REVISED EDITION 
 
 LESSONS 
 
 IN THE 
 
 it IJ I 1 Lit 
 
 FOR SCHOOLS AND ACADEMIES 
 
 BY 
 
 ALPHONSO WOOD, A.M., Pn.D 
 
 \N 
 
 LATE PROF. OF BOTANY IN THE COLLEGE OF PHARMACY, NEW YORK ; AUTHOR OF THE 
 
 CLASS-BOOK OF BOTANY, ETC 
 
 REVISED AND EDITED BY 
 
 OLIVER R. WILLIS, A.M., Pn.D 
 
 INSTRUCTOR OF NATURAL HISTORY IN THE ALEXANDER INSTITUTE J AUTHOR OF PLANTS OF 
 NEW JERSEY AND FLORA OF WESTCHESTER CO., N. Y 
 
 W7BRSXTY 
 
 YORK : CINCINNATI - : . CHICAGO 
 
 AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY 
 
 PROM THE PRESS OF 
 
 A. S. BARNES <& CO. 
 
BIOLOGt 
 LIBRARY 
 
 WOOD'S BOTANIES. 
 
 OBJECT LESSONS IN BOTANY, pp. 340, 12mo. An introduction to the 
 Science, full of lively description and truthful illustrations ; with a limited Flora, but 
 a complete System of Analysis. 
 
 THE BOTANIST AND FLORIST, pp. 620, 12mo. A thorough text-book, com- 
 prehensive and practical ; with a Flora, and System of Analysis equally complete. 
 " I have been deeply impressed, almost astonished (writes Prof. A. Winchell, of 
 University of Michigan), at the evidence which this work bears of skillful and 
 experienced authorship nice and constant adaptation to the wants and conveniences 
 of students in Botany," etc. 
 
 REVISED LESSONS IN THE LIFE AND GROWTH OF PLANTS. 
 These Lessons constitute the introductory part of the "Botanist and Florist." The 
 chapters on Structure and Morphology have been revised, and those on Histology and 
 Physiology rewritten. The Lessons will still be the introduction to the " Botanist 
 and Florist ; " they will also be published separately in a book of about 200 pp., and 
 present the subject to the student in a clear, concise manner. They will be a 
 suitable companion and introduction to any of the Manuals of the Floras of the 
 several parts of the country. 
 
 THE CLASS-BOOK OF BOTANY, pp. 850, 8vo. The principles of the Science 
 more fully announced and illustrated the Flora and Analysis complete, with all our 
 plants portrayed in language both scientific and popular. " The whole science (writes 
 Prof. G. H. Perkins, of Vermont University), so far as it can be taught in a college 
 course, is well presented, and rendered unusually easy of comprehension. I regard 
 the work as most admirable." 
 
 THE PLANT RECORD a beautiful book, for classes and amateurs, showing, in 
 a few pages, how to analyze a plant any plant, and furnishing tablets for the sys- 
 tematic record of the analysis. 
 
 FLORA ATLANTICA, OP WOOD'S DESCRIPTIVE FLORA, pp. 448, 
 12mo. This work is equivalent to the Part IV of the Botanist and Florist, being a 
 succinct account of all the plants growing East of the Mississippi River, both native 
 and cultivated, with a system of analytical tables well-nigh perfect. 
 
 WOOD'S BOTANICAL APPARATUS a complete outfit, for the field and the 
 herbarium. It consists of a portable trunk, a Wire Drying Press, a Knife-trowel, a 
 Microscope, and Forceps. 
 
 'FOURTEEN WElKS" IN EACH SCIENCE. 
 
 .*\ : . : *i"' T -' GORMAN STBFLE, PH.D., LL.D., F. G. S., Etc. 
 
 I ;",* 
 
 27bw Ready : 
 
 PHILOSOPHY. 
 CHEMISTRY. 
 
 PHYSIOLOGY. 
 GEOLOGY. 
 
 ZOOLOGY. 
 ASTRONOMY. 
 
 A KEY to Practical questions in Steeds Works. 
 Seven volumes : each, post-paid, 
 
 COPYRIGHT, 1870 AND 1889, by A. S. BARNES & Co. 
 
EDITOR'S PREFACE. 
 
 DR. WOOD'S "Lessons in the Structure and Growth of 
 Plants" was designed for an introduction to this delightful 
 department of Natural History, and to qualify the student in 
 Botany to make intelligent use of a Flora. The book is well 
 known to educators, and the instructors in our high-schools and 
 colleges have acknowledged its worth and conferred upon it the 
 highest degree of approval by using it as a text-book. 
 
 It was written more than twenty years ago ; since then im- 
 proved methods of examination, with the aid of new microscopical 
 appliances, have revealed much in all departments of biology, and 
 especially in the structure and formation of plant-tissues. 
 
 These discoveries have introduced in some parts new and in 
 others additional names. 
 
 To bring the work to the advanced state of the science, the 
 chapters on Organography have been revised, and the parts on 
 Histology and Physiology have been entirely rewritten and 
 newly illustrated, and the whole reset in fresh and modern type. 
 
 The third chapter of the Introduction has been recast, en- 
 larged, and newly illustrated. 
 
 In preparing the parts that are rewritten, the Editor has 
 aimed not to enlarge, but rather to be more concise than the 
 Author was upon the same subjects, believing that in a text-book 
 brief and clear statement is more acceptable to the teacher and 
 useful to the learner than lengthy discussion. 
 
 The chapters and sections on Structure, or Organography, 
 have been revised as to nomenclature ; but otherwise have not 
 been disturbed, and the sequence of subjects has been preserved. 
 
 The Index and Glossary have been altered and enlarged, to 
 suit the additional and revised matter; the words in the Glossary 
 have been divided and accented to correspond with the latest 
 authorities on Pronunciation. 
 
iv EDITOR'S PREFACE. 
 
 It was the intention of the Author that this work should be a 
 text-book suited to the needs of students in our Academies, 
 High-schools, and Colleges, intending his " Object Lessons in 
 Botany" to meet the wants of younger pupils; hence, in the 
 changes that have been made this design has been kept in view. 
 
 The work now, with its revision, new matter, additional illus- 
 trations, and fresh type, is substantially a new book. 
 
 Its original character for educational purposes has been care- 
 fully preserved and in several features improved. It is in its new 
 form a suitable introduction and companion to any of the man- 
 uals of the Flora of North America. 
 
 It affords the Editor great pleasure to record the acknowledg- 
 ment of his obligations to his personal friends among the botanists 
 of New York and vicinity for their sympathy in the work. 
 
 He is especially indebted to Dr. Geo. Macloskie, Senior Pro- 
 fessor of Botany and Zoology in the John C. Green School of 
 Science, at the College of New Jersey, for efficient aid and judi- 
 cious criticism, upon the subjects of Histology and Physiology, 
 where the statements are based upon microscopic examination. 
 
 His gratitude is due to Dr. John S. Newberry, of Columbia 
 College, for his kind suggestions and encouragement. 
 
 Also to Hon. Judge A. Brown and to Mr. "W. H. Budkin, of 
 New York, for their kind and valuable advice. 
 
 O. R. WILLIS, EDITOR. 
 WHITE PLAINS, NEW YOBK, 
 March, 1889. 
 
 SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS. 
 
 AN enlightened instructor is disappointed, on opening a text-book, if lie 
 does not find some hint from the author as to the mode of using it. 
 
 Our best teachers of Botany differ as to what should be the subject first 
 presented to the pupil's notice. 
 
 One would commence with the SEED ; another, with the FLOWER ; a third, 
 with HISTOLOGY and PHYSIOLOGY. 
 
 These Lessons are so arranged that the learner may commence either 
 with the Flower, which would lead through Organography, or Structural 
 Botany, up to the Seed ; or, if the teacher prefer, he can have his class com- 
 mence with the Second part, which treats of the Cells and Vessels that build 
 up plants and trees. 
 
 In either case, we advise that the four chapters which make up the intro- 
 duction be carefully studied, by using them as reading and talking lessons, 
 With simple illustrations, until they are well understood. 
 
TABLE OF CONTENTS: 
 
 TOGETHER WITH A SYLLABUS OF THE MORE PRACTICAL SUB- 
 
 JECTS, DESIGNED AS EXERCISES ON THE BLACKBOARD, 
 
 PRELIMINARY TO THE LESSONS. 
 
 N. B. We give the Syllabus of but a few Chapters , and of fewer entire^ in order that the 
 pupil maty exercise his own skill in supplying deficiencies. The teacher should require 
 this. The abbreviation (etc.) indicates a table unfinished. 
 
 INTRODUCTION Page 9 
 
 CHAPTER I. Aids to the Study of Botany 9 
 
 CHAPTER II. Departments of Science 11 
 
 * Existence, individually ; ( 13.) 
 
 a As an inorganic mass, is A Mineral. 
 
 6 As an organic body, 
 
 Endowed with life A Plant. 
 
 Endowed with life and perception An Animal. 
 
 * Existence, collectively, Nature. ( 12), etc. 
 
 * Existence, objectively, Science. ( 16-18), etc. 
 
 * Department of Botany. ( 19-23), etc. 
 
 * Classification. ( 27-30), etc. 
 
 * Nomenclature. ( 25, 26.) 
 
 a Local appellatives in common use Trivial Names. 
 
 b Universal appellatives adopted in Science Latin Names. 
 
 The name of the Genus Generic. 
 
 The name of the Species Specific. 
 
 The name of the Individual Proper. 
 
 CHAPTER HI. Stages of Plant Life 15 
 
 First Stage; asleep in the Seed Embryo. 
 
 Second Stage ; development. 
 
 a Awakening and beginning to grow Germination. 
 
 b Developing leaves and branches Vegetation. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 v v " : * ' -' * i 
 
 Third Stage ; leaves transformed to flowers Flowering. 
 
 Fourth Stage; maturity. 
 
 c Flowers maturing into fruit Fructification. 
 
 d Fruit ripe and the plant exhausted. Hibernation Death. 
 
 CHAPTER TV. Term of Plant Life 20 
 
 Plant fruiting but once, and 
 
 a Dying in its first year Annual Herb. 
 
 b Dying after its second year @ Biennial Herb. 
 
 c Dying after many years Monocarpic. 
 
 Plant fruiting more than once (perennial), 
 
 a With annual stems, is a V Perennial Herb. 
 
 b With perennial stems becoming woody. 
 
 1, It lower than or equaling the human stature Undershrub. 
 
 2, If taller, 7 to 20 feet high Shrub. 
 
 3, If still taller, with a distinct trunk A Tree. 
 
 t Trees with annual foliage, shed in Autumn Deciduous. 
 
 t Trees with perennial foliage Fvergreen. 
 
 PART FIRST. STRUCTURAL, BOTANY, OR ORGANOGRAPHY 23 
 
 CHAPTER I. The Flower. It may consist of 23 
 
 a The leafy Envelopes, or Perianth, in 2 whorls or sets. 
 
 1, The outer circle, of Sepals, usually green Calyx. 
 
 2, The inner circle, of Petals, usually colored Corolla. 
 
 6 The Essential Organs, also in 2 whorls or sets. 
 
 3, An outer set, of Stamens, within the corolla Androecium. 
 
 4, The inner and central set, of Pistils Grynoecium. 
 
 e The base, or platform on which these organs stand. Torus. 
 
 CHAPTER LI. Plan of the Flower. The Typical Flower 25 
 
 1, Consisting of 4 whorled sets of organs, is Complete. 
 
 2, Each set having the same number of parts Symmetrical. 
 
 3, The parts composing each set uniform Regular. 
 
 4, All the parts separate and distinct from each other Free. 
 
 5, Parts of adjacent sets alternating in position Alternate. 
 
 CHAPTERS m. and IV. Anomalous Flowers. Deviations from the Type. 28 
 
 1, Variations in the Radical Number From ^ to ^ 
 
 2, Deficiencies, rendering the flower 
 
 a Incomplete. 
 
 Corolla wanting Apetalous. 
 
 Corolla and calyx both wanting Naked. 
 
 6 Imperfect. 
 
 The stamens wanting Pistillate. 
 
 The pistils wanting $ Staminate. 
 
CONTENTS. 3 
 
 c Unsymmetrical, from the suppression of a part of some set. 
 d Organs opposite, from the suppression of some entire set. 
 
 3, Redundancies. 
 
 a Organs increased in number, 
 
 By multiples Multiplication. 
 
 By clusters Chorisis. 
 
 b Appendages. 
 
 Horn-like nectaries projecting backward Spurs. 
 
 Attached to the inside of the petals Scales. 
 
 -Enlarged scales , Crown. 
 
 Glandular bodies Glands. 
 
 4, Union of Parts. 
 
 a By Cohesion. 
 
 Petals united Gamopetalous, or Monopetalous. 
 
 Stamens united Monadelphous. 
 
 Pistils united Compound. 
 
 b By Adhesion. 
 
 Parts blended with the Calyx Perigynous. 
 
 Parts blended with the Ovary Epigynous. 
 
 5, Irregularities. Torus lengthened, excavated, etc. 
 
 Like organs, becoming unequal in size, etc. 
 
 CHAPTER V. Of the Moral Envelopes, or Perianth 36 
 
 CHAPTER VI. Forms of the Perianth 41 
 
 1, Dialypetalous, or Polypetalous. 
 
 * Regular. 
 
 a Four long-clawed petals spreading at right-angles.. Cruciferous. 
 
 b Five short-clawed spreading petals Rosaceous. 
 
 cFive spreading petals on long erect claws... Caryophyllaceous. 
 d A 6-leaved gradually spreading perianth Liliaceous. 
 
 * Irregular. 
 
 e Five petals, 2 pairs and an odd one Papilionaceous. 
 
 f Six petals, one of them lip-like Orchidaceous. 
 
 2, Gamopetalous, or Monopetalous. ( 102.) 
 
 * Regular. 
 
 a Tube very short, border flat, spreading Rotate. 
 
 b Tube very short, border wide, concave, Cup-form, etc., etc. 
 
 * Irregular. 
 
 c Cylindrical tube split down, etc. ( 103.) 
 Transformations of the Perianth. ( 104-108.) 
 
 1, In the Composite. A circle of dry scales or bristles Pappus. 
 
 2, In the Bog-Rushes. A circle of 6 (more or less) bristles Setse. 
 
 3, In the Sedges (Carices). A bottle-shaped envelope Perigynium. 
 
 4, In the Grasses. Chaff -like coverings Glunus, and Pales. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER VH. Attributes of the Essential Organs. Parts 46 
 
 1, In respect to Number. a etc. ( 118, two conditions.) 
 
 2, In position. 
 
 a On the torus, free from all other organs Hypogynous. 
 
 6 Adherent to the calyx, etc. ( 119, four other conditions.) 
 
 3, In cohesions. 
 
 a United into one set, etc. ( 120, five modes.) 
 
 CHAPTER VUL The Pistils.-Its Parts ( 125) 52 
 
 1, The simple ovary. 
 
 a Encloses a single cavity Its Cell. 
 
 * Produces little buds becoming seeds Ovules. 
 
 c And two fleshy ridges bearing the ovules Placentae. 
 
 2, The compound ovary. 
 
 a May contain as many cells as carpels. 
 
 b Must have 2 (or a double) placentae in each cell. 
 
 c And an equal number of ovules in each cell. 
 
 3, The number of carpels in a compound ovary is known 
 
 1, By the number of distinct styles, if any. 
 
 2, By the number of distinct stigmas. 
 
 3, By the number of the cells ; or, if there be but one, 
 
 4, By the number of external lobes, angles, or sutures. 
 
 CHAPTER IX. The Ovules 58 
 
 CHAPTER X. The Fruit. Pericarp. Dehiscence 60 
 
 CHAPTER XI. Forms of the Pericarp. (See Syllabus, 150) 64 
 
 CHAPTER XH. The Seed 69 
 
 CHAPTER XTTT. Germination 74 
 
 CHAPTER XIV. The Boot, or Descending Axis. Forms 78 
 
 * Axial Boots, or Tap-Boots, having the main axis developed. 
 
 1, The woody tap-root of most trees, branching Bamous. 
 
 2, Tuberous tap-roots. 
 
 a Shaped like a spindle (Beet) Fusiform. 
 
 J Shaped like a cone (Carrot) Conical 
 
 c Shape rounded or depressed (Turnip) Napiform. 
 
 * Inaxial Boots, having only the branches developed. 
 
 3, Boot consisting of numerous thread-like divisions Fibrous. 
 
 4, Boot nbro-tuberous. 
 
 a Some of the fibers thickened Fasciculate. 
 
 * Fibers abruptly knotted Nodulous. 
 
 c The knots at regular intervals Monilif orm . 
 
 d Fibers bearing little tubers Tubercular. 
 
CONTENTS. 5 
 
 CHAPTER XV. Of the Stem, or Ascending Axis 84 
 
 CHAPTER XVI. Forms of the Leaf -Stems, aerial, caulescent 88 
 
 1, Jointed, or hollow stems of Grasses, Sedges, Canes Culm. 
 
 2, The stout woody stem of Trees, covered with bark Trunk. 
 
 3, The woody, simple columns of Palms, etc., without bark Caudex. 
 
 4, Weak, slender stems, climbing or trailing Vine. 
 
 CHAPTER XVII. Forms of Scale-Stems, acaulescent 92 
 
 1, Slender, prostrate, rooting, on or in the ground Creeper. 
 
 2, Fleshy, thick, rooting, mostly under ground A . . . ( Rhizome. 
 
 3, Swollen with starch, under ground, with buds (eyes) Tuber. 
 
 4, Bulbous, solid, with thin scales, under ground Corm. 
 
 5, Bulbous, consisting mostly of thick scales Bulb. 
 
 CHAPTER XVIII. The Leaf -Bud. Vernation (and Estivation, Chap. XXTV) 97 
 
 * Separate ; regarding a single leaf (petal or sepal) in bud. 
 
 1, Leaf flat, neither folded nor rolled in the bud Open. 
 
 2, Bent forward, apex toward the base Reclined. 
 
 3, Folded on the axis Conduplicate. 
 
 4, Folded in plaits like a fan Plicate. 
 
 5, Boiled on its axis downward Circinate. 
 
 6, Rolled with its axis. 
 
 a From one edge into a scroll Convolute. 
 
 b From both edges inward Involute. 
 
 c From both edges backward Revolute. 
 
 * General ; regarding the whole bud. 
 
 1, Edges meeting, Valvate. 
 
 With the margins straight Valvate. 
 
 With the margins involute Induplicate. 
 
 With the margins revolute Reduplicate. 
 
 2, One edge overlapping, each leaf oblique Twisted or Contorted. 
 
 3, Both edges overlapping, Imbricate. 
 
 a Conduplicate leaves, alternately. 
 
 Embracing Equitant. 
 
 Half embracing Obvolute. 
 
 6 Leaves in threes, one of them exterior Triauetrous. 
 
 c Leaves in fives, two of them exterior Quincuncial. 
 
 d Each leaf or petal embracing all those within Convolute. 
 
 e Exterior petal largest (Sweet Pea) Vexillary. 
 
 4, Gamopetalous corolla folded in plaits. 
 
 Plaits straight Plicate. 
 
 Plaits oblique Supervolute. 
 
 CHAPTER XIX. Of the Leaf . Phyllotaxy 102 
 
6 CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER XX. Morphology of the Leaf . Venation 106 
 
 1, Veins simple and parallel, as in the Endogens Parallel- veined. 
 
 2, Veins dividing without uniting again, as in Ferns Fork- veined. 
 
 3, Veins netted, as in the Exogens, viz. : 
 
 a Larger veins arranged as in a feather Pinni- veined. 
 
 6 Larger veins 5 to 9, arranged as the fingers Pahni- veined. 
 
 c Larger veins only 3, arranged as the fingers Triple-veined. 
 
 Special Veins. 
 
 1, In feather-veined leaves. 
 
 The chief vein forming the axis Mid-vein. 
 
 Lateral branches of the mid-vein Veinlets. 
 
 The branches of the veinlets ^ Veinulets. 
 
 2, In palmi-veined leaves, or triple-veined. 
 
 a The coequal veins running through the blade, are Veins 
 
 b The branches of the veins, are (as in feather- veined) Veinlets, 
 
 CHAPTER XXT. Forms of Leaves. (Morphology, continued) 112 
 
 * Pinni-veined Leaves. 
 
 a Lower veinlets longer than the upper. 
 
 1, Outline of an egg Ovate. 
 
 2, Outline of a lance, or narrow-ovate Lanceolate. 
 
 3, Form of the Greek letter A Deltoid. 
 
 ft The middle veinlets longest, lower and upper equal. 
 
 4, Circular, or nearly so Orbicular. 
 
 5, Outline of an elliptic spring Elliptical. 
 
 6, Egg-shaped, with equal rounded ends Oval. 
 
 7, Narrowly oval, with obtuse ends Oblong. 
 
 The upper veinlets longest. 
 
 8, Inversely ovate, narrower at the base Obovate. 
 
 9, Inversely lanceolate, narrower at the base Oblanceolate. 
 
 10, Obtuse at apex, narrowed to the base Spatulate. 
 
 11, Shaped like a wedge, the point at base Cuneate. 
 
 d Lowest veinlets longest and recurved. 
 
 12, A re-entering angle, or sinus, at base. Heart-shaped. .Cordate. 
 
 13, Base-lobes ear-shaped Auriculate. 
 
 14, Base-lobes arrow-shaped Sagittate. 
 
 15, Base-lobes turned outward Hastate. 
 
 * Dissected Forms. 
 
 a Pinnately cut or divided. 
 
 1, With regular lateral segments Pinnatifid. 
 
 2, With segments recurved or hooked Buncinate. 
 
 3, Terminal segment enlarged ' Lyrate. 
 
 4, Segments many and narrow Pinnatisect. 
 
 5, Segments and sinuses rounded Sinuate. 
 
 & Palmately cut or lobed. 
 
CONTENTS. 7 
 
 6, Lobes only 3 Trilobate. 
 
 7, Lobes 5 or more Palmately-lobed. 
 
 8, Lobes deeply divided .Palmately-parted. 
 
 9, Side-lobes again 2-lobed Pedate. 
 
 CHAPTER XXII. Forms of Compound Leaves 118 
 
 * Pinnately compound. 
 
 a Once compounded, consisting of 
 
 1, Two leaflets opposite and equal Binate. 
 
 2, Three leaflets, the odd one petiolulate Pinnately-trifoliate. 
 
 3, Four or more equal leaflets, all in pairs Equally pinnate. 
 
 4, Five or more equal leaflets, all but one in pairs.. Odd-pinnate. 
 
 5, Alternate leaflets smaller Interruptedly pinnate. 
 
 b Twice compounded, consisting of 
 
 6, Nine leaflets (or 3 trifoliate leaves) Biternate. 
 
 7, Fifteen or more leaflets (3 pinnate leaves) Bipinnate. 
 
 c Thrice compounded, having 27 leaflets Triternate, etc. 
 
 d Irregularly much compounded Decompound. 
 
 * Palmately compounded, consisting of 
 
 10, Three equal leaflets all alike sessile (Clover)... Palmi-trifoliate. 
 
 11, Five or 7 leaflets, all equally sessile Digitate 
 
 CHAPTER XXIH. Transformations of the Leaf 124 
 
 CHAPTER XXIV. Metamorphosis of the Flower. (See Chap. XVHI)... 129 
 
 CHAPTER XXV and XXVI. Inflorescence. Special Forms 134 
 
 Evolution. 
 
 a One flower only from a bud Solitary. 
 
 b From axillary buds, the lowest first opening Centripetal. 
 
 c From terminal buds, the central first Centrifugal. 
 
 Special Forms of Inflorescence. 
 * Centripetal, or Indefinite. 
 a Flowers sessile. 
 
 1, Along a slender rachis Spike 
 
 2, Along a thick fleshy rachis Spadix. 
 
 3, On an extremely short rachis Head 
 
 4, Spike of imperfect fls. caducous together Ament. 
 
 b Flowers borne on pedicels. 
 
 6, Along the sides of a lengthened rachis Kaceme. 
 
 6, Along a short rachis, the lower pedicels lengthened. Corymb. 
 
 7, Clustered on an extremely short rachis Umbel. 
 
 c The pedicels themselves branched. 
 
 8, Loosely Panicle. 
 
 9, Compactly Thyrse. 
 
8 CONTENTS. 
 
 * Centrifugal, or Definite. 
 
 1, Clusters open, loose, of various forms Cyme. 
 
 2, Clusters compact, terminal Fascicle. 
 
 3, Clusters compact, axillary and opposite Verticils. 
 
 4, Cyme unilateral, unrolling as it develops Scorpoid Raceme. 
 
 PART SECOND.-PHYSIOLOGICAL BOTANY 143 
 
 CHAPTER I. Of the Vegetable Cell 143 
 
 CHAPTER H. Of the Vegetable Tissues 156 
 
 CHAPTER m. Tissues and Plant Growth and Dicotyledonous Structure. 161 
 
 CHAPTER IV. Monocotyledonous Structure 168 
 
 CHAPTER V. Leaf Structure, Circulation and Movements of Fluids .... 171 
 CHAPTER VT. Fertilization ; Polination ; Cross-fertilization 176 
 
 . * 
 
 PART THIRD. SYSTEMATIC BOTANY 183 
 
 CHAPTER I. General Principles of Classification 183 
 
 CHAPTER II. The Natural System 186 
 
 CHAPTER m. Rules for Nomenclature 193 
 
 CHAPTER IV. Botanical Analysis 195 
 
 INDEX AND GLOSSARY... .. 199 
 
1TIVBBSIT7] 
 
 INTRODUCTION 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 AIDS TO THE STUDY OF BOTANY. 
 
 1. The proper season for the commencement of 
 the study of Botany in schools is late in winter, at 
 the opening of the first Session after New- Year's. The 
 class will thus be prepared beforehand, by a degree of 
 acquaintance with first principles, for the analysis of 
 the earliest Spring-flowers the Blood-root, Liverwort, 
 Spring-beauty, Sweet Mayflower, and the Violets. We 
 have arranged the topics of the present treatise with 
 a special view to the convenience of the learner in 
 this respect, beginning with that which is the first 
 requisite in analysis the Flower. 
 
 2. Specimens of leaves, stems, roots, fruit, flowers, etc., in unlimited sup- 
 ply are requisite during the whole course. In the absence of the living, let 
 the dried specimens of the herbarium be consulted. Crayon sketches upon 
 the blackboard, if truthful, are always good for displaying minute or obscure 
 forms. In the city, classes in Botany may employ, at small expense, a col- 
 lector to supply them daily with fresh specimens from the country. More- 
 over, the gardens and conservatories will furnish to such an abundant supply 
 of cultivated species for study and analysis, with almost equal advantage, 
 since the present work embraces, together with the native flora, all exotics. 
 
 3. An Herbarium (Latin, hortus siccus, or h. s.) is a 
 collection of botanic specimens, artificially dried, pro- 
 tected in papers, and systematically arranged, Eerbor 
 
10 INTRODUCTION. C9, 10. 
 
 ria are useful in many ways : (a) for the preservation 
 of specimens of rare, inaccessible, or lost species ; 
 (6) for exchanges, enabling one to possess the flora of 
 other countries ; (c) for refreshing one's memory of 
 early scenes and studies ; (d) for aiding in more exact 
 researches at leisure ; (e) for the comparison of species 
 with species, genus with genus, etc. 
 
 4. Apparatus. For collecting botanic specimens, a 
 strong knife for digging and cutting is needed, and a 
 close tin box, fifteen inches in length, of a portable 
 form. Inclosed in such a box, with a little moisture, 
 specimens will remain fresh a week. 
 
 5. Specimens for the herbarium should represent 
 the leaves, flowers, and fruit and, if herbaceous, the 
 root also. Much care is requisite in so drying ..them 
 as to preserve the natural appearance, form, and color. 
 The secret of this art consists in extracting the moist>- 
 lire from them before decomposition can take place. 
 
 6. The drying-press, to be most efficient and con- 
 venient, should consist of a dozen quires of unsized 
 paper, at least 11x16 inches folio ; two sheets of 
 wire-gauze (same size) as covers, stiffened by folded 
 edges; and three or four leather straps a yard in 
 length, with buckles. When in use, suspend this press 
 in the wind and sunshine ; or, in rainy weather, by 
 the fire. In such circumstances, specimens dry well 
 without once changing. But if boards be used instead 
 of wire-gauze, the papers must be changed and dried 
 daily. Succulent plants may be immersed in boiling 
 water before pressing, to hasten their desiccation. 
 
 7. The lens, either single, double, or triple, is very 
 serviceable in analysis. In viewing minute flowers, 
 or parts of flowers, its use is indispensable. Together 
 
10, 11.] DEPARTMENTS OF SCIENCE. 1 1 
 
 with the lens, a needle in a handle, a penknife, and 
 tweezers are required for dissection. 
 
 8. The compound microscope is undoubtedly a 
 higher aid in scientific investigation than any other 
 instrument of human invention. It is like the bestow- 
 ment of a new sense, or the opening of a new world. 
 Through this, almost solely, all our knowledge of the 
 cells, the tissues, growth, fertilization, etc., is derived. 
 The skillful use of this noble instrument is itself an 
 art, which it is no part of our plan to explain. 
 
 9. On the preparation of botanical subjects for examination we remark : 
 the field of view is small, and only minute portions of objects can be seen at 
 once ; the parts must be brought under inspection successively. 
 
 10. The tissues of leaves, etc., are best seen by transmitted light. They 
 are to be divided by the razor or scalpel into extremely thin parings or cut- 
 tings. Such cuttings may be made by holding the leaf between the two 
 halves of a split cork. They are then made wet and viewed upon glass. The 
 stomata are best seen in the epidermis stripped off ; but in the Sorrel-leaf 
 (Oxalis violacea) they appear beautifully distinct upon the entire leaf. 
 
 11. Woody tissues, etc., may be viewed either as opaque or transparent. 
 Sections and cuttings should be made in all directions, and attached to the 
 glass by water, white of egg, or Canada balsam. To obtain the elementary 
 cells separately for inspection, the fragment of wood may be macerated in a 
 few drops of nitric acid added to a grain of chlorate of potassa. Softer 
 structures may be macerated simply in boiling water. 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 DEPARTMENTS OF SCIENCE. 
 
 12. Three great departments in nature are univer- 
 sally recognized: the mineral, vegetable, and animal 
 kingdoms. The first constitutes the Inorganic; the 
 other two, the Organic World. 
 
 13. A mineral is an inorganic mass of matter 
 that is, without distinction of parts or organs. A 
 
1 2 INTRODUCTION. [11, 12. 
 
 stone, for example, may be broken into any number 
 of fragments, each of which will retain all the essen- 
 tial characteristics of the original body, so that each 
 fragment will still be a stone. 
 
 14. A plant is an organized body, endowed with 
 vitality but not with sensation, composed of distinct 
 parts, each of which is essential to the completeness 
 of its being. A Tulip is composed of organs which 
 may be separated and subdivided indefinitely, but no 
 one of the fragments alone will be a complete plant. 
 
 15. Animals, like plants, are organized bodies en- 
 dowed with vitality, and composed of distinct parts, 
 no one of which is complete in itself ; but they are 
 elevated above either plants or minerals by their 
 power of perception. 
 
 16. Physics is the general name of the science 
 which treats of the mineral or inorganic world. 
 
 17. Zoology relates to the animal kingdom. 
 
 18. Botany is the science of the vegetable king- 
 dom. It includes the knowledge of the forms, organs, 
 structure, growth, and uses of plants, together with 
 their history and classification. Its several depart- 
 ments correspond to the various subjects to which 
 they relate. Thus, 
 
 19. Morphology treats of the special organs of plants 
 as compared with each other ; it especially relates to 
 the mutual or typical transformations which the 
 organs undergo in the course of development. 
 
 20. Vegetable Histology treats of the elementary 
 tissues the organic units or cells out of which the 
 vegetable fabric is constructed. 
 
 21. Physiological Botany is that department which 
 relates to the vital action of the several organs and 
 
12, 13.] DEPARTMENTS OF SCIENCE. 1 3 
 
 tissues, including both the vital and chemical phe- 
 nomena in the germination, growth, and reproduction 
 of plants. It has, therefore, a practical bearing upon 
 the labors of husbandry in the propagation and cult- 
 ure of plants, both in the garden and in the field. 
 
 22. Systematic Botany arises from the consideration 
 of plants in relation to each other. It aims to arrange 
 and classify plants into groups and families, according 
 to their mutual affinities, so as to constitute of them 
 all one unbroken series or system. 
 
 23. Descriptive Botany, or Phytology, is the art of 
 expressing the distinctive characters of species and 
 groups of plants with accuracy and precision, in order 
 to their complete recognition. A Flora is a descrip- 
 tive work of this kind, embracing the- plants of some 
 particular country or district. 
 
 24. Finally, in its extended sense, Botany comprehends also the knowledge 
 of the relations of plants to the other departments of nature particularly to 
 mankind. The ultimate aim of its researches is the development of the 
 boundless resources of the vegetable kingdom, for our sustenance and pro- 
 tection as well as education; for the healing of our diseases and the allevia- 
 tion of our wants and woes. This branch of botanical science is called 
 Applied Botany, including several departments as Medical Botany, or Phar 4 
 macy; Agricultural Botany, or Chemistry; Pomology, etc. 
 
 25. The name of a plant or other natural object 
 is twofold, the trivial or popular name, by which it 
 is generally known in the country ; and the Latin 
 name, by which it is accurately designated in science 
 throughout the world. For example, Strawberry is 
 the popular name, and Fragaria vesca the Latin or 
 scientific name, of the same plant. In elementary 
 treatises, like the present, for the sake of being readily 
 understood, plants are usually called by their popular 
 names. Yet we earnestly recommend the learner to 
 
1 4 INTRODUCTION. [13. 
 
 accustom himself early to the use of the more accu- 
 rate names employed in science. 
 
 26. The Latin name of a plant is always double 
 generic and specific. Thus Fragaria is generic, or the 
 name of the genus of the plant vesca is specific, or 
 the name of the species. 
 
 27. A Species embraces all such individuals as 
 may have originated from a common stock. Such 
 individuals bear an essential resemblance to each other 
 as well as to their common parent, in all their parts. 
 For example, the White Clover (Trifolium repens) is a 
 species embracing thousands of contemporary individ- 
 uals scattered over our hills and plains, all of common 
 descent, and producing other individuals of their own 
 kind from their seed. 
 
 28. To this law of resemblance in plants of one 
 common origin there are some apparent exceptions. 
 Individuals descended from the same parent often 
 bear flowers differing in color, or fruit differing in 
 flavor, or leaves differing in form, etc. Such plants 
 are called Varieties. They are rarely permanent, often 
 exhibiting a tendency to revert to their original type. 
 Varieties occur chiefly in species maintained by culti- 
 vation, as the Apple, Potato, Rose, Dahlia. They also 
 occur more or less in native plants (as Hepatica tri- 
 loba), often rendering the limits of the species ex- 
 tremely doubtful. They are due to the different cir- 
 cumstances of climate, soil, and culture to which they 
 are subjected, and continue distinct until left to mul- 
 tiply spontaneously from seed in their own proper soil, 
 or some other change of circumstances. 
 
 29. A Genus is an assemblage of species closely 
 related to one another in the structure of their flowers 
 
13, 14.] THE STAGES OF PLANT LIFE. 15 
 
 and fruit, and having more points of resemblance than 
 of difference throughout. Thus, the genus Clover (Tri- 
 folium) includes many species, as the White Clover 
 (T. repens), the Red Clover (T. pratense), the Buffalo 
 Clover (T. reflexum), etc., agreeing in floral structure 
 and general aspect so obviously that the most hasty 
 observer would notice their relationship. So in the 
 genus Pinus, no one would hesitate to include the 
 Wl^ite Pine, the Pitch Pine, the Long-leafed Pine 
 (P. strobus, P. rigida, and P. palustris), any more than 
 we would fail to observe their differences. 
 
 30. Thus individuals are grouped into species, and 
 species are associated into genera. These groups con- 
 stitute the bases of all the systems of classification in 
 use, whether by artificial or natural methods. 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 THE STAGES OF PLANT LIFE. 
 
 31. In its earliest stage of life, the plant is an 
 embryo sleeping in the seed. It then consists of two 
 parts, the radicle or rootlet, and the plumule. Both 
 may be seen in the Pea, Bean, or Acorn. Besides the 
 embryo, the seed contains also its food in some form, 
 provided for its first nourishment. 
 
 32. When placed just beneath the surface of the 
 soil, it absorbs moisture, which, with the genial warmth 
 of Spring, awakens the embryo, and it begins to feed 
 and grow. The radicle protrudes (Fig. 2, r), turns 
 downward, seeking the dark damp earth, avoiding the 
 air and light, and forms the root or descending axis. 
 The plumule, taking the opposite direction (Fig. 3, p), 
 
16 
 
 INTEODUCTION. 
 
 [14. 
 
 ascends, seeking the air and light, and expanding 
 itself to their influence. This constitutes the 
 stem or ascending axis, bearing the leaves. 
 Thus the acorn germinates, and the Oak en- 
 ters upon the second stage of its existence. 
 
 33. At first the ascending axis is merely 
 a bud, that is, a growing point clothed with 
 and protected by little scales, the rudiments 
 of leaves. As the growing point 
 advances and its lower scales grad- 
 ually expand into leaves, new scales 
 successively appear above. Thus 
 
 the axis is always terminated by 
 bud. 
 
 34. The terminal bud ex- 
 pands into leaves, and the 
 ascending axis (Fig. 4, p) 
 creases in length and diam- 
 eter. Besides the terminal 
 bud, one is formed in the 
 axil of each leaf. If none 
 
 of the buds in the 
 axils of the leaves de- 
 velop, the plant at 
 the end of the grow- 
 ing season will pre- 
 sent a young oak, as 
 Fig. A, but if one should grow, the little tree would 
 appear as in Fig. B. 
 
 35. During successive periods of growth the lateral 
 buds develop, forming branches and branchlets, and 
 season after season the main axis lengthens and in- 
 creases in diameter, the branches multiply and enlarge, 
 
 m- 
 
 Acorn (seed of Quercus) germinat- 
 ing ; 1, section showing the radicle (?) 
 which is to become the root, and the 
 two cotyledons (c) which are to nourish 
 it ; 2, the radicle r, descending ; 3 and 4, the radicle, r, de- 
 scending, and the plumule (p) ascending. 
 
THE STAGES OF PLANT LIFE. 
 
 17 
 
 until the full-grown oak in all its beauty and majesty 
 stands before us (Fig. 0). 
 
 The student is struck with wonder and admiration 
 as he watches these stages of growth ; how is it, he 
 asks, that the tiny plant which was nestling in the 
 acorn has been changed into this gigantic oak ? When 
 he comes to study the cells and tissues of which this 
 
 4, A young oak at the end of the first season of growth, the markings on the stem, d, d, are the scars 
 ]eft by the fallen leaves ; at each scar there is an undeveloped bud ; some of these may grow during the 
 next season, and develop into branches. B, A young oak at the end of the first season, one of the lateral 
 buds having grown and produced a branch. 
 
 great tree is made up, his amazement will increase as 
 he realizes the paucity of material and the magnitude 
 of the structure ; the insignificance of the beginning 
 and the grandeur of the end. "The economy of causes 
 and the prodigality of effects ; the simplicity of laws 
 and the complexity of results." 
 
 36. The tree is now complete, possessing the organs 
 necessary to discharge the functions of plant growth. 
 It has root, rootlets, stem, branches, branchlets, and 
 
18 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 leaves. The root fastens it firmly in the ground ; 
 the rootlets take up liquids from the soil; the stem, 
 branches, and branchlets are furnished with vessels 
 and passages through which the fluids find their way 
 to the leaves, where, under the influence of air and 
 
 (7, Quercus alba. 
 
 sunlight, they are changed and fitted for plant 
 food. 
 
 37. The next stage in the plant's life is the produc- 
 tion of the flower. To accomplish this, a change takes 
 place in the mode of development. Some of the buds, 
 instead of extending the axes of the branchlets or 
 forming new branchlets, expand their scales, producing 
 
THE STAGES OF PLANT LIFE. 
 
 19 
 
 crowded whorls, each succeeding whorl differing from 
 the last ; some of the parts possessing great delicacy 
 
 H, young branchlet of Q. alba, with aments, etc. D, a staminate ( $) flower ; E, the satnw, F, a 
 pistillate ( $ ) flower with five stigmas ; G, vertical section of the same ; J, branchlet with full-grown 
 leaves and mature fruit ; /, section of the acorn showing the two thick cotyledons and embryo at top. 
 
 of organization, and, frequently, marked beauty of 
 color. (See Figures D, E, F, G, H, 1, J.) 
 
20 INTRODUCTION. [16. 
 
 38. The next stage is the production of fruit, in 
 which flowering is the first step ; the showy parts of 
 the flower soon wither and fall away ; the pistil, hav- 
 ing been fertilized, is left, and continues to grow and 
 finally matures into the ripe Fruit (Figs. /, J). 
 
 We found the plant slumbering in the Seed ; we 
 have followed and watched its behavior through all 
 the stages of its Life. 
 
 39. We have seen the seed placed in the damp 
 soil, where it absorbed moisture, enlarged, ruptured its 
 shell, sent forth a sprout, which began to increase in 
 two directions, one part enlarged downwards into the 
 earth and formed a root; the other part grew upwards 
 and became a stem. The stem clothed itself with 
 leaves, sent forth branches, and adorned itself with 
 flowers. These several achievements were succeeded 
 by the crowning act of vegetable life, the production of 
 mature seed in which a new Plant reposes, in embryo. 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 TERM OR PERIOD OF PLANT LIFE. 
 
 40. Flowering and fruit-bearing is an exhausting 
 process. If it occur within the first or second year of 
 the life of the plant, it generally proves fatal. In all 
 other cases, it is either immediately preceded or fol- 
 lowed by a state of repose. Now, if flowering be pre- 
 vented by nipping the buds, the tender annual may 
 become perennial, as in the florist's Tree-mignonette. 
 We distinguish plants, as to their term of life, into 
 the annual (CD), the biennial (), and the perennial 
 ( 2f ). An annual ( (D ) herb is a plant whose en- 
 
16, 17.] TEEM OK PEKIOD OF PLANT LIFE. 2 1 
 
 tire life is limited to a single season. It germinates 
 from the seed in Spring, attains its growth, blossoms, 
 bears fruit, and dies in Autumn ; as the Flax, Corn, 
 Morning-glory. 
 
 41. A biennial herb () is a plant which germi- 
 nates and vegetates, bearing leaves only the first 
 season, blossoms, bears fruit, and dies the second ; as 
 the Beet and Turnip. Wheat, Rye, etc., are annual 
 plants ; but when sown in Autumn, the sudden frost 
 prevents flowering, and they become biennials. 
 
 42. Monocarpic herbs. The Century-plant (Agave), the Talipot-palm, etc., are 
 so called. They vegetate, bearing leaves only, for many years, accumulating 
 materials and strength for one mighty effort in fructification, which being 
 accomplished, they die. In some species the term of life depends on climate 
 alone. The Castor-bean (Ridnus) is an annual herb in the Northern States, 
 a shrub in the Southern, and a tree of large size in its native India. So 
 Petunia, annual in our gardens, is perennial at home (in Brazil). 
 
 43. Perennial plants are such as have an indefinite 
 duration of life, usually of many years. They may be 
 either herbaceous or woody. Herbaceous perennials, or 
 perennial herbs (2), are plants whose parts are annual 
 above ground and perennial below. In other words, 
 their roots or subterranean stems live from year to 
 year, sending up annually, in Spring, flowering shoots 
 which perish after they have ripened their fruit in 
 Autumn ; as the Lily, Dandelion, Hop. 
 
 44. Woody perennials usually vegetate several years, 
 and attain well-nigh their ordinary stature before flow- 
 ering ; thenceforward they fructify annually, resting or 
 sleeping in winter. They are known as trees (b), 
 shrubs (b), bushes, and undershrubs (b) distinctions 
 founded on size alone. 
 
 45. A shrub (b), is a diminutive tree, limited to 
 eighteen or twenty feet in stature, and generally divid- 
 
22 INTRODUCTION. [17, 18. 
 
 ing into branches at or near the surface of the ground 
 (Alder, Quince). If the woody plant be limited to a 
 still lower growth, say about the human stature, it is 
 called a bush (Snowball, Andromeda). If still smaller, 
 it is an undershrub (b) (Whortleberry). 
 
 46. A tree (5) is understood to attain to a height 
 many times greater than the human stature, with a 
 permanent woody stem, whose lower part, the trunk, 
 is unbranched. 
 
 47. As to age, some trees live only a few years, rapidly attaining their 
 growth and rapidly decaying, as the Peach ; others have a longevity exceed- 
 ing the age of man ; and some species outlive many generations. Age may be 
 estimated by the number of wood-circles or rings seen in a cross-section of the 
 trunk ( 408), each ring being (very generally) an annual growth. Instances 
 of great longevity are on record. See Class Book of Botany, 99, 100. The 
 monarch tree of the world is the Calif ornian Cedar Sequoia gigant^a. One 
 which had fallen measured 26 feet in diameter, and 363 in length! The 
 wood-circles of this specimen are unusually thick, yet count up to 1,330. 
 Among those yet standing, are many of even greater dimensions, as beautiful 
 in form as they are sublime in height the growth, probably, of more than 
 2,000 years. One of the Sequoias is estimated at 1,500 years ; another of 
 these monsters, felled in 1875, had 2,130 rings ; still another was estimated 
 by Dr. Gray to be 3,200 years old. One of these monster tree's has recently 
 been discovered, in Tulare County, California, by an engineer of the Comstock 
 mines, that measures more than 56 feet in diameter at a point seven feet 
 from the ground. 
 
 48. Trees are again distinguished as deciduous (b) 
 and evergreen (b) the former losing their foliage in 
 Autumn, and remaining naked until the following 
 Spring; the latter retaining their leaves and verdure 
 throughout all seasons. The Fir tribe (Coniferse) in- 
 cludes nearly all the evergreens of the North ; those 
 of the South are far more numerous in kind e. g., 
 the Magnolias, the Live-oaks, Holly, Cherry, Palmetto, 
 etc. 
 
PART FIRST. 
 STRUCTURAL BOTANY; OR, ORGANOGRAPHY. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 THE FLOWER. 
 
 49. The flower is the immediate agent in the pro- 
 duction of the seed with its embryo, and to this end 
 its whole structure is designed. Moreover, its superior 
 beauty attracts earliest attention, and an intimate 
 knowledge of its organs is the first requisite in analy- 
 sis and classification. 
 
 50. The flower may consist of the following mem- 
 bers the floral envelopes and the essential floral or- 
 gans. The floral envelopes consist of one or more 
 circles or whorls of leaves surrounding the essential 
 organs. The outer of these whorls is called the calyx ; 
 and the other, if there be any, the corolla. The calyx 
 may, therefore, exist without the corolla ; but the 
 corolla can not exist without the calyx. 
 
 51. Calyx is a Greek word signifying a cup. It is 
 applied to the external envelope of the flower, consist- 
 ing of a whorl of leaves with their edges distinct or 
 united, usually green, but sometimes highly colored. 
 The leaves or pieces composing the calyx are called 
 sepals. 
 
24 STRUCTURAL BOTANY. [19, 20. 
 
 52. Corolla is a Latin word signifying a little 
 crown, applied to the interior envelope of the flower. 
 It consists of one or more circles of leaves, either dis- 
 tinct or united by their edges, usually of some other 
 color than green, and of a more delicate texture than 
 the calyx. Its leaves are called petals. 
 
 53. Perianth (nept, around, av6o^ J flower) is a word 
 in common use to designate the floral envelopes as a 
 whole, without distinction of calyx and corolla. It is 
 used in description, especially when these two envel- 
 opes are so similar as not to be readily distinguished, 
 as in the Tulip, Lily, and the Endogens generally; 
 also where only one envelope exists, as in Phytolacca, 
 Elm, etc. 
 
 54. The essential floral organs stand within the cir- 
 cles of the perianth, and are so called because they 
 are the immediate instruments in perfecting the seed, 
 and thus accomplishing the final purposes of the 
 flower. These organs are of two kinds, perfectly dis- 
 tinct in position and office viz., the stamens and the 
 pistils. 
 
 55. The stamens are those thread-like organs situ- 
 ated just within the perianth and around the pistils. 
 Their number varies from one to a hundred or more ; 
 but the most common number is five. Collectively 
 they are called the androeceum. 
 
 56. The pistils (called also carpels) occupy the 
 center of the flower at the absolute terminus of the 
 flowering axis. They are sometimes numerous, often 
 apparently but one, always destined to bear the seed. 
 Collectively they are called the gynceceum. 
 
 57. The torus or receptacle is the axis of the 
 flower, situated at the summit of the flower-stalk. It 
 
20, 21.] 
 
 PLAN OF THE FLOWER. 
 
 25 
 
 commonly appears a flattened or somewhat convex 
 disk, whose center corresponds to the apex of the axis. 
 On this disk, as on a platform, stand the floral organs 
 
 5, Flower of the Strawberry. 6, Flower of the Pink. 7, Flower of the Lily (Lilium superbum). The 
 pupil will point out the parts. 
 
 above described, in four concentric circles. The gynae- 
 ceum (pistils) occupies the center ; the andrceceum 
 encircles it ; the corolla is next without ; and the 
 calyx embraces the whole. 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 PLAN OF THE FLOWER. 
 
 58. v Such, 'in general, is the organization of the 
 flower. It is simple enough in theory ; and in most 
 of the plants with which he meets, the student will 
 easily recognize these several organs by name. But, 
 in truth, flowers vary in form and fashion to a degree 
 almost infinite. Each organ is subject to transforma- 
 tions, disguises, and even to entire extinction ; so that 
 the real nature of the flower may become an intricate 
 and perplexing study. 
 
2 6 STRUCTURAL BOTANY. [21, 22. 
 
 59. As we shall soon see, in all these variations 
 there is method. They are never capricious or acci- 
 dental, however much they may appear so. Unity in 
 diversity is characteristic of Nature in all her depart- 
 ments, and eminently so in the flowers ; and the first 
 step in the successful study of them is to discover 
 that unity that simple idea of the floral structure in 
 which all its diversities harmonize. Before flowers 
 were created, that idea or type was conceived; and to 
 possess it ourselves is a near approach to communion 
 with the Infinite Author of Nature. 
 
 60. The typical flower, one that exemplifies the 
 full idea of the floral structure, consists of four differ- 
 ent circles of organs, as before described, placed circle 
 within circle on the torus, and all having a common 
 center. Such a flower must possess these five attri- 
 butes viz. : It must be 
 
 a, Complete ; having the four kinds or sets of 
 organs arranged in as many concentric circles. That 
 it is perfect, having both kinds of the essential organs, 
 is necessarily included under its completeness. 
 
 5, Regular ; having the organs of the same name 
 all similar and alike ; that is, all the petals of one 
 pattern, all the stamens alike in form, size, position, 
 etc. 
 
 c, Symmetrical ; having the same number of organs 
 in each set or circle. 
 
 d, Alternating in respect to the position of the 
 organs. This implies that the several organs of each 
 set stand not opposite to, but alternating with the 
 organs of the adjacent set; the petals alternate with 
 the sepals and stamens ; the stamens alternate with 
 the petals and pistils. 
 
22, 23.] 
 
 PLAN OF THE FLOWEK. 
 
 27 
 
 e, That the organs be distinct, all disconnected and 
 free from each other. 
 
 61. This is the TYPE. But it is seldom fully real- 
 ized in the flowers as they actually grow, although the 
 tendency toward it is universal. Deviations occur in 
 every imaginable mode and degree, causing that end- 
 less variety in the floral world which we never cease 
 to admire. For example, in our pattern flowers (5, 6, 
 7), the pistils seem too few in the Pink and Lily, and 
 the stamens too many in all of them. 
 
 62. The flower of the Max (10) combines very nearly all the conditions 
 above specified. It is complete, regular, symmetrical. Its organs are alter- 
 nate and all separate; and (disregarding the slight cohesion of the pistils at 
 their base) this flower well realizes our type. Admitting two whorls of 
 stamens instead of one, we have a good example of our type in Stone-crop 
 (Sedum ternatum), a little fleshy herb of our woods. Its flowers are both 
 4-parted and 5-parted in the same plant. See also the 12-parted flowers of 
 the common Houseleek. 
 
 8, Flower of Crassula lactea, regular, symmetrical, organs distinct. 9, Diagram showing its plan. 
 10, Flower of the Scarlet Flax. 11, Diagram of its plan. 
 
 63. The flowers of Crassula (8), an African genus 
 sometimes cultivated, afford unexceptionable examples, 
 the sepals, petals, stamens, and pistils each being five 
 in number, regularly alternating and perfectly separate. 
 
28 STRUCTURAL BOTANY. [23. 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 STUDY OF ANOMALOUS FLOWERS. 
 
 64. The true method of studying the flower is 
 
 by comparing it with this type. So shall we be 
 able, and ever delighted, to learn the nature of each 
 organ in all its disguises of form, and to discern the 
 features of the general plan even under its widest 
 deviations. The more important of them are included 
 under the following heads, which will be considered in 
 order : 1 , Variations of the radical number of the 
 flower; 2, Deficiencies; 3, Redundancies; 4, Union of 
 parts ; 5, Irregularities of development. 
 
 65. The radical number of the flower is that which 
 enumerates the parts composing each whorl. Here 
 nature seems most inclined to the number five, as in 
 Grassula, Flax, Rose, and Strawberry. It varies, how- 
 ever, from one to twelve, and is expressed by word or 
 sign as follows*: di-merous, or 2 -parted (/y/), tri-merous 
 
 13 
 
 12, Flower of Hippuris, one-parted. 13, Flower of Circaea Lutetiana, fr 14, Flower of Xyris, 
 
 or 3-parted (^/), penta-merous or 5-parted (^/), etc. 
 The flowers of Hippuris (12) are 1-parted, having but 
 one stamen and one pistil. Those of Circaea (13) are 
 2 -parted, having 2 sepals, 2 petals, 2 stamens, etc. 
 
23, 24.] STUDY OF ANOMALOUS FLOWEKS. 29 
 
 Those of Xyris (14) are ^/, having all the parts in 3s. 
 Xyris is one of the Endogens. Trimerous flowers are 
 characteristic of this great group of Plants, while pen- 
 tamerous flowers commonly distinguish the Exogens. 
 
 66. Deficiencies often occur, rendering the flower 
 incomplete. Such flowers lack some one or more en- 
 tire sets of organs. When only one of the floral 
 envelopes, the calyx, exists, the flower is said to be 
 apetalous or monochlamydeous (#Aa^c, a cloak), as in 
 Elm, Phytolacca. These terms are also loosely applied 
 to such plants as Rhubarb, Anemone, Liverwort, where 
 the pieces of the perianth are all similar, although in 
 two or three whorls. When the perianth is wholly 
 wanting, the flower is said to be achlamydeous, or 
 naked, as in Lizard-tail (15). 
 
 17 
 
 15, Flower of Saururus (Lizard-tail) achlamydeous. 16, Flower of Fraxinus (Ash). 17, Flower 
 of Salix (Willow), staminate 18, pistillate. 
 
 67. Imperfect flowers are also of frequent occur- 
 rence. They are deficient in respect to the essential 
 organs. A sterile or staminate flower (denoted thus $ ) 
 has stamens withous pistils. A fertile or pistillate 
 flower ( ? ) has pistils without stamens. Such flowers 
 being counterparts of each other, and both necessary 
 to the perfection of the seed, mast exist either to- 
 gether upon the same plant or upon separate plants 
 of the same species. In the former case, the species 
 
30 STRUCTURAL BOTANY. [24, 25. 
 
 is monoecious ( 8 ), as in Oak ; in the latter case, dioe- 
 cious ($ ? ), as in Willow. The term diclinous, denot- 
 
 21 ^WL 
 
 ^i\ 
 
 19, Pistillate flower of Balm-of-Gilead. 20, Staminate. 21, Begonia a, staminate ; b, pistillate. 
 
 ing either 8 or $ ? without distinction, is in common 
 use. 
 
 68. A neutral flower is a perianth or calyx only, 
 having neither stamens nor pistils. Such are the ray- 
 flowers of many of the Composite, and of the cymes 
 of Hydrangea, High-cranberry, etc., which in cultiva- 
 tion may all become neutral, as in the Snow-ball. 
 
 69. Unsymmetrical flowers. The term symmetry, 
 as used in Botany, refers to number only. A flower 
 becomes unsymmetrical by the partial development of 
 any set or circle in respect to the number of its 
 organs. The Mustard family, called the Crucifers, 
 afford good examples. 
 
 70. The flowers of Mustard, Cress, etc., are understood to be 4-merous ( 0. 
 The sepals are four, petals four, but the stamens are six and the styles but 
 two. The stamens are arranged in two circles, having two of those in the 
 outer circle suppressed or reduced to mere glands. Two of the carpels are 
 also suppressed (429). In the Mint family and the Figworts one or three of 
 the stamens are generally abortive. Here, while the flowers are ^, the sta- 
 mens are four in some species and only two in others. The missing stamens, 
 however, often appear in the guise of slender processes the rudiments of 
 stamens proving in an interesting manner the natural tendency to sym- 
 metry. 
 
 71. In the ^flowers of Poppy, the sepals are but two; in fy Spring-beauty 
 they are but two; in both cases too few for symmetry. In Larkspur (26) the 
 ^ flowers have but four petals ; and in Monk's-hood (29), also fa the petals 
 
, 26.] 
 
 STUDY OF ANOMALOUS FLOWERS. 
 
 31 
 
 are apparently but two, strangely deformed bodies. A careful inspection, 
 however, generally reveals the other three, very minute, in their proper 
 places, as displayed in the cut. 
 
 72. "Organs opposite" is a condition much less fre- 
 quent than "organs alternate," but is highly interest- 
 ing, as being sometimes characteristic of whole fami- 
 lies. Thus in the Primrose, Thrift, and Buckthorn 
 families, the stamens always stand opposite, to the 
 petals ! 
 
 73. How happens this? Among the Prim worts 
 this question is solved in the flowers of Lysimachia 
 
 22 
 
 I Diag ams.22, Flower of Samolus, showing the rudimentary stamens alternating with the peifect. 
 23, Flower of a Labiate plant, showing the place of the deficient stamen. 24, Flower of Asarum three 
 sepals, twelve stamens, etc. 25, Flower of Saxifrage two pistils, ten stamens, etc. 
 
 and Samolus, where we find a circle of five teeth 
 (abortive filaments) between the petals and stamens, 
 alternating with both sets, thus restoring the lost sym- 
 metry. Hence we infer that in such cases generally 
 a circle of alternating organs has been either partially 
 or wholly suppressed. In the Buckthorn, however, a 
 different explanation has been given. 
 
 74. Redundancy. The multiplication of organs is 
 exceedingly common, and usually according to a defi- 
 nite plan. The increase takes place, as a rule, by cir- 
 cles, and consequently by multiples. That is, e.g., the 
 stamens of a ty flower, if increased, will be so by 3s ; 
 of a fy flower by 5s, etc., sometimes to the extent of 
 twenty such circles. 
 
32 
 
 STRUCTURAL BOTANY. 
 
 [26, 27. 
 
 75. In the Crowfoot, Rose, and other families with numerous stamens, the 
 arrangement is in crowded spirals, like the phyllotaxis of the plants with the 
 internodes undeveloped. The carpels of the Crowfoot are also generally mul- 
 tiplied, yet often, on the contrary, diminished, as in the Paeony. In Rosacese, 
 also, the stamens are generally multiplied, while the carpels exist in all con- 
 ditions as to number. Thus in Strawberry they are multiplied, in the Apple 
 they are regularly five, in Agrimony reduced to two, and in the Cherry to 
 one. In Magnolia the ft flowers have three sepals in one circle, six or nine 
 petals in two or three circles, numerous stamens and carpels in many circles 
 of each. In the ty flowers or Blood-root there are two sepals, eight petals, 
 twenty-four stamens, and two carpels. 
 
 76. Chbrisis.In. other cases, the organs seem to be increased in number 
 by clusters, rather than by circles, as when in the same circle several stamens 
 stand in the place of one e.g., in Squirrel-corn, St. Johnswort, Linden. Such 
 cases afford wide scope for conjecture. Perhaps each cluster originates by 
 division, as the compound from the simple leaf ; or as a tuft of axillary leaves ; 
 or thirdly, by a partial union of organs. 
 
 CHAPTER IY. 
 
 ANOMALOUS FLOWERS CONTINUED. 
 
 77. Appendicular organs consist of spurs, scales, 
 crown, glands, etc., and often afford excellent dis- 
 tinctive marks. The old term nectary was indiscrim- 
 
 26 
 
 26, Flower of Delphinium Consolida (common Larkspur), displaying K, s, ,, s, s, the five sepals a, (he 
 upper one spur; c, the corolla of four petals, here united into one and produce* into a spur. 27, Flower 
 of Impatiens fulva (Touch-me-not). 28, Displaying s, s, s, y, the four sepals, y being saccate and spurred ; 
 p, p, the two petals, both double, preserving the symmetry. 
 
 inately applied to all 
 them produced honey. 
 
 such organs, because some of 
 
26-28.] STUDY OF ANOMALOUS FLOWERS. 33 
 
 78. Spurs are singular processes of the flower, tu- 
 bular and projecting from behind it. In Columbine 
 each petal is thus spurred ; in Violet, one petal only ; 
 in Larkspur, two petals and a sepal, the spur of the 
 latter inclosing that of the former. The curved spur 
 of the Jewel-weed belongs to a sepal (27, 28). 
 
 79. Scales are attached to the inner side of the 
 corolla, usually upon the claw of the petals, as in 
 Buttercups, or within the throat of the corolla tube, 
 as in the Borrageworts. Similar appendages, when 
 enlarged and conspicuous, constitute a crown in 
 Catchfly, Corn-cockle, Narcissus. See also the stami- 
 nal crown of the Silk-grass (Asclepias). 
 
 80. Glandular bodies are often found upon the re- 
 ceptacle in the places of missing stamens or carpels, 
 or as abortive organs of some kind. Examples are 
 seen in the Crucifers and Grape. In Grass-Parnassus 
 they are stalked and resemble stamens. 
 
 81. The union of organs in some way occurs in 
 almost every flower ; and, more perhaps than any 
 other cause, tends to disguise its plan and origin. 
 The separate pieces which stood each as the repre- 
 sentative of a leaf, now, by a gradual fusion, lose 
 themselves in the common mass. Nevertheless, marks 
 of this process are always discernible, either in parts 
 yet remaining free, or in the seams where the edges 
 were conjoined. The floral organs may unite by cohe- 
 sion or adhesion. 
 
 82. Cohesion, when the parts of the same whorl are 
 joined together ; as the sepals of the Pink, the petals of 
 Morning-glory, the stamens of Mallows, the carpels of 
 Poppy. Adhesion, when the parts of different whorls 
 are conjoined ; as the stamens with the corolla in 
 
34 
 
 STRUCTURAL BOTANY. 
 
 [27, 28. 
 
 Phlox, with the pistils in Milkweed, Lady's-slipper ; 
 or calyx with ovary, in Apple or Wintergreen (G-aul- 
 theria). The adjective free is used in a sense opposite 
 to adhesion, implying that the organ is inserted on (or 
 grows out of) the receptacle, and otherwise separated 
 from any other kind of organ. The adjective distinct 
 is opposed to cohesion, implying that like organs are 
 separate from each other. More of this in another 
 chapter. 
 
 29, Flower of Aconitum Napellus displayed; *, , s, s, , the five sepals, the upper one hooded; p, p, p, 
 the five petals, of which the two upper are nectaries covered by the hood, and the three lower very minute. 
 30, Flower of Catalpa, 2-lipped, 5-lobed. 31, Corolla laid open, showing the two perfect stamens and the 
 three rudimentary. 
 
 83. Irregular development. Our typical flower is 
 regular; and observation proves that all flowers are 
 actually alike regular in the early bud. Those in- 
 equalities or " one-sided " forms, therefore, which char- 
 acterize certain flowers, are occasioned by subsequent 
 irregular growth from a regular type. The irregu- 
 larity of flowers occurs in a thousand ways and 
 modes ; in the unequal size of like organs ; in their 
 dissimilar forms and positions ; in their unequal cohe- 
 sions, and in their partial suppressions. So in the 
 Violet (50), Monk's-hood (29), Catalpa (30), the Labi- 
 ates (69), the Pea tribe (59), etc. 
 
28, 29.$ 
 
 STUDY OF ANOMALOUS FLOWERS. 
 
 85 
 
 84. The torus, or receptacle, is sometimes strangely 
 modified. In the little Myosurus (32), in some But- 
 tercups, and in the Tulip-tree we find a lengthened or 
 spindle-shaped torus lengthened according to the 
 
 32, Flower (magnified) of Myosurus ; a vertical section showing its elongated torus, etc. 33, The 
 same, natural size. 34, Flower of Isopyrum bitevnatum ; vertical section, showing the convex or globular 
 torus, etc. 35, Flower of Rose, showing its excavated torus. 
 
 nature of a branch ( 35), and all covered with the 
 multiplied pistils. On the contrary, we have in the 
 Rose (35) and Lady's-mantle (38), an excavated torus, 
 within which the carpels are held, while the other 
 organs are borne upon its elevated rim. 
 
 36, Paeonia Moutan, showing its very large disk (d) sheathing the ovaries (p). 37, Pistil of the Lemon, 
 with its base surrounded by the disk, d. S8, Section of flower of Alchemilla, showing its single simple 
 pistil, large disk, and excavated torus. 
 
 85. The disk is a portion of the receptacle raised 
 into a rim somewhere in the midst of the whorls. It 
 is found between the ovary and stamens in Paeony 
 
S6 STRUCTURAL BOTANY. [29-31. 
 
 and Buckthorn. It bears the stamens in Maple and 
 Mignonette, and crowns the ovary in the Umbelliferse. 
 
 86. Combined deviations are quite frequent, and sometimes obscure the 
 typical character of the flower to such a degree as to require close observa- 
 tion in tracing it out. The study of such cases is full of both amusement 
 and improvement. Eor example, the ty Poppy has suppression in the calyx, 
 multiplication in the stamens and carpels, and in the latter cohesion also. 
 The fy Sage has cohesion and irregularity in the calyx, every kind of irregu- 
 larity in the corolla, suppression and irregularity in the stamens, suppression 
 and cohesion in the pistils. The ty Cypripedium is perfectly symmetrical, yet 
 has irregular cohesion in the calyx, great inequality in the petals, cohesion, 
 adhesion, and metamorphosis in the stamens, and cohesion in the carpels. 
 
 (In this way let the pupil analyze the deviations in the flower of Q-era- 
 nium, Hollyhock, Moth-mullein, Larkspur, Sweetbrier, Touch-me-not, Petunia, 
 Snapdragon, Violet, Polygala, Squirrel-corn, Orchis, Henbit, Monk's-hood, 
 Calceolaria, etc.) 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 XTHE FLORAL ENVELOPES, OR PERIANTH. 
 In our idea of the typical flower, the perianth 
 consists of two whorls of expanded floral leaves encir- 
 cling and protecting the more delicate essential organs 
 in their midst. As a rule, the outer circle, calyx, is 
 green and far less conspicuous than the inner circle 
 of highly colored leaves the corolla. But there are 
 many exceptions to this rule. Strictly speaking, the 
 calyx and corolla are in no way distinguishable except 
 by position. The outer circle is the calyx, whatever 
 be its form or color ; and the inner, if there be more 
 than one, is the corolla. 
 
 88. Both blade and petiole are distinguishable in 
 the floral leaves, especially in the petals. The blade, 
 or expanded part, is here called limb, or lamina ; the 
 petiolar part, when narrowed into a stalk, is called the 
 claw. In form, or outline, there is a general resem- 
 
30, 31.] 
 
 THE FLORAL ENVELOPES. 
 
 37 
 
 blance between the limb and the leaf. It is ovate, 
 oval, lanceolate, obcordate, orbicular, etc. In margin 
 it is generally entire. (See 308.) 
 
 89. Some peculiar forms, however, should be noticed, 
 as the bilobate petal of the Chickweed (44), the pin- 
 natifid petal of Miterwort (43), the inflected petal of 
 the Umbelliferse (42), the fan-shaped petal of Pink, the 
 fringed (fimbriate) petal of Campion (Silene stellata) 
 (40), the hooded sepal of Napellus (29), the saccate 
 
 Forms of petals. -39, Buttercup, showing the scale at base. 40, Mignonette, fringed at top. 41, Silene 
 stellata, fringed and unguiculate. 42, Flower of Osmorhiza longistylis, petals inflected. 43, Flower ot 
 Mitella diphylla, petals pectinate-pinnatifid. 44, Petal of Cerastium uutans, 2-cleft. 
 
 petal of Calceolaria, Cypripedium (71). The limb is, 
 moreover, often distorted into a true nectary, spurred 
 (see 78), or otherwise deformed, as in Napellus, 
 Coptis, etc. 
 
 90. We have seen that the floral organs are often 
 in various ways united. A calyx with its sepals united 
 into a tube or cup was formerly said to be monosepal- 
 ous, and a similar corolla was called monopetalous ; 
 gamosepalous and gamopetalous are now substituted 
 for those words. Polysepalous - is applied to a calyx 
 with distinct sepals, a corolla with separate petals is 
 polypetalous. 
 
 Gamosepalous and gamopetalous have in Germany given place to the more 
 appropriate words synsepalous and sympetalous. 
 
 Polysepalous and polypetalous have also been superseded by the more accurate 
 terms aposepalous and apopetalous. 
 
38 
 
 STRUCTURAL BOTANY. 
 
 [31, 32. 
 
 91. The gamosepalous calyx, or gamopetalous co- 
 rolla, although thus compounded of several pieces, is 
 usually described as a simple organ, wheel-shaped, cup- 
 shaped, tubular, according to .the degree of cohesion. 
 The lower part of it, formed by the united claws, 
 whether long or short, is the tube; the upper part, 
 composed of the confluent laminae, is the border, or 
 limb; the opening of the tube above is the throat. 
 
 92. The border is either lobed, toothed, crenate, 
 etc., by the distinct ends of the pieces composing it, 
 as in the calyx of Pink, the calyx and corolla of 
 Primula, Phlox, and Bellwort, or it may become, by a 
 complete lateral cohesion, entire, as in the Morning- 
 glory. Here the compound nature of the organ is 
 shown by the seams alone. 
 
 93. A terminal cohesion, where summit as well as 
 sides are joined, forming a cap rather than cup, rarely 
 occurs, as in the calyx of the garden Eschscholtzia and 
 the corolla of the Grape. 
 
 45 
 
 45, Flower of Saponaria (Bouncing Bet); petals and claws quite distinct. 46, Phlox; claws united, 
 with lamina distinct. 47, Spigelia (Pink -root;, petals still further united. 48, Quamoclit coccinea ; petals 
 united throughout. 
 
 94. The modes of adhesion are various and im- 
 portant, furnishing some of the most valuable dis- 
 
32, 33.] 
 
 THE FLORAL ENVELOPES. 
 
 39 
 
 tinctive characters. An organ is said to be adherent 
 when it is conjoined with some dissimilar organ, as 
 stamen with pistil. All the organs of our typical 
 flower are described as free. 
 
 95. The term hypogynous (TTG>, under, yw^ the 
 pistil) is an adjective in frequent use, denoting that 
 
 50 
 
 the organs are inserted into the torus under, or at the 
 base of the ovary or pistil. Organs so situated are, of 
 course, in the normal condition and free, there being 
 no adhesions. Observe and explain the sections of 
 Jeffersonia and Violet (49, 50). 
 
 96. Perigynous (Trep/, around) is a term applicable 
 to the stamens and pet- 
 als only, and implies that 
 
 they are (apparently) in- 
 serted on the calyx or 
 corolla around the free 
 ovary. In Phlox, the 
 stamens are perigynous 
 on the corolla-tube. In 
 Cherry and Plum, the 
 petals and stamens are perigynous on the calyx-tube. 
 (See 51.) 
 
 97. Epigynous (err/, upon) denotes that the organs 
 
40 
 
 STRUCTURAL BOTANY. 
 
 [33, 34. 
 
 are inserted (apparently) upon the ovary, as appears 
 in Apple, Pear, Caraway, Sunflower. (See cuts 42, 
 51.) The common phrases "calyx superior," "ovary 
 inferior," have the same signification as "calyx epigy- 
 nous," all implying the apparent insertion of the 
 organs upon or above the ovary. In this condition 
 
 52, Ribes aureum and (54) Fuchsia gracilis ; ovary inferior or adherent, stamens and petals epigynous 
 (above the adherent ovary). 53, Saxifraga Virginiensis ; ovary half-superior. 
 
 all the organs, or at least the calyx, are blended with 
 the ovary to its top. Hence the phrases "ovary adher- 
 ent," or "calyx adherent," have also the same mean- 
 ing, and are preferable, because in accordance with the 
 fact. (Explain the sections of Golden Currant and 
 Ear-drop 52, 54.) 
 
 98. Calyx inferior or free, ovary superior or free, 
 are all phrases of the same import as calyx hypogy- 
 nous. Between the two conditions, calyx superior and 
 calyx inferior, there are numerous gradations, of which 
 one only is defined, to wit, calyx half-superior, as ex- 
 emplified in the Mock-orange and Saxifrage (53). 
 
34, 35.] 
 
 FOEMS OF THE PERIANTH. 
 
 X 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 FORMS OF THE PERIANTH. 
 
 99. The innumerable forms of the perianth, whether 
 calyx or corolla, or both, are first to be distinguished 
 as POLYPETALOUS or GAMOPETALOUS, and secondly, as 
 regular or irregular. The POLYPETALOUs-reg^Zar forms 
 are typified by the four figures below, and described 
 in the following paragraphs. 
 
 Forms of corollas. '55, Cheiranlhus (Stock). 56, Silene regia (Scarlet Catchfly). 57, Pyrus coronaria. 
 58, Amaryllis (Atamasco Lily). 
 
 100. First, Cruciform (crucis, of a cross) or cross- 
 shaped corollas consist of four long-clawed petals, 
 placed at right angles to each other, as in Mustard, 
 Wall-flower (55). 2d, Caryophyllaceous or pink-like 
 corollas consist of five petals with long, erect claws, 
 and spreading laminae; as in the Pink (56). 3d, 
 Rosaceous or rose-like corollas are composed of five 
 short-clawed open petals; as in the Rose (Fig. 57). 
 4th, Liliaceous flowers, like the Lilies, consist of a. 
 
STRUCTURAL BOTANY. 
 
 [35. 
 
 six-leaved perianth ; each leaf gradually spreading so 
 as to resemble, as a whole, the funnel-form (58). 
 
 101. Polypetalous-irregular forms (59, 71) may gen- 
 erally be referred to these two types the papiliona- 
 ceous and the orchidaceous. The Papilionaceous (pa- 
 pilio, butterfly) corolla or flower may consist of five 
 dissimilar petals, designated thus : the upper, largest, 
 and exterior petal is the banner (vexillum) ; the two 
 lateral, half-exterior, are the wings (alee) ; the two 
 lower, interior petals, often united at their lower mar- 
 gin, are the keel (carina). The flowers of the Pea, 
 
 59, Papilionaceous flower of the Pea, 60, Displayed: v, the vexillum; a, a, the alae; c, c, the carina. 
 61, Section of flower of Dicentra Cucullaria. 
 
 Locust, Clover, and of the great family of the Legu- 
 minosse in general are examples. The Orchidaceous 
 is a form of the perianth peculiar to the Orchis, and 
 to that large and singular tribe in general. It is a 
 6 -parted double perianth, very irregular, characterized 
 chiefly by its lip, which is the upper petal (lower by 
 the twisting of the ovary) enlarged and variously 
 deformed. 
 
 102. Gamopetalous-regular perianths (62-67) may 
 include mainly the following forms, although some of 
 them may become irregular. First, Rotate, wheel- 
 shaped ; or star-shaped, is a form with tube very short, 
 
36, 36.] 
 
 FORMS OF THE PERIANTH. 
 
 43 
 
 if any, and a flat, spreading border ; as the calyx of 
 Chickweed, corolla of Trientalis, Elder. It is some- 
 times a little irregular, as in Mullein. 2d, Cup-shaped, 
 with pieces cohering into a concave border, as in the 
 calyx of Mallows, corolla of Kalmia, etc. 3d, Cam- 
 panulate, or bell-shaped ; when the tube widens ab- 
 ruptly at base and gradually in the border, as in 
 
 Forms of corollas. -62, Campanula Americana; rotate. 63, Campanula divaricata. 64, Andromeda; 
 urceolate. 65, Convolvulus (Morning-glory). 66, Petunia. 67, Lonicera sempervirens (Honeysuckle). 
 
 68, Dandelion; ligulate corolla (c), 5-toothed; a, five anthers united into a tube around , the style. 
 
 69, Synandra grandiflora, ringent, upper lip 2-lobed, lower 3-lobed. 70, Linaria (yellow Snapdragoi,), per- 
 sonate. 71, Cypripedium acaule, orchidaceous. 
 
 the Harebell, Canterbury-bell. 4th, Urceolate, urn- 
 shaped ; an oblong or globular corolla with a narrow 
 opening, as the Whortleberry, Heath. 5th, Funnel- 
 form (infundibuliform), narrow-tubular below, gradu- 
 ally enlarging to the border, as Morning-glory. 6th, 
 Salver-form (hypocrateriform), the tube ending ab- 
 ruptly, in a horizontal border, as in Phlox, Petunia, 
 both of which are slightly irregular. 7th, Tubular, a 
 
44 STRUCTURAL BOTANY. [36, 37. 
 
 cylindraceous form spreading little or none at the bor- 
 der ; as the calyx of the Pink, corolla of the Honey- 
 suckle. It is often a little curved. Tubular flowers 
 are common in the Compositae, as the Thistle, Sun- 
 flower, when they are often associated with the next 
 form, the ligulate. 
 
 103. Gamopetalous - irregular perianths may be 
 either ligulate or labiate. The ligulate corolla (ligula, 
 tongue) is formed as if by splitting a tubular corolla 
 on one side. The notches at the end plainly indicate 
 the number of united petals composing it, as also do 
 the parallel longitudinal seams. (See Figs. 68, 69.) 
 The labiate, bilabiate or lip-shaped, resembling the 
 mouth of some animal, is a very common form, result- 
 ing from the unequal union of the parts, accompanied 
 with other irregularities. In the labiate corolla three 
 petals unite more or less to form the lower lip, and 
 two to form the upper. In the calyx, when bilabiate, 
 this rule is reversed, according to the law of alterna- 
 tion of organs ; two sepals are united in the lower lip 
 and three in the upper, as seen in the Sage and the 
 Labiate Order generally. Labiate flowers are said to 
 be galeate or helmeted when the upper lip is concave, 
 as in Catmint ; ringent or gaping when the throat or 
 mouth is wide open (69); personate or masked when 
 the throat is closed as with a palate, like the Snap- 
 dragon (70). 
 
 104. Certain reduced forms of the perianth should 
 be noticed in this place. The Pappus (ndTnros, grand- 
 father, alluding to his gray hairs) is the hair-like calyx 
 of the florets of the Compositse, and other kindred 
 Orders. The florets of this Order are collected into 
 heads so compactly that the calyxes have not room 
 
37, 38.] 
 
 FORMS OF THE PERIANTH. 
 
 45 
 
 for expansion in the ordinary way. The pappus is 
 commonly persistent, and often increases as the fruit 
 matures, forming a feathery sail to waft away the 
 seed through the air, as in the Dandelion and Thistle. 
 It varies greatly in form and size, as seen in the cuts ; 
 sometimes consisting of scales, sometimes of hairs, 
 again of feathers or bristles. Sometimes it is mounted 
 on a stipe, which is the beak of the fruit. 
 
 Cypsela (incorrectly called akenium) of the Composite, with various forms of pappus. 72, Ecripta 
 procumbens, no pappus. 73, Ambrosia trifida. 74, Helianthus grosse-serratus, pappus 2-awned. 75. 
 Ageratum conizoides, pappus of five scales. 76, Mulgedium, capillary pappus cypsela slightly rostrate. 
 "7, Lactuca elongata, rostrate cypsela. 
 
 105. Again : the calyx, or the limb of the calyx, is 
 reduced to a mere rim, as seen in the Umbelliferse. 
 In the Amentaceous Orders, the whole perianth di- 
 minishes to a shallow cup, as in the Poplar and Wil- 
 low, or altogether disappears, as in the Birch, Ash, 
 and Lizard-tail (15, 16). 
 
 106. Setae, meaning bristles in general, is a term 
 specifically used to denote the reduced perianth of the 
 sedges. In the Bog-rush (Scirpus) there is, outside the 
 stamens, a circle of six setae, representing a 6 -leaved 
 perianth (78). In the Cotton-grass (Eriophorum) the 
 setae are multiplied and persistent on the fruit, becom- 
 ing long and cotton-like. 
 
 107. Perigynium is the name given to the urceo- 
 late perianth of Carex, investing the ovary, but allow- 
 ing the style to issue at its summit. It is composed 
 
 
STRUCTURAL BOTANY. 
 
 [38, 39. 
 
 of two united sepals, as indicated by the two teeth at 
 the top (79). 
 
 108. Glumes and pales represent the floral en- 
 velopes, or rather the involucre 
 
 of the Grasses (436). Their al- 
 ternating arrangement clearly 
 distinguishes them from a peri- 
 anth. 
 
 109. The duration of the 
 calyx and corolla varies widely, 
 and is marked by certain gen- 
 eral terms. It is caducous 
 when it falls off immediatelv, 
 
 78, Flower of Scirpus lacustris, magni- 
 aS the CalyX Of Poppy, CO- fied ? consisting of six seta?, three stamens, 
 
 rolla of Grape ; deciduous 
 when it falls with the stamens, 
 as in most plants; and per- 
 sistent, if it remain until the fruit ripens, as the calyx 
 of Apple. If it continue to grow after flowering, it is 
 accrescent; and if it wither without falling off, it is 
 marescent 
 
 78 
 
 three pistils united, except the stigmas. 
 79, Flower of Carex rivularis Q , with g, 
 its glume, p, its bottle-shaped perigynium, 
 2-toothed at top, enveloping the triple 
 ovary ; stigmas, three. 
 
 X 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 OF THE ESSENTIAL ORGANS. THE STAMENS. 
 
 110. Within the safe enclosure of the floral envel- 
 opes stand the essential organs the stamens and pis- 
 tils clearly distinguishable from the perianth by their 
 more slight and delicate forms, and from each other by 
 various marks. In the complete flower the ANDRCECEUM 
 next succeeds the corolla in the order of position, 
 being the third set, counting from the calyx. 
 
39, 40.] 
 
 THE ESSENTIAL ORGANS. 
 
 111. A. perfect stamen consists of two parts the 
 filament, corresponding with the petiole of the typical 
 leaf ; and the anther, answering to the blade. Within 
 the cells of the anther the pollen is produced, a sub- 
 stance essential to the fertility of the flower. Hence 
 the anther alone is the essential part of the stamen. 
 
 80, Andrcecium and gyncecium of Frankenia (after Peyer). 81, Stamen (adnate) of Morning-glory. 
 82, Same enlarged, with pollen grains discharged ; /, filament ; a, a, anther, 2-lobed ; c, top of the con- 
 nectile. 83. Ranunculus. 84, Same, cut transversely. 85, Iris, cut transversely (extrorse). 86, Ama- 
 ryllis, versatile. 87, Larkspur, innate. 88, Same, cut. 
 
 112. The filament (filum, a thread) is the stalk sup- 
 porting the anther at or near its top. It is ordinarily 
 slender, yet sustaining itself with the anther in posi- 
 tion. Sometimes it is capillary, and pendulous with 
 its weight, as in the Grasses. 
 
 113. The anther is regularly an oblong body at the 
 summit of the filament, composed of two hollow par- 
 allel lobes joined to each other and to the filament by 
 the connectile. In front of the connectile, looking 
 toward the pistil, there is usually a furrow; on its 
 back a ridge, and on the face of each lobe a seam, 
 the usual place of dehiscence or opening, all running 
 parallel with the filament and connectile. 
 
 114. The stamen, as thus described, may be considered regular or typical 
 in form, and is well exemplified in that of the Buttercup (Fig. 83). But the 
 variations of structure are as remarkable here as in other organs, depending 
 on such circumstances as ; 1st, The attachment of filament to anther. This 
 
STRUCTURAL BOTANY. 
 
 [40. 
 
 may occur in three ways. The anther is said to be innate when it stands cen- 
 trally erect on the top of the filament; adnate when it seems attached to one 
 side of the filament ; versatile when connected to the top of the filament by a 
 single point in the back. 2d, The modes of Dehiscence, or opening, are also 
 three viz., valvular, where the seam opens vertically its whole length, which 
 is the usual way; porous, where the cells open by a chink or pore, usually at 
 the top, as in Rhododendron and Potato ; opercular, when by a lid opening up- 
 ward, as in Sassafras, Berberis (92). 3d, The facing of the anther is also an 
 important character. It is introrse when the lines of dehiscence look toward 
 the pistil, as in Violet ; extrorse when they look outward toward the corolla, as 
 in Iris. 4th, The connectUe is usually a mere prolongation of the filament, ter- 
 minating, not at the base, but at the top of the anther. If it fall short, the 
 anther will be emarginate. Sometimes it outruns the anther, and tips it with a 
 terminal appendage of some sort, as in Violet, Oleander, and Paris. Again, 
 its base may be dilated into spurs, as in two of the stamens of Violet. 5th, If 
 the connectile be laterally dilated, as we see gradually done in the various 
 species of the Labiate Order, the lobes of the anther will be separated, form- 
 ing two dimidiate (halved) anthers on one filament, as in Sage and Brunella. 
 Such are, of course, 1-celled (96). 
 P 
 
 9r> 
 
 Peculiar forma of stamens. 89, Pyrola rotundifolia ; p, dehiscence by pores at top. 90, Vaccinium 
 uliginosum ; p, dehiscence. 91. Berberis aquifolium, anthers opening (92) by valves upward. 93, Anther 
 of Violet, introrse, with an appendage at top. 94, Oleander, sagittate, appendaged. 95, Catalpa, lobes of 
 anther separated. 93, Sage, lobes of anther widely separated, on stipes ; b, barren lobe without pollen. 
 97, Malva, anther 1-celled. 98, Ephedra (after Peyer), anther 4-celled. 
 
 115. The cells of the anthers are at first commonly 
 four, all parallel, becoming two only at maturity. In 
 some plants the four are retained, as in the anthers of 
 Ephedra (98). In others, as Mallows, all the cells 
 coalesce into one (97). 
 
 116. Appendages of many kinds distinguish the stamens of different spe- 
 cies. In the Ericaceae there are horns, spurs, tails, queues, etc. In Onions and 
 Garlic, the filament is 2 or 3 forked, bearing the anther on one of the tips. 
 Sometimes a pair of appendages appear at base, as if stipulate. It is often 
 conspicuously clothed with hairs, as in Tradescantia. (See 89-94.) 
 
 117. Staminodia, or sterile filaments with abortive anthers or none, occur 
 singly in many of the Figworts and Labiates, or in entire whorls next within 
 the petals, alternating with them, as in Loose-strife. The curious fringes of 
 the Passion-flower are regarded as composed of staminodia (112). 
 
41.1 
 
 THE ESSENTIAL ORGANS. 
 
 118. The number of the stamens is said to be defi- 
 nite when not exceeding twenty, as is sometimes 
 definitely expressed by such terms as follow, com- 
 pounded of the Greek numerals viz., monandrous, 
 
 101 
 
 Essential organs. 99, Rhododendron, five stamens (), one pistil (p), oblique or slightly irregular. 100, 
 Flower of ^Esculus (Buckeye), regular, 5-toothed calyx (c), very irregular 4-petalled corolla, seven stamens 
 unequal, one style (s). 101, Flower of Hydrastis ; s, sepals deciduous. 
 
 having one stamen to each flower ; diandrous, with 
 
 two stamens; petandrous, with five stamens. If the 
 
 number exceeds twenty, it is said to be indefinite 
 (denoted thus, oo ) or polyandrous. 
 
 104 
 
 102. Stamens (diadelphous) of a Leguminous plant. 103, Stamens (syngenesious) of a Composite ; /, 
 filaments distinct ; a, anthers united ; s, stigmas revolute, etc. 104, Tetradynamous stamens of a Crucifer. 
 
 105, Gynandrous column of Cypripedium ; o, ovary ; r, torus ; , sterile stamen ; a, twopollinia ; c, stigma. 
 
 106, Didynamous stamens of Lophospermum. 
 
 119. The position or insertion of the stamens (55) 
 may be more definitely stated here as hypogynous, on 
 
50 STRUCTURAL BOTANY. [41, 42. 
 
 the receptacle below the ovaries; perigynous, on the 
 calyx around the ovary ; epipetalous, on the corolla, as 
 in Phlox ; epigynous, on the ovary at its summit, and 
 gynandrous (y^, pistil, dv6pe$, stamens) on the pistil, 
 that is, when the stamens are adherent to the style, 
 as in Orchis. Inequality in length is definitely marked 
 in two cases, as tetradynamous (rerpa^ four, dvvaiiu;, 
 power) when the stamens are six, whereof four are 
 longer than the other two, as in all the Crucifers ; 
 didynamous, where the stamens are four, two of them 
 longer than the other two, as in all the Labiates (104, 
 106). 
 
 120. Cohesion is as frequent with stamens as with 
 petals. They are monadelphous (adeA06^ a brother) 
 when they are all united, as in Mallow, into one set 
 or brotherhood by the filaments ; diadelphous in two 
 sets, whether equal or unequal, as in Pea, Squirrel- 
 corn ; polyadelphous, many sets, as in St. Johnswort ; 
 and syngenesious, when they are united by their an- 
 thers, as in the Compositse. Finally, the absence of 
 the stamens altogether, whether by abortion, as in the 
 
 ? flowers of Veratrum, or by suppression, as in Oak, 
 occurs in various modes, rendering the plant monoe- 
 cious (5), dioecious ($ $), or polygamous ($ $ ?), as 
 already explained ( 67). 
 
 121. The pollen is in appearance a small, yellow 
 dust, contained in the cells of the anther. When 
 viewed with the microscope, it appears as grains of 
 various forms, usually spheroidal or oval, sometimes 
 triangular or polyhedral, but always of the same form 
 and appearance in the same species. Externally they 
 are curiously, and often elegantly figured with stripes, 
 bands, dots, checks, etc. Each grain of pollen is a 
 
42, 43.] 
 
 THE ESSENTIAL ORGANS. 
 
 51 
 
 membranous cell or sac containing a fluid. Its coat is 
 double the outer is more thick and firm, exhibiting 
 
 Patten grains. Vfl, Pinus larico. 108, Basella rubra. 109, Ranunculus repens. 110, Scolymus grandi- 
 florus. Ill, Passiflora incarnata. 
 
 one or more breaks where the inner coat, which is 
 very thin and expansible, is uncovered. In the fluid 
 are suspended mol- 
 ecules of inconceiv- 
 a b 1 e minuteness, 
 said to possess a 
 tremulous motion. 
 When the mem- 
 brane is exposed to 
 moisture, it swells 
 and bursts, d i s- 
 charging its con- 
 tents. 
 
 1 Z L. in I 112 ^ gection of the Passion . flower (p ass iflora coerulea); 6, bracts 
 
 rVirlcj a-nrl QilV-wroorl of the involucre ; s, sepals ; p, petals ; a, a, staminodia or sterile 
 
 iiKweea filaments . c> stipe . 0> ovary . d Stamen8 . t> 8tigmas> 
 tribe, the pollen 
 
 grains do not separate as into a dust or powder, but 
 all cohere into masses called POLLINIA, accompanied by 
 a viscid fluid. 
 
52 STRUCTURAL BOTANY. [43, 44. 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 OF THE ESSENTIAL ORGANS. THE PISTILS. 
 
 123. The Gynaeceum occupies the center of the 
 flower, at the termination of the axis. It consists 
 regularly of a circle of distinct pistils ( 60), sym- 
 metrical in number with the other circles. It is sub- 
 ject to great variation. The pistil may be distinct 
 and simple, as in Columbine, or coherent in various 
 degrees into a compound body, as in St. Johnswort. 
 Also instead of being free and superior, as it regularly 
 should be, it may adhere to the other circles, as 
 already explained ( 97), and become inferior ; that 
 is, apparently placed below the flower, as in the Cur- 
 rant (52). 
 
 124. The number of the pistils is by no means 
 confined to the radical of the flower. They may be 
 increased by multiples, becoming a spiral on a length- 
 ened receptacle, as in Tulip-tree, or still remaining a 
 circle, as in Poppy. On the other hand, they may be 
 reduced in number often to one, as in Cherry and Pea. 
 Certain terms are employed to denote the number of 
 pistils in the flower, such as monogynous, with one 
 pistil ; trigynous, with three ; polygynous, with many, 
 etc. 
 
 125. The simple pistil may usually be known from 
 the compound, by its one-sided forms having two 
 sides similar and two dissimilar. If the pistils appear 
 distinct, they are all simple, never being united into 
 more than one set, as the stamens often are. The 
 
44, 45.] 
 
 THE ESSENTIAL ORGANS. 
 
 53 
 
 parts of a simple pistil are three the ovary (o, 113) 
 at base, the stigma (s) at the summit, and the style 
 (sty) intervening. Like the filament, the style is not 
 essential ; and when it is wanting, the stigma 
 is sessile upon the ovary, as in Anemone (116). 
 In order to understand the relation of these 
 parts, we must needs first study 
 
 126. The morphology of the pistil. As 
 
 113 
 
 114 
 
 116 
 
 113, Pistil of Tobacco. 114, Pistil, stamens, and calyx of Azalea. 115, Trillium stigmas (d) and anthers 
 (s) nearly sessile. 116, Pistils of Rue Anemone (A. thcUictroides)-^stigm&a sessile. 
 
 before stated, the pistil consists of a modified leaf 
 called a carpel (nap-nog, fruit), or carpellary leaf. This 
 leaf is folded together toward the axis, so that the 
 upper surface becomes the inner, while the lower be- 
 comes the outer surface of the ovary. By this arrange- 
 ment two sutures or seams will be formed the dorsal, 
 at the back, by the midvein ; the ventral, in front, by 
 the joined margins of the leaf. This view of the 
 pistil is remarkably confirmed and illustrated by the 
 flowers of the Double Cherry (124, 125), where the 
 pistil may be seen in every degree of transition, re- 
 verting toward the form of a leaf. This carpellary 
 leaf stands in the place of the pistil, having the edges 
 infolded toward each other, the midvein prolonged and 
 dilated at the apex, as shown in 125. 
 
STRUCTUEAL BOTANY. 
 
 [45, 46. 
 
 127. The placentae are usually prominent lines or 
 ridges extending along the ventral suture within the 
 cell of the ovary, and bearing the ovules. They are 
 developed at each of the two edges of the carpellary 
 leaf, and are consequently closely parallel when those 
 edges are united, forming one double placenta in the 
 cell of each ovary. 
 
 128. The simple carpel, with all its parts, is completely exemplified in the 
 Pea-pod. When this is laid open at the ventral suture, the leaf form becomes 
 manifest, with the peas (ovules) arranged in an alternate order along each 
 margin, so as to form but one row when the pod is closed. In the pod of 
 Columbine (127), the ovules form two distinct rows, in the simple Plum car- 
 pel, each margin bears a single ovule ; and in the one-ovuled Cherry, only one 
 of the margins is fruitful. 
 
 117, Simple pistil of Strawberry, the style lateral. 118, Simple pistil of Crowfoot, cut to show the 
 ovule. 119, Simple pistil of the Cherry. 120, Vertical section showing the ovule (o), style (s), stigma (a). 
 121, Cross-section of the same. 122, Compound pistil of Spring-beauty. 123, Cross-section of the same, 
 showing the three cells of the ovary. 124, Expanded carpellary leaf of the Double Cherry. 125, The same 
 partly folded, as if to form a pistil. 
 
 129. The stigma is the glandular orifice of the 
 ovary, communicating with it either directly or 
 through the tubiform style. It is usually globular 
 and terminal, often linear and lateral, but subject to 
 great variations in form. It is sometimes double or 
 halved, or 2-lobed, even when belonging to a single 
 carpel or to a simple style, as in Linden, where these 
 carpels are surmounted by three pairs of stigmas. 
 
 130. The compound pistil consists of the united 
 circle of pistils, just as the moruopetalous corolla con- 
 
46.] 
 
 THE ESSENTIAL ORGANS. 
 
 55 
 
 sists of the united circle of petals. The union occurs 
 in every degree, commencing at the base of the ovary 
 and proceeding upward. Thus in Columbine, we see 
 the carpels (pistils) distinct ; in early Saxifrage, coher- 
 ing just at base ; in Pink, as far as the top of the 
 ovaries, with styles distinct ; in Spring-beauty, to the 
 top of the styles, with stigmas distinct ; and in Rho- 
 dodendron, the union is complete throughout. 
 
 132 
 
 126, Ovary (follicle) of Larkspur, composed of a single carpellary leaf. 127, Ovaries of the Columbine, 
 five, contiguous but Distinct. 128, Compound ovary of Hypericum, of carpels united below with distinct 
 styles. 129, Ovary of another Hypevicum of three carpels completely united. 130, Ovary of Flax; carpels 
 five, united below, distinct above. 131, Dianthus {Pink). 132, Saxifraga. *yl 
 
 131. To determine the number of carpels in a com- 
 pound ovary is an important and sometimes difficult 
 matter. It may be known : 1st, By the number of the 
 styles ; or, 2 d, By the number of the free stigmas (re- 
 membering that these organs are liable to be halved 
 129) ; or, 3d, By the lobes, angles, or seams of the 
 ovary ; or, 4th, By the cells ; or, 5th, By the placentae. 
 But in Dodecatheon, etc., all these indications fail, so 
 perfect is the union, and we are left to decide from 
 analogy alone. 
 
 132. The student will notice two very diverse 
 modes of cohesion in the carpels of the compound 
 ovary. First and regularly, the carpels may each be 
 closed, as when simple, and joined by their sides and 
 
56 
 
 STRUCTURAL BOTANY. 
 
 [46, 47. 
 
 fronts; as in St. Johnswort (129) and Lily (171). In 
 this case, he may prove the following propositions. 
 1st. The compound ovary will have as many cells as 
 carpels. 2d. The partitions between the cells will be 
 double, and alternate with the stigmas. 3d. A parti- 
 tion dividing the cell of a single carpel must be a 
 false one; as occurs in Flax (136). 4th. The PLA- 
 CENTA, as well as the ventral suture, will be axial. 
 
 133. Again: the carpels may each be opened and 
 conjoined by their edges, as are the petals of a gamo- 
 petalous corolla. So it is in the ovary of Violet (137) 
 and Rock-rose (139). In this case, 1st. There will be 
 no partition (unless a false one, as in the Crucifers), 
 and but one cell ; 2d. The Placentce will be parietal, 
 i. e., on the wall of the cell (paries, a wall). 
 
 140 
 
 135 
 
 133, Samolus Valernndi, section of flower showing the free axial placenta. 134, Ovary of Scrophula- 
 riaceae. 135, Ovary of Tulip. 136, Cross-section of ovary of Flax, 5-celled,' falsely 10-celled. 137, Ovary 
 of Violet, 1-celled. 138, Ovary of Fuchsia, 4-celled. 139, Ovary of Rock-rose, 1-celled, 5-carpelled. 
 140, Gentianaceae, 2-valved, 1-celled. 
 
 134. Between the two conditions of axial (or central) and parietal placenta, 
 we find all degrees of transition, as illustrated in the different species of St. 
 Johnswort and in Poppy, where the inflected margins of the carpels carry the 
 placentae inward, well-nigh to the axis. Moreover, the placentae are not al- 
 ways mere marginal lines, but often wide spaces covering large portions of 
 the walls of the cell, as in Poppy and Water-lily ; in other cases, as Datura 
 (168), they become large and fleshy, nearly filling the cell. 
 
 135. A free axial placenta, without partitions, occurs 
 in some compound one-celled ovaries, as in the Pink 
 
47, 48.] 
 
 THE ESSENTIAL ORGANS. 
 
 57 
 
 and Primrose orders (133). This anomaly is explained 
 in two ways first, by the obliteration of the early- 
 formed partitions, as is actually seen to occur in the 
 Pinks ; secondly, by supposing the placenta to be, at 
 least in some cases, an axial rather than a marginal 
 growth that is, to grow from the point of the axis 
 rather than from the margin of the carpellary leaf, for 
 in Primrose no partitions ever appear. 
 
 136. A few peculiar forms of the style and stigma are worthy of note in 
 our narrow limits, as the lateral style of Strawberry; the basilar style of the 
 Labiatse and Borrageworts ; the branching style of Phyllanthus, one of the 
 Euphorbiacese ; also the globular stigma of Mirabilis; the linear stigma of 
 Mediola; the feathery stigma of Grasses; the filiform stigma of Indian corn; 
 the lateral stigma of Aster; the petaloid stigmas of Iris; the capitate and 
 perforated stigma of Violet (141-149). 
 
 Pistils. 141, Symphytum, basilar style, ovary 4-parted. 142, 9 Flower of Phyllanthus (Euphorbiaceae), 
 branching styles. 143, Mirabilis Jalapa, globular stigma. 144, Flower of Luzula, stigmas linear. 145, 
 Feathery stigmas of a Grass. 146, Stigmas of Aster. 147, Rumex. 148, Poppy. 149, Filiform stigma of 
 Zea Mays (Corn). 
 
 137. In the Pine, Cedar, and the Coniferae generally, 
 both the style and stigma are wanting; and the ovary 
 is represented only by a flat, open, carpellary scale, 
 bearing the naked ovules at its base. 
 
58 
 
 STKUCTUKAL BOTANY. 
 
 [48, 49. 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 THE OVULES. 
 
 138. The ovules are understood to be transformed 
 buds, destined to become seeds in the fruit. Their 
 development from the margins and inner surface of 
 the carpel favors this view ; for the ordinary leaves of 
 Bryophyllum and some other plants do habitually pro- 
 duce buds at their margin or on their upper surface ; 
 and in the Mignonette, ovules themselves have been 
 seen transformed into leaves. 
 
 139. The number of ovules in the ovary varies from 
 one to hundreds. Thus, in Buttercups, Compositse, and 
 Grasses, the ovule is solitary; in Umbelliferee it is also 
 
 159 
 
 158 
 
 150, Pistil of Celosia ; the pericarp detached, showing the young ovules. 151, Flower of Rhubarb, 
 pericarp removed, showing the young ovule. 152, A similar ovule (orthotropous) of Polygonum. 153, The 
 same, full grown ; foramen at top. 154, Section showing its two coats, nucleus, and sac. 155, Antropons 
 ovule, as of Columbine ; a, foramen. 156, Section of same. 157, Campylotropous Ovule, as of Bean ; 
 a, foramen. 158, Section of a Cherry ; ovule anatropous, suspended. 159, Section of carpel of Ranuncu- 
 lus ; ovule ascending. 160, Senecio ; ovule erect. 161, Hippuris ; ovule pendulous. 
 
 solitary in each of the two carpels; in the Pea order 
 they are definite, being but few ; in Mullein and Poppy, 
 indefinite (oo), too many to be readily counted. As to 
 
49, 50.] THE OVULES. 59 
 
 position, the ovule is erect when it grows upward 
 from the base of the cell, as in Compositse ; ascending, 
 when it turns upward from the side of the cell ; hori- 
 zontal, when neither turning upward nor downward; 
 pendulous, when turned downward ; and suspended, 
 when growing directly downward from the top of the 
 cell, as in Birch (158-161). 
 
 140. The ovule at the time of flowering is soft and 
 pulpy, consisting of a nucellus within two coats, sup- 
 ported on a stalk. The stalk is called funiculus ; the 
 point of its juncture with the base of the nucellus is 
 the chalaza. The nucellus was first formed ; then the 
 tegmen, or inner coat, grew up from the chalaza and 
 covered it; and lastly the outer coat, the testa, in- 
 vested the whole. Both coats remain open at the top 
 by a small orifice, the foramen. 
 
 141. In most cases the ovule, in the course of its 
 growth, changes position curving over in various de- 
 grees upon its lengthening funiculus or upon itself. 
 When no such curvature exists, and it stands straight, 
 as in the Buckwheat order, it is orthdtropous. It is 
 anatropous when completely inverted. In this state a 
 portion of the funiculus adheres to the testa, forming 
 a ridge called raphe, reaching from the chalaza to the 
 hilum. It is campylotropous when curved upon itself. 
 In this state the foramen is brought near to the cha- 
 laza, and both are next the placenta, as in the Pinks 
 and Cruciferse ; and amphitropous when half inverted, 
 so that its axis becomes parallel with the placenta, as 
 in Mallow. Here the raphe exists, but is short. In 
 campylotropous ovules there is no raphe. 
 
 142. The ovule contains no young plant (embryo) 
 yet ; but a cavity, the embryo sac, is already provided 
 
60 STRUCTURAL BOTANY. [50, 51. 
 
 to receive it just within the upper end of the nu- 
 cellus. 
 
 The relations of the ovule to the pollen grain will be more suitably dis- 
 cussed hereafter under the head of fertilization. We "briefly remark here that 
 the immediate contact of the two is brought about, at the time of flowering, 
 by special arrangements ; and that, as the undoubted result of their combined 
 action, the embryo soon after originates in the embryo sac. 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 THE FRUIT. PERICARP. 
 
 143. After having received the pollen which the 
 anthers have discharged, the pistil or its ovary con- 
 tinues its growth and enlargement, and is finally ma- 
 tured in the form of the peculiar fruit of the plant. 
 The fruit is, therefore, the mature ovary. 
 
 144. As to the other organs of the flower, having accomplished their work 
 the fertilization of the ovary they soon wither and fall away. Some of 
 them, however, often persist, to protect or become blended with the ripening 
 fruit. Thus the tube of the superior calyx ( 97) always blends with the ovary 
 in fruit; as in Currant, Cucumber, etc. In Composites, the persistent limb 
 enlarges into the pappus of the fruit. In Buttercups, the fruit is beaked with 
 the short, persistent style. In Clematis and Q-eum, it is caudate (tailed) with 
 the long, feathery style. In the Potato tribe, Labiatse, and many others, the 
 inferior calyx continues to vegetate like leaves until the fruit ripens. In some 
 cases the fruit, so called, consists of the receptacle and ovaries blended; as in 
 Apple and Strawberry. Again in Mulberry, Pig, and Pineapple, the whole 
 inflorescence is consolidated into the matured fruit. 
 
 145. As a rule, the structure of the fruit agrees 
 essentially with that of the ovary. In many cases, 
 however, the fruit undergoes such changes in the 
 course of its growth from the ovary as to disguise its 
 real structure. An early examination, therefore, is 
 always more reliable in its results than a late one. 
 For example, the acorn is a fruit with but one cell 
 
51.] 
 
 THE FKUIT. 
 
 61 
 
 and one seed, although its ovary had three cells and 
 six ovules ! This singular change is due to the non- 
 developmeiit of five of its ovules, while the sixtlf grew 
 the more rapidly, obliterated the partitions by press- 
 ing them to the wall, and filled the whole space it- 
 self. Similar changes characterize the Chestnut, Hazel- 
 nut, and that whole Order. The ovary of the Birch 
 is 2-celled, 2-ovuled; but by the sup- 
 pression of one cell with its ovule, the 
 fruit becomes 1 -celled and 1-seeded. 
 
 165 
 
 104 
 
 163 
 
 162, Section of the ovary of an acorn, 3-celled, 6-ovuled. 163, Section of ovary of Birch, 2-celled, 
 2-ovuled. 164, Vertical section of the same in fruit. 166, Pericarp of Mignonette open soon after flower- 
 ing. 166, Naked seed of Taxus Canadensis, surrounded, not covered, by the fleshy pericarp. 
 
 On the other hand, the cells are sometimes multiplied in the fruit by the 
 formation of false partitions. Thus the pod of Thornapple (Datura) becomes 
 4-celled from a 2-celled ovary ; and the longer pods of some Leguminous 
 plants have cross-partitions formed between the seeds, and the 5-celled ovary 
 of the Flax comes by false partitions to be 10-celled (Fig. 136). 
 
 146. The Pericarp. The fruit consists of the peri- 
 carp and the seed. The pericarp (pi, around) is the 
 envelope of the seeds, consisting of the carpels and 
 whatever other parts they may be combined with. It 
 varies greatly in texture and substance when mature, 
 being then either dry, as the Pea-pod, or succulent, as 
 the Currant. Dry pericarps are membranous, or coria- 
 ceous (leathery), or woody. Succulent pericarps may 
 be either wholly so, as the Grape, or partly so, as the 
 Peach and other stone fruits. 
 
 147. With very few exceptions the pericarp incloses 
 
62 
 
 STKUCTURAL BOTANY. 
 
 [51, 52. 
 
 the seed while maturing. In Mignonette (165), how- 
 ever, it opens, exposing the seed, immediately after 
 flowering. The membranous pericarp of Cohosh (Cau- 
 lophyllum) falls away early, leaving the seed to ripen 
 naked. In Yew (Taxus) the seed is never inclosed 
 wholly by its fleshy pericarp ; but in most of the other 
 Coniferse, the close-pressed, carpellary scales cover the 
 seeds. One-seeded fruits, like those of Buttercups, etc., 
 are liable to be mistaken for naked seeds. 
 
 172 
 
 Capsule, 167, of Scrophulavia, 2-celled; 168,. of Datura Stramonium; 169, of Iris; 170, showing its mode 
 of dehiscence (loculicidal). 171, of Colchicum, 3-celled. 172, Regma, ripe fruit of Geranium, the carpels 
 (cocci) separating from the axis and bending upward on the elastic styles. 
 
 148. Dehiscence. The fleshy pericarp is always 
 indehiscent. Its seeds are liberated only by its decay, 
 or bursting in germination. So also in many cases 
 the dry pericarp, as the acorn. But more commonly 
 the dry fruit, when arrived at maturity, opens in some 
 way, discharging its seeds. Such fruits are dehiscent. 
 Dehiscence is either valvular, porous, or circumscissile ; 
 valvular, when the pericarp opens vertically along the 
 sutures, forming regular parts called valves. These 
 valves may separate quite to the base, or only at the 
 top, forming teeth, as in Chickweed. "We notice four 
 modes of valvular dehiscence, viz. : 
 
52, 53.] THE FRUIT. 63 
 
 1. Sutural, when it takes place at the sutures of 
 any 1 -celled pericarp, as Columbine, Pea, Violet. 
 
 2. Septicidal (septum, partition, ccedo, toj?ut), when 
 it takes place through the dissepiments (which are 
 double, 132). The carpels thus separated may open 
 severally by sutures (Mallows), or remain indehiscent, 
 as in Vervain. 
 
 3. Loculicidal (loculus, a cell, ccedo, to cut), when 
 each carpel opens at its dorsal suture directly into the 
 cell (Evening Primrose, Lily). Here the dissepiments 
 come away attached to the middle of the valves. 
 
 4. Septifragal (septum, and frango, to break), when 
 the valves separate from the dissepiments which re- 
 main still united in the axis (Convolvulus). 
 
 173 174 
 
 fi (* >\ 
 
 A ,> // 1 ~ \ 
 
 Dehiscence: 173, septicidal; 174, loculicidal; 175, septifragal. 
 
 149. Porous dehiscence is exemplified in the Poppy, 
 where the seeds escape by orifices near the top of the 
 fruit. It is not common. Circumscissile (circum- 
 scindo, to cut around), when the top of the ovary 
 opens or falls off like a lid, as in Plantain. Some 
 fruits, as the Gerania and Umbelliferse, are furnished 
 with a carpophore, that is, a slender column from the 
 receptacle a fusiform torus, prolonged through the 
 axis of the fruit, supporting the carpels. 
 
64: 
 
 STRUCTURAL BOTANY. 
 
 [53, 54. 
 
 CHAPTER XI. 
 
 FORMS OF THE PERICARP. 
 
 150. The morphology of the pericarp is exceedingly diversified ; but it 
 Will suffice the learner at first to acquaint himself with the leading forms 
 only, such as are indicated in the following synopsis and more definitely 
 described afterward. 
 
 The following is a synopsis of the principal forms of Pericarps, for the 
 
 blackboard. 
 
 1. Free Fruits (formed by a single Flower). 
 
 * Pericarps indehiscent. 
 
 t With usually but one seed, and 
 t Uniform, or 1-coated. 
 
 1. Separated from the seed. 
 
 2. Inflated, often breaking away. 
 
 3. Inseparable from the seed. 
 
 4. Invested with a cupule (involucre). 
 
 5. Having winged appendages. 
 
 t Double or triple-coated, fleshy or fibrous. 
 
 6. Three-coated. Stone cell entire. 
 
 7. Two-coated. Stone cell 2-parted. 
 
 8. Drupes aggregated. 
 t With two or more seeds, 
 
 t Tmrnp.rsp.fi in a fleshy or pulpy mass. 
 
 9. Kind membranous. 
 
 10. Rind leathery, separable. 
 
 11. Rind hard, crustaceous. 
 
 t 12. Inclosed in distinct cells. 
 
 Akene (Buttercups). 
 Utricle (Pigweed). 
 Caryopsis (Grasses). 
 Glans, Acorn (Oak). 
 Samara, Key (Ash). 
 
 Drupe (Cherry). 
 Tryma (Walnut). 
 Etaerio (Raspberry). 
 
 Berry (Gooseberry). 
 Hesperidium (Orange). 
 Pepo (Squash). 
 Pome (Apple). 
 
 * Pericarps dehiscent. 
 
 t 13. Dehiscence circumscissile, seeds oo. 
 t Dehiscence valvular or porous ; 
 $ Simple, or 1-carpelled, 
 
 14. Opening by the ventral suture. 
 
 15. Opening by both sutures. 
 
 16. Legume jointed. 
 
 J Compound pericarps ; 
 
 17. Placentae parietal with two cells. 
 
 Silique short. 
 
 18. Placentae parietal only when 1-celled. 
 
 19. Capsule with carpophore and elastic 
 
 styles. 
 
 Pyxis (Henbane). 
 
 Follicle (Columbine). 
 Legume (Pea). 
 Loment (Desmodium). 
 
 Silique (Mustard). 
 
 Silicle (Shepherd's Purse). 
 
 Capsule (Flax). 
 
 Regma (Geranium). 
 
 2. Confluent Fruits (formed of an Inflorescence). 
 
 * 20. With open carpels aggregated into a cone. Strobile (Pine). 
 
 * 21. With closed carpels aggregated into a mass. Sorosis (Pineapple). 
 
54, 55.] 
 
 FORMS OF THE PERICARP. 
 
 65 
 
 151. The akene is a small, dry, indehiscent peri- 
 carp, free from the one seed which it contains, and 
 tipped with the remains of the style (Buttercups, 
 Lithospermum). 
 
 The double akene of the Umbelliferee, supported on a carpophore, is called 
 cremocarp (177). The akenes of the Compositae, usually crowned with a pap- 
 pus, are called cypsda (178). 
 
 The akenes are often mistaken for seeds. In the Labiatae and Borrage- 
 worts they are associated in fours (141). In Greum, Anemone, etc., they are 
 collected in heads. The rich pulp of the Strawberry consists wholly of the 
 overgrown receptacle, which bears the dry akenes on its surface (184). 
 
 152. The utricle is a small, thin pericarp, fitting 
 loosely upon its one seed, and often opening trans- 
 versely to discharge it (Pigweed, Prince's Feather), 
 
 176 
 
 178 
 
 176, Akenes of Anemone thalidtroides. 177, Cremocarp of Archangelica officinalis, its halves (mono- 
 carps) separated and suspended on the carpophore. 178, Cypsela of Thistle with its plumous pappus. 
 1^9, Utricle of Chenopodium (Pigweed). 180, Caryopsis of Wheat. 181, Samara of Elm. 182, Glans of 
 Beech. 183, Drupe of Prunus. 184, Fruit of Fragaria Indica, a fleshy torus like the Strawberry. 
 
 153. Caryopsis, the grain or fruit of the Grasses, is 
 a thin, dry, 1 -seeded pericarp, inseparable from the 
 seed. 
 
 154. Samara; dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent, furnished 
 with a membranous wing or wings (Ash, Elm, Maple). 
 
 155. G-lans, or nut; hard, dry, indehiscent, com- 
 monly 1-seeded by suppression ( 145), and invested 
 
66 
 
 STRUCTURAL BOTANY. 
 
 [55, 56. 
 
 with a persistent involucre called a cupule, either soli- 
 tary (Acorn, Hazelnut) or several together (Chestnut). 
 
 156. Drupe, stone-fruit; a 3-coated, 1-celled, inde- 
 hiscent pericarp, as the Cherry and Peach. The outer 
 coat (epidermis) is called the epicarp ; the inner is the 
 nucellus or endocarp, hard and stony ; the intervening 
 pulp or fleshy coat is the sarcocarp (adp^ flesh). These 
 coats are not distinguishable in the ovary. 
 
 157. Tryma, a 2-coated drupe; the epicarp fibro- 
 fleshy (Butternut) or woody (Hickory) ; the nucellus 
 bony, with its cell often deeply 2 -parted (Cocoanut). 
 
 191 
 
 Fruits. 186, Etaerio of Rubus strigosus (Blackberry). 186, Pepo ; section of Cucumber. 187, Berry 
 Grape. 188, Pome ; Cratsegus (Haw). 189, Pyxis* of Jeflersonia. 190, Legume of Pea. 191, Loment of 
 Tesmodium. 192, Silique of Mustard. 193, Silicic of Capsella. 
 
 158. Etcerio, an aggregate fruit consisting of numer- 
 ous little drupes united to each other (Raspberry) or to 
 the fleshy receptacle (Blackberry). 
 
 159. Berry, a succulent, thin-skinned pericarp, hold- 
 ing the seeds loosely imbedded in the pulp (Currant, 
 Grape). 
 
55-67.] FOEMS OF THE PERICARP. 67 
 
 160. Hesperidium, a succulent, many-carpelled fruit; 
 the rind thick, leathery, separable from the pulpy mass 
 within (Orange, Lemon). 
 
 161. PepOj an indehiscent, compound, fleshy fruit, 
 with a hardened rind and parietal placentae (Melon). 
 
 162. The pome is an indehiscent pericarp, formed 
 of the permanent calyx and fleshy receptacle, con- 
 taining several cartilaginous (Apple) or bony (Haw) 
 cells. 
 
 163. The pyxis is a many-seeded, dry fruit, open- 
 ing like a lid by a circumscissile dehiscence (Plantain, 
 Henbane, Jeffersonia). 
 
 164. The follicle is a single carpel, 1-celled, many- 
 seeded, opening at the ventral suture (Columbine, Lark- 
 spur, Silk-grass). 
 
 *165. The legume, or pod, is a single carpel, 1-celled, 
 usually splitting into two valves, but bearing its 1 oo 
 seeds along the ventral suture only, in one row, as in 
 the Bean and all the Leguminosse. It is sometimes 
 curved or coiled like a snail-shell (Medicago). The 
 loment is a jointed pod, separating across into 1-seeded 
 portions (Desmodium). 
 
 166. Silique. A pod, linear, 2-carpelled, 2-valved, 
 2 -celled by a false dissepiment extended between the 
 two parietal placentae. To this false dissepiment on 
 both sides of both edges the seeds are attached (Mus- 
 tard). The silicle is a short silique, nearly as wide as 
 long (Shepherd's Purse). The silique and silicle are 
 the peculiar fruit of all the Cruciferae. 
 
 167. Capsule (casket). This term includes all other 
 forms of dry, dehiscent fruits, compound, opening by 
 as many valves as there are carpels (Iris), or by twice 
 as many (Chickweed), or by pores (Poppy). 
 
68 
 
 STKUCTUKAL BOTANY. 
 
 [57. 
 
 168. The Regma is a kind of capsule like that of 
 the Geranium, whose dehiscent carpels separate elastic- 
 ally, but still remain attached to the carpophore. 
 
 169. Strobile, or Cone; an aggregate fruit consist- 
 ing of a conical or oval mass of imbricated scales, each 
 an open carpel ( $ flower), bearing seeds on its inner 
 side at base, i. e., axillary seeds (Pine and the G-ymno- 
 sperms generally). The Cone (syncarpium, ovv, togeth- 
 er) of the Magnolia tribe is a mass of confluent, closed 
 pericarps on a lengthened torus (Cucumber Tree). 
 
 196 
 
 194, Strobile of Pinus. 19f , The Fig (syconus). 196, Sorosis of Mulberry. 197, Hip of Rosa, achenia 
 nearly inclosed in the leathery calyx tube. 
 
 170. The Fig (syconium) is an aggregate fruit, con- 
 sisting of numerous seed-like akenes inclosed within 
 a hollow, fleshy receptacle, where the flowers were 
 attached. 
 
 171. Other confluent fruits (Sorosis) consist of the 
 entire inflorescence developed into a mass of united 
 pericarps, as in the Mulberry, Osage-orange, Pineapple. 
 
58.1 
 
 THE SEED. 
 
 198 
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 
 THE SEED. 
 
 172. The seed is the perfected ovule, having an 
 embryo formed within, which is the rudiment of a new 
 plant, similar in all respects to the original. The seed 
 consists of a nucellus or kernel, invested with the 
 integuments or coverings. The outer covering is the 
 testa, the inner the tegmen, as 
 
 in the ovule. The latter is 
 thin and delicate, often indis- 
 tinguishable from the testa. 
 
 173. The testa is either 
 membranous (papery), coria- 
 ceous (leathery), crustaceous 
 (horny), bony, woody, or fleshy. 
 Its surface is generally smooth, 
 sometimes beautifully polished, 
 as in Columbine, Indian-shot 
 (Canna), and often highly col- 
 ored, as in the Bean ; or it 
 may be dull and rough. It is 
 sometimes winged, as in Ca- 
 
 talpa, and sometimes clothed with long hairs, as in 
 Silk-grass (Asclepias). Such a vesture is called the 
 Coma. Cotton is the coma of the Cotton-seed. 
 
 174. The coma must not be confounded with the pappus ( 104), which is 
 a modification of the calyx, appended to the pericarp, and not to the seed, as 
 in the akenes of the Thistle, Dandelion, and other Composites. Its intention 
 in the economy of the plant can not be mistaken; serving like the pappus to 
 secure the dispersion of the seed, while incidentally, in the case of the Cotton- 
 seed, it furnishes clothing and employment to a large portion of the human 
 race. 
 
 198, Aril of Nutmeg (mace). 199, Seed of 
 Catalpa. 200, Seed of Willow. 201, Seed of 
 Cotton. 
 
70 
 
 STKUCTURAL BOTANY. 
 
 [58, 69. 
 
 175. The aril is an occasional appendage, partially or wholly investing 
 the seed. It originates after fertilization, at or near the hilum, where the 
 seed is attached to its stalk (funiculus). Pine examples are seen in the gashed 
 covering of the Nutmeg, called mace, and in the scarlet coat of the seed of 
 Staff -tree. In the seed of Poly gala, etc., it is but a small scale, entire or 
 2-cleft, called caruncle. 
 
 176. The position of the seed in the pericarp is, like that of the ovule, 
 erect, ascending, pendulous, etc. ( 149). Likewise, in respect to its inversions, it 
 is orthdtropous, andtropous, amphitropous, and campyldtrapom ( 141), terms already 
 denned. The anatropous is by far the most common condition. 
 
 177. The hilum is the scar or mark left in the 
 testa of the seed, by its separation from the funiculus. 
 It is commonly called the eye, as in the Bean. In 
 orth6tropous and campy!6tropous seeds, the hilum cor- 
 responds with the chalaza ( 140). In other conditions 
 it does not; and the raphe ( 141) extends between 
 the two points, as in the ovules. The foramen of the 
 ovule is closed up in the seed, leaving a slight mark 
 
 the micropyle. 
 
 212 213 
 
 208 210 ' 211 
 
 202, Seed of Water Lily (Nymphaea), enlarged section ; alb., albumen ; a, the embryo contained, in the 
 embryo-sac ; s, tegmen ; p, testa ; r, raphe ; a", aril ; m, orifice ; /, funiculus. 203, Seed of Bean. 204, 
 Same, one cotyledon with the leafy embryo. 205, Seed of Apple. 206, One cotyledon showing the raphe 
 and embryo. 207, Fruit of Mirabilis ; embryo coiled into a ring. 208, Onion ; embryo coiled. 209, Con- 
 volvulus ; leafy embryo folded. 210, Embryo of Cuscuta. 211, Typha. 212, Ranunculus. 2i3, Hop. 
 
 178. The seed-kernel may consist of two parts, the 
 embryo and albumen, or of the embryo only. In the 
 former case the seeds are albuminous; in the latter, 
 exalbuminous ; a distinction of great importance in 
 systematic botany. 
 
59, 60.] THE SEED. 71 
 
 179. The albumen or endosperm is a starchy or 
 farinaceous substance accompanying the embryo and 
 serving as its first nourishment in germination. Its 
 qualities are wholesome and nutritious, even in poison- 
 ous plants. Its quantity, when compared with the 
 embryo, varies in every possible degree ; being ex- 
 cessive (Ranunculacese), or about equal (Violaceae), or 
 scanty (Convolvulaceae), or none at all (Leguminosae). 
 In texture it is mealy in Wheat, mucilaginous in 
 Mallows, oily in Ricinus, horny in Coffee, ruminated 
 in Nutmeg and v Papaw, ivory-like in the Ivory-palm, 
 fibrous in Cocoanut, where it is also hollow, inclosing 
 the milk. 
 
 180. The embryo is an organized body, the rudi- 
 ment of the future plant, consisting of root (radicle), 
 stem-bud (plumule), and leaves (cotyledons). But these 
 parts are sometimes quite indistinguishable until ger- 
 mination, as in the Orchis tribe. The Radicle is the 
 descending part of the embryo, always pointing toward 
 the micropyle, the true vertex of the seed. The Plu- 
 mule is the germ of the ascending axis, the terminal 
 bud, located between or at the base of the Cotyledons. 
 These are the seed-lobes, the bulky farinaceous part of 
 the embryo, destined to become the first or seminal 
 leaves of the young plant. The nutritive matter de- 
 posited in the seed for the early sustenance of the 
 germinating embryo, is found more abundant in the 
 cotyledons in proportion as there is less of it in the 
 albumen often wholly in the albumen (Wheat), again 
 all absorbed in the bulky cotyledons (Squash). 
 
 181. The number of the cotyledons is variable; 
 and upon this circumstance is founded the most im- 
 portant subdivision of the Flowering Plants. THE 
 
72 
 
 STRUCTURAL BOTANY. 
 
 [60, 61. 
 
 MONOCOTYLEDONS are plants bearing seeds with one 
 cotyledon ; or if two are present, one is minute or 
 abortive. Such plants are also called ENDOGENS, be- 
 cause their stems do not grow exogenously ( 421). 
 Such are the Grasses, the Palms and Lilies, whose 
 leaves are mostly constructed with parallel veins. 
 
 216 
 
 217 
 
 214, Dicotyledonous (Bean). 215, Monocotyledonous (Wheat). 216, Polycotyledonous (Pine). 217, 
 Acotyledonous (zoospore of one of the Confervae). (r, r, r, radicle ; p, p, p, plumule ; c, c, c, cotyledon ; 
 a, albumen.) 
 
 182. THE DICOTYLEDONS are plants bearing seeds 
 with two cotyledons. These are also called EXOGENS, 
 because their stems grow by external accretions ; in- 
 cluding the Bean tribe, Melon tribe, all our forest 
 trees, etc. These are also distinguished at a glance 
 by the structure of their leaves, which are net-veined 
 ( 280). More than two cotyledons are found in 
 the seeds of Pine and Fir ; while the Dodder is 
 almost the only known example of an embryo with no 
 cotyledon. 
 
 183. The position of the embryo, whether with or 
 without albumen, is singularly varied and interesting 
 to study. It may be straight, as in Cat-tail and Vio- 
 let, or curved in various degrees (Moonseed and Pink), 
 or coiled (Hop), or rolled (Spicebush), or ~bent angularly 
 (Buckwheat), or folded (Cruciferae). In the last case 
 
61, 62.] THE SEED. 73 
 
 two modes are to be specially noticed. 1. Incumbent, 
 when the cotyledons fold over so as to bring the back 
 of one against the radicle (Shepherd's Purse) ; 2. Ac- 
 cumbent, when the edges touch the radicle (Arabis) . 
 
 184. A few plants, as the Onion, Orange, and Coniferse, occasionally have 
 two or even several embryos in a seed ; while all the Cryptogamia or flower- 
 less plants have no embryo at all, nor even seeds, but are reproduced from 
 spores bodies analogous to the pollen-grains of flowering plants (217). 
 
 185. Vitality of the seed. After the embryo has 
 reached its growth in the ripened seed, it becomes 
 suddenly inactive, yet still alive. In this condition it 
 is, in fact, a living plant, safely packed and sealed up 
 for transportation. This suspended vitality of the seed 
 may endure for years, or even, in some species, for 
 ages. The seeds of Maize and Rye have been known 
 to grow when 40 years old; Kidney-beans when 100; 
 the Raspberry after 1700 years (Lindley). Seeds of 
 Mountain Potentilla were known to us to germinate 
 after a slumber of 60 years. On the other hand, the 
 seeds of some species are short-lived, retaining vitality 
 hardly a year (Coffee, Magnolia). 
 
 186. The dispersion of seeds over wide, and often to distant regions, is 
 effected by special agencies, in which the highest Intelligence and Wisdom 
 are clearly seen. Some seeds made buoyant by means of the coma or pappus, 
 already mentioned, are wafted afar by the winds, beyond rivers, lakes, and 
 seas ; as the Thistle and Dandelion. Other seeds have wings for the same 
 purpose. Others are provided with hooks or barbs, by which they lay hold of 
 men and animals, and are thus, by unwilling agents, scattered far and wide 
 (Burr-seed, Tick-seed). Again : some seeds, destitute of aU such appendages, 
 are thrown to a distance by the sudden coiling of the elastic carpels (Touch- 
 me-not). The Squirting-cucumber becomes distended with water by absorp- 
 tion, and at length, when ripe, bursts an aperture at the base by separating 
 from the stem, and projects the mingled seeds and water with amazing force. 
 
 187. Rivers, streams, and ocean currents, are agents for transporting 
 seeds from country to country. Thus the Cocoa, and the Cashew-nut, and 
 the seeds of Mahogany, have been known to perform long voyages without 
 injury to their vitality. Squirrels laying up their winter stores in the earth ; 
 birds migrating from clime to clime and from island to island, in like manner 
 conspire to effect the same important end. 
 
74 
 
 STKUCTUKAL BOTANY. 
 
 [62, 63. 
 
 CHAPTER XIII. 
 
 GEKMINATION. 
 
 188. The recommencement of growth in the seed 
 is called germination. It is the awakening of the 
 embryo from its torpor, and the beginning of develop- 
 ment in its parts already formed, so as to become a 
 plant like its parent. 
 
 218 
 
 Germination of the B-xschnut.ZlS, Cross-section, showing the folded cotyledons. 219, The radicle 
 only. 220, The ascending axis, above c, appears, 221, The cotyledons expand into the primordial 
 leaves. 222, The first true leaves. 
 
 189. All the stages of this interesting process may be conveniently ob- 
 served, at any season, by an experiment. Let a few seeds, as of flax, cotton, 
 or wheat, be enveloped in a lock of cotton resting upon water in a bulb- 
 glass, and kept constantly at a proper temperature. Or, in Spring, the garden- 
 soil will give us examples of all kinds everywhere. 
 
 190. That the seed may begin to grow, or germi- 
 nate, it is first planted; or, at least, placed in contact 
 with warm, moist soil. Concerning the proper depth 
 
63.] 
 
 GERMINATION. 
 
 75 
 
 of the planted seed, agriculturists are not agreed ; but 
 
 nature seems to indicate that no covering is needed 
 
 beyond what will secure the requisite moisture and 
 
 shade. Thus situated, the integuments gradually ab- 
 
 sorb water, soften, and expand. The insoluble, starchy 
 
 matter deposited in the cotyledons, or in the albumen, 
 
 or in both, undergoes a certain chemical change, be- 
 
 coming sweet and soluble, capa- 
 
 ble of affording nourishment to 
 
 the embryo now beginning to 
 
 dilate and develop its parts. 
 
 First (in the winged seed of the 
 
 Maple, scattered everywhere) the 
 
 radicle is seen protruding from 
 
 the micropyle, or the bursting 
 
 coverings. A section of this 
 
 seed would now show the folded 
 
 embryo, impatient of confine- 
 
 ment (225). 
 
 191. Soon after, the radicle 
 has extended ; and, pale in color, 
 has hidden itself in the dark, 
 
 damp earth. NOW the COtyledonS. 
 
 unfolding and gradually freed 
 from the seed-coats, display themselves at length as a 
 pair of green leaves. Lastly, the plumule appears in open 
 air, a green bud, already showing a lengthening base, 
 its first internode, and soon a pair of regular leaves, 
 lobed as all Maple-leaves. The embryo is now an em- 
 bryo no longer, but a growing plant, descending by its 
 lower axis, ascending and expanding by its upper. 
 
 192. With equal advantage we may watch the ger- 
 mination of the Beech, represented in the figures 
 
 Germination of Wheat. o, the grain, 
 containing the cotyledon ; c , plumule ; 
 r, radicle ; , rootlets (adventitious). 
 
76 
 
 STRUCTURAL BOTANY. 
 
 [63, 64. 
 
 above; or of the Oak, as displayed in figures 1, 2, 3, 
 4 ; or the Pea, or Squash, and other Dicotyledons ; and 
 the chief difference observed among them will be in 
 the disposal of the cotyledons. In general, these arise 
 with the ascending axis, as in Maple and Bean, and 
 act as the first pair of leaves. But sometimes, when 
 they are very thick, as in Pea, Buckeye, and Oak, they 
 never escape the seed-coats, but remain and perish at 
 the collum ( 199), neither ascending nor descending. 
 
 35 
 
 Germination of the Maple. "22,5, Samara ; section showing the folded cotyledons at c. 226-230, Pro- 
 gressive stages. 
 
 193. The germination of MONOCOTYLEDONS, as seen 
 in Indian Corn, Wheat, and Tulip, is in this wise. The 
 cotyledon is not disengaged from the seed, but remains 
 stationary with it. The radicle (r) protrudes slightly, 
 and one or more rootlets (s) break out from it and 
 descend. The plumule (c) shoots at first parallel with 
 the cotyledon along the face of the seed, but soon 
 ascends, pushing out leaf from within leaf. 
 
 194. The conditions requisite for germination are 
 
64, 65.] 
 
 GERMINATION 
 
 77 
 
 moisture, air, and warmth. Moisture is necessary for 
 softening the integuments, dissolving the nutritive 
 matter, and facilitating its circulation. This is sup- 
 plied in the rain and dew. Air, or rather its oxygen, 
 is required for the con- 
 version of the starch into 
 sugar a process always 
 depending upon oxidation. 
 The oxygen absorbed 
 unites with a portion of 
 the carbon of the starch, 
 producing heat, evolving 
 carbon dioxide, and thus 
 converting the remainder 
 into grape-sugar, soluble 
 and nutritive. 
 
 195. Warmth is a req- 
 uisite condition of all vital 
 action, as well in the 
 sprouting of a seed as in 
 the hatching of an egg. 
 
 The proper degree of temperature for our own climate 
 may be stated at 60 to 90. Extremes of heat and 
 of cold are not, however, fatal to all germination. In 
 one of the Geysers of Iceland, which was hot enough 
 to boil an egg in four minutes, a species of Chara was 
 found in a growing and fruitful state. The hot springs 
 and pools of San Bernardino, California, at the con- 
 stant heat of 190, have several species of plants grow- 
 ing within their waters. Many species also arise and 
 flower in the snows of Mt. Hood, along their lower 
 borders. Darkness is favorable to germination, as 
 proved by experiment, but not an indispensable condi- 
 
 231, 232, Germination of Indian Corn. 
 
78 
 
 STRUCTURAL BOTANY. 
 
 [65, 66. 
 
 tion. Hence, while the seed should be covered, for the 
 sake of the moisture and shade, the covering should 
 be thin and light, for the sake of a free access to air. 
 
 196. The cause of the downward tendency of the root is a theme of much 
 discussion. Some have referred it to the principle of gravitation ; others to 
 its supposed aversion to light. But it is a simple and satisfactory explanation 
 that its growth or cell-development takes place most readily on the moist side 
 of its growing-point, and consequently in a downward direction, so long as the 
 soil in contact with its lower surface is more moist than that above. Hence, 
 also, the well-known tendency of roots toward springs and water-courses. 
 
 CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 THE ROOT, OR DESCENDING AXIS. 
 
 197. The Root is the basis of the plant, and the 
 principal organ of nutrition. It originates with the 
 
 33 
 
 233, White Clover an axial root (with minute tubers). 234, Buttercups fibrous roots, inaxial. 235, Eri- 
 
 genia root tuberous. 
 
 radicle of the seed, the tendency of its growth is down- 
 ward, and it is generally immersed in the soil. Its 
 
66, 67.] 
 
 THE ROOT. 
 
 79 
 
 office is twofold ; viz., to support the plant in its posi- 
 tion, and to imbibe from the soil the food necessary to 
 the growth of the plant. 
 
 198. The leading propensity of the root is to divide 
 itself; and its only normal appendages are branches, 
 branchlets, fibers, and fibrillse, which are multiplied to 
 an indefinite extent, corresponding with the multipli- 
 cation of the leaves, twigs, etc., 
 
 above. This at once insures a firm 
 hold upon the earth, and brings a 
 large absorbing surface in contact 
 with the moist soil. 
 
 199. The summit of the root, 
 or that place where the root meets 
 the stem, is called the collum ; the 
 remote, opposite extremities of the 
 fine rootlets, or fibers, are covered 
 by dry, protective cells, forming a 
 root-cap ; the sides of these fibers 
 are chiefly active in absorbing 
 liquid nourishment, and are mostly 
 covered by root-hairs, which in- 
 crease their absorbing surface. The hairs arise from 
 the tender epidermis or skin, and perish when that 
 thickens into bark. They are developed and perish 
 annually with the leaves, whose servants they are. 
 Few of them remain after the fall of the leaf. This 
 fact plainly indicates that the proper time for trans- 
 planting trees or shrubs is the late Autumn, Winter, 
 or early Spring, when there are but few tender fibrillae 
 to be injured. 
 
 200. Two modes of root-development are definitely 
 distinguished. First, the AXIAL MODE is that where 
 
 236, Extremity of a rootlet of Ma- 
 e, with its hairs and root -cap (a) 
 
80 STEUCTUKAL BOTANY. [67, 68. 
 
 the primary, simple radicle, in growing, extends itself 
 downward in a main body more or less branched, 
 continuous with the stem, and forms the permanent 
 root of the plant. Such is the case with the Maple, 
 Mustard, Beet, and most of the Dicotyledonous Plants 
 ( 183). 
 
 201. Secondly, the DIFFUSE development is that 
 where the primary radicle proves abortive, never 
 developing into an axial root ; but, growing lat- 
 erally only, it sends out little shoots from its sides, 
 which grow into long, slender roots, nearly equal 
 in value, none of them continuous with the stem. 
 Of this nature are the roots of all the Grasses, 
 the Lilies, and the Monocotyledons generally, and of 
 the Cryptogamia. Plants raised from layers, cuttings, 
 tubers, and slips are necessarily destitute of the axial 
 root. 
 
 202. The various forms of the root are naturally 
 and conveniently referred to these two modes of devel- 
 opment. The principal axial forms are the ramous, 
 fusiform, napiform, and conical. To all these forms 
 the general name tap-root is applied. The ramous is 
 the woody tap-root of most trees and shrubs, where 
 the main root branches extensively, and is finally dis- 
 solved and lost in multiplied ramifications. 
 
 203. Tuberous tap-roots. In herbaceous plants 
 the tap-root often becomes thick and fleshy, with com- 
 paratively few branches. This tendency is peculiarly 
 marked in biennials ( 41), where the root serves as a 
 reservoir of the superabundant food which the plant 
 accumulates during its first year's growth, and keeps 
 in store against the exhausting process of fruit-bearing 
 in its second year. Such is the Fusiform (spindle- 
 
68, 69.] THE EOOT. 81 
 
 shaped) root thick, succulent, tapering downward, 
 and also for a short space upward. Beet, Radish, and 
 Ginseng are examples. The Conical root tapers all 
 the way from the collum downward (Carrot). The 
 Napiform (turnip-shaped) swells out in its upper part 
 so that its breadth equals or exceeds its length, as in 
 Erigenia (233) and Turnip (239). 
 
 237, Maple an axial, ramous root. 238, Parsnip a fusiform root. 239, Turnip a napiform root. 240, 
 Corallorhiza a coralline root. 
 
 204. The forms of diffuse roots are fibrous, fibro- 
 tuberous, tubercular, coralline, nodulous, and monili- 
 form. The fibrous root consists of numerous thread- 
 like divisions, sent off directly from the base of the 
 stem, with no main or tap-root. Such are the roots of 
 most Grasses, which multiply their fibers excessively 
 in light sandy soils. Fibro-tuberous roots (or fascicu- 
 late) are so called when some of the fibers are thick 
 and fleshy, as in the Asphodel, Crowfoot, Paeony, 
 Orchis, and Dahlia. When the fiber is enlarged in 
 certain parts only, it is nodulous; and when the en- 
 largements occur at regular intervals, it is moniliform 
 
82 
 
 STRUCTUEAL BOTANY. 
 
 [69, 70. 
 
 and 
 
 (necklace-like). When it bears little tubers here 
 there, as in Squirrel-corn, it is tubercular. 
 
 205. Deposits of starch, or farinaceous matter, in 
 all these cases, constitute the thickening substance of 
 the root, stored up for the future use of the plant. 
 
 214 
 
 241, Paeony fibro-tuberous roots. 242, Ginseng fusiform root. 243, Pelargonium triste moniliform 
 root. 244, Spirea filipendula nodulous root. 245, A creeping stem, with adventitious roots. 
 
 206. Adventitious roots are such, as originate in some part of the 
 ascending axis stem or branches whether above or below the ground. 
 They are so called because their origin is indeterminate, both in place and 
 time. Several special forms should be noticed; as the cirrhous roots of certain 
 climbing vines (European Ivy, Poison Ivy, Trumpet-creeper) put forth in great 
 numbers from the stem, serving for its mechanical support and no other 
 known use. Again : the Fulcra of certain Monocotyledonous plants originate 
 high up the stem, and descending obliquely enter the ground. The Indian 
 Corn frequently puts forth such roots from its lower joints, and thereby be- 
 comes strongly braced. The Screw Pine (Pandanus) of the conservatories 
 puts forth fulcra often several feet in length. 
 
 207. The Banian Tree (Mcus Indicus) drops " adventitious " roots from 
 its extended branches, which, reaching and entering the ground, grow to sup- 
 porting cohimns, like secondary trunks. Thus a single tree becomes at length 
 a grove capable of sheltering an army. 
 
 208. Epiphytes (err/, upon, <t>vr6v, a plant), a class of 
 plants, called also air-plants, have roots which are 
 merely mechanical, serving to fix such plants firmly 
 upon other plants or trees, while they derive their 
 
70.] 
 
 THE BOOT. 
 
 88 
 
 nourishment wholly from the air. The Long-moss 
 (Tillandsia) and Conopseum are examples. 
 
 247, Old Oak trunk with horizontal branch bearing epiphytes and para- 
 sites, a, A fern (Polypodium incanum). b, Epidendrum conopseum. oc, 
 Long-moss (Tillandsia). d, Mistletoe (Viscum). e, Lichen. 
 
 209. Parasites Three classes. Very 
 different in nature are the roots of 
 those plants called parasites, which feed 
 upon the juices of other plants or trees. 
 Such roots penetrate the bark of the nurse-plant to 
 the cambium layer beneath, and appropriate the stolen 
 juices to their own growth ; as the Dodder and Mistle- 
 toe. Other parasites, although standing in the soil, are 
 fixed upon foreign roots, and thence derive either their 
 entire sustenance, as the Beech-drops and other leaf- 
 less, colorless plants, or a part of their sustenance, as 
 the Cow-wheat (Melampyrum) and Gerardia. 
 
 210. Subterranean stems. As there are aerial roots, so there are sub- 
 terranean stems. These are frequently mistaken for roots, but may be known 
 by their habitually and regularly producing buds. Of this nature are the 
 tubers of the Irish Potato, the rootstock of the Sweet-flag, the bulb of the 
 Tulip. But even the true root may sometimes develop buds accidentally as 
 it were in consequence of some injury to the upper axis, or some other 
 unnatural condition. 
 
STEUCTUBAL BOTANY. 
 
 [71. 
 
 CHAPTER XV. 
 
 THE STEM, OK ASCENDING AXIS. 
 
 211. The general idea of the Axis is this: the cen- 
 tral substantial portion of the plant, bearing the 
 appendages, viz., roots below, and the leaf-organs 
 above. The Ascending Axis is that which originates 
 with the plumule, tends upward in its growth, and 
 expands itself to the influence of the air and the light. 
 
 248, Procumbent stem Chiogenes hispidula. 
 
 212. Although the first direction of the stem's 
 growth is vertical in all plants, there are many in 
 which this direction does not continue, but changes 
 into the oblique or horizontal, either just above the 
 
 249, Decumbent stem Anagallis arvensis. 
 
 surface of the ground, or just beneath it. If the stem 
 continues to arise in the original direction, as it most 
 commonly does, it is said to be erect. If it grow 
 along the ground without rooting, it is said to be pro- 
 
71, 72.] THE STEM. 85 
 
 cumbentj prostrate, trailing. If it recline upon the 
 ground after having at the base arisen somewhat 
 above it, it is decumbent. If it arise obliquely from a 
 prostrate base, it is said to be assurgent ; and if it 
 continue buried beneath the soil, it is subterranean. 
 Such stems, although buried like roots, may readily be 
 known by their buds, as already explained ( 210). 
 
 213. Stems are either simple or branched. The 
 simple stem is produced by the unfolding of the pri- 
 mary bud (the plumule) in the direction of its point 
 alone. As this bud is developed below into the length- 
 ening stem, it is continually reproduced at its summit, 
 and so is always borne at the termination of the stem. 
 Hence the axis is always terminated by a bud. 
 
 214. -The Branching Stem, which is by far the most 
 common, is produced by the development of both ter- 
 minal and axillary buds. The axis produces a bud in 
 the axil of its every leaf ; that is, at a point just above 
 the origin of the leaf-stalk. These buds remain in- 
 active in the case of the simple stem, as the Mullein; 
 but jnore generally are developed into leafy subdivis- 
 ions of the axis, and the stem thus becomes branched. 
 A Branch is, therefore, a division of the axis produced 
 by the development of an axillary bud. It repeats the 
 internal structure of the stem, but is sometimes pe- 
 culiar in being bilaterally symmetrical or having its 
 upper and under surfaces unlike. 
 
 215. The Arrangement of the Branches upon the 
 stem, depends, therefore, upon the arrangement of the 
 leaves ; which will be more particularly noticed here- 
 after. This arrangement is beautifully regular, accord- 
 ing to established laws. In this place we briefly notice 
 three general modes. . The Alternate arrangement is 
 
86 STRUCTURAL BOTANY. [72,73. 
 
 where but one branch arises from each joint (node) on 
 different sides of the stem, as in the Elm. The Oppo- 
 site is where two branches stand on opposite sides of 
 the same node, as in Maple. The Verticillate is where 
 three or more branches, equidistant, encircle the stem 
 at each node, as in the Pine. Dichotomous branching 
 is where a main or secondary axis forks into two 
 equal divisions, as often occurs in Flowerless Plants. 
 
 216. Some plants produce adventitious roots which 
 may become independent. Nurserymen in this way 
 propagate scions, suckers, stolons, offsets, slips, layers, 
 cuttings, and runners. The Sucker is a branch issuing 
 from some underground portion of the plant, leaf- 
 bearing above and sending out roots from its own 
 base, becoming finally a separate, independent plant. 
 The Rose and Raspberry are thus multiplied. 
 
 250, a. Slip (Gooseberry) taking root. 6, Cutting (Grape) taking root, c, Stolons or layers artificially 
 arranged for propagation, d, A mode of dwarfing ; the vessel, , is filled with soil, e, Scions ; process of 
 grafting. /, A sucker. 
 
 217. The Stolon, or Layer, is a branch issuing from 
 some above-ground portion of the stem, and afterward 
 declining to the ground, taking root at or near its ex- 
 tremity, sending up new shoots, and becoming a new 
 
73, 74.] 
 
 THE STEM. 
 
 87 
 
 plant. The Hobble-bush and Black-raspberry do this 
 naturally, and gardeners imitate the process in many 
 plants. 
 
 218. The Scion is any healthy twig or branchlet 
 bearing one or more buds, used by the gardeners in 
 the common process of grafting. Slips and cuttings 
 are fragments of ordinary branches or stems, consist- 
 ing of young wood bearing one or more buds. These 
 strike root when planted in the ground. So the Grape- 
 vine and Hop. The Offset is merely a scion severed 
 from the parent and set in the ground to strike root. 
 
 219. The Runner is a prostrate, filiform branch, 
 issuing from certain short-stemmed herbs, extending 
 itself along the surface of the ground, striking root at 
 its end without being buried. Thence leaves arise, and 
 a new plant, which in turn sends out new runners, as 
 in the Strawberry. 
 
 251, A Strawberry plant (Fragarfe vesca) sending out a runner. 
 
 220. The Node, or joint of the stem, marks a defi- 
 nite point of a peculiar organization, where the leaf 
 with its axillary bud arises. The nodes occur at regu- 
 lar intervals, and the spaces between them are termed 
 INTERNODES. They provide for the symmetrical arrange- 
 ment of the leaves and branches of the stem. In the 
 
88 STRUCTURAL BOTANY. [73-75. 
 
 root no such provision is made, and the branches have 
 a less definite arrangement. Now the growth of the 
 stem consists in the development of the internodes. 
 In the bud, the nodes are closely crowded together, 
 with no perceptible internodes ; thus bringing the rudi- 
 mentary leaves in close contact with each other. But 
 in the stem, which is afterward evolved from that bud, 
 we see full-grown leaves separated by considerable 
 spaces. That is, while leaves are developed from the 
 rudiments, internodes are pushed out from the grow- 
 ing point. 
 
 221. There are, however, many species of plants, 
 especially of herbs, in which the axis of the primary 
 bud does not develop into internodes at all, or but par- 
 tially in various degrees. See the axis of Trillium, 
 Onion, and Bloodroot. Such stems seldom appear 
 above-ground. They are subterranean. This fact 
 makes a wide difference in the forms of stems, and nat- 
 urally separates them into two great divisions viz., 
 the Leaf-bearing Stems and the Scaled-bearing Stems. 
 
 CHAPTER XYI. 
 
 FORMS OF THE LEAF-BEARING STEMS. 
 
 222. The leaf-bearing stems are those forms which, 
 with internodes fully developed, rise into the air 
 crowned with leaves. The principal forms are the 
 caulis, culm, trunk, caudex, and vine. They are either 
 herbaceous or woody. Herbaceous stems bear fruit but 
 one season and then perish, at least down to the root, 
 scarcely becoming woody ; as seen in Mustard, Radish, 
 
75, 76.] FORMS OF THE LEAF-BEARING STEMS. 89 
 
 and Grasses. But woody stems survive the Winter, 
 
 and often become firm and solid in substance in after 
 years ; as do all the forest trees. 
 
 254 
 
 252, Scale-stem (Dicentra cucullaria). 253, A flower of the same. 254, A flower of D. Canadensis. 
 255, Leaf-stem (Chimaphila maculata). 
 
 223. CAULIS is a term generally applied to the 
 annual leafy stems of herbaceous plants. "Haulm "is 
 a term used in England with the same signification. 
 Caulescent and acaulescent are convenient terms, the 
 former denoting the presence, and the latter the ab- 
 sence of the caulis or aerial stem. 
 
 224. THE CULM is the stem of the Grasses and the 
 Sedges, generally jointed, often hollow, rarely becom- 
 ing woody; as in Cane and Bamboo. 
 
 225. THE TRUNK is the name of the peculiar stems 
 of arborescent plants. It is the central column or axis 
 
90 
 
 STRUCTURAL BOTANY. 
 
 [76, 77. 
 
 which supports their branching tops and withstands 
 the assaults of the wind by means of the great firm- 
 ness and strength of the woody or ligneous tissue with 
 which it abounds. The trunk is usually seen simple 
 and columnar below, for a certain space, then variously 
 dividing itself into branches. Here it is cylindrical, 
 straight, and erect, as in the Forest Pine ; prismatic 
 often, as in the Gum-tree ; gnarled and curved, as in 
 the Oak ; or inclined far over its base, as in the Syca- 
 more. 
 
 S B E 
 
 256, 5, Spruce. B, Beech. E, Elm ; to illustrate excurrent and deliquescent axis. 
 
 226. In dividing itself into branches, we observe 
 two general modes, with their numerous variations, 
 strikingly characterizing the tree forms. In the one, 
 named by Lindley the EXCURRENT, the trunk, from the 
 superior vigor of its terminal bud, takes precedence of 
 
77.] FORMS OF THE LEAF-BEARING STEMS. 91 
 
 the branches, and runs through to the summit, as in 
 the Beech, Birch, Oak, and especially in the -Spruce 
 trees with oval or pyramidal forms. But in the other, 
 the DELIQUESCENT AXIS, as seen in the Elm and Apple- 
 tree, the trunk suddenly divides into several subequal 
 branches, which thence depart with different degrees 
 of divergency, giving the urn form to the Elm, the 
 rounded form to the Apple-tree, the depressed form to 
 the Sloe-tree (Viburnum) and Dogwood. 
 
 227. CAUDEX is a term now applied to the peculiar trunk of the Palms 
 and Tree-ferns, simple, branchless columns, or rarely dividing in advanced 
 age. It is produced by the growth of the terminal bud alone, and its sides 
 are marked by the scars of the fallen leaf -stalks of former years, or are yet 
 covered by their persistent bases. Tln.^ stock or caudex of the cactus tribe is 
 extraordinary in form and substance. It is often jointed, prismatic, branched, 
 always greenish, fleshy, and full of a watery juice. Instead of leaves, its lat- 
 eral buds develop spines only, the stem itself performing the functions of 
 leaves. These plants abound in the warm regions of tropical America, and 
 afford a cooling acid beverage to the thirsty traveler when springs dry up 
 under the torrid sun. 
 
 228. THE VINE is either herbaceous or woody. It is 
 a stem too slender and weak to stand erect, but trails 
 along the ground, or any convenient support. Some- 
 times, by means of special organs for this purpose, 
 called tendrils, it ascends trees and other objects to a 
 great height ; as the Grape, Gourd, and other climb- 
 ing vines. 
 
 229. The twining vine having also a length greatly disproportioned to its 
 diameter, supports itself on other plants or objects by entwining itself around 
 them, being destitute of tendrils. Thus the Hop ascends into the air by for- 
 eign aid, and it is a curious fact that the direction of its winding is always 
 the same, viz., with the sun, from left to right; nor can any artificial training 
 induce it to reverse its course. This is a general law among twining stems. 
 Every individual plant of the same species revolves in the same direction, 
 although opposite directions may characterize different species. Thus the 
 Morning-Q-lory revolves always against the sun, 
 
92 STRUCTURAL BOTANY. [78. 
 
 CHAPTER XVII. 
 
 FORMS OF SCALE-BEARING STEMS. 
 
 230. The Scale-bearing stems are those forms 
 which, with internodes partially or not at all developed, 
 and generally clothed with scales for leaves, scarcely 
 emerge from the soil. They are the creeper and rhi- 
 zoma (developed), the crown, tuber, corm, and bulb 
 (undeveloped). Their forms are singular, often dis- 
 torted in consequence of their underground growth and 
 the unequal development of the internodes. They 
 commonly belong to perennial herbs, and the principal 
 forms are described as follows ; but intermediate con- 
 necting forms are very numerous, and often perplexing. 
 
 257, Creeper of " Nimble Will " or Witch-grass ; a, Bud ; bb, bases of culms. 
 
 231. THE CREEPER is either subaerial or subterra- 
 nean. In the former case, it is prostrate, running and 
 rooting at every joint, and hardly distinguishable other- 
 wise from leafy stems ; as the Twin-flower, the Par- 
 tridge-berry. In the latter case, it is more commonly 
 clothed with scales, often branching extensively, root- 
 ing at the nodes, exceedingly tenacious of life, extend- 
 
78,79.] FORMS OF SCALE-BEARING STEMS. 93 
 
 ing horizontally in all directions beneath the soil, 
 annually sending up from its terminal buds erect stems 
 into the air. The Witch-grass is an example. Such 
 plants are a sore evil to the garden. They can have 
 no better cultivation than to be torn and cut to pieces 
 by the spade of the angry gardener, since they are 
 thus multiplied as many times as there are fragments. 
 
 232. Repent stems of this kind are not, however, without their use. They 
 frequently abound in loose, sandy soil, which they serve to bind and secure 
 against the inroads of the water and even the sea itself. Holland is said to 
 owe its very existence to the repent stems of such plants as the Mat-grass 
 (Arundo arenaria), Carex arenaria, and Elymus arenarius, which overrun the 
 artificial dykes upon its shores, and by their innumerable roots and creepers 
 apparently bind the loose sand into a firm barrier against the washing of the 
 waves. So the turf, chiefly composed of repent Grass-stems, forms the only 
 security of our own sandy or clayey hills against the washing rains. 
 
 258, Rhizoma of Solomon's Seal (Polygonatum multiflorum). a, Fragment of the first year's growth ; 
 b, the second year's growth ; c, growth of the third year ; d, growth of the present (fourth) year, bearing 
 the stem, which, on decaying, will leave a scar (seal) like the rest. 259, Premorse root of Trillium erectum. 
 
 233. THE RHIZOME, or ROOT-STOCK, differs from the 
 creeper only in being shorter and thicker, having its 
 internodes but partially developed. It is a prostrate, 
 fleshy, rooting stem, either wholly or partially subter- 
 ranean, often scaly with the bases of undeveloped 
 leaves, or marked with the scars of former leaves, and 
 yearly producing new shoots and roots. Such is the 
 fleshy, horizontal portion of the Blood-root, Sweet-flag, 
 Water-lily, and Bramble (the latter hardly different 
 from the creeper). 
 
94 
 
 STRUCTURAL BOTANY. 
 
 [79, 80. 
 
 234. The growth of the rhizome is instructive, marking its peculiar character. 
 Each joint marks the growth of a year. In Spring, the terminal bud unfolds 
 into leaves and flowers, to perish in Autumn a new bud to open the follow- 
 ing Spring, and a new internode, with its roots, to abide several years. The 
 number of joints indicates, not the age of the plant, but the destined age of 
 each internode. Thus if there are three joints, we infer that they are trien- 
 nial, perishing after the third season, while the plant still grows on. 
 
 235. THE PRJEMORSE ROOT, or ROOT-STOCK, is short, 
 erect, ending abruptly below, as if bitten square off 
 (praemorsus). This is mostly owing to the death of 
 the earlier and lower internodes in succession, as in 
 the horizontal rhizome. The root of Scabious and the 
 rhizomes of Viola pedata and Benjamin-root are ex- 
 amples. 
 
 Tubers as they grow. 280, The common Potato (Solanum). 261, Artichoke (Helianthus). 262, Sweet 
 
 Potato (Convolvulus). 
 
 236. CROWN OF THE ROOT designates a short stem 
 with condensed internodes, remaining upon some per- 
 ennial roots, at or beneath the surface-soil, after the 
 leaves and annual stems have perished. 
 
 237. THE TUBER is an annual thickened portion of 
 a subterranean stem or branch, provided with latent 
 
80, 81.] 
 
 FOKMS OF SCALE-BEAKING STEMS. 
 
 95 
 
 buds called eyes, from which new plants ensue the 
 succeeding year. It is the fact of its origin with the 
 ascending axis, and the production of buds, that places 
 the tuber among stems instead of roots. The Potato 
 and Artichoke are examples. 
 
 238. The stem of the Potato-plant sends out roots from its base, and 
 branches above, like other plants ; but we observe that its branches have two 
 distinct modes of development. Those branches which rise into the air, 
 whether issuing from the above-ground or the under-ground portion of the 
 stem, expand regularly into leaves, etc. ; while those lower branches which 
 continue to grope in the dark, damp ground, cease at length to elongate, 
 swell up at the ends into tubers with developed buds and abundance of nutri- 
 tious matter in reserve for renewed growth the following year. 
 
 265 
 
 63 
 
 \ 
 
 263, Conns of Putty-root (A plectrum) ; a, of last year 6, of the present year. 264, Scale-bulb of White 
 Lily. 265, Scale-bulb of Oxalis violacea. 
 
 .239. THE COKM is an under-ground, solid, fleshy 
 stem, with condensed internodes, never extending, but 
 remaining of a rounded form covered with thin scales. 
 It is distinguished from roots by its leaf-bud, which is 
 either borne at the summit, as in the Crocus, or at the 
 side, as in the Colchicum and Putty-root (Aplectrum). 
 240. THE BULB partakes largely of the nature of 
 the bud. It consists of a short, dilated axis, bearing 
 an oval mass of thick, fleshy scales, closely packed 
 
96 
 
 STRUCTURAL BOTANY. 
 
 [81, 82. 
 
 above, a circle of adventitious roots around its base, 
 and a flowering stem from the terminal or a lateral bud. 
 
 241. How multiplied. Bulbs are renewed or multiplied annually at the 
 approach of Winter by the development of bulbs from the axils of the scales, 
 which increase at the expense of the 
 
 old, and ultimately become detached. 
 Bulbs which flower from the terminal 
 bud are necessarily either annual or bi- 
 ennial ; those flowering from an axillary ' 
 bud may be perennial, as the terminal 
 bud may in this case continue to de- 
 velop new scales indefinitely. 
 
 242. Bulbs are said to be 
 
 tunicated when they consist 2C6,BuibofLiimm 
 
 * & rhizome ; a, full grown bulb sending up a ter- 
 
 of concentric layers, each en- ^ t al y f a e r m C) and two offsets 66) for the bulbs of 
 tire and inclosing all within 
 
 it, as in the Onion. But the more common variety is 
 the scaly bulb consisting of fleshy, concave scales, 
 arranged spirally upon the axis, as in the Lily 
 
 243. The tuber, corm, and bulb are analogous forms approaching by 
 degrees to the character of the bud, which consists of a little axis bearing a 
 covering of scales. In the tuber, the axis is excessively developed, while the 
 scales are reduced to mere linear points. In the corm the analogy is far more 
 evident, for the axis is less excessive and the scales more manifest; and 
 lastly, in the bulb the analogy is complete, or overdone, 'the scales often be- 
 coming excessive. 
 
 270 
 
 267, Corm of Crocus, with new ones forming above. 268, Vertical section of the same. 269, Section of 
 bulb of Hyacinth, with terminal scape and axillary bulblet. 270, Section of bulb of Oxalis violacea, with 
 axillary scapes. 
 
82, 83.] 
 
 THE LEAF-BUD. 
 
 97 
 
 CHAPTER XVIII. 
 
 THE LEAF-BUD. 
 
 244. It is but a step from the study of the bulb to 
 that of the leaf-bud. Buds are of two kinds in respect 
 to their contents the leaf-bud contain- 
 ing the rudiments of a leafy stem or 
 
 branch, the flower-bud containing the 
 same elements transformed into the 
 nascent organs of a flower for the 
 purpose of reproduction. 
 
 245. The leaf-bud consists of a 
 brief, cone-shaped axis with a tender 
 growing point, bearing a protecting 
 covering of imbricated scales and in- 
 cipient leaves. 
 
 246. The leafy nature of the scales 
 is evident from a careful inspection of 
 such buds as those of the Rose, Cur- 
 rant, Tulip-tree, when they are swollen 
 or bursting in Spring. The student 
 will notice a gradual change from the 
 outer scales to the evident leaves or 
 stipules within, as seen in Fig. 273. As 
 a further protection against frost and 
 rain, we find the scales sometimes 
 
 271 
 
 171, Branch of Pear- 
 tree. The terminal bud a, 
 having been destroyed, an 
 .,-!-,. , . axillary bud supplied its 
 
 clothed with hairs, sometimes var- P i ac e, and formed the * 
 
 i -, .., . ,, . . -, , 6. c, Thickened branch 
 
 msned with resin. This is abundant with flower-buds;* branch 
 
 -, ... ., TT PIT with leaf -buds. 272, t, sec 
 
 and very aromatic in the buds of the t ion of terminal bud ; ?, of 
 Balm-of-Gilead and other Poplars. 
 
 247. In regard to position, buds are either terminal 
 or axillary, a distinction already noticed. Axillary 
 
98 STRUCTURAL BOTANY. [83,84. 
 
 buds are especially noted as being either active or 
 latent. In the former case they are unfolded into 
 branches at once, or in the Spring following their 
 formation. But latent buds suspend their activities 
 from year to year, or perhaps are never quickened 
 into growth. Axillary buds become terminal so soon 
 as their development fairly commences ; therefore 
 each branch also has a terminal bud, and, like the 
 
 273, Bud of Currant unfolding, the scales gradually becoming leases. 2"4, Bud of Tulip-tree, the scales 
 
 unfolding into stipules. 
 
 main axis, is capable of extending its growth as long 
 as that bud remains unharmed. If it be destroyed by 
 violence or frost, or should it be transformed into a 
 flower-bud, the growth in that direction forever 
 ceases. 
 
 248. The suppression of axillary buds tends to 
 simplify the form of the plant. Their total suppres- 
 sion during the first year's growth of the terminal 
 bud is common, as in the annual stem of Mullein and 
 in most perennial stems. When axillary buds remain 
 permanently latent, and only the terminal bud unfolds 
 year after year, a simple, branchless trunk, crowned 
 
83-85.] 
 
 THE LEAF-BUD. 
 
 99 
 
 with a solitary tuft of leaves, is the result, as in the 
 Palmetto of our southern borders. 
 
 249. A partial suppression of buds occurs in almost all species, and gen- 
 erally in some definite order. In plants with, opposite leaves, sometimes one 
 bud of the pair at each node is developed and the other is suppressed, as in 
 the Pink tribe. When both buds are developed, the branches, appearing in 
 pairs like arms, are said to be brachiate, as in the Labiates, In many trees 
 the terminal buds are arrested by inflo- 
 rescence each season, and the growth 
 
 is continued by axillary buds alone, as 
 in the Catalpa and Horse-chestnut. 
 In all trees, indeed, buds are sup- 
 pressed more or less, from various 
 causes, disguising at length, the in- 
 tended symmetry of the branches, to 
 the utter confusion of twigs and spray. 
 
 250. Accessory Ituds, one 
 or more, are sometimes 
 found just above the true 
 axillary bud, or clustered 
 with it, and only distin- 
 guished from it by their 
 smaller size ; as in the 
 Cherry and Honeysuckle. 
 
 251. Adventitious or ac- 
 cidental buds are such as 
 are neither terminal nor 
 
 275 
 
 276 
 
 275, Hypericnm Savothra, with brachiate 
 branches. 276, Pink (Dianthus) axillary buds 
 
 axillary. They occasionally " 
 
 appear on any part of the plant in the internodes of 
 the stem or branches, on the root or even the leaves. 
 Such buds generally result from some abnormal con- 
 dition of the plant, from pruning or other destruction 
 of branches or stem above, while the roots remain in 
 full vigor ; thus destroying the equilibrium of vital 
 force between the upper and lower axis. The leaf of 
 the Walking-fern emits rootlets and buds at its apex ; 
 the leaf of Bryophyllum from its margin, each bud 
 
100 STRUCTURAL BOTANY. [85. 
 
 here also preceded by a rootlet. Some plants are thus 
 artificially propagated in conservatories from the influ- 
 ence of heat and moisture on a leaf or the fragment 
 of a leaf, as Begonia. 
 
 252. Vernation or praefoliation are terms denoting 
 the mode of arrangement and folding of the leaf 
 organs composing the bud. This arrangement is defi- 
 nitely varied in different orders of plants, furnishing 
 useful distinctions in systematic botany. It may be 
 studied to excellent advantage by making with a keen 
 instrument a cross-section of the bud in its swollen 
 state, just before expansion ; or it may be well ob- 
 served by removing one by one the scales. The Forms 
 of Vernation are entirely analogous to those of ^Esti- 
 vation, and denoted by similar terms. 
 
 253. Vernation is considered in two different as- 
 pects first, the manner in which the leaf itself is 
 folded ; second, the arrangement of the leaves in re- 
 spect to each other. This depends much upon the 
 Phyllotaxy. ( 261.) 
 
 288 
 
 Vernation, 277, of Oak leaf ; 278, of Liriodendron (Tulip-tree). 279, of Fern ; 280, of Carex ; 281, Sage ; 
 
 282, Iris. 
 
 254. Each leaf considered alone is either flat and 
 open, as in the Mistletoe, or it is folded or rolled, as 
 follows : viz., Reclined, when folded crosswise, with 
 apex bent over forward toward the base, as in the 
 Tulip-tree ; Conduplicate, when folded perpendicularly, 
 
85, 86.] 
 
 THE LEAF-BUD. 
 
 with the lateral halves brought together face to face, 
 as in the Oak ; 'Plaited, or Plicate, each leaf folded 
 like a fan, as in Birch. 
 
 255. Circinate implies that each leaf is rolled or 
 coiled downward from the apex, as in Sundew and 
 the Ferns. 
 
 256. The Convolute leaf is wholly rolled up from 
 one of its sides, as in the Cherry ; while the Involute 
 has both its edges rolled inward, as in Apple, Violet ; 
 and the Revolute has both margins rolled outward and 
 backward, as in the 
 
 Dock, Willow, Rosemary. 
 
 Vernation, 283, of Birch leaf ; 284, of Lilac (imbricate) ; 285, Cheny leaves (convolute) ; 286, Dock bud 
 (revolute) ; 287, Balm of Gilead (involute). 
 
 257. The general vernation is loosely distinguished 
 in descriptive botany as valvate (edges meeting), and 
 imbricate (edges overlapping), terms to be noticed 
 hereafter. The valvate more often occurs in plants 
 with opposite leaves ; as in the St. John's-wort family, 
 Hypericum Sarothra (275). 
 
 258. Imbricate vernation is Equitant (riding astrad- 
 dle), when conduplicate leaves alternately embrace 
 the outer one the next inner by its unfolded margins, 
 as in the Privet and Iris (282). It is Obvolute when 
 it is half-equitant ; that is, the outer leaf embraces 
 only one of the margins of the inner, as in the Sage 
 (281). Again, it is Triquetrous where the bud is tri- 
 angular in section and the leaves equitant at each 
 angle, as in the Sedges (280). 
 
STRUCTURAL BOTANY. 
 
 [86, 87. 
 
 259. The principle of budding. Each leaf-bud 
 may be regarded as a dis- 
 tinct individual, capable 
 
 of vegetating either in its 
 native position, or when 
 removed to another, as is 
 extensively practiced in 
 the important operation 
 of budding. 
 
 260. Bulblets. In the Tiger-lily, 
 also in Cicuta bulbif era, and Aspidium 
 bulbiferum, the axillary buds sponta- m 290, showing the process 
 
 of "budding."' 
 
 neously detach themselves, fall to the 
 
 ground, and become new plants. These remarkable 
 
 little bodies are called bulblets. 
 
 x 
 
 CHAPTER XIX. 
 
 PHYLLOTAXY, OR LEAF-ARRANGEMENT. 
 
 261. As the position of the leaf upon the stem 
 marks the position of the axillary bud, it follows that 
 the order of the leaf-arrangement will be the order of 
 the branches also. Phyllotaxis, or leaf-arrangement 
 (from 0i5AAov, leaf, rdfa, order), depends chiefly on the 
 mode of origin of the leaves at the apex of growth, 
 and on the subsequent elongation and twisting of the 
 axis on which they grow. 
 
 262. In regard to position, leaves are radical when 
 they grow out of the stem at or beneath the surface 
 of the ground, so as to appear to grow from the roots ; 
 cauline, when they grow from the stem ; and ramal 
 
87, 88.] 
 
 LEAF- ARRANGEMENT. 
 
 103 
 
 a branch), when from the branches. Their 
 arrangement on the axis is according to the following 
 general modes : 
 
 Alternate, one above another on opposite sides, as 
 in the Elm. 
 
 Scattered, irregularly spiral, as in the Potato vine. 
 
 Rosulate, clustered regularly, like the petals of a 
 Rose, as in the Plantain and Shepherd's-purse. 
 
 291, Lady's-slipper (leaves alternate); 292, Synandra grandiflora (leaves opposite) ; 294, Medeola Virginica 
 (leaves verticillate) ; 293, Larix Americana (leaves fasciculate). 
 
 Fasciculate, tufted, clustered many together in the 
 axil, as seen in the Pine, Larch, Berberry. 
 
 Opposite, two, against each other, at the same node. 
 Ex., Maple. When successive pairs of opposite leaves 
 cross each other at right angles, they are said to be 
 decussate. 
 
 Verticillate, or whorled, more than two in a circle 
 at each node, as in the Meadow-lily, Trumpet-weed. 
 We may reduce all these modes to TWO GENERAL TYPES, 
 
104 STRUCTURAL BOTANY. [88,89. 
 
 the alternate, including all cases with one leaf at 
 each node ; the opposite, including cases with two or 
 more leaves at each node. 
 
 263. The character of the alternate type of leaf- 
 arrangement is sometimes represented by a spiral, 
 which was at one time supposed to be invariable. 
 This generating spiral, as it was called, is illustrated 
 by Figures 295-300. Take a straight leafy shoot or 
 stem of the Elm or Flax, or any other plant with seem- 
 ingly scattered leaves, and beginning with the lowest 
 leaf, pass a thread to the next above, thence to the 
 next in the same direction, and so on by all the 
 leaves to the top ; the thread will form a regular 
 spiral. 
 
 264. The Elm cycle. In the strictly alternate 
 arrangement (Elm, Linden, Grasses) the spiral thread 
 makes one complete circuit and commences a new one 
 at the third leaf. The third leaf stands over the first, 
 the fourth over the second, and so on, forming two 
 vertical rows of leaves. Here (calling each complete 
 circuit a cycle) we observe, first, that this cycle is 
 composed of two leaves ; second, that the angular 
 distance between its leaves is ^ a circle (180) ; 
 third, if we express this cycle mathematically by J, 
 the numerator (1) will denote the turns or revolu- 
 tions, the denominator (2) its leaves, and the frac- 
 tion itself the angular distance between the leaves 
 (i of 360). 
 
 265. The Alder cycle. In the Alder, Birch, Sedges, 
 etc., the cycle is not complete until the fourth leaf is 
 reached. The fourth leaf stands over the first, the 
 fifth over the second, etc., forming three vertical rows. 
 Here call the cycle % ; 1 denotes the turns, 3 the 
 
LEAF-ARRANGEMENT. 
 
 105 
 
 leaves, and the fraction itself the angular distance 
 (i of 360). 
 
 266. The Cherry cycle. In the Cherry, Apple, 
 Peach, Oak, Willow, etc., neither the third nor the 
 fourth leaf, but the sixth, stands over the first; and 
 in order to reach it the thread makes two turns 
 around the stem. This arrangement is very frequent ; 
 but more or less disguised by the torsions which the 
 axis experiences in process of growth. 
 
 295 
 
 295, 296, 297, Showing the course of the spiral thread and the order of the leaf-succession in the axes of 
 Elm, Alder, and Cherry. 298, Axis of Osage-orange with a/section of the bark peeled, displaying the order 
 of the leaf-scars (cycle %). 
 
 rith a/s 
 
 267. In the Osage-orange, the Holly, and some 
 other plants, the attempt has been .made to find 
 spirals of a higher order. 
 
 268. In the leaves of House-leek and the cones of 
 Pine-trees the number of members is very large. 
 
 269. The common arrangement is represented by 
 a series of fractions, each fraction indicating the pro- 
 portion borne by the angular divergence to the entire 
 circumference. Thus |, for the Cherry, indicates that 
 the angular divergence between successive leaves i 
 
106 
 
 STKUCTUKAL BOTANY. 
 
 [90, 91. 
 
 two fifths of a circle, or 144. It also shows that in 
 following the spiral from any particular leaf to one 
 directly above it, you must go round the stem twice 
 and pass to the fifth leaf above, and that there are 
 five orthostichies or vertical rows of leaves (Fig. 297). 
 
 299 
 
 299, Phyllotaxy of the cone (cycle 5 \) of Finns serotina. The scales are numbered (1, 2, 3, etc.) in 
 order as they occur in the formative cycle. Between 1 and 22 are 8 turns and 21 scales, etc. 300, 
 Cherry cycle (|) as viewed from above, forming necessarily that kind of aestivation called quincuncial. 
 
 270. It is now known that the angle of divergence 
 varies in different regions of the same shoot ; and 
 that frequently a shoot beginning with a simple ar- 
 rangement, afterward passes on to a more compli- 
 cated pattern. 
 
 CHAPTER XX. 
 
 MORPHOLOGY OF THE LEAF. 
 
 271. The leaf constitutes the verdure of plants, and 
 is by far the most conspicuous and beautiful object in 
 the scenery of nature. It is also of the highest im- 
 portance in the vegetable economy, being the organ 
 of digestion and respiration. It is characterized by a 
 
91,92.] MORPHOLOGY OF THE LEAF. 107 
 
 thin and expanded form, presenting the largest possible 
 surface to the action of the air and light, which agents 
 are indispensable to the life and increase of the plant. 
 The leaf may be regarded as an expansion of the 
 substance of the stem, extended into a broad thin 
 plate by means of a woody frame-work or skeleton, 
 connected with the inner part of the axis. The ex- 
 panded portion is called the lamina or blade of the 
 leaf, and it is either sessile, that is, attached to the 
 stem by its base, or it is petiolate, attached to the 
 stem by a footstalk called the petiole. 
 
 272. The regular petiole very often bears at its 
 base a pair of leaf-like appendages, more or less ap- 
 parent, called stipules. Leaves so appendaged are said 
 to be stipulate; otherwise they are exstipulate. 
 
 273. Therefore a complete leaf consists of three 
 distinct parts the lamina or blade, the petiole, and 
 the stipules. These parts are subject to endless trans- 
 formations. Either of them may exist without the 
 others, or they may all be transformed into other 
 organs, as pitchers, spines, tendrils, and even into the 
 organs of the flower, as will hereafter appear. 
 
 274. The Petiole in form is rarely cylindrical, but 
 more generally flattened or channeled on the upper 
 side. When it is flattened in a vertical direction, it is 
 said to be compressed, as in the Aspen or Poplar. In 
 this case, the blade is very unstable, and agitated by 
 the least breath of wind. The winged petiole is flat- 
 tened or expanded into a margin, but laterally instead 
 of vertically, as in the Orange. Sometimes the margins 
 outrun the petioles, and extend down the stem, mak- 
 ing that winged, or alate, also. Such leaves are said 
 to be decurrent (decurro, run down). Ex., Mullein. 
 
108 STRUCTURAL BOTANY. [92. 
 
 275. The amplexicaul petiole is dilated at the base 
 into a margin which surrounds or clasps the stem, as 
 in the Umbellifers. Frequently we find the stem- 
 clasping margins largely developed, constituting a 
 sheath with free edges in the Grasses, or closed into 
 a tube in the Sedges. 
 
 276. The petiole is simple in the simple leaf, but 
 compound or branched in the compound leaf, with as 
 many branches (petiolules) as there are divisions of 
 the lamina. A leaf is simple when its blade consists 
 of a single piece, however cut, cleft, or divided ; and 
 compound when it consists of several distinct blades, 
 supported by as many branches of a compound petiole. 
 
 301, Rose leaf, odd-pinnate, witb adnate stipules. 302, Violet (V. tricolor), with simple leaf (I), and free 
 
 compound stipules. 
 
 277. Stipules are certain leaf-like expansions, al- 
 ways in pairs, situated one on each side of the petiole 
 near the base. They do not occur in every plant, but 
 are pretty uniformly present in each species of the 
 same natural order. In substance and color they usu- 
 ally resemble the leaf ; sometimes they are colored like 
 the stem, often they are membranous and colorless. 
 In the Palmetto the leaf-base is a coarse net-work 
 resembling canvas. 
 
 278. Stipules are often adnate, or adherent to the 
 petiole, as in the Rose ; more generally they are free, 
 
92, 93.] 
 
 MOKPHOLOGY OF THE LEAF. 
 
 109 
 
 as in the Pea and Pansy. In these cases and others 
 they act the part of leaves ; again they are often very 
 small and inconspicuous. 
 
 279. An Ochrea is a membranous sheath inclosing 
 the stem from the node upward, as in the Knot-grass 
 family (Polygonacese). It is formed of the two stipules 
 
 303, Leaf of Selinum, tripinnate, with sheathing petiole. 304, Leaf of Polygonum Pennsylvanicum, 
 with its ( o ) ochrea. 305, Culm of Grass, with joint ( j ), leaf ( I ), ligule ( ). 306, Leaf of Pear-tree, with 
 slender stipules. 
 
 cohering by their two margins. In case the two stip- 
 ules cohere by their outer margin only, a double stip- 
 ule is formed opposite to the leaf, as in the Button- 
 wood. If they cohere by their inner margin, the 
 double stipule appears in the leaf axil, as in the Pond- 
 weed (Potamogeton). The Ligule of the Grasses is 
 generally regarded as a double axillary stipule. The 
 leaflets of compound leaves are sometimes furnished 
 with little stipules, called stipels. 
 
 280. Inter-petiolar stipules occur in a few opposite- 
 leaved tribes, as the Galium tribe. Here we find them 
 as mere bristles in Diodia, while in Galium they look 
 like the leaves, forming whorls. Such whorls, if. com- 
 plete, will be apparently 6 -leaved, consisting of two 
 true leaves and four stipules. But the adjacent 
 stipules are often united, and the whorl becomes 
 4-leaved, and in some the whorl is 8 -leaved. 
 
110 STRUCTURAL BOTANY. [93, 94. 
 
 281. Stipules are often fugacious, existing as scales 
 in the bud, and falling when the leaves expand, or 
 soon after, as in the Magnolia and Tulip-tree. 
 
 282. Nature of veins. The blade of the leaf con- 
 sists of, (1) the frame-work, and (2) the tissue com- 
 monly called the parenchyma. The frame-work is 
 made up of the branching vessels of the footstalk, 
 which are woody tubes pervading the parenchyma, and 
 conveying nourishment to every part. Collectively, 
 these vessels are called veins, from the analogy of 
 their functions. VENATION is the division and distribu- 
 tion of the veins. The several organs of venation, 
 differing from each other only in size and position, 
 may be termed the midvein, veins, veinlets, and veinu- 
 lets. (The old terms, midrib and nerves, being ana- 
 tomically absurd, are here discarded.) 
 
 283. The Midvein is the principal axis of the vena- 
 tion, or prolongation of the petiole, running directly 
 through the lamina, from base to apex, as seen in the 
 leaf of the Oak or Birch. If there be several similar 
 divisions of the petiole, radiating from the base of the 
 leaf, they are appropriately termed Veins ; and the leaf 
 is said to be three-veined, five-veined, as in Maple. 
 The primary branches sent off from the midvein or 
 the veins we may term the Veinlets, and the second- 
 ary branches, or those sent off from the veinlets, are 
 the Veinulets. These also branch and subdivide until 
 they become too small to be seen. 
 
 284. Botanists distinguish three modes of venation, 
 which are in general characteristic of three Grand 
 Divisions of the Vegetable Kingdom viz.: 
 
 Reticulate or Net-veined, as in the DICOTYLEDONS 
 (called also EXOGENS). This kind of venation is char- 
 
94, 95.] 
 
 MORPHOLOGY OF THE LEAF. 
 
 Ill 
 
 acterized by the frequent reunion or inosculation of 
 its numerously branching veins, so as to form a kind 
 of irregular net-work. 
 
 310 
 
 Varieties of venation . 307, Feather-veined, leaf of Betula populifolia (White Birch), lying upon a leaf 
 of Plum-tree ; same venation with different outlines. 3 8, Palmate- veined, leaf of White Maple, con- 
 trasted with leaf of Cercis Canadensis. 309, Parallel venation, plant of "three-leaved Solomon's seal" 
 (Smilacina trifoliata). 310, Forked venation, Climbing Fern (Lygodium). 
 
 Parallel-veined, as in the MONOCOTYLEDONS (called 
 also ENDOGENS). The veins, whether straight or curved, 
 ran parallel, or side by side, to the apex of the leaf or 
 to the margin, and are connected by simple transverse 
 veinlets hardly seen. 
 
 Fork-veined, as in the Ferns (and other CRYPTOGAMS 
 where veins are present at all). Here the veins divide 
 and subdivide in a forked manner, and do not reunite. 
 
 285. Of the Reticulate venation the student should 
 carefully note three leading forms : viz., The Feather- 
 veined (pinni-veined) leaf is that in which the venation 
 consists of a midvein giving off at intervals lateral 
 veinlets and branching veinulets, as in the leaf of 
 
112 STRUCTURAL BOTANY. [95, 96. 
 
 Beech, Chestnut. In the Radiate-veined (palmi-veined) 
 leaf, the venation consists of several veins of nearly 
 equal size radiating from the base toward the circum- 
 ference, each with its own system of veinlets. Ex., 
 Maple, Crowfoot. Lastly, the Tripli-^veined seems to 
 be a form intermediate between the two former, where 
 the lowest pair of veinlets are conspicuously stronger 
 than the others, and extend with the midvein toward 
 the summit (see Fig. 319). 
 
 286. In parallel-veined venation the veins are either 
 straight, as in the linear leaf of the Grasses ; curved, 
 as in the oval leaf of the Orchis; or transverse, from 
 a rnidvein, as in the Canna, Calla, etc. 
 
 CHAPTER XXI. 
 
 MORPHOLOGY OF THE LEAF CONTINUED. 
 
 287. That infinite variety of beautiful and graceful 
 forms for which the leaf is distinguished becomes 
 intelligible to the student only when viewed in con- 
 nection with its venation. Since it is through the 
 veins alone that nutriment is conveyed for the devel- 
 opment and extension of the parenchyma, it follows 
 that there will be the greatest extension of outline 
 where the veins are largest and most numerous. Con- 
 sequently the form of the leaf will depend upon the 
 direction of the veins and the vigor of their action in 
 developing the intervening tissue. In accordance with 
 this theory, leaf-forms will be classed in respect to 
 their venation. M 
 
 288. Feather-veined leaves. Of these, the follow- 
 ing forms depend upon the length of the veinlets in 
 
96, 97.] 
 
 MORPHOLOGY OF THE LEAF. 
 
 113 
 
 relation to each other and to the midvein. When the 
 lower veinlets are longer than the others, the form of 
 the blade will be (1) ovate, with the outline of an egg, 
 the broad end at the base ; (2) lanceolate, or lance- 
 shaped, narrower than ovate, tapering gradually up- 
 ward ; (3) deltoid, or triangular-shaped, like the Greek 
 letter A. 
 
 314 
 
 Forms of leaves. 311, Rhododendron maximum. 312, Alnus glutinosa (cult). 313, Polygonum dum- 
 etorum. 314, Papaw. 315, Impatiens fulva. 316, Celtis Americana. 317, Circaea Lutetiana. 318, Cat- 
 mint. 319, Solidago Canadensis a tripli-veined leaf. 
 
 289. If the middle veinlets exceed the others in 
 length, the leaf will be (4) orbicular, roundish, or quite 
 circular ; (5) elliptical, with the outline of an ellipse, 
 nearly twice longer than broad ; (6) oval, broadly 
 elliptical ; (7) oblong, narrowly elliptical. 
 
 290. When the veinlets are more largely developed 
 in the upper region of the leaf, its form becomes (8) 
 obovate, inversely ovate, the narrow end at base ; (9) 
 oblanceolate, that is, lanceolate with the narrow end at 
 base ; (10) spatulate, like a spatula, with a narrow base 
 and a broader, rounded apex; (11) cuneate or cunei- 
 form, shaped like a wedge with the point backward. 
 
114 
 
 STRUCTURAL BOTANY. 
 
 t97, 98. 
 
 291. Again: if the lowest pair of veinlets are length- 
 ened and more or less recurved, the leaf will be vari- 
 
 4 6 5 7 11 10 9 8 
 
 320-330, Diagrams of pinnate-veined leaf-forms. 
 
 ously modified in respect to its base, becom- 
 ing (334) cordate, or heart-shaped, an ovate 
 outline with a sinus or re-entering angle at 
 base; (331) auriculate, with ear-shaped lobes 
 at base; (337) sagittate, arrow-shaped, with the lobes 
 pointed, and directed backward; (332) hastate, halbert- 
 shaped, the lobes directed outward. 
 
 336 
 
 Forms of leaves. 330, Silene Virginica. 331, Magnolia Fraseri. 336, Arabis dentata. 337, Polygonum 
 sagittatum. 332, Hepatica acutiloba. 333, Asarum Virginicum. 334, Hydrocotyle Americana. 335, H. 
 umbellata. 
 
 292. Pinnatifid forms. The following pinnate- 
 veined forms, approaching the compound leaf, depend 
 less upon the proportion of the veinlets than upon the 
 
98.] 
 
 MORPHOLOGY OF THE LEAF. 
 
 115 
 
 relative development of the intervening tissue. The 
 prefix pinnate is obviously used in contrast with 
 palmate among palmate-veined forms. 
 
 293. Pinnatifid (pinna, feather, findo, to cleave), 
 feather-cleft, the tissue somewhat sharply cleft between 
 the veinlets about half-way to the midvein, forming 
 oblong segments. When the segments of a pinnatifid 
 leaf are pointed and curved backward, it becomes run- 
 cinate, i. e., re-uncinate (346). When the terminal seg- 
 ment of a pinnatifid leaf is orbicular in figure and 
 larger than any other, presenting the form of the 
 ancient lyre, the form is termed lyrate (340). 
 
 342 339 338 340 
 
 Feather -veined leaves, approaching the compound. 338, Quercus imbricaria undulate. 339, Q. alba 
 (White Oak') lobate-sinuate. 340, Q. macrocarpa lyrate. 341, Mulgedium (Milkweed). 342, Bipinnatifld 
 leaf of Ambrosia artemisifolia (Hogweed). 
 
 294. Pinnately parted implies that the incisions are 
 deeper than pinnatifid, nearly reaching the midvein. 
 In either case the leaf is said to be sinuate when the 
 incisions (sinuses) as well as the segments are rounded 
 and flowing in outline. Such segments are lobes, and 
 the leaves lobate or lobed, a very generic term. 
 
 295. Palmate forms. The palmate venation pre- 
 sents us with a set of forms which are, in general, 
 
116 STRUCTURAL BOTANY. [98,99. 
 
 broader in proportion than the pinnate, having the 
 breadth about equal to the length. Such a leaf may 
 be rarely broadly ovate, or broadly cordate, terms which 
 require no further explanation. Or it may be Reni- 
 form, kidney-shaped, having a flowing outline broader 
 than long, concave at base ; or Peltate, shield-form, the 
 petiole not inserted at the margin, but in the midst 
 
 $46 
 
 Feather-veined leaves approaching the compound.-^, Nigella (pinnatisect). 344, Cheledonium majus. 
 345, Thistle (Cirsium lanceolatum). 346, Dandelion (runcinate-lyrate). 
 
 of the lower surface of the blade. This singular form 
 evidently results from the blending of the base lobes 
 of a deeply cordate leaf, as seen in Hydrocotyle. It 
 may be orbicular, oval, etc. 
 
 296. The following result from deficiency of tissue, 
 causing deep divisions between the veins. Leaves thus 
 dissected are said to be palmately-lobed when either 
 the segments or the sinuses are somewhat rounded and 
 continuous. The number of lobes is denoted by such 
 terms as Trilobate, trilobate, five-lobed, etc. Leaves are 
 
99, 100.] 
 
 MORPHOLOGY OF THE LEAF. 
 
 117 
 
 Palmate-veined leaves. 347, Menispermum Canadense. 348, Passiflora cerulea. 349, Broussonetia pa- 
 pyrifera. 350, Oak Geranium. 
 
 palmately cleft and palmately parted, according to the 
 
 depth of the incisions as above described. But the 
 
 most peculiar modification is the 
 
 Pedate, like a bird's .foot, having 
 
 the lowest pair of veins enlarged, 
 
 recurved, and bearing each several 
 
 of the segments (348). 
 
 297. The forms of the paral- 
 lel-veined leaves are remarkable 
 for their even, flowing outlines, 
 diversified solely by the direction 
 and curvature of the veins. When 
 the veins are straight, the most 
 common form is the Linear, long 
 and narrow, with parallel margins, 
 like the leaves of the Grasses a 
 form which may also occur in the 
 pinnate-veined leaf, when the vein- 
 lets are all equally shortened. The 
 ensiform, or sword-shaped, is also 
 linear, but has its edges vertical, 
 that is, directed upward and down- 
 
 Asm ~r*r\ 
 
 298. If the veins curve, we may have the lanceolate, 
 
 f Juniperus communis. 
 
118 STRUCTURAL BOTANY. [100,101. 
 
 elliptical, or even orbicular forms ; and if the lower 
 curve downward, the cordate, sagittate, etc. Palmate 
 forms there also are, splendidly developed in the Pal- 
 metto and other Palms, whose large leaves are appro- 
 priately called flabelliform (fan-shaped). 
 
 299. The leaves of the Pine and the Fir tribe (Coni- 
 ferse) generally are parallel-veined also, and remark- 
 able for their contracted forms, in which there is no 
 distinction of petiole or blade. Such are the Acerose 
 (needle-shaped) leaves of the Pine, the Subulate (awl- 
 shaped) and scale-form leaves of the Cedars, etc. 
 
 CHAPTER XXII. 
 
 THE COMPOUND LEAF, ETC. 
 
 300. If we conceive of a simple leaf becoming a 
 compound one, on the principle of " deficiency of tissue 
 between the veins," it will be evident that the same 
 forms of venation are represented by the branching 
 petioles of the latter as by the veins of the former. 
 The number and arrangement of the parts will there- 
 fore in like manner correspond with the mode of 
 venation. 
 
 301. The divisions of a compound leaf are called 
 leaflets ; and the same distinction of outline, margin, 
 etc., occur in them as in simple leaves. The petiolules 
 of the leaflets may or may not be articulated to the 
 main petiole, or rachis, as it is called. 
 
 302. Pinnately compound. From the pinnate-veined 
 arrangement we may have the pinnate leaf, where the 
 petiole (midvein) bears a row of leaflets on each side, 
 either sessile or petiolulate, generally equal in number 
 
101, 102.] 
 
 THE COMPOUND LEAF. 
 
 119 
 
 and opposite. It is unequally pinnate (357) when the 
 rachis bears an odd terminal leaflet, and equally pin- 
 nate (356) when there is no terminal leaflet, and inter- 
 ruptedly pinnate when the leaflets are alternately large 
 and small (358). 
 
 303. The number of leaflets in the pinnate leaf 
 varies from thirty pairs and upward (as in some Aca- 
 cias), down to three, when the leaf is said to be ter- 
 nate or trifoliate; or two, becoming ~binate ; or finally 
 
 Compound leaves 354, Trifolium repens 
 
 355, Desmodium rotundifolium. 
 358, Agrimonia. 
 
 357, Cassia. 
 
 even to one leaflet in the Lemon. Such a leaf is theo- 
 retically compound, on account of the leaflet (blade) 
 being articulated to the petiole. 
 
 304. A Hpinnate leaf (twice pinnate) is formed 
 when the rachis bears pinnce or secondary pinnate 
 leaves, instead of leaflets (361), and tripinnate (thrice 
 pinnate) when pinnae take the places of the leaflets of 
 a bipinnate leaf (360). When the division is still more 
 complicated, the leaf is decompound. Different degrees 
 of division often exist in different parts of the same 
 
120 STRUCTURAL BOTANY. [102,103. 
 
 leaf, illustrating the gradual transition of leaves from, 
 simple to compound in all stages. The leaves of 
 the Honey-locust and Coffee-tree (Gymnocladus) often 
 afford curious and instructive examples (362). 
 
 305. A Hternate leaf is formed when the leaflets 
 of a ternate leaf give place themselves to ternate 
 leaves (359), and triternate when the leaflets of a 
 biternate leaf again give place to ternate leaves. 
 
 361 
 Compound leaves. 359, Clematis. 360, Erigenia bulbosa. 361, Acacia. 362, Honey -locust. 
 
 306. Palmately compound. The palmate venation 
 has also its peculiar forms of compound leaves, as ter- 
 nate, quinate, septenate, etc., according to the number 
 of leaflets which arise together from the summit of 
 the petiole. Ternate leaves of this venation are to be 
 carefully distinguished from those of the pinnate plan. 
 The palmately ternate leaf consists of three leaflets, 
 which are either all sessile or stalked alike ; the pin- 
 nately ternate has the terminal leaflet raised above the 
 other two on the prolonged rachis (354, 355). 
 
 307. Apex. In regard to the termination of a leaf 
 or leaflet at its apex, it may be acuminate, ending 
 
103, 104.] 
 
 THE COMPOUND LEAF. 
 
 121 
 
 with a long, tapering point ; cuspidate, abruptly con- 
 tracted to a sharp, slender point ; mucronate, tipped 
 with a spiny point ; acute, simply ending with an 
 angle ; obtuse, rounded at the point. Or the leaf may 
 
 365 (I ' ^363 
 
 363, Lemon. 364, Jeffersonia. 365, Potentilla anserina. 366, P. tridentata. 
 
 end without a point, being truncate, as if cut square 
 off ; retuse, with a rounded end slightly depressed 
 where the point should be ; emarginate, having a small 
 notch at the end ; obcordate, inversely heart-shaped, 
 having a deep indentation at the end. 
 
 367-375, Apex of leaves. a, obcordate ; Z>, emarginate ; c, retuse ; d, trunct-te ; e, obtuse ; /, acute ; g, 
 mucronate ; A, cuspidate ; k, acuminate. 
 
 376-380, Bases of leaves. J, hastate ; m, n, sagittate ; o, auriculate; p, cordate ; q, reniform. 
 
 308. Margin. The following terms are used to 
 define the margin of the leaf or leaflet, with no refer- 
 ence to the general form. If the leaf be even-edged, 
 having the tissue completely filled out, the appropriate 
 term, is entire. Sometimes a vein runs along such a 
 margin as if a hem. 
 
122 
 
 STKUCTURAL BOTANY. 
 
 [104. 
 
 309. But when the marginal tissue is deficient, the 
 leaf becomes dentate, having sharp teeth pointing out- 
 ward from the center ; serrate, with sharp teeth point- 
 ing forward, like the teeth of a saw ; crenate, with 
 rounded or blunt teeth. The terms denticulate, serru- 
 late, crenulate denote finer indentations of the several 
 kinds ; doubly dentate, etc., denote that the teeth are 
 themselves toothed. 
 
 387 
 
 38T) 
 
 1, Serrate leaf of Chestnut. 382, Doubly serrate leaf of Elm. 383, Dentate leaf of Arrow-wood. 384, 
 Crenate leaf of Catmint. 385, Eepand leaf of Circsea. 386, Undulate leaf of Shingle Oak. 387, Lobed 
 leaf of Chrysanthemum. 
 
 310. The undulate, or wavy edge, is somewhat dif- 
 ferent from the repand, which bends like the margin 
 of an umbrella. If the veins project, and are tipped 
 with spines, the leaf becomes spinous. Irregularly 
 divided margins are said to be erose or jagged, lacini- 
 ate or torn, incised or cut. Often, instead of a defi- 
 ciency, there is a superabundance of marginal tissue, 
 denoted by the term crispate or crisped. 
 
 311. Insertion. Several important terms descrip- 
 tive of the various modes of leaf-insertion must here 
 
 
104,105.] THE COMPOUND LEAF. 123 
 
 be noticed. A sessile leaf is said to be amplexicaul 
 when its base-lobes adhere to and clasp the stem. 
 Should these lobes extend quite around the stem and 
 on the other side become blended together, a perfoliale 
 leaf will be formed (per, through, folium, leaf), the 
 stem seeming to pass through the leaves. When the 
 bases of two opposite sessile leaves are so united as to 
 form one piece of the two, they are said to be connate. 
 
 Insertion of leaves. 388, Aster laevis (amplexicaul). 389, Uvularia perfoliata. 390. Lonicera sempervirens 
 
 (connate). 
 
 312. Surface. The following terms are applicable 
 to any other organs as well as leaves. In the quality 
 of surface the leaf may be glabrous (smooth), destitute 
 of all hairs, bristles, etc., or scabrous (rough), with 
 minute, hard points, hardly visible. A dense coat of 
 hairs will render the leaf pubescent when the hairs are 
 soft and short ; villous when they are rather long and 
 weak ; sericeous, or silky, when close and satin-like ; 
 
124 STKUCTUKAL BOTANY. [105,106. 
 
 such a coat may also be lanuginose, woolly ; tomen- 
 tose, matted like felt ; or floccose, in soft, fleecy tufts. 
 
 313. Thinly scattered hairs render the surface hir- 
 sute when they are long ; pilose when short and soft ; 
 hispid when short and stiff. The surface will be setose 
 when beset with bristly hairs called setce ; and spinose 
 when beset with spines, as in the Thistle and Horse- 
 nettle. Leaves may also be armed with stinging hairs 
 which are sharp and tubular, containing a poisonous 
 fluid, as in Nettles and Jatropha stimulans (503). 
 
 314. A pruinose surface is covered with a bluish- 
 white waxy powder, called bloom, as in the Cabbage ; 
 and a punctate leaf is dotted with colored points or 
 pellucid glands. 
 
 315. In texture leaves may be membranous, or 
 coriaceous (leathery), or succulent (fleshy), or scarious 
 (dry), rugose (wrinkled), etc., which terms need only 
 to be mentioned. 
 
 316. Double terms. The modifications of leaves are almost endless. 
 Many other terms are defined in the glossary, yet it will often be found neces- 
 sary in the exact description of a plant to combine two or more of the terms 
 defined in order to express some intermediate figure or quality ; thus ovate- 
 lanceolate, signifying a form between ovate and lanceolate, etc. 
 
 317. The Latin preposition sub (under) prefixed to a descriptive term 
 denotes the quality which the term expresses, in a lower degree, as subsessile, 
 nearly sessile, subserrate, somewhat serrate. 
 
 CHAPTER XXIII. 
 
 TRANSFORMATIONS OF THE LEAF. 
 
 318. Hitherto we have considered the leaf as foli- 
 age merely constituted the fit organ of aeration by 
 its large expansion of surface. This is indeed the 
 chief, but not the only aspect in which it is to be 
 viewed- The leaf is a typical form ; that is, a type, or 
 
106,107.] TRANSFORMATIONS OF THE LEAF. 125 
 
 an IDEA of the Divine Architect, whence is derived 
 the form of every other appendage of the plant. To 
 trace out this idea in all the disguises under which it 
 lurks, is one of the first aims of the botanist. Several 
 of these forms of disguise have already been noticed 
 for example : 
 
 319. The scales which clothe the various forms of 
 scale-bearing stems are leaves, or more usually petioles, 
 reduced and distorted, perhaps by the straitened cir- 
 cumstances of their underground growth. The scales 
 of corms and rhizomes are mostly mere membranes, 
 while those of the bulb are fleshy, serving as deposi- 
 tories of food for the future use of the plant. That 
 these scales are leaves is evident 1st, from their po- 
 sition at the nodes of the stem ; 2d, from their occa- 
 sional development into true leaves. Of the same 
 nature are the brown scales of Winter buds. 
 
 320. The cotyledons of seeds or seed-lobes are 
 readily recognized as leaves, especially when they arise 
 above-ground in germination, and form the first pair 
 upon the young plant ; as in the Beechnut and Squash 
 seed. Their deformity is due to the starchy deposits 
 with which they are crammed for the nourishment of 
 the embryo when germinating, and also to the way in 
 which they are packed in the seed. 
 
 321. Phyllodia are certain leaf-forms, consisting of 
 petioles excessively compressed, or expanded vertically 
 into margins, while the true lamina is partly or en- 
 tirely suppressed. Fine examples are seen in our 
 greenhouse Acacias from Australia. Their vertical 
 or edgewise position readily distinguishes them from 
 true leaves. 
 
 322. Ascidia, or pitchers, are surprising forms of 
 
126 STRUCTURAL BOTANY. [107,108. 
 
 leaves, expressly contrived, as if by art, for holding 
 water. The pitchers of Sarracenia, whose several spe- 
 cies are common in bogs North and South, are evi- 
 dently formed by the blending of the involute margins 
 of the broadly winged petioles, so as to form a com- 
 plete vase. The broad expansion which appears at the 
 top may be regarded as the lamina. These pitchers 
 contain water, in which insects are drowned, being 
 
 Ascidia.391, Nepenthes. 392, Sarracenia psittacina. 393, S. purpurea. 394, S. Gronovii, /?. Drum- 
 mondil. 395, Acacia heterophylla its phyllodia. 
 
 prevented from escaping by the deflexed hairs at the 
 mouth. Other pitcher-bearing plants are equally curi- 
 ous ; as Darlingtonia of California, Nepenthes and 
 Dischidia of the East Indies. In Dionsea of North 
 Carolina, the leaves are transformed to spiny, snapping 
 fly-traps ! 
 
 323. Many weak-stemmed water-plants are fur- 
 nished with Air-bladders, or little sacks filled with air 
 to buoy them up near to the surface. Such are the 
 bladders of the common Bladderwort, formed from the 
 leaf-lobes. In the Horned-bladderwort, the floats are 
 
108,109.] TRANSFORMATIONS OF THE LEAF. 127 
 
 made of the six upper inflated petioles lying upon 
 the surface of the water like a wheel-shaped raft 
 and sustaining the flower upon its own elevated 
 stalk. 
 
 324. The Tendril is a thread-like, coiling append- 
 age, furnished to certain weak-stemmed plants as their 
 means of support in place. Its first growth is straight, 
 and it remains so until it reaches some object, when 
 it immediately coils itself about it, and thus acquires a 
 firm though elastic hold. This beautiful appendage is 
 finely exemplified in the Cucurbitaceae and Grape, 
 
 396 
 
 if vuufa f r^^r^L&^^m //i ^ 
 
 398 
 
 C96, Leaf of Greenbrier, with tendrils in place of stipules. 397, Leaf ot Everlasting Pea tendrils at end 
 of rachis. 398, Leaf of Gloriosa apex ends in a tendril. 399, Air-bladder of Horn Pondweed. 
 
 above cited ; also in many species of the Pea tribe 
 (Leguminosse), where it is appended to the leaves. It 
 is not a new organ, but some old one transformed and 
 adapted to a new purpose. In Gloriosa superba, the 
 midvein of the leaf is prolonged beyond the blade into 
 a coiling tendril. In the Pea, Vetch, etc., the tendrils 
 represent the attenuated leaf-blades themselves. Again, 
 the entire leaf sometimes becomes a tendril in Lathy- 
 rus, while the stipules act as leaves. 
 
 325. The petiole of the leaf of Clematis, otherwise 
 unchanged, coils like a tendril for the support of the 
 vine. In the Greenbrier, the stipules are changed to 
 tendrils, which thus arise in pairs from the base of 
 the petioles. So probably in the Gourd. 
 
128 STRUCTURAL BOTANY. [109,110. 
 
 326. But the tendrils of the Grape vine are of a different nature. From 
 their position opposite the leaves, and the tubercles occasionally seen upon 
 them, representing flower-buds, they are inferred to be abortive, or trans- 
 formed flower-stalks. 
 
 327. Many plants are armed, as if for self-defense 
 with hard, sharp-pointed, woody processes, called spines 
 or thorns. Those which are properly called spines 
 originate from leaves. In Berberis the spines are evi- 
 dently transformed leaves, as the same plant exhibits 
 
 402 403 
 
 Thorns 400, Crataegus parvifolia (thorns axillary). 401, Honey -locust. 402, Common Locust. 403, Ber- 
 beris a, a, its thorns. 
 
 leaves in every stage of the metamorphosis. In Goafs- 
 thorn (Astragalus tragacanthus) of S. Europe, the pet- 
 ioles change to spines after the leaflets fall off. In 
 the Locust (Robinia), there is a pair of spines at the 
 base of the petiole, in place of stipules. 
 
 328. Thorns originate from axillary buds, and are abortive branches. This 
 is evident from their position in the Hawthorn and Osage-orange. The Apple 
 and Pear tree in their wild state produce thorns, but by cultivation become 
 thornless ; that is, the axillary buds, through better tillage, develop branches 
 instead of thorns. The terrible branching thorns of the Honey-locust originate 
 just above the axil, from accessory buds. Prickles differ from either spines or 
 thorns, growing from the epidermis upon stems of leaves, at no determinate 
 point, and consisting of hardened cellular tissues, as in the Rose, Bramble. 
 
110,111.] METAMORPHOSIS OF THE FLOWER. 129 
 
 329. By a more gentle transformation, leaves pass 
 into Bracts, which are those smaller, reduced leaf- 
 forms situated near and among the flowers. So grad- 
 ual is the transition from leaves to bracts in the 
 Peony, e. g. that no absolute limits can be assigned. 
 Equally gradual is the transition from bracts to sepals 
 of the flower affording a beautiful illustration of the 
 doctrine of metamorphosis ( 330, etc.). Bracts will 
 be further considered under the head of Inflorescence. 
 
 CHAPTER XXIV. 
 
 METAMORPHOSIS OF THE FLOWER. 
 
 330. It has already been announced ( 37) that a 
 flower is a metamorphosed, that is, a transformed 
 branch. No new principle or element was devised to 
 meet this new necessity in the life of the plant, viz., 
 the perpetuation of its kind ; but the leaf, that same 
 protean form which we have already detected in 
 shapes so numerous and diverse, THE LEAF, is yet once 
 more in nature's hand molded into a series of forms 
 of superior elegance, touched with colors more brilliant, 
 and adapted to a higher sphere as the organs of repro- 
 duction. 
 
 331. Proofs of this doctrine appear on every hand, 
 both in the natural and in the artificial development 
 of plants. We mention a few instances. The thought- 
 ful student will observe many more. 
 
 332. In most flowers, as in the Poppy, very little 
 evidence of the metamorphosis appears, simply because 
 it has been so complete. Its sepals, petals, stamens, 
 and pistils how unlike I Can these be of one and the 
 
130 
 
 STRUCTURAL BOTANY. 
 
 [111. 
 
 same element ? Look again. Here is a double flower, 
 a Poppy of the gardens, artificially developed ; its 
 slender white stamens have indeed expanded into 
 broad red petals ! 
 
 333. The argument begins with the sepals. In the 
 Rose and Paeony, and in most flowers, the sepals have 
 all the characteristics of leaves color, form, venation, 
 etc. The transition from leaves to bracts and from 
 bracts to sepals is so gradual as to place their identity 
 
 406 
 
 404 
 
 404, Papaver (poppy) s, stamens; p, stigmas. 405, sepaL 406,'Petal all very different. 407 to 414, 
 Petals of the Water-lily (Nymphaea) gradually passing into stamens. 
 
 beyond doubt. Again, in Calicanthus, the sepals pass 
 by insensible gradations into petals; and in the Lilies 
 these two organs are almost identical. Hence, if the 
 sepals are leaves, the petals are leaves also. In respect 
 to the nature of the stamens, the Water-lily is partic- 
 ularly instructive. Here we see a perfect gradation 
 of forms from stamens to petals, and thence to sepals, 
 where, half-way between the two former, we find a 
 narrow petal tipped with the semblance of an anther 
 (410). Finally, cases of close resemblance between 
 stamen and pistil, so unlike in the Poppy, are not 
 wanting. For example, the Tulip-tree. 
 
 334. Teratology. Cases in ABTIFIOIAL DEVELOPMENT where organs of one 
 kind are converted into those of another kind by cultivation, afford undeni- 
 able evidence of the doctrine in question the homology of all the floral organs 
 with each other and with the leaf. Such cases are frequent in the garden, and, 
 
Ill, 112.] 
 
 METAMORPHOSIS OF THE FLOWER. 
 
 131 
 
 however much admired, they are monstrous, because unnatural. In all double 
 flowers, as Hose, Peeony, Camellia, the stamens have been reconverted into 
 petals, either wholly or partially, some yet remaining in every conceivable 
 stage of the transition. In the double Buttercup i'416) the pistils as well as 
 stamens revert to petals, and in the garden Cherry, Flowering Almond, a pair 
 of green leaves occupy the place of the pistils. By still further changes all 
 parts of the flower manifest their foliage affinities, and the entire flower-bud, 
 after having given clear indications of its floral character, is at last developed 
 into a leafy branch (417). Further evidence of this view will appear in the 
 
 417 
 
 415, Ranunculus acris ; a single flower. 416, R. acris, (3. plena, a double flower. 417, Epacris impressa, 
 the flowers changing to leafy branches (Lindley). 
 
 335. ^Estivation of the flower-bud. This term 
 (from cestivus, of summer) refers to the arrangement 
 of the floral envelopes while yet in the bud. It is an 
 important subject, since in general the same mode 
 of aestivation regularly characterizes whole tribes or 
 orders. It is to the flower-bud what vernation (vernus, 
 spring) is to the leaf-bud. The various modes of aesti- 
 vation are best observed in sections of the bud made 
 by cutting it through horizontally when just ready to 
 open. From such sections our diagrams are copied. 
 
132 
 
 STRUCTUKAL BOTANY. 
 
 [112, 113. 
 
 336. Separately considered, we find each organ 
 here folded in ways similar to those of the leaf-bud ; 
 that is, the sepal or the petal may be convolute, invo- 
 lute, revolute, etc., terms already defined. Collectively 
 considered, the aestivation of the flower occurs in four 
 general modes with their variations the valvate, the 
 contorted, imbricate, and plicate. 
 
 337. In valvate aestivation the pieces meet by their 
 margins without any overlapping; as in the sepals of 
 the Mallow, petals of Hydrangea, valves of a capsule. 
 
 418 
 
 ^\/' 425 -^-^ 424 
 
 418-426, Modes of aestivation. 424, Petals of the Wall-flower. 
 
 The following varieties of the valvate .occur : Indupli- 
 cate, where each piece is involute i.e., has its two 
 margins bent or rolled inward, as in Clematis ; or redu- 
 plicate, when each piece is revolute having its mar- 
 gins bent or rolled outward, as in the sepals of Althea. 
 
 338. Contorted aestivation is where each piece over- 
 laps its neighbor, all in the same direction, appearing 
 as if twisted together, as in Phlox, Flax, Oleander (421). 
 
 339. Imbricated aestivation (imbrex, a tile) is a term 
 restricted to those modes in which one or more of the 
 petals or sepals is wholly outside, overlapping two 
 others by both its margins. This kind of aestivation 
 
113, 114.] 
 
 METAMORPHOSIS OF THE FLOWER. 
 
 133 
 
 naturally results from the spiral arrangements so com- 
 mon in phyllotaxy, while the valvate and contorted 
 seem identified with the opposite or whorled arrange- 
 ment. The principal varieties are the following : The 
 Quincuncial, consisting of five leaves, two of which 
 are wholly without, two wholly within, and one partly 
 both, or one margin out, the other in, as in the Rose 
 family (422). This accompanies the two fifths cycle in 
 phyllotaxy, and corresponds precisely with it, each 
 quincunx being in fact a cycle with its internodes 
 
 t) 
 
 427 
 
 426 
 
 Diagrams of flowers (as seen by cross-sections). 426, Jeffersonia diphylla o, ovary ; s, stamens ; d, inner 
 row of petals, aestivation triquetrous ; b, outer row of petals, aestivation contorted; c, sepals, aestivation 
 quincuncial. 427, Lily. 428, Strawberry. 429, Mustard. The pupil will designate modes of aestivation. 
 
 suppressed. (Fig. 300, 266.) The Triquetrous, con- 
 sisting of three leaves in each set, one of which is out- 
 side, one inside, and the third partly both, as in Tulip, 
 Erythronium, agreeing with the two thirds, or Alder 
 Cycle ( 265). The Convolute, when each leaf wholly 
 involves all that are within it, as do the petals of Mag- 
 nolia ; and lastly, the Vexillary, when one piece larger 
 than the rest is folded over them, as in Pea (425). 
 
 340. Plicate or folded aestivation occurs in tubular 
 or monopetalous flowers, and has many varieties, of 
 which the most remarkable is the supervolute, where 
 the projecting folds all turn obliquely in the same 
 direction, as in the Morning-glory, Thorn-apple. 
 
 Different modes of aestivation may occur in the 
 different whorls of the same flower. 
 
134 STRUCTURAL BOTANY. [114,115. 
 
 CHAPTER XXV. 
 
 INFLORESCENCE. 
 
 341. Inflorescence is a term denoting the arrange- 
 ment of the flowers and their position upon the plant. 
 
 All the buds of a plant are supposed to be originally of one and the same 
 nature, looking to the production of vegetative organs only. But at a certain 
 period, a portion of the buds of the living plant, by an unerring instinct little 
 understood, are converted from their ordinary intention into flower-buds, as 
 stated and illustrated in the foregoing Chapter. The flower-bud is incapable 
 of extension. While the leaf -bud may unfold leaf after leaf, and node after 
 node, to an indefinite extent, the flower-bud blooms, dies, and arrests forever 
 the extension of the axis which bore it. 
 
 342. In position and arrangement, flower-buds can 
 not differ from leaf-buds, and both are settled by the 
 same unerring law which determines the arrangement 
 of the leaves. Accordingly, the flower-bud is always 
 found either terminal or axillary. In either case, a 
 single bud may develop either a compound inflores- 
 cence, consisting of several flowers with their stalks 
 and bracts, or a solitary inflorescence, consisting of a 
 single flower. 
 
 343. The Peduncle is the flower-stalk. It bears no 
 leaves, or at least only such as are reduced in size and 
 changed in form, called bracts. If the peduncle is 
 wanting, the flower is said to be sessile. The simple 
 peduncle bears a single flower ; but if the peduncle be 
 divided into branches, it bears several flowers, and the 
 final divisions, bearing each a single flower, are called 
 pedicels. The main stem or axis of a compound 
 peduncle is called the rachis. 
 
 344. The Scape is a flower-stalk which springs 
 from a subterranean stem, in such plants as are called 
 
115, 116.] INFLORESCENCE. 135 
 
 stemless, or acaulescent ; as the Primrose, Tulip, Blood- 
 root. Like the peduncle, it is leafless or with bracts 
 only, and may be either simple or branched. The 
 flower-stalk, whether peduncle, scape, or pedicel, always 
 terminates in the torus ( 57). 
 
 432 
 
 Bracts (b, 6, &). 430, Cornus Canadensis, with an involucre of four colored bracts. 431, Hepatica triloba, 
 with an involucre of three green bracts. 432, Calla palustris, with a colored spathe of one bract. 
 
 345. Bracts. The branches of the inflorescence 
 arise from the axils of reduced leaves, called bracts. 
 Those leaves, still smaller, growing upon the pedicels, 
 are called bractlets. Bracts are usually simple in out- 
 line and smaller than the leaf, often gradually dimin- 
 ishing to mere points, as in Aster, or even totally sup- 
 pressed, as in the Cruciferse. Often they are colored, 
 sometimes brilliantly, as in Painted-cup. Sometimes 
 they are scale-like, and again they are evanescent 
 membranes. 
 
 346. The Spathe is a large bract formed in some of 
 the Monocotyledons, enveloping the inflorescence, and 
 often colored, as in Arum, Calla ; or membranous, as 
 in Onion and Daffodil. 
 
 347. Bracts also constitute an Involucre when they 
 are collected into a whorl or spiral group. In the 
 
 t, 
 
136 
 
 STRUCTURAL BOTANT. 
 
 [116, 117. 
 
 Phlox, Dodecatheon, and generally, the involucre is 
 green, but sometimes colored and petaloid, as in Dog- 
 wood and Euphorbia. Situated at the base of a com- 
 pound umbel, it is called a general involucre ; at the 
 base of a partial umbel it is a partial involucre or 
 involucel, both of which are seen in the Umbelliferse. 
 
 433, Helianthus grosse-serratus I, involucre ; r, rays, or ligulate flowers. 434, One of the disk-flowers 
 with its chaff-scale (bract). 435, Acorn of Moss-cup Oak (Q. macrophylla). 436, Poa pratensis /, spikelet 
 entire ; g, glumes separated ; e, a flower separated, displaying the two pales, three stamens, and two styles. 
 
 348. In the Compositee, where the flowers are 
 crowded upon a common torus, forming what is called 
 a compound flower, an involucre composed of many 
 imbricated scales (bracts) surrounds them as a calyx 
 surrounds a simple flower. The chaff also upon the 
 torus are bracts to which each floret is axillary (434). 
 
 349. In the Grasses, the bracts subsist under the 
 general name of chaff. At the base of each spikelet 
 (436) of flowers we find two bracts the Glumes. At 
 the base of each separate flower in the spikelet are 
 also two bractlets the Pales enveloping as a calyx 
 the three stamens and two styles (c). 
 
 350. The cup of the Acorn is another example of 
 involucre, composed of many scale-like bractlets. So, 
 also, perhaps the burr of the Chestnut, etc. 
 
 
117, 118.] INFLORESCENCE. 137 
 
 351. The forms of inflorescence are exceedingly 
 various, but may all be referred to two classes, as 
 already indicated the axillary, in which all the 
 flowers arise from axillary buds ; the terminal, in 
 which all the flower-buds are terminal. 
 
 352. Axillary inflorescence is called indefinite, be- 
 cause the axis, being terminated by a leaf-bud, con- 
 tinues to grow on indefinitely, developing bracts with 
 their axillary flowers as it grows. It is also called 
 centripetal, because in the order of time the blossom- 
 ing commences with the circumference (or base) of 
 the inflorescence, and proceeds toward the central or 
 terminal bud, as in Hawthorn or Mustard. 
 
 353. Terminal inflorescence is definite, implying 
 that the growth of the axis as well as of each branch 
 is definitely arrested by a flower. It is also centrifu- 
 gal, because the blossoming commences with the cen- 
 tral flower and proceeds in order to the circumference, 
 as in the Sweet- William, Elder, Hydrangea. 
 
 354. Both kinds of inflorescence are occasionally combined in the same 
 plant, where the general system may be -distinguished from the partial clusters 
 which compose it. Thus in the Compositae, while the florets of each head 
 open centripetally, the general inflorescence is centrifugal, that is, the termi- 
 nal head is developed before the lateral ones. But in the Labiatee the partial 
 clusters (verticillasters) open centrifugally, while the general inflorescence is 
 indefinite, proceeding from the base upward. 
 
 CHAPTER 
 
 SPECIAL FORMS OF INFLORESCENCE. 
 
 355. Of centripetal or axillary inflorescence the 
 
 principal varieties are : the spike, spadix, catkin, raceme, 
 corymb, umbel, panicle, thyrse, and head. The spike 
 is a long rachis with sessile flowers either scattered, 
 
138 
 
 STRUCTURAL BOTANY. 
 
 [118. 
 
 clustered, or crowded upon it, as Plantain, Mullein, 
 Vervain. The so-called spikes of the Grasses are com* 
 
 435-a, Spiranthes cernua flowers in a twisted spike. 436-a, Orontium aquatic um flowers on a naked 
 spadix. 437, Betula lenta flowers in aments. 
 
 pound spikes or spike-like panicles, bearing little spikes 
 or spikelets in place of single flowers (440). 
 
 442 440 439 
 
 438, Andromeda racemosa flowers in a secund raceme. 439, Verbascum Blattaria raceme. 440, Lo- 
 lium perenne a compound spike or a spike of spikelets. 441, Dipsacus sylvestris head with an involucre 
 of leaves. 442, Qsmorhiza longistylis a compound umbel. 443, Its fruit. 
 
119.] 
 
 SPECIAL FORMS OF INFLORESCENCE. 
 
 139 
 
 356. The spadix is a thick, fleshy rachis, with 
 flowers closely sessile or imbedded on it, and usually 
 with a spathe, as in Calla (432), or without it, as in 
 Golden-club (436). 
 
 357. The catkin or ament is a slender, pendent 
 spike with scaly bracts subtending the naked, sessile 
 flowers, all caducous (falling) together, as in Birch, 
 Beech, Oak, Willow. 
 
 358. The raceme is a rachis bearing its flowers on 
 distinct, simple pedicels. It may be erect, as in Hya- 
 cinth, Pyrola ; or pendulous, as in Currant, Black- 
 berry. The corymb differs from the raceme in having 
 the lower pedicels lengthened so as to elevate all the 
 flowers to about the same level. The corymb often 
 becomes compound by the branching of its lower 
 pedicels, as in Yarrow. 
 
 444 445 
 
 444. Staphylea trifolia a pendulous, paniculate cyme. 445, Catalpa a panicle. 
 
 359. An umbel consists of several pedicels of about 
 equal length radiating from the same point the top 
 of the common peduncle, as Milk-weed, Onion. When 
 
140 
 
 STRUCTURAL BOTANY. 
 
 [119, 120. 
 
 the pedicels of an umbel become themselves umbels, 
 as in Caraway and most of the Umbelliferae, a com- 
 pound umbel is produced. Such secondary umbels are 
 called umbelletSj and the primary pedicels, rays. 
 
 360. The panicle is a compound inflorescence 
 formed by the irregular branching of the pedicels of 
 the raceme, as in Oats, Spear-grass, Catalpa. A thyrse 
 is a sort of compact, oblong, or pyramidal panicle, as 
 in Lilac, Grape. 
 
 361. A head or capitulum is a sort of reduced 
 umbel, having the flowers 
 
 all sessile upon the top of 
 the peduncle, as in the 
 Button-bush, Clover. But 
 the more common exam- 
 ples of the capitulum are 
 seen in the Composites, 
 where the summit of the 
 peduncle, that is, the recep- 
 tacle, is dilated, bearing the 
 sessile flowers above, and 
 scale-like bracts around, as 
 
 -i 
 an inVOlUCre. 
 
 o n n. mi --L 7 
 
 362. The CapltUl 
 
 ~ . , P, 
 
 the Compositse is often 
 called a compound flower from its resemblance, the in- 
 volucre answering to a calyx, the rays to the corolla. 
 The flowers are called florets those of the outer cir- 
 cle, florets of the ray, generally differing in form from 
 those of the central portions, the florets of the disk. 
 
 363. Of terminal inflorescence the following varie- 
 ties are described : cyme, fascicle (verticillaster), and 
 glomerule. 
 
 446 
 
 446) Vernonia fasciculatar - fl ower 8 in a discoid 
 
 head with an imbricated involucre. 447, A single 
 flower remaining on the receptacle. 448, A fruit 
 -C crowned with the pappus. 449, Mulgedium a head. 
 OI 460 , A single flower remaining on the receptacle. 
 > -A. fruit with pappus. 
 
120, 121.] 
 
 SPECIAL FORMS OF INFLORESCENCE. 
 
 141 
 
 364. Cyme is a general term denoting any inflores- 
 cence with centrifugal evolutions, but is properly ap- 
 plied to that level-topped or fastigiate form which 
 
 454 
 
 Diagram (452) of cyme flowers numbered in the order of their development 453, Cyme fastigiate. 454, 
 Cyme half developed a scorpoid raceme. 
 
 resembles the corymb, as in the Elder. If it is loosely 
 spreading, not fastigiate, it is called a cymous panicle, 
 as in the Chickweed, Spergula, etc. If it be rounded, 
 as in the Snowball, it is a globose cyme. 
 
 455 456 
 
 455, Myosotis palustris scorpioid racemes. 456, Stellaria media a regular cyme. 
 
 365. A scorpioid cyme, as seen in the Sundew, 
 Sedum, and Borrage family, is a kind of coiled raceme, 
 unrolling as it blossoms. It is understood to be a half- 
 developed cyme, as illustrated in the cut (454). The 
 fascicle is a modification of the cyme, with crowded 
 
142 
 
 STRUCTURAL BOTANY. 
 
 [121, 122. 
 
 and nearly sessile flowers, as in Sweet- William (Dian- 
 thus). 
 
 366. Glomerule, an axillary tufted cluster, with a 
 centrifugal evolution, frequent in the Labiatse, etc. 
 When such occur in the axils of opposite leaves and 
 meet around the stem, each pair constitutes a verticil- 
 laster or verticil, as in Catmint, Hoarhound. 
 
 
 457 
 
 367. The above diagrams show the mutual relations of the several forms 
 of centripetal inflorescence how they are graduated from the spike (457) to 
 the head (464). Thus the spike (457) + the pedicels = raceme (458) ; the raceme 
 with the lower pedicels lengthened = corymb (459) ; the corymb the rachis = 
 umbel (460) ; the umbel pedicels = head (464), etc. 
 
 (For the phenomena of Mowering, Coloring, the Moral Calendar, the 
 Floral Clock, see the Class Book of Botany, pp. 75-77.) 
 

 PART SECOND. 
 PHYSIOLOGICAL BOTANY. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 VEGETABLE HISTOLOGY AND PHYSIOLOGY. 
 
 368. The vegetable cell is the foundation of all 
 plant structure, and when complete is a sac or bag-like 
 body containing a semi-fluid substance 
 called Protoplasm. The cell -wall in- 
 creases by expansion. Spaces (vacuoles) a 
 
 appear among 
 the particles 
 of protoplasm, 
 which are occu- 
 pied by a watery 
 substance called 
 
 -1-1 T c, c, protoplasm mass sep- 
 
 Ceil-Sap. In SOme arated from the cell-wall 
 
 *m part of the cell b< 
 
 a spot appears where the 
 granules of Protoplasm are 
 crowded together, forming a 
 
 465 
 465, Mature cell of 
 
 466, Section of pith-cell of Taxodium ; a, v.i-.plpi-.q TTU p ppll 
 
 nucleus ; &, nucleolus ; c, , protoplasm sac Z >US< 
 
 contracted toward the wall, from which it has p OrnT VJpfp o nr q fhyiq 
 
 been separated by reagents ; p, cell-sap In a C tG ai] 
 
 XTS^tT^iSniSS:! i* ^ organism capable of ex- 
 
 ellularspace ' ercising vital functions, and 
 
 possesses the ability to multiply itself or produce new 
 
144 
 
 PHYSIOLOGICAL BOTANY. 
 
 cells. In the early stages of the plant's life, the Proto- 
 plasm is a naked mass, but it very soon surrounds 
 itself with a wall, as in Figs. 465 A 
 
 and 466. Inside the cell-wall it 
 arranges itself into a great variety 
 of forms. 
 
 In Fig. 467, A shows new cells, 
 with the protoplasm evenly distrib- 
 uted, and nuclei forming, k. Fig. 
 467, B, great changes have taken 
 place, cell-sap has been introduced, 
 and the protoplasm is much vacuo- 
 lated, and appears either floating 
 freely in the cell-sap, spread along the 
 cell-wall, or otherwise aggregated. 
 In Fig. 468, A, the protoplasm seems 
 to be aggregating, and spots or vac- 
 uoles are appearing in its midst. 
 Fig. 468, B, the protoplasm is form- 
 ing in globular masses around por- 
 tions of sap. These little vesicles 
 are frequently furnished with the 
 green coloring matter of the plant. 
 Fig. 468, (7, highly magnified cell, 
 in^which the protoplasm has re- 
 treated from the cell-wall under 
 
 467 
 
 . .. ii j 4 ^7, -^' ^ ery y un s cells from 
 
 the aCtlOn OI Weak SUlphUriC add nearthetipoftherootofFritilla- 
 
 ria ; B, cells from a part a little 
 
 and iodine. higher up in the root; s, a, s, sap; 
 
 Jc, x, y, nuclei and nucleoli form- 
 
 369. Protoplasm is complex and mg; ?, protoplasm, 
 constantly changing in its constitution. It yields to 
 chemical analysis materials similar to egg albumen, 
 and is the living substance of the cell; its appearan< 
 under the microscope is shown in Figs. 465-468, 
 

 VEGETABLE HISTOLOGY AND PHYSIOLOGY. 
 
 145 
 
 The chemical substances that have been detected in Protoplasm are Oxygen, 
 Hydrogen, Carbon, Nitrogen, Sulphur, Potassium, Calcium, Magnesium, Iron, Phosphorus, 
 Chlorine, and frequently Silicon and Sodium. 
 
 The relative proportions of these substances differ in different orders, and 
 are not constant in the same plant. 
 
 370. The wall of the cell 
 
 (Fig. 466) is produced by 
 some action of the proto- 
 plasm. When first formed 
 it is very thin, soft, and uni- 
 form in thickness ; but as it 
 grows older, it is thickened 
 by additional coatings, or 
 strata, upon the inner sur- 
 face ; sometimes of uniform 
 thickness, but more fre- 
 
 quently in VeinS, ringS, SpOtS, 
 
 468, Forms of Protoplasm ; A and B, cells 
 
 _ . 1 _ from the stalk of Indian Corn : C, from a tuber 
 
 Or riQgeS, lOrming tile lOUn- of Jerusalem Artichoke after action of iodine and 
 . . sulphuric acid ; h, cell-wall ; k, nucleus ; b, nu- 
 
 dation for the tissues and cieoius; P , protoplasm. 
 vessels of plants hereafter to be considered. 
 
 371. Cellulose is the substance of which the cell- 
 wall is formed, It yields to the chemist the same ele- 
 ments that are found in starch, whose formula is 
 C 6 H, O 5 ; besides these, several other mineral sub- 
 stances are present in minute quantities. 
 
 372. Woody material, called lignin, is deposited or 
 formed upon the walls of some cells, by which they 
 are hardened and strengthened. The component parts 
 of this substance are not accurately known ; there is 
 reason to believe they vary in different plants, and 
 even in different parts of the same plant. Mineral 
 substances, principally silica and lime compounds, also 
 thicken the cell-walls and increase their induration 
 and strength. 
 
146 PHYSIOLOGICAL BOTANY. 
 
 373. Chlorophyl. In the living cells of those 
 parts of plants exposed to sunlight, granules appear, 
 resembling protoplasm grains in all respects except 
 color. These minute bodies are green, and furnish the 
 green color to leaves and all other green parts of 
 plants; the name applied to these granules is due to 
 their color, and as the leaf is the most conspicuous 
 green part of the plant, the term Chlorophyl (Leaf 
 Green) has been applied to this green color. Some 
 authors have called chlorophyl grains stained proto- 
 plasm, viewing chlorophyl as the stain, and the 
 chlorophyl granule as colored protoplasm (Figs. 466, 
 467). 
 
 374. Starch is a most important plant product, 
 and is formed by the action of protoplasm and chloro- 
 phyl under sunlight ; it is found sparingly in the 
 leaf, and when more than enough to supply the plant's 
 daily wants is produced, the surplus is stored up in 
 some other part of the plant, as the tuber of the 
 Potato, the grains of Wheat, and other cereals, in 
 which form it is utilized for animal food. Its com- 
 ponent parts are identical with those of cellulose. 
 
 Forms of starch-grains are shown in 
 Figs. 469-473. The form of starch- 
 grains is very various, differing in dif- 
 ferent plants, and 
 even in the same 
 parts of the same 
 plant. Fig. 473, 
 
 469, Cells of Potato containing starch-grains. 470, Starch grains A /y 7) ^ fr /7 flrP 
 from the Potato. 471, from the E. Indian Arrowroot. 472, Starch - -) "Tl Yf ;V* u ^ J/J ' 
 granules from W. Indian Arrowroot. Starch-grainS f rOm 
 
 a grain of Indian Corn. Fig. 473, B, shows starch- 
 grains from a grain of Wheat; these are more nearly 
 
 
VEGETABLE HISTOLOGY AND PHYSIOLOGY. 
 
 147 
 
 uniform in shape and size 
 and somewhat lens-shaped. 
 
 375. Crystals of a great 
 variety of shape are found 
 in some of the cells of 
 most plants of the higher 
 orders ; the most simple of 
 these forms are cubical or 
 prismatic ; but they occur 
 in almost every variety of 
 polyhedral form. In some 
 orders they appear in slen- 
 der needle-shaped bodies 
 called Raphides. They usu- 
 ally occur, solitary or in 
 masses, in the cell cavity, 
 but are not unfrequently 
 found in the cell -wall 
 (Figs. 474, 475). 
 
 Plant 
 
 473, A, is a cell from the endosperm of a graia'of 
 Indian Corn, crowded with starch-grains ; the grains 
 i -i marked a, 6, c, etc., to g are also from the interior of 
 
 LiltJ a g ra i n o f corn. The grains marked B are from the 
 
 residua of the materials 
 
 used in the chemical combinations that have taken 
 
 place in the cell under the 
 action of sunlight, and are 
 usually composed of lime 
 carbonate or lime oxalate. 
 Other calcic combinations 
 are, however, frequently 
 present. The difficulties at- 
 tending the separating of 
 plant crystals from their 
 474, A, Beet ceiis with R surroundings have thus far 
 
 stellate masses of crystals ; B, R, inner cells, with -j -j i m<-i-IV1 /- !--* 
 
 raphides escaping ; C, aleurone crystal. Tendered it impOSSlble 1H 
 
148 
 
 PHYSIOLOGICAL BOTANY. 
 
 some cases to determine with accuracy their chemical 
 constituents. 
 
 376. Cell-sap is the watery fluid in the cell which 
 suspends the food and working material taken into 
 the cell from the air and the 
 
 soil and the soluble substances 
 which the plant produces, and 
 is the medium by which food is 
 conveyed throughout the plant's 
 structure. All parts of the active 
 cell are filled with water ; it con- 
 stitutes a large part of the cellu- 
 lose, and forms the greater part 
 of the bulk of protoplasm. Sugar 
 is a prominent sub- 
 stance in the cell- 
 sap, both cane and 
 grape. Cane-sugar 
 
 flhnnnHcj in thp pplla 475, 4, cross-section of oak-gall ; d, sclerenchymatons cells ; 
 
 3 c, outside tissue, with oxalate crystals , e, inner tissue containing 
 
 of Sugar Cane, Sugar 8tarch and resin ' * forms of calcium oxalate crystals ' 
 Maple, Beet, Sorghum, Indian Corn, and most of the 
 higher plants ; while grape-sugar gives sweetness to 
 grapes, cherries, figs, and gooseberries. In the poma- 
 ceous and drupe fruits both kinds are present. For cell- 
 sap in both large and small vacuoles, see Fig. 466, p; 
 Fig. 467, B, 8, 8, s. 
 
 377. New cells, to which the enlargement or growth 
 of the plant is due, are formed in one of the three fol- 
 lowing typical modes : 
 
 378. 1, Rejuvenescence. In this method of pro- 
 ducing new cells, the entire mass of the protoplasm is 
 expelled from the old cell, and, when set free, sur- 
 rounds itself with a wall, thus becoming a new cell. 
 
VEGETABLE HISTOLOGY AND PHYSIOLOGY. 149 
 
 379. #, Conjugation. New cells are also produced 
 by the union of the protoplasm of two or more cells; 
 the contents of which having commingled, the com- 
 bined mass incloses itself with a cellulose covering, 
 and becomes a new cell. 
 
 380. 3, Fission is the name applied to the mode of 
 cell production by which two or more new cells are 
 formed out of one. This is the usual mode, and may 
 be treated under three heads. 
 
 381. a. Fission Proper. A young complete cell (Figs. 
 465, 466) possesses the power to multiply. The most 
 simple case of this process is the division of the cell 
 into two equal, or nearly equal, parts. The protoplasm 
 forms two nucleus-like spots ; a stricture then com- 
 mences in the wall between the spots, and the cell 
 seems to pinch itself into two. This process is shown 
 in the fission of Bacterium cells (Figs. 511, 512). 
 
 In most cases the process is accompanied by a 
 stricture more or less prominent ; at the same time 
 an equatorial septum appears between the nuclear 
 spots, and divides the old cell into two nearly equal 
 new cells (Fig. 476). In this case the stricture in the 
 cell-wall is barely visible. The new cells round up and 
 soon become sub-globular in form. 
 
 476, Phases of a cell undergoing the process of fission ; a, complete cell with drops of cell-sap among 
 the protoplasm, nucleus, and nucleolus ; 6, same, with nucleus and nucleolus divided ; c, with stricture 
 and wall forming across between the nuclei; <Z, same, with the septum completed, and the fission accom- 
 plished; two separate cells have been formed by dividing the old cell into two. 
 
 
150 
 
 PHYSIOLOGICAL BOTANY. 
 
 The process of cell division depends first upon the nucleus which forms a 
 spindle of radiating fibrils with an equatorial disk. A middle wall, or parti- 
 tion, is formed at the disk, whereby two distinct cells are produced (477). 
 MadosUe's Elementary Botany. 
 
 477, No. 1, mature cell ; 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 show the changes through which No. 1 passes preparatory to 
 the final act of fission ; seen completed in No. 9. 
 
 382. 5, Budding is another form of plant multipli- 
 cation. In this mode the plant cell puts forth a pro- 
 trusion which enlarges until it is about 
 
 the size of the old cell, when a partition 
 wall is thrown across at the juncture, 
 making the new cell complete and inde- 
 pendent. In Fig. 478 the process of bud- 
 ding is shown in its several forms. 
 
 383. c. Intra-cell Formation. Under undergoing the process 
 
 of budding. 
 
 this head are treated those cases in which 
 several aggregations appear within the cell and the 
 entire mass of protoplasm separates into two, three, or 
 more parts, each of which, either at the time the divi-, 
 sion is going on or soon after, becomes inclosed in a 
 cellulose envelope, and speedily assumes a globular 
 form, as an independent complete cell. 
 
 478 
 
 478, Yeast plant, Sac- 
 charomyces cerivesiae, 
 
 
VEGETABLE HISTOLOGY AHD PHYSIOLOGY. 
 
 151 
 
 In the preparation for cell division nucleus-like formations usually appear 
 in the mother cell. The whole protoplasmic body breaks up into two, three, 
 four, or more parts, and each quickly takes on a spher- 
 ical form (Fig. 479). Sacks' 1 Text-book of Botany. 
 
 All these modes of cell multiplica- 
 tion and formation are subject to great 
 variation ; each has a tendency to run 
 into one of the others ; the last is espe- 
 cially liable to vary as to number of 
 daughter cells. 
 
 384. The form of cells varies to 
 suit the use for which they are in- 
 tended and the amount and direction 
 
 479 
 
 479, Showing cell forma- 
 tion in Achlya mother cell, 
 showing a number of nuclei 
 in the mass of protoplasm 
 which is preparing to break 
 up into a number of inde- 
 pendent or daughter cells ; 
 
 of the pressure to which they are sub- a ' a ' a ' etc " nu 
 jected* The normal shape is globular or spheroidal 
 when free from pressure (Fig. 480) ; when pressure 
 
 480, Form of cells in loose parenchyma. 481, Cross-section of parenchyma cells from stalk of Indian 
 Corn (X550), showing form under slight pressure; gw,gw, partition walls ; a, , intercellular spaces. 
 
 from surrounding cells is exerted, they be- 
 come ellipsoidal, egg-shaped, prismatic, or 
 polyhedral (Figs. 481,482). In the trunks 
 and branches of trees and stems of herba- 
 ceous plants the cells become elongated 
 in the direction of growth (Fig. 467). 
 482, Form of ceiis 385. The size of the cells in the soft 
 
 under greater pressure 
 
 from aii directions. tissue varies ; the largest is about -gV of 
 
152 PHYSIOLOGICAL BOTANY. 
 
 an inch in diameter. From this cells occur whose 
 diameters range all the way down to -^oW of an inch 
 in diameter. In the more solid tissues they range 
 from J to fa of an inch in length, and from T? V<7 to 
 -j-oVo in their cross-sections. Cells of the long staple 
 cotton wool are from one to two inches in length. 
 
 386. Spiral and annular cells are formed when 
 rings, bands, or hoop-like processes 
 appear on the inner surfaces of the 
 walls ; in the spiral cell an uninter- 
 rupted fibrous process extends the 
 whole length of the cell in a spiral 
 coil (Fig. 483). The annular cell heis #3, spiral ceii from or- 
 
 chid. 484, Annular cell from 
 
 bands or hoop-like markings as though Mistletoe - 
 
 the spiral fiber had been interrupted at several points 
 
 (Fig. 484). 
 
 387. Dotted or pitted cells are pro- 
 duced when the coatings on the inner sur- 
 face of the cell wall are not uniform in 
 thickness, leaving thin spots, or pits, which 
 485, Dotted or are m ore nearly transparent when viewed 
 
 pitted cells from 
 
 Eider pith. under the glass, than the more thickened 
 
 parts of the wall ; hence the name (Fig. 485). 
 
 388. Reticulated cells are produced by 
 coatings which are deposited or formed 
 upon the inner surface of the cell-wall, 
 where they at first appear in spots and 
 lines, of different sizes and lengths (Fig. 486, 
 
 cell from the Mis- 
 
 486). As the cell grows older, the markings tietoe. 
 increase in length, and touching each other, form an 
 irregular net-work. 
 
 389. Collenchyma cells are cubical, cylindrical, or 
 irregular in form, whose walls are much thickened 
 
VEGETABLE HISTOLOGY AND PHYSIOLOGY. 
 
 153 
 
 at the angles, while they are of ordinary thickness in 
 
 other parts. These cells occur in 
 
 most plants of the higher orders 
 
 and in some ferns, and are found 
 
 in the tissues just beneath the 
 
 epidermis. 
 
 390. Sclerenchyma cells, some- 
 times called grit or stony cells, 
 have hardened walls produced 
 by deposition upon them of the 
 horny substance found in the 
 pits of the Cherry, Peach, and 
 
 487, Collenchyma cells from leaf stalk 
 Plum and ,the Shells Of nutS; of Begonia; , epidermal cells; <*, collen- 
 
 chyma cells; chl, chlorophyll grains; v, 
 SOmetimeS fOUnd in the fleshy thickened angles where these cells meet; 
 
 p, part of parenchyma cell 
 
 parts of the Pear. 
 
 488, Sclerenchyma cells ; PP, canals connecting the cavity t with the outer surface or adjacent cells; 
 1, 2, 3, thickened layers; p, in B, cell walls. 
 
 391. Epidermal cells appear in plate-like expan- 
 sions forming the outer coverings of leaves and young 
 bark ; their edges are in contact ; their boundaries are 
 either straight or sinuous ; and they are elongated in 
 the direction of growth. The edges are so firmly knit 
 together that the entire covering of one side of a leaf 
 may be removed intact. The epidermis at first is usu- 
 ally formed of a single layer, but later it is sometimes 
 made up of two or more layers (Fig. 489). 
 
154 
 
 PHYSIOLOGICAL BOTANY. 
 
 392. Hairs are outgrowths of epidermal cells, and 
 are composed usually of greatly elongated single cells 
 (Figs. 490-497), which fre- 
 quently branch ; others are 
 made up of a number of cells. 
 Hairs take on a number of 
 forms by branching. 
 
 Scales are another form of 
 epidermal outgrowth, and ap- 
 
 - _ _ .. . 489, Is a vertical section of a leaf of Bank- 
 
 pear in the lOrm OI dlSKS. s\&\ a, a, show two layers of cells in the epi- 
 
 dermis; c, hairs found in little cavities on the 
 
 Bristles are hair-like proc- "under side of the leaf, 
 esses, the walls of whose cells are hardened. 
 
 Prickles are outgrowths of a still firmer character. 
 
 494 
 
 490, Rootlet of Madder, showing cells expanded into hair-like processes. 491, Section of a glandular 
 hair of Fraxinella. 492, Hair of Brionia, composed of several cells. 493, Hair surmounted by a gland, An- 
 tirrhinum majus. 494, Stinging hair of Urrica dioica. 495, Jointed hair from a stamen of Tradescandia. 
 496, Star-shaped hair from the petiole of Nuphar advena (X200). 497, Branched hair of Arabis. 
 
 393. Glands are processes consisting of a single 
 cell or an aggregation of cells, situated a little above, 
 at, or just beneath the surface, the function of which 
 is to secrete and discharge peculiar substances, as oils, 
 nectar, etc. Glands sometimes terminate in a hair-like 
 process (Fig. 493). 
 
 Stinging hairs are usually setaceous and sufficiently 
 rigid to perforate animal tissue ; having entered, the 
 
VEGETABLE HISTOLOGY AND PHYSIOLOGY. 
 
 155 
 
 apex breaks off and the contained irritating liquid is 
 discharged into the wound, producing the sting. 
 
 394. Stoma-cells are epidermal. Stomata are 
 mouths or openings into the intercellular spaces of the 
 leaves and young bark, sometimes called breathing- 
 pores. They are guarded each by two half-moon- 
 shaped cells whose concave sides lie next each other ; 
 when filled with liquids, their concavity increases, leav- 
 ing an orifice between the guard cells. For the passage 
 of air and moisture when the atmosphere is dry and 
 the plant can not afford to part with its fluids, the 
 guard cells lose their concavity, the sides become 
 straight, the orifice closes, and evaporation is arrested. 
 The number of these openings is very great, many 
 thousands appearing in a square inch of surface (Figs. 
 498-500). 
 
 498, Cells of epidermis with a stoma from leaf of Helleborus fcetidus. 499, Vertical section of a stoma of 
 Narcissus ; a, cuticle. 500, Epidermis cells with stomata of Tradescantia Virginica a, a, guard cells. 
 
 395. Cork cells are cubical or tabular, and fit closely 
 together ; in the outer layers they are dead and empty, 
 and constitute the outer bark layers of old trees, prom- 
 inent in the Quercus suber (Cork Oak). 
 
156 
 
 PHYSIOLOGICAL BOTANY. 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 TISSUES. 
 
 396. Parenchyma is a tissue composed of short 
 cells, usually with intercellular spaces among them, 
 and is the foundation of vegetable structure. All cells 
 may be regarded as modifications of parenchyma ; the 
 various markings and forms being due to alterations 
 which go on by degrees to fit them for the functions 
 they are to exercise in the tissues of the plant. 
 
 397. In the lower plants the entire individual con- 
 sists of parenchyma, and it is found throughout the 
 structure of the higher 
 
 plants, mingled and in- 
 terlaced with other tis- 
 sue, especially in their 
 green parts. Fig. 501 
 is a microscopic view 
 of a thin slice of the 
 rhizome of Sanguina- 
 ria Canadensis, mag- 
 nified to 100 diame- 
 ters; the cells are un- 
 
 der pressure, and vary 
 *_ , . . , 
 
 greatly in SIZe and. 
 
 shape, and have a bun- 
 
 dle of wood-cells imbedded among them. For forms 
 
 and size of cells see No. 385 ; also see Figs. 480-482. 
 
 398. Prosenchyma is the generic name of the 
 elongated, painted cells or fibers without intercellular 
 spaces that form plant tissues. 
 
 gection of the rh i Z ome.of Bloodroot ; a, a, a bundle of 
 
TISSUES. 
 
 157 
 
 tion forming a flbro- vascular bundle. 
 
 399. Woody tissue is made up of slender, lengthened, 
 lignified cells, which taper at the 
 
 ends, and are found in woody 
 plants overlapping each other, 
 and packed in bundles (Figs. 
 502-504). 
 
 400. Bast tissue is composed 
 of elongated cells, with thickened 
 walls, not sufficiently lignified to 
 be hard ; they are flexible and 
 tough, and abound in the inner 
 bark of dicotyledonous trees and 
 shrubs. 
 
 401. Disk-bearing tissue is constituted of length- 
 
 ened cells, which have pits or 
 lens-shaped markings, found in 
 the Pine and other gymnosperms 
 (Fig. 505). 
 
 402. Vessels or ducts are 
 tubes or passages through which 
 the fluids pass from one part of 
 the plant's structure to another. 
 In the formation of these pas- 
 sages elongated cells arrange 
 themselves end to end, become 
 anastomosed ; the walls in the 
 ends -of the cells are ruptured or 
 disappear, and uninterrupted pas- 
 sages are produced. 
 
 403. Spiral vessels are con- 
 505, Lengthwise section of (Scotch structed by the union of spiral 
 
 Pine) Pinus Sylvestris, showing disk- 
 bearing tissue ; <*, Cambium wood-ceiis; cells, in the manner described in 
 
 a, Z>, c, etc., older cells ; t, t', t", bordered 
 
 pits; st, large pits (x225).-Socfts. ^Q ^g^ article (Fig. 506). 
 
158 
 
 PHYSIOLOGICAL BOTANY. 
 
 404. Annular or ringed ducts are produced by the 
 union end to end of annular cells, the walls of which 
 are held apart by rings or hoop-like 
 
 thickenings on the inner surface (Fig. 
 507, A, B, 0). 
 
 405. Scalariform ducts, character- 
 istic of ferns, are formed when the an- 
 nular vessels are compressed into pris- 
 matic forms whose sides present the 
 appearance of ladders (Fig. 507, D). 
 
 406. Dotted or pitted ducts are 
 formed of dotted or pitted cells, as in 
 the case of annular cells (Fig. 507, E). 
 
 407. Sieve ducts or tubes are 
 formed of colorless elongated cells, of 
 
 large diameter; the walls are soft and from Mamillaria - 
 
 very much enlarged and thickened at the joints ; at 
 
 the junctions finely perforated plates appear (Fig. 
 
 506 
 
 50 i 
 
 507, A, annular vessel from leaf-stalk of Melon ; B, duct, part spiral and part annular, from Melon ; C, 
 part annular and part reticulated duct from Melon ; D, annular and reticulated ducts pressed into pris- 
 matic shape, forming scalariform vessels, from Tree-fern ; E, pitted or dotted duct, formed by the union 
 of pitted cells from melon-stalk. 
 
 508, A) ; also on the internodes are spots of fine per- 
 forations and slits (Fig. 508, B). These spots of per- 
 forations are like a strainer or sieve ; hence the name. 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
TISSUES. 
 
 159 
 
 TOS, A, Cross-section of Pumpkin vine (x'550); si, walls or septa at the union of cells, developing Into 
 sieve plates; c, c, cambium cells ; p, p, parenchyma. J3, Lengthwise section, showing the enlarged joiD** ; 
 g, an edge view of sieve septa; i, sieve spot on the side-wall. 
 
 408. Latex vessels are 
 produced by the union end 
 to end of latex cells; by 
 anastomosing and branch- 
 ing a reticulated tissue is 
 formed which conveys the 
 milky juices of the plant 
 through its structure. In 
 the tissues of the Ficus 
 elastica, Euphorbia and the 
 milk weeds, besides the 
 Latex tubes, numerous 
 closed cells are present, 
 charged with the same 
 milky fluids as the ducts 
 (Fig. 509). The free cells 
 frequently elongate, and 
 sometimes branch. 
 
 These vessels are ar- 
 ranged in the stem as rep- 
 resented in Fig. 510. 
 
 vessel m r ' 
 
160 
 
 PHYSIOLOGICAL BOTANY. 
 
 c 
 
 510, A, Lengthwise section of the Castor-oil plant. Beginning with the bark, r, cortical cells; gs, bun- 
 dle sheath; 5, bast fibers; p, bast parenchyma; c, cambium; the cells between c and p become sieve tubes; 
 *, t, pitted vessels ; q, shows an absorbed septum ; A", h", annular ducts; h, h, pitted vessels, resembling 
 annular ducts; 7, vessel apparently made up partly of annular cells and partly of reticulated cells; , spiral 
 vessel, of very small caliber, next to the pith; a', larger calibered spiral vessel; m, pith-cells. 
 
 610, B y Lengthwise slice of wood from an Ailanthus glandulosa, highly magnified; g, g, pitted ducts; p,p, 
 wood parenchyma; If, woody fibers 5 st, st, cross-section of medullary rays; t, annular ducts. 
 
SYSTEMS OF TISSUES AND PLANT GROWTH. 
 
 161 
 
 S3 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 SYSTEMS OF TISSUES AND PLANT GROWTH. 
 
 409. The brief account of the cell and its modifica- 
 tions into tissues and ducts, prepares for the considera- 
 tion of the manner in which these organs are arranged 
 in the structure of plants. 
 
 In the lowest groups of plant life the individual is 
 either a single cell or an assemblage of soft cells, with- 
 out special order of arrangement. 
 
 410. Unicellular plants. The most simple forms 
 of plant life are single minute cells, called Bacteria, 
 the smallest objects that are 
 
 known to exercise vital func- 
 
 tions ; they are so small that 
 
 50,000 laid on a line side 
 
 by side would occupy a 
 
 space less than an inch in 
 
 length. The typical form 
 
 is globular, appearing under 
 
 the microscope as a minute 
 
 granule or dot, as No. 1 in 
 
 Fig. 511; they are, however, frequently elongated, and 
 
 appear in an oval form, as in No. 2 ; again, they take 
 
 on the form of a fine line, straight, curved, or crooked, 
 
 as in No. 3 ; another time they are spiral, as in No. 4. 
 
 These minute cells are stored with protoplasm, and 
 
 swim in fluids from which they obtain nourishment. 
 
 They increase by fission, and multiply with marvelous 
 
 rapidity. They are found in the watery fluids of both 
 
 animals and plants. 
 
 Sarclne; 2 , Bacterium; 3i Vibro; 4 , gpiril . 
 lum> 
 
162 
 
 PHYSIOLOGICAL BOTANY. 
 
 Some Bacteria separate into spores ; and diseases in men as well as plants 
 are believed to be due to the presence of Bacteria. They are parasitical or 
 saprophytic, feeding on living or decaying matter; they are the agents of de- 
 cay and revel upon the ruins they produce. As they multiply by fission, they 
 are called Schizomycetes (^x^, to divide, and M^S, a fungus). (Fig. 512.) 
 
 \ \ 
 
 
 512 
 
 512, A, Bacterium Termo, magnified to 1,000 diameters, undergoing the process of fission. JB, Same, 
 magnified to 3,COO diameters, in which the process of fission is nearly completed. <7, Micrococci (x 1,000) 
 undergoing fission, the new cells arranging themselves in curved and crooked lines or in irregular groups. 
 D, Sarcina Ventriculi (x 1,000) undergoing fission in two directions, the new cells arranging themselves in 
 square groups. 
 
 411. The Yeast Plant (Fig. 513) is one of the most 
 interesting of the unicellular organisms ; it is the agent 
 of fermentation, and plays an important 
 
 part in bread-making, where it disinte- 
 grates the starch-grains in the flour, and 
 thereby liberates carbon dioxide ; the gas ^ , 
 set free struggles to find its way through 513 
 
 513. Yeast Plant, Sac 
 
 the dough, becomes entangled, forms cav- charomyces cerevisi*. 
 ities in the mass, and makes it sponge-like or light. 
 
 412. The next grade above the plant which is a 
 single cell is one composed of a mass of cells without 
 a special axis of growth ; as some of the Sea-weeds, 
 which are mere masses of flat cells arranged in two 
 layers, forming irregular leaf-like expansions. 
 
SYSTEMS OF TISSUES AND PLANT GROWTH. 
 
 163 
 
 413. This book is intended to consider the higher 
 plants only ; we shall therefore now proceed to describe 
 the manner in which the modi- 
 fied cells and vessels are ar- 
 ranged in the higher organized 
 
 plant structures. 
 
 414. Exogenous or Dicotyle- 
 donous structure. Growth in the 
 most highly organized plants is 
 best illustrated by the examina- 
 tion of a tree or shoot of Oak, 
 
 Maple, Apple, or Cherry at the end of the first year of 
 its life. A cross-section of such a 
 scion presents a circle of pith in 
 the center, around which are con- 
 centric circular rings, the inner one 
 wood, the outer ones bark. In the 
 figure (514), a, the pith; 5, the 
 wood ; c, the bark. On the inner 
 edge of the wood is a ring of spi- 
 ral vessels, d, which is called the 
 medullary or pith sheath. The pith 
 is made up of parenchyma and 
 extends between the wedges of 
 wood in flat cells connecting the 
 pith with the bark (1, 2, 3, Fig. 
 515, A, cross-section of the stem of 514), forming the silver grain 
 
 a Maple at the end of the first season's . /--\i i /r i 11 
 
 growth; i, edge of the pith; 2, spiral seen in Oak and Maple planks, 
 
 vessels: 3, wood region made up of . , i i i j.' t 
 
 woody fiber and dotted ducts and other Or III a longitudinal SCCtlOn Ol 
 vessels; 4, camhium layer made up of , ,, -, . j 
 
 new cells; 5, liber: 6, larger cells and thOS6 and Other Cabinet WOOQS 
 vessels of the liber or bast region; 7, 
 
 cellular envelope or green bark; 8, When Split. 
 
 corky envelope or outer bark ; 9, the ., 
 
 skin, or epidermis. B, shows corre- 415. The WOOQ IS made Up OI 
 
 sponding vessels and tissues in a ver- 
 tical section of the same plant, woody fiber interspersed with tis- 
 
164 
 
 PHYSIOLOGICAL BOTANY. 
 
 sues composed of the cells, vessels, and ducts which 
 have already been described. 
 
 416. The bark at the end of the first year's growth 
 is made up of three layers : the one next the wood, 
 called bast, is composed of pa- 
 renchyma, sieve vessels, and li- 
 ber-cells ; on account of the pre- 
 dominance of the bast ducts in 
 this layer, it has been called the 
 last region (Figs. 508, 516). 
 The liber-cells are long, strong 
 fibers, and in some plants are 
 very tenacious and flexible, form- 
 ing the material in Hemp, Flax, 
 and other textile substances util- 
 ized in manufacture of cordage 
 and fabrics. 
 
 Next to the bast is the green 
 cellular layer, called phellogen, 
 because by its dividing, it pro- 
 duces outside of it cork, which 
 increases by the addition of new 
 
 material to the inner surface. ^_^_ 
 
 The cork is usually of a brown 
 
 .516, Is a photograph from nature of a 
 
 or ashv color, sometimes white layer of bast-fibrous bundles found in the 
 
 secondary bark of the' stem of an old Carica 
 
 or striped ; in old trees it is IGtfSZ^Stt&Z 
 cracked and broken by the KLTG^S-JJSSJ 
 
 o-TTkAxrtVi rf fVifi ASrnorl nnH fflllQ have formed an irregular net- work with 
 giOW til Ul LI1U WUUU, c elongated sinuous meshes. These meshes 
 
 off in scales or strips, as in the J^S^'tJSJ^^SS 1 !! 
 shag-bark Hickory ; in the Paper moved by maceration ' 
 Birch it peels off in sheets resembling paper. Upon 
 some trees it develops into thick porous layers, and 
 upon the Cork Oak furnishes the cork of commerce. 
 
SYSTEMS OF TISSUES AND PLANT GROWTH. 165 
 
 417. During the season of activity the young stem 
 continues to increase both in height and diameter by 
 the multiplication of cells and the formation of the 
 various tissues required by the conditions of growth 
 (Chap. III., Introduction) ; hence a mass of infant cells 
 is constantly present between the wood and the bark, 
 and in the buds of the stem and branches. 
 
 On the approach of winter the leaves fall, the ter- 
 minal buds refuse to expand, and the entire process 
 of growth is arrested, until the revivifying warmth of 
 the succeeding spring unlocks the imprisoned forces 
 that have slept during the frosty season, when the 
 fluids from the earth begin to flow upward and out- 
 ward through the vessels and ducts of the last year's 
 wood to the bark and the leaves ; the young cambium 
 cells which have slumbered through the winter are 
 filled with sap and commence another season of 
 growth ; the buds burst into leaves or flowers, and the 
 greatest activity succeeds the late period of rest. The 
 young cells multiply and increase in size, most of 
 them being changed into woody fiber and ducts, com- 
 mencing a new layer of wood on 
 the outside of the last layer, and 
 a new layer of bast on the inside 
 of the old one ; also a new layer 
 on the inside of the cortex layer. 
 In this way the work goes on, and 
 layer after layer is added for each 
 period of activity, which in regions ^^jjjjjj^?' 517 
 of severe frost occurs yearly (Fig. 517, is a photograph of & cross- 
 
 T-rT' T section of an oak-stem twenty-five 
 
 517). Within the trOpiCS and all years old, showing the annual circular 
 
 rings, the whole surrounded by the 
 
 regions of no frost, periods of rest rough bark. 
 
 and activity may occur more frequently than once a 
 
166 PHYSIOLOGICAL BOTANY. 
 
 year, and therefore the number of rings on a cross- 
 section does not always indicate the number of years 
 in the age of a tree. But in the higher latitudes a 
 new tube of wood and one of the inner bark is formed 
 yearly. 
 
 That more than one ring of wood may, and sometimes does, form in one 
 season of growth, even in regions of severe frost, has been established by 
 observation. 
 
 418. Sap wood is a name applied to the new wood, 
 and usually includes several of the last formed layers ; 
 it is so called because the fluids in moving upward from 
 the ground pass through its vessels. In most trees it 
 is of a lighter color than the older layers, and on that 
 account was called by early botanists Lignum album, 
 white wood ; now called Alburnum, or white wood. 
 
 419. Heart wood is that part of the trunk or stem 
 near the center or heart, and for that reason called 
 Heart wood. It is usually more dense, and therefore 
 called Duramen, hard wood. In some species it is 
 much darker than the sap wood, hence former botan- 
 ists called it Lignum nigrum, Black wood. In some 
 plants, as the Black Walnut, the Duramen is very 
 dark, while the Heart wood of the Maple is not much 
 darker than the sap wood, though they may grow side 
 by side and draw from the earth the same materials. 
 It would seem, therefore, that chemical changes take 
 place either in the plant's structure or upon the ma- 
 terials taken in to suit the necessities of each case. 
 
 On account of the mode of growth in Dicotyledonous stems, the name 
 Exogens, or outside growers, was formerly applied to plants of this structure. 
 They are characterized by two or more seed leaves in their embryo, and pro- 
 duce netted-veined leaves. See Dicotyledons, pages 163-166. 
 
 Nearly all the trees and shrubs of the temperate 
 zones are Exogens or Dicotyledonous plants, well 
 
SYSTEMS OF TISSUES AND PLANT GROWTH. 
 
 167 
 
 represented by the Oak, 
 Pine, Elm, Maple, Apple, 
 Pear, Peach, Cherry, and 
 other fruit and timber 
 trees. 
 
 420. The root is that 
 part of the plant that 
 grows downward into the 
 ground and holds the 
 whole firmly in the soil. 
 Its tissues correspond with 
 those of the stem to which 
 it belongs, and it increases 
 in diameter by additional 
 layers, one for each period 
 of activity, succeeded by 
 a rest. The extremity of 
 the root and that of each 
 of its branches is encased 
 
 519 
 
 520 
 
 519, Rootlet of Maple with hairs or fibrillae; , root 
 cap. 520, Duckmeat, showing the root cap . 
 
 518, a, Shrub; b, Fir; c, Oak-tree. 
 
 by a layer of older cells, 
 called the root .cap, a con- 
 trivance which seems to 
 be intended to protect the 
 tender infant cells just be- 
 hind it, which during the 
 growing season are increas- 
 ing and multiplying, to ex- 
 tend the root and rootlets 
 in all directions in the soil. 
 The parts of the root and 
 rootlets near the growing 
 points absorb the fluids 
 which are presented to 
 them in the soil, but this 
 
168 
 
 PHYSIOLOGICAL BOTANY. 
 
 absorption is largely helped by root hairs, which clothe 
 the root and rootlets, as seen in Figs. 519, 520. Fig. 
 519, root of a Maple sprinkled with hair-like processes 
 or minute fibrillse ; these are usually each a single 
 elongated cell, and appear on the newer parts of the 
 root, a little distance from the growing point, dying or 
 becoming useless on the older parts. The Boot, as to 
 use, form, etc., is treated in another place (see Chapter 
 XIII., Structural Botany). 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 MONOCOTYLEDONOUS STRUCTURE. 
 
 421. The woody fibers and vessels that make up 
 the stems of Palms, Indian Corn, Bamboo, Sugar Cane, 
 and all grass-like plants, are not arranged as they are 
 in the Oak, Maple, and Apple, already described. A 
 cross-section of a Palm stem presents 
 a mass of pith, dotted all over with 
 sections of woody fiber and vessels 
 without any apparent order of ar- 
 rangement (521); the whole inclosed 
 in a circular ring or rind, in which 
 the fibre-vascular bundles are smaller 
 than in the body of the stem. In a 
 longitudinal section the threads of woody fiber may 
 be traced from the bases of the leaves in a curve out 
 toward the center, and in a recurve back again to the 
 side whence they started (Figs. 522, 523). In stems 
 like the Indian Corn and the Grasses, with long spaces 
 between the leaves and closed nodes, the fibro-vascular 
 threads extend in straight lines from node to node, 
 
 521, Cross-section of the trunk 
 of a Palm. 
 
 
MONOCOTYLEDONOUS STRUCTURE. 
 
 169 
 
 where they unite with those of the next internode. 
 
 The rind . of the Corn 
 
 stalk, Bamboo, Reed, etc., 
 
 is smooth and flinty, due 
 
 to the deposition of silica 
 
 on the walls of the cells 
 
 that compose it. This mode 
 
 of growth is well shown in 
 
 the Palms of tropical and 
 
 SUb-trOpical regions, aS the 522 ' Vertical section of a Palm stem, showing 
 
 course and direction of fibers. 513, Theoretical 
 
 Palmetto of the Carolinas, plan of the direction of fibers in a vertical section of 
 
 7 a Palm stem ; a, a, bases of leaves, showing direc- 
 
 the Cocoanut Palm, many tiol > of fiber growth 
 
 thousands of which have been planted on the coast of 
 
 Florida. 
 
 422. The Palm, which is the type of the mono- 
 
 cotyledonous division of the 
 vegetable kingdom, reaches 
 perfection only in tropical or 
 sub-tropical regions. There 
 some of the members of 
 this great division tower to 
 the height of one hundred 
 and fifty feet, straight, un- 
 branched cylindrical col- 
 ums, crowned with a mass 
 of green foliage, presenting 
 to the eye magnificent ob- 
 jects of the picturesque and 
 beautiful. The Palm is one 
 of the most important or- 
 naments in planted grounds 
 in tropical countries, occu- 
 524, Paim, Agave, etc. pying a belt all around the 
 
170 PHYSIOLOGICAL BOTANY. 
 
 globe of about thirty-five degrees both sides of the 
 Equator. It flourishes in the bare sands of the sea- 
 coast, skirts arid plains, beautifies the oasis of the 
 desert, and inhabits the murky bottoms of southern 
 swamps and low islands of Southern Asia and tropical 
 America. These plants are of vast utility, producing 
 food and many domestic and economic products. 
 
 There are certain noticeable things in the mode of 
 monocotyledonous growth. The stem has no proper 
 bark, does not increase in diameter after it is perfectly 
 formed, and, with few exceptions, consists of an un- 
 branched cylindrical column, made up of pith inter- 
 mingled with fibro-vascular threads, generally without 
 any order of arrangement, the whole inclosed in a 
 rind or false bark (521-524), well illustrated in a 
 cross-section of a stalk of Indian Corn. There are a 
 few plants that seem to be connecting links between 
 these two modes of growth ; a notable example of 
 which is Dracaena draco, or Dragon-tree, which has a 
 cambium region, and continues to increase in diameter. 
 
 Formerly these plants were called Endogens, meaning Inside growers, 
 in contradistinction to Exogens, or Outside growers, because the new ma- 
 terial of growth was then supposed to be deposited always inside of the last 
 deposit of woody bundles ; but as it is now known that the additions are 
 interspersed among the former ones, in most cases without special order, the 
 name is not expressive. Plants of this mode of growth have but one cotyle- 
 don, or seed leaf ; their flowers are mostly three-parted, and their leaves 
 generally parallel- veined. See Monocotyledons, pages 168-170. 
 
 423. Tissues of the Pteridophyta. The Ferns and 
 their allies have a complicated and well-marked organi- 
 zation ; the outer bark is similar to that of the flower- 
 ing plants, and vascular-woody fiber extends through- 
 out the stem, and leaf stalks ramifying in the fronds, 
 to which the great beauty of this division of the 
 vegetable world is due. 
 
LEAF STRUCTURE. 
 
 171 
 
 A cross-section of a Fern stem shows a mass of 
 parenchyma, supported by an outer sheath or tube of 
 vascular-woody bundles, the whole 
 inclosed by a cortex of dense scleren- 
 chyma, the leaf stems presenting the 
 same structure (Fig. 525). 
 
 424. Tissues of Bryophyta, moss- 
 like plants. The higher types of this 
 division, while largely made up of 
 cellular masses, have a semi-vascu- 
 lar-fibro arrangement, and in some 
 
 525 
 
 525, Section of an Acrogenous 
 stem of Tree-Fern (Cyathea), 
 
 mosses the fibers are so strong as to showing the vascular bundles 
 
 imbedded near the circumference 
 of the cellular mass. 
 
 approach a woody character. 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 LEAF STRUCTURE. 
 
 425. Leaves are composed of the same general 
 structure as the stems and branches which they clothe 
 and adorn, and are made up of vessels and tissues 
 already described: 1, woody fiber, which constitutes 
 the frame-work ; 2, cellular tissue, which fills up the 
 spaces between the ribs or frame-work formed by the 
 woody part. The leaf of a Maple, Elm, or Apple is 
 composed of: 1, the leaf-stalk, by which it is attached 
 to the stem or branch; 2, the blade, the expanded 
 part. The leaf-stalk or petiole is a column of bundles 
 of woody fiber and green tissue, covered by the epi- 
 dermal tissue. These bundles extend in length to suit 
 the size of the blade, throwing off branches and 
 branchlets to construct the frame, making an irregular 
 net-work, the meshes of which are filled up by the 
 
172 
 
 PHYSIOLOGICAL BOTANY. 
 
 green tissue. (See Structural Botany, Chapters XX.- 
 XXIII. inclusive.) 
 
 426. An important function of the leaf is to expose 
 a large surface ; consequently, the blade is thin and so 
 formed as to present the largest number of cells to 
 the air and sunlight. 
 
 The layer on the upper side of the blade is made 
 up of oblong cells, closely packed with their ends next 
 to the surface. The lower layers are made up of 
 smaller, more irregular and more loosely arranged 
 cells, and have their 
 longer diameters in the 
 direction of the surface 
 of the blade. The deep 
 green color of the up- 
 per surface of leaves is 
 largely due to the com- 
 pactness of the green 
 cells in the upper layer, 
 while the paler color of 
 the under side is the 
 consequence of the 
 loose arrangement of 8how its opening into the intercellular " assa e es - 
 those in the lower strata. The epidermal covering of 
 the leaf, as before described, is a thin membrane made 
 up of one, two, or three layers of empty thick-walled 
 cells (Figs. 489-524 inclusive). 
 
 427. Respiration is the act of drawing air into the 
 lungs and casting it out again. (From the Latin re, 
 again, and spirare, to blow or breathe.) The air while 
 in the lungs is known to part with some of its oxygen, 
 and what is breathed out is charged with substances 
 which it did not possess when taken in ; therefore the 
 
 526, Magnified portion of the leaf of Viola tricolor in 
 perspective; a, cells of the epidermis, sometimes called 
 plate cells; b, compact layer of green cells next to the 
 upper surface; c, loose cells below; d, epidermal cells of 
 the lower surface, with stomata, one of which is cut to 
 
LEAF STRUCTURE. 
 
 173 
 
 taking in of oxygen and its combination with other 
 substances while in the lungs and the liberation of 
 substances thus formed constitute respiration in ani- 
 mals. So with plants ; they suck or draw in air 
 through openings in the epidermis already described, 
 and when it is discharged it is found to be changed in 
 character, having been robbed of its oxygen or of its 
 carbon dioxide. The oxygen of the air while among 
 
 8T 
 
 528 
 
 527, Is the section of a young stem or branch showing, at p, the pith; a, vascular-fibro bundle, passing 
 off from the stem to form the leaf-stalk and frame- work of the blade; d, the swelling just below the foot of 
 the stalk; I, the base of the footstalk; 6, the axillary bud; c, the articulation or point where the leaf-stalk 
 is attached to the branch or stem. 528, Magnified section of a leaf perpendicular to its surface; P, hair on 
 the upper surface; ST, stoma; Es, epidermis of the upper surface made up of plate cells ( 391); Ps, oval 
 cells closely packed with longer ones perpendicular to the epidermis; M, interspace beneath the stoma; 
 i, interspaces among the irregular shaped, loosely packed cells of the lower stratum Pi; Fv, cross-section 
 of fibro-vascular bundle: JSi, lower epidermis with hairs. (See Figs. 489 to 500.) 
 
 the tissues unites with substances found there, and 
 new material for plant growth is thus formed ; in the 
 night carbon dioxide is breathed out. It has been 
 shown by experiment that air is not only required for 
 the health of plants, but that they can not exist with- 
 out it ; for when placed in a vacuum, they invariably 
 perish. Respiration is therefore' necessary to the life 
 of plants as well as to animal life. . 
 
 428. Breathing goes on in all parts of plants ex- 
 posed to the air, at night as well as in the daytime; 
 
174 PHYSIOLOGICAL BOTANY. 
 
 and at night especially oxygen is consumed and car- 
 bon dioxide is set free. This fact has led to the in- 
 ference that 
 
 Potted plants in a living room render the air unfit 
 to breathe ; but carefully conducted experiments have 
 shown that one hundred ordinary stove plants would 
 not injure the air of a moderate sized sitting or living 
 room to an extent that could be in any way injurious. 
 
 429. Metabolism is the name applied to the process 
 which goes on in the structure of living plants that 
 alters one kind of material of plant growth into an- 
 other ; an example of which is the change of starch 
 into cellulose. 
 
 430. Assimilation is the process of taking into the 
 plant's structure surrounding substances and convert- 
 ing them into materials for plant growth, and consists 
 mainly in changing inorganic substances into vegetable 
 structure. The bulk of all woody plants is largely com- 
 posed of carbon, hence assimilation in such plants con- 
 sists mainly in disintegrating carbon dioxide, and ap- 
 propriating the carbon. Assimilation is carried on in 
 the cells of the green tissue and in sunlight. 
 
 Some of the substances suspended in the watery 
 fluids of plants and the constituents of water itself are 
 used directly by the protoplasm in the preparation of 
 food ; carbon dioxide, however, must first be decom- 
 posed, in which process its oxygen is set free, and the 
 carbon enters into the ligneous structure, or both oxy- 
 gen and carbon enter into new combinations which the 
 protoplasm can use. For example, water and carbon 
 dioxide contain all the materials found in starch. 
 These compounds having been separated into their 
 constituents, the elements reunite in quantities that 
 
LEAF STRUCTURE. 175 
 
 produce starch and other carbohydrates, as oils, sugars, 
 gums, etc. These are either used to supply the plant's 
 immediate wants or stored in some of its organs for 
 future use. 
 
 The decomposition of water and carbon dioxide lib- 
 erates oxygen, which may be seen in bubbles on the 
 submerged parts of water plants ; this gas escaping 
 into the air, helps to keep it pure. 
 
 431. Movements of fluids. The root takes up from 
 the earth the watery substances which are presented 
 to it ; the cells at the extremities of the root and 
 rootlets are first gorged ; these impart to the cells and 
 vessels next in contact, which take up the fluids by in- 
 filtration, and so they are passed on up the stem largely 
 through the cells and vessels of the last season's wood, 
 and outward through the same class of cells and 
 ducts, along the branches to the leaves and new twigs. 
 Having reached these green parts, much of the water 
 passes off by evaporation ; what remains becomes 
 changed by the action of sunlight and fitted for build- 
 ing up the plant's structure. It then by some mode 
 of transfusion finds its way back to all the growing 
 parts of the plant where new material is needed. 
 
 432. Circulation. Careful observation and experi- 
 ment have demonstrated that there is an upward cur- 
 rent of water or watery fluids through the stem, by 
 way principally of the fibre-vascular tissues ; but no 
 downward movement has been detected answering to 
 a current. Hence there is not a circulation which cor- 
 responds to what takes place in the higher animals. 
 Yet the prepared sap reaches parts of the plant's 
 structure lower than the points where it was prepared ; 
 hence it must go downward, 
 
176 PHYSIOLOGICAL BOTANY. 
 
 How the elaborated sap passes back and even 
 downward through the cells and vessels that are at 
 the same time employed conveying the crude watery 
 fluids up from the root is not understood. We are not 
 acquainted with any physical or chemical force which 
 causes the crude sap to creep through the cells and 
 ducts of the trunks and branches of great trees, hun- 
 dreds of feet in height ; nor is the transfusion of the 
 prepared fluids and cell materials to every part of the 
 plant's structure where food is required less difficult 
 to explain. 
 
 In fact, observation and experiment have thus far 
 failed to account for these mysterious movements. 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 FERTILIZATION. 
 
 433. The higher plants produce seeds, each of 
 which contains an embryo of a new plant. The seed 
 has already been defined as the ripened ovule or as 
 the fertilized and mature ovule. The fertilization of 
 the ovule is accomplished by the mingling of the 
 protoplasm of the pollen cell with the protoplasm of 
 the ovule, which is brought about in the following 
 manner : 
 
 434. Process of Fertilization. The ripened anther 
 opens and discharges its pollen grains, some of which, 
 by the action of the wind or the aid of insects, reach 
 the stigma ; when one has secured a lodgment, influ- 
 enced by the moist surface of the stigma, it germi- 
 nates, sends down through the tube of the style a 
 tube as the radicle of the seed penetrates the earth 
 
FERTILIZATION. 
 
 177 
 
 (Chapter III., Introduction). This delicate tube pro- 
 longs itself downward till it reaches the ovary, enter- 
 ing it ; comes in contact with 
 the ovule, which it penetrates, 
 and discharges the proto- 
 plasm of the pollen grain 
 upon the protoplasm of the 
 germ cell, or ovule, and thus 
 fertilizes it. The protoplasm 
 of the two cells having min- 
 gled, the ovule ripens into a 
 seed, in which resides the 
 embryo of a new plant. 
 
 The quantity of proto- 
 plasm in the ovule or germ 
 cell is greater than that con- 
 tained in the pollen grain. 
 
 435. Gamogenesis (Greek 
 ydpog, marriage, yeveais, pro- 
 duction). Formation by mar- 
 riage is the name applied to 
 this mode of fertilization. 
 
 529, Section of the ovary of Polygonum Penn- 
 
 436. Conjugation iS the sylvanicum, in process of fertilization. (Magni- 
 fied 20 diameters.) c, Natural size; n, one of the 
 
 Of another mode Which stamens . having discharged its pollen ; , a grain 
 
 of pollen and its tube; s, styles and stigmas; o, 
 
 3mpHshed bV the Union ovar y> ovule < ml>ry sac containing the embry- 
 onic globule. The extremity of a pollen-tube is 
 Of tWO Similar CellS Side by seen in contact with the embryo sac. 
 
 side, the combination resulting in a germinating cell. 
 
 437. The ovule fertilized becomes a new center of 
 growth. First it expands to a proper cell, attached to 
 the wall of the sac near the micropyle. It then, by 
 division and subdivision, multiplies itself, and begins to 
 take form according to the species, showing cotyledon, 
 plumule, etc., until fully developed into the embryo. 
 
 IS 
 
178 
 
 PHYSIOLOGICAL BOTANY. 
 
 In the case of the CONIFERS (Pines, Cedars, Mrs), where no styles or stig- 
 mas exist, the pollen falls directly into the microphyle of the naked ovule, 
 and its tubes settle into the tissue of the nucleus. 
 
 438. Germination. The ovule matures with the 
 completion of the embryo, and passes into the fixed 
 state of the seed in which the embryo 
 
 sleeps. A store of nutritive matter, 
 starch, gluten, etc., is thoughtfully pro- 
 vided in the seed for the use of the 
 young plant in germination, until its 
 root has gained fast 
 hold of the soil. 
 
 439. The changes 
 which occur in the 
 seed at the recom- 
 mencement of growth 
 are simply such as are 
 requisite to reduce its 
 dry deposits to a solu- 
 tion which shall 
 
 the proper 
 
 /? II C rkT , TVI Q Tne fertilized cell has divided itself into several, of which c, b 
 
 -IOI ina- constitute the suspensor attached te the apex of the sac ; a, em- 
 
 tion or growth. Gluten b 
 
 and other nitrogenous matters, oil, starch, etc., are to 
 be changed to diastase and dextrine. To accomplish 
 this, water is taken up, oxygen absorbed, plant-food 
 dissolved and moved to points where it is needed, and 
 used in constructing new cells and tissues. 
 
 440. Ripening of Fruits. After the fruit has attained its full growth 
 the process of ripening commences, during which the pulp becomes gradually 
 sweetened and softened, chiefly by the change of the starch into more or less 
 of soluble sugar. Thus ripening is to the pericarp what germination is to the 
 seed. In its earliest stage the pericarp consists of structure similar to that of 
 green leaves, composed of cellular, vascular, and woody tissues, and epider- 
 mis and stomata. Its distended growth afterward results from the accumula- 
 tion of the flowing sap, which here finds an axis incapable of extension. Thus 
 
 530, Ovule of Viola tricolor, showing the process of fertili- 
 zation; p, pollen; t, tube; r, raphe; c, chalaza; 6, primine; a, 
 secundine; n, nucleus; s, sac, which the tube appears to have 
 Illdf penetrated. 531, Growth of the embryo in Hippuris vulgaris. 
 
FERTILIZATION. 179 
 
 arrested in its progress, it gorges the pistil and adjacent parts, is condensed by 
 exhalation, assimilated by their green tissues, which still perform the office of 
 leaves. Cell-formation goes on rapidly within, and the excess of cellulose is 
 deposited in the cells as starch. Oxygen is usually absorbed in excess, acidi- 
 fying the juices. 
 
 441. In the same way we account for the produc- 
 tion of honey in the flower. Copious deposits of starch 
 are provided in the receptacle and disk ( 85). At the 
 opening of the flower, this is changed to sugar, to aid 
 in the rapid development of those delicate organs 
 which have no chlorophyl wherewith to assimilate 
 their own food. The excess of sugar flows over in the 
 form of honey. The wise economy of the honey is 
 seen in fertilization. For, attracted by it, the insect 
 enters the flower, rudely brushes the pollen from the 
 now open anthers, and inevitably lodges some of its 
 thousand grains upon the stigma ! 
 
 442. Experiment has proved that in all these cases of the formation of 
 sugar from starch, a molecule of water is absorbed a process which we might 
 expect, since starch (C ia H 20 Oi ), or n(C 8 H 10 O 5 ) contains proportionably two 
 less hydrogen and one less oxygen than sugar (d 2 H 22 On) contains. 
 
 443. Pollination, cross-fertilization, etc. Pollen is 
 essential to the fertilization of the flower. It must 
 not only be produced, but must also in some way be 
 conveyed to the stigma, and lodged on its surface. 
 Another requisite is that the pollen and pistil shall 
 either be : 1st, parts of the same flower ; or, 2d, of other 
 flowers of the same plant ; or, 3d, of the same species ; 
 or, 4th, of closely related species. In the first and 
 second cases the -process may be called self-fertiliza- 
 tion ; in the third case, cross-fertilization; in the 
 fourth case, hybridization. 
 
 444. Whether the first, second, or third process 
 shall prevail in any given species will depend on the 
 
180 PHYSIOLOGICAL BOTANY. 
 
 structure, number, or arrangement of the floral organs. 
 In the few flowers which never open, the Cleisto- 
 gamous, such as the late apetalous flowers of the Blue 
 Violet, and also probably those of Gentiana Andrewsii, 
 only self-fertilization is possible. But in the multitude 
 of open flowers with both stamens and pistils exposed, 
 as in the Lily, Rose, Morning G-lory, either self or cross 
 fertilization is possible unless determined by some 
 other special circumstance. The stigma may receive 
 pollen directly from its own stamens, or indirectly 
 from other flowers near or remote, through the agency 
 of winged insects, humming-birds, or of the wind. 
 Again there are flowers in which the organs are so 
 situated that self-fertilization is very difficult, or even 
 impossible. Of this class are the Asclepiads and 
 Orchids, whose pollen, cohering in masses (pollinia), is 
 inclosed in cavities, and only dragged forth by insects 
 to be carried to other flowers. So in Iris, where the 
 extrorse anthers and petaloid stigmas are averted from 
 each other, the former beneath, and shedding its pollen 
 downward. 
 
 445. Dichogamous Plants. In some species the 
 stamens and pistils are not cotemporary in the same 
 plant, but the stamens of one plant mature at the 
 same time with the pistils of another plant, and vice 
 versa. This necessitates cross-fertilization, and the 
 agency of the wind or of insects. We have examples 
 in the Grasses, the common Plantain, in Scrophularia, 
 etc. 
 
 446. Dimorphous Plants are such as the Mints 
 (Mentha), the Yellow Jessamine (Gelsemium), Hous- 
 tonia cserulea, etc. In these the flowers assume two 
 forms, with the stamens and pistils cotemporary in 
 
FEETILIZATION. 181 
 
 both. In some the stamens are exserted and pistil 
 included, while in others the stamens are included and 
 style exserted. This arrangement also favors cross- 
 fertilization through insect agency. 
 
 447. The service thus performed by insects in be- 
 half of vegetation is very important. Numerous spe- 
 cies are wholly dependent on bees, moths, flies, for the 
 dissemination of their pollen, and consequently for 
 their very existence. Many other species, although 
 capable of self-fertilization, are still greatly benefited 
 by the intercrossings of pollen which the visits of 
 insects occasion. Of course the bees have no idea of 
 these benefactions. They visit the flowers solely for 
 their own good. The nectar which they seek is always 
 so situated as to oblige them to disturb the pollen or 
 pollinia as they pass and repass, get besprinkled with 
 it, and so encounter the stigmas from flower to flower. 
 
 448. It would seem important that the bee or moth 
 should confine its visits during any one excursion to 
 plants of the same species. And this it often does, as 
 shown 4 by observation, avoiding the mingling of its 
 nectars as well as the confusion of its pollens. In 
 accomplishing this, the insect may be led by habit, 
 becoming accustomed, for the hour, to one form of 
 nectary ; or it may be drawn by uniform odor of the 
 flowers, or by their gay and special colors. For we 
 observe that the flowers of grasses and of forest trees 
 whose pollen is wafted by the wind, requiring no aid 
 from insects, are destitute both of bright colors and of 
 fragrance, and of honey. 
 
 449. From these observations and many others of 
 similar import, it is inferred that Nature insists on the 
 fertilization of the stigma in every plant by all means, 
 
182 PHYSIOLOGICAL BOTANY. 
 
 at least when growing in its native home ; also, that 
 of the two general modes, self, or cross, she greatly 
 prefers the latter. 
 
 450. What are the reasons for this preference? 
 The solution of this inquiry has engaged the attention 
 of many skillful investigators, until it seems to be 
 proved that the offspring of cross-fertilization are as a 
 rule decidedly superior in size, vigor, and variety, 
 
PART THIRD. 
 SYSTEMATIC BOTANY. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF CLASSIFICATION. 
 
 451. Systematic Botany has for its object the ar- 
 rangement of Plants into Groups and Families accord- 
 ing to their characters, for the purpose of facilitating 
 the study of their names, affinities, habits, history, 
 properties, and uses. In this department the prin- 
 ciples of Organic and Physiological Botany are applied 
 and brought into practical use. 
 
 452. But there is another and higher import in the 
 study of Systematic Botany. It shows us Plants as 
 related to each other and constituting one magnificent 
 system. It reveals the Almighty Creator at once em- 
 ployed in the minutest details and upon the boundless 
 whole ; equally attentive to the perfection of the indi- 
 vidual in itself, and to the completeness of the System 
 of which that individual forms a necessary part. 
 
 453. The necessity for such an arrangement of the Species will appear 
 when we consider their immense number. They meet us in ever-varying 
 forms at every step, clothing the hills, mountains, valleys, and plains. They 
 spring up in hedges and by the way-side. They border the streams and lakes, 
 and sprinkle over their surface. They stand assembled in forests, and cover 
 with verdure even the depths of the Ocean. Not less than 150,000 kinds are 
 already distinguished, and the catalogue is still growing. 
 
184 SYSTEMATIC BOTANY. 
 
 454. Into this vast kingdom of Nature the student is introduced, and pro- 
 poses to acquaint himself with each and every object. How shall he begin? 
 Evidently he must begin with the individual a single individual plant. But 
 (thanks to Him who created both the plant and the mind the object and the 
 subject), he is not left to continue the study in a method so endless and so 
 hopeless. As if in special regard to the measure of the human intellect and 
 the means of its culture, the Great Author of Nature has grouped these 
 myriads of individuals into the following divisions : 
 
 455. Species are individuals of a common origin or 
 parentage capable of producing their kind, though fre- 
 quently differing from each other in size, form, and 
 other unimportant characters. A species has been de- 
 nned as a "succession of individuals which reproduces 
 and perpetuates itself." 
 
 456. Variety, or Race, is a sub-species. This term 
 is applied to individual plants that possess marked 
 variations from specific characters, but not of suffi- 
 cient constancy to entitle them to the rank of species. 
 These differences are frequently brought about by the 
 quality of the soil or locality, but especially by culti- 
 vation. 
 
 Race characters are perpetuated and become con- 
 stant by grafting, budding, and carefully selecting 
 well-marked individuals from which to obtain seed. 
 
 The desirable characters of most of our fruits and 
 table vegetables are made constant in this way. 
 
 457. Genus is the name for a Group of individual 
 plants which resemble each other in the form and 
 structure of their organs of Fructification and Repro- 
 duction. 
 
 Illustration The individuals of the Crowfoot Kind differ in the size and 
 color of their flowers, some of which are yellow, others white ; in the size and 
 form of their stems, some of which grow erect, others prostrate and in the 
 shape of their leaves. Their organs of Fructification, however, are all con- 
 structed upon the same plan, and the function of polination is performed in 
 
GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF CLASSIFICATION. 185 
 
 the same manner ; hence they are grouped together and constitute the Genus 
 Ranunculus. 
 
 458. Orders. But natural affinities do not end here. The genera are yet 
 too numerous for the ready and systematic study of the naturalist. He, there- 
 fore, would generalize still further, and reduce the genera to still fewer and 
 broader groups. On comparing the genera with each other, he finds that they 
 also possess in common certain important characters which are of a more 
 general nature than those which distinguish them from each other. By these 
 general characters the genera are associated into Orders. 
 
 459. For example : comparing such genera as the Mustard, Radish, Cab- 
 bage, Cress, Wallflower, etc., it is seen that, while they differ sufficiently in 
 their generic characters, yet they all have certain marked resemblances in 
 their didynamous stamens, siliquous fruit, whereby they are obviously asso- 
 ciated in the same Order the Cruciferee. So, also, the Pines, the Spruces, 
 the Cedars, the Larches, and the Cypress, while as genera they are obviously 
 distinct, yet all bear cones of some form, with naked seeds ; hence they are 
 naturally grouped into one Order the Coniferae. 
 
 460. glasses. In like manner the Orders, by traits of resemblance still 
 more general, are associated in a few groups, each of great extent, called 
 Classes. 
 
 461. Intermediate Groups, formed on the same principles, are recog- 
 nized as Subgenera, Suborders or Tribes, and Subclasses or Cohorts, which 
 will be particularly noticed in another place. Of the same nature, also, are 
 Varieties, which are groups subordinate to species, already described in 28. 
 
 462. Systems. Two independent and widely dif- 
 ferent methods of classifying the genera have been 
 generally approved the Artificial Method of Linnaeus, 
 and the Natural System of Jussieu. The former is 
 founded solely on characters relating to the organs of 
 fructification, leaving all other natural affinities out of 
 view. It is simply an arrangement devised by Linnaeus 
 for convenience in the analysis of plants as words in 
 a dictionary, for convenience of reference, are arranged 
 alphabetically, without regard to their nature. It is 
 now superseded by 
 
 463. The Natural System. This method or system 
 of classification, on the contrary, makes use of every 
 natural character and takes for its basis all those 
 natural affinities and resemblances of plants whereby 
 Nature herself has distinguished them into groups and 
 
186 SYSTEMATIC BOTANY. 
 
 families. It seizes upon every character wherein plants 
 agree or disagree, and forms its associations only upon 
 the principle of natural affinity. Hence, each member 
 of any natural group resembles the other members ; 
 and a fair description of one will serve, to a certain 
 extent, for all the rest. 
 
 464. The species and genera are formed on this 
 principle of classification, as above stated, and are 
 truly natural associations. Individuals altogether simi- 
 lar cast, as it were, in the same mold constitute a 
 species. Species agreeing in nearly all respects, and 
 differing but in few, constitute a genus. Thence the 
 genera, associated by their remaining affinities in 
 groups of few or many, by this same method are 
 organized into Natural Orders and other departments 
 of the System. 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 NATURAL SYSTEM. 
 
 465. Botanists during the last two hundred years 
 have labored to group and arrange the individuals of 
 the vegetable kingdom so that the natural characters 
 of each group shall be most like those of the next 
 preceding group. 
 
 466. In 1694, Tournefort, a French physician and 
 botanist, published a method of arrangement in which 
 he defined and established the term genus as we now 
 understand it. 
 
 467. Early in 1700, John Ray, an English natu- 
 ralist, separated the vegetable kingdom into the fol- 
 lowing general groups ; 
 
NATURAL SYSTEM. 187 
 
 I. Phanerogamia. Plants that bear Flowers. 
 II. Cryptogamia. Plants that do not produce Flowers. 
 
 Suit-divisions of Flowering Plants. 
 
 1. Dicotyledones Plants whose embryo has two seed 
 
 leaves, or more than two. 
 
 2. Monocotyledones Plants whose embryo has one 
 
 seed leaf. 
 
 468. Linnaeus, a Swedish botanist, in 1736, while 
 only twenty years of age, published the outlines of 
 his celebrated sexual system, based upon the num- 
 ber, situation, and relative length of the pistils and 
 stamens, which, though artificial and misleading, earned 
 for its author a deathless fame. 
 
 469. In 1789, A. L. de Jussieu, embodying the 
 grand features of Ray with those of Tournefort, laid 
 the foundation of the natural system which, under 
 various modifications, has come down to us. 
 
 470. August P. de Candolle greatly modified the 
 arrangement of Jussieu, especially by reversing the 
 sequence, placing the most highly organized plants 
 first in order. 
 
 The following is a brief sketch of the latest ar- 
 rangement, and is substantially the one mapped out 
 by Sachs ; the order of sequence, however, is changed : 
 
 471. Phanerogamia. Flowering plants, or plants 
 whose flowers or organs of fructification are exposed 
 to view. 
 
 Plants of this class have roots, stems, and leaves 
 through which bundles of woody fiber extend ; they 
 bear flowers, in special parts of which reproductive 
 organs are- produced that form embryonic bodies 
 
188 SYSTEMATIC BOTANY. 
 
 called seeds; these seeds germinating, become new 
 plants. 
 
 472. Cryptogamia. Flowerless plants or plants 
 that do not produce seeds ; their reproductive appa- 
 ratus forms cell-like bodies, without cotyledons, called 
 spores, which germinate indifferently from any part of 
 the cell ; these spore-like seeds of the Cryptogams 
 germinating, produce new plants. 
 
 These plants are called flowerless, because their 
 organs of reproduction are concealed or obscure ; hence 
 the name Cryptogamia, or concealed nuptials. 
 
 VEGETABLE KINGDOM. 
 
 SUB-KINGDOM I. 
 
 473. Phanerogamia. Plants that bear proper flow- 
 ers and produce seeds, derived from the Greek words 
 cfxivepog, open, and yd^o^, marriage, signifying open mar- 
 riage. 
 
 474. CLASS I. Dicotyledones. Plants with two seed 
 leaves or cotyledons. From the Greek words &V, two, 
 and KOTvhqduv, a hollow disk, alluding to the shape of 
 the coatings or walls of the seed leaves. 
 
 475. Angiosperms. Plants whose seeds are in- 
 closed in a pericarp or vessel. From the Greek dyyeZov, 
 a vessel, and a-rrepfia, a seed, signifying plants whose 
 seeds are inclosed by a covering ; as, ?he Apple, Maple, 
 Oak, etc. 
 
 476. COHORT 1, A. Polypetalae. Dicotyledonous 
 plants whose flowers have both calyx and corolla ; 
 corolla composed of separate petals, which are some- 
 times slightly coherent at their bases ; as, the flowers 
 of the Buttercup, Apple, Strawberry, etc. 
 
 477. COHORT 2, B. Gamopetalse. Dicotyledonous 
 
NATURAL SYSTEM. 189 
 
 plants whose flowers have both calyx and corolla, with 
 petals more or less united ; as, Elder, Arrow-wood, etc. 
 
 478. COHORT 3, C. Apetalae. Dicotyledonous plants, 
 whose flowers have a calyx but no corolla, and some- 
 times neither ; as, Ragweed, Goosefoot, etc. 
 
 479. CLASS II. Gymnosperms, Dicotyledones or Poly- 
 cotyledones. Plants whose seed is not inclosed by a 
 vessel or pericarp, derived tfrom the Greek words 
 ytyzvo^, naked, and anepfm, seed, naked seed. Stem 
 elongated, solid ; leaves nearly parallel-veined ; flowers 
 not perfect ; pistil scale-like ; no stigma ; ovules not 
 inclosed in a vessel ; embryo with two or more oppo- 
 site or whorled cotyledons. 
 
 480. COHORT 4, D. Coniferae. Pines, Spruces, and 
 other cone-bearing trees and shrubs.- 
 
 481. CLASS III. Monocotyledones. Plants whose em- 
 bryo has one cotyledon, or one seed leaf. Greek [i6vo$, 
 alone or one, and Korv^dov. Blade of the leaf usually 
 divided into two parts by a prominent midrib, with veins 
 extending from the base to the apex parallel to the 
 midrib ; flowers usually three-parted ; root not axial. 
 
 This class is separated into three cohorts. 
 
 482. COHORT 5, E. Spadiciflorae. Monocotyledonous 
 plants, with flowers on a spadix, frequently enveloped 
 by a spathe ; Palms, Calla, and pond weeds. 
 
 483. COHORT 6, F. Petaloideae. Monocotyledonous 
 plants whose flowers are usually perfect and complete ; 
 floral envelope three-parted and double ; outer whorl 
 colored green ; as, Lily, Lily of the Valley, etc. 
 
 484. COHORT 7, G. Glumiferae. Monocotyledonous 
 plants whose floral envelope is chaff-like ; ovary single, 
 with one ovule ; as, grass-like plants, Wheat, Rye, the 
 Sedges, etc. 
 
190 
 
 SYSTEMATIC BOTANY. 
 
 Pig. 532, c, A Fern ; Polypodium vulgare. a, Club-moss ; Lycopodium dendroideum. 6, Equisetum 
 (Scouring Rush or Horse Tail). d, a Liverwort Moss ; Marchantia. e, a Fungus or Mushroom ; 
 Agaricus, in three stages of growth. 
 
 SUB-KINGDOM n. 
 
 485. Cryptogamia. Plants that do not produce 
 proper flowers. From the Greek upv-rrros, hidden, and 
 ya>oc, marriage. 
 
 486. CLASS I. Pt eridophy ta. Vascular cryptogams- 
 Perns and their allies. From Greek words Trrep^, a 
 fern, and 0vrov, a plant, signifying a fern-like plant. 
 
 This class is divided into three cohorts. 
 
 487. COHOKT 1, H. Lycopodinse (Club Mosses). 
 Stem herbaceous, rooting at the nodes and creeping, 
 simple or branched, sometimes tree-shaped ; foliage 
 small ; leaf one-nerved ; fructification at the base of 
 the leaf or in terminal catkins on the branches. Name 
 from Greek words MKO?, a wolf, and rrovg, a foot, due 
 to the fancied resemblance of the roots to the foot of 
 a wolf. 
 
NATUKAL SYSTEM. 191 
 
 488. COHORT 2, I. Equisetacae (Horse Tails). Stem 
 straight, simple or branched, cylindrical, channeled ; 
 stiff-jointed ; sheathed at the joints ; tops of the 
 sheaths toothed. From Latin equus, a horse, and seta, 
 a bristle or hair ; Equisetum, scouring rush. 
 
 489. COHORT 3, J. Filicinae. Ferns proper. Stem 
 a horizontal creeping rhizome, sometimes erect ; foli- 
 age pinnate or variously divided ; veins forked ; fructi- 
 fication on the back or edge of the frond. Name from 
 Latin filix, a fern ; Osmunda, Flowering Fern. 
 
 THE FOLLOWING- FIVE CLASSES 
 
 are not treated in this book, and therefore will be 
 briefly noticed only. 
 
 490. CLASS II. Bryophyta. Mosses and their allies 
 (Greek ftwov, a moss, (pvrov, a plant). 
 
 Sub-class 1. Hepaticse, Liverworts. 
 Sub-class 2. Musci, Mosses. 
 
 491. CLASS III. Carpophyta. Spore-fruited plants 
 (Greek Kaprrog, fruit, 0vrov). 
 
 Sub-class 1. Coleochaetese, Green fresh-water plants 
 with few spores. 
 
 Sub-class 2. Floridese, Red or purple marine plants. 
 Sub-class 3. Ascomycetes, Parasites, spores in sacs. 
 Sub-class 4. Basidiomycetes, Spores on stalks. 
 Sub-class 5. Characea3, Green fresh-water plants. 
 
 492. CLASS IV. Odphyta. Plants with egg-shaped 
 spores (Greek wov, an egg, and fyvrov). 
 
 Sub-class 1. Zoosporae, Spore cells locomotive. 
 Sub-class 2. CEdogonieae, Thread-like cellular body. 
 Sub-class 3. Cceloblastese, Thread-like tubular body. 
 Sub-class 4. Fucacese, Large, color olive green. 
 
 493. CLASS V. Zygophyta. Unisexual plants (Greek 
 
192 SYSTEMATIC BOTANY. 
 
 , a pair, and 4>vr6v), plants in which the sexes are 
 united. 
 
 Sub-class 1. Zoosporeae, Cells capable of motion. 
 Sub-class 2. Conjugatse, Cells fixed. 
 
 494. CLASS VI. Protophyta. First or most simple 
 class of plants (Greek Trp&To?, first, and 0vr6v). These 
 plants are the lowest vegetable organisms, and consist 
 of single cells, or strings of cells. 
 
 Sub-class 1. Myxomycetes, Slime molds, naked pro- 
 toplasm, without regular form. 
 
 Sub-class 2. Schizomycetes, Bacteria minute cells. 
 Sub-class 3. Cyanophycese, Green Slimes. 
 
 495. Orders or Families succeed to the Cohorts. 
 The Natural Order is perhaps the most important of 
 all the associations. On the accuracy and distinct- 
 ness of the characters of these groups botanists have 
 bestowed the highest degree of attention, and the 
 student's progress will largely depend upon his acquaint- 
 ance with them. 
 
 496. Orders are formed by associating together 
 those genera which have the most intimate relations 
 to each other, or to some one genus previously as- 
 sumed as the type. As species form genera, so 
 genera form Orders. In regard to extent, they differ 
 widely ; some consisting of a single genus, as, Plata- 
 naceae, while others comprehend hundreds of genera, 
 as, Compositae. For convenience in analysis, the larger 
 Orders are broken up into Sub-orders or Tribes. 
 
 The Flowering plants of the whole world, known to botanists, have been 
 grouped under 200 Orders, 7,500 Genera, and 100,000 species. About 80,000 of 
 these species are Dicotyledons, and the remaining 20,000 are Monocotyledons. 
 
 It is a high accomplishment in a botanist to possess an extensive ac- 
 quaintance with individual plants. The ability to determine readily the genus 
 and species to which a plant belongs depends largely upon an accurate knowl- 
 edge of the characters of the orders and tribes. 
 
RULES IN NOMENCLATURE. 193 
 
 497. The Natural System, then, with all its divis- 
 ions, groups, and subordinations, may be exhibited 
 at one view, as follows : 
 KINGDOM, 
 SUB-KINGDOMS, 
 CLASSES, 
 COHORTS, 
 ORDERS, 
 SUB-ORDERS, or 
 TRIBES, 
 GENERA, 
 SUB-GENERA, 
 SPECIES, or 
 RACES. 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 RULES IN NOMENCLATURE. 
 
 498. The Names of the Orders are Latin adjectives, 
 feminine, plural (to agree with plantce, plants, under- 
 stood), usually derived from the name of the most 
 prominent, or leading genus, by changing or prolong- 
 ing the termination into acece, as Hosacece, the Rose 
 tribe, Papaveracece, the Poppy tribe, from Rosa and 
 Papaver. Earlier names, however, derived from some 
 leading character in the Order, and with various ter- 
 minations, are still retained. Thus, Composite^, with 
 compound flowers ; Labiatce, with labiate flowers. 
 
 499. Generic Names are Latin substantives, arbi- 
 trarily formed, often from some medicinal virtue, either 
 supposed or real, or from some obvious character of 
 the genus ; sometimes from some peculiar form of the 
 flower, or from the name of some distinguished bot- 
 
194 SYSTEMATIC BOTANY. 
 
 anist, or patron of botany, to whom the genus is thus 
 said to be dedicated. Also the ancient classic names, 
 either Latin or Greek, are often retained. Examples of 
 all these modes of construction will be seen hereafter. 
 
 500. Specific Names are usually Latin adjectives, 
 singular, and agreeing in gender with the name of the 
 genus to which they belong. They are mostly founded 
 upon some distinctive character of the species ; as, Viola 
 blanda, Sweet-scented Violet ; V. cucullata, Hood-leaved 
 Violet. Frequently the species is named after some 
 other genus, which, in some respect, it resembles ; as, 
 Viola delphinifolia, Larkspur Violet. 
 
 501. Commemorative Specific Names. SPECIES, like 
 genera, are also sometimes named in commemoration 
 of distinguished persons. The rules given by Lindley, 
 for the construction of such names, are : 1 st. If the 
 person is the discoverer, the specific name is a sub- 
 stantive in the genitive case, singular number; as, 
 Viola Selkirkiij Selkirk's Violet ; Lobelia Kalmii, 
 Kalm's Lobelia. 2d. If the name is merely conferred 
 in honor of the person to whom it is dedicated, it is 
 an adjective ending in nus, na, or num (according to 
 the gender of the generic name) ; as, Tulipa Gesneri- 
 ana, Gesnerian Tulip, or Gesner's Tulip ; Erica Lin- 
 neana, Linnaeus 1 Heath. 
 
 502. Rules for the use of Capitals. The names of 
 the order, the sub-order or tribe, and of the genus, 
 should always commence with a capital letter. The 
 name of the species should never commence with a 
 capital except in the following cases: (1), when it is 
 derived from the name of a person or of a country, as 
 Phlox Drummondii, Aquilegia Canadensis ; (2), when 
 it is a substantive, as Delphinium Consolida. 
 
BOTANICAL ANALYSIS. 195 
 
 503. Synonyms. Very frequently, the same species has been described 
 by different (or even by the same) authors, under different names. In such 
 cases it becomes a question, often of difficult solution, which name is to be 
 adopted. Obviously, the prior name, that is, the original one, if it can be 
 ascertained, is entitled to the most respect; and it is a rule with botanists 
 to adopt this name, unless it has been previously occupied, or be strongly 
 objectionable on some other account. All other names are synonyms. 
 
 504. Authorities. In the flora which accompanies this work, immediately 
 after the Genus we insert the abbreviated name of the author by whom it 
 was originally published, with a comma between, thus: Trifolium, Tourn. 
 After a species the authority is inserted without a comma, as T. repens L., 
 that is to say, Trifolium repens (of) Linnaeus. In changing the generic rela- 
 tions of a species (as subsequent writers often deem necessary), it is a custom 
 for the author of the change to annex his own name, or a blank, instead of 
 the original authority. The custom is often unjust, and always liable to 
 abuse. It offers a bribe for innovations in the Q-enera, and recent works 
 abound in changes which otherwise could scarcely be accounted for. When 
 such changes become necessary, the just and proper rule (actually adopted in 
 Conchology) is the following. Let the original specific name and authority both 
 be retained, the latter in parenthesis, thus, Lychnis G-ithago (Linn.) origi- 
 nally Agrostemma G-ithago Linn. This method is often but not always used 
 in the present work. 
 
 Authorities for our species of exotic cultivated plants, for want of space, 
 have all been here omitted. 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 BOTANICAL ANALYSIS. 
 
 505. Botanical Analysis is the application of the 
 rules and principles of botany to the study of the 
 natural plant, in order to determine its place in the 
 system, its names, history, uses all that is on record 
 concerning it. In the flowering months, the learner 
 will constantly meet with new forms of bloom ; and 
 if he is duly interested in the science, he will not 
 fail to seize and analyze each new flower while the 
 short hour of its beauty may last. Thus in a few 
 seasons, or even in one, he may become well acquainted 
 with the flora of the vicinity where he dwells. 
 
 506. Suppose, now, the pupil to be in possession 
 of an unknown plant in flower and fruit. The first 
 
196 SYSTEMATIC BOTANY. 
 
 requisite is, its Natural Order, and the first step in 
 analysis is an examination of the several organs, one 
 by one, until the general structure is well understood. 
 This done, the experienced botanist, who has in mem- 
 ory the characters of all the Orders, might determine 
 at once to which of them the plant in question belongs. 
 But the beginner must be content with a longer course 
 of inquiry and comparison, a course which might be 
 indefinitely long and vague without the use of 
 
 507. Analytical Tables. These are designed to 
 shorten and define to exactness the processes of anal- 
 ysis. Those which appear in the present work are 
 peculiar in form, and more copious and complete than 
 the tables of any other similar work. These tables, 
 with proper use in connection with the specimen, will 
 very rarely fail to conduct the inquirer almost imme- 
 diately to the right Order, Genus, and Species. 
 
 We subjoin a few examples of the analysis of par- 
 ticular species by the aid of these tables. If the exer- 
 cise be conducted in the class-room, the successive 
 steps in the process (indicated by the numbers 1, 2, 3, 
 etc., below) may be assigned, in order, to each pupil 
 in the class. 
 
 ANALYSIS OF A POLYPETALOTJS HERB. 
 
 508. To determine the Cohort. A good specimen of a little yellow- 
 flowered herbaceous plant, common in the grassy fields of cool regions, is sup- 
 posed to be now in the hands of each pupil of the class. (1.) Tne first pupil, 
 reading (if necessary) the characteristic of each sub-kingdom, pronounces the 
 plant one of the Phaenogamia, and refers the next pupil to the Classes I., 
 
 n., or m. 
 
 (2.) The next reads the characters of those Classes, and comparing the 
 specimen (which has net-veined leaves and 5-merous flowers), concludes that it is 
 an Exogen. Refer next to the Class I. 
 
 (3.) "Stigmas present. Seeds inclosed in vessels." 
 
 " Stigmas none. Seeds naked. (Pines, Spruces, etc.) " Our plant has 
 stigmas, etc., and, moreover, is not a Pine, Spruce, etc. It is, therefore, an 
 Angiosperm. Refer next to Cohorts 1, 2, or 3. 
 
BOTANICAL ANALYSIS. 197 
 
 (4.) "Corolla with the petals distinct." This characterizes our plant, and 
 it is pronounced one of the Polype talae. Refer them to A. 
 
 509. To determine the Order, the (5th) pupil reads the first alternative, 
 or triplet, noted by a star (*), and comparing his plant, finds it to corre- 
 spond with the first line, for it is an "herb with alternate leaves." Pass now 
 to (12). 
 
 (6.) " Mowers regular or nearly so. Fruit never a legume." 
 
 "Mowers irregular," etc. The flower is regular. Pass to (14). 
 
 Again, a (7th) pupil reads, " Stamens 310 times as many as the petals." 
 ''Stamens few and definite." The stamens are many. Pass to (15). 
 
 (8.) The next pupil reads, compares, and determines that the stamens are 
 "perigynous on the base of the calyx," and announces the letter (d) as the 
 reference to the next alternative. (9.) Next, the pupil reads and compares 
 bis specimen with the triplet (tf), and concludes that the sepals are 5, and 
 Imbricated in the bud. Consequently, it is announced that the plant in hand 
 belongs to the Order ROSACES. 
 
 510. To determine the Genus. After a careful comparison of their 
 specimen with the diagnosis of the Roseworts (Order 44), in order to verify 
 the analysis thus far, the learner or the class will then consult the table of 
 the Q-enera. (10.) A pupil reads the couplet marked A., and determines that 
 the "Ovary is superior, fruit not inclosed," etc. Pass to (a). 
 
 (11.) "Carpels 00. Calyx persistent, with 5 bractlets added," characterizes 
 our plant. Pass to (/), which is Tribe V. Pass on to (g). (12.) The next 
 pupil determines that the " style is deciduous." Pass to (k). (13.) " Torus 
 spongy or dry," is true of our specimens. Pass to (I). (14.) "Bractlets 5" 
 reads the next, and announces the plant to be a Potentilla. Now all turn to 
 Q-enus 13, and together verify this result by reading and comparing the stated 
 character of the genus. 
 
 511. To determine the Species. (15.) As our plant has " stamens OO 
 and flowers yellow" it must be a true Potentilla. Pass to (a). (16.) "Leaves 
 palmately 3-foliate " suits our plant. It is, therefore, either species No. 3, 4, 
 or 5. Lastly (17), after a due comparison of their plant with each of these 
 three species, it is determined that it is P. Norvegica. 
 
 ANALYSIS OF A MONOCOTYLEDON. 
 
 512. A grass-like, blue-flowered herb is now supposed to have been dis- 
 covered and distributed to the Class for analysis. Having (1) determined 
 that it is a Monocotyledon (for it has " parallel- veined leaves and 3-parted 
 flowers "), they would now (2) determine its Class, which is HI. 
 
 " Mowers without glumes, and colored," etc. 
 
 "Mowers with green alternate glumes, and no perianth." The first line 
 is adopted, and the plant agrees with Petaloideae. Pass next to (t) Cohorts 
 5th or 6th, and read, 
 
 (3.) "Cohort 5. Mowers on a spadix, apetalous or incomplete." 
 
 " Cohort 6. Flowers complete, with a double perianth " which 
 answers to the specimens in hand, and it is seen to belong to the Petaloideee. 
 Pass to P. 
 
 (4.) The next pupil having read and compared the first couplet under 
 "F, Cohort 6, Petaloideae," chooses the second line. Pass to No. 2. (5.) 
 "Perianth tube adherent to the ovary" is adopted. Pass to (4). (6.) "Flow- 
 
 .> > "O 
 TT W T TT 
 
198 SYSTEMATIC BOTANY. 
 
 ers perfect." The second line of this couplet is true of our plant. Next pass 
 to (&). The (7.) pupil reads "Anthers 3 or 6," which is true of the plant. 
 Pass to (c). (8.) " Perianth glabrous outside " is true. Next read (d). (9.) 
 " Anthers 3, opening lengthwise, outward," is also true, and our plant is thus 
 traced to the order IRIDACE.E. 
 
 513. To determine the Q-enus and Species under the Irids, Order 146, is 
 the next and the last step. Having carefully compared their specimens with 
 the characters ascribed to the Irids, the pupils next apply to the Table of the 
 Q-enera. (10.) "Mowers regular and equilateral," in the first dilemma, is 
 chosen. Bead the (*) couplet next. (11.) " Sepals similar to the petals in 
 form, size, and position " is true. Next to (a). (12.) " Stamens monadelphous. 
 Elowers small, blue. Plants grass-like," describes the plant truly, and it must 
 be a Sisyrhinchium. They turn to G-enus 7, and verify by reading its char- 
 acters. Lastly, the brief diagnoses of the two species are compared, and the 
 plant is found to be S. Bermudiana. 
 
INDEX AND GLOSSARY. 
 
 a (a, privative), prefixed to a Greek word, 
 
 signifies without; as aphyllous, without 
 
 leaves. 
 
 ab brS vl S'tions, page ?, Part IV. 
 a b6r'tion, non-development of apart. 
 ab sSrp'tion, 199. 
 ae'au le"s'9ent, or a eau ISs'eent, apparently 
 
 stemless, 223. 
 
 ae c6s'so ry, something ,'uperadded. 
 a erfis'cent, growing after flowering, 109. 
 ae eum'bent, lying against a thing, 183. 
 a?'er ose or a^'er oue, needle-shaped, 299. 
 a ehS'ni urn, plural, a hS'ni a, 151. 
 ach'lS m^d'e ous, without floral envelopes. 
 a slc'tl lar, finely needle-shaped. 
 a cot y 18d'o nous, without cotyledons. 
 ac'ro gens, summit growers. 
 a etl'le ate, armed with prickles. 
 a etl'mi nate, drawn out into a point, 307. 
 a fite', ending in a sharp angle, 307. 
 ad hSr'ent, growing to, 82, 94. 
 fld'nate, growing fast to, 114. 
 ad ven tl'tious, growing out of the usual or 
 
 normal position, as roots, 206. 
 8 er a'tion, same as respiration, 483. 
 ses tl va'tiou, 335. 
 
 af fln'i ty, resemblance in essential organs. 
 age of trees, 47. 
 
 Sg'gre gate, assembled close together. 
 a glu ma'ceous, without glumes, the same as 
 
 pgt'al oid, 483. 
 air-bladders, 323. 
 air-plants, 208. 
 8'la, wing ; a'lae, wings, 101. 
 a' late, winged, 274. ' 
 al bfi'men, 179. 
 al btTmi nous, 178. 
 al bur'num, sap-wood, 418. 
 ai'gse, seaweeds. 
 al'ter nate, 215, 262. 
 
 ai've o late, with pits like the honey-comb. 
 ftm'ent, a deciduous spike, 357. 
 a mOr'phous, without definite form. 
 am phlt'ro pous, 141. 
 am pl6x'I caul, stem- clasping, 275, 311. 
 a nary sis, botanical, 510. 
 a nas to mo'sis, reunion of vessels cr veins. 
 a nat'ro pous, i41. 
 an clp'l tal, two-edged. 
 an dne'cium, 110. 
 an dr6'y nous, stamens and pistils on the 
 
 same peduncle. 
 an'gi o sperms, 475. 
 In'i mal, 15. 
 
 8n'nu al, yearly (sc. plants'), 40. 
 an'nu lar cells, 378. 
 an tS'ri or, parts (of a flower) adjacent to the 
 
 bract. 
 
 an'thel mln'tic, expelling or killiny worms. 
 an'ther, 111, 113. 
 
 an thg'sis, the opening of the flower ; flower- 
 ing. 
 
 a pgt'a lae, 478. 
 
 a pgt'al ous, without petals. 
 
 SpVyl lous or a phyl'lous, without leaves. 
 
 a p5ph'y sis, a swelling, e. g., under the 
 thecce of some mosses. 
 
 ftp pa ra'tus, 4. 
 
 ap pen dle'fl lar organs, 77. 
 
 ap prgssed', closely applied but not adhering 
 to ; the same as adpressed. 
 
 ap'ter ous, without wings. 
 
 a quat'ic, living in water. 
 
 ft rach'noid, resembling cobwebs. 
 
 ar'bor ous, arborescent, tree-like. 
 
 are'fl ate, arched or curved like a bow. 
 
 a r6'o Jiate, having the surface divided into 
 little spaces or areas. 
 
 ar'il, an extra seed-covering, 175. 
 
 a ris'tate, with an arista or awn (barley). 
 
 armed, bearing prickles, spines, etc. 
 
 ar tle'fl lat ed, jointed, as the culm of wheat. 
 
 Ss cSnd'Ing, arising obliquely assurgent. 
 
 fts eld' I a, leaves holding water, 322. 
 
 as slm'i la'tion, 430. 
 
 at tgn'fl ate, becoming slender or thin. 
 
 &u rle'fl late, ear-bearing, 291. 
 
 awn, the beard of barley and the like. 
 
 aVi al root, 200. 
 
 ftx'il (arm-pit), the angle between the petiole 
 and the branch, on the upper side. 
 
 ax'il la ry, growing out of the axils. 
 
 ax'is, ascending, 211, 212; erect, procumbent, 
 prostrate, trailing, decumbent, 212 ; excur- 
 rent, solvent, 226 ; descending, 197. 
 
 bfte'eate, berry-like ; covered with pulp. 
 
 ban'ner, same as vexillum, 101. 
 
 bftn'yan tree, 207. 
 
 bark, 416. 
 
 tofts/i lar, basal, attached to the base, 186. 
 
 bftst-cells, wood-cells of bark, 416. 
 
 bSaked, ending in an extended tip. 
 
 bSard'ed, with tufts of long, weak hairs. 
 
 bSr'ry, 159. 
 
 bi, bis, twice (in compound words). 
 
 bl'eol or, two colored. 
 
 bi us'pid i.te, with two points or cusps. 
 
 bi dgn'tate, with two teeth. 
 
 bi gn'ni al, of two years, 41. 
 
 bl'fld, cleft into two parts. 
 
 bi fO'li ate, with two leaflets. 
 
 bi f flr'ate, twice forked, or merely forked. 
 
 bi la'bl ate, two-lipped. 
 
 bl'nate, 303. 
 
 bi pln'nate, 304. 
 
 bi pin nat'i fid, twice pinnatifld. (Fig. 342.) 
 
 bi tgr'nate, twice ternate, 305. 
 
 bi'vaived, two-valved. 
 
 blade. See lamina, 271. 
 
200 
 
 INDEX AND GLOSSARY. 
 
 blanched plants, whitened for the want of 
 
 light. 
 
 bloom, aflne white powder, on some plants. 
 border, ji, 92. 
 botany defined, 18. 
 botany, elementary, 20, 368, etc. 
 botany, physiological, 21, 368. 
 botany, systematic, 22, 153. 
 braeh'i ate, with opposite, spreading branches 
 
 (arms). (Pig. 275.) 
 brSet, 329, 345. 
 brae'te ate, having bracts. 
 brae'te Dies or bractlets, 345. 
 branches, 34, 214. 
 bristles, stiff, sharp hairs. 
 bry Sph'y $, 490. 
 bud, 33. 
 budding, ?59. 
 
 buds, axillary, 247 ; accessory, 250. 
 buds, adventitious, 251. 
 buds, suppression of, 248. 
 bud-scales, 246, 319. 
 bulb, 240 ; tunicated, 242 ; scaly, 242. 
 bulb'lets, 260. 
 
 ca dd'cous, dropping off early, 103. 
 
 cses'pi tose, forming tufts or turf. 
 
 cai'9e o late, slipper-shaped. 
 
 caTy cine, calyx-like. 
 
 ca lyc'tl late, having an outer calyx or calyx- 
 like involucre. 
 
 ca lyp'trsi, the hood of the sporange (spore- 
 case) of a moss. 
 
 ca'lyx, the outer floral envelope, 51. 
 
 cftm'bl urn. 417. 
 
 cam pSn'fi late, bell-shaped, 102. 
 
 cSm'py 15t'ro poiis, 141. 
 
 cSn'a Hc'fl late, channeled. 
 
 ca ngs'cent, grayish white. 
 
 cap'il la ry, capittaceous, hair-shaped. 
 
 c&p'i tate, head-shaped, growing in dose clus- 
 ters or heads. 
 
 ca plt'fl lum, a little head, 861. 
 
 cSp're o late, bearing tendrils. 
 
 capsule, 167. 
 
 sar'bon dl ox'Ide, 411. 
 
 carl'na, 101. 
 
 cSr'i nate, boat-shaped, having a sharp ridge 
 beneath. 
 
 ciir'pel, carpellary, 126. 
 
 ciir'po phore, 149, 151. (Fig. 17,7.) 
 
 car ti lag! nous, Jlrm and tough in texture, 
 like cartilage. 
 
 c&r'un cle, 175. 
 
 c3r y o phyl IS 'ceo us, 100. 
 
 car y Sp'sis, 153. 
 
 cat'kin, 357. (See ament.) 
 
 ca.u'dex, 227. 
 
 cau 16s' cent, 223. 
 
 cau'lis, 223. 
 
 cau'line, relating to the stem, 262. 
 
 ceTlu lar tissue, 396. 
 
 cell, 368. 
 
 cell-growth, 377-384. 
 
 ceTlu lar bark, 416. 
 
 c6Mu lose, 371. 
 
 cen trif ' 11 gal inflorescence, 35. 
 
 cen trip'e tal inflorescence, 352. 
 
 96ph'a lous, same as capitate. 
 
 cS're al, relating to grains, corn, etc. 
 
 per'nu ous, nodding (less inclined than pen- 
 dulous). 
 
 chaff, chaffy, 349. (See paleaceous ) 
 
 cha IS'za, 140. 
 
 channeled, hollowed out like a gutter. 
 
 ehar ta'ceous, with the texture of paper. 
 
 chlO'ro phyl, 373, 381, 435. 
 
 chor'I sis, 76. 
 
 9ll'i ate, fringed with marginal hairs. 
 
 9l'on or sion, 218. 
 
 ci ne're ous, ashy gray, ash color. 
 
 9ir'9i nate, rolled inward from the top, 255. 
 
 cir cu la'tion of sap, 432. 
 
 cir'cum scis' slle, 149. 
 
 clr'rhose, furnished with a tendril. 
 
 cirrhose roots, 206. 
 
 classes, natural, 01. 
 
 elas si fi cS'tion, artificial, 03. 
 
 cla'vate, club-shaped. . 
 
 co arct'ate or co arc'tate, contracted, drawn 
 
 8e'eus, a berry ; coc'^I (plural), the\-seeded 
 
 carpels of separable fruits. 
 eftch'le ate, spiral, like tJie snail-shell. 
 co h6 sion, 82. 
 cO'horts, 461. 
 
 ool lat'er al, placed side by side. 
 coTlum, 199. 
 col'ored, of any color except green, which in 
 
 botany is not a color, while white is. 
 cSl'umn, the combined stamens and styles. 
 eO'ma, 173. 
 cQm'mis sflre, the joined faces of the carpels 
 
 of the cremocarp, 151. 
 com'mon, belonging alike to several. 
 complete flower, GO. 
 com'pli cate, folded up upon itself. 
 compound leaf, 300. 
 compound flower, 348. 
 com pressed', flattened on the sides, 274. 
 con du'pli cate, folded on itself lengthwise. 
 cone, 169. 
 
 cOn'flu ent, uniting; same as coherent, 
 con glOm'er ate, clustered or crowded. 
 cQn'ju gate, coupled Joined by pairs. 
 cfin'nate, 311. 
 
 con ngc'tile, connective, 113, 114. 
 con nlv'ent, converging, coming together. 
 con tln'u ous, the reverse of jointed, 
 con tSrt'ed, twisted, 338. 
 con'vo lute, 256, 339. 
 cOr'date, heart-shaped, 291. 
 cO'ri a'ceous, leather-like, 315. 
 c6rm, 233. 
 
 c6r'ne ous, horn-like in texture. 
 cor nic'u late, with a small horn or spur. 
 co rSl'la, 52, etc. 
 
 cftr'ol line, pertaining to the corolla. 
 co rO'na, crown. 
 cOr'ti cal bark, 416. 
 cor'ymb, co rym'bose, 358. 
 c5s'tate, 'ribbed, with rib- like ridges. 
 cot y le'dons, 180, 30. 
 cras'sfl la, a genus of plants, 63. 
 era ter'i f6rm, of the form of a goblet. < 
 creep 'er. creeping stems, 231. 
 rem carp', 151. 
 
 crS'nate, bordered with rounded teeth. 
 crgn'O late, 809. 
 
 crgst'ed or cris'tate, with an elevated ridge. 
 crls'pate or crisped, 310. 
 crown of the root, 236. 
 cru'ci form (corolla), 100. 
 crude sap, 368. 
 
 crus ta'ceous, hard, thin, and brittle. 
 cryp to ga'mia, 472. 
 cu'cul late, rolled up into a hood shape. 
 culm, the straw of grasses, 224. 
 efl'ne ate, ctTne" i form, wedge-shaped, 290. 
 cup-shaped, 102. 
 
INDEX AND GLOSSARY. 
 
 201 
 
 etTpflle, a little cup (sc. acorn), 155. 
 cus'pi date, with a sharp, stiff point, 307. 
 eQ'ti ele, outer lamina of wall of epidermis, 
 
 399. 
 
 9? an'ie, blue, or any color except yellow 
 9y ftth'i f8rm, cup-shaped. 
 9y'cle (in Phyllotaxy), 263 2 264. 
 y clO'sis, same as flotation, currents in the 
 
 cell. 
 
 9yme, cymous, 363. 
 pym'bi form, boat-shaped. 
 9yp'sel a, 151. 
 
 in Greek c&niposition), ten. 
 de 9id'fl ous, falling at the end of the season. 
 dge'li nate, bent downward. 
 dS'eom pound', much compoundedor divided, 
 
 304. 
 
 de eum'bent, 212. (Fig. 249 ) 
 de eur'rent, 274. 
 de eus'sate (leaves), opposite, and the pairs at 
 
 dgf i nite, 118. 
 
 de flex'ed, bent downward. 
 
 de fo li 5'tion, the casting off of leaves. 
 
 de his '961196, 113, 148. 
 
 dgl i qugs'9ent (axis), same as solvent), 226. 
 
 dSl toid, form of the Greek letter A, 288. 
 
 dgn'droid, tree-like inform. 
 
 dgn'dron (in Greek compounds], a tree. 
 
 dgn'tate, 309. 
 
 den tie 'ft late, 309. 
 
 de nu ded, become naked. 
 
 de pan' per ate, less developed than usual. 
 
 de pend'ent, hanging down. 
 
 de pressed', flattened from above ; low. 
 
 dgx'trlne, a gummy substance produced by 
 the action of di istase upon starch. 
 
 dex'trorse (twining), turning to the right. 
 
 di (in Greek numerals'), two. 
 
 dl'a deTphous, 120. 
 
 di ag nO'sis, a brief statement of the distinc- 
 tive character of a plant or group. 
 
 dl aph'a nous, transparent or translucent. 
 
 di n' drous, with two stamens, 118. 
 
 dl'as t-lse, a peculiar ferment in malt, alter- 
 ing starch into dextrine. 
 
 di chfig'a mous, 445. 
 
 di ehflt'o mous, forked or two-forked. 
 
 die 'li none, <>7. 
 
 di pot'y 16 dons, dicotyledonous, 182, 284. 
 
 dld'y mous, double. 
 
 di dvn'a mous, 119. 
 
 dif fuse', much divided and spreading. 
 
 dig'i tate, with several distinct leaflets pal- 
 mately arranged (as in the leaf of the 
 Horse-chestnut). 
 
 di mld'i ate (anther), halved, 114. 
 
 di mor'phous plants, 446. 
 
 di devious (flowers), 67. 
 
 dip'ter ous, having two wings. 
 
 disk, 85, 362. 
 
 dis'^oid, no rays. (Fig. 446.) 
 
 disk-bearing tissue, 401 . 
 
 dis sget'ed, cut into deep lobes. 
 
 dis sgp'i ment, same as partition, 132. 
 
 dis'ti-eh ous, arranged in two rows. 
 
 dis tinet, separate, not united, 82. 
 
 di v3r'i cate, wide-spread, straggling. 
 
 di ver'gent, spreading with a less angle. 
 
 dSr'sal, on or relating to the back. 
 
 dotted cells, 384. 
 
 dotted ducts, 406. 
 
 double terms, 301. 
 
 downy, clothed with short, weak hairs. 
 
 drupe, 156. 
 
 dru pa'ceus. (See tryma.) 
 
 drying-press, 6. 
 
 ducts, 402. 
 
 du'pli eate, inpairs^ double. 
 
 du ra'men, heart-wood, 418. 
 
 dwarfing. (Fig. 5.50, d.) 
 
 E, ex (in composition), without ; as. 
 
 e brfic'te ate, without bracts. 
 
 gch'i nate, prickly with rigid hairs. 
 
 ef fete, sterile, exhausted. 
 
 el'a ters, spiral, elastic threads accompanying 
 
 certain spores. 
 
 el Hp'tie, elliptical (leaf), 289. 
 e lOn ga'tgd, lengthened, extended. 
 e mar'gi nate, 307. 
 gm'bryo, 31, 180. 
 embryo sac, 142. 
 6n'do carp, 156. 
 gn'do chrome, the coloring matter of plants. 
 
 See chlorophyl. 
 en dOg'e nous structure, 421. 
 gn'do ggns, 180, 421, 422, 424. 
 en'do pleu'ra. same as tegmen, 172. 
 en dos' mOse, a thrusting, which causes 
 
 liquids of different densities to pass through 
 
 thin membranes, and mingle. 
 gn'si f6nu, sword-shaped, 297. 
 entire, even-edged, 308. 
 e phgm'e ral, enduring for one day. 
 gp'I (in Greek composition), upon : as. 
 gp'i carp, 156. 
 
 gp'i derm is, outside layer of cells, 391. 
 g pig'y nous, upon the ovary, 97, 119. 
 gp'i pet' al ous, on the petals, 119. 
 gp'i phytes, plants on other plants, 208. 
 gp'i sperm, the skin of the seed. 
 gq'ui tant (astraddle), 258. 
 e rose', eroded, as if gnawed, 310. 
 e ta?'ri 5, 158. 
 
 6'ti o la ted, colorless for want of light. 
 gx'al bfl'mi nous, without albumen, 178. 
 ex cur'rent, 226. 
 ex Qg'e nae, exogens, 182. 
 ex Og'e nous structure, 416-418. 
 gx'os mOse, flowing out. 
 ex sert'ed, projecting out of, or beyond. 
 ex stlp'd late, without stipules, 272. 
 ex'tra (in composition), beyond ,' as. 
 extra-axillary, same as supra axillary, 
 ex trOrse', turned outward, 114. 
 
 fSl'eate, scythe-shaped, curved. 
 
 ffir'i na'caous, flour-like in texture. 
 
 f&r'i nous, mealy on the surface. 
 
 fgs'9i -ele, a bundle. 365. 
 
 fas ci'u late (leaves), 262. 
 
 fgath'er-veined, 285. 
 
 fer ru'gi nous, of the color of iron-rust. 
 
 fer'tile (flower), seed-producing, 67. 
 
 fer'ti li za'tion, etc., 433, 434, 447. 
 
 nb'rillae,^^fe, 199,428. 
 
 flT a ment, the stalk of a stamen, 111, 112. 
 
 fil I cl'nse. 
 
 ffl'i f6rm, slender like a thread. 
 
 flm'bri ate, fringed, having the edge bordered 
 
 with slender processes. 
 fls'sioh, a splitting into parts. 
 fist'fl lar, hollow, as the leaf of onion. 
 fla bgl'li fOrm, fan-shaped, 298. 
 fla ggl'li f6rm, whip-shaped; long, taper, and 
 
 fla vgs'9ent, yellowish, turning yellow. 
 flgx'fl ous, zig-zag or wavy. 
 
202 
 
 INDEX AND GLOSSARY. 
 
 flo 0se', with hairs in soft fleecy tufts. 
 flO'ra, (a) the spontaneous vegetation of a 
 country ; (6) a written description of the 
 
 flO'ral, relating to flowers. 
 
 floral envelopes, 50, 87. 
 
 flo'rets, the flowers of a compound flower, 
 
 362. 
 
 flow'er. 49, etc.: origin of, 37. 
 flower-bud, 244, 335, etc. 
 foil a'ceous, leaf-like in texture or form. 
 ffl'li 8'tlon, the act of leafing. 
 foTli le, 164. 
 
 fo ra'men, same as micropyle, 140. 
 fo've o late, having shallow pits. 
 free, not adherent nor adnate, 81, 94. 
 fringed. (See fimbriate.) 
 frOnd, an organ which is both stem and leef, 
 
 as in duckmeat, fern. 
 fron descent, bursting into leaf. 
 frfi'ti fi -ea'tion, flower and fruit as a whole. 
 fruit, 38, 143. 
 
 fru tgs'sent, shrubby, becoming shrubby. 
 lu ga'ceous, soon falling off. 
 f ul'era (roots), accessary, 206. 
 fu llgl nous, smoky brown, blackish. 
 fuTvotis, dull yellowish brown. 
 fu mVfl lus (a little rope), 140. 
 fun'nel-fOrm. (See infundibuliform), 102. 
 f fa' eate, forked, fork-veined, 284. 
 filr'fu ra'ceous, scurfy. 
 fur-rowed', marked with channels lengthwise. 
 fus'-eous, grayish or blackish brown. 
 f u'si f6rm, spindle-shaped, 203. 
 
 gS'le a, galeate, 103. 
 
 gSm'o pgt'S he, 477. 
 
 gam'o pgt'ai ous, with the petals united, 99. 
 
 ga mftph'yl lous, of united perianth leaves. 
 
 gam'o sgp'al lous, with the sepals united. 
 
 ggml nate, twin, two together. 
 
 gem mS'tion, state of budding (Latin, gemma, 
 
 bud), 382. 
 
 ge nte'fi late, bent as the knee (genu). 
 gS'nfis, 29, 457. 
 ggn'e ra, plural of genus, 457. 
 germ, the ovary. ( The term is obsolete.) 
 ger mi na'tion, 188, 438. 
 glb'boas, more tumid in a certain place. 
 gla'brous, smooth, not hairy, 312. 
 giad'i ate, sword-shaped, ensiform. 
 gland, glandular, 80, 393. 
 glans, 155. 
 glau'-eous, with a bloom, or whitish, waxy 
 
 powder, seen on the under side of cabbage 
 
 leaves, and on fresh plums, etc. 
 glo bose', inform nearly spherical. 
 glOm'er ate, collected into close heads. 
 glOm'er ule, 363. 
 
 gloss oTo gy, the explaining of technical terms. 
 glumes, 108, 349. 
 glum if'e KB, 484. 
 grafting. (Fig. 2oO, e.) 
 grand divisions, 65. 
 gran'S lar, composed of grains. 
 gym'nfts (a Grreek prefix), naked ,' as. 
 gym'nO sper'mae, gymnosperms, 479. 
 iym'no sperm'ous, with naked seeds. 
 gy nSn'drofis, 119. 
 gyn'O base, a process of the torus on and 
 
 around which the carpels are suspended 
 
 (sc. Geranium, Fig. 172). 
 g^ nee'?! um, 123. 
 gyn'o phore, a produced torus, bearing the 
 
 ovary on, its fummit. (Fig. 112.) 
 
 gy rate', same as circinate, 255. 
 gy rose', strongly bent to and fro. 
 
 , the general aspect of a plant. 
 habitat, the natural locality or place of 
 
 growth of a wild plant. 
 hairs, 392. Hairy, hirsute. 
 hal berd shaped, hastate. (Fig. 313.) 
 halved, one-half apparently deficient. 
 has'tate, with the base-lobes abruptly spread- 
 
 ing, asinahalbert,2Ql. 
 heart-shaped, 291. 
 heart-wood, 419. 
 herb, herbaceous, 40, 41. 
 her ba'ceous, green and cellular in texture. 
 her ba'ri um, 3. 
 hes'per id'I um, 160. 
 her m&ph'ro dlte (flower), with both stamens 
 
 and pistils. 
 hgt'gr cgph'a lous, heads of two sorts in the 
 
 same plant, some 6 and some s . 
 h6t er 5g'a mous, two sorts of flowers in the 
 
 same head, some 6 and some ? . 
 hgx'S (Greek numeral}, six ; as in, 
 hex fig'o nal, 6-sided or G-angled. 
 hex Sm'er ous, Q-parted. 
 hex Sn'drous, having 6 stamens. 
 hl'lum, the eye or scar of the seed, 177. 
 hir sflte', hairy, with rather long hairs, 313. 
 hls'pid, bristly with stiff hairs, 313. 
 his t6To gy, description of cells and tissues, 
 
 368. 
 
 hoar'y, frost-colored, grayish-white. 
 ho mog'a mous, head with all the flowers 
 
 alike, as to the stamens and pistils. 
 ho'mo ge'ne ous, of the same kind. 
 hon'ey, honey-bee, 458. 
 hood. (See calyptra, 518.) 
 hooded. (See cucullate.) 
 h8rn'y, of the texture of horn. 
 hOr'tus siccus, the herbarium, dry garden, 3. 
 hfl'mi fuse, spreading on the ground. 
 hy'a line, transparent, or nearly so. 
 hybrid, a cross-breed between two species. 
 hy'per bO'rean, inhabiting northern regions. 
 hy'po (in Greek compounds), under ; as, 
 hyp'o ra terl f6rm, salver-form, 102. 
 hyp'o ge'an, growing under ground. 
 by p5g'y nous, 95, 119. 
 
 Im'bri ate, imbricated, 257, 339. 
 
 im mar'gin ate, having no rim or border. 
 
 im mersed'. (See submersed.) 
 
 in Sx'i al root. 201. 
 
 in clged, divided deeply as if cut, 310. 
 
 in -elfld'ed, enclosed within, or shorter than, 
 
 as the stamens in the corolla. 
 in-erSs'sate, thickened. 
 in -eiim'bent (sc. embryo), 183. 
 in'de his' sent', not opening, 148. 
 in dgf'i nite, 118. 
 in dlg'e nous, native of a country. 
 in dfl'pli ate, 337. 
 in dH'gi um, the shield of the fruit-dot (sorus) 
 
 of a fern. 
 in fS'r 
 
 ^ iS'ri or, lower in position. 
 in flg^t'gd, bent inward, inflexed. 
 in'flo rgs'senpe. 841, etc. 
 In 'fun dlb'fl li f6rm, funnel-shaped, 102. 
 in'nate (sc. anther), 114. 
 in sgrt'ed, insertion, refer to the point of junc- 
 tion or appai'ent origin. 
 in tg' Q ment, a coal or covering. 
 In'ter node, 220. 
 In'ter pgt'I o lar, between the petioles. 
 
INDEX AND GLOSSARY. 
 
 203 
 
 In'ter riipt'ed ly pinnate, 302. (Fig. 358.) 
 in trOrse' (anthers), turned inward, 114. 
 In'vo Ifl'-ere, involucel. 347, 
 In'vo lute, rotted inward, 256. (Fig. 287.) 
 Ir rSg'u lar flowers, 83, 101. 
 
 joint'ed, having joints, separable pieces. 
 jfl'gum, a pair ; as, bijugous, with two pairs 
 of leaflets; trijugous, three pairs. 
 
 keel, keeled. (See carinate.) 
 kidney-shaped. (See reniform, 295.) 
 kingdoms of Nature, 12-14. 
 
 la bSl'lum, the odd petal of an orchid, 101. 
 
 la'bi ate, lip-shaped, 103. 
 
 139 'er ate, torn irregularly by deep incisions. 
 
 la 9in'i ate, slashed, with deep incisions. 
 
 la te"s'9ent, containing lac, or milk. 
 
 15e u" nOse', having lacunae or holes. 
 
 la eus'trlne, growing in lakes. 
 
 ISm'i nil, the blade of a leaf, a thin plate, 271. 
 
 la"n'9e o late, lance-shaped. (Fig. 317.) 
 
 la nu'gi nose, woolly, 312. 
 
 la'tex, (1) me turbid or milky juice of plants; 
 
 lac tif 'er ous tissue, 408. 
 
 latin names of plants, 25, 26. 
 
 layer. (See stolon, 217.) 
 
 leaf, 271, etc.; structure of, 431, etc. 
 
 leaf-bud, 244, etc. 
 
 leaflet, the piece of a compound leaf, 301. 
 
 leaf-stems, 222. 
 
 leg'fime, 165. 
 
 lens, 7. 
 
 len tl-e'Q lar, shaped like a convex lens. 
 
 H'ber, the inner bark, 412. 
 
 H chens, II kens', 519. 
 
 llg'ne ous system, 399. 
 
 lig'fi late, strap-shaped, 103. 
 
 lig files, the stipules of grasses, 279. 
 
 ml a'ceous flower, 100. 
 
 limb, the border, 91. 
 
 lin'e ar, long and narrow, 297. 
 
 lin noe'tis, 468. 
 
 liv'id, clouded with bluish, brown, and gray. 
 
 10'bate, lobed, 294. 
 
 IQe'fl li 9l'dal, opening into the cell, 148. 
 
 lo us'ta, a spikelet of the grasses. 
 
 lO'ment, a jointed legume, 165. 
 
 10 rate', thong-shaped. 
 
 Ifl'nate, crescent-shape 
 
 ly'o pO'di a'9C oe, 487. 
 ly'rate, ^innatifld. with the upper lobes much 
 larger than the lower, 2 ( J3. 
 
 m5e ros (in Greek compounds'), long. 
 
 maVd late, spotted or blotched. 
 
 male (flowers), same as staminate. 
 
 mar 96s'9ent, withering, but persistent, 109. 
 
 mar 'gin al, belonging to the border. 
 
 mar 'gin ate, having the border different. 
 
 me dul'la, pith. 
 
 m8d'ul la ry rays, 414. 
 
 mgd'ul la ry sheath, 414. 
 
 mgm'bra na'ceous, membranous, thin and 
 
 pellucid, 315. 
 mer'i carp, one of the carpels of a cremocarp 
 
 of an umbellifer. (Fig. 177.) 
 mer ous, consisting of parts. 
 mS tSb'O Hsm, 429. 
 ml'ero pyle, 177 ; same as foramen, 
 ml'ero seOpe, 8. 
 
 mld'rib, the central vein of a leaf, 282. 
 mld'veln (used in this work), 883, 
 
 mln'er al, 13. 
 
 mit'ri f6Tm,formed like a conical cap. 
 monos (in Greek compounds), one only ; as, 
 mon'a dglph'ous, 120. 
 mo nSn'drous, 1-stamened, 118. 
 mo nil'i fOrm (roots), 204. 
 mbn'o car'pic herbs. 42. 
 m5n'o chla myd'e ous (flowers), 66. 
 mOn'o cot'y Ig'dOns, 180, 284. 
 mo nee cious, 67. 
 
 mo nQg'y nous, with one style, 124. 
 mon'o pgt'a Ia3. (See gamopetalse, 513.) 
 mon'o pet'a lous, 80, 91. 
 mo nOph'yl lous, \-leaved. 
 m5n'o sgp'al lous, TO, 91. 
 m5n'strous flowers, 334. 
 mor ph51 o gy, 19 ; of the leaf, 271. 
 movements of fluids, 431. 
 mfi'-ero, a sharp, small, abrupt point. 
 mu'ero nate. 307. 
 mul'ti (in composition), many. 
 mill ti fid, cut half-way into many segments. 
 mu'ri -eate, bearing short, hard points. 
 mu'ri f6rm, like a wall of mason-work. 
 mus eol'o gy, a treatise on mosses. 
 mfi'ti cose, pointless, not pointed. 
 my 9e'li urn, the thallus of the fungi, usually 
 concealed, 519. 
 
 na'ked seeds. 147. (Fig. 166.) 
 
 na'pi f6nn (root). 03. 
 
 na'tant, swimming / underwater. 
 
 nat'u ral Ized, growing spontaneously, but not 
 native. 
 
 nSt u ral orders, 458, 463, 465, 497. 
 
 natural system, 504, 506, etc. 
 
 nge'tar, honey. 
 
 nectary, 77. 
 
 ne pgri'thgs, 322. (Fig. 891.) 
 
 nerves, the veins (282) are sometimes so called. 
 
 ngt'ted or net-veined. (See reticulate, 284.) 
 
 nea tral flower, 68. 
 
 nod 'ding, nutant, the summit bent over, as in 
 snmudrop. 
 
 node, a joint of the stem, 220. 
 
 no dose', knotted, large-jointed. 
 
 n5d'fi lose (root), 204. 
 
 no'men clat'ure, 25, 498. etc. 
 
 nor'mal, according to rule, regular. 
 
 nu'9i f6rm, nut-like-. 
 
 nu 9el'lus, kernel (sc. of ovule), 140, 172, cen- 
 tral body in cell. 
 
 nu-elS'o lus, dense body within a nucleus. 
 
 nfl'-ele us, dense spherical mass of protoplasm 
 in a cell. 
 
 nut. (See glans, 155.) 
 
 ob (in composition) denotes inversion ; as, 
 
 Qb'^om pressed', flattened back and front. 
 
 ob 0r'date, 307. 
 
 ob lftn'9e o late, 2fiO. 
 
 ob Hque', unequal- sided, as the leaves of elm. 
 
 Ob'long, 289. 
 
 ob O'vate, 290. 
 
 ob tfise', 307. 
 
 Ob'vo lute (in (estivation), 258. 
 
 Och'rea, sheathing stipules, 279. 
 
 Ofh'ro lea'ose, cream color, pale yellow. 
 
 octo (in Greek composition), eight. 
 
 oc tSn'drose, having 8 stamens. 
 
 o tog'y' nOee, having 8 styles. 
 
 off s5t, a short lateral shoot, 218. 
 
 oligos (in Greek composition), few ; as, 
 
 51T gSn dria, with few stamens. 
 
 81'i va'ceous, olive-green, brownish-green. 
 
204 
 
 INDEX AND GLOSSARY. 
 
 o paque', dull, not shining. 
 
 o per'eu lar, with a lid, 114. 
 
 Bp'po site, two at a node, 215, 262. 
 
 or we'll lar, orbiculate, circular, 289. 
 
 Or'ehi dS'ceofis, 101. 
 
 or ggn'ic world, 12. 
 
 Or'gan Sg'ra phy, 19. See structural botany. 
 
 or thOt'ro pous (ovule), erect, 141. 
 
 6s'se ous, bony, as the peach-stone. 
 
 O'val, 289. 
 
 ovate, 288. 
 
 O'va ry, 125. 
 
 O'void, egg-shaped, as in fruits. 
 
 O'vule, the young seed, 138. 
 
 pS'lgae or pales, 108,349. 
 
 pa'le a'ceons, chaffy, having pales. 
 
 palm, 422. 
 
 paTmi-veined, 285. 
 
 paTmate, 295. 
 
 pan dfl'ri fOrm, fiddle-shaped. 
 
 pan! ele, 360. 
 
 pa nie'u late, panicled. 
 
 pa pll'io na'ceous, 101. 
 
 pSp'pus, the calyx of composites, 104. 
 
 pSr'al lei-veined, 2st 
 
 p5r 'a sites, 209. 
 
 pa ren'-ehy ma, 396. 
 
 pa rl'e tal, on the wall (paries), 133. 
 
 part'ed, deeply divided into parts. 
 
 pat'ent, wide open. 
 
 pat'fi lous, half open. 
 
 pear-shaped, obovoid, larger above. 
 
 pgc'ti nate, combed, finely pinnatifld. 
 
 pgd'ate, shaped like a bird's foot, 296. 
 
 pgd'i eel, peduncle, 343. 
 
 pgl'tate, shield-form, 295. 
 
 pend'ent, pendulous, hanging, drooping. 
 
 pgn'i 9!! 'late, with a tuft of hairs, as if a 
 
 pen tam'er ous, 5-parted. 
 
 pen tan'droiis, with 5 stamens, 118. 
 
 pen'tg (in Greek composition), Jive. 
 
 pS'po, a fruit like a melon, 161. 
 
 per gn'm al, living several years, 43. 
 
 perfect flower, (s) with both stamen and 
 
 pistil. 
 
 per fq'li ate, through the leaf, 811. 
 peri (in Greek composition), around : as, 
 pgr'i anth, 53, 87 ; forms of, 99. 
 pgr'i arp, 146 ; forms of, ICO. 
 per'i gy"n i urn, 107. 
 pe rfg'y nous, 96, 119. 
 pgr'i sperm, same as albumen, 179. 
 per slst'ent, remaining long in place, 109. 
 pgr'son ate, 103 
 pgt'al or p6'tal,//w?i weTa\oi>, one of thefoli- 
 
 aceous expansions of the corolla, 52 ; forms 
 
 of, 89. 
 
 pgt'al oid, resembling petals. 
 pgt'al oi'de ae, 483. 
 pgt'I Ole, 274. 
 pgt'i o late, 271. 
 pgt'i o Iflle, 276. 
 phan'e ro ga'mia, 467, 471, 472. 
 phyl lo'di Im (plural phyllodia), r:i. 
 phyl lo tax'y, leaf -arrangement, CC1. 
 phys'i8. 16. 
 phyg i 81'o gy, 21, 368. 
 phy toTo gy (Greek, phytos, a plant), 23. 
 pi lose', with erect, thin hairs, 1 13. 
 pln'nate, 302. 
 pin nat'i fid, 293. 
 pin nat'i sgct. See pinnatifid. 
 pls'tU, 56, 123. 
 
 pitch'ers (leaves). 
 pith, 414. 
 
 (See ascidia, 322.) 
 
 pit 'ted, with depressions or excavations. 
 
 pla 9en'ta, 127 ; free axile, 135. 
 
 plan of the flower, 58. 
 
 plant defined, 14. 
 
 plant growth, 409. 
 
 pli'eate, plaited lengthwise as a fan, 254, 340. 
 
 plu mose' , feathery. 
 
 pla'miile, a little plume, 31, 180. 
 
 p5Hen, 111, 121. 
 
 pollen-tube, 450. 
 
 pol II na'tion, 443. 
 
 p51 lin'I a, masses of pollen, 434. 
 
 pOl'i (in Greek compounds'), many; as, 
 
 pol'y a dgl'phous, 120. 
 
 pQTy Sn'drous, having many stamens. 
 
 po lyg'a moiis, with some imperfect flowery. 
 
 pol'y pgt'al se. 476. 
 
 poTy pgt'al ous, pOl y sgp'al ous, 90. 
 
 pome, a fruit like an apple, 162. 
 
 p6s tS'ri or, next the axis. 
 
 potted plants, 428. 
 
 po ta'to, manner of its growth, 238. 
 
 prS'fo li a'tion, vernation, 252. 
 
 pre morse', ending abruptly, 235. 
 
 press for drying plants, 6. 
 
 prlck'les, 392. 
 
 prl'mine, same as testa, 173. 
 
 prig mat'ic, prism-shaped, having several par- 
 allel, longitudinal angles. 
 
 pro cum'bent (stem), 212. (Fig. 248.) 
 
 pro duced', extended more than usual. 
 
 proliferous, reproducing; as cymes from 
 the midst of a cyme, flowers from the midst 
 of a flower. 
 
 pros'gn'-eh? mi, 398. 
 
 pro tOph'y ta, 494. 
 
 prO'to plasm, 368, 369. 
 
 pru'i nose, powdered, as if frosted, 314. 
 
 pru'ri ens, causing an itching sensation. 
 
 psefl'do (in Greek composition), spurious, 
 false. 
 
 pu bgs'cent, downy, with short, soft hairs. 
 
 pu bgr'u lent, minutely downy. 
 
 pu'ml lose (pumilus), dwarfed in size. 
 
 pune'tate, seeming as if perforate, or marked 
 with minute dots. 
 
 pun'gent, piercing, sharp-pointed. 
 
 pfl ta men, the bony nucleus of a drupe. 
 
 py ram'i dal, form of a cone or pyramid. 
 
 pyr'i form, of the form of a pear. 
 
 pyx'is, a pericarp with a lid, 163. 
 
 quad'ri (in composition), four ; as, 
 
 quad ran'gu lar, four-angled. 
 
 quad'ri fO'li ate, four-leaved. 
 
 quSd'rl jfl'gate, with four pairs of leaflets. 
 
 quad'ri lat'er al, four-sided. 
 
 quin'que (in composition), five. 
 
 qul'nate, growing in fives, 306. 
 
 qnln un'cial, 339. (Fig. 300.) 
 
 quln'tu pie, five-fold. 
 
 race (Latin, stirps), a permanent variety, as 
 
 red-cabbage, 456. 
 ra cSme', 358, 
 
 ra'ehis, axis of the inflorescence, 301, 343. 
 ra'di ate, diverging from a common center. 
 radiate (in the composites), the outer row of 
 
 florets ligulate. (Fig. 388.) 
 ra'di ant, outer flowers enlarged (and often 
 neutral, Fig. 271). 
 
INDEX AND GLOSSAKY. 
 
 205 
 
 rSd'I e&\,from the root, 262. 
 
 radical (of the flower), 65. 
 
 rSd'i le, rootlet (of the embryo), 31, 180. 
 
 ra'mal (of a branch), 262. 
 
 ra'phe (of the ovule or seed), 141. 
 
 rSph'i dSs, 375. 
 
 rays, 359, 362. 
 
 re cep'ta le, 57. (See torus.) 
 
 re -curved', bent (not rolled) backward. 
 
 re flexed', curved backward excessively. 
 
 re frgct'ed, bent back suddenly, as if broken. 
 
 r8g'ma,/rW as of geranium, 168. 
 
 rSg'u lar, like parts similar, corresponding. 
 
 r8n'i f6rm, kidney -shaped, 295. 
 
 re p&nd' (margin), 310. 
 
 rS'pgnt, creeping (sc. stems, 232). 
 
 rgs'pi ra'tion, 427. 
 
 re sfl'pi nate, reversed, upside down. 
 
 re tic' Q late, netted, 388. 
 
 re trdrse, backward, downward. 
 
 re tflse' (apex), 307. (Fig. 367, c.) 
 
 rgv'o Iflte, rolled backward, 256. 
 
 rha'chis, same as rachfs. 
 
 rhl zo'ma, rhizome, 230, 233. 
 
 rhom'bie, rhomboidal, in the figure of a 
 
 rhomb, or approaching it. 
 ribs, the chief veins of a leaf, ridges. 
 rln'gent (corolla), 103. 
 rings of wood, 414. 
 root, 197. 
 root-cap, 419. 
 root-stock, 233. 
 ro sa'ceous (corolla), 100. 
 r8s'trate, beaked, with a beak. 
 ro u late (leaves), arranged around the base 
 
 of the stem, as the petals of a rose, 262. 
 rO'tate, wheel-shaped, 10 1. 
 ro ta'tion, circulation of fluids in the cell. 
 ru'bi -eund, blushing, rosy red. 
 ru'di ment, a minute part. 
 ru. gOse, wrinkled, 315. 
 ru 'ml na'ted (albumen), full of chinks, as if 
 
 composed of numerous folds. 
 run 91'nate, hooked backward, 293. 
 riin'ner, 219. 
 
 sS-e h3 rom'y 968, 410. 
 s&g'it tate, arrow-shaped, 291. 
 saTver-shaped. (See hypocrateriform, 102.) 
 sa ma'ra, 154. 
 
 sap, the watery fluid taken up by the root and 
 moved through the vessels up to the leaves, 431. 
 sap-wood. 
 
 sar'-eo c irp (of the drape), 156. 
 sea'brous. rough, 312. 
 sa ISrl f&Tm (cells), ladder-shaped, 378. 
 scales, 319. 
 scale-stems, 79, 230. 
 seSn'dent, climbing. 
 scape, 344. 
 scarious, 315. 
 
 sfit'tered, sometimes used for alternate, 
 scl'on or cl'on, 218. 
 8l<5r en' ^h^'mS, 390. 
 8l6'rose, hard, bony. 
 ee&r'pi oid (inflorescence), 365. 
 &ero bte'fl late, pitted, with little depressions. 
 sea-green, light bluish green, glaucescent. 
 sS'-eund, all on one side, or turned one way. 
 sSe'un dine, same as tegmen, 172. 
 seed, 172 ; vitality of, 185 ; dispersion of, 186. 
 seed-coverings, 173. 
 sSm'I (in composition), half,' as, 
 s6m'I cOr'date, half of cordate. 
 egm'I la'nar, half-moon shaped. 
 
 sSm'I eag'it tate, partly sagittate. 
 
 sS'pal or sgp'al, one of the foliaceous parts of 
 
 the calyx, 51. 
 sgp'a loi'd, sepal-like. 
 sgp'ti ^Id'al (dehiscence), 148. 
 sep tlf 'ra gal (dehiscence), 148. 
 sSp'tum, a partition between two spaces. 
 ee rl'ceous, silky, 312. 
 se rOt'i nous, occurring late in the season. 
 sgr'rate, serrulate, 309. 
 sgs'slle, sitting, not stalked, 125, 271. 
 85'tse, 106. 
 
 sS ta'ceous, bristle-form. 
 sS'tous, setigu-pus, bearing bristles, 313. 
 sheath, sheathing, as the leaves of the grasses, 
 
 275. 
 
 shrub, 45. 
 
 sll'ique, silicic, 166. 
 
 sp'i quos, bearing siliques (as the crucifers). 
 silver-grain (of wood), 414. 
 simple, of one piece, not compound. 
 sln'is trOrse', twining from right to left. 
 sin'n ate, 294. 
 slips, 218. 
 
 soTi t& ry, growing alone, or singly. 
 sQlv'ent axis, 47. 
 sO'rT, patches of fruit in ferns. 
 so ro'sis, 171. 
 spa'dix, 356. 
 
 spSthe, spathaceous, 346. 
 late (leaf), 290. 
 
 g, 27, 455. 
 epe cif 'ic name, 26. 
 spep'i mens (of plants), 2, 5. 
 spike, spicate, 355. 
 spike 'let, a little spike, as in a grass. 
 spine, a woody thorn, 327. 
 spin'dle-shaped (root), 203. (Pig. 238.) 
 spiral arrangement (of leaves), 263. 
 spiral cells or vessels, 386. 
 sponge'let, spongiole, 199. 
 spores, 184. 
 
 spur, a projecting, slender appendage, 78. 
 equar rose', spreading widely, as the involu- 
 
 cral scales of some composites. 
 stages of plant life, 31. 
 sta'mens, 55, 110. 
 stam'I nate flower, 67. 
 stam'I no di a, 117. 
 starch, 374. 
 
 stem, or ascending axis, 211. 
 stSr'Ile, not bearing seeds, 67. 
 stlg'ma, stigmatic, 125, 129. 
 stings, 393. 
 stipe, the stalk of the ovary orwaries; also, 
 
 the stem of a mushroom. 
 stl'pels, stipellate, 279. 
 etlp'i tate, on a stipe. 
 stip'flles, stipulate, 272, 277. 
 BtO'lon, 217. 
 
 stoTo nlf 'er ous, producing stolons. 
 stO'ma, 394, etc. 
 
 strap-shaped, flat, narrow, and straight. 
 strict, erect and very straight. 
 stri gOse', icith sharp, close, rigid hairs. 
 strob'ile (fruit), 169. 
 strO'phi o late, having an appendage (stro- 
 
 phiole or caruncle) about the hilum. 
 struc'tur SI botany or organography, treats of 
 
 the organs or parts of plants, of their forms 
 
 and uses. 
 style, 125. 
 styloid, style-like. 
 sub (in composition), slightly, 317. 
 sfib'e rose, corky in texture. 
 
206 
 
 INDEX AND GLOSSARY. 
 
 sub-kingdoms, 473. 
 
 sfl'bfl late, awl-shaped, 299. 
 
 sfre'-eu lent, wry juicy and cellular, 315. 
 
 sflck'er, 216. 
 
 suf fru tes'cent, woody at the base only. 
 
 aureate, furrowed. 
 
 su pS'ri or, 97, 98. 
 
 superior calyx, calyx adherent to ovary. 
 
 superior ovary, ovary free from calyx. 
 
 sfl'per vo lute', 340. 
 
 sfl'pra, above. 
 
 sfl'pra-ax'il la ry, situated above the axil. 
 
 su'pra de-e6m pound, very much divided. 
 
 BUS pgnd ed (ovule), 139. (Fig. 158.) 
 
 sfit'flr al (dehiscence), 148, 
 
 sword-shaped, as the vertical leaves of iris. 
 
 s$vQ'nviS, fruit, such as the Fig., 170. 
 
 symmetry (of the flower), 60, c, 69. 
 
 sym p8t'ai ous, with petals united. 
 
 sy^n phyl'lous, with perianth leaves united. 
 
 syn (in Greek compounds), together, union. 
 
 syn Sn'ther ous, with anthers united. 
 
 syn -ear'pi urn, 169. 
 
 eyn -ear'pous, with carpels united. 
 
 ey'n'ge nS'gi ous, 120. 
 
 t'ic botany, 451, etc. 
 
 taper-pointed. (See acuminate, 307.) 
 
 tap-root, 203. 
 
 t%w'ny,fulvous, dull yellowish-brown. 
 
 tax On'o my, the science of classification. 
 
 tgg'men, the inner seed-coat, 140, 172. 
 
 ten'dril, 228, 324. 
 
 tSr'atolo gy, 334. 
 
 te rete', cylindrical, or nearly so. 
 
 term of plant life, 39, etc. 
 
 ter'mi nal, situated at the end or apex. 
 
 ter'mi noTo gy. See nomenclature, 498. 
 
 ter'nate (leaves), in threes, 303. 
 
 t8s'sel la'ted, checkered, as a pavement. 
 
 t8s'ta, the outer seed-coat, 140, 172, 173. 
 
 tSt'ra (in Greek composition), four. 
 
 tet'ra dyn'a mous, 119. 
 
 te trfig'o nal, with four corners. 
 
 te trSg'y nous, with four pistils. 
 
 thS'ca, thecse, sporangia or spore-cases. 
 
 thorn, 327. 
 
 throat, orifice of a monopetalous corolla. 
 
 thyrse (thirs), 360. 
 
 tis'sues, 409. 
 
 tO'men tose', with short, dense, woolly hairs, 
 
 top-shaped, inversely conical. 
 
 tO'rus, same as receptacle, 57, 84. 
 
 tor'fi lose, swollen at intervals. 
 
 tree, 46. 
 
 tri (in Greek compounds}, three ; as, 
 
 trl'a dglph'ous, the stamens in three sets. 
 
 tri fln'drous, having three stamens. 
 
 tri 6Vous (fruit), with three 1-seeded car- 
 
 I'-eol ored (tricolor), with three colors. 
 tri gn'ni al, lasting three years. 
 tri fid, split half-way into three parts. 
 tri fo-li ate, with three leaflets, 303. 
 trig'y nous, having three styles, 124. 
 tri lo 'bate, having three lobes, 296. 
 tri mS'rous, 3-parted, 65. 
 tri part'a loletsepa? able into three parts. 
 tri partite, more deeply split than trifld. 
 trlp'le-veined, 285. (Fig. 319.) 
 tri pln'nate, thrice pinnate, 304. 
 tri quS'trous, three angled, 258, 339. 
 tri ter'nate, thrice ternate, 305. 
 tr&ue'ate, 307. (Fig. 367, d.) 
 
 trunk (of a tree), 225. 
 
 try'mS, fruit, as the hickory-nut, 157. 
 
 tube, 91. 
 
 tfi ber, 237. 
 
 tu ber'-eu lar, ^04. 
 
 tu ber'eu late, covered with warts (tubercles). 
 
 tu'bu lar corolla, 102. 
 
 tu'mid, swollen or inflated. 
 
 tu'ni ate, coated, as the bulb, 242. 
 
 tflr'bi nate, shaped like a top. 
 
 tu'ri on, young shoot, as of asparagus. 
 
 typ ie al flower, 60. (Figs. 8-11.) 
 
 um'bel, a59. 
 
 um bel late, bearing umbels. 
 
 um'bel let, a partial umbel. 
 
 um bll'i ate, with a sharp depression at end. 
 
 un armed', with no stings, thorns, etc. 
 
 un'cl nate, hooked. 
 
 un'der shrflb, a low shrub, 45. 
 
 un'du late, wavy, 310. 
 
 un e'qual ly pinnate, 302. 
 
 un guic'u late (petal), having a claw, 88. 
 
 uni (in compounds), one ; as, 
 
 u ni cel'lu Jar plants. 
 
 ti ni fo'li ate, with one leaf or leaflet. 
 
 u'ni f6rm, of one form. 
 
 u ni lat er al, 1-sided. 
 
 u ni lOe'fi lar, \-cetted. 
 
 u'ni vfilved, with but one valve. 
 
 ur'ce o late, urn-shaped, 102. 
 
 a 'tri ele (fruit), 152. 
 
 'i nate, sheathing ; the .flattened petiole 
 involving the stem. 
 vSlv'ate, 257, 337. 
 valves, valvular, 114, 148. 
 va rl'e ties, 28. 
 vfts'-eu lar tissue, 396. 
 vaulted, arched. 
 vgg'e ta tion, or physiology of plant life, 368. 
 
 vein 'lets, vein'u lets, 283. 
 
 ve na'tion (of the leaf), 282. 
 
 vfin'tri cose, swelling out on one side. 
 
 vgn'tral, belonging to the front side. 
 
 ver'nal, appearing in the Spring-time. 
 
 ver na'tion (of the leaf bud), 252. 
 
 v6r'ru cose, covered with warts (verruca). 
 
 ver'sa tile (anther), 114. 
 
 ver'tex, the summit, same as apex. 
 
 ver 'tie al, in the direction up and down, or 
 
 parallel with the axis. 
 ver tlc'il late, whorled, 215, 262. 
 ver ti ?il Ifts'ter, 366. 
 ves'per tine, appearing in the evening. 
 ves'sels, 402. 
 
 vSx'il la ry (aestivation). (Fig. 425.) 
 vex II lum, banner, 101 (Figs. 59, 60.) 
 vil lose', with long, weak hairs, 312. 
 vl mm'e ous, with long, flexible shoots, osier- 
 
 like. 
 
 rir'gate, twiggy, long, slender. 
 rine, 228. 
 
 nfe'cid, viscous, sticky or glutinous. 
 rl taTity of seeds, 185. 
 rft'ta, vittoe, the minute oil-tubes in the fruit- 
 
 coat of the umbettiferce. 
 ^Qlva, membrane inclosing the young fungus. 
 wedge-shaped, tapering to the base. 
 whorl, a circle of similar organs. 
 vitch-grass, 231. 
 wood, 372, 415. 
 wood -cells, 399. 
 woody plants, 44. 
 
x5n thte, yellowish. 
 
 x6n og a my, the fertilization of a flower, by 
 
 pollen from a flower of another plant, of the 
 
 same species ; cross-fertilizition. 
 xer'O phlles, plants that require great heat 
 
 and little moisture, or plants especially 
 
 adapted to arid regions. epo? : dry, </>iAeu>, 
 
 I love / hence, plants that delight in dry 
 
 places. 
 
 xy'iem, wood. From v\ov. 
 xy'lo e&rp, vAop, wood, /capjros, fruit; hence, 
 
 hard and woody fruit. 
 
 INDEX AND GLOSSARY. 
 
 yeast plant, 411. (Fig. 513.) 
 
 207 
 
 zo 61 'o gy, 17. 
 
 zo Of II us, from the Greek wov, animal, and 
 </>VTOI, plant; pertaining to plants whose 
 pollination is accomplished by the agency of 
 insects or other animals. 
 
 zO'O phyte, 493. 
 
 zyg'O spore, spore formed by the union of two 
 cells, tvnov, a yoke, <rnopa, a seed; hence, a 
 yoked or united seed. 
 
ABBREVIATIONS AND SIGNS 
 
 BOTANICAL TERMS OFTEN RECURRING IN DESCRIPTIONS 
 
 wh. achenia. 
 ast. aestivation. 
 alter, alternate. 
 amplex. amplexicaul. 
 with, anther. 
 axil/, axillary. 
 col. calyx. 
 caps, capsule. 
 cor. corolla. 
 eyp. cypsela. 
 decid. deciduous. 
 diam. diameter. 
 ellip. elliptical. 
 emarg. emarginate. 
 epiy. epigynous. 
 /. or ft. feet. 
 /U. filaments. 
 A. flower ; Jls. flowers. 
 
 fr. fruit. 
 
 gl. glume ; gl*. plumes. 
 hd. head ; hds. Leads. 
 hyp. hypogynons. 
 irribr. imbricate. 
 inf. inferior. 
 invol. involucre. 
 irreg. irregular. 
 leg. legume. 
 If. leaf; Ivs. leaves. 
 Ifts. leaflets. 
 lorn, loment. 
 opp. opposite. 
 ova. ovary. 
 pap. pappus. 
 ped. peduncle. 
 pet. petals. 
 perig. perigynous. 
 
 perig. perigyninm, 
 
 pis. pales. 
 
 pn. pinnae. 
 
 pnl. pinnulae. 
 
 recep. receptacle 
 
 reg. regular. 
 
 rhiz. rhizoma. 
 
 rt. root. 
 
 sc. scale, scales. 
 
 sds. seeds. 
 
 seg. segment. 
 
 sep. sepals. 
 
 st. stem. 
 
 sta. or stam. stamens 
 
 stig. stigmas. 
 
 stip. stipules. 
 
 sty. styles. 
 
 var. variety. 
 
 TIMES OP FLOWERING, AND LOCALITIES. 
 
 1. Names of the Months and Seasons are abbreviated in the usual manner, an, Jan. 
 January ; Apr. April ; Spr. Spring ; Aut. Autumn ; Sum. Summer ; &c. 
 
 2. The names of States and Territories of the D. S. are abbreviated precisely as in 
 other works, thus : Ala. Alabama ; Ark. Arkansas ; Conn. Connecticut, &c. 
 
 3. Sections of States are thus designated: N. N. Y. Northern New York; W. Pa. 
 Western Pennsylvania ; E. Fla. East Florida ; S. 111. Southern Illinois, &c. 
 
 4. Names of foreign Countries :Eur. Europe ; Afr. Africa ; 8. Afr. Soutk AJr.c . 
 Aust. Australia ; Can. Canada ; Mex. Mexico ; 8. Am. South America &c. 
 
 5. E. East, Eastward, indicates the States of the Atlantic seaboard from Maine to V'J 
 Rinia inclusive ; N-E. or N. Eng. denotes the New England States. 
 
 6. M. is used to denote the Middle States ; viz., N. Y., Penn., N. J.. and Del. 
 
 I. N. North, Northward, indicates generally the territory north of 42 N. latitude. 
 
 8. N-W. Northwest, indicates Wis., Minn., and parts of 111. and Mich. 
 
 9. ft. South, Southward, is used to indicate the Southern States in general, all lying 
 south of Virginia and Kentucky, 
 
 10. &-W. Southwest, viz., Mise., La., Ark., and perhaps Tennessee and Texas 
 
 II. W. Went, denotes the States lying due north of Tennessee and Arkansas. 
 
ABBREVIATIONS AND SIGNS. 
 
 209 
 
 SIGNS. 
 
 At annual Herb. 
 
 A biennial Herb. 
 
 A perennial Herb. 
 
 An undershrub, deciduous. 
 
 An undershrub, evergreen. 
 
 A Shrub, deciduous. 
 
 A Shrub, evergreen. 
 
 A Tree, deciduous. 
 
 A Tree, evergreen. 
 
 An herbaceous Vine, (T) or (a). 
 
 A perennial Vine, u. 
 
 Woody Vine, deciduous. 
 
 Woody Vine, evergreen, 
 L, Trailing Herb, or (|J. 
 Lo Trailing Herb, if. 
 ? An aquatic Plant. 
 I Flowers perfect. 
 $ Flowers staminate. 
 ? Flowers pistillate. 
 8 Monoecious. 
 $ ? Dioecious. 
 $ ? Polygamous. 
 Wanting, or none. 
 00 Numerous, or indefinite 
 
 at the end of the description. 
 
 A Plant introduced and naturalized ; 
 
 t Plant cultivated for ornament ; 
 
 J Plant cultivated for use ; 
 
 c = Cotyledons accumbent ; \ 
 
 B Cotyledons incumbent ; V used only in the Cruciferse. (Page 34.) 
 
 o)) Cotyledons conduplicate ; J 
 
 ! (Note of exclamation), used technically, denotes certainty. 
 
 T (Note of interrogation), implies doubt or uncertainty. 
 
 f (with or without a period), a foot \ 
 
 ' (a single acute accent), an inch > after a number. 
 
 " (a double accent), a line =1-12 of an inch. . ) 
 
 5 AUTHORS' NAMES CITED IN THIS WORK. 
 
 Adans. 
 1. DC. 
 
 Anders. 
 
 Am. 
 
 Avb. 
 
 Bart. 
 
 Bartt. 
 
 Benth. 
 
 Bemh. 
 
 EtrL 
 
 BOM. 
 
 Bong. 
 
 B&rk. 
 
 Br. 
 
 Bw. 
 
 Case. 
 
 Cerv. 
 
 Cham 
 
 Darl. 
 
 DC 
 
 Dttf. 
 
 Adanson. 
 
 Dill. 
 
 Dillenioa 
 
 Alphonsc Do Candolle. 
 
 Den. 
 
 DesvaoA 
 
 Aiton. 
 
 Dougl. 
 
 Douglas. 
 
 Allione. 
 
 Ehrh. 
 
 Ehrhart. 
 
 Anders son. 
 
 Eft. 
 
 EUiott. 
 
 Arnott. 
 
 EncU. 
 
 Endlicher. 
 
 Aublet. 
 
 Engel. 
 
 Engehnann. 
 
 Barton. 
 
 Fiech. 
 
 Fischer. 
 
 Bartling. 
 
 F. AM. 
 
 Fischer & Meyer 
 
 Beauvois. 
 
 Frcel. 
 
 Froelich. 
 
 Bentham. 
 
 Gccrt. 
 
 Gaertner. 
 
 Bernhardt. 
 
 Omel. 
 
 Gmelin. 
 
 Berlandier. 
 
 Good. 
 
 Goodenough. 
 
 Boissier. 
 
 Or. 
 
 A. Gray. 
 
 Bongard. 
 
 Qrc\ 
 
 Greville. 
 
 Borkhauseu. 
 
 Griseb. 
 
 Grisebach. 
 
 Brown. 
 
 Gron. 
 
 Gronovius. 
 
 Bigelow. 
 
 Hedw. 
 
 Hedwig. 
 
 Cassini. 
 
 Hoffm. 
 
 Hoffman. 
 
 Cavanilles. 
 
 Hook. 
 
 Hooker (W. J.) 
 
 Chamissc 
 
 Hook.f. (JUius) 
 
 Hooker (J. D.) 
 
 Darlington. 
 
 Hornem. 
 
 Hornemann. 
 
 DE CANDOLLE. 
 
 Hude. 
 
 Hudson. [Kiinuv 
 
 DesfontaineA. 
 
 H.B. 
 
 Homboldt, Bonptand & 
 
 Dewey 
 
 Jaeq 
 
 Jaoqnin. 
 
210 
 
 ABBREVIATIONS AND SIGNS. 
 
 AUTHORS' NAMES (CONTINUED). 
 
 Ap, 
 
 JU8BIEU. 
 
 Richn. 
 
 A. Jw 
 
 Adrien Jussieu. 
 
 Rotm. 
 
 L. or Linn. 
 
 LlXN^EUB. 
 
 Salisb. 
 
 Lag. 
 
 Lagasca. 
 
 Schk. 
 
 Lam. 
 
 Lamarck. 
 
 Schrad. 
 
 Lamb. 
 
 Lambert. 
 
 Schreb. 
 
 Ledeb. 
 
 Ledebour. 
 
 Schult. 
 
 Lehm. 
 
 Lehmann. 
 
 Schw. 
 
 Lesq. 
 
 Leeqaereax. 
 
 Scop. 
 
 Lettto. 
 
 Lestibudoie. 
 
 Ser. 
 
 VHer. 
 
 L'Heritier. 
 
 Soland. 
 
 LincU. 
 
 Lindley. 
 
 Sprcng. 
 
 Mart. 
 
 Martins. 
 
 Steud. 
 
 Mich. 
 
 Micheli. 
 
 Sulliv. 
 
 Michx. or MX. 
 
 Micbaux. 
 
 Thurib. 
 
 Mx.f. 
 
 Michaux (the younger). 
 
 Torr. 
 
 Mm. 
 
 MUler. 
 
 T.&G. 
 
 Mitch. 
 
 Mitchell. 
 
 Tourn. 
 
 MvM. 
 
 Muhlenberg. 
 
 Trautv. 
 
 Nee*. 
 
 Nees von 3eenbeck. 
 
 Trin. 
 
 Nutt. or N. 
 
 Nuttall. 
 
 Tuckm. 
 
 Pal. 
 
 Pallas. 
 
 VaiU. 
 
 Pav. 
 
 Pavon. 
 
 Vent. 
 
 Pert. 
 
 Pereoon. 
 
 via. 
 
 Ph. 
 
 Pursh. 
 
 Wahl. 
 
 Plvk. 
 
 Plukenet. 
 
 Walp. 
 
 Plum. 
 
 Plumier. 
 
 Walt. 
 
 Pair. 
 
 Poiret. 
 
 Wangh. 
 
 R.Br. 
 
 ROBERT BROWN. 
 
 Wittd. 
 
 Eaf. 
 
 Raflneeque. 
 
 With. 
 
 Bdchml 
 
 ReiehonhMh. 
 
 Wvtf 
 
 Blah. 
 
 Bichord. 
 
 
 Richardson. 
 
 Roemer. 
 
 Salisbury. 
 
 Schkuhr. 
 
 Schrader. 
 
 Schreber. 
 
 Schultes. 
 
 Schweinitz. 
 
 Scopoli. 
 
 Seringe. 
 
 Solander. 
 
 Sprengel. 
 
 Steudel. 
 
 Snllivant. 
 
 Thnnberg. 
 
 Torrey. 
 
 Torrey & Qmy 
 
 Tournefort. 
 
 Trantvetter. 
 
 Triniua. 
 
 Tuckerman. 
 
 Vaillant. 
 
 Ventenat. 
 
 Villare. 
 
 Wahlenberg. 
 
 Walpera. 
 
 Walter. 
 
 Wangenhoim 
 
 WiUdenow. 
 
 Withering. 
 
 Wnliten. 
 
ANALYSIS OF THE NATURAL ORDERS. 
 
 Founded on the most obvious or artificial characters : designed as a key for 
 
 the determination of the Order of any plant, native, or naturalized, 
 
 or cultivated, growing within the limits of this Flora. 
 
 KINGDOM. 
 
 Sub-kingdom I. Flowering Plants PHANEBOGAMIA. 
 
 Class 1. Leaves net-veined. Flowers never completely 3-parted 
 (mostly ~ty and ^). Embryo with 2 cotyledons. Wood (if 
 any) in annual circles. Seed in a vessel. Stigmas pres- 
 ent ANGIOSPERMS, DICOTYLEDONES. 
 
 Cohort 1. (A) Calyx and corolla present, petals separate Polypetalw. 
 
 Cohort 2. (B) Calyx and corolla present, petals more or less united. .Gamopetalae. 
 
 Cohort 3. (C) Calyx present, but no corolla, or both wanting Apetalae. 
 
 Class 2. Stigma wanting. Seed naked. Embryo with two or more 
 
 cotyledons GYMNOSPERMS- 
 
 Cohort 4. (D) Cone-bearing plants (Pines, etc.) Coniferee. 
 
 Class 3. Leaves parallel- veined (rarely netted). Flowers 3-parted. 
 Bark, wood, and pith commingled. Embryo with but one 
 
 cotyledon. Root not axial MONOCOTYLEDONES. 
 
 Cohort 5. (E) Flowers on a spadix Spadiciflorae. 
 
 Cohort 6. (F) Floral envelope in two 3-parted whorls, outer 
 
 one green (Lillies, etc.) Petaloidee. 
 
 Cohort 7. (G) Floral envelope, chaff-like (Grasses and Grains) Glumiferse. 
 
 Sub-kingdom II. Flowerless Plants CRYPTOG AMIA. 
 
 Class 1. Vascular Cryptogams (Ferns, and their allies) PTERIDOPHYTA. 
 
 Cohort 1. (H) Stem, herbaceous, rooting, or tree-like Llcopodinse. 
 
 Cohort 2. (I) Stem, stiff, channeled (Rushes) Equisetaceee. 
 
 Cohort 3. (J) Stem a creeping Rhizome or erect leaves pin- 
 
 ni-veined, veins forked (Ferns proper) Filicinee* 
 
 A. COHORT I. POLYPETALOUS DICOTYLEDONES. 
 
 * Herbs with the leaves alternate or all radical. .(12) 
 
 * Herbs with the leaves opposite on the stem. .(9) 
 
 * Shrubs, trees, or undershrubs . . (2) 
 
 2 Flowers regular or nearly so . . (8) 
 
 8 Flowers irregular (or the fruit a legume) ( 165). .(/) 
 
 3 Polyandrous, stamens 310 times as many as the petals.. (4) 
 
 3 Oligandrous, stamens 12 times as many as the petals or fewer. .(6) 
 
212 ANALYSIS OF THE NATURAL OKDERS. 
 
 4 Leaves opposite . (s) 
 4 Leaves alternate.. (5) 
 
 5 Stamens on the torus or the hypogynous corolla. .(0 
 5 Stamens and petals on the calyx tube. . (v) 
 
 6 Ovaries simple, distinct, or one only. Vines or erect shrubs, .(w) 
 6 Ovary compound, and wholly adherent to the calyx (x) 
 6 Ovary compound aud free from the calyx or nearly so. . (7) 
 
 7 Stamens opposite to the petals and of the same number, .(y) 
 7 Stamens alternate with the petals or of a different number. .(8) 
 8 Leaves opposite on the stems.. (z) 
 8 Leaves alternate, and compound.. (yy) 
 8 Leaves alternate and simple.. (zz) 
 
 9 Polyandrous stamens 310 tunes as many as the petals, .(m) 
 9 Oligandrous, stamens 12 times as many as the petals or fewer. . (10) 
 10 Pistils separate and distinct, few or solitary, simple, .(n) 
 10 Pistils united into a compound ovary free from the calyx. .(11) 
 10 Pistils united into a compound ovary adherent to the calyx, .(o) 
 11 Stamens opposite to the petals and of the same number. . (p) 
 11 Stamens alternate with the petals or of a greater number, .(q) 
 12 Flowers regular or nearly so. Fruit never a legume . . (14) 
 12 Flowers irregular (rarely regular and the fruit a legume). . (13) 
 13 Stamens numerous, 3 or more times as many as the petals. . (k) 
 13 Stamens few and definite, 4 12. .(I) 
 
 14 Stamens (or anthers) 310 times as many as the petals . . (15) 
 14 Stamens few and definite. Ovary free from the calyx. .(17) 
 14 Stamens few and definite. Ovary adherent to the calyx. . (J) 
 15 Stamens hypogynous inserted on the torus. .(16) 
 15 Stamens perigynous inserted on the corolla at the base, .(c) 
 15 Stamens perigynous inserted on the calyx at the base . . (d) 
 16 Pistils few or many, distinct (at least as to the styles), .(a) 
 16 Pistils (and styles if any) completely united. . (b) 
 17 Pistils one, or indefinite and distinct, simple . . (e) 
 17 Pistils definitely* 2 united, the short styles combined into one..(f) 
 * 2, 8 or 4 united, styles or stigmas, 2, 3, 4 or 6. . (g) 
 * 5, distinct or united, with 5 distinct styles. .(A) 
 * 5, united and the styles also combined into one. . (i) 
 
 a Petals 5 or more, deciduous. Leaves never peltate KANUNCULACE^E. 
 
 a Petals 3 or numerous. Water plants with peltate leaves \ 
 
 o Sepals 46, equal. Petals OO, imbricated in the bud.. . . f 
 
 b Sepals 5, equal. Petals 5, imbricate. Leaves tubular SABBACENIACE.E. 8 
 
 b Sepals 5, unequal. Petals 5, convolute. Flowers of 2 sorts CISTACE^E. 15 
 
 b Sepals 2, with bb 5 petals imbricated in the bud POBTULACCACE.E. 20 
 
 bb 4 or 8 petals usually crumpled in bud PAPAVEBACE.E. 9 
 
 c Filaments united into a tube. Anthers 1-celled MALVACEAE. 23 
 
 d Sepals 2, persistent, capping the lid of the pyxis POBTULACCACE^E. 20 
 
 d Sepals 35, valvate in the bud. Pod long, 2-carpelled TILIACE.E. 25 
 
 d Sepals 3 5. dd Petals imbricate in bud. Fruits simple ROSACEJE. 44 
 
 dd Petals convolute in bud. Fruit compound LOASACE^E. 55 
 
 e Stamens opposite to the petals and of the same number. Pistil 1 only. .BEBBEBIDACE^E. 6 
 
 e Stamens alternate with the petals or more numerous RANUNCULACEJS. 1 
 
 / Stamens 6, tetradynamous. Pod 2-celled. Flowers cruciform CBUCIFEB^E. 11 
 
 / Stamens 432, not tetradynamous. Pod 1-celled CAPPABIDACE.E. 12 
 
 g Sepals 5, unequal. Flowers perfect, numerous, minute CISTACE^J. 15 
 
 g Sepals 5, equal. Flowers mono3cious. Herbs woolly or scurfy OBDEB 113 
 
ANALYSIS OF THE NATUKAL ORDERS. 213 
 
 g Sepals 5, or 3, equal, and the stamens twice as many GEBANIACE^E. 30 
 
 g Sepals 5, and the stamens (anthers) of the same number, .(gg) 
 
 gg Sterile filam. numerous, in several whorls. Climbing. . .PASSIFLOBACE^E. 57 
 
 gg Sterile filaments numerous, in 5 clusters. Herb erect SAXIFBAGACE.S:. 45 
 
 gg Sterile filaments 0. .(*) 
 
 * Flowers white, racemed. Climbing ORDER 106 
 
 * Flowers yellow. Plants erect TUBNEBACE.E. 56 
 
 * Flowers cyanic. Herbs stemless DROSERACE^S!. 17 
 
 h Stamens 5, alternate with the 5 petals. Styles 5 or 3. Seeds QO LINAGES. 28 
 
 h Stamens 5, opposite to the 5 petals. Styles 5, but the seed 1 f ORDER 83 
 
 h Stamens twice as many as the petals . . (hK) 
 
 hh Stamens 6. Leaves peltate NTMPELEACE.S:. 7 
 
 kh Stamens 6 24, distinct CRASSULACEJB. 46 
 
 hh Stamens 10, united at base GERANIACE^I. 30 
 
 i Ovary 1-celled. Leaves all radical, spinescent, irritable DBOSEBACEJS. 17 
 
 i Ovary 3-5 celled. Leaves mostly radical, not dotted ORDER 73 
 
 i Ovary 3-5 celled. Leaves cauline, pinnate, dotted RUTACEJS. 31 
 
 3 Style 1, but the carpels as many as the petals (26) ONAGBACEJE. 54 
 
 j Styles 35, ovary 3-5-celled, 3-5-seeded, wholly adherent ARALIACE^:. 64 
 
 j Styles 38, ovary 1-celled, half adherent. Sepals 2 PORTULACACE^E. 20 
 
 j Styles 2, carpels 2, fewer than the (5) petals.* Seeds several SAXIFRAGACE^E. 45 
 
 * Seeds 2 UMBELLIFER^:. 63 
 
 k Ovariee many, or few, rarely 1, always simple KANTJNCULACEJE. 1 
 
 k Ovary compound, 3-carpelled, open before ripe RESEDACE^E. 13 
 
 I Sepals (4 or 5) produced into 1 slender spur behind, petals 2 or 5 GERANIACE.S:. 30 
 
 I Sepals 2 (or vanished), petals 4 (2 pairs) with 1 or 2 blunt spurs FUMARIACE.S:. 10 
 
 I Sepals 5, very unequal; petals 3. Stamens 6 or 8. No spur POLYGALACEJS. 42 
 
 I Sepals and petals each of the same number, viz. .(ft) 
 
 tt 4, the flowers slightly irregular. Stamens 632. No spur CAPPARIDACEJE. 12 
 
 U 4, the flowers moderately irregular. Stamens 8. A vine SAPiNDACKas. 37 
 
 tt 5, with 5 stamens, and generally a blunt spur VIOLACBLE. 14 
 
 tt 5, with 10 or more stamens. No spur. Fruit a legume LEGTTMTNOSJB. 43 
 
 m Pistils many, entirely distinct, simple KANUNCULACEJE. 1 
 
 77i Pistils 35, united more or less completely HTPERIOACE^I. 16 
 
 m Pistils 510, united, with sessile stigmas and many petals FICOIDZLE. 61 
 
 n Pistil solitary, simple. Petals 69. Stamens 1218 BERBERIDACE^S. 6 
 
 n Pistil 3 or more, distinct, simple. Flowers all symmetrical. . . . CRASSULACEJB. 46 
 
 n Pistils 2, consolidated with the 5 stamens. Juice milky OBDER 100 
 
 o Carpels as many as the sepals, (nn) 
 
 o Carpels fewer in number than the sepals, .(oo) 
 
 nn Anthers opening at the top. Flowers 4-parted MELASTOMACE^:. 52 
 
 nn Anthers opening laterally. Styles united into 1 OKAGRACE^S. 54 
 
 nn Anthers opening laterally. Styles or stigmas distinct. . .HALOBAGE.E. 48 
 
 oo Each carpel oc -seeded. Styles 2 SAXIFB AGACE.E. 45 
 
 oo Each carpel 1-seeded. Styles 2 or 3 ABALIACEJB. 64 
 
 oo Each carpel 1-seeded. Style 1 (double) COBNACE^. 65 
 
 p Style 3-cleft at the summit. Flowers 5-parted POBTULACACE.E. 20 
 
 p Style and stigma 1, undivided. Flowers 7-parted OBDER 81 
 
 q Leaves pinnate, with interpetiolar stipules ZTGOPHTLLACE.E. 29 
 
 q Leaves simple, toothed or lobed. Flowers cruciform. Stamens 6 CBUCIFERS:. 17 
 
 q Leaves simple,, toothed or lobed. Flowers 5-merous. Stamens 10. ..GEBANIACE^B. 30 
 q Leaves simple, entire, .(qq) 
 
 qq Petals and stamens on the throat of the calyx LYTHBACEJS. 123 
 
 qq Petals on the torus. .(*) 
 
214 ANALYSIS OF THE NATURAL ORDERS. 
 
 * Flowers irregular, unsymmetrical POLYGALACE.E. 42 
 
 * Flowers regular, 2-(or 3-)parted throughout ELATINACE.E. 18 
 
 * Flowers regular, 5-parted. Leaves punctate HYPERICACE.E. 16 
 
 * Flowers regular, 5-parted. Leaves dotless CARYOPHYLLACEJB. 19 
 
 r Pistil a simple carpel, becoming a legume. Stamens 10100 LEGUMINOS.E. 43 
 
 r Pistil compound, viz . . (rr) 
 
 rr 3-carpelled. Flowers perfect. Leaves digitate SAPINDACE^E. 37 
 
 rr 3-carpelled. Flowers monoecious. Cultivated . .BEGONIACE^E. 59 
 
 rr 5-carpelled. * Stipules present. Cultivated GEKANIACE^J. 30 
 
 * Stipules none. Native ORDER 78 
 
 s Stamens on the receptacle, in several sets. Leaves dotted HYPERICACEJE. 10 
 
 8 Stamens on the receptacle, in 1 set. Lvs. fleshy. (S. Fla).. Clusia. GUTTIFERE. (21) 
 Stamens on the calyx . . (ss) 
 
 88 Sepals, petals, and ovaries indefinite CALYCANTHACE^E. 3 
 
 88 Sepals, &c., definite. Leaves dotted, entire MYRTACE.SJ. 51 
 
 ss Sepals, &c., definite. Leaves dotless, entire LYTHRACE^B. 53 
 
 88 Sepals, &c., definite. Leaves dotless, subdentate SAXIFRAGACE^E. 45 
 
 t Filaments united into 1 set (monadelphous). Petals convolute. .<w) 
 t Filaments united into 1 or several sets. Petals imbricate . . (uu) 
 t Filament distinct.. (tf) 
 
 tt Petals 6, valvate, lurid. Erect shrubs ANONACE.S:. 4 
 
 it Petals 39, imbricate. Trees or shrubs MAGNOLIACE^E. 2 
 
 tt Petals 48, imbricate. Climbing or trailing MENISPEHMACE^E. 5 
 
 tt Petals 4, imbricated. Shrubs, S CAPPARIDACE^E. 12 
 
 u Anthers 1-celled. Sepals valvate in the bud MALVACEAE. 23 
 
 u Anthers 2-celled. Sepals valvate. Handsome tree STERCULIACE^E. 24 
 
 u Anthers 2-celled. Sepals imbricate. A large tree in S. Fla-.CANELLACEuE. (22) 
 uu Leaves punctate with pellucid dots, jointed to stalk. .AURANTIACE^E. 32 
 uu Leaves opaque. .(*) 
 
 * Sepals valvate. Flowers small TILIACEJE. 25 
 
 * Sepals imbricate. Flowers large CAMELLIACE^E. 26 
 
 v Style 1, with many stigmas. Green fleshy shrubs CACTACE^E. 60 
 
 v Styles several or 1, each with 1 stigma. Woody trees or shrubs ROSACES. 44 
 
 v Style 1, with 1 stigma. Stam. in 5 sets, long, red, very showy MYRTACE^E. 51 
 
 w Trailing vines, with crimson fls. Ovaries OO, in a little spike MAGNOLIACE.E. 2 
 
 w Climbing vines, with white-greenish fls. Ova. 2 6, capitate MENISPERMACEJE. 5 
 
 w Erect shrubs, with yellow flowers, 6-parted. Pistil only 1 BERBERIDACE^J. 6 
 
 w Erect shrubs (S. Fla.) with yellow fls. Pistils 5, 2-ovuled, 1-sded . . . SURIANACE.E. (62) 
 
 w Trees, with greenish fls.,* and pinnate Ivs. Pist. 3-5, l-cvuled...SiMARUBACEjE. 34 
 
 * and simple leaves. Follicles 35 STERCULIACE.E. 24 
 
 x Flowers 4-parted. Stamens 8. (Fls. red or roseate, drooping).. .ONAGRACEJE. 54 
 x Flowers 4-parted. Sta. 8. Fls. light yellow. Coasts, S. Fla..RHizopoRACE^E. (49) 
 
 x Flowers 4-parted. Stamens 4. Flowers whitish, in cymes CORNACE^E. 65 
 
 x Flowers 5-parted . . (xx) 
 
 xx Ovary 5-carpelled, 5-styled, 5-seeded ARALIACE^E. 64 
 
 xx Ovary 5-carpelled, 1-styled, 1-seeded. S. Fla COMBRETACE^E. 50 
 
 xx Ovary 2-4 carpelled, OC-seeded SAXIFRAGACE.E. 45 
 
 y Leaves opposite. Stem climbing with tendrils or radicles . . . VITACE.E. 41 
 y Lvs. alternate. St. erect, or climbing without tendrils. . RHAMNACE-E. 40 
 
 z Leaves simple. Stamens 5. Carpels 35, style 1, short CELASTRACE^E. 38 
 
 z Leaves simple. Sta. 10. Carpels and sty. 3. S. Fla..Bym>mwa,MALPiGHiACE,E. (39) 
 
 z Leaves pinnate, or palmately lobed. Carpels and styles 2 or 3 SAPINDACE.E. 37 
 
 z Leaves pinnate. .(*) 
 
 * Stamens 10. Small tree with blue flowers. S. Fla ZYGOPHYULACE.E. 29 
 
 * Stamens 2. Carpels lor 3. Style 1 OBDBR 101 
 
ANALYSIS OF THE NATURAL ORDERS. 215 
 
 * StamensS. Carpel and style 1 BUBSERACE,*:. 35 
 
 yy Filaments 10, united into a tube or cup. Flowers in panicles MELIACE^. 21 
 
 W Filaments 610, distinct. Flowers small, white, in racemes BURSERACE^E. 35 
 
 yy Filaments 610, distinct. Fls. small, white or hoary, paniculate. . SAPINDACILE. 81 
 yy Filaments 5, distinct.. (*) 
 
 * Leaves pellucid-punctate RUTACE.&. 81 
 
 * Leaves opaque. Ovary 1-celled, 1-seeded ANAOARDIACE^E. 36 
 
 tz Petals 4, yellow, strap-shaped, appearing in late Autumn HAMAMELACE.-E. 47 
 
 zz Petals 47, cyanic (rarely yellow), rounded or short.. (t) 
 
 t Style 0, the stigmas 1, 4, or 5, sessile. Drupe 4-6-seeded ORDEB 74 
 
 t Styles (or stigmas) 3, but the drupe only 1-seeded ANACARDIACE^E. 36 
 
 t Styles 3, capsule many-sded. Lvs. minute and pcale-form . . TAMARISCINEJE. 24 ftw 
 t Style l,..Ct) 
 
 $ Capsule 3-seeded. Seeds with a scarlet aril CELASTRACE^E. 38 
 
 J Caps. 00-seeded. Clusters fragrant. Lvs. evergreen. Cult. ..PITTOBPORAC**. 
 $ Capsule with few or many seeds. Native shrubs ORDER 7c 
 
 B. COHORT 2. GAMOPETALOUS DICOTYLEDONES. 
 
 Stamens (6 00) more numerous than the lobes of the corolla. .(9) 
 Stamens (212) fewer than the corolla lobes or of the same number. . (2) 
 2 Ovary inferior, =adherent to the tube of the calyx.. (3) 
 2 Ovary superior, = free from the tube of the calyx. . (4) 
 3 Stamens cohering by their anthers, .(c) 
 8 Stamens entirely distinct.. (d) 
 
 4 Flowers regular and the stamens symmetrical. .(5) 
 
 4 Flowers regular and the stamens reduced to 2 or 4. .(n) 
 
 4 Flowers irregular. Stamens (except in 3 or 4 species) unsymmetrical. .(01 
 
 5 Stamens opposite to the lobes of the corolla (and distinct), .(e) 
 
 6 Stamens alternate with the corolla lobes (rarely connate).. (6) 
 
 6 Shrubs, trees, with the carpels or stigmas 3 6..(/) 
 6 Herbs 1-10-carpelled, or shrubs 2-carpelled..(7) 
 7 Ovary 1, deeply 4-parted or 4-partible, forming 4 achenia. .(g) 
 1 Ovaries 2, distinct (often covered by the stamens) .. (h) 
 7 Ovary 1, compound,* one-celled.. (k) 
 
 * two-six-celled.. (m) 
 
 9 Flowers irregular (rarely regular and the fruit a legume).. (a) 
 Flowers regular and the fruit never a legume ( 165). .(J) 
 
 a Flowers 1- or 2-sided, with 1 or 2 blunt spurs. Stamens 6, in 2 sets. . .ORDER 1C 
 a Flowers 1-sided, no spur..(*) 
 
 * Leaves compound. Fruit a legume ORDER 48 
 
 * Leaves simple. Fruit 2-celled, 2-seeded ORDER 42 
 
 * Leaves simple. Fruit 5-celled ERICACEAE. 73 
 
 6 Corolla lobes convolute in bud. Stamens 00, united into 1 tube ORDER 23 
 
 6 Corolla lobes imbricate in bud. Stamens 00, in 1 or several sets ORDER 26 
 6 Corolla lobes imbricate or valvate. . (u) 
 
 u Stamens 1024. Styles 5 12 ORDER 46 
 
 Stamens 510. Style 1. Capsule 5-celled EBICACE^:. 73 
 
 v StamensS 00. Style 1. Nut 1-5-seeded STTBACAdtB. 76 
 
 Btemen88. Style4. BerrySaeeded EBKNACKJS. 71 
 
 u Stamens 8. Stylo 1. Drupe 1-secded OLAOAOHA 80 (p. 447) 
 
216 ANALYSIS OF THE NATURAL ORDERS. 
 
 e Flowers in a compact head surrounded by an involucre .............. COMPOSITE. 7C 
 
 c Flowers separate, irregular, perfect. Plants erect or trailing ....... LOBELIACEJE. 71 
 
 e Flowers separate, regular, imperfect. Weak vines _____ .................. ORDER 58 
 
 d Leaves alternate. Flowers 5-parted, regular, separate ..... CAMPANULACE.E. 72 
 
 d Leaves alternate. Fls. irregular, 5-parted. S. Fla..Sccevola. GOO'DENIACE^E. (71$; 
 d Leaves opposite, with stipules between, or verticillate .......... RUBIACE^E. 61 
 
 d Leaves opposite. Stipules none. . (v) 
 
 v Stamens 5 4. Ovaries 2-5-celled ....................... CAPRIFOLIACE^E. 66 
 
 v Stamens 2 3. Ovaries 1-celled ......................... VALERIANACE.E, 68 
 
 o Stamens 4. Flowers capitate ................................ DIPSACE.E. 69 
 
 e Herbs. Ovary with 5 styles and but 1 seed ................ PLUMBAGINACE^E. 83 
 
 Herbs. Ovary with 1 style and many seeds .................... PRIMULACEJS. 81 
 
 e Trees or shrubs. Appendages between the stamens ............ SAPOTACE^E. 78 
 
 Trees or shrubs. No appendages between the stam. S. Fla. . MTRSINACE^E. (79) 
 / Leaves opposite. Style 1. Drupe 4-seeded. Herbs, shrubs.. VERBSNACE^E. 90 
 / Leaves alternate. . (w) 
 
 w Drape 4-6-seeded. Shrubs, trees .................... AQUIFOLIACE.E. 74 
 
 w Drupe 1-seeded. Thorny. S. Fla ........... Ximenia. OLACACE.E. (80) 
 
 tc Capsule 2-5-celled, QO-seeded ........................... ERICACEJE. 73 
 
 g Herbs, with alternate leaves, generally rough-hairy ..... BORRAGINACE.E. 92 
 
 k Stigmas connate. Flower bud convolute ............. APOCYNACE^E. 99 
 
 A Stigmas connate. Flower bud valvate ............ ASCLEPIADACEJS. 100 
 
 h Stigmas distinct. Flowers minute, yellow ........ CONYOLVULACEJS. 95 
 
 fc Ovule solitary. Corolla limb entire .............................. ORDER 103 
 
 ft Ovules several. Leaves cleft and lobed ............. HYDROPHYLLACE^B. 93 
 
 k Ovules several. Leaves or leaflets entire.. (x) 
 
 x Flowers not spicate .............................. GENTIANACEJS. 97 
 
 m Leaves opposite. Ovary 2-celled .......................... Lou AKIACE.E. 98 
 
 m Leaves alternate. . (y) 
 
 m Leaves opposite. Ovary 3-ceUed. Not twining.. ) .PQLEMONIACE^. 94 
 y Ovary 3-celled. Not twining .............. > 
 
 y Ovary 2-4-celled. Twining ...................... CONVOLVULACE.E. 95 
 
 y Ovary 2-4-celled, 4-seeded. Erect ............... BORRAGINACEJB. 92 
 
 y Ovary 2-celled, 00-seeded. z Styles 2 ....... HYDROPHYLLACE^E. 93 
 
 z Style 1 ............... SOLANAOEJS. 96 
 
 n Stamens 4. Ova. 4-(rarely 1- or 2-)celled, with as many sds . . VERBENACE^E.W 
 n Stamens 2. Ovary 2-celled, forming 1 or 2 seeds ............. OLBACEJS. 101 
 
 Ovary deeply 4-parted, forming 4 (or fewer) achenia. .(p) 
 
 O Ovary entire. 4-ovuled, 4- or fewer-seeded. Leaves opposite.. VEBBENACBJZ. 90 
 
 o Orary entire, 00-ovuled, OO- or several-seeded.. () 
 
 p Leaves opposite. Stems square. Stamens 24 ............... LABIATE. 91 
 
 p Leaves alternate. Stems round. Stamens 5 ............ BORUAOINACK,*;. 92 
 
 6 Trees or climbing shrubs. Seeds winged ........ ............. BIGNONIACEJS 8 
 
 Trees. Seeds not winged ..... SCROPHTTL. 88. Erect shrubs ERICACEAE. 73 
 
 Herbs.** Leafless parasites. Native. Ovary 1-celled ..... OROBANCHACE^B. 85 
 
 68 Leafy at base or in the water. Flowers spurred. . LENTIBULACEJS. 84 
 ss Leafy. Flowers large, spurless. Ovary 1-celled... GESNERIACEJE. 87 
 ss Leafy. Spurless. Fruit 4- or 5-celled ........... $ BIGNONIACEJS. 86 
 
 -*? Leafy. Fruit 2-celled . . (0 
 t Seeds on hooks or cups. Corolla mostly convolute ........... ACANTHACEJE. 89 
 
 t SoedH without hooks. Corolla imbricated in the bad.. . ..SOAOPHULABXACE^:. 88 
 
 f Seeds without hooks. Corolla mostlv nlicate .................... SOLANACEJS. 98 
 
ANALYSIS OF THE NATURAL ORDERS. 217 
 
 C. COHORT 3. APETALOUS DICOTYLEDONES. 
 
 IMaute herbaceous, the flowers not in aments (except Humulus, 114). .(3) 
 Plants woody, shrubs or trees . . (8) 
 
 2 Flowers with a regular calyx (or a calyx-like involucre). (3) 
 
 2 Flowers achlamydeous, neither calyx nor corolla, .(k) 
 
 3 Calyx tube adherent to the ovary, limb lobed, toothed, or entire .(fl) 
 
 8 Calyx free from the ovary, sometimes enclosing it.. (4) 
 
 1 Ovaries several, entirely distinct, each 1-styled, l-ovuled..(gr) 
 4 Ovary 1 only, simple or compound.. (5) 
 
 5 Style or stigma 1 only. .(6) 
 
 5 Styles or stigmas 2 12. .(7) 
 
 6 Ovary 1-ovuled, bearing but 1 seed, .(if) 
 
 6 Ovary many-ovuled, bearing many seeds. . (rf) 
 
 7 Ovary 1-3-ovuled, 1-3-seeded. .(e) 
 
 7 Ovary 4- 00-ovuled, 4- CD-seeded, .(h) 
 8 Flowers not in aments, with the leaves opposite. .() 
 8 Flowers not in aments, with the leaves alternate.. (10) 
 8 Flowers imperfect, the sterile only in aments. .() 
 8 Flowers imperfect, both the fertile and sterile in aments.. (c) 
 
 9 Stamens 112, as many or twice as many as the stigmas. . (a) 
 9 Stamens 210, not symmetrical with the 1 or 2 stigmas, .(ft) 
 
 10 Style or stigma 1. Fruit 1-seeded. . (11) 
 10 Styles or stigmas 2. .(s) 
 10 Styles or stigmas 39. . (Q 
 
 11 Calyx free from the ovary, .(p) 
 11 Calyx adherent to the ovary, .(r) 
 
 a Stigmas and cells of the ovary 14. Stamens 18 ORDERS 48, or 54 
 
 a Stigmas and cells of the ovary 6. Stamens 6 or 12. . .ARISTOLOCHIACEJE. 102 
 
 b Styles 2. Ovary many-seeded. Stamens 810 ORDER 45 
 
 b Style 1. Ovary 1- or 2-seeded. Stamens 5 SANTALACE^E. 110 
 
 e Flowers perfect. Calyx 4-lobed. Stamens 1 4 ORDER 44 
 
 e Flowers perfect. Calyx entire, funnel-shaped, colored. .NYCTAGINACE^E. 101 
 
 e Flowers diclinous. Calyx 4-5-parted, green URTICAOKS. 114 
 
 d Stamens 4, opposite to the 4 sepals. Leaves numerous ORDER 5C 
 
 d Stamens 4, opposite to the 4 sepals. Leaves about 6 ORDER 145 
 
 d Stamens 5, alternate with the 5 sepals ORDER 81 
 
 d Stamens CO. Leaves large and showy. Cultivated ORDER 9 
 
 Fruit 3-(rarely 6-)seeded, with 3 (often cleft) styles EUPHORBIACEJE. 113 
 
 e Fruit 1-seeded. Stipules sheathing the stems .POLYGONAOE^E. 104 
 
 Fruit 1-celled, mostly 1 -seeded. Stipules none. (/) 
 
 f Calyx with scarious bractlets outside AMARANTACE^E. 107 
 
 / Calyx naked (double in 1 genus). Lvs. alternate. . CHENOPODIACE.E. 106 
 
 / Calyx naked. Leaves opposite ORDER 18 
 
 g Stamens hypogynous on the torus ORDER 1 
 
 g Stamens perigynous on the calyx ORDER 44 
 
 h Leaves opposite. Fruit circumscissile, a pyxis ORDER 61 
 
 h Leaves opposite. Fruit 4-5-valved, a capsule ORDER 19 
 
 h Leaves alternate .. (i) 
 
 i Fruit 5-horned, 5-celled, a capsule ORDER 40 
 
 i Fruit a fleshy 4-10-seeded berry PHTTOI.ACCACEJB:. 105 
 
 i Fruit circumscissile, a utricle AMARASTACE^E. 107 
 
 4 Flowers on a spadix with a spathe. Monocotyledons ORDBS 180 
 
 It Flowers in a long naked spike. Stamens 6 or 7 SAURTTRI OKLH, 1 1 5 
 
 ft Flowers solitary, axillary, minute. Aquatic plants. . (tn) 
 
218 ANALYSIS OF THE NATURAL ORDERS. 
 
 m Stamen 1, styles 2. Leaves opposite CALLITRI JHACE^E. lie 
 
 m Stamens 2, styles 2. Leaves alternate, dissected. .PODOSTEMIACE>E. ll'i 
 m Sta. 12-24, style 1. Lvs. verticillate, dissected.. CERATOPHYLLACE.E. 118 
 
 n Fruit a double samara (2-winged) ORDER 7i 
 
 n Fruit a single samara (1-winged), or a drupe. Stamens 2 ORDER 101 
 
 n Fruit not winged, o 3-seeded. Stamens 4 EUPHORBIACE.E. 113 
 
 o 1-seeded. Stamens 4 or 8 ELEAGNACE^. 112 
 
 o 1-seeded. Stamens 3. Parasites.. LORANTHACE^B. 109 
 
 p Anthers opening by valves. Calyx colored LAURACE.E. 108 
 
 p Anthers opening by slits. q Calyx colored. Stam. 8 THYMELACE^E. Ill 
 
 q Calyx greenish ; racemed ORDER 37 
 
 q Cal. green ; spiked. S. Fla. .COMBRETACE.E. (50) 
 
 r Ovary and seed only 1, in the juicy drupe. Trees ORDER 65 
 
 r Ovaries 24, seed 1. Fruit a drupe or nut. Shrubs. . .SANTAXACE^E. 110 
 
 * Stamens numerous ORDER 47 
 
 Stamens as many as the calyx lobes 1. URTICACE^;. 114 
 
 t Leaves pinnate. Pistils 5, scarcely united ORDER 31 
 
 t Leaves simple, linear, evergreen. Shrubs heath-like. .EMPETRACE^:. 119 
 t Leaves simple, expanded. Fls. 3-parted. Fruit dry.. EUPHORBIACE.E. 113 
 
 t Leaves simple, expanded. Fls. 4- or 5-parted. Fruit fleshy ORDER 40 
 
 c Nut drupaceous, naked. Leaves pinnate JUGLANDACE^B. 121 
 
 v Nut or nuts in a cup or involucre. Leaves simple CUPULIFERJE. 122 
 
 X Fruit fleshy, aggregated (sorosis). Juice (or sap) milky ... 2. URTICACEJE. 11.4 
 e Fruit dry. Plants with a watery juice or sap . . (y) 
 
 y Aments globular, racemed. Nutlets 2-celled, woolly ORDER 65 
 
 y Aments globular, solitary. Nutlets 1-celled, 1-aeeded PLATANACE^E. 120 
 
 y Aments cylindrical or oblong, .(z) 
 
 z Ovary 2-celled, 2-ovuled, 1-seeded. Fruit often winged.. BETULACE^E. 123 
 
 z Ovary 1-celled, 1-seeded. Fruit often fleshy MYRICACEJS. 124 
 
 * Ovary many-ovuled, many-seeded. Seeds comous SALICACE.E. 126 
 
 D. COHORT 4. THE CONOIDS. 
 
 * Leaven pinnate. Stem simple, palm-like. Sterile flowers in cones CYCADACE^E. 12ft 
 
 * Leaves simple. Stem branching. Fertile flowers in cones CONIFERS. 121 
 
 * Leaves simpie. Stem branching. Fertile flowers solitary TAXACE^E. 12? 
 
 E. COHORT 5. THE SPADICEOUS MONOCOTYLEDONES. 
 
 Trees or shrubs with palmi-cleft leaves all from one terminal bud, I j ALMAOBA j jo 
 
 and a branching "spadix" from a spathe.. '" 
 
 Herbs with simple, rarely ternate leaves. Spadix simple. .(2) 
 
 2 Plants frond-like, minute, floating loose on the water LEMNACE^E. 131 
 
 2 Plants with stem and leaves, rooting and fixed. . (3) 
 
 3 Spadix evident, in a spathe or on a scape ARACEJB. 130 
 
 S Spadix obscure or spike-like. Stems leafy. .(4) 
 
 4 Flowers with no perianth, densely spicatc or capitate TYPHACE^E. 139 
 
 4 Flowers with a perianth or not. Plants submersed NAIADACEJE, 188 
 
ANALYSIS OF THE NATURAL ORDERS. 219 
 
 **. COHORT 6. FLORIDE2E, OB FLOWERING MONOCOTYLEDON ES. 
 
 Flowers (not on a spadix) in a small, dense, involucrate head. .(o) 
 Flowers (not on a spadix) solitary, racemed, spicate, &c.'.(2) 
 2 Perianth tube adherent to the ovary wholly or partly. .(4) 
 8 Perianth free from the ovary. (3) 
 
 8 Petals and sepals differently colored (except in Medeola, 147).. (0) 
 3 Petals and sepals similarly colored. .(5) 
 4 Flowers imperfect (3 ? or & fi ?)..(a) 
 4 Flowers perfect.. (6) 
 
 5 Leaves net-veined, broad.. (k) 
 5 Leaves parallel-veined.. (6) 
 
 6 Styles and often the stigmas also united into one. .(m) 
 6 Styles and etigmas 3, distinct.. () 
 
 a Low aquatic herbs HYDROCHARIDACEJE. '<38 
 
 a Climbing shrubby vines DIOSCORIACE^E. 143 
 
 b Anthers 1 or 2, on the pistil (gynandrous) ORCHIDACE.B. 137 
 
 b Anthers 1 or 5, free from the pistil. Leaves ample SCITAMINB^E. 138 
 
 b Anthers 3 or 6.. (c) 
 
 c Perianth woolly or mealy outside. Ovary half free HJEMADORACE.B 141 
 
 e Perianth glabrous outside. . (d) 
 
 d Anthers 3, opening crosswise, inward BURMANNIACE.E. 136 
 
 d Anthers 3, opening lengthwise, outward IRIDACE^E. 142 
 
 d Anthers 6, opening inward AMARYLLIDACE^E. 139 
 
 Pistils 3 00, distinct, forming achenia in fruit ALISMACE.E. 134 
 
 Pistils 3 only, more or less united, .(g) 
 
 g Leaves verticillate, in 1 or 2 whorls. Stigmas 3 TRILLIACE.E. 146 
 
 g Leaves alternate. . (h) 
 
 h Stigmas 3. Plants with dry leaves, often epiphytes BROMELIACE^E. 140 
 
 h Stigmas united into 1 COMMELTNACE^E. 151 
 
 k Flowers perfect, 4-parted ROXBURGHIACE^E. 145 
 
 k Flowers dioecious, 6-parted SMILACE^E. 144 
 
 m Flowers colored, regular. Stamens 6 (4 in one species) LILIACE^E. 147 
 
 m Flowers colored, irregular or else triandrous PONTEDERIACE^E. 149 
 
 m Flowers greenish, glume-like or scarious JUNCACE^E. 150 
 
 n Leaves rash-like. Ovary- of 3 1-seeded carpels I ]yi ELANTHACE ^ B 143 
 
 n Leaves linear, lanceolate, &c. Ovary 6- 00 -seeded. . . ' 
 
 o Petals yellow, small but showy. Plant acaulescent XYRIDACE^. 152 
 
 o Petals white, minute, fringed. Plant acaulescent EKIOCAULONACE^:. 154 
 
 G. COHORT 7. GRAMINOIDE^E, OR GRASS-LIKE MONOCOTYLEDONES. 
 
 Flowers with 6 bracts in 2 whorls (sepals and petals). Culms solid ORDER 150 
 
 Flower with a single bract (glume). Culm solid, sheaths entire CTPERACE^B 153 
 
 Flower with several bracts (glumes and pales). Culm hollow. I n 
 
 Sheaths split on one side. Ovary 1-seeded. Styles 2 > WRAMINE.E ] 
 
 SUB-KINGDOM n. CLASS I. COHORTS 1, 2, and 3. 
 
 Plants with well-developed foliage. .(5). 
 t Leaves few, mostly ample and from subterranean rhizomes ,, (a) 
 
220 
 
 ANALYSIS OF THE NATURAL ORDERS. 
 
 a Fruit borne on the leaves which are often more or less contracted. .FTLICES. 169 
 1 Leaves numerous, small, mostly spirally Mnbricated on the stem. .(6) 
 
 b Fruit axillary, sessile, opening by a slit LTCOPODIACEJE. 157 
 
 Plants with verticillate branches instead of leaves, .(e) 
 
 c Fruit in terminal spikes EQUISETACE.E. 158 
 
 oy THB 
 
 !trinraasiTT] 
 
 &. 
 
UNIVERSITY OF CAL 
 
 IBRAEY 
 
 THIS BOOK IS DUE ON THE LAST DATE 
 STAMPED BELOW 
 
 10 
 
 aiov 11 
 
 OCT 13 , 
 
 AY 14 
 
 JAN CO 
 
 1926 
 
 30m-6,'14