations. The central or state association 
 meets once a year and is composed of delegates from county 
 associations. 
 
 A special course in agriculture and domestic science for boys and girls 
 will be given at the State University Farm, beginning Monday, January 17, 
 and ending Friday, January 21, 1900. This course is planned for the dele- 
 gates from each county of boys' and girls' agricultural and domestic science 
 associations. Special arrangements have been made with the professors at 
 the University College of Agriculture to give a course of instruction last- 
 ing five days The laboratories at the Agricultural College will be at 
 
 the disposal of the delegates from the different counties during this week 
 and professors from the college will give the instruction. The course is 
 filled with interesting and instructive lectures and demonstrations (60, p. n). 
 
 The agricultural colleges reach the public schools in various 
 other ways. The extension department of Ohio State Agri- 
 cultural College gives much of its attention to rural schools. 
 The superintendent of agricultural extension in this institution 
 believes that the most important work of his department lies in 
 improving the rural schools, not only by helping to introduce 
 agriculture, but by interesting the patrons in consolidating small 
 district schools, in making other improvements, and by encoura- 
 ging the teachers to adjust their school work to fit the needs of 
 the communities in which they live. The Mississippi State Agri- 
 cultural College gives a short course of one week each winter 
 in the county agricultural high school. Many colleges send rep- 
 resentatives to address teachers' institutes and other teachers' 
 meetings. They also furnish judges for boys' corn shows, and 
 corn and stock- judging contests. 
 
 The early extension work of agricultural colleges among the 
 public schools was intended to awaken an interest in agricultural 
 affairs. It was mainly propaganda for arousing a favorable 
 sentiment toward the subject. The more recent work has had for 
 its aim the actual introduction of certain phases of agriculture 
 into the schools, and to render assistance to teachers who wish
 
 AGRICULTURAL COLLEGES AND EXTENSION WORK 43 
 
 to teach the subject. The demand on many colleges for this kind 
 of work has become too great to be properly met by the regular 
 extension departments. To meet this situation special depart- 
 ments are being organized. These are usually known as depart- 
 ments of agricultural education. The following tabulation 
 shows the organization of these departments up to date: 
 
 State 
 
 Year 
 
 State 
 
 Year 
 
 Alabama 
 
 IQOQ 
 
 Missouri 
 
 IQOQ 
 
 California 
 
 IQOQ 
 
 Nebraska. 
 
 IQOQ 
 
 Georgia 
 
 IOII 
 
 North Carolina 
 
 IQOQ 
 
 Idaho 
 
 IQOQ 
 
 Ohio 
 
 IOIO 
 
 Illinois 
 
 *y^y 
 ) 1905 
 
 Oklahoma 
 
 1909 
 
 Indiana 
 
 ( 1909 
 1008 
 
 Oregon 
 Pennsylvania 
 
 IQ09 
 IQOO 
 
 Iowa 
 
 IOII 
 
 Rhode Island 
 
 I9II 
 
 Louisiana 
 
 IQOQ 
 
 Utah 
 
 IQII 
 
 Kansas 
 
 IOII 
 
 Washington 
 
 1QII 
 
 Michigan 
 
 1908 
 
 West Virginia 
 
 I9II 
 
 Massachusetts 
 
 IOO7 
 
 Wisconsin . . . 
 
 TQOO 
 
 Mississippi 
 
 IOII 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 The agricultural colleges of Arkansas, Delaware, Maine, 
 Massachusetts, North Dakota, Oregon, Pennsylvania, South 
 Dakota, Vermont, Washington, and Wisconsin give courses 
 in education to their students who expect to become teachers. 
 The Agricultural College of Tennessee added a department of 
 agricultural education temporarily in 1908 for one year and 
 expects to re-establish it. A number of other colleges have signi- 
 fied their intention to establish departments of agricultural edu- 
 cation as soon as practicable. 
 
 It will be seen from the above summary that most of these 
 new departments began their work in 1908 and 1909. This is 
 probably due, at least in part, to a provision of the Nelson amend- 
 ment of 1908 (26, 36, p. 5) whereby "said colleges may use a 
 portion of this money (referring to additional appropriation) 
 for providing courses for special preparation of instructors for 
 teaching the elements of agriculture and mechanic arts." 
 
 Massachusetts in 1907 made a special appropriation of $5,000 
 for this work (36, p. 41 ). In addition to the regular instruction
 
 44 AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS 
 
 given during the school year and summer school for teachers, 
 the department conducted, in 1908, 1909, and 1910, conferences 
 on agricultural education (46). At the conference of 1909, a 
 committee appointed in 1908 made a report outlining a series of 
 exercises "of experimental character that should serve as material 
 for the teaching of agriculture in the common schools" (45). 
 The department has extended its work to include courses of in- 
 struction during the college year to undergraduates expecting to 
 teach; lectures before teachers' and farmers' meetings; summer- 
 school instruction to teachers of elementary agriculture and 
 school gardening; co-operative work with the North Adams 
 State Normal School; organizing boys' and girls' agricultural 
 clubs; conducting school gardens on college campus for the 
 school children of Amherst. 
 
 The departments of agricultural education in other colleges 
 are just getting under way, and it is therefore not possible at 
 this time to give any report of their work beyond a few brief 
 statements. Boys' clubs and teachers' institutes are receiving 
 special attention in several states. In Missouri the schools of 
 the county in which the University of Missouri is located are 
 taking up the study of agriculture under the direction of the 
 professor of agricultural education who visits the schools with 
 the county superintendent, gives instruction in the seventh and 
 eighth grades and makes suggestions to the teachers for carrying 
 on the work. In 1910-11 work in thirteen of these "demonstra- 
 tion schools" was conducted, and about fifty others were reached 
 by correspondence. The University of Illinois is pursuing a sim- 
 ilar plan. In Indiana the department was established especially 
 to enable the students of Purdue University to comply with the 
 state law requiring teachers in the public schools to have some pro- 
 fessional training. In the University of California the depart- 
 ment of agricultural education is especially well organized, cover- 
 ing the following lines of work : instruction to teachers during the 
 regular and summer sessions ; publication of circulars on school 
 gardening, tree-growing, high-school agriculture, elementary
 
 AGRICULTURAL COLLEGES AND EXTENSION WORK 45 
 
 agriculture, etc. ; organizing and conducting school garden work 
 in city and rural schools ; conducting seed exchange with schools 
 interested in tree-growing and gardening; conducting organiza- 
 tions for the encouragement of nature-study; visiting, super- 
 vising, and teaching in the public schools ; assisting at teachers' 
 meetings; organizing excursions of teachers to university sta- 
 tions; organizing boys' and girls' clubs and publishing a paper 
 to unify this work; assisting with the demonstration train; cor- 
 respondence with superintendents, principals, and teachers, and 
 others interested in educational work. Various specialists of 
 Kansas Agricultural College, under the direction of the depart- 
 ment of agricultural education, have prepared a series of six 
 agricultural primers. These have been placed in the hands of 
 each teacher of the state, and have been used as a text in all 
 the normal institutes during the summer of 1911. In general, 
 these new departments seem to regard the development of agri- 
 culture in high schools as an important part of their work. 
 Mention should be made in this connection of the co-operation of 
 the College of Agriculture of Cornell University and Teachers 
 College of Columbia University for the training of students for 
 special work as teachers of agriculture in high schools and normal 
 schools. "Appropriate courses in agriculture are taken at Cor- 
 nell University and the study of educational problems at Teachers 
 College" (36, pp. 36-37). The Pennsylvania Agricultural Col- 
 lege offers a special course of one year for graduates of normal 
 schools and colleges who expect to teach in the public schools. 
 The department of agricultural education is also giving instruc- 
 tion by correspondence to a large number of teachers. The 
 University of Wisconsin is making special effort to prepare 
 teachers for work in secondary agriculture in the public schools. 
 One course of study leads to the B.S. degree in agriculture, and 
 to a university teachers' certificate which requires a certain 
 amount of work to be done in education; a second leads to the 
 degree of A.B. with a minor in agriculture ; a third leads to 
 the degree of A.B. with a major in manual arts and a minor in
 
 46 AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS 
 
 agriculture; a fourth leads to the degree of B.S. in the college 
 of agriculture with a minor in manual arts or physical or bio- 
 logical science. 
 
 The number of agricultural colleges giving summer courses 
 for the benefit of teachers is increasing rapidly. During the 
 year 1911 courses were given in the agricultural colleges of 
 the following states : Alabama, California, Connecticut, Georgia, 
 Illinois, Kansas, Massachusetts, Minnesota, Mississippi, Missouri, 
 New Jersey, New York, North Carolina, North Dakota, Ohio, 
 Oklahoma, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, Tennessee, 
 Utah, Vermont, Washington, West Virginia, Wisconsin, Wyo- 
 ming, and perhaps others. These courses last from three to eight 
 weeks and are well attended. The indications are that the 
 attendance and interest will increase and that summer schools of 
 agricultural colleges will become a considerable factor in ele- 
 mentary and secondary agricultural education.
 
 CHAPTER VI 
 STATE NORMAL SCHOOLS 
 
 It is the business of state normal schools not only to train 
 teachers but also, as far as conditions permit, to find out by ex- 
 periment in practice schools, what to teach and how to teach it. 
 When both aspects of the work of these schools are considered, 
 the important relation which they bear to agricultural education, 
 particularly in elementary schools, becomes apparent. The prob- 
 lem of the normal school in this matter is twofold : (a) to meet 
 the rapidly growing demand for teachers who are able to give 
 satisfactory instruction in elementary agriculture, and (&) to 
 reduce the subject to a proper pedagogical basis, in other words, 
 to determine what phases of this great subject may be undertaken 
 in the elementary schools under average school conditions both 
 from the standpoint of the child and of the teacher. 
 
 The following is a brief summary of the efforts of the state 
 normal schools to find a solution of this twofold problem. The 
 data have been gathered from one hundred and thirty-seven of 
 the one hundred and forty-five schools now actively engaged in 
 training teachers. 1 
 
 When the diverse social, educational, and industrial interests 
 of the country as a whole are considered it is to be expected that 
 these differences will be reflected in the types of instruction given 
 in the various normal schools. To these differences brought 
 about by conditions more or less local are to be added those due 
 to tradition. The older schools are usually less elastic and adapt- 
 able than the newer ones. Bailey regards the latter fact as a 
 very serious obstacle in the way of a general introduction of 
 agriculture into these schools. He says, "One cannot look to 
 all the existing normal schools in the older states, or even to any 
 
 1 In 1910 the nine state normal schools of Oregon were closed, owing to lack of financial 
 support from the state. 
 
 47
 
 48 AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS 
 
 considerable part of them, for the training of teachers for this 
 kind of work" (36). This statement must be qualified for there 
 are many exceptions. For example, the Johnson State Normal 
 School of Vermont has been offering courses in agriculture for 
 over eight years, while the one at Laramie, Wyoming, recently 
 established, does not give courses in agriculture but prepares its 
 graduates to teach in cities. 
 
 The number of graduates of state normal schools that teach 
 in agricultural communities varies exceedingly not only in 
 different states but among the schools of a single state. Re- 
 ports from seventy-six show that twenty-eight have from 60 
 to 100 per cent of their graduates 'going into schools of rural 
 communities; twenty-seven have from 20 to 50 per cent; and 
 twenty-one have from I to 10 per cent. Of the twenty-eight 
 having from 60 to 100 per cent of their graduates teaching in 
 rural communities, twenty are offering instruction in agriculture 
 and fifteen require it; of those having from 20 to 50 per cent, 
 twenty offer instruction in agriculture and nine require it; of 
 those having from i to 10 per cent, eleven offer agriculture and 
 three require it. If this proportion should apply to all the schools 
 it would seem to indicate that the number of graduates of normal 
 schools going into agricultural communities is quite large, per- 
 haps larger than generally supposed. It indicates also a tendency 
 of the schools to adapt their work, at least to the extent of intro- 
 ducing agriculture, to the needs of the communities where their 
 graduates teach. This estimate is only approximate and only 
 inferences may be drawn from it. It does not take into con- 
 sideration the large number of students who take a portion of the 
 course and who for the most part go into the country to teach. 
 One normal-school president says : "There are very few of our 
 graduates who teach in rural schools, but there are multitudes of 
 our undergraduates who do so." This statement suggests an- 
 other phase of the problem of normal-school instruction which 
 has received little or no attention, viz., what recognition in the 
 course of study or character of instruction should be given to the
 
 STATE NORMAL SCHOOLS 49 
 
 fact that so many who attend the normal school for part of the 
 course drop out and become teachers in rural schools? For 
 example, in the school just referred to, the instruction is evidently 
 adjusted to meet the needs of students who expect to teach in 
 city schools. No agriculture is taught although "multitudes 
 of the undergraduates" become teachers in rural schools, and in 
 the state itself agriculture is the chief industry. 
 
 The development of agricultural instruction in state normal 
 schools has on the whole kept pace with the growth of the general 
 interest in the subject. It is hard to say just when this subject 
 was first taken up. Probably the first institution to begin this 
 work under the name of agriculture was the Rock Hill State 
 Normal School of South Carolina, which offered courses in agri- 
 culture as early as 1895. The Johnson State Normal School of 
 Vermont offered its first course in agriculture in 1901, and about 
 this time the subject was introduced in some of the state normal 
 schools of the Middle West (62). 
 
 In 1906 a report on "Preparation of Teachers to Give Instruc- 
 tion in Elementary Agriculture" was prepared for the Joint Board 
 of the California State Normal Schools trustees (63). This re- 
 port showed that the normal schools of Minnesota, North Dakota, 
 Nebraska, Missouri, and South Carolina were attempting to 
 prepare teachers to give instruction in elementary agriculture; 
 that some attention was being given to the subject in the normal 
 schools of Illinois, Utah, and Oklahoma ; that nothing was being 
 done to furnish such training in the schools of Iowa, Kansas, 
 Michigan, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Alabama, North Carolina, or 
 New York, but that several of these schools were, however, 
 getting ready to undertake the work as soon as possible. 
 
 In a study of ninety-one state normal schools reported to the 
 National Education Association in 1907, it was shown that 
 seventy-five believed in an instruction in agriculture, and were 
 either giving it in some form or desired to do so. Sixty-one of 
 this number were either offering courses or had made plans for 
 such courses for the following year. Seven of these were giving
 
 5Q AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS 
 
 only a little agriculture in connection with other science courses. 
 Eight were doing still more in connection with school gardens 
 and were planning to extend the work. The remaining forty- 
 six were giving definite courses in agriculture (64). 
 
 During 1909-10 of one hundred and thirty-seven state normal 
 schools, eighty-seven were giving some instruction in agriculture. 
 In fifty-two of those offering courses, twenty-two made it 
 elective and thirty required it. Of those not giving (instruction 
 in agriculture, thirty-seven gave it incidentally in connection with 
 botany, nature-study, or some other course in science, and nearly 
 all those giving courses in agriculture also gave some attention 
 to the subject in other science work, particularly in botany and 
 nature-study. 
 
 It will be seen from the above that normal schools are rapidly 
 introducing agriculture. The number of schools offering such 
 courses has increased from about 20 per cent in 1906 to more 
 than 50 per cent in 1909. Indeed, the demand for well-qualified 
 instructors in agriculture for normal schools exceeds the supply. 
 One normal-school president says that he tried for over one year 
 to secure a competent instructor. Davenport says : "The call is 
 sharp from the normal schools of the Middle West which have 
 this year (1909) taken some of the best trained and most 
 promising teachers of this class" (65, p. 144). The call is not 
 alone from the Middle West but the East as well. During the 
 present school year one of the normal schools of the Atlantic 
 Coast states secured a teacher who, at the time of his appointment, 
 was professor of agricultural education in an agricultural college 
 of the Middle West. 
 
 Letters from presidents and others connected with normal 
 schools not now (1910) offering agricultural instruction indicate 
 that in many of these schools plans are under way to introduce the 
 subject as soon as possible. Included in this number are the 
 normal schools of New York and Pennsylvania, none of which 
 now (1910) offers such instruction except incidentally with 
 nature-study and other subjects.
 
 STATE NORMAL SCHOOLS 51 
 
 The character of the work in agriculture varies much in 
 different schools. But there is one feature of the instruction 
 that is common to all, viz., evidence of the newness of the 
 subject and of the fact that it is in an experimental stage. In 
 some schools the work in agriculture is only in name, much 
 better instruction being given in other schools in courses in 
 nature-study. 
 
 The time given in the course of study varies from ten weeks 
 to two full years, the average being less than one year. One 
 interesting reaction following the demands for agricultural in- 
 struction is to be found in the readjustment in science courses, 
 especially in the biological sciences. The title agricultural botany 
 and agricultural zoology frequently occurs in courses of study. 
 One fails to find in some of these, however, justification for 
 the new titles, for the instruction remains much the same, 
 with emphasis on morphology. The attitude of certain teach- 
 ers of biology toward their subject is well illustrated by the 
 following extract of a letter received from a member of the 
 faculty of a large state normal school. "I obtained over one 
 dozen kinds of water animals one day from a pool when the 
 science (biology) teacher said he saw none in it. He was send- 
 ing to New York City for crayfish when a brook near the building 
 was full of them. The boys (in training school) had made nets 
 and would have been glad to have caught the animals for him." 
 Perhaps the influence of such a teacher was partly responsible 
 for the ignorance of a practice teacher (a senior) who stood in 
 a bed of marigolds and asked if there were any marigolds in the 
 garden. The introduction of agriculture will no doubt have 
 much to do in changing this attitude. 
 
 It will in the end exert a profound influence upon the teaching of 
 general science. There is no manner of doubt that the masses of people 
 
 are best benefited by the teaching of science in its applied form 
 
 Agriculture is evidently to be the pioneer in this business of the adaptation 
 of science to the common affairs of life in the schools that are attended 
 by the masses, and if this is true its incidental service may be even greater 
 than its direct. In the meantime it is vastly significant that the schools
 
 52 AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS 
 
 where teachers are made have at last commenced to study real life in one 
 of its most concrete forms (65, pp. 45-46). 
 
 Normal schools have so far been too much occupied in pro- 
 viding for instruction in agriculture to give much attention to 
 the pedagogical problems of the subject. These problems con- 
 cern (a) the organization of courses in the normal school itself, 
 and (&) methods of teaching the subject in the public schools. 
 Naturally, the former has been the first to receive attention. The 
 organization of work in agriculture has been in two directions, 
 one in the science work already referred to, and the other in the 
 purely agricultural courses recently introduced. 
 
 Special efforts of adjustment have affected nature-study more 
 than other science studies. Many believe that as far as the ele- 
 mentary schools are concerned agriculture should have the nature- 
 study aspect, or as some prefer to say, nature-study should have 
 an agricultural trend; that since nature-study has to do with 
 material drawn from the child's immediate environment, and 
 since a large part of this environment is more or less agricultural 
 (consisting of animals and plants under control of man) a good 
 course in nature-study forms an adequate preparation for a 
 teacher to give such agricultural instruction as will meet the 
 needs of rural schools, and at the same time enables a teacher to 
 make use of school gardening and other practical or economic 
 phases of the subject in city schools (66). 
 
 The particular direction in which nature-study has been most 
 modified in its readjustment has been in the school garden (67). 
 It has been found that the school garden may serve as a very 
 effectual means of unifying most all nature-study work. Chil- 
 dren are not only able to "grow things" in gardens, but in doing 
 this work successfully have had to solve many of the problems 
 that are fundamental to agriculture. The character of the soil, 
 the conservation of water by cultivation, the protection of plants 
 from insect and other enemies, and many other factors of suc- 
 cessful plant-growing are encountered. Many normal schools 
 have regarded this readjustment of nature-study and other sci-
 
 STATE NORMAL SCHOOLS 53 
 
 ence work as sufficient to meet the demands for agricultural 
 instruction in the training of elementary teachers, and are work- 
 ing with this end in view. Some of the normal schools of Cali- 
 fornia, Illinois, Massachusetts, New Jersey, and other states, and 
 many of those schools now offering courses in agriculture, have 
 made substantial progress in the readjustment of science work. 
 Instruction in agriculture as a separate subject in normal 
 schools is now in an experimental stage. Yet certain work and 
 methods seem to have proved successful. The first publication 
 of work adapted to normal schools was in the form of a textbook 
 based on teaching experience in the Kirksville (Mo.) State 
 Normal School ( 1 76) . Recently a very concrete treatment of the 
 problem has appeared as a government publication. It is an 
 account of what is actually being done and how it is done in a 
 typical normal school. The writer says in his introduction, 
 
 The aim of the normal school is to prepare young men and women to 
 teach in the elementary schools of the state. The young people who attend 
 come from farms or smaller towns, and when they go out to teach they are 
 called upon to give instruction in what is known as elementary agriculture. 
 To meet this demand, a department of agriculture was established four 
 years ago. The course at first extended through one term's work but has 
 been lengthened until practically two full years are now devoted to agri- 
 cultural instruction. The work has attracted many young people, and the 
 success with which they have subsequently instructed others along these 
 lines indicate that the instruction has been effective. Not all the problems 
 in teaching agriculture have been solved but it may justly be claimed that 
 a few of the more difficult of them have been solved (68). 
 
 Other similar publications of successful practice which have been 
 tested by the work of students who have become teachers will 
 contribute much toward the pedagogical efficiency of the subject. 
 From the standpoint of methods of teaching the subject in 
 the public school, little has been done. A very promising begin- 
 ning of the study of this question was made at the Peru (Neb.) 
 State Normal School in February, 1909, when the Normal Agri- 
 cultural Society was organized. The purpose of this society is 
 to aid teachers in "handling the new subject of agriculture in
 
 54 AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS 
 
 public schools of the state." Those interested in its organiza- 
 tion have expressed the hope that "it will become a pedagogical 
 laboratory for testing and discovering methods to improve and 
 extend the teaching of agriculture throughout the schools of 
 Nebraska." The director is the head of the department of agri- 
 culture in the Peru Normal School and conducts for the society 
 a column in the Nebraska Farmer which is to be the official pub- 
 lication of the society (69). 
 
 An interesting experiment limited to one phase of agriculture 
 is now being conducted at the Western Illinois State Normal 
 School at Macomb in co-operation with the Illinois State Agri- 
 cultural Experiment Station. A soil experiment field of two and 
 one-half acres has been provided by the normal school. The 
 school 
 
 as its share of the responsibility, takes full charge of the field operations 
 implied in the plans. Such co-operation provides for both scientific and 
 educative values in the work and it is proposed to make the results as far 
 reaching as possible. Not alone to teachers and prospective teachers will 
 it be valuable but as well to persons now engaged in agricultural practice 
 (70). 
 
 A few helps to teachers have been worked out in normal 
 schools and published, for example, from Cape Girardeau, Mo. 
 (71), Los Angeles, Cal. (72), Greeley, Colo. (73), Hays, Kan. 
 (74), and Chico, Cal. (75). They consist of discussion of agri- 
 cultural subjects suitable for public schools, and methods of 
 instruction. 
 
 There is one large class of normal-school students already 
 mentioned that is not adequately provided for. This class is 
 made up of students who wish to teach in rural schools and who 
 can spend only a year or part of a year in preparation, and is the 
 largest in states where emphasis is placed on examination for 
 certification. These students attend primarily to prepare for 
 examinations. 
 
 It has been the custom in most schools to provide for these 
 students by offering short review courses. Often instruction in 
 elementary agriculture and sometimes in manual training forms
 
 STATE NORMAL SCHOOLS 55 
 
 a part of this work, and is really the only part that takes into 
 consideration the life of the community in which these students 
 are to teach. These short courses are generally regarded by 
 normal-school teachers as unsatisfactory, both on account of the 
 shortness of the time given and the irregular preparation of the 
 students themselves. Although the situation is recognized as a 
 difficult one very little has been done to improve it. There are 
 several schools, however, that have undertaken to give their 
 students of this class some real preparation for this work as 
 teachers. Some have arranged with local public-school authori- 
 ties for a one-room rural school to be used as an observation or 
 practice school. Others have built or have control of a one-room 
 schoolhouse and have endeavored to make it a model of its kind 
 so as to show concretely the possibilities of a rural school. For 
 example, the Kirksville (Mo.) State Normal School has a well- 
 appointed single-room schoolhouse. It has been 
 
 designed and constructed to show that a rural school anywhere can have all 
 the conveniences and comforts offered in any city building. The children 
 are transported in covered vehicles to and from school. It is a model 
 school so far as it can possibly be made such. It is to exemplify the best 
 things which a school board and a good teacher with up-to-date facilities 
 can do in and for a rural school. 
 
 Special provision is made for instruction in manual training, 
 elementary agriculture, and home economics. 2 
 
 Two somewhat similar plans for rural education should be 
 mentioned in this connection. Both of these have the larger 
 possibilities of teaching in rural communities in view. One is a 
 course of two years called "rural arts" given by the Harris- 
 burg (Va.) Normal and Industrial School for Women. The 
 course requires high-school graduation for admission. The 
 object is to 
 
 give its students a training of mind, heart, and hand which will fit them 
 for efficient service in rural schools, and for intelligent and appreciative 
 participation in the life of rural communities. It will not attempt to train 
 farmers; it cannot be expected to turn out agricultural experts. Its work 
 
 'Bulletin First District Normal School, Kirksville, Mo., DC, No. i (1909), 9-16.
 
 56 AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS 
 
 will be limited to those phases of farm life in which women usually, or 
 frequently, or may properly participate, and to that portion of agricultural 
 instruction which may properly be given by female teachers in elementary 
 and high schools. 
 
 The course includes besides some of the regular normal courses, 
 horticulture, elementary agriculture, rural sociology, poultry- 
 raising and bee culture, dairying, forestry and floriculture, and 
 theory and practice in rural arts. 3 The other is a course of two 
 years known as "rural industrial education" given by the Ohio 
 State Normal College of Miami University. Its requirements 
 for admission are the same as for other college courses. This 
 course is expected to meet the needs of township superintendents, 
 principals, and science teachers of high schools in rural communi- 
 ties, and to enable these teachers to adapt the work of their high 
 schools more nearly to the life of the school communities. The 
 course includes education, school administration, rural sociology, 
 agriculture (two years), forestry, botany, manual training, rural 
 education, methods of rural-school organization, physical geog- 
 raphy, entomology, and physics of farm machinery. In plan- 
 ning this course, which is at present a tentative one, the in- 
 fluence of the high school of an agricultural community on 
 the elementary schools was carefully considered. Most of the 
 teachers in the elementary schools of these communities are 
 graduates of these high schools. They seldom receive further 
 training. Therefore, with a high school organized to meet the 
 needs of the community, its influence should thus extend to the 
 elementary schools through its graduates who become teachers 
 (76). 
 
 Any account of the work of the state normal schools in agri- 
 cultural education would be incomplete without some special 
 reference to the teachers themselves who are engaged in this 
 work. Many are doing their work under considerable disad- 
 vantage. This applies not only to the fact that agriculture is a 
 new normal-school subject to be adapted to new conditions but 
 
 ' Bitllclin Slate Normal and Industrial School, Harrisburg, Va., I, No. i (1909), 88-92.
 
 STATE NORMAL SCHOOLS 57 
 
 also to the fact that it has been added as an additional subject to 
 a teacher's already overcrowded program. One teacher writes 
 that he is offering agriculture this year for the first time, but is 
 expected also to teach physics, chemistry, botany, zoology, physi- 
 ology, geology, and physical geography. Several teachers have 
 bought small farms primarily in order that their students might 
 have the advantage of actual field experimentation. 
 
 With the earnest body of teachers now beginning to take up 
 the work and with the progress already made it seems likely that 
 the demands for agricultural instruction in the training of teach- 
 ers in state normal schools will soon be met. The real test of 
 the value of this training is in the work of the teacher who goes 
 out from the schools and it is now too early to pass judgment.
 
 CHAPTER VII 
 
 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION STATE AND OTHER 
 TEACHERS' ASSOCIATIONS 
 
 It is said of the National Education Association that it "has 
 been, and is now the body-guard of public-school instruction in 
 our country." While this statement may not be taken literally, the 
 fact remains that this Association is the one educational organi- 
 zation which is truly national in character, embracing as it does 
 the interests of all parts of the country and all phases of educa- 
 tion. 
 
 It was organized in Philadelphia on August 26, 1857, under 
 the name of the National Teachers' Association by a group of 
 teachers who met in response to a call sent out the previous year 
 to all the local teachers' associations. The call itself is significant, 
 for it expresses the spirit which has, on the whole, been manifest 
 during the entire existence of the Association: to teachers of 
 the United States "who are willing to unite in a general effort 
 to promote the general welfare of our country by concentrating 
 the wisdom and power of numerous minds, and by distributing 
 among all the accumulated experiences of all" (77). 
 
 The name was changed in 1870 to the National Educa- 
 tional Association and in 1907 to the one it now bears. As it was 
 founded to meet the demands of a natural growth, it has never 
 departed from the essential principles on which it was founded. 
 The extent to which the "accumulated experiences of all" have 
 been "distributed among all" may be seen by a reference to the 
 published list of titles of papers and discussions from 1857 to 
 1907. This list covers over seventy pages and embraces almost 
 every imaginable subject of educational interest (78). Many 
 discussions are of only passing importance; some are but means 
 of exploiting favorite theories; others are real contributions to 
 educational thought. 
 
 58
 
 STATE AND OTHER TEACHERS' ASSOCIATIONS 59 
 
 Beyond the propaganda which is expected of any large 
 educational body the most valuable work of the Association 
 has been through its committees which have been appointed 
 from time to time to investigate and report upon various im- 
 portant questions of general interest. 
 
 The Association being a sort of clearing-house for educa- 
 tional ideas, its published Proceedings provide a valuable source 
 of information concerning all kinds of tendencies and move- 
 ments in education. Agricultural education has received a share 
 of attention proportional to the different stages of its develop- 
 ment. The interest of the Association in this subject as re- 
 flected in the Proceedings extends over four periods : the first 
 from 1857 to 1897, the second from 1897 to I 93 tne tmr cl 
 from 1903 to 1906, and the fourth from 1906 to the present 
 time. 
 
 Agriculture was not considered as a separate subject except 
 as referring to agricultural colleges until the latter part of the 
 first period. Industrial education, however, was discussed as 
 early as 1866. In 1875 a Department of Industrial Education 
 was formed. At this meeting the question : "Can Elements of 
 Industrial Education Be Introduced into Our Common Schools ?" 
 was discussed in a paper by John D. Philbrook. He said: 
 "Science and art with reference to their special application to 
 industrial pursuits must be included in the modern school course." 
 Drawing, geometry, natural history, physics, and chemistry were 
 mentioned as the branches which lie at the foundation of indus- 
 trial education. 
 
 At the meeting of the following year (1876) William T. 
 Harris in his report as chairman of the committee on "Course of 
 Study from Primary School to University" refers to the diffi- 
 culty of deciding "the amount of prominence to be given to 
 industrial branches in comparison with those chiefly productive 
 of theoretical culture." He says also : "The primary school has 
 been called upon to fit for life." In the course of study reported 
 by the committee for the district schools, topics relating to nature
 
 60 AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS 
 
 are suggested as follows: "Inorganic arithmetic, oral lessons 
 in natural philosophy; organic geography, oral lessons in 
 natural history." 
 
 These two references to the early discussions of industrial 
 education are given to show that the need of such instruction 
 was being considered at this time, and from a somewhat general 
 viewpoint which might include agriculture although it was not 
 specifically mentioned. The Department of Industrial Education, 
 however, gave its attention almost wholly to urban conditions. 
 Drawing and manual training held prominent places in the dis- 
 cussions of all the meetings. In 1890 the name of the Depart- 
 ment was very properly changed to Industrial and Manual 
 Training, and in 1899 to Manual Training. 
 
 In 1893, at the International Congress of Education held 
 under the auspices of the Association, agriculture had a place 
 on the program (79) but the paper was read by a Russian. 
 Perhaps his account of the use of agriculture in the rural 
 schools as a school subject had something to do with direct- 
 ing the attention of the Association to the rural-school prob- 
 lem. At any rate, at the meeting of 1895 a committee of 
 twelve was appointed to investigate and report upon rural 
 schools as to maintenance, supervision, supply of teachers, and 
 instruction and discipline. 
 
 The report was submitted to the meeting of 1897. It con- 
 tains a number of suggestions which involve more or less agri- 
 cultural instruction such as surface features of the earth includ- 
 ing soils, weather, plant and animal life, etc. It also emphasizes 
 the need of a course of study "framed with direct reference to 
 actual conditions that prevail in country life and in large measure 
 determine it. Among the most important points to be kept in 
 mind are the following: (i) There is a general lack of apprecia- 
 tion of immediate surroundings; (2) there is an almost total 
 lack of scientific skill in farm work; (3) in the country there is 
 a great dearth of social life." Under (2) certain phases of 
 mechanics, manual training, biology, meteorology and physics
 
 STATE AND OTHER TEACHERS' ASSOCIATIONS 61 
 
 of the atmosphere, mineralogy, and chemistry were included. 
 Another portion of the report is devoted to the "farm as the 
 center of interest," and a great many things which we now find 
 in all textbooks on elementary agriculture are mentioned (80). 
 
 During the latter part of the second period (1897-1903) 
 agriculture appeared as a topic for discussion at nearly every 
 meeting. At the meeting of 1902 five papers were read as 
 follows: "The Value of a Large Agricultural School in Indian 
 Service"; "Correlation of Schoolroom and Farm Work"; "The 
 Education of the American Farmer"; "The Practical Value of 
 Teaching Agriculture in the Public Schools" ; "The Teaching of 
 Agriculture with Reference to Future Employment." 
 
 In 1903 a committee on "Industrial Education in Schools for 
 Rural Communities" was appointed. The committee made its 
 report at the meeting of 1905 and represents the most important 
 contributipn of the Association to agricultural education in the 
 third period (1903-6). A considerable part of the report deals 
 with agricultural subjects and their adaptation to elementary 
 and secondary rural schools. Among the recommendations of the 
 committee are the following: "A modification of the course of 
 study should be made for the introduction of work, especially 
 in the elements of agriculture and domestic science, and such 
 further lines of industrial education as local conditions make 
 feasible The establishment of schools distinctly indus- 
 trial (agricultural high schools) in their character is absolutely 
 necessary for the proper development and organization of the 
 rural-school system." 
 
 A detailed course of study for all the grades is submitted. 
 It is an interesting contrast to the course of study reported by 
 the Committee of Twelve of 1897. In the latter the idea that 
 agricultural subjects should receive attention in the rural schools 
 is suggested rather than definitely stated and outlined. In the 
 former this idea is expressed in a definite and concrete outline 
 with illustrative lessons. 
 
 The work in agriculture for the secondary schools is particu-
 
 62 AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS 
 
 larly well outlined, and illustrated by accounts of work actually 
 carried on in two existing agricultural high schools: one the 
 Dunn County (Wisconsin) School of Agriculture and Domestic 
 Economy; the other, the Minnesota Agricultural High School 
 connected with the Agricultural College of Minnesota (81). 
 
 The fourth period is characterized by a more active interest 
 in agricultural education. Three important steps were taken : 
 (a) continuation of Committee on Industrial Education in 
 Schools for Rural Communities; (fe) formation of National 
 Committee on Agricultural Education; (c) organization of a 
 Department of Rural and Agricultural Education. 
 
 The Committee on Industrial Education in Schools for 
 Rural Communities made two reports, one at the meeting of the 
 Association in 1907 and the other at the meeting of 1908. 
 
 In some preliminary investigation for the supplementary 
 report the correspondence showed that "what was most wanted 
 was a definite statement of what was actually being done in 
 different parts of the country in providing facilities for industrial 
 education in rural communities." The supplementary report 
 represents the efforts of the committee to satisfy this demand. 
 It consists of three parts : a discussion of the general problem, 
 including school buildings, school gardens, manual training, na- 
 tionalizing the work (referring to the Davis bill then before 
 Congress) and in what schools agriculture should be taught; 
 industrial work in New England, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, 
 and New York; experiences and opinions of individual teachers 
 in the preceding territory (82). 
 
 The second report (1908) is limited to "a presentation of 
 what is being done in schools representing four types of organi- 
 zation, as showing the possibilities in other schools of these types 
 and the conditions under which these possibilities may become 
 actualities." The schools selected and reported upon are the 
 Waterford High School, at Waterford, Pa., the Cecil County 
 High School, at Calvert, Md., the John Swaney Consolidated 
 School, in Magnolia Township, Putnam County, 111., and the
 
 STATE AND OTHER TEACHERS' ASSOCIATIONS 63 
 
 congressional district agricultural schools located at Americus 
 and Monroe, Ga. Each type is described in sufficient detail to 
 give a clear understanding of its organization and actual work. 
 The final conclusions of the Committee are summed up in 
 nine paragraphs, two of which should be quoted here since they 
 refer to conditions that continue to exist : 
 
 That the supply of properly trained teachers for carrying on this work 
 is totally inadequate to meet even the present demand, and that the increase 
 in the demand for such teachers in the near future requires a very large 
 increase in the facilities for their preparation, and to supply these facilities 
 special training schools should be established throughout the country for 
 the preparation of elementary rural-school teachers; that the normal schools 
 whose graduates find positions in rural schools should broaden and strengthen 
 in every way their courses of instruction along industrial lines adapted to 
 the needs of rural schools; that the agricultural colleges favorably situated 
 for such work should undertake to organize special courses for the purpose 
 of training teachers for the secondary schools, capable of giving instruction 
 in agriculture and related subjects. 
 
 That in the growth of public sentiment, in the development of ideals, in 
 the preparation of courses of study, and in the facilities for the training of 
 teachers for industrial work in rural schools, decided progress has been 
 made in recent years; but that much yet remains to be done before the 
 importance and value of this kind of industrial education shall be fully 
 appreciated by all concerned, and before it shall receive its appropriate 
 recognition and find its proper place in our educational system (83). 
 
 In 1906 a call was sent out to members of the Association 
 who were interested in agricultural education to be present at 
 the annual meeting of the Department of Superintendence for 
 the purpose of discussing various problems concerning this sub- 
 ject. There was an encouraging response and an interesting 
 meeting was held. At this meeting the National Committee on 
 Agricultural Education was formed. 
 
 The second conference of this committee was held at the meet- 
 ing of the Association of 1907. At this session three important 
 papers were read and discussed: "The Work of the National 
 Government in Extending Agricultural Education through the 
 Public Schools" ; "What Has Been Done and Is Being Done by
 
 64 AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS 
 
 Normal Schools and Agricultural Schools for Popular Education 
 in Agriculture" (84) ; "The Work in Agriculture as Conducted 
 by State and County Organizations of Young People in Club 
 Contests." The third conference of the committee was held at 
 the meeting of the Department of Superintendence held at Wash- 
 ington in 1908. Just at this time the Davis bill (28) and the 
 Burkett bill (28) were being considered as separate measures. 
 Under the direction of the National Committee on Agricultural 
 Education a conference was held with all parties interested in the 
 two measures, resulting in the introduction in Congress of a 
 new bill embodying the essential features of the two separate 
 ones. A subcommittee conferred with the President of the 
 United States, and also with the Senate Committee on Agri- 
 culture in behalf of national aid for agricultural instruction. 
 
 The fourth, fifth, and sixth conferences of the committee were 
 held at the meetings of the Department of Superintendence of 
 1909, 1910, and 1911. At the fourth session two committees 
 were appointed, and reports were made at the fifth session. 
 These were on "Credit Value of High-School Agriculture for 
 College Entrance" and "The Course of Study in Agriculture 
 What Shall It Be?" Considerable attention was given at 
 each of these meetings to federal aid measures (Davis bill, 
 Dolliver bill, Page bill) before Congress. 
 
 At the nineteenth annual convention (1905) of the Associa- 
 tion of American Agricultural Colleges and Experiment Stations, 
 K. L. Butterfield introduced the following resolution: 
 
 WHEREAS, This Association believes that the questions involved in the 
 general and technical education of the rural people are of sufficient impor- 
 tance to warrant special recognition in the great gatherings of American edu- 
 cators: Therefore, be it 
 
 Resolved, That our executive committee be hereby instructed to take such 
 steps as it may consider necessary in an endeavor to secure the consent of the 
 National Education Association to add to its list of special departments a de- 
 partment or departments of rural and agricultural education (85, p. 28). 
 
 This resolution was adopted by the Association and D. J. 
 Crosby was delegated to bring the matter before the National
 
 STATE AND OTHER TEACHERS' ASSOCIATIONS 65 
 
 Education Association (85, p. 47). As there was no meeting 
 of this Association in 1906, the application was deferred until 
 the Los Angeles meeting of 1907, when on July 8, Mr. Crosby 
 presented the following: 
 
 In view of the widespread and active interest in the improvement of rural 
 schools and in the development and extension of instruction in agriculture and 
 the allied subjects of nature-study and school gardening in the colleges and 
 public schools of the country, and in view of the fact that there is no national 
 organization of teachers for discussion of rational methods of instruction in 
 these subjects, the undersigned active members of the National Education 
 Association respectfully request permission to form a Department of Rural 
 and Agricultural Education co-ordinate with the other regularly constituted 
 departments of this Association (followed by signatures of twenty-eight active 
 members). 
 
 This petition was received and authority was granted to 
 form such a department (82, pp. 44-45). The department was 
 organized at the Los Angeles meeting, but owing to some irregu- 
 larity in the proceedings it was not officially recognized. The 
 official organization of the department took place at Washington, 
 D.C., February 27, 1908, during the 1908 meeting of the De- 
 partment of Superintendence (83, p. 136). 
 
 Four regular meetings of the Department of Rural and Agri- 
 cultural Education have been held (in 1908, 1909, 1910, and 
 1911). As they are fully reported in the Proceedings of the 
 Association no further reference need be made here, except 
 to state that they were well attended and much (interest was shown 
 in the discussions. 
 
 It will be seen from the foregoing account that the National 
 Education Association has been and is an important factor in 
 agricultural education, first in the way of propaganda, by bring- 
 ing the subject prominently before the teachers of the entire 
 country, and second by real constructive work through its com- 
 mittees and its Department of Rural and Agricultural Education. 
 
 Through the published Proceedings of the Association the 
 development of the movement for agricultural education can be 
 followed as in no other educational literature excepting that of
 
 66 AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS 
 
 the National Government through its publications of the Depart- 
 ment of Agriculture and of the Bureau of Education. 
 
 STATE AND INTERSTATE TEACHERS' ASSOCIATIONS 
 
 There are about seventy of these associations. Some were in 
 existence long before the organization of the National Teachers' 
 Association. Most of them publish proceedings of their meet- 
 ings, but for lack of funds and other causes accounts of these 
 meetings are not always published except in local papers. 
 Enough of these proceedings, however, are available in published 
 form to trace any educational movement as reflected by the dis- 
 cussions of these meetings. One finds that agricultural education 
 began to receive attention from these associations about the 
 same time that the National Education Association became 
 actively interested in it. We find, for example, the Alabama 
 Educational Association in 1905 devoting a considerable part of 
 its program to the subject, and calling W. M. Hays to give an 
 address; the California State Teachers' Association in 1905 
 holding joint sessions with the State Farmers' Institute, and call- 
 ing L. D. Harvey and A. C. True to make addresses ; the Georgia 
 Teachers' Association in its meetings of 1903, 1906, 1907, and 
 1908 giving prominence to the subject, in 1908 holding a con- 
 ference with representative business men from forty- four of 
 the fifty counties of the state concerning the district agricultural 
 high schools. These illustrations are typical of the consideration 
 given agricultural education by most of these associations at 
 their recent meetings. Their contribution consists chiefly in 
 creating an interest in the subject. Sometimes, however, move- 
 ments are started that result in state legislation. 
 
 It is not possible in the limits of this chapter to enter into 
 further discussion of the work of these associations, instructive 
 as it might be to follow carefully the development of agricultural 
 education as expressed by these bodies of teachers in various 
 sections of the country.
 
 CHAPTER VIII 
 EDUCATIONAL PERIODICALS 
 
 The number of educational periodicals published in the 
 United States probably exceeds that on any other subject. Most 
 of these publications are in the library of the United States 
 Bureau of Education. In 1906 they numbered one hundred and 
 fifty-six (86). 
 
 For purposes of classification the periodicals included in this 
 number may be considered fairly representative of all such pub- 
 lications in the United States. They naturally fall into three 
 groups: (i) general, including those devoted to subjects of 
 general interest or to various general problems in education, and 
 whose circulation is not limited to any particular section of the 
 country or class of readers; (2) special, including those devoted 
 to some single phase of education, as, for example, orthography, 
 penmanship, phonetics, geography, school art, manual training, 
 science, etc.; (3) local, including those whose main circulation is 
 confined to a single state or group of states. 
 
 The bibliography alone of contributions and references to 
 agricultural education in these periodicals would occupy several 
 times the space allotted to a single chapter of this book. It 
 will therefore be necessary to confine the discussion of this sub- 
 ject, as represented in various educational periodicals, to some 
 references of historical interest in Barnard's Journal of Educa- 
 tion, and to a brief account of each of the above three groups. 
 
 No investigation of an educational movement would be com- 
 plete without consulting Barnard's Journal of Education. 
 "Wherever libraries of education are now gathered his encyclo- 
 pedic journal has a place of honor. Whoever will found such a 
 library must look first to secure a set of this great work. Because 
 he saw so far, the contents of that great work will not soon grow 
 out of date" (87). In this work are many references to agri- 
 
 67
 
 68 AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS 
 
 cultural education. Three are worthy of special interest: early 
 agricultural schools ; agriculture in schools for homeless children 
 and in schools for delinquent children; and agricultural educa- 
 tion in foreign countries. 
 
 An account is given of probably the first agricultural school in 
 the United States. It was founded in 1797 at Lethe, S.C., by Dr. 
 John de la Howe. He left a will which provided for the endow- 
 ment of "an agricultural or farm school in conformity, as near 
 as can be, to a plan proposed in the Columbian Magazine for the 
 month of April, 1787, for educating, boarding, and clothing 
 twelve poor boys and twelve poor girls of the Abbeville District." 
 The endowment consisted of 500 acres of farm land and 1,000 
 acres of forest (88). 
 
 An account of another early school is of interest because it 
 anticipated some of the present notions of industrial education. 
 The following is a quotation from a letter of a Mr. Coe to the 
 son of Josiah Holbrook, the founder of the school : 
 
 He [Josiah Holbrook] had long cherished the idea of endeavoring to 
 found an institution in which the course of instruction should be plain and 
 practical; an agricultural school, where the science of chemistry and me- 
 chanics and land surveying should be thoroughly drilled into the minds 
 of the pupils by practice. With these views the agricultural seminary was 
 commenced in Derby (Conn.) in 1824, and continued to the fall of 1825, 
 under the direction of your father and myself; and, as far as I know, was 
 
 the first educational movement of the kind in all that region We 
 
 did what we could to train the students in the analysis of soils and in the 
 application of the mechanical powers to all farming operations, and took 
 out our young men often into the field and country for practical survey- 
 ing, geological excursions, road making, and the labors of the farm; but 
 not being able at that time to place the school on an eligible foundation, it 
 was abandoned (89). 
 
 Josiah Holbrook after giving up his school turned his atten- 
 tion to adult instruction which was somewhat like our present 
 agricultural extension among farmers. 
 
 Our present organization of agricultural colleges is very 
 similar to a plan for such schools proposed in Barnard's Journal 
 of Education in 1856 by Professor John A. Porter of Yale.
 
 EDUCATIONAL PERIODICALS 69 
 
 This was the year after the act establishing the first agricultural 
 college (Michigan) was passed and the year before it was 
 formally opened. He deplored the lack of agricultural instruc- 
 tion in this country and suggested that such instruction might 
 be supplied by having a demonstration farm, an experiment farm, 
 and means of instruction in all sciences connected with culture 
 of the soil. He says : 
 
 What a center of light would such a school as here described be to 
 the whole agricultural community. All purported discoveries in agriculture 
 would come to be tested, and important truths developed by experiment 
 
 would go forth from it into the world Through its pupils it would 
 
 disseminate widely the varied practical information which its courses would 
 furnish, and beyond this, it might be made a means of eliciting the experi- 
 mental labor of hundreds of intelligent farmers throughout the country, 
 for the decision of the important agricultural questions which are still un- 
 settled (88). 
 
 In a footnote at the end of the article the editor calls atten- 
 tion to an account in his National Education in Europe of the 
 system of agricultural education established in France as it was 
 in 1854, and also to the Institute of Agriculture and Forestry in 
 Wurtemburg, and the system of agricultural education in Ireland. 
 
 Pestalozzi and his work, particularly his influence on our own 
 school practices, receive much consideration in the journal under 
 discussion. For example, we find the historical beginning of 
 nature-study in this country in the object-teaching at Oswego. 
 This attempt to put his doctrine into practice is described in 
 great detail (Sga). In another place Pestalozzi is quoted as say- 
 ing with reference to objective teaching that "agricultural labor 
 offers a wider field than any other employment for this means." 
 This statement should be contrasted with the absurd efforts made 
 in some schools to apply these principles. It would be interest- 
 ing in this connection to trace the influence of these early object- 
 lessons on nature-study teaching and to discover to what extent 
 it is responsible for the struggle which nature-study has had to 
 find a legitimate place in our schools. 
 
 The agricultural school of De Fellenburg and Wehrli was a
 
 yo AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS 
 
 school for the poor at Hopvvyl, and many of the pupils were 
 juvenile offenders of various sorts (90). Several Fellenburg 
 schools were established in this country in the early part of the 
 last century. The Journal brought the work of these schools in 
 this country and in Europe into notice again. About the same 
 time there seems to have been a revival of these methods in 
 certain schools and institutions in this country. Practically all 
 of the reform schools for boys in the United States are now 
 provided with farms, and agriculture is an important part of 
 their work. How much influence, if any, the Journal had in 
 bringing this about we do not know. But we find it giving, on 
 the one hand, details of such work as in the agricultural school 
 just referred to, and on the other, accounts and discussions of 
 reform schools and institutions for homeless children in this 
 country (91). 
 
 Education in foreign countries occupied a prominent place 
 in the Journal. From time to time accounts of agricultural 
 education in various countries appeared. A good example of 
 these accounts is to be found in one devoted to agricultural edu- 
 cation in France and about twenty different parts of the world. 
 This is a part of an exhaustive study of scientific instruction 
 applied to national industries in different countries (92). 
 
 The first group of educational periodicals those mainly de- 
 voted to general problems of education or to publication of educa- 
 tional research is quite small in number compared with the other 
 two groups. Their circulation is also much less than most of those 
 of the third group. Notwithstanding their small number and 
 limited circulation these periodicals contain some of our most 
 valuable educational literature, and are, on the whole, a source 
 of high authority in educational matters. The attention given 
 to agricultural education is much less than would seem to be 
 warranted in view of the great public interest in the subject and 
 of the fact of its rapid introduction into schools of various sec- 
 tions of the country. Compared with other sources the litera- 
 ture on this subject as found in the leading periodicals of this
 
 EDUCATIONAL PERIODICALS 71 
 
 group is very meager (Barnard's Journal excepted). A few of 
 the earlier articles discuss how agricultural education might be 
 gradually developed in the elementary and secondary schools. 
 Some work of an extension character was regarded at that time 
 (19001901) as the most feasible and practicable, nature-study, 
 reading courses, itinerant schools, and short courses being sug- 
 gested as the best means of creating an interest in the subject 
 
 (93, 94). 
 
 A little later the place of agriculture in our public-school 
 system is carefully considered with conclusions favorable to its 
 introduction (95). In the meantime the subject is being rapidly 
 introduced in our schools, and certain tendencies are arising that 
 are viewed with some alarm because they are not in harmony 
 with the national policy in school matters. An editorial in one 
 periodical calls attention to some of the dangers arising from the 
 establishment of agricultural high schools : 
 
 If the new type of work means the establishment of a separate system 
 of high schools, the existing high schools will be sapped of the very means 
 
 of their existence There is one other and more urgent reason why 
 
 a separate class of high schools must not be allowed to spring up. Just 
 as sure as they do they will breed social distinctions and cause stratifications 
 in society. It has been our boast that children of all nationalities, occupa- 
 tions, and creeds enter our schoolroom doors and emerge together as 
 American citizens. The American public school is the greatest factor in 
 developing American citizenship that we possess, and its function in de- 
 veloping American citizenship is greater than teaching arithmetic, Latin, 
 or trades. Social efficiency is much more needed just now than business 
 
 efficiency. But alas, too many are thinking only of business acumen 
 
 The one who argues for the establishment of a separate system of agri- 
 cultural high schools or separate industrial high schools is wittingly or un- 
 wittingly an enemy to our present high schools and to true democracy (96, 
 PP. 57-59). 
 
 The implication in this editorial that existing high schools 
 furnish all that is really needed in secondary education is open to 
 question, and soon brings a rejoinder: 
 
 I am afraid that the distinctions are here or have got to come, and 
 that the high schools which are nothing more than college preparatory
 
 72 AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS 
 
 schools will have to sink into relative insignificance compared with schools 
 which will teach the masses how to make a living as well as how to live. 
 .... We need as never before many-sided men and women, but men and 
 women who will put how to live and how to make a living first, and how 
 to use one's leisure second (97, p. 199). 
 
 At present the importance of the problem suggested in the 
 foregoing discussion is being appreciated, and all the more 
 because agricultural high schools continue to be established. 
 Besides general discussions of the whole question of industrial 
 education as related to elementary and secondary schools two 
 plans for agricultural education in existing high schools are pro- 
 posed and are being considered. For example, one writer believes 
 in the correlation of high-school science and agriculture and gives 
 numerous illustrations to show that "the benefit of correlation 
 inures as well to the fundamental sciences as to their application 
 in agriculture" (98). Another thinks that agriculture should 
 be taught as a separate science. He says : 
 
 "Educators are coming to see more and more clearly that 
 agriculture is both a science and an art, and as a result it is being 
 taught in ways which are not strictly applicable to the teaching 
 of other sciences." He sums up fifty-six replies to a question- 
 naire sent out to secondary-school men and college professors 
 and concludes that a "majority who have had actual experience 
 in teaching the subject advocate its being taught separately" (99). 
 
 Among the periodicals of the second group two are devoted 
 to special phases of education that include agriculture. One is 
 School Science and Mathematics and the other is the Nature- 
 Study Review. The former is published in the interest of sec- 
 ondary education and the latter of elementary education. The 
 editors and associate editors of both periodicals are well-known 
 schoolmen who are actively interested in the various problems 
 of education of their own special lines of work. 
 
 In a recent number of School Science and Mathematics we 
 find among the introductory sentences of an article on biologic 
 science in secondary schools the following:
 
 EDUCATIONAL PERIODICALS 73 
 
 This is pre-eminently an age of applied science; it is an intensely practi- 
 cal age; the average individual comes in daily contact with problems of 
 science as never before. It is self-evident that science work in elementary 
 schools should play an important part in the education of our youth who 
 go into life as a vast majority do with no further fitting than that re- 
 ceived in the elementary school or secondary school. It was with this 
 thought in mind that the writer began the following preliminary investi- 
 gation which aims in the first place to present some statistics bearing upon 
 the teaching of science, and especially of biologic science, in the secondary 
 schools, and in the second place to suggest possible modifications in our 
 present courses in biologic science that will make such courses a better 
 preparation for the kind of life into which most of our young people are 
 launching, the active life of the thinking, doing citizen (100). 
 
 This somewhat lengthy quotation with respect to one secondary- 
 school subject is given because it represents very well the 
 general attitude of the recent contributors to this journal. Agri- 
 culture is closely allied to all of the fundamental sciences and any 
 such modifications of science teaching as indicated in the above 
 reference will have an important bearing on agricultural educa- 
 tion in the secondary schools. These contributors are already 
 teaching particular branches of science, and their writings have 
 to do with their own subjects in relation to agriculture rather 
 than with agriculture as a separate subject. 
 
 The general field covered by the Nature-Study Review in- 
 cludes, as is stated in the introduction to the first number, "school 
 gardening and the closely allied elementary agriculture" (101). 
 This magazine is now in its seventh volume and has published 
 numerous articles on agriculture as adapted to the elementary 
 schools. For awhile, from September to December, 1909, a 
 special department of school agriculture was conducted. But it 
 was abandoned, the policy now being to devote certain numbers 
 exclusively to this subject, as in the May number of Vol. VI. 1 
 
 The third group includes about one hundred periodicals in 
 which every section of the country is represented. It is through 
 these that the masses of the teachers are reached. In many states 
 
 'Another periodical perhaps should be included: School Agriculture, "a semi-monthly 
 text for use in country, town, and city schools, homes and clubs," published by The Orange 
 Judd Co., beginning January i, 1911.
 
 74 AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS 
 
 some educational periodical becomes a sort of official organ 
 for the state department of education. Practically all whose 
 subscribers are teachers in the rural schools give considerable 
 attention to agriculture, mainly in the way of suggestions and 
 helps to teachers. The effect of these periodicals on the actual 
 teaching of agriculture in the public schools has been, up to the 
 present, far greater than of any of the first or second group. 
 One periodical, the School News (Illinois), has been referred to 
 in a previous chapter (58). It was one of the first to 
 take up elementary agriculture in response to the new demand 
 upon the rural teachers. In 1900 it began to publish short 
 articles on various phases of agriculture adapted to the ele- 
 mentary schools. The practical efforts of this magazine to help 
 the rural teachers is further shown in connection with the new 
 course of study for the state of Illinois. This course includes 
 agriculture. The department of the magazine devoted to school 
 work in agriculture expands the course of study in agriculture 
 into descriptive details and gives specific directions to teachers 
 as to how to present the new work (102). 
 
 The Nebraska Teacher, besides publishing special articles on 
 various phases of agriculture, is now publishing a series of 
 articles by Superintendent E. C. Bishop on "Agriculture and 
 Home Economics" (103). These articles are intended to assist 
 teachers in their work with the boys' and girls' clubs of the state. 
 
 Many similar examples might be given but these two are 
 typical of the work that is now being done by many if not most 
 of the periodicals of the third group. They are close to the 
 teachers and seem to know what they need, or at least what they 
 want, and give it to them in a simple and concrete way.
 
 CHAPTER IX 
 PERIODICAL LITERATURE 
 
 Popular periodicals have become an important factor in 
 education. They reach thousands of people. Several have a 
 circulation of more than 100,000, and a few claim to reach a 
 million readers. Every subject of popular interest is exploited. 
 This popular interest determines in a large measure the choice 
 of subject-matter, but not always. Interest in new things 
 is often stimulated by well-written articles. Indeed there is a 
 keen search for new things or the beginnings of new move- 
 ments that may seem to have elements of popular interest. 
 The importance of rural education, the inefficiency of the pres- 
 ent system, and the need of redirecting rural education are 
 new things from the standpbint of the popular periodical. 
 
 An educational system which originated in pioneer days, 
 and which served its purpose well in those days, persists today 
 with less modification than has taken place in any other fea- 
 ture of rural life. The few changes that have taken place were 
 brought about largely through imitation, either voluntarily or 
 impressed by law, of urban schools, and were not the changes 
 of an adaptive growth. This static condition of rural educa- 
 tion was until a few years ago, and is, in most communities at 
 the present time, looked upon with complacency and satisfac- 
 tion. Patrons who were not satisfied quietly moved to some 
 town or city where their children might have better educational 
 advantages, but little or no criticism of the rural school was 
 ventured and little or no effort made to improve it. 
 
 With this situation in mind, it is easy to see why any 
 departure from the established routine in rural-school manage- 
 ment or any effort to make its work better adapted to rural 
 conditions would be regarded by editors of popular periodicals 
 as something new and worthy of wide publicity. 
 
 75
 
 76 AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS 
 
 Consolidation of rural schools began in the early nineties. 
 Various periodicals gave accounts of the schools of Kingsville 
 Township, Ohio, which in 1892 instituted a plan of consoli- 
 dation for rural schools. This movement soon attracted much 
 attention, and many visits were made to Ohio for the pur- 
 pose of seeing the plan in actual operation. In a few years the 
 plan was not only extended to other parts of Ohio but was 
 introduced in many other states. It has worked so successfully 
 as to be considered one of the most important features of any 
 general scheme for improving rural schools. 
 
 The work of Kingsville Township was not the historical 
 beginning of the consolidated-school movement, but it was the 
 potential beginning, largely due to the public notice it received 
 through newspapers and periodicals. 
 
 Superintendent O. J. Kern, of Winnebago County, 111., had 
 barely demonstrated the success of his Farmer Boys' Experi- 
 ment Club which he had organized in February, 1902, among 
 the schoolboys of his county, when he was asked to give an 
 account of it in one of our leading popular magazines. This 
 work of his was something new in a county system of schools, 
 and furthermore it had begun at once to interest farmers and 
 to change their attitude toward the rural schools. Winnebago 
 County was a typical county with large agricultural interests. 
 Its problems and interests were like those of hundreds of other 
 counties. Superintendent Kern had found something that looked 
 toward making the school life of the country boys more worth 
 while, but he had much more in mind than his Boys' Experiment 
 Club. He believed that the whole rural-school system needed 
 readjustment and that it might be slowly brought about. 
 
 Here was a chance for the magazine to be of service by 
 giving publicity to successful work, and for the writer to get 
 others interested in his plans, and to get them to work along 
 similar lines. The article appeared under the title of "Learn- 
 ing by Doing for the Farmer Boy" and was illustrated by five 
 good pictures with the "boy" prominently in the foreground of
 
 PERIODICAL LITERATURE 77 
 
 each. The title and the pictures were attractive and were likely 
 to cause the reader to pause in turning through the pages of the 
 magazine long enough at least to read the introductory para- 
 graph. This was an expression of an ideal for rural education 
 which up to that time (1903) had not come much into public 
 notice : 
 
 It is not the belief or wish of the writer that we should educate country 
 boys to be farmers merely, any more than that we should educate boys to 
 be blacksmiths, carpenters, or electricians. We should aim to train boys to 
 be men in the highest sense of the term. But why not a course of training 
 in the country school for the country boy which shall teach him more about 
 country life around him? Along with his study of the kangaroo, the 
 bamboo, and the cockatoo, why not study the animals on the farm and a 
 proper feeding-standard for them, the care and composition of the soil on 
 the farm, the improvement of types of grains and vegetables, and the pro- 
 tection of birds beneficial to the farmer? Instead of all the boys' arith- 
 metic being devoted to problems, more or less theoretical, on banking, stocks, 
 exchange, brokerage, alligation, and partnership, why not some practical 
 problems with reference to farm economics? For the boys who will remain 
 on the farm (and 85 per cent perhaps will) the course of instruction should 
 be such as will be an inspiration and a help in their future life-work (104). 
 
 A year later under the title of "Common-Sense Country 
 Schools" a description of Mr. Kern's work appeared in another 
 magazine (105). Other references to his work have been pub- 
 lished from time to time. 
 
 Boys' clubs for carrying on agricultural experiments have 
 been organized in all of the agricultural states. Accounts of 
 their work are attractive reading, and no doubt not only stimu- 
 late the boys in other localities to form similar clubs but help 
 to educate adult farmers to be more appreciative of expert 
 opinion. But the most important contribution made by periodi- 
 cals to agricultural education through boys' clubs has been in 
 making the way easier for agricultural colleges and public-school 
 officers to carry on the work in various parts of the country. 
 
 In the same number of the magazine in which Mr. Kern's 
 article appeared is another dealing with the problem of rural 
 education (106). The need of a school system adapted to rural
 
 78 AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS 
 
 conditions is set forth. Special emphasis is placed upon the 
 value of agricultural high schools and of consolidated rural 
 schools. At that time there were twelve agricultural high 
 schools in the United States; in 1910 over seventy-five. 
 
 Another account of important work in agricultural educa- 
 tion was published in the same year (1903) with the title 
 "Teaching Farmers' Children on the Ground" (107). It is of 
 interest to compare the opinion of Superintendent Kern as to 
 the needs of the rural school with that of the writer of this 
 article who was not professionally engaged in education. The 
 following is taken from his description of a rural school: 
 
 But there is more the matter with the ordinary country school than its 
 
 smallness of scale Yet that these children come from homes where 
 
 the livelihood is earned out of the ground is ignored in the lessons. The 
 instruction as far as it goes is good: it is staple reading, writing, and arith- 
 metic, with a little grammar, geography, and history. This is all. It might 
 do well enough if the boys and girls were all going to be clerks or traders; 
 or if, in the fulness of their ambition, they were to strike out for profes- 
 sional careers. But of sowing and reaping there is never a word; nothing 
 about planting and tending of trees, the production of milk, butter, and 
 cheese. Never, even remotely, does a lesson touch on building and drain- 
 age, on the composition of foods or chemistry of fuel, or light up for so 
 much as a moment the drama of struggle and survival of which every 
 clover patch is a theater. It is well that children should learn at school 
 useful lessons they can learn nowhere else, but should not the children 
 of the farm be led to see somewhat of the inexhaustible scope for brains 
 which offers itself to the farmer? The fact is, that rural instruction has 
 been largely devised in cities with a view to city conditions. And the 
 courses in city schools are faulty enough, ridden as they are by clerky tra- 
 ditions which permit the word to usurp the place of the act, instead of 
 being merely its symbol and aid. The second evil in rural education 
 throughout America is the stress laid upon verbal studies, the blinking of the 
 actual world of duty and joy for which country children should be in- 
 formed and trained. 
 
 This is followed by a description of the proposed scheme for 
 the improvement of rural education in Canada planned on a 
 scale to include the whole Dominion. Not only is this descrip- 
 tion accurate but it includes a good historical and economic
 
 PERIODICAL LITERATURE 79 
 
 background. This account of the "Macdonald Movement" 
 before it was carried out in actual practice prepared the public 
 mind for the numerous reports of the work that have appeared 
 since. 
 
 Mention should be made of one more popular article on rural 
 education appearing in '1903, entitled "Farmer Children Need 
 Farmer Studies" (108). The title indicates the general nature 
 of the discussion. That the writer is in full accord with the 
 views already noted of other contributors is shown by the fol- 
 lowing statements: 
 
 Our educational system has been made for city people, and the country 
 school finds it second hand and ill-fitting and unattractive. To this fact 
 more than any other, perhaps, is due the backwardness of education in agri- 
 cultural states. 
 
 Quoted from a private letter : 
 
 Statistics show that in this state each year sixty young men take up 
 ministry, sixty-six law, and seventy-two medicine, while 13,000 annually 
 take up agriculture as a gainful pursuit. But our school books are written 
 
 for the few not the many At present the entire curriculum leads 
 
 away from the farm Pick up any high-grade arithmetic in use in 
 
 the rural schools and you will find no lack of attention to banking and 
 commissions and foreign exchange and commercial affairs generally. But 
 agriculture arises to no such dignity not even in schools that will find five 
 times as many recruits for the farm as for the city. The same applies to 
 other texts. 
 
 The typical examples above presented of popular periodical 
 literature on rural education appeared in 1903. This year was 
 chosen because it seemed to mark the beginning of a somewhat 
 general public interest in the subject, and partly because most of 
 the development of agricultural education in elementary and 
 secondary schools has taken place since that time. 
 
 During the period from 1904 to the present the subject of 
 rural education has continued to receive notice in popular peri- 
 odicals (105, 109, no, in, 112). The public has been kept in- 
 formed concerning various phases of its development, agricultural 
 and other industrial work in schools receiving especial attention.
 
 8o AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS 
 
 One magazine addressed the following question to a num- 
 ber of prominent educators : "What new subject or new method 
 or new direction of effort or new tendency in educational work 
 is of most value and significance and now needs most emphasis 
 and encouragement?" (113). Nineteen replies were received. 
 As most of the writers were college presidents various college 
 problems were mentioned as of greatest importance but no two 
 proposed the same problem. The only subject that was men- 
 tioned by more than three was practical education, summed up 
 as follows: Trade work in public schools; interest in rural 
 schools; practical studies; agriculture for rural schools; reach- 
 ing all the people; teaching every man his job. 
 
 A good account of the present status of agricultural educa- 
 tion in elementary and secondary schools appeared under the 
 title "Catching Them Young" (114). After describing some 
 recent progress in farming methods the author adds : 
 
 Of what value is this knowledge if the sons and daughters are to quit 
 the farm, leaving corn-belt prosperity to the haphazard agriculture of the 
 city-born and of transplanting foreigners who find conditions and climate 
 vastly different from those of the fatherland? Therefore the corn-belt 
 has at last set itself to raising that greater and more valuable crop of farm 
 boys and farm girls who find material comforts and ample financial recom- 
 pense on the farm. The greatest factor in the raising of this new crop is 
 
 education But the farm boys and girls in order to be interested must 
 
 be caught young. Before they are old enough to enter the land-grant col- 
 leges the lure of the city has entered their minds and the mischief is done. 
 Raising bumper crops of corn and oats, the typically agricultural states of 
 America have heretofore failed to raise satisfactory crops of stay-at-home 
 boys and girls. 
 
 An editorial in another magazine revives the criticism which 
 appeared against rural schools a few years before. It is entitled 
 "The Martian and the Farm" (115) and makes the remarks of 
 the supposed Martian who is represented as visiting an ordinary 
 country school the basis of some pointed comments on the rural 
 schools : 
 
 I notice that these Americans seem to think the raising of crops to be 
 quite unnecessary; and that they are applying their remarkable intelligence
 
 PERIODICAL LITERATURE 8l 
 
 to the task of depopulating their rural regions. They have acuteness to see 
 that if they are to drive people out of the country, they cannot begin with 
 the adult population. Life in the open country is so alluring and so natural 
 that even when it has not been made as complete as it might be, it holds 
 people fast. So these far-reaching Americans, in order to crowd people back 
 into the cities, where they obviously want them to be, have devised a cam- 
 paign of education directed toward the children. They have planned all their 
 rural schools on city models. Even in such details as arithmetic problems, they 
 
 see to it that the children's minds should be directed toward urban life 
 
 If this visitor were told what he interpreted as an astute campaign was a 
 mere matter of stupidity and tradition, and that the American People were 
 really wondering how they could check the congestion of cities, he would 
 be forced, out of decent respect for the people he was visiting, to be in- 
 credulous. 
 
 How can a child born and reared in the country respect the life of the 
 farmer when the community in which he lives does not regard the farmer's 
 occupation worthy of study? How can he be expected to look with ambition 
 toward agriculture as a vocation when he finds that training for it is regarded 
 as less important than preparation for a clerkship? How can he think of 
 village and rural life as anything more than a makeshift when he finds that 
 in the schools he attends there is not a word taught concerning crops or 
 cattle or roads? 
 
 The situation in this country is then contrasted with the 
 national policy of rural education recently inaugurated in 
 Canada and the importance of a similar movement in this country 
 suggested. The criticism of the condition in rural schools as to 
 their indifference to rural life does not go unchallenged. In a 
 later number of the same magazine appears a reply in which the 
 editor is brought to task for making implications that were not 
 warranted by the facts in the case. The work in agricultural 
 education of the Middle West is cited as a refutation. The 
 writer in a five months' visit in Canada had been unable to see 
 any reason for holding up the Canadian scheme for rural edu- 
 cation as a model for this country (116). 
 
 Another letter of reply is published from a farmer who could 
 see no more reason why "a country child should be taught how 
 to run a farm than a city child should be taught how to run a 
 bank."
 
 82 AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS 
 
 It seems plain to me [he says] that the public schools are intended to 
 give the young a practical education to prepare them for life, not to prepare 
 
 them for any particular work in life Why tax the community in 
 
 general to instruct its children for work and life on the farm, when many 
 of the patrons and many of the children themselves would prefer general 
 education? (117). 
 
 The above editorial and its sequel, the two letters of reply, give 
 some insight into the present situation. No doubt the condition 
 referred to in the editorial does not apply to all rural schools 
 but in general it is not much overdrawn. The writer of the 
 first letter unduly magnifies the work of agricultural education 
 in this country, for it has not had time to modify the ordinary 
 rural schools to any considerable extent, even in the favored 
 Middle West. On the other hand, his five months' visit in 
 Canada failed to show him that the efforts of the Canadian 
 educators are aimed directly at the rural schools. The second 
 letter reveals an attitude which is familiar to those who have 
 undertaken to hold up the chief interest of a rural community 
 as a motive for better schools. 
 
 In reviewing the relation of popular periodicals to agricul- 
 tural education only typical examples have been given. No 
 attempt has been made to have the references complete. Suffi- 
 cient citations have been given to indicate the character and scope 
 of the discussions of the subject as they have appeared in these 
 periodicals, and to show the service rendered by keeping the 
 subject before the public, and by helping to secure a favorable 
 attitude toward the improvement of rural schools. 
 
 Brief reference should be made also to periodicals whose 
 circulation is limited to smaller groups of readers. There is a 
 large number published in the interest of farmers. Most of 
 them are local, being chiefly confined in circulation to a single 
 state. Many are of doubtful value. Those that are really sincere 
 in their efforts to improve farm life have exerted considerable in- 
 fluence for the betterment of rural schools and for the introduc- 
 tion of agriculture. Special articles as well as letters from sub-
 
 PERIODICAL LITERATURE 83 
 
 scribers are published. The most important of these are reviewed 
 from time to time in the Experiment Station Record of the United 
 States Department of Agriculture (17) and need not be men- 
 tioned here except in this general way. On the whole, agricultural! 
 periodicals have maintained too conservative an attitude toward 
 agricultural education, both as to colleges, and to elementary 
 and secondary schools. One cannot avoid the suspicion that this 
 attitude on the part of some of these publications is not wholly 
 disinterested. Agricultural education would, among other 
 things, most certainly develop more critical readers, and this 
 would soon react upon the circulation or upon the character of 
 the matter published. Again, the fear of offending some of their 
 readers, thus affecting circulation, makes the publishers cautious 
 in giving space to views that might unsettle the faith of the 
 fathers in the little one-room school. 
 
 Occasionally a well-written article on agricultural education 
 appears in the more special periodicals. For example, in a maga- 
 zine "devoted to the philosophy of science" we find a discussion 
 of "Agriculture the Basis of Education" (118). The writer 
 regards the two primal contacts of the child, with nature and 
 with parents, as more fundamental than all questions of subject- 
 matter and methods of formal education. "The mental con- 
 ditions of agriculture are just as essential to normal development 
 of the human mind as air, food, and exercise for the development 
 of the human body." He refers to the education of the 
 early Greeks in support of his views: "The young Greek of 
 the Homeric age appears to have had much more intimate and 
 adequate contacts with nature and with his elders than our 
 modern education provides, or even permits." 
 
 A similar conclusion as to the educational influence of agri- 
 culture, though discussed from an entirely different standpoint, 
 is found in an article on "Farm Life as a Basis of Practical 
 Education" (119). The subject for another discussion is the 
 "Need for Agricultural Education" (120). The economic im-
 
 84 AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS 
 
 portance of this kind of education is urged. Another point of 
 view is set forth under the title "Rural Education" (121). 
 
 Rural education is but a section of the general school question; agricul- 
 tural education is a branch of technical training. These two phases of 
 education of the farm population meet at many points, they must work in 
 harmony, and together they form a distinct educational problem. 
 
 Three difficulties are mentioned: (i) To secure a modern 
 school equal to the city school; (2) to enrich and expand the cur- 
 riculum so as to make it a vital and coherent part of rural- 
 community life; (3) to provide adequate high-school facilities 
 in the rural community.
 
 CHAPTER X 
 
 STATE ORGANIZATIONS FOR AGRICULTURE-FARMERS' 
 INSTITUTES 
 
 Perhaps no other offices concerned with the public business 
 of various states include so wide a range of activities, duties, 
 aims, and methods as do the state organizations for agriculture. 
 One state commissioner of agriculture says of his department : 
 
 If I were asked to supply a name, it would be called the Dumping 
 Ground for a Legislature to place all subject-matter that body finds neces- 
 sary to frame into law. 
 
 The justice of this observation will be more readily appre- 
 ciated by reference to the following constitutional provisions for 
 his office: 
 
 He shall perform such duties in relation to agriculture as may be pre- 
 scribed by law, shall have supervision of all matters pertaining to the public 
 lands under regulations prescribed by law, and shall keep the Bureau of 
 Immigration. He shall also have supervision of the State Prison, and 
 shall perform such other duties as may be prescribed by law. 
 
 Some state organizations for agriculture have even a wider 
 range of duties. On the other hand, there are some in which 
 the duties of this office are limited to the supervision of the 
 state agricultural college, or to the management of the state 
 fair. 
 
 There are five forms of organization. The first includes those organi- 
 zations known as "Departments 1 ' and consists of a commissioner and one 
 or more assistants. The second form comprises the boards, which are com- 
 posed of a varying number of members, some appointed by the governor 
 and others being members of the board by virtue of their official position 
 in the state. The third includes bureaus which are essentially the same 
 as the boards. The fourth form is a combination of the first and second ; 
 the regular department is supervised by a board of agriculture. The fifth 
 and final form is that known as the Michigan organization, under which 
 the state board of agriculture is merely a board of trustees for the state 
 agricultural college (122, p. 328). 
 
 85
 
 86 AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS 
 
 In about half the states the administrative officer is chosen 
 by popular vote; in the rest he is appointed by the governor 
 or chosen by the members of the board. Being thus a political 
 office in some instances, the position as secretary or commis- 
 sioner of agriculture is more or less on a political basis, and 
 therefore fails properly to fulfil the purpose for which it was 
 intended, viz., to promote the agricultural interests of the state. 
 It is the purpose of this chapter to sum up the work now 
 being done by the various state departments, and by the state 
 farmers' institutes in promoting agricultural education, particu- 
 larly in elementary and secondary schools. 
 
 In one-half of the states the farmers' institutes are con- 
 ducted under the direct or indirect control of the state organi- 
 zations for agriculture; in the other half they are conducted by 
 the state agricultural colleges. Since the methods and aims of 
 all farmers' institutes are essentially the same in both groups, 
 those under state supervision and those under state agricultural 
 college supervision will be considered in the second part of this 
 discussion. As might be expected, the attitude of the various 
 state organizations for agriculture is favorable toward agricul- 
 tural education in the public schools. In many reports of sec- 
 retaries or commissioners of agriculture much emphasis is placed 
 upon the importance of recognizing agriculture as a school 
 subject. The following extract is typical: 
 
 The Department has continued its efforts to impress upon the people 
 of the state the importance and necessity of agricultural and industrial 
 instruction in the public schools. These schools should fit for vocation. 
 The population of this and other states is continually increasing, and in 
 order for the farms to meet this increase there must be a more intelligent 
 system of agriculture. This can best be brought about by teaching the 
 principles of agriculture in the public schools. The farmer has a business 
 to be studied and learned. It needs a trained mind as much as any oth r 
 occupation. Let us educate our boys who are to be farmers of the future, 
 for that work. Specific training of a practical kind is a necessity for the 
 coming occupants of our farms, as well as those engaged in mechanical 
 industries. The most valuable asset of the state is her children. They
 
 STATE ORGANIZATIONS FOR AGRICULTURE 87 
 
 should be trained to high ideals of every day living and to high efficiency 
 in their respective vocations (123, p. n). 
 
 At the annual meetings of boards of agriculture of several 
 states agricultural education receives attention, special addresses 
 being given on this subject and published in the proceedings 
 (124, 125, 126, 127). 
 
 Special bulletins or leaflets are published and distributed 
 by a few state offices of agriculture. The Massachusetts 
 State Board of Agriculture has issued from time to time 
 leaflets on elementary agriculture and nature-study. The New 
 York State Department of Agriculture publishes annual reports 
 of the state Experiment Station at Cornell University. These 
 contain reprints of various nature-study, rural school, and 
 teachers' leaflets sent out from Cornell University, and also 
 accounts of the extension work in agriculture and nature- 
 study conducted by the university among the schools of the 
 state. The Missouri State Board has recently published 
 a bulletin on elementary agriculture meant to be used "only 
 as the first year's work," and "written on the supposition that 
 neither teacher nor pupils know much of scientific agriculture" 
 (128). 
 
 About half of the states hold annual state fairs under 
 the management of the state offices of agriculture. In nearly 
 all, there is a department of education in which prizes are 
 offered for school exhibits. Some give special encouragement 
 to agricultural subjects. The prizes amount to a few dollars in 
 some fairs and to several hundred in others. 
 
 The Nebraska State Fair offered "to the Nebraska boy 
 under eighteen years of age, growing the largest yield of corn 
 from one acre of ground, in the year 1910, $50; second, $25; 
 third, $20; fourth, $15; fifth, $10; and to the sixth, seventh, 
 eighth, ninth, tenth, and eleventh, $5 each." 
 
 The South Dakota State Fair made the boys' and girls' 
 contests a special feature at its recent meeting. Three hundred 
 and fifty dollars were offered in cash prizes, the largest first
 
 88 AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS 
 
 prize being one hundred dollars. The contest was announced 
 in a special bulletin containing instructions as to the details of 
 preparation for the contests (129). 
 
 One of the most popular buildings at the last Minnesota 
 State Fair was the Agricultural Hall Annex which was devoted 
 entirely to the exhibits in agriculture, household arts, and 
 manual training of the ten high schools receiving state aid for 
 teaching these subjects. 
 
 The Oklahoma State Fair of 1910 arranged for a school 
 of agriculture to be held on its grounds. Each county is 
 entitled to two delegates, one hundred and fifty- four boys 
 being provided for. "This work will be done at the fair 
 grounds. The boys and instructors will sleep in a large tent." 
 A portion of each day is to be devoted to instruction, lectures 
 in the mornings and object-teaching or laboratory work in the 
 afternoons (130). A similar school for boys is conducted by 
 the Illinois State Fair (131). 
 
 Contests, for example, corn contests, are held in some states 
 under the direction of the state office of agriculture. Such 
 contests are being held in Missouri this year all over the state, 
 and a Farm Boys' Encampment is conducted under the same 
 management. In South Carolina contests have been held through- 
 out the state under the joint direction of the State Department 
 of Agriculture and the United States Demonstration Work. In 
 the state contest which is soon to take place over three thousand 
 boys are enrolled. The winner of last year's contest, Bascomb 
 Usher, raised on one acre one hundred and fifty-two and one- 
 half bushels of corn. The average production of corn per acre 
 for the entire state was about eighteen bushels. A number of 
 other southern states are conducting similar co-operative contests 
 (see chap. xii). 
 
 South Carolina, through its Department of Agriculture, has 
 been aiding the practical teaching of agriculture in a few high 
 schools by maintaining a skilled teacher and operating a farm
 
 STATE ORGANIZATIONS FOR AGRICULTURE 89 
 
 and practice garden in connection with the school (132). The 
 commissioner says: 
 
 This has been in the nature of an experiment, but we have gone far 
 enough in the matter to see that admirable results may be obtained, and 
 at a very minimum of cost. The only cost, in fact, to us is the salary of 
 the man nine months in the year. The land is furnished by the patrons of 
 the school, as are also the work animals, implements, fertilizers, etc., and 
 the school is given the profits from the farm.i 
 
 These are typical examples of the work of various state 
 offices of agriculture in promoting an interest in agriculture and 
 rural life among boys and girls. Many others might have 
 been given. It is a new field of activity for these offices, and 
 promises much if organized and extended so as to co-operate 
 with other educational efforts. Perhaps the greatest value of 
 such work for agricultural education to the public schools lies 
 in placing the stamp of official approval upon this kind of 
 education. 
 
 In many states practically nothing has been done by these 
 offices, and in none more than a beginning of what might be 
 done. The state and county fairs, for example, offer unusual 
 educational opportunities. If the same energy now expended in 
 managing and controlling amusement-park features of these fairs 
 (which are of doubtful value at best) were directed toward 
 helping the schools of rural communities there might be a great 
 educational gain for the state (133). 
 
 STATE FARMERS' INSTITUTES 
 
 The farmers' institute movement in the United States has now reached 
 a degree of importance and development that places it along side of the 
 leading institutions of the country organized in the interest of industrial 
 education. Forty-five states and territories held institutes in 1905, aggre- 
 gating 10,555 half-day sessions, which were attended by 995,192 persons, 
 chiefly adults ^134, p. 7). 
 
 The growth of this movement may be seen by comparing 
 the above summary for 1905 with the following summary for 
 1908: number of institutes 4,643; half-day sessions 13,056; 
 
 1 Quoted from private letter.
 
 90 AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS 
 
 attendance 2,098,268. In addition to the regular institutes 
 included in the above a number of special institutes were held 
 with an attendance of 340,414, which, added to the attendance 
 at the regular institutes, make a total of 2,438,682. There is 
 no record of attendance of 732 meetings of women's institutes, 
 of 174 meetings of boys' institutes, or of several other meetings 
 which might be regarded as farmers' institutes (135). 
 
 The function of the farmers' institute is to educate the people on their 
 own ground. It is a phase of extension work that carries education 
 directly to the localities in which the people live. It deals less with indi- 
 vidual men on their farms than with small communities or groups of men ; 
 it therefore has the opportunity to exert great influence in developing the 
 social life of rural neighborhoods (122, p. 462). 
 
 With these aims on the one hand, and with an attendance 
 of over two million on the other, farmers' institutes become a 
 factor in rural education second only to the public schools. 
 Although the institutes are intended for adults it must be 
 remembered that adults are patrons of the rural schools, and 
 wherever the farmers' institute arouses the adult population 
 to a realization of a need for better schools, improvement in 
 these schools is likely to follow. 
 
 In 1896 the American Association of Farmers' Institute 
 Workers was organized and has held annual meetings ever since. 
 This association is a sort of clearing-house for exchange of 
 ideas and methods, and is intended also to secure a more or 
 less uniform type of institute in the several states. In 1898 
 the association requested the secretary of the Department of 
 Agriculture at Washington to arrange for a division in con- 
 nection with the department to be known as the Division of 
 Farmers' Institutes. This request was subsequently granted by 
 establishing the office of Farmers' Institute Specialist. 2 
 
 The general policy of farmers' institutes is influenced greatly 
 by the association and by the office of Farmers' Institute Spe- 
 cialist. At the meeting for 1908, the 
 
 ' The work of this office was referred to in chap. i.
 
 STATE ORGANIZATIONS FOR AGRICULTURE 91 
 
 subjects for discussion in the general program were mainly directed toward 
 defining the status of the farmers' institute in its relation to other forms 
 of agricultural education. The points brought out were that the farmers' 
 institute occupies the position of field agent for agricultural education; that 
 it provides a most efficient channel for carrying agricultural information 
 directly to the farmer who is unable to leave his occupation to go to school ; 
 and that it should broaden its work until it embraces other more advanced 
 forms of educational work and extend its efforts until all rural people 
 have full opportunity to enjoy its benefits (135, p. 293). 
 
 Farmers' institute workers are further assisted by state meet- 
 ings where they gather together to plan the year's work. Here 
 the policy for the work of the whole state is determined. In 
 many of these meetings the relation of the institute to the 
 public schools receives attention, and methods for assisting the 
 introduction of agriculture and other rural-life subjects into 
 the rural schools are discussed. 
 
 The following extracts of letters from some state directors 
 or superintendents of farmers' institutes will indicate more 
 definitely what these institutes are doing in this matter: 
 
 In connection with the Farmers' Demonstration Train we always send 
 preliminary notice to the schools where the train is scheduled to stop, 
 inviting them to have their pupils visit the train (Cal.). 
 
 At our annual conference of institute workers, the question of the 
 relation of the school and church to the farm and rural life receives due 
 consideration. The result is that an atmosphere favorable to the develop- 
 ment of the schools along practical lines is pretty generally diffused (Ind.). 
 
 The farmers' institute lecturers have encouraged institute patrons to 
 insist in their respective counties that agriculture be taught in the public 
 schools (Md.). 
 
 Not only is this subject discussed by many of the lecturers, but at a 
 large number of the institutes special speakers upon this and allied subjects 
 are provided (Mich.). 
 
 For two years we have been giving lectures in agriculture and allied 
 subjects in the high schools of the state; last year to the extent of eighty. 
 Plans are nearly perfected for increasing this line of work the coming 
 season, giving lecture courses consisting of four lectures in each of such 
 schools as apply for them (Mont.).
 
 92 AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS 
 
 We have several speakers who lecture before evening sessions of farm- 
 ers' institutes on such subjects as: agriculture in the rural schools, domestic 
 science in the rural schools, value of agricultural education, etc. (Neb.). 
 
 Each of the four corps of institute lecturers is accompanied by a repre- 
 sentative of the Educational Department who arranges for special sessions 
 in the public schools in connection with institutes where he can secure co- 
 operation of the local school authorities. At these special sessions the 
 farmers' institute lecturers give talks on elementary agriculture and nature- 
 study. The total attendance at these special sessions held during the school 
 periods amounted to 22,697 (N.Y.). 
 
 When we are holding an institute in a town we very often send the 
 lecturers to the schools to speak to the school children on certain phases of 
 farm life (N.D.). 
 
 No instructions are given institute lecturers regarding this work; how- 
 ever, at many institutes teachers and pupils are called to the meeting and 
 special lectures are given them (Okla.). 
 
 We are trying to give a good deal of attention to the introduction of 
 agricultural education in the public schools. I have attended ten teachers' 
 institutes during the summer with this object in view, speaking at some 
 of them three times, and I think the subject has been discussed by some 
 person in every institute in the state (S.D.). 
 
 Our farmers' institute instructors do what they can to promote and 
 encourage the teaching of agriculture in the rural schools. Many of them 
 have lectures upon this subject (W.Va.). 
 
 For the last twenty-four years a great deal of attention has been given 
 to the discussion of agricultural education in the public schools of Wis- 
 consin by the farmers' institute workers of this state; in fact, we feel that 
 public sentiment among farmers has been developed by these discussions 
 until Wisconsin has, we think, a little more practical agriculture in her 
 schools, from the rural district up through the county agricultural schools 
 and the agricultural college, than has any other state in the Union (Wis.). 
 
 In most states where the farmers' institute is conducted by 
 the agricultural college there is a close correlation between this 
 department and that of agricultural extension. In some colleges 
 they are practically identical. As has been indicated in chap, v, 
 provision is made by several colleges for extension work among 
 the schools. Where this arrangement obtains, the farmers' insti-
 
 STATE ORGANIZATIONS FOR AGRICULTURE 93 
 
 tute workers merely co-operate with those engaged in the work 
 among the schools, and do not initiate any work themselves. 
 
 From what has been presented concerning the organization 
 and work of the farmers' institutes it will be seen that they 
 have been a considerable factor in the movement for agricul- 
 tural education in the public schools, first, by arousing favorable 
 sentiment among the farmers, and second, by direct help to 
 teacher and pupils. 
 
 While these institutes will doubtless continue to encourage 
 the introduction of agriculture into the public schools and em- 
 phasize the importance of re-directing rural schools, in many 
 states, and soon in all the agricultural states, the demands of 
 the rural schools for help along industrial lines will require 
 some special attention not now provided.
 
 CHAPTER XI 
 AGRICULTURAL SOCIETIES 
 
 The development of agricultural societies may be divided 
 into four periods: (i) from 1785 to 1850 the period of begin- 
 nings; (2) from 1850 to 1870 the period of agricultural fairs; 
 (3) from 1870 to 1892 the period of great organizations; (4) 
 from 1892 to the present the period of adjustment (122, p. 
 291). 
 
 FIRST PERIOD 
 
 The first period in its relation to agricultural education is an 
 important one, particularly in its historical significance. The influ- 
 ence of these early societies on agricultural education is perhaps 
 greater than that of any other single factor contributing to its 
 development. The idea of such an education is regarded by 
 some as originating in these societies. That it was much ex- 
 ploited by them is certainly true. The idea persisted and grew, 
 and may be followed from this early period to the establishment 
 of land-grant colleges. The idea persists today, but modified 
 to include elementary and secondary education. 
 
 In 1785 the Philadelphia Society for the Promotion of Agri- 
 culture was organized, and later in the same year a similar society 
 was formed at Charleston, S.C. Within the following decade a 
 number of other societies was organized. Among the members 
 of these societies were many prominent men such as George 
 Washington, Benjamin Franklin, and Timothy Pickering. 
 These men were also interested in education. It is not strange 
 that the two interests should be combined in their minds into 
 the idea of agricultural education. 
 
 Benjamin Franklin had given expression to this idea many 
 years before the founding of the first agricultural society. 
 Referring to the education of the youth of Pennsylvania he says : 
 
 94
 
 AGRICULTURAL SOCIETIES 95 
 
 While they are reading natural history might not a little gardening, 
 planting, grafting, inoculating be taught and practiced, and now and then 
 excursions made to the neighboring plantations of the best farms, their 
 methods observed and reasoned upon for the information of youth, the 
 improvement of agriculture being useful to all and skill in it no disparage- 
 ment to any? (122, p. 361). 
 
 This idea was first put into actual practice in 1792 when 
 agriculture became a subject of instruction in Columbia College. 
 This was brought about chiefly through the agitation of the New 
 York, and other agricultural societies. Another example of the 
 attitude of these early societies toward agricultural education is 
 found in the action of the Philadelphia Society in 1794. The 
 society appointed a committee to outline a plan for establishing 
 a "State Society for the Promotion of Agriculture, connecting 
 with it the Education of Youth in the knowledge of that most 
 important Art while they are acquiring other useful knowledge 
 suitable for the agricultural citizens of the State." The plan 
 which was drawn up and presented to the society includes some 
 very definite references to agricultural education. Agricultural 
 information was to be disseminated in whatever manner the 
 legislature should think best, "whether by endowing professor- 
 ships to be annexed to the University of Pennsylvania and the 
 College of Carlisle, and other seminaries of learning, or for the 
 purpose of teaching the chemical philosophy and elementary 
 parts of the theory of agriculture." County societies were to be 
 created with "county schoolmasters" as secretaries ; and the school- 
 houses the places of meeting and the repositories of their trans- 
 actions, models, etc. "The legislature may enjoin on these school- 
 masters the combination of the subject of agriculture with other 
 parts of education. This may easily be effected by introducing, 
 as school books, those on this subject, and thereby making it 
 familiar to their pupils" (122, p. 363). The fact that the plan 
 of the committee was rejected does not alter its significance in 
 its bearing upon subsequent developments in agricultural educa- 
 tion. It is especially noteworthy that the plan proposed is in 
 harmony with some present-day practices : the rural school as a
 
 96 AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS 
 
 community center, correlation of agriculture with other school 
 subjects, and agricultural textbooks. 
 
 During this entire period the subject of agricultural education 
 was much discussed. Various plans were proposed for its develop- 
 ment. Some provided that the societies themselves should organ- 
 ize stock companies to establish schools for instruction in agri- 
 cultural subjects. Several such schools were started, but owing 
 to difficulties (chiefly financial) they were not successful. These 
 attempts were an important stage in the evolution of the agri- 
 cultural college. 
 
 Stock-company plans were succeeded by others involving state 
 or federal support. The agricultural societies representing asso- 
 ciated effort were finally able to secure the attention of legis- 
 lative bodies. In New York State, for example, the New York 
 State Agricultural Society began a campaign for a school of 
 agriculture soon after the date of its organization (1832), 
 and continued it until 1853 when the legislature granted a char- 
 ter for such an institution. The founding of the Agricultural 
 College of Cornell University was no doubt due in a large 
 measure to the activity of the New York State Agricultural 
 Society, and of other agricultural societies of the state. 
 
 The Michigan State Agricultural Society which was formed 
 in 1849 immediately set to work to secure a state agricultural 
 college. Its efforts at once secured the attention of the legis- 
 lature. The matter was brought up at each session of the 
 legislature until, in 1855, a bill authorizing the establishment of 
 the State Agricultural College of Michigan became a law. 
 
 "The Industrial League of the State of Illinois," chiefly 
 composed of farmers, had much to do with the passage of the 
 Land Grant Act of 1862. This League was an outgrowth of 
 the meeting of a convention held at Granville, Putnam County, 
 Illinois, November 18, 1851. The object of this convention 
 "was to take into consideration such means as might be deemed 
 most expedient to further the interests of the agricultural com- 
 munity, and particularly to take steps toward the establishment
 
 AGRICULTURAL SOCIETIES 97 
 
 of an agricultural university" (136, p. 20). Jonathan B. Turner 
 proposed a plan at this meeting which included "a university 
 for industrial classes in each state in the Union." The plati 
 adopted was published and widely circulated throughout the 
 country. Another convention was held at Springfield, Illinois, 
 June 8, 1852. At this convention a memorial was presented, 
 containing, among other things, a definite plan for organizing 
 agricultural colleges : "An appropriate endowment of universi- 
 ties for the liberal education of the industrial classes in their 
 several pursuits in each state in the Union" (136, p. 22). A 
 third convention was held at Chicago, November 24, 1852. It 
 was decided at this meeting to organize "The Industrial League 
 of the State of Illinois" for the purpose of forwarding the 
 objects of the convention, one object being "to obtain a grant 
 of public land to establish and endow industrial institutions in 
 each and every state in the Union. "A fourth convention was 
 held at Springfield on January 4, 1853. Here a final plan was 
 approved in the form of a petition to Congress (136, pp. 24 and 
 104). Copies were distributed to the various other agricultural 
 and industrial societies throughout the country. These societies 
 were asked to adopt the plan and urge its approval by Congress. 
 The campaign for passage by Congress of an act embodying 
 this plan was actively continued by the Industrial League of 
 the State of Illinois, and by similar organizations in other states 
 until it became a law, July 2, 1862. 
 
 The activities of the agricultural societies of New York, 
 Michigan, and Illinois in promoting agricultural education is 
 typical of what was accomplished by similar societies in Pennsyl- 
 vania, Connecticut, and other states during this period. 
 
 SECOND PERIOD 
 
 In 1858 there were over 900 agricultural and horticultural 
 societies listed at the Patent Office, and in 1868 the Department 
 of Agriculture listed 1,350. All but about 100 of these were 
 organized after 1849 (122, p. 292).
 
 98 AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS 
 
 The chief interest of most of these societies was in holding 
 fairs. In many ways these fairs were of considerable educa- 
 tional value, especially in diffusing new ideas, in furnishing an 
 opportunity for social intercourse, and in introducing better farm 
 practice and new types of farm products. Often addresses by 
 prominent speakers were provided as special educational features. 
 
 On the whole this period was marked by a great development 
 of organized effort, including associations of many kinds, and 
 ranging from national organizations to mere local farmers' clubs. 
 
 THIRD PERIOD 
 
 This period is characterized by large associations, national in 
 scope. It represents a stage in development when agricultural 
 people began to recognize the importance of "getting together," 
 and of using co-operative means for securing better business 
 and educational opportunities, and more favorable legisla- 
 tion. This was undertaken through large formal organizations, 
 through co-operative concerns which were intended to do away 
 with the "middleman," through activity in politics, and through 
 education, directly by means of colleges and other schools, and 
 by means of discussions and publications. Several large organi- 
 zations constituted the machinery of this movement, the most 
 important of which were the Grange and the Farmers' Alliance. 
 
 The Grange was founded in 1867, and became a national 
 society in 1873. l It is a very complete organization with the 
 lodge as a unit, subordinate to the County Grange which is sub- 
 ordinate to the State Grange, this in turn being subordinate to the 
 National Grange. The purposes are fraternal, social, educational, 
 political, and financial. Educational work is a feature of each 
 meeting, a certain part of the program being devoted to this 
 subject. Sometimes the educational work of the lodges of a 
 whole state is planned definitely by one of the state officers, the 
 state grand lecturer. The meetings of the lodge are often held 
 
 1 D. W. Aiken, The Grange Its Origin, Progress and Purposes, U.S. Dept. of Agric., 
 Misc. Ser., Special Report a; Charles W. Pierson, "Rise of the Granger Movement," Pop. 
 Sci. Mo., V, 32, p. 199.
 
 AGRICULTURAL SOCIETIES 99 
 
 in schoolhouses, thus making the school property a community 
 center for adults as well as children. The interest of the 
 Grange in the school does not stop with the use of the school- 
 house as a meeting-place, but it lends its support to all measures 
 intended for the betterment of rural education, and particularly 
 to those involving a greater use of country-life subjects. The 
 Grange was for a time a very powerful society, but by 1880 its 
 power as a national organization was lost. 2 It declined rapidly 
 both in membership and influence until ten years later when it 
 began to revive again. 
 
 The Farmers' Alliance was somewhat similar to the Grange 
 in plan and purpose. Its activity however was chiefly directed 
 toward securing better legislation favorable to rural interests, 
 mainly financial. Soon after the formation of the Populist party 
 little was left of the Farmers' Alliance as an organization. 
 
 FOURTH PERIOD 
 
 With more than a century of experience agricultural societies 
 are now being readjusted to secure for all interests of agricul- 
 ture and rural life advantages that may be secured only through 
 organized effort. They may be classified into three groups : 
 national, state, and local. A large number of each group is 
 devoted to some special agricultural interest, such as bee-keeping, 
 apple production, sheep-breeding, and the like, almost every con- 
 ceivable phase of agriculture being represented by an organization. 
 
 Of the national societies the Grange is perhaps the most 
 important. Since 1890 it has emphasized social and educational 
 features, and has recovered from the decline of the previous 
 decade. Its interest and influence in educational matters are 
 greater than ever before. 
 
 The rise and decline of the Grange is well illustrated by the number of granges organ- 
 ized each year in Illinois for a period of eight years: 
 
 In 1869 2 In 1873 761 
 
 In 1870 i In 1874 704 
 
 In 1871 S In 1875 50 
 
 In 1872 69 In 1876 27 
 
 A. E. Paine, 'The Granger Movement in Illinois," Univ. of III., Bull. V, 2, No. 2 (1904), 
 p. 10.
 
 ioo AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS 
 
 There are now over seven hundred state agricultural societies 
 most of which are devoted to special interests. In some states 
 the state society has no connection with local societies, but in 
 others the state organization is made up of representatives from 
 local societies. 
 
 The latter plan is well illustrated by the Michigan State 
 Association of Farmers' Clubs. In 1908 the state associa- 
 tion included one hundred and twenty clubs from thirty-two 
 counties. In 1908 these clubs had a membership of over seven 
 thousand. The association holds an annual meeting in which a 
 majority of the associated clubs are represented. The program 
 consists of reports of various clubs, several addresses on sub- 
 jects of general interest to farmers, and reports of committees. 
 
 A good example of the work of a local club is shown by the 
 following synopsis of its annual report to the association: 
 
 The club is eleven years old, with a membership of 71, and average 
 attendance of 50. Annual dues are ten cents per member; the club holds 
 twelve meetings a year, all-day meetings from October to April. Men's 
 meetings in February, May; temperance meetings in February, March; 
 young people's meetings in April; ladies' meeting in May; club fair in 
 October; picnic in August. The club publishes a paper called the Rural 
 Grit (137, P- IS)- 
 
 The addresses at the annual meetings are on topics of general 
 interest to farmers, often on agricultural education. The most 
 important committee is the one on resolutions. Some recom- 
 mendations directed toward legislation are usually found in its 
 reports. 
 
 The published proceedings of the various agricultural socie- 
 ties contain important contributions to the literature of agri- 
 cultural education. The importance lies not so much in the new 
 points of view or new ideas presented as in the fact that these 
 articles indicate the attitude of the most progressive farmers on 
 this question. The Report of the Proceedings of the New 
 Jersey Horticultural Society for 1910 contains a discussion of 
 "What Shall We Teach the Farmer's Child?" (138). A scheme 
 is proposed for dividing the school year into more equal periods
 
 AGRICULTURAL SOCIETIES 101 
 
 between farm practice and school work. The difficulty of apply- 
 ing such a plan is found in the present long high-school year 
 and short vacation period, and in the absence of instruction in 
 agricultural subjects. The author may have had in mind some 
 shop work, as is being introduced in Cincinnati, and in other 
 places. 
 
 The idea is suggestive of possibilities that might be developed 
 in rural schools to advantage, provided the long vacation period 
 were spent in applying the scientific principles of agriculture to 
 farm practice. The boys of the Baltimore County (Md.) Agri- 
 cultural High School carry on extensive experiments on their 
 home farms during vacation periods. Their work is inspected 
 from time to time by the teacher of agriculture in the high 
 school, the teacher being employed to give his time during the 
 entire year to school matters. This plan has been in operation 
 only one year, but the results have been very satisfactory. Such 
 an arrangement would do away with some of the objections to 
 the present system of education raised by the above paper, that 
 the 
 
 high schools are simply feeding the boys and girls to universities and general 
 
 colleges, but unfitting them for the practical duties of life One great 
 
 trouble with farming today is the fact that for half a century or more 
 country teachers have worn the label and wire of an education arranged 
 for a town school. The material benefits of education, such as they are in 
 a public way, and the public spirit of it, have been town bred and built. 
 One great reason why farming of late years has become more hopeful and 
 prosperous is because we are at last developing a definite form and spirit 
 of farm education. 
 
 There are so many societies publishing proceedings that no 
 further reference will be made except to refer to the fact that the 
 discussions appearing in these proceedings on instruction in 
 agriculture in the public schools usually favor such instruction, 
 but not always. Occasionally views are expressed against it. 
 In the Proceedings of the Iowa Horticultural Society for 1909 
 we find an example of the latter (139). The writer reviews 
 the conditions of the Iowa rural schools. His own county has
 
 102 AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS 
 
 208 rural schools. He regards the introduction of agricultural 
 instruction in these schools as impossible, even if desirable. He 
 would improve the teaching of these schools by placing more 
 emphasis on the "three R's." He says, "the most persistent and 
 able advocates of agriculture in the public schools are teachers 
 and professors in our state and other colleges." This is not an 
 isolated example of the conservative attitude of the farmer 
 toward education. Similar views are held in every farming 
 community in the country. The little one-room school is re- 
 garded as necessary for any scheme of rural education. If the 
 scheme does not fit into the existing system it is unworthy. 
 Much of the opposition to consolidation is no doubt due to the 
 reluctance of abandoning the single-room school, and to the 
 inability to see how a readjustment of school affairs can be 
 brought about. 
 
 The sentence just quoted referring to "teachers and pro- 
 fessors" advocating agricultural instruction shows a little of the 
 resentment that has grown up lately in several parts of the 
 country toward the activity of those interested in the promo- 
 tion of agricultural education in the elementary and secondary 
 schools. A prominent agricultural journal has recently cast 
 some reflection on the motives of some of the men now engaged 
 in agricultural extension among public schools, intimating that 
 the matter is being agitated for the benefit of agricultural col- 
 leges. The editor finds some sympathy among his readers, as 
 evidenced by a protest from one subscriber against so much 
 space being given to school matters, and so little being given to 
 the discussion of sheep-killing dogs ! 
 
 Particular mention should be made of the work of the 
 Massachusetts Horticultural Society in its relation to the school- 
 garden movement (140). Soon after Henry L. Clapp intro- 
 duced school gardening into the George Putnam School of Boston, 
 the Massachusetts Horticultural Society began to encourage the 
 establishment of school gardens in other places in New England 
 by offering prizes for the best gardens entering competition, and
 
 AGRICULTURAL SOCIETIES 103 
 
 by giving prominence to the subject in its published proceedings. 
 Since 1893, one feature of its annual meeting is the session 
 devoted to hearing reports on school gardens. The growth of 
 the school-garden movement of the United States owes much 
 to this society. 
 
 The following are a few extracts from letters written by 
 officers of some agricultural societies in answer to an inquiry 
 as to what their societies are now doing toward promoting 
 agricultural education. These are typical expressions, and are 
 taken at random from a number of replies : 
 
 Our meetings are always public and we invite teachers, students, and the 
 general public to attend the sessions. We have not taken any definite steps 
 toward the teaching of agriculture or horticulture in the schools, although 
 whenever occasion offers, we are glad to say a word favoring the move- 
 ment (Vermont). 
 
 We have held sessions at the State Normal Schools and have had ad- 
 dresses that we thought would be of value to prospective teachers (New 
 Jersey). 
 
 We think it is an important subject and hope to see more of at least 
 the rudiments of horticulture taught in the schools soon (Kansas). 
 
 We have papers and discussions in nearly every volume we publish re- 
 garding horticultural subjects, bearing on their relation to the public schools 
 (Illinois). 
 
 We have undertaken recently the task of improving in some measure the 
 grounds surrounding the rural schools of the state. We have realized for 
 years the deplorable conditions in this respect; the lack of adequate play- 
 grounds; the lack of order and even common cleanliness, the utter lack of 
 any decoration, and other things too numerous to mention. We are feeling 
 our way carefully and so far have but little to report. We have selected 
 seven districts widely separated and for these schools we furnish land- 
 scape plans and trees and shrubs to plant the same. We also furnish 
 expert superintendence and inspection. So far the work has been very dis- 
 couraging on account of the lack of co-operation or even friendly spirit on 
 the part of school officers and teachers. We hope, however, for better 
 things and intend to keep on (Wisconsin). 
 
 The brief account just given of agricultural societies is suffi- 
 cient to indicate at least some of their most important relations to
 
 104 AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS 
 
 agricultural education, and to impress upon the student of rural 
 education the value of their influence in any movement affecting 
 the country schools. Being composed of representative mem- 
 bers of the very communities that are supposed to be benefited by 
 improved rural education, their point of view in educational 
 matters must be considered in any plans to bring about better 
 rural-school conditions and their co-operation is needed for an 
 attempt to carry out these plans.
 
 CHAPTER XII 
 BOYS' AGRICULTURAL CLUBS 
 
 The actual introduction of agricultural subjects into the public 
 schools has developed along two lines, one indirect and informal, 
 the other direct and formal. They may be regarded as two 
 stages of one development, for experience seems to indicate that 
 creating an interest informally by means of boys' agricultural 
 clubs is often, if not always, the most successful method of 
 introducing the study of agriculture into the schools of a com- 
 munity. 
 
 Indeed, in many places where formal instruction has failed 
 boys' clubs have been a great success. This is well illustrated 
 in Louisiana. In that state, although the teaching of agricul- 
 ture has been required since 1898, it has not received much 
 serious attention in the elementary schools. But boys' clubs are 
 being organized in every parish in the state, one parish school 
 boys' club, for example, enrolling during the present year 555 
 members. This form of agricultural instruction is extending 
 rapidly over the entire country, and is becoming a very impor- 
 tant extension work in education as well as in agriculture. It 
 tends to ally itself more and more with the public schools, until 
 finally some more or less formal instruction becomes a regular 
 part of the school work. 
 
 Thus in Ohio the state superintendent of agricultural extension work 
 writes that most boys' and girls' club activities are now conducted as a part 
 of the school work and that agricultural clubs as such are becoming a thing 
 of the past, so that no separate records or statistics are now generally 
 kept in the state (141, p. 12). 
 
 Two good accounts of the agricultural club movement have 
 been published by the United States Department of Agriculture, 
 one tracing its development to 1904 (6.1), the other from 1904 
 to 1910 (141). The following discussion will therefore be con- 
 
 105
 
 106 AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS 
 
 fined chiefly to the present status of the movement with typical 
 examples of successful work, and to the reaction of the agri- 
 cultural clubs on rural education. 
 
 Various agencies have taken the initiative in starting this movement under 
 particular local conditions, but the inspiration for state-wide activity in these 
 lines has generally come from some individual or official source connected 
 with the state department of education, the state agricultural college, or the 
 United States Department of Agriculture. In the absence of such initiative 
 the work has sometimes begun in the zeal and wisdom of some county 
 officer or association, as the county superintendent of schools, the farmers' 
 institute society, the county fair association, or teachers' association, the 
 Grange organization, or the Young Men's Christian Association. Experience 
 has shown that the work has always been most permanent and productive 
 when it has resulted in a definite local organization, preferably under the 
 leadership of the county school superintendent (141, p. 7). 
 
 Reference has already been made to the work of the state 
 and college extension departments, of state departments of edu- 
 cation, and of other agencies in the organization of these clubs 
 (37, 39, 4i, 43, 61, 142). 
 
 During the present year (1911) this work has been extended, 
 and is becoming better organized. In 1909 there were clubs in 
 twenty-eight states with a total membership of approximately 
 150,000. During the present year many new clubs have been 
 formed, and the membership in many of those already organized 
 has increased. An instance of the latter is found in the increase 
 in membership of one club from 17 in 1909 to 555 in 1910. In 
 the above estimate for 1909 several states that now have clubs are 
 not included. For example, Kansas has one or more clubs in 
 each county, with a total membership of more than 5,000. The 
 eleven southern states that had a membership of about 13,000 
 in 1909 have this year nearly 50,000 enrolled. The total mem- 
 bership of 1910 for the entire country may conservatively be 
 estimated at more than 300,000. 
 
 The most important recent development is that of the Boys' 
 Corn Club work in the southern states. This work was under- 
 taken by representatives of the United States Bureau of Plant
 
 BOYS' AGRICULTURAL CLUBS 107 
 
 Industry through county superintendents of education four 
 years ago. Three years ago it was extended in a few counties 
 of the Gulf states where the boll weevil was damaging cotton 
 crops. At the beginning of 1909 a systematic plan was under- 
 taken to organize boys' corn clubs in a few counties in each 
 of the southern states. There were enrolled 12,400 boys. 
 During 1910 in response to further demands the organizations 
 have been extended into nearly 600 counties, with a total enrol- 
 ment of 46,225 boys. Although no statistical summary of the 
 work has been issued, a number of reports have been received 
 by the department which show excellent work. In one county in 
 Mississippi 48 boys produced an average yield of 92 bushels per 
 acre; 20 boys in one county of South Carolina made 1,700 
 bushels of corn on 20 acres. Another club of 142 boys produced 
 an average of 62 bushels to the acre, several going above 100, 
 and two or three above 150 bushels. 1 
 
 The Boys' Corn Club work is the Junior Department of 
 the Government Demonstration Work now being carried on in 
 all the southern states. The results of the boys' work have at- 
 tracted the attention of the entire country. Considerable promi- 
 nence was given to it by the public press in 1909, but much 
 more to the results of 1910, particularly to the remarkable 
 achievement of Jerry Moore of Winona, S.C., a boy not fifteen 
 years old, who produced 228^ bushels of corn on one acre of 
 land, this being the second largest yield per acre in the history 
 of corn production. 2 
 
 The crowning event of the work of 1910 was a visit to 
 Washington on December 12, 1910, of the prize winners from 
 eleven southern states. They were awarded diplomas of merit 
 by the Secretary of Agriculture, presented to the President of 
 the United States, and personally conducted by O. B. Martin, 
 
 'The above facts were furnished in a letter from O. B. Martin, government assistant in 
 charge of Boys' Demonstration Work. A full account of this work has since been published 
 
 ds). 
 
 'Results of 1009: Youth's Companion, April 10, 1910; Results of 1910: Associated Press 
 account, Chicago Record-Herald, December n and 18, 1910.
 
 io8 AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS 
 
 assistant in charge of the Junior Demonstration Work, over the 
 city of Washington, visiting all places of interest. 
 
 The relation of this work to the schools is indicated by the 
 following extracts from directions for organization and instruc- 
 tion sent out by the department: 
 
 Where this work is being introduced in a county, the county superin- 
 tendent of education and teachers can reach the boys in all sections of the 
 county more quickly and more effectively than any other agency. The 
 superintendent can explain the plan to the teachers, and they can explain 
 it to the boys and secure the names of all the boys who will agree to plant 
 
 one acre of corn Just as soon as the names of all the boys are 
 
 assembled in the office of the county superintendent of education, duplicate 
 lists should be sent to Dr. S. A. Knapp, Washington, D.C., who has charge 
 of the Farmers' Co-operative Demonstration Work. These boys will from 
 time to time receive circulars of instruction and information in regard to 
 preparation, fertilization, cultivation, seed selection, etc. These circulars 
 furnish excellent subject-matter for discussion at a club meeting, or for a 
 lesson in school. They lead to further study of farmers' bulletins and 
 books. A boy will profit much from such lessons, discussions, and books, 
 because he is making practical application of the principles taught. He 
 learns scientific agriculture because he needs it, and not because it is scien- 
 tific The object of the Boys' Demonstration Work is the same as that 
 
 among men, namely, better methods of farming and greater yields at less 
 cost. Many of the boys in the clubs who begin to study agriculture in this 
 way will continue the study in agricultural colleges; others will continue 
 such efforts on their farms, and all of them will make useful and more 
 effective citizens.* 
 
 The organization of the clubs in various states differs some- 
 what in details, but in general there is a close co-operation 
 between the state departments of education and the state agri- 
 cultural college. A good example of a state organization is the 
 Farm-Life Club Movement in Alabama: 
 
 The leading objects of the Farm-Life Club Movement are educational 
 and for this reason it is our desire to make this movement have a close 
 and vital connection with the work of the county superintendents of educa- 
 tion, the teachers, and the schools of the state. There are many important 
 educational problems in Alabama today, but the largest one is the question 
 
 'From mimeograph directions sent out by O. B. Martin, assistant in charge of Boys' 
 Demonstration Work, June i, 1910.
 
 BOYS' AGRICULTURAL CLUBS 109 
 
 of better farming. In beginning the work in a county we first secure co- 
 operation of the superintendent and through him interest the teachers. The 
 work is discussed at a teachers' institute and later a letter is mailed request- 
 ing each teacher to interest the boys in his school and his community in this 
 work. The names of the boys are sent to the county superintendent by the 
 teachers. 
 
 This work furnishes the greatest opportunity yet launched for the county 
 superintendents and teachers to be of invaluable service to the people in 
 arousing interest in better farming and in improved agriculture. 
 
 The ultimate purpose of the work is to aid the great movement for 
 better farming all along the lines, and to encourage the boy to get an edu- 
 cation in agriculture and to remain on the farm. 
 
 The work in Alabama has been in progress scarcely a year and the 
 results are very encouraging indeed. At present the work has been started 
 in about 17 counties in the state. There is a total of approximately 2,000 
 boys listed in the work. There have been raised locally among merchants, 
 bankers, and other public-spirited people over $2,000 in prizes. In addition 
 to this the state fairs in Birmingham and Montgomery are offering a total 
 of about $500 for the boys in the corn clubs. After making these exhibits 
 at the state fairs the best of these will be carried to the National Corn Show. 
 
 It has been my pleasure during the last month to hold boys' meetings 
 in several counties and to visit a large number of individual acres of 
 corn. The yield in a great many cases is very remarkable. For example, 
 one boy's acre of corn will yield at least 65 bushels of corn-, and in addition 
 to the corn there will be enough snap beans and corn middles to pay all 
 the expenses for making the corn, including rent of land and interest on 
 investment. I quote below from a letter recently received from a gentleman 
 who lives in a community where a club has been organized : "Some of the 
 boys are going to make 75 and 85 bushels per acre, and some are going to 
 make as much as 100 bushels." Another letter from a business man will 
 give some idea as to how the business men regard the work : "I think the 
 Boys' Corn Club has worked wonders in the cultivation of corn in this state. 
 I have never seen as much enthusiasm among the old farmers as now pre- 
 vails, and I feel certain that the Boys' Corn Club is largely responsible 
 for it." 
 
 At a meeting held in northern Alabama I asked some of the boys to 
 give me an idea as to the outlook of their corn crop. One, in making a 
 report of his work, said : "Every farmer in a radius of two miles of my 
 acre has visited my corn and said, 'If you make 35 bushels of corn on this 
 acre we are going to follow your method.' " Prospects were good for a 
 yield of more than 50 bushels on this acre. The father of this boy said,
 
 no AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS 
 
 "I have a special acre myself and do not propose to have my boy beat me 
 raising corn." 
 
 This movement is not a question of adding new duties to the county 
 superintendent and teachers without additional pay, but a question of oppor- 
 tunity and service. No movement has yet been projected where superin- 
 tendents of education and teachers may be of greater service to the people 
 than in the organization of the Farm-Life clubs. This plan also furnishes 
 the best method yet devised of bringing together in harmonious co-operation 
 all the interests looking to better education and better farming. In this 
 work the county superintendents, the teachers, the merchants, the newspapers, 
 the State College of Agriculture, the State Department of Agriculture, and 
 the State Department of Education can all work together for the common 
 good. 4 
 
 Another important phase of the agricultural-club idea is 
 being developed by the Farmers' Institute Specialist of the Office 
 of Experiment Stations of the United States Department of 
 Agriculture. It is known as Farmers' Institutes for Young 
 People. The following statement in regard to these institutes 
 will indicate the object and character of the work undertaken: 
 
 In order, therefore, that opportunity to become acquainted with agri- 
 cultural operations may be given to those who have left the public school 
 and from whose ranks the future farmers and their wives must be supplied, 
 the farmers' institutes in several states have organized and are now con- 
 ducting what is known as "institutes for young people." The majority of 
 these are not institutes in the sense in which the work of the farmers' 
 institute has come to be defined. They are in reality boys' and girls' clubs 
 conducted in the same manner as those operated by the public schools 
 
 Because of the fundamental difficulty in securing teachers capable of 
 giving vocational training and instruction in agriculture in the rural schools, 
 and from the fact that after the scholars leave school no provision has 
 been made for giving them the opportunity to receive such instruction, the 
 farmers' institute has undertaken the training in agriculture of rural chil- 
 dren after leaving school. In doing this it has found it necessary to drop 
 from its system of instruction the purely educational feature and to devote 
 itself strictly to giving vocational instruction. Such studies and practice, 
 therefore, as the institute utilizes have in view the perfecting of the indi- 
 vidual in his vocation. The institute system, therefore, partakes more 
 nearly than any other of the trade-school method, and is intended for youths 
 
 4 From a letter written by L. N. Duncan, U.S. demonstrator for Alabama, and professor 
 of school agriculture, Alabama State Agricultural College.
 
 BOYS' AGRICULTURAL CLUBS in 
 
 above 14 years of age. It will become the connecting link between the 
 agricultural-club movement on the one hand and the regular farmers' insti- 
 tutes for adults on the other (143). 
 
 In 1909, 20 states and territories are reported to have held 
 institutes for young people. This system seems to be the best 
 organized in Indiana, where about one-third of the counties 
 have such institutes with an enrolment of over 12,000. The 
 young people's institutes are held at the same time as the farm- 
 ers' institutes but in separate sessions. The public is interested 
 as indicated by liberal contributions, one county appropriating, 
 in 1909, $1,000 for this work. 
 
 The extension department of the Kansas State Agricultural 
 College is just introducing a correspondence school in connec- 
 tion with its young people's extension work. The object of this 
 is similar to that of the young people's institute, being designed 
 to help boys and girls who have been compelled to leave school. 
 
 The boys' clubs of Kansas, whose work thus far has been 
 almost wholly confined to corn contests, are now being organized 
 on a somewhat different basis. The plan follows that of the Boy 
 Scouts of America and the clubs are known as the "Rural-Life 
 Scouts." Although just started, considerable interest is being 
 shown in these clubs. The leaders are generally principals of 
 village schools or pastors of village churches. In counties where 
 there is a Y.M.C.A. secretary, the organizations are affiliated 
 with the Y.M.C.A. work. 
 
 The county superintendent of education and his teachers 
 have been an important factor in making boys' clubs a success, 
 whether under the auspices of the Government Demonstration 
 Work, state agricultural colleges, or state departments of educa- 
 tion. The work in large units, state or sectional, is really made 
 possible by successful work carried out by county superintend- 
 ents of schools or teachers in the various parts of the country. It 
 may be of interest at this point to give somewhat in detail a 
 concrete example of how a county superintendent of education
 
 112 AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS 
 
 went about organizing successful boys' agricultural clubs in his 
 own county. 
 
 The county superintendent of Delaware County, Iowa, began 
 to organize boys' clubs six years ago, holding township meetings 
 where the boys brought corn selected from their fathers' seed 
 corn. The meetings were addressed by an expert, on "What 
 Constitutes Good Seed Corn." This was accompanied by demon- 
 strations from samples of poor and good ears. The corn brought 
 by the boys was then judged and commented upon by the expert. 
 The superintendent then distributed seed corn which he had 
 bought for this purpose. The year following the boys came 
 together in a contest showing the results obtained from the corn 
 distributed the year before. This work was continued through 
 the next year, except that the boys selected their own seed corn 
 from their fathers' corn. A short course in agriculture was 
 held at Manchester, the county seat, which about sixty boys 
 attended. The corn clubs continued to grow in interest from 
 year to year until most of the boys were as good as, or even better 
 judges of corn than, their fathers. Last year the work was varied 
 by using oats instead of corn. The superintendent purchased 
 forty bushels of Canadian oats, and distributed the seed among 
 the boys of the county. At the close of the season a contest 
 was held at which the results of the season's work were shown. 
 The experiment was watched with much interest throughout the 
 county, and the farmers were eager to purchase seed from the 
 boys for their own farms. In one year the value of Canadian 
 oats for Delaware County was demonstrated by the boys, and 
 oat production in the county was greatly improved. 
 
 All this was extra school work, but the superintendent made 
 good use of the interest thus aroused to help and improve the 
 regular school work. Raising corn and oats became subjects of 
 compositions, references to bulletins and books were used as 
 reading lessons, and estimates of cost and yield furnished mate- 
 rial for arithmetic. By means of printed instructions sent to 
 teachers from time to time, the formal work of the schools be- 
 came enlivened and strengthened by its practical application.
 
 BOYS' AGRICULTURAL CLUBS 113 
 
 The work in Delaware County is a typical example of 
 how the education of a county or township system may be 
 redirected by means of boys' clubs. Springfield Township, 
 Ohio (142), Keokuk (61) and Page (144) counties, Iowa, 
 Natchitoches Parish, Louisiana, Winnebago County, Illinois 
 (145, 146), Wexford County, Michigan, and many other places 
 might be mentioned where boys' agricultural clubs have not only 
 been the means of improving school conditions but by their 
 success have led to similar work being introduced in other 
 places. 
 
 Although not connected in any way with the public schools, 
 the work of W. B. Otwell, editor of the Otwell's Farmer Boy, 
 Carlinville, 111., deserves special mention. Mr. Otwell is chiefly 
 responsible for the beginning of the state-wide development of 
 boys' corn clubs in Illinois, and had charge of their exhibit at 
 the St. Louis Exposition, where 1,250 boys' exhibits received 
 awards. By means of his paper he is interesting a large number 
 of boys of the Middle West. He conducted in 1910 a corn con- 
 test in which 25,000 boys were competing. 5 Another feature of 
 his boys' club is an annual encampment for those who can attend, 
 for the purpose of agricultural study. 
 
 In order to give description in sufficient detail, the foregoing 
 discussion of boys' agricultural clubs has been limited to a few 
 typical examples of what is now actually being accomplished. 
 References have been made from time to time to the public inter- 
 est in the clubs and to their influence upon the public schools. 
 
 It was the intention in preparation of this chapter to include 
 a fuller discussion of the relation of this movement to rural 
 education than space will permit. Opinions have been gathered 
 from a number of state superintendents, and from others in- 
 terested in rural education as to the reaction of the agricultural 
 club movement upon the rural schools. These opinions are well 
 summed up in the following: 
 
 Keeps boys in school longer; gives teacher greater influence and power; 
 convinces farmers that school people want to and can be useful to the 
 
 'Otwell's Farmer Boy, Carlinville, 111., December, 1910.
 
 H4 AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS 
 
 farming interests, and tends to make the school the center of community 
 life; stirs farmers to greater endeavor and to better methods of farming, and 
 increases general interest in agriculture and returns. 
 
 Perhaps the most important contribution that these clubs are 
 now making to agricultural education in the public schools is 
 the recognition by the patrons of the direct value in dollars 
 and cents that such instruction has, a recognition which will lead 
 to better support of the schools by the community and greater 
 interest in them.
 
 CHAPTER XIII 
 ELEMENTARY AND SECONDARY SCHOOLS 
 
 One of the most important recent tendencies in education is 
 the redirection of schools of a community in terms of the daily 
 welfare of its people. For a rural community such redirection 
 must be largely in terms of agriculture and of other country- 
 life interests. It is for this reason that so much emphasis is 
 placed upon agriculture as a means of increasing the efficiency 
 of rural schools. 
 
 When this idea began to express itself in practice in rural 
 communities the elementary school was the first to receive at- 
 tention. But age of pupils, many grades in one room, lack of 
 properly qualified teachers, and various other limitations have 
 led many to doubt the wisdom of this selection. The results 
 of introducing agriculture as a school subject into the elementary 
 schools have thus far not been entirely satisfactory. Neverthe- 
 less adjustments are taking place, so that agriculture, not as 
 a systematized subject of instruction but in certain of its nature- 
 study aspects, will no doubt find an important place. About 
 all that may reasonably be expected of agriculture in the ele- 
 mentary schools is to interest the children in country-life sub- 
 jects so that they may know the common birds, insects, trees, 
 weeds; the meaning of some of the best farm practices, such 
 as selecting and testing seed, how the soil holds water and means 
 of preventing its loss, care of milk and value of its fat content, 
 etc. ; and through such studies to lead the children to appreciate 
 the fact that there is something worth while in the immediate 
 world in which they live. 
 
 The rural high school is now being recognized as the best 
 place below the college for instruction in agriculture. Such 
 a high school is closely related to rural education in two ways : 
 one in the adjustment of its own work to the industrial and 
 
 "5
 
 Ii6 AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS 
 
 social needs of its community, the other in giving its graduates 
 who expect to teach in rural elementary schools some prepara- 
 tion for teaching country-life subjects. 
 
 ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS 
 
 The introduction of agricultural subjects into elementary 
 schools has proceeded mainly along two lines one as a result 
 of legislation, the other as a natural outgrowth of boys' agri- 
 cultural clubs. 
 
 In many places in states where agriculture is a required 
 subject for instruction in rural schools no such legislation was 
 really needed, for the subject was already being introduced in 
 a sane and effective way, and was being made use of as far as 
 the experience of the teacher and conditions of the school en- 
 vironment would permit. 
 
 The results of compulsory teaching of agriculture in the ele- 
 mentary schools have been twofold: first, in stimulating those 
 in charge of the administration to provide helps to those teach- 
 ers who are expected to carry out the provisions of the law; 
 second, in the production and use of textbooks on elementary 
 agriculture. The first has been done through bulletins, teachers' 
 leaflets, institute instruction, summer normal schools, and in vari- 
 ous other ways. Some agricultural colleges have been called upon 
 to give attention to elementary education sooner than they other- 
 wise would. They have been forced to study the rural-school 
 situation and devise means for improving it. The work of state 
 offices of education and of agricultural colleges in promoting 
 agricultural education in rural communities has already been 
 considered somewhat in detail in previous chapters. But the con- 
 tributions of these two agencies to agricultural education in 
 elementary schools must not be ascribed wholly to legislation, for 
 in several states having no requirements as to teaching of agri- 
 culture both state departments of education and agricultural 
 colleges have done excellent service in providing helps for 
 teachers wishing to introduce the subject in their schools.
 
 ELEMENTARY AND SECONDARY SCHOOLS 117 
 
 The second result has been less satisfactory. Indeed, in 
 some instances it has proved a positive detriment to agricultural 
 education. It has in effect added another textbook subject to 
 an already crowded rural-school curriculum, for many teachers, 
 in spite of whatever suggestions they may receive from leaflets 
 or institute instruction, know of no other way to teach except 
 by means of a textbook. It has put undue emphasis on the 
 agricultural textbook. More than a score of elementary text- 
 books have appeared within a decade. Publishers have been 
 very active in securing the use of their books in the rural 
 schools. While the value of a good textbook must be con- 
 ceded, it is apt to be the means of substituting agricultural in- 
 formation for real agricultural instruction. The kind of agri- 
 cultural instruction best adapted for the elementary schools 
 cannot be given merely by means of recitations from a text- 
 book. 
 
 There may be some justification in making the teaching of a 
 subject compulsory on the ground that otherwise it would never 
 be taught. On the other hand it may seriously be questioned, 
 since the whole burden of such a measure falls upon the teach- 
 ers, whether efficient teaching of any subject may be secured by 
 mandatory legislation. The length of teaching service of the 
 average rural teacher is very short, perhaps less than three 
 years. As a result rural teachers are constantly being recruited 
 from the young graduates of grammar and high schools. It is 
 claimed by some that whatever preparation these inexperienced 
 teachers may make is largely determined by what they are ex- 
 pected to teach. If they must teach agriculture they will make 
 some effort to prepare themselves to teach this subject. It 
 is probably on this theory that so many states have tried this 
 plan of introducing agriculture into the rural schools. At 
 least sixteen states have tried this plan, and in several other states 
 bills providing for such instruction were considered by legislatures 
 last in session, and one (in Ohio) became a law. 
 
 The second line of development of agricultural education
 
 Ii8 AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS 
 
 in elementary schools has produced a much better type of in- 
 struction than the former or mandatory method. This is partly 
 because the results of boys' clubs have shown the value of agri- 
 culture as a school subject, and have thus secured for it public 
 approval and support, and partly because experience in man- 
 aging these clubs has given the teachers some insight into 
 methods of adapting the subject to the needs of the school, and 
 of making it an effective part of the regular school work. 
 
 Teachers who have been the most successful are those who 
 have selected agricultural subjects of special interest to the 
 school community, and who have used methods calling for self- 
 activity on the part of the pupils having the pupils learn by 
 doing rather than by reciting. The following is a list of various 
 kinds of work reported to be successfully adapted to rural 
 schools (147) : experimental plots for plant breeding, soil in- 
 oculation, and other soil experiments; ear-to-row method of 
 improving corn, and use of acre plots ; seed germinating includ- 
 ing tests of viability; collection of economic plants, weeds, weed- 
 seed, and insects; budding, grafting, pruning, and spraying 
 fruit trees ; milk testing with Babcock milk tester. 
 
 The importance attached by pupils and patrons to such work 
 is well illustrated by the following report. In one county in 
 Iowa it is the practice for each school to have in the spring a 
 germinating test for corn. One teacher says of this work : 
 
 My boys who would not go across the road for a song book went two 
 miles in the snow to get some sawdust for a germinating box. When the 
 corn had germinated, the farmers came to the schoolhouse to see how their 
 corn had turned out, and incidentally saw the work of the school. Why, 
 farmers came who couldn't 'remember when they had been inside the school- 
 house before! (148, p. 18). 
 
 The rural school is badly in need of redirection, but it will 
 take more than the teaching of agriculture to bring this about. 
 However, some sort of nature-study agriculture that has ele- 
 ments of interest to pupils and parents alike may do much 
 toward putting the rural school in the way of redirection. Here 
 and there are promises of the fulfilment of L. H. Bailey's vi-
 
 ELEMENTARY AND SECONDARY SCHOOLS 119 
 
 sion of a rural school living up to its possibilities. Referring 
 to the kind of agricultural studies suggested in the above report, 
 he says : 
 
 All such teaching as this will call for a new purpose in the school build- 
 ing. The present country-school building is a structure in which children 
 sit to study books and recite from them. It should also be a place in which 
 the children can work with their hands. Every school building should have 
 a laboratory room, in which there may be a few plants growing in the win- 
 dows, and perhaps an aquarium and terrarium. Here the children will bring 
 flowers and insects and samples of soil, and varieties of corn or cotton in 
 their season, and other objects that interest them, and here they may perform 
 their simple work with tools. Even if the teacher cannot teach these sub- 
 jects, the room itself will teach. The mere bringing of such objects would 
 have a tremendous influence on children : patrons would ask what the room 
 is for; in time a teacher would be found who could handle the subject peda- 
 gogically. Now we see children carrying only books to school; some day 
 they will also carry twigs and potatoes and animals and tools and contrivances 
 and other personal objects (122). 
 
 SECONDARY SCHOOLS 
 
 Previous to 1906 there were but few high schools (except- 
 ing agricultural high schools) giving instruction in agriculture; 
 in 1906-7 there were 75-80; in 1907-8, 240-50; in 1908-9, 
 over 500; in 1909-10, probably 1,000; in 1910-11, incomplete 
 data indicate as many as 1,500. The number of agricultural 
 high schools (those giving two or more years of agricultural 
 instruction) in 1909 was 125; in 1910, 144. Of these there 
 were receiving local support, in 1909, 24; in 1910, 33; receiv- 
 ing state aid in 1909, 29; in 1910, 39; technical schools giving 
 agricultural instruction in 1909, 37; in 1910, 47; connected with 
 agricultural colleges in 1909, 34; in 1910, 35 (149, pp. 333~35; 
 W PP- 23-25). 
 
 Secondary agricultural education has developed along sev- 
 eral lines, giving rise to as many as eight more or less distinct 
 types, viz. (a) agricultural-college, (&) district, (c) county, 
 (d) village-township, (<?) city, (/) state aid, (g} technical, (h) 
 normal. 1 
 
 1 The first four types of this classification are suggested by G. A. Bricker in his Teaching 
 of Agricultural in the High School, chap, ii (151).
 
 120 AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS 
 
 The agricultural-college type is well illustrated by the School 
 of Agriculture of the University of Minnesota. This school 
 has the distinction of being one of the first secondary schools 
 of agriculture. It was 
 
 organized in 1888 with the object of giving practical education to young 
 men and women who are unable to pursue the full college course in agri- 
 culture. It offers a practical course of study designed to fit young men and 
 women for successful farm life, and aims to give its students the necessary 
 preparation for useful citizenship (152, p. 8). 
 
 The district type is found in Alabama, Arkansas, Georgia, 
 Oklahoma, and Virginia. The districts in each of these states ex- 
 cept Oklahoma correspond to the several congressional dis- 
 tricts. The objects of all these schools are similar and are 
 summed up in the following statement concerning the Alabama 
 District Agricultural Schools which were the first of this type 
 of schools to be established : 
 
 To turn out young men well grounded in the underlying principles of 
 scientific and practical agriculture, that they may make successful planters 
 and advance the farming interests of the state. 
 
 To give such instruction and training as will fix in the minds of the 
 young men high ideals of country-life education, as is done in the best agri- 
 cultural high schools under the name of "agriculture and home economics." 
 
 To educate and fully equip young men and women for efficient teaching 
 in the public schools of the state. 
 
 To prepare those who desire to enter higher institutions of learning 
 
 (iS3, P- I5)- 2 
 
 The establishment of county agricultural high schools is now 
 authorized in at least twenty-three states. In many of these 
 states such schools receive state aid. The county schools of 
 Wisconsin are the oldest and best known. In the Wisconsin 
 schools 
 
 the courses are two years in length and include subjects of general agricul- 
 ture; biology and physical subjects; laboratory and field and shop work; 
 domestic science, home economy, and hygiene; sewing and millinery; farm 
 management and accounts, besides courses in English, history, civics, and 
 other branches of the usual high-school type (151, p. 23). 
 
 See Georgia District Agricultural Schools (154).
 
 ELEMENTARY AND SECONDARY SCHOOLS 121 
 
 The Baltimore County (Md.) Agricultural High School 
 presents some features that deserve special mention: 
 
 The school is meant especially to meet the needs of a rural community. 
 It presents all the usual subjects taught in high schools, except foreign 
 languages, and in addition teaches agriculture, domestic science, and manual 
 training. It is thus planned that students graduating from this school will, 
 in addition to a good general or academic education, have some industrial 
 or vocational training to fit them to take their places in the world (155, p. i). 
 
 The principal, who is a specialist in agriculture, devotes the en- 
 tire year to the school, spending the usual summer vacation in 
 the interests of the school, inspecting and directing the work of 
 the pupils who are carrying out in a practical way experiments 
 and problems outlined during the school year. In this manner 
 the principles of agriculture taught in the school are carried 
 over into practice under normal farming conditions. In addi- 
 tion to offering excellent instruction in agriculture and in other 
 subjects, the school further serves the community by giving 
 courses for rural school teachers and for farmers and their 
 wives, and by furnishing a center for religious service and literary 
 and social activities for the young people (156). 
 
 Most of the high schools giving instruction in agriculture 
 are of the village-township type. The work of two of these 
 high schools which were among the first to make agriculture 
 a subject of instruction has already been referred to in chap. 
 vii. The motive for reorganizing rural village and township 
 high schools on the basis of country-life interests is well ex- 
 pressed tin an account of the New Holland (Ohio) High School : 
 
 The larger percentage of the boys and girls who are enrolled in the village 
 and township high schools of this state will spend their lives either in the 
 rural districts or villages where farm life and agricultural industries are the 
 leading interests. They will be either farmers or farmers' wives, or they 
 will be engaged in business very intimately connected with agriculture. In 
 view of this condition the Board of Education at New Holland, Ohio, has 
 placed agriculture in the curriculum of the high school (157, p. 3). 
 
 Another of the earlier schools of this type whose success 
 has attracted considerable attention is the John Swaney School, 
 Putnam County, Illinois (158).
 
 122 AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS 
 
 High schools of cities surrounded by agricultural commu- 
 nities enrol a large number of pupils from the country. The 
 special needs of such pupils have recently been recognized by a 
 few city high schools. Thus in the Stockton (Cal.) High School 
 a department of agriculture was organized at the beginning of 
 the present school year. A director who is an agricultural- 
 college graduate, has charge. He is not expected to teach more 
 than one-third of his time; the rest of his time is to be devoted 
 to the "study of agricultural problems at first hand throughout 
 the farm 'area tributary to Stockton." He is to take up any agri- 
 cultural problem at any time, go to the farm, and help find a 
 solution. By this means the farmer is reached directly and 
 made to feel that our school director and teachers are will- 
 ing and able to educate boys and girls for profitable farm 
 life and to cope with economic problems troublesome and burden- 
 some to them. Short courses are also offered to farmers and 
 those interested in agriculture who cannot take the full course. 
 A course is offered to students who expect to be teachers with 
 a view of providing the rural schools with teachers having a 
 knowledge of, and an interest in, farm life. Further aid is given 
 the rural schools by a series of teachers' meetings and confer- 
 ences with the director in charge (159). 
 
 The Gardena High School of Los Angeles has been offering 
 courses in agriculture with particular reference to horticulture, 
 gardening, and poultry raising which are the dominant interests 
 of the community (160). The San Diego (Cal.) High School 
 has also recently established a department of agriculture some- 
 what after the Stockton plan. 
 
 Agriculture in city high schools located in farming re- 
 gions offers a very promising field for further development. 
 These schools have advantages that compensate somewhat for 
 their immediate non-rural surroundings. Their laboratory facili- 
 ties are usually very good, and they are able by means of high 
 salaries to secure experienced and well-equipped teachers. 
 
 In order to encourage the introduction of agriculture into
 
 ELEMENTARY AND SECONDARY SCHOOLS 123 
 
 rural high schools some states have offered the inducement of 
 state aid to a limited number of schools undertaking this work. 
 For example, Minnesota is now giving for this purpose $2,500 
 to each of thirty high schools, and $1,000 to each of sixty. 
 This method has some advantages over entire local support, 
 for it not only makes possible the securing of good teachers 
 but provides for a higher standard of efficiency than is likely 
 to be secured by a purely local management. (See chaps, iii. 
 and iv.) 
 
 The Hinckley State High School which is a good example of 
 this type of high school organized in Minnesota offers the 
 following courses: literary course, four years; agricultural- 
 industrial course, four years; special agricultural course, two 
 years ; short course for institutes for farmers ; normal course 
 for rural teachers, one year (161). 
 
 A somewhat different plan of state aid to high schools giv- 
 ing instruction in agriculture, mechanic arts, and home-making 
 is being worked out in New York. The following extract from 
 the educational law of 1910 will indicate the scope of the New 
 York plan: 
 
 The Commissioner of Education in the annual apportionment of the state 
 school moneys shall apportion therefrom to each city and union free school 
 district the sum of $500 for each independently organized general industrial 
 school, trade school, or school of agriculture, mechanic arts, and home-making, 
 maintained therein for 38 weeks during the school year and employing one 
 teacher whose work is devoted exclusively to such school, and having an 
 enrolment of at least 25 pupils, and maintaining a course of study approved 
 by him. The Commissioner shall also make an additional appropriation to 
 each city or union free school district of $200 for each additional teacher em- 
 ployed exclusively in such schools for 38 weeks during the school year 
 (162, p. 3). 
 
 In order to secure successful operation of this law, the or- 
 ganization and general oversight of all schools receiving state 
 aid for teaching agriculture are under the direction of the State 
 Department of Agricultural Education. The State Department 
 of Education has also prepared a very complete series of syllabi 
 of courses in agriculture for high schools. From this series it is
 
 124 AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS 
 
 possible for a school to select subjects adapted to the particular 
 agricultural interests of the community (163). 
 
 Agriculture in the technical type of secondary schools re- 
 ceives much the same attention as in the district type, the chief 
 difference being that the latter offers no courses in mechanic 
 arts. These schools seem to be patterned after state agricul- 
 tural and mechanical colleges, but offering only instruction of 
 secondary grade. A good example of this type is the Cali- 
 fornia Polytechnic School, which was opened in 1903 at San 
 Luis Obispo. This institution is supported by the state, and is 
 intended "to furnish to the young people of both sexes mental 
 and manual training in arts and sciences, including agriculture, 
 mechanical engineering, business methods, domestic economy, 
 and such other branches as will fit students for non-professional 
 walks of life" (16, p. 22). 
 
 Agricultural education in State Normal Schools has already 
 been discussed in chap. vi. Instruction in agriculture in these 
 schools is usually of secondary grade but with the special aim 
 of preparing teachers. In some of these schools considerable 
 emphasis is placed upon agriculture, and work corresponding 
 to some of the 'best agricultural high schools is offered. For 
 example, the Cape Girardeau (Mo.) State Normal School has 
 a department of agriculture not only for teachers but for 
 furnishing "young men from the farm an opportunity of obtain- 
 ing the equivalent of a good high-school education of such a 
 nature as will fit them to carry on the business of farming 
 according to the most approved farm methods" (164, p. 63). 
 
 The development of secondary agricultural instruction has 
 proceeded along two lines, one by employing existing high 
 schools, the other in organizing separate agricultural high 
 schools. The recent tendency as indicated by the statistical sum- 
 mary introducing this discussion seems strongly in the direction 
 of the former. No doubt there is much to be said in favor of 
 separate agricultural high schools to meet conditions in certain 
 localities, but taking the country as a whole the natural tendency, 
 as above indicated, of maintaining the unity of our present
 
 \ 
 
 ELEMENTARY AND SECONDARY SCHOOLS 125 
 
 school organization presents obvious advantages which the pub- 
 lic has already begun to realize. 
 
 Attention should be given, in this connection, to the fact 
 that much misapprehension and undue concern exists as to the 
 plan of organization of the agricultural high school. A careful 
 analysis of the course of study of the average agricultural high 
 school will show less divergence from the plan of the ordinary 
 high school than many suppose. It will be found that the 
 courses of study are essentially the same in many particulars, 
 the chief difference being the substitution of agricultural and 
 household-arts subjects for the foreign languages, with perhaps 
 more emphasis on the practical side of the sciences and less 
 emphasis on certain phases of mathematics (165). 
 
 One real difficulty in making the most of agriculture as a 
 school subject lies in the fact that there is little opportunity for 
 agricultural practice corresponding to shop practice in mechanic 
 arts. The most active season of agricultural work is during the 
 summer vacation. This difficulty may be met in the way already 
 referred to in the account of the Baltimore County (Md.) Agri- 
 cultural High School, where the teacher of agriculture devotes 
 the usual summer vacation period to looking after experiments 
 being conducted by the pupils. This matter has been carefully 
 studied by a special agent of the Massachusetts State Board of 
 Education and conclusions submitted to the legislature in the 
 form of a Report of the Board of Education on Agricultural 
 Education (166). Provision for proper farm practice as 
 recommended in this report is secured by part-time work 
 in agriculture which may utilize "home land, equipment, and 
 time, outside school hours, for practical training supervised 
 by the school." The scheme is worked out in considerable 
 detail by means of concrete examples of various "farming 
 projects" that may be undertaken. Among the major pro- 
 jects suggested are caring for a kitchen garden, keeping a pen 
 of poultry, caring for a selected part of an orchard, raising a 
 specified crop of potatoes, caring for one cow. Each major 
 project is broken up into minor projects. For example, keeping
 
 126 AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS 
 
 a pen of poultry would include as minor projects building a 
 poultry house according to plans and specifications worked out 
 at school. This in turn is divided into such subordinate minor 
 projects as are necessary for successful completion, such as se- 
 lecting a site for the house, taking into consideration : soil as 
 related to poultry culture, underdrainage, conditions of sunlight 
 and shade, convenience of access, etc. The legislation proposed 
 by this report was passed by the legislature last in session. 
 When the proposed plan goes into effect, its results should be 
 carefully studied by all who are interested in secondary agri- 
 cultural education. 
 
 The rapid introduction of agriculture into high schools is 
 responsible, in part at least, for two interesting educational re- 
 actions. One is the changed attitude of colleges toward agri- 
 culture as an entrance unit. A few years ago most colleges 
 refused to give any credit for work done in this subject in high 
 schools. Now 36 colleges actually recognize the subject and 27 
 express a willingness to do so when it is offered as an entrance 
 unit, and several other colleges are considering the matter (167). 
 
 The other reaction is upon the method of presenting sec- 
 ondary science. There is now a growing tendency to relate sci- 
 ence instruction more and more to the practical affairs of life 
 (168). Recent experiments seem to justify this method of 
 approach to a science even when judged from the point of view of 
 pure science (169, 170). 
 
 Agricultural colleges are now well established, and their 
 problems are largely matters of detail and of research. The 
 problems of agricultural education are now being shifted to the 
 secondary schools offering agricultural instruction. There is 
 a great diversity, not only in respect to types of schools, but 
 also as to methods, time devoted to the subject, equipment, 
 qualification of teachers, and in other respects. But of the 
 widespread interest there can be no doubt. The results on the 
 whole promise much for the development of rural education 
 and redirection of rural schools.
 
 CHAPTER XIV 
 TEXTBOOKS 
 
 One striking evidence of the growing interest in agricul- 
 tural education in elementary and secondary schools is the num- 
 ber of textbooks on agriculture that have appeared in recent 
 years. 1 Of the seventy-five or more textbooks on this subject 
 nearly forty have been published since 1900. 
 
 An excellent account of the textbooks of agriculture, in- 
 cluding historical aspects, was written by L. H. Bailey in 1903 
 (171). The present discussion will therefore be confined 
 chiefly to the textbooks published since 1903. In this period 
 of seven years at least twenty-eight textbooks of various kinds 
 have been written. Emphasis should be put on various, for the 
 diversity of plan and treatment of the subject in these books 
 makes it difficult to find a basis of classification. They will 
 be considered in this discussion as three types: for elementary 
 schools, for secondary schools, and for teachers. 
 
 Most elementary textbooks are informational in character. 
 The subject is generally presented in clear and simple language 
 easily within the grasp of the pupil. It is assumed that the 
 pupil has had sufficient concrete experiences with agricultural 
 matters, and that the text will help him to interpret these ex- 
 periences. There is a minimum of effort required of the pupil 
 to find out things for himself. Questions are often given at 
 the end of each chapter, but they are usually merely a summary 
 
 * It is possible that this statement should be qualified, for the number of books published 
 does not indicate the number in actual use. A quotation from a private letter written by the 
 editor of one of the largest publishing companies of agricultural books is significant: "Outside 
 of one textbook published by a Boston house, I do not believe there is another manual of agri- 
 culture or agricultural textbook that has paid the publishers anything beyond mere cost, and 
 some have not even paid cost." This was written in 1009. Since then conditions may have 
 changed for there has been a great development of interest in the subject. Besides, fourteen 
 books have been written during and since 1909. It seems likely that the small demand for 
 certain textbooks may be due to the quality of the books themselves. 
 
 127
 
 128 AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS 
 
 of the text, and test the memory rather than ability to interpret. 
 Sometimes experiments are introduced, either in the text or 
 at the end of chapters. But conclusions to be drawn from these 
 experiments are either so implied in the text or are so obvious 
 that the suggested experiments become merely concrete examples 
 or illustrations of discussion in the text. Books of this kind 
 are easily adapted to the prevailing recitation method and con- 
 sequently are in extensive use (172). Several books have ap- 
 peared in which the experiment predominates. Here problems 
 and some suggestions as to procedure are given. The pupil 
 is expected to find answers by means of his own investigations. 
 He is supposed to learn to find out things for himself. How- 
 ever, even in otherwise admirable books, induction is often 
 "ready-made for the pupil" (173). This method of teaching 
 by means of experiment does not fit in very well with prevailing 
 methods of teaching. Many of the teachers themselves have 
 not had the benefit of laboratory training, and hence know 
 very little of any other than the textbook method of learning 
 or teaching. 
 
 Another kind is the one in which agriculture is correlated 
 with arithmetic. Problems for demonstration of the various 
 arithmetical principles relate to agricultural affairs. In the 
 preface of one book occurs the statement, "The pupil will un- 
 consciously absorb and retain many valuable facts and prin- 
 ciples relating to agricultural practice"; in the preface of 
 another, the statement, "We trust that this little book, by com- 
 bining the subjects of arithmetic and agriculture, will be of 
 material assistance to teachers in their efforts to do effective 
 work in both branches" (177, 193). 
 
 Perhaps one reason for the number of elementary agri- 
 cultural textbooks- lies in the nature of the subject itself. 
 
 Considered as an industry, agriculture is manufacturing, buying, and sell- 
 ing. It is business. But unlike most other businesses, the operator is pro- 
 ducer of the raw material as well as dealer in the products. In order to 
 produce his wares to the best advantage he must know much of the princi- 
 ples in accordance with which the most successful production must proceed.
 
 TEXTBOOKS 129 
 
 In other words, he must know much of the sciences on which agriculture is 
 based, as physics, chemistry, botany, and other sciences. But he should never 
 forget that the practice of agriculture is an art and not a science. 
 
 These remarks will suggest why it is that there is such a bewildering 
 diversity in plan in the various textbooks of agriculture. One reason why 
 these textbooks have not been more successful in accomplishing the missions 
 for which they are designed is the fact that they look upon agriculture from 
 the academic point of view rather than from the agricultural. Another reason 
 is the attempt to make them "practical" by inserting specific directions for 
 the performing of accustomed farm operations; for these directions must 
 necessarily be of local and temporary application, whereas principles are 
 general and abiding (171, p. 690). 
 
 Considered from the standpoint of scientific accuracy most 
 of these textbooks are good, but in some there are inaccurate 
 data, or statements at variance with well-established facts. Con- 
 sidered from the standpoint of pedagogy most of these texts 
 are lacking. The matter ,is often presented with little or no 
 reference to this important aspect of a textbook. Indeed, some 
 are barely more than abridged encyclopedias of agricultural 
 information. This general defect may possibly be accounted 
 for when we consider the fact that the authors of all these 
 books, with a few exceptions, are college professors, whose 
 chief interest is in the subject-matter with apparently little in- 
 terest in organizing material from a teaching standpoint, and 
 giving no recognition to the social possibilities of their subject. 
 
 It is probable that the most useful book, at least for the present, will 
 be one that attempts at the same time to awaken an interest in country life 
 and to set the pupil at the working out of specific problems. Mere problems 
 are too "dry" to attract pupils, except now and then under the inspiration 
 of an extra good teacher. On the other hand, mere information-giving has 
 little teaching value and is not likely to arouse any important enthusiasm for 
 the open country and the farm. On account of the diversity of interests to 
 be served, no single textbook of agriculture can hope to have great leadership 
 in all parts of the country. The thoroughly satisfactory text is apparently 
 yet to be written (12 2). 
 
 The purpose of an agricultural textbook for secondary 
 schools is well expressed in the preface of a recent book of this 
 grade: "to make the teaching of agriculture in existing high
 
 130 AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS 
 
 schools comparable in extent and thoroughness with the teach- 
 ing of physics, mathematics, history, and literature." Although 
 some of the elementary textbooks already referred to are being 
 used to some extent in high schools there are only five books 
 known to the writer that measure up to the standard just quoted. 
 No two of these follow the same plan of treatment. In one 
 laboratory work largely predominates; in another good labora- 
 tory exercises follow each chapter; in another some experi- 
 ments are suggested in the text and among the questions at the 
 end of the chapters; in two no laboratory exercises are sug- 
 gested except in a general way in the text (176, 190, 195, 197, 
 200). These are all well written, and where one is used as a 
 textbook the others could be used to advantage as reference 
 books. For a detailed comparison of these textbooks the bibli- 
 ography should be consulted. 
 
 There are three other books which properly belong among 
 secondary textbooks of agriculture but which do not cover the 
 entire subject. "There are those who believe that when agri- 
 culture is fully introduced as a secondary subject, it will con- 
 sist, as in college, not of one but of several courses, each with 
 its distinct and separate text." One of these is a laboratory 
 manual dealing with soils and crops (198) ; the other two are 
 textbooks, one dealing with fertility of the soil, the other with 
 plant and animal improvement (184, 196). 
 
 A third type includes books for teachers. These books deal 
 with the subject from the standpoint of teaching. Five are 
 for teachers in elementary schools (185, 187, 189, 194, 199), 
 and one is for teachers in secondary schools (151). Not much 
 attention has yet been given to the teaching problems of the 
 subject of agriculture, but they are quite as important as the 
 subject-matter. 
 
 Referring to elementary agricultural textbooks, L. H. Bailey 
 says: "Efforts enough have been made, but they have fallen 
 short of anticipations. Before textbooks we need teachers; 
 and we must appeal to the child through his interest in nature
 
 TEXTBOOKS 131 
 
 rather than technically in the farm" (171, p. 696). Elementary 
 textbooks are not nearly so important as elementary teachers. 
 It is to the new teachers who are to have at least a high-school 
 education that we must look to carry agricultural education into 
 the rural elementary schools. It is for this reason that addi- 
 tional importance is to be attached to instruction in agriculture 
 and country-life subjects in rural high schools. A good text- 
 book with well-selected experiments, although alone not suffi- 
 cient, is, nevertheless, quite essential to any general introduction 
 and efficient instruction in these high schools. 
 
 As this discussion of textbooks of agriculture is really sup- 
 plementary to one already made by L. H. Bailey (171), his plan 
 of chronological bibliography, with annotations as to contents, 
 will be followed. His article and this chapter, including refer- 
 ences 151 and 172202, inclusive, will thus bring the subject up 
 to date.
 
 BIBLIOGRAPHY 
 
 WITH ANNOTATIONS 
 
 The titles are arranged in order of citation in the various chapters of the 
 text, except numbers 174 to 202. These are arranged in chronological order as 
 in L. H. Bailey's bibliography in his Development of the Textbook of Agriculture 
 in North America (171), the two lists making an almost complete bibliography 
 of North American textbooks of agriculture up to the present. 
 
 The bibliography has been selected with the view of presenting typical 
 contributions on various phases of agricultural education in elementary and 
 secondary schools. No attempt has been made to make it complete. 
 
 1. Agricultural Education. CHARLES W. DABNEY. "Butler's Monographs 
 in Education" (1904), II, No. 12. 
 
 A historical summary of agricultural education in the United States. 
 
 2. Historical Sketch of the U.S. Department of Agriculture: Its Objects and 
 Present Organization. CHARLES H. GREATHOUSE. U.S. Department of 
 Agriculture, Division of Publications, Bui. 3, second revision (1907), 97. 
 
 The first part (pp. 5-57) deals with early government aids to agri- 
 culture, agricultural division of patent office, organization of the independent 
 department, the department raised to first rank, buildings, bureaus, divisions, 
 and offices. The second part gives an account of legislation and a tabula- 
 tion of expenditures. 
 
 3. Secondary Courses in Agriculture (seventh report of the Committee on 
 Instruction in Agriculture). U.S. Department of Agriculture, Office of 
 Experiment Stations, Cir. 49, 10. 
 
 A number of high-school courses are given with suggested changes adapt- 
 ing them to the introduction of agriculture. 
 
 4. A Secondary Course in Agronomy (eleventh report of the Committee on 
 Instruction in Agriculture). U.S. Department of Agriculture, Office of 
 Experiment Stations, Cir. 77, 43. 
 
 This report contains a syllabus of agronomy, instructions to teachers 
 and 113 lectures, recitations, demonstrations, and laboratory exercises on 
 various phases of agronomy. The plan is a good one to work to, but is 
 somewhat in advance of, or too advanced for, the average high school. 
 
 5. The Teaching of Agriculture in the Rural Common Schools (ninth report 
 of the Committee on Instruction hi Agriculture). U.S. Department of 
 Agriculture, Office of Experiment Stations, Cir. 60, 20. 
 
 This report discussed the development of industrial training in the 
 common schools and gives an outline of work in nature-study, and ele- 
 mentary agriculture for such schools. 
 
 132
 
 BIBLIOGRAPHY 133 
 
 6. Publications for free distribution (revised annually), U.S. Department of 
 Agriculture, Division of Publications, Cir. 2 (1908), 76. 
 
 This list of publications and copies of all publications which it mentions 
 will be sent free on application to the Secretary of Agriculture, Washing- 
 ton, D.C. 
 
 7. Free Publications of the Department of Agriculture Classified for the Use of 
 Teachers. D. J. CROSBY and F. W. HOWE. U.S. Department of Agri- 
 culture, Office of Experiment Stations, Cir. 94 (1910), 35. 
 
 This contains a list of "free publications classified for use of teachers 
 of agriculture, botany, chemistry, domestic science, and hygiene, geography, 
 physics, physiology, and zoology, including entomology." 
 
 8. Publications for sale (revised annually), U.S. Department of Agriculture, 
 Division of Publications, Cir. 3 (1908), 99. 
 
 This list may be obtained in the same way as (5) but applications for 
 publications mentioned in this list must be addressed to the Superintendent 
 of Documents, Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C. Only coin or 
 currency should be sent, as stamps are not accepted. 
 
 9. Monthly list of publications, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Division 
 of Publications, Monthly Circular, 4. 
 
 This circular will be sent .regularly to all who apply for it. Address, 
 Secretary of Agriculture, Washington, D.C. The list contains titles of all 
 new publications, including reprints and revisions, of the Department. 
 
 10. The Weather Bureau and the Public Schools. JOHN R. WEEKS. Reprint 
 from Yearbook of Department of Agriculture for ipo/, 267-76. 
 
 This reprint contains a discussion of methods of teaching, an outline 
 by grades of meteorology for the elementary schools of the state of New 
 York, the purpose and value of meteorology in school work, weather map 
 and other aids to teachers, home-made apparatus, lantern slides. 
 
 11. Forestry in the Public Schools. HUGO A. WINKENWERDER. U.S. Depart- 
 ment of Agriculture, Forest Service, Cir. 130 (1907), 20. 
 
 This circular suggests how various school subjects may be correlated 
 with forestry and gives an outline for such correlation with each subject. 
 It also contains a very complete classified list of references. 
 
 12. Forest Nurseries for Schools, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Farmers' 
 Bui. 423 (1910), 24. 
 
 Directions are given in detail for establishing a forest nursery in 
 connection with an average public school. 
 
 13. The School Garden. L. C. CORBETT. U.S. Department of Agriculture, 
 Bureau of Plant Industry, Special Cir. (1905), 6. 
 
 Brief plans are given for a school garden. Six common vegetables and 
 six common flowering plants are described with cultural directions. 
 
 14. The School Garden. L. C. CORBETT. U.S. Department of Agriculture, 
 Farmers' Bui. 218 (1905), 40. 
 
 This bulletin discusses value of garden work, type of plants for garden, 
 laboratory exercises, studies of soil, plants, roots, stems, leaves, cuttings, 
 budding, window boxes, and decoration of school yard.
 
 134 AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS 
 
 15. Results of Boys' Demonstration Work in Corn Clubs in igio. S. A. KNAPP 
 and O. P. MARTIN. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Plant 
 Industry, Doc. 647 (1910), 7. 
 
 The origin of the boys' corn club work in connection with the fanners' 
 demonstration work is traced back to 1906, and a brief review of the 
 development of the movement since 1909 is given. 
 
 16. The American System of Agricultural Education. A. C. TRUE and 
 D. J. CROSBY. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Office of Experiment 
 Stations, Cir. 83 (1009), 27. 
 
 Agricultural education in America is discussed briefly as follows: De- 
 partments of original research and graduate study in agriculture ; agricultural 
 colleges ; secondary schools of agriculture ; elementary schools ; schools for 
 Negroes and Indians. Under elementary instruction the work in different 
 parts of the country includes, (i) nature-study with plants, farm crops, 
 domestic animals, and soils; (2) school garden work, including improvement 
 of school grounds; (3) lecture courses and institutes for rural school 
 children ; (4) organization of clubs among school children. 
 
 17. Experiment Station Record. E. W. ALLEN, editor. U.S. Department of 
 Agriculture, Office of Experiment Stations. 
 
 The Record contains numerous abstracts of publications of the agri- 
 cultural experiment stations and kindred institutions in this and other 
 countries ; articles and editorials on topics of special interest in agricultural 
 science by American and foreign experts. One department is devoted en- 
 tirely to reviews of publications on agricultural education. With the begin- 
 ning of the current volume (XXI) this serial will be issued in two volumes 
 a year of six numbers each. Subscription, one dollar per volume, payable 
 in advance to the Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing 
 Office, Washington, D.C. 
 
 18. Form of Organization for Movable Schools of Agriculture. JOHN HAMILTON. 
 U.S. Department of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Stations, Cir. 79 
 (1908), 8. 
 
 A plan is proposed to organize movable schools of agriculture for 
 farmers over nineteen years of age and for teachers in rural schools. A 
 course is to extend over three or four seasons. The purpose is to equip 
 several persons in each community "so that they will be able to improve 
 in their locality the branch of agriculture which the school represents." 
 
 19. Education for Country Life. WILLET M. HAYES. U.S. Department of 
 Agriculture, Office of Experiment Stations, Cir. 84 (1909), 40. 
 
 This is a reprint of an address given before the Minnesota Educational 
 Association, January 2, 1908. It contains a general discussion of agricultural 
 education, followed by plans for organization of schools for country life, 
 county system of consolidated rural schools, or the farm school, the agri- 
 cultural high school, and financing consolidated rural schools in Minnesota. 
 
 20. List of publications of the Office of Experiment Stations on agricultural 
 education, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Stations, 
 Cir. Oct. 27, 1908, 13. 
 
 This comprises 136 publications: 24 circulars, 65 bulletins, 25 sepa- 
 rates, 9 lectures, 3 documents. All phases of agricultural education from 
 elementary to graduate instruction are represented. The following are
 
 BIBLIOGRAPHY 135 
 
 some of the publications relating to elementary schools: Separates, Boys' 
 Agricultural Clubs, Illustrative Material in Teaching Agriculture in Rural 
 Schools, Training Courses for Teachers of Agriculture; Bulletins: 160, 
 School Gardens, 186, Exercises in Elementary Agriculture Plant Produc- 
 tion, 195, Simple Exercises Illustrating Some Applications of Chemistry 
 to Agriculture; Circular 52, Books and Bulletins on Nature-Study, School 
 Gardening, and Elementary Agriculture. 
 
 21. "The Work of the Bureau of Education." U.S. Bureau of Education. 
 Report of Commissioner (1907), 1-36. 
 
 A short historical account is given, followed by purpose, publications, 
 organization, agricultural and mechanical colleges, and appendix containing 
 laws relating to Bureau, descriptions of facilities for research, education 
 in Alaska, and statistics of maintenance of Bureau. 
 
 22. Development of Agricultural Education. ELMER ELLSWORTH BROWN. 
 U.S. Department of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Stations, Bulletin 
 No. 196 (1007), 49-54- 
 
 An address given on the occasion of the fiftieth anniversary of the 
 founding of . Michigan Agricultural College. The Commissioner discusses 
 the relation agricultural education bears to general education. 
 
 23. "School Gardens." E. GANG. U.S. Bureau of Education. Report of 
 Commissioner (1898-99), 1067-84. 
 
 This is one of the best short accounts, especially from historical stand- 
 point, published. "Contents: Historical review; sites and arrangement of 
 school gardens ; different sections of school gardens ; management ; instruc- 
 tion in school gardens ; educational and economic significance of school 
 gardens." 
 
 24. "Methods of Instruction in Agriculture." U.S. Bureau of Education. 
 Report of Commissioner (1897-98), 1575-1616. 
 
 This chapter contains reprints of several Cornell University and Pur- 
 due University leaflets, and a report of the work at Cornell University under 
 the Nixon law of 1897. 
 
 25. Agricultural Education, Including Nature-Study and School Gardens. 
 JAMES RALPH JEWELL. U.S. Bureau of Education, Bui. 2 (1907, revised 
 1909), 148. 
 
 The subject is discussed under six heads : Nature-Study, School Gar- 
 dens, Elementary Agricultural Education, Agricultural Education, Practical 
 Advantages of Agricultural Education. There is also a bibliography of 
 134 titles, and appendices on nature observations in schools of Nova Scotia, 
 and on the Irish system of agricultural education. 
 
 26. "Agricultural and Mechanical Colleges." U.S. Bureau of Education. 
 Report of Commissioner (1907), 869-924. 
 
 The first part of this chapter is devoted to general statements includ- 
 ing summary of legislation ; the second part is statistical. 
 
 27. "Agricultural and Mechanical Colleges." Ibid. (1908), 737-69. 
 
 28. "Industrial Education." Ibid. (1908), 84-89. 
 
 The full text of the Davis bill (H.R. 18,204) is given.
 
 136 AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS 
 
 29. "Digest of School Laws." Ibid. (1904), 249-518. 
 
 A condensed account of organization of all state departments of edu- 
 cation is given and a summary of school laws from time of organization of 
 each state department to 1904. 
 
 30. State School Systems. EDWARD C. ELLIOTT. U.S. Bureau of Education, 
 Bulletin No. 3, 1906. 
 
 This contains legislation and judicial decisions relating to public educa- 
 tion from October i, 1904, to October i, 1906. 
 
 31. Idem. Bulletin No. 7, 1908. 
 
 This contains legislation and judicial decisions relating to public edu- 
 cation from October i, 1906, to October i, 1908. 
 
 32. Course of Study for Departments of Agriculture and Home Economics. 
 V. L. ROY. Baton Rouge, La. : State Department of Education (1910), 
 
 64. 
 
 Most of this bulletin is devoted to agriculture. It includes require- 
 ments for departments of agriculture in high schools, outlines of courses 
 of study, syllabi of courses on general agriculture, farm animals, farm 
 bookkeeping, chemistry, dairying, agricultural engineering, entomology, 
 farm crops, field practice, horticulture, rural law, farm management, poultry, 
 shop practice, and soils and fertilizers. Directions to teachers of agri- 
 culture are given. A list of apparatus and reference books is also included. 
 
 33. Agricultural Projects for Elementary Schools. JULIUS E. WARREN. The 
 Commonwealth of Massachusetts, Board of Education, Bui. i (1911), 53. 
 
 "This manual is prepared as a guide to teachers and superintendents 
 in the introduction of work in agriculture in elementary schools." It con- 
 sists of projects including potatoes, corn, tomatoes, beets, Swiss chard, 
 carrots, parsnips, spinich, lettuce, cucumbers, radishes, kohl-rabi, alfalfa, 
 sweet peas ; suggestions for garden work, including nature of appeal to 
 pupils, equipment, and general suggestions ; laboratory work consisting of 
 twelve exercises such as testing germinating power of small seeds, to 
 show that plants need air, to show that liquids move upward through 
 plants, etc. ; collateral work including letters, filing letters, diaries, themes, 
 stories, illustrations, drawing, reading, memory selections, arithmetic, etc. 
 
 34. Course of Study for Agricultural High Schools. D. C. HULL, J. W. BELL, 
 and H. L. WHITFIELD. Jackson, Miss. : State Department of Education 
 (1910), 8. 
 
 Among the subjects discussed are : How to establish an agricultural 
 high school ; How to make a success of the school ; When the school will 
 fail ; Inspector of agricultural high schools ; Experimental stage of the 
 schools ; Course of study. 
 
 35. Manual of Agriculture for the Public Schools of Vermont. G. L. GREEN, 
 L. C. COOK, and T. J. ABBOTT. Montpelier, Vt.: State Department of 
 Education (1911), 61. 
 
 Sixty-nine exercises in elementary agriculture are given : twenty-two 
 on soils, four on soil chemistry, twelve on seed germination, nine on plant 
 growth, ten on crops, nine on forestry, and four on animal life. Score 
 cards for potatoes, vegetables, cheese, butter, and dairy cattle, and a list of 
 references are also given.
 
 BIBLIOGRAPHY 137 
 
 36. On the Training of Persons to Teach Agriculture in the Public Schools. 
 LIBERTY HYDE BAILEY. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Bureau of Education, 
 Bulletin No. 3 (1908), 53. 
 
 The subject is discussed in three parts : I, The nature of the problem 
 in (a) elementary schools, (b) high schools, (c) special schools; II, The 
 means of training the teachers (a) those already in service, (&) new teach- 
 ers; III, The general outlook; the significance of normal work in the col- 
 leges of agriculture. 
 
 37. Cornell Nature-Study Leaflets. New York State College of Agriculture 
 of Cornell University, Albany, N.Y.: State Department of Agriculture, 
 Nature-Study Bulletin No. i (1904), 607. 
 
 This volume is made up of selections, with revisions, from the Teach- 
 ers' Leaflets, Home Nature-Study Lessons, Junior Naturalist Monthly, and 
 other publications from the College of Agriculture of Cornell University. 
 
 38. Rural School Leaflet. New York State College of Agriculture of Cornell 
 University, Ithaca, N.Y. 
 
 Vol. I of this publication began in September, 1907. It is published 
 monthly in the interest of the rural schools. It takes the place of the 
 various other nature-study publications sent out by this institution : Teach- 
 ers' Nature-Study Leaflets, beginning in 1897; the Junior Naturalist, from 
 1901 to 1904; Nature-Study Quarterly, beginning in 1899; Home Nature- 
 Study Lessons, beginning in 1900, new series in 1904. 
 
 39. The Junior Agriculturalist. C. A. STEBBINS, editor. Berkeley, CaL: 
 University of California, College of Agriculture. 
 
 "A little paper issued twice a month for the boys and girls of Cali- 
 fornia." The first number appeared March 18, 1911. This paper was 
 planned primarily to reach the boys and girls who are studying agriculture 
 with the extension work of the University Agricultural Department. Each 
 number consists of two kinds of contributions : suggestions to pupils, and 
 letters from pupils giving accounts of their work. 
 
 40. Agricultural Education. J. H. MILLER, editor. Manhattan, Kan.: 
 Kansas State Agricultural College. Vol. I began November, 1908. 
 
 No regular dates of publication are announced, but it is intended that 
 at least four numbers will be issued each year. Each number takes up 
 somewhat in detail some one subject; Vol. I, No. i, A Corn Primer, pp. 46; 
 No. 2, Plant Breeding, pp. 92 ; No. 3, A Study of Insects, pp. 52 ; No. 4, 
 Insects Injurious to Farm Crops, pp. 91 ; No. 5, Boys' and Girls' Contest 
 Number, pp. 22. 
 
 An educational series of four numbers appeared in 1907, being special 
 editions of The Industrialist, a weekly publication of the College. Previous 
 to 1907 occasional numbers devoted to agricultural education appeared from 
 time to time. 
 
 41. The Agricultural College Extension Bulletin. A. B. GRAHAM, editor. 
 Columbus, Ohio: Ohio State Agricultural College. Vol. I began October, 
 1905. 
 
 Each volume consists of nine numbers published monthly. Each num- 
 ber treats some subject of interest to teachers and pupils of rural schools. 
 Eacb year one number is devoted to the centralized schools in Ohio.
 
 138 AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS 
 
 42. New Hampshire College School Bulletin. E. DWIGHT SANDERSON, editor. 
 Durham, N.H.: New Hampshire State College of Agriculture. Vol. I 
 began May, 1008. 
 
 This is a quarterly publication in the interest of New Hampshire 
 schools. Contents of Vol. I, No. i, Agriculture through the Rural Schools; 
 No. 2, Soil Studies; No. 3, Seeds and Seedlings; No. 4, Seed Testing. 
 
 43. The Nature Guard. A. E. STONE, editor. Kingston, R.I.: Rhode Island 
 State College of Agriculture. Vol. I began October, 1899. 
 
 This leaflet is issued monthly from October to May. It is the official 
 organ of the Nature Guard and Junior League of Improvement Societies of 
 Rhode Island. Each number has from four to eight pages and is usually 
 devoted to one subject; for example, the title of No. 63 is Experiments 
 with Soils. 
 
 44. West Virginia School Agriculture. D. W. WORKING, editor. Morgan- 
 town, W.Va. : West Virginia College of Agriculture. 
 
 Vol. I of this publication began in November, 1910. It is published 
 monthly from November to April inclusive. Each number is devoted to 
 some special phase of agriculture adapted for use in public-school instruc- 
 tion, e.g., Nos. 4-5 (pp. 67-88), Vol. I, to "Judging and Testing Corn." 
 It is arranged in a series of lessons : The purpose of corn judging ; How 
 judging is done ; The score card ; Selecting seed corn ; Will the corn 
 grow ; Will the corn yield ; Will the corn mature ; Is the corn improving ; 
 The profit in testing corn ; Making the tester ; Making the test ; Conclu- 
 sions from the test. 
 
 45. Public School Agriculture. W. R. HART. Amherst, Mass.: Massachu- 
 setts State College of Agriculture. Special Bulletin (1909), 32. 
 
 This is the Report of the Committee Appointed at the Conference on 
 Agricultural Science at Amherst, Mass., 1908. Fifty-four exercises in ele- 
 mentary agriculture are outlined. 
 
 46. Proceedings of the Conference on Agricultural Science. Ibid. (1908), 43. 
 
 Four papers are published as follows : "The Place of the School Gar- 
 den in the Development of Science Teaching," W. A. Baldwin ; "Adminis- 
 trative Phases of Agricultural Instruction," C. H. Robison ; "Physics and 
 Agriculture," R. W. Guss ; "Chemistry and Agriculture," Charles Wellington. 
 
 47 . Proceedings of the Second A nnual Conference on A gricultural Science. Ibid. 
 (1009), 59. 
 
 Six papers are published : "Nature-Study and Agriculture in Rural 
 Schools," M. A. Bigelow ; "Elementary Agriculture as a Subject of Study 
 in the Grades," W. R. Hart ; "Some Connections between School Studies 
 and Home and Industrial Activities," Hannah P. Waterman ; "Relation of 
 the Physical Sciences to Agriculture," S. B. Hasskell ; "Biological Sciences 
 in their Relation to Agricultural Science," E. D. Sanderson. 
 
 48. Proceedings of the Third Annual Conference on Agricultural Education. 
 Ibid. (1910), 30. 
 
 Seven papers are published : "Co-ordination between Garden Work 
 and Nature Work and Book Work," G. L. Green ; "How Agriculture Put 
 Life into a Rural School," Ethel H. Nash; "The Story of Pinehurst 
 Gardener's Club," A. Green; "Rural School and Home Gardens during 
 Summer," Elizabeth Hill ; "Gardening in the Schools of Springfield,"
 
 BIBLIOGRAPHY 139 
 
 Fannie A. Stebbins ; "Home Gardens of the Worcester Public Schools," 
 E. R. Thayer; "Some Suggestions for Beginning Garden Work," W. R. 
 Hart. 
 
 49. Extension Bulletins Relating to Agricultural Education. Illinois State 
 Agricultural College, Urbana, 111. 
 
 Consolidation of Country Schools, E. Davenport (1903, 2d ed., 1904), 
 56. Developing the Farm Boy, Fred H. Rankin (1905), 26. The Grout 
 Farm Encampment, Arthur J. Bill (1906), 42; Second Encampment, ibid. 
 (1907), 40. Dairy Lessons, Wilbur J. Fraser (1907), four parts, one lesson 
 in each. The Next Step in Agricultural Education, E. Davenport (1908), 
 22. Sugar Beets and How to Grow Them, Fred H. Rankin (1908), 7. How 
 to Run Farm Machinery, Fred R. Crane (1908), 39. 
 
 50. Rural Education: The Soil. R. H. EMBERSON. Columbia, Mo. : Bulletin 
 of the University of Missouri, X, No. 10 (1910), 8. 
 
 This bulletin is intended for use of teachers in the rural schools but 
 may be used by pupils of advanced grades. It consists of six lessons : 
 How soils are formed ; The kinds of soil ; Soil texture ; Soil tilth ; The 
 capillary water in soils ; The free water in soils. 
 
 51. Public School Agriculture. T. I. MAIRS. State College, Pa.: The Penn- 
 sylvania State College Bulletin, IV, No. 5 (1910), 13. 
 
 This bulletin contains a general discussion of agriculture with special 
 reference to public schools, list of books and printed matter, equipment for 
 agricultural instruction, suggested course for second- and third-class high 
 schools. 
 
 52. A Manual for High Schools. JOSIAH MAIN. Knoxville, Term.: Ten- 
 nessee State College of Agriculture, Special Bulletin (1909), 32. 
 
 A scheme for correlating agriculture with other high-school sciences is 
 worked in with considerable detail. 
 
 53. Rural School Agriculture. W. M. HAYES, et al. St. Anthony Park, Minn. : 
 University of Minnesota, Bulletin No. i (1903), 200. 
 
 "Exercises in this bulletin .... have been prepared for use of teach- 
 ers in the rural schools of Minnesota." This publication is of especial 
 interest because it represents one of the first efforts of agricultural colleges 
 to assist teachers by preparing concrete lessons in an agricultural subject. 
 A revised edition of this bulletin appeared as Bulletin No. 2 in 1907. A 
 comparison of the two bulletins shows an interesting shifting point of 
 view as to matter presented and method of presentation. 
 
 54. Suggestions for Garden Work in California Schools. E. B. BABCOCK, 
 Berkeley, CaL: California State Agricultural College, Circular 46 (1909), 
 48. 
 
 This contains a history of the movement, what teachers have done, 
 what teachers can do, instructions for teachers beginning garden work, 
 how to secure special preparation for teaching nature-study within Cali- 
 fornia, and list of publications. 
 
 55. Tree Growing in the Public Schools. E. B. BABCOCK, University of 
 California. Ibid., Cir. 59 (1911), 19. 
 
 All the necessary directions for tree growing are given. The circular 
 discusses tree growing in the public schools, best trees for children to 
 grow, how to grow trees, boys' and girls' clubs, tree seed exchange, best 
 free literature on tree study, best books on trees.
 
 140 AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS 
 
 56. "Agriculture in the Public Schools." C. A. STEBBINS, editor. San 
 Francisco, Cal.: Town and Country Journal. 
 
 Since the beginning of the year 1911, a series of lessons in agriculture 
 for rural schools have appeared biweekly in this journal. These lessons 
 are especially well outlined for teachers, giving general aim, specific lesson 
 aim, method of approach, and lesson in detail. 
 
 57. An Elementary Laboratory Study of Crops. Jos. A. JEFFERY. Lansing, 
 Mich.: State Department of Education, Bulletin No. 26 (1907), 28. 
 
 An Elementary Laboratory Study in Soils. Jos. A. JEFFERY. Ibid., 
 Bulletin No. 27 (1908), 36. 
 
 An Elementary Course in Horticulture. S. W. FLETCHER. Ibid., Bulletin 
 No. 28 (1908), 31. 
 
 58. The Study of Farm Crops, Farm Animals, Horticulture and Agriculture. 
 A. D. SHAMEL, E. DAVENPORT, and J. S. BLAIR. Taylorville, 111.: C. M. 
 Parker, The School News (1900-4). 
 
 About fifty short articles on the above subjects were published in the 
 School News and afterward reprinted by the publisher in form of leaflets, 
 and sold at one cent each in quantities of ten or more. They had a wide 
 sale and no doubt contributed much toward arousing an interest in agri- 
 culture in the public schools of Illinois. 
 
 59. Correspondence Courses in Agriculture. T. S. MAIRS. State College, Pa.: 
 Pennsylvania State College of Agriculture, Special Bulletin (1909), 16. 
 
 This bulletin contains announcement of "thirty-one courses of study. 
 Each course consists of from five to nine lessons and is expected to occupy 
 the time of the student for a week or two." This study is intended for 
 the farmer, the dairyman, the gardener, the nurseryman, the florist, the 
 teacher, and others who may be interested. 
 
 60. Nebraska Boys' and Girls' Association State Contest and Convention. 
 VAL. KEYSER and E. C. BISHOP. Lincoln, Neb. : University of Nebraska 
 Bulletin, Ser. XIV, No. 12 (1009), 20. 
 
 This bulletin contains announcement of the State Convention of 1910 
 of the Boys' and Girls' Association of Nebraska. Other bulletins concern- 
 ing this Association have appeared from time to time, e.g., Selecting Corn 
 for the Contest, Ser. 12, No. 25; Planting Corn for the Contest, Ser. 12, 
 No. 12 (1907); Selecting Potatoes for the Contest, Ser. 13, No. n (1908); 
 Cooking and Sewing, Ser. 13, No. 14 (1908). 
 
 61. "Boys' Agricultural Clubs." D. J. CROSBY. Washington, D.C.: U.S. 
 Department of Agriculture, Yearbook for 1904, 489-96. 
 
 This article gives a description of "the boys' exhibit of corn at the 
 Louisiana Purchase Exposition, the development of boys' clubs in Illinois 
 and other states, and school fairs ; and discusses the educational value of 
 the work done by such organizations." 
 
 62. Outline of the Courses in Science. Madison, Wis.: Board of Regents of 
 State Normal Schools (1901), 32. 
 
 Each of the subjects of instruction in the state normal schools is briefly 
 outlined. About seven pages are devoted to agriculture and include pur- 
 pose of subject, scope (soil, plant and crops, animals and stock), and plan.
 
 BIBLIOGRAPHY 141 
 
 63. "Shall Teachers Be Prepared to Give Instruction in Elementary Agri- 
 culture?" B. M. DAVIS. The Western Journal of Education, May, 
 1906, 5-15. 
 
 This is a report submitted to the Joint Board of the California State 
 Normal School Trustees at its annual meeting held at Chico, Cal., April 
 15, 1906. It discusses the organization of agricultural education in the 
 United States, agriculture in the elementary schools, work in Canada, 
 N.E.A. report on industrial education in schools for rural communities, 
 work of the normal schools, the problem as concerns the California normal 
 schools including a tabulation of answers to questionnaire sent to all the 
 county superintendents of the state, and a discussion of the work of the 
 normal school. 
 
 64. "What Has Been Done by Normal Schools and Agricultural Colleges for 
 Popular Education hi Agriculture." E. E. BALCOMB. Proceedings of the 
 National Education Association for rpoy, 1069-75. 
 
 This report is a summary to answers to letters to the president of each 
 agricultural college, to each state normal school, and to certain other schools 
 of the United States. 
 
 65. Education for Efficiency. E. Davenport. Boston: D. C. Heath & Co. 
 (1909), 184. 
 
 Its subtitle is "A discussion of certain phases of the problem of uni- 
 versal education with special reference to academic ideals and methods." 
 The book is in two parts : the first, a discussion from general educational 
 standpoint including education for efficiency, industrial education with 
 special reference to high school, as a phase of the problem of universal 
 education, educative value of labor, culture aim and unity in education ; 
 the second, an illustration of the principles discussed in first part as ap- 
 plied to agriculture including agriculture in the high school, in the ele- 
 mentary school, in the normal school, and the development of agriculture 
 what it is and what it means. 
 
 66. "The Organic Field of Nature-Study." GEORGE H. HUDSON. Nature- 
 Study Review, Vol. Ill, No. 5 (1907), 129-35. 
 
 A scheme is given outlining the subject in considerable detail in two 
 parts ; one, the physical or practical, the other, the psychical. Both are 
 amplified by a discussion which follows. 
 
 67. School Gardens for California Schools. B. M. DAVIS. Chico, Cal.: 
 State Normal School Bulletin No. i (1905), 79. 
 
 This is a manual for teachers. It discusses the history of school 
 gardens and their educational importance, the plant and its relations, plant 
 propagation, instruction including aim and scope, practical work, correlative 
 subjects, adaption to school conditions, etc. The annotated bibliography 
 of nearly three hundred titles is a summary of the literature of the sub- 
 ject up to 1905. 
 
 68. Normal School Instruction in Agriculture. N. J. ABBEY. U.S. Depart- 
 ment of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Stations, Circular 90 (1909), 31. 
 
 This circular "sets forth in a brief way the manner in which agricul- 
 ture is taught at the Maysville State Normal School, No. Dakota." It 
 contains a discussion of why normal schools should train teachers in
 
 142 AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS 
 
 agriculture and the place of agriculture in the normal school curriculum. 
 Most of the circular is a detailed account of the work, including textbook 
 instruction, class exercises, laboratory instruction, typical laboratory exer- 
 cises, apparatus, the school garden, the model school, visiting a rural school, 
 field excursions, methods, correlation, and difficulties. 
 
 69. Normal Agricultural Society. CHARLES R. WEEKS. Peru, Neb.: State 
 Normal School, Special Cir. (1909), i. 
 
 This circular gives history, purposes, and plans of this organization. 
 
 70. Western Illinois State Normal Experiment Field. J. T. JOHNSON. 
 Macomb, 111.: State Normal School, Cir. i (1907), 4. 
 
 The circular contains statement of purpose, location, and plans of con- 
 ducting the soil experiment field. 
 
 71. A Correlated Course of Study in Agriculture, Geography, and Physiology 
 for Rural Schools. E. A. COCKEFAIR. Cape Girardeau, Mo.: State 
 Normal School, Special Bulletin (1909), 63. 
 
 It contains daily program of recitation ; general outline including 
 such subjects as seed, corn judging, corn selection, corn breeding, how corn 
 grows, the soil, crops, foods, live stock judging, markets, dairying, garden- 
 ing, fruit growing, forestry, cooking, sewing, home decoration ; elaboration 
 of outline. 
 
 72. Elementary Horticulture for California Schools. C. F. PALMER. Los 
 Angeles, Cal.: State Normal School, Bui. (1910), 76. 
 
 The following subjects are discussed: The school garden; The lath- 
 house ; Seed-sowing in boxes ; Transplanting ; Propagation of plants ; 
 Potting and repotting of plants ; House plants ; Window boxes and their 
 care ; The planting and care of bulbs ; The inside miniature farmstead ; 
 Lawnmaking and care ; Ornamental gardening ; Where to obtain seeds 
 and plants ; Publications of the U.S. Department of Agriculture. 
 
 73. Agriculture and Nature-Study for Rural Schools. H. W. HOCHBAUM. 
 Greeley, Colo.: State Normal School Bulletin, Ser. 10, No. 5 (1910), 44. 
 
 The subject is discussed as follows : Why the rural schools are in- 
 efficient ; The work of the rural school needs to be redirected ; The aims 
 in teaching nature-study and agriculture ; How to redirect the work of rural 
 schools ; Some suggestions for nature-study and agriculture ; Outline of 
 subjects for nature-study and agriculture. 
 
 74. Educational Agriculture. JOSIAH MAIN. Hays, Kan.: Western State 
 Normal School Bulletin, II, No. 3 (1910), 74. 
 
 This bulletin consists of three parts : Part I, Introduction : Limita- 
 tions of the field as a realm of knowledge; Part II, Organization; 
 Motives, Genetic psychology as an aid to organization, The kinaesthetic 
 factor in apperception reaction and inhibition, A problem of readjustment 
 position of the various sciences : Formal discipline and its transfer : 
 Humanistic science, applied science, and agriculture ; Agricultural arts 
 habit v. judgment, Collateral or extra program agriculture, The essential 
 order of presentation. Other correlated subjects, Retardation admission 
 graduation and accrediting of students. Part III, Equipment : The 
 laboratory, Plots and grounds; Agricultural literature.
 
 BIBLIOGRAPHY 143 
 
 75. Course in Nature-Study and Elementary Agriculture. RILEY O. JOHNSON. 
 Chico, Cal.: State Normal School, Special Circular (1908), 8. 
 
 The work outlined in this circular is designed for the ungraded schools 
 of California. There are three parts: (i) an outline of the work, (2) 
 specimen lessons, and (3) a list of references. 
 
 76. Rural Industrial Education. B. M. DAVIS. Oxford, Ohio: Miami 
 University Bulletin, Ser. VIII, No. 9 (1910), 15. 
 
 A general discussion of the problem of rural industrial education with 
 especial reference to Ohio conditions. This discussion is followed by an 
 outline of course for high-school teachers offered in the Ohio State Normal 
 College, Miami University. 
 
 77. "Historical Sketch of the National Educational Association." Z. 
 RICHARDS. Proceedings of the National Educational Association for 
 1891, 118-33. 
 
 78. "Bibliography of Topics from 1857-1007." Ibid. (1906), 659-730. 
 
 This is a classified list under fifty-nine heads. 
 
 79. "Should Rural Schools Introduce Agriculture, Chemistry, Agricultural 
 Botany, or Arboriculture?" ERGRAFF DE KOVALEVSKY. Ibid. (1893), 
 
 34-7- 
 
 The writer concludes that "instruction in the rural schools can and 
 should have an agricultural bearing." 
 
 80. "Report of the Committee of Twelve on Rural Schools." Ibid. (1897), 
 385-582. 
 
 This is probably the most complete and important contribution of rural 
 schools in American educational literature up to the date of its publication. 
 Besides a full discussion of the four phases of the subject there are nine- 
 teen appendices devoted to such subjects as transportation of pupils, en- 
 richment of the rural-school course, the rural-school problem, the course of 
 study, the farm as a center of interest, etc. 
 
 81. Report of the Committee on Industrial Education in Schools for Rural 
 Communities. Publications of National Educational Association: Re- 
 port of Special Committee (1905), 87. 
 
 This report contains argument for industrial work, scope of work, 
 statements of what kind of work was being done in the different types of 
 schools in which a beginning in industrial education had been made, and 
 the desirability of a new type of secondary school of distinctively indus- 
 trial character and adapted to the needs of rural communities. 
 
 82. Idem. " Supplementary Report." Proceedings of the National Education 
 Association (1907), 409-46. 
 
 83. Idem. "Second Report." Ibid. (1908), 385-448. 
 
 84. "Conference of National Committee on Agricultural Education." Ibid. 
 (1907), 1063-84.
 
 144 AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS 
 
 85. Proceedings of the Nineteenth Annual Convention of the Association of 
 American Agricultural Colleges and Experiment Stations. U.S. Department 
 of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Stations, Bui. 164 (1905), 189. 
 
 In the detailed account of the convention considerable attention is 
 given to agricultural education : Agricultural education in the National 
 Education Association ; Methods of teaching agriculture ; Address of the 
 U.S. Commissioner of Education. 
 
 86. "Educational Periodicals." U.S. Bureau of Education. Report of the 
 Commissioner (1006), 257-59. 
 
 This is a list of educational periodicals in the United States in 1906 that 
 are in the library of the Bureau of Education. 
 
 87. "Henry Barnard." C. H. THURBER. School Review, VIII (1900), 505-6. 
 
 A tribute to the life and work of Henry Barnard. 
 
 88. "Fellenburg and Manual Labor Schools." HENRY BARNARD. Barnard's 
 Journal of Education, XV (1865), 232-34. 
 
 An account of the influence of Fellenburg's Agricultural School at 
 Hofwyl on the establishment of similar schools in this country. 
 
 "Plan of an Agricultural School." JOHN A. PORTER. Ibid., I (1856), 
 320-35- 
 
 89. "Josiah Holbrook." HENRY BARNARD. Ibid., VII (1860), 229-47. 
 890. "Primary Instruction by Object Lessons." Ibid., XII (1862), 605-45. 
 
 This is a report of a committee selected by the Board of Education of 
 the city of Oswego, N.Y., to attend an examination of the primary schools 
 of that city with special reference to an investigation of the system of 
 object- teaching recently introduced into these schools. 
 
 90. "Pestalozzi, De Fellenburg and Wehrli, and Industrial Training." Ibid., 
 X (1876), 8192. 
 
 Republished from the Transactions of the National Association for the 
 Promotion of Social Science, 1858. 
 
 91. "Preventive and Reformatory Education." HENRY BARNARD. Ibid., 
 Ill (1858), 561-818. 
 
 A very complete discussion of the subject including the work in for- 
 eign countries as well as in our own country. 
 
 92. "Scientific Instruction." HENRY BARNARD. Ibid., XXI (1871), 807. 
 
 93. "Newer Ideas in Agricultural Education." L. H. BAILEY. Educational 
 Review, XX (1900), 377-82. 
 
 94. "A Significant Factor in Agricultural Education." KENYON L. BUTTER- 
 FIELD. Educational Review, XXI (1901), 301-9. 
 
 Extension work advocated. 
 
 95. "Place of Nature-Study, School Gardens and Elementary Agriculture in 
 Our School System." J. R. JEWELL. Pedagogical Seminary, XIII 
 (1006), 273-92. 
 
 This is preliminary to a more complete presentation of the same 
 subject (25).
 
 BIBLIOGRAPHY 145 
 
 96. "Agricultural High Schools." FREDERICK E. BOLTON. School Review, 
 
 XVI (1908), 56-58. 
 An editorial note. 
 
 97. "The Agricultural High School." ARTHUR D. CROMWELL. Ibid., 198- 
 200. 
 
 A rejoinder to (96). 
 
 98. "The Correlation of High-School Science and Agriculture." JOSIAH 
 MAIN. Education, XXX (1909), 135-45. 
 
 99. "Shall Secondary Agriculture Be Taught as a Separate Science ? " G. A. 
 BRICKER. Ibid., 352-56. 
 
 A view directly opposite to that expressed in (98) is presented. 
 
 100. "The Methods, Content and Purpose of Biologic Science hi the Secondary 
 Schools of the United States." G. W. HUNTER. School Science and 
 Mathematics, X (1910), i-io, 103-11. 
 
 101. "Introduction" (to first number). M. A. BIGELOW. Nature-Study 
 Review, I (1005), 1-2. 
 
 102. "School Work in Agriculture." D. O. BARTO (Taylorville, 111.). School 
 News, XXI (1907). 
 
 A department of this magazine for aiding teachers to make use of the 
 prescribed state course of study in elementary agriculture. 
 
 103. "Lessons in Agriculture and Home Economics." E. C. BISHOP (Lincoln, 
 
 Neb.). Nebraska Teacher, XII (1910). 
 
 A series of articles to aid teachers in their work with the Nebraska boys' 
 and girls' clubs. 
 
 104. "Learning by Doing for the Farmer Boy." O. J. KERN. Review of 
 
 Reviews, XXVIII (1903), 456-61. 
 
 A description of the Farmer Boys' Club organized in Winnebago 
 County, 111., February 22, 1902. It includes method of organization, educa- 
 tional excursions, experimental work of the boys, local meetings of the club, 
 the club and the farmers' institute, future outlook of the club. There is 
 also a short account of the first consolidated school in Illinois. 
 
 105. "Common-Sense Country Schools." ADELE MARIE SHAW. World's 
 
 Work, VIII (1904), 4881-94. 
 
 An illustrated account of O. J. Kern's work among the rural schools 
 of Winnebago County, 111. It contains a good account of the Farmer Boys' 
 Club. 
 
 106. "The New Education for Farm Children." WILLET M. HAYS. Review 
 
 of Reviews, XXVIII (1903), 44Q-5S- 
 
 The article is introduced by a general discussion of the educational 
 situation, concluding that there should be a school system adapted to rural 
 conditions. A scheme is presented for an articulated system of education 
 adapted to rural needs: (i) consolidated rural school; (2) agricultural high 
 school; (3) agricultural college. This is one of the first publications of the 
 author's views on a system of rural education. His present views on this 
 subject have been reviewed at some length in a previous article of this 
 series (15).
 
 146 AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS 
 
 107. "Teaching Farmers' Children on the Ground." GEORGE ILES. World's 
 Work, VI (1903), 3415-20. 
 
 After a general discussion of rural education, its needs and short- 
 comings, the author gives an account of the program for rural educational 
 reform, known as the Macdonald Consolidated Rural School Movement, 
 which was to take effect in Canada the following September. A large num- 
 ber of interesting facts are given not only concerning this proposed reform 
 but also concerning the agricultural work in general in Canada. 
 
 1 08. "Farmer Children Need Farmer Studies." CLARENCE H. POE. World's 
 Work, VI (1903), 3760-62. 
 
 Reviewed in text. 
 
 109. "Agricultural High Schools" (Editorial). Independent, LVIII (1005), 
 334-36. 
 
 no. "Two Clear Aims in Education" (Editorial). World's Work, XII (1906), 
 7706-7. 
 
 These aims are (i) training for practical purposes, the machinery of 
 which has been perfected only for the professions; (2) training for culture 
 where public good is put before personal aims. 
 
 in. "Agricultural Education hi the United States." J. C. MEAD. Nine- 
 teenth Century, LX (1906), 299-306. 
 
 A popular historical account dealing mainly with agricultural colleges. 
 
 112. "Agriculture in the Common Schools" (Editorial). Independent, LXIH 
 (1907), 1508-9. 
 
 Two questions are raised: (i) Are the sciences underlying agriculture 
 to be taught? (2) Where will teachers be found to give adequate instruc- 
 tion along such lines? Both questions are answered, the first by making 
 use of pupils' everyday experiences, the second through training schools 
 for teachers. 
 
 113. "New Work in Education." World's Work, XVI (1008), 10453-62. 
 
 Reviewed in text. 
 
 114. "Catching Them Young." F. G. MOORHEAD. Technical World, XI 
 (1009), 612-18. 
 
 Reviewed in text. 
 
 115. "The Martian and the Farm" (Editorial). Outlook, XXIX (1909), 
 
 433-34- 
 
 Reviewed in text. 
 
 116. "Training for Farm Life." D. H. SMALLEY. Outlook, XXIX (1909), 
 811-12. 
 
 A reply to (115). 
 
 117. "The Automatic Farm." WM. HALSTEAD. Outlook, XXIX (1009), 
 812-13. 
 
 A reply to (115).
 
 BIBLIOGRAPHY 147 
 
 118. "Agriculture the Basis of Education." 0. F. COOK. Monist, XVII 
 
 (1907), 347-64- 
 
 Reviewed in text. 
 
 119. "Farm Life as a Basis of Practical Education." Craftsman, XVI (1909), 
 
 243-45- 
 
 Some of the plans of the Craftsman Farms are set forth. Active farm 
 operation is regarded as the first step in creating an ideal school environ- 
 ment. "To use the idea of education seems as big and interesting as 
 the whole of life itself. And the farm work which is necessary to make 
 the land productive for our own maintenance and also to make the 
 ground attractive to the eye seems to us to afford a series of experiments, 
 the educational value of which no scientific laboratory could equal." 
 
 120. "Need for Agricultural Education." D. Y. THOMAS. Annals of the 
 American Academy, XXXV (1910), 150-55. 
 
 The purpose of this paper is to "emphasize the advisability" of extend- 
 ing the work in agricultural education. "Education must be democratized 
 and made to subserve the economic interest of man. This will not kill the 
 cultural school but foster it. The man who wants to be a lawyer or a 
 doctor or a teacher or a journalist will have a hundred opportunities where 
 he now has one." 
 
 121. "Social Problems of American Farmers: Rural Education." KENYON 
 L. BUTTERFIELD. American Journal of Sociology, X (1905), 615-19. 
 
 Reviewed in text. 
 
 122. "State Organizations for Agriculture." Encyclopedia of American Agri- 
 culture, IV (1909), 328-39. 
 
 A brief general account is given, followed by short sketches of the 
 various state organizations. 
 
 123. "Agricultural Education." A. W. OILMAN. Seventh Annual Report of 
 the Commissioner of Agriculture of the State of Maine (1908), 11-12. 
 
 Reviewed in text. 
 
 124. An Address no title. P. G. HOLDEN. Annual Report of the Nebraska 
 State Board of Agriculture (1909), 112-37. 
 
 A stenographic report of an address supposed to be upon corn but a 
 considerable portion of it relates to rural education, and offers many 
 valuable suggestions on this subject. 
 
 125. "Some Rural Problems." WALLACE. Ibid. (1910), 124-39. 
 
 Four problems are discussed : maintenance of soil fertility, farm labor, 
 education, and socialization of farm life. Mr. Wallace was a member of 
 the Country Life Commission. His discussion of rural education, there- 
 fore, is of more than ordinary interest. 
 
 126. "Rural Education." A. C. TRUE. Annual Report of the Pennsylvania 
 Department of Agriculture (1907), 231-36. 
 
 General improvement of rural schools is regarded as necessary and 
 certain to be brought about. Better teaching, consolidation, attention given 
 to nature-study and agriculture in public schools are suggested as means 
 of improvement.
 
 148 AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS 
 
 127. "The Most Useful School in the Country." D. J. CROSBY. Ibid. (1909), 
 
 257-63- 
 
 Two small country schools are described in considerable detail as illus- 
 trating the possibilities of a rural school: one at Calvert Center, Md., the 
 other at Waterford, Pa. 
 
 128. Steps in Agriculture. S. M. JORDON. Monthly Bulletin, Missouri 
 State Board of Agriculture, VIII, No. 8 (1910), 136. 
 
 This contains simple studies to help "teachers interest our boys and 
 girls in better farming" as follows : the stand of corn, leaves or blades, 
 roots, flowers and blossoms, yield, corn judging, score card, seed selection, 
 weeds, insects, flies, grafting and budding, crossing, diseases of plants, 
 wheat and oats, clovers and cowpeas. 
 
 129. Boys' and Girls' Contests. A. E. CHAMBERLAIN. South Dakota State 
 Board of Agriculture, Special Bulletin (1910), 1-15. 
 
 Reviewed in text. 
 
 130. The School of Agriculture at the State Fair. S. E. ANDREWS. Okla- 
 homa State Board of Agriculture, Monthly Press Bulletin, Series 1910, 
 No. 7 (September), 8-9. 
 
 An account in detail of how the school is to be conducted. 
 
 131. Boys' State Fair School. Springfield, 111.: Illinois State Fair Association, 
 Announcement (1911), 15. 
 
 This gives an account of the first annual Boys' State Fair School held 
 in 1910. "The aim of the school is to offer to a well-selected body of 
 young men the means for systematic observation and study" of the great 
 agricultural and mechanical exhibits of the state fair. 
 
 132. Agricultural Schools. E. J. MARTIN. Office of Commissioner of 
 Agriculture, Commerce and Industries of South Carolina, Sixth Annual 
 Report (1909), 93-94- 
 
 An account of agricultural demonstration work in connection with 
 certain high schools. 
 
 133. Agricultural Fair Associations and Their Utilization in Agricultural Educa- 
 tion and Improvement. JOHN HAMILTON. U.S. Department of Agri- 
 culture, Office of Experiment Stations, Cir. 109 (1911), 23. 
 
 "This circular is the result of extended study of the conditions that 
 exist in the various states in connection with county fairs, and is a contribu- 
 tion toward increasing their usefulness by suggesting lines of effort along 
 which they can act for the betterment of educational, social, and economic 
 conditions in rural communities." 
 
 134. History of Farmers' Institutes in the United States. JOHN HAMILTON. 
 U.S. Department of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Stations, Bulletin 
 174 (1906), 1-06. 
 
 As the name indicates, it is a historical account of farmers' institutes 
 in the United States. It is divided into five parts : introduction, historians, 
 government aid to institutes, American Association of Farmers' Insti- 
 tute Workers, institutes in the several states and territories.
 
 BIBLIOGRAPHY 149 
 
 135. "The Farmers' Institutes in the United States, 1908." JOHN HAMILTON. 
 U.S. Department of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Stations, Annual 
 Report of the Office of Experiment Stations (1908), 289-335. 
 
 A summary of the work of farmers' institutes for 1908 giving insti- 
 tutes held, sessions, attendance, appropriations, and other data concerning 
 the year's work. 
 
 136. The Origin of the Land Grant Act of 1862 and Some Account of Its Author. 
 EDMUND J. JAMES. University of Illinois Bulletin, VIII, No. 10 (1910), 
 
 139. 
 
 "It is proposed to prove in this paper that Jonathan B. Turner, at 
 one time professor in Illinois College at Jacksonville, 111., was the real 
 father of the so-called Morrill Act of July z, 1862, and that he deserves 
 the credit of having been the first to formulate clearly and definitely the 
 plan of a national grant of land to each state in the Union for the pro- 
 motion of education in agriculture and mechanic arts, and having inau- 
 gurated and continued to a successful issue the agitation that made possible 
 the passage of the bill . . . ." (p. 7). 
 
 A reprint of the Turner pamphlet, "Industrial Universities," is ap- 
 pended. This contains an excellent discussion of industrial education, much 
 of which has present-day application. 
 
 137. Michigan State Association of Farmers' Clubs. Proceedings of the 
 Seventeenth Annual Session (1909), 56. 
 
 Besides a report of the proceedings there is included resolutions re- 
 garding state and national affairs, and constitution and by-laws of the 
 Association. 
 
 138. "What Shall We Teach the Farm Child?" H. W. COLLINWOOD. Pro- 
 ceedings of the New Jersey State Horticultural Society, Thirty-fifth Annual 
 Session (1909), 169-74. 
 
 Reviewed in text. 
 
 139. "Agriculture in Our Public Schools." WILLIAM LANGHAM. Proceedings 
 of the Iowa State Horticultural Society, XLIV (1909), 147-54. 
 
 Reviewed in text. 
 
 140. "Report of Committee on School Gardens and Children's Herbariums 
 of the Massachusetts Horticultural Society." Transactions of the Massa- 
 chusetts Horticultural Society. 1894-1907. 
 
 Beginning with 1894 and continuing to 1907 these reports of the com- 
 mittee on children's school gardens appeared in the transactions of the 
 Society. After 1907 the Society discontinued the special school-garden 
 feature of its meetings and of its transactions. 
 
 141. Boys' and Girls' Agricultural Clubs. F. W. HOWE. U.S. Department of 
 Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin No. 385 (1910), 23. 
 
 This bulletin contains history, plans, and recent development of these 
 clubs under the following heads : Introductory Summary of Results ; How 
 Work Has Been Accomplished in Several States ; Assistance Given by the 
 Department of Agriculture ; The Relation of Club Work to Rural Educa- 
 tion ; Suggestions for Organization ; List of References ; Statistics.
 
 150 AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS 
 
 142. Agricultural Clubs in Rural Schools. HOMER C. PRICE. Ohio State 
 University Bulletin, Ser. 7, No. 10 (1904), 14. 
 
 The bulletin contains suggestions for organizing clubs in the rural 
 schools of Ohio. These suggestions are the outgrowth of the previous 
 year's experience of the first club formed in Ohio under the auspices of the 
 students of the Agricultural Union. This bulletin is of special interest 
 because it represents the beginning of organized effort to develop agricul- 
 tural clubs in Ohio. 
 
 143. Farmers' Institutes for Young People. JOHN HAMILTON. U.S. Depart- 
 ment of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Stations, Circular No. 99 
 (1910), 40. 
 
 This circular calls attention to "lack of adequate means for giving 
 vocational training in agriculture to young people in rural districts after 
 they leave the public school and before they enter upon their life occupa- 
 tions." Boys' and girls' clubs, farmers' institutes for young people, sub- 
 jects for institute study, systematic course for contest work, boys' encamp- 
 ments, form of organization, season for meeting, states and territories in 
 which young people's institutes are organized, model constitution for young 
 people's institutes, order of topics for boys' institute, score cards for 
 various products are some of the subjects discussed. 
 
 144. Boys' Agricultural Club Bulletin. JESSIE FIELD. Office of County 
 Superintendent of Schools, Clarinda, la. (1909), 14. 
 
 This bulletin gives an account of the boys' club of Page County, Iowa, 
 including summary of results of 1908 and plans for 1909. 
 
 145. The Winnebagoes. O. J. KERN. Office of County Superintendent of 
 Schools, Rockford, 111. (1903), 64. 
 
 This is a report of the Winnebago County (111.) schools, with sug- 
 gestions for their improvement. One chapter (pp. 39-49) is devoted to boys' 
 and girls' clubs. An account is given of the Boys' Experimental Club 
 organized in 1902. This was one of the first boys' agricultural clubs organ- 
 ized in the United States. 
 
 146. Among Country Schools. O. J. KERN. New York: Ginn & Co. (1906), 
 366. 
 
 This is one of the best contributions to rural education that has been 
 written. One chapter is devoted to a Boys' Experiment Club (pp. 129-57). 
 
 Only titles cited by number hi text are included in the following list: 
 
 147. "What Constitutes Successful Work hi Agriculture in Rural Schools?" 
 B. M. DAVIS. Proceedings of the National Education Association for 
 
 ipo8, 1189-94. 
 
 This discussion is based on a study of replies to a questionnaire addressed 
 to teachers and others interested in agricultural education. 
 
 148. "The District Schools hi a County as Educational and Social Centers." 
 JESSIE FIELD. National Society for the Study of Education, Tenth Year- 
 book, Part II (1911), 17-19. 
 
 In the county system described agricultural studies are an important 
 means for bringing the school and community into a closer relation. The 
 subjects are not uniform in the various schools of the county but are chosen 
 primarily because of some dominant community interest.
 
 BIBLIOGRAPHY 151 
 
 149. "The Present Status of Agricultural Education in the Public Secondary 
 Schools of the United States." C. H. ROBISON. School Review, XIV, 
 
 No. 5 (1911), 333-44- 
 
 This article contains summary of agricultural instruction in secondary 
 schools from 1907 to 1910. Considerable attention is paid to efficiency and 
 cost of instruction. 
 
 150. Agricultural Instruction in the Public High Schools of the United States. 
 C. H. ROBISON. Teachers College, Columbia University (1910), 205. 
 
 This book deals with the present status of agricultural education in 
 the secondary schools of the United States. The chapter headings are as 
 follows : "The Public High School" ; "Some Types of High Schools" ; 
 "Special Secondary Schools of Agriculture" ; "Problems of Agricultural 
 Instruction in the Secondary Schools." Two appendices, one on legislation, 
 the other giving a very complete list of references, are added. This is a 
 valuable reference book on agricultural education bringing together, as it 
 does, an immense amount of data hitherto inaccessible. 
 
 151. The Teaching of Agriculture in the High School. G. A. BRICKER. New 
 York: Macmillan (1911). XXV, 202. 
 
 The subject is considered from a teaching standpoint in the following 
 chapters : "Nature of Secondary Agriculture" ; "Rise and Development of 
 Secondary Education in Agriculture in the United States" ; "Social Results" ; 
 "As a Separate Science" ; "Psychological Determination of Sequence" ; 
 "Seasonal Determination of Sequence" ; "Organization of the Course" ; 
 "Aims and Methods of Presentation" ; "Organization of the Laboratory and 
 Field Work" ; "Illustrative List of Classified Exercises" ; "Educational Aims, 
 Values, and Ideals." This is the first attempt to present in detail the prob- 
 lems of secondary agriculture from the point of view of instruction. 
 
 152. The School of Agriculture. University of Minnesota Bulletin, XIII, 
 No. 10 (1910), 66. 
 
 Annual announcement of the School of Agriculture connected with the 
 University of Minnesota. 
 
 153. Secondary Agricultural Education in Alabama. C. J. OWENS. United 
 States Department of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Stations, Bulletin 
 220 (1909), 30. 
 
 This bulletin contains "concrete information as to methods of organiz- 
 ing courses of study, needed equipment, and cost of secondary agricultural 
 schools. 
 
 154. First Annual Report of the Congressional District Agricultural Schools of 
 Georgia. Georgia State College of Agriculture, Bulletin for December, 
 1909. 
 
 A complete account of the organization of these schools is given. 
 
 155. Agricultural High School. B. H. CROCHERON. Philopolis, Md. : Prospec- 
 tus of the Baltimore (Md.) Agricultural High School (1909). 
 
 A brief account of the foundation, purpose, entrance requirements, 
 courses of study, and equipment of this school.
 
 152 AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS 
 
 156. "Community Work in the Agricultural High School." B. H. CROCH- 
 ERON. National Society for the Study of Education, Tenth Yearbook, 
 Part II (1911), 91-6. 
 
 A detailed description of the community work undertaken by the Balti- 
 more (Md.) County Agricultural High School. It includes an account of 
 the school, its organization, and work among the farmers, farmers' wives, 
 and young people of the community. This paper shows the great possibilities 
 of a rural high school in its service to an entire community, children and 
 adults as well. 
 
 157. Elementary Agriculture in the New Holland (Ohio) High School. G. A. 
 BRICKER. Ohio Agricultural College Extension Bulletin, III, No. 7 
 (1908), 6. 
 
 A brief description of the organization of work in agriculture with con- 
 crete examples of some of the things actually accomplished. 
 
 158. "The John Swaney School." V. C. KAYS. Nature-Study Review, IV, 
 No. 9 (1908), 271-75. 
 
 An account of the history and of the first two years' experience of this 
 school. It is in the country, "planned and built by country people for the 
 education of country children." 
 
 159. Opportunity for the California High School: Industrial and Agricultural 
 Education. EDWARD HIATT. California State Department of Educa- 
 tion, Special Bulletin (July, 1910), 21. 
 
 This bulletin describes the plans for introducing agriculture into the high 
 school of the city of Stockton, Cal. 
 
 160. "Agriculture in the Secondary Schools of California." E. B. BABCOCK. 
 Nature-Study Review, V (1909), 210-18. 
 
 The work of several high schools giving instruction in agriculture is 
 described. The article includes extracts from a report of F. H. Bolster of 
 the Gardena (Los Angeles City) High School. This is of particular interest 
 as it is claimed that the Gardena High School is the first city high school to 
 "offer agriculture as the one principal purpose of the school." 
 
 161. The State High School. A. E. PICKARD. Hinckley (Minn.) High School 
 Bulletin (1910), 23. 
 
 A full account of this school is given, including courses of study, gen- 
 eral information as to admission, expenses, certificates, scope and purposes 
 of courses, etc., detailed description of work offered in agriculture, manual 
 training, domestic science, and normal work. This school is one of the 
 ten high schools of Minnesota receiving state aid. All of these schools are 
 similar in organization to this one. 
 
 162. Schools of Agriculture, Mechanic Arts, and Home Making. F. W. HOWE. 
 New York State Department of Education, Special Circular (November 
 i, 1910). 
 
 This circular contains a "general statement in reference to the relations 
 
 1 of this type of school to the so-called 'trade schools,' and the responsibility 
 
 of the Division of Trade Schools in respect to it, and the text of the law 
 
 relating to these schools, notes on this law, brief descriptions of some typical
 
 BIBLIOGRAPHY 153 
 
 schools teaching agriculture, mechanic arts, and home-making, a list of 
 books, periodicals, and national and state publications dealing with agri- 
 culture, farm mechanics, and household economy." 
 
 163. "Syllabus for Secondary Schools: Agriculture." Ibid., Annual Report 
 (1910), III, 1-102. 
 
 This syllabus includes apple growing, general fruit growing, cereal and 
 forage crops, potato growing, dairy husbandry, animal husbandry, poultry 
 husbandry. Each subject is presented as a series of exercises, giving the 
 object of the exercise, materials, and directions for study. 
 
 164. "Department of Agriculture. " E. A. COCKEFAIR. Cape Girardeau, Mo. : 
 The Missouri State Normal School Bulletin, Catalogue Number (1909), 
 63-67. 
 
 A description of objects of work offered and detailed outline of course 
 of study. It is of particular interest because provision is made for giving 
 instruction to farmers as well as to teachers. 
 
 165. " The Curriculum of the Agricultural High School. " STUART G. NOBLE. 
 The Mississippi School Journal, XV (1911), 7-11. 
 
 The writer presents the results of a detailed study of the curricula of 
 the agricultural high schools of Alabama, Georgia, and Mississippi. 
 
 166. Report of the Board of Education on Agricultural Education. R. W. 
 STIMSON, et al. Massachusetts State Department of Education, Special 
 Report (1911), 104. 
 
 This report was prepared for the state legislature which requested that 
 an investigation be made as to the advisability of establishing a system of ag- 
 ricultural education throughout the commonwealth. The matter presented 
 in this report is a valuable contribution to the literature of agricultural edu- 
 cation because it outlines some plans not hitherto undertaken in agricultural 
 instruction. 
 
 167. "Report of Committee on Encouraging College-Entrance Credit in High- 
 School Agriculture." A. B. GRAHAM, Proceedings of the National Edu- 
 cation Association for igio, 480-83. 
 
 This report is the result of an investigation of a committee appointed 
 the previous year by the Department of Rural and Agricultural Education 
 of the N.E.A. 
 
 168. "Practical Aspects of Science in Secondary Education." W. R. HART, 
 et al. Ibid., 446-80. 
 
 This general topic was discussed at a joint session of the departments 
 of secondary, of science, and of rural and agricultural education. Following 
 the presentation of the pedagogical and scientific viewpoints are brief dis- 
 cussions of the subject as related to the various sciences usually taught in 
 high schools. 
 
 169. "An Experiment of Methods of Teaching Zoology." J. P. GILBERT. 
 Journal of Educational Psychology (June, 1910), 321-32. 
 
 This paper is a preliminary report of a series of investigations "to de- 
 termine the relative merits of the pure-science and applied-science methods 
 of approach in teaching secondary science."
 
 154 AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS 
 
 170. Idem, School Science and Mathematics, XI, No. 3 (March, 1911), 205-15. 
 
 A further report of the experiment referred to in 144. The following 
 significant statement occurs among the conclusions of the author : "In former 
 discussions those who advocated applied science have been forced to take 
 the defensive. While the data here obtained do not finally settle the question 
 of the relative merits of the pure-science and applied-science approach to 
 secondary-school zoology, they do shift the burden of proof to those who 
 advocate the cultural approach." 
 
 171. "Development of the Textbook of Agriculture in North America." 
 L. H. BAILEY. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Office of Experiment 
 Stations, Annual Report for 1903, 689-712. 
 
 This article is based on a similar contribution to Book Reviews, VII 
 (1899), No. 2, 43-53, but is greatly extended. An abridged discussion of 
 this subject by the same author is found in the Cyclopedia of American 
 Agriculture, IV (1909), 379-85. 
 
 A historical account of the development of the textbook of agriculture 
 in North America is given, and is followed by an annotated chronological 
 bibliography of fory-nine titles, including the first textbook (1824) and all 
 others known to the writer at the time of publication (1903). 
 
 172. "Textbooks of Agriculture." B. M. DAVIS. Nature-Study Review, V 
 (1909), No. 9, 244-48. 
 
 Four types of textbooks are briefly discussed. These are illustrated by 
 reviews of seven textbooks. 
 
 173. "Some Textbooks for Secondary-School Agriculture." C. H. ROBISON. 
 Nature-Study Review, III (1907), No. 6, 180-85. 
 
 The article is introduced by a general discussion of the movement for 
 agricultural education, and is followed by a detailed account and criticism 
 of three well-known textbooks representing three distinct types. 
 
 174. The School and Farm. CHARLES A. EGGERT. Chicago: W. M. Welch 
 & Co. (1902), 279. 
 
 The book is divided into six parts : Basis and Conditions of Farming ; 
 Field Crops ; Animals on the Farm ; Forest ; Science and Agriculture ; Rural 
 Scenery. Each part is divided into chapters, e.g., Part II into Raising and 
 Rotation of Field Crops ; Grain Crops, Corn ; Grass, Clover, and Hay ; Root 
 Crops, Potatoes ; Value of Different Fertilizers ; Silos and Ensilage. 
 
 175. First Principles of Agriculture. EMMETT S. GOFF and D. D. MAYNE. 
 New York: American Book Co. (1904), 248. 
 
 "The first part is based on experiments which may be performed in the 
 school or at home. A summary entitled 'What We Have Learned' has 
 been placed at the close of each chapter. These summaries furnish definite 
 statements for pupils to learn, and may be used by the teacher as a basis 
 for drill work." 
 
 There are forty chapters : Dead and Living Matter ; Soil and Soil 
 Water ; Plant and Water ; How Plants Grow ; Ideal Soil ; Soil Fertility ; 
 Humus ; Clover ; Rotation ; Saving Soil Moisture ; Plant Parasites ; Seeds 
 and Soil Water ; Air and Germination ; Seed Testing ; How Seeds Come Up ; 
 Value of Large Seeds ; Budding ; Transplanting ; Plant Improvement ; The 
 Flower ; Crop and Weeds ; Garden Orchard ; Insect Destroyers ; Animal 
 Husbandry ; Dairy Breeds ; Beef Breeds ; Feeding ; Horses ; Sheep ; Swine ;
 
 BIBLIOGRAPHY 155 
 
 Poultry ; Bee-keeping ; Home and School Grounds. There is an Appendix 
 of fifteen pages, including various tables, and also directions for Babcock 
 milk-testing. 
 
 176. Agriculture through the Laboratory and School Garden. C. R. JACKSON 
 and MRS. L. S. DAUGHERTY. New York: Orange Judd Co. (1905), 
 x+403- 
 
 The author's aim is to "present actual experimental work in every phase 
 of the subject possible." Contents : Nature and Formation of the Soil ; 
 Classification and Physical Properties of Soils ; Soil Moisture and Prepara- 
 tion of the Soil ; The Soil as Related to Plants ; Leguminous Plants ; Prin- 
 ciples of Feeding ; Rotation of Crops ; Milk and Its Care ; Propagation of 
 Plants ; Improvement of Plants ; Enemies of Plants ; Ornamentation of 
 Grounds. General References, Agricultural Publications, List of Experi- 
 ment Stations, Publishing Houses, and Glossary follow. For critical sum- 
 mary of his book see 148. 
 
 177. Elementary Agriculture with Practical Arithmetic. K. L. HATCH and 
 J. A. HASELWOOD. Chicago: Row, Peterson & Co. (1905), 198. 
 
 Each chapter is followed by a set of practical farm problems to be used 
 as exercises for arithmetic class. Contents : Growth of Plants ; Plant Water ; 
 Plant Foods ; Soil ; Soil and Crops ; Wearing the Soil ; Legumes ; Drainage ; 
 The Crop ; Insects ; Weeds ; Farm Stock ; Feeding ; The Three C's ; Dairy ; 
 Poultry ; Special Crops ; Farm Buildings ; Accounts ; Forestry ; Grounds ; 
 School Gardening ; Home Gardening ; Barn Plan and Ventilation. 
 
 178. Elements of Agriculture. J. H. SHEPPERD and J. C. MCDOWELL. St. 
 Paul: Webb Publishing Co. (1905), 254. 
 
 This book is intended especially for use in the Northwestern states. 
 "This course of study follows the seasons : the work on farm crops coming 
 in the fall, that on domestic animals in the winter, and the work on soils 
 and the beautifying of the home and school grounds forms a large part of 
 the course during the spring months." 
 
 179. The First Book of Farming. CHARLES L. GOODRICH. New York: 
 Doubleday, Page & Co. (1905), xx+259. 
 
 The subject is developed by means of experiments as follows : Roots ; 
 Soils ; Relation of Soils to Water ; Forms of Soil Water ; Loss of Soil 
 Water ; Soil Temperature ; Plant Food in the Soil ; Seeds ; Seed Planting ; 
 Spading and Plowing ; Harrowing and Rolling ; Leaves ; Stems ; Flowers ; 
 A Fertile Soil ; Soil Water ; After Cultivation of Crops ; Farm Manures ; 
 Commercial Fertilizers ; Rotation of Crops ; Farm Drainage. 
 
 1 80. Agriculture: Its Fundamental Principles. ANDREW M. SOULE and EDNA 
 LEE TURPIN. Richmond, Va.: B. F. Johnson Pub. Co. (1907), 320. 
 
 "The aim of this book is so to state the scientific facts and principles 
 which underlie the processes of agriculture that they will be intelligible 
 and interesting to young people." Contents : The Soil ; The Plant ; Soil 
 Improvement ; Field, Orchard, and Garden Crops ; Crop Enemies and 
 Friends; Domestic Animals; Miscellaneous, Including Trees, Tools, Roads, 
 School Gardens, etc. An Appendix giving tables, references, etc., is 
 included.
 
 156 AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS 
 
 181. Rural School Agriculture. CHARLES W. DAVIS. New York: Orange 
 Judd Co. (1907), vii+267. 
 
 "This book is a manual of exercises covering many phases of agriculture" 
 as follows : Plants ; Soils and Fertilizers ; Corn ; Wheat and Oats ; Cotton ; 
 Feeds and Feeding ; Milk ; Fruits ; Home Grounds ; Insects ; Spraying. 
 There is a Glossary and an Appendix of useful tables. 
 
 182. Agriculture for Southern Schools. J. F. DUGGAR. New York: Mac- 
 millan (1908), 355. 
 
 As the title indicates, this book is intended especially for southern 
 schools, the adaptation being the use of the best practices and materials 
 of southern agriculture for illustration. 
 
 The first part of the book deals with plant growth, including the plant's 
 relation to the soil. The second part deals with crops, including enemies 
 (the cotton boll-weevil receiving particular attention), animal husbandry, 
 farm machinery. Important reference tables are arranged in an Appendix. 
 
 183. Elements of Agriculture. W. C. WELBORN. New York: Maonillan 
 
 (1908), xvi+359. 
 
 This book is prepared for use in southern and western elementary 
 schools. Three phases of the subject are taken up as follows : Crop Produc- 
 tion, including the plant and its environment, characteristics of various 
 field crops, soil fertility, etc. ; Special Crops, in which the management of 
 each crop is described in detail ; Animal Production, including feeding and 
 ration, care of animals, various kinds of farm animals in detail. An Ap- 
 pendix gives a classification of the most common economic plants, plant 
 diseases, and insect enemies of plants and their remedies, score cards for 
 judging, and a Glossary. 
 
 184. First Principles of Soil Fertility. ALFRED VIVIAN. New York: Orange 
 Judd Co. (1908), 265. 
 
 The book is intended for home reading as well as for school use. It 
 is divided into four parts : Plant Food, Its Nature and Source ; Making 
 Potential Plant Food Available ; Barnyard Manure ; Commercial Fertilizers. 
 
 185. Manual of Agriculture for the Common Schools of Illinois. D. O. BARTO. 
 New York: Appleton & Co. (1908), 52. 
 
 "The writer has tried to outline in this little guide sets of studies and 
 exercises in agriculture on topics of general importance and interest to 
 farmers in all sections of Illinois." The "sets of exercises" are as follows : 
 What Is a Soil ? Water ; Demands on Water Supply of the Soil ; Saving 
 the Soil Water ; Effect of Color on Temperature of Soils ; Plant and Essen- 
 tials of Plant Production ; Seed ; Testing the Seed ; Importance of Fine 
 Tilth; Seed Planting; Roots; Root Tubercles; Inoculating the Soil; Plot 
 Experiments ; How Necessary Fertilizers Can Be Obtained ; Care of Plot 
 Experiments in Vacation ; Studies in Corn ; Pollination. Two pages of 
 references are given. 
 
 186. One Hundred Lessons in Elementary Agriculture. A. W. NOLAN. Mor- 
 gantown, W.Va.: Acme Publishing Co. (1908). 
 
 The wide range of topics included in the hundred lessons touches all 
 important phases of agricultural problems. Soils, seeds, gardens, trees, 
 crops, insects, weeds, poultry, foods, birds, machinery, rural civics, and eco- 
 nomics these suggested by titles of prominent lessons indicate the scope 
 of the book. Much of it is nature-study with agricultural materials and 
 some of it is strictly the technical aspect of the science of agriculture.
 
 BIBLIOGRAPHY 157 
 
 187. Teachers' Manual of Elementary Agriculture, Nature-Study, and Domestic 
 Science. F. E. THOMPSON, T. S. PARSONS, et al. Boston: Ginn & Co. 
 (1908). 
 
 This manual was prepared under the direction of the Colorado Teachers' 
 Association. After an introduction dealing with the educational aspects of 
 the subject follow chapters on Soils, Plant Life, School Gardening and 
 Improving School Grounds, Field Crops, Insects and Birds, Live Stock, and 
 Domestic Science. Five pages are devoted to a Bibliography for agricul- 
 ture and nature-study work. 
 
 188. Agriculture for Common Schools. MARTIN L. FISHER and FASSETT A. 
 COTTON. New York: Scribner (1909), xxiii+38i. 
 
 The book is divided into five sections as follows : I, Soils ; II, Farm 
 Crops ; III, Horticulture ; IV, Animal Husbandry ; V, Dairying. There are 
 several appendices. One of these deals with the teaching of the subject 
 with special reference to correlation with reading, arithmetic, geography, etc. 
 
 189. Agriculture in the Public Schools. LESTER S. IVINS. Lebanon, 0.: March 
 Bros. (1909), 156. 
 
 This is a handbook for teachers. It includes suggestions for organiza- 
 tion of rural schools, teaching of nature-study and agriculture in rural 
 schools, plans for conducting parents' meetings, public displays of school 
 work, corn, potato, and vegetable growing contests, home, rural, and city- 
 school flower gardens, and other valuable information that is intended to be 
 helpful to the teacher. 
 
 190. Elements of Agriculture. G. F. WARREN. New York: Macmillan (1909), 
 
 xxiv+434- 
 
 "This book is intended for use in high schools, academies, and normal 
 schools, and in colleges when only a short time can be given to the subject." 
 The author has attempted to carry out the suggestions of the Committee on 
 Instruction in Agriculture of the Association of American Colleges and 
 Experiment Stations. All important phases of agriculture are discussed 
 in the eighteen chapters that make up the body of the book. The text of 
 each chapter is followed by questions, laboratory exercises, and collateral 
 reading. A summary of chap, v, "The Soil," will illustrate the method of 
 treatment which is typical of each chapter : What Soil Is ; Rock Particles 
 of the Soil ; Soil Water, Including Irrigation and Drainage ; Soil Air ; Or- 
 ganic Matter of the Soil ; Life in the Soil. The chapter is reviewed by 
 means of twenty-four questions. The following is typical : "Where does a 
 fence post rot most rapidly? Why?" Fifteen excellent laboratory and field 
 exercises give concreteness to the text. Ten references are given in the 
 Collateral reading. There are twenty pages of appendix containing informa- 
 tion useful to teacher and pupil. 
 
 191. Elementary Principles of Agriculture. A. M. FERGUSON and L. L. LEWIS. 
 Sherman, Tex.: Ferguson Publishing Co. (1909), xvi+3i8. 
 
 The aim of the book is perhaps best expressed by the authors : "Our 
 own ideas are that the primary obj.ect of a text on agriculture, intended for 
 the common schools, is to satisfy the natural interest of all children about 
 the whys of common farm conditions." 
 
 The book is in three parts : Part I, deals with the plant, soil diseases of 
 plants, injurious insects, etc. ; Part II, with animals, including dairying ; 
 Part III, is devoted to special topics, such as home lot, school gardens, for- 
 estry, etc. There is an Appendix of nine parts, including references, formu- 
 lae for sprays, tables of nutrients, rainfall, etc.
 
 158 AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS 
 
 192. Practical Agriculture. JOHN W. WILKINSON. New York: American 
 Book Co. (1909), 383. 
 
 This is a "brief treatise on agriculture, horticulture, forestry, stock 
 feeding, animal husbandry, and road building." These subjects are dis- 
 cussed in forty-five chapters. In the Appendix of twenty-two pages are found 
 useful tables and references, and a list of apparatus needed for conducting 
 laboratory courses in agriculture. 
 
 193. A Practical Arithmetic. F. L. STEVENS, TAIT, BUTLER, and MRS. F. L. 
 STEVENS. New York: Scribner (1909), ix+386. 
 
 In addition to the usual aims sought in arithmetic tests, the authors 
 have included "teaching valuable facts by basing the problems of the book 
 upon problems of real life." The book contains a good collection of inter- 
 esting and valuable applications of arithmetic to the affairs of farm life. 
 Instead of the hypothetical problems concerning what A and B did, occur 
 such problems as, "If kainit contains i2 l /2 per cent potash and muriate of 
 potash contains 50 per cent potash, how many pounds of kainit will it take 
 to supply as much potash as 40 pounds of muriate of potash?" 
 
 194. Practical Nature-Study and Elementary Agriculture. JOHN M. COULTER, 
 JOHN G. COULTER, and ALICE JEAN PATTERSON. New York: Apple- 
 ton & Co. (1009), ix+354. 
 
 This is a manual for use of teachers and normal students. It is divided 
 into four parts. The first part considers the educational aspects of nature- 
 study and agriculture ; the second, "a detailed topical outline by grades and 
 seasons of the materials used in nature-study in the training school at the 
 Illinois State Normal University" ; the third, "a shorter outline for work 
 in the lower grades arranged according to seasons, and leading more directly 
 to agricultural studies of the seventh and eighth grades" ; the fourth "com- 
 prises certain chapters upon general topics ; material which has been found 
 serviceable for teachers whose general science training has been slight or 
 lacking entirely." 
 
 195. Agriculture for Schools of the Pacific Slope. E. W. HILGARD and W. J. 
 OSTERHOUT. New York: Macmillan (1910), xix+428. 
 
 This book contains twenty-three chapters devoted to plants and their 
 cultivation. Five chapters are devoted to animals. This emphasis on plants 
 is doubtless due to the fact that horticulture is one of the chief agricultural 
 industries of the Pacific Slope. The living plant in all its relations receives 
 more attention than is usual in an agricultural textbook. The book could 
 very well be used as a textbook of botany. It is illustrated by 209 good 
 illustrations. Elementary School Agriculture (1911), a teacher's manual to 
 accompany this text, has been prepared by E. B. BABCOCK and C. A. 
 STEBBINS. 
 
 196. Domesticated Animals and Plants. F. DAVENPORT. Boston: Ginn & Co. 
 (1910), xiv+32i. 
 
 This is a brief treatise upon the origin and development of domestic 
 races with special reference to the methods of improvement. It is in two 
 parts, one "constituting a brief course covering the essential principles that 
 are fundamental to an understanding of hereditary transmission and of the 
 business of plant and animal improvement" ; the other deals with the origin 
 of domesticated races.
 
 BIBLIOGRAPHY 159 
 
 197. Farm Development. WILLETT M. HAYES. New York: Orange Judd Co. 
 (1910), xii+39i. 
 
 This is "an introductory book in agriculture, including a discussion of 
 soils, selecting and planning farms, subduing the fields, drainage, irrigation, 
 roads, fences, together with introductory chapters concerning farm business, 
 and the relations of the general science of agriculture." 
 
 198. Manual of Agriculture: Soils and Crops. D. O. BARTO. Boston: D. C. 
 Heath & Co. (1911), xi+492. 
 
 This manual is a series of laboratory and field experiments in two 
 parts, one relating to soils; the other to crops. The work included is con- 
 sidered sufficient to cover one year of the high-school course in agriculture, 
 and is intended to "offer training in science comparable to that -furnished 
 by the other science courses in good high schools." 
 
 199. Outlines of Agriculture for Rural Schools. C. M. EVANS. Chicago: 
 W. M. Welch Mfg. Co. (1910), 31. 
 
 A year's work is outlined for rural schools with one lesson each week. 
 
 200. Fundamentals of Agriculture. JAMES EDWARD HALLIGAN. Boston: 
 D. C. Heath & Co. (1911), xi+492. 
 
 "Every subject in this book is written by an expert in his line. This 
 idea was carried out in order to furnish the student with the best informa- 
 tion that could be obtained. The editor thought it would be better to have 
 authorities treat of the various topics rather than write the book alone, as 
 there are very few men competent enough to warrant their writing the best 
 book on agriculture." Thirty-three experts in various fields of agriculture 
 have contributed. 
 
 201. An Introduction to Agriculture. A. A. UPHAM. New York: Apple ton 
 & Co. (1911), xi+ayo. 
 
 The aim of the book is "to touch those matters which would be most 
 useful to the pupils in our rural schools, and especially to give the under- 
 lying theory for many farm processes and practices." There are twenty- 
 one chapters and an Appendix. All of the usual subjects of agriculture 
 are covered in these chapters, and the Appendix contains references and a 
 number of useful tables. 
 
 202. Beginnings of Agriculture. ALBERT R. MANN. New York: Macmillan, 
 (1911), x+3i7. 
 
 "This book is designed for the purpose of introducing the study of 
 agriculture into the seventh and eighth grades of our elementary schools. 
 The book is founded on the suggestions in the Report of the Committee 
 on Industrial Education in Schools for Rural Communities of the National 
 Education Association. It has been the aim of the author to cover the 
 work very largely in a nature-study spirit, by which it is meant that the 
 pupil shall be brought into as close touch as possible with the actual 
 farms, soils, crops, animals and affairs." There are four parts : I, The 
 Affairs of Agriculture, eight chapters ; II, The Soil, seven chapters ; III, 
 Farm Plants, sixteen chapters ; IV, Farm Animals, ten chapters. Each 
 chapter is followed by a series of problems dealing concretely with various 
 phases of the subject in text. There are two hundred and forty-one such 
 problems in the book.
 
 INDEX 
 
 Agriculture, U.S. Department of: agri- 
 cultural education, n; Association of 
 Agricultural Colleges, 8, 64; Bureau 
 of Plant Industry, n; farmers' insti- 
 tutes, 12; Forest Service,io; history of, 
 7; Office of Experiment Stations, 
 7, ii ; organization of, 9; Weather 
 Bureau, 9 
 
 Agricultural Colleges, 8, 38, in, 126; 
 association of, 8, 64 
 
 Agricultural-College high schools, 120 
 
 Agricultural education, U.S. specialist, 12 
 
 Agricultural extension, 38, 87, in; 
 publications, 40 
 
 Alabama: Agricultural College, 43, 46; 
 district agricultural schools, 120; Edu- 
 cational Association, 66; Farm Life 
 Club, 108; legislation, 20 
 
 American Association of Farmers' Insti- 
 tute Workers, 90 
 
 Arithmetic, 128 
 
 Arizona, 20 
 
 Arkansas: Agricultural College, 43; 
 district agricultural schools, 27, 120; 
 legislation, 20, 27 
 
 Bailey, L. H., 38, 47, 119, 127, 130, 131 
 Baltimore County, Md., high school, 
 
 101, 121 
 
 Barnard's Journal of Education, 67 
 Bishop, E. C., 74 
 Boys' clubs, 39, 41, 44, 76, 116, 118; 
 
 agricultural, 42, 105; corn, 106 
 Boy Scouts, in 
 Brown, Elmer E., 18 
 Bureau of Education, U.S., 14 
 Bureau of Plant Industry, U.S., n 
 Burkett bill, 16 
 Butterfield, K. L., 64 
 
 California: Agricultural College, 39, 40, 
 43, 46, 91; high schools: Gardena, 
 122, Polytechnic, 124, San Diego, 122, 
 Stockton, 122; legislation, 20, 27, 37; 
 State Normal School, 49, 54 
 
 Canada, 78 
 
 Cecil County, Md., 62 
 
 Clapp, Henry L., 62 
 
 Claxton, P. P., 18 
 
 College entrance, 64, 126 
 
 Colleges, agricultural, 38, 116, 126 
 
 Colorado: legislation, 20; State Normal 
 School, 54 
 
 Columbia College, 7, 95 
 Columbian Magazine, 68 
 Commissioner of Agriculture, 85 
 Commissioner of Education, U.S., 14; 
 
 state, 19 
 Committee on Industrial Education, 
 
 N.E.A., 61, 62 
 
 Committee of Twelve, N.E.A., 61 
 Congressional district schools, 63, 120 
 Connecticut: Agricultural College, 46; 
 
 legislation, 20 
 
 Course of study in agriculture, 8 
 Consolidation, 76 
 Cornell University, 25, 38, 39, 87, 96; 
 
 leaflets, 15, 19 
 Crosby, D. J., 12, 64 
 
 Davenport, Eugene, 50 
 
 Davis bill, 16, 62, 64 
 
 De Fellenburg, 69 
 
 Delaware, 19, 43 
 
 Delaware County, la., 112 
 
 Demonstration work, government, in 
 
 Department of Agricultural Education: 
 agricultural colleges, 43, 44; National 
 Education Association, 64; New York, 
 123; Pennsylvania, 36 
 
 Department of Agriculture, U.S., 7 
 
 Department of Superintendence, N.E.A., 
 
 63 
 
 District agricultural schools, 63, 120 
 Dunn County School of Agriculture, 62 
 
 Educational periodicals, 67 
 Elementary schools, 116 
 Experiment clubs. See Boys' clubs 
 Experiment Station, Office, of, n 
 Experiment Station Record, 12, 83 
 Extension, agricultural, 38, 87, 89, in; 
 methods, 38 
 
 Farm boys' encampment, 88 
 
 Farm Life Club, 108 
 
 Farmers': Alliance, 98, 99; bulletins, 9; 
 clubs, 100; institutes, 12, 85, 89; 
 institute specialist, 12, 90, no; insti- 
 tutes for young people, no 
 
 Florida: Agricultural College, 41; legis- 
 lation, 20 
 
 Forest Service, U.S., 10 
 
 Forestry: in agriculture, n; in geog- 
 raphy, ii ; in nature-study, n 
 
 Franklin, Benjamin, 94 
 
 161
 
 162 AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS 
 
 Gardena (Cal.) high school, 122 
 Gardens, school, n, 14, 52, 102 
 Georgia: Agricultural College, 43, 46; 
 
 district agricultural schools, 63, 120; 
 
 legislation, 20; Teachers'Association, 66 
 Grange, 98 
 
 Hamilton, John, 12 
 
 Harris, W. T., 59 
 
 Harvard, 7 
 
 Harvey, L. D., 66 
 
 Hatch act, 7 
 
 Hays, Willet M., 13, 66 
 
 High schools, agriculture in : agricultural- 
 college, 120; city, 122; county, 120; 
 district, 120; normal, 124; state aid, 
 123; technical, 124; village-township, 
 121 
 
 Hinckley State High School, Minnesota, 
 123 
 
 Holbrook, Josiah, 68 
 
 Hopwyl, 70 
 
 Horticultural Society: of Iowa, 101; of 
 Massachusetts, 102; of New Jersey, 100 
 
 Idaho: Agricultural College, 43; legisla- 
 tion, 21, 28, 37 
 
 Illinois: Agricultural College, 39, 40, 43, 
 46; Grange, 99; Industrial League, 
 96; legislation, 21; School News, 74; 
 State Fair, 88; state normal schools, 
 
 49, S3, 54 
 Indiana: Agricultural College, 39, 43; 
 
 legislation, 21 
 
 Industrial education, N.E.A., 60, 61 
 Industrial League of Illinois, 96 
 International Congress of Education, 60 
 Iowa: Agricultural College, 43; corn 
 
 clubs, 112, 113; legislation, 20, 28, 37 
 
 John Swaney Consolidated School, Illi- 
 nois, 62 
 
 Johnson State Normal School, Vermont, 
 48 
 
 Journal of Education, 67 
 
 Junior Demonstration Work, n, 108 
 
 Kansas: Agricultural College, 39, 41, 43, 
 46; boys' clubs, 106; legislation, 21, 
 28, 37; Rural Life Scouts, in; State 
 Normal School, 54 
 
 Kentucky, 18, 21 
 
 Keokuk, la., 18, 21 
 
 Kern, O. J., 76 
 
 Kingsville Township, Ohio, 76 
 
 Knapp, S. A., 108 
 
 Laboratory exercises, 130 
 Land Grant act, 14, 96 
 
 Lethe, S. C., 68 
 
 Louisiana: Agricultural College, 43; 
 agricultural high schools, 28; boys' 
 clubs, 41, 104; legislation, 21, 28, 37 
 
 Macdonald Movement, 79 
 
 Maine: Agricultural College, 43; legis- 
 lation, 21, 29 
 
 Manual training, 60 
 
 Martin, O. B., 107 
 
 Maryland: Baltimore County Agri- 
 cultural High School, 101; legislation, 
 
 21, 29,37 
 
 Massachusetts: Agricultural College, 40, 
 43,46; Agricultural Society, 96; Board 
 of Agriculture, 87; Board of Educa- 
 tion, 125; Horticultural Society, 102; 
 legislation, 21, 29, 37; project plan, 
 29, 125 
 
 Miami University, 56 
 
 Michigan: Agricultural College, 40, 43; 
 agricultural extension, 91; Agricul- 
 tural Society, 96; legislation, 22, 30; 
 State Association of Farmers' Clubs, 
 100; State Board of Agriculture, 85; 
 state normal schools, 49 
 
 Minnesota: Agricultural College, 40, 46; 
 high schools, 31, 120, 123; legislation, 
 22, 31, 37; State Fair, 88; state normal 
 schools, 49 
 
 Mississippi: Agricultural College, 42, 
 43, 46; boys' clubs, 107; legislation, 
 
 22, 32, 37 
 
 Missouri: Agricultural College, 43, 44, 
 46; Board of Agriculture, 87; legisla- 
 tion, 22; state normal schools, 53, 54, 
 55, 124 
 
 Montana, 22, 32, 37 
 
 Moore, Jerry, 107 
 
 Morrill act, 7, 15 
 
 National Committee for Agricultural 
 
 Education, N.E.A., 62 
 National Education Association, 58 
 National Teachers' Association, 58 
 Nature-Study Review, 72, 73 
 Nebraska: Agricultural College, 42, 43; 
 
 boys' clubs, 42, 74; legislation, 22, 32; 
 
 State Fair, 87; state normal schools, 
 
 53; Nebraska Teacher, 74 
 Nelson act, 15 
 Nevada, 32 
 New Hampshire: Agricultural College, 
 
 39; legislation, 23, 33 
 New Jersey: Agricultural College, 46; 
 
 Horticultural Society, 100; legisla- 
 tion, 23, 33, 37 
 New Mexico, 23
 
 INDEX 
 
 163 
 
 New York: Agricultural College, 37, 41, 
 45, 46, 96; Agricultural Society, 95, 
 96; Department of Agriculture, 87, 92; 
 Department of Education, 92, 123; 
 high schools, 123; legislation, 23, 25, 
 26, 33, 37, 123; Nixon law, 25; state 
 normal schools, 49, 50, 51, 53 
 
 Nixon law, 25 
 
 Normal Agricultural Society, S3 
 
 North Carolina: Agricultural College, 
 43, 46; legislation, 23, 33, 37; State 
 Normal School, 49 
 
 North Dakota: Agricultural College, 46, 
 92; legislation, 23, 34, 37 
 
 Office of Experiment Stations, U.S., n 
 Ohio: Agricultural College, 40, 43, 46; 
 
 boys' clubs, 105; district supervisor, 
 
 35; legislation, 23, 35, 37, 117; New 
 
 Holland high school, 121; State 
 
 Normal College, 56 
 Oklahoma: Agricultural College, 43, 46, 
 
 92; district agricultural schools, 120; 
 
 legislation, 23; State Fair, 88; state 
 
 normal schools, 49 
 Oregon: Agricultural College, 43, 46; 
 
 legislation, 23; state normal schools, 
 
 47 
 
 Oswego, 69 
 
 OtwelVs Farmer Boy, 113 
 Otwell, W. B., 113 
 
 Page bill, 18, 64 
 
 Pennsylvania: Agricultural College, 39, 
 
 40, 43, 46; Agricultural Society, 95; 
 
 legislation, 23, 36, 37; state normal 
 
 schools, 49, 50 
 Periodical literature, 75 
 Pestalozzi, 69 
 Phenological studies, 10 
 Philadelphia agricultural societies, 94 
 Philbrook, John D., 59 
 Pickering, Timothy, 94 
 Porter, John A., 68 
 
 Rhode Island, 39, 43, 46 
 
 Rock Hill State Normal School, 49 
 
 Rural and agricultural education, N.E.A., 
 
 62, 64, 65 
 
 Rural high school, 115 
 Rural Life Scouts, in 
 Rural-school curriculum, 117 
 Rural-school problem, 60 
 
 St. Louis Exposition, boys' exhibits, 113 
 
 School Agriculture, 73 
 
 School gardens, n, 14, 52, 73, 102 
 
 Scltool News, 74 
 
 School Science and Mathematics, 72 
 
 Schools, secondary, 119 
 
 Schools, state normal: California, 49, 53, 
 54; Colorado, 54; Illinois, 49, 53, 54; 
 Iowa, 49; Kansas, 49, 54; Massachu- 
 setts, 53; Michigan, 49; Minnesota, 
 49; Missouri, 49, 53, 54, 55; Nebraska, 
 49> S3; New Jersey, 53; New York, 
 49, 50; North Carolina, 49; Ohio, 49, 
 56; Oklahoma, 49; Oregon, 47; Penn- 
 sylvania, 49, 50; South Carolina, 49; 
 Utah, 49; Vermont, 48; Virginia, 55; 
 Wyoming, 48 
 
 Seed collection, n 
 
 South Carolina: Agricultural Society, 94; 
 boys' clubs, 107; legislation, 23; 
 State Department of Agriculture, 48; 
 State Normal School, 49 
 
 South Dakota, 24 
 
 State fairs, 88, 89 
 
 State organizations for agriculture, 85 
 
 State teachers' associations, 66 
 
 Summary of legislation, 27, 37 
 
 Summer schools, 46 
 
 Teachers' associations, 58 
 
 Tennessee: Agricultural College, 40, 43, 
 
 46; legislation, 24 
 Texas, 24, 36, 37 
 True, A. C., 66 
 Turner, Jonathan B., 97 
 
 United States: Bureau of Education, 14; 
 
 Department of Agriculture, 7 
 University of Pennsylvania, 95 
 Utah: Agricultural College, 43, 46; 
 
 legislation, 24, 36, 37; State Normal 
 
 School, 49 
 
 Vermont: Agricultural College, 43, 46; 
 
 legislation, 24, 36; State Normal 
 
 School, 48, 49 
 Virginia, 24, 55 
 
 Washington: Agricultural College, 43, 
 46; legislation, 24, 36, 37 
 Washington, George, 94 
 
 Waterford High School, Pa., 62 
 
 Wehrli, 69 
 
 West Virginia: Agricultural College, 39, 
 43, a6, 92; legislation, 24 
 
 Winnebago County, 111., 76 
 
 Wisconsin: Agricultural College, 43, 46, 
 92; agricultural high schools, 120; 
 legislation, 24, 36, 37 
 
 Wyoming: Agricultural College, 46; legis- 
 lation, 24; state normal schools, 48 
 
 Yale, 7 
 Y.M.C.A., 106, 112
 
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