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 DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE 
 
 LIGHTHOUSE SERVICE 
 
 THE 
 
 UNITED STATES 
 LIGHTHOUSE SERVICE 
 
 1915 
 
 WASHINGTON 
 
 GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 
 1916 
 
GIFT Of 
 
DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE 
 
 LIGHTHOUSE SERVICE 
 
 THE 
 
 UNITED STATES 
 LIGHTHOUSE SERVICE 
 
 1915 
 
 \AX 
 
 -tauiX 
 
 WASHINGTON 
 
 GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 
 1916 
 
11 
 
 
 DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE, 
 
 BUREAU OF LIGHTHOUSES, 
 
 Washington, December 1, 1915. 
 
 This pamphlet is published for the purpose of furnishing general 
 information regarding the organization and operation of the United 
 States Lighthouse Service, and to enable the Bureau to supply 
 data asked for in inquiries frequently received. It has been compiled 
 mainly by John S. Conway, Deputy Commissioner of Lighthouses. 
 
 GEORGE R. PUTNAM, 
 
 Commissioner. 
 2 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 Page. 
 
 1. Duties and organization 5 
 
 2. Jurisdiction 6 
 
 3. Cooperation 7 
 
 4. District limits and offices 7 
 
 5. Aids to navigation , 11 
 
 6. History and growth of the Lighthouse Service 14 
 
 7. Development of lighthouse work in Alaska 16 
 
 8. Types of construction of lighthouses 17 
 
 9. Lighting apparatus and illuminants 30 
 
 10. Distinct iveness and characteristics of lights 35 
 
 11. Visibility and candlepower of lights 36 
 
 12. Fog signals 40 
 
 13. Buoys 46 
 
 14. River lighting 53 
 
 15. Lighthouse depots 55 
 
 16. Light vessels 58 
 
 17. Lighthouse tenders 66 
 
 18. Personnel and civil-service systems 72 
 
 19. Light keepers' quarters 76 
 
 20. Saving of life and property 79 
 
 21. Lighting of bridges 79 
 
 22. Private aids to navigation 80 
 
 23. Laws for protection of aids ' 81 
 
 24. Publications 82 
 
 25. Engineering and fiscal matters 84 
 
 26. Exhibits of the Lighthouse Service 91 
 
 27. Past and present officers of the Service 93 
 
 3 
 
THE UNITED STATES LIGHTHOUSE SERVICE, 1915. 
 
 1. DUTIES AND ORGANIZATION. 
 
 The United States Lighthouse Service is charged with the estab- 
 lishment and maintenance of aids to navigation, and with all equip- 
 ment and work incident thereto, on the coasts of the United States. 
 The term "aids to navigation" comprises all land and sea marks 
 established or adapted for the purpose of aiding the navigation of 
 vessels, and includes light stations, light vessels, fog signals, buoys 
 of all kinds, minor lights, and day beacons. 
 
 There is an office in Washington, known as the Bureau of Light- 
 houses, which is the executive center of the Service, under the Com- 
 missioner of Lighthouses and the Deputy Commissioner. There are 
 in this office an engineering construction division, under the chief 
 constructing engineer; a naval construction division, under the 
 superintendent of naval construction; a hydrographic division, under 
 an assistant engineer; and the general office force, under the chief 
 clerk. 
 
 The Service outside of Washington is divided into 19 lighthouse 
 districts, each of which is under the charge of a lighthouse inspector. 
 In each district there is a central office at a location selected on 
 account of either its maritime importance or its geographical posi- 
 tion. Attached to each district office is a technical force for the 
 construction and upkeep of both land structures and floating equip- 
 ment, and also a clerical force, with a chief clerk and assistants, for 
 the work of the district. The principal technical assistant to the 
 inspector is the superintendent, and there are assistant superin- 
 tendents and aids as required by the size of the district. In the 
 field are construction and repair parties under foremen, and in a 
 number of districts there are mechanicians who attend to special 
 repairs and installations of apparatus. All of this force is composed 
 of civilians, except that in the three river districts officers of the 
 Corps of Engineers who are in charge of river improvements act also 
 as lighthouse inspectors. 
 
 One or more lighthouse depots are conveniently located in each 
 district for carrying on the work of the district in the matter of storing 
 and distributing supplies and apparatus. In addition to the various 
 district depots, there is in the third lighthouse district, on Staten 
 Island, New York Harbor, a general lighthouse depot, where many 
 of the supplies for the whole Service are purchased and stored and 
 
 5 
 
6 UNITED STATES LIGHTHOUSE SERVICE, 1915. 
 
 sent out Tor dis-tributioa, a-.ul whore much of the special apparatus 
 of the Service is manufactured or repaired, and where also there is 
 carried on various technical work in the way of testing apparatus 
 and supplies and designing or improving apparatus. 
 
 Each district is provided with one or more lighthouse tenders for 
 the purpose of distributing supplies to the various stations and light 
 vessels and for transportation of materials for construction or repair, 
 for the placing and care of the buoyage system in the district, and for 
 transporting the inspector and other officers of the Service on official 
 inspections of stations and vessels and on other official duty. 
 
 2. JURISDICTION. 
 
 The jurisdiction of the Lighthouse Service extends over the Atlantic, 
 Gulf, Great Lakes, and Pacific coasts, the principal interior rivers, 
 Alaska, Porto Bico, and Hawaii, and all other territory under the 
 jurisdiction of the United States, with the exception of the Philippine 
 Islands and Panama. In the Philippine Islands the lighthouse service 
 is maintained by the insular government and supported entirely 
 out of the revenues of the islands. At Panama the canal government 
 has charge of the lighting of the canal and approaches under the 
 general appropriations for the canal. 
 
 All the work of establishing and maintaining the aids to navigation 
 under the jurisdiction of the Lighthouse Service is performed directly 
 by that service through district organizations, with the exception of a 
 few minor aids, which are maintained by contract, and the exception 
 of the American Samoan Islands, the island of Guam, and Guanta- 
 namo, Cuba, where the aids are maintained under the supervision of 
 the naval commandants under allotments made from the appropria- 
 tions for the Lighthouse Service. The Lighthouse Service also has 
 supervision over the establishment and maintenance of private aids 
 to navigation and the lighting of bridges over navigable waters of 
 the United States. 
 
 At the present time the United States assists in the maintenance of 
 but one lighthouse outside of its territory, this being at Cape Spartel, 
 Morocco. This light is maintained in accordance with the conven- 
 tion between Morocco and the United States, Austria, Belgium, Spain, 
 France, Great Britain, Italy, Netherlands, Portugal, and Sweden, in 
 force since March 12, 1867. The lighthouse was constructed at the 
 expense of Morocco, but it is maintained by the other contracting 
 powers. The annual appropriation by the United States for this 
 purpose is $325, and it is not under the control of the Jjighthouse 
 Service. 
 
 The jurisdiction of the Lighthouse Service over rivers not included 
 in tidewater navigation is restricted to such as are specifically named 
 in the various acts of Congress. These now include practically all 
 the important navigable rivers and lakes of the country. 
 
DISTRICT LIMITS AND OFFICES. 7 
 
 3. COOPERATION. 
 
 In performing its duties, the Lighthouse Service cooperates actively 
 with all other branches of the Government engaged in related work. 
 Notices to mariners are issued jointly with the Coast and Geodetic 
 Survey, and information affecting charts is supplied to that office for 
 publication. Similar information is furnished the Lake Survey and 
 other offices publishing charts. Cooperation is had with the Corps of 
 Engineers, War Department, in connection with river and harbor 
 improvements, as to special aids to navigation maintained for such 
 works, information of improvements that will affect aids to navigation, 
 the marking of river channels, lighting of wrecks, etc. Information 
 as to deficiencies in aids is received from the Hydrographic Office and 
 from naval vessels, and from other maritime services of the Govern- 
 ment. The Public Health Service aids in matters of sanitation 
 affecting lighthouse vessels and stations, the Bureau of Standards in 
 the design of radio apparatus and in special tests, the Forest Service 
 in the growing and management of timber on lighthouse reservations, 
 the Steamboat-Inspection Service in the inspection of steam plants of 
 vessels, etc. The Lighthouse Service supplies information respecting 
 aids to navigation to all branches of the Government having need for 
 this data and cooperates in the placing of buoys for special purposes. 
 
 Arrangements are in effect with the War Department for the assign- 
 ment of lighthouse tenders from time to time for mine-planting 
 practice, and in the event of necessity the Lighthouse Service is 
 prepared to turn over to the Navy Department, with the approval of 
 the President, such tenders as may be required in military operations. 
 
 In addition to the foregoing special effort is made to consult the 
 needs of merchant shipping as to aids to navigation. Applications 
 from maritime interests for establishing or improving aids are care- 
 fully considered, and all matters involving extensive changes are 
 taken up with such interests before action is decided upon. 
 
 Mariners and others interested are invited to give prompt infor- 
 mation to the district lighthouse inspectors, or by direct communi- 
 cation to the Commissioner of Lighthouses, of all cases of injury to 
 or unsatisfactory condition or incorrect position of any aid to navi- 
 gation, or of the necessity for additional aids, or of any existing aid 
 not needed, and of all cases where the lights are not exhibited punc- 
 tually at sunset and extinguished at sunrise. 
 
 4. DISTRICT LIMITS AND OFFICES. 
 
 The limits of the lighthouse districts are as follows : 
 First district. From the head of navigation on the St. Croix River, 
 Me., the northeastern boundary of the United States, to and includ- 
 ing Hampton Harbor, N. H. It embraces all aids to navigation on 
 
8 
 
 UNITED STATES LIGHTHOUSE SERVICE; 1915. 
 
DISTRICT LIMITS AND OFFICES. 9 
 
 the seacoast of Maine and New Hampshire, and on all tidal waters 
 between the limits named. 
 
 Second district. From Hampton Harbor, N. H., to Elisha Ledge, 
 off Warren Point, R. I., but not including either the harbor or the 
 ledge. It embraces all aids to navigation on the seacoast and tidal 
 waters of Massachusetts, except on the Taunton River and that part 
 of Mount Hope Bay lying within the State boundary. 
 
 Third district. From Elisha Ledge, off Warren Point, R. I., to 
 Cape May, on the coast of New Jersey, excepting Cape May Light- 
 house, and to a point on the coast opposite Rehoboth, Del., excepting 
 Cape Henlopen Lighthouse and Hen and Chickens Shoal. It em- 
 braces all aids to navigation on the coasts of Rhode Island, Connec- 
 ticut, New York, and New Jersey northward of Cape May, including 
 Northeast End, Five-Fathom Bank, and Overfalls light vessels, 
 and McCries Shoal, and on all tidal waters tributary to the sea or 
 Long Island Sound between the limits named, together with the aids 
 on Whitehall Narrows, and on the United States waters of Lakes 
 Champlain and Memphremagog. 
 
 Fourth district. From and including Cape May Light Station, on 
 the coast of New Jersey, to and including Fenwick Island Light 
 Station on the coast of Delaware. It embraces all aids to navigation 
 on the seacoast of New Jersey and Delaware between the points 
 named, the entrance to Delaware Bay, Delaware Bay and River, and 
 the waters tributary thereto, but does not include McCries Shoal, 
 Overfalls Light Vessel, and the aids to navigation seaward thereof, 
 nor the shoals seaward of Fenwick Island. 
 
 Fifth district. From (but not including) Fenwick Island Light 
 Station, on the coast of Delaware, to and including New River Inlet, 
 N. C. It embraces all aids to navigation off the seacoast of Dela- 
 ware seaward of Fenwick Island, on the seacoasts of Maryland, Vir- 
 ginia, and North Carolina between the limits named, all of Chesa- 
 peake Bay, the sounds of North Carolina, and tributary waters. 
 
 Sixth district. From (but does not include) New River Inlet, N. C., 
 to and including Hillsboro Inlet Light Station, Fla. It embraces all 
 aids to navigation on the seacoasts, bays, sounds, harbors, rivers, 
 and other tidal waters of North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, 
 and Florida between the limits named. 
 
 Seventh district. From a point just south of Hillsboro Inlet Light 
 Station to and including Cedar Keys, Fla. It embraces all aids to 
 navigation on the sea and Gulf coasts of Florida, Florida Keys, and 
 on other waters tributary to the sea and Gulf between the limits 
 named. 
 
 Eighth district. From (but not including) Cedar Keys, Fla., to 
 the southern boundary of Texas. It embraces all aids to navigation 
 on the Gulf coast of the United States and tidal waters tributary to 
 
10 UNITED STATES LIGHTHOUSE SERVICE, 1915. 
 
 the Gulf between the limits named, together with those on the 
 Mississippi River below and including New Orleans, and on Grand 
 Lake and Lake Chicot. 
 
 Ninth district. The island of Porto Rico and the adjacent islands 
 and other islands and stations ceded to the United States in the 
 West Indies. 
 
 Tenth district. From the mouth of the St. Regis River, St. Law- 
 rence River, N. Y., to the mouth of the Detroit River. It embraces 
 all aids to navigation on the United States shores and waters of 
 Lakes Ontario and Erie and the upper part of the St. Lawrence 
 River and the Niagara River, excepting aids to navigation at the 
 mouth of the Detroit River. 
 
 Eleventh district. From and including all aids to navigation at 
 the mouth of the Detroit River, Mich., to the western end of Lake 
 Superior. It embraces all aids to navigation on the United States 
 shores and waters of Lakes St. Clair, Huron, and Superior, the 
 Detroit River, including the mouth, the St. Clair and St. Marys 
 rivers, and that part of the Straits of Mackinac lying to the eastward 
 of a line drawn across the straits just to the eastward of Old Mackinac 
 Point Light Station, Mich. 
 
 Twelfth district. Includes all aids to navigation on Lake Michigan, 
 Green Bay, and tributary waters lying west of a line drawn across 
 the Straits of Mackinac just east of Old Mackinac Point Light Station, 
 Mich. 
 
 Thirteenth district. The Mississippi River from the head of naviga- 
 tion to the mouth of the Missouri River; the Minnesota River from 
 the head of navigation to its mouth; the Illinois River from the 
 head of navigation to its mouth; the Osage River from the head of 
 navigation to its mouth; the Gasconade River from the head of 
 navigation to its mouth ; the Missouri River from the head of naviga- 
 tion to its mouth; St. Croix River and Lake; Lake Traverse; and 
 includes all aids to navigation within these limits and navigable 
 rivers tributary thereto. 
 
 Fourteenth district. The Ohio River from Pittsburgh, Pa., to 
 Cairo, 111.; the Tennessee River from the head of navigation to its 
 mouth; the Kanawha River from the head of navigation to its 
 mouth; and embraces all aids to navigation within these limits and 
 navigable rivers tributary thereto. 
 
 Fifteenth district. The Mississippi River from and including the 
 mouth of the Missouri River to New Orleans, La.; the Red River 
 from the head of navigation to its mouth; and includes all aids to 
 navigation within these limits and navigable rivers tributary thereto. 
 
 Sixteenth district. From the boundary between Alaska and the 
 Dominion of Canada to the boundary between Alaska and Siberia. 
 It embraces all aids to navigation on the seacoast, bays, rivers, and 
 other tidal waters of Alaska. 
 
AIDS TO NAVIGATION. 
 
 11 
 
 Seventeenth district. From the boundary between California and 
 Oregon to the northern boundary of the United States. It embraces 
 all aids to navigation on the seacoast of Oregon and Washington, 
 on the United States waters of the Strait of Juan de Fuca, Wash- 
 ington Sound, and the Strait of Georgia, and on the tidal waters 
 tributary to the sea, straits, and sounds between the limits named. 
 
 Eighteenth district. From the boundary between California and 
 Mexico to the boundary between California and Oregon. It em- 
 braces all aids to navigation on the seacoast, bays, rivers, and other 
 tidal waters of California. . 
 
 Nineteenth district. Embraces the Hawaiian Islands, the Midway 
 Islands, the island of Guam, and the American Samoan Islands, and 
 includes all aids to navigation in the waters thereof. 
 
 The location of each district office, with the address of the light- 
 house inspector, is given in the following table : 
 
 District. 
 
 Address. 
 
 District. 
 
 Address. 
 
 1st 
 
 2d... 
 
 Portland. Me., Y. M. C. A. Building. 
 Boston. Mass.. Customhouse. 
 
 llth. 
 12th. . 
 
 Detroit, Mich., Post Office Building. 
 Milwaukee, Wis., Federal Building. 
 
 3d 
 
 Tompkinsville, N. Y. 
 
 13th. . 
 
 Rock Island, 111., Federal Building. 
 
 4th 
 
 Philadelphia, Pa., Post Office Building. 
 
 14th. . 
 
 Cincinnati, Ohio, Customhouse. 
 
 5th... 
 
 Baltimore, Md., New Customhouse. 
 
 15th. . 
 
 St. Louis, Mo., Customhouse. 
 
 6th 
 
 Charleston, S. C., Old Post Office Build- 
 
 16th. . 
 
 Ketchikan, Alaska. 
 
 7th... 
 
 ing. 
 Key West, Fla. 
 
 17th. . 
 18th. . 
 
 Portland, Oreg., Customhouse. 
 San Francisco, Cal., Customhouse. 
 
 8th 
 
 New Orleans, La., Customhouse. 
 
 19th. . 
 
 Honolulu, Hawaii, McCandless Build- 
 
 9th 
 
 San Juan, P. R. 
 
 
 ing. 
 
 10th 
 
 Buffalo, N. Y., Federal Building. 
 
 
 
 5. AIDS TO NAVIGATION. 
 
 The table following gives a summary of the 14,544 aids to naviga- 
 tion, under each principal class, in commission on June 30, 1915: 
 
 Lighted aids: 
 
 Lights (other than minor lights) ........................... 1, 662 
 
 Minor lights ............................................. 2, 837 
 
 Light-vessel stations ...................................... 53 
 
 Gas buoys ............................................... 479 
 
 Float lights .............................................. 124 
 
 Total .................................................. 5, 155 
 
 Unlighted aids: 
 Fog signals 
 Submarine signals 
 Whistling buoys, unlighted 
 Bell buoys, unlighted 
 
 527 
 50 
 . ....................... 86 
 
 237 
 Other buoys ............................................. 6, 488 
 
 Day beacons ....... : ...................................... 2, 001 
 
 Total ................................................. -. 9, 389 
 
 Grand total 14, 544 
 
12 UNITED STATES LIGHTHOUSE SERVICE, 1915. 
 
 Grouped according to the fixed or floating character of the aids, 
 the following tabulation may be made: 
 
 Lighted fixed aids 4, 499 
 
 Unlighted fixed aids 2, 478 
 
 Total fixed aids. . . 6, 977 
 
 Lighted floating aids 656 
 
 Unlighted floating aids 6, 911 
 
 Total floating aids 7, 567 
 
 Grand total 14,544 
 
 The class described as " Lights (other than minor) ' ; includes major 
 lights classified under the Fresnel system of orders, which will be 
 described more fully in another place, range lenses, reflectors, and lens 
 lanterns. (See p. 31.) There are 744 stations with resident keepers, 
 provided with dwellings, and in many cases these keepers have charge 
 not only of the principal light but also such other lights in the vicinity 
 as may be conveniently cared for from the same station. 
 
 The number of keepers varies from one to five, according to circum- 
 stances, and the number of stations having more than one keeper 
 is shown in the following table : 
 
 Five-keeper stations 3 
 
 Four-keeper stations 28 
 
 Three-keeper stations 167 
 
 Two-keeper stations 238 
 
 Total stations with more than one keeper 436 
 
 The term " minor light" includes post lights and small lights 
 generally not attended as a rule by resident keepers. These lights 
 are usually cared for by persons living in the vicinity, who are not 
 obliged to devote their entire time to the work and who sometimes 
 have several lights, if conveniently located, in their charge. This 
 type of light is commonly used on inland rivers and particularly 
 on the Mississippi River and its tributaries. 
 
 Light vessels are used as a rule to mark offshore dangers, or the 
 approaches to harbors or channels, where lighthouses would not be 
 feasible or economical. They are more fully described on page 58. 
 
 Gas buoys are used to mark important channels or shoals or as 
 general guides for navigation. Many improvements have been 
 made in this type of aid, and they are considered among the most 
 valuable of recent developments in modern coast lighting. 
 
 Float lights are usually small lights borne on a float or rsffj. They 
 are employed for less important places where more convenient or 
 economical than lighted buoys and where the expense of providing a 
 foundation for a fixed structure would not be warranted. 
 
 Fog signals include various types of aerial sound-producing appara- 
 tus for use in foggy or thick weather. They embrace various types of 
 
AIDS TO NAVIGATION. 
 
 13 
 
 whistles, sirens, or horns, actuated by steam or compressed air, and 
 bells, operated by machinery of various types or by hand. 
 
 Submarine signals are auxiliary fog signals consisting of bells 
 operated under water. They are commonly a feature of light-vessel 
 equipment, but are employed also at some light stations or attached 
 to buoys. 
 
 Whistling and bell buoys, as the names imply, are buoys fitted 
 with sound-producing apparatus operated by the motion of the buoy 
 in the sea. Whistling buoys are more efficient in rough outside 
 waters and bell buoys are more . commonly used in harbors or inside 
 waters. Further information in regard to both types appears on 
 page 50. 
 
 Other buoys include cans, nuns, and spars of various types, and 
 are the most extensively used of all aids. They are more frequently 
 employed in channels and inside waters generally, and are described 
 more fully on page 49. 
 
 Day beacons include minor fixed structures not bearing a light. 
 They are of various types, the most common being a post or spindle 
 bearing a target or some other object of a distinctive shape and color. 
 
 The number of light stations, light vessels, and fog signals of the 
 world, as listed in the British Admiralty List of Lights for 1915, is 
 approximately as given in the table below. The statistics do not 
 include the Great Lakes of North America nor rivers above the limit 
 of seagoing navigation, and the lights are given in greater complete- 
 ness for some countries than for others. 
 
 Continents. 
 
 Light 
 stations. 
 
 Light 
 vessels. 
 
 Fog 
 signals. 
 
 Europe 
 
 7,335 
 
 192 
 
 779 
 
 North America 
 
 2,913 
 
 49 
 
 645 
 
 Asia 
 
 1 355 
 
 36 
 
 116 
 
 Australia and Oceania. . . 
 
 746 
 
 3 
 
 21 
 
 Africa 
 
 519 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 South America 
 
 358 
 
 10 
 
 15 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total . .. 
 
 13, 226 
 
 290 
 
 1,586 
 
 
 
 
 
 It is of interest to compare similar statistics of light stations for 
 about 1888 (The Modern Lighthouse Service, Johnson). 
 
 Continents. 
 
 Light 
 stations. 
 
 Continents. 
 
 Light 
 stations. 
 
 Europe 
 
 3 309 
 
 Africa 
 
 219 
 
 North A merica 
 
 1 435 
 
 South America 
 
 167 
 
 Asia 
 
 476 
 
 
 
 Oceania. 
 
 319 
 
 Total 
 
 5,925 
 
 
 
 
 
 The lists for 1915 show that the United States Lighthouse Service 
 has under its charge materiaUy more lights and fog signals than any 
 other organization, and this would be numerically increased if there 
 were included the lights on the lakes and rivers, and if aU aids to 
 navigation were counted, including buoys and unlighted beacons. 
 
14 UNITED STATES LIGHTHOUSE SERVICE, 1915. 
 
 6. HISTORY AND GROWTH OF THE LIGHTHOUSE SERVICE. 
 
 The history of lighthouses in the United States dates back to 
 1715-16, when the first lighthouse on this continent was built at the 
 entrance to Boston Harbor by the Province of Massachusetts. This 
 light was supported by light dues on all incoming and outgoing ves- 
 sels, except coasters. Several other lighthouses were built by the 
 colonies. Congress, by the act of August 7, 1789, authorized the 
 maintenance of lighthouses and other aids to navigation at the expense 
 of the United States. There were at that date eight lights in opera- 
 tion maintained by the colonies. These, together with others com- 
 pleted later, 13 in all, were ceded to the General Government by the 
 States. The Lighthouse Service of the United States is supported 
 entirely by appropriations out of the general revenues of the Gov- 
 ernment, and the United States lighthouses have been free to vessels 
 of all nations from 1789 to the present time. There is no system of 
 light dues, as is the case in a number of foreign maritime countries. 
 
 The maintenance of lighthouses, buoys, etc., was placed under the 
 Treasury Department, and up to 1820 was directed personally by 
 the Secretary of the Treasury, except for two intervals when super- 
 vision was assigned by him to the Commissioner of the Revenue. 
 In 1820 the superintendence of the lights devolved upon the Fifth 
 Auditor of the Treasury, who was popularly known as the General 
 Superintendent of Lights and who continued in charge thereof until 
 1852, when the United States Lighthouse Board, consisting of officers 
 of the Navy and Army and civilians, was organized, with the Secre- 
 tary of the Treasury as ex officio president of the board. The board 
 selected from its own number a member to act as chairman. 
 
 The Lighthouse Service was transferred to the Department of 
 Commerce on July 1, 1903. On July 1, 1910, the Lighthouse Board 
 was terminated and the present Bureau of Lighthouses established. 
 
 The eight colonial lights in the order of their establishment were: 
 
 Boston, on Little Brewster Island, Mass 1716 
 
 Brant Point, on Nantucket Island, Mass 1746 
 
 Beavertail, on Conanicut Island, R. I 1761 
 
 Sandy Hook, N. J., entrance to New York Bay 1764 
 
 Cape Henlopen, Del., entrance to Delaware Bay 1764 
 
 Charleston, on Morris Island, S. C 1767 
 
 Gurnet, near Plymouth, Mass 1769 
 
 Portsmouth, N. H., entrance to harbor 1789 
 
 All of these are still in existence, although with many improve- 
 ments; at Sandy Hook and Cape Henlopen, however, tl% original 
 towers are still in use. 
 
 The gradual increase in the number of aids to navigation from 1790 
 to 1910, by 10-year periods, and for each year since 1910, is shown in 
 the following table: 
 
HISTOKY AND GROWTH OF THE LIGHTHOUSE SERVICE. 
 
 15 
 
 Year. 
 
 Lighted aids. 
 
 Unlighted aids. 
 
 
 ft 
 
 B 
 
 3 
 
 9 
 
 1 
 
 S 
 
 i 
 ? 
 
 J 
 
 s" 
 3 
 
 ^ 
 . 
 
 SI 
 
 * 
 
 Jq 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 fl 
 
 rf 
 
 'a 
 
 .> 
 
 'w 
 
 I 
 
 
 ' 
 
 12 
 d 
 
 CQ 
 
 Ml 
 f| 
 
 2 
 E 
 
 & 
 
 Z3 
 
 
 W 
 
 | 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 S 
 
 1 
 
 si 
 
 si 
 
 II 
 
 <5 
 
 1790 
 
 12 
 
 
 
 
 12 
 23 
 42 
 60 
 153 
 264 
 332 
 472 
 560 
 1,523 
 2,450 
 3,163 
 3,992 
 4,211 
 4,516 
 4,739 
 5,004 
 5,155 
 
 (0) 2 
 
 2 
 3 
 12 
 26 
 49 
 111 
 117 
 194 
 254 
 393 
 457 
 506 
 510 
 520 
 519 
 527 
 
 
 
 
 (0) 
 
 77 
 117 
 156 
 350 
 800 
 1,034 
 1,738 
 2,446 
 3,115 
 4,143 
 4,749 
 5,783 
 5,821 
 5,992 
 6, 174 
 6,330 
 6,488 
 
 (a) 
 
 22 
 30 
 60 
 90 
 121 
 220 
 324 
 355 
 372 
 496 
 1,120 
 1,295 
 1,474 
 1,655 
 1,978 
 2,001 
 
 a 
 
 141 
 
 189 
 422 
 916 
 1.204 
 2,074 
 2,892 
 3,694 
 4,904 
 5,828 
 7,669 
 7,939 
 8,308 
 8,695 
 9,194 
 9,389 
 
 (0) 
 
 107 
 183 
 249 
 575 
 1,180 
 1,536 
 2,550 
 3,456 
 5,221 
 7,354 
 8,991 
 11,661 
 12,150 
 12,824 
 13, 434 
 14,198 
 14,544 
 
 1800.... 
 1810.... 
 1820. . . . 
 1830.... 
 1840.... 
 1850.... 
 1860 
 
 23 
 
 42 
 59 
 137 
 234 
 297 
 425 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 16 
 
 30 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 35 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 47 
 
 
 
 
 
 9 
 9 
 9 
 75 
 120 
 178 
 189 
 205 
 216 
 233 
 237 
 
 1870. . . . 
 1880. . . . 
 1890.... 
 1900.... 
 1910.... 
 1911.... 
 1912.... 
 1913.... 
 1914.... 
 1915.... 
 
 528 
 661 
 833 
 ,243 
 ,397 
 ,424 
 ,475 
 ,531 
 1,590 
 1,662 
 
 
 32 
 
 
 
 
 
 819 
 1,550 
 1,745 
 2,256 
 2,362 
 2,552 
 2,666 
 2,791 
 2,837 
 
 31 
 26 
 44 
 54 
 51 
 51 
 53 
 52 
 53 
 
 
 12 
 34 
 38 
 60 
 87 
 92 
 101 
 118 
 124 
 
 
 25 
 
 60 
 70 
 
 89 
 88 
 84 
 84 
 86 
 86 
 
 7 
 93 
 225 
 287 
 346 
 388 
 453 
 479 
 
 
 
 42 
 40 
 43 
 46 
 48 
 50 
 
 a No definite information on record. 
 
 NOTES. The information prior to 1850 should be considered approximate only, and the figures given 
 may be regarded generally as somewhat less than the actual numbers. 
 
 Minor lights and float lights originally covered only post lights on the Mississippi River and tributaries, 
 first reported in 1875 (280 minor, 21 float). 
 
 Lighted buoys first reported in 1884 (4 buoys). 
 
 Early records of fog signals compiled from light lists and other sources and are somewhat indefinite. 
 Whistles not regularly reported prior to 1872 (33 whistles); bells not prior to 1882 (115 bells). 
 
 Submarine bells first reported in 1906 (5 bells). 
 
 Whistling buoys first reported in 1876 (4 buoys). 
 
 Bell buoys first reported regularly in 1881 (11 buoys). Bell buoys were introduced about 1855 (9 buoys). 
 Bell boats, filling practically same purpose, were used at a much earlier date, although no definite records 
 appear. 
 
 Buoy boats, consisting of a decked scow about 20 feet long by 7 feet beam, carrying a light mast or perch, 
 were also in use in the early days. 
 
 The increase in the number of aids to navigation maintained by 
 the United States Lighthouse Service is shown graphically for the 
 last 15 years in the following diagram, as well as the range in general 
 appropriations for maintenance during the same period. 
 
 JUK 
 
 E3tiaeMBoiAr*rt& 
 
 based on fftfacfual results 
 
 14.000 
 
 13.000 
 
 6.000000 12m 
 
 tissvimifta. 
 
 for 
 
 iooo.ooou.ooo 
 
 \ 
 
 Ah is /o Naw, lah'ot 
 
 / Af, oropr iatioi 
 
 4.00QOOO B.OOO 
 
 f/XAL YAft IfOI /W2 M03 J1Q4 l<?05 /406 1407 HOB /<KW WO ff// W: 
 
 U.5. Lighthouse Service 
 Number. of Aids to Nayfgah'cn and Annual Appropriations 
 
 If 01 1417 
 
 M3 W4 Ntf W6 
 
16 UNITED STATES LIGHTHOUSE SERVICE, 1915. 
 
 7. DEVELOPMENT OF LIGHTHOUSE WORK IN ALASKA. 
 
 The first aids to navigation of the Lighthouse Service in Alaska 
 were established in the spring of 1884 (14 iron buoys) and the first 
 light in June, 1895. The following table gives the total number of 
 aids to navigation at the end of the fiscal years named (June 30 in 
 each case) illustrating the progress of the Service in the Territory: 
 
 Aids. 
 
 1890 
 
 1895 
 
 1900 
 
 1905 
 
 1910 
 
 1915 
 
 Lights 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 15 
 
 37 
 
 112 
 
 Fog signals 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 Buoys . 
 
 27 
 
 57 
 
 57 
 
 68 
 
 84 
 
 167 
 
 Daymarks 
 
 15 
 
 26 
 
 25 
 
 30 
 
 30 
 
 49 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 42 
 
 84 
 
 83 
 
 121 
 
 160 
 
 338 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 The 112 lights are of the following classes: 10 lighthouses with 
 resident keepers, 62 unattended flashing acetylene lights, 34 minor 
 lights, and 6 float lights, the use of the latter-named being confined 
 to narrow channels or harbors where a small light answers all require- 
 ments of navigation. 
 
 Special attention has been given to increasing and improving the 
 lights and buoys in Alaska, as shown by the table above, which indi- 
 cates an increase of 203 per cent in the number of lights and 111 per 
 cent in the total number of aids during the past five years. 
 
 There has been a considerable increase of shipping to this Territory 
 with the rapid development there of the mining and other industries. 
 The coast line, however, is of great extent in proportion to the amount 
 of shipping. It is a difficult coast to navigate because of a number 
 of causes in addition to the incompleteness of the system of aids to 
 navigation. All the southern and more frequented portions of the 
 Alaskan coast are subject, even in the summer months, to fog, rain, 
 and storms; the coast is precipitous and rocky and hidden dangers 
 are numerous; there is a great rise and fall of tide, resulting in strong 
 tidal currents; the traffic is new and mainly restricted to only a part 
 of the year, so that it is difficult for navigators to become thoroughly 
 familiar with the region and conditions; much of the coast has not 
 been completely surveyed and thorough surveys are rendered diffi- 
 cult by the nature of the bottom, and the coast is so abrupt and the 
 depths so great that convenient and safe anchorages are not always 
 available. On the other hand, southeastern Alaska has a remarkable 
 network of well-protected inside channels in large part sufficiently 
 wide and deep for any class of vessels, and has numerous small har- 
 bors. During the summer season, when traffic is heavif$t, there is 
 either daylight throughout the 24 hours or the time of darkness is 
 short, thus materially aiding navigation, but the reverse condition 
 exists in winter, because of the northern latitude. The immense coast 
 line in proportion to the population and the amount of shipping, and 
 
TYPES OF CONSTRUCTION OF LIGHTHOUSES. 17 
 
 the uncertainty as to the permanency in routes of traffic, would not 
 warrant the Government at this stage of development of the Territory 
 in making the expenditures necessary to mark its coasts as elaborately 
 as similar coasts in older and more settled portions of the United 
 States. 
 
 The justice of the demands for additional aids to navigation in 
 Alaska is, however, fully recognized. To meet these real needs, 
 Alaska, which has formerly been under the charge of the district 
 office at Portland, Oreg., was on August 1, 1910, made a separate 
 lighthouse district, permitting the inspector in charge to give his 
 entire attention to this important territory. A district office and 
 depot have been established at Ketchikan and office and construc- 
 tion forces have been organized in the new district. 
 
 One of the largest tenders in the service, the Kukui, has been as- 
 signed to duty in Alaska, and a still larger vessel, the Cedar, is now 
 being built for the same purpose. The new tender Fern has been 
 constructed especially for work in the inside waters of southeastern 
 Alaska. 
 
 Appropriations for special works in Alaska made in recent years 
 include two appropriations of $60,000 each, made by the acts of 
 March 4, 1911, and August 1, 1914, for aids to navigation in Alaska; 
 $25,000 for rebuilding and improving Lincoln Rock Light and Fog 
 Signal (act Mar. 4, 1911) ; and $115,000 for establishing Cape St. Elias 
 Light and Fog Signal (act Oct. 22, 1913). In addition to these 
 special works, the average expenditures from general appropriations 
 for the support of the service in ordinary maintenance and better- 
 ments have averaged about $135,000 annually for the past two years. 
 
 8. TYPES OF CONSTRUCTION OF LIGHTHOUSES. 
 
 The type of construction adopted in each case for lighthouse struc- 
 tures depends largely on the importance of the light and the foundation 
 conditions. Brief descriptions of the various types more commonly 
 employed are as follows: 
 
 Post lights are generally a single timber post, with a shelf or 
 bracket for the lantern. In some cases ladders are attached, and to 
 assist in identifying the aid by day, wooden wing boards for daymark 
 purposes are frequently added. For similar construction in water, 
 single piles, either timber or concrete, are used. A small service box 
 for the lantern and supplies is often added. 
 
 Where the light is of more importance, framed timber towers have 
 been used, generally built with four posts on proper foundations, 
 battered and provided with the necessary framing and bracing, with 
 a ladder and service box. Similar structures in water are generally 
 of three or more piles, driven on a batter and forming a cluster at 
 the top. 
 
 18247 16 2 
 
18 
 
 UNITED STATES LIGHTHOUSE SERVICE, 1915. 
 
 Recent improvements along this line include structural steel 
 skeleton towers, also similar towers of iron pipe. Standard plans 
 have been prepared for each of these types, both of which are useful 
 
 when quickness of construction is 
 desired. Each type is square in plan 
 and strongly braced, with due pro- 
 vision allowed for corrosion in pro- 
 portioning the sizes of the members. 
 For similar structures in water, con- 
 crete pile foundation structures con- 
 sisting of four, seven, or nine piles, 
 with suitable cast-iron struts and 
 structural bracing, have been devel- 
 oped and standard plans prepared 
 for each type. 
 
 In addition to the foregoing types, 
 which are principally adopted for 
 nonattended lights, mention should 
 be made of unlighted beacons, or 
 daymarks. Some of these may be 
 merely a pile or stake, -occasionally 
 with a pointer indicating the chan- 
 nel; others are timber structures of 
 various designs, carrying a target 
 or some other characteristic feature to attract attention; others are 
 iron or steel spindles with a barrel or some form of cage work at the 
 top, and some older types are monuments of stone. A type recently 
 developed is that of strongly braced 
 reinforced concrete tripods, to re- 
 place old wooden tripods destroyed 
 by the sea. In some localities, par- 
 ticularly on rivers in California, 
 where fog is prevalent part of the 
 year, echo boards are used. These 
 are rather long wall-like structures 
 with projecting wings, to permit 
 steamers obtaining an echo from 
 their whistles in passing. These 
 sometimes carry a post light on 
 top of the board. 
 
 In case of attended lights where 
 resident keepers are employed, 
 which may be considered as lighthouses proper, there are also many 
 types. A common form, frequently used for harbor or lake lights, 
 is a combined tower and dwelling of timber or brick construction. 
 
 Sand Shoal Inlet Light, Va. 
 
 Petaluma Creek LigMt, Cal. 
 
TYPES OF CONSTRUCTION OF LIGHTHOUSES. 
 
 19 
 
 Larchmont Breakwater Light, N. Y. 
 
 Sometimes the tower only is of masonry, while the dwelling is frame. 
 For the more important lights, the tower is detached from the dwell- 
 ings and as a rule is of fireproof construction. Most of the older 
 
 towers of this type are built of brick 
 or stone masonry, with stairways, 
 lantern, and other appurtenances 
 of cast iron. Others of a more 
 recent type have a structural open 
 framework of wrought iron or steel, 
 usually with an inclosed stair well 
 in the center. In still more recent 
 years reinforced concrete towers 
 have been used and will probably 
 be more extensively adopted in 
 the future. 
 
 A completely equipped light sta- 
 tion on a land site usually consists 
 of the light tower, oil house, fog-signal building, keepers' dwellings, 
 workshop, water supply and drainage systems, landing wharf, boat- 
 house and ways, barn, and the usual outbuildings, roads, walks, 
 and fences; although, owing to 
 the restricted area of some sites, 
 several of these purposes may 
 be served by a single building. 
 On submarine sites the whole sta- 
 tion is frequently confined to one 
 structure. 
 
 Where not built on rock, the 
 foundation for towers on land sites 
 is usually a single block of concrete 
 resting upon the foundation soil, 
 which has been previously exca- 
 vated to the proper depth. Occa- 
 sionally these blocks are placed 
 upon a timber grillage supported 
 by piles for sites upon low or 
 marshy land, and in all cases the 
 block is extended so as to bring the 
 unit pressures within the bearing 
 power of the foundation material. 
 Many lighthouses at the entrances 
 to harbors are built on the ends 
 of breakwaters or pierheads, utilizing, as a rule, such structures as 
 the foundation. In such cases the problem is not essentially dif- 
 
 Fairport West Pier Light, Ohio. 
 
20 
 
 UNITED STATES LIGHTHOUSE SERVICE, 1915. 
 
 ferent from ordinary shore construction, although the weight of the 
 superstructure must be considered carefully to avoid undue settle- 
 ment of the foundation, providing at the same time a large margin 
 of reserve strength to resist the impact of the waves and the vibra- 
 tions caused thereby. Also, in such cases the necessary restrictions 
 
 of available space require that the 
 lighthouse be as compact as pos- 
 sible. 
 
 In the case of lighthouses on 
 submerged sites the engineering 
 features are important and often 
 present great difficulties both in 
 design and construction. Where 
 the bottom is rocky or hard, the 
 lighthouse is either built directly 
 on the rock or on a pier. When 
 placed on a ledge of rock, the la Her 
 is usually leveled or stepped as far 
 as practicable and the structure 
 heavily rag bolted to the rock. 
 
 Berkeley Reef Beacon, Cal. Two important lighthouses On the 
 
 Great Lakes were built by constructing cofferdams, pumping out the 
 water and leveling off the bed rock on which the lighthouse was 
 built of cut stone, securely fastened. In other types, particularly on 
 
 Duck Rocks Tripod, Me. 
 
 the Great Lakes, cribs filled with stone are placed on the bottom 
 and capped with concrete or other masonry. 
 
 Important wave-swept lighthouses, most of 'which are masonry 
 structures founded on rocky ledges or hard bottom, include the fol- 
 
 lowing 20 stations: 
 
TYPES OF CONSTRUCTION OF LIGHTHOUSES. 
 
 21 
 
 First district: 
 
 Saddleback Ledge, Me. 
 
 Halfway Rock, Me. 
 
 Ram Island Ledge, Me. 
 
 Whaleback, Me. 
 Second district: 
 
 The Graves, Mass. 
 
 Minots Ledge, Mass. 
 
 Bishop and Clerks, Mass. 
 Third district: 
 
 Race Rock, N. Y. 
 
 New London Ledge, Conn. 
 
 Stratford Shoal, N. Y. 
 Tenth district: 
 
 Toledo Harbor, Ohio. 
 
 Eleventh district: 
 
 Port Austin Reef, Mich. 
 
 Spectacle Reef, Mich. 
 
 Stannard Rock, Mich. 
 
 Rock of Ages, Mich. 
 Twelfth district: 
 
 White Shoal, Mich. 
 
 Racine Reef, Wis. 
 Seventeenth district: 
 
 Tillamook Rock, Oreg. 
 Eighteenth district: 
 
 St. George Reef, Cal. 
 
 Mile Rocks, Cal. 
 
 
 Buffalo Light Station, N. Y. 
 
 Other severely exposed stations which are not given in the fore- 
 going list include, in the seventh district, Fowey Rocks, Carysfort 
 Reef, Alligator Reef, Sombrero Key, American Shoal, and Rebecca 
 Shoal, Fla. ; and, in the eighth district, Ship Shoal, Southwest Reef, 
 and Sabine Bank, La. These stations appear in other lists on pages 
 25, 27, and 28. 
 
22 
 
 UNITED STATES LIGHTHOUSE SERVICE, 1915. 
 
 Other stations not named in any of these lists, but which are 
 noteworthy because of their unusual remoteness or isolation, include 
 in part the following 34 locations: 
 
 Eighth district Continued. 
 
 Matagorda, Tex. 
 Ninth district: 
 
 Mona Island, P. R. 
 
 Culebrita Island, P. R. 
 
 Muertos Island, P. 11. 
 Sixteenth district: 
 
 First district: 
 
 Libby Islands, Me. 
 Petit Manan, Me. 
 Great Duck Island, Me. 
 Mount Desert Rock, Me. 
 Matinicus Rock, Me. 
 Boon Island, Me. 
 Isles of Shoals, N. H. 
 
 Cape Sarichef, Alaska. 
 
 Minots Ledge Light Station. Mass. 
 
 Third district: 
 
 Falkner Island, Conn. 
 Fifth district: 
 
 Cape Hatteras, N. C. 
 
 Cape Lookout, N. C. 
 Sixth district: 
 
 Cape Remain, S. C. 
 
 Hunting Island, S. C. 
 
 Cape Canaveral, Fla. 
 Seventh district: 
 
 Dry Tortugas, Fla. 
 Eighth district: 
 
 Cape San Bias, Fla. 
 
 Sand Island, Ala. 
 
 Timbalier, La. 
 
 Scotch Cap, Alaska. 
 
 Cape Hinchinbrook, Alaska. 
 
 Lincoln Rock, Alaska. 
 Seventeenth district: 
 
 Cape Flattery, Wash. 
 
 Destruction Island. Wash. 
 
 Cape Blanco, Greg. 
 Eighteenth district: 
 
 Punta Gorda, Cal. 
 
 Farallon, Cal. 
 
 Point Sur, Cal. 
 Nineteenth district: 
 
 Makapuu Point, Hawaii :f 
 
 Molokai, Hawaii. 
 
 Kilauea Point. Hawaii. 
 
TYPES OF CONSTRUCTION OF LIGHTHOUSES. 23 
 
 For submarine sites, where the bottom is sand, either a pile or cais- 
 son foundation is commonly employed. The screw pile, which was 
 frequently employed some years ago, consists of a pile with a broad 
 helicoidal flange on the foot, which is bored like an auger into the 
 bottom, thereby greatly increasing the bearing power of the pile as well 
 as anchoring it firmly. The caisson type usually consists of a cylinder 
 from 21 to 35 feet in diameter, built up of cast-iron plates, and sunk 
 by dredging or by the pneumatic process into the shoal until a firm 
 
 American Shoal Light Station, Fla. 
 
 bearing is attained, after which the interior is solidly filled with 
 concrete. A few caissons have been placed on rocks or ledges. 
 Both of these types are comparatively modern, the first screw- 
 pile structure in the United States being at Brandywine Shoal, 
 Delaware Bay, lighted in 1850, and the first pneumatic caisson 
 structure being at Fourteen Foot Bank, Delaware Bay, completed 
 in 1887. There are at the present time 76 attended lighthouses on 
 piles, most of which are in Chesapeake Bay and the Carolina Sounds, 
 
24 
 
 UNITED STATES LIGHTHOUSE SERVICE, 1915. 
 
 and 46 on caisson foundations, principally on the north and middle 
 Atlantic coasts. The names and locations of such lighthouses are as 
 follows : 
 
 ATTENDED LIGHTHOUSES ON PILES. 
 
 Second district: 
 
 ^Narrows, Mass. 
 Third district: 
 
 *Long Beach Bar, N. Y. 
 
 *Bridgeport Harbor. Conn. 
 
 Fifth district Continued. 
 
 Pages Rock, Va. 
 *Bells Rock, Va. 
 *Old Plantation Flats, Vz 
 *0herrystone, Va. 
 
 Croatan Light Station, N. C. 
 
 Fourth district: 
 
 Mahon River, Del. 
 Fifth district: 
 
 *Killick Shoal, Va. 
 *Craney Island, Va. 
 Nansemond River, Va. 
 White Shoal, Va. 
 Point of Shoals, Va. 
 York Spit, Va. 
 *Deep Water Shoals, Va. 
 *Tue Marshes, Va. 
 
 *Stingray Point, Va. 
 *Bowlers Rock, Va. 
 *Windmill Point, Va. 
 ^Tangier Sound, Va. 
 * James Island, Md. 
 
 Somers Cove, Md. 
 *Great WLcomico River. Y 
 *Ragged Point, Md. 
 *Cobb Point Bar. Md. 
 
 Lower Cedar Point, Md. 
 *Mathias Point Shoal, Md. 
 
 * Indicates screw-pile structures (50). 
 
TYPES OF CONSTRUCTION OF LIGHTHOUSES. 
 
 25 
 
 Fifth district Continued. 
 
 Upper Cedar Point, Md. 
 *Maryland Point, Md. 
 *Holland Island Bar, Md. 
 *Great Shoals, Md. 
 *Sharkfm Shoal, Md. 
 *Hooper Strait, Md. 
 *Drum Point, Md. 
 
 Chop tank River, Md. 
 *Thomas Point Shoal, Md. 
 *Greenbury Point Shoal, Md. 
 
 Love Point, Md. 
 
 Fifth district Continued. 
 *Harbor Island Bar, N. C. 
 *Brant Island Shoal, N. C. 
 *Pamlico Point, N. C. 
 *Neuse River, N. C. 
 Sixth district: 
 
 *Fort Ripley Shoal, S. C. 
 Seventh district: 
 
 Fowey Rocks, Fla. 
 Carysfort Reef, Fla. 
 Alligator Reef, Fla. 
 Sombrero Key, Fla. 
 
 Hog Island Shoal Light Station, R. I. 
 
 *Seven Foot Knoll, Md. 
 
 Hawkins Point, Md. 
 
 North River, N. C. 
 
 Wade Point, N. C. 
 *Laurel Point, N. C. 
 
 Roanoke River, N. C. 
 *Croatan, N. C. 
 
 Long Shoal, N. C. 
 *Hatteraa Inlet, N. C. 
 *Gull Shoal, N. C. 
 *Bluff Shoal, N.C. 
 ^Southwest Point Royal Shoal, N.C. 
 * Indicates screw- 
 
 American Shoal, Fla. 
 *Sand Key, Fla. 
 
 Rebecca Shoal, Fla. 
 Eighth district: 
 
 Horn Island, Miss. 
 *Cat Island, Miss. 
 *Merrill Shell Bank, Miss. 
 *Lake Borgne, Miss. 
 *New Canal, La. 
 
 South Pass East Jetty, La. 
 
 Amite River, La. 
 *Ship Shoal, La. 
 pile structures (50). 
 
26 UNITED STATES LIGHTHOUSE SERVICE, 1915. 
 
 Kilauea Point Light Station, Kauai, Hawaii. 
 
TYPES OF CONSTRUCTION OF LIGHTHOUSES. 
 
 27 
 
 Eighth district Continued. 
 *Southwest Reef, La. 
 Oyster Bayou, La. 
 
 Seventeenth district: 
 
 Desdemona Sands, Oreg. 
 Willamette River, Oreg. 
 
 Cape Hatteras Light Station, N. C. 
 
 *Galveston Harbor, Tex. 
 *Red Fish Bar Out, Tex. 
 *Half Moon Reef, Tex. 
 *Brazos Santiago, Tex. 
 
 Eighteenth district: 
 
 Oakland Harbor, Cal. 
 Southampton Shoal, Cal. 
 Roe Island, Cal. 
 
 Indicates screw-pile structures (50). 
 
28 
 
 UNITED STATES LIGHTHOUSE SERVICE, 1915. 
 
 ATTENDED LIGHTHOUSES ON CAISSONS. 
 
 First district: 
 
 Lubec Channel, Me. 
 
 Crabtree Ledge, Me. 
 
 Goose Rocks, Me. 
 
 Spring Point Ledge, Me. 
 Second district: 
 
 Deer Island, Mass. 
 
 Duxbury Pier, Mass. 
 
 Butler Flats, Mass. 
 Third district: 
 
 Sakonnet, R. I. 
 
 Hog Island Shoal, K. I 
 
 Borden Flats, Mass. 
 
 Whale Rock, R. I. 
 *Plum Beach, R. I. 
 
 Conimicut, R. I. 
 
 Latimer Reef, N. Y. 
 
 Orient Point, N. Y. 
 
 Saybrook Breakwater, Conn. 
 
 Southwest Ledge, Conn. 
 
 New Haven, Conn. 
 
 Pecks Ledge, Conn. 
 
 Greens Ledge, Conn. 
 
 Cold Spring Harbor, N. Y. 
 
 Stamford Harbor, Conn. 
 
 West Bank, N. Y. 
 
 Old Orchard Shoal, N. Y. 
 
 Third district Continued. 
 
 Romer Shoal, N. Y. 
 
 Great Beds, N. J. 
 
 Tarrytown, N. Y. 
 
 Rockland Lake, N. Y. 
 Fourth district: 
 
 Brandywine Shoal, Del. 
 *Fourteen Foot Bank, Del. 
 
 Miah Maull Shoal, N. J. 
 *Elbow of Cross Ledge, N. J. 
 
 Ship John Shoal, N. J. 
 Fifth district: 
 
 *Thimble Shoal, Va. 
 
 Newport News Middle Ground, Va. 
 *Wolf Trap, Va. 
 *Smith Point, Va. 
 *Solomons Lump, Md. 
 *Point No Point, Md. 
 *Hooper Island, Md. 
 
 Sharps Island, Md. 
 
 Bloody Point Bar, Md. 
 
 Sandy Point, Md. 
 ^Baltimore, Md. 
 
 Craighill Channel Front, Md. 
 Eighth district: 
 
 *$abine Bank, La. 
 
 In designing lighthouse structures, particularly towers, it is cus- 
 tomary to assume the wind, wave, current, ice, and other external 
 pressures at the maximum in each instance, as lighthouses are 
 commonly exposed to severe action from the elements. The usual 
 procedure in determining the stability of a tower is to locate the 
 common center of effort of alt forces acting upon the structure to 
 overturn it, and to proportion the weights (with due regard for the 
 buoyancy of the water in the case of submarine work) so that the 
 resultant of the active forces and the net weight falls properly within 
 the outer edge of the base. In seeking this result the lateral resist- 
 ance of the soil is considered, when the structure penetrates it for 
 some distance, for the reason that it is often heavily compressed by 
 a large deposit of riprap and offers good support. The superstruc- 
 tures are calculated in the manner commonly employed for chimneys 
 and viaduct bents, with the exception that great stiffness and rigidity 
 must be provided, as excessive vibrations are detrimental to the 
 proper operation of the lamps and clocks of the illuminating appa- 
 ratus. 
 
 * Indicates caissons sunk by pneumatic process (11). 
 
TYPES OF CONSTRUCTION OF LIGHTHOUSES. 
 
 29 
 
 Practically all the usual materials of construction are used in 
 building lighthouses, as indicated in the foregoing paragraphs, strchr 
 as stone masonry, brickwork, concrete (plain and reinforced), framed 
 timber, and structural cast iron, wrought iron, and steel in various 
 forms. 
 
 
 Cape Charles Light Station, Va. 
 
 The heights of towers vary according to the character of the shore 
 and the importance of the light. On the Atlantic coast, where the 
 beach as a rule is low and presents little relief, comparatively tall 
 towers are required for the principal coast lights, while on the Pacific 
 
30 
 
 UNITED STATES LIGHTHOUSE SERVICE, 1915. 
 
 coast, which is generally bold and high, a low tower erected on a 
 prominent headland is generally sufficient. The tallest tower in the 
 service is in the fifth district, at Cape Hatteras, N. C., and is 200 feet 
 high. The names and locations of 20 towers with heights of 150 
 feet and over are as follows, in the order of height: 
 
 Dis- 
 trLt. 
 
 Station. 
 
 Height, 
 top of 
 lantern 
 above 
 base. 
 
 Dis- 
 trict. 
 
 Station. 
 
 Height, 
 t >p of 
 lantern 
 abwe 
 base. 
 
 5 
 
 Cape Hatteras N. C 
 
 Feet. 
 200 
 
 3 
 
 Barnegat,N. J 
 
 Feet. 
 161 
 
 5 
 
 Hog Island, Va 
 
 191 
 
 6 
 
 St. Augustine, Fla 
 
 161 
 
 5 
 
 Cape C harles. Va 
 
 191 
 
 3 
 
 Shinnecock Bay,X. Y 
 
 161 
 
 8 
 
 Pensacola Fla 
 
 171 
 
 5 
 
 Currituck Beach. N C 
 
 161 
 
 3 
 
 Absecon N J 
 
 170 
 
 5 
 
 Cape Lookout N.C 
 
 161 
 
 4 
 
 Cape May, N J 
 
 170 
 
 5 
 
 BDdie Island, >T.C 
 
 161 
 
 6 
 
 Mosquito Inlet Fla 
 
 168 
 
 6 
 
 Charleston S C 
 
 161 
 
 6 
 
 Cape Fear, N.C. . 
 
 166 
 
 6 
 
 Cape Romain, S. C 
 
 161 
 
 3 
 
 Fire Island, N. Y 
 
 163 
 
 7 
 
 Dry Tortu^as, Fla 
 
 157 
 
 5 
 
 Cape Henry Va 
 
 163 
 
 7 
 
 Sombrero Key Fla 
 
 153 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 9. LIGHTING APPARATUS AND ILLUMINANTS. 
 
 The earliest type of lighting apparatus consisted of an open coal or 
 wood fire, with other inflammahle materials, such as pitch, burned 
 in a brazier, on top of the tower. When Boston Light was estab- 
 lished, in 1716, the common oil burner of the period was used, 
 inclosed in a lantern consisting of a cylinder of heavy wooden frames, 
 holding small, thick panes of glass. The illuminant was fish or 
 whale oil, burned in spider lamps with solid wicks and suspended by 
 iron chains from the top of the lantern. Sperm oil was in general 
 use about 1812, and was burned in a lamp constructed on the Argand 
 principle, with a rough reflector and a so-called lens or magnifier. 
 This apparatus was inclosed in a heavy wrought-iroii lantern glazed 
 with panes about 12 inches square. Improvements were gradually 
 made in this apparatus, and by the year 1840 the useless bull's-eye 
 "magnifiers" had been entirely removed, and the reflectors were 
 made 011 correct optical principles, approaching the paraboloid in 
 form, heavily silvered and properly placed. The lanterns were also 
 improved by making the frames lighter, the panes larger, and by 
 providing more adequate ventilation. To provide illumination all 
 around the horizon, sets of from 8 to 20 lamps were used, placed side 
 by side around the circumference of a circle. This arrangement, in 
 its most complete form, is designated as the catoptric, or reflector 
 system, and its relative merits as compared with the lenticular system 
 originally devised by the French physicist Augustiii Fresnel about 
 1822, was the source of much controversy in the years preceding the 
 establishment of the Lighthouse Board in 1852. The first lens in the 
 
LIGHTING APPARATUS AND ILLUM1NANTS. 
 
 31 
 
 United States .was installed at Navesink Light, N. J., in. 1841, and is 
 still preserved by the Service. (See p. 91.) 
 
 The Fresnel apparatus consists of a polyzonal lens inclosing the 
 lamp, which is placed at the central focus. The lens is built up of 
 glass prisms in panels, the central portions of which are dioptric or 
 refracting only, and the upper and lower portions are both reflecting 
 
 Point Reyes Light Station, Cal. 
 
 and refracting, described as ' ' catadioptric." The advantages of this 
 system lie in the greater brilliancy owing to the fact that a large pro- 
 portion of the light given out by the source is concentrated by the 
 prisms into beams useful to the mariner, and the consequent economy 
 in the consumption of oil or other illumiiiant employed. The prin- 
 cipal sizes of Fresnel lenses are classified according to their order, 
 this depending upon the inside radius or focal distance of the lens 
 
32 
 
 UNITED STATES LIGHTHOUSE SERVICE, 1915. 
 
 that is, the distance from the center of the light to the inner surface 
 of the lens as given in the following table: 
 
 Order. Millimeters. Inches. 
 
 First 920 36. 2 
 
 Second 700 27. 6 
 
 Third 500 19.7 
 
 Three-and-a-half 375 14. 7 
 
 Fourth 250 9. 8 
 
 Fifth '. 187. 5 
 
 Sixth.. ....150 5.9 
 
 Pigeon Point Light Station, Cal. 
 
 One of the first steps taken by the Lighthouse Board in 1852 was 
 to install lenses generally throughout the Service in place of reflec- 
 tors, and this change was carried out as rapidly as possible, being 
 practically completed in 1859. Lenses are in use at the present time 
 at all important stations, with many subsequent improvements, how- 
 ever, in the design and arrangement of the panels. Improvements 
 were also made from time to time in the lantern inclosing the lens, and 
 the standard type now in use is of cast iron and bronze, with helical 
 bars bent to the curvature of the lantern supporting lozenge-shaped 
 panes of curved plate glass. These bars, crossing the beams of light 
 diagonally, offer the least possible obscuration to the beams toward 
 any point of the horizon. Suitable ventilators and flues to furnish 
 the requisite draft and to carry off the products of combustion are 
 
LIGHTING APPARATUS AND ILLUMINANTS. 
 
 33 
 
 also provided, and the entire lantern is constructed in a number of 
 sizes corresponding to the order of the lens which it accommodates, 
 The largest lens in use in the Lighthouse Service at present is that 
 at Makapuu Point, Oahu, Hawaii, the landfall light for vessels bound 
 from the States to the Hawaiian Islands. This is of the hyper- 
 radiant order, a larger size than those regularly listed, and has a 
 focal distance of 1,330 millimeters, or 52.4 inches; the inside di- 
 ameter of the lens is therefore nearly 9 feet, and it is inclosed in a 
 specially designed lantern of 16 feet inside diameter. It is the only 
 one of its type in the Service. The number of other lenses, from the 
 first to the sixth orders, inclusive, in commission on June 30, 1915, 
 is as follows: 57 first order; 29 second order; 68 third order; 21 
 three-and-a-half order; 350 fourth 
 order; 155 fifth order; and 86 sixth 
 order; total, 766. 
 
 Reflectors are also in use, partic- 
 ularly for range lights, which are 
 frequently employed to mark the 
 axis or center line of a channel. 
 For ranges two lights are necessary, 
 and are placed a proper distance 
 apart, usually with the rear light 
 higher than the front, so that both 
 lights show in line in the same 
 vertical plane when the observer 
 is in the center of the channel. 
 Such reflectors are either silvered 
 surfaces of metal in the form 
 of a paraboloid, similar to head 
 lights for locomotives or automo- 
 biles, or in improved forms of glass lenses with prismatic glass 
 reflectors back of the light source. The latter are known as range 
 lenses. On June 30, 1915, there were 100 reflectors and 41 range 
 lenses in use in the Lighthouse Service. 
 
 During the transition period of lighthouse apparatus from reflec- 
 tors to lenses sperm oil remained as the leading illuminant, but with 
 the yearly diminution of the whale catch it gradually increased in 
 price until its use became prohibitive. Colza oil was used in small 
 quantities about 1862 and succeeding years, but during the period 
 1864-1867 lard oil was adopted as the standard illuminant, and was 
 generally employed to 1878, when kerosene came into use. Its use 
 was gradually extended, and by 1884 kerosene became the principal 
 illuminant and so remains at the present time. The lamps used 
 were also improved, passing through various styles to a special form 
 of concentric wick, using five wicks for the largest sizes. The incan- 
 18247 16 3 
 
 Incandescent oil-vapor lamp, 55-millimeter man- 
 tle, with single tank. 
 
34 
 
 UNITED STATES LIGHTHOUSE SERVICE, 1915. 
 
 descent oil-vapor lamp, which is now generally employed for important 
 lights, burns vaporized kerosene under an incandescent mantle, 
 giving a much more powerful light with little or no increase in oil 
 consumption. The kerosene is stored in a convenient size tank and 
 is forced by compressed air, produced by operating a hand pump 
 attached to either the oil tank or a separate air tank, into the 
 vaporizer of the lamp. The air pressure varies from about 40 to 
 60 pounds per square inch and decreases so slowly during the opera- 
 tion of the light that a few strokes of the pump once or twice a night 
 serves to maintain the required pressure. The kerosene is con- 
 verted into vapor by a preheating torch when starting the lamp and 
 subsequently by the heat of the mantle itself. The vapor issues 
 from a minute nozzle, mixes with a proper supply of air, and ignites 
 
 as a blue flame in a Bunsen burner 
 under the mantle, which is thereby 
 brought to a brilliant incandes- 
 cence. 
 
 Various other illuminants are 
 now in use; oil gas is extensively 
 used, particularly for lighted buoys ; 
 acetylene gas is used for lighted 
 buoys and unattended lighted 
 beacons; electric arc and incan- 
 descent lights and coal-gas lights 
 are also used in special instances. 
 Electric lights with distant con- 
 trol are employed in a number of 
 cases where a reliable source of 
 current may be obtained. Such 
 lights may be on pierheads or structures built in the water, and 
 can be easily operated by a switch on shore connected to the light by 
 cable. A flashing characteristic may be arranged by means of an 
 automatic make and break apparatus consisting of a small motor 
 driving a clockwork and wheel with cams. The principal details as 
 to illuminants used in the Service on June 30. 1915, are given in the 
 following table: 
 
 Lights. 
 
 Incandescent oil vapor 288 
 
 Kerosene wick 2, 067 
 
 Acetylene 516 
 
 Oil gas 418 
 
 Coal gas 4 
 
 Electric incandescent 56 
 
 Electric arc... 6 
 
 Incandescent oil-va 
 
 cent oil-vapor lamp, 
 mantle, with double 
 
 35-millimeter 
 tanks. 
 
DISTINCTIVENESS AND CHARACTERISTICS OF LIGHTS. 35 
 
 This table includes lighted buoys, but does not include the minor 
 lights in the three river districts, of which there are 1,801, with 
 kerosene wick lanterns. 
 
 All lights on the seacoast, with a few exceptions, are exhibited 
 throughout the year, between sunset and sunrise. On the northern 
 lakes and rivers lights are exhibited from sunset to sunrise at all 
 seasons when vessels can enter the ports or are navigating in their 
 vicinity. Some of these lights, notably on Lake Michigan, are 
 maintained throughout the year. The closed time varies with the 
 seasons, generally embracing a part of December, January, Feb- 
 ruary, and a part or all of March. Gas buoys and light vessels in 
 these localities are replaced by unlighted buoys in the fall when 
 endangered by ice conditions, and again placed on their stations as 
 early as practicable in the spring. 
 
 10. DISTINCTIVENESS AND CHARACTERISTICS OF LIGHTS. 
 
 In order to avoid the likelihood of confusion between lights, 
 endeavor is made to give the lights distinct characteristics. As much 
 of the coast was lighted before the introduction of modern lighthouse 
 apparatus, the original lights were as a rule fixed, but at the more 
 important of these stations apparatus has now been installed to 
 make the lights flashing or occulting. This effect is produced in the 
 case of flashing lights by revolving all or a part of the lens, which is 
 specially constructed with panels of prisms for concentrating the 
 rays into beams; and in the case of occulting lights by some form of 
 traveling screen or shutter which obscures the light at intervals. In 
 either case the motion is regulated by a clockwork generally actuated 
 by weights wound over a drum and provided with the necessary 
 governing mechanism so that the light and dark periods may occur 
 in accurate sequence and produce the proper characteristic. The 
 usual phases so attained are as follows: Fixed, showing a continuous 
 steady light; flashing, showing a single flash at regular intervals; 
 fixed and flashing, showing a fixed light varied at regular intervals 
 by a single flash of greater brilliancy; group flashing, showing at regu- 
 lar intervals groups of flashes; occulting, showing a steady light 
 suddenly and totally eclipsed at regular intervals; and group occult- 
 ing, showing a steady light suddenly and totally eclipsed by a group 
 of two or more eclipses at regular intervals. The foregoing refers 
 only to lights which do not change color, commonly white, but further 
 diversification is obtained by the use of red screens, changing the 
 color from white to red in various combinations, such lights being 
 known as alternating. In the case of gas or electric lights, the supply 
 of gas or current is cut off at intervals by specially designed mechan- 
 isms whereby the characteristic may be adjusted as desired. 
 
36 UNITED STATES LIGHTHOUSE SERVICE, 1915. 
 
 The terms " flashing" and " occulting? refer to the relative dura- 
 tions of light and darkness, a flash being an interval shorter than the 
 duration of an eclipse, and an occultation being shorter than, or 
 equal to, the duration of light. In approaching a light of varying 
 intensity, such as fixed varied by flashes, or alternating red and white, 
 due allowance must be made for the inferior brightness of the less 
 powerful part of the light, which at a distance may show flashes only 
 or white only, in the respective instances cited. Flashing lights may 
 show a faint continuous light, due to reflection from the lantern, in 
 clear weather and at short distances. White lights may have a 
 reddish hue in some conditions of the atmosphere, and where lights 
 change from white to red, by sectors or otherwise, there is a small 
 amount of uncertain color on each side of the line of demarcation. 
 Red sectors are produced by screens of colored glass; they are often 
 employed to mark outlying dangers near the light, or the limits of 
 channels, and are usually arranged so that the light shows white while 
 a passing vessel is clear of such dangers, changing to red as the shoal 
 or other obstruction is approached. Also, at the edge of a sector of 
 visibility, the light is not cut off sharply, but gradually fades away. 
 
 To assist identification in daylight, towers are frequently dis- 
 tinguished by characteristic painting, in addition to peculiarities of 
 form or outline. The effect of several colors, when combined in 
 bold patterns of spirals, bands, or blocks, is quite striking in a number 
 of important lighthouses. 
 
 The principal details of characteristics of lights in commission on 
 June 30, 1915, are given in the following table: 
 
 Lights. 
 
 Fixed white 1, 316 
 
 Fixed red 864 
 
 Flashing or occulting 1, 050 
 
 Fixed and flashing 69 
 
 The above table includes lighted buoys but does not include the 
 53 light vessels nor the 1,801 post lights on the Mississippi River and 
 its tributaries, all of which are fixed. Of the light vessels, 29 have 
 fixed white lights, 5 fixed red, 6 fixed white and red, and 13 flashing 
 or occulting. 
 
 11. VISIBILITY AND CANDLEPOWER OF LIGHTS. 
 
 Under normal atmospheric conditions the visibility of a light 
 depends upon its height and intensity ; the distance due to the former 
 being known as the geographic range, and to the latter as the luminous 
 range. As a rule, for the principal lights the luminous range is 
 greater than the geographic, and the distance from which the principal 
 lights are visible is limited by the horizon only, and under some con- 
 ditions of atmospheric refraction, the glare or loom of the light and 
 occasionally the light itself may be visible far beyond the computed 
 
VISIBILITY AND CANDLEPOWER OF LIGHTS. 
 
 37 
 
 geographic range of the light. On the other hand, and unfortunately 
 more frequently the case, these distances may be greatly lessened by 
 unfavorable weather conditions due to fog, rain, snow, haze, or 
 smoke. Weak and colored lights are more easily obscured by such 
 conditions. The distances of visibility in nautical miles for objects 
 of various elevations in feet above sea level are given in the following 
 table, which is employed in calculating the geographic range: 
 
 *V^s . ' V x 
 
 %; 1*1 ^.^T"\ 
 
 
 General lighting of Atlantic coast at entrances to Boston, New York, and Philadelphia. 
 
 Height, in 
 feet. 
 
 Distance, in 
 nautical miles. 
 
 Height, in 
 feet. 
 
 Distance, in ' 
 nautical miles. 
 
 Height, in 
 feet. 
 
 Distance, in 
 nautical miles. 
 
 5 
 
 2.55 
 
 60 
 
 8.85 
 
 130 
 
 13.03 
 
 10 
 
 3.61 
 
 65 9.21 
 
 140 
 
 13.52 
 
 15 
 
 4.43 
 
 70 
 
 9.56 
 
 150 
 
 14.00 
 
 20 
 
 5.11 
 
 75 
 
 9.90 
 
 200 
 
 16. 1G 
 
 25 
 
 5.71 
 
 80 
 
 10.22 
 
 250 
 
 18.07 
 
 30 
 
 6.26 
 
 85 
 
 10.54 
 
 300 
 
 19.80 
 
 35 
 
 6.76 
 
 90 
 
 10.84 
 
 350 
 
 21.38 
 
 40 
 
 7.23 
 
 95 
 
 11.14 
 
 400 
 
 22.86 
 
 45 
 
 7.67 
 
 100 
 
 11.43 
 
 450 
 
 24.24 
 
 50 
 
 8.08 
 
 110 
 
 11.99 
 
 500 
 
 25. 56 ! 
 
 55 
 
 8.48 
 
 120 
 
 12. 52 * 
 
 
 
38 
 
 UNITED STATES LIGHTHOUSE SERVICE, 1915. 
 
 Distances corresponding to heights not included in the above table 
 may be found approximately by the formula D = fVH, in which 
 H = the elevation, or height, in feet, of the object above sea level, 
 and D = the corresponding distance of visibility, in nautical miles. 
 The formula is based on the mean curvature of the earth and is cor- 
 rected for ordinary atmospheric refraction, and should be used only 
 for moderate distances and elevations. 
 
 To make use of the above table in a practical way, it is necessary to 
 add the distance corresponding to the height of the observer's eye 
 above sea level, as illustrated in the following example : 
 
 A light 130 feet high is seen just at the horizon; what, under 
 ordinary atmospheric conditions, is its distance from the observer? 
 
 Nautical 
 miles. 
 
 From table, distance corresponding to 130 feet height 13. 03 
 
 Add distance corresponding to height of eye above sea level, say 
 15 feet. . 4. 43 
 
 Distance of light , 17. Hi 
 
 The highest light in the Service is at Cape Mendocino, Cal., the focal 
 plane (or center of the light) of which is 422 feet above mean high 
 water, thus giving it a geographic range of about 28 miles, under 
 normal atmospheric conditions and with the observer's eye at a 
 height of 15 feet. The following list gives the names and locations 
 of 23 lights with focal plane heights of 200 feet and over, arranged 
 in the order of height: 
 
 
 
 Height 
 
 
 
 Height 
 
 
 
 of focal 
 
 
 
 of focal 
 
 Dis- 
 trict 
 
 Station. 
 
 plane 
 above 
 
 Dis- 
 trict 
 
 Station. 
 
 plane 
 above 
 
 
 
 mean 
 
 
 
 mean 
 
 
 
 high 
 
 
 
 high 
 
 
 
 water. 
 
 
 
 water. 
 
 
 
 Fed. 
 
 
 
 Feet. 
 
 18 
 
 Cape Mendocino, Cal 
 
 422 
 
 17 
 
 Cape Disappointment, Wash. . 
 
 233 
 
 19 
 
 Makapuu Point, Hawaii. 
 
 420 
 
 9 
 
 Mona Island, P. R 
 
 231 
 
 18 
 
 Faralfon Cal 
 
 358 
 
 3 
 
 Staten Island, N. Y 
 
 231 
 
 9 
 
 Culebrita Island.?. 11 
 
 305 
 
 3 
 
 Chapel Hill, N. J 
 
 221 
 
 9 
 
 Muertos Island, P. R 
 
 297 
 
 17 
 
 Cape Meares, Oreg 
 
 220 
 
 18 
 
 Point Reyes Cal 
 
 294 
 
 19 
 
 Kilauea Point, Hawau 
 
 216 
 
 18 
 
 Point Sur, Cal 
 
 270 
 
 18 
 
 Alcatraz, Cal 
 
 214 
 
 9 
 
 Cape San Juan, P. R 
 
 260 
 
 19 
 
 Molokai, Hawaii 
 
 213 
 
 17 
 
 Cape Blanco Ore a 
 
 252 
 
 11 
 
 Grand Island Mich 
 
 205 
 
 19 
 
 Aunuu Island, Samoa 
 
 2">0 
 
 17 
 
 Heceta Head, Oreg 
 
 204 
 
 3 
 
 Navesink, N. J 
 
 246 
 
 3 
 
 Block Island Southeast, R. I 
 
 201 
 
 16 
 
 Cape Hinchinbrook, Alaska 
 
 235 
 
 
 
 
 The intensities of lights were formerly indicated merely by the 
 order of the optical apparatus. So long as the lenses were similar in 
 arrangement and the same type of lamp was used this gave a con- 
 venient basis of comparison, but with the introduction of more 
 modern apparatus, with flash panels of great power and illuminating 
 
VISIBILITY AND CANDLEPOWER OF LIGHTS. 
 
 39 
 
 apparatus of increased intensity, such distinctions became uncertain 
 so far as indicating the relative brightness of lights. The statement, 
 of orders has now been generally superseded by a statement of the 
 approximate candlepower in English candles. The actual deter- 
 mination of such candlepowers for large lenses is difficult, and 
 it is in most cases estimated on the basis of accurate photometric 
 measurements of small lights, pro- 
 portioning the results so obtained 
 to suit the elements of the lens 
 under study, taking into account 
 the intrinsic power of the light 
 source, the horizontal and ver- 
 tical angles of the various panels, 
 the divergence of the rays at the 
 source, the absorption or reflec- 
 tion of a percentage of the light 
 by the prisms themselves, and 
 such other factors as enter into 
 consideration. Although only ap- 
 proximate, the final figures are, 
 however, reasonably consistent, 
 and from them the observer may 
 judge of the relative brilliancy and 
 power of the various lights. 
 
 The brightest light in the Serv- 
 ice, and considered by some au- 
 thorities as one of the brightest in 
 the world, is at Navesink, N. J., on 
 the highlands at the entrance to 
 New York Bay, the candlepower of 
 which is estimated at 25,000,000. 
 The geographic range of this light 
 is 22 miles, but its glare has been 
 seen at a distance of 70 miles at sea 
 under unusual conditions of the atmosphere. This great intensity is 
 produced by a powerful electric arc inclosed in a modern lens of high 
 magnification. The cost of maintenance is relatively large as com- 
 pared with other stations, but is justified by the amount of commerce 
 entering New York. The names and locations of 42 lights in the 
 Service having candlepowers of 100,000 or greater are given in the 
 following list in the order of brightness : 
 
 Lens and diagram of Prisms, Kilauea Point. 
 
40 
 
 UNITED STATES LIGHTHOUSE SERVICE, 1915. 
 
 Dis- 
 trict. 
 
 Station. 
 
 Intensity 
 of brightest 
 part of 
 light, in 
 approxi- 
 mate Eng- 
 lish can- 
 dles. 
 
 Dis- 
 trict. 
 
 Station. 
 
 Intensity 
 of brightest 
 part of 
 light, in 
 approxi- 
 mate Eng- 
 lish can- 
 dles. 
 
 3 
 19 
 2 
 4 
 6 
 2 
 7 
 12 
 3 
 18 
 5 
 8 
 11 
 3 
 19 
 18 
 11 
 17 
 11 
 1 
 10 
 
 Navesink, N . J 
 
 25,000,000 
 620,000 
 580,000 
 420,000 
 420,000 
 380,000 
 370.000 
 30.000 
 300,000 
 280,000 
 280,000 
 280,000 
 270,000 
 260,000 
 240,000 
 230,000 
 220,000 
 220.000 
 200,000 
 180,000 
 180,000 
 
 3 
 6 
 6 
 6 
 17 
 1 
 8 
 3 
 4 
 5 
 7 
 8 
 1 
 6 
 8 
 11 
 11 
 16 
 18 
 2 
 11 
 
 Fire Island, N. Y.. 
 
 170,000 
 170.000 
 170,000 
 170,000 
 170,000 
 160,000 
 160,000 
 130, 000 
 130,000 
 130,000 
 
 no, ooo 
 
 120,000 
 110,000 
 110,000 
 110,000 
 110,000 
 110,000 
 110,000 
 110,000 
 100,000 
 100,000 
 
 Molokai, Hawaii 
 Cape Cod, Mas? 
 
 Cape Romain, S C 
 
 Cape Canaveral Fla 
 
 Listens Range Rear, Del 
 Hillsboro lulet, Fia.. 
 
 Jupiter Inlet, Fla 
 Heceta Head, Oreg 
 
 The Graves Mass 
 
 Monhe^an Island We 
 
 Dry Tortugas, Fla 
 
 Ship Shoal, La 
 
 White Shoal, ,M ich 
 
 Alontauk Point N Y 
 
 Staten Island, N Y 
 
 Cape May N J 
 
 Farallon, Cal 
 
 Cape Charles, V a 
 Carvsfort Reef Fla 
 
 Hoe; Island, Va. 
 
 Ponsacola Fla 
 
 Matagorda, Tex 
 Moose Peak, Me 
 
 Whiteflsh Point, Mich 
 Shinnocock Bay, N. Y 
 
 St \ugustine Fla 
 
 Kilauea Point, Hawaii 
 
 Cape San Bias, Fla 
 Stannard Rock, Mich 
 
 Point Arena, Cal 
 Split Rock, Minn 
 
 Outer Island Wis 
 
 Grays Harbor, Wash 
 
 Cape Hinchinbrook, Alaska... 
 Point Cabrillo, Cal 
 
 Rook of Ages, Mich 
 Petit Manan, Me 
 
 Boston Mass 
 
 BiuTalo N Y 
 
 
 
 
 12. FOG SIGNALS. 
 
 The first fog signal in the United States was a cannon, installed 
 at Boston Light in 1719, which was fired when necessary to answer 
 the signals of ships in thick weather. Guns of various types were 
 used at other lighthouses but have now been generally abandoned. 
 
 Bells were introduced at a comparatively early date, and at first 
 were usually small and rung by hand to answer vessels. Larger 
 bells were developed and striking machinery, governed by clockwork, 
 devised for ringing a regular code or characteristic. Many bells 
 are now in use, ranging from small hand bells up to 4,000 pounds in 
 weight, and are of value for inside waters, harbors, etc., but are not 
 sufficiently powerful for use on the seacoast. 
 
 Trumpets were the next improvement, and were first introduced 
 about 1855. The original device consisted of a steel reed or tongue 
 inclosed in a box with a large trumpet or resonator; the apparatus 
 was sounded by means of compressed air produced by horsepower 
 operating through suitable machinery. Although the sound was 
 more penetrating than that of bells, the expense and inconvenience 
 of the maintenance of a horse prevented its extended use. A modi- 
 fication was made, using an Ericsson hot-air engine instead of the 
 horse as the motive power, and trumpets so equipped were established 
 at a number of stations. A somewhat similar device, known now as 
 a reed horn, is in use at a number of inside stations and is generally 
 operated by compressed air, the compressors being driven by internal- 
 combustion kerosene or gasoline engines. The sound is of moderate 
 volume only and is not sufficiently loud for rough outside stations. 
 
FOG SIGNALS. 41 
 
 Steam whistles were investigated first in 1855, and an installation 
 of a 5-inch whistle was made at Beavertail, R. I., in the fall of 1857,- 
 which was subsequently replaced about 1866 by a hot-air engine. The 
 first station regularly equipped was at Cape Elizabeth, Me., where the 
 installation was placed in commission on June 15, 1869. This 
 consisted of a boiler and fittings with a 10-inch locomotive- type 
 whistle, giving an 8-second blast every minute. This was the most 
 powerful apparatus devised up to that time, and in point of volume 
 and carrying power of the sound is still considered a very efficient 
 aid. The rapid deterioration of the boilers, the expense of providing 
 fresh water and fuel, the possibility of confusion with the whistle 
 
 Detroit River Light Station, Mich., showing fog signal. 
 
 of a passing vessel, and, above all, the time required to place the 
 signal in operation in the event of sudden fog, are factors which have 
 tended toward the nonuse or abandonment of this type of signal in 
 practically all foreign lighthouse services, though it is still exten- 
 sively employed in this country with whistles up to 12 inches in 
 diameter. 
 
 Experiments with sirens were first made in 1867, and the first 
 service installation was at Sandy Hook East Beacon on March 31, 
 1868. Originally this instrument consisted of a fixed disk, with a 
 number of radial slits, back of which was a revolving plate with the 
 same arrangement of slits, and a trumpet at the outer end. Steam 
 at about 70 pounds pressure was driven through the apparatus, 
 
42 UNITED STATES LIGHTHOUSE SERVICE, 191A 
 
 and the escape and interruption of the jets through the openings 
 in the disk and rotating plate produced the note. The apparatus 
 has been modified and improved, and in its present form the revolv- 
 ing plate has been superseded by a cylinder with peripheral slots, 
 known as the rotor, which is inclosed in a casing also with slots, 
 leading to a horn or trumpet. The rotor is in some types driven 
 by a separate auxiliary mechanism and in others automatically 
 by the main supply of steam or air, this latter type being known 
 as the automatic siren. Compressed air is generally employed 
 as the sounding medium, though steam is used at a few places. 
 The compressors are driven by internal-combustion engines. The 
 principal advantages of the compressed-air siren are distinctiveness 
 
 Fog signal at Cape Henry Light Station, Va. 
 
 of note, which is entirely unlike the ordinary whistle, and quickness 
 of starting, rarely over 10 minutes being required in any case, while 
 some of the more recent installations may be sounded almost instan- 
 taneously. 
 
 A number of other signals have also been introduced, such as 
 air whistles, in which the same type of plant as for an air siren is 
 employed, except in regard to the sound-producing apparatus; also 
 electrically operated bells and gongs, which do not differ essentially 
 from those operated by clockwork. 
 
 Distant control is often used for electric fog signals, particularly 
 when placed on the ends of jetties or breakwaters and other inac- 
 cessible places. The striking mechanism is usually driven by a 
 motor incased in a storm-proof box or casing, with all gears running 
 
 
FOG SIGNALS. 43 
 
 in a bath of oil. A generally heavy and safe construction is adopted, 
 and the striker is connected by submarine cable, if necessary^to 
 the starting box, located on shore, where it is necessary only to throw 
 a switch to start the apparatus. 
 
 Other types are the "sireno," an electrically driven blower siren, 
 and the ''diaphone," an instrument similar to the siren but having 
 a reciprocating piston instead of a rotor. The diaphone is used 
 quite extensively in the Canadian lighthouse service and a few 
 installations have recently been made in this country. An experi- 
 mental installation has also been made of an acetylene fog gun, 
 which consists of an apparatus for firing an explosive mixture of 
 air and acetylene gas by means of an electric spark. 
 
 Tests have been made with various shapes of resonators or trumpets 
 for the most efficient propagation of the sound waves. A vertical 
 mushroom trumpet has been found to give good results where an 
 even distribution of the sound is desired at all points of the compass, 
 as, for instance, in the case of light vessels. In other cases, par- 
 ticularly light stations marking important places, horizontal double- 
 mouth horns have been found to give satisfactory results by effecting 
 a wider and more even distribution of the sound. 
 
 Practically all fog signals as now installed are provided with a 
 governing device for timing the strokes or blasts; this usually con- 
 sists of a clockwork whereby the cycle is repeated every minute 
 in order to facilitate identification. 
 
 Fog signals, though of the greatest value to the mariner, are 
 subject to a number of aberrations, so that they can not be relied 
 upon implicitly. Every endeavor is made to start fog signals as 
 soon as signs of fog have been observed at the station, but such 
 signals should be regarded by mariners as auxiliary aids only and 
 soundings should be taken in all conditions of doubt. A fog often 
 creeps imperceptibly toward the land and a vessel may have been in 
 it some time before it is observed at the signal. Sound is con- 
 veyed irregularly through the atmosphere and mariners can not 
 place dependence on judging their distance from the fog signal 
 by the power of the sound. Under certain conditions of the atmos- 
 phere the sound may be lost a short distance from the signal, as 
 there may be silent areas or zones; or the sound may carry much 
 farther in one direction than in another, and these conditions may 
 vary in the same locality within short intervals of time. 
 
 It is often observed that in any given direction from a fog signal, 
 and near its limit of audibility, the sound may become extremely 
 faint, and at a greater distance it may again become quite distinct. 
 It should never therefore be assumed that fog signals are not in. 
 operation because the sound is not heard, even when in close prox- 
 imity. Frequently noises in the ship may interfere with the hearing 
 
44 UNITED STATES LIGHTHOUSE SERVICE, 1915. 
 
 from the deck or bridge, especially with the engines running. In such 
 cases it is well to stop the ship and listen in a quiet position. Whis- 
 tling and bell buoys are sounded only by the action of the sea; there- 
 fore in calm weather they are less effective or may not sound. 
 
 However, by due caution in navigation and the prudent use of the 
 lead, sufficient warning of danger is generally obtained. In order to 
 guard against the possibility of breakdowns, all modern fog-signal 
 installations are in duplicate, so the second signal may be started at 
 once in event of accident to the first. Care is taken to give each 
 signal an equal amount of use, as far as practicable. These pre- 
 cautions are taken owing to the difficulty of making quick repairs at 
 the station. 
 
 Submarine signals, which have been introduced in recent years, 
 have as a rule a more effective and constant range of audibility than 
 signals sounded in air. Such a signal consists essentially of a specially 
 designed bell, submerged sufficiently to avoid wave disturbance, with 
 some form of striking mechanism. On light vessels the bell is usually 
 swung over the ship's side on a chain attached to a davit, and the 
 striking device is operated pneumatically to ring a certain set of 
 blows at prescribed intervals. At light stations the bell is usually 
 supported on a tripod, placed on the sea bottom, a short distance 
 away from the light, and the striking mechanism operated electrically 
 through a cable, with characteristic number of blows at regular 
 intervals. When attached to buoys a swinging vane is provided, 
 which is forced up and down as the buoy surges in the sea. The 
 motion of the vane causes a spring to stretch, which is released at a 
 sufficien b tension, striking a blow on the bell: The blows are of equal 
 intensity, being due to the elongation of the spring, although the 
 interval between them varies with the condition of the sea, and no 
 regular code of blows is therefore practicable. 
 
 In order to obtain the best results with submarine bells, a receiv- 
 ing apparatus, somewhat similar to a telephone, has been devised 
 for attachment to a vessel. This is apparently more effective in ves- 
 sels of deep draft, and a ship so equipped may determine the approxi- 
 mate bearing of the signal. The sound may be heard also on ves- 
 sels not equipped with receiving apparatus, by observers below the 
 water line, and particularly in iron or steel ships, but the bearing of 
 the signal can not then be readily determined. 
 
 There is sometimes an unfortunate conflict of interest between 
 the need of a loud and distinctive sound to aid the mariner in a fog 
 and the quiet and comfort of residents in the vicinity of the signal. 
 
 The numbers and types of the 578 fog signals in use on June 30, 
 1915 (not including sounding buoys), are shown in the following 
 table: 
 
FOG SIGNALS. 
 
 45 
 
 Steam (112) : 
 
 Whistle 108 
 
 Siren 4 
 
 Air (150): 
 
 Whistle 13 
 
 Siren 82 
 
 Diaphone 3 
 
 Sireno (electric) 6 
 
 Reed horn 46 
 
 Bell (261): 
 
 Clockwork 231 
 
 Electric 13 
 
 Engine 1 
 
 Hand 16 
 
 Horn (4): Hand 4 
 
 Gun (1) : Acetylene : 1 
 
 Submarine bells (50) : 
 
 On light vessels, operated by compressed air 38 
 
 On bottom, operated by electricity 3 
 
 On buoys, operated by the sea 9 
 
 Total 578 
 
 Since 1885 systematic records have been kept of the number of 
 hours of fog or thick weather observed per year at each fog-signal 
 station These figures present interesting statistics, and are of 
 some value in approximating the prevalence of fog at various locali- 
 ties when proposed new signals are under consideration. A sum- 
 mary of the principal results is given in the subjoined table. 
 
 Dis- 
 
 trict.a 
 
 Num- 
 ber 
 of sta- 
 tions. 
 
 Mean 
 hours 
 per 
 year 
 for dis- 
 trict. 
 
 Maximum observed . 
 
 Highest annual average. 
 
 Station. 
 
 Hours. 
 
 Year. 
 
 Station. 
 
 Aver- 
 age. 
 
 Years. 
 
 1 
 2 
 
 3 
 4 
 5 
 6 
 
 7 
 8 
 10 
 11 
 12 
 16 
 17 
 
 18 
 
 56 
 36 
 
 100 
 12 
 
 85 
 7 
 
 1 
 16 
 15 
 47 
 54 
 10 
 29 
 
 40 
 
 874 
 680 
 
 463 
 363 
 218 
 135 
 
 112 
 281 
 228 
 310 
 359 
 278 
 439 
 
 606 
 
 Seguin 
 
 2,734 
 1,727 
 
 1,809 
 912 
 902 
 320 
 
 128 
 819 
 1,224 
 1,085 
 2,269 
 1,144 
 1,770 
 
 2,145 
 
 1907 
 1907 
 
 1885 
 1887 
 1904 
 1898 
 
 1913 
 1907 
 1915 
 1909 
 1913 
 1915 
 1912 
 
 1915 
 
 Petit Manan 
 
 1,691 
 1,175 
 
 831 
 525 
 426 
 183 
 
 112 
 562 
 524 
 541 
 1,196 
 555 
 1,203 
 
 1,337 
 
 31 
 14 
 
 31 
 30 
 
 7 
 8 
 
 3 
 10 
 22 
 11 
 9 
 5 
 9 
 
 31 
 
 Great Round Shoal 
 Light Vessel. 
 New London Harbor... 
 Delaware Breakwater.. 
 Cape Henrv 
 
 Pollock Rip Slue Light 
 Vessel. 
 Block Island SE 
 Delaware Breakwater. 
 Baltimore 
 
 Martins Industry Light 
 Vessel. 
 Egmont Key 
 
 Brunswick Light Ves- 
 sel. 
 Egmont Key 
 
 Cubits Gap 
 
 Cubits Gap 
 
 Cleveland Breakwater.. 
 Thunder Bay Island. . . 
 Calumet Harbor 
 
 Buffalo Breakwater... 
 Middle Island 
 
 Calumet Harbor 
 Cape Hinchinbrook . . . 
 Swiftsure Bank Light 
 Vessel. 
 Point Reyes 
 
 Scotch Cap 
 
 Swiftsure Bank Light 
 Vessel. 
 San Francisco Light 
 Vessel. 
 
 a No fog-signal stations in the ninth, thirteenth, fourteenth, fifteenth, and nineteenth districts. 
 
 The absolute maximum record is that at Seguin, Me., 2,734 hours 
 in 1907, equivalent to about 30 per cent of the entire year (8,760 
 hours). The maximum observed on the Great Lakes was at Calumet 
 
46 
 
 UNITED STATES LIGHTHOUSE SERVICE, 1915. 
 
 Harbor, near Chicago, HI., where 2,269 hours of fog occurred in 1913, 
 amounting to about 26 per cent of the year. This and other stations 
 near large cities are affected somewhat by smoke in the vicinity. 
 The highest Pacific coast record was observed in 1915 on San Francisco 
 Light Vessel, Cal., being 2,145 hours, or about 24 per cent of the year. 
 Fog is more generally prevalent throughout the first district than 
 any other, as shown by the f ollowing table, from which it will be seen 
 that out of 29 stations in the entire service averaging over 1 ,000 hours 
 of fog per year 14, or practically one-half, are in that locality: 
 
 Dis- 
 trict. 
 
 Station. 
 
 
 
 Average 
 hours of 
 fog per 
 year. 
 
 Years of 
 record. 
 
 Percent- 
 age of fog 
 based on 
 entire 
 period. 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 
 18 
 
 1 
 1 
 17 
 12 
 2 
 18 
 1 
 18 
 18 
 2 
 1 
 2 
 18 
 18 
 18 
 2 
 18 
 2 
 
 Petit Manan, Me... 
 
 ,691 
 ,544 
 .536 
 ,399 
 ,384 
 ,372 
 ,356 
 ,341 
 ,337 
 ,331 
 .304 
 ,219 
 ,208 
 ,203 
 ,196 
 ,175 
 .143 
 ,116 
 ,076 
 ,065 
 ,064 
 ,063 
 ,061 
 ,045 
 ,037 
 .027 
 ,005 
 ,004 
 ,002 
 
 31 
 31 
 31 
 31 
 25 
 31 
 3 
 11 
 31 
 31 
 24 
 10 
 23 
 9 
 9 
 14 
 11 
 31 
 31 
 10 
 23 
 10 
 31 
 7 
 7 
 25 
 23 
 18 
 4 
 
 19 
 18 
 17 
 16 
 16 
 16 
 15 
 15 
 15 
 15 
 15 
 14 
 14 
 14 
 14 
 13 
 13 
 13 
 12 
 12 
 12 
 12 
 12 
 12 
 12 
 12 
 11 
 11 
 11 
 
 Whitehead Me 
 
 Lihby Islands Me 
 
 Matinious Rock, Me 
 
 Great Duck Island, Me 
 
 West Quoddv Head Me 
 
 Moose Peak, Me 
 
 Egw Rock, Me 
 
 Point Reves Cal 
 
 Seguin, Me 
 
 Mount Desert Me 
 
 Little River Me 
 
 The Cuckolds, Me 
 
 Swiftsure Bank Li^ht Vessel, Wash 
 
 Calumet Harbor, 111 
 
 Pollock Rip Slue Light Vessel, Mass 
 
 Bonita Point Cal 
 
 Manana Island, Me 
 
 Point Arena, Cal 
 
 Blunts Reef Light Vessel Cal 
 
 Great Round Shoal Light Vessel, Mass 
 
 Nash Island Me 
 
 Pollock Rip Light Vessel Mass 
 
 Point Cabrillo, Cal 
 
 Humboldt Cal 
 
 San Luis Obispo, Cal 
 
 Nantucket Shoals Light Vessel, Mass. ... . 
 
 San Francisco Light Vessel, Cal 
 
 Gloucester Breakwater Mass 
 
 
 13. BUOYS. 
 
 Buoys are, as & rule, employed to mark shoals or other obstructions, 
 to indicate the approaches to and limits of channels or the fairway pas- 
 sage through a channel, and in some cases to define anchorage grounds. 
 There were some buoys in service at the time of the transfer of the 
 lighthouses to the Federal Government in 1789. Buoys originally 
 were either solid wooden spars or built up in various shapes of wooden 
 staves, like barrels. Wooden spars are still extensively used, particu- 
 larly in inside waters ; but built-up buoys are now constructed of iron 
 or steel plates. 
 
 In order to give the proper distinctiveness, buoys are given certain 
 characteristic colors and numbers ; and following the uniform practice 
 of maritime nations generally, Congress by the act of September 28, 
 1850, prescribed that all buoys along the coast or in bays, harbors, 
 
BUOYS. 47 
 
 sounds, or channels shall be colored and numbered so that passing up 
 the coast or sound or entering the bay, harbor, or channel, red buoys, 
 with even numbers shall be passed on the starboard or right hand; 
 black buoys with odd numbers on the port or left hand ; buoys with 
 red and black horizontal stripes without numbers shall be passed on 
 either hand, and indicate rocks, shoals, or other obstructions, with 
 channels on either side of them; and buoys in channel ways shall be 
 colored with black and white perpendicular stripes, without numbers, 
 and may be passed close-to, indicating mid-channels. Buoys to mark 
 abrupt turning points in channels or obstructions requiring unusual 
 prominence, are fitted with perches or staves surmounted by balls, 
 cages, or other distinctive marks. 
 
 Buoys marking light-vessel stations are placed in close proximity 
 to the light vessel, are colored in a similar manner, and bear the letters 
 LV with the initials of the station they mark. Buoys denning an- 
 chorage grounds are painted white, except those used for such pur- 
 poses at a quarantine station, in which case they are painted yellow. 
 
 To assist further in distinguishing buoys, the ordinary unlighted 
 types are made in two principal shapes in the portion showing above 
 the water line: Nun buoys, conical in pattern with pointed tops, and 
 can buoys, cylinder shaped with flat tops. When placed on the sides 
 of channels, nun buoys, properly colored and numbered, are placed 
 on the starboard or right-hand side going in from sea, and can buoys 
 on the port or left-hand side. The numbers and letters placed on all 
 buoys are formed by standard stencils, to insure uniformity, and the 
 largest size practicable is used so that these may show as prominently 
 as possible. White characters are painted on black buoys and black 
 characters on red buoys. 
 
 Buoys are anchored in their positions by various types of moorings, 
 depending on the character of the bottom and the size and importance 
 of the buoy. They are placed in position and cared for by the light- 
 house tenders, which are provided with specially designed derricks 
 and lifting gear for handling them. It is customary to relieve all 
 buoys at least once a year for overhauling, repairing, cleaning, and 
 painting, and oftener when circumstances render it necessary. 
 Although among the most useful of aids to navigation, buoys are 
 liable to be carried away, dragged, capsized, or sunk, as a result of 
 ice or storm action, collision, and other accidents, and therefore may 
 not be regarded as absolutely reliable at all times. Great effort is 
 made, however, by the Service to maintain them on station in an 
 efficient condition, which frequently requires strenuous and hazardous 
 exertions on the part of the vessels charged with this duty. It is 
 necessary to keep an ample supply of spare or relief buoys, with the 
 necessary appendages, always on hand to provide for emergencies, 
 and the systematic relieving of buoys on station. 
 
48 
 
 UNITED STATES LIGHTHOUSE SERVICE, 1915. 
 
BUOYS. 49 
 
 Buoys may be divided broadly into two general classes, lighted 
 and unlighted, of which the .latter are in the great majority. 
 Unlighted buoys comprise spars, both wooden and iron, can, nun, 
 bell, and whistling buoys, with a few other types for special purposes. 
 Lighted buoys are provided with some form of gas apparatus and a 
 lantern; frequently a bell or whistle is also attached, in which case 
 they are known as combination buoys. A brief description of each 
 kind follows. 
 
 Wooden spar buoys are usually cedar, juniper, or spruce logs, 
 trimmed, shaped, and provided with an iron strap and band at the 
 lower end for attaching the mooring, which is as a rule a heavy stone 
 or concrete block, or iron sinker, sometimes shackled directly to the 
 buoy, or to a short piece of chain, as required by the depth. Such 
 buoys are among the most economical and generally used of all aids, 
 and are particularly employed in rivers and harbors. They are, 
 however, easily damaged by ice or collision, and in some waters 
 suffer greatly from the attacks of the teredo and other marine borers, 
 although this may be reduced by special paints or other protective 
 treatment when not unduly expensive. Four sizes or classes are in 
 use, varying in length from 50 to 20 feet over all, to conform properly 
 to the depth of water at the position of the buoy. The weights of 
 such buoys vary from 1,500 to 350 pounds each. 
 
 Iron spar buoys are built up of iron or steel plates in the form of 
 wooden spars, and are particularly valuable where severe ice condi- 
 tions exist, or where the teredo is unusually active. They are nat- 
 urally more expensive and heavier to handle, thus restricting their 
 use to special localities. They are made in three classes, in lengths of 
 from 50 to 30 feet over all, weighing from 4,000 to 2,000 pounds, 
 respectively. 
 
 Cans and nuns, as already noted, are built of iron or steel plates, 
 the former showing a cylindrical and the latter a conical top, and 
 are the most extensively used of metal buoys. The interior of the 
 buoy is divided into two or more compartments, by bulkheads or 
 diaphragms, to prevent sinking when damaged. Each kind is built 
 in three classes or sizes, and in addition two general types are in use, 
 the ordinary type and the tall type, or channel buoys; the latter being 
 a modern development of a larger and more prominent buoy for 
 use in deeper water. These buoys weigh from 8,300 to 700 pounds 
 each, according to size, and are generally moored by means of a stone 
 or concrete block, or a specially designed hemispherical cast iron 
 sinker, shackled on a length of chain about two or three times the 
 depth of water in which the buoy is placed. The ordinary type 
 buoys commonly require a cast-iron ballast ball attached directly 
 below the buoy, the mooring chain being shackled in turn to the 
 
 18247 16 4 
 
50 UNITED STATES LIGHTHOUSE SERVICE, 1915. 
 
 lower end of the ballast ball; this is necessary to assist the buoy in 
 maintaining an upright position, regardless of tidal or other currents. 
 The ballast ball is not needed with the tall type buoy, which has 
 more stability, due to its greater draft and to a fixed counterweight 
 of cast iron bolted on its lower end. To prevent kinking or twisting 
 of the chain, a swivel is occasionally placed in the mooring chain for 
 all types. 
 
 Bell buoys have a hemispherical-shaped hull, built of steel plates, 
 with flat deck, and carry a structural-steel superstructure which sup- 
 ports a bronze bell and usually four iron clappers. The motion of the 
 buoy in the sea causes these clappers to strike the bell, so that the ac- 
 tion is entirely automatic. Although the buoy is quite sensitive and 
 responds to even a very slight motion of the waves, the sound may 
 be faint or absent in unusual calms. This type of buoy is especially 
 efficient in harbors or inside waters for marking points where a sound 
 signal is desired. Bell buoys weigh about 6,900 pounds each, com- 
 plete, and are moored by means of a bridle of chain attached to lugs 
 on the opposite sides of the hull near the water line, the main mooring 
 being shackled to the middle and lowermost part of the bridle and 
 extending in the customary scope of chain with a swivel to a heavy 
 cast-iron sinker on the bottom. A large-sized ballast ball is shackled 
 to a mooring eye at the bottom of the buoy, and the whole effect of 
 this arrangement is to assist in the pendular motion necessary for 
 ringing the bell. 
 
 Whistling buoys are built of steel plates, and consist of a pear- 
 shaped body with the smaller end uppermost, with a long open tube 
 on the lower end. This tube extends throughout the length of the 
 buoy, and is closed at the upper end by a headplate on which is 
 mounted a check valve and a whistle on the superstructure of the 
 buoy. The sound is produced by the air in the upper portion of the 
 tube being compressed by the falling of the buoy in the waves, its 
 means of escape being through the whistle. A fresh supply of air is 
 drawn through the check valve as the buoy rises again. Like the bell 
 buoy, the sound is automatic, depending solely on the motion of the 
 waves, and therefore the whistle may be silent when the sea is very 
 smooth. The whistling buoy is most efficient in rough outside waters, 
 where a ground swell exists, and is employed for import ant points where 
 a sound signal is considered desirable. It is generally moored with 
 a single chain of the proper scope and a heavy iron sinker. The 
 weight of the buoy is about 6,500 pounds. For great depths, where 
 the necessary quantity of chain impedes the flotation of the ordinary 
 size of this buoy, a special and larger size is in use similar to the 
 regular size in design and operation but weighing about 11,000 
 pounds. 
 
BUOYS. 
 
 51 
 
 Lighted buoys are a modern invention, having come into use 
 within about the last 30 years, and are considered by mariners gen- 
 erally as among the most valuable of recent developments in coast 
 lighting. The first buoy of this kind was a gas buoy established 
 experimentally by its manufacturers in 1881 near Scotland Lightship, 
 entrance to New York Bay; it was officially taken over by the Light- 
 house Service in April, 1884. Electric buoys, operated by a cable 
 from shore, were established in Gedney Channel, New York Bay, in 
 November, 1888, and were discontinued in 1903, after many mishaps, 
 due chiefly to breaking of the cable. The operating expense was 
 high, and in the final year of service these buoys were extinguished 
 through accident on 120 nights. 
 
 All of the lighted buoys now in service use compressed gas, either 
 oil gas or acetylene. Various 
 types of self-generating acetylene 
 buoys have been in use, operating 
 on the carbide-to-water and water- 
 to-carbide principles, but have 
 
 been abandoned on account of | ifrMff I I'll . -m 
 uncertainty of length of run diffi- 
 culty of cleaning, and danger of 
 explosion. 
 
 In the types now in use the gas, 
 at a pressure of about 12 atmos- 
 pheres, is contained either directly 
 in the body of the buoy or in tanks 
 fitted into compartments of the 
 body, and is piped to the lantern 
 at the top of the superstructure. Testing pressure in gas buoy ' New York Bay " 
 If the light is flashing, as is commonly the case, a small pilot light 
 burns continuously and ignites the main burner as gas is admitted 
 from the flashing chamber, which is a regulating compartment in the 
 base of the lantern provided with a flexible diaphragm and valves 
 for cutting off and opening the flow of gas at intervals, the opera- 
 tion being due to the pressure of the gas in the reservoirs. The 
 length of the light and dark periods may be adjusted to produce the 
 desired characteristic, such as five seconds light, five seconds dark, 
 etc. Some types burn the gas as an ordinary flat flame, while others 
 make use of an incandescent mantle, which is, however, not wholly 
 satisfactory in rough water on account of breakage. 
 
 Gas buoys are made in a number of different sizes, weighing from 
 2,800 to 34,500 pounds each, depending on the importance of the 
 location, and burn continuously by night and day for intervals of a 
 month to a year without recharging. The apparatus is patented by 
 
52 
 
 UNITED STATES LIGHTHOUSE SERVICE, 1915. 
 
 the various makers and has been brought by them to a considerable 
 degree of perfection, so that considering the rough usage to which 
 such buoys are subjected by the elements, gas buoys are generally 
 satisfactory within the limits of reliability to be expected from such 
 aids. They should not, however, be relied upon implicitly, as they may 
 
 become extinguished or dragged 
 from their proper positions, or 
 the apparatus may be out of order 
 and some time may elapse before 
 the buoy can be reached to repair 
 or relight it. Gas buoys furnish 
 valuable marks for approaching 
 entrances, defining channels, and 
 marking dangers, and at times may 
 obviate the necessity for light ves- 
 sels or lighthouses on submerged 
 sites, either of which would be 
 many times more expensive. 
 There is a constant demand among 
 mariners for more gas buoys and 
 for buoys with more brilliant lights. 
 Many gas buoys are provided 
 with some automatic form of 
 sound-producing device, such as a 
 bell or whistle, and in a few cases 
 have both a whistle and a sub- 
 marine bell. These operate in the 
 manner heretofore described (see 
 pp. 44 and 50), and are of especial value in fog or thick weather, or 
 in case of accidental extinguishment of the light. 
 
 The numbers and types of the 7,290 buoys in the Lighthouse Service 
 in commission on June 30, 1915, were as follows: 
 
 Unlighted buoys (6,811): 
 
 Wooden spars 4, 516 
 
 Iron spars, cans, and nuns 1, 972 
 
 Bell buoys 
 
 Whistling buoys 86 
 
 Lighted buoys (479): 
 
 Gas buoys 335 
 
 Gas and bell buoys - 
 
 Gas and whistling buoys 55 
 
 Gas, whistling, and submarine bell buoys 
 
 Total.. - 7,290 
 
 Gas and whistling buoy, entrance to New 
 York Bay. 
 
RIVER LIGHTING. 53 
 
 14. RIVER LIGHTING. 
 
 The lighting of nontidal rivers is limited to those which have been" 
 specifically authorized by law; these, however, now embrace nearly 
 all the important streams of the country. In the Lighthouse Service 
 three districts, the thirteenth, fourteenth, and fifteenth, are engaged 
 entirely in the lighting of the Mississippi River and its principal 
 tributaries. The lighting of these streams began in 1874 and has since 
 been continued. The problem presented by these districts differs 
 considerably from that found in the coast and lake districts. As 
 noted in a previous chapter (p. 5), the inspectors in charge of these 
 districts are officers of the Corps of Engineers, United States Army 
 and are usually those in charge at the same time of the river improve- 
 ment work of the War Department proceeding in the vicinity. 
 
 The lights used are simple in character and are generally known as 
 post lights. In some cases these consist of an ordinary 14-inch hand 
 lantern, inclosed in a square or triangular tin case with plain glazed 
 sides; and in other types a specially designed post lantern, with a 
 1-inch flat wick and pressed glass lens about 8 inches in diameter, is 
 used inside a small triangular case, with glass on two or three sides 
 as the location requires. A wire screen is fitted to the top of the 
 lantern to prevent the entrance of insects. These lights burn kero- 
 sene and as a rule are fixed white in character, although some are 
 fitted with red globes or shades. 
 
 The channel cf tiiese rivers generally follows the concave banks, 
 with crossings where the concavity shifts from one side of the river 
 to the other, and the lights are located so as to show the general 
 shapes of the bends and the positions of the crossings. Tne lights 
 are usually placed on the banks of the river and the crossings marked 
 by two range lights, one ahead, the other astern. Where the crossing 
 is crooked it is sometimes necessary to have a series of range lights 
 and during low water some of the lights are placed on sand bars or 
 on small floats or rafts, these latter being known as float lights. 
 
 The most complete type of structure on which post lights are 
 placed consists of a post with braces and steps, with the lantern on 
 top. Wings are attached to make a better daymark, and are set in 
 oblique positions with a view to catching the sunlight in various 
 directions and thus assist the pilots in locating it. The wings are 
 perforated to diminish wind action, and the stations are further 
 designated by numbers placed conspicuously above them. It is 
 necessary to shift the position of many of these lights from time to 
 time, on account of changes in the channel, caving banks, and other 
 reasons. For this reason some of these structures are of a more 
 temporary character than the type just described; in emergencies 
 the light may even be attached to a tree. 
 
54 
 
 UNITED STATES LIGHTHOUSE SERVICE, 1915. 
 
 Where the channel is narrow or crooked, or the ends of wing dams 
 are to be marked, buoys have been found desirable, and a special 
 type has been developed. It was found that the buoy best adapted 
 to fulfill the conditions peculiar to these waters is one having but a 
 slight reserve buoyancy, in order that drift and other floating objects 
 coming in contact with it will pass over the buoy, submerging but 
 not displacing it. One type in use is a built-up spar consisting of a 
 central barrel-shaped section fitted with galvanized sheet-iron cones 
 or hoods at each end. A slide for a hand 'lantern is provided at the 
 upper end, and the buoy is moored by a light wire cable attached to 
 the lower end, with an iron weight for a sinker. Another type is 
 composed of two galvanized sheet-iron cones placed base to base; 
 
 ippi River Post Light. 
 
 the upper cone is a right cone, but the lower is oblique in order that 
 the buoy may not spin in the current and untwist the light wire 
 anchor cable. 
 
 The river lights are attended by persons living in the vicinity, 
 known as laborers in charge, and in some cases a group of several 
 lights may be in charge of the same person when they may be con- 
 veniently cared for in that manner. These laborers are not required 
 to devote their entire time to the Service, as in the case of regularly 
 appointed keepers. The supplies for the lights are delivered by the 
 lighthouse tender or Engineer Department vessels, and such vessels 
 also patrol the river and make the changes in location as required. 
 Captains and pilots of river steamers are supplied with franked postal 
 cards on which they are requested to report to the inspector's office 
 whenever a light is found not burning properly. 
 
LIGHTHOUSE DEPOTS. 
 
 55 
 
 Of the 2,961 aids in commission on June 30, 1915, classed as minor 
 lights and float lights, 1,801, or about 61 per cent, were in the three 
 river districts. In the remaining districts the systems of river light- 
 ing are naturally not so extensive, although the aggregate number 
 of such lights in rivers like the Connecticut, Hudson, Delaware, and 
 St. Johns on the Atlantic coast, and the Columbia and Willamette on 
 the Pacific coast, together with many other shorter streams, con- 
 stitutes no small part of the activities of many districts. A specially 
 designed post lantern is manufactured by the Lighthouse Service for 
 this work in the coast districts. It is constructed of brass, with an 
 outside protecting cage, and contains a pressed glass lens of 200 
 millimeters (approximately 8 inches) diameter, with a burner of two 
 1-inch flat wicks, using kerosene. Great pains were taken to make 
 the lantern wind proof, and at the same time to provide proper ven- 
 tilation and a reasonably bright light. . The type now in use has 
 been found satisfactory, even in gales of considerable violence. The 
 lights are carried on various types of simple structures, ranging from 
 single posts on shore to pile clusters for use in the water. They are 
 attended by laborers, as in the case of the river districts, or some- 
 times by the keepers of some adjacent light station. 
 
 15. LIGHTHOUSE DEPOTS. 
 
 An important feature of lighthouse work consists of the lighthouse 
 depot, which is used as a base of supplies and repairs and a base 
 station for vessels. There are 44 such depots in the various districts, 
 as given in the following list. The principal depot of the district is 
 indicated by the larger type. 
 
 First district: 
 
 Bear Island, Me. 
 
 LITTLE DIAMOND ISLAND, ME. 
 Second district: 
 
 LOVELLS ISLAND, BOSTON, MASS. 
 
 Woods Hole, Mass. 
 Third district: 
 
 Goat Island, R. I. 
 
 Juniper Island, Vt. 
 
 New London, Conn. 
 
 TOMPKINSVILLE, STATEN ISLAND, 
 
 N. Y. 
 
 Tucker Beach, N. J. 
 Fourth district: 
 
 EDGEMOOR, DEL. 
 
 Lewes, Del. 
 Fifth district: 
 
 Annapolis, Md. 
 
 Chincoteague, Va. 
 
 Lazaretto Point, Md. 
 
 Point Lookout, Md. 
 
 Fifth district Continued. 
 
 PORTSMOUTH, VA. 
 
 Washington Wharf, D. C. 
 
 Washington, North Carolina. 
 Sixth district: 
 
 CASTLE PINCKNEY, CHARLESTO] 
 
 S. C. 
 Seventh district: 
 
 Egmont Key, Fla. 
 
 KEY W T EST, FLA. 
 Eighth district: 
 
 Fort San Jacinto, Galveston, Tex. 
 
 Mobile, Ala. 
 
 PORT EADS, LA. 
 Ninth district: 
 
 Culebrita Island, P. R. 
 
 Guantanamo Bay, Cuba. 
 
 SAN JUAN, P. R. 
 Tenth district: 
 
 BUFFALO, N. Y. 
 
 Erie, Pa. 
 
56 UNITED STATES LIGHTHOUSE SERVICE, 1915. 
 
 Tenth district Continued. 
 
 Maumee Bay, Ohio. 
 
 Rock Island, N. Y. 
 
 Sandusky Bay (Cedar Point), Ohio. 
 Eleventh district: 
 
 DETROIT, MICH. 
 
 Minnesota Point, Minn. 
 
 St. Marys River, Mich. 
 Twelfth district: 
 
 Charlevoix, Mich. 
 
 MILWAUKEE, Wis. 
 
 Twelfth district Continued. 
 
 St. Joseph, Mich. 
 Sixteenth district: 
 
 KETCHIKAN, ALASKA. 
 Seventeenth district: 
 
 Ediz Hook, Wash. 
 
 TONGUE POINT. OREG. 
 Eighteenth district: 
 
 GOAT ISLAND, CAL. 
 Nineteenth district: 
 
 HONOLULU, HAWAII. 
 
 To be of the greatest efficiency depots should be central in location 
 with reference to the district, adjacent to important mercantile cen- 
 ters for facilitating purchases, and easily accessible by teams, rail, and 
 water. Many of the depots in the service were originally intended 
 only for the storage cf relief or spare buoys, and were often located on 
 islands or other remote places; hence not fulfilling the ideal condi- 
 tions just outlined. Constant effort is made, however, to improve 
 such conditions as available funds permit, and, as an instance, the 
 case of the sixth district may be cited, in which a new depot on the 
 mainland, on the Ashley River side of Charleston, S. C., is being made 
 ready in place of the old depot on an island in the harbor. 
 
 The principal features of a depot are a dock and a storehouse; to 
 these other structures, such as isolated oil houses for inflammable 
 articles, lamp, machine, carpenter and blacksmith's shops, cement 
 houses, buoy, lumber, and coal sheds, offices, keepers' dwellings, der- 
 ricks and other lifting gear, tramways, and similar appurtenances, 
 are added as may be required by the extent and character of the 
 work in the respective districts. 
 
 The principal work at a lighthouse depot consists in caring for the 
 articles in stock and the filling of approved requisitions for the use of 
 such articles in the work of the Service, also in the. cleaning, painting, 
 and overhauling of the buoys and appendages. Tools and equipment 
 for working parties on stations and vessels are also stored at the 
 depots when not in active use; damaged and worn-out articles are 
 brought to the depot from the vessels arid stations for repair or survey 
 and condemnation, as their condition warrants. The depots are 
 headquarters for the vessels of the Lighthouse Service, both for the 
 routine work of the tenders and for examination and sometimes 
 repair of tenders and light vessels. 
 
 The general depot at Tompkinsville, N. Y., which is much larger 
 than the customary district depot, has already been mentioned on 
 page 5. This depot fills the double purpose of being headquarters 
 for the third district as well as a central supply station, repair shop, 
 and purchasing agency for the entire Service. Proposals for annual 
 supplies are issued from this depot for articles to be delivered on 
 
LIGHTHOUSE DEPOTS. 
 
 57 
 
58 UNITED STATES LIGHTHOUSE SERVICE, 1915. 
 
 contract; these are then issued to other districts on the basis of 
 requisitions made by the inspectors and approved by the Commis- 
 sioner. The various shops at this depot are employed chiefly in the 
 manufacture and repair of special apparatus used by the Service, 
 much of which can not be obtained from regular dealers at an econom- 
 ical price; and a considerable amount of repair work to vessels is also 
 performed. A small laboratory is also maintained for the analysis 
 and testing of articles used in the Service; and a large amount of 
 experimental work is done on various light and sound producing 
 devices, either submitted by the makers for test or designed by the 
 technical force of the Service. About 210 persons are engaged at this 
 depot; this number including also those who are directly concerned 
 in the work of the third district. 
 
 16. LIGHT VESSELS. 
 
 The Lighthouse Service maintains light vessels on 53 stations, and 
 has for this purpose 66 light vessels, of which 13 are relief vessels; all, 
 figures being those of June 30, 1915. They are generally employed 
 for marking dangers at sea, approaches or entrances to harbors, or 
 important points in the courses of vessr-ls, where a lighthouse would 
 not be feasible or economical, and are of particular value in providing 
 both a light and a fog signal which may be approached close- to, thus 
 enabling mariners to fix their position at sea with reasonable cer- 
 tainty. In this respect light vessels are superior to lighthouses, as in 
 the case of the latter, in the majority of instances, due allowance must 
 be made for a safe distance in passing. A valuable secondary advan- 
 tage is the fact that light vessels may be shifted to meet varying 
 conditions of traffic, such as changes in shoals or channels, use of 
 deeper draft vessels, and similar contingencies. 
 
 The first light vessel established in this Service was in the summer 
 of 1820, at Willoughby Spit, Hampton Roads, Chesapeake Bay, Va., 
 but proved too small for the station and was moved to Craney Island, 
 Elizabeth River, Va. A larger vessel was stationed on Willoughby 
 Spit in 1821. The first outside vessel was placed 7 miles off Sandy 
 Hook, N. J., in 1823. The idea of lightboats, as they were then 
 called, became popular, and by 1839 there were 30 in service, most of 
 them being small craft in inside waters. The largest vessel was that 
 on the Sandy Hook station, which had a tonnage oi 230. 
 
 By the year 1852, when the Lighthouse Board was established, 
 there were 38 light vessels in service, of which number 26 were in bays 
 or sounds. The maximum number of men employed on each was 10 
 for the most exposed stations, varying down to 4 for those least 
 exposed. The type of vessel used at that time was evidently not 
 wholly suitable for the purpose, as there were often complaints that 
 the vessels were frequently blown from their moorings, and that the 
 
LIGHT VESSELS. 
 
 59 
 
 expense of maintenance and repair was excessive, considering also 
 the comparative feebleness of the lights. 
 
 The early activities of the board were directed toward the replace- 
 ment of many inside light vessels by lighthouses, screw-pile founda- 
 tions being used extensively for the latter ; and more careful attention 
 was given to the design of vessels suitable for exposed outside stations. 
 Wooden construction was the rule up to the year 1882, when the first 
 iron light vessel, No. 44 > was built, for station on the seacoast of 
 New Jersey. About the same time several vessels of the composite 
 type, with steel frames and wooden sheathing, were constructed; but 
 the modern tendency has been toward all-steel construction. Another 
 practical feature of design which has greatly increased the efficiency 
 
 San Francisco Light Vessel No. 70, Cal. 
 
 of light vessels is the use of propelling machinery, thus enabling them 
 to proceed to and from their stations under their own power and to 
 assist them in maintaining their positions in heavy weather. The 
 first light vessels in this Service so equipped were Nos. 55, 56, and 57, 
 built in 1891 for service on the Great Lakes. 
 
 The question of the proper form of the hull of a light vessel pre- 
 sents many interesting and complex problems in naval architecture. 
 Steadiness and ease of motion are the chief requirements for the 
 general efficiency of the light, as well as for the comfort of those on 
 board. In order to obtain this desired result recent practice is to 
 design the hull so that the wedges of immersion and emersion in 
 transverse rolling are approximately equal, thus avoiding the usual 
 impulse of excess buoyancy, while the metacentric height has been 
 reduced to a minimum of 12 inches. The lines are quite full fore 
 
60 UNITED STATES LIGHTHOUSE SERVICE, 1915. 
 
 and aft, thereby increasing the displacement rapidly as the vessel 
 pitches into a sea, while bilge keels and ballast are both employed 
 when necessary to insure steadiness; the whole idea being to make 
 use of all elements tending to control both rolling and pitching. The 
 scantling throughout is much heavier than ordinarily required in 
 vessels of similar size, for the double purpose of providing great 
 excess strength as well as guarding against the injurious effects of 
 corrosion. An ample number of water-tight bulkheads is provided 
 below the main deck, to increase the st ifl'ness and safety of the vessel, 
 and especial care is taken in the design of the mooring gear, which 
 consists essentially of a large central hawse pipe, protected by a 
 water-tight breakwater, with chain compressors, springs, and a 
 powerful double windlass, usually operated by steam. The main 
 mooring chain is, as a rule, composed of links made of the best double- 
 refined wrought iron, If inches in diameter, with cast-iron studs, 
 in accordance with rigid specifications, and tested to a proof strain 
 of over 80,000 pounds. The chain is carefully inspected during all 
 stages of manufacture, and is made up into cables of suitable lengths, 
 with the necessary shackles and swivels. Such chain weighs approxi- 
 mately 160 pounds per fathom (6 feet >. so that the entire weight of a 
 standard 120 fathom cable is about 9 tons. Specially designed cast- 
 steel mushroom anchors, in weights up to 7,000 pounds, are used for 
 mooring to the bottom, and in the case of vessels in severely exposed 
 positions in deep water a spherical mooring buoy strongly braced to 
 resist collapsing pressures, is shackled into the submerged portion of 
 the chain, tending to carry a portion of the weight, and forming a 
 double catenary which is of value in avoiding injurious strains on the 
 vessel as it surges in rough weather. 
 
 The standard type of propelling machinery HOW in use consists of 
 one vertical, inverted, direct-acting, surface-condensing, fore-and-aft 
 compound engine of a size suitable to the dimensions and duty of the 
 "vessel, driving a cast-iron propeller and supplied with steam from 
 two Scotch boilers; the engine and boiler space being located amid- 
 ships. Some of the more recent vessels are provided with internal- 
 combustion kerosene engines, which it is believed will be more 
 economical than steam, particularly in avoiding the expense and 
 difficulty due to keeping light vessels supplied with coal and fresh 
 water, as w/i ...^ avoiding the deterioration of boilers. 
 
 Much ri ogress has been made in the interior arrangements of light 
 vessels, particularly in the way of accommodations for the crew. 
 The early lightships were single-deck vessels, with the quarters 
 generally below the water line. A forecastle head was then added, 
 which was gradually extended in height and length, until an entire 
 spar deck had been developed. The latest vessels are flush-decked 
 
LIGHT VESSELS. 
 
 61 
 
 throughout, with all quarters on the main deck well above the water 
 line, thereby also conducing greatly to the stability and safety of the- 
 vessel when seas are shipped in heavy weather. The details of the 
 interior of the present types of light vessels are also worked out with 
 care; comfortable staterooms and berths are provided, the vessels 
 are steam heated throughout, sanitary plumbing systems with baths, 
 toilets and drainage attachments are fitted, and in some cases electric 
 lights are also installed. 
 
 The complement of a first-class light vessel is generally 4 officers 
 and 10 men, which is varied in the case of smaller and less exposed 
 vessels as conditions justify, down to a minimum of 3 men all told, 
 
 Buffalo Light Vessel No. 98, N. Y. 
 
 for the smallest size of inside lightships. Liberal provision is made 
 for shore liberty, as will be taken up in greater detail in another 
 chapter. (See p. 73.) 
 
 The illuminating and fog-signal apparatus on board light vessels 
 has undergone many improvements. Ordinary ship's lanterns 
 served for lights on the early vessels, while the fog signal was a hand 
 bell or horn. When reflector lights were introduced, each light was 
 composed of eight lamps with reflectors 12 inches in diameter, set 
 upon a ring which encircled the mast, the. whole apparatus being in- 
 closed in a lantern with large panes of glass to protect the light from 
 the wind. When not in use the lanterns were kept in a small house 
 
62 UNITED STATES LIGHTHOUSE SERVICE, 1915. 
 
 with a hinged roof at the base of the mast, and were lighted and hoisted 
 to the masthead at night. This arrangement is still in use on some 
 of the older vessels. Sometimes such lights are shown on two masts. 
 White lights are commonly employed, red being used occasionally 
 when necessary to give distinctiveness. 
 
 The next development was the substitution of a group of three- 
 lens lanterns instead of the reflectors, placed in gimbals on a ring 
 around the mast and operated similarly to the reflector lanterns. 
 In recent years a tubular steel mast, of diameter sufficient to con- 
 tain a ladder, has been installed. This is surmounted by a helical 
 bar lantern of the type used in lighthouses on shore, containing a 
 regular lighthouse lens. Access to the lantern is through the inte- 
 rior of the mast, and the lantern is surrounded by a gallery reached 
 from the interior to permit cleaning the glass, and serving also as a 
 distinguishing daymark. Any illuminant may be employed in such 
 a lantern, such as electric light, incandescent oil vapor, acetylene, or 
 oil gas, as desired. 
 
 Corresponding improvements have also been made in fog signals 
 on board light vessels, but these installations are essentially the 
 same as have already been described. (See p. 40.) The 12-inch 
 steam whistle is still used on many light vessels as the main signal, 
 and a pneumatically operated submarine bell is frequently added as 
 an auxiliary. 
 
 Four of the most important light vessels on the Atlantic and Gulf 
 coasts, those on Nan tucket Shoals, Diamond Shoal (Cape Hatteras), 
 and Frying Pan Shoals, and the relief vessels for these stations, also the 
 vessel on Heald Bank, are equipped with radio, at present operated 
 by the Navy Department in connection with their coast radio sys- 
 tem. These installations have been found of considerable value, and 
 it is expected that the number will be increased. 
 
 Light vessels are distinguishable in the daytime by their unusual 
 shape and rig, including generally some form of cagework as a day- 
 mark at the mastheads, and by their characteristic painting and 
 lettering. The hull is often painted red or straw color, although 
 many other colors or combinations of color are employed to make 
 adjacent vessels as different as possible, and a short station name is 
 painted on the sides of the vessel in the largest size letters practica- 
 ble. From 1867 to 1913 light vessels also exhibited a number, painted 
 at first on the stern, and afterwards on each bow and quarter. These 
 numbers were solely for identification of the ship, regardless of the 
 station occupied, and hence formed a possible source of confusion 
 when vessels were transferred. The numbers are still retained as 
 part of the official designation of the vessel for service purposes, but 
 are no longer prominently displayed. Light vessels on seacoast sta- 
 tions are also assigned international code-signal letter flags, identify- 
 
LIGHT VESSELS. 
 
 63 
 
 ing the geographical locality, which they display to passing vessels 
 when it is necessary to warn them. 
 
 Light vessels are brought in from station at regular intervals for 
 docking, overhauling, and repair, and during the interim a relief 
 light vessel is placed on the station. Care is taken when practicable 
 to have the relief ships so equipped that they can show the identical 
 light of the station ship at night, and during fog the identical fog 
 signal; also sounding the same code number on the submarine bell, 
 and displaying the international signal flags described above of the 
 vessel relieved. Relief vessels are commonly painted red, with the 
 middle third of the hull white, bearing thereon the word "Relief" 
 
 Relief Light Vessel No. 92, seventeenth district. 
 
 in large black letters. They also exhibit an oval daymark on the 
 spring stay, midway between the two masts, when two are provided. 
 
 To avoid confusion when light vessels are off their stations while pro- 
 ceeding to or from port, or during stress of weather, they fly under 
 such circumstances the signal letters QE, a square yellow flag over a 
 triangular flag with vertical bands of red, white, and blue, meaning 
 in the international code "Lightship is not at anchor on her station." 
 
 The average life of a light vessel is estimated at 30 years, and in 
 order to maintain the present number of light vessels it is necessary 
 to build on an average two new light vessels annually. 
 
 The principal facts relating to light vessels in commission during 
 the fiscal year 1915 are shown in the table on the following page: 
 
64 
 
 UNITED STATES LIGHTHOUSE SERVICE, 1915. 
 
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 UNITED STATES LIGHTHOUSE SERVICE, 1915. 
 
 17. LIGHTHOUSE TENDERS. 
 
 The work of these vessels is to attend to the buoyage, to supply the 
 light vessels and isolated light stations both with the ordinary articles 
 for maintenance and materials for construction or repair, and also for 
 inspection purposes when necessary. The 47 vessels which were in 
 commission during the year ended June 30, 1915, steamed a total of 
 about 469,000 nautical miles in the performance of their duties. 
 
 The original tenders were sailing vessels and the first in use was the 
 former revenue cutter Rush, transferred to the Lighthouse Service in 
 May, 1840, and thereafter used in New York Bay and vicinity; prior 
 to that time and for a considerable period thereafter much of the buoy 
 work and other duty now devolving on tenders was performed by 
 contract. The first steam tender was the Shubrick, built at the navy 
 
 Lighthouse tender "Lilac," third district. 
 
 yard in Philadelphia in 1857 and first used on the Pacific coast in 
 1858. In 1865 six small steamers, used in the war, were transferred 
 to the Lighthouse Service from the Navy Department for service on 
 the Atlantic coast, and these formed the nucleus of the present fleet, 
 although none of the original vessels are now in the Service. The 
 early steam tenders, like other steamers of that period, were side- 
 wheelers, and frequently carried sail as well. 
 
 The first propeller ship used as a lighthouse tender on the seacoast 
 of this country was the former Fern, built in 1871, and turned over to 
 the Navy Department in 1891. With a few exceptions, all of the 
 tenders now in service are screw vessels. The old sailing tenders were 
 disposed of as rapidly as replacement could be made, and by 1882 
 only two remained, the Pharos and the Mignonette, both schooners. 
 The latter was lost in a hurricane off the Texas coast in 1887, while 
 the Pharos was in service as late as 1908, when she was condemned 
 and sold. 
 
LIGHTHOUSE TENDERS. 67 
 
 The essential features of a lighthouse tender, in which it differs 
 from the ordinary vessel of similar size, are the low forward deck and 
 the buoy-handling gear, whereby the foremast is rigged as a derrick, 
 with a boom and falls for reaching over the side. The construction 
 of the hull, the framing of the deck and all parts of the superstruc- 
 ture, also all mechanical appliances, are designed with a large reserve of 
 strength, and are made as simple and sturdy as possible. As these ves- 
 sels are frequently required to take and keep the sea even in the face 
 of the most violent storms, a high degree of seaworthiness is essential; 
 and as the nature of their duty requires them to be handled around 
 shoals, rocks, and other obstructions in the placing and relief of buoys, 
 their economic maximum draft is proportionally limited, and un- 
 usually strong hulls are required to prevent damage from accidental 
 grounding which such work frequently entails. 
 
 Lighthouse tender "Fern," sixteenth district. 
 
 It is the policy of the Service in the design of lighthouse tenders to 
 plan working boats as effective as possible for placing and tending 
 buoys and for other lighthouse duties, and to provide suitable and 
 sanitary quarters for the officers and crews of the vessels. As oppor- 
 tunity offers in connection with the overhaul of older vessels improve- 
 ments along these lines are effected. 
 
 As the average life of a lighthouse tender is estimated at 25 years, 
 it is necessary on an average to build from one to two new tenders a 
 year in order to maintain the present number of vessels in service. 
 
 To provide for frequent overhaul, cleaning, and painting of the 
 underwater body, it is customary to dock tenders in exclusively salt- 
 water districts every six months; in districts having a reasonable 
 amount of or all fresh water, once a year is deemed sufficient. A 
 standard style of painting is prescribed, using red lead and approved 
 antifouling paints lor the underwater body, black for the exposed 
 
68 
 
 outside of the hull and funnel, and white for the top-sides and deck 
 houses. White is also given the preference for the larger portion of 
 the interior painting, while the lower deck is painted metallic brown 
 and the upper deck light lead. 
 
 Since 1867 it has been the custom to give botanical names to tend- 
 ers, generally of some plant, flower, or tree indigenous to the district 
 wherein they are assigned. This name appears commonly on the 
 stern; brass miniature lighthouses are also fitted on each side ot the 
 bow. 
 
 The typical arrangements of a number of tenders are along the fol- 
 lowing general lines, although in a number of instances variations 
 have been made. The anchor windlass is forward on the main deck; 
 this is often protected by a forecastle head. Below this the chain 
 
 Lighthouse tender " Anemone," second district. 
 
 lockers, tanks, and crew's quarters are located. The open portion 
 of the main deck is devoted to space for carrying and handling buoys ; 
 a large hatch gives access to the fore hold, which is the principal 
 freight-carrying space. The foremast is fitted with a boom, falls, and 
 lifting gear as a derrick for handling buoys and heavy articles. 
 The hoisting engine for the derrick is sometimes on the main deck, 
 just aft of the foremast or in the hold directly below and operated 
 from the deck by levers. The officers' quarters, wardroom, galley, 
 and entrances to the upper engine room and drum room are usually 
 on the main deck, the gangways of which are as a rule inclosed. 
 There is generally an open space aft with towing bitts and a hawser 
 rack. The amidships portion of the hold is given over to the engine, 
 boiler, and bunker space, while the after space contains petty officers' 
 quarters, ship's stores, and tanks. 
 
LIGHTHOUSE TENDERS. 69 
 
 The upper or spar deck generally extends from just abaft the fore- 
 mast to the stern; here may be found the wheelhouse and master's 
 quarters, the small boats, generally three in number, a launch, a 
 whaleboat or cutter, and a dinghy, and quarters for the inspector or 
 other official passengers. The mainmast appearing above this deck 
 is used for the display of the customary range light, officials' flags, 
 and for the support of the antenna yard when the vessel is fitted 
 with radio. At the present time three tenders are so equipped, and 
 further installations will be made as funds permit. 
 
 In addition to the national ensign, which is displayed at the flag- 
 staff while under way in daylight, tenders may fly the Lighthouse 
 Service flag. This flag was first used in 1869, and is triangular in 
 shape, with a red border, and bears a blue lighthouse on a white field. 
 While working on buoys in channels or other frequented waters, 
 tenders may display a red flag and a black ball at the foremast head, 
 as a warning to other vessels to slow down in passing. 
 
 The largest tender of the Service will be the Cedar, now under con- 
 struction at Long Beach, Cal., for use in Alaskan waters. This 
 vessel will be 200 feet 8 inches over all, 36 feet molded beam, and of 
 approximately 1,750 tons displacement at 13 feet draft. The smallest 
 regular tenders are the Snowdrop and Waterlily, gasoline-propelled 
 vessels about 65 feet long, 1 1 feet beam, and 3 feet 6 inches draft. 
 
 General information concerning tenders in commission during the 
 fiscal year 1915 will be found in the table on the following page. 
 
70 
 
 UNITED STATES LIGHTHOUSE SERVICE, 1915. 
 
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72 UNITED STATES LIGHTHOUSE SERVICE, 1915. 
 
 18. PERSONNEL AND CIVIL-SERVICE SYSTEMS. 
 
 All positions in the Lighthouse Service are governed by the civil- 
 service rules, which were extended to this Service by President Cleve- 
 land, May 6, 1896, and all appointments and promotions are made on 
 a strictly merit basis; this is of great importance in maintaining a 
 good organization and rigid discipline in a purely technical service, 
 on the efficient conduct of which is directly dependent the safety of 
 lives and property. The Service is justly proud of its long and 
 honorable record in fulfilling an important public duty, and it is 
 only by close adherence to those worthy traditions that its ideals may 
 be perpetuated. 
 
 The technical and clerical positions in the Lighthouse Service, such 
 as inspectors, superintendents, draftsmen, aids, and clerks of all 
 grades, also cadets on tenders, are in the educational class of classi- 
 fied competitive positions; all original appointments are therefore 
 made from rosters of eligibles established as a result of educational 
 examinations conducted by the Civil Service Commission. Regis- 
 ters of eligibles for all noneducational positions peculiar to the Light- 
 house Service, such as officers 'of vessels, except cadets, keepers of 
 lights, etc., are established and maintained by the district civil- 
 service boards. Applicants for such positions are rated by these 
 boards from answers made in their application forms, and if an 
 eligible rating is obtained their names are entered on the register 
 and they are given due consideration for appointment from time to 
 time as vacancies occur, in accordance with civil-service rules. 
 Original appointment is usually in the lowest grade, the more responsi- 
 ble positions being filled whenever practicable by transfer and 
 promotion of employees in less important positions who have earned 
 such consideration by reason of efficiency and length of service. 
 
 In the case of officers of vessels, the possession of a proper license 
 from the Steamboat-Inspection Service is a condition precedent to 
 placing upon an eligible register the name of an applicant for appoint- 
 ment; and in general similar licenses are required on self-propelled 
 vessels of the Lighthouse Service to those required in the merchant 
 marine for vessels of similar service and tonnage, so far as may be 
 practicable. 
 
 The duties of all positions of keepers require that the lights be 
 given the necessary care and attention in cleaning, filling, and 
 lighting, and generally that the incumbents possess ability to handle 
 a boat; in many cases knowledge of operating machinery is required, 
 in view of the fog-signal and revolving-light mechanisms at a number 
 of stations. The same requirements apply in a less degree to the 
 positions of laborers in charge of minor lights, in which the incum- 
 bents work but a portion of their time each day. Selection for 
 
PERSONNEL AND CIVIL-SERVICE SYSTEMS. 73 
 
 these positions is made with sole reference to the ability and fitness 
 of the applicants, the proximity of the applicant's home to~the 
 lights, and facilities possessed by them, such as the ownership of a 
 suitable boat when needed, etc. 
 
 Trades and skilled positions, such as machinists, carpenters, black- 
 smiths, etc., are also in the classified competitive civil service, and 
 employment in such positions is made by selection from registers 
 based on the physical ability, training, experience, and fitness of the 
 applicants for the employment desired. 
 
 The compensation of all positions in the Service not fixed by law 
 is based so far as practicable on similar requirements in the com- 
 mercial world; thus, the entrance salary for draftsmen and other 
 technical employees is, as a rule, from $100 to $125 per month, for 
 clerks $75 per month, for junior officers of vessels from $50 to $80 
 per month, for assistant keepers of lighthouses $35 to $40 per month, 
 the latter two grades receiving also a subsistence allowance while 
 on duty. It should be observed that these are the average rates 
 only and that the compensation varies according to the character 
 and location of the work. The pay of laborers in charge of minor 
 lights is based upon the number of lights cared f or j distance necessary 
 to be traveled, and conditions met, averaging roughly about $8 per 
 month for each light in the river districts. The pay of trades and 
 skilled positions is generally governed by the prevailing rates in the 
 locality. 
 
 All appointed employees in offices, at depots, on tenders, and 
 in the field force at monthly rates of pay, who have been in the Service 
 for a considerable period of time, may be granted leave when properly 
 approved, not exceeding 30 days each of annual and sick leave in any 
 one calendar year. 
 
 Special rules are in effect regarding leave and shore liberty on light 
 vessels and at isolated light stations. These rules provide for a 
 rotative system, so that all may have an equitable amount, without 
 interfering with the proper conduct of work on the station or vessel, 
 and fix a maximum of 90 days per year in the case of light vessels 
 and 72 days per year at isolated light stations where families do not 
 reside or where the location is unusually remote or unhealthful. 
 
 Careful attention is paid to the welfare of employees in all cases 
 in which remedial measure;* are authorized by law. All persons in 
 hazardous employment in the Service are entitled to the benefits of 
 the act of May 30, 1908, providing for compensation for injury or 
 death sustained in the line of duty. In addition, expenses of medical 
 or surgical attendance, or of burial, are allowed in special cases 
 under proper authority and restrictions. The benefits of the Public 
 Health Service are extended to various classes of employees, those 
 on vessels being cared for without charge, while other employees 
 
74 UNITED STATES LIGHTHOUSE SERVICE, 1915. 
 
 may receive care and treatment under the same rates as fixed for 
 the Army and Navy. The Public Health Service also gives infor- 
 mation and advice, when called upon, in regard to medical questions 
 and matters of sanitation affecting the Lighthouse Service, and pro- 
 vides for the free vaccination of certain classes of employees against 
 smallpox and typhoid fever. That Service has also cooperated in 
 the preparation of a Medical Handbook for the use of lighthouse 
 vessels and stations on the prevention of disease and care of the sick 
 and injured, with special reference to first aid to the injured. Medicine 
 chests, containing such articles as may be needed for isolated vessels 
 or stations in emergency cases, with directions for use, are also 
 furnished by the Lighthouse Service. 
 
 Libraries are furnished all light vessels and inaccessible offshore 
 light stations, with proper arrangements for their exchange at 
 intervals. These libraries were first introduced in the Service in 
 1876, and are carefully selected from books of a good standard appro- 
 priate to the persons who will use them; while largely fiction, other 
 classes of literature are included in reasonable proportions. In the 
 matter of educational facilities at stations not accessible to schools 
 and where there are children of school age, inquiry is made from time 
 to time into the education of the children and any course which 
 will lead to their suitable education is encouraged; and, other things 
 being equal, preference is given to employees having children between 
 the ages of 5 and 16 years in filling vacancies by transfer at stations 
 convenient to schools. Consultation is had with State and local 
 educational authorities and in some localities, notably in the State 
 of Maine, good results have been achieved through traveling teachers 
 provided by the State, who are transported by lighthouse tenders 
 in making their visits. 
 
 There is great need for provision by law for the retirement of em- 
 ployees of the Lighthouse Service who after long service have lost 
 their ability for active duty by reason of age or disability incident 
 to their work. This is essential to full efficiency in the administra- 
 tion of the Service. A pension system is in force with favorable 
 results in the lighthouse services of most of the other important 
 maritime countries. 
 
 All male employees on vessels and at light stations are required, 
 when on duty, to wear a uniform as prescribed for their respective 
 grades. Laborers in charge of minor lights are not required to wear 
 uniforms. These uniforms must conform to the regulations issued 
 on the subject, which cover all details for each class or rank. Such 
 regulations were first issued in 1883. The standard material for the 
 clothing is dark navy-blue cloth or serge, except in hot weather, when 
 white duck is allowed. The standard cap bears in the middle of the 
 front a gold embroidered wreath inclosing a silver embroidered light- 
 
PERSONNEL AND CIVIL-SERVICE SYSTEMS. 75 
 
 house. Officers of tenders wear a single-breasted coat shaped to_the 
 figure with a fly front and standing collar, trimmed with braid. 
 Other employees wear a double-breasted sack coat with gilt buttons 
 embossed with a lighthouse. Deck officers of vessels wear an anchor 
 on the collar, while engineer officers wear a propeller. The relative 
 rank of such officers is indicated by sleeve stripes of braid near the 
 cuff of the coat. Keepers of lighthouses wear within a loop on the 
 collar the letters K, 1,2, etc., as the case may be, indicating respec- 
 tively keeper, first assistant, second assistant, etc., and do not wear 
 sleeve ornaments. Petty officers of tenders wear ornaments on the 
 sleeves only, midway between the shoulder and elbow; a white steer- 
 ing wheel for quartermasters, and a red propeller for machinists. 
 
 In order to insure uniformity in the practical operations of the 
 Service, one of the first acts of the Lighthouse Board was to issue a 
 a set of rules and regulations for the government of employees, with 
 detailed instructions concerning the routine of their duties. Such 
 regulations were first issued October 22, 1852, and have been since 
 revised and amended from tune to tune. These regulations are au- 
 thorized by the law governing the Lighthouse Service, and the latest 
 edition went into effect October 1, 1914, comprising a volume of about 
 180 pages, with chapters appropriate to the various activities of the 
 Service. The Regulations are supplemented by Instructions to Em- 
 ployees, the latest edition of which took effect July 15, 1915. This 
 is a book of about 100 pages, with chapters dealing with the duties 
 of different grades of employees, such as keepers of lighthouses, offi- 
 cers of tenders, etc., with general chapters on disciplinary and pro- 
 fessional matters applicable to all. All -employees are required to 
 familiarize themselves with the instructions and to be governed 
 thereby. The lighthouse is and should be a common synonym for 
 absolute reliability. Strict rules for the government of the Service 
 must be made and observed, and this has been the policy from its 
 earliest days. President Thomas Jefferson, in approving the dismis- 
 sal of a keeper in a case referred to him for decision, made the f ollow- 
 ing remarks in his own handwriting, dated December 31, 1806: "I 
 think the keepers of lighthouses should be dismissed for small degrees 
 of remissness, because of the calamities which even these produce." 
 
 On the other hand, devotion to duty is always praised and re- 
 warded. Keepers in charge of stations who attain a high efficiency, 
 as shown by inspections made during the year, are entitled to wear 
 the inspector's efficiency star, and those who win this star for three 
 successive years are entitled to wear in lieu thereof the Commission- 
 er's star. Whenever employees render service to endangered per- 
 sons or property, or otherwise perform their duty under hazardous 
 or trying conditions, including any special act of unselfish or unusual 
 service of any kind, either in the office or the field, in a manner to 
 
76 UNITED STATES LIGHTHOUSE SERVICE, 1915. 
 
 merit commendation, a special report is made and a commendatory 
 letter, signed by the Secretary of Commerce, is addressed to such 
 person and the fact noted on the official records of the Service. Also, 
 the light station in each district attaining the highest general efficiency 
 during the year is entitled to fly the "efficiency flag," being the regu- 
 lation service flag, for the succeeding year. 
 
 As a means of attaining the ends sought by the Regulations and 
 Instructions, systematic inspections are made of all branches of the 
 Service by its officers. Each light station and depot is inspected at 
 least twice a year; each tender and light vessel at least three times 
 a year, at such times as will secure the most efficient service, and 
 not at regular intervals that may be anticipated. Inspection of non- 
 attended lights, buoys, and unlighted beacons is made at least once 
 a year. Additional inspections are made whenever rendered neces- 
 sary by unusual conditions. Such inspections are made by the district 
 officers, who fill out a form provided for the purpose at the time of 
 making the inspection, and in case it appears that a bad state of 
 repair or other unsatisfactory condition exists, the Commissioner is 
 promptly notified. 
 
 Such inspections are supplemented by traveling officers of the Serv- 
 ice; a general inspector, who attends particularly to the technical fea- 
 tures, such as the condition of vessels and stations from the engi- 
 neering standpoint; and an examiner, whose activities are more par- 
 ticularly addressed to business methods and fiscal matters, such as 
 accounts, reports, etc. The officers of the Bureau also make inspec- 
 tions from time to time, as opportunity permits, in order to obtain 
 information at first hand regarding the operations of the Service. 
 
 On June 30, 1915, there were 5,792 authorized positions in the 
 Lighthouse Service, divided into the following principal classes: 
 
 Executive and technical employees 123 
 
 Clerical employees 145 
 
 Depot keepers and assistants 71 
 
 Light keepers and assistants 1, 471 
 
 Laborers in charge of minor lights 1. 782 
 
 Custodians of reservations 12 
 
 Officers and crews of vessels 1, 605 
 
 Construction and repair force 583 
 
 Total 5, 792 
 
 19. LIGHT KEEPERS' QUARTERS. 
 
 On account of the comparative isolation of many lighthouses, and 
 to insure immediate attention at all times, it is the practice of the 
 Service to furnish quarters for keepers at all attended lights. Dwell- 
 ings for keepers and their families are provided for nearly all impor- 
 tant lights located on shore, while in the case of offshore stations, 
 
LIGHT KEEPERS QUARTERS. 
 
 77 
 
 Fort Pickering, Mass. 
 
 Cape Halteras, N. C. 
 
 Point Conception, Cal. 
 
 Barbers Point, Oahu, Hawaii. 
 
 Fort Point, Cal. Pointe aux Barques, Mich. 
 
 DWELLINGS FOR LIGHT KEEPERS. 
 
78 UNITED STATES LIGHTHOUSE SERVICE, 11.'.. 
 
 where women and children are not permitted to reside on account of 
 the hazard in making a landing and the restricted space, quarters for 
 the keepers only are allowed. Eight hundred and fifty-seven dwell- 
 ings are now provided for lighthouse and depot keepers. 
 
 There is no standard type or design of keepers' dwellings, by reason 
 of many different local conditions which have to be met, embracing 
 all kinds of climate from the exposed coasts of Maine, Alaska, and the 
 Great Lakes to the senr tropical conditions of Porto Rico and Hawaii. 
 Attempt is made to have such buildings conform to the prevailing 
 local styles and customs, and at the same time to harmonize them 
 architectually so far as practicable with the light station and its 
 surroundings. Consideration must also be given to the kind of 
 materials most available in the vicinity, for economical reasons, as 
 the limit of cost for such dwellings is fixed by law at not to exceed 
 $6,500, exclusive of the site. While this is ample under ordinary 
 conditions, the great difficulties of transportation frequently make 
 the costs much higher than would prevail in localities close to markets 
 for materials and sources of skilled labor. Unnecessary or elaborate 
 ornamentation is avoided, and care is taken to use simple and sub- 
 stantial designs appropriate to the purpose. In recent years prefer- 
 ence has been given to fireproof construction, when funds permit, and 
 the use of perishable materials has been eliminated when feasible to 
 avoid or lessen future repairs. In all new dwellings hot water or 
 steam heat is provided in climates requiring it, as well as sanitary 
 plumbing with water-supply and sewerage systems; these features 
 are also being added to older dwellings not so equipped, as circum- 
 stances allow. 
 
 In some cases double or triple dwellings have been built at stations 
 with more than one keeper, but recent practice favors detached 
 houses, as insuring greater privacy, and giving the opportunity for 
 individual gardens or yards. Many reservations have areas of tillable 
 soil, on which keepers are permitted and encouraged to grow vege- 
 tables, etc., for household consumption. 
 
 Where quarters are furnished by the Government, a fuel allowance 
 is made for heating and cooking, and each station to which a Govern- 
 ment power boat is assigned is also granted an allowance of gasoline 
 or other fuel, based on the reasonable official requirements of the 
 station. 
 
 In order to avoid any possible interference to the work, persons 
 outside the Service are not permitted to occupy any premises belong- 
 ing the the Lighthouse Service; no traffic or trade is allowed to be 
 carried on within any lighthouse reservation, nor may articles be 
 exposed for sale on the premises. Visitors must be received with 
 courtesy and may be admitted in limited numbers to lighthouses at 
 prescribed hours not conflicting with the regular duties of the -keepers. 
 
LIGHTING OF BRIDGES. 79 
 
 A placard entitled ' Rules for visitors" is posted in convenient places 
 where it may be seen by such persons. Probably more visitors are 
 received at Absecon Light Station, Atlantic City, N. J., than any 
 other in the United States, about 10,000 persons visiting this light- 
 house in July, August, and September of each year. 
 
 20. SAVING OF LIFE AND PROPERTY. 
 
 While the business of the Service is primarily concerned with the 
 maintenance of aids to navigation, it frequently happens that oppor- 
 tunity presents itself to give assistance to persons or vessels in dis- 
 tress, and in such cases it is the duty of light keepers and their assis- 
 tants, and of officers and crews of lighthouse vessels, to give or 
 summon aid to vessels in distress, whether public or private, and to 
 assist in saving life and property from perils of the sea whenever it is 
 practicable to do so. The records of the Service are replete with 
 many heroic incidents of this character, and it is customary to 
 include a brief statement of this work in the Commissioner's annual 
 report, giving the name of the vessel or employee rendering this 
 service, the object or person aided, and the nature of the assistance 
 performed. Commendatory letters signed by the Secretary of Com- 
 merce are addressed to such employees, and in specially meritorious 
 cases involving great personal danger recommendation may be made 
 to the Secretary of the Treasury for the award of life-saving medals. 
 
 In the annual report for 1914 mention is made of 124 occasions on 
 which services in saving of life or property were rendered by em- 
 ployees of the Lighthouse Service, and the report of 1915 includes 
 143 similar incidents. These latter may be grouped into the follow- 
 ing general classes: 
 
 Cases. 
 
 Towing disabled small boats to safety 59 
 
 Towing larger vessels to safety 30 
 
 Furnishing food, clothing, and shelter 24 
 
 Rescuing persons overboard 20 
 
 Recovering property 5 
 
 Recovering bodies 2 
 
 Miscellaneous 3 
 
 Total : 143 
 
 21. LIGHTING OF BRIDGES. 
 
 One of the duties of the Lighthouse Service incidental to its general 
 work is the supervision of the lighting of bridges over navigable 
 waters of the United States, also of lights on sheer booms, piers, 
 dams, and similar obstructions to navigation. All parties owning, 
 occupying, or operating bridges over any navigable river are required 
 by the act of August 7, 1882, to maintain at their own expense, from 
 sunset to sunrise, throughout the year, such lights on their bridges 
 
80 UNITED STATES LIGHTHOUSE SERVICE, 1915. 
 
 as may be required by the Commissioner of Lighthouses; failure to 
 do so may subject the offender to a fine of not exceeding $100 for 
 each offense, and each day during which such violation continues is 
 considered as a new offense. 
 
 Special regulations are issued on the subject, the latest edition 
 being dated June 25, 1915, intended for the guidance of shipmasters, 
 pilots, and bridge owners. They prescribe standard methods for 
 marking the piers and waterways of bridges with various combina- 
 tions of red and green lights for different classes of bridges, illus- 
 trated by diagrams or plates showing the proper arrangements. 
 The red lights indicate danger, while the fairway is marked by 
 green lights. In the case of draw or swing bridges, mechanism must 
 be provided for changing the color from red to green and vice versa 
 as the draw is opened or closed. All lights are required to be securely 
 attached and of sufficient intensity to be visible on a dark night with 
 a clear atmosphere not less than 1 nautical mile. Provision is made 
 for exempting bridges infrequently used from the more detailed re- 
 quirements of these regulations, so long as such lights as are necessary 
 for the security of navigation are maintained in each case. 
 
 On June 30, 1915, there were 1,183 bridges lighted in accordance 
 with the regulations. The bridges are inspected at intervals and any 
 deficiency in lights is called to the attention of the owners. 
 
 22. PRIVATE AIDS TO NAVIGATION. 
 
 It is unlawful for anyone to establish or maintain any light or other 
 aid to navigation similar to those maintained by the Lighthouse 
 Service without first obtaining permission to do so from the Commis- 
 sioner of Lighthouses in accordance with regulations established by 
 the Secretary of Commerce; violation of these provisions may subject 
 the offender to a fine of not exceeding $100 per day. 
 
 In accordance with the law, those desiring to establish a private 
 aid may apply for authority, on a blank provided for the purpose, to 
 the Commissioner through the proper lighthouse inspector. This 
 application must contain the material facts relating to the proposed 
 aid, such as whether a light, fog signal, buoy, with its exact location, 
 color, and other descriptive items, in order that it may be properly 
 ascertained that no conflict will exist between this and any neighbor- 
 ing Government aid. An annual report is also required from those 
 authorized to maintain a private aid, stating its condition, and inspec- 
 tions of such aids are made at intervals by representatives of the 
 Service. Private aids authorized under the rules cover a useful pur- 
 pose in marking privately dredged channels or localities where special 
 service is required. Such aids are usually under the control of muni- 
 cipalities, corporations, yacht clubs, or other organizations. Light 
 and fog signals on ferry slips and on piers, used only by certain ves- 
 
LAWS FOR PROTECTION OF AIDS. 81 
 
 sels, and stakes, bushes, and barrel buoys marking shallow and little- 
 used channels, are not affected by these regulations. Information 
 regarding lawfully maintained private aids is printed in the customary 
 publications of the Service, the same as for Government aids, and they 
 are also entitled to the same protection of law as is afforded aids main- 
 tained by the Lighthouse Service. On June 30, 1915, there were 660 
 authorized private aids in commission, comprising 211 lights, 23 
 lighted buoys, 267 unlighted buoys, 134 other unlighted aids, and 25 
 
 fog signals. 
 
 23. LAWS FOR PROTECTION OF AIDS. 
 
 Heavy penalties are prescribed by law for obstruction to or inter- 
 ference with any aid to navigation. Exhibiting a false light, or 
 extinguishing a true light, with intent to bring any vessel into danger, 
 is a felony punishable by imprisonment of not less than 10 years, or 
 for life. Any person who obstructs or interferes with any aid to 
 navigation maintained by the Lighthouse Service, or who anchors a 
 vessel so as to obstruct range lights, may be subject to a fine of $500 
 for each offense, and each day during which the violation continues 
 may be considered as a separate offense. By a recent act of Congress 
 these provisions apply also to any lawfully maintained private aid, 
 as noted in the previous chapter. 
 
 In addition to the Federal statutes on the subject, various States 
 and Porto Rico have passed laws providing penalties to be imposed 
 on persons interfering in any manner with aids to navigation main- 
 tained by the Lighthouse Service, as follows: Maine, New Hampshire, 
 Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, 
 Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, South 
 Carolina, Florida, Alabama, Texas, Porto Rico, Ohio, Michigan, Min- 
 nesota, Wisconsin, Washington, Oregon, and California. 
 
 The Lighthouse Service takes the position, inasmuch as the aids to 
 navigation are established and maintained at heavy expense for the 
 sole purpose of safeguarding maritime interests and the lives and 
 property intrusted to then- care, that it is therefore the obvious duty 
 of masters and pilots, in their own interests, as well as those of the 
 public welfare, to exercise special care to avoid collisions with these 
 aids to navigation. Failure to do so renders persons in charge and 
 the owners of offending vessels liable for the full amount of damages 
 to aids and subjects them to the penalties prescribed by law. It is a 
 part of the duty of the Lighthouse Service to prosecute all such 
 offenders vigorously. 
 
 Making fast any vessel or boat to a buoy or beacon is an interfer- 
 ence with an aid to navigation of a serious nature, and any person 
 committing this offense is liable to prosecution. 
 
 Masters of towboats should exercise special care to avoid barges in 
 tow striking and injuring buoys, beacons, or light vessels. 
 18247 16 6 
 
82 UNITED STATES LIGHTHOUSE SERVICE, 1915. 
 
 24. PUBLICATIONS. 
 
 The principal publications of the Lighthouse Service are light lists, 
 buoy lists, and notices to mariners, all of which are distributed gra- 
 tuitously to shipmasters or pilots for their information and guidance. 
 There are three important light lists, each revised annually, contain- 
 ing information regarding lighthouses, lighted beacons, light vessels, 
 lighted buoys, and fog signals, giving in tabular form and in geograph- 
 ical sequence the name of each aid, the character and period of the 
 light, the location of the structure, with the latitude and longitude of 
 more important outside aids, the height in feet of the light above high 
 water, the distance in miles at which the light may be seen in clear 
 weather, and the approximate candlepower. Other columns give a 
 brief description of the structure, vessel, or buoy, with the height of 
 towers in feet, the characteristic blasts or strokes of the fog signal, 
 if any, and such additional explanatory remarks as may be necessary 
 in any case. The three lists mentioned are devoted respectively to 
 the Atlantic and Gulf coasts, the Great Lakes, and the Pacific coast, 
 in separate octavo volumes, with the following number of pages each 
 for the 1915 editions: Atlantic list, 357 pages; Lake List, 271 pages; 
 and Pacific List, 148 pages. These light lists aim to give all the 
 important information as to lights and fog signals in a convenient 
 manner for the purpose of mariners engaged in coastwise or trans- 
 oceanic navigation. Effort is made to publish the Atlantic and 
 Pacific Lists on January 1, or as soon after the first of the calendar 
 year as possible, and the Lake List on April 1, immediately prior to 
 the opening of the season of navigation. 
 
 In addition, the Service publishes separately for each lighthouse 
 district a buoy list, which gives a list of all the buoys in the district, 
 both lighted and unlighted, as well as all the other aids. This is 
 issued rather for the use of local authorities and pilots and for the 
 Lighthouse Service. As far as the location of buoys is concerned, 
 the larger scale charts published by the United States Coast and 
 Geodetic Survey are preferable sources of information, as such charts 
 show at a glance the location and character of all buoys and aids with 
 reference to their surroundings, and are, moreover, corrected to the 
 date of issue ; while the lists can only be brought up to date when a 
 new edition is published, about every two years. The present series 
 of buoy lists forms a set of 16 octavo volumes, ranging from about 
 125 to 20 pages each, depending on the size of the district. 
 
 Announcement of all changes in aids to navigation, information of 
 dangers, changes in shoals and channels, facts of interest affecting 
 charts and coast pilots, corrections to published lists, and similar 
 items affecting navigable waters under the jurisdiction of the United 
 States, are published weekly in a Notice to Mariners, prepared jointly 
 
PUBLICATIONS. 83 
 
 by the Coast and Geodetic Survey and the Lighthouse Service. For 
 important changes in seacoast lights and lightships used by vessels in 
 foreign trade, a supplementary poster notice is also issued for promi- 
 nent display to mariners. A Notice to Mariners covering all navi- 
 gable waters of the world is published weekly by the Hydrographic 
 Office, Navy Department. 
 
 Light lists are also issued for each of the three river districts, com- 
 prising the Mississippi River and its tributaries, covering broadly the 
 upper Mississippi, the Ohio, and the lower Mississippi, respectively. 
 These are small volumes published annually in vest-pocket size and 
 contain simply the number and name of the aid, the distance from 
 some starting point, the side of the channel, and the color of the aid. 
 
 A special publication of the Service is a small quarto pamphlet of 
 about 20 pages, including diagrams, containing the Regulations for 
 Lighting Bridges, to which reference has already been made on page 
 80. This, publication is issued only when a new edition is necessary. 
 
 The Service publication of chief interest to the general public is the 
 Annual Report of the Commissioner of Lighthouses to the Secretary 
 of Commerce, which is available for distribution after the convening 
 of Congress in regular session in December of each year, and covers 
 the work of the Service for the fiscal year ended on the preceding 
 June 30, as required by law. In its present form, this is an octavo 
 volume of about 100 pages, and gives a general description of the 
 operations and cost of the Service during the year, with recommen- 
 dations for new legislation and estimates for appropriations for the 
 second next following year, supplemented by detailed statistics of 
 various classes of aids to navigation and fuller details of many sub- 
 jects mentioned in the report proper, along with brief technical 
 descriptions of important works of construction or repair completed 
 during the year. 
 
 Other publications of the Service are of a routine character, printed 
 in limited editions, and intended more particularly for its internal 
 government and administration. A number of these have been re- 
 ferred to in the preceding pages. They embrace the Regulations, 
 the Instructions to Employees, the Medical Handbook, the Light- 
 house Service Bulletin (a monthly leaflet, commenced in January, 
 1912, containing items of interest to the Service), the Regulations for 
 Uniforms, the Civil-Service Regulations, and the various forms, 
 blanks, record books, etc., needed in the work of the Service. 
 
 Mention should also be made of the various printed specifications 
 and proposal forms issued by the Service from time to time covering 
 new vessels, lighthouses, annual supplies, and other large purchases 
 for which contract with bond is required. These are distributed to 
 prospective bidders in response to their inquiries as a result of public 
 advertisements in newspapers and other periodicals. 
 
84 UNITED STATES LIGHTHOUSE SERVICE, 1915. 
 
 25. ENGINEERING AND FISCAL MATTERS. 
 
 Careful supervision is exercised over all technical and administrative 
 work of the Service, the desire being to attain a high professional 
 standard in modern methods of design and construction, with due 
 regard to the economical expenditure of funds. 
 
 Surveys are made with especial care, with bearings given from the 
 true meridian, and the distances well checked, to insure great accu- 
 racy. Each corner where practicable is permanently marked by a 
 substantial monument and at the conclusion of the survey maps are 
 prepared showing the information obtained. All notebooks and other 
 records are preserved, and in connection with each important new 
 structure a complete record is kept of the engineering elements, such 
 as computations, stress, analyses, weights, and estimated cost. These 
 principles apply to the design of vessels as well as shore structures, 
 full details of the form characteristics of vessels being worked out by 
 curves of displacements, centers of buoyancy, coefficients, meta- 
 centers, centers of gravity with varying conditions of load, etc., in 
 order that complete stability and seaworthiness may be assured. 
 
 Plans and specifications are prepared for all important works. 
 Standard sizes of drawings are prescribed, being based on multiples 
 of the dimensions of customary letter-size sheets 8 by 10 inches in 
 size. Each drawing bears a standard title giving information regard- 
 ing the subject, the scale, date, and the persons responsible for its 
 preparation. A standard form of advertisement, proposal, instruc- 
 tions to bidders, general conditions, and contract is used throughout 
 the Service, and a number of standard plans and specifications cov- 
 ering materials, articles, and structures have been prepared for Service 
 use, as a guide to designing wherever practicable and economical. 
 
 All works of construction and repair are supervised closely in 
 order to make certain that the plans and specifications are followed, 
 and persons charged with such duty are required to keep proper con- 
 struction records and to make regular reports of progress. In the 
 case of work performed by the field forces of the Service, written 
 work orders are issued showing the work to be done and the author- 
 ized amount of expenditure. When the inspection of supplies or ma- 
 terial under purchase can be more conveniently handled by a district 
 office near the location of the contractor's shop or plant, inspectors 
 cooperate with each other by forwarding the plans, specifications, 
 and other necessary information to the office assigned this additional 
 duty. 
 
 Progress photographs are also taken from time to time to show the 
 development of work under way, and record photographs are kept 
 of all light stations and vessels, with descriptions of the construction, 
 equipment, and similar information. About 8,000 photographs of 
 
ENGINEERING AND FISCAL MATTERS. 85 
 
 various lighthouse objects are on file in the Commissioner's office; 
 covering practically every phase of the activities of the Service. 
 
 The administration of fiscal matters pertaining to the Lighthouse 
 Service forms one of its most interesting problems. A rigid economy 
 is enforced in this direction, and no expenditure is authorized or per- 
 mitted which is not necessary to render the aids to navigation efficient. 
 
 The appropriations made by Congress for the Lighthouse Service 
 may be divided into two broad classes, general and special. General 
 appropriations are those providing for the payment of salaries, and 
 the other ordinary expenses of maintenance, operation, and better- 
 ment, and are limited to the fiscal year for which appropriated, while 
 special appropriations are those designated for some specific purpose 
 usually new construction or extensive rebuilding, such as new light- 
 houses, vessels, etc., and are available until expended. The total 
 amount of special appropriations varies from time to time with the 
 needs of the Service and the action of Congress. The estimates for 
 such appropriations usually aggregate about $1,000,000 annually, and 
 the average sums so appropriated for the 10 fiscal years 1905 to 1914, 
 inclusive, amounted to $946,247. For the fiscal year 1915 the total 
 appropriations for special works were $136,000 and for 1916 the 
 amount was $250,000. 
 
 The general appropriations for the maintenance of the Service for 
 the fiscal year 1916 were $5,164,030, subdivided as follows: 
 
 Salaries, Bureau of Lighthouses $64, 030 
 
 Salaries, lighthouse keepers 940, 000 
 
 Salaries, lighthouse vessels 1, 010, 000 
 
 Salaries, Lighthouse Service 375, 000 
 
 General expenses, Lighthouse Service 2, 775, 000 
 
 Total 5, 164, 030 
 
 The names of the first three of these appropriations indicate their 
 respective objects; the appropriation " Salaries, Lighthouse Service," 
 is for the compensation of technical and clerical employees in the 
 field service, while the appropriation " General expenses' 7 covers all 
 items of supplies, repairs, maintenance, and incidental expenses 
 required in the Lighthouse Service, including the wages of laborers 
 attending post lights and pay of mechanics and laborers in the field 
 force. The law requires that these appropriations shall be so appor- 
 tioned by allotments as to prevent expenditures which may neces- 
 sitate deficiency or additional appropriations to complete the service 
 of the year; careful accounts are therefore kept and monthly reports 
 made by each district, showing under each appropriation the total 
 allotments, deductions, advances, repayments, vouchers paid or for- 
 warded for payment, and available balances. On account of the 
 casualties to which the property and equipment of the Service is 
 frequently subjected by reason of storm damage and other accidents, 
 
86 UNITED STATES LIGHTHOUSE SERVICE, 1915. 
 
 a close scrutiny of available funds is a highly necessary feature in 
 the management of the Service finances. Allotments under the 
 various general appropriations are made to the lighthouse inspectors 
 in charge of districts at the beginning of each fiscal year for operation 
 of their district during that year; all requisitions for supplies made 
 by each district, or other expenses incurred by them, are charged 
 against this allotment. This has been found advantageous in placing 
 definite responsibility for the judicious expenditure of funds and 
 increasing economy and efficiency. It is necessary when making 
 allotments to keep a small reserve to provide for storm damage or 
 other emergencies. 
 
 All purchases, except in cases of unusual emergency, are required 
 to be procured by public contracts after public advertisement for 
 proposals with the lowest and best bidder therefor. Every effort is 
 made to obtain the widest possible competition in all cases. Vouchers 
 and pay rolls are required to be checked as to quantities, prices, 
 extensions, and totals, and signed certificates of performance are 
 required on all bills, covering the receipt of the articles and the cor- 
 rectness of the quantity and quality. Payments on approved vouch- 
 ers are generally made by checks issued by duly bonded special dis- 
 bursing agents; in a few cases cash payments for services are made 
 to employees. 
 
 Property records are kept in all offices, depots, stations, and ves- 
 sels; such lists are verified and audited from time to time by inspec- 
 tors or by traveling representatives of the Commissioner, and an 
 annual inventory is taken. When changes are made in the personnel 
 having custody of property an additional inventory is required. 
 Property is divided into seven general classes, as follows : 
 
 Class 1. Issuable or expendable materials or supplies. 
 
 Class 2. Working equipment, fixtures, and fittings. 
 
 Class 3. Working tools for construction and repair. 
 
 Class 4. Buoys and appendages. 
 
 Class 5. Condemned articles. 
 
 Class 6. Shipments in transit. 
 
 Class 7. Office furniture and equipment. 
 
 A stock and stores account is kept of all expendable supplies and 
 issue is made only on approved requisitions. An invoice accom- 
 panies each shipment, a copy of which must be receipted and returned 
 to the issuing office or depot. The information obtained from this 
 stock-keeping system forms a basis for keeping an accurate cost of 
 every important feature of the work of the Lighthouse Service. The 
 results thus obtained are of value in preparing estimates, in planning 
 work, and in comparing the efficiency of different districts, vessels, 
 apparatus, methods, etc. The system used is made as simple as 
 practicable in order to save clerical expense and to avoid obscuring 
 
ENGINEERING AND FISCAL MATTERS. 87 
 
 the important facts. Separate costs are kept only of the more 
 important features and classes of expenditures; general operating 
 costs, such as tender service and administration, are not distributed, 
 and liabilities are generally not charged. 
 
 Expenditures of materials, supplies, and labor are charged the 
 same as expenditures of money. Each principal object in the 
 Service is classed as a feature, such as district offices, depots, tenders, 
 light vessels, light and fog-signal stations, etc., and a set of account 
 numbers, ranging from 10 to 24, assigned to each feature. These 
 account numbers are arranged in continuous order, and certain blank 
 numbers are allowed each feature to provide for future extensions; 
 thus numbers 1 to 19 are assigned the Commissioner's office, while 
 only 15 are in use; numbers 20 to 49 to district offices, while only up 
 to No. 34 are live numbers. The numbers are of course purely arbi- 
 trary and are used merely for convenience and abbreviation, each 
 number referring to some particular item of cost; for example, under 
 the Commissioner's office No. 1 stands for administrative salaries, 
 No. 2 for technical salaries, No. 3 for clerical salaries, No. 4 for trans- 
 portation of persons, No. 5 for freight, express, and cartage, and so 
 on, the intention being to charge each item of expenditure to an 
 appropriate number. In all cases the numbers are so arranged as to 
 divide the costs into two main headings maintenance and better- 
 ments. The cost of maintenance includes what may be considered 
 fixed expenses, such as salaries, rations, fuel, and general expendable 
 supplies. The item of betterments includes repairs, improvements, 
 and new construction and is further subdivided to show the cost of 
 labor and materials separately for each principal object. Cost 
 reports are submitted annually by all the districts, and these are 
 consolidated in the Commissioner's office to show the results for the 
 entire Service. Such statements are checked with the money 
 accounts by taking into consideration the actual cash expenditures 
 and the difference in the value of supplies on hand at the beginning 
 and end of the year. A generalized summary of costs for the fiscal 
 year ended June 30, 1915, as derived from this cost-keeping system 
 appears on pages 88 to 90. 
 
88 
 
 UNITED STATES LIGHTHOUSE SERVICE, 1915. 
 
 
 
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 Light stations: 
 First order 
 Second order 
 Third order 
 Three and one-hall 
 Fourth order 
 
 i 
 
 Minor fixed aids: 
 Fifth order 
 Sixth order 
 Lens lanterns 
 Post lights 
 Other lights 
 Daymarks, etc 
 
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90 
 
 UNITED STATES LIGHTHOUSE SERVICE, 1915. 
 
 SUMMARY OF COSTS, LIGHTHOUSE SERVICE, FISCAL YEAR ENDED JUNE 30, 1915 
 
 Continued. 
 
 AVERAGE OPERATING COSTS OF SELECTED FEATURES. 
 
 Average cost of 
 
 Sala- 
 ries. 
 
 Subsist- 
 ence. 
 
 Illumi- 
 nants. 
 
 Fuel. 
 
 Other 
 sup- 
 plies. 
 
 Inci- 
 den- 
 tals. 
 
 Total 
 mainte 
 nance. 
 
 Re- 
 pairs 
 ind im- 
 prove- 
 ments. 
 
 Total. 
 
 District office, exclusive of 
 third 
 
 S12,252 
 
 
 
 
 
 $2 025 
 
 $131 
 
 $14 408 
 
 
 $14 4('S 
 
 District depot, exclusive of 
 third 
 
 6,831 
 
 
 
 
 2 624 
 
 922 
 
 10 377 
 
 $4 6 1 6 
 
 14 993 
 
 Large tender, Pacific 
 Large tender, Atlantic. 
 
 22,612 
 18 6c5 
 
 $5,945 
 5 80 
 
 
 
 $9,724 
 8 025 
 
 4,055 
 3 063 
 
 286 
 213 
 
 42,622 
 35 846 
 
 5,458 
 3 740 
 
 48,087 
 
 OQ C07 
 
 Medium tender 
 
 14, 740 
 
 4 604 
 
 
 4,865 
 
 2*399 
 
 277 
 
 26 885 
 
 3 721 
 
 30 606 
 
 Exposed light vessel 
 
 8 053 
 
 1 941 
 
 $77 
 
 1 197 
 
 '854 
 
 99 
 
 12 221 
 
 3 693 
 
 15*914 
 
 Moderately exposed light 
 vessel 
 
 4 473 
 
 1 231 
 
 82 
 
 280 
 
 622 
 
 10 
 
 6 698 
 
 3 784 
 
 
 Lake light vessel 
 
 3 ? 323 
 
 950 
 
 105 
 
 300 
 
 292 
 
 22 
 
 4*992 
 
 1*218 
 
 6 21O 
 
 First-order light stations 
 with powerful fog signals. . 
 First-order light stations 
 without fog signals 
 
 2,465 
 1,800 
 
 430 
 330 
 
 135 
 147 
 
 277 
 110 
 
 248 
 208 
 
 23 
 24 
 
 3,578 
 2 619 
 
 1,032 
 515 
 
 4,610 
 3 134 
 
 Fourth-order light stations 
 with powerful fog signal 
 Fourth-order light stations 
 without fog signal 
 
 1,430 
 658 
 
 287 
 131 
 
 65 
 34 
 
 272 
 44 
 
 195 
 99 
 
 17 
 g 
 
 2,226 
 974 
 
 632 
 295 
 
 2,898 
 1 269 
 
 Lens lantern 
 
 189 
 
 21 
 
 18 
 
 5 
 
 11 
 
 
 245 
 
 a 31 
 
 *276 
 
 Minor li-rht, river districts 
 
 90 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 95 
 
 a l 
 
 96 
 
 Minor light, other districts... 
 
 121 
 
 
 11 
 
 
 5 
 
 1 
 
 138 
 
 a 14 
 
 152 
 
 Hi^h-pressure acetylene light 
 Hi^h-pressure acetvlene buoy 
 
 36 
 
 3 
 
 30 
 36 
 
 2 
 
 8 
 651 
 
 4 
 1 
 
 83 
 
 88 
 
 ol57 
 a 15 
 
 240 
 c 103 
 
 Low-pressure acetylene buoy 
 
 
 
 130 
 
 
 622 
 
 
 152 
 
 a 22 
 
 c 174 
 
 Oil-gas buoy 
 
 
 
 32 
 
 
 621 
 
 1 
 
 54 
 
 a 7 
 
 cgi 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 a Figures do not include cost of establishment cf new aids. 
 
 6 Figures include transportation charges of all kinds, such as freight on new buoys, etc. 
 
 c Figures do not include renewal of appendages. 
 
 With reference to the cost of establishing new aids, so much depends 
 upon the local conditions that little definite information can be given. 
 The following approximate statements, however, furnish some idea of 
 the prevailing range. Minor lights cost from about $100 to $10,000 
 each; lighthouses with quarters, and fog signal where necessary, from 
 $40,000 to $200,000 and over per station. The light and fog signal at 
 St. George Reef, Cal., the most expensive lighthouse thus far con- 
 structed in this country, cost nearly $800,000; it is on Northwest 
 Seal Rock, 65 miles off the northern coast of California, in the Pacific 
 Ocean; construction was commenced in 1883, and the light first 
 exhibited in October, 1892. Lighthouse tenders cost from $20,000 
 to $250,000 each, depending on their size and duty; the average 
 medium-sized tender will cost now about $150,000. A first-class 
 self-propelling light vessel will cost about $130,000; smaller and less 
 powerful vessels may be built for down to about $70,000. Lighted 
 buoys cost from about $800 to $5,000 each, the larger and more 
 expensive sizes being needed for outside stations. Whistling buoys 
 cost about $500 each, and bell buoys about $400 each, cans and nuns, 
 including also iron spars, range from about $50 to $300 each, depend- 
 ing on size, while first-class wooden spars are about $35 each, with 
 corresponding reductions lor smaller classes. The cost of moorings 
 
EXHIBITS OF THE LIGHTHOUSE SERVICE. 91 
 
 for buoys is not included in any type mentioned; this will vary from 
 a few dollars to $500 and over per buoy, depending on the location 
 and depth of water. 
 
 26. EXHIBITS OF THE LIGHTHOUSE SERVICE. 
 
 It has been the custom of the Lighthouse Service for many years to 
 participate in various national expositions and similar occasions, by 
 a display of various articles and equipment used in its work, illus- 
 trating some of the progress made, the apparatus or methods 
 employed, and the results so obtained. As a part of the collective 
 exhibit of the Department of Commerce, similar steps were taken in 
 connection with the Panama-Pacific International Exhibition, held 
 at San Francisco during the current year. 
 
 The Lighthouse Service was allotted approximately 3,300 square 
 feet of space in the north end of the Machinery Building, and the 
 sum of $4,750 from the appropriation for the Government's exhibit 
 as a whole. It was planned to make the exhibit of interest from 
 both a historical and practical point of view. 
 
 The historic features included a collection of water colors, painted 
 in 1859, of early light stations on the Pacific; the old 10-pounder 
 cannon used from 1855 to 1857 at Point Bonita, Cal., being the first 
 fog signal on the Pacific coast; the first Fresnel lens imported into 
 this country in 1841 for use at Navesink, N. J., as well as the first 
 lens used on the Pacific coast at Alcatraz, Cal., in 1854; also a col- 
 lection of old lamps used for burning sperm oil, lard oil, and early 
 plunger and air-pressure lamps for kerosene. 
 
 From a practical standpoint, the exhibit included 50 enlarged 
 photographs of important lighthouse objects, with models to scale of 
 a number of important light stations and vessels. A modern flashing 
 lens and lantern, also improved forms of fog-bell strikers and a recent 
 type of compressed-air fog-signal, using a 6-inch siren were shown. 
 An unusual and striking feature was the inclusion of a portion of the 
 illuminating and fog-signal apparatus for the new lighthouse now 
 under construction at Cape St. Elias, Alaska, embracing, among other 
 equipment, the complete parapet deck, watch room, and helical bar 
 lantern, a massive metal structure standing 29 feet high above the floor 
 level and weighing approximately 44,000 pounds. Present practice 
 in lamps was illustrated by incandescent oil-vapor outfits of 35 and 
 55 millimeter mantles, along with smaller sizes of lens and post lan- 
 terns. Typical sizes and types of buoys, such as whistling, bell, cans, 
 and nuns, with ballast balls, sinkers, and anchors were also shown. 
 
 The attendants on duty were experienced lighthouse keepers, 
 selected from the Pacific coast districts for details of about three 
 weeks each, who were present in uniform to care for and explain the 
 apparatus. 
 
92 
 
 UNITED STATES LIGHTHOUSE SERVICE, 1915. 
 
 I 
 
PAST AND PRESENT OFFICERS ' 
 
 THE SERVICE. 
 
 93 
 
 A medal of honor was awarded^ih^ -exhioit' J by J the J Exposition 
 authorities, and silver medals were awarded to those officers of the 
 Service who collaborated in the preparation of the exhibit. Similar 
 awards and tokens have been granted to previous exhibits made by 
 the Lighthouse Service in past years at other expositions, among which 
 may be mentioned the International Exposition at Vienna in 1873, 
 the Centennial Exhibition at Philadelphia in 1876, the Third Inter- 
 national Geographic Congress at Venice in 1881, the International 
 Fisheries Exhibition at London in 1883, the Industrial Exhibition at 
 Cincinnati in 1884, the World's Columbian Exhibition at Chicago 
 in 1893, the Trans-Mississippi Exposition at Omaha in 1898, the 
 Pan-American Exposition at Buffalo in 1901, and the Louisiana 
 Purchase Exposition at St. Louis in 1904. 
 
 27. PAST AND PRESENT OFFICERS OF THE SERVICE. 
 
 The names of officers in direct charge of the operations of the 
 Lighthouse Service, from the time of the establishment of the Federal 
 Government to the present, with their respective dates of service, 
 are given in the table below. In colonial days the management of 
 the lights was in the hands of the local authorities of the various 
 colonies and provinces. It should be observed that up to 1820 many 
 matters, involving even routine business, were approved personally 
 by the President. 
 
 Name. 
 
 From 
 
 To 
 
 PRIOR TO THE LIGHTHOUSE BOARD. 
 
 Alexander Hamilton, Secretary of the Treasury 
 
 Aug. 7, 1789 
 
 May 8, 1792 
 
 Tench Coxe, Commissioner of the Revenue. 
 
 May 9, 1792 
 
 Jan. 21, 1798 
 
 William Miller, jr., Commissioner of the Revenue 
 
 Jan. 22,1798 
 
 Apr. 6, 1802 
 
 Albert Gallatin, Secretary of the Treasury 
 
 Apr. 7 1802 
 
 July 24 1813 
 
 Samuel H. Smith, Commissioner of the Revenue 
 
 July 31,1813 
 
 Dec. 31,1819 
 
 Stephen Pleasonton, Fifth Auditor of the Treasury 
 
 Jan. 7, 1820 
 
 Oct. 8, 1852 
 
 CHAIRMEN OF LIGHTHOUSE BOARD. 
 
 William B. Shubrick, captain, U. S. Navy ... 
 
 Oct. 9, 1852 
 
 Feb. 7, 1859 
 
 Lawrence Kearney, captain, U. S. Navy 
 
 Feb. 7, 1859 
 
 June 6, 1859 
 
 William B. Shubrick, rear admiral, U. S. Navy 
 
 June 6, 1859 
 
 Oct. 30,1871 
 
 Prof. Joseph Henry, LL. D. (Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution) 
 John Rodgers, rear admiral, U. S. Navy... 
 
 Oct. 30,1871 
 June 23,1878 
 
 May 13,1878 
 May 5, 1882 
 
 Robert H. Wyman, rear admiral, U. S. Navy 
 
 June 5. 1882 
 
 Dec. 2, 1882 
 
 Stephen C. Rowan, vice admiral, U. S. Navy. . 
 
 Jan. 18,1883 
 
 Feb. 26,1889 
 
 David P. Harmony, rear admiral, U. S. Navy 
 
 Feb. 27,1889 
 
 May 29,1891 
 
 James M. Greer, rear admiral, U. S. Navy 
 
 June 1, 1891 
 
 Dec. 1, 1894 
 
 John G. Walker, rear admiral, U. S. Navy 
 
 Dec. 4, 1894 
 
 Mar. 23,1897 
 
 Winfield S. Schley, commodore, U. S. Navy. 
 
 Apr. 5, 1897 
 
 Mar. 25,1898 
 
 F. V. McNair, rear admiral, U. S. Navy 
 
 Apr. 4,1898 
 
 July 5, 1898 
 
 Rush R. Wallace, commodore U. S. Navy 
 
 Jnly 11,1898 
 
 Oct. 3, 1898 
 
 Francis J. Higginson, commodore, U. S. Navv 
 Norman H. Farquhar, rear admiral, U. S. Navy 
 George C. Remey, rear admiral U. S. Navy 
 
 Oct. 3, 1898 
 May 2, 1901 
 May 6, 1902 
 
 Apr. 22,1901 
 
 May 6, 1902 
 Aug. 8, 1903 
 
 John J. Read, rear admiral U S Navv 
 
 Aug. 8, 1903 
 
 June 17 1904 
 
 Robley D. Evans, rear admiral, U. S. Navy 
 
 June 20,1904 
 
 Jan. 5, 1905 
 
 Benjamin P. Lamberton, rear admiral, U. S. Navy 
 George C. Reiter, rear admiral, U. S. Navy 
 
 Jan. 6, 1905 
 Feb. 25,1906 
 
 Feb. 25,1906 
 Dec. 31,1907 
 
 A. Marix, rear admiral, U. S. Navy 
 
 Jan. 6, 1908 
 
 June 30 1910 
 
 COMMISSIONER OF UGIITHOUSrS. 
 
 George R . Putnam 
 
 July 1, 1910 
 
 
 
 
 
94 
 
 UNITED STATES LIGHTHOUSE SERVICE, 1915. 
 
 The present principal officers of the Service are George R. Putnam, 
 M. Am. Soc. C. E., Commissioner of Lighthouses; John S. Conway, 
 M. Am. Soc. C. E., Deputy Commissioner; H. B. Bowerman, M. Am. 
 Soc. C. E., chief constructing engineer; and Edward C. Gillette, 
 superintendent of naval construction. 
 
 The lighthouse inspectors, with the duty or district assigned to 
 each, were as follows on December 1, 1915: 
 
 District. 
 
 Inspector. 
 
 District. 
 
 Inspector. 
 
 General duty .. 
 
 Everett M. Trott. 
 
 Twelfth 
 
 Lewis M. Stoddard. 
 
 First 
 
 Carl E. Sherman 
 
 Thirteenth 
 
 Maj. George M. Hoffman, Corps of 
 
 Second .. 
 
 Ralph H. Goddard. 
 
 
 Engineers, U.S. Army. 
 
 Third 
 
 Joseph T. Yates. 
 
 Fourteenth .... 
 
 Col. Lansing II. Bea^h, Corps of 
 
 Fourth 
 
 Thomas J. Rout, 
 
 
 Engineers, U. S. Army; M. Am. 
 
 Fifth 
 
 Harold D. King. 
 
 
 Soc. C. E. 
 
 Sixth 
 
 Henry L Beck 
 
 Fifteenth 
 
 Mai Wildurr Willing, Corps of 
 
 Seventh 
 
 Wm W. Demeritt. 
 
 
 Engineers. U. S. Army. 
 
 Eighth. . . 
 
 Benj. B. Dorry. 
 
 Sixteenth 
 
 Walter C. Dibrell. 
 
 Ninth . . 
 
 Camille A. Lamy. 
 
 Seventeenth 
 
 Robert Warrack. 
 
 Tenth 
 
 Roscoe House. 
 
 Eighteenth 
 
 Harry W. Rhodes. 
 
 Eleventh 
 
 Edward L. Woodruff, M. Am. 
 
 Nineteenth 
 
 Arthur E. Arledge, Assoc. M. Am. 
 
 
 Soc. C. E. 
 
 
 Soc.C. E. 
 
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