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200 TRIBAL ORGANIZATION, 
 
 2. REPLIES TO INQUIRTES RESPECTING THE INDIAN 
 TRIBES OF OREGON AND CALIFORNIA. 
 
 BY GEORGE FALCONER EMMONS, U. S. N. 
 
 [REMARK. We prefix to this paper a quarto Map of Oregon, &c., which has been reduced by 
 Captain Eastman from a large sheet prepared by him from the later manuscript authorities, for the 
 daily administration of the Office of Indian Affairs.] 
 
 BUREAU OF CONSTRUCTION, &c., 
 
 Washington, D. C., May ZQth, 1852. 
 
 SIR : Your printed circular calling for information in relation to the Indian tribes 
 within the United States, is before me. The subject is one of such growing 
 interest, independent of the duty we all owe in endeavoring to supply a void in the 
 history of mankind, that I feel more regret than I can well express, that circumstances 
 beyond my control prevented me from gaining much interesting information while 
 among the tribes west of the Rocky Mountains. It was one of the primary objects 
 of the expedition confided to me by the commander of the United States Exploring 
 Expedition, in 1841, in passing through Oregon and Upper California, to the Bay of 
 San Francisco. 
 
 As will appear upon reference to the printed Instructions in the fifth volume of the 
 Narrative of the Exploring Expedition, and although my instructions, independent 
 of this, gave me enough to do, it was owing mainly to the ague and fever that 
 attacked nearly every officer and man in the party, and the subsequent hostility of 
 the tribes, that I now find myself unable to answer many of the questions embraced 
 i'n your circular. 
 
 Such as I can answer, I will now take again in the order propounded, confining 
 myself to the following tribes, whose approximate numbers and localities are sufficiently 
 described in the Narrative of the Exploring Expedition, Vol. V. 
 
 These names are variously spelled by different travellers, and the numbers differently 
 estimated by those whose opportunities of forming a judgment were less favorable 
 than those at the command of the different parties composing the Exploring 
 Expedition. Therefore in these two particulars I shall copy verbatim from the above 
 work : 
 
: 
 
HISTORY, AND GOVERNMENT. 
 
 201 
 
 
 TRIBES. 
 
 NUMBER 
 
 
 Chinooks .... 
 
 209 
 
 1 
 
 g 
 
 Klatsops .... 
 
 220 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 S 
 
 EH 
 
 Chickeeles .... 
 
 700 
 
 B 
 
 
 
 
 
 Kilamukes. . \' . 
 
 400 
 
 H 
 
 
 
 B 
 
 
 
 EH 
 
 
 
 B 
 g 
 
 Callapuyas. 
 
 600 
 
 g . 
 L- 
 
 Umpquas .... 
 
 400 
 
 ta 
 O 
 
 Rogues or Rascally . 
 
 500 
 
 Q 
 
 Klamets * . 
 
 300 
 
 c; 
 
 
 
 o 
 a 
 
 Shaste ' 
 
 500 
 
 o 
 
 Kinkla 
 
 500 2 
 
 - 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 Sacramento 
 
 . 
 
 
 
 8000 s 
 
 
 Tula or Tulara . . 
 
 
 LOCALITY, ETC. 
 
 Mouth of the Columbia river, north side, includ 
 ing some 50 miles interior. 
 
 Mouth of the Columbia river, south side, and 
 20 or 30 miles of sea-coast. 
 
 North and east of ditto. 
 
 South and east of ditto, extending to the coast. 
 Number, I think, overrated. 
 
 Valley of the Willamette river. 
 
 do. Umpqua do. going south, 
 
 do. Rogue do. do 
 
 do. Klamet do. do. 
 
 Mountainous country and dividing ridge between 
 Oregon and California. 
 
 On Destruction river and head-waters of the 
 Sacramento river. 
 
 Valley of the Sacramento and its lower tributaries. 
 
 N. B. These numbers, I presume, were intended to embrace the remnant of several 
 other tribes also occupying this country. 
 
 " 1. What facts can be stated, from tradition, respecting the origin, early history, 
 and migrations of the tribe; and what are the principal incidents known, or 
 remembered since A. D. 1492?" 
 
 Relating to their origin, early history, migrations, &c., I could learn nothing from 
 those I communicated with worthy of repetition. 
 
 The fact, now well established, that Japanese vessels have been driven across the 
 Pacific Ocean upon our north-west coast, will, of course, suggest but one way that our 
 country may have been first populated. 
 
 " 2. By what name are they called among themselves, and by what name, or names, 
 are they known among other tribes ; and what is the meaning of these respective 
 names ? State the various synonyms. Where did the tribe dwell, at the earliest date ; 
 what was its probable number, and the extent of territory occupied or claimed by it ? 
 How has their location, numbers, and the extent of lands or territories, varied sinci: 
 the earliest known period ; and what are the general facts, on these heads, at the 
 present time?" 
 
 The names of the tribes here given are the same as known by themselves in every 
 
 1 For these tribes, see later estimates of Mr. Gibbs, p. 171 : also, XV. Statistics of Population. 
 ' My own estimate. G. P. K. 
 
 PT. III. 26 
 
202 TRIBAL ORGANIZATION, 
 
 instance, I believe, but that of the Rogues, who were thus nani'jj by the whites, for 
 several good reasons. 
 
 It will be observed that the principal river is generally of the same name as that of 
 the tribe occupying the country through which it runs. 
 
 From their clanish habits, and peculiarities of language, I should conclude that they 
 have seldom changed their location. Wars, too, so common among savage tribes, of 
 which these are no exception, would naturally tend to confine each tribe within its 
 original boundaries. 
 
 Their numbers must have been very much more numerous formerly, than appears 
 by the preceding table, from their rapid decline since the whites have come among 
 them. 
 
 The extent of territory claimed is usually bounded by rivers, mountains, preeminent 
 rocks or trees; and although their landed possessions do not appear to cause them 
 much solicitude, I recollect upon one occasion a chief of the Callapuya came to my 
 camp, and after pointing out the tops of certain hills, and other natural objects, as the 
 boundaries of his country, expressed a hope that this would not be taken from them 
 by the whites. Poor Indian ! his country is already in the possession of the white 
 man, or " pale-face," but it is very doubtful if he has lived to see it. 
 
 "4. Is there any idea developed among them by tradition, allegory, or otherwise, 
 that white people, or a more civilized race, had occupied the continent before them?" 
 
 They have allegorical traditions in regard to their origin, &c., and a confused idea 
 of dates; I cannot now repeat anything in a tangible form. 
 
 '9. Have they suffered any great calamity in past times, as from great floods, or 
 wild beasts, from epidemic or pestilential diseases, or from fierce and sudden assailants?" 
 
 They have suffered great losses from the epidemic diseases since their first inter 
 course with the whites, which have exterminated whole tribes. 
 
 The introduction of the small-pox they attribute to the Hudson Bay Companies : 
 the disease was very fatal to them in the year 1839. 
 
 The ague and fever, which also proves fatal to many every year, they say was never 
 known among them until the year 1830, when an American captain, by the name of 
 Dominis, arrived at Astoria, in a vessel, from the Sandwich islands ; for these, and 
 sundry other bodily complaints of modern date that they are subject to, they attribute 
 altogether to the whites, whom, they appear to believe, have the power of withholding 
 or communicating these diseases to them. 
 
 Hence one cause of their avowed hostility to the whites, and particularly to my 
 party's passing through their country; to prevent which I received warnings by 
 runners from the Shast6 nation, long before I reached the Umpqua river, with threats 
 of annihilation if I attempted it. 
 
HISTORY, AND GOVERNMENT. 203 
 
 u 9. Does the tribe speak one or more dialects, or are there several languages spoken, 
 or incorporated in it, requiring more than one interpreter, in transacting business with 
 them?" 
 
 Of " Languages," &c. I would respectfully refer you to the philological work of the 
 Exploring Expedition, edited by a gentleman eminently qualified to do this subject 
 justice, and whose opportunities were probably superior to those of any officer 
 in the expedition. 
 
 "16. What are the chief rivers in the territory or district occupied by the tribe? 
 State their length, general depth and breadth where they originate how far they 
 are navigable what are their principal rapids, falls, and portages at what points 
 goods are landed, and into what principal or larger waters they filially flow." 
 
 The principal rivers traversing the country through which my route lay, were the 
 Columbia, Willamette, Umpqua, Rogue's, Klamet, and Sacramento ; the first and last 
 only being navigable for large vessels for any considerable distance. All of these have 
 their tributaries, that may be navigated by boats, and in several instances are worthy 
 of the name of rivers. With the exception of the Willamette, that takes its rise to 
 the southward, and flows north into the Columbia, their general direction is westerly 
 to the Pacific ocean, until you pass the dividing ridge near the Shaste" mountains, 
 when you come upon the head-waters of Destruction river, that flow south into the 
 Sacramento, the latter continuing in a south-westerly course to the bay of San 
 Francisco. 
 
 "17. Are there any large springs, or lakes, in the district, and what is their 
 character, size, and average depth ; and into what streams have they outlets ? " 
 
 Passed many small lakes and ponds most of them quite shoal. One place in 
 Oregon now quite filled up by the washings from the surrounding hills was pointed 
 out to me as formerly a lake, by an old gentleman by the name of McKay, who said 
 he had formerly caught beaver there for the Company of John Jacob Astor, about 
 1811 and '12. 
 
 Springs are also quite numerous in the mountain districts ; temperature generally 
 between 40 and 50 F. Discovered one strongly chalybeate, south of the Shaste" 
 Peak. The gold region has since been discovered to extend north of this. 
 
 " 18. What is the general character of the surface of the country occupied by the 
 tribe?" 
 
 The general features of this country, lying between a range of mountains running 
 nearly parallel with the coast and the latter, and known as the President's range, 
 is extremely mountainous after leaving the valley of the Willamette, until you 
 descend into the valley of the Sacramento. 
 
204 TRIBAL ORGANIZATION, 
 
 Immediately skirting the rivers, and occasionally removed from them, we passed 
 over small prairie bottoms of rich soil ; independent of which, but a small portion of 
 the country is susceptible of cultivation. Neither wood nor water are very abundant, 
 except in particular localities; the first, I think, is owing mainly to the annual fires 
 set by the Indians ; and the latter, evidently, to the annual drought, which dries up 
 large streams of water. 
 
 With proper irrigation, all grains and vegetables that are common with us, would 
 doubtlessly thrive; this, to a limited extent, has already been proven, through the 
 exertions of our missionary establishment and the Hudson's Bay Company, in Oregon, 
 and through Captain Sutter, and more recent American settlers, in Upper California ; 
 but in no instance, that I am aware of, through the efforts or industry of the Indians 
 themselves. 
 
 "19. Are cattle and stock easily raised do the prairies and woods afford an 
 abundant supply of herbage spontaneously are wells of water to be had at moderate 
 depths?" 
 
 Cattle and stock thrive admirably; sheep require watching on account of the 
 wolves, &c. Wells were uncommon; two that I saw in Oregon were very deep 
 perhaps thirty feet to the surface of the water. 
 
 "21. Are there any extensive barrens, or deserts, marshes or swamps, reclaimable 
 or irreclaimable, and what effects do they produce on the health of the country, and 
 do they offer any serious obstacles to the construction of roads ?" 
 
 In my route, there were no very extensive barrens nor swamps ; some of the latter, 
 I have no doubt, had an unfavorable effect upon the health of the country, and might 
 be reclaimed without much difficulty. They offer no serious obstacles to the construc 
 tion of roads ; but to make the latter suitable for travel in vehicles, and the trans 
 portation of goods, &e., much grading and bridging will be necessary. 
 
 " 23. Is the climate generally dry or humid? Does the heat of the weather vary 
 greatly, or is it distributed, through the different seasons, with regularity and equa 
 bility ? What winds prevail ? Is it much subject to storms of rain with heavy 
 thunder, or tornadoes, and do these tempests of rain swell the streams so as to over 
 flow their banks, and destroy fences and injure the crops? State the general character 
 of the climate, giving meteorological tables if you can." 
 
 The six months' almost continual rain from fall to spring, and the remainder 
 drought, will suggest the answer to the first part of this question. The variation of 
 temperature within short intervals is greater than I have ever experienced elsewhere ; 
 for instance, the thermometer would stand at 100 F. during the heat of the day, in 
 the shade, and descend to 32 or freezing, the same night. Upon one occasion, on the 
 
HISTORY, AND GOVERNMENT. 205 
 
 bottom-land of the Klamet, in about latitude 42north,it rose to 110 F. at meridian, 
 in the shade. Had but little reason to suppose that this country was subject to 
 frequent storms, tempests, or tornadoes; during the summer and fall months only 
 experienced one, and this unattended with rain, thunder, or lightning ; it happened 
 in the month of October, while we were encamped near the Shaste" mountains, and 
 prostrated some giant trees. The country has not the appearance of being much 
 subject to inundations, except on the navigable waters of the Columbia, Sacramento, 
 and San Joaquiu. 
 
 f My route was evidently too far to the eastward, or too near the ridge of mountain 
 already alluded to, to feel the influence of the regular land and sea breezes ; and I did 
 not discover that there was any prevailing wind. 
 
 Would respectfully refer to the Report of the Geologist, Mr. Dana, who accompanied 
 me, for answers to the two next questions. See Vol. V., Ex. Ex. 
 
 "26. What is the general character and value of the animal productions of the 
 district ? What species of quadrupeds most abound ? State their number and kind, 
 and what effect the fur trade has had in diminishing the value of the country for the 
 purposes of hunting, and what species still remain ? " 
 
 Elk, deer, bear white, black, and grizzly; panther, calamenul, wolf, fox ; raccoon, 
 rabbit, porcupine, pole-cat, mountain sheep, beaver, otter (land and sea), squirrel, 
 weasel, &c., are among their wild animals ; the buffalo not having yet crossed the Rocky 
 Mountains. For a more detailed account upon this subject, I must refer to the 
 Naturalist who accompanied me on this expedition, Mr. T. R. Peale ; whose work I 
 believe has not yet been published. 
 
 An animal of a different species from any before seen in California has been taken 
 by a Mr. Hill of Nevada. It is called the California cat. It is described as being 
 very beautiful, and bearing a resemblance to the marten ; differing from it, however, in 
 color, being a dark grey, encircled with bright brown rings, similar to the raccoon. 
 The fur is very soft and beautiful. Its body is about the size of the grey squirrel, but 
 about fifteen inches long, and its tail sixteen or seventeen inches long. 1852. 
 
 The fur trade has evidently diminished the value of the country for hunting 
 purposes ; some of the most valuable animals having already become rare in many 
 portions of the country, where, thirty-five years ago, they were quite numerous. 
 
 The beaver is among the first to disappear. 
 
 " 31. Are they expert in drawing maps or charts of the rivers, or sections of country 
 which they inhabit?" 
 
 Should judge not. I endeavored upon more than one occasion to obtain some 
 information of the unexplored country adjoining them by tracings in the sand ; bur 
 could not. 
 
206 TRIBAL ORGANIZATION, 
 
 " 32. Are there any antique works, or remains of any kind, which are the result of 
 human industry in ancient times, in your district?" 
 
 Saw upon the tops of some of the hills in the Callapuya and Umpqua country, 
 small mounds of earth, and occasionally a pile of stones, seldom exceeding three feet 
 in height. Suppose them commemorative of some event. 1 Upon some pre-eminent 
 peaks found the stones so arranged as to adapt the place to a look-out station, and 
 occasionally detected the Indians occupying such positions. 
 
 " 34. Has the progress of settlements west of the Alleghanies, and the felling of 
 trees and clearing up of lands, disclosed any ancient embankments, ditches, or other 
 works of earth or stone, having the character of forts, or places of military defence ? " 
 
 Their only mode of fortifying, that came to my observation, was upon the banks of 
 the Columbia river ; by a circumvallation of palisades, placed close together, from ten 
 to fifteen feet high, and between which there was occasionally a small loop-hole through 
 which they could discharge their missiles. This fortification was so constructed as to 
 afford those inside a covered way to the water or river. 
 
 " 37. Does the level surface of the prairie country, which is now partially over-run 
 by forest, preserve any traces of a plan or design as of ancient furrows or garden-beds, 
 which appear to have been abandoned at a definite period ?" 
 
 None that I could discover. They would necessarily have to be very permanent, 
 to remain long in existence in this country, where the soil abrades so much. 
 
 "39. What is the general character of the antique implements, ornaments, or 
 ntensils of earthen-ware found in your district of the country ? " 
 
 Saw but few implements of any kind. The water-tight basket, of various sizes and 
 shapes, woven out of green bark or grass, is used by the tribes about the Columbia for 
 almost all domestic purposes. I have been told that they even boil w r ater in these, but 
 this I never saw. They now begin to substitute our iron and tin vessels. 
 
 "40. If pipes are found, what is the material is it stone, steatite, or clay how 
 are they formed to admit a stem, or to be smoked without, and what are their 
 shapes, sizes, and ornaments?" 
 
 Their pipes are carved out of stone, steatite, or clay, generally so formed as to admit 
 a stem, which is usually a piece of reed ; they vary in size and shape, are generally 
 ornamented by some animal figure in high I'elief upon the bowl or stem, or both. 
 The weight of some I should judge to be six or eight ounces. 
 
 "41. How many kinds were there? Describe them." 
 
 The stone pestle and mortar I noticed particularly among the Californian Indians ; 
 
 1 See Mr. Gibbs's paper, p. 174, for remarks on these heaps of stone. 
 
HISTOEY, AND GOVERNMENT. 207 
 
 the latter was frequently a fixture in the bed of the mountain streams, where holes 
 had been worn or excavated in the rocks, arid where water was always at hand. 
 
 Their use appeared to be confined principally to pulverizing acorns, roots, and seeds, 
 
 for the manufacture of bread-stuffs. 
 
 
 
 "42. MANUFACTURE OF DARTS, &c. "What was the process of manipulation of 
 these often delicately wrought articles? What species of mineral bodies were 
 chiefly used and how was the cleavage of them effected ? Did the art constitute 
 a separate trade or employment ? If darts abound, what is the material and size ? 
 Do they differ much in size and apparent object, some being for war and others 
 for hunting ; and are there any elongated in the shape of spear-heads, or javelins ? 
 How many species of darts, spears, &c., were there ? Describe them, and give figures 
 of the size and descriptions of the uses of them." 
 
 Could learn nothing satisfactory in relation to the process of manipulation, which I 
 was most anxious to do, regarding this as the highest order of art that I discovered 
 among any of the tribes named. As many of their arrows are not armed, I should 
 infer that one kind was intended for war, and the other for hunting or practice ; their 
 length appears, in most cases, to be graduated by the length of the bow, which among 
 these tribes seldom exceeds four feet ; the material most used is the wood of the yew 
 or red-cedar, the strength and elasticity of which is considerably increased by a 
 covering of the sinew of animals, the string used in projecting their arrows being of 
 the same material. 1 
 
 From the samples of arrows already furnished you, you can judge of the material 
 used in arming, obsidian being most common. 
 
 Spears, darts, or javelins are seldom seen. The bow and arrow is almost universally 
 used in the mountains, while the tribes on the sea-coast are beginning to adopt our 
 fire-arms. 
 
 "63. How were accounts formerly kept ? And how are they now kept? If the 
 terms skin, plue, and abiminiqua, or others, are employed in the interior trade as 
 synonymous, and as the standard of value, in which accounts are kept, what is the 
 scale of the computation ? " 
 
 The Hudson's Bay Company had established certain prices for certain skins, long 
 previous to our arrival in the country ; and having graduated these to certain articles 
 of exchange, as, for example, a beaver-skin equal to one blanket, &c., skins, in the 
 absence of coin, had become the currency of the country. 
 
 Their powers of computation, so far as my opportunities for judging, are very limited. 
 
 "96. Are they moral, sober, and discreet?" 
 
 Neither " moral " nor " sober " when they can get liquor enough to get drunk ; 
 generally "discreet" in other things, but cannot be relied on as a rule. 
 
 1 See Mr. Wyeth's paper, Vol. I., for n description and plate of the Oregon bow. 
 
208 TRIBAL ORGANIZATION, 
 
 " 99. Have the purposes of commerce, since the discovery of the continent, had the 
 effect to stimulate the hunters to increased exertion, and thus to hasten the diminu 
 tion or destruction of the races of animals whose furs are sought ? " 
 
 Should think it had, the Hudson's Bay Company having found it necessary to make 
 a rule to forbid the Indians killing animals while young. 
 
 " 100. Have the different races of animals declined rapidly since the prosecution of 
 the trade ? What animals flee first, or diminish in the highest ratio, on the opening 
 of a new district of the remote forest, to trade ? " 
 
 They have. The beaver first disappears : the buffalo is not found in this country. 
 
 "101. Are the lands, when denuded of furs, of comparatively little value to the 
 Indians, while they remain in the hunter state ? Is not the sale of such hunted lands 
 beneficial to them ? " 
 
 Should conclude they were, from their always following the game ; and under such 
 circumstances a sale ought certainly to benefit them ; and it will of course depend 
 very much upon the manner the equivalent is applied, whether it does. 
 
 "103. If the diminution or failure of wild animals lead the native tribes to turn 
 their industry to agriculture, is not the pressure of commerce on the boundaries of 
 hunting an efficient cause in the progress of Indian civilization ? " 
 
 The diminution of game, or failure of wild animals altogether, would not, I think, 
 be a sufficient stimulant to induce these tribes to cultivate the soil, so long as they can 
 procure enough fish, roots, or berries, to subsist upon. 
 
 To the second question, I answer yes. Third question, do. 
 
 " 104. What evil effects, of a moral character, have resulted from the progress of 
 the Indian trade ? Has not the traffic in ardent spirits been by far the most fruitful, 
 general, and appalling cause of the depopulation of the tribes ? How has the intro 
 duction of gunpowder and fire-arms affected the principles of the trade, and what has 
 been the general influence of this new element of the means of destruction, on their 
 history and civilization ? " 
 
 The introduction of liquor, which, although a fruitful source of depopulation among 
 all savages, has among these been so much interdicted by the wise efforts and con 
 trolling influence of the Hudson's Bay Company's officers, headed by Governor 
 McLaughlin, that they have evidently suffered less from this than the diseases which 
 they attribute to the whites. 
 
 " Gunpowder and fire-arms," although much sought after by these Indians, more 
 especially those having frequent intercourse with the whites, have likewise been with 
 held from them, to a very considerable extent. Hence the effect has principally been, 
 
HISTORY, AND GOVERNMENT. 209 
 
 in adding to the powers of the former, and causing the latter to be more respectful 
 and cautious in their intercourse. To this consciousness of the superiority of the 
 whites, or their fear of fire-arms, I attribute having passed through the country of 
 four hostile tribes, with only twenty-eight fighting men, without losing one. 
 
 After an interval of seven years, I visit this southern portion of my route again ; 
 mingle principally among the tribes inhabiting the Sierra Nevada mountains and 
 valley of the Sacramento, which were regarded as friendly. The gold is discovered 
 civilization and liquor pour into the country collisions between the white and red 
 man, and murders, become common and while but a week in the mines, have seen 
 parties of whites going out with their rifles to hunt Indians, as in our country they 
 are in the habit of hunting wolves and foxes. 
 
 This system, faithfully persevered in as it has been so far, will soon relieve Congress 
 of legislating in their behalf; and only hasten the end, which all history teaches us 
 could not be very remote, of this unfortunate and doomed race. 
 
 " 105. Are there any serious or valid objections, on the part of the Indians, to the 
 introduction of schools, agriculture, the mechanic arts, or Christianity ?" 
 
 I did not hear any objections raised, on the part of the Indians, to the introduction 
 of schools, agriculture, the mechanic arts, or Christianity ; but with the example of 
 our missionaries before them, and their efforts in their behalf, but little had been 
 effected up to the time of our visiting the country ; and such, I predict, will be the 
 result to the end of time. 
 
 " 10G. What improvements can you suggest in the existing intercourse laws of the 
 United States, as last revised, with the Indian tribes ? Are these laws efficient in 
 removing causes of discord, and preserving peace between the advanced bodies of 
 emigrants or settlers on the frontiers, and the Indian tribes ? " 
 
 I believe the general application of these laws, if properly enforced, would lead to 
 good results ; but it has not been my fortune to see their effect upon these tribes. 
 
 ' 111. What provisions would tend more effectually to shield the tribes from the 
 introduction of ardent spirits into their territories, and from the pressure of lawless or 
 illicit traffic?" 
 
 I know of no law that will be likely to shield these Indians from the introduction 
 of ardent spirits, so long as it is used by the whites. The operation of what we now 
 call the " Maine Liquor Law," among those claiming the advantages of civilization, 
 aids me in coming to this conclusion. 
 
 "112. Is there any feature in the present system of negotiation with the tribes 
 susceptible of amendment and improvement ? " 
 PT. III. 27 
 
210 TRIBAL ORGANIZATION, 
 
 What justice most demands for these Indians is, that they should have immediate 
 protection from lawless whites, i. e. in their persons or lives; they require none in 
 property, for they have none. And the country they occupy is, at the farthest, but a 
 temporary home for them. And while we are discussing the propriety of Indian 
 agencies and treaties, they are falling by tens, fifties, and hundreds, before the western 
 rifle. 
 
 A war of extermination has been declared by the whites of Klarnath against the 
 Indians of that vicinity. A party of settlers and miners surrounded two lodges at 
 Indian Ferry, and shot the men and several squaws, and destroyed the ranch, thirty 
 to forty Indians having been killed. 
 
 " 113. Are the game, and wood, and timber, of the tribes subject to unnecessary or 
 injurious curtailment or trespass from the intrusion of emigrating bands abiding for 
 long periods on their territories ? Are there complaints of any such trespasses ? " 
 
 Think it quite possible had not been heard none. 
 
 "119. What ideas have the Indians of property ? " 
 
 They appear to have a distinct idea of their rights to territory and personal 
 property ; but I cannot go farther into this subject. In saying they have no property, 
 as in my answer to question 112, I speak of them generally; some few have horses, 
 others canoes, &c. ; but the masses can carry all of their personal estate upon their 
 backs without much inconvenience. 
 
 " 159. Are the ties of consanguinity strong?" 
 
 I had but few opportunities of judging of their ties of consanguinity, as my inter 
 course was almost altogether with the men separated from their families. But from 
 the fact that one of the hired men of my party, who had an Indian wife, purchased a 
 little squaw, about eight years of age, from her parents for two blankets, I infer that 
 they are not always very strong. I merely mention this as a fact ; not that I believe 
 it to be a fair criterion of the general estimate in which they hold their offspring. 
 
 "160. Does the hunter state insure abundance of food and clothing to the family? 
 How is this state, in its domestic bearings, affected by polygamy, and what are the 
 terms and relative affections of stepmothers and children ? Are wives well treated 
 under the actual state of the hunter life ? Are they ever interfered with in the house 
 hold affairs, and management of the domestic economy ? Do they participate, in any 
 degree, in the hunter's vocation, or forest labors, and to what extent ? " 
 
 Between hunting and fishing, I not only believe that the country generally through 
 which I passed will furnish sustenance for the Indians occupying it, but with their 
 natural indolence, the very exercise necessary for obtaining this will best promote 
 their health. My party lived principally on game for two months ; and I seldom sent 
 
HISTORY, AND GOVERNMENT. 211 
 
 out a hunter until after we had encamped in the evening. At one camp on the 
 Sacramento, six grizzly bears and two deer were shot. It is true, game will soon 
 disappear as the country becomes settled ; and so will the Indians. 
 
 Clothing they rarely trouble themselves with ; and when they do, it is generally 
 some old cast-off garment, or skin, that rather disfigures them than otherwise. 
 
 Although I understood their laws punish infidelity in their wives with death, I was 
 told that polygamy among their chiefs was not uncommon. 
 
 So far as I could learn, their general treatment to their wives is kind ; and they 
 are not interfered with in their household affairs ; but they are expected to perform a 
 good share of forest labors, and assist in preparing the winter's stock of food. 
 
 See answer to next question. 
 
 "161. Are the labors of husband and wife equally or unequally divided?" 
 
 The labor of husband and wife, so far as I could judge among these tribes, operates 
 the reverse of what it usually does in civilized life. The latter, independent of the 
 usual household duties, goes into the fields to collect seeds, roots, acorns, &c., and not 
 unfrequently joins the husband in piscatory excursions, besides occupying her leisure 
 time in preparing the winter supply of food. 
 
 Hence I infer that these savages are no exception to the rule that, generally, obtains 
 elsewhere among their race, in exacting a full, if not unequal share, of labor from their 
 wives. 
 
 The males, I believe, in all instances, manufacture their hunting and war imple 
 ments, including their canoes ; while the females manufacture fish-nets, baskets, mats. 
 &c. I am unable to say how far the latter are permitted to take part in the councils of 
 the nation. I have seen them congregated in squads, and busily employed in pounding 
 acorns, and preparing their winter's food, while all the males of the tribe, including 
 boys, were painted and armed, waiting an expected attack from a neighboring 4ribe. 
 
 "164. Are their appetites regular or capricious, admitting of great powers both of 
 abstinence and of repletion ? " 
 
 Never saw them refuse anything good to eat ; from what I heard, more than from 
 my own observation, believe they possess great powers of abstinence and repletion. 
 
 " 168. Are the changes of location, fatigue, cold, and exposure to the vicissitudes of 
 climate, felt in the general result of Indian population ? What is the highest number 
 of children born ? Are twins common ? " 
 
 Learned but little in relation to courtship and marriage ; should judge that barren 
 ness was not unfrequent, that twins were very uncommon, and that the general average 
 of families did not exceed two children ; all of which I should attribute, in a great 
 degree, to their precarious and exposed mode of life, in connection with the vicissitudes 
 
212 TRIBAL ORGANIZATION, 
 
 of climate, &c., and to this may be added the unusual custom of the mother in weaning 
 her children. 
 
 "169. Are strangers announced before reaching the lodge, and how are visits 
 ordered? Do parties of Indians stop at a short distance, and send word of their 
 intended visit ? " 
 
 Among the friendly tribes, Indians visited our camp without any ceremony or 
 previous invitation; but among the hostile tribes, they usually despatched one or 
 more, unarmed, to solicit or make known their wants. I recollect a green bush was 
 held up, upon one occasion, as an emblem of peace. 
 
 " 172. Has the wife or husband the right of divorce ? " 
 
 Have been informed that divorces might be effected upon the mutual consent of the 
 parties. 
 
 "173. At what age are children weaned?" 
 
 Children are sometimes not weaned until they are five years of age. 
 
 " 173. Is the domestic government left wholly to Indian mothers?" 
 The domestic government of children is left wholly with the mother. 
 
 " 177. What are the effects of the introduction and use of ardent spirits in the 
 lodge, in deranging its order ?" 
 
 The introduction of ardent spirits among these people is every way fatal to their 
 peace, health, and happiness, and will finally prove one of the fruitful causes of their 
 depopulation. 
 
 " 179. Have they degenerated into any customs or practices revolting to humanity? 
 Do they eat human flesh, upon any occasion ; and if so, under what circumstances ?" 
 Saw no evidences of cannibalism, nor practices revolting to humanity. 
 
 " 184. What is the Indian mode of salutation ?" 
 
 The only form of greeting I observed was the shaking of hands, which I believe to 
 be imitation of the whites. 
 
 "187. Is stoicism of feeling deemed a mark of manliness by the Indians?" 
 In common with the Indian race generally, stoicism and taciturnity are among the 
 characteristics of these people, but in a less degree to the north than the south. 
 
 " 188. Is there extreme acuteness of the senses, and a nervous power of appreciating 
 the nearness, or relative position of objects ? These have excited general notice, but 
 the subject is still a matter of curiosity and further information." 
 
HISTORY, AND GOVERNMENT. 213 
 
 Quickness of sight, &c. One example. When we had progressed about half-way 
 in our journey, and arrived in a mountainous portion of the country, where there was 
 not the least sign of a path or trail to guide us, there arose some discussion among the 
 pioneers of the party as to which was the right way. Not agreeing, it was finally left 
 to an Indian woman who was the wife of one of the trappers belonging to my party ; 
 and who, with her husband, had, several years previously, accompanied a party of the 
 Hudson's Bay Company, through this portion of the country. She did not hesitate a 
 moment in pointing out the right way ; and as an evidence that she knew where she 
 was, she pointed to a crotched tree not far off, where she had placed a small stone 
 some years previous as a land-mark ; then riding up to the tree, produced the same. 
 
 " 189. Are the Indians very prone to be deceived by professed dreamers, or the 
 tricks of jugglers, or by phenomena of nature, of the principles and causes of which 
 they are ignorant ? " 
 
 They are very superstitious, and liable to be deceived by jugglers or professed 
 dreamers ; but I very much question if they are more thoroughly bamboozled and 
 mystified than a large portion of our own people are by another set of jugglers, who 
 practise their art and make their living surrounded by all the intelligence and civiliza 
 tion of the age. 
 
 "190. How do their physical powers compare with the strength of Europeans?" 
 The physical powers of some of the mountain tribes, whose muscles are considerably 
 exercised, I should think would compare very favorably with those of Europeans. 
 The prairie tribes are very inferior in this respect ; but few of either knowing anything 
 of the use of the axe or scythe. The men fast and endure fatigue well. 
 
 "191. How is still hunting performed?" 
 
 Still hunting is usually performed by first getting to leeward of the game, and 
 hunting to windward, as among many whites. 
 
 " 193. How is the antelope approached ? " 
 
 The deer and antelope are frequently decoyed within the reach of their arrows, by 
 an Indian secreting himself in the grass and then crawling towards the game, exhib 
 iting only a small object on the end of a stick. 
 
 They also build large circular pens of bushes, having an entrance, to entrap large 
 animals. Some that we saw, we concluded were constructed for wild cattle; and 
 others, leaving a small outlet opposite to the entrance, we presume were intended 
 for rabbits. 
 
 "194. MODE OF DRYING AND CURING SKINS. This is a very important branch ol 
 
214 TRIBAL ORGANIZATION, 
 
 the hunter's art, and it would be interesting to know the process, the various methods, 
 and the amount of labor and time required." 
 
 The only process of preparing skins that I witnessed, was in smoking deer-skins 
 which had been previously cured. This was accomplished by spreading them on sticks 
 placed over a hole dug in the ground, at the bottom of which a slow fire had been 
 previously kindled. 
 
 After keeping them in this position, and exposing both sides to the smoke 
 for two days, they were then considered suitable to be made into clothing ; of which 
 several of the gentlemen of the party obtained suits before leaving Oregon ; the 
 object of smoking being to counteract the shrinkage in case of drying, after they have 
 been wet by rain or in washing. 
 
 "195. How many modes have they of taking fish?" 
 
 They catch fish by constructing weirs and dams, by scoop-nets, spearing, and by 
 firing their arrows into them. In the running season, several tribes are in the habit 
 of assembling at the Willamette Falls, for the purpose of laying in a supply for the 
 season. They rig out planks and pieces of timber just below the fulls, upon which 
 they stand and catch the salmon in their scoop-nets, as they flirt out of the water in 
 their attempts to overcome the cascade. 
 
 Their success with the bow and arrow, in this particular, may perhaps be regarded 
 as demonstrating something more than mere physical skill in the use of this weapon. 
 
 Their spear, or fish-gig, is something like the following not always straight 
 
 a split or crotched pole, from ten to twenty feet long, armed at the spear end with 
 deer's horn ; which is intended to slip off the ends of the spear after they have entered 
 the fish, when they are held by a lanyard attached to the pole just above the crotch, 
 and by this means secure the fish as by a toggle. 
 
 "196. Are the arts of hunting taught the children at an early age? Do they 
 commence with archery ? And at what age are the boys generally competent to 
 engage in the active labors of the chase ? Have women, thus left alone, or deserted, 
 ever been known to practise the use of fire-arms ?" 
 
 Archery is taught the Indian boys when young ; I have seen those whom I did 
 not believe over twelve years of age, very expert with the bow. I have also seen 
 them, at about this age, armed and painted for war. Some Indian women belonging 
 
HISTORY, AND GOVERNMENT. 215 
 
 to my party carried fire-arms, as well as their husbands ; and whenever we came to a 
 bad place, where it was suspected Indians might be lying in wait for us, they took the 
 precaution to examine their flint and priming. 
 
 y 
 
 "197. What is the present state of the arms and implements used by the hunters 
 of the tribe ? Have they abandoned the bow and arrows, partially or altogether ? Do 
 they use the gun or rifle, in hunting deer or buffalo ? Are they well supplied with 
 ammunition, and at reasonable rates ?" 
 
 Some of the tribes about the Columbia appear to have abandoned their own, and 
 substituted fire-arms ; but these have been but little used, owing partly to a scarcity 
 of ammunition, and there being no necessity of their depending altogether upon them 
 for their subsistence. 
 
 "198. How are war-parties raised, subsisted, and marched?" 
 
 In regard to raising war-parties, I can only cite one instance, where it was accom 
 plished in sight of our camp, by getting up a war-dance ; which took place in the 
 Rogue country, around a large fire, and lasted most of the night; resulting in their 
 ambushing next morning, and final dispersion upon the near approach of the party. 
 
 "199. How is the march of the party conducted after they are assembled? Do 
 they move in a body, or separately in files or sub-parties ?" 
 
 Have several times seen them in large bodies, without any particular order (unless 
 it be no particular order) in marching; from their trails, I should judge they generally 
 confine themselves to the order of single file. Sentinels were posted, when we 
 encamped near their village on the head waters of the Sacramento. 
 
 " 200. To what extent do the chiefs exercise the duties and rights of officers ?" 
 Chiefs evidently command, with the assistance of aids, or runners ; but I could not 
 
 discover evidences of any great degree of subordination and discipline among any of 
 
 the tribes. 
 
 "201. What are the usual devices of attack resorted to? What are the usual 
 manoeuvres ?" 
 
 Their usual mode of attacking parties of whites, in which they have several times 
 been successful, has either been by first straying in and about their camp in large 
 numbers, unarmed, but pretending friendship, and watching for the first favorable 
 opportunity to seize upon and massacre the whole. 
 
 Or to select the most favorable time and place to secrete themselves in ambush, and 
 rise upon, and fire into, the party at a time most favorable to create terror and 
 confusion, and, if possible, to separate the animals from their owners ; to do which I 
 
216 
 
 TRIBAL ORGANIZATION, 
 
 am told that they usually wait until about one half of the party have got past, when 
 they let fly their arrows, utter an indescribable yell, shake dried skins, &c. &c., and in 
 this way usually secure many of the horses and packs, if they fail in destroying the 
 party. 
 
 I could not learn that they had ever made a night attack. 
 
 " 203. Is personal servitude recognised ? Are there any persons, who, having lost 
 their liberty, or forfeited their lives, are reduced to slavery, or placed in the relative 
 position of peons, or menials, who are compelled to work, and carry burdens?" 
 
 They have their slaves, male and female, who may, or may not, be captives, and 
 whose relative position, I have been told, is much the same as that of a similar class 
 among us, or the peons of Mexico. 
 
 " 205. What constitutes the ordinary dress of warriors, on a war excursion ? 
 What paints are used, and how are they applied to different parts of the person ? 
 What feathers are worn on the head, as marks of former triumphs ? How is the hair 
 dressed?" 
 
 For war costume, paint is freely used, the color principally red, applied to the face, 
 arms, and chest. Feathers and leaves are also used to decorate the head. Some, I 
 think, had the hair tied up in a knot ; but my memory will not now permit me to 
 enter into particulars ; although these remarks, I believe, have a general application, I 
 
 cannot, of my own knowledge, apply them but to 
 one tribe that I saw in the Sierra Nevada mountains, 
 some of whom were partially clad, while others 
 were entirely naked. Some of these northern tribes 
 wear, for their dress, a jacket of mail, something 
 like the annexed cut, which covers them in front, 
 
 ^vVa^ia^CU , and affords protection against arrows to the most 
 p==* w '=3Q3=3=M5> /j/ j vital portion of their bodies. 
 
 It is composed of thin parallel battens of very 
 tough wood, woven together by a small cord ; with 
 arm-holes, and strings at the bottom corners, to fasten it around the waist. 
 
 " 207. How have these varied in the lapse of time ? Are fire-arms substituted for 
 the bow and arrow in war, as they are supposed to be, generally, in hunting ? Are 
 war-clubs, tomahawks, and knives, employed ? " 
 
 Fire-arms are already substituted among the tribes having frequent intercourse with 
 the whites. Knives are used. Saw no war-clubs nor tomahawks. 
 
 "208. Is dancing a national trait of the tribe? Is it confined to males? How 
 many kinds of dances are there ? " 
 
HISTORY, AND GOVERNMENT. 217 
 
 Saw but one war-dance, and one dance of honor. The first 
 was among the Rogue Indians, and has already been alluded 
 to ; the latter was performed by Indian boys, on the banks of 
 the Sacramento, in honor of our arrival; the latter were 
 entirely naked, and averaging about twelve years each. Upon 
 their body they had a variety of white chalk marks in front, 
 something like those represented in the annexed cut. Think 
 dancing was a characteristic mode of expressing popular 
 feeling among all of these tribes. I did not hear of females 
 being permitted to join in any of their dances. 
 
 " 210. How many kinds of games of chance exist ? Is 
 the tribe much addicted to these games ? " 
 
 There are games of chance, where small sticks are used. I have only seen it 
 practised by the males. The Valley Indians, and more particularly to the south, I 
 think, are addicted to gambling. Never learned the modus operandi. 
 
 " 211. DEATHS AND BURIALS. What are the characteristic facts connected with these 
 subjects? When a person dies, how is the corpse dressed and disposed of?" 
 
 The custom appears very general among the Oregon tribes, when burying their 
 dead, to deposit with the corpse, or upon a stick or pole alongside of it, some 
 implement or utensil formerly used by the deceased; but as these relics are above 
 ground, and perishable, they do not afford a means of judging of the state of the arts 
 far back. 
 
 High and dry places are usually selected for burying-grounds. The bodies of some 
 of the tribes on the Columbia river were placed in the bottom of canoes, in a prostrate 
 posture, and then covered over with poles and pieces of split wood ; after which the 
 canoe was elevated from three to four feet above the ground, and then supported upon 
 a scaffold ; the direction of the canoe, or body, lying east and west, as near as I can 
 recollect. 
 
 " 212. Are burials usually made in high and dry grounds ? Are the bodies buried 
 east and west ; and if so, what reason is assigned for this custom ?" 
 
 I noticed one or more exceptions to this general rule of selecting a high and promi 
 nent position for a burying-ground. Here, the bodies appeared to have been deposited 
 upon the surface of the earth in a prostrate position, without any reference to the 
 cardinal points of the compass, that I could discover, and then covered over with 
 brush and poles ; but not sufficiently to afford sure protection from the wild animal? 
 of the country, or carnivorous birds. 
 PT. III. 28 
 
218 TRIBAL ORGANIZATION, 
 
 "227. What are the materials, form, size, and mode of construction, of their 
 lodges ?" 
 
 Some of the tents or lodges about the Columbia, were constructed of upright posts, 
 or pieces of split timber, and covered with skins. 
 
 Those in southern Oregon, and western California, were much more slightly con 
 structed generally of poles, sometimes lying horizontally upon one another; at 
 others, forming a semi-circle, with both ends in the earth ; J and again, by meeting at 
 angles, to form a cone when in an upright position. All quite circumscribed in their 
 dimensions, with a covering of poles and bushes ; which must afford but poor shelter 
 in the rainy seasons, and require frequent renewing. 
 
 "228. Of what material are canoes or boats made, how are they constructed, and 
 what is their usual capacity ?" 
 
 All that I saw were made from one tree dug out, and sharpened at either end. 
 Those in Oregon were usually made from the pine tree, and some of them were large 
 enough to carry twenty men. 
 
 Those in California were made from the pine, sycamore, and cotton-wood trees; 
 about half the size, seldom so well finished, and never so well modelled, as the former. 
 The larger canoes on the Columbia are sometimes propelled by short oars ; all the 
 others, by paddles which have long handles and short blades, and are steered by the 
 same. All those I saw were probably excavated with modern implements obtained 
 from the whites. 
 
 Those on the Rogue river were very roughly built some of them scow fashion, 
 with flat bottoms. Among the Klamats, a bunch of bulrushes was used as a substi 
 tute, lashed up in the shape of a sailor's hammock, but considerably larger; upon 
 which I take for granted the Indian sits astride, and makes use of it principally in 
 spearing fish. 
 
 " 230. Is raw meat ever eaten? Do they use metallic cooking vessels, generally, 
 and if so, what kinds ?" 
 
 They generally cook both meat and fish; have been told that they have been 
 known to eat both raw. 
 
 They begin to use metallic cooking-vessels about the Columbia. Their mode of life 
 must make them irregular in their meals generally. 
 
 "231. Method of curing meats?" 
 
 They dry meat by cutting it in thin slices, and placing it on horizontal poles several 
 leet above the earth ; and in smoking it, have then only to build a fire underneath. 
 
 1 See a drawing in Vol. V. Exploring Expedition, p. 250. 
 
HISTORY, AND GOVERNMENT. 219 
 
 Their fish is cured very much in the same way ; after which it is pounded quite 
 fine, and closely packed, to be used upon certain occasions, and for their winter's 
 supply. 
 
 "232. To what extent do the purely hunter tribes rely on these? Give a cata 
 logue of them, denoting the various kinds of roots, truffles, berries, and nuts relied on." 
 Among the roots most used, are the kamass and bulrush. 
 
 nuts " acorns and hazel-nuts. 
 
 (( , [ arbutus, service, whortle, and cranberries, black, 
 
 \ straw, rasp, and goose-berries, 
 seeds pine cone, grass, &c., 
 
 and doubtless many others I know not of. Fox grapes may be added to the above 
 list ; and in seasons of great scarcity, I have been told, they resort to certain barks. 
 With a moderate degree of industry, there would be no occasion for the last resort in 
 the country through which I passed. 
 
 "234. What is the ordinary dress of the tribe, male and female?" 
 
 The ordinary dress of the tribes having frequent communication with the whites, 
 particularly in north Oregon, was a mixture of coarse cloth, skins, old cast-off 
 garments, and blankets which only covered a portion of their bodies, and set loosely 
 iipon their persons. 1 Going south from here, the amount of clothing diminishes; so 
 that before you leave the Callapuya country, you frequently see the males with only a 
 covering amidships. Continuing south until you arrive among the Umpquas, even 
 this last excuse for a covering generally disappears ; and you find them as nature has 
 endowed them, apparently unconscious of what to us appears improper in such an 
 expose". 
 
 The females, however, appear more modest and shy, do not expose themselves 
 unnecessarily ; and those who have arrived at the age of puberty are seldom seen 
 without some covering, extending from a little above to just below their hips, and 
 equivalent to what is usually termed a " maro." This generally consists of a tasselled 
 belt, made of bark, grass, and feathers, &c., that encircles the body just above the hips, 
 and answers admirably for the purpose intended. 
 
 With the addition of a little tattooing, or an occasional daub of paint, nudity 
 continues fashionable, until you arrive again within the influence of the whites on the 
 Sacramento, which at this time did not extend above Captain Sutter's, or navigable 
 waters. 
 
 " 235. Are there any other peculiar adaptations of dress to varying circumstances? 
 Are there summer and winter dresses ?" 
 
 1 Specimen of the Callapuya tribe, 5th vol. Exploring Expedition, p. 223 
 
220 TRIBAL ORGANIZATION, 
 
 About the Columbia, the thick blanket is worn in the summer as well as winter; and 
 farther south, I should think, some covering would be found almost as necessary in 
 protecting them from the sun's rays in the summer, as from the cold blasts in the 
 winter ; but from the preceding answer it will be seen they seldom provide against 
 either. 
 
 "236. Do they attach a peculiar value to ornaments? What kinds of ornaments 
 are most desired ?" 
 
 They appear to value ornaments, although they exhibit but few. Among those 
 worn are feathers of different colors, beads, buttons, porcupine quills, rings, bracelets, 
 and shells. 
 
 The latter, I was told, constitutes a kind of currency among them. Some puncture 
 the lobes of their ears, and others, but more rarely, the central or cartilagineous 
 portion of their nasal organ, for the purpose of suspending some ornament. 
 
 " 237. Are there any native dye-stuffs, or roots or vegetables, employed in coloring 
 parts of their clothing, or ornaments ?" 
 
 They use. paints, dyes, and ochres, or colored clays, either upon their persons, dress, 
 or implements. 
 
 Some of them tattoo their faces, as well as their arms and breasts ; ' this habit is not 
 confined entirely to the male, but, so far as I could see, is, to adults, much the most 
 common with the males, and less so with either sex than among the nations of the 
 Pacific islands generally. 
 
 " 239. What are the customs and fashions of wearing the hair and beard? Is the 
 whole head shaved ? Is the beard generally extirpated by the tweezers, or other 
 mechanical means?" 
 
 Hair generally worn long, but not unfrequently tied up in a bunch : have seen it 
 cut quite close on some of their boys. Beard very uncommon ; suppose it to have 
 been extirpated by some mechanical means. 
 
 "241. What is the general scope and capacity of the Indian mind, as compared 
 with other stocks of the human race ?" 
 
 In regard to their mental capacity, believe them generally inferior to the tribes east 
 of the Rocky Mountains, but superior to some tribes in South America; for more 
 reliable data and particulars upon this subject, which I had but little opportunity of 
 following up, I must again refer to the notes or work of Mr. Hale, the Philologist of 
 the Exploring Expedition, which I have not yet seen, but presume it must convey 
 Rome valuable information upon this subject, and others that I must pass over. 
 
 ' See a specimen in 5th vol. Exploring Expedition, page 242. 
 
HISTORY, AND GOVERNMENT. 221 
 
 "258. How far has knowledge, art, and commerce, and the general progress of 
 civilization, affected the improvement of the Indians, and changed or modified their 
 original manners, customs, and opinions ? " 
 
 The effect of semi-civilization among some of these Indians, resulting from frequent 
 intercourse among the whites, appeared to me to have produced but little other change 
 than that of dress, and a more tame and friendly feeling toward the whites. 
 
 And when opposed to this, you throw in liquor and some other of the refinements 
 attending civilization, it may be a question with some whether it would not have been 
 better for them to have lived and died in their savage state. 
 
 This reflection forces itself upon me, as from day to day I now read of the continual 
 murders and massacres among these same people. 
 
 Only to-day 150 are reported to have been massacred by the whites in the " Shaste" " 
 country. 
 
 "259. "What are the prominent effects, physical and intellectual, of the inter 
 mixture, by marriage, between the European and Indian races ? Has the tribe been 
 much affected by such intermarriages ? " 
 
 Not affected by amalgamation with the whites. 
 
 The few white trappers who had Indian wives had generally taken them from the 
 tribes farther east, and their children were yet young. 
 
 " 260. What is the present rate of progress of population of the tribe, compared with 
 former periods ? Are they advancing or receding ?" 
 
 From causes already alluded to, I believe they are rapidly diminishing in numbers, 
 that they cannot keep up their tribal organization many years longer, and if not 
 removed, or reinforced by bands lying east of them, that very few will be found alive 
 in 1870. 
 
 "262. What general changes have taken place in regard to costume and clean 
 liness, in the tribe, and in their habits or modes of living, and general housewifery ?" 
 See answer to question 258. 
 
 " 263. Is this test of the barbaric or hunter state still tolerated; and if so, to what 
 extent ?" 
 
 See answer to question 161. 
 
 "264. What is the present state of the tribe in respect to Christianity?" 
 The tribes in the Willamette valley, and about the Columbia, from Astoria to Walla 
 Walla, have several years enjoyed the advantages of Christian teachers, both 
 Protestant and Catholic : up to the time of my visiting the country, they had been but 
 
222 TRIBAL ORGANIZATION, 
 
 a few years operating, and very little had been accomplished ; if they have been more 
 successful since, the result will, I presume, be made known through reliable sources ; 
 civilization, with its concomitants, has perhaps thrown as many obstacles as aids in 
 their way of accomplishing good. 
 
 " 265. Are the principles of temperance, in the use of ardent spirits, on the increase 
 or decrease ?" 
 
 The principles of temperance, which at one time Avere so much encouraged in Oregon 
 by the Hudson Bay Company's officers, have been very much neglected with the 
 increase of population and confusion growing out of the gold discovery, and it appears 
 quite problematical if liquor will be again interdicted while the Indian lives. 
 
 "266. What are the prominent facts in relation to the cause of education, in 
 reclaiming and exalting the tribe ? What means have been found most effective in 
 the education of their children and youth ? Have females duly participated in these 
 means, and has any part of such means been applied to such branches as are essential 
 to qualify them for the duties of mothers and housewives ?" 
 
 Education, like religion, had made but little progress in Oregon, notwithstanding the 
 earnest and laudable efforts of the American Baptist Mission, both male and female, 
 who had succeeded in overcoming the prejudices of the Indian parents, and induced 
 them to send their children to school ; but like young partridges caged up, they were 
 difficult to tame, and upon the first good opportunity would run away, swim the rivers, 
 and return to their homes ; sometimes their parents would carry them back, and the 
 next good chance they would run again. 
 
 I did not hear that harsh treatment was resorted to in such cases. It would no 
 doubt prove ineffectual. 
 
 The girls were reported more tractable than the boys, and some of the half-breeds, 
 Canadian and Indian, were making considerable progress. 
 
 " 268. Is there any interest observable in the improved modes of agriculture ?" 
 Have made no progress in agriculture, and so far as I could see, appeared perfectly 
 indifferent about it. 
 
 " 269. Have the tribe provided for the construction of roads, bridges, and ferries, 
 either by an appropriation of their general funds, or by imposing the duty of personal 
 service or tax, on the residents of the several districts ?" 
 
 Have literally done nothing. 
 
 " 270. To what extent is the English language spoken, and English books read, 
 and what is the tendency of opinion and practice on this subject, in the tribe ?" 
 
HISTORY, AND GOVERNMENT. 223 
 
 Saw but two of the Klatsop tribe that pretended to speak the English language. 
 and their knowledge in regard to it was very limited. 
 
 My opinion has already been expressed upon several of these points ; their condition 
 will not be much improved until our laws are enforced among them, restraining the 
 whites as well as themselves. 
 
 " 288. Have there been any striking changes in the physical type of the Indian 
 race, beyond that produced by latitudes and longitudes, and by their manner of 
 subsistence ? " 
 
 The physical difference between the Indians found at the mouth of the Columbia, 
 and those inhabiting the upper valley of the Sacramento, is very striking ; and very 
 much in favor of the latter, who resemble the Pacific Islanders more than any I met 
 with on the coast. This difference is, perhaps, as much due to their different manner 
 of subsistence, as to latitude and climate : the language is also very different. 
 
 Many of the questions that follow I must pass over, having gained but little 
 knowledge of the structure of their different languages, which vary very much, and 
 to me appeared neither homologous nor homogeneous. 
 
 Through the assistance of an intelligent American, by the name of Rodgers, (who, 
 with his young wife, was afterwards carried over the Willamette falls in a canoe, and 
 drowned,) I endeavored to make out a vocabulary of the Callapuya language; but 
 owing to their indolence and indifference, had not proceeded far when the former was 
 taken sick, and left me. I afterwards employed a Canadian, who understood the 
 jargon spoken about the Columbia river, but who could not interpret after leaving the 
 Callapuya country. The language which I had previously heard most spoken about 
 the Columbia was the Klatsop dialect, of which I can furnish the meaning to a few 
 words, viz. : 
 
 Ikaui, or Akaui Their principal god, or deity. 
 
 So-ole Another god, or name for same. 
 
 Ital-a-pus "of fish. 
 
 Tam-au-a-wa " " dancing. 
 
 Steokum " " evil. 
 
 Boston ships A general name for all ships. 
 
 Boston man " " white men. 
 
 Co-at-la-li-kum Man. 
 
 Cloach-man Woman. 
 
 Chicks Friend. 
 
 Chu-ban Horse. 
 
 Moos-moos Cow. 
 
 Mo-u-ets Deer. 
 
 Cula-cula . . Bird. 
 
224 TRIBAL ORGANIZATION, 
 
 Ka-wacks Dog. 
 
 Qua-wack Salmon. 
 
 Qua-qua Duck. 
 
 Su-bits "Wood. 
 
 Suk-walella Musket. 
 
 Olem-bo, or boh Pipe. 
 
 Kin-tie, or kin-u-tle Tobacco. 
 
 Ma-ma-lus-te Dead. 
 
 Loosh Dying. 
 
 Wobu-kata Die. 
 
 Muc, or muck Eating 
 
 Close-nau-ich Look-out. 
 
 Hi-as Great. 
 
 Sa-math Their future hunting-grounds. 
 
 E-to-ke-te Good. 
 
 Ni-ka I. Also, small. 
 
 Mi-ka You. 
 
 Yo-ka He. 
 
 A-ka She. 
 
 We-si-ka We ours. 
 
 Mi-si-ka Ye yours. 
 
 Klas-ka They theirs. 
 
 I am not quite certain that I have, in every instance, adopted the spelling best suited 
 to convey the sound. 
 
 The language is extremely guttural, and it requires some practice to catch the 
 sounds. 
 
 Many words in this language, I presume, are common to the Chimook language, 
 and, perhaps, to the Chickeeles, and Kilamukes, who mix with, and appear to 
 understand each other. 
 
 Grimace, more than gesticulation, appears to aid them in their expression; a 
 peculiarity less observable among the more southern tribes. 
 
 Finally, as a race, although they differ materially in language, in point of mental 
 and physical development, and the color of their hair, eyes, and skin, I question if 
 they differ more from each other than the people occupying the extremes of the 
 United States. They are generally well formed, below the whites in stature, have an 
 easy gait, but neither graceful nor handsome ; their eyes and hair usually black the 
 latter occasionally brown, generally parted in the middle of the forehead, so as to 
 hang down each side ; noses broad and flat some aquiline exceptions. The mouth 
 large, lips thick, teeth fair, but in adults generally more or less worn. 
 
HISTORY, AND GOVERNMENT. 225 
 
 They are wily, superstitious, lazy, indolent, and dirty. With these traits, united to 
 an implacable hostility which they generally entertain towards the whites, it does not, 
 I think, require much wisdom to predict their fate. 
 
 Facts that have developed themselves within the last year relating to these tribes, 
 must, I think, convince the observing that Indian agencies and treaties cannot alone 
 save them. It is melancholy to see them melting away so rapidly ; but it does not 
 appear to be intended that civilization should prevent it. 
 
 In conclusion, permit me once more to express my regret that I am able to furnish 
 you with so little information in regard to these tribes, of whom so little is known. 
 
 Very respectfully, 
 
 Your obedient servant, 
 
 GEORGE FALCONER EMMONS, 
 
 HENRY R. SCHOOLCRAFT, ESQ. Lieut. U. S. N. 
 
 Office of Indian Affairs, Washington, D. C. 
 
 3. THE DACOTAHS OR SIOUX OF THE UPPER MISSISSIPPI. 
 
 [Second Paper, continued from " Contributions," p. 199, Vol. II.] 
 
 BY PHILANDER PRESCOTT, 
 V. 8. DACOTAH INTERPRETER, FORT SNELLINO AGENCY, MINNESOTA. 
 
 SUBJECTS OP PAPER. 
 
 1. Religion. 
 
 2. Mythology. 
 
 3. Manners and Customs. 
 
 RELIGION. [CONTINUED.] 
 
 " 135. HAVE they a class of persons who affect to wield the power of necromancy 
 or sorcery ? Do they affect to remove diseases, or to inflict them ? Do they believe 
 in witchcraft ? " 
 
 Disturbances and murders are committed every now and then, on account of the 
 belief in supernatural powers. They believe they can kill each other in various ways. 
 So, if a person dies, some individual is charged with the offence, and revenge sought 
 (See Xos. 74 and 133.) 
 PT. III. 29