^^I^^^>^^^^0I^^^^^' BEKf RBVISBE) KDITION. I A COMPLETE Dictionary of Dry Goods AND HISTORY OF Silk, Cotton, Linen, Wool and other Fibrous Substances INCLUDING A FULL EXPLANATION OF THE MODERN PROCESSES OF SPINNING, DYEING AND WEAVING, WITH AN APPENDIX CONTAINING A TREATISE ON WINDOW TRIMMING, GERMAN WORDS AND PHRASES, WITH THEIR ENGLISH PRONUNCIATION AND SIGNIFICATION, TOGETHER WITH VARIOUS USEFUL TABLES. By GEORGE S. COLE. 1892. Entered according to the Act of Congress in the year 1892, by George S. Cole, in the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington, D. C. ALL RIGHTS AND PRIVILEGES RESERVED. TS 'To please the flesh, a thousand arts contenot, The raiser's heaps of g-olc?, the figur'd vest. The gem, the sillf worm and the purple dye. By toil acquir'd, promote no other end." PREFACE. IN presenting to the Dry Goods trade its first DICTIONARY (of American origin) the compiler feels confident that the time and labor devoted to make the work accurate and com- plete will commend it to the favorable consideration of every- one connected with the business. In the retail, wholesale, and manufacturing branches of the Dry Goods trade, within the boundaries of the United States, there are over one million people engaged; in point of money invested, number of hands employed, and annual volume of business done, it easily ranks first in importance among all the industries which have grown and prospered since the beginning of civilization in the Western world. Indeed, the Dry Goods trade of the United States has more money in- vested in it than any other two interests in the country esti- mated at the enormous sum of $20,000,000,000, while the next in order, the railroad, has only between $10,000,000,000 and $12,000,000,000. The part which the manufacture and sale of Dry Goods, in the term's widest meaning, has had in the building up of our national prosperity occupies no secondary position. It without doubt forms the greatest feature of our Nation's commercial life. The Dry Goods store is found in every village and hamlet, and is the center of trade and barter in all rural communities. In the larger towns and cities the Dry Goods interest predominates in the same manner as in the smaller, forming by far the most important department of business, and aiding to a certain extent in sustaining all other branches of trade. The various lines form a business of such magnitude, involve so much capital, and is in every way so intimately interwoven w'th the varied wants of our modern civilization that it seems remarkable, in a country like ours, that not even a classification of the kinds of our textile fabrics nor the modern methods employed in their production has ever been attempted, to say nothing of a systematic history of them That there should be such neglect of textile history, rich as it is in incident and importance, when costume and popular customs are so closely studied, is passing strange. Very much of the true, history of the people, high and low, can be traced through their indulgence in fine fabrics, to which mankind, women included, have ever been prone. But this aspect of trade and manufactures is rarely mentioned, except as glossed over by ponderous encyclopaedic works, whose trade articles when relieved of the obscuring folds of verbal drapery yield but a scant amount of actual information. The plan of the "DICTIONARY OF DRY GOODS" includes several objects, which, briefly stated, are: the proper descrip- tion of all textile fabrics and manufactured articles; the peculiarities which distinguish a fabric and by which it may be identified; the method of weaving or manufacture; the origin of the names of all fabrics, with the history and literature of the subject; the definition of terms, words and phrases which have only a trade application, and which have sprung up with the development of the business in the nineteenth century; and the import duties under the new tariff on all goods, raw or manufactured. The DICTIONARY is designed to be a practi- cally complete and comprehensive record of all fabrics which are in general use at the present time, together with full ex- planations of the modern process of carding, spinning, dyeing, weaving, knitting, netting, bleaching, and felting, constituting a book for general reference by merchants and clerks. No labor or expense has been spared to make the work serve the purposes for which it is intended; the statements, figures, and tables which are presented are given only on the faith of recognized authorities, and in reducing the chaos of particulars relating to the history, literature, manufacture, sale, and distinguishing characteristics of textile fabrics strict and. careful attention has been paid to accuracy. If the DICTIONARY will aid the apprentice to more fully understand the essential points of his chosen occupation, or furnish the more experienced salesman with correct informa- tion upon subjects of which he is in ignorance, the hope that inspired its preparation will be amply realized. GEO. S. COLE. A COMPLETE DICTIONARY OF DRY GOODS. Abb Wool. In wool-sorting one of the two qualities known as coarse abb and fine abb; the lowest quality of wool used in the spinning of wor- sted yarns. Abnet. [From Hebrew abnet, a belt.] In Jewish antiquity a girdle of fine linen. In surgery a bandage resembling a priest's girdle. Acca. [From Acre, a city in Syria, whence it was first obtained.] A rich figured silk fabric decorated with gold, in use during the fourteenth century. Adulteration of Fabrics. Woolens have been for years past largely adulterated with refuse fibers called "shoddy and mungo;" also known under the terms of "extracts" and "flocks." It is truly wonderful the man- ner and to the degree which this dust can be mixed with chemicals in order to give it sufficient tenuity for spinning. The practice is now more largely in vogue than ever, for there is hardly a yard of cheap cloth that does not 8 COLE'S DICTIONARY OF DRY GOODS. AGR contain it. Shoddy, as originally used, was merely the fluff or waste from the looms, but now consists of any kind of woolen rubbish, as old blankets, hose, and cast-off clothing pulled to pieces in a machine called the "devil." [See SHODDY.] There is yet another kind of refuse called "extract," which is also employed in the manufacture of cheap goods. It consists of the wool obtained from the rags of mixed goods, that is, old rags which have a cotton, linen or silk warp. In order to separate the wool from the cotton or linen, the rags are immersed in sulphuric acid, which destroys the unde- sirable linen or cotton, but leaves the wool intact. To separate wool from silk the rags are given a bath in cold nitric acid which completely dissolves the silk but does not affect the wool. Calico and low grades of muslin are often adulterated with size and china clay, the object being to give them increased weight and substance. Up to about thirty years ago the "sizing" of cotton goods w?.s effected with a mixture of flour, paste and tallow, by which means the tenacity of the warp was increased, and the friction of weaving was lessened. To effect this, twenty per cent of size was used; but in 1862, when on account of the war our cotton famine began to be felt and the long-fibered cotton grew scarce, it was found necessary to give tenacity to the warp threads made of short fiber by using more "size." In this manner as much as from fifty to ninety per cent of size has got to be used, the greater part of it being china clay. Cheap calico and muslin are also largely impregnated with lime, and a cloud of dust will fly out of such fabrics when torn. Silks are also made heavier and stouter by the incorporation of dye- stuffs used expressly for this purpose. These are termed "weighted" or "loaded" silks. [See SILK]. Agra Gauze. A cobwebby fabric woven of gossamer silk threads. It is transparent as veiling, light as air, yet firm and strong. Its consistency may be realized from the fact that a piece four yards long and fourty-four inches wide, can be enclosed in the palm of the hand. Aida Canvas (a '-da canvas.) A species of canvas woven of pure linen, and frequently called "Java" and "Fancy Oatmeal." It is made in widths varying from 18 to 54 inches, in all the colors. A cotton canvas of the same weave is known by different names, such as Basket, Con- naught, etc. Aigrette (a'-gret or a-gret').. A French word used to denote the plume or feathery tuft on the heads of several varieties of birds, as the heron. Hence the term came to be used to designate the long, delicate, white feathers which being stuck upright in a lady's head-dress, are cal- culated to give a majestic appearance to the person. More recently the usage has been still further extended, and any head-dress bearing a simil- arity to a plume, even a bouquet of flowers fastened with a brooch, is termed an aigrette. ALA COLE'S DICTIONARY OF DRY GOODS. 9 Alamode (al'-a-mode). A thin, glossy silk used for hoods and scarfs. Alaska. The name given to a variety of sandal-shaped overshoes, without fastenings of any sort, having cloth uppers and rubber soles. [See RUBBERS.] Albatross (al'-ba-tross). A soft untwilled woolen dress fabric; properly a soft fine bunting, known by the various names of "Satin Moss," "Vicuna," (the stoutest make), "Snowflake," (which is fluked), and "Antique Cloth." It is of an irregular weave, which produces a surface-appearance similar to momie cloth or cretonne. Albert-cloth. An all-wool material the two sides of which are of different colors and patterns, each side finished so that no lining is required; used chiefly for men's reversible overcoats. Alexis (a-lex'-is.) A style of fur cap for men, distinguished by the crown being made long and deep so that it may be pulled down over the ears and neck, and finished without roll or vizor. Alizarin (al-i-za'-rin). [From al-i-za-ri, the commercial name of madder in Asia.] A peculiar red coloring matter formerly obtained from the madder plant [see TURKEY-RED.] At present alizarin is an artificial madder-dye obtained from coal-tar, and which in point of commercial importance far exceeds any of the other 400 shades of colors derived from that source. [See DYEING, CALICO-PRINTING.] Alpaca. The wooly hair of an animal of the camel tribe, which inhabit the mountainous districts of Chili and Peru. In appearance this wool is fine, white and glossy, from two to six inches in length. It retains that peculiar gloss and beauty after being woven into textures, which particu- larly distinguish it from other species of wool. Alpaca is shipped to this country in bales of seventy pounds each, and is assorted on arrival into eight qualities, each suitable for a particular grade of goods. The earliest manufacture of the dust-defying Alpaca fabric was in Bradford, England, m 1832 by Sir Titus Sault, at which time the fabric was made with a worsted warp and Alpaca weft, and very heavy. At the present time it is known as a thin, shiny, double-fold dress fabric, usually black, with a fine cotton warp. Altar Cloth. A general term, formerly designating the closed case of linen used for covering an altar, and which was never allowed to be removed except for washing ; later, temporary coverings, whether of white linen or of rich brocaded cloth or embroidery. Ordinarily at present altar cloths are not used bv the Protestant churches except at communion services. Aluminum (al-u'-mi-num.) An extremely light metal made from Ice- Jand spar. Aside from its lightness and strength, it is malleable, does not rust, is as beautiful as silver, and is much more abundant in its native state 10 COLE'S DICTIONARY OF DRY GOODS. ALU than any metal in use. While Iceland spar is the mineral from which it has been mostly obtained, it is a constituent of clay and other earth, and prevails almost anywhere. The statement has been made that it composes more than a twentieth part of the crust of the globe. The difficulty is to secure it in a pure state at a moderate cost. But within the last half cen- tury its cost has been reduced from over $30 a pound to less than $1. In a series of tests made by the United States naval officers at Watertown, Mass., a tensile strength of 90,000 pounds to the square inch was shown, which is largely in excess of anything before developed. The transverse strength of the metal was found to be 6,600 pounds to the square inch, a result that has only beer, equaled by the finest quality of crucible steel. Busy brains and hands are constantly at work to reduce the expense of manufacturing the pure metal, and as the incentive to success is very powerful, their labors are not likely to be discontinued. If they prove satisfactory, as there is reason to hope they will, a wonderful change in the line of notions and fancy goods will have been entered upon. Aluminum is lighter than wood and takes a polish like burnished silver. It not only does not rust, either in air or water, but retains its polish for an indefinite period. Transform in imagination the counters and shelving of stores, or even the fronts of the buildings themselves, the railings, balconies and floors to shining silver, and a glimpse may be had of the coming effect of aluminum by the qual- ities now claimed for it. The like has not been pictured since St. John spoke of the golden streets and pearly gates of the New Jerusalem. American Cloth. A name given in England to a cotton cloth, pre- pared with a glazed and varnished surface to imitate Morocco leather, used for carriage trimming; known in the United States as enameled or oil cloth. Angola. A diaper-woven cotton cloth with a fine rough face, some- what resembling a momie-weave. It is usually a cream color, and is em- ployed for embroidery purposes. Angora Wool or Mohair. Of all animals whose fleece is largely used in the manufacture of fabrics, there is probably none so little known as the Angora goat. And when Mohair dress goods, Mohair plush or Mohair laces are mentioned it is exceedingly unlikely that one dry-goods salesman out of ten can tell whence comes the raw material out of which the goods are manufactured. These goats derive their name from Angora, a city in Asia Minor, 217 miles southeast of Constantinople. There is no historical mention of them previous to the 16th century, and it was not until 1820 that Mohair became a steady article of import into England. The Angora goat should not be confounded with 9ur common goat, nor with the Cashmere goat, which are quite different species. The fleece of the Angora is soft and silky and the whitest known to the trade, elastic and wiry in character, covering the whole body and the greater part of the legs with close-matted ANG COLE'S DICTIONARY OF DRY GOODS. 11 ringlets, which attain a length of 4 to 5 inches. The fleece is composed of two kinds of hair; that next to the skin being short and coarse, the other being curly and lustrous, both however, being totally devoid of felting properties. The goats are sheared in the early spring, and the average yield per goat is about 2^ pounds. The best quality comes from Constan- tinople. The care of these goats is the chief industry of Turkish people in the Angora districts. Each farmer possesses not to exceed 20 or 30 to which he gives the greatest care, in many instances living under the same roof with them. They are washed and curried several times a week, for greater the care, the more hair is produced. The fineness of the fleece is due in a large measure to the climate and soil. The amount of wool pro- duced by the Angora district amounts to about 5,250,000 pounds yearly, but of this only about 1,000,000 pounds can be picked out for the finest grade of upholstery and car plushes. In the year 1845, the increasing demand for. and value of Mohair stimulated endeavors to acclimatize the Angora goat in other regions. All European endeavors having failed on account of the extremely damp and uncongenial climate of that conntry, in 1849 Dr. J. P. Davis imported some flocks to America. They are now found in large numbers both in the South and far West, New Mexico, California and Ore- gon. It is only in high altitudes and dry atmosphere that the flocks will thrive. The annual product of American fleeces averages about 700,000 pounds. The climate and soil of New Mexico is especially favorable for Angora flocks and there they multiply rapidly, the ewes always bearing two and frequently three kids at a litter, twice a year. The American Angoras, however, are not the pure breed, and consequently produce an inferior quality of Mohair. The Turkish government issued an edict many years ago against the exportation of these goats, hence the American raisers are obliged to replenish their flocks with Angoras from other districts in Asia. Whether the United States can produce Mohair of the best quality is yet to be determined, for 'It is well known that certain localties possess specific qualities for the production of wool or hair of a distinct character. This was shown many years ago, when the rage for bright-haired dress goods was so marked as to suggest that the supply of bright-haired wool was in- adequate to the demand. The peculiarities of a district for growing wool or hair of a certain character are hard to explain, but experience has shown that a locality will produce to advantage only one class of wool or hair. This is illustrated by the history of the growth of what are known to the trade as " lustre wools." Of all the wide area on the earth's surface that produces wool, no localities produce wools of pure lustre except cer- tain districts in England, comprising the counties of York, Nottinghan, Lincoln, Leicester and Northumberland. These will produce bright wool and no other. It is not alone in the breed of sheep raised there for if this breed is taken elsewhere from its own pasture ground, the character of the wool deterioates, and after the first year ceases to be sold as lustre wool. On the other hand if any breed of sheep are taken to the favored lustre dis 1-2 COLE'S DICTIONARY OF DRY GOODS. ANG tricls to be wintered and shorn, the fleece possesses almost as much luster as that of the sheep that has been raised there. Numerous attempts to pro- dace luster wool, made in what are regarded as the best districts in the United States for wool growing, have failed to maintain in the sheep those qualities which in its original home produced the finest lustre wool. To use the phrase of the trade, the "breed grows out," and the sheep soon become identical, as regards the fleece, with all others that have been reared \:\ the locality. What is true of one animal fiber is true of others, and while there is no doubt that the Angora goat will live and thrive in the United States, the question to be decided by experience is, whether it will in any other than its native place produce its characteristically beautiful, silky, lustrous fleece. Mohair, as the hair or wool of the Angora goat is called, is a brilliant, elastic, tough, wiry fibre of enormous durability, and, owing to its elas- ticity, is well adapted for pile fabrics, such as plush, carriage and lap robes, or in braids, bindings, shoelaces and other purposes, the number of which is only limited by the supply of raw material. It is also used for making Utrecht velvet, or furniture plush, for the upholstering of railway cars, etc. The mohair used in the manufacture of seal plushes for ladies' cloaks, is made from the first clip in the second year of the animal, and is hard to obtain, selling at Constantinople at seventy-five cents per pound. Until the last few years England held an entire monopoly of the spin- ning and manufacture of mohair, but after many attemps our manufac- turers have succeeded in making goods that not only compare favorably, but excel those of the bes. English makes. [See MOHAIR.] Angora Cashmere. A term employed to denote a certain kind of cloth made in imitation of camels'-hair cloth, which is made of the long, white hair of the Angora goat of Turkey. Angora Cashmere is twilled like common cashmere; is of a light quality, and in width 27, 48 and 54 inches. Aniline. One of the very numerous products of the distillation of coal tar. The readiness with which aniline, in certain of its reactions, produced very brilliant colors was known to chemists since ]>26. Up to the year 1858, however it possessed nothing beyond a scientific interest, and had it not been for the untiring industry of Mr. W II. Perkin, dyers would proba- bly have gone on in the good old way of dyeing fabrics with the extracts of plants and tree-bark until the end of time. In 1858 Mr. Perkin obtained a patent for the production of a dye stuff derived from aniline which soon became well-known as mauve, or "Perkin's purple," as well as by various other names. The discovery of Mr. Perkin formed the turning point in the history of aniline, and was indeed the beginning of a great revolution in the arts and manufactures connected with the dyeing of textile fabrics. The manufacture of aniline dyes was first begun in France. It immediately spread to all industrial centres, and became one of the most eagerly inves- tigated of all commercial undertakings. A rapid succession of patents ANG COLE'S DICTIONARY OF DRY GOODS. 13 I were applied for and obtained; new processes and combinations were con- tinually being projected, and a great variety of colors were tried, with more or less success, as commercial substances. The activity of scientific re- rearch kept pace with the energy of manufacturing enterprise, resulting in a rapid improvement of processes, decrease in the cost of manufacture, and a great increase in the beauty and tinctorial effect of the dyes pro- duced. At the present time every color, and all tints and shades of colors, are produced from aniline, which in turn is derived primarily from coal-tar and, while the processes employed and the combinations formed are very numerous, the names under which the dye-stuffs are sold must be said to be endless. All shades and sorts of aniline dyes communicate a permanent color to wool and silk, but only produce on vegetable fibres cotton, jute, linen, etc. a fugitive, easily-washed-out stain. But in order to produce the best results with silk and wool, dyers need good soft water, so that every fibre will be made to absorb all the color possible, in order to make them indellible. With hard water this can not be accomplished, and in some places dyers have been obliged to sink artesian wells at a heavy outlay. About the time of the French- Austrian war, in 1859, a coal-tar dye was in- troduced into commerce which became known as aniline red, or magenta, from the battle fought on the day of its invention. Aniline colors are em- ployed in the industrial arts for numerous other purposes besides their great use as dyeing materials. Violet ink, and other fancy colored inks, are pre- pared from them. They are used by paper manufacturers for tinting pulps, and for the superficial staining of finished paper. They are likewise used in the printing of wall papers, in the preparation ot lithographic inks, and to some extent for water colors. They are largely employed as color- ing materials in perfumery, fancy soaps and cosmetics, besides having many other.minor applications. Concerning these dyes, Dr. Hofmann, an Englishman, to whom the industry is much indebted, wrote, in 1862, while it was yet in its infancy, "Instead of disbursing her annual millions for these substances, England will, beyond question, at no distant day become her- self the greatest color-producing country in the world; nay, by the very strangest of revolutions, she may ere long send her coal derived blues to indigo-growing India; her distilled crimson to cochineal-producing Mexico, and her fossil substitutes for quercitron and safflower to China, Japan and other countries whence the articles are now derived." It is scarcely needful to say that these bold anticipations made thirty years ago have already been fully realized. Applique (ap-pli-ka'). In modern dress and upholstery this term signifies applied or sewed on. Thus, the gimp or pattern of soiled lace may be sewed upon a new ground, or embroidered flowers may be secured to new silk; in such case the pattern or ornament is said to be applique, and the whole applique work. More generally, said of one material fixed upon another in ornamental work. Point Applique is point lace, in which the design, 14 COLE'S DICTIONARY OF DRY GOODS. APR after having been separately made, has been applied to the net which forms the foundation. Apron. The apron dates far back. Ever since over first parents ages and ages ago sewed fig leaves into aprons to conceal their nakedness, this style of garment has been a la mode. The Greeks and Romans were famous for their richly embroidered aprons. In the time of Queen Charlotte of England, Beau Brummel showed his dislike to them by deliberately removing the apron of a duchess and flinging it behind a sofa at a ball; and Mary, Queen of Scots, history asserts, left behind her when she was beheaded nearly one hundred aprons of various hues and fashions. An English illustration made in the 13th century shows a blacksmith at work in an apron similar in shape to that still worn by men of that class. At that time they were -known under the name of "barm- skins." The exact origin of the word apron is unsettled, although it is supposed to be derived from the French naperon, a large cloth, whence also our word napkin, a small cloth. We call them by many names now, the fig leaves of Adam and Eve having developed by slow degrees into a valuable series of pin-a-fores, suitable for the infant in arms, or the man and woman to whom labor is the natural result having come into existence. Arctics. A heavy variety of rubber overshoes, distinguished by hav- ing a cloth top which buckles up over the ankles, rubber heels and soles, and a nappy wool lining. [See RUBBERS, INDIA RUBBER.] Areophane. A variety of crape, but considerably thinner than the ordi- nary kind. It was formerly used chiefly for bonnet trimmings, and quii- lings, and is now to some extent employed for ball costumes. It is made in all colors, and is cut like all crape, on the bias. [See CREPE DE CHINE.] Armozeen (ar-mo-zeen'). [From French artnoisin.} A kind of taffeta or plain silk used for women's dresses in the 18th century and earlier. Armureor Royal Arinure. [French for "armor".] The word is sugges- tive of the style of weaving. In feudal times an armor was worn by men made of small metal plates and lapping over one another like fish scales, so as to be flexible with every movement of the body. The weave of armure silk dress fabric is an imitation of this armor, the surface ridge of the pattern always forming a small diamond or other angled figure. There is also Satin Armure and Armure Bosphore, this latter being reversible. Royal Armure is heavier than ordinary' dress silk; the widths vary from 22 to 24 inches. Arras (ar'-as). Arras cloth takes its name from the town of Arras, situated in the north of France. In the fourteenth century this place was the chief seat of French tapestry manufacture, for both quality and quan- tity. Hence, in time, the term Arras came to signify any sort of tapestry, wherever made. [See TAPESTRY.] Arrasene (ar-a-sene ' ). A sort of cord made with a central threac} ASB COLE'S DICTIONARY OF DRY GOODS. ( 15 and a thick velvet-like pile of wool or silk fastened round it. It is used in raised embroidery work. Asbestos (as-bes'-tos). A fibrous variety of a mineral substance, composed of separable filaments, with a silky luster. Its fibres are some- times flexible and elastic, sometimes stiff and brittle, and when reduced to a powder are soft to the touch. It is incombustible, and the fine qualities have been spun and woven into gloves, shrouds, cloth for firemen's suits, lamp-wicks, roofs, floors and for various other fire-proofing purposes. Its feeble consistency has always been the chief obstacle to its general use among textile fabrics. It is mined in Canada, Vermont, Virginia, South Carolina and on Staten Island, New York. Astrakhan (as ' -tra-kan). [From Astrakhana, a city and province in Russia.] Originally in Russia this was a name given to skins having a short, curly wool particularly the pelts obtained from young lambs from the province of Astrakhana. At present Astrakhan cloth is silk or worsted material with a long and closely curled pile, in imitation of the fur above mentioned, and is used for ladies' cloaks, dress trimming and men's cloth- ing. Astrakhan wool trimming is made in 10-yard lengths, and in 3-inch, 4-inch and 5-inch widths, the price increasing with the width. It is a durable and showy trimming. Aune. A French long measure of 1^ yards, used chiefly for cloth. It is derived from Latin alna, forearm. [See MEASURES, BAREGE.] Baby Caps. The styles of baby caps are originated in Paris and other fashion centres of Europe, and are copied in this country the following season. Those not initiated in the mysteries of this bee-hive industry can scarcely form a correct idea of the importance it plays in the manufactur- ing interests of this country. New York and Philadelphia supply the coun- try with more than seven-eighths of the goods consumed. New York takes precedence in sales of the cheaper grade of goods, while Philadelphia is noted for the better class. It is a current saying amongst the trade that Philadelphia is as famous for "baby caps as Connecticut is for corsets." The baby cap manufacture represents in the two cities a capital of $1,000,- 000, employing over 1,500 girls, averaging $7 per week, making $10,500 weekly outlay of wages. The estimated output amounts to over 5,000,000 caps annnally. [See HATS and CAPS.] Baize. [Spanish plural for bay.] In the 16th century a light woolen fabric of a brownish-red or bay color (whence its name) was manufactured in Europe and called bay-cloth. At present, baize is a fine woolen stuff with a close nap on one side, dyed in plain colors, usually green or red. It is chiefly used for linings, desk and table covers and curtains, but when first introduced, in 1541, it was a much thinner and finer material, 16 COLE'S DICTIONARY OF DRY GOODS. BAL and was used for clothing; specifically, in theatres the plain curtain low- ered at the end of the play. Balayeuse (bah ' -lay-yuhz). [French feminine of balayeur, a sweeper.] A frilling of lace or muslin which lines the extreme edge of a dress skirt to keep the train clean as it sweeps along the floor; a kind of trimming on the bottom of gowns; by extension a frilling of any material, either in white or black, sewn under tke edge of a dress skirt to keep it from wearing out and from being soiled from sweeping the floor. Balbriggan. A descriptive term applied to cotton knitted fabrics, either hosiery or underwear, and referring to the color, signifying that the articles are brown or unbleached. The term is especially applied to those fabrics or articles knitted of smooth, level yarns, and possessed of but little nap; so called from the town of Balbriggan, County Dublin, Ireland, where brown knitted hosiery was first produced. Baleen (ba-lene'). The horny "teeth" of whales; whalebone in its natural state. [See WHALEBONE. J Balloon-net. A kind of woven lace in which the weft threads are twisted in a peculiar manner around the warp in fanciful imitation of the ropes enclosing the gas reservoir of a balloon. Balmoral (bal-mor'-al). A name given to various articles of dress, possessing unusual strength and weight. Specifically, a term applied to a variety of ladies' cheap cotton skirts, distinguished by not being furnished with a waist-band nor hemmed at the bottom. They were originally made of wool, dyed red with fancy black stripes, and intended to be displayed below the skirt of the dress, which was looped up. They were first worn by the daughters of Queen Victoria in I860, during the visits to their royal residence at Balmoral, Scotland, hence the name. Balmoral boots or shoes are those that lace up in front, worn by both men and women; usually abbreviated in trade "bal." or "bals." [See BOOTS AND SHOES.] Band. A flexible material, used to bind or bend around anything; as a hat-band. Also a border or strip on an article of dress serving to strengthen it or to confine it to any desired shape; as a waistband, a wrist- band, a neckband. Bandana (ban-dan '-a). [From a Hindoo word Bandhnn, which means " a mode of dyeing, in which the cloth is tied in different places to prevent the parts from receiving the dye."] A cheap cotton (sometimes of silk) handkerchief for men, with a red ground, ornamented with various colored spots. The cloth is first dyed a solid Turkey red, and the white pattern made by discharging the red with bleaching liquor in a powerful press. If other colors than white are to appear on the handkerchief, they are printed aftenvard upon the white spots discharged for that purpose. The pattern to be discharged is cut out on two metal plates, of the full size of the handkerchief. A dozen or more handkerchiefs are laid between BAN COLE'S DICTIONARY OF DRY GOODS. 17 these plates, and then the pressure applied; the liquor being run on fhe uppermost plate, which is grooved on the upper side to receive it. The pressure on the cloth to make clean work (that is, to prevent the spreading of the liquor) is enormous, often exceeding 500 and 600 tons. The bleach- ing liquor destroys the red color in all those parts where the plates allow it to circulate, thus producing the ornamental figure. Bandanas are made in sizes from 12 inches square to 24 inches square, the price increasing with the sizes at even inche Bangle. [Hindoo Bangri, a bracelet of glass]. An ornamental ring worn upon the arms and ankles in rndia, and upon the legs and fastened in the ears, nose and lips in Africa. In the limited state at present signifying a bracelet without a clasp, a ring-bracelet generally with small ornaments suspended from it. Hank-credit. A credit that merchants often have with a bank, by which, on proper security given to the bank, the merchant receives liberty to draw to a certain extent beyond his deposits that may be agreed upon. Bankrupt. The breaking up of a merchant's business, due to his in- ability to meet his obligations. In modern law, any person who upon his own petition or that of his creditors is adjudged insolvent by a bankruptcy court. His estate may be administered by an assignee or trustee under the direction of the court, for the benefit of his creditors. Bankruptcy Laws. The legal regulations under which the property of an insolvent may be distributed among his creditors, with the double object of enforcing a complete discovery and an even distribution of the property, and of discharging the debtor from his obligations and from being molested in the future by his creditors. Formerly only a merchant or a trader could be made a bankrupt under the Bankruptcy Laws, all other persons who were unable to meet their debts being termed insolvents, but this distinction is now abolished in the United States, and all debtors come under the same head. Congress has the sole power of enacting Bankruptcy Laws which shall be uniform throughout all the states. Those laws are administered by the United States Court. Involuntary Bankruptcy is ad- judged on the petition of creditors, showing cause why the debtor should not be allowed to continue in possession of his assets. Voluntary Bankruptcy is adjudged on the petition of the debtor, indicating his desire to surrender his assets and be discharged. [See INVENTORY, SCHEDULE.] Barcelona Silk Kerchiefs . These kerchiefs are named from Bar-ce- lo'-na, in Spain, from whence they were originally brought, though now all made in Great Britain; there are four varieties: black, plain colors, turban checks and fancies. The black measure from twenty-six inches square to seven-quarters. The turban checks were originally made for head dresses and are about twenty inches square. Barege (ba-razh'). [So called from Bareges, a town in France, where 18 COLE'S DICTIONARY OF DRY GOODS. BAR it was first made.] Barege veiling is woven with an extremely fine silk warp and a fluffy woolen weft, thirty inches wide. It is imported from France in several qualities, the length of the pieces being determined by meters or "aunes." An aune in English measure is IX yards. [See VEILING.] Barras (bar '-as). A coarse linen fabric imported by this country in the 17th century from Holland, used for shirting, linen pants, vests, etc. Barrow-coat. A square or oblong piece of flannel, wrapped around an infant's body below the arms, the part extending beyond the feet being turned up and pinned. Barter. To traffic or trade by exchanging one commodity for another, in distinction from buying and selling for money. Basket-weave. A style of weaving which produces a pattern re- sembling the plaited-work of a basket. Basse-lisse (bas-lese'). Woven with the warp in the usual horizontal position, as distinguished from that which is woven with the warp placed in a perpendicular, and described as haute-lisse. Bast. The strong inner fibrous bark of various trees, especially a species of linden, of which the Russia matting of commerce is made. Cuba bast is used for tieing up bunches of cigars, etc. [See FIBER.] Bastard cloth. A cloth presumably imitating a more expensive material. Basting-Machine. A sewing-machine used for basting together pieces of fabrics, to make a continuous piece for bleaching, dyeing scouring etc. Bat. SEE BATTING. Bathing Suits and Trunks. Bathing " trunks" are usually made of knitted cotton or worsted, and shaped to cover the loins and trunk of the body. Bathing "suits" are of various shapes and made of many materials. Surah silk of thick quality is used extensively. It is claimed that it does not retain as much water as flannel, and that it does not cling so closely to the figure. The medium quality bathing suits are manufactured of flannel and of a coarse wiry cheviot. The more modest suits are made with the waist and drawers in one, cut in continuous pieces or attached to the same belt; a seperate skirt reaching to the knees is then buttoned on to this belt. The drawers fall below the knees and are quite wide with rubber in the hem to draw them into shape. Jersey suits are also manufactured and these do not shrink. The waist and skirt are all in one piece in this variety, and the skirt is made full. The drawers are close fitting like equestrian tights and have stockings woven with them but how and where they are fastened no man has ever found out. Bating. The process of steeping hides and skins in an alkaline bath to separate the oil and fleshy matter, and render them soft and pliable, pre- paratory to tanning. BAT COLE'S DICTIONARY OF DRY GOODS. 19 Batiste. A variety of cotton muslin, having a good deal of dress, closely resembling lawn, the only difference being that batiste is slightly heavier, though in both materials the pattern is printed on in the same man- ner; used chiefly for summer dresses, lining and trimmings. Batiste is also the French name for cambric, a fine linen muslin made in France and used for dresses, linings and trimmings. The fabric derives its name from M. Baptiste a linen weaver of Cambray, Flanders, who invented it in the 13th century. Batting. Raw cotton or wool prepared in thick, but lightly-matted lapped sheets, used chiefly in the manufacture of comforts, bed covers, and mattresses. Also called bat and baits. Baudekiu (ba' -de-kin.) A rich embroidered or brocaded silk fabric woven originally with a warp of gold thread. Called in the 17th century, cloth of Baudekin. It is not found in use after the 17th century. Bayeta (ba-ya'-ta./ A common kind of coarse Spanish baize. [See BAIZE.] Beads. [From Anglo-Saxon bede, a prayer.] Small perforated orna- ments, of round or oblong shape, worn by women in necklaces, bracelets and head-dresses; and also for ornamenting slippers, purses, watch guards and a variety of fancy articles. Beads are used by Catholics to keep them right as to the number of their prayers, one bead of the rosary being drop- ped every time a prayer is said. Beads are made of gold, diamond, amber, pearl, coral, garnet, steel, paste, wood, etc., but the greatest quantity are of glass manufacture. They were manufactured, much in the same form as now, by the Phcenecians more than 3,000 years ago. At present, they form a favorite article of traffic with all savage tribes and nations, often being the only medium of exchange in bartering with them. The manufacture of glass beads is simple. A short, thick rod of colored glass is made with a hole through the centre of it. This is drawn out in a heated state by two men running in opposite directions, and by this very long tubes are pro- duced of the size of the beads required. These rods are chipped into short uniform pieces of the length of the bead. The holes in the pieces are then filled with sand and ashes by shaking them up together in a bowl. This is done to prevent welding when heated at the next operation. This consists of transferring them to a heated iron pan and agitated until the sharp angles are worn off and they assume a smooth, rounded form. Taken out, their bodies washed and cleaned to separate the ashes and sand, and strung by children, they form glass beads. In commerce they are known as the hollow, the tube and the bugle. The hollow are the most expensive kind, the price varying from 25 cents to $2.50 per bunch of twelve strands. Com- mon black beads are sold from ten to twenty-five cents per pound. Beam-roll. In cloth manufacture, the spool-shaped roll upon which the warp-threads are wound preparatory to being woven. 20 COLE'S DICTIONARY OF DRY GOODS. BEA Bearing-Cloth. A cloth with which a child is covered when carried to church to be baptised, often richly embroidered ; also called a christ- ening robe. Beaver. See FURS. Beaver Cloth. A thick woolen cloth used for garments by both sexes. The weave is similar to doeskin. Beaver cloth is always fulled to a con- siderable degree, and has the wrong side finished with a soft thick nap ; much in demand previous to 1880 for overcoats. [See WOOLEN.] Beaver Hat. The modern stiff silk hat was commonly called a "beaver" until shortly after the civil war. The first high stiff hats were made of beaver fur. [See HATS and CAPS.] Beaverteen. A strong twilled cotton fabric for men's wear, napped on wrong side ; similar to moleskin but heavier ; dyed in solid colors of gray and tan. Bed-Clothes. The coverings used on beds; sheets, blankets, quilts, slips, etc., collectively. Bedford Cord. A particular style of weave found usually in dress fabrics, consisting of heavy ribs running lengthwise of the fabric; similar to the weave of cotton pique. [See CORDED FABRICS.] Bed-gown. A night-gown or night-dress; a kind of jacket like a dress- ing-sack, worn in Scotland by women of the working-class, generally with a colored flannel petticoat. Bedizen (be-diz -en). To deck or dress out, especially in a tawdry manner or with vulgar finery. Bed-linen. Sheets, pillow-cases and bolster slips, originally always of linen, but now usually of cotton. Bed Pocket. A small bag, in use during the early part of the present century, hung at the head of the bed at night in which to put away things which might be wanted before morning, or as a receptacle for the watch, purse, handkerchief, etc., in place of poking them under the pillow. A hundred years back, bed pockets were used quite extensively. It is customary yet in the South, to provide visitors, especially fussy people and particularly old maids, with bed pockets. They are arranged in fanciful shapes, and hang by cords or ribbons from the bed-stead. They are usually embroidered with the injunction to the, burglar, "Step softly and don't disturb the sleeper." Bed Quilt. A wadded and quilted covering for a bed; as a bed spread or comfort, as distinguished from a counterpane or an ornamented cover- let. Bed Tick. A case of strong cotton or linen material for containing the feathers or straw of abed. Nine yards of 32-inch ticking is required for the manufacture of a bed-tick. BEE COLE'S DICTIONARY OF DRY GOODS. 21 Beetling Machine. A machine for "finishing" linen or cotton cloth by hammering it; for this purpose heavy wooden blocks are used, which are raised in succession and permitted to fall by their own weight. Some- times called "mangling-machine." The object is to render the surface of the cloth of an even and uniform thickness. Beige (bazh) [from It. bigio gray.] In France in the early part of the present century there was a sort of twilled dress fabric woven with a gray cotton warp and an unbleached and undyed woolen weft, called Beige. At present in this country it is one of the few dress fabrics which has not de- parted from the original manufacture. Although it is now dyed to some extent, it still remains a twilled serge-like material woven with cotton warp and worsted weft, dyed in shades of gray, drab and slate; sometimes called dfcbeige. There are several other definitions to "beige" besides the beige proper as a fabric. It may be coarse, unbleached serge, or it may be wool in its natural state. Beige damasse is a loose, light, woolen tissue, woven in patterns like Damask cloth, while beige de laine is a soft "woolen" beige used for ladies dresses. [See DAMASSE. ] Bend-leather. The strongest kind of sole-leather used for shoes. A name in the leather trade for a butt or rounded crop cut in two; the half of a hide of sole-leather that was trimmed and divided before tanning. Bengaline (ben ' gal-ene ' ). A dress fabric woven exactly like a Faille silk, except that a fine "worsted" thread is substituted for the weft. This weft (which forms its cords) is entirely covered and concealed by the fine, silk warp threads, so that the wool is not exposed from either surface. This same fabric, with a larger, thicker, and more decided cord, is termed Tyrolienne. Bengal Stripes. Wide striped ginghams used for skirting, so called from having originally been brought from Bengal, but now manufactured exclusively in this country. Berlin Wool. A fine woolen yarn for working fancy articles in needle work. Also called German wool. Berlin Gloves. See GLOVES. Bias. A cut which is diagonal or oblique to the texture of a fabric. In retail stores satin and mourning crape are usually cut "bias." Bib. [From L. bibere to drink whence also our words imbibe, bibu- lous, etc.] A cloth worn by children to keep the front of the dress clean while eating; usually made of honeycombed cotton canvas, lawn, lace, and the like. Birdseye Linen. A honey comb or diamond-figured linen fabric used for towels and fancy-work. Birdseye is a term also applied to varieties of canvas and crape, these fabrics having spots or markings somewhat resembling bird's eyes. 22 COLE'S DICTIONARY OF DRY GOODS. BIR Biretz. See ELECTORAL CLOTH. Blacksize. In leather manufacture, to cover the tanned skin with a coat of stiff size and tallow. The " size" is laid on with a soft brush or sponge, and the leather is then well rubbed with a glass slicker to gloss it. Blankets. [Said to be derived from Fr. blanchet, meaning a blank piece of cloth, v/ithout figure. The name is also claimed to be derived from that of an English manufacturer, Sir Thomas Blanquett, who in 1340 was the owner of a large woolen mill near London]. A large, oblong piece of soft, loosely woven woolen cloth, spread commonly over the sheets of a bed for the procurement of warmth. Sometimes used as a covering for r horse when standing or exposed to cold, and sometimes worn as a garment especially among Indians and other uncivilized peoples. "" Formerly the manufacture of blankets was confined exclusively to the New England States, but since 1865 the seat of manufacture has from year to year steadily followed the Star of the Empire, until at present woolen mills for the manufacture of blankets are found dotting the streams throughout the entire West. These mills have every facility and material for making cheaper and better goods than can be made by the Eastern factories for the money. For many years the Mission mills of San Fran- cisco, California, and the mills at Portland, Oregon, have made bed and fancy blankets second to none in the world. Ohio, noted for its growing fine wools, is also famous for making fine blankets, though probably not superior to the products of factories dotting the states of Indiana, Illinois, Iowa, Missouri and Minnesota. In the latter state, at Minneapolis, is pro- duced the finest blanket in the world, known as the "Royal F^ose,"'90 by 100 nches, which sells at wholesale at nearly $40 per pair. ' "Eiderdown" blankets have a fine, soft, thick nap on either side, and ire tufted and bound with silk, dyed in beautifully tinted and solid colors. They are very warm for their weight, not being so thick and clumsy as the ordinary comfortable, yet having as much warmth as a double blanket. The Navajo (pronounced Nav-a-ho) Indians find a first claim to fame by virtue of their blankets. The process of blanket construction by an Indian, while in nowise complex, is arduous. All work is performed in the most primitive manner, and with tools of the rudest kind. The Navajoes number some 40,000 people, having a reservation which embraces a portion of both New Mexico and Arizona. They are solely a pastoral people, never under any circumstances building a home twice in the same place. Navajo shearers are the most expert in the world. They used to remove the fleece by a sort of shaving process, but long ago, even in the sixteenth century, succeeded in finding shears, and from that time not even a Nava- jo's gun is more carefally kept than are his sheep-shears. After washing and cleaning, all of which work is done by the women, the spinners begin their operations. The best of the wool only is kept. Much the larger bulk is sold to the traders, and by them shipped unwashed to the mills of the BIR COLE'S DICTIONARY OF DRY. GOODS. 23 East. The spindle operated by the women is a simple piece of wood some eight inches long, scarcely larger than a lead pencil, and sharpened to a point. The bundle of wool lies on the woman's right side, not made into rolls, but simply cleaned and beaten. She takes up a strand of it, lays it against the spindle and twists rapidly with the left hand. The fibre gradu- ally takes the form of yarn, though it is loose and uneven. As soon as the spindle is full it is unwound and rolled on a ball, after which it is ready for weaving. The loom is simplicity itself. The poles are cut the length required for the breadth of the blanket. One is secured to the branches of a tree. The other is anchored to the ground with stones. From this lower pole to the upper one the strands of yarn are passed, till the "warp" is all placed in position. Then, beginning at the lower side, the woman begins inserting the "woof." Originally they had but the two colors of white and black, and the figures produced, while varying infinitely in form and outline, were always combinations of these two. Later, however, the women learned to dye the wool, and now they are able to make red, blue, green and yellow. With the savage love of vivid colors they combine these six in an order that is harmonious and complete in each blanket, pro- ducing an effect decidedly pleasing and curious. There is no shuttle. The dexterous fingers simply pass the threads back of certain lines of warp, in front of others, and continue that process until they have traveled across the breadth of the fabric. Then with a sort of comb they press the threads of the yarn down firmly. A strand of woof seldom reaches across the blanket. The whole work is done with simple "bits" of yarn. But they are intertwined so dexterously, are drawn backward and forward so firmly, and are beaten into place so solidly, that when the work is done the designs are found uniform, the thickness is the same throughout, and the selvedge edges are secure against raveling. Nearly any Navajo blanket will hold water for an indefinite length of time. Judged by a strict civilized standard, their blankets are not handsome, but they possess a barbaric beauty that is distinctively their own, and go far to answer the question of the red man's origin. Persons accustomed to seeing works of art in a hundred lines, would be surprised at the originality and boldness of some of the designs displayed in this weaving. Some of them display the zigzag lines of vivid lightning, others the suns, moons and shining stars drawn from the heavens. Many present the curves and spirals that cbuld only have been woven by the most patient and cunning of human fingers. The Government provides nearly all of the Indians in the United States anually with one pair of 6-pound woolen blankets, costing about $3.35. These Navajo Indians as soon as they get a Government blanket, proceed to unravel it and wind the yarn into balls. It is dyed to suit the garish taste of the Indian, and when the yarn from 5 to 15 of Uncle Sam's blankets is accumulated he is ready to make his Navajo blanket. The wool from as many as 15 blankets has been known to be woven and whipped and thrashed by the Navajo process into one of the blankets of 24 COLE'S DICTIONARY OF DRY GOODS. BLA that name. They are astonishly heavy, and hold water like the skin of an animal. [See TEASLING, WEAVING, WOOL.] Blazer. A bright colored, loose summer coat, usually of striped flannel, worn by tennis and cricket players. The origin of the word is as follows: The boat club's uniform at St. John's College is bright red, and the St. Johnian jackets have for many years been called blazers, on account of being of such fiery color. Up to a few years ago the inaccurate modern term of blazer for a jacket of any other colorthan red, was unknown. Bleaching. The process of freeing textile fibers and fabrics from their natural color, and rendering them white or nearly so. The ancient method of bleaching by exposing to the action of the sun's rays and frequent wetting, has been nearly superseded (at least where the business in prose- cuted on a large scale) by more complicated processes in connection with powerful chemical preparations. Among these preparations, the chief are chlorin and sulphurous acid, the latter being employed for the animal fibres (wool and silk) while the vegetable fibres are bleached with chlorin, the bleaching in both cases, however, being preceded with certain cleansing processes. Glass is bleached with salt peter, arsenic and red lead. [See LINEN, WOOL, COTTON.] A hundred years ago the process of bleaching was known as "whiting." We find "whiting time" spoken of in Shakespeare, and in the Merry Wives of Windsor allusion is made to the "whitsters" of Datchet Mead. At this time the work of bleaching could only be carried on in the open air in the manner followed from time immemorial, and consequently the summer months alone were suitable, the operations, if the weather happened to be unfavorable, not being always completed during the time at command. The exposure of fabrics on the open ground in England and Ireland led to a practice of stealing linen, for preventing which several severe laws were passed from time to time. For instance, George II enacted that "every person who shall, by day or night feloniously steal any linen, fustian, calico or cotton cloth; or cloth worked, woven, or made of any cotton or linen yarn mixed; or any linen or cotton tape, incle, filleting, laces, or any fabric, laid to be printed, whitened, crofted, bowked or dried to the value of 10 shillings, or shall knowingly buy or receive any such wares stolen, shall be guilty of felony without benefit of clergy." Felony of this degree was at that period punishable with death. Holland early acquired a rep- utation for bleaching, and it was an ordinary practice to send linens there in the spring to be returned in the autumn. The tedious character of the operations, when the use of cotton goods had increased so vastly through the inventions of improved machinery caused attention to be directed to chlorin, a gaseous substance contained in common salt, discovered in 1774. Bleaching by chlorin is now in extensive use, and allows the buyer of the cheapest calicoes a whiter material than his ancestors could obtain in costly linens after months of laborious operations. The old system of crofting or whiting is yet followed for fine fabrics in the north of Ireland. " BLO COLE'S DICTIONARY OF DRY GOODS. 25 Block-printing. There are two modes of printing calico, block-print ing and machine-printing. The former has been practiced from time im- memorial. The latter is a modern invention. In the case of block-print- ing, the design of the pattern intended to be printed upon the cloth is cut out upon a block of sycamore, the parts which are to make the impres- sion being left prominent and the rest of the block cut away, just as prac- tised for wood engravings. When the figure is too complicated and the lines too fine to admit of being cut in wood, it is made by means of small pieces of copper, which are driven into the block, and the minute spaces filled up with felt. Several colors may be at once applied on the cloth by means of one block. The block, being pressed against the cloth, takes the color as supplied by rubber tubes and thus produces the pattern. It is an exceedingly slow and tedious process. The printing-block is seldom over one foot square, several hours being required for each color to dry. In machine-printing, as the piece is printed, it passes rapidly over a steam- heated roller and dried in one or two minutes. [See CALICO.] Blonde Lace. Blonde laces were first made in 1745, and being pro- duced of unbleached silk, were known as "Nankins" or "Blondes". Blonde net is unbleached or cream colored bobbinet. Bloom. A term applied to velvets, when by dyeing they are said to glow with a warm color, or luster. Dyers claim that the most important branch of black-dyeing upon cotton goods, is that empolyed for cotton velvets, in which it is desired to produce a rich lustrous effect; the process is long, tedious and uncertain, consisting of successive applications of sumac, acetate of iron, logwood and fustic the end chiefly aimed at being the production of a black, with a blush or violet bloom. Bloomers. A peculiar and ridiculous costume for women introduced and advocated in 1850 by a Mrs. Bloomer of New York, the distinctive features of which were a short skirt extending to the knees, loose baggy trousers buttoned around the ankle, and a low-crowned hat. > Blonse. A light, loose upper garment, made of linen or cotton, worn by men as a protection from dust or in the place of a coat ; also a loosely fitting dress-body worn by women and children. A blue linen blouse is the common dress of French workingmen. [See SMOCK-FROCK.] Boa. [From Latin boa, a large serpent.] A long, serpent-like piece of fur or feathers, worn around the neck by ladies ; also a fur tippet. A boa usually accompanies a muff to complete a set of furs. Bobbinet. A machine-made cotton netting, consisting of parallel threads which form the warp, upon which two systems of oblique threads are laid in such a way that each of the oblique threads make a turn around each of the warp threads, producing a nearly hexagonal mesh. The art of netting is intimately related to weaving, knitting and ma- chine-lace making, from all of which, however, it is distinguished by the 26 COLE'S DICTIONARY OF DRY GOODS. BOB regular knotting or twisting of the diagonal threads around the straight warp threads. Bobbinet, which is the foundation of machine-made lace, is made by the intertwisting of threads of fine cotton or silk. , ' - .. Prior to the year 1800, laces of every description were made by hand. Amongst the most beautiful of these hand-wrought laces was a variety called " Brussels," which was distinguished by a portion of the threads be- ing "twisted at regular intervals so as to form an open spot, in order to relieve the sameness of the tissue." The first attempt at the manufacture of lace by machinery was an imitation of this Brussels lace, probably on account of the great popularity of, and demand for this variety. The first step was to make this open work, (bobbinet) upon which to ground the pat- tern. In England several efforts were made from 1758 to 1809, but the first really successful machine for bobbinet (so named from the threads which cross the warps being supplied from bobbins) was that of Jno. Heathcoat, invented in 1809, and suggested by the machinery he had seen employed in making fishing nets. The principle of the invention was in the use of fixed parallel warp threads around which the bobbins worked as the "filling" of a fabric, one set going obliquely from right to left, and the second set obliquely from left to right. In the machine the warp threads to the number of 700 to 1,200 in a yard of width are stretched from a roller which extends the whole length of the thread beam, and the weft threads are wound each upon a bob- bin, formed of two thin brass discs riveted together, leaving a narrow space between them for the threads to pass out. Each bobbin holds about 100 yards thread, and there are sometimes as many as 1,200 of them to a machine. About 30,000 meshes per minute can be made with improved machines. The pieces of bobbinet measure from 30 to 40 yards each ; the width is vari- able, being very narrow in Wash Blond and wider in Brussels and Darn net. In England at this time (1810), the bobbinet machine was regarded as the most wonderful and important invention that had been introduced. By the aid of one machine it was possible to manufacture in a day the same amount of netting that formerly required two-score men and women. The unfortunate work people in their rage organized a mob and destroyed Heathcoat's machines, and declared they would make scrap-iron and kind- ling wood of all he should thereafter manufacture. This caused him to re- move to Nottingham, where the indignation was not so high, and where he began the manufacture of netting and machine lace. Prosperity shone upon the trade, and numerous individuals, clergymen, lawyers, doctors, and others, readily embarked capital in so tempting a speculation. Fabulous wages were earned during this period. It was no uncommon thing for an artisan to leave his usual calling and betaking to himself a lace frame, of which he was a part proprietor, realize by working upon it 20, 30 and 40 shillings a day. In consequence of such wonderful gains, " Nottingham and the adjoining towns became the scene of an epidemic mania; many, though, nearly devoid of mechanical genius or the constructive talent, tormented themselves night and day with projects of bobbins, pushers, lockers, point- BOC COLE'S DICTIONARY OF DRY GOODS. 27 bars and needles of various forms, endeavoring to get around or improve the Heathcoat patent, till their minds got permanently bewildered. Sev- eral lost their senses altogether; and some after cherishing visions of wealth as in the olden time of alchemy, rinding their schemes abortive, sank into despair and committed suicide." Many improvements have been made on the original machine, but to this day the principle still remains the same. [See LACE, LACE CURTAINS.] Bocasine (bok'-a-sin). [From buckram]. A linen fabric woven so fine as to look like silk; not in general use at the present time. Booking 1 . A coarse woolen flannel or baize named from Bocking, Essex county, England, where it was first made. Bolster. Something on which to rest the head while reclining; specifically a long cylindrical cushion, stuffed with feathers, hair, straw, or other materials, generally laid on the bed under the pillows. Bolt. Any quantity of rolled or wrapped fabric. Bolting Cloth. A cloth of linen or silk used in mills for bolting or sifting meal and flour; also a fine wide linen fabric used by ladies for fancy-work. The most expensive variety of silk fabric made is bolting cloth for millers' use, woven almost altogether in Switzerland. There is no import duty on this, provided it is not used for, or suitable for wearing apparel. Bombast. Cotton or other stuff of a soft, loose texture, used to stuff a garment; padding. Bombazine (bom-ba-zeen') [From bombycina, made of silk.] Orig- inally a dress fabric woven of silk and wool, made in England as early as the reign of Elizabeth; afterward a cloth made of silk alone, but always of one color. At present, a light twilled dress fabric of which the warp is silk and the filling worsted, giving it a changeable shiny appearance; form- erly black but now made in various colors. In England in 1575 the Dutch elders presented in court a new fabric called Bombazines, praying to have the "search and seal " of them to their use. These early Bombazines are said to have been of silk and cotton, but as the use of cotton was not begun in England until about fifty years later (1625), it is probable they were of silk and wool or silk and linen. In 1800 Bombazines were described as spun from wefts of fine wool, the worsted being thrown upon the right side; so that the modern Bombazines of silk warp and worsted weft in all likelihood closely resemble those of the sixteenth century. Bonibyx. The caterpillar of the Bombyx mori is well known by the name of silk worm. When full grown it is three inches long. It feeds on the leaves of the mulberry tree and the Osage orange, and spins an oval cocoon the size of a pigeon's egg, of a close tissue, usually of a yellow color but sometimes white. A single fibre is often 1,100 feet long. It requires 1,600 worms to produce a pound of silk. Greek missionaries first brought 28 COLE'S DICTIONARY OF DRY GOODS. BOM the eggs of the bombyx or silk worm from China to Constantinople in 565 A. I). In the twelfth century the cultivation of silk was introduced into the Kingdom of Naples, and several centuries afterward into France. In the seventeenth century silk worms were brought to the United States. [See SILK.] Bombycinous. Silken; made of silk; silky, feeling like silk; or, of the color of the silk-worm moth, of a pale yellow color. Bone-lace. Lace, usually of linen thread, made on a cushion with bobbins, and taking its chief decorative character from the pattern woven into it as distinguished from point-lace; so named according to some authorities, from the fact that the bobbins were originally made of bone. Fuller, England 1662, says that much bone-lace "is made in and about Honytoun, (Honiton) and weekly returned to London. Let it not be con- demned for a superfluous wearing, because it does neither hide nor heat the bodie, seeing it doth adorn. Hereby many children who otherwise would be burthensome to the parish, prove beneficial to their parents. Yea, many lame in their limbs and impotent in their arms, if they are able in their fingers, gain a livelihood thereby." The question has arisen as to what sort of bones were used in the production of this lace. Fuller ex- plains that sheep's trotters were used for bobbins, and that thus the name came into use, but other authorities say that the Devonshire lace-makers, deriving their knowledge from tradition, declare that when lace-making was first introduced into their country, pins, so indispensable to their art, being then sold at a price far beyond their means, the lace-makers, mostly the wives of fishermen living along the coast, adopted the bones of fish, which, scraped and cut into regular lengths, fully answered as a sub- stitute. Bonnet. [From Hindoo banat, woolen cloth or broadcloth.] A form of head-covering worn by women out of doors. It encloses the head more or less at the sides and generally the back, and is usually trimmed with some elaborateness and tied on the head with ribbons. It differs from a hat of the ordinary form in having no brim. In Scotland the term bonnet is applied to any kind of a cap worn by men, but specifically to the closely woven and seamless Scotch caps of wool, known as glcngarys, balmorals, braid bonnets and kilmarnocks. In England about the year 1480, extrava- gantly trimmed bonnets were worn by men as well as by women. These were usually made of cloth, sometimes richly adorned with feathers, jewelry and ornaments of gold. It was regarded as a grave breach of propriety by the law-makers of this period for a married man to indulge in these fanci- ful bonnets, and in consequence a law was enacted that " if any sane per- son, of full age, whose wife not being divorced, nor willingly absenting her- self from him, doth wear any French hood or bonnet of velvet, with any habiliment, paste, or edge of gold, pearl or stone shall lose .10, for every three months " during which time the law was disobeyed, for the evident purpose of "protecting" the rights of unmarried men. BOO COLE'S DICTIONARY OF DRY GOODS. 29 Bookbinder's Cloth. A stiffly sized variety of cotton cloth, colored in every conceivable tint and shade, and often decoratively embossed, much used for the cheap binding of books in place of leather. All books said to be "cloth bound" are covered with bookbinder s cloth. Bookfold. A piece of linen or cotton fabric containing 24 yards. Bookmuslin. A glazed, starchy, transparent muslin, used for the covering of library books or lining of dresses; very similar to paper cambric. Boots and Shoes. From the earliest times a comfortable covering for the feet has been one of man's first necessities upon emerging from savagery. As he advanced toward civilization he began to give more and more attention to his footgear, making it not only comfortable, but orna- mental. Where climate demanded more protection for the foot than the original sandal, the primitive races shaped a rude shoe out of a single piece of untanned hide; this was laced with a thong and so made a complete covering. Out of these two varieties sole without upper, and upper with- out sole arose the perfect shoe and boot, which consists of a combination of both. The characteristics of a nation can often be traced in its shoes. The high, stiff boot of the uncompromising Dutchman is as truly an index to his character as is the jaily-colored, up-curving slipper worn by the luxurious Turk. The manufacture of American shoes is no less char- acteristic. Our factories turn out their product in such quantities that no man. woman or child is too poor to wear them, and a barefoot peasantry is an unknown condition on thio side of the water. One workman can peg 600 pairs per day. In China, on the other hand, where customs never change, the cobbler still goes from house to house, announcing his approach with a rattle, and taking up his abode with the family while he accomplishes the necessary working and mending. In certain parts of Asia Minor it is nothing unusual for a pair of shoes to be handed down from generation to generation, being worn only upon state occasions, and carried in the hand by the proud possessor on holidays. The word "shoe" occurs thirty-one times in the English version of the Bible. "A man plucked off his shoe and gave it to his neighbor; and this was a testimony in Israel." Ruth 4:7. "Over Eden will I cast my shoe" Psalm 9: 8. These passages evidently refer to an established symbolical use of the shoe in transferring property. "Loosening the latchets of -shoes," and "bearing the shoes" are alluded to as works of inferiority. In the far East the shoes are removed as a mark of respect, and all Orientals take off their shoes when entering a church, but keep on their headgear. The Hebrews took great interest in the ornamentation of their shoes. Solomon exclaims, "How beautiful are thy feet with shoes, Oh, prince s daughter!" An old writer Bend Boudoin maintains that God, when giving Adam skins of beasts for clothing, gave him also shoes of the same material. Xenophon tells us that the ten thousand Greeks who were with him in the 30 COLE'S DICTIONARY OF DRY GOODS. BOO great retreat, were compelled for the "want of shoes" to cover their feet with skins which caused them great inconvenience. During the dark days of the Revolution in our own 'country, shoes and leather were so scarce that the heroes of Valley Forge were driven to tying the bark of trees to their feet, and it was no uncommon thing in the winter of 1779 for stains of blood to mark the footsteps of patriots. The earliest form of shoe was, of course, the sandal, which allowed the foot full freedom of motion. It was secured to the foot by means of thongs passing over the instep and between the great and second toes, so that it was held firmly whichever way the foot moved, and yet could be cast off at pleasure. The Egyptian priests wore sandals of palm leaves and papyrus, while those of the common people were made of leather. The papyrus shoe was interwoven like a mat. The Hebrew shoe was similar to that of the Egyptian, the military sandals being made of brass or iron. The Roman soldier, when obliged to fight in a hill country, placed his feet in sandals with soles heavily spiked, and with thongs extending far up the ankle. While he marched in these, the luxurious citizens at the capital employed the security he gave them by inventing fanciful boots formed of animals' skins dyed purple, covered with gilded ornaments, and further enriched by the head and claws of the animal, which were left to hang down from the top of the boot. One of the most curious form of shoes ever known was the "chopine," which originated in Turkey, and spread through Europe, being worn even in England; inexplicably enough, for nothing more clumsy and difficult could have been invented. They increased the height of a lady by half a yard, and it was impossible to walk a step in them unless supported by a maid servant on either side. This is certainly about equal in folly to the much condemned Chinese custom of deforming ladies' feet; though it did not cause so much pain, it interfered much more with freedom of locomotion. The inconvenience of the Chinese custom is all thrown upon the weaker sex, for the China men wear shoes that can not be excelled for ease and comfort; but Fashion thousands of years ago decreed that all ladies of any rank should have their feet so bound in childhood that they can not grow longer than three or four inches from toe to heel. The Chinese affectionately term these distorted pedal extremities "little golden lilies." They cause a growing girl the greatest torment, and cripple her for life; but she is taught to endure willingly in order to insure rank and position, much after the fashion of the fair sex in our own land. Our English forefathers, much as they plumed themselves upon sturdy common sense in dress, indulged in occasional vagaries in the way of foot- wear which no giddy Frenchman could surpass. One of their greatest extravagances in this line was the pointed toe. It began with an simple point, "only this and nothing more," but the point grew and curved and curved and grew until it attained a length of 15 inches, and was aptly com' BOO COLE'S DICTIONARY OF DRY GOODS. 31 pared to devil's claws. In order to overcome their inconvenience they were sometimes secured by a chain or cord to the knee, many specimens being still in existence having rings attached for fastening the chain. The reaction against this extreme came in the form of broad-toed shoes. These were made gradually shorter and wider until they caused the fashionable foot to appear like a hoof, and it was found necessary in 1480 to restrict them in breadth. Having attained a width of twelve inches, and were still widening, sensible Queen Mary issued a proclamation prohibiting a wider shoe than six inches at the toe. The next freak of fashion came in the form of wide topped boots. These came into vogue with the courtiers of the second Charles. They were of soft, pliable Spanish leather, which doubled over the top like a cuff; and this boot-cuff was further adorned with ruffles of costly lace. The extreme width of these boot tops with their frail orna- mentation, made it necessary for the wearer to take wide spraddling steps in walking. In the ninth and tenth centuries the greatest kings and princes in Europe all wore wooden shoes, not wooden boots like those worn by the Hollanders, but wooden soles fastened to the feet with leather thongs. The wooden boot coming up to the ankle is, at present, worn by the peasants throughout all Europe, The towns of Mende and Fillefort are the head- quarters for the wooden shoe trade in France, about 1 700 persons there finding employment in the manufacture. These shoes (or boots) are made from a single piece of wood roughly cut and hollowed out into shoe form. Analogous to this industry is the clog-making trade of England. Clogs are heavy wooden shoes to which, shoe or boot, uppers are attached. Sole and heel are made of one piece, from a block of maple or ash two inches thick. These clogs are of great advantage to all who work in damp.sloppy places, keeping the feet dry and comfortable in a manner impossible with either leather or india-rubber. They are, consequently, largely used on the Con- tinent and in the United States by ditchers, dyers, bleachers, tanners, etc. There is also a considerable demand for expensive clogs, with fancy uppers, for use by clog dancers and others on the stage. Probably as curious an adaptation of shoes to the requirements of cli- mate as ever known, is the Canadian snow-shoe. This is formed of a wooden frame work, strongly interlaced with thongs of leather. Its use was learned from the Indians by travellers and hunters; and it is exceedingly difficult to acquire the pace. The inhabitants of British America travel rapidly on the broad surfaces of these shoes. Both men and women wear them, and the number of miles gotten over in a day by able-bodied experts sound extravagant to people not aware of the facility with which they can be man- aged. They are from eight to fourteen inches in breath at the widest part, and sometimes as much as seven feet long, though generally about four feet. The present form of leather boots and shoes was adopted early in the 17th century. The general styles have not varied much for many years; 32 COLE'S DICTIONARY OF DRY GOODS. BOO the narrow sole, the broad sole, the box toe and the high and the low heel being the principal differences between one pair and another. It has been but a few years since the best trade would not think of buying ready-made footwear, but their manufacture by large establishments, however, has reached such perfection that it is doubtful if there is one out of ten thou- sand well-to-do people who have their shoes made to order by hand. Man- ufacturing has been reduced to such a science that it is possible to do work as well by machinery as by hand, and at the same time shoes are made much cheaper now than they were twenty years ago. This is on account of the reduced cost of tanning leather, more economical production and better freight facilities. There was a time when the person whose feet were not the shape that nature may have intended, or who were particu- larly sensitive or fastidious, was justified in having shoes made by exact and special measurement. But to-day the factory-made shoes are of every conceivable shape, size, style and finish. The finest shoes are made in seven widths, A, B, C, D, E, EE, F; and in length varying in size from a third to a sixth of an inch. A full " size " of a shoe or boot means one-third of an inch in length; half "sizes " mean one-sixth of an inch; expressed 6, 6/^, 7, lYz, etc. These figures do not represent the actual length of the shoe (as do sizes of hosiery) but start from an arbitrary base. It is a matter of fact that the shoemaker (compared with his vocation once) is now only a repairer and vender of factory-made goods. His shelves are loaded down with goods purchased from the jobbers and all the manufacturing he does takes up but a very small portion of his time. He is really a merchant with the ability to halfsole, cobble and straighten-up heels. The consumer is the gainer by all this, for the amount demanded for a pair of boots prior to the war would now purchase four pairs of well- made and neatly-fashioned shoes. It is a fact very noticable and one also that has been commented freely upon, that among the urban population of the United States, boots have long been en passe. Ever since they went out of fashion many years ago, there have been occasional and fitful attempts to revive the use of them. Men's predilections are variable. In respect of shoes, every conceivable taste has been thoroughly ministered to, but it is doubtful whether the use of boots will ever again become general. Here and there is encountered an elderly man whose partiality for them cannot be changed. He began to wear them in his youth and has clung to them ever since. Some physi- cians maintain that the wearing of boots acts as a preventative of rheuma- tism. They not only repel extraneous moisture, but being loose at the top permit the free escape of the natural perspiration of the feet. Years ago they were the acknowledged badge of a gentleman; now they are worn by coachman and grooms, and are regarded as the insignia of servitude. A century back there was a saying "every gentleman wears boots;" now we have the terse tale of a hanging in the phrase, " he died with his boots on." The decline of the boot is another illustration of how the practical has BOO COLE'S DICTIONARY OF DRY GOODS. driven out the picturesque. When courtiers wore powdered wigs and lace ruffles, boots were indispensable, but in this unpoetical age the male por- tion of humanity has no time to expend upon useless furbelows and trap- pings. The army officer, of course, wears boots just as he always did; and the bugle-call to "boots and saddle" in a cavalry camp is as potent as of yore. But we are a nation of peace and army officers are few. Foreigners marvel that they can travel from Maine to Mexico and from Hatteras to to the Golden Gate without seeing a solitary soldier. But the soldiers of the soil, the industrial army of our country, still continue to wear a certain amount of boots, and the trade in them is by no means inconsiderable. The names of the lines made by the various fac- tories tell the story. There are "driving," " ditcher "and "freighters " boots, and there are " mining " and " lumbermen's " and " cowboys'" boots. Cow- boys wear fine calf boots with high heels and fancy tops. They job at $3 to $3.50 a pair. A line with Goodyear welt bring $4.25 A heavy calf mountaineer boot jobs at $3.75. For lumbermen and out door laborers in the northern latitudes, leather has given way to the felt and wool boots, worn in conjunction with a buckled rubber overshoe. Wool boots without leather stays sell for $8 to $9.50 per dozen. Certain philosophers have contended, with a great deal of force, that boots are an index ot character. That eminent authority, Kirtley, has long adhered to this view. " Men who wear boots " he tells us, " are superior for many reasons. They manifest, in the first place, decent reverence for the example of their forefathers. Boots, they know, were worn by the men of the olden time the men who expelled the British invaders from our shores, and founded this mighty Republic. They are not unaware that George Washington, when asked by a Virginia cobbler to don a pair of patent leather pumps, nailed the ear of the offender to the town pump. Then, too, they recall the preference for boots of every man who has made his mark in'the commercial, professional or the political world. Allegiance to boots has invariably been synonymous with uninterrupted and marvel- ous success. Disloyalty to boots has provoked certain and ignominious failure." In the manufacture of shoes there are two main divisions. The minor division the making of "turn" shoes embraces all work in which there is only one thin, flexible sole, which is sewed to the upper while outside in, and turned over when completed. Slippers and ladies' thin kid shoes, are examples of this class of work. In the other division the upper is united to an insole, and at least one outsole. In this are comprised all classes, shapes and qualities of goods, from shoes up to long-top boots, with all their variations of lacing, button- ing, congress, etc. Till within recent times, shoemaking was a pure handi- craft, but now machinery effects almost every operation in the art. In the beginning of shoemaking inventions the principal difficulties to overcome were encountered in the operation of fastening together the soles and 3 34 COLE'S DICTIONARY OF DRY GOODS. BOO uppers. The first success in this important operation was effected when means other than sewing were devised. In 1809 David M. Randolph ob- tained a patent for fastening the outer sole to the inner sole by means of little nails. This invention may be said to have laid the foundation of machine boot-making. In 1810 M. J. Brunnel patented machinery for fastening the soles to uppers by means of metal pins or nails. Apart from sewing by machine or hand, three principal methods of attaching soles to uppers are in use at present. The first is "pegging;" the second is "riveting," or "clinching," with jron or brass nails, the points of the nails being turned by coming in contact with the iron last used. The third method, "screwing," has come into extensive use since the standard screwing machine was introduced. The standard screw machine, which is an Ameri- can invention, is provided with a reel of stout, screw-threaded brass wire, which is inserted into and screwed through outsole, upper edge and insole. Inside the upper a head presses against the insole directly opposite the point of the screw, and the instant that the screw and head touch the wire is cut level with the outsole. The screw, making its own hole, fits tightly in the leather, and the two soles, being both compressed and screwed firmly together, make a perfectly water-tight and solid shoe. The principal dis- advantage in the use of standard-screwed soles is the great difficulty met with in removing and levelling down the remains of an old sole when re. pairs are necessary. The various forms of sewing-machines by which uppers are closed, and their important modifications for uniting soles and uppers, are also princi- pally of American origin. The first important step in the difficult problem of sewing together soles and uppers by a machine was taken by L. R. Blake, tn 1858. Blake's machine was ultimately perfected as the MacKay sole-sewing machine one of the most successful and money-making in- ventions of modern times. Blake's original machine was very imperfect and was incapable of sewing round the toe of a shoe; but a half-interest of it coming into the hands of Gordon MacKay, he with Blake effected most important improvements in the mechanism, and they jointly in 1860 pro- cured patents which secured to them the monopoly of making machine- sewed boots for twenty-one years. On the outbreak of the Civil War, a great demand arose for boots, and there being at the same time much labor withdrawn from the market, a profitable field was opened up for the use of the machine, which was now capable of sewing a sole right around. Machines were leased out by the MacKay Company to other manufacturers at a royalty of from y 2 to 3 cents on every pair of soles sewed, the machines themselves registering the work done. The income of the Company from royalties increased from $38,000 in 1863 to $589,000 in 1873, and con- tinued to rise till the main patents expired in 1881, when there was in use in the United States nearly two thousand Blake-Mac Kay machines, sewing yearly 50,000,000 pairs of boots and shoes. The range of machinery for making and finishing other parts of a shod. BOO COLE'S DICTIONARY OF DRY GOODS. 35 used in a well-equipped factory, is very extensive, embracing machines for cutting leather, pressing-rollers for sole-leather, and cutting-dies for stamp- ing out soles and heel pieces. For finishing there are scouring, sand papering and burnishing machines for the soles, and stamping machines for marks and monograms. In short there is not a single operation neces- sary in shoemaking, however insignificent, for which machinery has not been devised. This country consumes more than 200,000,000 pairs of boots, shoes and slippers annually. It is safe to place the figures at 17,000,000 pairs a month of all kinds. When some circumstance occurs which forces the people of this great country to wear their shoes a week or a fortnight longer than they are accustomed to doing, it produces a perceptible effect upon the shoe and leather trade. The entire trade is very quick to feei the effect of unseasonable weather. This sensitiveness is accounted for by the fact that the shoe business is comprised of but one class of goods alone, while all other branches of merchandising and manufacturing are composed of scores of different lines. The manufacture of shoe "lasts" is to-day a fine art. Makers of statues and sculpture may commit errors that the ordinary observer will not perceive. But manufacturers of lasts are without this immunity. They must build well and truly, and their dumb models, inanimate as they are, must have the curves and grace and anatomical peculiarities of the human foot. The beauty of the foot depends upon the elasticity, symmetrical aliveness of each toe and muscle, and upon the length of the toes relatively to the contour of the whole foot, and upon the curve of the outer side of the sole. There never was a handsome foot in the classic sense that had short toes, and there never was a foot that fully satisfied the sense of beauty but was arched or curved on the outside. The inner curve is far more com- mon, and exists frequently when the outer side is as flat as a negro's. Lasts are made of the trunks of maple and persimmon trees. A last factory is an interesting sight. Rugged tree trunks, redolent with forest life, are hauled by a fatal chain to a vicious circular saw. The big clumsy slices of wood are rapidly cut, roughed, and placed in the silent drying room. In another part of the building are lathing machines busily trim- ming the homely blocks into shape. Then comes the paring of heels and toes. Next the shaving and finishing, which is followed by plating the heels and toes of the lasts with iron. Sandpapering wheels smooth irreg- ularities on the grain, and finally it is coated with shellac. In all these operations, conducted so skillfully and rapidly, the eye and hand of an artist is constantly employed, for if the slightest imperfection occurs the last has to be cast aside. [See LEATHER]. Bootee (boot-ee'). A trade-name for a half or short boot for women. Boot-powder, Massive talc, or soapstone reduced to powder, used to dust the inside of a new or tightly-fitting shoe, to facilitate drawing it on. 36 COLE'S DICTIONARY OF DRY GOODS. BOU Boucla (boo-clay'). A style of weaving in which a rough, knotted sur- face is produced. These bunches or knots are formed in the warp or weft threads prior to weaving, and appear at short intervals over the surface of the fabric. This weave is generally confined to woolen dress goods and cloaking. Bowing (bo '-ing). The old process of preparing the fur for the body of a felt hat. Usually about 3 ounces of fur was spread upon a platform of boards about 5 feet square, over which a large bow some 6 feet long, strung with catgut, was suspended. This bow was held in the left hand of the hatter, while with the right he tugged or twanged the string of the bow and made it vibrate upon the fur, and into it with great dexterity and the nicest judgment. This operation has always been considered a beautiful sight to a stranger, as the hatter goes on plucking the string, and the string playing upon the top of the fur which lies upon the left hand side of the platform. The fur touched by the string is made to fly from one side of the boards to the other with the greatest regularity. In this operation the different materials are tossed to-and-fro and mixed with a much greater regularity than if drawn by machinery. One half of the intended hat, called a bat, is bowed at a time, and both in nearly a triangular shape, which is pressed and gently rubbed with the hands backward and forward so as to create a friction on the surface fibers, thereby interlacing the out- side filaments, by which means the safe-lifting of the two half-solidified por- tions of the future hat is secured. The one-half being laid upon the other they are joined together by overlapping two of the three sides, thereby giving to the intended hat the form and figure of a hollow cone, but so tender that none but an experienced hatter could handle it. This finishes the operation of "bowing," after v/hich come felting and shaping, for de- scriptions of which processes si HATS. Box Coat. Early in the present century an overcoat with a cape, in- tended for drivers or travelers on the outside of a coach. At present, a short overcoat, usually of a light and delicate color used for attending operas and balls and the like. Sometimes called an Opera coat. Box-Plait. A double fold or plait, as on a shirt bosom or a woman's dress; a method of folding cloth alternately in opposite directions so as to form a kind of plait from each side. Braid. A narrow textile band or tape formed by plaiting or knitting together several strands of silk, cotton, wool, or mohair, used for the trimming and binding of garments. The production of silk and mohair goods form a branch of the larger silk manufacturing trade; which more than most others is free from season fluctuations. In silk varieties since 1887, and in mohair since 1890 the bulk of these goods consumed by the domestic trade have been manufactured in this country. The braids produced at Patterson, N J., outrival the best that Europe can produce, \vhetherinqualityofmaterialand consequent durability, in exellence 1 of BRA COLE'S DICTIONARY OF DRY GOODS. 37 weaving, or in finish. In the numbering of braids they are designated as being of so many "lines" according to the number of ribs they possess. If a braid has four ribs running lengthwise from end to end, it is called a 4-lme braid. In numbering cords and other similar materials there is no uniform system adopted. Their description is supposed to be based on the number of main strands that enter into their construction, but this is not always the case. The majority of standard wool dress braids, such as "Goff's," "Corticella," etc., are numbered 61, which signifies that the braid is composed of 61 threads. This may easily be determined by counting the ribs which will be found to be 15 each rib or plait being composed of 4 threads = 60 + 1 thread necessary to start the web = 61. On account of one thread being necessary to start the plaiting of a braid, all braids if "sized" according to the number of individual threads which compose the texture will be found to bear odd numbers. Formerly they were all so numbered, but in recent years the width of fine silk and mohair braids is indicated by the number of longitudinal ribs in their tructure. Brandenbnrgs. [Named from Brandenbourg. in Germany.] A variety of ornamental buttons formed somewhat in the shape of a long, narrow barrel, smaller at the ends than in the middle, and made of silk on a wooden mold or foundation, usually connected with loops and worn on the front of garments and to fasten men's heavy overcoats; corresponding to frogs on ladies' cloaks. [See FROG.] Breakfast Shawl. A small, square checked shawl, folded diagonally and worn around the neck by women. Breast Clout. A bib. Breech Clout. A cloth of any description, covering the breech and loins of Indians, Africans and other uncivilized peoples. Breeches. A bifurcated garment formerly worn to cover but the hips and thighs; improperly used in the sense of trousers or pantaloons. The word is derived from Anglo-Saxon breech, which indicates the lower part of the body behind, or the hinder part of anything. The " Geneva " Bible, an English translation issued from Geneva in 1560, by several British divines, has been called the " breeches " Bible, because in the story of Adam and Eve, a passage (Genesis III, 7) was translated: " Then the eyes of them both were opened, and they knew that they were naked, and they sewed fig leaves together and made themselves breeches." Later and more fastidious translators make the passage read " aprons." Bride. In lace making and needle work a loop, link or tie connecting two different parts of the work together. [See LACE.] Broad Lace. A wool lace or embroidery made in bands about four inches wide and used as an ornamental border to the upholstery of a car- riage or car. Broadcloth. A fine "woolen" cloth, commonly black, with a smooth, 38 COLE'S DICTIONARY OF DRY GOODS. BRO glossy surface, principally used in making men's garments, so called from its breadth which is usually 60 inches. Broadcloth is woven of the finest grades of felting wools. When taken from the loom it does not present that polished appearance which is its distinctive feature as seen in the shops of tailors. In the loom it is rough and dull-colored, with the threads which compose the warp and woof plainly showing. All broadcloths are subject to the action of fulling or felting, with the result that the wool-hairs of the weft and those of the warp become mutually entangled to such an extent that these cloths never unravel when cut by the tailor, and no hemming of a garment is required. Twelve hours in the fulling mill will reduce a piece of cloth two-fifths in breadth and one-third of its length. This shortening and narrowing result is the effect of \\sfelting in the fulling mill during the operations of scouring and washing, every fibre of the wool of which the cloth is made having clung to its immediate neighbors (both warp and weft) and with the spirit of true friendship, they remain forever in each other's embrace, the cloth being transformed from a loose to a solid fabric. Upon every fibre of wool are minute scales, so very minute, indeed, that it requires the aid of a powerful microscope to enable the beholder to discern them, and even then but faintly. These scales, which cover every filament of wool, are thin and pointed, overlapping each other quite similar to the scales of a fish or the shingles upon a house. On a single filament of merino wool, as many as 2400 barbed scales, like teeth, project- ing from the center of the stem have been counted in the space of one inch. On Saxony wool there are 2,700 while other wools fall to 1,600, 1,700 and 1,900, and none have been found to have so few as 1,000 to the inch. The cause of that mysterious and curious operation called felting, is the existence of these scales. Of all the fibres only wool can be felted, because none of the other fibres possess these minute scales. Till lately the best posted manufacturers and the investigating philosopher were equally at a loss to explain upon what principle the felting effect was pro- duced. Take, for instance, a handful of wet wool; squeeze and press it, work it a little with the hand, and then observe the effect; for immediately upon pressing it a certain locomotion is thereby conferred upon every fibre of the handful, which is increased by every turn of position that is given. The rolling and pressing change the position of each fibre. A friction is produced upon every member composing the mass; a footing, as it were, is obtained from the scales of each, and the wool being all bent or curled, a progressive motion goes on, interlacing each other in their travels, result- ing in a compact, dense body, which challenges the patience and perse- verence to undo. Every hair has been traveling in its own individual direction, boring, warping, grasping, holding and twisting amongst its fellows like a collection of live worms. This is "felting." After the felting process is carried to the desired extent, the cloth is slightly napped, and sheared to produce an even smooth surface; and wetted, steamed, ironed BRO COLE'S DICTIONARY OF DRY GOODS. 39 and pressed many times to make the polished surface. " Steaming " con- sists in passing hot live steam through the rolled piece, and alternating with cold water, just as a barber acts when shampooing a customer. This fastens the bloom and nap, and preserves the beautiful peach-like appear- ance ot the finish. After being carefully dried it is sheared and cropped, so that the top hair or down is taken off, and the under growth of down made a regular length. The finest piece of broadcloth which ever left a loom was manufac- tured at the woolen mills of Vassalboro, Maine. It was first exhibited at the World's Fair in London in 1851, and next at the Centennial in 1876, being pronounced by the judges in that line of goods as surpassing any- thing of the kind ever displayed; in fact there is no record of the manu- facture of any broadcloth superior in either texture or finish, and the only reason, as assigned, why these superior fabrics have not been made on a commercial scale, is because of their extremely high price. Broadcloth is also the name given to a wide fabric made of "woolen" yarn, with a slightly napped face, exclusively used for ladies' dresses. Its origin is derived from the material used for men's wear, from which it dif- fers chiefly in weight and finish. Broadcloth and ladies' cloth are terms often used to signify the same fabric, and, while the two are practically the same cloth, there is a difference between them. Broadcloth has a twilled back, and is of heavier weight and closer shorn than ladies' cloth, while ladies' cloth is a plain weave, with a heavier nap. [See WOOL, WOOLEN.] Brocade. A fabric woven of any material or combination of colors, in which a design of flowers or foliage is inserted. Brocades in the olden time were rich fabrics, woven with gold and silver and silk. To prepare the golden thread in those days, a flat gilded ribband was used over a silk of the nearest possible tint to the metal, and the principal skill in this prepara- tion was to have the circumlocutions of the metal around the silk in such manner that the edges were drawn as closely as possible to each other, without overlapping. The manufacture of these golden threads was brought to such a degree of perfection that they were in high favor with the public taste. There early existed in Milan, Italy, a great factory using a secret process which made a thread, only one side of which was golden. Ornamented threads of hemp and flax, and flat threads of copper were also made. The Chinese economically employed bands of gilded paper upon the silk, and sometimes used them without other support than their own fabric. But these were very ephemeral, and were rarely used except as tapestry or ornaments, as they needed constant protection from the moisture of the atmosphere. Afterward, the foundation of " brocades " was of silk, relieved with flowers or ornaments of gold or silver, and later the name brocade was given to fabrics ornamented with flowers and other figures in which no metallic thread was employed. In the 13th century a large factory for the 40 COLE'S DICTIONARY OF DRY GOODS. BRO manufacture of brocades was in operation at Lucca, Italy, but the gover- nor forced the workmen to abandon the city. Three hundred of them went to Venice, where encouraged by the offer many privileges, they founded a new factory. For a long time afterward the Venetian factory flourished and turned out immense quantities of fine goods. In the course of the latter century this factory invented a modification of brocade, and gave the name of damask (curtain) to the new fabric. This textile, although it contained but half the gold or silver used in brocades, showed a much richer and more even surface. The metallic thread was not passed round a thread of silk, but in passing the cloth between heavy rollers the metallic thread thus represented ornaments which had the appearance of brilliant leaves of gold or silver in a single piece, similar to the curtain damask of the pres- ent time. This process was kept secret for a long time by the manufacturers, but the immense advantages accruing to Venice attracted the attention of the French government, which employed a celebrated expert to go there and ascertain the methods employed. The attempt of the expert was not fruit- less, and factories for making the new brocade immediately sprang up in Lyons. There are many rich brocades of the original sort still produced in India, especially in the looms of Benares. These gold brocades are called kin-cobs, and in style and essential character are older than the use of silk in Babylona, Phoenicia or Egypt. Japan takes now as for centuries past, the front place in the production of figured silks of all kinds, especi- ally gold wrought brocades, rich with flowers and other ornaments, figured damasks and other beautiful fabrics. There are two kinds made in Japan, gold thread brocade, and silk damask brocade, or brocade inwrought with flowers and foliage. Gold and silver is very largely used in the weaving of these fabrics. The Japanese have many proverbial expressions which show the high estimation in which they hold their brocades, such as: Kokioye Nishiktor " Clothe yourself in brocade when you return home, Tzurure wo Kite mo Kokoro wa Nishiki or " He wears rags, it is true, but his heart is of brocade." Brocaded. This term is used to describe a fabric upon the surface of which a figure of any kind is formed by the threads of the warp or filling be- ing raised in such order as to produce the pattern required. The word has much the same application to silk and wool textures that "damasked" has to linen textures, or to worsted stuffs when used for upholstering purposes. [See LOOM, WEAVING.] Brocatel (broc-a-tel ' ). A coarse or inferior brocade or figured fabric, commonly made of silk or cotton, or sometimes of cotton only, but having a more or less silky surface; used chiefly for curtains, furniture-covering, tapestry linings, and linings for carriages. Broche (bro-sha'). [From French broach, to sew or stitch]. Broche properly means sewed or stitched; or, any style of weaving ornamented' BRO COLE'S DICTIONARY OF DRY GOODS. 41 with threads which form a pattern on the surface in imitation of stitching; the term has a meaning similar to "brocaded" when applied to woven fabrics: as a broche shawl, a broche ribbon. [See CASHMERE SHAWLS.] Broche Shawl (bro-sha'). A variety made in imitation of genuine Cashmere shawls, distinguished by its "cone" pattern, or round scroll work. They were first made at Paisley, Scotland, and were of a peculiar bluish color, and known to the trade as Paisley shawls. At present they are made in France, and red is the predominating color; called either Broche or Paisley. Brush Hat. The old-fashioned brush hats were made of beaver fur, first made into a felt cloth, and then finished with a flowing nap. This nap was produced in the process of sizing by being constantly "brushed" with a hand-brush hence the name. The best of these usually retailed for $15. Buckle* A metal appliance for fastening together different articles and portions of dress. The origin of the buckle is clouded in a great deal of uncertainty, but it is known to antedate as an ornamental device for shoes all other contrivances. Of exactly what material they were first manufac- tured history does not enlighten us. In England and France, and even in our own country, in the year 1781, all gentlemen of tone sported on their shoes a large, square buckle, plated with silver, and as ladies soon adopted the reigning taste, "it was difficult to discover their feet, covered with an enormous shield of buckle, and men wondered to see the active motion under the massive load." Buckles and buttons at this time were worn of such immense size as to occasion the issue of a caricature entitled "Buckles and Buttons, or I'm the Thing, Damme!" but in 1791 the massive loads became unsupportable, and suddenly went out of fashion, strings for shoes being adopted. In consequence of this a large class of ingenious artisans in the manufacturing districts of England were thrown out of employment In 1792 a deputation of these buckle-makers presented a petition to the Prince of Wales (after- ward George IV) setting forth the distressed condition of the thousands who had been engaged in the department of buckle making. The Prince promised not only to wear buckles on his own shoes, but to order the mem- bers of his household to do the same. But the commands of royalty were powerless when opposed to the mandates of fashion. Buckram. [Said by some etymologists to have been derived from bucca, a hole, from the fabric being woven loosely and open, and afterward gummed, calendered and dyed; by others, the fabric is said to have taken its title from the place of its original manufacture, Bokhara, in Tartary; also conjecturally referred to as having been derived from L. bouquena, goat's skin. Formerly spelled bokeram, bouqueran, bockaran, buckeram.] A coarse unbleached linen cloth, stiffened with glue or gum, used as a stiffening for keeping garments in a required shape, and recently also for 42 COLE'S DICTIONARY OF DRY GOODS. BUC* binding books. Buckram was originally a very different material to that now known by the name. It is described in the fourteenth century as a " fine thinne cloth " ranking with the richest silks, and as late as the beginning of the sixteenth century this stuff was held good enough for lining to a black velvet gown for Queen Elizabeth. There can, however, be no doubt that buckram of a common description was early applied to a dress lining, as the prices on many old invoices do not show a fine material, so that the character of the fabric must have undergone a great change prior to the fourteenth century, even much more so than it has since done. Buckskin. A soft kind of glove leather, yellowish or blue-gray in color, made originally by tanning deer-skins with oil and wood-smoke, but now sometimes being prepared from sheepskins. At present, in its prepa- ration a great deal of manipulation is required, the softness of which is its chief characteristic, being produced by the use of either oil or brains in dressing it. [See LEATHER.] Buff. A kind of thick, uncolored leather, originally and properly made of the skin of the buffalo, whence its name, but since the extinction of this animal, made of the skins of cattle. [See LEATHER.] It is dressed so as to be as flexible as possible, and without a glazed or artificially colored surface. Buff Coat. A military coat made of buff-leather, in favor at the time of the English civil wars. The buff coat was commonly so thick and unyielding as to be considered proof against the sword, and even against a pistol-ball, except when fired at short range. Buffing. The operation of diminishing the thickness of a hide of leather by means of a currier's knife or splitting machine, for the purpose of increasing the suppleness of the leather ; hence the layer so shaved off. Bugle (bu'-gle). A shiny, elongated glass bead, usually black, used for decorating female apparel. Bugle trimming consists of these glass ornaments attached to a silk or gimp foundation; similar to passamenterie Bullion-fringe, A fringe of thick twisted cords, such as will hang heavily, covered with fine gold or silver thread ; used for epaulettes and the trimming of uniforms. Also called bullion-embroidery. Bunting. A light loosely-woven single width worsted dress goods, woven both plain and laced. Bunting is also the material out of which all train flags are made, as well as National flags and signals for ships. Dis- tinguished from Nun's Veiling by being but single width, of coarser and more open texture, and composed of "worsted" while Nun's Veiling is "woolen." [See WOOL, FLAGS.] Burlap. A coarse, heavy material made of jute, flax, hemp or man- lila, and used for wrappings and upholstery; outside coffee bags are made of burlap. [See JUTE, HEMP.] BUR COLE'S DICTIONARY OF DRY GOODS. 43 Burl. To pick knots, loose threads, burrs, etc. from, as in finishing cloth. To cleanse cloth, as with fuller's earth or a similar substance. Buskin (bus '-kin). [From "bore's-skin," of which they were first made.] A half-boot or shoe, strapped or laced to the ankle and the lower part of the leg, worn by the ancients. At present a low-laced, low-heeled slipper worn by women. Bustle. Derived from busk, which in the 16th century is described as being a "flexible strip of whalebone or other stiff ened material.used by fleshy women to keep their stomachers down, and to stiffen their stays;" also a "quilted or plaited thing to keep the body straight." Bustles have been worn of various shapes and dimensions, at different periods, since 1841. At present they consist of a sort of a pad or wire spring, worn by women for the purpose of improving the figure, causing the folds of the skirt to hang gracefully, and preventing the bottom of the skirt from interfering with the feet in walking. Butcher's Linen. A coarse and heavy bleached linen material, used principally as a backing for shirt bosoms. Butter-cloth. A thin and open unsized muslin, used by dairymen to wrap their rolls of butter; similar to cheezecloth. Buttons. [Fr. bouton, from bout, end, extremity, bud]. A catch of various forms and materials, used to fasten together the different parts of dress. In ancient times buttons were far from being as universally used as they are now. Clasps, hooks and eyes, or things made of wood, were the articles most generally used in fastening the two edges of garments, and with these rude things the people of those days had to be content. Now, however, buttons are made of various materials. Horn, bone, agate, india- rubber, mother-of-pearl, various woods and vegetable ivory are but a small part of the substances which have been pressed into this service; while for covering buttons there is used lasting, brocade, twist, velvet, silk and mohair. Button manufacture did not assume any special form until the 14th century, when buttons of gold and ivory were used as ornaments for the dress of both sexes. In England, at the commencement of the 17th cen- tury, the button trade had assumed formidable proportions, and large quan- tities of bone, steel and wooden buttons were shipped to this country. The first that were manufactured in the United States was in the year 1826, by Samuel Williston. While he was dragging along as a country store-keeper at East Hampton, Mass., his wife bethought her that she could cover by hand the wooden buttons of that time and thus earn an honest penny. From this humble beginning the couple advanced in their ambition until they had perfected machinery for covering buttons, the first employed in this coun- try. ' From this sprang an immense factory, and then others, until Samuel Williston made half the buttons of the world. His factories are still run- ning at Leeds and East Hampton, Mass., coining wealth for the proprietors. 44 COLE'S DICTIONARY OF DRY GOODS. BUT There are two systems used for the measurement of buttons, the Eng- lish and the French. English measurement runs 14, 16,18,20, etc., "lines,' 1 while the French runs 4, 4^, 5, 5^, etc. An English " line " is one-fortieth of an inch, or 40 lines to the inch; the French "line" may be expressed thus .08887 of an inch. The French line measurement is said to be obso- lete, yet it is every day in practical use. To show in what relation the respective systems stand to each other, see the following: English Measure 18 20 22 24 26 28 French " 5 5^ 6 6^ 7 7^ Vegetable Ivory buttons are made in large quantities in this country, at Leeds, Mass., and at New York and Newark. The ivory nut, as it is called by the trade, is grown in the hot regions of South America. The principal point of shipment is Colon, on the Isthmus of Panama. Like the banana, the ivory nut is perennial in its native clime, and maybe found in all stages from the bud to the ripened nut at all seasons of the year. The nuts grow in great bunches of about fifty, incased in a shell, as are chestnuts in the burr, though the shell outwardly resembles in roughness the surface of a pineapple. The entire cluster of nuts in this shell is as big as a man's head. This shell comes off easily after the nuts are ripe. At this stage they fall from the trees, which are fourteen or fifteen feet in height, and are packed on the backs of natives to the points of shipment. These are ship- ped to this country and kiln-dried, sawed into slabs of the proper thickness from which the buttons are cut by a lathe, the holes being drilled in by a power lathe. One of the peculiar features of the material, in relation to buttons, is its susceptibility to coloring matter. It can be colored any shade that is desired by the manufacturers. The artistic tailors and dressmakers make use of this to great advantage in the adaptation of buttons to gar- ments, even in making up mottled goods buttons in perfect harmony with the material may be secured. The grain of the nut is white and of even texture, so that it is easily carved, sawed and worked into any desirable shape The trees are not farmed or raised artificially as is the banana tree, but grows in its natural state and in its own manner in the primeval forests, the same as the hickory or the chestnut or the walnut. About 4,000 tons of the ivory nut are brought to this country annually, and lying stacked up on the pier at New York resemble large hay-stacks and are interesting as illus- trative of the great variety of extraordinary things brought to this market from various parts of the world and the ingenuity of those who have clev- erly adapted them to the uses of mankind. Owing to the cheapness of the raw material, there is not more than $150,000 per annum involved in the traffic. 1,500 persons in New York alone are employed in handling the nut and manufacturing it into buttons. Unlike rubber and bone, ivory is not affected by heat or coidand is not liable to break in the eye. The cost of manufacturing is the principle item of expense, about 80 per cent of the cost of vegetable ivory buttons being the labor. The greatest production in this country was from 1880 to 1890, but the Germans having the advan- BUT COLE'S DICTIONARY OF DRY GOODS. 45 tage of cheaper labor are now able to successfully compete with American manufacture. The duty is forty percent, fifteen per cent of it having been a raise under the McKinley act. Metal buttons are made of various materials, the variety known as gilt buttons being made of a mixture of copper, with a small portion of zinc or brass mixed with copper, common brass being unfit for gilding. The gild- ing is performed by means of an amalgam of quicksilver and gold. The buttons are cut out of large wide sheets of this metal, and the shanks are affixed by solder. This work is all done by machines, the process being so rapid that one workman can prepare 12 gross in an hour. Brass buttons are simply stamped out of sheet brass, and the ornaments are struck by a die. Plated buttons are made out of copper, plated with silver, and are chiefly used in liveries and uniforms. The figures or designs upon them are formed by stamping with dies. The cheapest and commonest kind of metal buttons are those which are stamped in pewter, and chiefly used in the trimming of military jackets. They are very soft, but not being in- tended to bear any stress, but merely to exhibit the number of the regi- ment or some such figure they answer a purpose. Upholstered buttons, or cloth covered buttons, have to undergo six different operations before they are turned out completed. The covering must first be cut out slightly larger than the size of the button. This is done by an ordinary die and mallet. The cutter, however, becomes so ex- expert, that he can punch upwards of 100 gross per day, and if he has whole cloth to cut from and lay it in several breadths deep, he can cut as high as 1000 gross daily. The next part of the button to be made is the tin mold, this being stamped out of a sheet of ordinary tin; these are pro- duced at the rate of 600 gross a day. The little tin mold next goes to a machine, where it has a hole cut in the center for a shank to protrude. It is then called a "collet," 600 gross being the daily capacity. Paper filling must next be cut; the machine for this is so rapid that it makes 700 revolu- tions a minute, punching some 15,000 gross of these cardboard wads daily Making the back is the fifth process. The "collet" is placed in a mold and then covered with a coarse cotton cloth, upon which the cardboard filling is placed. This is pressed down and forms a solid button with the shank. These can be made at the rate of 90 gross daily. Lastly the cover is placed in another machine, the back being set in the socket of a punch which descends with great force, clamping the collet tightly round the completely finished button. Fifty gross of these can be made each day on a machine^ Men are employed to cut the cloth and tin, but the balance of the work on upholstered buttons is done by girls, who earn from $6 to $7 per week. Various small button-making machines have been invented, by the use of which retail merchants can 5u a few moments produce first class buttons of. any size from the same material as a dress, jacket or other garment is made, thus doing away with all the bother of matching shades, now so much a nuisance to lady customers. The cloth is cut in small squares 46 COLE'S DICTIONARY OF DRY GOODS. BUT and pressed over wooden molds by the machine. The cost of the mach- ines vary from $6 to $10. Great quantities of dress buttons are now made from potatoes. It is not generally known, but nevertheless a fact, that if the common Irish potato be treated with certain acids it becomes almost as hard as stone, and can be used for many purposes for which horn, ivory and bone are employed. This quality of the button adapts it to button-making, and a very good grade of buttons is now made from the well known tuber. The potato buttons cannot be distinguished from others save by a careful exam- ination, and even then only by an expert, since they are colored every con- ceivable shade, and are every whit as good-looking as a button of bone or ivory. Their cheapness is their recommendation, and will, no doubt, be largely employed in the future. Shoe buttons for ladies' shoes are made of button board, which is a paper material in sheets about a quarter of an inch thick. These sheets are cut in strips one-half inch in width, by the button manufacturer, each sheet making 56 strips, and from each strip 100 buttons are punched, which equals 5,600 buttons per sheet. Four hundred sheets make a ton of button board, or enough to make 2,240,000 buttons. The number of buttons required to supply the demand of shoe manufacturers may be dimly estimated when it is stated that one firm alone uses 18 tons per month, producing 40,320,000 buttons. Pearl buttons are made of pearl shells, or what is known as natural pearl, having a clear, pearly inside of various degrees of whiteness. Some large snail-like shells are obtained in New Zealand, others of the mother- of-pearl variety are found on the coasts of Australia, while the finest come from China and the Persian Gulf. The raw shells bring all the way from 43 cents to SI per pound in this market. In the first process of cutting out the disc for the button, the shell is held in the hand of the workman against a tubular saw, something like an ordinary gas pipe, and is very quickly sawed out. In order to do this and leave a clean and perfect edge, the saw must be kept very sharp, and it can readily be seen that the workman is called upon to use his best judgment in sawing the discs out of the shell, so as to get as many perfect ones as possible. From the first workman they go the second, who turns them in a lathe, and cuts out whatever pat- tern is required. Next comes boring the holes, polishing, putting on the shank where it is a button of that kind, and boxing, after which the article is ready for sale. It should be borne in mind that in all these processes each button has to be handled separately, and, though in many other lines of business wonderful improvements have been made in the direction of adapting machinery to special kinds of work, yet in the pearl button indus- try there has been little or no change for a hundred years. And as the tools required are of a simple kind, and the rest of the process depends upon experience and good judgment, it looks as if it was always destined to be a hand industry, and therefore peculiarly subject to outside influences BUT COLE'S DICTIONARY OF DRY GOODS. 47 which affect the cost of labor. Neither is there a fixed value to raw pearl shells, the price fluctuating daily according to supply and demand. Until the latter part of 1890 the bulk of pearl shirt buttons were made at Bir- mingham and London, England, while pearl dress buttons for the most part were made at Vienna, Austria. On the 1st of April, 1891, there were but seventeen pearl button factories in the United States. This increased to ninety-five in one year. Wages of button "turners" range from $18 to $23 per week, and boys and girls employed in finishing the goods are paid from $6 to $10 per week. Over 700 persons obtain a living at this industry in Newark, N. J., where formerly but twenty were employed. Factories have been located at Providence, R. I., Springfield, Mass., Philadelphia, New York, Brooklyn, Chicago, Detroit, and several other places, furnish- ing work for over 6,000 people at remunerative wages. None of these fac- tories existed before the tariff of 1890 was imposed, as the American work- man could not compete against wages of $3 and $4 a week earned by the Austrian button makers. The result of the tariff has been to reduce the imports of pearl buttons in 1891 to $200,000 against an amount of $3,500,000 in 1890, though a large portion of this sum was for over-importations pre- vious to the passage of the tariff act. There are three classes of shells rec- ognized by manufacturers out of which pearl buttons are made: 1st. The Macassar, which is a pure white, and from which "three-quarter super,' 1 "super," and "extra super" buttons are made. 2d. The Mussell, of which are manufactured the "half-fine grades." 3d. The Manilla, which produces the lowest grade goods. The Macassar is a pure, clear shell; the Mussell has a white inside with a yellowish or blackish back, while the Manilla is a dirty yellowish color throughout. Smoked pearl buttons are made of dark colored shells. The McKinly tariff on pearl buttons is 2^ cents per line per gross and 25 per cent advalorem, equal to a straight rate of about 400 per cent. The United States consume 12,500,000 gross annually. New York manufacturers have attempted to import from Europe what is known as "pearl blanks," round discs without grooving or eyes. Except that they are not pierced or shanked they correspond in appearance with the ordi- nary pearl button of commerce. The manufacturers assert that these arti- cles are not buttons, but merely "manufactures of shell," upon which the duty is only 40 per cent advalorem, claiming that the only thing known as a button in trade and common use is an article made with eyes or a shank. It was decided by the courts, however, that the ball or blank, or other spe- cial form of pearl, fashioned by skilled labor, is in fact a button, and that shanking, piercing or grooving the button is simply an auxiliary process, inasmuch as having reached such a stage of manufacture they were unsuit- able for use except as buttons. As far as the tariff is now concerned a "blank" is a button. Agate buttons used to be manufactured in England exclusively, but they have lost the industry. It came about in this way. A smart French- man, F. Bapterosses by name, went to England and hired to the agate but- 48 COLE'S DICTIONARY OF DRY GOODS. CAD ton makers as a common workman, thoroughly studied the business and got possession of the secrets. He then returned to France, where with the aid of the French Government he constructed a large plant and was ena- bled to produce agates at half the cost of the English goods, which of course ruined the latter industry. This man accumulated an immense fortune out of the agate button business and gave employment to thousands of French workmen, and was made a Knight of the Legion of Honor by his Govern- ment in recognition of his services to mankind that is, the French part of it. He visited the Centennial in this country in 1876. Agate buttons are made of a mineral substance known as feldspar, found in the roofs of cav- erns at Briare, France. The raw material is taken to the factory and ground into a paste, after which it is molded into buttons and baked; they are then sewed on cards by machinery. On all of Bapterosses" goods will be found the letters "F. B." printed on the back of each card in script letters. These are the Frenchman's initials. They are the best goods made. The protective tariff on them is 25 per cent, advalorem, but there is not an agate button made in North America. There is only one other agate factory in the world, and that is in Germany, but its pro- duct is not so good, the Germans being unable to procure feldspar that is perfectly clear and white. They are branded on the back " R. C." and on inspection it will be noticed that they are not so well burned as the "F. B." goods. These specks seem to be a matter the Germans cannot over- come. The common milk-white agate buttons are termed lentille, it being a beveled edge. The same shape is made in a pearly color, and called Pearly lentille. Printed agates are printed lentilles. Caneles are agates with little canals around the edge. Bourrelet is a raised edge, and cuvette is a concave button. These are all 4-hole, and are all made both "lentille" and " pearly lentille," with the exception of the printed, which is made in lentille only. Pearly lentille is the only variety made with but two holes. These are the staple lines. In addition there are numberless fancy varie- ties used especially for wash goods and which have, to a certain extent taken the place of the expensive pearl button. Caddis (cad '-is). A coarse serge. The variegated stuff worn by the Highlanders of Scotland. Cadet Gloyes. See GLOVES. Calender. A machine consisting of two or more steel cylinders revolv- ing very nearly in contact, between which is passed a woven fabric, for finishing by pressure the surface of linen, cotton and other texile fabrics; often aided by steam heat communicated from the interior of the cylinders. The word calendering is a corruption of cylindering. The object is to give cloth a perfectly smooth, even and equal surface, and sometimes, to produce a glaze, as in jaconets, sateens, silesias, etc. The domestic processes of starching and ironing afford a simple illustration of the object and result of calendering. Before the final calendering the fabric is flatly smoothed CAL COLE'S DICTIONARY OF DRY GOODS. 49 by passing over warm cylinders. The fabric is then simply passed between plain cylinders, which produces the desired effect by flattening the threads. By means of a cylinder with a pattern raised upon it, the amount of this flattening can be made unequal on different parts of the cloth, producing a watered effect. Glazing is produced by the rollers being made to move with different velocities, so that one side of the fabric is rubbed as well as pressed by the surface of the roller moving the most rapidly. A copper roller is used for glazing, so hot that if the machine stops it burns the goods. Calfskin. The best calfskin is tanned in France, with the liquor ex- tracted from the bark of the evergreen oak, a species indigenous to that country. One single tannery in France employs 12,000 workmen and has been in existence over 100 years. This establishment ships its product to every clime and country on the globe, even to every city in the United States where there is a wholesale leather house or a boot and shoe factory. One of the reasons for the superior quality of French calfskin is that fully 90 per cent of the raw hides the tanneries receive come from England, Ire- land, Italy and other populous European countries, where the calves are stall-fed. It being a well known fact among tanners that range or grass-fed animals produce the poorest and most inferior hides for making fine leather. Another reason is they employ the most expert and skillful labor that can be ootained, and make no endeavor to shorten the time requisite for prop- erly tanning the leather. Calico. The word "calico" has a queer origin. Many centuries ago the first monarch of the province of Malabar gave to one of his chiefs, as a reward for distinguished services, his sword and all the land within the limit of which a cock crowing at a certain temple could be heard. From this circumstance the little town which gre~w up in the center of this terri- tory was called Calicoda, or the cock crowing. Afterward it was called Calicut, and from this place the first cotton goods were imported into England, bearing the name of calico. The printing of calico has come to be a wonderful art-science. In this country there are two classes of calico printers those who make the cloth, print it, and sell direct to jobbers, and those who merely print the cloth for jobbers or commission merchants at piece-price. "Grey" print cloth may be purchased in New York or. Liverpool even by retail dealers, who in turn may take it to the calico printer and have the patterns put on. Ordinary grey cloth, 64x64, usually sells for 3 and a fraction cents per yard; and 56x60 cloth at 3 cents, or a fraction under 3 cents, per yard; while the cost of printing the same varies from one to two cents per yard. One pound of raw cotton will make 8j4 yards of 64x64 calico cloth. The tariff on imported calico is 4> cents per square yard. The following table shows the price of the best print cloth and standard sheeting in compari- son with.the price of cotton for four years: 50 COLE'S DICTIONARY OF DRY GOODS. CAL 1889. 1890. 1891. 1892. Middling cotton Il#c. I2c. 8#c. 7 5-16c. Standard sheeting 7#c. l%c. 7c. 6Kc. Print cloths, 64x64 3 15-16c. 3y & c. 2.91c. 3#c. "Standard" sheeting weighs 2.85 yards to the pound. When the grey cloth is received, fresh from the hands of the weaver, it is put through a critical examination for flaws and imperfections in weaving. The webs of cloth that pass inspection are then handed over to a girl who stitches the ends of several together, forming a required con- tinuous length, 300 yards being the minimum run a printer cares to accept to one coloring of a pattern. Upon each printing piece, of say 300 yards, are then placed certain marks for purposes of identification, and which will be visible and recognizable after printing. The next process is singeing, the purpose of which is to remove all surface unevenness and fuzz, the existence of which after printing would leave a blotched and defective appearance, a completely smooth face being absolutely necessary. Singeing to the uninitiated is probably the most perplexing process through which the cloth passes ; at first sight it seems that nothing will save the cloth from destruction. The cloth passes over and in passing is pressed against semi-circular platinum plates heated to almost white heat by the passing through them of electric currents. Great caution is necessary in the folding of the cloth preparatory to its going through this fiery ordeal ; if any hitch should occur to prevent its running freely and smoothly its ruin is inevitable. The rate at which it is made to travel, singes about 125 yards of cloth in one minute. The next operation the cloth undergoes is that of bleaching, which is divided into two branches : 1st, "print-bleaching", in the case of which the goods are bleached as a preliminary process to being printed all over ; and 2nd, "white-bleaching" which applies to goods to be finished "white", or unprinted, or merely lined or dotted as in the case of calico shirting or percales. In "white" bleaching it is only necessary to satisfy the eye, but in "print-bleaching" the cloth must be chemically pure, otherwise the colors in the subsequent printing process would be dull and blotchy, the colors refiJsing to combine evenly or perfectly. The cloth next goes through the process technically known as " sour- ing", a series of alternate and repeated acid treatments and washings. A solution of sulphuric or muriatic acid and one of chloride of lime are in turn used. None of these "souring" processes can be dispensed with, though their tendency is to weaken or rot the cloth. The chief cause of tender printed calico is carelessness at this point, too strong a solution of acid being used, or the boiling and washing-out afterward of the acid not being sufficiently thorough. The cloth is now as free from foreign matters as it is possible to get it, and contains only the identification marks referred to, and after being wound upon rollers is ready for starching. The object of starching is to fill up the spaces between the threads in order that the pattern may be imprinted plainer. What ought to be, and CAL COLE'S DICTIONARY OF DRY GOODS. 51 by reputable factories really is used, is pure starch, either of corn or potatoes, made into a stiff mucilage and blued with indigo. The cloth passes ever a roller into a long trough of starch, and as it comes out is caught between a pair of rollers and the superfluous starch squeezed out and thrown back into the trough, the cloth passing on to the drying machine. Many factories use a great deal more starch or " sizing " than is necessary, in order to give light-weight cloth an appearance of heaviness. The cloth now being ready for printing, the design is selected and the rollers engraved. These rollers are of polished copper, cylindrical in form, the pattern being engraved around its entire circumference and from end to end, a different roller being required for each color or shade in the pattern. In establishments of any considerable extent many thousands of these copper cylinders are kept in stock, involving an enormous outlay of money. Colors as applied to cotton printing are of two kinds, substantive and adjective. The substantive or topical colors are such as will unite immediately with the cotton, and the printing of such colors on the cloth is called the steaming process. The adjective colors are those that will not unite with the cotton without the use of a mordant, it being a well known fact that cotton in itself has no affinity with dye, but must be induced to cling to it through a chemical medium. A mordant is the chemical medium or foundation over which the proper colors are to be printed. Alumnia and oxide of iron are the mordants most commonly used for fixing of the color in calico printing; mordants are liquid in form and almost colorless. As the mordant must be applied to the cloth through the medium of the engraved pattern on the roller, a quantity of fugitive color, (one that is easily washed out) is added that the outline of the pattern may be dis- cernible, and this is called sightening color, because it enables the operator to see that his pattern is being properly produced. Pressing against each engraved roller is another roller of wood covered with cloth, called the "furn- ishing" roller, which transmits the color from a reservoir beneath it and in which it revolves. The mordants having been put into the reservoirs, a nice arrangement has to be made so that in fixing the engraved rollers the pattern may be exactly adjusted for the transmission of the color the cloth. This is done with mathematical precision and without a hairbreadth of vari- ation; these printing machines are of various sizes according to the number of colors to be printed, some being capable of holding 16 sets of rollers. The cloth now begins its journey entering at the rear of the machine, where it is dealt with by the back-tenter, whose duty it is to see that it is carefully and evenly delivered. When it passes from the rollers upon which it is placed it travels along with a back cloth moving beneath it, and so finds its way to the blanket with which and the back cloth it moves until it is received between the drum and the engraved roller, in this part of the process receiving the mordant. When it has passed over the mordant rollers the cloth moves out in front of the machine in view of the printer, who watches to see that the pattern has been accurately rendered. The cloth 52 COLE'S DICTIONARY OF DRY GOODS. CAL has now to be dried, which is performed by means of steam heated cylinders. When in a dry condition, it is subjected to a process known as "ageing," which extracts from it to a great extent the acetic acid, leaving the pattern firmly fixed in the fibre of the cloth in what is called a free base, which is the true mordant stain or substructure upon which the final colors are to be built. The process following this is "dunging;" its object is to completely wash off the remainder of the acid, the sightening colors, and any other loose matter at the same time, leaving the mordant in its pure form in the fibre. The material that has been found most conducive to these ends, strang'e as it may seem, is cow's dung; its action is a subject of conjecture, and has never been defined in precise chemical terms. The final process prior to the reception of the coloring matter is a thorough washing in soft water. This leaves but a faint, scarcely distinguishable outline of the pattern, but upon this will be built up the desired color or colors. We will now visit the dye-beck and be introduced to a substance called alizarine which produces in its action an almost magical effect. Here may be seen the long piece of cloth that has gone through the process already described, with scarcely an outline of pattern visible plunged into a vessel contaning alizarine, (a yellowish-brown fluid) and after immersion brought out full fledged calico, displaying the different effects .of colored patterns, reds, pinks, heliotropes, purples, etc., according to the various printings of the mordants. This alizarine, the effect of which is here described, is a coal tar product, and to the uninformed observer the revelation of the results of the produc- tion of colors from coal tar, is remarkable. To return to the dye-beck, a bath of the alizarine is formed by the dyer, heated to boiling point; through this the cloth is passed, coming out of it the required color or colors. The next operation is called "clearing" and consists in boiling the cloth in soap and water; this has the effect of brightening the colors. When cleared, the cloth is taken to undergo certain finishing operations. It is first run over a machine to open it to its full width; it is then passed be- tween cylinders for the purpose of calendering it; thence to the folding machine to be made up in piece form, when it is ready for market. In the above description the pattern we are supposed to have followed, is printed on a white ground; to effect the production of a white pattern on a dark ground, the mordant is made to cover the whole surface of the cloth. The pattern, such as small leaves, sprigs, dots, etc., is printed with acid which discharges the mordant and leaves the pattern white; Simpson's mourning prints are good examples of this work. Such styles are known as acid discharges. Into these white spaces other colors may be printed if desired. This latter process is called "padding." One requisite in fast-color printing is a plentiful supply of water as soft as possible, and free from iron and magnesia in undue proportions, which would prevent the proper action of the chemicals. In this respect the United States has been particularly favored by nature in the districts CAL COLE'S DICTIONARY OF DRY GOODS. 53 selected for calico-printing. The wealthy and enterprising corporations engaged in this trade, having the finest raw cotton in the world, possessing the newest and most perfect machinery invented, and an enormous and ever-increasing home market, are enabled to command the services of the most skillful operators, the most enthusiastic and devoted students of art^ and the most scientific investigators in the sphere of chemistry. Lan- cashire, England, was long regarded as the native home of calico-printer, but as is often the case, the child which has wandered to a far-off land has eclipsed the achievements of the parent, and thus to-day America stands unrivaled in this, the art-department of commerce. Calico-printing originated in India, where the abundance of dye-stuffs and the preference for cotton fabrics naturally lead to the development of this process. The name also originated in India from the port of Cali- cut, from which over a century ago the fabric was first imported to European countries. From about the year 1800 the United States has been familiar with these goods, through their production in England, and was almost entirely dependent upon the mother country for all our manufac- tures in this line. Up to 1840 English calico or prints covered in a great variety of printed styles, were produced by various distinct processes. Madderwork, [see MADDER AND TURKEY RED] however, was the chief product, and through its durability deservedly has maintained to the present time its superiority. The nature of the process, however, prevents the variety of effects which the modern process of coloring has been brought to so high a degree of excellence. Indigo work [see INDIGO BLUE] also has been largely employed of late years, and holds rank with madders for fastness of color, but lacks variety the same as madders. Aniline colors date with the second half of the century and are coal tar, or petroleum extracts. V/ithin the memory of the older dry goods merchants, English prints were the chief goods of this class in dealers' stocks in this country. "Hoyles" purples, chocolate chintzes, "Potter's plate work," and other familiar English prints supplied the larger part of the goods consumed here. Among the early American printers who are high standard, were the Merrimack, Cocheco, Sprague, and Richmond companies. All these were producers of madder work, and every country woman before the Civil War was as pronounced in her preference for one or the other of these, as the/women of to-day are for their favorite make of spool cotton. These printers adopted as high standard a cloth counting seventy-two threads warp and weft to the inch, width twenty-five inches; but later on when printers increased and the English article was driven out of the market, the standard became sixty-four threads both ways, to the inch, and twenty-four inches wide, and so remains to this day. The so-called Chintzes of early days were English or French wide cal- coes, printed by hand-block processes, and ruled at prices so high that the dames of early days prized their chintz gowns more than those of today their 54 COLE'S DICTIONARY OF DRY GOODS. CAM silk dresses. The production of calicoes reached its greatest extent in the seventies. Since then the increase of colored woven cottons, such as ging- hams and chambrays, and later satteens, have materially diminished the use of calico, (per capita) and many printeries are now stopped that then yielded their millions of yards to the annual product. The chief producers of today are the Merrimack, Cocheco, Manchester, Pacific, Simpson and Windsor, each of which produce fancy and staple work, while American, Arnold and Washington are the main producers of oil and indigo styles. Cambrasiue (cam'-bra-zene). A name given to batiste and cambric of fine quality. Cambric. The town of Cambria, France, was long famous for its man- ufactures of fine muslins. Here in 1520, was first made a fine thin muslin of pure linen, called cambric in compliment to the city. This fabric was much used for the fine ruffs [see RUFFS] of that period, as well as for ker- chiefs, etc. As long ago as 1588, 60,000 pieces of linen cambric per annum were made at Cambria. The Scotch were the first people to imitate the the linen cambric in cotton, and termed it cambric-muslin. It is made of fine cotton yarn, hard twisted and highly calendered, in width 36 inches. There is also a cheap cotton fabric manufactured for dress linings, called respectively "glove-finished" and "glazed" cambric, width iJ7 inches. Cameline (cam'-e-lin). A fabric used centuries ago as a material for dress. It is commonly said to have been made of camel's hair; but as it is repeatedly in old invoices mentioned as a cheap stuff, it is probable that it was an imitation of the genuine Eastern fabric, [see CAMLET.] Some authorities think this fabric was identical with what we now call Cashmere. Camel's Hair. The fiber known as Camel's hair comes from Southern Asiatic Russia, Tartary, and Africa; the quality from the latter country is the finest. Its native color is the light brown as seen in the goods made from it, and is its most distinctive feature. In preparing camel's hair for weaving.it is separated into "tops-long, coarse hairs, and "noils" the short fine, curly ones by combing, precisely as mohair, alpaca and other comb- ing wools are treated. The "tops" are used for coarse cloths. The staple of the "noils" is about one inch in length, and the feeling extremely soft and silky. It is the noils only that is used in underwear, hosiery, dress fabrics, shawls, etc. Camel's hair is often mixed with wool or cotton to make various grades of goods. Good grades of raw "noils" sell for 60 cents per pound. It is not unreasonable to suppose that camel's hair will at no distant day become a fibre of common use in the United States. The camel is numerous over an immense area of the earth; he is a large animal and his coat is heavy; the globe is constantly being ransacked for new and superior materials for clothing mankind and for decorating his home. Until within the last few years, camel's hair fabrics have been very high- priced, but as the advantages possessed by this material came to be ap- preciated the demand for raw material was proportionately increased. A CAM COLE'S DICTIONARY OF DRY GOODS. 55 steady demand by the manufacturers lead to a larger production and sup- ply; competition is developed, and these causes have lowered the former high prices until now camel's hair can be bought as cheaply as fine wool fabrics. Camel's Hair Shawls. The cashmere shawl, which is made of the fine hair of the Cashmere goat, is sometimes erroneously called Camel's hair. The high price of these shawls is due, not to the cost of the raw materials, but to the fact that each one is a splendid work of art, that is slowly and patiently wrought and sold as great pictures are sold, for a price befitting their artistic worth. Camlet. A rich fabric used for dress as early as the thirteenth cen- tury. It was more costly and finer than cameline, and is frequently men- tioned as being in use down to the end of the seventeenth century. At pres- ent a very durable, plain woolen cloth for cloaks is termed camlet. All the kinds of camlet are in a certain sense imitations of Oriental camel's hair cloth, which is characterized by the straggling "top" hairs over the surface. They are made of hair, especially of Angora goat hair, with wool or silk, and present a veined or wavy appearance. Canton Flannel. A cotton cloth napped heavily on one side, used chiefly for under garments and bandages. Canton flannel received its name from Canton, China, on account of having been first imported from that city. [See TEASLING AND NAPPING.] Canvas. [From L. Cannabis, hemp.] Originally canvas meant any coarse texture woven of hempen thread. Evolution has corrupted the pronunciation to plain canvas, and changed the material to cotton and linen. At present it is known as unbleached cotton or linen cloth, never twilled, but always plain-woven, used for tailoring purposes, tents, sails, etc. Honeycomb, Java, Penelope, Aida, Railroad and Congress, are varieties of canvas, woven in small square meshes, used for working fancy embroi- dered toilet articles with the needle. Also a carefully woven linen fabric used as a surface for oil paintings. It is prepared by stretching it tightly on long frames and covering it with one or two coats of neutral colored paint. Four kinds are known to the trade: Single Prime, Smooth, Roman and Twilled. Cap. See HATS AND CAPS; BABY CAPS. Cape. A circular covering for the shoulders and adjacent parts, either separate or attached to the top of a garment. Any short circular garment hanging from the sholders, without arms, worn for protection against the weather. Capote. A loose, roomy cloak for ladies, properly with a cape and hood, but without sleeves, made of light cloth and covering the person completely, reaching nearly to the ground. Cappadine (cap'-a-din). A sort of silk flock taken from the tipper 56 COLE'S DICTIONARY OF DRY GOODS. CAP part of the silkworm's cocoon after the true silk has been wound off, used for shag in making rugs. Capuchin (cap'-u-chin). A large loose hood worn by the women of tne 18th century; also a hooded cloak of the same period. Cardigan Jacket. A coarse, heavy, rib-knitted worsted or cotton jacket for men's and boys' wear, deriving its name from the town of Cardigan, Cardigan County, England, 240 miles north-west of London. A "size" in cardigan jackets is 2 inches, the numbers ranging from 1 small to 7 large, being equivalent to 34 to 46. Carding 1 . The process of opening and combing wool, flax, hemp, cot- ton, for the purpose of disentangling the fibers, cleansing from extraneous matter, separating the coarser parts, and making fine and soft for spinning. Upon the successful performance of this operation much of the beauty of the manufactured material depends. Carding was once necessarily per- formed by hand, coarse wire brushes being used. The old-time hand cards consisted of short wires passed slantingly through leather strips, which were then nailed upon a board. Two of these brushes were always used by the operator, one in each hand. The first carding engine was patented in England in 1748 by Lewis Paul, and afterward greatly improved by Ark- wright. In the earlier carding machines the fibers were fed by hand to a cylinder upon which "cards" were laid in strips parallel to the axis, and were removed from these strips by hand as they became full. In modern cotton-carding machines a loose roll of fibers, called a lap, is placed in guides which deliver it to the feed-roll, on passing through which it is seized by the card-teeth of the main cylinder. Other small cylinders suc- cessfully remove the fibers from, and deliver them to, the main cylinder, all the while getting them more and more in the desired order. The tangles and knots, which are not loosened by the action of these cylinders, project beyond the teeth of the main cylinder and are caught by top-cards from which they are removed and cleared by hand. The original lap, finally drawn together into a ribbon or sliver, traverses a funnel or trumpet and is passed between successive pairs of rollers, which draw out and condense the sliver and deliver it to the drawing-frame where it is doubled and drawn preparatory to spinning. [See SPINNING.] For fine work the oper- ation of carding is repeated. The principle of the wool-carding machine is identical with that of the cotton-carding machine, being chiefly distin- guished from the latter by a great number of small cylinders called itrchins. Wool fibers are always oiled to prevent felting and facilitate carding. [See FELTING, WOOL, COTTON, LINEN.] Cardinal. A member of t he Sacred College, a body of Roman Catholic ecclesiastics who rank in dignity next to the Pope and act as his counselors in the government of the church. About the middle of the 18th century these cardinal priests wore a short cloak of deep scarlet to distinguish their CAR COLE'S DICTIONARY OF DRY GOODS. 57 office, hence arose the color now known as cardinal red; at present, however a rich, deep-red color, somewhat less vivid than scarlet. Carpets. A heavy woven or felted fabric, usually of wool, but also of cotton, hemp, straw, etc., used as a floor covering, made in breadths to be sewed together and tacked to the floor. The word is supposed by some to have been originally derived from Cairo, a city in Egypt, but more proba- bly from the Latin carpcta, woolen cloth, through carpere, to pluck wool. Formerly the carpet was in one piece, like the present Persian carpet, and was sold (as it still is in the East) for covering beds, couches, tables, etc., and for hangings. The first woven carpets were produced in Egypt, Baby- lonia, Persia and Hindustan, whence they were introduced into Europe, where they are supposed to have been first manufactured by the French in the year 1600, and next in England in the reign of James I, about 15 years later. In Fuller's Church History of England, published in 1556, it is stated that "private men's halls were hung with leather cloths; their tables and beds were covered with capes (mantles) instead of carpets and coverlets." The earlier fashion of floor covering was a spread of sweet rushes or straw, and it is only within comparatively modern times that fabrics have been used for that purpose. Down to the period of the Valois Kings of France (1300 to 1400), as shown in many paintings, the practice was to strew the floors with rushes, hay, sweet smelling herbs, flowers and foliage. This custom prevailed until the time when velvet-pile or ornamental carpets came into use and the looms of Europe succeeded in imitating them. The strewing of the floors then gave place to the velvet fabric. The manufac- ture of carpets is traced in the records of French Monastic Orders as far back as the 10th and llth centnries; but in all likelihood these were merely embroidered and not woven fabrics and instead of being in general use were only found in exceedingly rare instances. The actual manufacture of carpets in Europe is assigned to the reign of Henry the IV of France, be- tween 1589 and 1610, and is said to have been introduced there direct from Persia. Carpets may be described as migratory manufactures, as in almost every instance, the industry after being successfully established in a town, has been taken elsewhere, the carpet still retaining, however, the name of the town where it was first made. Thus, Axminster carpets which were first made at Axminster, England, are now produced in Glasgow, and the Wil- ton factories long ago transferred theirbusiness from Wilton to Kilmarnock; Kidderminster carpets are no longer made at Kidderminster, but instead in Scotland and at Yorkshire, England; while Brussels carpets which were once made exclusively at Brussels, Belgium, are now made the wide world over. In Asia, where carpets were first invented, they are seldom used ex- cept to sit or sleep upon, thus their use even has been perverted. . Prior to the American Revolution, woven floor coverings, with the exception of domestic rag carpets, were almost unknown in this country. A few "Scots" carpets from the "other side" had found their way into some 58 COLE'S DICTIONARY OF DRY GOODS. CAR private city houses, but such a rarity were these considered that country people, on being ushered into apartments where they were laid, instinct- ively tip-toed around them, in awe lest they should soil them. Ten years later, it appears by early newspapers, small importations were being made. In an advertisement in the New York Gazette of June 30, 1760, a firm states that they will sell among other goods at their store in Smith street, some "Scots" carpets. In 1761 the same firm advertises Turkey carpets, and in 1763 both English and Scots carpets. In 1776 the only floor covering in general use was the rag carpet before mentioned, made with a stout yarn warp supplied by farm-house spinning wheels. Then ensued the long war of the Revolution, and the consequent commercial depression. The ma- jority of the people, possessed of but little wealth before the war, were now in no condition of temper or purse to encourage the importation of English goods. Before the close of the year 1791, it is said, the first car- pet factory in the United States was erected by Wm. P. Sprague at Phila- delphia. To-day the annual product of that city alone, if laid in line, would almost girdle the globe. The first carpet made by the Philadelphia mill was a hand-made, finger-tufted fabric, designed for the United States Senate chamber. Attracting the attention of Alexander Hamilton, it induced him in his report on finance for that year to allude to the new home industry, and to recommend as an encouraging measure, the imposition of a small duty on foreign made carpets. There soon sprang up in Philadel- phia and elsewhere small works for the production of two-ply, (or, as they were called, "Kidderminsters,") three-ply ingrains and Venetian carpets. In 1800 Jacquard [see JACQUARD,] invented the simple, yet wonderful machine which has always borne his name, its first application being to the manufacture of figured goods. In the course of a few years a number of factories were started. In 1825 a carpet works was in full operation at Medway, Mass., which later merged into a company now second to none in the world the Lowell. Up to 1840 the weaving of carpets of all descrip- tions was performed by hand. The attempt had been repeatedly made in England to adapt the power-loom to ingrain-weaving, but without success. About this time, Erastus Brigham Bigelow, a young but already successful inventor, turned his attention to carpet weaving, and was trying, with small success, to interest carpet manufacturers and obtain the pecuniary aid for his experiments in weaving ingrains by power. The object sought for was a loom that could make rapidly a carpet of smooth, even surface, good, regular selvedge, and figures that would match perfectly. In weav- ing by hand the weaver can only approximate to regularity of figures by the closest attention to his work and the exercise of superior skill and judgment. Mr Bigelow's improved method of producing figures that would match by steam power, was patented in 1845. The same machinery was found to be adapted to the weaving of Brussels and tapestry, the weaving of which by power had previously been considered an impossi- bility. In 1840 ingrains were being woven at Lowell by hand looms at thb CAR COLE'S DICTIONARY OF DRY GOODS. 59 rate of eight yards per day. With the adaptation of power forty yards per day could be produced. The rate of increase in Brussels was from four yards per day to twenty yards per day, and in Axminster from one and a half yards to fifteen. The application of steam not only economized time and labor, but it improved these fabrics until they sur- passed the best of their kind in any other part of the world. The new invention not only revolutionized the weaving departments of carpet fac- tories, but infused new life into the industry of the whole country, building up small villages of a few hundred inhabitants into prosperous towns, numbering their populations by thousands. Carpets may be divided into two general classes: one, a double fabric consisting essentially of two distinct webs woven at the same time, and held firmly together by the weft threads, showing a different pattern upon either side. The other general variety have the raised pile npon one side, like that of velvet. Ingrain Carpet consists of a cotton or wool warp with a wool filling, and is woven in strips one yard wide. It is composed of two distinct webs interwoven together at one operation, and is therefore a double or two-ply carpet. Three-ply carpet is composed of three distinct webs, which by interlacing and interchanging their threads produce a different pattern on each side, and at the same time permitting much greater variety of color, with a corresponding increase of thickness and durability in the texture. The best (quality of all-wool "Extra Super" ingrain has 1080 -warp threads to the yard, 30 to the inch; and thirteen and a half pairs of filling-threads to the inch. This, is the largest number of filling-threads beaten into any "extra super" carpet made on a power loom. In some patterns these threads are doubled and twisted to produce certain effects in color. To make cheaper qualities of carpets these filling-threads are lessened a half pair at a time until they are reduced to six pair to the inch, which latter grade is about the cheapest quality made under the title of all-wool ingrain. Thus the quality of ingrain carpets is determined by the number of pairs of filling-threads per inch, and is known in trade as 6, 8, 10 up to 13^ pairs per inch. This is similar to the manner of indicating the quality of Brus- sels and tapestry by the number of "cords" or "wires" per inch. "Twelve- pair Supers" (or mediums) contain twelve double woolen threads to the inch in the filling, and 960 warp threads to the yard. This grade is usually pre- ferred by consumers on account of its being all-wool and holding its color better although as a matter of fact they are not as strong as the best "Extra Super" with wool filling and cotton warp. These latter have the same number of threads as the all-wool Extra Super. Wool-filling ingrain carpets are not made in lower grades than 8-pairs to the inch. Union Extra Supers were first made of cheap wool and cotton carded together for the high colors, and while the filling-threads were part wool and part cotton, the warp was all of cotton. At present, competition has so cheapened them, that they are mostly all cotton. All grades below this variety are made of 60 COLE'S DICTIONARY OF DRY GOODS. CAR cotton, or cotton and shoddy-wool termed in trade 12-, 10-, 8-, 7- and 6-pair cottons. Some of the finest grades of ingrain carpets now manufactured are copied after the most artistic patterns of Body and Tapestry Brussels, both in color and design. In England ingrain carpets are called Kidder- minster, while in Scotland they are termed Scotch carpets. Ingrain is a term used in connection with many textile fabrics mean- ing dyed before woven, that is, dyed in the grain or thread before the oper- ation of weaving, in distinction from printed or stamped fabrics. Brussels, or Body Brussels as it is sometimes called, was first manu- factured in Brussels, Belgium, in the year 1710. In 1720 they were first produced in England by some French Huguenot weavers who many years before had been driven out of France by the revocation of the edict of Nantes. In regard, to the annulling of this edict which had been in force for nearly one hundred years, and the consequent exodus of the Huguenots to England and other countries it has been well said: "Nothing short of a great history could tell how the manufactures of all European countries were improved and stimulated by the peaceful incursions of over a million of these steadfast, industrious and highly-skilled artisan refugees. They were the thriftiest and readiest hands in France; they carried the arts and taste which were at that time the special gift of their country to every city and country in Europe and America. They crowded into the armies which were arrayed against their oppressors, they helped to man the ships which destroyed the navy of France; they planted their industries in a hundred places, and gave wealth and prosperity to other lands. No discovery whether of science or adventure.no victory, whether over inanimate matter or adverse forces, has had a greater influence upon the fortunes of England than the signing of the decree which, intended to coerce these worthy artisans wrought more disaster upon its authors." A number or these religious refugees settled at Wilton, England, and in the course of time began the weaving of carpets. They obtained a royal charter and formed themselves into a corporate body for their mutual protection. One of the peculiar terms of this charter forbade the weaving of carpets anywhere within ten miles of the little town of Wil- ton; thus early was the "protection of home industries" inaugurated. It is easy to see how the carpets became known as "Brussels," without doubt from the city where they were first made, and also "Royal Wilton" Wilton from the town, and Royal from the charter. When borders came to be more extensively used they were stock numbered the same as the carpets to which they belonged. Frequently there was a stair carpet, also, which matched the carpet and border, and had the same stock number. These were then and are to this day distinguished by the terms, "Body" " Border " and " Stair." Body Brussels is a very superior texture, com- posed of a linen back and a woolen pile, having a rich, corded appearance. The quality of Brussels and Tapestry carpet is partially determined by the number of these cords per inch, varying from 8 the cheapest to 16 the CAR COLE'S DICTIONARY OF DRY GOODS. 61 best. The surface of a Brussel carpet is composed of loops of worsted yarns packed closely together. When any one loop is formed the par- ticular worsted thread of which the loop is a portion sinks beneath the linen or cotton cross-thread (weft) and remains with other threads in the body of the fabric until it is required to form another loop on the surface. These surface loops are held in position by the cross-threads (weft). Not being tied or knotted should any individual loop be caught or pulled by a sharp point in brush, broom, boot or claw, then the worsted underneath will be drawn above the surface and the loose ends will form what is called a case of "sprouting." These loops which are collectively called the pile, constitute the figure or pattern, and are produced or raised from the linen back, by inserting a series of wires between the linen foundation and the superficial yarn, and looping the yarn tightly over each wire, which leaves a distinct row or "cord." These wires are withdrawn as the weaving proceeds, and there is left a smooth, looped surface as seen in all Brussels carpets. The colors are usually limited to five, (called 5-frame or 6-frame, as the case ma%y be) though in the best goods six colors are introduced. These are warp-dyed and are carried entirely through the linen background from end to end of the piece of carpet. The best qualities are usually 5-frame, that is, the pattern is composed of five different colors. Each is a continuous layer of thread dyed in the yarn, running from end to end of the web, which rises to the surface at close intervals as indicated by the design, and then goes out of sight and sinks into the body of the carpet, showing indistinctly the pattern on the back side. These are the main characteristics which distinguish Brussels carpets from tapestries, in that each color is composed of a thread of itself, dyed in the yarn, which runs the full length of the web, the colors, not being used to produce the pattern on the surface sink- ing into the body, causing the carpet to be" heavier and firmer and showing indistinctly the pattern on the back. Tapestry Carpets or Tapestry Brussels, are manufactured by a very ingenious process which was invented and patented in Scotland in 1832. It is composed of one thickness of worsted yarn printed before weaving with the colors which will compose its design when woven. This is woven into a stiff inelastic back composed entirely of jute or hemp. The method of weaving tapestry is a combination of weaving and printing, a pile or surface imitating and very similar to Brussels being produced, in which any desired number of colors is available, while only a single thread is used in making the pile, instead of the five or six which run through Brussels texture. In tapestry weaving the ordinary process of printing is reversed. Instead of the fabric being first woven and then printed, the thread is stamped and afterwards woven up as the warp, forming the pile of the carpet. One thread, or two treated as one, some times miles in length, is colored by steps of half an inch or so, faster than the swiftest runner could make half the distance. When the thread has a been partill- 62 COLE'S DICTIONARY OF DRY GOODS. CAR colored in this manner it forms the elements, as it were, of the intended pattern of the fabric. Singly in the long thread it exhibits no regular figure, but when woven up in the proper order the pattern comes into view little by little as the thread is looped around the wires. Unlike the weav- ing on the Brussels principle, in which the colors cannot exceed five or six, any desired number of colors and shades can be introduced in a Tapestry carpet. The manner of looping over the wires is exactly the same. The back side of Tapestry shows nothing but the plain linen backing into which the pile is woven ; though sometimes unscrupulous manufacturers stamp the back in imitation of a Brussels weave for purposes of deception. The color wears off and the pile sinks down, showing the foundation of the carpet much sooner in Tapestry than in Brussels, but as an offset to this the former are proportionately cheaper in price. Like Brussels, Moquetts and Wiltons they measure 26 inches in width. The quality is determined by the number of "cords" to the inch, termed in trade 10-wire, 9-wire, 8-wire Taps, and so on, the less number of wires or cords to the inch the cheaper and less durable the carpet. Wilton Carpet is a variety of Brussels carpet in which the loops are opened into an elastic, velvet pile, and is so named from being origin- ally made at Wilton, England; but they differ from Brussels in this: When the wires upon which the loops are formed are drawn out, the worsted loops are cut, giving the fine upright pile or "plush." To effect this the wires over which the yarn is looped, are not round and smooth as the Brussels wires, but are flat and furnished with a knife-edge at the top, which when withdrawn cuts the pile. Wiltons are made of extra fine, non-felting wools, which produce a surface extremely dense and lustrous. Among the re- spectable "middle-society" class of this country it is the abiding hope and never-faltering ambition of every good housewife to some day to carpet the front parlor with a genuine Wilton. No matter in what community she may reside, the possession of a Wilton affords her a prestige approached only and never excelled by solid walnut furniture or a Steinway Grand. The manufacture of Wilton is said to have been introduced in England through the exertions of Lord Pembroke. These carpets have the advan- tage of being executed in very beautiful designs, especially the Royal Wilton, in which the pile is raised much higher than in the common fabric of the same name. In the Wiltons made from high class Brussels there are nearly three thousand threads of worsted warp employed on the 27-inch web. Moquetts is the French term for "tufts of wool." The carpets known by this name are woven substantially after the manner of Brussels, the colors being dyed in the yarn; differing in this, however, that the pile is looped, first in a very coarse foundation to which is afterwards attached a another foundation for the purpose of giving the carpet weight and firm- ness. In Moquetts the loops instead of being left corded in rows are cut open into an elastic velvet pile, leaving a "plush" appearance. Moque'tt CAR COLE'S DICTIONARY OF DRY GOODS. 63 might be termed an American carpet, not being in much demand in other countries. In coloring they are soft and delicate. The pile of Moquett is much longer and deeper than that of a -velvet carpet. Velvet Carpets are Tapestries cut after the Tapestry proper is made, and though handsome in effect, if the design be good, are neither so durable nor so rich as Wiltons, being like Tapestry made from one length, or frame, of parti-colored yarn, looped and then cut by passing through a machine in which a small knife passes under each row and severs the loops. The patterns have more lustre than in the Tapestries, caused by the colors being given off from the ends of the wool instead of the sides as in Tapes- try. Imperial Brussels is a variety of Brussels in which the pattern is raised above the ground and its loops cut so as to form a pile, while those of the ground remain uncut. Axminster Carpets owe their origin to James Templeton, of Scotland, who obtained a patent for his invention in 1840. They were first made at Axminster, England, hence the name. Axminster is at present but a small town of about three thousand persons, and no longer produces the floor covering which so much delighted our forefathers. These carpets are pile fabrics, woven into a strong linen or hempen backing and can be woven of a depth equal to any Oriental production. Their manufacture involves two distinct weaving operations: First, the preparation of "Chenille" strips which form Refilling; and second, the carpet weaving proper. The pattern or figure for the carpet is first prepared on paper, and accurately drawn in its proper colors. This is then cut into long, narrow strips and given to the Chenille weaver to guide him as to the colors he is to use, and he proceeds in the regular order that they were cut, with length after length till the whole pattern is woven up. This first web is cut into shreds or strips along its whole length, according to the number of "chenilles" it contains, and the loose edges faced together by a peculiarity in the weaving, so that a double pile projects upward from a finely woven center-rib or back. These chenille strips now form the filling for the second weaving and being woven into a strong linen foundation in the same order that the strips were cut from the original paper pattern, the colors consequently all come together properly, and the parts of the whole design come out gradually as the second weaving proceeds. Axminster carpets are classed with the very finest, surpassing in the depth of pile and beauty of coloring some of the present Oriental productions. These carpets are frequently three inches thick, and for durability cannot be excelled. It is seldom they find their way into any but wealthy families, as the best grades cannot be secured for less than $9 per yard, although imitations are made as low as $1.25 per yard. Aubusson Carpet is a variety made at Aubusson, France, generally in one piece to suit the size of the room. They are the finest and most costly loom carpets brought to the United States, being made in the hand or 64 COLE'S DICTIONARY OF DRY GOODS. CAR needle-work style of the East Indian carpets, and are highly esteemed for the elegance of its design and coloring. They are generally ornamented with designs after the antique arabesque, but these luxurious articles are necessary confined to the opulent, as the great majority of the middle class in France scarcely know the use of carpets, which are so general with us, tile floors being the most common among them. As previously stated, the manufacture of carpets was introduced into France from Persia by Henry IV. and the magnificent royal factory still exists at Aubusson, in the South of France. Chenille Carpet is a variety in which the weft is of chenille instead of yarn. The pattern is dyed in the chenille itself, nothing showing on the surface of the carpet but the ends of the chenille fringe. Felt Carpet is one in which the fibers are matted or felted together without spinning or weaving, consisting of strips of felt set on edge and tightly laced through the center. They are the same on both sides, and are distinguished for their great durability and softness. Knitted Carpets are made in Germany, and are knit of strips of tex- tile goods, such as woven rag carpet is made of. The knitting is done with wooden needles, and for convenience in this respect is made only about twelve inches wide, the widths being joined together by sewing in the usual manner. The knitted carpet is more durable than the woven rag carpet. Knitted carpet schools have long been established in many towns in Ger- many, and it is stated that itinerant carpet makers travel from place to place teaching the art of carpet knitting for a small remuneration. Kidderminster Carpets in England are but another name for our two- ply or three-ply ingrains. In Scotland they are called Scotch carpets. Venetian Carpets are of the simplest kinds, the texture of which is plain; a striped woolen warp on a thick woof of thread, made of hemp, cotton or woolen, and the warp is so thick as to cover entirely the woof. It is not known that what is called Venetian carpeting was ever made at Ven- ice, Italy. Hemp Carpets, made entirely of hemp, were first imported from Rus- sia, but are now made in this country in considerable quantities. They are extremely cheap and durable, but are used chiefly in offices, passages, and places where a cheap carpet is required to deaden sound. An excellent floor covering for offices and business rooms is also made of cocoa fiber. It is woven open to let the dust pass through, and is extremely durable and cheap. Paper Carpet is a variety made of a hard and tenacious paper called hession, which is produced by subjecting the paper pulp to the action of chloride of zinc and then to strong pressure, by means of which the pro- duct is rendered hard and tough like leather. It is finished both plain and in imitation of ornamental woods. Fraternity Carpets are made in ingrain, especially for the use of lodges and secret societies. They are splendidly worked out and colored CAR COLE'S DICTIONARY OF DRY GOODS. 65 with designs and emblems peculiarly appropriate to the order for which they are intended. Dutch Carpet is a very strong and cheap wool ingrain carpet, usually woven in stripes and checks. Rag Carpets were first invented and woven during the early part of the present century by the economical settlers of New England. Until about 1874 no large factories for the weaving of rag carpets existed in the United States, the industry" being carried on solely by families residing in rural communities. It is, however, fast becoming one of the lost arts, such as the making of flexible glass and the manufacture of Tyrian purple, being slowly but surely driven out by the superior appearance and low price of ingrains. While it is always possible to get the inferior factory-made arti- cle, yet that is not the sort that is associated with an old-fashioned room, with its high-post bedstead, whitewashed walls and diamond-paned win- dows. In those days the rags were cut and sewed by the log fire in the long winter evenings, and often the carpet was woven on the old wooden loom in the up-garret. For every three yards of carpet woven, required one and a quarter pounds of cotton carpet chain. If the weaving was hired the charge was 23 cents per yard, the weaver providing the warp, and an average days' work was about sixteen yards. List carpet is very similar to rag carpet, being made of the list or selvedges of woolen cloths obtained from tailor shops or clothing factories. It is made at all the regular carpet factories, a full yard wide and 130 yards to the roll. Persian or Oriental carpets are similar in their weaving to the Gobelin tapestry manufactured in France. This tapestry, as is well known, consists of lufts of wool (Fr. moqtietts) or silk sewed on the strings of the warp by means of small shuttle needles. The Persian carpet is formed by knotting into the warp tuft after tuft of woolen yarn, over each row of which a weft shot is passed, the particular pattern being produced by different colored threads, hand wrought upon the warp. In Persia there are entire tribes and families whose only occupation is carpet and rug weaving. These dispose of their productions to the native merchants, who ship them either to Smyrna or Constantinople, where they meet with English or American purchasers. Persia has always been particularly rich in the various products of the loom. Carpets, now so extensively made and used in all civilized countries, had their origin in Persia, which still produces perhaps the most beautiful specimens in the world. Their durability may be imagined from the fact that the floor of one of the largest palaces at Ispahan is still covered with a fine carpet made in 1582. The Persian habit of sitting and sleeping on the ground probably lead to the manufacture of fabrics specially designed to meet the re- quirements ot such a custom, and the carpets which thus had their or- igin in the common necessities of ordinary life afterwards found their way as luxuries to other countries. The finest Persian carpets are now made at Kurdustan The pattern does not represent a flower bouquet or other 5 66 COLE'S DICTIONARY OF DRY GOODS. CAR objects thrown up in relief from a uniform ground like most of our de- signs, but looks more like a layer of flowers strewn on the ground. A real Kurdustan c'arpet is worth $20 a square yard. All carpets in Persia are made by hand with the aid of the simplest machinery, the loom being simply a frame upon which the warp is stretched. The wool consists of short threads of yarn woven and knotted into the warp with nothing else but the naked fingers. The long beautiful pile is formed by merely clipping the ends of the wool until an even surface is obtained. Not being "manufactured" in the proper sense of the word, the Persian is incapable of repeating over and over the same pattern. Each carpet is different in design from the one preceding it. This sort of weaving allows the maker to follow the bent of her lively imagination, always ac- companied by a sense of what is beautiful; she does not mind small irregularities in details, if the general design of the carpet has a pleasing and artistic effect. These carpets are now what they always were in manufacture, and probably, in the majority of instances, in design also abounding with strangely fantastic forms, luxuriantly and harmoniously colored, and manufactured of materials second in durability only to the floor of which they form the cover. The Persian carpet is rarely large, and are mostly made by the women and children in the villages. The colors formerly used by the Persian weavers were imperishable. Carpets a hundred years old show no want of freshness of color, but rather soft tones like ancient oil paint- ings. The use of aniline color is strictly prohibited. A recent traveler in Asiatic Turkey gives a concise description of how Oriental carpets are woven in that country: "A loom primitively constructed of trunks of trees, as nature made them, is inclined against a wall; a trunk so ar- ranged that it can be turned round holds the threads of coarse wool, and a second supports the completed work. Balls of colored wool hang from a string, from which the women (the men do not work at the looms) take detached threads to form knots, each of which ties two threads of warp. After making a series of knots and consolidating them by means of a comb, they insert from right to left one or two threads of wool, and then pass on to the next series. The tufts which result from this work are combed and leveled with scissors. The patterns are worked from old models, which have decended in the family, or from designs received with orders from Smyrna, though of late years not a few orders have come direct from European and American agents." From a strictly artistic point of view, carpets should be darker in tone and more broken in hue than any portion of the room, both because they present the largest mass of color and because they serve as a back ground to the furniture placed upon them. As a general rule, lighter carpets may be used in rooms thinly furnished than to the contrary, as we should other- wise have too overpowering a mass of shade. The pattern should always be proportioned to the size of the room, as a small figured carpet in a large CAR COLE'S DICTIONARY OF DRY GOODS. 67 room makes the floor space appear larger than a large figure would, and vice versa. " Sprouting " of carpets is a peculiar disease to which only Tapestry and Brussels are liable, consisting of the bobbing up of loops above the surface of the carpet. The trouble is especially liable to occur in first- class goods, in which the yarn is fine, soft and highly dressed. A rough table-castor or the jagged nail in a shoe has caused many a case of sprout- ing. There is but one remedy, and that is to clip off the loose ends with a pair of sharp scissors. By careful, close clipping the threads by degrees get flattened down and the trouble ceases. If this is not done at once these loose ends are liable to be caught again and again by the feet of the passers by, and the first injury made greater by the loops being dragged out further. The worst enemy of these two varieties of carpets is the common broom in the hands of a maid more muscular than intelligent. If possible, a new Brussels or Tapestry carpet should be exempted from sweeping for the first month; that is, until the loops get trodden down somewhat. If sweeping is regarded as absolutely necessary, the only proper thing to use is a good carpet sweeper run over the surface with the utmost possible care. In every case of complaint from a customer, the retail dealer should be es- pecially careful to place the matter in the hands of an experienced clerk, whose special business it should be not only to see to the remedy, but also to ascertain the cause of the trouble. Sprouting is not a fault or defect of the carpet, but a natural and unavoidable feature of the fabric, which the manufacturer can do nothing to prevent, neither can he have done any- thing to produce it. The following table shows at a glance how to cut economically and to the best advantage carpets with patterns ranging from 13 to 30 inches, so that they will match when made up. The table is thoroughly reliable, and will be found very valuable in saving time "and waste, both to the salesman and carpet-sewer: 13 IE y ch pattern cuts at. ft. in. 7 7 8 2 ft. in. 8 8 9 4 ft. in. 9 9 10 6 ft. in. 10 10 11 8 ft. in. 11 11 12 10 ft. 18 u in. ft. in. 14 1 15 2 ft. in. 15 2 16 4 IB 10 11 3 12 6 13 9 15 lt> 3 17 6 18 9 its 9 4 10 8 12 13 4 14 8 10 17 4 18 8 17 9 11 11 4 12 9 14 2 15 7 17 18 5 19 10 18 9 10 6 12 13 6 15 16 6 18 19 6 111 9 6 11 1 12 8 11 3 15 10 17 5 19 20 7 20 10 11 8 13 4 15 16 8 is 4 20 21 10 6 12 3 14 15 9 17 6 10 8 21 22 11 12 10 14 8 16 6 18 4 20 2 22 11 6 13 5 15 4 17 3 19 2 21 1 23 M 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 25 10 5 12 6 14 7 16 8 J8 9 20 10 22 11 25 10 10 13 15 2 17 4 19 6 21 8 23 10 26 '11 11 3 13 6 15 9 18 20 3 22 6 24 9 27 IB 11 8 14 16 4 18 8 21 21 4 25 8 28 29 '.'. 12 i 14 6 16 11 19 4 21 9 21 2 26 7 29 M| .. 10 12 6 15 17 6* 20 22 6 25 27 6 In making calculations do not figure too close, as some carpets stretch or shrink a little, or a new piece of the same pattern may occasionally be made half an inch smaller or larger by the manufacturer. 68 COLE'S DICTIONARY OF DRY GOODS. CAS Cashmere (kash' -mere). [Also written cachemere (and with altered form and sense cassimere and kersymere] ; so-called because first made in Cashmere, or Kashmir, the native name of a state and valley in the Hima- laya mountains north of Panjab, India; also the name of a fine-wooled goat or this same region]. An all-wool fabric used for ladies' dresses, originally made from the fine downy wool of the cashmere goat, but since 1824 has been manufactured both in England and America of soft, prime native wool. It differs from merino in being twilled on one side only, and from henrietta in being finished with a more subdued luster. Cashmere Chevron. See COTE DE CHEVAL. Cashmere Shawls. [Also called India shawls, and sometimes erro- neously termed camels' hair shawls.] These wonderfully wrought and ancient fabrics date back 4,000 years. The shawl cloth of Babylon, the silky textures of Ruth, the mantles of Thamar, and the long pieces of cloth worn by biblical characters were none other than shawls of eastern manu- facture. When these Asiatic veils or mantles took the form of the modern shawls is not precisely known, but it seems from certain French records that they were introduced into Europe about 1739 by the wives and daugh- ters of the French ambassadors to India. The first manufacture of shawls is believed to have originated in the valley of Cashmere, in the northwest of India. Though not so flourishing as it once was, the manufacture is still prosecuted in this province to a very considerable extent. The genuine cashmere shawls are the very best made, possessing unequalled fineness, delicacy and warmth, and characterized by great elaboration and minute detail of design, and by the glowing harmony, brilliance, depth and endur- ing qualities of the colors. These excellences are due to the raw material, which consists of the very fine, soft and flossy under wool of the cashmere goat, and to the unwearying patience and inherited skill of the Oriental weavers. A single goat does not yield more than three ounces, and the fleece of ten goats are requisite for the manufacture of a shawl a yardand a half square. These goats which produce the finest down in the world are reared upon the cold, dry table-land of Thibet, from 14,000 to 16,000 feet above the level of the sea. The goat thrives sufficiently well in many other climates and countries, but in the sultry plains of Hindostan it has hardly more hair than a greyhound, and though in higher latitudes the hair ismore abundant, it is for the most part shaggy and coarse. It is only in the intensely cold and dry climate of Thibet that it yields the peculiarly soft downy wool that constitutes the material of the cashmere shawl. The wool is sorted with patient care by hand, and spun into a fine thread, a work of so much delicacy, owing to the shortness of the fibre, that a pound of undyed thread is valued at $12.15. The shawls are woven in rudely con- structed looms, a fine one often occupying the labor of three or four men a whole year in weaving; and it is to this slow and laborious process that their high prices are due. It is said that although $3,500 has been known CAS COLE'S DICTIONARY OF DRY GOODS. 69 to be paid for a single shawl, that but few of the finest ever leave India. The commonest qualities range in price as low as $50, and consumes from sixteen to twenty weeks in making. A first-rate shawl weighing about seven pounds may cost at the place of its production $1,500, made up thus: material $150, labor $750, duty $350, miscellaneous expenses and profits $250. There are several classes of these fabrics, principal among them being those woven all in one piece, either solid white or black or dyed of various colors; the class comprising embroidered shawls in which over a plain ground is worked by needle a minute and elaborate pattern; another, class are those that are made in small strips or squares and sewn together with such precision and neatness that it is simply impossible from either side for the seam to be detected. The " cone " pattern, with its flowing curves and minute cornucopia of flowers, is characteristic of this latter class. Probably the finest specimen ever produced represents a map of the city of Shrinegar, the capital of Cashmere; the streets and houses, gardens and temples, with the people walking about among them, and the boats on the deep blue river being seen as plainly as in a finished photograph. Besides shawls, an immense variety of articles are made in Cashmere of shawl stuff. In 1822 pure Cashmere goats were introduced into France, and since have been unremittingly improved by cross-breeding until a fairly satis- factory result in the union of the most essential qualities of the wool abundance, luster and softness has been reached. By the aid of the draw loom and Jacquard loom French manufacturers have succeeded in weaving Cashmere shawls very similar to the Oriental in external aspect. To produce shawls altogether identical on both sides was a more difficult task. In both modes of manufacture, the piece is mounted by drawing the warp through the harness and ground treadles. The weaving of imitation shawls is executed as usual by as many shuttles as there are colors in the pattern, which are thrown across the warp in the order indi- cated by the design. The greater number of these weft yarns being intro- duced only at intervals into the web, many remain floating loose at the back of the piece, and are cut afterward without affecting in the least the quality of the texture. The deception would be very complete if the reverse of the shawl did not show the cut ends. It is said that the shawl merchants of India greatly admire the ingenuity of the French weavers in imitating Cashmere shawls, but condemn them on account of their harshness. The latter is largely due to the manner of washing the yarn. In Cashmere soft water is used in a solution of rice starch, which greatly adds to the peculiar softness and gloss of the yarn. Amritzer is now the principal entrepot of the shawl trade between India and Europe. Imitations of the real Cash- mere shawls made at Nimes and Lyons, France, are called "Broche," while those made at Paisley, Scotland, are known as "Paisley shawls." The common black shawls made of twilled Cashmere dress fabric, and fringed, usually worn by elderly women, bear no relation to the above 70 COLE'S DICTIONARY OF DRY GOODS. CAS described products of India. These latter are known as "square," "long," and "double." The "squares" range in size from 56x56, 60x60, up to 80x80; the "long" from 56x60, 60x64, up to 84 inches in length, while the "double" are twice the size of the "long" shawls. Cassimere. [From Cashmere.} A general term applied to a class of all wool cloths used for men's clothing, woven plain or twilled, coarse or fine of "woolen" yarn. The pattern of Cassimere is always woven in the loom, and the cloth is never napped. In order to make the pattern more distinct, Cassimeres on leaving the loom are slightly felted and then are subjected to the process of singeing, to remove from their surface all superfluous nap or the ends of wool which have been ruffed up in weaving and milling, producing a smooth, clean surface. It remains a mooted ques- tion which are the better for wear for men's clothing, worsteds or cassi- meres. The advocates of the latter contend that the looser and more pli- able a wool cloth is woven and the greater amount of elasticity pre- served, the better it will produce a resisting surface. [See WOOLEN and WORSTED, WEAVING.] Cassinette. [From Cashmere.'] A cloth for men's wear made with a cotton warp and a fine woolen weft. Also called Kerseynette. Cassock. A loose form of cloak or outer coat, particularly a military one, worn by men. Also a long clerical coat, buttoned over the breast and reaching to the feet, and drawn in at the waist by a broad sash. In the Catholic Church its color varies with the dignity of the wearer: priests wear black; bishops, purple; cardinals, scarlet; and the pope, white. If lined with fur it is called a pelisse. Castor. The beaver, and by extension the fur or hide of a beaver. The fur of the Castor beaver is used in the manafacture of fur hats. Also, a heavy quality of broadcloth used for making overcoats is sometimes termed castor. [See GLOVES.] Catgut. A sort of linen canvas with wide interstices. The intestines of sheep, dried and twisted, used for strings to violins and guitars. The popular supposition that these strings are made of the gut of cats, is erroneous. Celluloid. A combination of gun cotton and camphor. Its success- ful manufacture and introduction has only been accomplished in the past twelve years. Celluloid consists of vegetable fibre, treated with certain acids; this fibre is then united with camphor and other substances to make it elastic and capable of being molded in any form. Of recent years there has been much experimenting indulged in for the production of a whiter and clearer substance than celluloid. An Austrian has invented a material called celluline that combines some of the properties of glass and cellu- loid. It is made by dissolving 4 to 8 parts of celluloid wool (gun cotton), in about 100 parts of alcohol, by weight, and adding 2 to 4 per cent of cas- CHA COLE'S DICTIONARY OF DRY GOODS. 71 tor oil and 10 per cent of resin or balsam. The mixture is then dried on a glass plate at a temperature of 120 degrees. The compound soon solidi- fies into a transparent sheet. The addition of magnesium chloride reduces its inflammability and zinc white gives it substantially the appearance of clear ivory. By increasing the relative proportions of castor oil and resin, the toughness and pliability of leather is imparted to the material. Challi (shal'-i). A name originally given to a superior dress fabric of silk and wool, first manufactured at Norwich, England, in 1832. It was thin, fine and without gloss, but its chief characteristic was its absolute freedom from dressing. The name is now applied to an extremely light- weight dress fabric made of either cotton or wool, or a mixture, woven without twill, either plain or with printed figures. All-wool Challi does not differ essentially from the old fashioned muslin-delaine. Neither fabric wrinkles easily and both possess a cool, dainty look especially suited for the summer season. Most Challi patterns are copied from French silks, which in part accounts for their unusually tasteful designs and artistic effects. Chambray, A variety of plain-woven ginghams, always of one color and without pattern. It is made of extra fine cotton yarns and stiffly sized with pure starch. The fabric gets its name from Cambray, France, where it was first woven of linen. Channeling Machine. A machine for cutting the channel in the soles of shoes and boots, into which the thread is sunk. Chasuble (chas ' -u-ble). A sleeveless vestment or coat, devoid of but- tons or other fastening, and provided with an opening in the center through which to pass the head. The chasuble is the principal garment worn by a priest when celebrating the mass or holy communion. It is held to represent the seamless coat of Christ, or charity symbolized by it. The material is usually rich stuff, silk brocade Or velvet. Check. In textile fabrics a pattern of squares of alternate colors. Properly, a check should have no divisions between the squares more than a thin boundary line; that is, it should resemble the ordinary chess-board. [See PLAID.] The word check is derived from a custom practiced by the courts of Europe of settling accounts and computing money by means of counters or tallies on a table covered with a square checkered cloth; the word having been originally derived from French echequiern chess-board. Cheese-cloth. A thin, limp muslin, bleached or brown, used by dairy- men to cover their cheese. A variety of cheese-cloth called cotton bunting is woven smooth and of better texture, and is used by women as a cheap white dress goods. It is entirely free from sizing. Chemise (she-mez'). [From Arabic camis, shirt.] The innermost garment worn by women, anciently known as a " shift " or " smock." Chemisette. [Diminutive of chemise],. An article used by ladies for 72 COLE'S DICTIONARY OF DRY GOODS. CHE covering- the neck, made of some light fabric, as lace or cambric, usually worn under a waist cut low, in imitation of the exposed portion of a man's shirt bosom. Chenille (she-neel'). [French for " caterpillar."] A beautiful descrip- tion of cord used for embroidery and decorative purposes. The name denotes the appearance of the material, which somewhat resembles the hairy caterpillar. Chenille cord is usually made of silk, though sometimes of silk and wool, and for cheap fringes of wool alone. Chenille Cloth. A fabric made with a fringed silken thread used as a weft, in combination with wool or cotton; a fur-like surface is thus pro- duced, whence its name. Cheviot. A twill-woven, napped " woolen " cloth, originally made from the wool of Cheviot sheep. These sheep were formerly native to the Cheviot Hills, near the boundary between Scotland and England, but are now extensively reared in the United States. The genuine cheviot is a superior fabric for men's clothing, being strongly woven of carefully- selected wool, and finished with a closely curled nap. The value of cheviots depend more on their construction than their appearance, and few can discern from the latter the character of the former. Since about 1888, an immense demand has sprung up for this fabric in the ready-made cloth- ing trade, and while some genuine and wearable cheviot was made up, yet the very composition of the cloth admitted of a wide field for the lowering of the standard, without much risk of detection, with the result that the quality of late has sadly depreciated. The same reasons which account for the imitating of cheviots account also for the imitating of many other first-class fabrics: first, the greed of manufacturers; and second, the public's demand for cheap grades of a popular fabric. Consumers who are obliged to select according to their purse nevertheless expect and absolutely demand the same weaves and patterns that are displayed for the delecta- tion of their more favored brethern. This can only be supplied by the pro- duction of an inferior and ofttimes worthless fabric. Imitations of cheviot are made to look well, and appear a marvel of cheapness, but an examina- tion shows their weight to have been increased by the addition of flocking or shoddy. Apparently they seem strong, but a sudden pressure on any part will cause a rent while the face will be off in a week's wear and the poverty of the goods plainly manifested. Such a cloth possesses no intrinsic value, and pandering to cheapness only results in damaging the reputation of genuine cheviot. [See WOOLEN.] Cheviot Shirting 1 . A term which formerly signified a cotton fabric free from starch or dressing, but of late years has come to include all medium grades of single-thread, soft-finished shirt cloth. Chiffon (shif'-on. French pron. she-fon'). A variety of thin trans- parent silk gauze woven so fine and sheer that ordinary print may be easily read through it. It is stated that one pound of the warp of Chiffon will 'ex.- CHI COLE'S DICTIONARY OF DRY GOODS. 73 tent eight miles. It is both black and white, printed and plain; 45 and 20 inches in width. It is used for neck and sleeve trimming and for draping over silk foundations, ladies handkerchiefs, etc. Chijimi (chi-je'-ma). A variety of Japanese drapery siik, dyed in fast colors; in width thirty inches. China Silk. A term applied to the plain silks woven in China, Japan and India on the primitive hand looms of those countries. The warp and weft are identical in size and color, and are woven in evenly, producing a beautiful natural luster. Real China silk is easily recognized on account of the imperfections which always mark hand-spinning and hand-weaving; some of the threads being heavier than others, a somewhat irregular o r " faulty " surface is produced. The bulk of these fabrics come from China and Japan, India silk being almost a myth, so little of it is made and so lit- tle sold. Choice in the market lies practically between the products of China and Japan, about nine-tenths being from China. The difference between these two is not seen by the casual observer. The weave of Japan is smoother, softer in quality and much more beautiful. They wear about equally well and there is no perceptible difference in the price, the range in both being from 50 cents to $3, the latter price being for an extraordinary quality, a yard wide. The usual width is twenty-six inches. Many persons confound the China and India silks. The China silks are distinguished by their somewhat coarse, irregular threads and by their softness. The India silks have more body and a more even surface, and are better adapted for long outside garments, traveling dresses and petti- coats, as they shed the dust; the Chinas are eminently fitted for tea gowns and under-clothing which is to be worn next to the skin, as it laundries welL Almost every city and country town in China is largely devoted to the cultivation of the silk worm, which is carried on usually by young girls. Frequently along some of the narrowest streets of the over-populated cities may be heard the clatter of the loom and the rattle of the shuttle in a little bit of a half-lighted establishment, the door of which is scarcely five feet from that of the opposite shop. A loom stands on each side of the entrance, and the weavers at work are well-nigh in the street, if the paths between the houses may be termed such. This is a characteristic silk fac- tory of that interesting country. Two men working hard all day weave only about three or four yards of " China silk," and get for their day's work about twenty cents. The name " China silk " has also been adopted in the United States recently for a class of machine-woven silks made in imita- tion of the more serviceable hand-loom product. These imitations are three inches narrower in width and lack the soft quality of the eastern fabrics, and are also free from the imperfection of uneven threads. Both the hand-wrought and power-wove varieties are printed in much the same fashion as calico. When the figure is white upon a dark ground the silk is bleached, then run between rollers that print the ground, leaving the figure 74 COLE'S DICTIONARY OF DRY GOODS. CHI blank. Colored figures on white or light grounds simply reverse the pro- cess. Complex patterns, employing many colors, have a separate roller and printing for each tint. Chinchilla. The Indian name for a squirrel-like animal found in the mountains of South America. The ancient Peruivans were accustomed to employ the wool of these animals in the manufacture of fine fabrics. The fur is beautifully fine and of a pearly-gray color, rolled into little tufts, much used for muffs and tippets, lining for cloaks, etc. Chinchilla over- coating is a thick, heavy, double-woven fabric, with a napped surface rolled into little tufts in imitation of Chinchilla fur; manufactured in all colors and qualities, used for men's overcoats and ladies' cloaks. Chin- chilla is made both all wool and "union," usually with a slight nap raised on the wrong side for the procurement of warmth. The fabric differs from Frieze in not being so heavy nor so shaggy, and from Montenac and Fur- Beaver in having the nap rolled or curled into small tufts. [See WEAVING, TEASLING.] Chine (sheen; French pron. she-na ' ). [From the Fr. chiner, color, dye.] A term applied to the fabrics in which the warp is dyed in different colors at short distances, so that a mottled effect is produced; or in which a double thread, formed of two smaller threads of different colors twisted together, is used to produce a similar mottled or speckled appearance. In plain Chine silks the threads are colored in a similar manner, so that when woven up into the fabric the peculiar reflections of light, giving the appearance of shadows, is produced. Figured Chine silks have a plain ground, but the flowers and bouquets forming the pattern have an indistinct and cloudy appearance, produced by the breaking of minute particles of color into one another. Chintz (Hindoo chhint, spotted). Cotton cloth printed with flowers or other patterns of bright colors, and finished with a glaze. The only dif- ference between Chintz and Cretonne consists in the glazing of the former, which is effected by calendering. Chintz is also known under the name of furniture print, from its extensive use in covering furniture. About 1850 glazed chintz was greatly used for furniture, and some of the patterns which have survived are quite surprisingly bad. For this reason, and the fact that chair covers were gone out of fashion, the majority of the world got tired of Chintzes, when some enterprising manufacturer saw the beauty which might lie in a fabric called Cretonne which is simply a Chintz with- out a glaze. It is a question whether Chintz is ever either suitable or salable in a town. Its extreme daintiness seems as out of place in the grime and grind of a city as the innocent chat of a country cousin seems almost like a reproach to the short-haired advocate of "women's rights." But the soft tints and darker shades of Cretonne are always harmonious, and it is asserted by artists there is no fabric with the exception of Brocade which CHI COLE'S DICTIONARY OF DRY GOODS. 75 looks so well for upholstery purposes. Chintzes are all block-printed, the principal dyes being madder, weld and indigo. The earliest mention of cotton-printing occurs in Pliny, in the first century, A. D., who records his surprise at seeing the Egyptians exercise this wonderful method of dyeing, by which the white cloth was stained in various places, not with dye stuffs, but with substances which had the prop- erty of absorbing colors. Herodotus mentions a Scythian tribe who stained their garments with the figures of animals by means of the leaves of a tree bruised with water, "which would not wash out, but lasted as long as the cloth." The Egyptians probably learned the art from India, for there was communication between the two countries before the first century, the time of Pliny. The India Chintzes were in much request in Europe before the art of making them had been introduced and simplified there; most of them were made by very tedious processes, a great part of the pattern being painted by hand. The parts intended to be white were covered with wax before the material was thrown into the dye-vat, and the process of afterwards re- moving the wax occupied considerable time and no small amount of pa- tience. Small quantities of these goods were at intervals shipped to Eng- land and Holland as early as the 12th century, and there seems to be little doubt that an attempt was made in Europe in the direction of printing pat- terns on cotton as early as 1634. The introduction of cotton printing into Europe is mainly due to the Dutch, the Dutch East India Company having taken the India Chintzes to Holland before they were heard of in England. Flemish emigrants imported the art into England about 1676, and later other works sprang up to supply the London shops with Chintzes, their im- port from India having been prohibited by Parliament in 1700. This in- fringement of the rights of consumers having been received with equa- nimity. Parliament next proceeded to pass a law prohibiting the wearing of all printed cottons a law which actually endured in force for 16 years and nipped the rising industry in the bud. In 1736 this unjust law was re- pealed, but the cotton-printer was handicapped by having to pay a duty of 6 pence on every square yard of Chintz he turned out. Later on this duty was decreased to 3 pence, but it was not until 1831 that it was repealed alto- gether. The passage of these obnoxious laws was chiefly due to the extreme jealously of the silk and woolen weavers a feeling which reached its cli- max in the London riots when the silk weavers paraded the city and tore the calico gowns off every woman they met. Notwithstanding such un- favorable beginning, the cotton-printing industry gradually triumphed, until to-day calico goods are part of the national need and an immense addition to the national wealth. [See CALICO, BLOCKPRINTING, COTTON, CRETONNE.] Chudder. [From Hindoo chaddar, mantle, shawl]. The name given in Europe to the plain shawls of cashmere of solid color, without pattern except a herringbone twill, or if embroidered, having the embroidery the same color as the ground. 76 COLE'S DICTIONARY OF DRY GOODS. CLA Cladding. [From clad, to clothe]. A word sometimes used for clothes and clothing. Claith. A Scotch word for cloth. Clamp-dyeing 1 . See FLAGS. Clerk. [From Latin clericus, clergyman, priest, whence our words clerical, clergy, ecclesiastic, clerk, etc]. In its original sense a learned man; a man of letters; a scholar; formerly a man who could read, an attainment confined chiefly to ecclesiastics. At present by extension, one who is em- ployed in an office, public or private, or in a store or warehouse either to keep accounts or act in the capacity of salesman. Clan Tartans. [It. tartantanna, linsey-woolsey, or cloth of different materials 'and colors.] A term descriptive of the parti-colored plaids long worn by the different clans of Scotland. They were of various combina- tions of colors. The exact date of the introduction of clan tartans into this country which at different times have assumed so many wonderful and picturesque varieties, is assigned to 1822. The fashion of wearing these gaily colored plaids has been revived from time to time during recent years, and have been variously styled Scotch Plaids, Clan Tartans, Tartan Plaids, etc. The numerous clans into which the Highland population was divided had each a special tartan plaid by which it was distinguished. Many new and imaginary " sets" have been invented by manufacturers in the United States, with the result of introducing confusion in the heraldry of tartans, and of throwing doubt on the reality of the distinctive " sets " which in the olden time were undoubtedly recognized as badges of particu- lar clans. [See PLAIDS.] Clay Worsted. A variety of flat-twilled worsted woven with a twill similar to that of serge, the diagonal lines lying flat on the surface and barely perceptible. On account of the warp and weft being slackly twisted the cloth does not take a gloss as in the case of the ordinary hard-twisted worsteds. The name is derived from an English manufacturer, and it is from England that the best qualities are obtained. Cloaks. [Originally spelled clokke and until recently cloke. The word is derived from clock, which piece of mechanism, when first made, was of the shape of a bell, and sounded the hours with a clapper. The cloak when first used for a garment was bell-shaped and without sleeves, hence the name.] Properly a loose outer garment without sleeves, worn by either sex as a protection against the weather; at present, however, the term is used for any sort of sleeved wrap, long or short, worn by women. Though a garment of great antiquity, cloaks have in the course of many centuries varied but little, save in being at times short or long, ornamental or useful. They have frequently been common to both sexes, and by English laws of the time of Edward IV (1441 1483) were legally regulated as to the length they should be cut and who should wear them. Then no person under the degree of a lord was allowed to wear a cloak which was CLO COLE'S DICTIONARY OF DRY GOODS. 77 not of sufficient length "as being upright to cover his private members and buttocks upon pain of being fined fourty shillings." The fashion of wear- ing short cloaks has frequently recurred, and cloaks of light and costly materials have been worn by men, particularly in the dissolute courts of the early Stuarts. It was one of these latter garments which Sir Walter Raleigh gallantly threw upon the muddy ground that Queen Elizabeth might pass with dry shoes, which act of gallantry ingratiated him into the Queen's good will and brought him life-long favors. Under the name of Spanish cloak this garment was worn from about 1800 to 1840 in Great Britain and America, the shape being a half-circle; it had a broad collar, often velvet or fur, which was continued down the edges of the cloak on both sides. The same garment is still worn as the most common winter dress in Italy. At the present day, when well-fitting, stylish and comfortable cloaks may be bought for very little money, the wonder is that the styles are not more varied. The styles in the United States are more varied than those of the outer garments for men, but hundreds of cloaks of the same pattern may be seen in the streets of a city any day. Cloaks are garments on which women cannot show much originality in making them at home, as they can on dresses, and the styles are, therefore, fixed by the designers employed by manufacturers. In many instances the styles depend on the material to be used, as it would be useless to design a style with many puffs and folds for a thick and heavy material. Besides if the style be good the cloak is acceptable to many women whether it be suited or un- suited to their figures. In making cloaks, where the demand may be some- times for 500 of a certain style, each piece of cloth is thoroughly examined by experts in regard to'measure, texture, and color, and then it is sponged by machinery made especially for that purpose. All "smooth" cloths and those with finished faces are sponged by cupper rollers, and the machinery is so arranged that from the time the cloth starts until it is folded dry, it is not touched by the operator. The cloth is then ready for the cutters, with all its imperfections marked. Each cutter has a separate check upon which have been entered the particulars about the cloth, style, and proper pat- terns. If the quantity be large enough for the cutting machine, it is marked and laid in folds, but small pieces are cut by hand with shears. After the cloth has been cut according to the provided patterns, the bun- dles are carefully compared with the orders, and then a ticket is made for each garment, on which is a place for each worker to put his or her num- ber, so that a complete record is kept of every hand thac works on the garment. The garments then go to the seamers, who are employed the year round to seam them on machines specially adjusted for that par- ticular work, being provided with a fixed gauge that insures a perfectly uniform seam. Expert seamers can work at machines that make 3000 stitches a minute. For the detection of any possible mistakes and imper- fections in the fit, the garments are tried on models before being sent to 78 COLE'S DICTIONARY OF DRY GOODS. CLO the trimmers. The collars, cuffs, facings, etc., of each garment are cut ac- cording to the style designed, and, with the "body" sent to a workman who particularly excels in that portion of the labor. After leaving the finisher the garment is inspected again by the foreman, and if it be not satisfactory, it goes back to the workman for alterations. After the mak- ing of buttonholes and the sewing on of buttons and ornaments, the gar- ments go to the presser, and from here to the final examiners and model, who are responsible for the fit and workmanship, and who see that the ma- terials and trimmings are right, and that any changes that may have been ordered to suit certain customers have been properly made. Then they are ready for packing and shipping. Records of the shape, cloth, trimmings and buttons, or any other parts of the garment, are kept in duplicate, so that a copy of any garment can be made at any time. Sometimes cloaks that are in fashion in the East for a year do not reach the far West until a year or more afterward, when some particular style may be favored more than another, and the orders for it be larger than those for any other. By turning to the records, exact duplicates of any style can be made at any time, provided that the material be in the market. One of the most important if not the most re- sponsible positions in a cloak factory is that of the model, or "figure," and upon securing good ones depends the prosperity of the establishment. The fact that women for the position of models are paid from $12 to $18 per week for comparatively easy work is an indication that they cannot be had in great numbers. It requires no experience to be a model, but it does re- quire natural grace and fine physical proportions in fact, "the female form divine." Good looks do not count, though a show-room figure must have attractions and dress much better than the fitting-model in the work-shop. Manufacturers as a rule require a woman of about 5 feet, 6> inches in height. She seldom goes under that, but sometimes half an inch more is desirable. The professional figure has a natural grace about her that can- not be acquired by artificial means. Any young woman who has the heigth mentioned above, a bust measurement of 36 inches, waist 24 inches, length of back from 16j^ to 17 inches, arms 24 inches, neck 12)4 inches, hips 42 inches, and \%% inches across the shoulders, is a perfect figure and can find steady employment in any cloak house at any time she chooses. The show- room models generally have a contract for all the year around and are paid in full for the same, but they seldom have anything to do except in January and Febuary when the buyers flock to market for the purchase of spring goods, and in July and August when they lay in a supply of fall and winter wraps. The workroom models are always kept busy. They are the hardest worked of any in the establishment, for upon her is tried twice at least every garment turned out. The sample, or trying-on model must be the most perfect. She, too, is compelled to toil the year round. Large houses employ from 12 to 15 models. In Europe the method of cloak manufacture is not carried on as in CLO COLE'S DICTIONARY OF DRY GOODS. 79 this country. In both England and Germany, and in Berlin especially, the cloakmakers, in a way, get their styles from Paris. They willingly pay a high price for the brains and ideas of the French fashion-makers. The majority of these come from Worth, the fountain-head of Fashion. When the season opens the manufacturers have a large assortment of patterns ready for all countries and tastes. The buyers come, select their styles, place their orders, with changes here and there, or with other combinations and sorts of materials. When the manufacturer has booked his orders, he buys his stock. Then he gets his cloakmakers, who take the goods, trim- mings and belongings to their shops, where they have to do all the spong- ing, cutting, modeling, sewing, pressing and finishing and deliver the gar- ments ready for shipment. If there are any defects in the work the cloak- maker has to make them good. The manufacturer has no further respon- sibility, except to pay the men the stipulated price, and no other function than the furnishing of the goods and patterns in the manufacturing opera- tions. Clock. [From Ang.-Sax. clokke, a time-piece, which, in its original form, was bell-shaped]. A term applied first in 1543 to a bell-shaped orna- ment or flower upon the sides of hoods and hose. At present, any figured ornament on the side of the ankle and leg of a stocking, either woven in the fabric or embroidered upon it. Cloth, [Formerly cloath, origin uncertain.] A fabric or texture of wool or hair, or of cotton, flax, hemp, ramie, silk, or other fiber formed by weaving or intermixture of threads, and used for garments or other cover- ing. Specifically, in trade, a fabric of wool, in contradistinction to one made of other materials. Clothes. Garments for the human body. Dress; vestments; raiment; vesture; clothing; personal attire. According to statisticians, there are about five hundred millions of the human race who are well clothed that is, who wear garments of some kind. Seven hundred millions cover only certain parts of the body, and two hundred and fifty millions go entirely naked. History teaches that man originated in tropical regions, hence it is reasonable to suppose, on account of the mildness of the climate, that in the first stages of his existence the garments adopted by man consisted of only such as were required for decency. As the population of the earth grew and gradually extended northward to less favorable regions, and was divided into nations and classes of society, additional clothing became necessary, both for comfort and as a distinguishing badge of nation or of class. Philosophers assert that clothes are our friends or our foes all the days of our lives. They control our very health to say nothing of our worldly credit, and are never without some influence, pleasurable or the reverse, upon our associates. [See DRESS, COSTUME, COLORS, FASHION.] Clothier. A retail dealer in ready-made clothes for men; a clothing merchant. Merchants sold cloth ages ago, but ready-made-clothing mer- 80 COLE'S DICTIONARY OF DRY GOODS. CLO chants were unknown in the world sixty-five years ago. Among twelve hundred millions of the earths' people clothing stores are still unknown and unheard-of institutions. One hundred years ago in all civilized countries tailors went from house to house and made up garments from home-made cloth. About sixty years ago tailors began keeping shops, where people took their cloth and had their garments made. Gradually the tailors began to keep cloths for sale, and were called merchant tailors, and a few years later clothing stores sprang up. Cloth Measure. A standard system formerly employed for measur- ing the length and surface of cloth sold bv the yard, but now practically out of use, the yard being divided into halves, quarters and sixteenths. The table is: YARD. QUARTERS. NAILS. INCHES. 14 16 36 1 4 ;= 9 1 2# Cloth of Gold. A splendid fabric of very ancient origin, first men- tioned in Deuteronomy XXXIX, 3: " And they did beat the gold into thin plates, and rut it into wires to work it in the blue, and in the purple, and in the scarlet, and in the fine linen, with cunning work." Both round wires and flat strips of gold were early employed in weaving cloth of gold. In the latter case, the strips were wound round silken thread. Most frequently the gold threads were woven with a web of silk, but instances of stuffs wholly composed of gold are common. Some old historical writers, almost contemporary with the time of the great Jenghiz Kahn (1162-1227), the Mongolian emperor, state the latter had in his possession at the time of his death, "apiece of cloth beautiful beyond description, which he claimed was of pure gold, containing 130 shades of color." A shred of cloth of gold is still preserved at Leyden, Germany/ which was discovered in one of the ancient tombs at Tarquinii, in Etruria (7th century, B. C.) In this, tissue gold forms a compact covering over bright yellow silk. The use of cloth of gold in England was most profuse from the reign of Edward I to that of Henry VIII (1239 to 1497). The House of Commons, in the reign of Richard II (1350), presented a petition, praying that no knight or lady under forty pounds land by the year "do wear any precious furs, cloth of gold, ribbon of gold or silk, on pain that they lose all that they have." In the various wardrobe accounts of the sovereigns of both England and France, from this time forward, frequent entries are found of cloth of gold, etc. At a very early date in mediaeval ages, fraudulent imitations of gold threads were made from copper-gilt wire and from gold leaf hammered upon vellum and afterward cut into strips. The practice of covering fabrics with leaf -gold gilding had been sufficiently frequent as to call for the inter- ference of Parliament. In England, in 1619, "the better to prevent the un- necessary and excessive vent of gold and silver foilate (gold-leaf) within CLO COLE'S DICTIONARY OF DRY GOODS. 81 this realm, none such shall henceforth be wrought or used on cloths, etc.," armor and banners excepted. However, but little attention was paid to this edict. Two years later, a Scotch law was passed " whereby no persons were to wear cloth of gold or silver, nor gold and silver lace on their clothes, nor velvets, satins, or other silk stuffs," except certain persons of rank. Heavy silk, inwrought with gold and silver, the richest and costliest which textile industry in general can furnish has always been used for ceremonial gar- ments by the Chinese and Japanese, and for the furnishing for the richer theatres and temples. The use of gold paper in Japanese brocade, or cloth of gold, has recently awakened great interest with silk manufacturers in various countries. The paper is cut into narrow strips and is then either spun around silk thread or is itself twisted into a thread and woven in. The fabric in this way looks just as if it were inwrought with genuine gold, but differs in that it is cheaper and more flexible than the actual gold. From historical records it will be seen that cloth of gold has been, in nearly all ages, worn almost exclusively by the nobilitv and the church until within the present century, when in the cycles of fashion succeeding, it has been appropriated for various articles of costume worn by ladies in general. [See BROCADE.] Coal tar colors. A name given to a numerous class of colors de- rived from coal tar by various complex chemical methods. From ordi- nary soft coal is obtained the means of producing over 400 shades of colors, nearly all of which are useful in dyeing fabrics. They are more often and properly called aniline colors, as aniline was the first of them discovered. [See ANILINE.] Coat. A principal outer garment; any covering for the body. Speci- fically an outer garment worn by men, covering the upper part of the body. In the early middle ages it was identical with what is now called a tunic, or sometimes with the cassock and corset (which see). Coats of modern form, fitted to the body and having loose skirts, first appeared in the regin of Charles II (1630-1685). Since the beginning of the 18th century the coat has been of three general fashions; a broad skirted coat, now called the Prince Albert, so named in honor of Queen Victoria's illustrious consort; the cutaway coat; and the sack coat which has no skirt. About 1860 the long-used swallow tail coat was discarded, and the Prince Albert took its place. This was too staid and uncomfortable a dress coat for young men, and very soon tailors improved upon it. They made it shorter, whittled the sides away to a tapering skirt and cut it to fit, and made it of fancy colored cloths as well as of the old broadcloth. This was the the modern cutaway coat, and it has taken such a hold with the public that it is now the most popular article of dress in men's clothing. Coburg 1 . A thin dress fabric woven of worsted and cotton, twilled on one side, and used as a substitute for merino and paramatta cloth. It was first introduced in England in 1838, shortly after Victoria's marriage with 82 COLE'S DICTIONARY OF DRY GOODS. COB Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg ; most probably aiming at popularity through that event. In England the term coburg is applied to all cotton-warp, twilled worsted dress fabrics either of double or single width. Cobweb lawn. Fine white linen or cotton lawn. [See LAWN.] Cochineal (kotch'-i-neal). A dyestuff consisting of the dried bodies of a species of insects. It colors a brilliant crimson, which can be changed by acids to an orange-red, and by alkalis to violet; a beautiful scarlet dye is also prepared from it. The cochineal insect is extensively cultivated in the tropical countries of America, in Algeria, Java and the Canary Islands, especially the island of Teneriffe, from whence about five million pounds are exported annually. The female only are valuable for their color, and are collected twice a year. They are killed by baking them in rude ovens or immersing them in boiling water. The cochineal is a fat, dark, spherical little body, looking like a black currant, and with neither head, legs, nor tail to the casual observer. In fact, he is so inanimate that one may crush him between finger and thumb without any qualm of conscience. He is nothing but a black currant sure enough and the ancient Greeks held the idea that they were a sort of berry, though the bright carmine from his body which serves him for blood and the dyer for dye, is a better color'than the juice of the currant. A cochineal plantation has a singular aspect. The larvie, like that of the silk-worm, being very delicate have to be tied upon cactus plants, which is to be their nursery and their nourishment at the same time. Thus may be seen hundreds of the shoots of the cactus all bandaged with white linen, as if they had the toothache. In this way the insects are kept warm and dry during the winter, and induced to adhere to the plant itself. When they are full grown, they are ruthlessly swept away from their prickly quarters, baked or boiled to death and dried in the sun. The shriveled anatomies are then packed in bags, and sold for about $25 per hundredweight. Cocked Hat. A hat turned up evenly on three sides, such as naval and military officers wear on full-dress occasions. Such hats were in general use in the last century by the American patriots, and also by the Pilgrims. Cockle. [Derived from cockle-shell, which is a variety having wrinkles or crimps over its surface.] A term in trade signifying to pucker or con- tract into wrinkles; to rise into frequent uneven ridges or puckers. Often used in reference to worsted or mohair fabrics when wet. Cocoa Fibre. Cocoa matting and cocoa carpeting are made of what is. technically called "coir," which is the thick, fibrous husk surrounding the cocoa-nut when first plucked from the tree. This husk is spun into a small cord and the matting or carpet is woven thick and heavy and rather open in texture to permit the dust and dirt to sift through it; especially used where much rough wear is expected. These husks, which are largely imported from India and Ceylon, were formerly considered useless, but are COI COLE'S DICTIONARY OF DRY GOODS. 83 now commercially more valuable than the nuts which they cover. Coir is particularly esteemed for ship ropes on account of its peculiar property of resisting the action of salt water, whereas fresh water makes it rotten. Coiffure (koif'-ur; French pron. kwo' -fur). A head-dress; the manner of arranging or dressing the hair. Collar. [From Latin collum, the neck.] Originally a peculiar badge worn around the neck by Knights of different orders. It consisted of a gold chain, enameled, etc., to which was attached the badge of the order to which the Knight belonged. It was worn g.t court chiefly on state oc- casions,which were called collar days. These bands were first worn during the 16th and 17th Centuries, and have varied from the plain band, which was nothing more than the simplest of collars, to elaborately trimmed falling bands, which ornamented with lace and needlework, fell far over the shoulders requiring a receptacle to themselves for storing away; hence was derived our present "band-box." Collars and Cuffs. Articles of attire for both men and women, made usually of linen, and starched. The quality is denoted by the "ply," which ranges from 2-ply to 5-ply. Ladies' cuffs range in size from 7 to 9; boys' cuffs from 8 to 9; men's from 9 to 12. Men's collars range in size from 14 to 20; boys' from 12 to 14^; ladies' from 12 to 16. One "size" of both cuffs and collars is one half inch in their length. Colors. In its relation to textiles, color is that quality or appearance of a fabric which is perceived by the eye alone independently of its form. Hue is the distinctive quality of a color; the respect in which colors may differ though possessing the same luminosity and chroma. Thus scarlet and crimson differ in hue, but buff and yellow chiefly in chroma. The word hue is always applied to the modifications which it receives from the addi- tion of a smaller quantity of another color. Chroma is the degree of de- parture of a color from that of white or gray. Tone means, the various modifications which a color is capable of receiving from white (which lowers its tone) or black (which heightens it). In fewer words, it is the mod- ification which any color is capable of receiving from the addition of black or white. Tints are the colors considered as more or less bright by being modified by the addition of white. Shade is any degree or variation of a color, as lighter or darker. There are but three primary colors generally recognized: blue, red and yellow. These are called primary because they cannot be produced by compounding any other colors. The secondary colors are green, purple and orange. These are called secondary because blue and yellow make green; red and blue make purple, and red and yellow, orange. From these are derived the tertiary colors: olive, citrine and russet Purple and green make olive; orange and green, citrine; purple and orange, russet. Thus we have the three classifications denoting all the colors proper extant. The varieties of tones, tints, hues and shades obtained from these three classes are as kaleidioscopic in their possibilities of combination as 84 COLE'S DICTIONARY OF DRY GOODS. COL the alphabet of letters. The hand of man or the skill of the artist will never exhaust them. At the present time there are recorded processes for the production of 16,000 differently colored dyes, each capable of forming a different color upon textile fabrics. Cattle are excited by a bright red color because that color is the com- plementary one to green; and as the eyes of the cattle are all day long fixed steadily upon the green of the herbiage on which they feed, articles of a red color must necessarily impress their vision with greatly increased and contrasted intensity, with the result of causing them to grow madly ex- cited. Colors not only influence cattle, but human beings also. On this point some curious experiments are reported to have occurred in the hos- pitals of Italy, as to the effect of colors on the nerves of the sick and in- sane. In many hospitals of that country special rooms are arranged with red or blue glass in the windows, and also red or blue paint on the walls. A violent patient is brought suddenly into a blue room and left to the effects of that color on his nerves. One maniac was cured in an hour; another was at peace in his mind after passing a day in a room all violet. The red room is used for the commonest form of dementia melancholy, usually accompanied by a loss of appetite or a refusal to take food. After three hours in a red room, a patient afflicted in this way began to be cheer- ful and asked for food. Many sane persons are curiously sensitive to color and shapes in surroundings, certain combinations effecting them with almost physical pain. As no surroundings are so inevitable as people's clothes, dress must be held responsible for a certain amount of intended pleasure or annoyance to others. It is said that one's own apparel is not without a certain influence on the wearer's own mind. A new color seems to bring a new atmosphere with it, and changes oddly enough the level of thought. Balzac, the French author, says that a woman's character always finds expression in her favorite color. A woman who prefers orange or green gowns is, he thinks, quarrelsome. Those who sport yellow hats or who go clad in black without cause are not to be trusted. White indicates coquetry. Gentle and thoughtful women prefer pink. Pearl-gray is the color of women who consider themselves unfortunate. Lilac is the shade particularly affected by over ripe beauties; therefore according to this au- thority, lilac hats are mostly worn by mothers on their daughter's wed- ding day, and by women more than forty years old when they go visiting. Wool has generally the strongest affinity to color, when it comes to dyeing. Next to wool silk and other animal substances receive it best. Cot- ton is the third, and hemp and linen follow successively. As a rule pig- ments and dyestuffs do not produce permanent colors, and some substance is required to produce an affinity between the cloth and coloring matter. The substances that are employed to act as this bond of union are called "mordants," [see CALICO and DYEING] whose uses were known to the Egyptians and other nations of remote antiquity. Specifically, mordants in dyeing and cloth printing, is a body which, having two-fold coloring par- COL COLE'S DICTIONARY OF DRY GOODS. 85 tides, serves as a bond of unity between them, and thus gives a fixity to the dyes; or, it signifies a substance which, combined with the coloring parti- cles in the pores of the textile filaments, renders them insoluble in soapy and weak alkaline solutions. Mordant is also the substance previously applied to the goods in order that they may afterward retain in part the dye. The chemical activity of the sun's rays is well known, and certain colors seem to be decomposed and precipitated more readily under the influence of light. It is not surprising, therefore, to find that light should also have a very marked effect upon dyed colors. Under the prolonged influence of light and air almost all colors fade, and according to their rel- ative behavior in this respect they are broadly divided into two classes, namely, those which are "fast to light" and those which are "not fast to light." Each of the seven colored rays of the spectrum possesses a differ- ent fading power. White light is the most active, then follow the yellow, blue, green, orange, violet, indigo and red rays. Direct sunlight is more energetic than diffused daylight. The light of the electric arc acts in the same manner as the sun, but is less powerful. According to the best author- ities on colors, the presence of moisture assists very materially in the fad- ing action of light, so that even some fugitive colors, dyed for example, with safflower annato or orchid, do not fade if exposed to light in dry oxy- gen or in -vacua. The term "fast color" generally implies that the color in question resists the fading action of the light, but it may also imply that it is affected by washing with soap and water, or by the action of acids and alkalies, etc. In its wide sense it means that the color is not affected by any of those influences to which it is destined to be submitted, but its tech- nical influence is often restricted. Many colors may be fairly fast to wash- ing with soap and water, and yet be very fugitive toward light; or they may be fast to light and yet very sensitive to the action of acids and alkalies. The term "loose color" generally implies that the color is much impover- ished, or entirely removed, by washing with water or a solution of soap; it may, however, also mean that it is not fast to light. The word "perma- nent" as applied to color, generally denotes that it is fast to light and other natural influences. A "fugitive color" is generally understood to be one which is not fast to light. In the absence of any definite meaning being attached to the above terms, it becomes imperative in speaking of the fast- ness of a color, to refer especially to the particular influence which it does or does not resist. Combing Wool. See WOOL, WORSTED. Comforts. The history of the manufacture of comforts, or "bed comfortables" as .they were styled formerly, is an interesting one. For seventeen years the machine-made article has been turned out with con- stantly increasing improvement in the process of manufacture, but previous to that the old quilting frame and later the sewing machine were utilized, and nearly every family made their comforts at home. Now, the machine- 86 COLE'S DICTIONARY OF DRY GOODS. COM made comfort is produced at so low a figure that but few housewives take the time to make them by hand, to say nothing of the expense which would in all probability be more than it would cost to buy them ready-made. With the increase in the output of factory goods, has followed in turn a falling off in the sale of cotton bats to the trade, which were formerly so largely in demand by the ladies of this country in the making up of the article referred to. It is estimated that about 3,000,000 machine-made comforters pass into consumption annually, and as the average wholesale price is about 81.00, a very fair idea of the volume of business consumated each year can be formed. Prices range from 84 to $60 per dozen, the latter being of silk and down, and the former composed of the dust and shoddy of woolen mills. Sizes run from 60x72 up to 78x84 inches, but the average and best selling size is 75x78 inches. The fabrics of which comforts are made are all printed specially for the purpose and on very wide cloth. Prints are largely used, though satteen covering is increasing in use year by year. Down comforts are the best as well as the most expensive variety manufactured. Formerly all down comforts were imported and the high price of the foreign-made article placed it among the luxuries which were only within the reach of the well-to-do. Now, however, with improved machinery and a larger demand United States manufacturers are able to produce a down comfort which can be retailed for $5, bringing this beauti- ful and most comfortable of comforts within the reach of the average housekeeper. Commission Merchant. An individual or firm who sells goods on a per cent, either in his own name or in the name of the foreign or domestic manufacturer, and intrusted with the possession, management, control and disposal of the goods sold ; differing from a broker, who is an agent employed merely to make bargains and contracts between the jobber and manufacturer. Composition Cloth. A material made from long flax, dressed with a chemical which renders it perfectly waterproof ; used for trunk covers, and in the manufacture of canvas bags. Convent Cloth; An extremely light weight dress fabric, with a silk warp and wool weft, the weave resembling that of linen momie cloth as seen in towels, etc. It comes in white and plain colors. Cony Fur (co'-ny). The fur of rabbits and other burrowing animals, used for making felt for hats, and also in the manufacture of a cheap grade of fur caps. [See FUR.] In the 17th century the Mexicans made many beautiful cloths out of cotton and cony fur which they exported to Eng- land. The Abbe Clavigoro in his History of Mexico says : " They wove their cloths of different figures and colours, representing different animals and flowers, which were as delicate and fine as those of Holland. Of feathers interwoven with cotton they made mantles and bed curtains^ car- pets, gowns, and other things, not less soft and beautiful. With cotton COP COLE'S DICTIONARY OF DRY GOODS. ' 87 they also interwove the finest hair of the belly of rabbits and hares, after having made and spun it into thread ; of this they made beautiful cloths, and m particular winter waistcoats for the lords." Cope. A large, loose outer garment ; a cloak ; a mantle. A large mantle of silk or brocade worn by catholic priests in processions. As dis- tinguished from the chasuble, the cope is a processional or choral vest- ment, while the chasuble is sacrificial or eucharistic. In the University of Cambridge, England, the ermine robe worn by a doctor in the senate-house on congregation day is called a cope. Cordage and Twines. Cordage is a general term for all kinds of hemp rope, from cables 12 inches in circumference to common quarter-inch clothes line. Ropes were among the earlier necessities of man, and have been known in all ages, among all people. There is probably no fibre known but what man at some time has utilized in the manufacture of ropes. Of all these raw materials the one best adapted for making cordage, on account of its cheapness as well as wearing properties, is hemp. A good hemp rope is hard but pliant, yellowish or greenish gray in color with a certain pearly luster. A dark or blackish color indicates that the hemp has suffered from fermentation in the process of curing, and brown spots show that the rope was spun while these fibers were damp, and is con- sequently soft and weak in those places. Cordage is numbered by inches and fractions of inches of diameter. Twine, which is commonly known as a strong cord or string, is usually numbered as follows : Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4 flax ball twines, suitable for hardware merchants and manufacturers, ex- press companies, etc.; Nos. 5, 6, 7, 8, fine flax, grey and colored twine for stationers, and Nos. 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, red, blue and other colors for druggists, etc.; Nos. 14, 16, 17 bleached flax twine for fancy goods, cutlery, etc.; Nos. 15 and 18 jute and cotton twines for grocers, dry goods stores, etc. There are about $8,000,000 worth of flax and hemp twines made in this country every year, not the big sorts, such as ropes and cables, but just the num- bers one to eighteen, lumped under the broad head of twines. Besides these there is a large quantity of cotton string made, and here and there still a few paper ones, though the latter invented when cotton was high-priced in the North during the war, and then quite common are now seldom seen There are but 8 twine factories in the United States : 2 in New Jersey, 3 in northern New York, 2 in Massachusetts, and 1 (the largest) in New York City. The latter employs 800 hands and turns 14,000 pounds per day of finished twines and shoe thread, ranging in price from 14 cents to $1.50 per pound. In addition to these eight factories, there are scattered through the Eastern states a few small establishments, but there are none, large or small, in the West or South. [See FLAX, LINEN, HEMP.] Corded Fabrics. A general term used in trade to signify reps, Bed- ford and whipcord, pipecord, ottoman and other novelties in dress goods 88 COLE'S DICTIONARY OF DRY GOODS. COR woven with a rib or cord forming the predominating characteristic of the fabric. Cordovan (cor '-do-van). [From Cordova, a city of Spain, where it was first made.] Leather made from the hides of horses. Also called cord- wain. Corduroy (cor-du-roi'). [French cor du rot, royal cord or King's cord]. A heavy cotton material, corded or ribbed on the surface. It is ex- tremely durable, being especially used for the garments of men engaged in rough labor, field sports and the like. The construction of corduroy is the same as that of velvet (which see), with a twill foundation and a pile surface. The cords are produced by a peculiar disposition of the pile threads, they being "thrown in" where the corded portions are, and absent in the narrow spaces between them. After leaving the loom and subject- ed to the operations of "brushing" and "singeing" to give the cloth a smooth and finished surface, it is piece-dyed, usually in shades of olive, slate or drab. [See WEAVING.] Cork. A species of oak, growing in the south of Europe, especially in Spain. and Portugal and in the north of Africa, having a thick, rough bark, for the sake of which the cork tree is often planted. It grows to the height of forty feet, and yields bark regularly every eight years for 150 years. This outer bark, which grows to a thickness of two inches, is the common cork of commerce, and is used for many purposes, especially for stoppers for bottles, inner soles of shoes, etc. Cork Leather. A variety formed of two sheets of leather with a thin layer of cork between them, the whole being glued and pressed together. Corkscrew Worsted. [So-called from its fancied resemblance to the twists of a corkscrew.] A particular weave which has for several years been extensively employed in the manufacture of "worsted" goods, more especially in cloths intended for men's clothing. The prolonged duration and success of the corkscrew pattern has had but few parallels in the his- tory of cloth manufacture, though, at present, clay worsted and cheviot are fast driving it out of popular favor. The structure of the ordinary class of corkscrew worsted is based on the sateen-twill principle. It is predicted that the time is not far distant when fickle fashion will cease entirely to smile on this particular weave, and then they will have had their run- together with broadcloth and doeskin, they will exist only as memories of things that have been. [See WORSTED, WOOLEN.] Corset. [French corse, body; Latin corsetus, a close-fitting garment.] A close-fitting waist, usually made of quilted jean, stiffened with whale- bone, etc., worn by women to give shape and support to the figure Corsets of various forms and eccentricities have been worn ever since the eyes of man have admired the graceful form of woman. Always with one aim and object in view, and that to more fully emphasize the beautifully rounded curves of the waist and hips. They have been known by many COR COLE'S DICTIONARY OF DRY GOODS. 89 names and in use by many peoples, but invariably for a single and self- same purpose. The Romans knew them under the title of corsetus, the Italians, corsetto; the Spanish name was corselete, the Portugese corsolet; while the English have dubbed them successively corsete,bodice,stomacher, stays and corset. The Parliament of England in 1450 forbid the wives of persons not having the yearly income of $200, and widows of less possess- 'on, to wear corsets of silk made out of the realm,, or any coverchief ex- ceeding a certain price. In the 15th and 16th centuries corsets were elab- orate affairs with skirts and sleeves attached to them and worked with lace and gold. They varied in length, shape and amplitude, being occasionally lined with costly furs and trimmings of every imaginable description. The old way of fastening a corset was to lace it up every time it was put on. This required considerable time. The later plan adopted by manufacturers and the one now universally used is to have at the front a pair of steel bands that are fastened by a little catch. These little catches are made of white metal, and there are four or five of them on each corset. The weight of a set of "catches" is not greater than an ordinary thimble, yet one Con- necticut firm uses about 32 tons of white metal a year to make these catches. The steel required for the stays amounts to hundreds of tons, and there are separate factories devoted to the production of the steels. The steels are tempered to about the consistency of a watch spring, and there is a surprising amount of work for 10 cents a pair upon these. Cor- sets, like other ready-made clothing are made of all sorts and sizes, and from all prices from 25 cents to $50 each. A full "size" of a corset means 1 inch, expressed 18, 19, 20 up to 40, and representing the actual waist measure of the wearer. Imported corsets are the most expensive of the ready-made kinds, but when made "to order" the highest prices are reached. Ordinary women will get along with a couple of corsets a year, costing $3, but when it comes to corsets made of silk or satin, and trimmed with costly lace and made to suit certain whims or different costumes, the cost becomes a very considerable item. Formerly corsets depended for their stiffness entirely opon whalebone, but when gas and coal oil destroyed the whale fishery and whalebone grew scarce and expensive, steel was in- troduced and substituted for whalebone. This was good for the fronts, but has never been available for the small bones at the sides. The principal substitute for whalebone is horn. This is chiefly manufactured in France from South American horns, and the stuff is imported cut into narrow strips ready for use. Efforts have been made to substitute cellu- loid, various kinds of wood and hard rubber strips, but nothing has yet been found so good as the whalebone or the horn. There are great corset factories at Newark, Detroit, New York and Chicago, but the larger part manufactured in this country are made in Connecticut and Massachusetts. The figures of the llth Census show that there are over lO.OOOpersons employ- ed in the United States making corsets, the value of what they produce being about $10,000,000. Besides this, immense quantities are imported 90 COLE'S DICTIONARY OF DRY GOODS. COR from France and England, the total consumption being not quite 60,000,000 a year. The names and shapes of corsets are patented, and in the past ten years there has been much costly litigation over patents that would appear to be insignificant outside of the trade. Corset Jean. A double-fold, calendered cotton drilling, used princi- pally in the manufacture of corsets and for lining the waists of ladies' dresses. [See JEAN.] Cote de Cheval (cote de chee'-val). A light-weight wool dress fabric, with a slight mixture of camel's hair, woven with a longitudinal cord like corduroy, in color both mixed and plain; known also to the trade as cash- mere chevron, Cotton. Among all the materials which the skill of man converts into comfortable and elegant clothing, that which appears to be the most ex- tensively useful, though it was the last to' be generally diffused, is the beautiful product of the cotton plant. The native botanical home of cot- ton is in the far East. Since the oth century B. C, India almost every- where throughout her wide-spread domain has arrayed, as she still arrays, herself in cotton, gathered from a plant of the Gossypium family, which has its wild growth there. More than two thousand years before England conceived the idea of applying modern industry to the manufacture of cot- ton, India had matured a system of hand weaving which during all that vast period received no recorded improvement. The people, though remarkable for their intelligence whilst Europe was in a state of barbarism, made no attempt to improve upon their laborious hand processes, nor was the cultivation of the plant either improved or considerably extended. Possessing soil, climate, and all the requisite elements from nature for the production of cotton to an almost boundless extent, and of a useful and acceptable quality, India for a long series of years did but little toward supplying the manufacturers of other countries with the raw material which they required. With the discovery of America, however, a com- petitor arose in the production of this valuable staple, which was soon to take first rank in the cotton-producing countries of the world. Tardy and uncertain as was the development of our cotton industry prior to 1792, the invention of the cotton-gin by Eli Whitney in that year, gave it a magical impetus which in a hundred years has placed the United States foremost among all nations for production and manufacture of this fibre. We have accomplished more by adpating the cotton-gin to this industry in one century, than India has accomplished in twenty, and have every reason to be proud of our record. It would be impossible to enumerate the results of this great mechanical invention. Its influence extends to all ranks of society and to every region of the world. Like the telegraph, the steam- boat, and other great inventions, the cotton-gin has had a striking influence upon modern civilization. It changed the occupation and modes of life of great multitudes in both Europe and America; it demanded and brought COT COLE'S DICTIONARY OF DRY GOODS. 91 about new inventions to supplement its work; it transformed the sluggish life of the South into a life of activity, power and wealth. Its effect upon the production of cotton was immediate and striking. Cotton was an un- important factor in the colonies prior to this invention, but a small amount being grown annually. In 1786 attention was called to the possibility of raising cotton for the English market, and more vigorous efforts were made. In 1791 the South produced 2,000,000 pounds, of which 190,000 pounds were exported. The following year, however, the exportation was but 50,000 pounds. So difficult, in fact, was the process of ginning (removing the seeds) that tobacco, indigo and rice bade fair* to be the chief and permanent products of the Southern states. In the winter of 1892 93 came the in- vention of the cotton-gin. Encouraged by the hope of its success, the planters during the following season (1793) raised 5,000,000 pounds of cot- ton, and sent a half-million pounds to Europe. During the following year the use of the cotton-gin became more general in Georgia and South Caro- lina. It is not surprising, therefore, to find a product of 8,000,000 pounds in 1794, and an exportation of over 1,500,000 pounds. Year after year the area of the cotton-producing country, the number of planters and their slaves, and the amount and value of the crop, showed rapid growth. In 1800 the product was 35,000,000 pounds; in 1810, 85,000,000; in 1820, 160,- 000,000; in 1830, 350,000,000; in 1840, 880,000,000; in 1880, 3,200,000,000; in 1892, 4,500,000,000. The debt which the nation and the world owe to Eli Whitney is proclaimed by the eloquence of statistics. They indicate that Robert Fulton was not wrong when he said that "Arkwright, Watt and Whitney were the three men who did most for mankind of any of their con- temporaries." Nor was Lord Macaulay too extravagant in saying, "What Peter the Great did to make Russia dominant, Eli Whitney's invention of the cotton-gin has more than eqalled in its relation to the power and progress of the United, States." Whitney's tomb at New Haven, Conn., bears the following inscription: ELI WHITNEY, THE INVENTOR OF THE COTTON GIN, OF USEFUL SCIENCE AND ARTS, THE EFFICIENT PATRON AND IMPROVER. IN THE SOCIAL RELATIONS OF LIFE, A MODEL OF EXCELLENCE. WHILE PRIVATE AFFECTION WEEPS AT HIS TOMB, HIS COUNTRY HONORS HIS MEMORY. BORN DECEMBER STH, 1765. DIED JANUARY STH, 1825. The sowing-time for cotton extends from the beginning of March to the end of April, the early part of the latter month being considered the most eligible because of there being less danger to the young plants from the occurrence of frost that fearful bane to the cotton planter. The'seed 92 COLE'S DICTIONARY OF DRY GOODS. COT is sown in ridges, paralleled by furrows, for the purpose of draining off the superfluous water. After the plants have attained a moderate height they are thinned out, so as to remove those that promise badly, and to leave sufficient space to those that are vigorous ; this space varies from 10 to 20 inches. The soil is carefully weeded and the plants are still further thin- ned, if their luxuriant growth should require thut process as the season advances. As the summer approaches, and the frost has disappeared, the crop is liable to injury from the heavy rains and the attacks of a cater- pillar which feeds voraciously upon the leaves of the plant. The blossom then appears, varying in color from yellow to red, and lastly brown. From the blossom the pod is formed which in time bursts into a boll of snowy white. It is said that no crop in the United States presents an appearance so beautiful as growing cotton, especially at the gathering season, when the globes of snowy wool are seen among the glossy dark green leaves, exhib- iting on a single stem the expanding blossom, the bursting pod and the snowy flakes of ripe cotton. The season of picking commences in the latter part of July, and continues without intermission to the Christmas holidays. The work is not heavy, but becomes tedious from its sameness. Each hand is supplied with a basket and a bag. The basket is left at the head of the cotton row ; the bag being suspended from the picker's shoulder by a strap, and used to hold the cotton as it is taken from the boll. When the bag is full it is emptied into the basket, and this routine continued throughout the day. Each hand picks from 150 to 200 pounds of seed cotton each day ; however, some negroes of extraordinary ability go beyond this amount. The problem of gathering cotton from the plant in a more expeditious manner than is done at present by hand has racked the brains of mechanics for a generation, and a hundred devices more or less, have been patented which were designed to accomplish this purpose. The difficulty encountered by this host of inventors has been so great that up to the present time cotton is still gathered by hand exclusively. There has, however, been recently invented a machine which experts and planters, who are interested, think has at last solved the cotton-gathering problem. The new machine resembles the frame of a wagon on four wheels, and straddles the rows, so to speak ; a driving-wheel, set revolving by the machine as the horses draw it along,, turns several wheels placed horizontally on top of the machine. These wheels turn perpendicular rods that reach down on each side of the cotton row. To these rods are attached at right angles pieces of wires which describe rapid half circles, beating the cotton plant in their sweep, or "agitating it." This agitation knocks off the cotton, which falls on a movable floor and carries the fibre back to a huge bag fastened to the rear of the machine. A slight blow will usually cause the cotton to drop, but if any remains, fans in the top of the machine create an air current that blows off the residue. The ripening of cotton proceeds in three stages, that nearest the ground ripening first, then that about the middle of the plant, and lastly the top crop. The first COT COLE'S DICTIONARY OF DRY GOODS. 93 picking is usually small and unrenumerative ; the second picking is the heaviest, while the third or top picking is frequently poor, and in many cases abandoned entirely, so that it is estimated that of the cotton actually grown fully 10 per cent, is lost by abandonment, as it does not pay to keep the hands together for picking. The three principal varieties of cotton cultivated in the United States are the "Sea Island", the "New Orleans", and the "Upland"' varieties, which taken together are unequalled by the products of any other part of the globe. The Sea Island cotton, grown in the soft and balmy climate of low-lying islands off the coast of Georgia, Carolina and Florida, where frost^ is scarcely known, has surpassed all other varieties of cotton in the length and beauty or its staple. The delicate and silken filaments render it highly valuable for the production of the finest yarns. It is never introduced into the coarser muslins, but is used for the most delicate fabrics, and exclusively for the manufacture of sewing thread, being also consumed in large quantities by silk manufacturers, the fine, soft and glossy fibre rendering a mixture with the thread of the silk worm difficult to be detected. The largest crop of Sea Island cotton ever harvested was picked in 1891-'92, amounting to 68,000 bales, or about 40 per cent, more than any former crop. The average price is about 30 cents per pound. Over half of this cotton is annually shipped to Europe, to be manufactured into the finest grades of cotton fabrics. The long, bright fibre is also used largely in the manufacture of fine "silk" striped silesias for coat and sleeve linings, producing a strfpe that no more visual and tactual examination can distingush from silk. "Upland" cotton is generally a light, flimsy cotton, of a weak and very unequal staple, used ordinarily for the filling, or weft threads. "New Orleans" cotton is superior to Upland, and has the preference on account of its clean, soft, and glossy appearance. It is rather short in staple, but even and strong. [See EGYPTIAN COTTON.] The following is the classification of the different grades of raw cotton in the markets of the United States : Fair, barely fair, strict middling fair, fully middling fair, barely mid- dling fair. Strict good middling, fully good middling, good middling, barely good middling, strict middling, fully middling, middling, barely middling. Strict low middling, fully low middling, low middling, barely low middling. Strict good ordinary, fully good ordinary, good ordinary, barely good ordinary, strict ordinary, fully ordinary, ordinary. The full grades are fair, middling fair, good middling, middling, good ordinary and ordinary. The half grades are designated by the prefixes "barely", meaning the mean point between the half grade and the next full grade above, and "fully" meaning the mean point between the half-grade and the next full grade below. 94 COLE'S DICTIONARY OF DRV GOODS. COT The average \iekl of cotton in the South varies from 140 to 180 pounds per acre. A bale of cotton, as it appears in commerce weighs 500 pounds, to produce which 1600 pounds of seed cotton is required ; and at the rate of 80 cents per 100 pounds for picking, it costs to pick one bale of cotton $12.80, or to pick the crop of 1892, of 9,000,000 bales, there was expended the fabulous sum of $120,000,000. "Seed cotton" is the term applied to the staple before it has been cleansed of its weighty proportion of seeds by the "gin". Every boll of cotton contains seeds resembling unground coffee, which, when removed, leave only about one-third in weight of clean cotton. After leaving the gin, it is wound in a fleecy state upon a large wooden roller and transferred to the- carding machine. Carding of cotton is the process of disentangling and arranging in par- allel rows t\\& fibres of the cotton so as to facilitate the twisting vl them to- gether. Carding may be compared to the combing and brushing of one's hair, and the card combines the properties of the comb and brush, being a large brush with wire teeth instead of bristles. These teeth are inserted in strips of leather, which are fastened to the surface of a cylinder. Several of such cylinders are so arranged that the ends of the teeth are nearly in contact, and the cotton being brought to them is caught up, passed from one to the other and combed out, as the cylinders turn round, in the form of beautiful films or fleeces. These films, which are the width of the cylin- ders, are next contracted to a narrow ribbon by being passed through a funnel and drawn out in order to make them ready for the next process, called spinning. For spinning cotton there are two kinds of machines used "throstles" and "mules." The throstle is employed in the spinning of yarn for warps This yarn has its fibre more closely twisted than that spun upon the mule, and is more esteemed for certain purposes, especially for making sewing thread. The mule, or mule-jenny, differs from the throstle in that it spins a yarn much finer and softer, though more woolly in texture than throstle- yarn; mule-yarn, besides forming the weft of cloths, is also doubled and used for a variety of purposes wherein a lightly-twisted, thread-like yarn is not required. The principle of attenuating the yarn is, however, the same in both machines, consisting of several pairs of rollers turned by means of machinery. The lower roller of each pair is fluted or furrowed, and the upper one is covered with leather to induce it to take hold of the cotton. If there were only Zealand Flax J Manilla Homp New Zealand.. East India Plaptam FiVwr Tropical regions India, Ceylon Central America, W. ) Indies $ Bowstring Hemp Sisal or Grass Hemp.. Agave Fiber A strong fiber. Cordage, brush-making, etc. Cordage. Cordage. Woven into very fine textures. Central America, W. ? Indies ) Silk Grass South America Piua Fiber . Phillip* Islands . I FIB COLE'S DICTIONARY OF DRY GOODS. 139 NAME OF FIBER. LOCALITY. REMARKS. Vegetable Horse-hair. Screw Pine Central America > Manrituns Yucatan. Upholstery purposes, like animal horse- hair. Panama hats, strips for matting. Panama Screw Pine_. Orin Vegetal Tucnm Central America Algeria. Brazil Panama hats, strips for matting. Substitute for horse-hair. Fine twine for hammocks. Tibisire Brazil Cordage. Cabbage Palm Australia .. Used for hat making. Tolipot India Matting, baskets. Kitul Piassava Ceylon Brazil Brushes, cordage. Brushes, cordage. Native ship ropes. Rattan East India Islands.. . Strips for chair seats; fibers for stuffing. Coir See COIB. Silk I Italy, France, Asia, > See SILK. ) Wool | In every civilized and ) See WOOL. try on the globe ) Fibres of animal origin are few, but of the highest value while vege- table fibres are of an endless variety, and of the most diverse character as to quality. Animal fibres may be classed under two heads, silk and wool, using the terms in an extended sense. Animal and vegetable fibres pre- sent marked differences, not only in appearance, feel, and structure, but also in chemical character, and can be readily recognized in any mixed fabric by appropriate tests. Thus analine dyes, which communicate strong permanent colors to wool and silk, only produce on vegetable fibres a fugitive, easily-washed-out stain. Vegetable fibres in a mixed fabric may be distinguished by boiling a fragment of the material in a solution contain- ing 10 per cent, of soda, whereby the animal fibres dissolve, leaving the vegetable fibres intact. The sulphur contained in wool, from which silk is free, gives a ready means of distinguishing a mixture of these two fibres. In a solution of plumbate of soda wool becomes black, while silk is quite unaffected. For further tests see COTTON, SILK, LINEN, WOOL. Fiberliatfi-ber'-lia]. A recently introduced flax fibre made from the stalk of American flax, which can be combined with cotton or wool, or used alone, in the manufacture of fabrics. This has been a problem with textile manufactureis for over half a century. An English inventor, in 1851, an- nounced he had found a process whereby it could be done, but after 140 COLE'S DICTIONARY OF DRY GOODS. FIC practical tests it failed. The trouble was that the long straight fibre of flax which was cut to match both cotton and wool in length, had blunt flat ends, which showed in the manufacture of goods. By the new invention of fiber- lia the flax fibres are free from such defects and match in length either cotton or wool without being cut. The material ready for use is soft and pliable and will take dyes of the finest tints. The cost of production does not exceed 8 cents per pound, and can be furnished by the Northwestern States in practically unlimited quantities. In 1891 it was used in a limited way in the manufacture of blankets, about one-quarter fibrelia and three- quarters wool. It has also been used for toweling, and in the manufacture of cotton and woolen hosiery. In addition to its being used in the making of fabrics, it can be substituted for absorbent cotton in hospitals, as it pos- sesses the same properties of scraped lint or pure linen. Fichu (fe'-shu). [French for ladies' neckerchief^ A triangular piece of lace worn around the neck instead of a collar, of various lengths; some- times it is a combination of cape and scarf, pointed between the shoulders and crossing at the bosom, the long ends of which are allowed to hang loose. It was a favorite article of attire with Marie Antoniette, who brought it first into popularity in 1785. Filament. A fine, untwisted thread; a separate fiber of any vegetable or animal tissue, natural or artificial. [See FIBER.] Filature. A reel for drawing silk off from the cocoons; an establish- ment for reeling silk. Producers rarely reel the silk from cocoons, but in- stead ship them to the large filatures where the work is usually performed by skilled hand-labor. Filibeg 1 . The Scotch kilt in its primitive form, consisting of one piece of cloth, covering the whole body, and girt around the waist. At present the term is applied to a pleated petticoat or skirt, reaching only to the knees; a kilt. Filoselle (fil-o-zel'). A loose, slackly-twisted silk thread used in fine-art needlework. It is put up in skeins, the strands of which can be divided or separated into six smaller ones, each suitable for being used in fancy work. Filling. The woof or weft in weaving. Fish Hooks. An article to be found in nearly every well-selected stock of notions, and one, also, which suggests the wonderful strides made by American manufacturers in the past few years. It has been but a short time since all of the small Yankee notions consumed in this country were imported from abroad, but at present in the manufacture of many of these articles foreign makers are completely shut out, and foreign markets even supplied by American industry. In fish hooks this is eminently the case. Even yet American-made goods are used by some dealers packed with foreign labels, to deceive consumers, who foolishly believe the foreign FLA COLE'S DICTIONARY OF DRY GOODS. ui makes are better. The American Needle and Fish Hook Co. now produce the best tempered and most reliable fish hook in the world, in all the vari- ous sizes. There is a little machine which turns out fish hooks in six strokes. Stroke number one bites off a morsel of steel wire; number two makes the loop where the line is fastened; number three hacks the other end; number four flattens and bends the barb; number five makes the point; number six bends the wire, and the fish hook drops into a little bucket ready to be japanned and packed in gross boxes. Flags. It is probable that almost as soon as men began to collect together for common purposes some kind of conspicuous object was used, as the symbol of a common sentiment, as the rallying point of the common force. In military expeditions, where any degree of organization and dis- cipline prevailed, objects of such a kind would be necessary to mark out the lines and stations of encampment, and to keep in order the different bands when marching or in battle. And, in addition to all this, it cannot be doubted that flags or their equivalents have often served, by reminding men of past resolves, past deeds, past heroes, to rally to enthusiasm those sentiments of family pride and honor, of personal devotion, patriotism, or religion, upon which, as well as upon good leadership and numerical force, success in warfare depends. Among the remains of that people who have left the earliest traces of civilization the Egyptians the records and forms of objects used as ensigns are frequently to be found. These are of such designs as there is reason to believe were associated in the minds of men with feelings of awe and devotion. Sacred animals, boats, emblems, a tablet bearing a king's name, were raised on the end of a staff as stand- ards, and the office of bearing them was held a peculiar privilege and honor. Somewhat similar seem to have been the customs of the Assyrians. The Persians bore an eagle fixed to the end of a lance upon their standard, which appears to have been formed of some kind of textile, and was guarded with the greatest jealousy by the bravest men in the army. The Carian soldier who slew the great Cyrus was allowed the honor of carrying a golden cock at the head of the army, it being the custom of the Cariahs to wear that bird as a crest on their helmets. The Greeks bore a piece of armor on a spear in early times; afterward the Athenians bore the olive and the owl, the Corinthians a pegasus, the Thebans a sphinx. The Dacians carried a standard representing a contorted serpent, while the dragon was the military sign of many peoples. The North American Indians carried poles fledged with feathers plucked from the wings of eagles, and similar customs seem to have prevailed among other semi-savage peoples. The flags of the United States were many and various both before and after the Declaration of Independence, and even after the introduction of the stars and stripes these underwent many changes in the manner of their arrangement before taking the position at present established. Since 1818, however, it has consisted of thirteen horizontal stripes, representing the thirteen original states of the Union, seven red and six white, placed alter- 142 COLE'S DICTIONARY OF DRY GOODS. FLA nately, with a blue field having displayed on it one white five-pointed star for each state in the Union. It is asserted by historians that the design was originated by Washington, copied partially from the coat-of-arms of the Washington family in use prior to their removal from England. The manufacture of flags falls naturally into three large classes. The first is composed of those that are made out of some appropriate material, either bunting, silk or cotton, sewed together and thus made into one en- sign. The second includes the clamp-dyed bunting flags, which are the most expensive examples in wool that are manufactured. The third class consists of the printed cotton flags, vast quantities of which, of a very cheap sort, are used for special and temporary purposes, such as decorating soldiers' graves, the garnishing of banquet halls and the beautifying of stores on holdiays. The bunting of which our national emblem is formed is composed entirely of wool of a strong fiber, to enable the flag to stand any amount of flapping and stress of weather. For this purpose the staple selected is long, and generally of so coarse a quality that it would be used for no other purpose than frieze cloth or carpets. The yarn is strongly twisted and feels in the cloth to be very harsh and hard. Until the close of 1864 the whole of the bunting used in the United States was shipped from England, and it was in this year that some one asked General Benj. Butler who was largely interested in the United States Bunting Co., why he did not make bunting. This led the company, who had previously been importing their goods to make experiments, which resulted in the successful manufacture of American bunting. Tests were made by mili- tary men of the relative value of American as against foreign bunting, and the result was so satisfactory that large orders were given out, and the General's company enjoyed a long run of prosperity. The effect on prices since then has been extraordinary, for the bunting which in 1864 sold at $30 to $40 per piece, now sells at 85 per piece. The bunting is woven in the natural white color of the wool, and is then either dyed in the whole piece, or clamp-dyed. Clamp-dyeing consists in dyeing a single wide piece of bunting with alternate bars or stripes of red, in order to avoid the the necessity of sewing together separate stripes to constitute the colors. It is an expensive process, for in order to prevent the part of the piece not intended to be colored from taking the dye it is covered up and squeezed by two pieces of wood. As it is both tedious and expensive, clamp-dyed bunting plays only a small part in flag making. The general way is to take the piece and have it dyed the proper colors, and from these to fashion the flag. The stars are cut out with dies and sewn by sewing machines on the proper place. The stripes and colors are done in the same manner. As to durability there is little to choose between either process, but the clamp- dyed flags make the lightest as well as the most attractive emblems when examined. It would be difficult to estimate the aggregate annual produc- tion of flags of all sorts, but the amount is something enormous, and it may well cause wonder, as in the case of pins, where they all go to. In the ag- FLA COLE'S DICTIONARY OF DRY GOODS. 143 gregate, the commercial harvest based upon the love of our people for their national emblem is a rich one. The industry supplies thousands of good Americans with steady work during campaign seasons, and as the patriotic effect of having the flag so universally unfurled cannot but be helpful to the public, all engaged in the manufacture and sale of these articles can feel a solid satisfaction in a comfortable combination of gain and public spirit. Flannel. [From Welch givlanen; in the Middle Ages known as flannella andflannen.] Wales appears to have been the home of flannels, and this one fabric has long been the only textile manufactured in that country, while it has been of so much importance there that fairs have been commonly held solely for the exhibition and sale of flannels. The high estimation in which Welch flannels are still held is attributed to the fact that hand labor is much employed in their production. Flannels are woven of "woolen" yarn, but slightly twisted in the spinning, the object being to have the cloth soft and spongy without particular regard to strength. The manufacture is identical with that of other "woolen" goods, their organiza- tion being closely allied to that of blankets (which see). The best grades of flannels intended for men's shirts, ladies blouses, etc., commonly known under the term of Cricket flannels, are always shrunk more than the common qualities, because of the numerous cleansing processes they must necessar- ily undergo after being made into garments. The "shrinking is accom- plished by folding a bolt-length of flannel between heavy wet sheets, and letting it remain there 24 hours. The pieces are then hung upon rails to dry in rooms heated by hot pipes. The next process is to fold them in specially prepared papers, which have a very glossy surface. They are then pressed, some mills using hydraulic, others large hand presses, worked by 8 or 10 men. The more pressure the more "clothy" they feel. Cheap flannels are never shrunk, because they will not stand it. When being made into wearing apparel by factories they do not even make the ac- quaintance of the tailor's goose, as they would contract a full "size" or more from the heat. Flannel is recommended by medical men for clothing in both hot and cold countries, from its property of promoting in- sensible perspiration, which, being absorbed by the spongy material, is im- mediately distributed equally throughout by the whole thickness of the fabric, and thus being exposed over a large surface is carried off by the atmosphere, keeping the body at the same time at an equal temperature. Like other woolen fabrics, flannels are bleached by the steam of burning sulphur to improve their whiteness. The quality of domestic flannel is de- noted by the ounces of weight per square yard. [See WOOL, WOOLEN, SHAKER, CANTON, VEGETABLE, TRICOT, OUTING, BASKET, OPERA, FLAN- NELLETTE, UNDERWEAR.] Flannellette (flan-el-et ' ). A soft loose-woven cotton fabric, white, self-colored, or woven in stripes or checks, with a short nap raised on both 144 COLE'S DICTIONARY OF DRY GOODS. FLA sides, which gives them the appearance of flannel. Known also under the names of outing cloth, gypsy flannel, domet, etc. These fabrics are finished by the simple process of teasling on a machine specially made for the pur- pose. The cloth is sometimes run through the machine twice. Some machines are made to raise the nap on both sides at one passage of the cloth, according to the strength of the cloth and quality of nap required. As the nap is obtained by a partial cutting of the fibers on the surface of the cloth, the latter is somewhat weakened in strength, and therefore flan- nellettes do not wear, as a rule, as well as plain calicoes. However, the "feel" is softer and warmer to the skin. The nap is not very permanent, although there is great variation between different makes of flannellette; in this respect much of the durability of the nap depending upon the qual- ity of the cloth used: the stronger and more closely woven the cloth the better they wear. Sometimes flannellettes are dyed and printed after the nap is raised; in such cases, as both these processes are destructive to the nap, only good cloths well napped can be used. [See DOMET.] Flat goods. A term used to designate woolen or cotton knitted under- wear as distinguished from Jersey or ribbed underwear. Flax. [The common name for the plants of the genus Linnum.} The term flax is employed at once to denote the fiber so called, and the plant from which it is prepared. Like most plants which have been long under domestic cultivation, it possesses numerous varieties, while the wild or parent condition is not known. As cultivated the plant is an annual, with an erect stalk rising to the height of 20 to 40 inches, branching only at tne top into panicles of bright blue flowers. The stem by various processes described hereafter, is freed from all useless matter, leaving the elongated inner part in the form of a soft, silky fiber. The cultivation and prepara- tion of flax are the most ancient of all textile industries, reaching back to the very earliest periods of civilization. Its use was most extensively and variously applied in the lake dwellings, even in those of the stone period. But of the mode in which it was planted, steeped, heckled, cleansed, and generally prepared for use, no idea can be formed, any more than what can be derived from the tools unearthed employed by the settlers in the cultivation. Rough or unworked-flax is found in the lake dwellings made into bundles, or what are techincally called heads, and, as much attention was given to this last operation, it was perfectly clean and ready for use. That flax was extensively cultivated and was regarded as of much impor- tance at a very early period in the world's history there is abundant testi- mony. Although flax is to be found in a semi-wild state in many parts of Great Britain, it is very doubtful whether for many ages our British ances- tors were aware of the use of this plant for clothing purposes: they would otherwise have left behind them some shred of linen in one or other of their many graves. Following, as they did, the usage of being buried in the best garments they were accustomed to, or most loved when ali've FLA COLE S DICTIONARY OF DRY GOODS. 146 their bodies would have been found dressed in some small article of linen texture, had they ever worn it. We must go to the valley of the Nile if we wish to learn the earliest history of flaxen textiles. Time out of mind the Egyptians were famous as well for the growth of flax as for the beauti- ful linen which they wove out of it, and which became to them a most profitable, because so widely sought for, article of commerce. Long before the oldest book in the world was written, the tillers of the soil all over the land of Egypt had been heedful in sowing flax, and anxious about its harvest. It was one of their staple crops, and hence it was that in punish- ment of Pharoah, the hail plague, which at the bidding of Moses fell from heaven, destroyed throughout the land the flax just as it was getting ripe. Flax grew also upon the banks of the stormy Jordon, and in Judea generally; and the women of the country, like Rahab, carefully dried it when pulled, and stacked it for future hackling upon the roofs of their homely huts. For many ages, even down to the early part of the 14th century, Egyptian flax occupied the formost place in the commercial world, being sent into all regions with which open intercourse was main- tained. Among Western nations it was, without any competitor, the most important of all vegetable fibers till towards the close of the 18th century, when, after a brief struggle, cotton took its place as the supreme vegetable fiber of commerce. From the earliest periods the inhabitants of Ireland were acquainted with the valuable qualities possessed by the fiber of the flax plant, and manufactured it for clothing. By % whom, however, or from what country it was introduced, there exists no satisfactory record. The Irish name for flax is "thin" which word is also applied to thread, while the term "anaitt" is used to express coarse linen cloth. For many years past the production of Irish flax has been on the decline. It is one of the most distressing facts of that distressful country, that while the linen industry of Belfast has been growing and prospering, the native cultivation of the raw material has been steadily and miserably diminishing. Russia, Holland, Belgium and Germany each send their quota of flax to the manufacturers of Belfast. According to competent authorities, this state of things does not arise from the national inferiority of Irish flax, or to the unsuitability of soil or climate. It is even stated that the soil of no country in the world possesses the properties for the production of fiber equal to the soil of Ireland. The failure of Irish flax to be accepted and encouraged by the manufacturers of Belfast is on account of the defective way in which the crop is cultivated; due to the ignorance and lack of skill on the part of the Irish farmer. There is this all-important difference between the flax industry of other European countries and that of Ireland: In Ireland, the farmers produce the crop and prepare it for the cloth manufacturer. In Belgium, in Hol- land, and in Russia, on the other hand, the farmer concerns himself solely with the cultivation of the crop. The preparation of the fiber is in the hands of persons specially skilled and trained in this particular line of 146 COLE'S DICTIONARY OF DRY GOODS. FLA work, consequently they have a much better prepared fiber to offer the manufacturer than that of the Irish farmer, and at the same price. The continuance in Ireland of the old system is known to entail much loss and waste, and while it is seemingly on account of a better soil and higher quality of flax, the difference in reality arises from the superior preparation of fiber that the Belfast manufacturers prefer the foreign to the home-grown article. In all countries, after the farmer has sown the seed and gathered the crop, several processes remain before the flax can be used in the cloth mills. Flax is always pulled up by the root, and under no circumstances is it cut or shorn like cereal crops. The pulling is done in dry clear weather, and care is taken in this, as in all subsequent operations, to keep the root ends even, and the stalks parallel. At the same time it is desirable to have, as far as possible, stalks of equal length together all these con- ditions having considerable influence on the quality and appearance of the yarn when spun. The next operation, termed rippling, immediately fol- lows the pulling, and consists in removing the head and seeds of the flax. Retting, or rotting, is the operation the flax next undergoes, for the purpose of separating the fiber from the woody core and softening it in order that it may be fitted for spinning. This is an operation of the greatest importance, and one in connection with which in recent years numerous experiments have been made, and many projects and processes put forth, with a view of improving on the primitive method or altogether supplanting it. From the earliest times two leading processes of retting have been practiced, termed respectively "water retting" and "dew-retting," and as no method has yet been invented which satisfactorily supersedes these old-time operations, they will first be described. Water-retting. For this (the process by which flax is generally pre- pared) pure soft water, free from iron and other materials which might color the fiber, is essential. The ponds in which this operation is con- ducted are of variable size, but are uniformly about four feet in depth. The rippled stalks are tied in small bundles and packed roots downward in the water; over the top of each upper layer is placed straw or rushes fastened with stones of sufficient weight to keep the flax submerged. Generally in from ten days to two weeks the process is complete, and when it is found by being frequently examined that the fiber separates readily from the core, the bundles are removed from the water, and spread evenly over a grassy meadow, where it is left for two weeks to dry. At this point the peth will be ready to remove by the process of "scutching." Dew-retting is the process by which the larger portion of Russian flax is prepared. By this method steeping in water is entirely dispensed with, and the flax is, immediately after pulling, spread on the grass where it is for two or three months subjected to the influence of air, sun-light, night- dews and rain. The process is tedious, and the resultant fiber is brown in color, though peculiarly soft and silky in structure. FLA COLE'S DICTIONARY OF DRY GOODS. 147 Scutching is the process by which the fiber is finally freed from its woody core and rendered fit for market. For ordinary water-retted flax two operations are required; first breaking and then scutching, and these are done either by hand labor or by means of small scutching mills, driven by steam power or water power. The breaking is done by passing the stalks between grooved rollers, and the broken cores are beaten out by suspending the fiber in a machine fitted with revolving blades, which, striking violently against the flax, shake out the rotten and broken woody cores. The inferior parts of the flax removed by these operations is called " tow." In regard to the process of retting, it may be said that different meth- ods prevail in different countries, according to local circumstances. In Holland, stones are scarce, so that the flax has to be laid on the surface of the water and then covered with mud raked up from the bottom of the pond. To a large extent retting continues to be conducted in the primi- tive fashions above described, though numerous and persistent attempts have been and are, at present, being made to improve upon it, or to avoid the process altogether. The latest invention is by an expert in Minneapo- lis, Minn., who, with the aid of the microscope, has discovered that the rotting is performed by a microbe that devours the glue, which makes the fiber adhere to the wood. He claims it is possible to breed a great number of these microbes in an inconceivably short time. The results expected is that months will be reduced to hours in linen production, and that it will be only a matter of a few years when linen cloth will be as cheap as cotton, yard for yard. It is needless to suggest that it is highly improbable that the inventor's views will be borne out by the lapse of time. Flax, after undergoing the operations of breaking and scutching, are shipped to the linen mills where it is prepared for weaving by the pro- cesses of roving and spinning. These do not differ greatly from the pro- cesses used in the spinning of cotton (which see). Spinners make up their yarn into "bundles" of twenty hanks, each hank containing ten "leas" of 300 yards each 3,000 yards. The quality and size of all linen yarn is de- noted by the number of "leas" (300 yards) in a pound; thus, 50-lea yarn indicates that there are fifty leas of 300 yards each in a pound of the yarn so denominated. No. 60 yarn = 60 leas of 300 yards each, or 18,000 yards to the pound. " 100 " =100 " " 300 " " " 30,000 " " " " 200 " =200 " " 300 " " " 60,000 " " " 500 = 500 " " 300 " " " 150,000 " " " Commercial qualities of yarn range from 8- up to 160-lea. Much finer yarn, even up to as high as 550, may be spun by machines found in many factories, but these fine counts are used only for fine thread and the mak- ing of lace. Exceedingly high counts have sometimes been spun by hand. For the preparation of the finest Brussels lace, it is said the Belgian hand spinners must work in damp cellars, where the spinner is guided by the 148 COLE'S DICTIONARY OF DRY GOODS. FLA sense of touch alone, the filament being too fine to be seen by the eye. The lace made of this is reported to have been sold as high as $1200 per pound. [See LACE]. In the great Exhibition in London in 1851 yarn of 760-lea equal to 130 miles to the pound of flax was shown which had been spun by hand by an Irish woman 84 years old. The various operations con- nected with linen weaving, such as winding, warping, dressing, and beam- ing do not differ materially from cotton weaving, the looms being the same. It is an error to suppose that Ireland grows more flax than other countries. The latest correct statistics show as follows: Flax grown on the Continent of Europe 5,700,000 acres; Ireland 123,000 acres, and in the United States 1,318,658 acres. Of this Minnesota raised 167,264 acres; Dakota, 488,993; Iowa, 265,000; Nebraska, 150,922; besides a large acreage in Wisconsin. Ireland in 1892 produced only 25,000 tons of fibre, and im- ported 90,000 tons from Russia and Belgium, and this imported fibre, as before stated, is better than they produce at home. The average annual production of flax is as folllows: Russia, 270,000 tons; Austria, 53,000; Germany, 48,000; Belgium and Holland 38,000; France, 37,000; United King- dom, 25,000; Italy, 23,000; United States, 12,000; Scandinavia, 4,000 total, 510,000 tons. In no country in the world does the cultivation of flax attain such large dimensions as in Russia. Russia alone produces more flax than all other countries of Europe combined. Out of the total area sown in Europe in 1891 with flax, and amounting to about 5,700,000 acres, more than 3,700,000 acres were sown in Russia. Notice must at the same time be taken of the fact that while in all European countries without exception the area of land under the cultivation of flax is being annually more and more re- duced, it is in Russia, on the contrary, being increased. The total quantity of flax fibre produced in the whole of Europe is estimated to be 1,354,000,- 000 pounds. The share which Russia has in the total quantity produced in all Europe is exactly two-thirds. About one-half of the flax fibre produced in Russia is exported abroad, the other half remaining in the Empire, be- ing worked up by the peasants at their farm-houses into thread and linen for their own use, as well as for sale. The home trade is entirely in the hands of small dealers, who drive from village to village and make their purchases in small lots. The flax thus collected is then sent in considerable quantities to the towns which serve as centres to the flax trade. The finest flax in the world comes from Courtrai, Belgium, and is the most valuable staple in the market on account of its fineness, strength, and particularly bright color. There the flax is dried in the field and housed during the winter succeeding its growth, and in the spring of the following year it is retted in crates sunk in the sluggish waters of the river Lys. For many miles both sides of the river are used as steeping grounds, presenting a curious sight to the tourist. In all the operations necessary to prepare flax the greatest care is taken, and the cultivators being peculiarly favored as to the soil, climate and water, Courtrai flax forms a staple of unap- proached excellence. FEL COLE'S DICTIONARY OF DRY GOODS. 149 The census report of 1890 shows the total area of land devoted to the cultivation of flax in the United States to have been 1,318,658 acres, and the production of flax-seed 10,250,410 bushels, the amount of flax sold 207,527 tons, and the total value of all flax products $10,436,228. Although flax- seed is reported from thirty-one states, Minnesota, South Dakota, Iowa and Nebraska produce 80 per cent, of the total amount. Throughout the greater portion of the principal flaxseed producing regions, flax straw is of little or no value, and much of the so-called fiber is only an inferior quality of tow, used chiefly for upholstering purposes. There are indications, how- ever, of the revival in the United States of a linen industry that will afford a market for fine flax fiber of domestic production and revive a branch of agriculture and manufacture that for many years has been almost extinct. [See LINEN, CRASH, BLEACHING, WEAVING]. Fleece. The coat of wool that covers a sheep, or that is shorn from a sheep at one time. In commerce, wools are distinguished as fleece-wools and dead-wools, the former being obtained from living animals at the annual shearings, and the latter from animals that have been killed; as at the various packing houses over the country. [See WOOL.] In the United States the heaviest shearing sheep are the Merino breed, the heaviest recorded fleece being that taken from a ram owned by Reynolds & Daved, of Mulvane, Kans., the weight of which was 52 pounds. The heaviest recorded ewe fleece weighed 30 pounds, from the same flock, and 13X pounds represents the weight of the heaviest fleece of scoured wool. The term fleece is also applied to a fabric with a soft, silky pile, used for warmth, as for lining garments, gloves, and caps; such articles are said to be fleece-lined. Fleur-de-lis (fleur-de-lee ' ). [From French fleur-de-lis, flower of the lily.] A pattern in weaving representing the flower of the lilly or head of a lance, consisting essentially of a bell-shaped stem with a bar at the bottom, and a short recurved stem on each side. The plural is fleurs-de- lis. Floret-silk. In silk manufacturing, a yarn spun from the first and purest of the "waste," and of higher quality than noil-yarn. [See SILK, NOIL.] Floretta (flo-ret'-a). Floss-silk. FlOSS-silk. An embroidery-thread, made of silk fiber from the finest part of the cocoon, carded and spun, but not twisted, so as to be soft and downy in its surface while retaining a high luster; very similar to filoselle, which often replaces it. Floss-silk is also the name given to the portions of raveled silk broken off in the filature of the cocoons, which is carded like cotton or wool, and spun into a soft coarse yarn or thread for making bands, shawls, sacks, and other common silk fabrics. Fold. A double or lap of cloth, of any description. All dress silks are put up in folds 1# yards long (1 aune.) French fabrics, such as sa- 150 COLE'S DICTIONARY OF DRY GOODS. FOL teens, lawns, organdies, etc., are usually put up in folds of 1 metre (1 yard and tV) The same description of fabrics made in the United States are folded in 1-yard lengths. Both French and American silks, however, are folded in aune lengths. Fondu (fon-du'). Softened, blended; denoting a style in which colors are so applied as to pass insensibly into each other through delicate gradations; especially said of certain styles in calico printing. Foolscap. A writing paper, usually folded, varying in size from 12x15 to 12j^xl6 inches; so called from its former watermark, the outline of a fool's head and cap, for which other devices are now substituted. The design originated with the English Rump Parliament, under Cromwell, who out of contempt for King Charles, ordered that the royal arms in the watermark of the paper should be removed, and a fool's cap and bells substituted. [See PAPER.] Foot. A unit of length, originally the length of a man's foot. The English foot, which is in use in the United States, contains 12 inches. The feet in use in different European countries before the introduction of the metric system varied from 9 to 21 English inches. The ancient Roman foot is know to have been 11.65 English inches. Other ancient feet are of uncertain length. A foot of grindstone was formerly 8 inches. [See METRIC SYSTEM, CLOTH MEASURE, ELL, AUNE, FOLD, METRE, MEASURES.] Foot-glove. A heavy woolen stocking worn in northern regions over the shoes while riding; a warm muffler for the feet. Foot-sheet. A cloth spread over the chair and floor for a person to sit upon, while the toilet is being made. Forwarder. An individual or a firm who ships or sends forward goods for others to their destination by the instrumentality of third persons. Neither a consignor shipping goods nor a carrier while engaged in trans- porting them is called a forwarder. The name is applied strictly to one who undertakes to see the goods of another put in the way of transporta- tion, without himself incurring the liability of a carrier to deliver. A car- rier who undertakes to transport the goods only part of the way, often becomes a forwarder in respect to the duty of delivering them to some other carrier who completes the transportation. Foulard (fou-lard'). A term which at first denoted a thin gauze French riband. At present foulard silk is a soft, thin washable dress silk, woven without twill, and generally printed in colors on black or white grounds. It was originally made in India, but is now successfully produced in France. An imitation of silk foulard is also made of cotton, of a medium soft finish, printed with mingled patterns; used for women's dresses. This latter was formerly much used, but its manufacture is now almost discon- tinued, having been superseded by sateen; sometimes known under the name of fonlardine. FOU COLE'S DICTIONARY OF DRY GOODS. 151 Four-in-hand. A style of neckwear for men distinguished by being wider a tone end than at the other, which when tied presents the appear- ance and form of a made-up scarf. Fox. To cover the upper of a shoe with ornamental leather; also to repair a shoe by renewing the front upper-leather. French Cambric. A very fine variety of linen or cotton cambric used for handkerchiefs, neckwear, and similar things. [See CAMBRIC.] French Merino. An extremely fine-twilled woolen cloth, made from the wool of Merino sheep, and used for ladies' dresses. [See MERINO.] French Quilting. Same as pique (which see.) French Twill. A variety of French Merino of inferior fineness but of great durability. Frieze (freez). [So called from having been first made in ancient Friesland, the most northerly province of Holland.] A heavy, shaggy, woolen cloth, covered with a thick nap forming little tufts, manufactured to some extent for blankets and clothing, but more especially for men's winter over coats. Perhaps no textile produced by Irish manufacturing skill is more justly celebrated or more widely known than Irish Frieze. The chief features which distinguish freize from all other cloths are its absolute imperviousness to rain and its extraordinary durability. This per- tains of course to the genuine Irish Freize, not the counterfeit which of late years has been quite plentiful in American markets. The manufacturers of Ireland exercise particular care to select the longest and strongest wool from the best washed fleeces. This wool is first dyed in the mass, and afterwards, when spun, is doubled so as to resemble yarn. It is then woven, after which it is put through the thickening or fulling process. This consists of a prolonged washing and^sousing the cloth in a carefully- prepared solution slowly heated up to the boiling point, and then as slowly cooled again. This shrinks and thickens the fabric to such an extent that it becomes almost impossible, after cutting the goods, to separate one thread from another, so closely are they fulled, and so interdependent upon each other. The cloth is then finished with a nap, more or less heavy, as desired. [See NAPPING.] Century after century, so long that the mind of man runneth not to the contrary, freize has posed as the national cloth of Ireland, the distinctive dress of patriot, peasant and peer; and, since the 17th century has steadily remained an outward badge of the people's aspirations for nationality. For when England destroyed Ireland's commerce by the infamous Navigation Act of 1663, and the injured country began to promote its own manufacture, it was to the woolen industry that it turned its chief attention, and on which it founded its highest hopes for a revival for its prosperity. It was at this time that the making of frieze became the occupation of the women of every cottage; while the men tended the herds of sheep and prepared the wool, the colleens kept their spinning wheels whirling 152 COLE'S DICTIONARY OF DRY GOODS. FRI and their looms clacking with the materials for the great staple. And when in 1699 England made the exportation of woolen goods from Ireland a crime, and the people of Erin became too poor to use the finer qualities of cloths, they still had need of frieze in local trade and private use. In 1799, when the condition of the peasantry was most deplorable, they be- sought the king to interpose in their favor, and grant them leave to export and sell at least the coarse frieze blankets and flannels which the peasant wives and children produced in their cabins. But their appeal was in vain. The English Parliment that had ruined their trade and suppressed their most profitable manufactures, refused to allow them to dispose of the goods made by the hands of women and children. At last, when the volunteer movement triumphed, the unjust British laws were repealed, and the great trade of the colonies was thrown open to them. Frieze is still made in Ireland. No longer woven to any extent on hand-looms, it is produced with improved machinery, from beautiful patterns, by skillful workmen in prosperous mills. It is honest goods. There is no shoddy in it. Every thread is wool, and the wear is everlasting. Pure as the patriot- ism of the people who make it, simple as their nature, true as their love, it is typical of Irishmen, and deserves to have its name inseparably linked to theirs in its name of Irish Frieze. Fringe. An ornamental bordering formed of short lengths of thread, whether loose or twisted, variously arranged and combined, projecting from the edge of the material ornamented. Fringe may consist of the frayed or raveled edge of the fabric ornamented, but is generally of other material, attached by stitching. Gold and silver fringe, such as now used for epaulettes, has been worn by ecclesiastics as far back as history has traced the dress of people, but was not adopted in civil costume until the 15th century. The styles of trimming-fringes for centuries have come and gone at Fashion's dictate. Sometimes in the form of knotted and twisted silk, and again as the curly chenille. Fringe is essentially a creature of Fashion, depending upon her smile for its ephemeral existence; while her frown is a token for its speedy departure. Frock. [From Yr.froc, a monk's cowl or habit.] Originally a long coat with large sleeves, worn by monks. At present a garment covering the body and worn by either sex; also a loose outer garment "Vorn by workmen, as agricultural laborers, etc., over their other clothes. [See SMOCK-FROCK.] Frock-coat. A body-coat for men, usually double-breasted and with a full skirt; opposed to sack-coat, which has no skirt, and to cutaway, with a short and tapering skirt. [See PRINCE ALBERT, CUTAWAY COAT.] Frocking 1 . A fabric suitable for making men's work-frocks; specifi- cally coarse jean or drill. Frog. An ornamental fastening for the front of men's coats and ladies' cloaks and waists, usually made of metal or braiding, and consisting FRO COLE'S DICTIONARY OF DRY GOODS. 153 of a spindle-shaped button attached by a cord, and corresponding with a loop on the opposite side of the garment. A pair of frogs fixed on the opposite side of the coat may allow of buttoning either way. On silk plush cloaks the frogs are generally of sealskin. [See BRANDENBURG.] Frontal. An ornamental band for the hair, worn by women. Fugitive colors. Those colors which fade, or are more or less destroyed by the action of light, air, and atmospheric heat and moisture; those also which fade under the action of dilute acids or alkalis, as of soap solutions in washing. Fuller's-earth. A species of clay, used by fullers to take grease out of cloth before they apply the soap. When good it has a greenish-white color, falls into powder in water, giving the water a milky hue, and appears to melt on the tongue like butter. It is not at present used to the extent it once was, other substances having taken its place. Fulling. The process of condensing a previously formed fabric, caus- ing it to assume a stronger and firmer body; especially applied to woolen goods. The first operation which a cloth that is to be fulled undergoes, after it is woven, is braying, the object of which is to get rid of the oil used preparatory to spinning, and also to get rid of the size used in dressing the warp. The cloth as it leaves the loom is greasy and rough, and is subjected to a number of processes which make it compact in texture and smooth and level in surface. In this operation the scouring stocks are used, which, under the more modern name of fulling mill, are supposed to stand, in point of antiquity, next to the corn or flour mill. Everyone is familiar with the fact that blankets and flannels tend to contract with frequent washings, gaining in thickness and solidity what they lose in strength and elasticity; such shrinkage is greatly hastened when woolen fabrics are rubbed in very hot water. This shrinkage is the result of the curly, scaly structure of wool fibers. The operation of fulling is now performed by a steam fulling mill. The old method of fulling by the stocks is wasteful of power, and the blows the stocks give with the heavy wooden mallets tend to sometimes tear and bruise the cloth, drawbacks from which the fulling mill is free. The cloth to be fulled is, after braying, first well saturated with hot water and soap, and pressed and rolled, and scoured and rubbed between the slow-revolving rollers of the fulling-machine while so heated and soaped. The more prolonged the operation the more does the woolen material shrink up and thicken. Twelve hours in the mill will reduce a piece of cloth two-fifths of its breadth, and one-third of its length, though it is possi- ble to carry the operation to the extent of reducing cloth to one-half of its original length and breadth. The amount of fulling they receive is the dis- tinguishing feature of many varieties of cloth. In the treatment of broad- cloth, doeskin, melton, and all nap-finished woolens, the fulling is carried so far that the fibers become densely matted, obliterating all the appear- ance of the weave, and giving the piece more the aspect of felt. Fabrics 154 COLE'S DICTIONARY OF DRY GOODS. FUL to which no nap-finish is given are fulled only to the extent of solidifying the substance and strength of the texture. Tweeds are very slightly fulled in order to give them a "dressed" surface. The traveling motion of wool under the combined action of heat and moisture, resulting in the entangle- ment of the fibers and consequent fulling and shrinking of the cloth, is fur- ther exemplified in the case of Scotch caps and the hose shipped to the inhabitants of northern latitudes. The latter are first knit of a size suf- ficiently large to enclose the body of a man, and afterward fulled down to fit the foot. During the fulling of any and all kinds of goods, they must be frequently taken out and stretched, turned, the folds straightened and gen- erally inspected. On conclusion of the operation the goods are scoured to free them from the soap, which is very simply done with pure water, tepid at first, but gradually cooled by additions till in the end the cloth is worked in pure cold water. [See FELTING, BROADCLOTH, TEASLING, SINGEING.} Fulling 1 Mill. A power-machine for fulling and felting woven fabrics, to improve their texture by making them thicker, closer and heavier. Such mills operate by means of rollers, stampers and beaters, of various sizes and forms, but usually of wood, which roll, toss and press the fabric in hot suds and fuller's earth till the required texture is obtained. The result of the process is a reduction in length, in width, and in case of hats of size. [See HATS]. Full Regular. A method of seaming knitted hose, underwear or gloves, by which the edges of the web are connected by hand, the loops on either side being so neatly taken up and joined as to leave no welt whatever, and but slight evidence of a seam. Full-regular made articles always represent the best as well as the most expensive grades of knitted goods. [See HOSIERY AND KNIT GOODS]. Fur. Hair, wool, and fur are slender filaments or thread-like fibers issuing out of the pores of the skins of animals, and all partaking of the same general nature, such as flexibility, elasticity and tenacity. Fur, how- ever, is distinguished from wool by its greater fineness and softness, and hair from wool by its straightness and stiffness. Certain animals have a covering of fur upon their skins underneath a longer covering called over hair. The term fur is not used indiscriminately for any kind of skin, but applies only to to the short fine hair next to the skin. The fur differs from the overhair in that it is soft, silky and downy; while the overhair is straight and comparatively rigid. In the raw state furs are called pelts. Few kinds of animals furnish a pelt of the correct weight and pliability without artificial assistance, and all of them differ widely in texture, shade and fineness; it being these differences which determine their value. Furs naturally formed the first clothing of man. They were known to the Romans two thousand years ago, and from that time to the present day have maintained a high commercial value, and have frequently been used to mark social distinctions. The taste for really beautiful furs is never FUR COLE'S DICTIONARY OF DRY GOODS. 155 likely to die out. Good fur is akin to fine gems, and will always command admiration, respect and a proper price, but like them, its use must always be restricted to the minority. Really good fur is but slightly higher now than it has ever been, and while fine fur can only be worn by persons who make pretensions to elegance, yet the ingenuity of manufacturers have triumphed over natural deficiencies to a certain extent, and skins that would not have been tolerated as trimmings formerly are now, owing to the improved processes to which they are subjected, transformed into very fair imitations of handsome furs. In some cases this is so cleverly man- aged that only adepts are able to discriminate between the real and the false when the goods are new; wear and tear, however, are infallible means of detection. To be sure there are those who inveigh against this "fraud," and talk with regret of the degeneracy of the times when rabbit-skin is made to assume in turn the tints of the sable, the otter, the fox and the seal, for the temptation of the unwary, but the general feeling is very dif- ferent, and the enlightened public looks with favor and not disdain at the growing popularization of cheap fur. It cannot but bt gratifying to see almost every decently-dressed woman with a bit of fur somewhere about her person, if it be only a band about her throat, or a tiny muff to comfort her chilly hands. A brief account is given here of the most-used varieties of fur and skins, with some general remarks as to their average value and customary uses: Badger. Overhair coarse, three to four inches long, black with silver spots, fur wooly; used for robes and brushes. Value of prime $1 to $1.25. Bears. Black, $12 to $28; cubs and yearlings $5 to $12. Grizzly, $10 to $15. Brown, $10 to $14; used for robes. Beavers. Overhair three inches long, of grey color, with reddish- brown ends. Fur thick and fine, of a silvery-gray hue or delicate light- brown; used in every form and fashion. Best are from Labrador; value of beaver fur $4 to $8.25 per pound; castor beaver $4 to $6 per pound. There was a time in the early history of British America when beaver skins were bought from the natives by the Hudson's Bay Company, at the regu- lar price of fourteen skins for a gun, seven for a pistol, two for a sfcirt or one pair of stockings, one for a comb or twelve needles, etc., less than a hundredth part of their real value; all other fur-bearing skins belonging to that country were rated by that of the beaver. Chinchilla. Overhair and fur of equal length, and like wool may be spun and woven; color gray and black mixed. Best are from Peru; used for muffs, boas and borders on garments, but never for overcoats; value from $1 to $3 per skin. Ermine. Fur soft and pure white with tip of tail jet black. Best are from Siberia; used for muffs, garments and linings; value variable, from fifteen cents to $1.50 per skin, 156 COLE'S DICTIONARY OF DRY GOODS. FUR Fisher. Fur fine; color black or gray. Best are from British America, value from $3 to $8 per skin. Catskin Fur. The fur of the wild cat, especially that of Hungary, is quite valuable. It is of a brownish grey, mottled and spotted with black. Being soft and durable it is employed chiefly for cloak linings and robes for carriages. The domestic cat of Holland is bred for its fur, being fed on fish and carefully tended until the coat has arrived at its full perfection, when the fur is frequently dyed in imitation of sable. American catskin fur is not so valuable, the wild variety being valued at fifty cents to $1.00 per skin and the domestic or house cat at five to ten cents. Fox, Silver. Overhair thick and fine, three inches long, varying in color from a pale silver to a darker hue; fur fine and curly. Its beauty places it ahead of all fancy furs. The choicest are from Labrador; used for muffs, boas, trimmings, and for garments by the rich; value $50 to $150 per skin. The skins of red foxes are valued at $1.50 to $2 per skin; cross fox $4 to $8; gray fox 50 cents to $1. Marten, American. Overhair fine and flowing, one to two inches long; fur close and thick; color of the best is of a dark coffee brown, of the poorest a pale yellow. The best are from Labrador, always a choice and valued pelt, value from 80 cents to $2.50 Buffalo Skins. In 1880 buffalo robes could be bought for $6 to $8, but they are becoming extinct, and now bring $30 to $40 each. This price makes them too expensive for the trade. They have been supplanted by wolf skins which are expensive, and various goat skin robes for the cheaper buyers. China goat, especially, is becoming a popular skin for the manu- facture of medium grades of carriage robes. Near Garden City, Kansas, there is a large ranch devoted solely to the propagation of the buffalo. These animals, however, are not raised for their skins, but merely for menageries and museums. Lynx. Fur fine; color gray or hoary, with clouded spottings; value of prime $3 to $3.50. Best are from British America. Mink, American. This valuable fur vies with the marten in elegance of luster. The choicest are of a blue-black shade that is always admired in furs. The best are from Maine and Labrador. It is most abundant in the Middle and Northwestern states. Value of latter 75 cents to $2.00; of former from $2.50 to $3.50. Muskrat. Overhair coarse and light brown; fur fine, thick and silky. A well known fur in the United States. Available for a great variety of purposes, notably in the manufacture of men's fur caps, and as a hatter's fur. The fur from the belly of the muskrat used for making men's fur hats, sells for $2 per pound. The price of the raw skins, however, fluctu- ates greatly; the annual catch varying from three to five millions. The usual price of prime varies from 15 to 50 cents. A variety of black musk- rats from Delaware and Maryland fetches double these prices. , Musquash. Same as muskrat. FUR COLE'S DICTIONARY OF DRY GOODS. 157 Nutria. Overhair coarse and rigid; fur short and fine. From South America, in size and value between the beaver and the muskrat. The pelts are too often unsound, and hence the value of the fur is chiefly for hats; value of prime fur $3 per pound. Opossom. Overhair coarse; fur short and medium fine; value 5 cents to 25 cents. Otter. Color brown; found in all northern countries; best comes from Labrador. Value of prime $5 to $10. Otter, Sea. Overhair exceedingly fine, extending but little beyond the fur, which is close, thick and silky. The general color is a deep liver brown, everywhere silvered or frosted with the hoary tips of the longer stiff hairs; these, however, are removed when the skin is dressed for com- mercial purposes. Found only in the Aleutian islands and Alaska, where five thousand half-civilized natives depend upon sea-otter catching for obtaining a living. The choicest skins are almost exclusively used by the nobilily of Russia; value of prime $100 to $500. Rabbit, Hare, and Coney. Used, for an infinite variety of purposes, and especially in the manufacture of felt hats and fur caps. In trade technically termed " Coney." Sable, Russian. A European variety of the marten, both of which belong to the weasel family. The skin is held in high estimation by the upper tendom of Russia; in color a rich bluish-black shade. The caprices of fashion have at times set wholly fictitious values upon the desirable shades of this fur, values not recognized by professional furriers. Best and darkest colored come from Siberia and Northern Russia, valued some- times as high as $150 per skin. Sealskin. See SEALSKIN. Skunk. Overhair fine, three inches long; in color dark-brown, black and white; fur thick, glossy and flowing. Many have two white stripes more or less broad, extending from the head to the tail. It is now easy to deodorize the skin, and the fur has become a popular one in all countries. The best are from New York and Ohio, value from $1 to $1.50; poor grades twenty-five to fifty cents. Wolf. The largest are from British America, and northern portions of the United States, chiefly grey-brown in color, with long, coarse, flowing overhair; mainly used in making robes and rugs. Northwestern wolf skins are valued at $3 to $5; southwestern seventy-five cents to $2.50; prairie, seventy-five cents to $1.50. Wolverene. Overhair long and shaggy, similar to the coat of a bear, fur short and wooly; color blackish brown. It is the largest variety of the weasel family, being from two to three feet in length. When several skins are sown together the fur forms elegant hearth and carriage rugs, value $3 to $4. Furs are dyed in a variety of ways to make them uniform in color, and adapt them to the, fashion and taste of the time. Ordinarily this is a cheap 158 COLE'S DICTIONARY OF DRY GOODS. FUR and easy process, only becoming an art when employed upon fine skins, from which the overhair has been first removed by "plucking," leaving the fur alone on the skin to receive the dyestuff. Among these are the skins of the muskrat, beaver, otter, and especially the seal; the last having re- ceived careful attention and study by dyers, as its entire value depends upon the success of the dyeing process. Great care is necessary to prepare the dye of suitable strength, and to infuse the coloring matter into the fur without allowing too much of it to reach the skin, whereby its wearing quali- ties might be ruined. There are fur manufactories in all the large cities of the United States, turning out vast quantities annually. St. Paul has for fifty years been an important fur market, and at present manufactures fur of all kinds, from a child's muff to the costliest seal garment. To this is added the making of mittens, gloves and articles of a similar kind. Another branch of the manufacture carried on at St. Paul is that of making fur overcoats. In 1891 the business of three factories at this point amounted to $1,200,000. In making garments fur is never cut with scissors. The marks of the pattern are made with chalk upon the skin-side, and then cut with a sharp knife, not letting it cut quite through at first, and ihe.n pulling the piece apart, thus finishing the cut very delicately so as not to spoil the fur. The use of scissors would cut the fur on the outside in spite of the ut- most precaution. When it is all cut the edges to be sewed are brought together and moistened, and sewed overhand with a waxed cotton thread. Silk cuts the skin. All kinds of fur are cut and sewed in the same way. [See SEALSKIN, HATS.] Fur Beaver. A term applied in recent years to a variety of heavy, napped woolen cloth used exclusively for men's fine overcoats. The cloth is double-woven, with the warp in the center and a weft on each surface, made of extremely soft, fine wool, such as lamb's-wool or merino. The face is finished with a straight flowing nap, not being rolled into tufts as in Chin- chilla, but brushed straight and all lying in one direction. The principal advantage of Fur Beaver is that being woven of extremely fine wool, it produces a light fabric, thus preserving great warmth with very little weight. It has a soft, almost oily feel, similar to beaver fur, and is often finished with a short nap on the back. Furbelow (fur '-be-low). [From/r and below.} A puffed and puck- ered adornment on a dress or petticoat; any elaborate ornament or em- bellishment of a ladies' costume. Fustian (fus'-tyan). [Fromfustat, a suburb of Cario, Egypt, whence the stuff first came.] In present use a stout, twilled cotton fabric, espec- ially that which has a short nap, variously called corduroy, moleskin, beaverteen, thickset, etc., according to the way it is finished. Among the various trades which anciently distinguished Barcelona, Spain, one of the most famous and useful was that of cotton manufacture. These art isans prepared and spun cotton for the numerous stuffs used in those times, GAI COLE'S DICTIONARY OF DRY GOODS. 159 principally for the manufacture of cotton sail cloth, and strong fustians for sailors' breeches for Barcelona was for more than 500 years a station of the Spanish Armadas. These early fustians was then, as now, of cotton, or of cotton weft and linen warp. In the 13th and 14th centuries priests' robes and women's dresses were made of it, there being both cheap and costly varieties. It appears to have been worn where strength and dura- bility were required. Through the invention and adoption of other fabrics its use has gradually been confined to laborers and servants. [See CORDU- ROY, MOLESKIN, BEAVERTEEN, THICKSET.] Fuzz. Fine downy particles, as the loose fibres on the surface of cloth, or separated from it by friction. Gaiter. [From Fr. guetre, a cloth covering for the ankle and upper portion of the foot.] Originally a kind of shoe, consisting partly of cloth, covering the ankle. At present a shoe of similar form made either of leather or cloth, generally with an insertion of elastic on each side. The term is also applied to a covering of cloth for the ankle and lower portion of the leg, spreading out at the bottom over the top of the shoe; also called overgaiter and spatterdash. Galligaskins (gal-i-gas ' -kins). Leather guards worn on the legs by sportsmen and equestrians. Formerly, in the 16th century the term was applied to a fashion of trunk hose, also called gregs, -Venetians and gas- kins. "Every good housewife made the clothes of her husband and family, and even the good frou of Van Twiller himself thought it no disparagement to cut out her husband's linsey-woolsey galligaskins.' 1 '' Irving^ Knickerbocker, p. 175. Galloon (gal-oon'). [From It. gallone, finery,] Originally, worsted lace, especially a closely-woven lace like a narrow ribbon or tape for bind- ing. In modern use a trimming similar to the above, of wool, silk, tinsel, cotton, or a combination of any of these; also, a kind of gold or silver lace with a continuous even edge used on uniforms, liveries and band caps. Galoshes (ga-loshes ' ). [From Sp. galocha, wooden shoe.] A kind of clog or patten worn in the middle ages as a protection against wet, and common, because of the fact that in those days shoes for ordinary wear were made of thin materials, such as cloth, silk and the like. In present use a general term for overshoes and rubbers. Gambroon. A twilled cloth of worsted and cotton or linen and cotton used for summer trousers; also a twilled linen used for linings. Garment. An article of clothing, as a coat, a gown, or a wrap. Garter. An elastic band or other fastening to keep the stocking in place on the leg; more particularly a, band passing around the leg either 160 COLE'S DICTIONARY OF DRY GOODS. GAR above or below the knee. It is not known when garters were first worn. Necessity in this case must have been the mother of invention, and garters are probably of the same date as the hose which they kept up. The ordi- nary woman's garter is a cheap and insignificant article, but for those who can afford them the fine qualities range all the way from silk elastic with oxidized silver clasps at $3 per pair, to those with gold buckles adorned with countless designs and monograms up to silk bands ornamented with clasps of diamonds, sapphires, rubies and even pearls, costing from $150 to $500 a pair. Actresses and favorite dancers in large cities especially affect these luxurious fastenings. According to a common English legend the Order of the Garter originated in 1350 in the following manner: At a court ball in London King Edward's mistress, commonly supposed to be the Countess of Salisbury, allowed her garter to drop upon the floor near the king, who, taking it up, observed some of the knights and courtiers to smile as if they thought he had not obtained this favor merely by accident, upon which the king called out, "Honi soit qui mal y pense." (Shamed be he who evil thinks of it.) This trifling incident divided the king's friends into two factions, finally giving rise to the Order of the Garter, the highest order of knighthood in Great Britain, consisting of a perpetual organization of the reigning king or queen, the prince of Wales and fifty others of the bluest blood among the royalty. Gauntlet. Throughout the 12th and 13th centuries, the metal covering for the hand, attached to the iron armor worn by warriors, was called the "gauntlet." This was at first mitten-shaped, but afterwards separated to contain the fingers, and continued gradually to change until the gauntlet was made of leather with iron pieces sewed on the palms, and detached from the arm covering. The word is derived from Anglo-Saxon gaunttts, signifying in its general sense, a glove; vi\i\te.tgantelet is the present French term for glove. Gauntlets are now distinguished by being a long, stout glove, for use in riding and driving, loosely covering the wrist and lower part of the arm. Gassing. The process by which cloth that is to be finished with a smooth surface, as well as lace and yarns, is run through a gas flame at a speed carefully regulated so that the flame shall burn off the loose fuzz and filaments. [See SINGEING.] Gassing-frame. An apparatus in which yarns are run off from one bobbin to another and carried through gas flames in the operation of "gassing." A stop-motion is used to draw the yarn out of the flame in case it knots and stops, and thus prevents it from burning off. Gauze. [Said to have been named after the place of its origin, Gaza, in Palestine, a city known from ancient days as an important cloth weaving center]. A very thin, transparent fabric made of silk, silk and cotton, or silk and linen. It is either plain, or brocaded in patterns with silk. Al- though gauzes are occasionally made of thread, the name has always in GEN COLE'S DICTIONARY OF DRY GOODS. 161 times past signified a silk fabric. Common gauze is formed by the warp being twisted somewhat like a rope during the operation of weaving, by which the structure of the cloth acquires a resemblence to lace. The texture is always open, flimsy and transparent, but from the turning of the warp it possesses an uncommon degree of strength and tenacity in propor- tion to the quantity of material which it contains. Gauze is dressed or "sized" while held in a stretched condition, the dressing being dexterously and uniformly applied by a series of spraying nozzles, actuated by steam or air jets. The process of drying is carried on in chambers heated to a proper temperature by steam pipes; the final operation consisting in pass- ing the fabric along a network of tapes to the winding of folding appa- ratus. [See EMPRESS GAUZE, GOSSAMER.] Genappe (je-nap'). [From Genappe, Belgium, where first produced.] A worsted yarn which, because of its smoothness, can be conveniently combined with silk, and is thus well adapted for braids, fringes, etc. Germantown Yarn. [From having been first made at Germantown, Pa., which city at present constitutes the 22nd ward of Philadelphia,] A coarse heavy woolen yarn, extensively used for knitting fancy articles, especially heavy scarfs, hoods, mittens and the like. It has been super- seded to some extent in recent years by German Knitting Worsted. German Knitting Worsted. A strong durable yarn made of ''worsted," that is, wool prepared by the combing process. [See WOOL, WORSTED.] Gimp. [From Fr. guipure, to whip round with silk.] A flat trimming made by twisting silk or worsted threads round a silk foundation of wire; more or less open in design; used for borders of curtains and furniture trimmings, ladies' dresses, etc. Gimped Embroidery. A kind of raised "embroidery made with a pad- ding of inferior material which is entirely concealed by the silk or beads whipped round it; similar to passamenterie (which see). Gingham. [A term derived from the town of its early manufacture, Guinghamp, France, in the department of Cotes-du-Nord]. A close, stout, plain (untwilled) cotton cloth, woven into yarn-dyed checks and stripes of two or more colors. It differs from calico in the circumstance that its colors are woven in instead of being printed on the cloth, and from sateen for the same reason and also in not being twilled. In the case of umbrella ginghams the whole piece is woven of yarn of one color. Under the general term of gingham a great variety of materials are manufac- tured, the trade distinction of "gingham" being now to a large extent superseded by other terms. Seersucker gingham was originally a thin linen fabric made in the East Indies, having blue stripes alternating with white ones. Zephyr gingham, as the name indicates, is an extremely soft and pliable variety, woven of fine yarns, and finished devoid of " sizing," frequently found in small checks and plaids. Madras gingham is the name applied to a very superior kind, in which the pattern is made to imitate the 162 COLE'S DICTIONARY OF DRY GOODS. waved lines and simple embroidery work of Madras cloth. Scotch and French ginghams are merely superior qualities of domestic goods. Toile- du-Nord is a French phrase for Cloth of the North. Small, square-checked ginghams are designated as " two-by-two," " four-by-four," etc., which has reference to the size of the checks: the two-by-two having two white threads intersected by two threads of some dark color every alternate time; the four-by-four having four threads of each color, and the six-by-six six threads of a color crossing each other, and so on. Standard ginghams weigh about six and one-quarter yards to the pound, and count from sixty to seventy threads per inch. On leaving the loom ginghams present a very crude appearance. It is in a great measure the finish that lends to a piece of gingham its chief attractiveness. Before finishing, however, the cloth is carefully inspected and any pieces that contain imperfectly woven spots are laid aside and finished separately, to be classed as " seconds." The cloth is then run through a starching machine adjusted so as to supply the amount of starch necessary to produce the required degree of stiffness. This part of the process requires great care as on the degree of stiffness the satisfactory nature of the finish will largely depend. The wetting of the cloth in the starching process has a tendency to shrink the cloth, and to counteract this and to produce an even width throughout each piece, the goods are placed on a tentering machine. This consists of two parallel endless chains trav- eling over a platform several yards in length. Clamps on each chain clasp the edges of the cloth, and by the aid of small pins to prevent its slipping, hold it out to the desired width. If the cloth has been dried after the starching process, it is necessary to steam it while on the tentering ma- chine, so as to moisten the fabric and give it elasticity, but as the cloth travels slowly over the platform it encounters a heated surface and is grad- ually dried, while the chains holding it apart prevent any shrinkage. To produce a glossy surface the cloth is then passed between heated iron rollers, which act in the same manner as the flat-iron in the hands of a laundress. This process is called calendering. Of course, attention must be paid to the amount of calendering the goods receive. If too highly cal- endered the cloth is apt to appear too light and flimsy and if not sufficiently calendered it may appear harsh and rough. The amount of starching and calendering, however, largely depends on the purposes for which the goods may be intended, a specially hard and glossy finish being occasionally called for. When the calendering has been completed each piece of cloth is rolled upod a board by an automatic machine which, by the number of revolutions made, registers the number of yards in the piece. The work of banding and ticketing is then performed and the gingham is ready to be packed in cases for delivery. Girdle. The ancient use of the girdle was to confine to the waist the long flowing garments then worn, and in some countries is still in use,'worn by both men and women. It was once an article of universal wear, and ac- GIR COLE'S DICTIONARY OF DRY GOODS. 163 cordingly varied in richness with the position of the wearer. Some were simple leather bands with one end passed through a hole and fastened round the other; some again were of great width and costly materials, lavishly overlaid with jewelry and precious stones, furnished with a costly ring for the passage of a tie, and the ends long and richly ornamented. The making of girdles, which included sword-belts, became in England a dis- tinct craft. The Girdlers' Company was incorporated in 1499, and in 1568 the Pinners and Wire Drawers were incorporated with them. All kinds of things were carried at the girdle long embroidered pockets, scissors, and keys by women; daggers, poinards, penner and ink-horn, knives or books by men, according to their calling. From the common custom of carrying the purse at the girdle comes the old term "cut purse," and the voluntary sur- render of the girdle became by custom a legal transfer of the effects of a bankrupt to his creditors. "May my girdle break if I fail" was an old say- ing of imprecation against false promises, because the purse hung to it. It was also regarded as a symbol of continence and self-restaint. "The girdle gave the virtue of chaste love And wifehood true, to all that did it bear: But whosoever contrary doth prove, Might not the same about her middle wear, But it would loosen, or else asunder tear." SPENSER. At present the girdle is frequently used in women's dress, and in mili- tary costume, commonly called a hilt or sash. The term is also applied to a belt of tape or ribbon used to keep up the stockings, as a substitute for garters. It is not improbable in the case that tights or pantellas become universally popular that girdles for the use mentioned will cause the garter to fall into desuetude. Glace (gla-sa'). [From Fr. glace, iced, glazed]. In trade a term signi- fying fabrics or articles with a glossy, lustrous finish. Changeable colors or "shot" silks are termed glace silks. Glace gloves are those finished with a luster or polish, in contradistinction to the seude, or soft finished goods. Glass Cloth. A fine linen fabric, usually woven with a slight open pattern of colored threads, like gingham, used originally as a towel for drying fine porcelain, glass, etc., and now employed as a background for embroidery. Glassing. A method of finishing fine kid leather, to produce a per- manent gloss, by rubbing it with a ball of polished plate-glass. Glazing. See CALENDER. Glengarry Cap. [So named from Glengarry, a valley in Scotland]. A Scotch cap of wool, either woven in one piece or cut out of cloth and sewed together. It has erect sides, a hollow or crease at the top, and diminishes in height toward the back, where the band is slit or parted and fitted with a pair of short ribbons, which are usually crossed and permitted to hang down. It is the typical cap of the Scotch Highlander. 164 COLE'S DICTIONARY OF DRY GOODS. GLO Gloria. A fabric the warp of which is silk and the weft either of cotton, wool or mohair. In the process of weaving glorias, the silk is so thrown up that the surface has a soft silken luster, while the fineness of the weft mingled with it gives the fabric a firm and even appearance. Silk- and-cotton glorias are used largely in the manufacture of umbrellas and men's "silk" shirts, as well as for ladies' dresses. Glove. The antiquity of gloves is very great. They have been known and worn from the remote age of the world, and doubtless antedate history, for the earliest literature alludes to them. Gloves were, in 1416, often set with precious stones, and sufficiently valuable to be left as legacies. They have ever been an accessory to the dress of royalty, and ornamented with pearls and precious stones are yet deemed fitting ensigns of imperial dignities. In times past they were so intimately connected with kingly power that monarchs were invested with authority by the delivery of a a glove. At the coronation of English sovereigns the ceremony of chal- lenging by a glove is still observed. When Henry IV was crowned, a knight armed for the wager of battle, threw down his glove to any man who should dare to maintain that King Henry was not a lawful sovereign. Later the King's champion has been accustomed to make this challenge with a glove at each coronation, as was the case at the crowning of Queen Victoria. It was formerly a proverb that for a glove to be good, and well made, three kingdoms must contribute to it. Spain to dress the leather, France to cut it and England to sew it. But of late, in the manufacture of ladies' and gents kid gloves especially, France has appropriated the func- tions of the other two they now having the advantage in point of dressing and sewing, as much as of cutting. The greatest manufacturing center in the world for kid gloves is Grenoble, in the south of France, where many thousand persons are engaged in the factories. This town has become thus famous owing to the especial qualities of the water for the dyeing; and also to its proximity to those countries which produce an abundance of goats. About 1,200,000 dozen pairs, (equal to 28,800,000 single gloves) are made annually at Grenoble, to accomplish which 25,000 persons are employed 4,000 men and 21,000 women and children. Of the skins furnished 95 per cent are said to be kid and 5 per cent, lamb, and 9,600,000 kids are re- quired for the factory at Grenoble every year. The kids are so small that but three gloves can be cut, on an average, from one skin. It is stated that any first-class factory at Grenoble can supply 300 different tints in gloves; and that from the gory fingers of the slaughterer to the more or less dainty fist of the purchaser, the glove passes through something like 200 hands. The process a kid glove undergoes is not only interesting reading, but is necessary knowledge for a salesman. The first thing to do is, of course, to remove the hair from the raw skins as they are received by the factory. For this purpose lime is used, they being immersed from a fort- night three weeks in pits containing water and lime. The skins are ' con- stantly turned and shifted about by workmen armed with long iron tongs GLO COLE'S DICTIONARY OF DRY GOODS. 165 and when taken out it is found that the lime has loosened the cuticle of the skin, thus rendering the removal of the hair a more easy matter. From the lime-pits the skins are taken to the unhairing room, from where they are stretched on a sort of wooden block, and are scraped with a blunt two- handled knife. This removes the hair. They are now taken in hand by the "flesher," who cuts off the tail, the headpiece, and such portions of adipose matter as may still adhere to the skin. This waste is useful for the manufacture of glue and gelatine, for which purpose it is employed. The skins now pass on to the "scudder," who removes any hair that may may have hitherto escaped the knives of the previous operators. They are next left to soak in clear water to remove all traces of the lime, and from thence they are placed in a mixture of warm water and wheat-bran, which not only removes any fleshy impurity from the skins, but also renders them soft and supple. Kid skins are not tanned like ordinary leather, such as is used for making boots and harness, by means of oak-hark, but are immersed in a revolving "drum," which contains a mixture cod%>osedof yolk of eggs, wheaten flour, alum and salt; and so enormous is the con- sumption of the former ingredients that at one factory in France no fewer than 4 000 eggs are needed every day. The skins are allowed to remain in this costly paste for rather more than an hour, the "drum" being kept re- volving by means of machinery. They are next taken out, and removed to the cellars for the night, and from thence are conveyed on the following day to the drying room, where they are subjected to a temperature varying from 140 to 160 degrees. The attendants in this room are clad in a garb similar to that of the peasantry of India, so intense is the heat; but they manage, nevertheless to enjoy good health, and sometimes even to increase in weight. Each skin is hung separately on hooks, and thus they dry very quickly. This process leaves them somewhat hard, and they are next "seasoned" or "sammied" with cold water, and then stretched backwards and forwards over upright knives, shaped like a half-moon. After being wetted again, they are "shaved," a process requiring great dexterity. This is accomplished by means of specially-constructed knives which remove the under-flesh. The skins are now coated with a composition of flour, oil and the yolk of eggs, which renders them soft and pliable. The skin in this operation requires the most careful handling, for it has now become a soft, white membrane, very fine and silky. They are then conveyed to the dye-house, being by this time ready for the preliminary operations of dyeing. Before being dyed the skins are trodden under the soft bare feet of boys for several hours in water. This process throws out of them anything which would be opposed to the action of the dye. Having been rinsed, the skins are now moistered with more yolk of eggs, and are allowed to rest a day before they are dyed by the workmen, who taking a brush dipped in ammonia, spread it over the skins, and then apply several coatings of the dyet. This he softly pats into the grain, adding a touch here and a touch there until the requisite amount is laid on. One secret of the dyer's art i 166 COLE'S DICTIONARY OF DRY GOODS. GLO what constitutes just the right amount of dye to put on, as it must cover the skin and produce a clear color, yet not soak to the inside. The skins which have been tanned and dyed, are now subjected to a process known as "grounding," the object of which is to remove all roughness, and render them thinner and more supple. They are next sorted according to their quality and size, and are passed on to the cutters, who cut them into the several detached pans of gloves. This operation may seem to the un- skilled very easy, but it is not. It requires great judgment, for the work- man has to allow for the natural "stretch" of different parts of the skin. The finished skins having been selected and mapped out by the sorters, and pieced out by the cutters, are put over a frame looking like a deformed or skeleton glove. These frames are so made that they represent the whole glove laid out unsewn. The gloves, with the thumbs duly fitted and put together, are placed in a press, after which they are sent to be punched out by means of machinery. The cuttings left by the punching machine are picked up with scissors by girls who are employed making the four- citettes, or side-pieces of the fingers, which are also cut out by the machine- punch. It is of course necessary that the side-pieces should match ex- actly with the other parts, and for this the most skilled girls are employed to choose them. The seams are sewed together with perfect regularity by placing the edges to be united between the jaws of a vice, the holding edge of which terminates in fine brass saw-teeth, one-twelfth of an inch long, between each of which the needle is passed in successive stitches, by hand, and in this way a neat, uniform stitch is secured. It requires one hour to cut and examine a pair of gloves and one hour to sew them, thus making two hours the length of time necessary for the actual making of a pair of 4-button kid gloves. In France the work of stitching gloves is done chiefly by hand, one firm alone employing 4,500 women and girls for this branch of the work. Machine-stitching, however, is to a small extent utilized in the manufacture of heavy gloves, and can be recognized on ac- count of its always being the regulation "button-hole" stitch. When the sewing is completed, kid gloves are placed in moist linen cloths and beaten, by which they are rendered softer and more flexible, after which they are pressed and ironed. They are then arranged in dozens, and being envel- oped in paper bands, are packed in card-board boxes ready to be des- patched from the factory. Of ordinary kid gloves there are ten different sizes for ladies 6% to 8; fourteen different sizes for gentlemen Q% to 10; for misses the sizes range from 5 % to6^; and for boys, the cadet sizes range from 5> to 7#. These latter have shorter fingers than the corres- ponding numbers in men's sizes. An old French glove-maker aptly asserts that "a perfect glove is as soft as a baby's cheek, finer than silk, and as elastic as rubber." Kid gloves are finished either "glace" or "suede." By glace is meant the bright polished finish which has long been in vogue. Suede, or "undressed" signifies gloves finished by removing the thin, GLO COLE'S DICTIONARY OF DRY GOODS. 167 almost transparent outer layer of the skin, by simply peeling or shaving it off, leaving the glove undressed and lusterless in appearance. The raising of kids for their skins is a leading industry among the French, Spanish and Italian mountaineers. Softness, delicacy of texture and freedom from blemish are the principal factors in the value of kid skins, and to secure these great pains are taken. As soon as the young goat begins to eat grass the value of his skin begins to decline, for with a grass diet his skin becomes harder in texture, and its chief merit vanishes. It is, therefore, from the hour of its birth kept closely penned, not only to prevent it from eating grass, but also to secure the skin from accidental injury from scratches and bruises. When the kids have reached a certain age at which the skins are in the best condition for the use of the glover, they are killed, and the hides sold to travelling hawkers, through whom they reach the great center of the glove industry of France. The superior quality of these French skins, due to climatic causes, is what has given France her supremacy in the manufacture of the finest grades of real kid gloves in the world; a supremacy that will doubtless be long maintained, inasmuch as foreign factories are obliged to rest con- tent with the second and third-rate skins. It will hardly be necessary to inform the reader that the term " kid," as applied to low grades of ladies gloves is a misnomer. If all the animals which contribute their skins to the manufacture of the cheap qualities of kid gloves could be re-incar- nated, it would be the most remarkable menagerie ever exhibited, and few known animals would be missing. Even the water has been searched and an attempt made to use eel skins. Rat skins have been experimented with. Colt skins from Buenas Ayres, sheepskins from the Cape of Good Hope, ox hides from Calcutta, antelope skins from the Rocky Mountains, and Mocha sheepskins from Aden on the Red sea, are perhaps the staples ; but moose, musk ox, llama, kangaroo, monkey, peccary, water hog and many others lose their identity when fashioned into the glove retailed at one dollar per pair. When what is called a "kid glove " feels unusally stout, it may be considered highly probable that it is only an imitation. It must consequently be understood that all good ktd'\s reason- ably thin, extremely elastic, and incomparably finer in texture (grain) than any other leather which can be lain alongside of it. Fabric Gloves are made in cashmere, all-silk, taffeta (silk and linen), lisle and cotton (Berlin). The greater part of fabric gloves are made of a knitted fabric generally about 70 inches wide. The machinery employed in the manufacture is very ingenious, the different parts being put together by machines made for the purpose, similar to the methods adopted for the making of kid gloves. In cutting, a number of folds of the material are placed one upon another and a knife or punch at one cut takes out of the cloth a piece of the shape requirrd, which of course includes the fingers as well as the part which covers the hand. These punches are made of sizes to correspond to the usual glove numbers. These pieces are then put to- 168 COLE'S DICTIONARY OF DRY GOODS. GLO gether and sewn on a machine designed especially for this work. Previous to sewing together, the "points," as the silk strips down the back are called are embroidered in by another kind of machine. The glove is then ready, for the dyer, if it has been made in the white, and after receiving the re- quisite coloring it is sent to the finishers to be dressed, banded, and boxed, after which it is ready for shipment. Gloves made and finished in this manner are what are known in trade as "town-made." There is, however, another mode of manufacturing fabric gloves on a machine similar to that used for producing circular hose, and these are known in trade as "frame- made." Frame gloves, which are seamless, are not very largely used, ex- cept in the best grades of spun silk and lisle. Fabric gloves are now woven with double finger-tips, which consists merely of an extra thread in the cloth that renders the glove three-fold at the tips. It is an English patent, and has been introduced into Germany and the United States. At one time when very cheap skins were used in making so-called kid gloves, the use of fabric gloves fell off somewhat, but as these cheap skins wore very badly and gave poor results, a reversion of sentiment occurred, and at present there is no demand for kid gloves below a certain grade. Ex- perience having proven that fabric gloves can be made much cheaper and look and wear much better, they have crowded them out of the market. Chemnitz, Germany, is the center of the fabric glove manufacture. Amer- ica takes the greatest amount. England once made the greatest number of such gloves, but has been distanced by Germany, on account of the lower price of labor, yet the English silk Milanese gloves still hold pre- eminence as the best made and are principally used for fine trade only. In Germany whole districts are given up to fabric glove making, and it ranks next in point of magnitude to that of hosiery. The industry is an attract- ive employment for women, as it is light, clean work, good pay, and can be taken to the home, thus enabling housekeepers to use their spare time to advantage, often earning as much as the man of the house. The manu- facture of fabric gloves in this country with the exception of silk and taffeta mitts, is not very large. In mitts, the American makers control the market. [See MITTS.] Heavy Gloves, The leather employed by glovers in the manufacture of heavy grades of gloves is mainly prepared from the skins of the sheep, deer, goat and calf. Great progress has been made in recent years in tanning sheep and lamb skins, they being now rendered so elegant and so durable as to be practically indistinguishable from goat leather in looks or wear. Buckskin gloves are prepared from the skins of deer, by the pro- cess of "chamoying." [See LEATHER.] It is the closest grained and con- sequently the strongest and best wearing glove that is made. Its elasticity, though trifling, is sufficient. Plymouth buck, which signifies buckskin which is tanned and colored, originated at Plymouth as did also the pattern of gloves called Plymouth, with seams up the back. Saranac tanned skins originated in Littleton, N. H. Gloves bearing this title GLO COLE'S DICTIONARY OF DRY GOODS. 169 are made of various leathers, buck, goat, calf sheep, mocha, or in fact almost any skin tanned yellow with the grain on, Nappa gloves are made at Nappa, California, from the skins of the mountain goat. Castor gloves have had quite a history. The word indicates the skin of the beaver, but the best French castor gloves were formerly made of thin deer skin, and were soft, durable, and expensive. Latterly shaved sheepskin was used, but the goods were unsatisfactory. These were in turn displaced by American castors, made of antelope skins from our western plains. Mocha castor gloves are made from both mocna leather and lambskin. Mocha is the name of an animal found in a w.ld state in Spain and Egypt. It is a cross-breed between a sheep and a goat. In preparing skins for the manufacture of castor gloves, the grain is first removed, then tanned and dyed in assorted colors, after which they are finished on a swift running emery wheel to make them smooth and velvety. Suede or undressed kid is made from mocha or lamb skins, and tanned on the wrong or flesh side of the skin. Dogskin gloves exist more in name than reality, as they never, except in rare instances, are made of the real canine cuticle. Most driving gloves are advertised, labeled, and sold as dogskin, but they are made of skins that no intelligent dog would ever recognize as belonging to one of his kind. It is impossible to properly tan the skin of a dog and remove the animal grease without producing a dry, ill feeling leather, which is suitable only for the coarsest of cartmen's gloves. This difficulty in dressing has never yet been overcome. Most gloves sent out as dogskin are made from lambskin, though the poorer qualities are shaved sheepskin. Schmaschen is a name that importers use to designate the different imported gloves that are shipped to this country. They are for the most part made of slunk lambskin or Italian lambskin shaved down sufficiently thin to answer for ladies' gloves. They are of inferior quality, being dry and papery, and often break. In the city of Gloversville, New York, there are 140 separate glove factories which manufacture about two thirds of the entire product of men's heavy gloves in the United States. Their annual output amounts to over $20,000,000. Johnstown, New York is the next city of importance in the manufacture of gloves, the amount of business done being $10,- 000,000 annually. Gobelin dress fabric. A kind of large brocade, woven of wool and silk mixed. One of the peculiar features of this material is the peculiar coloring of them, which is always done in faded, delicate shades. The woven-in patterns are technically so perfect as to appear like embroidered work, while the ground of the fabric resembles the well-known Turkish shawl pattern. Multi-colored silk threads in relief closely cover the sur- face, which is intersected by large velvet or moire stripes. [See GOBELIN TAPESTRY]. Gossamer (goz'-a-mer). [A contraction of "Godsummer," a name given by our superstitious ancestry to the fine filmy cobwebs which float in the 170 COLE'S DICTIONARY OF DRY GOODS. GOW air in summer time, so-called because these flying webs were considered as being the shreds and remnants of the Virgin Mary's shroud which she dropped to earth on her ascension to heaven.] A variety of gauze, softer and stronger than the ordinary kind, much used for veils. Also a thin, water-proof outer wrap, worn especially by women. [See GAUZE.] Gown. [From Welsh gwn, signifying that which is stitched,} In a general sense the long habit of a man dedicated to acts of peace, as divinity, medicine, law. Any long upper garment; a woman's long night- garment in particular. Grain. The side of leather from which the hair has been removed, showing the fibrous texture, in contradistinction from the flesh side. Grain Leather. Tanned and dressed horsehides, goatskins, etc., blacked on the grain side, used in the manufacture of coarse boots and shoes. Grass-bleaching. The process of bleaching cotton and linen fabrics by exposing them to the action of sunlight and moisture by spreading on the grass. Grass-bleaching is occasionally used in the clearing process for chintzes, cretonnes, and also for fine sheer linen. [See CROFTING, LINEN.] Grass-cloth. A heavy, buff-colored cotton muslin, used at present for children's underwear. China grass-cloth, a beautiful, fine fabric made from the fiber of an India nettle, is imported to this country in the form of hand- kerchiefs. The Chinese name for grass-cloth is hia pu, summer cloth. It was originally called grass cloth by foreigners at Canton, China, because it was assumed to be made of some sort of grass. Grass-embroidery. A variety made by several tribes of American Indians, the chief material for which is dried grass, or fibrous leaves resem- bling grass. Grass-linen. A fine grass-cloth. Grassing. The exposing of linen cloth in fields to the influence of air, moisture and sunlight for the purpose of bleaching. Grenadine (gren-a-dene ' ). [From French grenadine, wrought silk for making lace.] A dress fabric woven in small square meshes or open work of coarse-like threads, very transparent. It is manufactured of cotton, silk, or wool, and their intermixtures. Grille (gre-lya'). [From French grille, a grating.] In lace, having a background consisting of bars or brides crossing open spaces; also said of the background itself. Grogram (grog '-gram). A coarse fabric formerly in use, made originally of silk and mohair, afterward of silk and wool, and usually stif- fened with gum. [See GROSGRAIN.] Gros (gro). Thick; strong. A textile fabric stronger or heavier jthan others of the same material, GRO COLE'S DICTIONARY OF DRY GOODS. 171 Gros des Indus. A silk fabric having a stripe, more or less broad, either of the same or a different color, woven diagonally across the web. Gros des Naples. A stout, plain-woven silk dress fabric, woven of or- ganzine silk, in the weaving of which great care and labor is bestowed, hence one of the most durable of silk materials. Gros des Tours. A heavy corded black silk, used for mourning pur- poses. Gros-grain (gro' -grain). [From^ray, thick, and grain, grain, showing conclusively the origin of the word and the manner of fabrics they should be]. A firm, close-woven, fine-corded or grained dress silk, finished with but a slight lustre. The earliest grosgrain fabrics were woven with a silk warp and a mohair weft, and were very coarse. These were known at dif- ferent times under the terms " grogram " and " silk mohair." [See SILK.] Guernsey (gern'-sy). [Named from having been first worn by the sailors inhabiting the island of Guernsey, in the English Channel]. A close- fitting, knitted woolen shirt, worn by seamen, sometimes called a guernsey- frock; similar to a cardigan jacket or jersey, except that it is a heavier and longer garment. Guipure (ge-pure'). A French word signifying vellum lace. "Vellum" means " parchment," and parchment is sheep-skin, tanned and bleached white fit for writing or printing on. " Cartisane " is another French word signifying a long thin strip of parchment or vellum rolled round and com- pletely covered with twisted silk. To produce Guipure lace, the old French lace-makers first formed the outlines of the intended pattern of these car- tisanes, they being held together at various points by stitches called "brides " or "bars," worked with the needle. These minute cords or car- tisanes were either arranged so as to touch one another, and be sewed to- gether often enough for solidity, or were attached in the form of a figure by the "brides." In later use the term guipure is applied to lace made in imitation of the ancient guipure, hence to any lace having no ground or mesh, but maintained by brides only; in this sense used very loosely. Cluny guipure siginifies modern lace or passamenterie, imitating that of the 16th century, having a formal and even geometrical design and usually of rather large pattern. The term is applied to such work whether hand- made or machine-made. [See LACE.] Gunny. A strong and extremely coarse cloth manufactured chiefly in Bengal from jute, but to some extent in Madras and Bombay from sunn- hemp. It is also extensively manufactured in Dundee, Scotland. It is used for clothing by many poor people, but principally for bagging and the wrapping of large packages, as cotton bales, for which use large quantities are exported to the United States. In lower Bengal the manu- facture of this bagging is the great domestic industry of those ver-popu- lous districts. It pervades all classes, and gives occupation to men, 172 COLE'S DICTIONARY OF DRY GOODS. GUN women and children. Boatmen employ themselves weaving it in their spare moments, as also do farmers, carriers, and even domestic ser- vants. It forms the never failing resource and occupation of that most humble, patient and despised of created beings, the Hindoo widow, saved by English law from sacrifice, but condemned by native opinion and cus- tom for the remainder of her days to sack-cloth and ashes, to the lowest domestic drudgery in the very household where once, perhaps, her will was law. Of recent years, however, large quantities of jute have been annually purchased by English and American companies, and shipped to Dundee, Scotland, and to the United States, where it is woven into gunny bagging. In this country it is made in several different qualities, and used for sugar, coffee, and rice sacks, burlaps, furniture wrapping, backing for floor oil cloths, and, most important of all, for wrapping the bales of cotton in' the south. As each bale requires seven yards of gunny cloth, and the annual production of cotton in this country being between seven and eight million bales, the consumption of gunny for this purpose is very great. [See JUTE.] Gutta-percha. [From Malay gutta, gum, and percha, the island from whence it was first obtained. The island is now known as Sumatra]. The juice of an evergreen tree common in the jungles of the Malay peninsula and archipelago. It is a yellowish, inodorous and tasteless substance, nearly inelastic; at ordinary temperature hard, tough and somewhat horny, and flexible only in thin plates. At 130 degress F., it is sufficiently soft to be rolled into plates, and it becomes very soft at the temperature of boiling water. Gutta-percha is used principally for insulating electric wires, in the manufacture of hose, belting, combs and other flexible goods; also as a substitute for leather, for splints and various surgical instruments. It was first introduced into the civilized world in 1842, by Dr. Montgomery, a Scotch surgeon. Gypsy Cloth. A heavy-napped cotton cloth, used in the manufacture of negligee shirts, tennis and boating costumes, etc. [See FLANNELETTE, DOMET, OUTING.] Habberdasher. [A term which meant originally "peddlers' wares," or the contents of a peddler's bag; derived from German Habtihr das, "Have you this?" a phrase which peddlers formerly used when offering their wares for sale.] A dealer in small wares; specifically a dealer in small articles of dress, as neckties, collars, ribbons, trimmings, thread, pins, needles, etc.; also a dealer in hats. In the north of England habberdasher means a schoolmaster. The word is sometimes used in this country to describe a dealer in hats, caps and furnishing goods, for men. HAB COLE'S DICTIONARY OF DRY GOODS. 173 Habiliment. A garment; clothing; dress; vestment. Usually in the plural: as, fashionable habiliments. Habit. External dress; particularly, the costume or dress regularly worn, or appropriate for a particular occassion, use, or vocation. Also, a costume worn by women when riding on horseback. This, until about 1870, had a very long full skirt of cloth, which it was customary to pin or other- wise fasten below the feet of the wearer when mounted. The habit used at present is much shorter, and close-fitting, consisting of a skirt, waist and cap. The edge or hem of the skirt is somtimes weighted to keep it in position. Hair Cloth. A fabric woven of the hair of horses' tails, used for sofa coverings, seatings, etc., and for stiffening of ladies' dresses. The hair used in this manufacture (which composes only the weft) is procured from South America and Russia. All the black and gray hair is dyed a deep lustrous black for the making of black hair cloth for covering furniture, while the light is reserved for dyeing the brighter hues, such as green, claret, crimson, etc. According to the length of the hair, so can this cloth be made in widths varying from 14 to 40 inches. The quality, as well as the brilliancy and permanency of the colors depend in a great degree on the nature of the warp, which may be either cotton, linen or worsted. In the manufacture of either plain or damasked cloth, the weaver uses a sort of hooked shuttle which he passes between the threads of the warp toward the left hand; the assistant, or server, places a single hair over the end of the hook, and the weaver draws it through the warp. The placing of the hairs one by one renders this a tedious operation, and one that does not admit of the application of machinery, which is so advantageous where the weft consists of a continuous thread. An imitation of hair cloth is made by the use of hard-twisted and highly gummed and polished cotton threads. [See SACK CLOTH.] Hair Manufacture. The various uses to which hair of different sorts is applied are familiar to every one. To prepare the curled hair for stuff- ing cushions, pillows and mattresses, short horse hair is carded between "teeth" or combs, beaten in a heap with a cane; curled and twisted round a cylinder of wood in cold water, then boiled and heated in an oven. It is then opened by partial uncurling in an opposite direction, and towzled or picked into curling pieces, by which operations they acquire a remarkable springy quality. Short white horse hair from the mane and tail, is used for brushes. Hair of medium length is spun into clothes-lines and woven into filtering bags. Long white horsehairs are used for violin bows and fish- ing lines. At some of the industrial exhibitions there have been displayed, from Russia, bowls, dishes and plates made of hare and rabbit hair, felted into a tough layer and varnished; they possess something of the appearance of papiermache. For various purposes in arts, the hair of the camel, badger, sable, hog, cow, dog and other animals is used. But by far the 174 COLE'S DICTIONARY OF DRY GOODS. HAl most valuable kind is human hair. The making of wigs, perukes, beards, whiskers, switches, moustaches, eyebrows, chignons, bangs, etc., constitutes a trade in itself, in which many ingenious processes are involved. The best false hair comes from France, where it is sold by the gramme at prices which vary according to quality and color. The most expensive false hair is the silver white variety, which is in great demand and very difficult to find. This is due to the fact that men grow bald, in a majority of cases before their hair reaches the silver-white stage, and women, whether bald or not, are not disposed to sell their white hair at any price. They need it themselves. Still, women growing bald must have white hair to match the scant allowance advancing age has left them. The chemists have taken the matter in hand and are able to produce, by decoloration of hair of any color, a tolerable grade of white hair, which however, has a bluish tint not at all approaching in beauty the silvery softness of hair which has been bleached by nature. False hair of the ordinary shades is obtained in two ways. The better and more expensive kind is cut directly from the heads of peasant women, who sell their silken tresses sometimes for a mere song and sometimes for a fair price, according as they have learned wisdom. Every year the whole territory of France is traveled over by men whose business it is to persuade village maidens, their mothers, and their aunts to part with their hair for financial considerations. These men are known as "cutters," and there are at least five hundred of them in the country always going from house to house, from farm to farm, and through all the villages in all the departments, seeking subjects for their scissors. A good cutter averages from two to five heads of hair a day, and he pays from 40 cents to $2 for each. It is estimated that a single head of luxuriant growth weighs about a pound. The false hair thus ob- tained at the cost of the tears and regrets of many foolish maidens is the finest in the market, and sells for an exaggerated price, which puts it beyond the reach of the ordinary purchaser. Besides, it is evident that the supply of genuine "cuttings" must fall far short ot the demand for false hair. So the major portion of this wavy merchandise is obtained from the rag-pickers. These busy searchers of ash heaps and garbage barrels collect every day in the cities of Paris and London alone at least a hundred pounds of hair which some hundreds of thousands of women have combed out of their heads during the preceding twenty-four hours. This hair, all mixed to- gether and soiled, one would think beyond redemption, is sold to hair cleaners at from $1 to $1.50 a pound. The cleaning of this refuse hair is an operation which requires careful attention. After the hair has been freed from the dust and dirt and mud it is rubbed in fine sawdust until it shines once more with its pristine gloss, and then the process of sorting is begun. In the first place, skillful hands fix the individual hairs in frames with the roots all pointing the same way, and then they are arranged ac- cording to color. Finally, when a sufficient number of one color have been obtained (nor is this number so immense as is commonly supposed) they HAi COLJE'S DICTIONARY OF DRY GOODS. 175 are made into the beautiful braids which are shown so seductively in the the window of fashionable coiffeurs. It is said that the "cutters" of France have plied their trade so industriously that at present it is hardly possi- ble in the whole republic to find a woman who will sell her hair. The busi- ness has been done to death, and now the enterprising dealers in false hair are sending their representatives through Switzerland, Belgium and Nor- way convassing for unsophisticated lassies who will be robbed of their hair for a few pieces of silver. Hair-pin . A wire pin used to support braids and plaits of hair, or maintain the head-dress, of whatever description, in its proper position. The simplest kind is made of wire bent in the form of a letter U, but hair- pins are made also of ivory, bone, tortoise-shell, wood and metal, and of various shapes, often with ornamented heads or tops. It is a feminine asser- tion that a women can do more with a hair-pin than a man man can do with any one instrument in existence. She takes it to button her shoes, to crimp her hair, to fasten her hat on. To button her gloves, to pin her veil, to manicure her nails; and, sometimes, to pick her teeth. To clean her comb, and to cut the pasted label on her powder-box. She can use it as a paper- knife, or a book-mark; to open a letter, or draw a device upon a seal. If she twists the ends, it becomes a tape-needle, or a safety-pin, or a key-ring. With it she supplies many of the missing intricacies of buckles, suspenders and supporters, and repairs any damaged domestic article requiring a few inches of wire and a little feminine ingenuity. Ever ready to her hand, whether she uses it to pick her trunk-lock, or to trim the lamp-wick, to mend her bracelet or her bustle, she handles it with a dexterous grace and a confident skill, born of inherited knowledge and educated by long prac- ticed use. Hair Net. A silk net, confined to an oval shape by rubber cord, used by women to keep up the back hair. Nets were once known as " cauls," and have been used in various forms from the earliest times. "Crespine," in the 16th century denoted a hair net made of crape, and at present in France ordinary silk nets are called "crespinettes." Hammer Cloth. [A corruption of hamper cloth.] In early English days when coaches were first introduced, frugal Englishmen who lived in the country used to load their carriages with provisions for the family when they came to London. The wooden box which held the provisions was called a hamper, and thus, covered with a cloth, was a convenient seat for coachman. Hammer cloth is, therefore, a corruption of hamper cloth. At present it is the cloth which covers the driver's seat in some kinds of car- riages, usually falling in pleats on all four sides. Hammock. [From Sp. hamaca, a kind of hanging bed or mat. Colum- bus, in the narrative of his first voyage, says: "A great many Indians in ca- noes came to the ship to-day for the purpose of bartering their cotton, and hamacas or nets in which they sleep.] Hammocks used at sea, especially in men-of-war, are made of canvas, and have a number of cords at each end 176 COLE'S DICTIONARY OF DRY GOODS. HAN called clues, which are brought together and secured to an iron ring, which is hung on a hook attached to the deck beams. Those used in tropical parts of America and in the North in the summer time are made of hemp or Pan- ama grass. Hammocks may be made water-proof by immersing in boiling linseed oil, and leaving them in it a day or two. When taken out the su- perfluous oil should be rubbed off with a cloth, and allowed to dry. They will then not become rotted by the action of the weather. Handkerchief. The most ancient handkerchief was merely a bit of silk tissue, first used centuries ago by priests at the altar. For many years, indeed, priests were the only persons in the European world allowed the privilege of using handkerchiefs at all, and they used them only at the altar for the sake of propriety. It was then called a " facial," and was left with the other vestments of worship when the service was done. Presently the grand ladies of the Court began to provide them- selves with similar squares of silk, and " maids and gentlewoman gave to their favorites, as .tokens of their love, little handkerchiefs of about three or four inches square, and the gentlemen wore them in their hats as favors of their mistresses." The next step was to embroider the edge of these squares. The Empress Josephine was lovely, but her teeth were not perfect, and in order to conceal them she used a small lace handkerchief, which she raised constantly to her lips. The ladies at the French Court at once adopted the fashion and handkerchiefs came into general use. Soon their convenience recommended them so highly that all the ladies and gentlemen connected with the various European courts adopted their use. The fashion thus introduced by royalty was soon taken up by the under ranks, till to-day the handkerchief is an indispensable article of apparel. In the line of handkerchiefs, all plain white hemstitched linen goods are denominated " staples," and the demand for them varies but slightly from one year to another. "Finish" is everything to a linen handkerchief, and upon it, more than anything else depends the price which the goods will bring. The raw material may be of the very best quality, but if it does not possess the requisite finish, the chances of it find- ing favor are very small indeed. The best grades come from Belfast, Ireland. Large quantities of swiss handkerchiefs, embroidered and otherwise worked on machines are annually imported from St. Gall, Switzerland. These swiss goods, most of which are -cotton, can not be compared to the Irish linen goods, which are embellished by hand, in point of quality. The fineness of quality of a cotton handkerchief can not go beyond a fixed limit, as above a certain grade the " union " article (made of a mixture of cotton and linen), or the cheaper grade of linen handkerchiefs bars its progress. No matter how fine a cotton handkerchief may be, it can not be compared to a linen one. The cotton article loses its finish on being washed, and becomes harsh and unpleasant to the touch; it loses its color, becoming yellowish and soiled looking. Yet owing to its cheapness it will always be in demand by a certain class of trade, both in the printed and HAN COLE'S DICTIONARY OF DRY GOODS. 177 the woven effects. Printed handkerchiefs are for the most part produced in this country. Handkerchief-printing involves a great deal of labor and outlay, some mills having at one time as many as 60,000 engraved designs, some for a single color, and some for two or more. The finest of these are made on wooden blocks to be printed flat, and those blocks are always preserved so that they can be reproduced at any time. The bulk of the cheaper designs are engraved on copper rollers. From each of these rollers a " first edition," so to speak, is printed, generally about 1,000 dozen. If the pattern shows immediate popularity the roller is preserved; if not, the design is turned off in the lathe, leaving a smooth surface for the next engraving. Silk handkerchiefs are chiefly imported from China and Japan, either finished or " in the piece," that is, not separated or hemmed. Handkerchiefs of whatever material composed, are usually square, or nearly so. A " size " is one inch, the number being denoted by the inches across the web, ranging from 12 to 27. [See BANDANNA, BLOCK PRINTING, CALICO, EMBROIDERY. For linen and cotton tests see LINEN.] Hank. A skein or coil of yarn or thread. More particularly a defi- nite length of yarn, of cotton, linen, silk or wool. A hank of cotton is 840 yards. A hank of linen is 3,000 yards. Silk is not coiled and numbered on the principle of cotton and linen. The fineness of silk yarn is determined by constant length with variable weight, whereas, other yarns are indicated by constant weight with variable length. The original standard length of silk was 12,467 yards, six inches, the numbers being the weight in deniers of twenty-six grains. The number is ascertained by the weight of 12,467 yards and six inches, in grains 1-24 of a denier of a hank containing 520 yards, twenty inches. Spun silk is numbered on a different principle. It is determined by the cotton standard, the number of skeins of 840 yards each to the pound, making a hank. Woolen and worsted yarns are also numbered in the same manner. Haslock (haz'-lok). The lock of wool that grows on the halse or throat of a sheep; hence the finest quality of wool. Also called hassock. Hassock. [From hassock, a bushy bunch of grass.] A thick hard cushion used as a foot stool. Hat-block. The block or mold on which a hat is shaped. It consists several pieces of wood or metal fastened together, preserving the general outline of the crown of a hat. Hat-body. The unshaped or partly shaped piece of felt from which a hat is to be formed. Hats and Caps. There is but little relating to hat-making recorded in history, although their partial use may be traced back to the time of ancient Greece, probably as early as the age of Homer, when they were worn, al- though only by the better class of citizens when on a distant journey. The same custom prevailed among the Athenians, as is evident from some of 178 COLE'S DICTIONARY OF DRY GOODS. HAT the equestrian figures in the Elgin Marbles. The Romans used a bonnet or cap at their sacrifices and festivals, but on a journey the hat with a brim was adopted. In the middle ages the bonnet or cap with a front was in use among the laity, while the ecclesiastics wore hoods, or cowls. Pope Inno- cent, in the 13th century, allowed the cardinals the use ot scarlet hats, and about the year 1440 the use of hats by persons on ajourney appears to have been introduced into France, and soon after became common in that country, whence probably it spread to other European nations. Hatters at the present day ascribe the honor of the invention of felting, and of its prospec- tive introduction to that of hat-making, to the old renouned monk St. Clement, who, when marching at the head of his pilgrim army obtained some sheep's wool to put between the soles of his feet and the sandals that he wore, which of course became matted into a solid piece. The monk, philosophizing upon this circumstance, promulgated the idea of its future usefulness, and thus it is said arose the systematic art of felting and hat- making. [See FELTING.] The first authentic accounts of regular hatters appeared in the Middle Ages in Nuremberg in 1360, in France in 1380, in Bavaria in 1401 and in London in 1510. The hatting trade of the United States is noticed first in the representations made by the London Board of Trade to the House of Commons in the year 1732, in which they refer to the complaints of the London hatters, regarding the extent to which their par- ticular manufacture was being carried on at that time in New York and the New England States. A look at the fashions and styles of hats of ancient times is interesting as well as amusing. So capricious is the the fancy of man that nothing is immutable, all is change, and hats have been of all conceivable shapes and colors, and dressed with the most fanci- ful decorations, plumes, jewels, silk loops, rosettes, badges, gold and silver bands, etc. The crowns and brims have been of all possible styles from the earliest period. It would appear that nothing is left for the present and all coming time, but the revival of what has already been, even to the fantastical peaked crown that rose half a yard above the wearer's head. In the 15th century hats in Great Britain were called vanities, and cost twenty, thirty, and forty English shillings apiece, which were large sums of money at that early period. The most extreme broad brims were worn about the year 1700, shortly after which the three-cornered cocked hat came in. It is a singular historical fact that for a thousand years every distinct hat style has endured an even century with one exception. The elegant soft hat of the Spaniard has remained the same from the earliest period to the present day, while among all other nations a transformation in the style of hats has taken place every one hundred years. Comfort in the wear seems to have given place at all times to fancy and the demands of Fashion. On the 23d of each November occurs the hatters' annual fes- tival, that being St. Clements day, the patron saint of the trade, and is celebrated in an appropriate manner in Europe and America by all 'manu- facturers. HAT COLE S DICTIONARY OF DRY GOODS. 179 Hat making was long considered a business to which machinery never could be applied, but the inventors have dispelled this illusion, and ma- chinery is now employed in all the most important departments of the manufacture. The reason this idea obtained such general credence was, first, on account of the close attention necessary while the hat is under the operation of sizing; second, the known impossibility of napping or ruffing a hat by -any means of machinery; also the acknowledged failures in several attempts to substitute carding for that of bowing, and various futile attempts with the irons in the finishing and shaping departments. The in- novations of machinery, however, have now obtained a sure footing in all large factories. In the United States the largest centre of hat manufactur- ing is at Danbury, Conn., where there are made of all sorts about 6,000,000 a year. This city makes two-thirds of all the fur hats worn in the United States, and has nearly as many hatters as all the other cities in the country combined. Some hats, most of them for women and children, are made of wool, which is cheaper, but does not wear so well as fur. But by far the larger number of men's stiff and soft hats are made of fur. The best fur for this use is that of the nutria, a South American water animal, something like the beaver, but not so large. The steadily growing demand for nutria fur for other purposes has raised the price of it so much that it is now used only in the finest grade of hats. Next to the nutria the most expensive fur that hatters use is that of the Russian and German hare and musk-rat; then comes the fur of the coney. Saxony and merino wool are used for fine wool hats. For the past few years the current prices of hatters' furs have undergone rapid changes. The following table gives the compara- tive values of the different descriptions for a series of years. Numerous as are these various names, most of the animals mentioned produce five or six different qualities of the fur from particular parts of the same skin, which vary greatly in price and value. 1886 1887. 1891. Av'ge for 15 years. Triple King ) . $225 $3 37 l / a $450 $3 60 Double King) 2 65 3 40 2 75 3 16 IH hare.... 2 10 3 00 2 45 2 76'^ O1H hare 180 2 55 2 15 229 BHB 2 20 3 00 2 65 2 80 HB ... 1 87 2 40 2 10 2 19 Blue Sides 1 15 1 75 1 3754 1 66 Hare Bellies 57 95 85 1 09 Hair Tails.... 85 60 45 60 BCB X Scotch 1 75 2 80 1 95 2 14 BCBX : 1 55 2 20 1 85 2 04'/4 1 32'/j 2 05 1 65 184 BCB Raw 160 2 20 1 85 2 04 BCB, Unplucked 1 35 1 70 1 30 1 54 CB do 80 ' 140 100 1 25V4 Coney Sides, Scotch 85 1 85 1 15 183 Coney Tails, English 47 65 45 65 BCB, White 1 10 1 60 1 40 1 55 BCB Fawn 1 25 1 80 1 50 1 59 BCB, Black 1 20 1 60 1 50 1 47 Garrenne Coney 175 215 180 198 180 COLE'S DICTIONARY OF DRY GOODS. riAT 1886. 1887. 1891. Av'ge for 15 years. Extra Coney 1 20 92 85 60 80 55 30 25 95 85 1 05 1 10 2 00 1 15 45 70 55 45 25 20 50 20 35 1 90 1 55 1 40 1 15 1 10 1 00 55 40 1 40 1 50 1 50 1 45 190 1 60 60 85 75 65 85 25 75 25 65 1 45 1 15 1 15 90 87 H "42 27 1 10 1 20 1 15 1 10 275 2 25 1 00 1 05 85 90 17 25 85 30 45 1 77 1 46 1 33 1 09 1 00 97 49 36 1 24 1 52 1 51 1 38 2 14 1 68 90 1 05 88 60 31 27 68 34 No. 1 Coney Mottled Unpulled""" Coney Sides Moyen Coney Coney Tails, French Coney Creek.... Black Coney White Coney Fawn coney :::::::.:::" ARE Belly Muskrat.... Natural Muskrat.... Colored Mnakxat Colored Seal SPT White Coney Kettle Roundings Dark Koundings Coney Waste Brown Coney Extra.. PC Coney Coney Cheek, English.. The skin is cut from the fur by a machine with revolving knives, which cut it off in shreds. The fur is left full length, and as it rolls away from the knives it preserves the general outline of the skin. The fleeces of fur are folded and packed, a number together, in small sacks or bundles. For- merly the greater part of the fur used here was imported already cut, but we are now competing with foreign countries in fur-cutting, and about half the fur used in this country is at present cut in New York, Brooklyn and Connecticut. In making hats different kinds of fur are mixed well together. Various hat manufacturers have various mixtures which they keep to them- selves; each strives to attain the best results in finish and durability with great economy. In the process of making a felted fur hat, the bundles of fur are first opened, and the fur in the combination and proportions deemed best for the kinds of hats to be made is laid in a big mixing box. Thence the fur is put into a simple machine in which it is still further mixed. Then it goes to the " picker room" where it is "blown." In this operation the fur is freed trom bits of skin, hair and other foreign substance. A minute frag- ment of skin on the surface of a hat would damage it. The fur goes in at one end between iron rollers to a picker, which makes 2,400 revolutions to a minute. The picker is a small horizontal cylinder with short wire teeth. There is a series of rollers and pickers interspersed with blowing chambers. The pickers straighten out the fibers of the fur, which drop on a sieve. The hair, bits of skin and soon, including sometimes coarser bits of fur, drop through. From the picker the fur goes into a blowing chamber. Here it floats about softly, in appearance not unlike a drab foam, and is still more thoroughly mixed. It goes on through a series of rollers and pickers and blow chambers, and comes out at the farther end of the machine a sheet of fur uniform in color and appearance, something like drab cotton HAT COLE'S DICTIONARY OF DRY GOODS. 181 wadding, except that there is no glaze on the surface. It holds together, but is easily pulled apart with the hands. The fur now goes to the forming room where the hat bodies are made. It is weighed out according to grade used, and the size of the hat to be made. From three to five ounces is the usual amount of fur used in a hat. The weighing is done with accuracy, the weights varying by fractions as small as the sixteenth of an ounce. The process in use for centuries by our forefathers of forming a hat body, was by "bowing" by hand. [See BOWING.] This has been entirely superseded by the "forming" machine. At one end of the forming machine is an apron upon which the fur is spread to be fed into the machine; at the other end is the trunk, which is the part in which the hat body is formed. The trunk looks like a tall, substantially-built water pail, with a fixed, rounded cover. It is about 7 feet in height, about 2 feet in diameter at the bottom, flaring to 3}^ feet at the top. In the front of the trunk there are two small doors which open all the way up and down, affording the freest access to the interior. At the bottom of the trunk and in its center is a lit- tle turn-table which turns round about 75 times a minute. Underneath is an apparatus which produces in the trunk a constant and uniform draft downward. A hollow cone, made of perforated sheet-copper with the top rounded, is set on the turn-table. The perforations are as thick as the holes of a pepper box. When the doors of the trunk are closed the draft draws the air through the perforations of the cone. The apron is a flat table about 2> feet square, attached to the trunk. The workman takes a portion of fur and spreads it upon the apron and feeds it evenly into the machine. It goes through picker and brush. The picker makes 5,000 revolutions a minute. It picks the fur and throws it in separate hairs to a blower, running at a high speed, which blows it in at the top of the trunk, where it floats like a shower of haze or fur. Then the draught is turned on from the bottom and draws the floating fur down to the cone. It does not go through the perforations, but it completely covers the outside of the cone and clings to it, held by the draught. By means of simple dampers the draught may be so regulated as to make the fur light upon the cone where it is most wanted. For most hats greater thickness of fur is required in the brim. The fur can be drawn to the cone and held to it in a deposit that is thin on top and increasing in thickness down the sides to the base all round. While the draft is on, it is difficult to pull any of this fur away; if the draft is stopped, it is easy to pick it off with the fingers. It takes but a minute or so for all the fur to settle on the cone. The workman then opens the door of the trunk and throws over the cone a wet cloth which completely envelops it. Over the cloth he places a cone-shaped tin cover like an extinguisher. The two cones (the perforated one placed originally on the turn-table and the tin one placed over the wet cloth), with the fur and cloth between, are taken from the turn-table and put in a tub of water. They are allowed to remain in the water a few minutes, when 182 COLE'S DICTIONARY OF DRY GOODS. HAT they are lifted to a table, where the tin cover and cloth are taken off. The hat body has already begun to shrink. It starts to roll off of itself. It is quickly removed from the original cone, straightened out and skillfully folded, wet and limp. Next the hat body is taken to the hardening room, where it is examined. It is at this stage about 2 l / 2 feet tall, and without the sign of a brim. When it has been examined it is rolled up. The rolling makes the fur stick together, and the body goes on shrinking. Then it goes to the sizing room, where the hats are felted. Five hat bodies are laid together and made up in a roll. The roll is dipped in a tub of hot water, and then rolled up in linen canvas, dipped into water again and laid on the lower rollers of the sizing machine just over the top. The sizing machine has 3 revolving wooden rollers, two side by side, and one a few inches above. The hat bodies are rolled between them and pressed gently, at first by the lower rollers only. The hot water, the motion, and the gentle pressures make the bodies shrink and felt. They are unrolled and again folded and dipped, and rolled up. After going through three machines in this manner, they get to one whose top roller is so adjusted as to help in the pressing and rolling. The hat bodies are shrunk to proper sizes and proportions, all the manipulations requiring care and skill. The hat body, folded flat, now measures about 10}^ inches from the center ot the crown to the edge of the brim; standing like a cone; the diam- eter of the base is about 10^ inches. In the next operation the hat body is laid on a table, and with one sweep around the rim with a sharp knife the edge is made uniform and smooth. The hat is then dryed and shaved. In felting the hat body the hairs that may remain in the fur works to the surface. The hat body is put on a turning machine, and the outside is shaved smooth by knives that work something like the cutters of a lawn- mower. The hat thus far followed is to be a stiff hat, and it goes next to the stiffening room where the brim is to be dipped into shellac. This is done by hand very quickly and with great accurracy. Then it is passed up between rollers which squeeze it and leave in the brim just the needed quantity of shellac. The crown stiffening is applied on the inner side with a brush, by hand. Then the hat goes into the steam-box. The steam drives in the shellac, and the hat is put in a weak acid to "set" the stiffening. Next the hat goes to the blocking room. It is placed on a " star," which is a frame of curved ribs radiating outward and downward, the general out- line being something like that of the crown of a hat. Over the star is its counterpart, the tip machine, which is movable up or down, and works the upper part of the hat body into shape, being heated. The next star is larger and on this the crown is brought nearer into shape. Then the hat goes to machines which stretch and shape the brim. The hat looks now something like a soft crush hat that has been stiffened. It is put into a vat of dye to be colored, and from there it goes to the blocking machine. After a hot bath it is put on a form. A shaper which has a lever attached is HAT COLE'S DICTIONARY OF DRY GOODS. 183 brought down over the hat. It flattens the brim and shapes the crown for the last time, except on the top. After removing the shaper the hat is cooled with a stream of cold water and is put on a whizzer, which revolves it rapidly and expels most of the water from it. Then it goes to the drying room, and the next day to the squaring-up room, where the hats are assorted by sizes and squared up with shellac inside. They are then ready for the finishing room. The hat, whether soft or stiff, is put on a block and sponged, ironed, brushed, sand-papered and singed. Here the crown is brought into final shape at the top. The brim is finished as to its surface, but is still left perfectly flat. The finer hats are finished by hand, and the coarser one by machine. The ironing of a machine-finished hat is done by an iron attached to a movable arm, and heated by gas fed into it by flexible rubber tubes. As the hat turns on a block the iron adjusts itself with great accuracy, finishing its work at the centre of the crown and then dropping away. The hat then goes to the rounding machine, which cuts off the edge of the still flat brim and leaves it just the desired dimensions. The edge of the brim is stiffened with a preparation of shellac cut with alcohol, and the hat goes to the curling room. It is placed, brim downward, on a form which revolves slowly on an upright axis. Two little steel arms, one on each side, turn the edge of the brim over, and two irons, one on each side iron it down as the hat goes around. Then the hat is put in a round curl- ing machine which curls the edge of the brim and gives it a little dip at the ends. The edge is planed smooth by a machine in the shaping-room. It is then laid on an iron table heated by steam. This heat makes the hat pliable. The brims of the finer hats are brought into a final shape by hand; others are placed, crown downward, on shaped "forms" that support the brim. Suspended over each of these forms, covering the brim, is a bag of sand. When the bag is dropped it shapes the brim to the form. An endless wire of exactly the right size and shaped to follow the curves of the brim, is inserted under the turned-over edge. Then the hats are sent to the trimming room. The work here is all done by women. The edges are bound, the crown lined, and a split sheep-skin sweat-band attached. They now are inspected carefully and brushed by a machine, after which they are ready to be packed in cases containing from three to six dozen. In the manufacture of soft hats the process is the same as stiff hats up to the final shrinking of the bodies, which are shrunk with a view to the style and dimensions of the hat to be produced. After the shrinking, the processes vary in some minor details, but they are in their main features substantially alike. All felted fur hats, of whatever texture, nature, or name, must have undergone the above described operations. The process of manufacturing wool hats is but slightly different. The "body" of wool hats is prepared by first carding the wool. On being delivered from the carding-machine, the wool "slivers" are wound around a conical block of wood, which revolves slowly with a reciprocating motion, so that there is a continual crossing and recrossing of the wool as it is wound round the 184 COLE'S DICTIONARY OF DRY GOODS. HAT block. This diagonal winding is an essential feature of a wool hat, as thereby the strength is made equal in every direction. When this mat has been wound around the block to the required thickness, it is placed on a perforated iron plate through which steam is blown. When well moistened and heated, the mats are placed between boards and subjected to a hard rubbing, to enable them to bear the subsequent strong felting opera- tions. The felting is accomplished by machinery, and in some cases a form of felting mill is used, but in all cases, heat, moisture, pressure, rub- bing and turning are the agencies for felting a wool hat. Next follows blocking and shaping, as in the case of fur hats. Merino, Saxony and lamb's wool are the varieties used in the manufacture of wool hats. No cotton, or other vegetable fibre is used in hat-making, as these are entirely devoid of felting qualities. [See FELTING.] Silk Hats consist of a light stiff "body" covered with a plush of silk; the manufacture of the latter in a brilliant, glossy condition being the most important part of the industry. Originally the "bodies" were made of felt and cork, but at present calico is the material almost exclusively used. The calico is first stiffened with a varnish of shellac, and then cut into three pieces sufficient for crown, side and brim. The side-piece is wound round a wooden hat block and its edges joined by hot ironing; the crown- piece being put on in a similar manner and attached at the top. The brim, consisting of three thicknesses of the sized calico cemented together, is now slipped over and brought into its position, and thereafter a second side-piece and another crown are cemented on. The whole body now re- ceives a coat of size, and subsequently is varnished over; then it is ready for the operation of covering. In covering this body the under brim, generally of merino, is first attached, then the upper brim, and lastly the plush crown and side-piece sewed together and drawn over. All these by hot ironing and stretching are drawn smooth and tight, and as the var- nish on the body softens with the heat applied, body and cover adhere all over to each other without wrinkle or pucker. Dressing and polishing by means of damping, brushing and ironing come next. The brim is then only to be curled and bound, the linings inserted, and the hat is ready for use. The quality of silk hats depends altogether upon the quality of silk plush with which they are covered. It is a curious fact that this silk plush is all imported to this country from Lyons, France. A good workman can prepare and iron twelve "bodies" daily. He can put the silk coverings on and finish about ten, while the brims of fully two dozen ought to be curled daily by a good hand. "Stovepipes" are never made up in larger quantities than are required for the temporary needs of the market, as styles change twice a year; and when a silk hat has gone out of style, it is absolutely valueless. If, however only the styles of brims change, they can easily be reshaped by heating and curling. The silk hat originated in the United States, and was introduced into Europe by Benjamin Franklin. When, in 1790, Franklin was sent as em' HAT COLE'S DICTIONARY OF DRY GOODS. 185 bassador to Paris, he wore the simple attire of the Quakers. A prominent feature of this was the hat, which has narrowed and heightened into the fashionable "plug" of to-day. It was then low-crowned and broader brim- med, and presented so quaint an aspect that the Parisian dudes were dis- posed to make it the butt of their wit. Not so, however, with the leaders of the French revolution, who happened to take a fancy to the queer shaped tile, and forthwith adopted it as their own distinctive headgear In three days' time the Franklin hat, as it was designated then, was the "rage" in Paris, and from that time just a hundred years ago the hat has constantly grown in favor, although it is probable that a contrivance more destructive to the hair and more useless for practical purposes was never designed by the fertile brain of the hatter. After the introduction of gutta-percha into the arts (1842), and the manufacture of it into thin sheeting, a new kind of hat was introduced, made of gutta-percha and cloth, which promised for awhile to supersede the soft, low-crowned felt article. But the jealousy of some of the manu- facturers of felt goods destroyed the new business almost entirely when in its infancy, it is said purposely, by making them so very inferior and at the same time so perfect a counterfeit, that the really good and perfectly made gutta-percha hat became universally distrusted, and hence the result. The best of these were made of a thin gutta-percha crown in a variety of shapes, and covered with cloth, producing an extremely durable aud light- weight hat. Caps. New York City manufactures nearly nine-tenths of the caps made in the United States. In that oddest nest-like part of city, the French quarter, 3,000 men and girls make annually $5,000,000 worth of caps, exclu- sive of the $1,000,000 worth of fur caps made in that region. At least 1,000,000 dozen caps are turned out in this quarter every year. As to styles there are nearly 500 varieties. Of yatching caps alone there are some- thing like two dozen kinds. Every year sees some new cap over which the public rages for a season, and then abandons. Such caps sell by the hundred thousand dozen. A hint comes from Paris, and in a few weeks the new caps swarm in every city and village and street throughout the land. A few leading styles of caps, however, persist with little or no change from year to year. Cap-makers are a fairly well paid class of workmen. The trade is minutely sub-divided. One man cuts the material, another blocks the crown, another sews the sides, and still another presses the seams, while the small finishing touches, such as cord and tassel, are given by girls. Work is done by the piece, and cap-makers earn from 50 cents to $2 per dozen caps. The most skillful men in busy seasons earn as high as $30 a week, and occasionally men have been known to earn $50 a week. The season for making winter caps begins in April and ends in October. Then comes a lull, and in November begins the season for mak- ing summer caps. Materials are as varied as styles. Silks, velvets and cassimeres are the principal ones. Among the most expensive caps are 186 COLE'S DICTIONARY OF DRY GOODS. HAT those made for naval officers. The bullion embroidery adds considerably to the cost of such caps. Much of this is imported from France, but some of it is made in the French quarter by girls who work together in small shops or at home, earning from $6 to $14 per week. The fur cap trade is also centered in the French quarter, the work being at its height during the summer months. Sealskin caps are less popular than they once were in the United States, but there are still about 2,000 dozen of them annually made in New York. They are made from portions of skin too small to be used in the best sacques. The manufacture is highly sub-divided, as in the case of the cloth-cap industry. It requires an intimate knowledge of furs, and many of those engaged in the business are foreigners. Much of the trade is carried on in comparatively small shops, such as is usual in the French portion of New York City. Often the costliest and most beau- tiful goods are produced in shabby little dens where one would expect to find no more important industry than that of a cobbler. [See FUR.] The cap trade is largely in the hands of jobbers who buy direct from the small manufacturers and distribute the goods. Every considerable city west of Pittsburg has large jobbing houses that deal in caps, and the wildest Rocky Mountain hunter often wears a cap sent him through jobber and retailer from the French cap makers of New York. Comparatively few caps are worn in the extreme East. Nearly all of them are consumed west of the Alleghanies, and a few are sent as far as the Sandwich Islands. Straw hats. Straw-plaiting is one of the oldest arts practiced by mankind, many specimens having been found in the tombs of the ancient Egyptians. In Europe the industry remained in a comparatively rude state down to the end of the 16th century, when it attained commercial im- portance in France and Northern Italy. The famous Leghorn straw of Italy began to acquire celebrity late in the 18th century. It is still unsur- passed for beauty and durability. Leghorn is a variety of wheat grown solely for the straw, which is distinguished for its extreme slenderness and pearly white color. It is now about fifty years since hats made of straw first began to obtain a firm and lasting hold upon the affections of Ameri- can citizens. Prior to that time, straw hats were worn but they were im- ported ready for use, few, if any being manufactured in this country. So completely have the conditions changed that during the season of 1891, 1,500,000 dozen were made in the United States. But this does not repre- sent the entire consumption, for fully 500,000 dozen more were imported made, requiring only to be shaped and trimmed after being landed. Most of the hat-straw now used in this country comes from China and Japan. England, Italy and Switzerland contribute but a small fraction of their for- mer yield. It is shipped here carefully braided, in great bunches, and the braids are sewed and afterwards pressed into shape by expert American hands. The cultivation of a variety of wheat straw, from which the braid is worked, has been a special industry in the northern provinces of China for more than a century. It was not, however, until after the commercial city HAT COLE'S DICTIONARY OF DRY GOODS. 187 of Tientsin was in 1858 opened to foreign trade that the Chinese farmer began to pay much attention to the cultivation and curing of the straw, so as to secure greater uniformity of color as well as fineness of quality. The great desideratum is, to obtain as perfect a white straw as possible by means of bleaching in the sun. The process is to pull up the stalks by hand when the grain is in the milk, and only about half developed. Great care must be taken to prevent exposure to rain. After bleaching, the straw is cut at the first joint from the top. Although cut when green, the straw readily bleaches under the sun, producing a tough flexible fibre much more so than ripe wheat, which is brittle and yellow. The industry ex- tends through the great provinces of Chihli, Shansi, Honan and Shantung, and gives remunerative employment to great numbers of the poorer classes, principally to women and children. It is said that a dexterous woman can make from 35 to 40 yards of braid a day, earning from 14 to 20 cents. The first shipment of this braid to the United States was made about the year 1873, when thirty-five bales were shipped. The shipment now averages about 25,000 bales per annum. There are 240 bundles in a bale, each bundle containing fifty-five yards. Connecticut and Maryland are the principal centers of the straw hat industry. The operation of forming the hat is very simple. The plaited braid, preparatory to being sewed, is wound upon reels, from which it is easily fed to the sewing machine specially con- structed for this purpose. After sewing, the embryo hat is pressed into shape while damp over a plaster paris "form" or block. Heavy and pow- erful hydraulic presses are used in shaping the ordinary kinds of straw hats, and the necessary metal molds that form the " dies " for these ma- chines represent tons of zinc. Mackinaw Hats. Probably no other straw hat ever introduced to the American public can show such a continued and extended popularity as the Mackinaw, this variety having held the lead as an article of summer headwear for upwards of fifteen successive years. The claim of the Mack- inaw to antiquity and long use is, perhaps, as strong as that of other plaits with which the trade has become familiar, for no doubt the natives of Can- ada made use of these hats as a head covering long before they became an article of trade. The Machinaw for many years after its first introduc- tion was sold under the designation of the " Canada " hat, the name given to a similar but comparatively degraded article produced in Eastern Can- ada. The title " Mackinaw" was first applied by Mr. R. A. Taylor, a mer- chant of Baltimore. He introduced the hat to his customers as far back as 1850, and sold it for thirty consecutive seasons without any apparent diminution of popularity. " Mackinaw," as a trade name, does not, as might be supposed, indicate the region from whence the straw comes, but undoubtedly received its christening from the retailer who first used the goods, in order to create a distinction from the inferior but similar article termed " Canada." While both the Mackinaw and the Canada are made of wheat straw, the difference between the two, as the product of one coun- 188 COLE'S DICTIONARY OF DRY GOODS. HAT try and of nearly the same latitude, is a great surprise. The wheat of the eastern part of Canada produces a straw dark in color, harsh in texturd and of little use for making a hat, while that grown in the western part of the same country is clear and white in color, possessing a brilliant enamel which imparts the beauty that rendered the Mackinaw so famous an article of fashion. The straw is a local rather than a national production, coming from a region comprised within a small radius around the city of Detroit, part of which is Canadian territory and part within the borders of the United States; for while considerable straw from which the plait is made is raised and plaited in Michigan, by far the largest proportion, as also the best quality, is the product of Canadian territory. Nature seems to have provided a small community with unusual advantages, for within a limited territory has been produced all the vast quantity of straw plait required to supply the demand that for many years has existed for Mackinaw hats, and all efforts to produce elsewhere wheat straw with a bright enamel and of a clear color have invariably failed. The producers of this straw are wholly the poor, ignorant half-breeds, who spring from the Canadian-French and the Indian. Finding that hats, as well as the skins of the animals which they trapped could be sold, the family talent was brought into use to pro- duce something that might contribute to their meagre subsistence. So dur- ing the winter season, while the men hunted the muskrat, the women and children plaited straw for hats, which, on the opening of the spring, were carried with the skins to the towns where they were exchanged for food, clothing, and ammunition. To the advantages of soil and climate is attrib- utep that purity of color, brilliancy of enamel, toughness of fiber, and elas- ticity of texture which are recommendations of the Mackinaw. Added to these natural qualities is the advantage of a peculiar treatment given to the straw by the natives, who employ a whitening or bleaching process without the use of chemicals. Palm Leaf Hats. The manufacture of palm leaf hats was begun in 1826; and as early as 1831 2,000,000 were made and sold. The leaves are procured from various sources, some from Spain and Malaga, and some from Mexico and Southern United States. With the growth of the hat trade various improvements have been made in the processes of manufac- ture, machinery having been introduced to perform the plaiting operation. These are frequently termed chip hats. Manilla Hats. Hats of this description are made of the split stems of the manilla tree, found in the Phillipine Islands. These hats rank next to Panama in point of durability. Panama Hats. A variety made from the leaves of the screw pine, in South America. They are termed Panama on account of the city of that name being the principal point from which the braid is shipped. The green leaves of the screw pine tree are gathered by the natives before they unfold, and after the ribs and coarse veins have been removed, are cut into shreds. These are exposed to the sun a few days, and then immersed in MAT COLE'S DICTIONARY OF DRY GOODS. boiling water until they become white, when they are hung up in the shade and bleached for several days. This gives the straw a color about the shade of slacked lime. A native can plait enough straw for a hat in two or three days' time, but the finest hats require several weeks to complete them, and require especial care in the selection of the straw. They are extremely light, and the most durable straw hat made. The best quali- ties retail at $25. In numbering hats one "size" represents one-eighth of an inch, and implies that difference in the average diameter of the head. The size of the head (and consequently the size of hat a person will require) can be obtained by measuring its circumference and dividing it by 3.14. The size of any hat can be obtained by measuring its length and width, adding them together and dividing by 2. In either case the mean, or average, diameter is obtained. In fine silk hats the half size, or one-sixteenth is often used, since many heads often size up just between two regular sizes. To obtain the size of hat a person should wear, measure accurately around the head on the line where a hat or cap is usually worn then look for the corres- ponding number of inches on the scale below, and the size of the hat will be found opposite: INCHES ABOUND THE HEAD. SIZE OP HAT. INCHES ABOUND THE HEAD. SIZE OF HAT. 18% 6 1* 1% 19ft 6& if 8 1% 20 6% 23% W* 20% 20* 21/8 I 23* S3 24V4 i 7% ng 6% 24% 8 21% 7 Hatching. In embroidering and weaving, the art of disposing threads so as to give the effect of shading according to the shape and character of the object represented. Also, a thread made for this purpose, or such threads collectively. Hante-lisse (haute-lese). [F. haute, high; lisse, warp.] In tapestry weaving, wrought with the warp in a perpendicular position; distinguished from basse-lisse, which indicates wrought with the warp in a longitudinal position. Havelock (hav'-lock). [Named after the English general, Henry Havelock.] A cover for soldier's cap, made of light washable material, with a flap hanging behind to protect the neck; sometimes worn by soldiers and tourists when exposed to the sun in hot climates. Haversack. [From Ger. hafer, oats, and sack, sack.] A bag used for holding the food that a soldier carries on his person. It is carried by a 190 COLE'S DICTIONARY OF DRY GOODS. HEC strap slung over the shoulder. Also a bag made of coarse cloth used by school-boys for carrying their slate and books. Heckle. The operation of drawing flax or hemp through rough teeth to separate the fiber from the bark and peth. [See FLAX.] Helix. A term used in needle-making, with reference to the manner in which the eye is finished. The best qualities of needles always have their eyes " helixed." The operation is performed by stringing the needles immediately after the eye has been punched out, upon a fine hard wire, which when set in motion causes the needles to rapidly revolve. The rapid revolution on the wire polishes the edges and inside of the eye, thus preventing the cutting of the thread in sewing. [See NEEDLES.] Hemp. A valuable plant possessing properties similar to flax and jute, supposed to be a native of India, but long since naturalized and cul- tivated in many countries of Europe, particularly Russia, where it forms an article of primary commercial importance. It is also cultivated in different parts of the United States, but not in such quantities as to supersede im- portation. The plant is an annual, with a rough, angular stem, from four to twelve feet high. It is stronger and coarser in the fiber than flax, but its culture and management are much the same. After hemp has been cut down with cradles, it is spread upon the ground in October or Novem- ber, according to climate, and is then rotted by being exposed to the action of the dew and frost. This requires about two months, when the lint readily separates from the stalk. It is tough and strong, and peculiarly adapted for weaving into coarse fabrics such as sail-cloth, and twisting into ropes, cables and binding twine. As the ordianry material of ropes used for hanging, it is often the subject of humorous allusion; as hempen collar, the noose of the hangman's rope place around the neck; hempen widow, the widow of a man who has been hanged. Attempts to cultivate hemp in America were made early in the history of Plymouth and Virginia colonies. In Pennsylvania the colonial government offered bounties for its culture as early as 1730. These attempts were unsuccessful though of late years it has become a valuable agricultural product in the United States, particu- larly in Kentucky. It is cultivated to some extent in all the Northern states. Where cultivated for seed-bearing, hemp greatly exhausts the land. Cultivated for the fiber, it is but moderately exhaustive, and grows with such strength as to keep down weeds, so that it may be grown for many seasons on the same land. Considerable hemp plant has escaped from cultivation in the United States and naturalized itself on waste places in the vicinity of dwellings. In addition to the valuable fibre which the plant yields, it also furnishes two other valuable commercial products. One of these is the seed, which is used as food for cage-birds, and yeilds a large percentage of oil when pressed. This oil, of which Russia furnishes the principal supply, is used in the manufacture of soaps and varnish'es, and also for burning. [See CORDAGE.] HEM COLE'S DICTIONARY OF DRY GOODS. 19l Hemstitch. The ornamental edging in linen and cotton fabrics, par- ticularly handkerchiefs, produced by drawing out a few threads running parallel with the hem, and catching together in smaller groups those running the other way. Henrietta. [Named in honor of the gay and brilliant Henrietta Maria, queen of England in 1624.] A dress fabric, which, notwithstanding the revival of its popularity during the last few years, dates its origin well back into the 17th century; though the prominent position fashion has at present given it among fine dress goods would lead many to imagine it a new-comer. Formerly, Henrietta cloth was a superior black dress fabric of silk warp and the finest of worsted weft, but at present it is to a large extent made of all wool. It is woven with a twilled face and a plain back, and is like cashmere dress fabric in all other respects except the finish- being more lustrous. This lustre is due to the elaborate process of "finish- ing" which Henrietta undergoes after leaving the loom, consisting first of scouring with hot soap suds, and stretching it on a frame to dry; then the whole web is carefully examined for burrs and knots, which are carefully removed by hand. Next the cloth is sheared or cropped, to remove the tips of projecting fibres which were unavoidably raised in weaving and scour- ing. To produce the lustre, it is now wound tightly around a huge drum and boiled for three hours in water, heated at a temperature of 180 degeees F. It is then unwound and the ends reversed, and again boiled for three hours. Finally it is pressed in a hydraulic press, in which the cloth is heated by inserting iron plates between the folds or by forcing steam through it while in the press; the last process adding to the smoothness and develop- ing the lustre characteristic of well finished Henrietta cloth. The fabric is known to the trade as "silk-warp" and "all wool" Henriettas. The cotton- and-wool twills with a "sheen" finish cannot be called Henriettas or cash- meres in the full meaning of these terms. They are properly coburgs. [See COBURG.] Herringbone. A style of twill-weaving, so called from its resem- blance to the backbone of a herring. The weave consists of a series of very short diagonal lines running the entire length or width of the cloth, contrasting with another series turned in an opposite direction, each arranged alternately across the entire web, forming a continuous zigzag pattern. Hickory Check. A particular style of coarse shirting, in which the checks are woven small and square, and of but two colors, usually blue and white or brown and white. The term was originally applied to this special style from its alleged hickory -like toughness, or superior wearing quality. Hindoo Silk. See MYSORE, CHINA SILK. Hogskin. Leather made of the hides of hogs, having a grained and minutely punctured surface, caused by the large pores; used for saddles (generally under the name of pigskin], gloves, mitts, and as an ornamental material for bookbinding. [See LEATHER.] COLE'S DICTIONARY OF DRY GOODS. HOL Holland. A term signifying unbleached linen cloth, made in many European countries, but especially in Scotland. The term also indicates a material used exclusively for window blinds, of which there are two kinds, glazed and opaque. The glazed variety is at the present time but little used, owing to the low price to which opaque has fallen. Opaque holland is woven of both linen and cotton, and is made smooth and impervious to the sun's rays (opaqued) by a sizing of oil and starch. In width hollands range from 24 to 115 inches. Brown holland \