■BBW 
 
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IReport 
 
 of tbe 
 
 Educational Commission 
 
 of tbc 
 
 Cit£ of Chicago 
 
 appointee b\? tbc flfca^or, 1bon. Carter 1b. Ibarrison 
 January t9tb, \89& 
 
 Chicago: mfccccrcii 
 

 ffl'fjf ILaftfBitif #r«a 
 
 R. R, DONNELLEY & SONS COMPANY 
 CHICAGO 
 
 7 ^/^ 
 
€f)c <£tmcattonal Commission of tfje 
 
 Compli?nents of 
 
 (jL&lQ/. ^iuivrn^ 
 
 Mayor of Chicago 
 
 CHARLES A. MAIR 
 
 simon j. Mcpherson 
 
 BERNARD F. ROGERS 
 JOSEPH STOLZ 
 CHARLES M. WALKER 
 
 GEORGE F. JAMES, Secretary. 
 

€ljc <£tmcational €ommi£gion of tlje 
 €itp of <£J)kago 
 
 Authorized by the City Council, December, 1897 
 Appointed by the Mayor, January, 1898 
 Approved by the Board of Education, May, 1898 
 
 WILLIAM R. HARPER, Chairman 
 CHARLES ALLING 
 RUDOLPH BRAND 
 CHARLES R. CORWITH 
 GEORGE DUDDLESTON 
 LOUIS O. KOHTZ 
 CHARLES A. MAIR 
 
 simon j. Mcpherson 
 
 BERNARD F. ROGERS 
 JOSEPH STOLZ 
 CHARLES M. WALKER 
 
 GEORGE F. JAMES, Secretary. 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 Sketch of the Commission and Its Work vn 
 
 Introduction 
 
 ARTICLE I. The Organization of the Board of Education, . . . i 
 
 ARTICLE II. The Business Management of the Board of Education, . 21 
 
 ARTICLE III. The System of School Supervision, 3 2 
 
 ARTICLE IV. The Examination, the Appointment, and the Promotion of 
 
 Teachers, 58 
 
 ARTICLE V. The Elementary Schools, 82 
 
 ARTICLE VI. The High Schools, 9 8 
 
 ARTICLE VII. The Normal School, ... ... 
 
 ARTICLE VIII. Special Studies, 
 
 ARTICLE IX. Resident Commissioners 
 
 ARTICLE X. Text Books, 
 
 ARTICLE XL The Evening Schools and a Free Lecture System, . 
 ARTICLE XII. Vacation Schools and School Playgrounds, 
 
 ARTICLE XIII. Ungraded Rooms and Schools 
 
 ARTICLE XIV. The Compulsory Attendance Law and a Parental School, 160 
 ARTICLE XV. Teachers' Institutes and a Teachers' Library, . . . 165 
 
 ARTICLE XVI. School Faculties and Councils, 167 
 
 ARTICLE XVII. The School Census, l6 9 
 
 ARTICLE XVIII. School Accommodations, x 7i 
 
 ARTICLE XIX. Training for Citizenship, x 74 
 
 ARTICLE XX. School Buildings and Architecture, 180 
 
 m 
 129 
 
 139 
 
 144 
 147 
 
 152 
 156 
 
 /"APPENDIX A. A Comparative Statement of Salary Schedules and Per 
 
 Capita Cost of Instruction 187 
 
 /> APPENDIX B. Public Kindergartens, !9 2 
 
 S APPENDIX C. Commercial Training in Europe and America, . . .205 
 APPENDIX D. The Free Lecture System in New York City, . . 218 
 
 APPENDIX E. Vacation Schools and School Playgrounds, . . .221 
 
 ' APPENDIX F. Compulsory Attendance Laws, 223 
 
 APPENDIX G. Parental Schools 22 5 
 
 APPENDIX H. Pupil Government 227 
 
 APPENDIX I. The Legal Status of the Chicago Board of Education, 230 
 APPENDIX J. Bibliographical References on City School Systems, 232 
 
 APPENDIX K. A Proposed School Law for Chicago 234 
 
 APPENDIX L. Advisers to the Chicago Educational Commission, . 241 
 
 INDEX OF SUBJECTS, 2 43 
 
 INDEX OF NAMES, 2 45 
 
^>fietct) of t^e Commtegtou ana its anotfi. 
 
 On December 6th, 1897, the following communication was presented 
 to the City Council of Chicago : 
 
 Mayor's Office. / 
 December 3d., 1897. !• 
 To the Honorable, the City Council : 
 
 Gentlemen : That the system in operation for the government and 
 supervision of the public schools of Chicago is not giving a measure of 
 results commensurate with the generous financial resources furnished by 
 the people, is acknowledged all around. 
 
 With the continual growth of the city, additional burdens keep coming 
 to the door of the board of education, which is seriously handicapped by 
 having to deal with new conditions and difficult developments in the har- 
 ness of antiquated methods. 
 
 A change is needed, a change is essential, in regard to the educational 
 and the business conduct of the school system, and to that end, I request 
 power to appoint a commission to consist of nine, two to be members of 
 the city council, two to be members of the board of education, and five 
 to be outside citizens. 
 
 The object of the appointment of the commission is to utilize all that 
 is good in the present system, to discard all that is defective, and to apply 
 new methods where needed. Yours truly, 
 
 Carter H. Harrison, 
 
 Mayor. 
 
 In answer to this communication, the city council authorized the 
 appointment of the educational commission, tin order to secure fuller rep- 
 resentation, the membership was afterward increased to eleven.\ The fol- 
 lowing nominations by the mayor were confirmed by the city council in 
 January, 1898: Charles Ailing, Rudolph Brand, Charles R.> Corwith. 
 George Duddleston, William R. Harper, Louis O. Kohtz, Charles A. Mair, 
 Simon J. McPherson, Bernard F. Rpgers, Joseph Stolz and Charles M. 
 
Walker. The commission as thus constituted was approved by the board 
 of education in May, 1898. 
 
 The commission was chosen to represent the various interests of the 
 city and various points of view in reference to its system of public instruc- 
 tion. Three of the commissioners were members of the city council ; two 
 were members of the board of education, and two more had served as 
 members of that body. The commission was non-partisan and non- 
 sectarian, including republicans and democrats and men affiliated with 
 a number of religious bodies. An unprejudiced, critical, but sym- 
 pathetic attitude toward the public schools was guaranteed by a member- 
 ship, composed partly of those who had received their early training- in 
 these schools, and partly of those whose education had been grained under 
 different conditions. 
 
 After one or two preliminary conferences the commission chose William 
 R. Harper chairman, appointed George F. James secretary and adopted a 
 formal plan of work. /To determine the scope of their investigations, the 
 members issued first a letter of inquiry covering various phases of school 
 affairs. This letter was widely circulated among all classes of the commun- 
 ity, insuring to all who desired, an opportunity to offer suggestions. The 
 commission secured, further, the active co-operation of fifty prominent edu- 
 cators of the country, who, by personal interview and by letter, gave their 
 aid in settling on recommendations for the report. The various subjects in 
 reference to which suggestions were received, were classified and made 
 topics for discussion at successive weekly meetings. Consideration was 
 given at each meeting to the specific criticisms and suggestions of those 
 acquainted with the Chicago schools, to a review of the experience in other 
 cities, and to the advice of those best qualified to speak with authority. The 
 commission was assisted in its work by the conclusions of similar commit- 
 tees in other cities, particularly in New York and Boston, by papers on city 
 school problems, read before state and national meetings of teachers, 
 and by the report of the Committee of Fifteen of the National Educa- 
 tional Association. The active co-operation of the Chicago board of edu- 
 cation, the corps of school superintendents, principals and teachers, and 
 the recommendations of various individuals and clubs, enabled the commis- 
 sion to consider every phase of opinion about the school system, before 
 formulating its report/ 
 
 After five months of work, the members held continuous sessions at 
 Highland Park for one week, and as a result, drew up a series of "Sug- 
 gestions for the Improvement of a City School System." This pamphlet 
 was privately printed and submitted to those interested in public schools, 
 
both here and in other cities. In this way the commission secured more 
 definite opinions and was enabled during the summer and autumn to 
 review still more carefully the general scope of the report. 
 
 In November, continuous sessions were again held, this time in Mil- 
 waukee, at which the first draft of the report was read and reviewed. 
 During December the report was again revised. Aside from the con- 
 tinuous sessions held in the spring and in the autumn, the commission gave 
 thirty meetings to its work, in addition to which, much was accomplished 
 through the labors of special sub-committees. The members of the com- 
 mission were greatly assisted in their later work of drafting a proposed 
 school law, by the kind co-operation of an auxiliary legal committee, com- 
 posed of William G. Beale, Otto Gresham, Frank J. Loesch, Donald L. 
 Morrill and James Rosenthal. 
 
3jntroDuctovp» 
 
 To the Honorable Carter H. Harrison, Mayor, and to the Honor- 
 able, the City Council, of the City of Chicago. 
 Gentlemen : Your educational commission herewith submits recom- 
 mendations in regard to the administration of the public school system 
 of Chicago. This study was undertaken at your request, and we have 
 endeavored to accomplish it in a spirit of thoroughness and of careful 
 impartiality. Our recommendations are the outcome of a year's study off 
 the local situation and of a careful co mparison of our school system with ] 
 those of other cities. The difficulties and defects which we have found 
 in Chicago are not peculiar to this city, and we have accordingly given 
 much attention to the various reforms which have been instituted and have 
 proved effective elsewhere. In this work we have been fortunate in secur- 
 ing the hearty co-operation of leading educational experts of the coun- 
 try and have been cordially assisted by those most familiar with the school 
 affairs of Chicago. The members of the board of education have been in 
 entire sympathy with the aim of the commission and have offered many 
 suggestions of great value. Our report, therefore, embodies proposals 
 which, it is fair to think, will lead to an improvement in the public school 
 system of this city. 
 
 In reviewing the history of the past few years, we have been impressed, 
 first of all, with the high average of ability, integrity and public spirit 
 found in the members of the board of education. The city has certainly 
 not been served in any department by men superior to the board of educa- 
 tion in these particulars. A similar statement may fairly be made with 
 reference to the officers of the board, for these have been, in general, com- 
 petent and faithful in the discharge of their duty. The business affairs of 
 the schools have usually been managed, as far as we can judge,both econom- 
 ically and honestly. The teaching force of Chicago compares favorably 
 with that of other large cities. Public sentiment has justified a liberal 
 policy in the equipment and maintenance of the schools, and we have 
 already accomplished results of which the city may be proud. 
 
Your commission does not believe, however, that the present situation 
 meets fully the needs and rights of the public. Chicago has spent millions 
 of dollars and is spending each year additional millions for public instruc- 
 tion. The board of education should not merely be of high general average, 
 but should include only men of the highest character and enlightenment. 
 The business affairs should be administered by the officers with integrity, 
 of course, but also under regulations which will constrain the greatest 
 economy and efficiency. The teachers of Chicago should be capable and 
 sincere, but they should, in addition, be given every inducement to profes- 
 sional progress and continuous self-development. Public sentiment in this 
 city has always demanded good school buildings and good teaching, but the 
 full possibilities of the system of public instruction have never yet been 
 impressed upon the people. 
 
 The machinery of the school system requires radical improvement^ 
 for while Chicago has good schools, she has them m despite of grave 
 defects in the present plan of administration. Although the board of edu- 
 cation has usually acted in the interests of the people, this has come from 
 no lack of opportunity or even of suggestion to act otherwise, but because 
 successive mayors have generally appointed worthy men and women to 
 fill these places. The joint authority of the city council and the board 
 of education in the purchase of sites and the erection of buildings has 
 ; caused undue delay and, in some cases, has aroused public suspicion in the 
 matter of school accommodations. The administration of school affairs 
 through committees of the board of education has proved on the whole 
 unsatisfactory. On the business side, it has from time to time resulted in 
 the appointment and retention of unnecessary and inefficient employes, and 
 has occasioned unwarranted difficulty and expense in the securing of school 
 supplies. On the educational side, the management by committees has 
 been prejudicial to school interests in the fundamental questions of the 
 course of study, the text-books and the training and appointment of teach- 
 ers. Within the limits of the general policy of the board of education, the 
 course of study should be flexible and susceptible of frequent revision far 
 beyond what is feasible under the management by committees of different 
 grades of schools and of the various special studies in the curriculum. 
 Text-books have been authorized and apparatus has been purchased, some- 
 times without the recommendation and sometimes against the protest of the 
 officers who should control these matters. Pupils have been admitted to 
 the normal school and have been graduated from it without the approval, 
 and occasionally contrary to the expressed judgment of those competent 
 
to decide. Some teachers have been appointed and retained in opposition 
 to the recommendations of those who should practically determine all these 
 questions. The teachers, as a body, have lacked that incentive to good 
 work, which would be felt through an equitable schedule of salaries and 
 a sound plan of promotion. These are vital defects, and criticism would 
 have been heard in larger measure from the people, if an inadequate plan of 
 administration had not left them in comparative ignorance of grave weak- 
 nesses in the present system. 
 
 That the school machinery of Chicago is largely defective, is not a 
 matter for surprise. The city has grown at a rapid rate, and in this depart- 
 ment, as in some others, a plan of administration has been retained which, 
 although good for a city of moderate size, is entirely inadequate for one 
 of nearly two millions. The phenomenal increase of population has intro- 
 duced problems which are all the more difficult in proportion as the increase 
 came through the rapid annexation of outlying and sparsely- 
 settled territory. The present large membership of the board of education 
 resulted partly from a desire to give these newly-added sections representa- 
 tion on this body. Experience has shown that this action was unwise. A 
 large board leads almost inevitably to a management by committees and 
 thus to confusion of legislative and executive functions. Committee man- 
 agement has imposed upon the board of education a mass of detail work, 
 which must prove exceedingly onerous and distasteful to the members. 
 We have been strongly impressed with the difficulty, under these circum- 
 stances, of securing the services of the most able and public-spirited citi- 
 zens. When, through a small membership, it is possible for each member, 
 freed from petty details, to take an effective hand in moulding: the educa- 
 tional policy of the city and to feel that every hour of his work contributes 
 to the solution of the larger questions of school administration, the dignity 
 of the board will be raised in public estimation and appointment to the 
 board will be an honor, gladly accepted by that high class of men and 
 women, whom the vital interests of the people demand for these positions. 
 We respectfully recommend, therefore, legal provision for a small member- 
 ship of the board and for a distinct differentiation of legislative and execu- 
 tive work. The important question of securing promptly and economi- 
 cally adequate school accommodations for all the children, and especially 
 for the younger children of school age, will not be satisfactorily solved in 
 Chicago until the board of education has the power to condemn and to pur- 
 chase sites and to erect buildings. We urge, therefore, that this power 
 be secured for the board at the earliest possible date. 
 
The superintendent of schools should be granted much larger powers ; 
 he should have not only the initiative, but the determination of all purely 
 educational questions, his action being subject to revision by a majority 
 of the board of education. The arrangement of the course of study, the 
 choice of text-books and of apparatus, the examination, the appointment, 
 the promotion and the dismissal of teachers are duties which properly 
 devolve upon him, acting with his assistants and with the examining board, 
 and subject to overruling by the board. 
 
 The business manager should be capable of formulating sound busi- 
 ness methods in his department and should be left free in the application 
 of these to the executive work which is assigned him. While held 
 strictly to account by the board of education, he should enjoy by law a free- 
 dom, similar to that of the executive head in any well-conducted business 
 enterprise. Subject to the civil sen-ice rules of the board, he should have 
 the appointment and the removal of his subordinates, and he should have 
 the control of all the details of his department. 
 
 The importance of securing the best possible teaching in the public 
 schools is generally recognized. To achieve a further improvement in this 
 particular, we have recommended that the course of study in the normal 
 school be lengthened from one year to two years, that a physical examina- 
 tion be demanded of all who seek appointment as teachers, that the require- 
 ments in scholarship and professional training be continually advanced in 
 fair relation to the increasing opportunities for preparation which are now 
 afforded, and that these opportunities be further widened through the 
 maintenance of teachers' institutes and through the establishment of a pro- 
 fessional library for free use by the teaching body. A spirit of enthusiasm 
 and of progress can be best engendered among the teachers by proper 
 recognition of successful effort, and we urge, therefore, the adoption of a 
 schedule of salaries and a scheme of promotion, based not merely on length 
 of service but also on proved efficiency and advancing scholarship. 
 
 The course of study in the Chicago schools attests a general public 
 desire for a broad and liberal training of our children. At present, there 
 is need of careful revision in order to secure better correlation and 
 sequence. The time devoted to several studies may well be reduced ; this 
 action will permit the introduction, at but slightly increased expense, of new 
 subjects, more particularly of "constructive" work throughout the ele- 
 mentary schools. The number of required text-books may. we think, be 
 properly reduced and a wider latitude allowed in this matter to the princi- 
 pals and teachers in different portions of the city. 
 
We have recommended, also, the general introduction of kindergartens, 
 an extension of the educational opportunities afforded in the evening 
 schools and the incorporation of the vacation school idea in the public 
 system. Recognizing the great value to the city of the system of secondary 
 education, we have suggested that it be strengthened through the estab- 
 lishment of additional manuaHraining schools and of a commercial high 
 school. Chicago has in its school" property a magnificent plant which can, x 
 "we think, be more fully utilized at slightly greater cost, by the open- j 
 ing of school-yards as play-grounds throughout the year and by the use 
 of school buildings as popular educational centers, especially through a 
 system of free evening lectures for adults. 
 
 The development and recognition of organized and representative asso- 
 ciations of teachers will focus the experience and thought of five thousand 
 Chicago teachers to the great advantage of the public school system and 
 will prove a wholesome stimulus to the teachers themselves ; we have ac- 
 cordingly commended the establishment of teachers' faculties and coun- 
 cils, with the right of direct recommendation to the board. We have been 
 impressed, finally, with the desirability of bringing the people into closer 
 touch with school affairs in order to secure more general and more intelli- 
 gent support for the public system of instruction. A valuable means to 
 this end has been found, we think, in the suggestion of resident commis- 
 sioners, whose function it shall be to represent the people in the oversight 
 of the schools in various sections of the city. 
 
 The report which we have the honor now to present, recommends, as 
 has been seen, some radical changes in school administration. They 
 require and should receive very careful consideration and discussion. The 
 interests which are here involved are so weighty and are of such supreme 
 import to the community, that hasty and inconsiderate action in these 
 matters is above all to be deprecated. We hope, therefore, that the system 
 of school management, which is here proposed, will be entirely and thor- 
 oughly reviewed, before any attempt is made to embody its provisions in j 
 the school law, applying to our city. The plan of procedure that your 
 commission adopted, has already attracted the attention of the com- 
 munity to many of these questions and public interest has been, we are glad 
 to see, strongly aroused. The determination of some of our recommenda- 
 tions lies in the province of the board of education, which has always shown 
 itself quick to respond to public opinion. Some of the most important of 
 them call for the favorable action of the state legislature and for the pur- 
 poses of convenient and thorough discussion, we have incorporated the 
 
substance of these in a draft of a provisional bill, which has been made, 
 under our direction, by an auxiliary legal committee, and which is appended 
 to this report. | 
 
 Respectfully submitted, 
 
 William R. Harper, Chairman. 
 Charles Alling. 
 Rudolph Brand. 
 Charles R. Corwith. 
 George Duddleston. 
 Louis O. Kohtz. 
 Charles A. Mair. 
 Simon J. McPherson. 
 Bernard F. Rogers. 
 George F. James, Joseph Stolz. 
 
 Secretary. Charles M. Walker. 
 
5Tl)f (Drgam'jatt'on of 
 tijr Uoarti of IStiuratton 
 
 ARTICLE I 
 
 Your Commission respectfully makes the following recommendation 
 jn reference to the organization of the Board of Education : 
 
 SECTION I. — THAT THE BOARD BE APPOINTED, AS AT PRESENT, BY THE 
 MAYOR, WITH THE CONCURRENCE OF THE COUNCIL J 
 
 SECTION 2. THAT THE NUMBER OF MEMBERS BE CHANGED FROM 21 
 
 TO II; 
 
 SECTION 3. THAT THE TERM OF OFFICE OF MEMBERS OF THE BOARD 
 
 BE FOUR YEARS, TWO TO BE APPOINTED ONE YEAR, AND THREE EACH 
 OF THE SUCCEEDING THREE YEARS ; 
 
 SECTION 4. THAT THE FUNCTION OF THE BOARD BE CHIEFLY LEGISLA- 
 TIVE, THE EXECUTIVE WORK BEING DELEGATED TO THE SUPERIN- 
 TENDENT AND THE BUSINESS MANAGER; 
 
 SECTION 5. — THAT ONLY THREE STANDING COMMITTEES BE APPOINTED, 
 VIZ., A COMMITTEE ON EDUCATIONAL AFFAIRS, A COMMITTEE ON BUSI- 
 NESS AFFAIRS, AND A COMMITTEE ON FINANCIAL AFFAIRS, 
 
 SECTION 6. THAT THE BOARD BE GIVEN POWER TO CONDEMN SITES FOR 
 
 SCHOOL PURPOSES J 
 
 SECTION 7. — THAT THE BOARD BE GIVEN POWER, INDEPENDENT OF THE 
 CITY COUNCIL, TO PURCHASE SITES AND CONSTRUCT BUILDINGS J 
 
 SECTION 8. THAT PROVISION BE MADE IN THE LAW FOR THE REMOVAL 
 
 OF MEMBERS OF THE BOARD, BUT ONLY FOR CAUSE AND UPON WRITTEN 
 CHARGES ; 
 
 SECTION 9. — THAT A FORMAL TITLE BE GIVEN MEMBERS OF THE BOARD, 
 AND THAT THE EXACT TIME AND THE CONDITIONS OF THEIR APPOINT- 
 MENT BE CLEARLY INDICATED IN THE SCHOOL LAW. 
 
 SECTION I. THAT THE BOARD BE APPOINTED, AS AT PRESENT, BY THE 
 
 MAYOR, WITH THE CONCURRENCE OF THE COUNCIL. 
 
 The function of a board of education, acting under the authority of 
 the state law, is to represent the people in the establishment and main- 
 
 1 
 
t&iattce of the public school system^ 1 ) The method of selecting its mem- 
 bers lias- varied widely under different conditions. In the large 
 majority of cases the members are elected directly by the people, either 
 by general ticket or by particular wards or districts. ( 2 ) The tendency, 
 however, in school systems of large cities has been to substitute for this 
 elective plan selection by appointment. ( 3 ) This has taken many forms. 
 In one city, the board of education is a part of the city council, its 
 members being appointed by the president of that body.( 4 ) In another, 
 the board of education is appointed partly by the city council and partly 
 by the governor of the state. ( 5 ) In a third, the school authorities are 
 named by the judges of a superior court ( 6 ), while in many cities the 
 mayor is ex-officio chairman or member of the board. Such divergences 
 from the general elective plan, show the desire to free the school system 
 
 (!) "The American school system is largely founded on the idea of local 
 competency in the management of educational affairs ; hence the most important 
 factor in school systems is found in the character of the school boards, and there 
 is no one problem connected with the economy of these systems so important 
 and so difficult of solution as that of securing competent school boards. In 
 Prussia they say, 'As is the teacher, so is the school' In Holland they say, 'As 
 your inspector is, so is your school.' With us it would be more fundamentally 
 true to say, 'As is your school board, so are your schools.' " — "City School Sys- 
 tems," p. 14, by John D. Philbrick. 
 
 ( 2 ) "The experience of large systems seems to favor an appointive system, 
 but in nine-tenths of the school districts of the United States the elective system 
 will probably be continued."— E. E. White, American School Board Journal, 
 February, 1898. 
 
 "I think the local or ward system of election to school boards altogether bad. 
 It brings to the front obscure men ; has made memberships on the board the 
 lowest round on the political ladder, and in some cases has been the cause of a 
 special form of corruption which I will not here describe. I consider a far 
 better method to be election on a ticket at large, which secures better men. For 
 instance, in my own city, Worcester, Mass., the local or ward system prevails, 
 whereas in Springfield, Mass., election on a ticket at large prevails, and the 
 effect is reflected in a very vivid way in the condition of the schools of the two 
 cities. Better than the ward system is the system of appointment by the mayor. 
 In most cases where this plan has been tried, the mayor has felt compelled to rise 
 above politics and appoint the best man. Whether this would work in a large 
 city, however, I have some doubt. A favorable illustration where it has worked 
 well for a long time is Yonkers, N. Y., while Cleveland, Ohio, illustrates the 
 same principle, but in a very different form." — G. Stanley Hall, President Clark 
 University. 
 
 In thirteen out of twenty-three of the larger representative cities of the 
 country, the board of education is even now elected by the people. 
 
 (3) For instance, in New York, Philadelphia and Chicago. 
 
 (4) Buffalo. 
 
 (5) New Orleans. 
 
 (6) Philadelphia. 
 
from connection with local, state or national politics. ( 7 ) That this result 
 cannot be easily secured, is clearly seen in the variety of solutions proposed. 
 The election of school boards at the same time with either town or city offi- 
 cers has proved an excellent plan in small communities. Even the election 
 of the members of the board by wards does not entail to the same extent, 
 
 (7) "The aim of the most intelligent friends of our schools has been to sepa- 
 rate their administration as far as practicable from the influence of party politics. 
 In this direction, however, much remains to be desired. Everywhere there are 
 unscrupulous politicians who do not hesitate to improve every opportunity to 
 sacrifice the interests of the schools to the purposes of the political machine. 
 Here is found the source of the most general as well as the most serious evil of 
 our city systems. Long ago this evil became so grievous in some of our largest 
 cities, that the election of school boards by popular vote had to be abandoned." — 
 "City School Systems," p. 15., by John D. Philbrick. 
 
 "Yes, divorce school boards absolutely from the contaminating influences of 
 politics and sectarianism. Non-partisan and non-sectarian school boards are the 
 need of the hour, if we would approach the ideal in school government. We will 
 not then be humiliated by having it published broadcast over the land that seven 
 members of the school board were fined and sentenced to jail by the supreme 
 court of a state, for contempt in refusing to obey the mandate of said court, 
 forbidding said members from conspiring together to stifle and thwart the will 
 of the people, in order to carry out their own selfish and partisan purposes. 
 Non-partisan and non-sectarian boards will never act thus. I speak from long 
 expedience along this line, as I am a member of a board that has been thus 
 constituted for more than twenty-five years. I am well aware that it requires 
 constant care and attention to maintain a board upon this basis, but the result 
 will more than repay the labor. You will have to combat the efforts of scheming 
 politicians, who are ever on the alert to obtain control of the school management, 
 as they well know that it can be made a Corliss engine of power, if so directed, 
 to advance a man's political ambition." — R. L. Y eager, President Kansas City 
 School Board, N. E. A. Proceedings, 1896, p. 976. 
 
 "***I would also speak of a danger that threatens our public school system, 
 and that is, the tendency to allow political influence to encroach upon the duties 
 and authorities of those who have been appointed to direct the educational affairs 
 of our city. While I think that these influences are not so strong in Chicago 
 as they are in some of the other large cities, still the tendency is growing toward 
 the exercise of political influence in the management of our schools. I need 
 hardly say how demoralizing this practice is, both to teachers and to employes. 
 In my experience on the board, I have found many teachers and employes who 
 evidently had more faith in their political influence for promotion and retention 
 than they had in doing their work well and earning favors by merit alone. The 
 future welfare and usefulness of the public schools of this country demand that 
 they should be kept entirely free from influence of any kind that would in any 
 way lessen the efficiency of the teaching or the management of the schools." — 
 Louis Nettelhorst, Report of President, Chicago Board of Education, 1893. 
 
 "The affairs of the school board should be wholly separated from municipal 
 business and the school organization should have no connection whatever with 
 municipal politics. There is no ground for any connection between the two. 
 The public school system rests upon the taxing power of the state and that is 
 wholly within the control of the law-making power. The state is bound to see 
 that schools are maintained in every part of the state. The school system is 
 a state system administered in the American fashion through representatives 
 chosen by the people in their local assemblages, or in any other way the state 
 may direct. But these officers do not cease to be representatives of a state 
 system, and there is every reason why their tenure and their powers should be 
 
under these circumstances, the evil results which are apparent in some 
 of our larger cities. With increased population, however, election by 
 >wards has generally proved defective ( s ) ; for it, has been substituted in 
 our larger cities, the election by general ticket of school trustees to rep- 
 
 wliolly independent of municipal boards and officers." — "The Crucial Test," by 
 Andrew S. Draper. 
 
 "The board should be selected without any reference to politics, religion or 
 the locality from which the member comes. Of the 21 men appointed by Mayor 
 Strong, in New York, the politics of 15 are still unknown to the great mass 
 of people connected with the school system."— Nicholas Murray Butler, on "City 
 Schools" (from address in Boston, not published). 
 
 "Ward politics is the great bugbear of the city law-maker, and any amount of 
 inventive genius has been exercised to devise a way of choosing school boards 
 that would make it impossible for the ward boss to interfere. Incompetent 
 principals and teachers chosen to •encourage' political henchmen; contracts 
 corruptly given to fatten the treasuries of the partisan organizations: assess- 
 ments of teachers for campaign funds, unseemly intrigue strifes and bickerings 
 within the schools themselves by the adherents of the different parties ; the son 
 of some local heeler allowed to be habitually unruly, to the detriment of the 
 general school discipline, because the teacher fears for his position if he attempts 
 to assert his authority— all these evils and more are feared by those who have 
 seen the results when local politics has had undue influence."— James C. Boykin : 
 in Educational Review, March, 1897. 
 
 (8) '"The members of the school board should be representative of the whole 
 population and of all their common educational interests, and should not be 
 chosen to represent any ward or subdivision of the territory, or any party or 
 element in the political, religious or social life thereof. Where this principle 
 is not enforced the members will feel bound to gain what advantage they can 
 for the sub-district or special interests they represent; bitter contests will ensue, 
 and the common interests will suffer."— Committee of Fifteen, p. 102 (reprint by 
 Henry Holt & Co. from Educational Review, March, 1895.) . . 
 
 "The efficient administration of public schools forbids the committing of 
 responsibilities and duties of boards of education to sub-district boards. This 
 has been a fatal weakness in school organization wherever attempted, whether 
 in the city or in the township. One board of education and only one should 
 administer school affairs. Sub-district boards in townships or towns have 
 crippled school progress in every state where they have been organized. — E. E. 
 White, in American School Board Journal, February, 1898. 
 
 "The evil of this is apparent. Its most striking evidence is in the struggle 
 for money whenever an appropriation is to be obtained for any particular pur- 
 pose, especially for school buildings. In this city now. for instance, a large 
 section is deprived of a very much needed school building because the demo- 
 cratic common council and the republican school board could not agree as to 
 the location of the school, whether in the democratic fourteenth ward or in the 
 republican thirteenth ward. This seems almost too absurd to be true, but it is, 
 and it also suggests the third evil, of which I shall speak later. Members repre- 
 senting wards also take not only a great interest in their wards, but often 
 interfere unduly in the matter of appointment and transfer. In the past rather 
 more than now, the appointment of teachers was considered a perquisite of the 
 ward commissioners, and it is readily seen this power was a most influential 
 political factor. The commissioners have even assigned to themselves the right 
 to interfere in matters of discipline. These are instances of the evils almost 
 invariably connected with the ward system."— A City Superintendent 
 
 4 
 
resent the city. At first these were chosen at the regular municipal elec- 
 tions, but, as it was found that in the excitement of a general campaign 
 the interests of the city were not properly respected, a separate election 
 of the members of the school board was frequently ordered. ( 9 ) This 
 solution has been found in many cases eminently satisfactory. In a city 
 of medium size, where an enlightened public sentiment can be awakened, 
 and where a general knowledge of the condition of the schools can be 
 easily secured, and where, further, it is possible for the people to know 
 intimately the candidates for this position, perhaps no better method can 
 be followed. In cities of the largest size, such ideal conditions do not 
 prevail, and it is not surprising to find that New York, Philadelphia, and 
 Chicago, with many other cities, have successively adopted a different 
 plan, by substituting, as already indicated, the method of appointment 
 for that of election. In New York and Chicago, at least, this has not 
 been a surrender by the people of their direct control of public schools, 
 but rather another instance of the general principle of concentrating 
 authority. The board of education being appointed by the mayor, the 
 
 (9) "The theory of making every office an elective office is good, but it fails 
 of the best results, especially when political excitement runs high, as is unfor- 
 tunately too often the case in the cities of our country. There is no office within 
 the gift of the people which should be so thoroughly severed from all political 
 complications and possibilities as that pertaining to the education of the children. 
 The farther the board of education can be removed from contingencies of party 
 politics the better. To this end the time of election or selection should be as 
 far as possible from the heat of a political contest. The nominees in case of an 
 election, should not be the product of caucuses, but presented by a committee 
 representing the prominent political parties of the time in equal numbers from 
 each party; the nominating committee being selected by the central committees 
 of the parties, each central committee naming an equal portion of the nominating 
 committee. There will then be implied freedom from any expressed or implied 
 pledges, and no claim can be laid on account of special service rendered in the 
 election. If this prove impracticable, I can see no other feasible method of a 
 popular election." — /. L. Pickard, in Education, September, 1883. 
 
 "When men are elected on a general ticket, it is almost always the case that 
 school board positions are looked upon as the tail-end of the ticket. Men who 
 fail to receive nominations for other positions, regarded by party managers as 
 more responsible or more lucrative, are given school board nominations as a 
 consolation prize. Then in the board, members play for partisan advantage 
 continually, while the school suffers. In our city this year, the election resulted 
 in a tie — fifteen democrats and fifteen republicans. The organization of the board 
 was delayed for several weeks while the two parties were trying to hit upon 
 some mutually acceptable division of the spoils. An attempt was made to treat 
 all official positions, including that of the superintendent of schools, as party 
 spoils. Last year the election of a primary supervisor was held up for two 
 months, because the board standing sixteen to fourteen, and one of the sixteen 
 being absent, the minority declined to concur in the election, hoping thereby 
 to gain some partisan advantage." — A City Superintendent. 
 
city administration is thus made directly responsible for the con- 
 dition of the free school system. ( 10 ) The Philadelphia idea of appoint- 
 ment by the judges has the merit of taking the schools out of politics to 
 a certain extent, but involves a distinct danger by imposing upon the 
 judiciary duties foreign to its members, and liable in many ways to lessen 
 their efficiency in the discharge of their proper functions. In the case 
 of New Orleans, the selection of a part of the board by the governor 
 is a recognition of the supreme authority of the state in the administra- 
 tion of schools; but this system has the appearance of a shirking on the 
 part of the people of a responsibility properly devolving upon them. The 
 method followed in Buffalo, of leaving the choice of the board of educa- 
 tion to the city council, would be an admissible plan in American cities 
 if that body always represented the best interests of the community and 
 if there were not the danger that the members of the council, in the mul- 
 tiplicity of their duties, would in some way neglect or act contrary to the 
 welfare of the schools. 
 
 If, however, the board of education is not to be directly elected by 
 the people, (a plan to be avoided in Chicago, for the reasons mentioned,) 
 the experience of other cities, as well as the history of the public school 
 system of this city, justifies the appointment of the board of education 
 by the mayor. ( u ) This plan, moreover, is in harmony with the prin- 
 ciple of concentration of authority and responsibility. The mayor above 
 all represents the entire city, and nowhere, if not in his hands, can this 
 duty be placed with full expectation that his action will meet the general 
 sentiment and desires of the people. He may be held strictly responsible 
 for the appointments he makes : and since citizens are on no point more 
 
 ( 10 ) This statement is hardly true of Philadelphia, where the principle of 
 democratic government seems in a sense to have been surrendered in a desire to 
 divorce educational affairs from politics. 
 
 (U) "If the members of the board are appointed, the mayor of the city is 
 likely to be the official to whom the power of appointment may most safely be 
 intrusted. The mayor is not suggested because his office should sustain any 
 relation to the school system, but in spite of the fact that it does not and should 
 not. The school system should be absolutely emancipated from partisan politics 
 and completely dissociated from municipal business. But we think that the 
 appointments should be made by some one person rather than by a board. The 
 mayor is representative of the whole city and all its interests. While not chosen 
 with any reference to the interests of the schools, he may be assumed to have 
 information as to the fitness of citizens for particular responsibilities and to 
 be desirous of promoting the educational interests of the people. If he is 
 given the power of appointment, he should be particularly enjoined, by law, 
 to consider only the fitness of individuals, and to pay no regard to party affilia- 
 tions, unless it he particularly to see to it that no one political party has an over- 
 whelming preponderance in the hoard." — Committee of Fifteen, p. 101. 
 
sensitive than in regard to the administration of the school system, the 
 mayor can be reasonably relied upon to act in this matter both conscien- 
 tiously and intelligently. It is safe to say that no city administration, 
 however strongly intrenched in public esteem, would act in any manner 
 prejudicial to the schools without incurring quick and sure condemna- 
 tion. ( 12 ) 
 
 The objection has been raised that the plan here proposed might result 
 in a partisan board of education. ( 13 ) The peculiar sensitiveness, how- 
 ever, of the American people in regard to their school system is more 
 than a counterbalance to the natural inclination of a mayor to appoint 
 the school trustees solely from among his political friends. ( 14 ) The ad- 
 
 (12) If the reflection which leads to the placing in the hands of the mayor 
 the appointment of the board of education be well founded, the natural conclu- 
 sion might be that he should possess this power unrestricted. To divide this 
 duty between him and the city council by requiring the confirmation by the 
 latter of his appointments, would seem to lessen his responsibility without 
 securing any additional safeguard to the integrity of the educational system. 
 Municipal history in the United States offers many instances of mayors who 
 have fallen below the general average of enlightenment and honesty, and some 
 instances of city councils wholly representative of the community in both par- 
 ticulars, but rarely has a mayor been chosen to whom the people would not 
 intrust the appointment of school authorities more confidently than to the 
 council which acts with him. At this time, since no friction has arisen in 
 Chicago on account of this division of responsibility, there seems no occasion 
 for a change of policy in this matter. 
 
 C 13 ) It has not seemed necessary to discuss here the advisability of a bi-par- 
 tisan constitution of the school board. The history of American cities has yet 
 to show that this offers a solution of the difficulty of taking particular functions 
 out of the realm of politics. 
 
 "Beware above all things of bi-partisanship in the board." — Nicholas Mur- 
 ray Butler, on "City Schools." 
 
 "Attempts to eliminate partisanship from school administration by arraigning 
 an equal number of partisans against each other, have led to mischievous conse- 
 quences. The true course, is to insist that all who have any share in the man- 
 agement of the schools shall divest themselves of partisanship, whether political 
 or religious, in such management, and give themselves wholly to the high interests 
 intrusted to them. If it be said that this cannot be realized, it may be answered 
 without admitting it, that even if that were so, it would be no reason why the 
 friends of the schools should not assert the sound principle and secure its enforce- 
 ment as far as possible. We must certainly give no countenance to makeshifts 
 which experience has shown to be misleading and expensive. The right must 
 prevail in the end, and the earlier and more strongly it is contended for, the 
 sooner it will prevail." — Committee of Fifteen, p. 102. 
 
 (14) "The people of this city will never brook any subserviency of their 
 public school system to any clique or party, and those who attempt to thwart 
 them in their determination to intelligently carry out the requirements of the 
 law, will be swept away as by the besom of destruction." — Allan C. Story, Presi- 
 dent's Report, Chicago Board of Education, 1889. 
 
 7 
 
vantage that he might gain for himself or for his party by such appoint- 
 ments would certainly prove only temporary, if the action of the board 
 should show anything but a disinterested desire for the good of the pub- 
 lic schools. Political shrewdness, if nothing more, should, in the long 
 run, dictate the selection of upright, enlightened citizens fully representa- 
 tive of the best forces of the community. ( 15 ) By this is not meant the 
 appointment of men, prominent merely on account of their racial, religious, 
 and, least of all, political connections. The board of education which 
 public sentiment is coming slowly but surely to demand, will not be 
 made up of members of particular sects or political parties as such, or 
 of those bound together by the natural ties of a common birth. ( 16 ) The 
 
 ( 15 ) "We need and must have, broad-gauged, liberal minded, cultured and 
 good business men on our boards, if we advance our schools as they should be. 
 I cannot state this too strongly. Look well to the personal and moral character 
 of the members of your school board. Also separate the work and finances of 
 your school board absolutely from the city government, make it independent and 
 free from city control and domination." — R. L. Yeager, President, Kansas City 
 School Board, N. E. A. Proceedings, 1896, p. 9/4. 
 
 "The idea of representing nationalities and localities, or peculiarities of senti- 
 ment, political or religious, is an erroneous idea and is amenable to the charges 
 of partiality and inefficiency. The selection of persons on the grounds named, 
 is sure to bring into the board of education extremists, or such excessive harmony 
 as is found in log-rolling practices, and will surely be fatal to economy and 
 efficiency." — /. L. Pickard, in Education, September, 1883. 
 
 "Certain qualifications to be fixed by statute, should be requisite for mem- 
 bership. The members need not all have the highest scholastic training, but 
 a part of them should be required to have such training; not all of them need 
 be prominent for their business capacity, but a part of them should be thus 
 prominent; and no man should be eligible for a place on the board without the 
 highest character for integrity and capacity for the work. To define the quali- 
 fications in a form that might be enacted into law would require care, but it 
 would not be difficult ; and the law should provide that the fact might easily be 
 determined in court, if it appears that any person has been elected or is a 
 candidate for a place on this board, without possessing the requisite qualifications. 
 It is a serious matter, though essential and even indispensable in a republic, 
 to compel parents to educate their children in a public school if they are not 
 able to educate them elsewhere ; and so the law provides that no teacher can be 
 lawfully employed, or collect his pay if employed, without a certificate of char- 
 acter and fitness from the board of education. But there is no guarantee that 
 the members of the board that certify to the teacher's character and fitness 
 are themselves fit for this important duty. The qualifications of president and 
 vice-president of the United States and of senators and representatives in con- 
 gress, are defined in a general way in the constitution; and it is not too much 
 to ask that the qualifications of members of the board of education be fixed by 
 state law." — Albert P. Marble, in Educational Review, September, 1S94. 
 
 ( 16 ) "Many things during the last year have emphasized the importance of 
 keeping our public school system entirely outside of sectarian lines. The public 
 schools should be removed as far as possible from all sectarian influences. The 
 religious bigot, as well as the irreligious bigot, the Protestant bigot and the 
 Catholic bigot, will always try to make themselves felt in public school instruc- 
 tion or against it ; but they should all be resolutely and emphatically suppressed. 
 Until they can view the working of the school system from the same secular 
 standpoint with which they would look at the working of a steam engine, their 
 
sense of a community already condemns a mayor who is swayed in his 
 appointments of school authorities by any purely personal or political con- 
 siderations. It will in the future no less surely condemn the idea of at- 
 tempting to secure a representative school board by the allotment of the 
 membership to geographical, racial, religious, or political divisions of the 
 city. It is with confidence in the truth of these considerations that your 
 commission recommends giving the mayor the appointment of the board 
 of education. 
 
 SECTION 2. THAT THE NUMBER OE MEMBERS BE CHANGED FROM 21 
 
 TO II. 
 
 The method of appointment thus settled, the question of the proper* 
 number of members of a board of education ( 17 ) presents few difficul- 
 
 voices ought not to be heeded, and they should certainty be excluded entirely 
 from any connection with it except so far as their children should reap its 
 benefits." — Louis Nettelliorst, President's Report, Chicago Board of Edu- 
 cation, 1891. 
 
 ( 17 ) "I am strongly of the opinion, based upon a long experience in school 
 work, that the public interests will be better subserved if the membership of the 
 board of education is reduced in number. My judgment is that nine members 
 would be sufficient to perform the work of administering the school affairs, 
 provided persons are appointed to membership who can give the requisite time 
 to the performance of their duties. 
 
 "In order to accomplish the best results, no one should be appointed to mem- 
 bership in the board who is not in a position to give the affairs of the board 
 the preference over his own private business interests, that is to say, I think 
 that a member of the board should make it his first duty to perform the services 
 required of him as such member, instead of leaving the performance of these 
 duties to such time and opportunity as he may have after he has attended to 
 his own business affairs. Please do not understand by this statement that any- 
 thing in the nature of a criticism of the manner in which members of the board 
 of education have performed their duties is intended, but it necessarily follows 
 that with a large membership the responsibility is divided, and there must be 
 individual instances where persons serving as members of the board of educa- 
 tion cannot afford to wholly neglect their private interests for the benefit of 
 the public. 
 
 "It may be that with such requirements as above indicated, it will be difficult 
 to obtain members for the board of education, as nearly every one who is com- 
 petent to serve upon such a board has private interests which demand a large 
 portion of his time. If such should be the case, it may be desirable to pay 
 to members of the board of education a small salary. 
 
 "I am not in favor of any change in the method of appointing members of 
 the board of education, and do not agree with the idea which has recently been 
 advanced, that the public interests would be better protected if the members 
 
ties. ( 1S ) The original conception of the function of school trustees was 
 that of the fullest inspection and supervision, both of the school system 
 and of its officers, both of government and of instruction. When this idea 
 was outgrown, the method of election by school wards or districts suc- 
 ceeded. The difficulties and dangers inherent in the second plan are evi- 
 dent to-day in the larger cities of the country. If a school trustee con- 
 siders himself a representative of a given section of the city, his efforts are 
 constantly directed toward securing for his constituents the largest possible 
 share of the public funds, both for buildings and for teachers. The result 
 
 were appointed by the judges of Cook County, or elected by the people. My 
 observation has been that the mayors of this city have been at all times desirous 
 of giving to the board of education the best appointments which circumstances 
 would permit them to make, and if errors have been made in the selection of 
 the members of the board, such errors are no more numerous than would doubt- 
 less be made if the appointment was controlled by other parties." — Donald L. 
 Morrill. 
 
 (18) "The number of the members of a board of education should be small. 
 In cities of less than 500,000 inhabitants it should not be more than nine and 
 preferably not more than five. In the very largest cities it may be extended to 
 fifteen." — Committee of Fifteen, p. 102. 
 
 "The school committee shall be small because a small one is more efficient, less 
 talkative, cannot cut itself up into small committees, and cannot apportion out 
 patronage." — Nicholas Murray Butler, on "City Schools." _ 
 
 "It should not be so large in numbers as to become a public debating school. 
 —"The Crucial Test," by Andrew S. Draper (address in Boston). 
 
 "A small body in number is the most effective. There can be no shifting of 
 responsibility. The entire board will be a working committee, organized in 
 sections for" specific work, but engaged as a whole upon all general business 
 affairs such as' the care of school property, the erection of school buildings, the 
 determination of salaries. One section of the committee should be especially 
 delegated to confer with the superintendent as to the qualification of teachers, 
 and their assignment; another section to the control of educational funds. 
 There is no city in the United States where the work is not done by less than 
 ten men. From five to nine members of the board of education, selected with 
 special reference to their general intelligence and business tact, will be found 
 ample."—/. L. Pickard, in Education, September, 1883. 
 
 "The smaller the school board the better. We have a good deal of experi- 
 ence in Pennsylvania and large boards invariably work badly. I would feel 
 inclined to lower the number below eleven, except that perhaps you will have to 
 work a good deal with committees, and with so many interests perhaps it will 
 be as well to have as many as eleven."— George Morris Philips, Principal State 
 Normal School, West Chester, Pa. 
 
 'there is one New England town which had originally 200 school trustees- 
 one for the direction and supervision of each teacher in the public school system. 
 "To the recommendations submitted in this article I yield my unqualified 
 approval. In my judgment, this change in the organization of the board will 
 greatly simplify and facilitate the conduct of the affairs of the board. At pres- 
 ent, the organization and management of affairs is too cumbersome and irre- 
 sponsible."— £>. R. Cameron, Ex-President Chicago Board of Education. 
 
 10 
 
is a continual strife and rivalry within the board, culminating-, perhaps, in 
 a division of school funds according to some formal principle opposed to 
 the proper elasticity of school administration- No method has been more 
 universally condemned, both in theory and practice. The recognition of 
 this fact has already led to the reduction in our largest cities of the mem- 
 bership of the board at least fifty per cent.( 19 ), for it is evident that a board 
 can fairly represent a city as a whole with a much smaller membership 
 than would be necessitated by representation from each ward. Even this 
 change, however, does not represent the limit of this tendency. Within 
 a few years the membership of the board in several cities has been further 
 reduced by one-half ( 20 ), owing to a new conception of the functions of 
 this body. In brief, this conception is that a board of education should have 
 legislative rather than executive duties. For the proper fulfillment of 
 these, experience has shown that a small board is preferable. Not only 
 the tendency in other states to reduce the membership, but also the prac- 
 tically universal sentiment in Chicago against the present workings and 
 methods of the board of education, lead to the belief that a small board 
 would be to the decided advantage of the local school system. 
 
 Whether with the board of education thus reduced in number, it would 
 be advisable to offer members compensation for their work, has been much 
 debated. ( 21 ) Sound arguments seem to have been advanced on either side 
 from a theoretical point of view, and hereafter experience may show the 
 advisability of paying members ; but until the plan of a smaller membership 
 has been tested, there is no need to suggest such action. 
 
 (19) To mention an extreme instance, Boston had in 1875 a school committee 
 numbering 116, a membership due to the idea of local representation and result- 
 ing from successive annexations of school districts. The increase from 15 to 
 21 members in Chicago came from the same causes. 
 
 (20) Baltimore has recently changed from 22 to 9, and St. Louis from 21 
 to 12, and Boston proposes 15 instead of 24. 
 
 (21) "One step more: the office of member of a board of education should 
 be a salaried office. The important service rendered is worthy of compensation. 
 If any person elected sees fit to decline the salary, it is an act of benevolence. 
 But some will say, 'Does not the offer of a salary prove a temptation to some 
 impecunious incompetent?' The temptation is not half as great as that which 
 lies concealed in some prospective perquisite, and an eye to the main chance 
 is more intent upon the latent than the patent pecuniary reward. Again, those 
 who select, will feel more free to call their best friends into an office winch 
 furnishes some return for their valuable services, while an 'empty honor will 
 be considered sufficient for a hungry hanger-on."—/. L. Pickard, in Education, 
 September, 1883. 
 
SECTION 3. THAT THE TERM OF OFFICE OF MEMBERS OF THE BOARD 
 
 BE FOUR YEARS, TWO TO BE APPOINTED ONE YFAR, AND THREE EACH 
 OF THE SUCCEEDING THREE YEARS. 
 
 The question of the time of service of the members is not open to 
 doubt. ( 22 ) Baltimore and St. Louis have recently doubled the number of 
 years for which the members are chosen, and public opinion in Chicago 
 seems to favor for many reasons a similar change. The duties of a school 
 trustee imply not only broad sympathies, educational insight and intelli- 
 gence, and considerable experience in affairs, but also a knowledge of 
 the school system and of the educational needs of the city, which cannot 
 be easily gained. The usefulness of even an active and devoted member 
 of the board begins practically only with his second year of service, and 
 can be accounted but fairly adequate only after two years. This has 
 been true hitherto when the organization of the board demanded of the 
 individual member a knowledge of the details of school administration. 
 It will be equally true when there is demanded of him, instead, a broad 
 grasp of general problems and a full comprehension of the wishes of the 
 people of the city in regard to their schools. ( 23 ) A term of three years is 
 manifestly too short. If the interests of the public are to be properly served, 
 four years is none too long a time for membership. Many desirable men, it 
 may be objected, would not be willing to serve for such a period ; but with 
 a revision of the kind of duties devolving on board members and with a 
 fuller comprehension by individuals of their increased usefulness in a 
 longer term, your commission believes that it will be easier and not more 
 difficult to secure a good board. 
 
 (22) '-The next point to be considered is the length of service. If experi- 
 ence has any value, continued service is most profitable. The cry for rotation 
 in office should never be heard in its application to school authorities. The harm 
 resulting from frequent changes will be widely felt. Incompetency of teachers 
 often escapes the attention of the man just leaving an office, and fails to arrest 
 the attention of his successor until too late for his action, and the same observa- 
 tion will apply to the other features of the work."—/. L. Pickard, in Education, 
 September, 1883. 
 
 "The term for which members should be appointed should be a long one, 
 say five years." — Committee of Fifteen, p. 102. 
 
 ( 23 ) "Such a conception as this dignifies the idea of a board of education. 
 It makes them a body of men and women who must post themselves in regard 
 to the tendencies and progress of school work, who must know the needs of 
 the people and what they desire from the schools, and who also know in what 
 way the people will derive most from the schools."— Joseph W. Errant, Member 
 of Chicago School Board, 1897. 
 
SECTION 4. THAT THE FUNCTION OF THE BOARD BE CHIEFLY LEGISLA- 
 TIVE, THE EXECUTIVE WORK BEING DELEGATED TO THE SUPERINTEND- 
 ENT AND THE BUSINESS MANAGER. ( 24 ) 
 
 The history of the board in Chicago clearly indicates that the func- 
 tions of a board of education should be legislative and not executive. ( 25a ) 
 
 No one impediment has acted more strongly against the securing of the 
 very best men for the board than the general recognition that membership 
 implies an enormous amount of detail and routine work. Such labor 
 
 ( 24 ) "I am firmly of the opinion that the executive and administrative officers 
 of the board should be vested with a reasonable discretion in the performance 
 of their duties, and should be held strictly responsible for the manner in which 
 such duties are performed. An executive officer who is at liberty to appeal to 
 a committee or to a member of the board for the purpose of obtaining authority 
 to do some necessary act is thereby given an opportunity of shirking all responsi- 
 bility and is prevented from displaying any of those qualities which an executive 
 officer should possess. I do not mean by this to intimate that executive officers, 
 holding their positions by appointment of the board, should be vested with a 
 power to expend public money without authority, or to perform any of the 
 functions which properly belong to the members of the board. My idea about 
 the matter is that after general rules have been framed for the government 
 of executive officers, and general instructions have been given to guide them 
 in the performance of their duties, there should, generally speaking, be no further 
 need of appealing to committees or members of the board until those instructions 
 have been fulfilled and the executive officer is ready to report as to the manner 
 of fulfillment. 
 
 "I am firmly of the opinion that all executive officers and employes of the 
 board, of every kind, should be appointed wholly on account of their merit, 
 and should hold office during good behavior, substantially in accordance with 
 the apparent intention of the legislature in framing the Teachers' Pension Act. 
 If for good legal reasons it is impossible or inadvisable to appoint officers from 
 the approved lists of the municipal civil service commission, then a similar com- 
 mission or committee should control the appointments to service under the 
 board of education, thereby relieving members of the board from the importuni- 
 ties of those desiring appointments. For the same reason, the superintending 
 force of the educational department should, generally speaking, recommend the 
 appointment of teachers and changes in text-books." — Donald L. Morrill. 
 
 (25a) "The board of education should be vested only with legislative functions, 
 and should be required to act wholly through formal and recorded resolutions. 
 It should determine and direct the general policy of the school system. Within 
 reasonable limits as to amount, it should be given power in its discretion, to 
 levy whatever money may be needed for school purposes." — Committee of 
 Fifteen, p. 103. 
 
 "I suggest, as a general business principle, that all the business of the board 
 should rest in the hands of responsible school officers — one for each department, 
 with a fair subdivision of the work, separating, perhaps, the department of 
 instruction, that of buildings and repairs, school-room supplies and finances. All 
 
 13 
 
cannot be expected from the kind of men whose appointment is demanded 
 by the best interests of the schools. The duties of the board of educa- 
 tion as fixed by law involve the establishment and maintenance of a public 
 school system. This implies that the board, acting for the people, shall 
 prescribe the general educational policy of the city, determining on the 
 one hand the kind and the number of buildings to be erected for school 
 purposes, and on the other hand, outlining what shall be taught in the 
 schools, and spending economically and fairly the school funds for these 
 purposes. The administration in detail of the schools, either on the edu- 
 cational or on the business side, cannot be carried on by the board acting 
 
 the business of the board should be transacted through these officers, and the com- 
 mittees of the board should be supervisory but not executive." — F. Louis Soldan, 
 Superintendent, St. Louis Public Schools. 
 
 "In what you propose respecting the two great phases of school management, 
 that pertaining to the business and that of education, you have not only taken 
 high ground regarding the centralizing of authority in the person of two com- 
 petent experts, but have placed around these executive heads such safeguards 
 as will prevent possible abuses on the one hand and unnecessary interference 
 on the other." — 5". T. Dutton, Superintendent, Brookline, Mass. 
 
 "The administration of a system of schools involves two quite distinct func- 
 tions — the legislative and the executive. The state legislature enacts laws for 
 the organization and general management of schools, and the board of education 
 in each district is endowed by the state with other necessary legislative powers. 
 This legislative action is the chief function of the board of education as an 
 organized body. All experience shows that a body cannot wisely attend to the 
 details of organization." — E. E. White, in American School Board Journal, 
 February, i8g8. 
 
 "The board should confine itself to the discussion and establishment of plans 
 and policies. It should not interfere in the carrying out of details. These should 
 be left to those who are employed in the various departments, because of their 
 special fitness."— Joseph W. Errant, Member of Chicago School Board, 1897. 
 
 "The leading principle embodied in the new school legislation vests, subject 
 to the supervision and approval of the board, the broadest powers in the hands 
 of the executive departments, who in turn are to be held to the strictest responsi- 
 bility for their management. Thus in the matter of the selection of teachers, 
 janitors and employes, the law contemplates that the members of the board are 
 in no wise to interfere. Such selection is left to the department officers, and 
 the board is given final supervisory control over these matters by the power of 
 approval or disapproval. This general policy of giving an officer the greatest 
 latitude in the selection of subordinates and in their government, and holding 
 him directly responsible for satisfactory results in his department, met with the 
 fullest approval of the members of the new board, hence, their aim, in the 
 revision of the rules, was to extend such policy to every branch of the business 
 of the schools and to harmonize all by-laws and regulations with the statute 
 law in that respect. The board fully realized that, under the new plan, the selec- 
 tion of its executive officers was a matter of the greatest importance. To this 
 task the members applied themselves at once with a single purpose, to-wit: 
 the selection of the fittest and most reliable men."— Paul F. Coste, Presidents 
 Report, St. Louis Board of Education, 1897. 
 
as a whole, and should not be carried on by a system of committee man- 
 agement. Against the latter plan are arrayed many arguments, founded 
 on the lack of competency of even the best boards as far as the educational 
 work is concerned, and on the lack of time as far as the details are involved. 
 
 SECTION 5. THAT ONLY THREE STANDING COMMITTEES BE APPOINTED; 
 
 VIZ., A COMMITTEE ON EDUCATIONAL AFFAIRS, A COMMITTEE ON BUSI- 
 NESS AFFAIRS, AND A COMMITTEE ON FINANCIAL AFFAIRS. 
 
 The work of the board of education, when the details of management 
 are referred, as here implied, to the proper executive officers, can be ac- 
 complished easily and satisfactorily with three committees, at the most, 
 fulfilling, subject to the approval of the board, the three functions of secur- 
 ing and maintaining school accommodations, of providing the necessary 
 instruction, and of equitably dividing and spending school funds for these 
 purposes. ( 25b ) 
 
 SECTION 6. THAT THE BOARD BE GIVEN POWER TO CONDEMN SITES FOR 
 
 SCHOOL PURPOSES. 
 
 A board thus constituted, may properly be given the power to condemn 
 sites for school purposes, a power which in other large cities, where sim- 
 ilar conditions prevail, has been found necessary for securing, in the short- 
 est time and to the best advantage, the additional property required by 
 the growth of the school system. This power, which can be justly claimed 
 by the board of education on the general ground of public interest, need not, 
 with proper restrictions, be susceptible of abuse, and considering the admit- 
 ted necessity of increased accommodations, will be of immediate and great 
 practical assistance to the Chicago board. It will give the school system of 
 the city the sites needed, where they are needed, and at a price more approxi- 
 mate to real values than has frequently been the case, and will do away with 
 much danger and difficulty in connection with defective titles. The process 
 of condemnation might cause some delay, but this has been avoided in 
 New York by the limitation of the length of such a suit. Recourse to 
 condemnation may be had, if it seems desirable, only in cases where par- 
 ticular sites are needed imperatively for school purposes. ( 26 ) 
 
 (25b) The proper number of committees is discussed further in Article II. 
 
 (26) "The proceedings of the board of education with reference to the pur- 
 chase of real estate for school purposes during the past ten years, will show 
 numerous occasions when a considerable expenditure of public money would have 
 been avoided if the right to condemn property for school purposes existed in this 
 city. The right of eminent domain has been given by statute to nearly every 
 
 15 
 
SECTION 7. THAT THE BOARD BE GIVEN POWER, INDEPENDENT OF THE 
 
 CITY COUNCIL, TO PURCHASE SITES AND CONSTRUCT BUILDINGS. 
 
 In accordance with the general principle of concentration of authority 
 and responsibility already mentioned, your commission would recommend 
 that to the board of education be given the power, independent of the city 
 council, of purchasing sites and erecting buildings. ( 27 ) 
 
 form of a public corporation which exists in this state, including the boards of 
 directors in rural school districts, where it is not needed, but for some reason 
 has never been given to the school authorities in large cities. 
 
 "The necessity of using this power in the city of Chicago arises from the 
 fact that in the purchase of a school site it is necessary to acquire title to several 
 parcels of real estate, sometimes rendering it unavoidable to make purchases 
 from eight or ten different owners, and in many cases the purchase is further 
 complicated by the improvements located upon the real estate. Under this state 
 of affairs, it is possible for a designing person to demand an exorbitant price for 
 his particular holding, and the city is obliged to pay the same or to abandon 
 the purchase of the entire site. As a consequence, it has frequently happened that 
 the city of Chicago has paid outside prices for its real estate for this purpose 
 rather than the fair market value, and in cases where the land has been improved, 
 the amount of money expended for the purchase of the improvements has fre- 
 quently been of little benefit to the board of education. I do not consider that 
 it would be necessary to resort to condemnation proceedings except in rare 
 cases, but if the right to condemn exists, owners of real estate desired for school 
 purposes will be more likely to accept a reasonable value for their land, and 
 it will be impossible for an owner of a single lot, located, possibly, in the 
 center of a proposed school site, to resort to extortionate prices. 
 
 "The right of eminent domain would also be of great value in acquiring title 
 in certain cases where technical defects exist in the title to the real estate pro- 
 posed to be purchased." — Donald L. Morrill. 
 
 (27) "With the responsibility for city schools divided between the city council 
 and the board of education, we have seen during the last two years that the 
 object of the law and the intentions of our law-makers have been frustrated 
 and seriously impaired. The lamentable fact that over thirty-eight thousand 
 children are without any school facilities, is too serious not to attract and demand 
 immediate attention. This number will be largely increased before the neces- 
 sary school buildings can be erected, even if ordered now, and there is the greatest 
 danger that the question of locating schools will degenerate into a mere political 
 contest. The members of the board have heretofore studiously avoided any- 
 thing that might give a political bias or character to their actions ; but it will 
 be difficult, if not impossible, to continue this, if the present deadlock on the 
 subject of new schools is continued." — Allan C. Story, President's Report, Chi- 
 cago Board of Education, 1889. 
 
 "In the matter of concurrence by the city council in action by the board for 
 which such concurrence is required, the inconsistency heretofore prevailing has 
 been allowed to continue. It has been curiously assumed that the 'appropriation' 
 by the city council each year of an aggregate sum, specifically 'for the purpose 
 of grounds, furniture, erection of new buildings, repairs and renting of buildings 
 and support of schools,' constitutes an advanced concurrence in the expenditures 
 deemed necessary by the board for repairs, and yet does not constitute a sufficient 
 
 16 
 
The suggestion has been made further, that the board of education be 
 allowed to determine, within the limits of the law, the amount of money • 
 to be appropriated for school purposes. ( 2S ) This is a power widely 
 granted to similar bodies. Experience so far has not shown that this 
 power is liable to abuse. The levying of taxes for school purposes is in the 
 
 concurrence in expenditures for the purchase of school sites and the erection 
 of new buildings, so that it has been customary to proceed in reference to the 
 council in the making of repairs, and to apply for concurrence to the council every 
 time it was desired to purchase a school site or erect a school building. The 
 bare statement of such a condition of things is enough to show its unreasonable- 
 ness. If the 'appropriation' is a sufficient concurrence for repairs, it is likewise 
 a sufficient concurrence for the purchase of school sites and the erection of new 
 buildings; and if it is not a sufficient concurrence for the latter it is not for the 
 former. There can be no middle ground. I do not understand that anybody 
 dissents from this proposition, nor do I know that any of 'the municipal officers 
 have any special interest in the matter. They are all satisfied with the existing 
 order of things, which is always easier to continue than to change. But the 
 board of education should feel an interest in doing its business correctly and 
 as required by law. There has been a great deal of embarrassing delay in the 
 council at various times in acting in one way or the other upon communications 
 from the board respecting the purchase of school sites and the erection of new 
 buildings, and I believe it would be well for the board hereafter to carry out the 
 above mentioned assumption to its logical conclusion, and to proceed under the 
 present appropriation in the purchase of school sites and the erection of school 
 buildings without applying to the city council for any specific concurrence at all." 
 —William G. Beale, President's Report, Chicago Board of Education, 1890. 
 
 The embarrassment and delay which has been the rule under the present plan 
 of requiring the concurrence of the council in respect to sites and buildings, is 
 somewhat forcibly indicated in the following extract from President Halle's 
 report for 1898 : 
 
 "Motley School (adjoining lots)— Recommended Nov. 18, 1896, and author- 
 ized by Council Dec. 13, 1897; North Oakley Avenue, near Potomac Avenue- 
 Recommended Feb. 24, 1897, and authorized by Council Dec. 13, 1897; Froebel 
 School (adjoining lots.) — Recommended March 24, 1897, and placed on file by 
 Council May 16, 1898; Southeast corner Avenue N and 110th Street— Recom- 
 mended Oct. 6, 1897, and authorized May 23, 1898; West 17th Street, near Loomis 
 Street— Recommended by Board Oct. 20, 1897, and authorized March 23, T898: 
 Prairie and Forest Avenues — Recommended Nov. 3, 1897, not authorized to date." 
 
 (28) "The work of such a board will be best subserved by giving them virtual 
 control of the finances, even to the point of levying school taxes. A maximum 
 limit may be fixed by the legislative authority, but there should be perfect free- 
 dom as to the amount to be collected within that limit. The best laborer must 
 be sure of his tools. Money is the most efficient tool in the hands of a most 
 conscientious school board of education, and they must be sure of its con- 
 stant readiness for service." — /. L. Pickard, in Education, September, 1883. 
 
 "To require a board thus constituted to be a suppliant to the average city 
 council, for the necessary appropj nations to carry on the school, is a grievous 
 wrong. You can rest assured that if for any reason the revenues of the city are 
 curtailed and some department must suffer, it will be as a rule the school, as 
 the ward statesmen of the council must keep their fences in repair in their own 
 little kingdoms. I would have the school boards make the tax levy for carrying 
 on the schools, and certify the same to the taxing authorities for collection and 
 return direct to the boards, as the boards are unquestionably the better judges 
 as to the requirements of the schools than the city government, whose members 
 
 17 
 
hands of the board of education in St.Louis, Pittsburg, Cincinnati, Cleve- 
 land, Milwaukee, Minneapolis, Denver, and Indianapolis, and it is pro- 
 posed by the new law in Massachusetts to give similar power to the school 
 committee of Boston. In such cases, however, the school authorities have 
 been directly elected by the people, and so are directly responsible to them ; 
 with a board of education appointed as here suggested, difficulties might 
 arise from too lavish expenditure. The principle, it must be granted 
 also, is opposed to municipal experience, which has in general necessi- 
 tated placing all such questions, so far as the city is concerned, in the 
 hands of one body.( 29 ) On the other hand, as the present condition of 
 school affairs in Chicago shows undue retrenchment in the matter of school 
 
 are in no sense familiar with the work. I would place the entire responsibility 
 on the board, knowing full well that if the schools are not conducted upon an 
 economical basis, the people, the source of all power, will dismiss them as 
 unfaithful stewards, and select others more worthy." — R. L. Yeager, President 
 Kansas City School Board, N. E. A. Proceedings, 1896, p. 974. 
 
 "Even the determination of the sum to be levied for school purposes should 
 not be left to the common council, which by legislation and by usage has come 
 to represent and has become representative of interests not in harmony or 
 sympathy with school administration. If there is a finance board or tax com- 
 mission which receives estimates from all sources and finally determines the 
 amount to be levied, it is not so objectionable that the school estimates should 
 go with others to this board, for such a board may be assumed to be independent 
 of all special intersts and representative of the best sentiment of the whole 
 city. But the only sound rule is that school administration shall be entirely 
 independent of municipal business. The two do not rest upon the same founda- 
 tion. The power which manages each proceeds from entirely different sources, 
 and the object and purpose of each have nothing in common." — Andrew S. 
 Draper, in Educational Review, 1893. 
 
 "To allow the board of education to levy its own taxes, while withholding 
 the same right from the sewer commissioner, police, fire and park boards, is 
 to assume that the school men are superior beings to their official brethren, and 
 deserve special consideration. This would not be admitted. The way that 
 this whole question is often avoided is to take the schools entirely out of 
 municipal control. The charters of some of the big cities do not mention schools 
 at all, or only briefly and incidentally, while the school boards are specially 
 chartered with full powers of taxation. The powers of the western boards 
 with respect to finances are usually much greater than those in the east. St. 
 Louis, Denver and Minneapolis are types of cities where school boards enjoy 
 the right to levy whatever tax they require without submitting their estimates 
 to anybody." — James C. Boykin, in Educational Review, March. 1897. 
 
 (29) "The theory that there should be a balance wheel somewhere in the 
 city government, to keep all its parts running smoothly and uniformly, is a sound 
 one. The experience of allowing each municipal board to levy taxes for every 
 purpose its members think necessary has always resulted disastrously, for the 
 aggregate is sure to be excessive. The common council is logically the body 
 which should act as the balance wheel in so adjusting the expenditures of the 
 several branches of the city government as to bring them all within reasonable 
 bounds ; and from the standpoint of the student of city government in general, 
 where the schools are distinctly municipal affairs, no valid objection can be 
 urged to lodging the power of appropriation of funds in the council." — James 
 C. Boykin, in Educational Review, March, 1897. 
 
accommodations — a point to be discussed later — your commission thinks 
 that the question of giving- such power to the board of education is worthy 
 of serious consideration^ 30 ) 
 
 SECTION 8. THAT PROVISION BE MADE IN THE LAW FOR THE REMOVAL 
 
 OF MEMBERS OF THE BOARD, BUT ONLY FOR CAUSE AND UPON WRITTEN 
 CHARGES. 
 
 The necessity of removing members of a board has not often arisen., 
 but a number of cities have seen proper to provide for such a con- 
 tingency^ 31 ) As the appointment .of members is put in the hands of the 
 
 (30) "The control of school finances by the city council is a very great evil. 
 Common councils of American cities are almost invariably composed of inferior 
 men, with a large number, if not a majority, of corrupt men. I never yet 
 knew what might be called a good common council in any city. They are always 
 political bodies with that intensity of political partisanship which belongs to 
 the ward politician, and everything within their grasp is used for partisan 
 advantage. To make it direct, in this city it is practically necessary to have 
 the school board and the common council of the same political complexion in 
 order to secure adequate appropriations ; otherwise the party appropriating funds 
 might be contributing to the glory and success of the party controlling the 
 schools. It makes no difference which party is in power. Nothing is of less 
 interest to the average common council than education, and nothing makes so 
 convenient a political tool. If economy must be practiced, the schools are the 
 first to suffer. If money is to be spent, it must be so spent that it shall redound to 
 the advantage of the party in power. The common council should have abso- 
 lutely no rights or powers regarding the administration of schools or the appro- 
 priation of funds. It is better to allow the school board, within the statutory 
 limits, to determine the amount of funds to be expended." — A City Superin- 
 tendent. 
 
 "The powers relating to the management of city schools are often vested 
 in boards, the members of which are appointed by the mayor and confirmed by 
 the city council or aldermen. In such cases the school board is dependent 
 upon the legislative branch of the municipal government for appropriations 
 from the treasury to pay the salaries of teachers and officers and to meet 
 the current expenses of the schools. New buildings and building sites are in 
 that case usually provided by the city government directly, but in some cases 
 by the school board. The city council is more interested in municipal improve- 
 ments and in questions of semi-political or partisan nature than in the schools, 
 and is apt to stint the supply of the school fund at unseasonable times." — 
 William T. Harris, Superintendent's Report, St. Louis Board of Education, 1879. 
 
 (31) "Any member of the board of education of a borough school board, or 
 any inspector of common schools in the city of New York, may be removed 
 by the mayor of said city upon proof either of official misconduct in office or 
 negligence of official duties, or of conduct in any manner connected with his 
 official duties, or otherwise, which tends to discredit his office or the member or 
 inspector, but before such removal of said member or inspector, he shall receive 
 due and timely notice in writing of the charges and a copy thereof, and shall 
 
 19 
 
mayor, it seems well to give him the power of removal, if necessity should 
 arise ; only, however, after a due trial and a formal statement of the rea- 
 sons for such action. 
 
 SECTION 9. THAT A FORMAL TITLE BE GIVEN MEMBERS OK THE BOARD, 
 
 AND THAT THE EXACT TIME AND THE CONDITIONS OF THEIR APPOINT- 
 MENT BE CLEARLY INDICATED IN THE SCHOOL LAW. 
 
 The school law of the state of Illinois, in the article specifically apply- 
 ing to Chicago, lacks clearness in regard to the time of appointment, the 
 duration of the term, and the title of members of the board of education, 
 in any future legislation bearing upon the city system, attention might 
 well be given to these points. 
 
 be entitled to a hearing on like notice before the mayor, and to the assistance of 
 counsel on said hearing." — Removals by Mayor for Neglect or Misconduct, after 
 Hearing.— Section 1,087, Charter of the City of New York. 
 
3T1k Justness jttanagf- 
 
 nwnt of tijc 13oaro of 
 
 ?£ curat ton 
 
 ARTICLE II 
 
 Your Commission respectfully recommends, in regard to the business 
 management of the Board of Education : 
 
 SECTION I. THAT A BUSINESS MANAGER BE APPOINTED AT A YEARLY 
 
 SALARY NOT TO EXCEED $10,000, UNDER A CONTRACT FOR A TERM OF 
 SIX YEARS; PROVIDED, THAT HE MAY BE REMOVED ONLY FOR CAUSE 
 UPON WRITTEN CHARGES, BY A VOTE OF NOT LESS THAN TWO-THIRDS 
 OF THE ENTIRE BOARD; 
 
 SECTION 2. THAT HE SHALL NOMINATE AND, SUBJECT TO THE PRIOR 
 
 APPROVAL OF THE BOARD, APPOINT THE ARCHITECT OR ARCHITECTS OF 
 SCHOOL BUILDINGS, AND ADVERTISE AND AWARD THE CONTRACTS FOR 
 THE CONSTRUCTION AND REPAIR OF SUCH BUILDINGS EITHER WHOLLY 
 OR IN PART, AND FOR THE PURCHASE OF ALL SUPPLIES REQUIRED FOR 
 THE BOARD AND SCHOOLS, OR OFFICERS AND EMPLOYES OF THE BOARD; 
 PROVIDED, THAT HE MAY, WITHOUT SUCH PRIOR APPROVAL, EXPEND 
 FOR REPAIRS AND SUPPLIES A SUM NOT TO EXCEED $200 IN EACH CASE ; 
 
 SECTION 3. THAT HE SHALL EXERCISE A CAREFUL OVERSIGHT OVER THE 
 
 CONSTRUCTION OF ALL SCHOOL BUILDINGS, AND OVER ALL REPAIRS ON 
 SUCH BUILDINGS J 
 
 SECTION 4. THAT HE SHALL HAVE THE APPOINTMENT, DIRECTION AND 
 
 DISCHARGE, UNDER CIVIL SERVICE RULES, AND IN ACCORDANCE WITH 
 A SCHEDULE OF SALARIES ESTABLISHED BY THE BOARD, OF THE JANI- 
 TORS, ENGINEERS AND OTHER PERSONS WHOM HE SHALL REQUIRE TO 
 ASSIST HIM IN THE BUSINESS AFFAIRS OF THE BOARD ; PROVIDED, THAT 
 ALL SUCH APPOINTMENTS, PROMOTIONS AND DISMISSALS SHALL BE 
 REPORTED TO THE BOARD AT ITS NEXT REGULAR MEETING, AND SHALL 
 STAND AS FINAL UNLESS DISAPPROVED BY A MAJORITY VOTE OF ALL 
 THE MEMBERS THEREOF, NOT LATER THAN THE SECOND MEETING AFTER 
 THE REPORT IS MADE THERETO; 
 
 SECTION 5. THAT HE SHALL PERFORM ALL OTHER EXECUTIVE DUTIES 
 
 RELATING TO THE BUSINESS AFFAIRS OF THE BOARD, BUT NOT SUBJECT 
 TO ITS PRIOR APPROVAL, AND REPORT SUCH ACTS, TOGETHER WITH A 
 
 21 
 
STATEMENT OF ALL EXPENDITURES FOR REPAIRS AND SUPPLIES, NOT 
 EXCEEDING THE SUM OF $200 IN EACH CASE, AT THE NEXT REGULAR 
 MEETING OF THE BOARD J SAID ACTS AND EXPENDITURES TO STAND AS 
 FINAL UNLESS DISAPPROVED BY A MAJORITY VOTE OF ALL THE MEM- 
 BERS THEREOF, NOT LATER THAN THE SECOND MEETING AFTER SUCH 
 REPORT IS MADE THERETO J 
 
 SECTION 6. THAT HE SHALL HAVE THE CHARGE AND CUSTODY OF THE 
 
 SECURITIES OF THE BOARD AND UNDER CLOSE DIRECTION, ACT AS ITS 
 FINANCIAL AGENT J 
 
 SECTION 7. THAT, BEFORE ENTERING UPON HIS DUTIES, HE SHALL GIVE 
 
 A BOND OF NOT LESS THAN $150,000, RUNNING TO AND APPROVED BY 
 THE BOARD, AND CONDITIONED UPON THE FAITHFUL PERFORMANCE OF 
 THE DUTIES OF HIS OFFICE. 
 
 The administration of a school system in a small community is not a 
 matter of great difficulty. The interest of the public in this important 
 question, the comparative ease with which the people can discuss and 
 determine measures relating to the schools, their intimate knowledge 
 of the men proposed to represent them in the management of school af- 
 fairs, and the facility with which any citizen may inform himself in regard 
 even to the details of the work, all lead to a ready solution of this problem. 
 With the growth of a city ( 1 ), however, the conditions become much more 
 
 (!) "As cities increase in population, and even out of proportion to the ad- 
 vance in population, the volume of municipal business enlarges, the magnitude 
 of the transactions becomes more and more appalling, the subjects presented 
 more and more involved, the temptations become greater and dishonesty more 
 and more difficult of detection. As it becomes more and more imperative to 
 have strong men and honest men to manage the business of large cities, it also 
 becomes, for obvious reasons, more and more difficult to secure them upon 
 the basis of an unrestricted suffrage. It is therefore meet that the best thought 
 of the country should be turned, as it is turned, to plans for the government 
 of cities. 
 
 "And what is true of municipal business in great and growing cities is true 
 in still larger degree of their school business. The proper education of the 
 children is infinitely more important than even the management of the street, 
 fire and police departments of such cities. And in view of the marked extent 
 to which our people are congregating in cities, it is well for us to remember that 
 if the public school system is to hold the confidence and esteem of the country, it 
 must hold the confidence and esteem of the cities, and to do that it must bear 
 fruits worthy of confidence and esteem." — Andrew S. Draper, in Educational 
 Review, June, 1883. 
 
 "In our great city school systems there is little distinction between 
 legislative and executive functions, no centralization of responsibility 
 and acountability. Novices are toying with high powers of govern- 
 ment and managing vast properties, before which the most experienced and 
 
complicated and since a very large percentage of the population of the 
 country is now massed in cities of considerable size ( 2 ), the securing of 
 a good school system is a difficult problem. ( 3 ) The evolution of school 
 systems in large cities, has led, as your commission has already indicated, 
 to a marked change in the methods of selecting boards of education. ( 4 ) 
 This change in the constitution of the board involves also a different plan 
 of organization and administration. The large membership of the board 
 which has hitherto been common in cities, led inevitably to a system of 
 committee management ( 5 ), the evils of which have already been sug- 
 
 conservative stand in awe. There is but little appreciation of the difficulties 
 of developing a competent, right-spirited, self-respecting force, and the temple 
 is being profaned by money changers. The organization is so constituted that 
 it resists the contributing citizen looking for live teaching for his children, 
 more than the poor unfortunate who is in quest of a place, or the pillager who 
 is looking for plunder." — "The Crucial Test," by Andrew S. Draper. 
 
 ( 2 ) In 1840, 8.5 per cent of the total population of the United States lived in 
 cities of more than 8,000. In 1890 there was in cities of this size not less than 
 29.4 per cent of the population. 
 
 ( 3 ) "Now I must exploit these troubles in the two most important directions 
 before discussing the remedies. Your city is spending millions of dollars each 
 year upon the schools. The wise and safe expenditure of this money so that 
 it shall secure the ends which the people who give it have the right to demand 
 places a tremendous responsibility somewhere. The business operations inci- 
 dent thereto are involved and innumerable. Integrity, experience, expertness 
 and alertness are all imperative, or the money is filched and the ends for which 
 it was raised are defeated. The city owns millions upon millions of real estate 
 devoted to school purposes. It is putting in millions more each year. Some 
 of us know how difficult it is to care for a small interest in real estate, where 
 our own self-interest is sufficient to make us attend to it. How infinitely more 
 involved is the problem of maintaining in good physical and healthful con- 
 dition hundreds of buildings subject to the hard usage which falls upon school 
 houses. Then there is the matter of selecting new sites and erecting new build- 
 ings. The first calls for ripe judgment as to the probable directions of the 
 city's growth ; the last calls for all the good qualities in the heavens above 
 as well as upon the earth beneath to prevent fraud and to secure to the people 
 what belongs to them. The whole business is encompassed by self-seekers. 
 You might as well turn the banks of the city over to the ward primaries and 
 expect to keep them out of the hands of receivers, or let political committees 
 name the directors of the railroads and expect trains to run on time and dividends 
 to be paid on quarter days, as to put all this vast business of the schools into 
 inexperienced hands, chosen in a similar way, and expect it to be conservatively 
 managed." — "The Crucial Test," by Andrew S. Draper. 
 
 ( 4 ) See Article I , Section 1. 
 
 ( 5 ) "It abolishes the vicious trustee or sub-committee government. That 
 Brooklyn is permitted to retain it in a modified form is a loss to Brooklyn, but 
 it will furnish a gigantic object lesson which cannot fail to be of great value. 
 That there are wise, and good, and helpful boards of trustees and local com- 
 mittees is a truism. That the system itself is an incubus to the schools is 
 evident to any candid observer." — "Education in the Greater New York," by 
 Frank A. Fitzpatrick, in Educational Review, May, 1S97. 
 
 23 
 
jested. ( 6 ) Just as the membership of many boards ( 7 ) increased to an 
 absurd degree, so the number of committees appointed to manage their 
 affairs has been in many instances extremely large.' The numerous com- 
 mittees have led to a very cumbersome and unwieldy system of adminis- 
 tration^ 8 ) The arguments against a large board of education are even 
 more valid against the number of committees, which naturally results from 
 it. Your commission has no hesitation in recommending a small 
 membership of the board and in stating its belief that three committees can 
 perform more satisfactorily than at present the duties now devolving on 
 not less than twenty-four. A committee on educational affairs, a com- 
 mittee on business affairs, and a committee on financial affairs can, we 
 believe, easily assume all the work which cannot be immediately settled by 
 the board as a whole ( 9 ), and which may well be assigned to the immediate 
 consideration of committees. It is evident, however, that no one of these 
 committees, including at most four or five members, can acquaint itself 
 with all the details of school administration which are included in the gen- 
 
 (6) See Article I, Section 4. 
 
 (?) "The present laws that relate to the school committee of Boston con- 
 tain nothing especially remarkable, but their history is full of things which it 
 would be well to avoid. The primary schools were managed prior to 1855 by 
 a committee which had grown from thirty-six to one hundred and ninety. 
 They filled their own vacancies and were generally a law unto themselves. 
 At the same time there was a general school committee of twenty-four members, 
 two elected by the people of each of the twelve wards, and when the primary 
 school committee was abolished the general committee was increased to seventy- 
 two, or six members for each ward. 
 
 "With the annexation of more territory to the city the school committee 
 grew to one hundred and sixteen members. It was so unwieldy as to interfere 
 with the proper prosecution of business, and in 1895 the number was cut down 
 to twenty-four, elected from the city at large. They had formerly no authority 
 to determine the location or character of the school houses, that power being 
 exercised by the city council until 1875. Then the school committee was given 
 a voice in the matter, but the division of authority was equally unsatisfactory 
 in practice, but in 1889 the entire control of the erection of buildings was turned 
 over to the school committee, though the money might fairly be appropriated by 
 the council." — Report of U. S. Commissioner of Education, 1896. 
 
 ( 8 ) "At one time, in Cincinnati, the management of the school system was 
 shared by seventy-four committees. This number was formerly surpassed in 
 Chicago, when the list of committees included not less than seventy-nine." — "City 
 School Systems," by John D. Philbrick. 
 
 (9) '•* * * The board should transact all its business, as far as possible, 
 as a board. It is all right to appoint your committees, but, as far as practicable, 
 I would have the entire board as a committee in all important matters. It has 
 been my observation that most all the disturbance and mischief that boards have 
 to meet comes through committee work. This is the open door through which 
 walks the criticisms and insinuations and intimations that some baneful influence 
 has been invoked. Is it not wisdom, to say nothing of policy, to avoid all 
 possible criticism?" — R. L. Y eager, President, Board of Education, Kansas City, 
 N. E. A. Proceedings, 1896, p. 977. 
 
 24 
 
eral scope of its work. Even in a small community, where, if ever, the con- 
 ditions admit of such committee administration, it has seemed best in many 
 instances to make the superintendent of the school system the executive 
 officer in full charge of both educational and business functions and to in- 
 trust to him the working out of a policy, outlined only in general, by the 
 school authorities. ( 10 ) This separation of legislative duties, preferable in 
 a small town, becomes imperative in our large cities. ( u ) Here the board 
 of education must differentiate ( 12 ) its functions and, to fulfill its duties 
 adequately, must give over the executive work to competent and trusted 
 officers. C 13 ) Therefore we recommend: 
 
 ( 10 ) One city of considerable size (Decatur, 111.) has been referred to in 
 discussions of this question, in which, for twenty-five years, no building has 
 been erected, and no teacher appointed, except on the direct recommendation 
 of the superintendent. 
 
 ( n ) "* * * On the business side, the board of education, by placing in 
 the hands of a superintendent of supplies, a superintendent of buildings and 
 a superintendent of schools, the manifold details arising in this department, 
 escapes the worry, irritation and annoyance which a discussion over such trivial 
 matters always brings to the members of the board. As a result the members 
 of the board of education will have ample time to discuss great questions of 
 school policy and lend valuable aid to the solution of many vexed questions 
 relative to the schools." — "Education in the Greater New York," by Frank A. 
 Fitzpatrick, in Educational Review, May, 1897. 
 
 ( 12 )"In other words, we are to take the general course which experience 
 leads all intelligent people to take concerning the administration of great enter- 
 prises, in order to justify the theories upon which they are acting, and make 
 sure of the ends for which they are striving. We must do all business upon a 
 business basis. We must departmentalize the work ; build up the administra- 
 tive organs on bed- rock principles; confer needed authority upon officials, give 
 them positions of character and dignity, afford them security, direct their pro- 
 ceedings by law and punish them if they disregard the directions. There are 
 men and women who will not scramble for these positions, but who would fill 
 them capably and conscientiously, and they can be found. It is for the sub- 
 stantial sentiment of the city to tear down social, political and other kinds of 
 fences, bring contributing citizens together, lay aside everything but the common 
 good, lay plans which are more scientific and find representatives to carry them 
 out." — "The Crucial Test," by Andrezv S. Draper. 
 
 "The function of the board of education is legislative primarily, and sec- 
 ondarily it is administrative; and for the latter it should divide the work into 
 separate departments, each with a responsible head." — "City School Administra- 
 tion," by Albert P. Marble, in Educational Review, September, 1894. 
 
 (13) "The report is correct in recommending that there be a clear distinc- 
 tion made between the legitimate duties of the board of education and those 
 executive duties which experience shows that no board can efficiently or wisely 
 discharge. The executive duties involved in a school administration should 
 be intrusted to two independent officers — a business manager or director, and 
 a superintendent of instruction— and the duties of these officers should not only 
 be properly co-ordinated, but the authority and general duties of each should 
 be clearly defined by state law, and not by the rules of the board of education." — 
 E. E. W hit e, N. E. A. Proceedings, 1895, p. 390. 
 
 25 
 
SECTION I. THAT A BUSINESS MANAGER BE APPOINTED AT A YEARLY 
 
 SALARY NOT TO EXCEED $10,000, UNDER A CONTRACT FOR A TERM OF 
 SIX YEARS/ PROVIDED, THAT HE MAY BE REMOVED ONLY FOR CAUSE 
 UPON WRITTEN CHARGES BY A VOTE OF NOT LESS THAN TWO-THIRDS 
 OF THE ENTIRE BOARD. ( 14 ) 
 
 The duties of the business manager under the plan which your com- 
 mission proposes, are so far reaching and so important, that nothing less 
 than the highest business ability and integrity can insure their proper ful- 
 fillment. C 15 ) In order to secure a man who may fairly be expected to 
 manage satisfactorily the enormous business interests of the board of edu- 
 
 (l-i) "In this connection I take the liberty of proposing and advocating a 
 measure contemplating a radical change in the policy of the business manage- 
 ment of the affairs of this board. I believe that the history of this depart- 
 ment will justify the judgment that the economic interests of this board have 
 not been subserved, nor can they be promoted by our current methods of busi- 
 ness. The conflicting phases of semi-responsibility in the direction of minor 
 interests render it impossible to fasten accountability upon any one set of men. 
 Definite responsibility and exacting accountability should ever be the under- 
 lying and governing principle of every organization to which is committed 
 fiduciary trust. If our affairs were conducted on the plan or by the methods 
 pursued" in such private enterprises as great business houses, large banking 
 corporations or extensive railroad directories — and why they are not I am at a 
 loss to conceive— I feel sure that within an incredibly short period of time we 
 should realize a marvelous and gratifying change for the better in the admin- 
 istration of the business affairs of this board. Division of labor is a prime 
 principle of industrial economy, only when each department is made subservient 
 to the interest of the whole of which it forms a part. Not the least noteworthy 
 application of this principle is found in the employment of certain true and 
 tried men. whose office it is to give directions to and hold in review the agencies 
 necessary for the conduct of any large business interest. As there is a govern- 
 ing principle, so there is in all successful enterprises a governing power. A 
 clear, well-balanced mind is seldom at conflict with itself; hence the wisdom 
 of making selection of one responsible head of affairs, to whom may be com- 
 mitted the management of the same, and who is empowered to work out his 
 own plans with an eye single to an accountability that is commensurate with 
 his trusted powers. Could this board see its way clear to the adoption of such 
 measures governing the management of its business. I humbly and confidently 
 submit it would insure such a conservation of its interests and secure such an 
 improvement in the conduct of its affairs as would carry conviction of the wisdom 
 of such a provision to the most incredulous." — D. R. Cameron, President's Report, 
 Chicago Board of Education. 1896. 
 
 (15) "The business department should have charge of all the property inter- 
 ests of the system. It should make the contracts and see to their execution, 
 appoint janitors and remove them, and be held responsible for the condition 
 of the property. The head of this department must be a business man of 
 good experience and well-known independence and probity, who is strongly 
 sympathetic with the noble ends for which the public school stands." — "The 
 Crucial Test." by Andreiv S. Draper. 
 
 "The chief executive officer on the business side should be charged with the 
 care of all property and with the duty of keeping it in suitable condition ; he 
 should provide all necessary furnishings and appliances; he should make all 
 agreements and see that they are properly performed : he should appoint all 
 assistants, janitors and workmen ; he should do all that the law contemplates and 
 
 26 
 
cation, it will be necessary to pay what may at first thought seem a large 
 salary. But in consideration of the admitted need of such an officer, a need 
 which has been repeatedly recognized by those who have been most inti- 
 mately associated with the work of the board ( 16 ), and of the possibilities 
 which are opened under this plan for greater efficiency of service 
 and a large saving in expense, by a more economical and business- 
 like management ( 17 ), your commission feels assured that the good judg- 
 ment of the community will approve the policy of paying a large salary 
 
 all that the board authorizes concerning the business affairs of the school system, 
 and when anything goes wrong he should answer for it.— Committee of 
 Fifteen, p. no. 
 
 (!6) "I find the business affairs of the board largely managed in detail by 
 different departments, each separate and distinct, under the general control 
 of some special committee, which recommends to the board such expenditure 
 of money as they deem advisable, according to the knowledge they have or the 
 wants of the schools ; but the expenditure of this large appropriation as a whole 
 is under the control of no one particular person, with no individual responsi- 
 bility resting upon anyone. I know that the business affairs of the board are 
 honestly and faithfully conducted, but can they be judiciously and economically 
 conducted under such a system ? I think not, nor can the best results be obtained 
 from such methods. 
 
 "In my judgment, the proper administration of your affairs requires the 
 appointment of some one person who could devote all his time to this work, 
 and for which he should receive a salary commensurate with the responsibility. 
 He should have all the power usually given the presidents of large corpora- 
 tions, have full charge and authority over all the business affairs of the board 
 and all its business employes ; the heads of the business departments should 
 report directly to him in all matters pertaining to their departments ; he should 
 examine the value of school sites before purchasing, investigate all requests 
 for improvements and for repairs of all school buildings, superintend the letting 
 of all contracts, oversee all expenditures and audit all disbursements — in short, 
 he should have full power to conduct the business affairs of the board upon 
 the same principles and methods as are used in large corporations organized 
 to make money. A man with such powers would be in touch with all the 
 necessary needs of the schools and their relation to each other, as well as the 
 resources of the board, and would also be in a position to advise the members 
 so that they would act in an intelligent manner; and they would judiciously 
 and economically expend and distribute the large sums of money intrusted to 
 their care. Such action, I think, would often save to the city extravagant and 
 useless expenditure, and to the individual members much time and perplexity." — 
 John McLaren, President's Report, Chicago Board of Education, 1803. 
 
 "* * * It is admitted, though, that in our efforts to place safeguards 
 around our business transactions, we have established a government by com- 
 mittee which must be modified materially. We have a series of committees dis- 
 posing in many instances of petty details which should be left to competent 
 employes." — E. G. Halle, President's Report, Chicago Board of Education, 1898. 
 
 (17) "There is no good reason why the cities of New York and Philadelphia 
 or Chicago should not save money in school expenses and at the same time see 
 the physical condition of the property improve, the financial statement look 
 healthier and the teaching advance in quality and tone, if they would make a 
 school organization in accord with the principles which the world's experiences 
 have shown to be imperative to the conduct of all good enterprises and the 
 enforcement of the rights of the people who are interested in these enterprises." — 
 "The Crucial Test," by Andrew S. Draper. 
 
to this position. ( 18 ) Moreover, as the salary which can fairly be proposed 
 for the business manager, will in any case be less than that which similar 
 ability will command in other business enterprises, your commission be- 
 lieves that this position should be made in other ways attractive to the 
 right man. The term of office should be sufficiently long to free 
 the business manager from the uncertainties of frequent elections and to 
 assure him a full opportunity both to demonstrate his abilities and to test 
 fairly the business system which may commend itself to his judgment. 
 Subject, therefore, to removal in case of incompetency or lack of integrity, 
 he, as well as the other executive officers of the board, should be appointed 
 for the term of six years suggested. 
 
 SECTION 2. THAT HE SHALL NOMINATE AND, SUBJECT TO THE PRIOR 
 
 APPROVAL OF THE BOARD, APPOINT THE ARCHITECT OR ARCHITECTS OF 
 SCHOOL BUILDINGS, AND ADVERTISE AND AWARD CONTRACTS FOR 
 THE CONSTRUCTION AND REPAIR OF SUCH BUILDINGS EITHER WHOLLY 
 OR IN PART, AND FOR THE PURCHASE OF ALL SUPPLIES REQUIRED FOR 
 THE BOARD AND SCHOOLS, OR OFFICERS AND EMPLOYES OF THE BOARD, 
 PROVIDED, THAT HE MAY, WITHOUT SUCH PRIOR APPROVAL, EXPEND FOR 
 REPAIRS AND SUPPLIES A SUM NOT TO EXCEED $200 IN EACH CASE. 
 
 The construction of school buildings is one of the first duties devolving 
 upon the board of education, and cannot in any way be delegated to others. 
 To determine how many buildings are necessary for school purposes, where 
 these should be located, what funds should be set aside for this purpose, 
 are questions to be settled directly by the board, on the initiative of the 
 
 (!8) "It is my belief that a competent man of affairs, with large executive 
 powers, conversant with men and values, informed as to the mutual interests 
 of all parties concerned in the financial transactions of the board, inflexible in 
 demanding and dispensing justice in all matters of reciprocal interests, if chosen 
 to act in the capacity of, let me suggest, a business director of all business 
 affairs, subject always to review by the board, at a liberal salary, by the intro- 
 duction of business methods into our affairs, so effect a saving in our expend- 
 itures as would compensate for his salary many times over and bring about 
 a more rational method of procedure in all our business relations. From a 
 merely financial point of view, from a point of view of a sensate regard for every 
 economic administration of the interests of the board, it would seem that we 
 ought to set the seal of our approval on this measure. Of course, such an officer 
 should have privileges and powers commensurate with his responsibilities, and 
 nothing should be exacted of him except an economical and business-like con- 
 duct of affairs. By such a provision I am fain to believe there would show 
 up annually a large gain in our balance sheet, sufficient for the erection of several 
 school buildings, ana the members of the board would be left free to their 
 legitimate duties in committee and board sessions to pass upon matters of legis- 
 lation and a review of the work of employes." — D. R. Cameron, President's Re- 
 port, Chicago Board of Education, 1896. 
 
 28 
 
superintendent and with the advice of the business manager. The great 
 expense which is involved in securing school accommodations necessitates 
 the utmost care on the part of the board, and in all the functions attributed 
 in this section to the business manager, it is highly necessary that his action 
 should be subject to its approval. But your commission believes that all 
 these duties fall primarily within the scope of his office, and that they can 
 be filled more satisfactorily by him in connection with the other work 
 assigned to him, than they can be by a separate officer- ( 19 ) 
 
 The responsibility for making all repairs on school buildings follows 
 logically the assignment of the construction of such buildings to the busi- 
 ness manager. It has been customary in some cities to give the purchase 
 of supplies to another employe. ( 20 ) Your commission doubts the advisa- 
 bility of entire differentiation of functions, at this point, but sees no reason 
 why the business manager should not assign this duty to a responsible 
 subordinate. We believe, that for purposes of economy, as well as of strict 
 responsibility, the business manager should be required to make purchases 
 and repairs by contract where possible ( 21 ) ; provided, however, that he 
 may in emergency cases spend a small sum as indicated above. 
 
 (19) "The commissioner of school buildings shall be appointed by the board 
 of education for a term of four years, during which term his compensation shall 
 not be reduced. He shall devote all his time to the duties of his office and 
 shall be charged with the care of the public school buildings of such city, and 
 with the responsibility for all the ventilation, warming, sanitary conditions and 
 proper repair thereof. He shall prepare or cause to be prepared all specifica- 
 tions and drawings required, and shall superintend the construction and repair 
 of all such buildings ; shall make report each month to the board of education, 
 showing in detail the cost of repairs and other work for the previous month 
 on each building, embodying therein the amount of bills outstanding for the 
 work ordered by him, and stating specifically the cases where work was done 
 or ordered without public letting; shall superintend all the advertisements 
 for bids and the letting of contracts ; and shall, within the limits of appropria- 
 tions theretofore made by the board of education for repairs, make all contracts 
 for the repairs of school property, except where the cost of such repairs shall 
 exceed the cost of fifty dollars. He shall give bond in such sum as may be 
 fixed by the board of education, which shall not be less th_n ten thousand dollars, 
 conditioneu upon the faithful performance of the duties of his office." — Charter 
 St. Louis Board of Education, Section 8. 
 
 (20) "The superintendent of school supplies shall take and subscribe before 
 the secretary or the clerk of the board of education the oath prescribed by the 
 constitution of this state, and shall give such security for the faithful performance 
 of the duties of his office as the board of education may direct ; and the depart- 
 ment under his charge shall be subject to such rules and regulations as the board 
 may establish." — Charter of the City of New York, Section 1,078. 
 
 "It shall be the duty of the supply commissioner to take charge of the sup- 
 plies, text-books, apparatus and all personal property of the board, not includ- 
 ing furniture, and attend to the distribution of the same upon proper requisi- 
 tion from the schools or the various departments of the schools under the 
 board." — Rules St. Louis Board of Education, Rule 10, Section 1. 
 
 (21) "The board of education shall have oower to enact by-laws and resolu- 
 tions for the government of the superintendent of supplies, which by-laws and 
 
 29 
 
SECTION 3. — THAT THE BUSINESS MANAGER SHALL EXERCISE A CAREFUL 
 OVERSIGHT OVER THE CONSTRUCTION OF ALL SCHOOL BUILDINGS, AND 
 OVER ALL REPAIRS ON SUCH BUILDINGS. 
 
 The duties attributed here to the business manager are among those 
 for which he is naturally responsible, but which, in common with others, 
 may be assigned by permission of the board to a subordinate answerable 
 to him for their proper fulfillment. 
 
 SECTION 4. THAT THE BUSINESS MANAGER HAVE THE APPOINTMENT, 
 
 DIRECTION AND DISCHARGE, UNDER CIVIL SERVICE RULES, AND IN AC- 
 CORDANCE WITH A SCHEDULE OF SALARIES ESTABLISHED BY THE BOARD, 
 OF THE JANITORS, ENGINEERS AND OTHER PERSONS WHOM HE SHALL 
 REQUIRE TO ASSIST HIM IN THE BUSINESS AFFAIRS OF THE BOARD; 
 PROVIDED, THAT ALL SUCH APPOINTMENTS, PROMOTIONS AND DISMIS- 
 SALS SHALL BE REPORTED TO THE BOARD AT ITS NEXT REGULAR MEETING, 
 AND SHALL STAND AS FINAL UNLESS DISAPPROVED BY A MAJORITY 
 VOTE OF ALL THE MEMBERS THEREOF NOT LATER THAN THE SECOND 
 MEETING AFTER THE REPORT IS MADE THERETO. 
 
 In order to secure an efficient administration for the board, it is clear 
 that the executive officer selected by its members should be given the ap- 
 pointment, direction and discharge of the employes in his department. ( 22 ) 
 
 resolution? shall provide that all supplies, as far as possible, shall be obtained 
 by contract, for which proposals shall be advertised for a period of at least two 
 weeks."— Charter of the City of New York, Section 1,076. 
 
 (22) ''Subject to the approval of the board of education as to number and 
 salaries, the commissioner of school buildings shall have power to appoint as 
 many engineers, janitors and other employes and agents as may be necessary 
 for the proper performance of the duties of his department, for whom he shall 
 be responsible and whom he shall have the power to remove ; but the board 
 of education may provide for competitive examination for the position of janitors 
 and engineers ; and when such provision shall have been made, the commis- 
 sioner of school buildings may be required by the board to appoint janitors 
 and engineers from the list obtained by such examination. He shall appoint 
 such assistants and deputies as may be authorized by the board of education, 
 whose compensation shall be fixed by the board; and one of said assistants 
 shall be a trained engineer, qualified to design and construct the heating, venti- 
 lating and sanitary machinery and apparatus connected with the public school 
 buildings. Such assistants and deputies shall be subject to removal by the 
 commissioner of public buildings, who shall be responsible for the proper per- 
 formance of their duties. The commissioner of school buildings may be removed 
 by the board of education for cause, by a two-thirds vote of the entire board. 
 He shall perform such other duties as may be required of him by the board."— 
 Charter St. Louis Board of Education, Section p. 
 
 "I believe that the application of civil service rules to the appointment and 
 tenure of janitors and engineers is a wise provision and would serve to secure 
 more efficient help and to reduce the proportion of ward workers and petty poli- 
 ticians appointed to such positions." — A Chicago Principal. 
 
The danger imminent in this direction, of the appointment of unfit em- 
 ployes and the possibility of any connection of school affairs in this matter 
 with the party politics of the city, may be avoided, we believe, by the estab- 
 lishment of civil service rules, applying especially to the school system 
 of the city. ( 23 ) In the appointment of employes the business manager 
 should be left as free as possible, but in order to avoid the temptations 
 which come with absolute power, his action should be subject in this, as 
 well as in other particulars, to revision by a majority of the board. 
 
 SECTION 5. THAT THE BUSINESS MANAGER PERFORM ALL OTHER 
 
 EXECUTIVE DUTIES RELATING TO TLIE BUSINESS AFFAIRS OF THE BOARD, 
 BUT NOT SUBJECT TO ITS PRIOR APPROVAL, AND REPORT SUCH ACTS, 
 TOGETHER WITH A STATEMENT OF ALL EXPENDITURES FOR REPAIRS AND 
 SUPPLIES NOT EXCEEDING $200 IN EACH CASE, AT THE NEXT REGULAR 
 MEETING OF THE BOARD; SAID ACTS AND EXPENDITURES TO STAND 
 AS FINAL, UNLESS DISAPPROVED BY A MAJORITY VOTE OF ALL THE 
 MEMBERS THEREOF NOT LATER THAN THE SECOND MEETING AFTER THE 
 REPORT IS MADE THERETO ; 
 
 SECTION 6. THAT HE SHALL HAVE THE CHARGE AND CUSTODY OF THE 
 
 SECURITIES OF THE BOARD, AND UNDER CLOSE DIRECTION, ACT AS ITS 
 FINANCIAL AGENT; 
 
 SECTION 7. THAT, BEFORE ENTERING UPON HIS DUTIES, HE SHALL GIVE 
 
 A BOND OF NOT LESS THAN $150,000, RUNNING TO AND APPROVED BY 
 THE BOARD, AND CONDITIONED UPON THE FAITHFUL PERFORMANCE OF 
 THE DUTIES OF HIS OFFICE. 
 
 Apart from the reservations already made, the business manager should 
 be left free in the discharge of his duties, subject only to due report of his 
 action in each case at the next regular meeting of the board. 
 
 To the business manager should be assigned also the execution of the 
 financial policy of the board ; under close supervision he should look after 
 the investment and collect the interest of school funds, the rents of school 
 lands and keep the accounts of all special funds under the control of the 
 board. 
 
 In consideration of the importance of the interests in his charge, the 
 business manager should be required, as is common in all such cases, to 
 give a bond, for at least the sum indicated, to the board of education for 
 the proper performance of his work. 
 
 ( 23 ) On the legal status of the board of education, see Appendix I. 
 
Of ^pstrm of ~r!jooi 
 jrupnutsion 
 
 ARTICLE III 
 
 Your Commission respectfully recommends in regard to the system 
 of school supervision^ 1 ) 
 
 SECTION i. — (a) that the superintendent of schools ee ap- 
 pointed AT A YEARLY SALARY NOT TO EXCEED $10,000, UNDER CON- 
 tract for a term of six years ; provided, that he may be removed 
 before the expiration of his term only for cause on written 
 charges, by a vote of not less than two-thirds of the entire 
 board; 
 
 (b) that he have the general charge and supervision of 
 the teachers and teaching in the public schools; 
 
 (c) that he have, after consultation with the assistant 
 superintendents, the supervisors and the principals, the de- 
 termination of the course of study, the choice of text-books 
 and apparatus used in teaching in the schools, within the 
 appropriation of the board, and subject to disapproval by a 
 majority vote of all the members thereof not later than 
 the second meeting after the report is made thereto; 
 
 (d) that he appoint assistant superintendents, supervisors, 
 teachers, and attendance officers to such positions as the 
 board of education shall from time to time authorize, promote 
 or reduce teachers and fix their salaries under the 
 schedule provided, and dismiss under the rules any appointees 
 named in this section ; provided, however, that all such ap- 
 pointments, promotions, compensations, and dismissals shall 
 
 (1) "The same arguments, the same considerations for efficient manage- 
 ment which apply to the business affairs of the board, demand a like provision 
 for our educational interests. No great industry, no great institution, can be 
 successfully directed except upon the executive plan; that is, by and through 
 the employment of men and women of high grade, who are trained in the 
 department of work submitted to their direction. It is a fallacy to consider the 
 board of education both a legislative and executive body. In the very nature 
 of things it cannot execute with efficiency." — D. R. Cameron. ex-Presidint 
 Chicago Board of Education. 
 
 32 
 
BE REPORTED TO THE BOARD AND SHALL STAND AS FINAL, UNLESS I 
 DISAPPROVED BY A MAJORITY VOTE OF ALL THE MEMBERS THEREOF 
 NOT LATER THAN THE SECOND MEETING AFTER THE REPORT IS MADE 
 THERETO ; PROVIDED, FURTHER, THAT NONE OF THESE APPOINTMENTS 
 BE MADE AND NO TEACHER BE PROMOTED UNTIL AFTER EXAMINATION 
 AND APPROVAL BY AN EXAMINING BOARD HEREINAFTER PROVIDED FOR; 
 
 (e) THAT UPON THE APPLICATION OF ANY PERSON FOR A CERTIFI- 
 CATE AS A TEACHER, AFTER THE EXAMINATION AND APPROVAL OF SAID 
 APPLICANT BY THE EXAMINING BOARD, HE ISSUE TO THE APPLICANT 
 A PROVISIONAL CERTIFICATE OF QUALIFICATION FOR TWO YEARS, 
 WHICH, AFTER PROOF OF SUCCESS FOR THIS PERIOD, SHALL BE MADE 
 PERMANENT FOR CONTINUOUS SERVICE WITHOUT FURTHER EXAMINA- 
 TION : 
 
 (f) THAT HE HAVE A SEAT AND THE PRIVILEGES OF THE FLOOR IN ■- 
 THE BOARD, BUT NO VOTE ; 
 
 SECTION 2. — (a) that the assistant superintendents be put in 
 
 CHARGE OF NOT MORE THAN TWENTY-FIVE SCHOOLS EACH, AND THAT 
 THE PRESENT NUMBER OF ASSISTANT SUPERINTENDENTS BE INCREASED 
 TO MEET THIS PROPORTION ; 
 
 (b) THAT THE ASSISTANT SUPERINTENDENTS SEVERALLY REPRESENT 
 THE SUPERINTENDENT IN THE SCHOOLS WHICH MAY BE PLACED 
 UNDER THEIR CHARGE, AND BE GIVEN DEFINED RIGHTS OF CONSULTA- 
 TION IN REGARD TO THE APPOINTMENT, TLIE PROMOTION AND THE DIS- 
 MISSAL OF TEACHERS IN THEIR SCHOOLS; 
 
 (c) THAT ONE ASSISTANT SERVE, WHEN CHOSEN FOR THIS PURPOSE 
 BY THE SUPERINTENDENT, WITH OTHER PERSONS HEREINAFTER 
 DESIGNATED, ON THE EXAMINING BOARD; 
 
 SECTION 3. THAT THE SUPERVISORS OF SPECIAL SUBJECTS HAVE THE 
 
 GENERAL CHARGE OF THEIR SEVERAL SUBJECTS IN THE NORMAL, THE 
 HIGH AND THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS, AND THAT AN ASSISTANT SUPER- 
 VISOR IN EACH SUBJECT BE APPOINTED IF NECESSARY, IN EACH DISTRICT 
 OR CLOSELY CONNECTED GROUP OF DISTRICTS; 
 
 SECTION 4. THAT THE PRINCIPAL BE GIVEN BY 1111. BOARD DEFINED 
 
 PRIVILEGES OF CONSULTATION : 
 
 (a) IN THE APPOINTMENT, PROMOTION AND REMOVAL OF TEACH- 
 ERS IN HIS OWN SCHOOL ; 
 
 (b) IN THE CARRYING OUT WITHIN PROPER LIMITATIONS OF THE 
 COURSE OF STUDY, AND 
 
 (c) IN THE CHOICE OF TEXT-BOOKS, AND 
 2. THAT HE BE GIVEN DEFINED RIGHTS : 
 
 33 
 
(a) IN THE APPLICATION AND EXTENSION OF THE DEPARTMENTAL 
 PLAN OF INSTRUCTION, SUBJECT TO THE GENERAL SUPERVISION OF THE 
 ASSISTANT SUPERINTENDENTS J AND 
 
 (b) IN THE SUPERVISION OF THE WORK OF THE JANITORS AND 
 ENGINEERS \ 
 
 SECTION 5. THAT THE PRINCIPAL BE DIRECTED TO TEACH DURING NOT 
 
 LESS THAN ONE-HALF OF EACH SCHOOL DAY \ 
 
 SECTION 6. — THAT EXPERT INSPECTORS BE EMPLOYED BY THE BOARD 
 FROM TIME TO TIME TO STUDY THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF THE CITY AND 
 MAKE REPORTS AND RECOMMENDATIONS TO THE BOARD. 
 
 Your commission has pointed out the weighty duties which devolve 
 on the board of education in a large city in carrying on the business ad- 
 ministration of its affairs ( 2 ), and the varied difficulties which confront 
 the members in this direction. We have recommended a consistent prin- 
 ciple to be followed in managing the business affairs of the school system, 
 and have in outline suggested a plan necessitating the utmost care in the 
 revision of the school law applying to our city, and requiring ability and 
 intelligence on the part of the members of the board to render it operative 
 and effective in its application. 
 
 However, great as should be public concern for an efficient and econom- 
 ical plan of administering the business affairs of the board, the importance 
 and the inherent difficulty of securing the desired results on the educa- 
 tional side, are much greater. This problem affects the interests of the 
 people much more deeply and directly, and accordingly should arouse 
 a far keener solicitude in the mind of every intelligent citizen. ( 3 ) Ill- 
 chosen sites and unsanitary and badly constructed school buildings im- 
 peril the children in many of our American cities; but superintendents 
 of instruction, who are not properly qualified for the duties of their office. 
 or whose efficiency is lessened, and in some cases almost nullified, by the 
 
 (2) See Article II. 
 
 (3) "If it is difficult to manage the business of the schools, it is infinitely 
 more so to secure life-giving instruction. It is strange that we need to remind 
 ourselves now and then that the end for which the schools exist is not to 
 gratify contractors or provide places, but to supply instruction. If anything 
 has stood in the way of the fullest development of the schools, it has been the 
 apparent readiness to accept anything that passed under the name of instruc- 
 tion ; and the most gratifying sign in the educational heavens is the closer dis- 
 crimination with which people are beginning to look upon what is done in the 
 schools. And when the people begin to determine the differing values of instruc- 
 tion they come to the great question of the organization and supervision of the 
 teaching force." — "The Crucial Test," by Andrew S. Draper. 
 
 34 
 
mischievous interference of the board of education — principals who are not 
 awakened to their responsibilities, or are not competent to discharge 
 these — affect the intelligence and happiness of the next generation much 
 more seriously and offer a basis for far more severe criticism of the public 
 schools. A janitor, selected as frequently happens in large cities for rea- 
 sons other than his fitness for the position, will cause discomfort and some- 
 times real suffering to a thousand children by a neglect of his duties, arising 
 not infrequently from a well justified belief in the strength of his political 
 "pull." A teacher, however, who has been appointed in spite of his incom- 
 petence, through the personal influence of a member of the board, acting 
 for himself or his friends ( 4 ), and who has been retained against the pro- 
 test of the superintendent and his assistants, and of the principal, is a source 
 of infinitely greater harm to the living interests of the city. Your com- 
 mission, therefore, unhesitatingly affirms its belief in the supreme im- 
 portance of establishing a system of supervision which will, as far as pos- 
 sible, correct these evils. Such a system, we maintain, must definitely and 
 finally concentrate all authority in an officer who shall be weighted with 
 responsibility, and above all, shall be independent of any personal or politi- 
 cal manipulation and interference. 
 
 At the head of this system is the superintendent. The educational his- 
 tory of the country shows that a variety of methods have been followed in 
 filling this office. ( 5 ) Experience, however, clearly points to the advisa- 
 bility of his selection by the board of education. His tenure of office 
 
 ( 4 ) "School boards lay larger claims to character, fitness and disinterest- 
 edness than aldermanic boards, and, as a rule, they are far more respectable 
 and responsible. Occasionally they loot the treasury, but more commonly they 
 do what is not technically so criminal, but what is in effect really worse. The 
 circumstances press them hard. The wrongs they do or suffer to be done are 
 not so deep, their friends and not themselves get the benefit, they fail to appre- 
 ciate or deceive themselves about the harm that flows from their acts." — Andrew 
 S. Draper, in Educational Review, June, 1893. 
 
 ( 5 ) "The selection of the superintendent is another point upon which there 
 are interesting differences of practice. He is usually elected by the school 
 board, but in San Francisco, Buffalo and in some other cities he is a city officer, 
 and is chosen at a popular election. A man must be a good politician as well 
 as a good educator to succeed in obtaining office under these conditions, and 
 the field of choice is necessarilv narrowed to men well known and popular in 
 the city. Such a thing as securing a superintendent who had made his reputa- 
 tion in another city would be out of the question. Philadelphia secured both 
 McAlister and Brooks from other places ; Cleveland, Ohio, brought Draper 
 from New York and Jones from Indianapolis, and many others of the successful 
 superintendents have found their widest field in places far distant from the 
 scene of the beginning of their careers. But this style of election is not for 
 San Francisco or Buffalo." — James C. Boykin, in Educational Review, March, 
 i897. 
 
 35 
 
should be for a term of years. ( G ) There is hardly a more striking fact 
 in connection with school supervision in the United States than the usual 
 shortness of the period during which a particular individual has performed 
 the duties of such a position. ( 7 ) This has arisen partly from the difficulty 
 of securing good men, since the qualifications which a superintendent 
 should possess are not frequently found in one man. What a superintendent 
 should be has occasionally been exemplified in the case of some fortunate 
 city.( 8 ) What he should not be, many cities have learned by experience, 
 although in many cases his unfitness has not been made evident by any 
 action of the board of education. ( 9 ) A superintendent of instruction has 
 
 ( 6 ) "To avoid frequently recurring contests which create discontent, I 
 recommend unhesitatingly that the term of office of the superintendent be made 
 four years." — E. G. Halle, President's Report, Chicago Board of Education, i8q8. 
 
 "The superintendent is properly the choice of the board of education, and 
 should hold his office during good behavior, subject at all times to removal for 
 cause, but never to the humility of an annual inspection and election. He repre- 
 sents in the work of instruction the prevalent sentiment of the business man- 
 agement, so far as their business has to do with teachers and pupils. For the 
 time he stands in the place of the board, acting promptly, and conscious that 
 whatever he does must pass under review and be approved by the authorities 
 whom he represents. He stands pledged to pupils and to the public for the 
 best possible use of all school appliances." — /. L. Pickard, in Education. Sep- 
 tember, 1883. 
 
 "Even this, revolutionary as it may seem, would prove ineffective unless the 
 superintendent be protected, so long as he proves efficient, in the possession of 
 his office. If he is to be turned out of office at the end of a two-year or a three- 
 year term, because he has offended some local member of the board of education 
 or has failed to gratify the wishes of some politicians, but little in the way of 
 reform will be accomplished."— W. H. Maxwell, Superintendent Brooklyn Public 
 Schools, N. E. A. Proceedings, 1894, p. 321. 
 
 (?) The average life of a superintendent in Michigan is two years, and 
 men of intimate acquaintance with the schools of Illinois and Kansas say that 
 the number of city superintendents who have served five years in one place can 
 almost be counted on the fingers of one hand. 
 
 (8) "The typical superintendent is the true reformer. He is never con- 
 tented with things as they are if he can discover a chance for improvement. 
 He has the capacity to profit by the experience of others, and so spares no 
 pains in making himself acquainted with the best things that have been thought 
 and done touching the business in hand. He has the courage of his convictions 
 and holds firmly to what he believes to be good. His aim is to produce better 
 results with each passing day. But while doing his best to administer the system 
 in the most judicious and effective manner, he is simultaneously carrying on 
 another work ; I mean the developing and perfecting of the system itself. In 
 this sphere of his labor he incurs risks, for it brings him more or less in con- 
 flict with the views of members of the board ; but this risk he accepts, trusting 
 to time for his justification." — "City School Systems," p. 58, by John D. Philbrick. 
 
 (9) "The typical superintendent of the other class is one of a different char- 
 acter. He is considerably in earnest and displays no little activity and industry 
 in supervising and directing the minor details of the business. His supreme 
 ambition is to carry on the routine operations of the system with as little friction 
 as possible, and with this end in view he virtually says to his board. T am here 
 to obey your instructions. Tell me what to do and I will do it with alacrity 
 
 .36 
 
often proved acceptable to the members of a board, although he was not 
 a man who in the long run could or would bring the schools of the city 
 to the standard of usefulness which public opinion has a right to demand. 
 The qualifications ( 10 ) of a superintendent should be high, to meet the 
 responsible duties which have been recognized as falling properly to his 
 office^ 11 ) He is the executive officer of the board in all its educational 
 
 and delight.' He means well, is fairly intelligent, and has a sincere desire to 
 make himself useful ; but he does not possess the qualities of a chief, of a leader, 
 of an organizer. His forte lies in obeying rather than directing. He performs 
 a good deal of useful drudgery under the direction of the committee. His reports 
 are meagre in valuable information, either statistical or of any other descrip- 
 tion, about the schools. In place of pertinent facts and suggestions, he substi- 
 tutes rather commonplace generalities, the correctness of which no one would 
 think of calling in question, winding up with the assurance that, thanks to 
 the wisdom of the board and faithfulness and ability of the teachers, the schools 
 have made commendable progress and are in better condition than ever before. 
 All are highly gratified to be thus assured and are highly content with their 
 amiable and industrious superintendent."— "City School Systems," />. 59, by John 
 D. Philbrick. 
 
 (10)"* * * it is the function of supervision to breathe upon a school 
 system the breath of life, to infuse into it a generous purpose and to direct 
 it toward beneficent ends. This presupposes educational ideas and an expert 
 knowledge of the necessary machinery of schools. It is not enough that a 
 merely intelligent man, equipped only with empirical notions, should assume 
 the responsible duties of supervision. Intelligence and executive ability are 
 forceful qualities everywhere, but they alone do not equip the physician or the 
 lawyer ; neither do they equip the educator. To the necessary basis of common 
 sense must be superadded the science or philosophy of education. The edu- 
 cator must be deeply and fruitfully read in the literature and philosophy of his 
 profession." — John Ivennedy, in Educational Review, May, 1891. 
 
 "He should be a graduate of a college or higher institution of learning; he 
 should be thoroughly versed in the science of pedagogy and sanitation ; he should 
 have large experience in practical teaching, and he should possess high moral 
 character, broad scholarship and superior executive ability." — Albert P. Marble, 
 in Educational Review, September, 1894. 
 
 (H) "A school superintendent, by virtue of his position, has the oversight 
 and general management of several schools, with the power of direction. He is 
 an examiner, that he may inquire into and determine all matters pertaining to 
 qualifications of teachers and pupils. He is an inspector, that he may make a 
 careful survey to ascertain the quality of the teaching, the character of the man- 
 agement, and to direct whatever may be wrong in matter or method and to point 
 out the means of correction. He is a supervisor, that he may oversee carefully, 
 advise wisely and organize and direct intelligently. A real superintendent 
 must be more than a teacher, more, even, than a merely skilled teacher. He 
 must have made himself familiar with the best methods of teaching, with their 
 tendencies and their results. He must be able to determine from the processes 
 employed by the teacher what will be their effect on the pupil. He must possess 
 deep and broad views of education in all its relations to the mind of the child 
 and of the man. He must be able to distinguish a plan of teaching from a system, 
 a method of instruction from a principle of education, and to organize and adjust 
 the school work in all its parts, so as to secure a proper completeness in the 
 system." — N. A. Calkins, in Education, May, 1882. 
 
 "The superintendent's office must not only inspect; it must lead. It must 
 be considerate and sympathetic, helpful and inspiring. It must have authority 
 
 37 
 
functions ; not in the sense of a mere clerk or subordinate chosen to carry 
 out details of work fixed for him by the members ( 12 ), but rather as a 
 cabinet officer or minister, to formulate and put in operation the educa- 
 tional policy of the board, and to assist the latter in their efforts to educate, 
 interpret and make effective the desires of the people in regard to their 
 schools. ( 13 ) On him should definitely rest the responsibility for the edu- 
 
 and it must act justly. Appointments and promotions and dismissals must be 
 made with a clear head, a kind heart and a strong hand, without fear or favor, 
 but with a determination to prevent all bad teaching and lift the whole force to 
 the highest plane possible. It is truly surprising how the common sentiment 
 of a teaching force fixes the status of each of its own members, and how surely 
 that sentiment knows whether the acts of officials spring from merit -or from 
 influence. In one case the force will be without energy, self-confidence, steadi- 
 ness or public respect. In the other case it will be characterized by fraternal 
 respect and mutual regard, and it will show power and versatility which will 
 uplift the life and shape the character of the city."— "The Crucial Test," by 
 Andrew S. Draper. 
 
 (12) "A school board's responsibility to the people and its obligations to 
 the children of the people require that it take the judgment of its professional 
 paid executive and adviser on all questions relating to the strictly educational 
 affairs of the school. Otherwise the term superintendent as applied to him 
 becomes a misnomer. His function is reduced to that of a clerk or messenger. 
 His influence as an inspirer and a director of the various school agencies is 
 minimized to mere nothingness. Still more to be deplored, what has promised 
 to become an honorable and a necessary profession in the economy of popular 
 education is deprived of its dignity and its influence." — William S. Mack, N. E. A. 
 Proceedings, 1896, p. 984. 
 
 (13) «* * * The superintendent ought to be the educational adviser of the 
 board, and his counsel ought to command the same respect on their part as that of 
 a city solicitor on a question of law, or that of the city physician on a question of 
 sanitation or public health. He ought to be held strictly responsible for his 
 advice, just as they are, and for the action of the board based on it. He and 
 not the school board ought to be held responsible by the public for the course of 
 study and for the methods of teaching in the schools. If his advice and judgment 
 are found to be untrustworthy, the school board, instead of retaining him and 
 making him simply their clerk and agent, and assuming the responsibility them- 
 selves which properly belongs to him as an expert, ought to dismiss him and 
 secure a person whose judgment they can trust. 
 
 "The superintendent ought also to make it his duty to fashion and shape the 
 educational thought of the community. This he can do through public addresses, 
 through private conferences with thoughtful citizens, and through the daily 
 papers. He ought to make the schools known and popular in the community. In 
 this way he can create the public sentiment which he needs to sustain him in 
 every step he takes in the direction of improving the schools. It is needless to 
 add that in order to do this successfully, he must be a scholar and must in some 
 measure possess the ability of stating clearly and convincingly his own convictions 
 to others." — Thomas M. Balliet, in Educational Review, Dec. 1891. 
 
 "* * * Finally, the first-class superintendent is a sort of pilot for the whole 
 system, and must watch the rocks and breakers, and winds and clouds, and 
 look often from them to the eternal stars to ascertain the drift of his course. The 
 educational journals give him the trend of other systems, the daily newspapers 
 show him the trend of public opinion far and near. He must direct his own 
 labors and the labors of all his teachers toward making the school strong in the 
 community. First, they must do good work ; and secondly, they must make their 
 community feel that it is good work and appreciate it. To neglect public opinion 
 
cational system, and to him should be given a very large measure of 
 power. ( 14 ) If he is to be hampered by specific mandates of the board ( 15 ) 
 concerning the choice and assignment of teachers( 16 ), the selection of 
 
 in a representative form of government is to rebel against it and court defeat 
 and discomfiture. We must not do anything except what we conscientiously 
 believe to be right. But it is our duty to show to our clients, the people, the 
 grounds of our conviction of our work. 
 
 "The efficient superintendent, therefore, sets into working order three educa- 
 tive influences to support the one great work of education in the school system : 
 namely, an educative influence in wise measures and correct insight, for the 
 members of the school board ; second, an educative influence resulting in insight 
 into methods and a growth in personal self-control, and besides these, a culture 
 in literature, in art and in science, for the teachers ; thirdly, for the community, 
 an enlightened public opinion which knows what the schools are actually doing 
 and can intelligently explain merits and defects and tell what changes are desired 
 for onward progress." — William T. Harris, in Educational Review, Feb., 1892. 
 
 (14) "The department of instruction should be headed by a superintendent 
 who is an expert in pedagogical science and in administration. He should have 
 absolute power of appointment, assignment to position and removal of teachers, 
 and sufficient assistance to have full and constant knowledge of what is being 
 done in every school room in the city. Whether the law provides for it or not, 
 he and his assistants will act as a board. This board will not be a body dangerous 
 to the liberties of a free people. There will not be one chance of their doing 
 injustice to a teacher to a hundred chances that they will leave undone disagree- 
 able things which should be done in the interest of; better teaching." — "The 
 Crucial Test," by Andrew L. Draper. 
 
 "The danger of inconsiderate or improper action by one vested by such power 
 is of course possible, but is remote. Regardless of the legal power with which 
 he may be vested, he is in fact and in law a part of a large system. He must 
 act through others and in the presence of multitudes. There is great publicity 
 about all that he does. When a single officer carries such responsibility he is 
 at the focus of all eyes. There are the strongest incentives to right action. 
 Without discovery, at least by many persons, he cannot act wrongfully. If he 
 is required to act under and pursuant to a plan, the details of which have been 
 announced, and of which we will speak in a moment, a wrongful act will be 
 known to the world, and he must bear the responsibility for it, and the danger 
 of maladministration is almost eliminated." — Committee of Fifteen, p. 105. 
 
 ( 15 ) "So long as the law provides that the board of education shall exercise 
 the powers which in every other part of the state educational work are vested 
 in a superintendent of schools elected for a term of years, the efficiency and the 
 effectiveness of the administration of the duties of the superintendent's office 
 will be determined entirely by the sentiments governing the majority of the 
 board of education. As frequent changes occur in the board of education there 
 will be varying standards of influences that will be brought to bear upon the 
 superintendent, modifying his actions."—^. G. Lane, Assistant Superintendent 
 Chicago Public Schools. 
 
 (16) "* * * This power to appoint, to discharge, and to transfer teachers 
 involves a great responsibility. Under ordinary conditions it would seem to 
 be a menace to the stability of any officer and even of the office itself. But the 
 efficiency and success of the whole system depend upon the right exercise of 
 this power. The appointment of teachers must rest somewhere, and the responsi- 
 bility should be definite. The power should be placed in the hands of the super- 
 intendent and surrounded with such safeguards as will prevent its abuse and 
 protect the officer who exercises it, so long as he acts justly, wisely and accord- 
 
 39 
 
text-books ( 17 ), the arranging or re-arranging of the course of study( 18 ), 
 he will necessarily fail to obtain the full measure of success otherwise pos- 
 sible, and the blame should fall where it rarely does, namely, on the board 
 
 ing to rule. The aim is to secure the very best teachers available and to place 
 them where their best work may be done. If appointments are made by the 
 board of education there will be as many standards as there are members ; and 
 as each member does only part of the work, he cannot take into account the 
 whole field. Moreover, each member would be subject to personal solicitation 
 from the friends of anxious candidates, as disagreeable as it is difficult to resist. 
 The superintendent may relieve himself from this dangerous solicitation by 
 requiring all candidates to appear before the board of examiners, who have no 
 voice in the appointment, and take rank according to merit before there is any 
 vacancy to fill — this rank including both scholarship and teaching ability and 
 adaptability for certain kinds of work. From this list, which is open to the 
 inspection of the board, he may then select the best for the vacant positions." 
 — Albert P. Marble, in Educational Review, Sept., 1894. 
 
 "Where teachers are appointed by school boards or committees or members 
 thereof, or by ward or district trustees, its accomplishment, i. e., the securing 
 of a force of capable teachers, is impossible. If superintendents are only allowed 
 to nominate, and nominations are to be confirmed by a board or committee, other 
 elements than the fitness of the candidate will of necessity be taken into con- 
 sideration. If a superintendent cannot dismiss teachers or change them about 
 as exigencies require and experience suggest without being obliged to advise 
 with and secure the approval of boards or members who are looking for votes, 
 or who are anxious to please friends and who have no appreciation of the 
 importance and delicacy of the questions involved, he will not do it at all." — 
 Andrew S. Draper, in Educational Rcz^cic, June, 1893. 
 
 "In December, 1895, the committee on retrenchment and reform submitted 
 in its report the recommendation to the effect that with the superintendent should 
 rest the power of nominating all persons for the educational department, which 
 recommendation was unanimously approved by the board. Now. if the pro- 
 visions of this recommendation were accepted and carried out in good faith by 
 the several members of the board. I make no question that the efficiency of the 
 schools would in the near future be greatly enhanced and the charges of ineffici- 
 ency be soon withdrawn. I reiterate my solemn conviction that, if you would 
 have better equipped and more thoroughly trained teachers, and of course better 
 schools, you must submit the question of teachers and their general direction 
 to the superintendent and his assistants, and hold them responsible for one 
 thing — good schools. To appoint an expert executive officer and then withhold 
 from him the free and untrammeled administration of his official function is 
 wholly absurd and insensate." — D. R. Cameron, President's Report, Chicago 
 Board of Education, 1896. 
 
 (I 7 ) "Essentially the same thing might have been said about text-books, in 
 comparing the qualifications of superintendent and board, and a consideration 
 of this question comes within the scope of the article from which we have 
 quoted. There is no more unnecessarily vexing question to be considered by a 
 board of education than this — unnecessarily vexing, because if relegated to the 
 professional province of the superintendent and his assistants where it properly 
 belongs, the board would be required to pass only upon the advisability of a 
 change or adoption in view of the possible expense incident thereto, which, in 
 fairness, we must admit, is all that it is qualified to do. The merit of a par- 
 ticular text-book and its superiority over any other presented for its consid 
 eration. the educational advantages to be derived by its adoption, and its adapta- 
 bility for a definite purpose, are questions which only an expert can determine. 
 and if left to him, and it is so understood, the board and its committee will 
 escape untold annoyance; publishers and agents will find their business greatly 
 
 40 
 
of education itself. His relation to the board, therefore, should be de- 
 fined ( 19 ) and his duties and powers clearly indicated with necessary limi- 
 tations. As long as he possesses the confidence of the board and is retained 
 
 simplified, and we believe elevated, by having to deal with professional people; 
 and, what is of greater importance, the schools will be better served."— William 
 S. Mack, N. E. A. Proceedings, 1896, p. 986. 
 
 (18) "This supervisory function should be the perfection of the course of 
 study and the selection of teaching and appliances, as well as the improvement 
 of methods of instruction and discipline." — E. E. White, in American School 
 Board Journal, Feb., 1S9S. 
 
 "The sober common sense of the people extending over a considerable period 
 of time may be a good general guide to what should be taught in the school, since 
 the schools must be kept in touch with the people, but there are many questions 
 as to choice of particular studies, and adjusting the studies to one another in 
 the course that the people can never settle. The order in which the several 
 studies shall appear, the amount of work that shall be done in each study, and 
 even the choice of studies can never be settled by a plebiscite. Nor can the 
 average board of education, although its voice should be regarded as expressing 
 in a more clarified form the popular mind and will, settle the questions. Espe- 
 cially are both the plebiscite and the vote of the board utterly hopeless when 
 parallel courses are to be adjusted in high schools. The course of program of 
 study calls for expert knowledge and experience, and this need the superintend- 
 ent must meet. Questions relating to studies promise to be more troublesome 
 in the future than in the past ; the pressure upon the course of study is all the 
 while increasing ; and we may fairly expect therefore that the superintendent 
 will be more prominent in settling these questions than he has been. 
 
 "It will be unprofitable to mince words about this all-important matter. If 
 the course of study for the public schools of a great city is to be determined 
 by laymen, it will not be suited to the needs of a community. If teachers are to 
 be appointed by boards or committees, the members of which are particularly 
 sensitive to the desires of the people who have votes or influence, looseness of 
 action is inevitable and unworthy considerations will frequently prevail. If 
 the action of a board or committee be conditioned upon the recommendation of 
 a superintendent, the plan will not suffice. No one person is stronger than the 
 system of which he is a part. Such a plan results in contests between the board 
 and superintendent, and such a contest is obviously an unequal one. There is 
 little doubt of the outcome. In recommending for the appointment of teachers, 
 the personal wishes of members of the board in particular cases will have to 
 be acquiesced in. If a teacher, no matter how unfit, cannot be dropped from the 
 list without the approval of a board or committee after they have heard from 
 her friends and sympathizers, she will remain indefinitely in the service. This 
 means a low tone in the teaching force and desolation in the work of the 
 schools. If the superintendent accepts the situation, he becomes less and less 
 capable of developing a professional teaching service. If he refuses to accept it, 
 he is very likely to meet humiliation. Dismissal is inevitable, unless he is strong 
 enough to make himself secure by doing the right thing and going direct to 
 the people and winning their approval. The superintendent of instruction should 
 be charged with no duty save the supervision of the instruction, but should be 
 charged with the responsibility of making that professional and scientific, and 
 should be given the position and authority to accomplish that end."- — Committee 
 of Fifteen, p. 106. 
 
 (19) <•* * * The Superintendent and the School Committee: The super- 
 intendent is an employe of the school committee, and hence in some sense their 
 servant; but he is employed as an expert, just as a physician is. and in the range 
 of work in which he is so employed he is independent of dictation. As an 
 agent of the school committee he does many things merely as an executive officer, 
 
 NIVERSITY 
 
as superintendent, he should be left unrestricted and untrammeled in his 
 efforts to establish and administer the schools along the lines of a sound 
 educational policy. ( 20 ) Accordingly we recommend: 
 
 SECTION i. — (a) that the superintendent of schools be appointed 
 
 AT A YEARLY SALARY NOT TO EXCEED $10,000, UNDER A CON- 
 TRACT FOR A TERM OF SIX YEARS ; PROVIDED, THAT HE MAY BE REMOVED 
 BEFORE THE EXPIRATION OF HIS TERM ONLY FOR CAUSE ON WRITTEN 
 CHARGES, BY A VOTE OF NOT LESS THAN TWO-THIRDS OF THE ENTIRE 
 BOARD ; 
 
 A superintendent of schools for the city of Chicago possessing the quali- 
 fications already indicated and fulfilling the important duties hereafter 
 assigned to him, cannot be secured, we believe, for a much smaller salary 
 than the one here mentioned, and the right man will not be induced to 
 
 and as to these things, he is a man under authority. As an expert, employed 
 because he knows better than others about school management and methods, 
 and especially in the instruction of the teachers in the principles and methods 
 of teaching and of discipline, he is above the control of his employers, as fully 
 as a physician is in the treatment of an invalid."— Horace S. Tarbcll, in Educa- 
 tional Review, Jan., 1892. 
 
 ( 2 0) "An examination and comparison of school systems will confirm the 
 reasonableness of our contention that the established laws of business cannot 
 be violated with impunity in the management of the professional details of our 
 schools. This was the observation of Dr. Rice in the larger cities, as shown by 
 the Forum articles a few months ago, and it is just as true of the smaller places. 
 Wherever the esprit de corps of the teaching force is marked, wherever the pro- 
 fessional spirit leavens all the work, wherever the best methods of teaching and 
 of government find their application and fullest expression, wherever there is a 
 purposeful, a sympathetic and a loyal co-operation of all the educational forces, 
 there you are quite likely to find a trained superintendent with conviction and 
 with courage, who possesses the confidence of his board and who is accorded the 
 right of final judgment with attendant responsibility, in all matters coming 
 within its special province. Wherever a different notion of the board's responsi- 
 bility to the people and its relation to the superintendent prevails, wherever a 
 different policy governs, there are almost invariably to be found the various 
 evils of which the critics of our public school system justly complain — favoritism 
 and politics determining the appointment of teachers, the retention of poor and 
 mediocre teachers, who possess neither sympathy nor professional spirit, lack 
 of adequate appliances, lack of organic unity in plan and purpose, and much 
 more that is inevitable in the absence of a correlating and vivifying principle." 
 —William S. Mack, N. E. A. Proceedings, 1896. p. 98-j. 
 
 •'The superintendent should be a statutory officer with statutory rights, duties 
 and limitations. He should be allowed to choose his associates." — Nicholas Mur- 
 ray Butler, on "City Schools." 
 
 "Moreover, we must consider the alternative. It is not in doubt. All who 
 have any contact with the subject are familiar with it. It is administration by 
 boards or committees, the members of which are not competent to manage pro- 
 fessional matters and develop an expert teaching force. Yet they assume, and 
 in most cases honestly, the knowledge of the most experienced. They override 
 and degrade a superintendent, when they have the power to do so. until he 
 
undertake this work, even on these terms, if he is to be subject to yearly 
 election and the consequent danger that his exercise of the powers of his 
 office may lead to his sudden and perhaps ill-considered retirement before 
 a proper test of his usefulness can be made. ( 21 ) Nevertheless, as there 
 is always a danger that a board of education may fail in its efforts to secure 
 a competent executive, it has seemed wise in this case, as in that of the 
 business manager( 22 ), to provide for his removal if a large majority of 
 the board so decrees. 
 
 (b) THAT HE HAVE THE GENERAL CHARGE AND SUPERVISION OF 
 THE TEACHERS AND TEACHING IN THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS; 
 
 If the superintendent is to be responsible for the educational side of 
 the school system, he will naturally decide all questions that concern the 
 teachers and the teaching in the schools, within limitations which should 
 be fixed by the state law in general and by the rules of the board of educa- 
 tion in particular. ( 23 ) 
 
 becomes their mere factotum. For the sake of harmony and the continuance of 
 his position he concedes, surrenders and acquiesces to their acts, while the con- 
 tinually increasing teaching force becomes weaker and the work poorer and 
 poorer. If he refuses to do this, they precipitate an open rupture and turn him 
 out of his position. Then they cloud the issue and shift the responsibility from 
 one to the other. There are exceptions, of course, but they do not change the 
 rule." — Committee of Fifteen, p. 105. 
 
 (2'1) "Experience always shows that the pedagogic function should be com- 
 mitted to a superintendent of schools ; and his duties should be defined by state 
 law, and his tenure of office should be made sufficiently long and secure to afford 
 him needed freedom in the discharge of his duties." — E. E. White, in American 
 School Board Journal, Feb., 1898. 
 
 "The term of the superintendent of instruction should be from five to ten 
 years, and until a successor is appointed. In our judgment it should be deter- 
 minate so that there may be a time of public examination, but it should be 
 sufficiently long to enable one to lay foundations and show results without being 
 carried under by the prejudices which always follow the first operation of efficient 
 or drastic plans. The salary should be fixed by law and not changed in the 
 middle of a term except by law." — Committee of Fifteen, p. 107. 
 
 (22) See Article I, Section 1. 
 
 (23) "The superintendent should be the court of last resort to settle different 
 opinions regarding promotion of pupils, and differences of opinion between prin- 
 cipals and teachers, to determine all disputes regarding interpretation of the 
 course of study, and to decide in all cases when difficulties arise regarding admis- 
 sion of pupils to schools or the transfer of pupils from one school to another." 
 — W. H. Maxwell, N. E. A. Proceedings, 1894, p. 316. 
 
 "I like especially the idea of giving to the superintendent authority in many 
 matters, which is final unless it is negatived by a two-thirds vote of all the mem- 
 bers of the board of education. This is substantially the plan which has been 
 adopted in Columbia University for giving to the educators the initiative in all 
 educational matters, the trustees simply reserving to themselves the right of 
 vetoing in case of need. It is much better than to demand of the educators that 
 they shall positively convince a body of laymen of the propriety of any step 
 before it can be taken. I am confident that it will work as well in a public school 
 
 43 
 
(c) THAT HE HAVE, AFTER CONSULT ALTON WITH THE ASSISTANT 
 SUPERINTENDENTS, THE SUPERVISORS AND THE PRINCIPALS, THE DETER- 
 MINATION OF THE COURSE OF STUDY, THE CHOICE OF TEXT BOOKS 
 AND APPARATUS USED IN TEACHING IN THE SCHOOLS, WITHIN THE 
 APPROPRIATION OF THE BOARD, AND SUBJECT TO DISAPPROVAL BY A 
 MAJORITY VOTE OF ALL THE MEMBERS THEREOF NOT LATER THAN 
 THE SECOND MEETING AFTER THE REPORT IS MADE THERETO; 
 
 The experience and opinion of educational experts are practically 
 unanimous in assigning to the superintendent the arrangement of the 
 course of study ( 24 ), indicated in general outline by the rules of the board 
 of education and by its appropriation for salaries and equipment. What 
 should be taught in the public schools is a matter for the people themselves 
 and for their chosen representatives in the board of education to determine. 
 How the subjects should be arranged in the course of study, in what order 
 and in what proportion instruction should be given in each, what methods 
 should be employed, and what text-books ( 25 ) and apparatus should be 
 
 system as it has worked with us, and that it will do much to further the educa- 
 tional interests of any city that will adopt it."— Seth Low, President Columbia 
 University. 
 
 "I note with special pleasure the freedom given to the superintendent to carry 
 out his ideas of an educational system and the effort to give him both power 
 and responsibility. The school system should not be a mere automatic machine. 
 It should have some color and character. It should offer opportunity for a 
 great teacher to work out a great idea. If the school system does not offer play 
 for ability in this line, it will not secure the services of able men. A part of the 
 freedom of an able superintendent will extend to the principals under his direc- 
 tion, for one of the most important qualities of a good superintendent is the 
 ability to recognize originality in others." — David Starr Jordan, President Lcland 
 Stanford University. 
 
 (24) "The course of study and the text-books belong to the educational fea- 
 ture of the schools, and this should be in the hands of experts. The experts are 
 the superintendent and his assistants and the principals. These with such 
 counsel and advice as they may seek from the teachers, should fix the course 
 of study and decide what text-books are best, in following that course. _ On 
 these questions the superintendent should have the veto power, and the decision 
 of these experts should be approved by the board. If the board do not approve, 
 they should not have the power to substitute; such a course would confuse 
 the general result. The experts must try another recommendation in that 
 case."— Albert P. Marble, in Educational Review, Jan., 1894. 
 
 (25) "Every argument that can be adduced showing that the superintendent, 
 guided by the popular intelligence and advised by his board and corps of teachers, 
 should make the course of study, tends with equal force to show that, with the 
 same limitations he should also choose the text-books; and with even greater 
 force, because the text-books arc the course of study in a very much more definite 
 and practical sense than the course so-called. The course is but a vague outline ; 
 the text-books are minute and definite."— B. A. Hinsdale, in Educational 
 Review, Jan., 1894. 
 
 44 
 
procured for the schools within the necessary limitations of expense, are 
 questions which should be determined by the officers of supervision, and 
 should come before the board only on their initiative and recommendation. 
 
 (d) THAT HE APPOINT ASSISTANT SUPERINTENDENTS, SUPERVISORS, 
 TEACHERS, AND ATTENDANCE OFFICERS TO SUCH POSITIONS AS THE 
 BOARD OF EDUCATION SHALL FROM TIME TO TIME AUTHORIZE, PROMOTE 
 OR REDUCE TEACHERS AND FIX THEIR SALARIES UNDER THE 
 SCHEDULE PROVIDED, AND DISMISS UNDER THE RULES ANY APPOINTEES 
 NAMED IN THIS SECTION J PROVIDED, HOWEVER, THAT ALL SUCH 
 APPOINTMENTS, PROMOTIONS, COMPENSATIONS, AND DISMISSALS BE 
 REPORTED TO THE BOARD, AND SHALL STAND AS FINAL, UNLESS DISAP- 
 PROVED BY A MAJORITY VOTE OF ALL THE MEMBERS THEREOF NOT 
 LATER THAN THE SECOND MEETING AFTER THE REPORT IS MADE THERE- 
 TO ; PROVIDED, FURTHER, THAT NONE OF THESE APPOINTMENTS BE MADE 
 AND NO TEACHER BE PROMOTED UNTIL AFTER EXAMINATION AND 
 xVPPROVAL BY AN EXAMINING BOARD HEREINAFTER PROVIDED FOR; 
 
 On this point, again, those most competent to decide by reason of their 
 long connection with educational systems, either as members ( 26 ) of a board 
 
 ( 26 ) '"Especially should the educational department be left free from non- 
 professional interference and restriction, and the legal power of appointment 
 and removal of teachers, in the largest measure consonant with the right of 
 review by the board, be cheerfully committed to the superintendent of schools 
 and his assistants. It scarcely needs an argument to convince any member of 
 this board that these executive officers, by virtue of their outlook over the educa- 
 tional field, their knowledge of school affairs at home and abroad, their acquaint- 
 ance with the trend and scope of educational thought, their familiar association 
 with questions pertaining to school management and discipline, their experience 
 with school life, their trained judgments as to professional merits in teaching, 
 and their professional pride, all unite to justify the commission to their hands, 
 unrestricted by individual members of the board, or by non-professional parties, 
 the selection, appointment, assignment and transfer of teachers, the removal of 
 incompetents and the promotion of teachers to fill vacancies occurring in the 
 more important positions. Else why engage such a staff of officers? In fact, 
 there is no justification for the appointment of a superintendent and assistants 
 except upon the knowledge that to others more competent than the board or its 
 membership must be committed the administration of the interests that are 
 purely educational." — D. R. Cameron, President's Report, Chicago Board of Edu- 
 cation, 1896. 
 
 "For I maintain this to be true, that no board of education, however wise and 
 prudent, however jealous and zealous for the good name of its schools, can in the 
 nature of things hope to act for the highest efficiency of the schools upon their 
 own motion ; especially in the matter of the selection of teachers. The principle 
 of favoritism, whether political or otherwise, should never be permitted to enter 
 as a factor in a matter of such extreme importance. Merit and merit alone should 
 govern in the choice of these men and women to whom are committed the nearest 
 and dearest interests of society. Not the school for a would-be teacher, but the 
 teacher for the school. Schools are not to be selected for the teachers, but the 
 teachers for the schools. This great trust I am compelled to believe should be 
 committed to the superintendent and his associates, for by education, by training. 
 
of education, superintendents of instruction ( 27 ), or teachers in the 
 schools ( 28 ), are largely agreed. If the superintendent is to be actually- 
 responsible for the municipal system of instruction, he must be given the 
 selection, appointment, promotion and removal of his subordinates ( 29 ), not 
 
 by experience, by their touch with educational affairs throughout the land, and 
 by their sense of responsibility to the board of education, which reserves to itself 
 the right of final judgment in all matters, they are the best equipped for this 
 great auty. We may not hope to witness desired success on the educational side 
 of our\chool system till the superintendent's office is clothed with the power of 
 choice knd direction." — D. R. Cameron, President's Report, Chicago Board of 
 Education, 1895. 
 
 (27) 'VSecond, I recommend that all assignments and transfers shall be placed 
 in the hands of the superintendent and his assistants. No permanent assignment, 
 however, shall be made to any school until the teacher has demonstrated her 
 ability to succeed and the district superintendent and the principal of the school 
 have reported favorably upon her work. No teacher shall be appointed to any 
 position without the proper certificate for such position, nor shall any teacher be 
 advanced to any position higher than that for which she has been examined and 
 for which she holds a certificate." — A. G. Lane, Superintendent, Chicago Public 
 Schools, 1898. 
 
 "I should say that the one essential element in the building up of a school 
 system is the selection of one competent and thoroughly trained superintendent, 
 in whose hands solely should be left the appointment of his teachers, being him- 
 self held strictly responsible for the results of his decisions." — David Starr Jor- 
 dan, President, Leland Stanford University. 
 
 (28) "We recommend that the appointment, transfer of all teachers and prin- 
 cipals be placed in the hands of a board of superintendents, for the following 
 reasons : (a) The superintendents and principals are the best qualified to judge 
 of the merits of the teachers, because they are in a position where they can see 
 the work of the teachers as no one else can. Others may know the teachers as 
 men or women, but know little or nothing of them as teachers, (bj It would 
 relieve the members of the board of education of an annoyance which now must 
 be almost intolerable, (c) It would lead those aspiring to become teachers to 
 greater exertions in their preparation since their permanent employment would 
 depend entirely on their success as teachers, and their fitness for the work, 
 (d) It would place the responsibility for the instruction and management of our 
 schools upon the superintendent, where it rightfully belongs."— The George 
 Rowland Club, Chicago. 
 
 "Voted, that we recommend that the appointment of teachers be exclusively 
 in the hands of the superintendents ; and that before a teacher is permanently 
 elected to a position in a high school he be required to serve eight months on 
 probation, at the close of which period the principal shall report to the superin- 
 tendent on the efficiency of such teacher."— Proceedings of Meeting, Chicago 
 High School Principals, March 2, 1898. 
 
 (29) "It is plain, that while in constant correspondence with the school author- 
 ities he should have a controlling voice in the selection of his teachers. If 
 the superintendent be a man of good common sense, of a thorough acquaintance 
 
 46 
 
merely because he is responsible for their ability and faithfulness, but also 
 because he should be the person most competent in the last resort to decide 
 these matters. ( 30 ) In fulfilling these functions he is naturally restricted, 
 first by the provision that renders him subject to overruling by the members 
 of the board, and, second, by the requirement that in his choice and assign- 
 ment of a teacher or principal to any particular position, he should at least 
 consult the immediate superior. In addition, it is the opinion of your com- 
 mission that since the compulsory school attendance law is closely related 
 with other matters of school management, the enforcement of this law 
 should be placed by the board directly in the hands of the superintend- 
 ent^ 31 ) 
 
 with the work he undertakes, and of high integrity — and no other should ever 
 be brought into such a work — he is fit to act untrammeled." — /. L. Pickard, in 
 Education," September, 1893. 
 
 (30) "We now come to the subject of paramount importance in making a 
 plan for the school government in a great city, namely, the character of the 
 teaching force and the quality of the instruction. A city school system may 
 be able to stand some abuses on the business side of its administration and 
 continue to perform its functions with measurable success, but wrongs against 
 the instruction must, in a little time, prove fatal. The strongest language is 
 none too strong here. The safety of the republic, the security of American citizen- 
 ship, are at stake. Government by the people has no more dangerous pitfall in 
 its road than this, that in the mighty cities of the land the comfortable and intel- 
 ligent masses, who are discriminating more and more closely about the education 
 of their children shall become dissatisfied with the social status of the teachers 
 and the quality of teaching in the common schools. In that event, they will 
 educate their children at their own expense, and the public schools will become 
 only good enough for the use of those who can afford no better. The only 
 way to avert this, is by maintaining the instruction upon a purely scientific and 
 professional footing. This is entirely practicable, but it involves much more care 
 and expense in training teachers, the absolute elimination of favoritism from 
 appointments, the security of the right to advancement after appointment, on 
 the basis of merit, and a general leadership which is kindly, healthful and stimu- 
 lating to individuals, who can secure harmonious co-operation from all the mem- 
 bers and which lends energy and inspiration to the whole body. This cannot 
 be secured if there is any lack of authority, and experience amply proves that it 
 will not be secured if there is any division of responsibility. The whole matter 
 of instruction must be placed in the hands of a superintendent of instruction with 
 independent powers and adequate authority, who is charged with full responsi- 
 bility. 
 
 "For reasons already suggested, the superintendent once appointed, shall 
 have power to appoint from an eligible list all assistants and teachers authorized 
 by the board and unlimited authority to assign them to their respective positions 
 and reassign or remove them from the force at his discretion." — Committee of 
 Fifteen, p. 104. 
 
 (31) "if the superintendent be clothed with these powers, it follows that 
 he is the officer who should be charged with the direction of all the means 
 employed to enforce compulsory laws." — W. H. Maxwell, N. E. A. Proceedings, 
 1894, P- 3i6. 
 
(e) THAT UPON THE APPLICATION OF ANY PERSON FOR A CERTIFI- 
 CATE AS A TEACHER, AFTER THE EXAMINATION AND APPROVAL OF SAID 
 APPLICANT BY THE EXAMINING BOARD, HE ISSUE TO THE APPLICANT 
 A PROVISIONAL CERTIFICATE OF QUALIFICATION FOR TWO YEARS, 
 WHICH, AFTER PROOF OF SUCCESS FOR THIS PERIOD, SHALL BE MADE 
 PERMANENT FOR CONTINUOUS SERVICE WITHOUT FURTHER EXAMINA- 
 TION ; 
 
 Your commission believes that the examination of teachers should not 
 be intrusted to the superintendent alone, although this is a widely preva- 
 lent method. ( 32 ) Applicants for a position in the teaching force of the 
 city, when approved by the examining board, should, however, be granted a 
 certificate of qualification by the superintendent. This certificate should 
 not be made permanently valid at first, but should carry' with it only the 
 qualification to teach for a term of two years after appointment^ 33 ) After 
 this test, on proof of the teacher's success, it may well be made permanent 
 for continuous service without further examination. ( u ) 
 
 (f) THAT HE HAVE A SEAT AND THE PRIVILEGES OF THE FLOOR IN 
 THE BOARD, BUT NO VOTE. 
 
 Many difficulties between a superintendent and a board of education 
 have arisen from a lack of close connection and sympathy between the 
 two. If the superintendent is to be in a real sense the educational adviser 
 of the board, he should be given the privilege here indicated and be allowed 
 during the meetings of the board to participate freely in the discussions, 
 and at any time to make suggestions and explanations. He is not to be 
 considered a mere employe, but rather a worthy and honored co-worker 
 with the board, and as such should be treated on equal terms. Due tribute 
 to his important position will reflect like dignity on the board itself.( 35 ) 
 
 (32) See Examining Board, Article IV, Section 5. 
 
 (33) "We recommend that no one should be permanently appointed as teacher 
 or principal, who has not shown by at least two years' successful experience that 
 he or she is qualified for the position."— The George Howland Club. 
 
 (34) The phrase '-continuous service" should not be so construed as to prevent 
 the re-employment of a teacher after temporary and authorized absence from 
 duty, even if the absence be for the whole or for the greater part of a year. 
 
 (35) "He shall have a seat in the board of education and the right to speak 
 on all matters before the board, but not to vote."— Charter of the City of New 
 York, Section 1,079. 
 
 48 
 
SECTION 2. — (a) that the assistant superintendents be put in 
 
 CHARGE OF NOT MORE THAN TWENTY-FIVE SCHOOLS EACH, AND THAT 
 THE PRESENT NUMBER OF ASSISTANT SUPERINTENDENTS BE INCREASED 
 TO MEET THIS PROPORTION ; 
 
 The work of the superintendent, as here outlined, is first of all the 
 educational administration of the schools. To accomplish this adequately, 
 he requires the services of assistants liberally educated and of wide ex- 
 perience, in whose hands he can place with full confidence the details of 
 supervision. These assistants must not only command the respect of the 
 teaching force and the general public, but must be in entire sympathy with 
 the general policy of the superintendent himself. For their work, the lat- 
 ter is responsible, and we believe, therefore, that he only should make these 
 appointments. 
 
 If the assistant is to fulfill his duties properly, he should not have charge 
 of as large a district as at present. Seven or eight assistants cannot effi- 
 ciently supervise the instruction of five thousand teachers and more than 
 a quarter of a million pupils. The force of superintendents should, there- 
 fore, be increased until not more than twenty-five schools need be assigned 
 to any one assistant superintendent^ 36 ) 
 
 (b) THAT THE ASSISTANT SUPERINTENDENTS SEVERALLY REPRESENT 
 THE SUPERINTENDENT IN THE SCHOOLS WHICH MAY BE PLACED 
 UNDER THEIR CHARGE, AND BE GIVEN DEFINED RIGHTS OF CONSULTA- 
 TION IN REGARD TO THE APPOINTMENT, THE PROMOTION AND THE DIS- 
 MISSAL OF TEACHERS IN THEIR SCHOOLS J 
 
 The function of the assistant superintendents is to represent, each in 
 his own district, the superintendent. They derive their authority from 
 him, and their relation both to him and the teachers should be largely ad- 
 visory, with such duties and powers as the superintendent may see fit to 
 delegate to them. It seems clear that they have not hitherto been able to 
 enter into sufficiently close relations with the principals and teachers, a 
 fact which has given rise to much criticism of the supervising force, that 
 
 (36) "I would reduce that to twenty, in order that he may make his personal 
 influence felt more strongly than he will be able to do if he must care for twenty- 
 five. However, it occurs to me that an assistant superintendent should have 
 charge of a certain number of teachers rather than a certain number of schools. 
 There ought to be an assistant superintendent for every one hundred teachers, 
 to get the best results out of the system. That undoubtedly would be too expen- 
 sive, but I should rather base the assistants upon the number of teachers than 
 upon the number of schools." — Henry Sabin, Ex-State Superintendent of Schools, 
 Des Moines, la. 
 
 49 
 
otherwise would not be well founded. An increase in the number of 
 assistant superintendents would enable each one to have an intimate per- 
 sonal knowledge of the principals of his district, and, by co-operation with 
 these ( 37 ), exercise a far deeper influence on the school system than at 
 present. In order to increase his efficiency in this direction, each assistant 
 should be relieved of much of the routine work now required of him ; it 
 may be advisable, moreover, to establish for each assistant superintendent 
 an office in some school as nearly as feasible in the center of his district. 
 
 (c) THAT ONE ASSISTANT SERVE, WHEN CHOSEN FOR THIS PURPOSE 
 BY THE SUPERINTENDENT, WITH OTHER PERSONS HEREINAFTER DESIG- 
 NATED, ON THE EXAMINING E0ARD. 
 
 The underlying principle of the examining board is that of differen- 
 tiating the functions of examination and appointment. If an equal num- 
 ber of assistant superintendents were appointed as of outsiders, the action 
 of the board would be controlled by those on whom the choice of teach- 
 ers will practically fall ; but the presence of one assistant superintendent 
 is essential to keep the Examining Board in touch with the schools and to 
 afford the superintendent the opportunity to obtain through a representa- 
 tive some knowledge of candidates, aside from that based on the formal 
 examination. 
 
 SECTION 3. — THAT THE SUPERVISORS OF SPECIAL SUBJECTS HAVE THE 
 GENERAL CHARGE OF THEIR SEVERAL SUBJECTS IN THE NORMAL, THE 
 HIGH AND THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS, AND THAT AN ASSISTANT SUPER- 
 VISOR IN EACH SUBJECT BE APPOINTED IF NECESSARY, IN EACH DISTRICT 
 OR CLOSELY CONNECTED GROUP OF DISTRICTS. 
 
 The methods of supervision of special subjects in the course of study 
 will be considered more fully in a later article. Your commission would 
 call attention here only to the lack of success due to friction and ineffi- 
 ciency ( 38 ) in the plan now followed of assigning a different supervisor 
 
 (37) "These assistants should deal more directly with the principals, and 
 delegate to them certain duties and powers that they now attempt to perform. 
 Let the teacher be responsible for his room, the principal for his school, the 
 assistant superintendent for his district, the superintendent for all districts and 
 the board of education for the superintendent, and through him for the efficiency 
 of the entire system." — A Chicago Principal. 
 
 (38) "We believe that the best interests of the schools demand that music 
 and drawing be placed under one supervisor for each subject in all grades of the 
 public schools."— The George Howland Club. 
 
 50 
 
for a particular subject in each of the three main divisions of the school 
 course, i. e., one in the high school, and one each in the primary and the 
 grammar divisions of the elementary schools. ( 39 ) Although it may be 
 well to modify methods in different grades, there should be at least suf- 
 ficient continuity to develop one underlying principle of instruction in 
 any subject — drawing or music, for example. Symmetry and cohesion in 
 the instruction of any branch can be secured, we believe, only by the as- 
 signment of one supervisor, to be fully responsible for all work in his 
 subject throughout the system. This plan would have the further advan- 
 tage of reducing to a considerable extent the number of assistants needed, 
 and of decreasing the expense of supervision. 
 
 SECTION 4. (i). THAT THE PRINCIPAL BE GIVEN BY THE BOARD DEFINED 
 
 PRIVILEGES OF CONSULTATION : 
 
 In considering the duties of the principal, your commission has been 
 deeply impressed with the importance of this office( 40 ) and of the desira- 
 bility of securing for it the ablest men and women possible. The responsi- 
 bility ( 41 ) of the principal has not been sufficiently recognized hitherto, and 
 
 (39) "I am heartily in favor of continuing and strengthening the work now 
 done in music, drawing, physical culture, Latin and German. In the work in 
 music, I believe that more systematic, well-balanced work would be secured if 
 all the music from the kindergarten to and through the high school were placed 
 under the supervision of one person instead of three as at present." — A Chicago 
 Principal. 
 
 "No person shall be eligible for election as supervisor of a special branch, as 
 music, drawing, kindergarten, etc., who is not (a) a graduate of a high school 
 or of an institution of an equal or higher scholastic rank; and (b) a graduate 
 from a course of professional training of at least one year in the special branch 
 that he is to supervise or teach; and (c) a teacher of that special branch of at 
 least three years' successful experience." — Charter of the City of New York, 
 Section 1,115. 
 
 (40) "The principal of a school holds an important position. Upon him are 
 placed responsibilities which must be fully measured and justly and faithfully dis- 
 charged. He should be an expert in the practical management of all the details 
 of school life. He should be abreast of all that is best in education, a careful 
 student, a thorough analyzer of men and things and processes. He should have 
 clear tact and great discretion ; should be self-contained and ready for all emer- 
 gencies at all times." — "The School Principal," Editorial in American School 
 Board Journal, May, 1898. 
 
 (4't) "The principal should be held to a strict responsibility, within certain 
 well defined lines, for the administration of the school or schools under his direc- 
 tion. He has duties to perform toward his pupils and those in parental relation 
 to them, subordinate teachers, and toward his immediate official superior, the 
 superintendent. He should, in the first place, be an expert in school sanitation. 
 
 5i 
 
the majority of principals have not exercised the intimate, controlling in- 
 fluence over their schools that might fairly be expected of those in imme- 
 diate charge. While recognizing that Chicago is fortunate in having many 
 principals who unite scholarship with experience and enthusiasm with 
 executive ability, we still believe that the school system may be greatly 
 strengthened in this particular. ( 42 ) The present difficulties may not fairly 
 be attributed to the principals themselves. When promotion to this of- 
 fice is made for any reason except for proved efficiency — a deplorable 
 course, which, we believe, has been followed more than once in the history 
 of the city — when the position itself is made less desirable by curtailing 
 its natural privileges and responsibilities, when changes in assignment from 
 one school to another do not depend solely on merit, and when, further- 
 more, it is not clearly understood that failure to discharge these duties 
 properly will be followed by prompt dismissal or transferment to a less 
 
 It may not be well to place in the hand of a principal the power to spend money, 
 to make repairs and alterations in the school building, but he should know when 
 the condition of the building is not right, and should make life a burden to those 
 who have the power until defects are remedied. He should have a keen eye 
 to discover physical weaknesses in children, such as myopia, or astigmatism of 
 the eyes, or nervous disorders, and should be skilled to take measures of preven- 
 tion, if not cure. Equally keen should be his discernment of intellectual and 
 moral defects, such as a poor memory, lack of constructive ability, lying, dis- 
 honesty, and the like. In all such cases it is his duty to devise, if possible, a 
 course of educational treatment to cure the disease." — W. H. Maxwell, Superin- 
 tendent, New York Public Schools. 
 
 (42) "I consider the greatest hindrance to our progress to be the poor aver- 
 age education, not of the teachers, but of the principals. It is humiliating and 
 astonishing how few have ever been students in a college or university, and 
 what a large proportion are of those who have had no more education than the 
 teachers under them, except that by the persistent reading of books in 'cramming 
 for examinations' they have managed to 'break through' an examination and 
 get a small primary school which, as population increases, becomes a large gram- 
 mar school, and a person who has spent his years and money in college or uni- 
 versity training has no advantage in our system over such. The result is that 
 there is little inducement for our first-class young men to enter our ranks, and 
 our schools suffer. My suggestion is, that the grade of scholarship of our prin- 
 cipals be raised; that no one be given charge of a grammar school who is not 
 college or university educated."—^ Chicago Principal. 
 
 "The assignment of teachers to classes should be left to the principal, subject 
 to the approval of the superintendent. As a rule, the best trained teachers, those 
 receiving the highest salaries, should be placed in the lower primary and the 
 upper grammar grades, while the young and inexperienced should be placed in 
 the intermediate."—/. H. Phillips. Superintendent. Birmingham (Ala.) Public 
 Schools. 
 
 52 
 
responsible position, the morale of the whole body is necessarily threatened. 
 Under such conditions no efficient force can be secured, and even those 
 who might otherwise prove themselves capable and faithful principals 
 suffer from the lack of that support which might secure their success. Too 
 great care cannot be taken in appointing, promoting, and, when necessary, 
 reducing or removing principals. A body of competent principals ( 43 ) 
 once established, however, we believe that to them should be assigned a 
 larger voice than at present in the administration of school affairs. Any 
 system of administration is peculiarly susceptible even in proportion to its 
 general efficiency, to the danger of becoming fixed and inflexible, and if 
 there is any system where spontaneity and right of initiative with inde- 
 pendent experimentation are especially needed, it is in that of public in- 
 struction. Therefore, no powers should be taken from the teacher which 
 do not necessarily belong to higher officers. The principal in his turn 
 should be given the utmost freedom possible in administering the schools 
 assigned to him, to the end that each may solve for himself in the light 
 of his own experience and special knowledge the problems which never 
 present themselves in exactly the same form in two different schools. 
 
 (a) IN THE APPOINTMENT, PROMOTION AND REMOVAL OF TEACH- 
 ERS IN HIS OWN school; ( 44 ) 
 
 Valid arguments have been advanced, we believe, for placing the final 
 responsibility of educational affairs upon the superintendent. It is ex- 
 
 (43) "We recommend that candidates for principals of primary schools should 
 be required to pass a rigid examination, and should have given evidence, by their 
 records, of unusual executive ability while teachers. 
 
 "We recommend that candidates for principals of grammar schools should 
 be required to pass an examination covering all subjects usually required for the 
 Bachelor's degree in colleges and universities of recognized standing, including 
 pedagogics. 
 
 "We recommend that principals of high schools should be possessed of Mas- 
 ter's or Doctor's degrees (Non Causa Honoris) and have had at least five years 
 of successful experience as principal, or should have given evidence, by their 
 records, of unusual executive power while teachers, and be subject to a profes- 
 sional examination of qualifications by the board of superintendents." — The 
 George Rowland Club. 
 
 "Principals of all schools should be graduates of colleges and be thoroughly 
 conversant with the theories of education, and have had not less than five years' 
 successful experience as teachers." — A Chicago Principal. 
 
 (44) "Further, it seems to me that so far as practicable the principals of the 
 respective schools should have a voice in the selection of teachers for their 
 respective schools. Certainly no teacher should be retained in a school who 
 is not acceptable to the principal thereof." — A Chicago Superintendent. 
 
 53 
 
pected, however, that in matters of detail, and in dealing with larger 
 educational problems, he will be aided and guided by the experience of 
 his assistants. The principal also should have the privilege of consulta- 
 tion with his immediate superintendent in regard to the affairs of his own 
 school, and in each case of assigning, transfering or promoting teachers, 
 the assistant superintendent should be expected to confer with the prin- 
 cipal of the school. ( 45 ) Although the final decision of these questions 
 should lie with the superintendent, he will show his ability to secure proper 
 support by sharing freely this responsibility with the principal of each 
 school affected. On the other hand, no final rights in this matter can prop- 
 erly be assigned to the principal except that of consultation, which will 
 in proportion, again, as the principal is the man for his position, prove 
 to be all that is necessary. ( 46 ) 
 
 (b) IN THE CARRYING OUT WITHIN PROPER LIMITATIONS OF THE 
 COURSE OF STUDY ; 
 
 The determination in general outline of the course of study has been 
 recognized to be an important function of the board of education as rep- 
 resentative of the people. The details of this general plan have been as- 
 signed to the superintendent, acting with his assistants. No course of 
 study, however, should be so fixed and inflexible as not to allow even in 
 important particulars such modification as will adapt it to a particular dis- 
 trict or section. ( 47 ) Exactly the same studies in exactly the same propor- 
 tion and by exactly similar methods should not be taught in all parts of 
 the city. In settling on such modifications as may seem desirable in a 
 particular school, the function of the principal implies some privileges in 
 determining the course of study. While these privileges should be clearly 
 suggested in the rules of the board of education, they should be carefully 
 
 (45) ''We believe that the best interests of the schools would be subserved by 
 consultations with the principal previous to permanent appointment of a teacher." 
 — The George Howland Club. 
 
 (46) "It is urged that a term of trial be required before a teacher or a prin- 
 cipal be permanently placed in a school, and that the principal be consulted in 
 regard to the appointment of a teacher or her transfer into the school." — Ella 
 F. Young Club, Chicago. 
 
 (47) The school problem in Chicago shows a wide variation, for example, 
 in the nineteenth ward or twenty-third ward from what it is in the third or 
 fourth. In the first two, the primary question is the securing of a knowledge of 
 the English language by the children of foreign-born residents, and for them 
 the course of study should be flexible to meet conditions which vary in different 
 schools and even in the same school from year to year. 
 
 54 ' 
 
limited, so as not to interfere with the responsibility in the last instance of 
 the superintendent. 
 
 (c) IN THE CHOICE OF TEXT-BOOKS. 
 
 Just as the course of study should be modified at the suggestion of the 
 principal where it may seem necessary, so in the matter of text-books 
 needed in carrying out the course, the principal should be given a hearing 
 by the superintendent, and should be allowed such freedom as the board 
 of education may authorize. 
 
 SECTION 4. (2). THAT THE PRINCIPAL BE GIVEN DEFINED RIGHTS: 
 
 (a) IN THE APPLICATION AND EXTENSION OF THE DEPARTMENTAL 
 PLAN OF INSTRUCTION, SUBJECT TO THE GENERAL SUPERVISION OF THE 
 ASSISTANT SUPERINTENDENTS ; 
 
 The principal should have the privilege of introducing, with the con- 
 currence of the superintendent and the respective assistant, the depart- 
 mental plan of instruction, that is, the assignment to a particular teacher • 
 of one or two subjects in several grades, instead of the full teaching of 
 all subjects in one grade. The value of this plan has been repeatedly recog- 
 nized by those conversant with school systems, and it has been successfully 
 employed by progressive principals in Chicago. 
 
 (b) IN THE SUPERVISION OF THE WORK OF THE JANITORS AND 
 ENGINEERS. 
 
 The principal should have certain powers of control over the janitor 
 or the engineer of his building. ( 48 ) Although the appointment and dis- 
 
 (48) "The principal should have at least the veto power on the appointment 
 of janitors, etc. He should have the power of removing a janitor for cause, prob- 
 ably subject to review. In all large towns the janitor force tends to become a 
 political machine. It is not uncommon for janitors to bully teachers and prin- 
 cipals. It may seem a small matter, but any reformed school system ought to do 
 away with the possibility of this." — A City Principal. 
 
 "I do not believe that it is wise to have the appointment of janitors especially, 
 entirely out of the charge of the superintendent, from the fact that the efficiency 
 of the janitor is very essential to the success of the school, and in many cases 
 an inefficient janitor almost ruins the comfort of pupils and teachers. It might 
 be well to allow the business manager to appoint the janitor, and so on, but cer- 
 tainly the advice of the superintendent should be sought and should have some 
 little binding force. I think it should be made binding upon the business man- 
 ager to consult with the superintendents and with the principals concerning the 
 appointment of janitors for each building."— Henry Sabin, Ex-State Superin- 
 tendent of Schools, Des Moines, la. 
 
 55 
 
charge of the latter has been recommended as one of the duties of the 
 business manager, yet the relation between the principal and these employes 
 is so close that the business manager should be expected to give prompt 
 and careful consideration to any complaint of a principal in regard to the 
 care of his building. Friction frequently arises between principals and 
 janitors, and in order to avoid this, the suggestion has been made that 
 the principal be given the appointment of the janitor in his school. ( 49 ) 
 This plan, however, cannot be recommended, as it would be a violation 
 of the ruling idea of concentration of authority and responsibility We 
 suggest, therefore, that at the request of the principal the janitor be either 
 discharged or transferred. Such action is fair to both parties and will 
 assist also in avoiding the recognized danger of personal or political con- 
 siderations in the appointment of the janitor or the engineer. 
 
 SECTION 5. THAT THE PRINCIPAL BE DIRECTED TO TEACH DURING NOT 
 
 LESS THAN ONE-HALF OF EACH SCHOOL DAY. 
 
 The cost of supervision in Chicago seems unduly high. This does 
 not come from the employment of too many assistant superintendents. 
 On the contrary, your commission has already recommended a larger 
 number of these officers. The excessive cost of supervision here as com- 
 pared with that of many cities, is due in part to the slight demand made 
 of the principals in the way of teaching, and to the entirely abnormal 
 proportion of head assistants, assistants to principals and extra teachers. 
 Under these various titles, many teachers have been employed who are 
 not performing a fair service in the system. A careful revision of these 
 lists would lead to a considerable saving in the cost of supervision and 
 instruction. The principal is rightly expected to supervise the work of 
 his school, and a considerable portion of his time must be given to this 
 duty. We are fully persuaded, however, that if the principal be required 
 to teach at least half of the school day, his general efficiency will be 
 greater, the teaching in his school will be improved and a saving of many 
 thousands of dollars will be effected. 
 
 (49) "No person is fit for the principalship of a school who has not enough 
 practical ability to supervise the mere material side as well as the scholastic 
 side of school work. I thoroughly believe that the best plan would be to give 
 the principals the power to appoint the janitors." — A City Principal. 
 
SECTION 6.— THAT EXPERT INSPECTORS BE EMPLOYED BY THE BOARD 
 FROM TIME TO TIME TO STUDY THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF THE CITY AND 
 MAKE REPORTS AND RECOMMENDATIONS TO THE BOARD. 
 
 There is an inherent danger in all grades of educational work of a 
 certain rigidity due to a lack of infusion of new blood and ideas in the 
 teaching force. This is more particularly true in the schools of a large 
 city, where the teachers have been in the main educated under the same 
 school system in which they now give instruction. There is the further 
 danger that the force of superintendents, immersed of necessity in daily 
 routine, will fail in the important duty of grasping the force and trend 
 of new educational ideas and methods, and of assimilating them properly 
 in the school system. The superintendent should be wideawake to all 
 advance in educational thought, but in this, as in many other particulars, 
 he should be granted due and proper assistance. In order, then, to pre- 
 vent the system from becoming too self -centered, and to secure the best 
 results of experience elsewhere and the most competent and helpful criti- 
 cism of the general principles and methods of our schools, your com- 
 mission recommends the employment from time to time of inspectors, 
 whose reports may serve to guide the policy of the board and the admin- 
 istration of the superintendent. These inspectors should be recognized 
 experts in educational affairs, and that they may be unbiased and untram- 
 meled, they should be engaged from without the city. 
 
 S7 
 
iftjr ISiammatton, tljr 
 
 .Rppointmrnt ant tijr }Jro; 
 
 motion of tTrarljrrs 
 
 ARTICLE IV 
 
 Your Commission would respectfully make the following recommenda- 
 tions affecting the teaching force of the city : 
 
 SECTION I. THAT OF ALL PERSONS SEEKING EMPLOYMENT AS TEACHERS 
 
 IN THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS, THERE BE MADE THE FOLLOWING 
 REQUIREMENTS J VIZ., EITHER 
 
 (a) A CERTIFICATE OF THE NORMAL SCHOOL OF THE CITY, APPROVED 
 BY THE EXAMINING BOARD, AND A CERTIFICATE SIGNED BY A PHYSICIAN 
 APPOINTED BY THE BOARD TO THE EFFECT THAT THE CANDIDATE IS IN 
 GOOD HEALTH AND FREE FROM ALL DISABLING FHYSICAL DEFECTS ; OR 
 
 (b) AN EXAMINATION BY THE EXAMINING BOARD, AND 
 
 (i) EVIDENCE APPROVED BY THE EXAMINING EOARD OF SUCCESSFUL 
 WORK AS TEACHER FOR THE PERIOD OF FOUR YEARS, TOGETHER WITH 
 SAID PHYSICIAN'S CERTIFICATE; OR 
 
 (2) THE BACHELOR'S DEGREE OF A COLLEGE APPROVED BY THE EXAMIN- 
 ING BOARD AND EVIDENCE OF AT LEAST NINE MONTHS' STUDY OF THE 
 HISTORY, PRINCIPLES, AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING, TOGETHER WITH 
 SAID PHYSICIAN'S CERTIFICATE; 
 SECTION 2. — THAT OF ALL PERSONS DESIRING TO BE EXAMINED FOR POSI- 
 TIONS IN THE SECONDARY SCHOOLS, THERE BE MADE THE FOLLOWING 
 REQUIREMENTS, VIZ., EITHER 
 
 (a) EVIDENCE APPROVED BY THE EXAMINING BOARD, OF SUCCESS- 
 FUL TEACHING IN THE SCHOOLS OF THIS CITY FOR SIX YEARS, AND OF 
 COLLEGIATE SCHOLARSHIP, WITH SAID PHYSICIAN'S CERTIFICATE; OR 
 
 (b) THE BACHEL OR'S DEGREE OF A COLLEGE APPROVED BY THE 
 EXAMINING BOARD, WITH SATISFACTORY EVIDENCE EITHER OF NINE 
 MONTHS' STUDY OF THE HISTORY, PRINCIPLES, AND PRACTICE OF 
 TEACHING, OR OF THREE YEARS' SUCCESSFUL TEACHING IN SECONDARY 
 SCHOOLS, TOGETHER WITH SAID PHYSICIAN'S CERTIFICATE; 
 
 SECTION 3. — THAT THE EXAMINATION OF TEACHERS BE INTRUSTED TO 
 AN EXAMI NING BOARD, MAIM. UP OF THE SUPERINTENDENT, ONE OF 
 THE ASSISTANT SUPERINTENDENTS SELECTED BY HIE SUPERINTEND- 
 
 58 
 
ENT, AND THREE SPECIAL EXAMINERS; THAT THE SPECIAL EXAMINERS 
 BE GRADUATES JDF A COLLEGE OF GOOD STANDING, OR POSSESS AN EDUCA- 
 TIONAL EQUIVALENT THERETO, WITH FIVE OR MORE YEARS SUCCESSFUL 
 EXPERIENCE AS TEACHERS, BE APPOINTED, ONE EACH YEAR, BY THE 
 BOARD OF EDUCATION, FOR A TERM OF THREE YEARS FROM AN ELIGIBLE 
 LIST OF AT LEAST THREE TIMES THE NUMBER TO BE APPOINTED, CERTI- 
 FIED TO BY THE SUPERINTENDENT; BE NOT OTHERWISE CONNECTED 
 WITH THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF THE CITY, AND RECEIVE PROPER COM- 
 PENSATION FOR THEIR WORK, - 
 
 SECTION 4. THAT THE APPOINTMENT OF TEACHERS, AT FIRST FOR A 
 
 PROBATIONARY TERM OF TWO SUCCESSIVE YEARS, AND AFTER THAT ON 
 GOOD BEHAVIOR AND DURING SATISFACTORY SERVICE, BE MADE BY THE 
 SUPERINTENDENT FROM THE LIST OF THOSE WHO HOLD HIS CERTIFI- 
 "CA^ST^UTFJECT ONLY TO A VETO BY A MAJORITY OF THE MEMBERS OF ! 
 THE BOARD ; AND 
 
 SECTION 5. THAT EXPERIENCED TEACHERS, WHEN APPOINTED FROM 
 
 OUTSIDE THE CITY, AFTER A PHYSICAL EXAMINATION, BE GIVEN CREDIT 
 FOR SUCH EXPERIENCE IN DETERMINING THEIR GRADE IN THE SALARY 
 SCFIEDULE OF THE CITY, NOT EXCEEDING ONE YEAR FOR EACH TWO 
 YEARS OF SUCH OUTSIDE TERM OF SERVICE ; PROVIDED, THAT IN NO CASE 
 CREDIT FOR MORE THAN FIVE YEARS BE GIVEN ] 
 SECTION 6. — THAT PROMOTION BE BASED ON THE PREVIOUS GOOD RECORD 
 OF THE TEACHER AS INDICATED BY THE REPORT OF THE PRINCIPAL AND 
 THE ASSISTANT SUPERINTENDENT, AND ON PROGRESS MADE, BOTH IN 
 SCHOLARSHIP AND IN TEACHING ABILITY, AS RECOGNIZED BY THE 
 EXAMINING BOARD \ 
 SECTION J.- — THAT THE PRESENT SCHEDULE OF THE SALARIES OF THE 
 CITY UNDER RECENT CHANGES BE RECOGNIZED AS NOT PROPERLY PRO- 
 PORTIONED TO THE VARIOUS POSITIONS IN THE PUBLIC SCHOOL SYSTEM, 
 AS PROVIDING IN MANY GROUPS SALARIES SO HIGH THAT THE EFFI- 
 CIENCY OF THE SCHOOLS IN OTHER PARTICULARS CANNOT UNDER THE 
 LIMITATIONS OF THE LAW GOVERNING THE TAX LEVY, BE ADEQUATELY 
 SECURED, AND AS LIABLE, THEREFORE, TO CAUSE EITHER FINANCIAL 
 EMBARRASSMENT TO THE BOARD OR SUDDEN AND PREJUDICIAL 
 RETRENCHMENT, UNLESS THE SCFIEDULE BE READJUSTED AT AN EARLY 
 
 time; 
 SECTION 8. — that a schedule of salaries be adopted which will 
 
 RECOGNIZE DISTINCTIONS IN REGARD TO THE GRADE OR SUBJECTS IN 
 WHICH THE TEACHER GIVES INSTRUCTION, THE TERM OF SERVICE OF 
 THE TEACHER, THE SUCCESS ALREADY ACHIEVED, AND WELL PROVED 
 ADVANCE IN SCHOLARSHIP AND TEACHING ABILITY J 
 
 59 
 
SECTION 9. THAT ALL SUITABLE MEANS BE USED TO PUT A LARGER PRO- 
 PORTION OF MEN TEACHERS IN THE HIGHER GRADES OF THE ELEMENT- 
 ARY SC 1 1 ()( >LS, AS POSITIONS THEREIN MAY HEREAFTER BECOME VACANT* 
 AND, IF IT BE FOUND NECESSARY TO THE SECURING OF THIS END, THAT 
 HIGHER SALARIES BE PROVIDED FOR MEN THAN FOR WOMEN IN THESE 
 GRADES J 
 
 SECTION 10. THAT THE RECOMMENDATION OF THE PRINCIPAL AND 
 
 THE ASSISTANT SUPERINTENDENT BE ACCEPTED AS SUFFICIENT REASON 
 FOR CHANGE OF ASSIGNMENT BY THE SUPERINTENDENT OF A TEACHER 
 ON THE GROUND OF INEFFICIENCY | AND 
 
 SECTION II. — THAT AFTER TWO SUCH CHANGES IN ASSIGNMENT, AND 
 UPON THE RECOMMENDATION FOR A THIRD CHANGE BY THE PRINCIPAL 
 AND THE ASSISTANT SUPERINTENDENT, THE TEACHER SHALL BE 
 RETIRED FROM THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF THE CITY BY THE SUPERINTEND- 
 ENT, UNLESS HIS ACTION BE DISAPPROVED BY A MAJORITY VOTE OF 
 ALL THE MEMBERS OF THE BOARD NOT LATER THAN THE SECOND 
 MEETING AFTER THE REPORT IS MADE THERETO. 
 
 Of all the questions affecting the public school system of the city, there 
 is no one more fundamental than that of securing a good force of teachers. 
 This problem, as contrasted with many others which must be solved by 
 the board of education, demands the aid of experts. Your commission has 
 already affirmed the belief that the superintendent can best secure the de- 
 sired endjC 1 ) and that in his effort, he must be, on the one hand, free 
 from suggestion or interference by the board in particular instances, and 
 on the other, cordially supported by his assistants and by the principals. 
 The ideal method for the securing of good teachers in a small community 
 is absolutely unrestricted choice by the superintendent. Even in cities of 
 considerable size, admirable results have attended this plan, and in more 
 than one city, the character of the teaching force has been wonderfully 
 improved within a short time after the granting of this power to the edu- 
 cational head of the system. ( 2 ) The conditions in a city of the largest 
 size, however, are essentially different. Here the number of teachers is 
 so large ( 3 ) and, consequently, the pressure brought to bear on the superin- 
 (i) See Article III. Section 1, d. 
 
 (2) This seems notably true in Minneapolis, where an able superintendent 
 has been largely trusted in these matters by the board of education. 
 
 (3) The number of teachers in the public schools of Chicago in the year end- 
 ing June, 1894, was 3, 812, and for the succeeding years the numbers have been 
 4,326, 4,668, 4,914, 5,268. In the year ending June, 1897, there were 119 resigna- 
 tions and for the following year 129, making the total number of new appoint- 
 ments for the two years, respectively, 386 and 483. 
 
 60 
 
tendent for the appointment of individuals is so great, that it is not an 
 undue limitation of his powers for the state law or for the board to indi- 
 cate in general the conditions for entrance to the teaching body. The 
 requirements which are here proposed, express, we believe, the sentiments 
 of the public in regard to the minimum qualifications proper for a teacher 
 in the schools of Chicago, and will serve to relieve the board of education 
 and the superintendent of much unnecessary trouble and labor over the 
 appointment and promotion of teachers. We suggest that the conditions 
 here outlined be incorporated in the school law of the state, for experience 
 has shown that strong efforts are frequently made to induce a board of 
 education to violate its own principles of action in individual cases under 
 suspension of the rules. It appears that there is no way of freeing the 
 board from such annoyances except by determining these restrictions 
 through legislative enactment. 
 
 That the superintendent should be required to appoint only men and 
 women of good education and professional training does not curtail his 
 powers, but aids him in the selection of a corps of teachers ; but there is one 
 principle here recommended that may at first thought appear to modify his 
 power and therefore lessen his responsibility. This is formulated in the rec- 
 ommendation for the appointment of an examining board. ( 4 ) While the 
 plans followed in different cities have widely varied, the superintendent 
 under favorable conditions has frequently possessed the triple power of 
 examination, appointment, and promotion of teachers. Even where these 
 powers have not been formally delegated to him by the board, they have 
 been assigned to him by tacit consent, since a board of education acting on 
 intelligent principles recognizes, if not immediately, at least after some 
 experience, the desirability of this transference of function. ( 5 ) Recent 
 
 (4) "A board of examiners is hereby constituted, whose duty it shall be to 
 examine all applicants requiring to be licensed in and for the city of New York, 
 and to issue to those who pass the required tests of character, scholarship and 
 general fitness, such licenses as they are found entitled to receive. Such board 
 of examiners shall consist of the city superintendent of schools, together with 
 four persons appointed by the board of education upon the nomination of the 
 city superintendent. The terms of the first four examiners so appointed shall 
 be one, two, three and four years respectively, and as their terms respectively 
 expire, their successor shall be appointed for a full term of four years, which 
 shall thereafter be the full and regular term of office of said examiners. They 
 shall be paid such compensation for services actually rendered as the board of 
 education shall prescribe."— Charter of the City of New York, Section 1,081. 
 
 (5) The superintendent issues certificates to teachers in Providence, Indian- 
 apolis, Allegheney and Denver. The last named city offers a conspicuous 
 example of giving to the superintendent the freest hand in the management of 
 the educational system. 
 
 "I was for ten years the superintendent of instruction in the city of . 
 
 61 
 
educational history, moreover, shows a tendency to differentiate the work 
 in these particulars. In large cities it becomes, after a certain point, impos- 
 sible for the superintendent to form a correct judgment of the mass of 
 candidates through personal investigation. It has been thought wise, 
 therefore, to transfer this responsibility, first of all, to his assistants. Fur- 
 ther reflection seems to show the advantage of separating entirely, by 
 placing in different hands, the examination from the appointment of candi- 
 dates^ 6 ) This is the basic principle of a sound civil service, distinctly 
 formulated in the new charter of New York, and one which has the ap- 
 proval of our most experienced educators. ( 7 ) Considering the weighty 
 
 During these ten years the school board conferred by common consent on me 
 the power of appointing, promoting, and discharging teachers, they reserving 
 the power to confirm my appointments." — A City Superintendent. 
 
 "Examination of all applicants for situations as teacher, principal, kinder- 
 garten teacher or director shall be made by the superintendent of instruction or 
 under his direction. A record thereof shall be kept for the inspection of the 
 board. All appointments, transfers and discharges of assistant superintendents, 
 supervisors, teachers, and subordinates, in his department, shall be made by the 
 superintendent of instruction in accordance with the law creating this board, 
 and subject to the approval of the board, where such approval is required." — 
 Rules and Regulations, St. Louis Board of Education. Rule 39, Section 1. 
 
 ( 6 ) See preceding page. Similar examining boards have been formed in 
 Buffalo, San Francisco and Cincinnati. 
 
 ( 7 ) "I think the examining board should not include the superintendent or 
 any assistant superintendent. As these officers have much to do with promo- 
 tion, it seems fair that teachers should be examined independently of them." 
 — Seth Low, President, Columbia University. 
 
 "It is in general accordance with the principles of a sound civil service system 
 that the power to examine teachers and the power to appoint, should be kept 
 distinct. I believe, therefore, that a board of examiners should be constituted, 
 in a city so large as Chicago, made up of the city superintendent of schools and 
 say three or four persons nominated by him and confirmed by the board of educa- 
 tion. These persons should hold all examinations, whether for admission to 
 the system or for promotion, and should certify to eligible lists, prepared as 
 the result of such action. The actual appointments and promotions should, I 
 believe, be made by the board of superintendents, in which the city superintendent 
 would have but his own vote, thus keeping distinct the power of examination 
 and the power of appointment. These appointments and promotions should 
 then be reported to the board of education, and should take effect without action 
 by that board, unless specifically disapproved of within thirty days by a two- 
 thirds vote. This policy will put the responsibility for selecting and adjusting 
 the teaching force where it belongs, namely, on the trained educational officers. 
 At the same time, the privilege given to the board of education of setting aside 
 this action, for reasons of weight and by large vote, is a protection against hasty 
 or injudicious selections. In my judgment, the less the board of education has to 
 do with the administration of the purely educational work of the system, the 
 
 62 
 
duties attached to the examination, appointment, and promotion of teach- 
 ers, in a city like Chicago, any plan which, while not dividing responsi- 
 bility, will secure an additional element of sound, impartial judgment, is 
 one which your commission feels should be adopted. Such a plan, we 
 believe, necessitates the use of the examining board, which is recommended 
 later. 
 
 The subject of teachers' salaries is a delicate matter. ( 8 ) With more 
 than five thousand teachers on the pay-roll of the city, the nicest dis- 
 crimination must be used in determining an equitable schedule, which 
 shall recognize duly the value of service in different positions, which shall 
 tend in every possible way to stimulate good work and to advance scholar- 
 ship, and which shall offer a fair reward for successful effort. For the 
 public, on the other hand, the board of education must secure proper in- 
 struction without unduly increasing the tax rate of the city. What seem 
 to be minor changes made during recent months in the pay of teachers 
 of Chicago, have already increased the monthly salary list more than fifty 
 thousand dollars, and promise to cause an annual increase within a very 
 few years of more than a million dollars in the expense of the school sys- 
 tem. ( 9 ) 
 
 better. It is the function of this board to represent the community in questions 
 of general policy and to select expert superintendents, whose policy should be 
 supported so long as they have the confidence of the board. When that con- 
 fidence is lost, they should be displaced." — Nicholas Murray Butler, Columbia 
 University. 
 
 "I think that a determination of the qualifications of the teachers and their 
 employment ought to be in absolutely independent hands. By such arrange- 
 ments you can secure a far more independent judgment, in the one case, and 
 action in the other than where the two functions are united in one person or 
 body." — Thomas B. Stock-well, State Commissioner of Public Schools, Rhode 
 Island. 
 
 (8) It is a noteworthy fact that until recently the teachers of Chicago have 
 never united in general support of any proposition except one that promised to 
 affect their salaries, but on this point they have proved themselves most able and 
 successful agitators. 
 
 (9) "Recent increases in salaries make the outlook extremely doubtful, and 
 while I have always been the friend of the grade teacher, I think there should be 
 substantial retrenchment wherever possible. As chairman of the committee on 
 retrenchment and reform, together with those associated with me at the time, 
 I was unrelenting to anything calculated to create unrest among the grade teach- 
 ers; nevertheless, I maintained there should be unceasing vigilance to the end 
 that a perfect school system may be conducted at the least possible cost. Already 
 we are spending almost as much money for free schools in Chicago as some of 
 the continental nations do for this purpose (Sweden and Norway spend $8,000,- 
 000; Belgium, $9,000,000) and our needs are increasing." — E. G. Halle, Presi- 
 dent's Report, Chicago Board cf Education, 1893. 
 
 63 
 
Hardly less vital than these questions of examination, appointment, 
 promotion, and pay of teachers, is the question of the removal of unsuc- 
 cessful and incompetent teachers. The statement has been freely made 
 by those best acquainted with school affairs in Chicago, that an undue 
 proportion of the teaching body is not performing properly the duties of 
 these positions. ( 10 ) While we recognize in general the high standard 
 and efficiency of Chicago teachers, we are fully persuaded that with a 
 better system of supervision, properly supported by the board of educa- 
 tion and by public opinion, a great improvement could be effected in the 
 force of teachers within a very short period. When teachers are appointed 
 through personal or political influence, and when they are retained, and 
 even promoted for similar reasons, without any justification in their record 
 as teachers, and indeed against the unanimous opinion of those who are 
 best qualified to judge, there is sure to be a large number of incompetents 
 within the force. ( u ) The evil does not end here. Where such conditions 
 prevail, the average teacher lacks all inspiration to self-improvement. C 12 ) 
 As human nature is, such efforts will only be inspired by a sense of the 
 necessity of good work to retain a given position, and by a consciousness 
 that honest and sustained efforts toward self-improvement will be promptly 
 appreciated and rewarded. 
 
 The teaching force may be possessed of a measurably liberal education 
 and of a fairly satisfactory professional training. It may be impressed 
 
 (W) On the part of some, there may he a tendency to exaggeration, but, on 
 the other hand, many who can and should speak fearlessly and impartially on 
 the question, have been restrained by motives of personal policy. Those who 
 can speak from closest knowledge, put the number of inefficient teachers at not 
 less than 15 per cent of the entire force. 
 
 ( n ) As long as the appointment of teachers is in the hands of the board 
 of education, and consequently much pressure is brought to bear on the mem- 
 bers, such criticisms will be heard and will be in many instances well founded. 
 It is not true that members in general consciously violate a sense of justice and 
 fairness in this matter, but, believing that the right of appointment is a personal 
 privilege, they see no reason why they should not use it for the benefit of their 
 friends. 
 
 (12) "The evil influence of the appointment of teachers by means of 'pulls' 
 does not appear so much in the character of the persons appointed as it does 
 in the demoralization of the body of teachers. It removes a strong incentive 
 to personal improvement. If the appointments depend on 'pulls,' so may pro- 
 motions and transfers. Each teacher feels secure in her position as long as 
 she has a friend who has influence, or who is on friendly terms with some one 
 who has it. It has several times happened to me that teachers who have been 
 admonished of some neglect, mistake or inefficiency have gone to their friends 
 for protection, instead of avoiding danger by trying to do better." — Confessions 
 of Three Superintendents, Atlantic, Mo., November, 1898. 
 
 64 
 
with a sense of responsibility and filled with enthusiasm for its work. It 
 will still not be the force which the city needs unless the standard of ad- 
 mission, and above all, the scholarship and the teaching ability of all en- 
 gaged in instruction be constantly advancing. The opportunities for 
 preparatory education and training in Illinois are to-day vastly greater 
 than those afforded twenty-five years ago. The conditions of admission 
 should rise correspondingly in every grade of the school system. The 
 duties of each teacher, principal, and supervisor become every year more 
 weighty. Constant growth is imperative in every one that desires to grap- 
 ple successfully year after year with the problems which confront him. 
 The teacher who was appointed five years ago, granting that he was 
 qualified then, is no longer fit for his position, if every year of his service 
 has not added to his general scholarship, as well as to his knowledge and 
 competency in school technique. More severe tests for admission to 
 the teaching body, unremitting study and development, are the means, 
 not only to educational progress, but even to the maintenance of present 
 efficiency. The teacher who is not advancing is retrograding. The school 
 system which does not each year demand more of every teacher, is in the 
 process of decay. Therefore, we recommend : 
 
 SECTION I. — THAT OF ALL PERSONS SEEKING EMPLOYMENT AS TEACHERS 
 IN THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS, THERE BE MAD'S THE FOLLOWING RE- 
 QUIREMENTS : 
 
 Chicago should command as highly qualified teachers as can be found 
 in the country, and, with proper measures, the city will find little difficulty 
 in securing them. The recognized advantages of urban life, the large 
 salaries paid here as compared with those of smaller communities, and the 
 far greater opportunity for a career leading through successful effort to 
 the highest positions in public school work, warrant this assumption. To 
 secure such a force is not merely feasible, it is in the highest sense im- 
 perative. 
 
 In no city in the United States do more difficult conditions confront 
 a school system. ( 13 ) Not even in the lower wards of the borough of Man- 
 
 ( 13 ) This statement is true, although, educationally speaking, Chicago seems 
 far in advance of New York. The school accommodations in this city are 
 deficient, but the situation in the latter city is incomparably worse. The educa- 
 tional condition of New York is astonishing. The police census shows that 
 there are 702,162 children of school age in the city, but of these only 468,229 
 are enrolled in either the public or private schools, and the average attendance 
 is only 334,184. One of the reasons is that there isn't room enough. The total 
 
 65 
 
hattan, thickly populated by foreign-born residents, and in many instances 
 by representatives of the lowest classes, is the problem of how to secure 
 through the public school system that assimilation of heterogenous ele- 
 ments, which is the supreme need of our civilization, presented more defi- 
 nitely. In reviewing the school districts of Chicago, section after section 
 is found where a large proportion of school children comes from families 
 to whom English is barely known, and where under the best conditions, 
 the ideas and traditions of the home are utterly opposed to the require- 
 ments of American citizenship. ( 14 ) This situation demands of the Chicago 
 teachers broad culture and thorough professional training. Your commis- 
 sion, then, believes that Chicago needs the best teachers of the country, 
 and feels assured that these can be obtained, if the law will define the re- 
 quirements to be made of all candidates in such a way as to protect the 
 superintendent from a deluge of unfit applicants ; and if the board of educa- 
 tion will leave the superintendent free to choose the teachers from those 
 who have been prepared adequately for such work. We believe that such 
 a preparation includes : 
 
 (a) A CERTIFICATE OF THE NORMAL SCHOOL OF THE CITY, APPROVED 
 BY THE EXAMINING BOARD, AND A CERTIFICATE SIGNED BY A PHYSICIAN 
 APPOINTED BY THE BOARD TO THE EFFECT THAT THE CANDIDATE IS IN 
 GOOD HEALTH AND FREE FROM ALL DISABLING PHYSICAL DEFECTS; 
 
 The arguments for the support by the city of a normal school for the 
 
 seating capacity of all the school houses of Greater New York will only accommo- 
 date 385,091, or only about one-half of those who ought to be in attendance. 
 There are only four hundred and five school houses altogether. Thirty-two 
 new buildings were added last year, and fifteen of the old ones were enlarged. 
 The total number of teachers employed was 4,952, which is an average of one 
 to every eighty-four children of school age, one to fifty of the enrolled and one 
 to thirty-five of the average attendance. The total expenditures for school pur- 
 poses in Greater New York last year were $10,576,770. making the average cost 
 per pupil $22.48. 
 
 (14) According to a recent census, the major part of the population in the 
 seventh, eighth, ninth and twenty-third wards of Chicago is foreign born. 
 In the seventh ward, where there are 950 persons classed as Americans — that 
 is, descended from parents born in this country, there arc more than 4,000 
 foreign-born Germans and more than 7,000 American-born Germans of foreign 
 parentage; over 1,400 foreign-born Poles and nearly 3,000 American Poles of 
 foreign parentage. In the sixteenth ward there are less than 2,500 Americans, 
 under this distinction of the word; nearly 10,000 foreign-born Germans and 
 an equal number of American Germans of foreign parentage ; over 4,000 foreign 
 Norwegians and nearly 3,000 American Norwegians of foreign parentage; 
 nearly 15,000 foreign-born Poles and over 12,000 American-born of Polish parent 
 
 66 
 
preparation of teachers, will be adduced in a later article. ( 15 ) From the 
 graduates of this school the teachers will be chosen, in the majority of 
 instances ( 16 ), and the diploma of the school should be the minimum con- 
 dition of entering the body of teachers. Since, however, it often happens, 
 fortunately, that there is a larger number of graduates than can be imme- 
 diately assigned positions, the examining board should enter the graduates 
 of the normal school on the list of eligibles in such order as indicates their 
 fitness for appointment, and, other things being equal, the superintendent 
 should recommend from this list in the order thus established. 
 
 One of the most frequent complaints made against the schools is the 
 presence on the teaching force of many who are handicapped and, perhaps, 
 even rendered unfit for service by reason of physical disability or ill-health. 
 In many instances such disability existed at the very beginning of the teach- 
 er's work, and not infrequently in the normal school. Precautions should be 
 taken, therefore, in the selection of teachers, to avoid this danger. The 
 certificate of health here proposed, in the hands of a reputable and careful 
 physician, appointed by the board, will go far to obviate this difficulty, and 
 will contribute in a great measure to the increase of efficiency in the teach- 
 ing body.( 17 ) 
 
 age. These figures do not include the foreign-born or the American-born of 
 foreign parentage among the Bulgarians, Bohemians, Canadians, Danish, English, 
 French, Dutch, Hungarians and Italians, of which nations there are representa- 
 tives sometimes in very large numbers in each of these wards. Such a statement 
 can only suggest one of the greatest problems of education in Chicago. 
 
 (15) See Article VII. 
 
 (16) "Every city has come of necessity to look to the graduates of its own 
 local school system for an overwhelming supply of its elementary teachers. This 
 fact of itself indicates two great dangers to which the city schools are exposed. 
 The first is the danger from the political, religious and social influences that 
 may be brought to bear upon the appointing power by friends of local aspirants 
 for teaching positions. The second is that a strong feeling is apt to develop 
 in the city against the employment of any outside teachers whatever ; and this 
 leads to what is known as in-breeding, which is one of the main sources of 
 stagnation in a large city system. Any city training school must be so organized 
 as to minimize the dangers due to these two causes." — Nicholas Murray Butler, 
 Columbia University. 
 
 (17) "I like what is said in regard to the candidates being in good health 
 and free from disabling physical defects. If the physician is honest in his 
 report and correct in his judgment, it will free the schools from a vast amount 
 of poor teaching." — Henry Sabin, Ex-Superintendent of Instruction (Iowa.) 
 
 "I am particularly impressed with the requirement of health certificates for 
 applicants for teachers' positions. This is a movement in the right direction. 
 I am satisfied that the superintendents throughout the country are frequently 
 
 67 
 
In other instances the preparation may be indicated by 
 
 (b) AN EXAMINATION BY THE EXAMINING BOARD, AND 
 (i) EVIDENCE APPROVED BY THE EXAMINING BOARD OF SUCCESSFUL 
 WORK AS TEACHER FOR THE PERIOD OF FOUR YEARS, TOGETHER WITH 
 SAID PHYSICIAN'S CERTIFICATE; OR 
 
 (2) THE BACHELOR'S DEGREE OF A COLLEGE ( 1S ), APPROVED BY THE EX- 
 AMINING BOARD, AND EVIDENCE OF AT LEAST NINE MONTHS' STUDY OF 
 THE HISTORY, PRINCIPLES, AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING, TOGETHER 
 WITH SAID PHYSICIAN'S CERTIFICATE. 
 
 While the teachers of Chicago will always come in great measure from 
 the graduates of the city normal school, it is often desirable to secure from 
 the outside, men and women who have been conspicuously successful. 
 Thus fresh blood may be infused into the system. This will keep the 
 schools from the imminent danger of becoming too self-centered. An ex- 
 amination by the examining board should be required of all teachers from 
 outside the city, and this examination should clearly prove the possession 
 by those certified, of an education at least as liberal as that of the Chicago 
 high schools, and a grade of professional training not inferior to that of 
 the Chicago normal school. As only experienced teachers of ability are to 
 be encouraged to enter our schools, a further requirement should be made 
 of successful teaching through a term of years, in addition to good health, 
 such as has been already indicated by the physician's certificate. 
 
 The education afforded in a city high school, and the special training 
 of a good normal school, form the minimum preparation which can be 
 regarded as satisfactory. Many who have a preparation much superior 
 to this would doubtless gladly accept positions in our schools. Notably 
 is this the case with college graduates — men and women of liberal educa- 
 tion, who see in our city schools the opportunities of professional advance 
 not offered in smaller communities. In order to attract these, your com- 
 mission believes it would be well to open the way to them by recognizing 
 
 worried with the appointment of teachers physically unfit to perform their, 
 duties as they should be performed." — Warren Easton, Superintendent, Public 
 Schools, New Orleans, La. 
 
 (18) "Graduates of colleges and universities recognized by the regents of 
 the University of the State of New York, who have pursued for not less than 
 one year pedagogical courses therein, graduates of schools and colleges for 
 the training of teachers approved by the state superintendent of public instruc- 
 tion, and teachers holding a certificate issued by the state superintendent of 
 public instruction since the year 1875, or holding a college graduate's certificate 
 issued by the same authority, may be exempted, in whole or in part, from such 
 examination at the discretion of the city superintendent."— Charter of the City 
 of New York, Section 1,081. 
 
 68 
 
their college work as a fair equivalent of normal school training. ( 19 ) Yet 
 care must be exercised in accrediting candidates from these institutions ; 
 the examining board should be satisfied that the college in question offers 
 opportunities for a liberal education, and that its diploma is a fair proof 
 of the satisfactory completion of its course. ( 20 ) The college applicant, 
 further, should have completed a systematic course of study in the his- 
 tory, principles, and practice of teaching. 
 
 SECTION 2. — THAT OF ALL PERSONS DESIRING TO BE EXAMINED FOR POSI- 
 TIONS IN THE SECONDARY SCHOOLS, THERE BE MADE THE FOLLOWING 
 REQUIREMENTS : 
 
 The conditions of admission to positions in the high schools of the 
 city should naturally be more severe than those which are imposed in the 
 case of the elementary schools. There is a growing tendency throughout 
 the country to admit as high school teachers only those possessed of college 
 degrees ; this is practically an absolute rule even in some of the smaller 
 communities of our state. Your commission notes with pleasure an in- 
 creasing proportion in our high schools of persons thus trained. We be- 
 lieve that it is a sound educational principle that no one should teach in 
 the schools of a given grade who has not had the broader and deeper 
 education afforded in the schools of higher grade. ( 21 ) There should be 
 
 (19) Some recognition is given college graduates at present, the rules and 
 regulations of the board (page 24) providing that "candidates unquestionably 
 qualified by degrees conferred by colleges of high standing and also recommended 
 as successful teachers, shall receive certificates on the recommendation of the 
 superintendent and four of the assistant superintendents and a vote of the 
 majority of the board." In addition to this, college training is taken as clearly 
 equivalent to the four years of teaching required of outsiders who desire to 
 enter the service of the city. It may be well to leave the examining board 
 quite free in their test of these applicants, even to the extent of making this 
 examination itself largely formal, depending upon the character of the institu- 
 tions granting the degrees. To secure this, the examining board should prepare 
 a list of accredited colleges. 
 
 (20) "The 'diploma of a college' and the evidence of 'at least nine months' 
 study of pedogogy' have very little value in themselves except as minimum 
 requirements. There are plenty of 'colleges' whose diplomas and courses in peda- 
 gogy are little more than 'fakes,' and such institutions will be much in evidence 
 if any value is attached to their product— is, in fact, very near to Chicago now." — 
 Dai/id Starr Jordan, President Leland Stanford University. 
 
 ( 21 ) "It is a widely prevalent doctrine, to which the customs of our best 
 schools conform, that teachers of elementary schools should have a secondary 
 or high school education. Your committee believe that these are the minimum 
 
 69 
 
no teachers in our elementary schools who have not had at least a high 
 school and a normal school training. And every teacher in our high schools 
 should have had a college education or what may fairly be reckoned as an 
 equivalent^ 22 ) At the same time, there are, in our elementary schools, 
 teachers, who by reason of superior natural endowment and prolonged 
 and specialized study, are competent to fill positions in the Chicago high 
 schools. Although provision should be made in such cases for advance 
 from the lower grades, this privilege should be carefully restricted by the 
 board of education, and all who desire such promotion should be required 
 to pass a rigid examination by the examining board. This examination 
 should prove that the successful candidate possesses general information 
 equal to that of a graduate of a good college, but not merely this. In 
 addition, the candidate must evince training in mental habits, power of 
 clear conception and of logical thinking, and ability to grasp and to assimi- 
 late ideas, — qualities which are the best results of university study. Since 
 teaching in our high schools is specialized, the applicant for promotion 
 should be fully able to give instruction in at least two or three kindred 
 branches. To do this, his training and attainments must equal that of 
 men who in addition to the college course have had a fair amount of gradu- 
 ate study along special lines. In view of these considerations, we recom- 
 
 requirements that can generally be accepted, that the scholarship and power 
 gained by four years of study in advance of the pupil are not too much to be 
 rightfully demanded, and that, as a rule, no one ought to become a teacher 
 who has not the age and the attainments presupposed in the possessor of a 
 high school diploma. There are differences in high schools, it is true, and a 
 high school diploma is not a fixed standard of attainment ; but in these United 
 States it is one of the most definite and uniform standards that we possess, 
 and varies less than college degrees vary, or than elementary schools or local 
 standards of culture vary." — Committee of Fifteen, p. i. 
 
 (22) "I w iH leave out of account the preparation of secondary school 
 teachers and educational administrative officers. These should always have a 
 college education and also a professional training, obtained, if possible, in the 
 educational department of a college or university." — Nicholas Murray Butler, 
 Columbia University. 
 
 In order to facilitate the entrance of college graduates into public school 
 work, the following was provided in Senate bill 615, February 24, 1889: "Section 
 273— Instruction of teachers in universities and colleges — If a university or col- 
 lege in this state (New York) maintains an educational department or teachers' 
 training class, and the course and period of instruction therein, so far as relates 
 to the theory and practice, are approved by the state superintendent, a certifi- 
 cate or diploma issued to a graduate of such department or class, when signed 
 by the state superintendent, has the same force and effect and entitles the holder 
 to the same privileges as a teacher's diploma issued by a state normal school. 
 The state may at any time visit and inspect such an education department or 
 training class." 
 
 70 
 

 
 mend that there be required of those desiring- high school positions, in 
 addition to the usual examination, either 
 
 (a) EVIDENCE APPROVED BY THE EXAMINING BOARD, OF SUCCESS- 
 FUL TEACHING IN THE SCHOOLS OF THIS CITY FOR SIX YEARS, AND OF 
 COLLEGIATE SCHOLARSHIP, WITH SAID PHYSICIAN'S CERTIFICATE; OR 
 
 (b) THE BACHELOR'S DEGREE OF A COLLEGE APPROVED BY THE EX- 
 AMINING BOARD, WITH SATISFACTORY EVIDENCE EITHER OF NINE 
 MONTHS' STUDY OF THE HISTORY, PRINCIPLES, AND PRACTICE OF 
 TEACHING, OR OF THREE YEARS' SUCCESSFUL TEACHING IN SECONDARY 
 SCHOOLS, TOGETHER WITH SAID PHYSICIAN'S CERTIFICATE. 
 
 In the latter instance, again, the rank of the college should be carefully 
 considered by the examining board. In lieu of the college course in the 
 history, principles, and practice of teaching, your commission would 
 recommend the acceptance of satisfactory evidence of at least three years' 
 successful experience in secondary school work. 
 
 SECTION 3. — THAT THE EXAMINATION OF TEACHERS BE INTRUSTED TO 
 AN EXAMINING BOARD, MADE UP OF THE SUPERINTENDENT, ONE OF 
 THE ASSISTANT SUPERINTENDENTS SELECTED BY THE SUPERINTEND- 
 ENT, AND THREE SPECIAL EXAMINERS ; THAT THE SPECIAL EXAMINERS 
 BE GRADUATES OF A COLLEGE OF GOOD STANDING, OR POSSESS AN EDU- 
 CATIONAL EQUIVALENT THERETO, WITH FIVE OR MORE YEARS' SUC- 
 CESSFUL EXPERIENCE AS TEACHERS, BE APPOINTED, ONE EACH 
 YEAR, BY THE BOARD OF EDUCATION, FOR A TERM OF THREE YEARS 
 FROM AN ELIGIBLE LIST OF AT LEAST THREE TIMES THE NUMBER TO BE 
 APPOINTED, CERTIFIED TO BY THE SUPERINTENDENT; BE NOT OTHER- 
 WISE CONNECTED WITH THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF THE CITY, AND RE- 
 CEIVE PROPER COMPENSATION FOR THEIR WORK. ( 23 ) 
 
 (23) If the superintendent were himself to select the members of the 
 examining board, there would be no advantage apparent in the institution of 
 such a board as compared with the very common method of leaving the examina- 
 tion to him and his assistants. The latter in many particulars would be as 
 competent to perform this work as are the special examiners here suggested. 
 In addition, however, to the impartiality which may be guaranteed by giving 
 this function to men not in any way connected with the appointment of teachers, 
 there should be gained through the examining board the advantage which lies 
 in a different if not a broader conception of the public schools. This result 
 cannot be expected if the superintendent directly selects the examiners, since, in 
 that case, he would be led (it may be unconsciously) to take those who are in 
 full sympathy with his views. His responsibility in the matter is sufficiently 
 protected if the examiners be chosen from a properly certified list. 
 
 OF THB 
 
The arguments ( 24 ) for creating an examining board have been already 
 suggested. In order to secure another element of impartiality in the 
 appointment of teachers, the majority of this board should be composed 
 of men not otherwise connected with the school system of the city. The 
 superintendent should be chairman of this board. His presence, together 
 with one assistant superintendent, would assist in forming a preliminary 
 judgment at least of the capacity or fitness of the applicants. The examin- 
 ing board should include only graduates of a good college, who have had 
 successful experience as teachers for a term of years. The appointment 
 of the examining board should not be in the hands of the superintendent 
 directly, but, as a guarantee of a suitable selection, the members 
 should be taken from a list properly certified by him. For the sake of 
 continuity in the work of the board of examiners, the members might well 
 be appointed for not less than three years, one position to be filled at the 
 end of each year. The work of the examining board will be severe, in- 
 cluding as it should a supervision not only of examinations for entrance 
 to the normal school ( 25 ) and graduation from it, but also of examination 
 of applicants from outside ; and the test of teachers for promotion, as here- 
 after suggested, and of the work of all grades. ( 26 ) Therefore, the exam- 
 iners should devote their exclusive attention to this service and receive 
 proper compensation. The existence of this board would offer, we believe, 
 an additional advantage in the possibility of more frequent examinations 
 for many of the purposes mentioned above. 
 
 (24) See introductory statement of this article. 
 
 ( 25 ) "Successful graduates of the city training school should be given 
 provisional licenses to teach and should take their place on the eligible list 
 of the city according to their scholarship and professional capacity indicated by 
 the record of the city training school. For this purpose the city board of exam- 
 iners should have authority to inspect the work of the city training school and 
 should conduct all examinations for graduation from it, inasmuch as graduation 
 leads to a position on the eligible list." — Nicholas Murray Butler. Columbia 
 University. 
 
 (26) The examining board could powerfully affect the teaching throughout 
 the system by arranging special examinations from time to time for the various 
 grades. These examinations, carefully conducted, would be, at the same time, 
 a test of the various teachers, a guidance to them in proper methods of instruc- 
 tion and a stimulus to keep fully abreast with current educational thought. The 
 questions should not be planned to test primarily the industry of the pupil. 
 They should, however, be a test of their ability to comprehend and to express, 
 and the answers obtained should be a basis for criticism, not only of the methods 
 employed by the teachers, but also of the general educational value of the course 
 of study. 
 
 72 
 
SECTION 4. THAT THE APPOINTMENT OF TEACHERS, AT FIRST FOR A 
 
 PROBATIONARY TERM OF TWO SUCCESSIVE YEARS, AND AFTER THAT ON 
 GOOD BEHAVIOR AND DURING SATISFACTORY SERVICE, BE MADE BY THE 
 SUPERINTENDENT FROM THE LIST OF THOSE WHO HOLD HIS CERTIFI- 
 CATES, SUBJECT ONLY TO A VETO BY A MAJORITY OF THE MEMBERS OF 
 THE BOARD. 
 
 Although the appointment of teachers should be made by the superin- 
 tendent subject to the approval of the board, no candidate should be 
 permanently appointed except after a probationary term of two successive 
 years. ( 27 ) This will afford the surest test of the sustained efficiency and 
 enthusiasm of the teacher. After such a probation satisfactorily completed, 
 the teacher should receive a permanent appointment during satisfactory 
 service and on good behavior, and not be subject, as at present, to a yearly 
 election. 
 
 SECTION 5. THAT EXPERIENCED TEACHERS, WHEN APPOINTED FROM 
 
 OUTSIDE THE CITY, AFTER A PHYSICAL EXAMINATION SIMILAR TO 
 THAT REQUIRED OF OTHER CANDIDATES, BE GIVEN CREDIT FOR 
 SUCH EXPERIENCE IN DETERMINING THEIR GRADE IN THE SALARY 
 SCHEDULE OF THE CITY, NOT EXCEEDING ONE YEAR FOR EACH TWO 
 YEARS OF SUCH OUTSIDE TERM OF SERVICE ; PROVIDED, THAT IN NO CASE 
 CREDIT FOR MORE THAN FIVE YEARS BE GIVEN. 
 
 Under any schedule of salaries the pay of teachers will naturally in- 
 crease with length of service, and it is only fair that teachers admitted to 
 the Chicago schools from outside should receive credit for the successful 
 experience that has made them desirable additions to the teaching body.( 28 ) 
 
 (27) "My belief is that no license to teach should ever be made permanent 
 until after successful teaching experience has been had. Therefore, as indicated 
 above, only a provisional license should be granted to graduates of a training 
 school ; but this license should become permanent by action of the city super- 
 intendent and the board .if examiners after one or more years of successful 
 schoolroom experience." — Nicholas Murray Butler, Columbia University. 
 
 "Licenses to teach should be issued by the city superintendent of schools 
 for a period of one year, which may be renewed without examination in case 
 the work of the holder is satisfactory to the borough sunerintendent for two 
 successive years. At the close of the third year of continuous successful service 
 the city superintendent may make the license permanent. Authority to revoke 
 any permanent license for cause shall be vested in the state superintendent of 
 public instruction." — Charter of the City of New York, Section 1,081. 
 
 (28) "We recommend that both principals and teachers be given credit for 
 previous successful experience elsewhere, in determining the salary to be paid 
 them." — The George Hozvland Club. 
 
 73 
 
What this credit should he it is not easy to determine. As a rule, such 
 teachers have not received as large a salary in their previous work as is 
 paid in similar positions in our schools. To give them full allowance year 
 for year for their work, would seem an unjust discrimination against the 
 great body of Chicago teachers who have gained their professional training 
 under stricter requirements and proved their efficiency under more diffi- 
 cult and arduous conditions. Although it is highly desirable to get effi- 
 cient teachers from without ( 29 ), yet the greater acquaintance of our teach- 
 ers with the problems of the Chicago schools should give them a distinct 
 advantage over all competitors. Recognizing the complex nature of the 
 problem, we find no better way than to give to the examining board the 
 determination of such credit, within the limits suggested. 
 
 SECTION 6. THAT PROMOTIONS BE BASED ON THE PREVIOUS GOOD RECORD 
 
 OF THE TEACHER AS INDICATED BY THE REPORT OF THE PRINCIPAL AND 
 THE ASSISTANT SUPERINTENDENT, AND ON PROGRESS MADE, BOTH IN 
 SCHOLARSHIP AND IN TEACHING ABILITY, AS RECOGNIZED BY THE EX- 
 AMINING BOARD. 
 
 The promotion of teachers should be based on two conditions :( 30 ) 
 First, the success of the teacher in previous work ; second, the progress 
 which the teacher can show, both in general scholarship and teaching 
 ability. A moderate success in a given position may justify the retention 
 
 (29) "It is well to make it possible to strengthen the force of teachers by 
 the bringing in of capable men and women from the outside. It is well to 
 retain and promote competent and growing teachers, but it is not well to pro- 
 mote those whose growth has not deserved promotion." — David Starr Jordan, 
 Leland Stanford University. 
 
 "I cannot but deprecate for any school system, the policy of drawing too 
 exclusively upon its own talent for its teaching force, for I feel sure that such a 
 policy is a mistaken one, and if carried on too far. as it may be. the schools 
 are almost certain to degenerate to a low grade. It too often happens under 
 such terms that the teachers lose ambition for high service, because more or 
 less wedded to routine methods and drift into contracted habits of thought and 
 work. For the correction of these reactionary habits, a class of teachers educated 
 and trained in other schools, and by other agencies than our own, is imperatively 
 demanded by the highest needs of our school economy. The views and habits 
 of thought entertained by our home product, and by those who come to us from 
 other localities, naturally modify and stimulate each other and provoke a more 
 efficient service. It seems wise, therefore, that a judicious complement of 
 teachers from abroad be ever and anon added to the department of instruction 
 if we hope to maintain high, rank among the schools of the country."—!). R. 
 Cameron, President's Report, Chicago Board of Education, 1895. 
 
 (30) ".\ s regards the promotion of teachers, there should be every year a 
 record made of the success of the teachers, said record being formed on the 
 report of the principal of the school in which the teacher is working, and the 
 same should be confirmed by the superintendent. From a list of the teachers 
 
 74 
 
of the teacher on the pay-roll of the city, but that alone does not justify 
 promotion either in the grade of work assigned or in salary. There is 
 no more potent influence in raising the professional standard of a teaching 
 body than a rational method of promotion, which offers each teacher the 
 possibility of sure recognition and suitable reward. This is a principle 
 which has not been, we believe, properly recognized and enforced in the 
 administration of Chicago schools, and your commission does not know 
 any more important and fundamental question lying distinctly within the 
 duties of the board of education than that of drawing up a plan of pro- 
 motion that will secure these results. 
 
 The record of a teacher will be judged mainly by the report of the 
 principal and the assistant superintendent, and no promotion should be 
 made without their recommendation. In addition to this, all promotions 
 should be conditioned on careful examination and approval by the exam- 
 ining board. ( 31 ) On the recommendation of the principal and the assist- 
 ant superintendent, and on the expressed approval of the examining board, 
 the superintendent should be empowered to assign the teacher to the new 
 rank or to a higher grade in the salary schedule. 
 
 who have attained the highest rank in (a) ability to instruct, (b) ability to 
 govern in an efficient and humane manner, (c) other good qualities of char- 
 acter and zeal in promoting the best interests of the schools, promotions may be 
 recommended." — William T. Harris, U. S. Commissioner of Education. 
 
 "Concerning the promotion of teachers, the first idea that seems to strike 
 me is, that in our present system there is no such thing as the promotion of a 
 teacher other than that worked by the flight of time (except her election to 
 a higher office). I judge it to be the almost unanimous opinion that this is 
 entirely wrong, and that a plan should be put in operation by which merit shall 
 be recognized. I think it is the well-nigh unanimous opinion that instead of 
 leveling all salaries, more classes of salaries should obtain, graduated to the 
 work and qualifications required of the teacher and that promotion to the higher 
 classes should be somewhat competitive in character." — A Chicago Principal. 
 
 (31) In the desire to secure a competent teaching force, it should not be for- 
 gotten that there is danger of enforcing unnecessary limitations. Experience has 
 shown that too frequent examinations are rather an impediment than a help, since 
 they turn the attention of the teacher from his regular work, and thus lessen his 
 efficiency. Once admitted to the profession with proofs of scholarship and special 
 training and after a term of probation, the teacher should, as already recom- 
 mended, receive a permanent certificate. Any additional examinations or tests 
 required should be made of those only who apply for promotion to positions for 
 which much higher qualifications are required. 
 
 75 
 
SECTION. 7- THAT THE. PRESENT SCHEDULE OF THE SALARIES OF THE 
 
 CITY UNDER RECENT CHANGES BE RECOGNIZED AS NOT PROPERLY PRO- 
 PORTIONED TO THE VARIOUS POSITIONS IN THE PUBLIC SCHOOL SYSTEM, 
 AS PROVIDING IN MANY GROUPS SALARIES SO HIGH THAT THE EFFI- 
 CIENCY OF THE SCHOOLS IN OTHER PARTICULARS CANNOT UNDER THE 
 LIMITATIONS OF THE LAW GOVERNING THE TAX LEVY, BE ADEQUATELY 
 SECURED, AND AS LIABLE, THEREFORE, TO CAUSE EITHER FINANCIAL 
 EMBARRASSMENT TO THE BOARD OR SUDDEN AND PREJUDICIAL 
 RETRENCHMENT, UNLESS THE SCHEDULE BE READJUSTED AT AN EARLY 
 TIME. 
 
 The delicate nature of this question has already been intimated. A 
 study of the salaries now paid in Chicago and a comparison with those of 
 other cities of approximately the same size, justify the statement that the 
 board of education has not carefully proportioned the pay of various posi- 
 tions^ 32 ) Your commission is impressed with the importance of the teach- 
 er's work and the necessity of making this profession attractive both to men 
 and to women of ability, training, and experience. We are, however, fully 
 persuaded that public interests demand a more systematic treatment of the 
 question of salaries, and we believe that in the long run the teachers them- 
 selves will be benefited if the salaries are placed on a more rational basis. ( 33 ) 
 Therefore, we recommend that after a thorough examination of existing 
 conditions the schedule of salaries be revised with the purpose of adjust- 
 ing each salary to the responsibility of the position, to the proved efficiency 
 and length of service of the teacher and to the total of the salary schedule 
 of the city.( 34 ) 
 
 SECTION 8. THAT A SCHEDULE OF SALARIES BE ADOPTED WHICH WILL 
 
 RECOGNIZE DISTINCTIONS IN REGARD TO THE GRADE OR SUBJECT IN 
 WHICH THE TEACHER GIVES INSTRUCTION, THE TERM OF SERVICE OF 
 THE TEACHER, THE SUCCESS ALREADY ACHIEVED, AND WELL PROVED 
 ADVANCE IN SCHOLARSHIP AND TEACHING ABILITY. 
 
 The board of education has ignored in its recent changes an important 
 principle in the adjustment of salaries. The wholesale leveling of salaries 
 
 (32) For discussion of salary question, see Appendix A. 
 
 (33) "I believe there should be some gradation of salaries with reference to 
 the longer hours, the more laborious preparation, and the more scholarly ability 
 in upper grades. This is not saying that little children do not require the best 
 teachers, but as most of our schools are organized, the primary teacher does not 
 have, in respect to discipline and required study, the strain imposed upon teachers 
 in the higher grades." — 5". T. Dittton, Superintendent, Brookline (Mass.) 
 
 (34) See section 8 of this article. 
 
 76 
 
throughout the elementary schools, so that the only basis of discrimination 
 is length of service, sacrifices another effective means of raising the pro- 
 fessional standard. ( 35 ) Your commission believes in employing for each 
 grade of the elementary schools the best teachers available, but it is not at 
 all clear that the teachers of each grade are entitled to the same pay. Some 
 grades, notably the first and second, demand the possession on the part of 
 the teacher of qualifications not to be found in the majority of those giving 
 instruction. In other grades, particularly in the seventh and eighth, a more 
 liberal education, wider reading, and more general knowledge are needed, 
 and greater care is necessary in preparation for recitations, as well as 
 more labor in carrying out the course of study. It is a matter of 
 frequent complaint that, with equal salaries for all grades, teachers are 
 not inclined to make the extra effort in preparation and to perform the 
 
 (35) "The present schedule is based upon the trade union principle of equal 
 compensation for varying degrees of efficiency. Such is calculated to encourage 
 poor work and to discourage special ability. The only thing taken into considera- 
 tion is length of service, and the higher salaries are reached automatically by the 
 simple process of remaining continuously at work for a given number of years. 
 It ought not to be difficult to devise a better system than this. To make promo- 
 tions depend upon examinations would probably be inadvisable, because examina- 
 tions throw very little light upon teaching efficiency, but they might well be made 
 to depend on the recommendation of the principals, superintendents and other 
 school officers having opportunities for observation of the teachers at work. 
 These are the persons who really know the relative abilities of teachers, and their 
 knowledge might most usefully be brought to bear upon promotions." — A Chi- 
 cago High School Principal. 
 
 "We believe that the present tendency toward leveling the salaries of all 
 teachers regardless of the duties required of them, and of the educational qualifi- 
 cations requisite to a proper discharge of these duties, is wrong. We recommend 
 that the salaries paid teachers depend on; first, length of time of service, and 
 second, the grade or group of grades taught. We would call attention to the 
 fact that a higher grade of scholarship is required to teach the upper grades than 
 the lower. More work outside of school hours is required, and the government 
 of these is more difficult. This condition holds true from the first grade to the 
 twelfth, and we believe that salaries should be modified accordingly, perhaps 
 making an exception of the teacher who is kept in first grade, because she can 
 start the pupils right, as against one who remains in first grade because she is 
 unable to teach second. Teachers of upper grammar grades need a broad knowl- 
 edge of American and foreign history, literature, science, algebra, geometry, 
 latin, music and art, not needed by teachers of lower grades. To get this knowl- 
 edge, she is obliged to spend more time and money in study, and we believe that 
 this ought to increase her pay. We believe that promotions to higher grades 
 with increased pay ought to be somewhat competitive in character."— The George 
 Howland Club. 
 
 77 
 
additional labor incident to the more advanced instruction of the elemen- 
 tary schools. Primary teachers fully qualified for work in the upper 
 grades, often refuse advancement to the sixth, seventh or eighth, and it 
 is frequently difficult to secure good talent for the higher classes. This is 
 in itself an argument for relatively higher salaries in these positions. ( 36 ) 
 The salary question is so involved that it is properly a subject for 
 determination by experts, but your commission has no hesitation in ex- 
 pressing its belief in the validity of the distinction here made. Salaries 
 should be apportioned not merely on the basis of the length of service, 
 but also on a basis of the relative difficulty of the instruction in the different 
 grades, and most certainly on the degree of efficiency already shown by 
 the teacher ( 37 ), and on evidence shown of increased scholarship. 
 
 SECTION 9. THAT ALL SUITABLE MEANS BE USED TO PUT A LARGER PRO- 
 PORTION OF MEN TEACHERS IN THE HIGHER GRADES OF THE ELEMENT- 
 ARY SCHOOLS, AS POSITIONS THEREIN MAY HEREAFTER BECOME VACANT ; 
 AND, IF IT BE FOUND NECESSARY TO THE SECURING OF THIS END, THAT 
 HIGHER SALARIES BE PROVIDED FOR MEN THAN FOR WOMEN IN THESFi 
 GRADES. ( 38 ) 
 
 The need of more men in public school work is universally recognized, 
 and is far more pressing in Chicago than in the other large cities of the 
 
 (36) "The result of the present system is, that many teachers, fully capable of 
 taking a higher grade, ask for a lower primary, in which there is the smallest de- 
 mand°for scholarship, and less need of preparatory work. The laudable ambition 
 to advance from grade to grade is dulled, the teacher ceases her effort and her 
 study for higher positions: our work is crippled, the incitement to progress an- 
 nihilated, and our schools and pupils and our city are the sufferers."— George 
 Howland— Superintendents Report Chicago Board of Education, 1889. 
 
 "I recently made inquiries among the primary teachers of this school to find 
 out if any was willing to take a grammar division another year and found not one 
 willing, while on the other hand, there are several of our grammar teachers who 
 would like a second or first grade division if an opening is found. There has not 
 been a grammar grade vacancy filled by a primary grade teacher in this school for 
 six years, but each time such a place is to be filled it has been necessary to find 
 a teacher from outside source."— .4 Chicago Principal. 
 
 (37) "Each school board shall have power to adopt by-laws fixing the salaries 
 of the borough and the assistant superintendents, of principals, and branch princi- 
 pals and of all other members of the supervising and teaching staff, and such 
 salaries shall be regulated by merit, by the grade of class taught, by the length 
 of service or bv the experience in teaching of the incumbent in charge, or by 
 such a combination of these considerations as the school board may deem proper." 
 —Charter of the City of New York, Section 1,091 
 
 (38) "One of the divisions of this subject which is attracting much attention, 
 provoking much discussion and bringing into view a startling array of statistics, 
 is the ratio of women to men in the public schools of the United States. While 
 this discussion pertains with special significance to the common schools, it is a 
 factor which cannot be eliminated in the solution of the high school problem, and 
 enters with irritating effect into our reflections as to the quantity and quality of 
 those credentials physical, intellectual, and moral, which the welfare of our sec- 
 ondary schools demand of every teacher. Go where you will, you hear it said : 
 
 78 
 
country. ( 3D ) This is apparent in many ways. The small number of boys 
 in our secondary schools as compared, for example, with Boston, is a 
 striking and almost ominous fact( 40 ), which is to be attributed in part to 
 the predominance of women teachers in the elementary schools. Indeed, 
 the proportion of boys to girls in our high schools is actually decreasing. 
 This indicates that to a certain degree the public school system is not 
 properly fulfilling its function, and one inevitable result will be the loss 
 of public sympathy and support. Not only do comparatively few boys 
 enter the high school, but large numbers leave the elementary schools 
 before completing the work of the eighth, seventh, or even sixth grade. 
 This has been attributed by many careful observers among other things to 
 the small and decreasing proportion of men teachers. ( 41 ) If this explana- 
 
 'We need more men, but we cannot afford the salaries they demand. We do not 
 blame them for refusing to accept our small stipend, and therefore we are com- 
 pelled to employ women.' This is a true statement and as sad as degenerating 
 and as degrading as it is true." — Editorial, in School Review, March, 1896. 
 
 (39) "There are periods in the school life of a boy when he needs contact with 
 the rugged and forceful personality of men who have arrived at the maturity of 
 their powers. There is no reason why this contact should be reserved for the 
 high school or the college. Only a very small percentage of boys reaches the 
 high school, and a still smaller proportion receives the benefit of college training. 
 Even in the high schools, the number of male instructors grows smaller year by 
 year."— Editorial, Chicago Times-Herald, July 19. 1S9S. 
 
 "The influence exerted on the minds and hearts of children by men and women 
 teachers may be equal in degree, but certainly is not of the same kind, hence the 
 schools need both in more equal ratio than at present. Children instinctively 
 recognize the difference in the sex influence, and respond to it accordingly. I 
 have no question that our schools are to-day suffering for a lack of men in our 
 teaching force/'— D. R. Cameron, Ex-President, Chicago Board of Education. 
 
 "Since my connection with the board of education the number of teachers in 
 Chicago has increased from about seventeen hundred to three thousand. At all 
 times the fair sex has predominated to a considerable extent, but at no time has 
 this been so apparent as during the last few years. If an extra effort had been 
 made to drive out male teachers and fill their places by women, the success could 
 not have been better. Whenever a male principal resigned or his place was made 
 vacant for some reason, it was filled by a lady. In my opinion it is necessary that 
 the more sturdy character of men should be allowed to have an influence upon 
 our growing generation, and while it may be necessary that the gentle hand of 
 women should guide and lead our little ones, I believe that the more firm hand 
 of men should be employed in teaching the older ones and take part in the mould- 
 ing and shaping of their character."— Louis Nettclhorst, President's Report, Chi- 
 cago Board of Education, 1891. 
 
 (40) "Of the total of seven thousand seven hundred and fifty pupils in our 
 high schools at the close of September, 1895, there were one thousand nine hun- 
 dred and seventy-four boys and five thousand seven hundred and seventy-six 
 girls, or 26 per cent boys and 74 per cent girls, a loss of 5 per cent from last year, 
 when there was 31 per cent boys and 69 per cent girls."— A. G. Lane, Superin- 
 tendent's Report, Chicago Board of Education, 1S96. 
 
 (41) "The gradual disappearance of the 'old school master,' whose vigorous 
 and wholesome personality was such an important factor in the development of 
 
 79 
 
tion be well founded, and we believe it is. the necessity of attracting more 
 men to the teaching body is self-evident. 
 
 Your commission would not be understood as arguing against the 
 employment of women in the teaching force. We recognize the value of 
 their work and believe that in many grades of our elementary schools from 
 the kindergarten up, a woman teacher is, other things being equal, to be 
 preferred to a man. We hold, however, distinctly, that neither sex should 
 greatly predominate, if the most symmetrical results are to be obtained, 
 and we believe that the patrons and warm supporters of our public schools, 
 men and women alike, unite in a desire for the employment of more men 
 teachers. How these can be secured is not easy to point out. If it is true, 
 as has been openly stated, however, that in our elementary schools of two 
 applicants equally competent a woman stands a better chance of appoint- 
 ment than a man, the need of a change in our policy is obvious enough. 
 If, on the other hand, men are rare in the teaching body because sufficient 
 pay is not offered to attract such as are competent, then the salaries of 
 men should be advanced to the point at which they can be secured. 
 
 The paying of higher salaries to men than to women of the same ability 
 and training is not an unjust discrimination. The superior physical en- 
 durance of a man makes him, relatively speaking, more valuable in the 
 school system. Moreover, this question is a plain case of supply and 
 demand, and the experience of our American cities clearly indicates the 
 necessity of paying larger salaries for men, if a fair proportion of them 
 is to be brought into the teaching body. The public will not begrudge the 
 additional expense necessary to infuse this much needed element into the 
 school system. Your commission is inclined to believe, also, that much 
 can be accomplished in this direction simply by the adoption of a rational 
 plan of promotion by which the prospect of regular advance from the 
 lower positions will be held out to those best prepared for the teacher's 
 work and most zealous in the performance of their duties. Young men 
 of college education and high professional attainments can, we believe, be 
 thus attracted even to the elementary grades. 
 
 SECTION 10. THAT THE RECOMMENDATION OF THE PRINCIPAL AND 
 
 THE ASSISTANT SUPERINTENDENT BE ACCEPTED AS SUFFICIENT REASON 
 FOR CHANGE OF ASSIGNMENT BY THE SUPERINTENDENT OF A TEACHER 
 ON THE GROUND OF INEFFICIENCY. 
 
 character and individuality in young men, is certainly an element of weakness in 
 our modern school system." — Editorial, Chicago Times-Herald. July 19, 1898. 
 
 80 
 
SECTION II. THAT AFTER TWO SUCH CHANGES IN ASSIGNMENT, AND 
 
 UPON THE RECOMMENDATION FOR A THIRD CHANGE BY THE PRIN- 
 CIPAL AND ASSISTANT SUPERINTENDENT, THE TEACHER SHALL BE 
 RETIRED FROM THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF THE CITY BY THE SUPERINTEND- 
 ENT, UNLESS HIS ACTION BE DISAPPROVED BY A MAJORITY VOTE OF 
 ALL THE MEMBERS OF THE BOARD NOT LATER THAN THE SECOND 
 MEETING AFTER THE REPORT IS MADE THERETO. 
 
 Just as it rests with the superintendent to make promotions on the 
 recommendation of the principal and the respective assistant, so on the same 
 authority and after proper test of the teacher under different conditions 
 the latter should be retired from the service if adjudged incompetent. ( 42 ) 
 All arguments that have been advanced to concentrate in the super- 
 intendent the responsibility for the educational system of the city, apply 
 with equal force to this portion of his duties. With proper care in guard- 
 ing admissions \o the teaching body, and with careful supervision of the 
 work, the necessity for such action should be reduced to a minimum. At 
 the same time, when occasion does arise, this power should be firmly used 
 by the superintendent, and his decision should be final, with the restriction 
 of being subject to disapproval by a majority vote of the members of 
 the board. 
 
 (42) "The superintendent shall have the power to dismiss any teacher when 
 her work is deficient or her discipline unsatisfactory, the same to be certified to 
 by the principal of the school, the district superintendent and a majority of the 
 board of superintendents. All appointments under a partial certificate shall be 
 temporary and whenever a teacher is rendering unsatisfactory service the super- 
 intendent shall have the power to dismiss such teacher upon the recommendation 
 of the principal of the school, and the district superintendent, provided such 
 teacher has had at least two trials. All recommendations shall be in writing." — 
 A Chicago Superintendent. 
 
<Tt)r iilrmmtan,) 
 
 ARTICLE V 
 
 In respect to the elementary schools, your Commission respectfully 
 recommends : 
 
 SECTION I. — THAT THE BOARD OF EDUCATION GIVE CAREFUL CONSIDERA- 
 TION TO THE GENERAL COMPLAINT OF THE LOSS OF TIME AND WASTE 
 OF EFFORT IN THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS, DUE TO THE NEEDLESS 
 REPETITION OF SUBJECTS IN DIFFERENT GRADES, AND TO A CONSEQUENT 
 TOSS OF INTELLECTUAL POWER IN THE CHILD, WHICH RESULTS FROM 
 SPENDING EIGHT YEARS ON A COURSE OF STUDY THAT MIGHT FAIRLY, 
 IN MANY CASES, BE COVERED IN LESS THAN SEVEN ; 
 
 SECTION 2. — THAT IN CONSIDERATION OF THE ABOVE, THE SUPERINTEND- 
 ENT AND HIS ASSISTANTS BE INSTRUCTED CAREFULLY TO CONSIDER 
 AND TO REVISE THE COURSE OF STUDY OF THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS, IN 
 ORDER THAT THE WORK OF EACH GRADE MAY BE SIMPLER, MORE PRO- 
 GRESSIVE AND BETTER UNIFIED; THAT THE WORK OF THE DIFFERENT 
 GRADES, ESPECIALLY OF THE EIGHTH AND NINTH, I. E., THE FIRST YEAR 
 OF THE HIGH SCHOOL, MAY BE MORE CLOSELY CORRELATED AND RE- 
 ARRANGED, WITH DUE REFERENCE TO THE SPECIAL STUDIES INTRODUCED 
 IN RECENT YEARS ; AND PARTICULARLY TO THE GRADUAL INTRODUCTION, 
 ELSEWHERE RECOMMENDED, OF SOME FORM OF CONSTRUCTIVE WORK 
 IN EACH GRADE OF ALL SCHOOLS ; 
 
 SECTION 3. — THAT THE COURSE OF STUDY BE SO READJUSTED AS READILY 
 TO PERMIT OF AT LEAST SEMI-ANNUAL PROMOTION FROM GRADE TO 
 GRADE ; 
 
 SECTION 4. THAT A KINDERGARTEN, OPEN TO CHILDREN FROM FOUR TO 
 
 SIX YEARS OF AGE, BE ESTABLISHED AS SOON AS POSSIBLE IN CONNEC- 
 TION WITH EACH SCHOOL IN THE MORE THICKLY POPULATED DISTRICTS 
 OF THE CITY, AND ULTIMATELY IN EVERY SCHOOL. 
 
 The suggestions which your commission ventures to make in regard to 
 the course of study of the elementary schools, should not be construed as 
 indicating that this city is inferior to other large communities in its system 
 of public instruction. On the contrary, many of the difficulties here por- 
 
 S2 
 
trayed are the direct result of an earnest, progressive spirit and of a desire 
 to give the children of Chicago the best education that can be furnished at 
 public expense. The city deserves great praise for its generous support 
 of public schools, and those who have directed the educational system have 
 acted wisely in infusing from time to time new studies into the programme. 
 This has led, however, to an overcrowding of the course, which is a source 
 of temporary embarrassment to both pupils and teachers, and undoubtedly 
 the present situation demands careful consideration. 
 
 The deeper questions of method of instruction, your commission has 
 not felt competent to treat. Improvement in this direction has been con- 
 stant and there is good reason to believe that the line of progress at present 
 is sound and will be maintained. We feel, indeed, reluctance in attempt- 
 ing any review of the course of study. The responsibility for this is divided 
 between the board of education and the superintendent of schools. The 
 board of education, acting for the people and according to their desires, 
 has the authority to determine what shall be taught in the public schools ; 
 furthermore, it alone allots the amounts of money to be spent in the different 
 divisions of the system. Within the lines laid down by the board, the 
 superintendent should have the initiative in suggesting the number of 
 teachers necessary for instruction in different subjects and the determina- 
 tion of all methods to be employed ; on him and his assistants the construc- 
 tion of the course of study falls. The recommendations here made do not 
 affect, except in the question of kindergartens, the duties of the board. 
 The reason for making them lies in the apparent neglect by the force of 
 supervision to work out a coherent and unified plan of instruction — due, 
 we believe, in large measure to the excessive requirements heretofore made 
 of the superintendent and his assistants in purely clerical work. If they 
 were freed to a considerable extent from duties which might well be as- 
 signed to clerks, they would have more time and energy to devote to 
 thorough supervision of their respective districts and to the larger problems 
 of municipal education. 
 
 One of these problems is the course of study which, more than any other 
 question that has been brought to our attention, is a matter for considera- 
 tion and determination by experts. Only men who with a liberal educa- 
 tion and careful training unite wide experience and thoughtful study of 
 what the public demands from the elementary schools and of what it is 
 possible to give in them, can speak with final authority on this topic. We 
 have noted, however, what seems to be a very general situation in school 
 affairs and also tendencies that are manifest in the school systems of many 
 cities. 
 
 S3 
 
The fact that first attracts notice, when we consider the present status 
 in Chicago, is the great improvement in our public schools in recent 
 years which has made it possible to accomplish more within a given period 
 than was formerly the case. This improvement is marked with respect to 
 the teachers themselves, who, through a broader education and a sounder 
 training are better fitted to give instruction, and who by a more thorough 
 knowledge of the powers of children ( x ) and through better methods, have 
 considerably shortened the time needed to accomplish certain definite edu- 
 cational results in their work. Another movement tending in the same 
 direction, is the equipment of school rooms with various appliances that 
 have largely facilitated elementary as well as secondary instruction in our 
 larger cities. The benefits, however, which might accrue from this improve- 
 ment of educational conditions, have not, we think, been fully realized. 
 As much space is given now as formerly in the course of study to many 
 subjects which, due to the changes just mentioned, it would be possible 
 to teach adequately in a considerably shorter time.( 2 ) The waste of effort 
 
 (!) No element in the preparation of the teacher has been more strongly in- 
 sisted upon in recent years than the importance of child study. In this particular, 
 the normal schools of our country are following the example of continental 
 schools and are working out with marked results the ideas of leading education- 
 ists. Chicago is fortunate in the possession of a normal school, in which the 
 importance of this work has been fully appreciated, and in which careful train- 
 ing has been given in this line. 
 
 "Modern educational thought emphasizes the opinion that the child, not the 
 subject of study, is the guide to the teacher's efforts. To know the child is of 
 paramount importance. How to know the child must be an important item of 
 instruction to the teacher in training. The child must be studied as to his physi- 
 cal, mental and moral condition. Is he in good health? Are his senses of sight 
 and hearing normal, or in what degree abnormal? What is his tempera- 
 ment? Which of his faculties seem weak or dormant. Is he eye-minded or ear- 
 minded? What are his powers of attention? How far is his normal nature 
 developed, and what are his tendencies? By what tests can the degree of differ- 
 ence between bright and dull children be estimated? To study effectively and 
 observingly these and similar questions respecting children is a high art. No 
 common sense power of discerning human nature is sufficient; though common 
 sense and sympathy go a long way in that study. Weighing, measuring, elaborate 
 investigation requiring apparatus and laboratory methods are for experts, not 
 teachers in training. Above all. it must ever be remembered that the child is to 
 be studied as a personality and not as an object to he weighed and analyzed." — 
 Committee of Fifteen, p. <<. 
 
 (2) "I turn to the desirable reduction in the volume and variety of the present 
 studies. The firsl reduction should, I believe, be made in arithmetic. I find that 
 it is very common in programme^ of tin' course to allot to arithmetic from one- 
 eighth to one-sixth of the whole school time for nine or ten years. A small book 
 ordinarily contains all the arithmetic that anybody needs to know, indeed much 
 more than most of us ever use. On grounds of utility, geometry and physics have 
 Stronger claims than any part of arithmetic beyond the elements, and for mental 
 training they are also to he preferred. By the contraction of arithmetic, room is 
 made for algebra and geometry. Moreover, the attainments of the pupil in 
 arithmetic are not diminished by the introduction of the new studies, hut rather 
 
 S 4 
 
involved in the needless repetition of subjects in different grades, is not 
 the only evil to be met. For a child to go over and over again the same 
 portions of arithmetic ( 3 ) and geography, even from a considerably modi- 
 fied point of view, is not only a loss of time and effort, but also a distinct 
 detriment to his interest and intellectual power. The course of study could 
 be revised to advantage by a reduction in the amount of time assigned to 
 different subjects. To this end the work in different grades should be 
 simplified with proper care for natural and progressive sequence, and 
 greater unity should be secured among the subjects of instruction. This 
 is especially necessary at the present time. Even before it became evident 
 that more work could be done within the school life of the child, there was 
 a tendency to enlarge the course. ( 4 ) New studies have been successively 
 introduced in order to develop and train the child in many directions not 
 hitherto attempted. The charge has been made that these changes have 
 resulted from the increased requirements on the part of higher institutions, 
 and have led to pushing down into the elementary schools subjects that 
 have hitherto been reserved for the secondary. The natural inference is 
 
 increased. The algebraic way of solving a problem is often more intelligent than 
 the arithmetical, and mensuration is easier when founded on a good knowledge 
 of geometry than it is with a lack of that foundation. The three subjects to- 
 gether are vastly more interesting than arithmetic, pursued through nine consecu- 
 tive years. In many schools the subject of grammar still fills too large a place 
 on the programme, although great improvement has taken place in the treatment 
 of this abstruse subject which is so unsuitable for children. Geography is now 
 taught chiefly as a memory study from books and flat atlases, and much time is 
 given to committing to memory masses of facts which cannot be retained and 
 which are of little value if retained. By grouping physical geography with 
 natural history, and political gepgraphy with history, and by providing proper 
 apparatus for teaching geography, time can be saved, and yet a place made for 
 much new and interesting geographical instruction." — Charles W. Eliot, Presi- 
 dent Harvard University, N. E. A. Proceedings, 1892, p. 617. 
 
 (3) "Your committee believes that with the right methods and a wise use of 
 time in preparing the arithmetic lesson in and out of school five years are 
 sufficient for the study of mere arithmetic — the five years beginning with the 
 second school year and ending with the close of the sixth year; and that the 
 seventh year should be given to the algebraic method of dealing with those 
 problems that involve difficulties in the transformation of quantitative indirect 
 functions into numerical or direct quantitative data." — Committee of Fifteen, 
 
 P- 39- 
 
 "The sifting of the course of study in grades is greatly to be encouraged. I 
 believe that arithmetic takes too much time by one-third. Better work in less 
 time." — D. L. Kiehle, University of Minnesota. 
 
 (4) It matters very little to us what was the origin of the common school ; it 
 sprang up from the needs of the age, and was suited to the wants of society, but 
 the furnishing of the intelligent citizen of to-day for his private and public duties 
 is very different from that of his ancestor two and a half centuries ago ; and the 
 scope of the common school has broadened into that of the public school, upon 
 whose wise and successful development depends so largely the hope, the welfare 
 and the perpetuity of our institutions, our government, our nation." — George 
 Howland, Superintendents Report, Chicago Board of Education, 1889. 
 
 85 
 
that these subjects have in some instances no proper place in the elementary 
 course. Your commission, however, while recognizing- a degree of truth 
 in the first statement, believes that the broadening of the common school 
 work has come more largely from a better appreciation of the educational 
 opportunity afforded in the first years of the child's life, and a determina- 
 tion on the part of the public to make the training offered as rich and fruit- 
 ful as possible. The extension of the course of study has been, we believe, 
 along proper lines in the introduction of many branches. ( 5 ) So far, how- 
 ever, this extension has not been accompanied by any adequate recognition 
 of the necessity of connecting these new subjects with those formerly 
 included in the course ; and in the Chicago schools to-day we do not find 
 that essential unity which can be secured by a thorough and, if necessary, 
 wholesale revision of the course. 
 
 Not only is this unity lacking in the different grades, but there is a notable 
 break in sequence between the grades. ( 6 ) This condition has been partly 
 
 (5) Algebra, for example, properly taught, is recognized as a suitable subject 
 for the seventh and eighth grade, at the same time supplementing the earlier 
 work in arithmetic, and affording a very good substitute for some of the higher 
 and more technical instruction in the latter study. 
 
 "The proposed seventh-grade algebra must use letters for the unknown 
 quantities and retain the numerical form of the known quantities, using letters 
 for these very rarely, except to exhibit the general form of solution, or what, if 
 stated in words, becomes a so-called 'rule' in arithmetic. This species of algebra 
 has the character of an introduction or transitional step to algebra proper. The 
 proposition of your committee is intended to remedy the two evils already 
 named : First, to aid the pupils in the elementary school to solve by a higher 
 method the more difficult problems that now find place in advanced arithmetic ; 
 and, secondly, to prepare the pupil for a thorough course in pure algebra in the 
 secondary school." — Committee of Fifteen, p. 40. 
 
 (6) "Nothing is more desirable than to try to get rid of the gulf that has 
 often separated the high school and the elementary school. In many cases it has 
 amounted to a caste feeling which has prevented teachers above and below from 
 any helpful co-operation. In numerous instances the teachers of grammar and 
 high schools never meet for conference. Permit me to say that both in New 
 Haven and here in Brookline I have always had regular monthly meetings, in 
 which teachers of all grades have come together and considered questions of 
 general interest, of which there are so many. In Brookline, where the number 
 of teachers has permitted it, we have had very free and informal discussions. 
 These have helped bring out a unity of feeling and plan which has been marked 
 in our work. Heads of departments and teachers generally have been encour- 
 aged to visit not only other schools of their own grades but those above and 
 below, and many other means have been employed to bring about co-operation. 
 We have found it very helpful in securing continuity through the grades to give 
 teachers in the high schools a sort of supervision over special subjects in the 
 grades below ; for example, our teacher of art, domestic science, sewing, physics, 
 chemistry, physical culture and biology in the high school had had the supervision 
 in these subjects in the grades below, and have usually met the teachers in 
 
 86 
 
the result of introducing many new subjects without fully considering the 
 place that each should fill in the school course, noticeably in the case of 
 nature study. It is true also of the instruction in manual training, which 
 has been added within the last two years. From the evidence presented 
 to your commission, we are inclined to the opinion that instead of these 
 studies being an additional element of unity in the school programme, as 
 they should be, the introduction of them has tended rather toward dis- 
 organization. ( 7 ) The mistake here suggested has led to the additional 
 difficulty of overcrowding to a considerable extent the course of study, 
 thus causing what seems undue criticism of those branches, for we are 
 thoroughly convinced that, properly connected with the rest of the course, 
 they will facilitate at the same time that they enrich elementary instruc- 
 tion.^) 
 
 groups once a month. They have in most cases been able to see something of 
 the work actually done. This is not only in the interest of economy but it knits 
 together the high school and the lower schools closely and gives intelligence and 
 unity to the whole system." — 5". T. Button, Superintendent, Brookline, Mass. 
 
 (7) "We should set about a reorganization of our whole school curriculum, 
 and by a carefully devised plan, secure the orderly progress of the child's culture 
 from the kindergarten age through an elementary course suited to his expanding 
 mental and bodily powers, and then through a course of scientific education — not 
 distinct from but supplementary to the former — until as a high school graduate, 
 he should possess, as far as nature has endowed him and opportunity favored, a 
 general preparation for the duties of life. In such a course, manual training 
 should enter at the proper time, and proceed through an elementary, if not 
 through a scientific stage, to the end that a trained hand may accompany a 
 disciplined intellect." — Ray Greene Huling, in Education, September, 1883. 
 
 (8) The course of study has not yet been broadened to correspond fully to 
 expert demand. 
 
 "In my judgment the schools of this city are in a deplorable condition of dry 
 rot, owing to the extreme poverty of subject matter offered by the curriculum. 
 The absolutely fundamental thing in education, especially early education, if it 
 is to lay a firm foundation for scholarship and power, is that the pupil shall be 
 brought into actual contact with material things, vast in amount and rich in 
 variety. As a corollary to this proposition, it may be assumed that, to this end, 
 the resources of the pupil's immediate environment should be drained to their 
 utmost. 
 
 "The published 'Outline of Course of Study' now provided for the schools 
 is absolutely colorless as regards the rich and educative environment of the 
 pupils. Its lusterless character would unfit it for a school situated in the most 
 meager surroundings ; but for our children and our teachers, environed by strong 
 influences that converge upon us from the ends of the earth, it is unusually 
 uninteresting and repellant. It is safe to say that if the children knew beforehand 
 what it contains for them— or rather what it lacks — the truant list, already large, 
 would be enormously increased. If our schools are to retain their hold upon the 
 pupils, and if they are to enlist the most enlightened efforts of the teachers, the 
 
 87 
 
One of the most difficult questions in the administration of common 
 schools relates to the promotion of pupils. The careful grading which is 
 feasible in large cities, and which has increased the possibilities of instruc- 
 tion, has a tendency to become too iron-clad to make sufficient allowance 
 for varying degrees of capacity and industry in pupils. ( 9 ) It is manifestly 
 
 course of study must strongly reflect the strength and inspiration of our present 
 life. 
 
 "Among the recommendations that I should like to urge are the following : 
 
 "i. That the course of study shall be revised annually in order to embody as 
 far as possible all that the growth of the city, the expansion of our school 
 system, and the development of our teachers may require. 
 
 "No instruction to-day pretends to be governed by a fixed formula. A course 
 of study one year old is an anachronism. An intelligent teacher will revise to 
 shreds and tatters within a year the best course of study ever devised. I protest 
 against the dead type that now stands as a shield to the poor teacher and a 
 barrier to the good one. 
 
 "2. That the preparation of the course of study shall be in the hands of the 
 superintendent, his assistants and a representative committee of teachers, 
 appointed by the superintendent. The work of the committee shall be conducted 
 through sub-committees, each reporting to the entire committee at least three 
 times a year upon the course for the following year. 
 
 "3. That the committee through its sub-committees shall make an exhaustive 
 study of the city and its surroundings from the standpoint of educative material, 
 and arrange the results under the heads : Natural. Scientific, Industrial. Com- 
 mercial and Cultural. From these central and initial points of interest and 
 experience the course of study should direct the investigation of the teachers and 
 the studies of the pupils outward in every direction into the domains of human 
 activity, both present and past. 
 
 " 4 . That definite provisions be made whereby teachers may visit with their 
 pupils within regular school hours, all the public institutions and private enter- 
 prises that may be accessible that will furnish material for study. To this end. 
 the committee on 'Course of Study' should develop as rapidly as possible a system 
 of manuals embodying hints to the teachers and notes on the important features 
 of the places visited. These manuals should be working educational guides to 
 the art galleries, public libraries, great manufacturing establishments, wholesale 
 houses, public parks, museums, and the natural features of the city and its 
 vicinity." — Wilbur S. Jackman, Chicago Normal School. 
 
 ( 9 ) "At points in the course of study tests should be applied which shall 
 determine the status of the pupil — first as to his mastery of the topics passed 
 over — and secondly, as to his relative standing with others of his class. These 
 tests must be solely in the interest of the pupil and never for the benefit of the 
 teacher. Properly applied, they furnish the pupil with knowledge of his present 
 acquirements, and serve as a stimulus in future acquisition. They should not 
 be of regular occurrence, at stated intervals, but at any time when the good of 
 the pupil seems to demand them, either for information as to his present standing 
 or for spur to his ambition. They may touch but a single topic, as in weekly or 
 monthly reviews, or they may embrace the whole range of topics as in examina- 
 tions for promotion from grade to grade. The examinations for promotions 
 
 88 
 
wrong- that children failing- to carry one study of a given grade should be 
 retarded to the extent of a full year in their promotion to the next.( 10 ) 
 Much consideration has been given to this matter in the Chicago schools, 
 and considerable latitude has been allowed the principals and the teachers. 
 In many cases children have been permitted to advance at the discretion of 
 the principal, and this has been to a degree a satisfactory solution of the 
 difficulty. ( n ) The suggestion, however, has been made to your corn- 
 should differ from reviews only in the extent of the review and in the number 
 of topics reviewed. No subject has attracted more attention during the last two 
 years than that of gradation of schools. It is claimed that the graded system 
 cripples the advancement of pupils in that it prescribes a uniform rate of progress 
 for pupils of different degrees of ability, and determines this uniform rate by the 
 ability of those who possess the least mental activity. It is further claimed that 
 it deprives the pupils of the best labors of their teachers, since the teachers are 
 not at liberty to use their individuality, but must work after some uniform plan 
 prescribed by some higher authority. Still further it is claimed that the graded 
 system demands certain Procrustian tests in order to secure advancement." — 
 /. L. Pickard, Superintendent's Report, Chicago Board of Education, 1875. 
 
 ( 10 ) "One must go over the entire year's course because he is poor in algebra. 
 Another failed in Latin, etc. Scholarship does not make the man. Enrich our 
 course of instruction as much as possible, and give each pupil an opportunity to 
 take out of it according to his capacity." — A Chicago Principal. 
 
 (U) This plan was formerly followed in Chicago to a much greater extent 
 and with conspicuous success. The conditions offered at that time by a smaller 
 school system may have rendered it more feasible. It is, however, strongly 
 urged to-day by leading educational authorities. The following quotation indi- 
 cates the method of its application in Chicago more than twenty years ago : 
 
 "To those who wonder how we can promote by classes or by grades at any 
 time in the year, and without regard to promotions in grades above, it is sufficient 
 to say that our room limits have no relation whatever to grade limits. The 
 pressure for room is always from below, while withdrawals from school are 
 almost invariably from above. Thus frequent opportunity is given for transfer 
 upward, but it is not at all essential to promotion from grade to grade that such 
 opportunity for transfer be available. It sometimes occurs that the teacher of a 
 room carries her pupil through two grades before an opportunity for transfer 
 comes. Sometimes the pressure from below for vacant space above takes away 
 the pupils of a teacher before half the work of a grade is completed. Transfers 
 from room to room are made when vacancies occur. Promotions from grade to 
 grade in study are made when the pupils have completed the work of their grade. 
 And right here comes the criticism : 'This course must involve frequent change 
 of teachers.' In exceptional cases it is true, but the exceptions are found in the 
 lowest grades from which pupils are passed upward to make room for the 
 crowd of applicants below. Even in these cases the chances are about equal that 
 the transfer will be from a poorer to a better teacher, and in cases where equal 
 ability exists, the feeling on the part of the child that he is promoted is an 
 incentive to greater effort. But in the main, change of teachers under this 
 flexible system is no more frequent than under the system of uniform time for 
 promotion, with a single exception to be noticed hereafter. The time required 
 to pass through any grade is for the average pupil a constant quantity — six 
 months, eight months, or ten months. The time the pupil spends with the teacher 
 is the same, whether the grade be entered in. September or in November, or 
 March. The time of promotion has nothing whatever to do with the length of 
 time the pupil remains under the same teacher. In the course of eight years, 
 about the time required to complete our primary 'and grammar courses, ten 
 
 89 
 
mission, and we arc inclined to look upon it with favor, that the course of 
 study be arranged so as to permit of at least semi-annual promotion. 
 
 In the recommendation which is made in regard to the establishment of 
 additional kindergartens, your commission believes that it is acting in 
 accord not only with the general tendency in American cities, but also with 
 the evident needs of the public school situation in Chicago, and with the 
 hearty concurrence of all those associated in any capacity with our school 
 system. ( 12 ) 
 
 In line with what has been set forth, your commission recommends : 
 
 changes are probable. The number of changes is the same whether the changes 
 be made at the beginning, in the middle, or at any other time of the school year. 
 In the extreme case of annual promotion, changes are made as often as promotion 
 occurs, which is once each year and at a fixed time. No provision is made for 
 exceptionally bright classes, or exceptionally excellent teachers, making it 
 possible to pass a grade in less than a prescribed time. Right here the flexible 
 system has decided advantage, and this is the exception alluded to above. Many 
 instances have occurred in our schools of the passing of whole classes through 
 two grades in the time allotted to the completion of one. Many individual 
 instances may be cited of pupils who have completed three grades in the time 
 allotted to one — without injury to themselves and with profit to the classes 
 through which they have passed. Within the limits of a course of study requir- 
 ing eight years for its completion by the average pupil, we have twenty-eight 
 classes varying in distance from one month or two months in the very lowest 
 grade, to three months or five months in the highest grades. Pupils failing in 
 promotion when examined with the highest class in a grade, fall back in their 
 course but a little time, since the class into which they drop is but a short time in 
 the rear. With the knowledge of this fact before the examiner, he is not tempted 
 to put forward those poorly prepared, as he might in sympathy do, if the interval 
 was a year or even six months. The good of the individual pupil may be best 
 subserved by a little more thorough preparation. The discouragement to those 
 who fail is far less when the hope of another trial is not long deferred. A pupil 
 absent for a month or two on account of sickness finds a class at the point reached 
 by his class at the time of leaving. He is not subjected to the mortification of 
 going back several months in his work, nor under the necessity of overtaxing 
 his strength that he may make up lost studies. The steps from class to class are 
 so easily taken that many pupils are encouraged to try for more rapid advance- 
 ment than they would think of attempting if the work of six months or a year 
 must be anticipated. The advantages of gradation and classification are too 
 apparent to need further discussion — and such flexibility as prevails in our 
 system and the system of St. Louis, which is nearly allied to ours, certainly 
 reduces to a minimum the danger of injury to individual pupils." — /. L. Pickard, 
 Superintendent's Report, Chieago Board of Education, 1875. 
 
 (12) The school law of Illinois should be revised to permit boards of 
 education to establish kindergartens, without requiring, at least in large cities, 
 a popular vote on the question. 
 
 "We endorse the kindergarten and recommend its more general introduc- 
 tion, but believe there should be two lessons from two to two and a half hours 
 each, held daily under the same teachers with different pupils, the teachers being 
 placed on the same salary as the primary teachers." — The George Howland Club. 
 
 '"The kindergarten should be part of the school system." — Ella F. Young Club. 
 
 90 
 
SECTION I. THAT THE BOARD OF EDUCATION GIVE CAREFUL CONSIDERA- 
 TION TO THE GENERAL COMPLAINT OF THE LOSS OF TIME AND WASTE 
 OF EFFORT IN THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS, DUE TO THE NEEDLESS REPE- 
 TITION OF SUBJECTS IN DIFFERENT GRADES, AND TO A CONSEQUENT LOSS 
 OF INTELLECTUAL POWER IN THE CHILD, WHICH RESULTS FROM SPEND- 
 ING EIGHT YEARS ON A COURSE OF STUDY THAT MIGHT FAIRLY, IN MANY 
 CASES, BE COVERED IN LESS THAN SEVEN ; 
 
 That the course of study can be rearranged in accordance with these 
 recommendations is vouched for by those best acquainted with the Chicago 
 schools. Your commission does not feel that it comes within the scope 
 of its report to specify very definitely how this revision may best be made, 
 but we have reason to conclude from the testimony of the superintendents 
 and the principals alike, that it will affect especially the teaching of arith- 
 metic and geography, as well as instruction in nature study, penmanship 
 and grammar. ( 13 ) 
 
 Since this revision looks principally to the rearranging of studies ( 14 ) 
 already sanctioned by the board of education, the work naturally devolves 
 upon the supervising force alone, and accordingly we suggest : 
 
 (13) "A majority of your committee are of the opinion that formal English 
 grammar should be discontinued in the eighth year, and the study of some foreign 
 language, preferably that of Latin, substituted. The educational effect on an 
 English-speaking pupil of taking up a language which, like Latin, uses inflec- 
 tions instead of prepositions, and which further differs from English by the 
 order in which its words are arranged in the sentence is quite marked, and a 
 year of Latin places a pupil by a wide interval out of the range of the pupil 
 who has continued English grammar without taking up Latin. But the effect 
 of the year's study of Latin increases the youth's power of appreciation in 
 very many directions by reason of the fact that so much of the English vocabulary 
 used in technical vocabularies, like those of geography, grammar, history and 
 literature, is from a Latin source, and besides there are so many traces in the 
 form and substance of human learning of the hundreds of years when Latin 
 was the only tongue in which observation and reflection could be expressed." — 
 Committee of Fifteen, p. 55. 
 
 (14) Minor criticism could easily be made in the course of study of the 
 elementary schools. To mention one instance, the teaching of English history 
 by means of the same text-book later employed in the high schools seems a 
 flagrant violation of educational principles, more particularly as the text is 
 generally considered difficult for the latter pupils and as having a proper place 
 only in college instruction. It has been hinted in this connection that some 
 publishing houses have attempted to bring undue pressure to bear on the board 
 of education for the retention of books once placed on the list. The recom- 
 mendation already made, that to the superintendent be assigned the choice of 
 text-books, should obviate this difficulty. 
 
SECTION 2. THAT IN CONSIDERATION OF THE ABOVE, THE SUPERINTEND- 
 
 ENT AND HIS ASSISTANTS BE INSTRUCTED CAREFULLY TO CONSIDER 
 AND TO REVISE THE COURSE OF STUDY OF THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS, IN 
 ORDER THAT THE WORK OF EACH GRADE MAY BE SIMPLER, MORE PRO- 
 GRESSIVE AND BETTER UNIFIED; THAT THE WORK OF THE DIFFERENT 
 GRADES, ESPECIALLY OF THE EIGHTH AND NINTH, /'. C, THE FIRST YEAR 
 OF THE HIGH SCHOOL, MAY BE MORE CLOSELY CORRELATED AND RE- 
 ARRANGED, WITH DUE REFERENCE TO THE SPECIAL STUDIES INTRODUCED 
 IN RECENT YEARS | AND PARTICULARLY TO THE GRADUAL INTRODUCTION, 
 ELSEWHERE RECOMMENDED, OF SOME FORM OF CONSTRUCTIVE WORK 
 IN EACH GRADE OF ALL SCHOOLS J 
 
 The revision here suggested should affect especially the eighth and ninth 
 grades. There is a sharp differentiation between the last year of the 
 elementary school and the first year of the high school, and on this account 
 the elementary schools are in a measure isolated in fact and rendered dis- 
 tinct and separate in public opinion. This break in sequence is one reason 
 why more pupils do not go from the eighth to the ninth grade, and explains 
 in part the large percentage of failures among the pupils in the first year 
 of the high school. This percentage, varying from [5 to 30 per cent, is 
 unduly large and would be reduced, we think, if the departmental plan of 
 instruction now common in the high school were extended, as elsewhere 
 recommended, to the upper grades of the elementary schools. In this 
 way the pupils would become accustomed to working under a number of 
 teachers, and would not be hampered by the abrupt change of subjects and 
 methods which now marks their entrance to the secondary schools. The 
 chasm between the eighth and ninth grades has been already partially 
 bridged by the introduction in recent years into the eighth and even the 
 
 , seventh grade, of studies heretofore only taught in the high schools. Latin 
 and algebra have their justification in elementary schools on their own 
 
 ' merits, apart from the advantage which this preparation affords for more 
 advanced work. At the same time, the teaching of these and some other 
 subjects has made the transition from the eighth grade to the high school 
 a much easier one^/' 
 
 In regard to the unification of the course of study, already referred 
 to as essential, we would suggest further the importance of systematizing 
 the instruction in manual training or "constructive work," which is recom- 
 mended later. This should, we believe, be made one of the fundamental 
 principles in elementary school work( 15 ), and the ease with which it may 
 (15) "The arts, both the aesthetic and the industrial, have a recognized value 
 in the education of children. They should, however, be incorporated in a course 
 
 92 
 
be made to co-ordinate the instruction in different grades will further 
 facilitate the desired sequence in the course of study. ( 16 ) 
 
 SECTION 3. THAT THE COURSE OF STUDY RE SO READJUSTED AS READILY 
 
 TO PERMIT OF AT LEAST SEMI-ANNUAL PROMOTIONS FROM GRADE TO 
 GRADE. ( 17 ) 
 
 The testimony of thoughtful educators is by no means unanimously in 
 favor of the semi-annual promotion of pupils from grade to grade, and 
 your commission feels some hesitancy in making this suggestion. Those 
 who have argued most effectively against this plan, however, recognize it 
 as a step toward greater freedom in the school program and appreciate 
 the advantage of the quicker advance which it affords the particularly bright 
 or studious pupil. ( 18 ) Their objection is that the remedy proposed is not 
 adequate, and they favor, instead, the freest promotion of pupils by the 
 principals. ( 19 ) The two plans do not seem to your commission essentially 
 
 of study, not be tacked on to a course filled to repletion. The aesthetic arts, 
 under the name of drawing, have become a constituent part of the Chicago 
 course in elementary schools. The industrial arts, under the heads manual 
 training and domestic arts, are tacked on at the two ends of the same course, 
 i. e., in the kindergarten and in the seventh and eighth grades. The use of 
 the word 'tacked' is explained by this statement: The course of study is the 
 same for schools not having a kindergarten or a manual training class or a 
 cooking class, that it is- for schools having all of the three. No change has 
 been made in the course, on account of the almost general introduction of 
 manual training into the upper grades. So manual training is an addition to 
 the old course." — A Chicago Superintendent. 
 
 (16) In the city of Washington (D. C.) the "constructive work" idea has 
 been admirably developed as an underlying principle of the course of study and 
 the curriculum has a unity which is hardly to be found in that of the elementary 
 schools in any other large city. Similar results have been secured in the Jewish 
 Training School of Chicago. 
 
 (17) "Two admissions a year, one in September and one in February, would 
 assist in holding pupils in the high school."— Ella F. Young Club. 
 
 (18) "The great fault with the public school system, as I see it, is the retarda- 
 tion of bright scholars."— William L. Dudley, Vanderbilt University. 
 
 "Classes should be arranged with reference to semi-annual promotion of 
 pupils. Shorter or longer intervals between classes are fraught with serious 
 objections from the standpoint of the child."—/. H. Phillips, Superintendent 
 Birmingham (Ala.) Schools. 
 
 (19) "The advancement of pupils from one grade to another was for many 
 years determined by written examination, given by the principal. The failure 
 of the pupil to pass it caused the retention of the pupil in the grade frequently 
 six months or a year, until another class was ready for promotion. Review and 
 
 93 
 
opposed, and we believe that with semi-annual promotion the problem of 
 advance at any time of especially qualified children will be much simpli- 
 fied^ 20 ) One objection to such frequent promotion rests in the diminished 
 acquaintance of the teacher with the pupils, and perhaps a corresponding- 
 repetition became wearisome and the mental growth of the child was depressed 
 and dwarfed. It has been the aim of the superintendents to have the promo- 
 tion made from grade to grade upon the basis of the knowledge of the child's 
 power possessed by the teacher and the principal, and not upon any special 
 or final review examination." — A. G. Lane, Superintendent's Report, Chicago 
 Board of Education. 
 
 (20) "The question of promotion of pupils has occupied from time to time 
 very much attention. Your committee believes that in many systems of ele- 
 mentary schools there is one injury done by too much formality in ascertaining 
 whether the pupils of a given class have completed the work up to an arbi- 
 trarily fixed point, and are ready to take up the next apportionment of the 
 work. In the early days of city school systems, when the office of superin- 
 tendent was first created, it was thought necessary to divide up the graded 
 course of study into years of work, and to hold stated annual examinations 
 to ascertain how many pupils could be promoted to the next grade or year's 
 work. All that failed in this examination were set back at the beginning of 
 the year's work to spend another year in reviewing it. This was to meet the 
 convenience of the superintendent, who. it was said, could not hold examina- 
 tions to suit the wants of particular individuals or classes. From this arrange- 
 ment there naturally resulted a great deal of what is called "marking time." 
 Pupils who had nearly completed the work of the year were placed with pupils 
 who had till now a year's interval below them. Discouragement and demoraliza- 
 tion at the thought of taking up again a course of lessons learned once before 
 caused many pupils to leave school prematurely. This evil has been remedied 
 in nearly one-half of the cities by promoting pupils whenever they have com- 
 pleted the work of a grade. The constant tendency of classification to become 
 imperfect by reason of the difference in the rates of advancement of the several 
 pupils owing to a disparity in ages, degree of maturity, temperament and health, 
 makes frequent re-classification necessary. This is easily _ accomplished by pro- 
 moting the few pupils who distance the majority of their classmates into the 
 next class above, separated as it is, or ought to be, by an interval of less than 
 half a year. The bright pupils thus promoted have to struggle to make up the 
 ground covered in the interval between the two classes, but they are nearly 
 always able to accomplish this, and generally will in two years' time need 
 another promotion from class to class. "—Committee of Fifteen, p. 79. 
 
 "In place of basing the promotion of pupils, in whole or in part, on a pro- 
 motion examination, it is determined by the teacher's careful estimation of the 
 pupil's ability to do advanced work. A premium is put upon the character of 
 the work done day by day rather than upon the amount of stuffing which can be 
 done in preparation for the examination. Thus the pupils are furnished a mod- 
 erate and continued stimulus, instead of an excessive and spasmodic one. The 
 promotion examination prevents board and progressive teaching, makes out of 
 the teacher a 'grind,' and turns out machine pupils. It is not a test of ability 
 either of teachers or of pupils. It is great temptation to deceit and causes 
 many mental wrecks. It causes the loss of more than one-third time in school. 
 It is the cause of the attempted uniformity in school work and of trying to 
 make all do the same amount of work in the same time. Therefore it shortens 
 the school life of the majority and menaces the intellectual life of every boy 
 and girl in the graded schools. 
 
 "1'nder this plan they average a gain of about the same amount of time. 
 Therefore, there would be saved an average of about four years for each pupil 
 through the schools. Thus there would be saved to the district what it would 
 
lessening of his efficiency with them. This objection, in so far as it may 
 apply to the more advanced grades, will be largely obviated with the further 
 extension of the departmental plan of instruction which is now in vogue in 
 many schools and seems likely to meet hereafter with even greater favor. 
 
 SECTION 4. — THAT A KINDERGARTEN OPEN TO CHILDREN FROM FOUR TO 
 SIX YEARS OF AGE BE ESTABLISHED AS SOON AS POSSIBLE IN CONNEC- 
 TION WITH EACH SCHOOL IN THE MORE THICKLY POPULATED DISTRICTS 
 OF THE CITY, AND ULTIMATELY IN EVERY SCHOOL. 
 
 The arguments for kindergarten instruction are sufficiently known. ( 21 ) 
 The necessity for these schools in large cities is every day more apparent, 
 and they are being established in rapidly increasing numbers. Chicago, 
 for many reasons, is in greater need of kindergartens than any other city, 
 
 cost to instruct a pupil for that time, or about $199. When this is multiplied 
 by the number of pupils attending, the financial saving becomes material. Add 
 to this the greater saving secured by the lengthening of the pupils' productive 
 lives, and the financial saving is more than doubled."— William J. Shearer, Super- 
 intendent Public Schools, Elizabethtown, N. J., in Education, April, 1898. 
 
 (21) For a fuller consideration of the kindergarten and its function in the 
 public school system, see Appendix B. 
 
 "The kindergarten has not yet taken the place in our public school system 
 which its importance demands. It is a matter of record, made after a careful 
 study of results, that in cities the kindergarten children do better in entering 
 school than those who have not received such training. Work is the true spirit 
 of the kindergarten room ; idleness and listlessness have no encouragement there. 
 Self-activity is the keynote to every exercise." — Editorial in American School 
 Board Journal, Easter Edition, 1898. 
 
 "The kindergarten ideal is the ethical individual — an idea that is just begin- 
 ning to appear on the educational horizon through other lines of thought. As 
 the direction whither educational thought is tending is recognized, the prophetic 
 insight of the founder of the kindergarten will be considered a necessary part 
 of every school. The organization and spread of the kindergarten, its effect 
 in modifying and transforming educational thought and practice during the 
 past twenty-five years, is one of the great facts of modern educational history." — 
 Nina C. Vanderivalker, in Kindergarten Magazine, March, 1898. 
 
 "The general introduction of the kindergarten into public schools is the 
 greatest step in pedagogy that has ever been made in this country. It is, how- 
 ever, fraught with dangers both to the kindergartens and the other schools, 
 and necessitates considerable modification of both. The kindergarten must not 
 be attached to the public school as a new and distinct department, but it must 
 be co-ordained with them in a vital way. This means, for the kinder- 
 garten, broader culture, and better professional training for the kindergartner, 
 a more general spirit of co-operation and an attempt to meet real rather than 
 imaginary conditions; a broadening of the course and a gradual modification 
 of the tools used; a better training for citizenship through the enlarged com- 
 prehension of the meaning of co-operation. This means, for the other schools, the 
 sweetening and mollifying of the system of discipline, through the introduc- 
 tion of the kindergarten spirit; a more rational and careful consideration of 
 individual needs; the introduction of a more generous and altruistic spirit 
 into the schools; a training for citizenship through the introduction of self- 
 
 95 
 
with the possible exception of New York. More particularly is the 
 demand felt in the thickly populated sections of the city, where these 
 schools should be established as rapidly as possible. It is hardly within 
 the province of your commission to suggest the best method to be followed 
 in this matter, but there appears to be good arguments for half day sessions 
 only, and those in the morning hours. ( 22 ) Under special conditions, clue 
 to a lack of school accommodations, it might appear advisable to use the 
 kindergarten rooms both morning and afternoon, either with the same or 
 
 government : a saving of time in the instruction in fundamental branches ; the 
 making of education real and vital instead of formal and unreal." — C. B. Gilbert, 
 Superintendent Public Schools, Newark, N. /., N. E. A. Proceedings, 1897. 
 
 "I note especially the recommendation for the introduction of the kinder- 
 garten in the more thickly populated districts of the city, and ultimately in 
 every school. The kindergarten, however, should be made to take in children 
 who are four years old. I do not know what the custom is in Chicago, but 
 in other states the law is so that the kindergarten cannot be lawfully opened 
 to children under five. It should be opened in Chicago and in all large cities, 
 especially in the thickly populated districts, for all children who are four years 
 old." — Henry Sabin, Ex-State Superintendent Public Instruction, Des Moines, la. 
 
 (22) Chicago, July 13. 1898 — To the Chicago Educational Commission — 
 Gentlemen: Knowing it is your intention to consider, among other things, that 
 of the kindergarten in connection with the public school, and being apprised 
 of the fact that many of the principals have discussed and even recommended 
 two daily sessions of kindergarten in our public schools, we beg to submit the 
 following protest from the Association of Chicago Public School Kindergartners : 
 
 ""The kindergarten teachers of the Chicago public schools do. as a body, 
 protest against two daily sessions of kindergarten, for the following reasons : 
 
 "First, because the quality of the work would necessarily be lowered. 
 
 "Second, because the vitality of little children is much lower in the afternoon. 
 
 "We are told that it is the natural life of the kindergarten— the creative, 
 constructive, developing life — that makes it valuable in education. To bring 
 about this natural life in the school room, and prepare work that is always devel- 
 oping, the teacher must be fresh and alive ; she must have time to grow as well 
 as recuperate, for the younger the children the greater the demand upon her 
 vitality. And we all know only too well how the teacher's state of mind and 
 body is reflected in her pupils. 
 
 "Under present conditions the kindergartner may meet the demands made 
 upon her; she may visit the homes and hold mothers' meetings, thus helping 
 to establish the very desirable 'closer relation of home and school,' for the fifty 
 kindergarten mothers may be mothers of one hundred and fifty or two hundred 
 children in the higher grades. 
 
 "Now, two daily sessions means doubling the work : it means one hundred 
 instead of fifty little children to study ; it also means that the teacher will be 
 deprived of many opportunities for the necessary growth, preparation and the 
 outside work that makes the kindergarten, as it stands to-day. a firm foundation 
 for all that is to follow. It would necessarily lower the quality of work very 
 much, and for that reason we trust that you will favorably consider our 
 protest. Very respectfully, 
 
 "Kindergarten Committee, 
 
 "Mary M. Blodgett, Chairman." 
 
 96 
 
different teachers, but we are inclined to think that this would be for some 
 reasons undesirable, and that it would lead to less efficiency in the schools. 
 While your commission is unanimous in favoring more kindergartens, we 
 believe that great skill and care are necessary in this, as in many other lines 
 of school work, to secure a maximum of results with the funds available 
 for the purpose. 
 
JT1)f ii)igf 
 $ r 1) o o 1 s 
 
 ARTICLE VI 
 
 Your Commission respectfully recommends in regard to the secondary 
 schools of the city : 
 
 SECTION I. THAT AN EFFORT BE MADE TO CORRELATE MORE CLOSELY 
 
 THE WORK OF THE HIGH SCHOOLS WITH THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS 
 ON THE ONE HAND AND THE NORMAL SCHOOL ON THE OTHER; 
 
 SECTION 2. THAT PROVISION BE MADE FOR A LARGER TEACHING FORCE, 
 
 IN ORDER THAT THE NUMBER OF PUPILS IN ANY ONE CLASS NEED NOT 
 EXCEED FORTY J 
 
 SECTION 3. THAT THE SESSION OF THE HIGH SCHOOL BE HELD FROM 
 
 NINE TO THREE, WITH A RECESS OF THIRTY MINUTES J 
 
 SECTION 4. THAT A LARGER PROPORTION OF THE TEACHERS BE MEX ; 
 
 AND THAT ALL PROPER MEANS BE EMPLOYED TO ATTRACT MEN TO THESE 
 POSITIONS ; 
 
 SECTION 5. THAT A COMMERCIAL HIGH SCHOOL, WITH A FULL, LIBERAL 
 
 FOUR YEARS' COURSE OF STUDY, BE ESTABLISHED IX SOME CENTRAL 
 LOCATION ; 
 
 SECTION 6. THAT TWO ADDITIONAL MANUAL TRAIXING HIGH SCHOOLS 
 
 BE ESTABLISHED, ONE ON THE NORTH SIDE AND ONE OX THE SOUTH 
 SIDE OF THE CITY, EACH WITH A FOUR YEARS' COURSE OPENED TO BOYS 
 AND GIRLS, WITH SPECIAL OPPORTUNITIES FOR THE LATTER IN STUDIES 
 PERTAINING TO DOMESTIC ECONOMY; 
 
 SECTION /. — THAT THE COURSE OF STUDY OF THE PRESENT MANUAL 
 TRAINING HIGH SCHOOL OX THE WEST SIDE BE CHANGED TO ACCORD 
 WITH THE PROVISIONS JUST MENTIONED FOR THE NEW SCHOOLS. 
 
 There has been considerable discussion recently in Chicago in regard 
 to the deficient school accommodations of the city ( x ). and your commis- 
 sion has noted with much favor a growing demand on the part of the 
 
 i-j "I hope the educational authorities will continue to adjust the work to 
 the needs of the masses. Handicapped as we are with 2,346 more children in 
 rented huildings than a year ago, and 5.758 more children than there were a 
 
people that every child of school age, not otherwise provided for, should 
 have the full advantage of the public school system. This is a very en- 
 couraging sign for the future of the Chicago schools, because it indicates 
 a public interest and support, without which the schools would inevitably 
 suffer. In the discussion of this question, however, comparisons have 
 been introduced between the elementary and the secondary schools, and 
 statements made in regard to the latter which your commission feels are 
 founded on an inadequate conception of the function of our public high 
 •schools. In this stage of the educational history of the city there is little 
 public opposition to the high school idea. Our secondary schools are too 
 firmly established in public esteem ever to be seriously impaired by a spirit 
 of retrenchment^ 2 ) The charge has been made, however, that the present 
 liberal policy toward the high schools interferes with the proper support of 
 the elementary schools, and thus, in a measure, the two have been brought 
 
 year ago receiving only half-day instruction, it devolves upon the board of educa- 
 tion to proceed with all possible dispatch to meet emergencies." — E. C. Halle, 
 President's Report, Chicago Board of Education, 1898. 
 
 "Some people say that Chicago is doing as well for its children as any other 
 large city, but that is no excuse for neglect here. That there are not school houses 
 enough in other cities and that more children in proportion are denied fchooling 
 or put off with a half day's schooling in some other cities is neither here nor there. 
 In New iork, for instance, it is said that there are 30,000 children tin led into 
 the streets for want of school room. But the papers of that city arc making 
 a vigorous campaign for more room. Some of them have editorials about it 
 very frequently. They say that the chiiuren must get the best training money 
 can buy, that it doesn't pay to waste genius and that the city should bring out 
 all the stuff there is in the minds of its citizens. We should make a similar 
 campaign here." — E. Benjamin Andrews, Superintendent of Schools, Chicago. 
 
 ( 2 ) M. Buisson, special commissioner from the French government, in an 
 official report detailing the results of his observations of the common schools 
 of the United States, thus speaks of the high school : "In other countries it 
 is to be feared that the children of different classes of society, although they 
 may be brought together for a time in the public school, will very soon be found 
 separated as widely as are their families in the social scale. In America every- 
 thing is done to retard and reduce the degree of that separation by carrying 
 as far and as high as possible the common instruction which effaces all dis- 
 tinction between the rich and the poor. Thus do the two divisions of the 
 public school system render the state diverse but equally important service. 
 The one gives to it an entire population knowing how to read and write ; the 
 other draws from this mass a select few whom it endows with an intellectual 
 capacity sufficient to pay a hundred times its cost. How is this selection made? By 
 favor of public liberality, which is a burden to none, thousands of children— 
 the best, the most gifted, the most highly educated, the best fitted for labor, the 
 best prepared for the battle of life, both by the example of their own parents 
 and by their own struggles — come out of the mass of the poor, perhaps indigent, 
 population, where otherwise they would remain undistinguished, and year by 
 year infuse new life into the middle class. If it be true that the prosperity of 
 a republic is in direct ratio to the renewal of these middle classes, to the 
 abundance and facility of their indefinite recruiting, then the high school of the 
 United States, whatever it may cost, is the very best investment which can be 
 made of national capital." — Quoted from Education, Vol. .?. page 163. 
 
 99 
 
into opposition. This seems to your commission both deplorable and un- 
 justifiable. Any conception that considers the advantages of the high school 
 limited to those actually pursuing the secondary course involves an entire 
 misunderstanding of the public school system as a whole. The broader 
 function of these schools may be seen in their beneficial effects on every part 
 of the school system. ( 3 ) There is hardly a more pernicious idea in edu- 
 cation than that the training of an individual is finished in any real sense 
 at any particular stage. The man or woman who leaves college with the 
 feeling that on obtaining the diploma certain lines of study are definitely 
 closed, has surely failed to reap the most important benefits of higher edu- 
 cation. Even the student of medicine, or law, or theology, who, at the 
 end of the professional training, does not look forward to continuous and 
 arduous effort towards deepening and broadening his technical knowledge, 
 offers little promise of useful activity in his later work. This statement 
 is equally true of the lower schools. The boy who leaves the eighth grade 
 with the idea that in book knowledge he is adequately prepared to realize 
 the possibilities of life, and accordingly feels no necessity for future study 
 in any field, no matter what his work may be, affords the saddest possible 
 
 (3) "No school system can effectually meet the object of its creation which 
 does not embrace in its constitution provisions for carrying the education of 
 youth beyond the common branches. With one hand the high school beckons 
 the pupil of the elementary schools to come upward to its more elevated outlook, 
 and with the other it points its own students to the still higher outlook. Lack- 
 ing the high school, the pupil of the lower schools would lose a chief incentive 
 to exertion. The course of study, too, for the lower schools is certain to feel 
 the influence of the high school. This course is too often afflicted with a fearful 
 leanness — built on the principle that the three R's, and but little of them, are 
 sufficient to meet all the educational needs of the common people. But perhaps 
 the influence of the high schools upon the lower schools are exerted more 
 powerfully in providing for them a class of teachers of a higher grade of quali- 
 fications than it was possible to secure under the former order of things. No 
 argument is needed to show the utter vanity of all schemes of public educa- 
 tion which at the same time fail to place a competent teacher in every school. 
 The high school cannot give us professionally trained teachers — the supple- 
 mentary work of the normal school is required for that— but it does give us 
 teachers whose views have been broadened and love of knowledge deepened by 
 some taste of liberal culture. And this higher education of teachers as a class 
 renders possible the successful introduction into the lower schools— especially 
 into the primary departments — of those improved methods of instruction which 
 have lifted teaching from something less than an empiric art to the level of 
 a science, and are doing more than any other agency to make knowledge loved 
 by the whole people. Without the character-training and the resources which 
 come to our teachers from a high school education, these methods would prove 
 an utter failure, or degenerate into a mechanism more lifeless than the worst 
 mechanism of the dreadful past; for it may be stated as an educational axiom 
 that intelligent methods can be applied by intelligent teachers only. Machine 
 methods are necessary wherever machine teachers are found." — John Hancock, 
 in Education, November, 1882. 
 
commentary on our elementary schools. ( 4 ) Yet this conception 'cu edn.-i- 
 tion, met with even now, would be widely prevalent were there not before 
 the child the idea of further possibilities concretely represented in the 
 secondary schools. If our school system included only the grades through 
 which the majority of children are actually able to pass, it would be im- 
 possible to maintain in these the same earnest spirit and desire for study. 
 Your commission feels deeply impressed with the influence of the high 
 schools on the lower grades, even in the case of the large majority of 
 children who are not able to enter the former, and is assured that large 
 expenditures for secondary schools would be fully justified without any 
 consideration of the benefits conferred on those actually attending them. 
 Moreover, when one carefully examines the history of the high schools 
 in a large city and looks into the records of the graduates, it seems difficult 
 to overrate the beneficial influence of these schools on their pupils. The 
 effect of a high school training on the average boy or girl is to increase 
 marvelously the opportunities for a life of successful activity and whole- 
 some enjoyment. Every year of the high school course satisfactorily com- 
 pleted, means a largely increased usefulness to the community and a much 
 fuller life for the individual. Men well acquainted with the school history 
 of Chicago, experienced in affairs, and trained observers, have frankly 
 declared their opinion that one high school graduate will do more for the 
 city and be a larger factor in the commercial, industrial, social and political 
 life of the community, than any average four or five who have finished 
 only the course of the elementary schools. This statement should justify 
 a generous spirit towards the higher schools, despite the greater cost for 
 instruction in these grades. We believe that the establishment and sup- 
 port of public high schools should be encouraged for either one of the two 
 reasons here advanced. 
 
 /4) "In all this grammar school work there should be a looking forward, a 
 reaching up to the advantages and privileges of the high school. The grammar 
 teacher should ever have in mind, and attractively but unobtrusively present 
 to his advanced pupils, the benefits of the high school course, as placing them 
 upon a higher plane of intellectual and industrial life, as making this life bet- 
 ter worth the living, as the almost 'divine event to which the whole creation 
 moves.' There should be a very intimate understanding between the principals 
 of the grammar and high schools ; the high school principal should know what 
 is done, what has been done, in the grammar school in language, in grammar, 
 in history and composition; and the grammar school principal should clearly 
 understand the work and the methods of the high school and lead his pupils 
 to feel that they are making an upward step. They should and must leave 
 behind many of their earlier modes of study and preparation, and step forth 
 more free and untrammeled into some of the higher and more fruitful fields of 
 learning." — George Hoiuland, Superintendent's Report, Chicago Board of Edu- 
 cation, 1889. 
 
,1/n.t our^.ea'nuai y schools are fulfilling- another function equally im- 
 portant and far more direct in its influence upon the educational system of 
 the city. While the high school stands forth as the concrete ideal of 
 broader training to the great mass of pupils, and while it puts its indelible 
 stamp on hundreds of its graduates each year, it furnishes likewise the 
 only safeguard and security for proper teaching in the lower grades. 
 Without the public high school and the opportunities thus afforded for a 
 more liberal education, the standard of teaching in the elementary schools, 
 it is safe to say, would be incomparably inferior to that which we enjoy 
 to-day. If any one will stop to compare the schools of to-day with those 
 of twenty-five years ago, he will quickly see marked results which have 
 been secured through successive advances during the last two decades in 
 the requirements made of those desiring to enter the teaching force of the 
 city. In the last ten years, even, the efficiency of our teachers has been 
 greatly increased. In this advance our high schools have played a most 
 important part. For the sake of securing properly qualified teachers, so 
 indispensable to the elementary schools, it is necessary for the city to offer 
 the widest possible opportunities for secondary education, and, even on 
 this ground alone, the most generous provision should be made for an 
 adequate number of properly equipped high schools. 
 
 Recognizing the above considerations as the most important reasons 
 for the existence of the high school, your commission would not fail to 
 call attention also to the preparation here afforded for more advanced in- 
 struction^ 5 ) Our western states in particular have profited very largely 
 from the enlightened policy and liberal-minded generosity of the 
 National government towards education. The setting aside of large 
 sections of land for school purposes has facilitated the establishment by 
 
 (5) "First principle— what is truly best for the people is best for the school 
 and ultimately best for higher education. The converse is also true. Whatever 
 is best for higher education is best for the school, and ultimately best for the 
 people. The real interest of the common school, the high school, and the uni- 
 versity, the academy and the college, are identical. In forming courses of 
 study, the persistent preferences of any portion of the community should be 
 recognized each in its appropriate time and course. Within the limits of their 
 resources higher institutions should give these subjects and these courses equal 
 recognition; and. conversely, all secondary courses should be preparatory 
 courses. So far as curriculum goes, the difference between a large school and 
 a small one should be the difference in the number of grades. Once the uni- 
 versities base their requirements on limits of time and substance, and reduce the 
 number of subjects required for entrance to all courses to a retreating minimum, 
 the best interests of the people require that all courses be preparatory.^ No 
 subject without sufficient nutriment to develop an advanced student has sufficient 
 nutriment to develop a citizen and a member of society. Any subject possessing 
 real qualities to develop a young person may well be recognized by our colleges 
 and universities " George B. Alton, in School Review, June, 1898. 
 
individual states, not only of good common school systems, but also of 
 state universities. Your commission believes that in fact, if not in law, 
 the obligation is thus laid upon the communities of the state which share 
 most largely in the distribution of these funds, of enabling every child, as 
 far as possible, to enjoy the privilege of study at higher institutions. 
 Chicago has an enviable record in the number of its high school graduates 
 who have gone to various colleges and universities, and is profiting deeply 
 to-day by the large proportion of college-bred men and women identified 
 with its municipal life. 
 
 A conception of the great utility of the public high school in the Chi- 
 cago system has been the first result of a study of these schools, and we 
 heartily commend the expenditure of school funds in this direction. We 
 desire, also, to call attention to the high and constantly advancing standard 
 of the Chicago high schools. In the teaching force especially, the increased 
 opportunities for higher education admit now of requiring proportionately 
 higher qualifications. Twenty years ago it would have been a hardship to 
 ask of candidates for secondary positions the equivalent of good college 
 training. To-day, the city can get from the University of Illinois, from 
 Lake Forest, Northwestern, and Chicago Universities, and from other in- 
 stitutions in this and neighboring states, the best graduates — many of them 
 men and women who received their preparation for college in our own 
 public schools. Under these conditions the board of education would be 
 justified in establishing the minimum entrance requirement for teachers 
 at a bachelor's degree or its equivalent, and the time is not far distant when 
 two or three years of graduate, specialized study can properly be expected 
 of every candidate. In the high schools, as in the elementary schools, Chi- 
 cago should insist upon having the best professional service available. To 
 this end, the requirements for appointment should increase each year in 
 difficulty and at the same time teachers should be expected to give proof 
 of constant study and self-improvement. 
 
 SECTION I. THAT AN EFFORT BE MADE TO CORRELATE MORE CLOSELY 
 
 THE WORK OF THE HIGH SCHOOLS WITH THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS 
 ON THE ONE HAND AND THE NORMAL SCHOOL ON THE OTHER; 
 
 Reference has already been made to the desirability of connecting the 
 work of the high school more closely with that of the elementary schools. 
 An effort should be made to bridge the chasm which has been recognized 
 to exist between the two. The introduction of Latin into the last grades 
 of the elementary schools, as has been pointed out, has doubtless exercised 
 an influence in this direction. The further use of the departmental plan 
 
 T03 
 
in these grades will have a similar effect. A simplification of the course of 
 study that would tend to relieve the overcrowding in the seventh and eighth 
 grades would bring children into the high schools better prepared to pursue 
 successfully the higher branches, while relief from the overcrowding in 
 the ninth grade would permit a larger proportion to finish successfully 
 the work of this year. In a broader way, we believe, efforts may be 
 made, leading to a closer continuity between the elementary schools and 
 the high schools. Teachers of the latter should be encouraged to gain a 
 more intimate knowledge of teaching done in the grades below. They 
 should be brought into contact, as far as possible; with the teachers of 
 the neighboring elementary schools. The high schools should be educa- 
 tional centers for the different districts, just as the elementary school should 
 be made a center for its particular section. Therefore it might be well to 
 give the high school principal a certain connection with the elementary 
 schools nearby, thus influencing the children to recognize that the two 
 are naturally related. The location, even, in certain sections of the city, 
 of an elementary school in the same building with the high school would 
 have a similar effect. These plans and others that have been suggested 
 from time to time to the supervising force, commend themselves strongly 
 to your commission. 
 
 Not less important than the close connection between the high school 
 and the elementary school, is the relation of the former to the normal 
 school of the city. That one of the most important functions of the high 
 schools is to educate future teachers, has been indicated. A very large 
 percentage of graduates of our high schools each year enter the normal 
 school. It is clear, then, that the course of study in these schools should 
 be arranged in reference to each other. Your commission is fully per- 
 suaded that without limiting the work of the high school in the immediate 
 preparation of its pupils for active life, or in their indirect preparation 
 through courses of higher instruction, it can be made to furnish a more 
 adequate and direct training for the normal school. 
 
 SECTION 2. THAT PROVISION BE MADE FOR A LARGER TEACHING FORCE, 
 
 IN ORDER THAT THE NUMBER OF PUPILS IN ANY ONE CLASS NEED NOT 
 EXCEED FORTY ; 
 
 In recommending various changes in the school system which will lead 
 necessarily to larger expense, your commission has not failed to call atten- 
 tion to the necessity of observing the utmost economy practicable. Pro- 
 visions have been made, however, in various parts of the school system 
 that do not accord with sound economy. This is eminently the case in 
 
 104 
 
the number of pupils assigned to the teachers in the different grades. Ex- 
 perience has shown that a teacher in the fifth or sixth grade can give 
 proper instruction to a larger number of pupils than is possible, for ex- 
 ample, in the kindergarten. At the other end of the school course it seems 
 also very desirable that the number of pupils under each teacher be smaller. 
 Considering the expense of the general maintenance of a high school and 
 the rapid decrease of its efficiency where many pupils are put under the 
 charge of one teacher, we are strongly of the opinion that the standard 
 of these schools can be maintained only by an increase in the teaching 
 force. In many instances the classes have been so overcrowded that the 
 teachers have been unable to accomplish adequate results in their work.( 6 ) 
 A maximum of forty pupils in any one class would seem to be the largest 
 number that can be properly handled by one teacher; many of our most 
 experienced educators are in favor of a smaller number. ( 7 ) The number 
 here suggested indicates a limit beyond which the effectiveness of instruc- 
 tion is diminished in entire disproportion to the saving in salaries thus 
 secured. ( 8 ) 
 
 ( 6 ) During the current school year seventy pupils were assigned to one 
 teacher for a daily recitation of forty minutes in beginning Latin. 
 
 (7) "The 'suggestions' say that the number of pupils in any one class should 
 not exceed forty. That limit is too high. I should rather make it thirty." — 
 Henry Sabin, Ex-State Superintendent of Instruction, Des Moines, la. 
 
 (8) "Forty pupils in a class is nearly twice too many. Thirty-five is the 
 utmost limit for the accomplishment of really efficient work, and that number 
 ought not to be exceeded if it is possible to avoid it." — A Chicago Principal. 
 
 "One of the greatest evils which militate against the largest success of the 
 Chicago system of high schools is the unreasonable size of the classes, organized 
 with a view to economy, but resulting in inexcusable extravagance. 
 
 "Pupils who pass from the grammar to the high schools find themselves in 
 a new atmosphere, with new teachers and a new order of studies. These studies 
 require preparation and the exercise of reason and judgment beyond that 
 brought into requisition before. These pupils are of different degrees of talent, 
 have been under different methods of instruction and need much individual 
 attention, especially in the first months and year of the high school. 
 
 "Classes in algebra, Latin, German, English and science organized with fifty 
 or sixty pupils cannot be properly managed and instructed by one teacher. 
 The results are that many become early discouraged and discontinue school 
 who under other and more encouraging circumstances would remain for a 
 full course of study. That ten or twenty per cent fail in the first year of the high 
 school is lamentable and calls for drastic remedies. No class should be per- 
 mitted with more than forty pupils, while thirty would be nearer the ideal." — 
 A. F. Nightingale, Assistant Superintendent for High Schools (Chicago.) 
 
 105 
 
SECTION 3. THAT THE SESSION OF THE HIGH SCHOOLS BE HELD FROM 
 
 NINE TO TH RLE, WITH A RECESS OF THIRTY MINUTES J 
 
 There is a very general feeling, we have found, among the teachers 
 in our high schools that the school day should be divided into six instead 
 of five periods. This would allow more flexibility in the programme and 
 greater freedom to the pupils in selecting the studies which they desire. 
 We do not think, however, that such a division would be advisable with 
 the present number of hours given to high school work. It would result 
 in cutting down the length of recitations to an extent that would impair 
 the value of higher instruction. With efficient teachers, there is no ques- 
 tion that the recitation periods are much more important in the secondary 
 than even in the elementary schools ; far greater results can be secured in 
 a fifty-minute than in a forty-minute period. The recommendation for 
 an increase in the hours demanded of high school instructors will lead, in 
 all probability, to considerable opposition, but your commission, judging 
 from the experience not only of high schools now added to the city system 
 through annexation, but also of other cities throughout the country, feels 
 convinced that the change here proposed, while increasing somewhat the 
 demands made upon the corps of instruction, will lead to such an improved 
 condition of our high schools as will commend the change even to those 
 affected. Indeed, the recommendation comes in part from those whose 
 duties would be increased by its adoption. This lengthening of the day 
 in the high schools, while making the instruction much more efficient, 
 would also effect a great saving in expense, equivalent perhaps to 20 per 
 cent, of the cost of salaries in these schools. ,, 
 
 SECTION 4. THAT A LARGER PROPORTION OF THE TEACHERS BE MEN ; 
 
 AND THAT ALL PROPER MEANS BE EMPLOYED TO ATTRACT MEN TO THESE 
 POSITIONS ; 
 
 In the high schools the proportion of men to women in the teaching 
 force should be higher than in the elementary schools. The arguments 
 mentioned in a former section ( 9 ), for the employment of more men in 
 the lower grades, apply to an even greater degree to the high school. 
 The need of a radical change, however, is not so strongly felt in the sec- 
 ondary schools, owing to the larger proportion of men now in these posi- 
 tions. This is due to a consistent policy of the board of education, which 
 your commission strongly approves. 
 
 (9) Sec Article IV. Section 9. 
 
 106 
 
SECTION 5.— THAT A COMMERCIAL HIGH SCH00L( 10 ), WITH A FULL, 
 LIBERAL FOUR YEARS' COURSE OF STUDY BE ESTABLISHED IX SOME 
 CENTRAL LOCATION. 
 
 The importance of a commercial high school in a city like Chicago 
 scarcely requires demonstration^ 11 ) The need of it may be seen in the 
 decreasing proportion of boys in the secondary schools, a fact due in part 
 to the failure to furnish the kind of instruction adapted to them. The 
 desire for such a school has been felt for some years, as evidenced by the 
 earnest recommendations to this effect in annual reports of various presi- 
 dents of the board of education. ( 12 ) This demand for commercial train- 
 ing in the public school system is by no means limited to Chicago. The 
 subject has been widely discussed throughout the country and various 
 
 (10) For fuller treatment of the commercial high school, see Appendix C. 
 
 (U) "Recognizing the value of the present course of study in the high schools 
 as a training for teaching, for preparing for college and as a means of general 
 culture, we believe that they do not fully meet the needs of a large number of 
 our youth after leaving the grammar schools, and we therefore recommend the 
 establishment of commercial courses in our high schools and of a greater number 
 of high and manual training schools."— The George Howland Club, Chicago. 
 
 (12) "New York city taught us a wholesome lesson recently by establishing 
 a commercial course calculated to equip its pupils for business pursuits. English 
 and German are studied throughout their four-year high school course. In 
 the second, third and fourth years French and Spanish are optional studies. 
 All through the four years bookkeeping, business correspondence, banking and 
 finance, commercial arithmetic and economics are also taught, and if we profit 
 by this example we can expect to compete with continental countries in the 
 struggle for commercial supremacy in the Latin Americas. Already we have 
 at our doorsteps Germany and England virtually monopolizing the trade of 
 Mexico, Central and South America. The development of Germany's com- 
 merce is said to be directly traceable to scientific education, the small kingdom 
 of Saxony, though an inland state, having foreign commerce of upwards of 
 $100,000,000 annually. So great is the faith of that country in this method of edu- 
 cation that to the thirty commercial schools they had, ten more have been 
 added within a very few years. Chicago should be the great distributing center 
 of the south and southwest, as well as the north and northwest, but to_ make 
 her so we must not only impart a thorough knowledge of our own, but of other 
 languages and peoples." Extension of our commercial relations is imperative 
 if we are to prosper permanently, and we must see to it that at least intelligent 
 competition is had with the representatives of less enterprising countries."— 
 E. G. Halle, President's Report, Chicago Board of Education, 1897. 
 
 "There is yet one important phase of human activity not touched by our 
 high school curriculum, a phase which in a large sense dominates and gives 
 direction to all the other elements of common concern. I refer to the com- 
 mercial interest, and state it as my belief that if there be found any need of 
 educated and skilled directors it certainly is in this field. The interests are 
 so vast, so interwoven with every economic industry and so conducive to pro- 
 gressive civilization, that it touches with a benignant band every human relation. 
 The opportunities of entering our commercial houses, except as •hewers of 
 wood and drawers of water' for great proprietor^, are extraordinarily limited, 
 mainly because our young men are without preparation for the responsible 
 
 107 
 
cities have taken steps in this direction. The arguments which have been 
 employed in favor of such a school in New York, in Philadelphia and in 
 San Francisco have equal weight when applied to Chicago. Our peculiar 
 position industrially and the great natural advantages here afforded in 
 commercial enterprise make it vitally important that this city should have 
 a large body of young men carefully trained and equipped for such work. 
 Your commission would not be misunderstood in its recommendation 
 for a commercial school. The question may be fairly debatable whether any 
 specific training for the pursuits of after-life should be furnished in the 
 public school system ; but this question need not be discussed here, since it 
 is not at all involved in the present proposal. Training in the immediate 
 necessities of the ordinary business clerk or assistant is given in the book- 
 keeping, stenography and typewriting courses of the "business college." 
 These subjects may find a proper place in some part of our system of public 
 instruction, but only on the condition that they be reckoned an unim- 
 portant feature in the course of study. If to them be added com- 
 mercial arithmetic, the general theory of accounting, mechanical drawing 
 and other studies proposed here in recent discussions, the resulting curri- 
 culum will still not justify the establishment of a distinct school, for this 
 would belong to a class of schools which, excellent in themselves, afford 
 only a special, narrow training and should not be duplicated in our public 
 system. The broad course, which your commission has in mind, can be 
 best suggested by a reference to the higher commercial schools in 
 Europe. 
 
 Germany took the lead in offering young men opportunities in separate 
 
 schools of preparing themselves for a business career. Through years of 
 
 patient experimentation a kind of school has been developed which meets 
 
 this purpose; how successfully, can be seen in the rapid strides which that 
 
 country is making in the field of commerce and industry, for to these 
 
 schools is to be attributed in large measure her increasing prosperity. The 
 
 important lesson which Germany has for us in this, as in so many other 
 
 phases of educational and scientific work, may be summed up in the single 
 
 word, "thoroughness." When classical training was the national ideal in 
 
 education, the German gymnasia furnished a model of what secondary 
 
 schools should be. When the importance and value of the modern 
 
 languages and of science as educational instruments became apparent, the 
 
 Real-Schulen of Germany quickly embodied this idea in its most adequate 
 
 duties of the management of interests that require an intimate knowledge of the 
 
 history of commerce and commercial institutions, commercial geography. 
 
 products, imports and exports, the theory and practice of accounting, the study 
 
 of commercial law in its various ramifications, the international exchange of 
 
 moneys, commercial correspondence, etc." — D. R. Cameron. President's Report, 
 
 Chicago Board of Education, t8q6. 
 
form. In the same spirit of thorough-going investigation and experiment 
 Germany has grappled with the problem of commercial training and has 
 developed different kinds and grades of this instruction, suited to the vary- 
 ing needs of different communities. In day schools and evening schools, 
 in apprentice schools and technical schools, from the public system of the 
 small town to the university courses of a large city, a systematic plan of 
 commercial training has been effected. 
 
 We are concerned here only with that business training which is 
 afforded in schools corresponding in grade with our public high schools. 
 In Germany no course of one year or of two years has been proposed. On 
 the contrary, a course of study has been laid down which is fully as liberal 
 as that of our best secondary schools. Considering the requirements for 
 admission, the public commercial school of Leipsic, for example, offers as 
 sound and broad a training as is afforded in our best high schools. The 
 training is primarily educational. The practical value of the course lies 
 in the method of treatment adopted for the different subjects of instruction, 
 which involves no narrowing of the culture influences proper to the sec- 
 ondary school. The modern languages and science are thoroughly taught, 
 with reference, however, to their utility in commercial and industrial pur- 
 suits. History is accorded fair attention, but takes the form mostly of a 
 systematic study in the development of commerce, of manufactures and in 
 the methods of transportation. Much attention is given to arithmetic, 
 algebra and geometry, but with particular attention to business needs. 
 Geography is treated not so much from the political as from the physical 
 and commercial point of view. The whole course offers a fair equivalent 
 of four years work in one of our high schools. 
 
 This is the kind of commercial training which your commission com- 
 mends. Experience will doubtless show the advisability of modifying, of 
 supplementing and perhaps in some cases of barring, some portions of this 
 course, but if the commercial school is to accomplish the ends we have in 
 mind, the curriculum must be not less broad than that of our public high 
 schools. We feel strongly that a short and so-called "practical" course 
 would be predestined to failure and would be an injury rather than a help 
 to what will prove in the near future one of the most important develop- 
 ments in secondary education. ( 13 ) 
 
 (13) "The commercial high school is another institution which may not be 
 created by mere argument, but will be called into existence by the necessity of the 
 times and the rivalry of international competition, the most forcible of all argu- 
 ments." — A Morton, Superintendent, John Worthy Manual Training School, 
 Chicago, III. 
 
 "If the foregoing propositions are admitted, two things then follow of 
 109 
 
The time is ripe for establishing a commercial nigh school, for at no 
 time in the history of the country have wider commercial opportunities 
 been opened and at no time has the spirit of competition in commercial life 
 been more potent than at present. ( 14 ) The American city that will estab- 
 lish on broad foundations a school for the preparation of its young- men in 
 business activities will secure a vantage point which need not hereafter 
 be lost, and will reap benefits entirely out of proportion to the effort now 
 
 necessity: First, that the business interests of the country require a large 
 advance" in the quality and completeness in school work over the past. Second 
 that to attain this res'ult. we must improve the generally accepted curriculum of 
 school studies. From the first of these we infer that the high school is necessary 
 for the successful carrying out of the business projects of the country; and from 
 the second, that careful attention should be given to arranging the most philo- 
 sophic, the wisest and the best course of studies for a high school, whose chief 
 function is tp prepare young men for business life." — William A. Mowry, in 
 Education, Vol. Ill, page 166. 
 
 (•14) "The present industrial and political situation in the United States em- 
 phasizes anew the importance of more thorough provision for a sound commercial 
 education for the masses of the people. Whatever may be the outcome of the 
 present military struggle with Spain, whether the United States shall take and 
 hold Cuba, Puerto Rico and the Philippines, or whether at the conclusion of peace 
 it shall make those islands independent, one thing is certain— the present conflict 
 as nothing else in the life of the nation, has turned the attention of the people of 
 the United States to the opportunities and advantages of a development of our 
 foreign commerce. The growth of our agricultural and manufacturing industry 
 has been so remarkable within the past few years that not only have we reached 
 a point at which we can supply the wants and needs of our own population along 
 many lines of manufactured commodities, but we are in a position to manufacture 
 large surplus quantities for export to other nations. Indeed, it is perhaps an 
 open question whether our industry can continue to advance and develop at the 
 present rapid rate unless in some way we can open up the foreign markets for at 
 least the surplus of our production. From this point of view the necessity of a 
 more thorough and more extensive commercial training becomes evident. In 
 going into foreign countries we must compete with other nations which have the 
 advantage of cheaper capital and cheaper labor. It is evident to all these compet- 
 ing nations that a great advantage will belong to that one, other things being 
 equal, which gives the most careful and patient attention to the development and 
 training of the commercial abilities of its youth. Germany has advanced from a 
 comparatively unimportant place to one of the leading positions in this race for 
 world commerce, and it has done so largely because of the attention which as a 
 nation it has given to the education of its industrial and commercial leaders. The 
 building of the Nicaragua Canal, the development of trade with South American 
 peoples, will offer an opportunity to Chicago which it will certainly be to its 
 interest to seize and utilize. It is one of the standing complaints of our large 
 business houses that they find difficulty in filling their most important positions 
 with men who, to a natural ability for trade and commerce, join that special 
 faculty which conns from special and careful preparation for the duties and 
 privileges of such a career. Here in Chicago we need to provide the facilities for 
 such education as liberally and fully as we have provided facilities for other 
 branches of secondary training. In the magnificent system of high schools 
 which this city has established and supports, the envy of her sister communities, 
 we have provided good facilities for those young men and women who desire 
 to secure a liberal education such as all educated men and women in our society 
 should possess. We offer special facilities to those who wish to secure that 
 general liberal training necessary for admission to the college and university 
 
necessary to gain them. On the other hand, a city of the importance of 
 ( hicago that delays such action, will, we firmly believe, suffer needlessly 
 in its industrial and commercial prestige. Your commission is so fully 
 persuaded of the importance of this action that we recommend that the 
 first expansion of the school system shall take this form and that, at the 
 earliest possible date, a public high school be established with a course of 
 study extending through at least four years, planned to afford a liberal 
 training, and at the same time to prepare its pupils for the various kinds 
 of business activity and to qualify them for the highest positions in the 
 commercial world. 
 
 SECTION 6. THAT TWO ADDITIONAL MANUAL TRAINING HIGH SCHOOLS 
 
 BE ESTABLISHED, ONE ON THE NORTH SIDE AND ONE ON THE SOUTH 
 SIDE OF THE CITY, EACH WITH A FOUR YEARS'" COURSE ( 15 ) OPEN TO BOYS 
 AND GIRLS, WITH SPECIAL OPPORTUNITIES FOR THE LATTER IN STUDIES 
 PERTAINING TO DOMESTIC ECONOMY ; 
 
 and to the professional schools. We offer in one or two of the schools at least 
 partial facilities for those youths who desire a more practical training in prepara- 
 tion for the mechanical trades or technical professions. All this is proper, and 
 in no respect have we as yet done our full duty even by those classes who desire 
 this sort of education. But for that other great class of young men and women 
 who are looking forward to occupation in commercial and mercantile pursuits, 
 we make no provision whatever, and to that extent we are discriminating against 
 them in the race of life. The future lawyer, physician, clergyman, teacher and 
 engineer find in our system of secondary schools an opportunity to secure a 
 valuable preliminary training before undertaking the study of their special pro- 
 fessions. The future business man, whether entering upon lines of commerce, 
 insurance, banking, or other sides of business life, finds no such assistance in 
 our system of secondary education. While not neglecting the former, we cer- 
 tainly have a duty toward the latter which can only be performed by organizing 
 a system of secondary commercial education as full, as complete and satisfactory, 
 considering its purposes, as we have already organized in other lines. It is 
 hardly necessary to say that we are not pleading here for the introduction of 
 mere'courses in bookkeeping, stenography and typewriting, but for that com- 
 prehensive and detailed study of the field of commerce and business which is 
 given in the other courses in our high schools to literature, science and tech- 
 nology. I believe that at least one commercial high school, properly equipped 
 and organized for furnishing this sort of instruction, ought to be established 
 by the city of Chicago in the immediate future. Possibly courses in commercial 
 subjects parallel to the courses in the classics and science ought to be established 
 in two or more of the existing high schools. These are rather matters of detail, 
 but the necessity of providing facilities for this sort of instruction is plain, and 
 Chicago has here an opportunity to lead the way in a much needed extension and 
 improvement of our system of secondary education. The subject has been widely 
 discussed and debated in other cities and there is little doubt that within the 
 near future the other large cities of the country will take up this subject in 
 earnest. Cannot Chicago point the way in this field of commercial instruction 
 as it has pointed the way already in so many departments of commercial and 
 industrial life?" — E. G. Halle, President's Report, Chicago Board of Education, 
 1898. 
 
 (15) "Manual training is beyond question useful, but if introduced more 
 generally it should not he understood as fitting pupils for special trades, but only 
 
 TVERSITY 
 
SECTION 7. — THAT THE COURSE OF STUDY OF THE PRESENT MANUAL 
 TRAINING HIGH SCHOOL ON THE WEST SIDE BE CHANGED TO ACCORD 
 WITH THE PROVISIONS JUST MENTIONED FOR THE NEW SCHOOLS. 
 
 The results secured through the English High and Manual Training 
 School have won general public approval. The records of its graduates 
 compare most favorably with those of the graduates of other secondary 
 schools. It affords a kind of training demanded by me people and chosen 
 by a constantly increasing number of Chicago boys. We believe that in- 
 creased opportunities in this direction would be to the decided advantage 
 of the school system and indorse without qualification the proposal to 
 establish a school similar to the English High and Manual Training School 
 on the North Side and on the South Side. The criticism has been made 
 of the present manual training school that its curriculum is deficient in 
 liberal studies. Fuller provision should be made in this particular, and in 
 suggesting a four years' course for the two additional manual training 
 high schools recommended, as well as for the present English High and 
 Manual Training School, we favor placing more emphasis than at present 
 on literature, history and kindred subjects. 
 
 The technical instruction which has heretofore been offered the boys 
 of this school, we believe should be paralleled for girls. The introduction 
 of manual training in the lower grades has called for a number of men 
 and women able to give such instruction. The experiments so far made 
 in the line of domestic economy have already resulted in the partial intro- 
 duction of this branch into the elementary schools, and there is reason to 
 believe in its still wider spread. In the long run, Chicago must rely, as 
 indicated already, on teachers prepared here for all kinds of work in the 
 school system, and for this reason a secondary course for girls in these 
 branches is needed. This is, however, by no means the. only argument, 
 and perhaps not the principal one for opening the manual training high 
 schools to both sexes. Equal opportunities should be afforded boys and 
 girls alike in our public school system, and every reason that can be adduced 
 for such education for Chicago boys applies in like measure to Chicago 
 girls. (i 6 ) 
 
 as a general fitting for life. Manual training schools should not be allowed to 
 deteriorate into trade schools, nor should their work supersede the important 
 matters of the academic side of training. Therefore, the manual training course 
 should be longer rather than shorter than the high school course."— .4 Chicago 
 Principal. 
 
 (16) "The opening of lines of domestic economy for girls is another step 
 which should be noted with a great deal of favor."— Henry Sabin, Ex-State 
 Superintendent of Instruction, Iowa. 
 
 112 
 

 ARTICLE VII 
 
 Your Commission respectfully recommends in regard to the prepara- 
 tion of teachers : 
 
 SECTION I. THAT ADMISSION TO THE NORMAL SCHOOL BE ON THE 
 
 FOLLOWING CONDITIONS: (a) FOR GRADUATES OF A HIGH SCHOOL OF 
 THIS CITY, EVIDENCE SATISFACTORY TO THE EXAMINING BOARD OF THE 
 SUCCESSFUL COMPLETION OF THE COURSE OF STUDY, TOGETHER WITH 
 A RECOMMENDATION SATISFACTORY TO THE EXAMINING BOARD FROM 
 THE PRINCIPAL IN REGARD TO GENERAL QUALIFICATIONS FOR THE WORK 
 OF TEACHING, AND A CERTIFICATE SIGNED BY A PHYSICIAN APPOINTED 
 BY THE BOARD OF EDUCATION TO THE EFFECT THAT THE CANDIDATE IS 
 IN GOOD HEALTH AND FREE EROM DISABLING PHYSICAL DEFECTS: (b) 
 FOR THOSE WHO ARE NOT GRADUATES OF A HIGH SCHOOL OF THIS CITY, 
 EVIDENCE SATISFACTORY TO THE EXAMINING BOARD OF THE COMPLE- 
 TION OF A COURSE OF STUDY EQUAL TO THAT OF THE LOCAL HIGH 
 SCHOOLS, TOGETHER WITH THE RECOMMENDATION OF THE EXAMINING 
 BOARD IN REGARD TO GENERAL QUALIFICATIONS FOR THE WORK OF 
 TEACHING, AND SAID PHYSICIAN'S CERTIFICATE ; 
 
 SECTION 2. — THAT THE WORK OF EACH STUDENT IN THE NORMAL SCHOOL 
 BE CAREFULLY SUPERVISED BY THE FACULTY, AND REGULAR EXAMINA- 
 TIONS BE HELD AS A TEST OF SATISFACTORY PROGRESS ; AND THAT AT 
 ANY TIME DURING THE COURSE OF INSTRUCTION IT BE AT THE OPTION 
 OF THE FACULTY TO DISMISS THE PUPIL WHO, HAVING RECEIVED ALL 
 PROPER ENCOURAGEMENT AND AID FROM THE FACULTY, SHALL FAIL 
 TO EXHIBIT SUFFICIENT ABILITY J AND THAT SUCH DISMISSAL BE WITH- 
 OUT APPEAL, EXCEPT TO THE EXAMINING BOARD, WHOSE DECISION 
 SHALL BE FINAL ; 
 
 SECTION 3. THAT THE COURSE OF STUDY BE OF NOT LESS THAN TWO 
 
 FULL YEARS J 
 
 SECTION 4. — THAT THE CURRICULUM BE PLANNED TO PREPARE ITS GRAD- 
 UATES TO GIVE INSTRUCTION IN ALL THE STUDIES INCLUDED IN THE 
 COURSE OF THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS, AND THAT LARGER OPPORTUNI- 
 TIES BE AFFORDED, BOTH FOR OBSERVATION \XI> PRACTICE TEACHING] 
 
SECTION 5. — THAT ONE ACADEMIC STUDY AT LEAST BE PURSUED BY EACH 
 PUPIL OF THE NORMAL SCHOOL FOR THE PURPOSE OF GENERAL CULTURE J 
 
 SECTION 6. — THAT THE GRADUATES OF THE NORMAL SCHOOL BE SEV- 
 ERALLY UNDER THE GENERAL SUPERVISION OF SOME MEMBER OF THE 
 FACULTY, ACTING WITH THE ASSISTANT SUPERINTENDENT AND THE 
 PRINCIPAL OF THE SCHOOL, FOR ONE YEAR AFTER THE FIRST ASSIGN- 
 MENT OF THE GRADUATES AS TEACHERS IN THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS J 
 
 SECTION 7. — THAT ADDITIONAL BUILDINGS BE ERECTED FOR THE USE OF 
 THE NORMAL SCHOOL, INCLUDING AT LEAST ONE FOR THE NORMAL 
 SCHOOL ITSELF AND ONE FOR ITS PRACTICE SCHOOL; 
 
 SECTION 8. — THAT AN INVESTIGATION BE MADE TO DETERMINE WHETHER, 
 IN VIEW OF THE GROWTH OF THE CITY, IT MIGHT BE ADVANTAGEOUS 
 TO ESTABLISH, INSTEAD OF ONE, THREE NORMAL SCHOOLS UNDER ONE 
 RESPONSIBLE HEAD. 
 
 The necessity of a normal school in a city system has been shown. ( x ) 
 It rests upon the importance of securing teachers properly qualified to 
 give instruction in the city schools. That such a normal school, while 
 closely correlated with the high schools, should be distinct from them 
 
 (1) See article IV. 
 
 "I think every large city should have a normal school to which it should lend 
 its consummate care and should steer toward an absolute requirement that every 
 new appointed teacher should be a graduate. I also think a system of night 
 schools, especially of a practical Pratt Institute type, should be maintained."— 
 G. Stanley Hall, President Clark University. 
 
 "I regard a training school for teachers as indispensible to the successful 
 administration of a large city system."— John IV. Cook, President Illinois State 
 Normal University. 
 
 "In respect to the existence of a normal school in a large city, all I can say 
 is that it is an absolute necessity. It is the only way in which we can secure 
 properly qualified teachers."— Edzvard Brooks, Superintendent of Schools, Phila- 
 delphia, Pa. 
 
 "In regard to my own views as to the importance of a normal school in a 
 large city, I would say that such a school is very necessary to render efficient 
 and progressive a school system. Persons possessing the requisite academic 
 training but without professional knowledge or experience require from two to 
 five years to learn how to do their work successfully. Of course the schools 
 suffer while this practical knowledge is being acquired." — Henry A. Wise, 
 Superintendent of Schools, Baltimore. Md. 
 
 "All competent authorities agree in the opinion that a course of special train- 
 ing in the theory and practice of teaching should be insisted on as prerequisite to 
 the occupation of teacher. In no department of school economy is there a 
 greater waste of the public money than in the employment of untrained teachers. 
 
 114 
 
in both subject matter and methods, has been proved by experience. The 
 plan adopted in many cities of attempting the preparation of teachers in 
 one, or, at most, two years of teaching in connection with the high schools., 
 has not been successful. Not only does this plan involve an inevitable 
 limitation of the liberal training which should be the basis for professional 
 work, but the connection of the normal class with the city high school has 
 robbed the future teachers of an csprit-de-corps and an enthusiasm for 
 their work, which can be generated only under the influence of those who 
 are devoted to this particular kind of instruction and who are entirely free 
 from academic considerations in their efforts to formulate and carry out a 
 satisfactory professional course. 
 
 Although the normal school should be distinct from the high schools 
 of the city( 2 ), its pupils will come almost entirely from the graduates of 
 
 No doubt very talented young ladies with only a high school education often do 
 well, but with an added normal training they would do much better. My own 
 experience and observation in the direction and supervision of normal schools, of 
 all the different descriptions known among us, and of city schools, lead me to 
 conclude that, during the first five years of service the trained is worth about 
 twice as much as the teacher who has no professional training. No city can 
 afford to employ untrained teachers." — "City School Systems," by John D. Phil- 
 brick, p. 46. 
 
 ( 2 ) "A city normal school in a large city should be a distinct institution, con- 
 nected neither with a city college, if there be one, nor with the city high schools. 
 It should be open to such graduates of the city high schools as can bring a 
 testimonial from the principal of their high school, that so far as he knows they 
 have developed no physical, mental or moral peculiarities or characteristics that 
 would unfit them for the work of elementary teaching. I lay some stress upon 
 this point; for very often totally unfit persons are received into city training 
 schools and eventually pass on to teaching positions ; persons who are known 
 to their former teachers to be lacking in the qualifications necessary for a suc- 
 cessful teacher. It is well to stop such persons at the outset, and it may be done 
 in the way I indicate." — Nicholas Murray Butler, Columbia University. 
 
 "The study of city normal schools leads me to the conclusion that the type 
 comprised in the second category, mentioned on p. 42, is the normal type of city 
 normal schools. This is the purely professional type. It does not pretend to 
 give academic instruction. It receives only pupils of mature age, who have 
 successfully passed through the high school course of instruction. For admission 
 to the most advanced schools of this kind, the applicant must be at least eighteen 
 years of age and must have completed a high school course of four years. In 
 the state normal schools, as a general thing, in the east, at least, much the greater 
 part of the course of instruction is devoted to academic studies. There being no 
 distinct division between the academic and the professional instruction, both are 
 carried on simultaneously. There are those who contend that this is the 
 ideal plan of the normal school. The argument in favor of this plan is based 
 mainly on the assumption that normal pupils cannot obtain a good education in 
 non-professional schools, or, what amounts to the same thing, that a supply of 
 normal pupils who have received the requisite general education cannot be had. 
 But this assumption is not applicable to city systems in this country. The Cin- 
 cinnati board of education can provide just as good education for prpils in a 
 
the latter, and the two should be closely connected by their respective 
 courses of study. 
 
 We recommend, therefore : 
 
 SECTION I. THAT ADMISSION TO THE NORMAL SCHOOL( 3 ) BE ON THE 
 
 FOLLOWING CONDITIONS: (a) FOR GRADUATES OF A HIGH SCHOOL OF 
 THIS CITY, EVIDENCE SATISFACTORY TO THE EXAMINING BOARD OF THE 
 SUCCESSFUL COMPLETION OF THE COURSE OF STUDY, TOGETHER WITH 
 A RECOMMENDATION SATISFACTORY TO THE EXAMINING BOARD FROM 
 THE PRINCIPAL IN REGARD TO GENERAL QUALIFICATIONS FOR THE WORK 
 OF TEACHING, AND A CERTIFICATE SIGNED BY A PHYSICIAN APPOINTED 
 BY THE BOARD OF EDUCATION TO THE EFFECT THAT THE CANDIDATE IS 
 IN GOOD HEALTH AND FREE FROM DISABLING PHYSICAL DEFECTS: (b) 
 FOR THOSE WHO ARE NOT GRADUATES OF A HIGH SCHOOL OF THIS CITY, 
 EVIDENCE SATISFACTORY TO THE EXAMINING BOARD OF THE COMPLE- 
 TION OF A COURSE OF STUDY EQUAL TO THAT OF THE LOCAL HIGH 
 SCHOOLS, TOGETHER WITH THE RECOMMENDATION OF THE EXAMINING 
 BOARD IN REGARD TO GENERAL QUALIFICATIONS FOR THE WORK OF 
 TEACHING AND SAID PHYSICIAN'S CERTIFICATE; 
 
 The plan heretofore followed of admitting to the normal school the 
 graduates of the city high schools who have a certain high average in their 
 
 school organized as a high school as in a school organized as a normal school, and 
 so can any other city. The normal school forms no exception to the general 
 principle that in all institutions of education, both economy and efficiency are 
 promoted by simplification of function. It is not strange, therefore, that the 
 ideal type of the professional school for the training of teachers should be first 
 developed in cities where candidates in sufficient numbers who have completed 
 the high school course present themselves." — "City School Systems/' by John D. 
 . Philbrick, p. 45. 
 
 (3) "From 1877 to September, 1893, there was no school or department for 
 the training of teachers in Chicago. High school graduates who passed the 
 teacher's examination were assigned to schools as cadets to learn how to teach. 
 When they succeeded as cadets they were assigned as teachers. In the report 
 before referred to. Superintendent Lane says : 'As the number of inexperienced 
 teachers increased, it was deemed best to give them some professional training 
 in addition to their cadet practice.' In September, 1893. a training class for 
 cadets was organized. Graduates of the four years' high school course were 
 admitted after passing the required examination. The course covered half a 
 year. In 1895 it was decided to make the course one year, and the class which 
 graduated in June, 1896, received a year's instruction in the training school. The 
 extension of the course to one year was a decided step in a forward direction, 
 and demonstrated beyond all question that the idea of building up a professional 
 training school for teachers had become firmly established. It is true it was 
 not established without a struggle, but the objections had been met and had 
 been overruled. The thanks of the people of Chicago are due to those who, with 
 courage and persistence, contended for the idea of training for teachers. In 
 connection with the idea of extending the course of the training school for 
 cadets, there had grown up the opinion that the work should be broadened in 
 
 Iin 
 
studies for the four years ( 4 ), has many advantages, not the least of which 
 is the necessary restriction thus imposed on the number of those who 
 desire to prepare themselves as teachers. Your commission, however, 
 thinks that this restriction is hardly fair or adequate. ( 5 ) On the one 
 hand, it permits many to enter the normal school who, despite high scholar- 
 ship, have not given proof that they will become successful members of 
 the teaching force. On the other hand, it undoubtedly excludes many 
 who, in the opinion of those best qualified by their professional standing 
 and their personal knowledge to judge, are promising candidates for this 
 work. If it did not seem probable that with an increasing number of high 
 schools there will be a large number of applicants possessing the required 
 scholarship from whom selection can be made for admission to the normal 
 school, your commission would be inclined to recommend lowering this 
 particular test. As it is, we favor the retention of the scholarship standard 
 of admission, but recommend that in addition be required the approval of 
 
 many directions, and that it was about time to establish a great normal school 
 for the city of Chicago. Just at this time came the proposition from the county 
 commissioners of Cook County to turn over to the city of Chicago, on certain 
 conditions, the land, building and equipment belonging to the Cook County Nor- 
 mal School. In January, 1896, by an agreement with the county commissioners 
 of Cook County, the board of education assumed control of the normal school, 
 and by this act advanced the school system of Chicago in lines of progress by 
 many years." — Committee on Normal Schools, in Annual Report, Chicago Board 
 of Education, 1897. 
 
 ( 4 ) "In 1891 there was no training school for teachers; and there were no 
 qualifications demanded for admission to an examination other that that the 
 candidate should be nineteen years old. Students in the second year of the high 
 school course sometimes passed the examination. Those who were successful 
 in the examination and had never taught were assigned to the various schools 
 to practice teaching under the principals of such schools. These cadets were 
 eligible to permanent appointments as soon as they could show ability to manage 
 a room. In some instances they were assigned to permanent places within one 
 month after being assigned as cadets. The following are the present require- 
 ments for a teacher's certificate : Applicants who have taught four years suc- 
 cessfully, as shown by credentials, or those who are college graduates, may be 
 examined. Graduates of our high schools, who have 90 per cent scholarship, 
 or who pass an examination, must take one years' training in the normal school, 
 and then cadet or practice successfully for four months in some school before 
 they can be assigned to permanent positions." — A. G. Lane, Assistant Superin- 
 tendent of Schools, Chicago. 
 
 ( 5 ) "It should be said, however, that an element of weakness begins to show 
 itself arising from the practice of allowing all the graduates of the high school 
 desiring to become teachers to enter as pupil teachers simply because the] are 
 graduates, whether they possess the necessary physical and mental qualifications 
 to become good teachers or not. My opinion is that we have pursued this course 
 as long as it is wise or profitable." — Report of the Fall River (Mass.) Public 
 Schools. 1888. 
 
 117 
 
the principal of the respective school. ( G ) He, after consultation with his 
 teachers, can pick out those who, with scholarship, have the qualities which 
 will best fit them for successful teaching. The requirement of a certificate 
 of health of all who desire appointment as teachers in the city, should be 
 made, also, of all who seek admission to the training school. Heretofore, 
 some pupils have been admitted whom even a cursory examination 
 would have excluded as physically unfit for positions in our schools. It 
 has seemed to your commission unkind and cruel to allow those thus handi- 
 capped to undergo the arduous training of the normal school, and to leave 
 them to find out when too late, their incapacity for the teacher's duties. 
 It is an act of mere justice alike to such candidates and to the city which 
 supports the schools, to shut them out from a field that offers for them no 
 promise of success. 
 
 SECTION 2. — THAT THE WORK OF EACH STUDENT IN THE NORMAL SCHOOL 
 BE CAREFULLY SUPERVISED BY THE FACULTY, AND REGULAR EXAMINA- 
 TIONS BE HELD AS A TEST OF SATISFACTORY PROGRESS; AND THAT AT 
 ANY TIME DURING THE COURSE OF INSTRUCTION IT BE AT THE OPTION 
 OF THE FACULTY TO DISMISS THE PUPIL WHO, HAVING RECEIVED ALL 
 PROPER ENCOURAGEMENT AND AID FROM THE FACULTY, SHALL FAIL 
 TO EXHIBIT SUFFICIENT ABILITY ; AND THAT SUCH DISMISSAL BE WITH- 
 OUT APPEAL, EXCEPT TO THE EXAMINING BOARD, WHOSE DECISION 
 SHALL BE FINAL ; 
 
 To those acquainted with educational work, it may seem strange that 
 any necessity should exist for recommending formally that the faculty 
 of a normal school should supervise the work of each pupil and have the 
 power of dismissal. Experience in Chicago has shown, however, that 
 
 (6) "The majority of our teachers in all hut the high schools will naturally 
 be supplied by the graduates of our own system. The certificate of our own 
 schools should be a sufficient title, but I am strongly of the opinion that it has 
 hitherto been based too exclusively upon intellectual tests. To pass an examina- 
 tion by no means establishes the qualification to act as the mental and moral 
 guardian of a class of children. Over and over again, during the past twenty 
 years have students of mine been admitted to the teaching force when I have 
 known them to be absolutely unfit for such a trust. They have contrived to 
 pass an examination and that is all. No inquiry has been made concerning the 
 moral atmosphere likely to exist in the school rooms under their charge. Per- 
 haps a thousand of my students altogether have thus become teachers in the 
 primary and grammar grades, and my opinion for their fitness in the work has 
 not once been asked. Yet those of us who come into intimate personal contact 
 (during the last year or two years of the high school work) with these young 
 
 118 
 
owing to the large number of those desiring to prepare themselves for 
 teaching and the great pressure toward ultimate appointment as teachers 
 of any that have been admitted to the normal school, undue influences have 
 been used to retain pupils in that school despite their admitted incapacity. 
 This irregularity has been due partly to a feeling that some leniency might 
 be shown those who have made in many cases great sacrifices to gain a 
 professional training. We suggest that, where possible, this question be 
 settled early in the school course, and the only method of satisfactorily 
 settling it is by means of regular examinations. ( 7 ) The additional recom- 
 mendation that the faculty of the school be given the right to determine 
 the pupil's ability and scholarship, might seem also unnecessary, for such 
 power is the universal privilege of teaching bodies. Yet it is a fact that 
 the influences just described have secured the diploma of the Chicago 
 Normal School for many pupils, from whom the honest judgment of the 
 faculty would have withheld it. This statement should not be made 
 lightly, but your commission has been forced to conclude that such has 
 been the case not infrequently. While the faculty should be given large 
 power in this particular, we think it well that on occasion arising, their 
 action should be reviewed by the examining board. 
 
 SECTION 3. THAT THE COURSE OF STUDY BE OF NOT LESS THAN TWO 
 
 FULL YEARS ;( 8 ) 
 
 Advance in the requirements made of candidates for teaching positions 
 in Chicago has been constant, and along with these requirements the 
 opportunities for preparation have increased. We believe that the Chicago 
 Normal School has been efficiently carried on. Its graduates have brought 
 
 women, are the only ones who can possibly know whether they are fit persons 
 to teach children. It seems to me that a certificate of character or general fitness. 
 from those in the direct charge of students during the last year or two of their 
 school life, should be made an absolute requirement for appointment, quite inde- 
 pendent of their ability to pass successfully an examination." — A Chicago Prin- 
 cipal. 
 
 (?) "Pupils are examined from time to time during their progress through 
 the classes, and those deemed unfit to pursue the course to the end are dropped. 
 This is done by the head-master with the concurrence of the superintendent and 
 the board of supervisors, who are kept informed by the head-master concerning 
 the standing of the pupils. The last sifting comes at graduation ; only those are 
 graduated who give promise of becoming fairly good teachers."— Edwin P. 
 Seaver, Superintendent of Schools, Boston, Mass. 
 
 "If it appears on acquaintance that a serious mistake has been made in esti- 
 mating any of these elements, then, as soon as the mistake is fairly apparent 
 and is probably a permanent condition, the pupil should be requested to withdraw 
 
 119 
 
a new spirit of enthusiasm and greater adaptability to conditions into the 
 teaching force of the city. It is impossible, however, to give in one year 
 adequate professional training. Educational experience and opinion 
 point unanimously to the advisability of a two years' course of study. 
 The number of applicants for admission to the normal school at present 
 and the number of its graduates have made it feasible to require an addi- 
 tional year of training, without any resulting disadvantage. Your com- 
 mission urges, therefore, that as soon as possible this change be made in 
 the Chicago Normal School. ( 9 ) 
 
 from the work. This is not a case where the wheat and the tares should grow 
 together till the harvest at graduation day or the examination preceding it. With 
 such a foundation continually maintained, it is the duty of the school to conquer 
 success for each pupil."— Committee of Fifteen, p. 15. 
 
 (8) "The ideal training course is one of two years length."— Committee of 
 Fifteen, />. 13. 
 
 "The course of study in a city training school should be at least two years 
 in length, and strictly professional in character. By this, I mean that no time or 
 energy should be spent in repairing deficiencies of scholarship — there should be 
 no deficiencies of scholarship to repair. For the first year of the course, two- 
 thirds of the time should be spent in presenting to the pupils the elementary school 
 subjects, in what might be called their pedagogic form: that their organization 
 and analysis as subject matter, the inner connection of their various parts should 
 be made plain, as well as their interdependencies and mutual relationships. This 
 kind of instruction is not. as a rule, given in this country, because the time that 
 should be devoted to it is usually given to teaching over again, and for the third 
 or fourth time the subject matter itself of the elementary school curriculum. The 
 other third of the first should be spent in the study of psychology and its appli- 
 cations to teaching by the most modern methods of instruction. The second 
 year of the course should include instruction in the history of education, in the 
 principles (or as it is sometimes called, the philosophy) of education, in school 
 organization and management, and in practical educational work under com- 
 petent supervision and criticism. Under the latter head I include both observa- 
 tion of good teaching and the writing of reports thereon ; making of ideal lesson 
 plans and the discussion thereof ; and the conduct of actual class exercises under 
 supervision." — Nicholas Murray Butler. Columbia University. 
 
 (9) "I think the course should not be less than two years, and during the 
 second year at least one-half the time of the pupil should be spent in practice 
 work under most critical and careful observation. I do not understand that I 
 am asked to present a course of study for a normal school, but I may say in gen- 
 eral that it should be of such a character in the first place as will give one a 
 strong propulsion toward child study and a thorough professional conscientious- 
 ness. In the second place, it should involve a thorough-going examination of 
 the course of study, and a careful and extended discussion of method. And in 
 the third place, it should indicate not less than half a year of practice work, a 
 portion of the day being spent in that aspect of the work and the remaining 
 portion in critical studies of the faults of presentation and the theories neces- 
 
 120 
 
SECTION 4. THAT THE CURRICULUM BE PLANNED TO PREPARE ITS GRAD- 
 UATES TO GIVE INSTRUCTION IN ALL THE STUDIES INCLUDED IN THE 
 COURSE OF THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS, AND THAT LARGER OPPORTUNI- 
 TIES BE AFFORDED, BOTH FOR OBSERVATION AND PRACTICE TEACHING; 
 
 With this lengthening- of the course of study, we believe that the 
 curriculum of the normal school, if carefully correlated with that of the 
 secondary schools, can afford full preparation for instruction in all the 
 branches taught in the primary and the grammar grades. ( 10 ) A con- 
 
 sary to correct such faults. I do not regard one year as long enough time for the 
 professional preparation of even university graduates. There is no difficulty 
 at all in the matter, as it seems to me, since the positions in the city are so 
 eagerly sought that candidates are willing to do whatever is required of them 
 that is in any way reasonable, to fit themselves for such positions, if they can be 
 assured of the position after the preparation is completed." — John W. Cook, 
 President Illinois State Normal University. 
 
 "The remaining 48 were held to profit by the two years' course of instruction 
 so wisely provided by the honorable board of trustees. The benefits of this 
 extension of time for training cannot fail to redound to the permanent advantage 
 of the school children under the influence of these young teachers, an advantage 
 so tangible and measurable that it cannot fail to be seen to abundantly justify 
 the measure which produced it. The teacher more than another needs sound 
 and broad scholarship. He, by the long and deliberate process of assimilation, 
 needs to have made quite his own a large body of knowledge related and arranged 
 to serve as the educating and understanding influence by which children are 
 to be taught and directed. By this extension of time for training, we expect, 
 with a certainty of fulfillment, a broader culture for our pupils, richer expe- 
 riences and larger sympathies, all counting for a stronger development of char- 
 acter, for finer and surer comprehension of the teacher's place and work, and 
 for intelligent and helpful meeting of the child's legitimate demand to be well 
 equipped for a successful and honorable career." — Ida Gilbert Myers, Principal 
 Normal School, Washington, D. C. — Report of the Board of Trustees of Public 
 Schools of the District of Columbia, 1897. 
 
 (10) "The normal school, as here outlined, cannot prepare teachers for sec- 
 ondary work. 
 
 "These considerations and others are the occasion of a growing conviction, 
 widespread in this land, that secondary teachers should be trained for their 
 work even more carefully than elementary teachers are trained. This convic- 
 tion is manifested in the efforts to secure normal schools adapted to training 
 teachers for secondary schools, notably in Massachusetts and New York, and 
 in the numerous professorships of pedagogy established in rapidly increasing 
 numbers in our colleges and universities. The training of teachers for sec- 
 ondary schools is in several essential respects the same as that for teachers for 
 elementary schools. Both demand scholarship, theory and practice. The degree 
 of scholarship required for secondary teaching is by common consent fixed at 
 a college education. No one — with rare exceptions — should be allowed to teach 
 in a high school who has not this fundamental preparation." — Committee of 
 Fifteen, p. 17. 
 
 "At some point in this training school course the students should be divided 
 into groups, according to their natural capacity or tastes, and prepared especially 
 to undertake the work of either the lower or the upper grades of an elementary 
 school. Teachers often suffer personal embarrassment and distress, and the com- 
 
siderable extension of the time devoted to studies recently introduced into 
 the Chicago system will gradually do away to a great extent with the 
 necessity for special teachers. German, Latin, music, drawing and gym- 
 nastics can be taught much more satisfactorily by the teacher of the grade, 
 and such an arrangement would permit a considerable reduction in the 
 expense of instruction. When constructive work of different kinds, from 
 the work of the kindergarten to the manual training and domestic economy 
 of the upper grades, has become an integral part of the course of study, 
 the same statement will be true, we believe, in regard to this branch. 
 With the larger facilities afforded by more manual training schools, with 
 a fuller curriculum in these subjects and with special training in a two 
 years' normal course, the graduates of the latter school should be com- 
 petent to do all the constructive teaching necessary in the grades. 
 
 Greater emphasis should be put also on kindergarten training in the 
 normal school, and an optional course should be added for those who 
 desire to prepare themselves for this work.( n ) The city should offer all 
 needed facilities in preparation for any teaching below the grade of the 
 secondary schools. 
 
 The Chicago Normal School, with only a one year's course, has thus far 
 suffered from the comparatively slight attention that could be given to 
 
 munity often suffers great disadvantage, because there is no opportunity in the 
 training school course to specialize somewhat in the preparation for schoolroom 
 work. While, of course, all teaching is one and the same, yet any experienced 
 school supervisor will confirm the statement that different qualities both of attain- 
 ment and temperament are needed for success with children from six to ten years 
 of age." — Nicholas Murray Butler, Columbia University. 
 
 (11) "But the influence of the kindergarten is felt in still another direction. 
 The normal school stands for what is established and thus tends toward con- 
 servatism. But because of this and the necessity of formulating its work, its 
 methods tend to become fixed and formal, and thus to bring reproach on normal 
 school work. The presence of a kindergarten, the whole spirit of which is spon- 
 taneity, naturalness and free self-expression, is a valuable antidote to this. In 
 the kindergarten the child is superior to the system ; in the school the individual 
 must too often yield to it. The emphasis the kindergarten places on the indi- 
 vidual in his social and ethical relations is of great value to the future teacher 
 in helping her to see her pupils as individuals when she is obliged to emphasize 
 class instruction. The further emphasis the kindergarten places on sympathetic 
 relations between teacher and pupil will serve as an ideal when she is tempted 
 to adapt the arbitrary modes of government the school sometimes seems to 
 require. 
 
 "The modern movement of child-study is another into which the normal stu- 
 dent should be initiated. But for this, also, the kindergarten is invaluable. The 
 purpose of the child-study movement is the better understanding of the child for 
 the purpose of directing his development more intelligently. This is likewise 
 the purpose of the kindergarten."— Nina C. Vandeicalker, in Kindergarten Maga- 
 zine, March, 1898. 
 
observation work and practice teaching. ( 12 ) The extension of the course 
 to two years will more than double in these particulars the efficiency of 
 the school. Compared with some of the other large cities of the country, 
 Chicago has been deficient in the preparation of teachers, and although 
 steady progress has been made in recent years, much that is possible in 
 this direction remains to be done. Our city, for reasons already sug- 
 gested, is especially in need of teachers prepared to meet the peculiar con- 
 ditions surrounding our school system. No more effective steps toward 
 this can be made than by increasing the opportunities for observation 
 work( 13 ) both in immediate connection with the normal school and so far 
 as possible in schools located in widely varying sections of the city.( 14 ) If 
 
 ( 12 ) "In one important respect, the normal school has peculiar advantages, 
 namely, in the provision for model schools of practice. Some of the city normal 
 schools, however, and particularly the training schools for teachers, are not so 
 well furnished with this means of training as could be desired, the school set 
 apart for this purpose comprising in too many cases only the primary grade or 
 some lower grammar class in addition. They ought also to comprise pupils of 
 each sex. Even so important a normal school as that of Philadelphia has only 
 classes of girls in the grammar grade of its school of practice. Abundant proof 
 of the excellence and success of schools of practice connected with city normal 
 schools is afforded by the fact that parents are very generally anxious to secure 
 places in them for their children." — "City School Systems," by John D. Phil- 
 brick, p. 44. 
 
 (13) "A good deal of experience in connection with training teachers, both in 
 city training schools and in connection with our training class for college gradu- 
 ates here in Brookline, which has been in operation for three years, convinces me 
 that the chief element in training is actual contact with and the performance of 
 work in the school room, so that your plan for larger facilities for observation 
 and practice is eminently sound. While theory is necessary, it receives its chief 
 value in connection with its indicated application in the school room. This 
 remark applies to all theory suggested by the history of education and the 
 advanced views of educational reformers. They are all to be interpreted in 
 the school room and their value or lack of value proven." — 5. T. Dutton, Superin- 
 tendent of Schools, Brookline, Mass. 
 
 "The normal schools incline to the smallest proportion for practice teaching, 
 the city schools to the largest. It should be borne in mind, however, that train- 
 ing schools are a close continuation, usually, of high schools, and that the high 
 school courses give a more uniform and probably adequate preparation than the 
 students entering normal training schools have usually had. Their facilities for 
 practice teaching are much greater than normal schools can secure, and for this 
 reason, also, practice is made relatively more important." — Committee of 
 Fifteen, p. 5. 
 
 (14) "The practice school should not be a small school in a limited region. 
 With the children of every European nationality in Chicago's public schools, the 
 student teachers, as well as the faculty of the normal school, should have wider 
 experience than teachers over children living in a small part of Englewood. 
 There should be a practice school in the Bohemian, in the Italian, in the Swedish 
 and in the Polish districts as well as in an American speaking locality." — A Chi- 
 cago Superintendent. 
 
 "It is important to add, however, that in the judgment of your committee not 
 less than half of the time spent under training of the apprentice teacher should 
 
this is true in the work of observation, it is equally true in regard to 
 practice teaching, so necessary to pupils in the normal school. Your com- 
 mission believes that this part of the normal school instruction also can 
 be advantageously carried on in different school districts at a slight increase 
 in expense. 
 
 SECTION 5. THAT ONE ACADEMIC STUDY AT LEAST BE PURSUED BY EACH 
 
 PUPIL OF THE NORMAL SCHOOL FOR THE PURPOSE OF GENERAL CULTURE ; 
 
 The graduates of our city high schools when they begin professional 
 training should be well equipped in general education and acquaintance with 
 the subjects that they will be required to teach. The normal school of a large 
 community, unlike similar institutions supported in rural districts of the 
 state, can presuppose a fairly adequate knowledge and culture on the part 
 of the candidates for admission. Its course should, therefore, be distinctly 
 professional^ 15 ) Nevertheless, a source of danger lies in the constant 
 devotion to study from the point of view only of the future teacher and 
 in continuous emphasis on method rather than matter. Thus the pupils 
 of the normal school may in two years lose something of the desire for 
 
 be given to observation and practice, and that this practice in its conditions should 
 be as similar as possible to the work she will later be required to do inde- 
 pendently." — Committee of Fifteen, p. 5. 
 
 (15) "If training schools are to be distinguished from other secondary schools, 
 they must do a work not done in other schools. So far as they teach common 
 branches of study they are doing what other schools are doing, and have small 
 excuse for existence ; but it may be granted that methods can be practicably 
 taught only as to subjects, that the study done in professional schools may so 
 treat of the subjects of study, not as objects to be acquired, but as objects to 
 be presented, that their treatment shall be wholly professional. One who is to 
 treat a subject needs to know it as a whole made up of related and subordinate 
 parts, and hence must study it by method that will give this knowledge. It is 
 not necessary to press the argument that many pupils enter normal and training 
 schools with such slight preparation as to require instruction in academic subjects. 
 The college, with a preparatory department, is, as a rule, an institution of dis- 
 tinctly lower grade than one without such a department. Academy work of 
 the normal schools that is in the nature of preparation for professional work, 
 lowers the standard and perhaps the usefulness of such a school ; but academic 
 work done as a means of illustrating or enforcing professional truth has its place 
 in a professional school as in effect a part of the professional work. Professional 
 study differs widely from academic study. In the one a science is studied in 
 relation to the studying mind; in the other, in reference to its principles and 
 applications. The aim of one kind of study is power to apply; of the other, 
 power to present. The tendency of the one is to bring the learner into sympathy 
 with the natural world; of the other, with the child world. How much broader 
 becomes the teacher who takes both the academic and the professional view ! 
 He who learns that he may know, and he who learns that he may teach, are 
 standing in quite different mental attitudes. One works for knowledge of sub- 
 ject matter; the other, that his knowledge may have due organization, that he 
 may bring to conscienciousness the apperceiving ideas by means of which matter 
 and method may be suitably conjoined." — Committer of Fifteen, p. 3. 
 
 124 
 
broader attainment, without which they are not qualified to enter ihe 
 schools as teachers. ( 16 ) In order to obviate this danger, and at the same 
 time to give opportunity in the normal school for some slight specialization 
 on the part of each pupil, we recommend that an option be allowed of 
 different academic studies ; and that each pupil be required to pursue one 
 such study through the two years of normal work. If the departmental ; 
 idea, suggested elsewhere, is to spread, as seems likely, at least in the 
 higher grades, the recommendation just made will be of decided advantage 
 to the future teacher. 
 
 SECTION 6. THAT THE GRADUATES OF THE NORMAL SCHOOL BE SEV- 
 ERALLY UNDER THE SUPERVISION OF SOME MEMBER OF THE FACULTY, 
 ACTING WITH THE ASSISTANT SUPERINTENDENT AND THE PRINCIPAL 
 OF THE SCHOOL, FOR ONE YEAR AFTER THE FIRST ASSIGNMENT OF THE 
 GRADUATES AS TEACHERS IN THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 
 
 The principle has been already laid down that no one on entering the 
 Chicago system should receive permanent appointment. A probation 
 should be required of at least two years, and only on the successful com- 
 pletion of this period should the teacher receive a permanent certificate. 
 These two years are recognized as the most difficult and important in the 
 
 (16) "The greatest problem for the faculty of the normal school to solve is 
 this : How can the students be so trained that their ideal of education will be a 
 developing one, and not be dwarfed and thrown into the shade by methods and 
 devices in teaching? The concentration of thought and activity for one or two 
 years on teaching itself, draws the normal students themselves so completely away 
 from academic work that the majority do not resume it after graduating from 
 the normal school. While the Chicago Normal School should not do the work 
 of the elementary and secondary schools with its student teachers as the state 
 normal universities are obliged to, yet (though almost alone in my belief). I am 
 confident that the normal students should while in that school take one advanced 
 study outside of pedagogy, psychology and child study."— A Chicago Superin- 
 tendent. 
 
 "Most fundamental and important of the professional studies which ought 
 to be pursued by one intending to teach, is psychology. This study should be 
 pursued at two periods of the training school course, the beginning and the 
 end, and its principles should be appealed to daily when not formally studied. 
 The method of study should be more deductive than inductive. The terminology 
 should be learned from a text-book and significance given to the terms by intro- 
 spection, observation and analysis. Power of introspection should be gained, 
 guidance of observation should be given and confirmation of psychological prin- 
 ciples should be sought on every hand. The habit of thinking analytically and 
 psychologically should be formed by every teacher. At the close of the course 
 a more profound and more completely inductive study of physiological psychology 
 should be made. In this way, a tendency to investigate should be encouraged 
 or created." — Committee of Fifteen, p. 6. 
 
teacher's career, and every effort should he made to aid the teachers in 
 their early work. Sympathetic direction has been given the new teachers 
 by their more experienced comrades and the principals and superintend- 
 ents. Such assistance, however, is perforce limited in amount, and during 
 the first critical weeks and months of this probation, those in immediate 
 charge of the new teachers are hampered by a lack of previous knowledge 
 of them. These beginners have often worked out their own problems with 
 unnecessary difficulty, or failed in them before the supervising force from 
 the principal up has felt able to give helpful criticism and advice. Your 
 commission believes that the teachers of the normal school, who under 
 the plan proposed will have followed carefully for two years the training 
 of the candidates, might offer material assistance at this juncture, and 
 that their knowledge of the personality of the new teachers would supple- 
 ment in a most valuable way the observations and impressions of the prin- 
 cipals and the assistant superintendents. The responsibility of following 
 up in this way the work of the normal school graduates might well be 
 assigned to the members of the faculty, who have been severally brought 
 by their own work into intimate acquaintance with them. This proposal 
 might perhaps be criticised as likely to impair the work of the teacher in 
 the normal school itself. Such a criticism would prove, however, we con- 
 sider, superficial and ill-founded. If there is anything especially important 
 in a normal school, it is a definite knowledge on the part of the faculty 
 of the work actually done in the elementary schools, and the time and effort 
 thus demanded of the faculty of the normal school in the supervision of 
 its graduates, would redound directly to the benefit not only of the gradu- 
 ates, but of the school itself. 
 
 SECTION 7. — THAT ADDITIONAL BUILDINGS BE ERECTED FOR THE USE OF 
 THE NORMAL SCHOOL, INCLUDING AT LEAST ONE FOR THE NORMAL 
 SCHOOL ITSELF AND ONE FOR ITS PRACTICE SCHOOL J 
 
 Initiatory steps have already been taken toward providing additional 
 accommodations at the normal school, but action seems to have been undulv 
 delayed for various reasons. The school, in the judgment of your commis- 
 sion, is in urgent need of additional buildings, including at least a 
 general one for recitation, laboratory, and library purposes of the school : 
 another, with much larger provisions, for the model school, and as soon 
 as seems advisable, one also for museum purposes 
 
 126 
 
SECTION 8. — THAT AN INVESTIGATION BE MADE TO DETERMINE WHETHER, 
 IN VIEW OF THE GROWTH OF THE CITY, IT MIGHT BE ADVANTAGEOUS 
 TO ESTABLISH, INSTEAD OF ONE, THREE NORMAL SCHOOLS UNDER ONE 
 RESPONSIBLE HEAD. ( 17 ) 
 
 Chicago has always found it difficult to establish one central institu- 
 tion of any kind for school purposes. The large area included within our 
 limits, and the peculiar division of the city into rather sharply defined sec- 
 tions, offer grave difficulties in selecting any particular site.( 18 ) The loca- 
 tion of the present normal school seems eminently disadvantageous. This 
 question so far as it affects the present school was settled in advance by 
 the transference of the school by Cook county to the city with the special 
 provision that it be retained on its present site. Under these circumstances 
 it may be advisable to provide only for a certain differentiation in the func- 
 tions of the normal school. The need already indicated for more observa- 
 tion and practice work in connection with normal training, might be met 
 by establishing one or more branch schools under the direction of the 
 principal and faculty of the Chicago Normal School ; these may perhaps 
 become ultimately distinct schools. This arrangement would not only 
 give the graduates a much needed knowledge of local ( 19 ) conditions, but 
 
 (17) "In addition to her advanced methods of instruction, the pupil teacher 
 needs to acquire the ability to keep a reasonable number of children properly 
 employed at their seats. To this end, part of her practical work should be the 
 management of a room, the membership of which approximates that of an ordi- 
 nary school room. Placing a normal school at a point central to the divisions 
 of our city, or establishing such a school on the North Side and another on the 
 West Side would make such practice work possible." — Ella F. Young Club. 
 
 (18) This statement should not be construed against the establishment of a 
 central commercial school, open to boys of high school age, since these can 
 attend the sessions in the business district with greater safety and less incon- 
 venience than the young women, who form so large a proportion of the pupils 
 at the normal school. 
 
 (19) "There is a. constantly increasing demand for trained teachers. This 
 demand is more marked in the cities than in the country. A very large pro- 
 portion of the graduates of state normal schools find employment in the city 
 schools ; but the supply from this source is inadequate. Hence the city boards 
 of a considerable number of the larger cities have made provisions more or 
 less extensive, for the professional training of teachers for the schools under 
 their charge. The supplementing of the supply from the state normal schools 
 has not been the sole motive for making this provision. Another argument in 
 its favor is found in the fact of the increased facility thus afforded to home 
 talent for professional preparation. And, besides, it is generally believed that 
 home trained teachers may be better adapted for the service to which they are 
 destined. The establishment of city normal schools is by no means a new idea 
 in our educational economy. It appears that the legal provisions for the first 
 city normal school antedates by about twenty years the establishment of the 
 
would also make it easier for pupils in various parts of the city to attend 
 a part of the normal school course. ( 20 ) 
 
 first state normal school. The city of Philadelphia took the lead in this matter. 
 In the 'Act to provide for the education of children at the public expense within 
 the city and county of Philadelphia,' passed in 1818, it was made the duty of the 
 controllers who were intrusted with the administration of the schools, 'to estab- 
 lish a model school, in order to qualify teachers for the secondary schools and 
 for schools in other parts of the state.' " — "City School Systems." by John D. 
 Phil brick, p. 41. 
 
 ( 20 ) "It is unfortunate that this school is located so far from the part of the 
 city reached by traveling on only one line of street cars, or elevated trains, or 
 suburban trains. Too much time and nervous energy are expended by the stu- 
 dents in going to and from the school daily. Notwithstanding the value of 
 the property acquired in Englewood, I believe a mistake was made when the 
 city normal school was located where it now is. When the board of education 
 erects a building for its own use, that is, a building containing rooms for the 
 board, the superintendent's department and the business department, there should 
 be rooms for teachers' meetings and for the accommodation of the normal classes 
 in the theoretical and academic work. One-half of the classes should meet in 
 the morning and one-half in the afternoon. By the division of the normal classes 
 into morning and afternoon classes and an alteration of the time so that one- 
 half of the year a class would attend mornings and during the other half would 
 attend afternoons, these practice schools would not only have student teachers 
 in them throughout the entire day, but the student teachers would have their 
 work under varied conditions as to time and pupils. In addition to that, the 
 student teachers would acquire power in teaching classes under conditions similar 
 to that of those in the schools in which they will eventually be employed." — A 
 Chicago Superintendent. 
 
 n8 
 
jpecial 
 rt litotes 
 
 ARTICLE VIII 
 
 Your Commission respectfully recommends : 
 
 SECTION I. — THAT THE TEACHING OF THE SPECIAL SUBJECTS IN THE 
 COURSE OF THE_ ELEMENTARY _5,CHOOLS BE ENCOURAGED, AND EFFORTS 
 BE MADeTtO CORRELATE THEM MORE CLOSELY WITH THE OTHER STUDIES 
 OF THE COURSE ; 
 
 SECTION 2. THAT DRAWING, MUSIC AND PHYSICAL CULTURE BE CON- 
 SIDERED PROPER STUDIES FOR THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS, AND THAT 
 INSTRUCTION BE GIVEN IN THEM ACCORDING TO SUITABLE PROVISIONS; 
 
 SECTION 3. — (a) that constructive work of some form be gradu- 
 
 ALLY INTRODUCED INTO EACH GRADE OF EVERY ELEMENTARY 
 SCHOOL( 1 ) ; AND THAT BELOW THE SEVENTH GRADE THIS TAKE THE 
 SAME FORM FOR BOYS AND GIRLS ; 
 
 (b) THAT IN THE SEVENTH AND EIGHTH GRADES THE WORK 
 BE DIFFERENTIATED, TAKING FOR THE PRESENT THE FORM OF WOOD- 
 WORK FOR BOYS AND DOMESTIC ECONOMY FOR GIRLS; 
 
 (c) THAT FACILITIES FOR SUCH INSTRUCTION IN THE SEVENTH 
 AND EIGHTH GRADES BE PROVIDED AS RAPIDLY AS POSSIBLE, WITH DUE 
 REFERENCE TO ECONOMY IN THE MATTER BOTH OF EQUIPMENT AND 
 MATERIAL J 
 
 SECTION 4. THAT THE TEACHING OF THESE SUBJECTS BE CONDUCTED 
 
 AS FAR AS PRACTICABLE BY THE REGULAR TEACHERS. 
 
 We do not feel called upon to present at length arguments in 
 favor of various subjects introduced during recent years into the com- 
 mon school curriculum. The widespread tendency to make the course of 
 
 (!) "The introduction of hand work into all grades is desirable ; but we would 
 recommend that facilities for conducting this work be provided at each and every 
 school. All material required for seat work, sense training, or other educational 
 purposes, should be furnished by the board of education. The introduction of 
 new subjects or new methods should not depend upon the generosity or pecuniary 
 resources of the teacher. The hand work should be the same for boys and girls 
 
 129 
 
study fuller and richer, has been already mentioned. ( 2 ) It has resulted 
 'in the teaching of German and Latin and algebra in the higher grades; 
 of music ( 3 ) and drawing and physical culture throughout the elementary 
 schools ; in the establishment of the kindergarten as an integral part of 
 
 until they reach the seventh grade, when some differentiation may be intro- 
 duced." — Ella F. Young Club. 
 
 *'\Ye do not attempt to teach trades in our public schools any more than we 
 attempt to make lawyers or doctors ; but the knowledge obtained in the manual 
 training exercises of the general school course will prove beneficial not only to 
 mechanics but to professional men and employers. This knowledge makes a 
 bond of sympathy between employer and employe, and will do much toward clos- 
 ing the gap between labor and capital. This addition to our course of study 
 assists not only in preparing bread winners but in preparing citizens useful to 
 society and the world." — James A. Forshay, Superintendent of Schools, Los 
 Angeles, Cal. — N. E. A. Proceedings, 1897, p. 584. 
 
 "But finally, constructive work has found most favor as a moral agency. In 
 all the social elements of Chicago it has become a permanent and reliable feature. 
 And, furthermore, in the vacation schools among the poorest and most hardened 
 classes of children, it is the only means of controlling and at the same time check- 
 ing the evil instincts of criminal children. Manual constructive work is, there- 
 fore, one of the most powerful means for the developing and educating of the 
 young, and should be given immediately a large place in every elementary school. 
 And particularly should this be the case in countries where the uncounted major- 
 ity of children receive their whole training and then pass out of school into a 
 life of mechanical labor, without the slightest effort being made to develop their 
 nerves and muscles for the work they are called to perform." — Frederick Eby, 
 in Education, April, 1898. 
 
 "I claim as an important argument in manual training, that every step in 
 hand culture involves a corresponding increase in brain culture — the distinctive 
 work of the public school. In what particular respect is hand work thus helpful 
 to 'the mind? Our perceptive powers are trained by causing any sense in a 
 state of attention to be directed upon any object long enough to pass in review 
 all its parts. Manipulation of wood with a tool certainly does this for the sens" 
 of sight and touch. If the act be frequent, as it must be in hand work, the sens* 
 perception becomes familiar, and is readily recalled by the retentive faculty 
 Rapid interpretations are a natural result. Clear perceptions evidently aid 
 distinct conceptions, and the memory becomes a storehouse for the kind of facts 
 thus obtained. Again, by a course of judicious instruction in wood working, 
 there would be formed a habit of orderly progress, from one step to the next— 
 for no good carpenter proceeds haphazard ; and such a habit can be used in other 
 directions. We as teachers should like to see it applied in arithmetic, grammar 
 and indeed in all studies."— Ray Greene Huling, in Education, September, 1883. 
 
 (2) See Article V. 
 
 (3) "The tendency to make music in the school chiefly a matter of musical 
 notation with its arbitrary signs and technical difficulties, degrades the subject 
 from its proper position. The main emphasis should be given to the culture 
 of the feelings, the development of the musical sense and awakening of the 
 soul to the beauty and grandeur of harmony, in order that the moral nature 
 may be quickened and strengthened. There are plenty of other exercises that 
 appeal simply to the intellect, as mathematics, mechanical drawing, and certain 
 phases of geography and history. Music finds its truest justification in the 
 schools only as it supplies the highest aesthetic training which has been so sadly 
 lacking. It may be said, incidentally, that music is an aid to all other school 
 
 130 
 
the school system ( 4 ), and is bringing about the very general introduction 
 of manual training and domestic economy in our larger cities. This ten- 
 dency is not to be resisted. What the people need and desire will in the 
 end always determine the arrangement of the course of study. ( 5 ) The 
 teaching of German in the Chicago schools is not the result of any theoreti- 
 cal view on the part of experts as to its value in the course. It came as 
 the inevitable result of public demand, and it will remain just so long 
 as such demand continues. Apart from the fact that the teaching of 
 another language, preferably one with a grammatical structure different 
 from that of the English and with a rich literature, is justified on educa- 
 tional grounds, we have no hesitation in saying that the demand for Ger- 
 man instruction from German-born citizens is both natural and to be 
 welcomed. The resident of foreign birth who, making this country the 
 home of his adoption, is willing that his children should grow up without 
 recognition of the natural ties binding them to relatives in the old home, 
 lacks one of the elements which go to make good citizenship. . At the same 
 time, the essential purpose of the American school system is to form 
 American citizens, and all proper means should be employed to make of 
 all children in our public schools, particularly those of foreign descent, 
 men and women whose hearts are centered in our life. The plan followed 
 in some cities of affording instruction in German, for example, only in 
 particular districts, tends to concentrate German residents in these sec- 
 exercises, inasmuch as it gives pleasure and zest and produces a more social 
 atmosphere. But the principal aim, as we have intimated, should be to promote 
 rhythm, harmony, and to reach the highest spiritual nature." — 5". T. Dutton, 
 Superintendent Public Schools, Brookline, Mass. 
 
 ( 4 ) "Fitting the child to be a definite, efficient force in society is the end 
 of education by the state. This involves the training of all his powers after the 
 Froebelian notion. It also involves the cultivation of a sympathetic compre- 
 hension of the needs and conditions of society. This point has been made clear 
 by Dr. Harris, in the report of the Committee of Fifteen. The superiority of 
 the kindergarten over the ordinary primary school does not consist in the char- 
 acter of the tools used, the gifts, the occupation, the circle on the floor, but 
 of the fact that it is an institution of which the child is an integral part. He is, 
 while in the kindergarten, living a life to him as real as the life which his father 
 leads, or you or I. He is a member of a community in which all have a part, and 
 which goes through seriously the regular business, amusements and duties of 
 life, which is but a miniature of the great world, and by this actual living he 
 is fitted to be a potent factor in society. The child is entitled to a real daily life, 
 and he whose life is spent in absent contemplation of the past or in abstract 
 study of arts that men use in real life, with direct contact with that life, is 
 robbed of his right, while society is robbed of a trained citizen. This real and 
 vital connection between the processes of education and the civilization into which 
 the child is growing, is the aim of the new education." — Charles B. Gilbert, 
 Superintendent, Public Schools, Nezvark, N. J., in Education, December, 1898. 
 
 (5) See Article III. 
 
 I.3I 
 
lions, and thus becomes a distinct disadvantage alike to them and to the 
 community. ( 6 ) Such instruction, if given at all, should be offered in all 
 the schools where there is a demand, thus giving the children of foreign 
 and native descent the readiest opportunity of mingling in the same 
 schools. ( 7 ) If the experience of other cities is any criterion, the demand 
 for instruction in their own language on the part of foreign-born citizens 
 will gradually diminish, and the question of giving instruction in German 
 will be determined by educational considerations alone. ( 8 ) The steady 
 growth of the commercial spirit and the admitted need of careful training 
 for business pursuits may prove important factors in the retention of 
 German in the course of study, as well as in the introduction of Spanish. 
 In the case of Spanish, there are abundant signs throughout the country 
 that in answer to public recognition of its importance, instruction in this 
 subject will be included in some grade of the public school system at an 
 early day. 
 
 The teaching of Latin through one or two years of the elementary 
 
 1 schools has been a decided advantage, not only for those who continue the 
 
 '. study later, but for the great mass of children in the seventh and eighth 
 
 , grades who are finding in it an excellent substitute for the more formal 
 
 instruction in English grammar. 
 
 The board of education has wisely introduced nature study into the 
 elementary schools, but no adequate effort has yet been made to plan a 
 consistent course in this subject through the earlier grades. For this rea- 
 son the time given to nature study has seemed to many teachers largely 
 wasted. Yet your commission believes that with more efficient instruction, 
 such as is possible when greater emphasis is placed on this subject in the 
 normal school, and a coherent and well outlined course for the guidance 
 of teachers, nature study both in the simple form required in the first 
 grades and in the more systematic treatment of the later years of the 
 elementary school will prove of great interest and value. 
 
 (6) Cincinnati, for example, as has been pointed out by Dr. Harris, intro- 
 duced German principally in those schools located in the sections of the city 
 most largely inhabited by foreign-born residents. This method has resulted in 
 making the attendance in those schools almost exclusively of children of German 
 parentage, who are thus cut off from the advantages of association with English- 
 speaking children. 
 
 (7) The best example of this is offered in St. Louis, where German, as 
 long as it was retained in the school curriculum, was taught as here suggested. 
 
 (8) This has been the case in St. Louis, where the plan of instruction just 
 mentioned led to a rapid assimilation of the foreign element, with a natural 
 cessation of the demand for German teaching. 
 
Drawing, music( 9 ), and physical culture have been pursued for some 
 years in our Chicago schools, and these studies have justified themselves 
 in the course. Such criticism as has been made against them does not 
 invalidate them as proper subjects for elementary work, but points, rather, 
 to the necessity for reform in the method of supervision and of teach- 
 ing^ 10 ) The most important suggestions made to your commission in 
 regard to special subjects concerned the instruction in manual training 
 and domestic economy. ( n ) It has recently been reported from Germany 
 that constructive work is being taken out of the schools. But your com- 
 mission believes that it should be given at least a cordial and thorough 
 trial. Experience alone can demonstrate its success or failure, its degree 
 of usefulness or its exact place in the curriculum. The experiment is well 
 worth making. The experience of other American cities is strongly in 
 tavor of extending the school curriculum in these lines. ( 12 ) Much has 
 already been done in the elementary schools in manual training, and the 
 experiments in domestic science, made possible through private gifts, have 
 led to an appropriation by the Chicago board of education for this purpose. 
 We believe that much more attention should be given these branches, and 
 that "constructive work" should find a place in each grade of the elementary 
 school. ( 13 ) Such subjects, however, must be carefully related with the 
 
 (9) "The highest results cannot be reached, especially with children who do 
 not hear good music outside of the school, unless the instructor or other persons 
 interested provide for the occasional execution of good music in the school room. 
 This is consistent with the idea consistently stated that the development of the 
 musical sense and the ability to enjoy music is not second in importance to the 
 power to execute, considered in its general application, inasmuch as, while few 
 will attain such skill in the rendition of music, it is desirable that here in America, 
 as in Germany, all the people become lovers of music." — S. T. Button, Superin- 
 tendent of Schools, Brookline, Mass. 
 
 ( 10 ) See Article III, Section 3, and Article VIII, Section 4. 
 
 (li) "We heartily endorse all efforts for the widening of the scope of oppor- 
 tunity for self-expression on the part of the child. To this end, we advise the 
 more general introduction of constructive training in all grades. "—The George 
 Howland Club. 
 
 ( 12 ) Boston and Washington furnish full proof of this statement. 
 
 (13) "The influence of the manual training idea is felt throughout the length 
 and breadth of the United States, and is spoken of by nearly all educators as one 
 of the most important factors in future plans of education. Those who have had 
 the good fortune to keep in touch with the effect of manual training on the 
 pupil's mind will readily see the importance of this branch of training which is 
 practically the work of the kindergarten carried into the upper grade school." — 
 Frederick Newton Williams, Kindergarten Magazine, April, 1898. 
 
 "I regard the introduction of manual training into this district as an impera- 
 tive necessity. So many causes operate here to keep boys from school that the 
 attraction of manual training would count for more than in other districts. With 
 
 133 
 
other studies of the course, in the primary and grammar grades, to secure 
 an unbroken sequence from the kindergarten. Indeed, in the kindergarten 
 a training of the senses may be found which is a basis for all later instruc- 
 tion in the aesthetic and industrial arts( 14 ) ; and with the general estab- 
 lishment of kindergartens, no course of study can be considered coherent 
 and unified that does not offer a natural progress along these lines from 
 the fourth or fifth year of the child's life at least to the end of the ele- 
 mentary school. 
 
 While making these recommendations for an expansion of the school 
 curriculum, that involves a considerable increase in expense, your commis- 
 sion holds that greater care may be exercised in regard to the cost 
 of equipment and instruction. The equipment, for example, may be much 
 more simple and less expensive than has heretofore been the rule. It 
 has been demonstrated to us, for example, that adequate provision can 
 be made for work in manual training at a considerably less cost per capita 
 than at present ; similar economy can be exercised to advantage in the 
 establishment of domestic science rooms. The "constructive work" in the 
 lower grades need cost little for appliances and almost nothing for ma- 
 terial. Economy along this line, however, will not reduce the cost of these 
 branches within the scope of what the public is willing to pay, unless the 
 
 its aid, the large percentage of truancy could be reduced to a minimum and the 
 increase of criminals checked. Statistics of this district prove that the boys 
 who complete the grammar schools become self-supporting respectable citizens." 
 — A Chicago Principal. 
 
 (14) "I wish to suggest in connection with this article a general principle which 
 I think serves as a general caption for any detailed scheme covering the subjects 
 of physical, aesthetic and manual training, and it is this, that the kindergarten 
 contains the germs of all higher training in its nature study, its free play, its 
 songs, its occupation and its social atmosphere. Everything which is begun in 
 the kindergarten should be continued, its form changing according as the child 
 life merges into the maturer life of the youth, the various activities named above 
 gradually taking more serious form and becoming the studies of the elementary 
 school. This gradual shading off and change without permitting any break, 
 constitutes the great problem in modern elementary teaching. It requires on 
 the part of all teachers on the force, from the kindergarten to the high school 
 a grasp of the whole course of study and some knowledge of the several adapta- 
 tions required for the several nascent periods through which the child passes. 
 School supervision through the superintendent and his assistants only reaches 
 a professional standard when it secures for all teachers a sense of proportion 
 and perspective as regards the whole course of study, and a skillful adaptation 
 of means to end at the particular point in the child's life where the teaching is 
 given with special reference to securing spontaneity, interest and the best possible 
 endeavor." — S. T. Dutton, Superintendent of Schools, Brooklinc, Mass. 
 
 134 
 
expense of instruction be likewise diminished. For this reason, as well 
 as for the sake of the efficiency in the instruction itself, we believe that 
 these studies, as well as the aesthetic arts and physical culture should be 
 taught eventually by the regular teachers. ( 15 ) 
 
 In line with the considerations mentioned, we recommend, further : 
 
 SECTION 2. — THAT DRAWING, MUSIC AND PHYSICAL CULTURE BE CON- 
 SIDERED PROPER STUDIES FOR THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS, AND THAT 
 INSTRUCTION BE GIVEN IN THEM ACCORDING TO SUITABLE PROVISIONS ; 
 
 These studies have now a recognized place in the school course, and 
 the teaching of them is supported by those best acquainted with the needs 
 of the city( 16 ), as well as by the general sentiment of educators throughout 
 the country. ( 17 ) 
 
 SECTION 3. — (a) that constructive work of some form be gradu- 
 ally INTRODUCED INTO EACH GRADE OF EVERY ELEMENTARY 
 SCHOOL ; AND THAT BELOW THE SEVENTH GRADE THIS TAKE THE SAME 
 FORM FOR BOYS AND GIRLS; 
 
 (b) THAT IN THE SEVENTH AND EIGHTH GRADES THE WORK 
 BE DIFFERENTIATED, TAKING FOR THE PRESENT THE FORM OF WOOD 
 WORK FOR BOYS AND DOMESTIC ECONOMY FOR GIRLS; 
 
 (c) THAT FACILITIES FOR SUCH INSTRUCTION IN THE SEVENTH 
 AND EIGHTH GRADES BE PROVIDED AS RAPIDLY AS POSSIBLE, WITH DUE 
 REFERENCE TO ECONOMY IN THE MATTER BOTH OF EQUIPMENT AND 
 MATERIAL. 
 
 The introduction of "constructive work"( 18 ) into the elementary schools 
 has come to be general in city systems. The educational results aimed at 
 
 (!5) This is the rule in Washington, where these special studies are thor- 
 oughly taught by the regular teachers, a plan which effects a great saving in the 
 cost of instruction. 
 
 (16) "We believe that drawing, music and physical culture are essential modes 
 of expression and development ; that each should be retained on the school pro- 
 gramme and properly correlated with all other subjects and processes of educa- 
 tion." — The George Rowland Club. 
 
 ( 17 ) "In the first place, there is industrial and aesthetic drawing, which should 
 have a place in all elementary school work. By it is secured the training of 
 the hand and eye. Then, too, drawing helps in all the other branches that 
 require illustration. Moreover, if used in the study in the great work of art in 
 the way hereinbefore mentioned, it helps to cultivate the taste and prepare the 
 future workman for a more useful and lucrative career, inasmuch as superior 
 taste commands higher wages in the finishing of all goods." — Committee of 
 Fifteen, p. 51. 
 
 (!8) "A large number of educators still continue to regard every form of 
 manual training as a mere concession to "bread and butter" education. But 
 
 135 
 
in this form of instruction are the same for boys and for girls, and in the 
 iower grades at least, there is no reason for differentiating the two. After 
 the sixth year a division may naturally occur, with the assignment of wood 
 work for boys and domestic economy, including housework, cooking and 
 sewing for girls. ( 19 ) This division, however, is not absolute( 20 ), for much 
 
 while manual constructive work may contribute quite largely to utilitarianism, 
 it has a far more important value for the physical and mental progress of the 
 child. In its three phases of wood work, mechanical drawing, and clay modeling, 
 it reacts most beneficially on the physical hygiene of the pupils. It furnishes exer- 
 cise and recreation. The free play of muscles in sawing, the swinging of the 
 arms in hammering and planing gives to every child a vigorous and bounding 
 physique, and develops arms, limbs, chest and brain. But the physical benefits 
 do not outweigh in the least the worth of manual and constructive work as a 
 mental and moral tonic. Nothing can give the eye a better training in accurate 
 judgment or in the sense of beauty and fitness. It trains the child to discriminate 
 sharply, and to observe accurately, to judge rightly and to make comparisons with 
 precision." — Frederick Eby, in Education, April,. 1898. 
 
 "In my judgment, manual training should not be limited to the seventh and 
 eighth grades, but should begin in the kindergarten with the simple study of 
 form from objects and the reproduction in paper of the objects presented, and 
 should extend in a series of carefully graded lessons through all the grades, 
 leaving, however, the heavier tools, such as the plane, for the seventh and eighth 
 grades. By these means, an interest is kept up in the various human industries, 
 sympathy for all labor is created, and a certain degree of skill is developed ; more- 
 over, the interest of the pupils in their school is greatly enhanced. Manual train- 
 ing has often proved the magnet by which the boys at the restless age have been 
 kept in school instead of leaving for some gainful occupation." — Charles B. Gil- 
 bert, Superintendent of Schools, Newark, N. J. 
 
 "I favor the more general introduction of manual training into the schools. 
 In my judgment, the chief justification for the establishment and maintenance 
 of manual training in the schools lies in the admitted fact that it is a most potent 
 factor in intellectual development. If this judgment be correct, then other con- 
 siderations admitting the same, the scope of the manual training should be greatly 
 extended, embracing both grammar and primary classes." — A Chicago Superin- 
 tendent. 
 
 "I need not dwell upon the patent fact that the great majority of boys in 
 public schools have left school by the time they are thirteen years old. From 
 the best information that I can get, I infer that no more than one out of six of 
 the St. Louis boys between the ages of fourteen and eighteen is at school any- 
 where. Manual training would keep many of these boys at school." — A. F. Mitn- 
 son, in American School Board Journal, February, 1898. 
 
 (!9) "I am most heartily in favor of introducing manual training into every 
 school, at the earliest possible time, and into every grade, adapting the work to 
 the conditions and needs of the children — wood work for all boys, making it 
 optional for the girls; cooking and sewing for the girls." — A Chicago Principal. 
 
 "Manual training gives the child a chance to know himself. The more numer- 
 ous and various the ways the child tests himself during the period of his elemen- 
 tary education, the more likely he is to know in which field he can best serve 
 his generation. The choice of an occupation, the definite means for a common 
 service, too often rests upon chance. The average boy or girl looking for work, 
 
 136 
 
of the work in these subjects, more particularly in their connection with 
 other studies, should be opened to both sexes. The theoretic instruction 
 in cooking, for example, in so far as it relates to the chemistry of food, 
 should be given to both sexes, although only girls may follow up this in- 
 struction in its practical application. 
 
 SECTION 4. THAT THE TEACHING OF THESE SUBJECTS BE CONDUCTED 
 
 AS FAR AS PRACTICABLE BY THE REGULAR TEACHERS. 
 
 The teachers in the Chicago schools are not trained at present to give 
 instruction in the special subjects of the course. Your commission believes 
 that the board of education should offer opportunity in the normal school 
 for adequate training in preparation for any position in the kindergartens 
 and the elementary schools. If the additional manual training high schools 
 which we have recommended are opened for both sexes, and if a proper 
 two years' course is established for the normal school, the recommendation 
 of this section can be easily carried into effect. The suggestion has been 
 
 takes what comes first and bids fair to offer a living, the tendency being among 
 thinking people, where election is possible, to choose occupations not likely to 
 interfere with white hands. The case of round pegs in square holes are innumer- 
 able." — Charles B. Gilbert, in Education, December, 1898. 
 
 "We suggest that a continuous manual training be introduced in all the grades 
 of the public schools from the first to the eighth inclusive, and that cooking and 
 sewing be included in such training." — Every Day Club, Chicago. 
 
 (20) "The association is convinced that the habits of accuracy, industry, con- 
 sideration, energy and truthfulness, as well as the general usefulness and dis- 
 cipline, which result from this method of training, are needed fully as much 
 by girls as by boys. The fact that women are called to deal with material for 
 food and clothing which permit of inaccuracy and carelessness in their use makes 
 all the more necessary an early training in handling materials, such as wood, 
 which demand precision and exactness. The association believes that the educa- 
 tional methods of the schools of Chicago are fortunately tending to do away 
 with the old time pedagogical error of separating knowing from doing. The 
 dissatisfaction with the public school system which still exists to some extent, 
 can be removed only by methods which bring the facts used as the basis for intel- 
 lectual training into close correlation with the present and future activities of 
 the child. Methods of teaching cooking, sewing and other household arts have 
 been developed of recent years, so that these subjects have true educational 
 value, and are now, in the opinion of the association, worthy of a place in the 
 public school curriculum. The experience of some foreign countries and still 
 more notably of some American cities, seem to justify the hope that the city of 
 Chicago will soon take steps forward in this direction." — The Chicago Association 
 of Collegiate Alumnae. 
 
 V37 
 
already made that the supervision of each of these special studies in the 
 normal, high, and elementary schools, be under the charge of one re- 
 sponsible director. ( 21 ) 
 
 (21) See Article III, Section 3. 
 
 "To insure the success of any subject, one supervisor should have charge of 
 it from the kindergarten through the twelfth grade. Music and drawing will 
 more surely keep out of the realm of "fads" when they are unified along the 
 lines indicated." — Ella F. Young Club, Chicago. 
 
 1.38 
 
Krsfornt 
 (JTommtssionerg 
 
 ARTICLE IX 
 
 Your Commission respectfully recommends ( x ) : 
 
 SECTION I. THAT FOR THE PURPOSES OF SCHOOL INSPECTION, THE 
 
 BOARD OF EDUCATION DIVIDE THE* CITY INTO SPECIAL INSPECTION DIS- 
 TRICTS, EACH TO INCLUDE NOT MORE THAN TEN SCHOOLS ; 
 
 SECTION 2. — THAT THE MAYOR, AFTER THIS POWER IS GIVEN HIM, AP- 
 POINT FOR EACH INSPECTION DISTRICT FROM AMONG THE RESIDENTS OF 
 THE DISTRICT, A COMMITTEE OF SIX RESIDENT COMMISSIONERS, THE 
 MEMBERS OF THIS COMMITTEE TO SERVE WITHOUT COMPENSATION, 
 EACH FOR A TERM OF THREE YEARS ; TWO TO BE APPOINTED EACH YEAR ; 
 
 SECTION 3. THAT THE RESIDENT COMMISSIONERS BE AUTHORIZED AND 
 
 DIRECTED TO VISIT EACH SCHOOL OF THE GIVEN DISTRICT, TO OBSERVE 
 IN DETAIL THE WORK OF EACH SCHOOL, THE DISCIPLINE, THE SANITARY 
 AND OTHER ARRANGEMENTS OF THE BUILDING, AND TO MAKE REPORT 
 AS A COMMITTEE DIRECT TO THE BOARD OF EDUCATION ; 
 
 SECTION 4. — THAT AN INSPECTOR, SIMILAR TO THOSE RECOMMENDED IN 
 ARTICLE III, BE APPOINTED BY THE BOARD OF EDUCATION AS OCCASION 
 MAY REQUIRE, TO INVESTIGATE AND REPORT UPON THE RECOMMENDA- 
 TIONS OF THE COMMITTEES OF RESIDENT COMMISSIONERS. 
 
 There is a marked tendency in American cities to make the school sys- 
 tem more and more a matter of expert control. This tendency, your 
 commission in its recommendations has recognized as the logical outcome 
 of experience, and we believe that no other principle is so general in its 
 application to school affairs. The difference between the New England 
 town, with a school trustee supervising each teacher in its employ, and 
 the city of Cleveland with one superintendent, who has practically absolute 
 
 (i) "I commend this article to the favorable consideration of the board. 
 Besides the direct advantages to be derived by committee visitation and reports 
 upon the observed conditions of the schools, the plan will, if adopted, without 
 question serve to popularize the schools, and to bring them in closer touch with 
 the people."— D. R. Cameron, Ex-President Chicago Board of Education. 
 
 139 
 
power in educational affairs, measures the extreme growth of this idea. 
 It is not, however, to be accepted without safeguards from the people. 
 When larger powers are placed in the hands of a superintendent, whose 
 judgment is modified only by his assistants, and these in turn have been 
 imbued in a great measure with his own ideas of instruction and manage- 
 ment, there is distinct danger that the schools will fail to respond fairly to 
 the ideas of the people. Tf the system of public instruction is not readily 
 affected by public opinion, a feeling of dissatisfaction naturally arises that 
 may lead to radical changes through the appointment of new members to 
 the board of education, and such changes, it is safe to say, are in general 
 prejudicial to the interest of public education. 
 
 The administration of school affairs is only part of the larger question 
 of government, in which we find by no means so universal a recognition 
 of the principle of expert control. To mention one illustration : The 
 whole administrative system of the Prussian government was formerly 
 based on this idea, which experience showed did not secure the desired 
 result. As long as it was in vogue, the system of administration was over- 
 conservative, rigid, and not adapted to the changing needs of the people. 
 With the introduction of the lay element came rapid improvement of 
 Prussian methods. Similar cases can be found in educational history. 
 The English universities of Oxford and Cambridge, as long as they were 
 governed entirely by their own corporate bodies, were unprogressive, and 
 the administration was so full of abuses that it became necessary for a 
 .- government commission to intervene. It is safe to say that any educational^ 
 \ system controlled wholly by the teaching force will be too conservative. | 
 The larger questions of educational policy must be left to the whole com- 
 \ munity from which representatives should be chosen to consider questions 
 • of public instruction and make recommendations to the proper authorities. 
 _The need of such representatives has been widely recognized. The city 
 of Berlin, for example, has to-day popular committees aggregating a very 
 large membership to look after the educational interests of special dis- 
 tricts. Similar committees are established in other continental cities. The 
 appointment of school visitors to perform a similar function ( 2 ), was pro- 
 posed in Boston and the new charter of New York has authorized the 
 selection of a number of citizens to act in this capacity for the different 
 
 ( 2 ) "Said school visitors shall serve without pay; shall visit the schools 
 whenever they deem proper and study the proceedings therein, and shall, in 
 the whole or by districts, meet from time to time as they deem proper, or on 
 the call of the superintendent; and may from time to time make such reports 
 and recommendations to the school committee as said citizens may deem 
 proper." — Proposed Boston School Law, 1S0S. Sections 2 and 4. 
 
 140 
 
sections of the city.! 3 ) The importance of this lay element in the educa- 
 tional system has strongly impressed itself on your commission. It will 
 stimulate popular interest, do away largely with the danger of public in- 
 difference toward the administration of the schools, and will supply an 
 adequate substitute for general representation on a large board of educa- 
 tion. We accordingly recommend : 
 
 SECTION I. THAT FOR THE PURPOSES OF SCHOOL INSPECTION, THE 
 
 PjOARD OF EDUCATION DIVIDE THE CITY INTO SPECIAL INSPECTION DIS- 
 TRICTS, EACH TO INCLUDE NOT MORE THAN TEN SCHOOLS J 
 
 The board of education, on the suggestion of the superintendent, should 
 have the power to divide the city into districts suitable for this purpose. 
 Each school district as at present organized will include probably about 
 three of these inspection districts. Not more than ten schools at the most 
 
 ( 3 ) "Section 1,097. A school board in its discretion may divide the borough 
 or boroughs under its charge into as many school inspection districts as it may 
 deem necessary, which districts must be contiguous and as near as may be 
 of equal population ; and at once upon the making of such districts it shall file 
 maps of the same duly authenticated by the chairman of the school board, in 
 the office of the mayor of the city of New York. School inspection districts 
 existing in any of the boroughs at the time this act takes effect shall continue 
 as such until changed by the provisions of this section ; and all inspectors of 
 common schools who have been duly appointed to serve therein shall serve out 
 the terms for which they were respectively appointed and their successors 
 shall be appointed by the mayor as their terms respectively expire, for the like 
 period of five years. If any school board, pursuant to the powers conferred 
 upon it by this chapter shall have divided or re-divided its territory into school 
 districts, then the mayor shall, within sixty days thereafter, appoint in and 
 for each of the school inspection districts of the boroughs so divided, five 
 inspectors of common schools, to hold office respectively as may be designated 
 in their letters of appointment, for one, two, three, four and five years from 
 the first day of October next following their appointments. Upon the expira- 
 tion of their respective terms the mayor shall appoint their successors for the 
 full term of five years. Subject to the conditions of contiguity and equality of 
 population as hereinbefore prescribed, each school board shall have power every 
 five years, if it shall have once divided its territory into inspection districts, 
 again to divide it into such districts and to make changes in existing districts, or 
 in their number; and if such number of districts be increased, the mayor shall 
 forthwith appoint, in the same manner and with like effect as herein provided, as 
 many additional inspectors of common schools as may be necessary to afford five 
 inspectors in each district. Such additional inspectors shall be subject to the same 
 bylaws and regulations as govern the other inspectors in the same borough, and 
 shall perform the same duties. All inspectors of common schools shah serve 
 without pay. and shall be residents of the district in and for which they arc 
 appointed. Any vacancy in the office of common schools caused by death, resig- 
 nation or otherwise, shall be filled by the mayor for the unexpired term. The 
 inspectors appointed for the respective districts in any borough shall organize 
 in every year on the second Monday of October, by the election of two of 
 their members as chairman and secretary, respectively; and they shall meet 
 as often as may be necessary for the efficient performance of the duties imposed 
 upon them." — New York Charter. 
 
can be put with advantage under the charge of each committee, since these 
 bodies should represent the local sentiment under particular conditions, 
 and if more than ten schools were included, the conditions would vary too 
 greatly within one district for the recommendations to prove directly and 
 specifically useful. 
 
 SECTION 2. THAT THE MAYOR, AFTER THIS POWER IS GIVEN HIM, AP- 
 POINT FOR EACH INSPECTION DISTRICT FROM AMONG THE RESIDENTS OF 
 THE DISTRICT, A COMMITTEE OF SIX RESIDENT COMMISSIONERS, 
 THE MEMBERS OF THIS COMMITTEE TO SERVE WITHOUT COMPENSA- 
 TION, EACH FOR A TERM OF THREE YEARS ; TWO TO BE APPOINTED EACH 
 YEAR ; 
 
 Theoretically it might seem best that these committees be selected by 
 the residents of the particular district. This might make them more truly 
 representative of local needs and opinions. There are, however, obvious 
 difficulties in the way of such a plan, and your commission considers that 
 the interests of the community will be well served, if the appointment of 
 these committees rests with the mayor. The membership of the committees 
 can be indicated with sufficient definiteness after a consideration of their 
 duties. If the committees were large they might fail of concerted action 
 in their recommendations, or include persons who have not time or inclina- 
 tion to fulfill the functions assigned to them. Moreover, the number should 
 be limited so as to prevent the assignment of the supervision of any school 
 to a particular member of the committee, since this might lead to a rivalry 
 of individual members in securing concessions or favors for the schools 
 assigned them. The term of office should be long enough to enable the 
 committee to become intimately acquainted with the district. 
 
 SECTION 3. THAT THE RESIDENT COMMISSIONERS BE AUTHORIZED AND 
 
 DIRECTED TO VISIT EACH SCHOOL OF THE GIVEN DISTRICT, TO OBSERVE 
 IN DETAIL THE WORK OF EACH SCHOOL, THE DISCIPLINE, THE SANITARY 
 AND OTHER ARRANGEMENTS OF THE BUILDING, AND TO MAKE REPORTS 
 AS A COMMITTEE DIRECT TO THE BOARD OF EDUCATION \ 
 
 The duties of these committees should be to examine the schools and 
 to make recommendations. To avoid, as far as possible, trivial or personal 
 recommendations, the suggestions in regard to the schools of each district 
 should come to the board of education from the committee as a whole. ( 4 ) 
 
 (i) "Section 1.098. The duties of the inspectors of common schools are 
 stated and fixed to be as follows: In their respective districts they shall visit 
 and inspect at least once in every quarter, all the schools in the district, in respect 
 
SECTION 4. THAT AN INSPECTOR, SIMILAR TO THOSE RECOMMENDED IN 
 
 ARTICLE III, BE APPOINTED BY THE BOARD OF EDUCATION AS OCCASION 
 MAY REQUIRE, TO INVESTIGATE AND REPORT UPON THE RECOMMENDA- 
 TIONS OF THE COMMITTEES OF RESIDENT COMMISSIONERS. ( B ) 
 
 Granted that the force of superintendents authorized by the board is 
 adequate to carry out the policy of the superintendent of instruction, your 
 commission believes that the recommendations of the school visitors should 
 be reviewed when necessary by a separate official. In so far as these direct 
 representatives of the people have no occasion to report minor failures in 
 administrative details, the suggestions they make will be in the form of 
 general criticisms on the educational policy of the city as applied to their 
 particular districts, and these, we believe, should be submitted to an im- 
 partial expert. 
 
 to punctual and regular attendance of the pupils and teachers, the number and 
 fidelity of the teachers, the studies, progress, order and discipline of the pupils ; 
 the cleanliness, safety, warmness, ventilation and comfort of school premises ; 
 and whether or not the provisions of the school laws in respect to the teaching 
 of sectarian doctrines or the use of sectarian books have been violated, and shall 
 call the attention of the board of education, or of the proper school board of the 
 borough, as the case may be, without delay, to every matter requiring official 
 action. Every board of inspectors shall, on or before the first day of January. 
 April, July and October of each year, make a written report to the proper school 
 board in respect to the condition of the schools, the efficiency of teachers, and 
 wants of the district, especially in regard to schools and school premises." — New 
 York Charter. 
 
 (5) "I think, also, that the suggestion that 'an inspector as may be needed, 
 be appointed by the board of education to investigate and to report upon the 
 recommendations of each committee of school visitors,' is an admirable one. 
 It is evidently vitally important that the public schools shall be kept in touch with 
 the public and that they should command both public interest and public con- 
 fidence. The scheme of school visitors as ordinarily applied, is good as far as 
 it goes. I think your suggestion of a special inspector, to follow up their reports, 
 promises to give to the system just the element that it needs to make it a valuable 
 factor in the work of the schools."— Seth Low, President Columbia University. 
 
 143 
 
Ctttzijoofcs 
 
 ARTICLE X 
 
 Your Commission respectfully recommends in regard to the text-books 
 of the public schools : 
 
 That the superintendent of schools, under the present rules, be 
 directed to consider carefully the text-books in use in the 
 city, with the view of reducing the number of the required 
 books, and of giving, at the same time, the teacher more lib- 
 erty of choice within the limitations of the course of study. 
 
 We have already expressed our belief that the choice of text-books 
 for use in the public schools rests naturally with the superintendent. Ex- 
 perience in many cities has shown that just in proportion as the board of 
 education undertakes this detail of school administration, difficulties arise 
 which impair the efficiency of the system. No board of education is com- 
 petent to choose the text-books best adapted for school use. The problem 
 is distinctly one for expert decision, and should be left to the superintendent. 
 His recommendation, made after due consultation with his assistants, 
 should be followed in all cases. What is true of text-books is also true of 
 other equipment, such as reference libraries, maps, and general school 
 supplies. Such a rule as has been proposed ( x ), would be welcomed, we 
 believe, by the members of the board themselves, for it would free them 
 from much annoying pressure on the part of representatives of various 
 publishing interests. No one can follow the history of the Chicago board 
 in the matter of text-books and school supplies without being impressed 
 with the serious waste of time involved in the present method of selection. 
 it has led, at the best, to much fruitless consideration of these questions by 
 members of the board, and at the worst, to an effort to exert undue influence 
 on their decision. ( 2 ) The change recommended should be favorably re- 
 
 (i) Sec Article III, Section i c. 
 
 ( 2 ) "As to text-books a great many members of my school committees have 
 always voted conscientiously. Of books whose sale is not large — high school 
 books, reference books, supplementary reading — the selections have usually been 
 
 144 
 
garded also by publishing houses, as it would gradually diminish the effort 
 necessary to present fairly the claims of their respective books, and would 
 lead to a more just and impartial choice between them. 
 
 If these considerations hold true, we may reasonably conclude that 
 under the plan hitherto followed, minor abuses have arisen. Your com- 
 mission believes that in some instances, text-books and various kinds of 
 school equipment have been adopted which are not needed, or were not 
 carefully chosen, or for which, under a progressive course of study there 
 is no longer any necessity. ( 3 ) If it is a difficult matter at present to secure 
 the adoption of particular text-books, it is almost equally difficult to have 
 them dropped from the list. To secure freedom for the superintendent 
 in the choice of text-books, we believe that in school legislation this function 
 should be assigned clearly and fully to him. A general disposition on the 
 part of the members to follow his advice, and even a formal ruling of the 
 board of education to this effect, is not a sufficient guarantee, since in either 
 case the board will be free, under a suspension of the rules or otherwise, to 
 act contrary to the superintendent's recommendations. Pending final 
 
 made on the recommendation of myself and the teachers who are to use the 
 books. The case is entirely different with books whose sale is large and profit- 
 able, such as readers, arithmetics, geographies, grammars, copy-books, and spell- 
 ing-books. The rival publishers' agents divide the committee into two or three 
 hostile camps, and arouse an anxiety on the part of many of the school committee 
 for the success of their side only less intense than the agents themselves feel. 
 
 "I have learned to keep out of book fights. I hasten to profess neutrality and 
 to maintain a dignified reserve on the question, even to the extent of displeasing 
 my friends who really desire my advice as to which is the best book. Doubtless 
 this confession will read to some like the words of a coward. But why should a 
 superintendent ruin his chances of success in things more vital to the schools 
 than the use of this or that arithmetic? 
 
 "I am on good terms with book agents. I find them always genial and well 
 informed. It is a pleasure to chat with them, but it will not do to make them any 
 promises. 
 
 "The larger book houses employ two kinds of agents : the skirmishers and the 
 beaters-up of the bush, and the men who do the heavy work when the crisis comes. 
 The latter usually keep away from me. If they meet me, they hasten to say 
 that 'they respect my position, and will be careful not to involve me.' 
 
 "Much has been said about corruption in the relations between publishing- 
 houses and school boards. My observation has been that it all depends on the 
 moral character of the board. Publishers will not resort to means lower than 
 is absolutely necessary to obtain trade, and I have known some to refuse to 
 have anything to do with book contests because of the dishonesty of the text-book 
 committee. The agents of most of our publishing houses are college-bred men, 
 high-minded, and are willing to put their business on as high a plane as school 
 boards will permit them. In short, where school boards are pure, the text- book 
 business is honorably conducted."— Confessions of Three Superintendents in 
 Atlantic Monthly, November, 1898. 
 
 (3) "Since our best opportunities for permitting the child to express himself 
 with brush, crayon, pencil and pen do not come when he is required to use a book, 
 we would suggest that drawing books and writing books be discarded."— Ella F. 
 Young Club. 
 
 145 
 
legislative action, which will give this power to the superintendent, we 
 believe that much can be accomplished if the board of education will support 
 a vigorous educational policy in this particular. The superintendent should 
 be entirely free in the choice of text-books, except that his action should be 
 subject to revision by a two-thirds vote of the board. Either under this 
 provision or under the present rule requiring the sanction of a majority of 
 the board for the adoption of text-books he should be directed to revise the 
 present list of text-books. 
 
 He will find, we believe, that more text-books are now required than are 
 necessary for school purposes, a condition which imposes improper expense 
 en the public. Furthermore, the rigid requirement of certain text-books 
 for all grades unduly hampers the individual teacher, who has the definite 
 problem of accomplishing certain educational results with a given number 
 of pupils during a given period. In so far as the teacher lacks ability or is 
 deficient in preparation for his work, close adherence to a good text-book 
 may be necessary. Our Chicago teachers have, however, furnished no 
 better proof of increasing efficiency than by manifesting their desire to be 
 in a measure freed from such restrictions and to be allowed more liberty 
 in working out in each case the specific problem of the particular grade and 
 school. Your commission is not prepared to recommend an open text- 
 book list, but we hold that, considering the great difference between schools 
 in various sections of the city, and the different individuality of the teachers, 
 much more latitude in this regard should be granted principals and teachers 
 than is now the rule. 
 
 MG 
 
iT1)c iSbrning ~rf)ools ant) 
 a jFrrr ?lrrturr *PStnn 
 
 ARTICLE XI 
 
 Your Commission respectfully recommends in regard to evening 
 schools and free lectures^ 1 ) 
 
 (i) THAT THE BOARD OF EDUCATION APPOINT A SPECIAL COMMITTEE 
 TO CONSIDER THE PROBLEMS CONNECTED WITH EVENING SCHOOLS ( 2 ) 
 AND OTHER SUPPLEMENTARY EDUCATIONAL AGENCIES. 
 
 (2) THAT THE BOARD OF EDUCATION APPROPRIATE FOR THE COMING 
 SCHOOL YEAR A SUM NOT TO EXCEED $10,000, TO BE EXPENDED FOR FREE 
 EVENING LECTURES, ACCORDING TO THE SYSTEM SO SUCCESSFULLY 
 INTRODUCED BY THE BOARD OF EDUCATION OF THE CITY OF NEW YORK. 
 
 (3) THAT AN ASSISTANT SUPERINTENDENT BE PLACED IN CHARGE 
 OF THE FREE LECTURE SYSTEM, OF EVENING SCHOOLS, AND OF VACATION 
 SCHOOLS. 
 
 We recognize that evening schools as they are at present organized 
 in Chicago are fulfilling a valuable function, but we believe that much 
 greater results can be accomplished in these schools if the board of educa- 
 tion will endeavor to determine what the community requires beyond the 
 opportunities now afforded in the day schools. 
 
 The evening school has come to be recognized as a legitimate, permanent 
 and necessary part of our public school system. It has been adopted in one 
 form or another in all American cities and in all foreign cities, where the 
 
 C 1 ) See Appendix D. 
 
 (2) "With proper provisions for accommodations and supplies, competent 
 teachers and good management, there is no doubt that evening schools will take 
 rank with day schools, and can be made a credit to every community. In the 
 face of the annual influx by immigration, further and more pertinent provisions 
 by law are necessary to convert the great mass of foreign-born illiterate persons 
 into intelligent and industrious citizens." — Report Massachusetts State Board of 
 Education, 1883. 
 
 "Of evening high schools there appears but one sentiment ; wherever properly 
 maintained they have justified the most liberal expenditure. In New York, Bos- 
 ton, Cincinnati, Brooklyn, and other cities, the reports show an increased public 
 interest, which, to a great degree, is the true criterion of the good or ill manage- 
 ment of this class of work. The curriculum of the New York Evening High 
 School, while co-extensive with that of the high schools of the state, has success- 
 
community has recognized education to be a public function. A general 
 agreement has not been reached among school authorities as to the exact 
 scope of these schools, but a careful consideration of the purpose and needs 
 of our public educational system, reveals certain principles that must under- 
 lie a satisfactory policy on this question. 
 
 Our American communities have undertaken to provide facilities for 
 elementary and secondary education for the use of the entire community. 
 By our compulsory school legislation we admit the right of the community 
 to insist that these facilities shall be utilized by the parents in our society, 
 at least to the extent of sending their children to school between the years 
 of six and fourteen. It seems plain, therefore, that no organization of 
 evening schools should be adopted which offers a premium to these parents 
 to keep their children out of school during the day time, hoping to comply 
 with the letter of the law by sending them to evening schools. Yet under 
 present conditions, many parents need the small earnings of the children 
 who have become twelve and thirteen years of age, to enable the family 
 to exist at all, and in these exceptional cases, facilities should be offered in 
 our night schools for such children to get the modicum of education which 
 can be obtained between the years of six and fourteen. In such a com- 
 munity as Chicago, moreover, a large portion of the population has brought 
 
 fully maintained advanced courses in collegiate work." — Thos. W. Bicknell, N. 
 E. A. Proceedings, 1884, p. 67. 
 
 "The object of public school education being to secure a fair degree of intel- 
 ligence in all members of the community, the evening schools are designed to 
 supplement the day schools — to clear up and rake after them — by giving the op- 
 portunity for children, who have been obliged to leave school before they have 
 acquired knowledge to study profitably by themselves, to receive instruction suf- 
 ficient to enable them to use the public library to advantage, read the magazines 
 and other periodicals, with intelligence, to study the various works, not so 
 numerous, by which science is made easy and brought within the intelligence of 
 the ordinary reader, and thus to become self-taught." — Albert P. Marble, N. E. 
 A. Proceedings, 1887, p. 188. 
 
 "This brings me to the consideration of the importance of establishing free 
 evening schools in all our large towns and cities, as a means to check or modify 
 adult illiteracy, and also the equal importance of establishing free industrial even- 
 ing drawing schools in all our manufacturing cities for the benefit of their un- 
 skilled mechanics and citizens. It is possible some may argue that these people 
 would never enter the schools, giving as a reason, that they would be ashamed 
 to acknowledge their ignorance, and therefore, their establishment would prove 
 a useless and expensive experiment. But from personal knowledge and expe- 
 rience, I am persuaded that such would not be the case. In the evening classes 
 which are held in some of the schools in Boston may be found hundreds of men 
 and women who. under a corps of efficient teachers, are instructed in those 
 branches of education which bear more directly upon the business in which they 
 are engaged during the day. Or, if the pupils require it, they can have an ele- 
 mentary general education. During the winter months some of these schools 
 are opened five evenings each week, from half-past seven to half-past nine, the 
 term lasting for a period of five months." — George H. Bartlctt, N, E. A. Pro- 
 ceedings, 1888, p. 608. 
 
 148 
 
its children into the city without this elementary education, which we have 
 come to regard as the essential minimum. For these children, also, facili- 
 ties for obtaining the elements of education should be offered. We may 
 assume, so far that our system of night schools ought to supply the instruc- 
 tion needed by the above described classes of children. 
 
 Another aspect of the matter would seem equally clear ; it is a duty of 
 the community, which undertakes to offer free schooling beyond the ele- 
 ments to all the children in the community whose parents are so situated 
 that they can afford to send their children to the day schools for one, two, 
 three, or four years beyond the elementary grade, to provide these facilities 
 also for those children who are not able to avail themselves of the day 
 schools. In other words, the fact that a parent is not able to send his boy 
 of fifteen or sixteen to the day schools ought not to deprive him of the 
 advantage of secondary education, which at the cost of the whole com- 
 munity is offered to his more favored associates. Our system of night 
 schools should afford secondary instruction as far as possible to all who 
 desire it. This means that we must duplicate practically our entire free 
 school system in a series of evening schools for the benefit of those children 
 who are not able to attend the day schools. The evening high school, with 
 a free course of study, is just as much a legitimate and necessary part of 
 our scheme of education as the day high school. This principle is recog- 
 nized in all other countries which have accepted education as a public 
 function. Thus in Germany, in Austria, in Italy, in France, and of late 
 in England, the so-called "supplementary" or "further progress" or "con- 
 tinuation" schools, illustrate this attempt to duplicate in the evening the 
 facilities of the secondary day schools. 
 
 To accomplish in the evening schools the purpose thus outlined, the 
 whole system as at present organized needs revision. The board of educa- 
 tion has recently taken a wise step in its rule that no day teachers should be 
 employed in the evening schools except under special circumstances. Your 
 commission feels assured that if the board of education will undertake a 
 thorough-going investigation, it will discover the need of other changes 
 — in respect to the proportion of teachers to pupils, in regard to salaries, 
 and more particularly in regard to the course of study. The problem is 
 a difficult one, and we believe that it will not be satisfactorily solved until 
 an additional assistant superintendent is employed for evening schools. As 
 the conditions of the vacation schools are in many respects similar to those 
 of the evening school, one man might, with economy, be put in charge 
 of both, and also of the free lecture system recommended below. 
 
 The full function and purpose of the evening school has not yet been 
 
 149 
 
described. It should not attempt merely to duplicate the facilities of the 
 day schools, but it should to some degree bring to the adult population of 
 the community who, for one reason or another may have been compelled to 
 leave school at an early age, an opportunity to secure the kind of mental 
 training and mental food that will do for them at their more advanced age 
 what the facilities of our secondary schools have done for their more 
 fortunate juniors. This calls for a different kind of instruction from a 
 mere repetition of the day school studies. Probably the best education for 
 a child of fourteen, fifteen, or sixteen, is training in the elements of algebra, 
 geometry, Latin, French, German, etc. It is, however, bad pedagogy to 
 advise the young man of twenty-five who desires to make up for his lack 
 of general education, due to a deficient elementary and secondary education 
 in his youth, to go back and perform the work that would have been of 
 the most advantage to him at the age of fourteen or fifteen. He needs a 
 new kind of training a new kind of education, which may be obtained from 
 lectures upon the various branches of literature, art, science, given by 
 men expert in knowledge and expert in power of expression and presenta- 
 tion. In other words, a comprehensive and well rounded system of edu- 
 cational public lecture courses, offered free of charge in the public school 
 buildings of our great cities, is one of the desirable, indeed one of the neces- 
 sary means of adult education, which it is for the higher interest of the 
 community to furnish, if necessary at public expense. ( 3 ) 
 
 The need of this educational force has been felt in many communities, 
 and an attempt has been made in a few to satisfy it. Your commission 
 
 (3) "We complain sometimes in this country that the foreigners who come to 
 us are not acquainted with our institutions ; that they do not understand the spirit 
 and practice of our government; that they remain to a certain extent alien to 
 the life and spirit of our nation. What have we as a nation done to assist these 
 foreigners in obtaining the necessary information? What have we as a nation 
 done toward interesting them in the higher side of our civilization, and to put into 
 their hands the necessary key to an understanding for our ideas, of our ideals? We 
 complain that the average man and woman in our midst is careless about higher 
 things; does not respond quickly to the best and highest appeal. What have 
 we as a nation done to help the average man after he has passed from the period of 
 infancy into that of youth, to say nothing of after he has passed from youth to 
 manhood, to bring these new stimuli, these new ideals into his life? 
 
 "A system of post-school adult education involved in a comprehensive, well- 
 rounded plan of public lectures upon science, art, literature, travel, offers one 
 of the efficient means to these highly desirable ends. Here, again, we have in 
 our public school plant the means of carrying out these purposes in a simple and 
 inexpensive manner. Our public school buildings are notoriously, from an econ- 
 omic point of view, an underworked and underutilized investment of capital. 
 They are used for seven hours a day for ten months in the year. They should 
 { 150 
 
would respectfully call the attention of the board of education to what has 
 been accomplished in this way in New York city.( 4 ) We believe that the 
 experience not only of New York, but also of a large number of European 
 cities, indicates that much good could be accomplished in our city by a 
 similar plan. The results secured during the past winter in the free lec- 
 tures offered by a newspaper of this city, as well as those furnished by the 
 University of Chicago, in co-operation with the board of education, 
 strengthen this view.( 5 ) We heartily recommend, therefore, that the 
 board of education make an appropriation of the sum indicated for experi- 
 mental work in this line during the coming school year. 
 
 become the centers of the educational life of the community, infant and adult, 
 in a sense far different from that which has been true up to the present time." — 
 Edmond J. James, University of Chicago. 
 
 (4) The most successful and brilliant attempt of this kind up to the present 
 is to be found in the city of New York. Within the last ten years the school 
 board of the city has developed a free lecture system in connection with the pub- 
 lic schools which is one of the marvels of modern education. The first series 
 of these lectures was delivered in 1889, with a total attendance of 22,149 persons, 
 and with a total number of lectures of 186. The system has grown by unequal 
 strides until during the last year, 1,866 lectures and a total attendance of nearly 
 700,000 people was the result. The increase in the number of lectures during the 
 last eight years has been about tenfold. The total number of lectures delivered 
 is 5,154 ; the total attendance 2,290,495. This is a marvelous history, which shows 
 the eager thirst of the people for entertainment and instruction of a high class if it 
 can only be brought within their reach." 
 
 (5) The Chicago Record, during the winter of 1897-8, arranged seventy free 
 lectures, of which thirty-eight were illustrated. These were delivered to a total 
 attendance of 35,000 people, giving an average attendance of 500 at each lecture. 
 
 The University of Chicago made also a modest attempt during the last year, 
 in co-operation with the board of education of this city, to test the condition of 
 things here as related to this kind of work. The school board furnished the use 
 of the school buildings with light, heat and janitor service. The University fur- 
 nished the lectures and paid the incidental expenses. Eighty-five lectures were 
 given under this system in the various school buildings, with an aggregate attend- 
 ance of over 27,000 people. These were lectures on history, sociology, natural 
 science, anthropology, etc., etc. They were everywhere greeted with enthusiasm, 
 and in many places the audiences far outran the capacity of the halls. All this 
 points to the time when every public school building will be equipped with a 
 comfortable, commodious auditorium, properly supplied with the requisite means 
 of illustration to enable a lecturer to give the very best and most adequate repre- 
 sentation of the facts of his subject. The citv of New York has set aside the 
 sum of sixty thousand dollars for this free lecture work during the year 1898-9, 
 and it may be doubted whether any other sixty thousand dollars spent by the 
 school board of the city of New York will do the board of education more good 
 than this. 
 
Vacation ^rijools nnti 
 ^JKingrountis 
 
 ARTICLE XII 
 
 Your Commission respectfully recommends: 
 
 ( I ) THAT AFTER PROPER LEGISLATION HAS BEEN SECURED, VACATI ON 
 SCHOOLS( 1 ) BE ESTABLISHED AND CONDUCTED BY THE BOARD OF EDUCA- 
 TION IN THE MORE CROWDED PORTIONS OF THE CITY ; 
 
 (2) THAT THE CURRICULUM OF THESE SCHOOLS CONTINUE IN GEN- 
 ERAL THAT OF THE REGULAR SCHOOL YEAR FOR THE BENEFIT OF 
 CHILDREN WHO ARE DELINQUENT OR UNABLE TO GO OUT OF THE CITY, 
 AND THAT IT EMPHASIZE CONSTRUCTIVE WORK, NATURE STUDY, AND 
 THE STUDY OF INDUSTRIES, IN CONNECTION WITH WHICH EDUCA- 
 TIONAL EXCURSIONS MAY BE ARRANGED J 
 
 (3) THAT THE SCHOOL-YARDS BE OPENED WHERE NECESSARY AS 
 PLAY-GROUNDS FROM 8 O'CLOCK A. M. UNTIL SUNSET THROUGHOUT THE 
 YEAR, UNDER REGULATIONS AUTHORIZED BY THE BOARD OF EDUCATION. 
 
 The proper employment of the summer vacation by the great mass of 
 children of school age is a serious question. For children of the well-to-do, 
 who can pass these months in the country, or in the better parts of the city, 
 with ready access to the public parks, the problem is comparatively easy. 
 With intelligent guidance on the part of parents, the time from the close of 
 school to the reopening in the Fall may be made a period of wholesome 
 relaxation and healthful activity. The parents of the great majority of 
 school children, however, have little time to give to their supervision, and 
 for the latter in the more crowded sections of the city, there are lamentably 
 meager opportunities for exercise and little or no incentive to a profitable 
 employment of the vacation time. Th ousand s of Chicago children have 
 t ip plqyjground but the public street ( 2 ), and for them every summer means 
 a period of distinct deterioration, mental, moral, and physical. ( 3 ) 
 
 (!) See Appendix. 
 
 ( 2 ) "In a district like mine, a vacation school would be regarded as a bless- 
 ing. Not the least of its benefits would be the keeping of boys and girls off the 
 streets. The only play-ground is the street, and a long vacation is most demoral- 
 izing." — A Chicago Principal. 
 
 152 
 
Under these conditions, it seems to your commission a pitiful waste that 
 the large equipment of the public school system should lie idle, when, 
 through comparatively slight expenditure it might be used advantageously 
 to further the best interests of the community. The need of vacation 
 schools in large cities is strongly felt( 4 ), and where introduced they have 
 been uniformly successful. They have relieved thousands of parents of 
 grave anxiety, and have given their children an opportunity for pleasant 
 and beneficial occupation. If the vacation schools did nothing more than 
 give the children something to do not distinctly detrimental to their wel- 
 fare, the establishment of these schools would be fully justified. Investi- 
 gation has shown that in some of our more densely populated wards there 
 is an increase of not less than 60 per cent in juvenile crime during the 
 summer. Where vacation schools have been opened there has been im- 
 mediate and marked reduction in this kind of offenses, and where formerly 
 arrests of youthful offenders were very common, few or none have been 
 
 (3) "It is an obvious fact that a large majority of our school children who 
 enjoy the benefits of attendance upon school privileges for ten months in the 
 year are practically without wholesome direction during the remaining two 
 months and left to roam at will wherever their irresponsible inclinations may 
 lead them ; and it is probably not too much to affirm that the demoralization, the 
 formation of questionable habits and in many cases the beginning of things crim- 
 inal do so take possession of them during the months of the summer vacation, 
 that to counteract these unwholesome tendencies and the strong bias of evil, sev- 
 eral of the succeeding months are hardly sufficient. Besides, there often springs 
 up such an unhealthy moral tone, and a swing of the mind and heart toward 
 immorality that the pupil does not return to school at all, and he is sooner or 
 later launched upon the great sea of criminal life. Recent experiments have 
 without question shown to some extent the value of vacation schools and the 
 popular desire for their establishment and maintenance. Witness the success 
 of the experiment in New York city and at the Medill School of this city, under 
 private enterprise, to which 1,000 children were recently denied admission. This 
 is a fact worthy of note and might serve as a suggestive object lesson to the board 
 of education to be learned in the immediate future, and a problem which it may 
 be called upon to solve in the interests of the people at no remote period."— D. R. 
 Cameron. President's Report, Chicago Board of Education, 1896. 
 
 (4) '• The general opinion among the poorer classes in Chicago is that the 
 schools ought to keep open all during the summer, or give only one or two weeks 
 vacation. They are only too anxious to avail themselves of the opportunity the 
 schools offer, and one of their chief objections to the present system is that their 
 children are on the streets for about three months every year. This is one of the 
 reasons why a great many children of foreign parents are sent to private and par- 
 ochial schools although the parents out of their scanty earnings have to pay for 
 their tuition here. Attendance during these summer months ought to be optional, 
 so as to give indigent pupils a chance to 'come up to grade ;' for they are, as a rule, 
 behind the children of more well-to-do parents, on account of less regular attend- 
 ance, inferior home training and nutrition. If this be tried the school authorities 
 will find out that more than 60 per cent of the pupils will stay out the full term." 
 — A. Morton, Superintendent, John Worthy Manual Training School, Chicago. 
 
 153 
 
reported. ( 5 ) Such testimony is a powerful argument for vacation schools, 
 but it is not the only one. 
 
 On the positive side, experience shows that great opportunities are 
 afforded here for educational work. To the thoughtful observer the enor- 
 mous waste incident to the present method of conducting our school system 
 is evidenced. The city has an investment of many millions in school prop- 
 erty, which is used for a few hours each day during hardly more than one- 
 half the year. Many experts have considered seriously whether it is not 
 advisable to hold during the summer months school sessions with a full 
 corps of teachers. There is no question that if this plan were adopted the 
 attendance would include a very large proportion of Chicago children of 
 school age. Not only would many backward children gladly seize this 
 opportunity to attain the grade that can naturally be expected of pupils of 
 their age, but many of the more studious and better endowed would be 
 enabled to advance more rapidly and secure a better education before 
 economic necessities force them to become wage-earners. 
 
 As long, however, as the vacation schools are advocated for the benefit 
 of the children less advantageously situated than their fellows, no direct 
 effort perhaps can be looked for toward making the vacation course of 
 study a duplicate of the regular work of the public schools. Your com- 
 mission, indeed, does not regard with favor the long vacation universal in 
 our American school system. We believe that the summer schools with a 
 full course of study, which are now proposed for New York city, could be 
 introduced with even greater advantage in Chicago, where the climate 
 during these months permits more earnest and sustained activity. For the 
 present, however, it seems best to plan the course of study from another 
 point of view, and to give here larger opportunities in lines necessarily more 
 cr less neglected during the school year. Nature study, with excursions ; 
 constructive work, both for boys and girls ; singing, drawing, and physical 
 exercises, are among the studies that have been most generally introduced 
 and that have proved successful. ( 6 ) 
 
 (5) "Most of our schools should continue open during the entire year. Chil- 
 dren who cannot leave the city during the summer vacation suffer from lack of 
 proper employment. In working off their energy which is normal, they are often 
 innocently led into acts which are unlawful, and are inured to deeds that finally 
 develop criminal lives. I am satisfied that a want of proper employment and 
 proper recreation has been the largest factor in all ages in making criminals." — A 
 Chicago Principal. 
 
 ( 6 ) "It is a matter which should receive very careful consideration by the best 
 minds whom you can secure — how to conduct vacation schools, and what should 
 be included in the curriculum of these schools. They must differ very largely 
 from the ordinary day schools. There is no question but that the children of 
 
Vacation schools have been opened in this city through private gifts, 
 and for these the board of education has wisely granted the use of school 
 buildings. These schools, however, should be made an integral part of the 
 public system and should be adequately and even liberally supported. ( 7 ) 
 They are a benefit to the children, a help to the parents, and an aid, 
 through the experience here gained, to the efficiency of the teaching force, 
 and may modify in wholesome directions, the curriculum and methods of 
 the elementary and grammar grades. 
 
 With the establishment of vacation schools should come also the opening 
 of the school-yards as play-grounds in the respective districts. Some 
 supervision will be necessary and some additional expense and labor are 
 involved in the care of these, in order to avoid complaints that would other- 
 wise naturally result from occasional misuse, but we believe that this action 
 will go far to meet the needs of children for outdoor exercise during the 
 summer months, and will command the general approval of the com- 
 munity^ 8 ) 
 
 Chicago in the crowded portions of the city especially, and in fact, the children of 
 nearly all our larger towns and cities, are receiving great harm from being on 
 the streets from two to three months every year. I hope that Chicago will set 
 the example to all the cities in the land in establishing a system of vacation 
 schools, which would be efficient, which would be attractive to the children, and 
 which may possibly give the children better instruction in some things, as in 
 ethics, in the industries, in nature studies, than can possibly be given during the 
 term time. The opening of the schoolyards as play-grounds from morning till 
 night throughout the year is another great step."— Henry Sabin, Ex-State Super- 
 intendent of Instruction, Iowa. 
 
 (7) "I favor this proposition to the extent that .summer or vacation schools, 
 under the direction of the board of education, be established so liberally as to 
 provide school accommodations for every one of school age who desires to avail 
 himself of such provision. In fact, I favor continuous sessions of the schools, 
 relieved by short vacations, say two weeks at the expiration of the first and each 
 succeeding four months of the year."— A Chicago Superintendent. 
 
 "I am cordially in sympathy with the vacation school idea as about to be 
 carried out by the women's clubs of the city during the coming summer, and 
 hope that ere long the board of education will be able to carry out this plan as 
 a fixed plan of the school system."— A Chicago Principal, 
 
 "We urge the establishment of vacation schools in the crowded portions of 
 the city, under the supervision of the board of education."— The George Howland 
 Club. 
 
 "Vacation schools for industrial work are endorsed. The equipment of 
 school grounds in certain districts with apparatus for physical culture is recom- 
 mended." — Ella F. Young Club. 
 
 (8) "The school-yards should be open every day of the year except Sunday 
 from eight in the morning to six in the evening, for use as play-grounds."— Every 
 Day Club. 
 
 155 
 
i-lngrnoro Kooms ano 
 
 ARTICLE XIII 
 
 In regard to ungraded rooms and schools, your Commission respectfully 
 recommends : 
 
 SECTION I. — THAT AN UNGRADED ROOM OR ROOMS BE ESTABLISHED UPON 
 THE RECOMMENDATION OF THE PRINCIPAL IN CONNECTION WITH EACH 
 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL, FOR CHILDREN WHO FOR ANY REASON HAVE 
 SHOWN THEMSELVES UNABLE TO MAINTAIN THEIR STANDING IN THE 
 REGULAR CLASS-ROOM^ 1 ) AND 
 
 SECTION 2. THAT THE BOARD OF EDUCATION BE REQUESTED TO CONSIDER 
 
 WHETHER AN UNGRADED SCHOOL OR SCHOOLS SHOULD NOT BE ESTAB- 
 LISHED FOR CHILDREN WHO ARE IRREGULAR IN ATTENDANCE, OR WHO 
 A.RE HABITUAL TRUANTS. 
 
 In a school system as carefully graded as is that of Chicago, much 
 difficulty arises with those children who, for any reason, cannot easily be 
 assigned to a particular room, or who, after assignment, fail to maintain 
 the average standing of the class. These children may be of foreign birth 
 or descent, and on account of their ignorance of the English language, need 
 individual attention. They may be irregular in attendance, and therefore 
 fall behind their comrades. In either case, particular provision should be 
 made for them both for their own good, and in order that their presence 
 may not interfere unduly with the work of the various grades. Since 
 corporal punishment has been abolished, and expulsion from school is an 
 injustice to the child and to the community, recourse must be taken to 
 another means — a special room or school. 
 
 (1) "We request that the commission investigate ungraded rooms in other 
 cities with a view of establishing the same in Chicago." — Every Day Club. 
 
 (2) "These children constitute a class of non-voluntary absentees from 
 school. Their education, their moral training are neglected or ignored by their 
 parents. They are not essentially bad. They might associate with other children 
 without exerting any injurious or immoral influences. If sent to school, they 
 would, under proper tuition and training, respond to processes of education and 
 make satisfactory progress. Under previous or existing circumstances, they have 
 
 156 
 
The teacher of the ungraded room should be eminently qualified both 
 lor instruction and discipline. The children put under such charge present 
 a delicate problem. They include not only those who have fallen behind 
 in the regular work on account of special mentaTcrisad vantages, or of 
 irregular attendance, but also those who, through imperfect home training, 
 are inclined to be unruly. Assignment to an ungraded room need not be 
 for a long period. With the individual attention and stimulus here offered, 
 it should not be a matter of many months before the pupil is fit both in mind 
 and in disposition to resume the work of the regular grade. Care will be 
 needed in assigning the pupils to these rooms, for in no case should it be 
 made to appear a source of reproach to the child or his parents. ( 3 ) 
 
 In addition to the children for whom suitable provision can be made in 
 the ungraded room, there is another class which demands even more careful 
 attention. The child who is habitually irregular in attendance, or it may 
 be, a confirmed truant, needs rigid supervision and direction. ( 4 ) He may 
 
 reached the kindergarten or primary school stage of intellectual advancement 
 from six to eight years later in life than other children who have attended 
 school regularly. If placed in graded classes they would feel their ignorance, 
 they would feel under restraint in the presence of children so much younger than 
 themselves, and this consciousness of self would interfere with their progress." 
 — Edgar A. Singer, on "Special and Parental Schools." 
 
 (3) "The only caution in regard to the ungraded room should be that it should 
 not be considered a punishment to be placed in it. Wherever the ungraded room 
 has been tried heretofore it has degenerated into a kind of Botany Bay school, 
 and children have left school rather than be forced to attend it. That point 
 ought to be guarded against very carefully. The establishment of parental schools 
 is an experiment. It is certain in my opinion that these parental schools will 
 become a necessity and must be established, or else the state will have to estab- 
 lish and maintain more reform schools. The worst thing that can be done with 
 a boy is to expel him from school. To turn him into the street and deprive him 
 of his schooling is a sure road to the penitentiary before he is twenty-one years 
 old." — Henry Sabin, Ex-State Superintendent of Instruction, Iowa. 
 
 (4) "These children do not like to go to school. The general atmosphere of 
 the school-room is not suited to their mental organization. The bump of intel- 
 lectuality in them is not normally developed, and they have no taste for books 
 or study. They prefer the environments of home or the freedom of the street. 
 
 "Some of these are irregular because over-indulgent parents listen to and 
 accept petty reasons for their remaining at home, or make insufficient reasons for 
 sending them on errands, or to dancing classes, or to music teachers, or on visits 
 to relatives or friends. 
 
 "Others are irregular because they do not respond to their teachers' efforts 
 to arouse and to stimulate in them due interest in their studies and their class 
 exercises. Of course, lack of interest in study leads to indifference ami then 
 to idleness, and trouble begins, for 'Satan finds some mischief still for idle hands 
 (and brains) to do.' Then follow requests for interviews with parents for their 
 interest and influence and co-operation. Temporary improvement results, to be 
 followed in many cases by relapses into confirmed idle habits. Further confer- 
 ences become necessary, but they are refused by some parents because they 
 
 157 
 
rot be morally deficient or vicious or entirely incorrigible, but, with little 
 taste for study and a disposition to idleness, his irregularity in attendance 
 requires serious treatment. For such a child, even the extra supervision 
 and incentives of the ungraded room are not enough. Some degree of 
 physical restraint is necessary. This may be afforded in the ungraded 
 school, where his attendance can be secured by a truant officer, and where 
 he can be retained during the entire school day.( 5 ) He needs, moreover, 
 
 believe their children can do no wrong. The intervention of the school committee 
 is then sought, that parents may be induced to see clearly their duty to their own 
 children, but often without effect, and the issue is soon joined. 
 
 "The teacher cannot receive or retain pupils who will not behave, who will 
 not respect the rules of the school, who will not try to take an interest in their 
 studies. The parents do not appreciate the evils threatened by the attitude of 
 their children toward school authority, they do not see the necessity of hearty 
 co-operation with the teacher, that their own children may be reclaimed from 
 idle habits, they do not accept the friendly offices of the school committee to 
 establish the right relations between the school and the family. The immovable 
 body and the irresistible force have come in collision, and the children are 
 forced out of school. Other children reach the same end more directly, more 
 rapidly. Some of these become irregular attendants or truants because they dis- 
 like the restraints of the school, they dislike merely intellectual branches of 
 study, they dislike the ordinary school duties ; others, because their idle habits 
 and their misconduct merit and receive the condemnation of their teachers, and 
 they wish to escape punishment at school or at home ; still others, because they 
 are suspended by the school authorities, and no efforts are made to have them 
 returned to their classes upon condition of future good behavior. All these 
 children are troublesome, they are mischievous, but they are not bad in the worst 
 application of this term, they are not immoral." — Edgar A. Singer, on "Special 
 and Parental Schools." 
 
 ( 5 ) "For such children, a school like the school in Detroit, known as the 
 ungraded school, would be an important auxiliary to any school system. This 
 is a school which the board of education of the city is empowered by law to 
 establish, and into which truant officers are required to gather all habitual truants 
 and absentees, as well as those pupils from other schools who are incorrigibly 
 turbulent, vicious or immoral. Such pupils are not entirely removed from paren- 
 tal control, but they are obliged to carry their dinner and are under the care of 
 their teachers during the time between sessions, as well as in school hours. Tru- 
 ant officers are empowered to compel attendance upon this school, and any 
 absentee is immediately made known to them. The term for which a child is 
 sent to the ungraded school is indefinite in length. By good behavior, punctual- 
 ity and earnest work he may make it short, or by the opposite course he may 
 make it long. No outside power is allowed to interfere and grant an undeserved 
 release. Upon the child alone depends the length of his detention. In Detroit, 
 one term in the ungraded school works reformation in three-quarters of the 
 cases — a grand success. 
 
 "What shall these pupils be taught? Not intellectual, not scholastic branches 
 only. Their habits have not been such as to interest them in study from the 
 mere love of study. Of course, it is essential that they shall learn the common 
 English branches ; but their lack of mental development, their active out-door 
 life, have created in them desires for something more than the spelling-book, the 
 reading lesson, the multiplication table. They must have some exercise to work- 
 off surplus physical activity. There must be provided for them some form of 
 elementary manual training — drawing, clay modeling, sloyd work, woodcarving, 
 to alternate with exercises that are purely intellectual; there must be something 
 for their hands to do as well as for their minds. Doubtless the expense of educat- 
 es 
 
a different course of study planned with the purpose of arousing his interest 
 in school work. Experience has shown that a large amount of manual 
 training is helpful under these conditions. Less can be expected of these 
 children in purely intellectual work. Much training of the hand will be 
 beneficial mentally and morally. Enforced attendance at such a school 
 with a specially planned curriculum, and teachers peculiarly fitted for this 
 work( 6 ), will, your commission believes, go far to solve the truant question. 
 The ungraded rooms and schools here recommended will not prove satis- 
 factory in the case of the more incorrigible, and for them another school 
 will be suggested in the following article. 
 
 ing children in these special schools will be more per capita than the average cost 
 per pupil in the regularly organized schools, but the expense is assuredly less 
 than will be the future cost to the community if these children are permitted 
 to become ignorant, idle, criminal men and women. Besides, it is a condition 
 and not a theory that confronts us.' Under the Compulsory Attendance Act, 
 these children must be placed in school ; but they cannot be forced into graded 
 schools without injury to themselves as well as to these schools. Hence there 
 must be instituted and organized for them special ungraded schools, adapted 
 to their condition, to be placed under the care of teachers possessing peculiar 
 qualifications for the peculiar duties required of them." — Edgar A. Singer, on 
 "Special and Parental Schools." 
 
 "Many of the children who were thus drawn from the streets and placed in 
 the schools have been found hard to control, and many times they have demoral- 
 ized the rooms in which they were placed. This presents the necessity of pro- 
 viding for this class of children in separate schools, where special provision 
 can be made for their teaching, for their bodily care and proper preparation 
 for contact with others in the schoolroom." — A. G. Lane, Superintendent's Re- 
 port, Chicago Board of Education, 1892. 
 
 (6) "These children vary greatly in age, in size, in attainments. They can- 
 not be taught in classes. They must be taught individually. As they have not 
 been accustomed to or responsive to the discipline and the training of the graded 
 schools, they must be placed in separate special schools under the charge of 
 teachers peculiarly fitted for such positions ; teachers who, having small classes, 
 will study the disposition of each pupil and adapt their methods of disciplining 
 and of teaching, so as to encourage each to better conduct, and to stimulate 
 all to greater effort of mind and of will power necessary to insure advancement 
 in their studies and the other school exercises; teachers who are familiar 
 with the organization of graded schools and who will earnestly strive to pre- 
 pare their special pupils for transfer to the regular schools as soon as they 
 become qualified to take up the course of study provided for these graded 
 class." — Edgar A. Singer, on 'Special and Parental Schools." 
 
 159 
 
ifijf (fompulson,) 
 
 .Httrntianrr ?iaU) anti a 
 
 i)arnttal cfliool 
 
 ARTICLE XIV 
 
 Your Commission respectfully recommends : 
 
 SECTION I. THAT STEPS BE TAKEN TOWARD SECURING A MORE ADEQUATE 
 
 COMPULSORY SCHOOL ATTENDANCE LAW^ 1 ), AND THAT THE QUESTION 
 BE CONSIDERED OF EMPLOYING THE POLICE OF THE CITY FOR THE PUR- 
 POSE OF SECURING A MORE EFFECTUAL ENFORCEMENT OF THE SAME; 
 
 SECTION 2. — THAT LEGISLATIVE AUTHORITY BE SECURED FOR THE ESTAB- 
 LISHMENT OF ONE OR MORE PARENTAL SCHOOLS FOR THE FORCIBLE 
 DETENTION OF PERSISTENTLY REFRACTORY PUPILS. 
 
 The principle of compulsory school attendance is well established, and 
 laws intended to secure and enforce this have been successively passed by 
 many states. The earlier attempts were not uniformly successful ( 2 ), but 
 the necessity of greater stringency in legislative provisions has led in more 
 than one state to laws that appear fairly adequate and satisfactory. The 
 law of Illinois, approved June n, 1897, seems in many particulars to be 
 satisfactory, and the test of this law made during the past year shows 
 that much better results have been accomplished for the city in the matter 
 cf compulsory attendance than was formerly possible. ( 3 ) 
 
 C 1 ) See Appendix F. 
 
 ( 2 ) "So loose and defective, in fact, are many of these laws, especially the 
 earlier ones, that there might have been some justification for the following 
 sweeping verdict of the Colorado state superintendent, made in 1877: 'Com- 
 pulsory education in America * * * is a well-proven failure. * * * If 
 American experience has setttled anything in the last ten years, il has established 
 the fact that education cannot be made compulsory in the United States.' But, 
 on the whole, I think that the development of educational interests during the 
 last twenty years would go to prove the above radical statement wrong and 
 quite out of date. Several of the states, as I have said, have been marching 
 right along, passing more and more stringent compulsory laws and coming 
 nearer and nearer to a proper and effective administration of the same; and 
 there is very evidently a growing tendency in this direction in several other 
 states. The tendency is undoubtedly more and more toward state intervention 
 in this field." — William Clarence Webster, in Educational Review, March, 1897. 
 
 ( 3 ) The department has been very much strengthened by the new law. which 
 
 160 
 
Yet definite action by the hoard of education in several matters would 
 improve conditions. The majority of truant officers should be nun, and 
 the efficient work of the superintendent of this department should be sup- 
 plemented by the appointment of one chief assistant. The responsible 
 head should have also the privilege of recommending to the superintend- 
 ent of schools the officers needed in his department. 
 
 Your commission believes, furthermore, that the state law may be im- 
 proved by authorizing the employment in addition of police officers to aid 
 in securing its enforcement. A more important step, however, in the direc- 
 tion of proper school attendance is the establishment of one or more 
 parental schools under the direction of the board of education. ( 4 ) Such 
 
 has enabled the truant officers to enforce the regulations and accomplish good 
 results, as shown by the following comparative table : 
 
 Investi- Returned 
 
 gations. to School. 
 
 1894-5 11,878 3752 
 
 1895-6 13. 191 4,690 
 
 1896-7 13.990 5.626 
 
 1897-8 16.596 7,428 
 
 (4) "The third class above specified includes those who have been in school, 
 but whose conduct — or misconduct, rather — has been such as to render their 
 continued presence in school a constant menace to the teacher's authority and 
 a harmful influence over the discipline and the general morale of the class. 
 In civilized society laws are intended not to punish, but to protect those who 
 are disposed to do right; they are enacted to restrain or to punish those 
 who are evil minded, those who set the supremacy of law at defiance for their 
 own gratification, for the accomplishment of their own selfish, vicious purposes. 
 For this criminal class the law is intended to be both corrective and punitive. 
 Crime against society has its only remedy in the separation or removal of 
 criminals from their fellow citizens as a preventive against further crime. 
 The effects of this separation are reformatory, or they, by creating fear of further 
 punishment, compel obedience to, if they do not lead to respect for, the laws 
 necessary for the government of all social organizations. In like manner school 
 laws are enacted, not to menace those who are disposed to follow right lines 
 of moral action, but to punish those who disregard or violate them. Schools are 
 established, not for good children only, but for all children; for the good that 
 they may become better ; for the bad that they may be prevented from becoming 
 worse, or that they may be induced to respect and obey school authority and 
 social law in general. The state would fall far short of its duty if it did not 
 make provision for taking charge of vicious children in time to prevent them 
 from developing into the criminal classes of adult society. The Compulsory 
 Attendance Act has for its purposes the reformation of these vicious children. 
 They cannot be received or continued in the regularly organized schools ; they 
 were admitted into these schools ; they were encouraged to do right ; they 
 were reproved; they were punished for misconduct; they have been suspended 
 from further attendance in their classes ; their parents cannot or will not control 
 them; teachers and committees fail to correct their evil tendencies and their 
 vicious conduct. What shall be done with them? The Compulsory Attend- 
 ance Act commands that they shall be placed in schools ; if not in the regular 
 schools, then in other schools to be provided for them. It therefore appears 
 to be the plain duty of the board of public education and of the city councils 
 to establish parental schools for these children, to which they must be com- 
 mitted by legal process and in which they must be retained by force if necessary. 
 
 161 
 
schools are no longer an experiment. ( 5 ) They have been found useful 
 in many cities, and those most qualified to judge are heartily in favor of 
 them.( 6 ) The public demand for them in this city has been indicated in 
 
 The general purposes of these parental schools are to prevent the evil effects 
 of the bad influences of vicious children over other school children: to afford 
 them an opportunity to acquire an education ; to produce such reformation 
 in their moral nature and mental habits as will permit their transfer to special 
 schools or to regularly organized schools. The course of instruction in these 
 parental schools must include the common English branches, that the inmates 
 may become qualified for admission, finally, into graded classes. To those 
 branches of study should be added such features of elementary manual train- 
 ing as will serve to interest the pupils and stimulate them to more earnest, 
 active physical and mental effort." — Edgar A. Singer, on "Special and Parental 
 Schools." 
 
 (5) The truancy problem has in a measure been solved by the city of Brook- 
 lyn. Some time ago the city purchased a fine piece of ground several miles 
 from the city and erected a building upon it to be used as a school of detention 
 for truants." The ground and building cost the city $75,000. and it requires 
 $25,000 a year to maintain the establishment. The truant officers hunt up all chil- 
 dren who will not go to school. All are given a fair chance to receive instruc- 
 tion, but if they refuse to do so then they must be sent by their principal to 
 the school for truants. The latter is conducted on much the same principle 
 as a reformatory. The truants are confined and allowed very few privileges, 
 being compelled to study much harder than they would be in the regular insti- 
 tution. After their sentences expire they are sent back to the city and given 
 another opportunity to reform. One dose of the truant farm generally suffices 
 tor the truant pupil, but in case that it does not he is sentenced for a longer 
 time, probably for the remainder of the school term. It is impossible to keep 
 the truants there after the completion of the regular term, as they are not 
 criminals, and must be given their liberty when the time arrives. At different 
 periods since the institution has been established there have been as high as 
 one hundred truants in confinement, although the number averages twenty-five. 
 They are fed and clothed, and there is the regular corps of instructors the same as 
 in the city, so that the bad ones receive every advantage. 
 
 (6) "But when such a school as this Detroit school shall have done all it 
 can do. there will remain children in quite considerable numbers whom it will 
 be impossible to save while the home and street life exert their baleful influence 
 for so considerable a part of the day. For such children the parental school is 
 a necessitv. They must be taken out of the mire and filth of their associations 
 and surrounded and placed in charge of such foster-parents as shall give them 
 what they have never before known — a real home. A parental home is not a 
 prison, but a school-home, a school in which a child is taught what he most 
 needs to know, especially along the lines of manual training; a home in which 
 he shall learn what the "word 'home' means, and a home in which he shall be 
 placed under those healthful, elevating influences of which a real home is the 
 center and inspiration. Membership in such a school-home should be continual 
 until, if possible, a relish shall have been acquired for the new ways, which 
 shall restrain from a return to the old haunts and habits. Such a work will be 
 often discouraging to those who engage in it. It will be too much to expect 
 that hereditary and early surroundings will in every case be overcome, but 
 the child will" at least have had a chance, and many will be encouraged and 
 helped to a worthy and successful struggle against the odds of the lives to 
 which they seem born. It will he expensive— expensive as it is efficient. In 
 all our large cities there are children in very considerable numbers who ought 
 10 be gathered into such school homes. Some cities have already started 111 
 this direction. Delays are dangerous. Children who may be rescued to-day. 
 tomorrow will be beyond our reach. When we shrink from the expense oi 
 
 162 
 
resolutions of various bodies ( 7 ), and more particularly in the recent report 
 of the Chicago supervisor of compulsory education. ( s ) We recommend 
 that steps be taken immediately to obtain legislative authority for the estab- 
 
 such reformatory work we should bear in mind the fact that such children, if 
 let alone, will almost inevitably grow up to be a public charge, either in our 
 penal or our charitable institutions. Which will involve the greater cost, this 
 or that?" — Charles IV. Hill, N. E. A. Proceedings, 1892, p. 657. 
 
 "Boys who will not go to school when they ought, and boys who are so 
 ill-behaved when they do go that teachers have good reason to wish they had 
 stayed away— these are the truants and incorrigibles who must be taken care 
 of, if education in this country is to become universal in fact as well as in 
 purpose, and so do its full work in training to good citizenship and in preventing 
 crime. Little matters it whether the boy is out of school through his own 
 waywardness, through his parents' neglect or the willingness of teachers to be 
 rid of a troublesome pupil ; in any case he stands for a failure in education 
 and is a source of danger to the commonwealth." — Edwin P. Seaver, N. E. A. 
 Proceedings, 1894, p. 536. 
 
 "There are many charitable organizations constantly seeking to remove home- 
 less and neglected children from our city and to place them where the social 
 surroundings and the moral influences will mould them for upright citizens. 
 There are also a large number of children who are constantly dropping out 
 of our schools because of insubordination to discipline and want of co-opera- 
 tion between the parents and the teachers, and they are becoming vagrants 
 upon the streets and a menace to good society. The welfare of the city demands 
 that such children shall be put under restraint and educated in a place where 
 all the surroundings will be wholesome and reformatory. I therefore call 
 attention again to the necessity for the establishment of a parental school for 
 the benefit of such children." — A. G. Lane, Superintendent's Report, Chicago- 
 Board of Education, 1894. 
 
 (7) "We ask that the compulsory education be thoroughly tested, and 
 parental schools established." — Every Day Club. 
 
 "We urge the establishment of special schools under the board of educa- 
 tion for truants and incorrigible children." — The George Howland Club. 
 
 "The parental school is absolutely essential, as it provides for children who 
 are refractory or who have a tendency to be truants, and whose presence in the 
 public school is a positive injury."— 5". T. Button, Superintendent Public Schools, 
 Brookline, Mass. 
 
 ( 8 ) "The parental school would be to the erring children a home where 
 pleasant environment and good treatment would go much farther to reform 
 the wayward than the strict and severe discipline of a prison or reformatory 
 for criminals. Treat them with the care and kindness of a parent, teach them 
 love of humankind, patriotism, and give them a universal training in reading, 
 writing, arithmetic, geography, history and manual training. The result from 
 such training will soon be manifest in useful and intelligent individuals. By 
 all means the board of education should have power to establish and maintain 
 one or more of such schools, and thereby break up or avoid the formation of 
 bad habits and character, and thus save many children from becoming criminals. 
 All good citizens desire to have these children educated, and we certainly should 
 not permit a reckless and indifferent part of our population to rear their chil- 
 dren in ignorance to become a criminal and lawless class within our community. 
 We should rightfully have the power to arrest all these little beggars, loafers 
 
 163 
 
lishment and maintenance of one or more parental schools ( 9 ) in Chicago 
 similar to those which have been so successful elsewhere. ( 10 ) 
 
 and vagabonds that infest our city, take them from the streets and place them 
 in schools where they are compelled to receive education and learn moral prin- 
 ciples. This is the problem of the day, and measures cannot be taken any too 
 soon looking toward the betterment of conditions which will make the control 
 of this class easier of solution." — Theodore J. Bluthardt. 
 
 (9) "We still need, however, another school. These children may be divided 
 into two classes — those who are truants from school and not given to any other 
 vice, and those who are truants from school and home and given to many other 
 vices. For the second class we should have a second institution, called a 
 school of detention or a parental school, in which they might be kept day and 
 night away from any evil influences and under the most favorable conditions 
 for reformation. In'connection with such school, I would suggest an industrial 
 department, in order that these children might be kept constantly employed 
 and be trained to work. By thus separating this class of children their evil 
 influences on others might be prevented, and at the same time many of them 
 might be redeemed from vice and crime and become use£ul citizens. 
 
 "Primarily, the truancy problem is an educational problem for school authori- 
 ties to deal with, not a matter of municipal regulation for police magistrates to 
 manage. Not until truancy, neglected and unchecked, has led to positive crime 
 ought the truant to be handed over to criminal jurisdiction. Not until educa- 
 tion has exhausted all means of prevention and reformation should the truants be 
 surrendered to the police magistrates for punishment. 
 
 "To these schools are sent children who, after repeated warnings, have 
 failed to make a satisfactory number of attendances at the ordinary day schools, 
 in the hope that the strict corrective discipline which they are subjected to in 
 them will make them less inclined to play truant when they are allowed to return 
 to their homes. The terms of detention vary from a few weeks on the first 
 commitment to a few months, if the first or subsequent commitments have not 
 had the desired effect. The average length of detention is ninety-five days."— 
 Edwin P. Seaver, N. E. A. Proceedings, 1894 p. 543- 
 ('10) For a fuller treatment of the parental school, see Appendix G. 
 
 The John Worthy Manual Training School at the Chicago Bridewell is in 
 no sense a true parental school, and should not be confused in the public mind 
 with such a school as is here proposed. 
 
 164 
 
iTrarijrrs' institutes anti 
 a EeathttB' Utluarp 
 
 ARTICLE XV 
 
 Your Commission respectfully recommends : 
 
 SECTION i. — that teachers' institutes, similar to those hereto- 
 fore HELD IN CHICAGO, BE ENCOURAGED BY THE BOARD OF EDUCATION : 
 AND 
 
 SECTION 2. THAT A LIBRARY BE ESTABLISHED FOR THE USE OF TEACH- 
 ERS WHICH WILL BE OF ASSISTANCE TO THEM IN EXTENDING THEIR 
 PROFESSIONAL STUDIES. 
 
 The institutes for teachers which have been held in Chicago during 
 previous years have been favored by those most familiar with the school 
 system of Chicago, and have won the hearty approval and cordial support 
 of the great majority of the teaching body. Your commission regrets 
 that during the current year these teachers' institutes have not been held. 
 They involve slight expense to the teaching force, and the sacrifice which 
 the teachers willingly made of some portion of the summer vacation, was 
 amply compensated for by the enthusiasm for their work and the guidance 
 m their studies here gained. 
 
 Another means by which the teachers of Chicago may be able to con- 
 tinue the professional studies begun in the normal school, is the privilege 
 of special library facilities that should be provided for them. The normal 
 school, even in its best and most adequate form, can only start the teacher 
 on the road toward higher professional education. It is for the interest 
 of the city to encourage, as far as possible, the further development of 
 the teacher. The institute is one important means; another, which the 
 city should provide, is that of a good professional library. The community 
 assists the courts and the lawyers in developing special legal libraries, 
 because they are beneficial to the interest of society. It should also assist 
 to a still greater extent the teachers in the formation of a special library 
 which can bring to them the opportunities of a continually wider and 
 deeper study and investigation of the vital problems committed to their 
 charge. It is safe to say that no teacher in this city who desires to make 
 a thorough investigation of that particular phase of public education in 
 
 165 
 
which he may be engaged can find adequate library facilities for this work 
 in Chicago. Indeed, it is a constant wonder to one who has examined 
 this question in different cities, to see what little provision has been made 
 to encourage the teacher to find out what other men have done or are doing, 
 here or in other countries, in the solution of the same problems with 
 which he is contending every day in his own school room. The proper 
 kind of pedagogical library, placed in a central position and equipped in 
 such a way as to be utilized easily, would perform a very great service 
 in raising the efficiency and scholarship of the teachers of the city. Your 
 commission, therefore, would respectfully invite the board of education 
 to consider either the establishment of a separate teachers' library, or the 
 question of co-operation with some public institution in an effort to accom- 
 plish this purpose^ 1 ) 
 
 (i) A library such as is here proposed has been very successful in other 
 cities. In Philadelphia Dr. McAllister, now president of the Drexel Institute, 
 but for many years superintendent of schools in that city, established a teachers' 
 library at the board of education which proved of more service than any other 
 one instrumentality in arousing and stimulating a progressive spirit among the 
 teachers. Superintendent Powell has secured a very efficient library in Wash- 
 ington at comparatively slight expense. In each of these cities the work has 
 been done by the board of education alone. In Cleveland, at the suggestion of 
 President Draper, at that time superintendent of schools, the board of education 
 joined with the public library of that city, and in this way an excellent teachers' 
 library was secured at slight cost to each. 
 
 166 
 
*ri)ool faculties anti 
 ttfounrfls 
 
 ARTICLE XVI 
 
 Your Commission respectfully recommends : 
 
 THAT PROVISION BE MADE BY THE BOARD OF EDUCATION FOR THE ESTAB- 
 LISHMENT OF SCHOOL FACULTIES AND DISTRICT COUNCILS AND A 
 GENERAL COUNCIL, WITH PROPER REPRESENTATION, TO BE CHOSEN 
 WHOLLY OR IN PART BY THE TEACHERS THEMSELVES, AND THAT SUCH 
 FACULTIES AND COUNCILS BE GIVEN THE RIGHT OF DIRECT RECOM- 
 MENDATION TO THE BOARD ON ALL MATTERS CONNECTED WITH THE 
 EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF THE CITY. 
 
 When your commission was first appointed, a series of questions was 
 submitted to the teachers of the city. One of these related to the organi- 
 zation in both the elementary and the high schools of teachers' faculties. 
 These were suggested primarily to facilitate the discussion in each school 
 of the questions of instruction and discipline especially affecting it. An 
 organization of this kind, your commission believed, would recognize the 
 principle of local autonomy (*) in school management, which is in accord 
 with recent educational thought, and would offer the teachers an oppor- 
 tunity to make their experience profitable to the whole system. In order 
 to secure the second purpose more fully, there is needed not only faculties 
 in the various schools, but also district organizations and a central council. 
 
 This suggestion made by the commission met with a quick response 
 on the part of the teachers, thus demonstrating the need of these faculties 
 and councils. Your commission is not prepared to say that the form 
 upon which the teachers settled is the best. This question is one for solu- 
 tion by them, although the board of education may fairly insist on the 
 proper representation of various classes of teachers before recognition is 
 given these bodies. Such recognition was proposed in the new legisla- 
 
 (i) "'Subject to the approval of the borough board of superintendents and 
 as the by-laws of such board may prescribe, the principal of each school shall 
 direct the methods of teaching in all classes under his charge, except that the 
 school board may adopt by-laws to govern in the case of special classes."— 
 Charter of the City of Nezv York, Section 1,113. 
 
 167 
 
tion for Boston (-), is felt desirable by the teachers of Chicago( 3 ), and 
 
 is a move which is favored by some of our recognized leaders in educa- 
 tion. ( 4 ) 
 
 ( 2 ) "Section 3. The school inspectors appointed as herein provided, and 
 thirty teachers, or such larger number as the school committee may from time 
 to time provide, elected from and by the teachers of the public schools of said 
 city, not including temporary teachers, shall constitute the school faculty, and 
 said school committee shall adopt rules for the election of the same, so that 
 every grade of instruction and every school that does not fall within any such 
 grade shall be represented; said school faculty shall serve without extra com- 
 pensation, shall consider all educational subjects, including such as are dis- 
 ciplinary and sanitary, and shall make such recommendations and reports to 
 the school committee as said faculty may deem proper."— ^Massachusetts School 
 Laiv, Act Proposed 1898. 
 
 ( 3 ) "This is a step in the right direction. It would be productive of untold 
 good to the schools if the teachers felt that they had a right to speak fearlessly 
 and that their recommendations would receive serious and respectful considera- 
 tion by the board. It would increase their self-respect. It is a shameful fact 
 that most teachers are afraid to speak boldly about abuses connected with the 
 schools in which they are employed." — A Chicago Principal. 
 
 ( 4 ) "For the participation of teachers in school organization there are 
 many positive reasons. In the first place, the community needs their expert 
 advice. They are the largest body of men and women in this country. They 
 are in better position than their supervisors to discover at least the minor 
 defects of school systems. They have a personal interest in making their time 
 and thought go as far as possible. They have almost a mother's opportunity to 
 study child life. They are a public-spirited and intelligent body of people, 
 performing a great public service. Not to draw upon the results of their experi- 
 ence is to waste a part of the nation's resources. They have a profession, and 
 the only profession to which women are admitted in large numbers. In the 
 second place, the teachers need the stimulus of debate and of formulating opin- 
 ions Avhich go on record. In the work of the committee of fifteen both the 
 report on the training of teachers and that of school organization laid great 
 stress on the need of careful, professional and expensive preparation for the 
 arduous calling. What would more attract people to make the effort than a 
 recognized professional status? What makes Yale University the vigorous, 
 pushing, forceful institution that it is? The governors? In part, but chiefly 
 the faculty — that is, the teachers. In the third place, the superintendent will 
 not be harmed by organized advice. No one fears a teachers' trade union 
 demanding a four-hour day. The sub-committees report is justly incisive on 
 the right of experts to manage expert matters. 'If the course of study for the 
 public schools of a great city is to be determined bv laymen,' they say (page 
 106, line 18), 'it will not be suited to the needs of a community." If it be 
 determined by only a part of the experts, will it suit the community any better? 
 In the school machinery the teachers should be a part of the upper millstone 
 and not of the nether. In the fourth place, the school boards need such direct 
 relations with their teachers. How can the co-operation of superintendents 
 and teachers be brought about? I will not say the 'correlation' of teachers 
 and superintendents, because that is an explosive word. Something valuable 
 would be gained if every superintendent made it a point never to enter upon 
 important changes in his schools without previously consulting a large number 
 of leading teachers and then following his best judgment. On the other hand, 
 it would be a great advantage to education if we could introduce into America 
 the successful French system of educational councils. In France every import- 
 ant administrative official, from the minister down, has about him a council, 
 including some teachers, whose advice he is bound to take but not to follow. 
 He assumes the responsibility, but never without informing himself." — Albert 
 Bushnell Hart. Harvard University, .V. E. A. Proceedings, 1895, />. 393. 
 ' t6R 
 
(Cms us 
 
 ARTICLE XVII 
 
 Your Commission respectfully recommends : 
 
 SECTION I. THAT THE BOARD OF EDUCATION BE REQUESTED TO CON- 
 SIDER THE APPARENTLY UNSATISFACTORY METHOD AND RESULTS OF 
 THE SCHOOL CENSUS AS AT PRESENT ADMINISTERED; 
 
 SECTION 2. THAT WITH THE VIEW OF SECURING GREATER ACCURACY 
 
 THE TAKING OF THE SCHOOL CENSUS BE ASSIGNED FOR THE PRESENT 
 TO THE DEPARTMENT OF COMPULSORY EDUCATION J AND 
 
 SECTION 3. THAT THE BOARD OF EDUCATION CONSIDER FURTHER THE 
 
 ADVISABILITY OF CO-OPERATING WITH OTHER CITY BODIES IN AN EFFORT 
 TO SECURE A CENSUS WHICH SHALL BE OF SERVICE TO ALL DEPART- 
 MENTS OF THE CITY GOVERNMENT, AND AT THE SAME TIME SATISFY 
 THE REQUIREMENTS OF THE SCHOOL LAW CONCERNING THE DISTRIBU- 
 TION OF THE SCHOOL FUND OF THE STATE. 
 
 In its investigations, your commission has been impressed at various 
 limes with the apparent inaccuracy and with the inadequacy of the school 
 census as at present prepared. When we compare the census, for example, 
 taken in 1894 with those of 1896 and 1898, we are confronted with what 
 seem to be manifest errors. These have not only entailed additional and 
 undue labor on the department of compulsory education, which has been 
 obliged to review to a considerable extent the work of the census officers, 
 but must affect the administration of other departments of the board of 
 education. 
 
 An inaccurate census is in many respects worse than none. On the 
 other hand, the value of a census properly taken can hardly be overesti- 
 mated. The distinguishing characteristic of modern science can be put 
 briefly in the words "accurate measurements." This is true not only of 
 the natural sciences, but also of social policy. Progress can be made only 
 on the basis of accurate and careful measurements of the facts of human 
 society. This explains why the census, using the term in a large sense, 
 
 169 
 
has become of such vital importance in our modern government. It is 
 impossible to devise reasonable and satisfactory legislation on any sub- 
 ject in these days unless we have before us first of all the facts in regard 
 to the subject, which may be presented in a mathematical or statistical 
 form. In this city, for example, it is not possible for the board of educa- 
 tion to know how many buildings are needed for the children who are 
 required by law to be in attendance upon the schools, unless they know 
 the exact number of such children, or to provide in any adequate way for 
 the increase, unless they know the rate at which the school population is 
 increasing. 
 
 The present method of taking the census is unsatisfactory, and your 
 commission believes that better results can be secured if this work be 
 assigned to some one officer of the board. As the conclusions to be drawn 
 from the census of a particular year are of especial interest and service to 
 the department of compulsory education, for the present the taking of the 
 census should be assigned to the superintendent of that department, under 
 the general supervision of the superintendent of schools. 
 
 It is the duty of the board of education under the present law to take 
 the census of the school population, but that other parts of the city gov- 
 ernment need similar data for intelligent action, is shown by the fact that 
 other departments than the board of education are also engaged in taking 
 more or less accurate censuses. This would involve a useless duplication, 
 even if the census taken by each of the departments were accurate and 
 satisfactory for its purposes. No department, however, takes at present 
 an adequate and accurate census. Economy and efficiency, therefore, 
 would be secured if the city should provide for the taking of a general 
 census in such a way that it may be available for all departments of the 
 city government. In Boston and New York, a special census bureau has 
 been organized, and the same rule holds in the better developed and better 
 administered cities of continental Europe. Your commission is inclined 
 tc believe that, while for the present the school census may be well taken 
 by the compulsory education department of the board of education, the 
 city would do well to organize a permanent office for this purpose. 
 
 170 
 
gUcotnmofcatums 
 
 ARTICLE XVIII 
 
 Your Commission respectfully recommends : 
 
 SECTION I. THAT STEPS BE TAKEN PROMPTLY TO INCREASE THE SCHOOL 
 
 ACCOMMODATIONS OF THE CITY, AND TO MAKE THEM AS NEARLY 
 ADEQUATE AS PRACTICABLE; AND THAT SUCH ACCOMMODATIONS BE 
 CONSIDERED ADEQUATE ONLY WHEN THERE IS A SITTING IN A PROPERLY 
 CONSTRUCTED AND SUITABLY SITUATED BUILDING FOR EVERY CHILD OF 
 SCHOOL AGE IN THE CITY WHO IS NOT ACCOMMODATED IN PAROCHIAL, 
 PRIVATE AND OTHER SCHOOLS OUTSIDE OF THE CITY SYSTEM ; AND 
 
 SECTION 2. THAT AS SOON AS THE FINANCES OF THE BOARD WARRANT 
 
 THE EXPENSE, THE NUMBER OF PUPILS ASSIGNED EACH TEACHER 
 ACTUALLY ENGAGED IN REGULAR INSTRUCTION IN THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS 
 BE REDUCED^ 1 ) 
 
 The question of adequate school accommodations has stirred public 
 interest deeply. Chicago in this respect compares favorably with New 
 York, but falls behind many other of our larger cities. We regret that 
 within a year there has been a considerable increase in the number of chil- 
 dren for whom no proper provision is made. During the last year, 2,500 
 more children were housed in rented buildings than during the previous 
 year( 2 ), and nearly 5,000 more were taught in half-day sessions, than was 
 the case in 1896-7. This has not been the fault of the board of education. 
 It is rather due to the defective provisions of the school law applying to 
 the city and the failure of the city council to do its part in the securing 
 of new sites and buildings. ( 3 ) The present deficiency cannot be charged 
 
 (!) Reference has been made already to the overcrowding of classes in the 
 Chicago schools. The point seems of such importance, that it is here empha- 
 sized again. 
 
 ( 2 ) In a growing city there will always be a necessity for a certain number 
 of rented school buildings, since the line of growth cannot always be so exactly 
 forecast as to justify the erection of buildings, especially in the newer portions. 
 
 (3) "Our enrollment for the year 1897-8 was 10.521 more than for 1896-7. 
 and yet the figures above quoted show that we have not made satisfactory 
 progress in the matter of providing additional accommodations. If we have 
 
 171 
 
to a lack of money for building purposes, since in no year has the maximum 
 levy been approached. The recommendations already made, giving abso- 
 lute control of these matters to the board of education, if put in operation, 
 will obviate the present difficulties. There is no question but that the city 
 has fallen far short of its duty in the matter of school accommodations, and 
 your commission strongly urges that immediate steps be taken to solve 
 satisfactorily this vital problem. 
 
 There are thirty thousand children in Chicago, for whom full and fair 
 provision is not made. Thirteen thousand are in rented buildings, which 
 are in many particulars entirely unsuited for school purposes. More than 
 seventeen thousand are in half-day sessions, every one of whom is thereby 
 deprived to a considerable extent of the privileges which the city owes the 
 children of the tax-payers. These are very startling statements, but they 
 by no means represent the entire truth. While thousands are deprived 
 in this way of the full opportunities which the public system of educa- 
 tion should furnish, there are tens of thousands more who are suffer- 
 ing to an equal degree. It is an almost criminal condition of things which 
 causes children to attend school in some of the buildings which 
 the board of education has been obliged to rent. It is manifest injustice 
 to offer others three hours of schooling, while their more fortunate com- 
 rades enjoy five. It is an act of equal injustice to assign fifty or sixty 
 children to one teacher, when not more than thirty or forty can receive 
 proper instruction in each room.( 4 ) Experience is perfectly clear on this 
 point. When the maximum is passed, not only does every additional child 
 receive less than suitable attention, but every pupil in the particular class 
 is necessarily slighted to the same degree. ( 5 ) It is a false economy that 
 lessens the value of school instruction by at least fifty per cent., in secur- 
 
 a substantial balance to the credit of the building fund, it is due to the failure 
 of the city council, which persists in its determination to retard the work of 
 our construction department."— £. G. Halle, President's Report, Chicago Board 
 of Education, 1898. 
 
 (4) "To what extent the privision for school room is inadequate I am not 
 able to report definitely, but it is certainly true the deficiency is very great, and 
 the deficiency would be still more marked if the number of pupils assigned to 
 a teacher should be reduced to a more reasonable figure. I believe that the 
 assignment of forty-five pupils to a teacher secures a sufficiently large maximum. 
 If the quality of instruction in our schools is the thing sought, this number should 
 not be exceeded." — A Chicago Superintendent. 
 
 (5) "The custom of assigning a large number of children to a certain teacher 
 ignores the existence of visual and auditory defects. The necessity for secur- 
 ing a recognition takes precedence of allowing for such defects or for fatigue. 
 Heroic efforts fail to induce the child to turn his data over in his mind, or to 
 
mg a saving of less than twenty per cent, in school expenses. The public 
 has not yet appreciated the full importance of this question. The supposi- 
 tion that it is possible to instruct properly the same number of children 
 that can be supervised and controlled in a given room, is erroneous. The 
 teacher may preserve order and direct the work of fifty or even sixty 
 children. It is absolutely impossible for even fairly satisfactory instruc- 
 tion to be furnished by one teacher to more than thirty or forty children. 
 The opinion of those who have the greatest experience in teaching should 
 be followed on this point. ( 6 ) When one remembers, moreover, that 
 the length of the average recitation in the more crowded grades is not, 
 and should not be, more than fifteen or twenty minutes, the danger of these 
 large classes can be easily conceived. ( 7 ) 
 
 discriminate for himself when he is working against time. Intellectual devel- 
 opment cannot result from such work. The teacher's effort to keep a part of 
 her pupils merely quiet deprives them of opportunity for choice. Necessity 
 for exercise of his will finds the child unprepared because of lack of will devel- 
 opment. Unruly conduct and truancy are the natural outcome. Idleness and 
 lack of concentration being in the first grade, where even the earnest efforts of the 
 teacher cannot compensate for lack of time to show each child how to work. 
 Instruction in the correct use of the English language is of great importance. 
 The attempt to instruct large classes precludes the possibility of attention to 
 the nice use of English in every subject. The considerations enumerated induce 
 us to recommend that forty pupils should be the maximum number assigned to 
 a division teacher, and that two teachers should be employed in every first 
 grade room having a membership of more than thirty."— Ella F. Young Club. 
 
 (6) "in our judgment the provision for pupils is and always will be deficient, 
 so long as there is not a school building suitably located, well ventilated, prop- 
 erly lighted and heated, and one room for each forty children of school age 
 who desire and are entitled to attend the same."— The George Howland Club. 
 
 (7) The over-crowding of classes is the more to be regretted, because it occurs 
 usually in the densely populated sections, where education is most needed and 
 where, as a rule, children are unable to attend school beyond the first three or 
 four years. 
 
 173 
 
{Training for 
 
 ARTICLE XIX 
 
 Your Commission respectfully recommends : 
 
 SECTION I. THAT THE BOARD OF EDUCATION GIVE IN ALL GRADES OF 
 
 THE PUBLIC SCHOOL MORE DETAILED, SPECIFIC, AND SYSTEMATIC PREP- 
 ARATION FOR GOOD CITIZENSHIP J 
 
 SECTION 2. THAT THIS PREPARATION BE ADAPTED TO AWAKEN AN 
 
 ENLIGHTENED SENTIMENT OF PATRIOTISM, TO GIVE INSTRUCTION IN 
 THE HISTORY OF OTHER LEADING FORMS OF GOVERNMENT AND THEIR 
 RELATIONS TO OUR OWN, TO COMMUNICATE A THOROUGH KNOWLEDGE 
 OF OUR LOCAL, STATE, AND NATIONAL FORMS OF POPULAR GOVERNMENT 
 AND TO EMPHASIZE THE DUTIES AS WELL AS THE RIGHTS OF AMERICAN 
 CITIZENSHIP ; 
 
 SECTION 3. THAT HEREAFTER, EVERY CANDIDATE FOR POSITION AS 
 
 TEACHER IN THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS BE REQUIRED TO SHOW PROOF 
 OF ABILITY IN THIS KIND OF INSTRUCTION. 
 
 The importance and the possibilities of instruction in civics and of the 
 general training for good citizenship are not now, we believe, sufficiently 
 realized in the public schools. It is. indeed, gratifying to notice 
 that there has been some recent revival of interest in this phase of popular 
 education. The patriotic sentiments symbolized by the national flag have 
 been impressed upon pupils, and some of the national holidays have been 
 suitably celebrated in the schools. Some attempt has been made, also, 
 although not with unvarying success ( 1 ), to reflect in the schools a more 
 
 (') "In a society with this as its constructive idea, it is essential for every- 
 body i" understand that personal merit is the only valid title to civic 
 rank and social consideration. In ibis connection I assert that our schools 
 have been delinquent, equivocal and sometimes cowardly in eliminating features 
 of the older regime which emphasized the fact of inequality of performance 
 ,,,,1 Far of merit. Wherever politics has laid its hand on the schools there 
 has persistently appeared a tendencj to truckle to mob demand for artificial 
 leveling. Sometimes calculations of ail entirely different tori have had the sam< 
 
 174 
 
intelligent idea of the relation of the individual to society. Chicago has 
 done, perhaps, as much as the average city to give pupils of the advanced 
 grades an idea of government in general and of our American local and 
 national systems in particular. But much more can undoubtedly be accom- 
 plished if the subject be thoroughly investigated and a plan devised for 
 continuous and graded instruction, either separately or with other studies, 
 from the kindergarten through the high schools. ( 2 ) 
 
 effect. Influential parents with good-for-nothing children have had to be 
 placated. The evident evils of ranking systems have had to be avoided. For 
 these and other reasons, some good and some bad, our schools of to-day are 
 playing into the hands of that despicable demigognery which holds back the 
 realization of the only rational democracy by catering to the popular conceit 
 of indiscriminate equality. No one thing is more needed in American life to-day 
 than frank admission of inequality, with all that it implies. Our schools are 
 shirking a prime responsibility when they fail to make real inequalities among 
 the students apparent and impressive." — Albion W. Small, University of Chicago. 
 
 ( 2 ) "In this connection I urge upon the board of education the propriety 
 of increasing the instruction in civics in our schools. We have finally arrived 
 at the conviction — although we have been tardy in reaching it — that the child 
 is an entity and not an incident, and that 'concrete instruction in civics must be 
 increased in our schools." When onr children have ascertained their duties as 
 related to the community, we will have less spasmodic patriotism and more 
 stability will be given our institutions." — E. G. Halle. President's Report. Chi- 
 cago Board of Education, 1897. 
 
 "Some knowledge of civil government should also be given in early oral or 
 language work, which geography should have enlarged by familiarizing the 
 pupil with the chief forms or national organization, and the historical reading, 
 already referred to. have enriched with details of the growth of our own system, 
 so that in the last year of the elementary course he would be well prepared to 
 take up somewhat systematically the study of our own institutions. Experience 
 seems to have demonstrated the feasibility of this, and no one will deny its 
 desirability. The comparative table annexed shows how it has been introduced 
 into some programs, and with its introduction after geography and history the 
 elementary course in civics becomes fairly satisfactory." — Report of Committee 
 on Elementary Instruction. X. E. A. Proceedings, 1898, p. 104. 
 
 "In this city (Chicago) we have an army of 225,000 school children; in the 
 nation, 15,000,000. These are the wards of the state. By and by the children 
 will have to grapple with all these problems of city government and of the foreign 
 and domestic policy of the nation, and upon their training now depends their 
 ability to handle them. 
 
 "Investigation and experience have demonstrated beyond question that a 
 careful educational training is the best possible preparation for the exercise 
 of the right of franchise, for the delegation of political power and is the best 
 safeguard against all sorts of fanatical schemes and social vagaries. 
 
 "In the consideration of this subject it must be borne in mind that a large 
 part of our children are of foreign extraction, and that about 04 per cent of 
 them leave the public schools at thirteen or fourteen years- tint is. they do nol go 
 beyond the primary and grammar grades. An astonishingly large proportion 
 of them do not get above the fifth and sixth grades. How to make the most 
 of these few years of school life for this training is the important question. 
 
 "I believe that the instruction should begin in the kindergarten under the 
 direction of trained teachers ; that certain ideas, such as respect for and obedi- 
 ence to parents, of honesty, industry, sobriety, habits of attention and observa- 
 
 175 
 
Cultivation of mind and character is of course the best preparation 
 for citizenship. ( 3 ) But we believe that, in addition, direct and specific 
 education — theoretical, historical, practical, and even technical, should — 
 be given to future citizens. ( 4 ) When the state pays the bills for free 
 education, it has a peculiar right to the public benefits of that education. 
 The character of citizenship in a republic determines the character of its 
 government. 
 
 For some of the grades in the elementary schools suitable text-books' 
 in English upon civics are lacking. ( 5 ) France, since its war with Germany, 
 
 tion should be inculcated. This work should be followed up in the primary- 
 grades, where the habit of good citizenship should be further cultivated, and 
 in the seventh and eighth grades the work should be broadened and a wider 
 knowledge of the principles and functions of our government, of history, of 
 law and justice implanted, and higher ideals of civic needs and patriotism 
 instilled into the minds of the pupils." — William A. Giles. 
 
 ( 3 ) ''American citizenship means more than any other citizenship — not only 
 because it lives and flourishes beneath the protection of the freest and best 
 institutions in the world, but because it has the perpetuity and success of these 
 institutions absolutely in its keeping and control. * * * In order that the 
 duty and responsibility we owe our government may be fully appreciated 
 and faithfully discharged, it is vitally necessary for us to be convinced that 
 we cannot delegate to others the work required of us. Each individual must 
 with his own hands do his share. In this way our government was built and in 
 this way only can it be kept in fit condition for the habitation of free Americans. 
 
 "How, then, shall the people protect themselves against the folly of a depart- 
 ure from their national purposes and against the crime of unnecessary and 
 unjustifiable war? Manifestly, by an intelligent study on their part of the char- 
 acter of their government and the exaction of a clear apprehension on the part 
 of those who would represent them in public life, of their nation's mission 
 and of the baleful effect of war upon their nation's health. These considerations 
 emphasize in the strongest possible manner the importance of a larger partici- 
 pation by thoughtful and educated men in political affairs. 
 
 "Nothing, however, will be found sufficient as a protection to the people 
 against betrayal, if conscience and moral courage are lacking. Intelligence, 
 study and knowledge are not protective agencies unless they are regulated and 
 guided by a conscientious and serious desire to do right and by an unswerving 
 adherence to patriotic conviction." — Grovcr Cleveland. June 21, 1898, at Laiv- 
 renceville, N. J. 
 
 ( 4 ) "The only intelligent, sytematic, effective method of teaching patriotism 
 in our schools is to make the school itself, in its organization and government 
 and spirit, an ideal democracy, where pupils learn to practice self-government, 
 learn reciprocal rights and duties, learn loyalty to the community and to the 
 national flag, truth, honesty and public spirit, for these qualities are the essentials 
 of patriotism. * * :;: Men who do not interest themselves in the affairs of 
 their own community, from its board of health to its public schools, are enemies 
 of the principle of self-government and of the whole system of political institu- 
 tions founded upon it." — Chauncey P. Cole grove. 
 
 (5) "While these ideas must be largely carried out by the teachers as a 
 part of the school exercises and government, and in connection with the teach- 
 ing of history, geography, etc.. in my opinion provision should be made for 
 special exercises supplemented by skillfully prepared readings and text-books 
 and a syllabus or topical program for the aid and direction of teachers. We 
 
 ,70 
 
appears to have far surpassed in this respect Great Britain and the United 
 States. Some American experts who are endeavoring- to supply this want, 
 deserve encouragement. In the kindergarten and primary grades trained 
 and patriotic teachers alone can meet our need.( 6 ) 
 
 When pupils are old enough to appreciate practical training for citizen- 
 ship, we believe that this form should supplement the historical and the 
 theoretical training. As a single illustration, we may mention the need 
 of education in the use of the modified Australian ballot. A great number 
 cf defective ballots have been thrown out in our recent elections. Why 
 should not the older pupils in our schools occasionally go through the form 
 of holding an election in accordance with the state law and with the usual 
 -machinery? We look with favor, also, on the attempts for self-govern- 
 ment of pupils which have afforded training in creating, obeying and 
 enforcing wise rules and regulations. ( 7 ) We believe that, while there 
 may be some danger of over-emphasis in this matter ( 8 ), these methods 
 
 have not as yet any well prepared set of text-books and reading books adapted 
 to the primary and intermediate grades, nor a well organized system for this 
 moral, civic and patriotic training." — William A. Giles. 
 
 (6) "It is now generally demanded that candidates for positions as grade 
 teachers pass an examination in the fundamental facts of national science. I 
 believe the time has now come for the demand to be as general that all such 
 candidates should have received genuine training in the fundamental facts of 
 our political and industrial systems."— Henry W. Thurston. 
 
 (7) Successful efforts in this direction have been made in the Hyde Park 
 High, in the John Crerar and in other schools of Chicago. See Appendix H. 
 
 (8) "In a society like ours it is imperative that everybody shall know that 
 respect for authority is a necessary element in the civic spirit. The conception of 
 education as a process of leading individuality to self-expression has been a most 
 serviceable abstraction, but when you make it a formula for an all-round pro- 
 gram of education you turn it into a screaming burlesque. If you force the 
 self-expression idea beyond a certain point you make it unsocial, non-co- 
 operative, disintegrating, demoralizing, anarchistic. We have to express our- 
 selves, but there is something immesurably bigger than ourselves which we 
 are bound to help express. That is the self-expression of humanity as repre- 
 sented by the society in which we live and move and have our being. There are 
 ascertained limits to the latitude within which the self-expression of the indi- 
 vidual is consistent with the self-expression of the whole of society. Those 
 limits are prescribed in laws and other socially recognized signs which the 
 individual is not at liberty to disregard. Adequate education for citizenship 
 involves development of sense of respect for the authority represented by these 
 prescriptions. There are some things which citizens are bound to do or forbear, 
 not because their self says so, but because society says so. The school that 
 fails to organize discovery and practice of this social element into its program 
 is a serious social menace. * * * School education simply turns grit into 
 
 177 
 
and experiments in the hands of wise, earnest and patriotic teachers, may 
 help largely to develop the instincts and habits of good citizenship. In 
 this connection, the attention of the board is respectfully invited to the 
 formation, in some of the Chicago schools, of clubs which attract the atten- 
 tion and interest of pupils to questions of municipal, state and national 
 politics, and which convey much knowledge of the machinery of govern- 
 ment. 
 
 The free use, elsewhere suggested, of school buildings in the evening 
 as literary and social centers, might well be extended to include non- 
 partisan civics. We would recommend, likewise, that wise and patriotic 
 citizens, ( 9 ) perhaps, the "resident commissioners" named in this report, 
 be invited to co-operate with the board of education in making our public 
 schools an inspiration to good citizenship. 
 
 But the chief means by which pupils in our public schools may learn 
 civics must be found in properly qualified teachers. We, therefore, suggest 
 that a syllabus ( 10 ) be prepared and used for the guidance of the present 
 
 the bearings of social machinery instead of substituting more fit parts for those 
 outworn, if it teaches boys and girls that constraint is no part of the law of 
 life. I am not pleading for a regime of force and arbitrariness and tyranny 
 in the schools. I am warning you that you are making social monstrosities 
 out of the pupils if you let them get the notion that self is all there is to express. 
 In the right preparation for citizenship there must be just balance between free 
 self-assertion of the individual on the one hand, and on the other hand, loyal self- 
 surrender to the larger self-assertion of the whole to which the individual belongs. 
 It is. therefore, not a disadvantage, but an indispensable advantage, to retain in 
 school some strong features of authoritative discipline which the pupils must 
 observe with military promptness and precision. Straight-out obedience, not 
 merely sugar-coated wilfullness, is a needful part of every child's education for 
 citizenship." — Albion IV. Small, University of Chicago. 
 
 (9) "I think it is desirable to perfect and organize, as far as possible, 
 the various educational agencies for this kind of work under a special committee 
 to be appointed by the mayor or board of education, in order to reach the great 
 masses with systematic, well-advised instruction. This would embrace not 
 only the training and instruction in day and evening schools, but special work 
 in which parents and those who have not had the advantages of school training 
 might participate. Outside co-operation might be utilized, as is done in other 
 cities, especially in Germany. In Berlin many hundreds of more intelligent citi- 
 zens are engaged in educational work outside of the school board, or as a branch 
 of it. While I am not prepared to recommend the creation of an auxiliary board 
 to participate in the management of school affairs, it seems to me it might be feas- 
 ible to secure in this work the aid of a much larger class of citizens. — William A. 
 Giles. 
 
 (10) "X make now a specific recommendation. I believe that a syllabus of 
 carefully graded and progressive exercises for guiding the form of teaching in 
 
 178 
 
force of teachers, and that the third recommendation in this article be 
 strictly enforced. 
 
 civics in the grades might be and ought to be prepared as soon as possible and 
 put into the hands of every grade teacher. Such a syllabus should from the 
 first embody the experiences of many of the best grade teachers in their attempts 
 to teach civics. As experience accumulates, it could undoubtedly be greatly 
 improved. The syllabus, however, should be at least begun at once."— Henry 
 W. Thurston. 
 
 179 
 
>rl)ool iSuittittigg an"b 
 architecture 
 
 ARTICLE XX 
 
 Your Commission respectfully recommends : 
 
 SECTION I. THAT THE BOARD OF EDUCATION MAKE SUCH REGULATIONS 
 
 FOR THE BUSINESS MANAGER AND THE SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS 
 AS WILL THROW OPEN TO THE WIDEST COMPETITION AMONG ARCHI- 
 TECTS THE PLANS FOR ANY NEW SCHOOL BUILDING; 
 
 SECTION 2. THAT THERE BE NO FIXED RULES IN REGARD TO THE ARCHI- 
 TECTURAL APPEARANCE OF SCHOOL BUILDINGS, EXCEPT THOSE WHICH 
 ARE IMPLIED IN THE REQUIREMENTS OF THE SITE CHOSEN, THE USE 
 OF THE BUILDINGS FOR SCHOOL PURPOSES, AND THE AMOUNT OF THE 
 APPROPRIATION FIXED BY THE BOARD ; 
 
 SECTION 3.— THAT THE BUILDINGS BE OF FIRE-PROOF CONSTRUCTION 
 AND ADEQUATE EXITS BE PROVIDED FOR EACH BUILDING; 
 
 SECTION 4. THAT SCHOOL- YARDS BE PROVIDED FOR PLAY-GROUNDS 
 
 WHEREVER POSSIBLE; AND THAT, IN ADDITION TO THIS, SPACE BE PRO- 
 VIDED FOR A SIMILAR PURPOSE WITHIN THE BUILDINGS THEMSELVES ; 
 
 SECTION 5. THAT THE PRINCIPLES OF SANITARY SCIENCE BE FULLY 
 
 RECOGNIZED IN SCHOOL BUILDINGS IN REGARD TO HEATING AND VENTI- 
 LATION, AND ESPECIALLY THE PRINCIPLES OF SCHOOL SANITATION IN 
 REFERENCE TO THE LIGHTING OF ROOMS AND PROVIDING OF PROPER 
 WARDROBES, SUPPLY OF PURE DRINKING WATER, AND NECESSARY TOILET 
 FACILITIES ; 
 
 SECTION 6. THAT THE REQUIREMENTS OF THE COURSE OF STUDY BE 
 
 CONSIDERED IN THE ERECTION OF BUILDINGS, SO THAT THE PROPER 
 FACILITIES MAY BE GIVEN FOR INSTRUCTION IN ALL SUBJECTS IN THE 
 CURRICULUM; THIS IS TO APPLY ESPECIALLY TO INSTRUCTION IN 
 MANUAL TRAINING, KINDERGARTEN, AND DOMESTIC SCIENCE; 
 
 SECTION 7. THAT SUITABLE ACCOMMODATIONS FOR WORK IN PHYSICAL 
 
 CULTURE BE PROVIDED WHEREVER POSSIBLE, AND IF NECESSARY, IN THE 
 ASSEMBLY HALL OR PLAY-ROOM J 
 
 SECTION 8.— -THAT THE CONSTRUCTION OF HIGH SCHOOL BUILDINGS BE 
 
 ADAPTED TO THE EASY TRANSFER OF PUPILS FROM ONE ROOM TO 
 
 ANOTHER ; 
 
 180 
 
SECTION 9. THAT THE EQUIPMENT AND GENERAL FURNISHING OF EACH 
 
 ROOM USED FOR SPECIAL SCHOOL PURPOSES BE MADE MORE NEARLY 
 ADEQUATE FOR SUCH PURPOSES, AND FURTHER EFFORTS BE MADE TO 
 RENDER THE APPEARANCE OF ALL SCHOOL ROOMS ATTRACTIVE AND 
 ARTISTIC ; 
 
 SECTION IO. THAT THESE RECOMMENDATIONS BE CARRIED OUT, SO 
 
 THAT THE RESULTS DESIRED MAY BE SECURED WITPI ALL POSSIBLE 
 
 economy; 
 section ii. — that a fixed principle be adopted in the naming of 
 school buildings only after distinguished persons, and that 
 none receive the name of living residents of this city; 
 
 SECTION 12. THAT IN VIEW OF THE FACT THAT A LARGE SUM OF 
 
 MONEY IS NOW ANNUALLY SPENT IN THE RENTING OF BUILDINGS 
 WHICH ARE IN MOST CASES ILL-ADAPTED FOR SCHOOL PURPOSES, BONDS 
 BE ISSUED FOR THE SECURING OF SCHOOL SITES AND FOR THE ERECTION 
 OF BUILDINGS ADEQUATE TO THE PRESENT NEEDS. 
 
 No part of school administration has aroused within recent years more 
 general interest than the subject of school architecture. The public has 
 gradually been brought to see the importance of this problem^), and in 
 our larger cities the day of badly constructed buildings is past. Boards 
 of education have awakened to the vital necessity of well-arranged and 
 sanitary schools ( 2 ) and have realized that school architecture has hitherto 
 not received the consideration that its far-reaching influence demands. ( 3 ) 
 
 (1) "Like a bit of fresh air coming through an open window into an ill- 
 ventilated room, within the last decade there has swept all over the land, pene- 
 trating even into the rural districts, the first breath in growing interest' in the 
 sanitary condition of our school-houses, conditions which have so much to do 
 with the health of our future citizens, who in many places are spending half 
 of their waking hours in poorly ventilated, badly lighted and uncleanly school- 
 rooms. It is no exaggeration to say that much of the alarming increase in 
 defective vision may be charged to this source, as also that the delicate lung 
 tissues are permanently injured and the whole system wrecked by this daily 
 inhalation of vitiated air, at a time, too, when the child should be laying a 
 firm foundation for physical as well as mental development." — Jason E. Ham- 
 mond, State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Michigan. 
 
 ( 2 ) "Now, as boards of education, I feel that we ought to take an advanced 
 position in this matter, and in the construction and furnishing of our school 
 buildings keep in view the main object of education and its effect upon the future 
 of this country." — Edmund S. Dewey, in American School Board Journal, 
 Easter Number, 1898. 
 
 ( 3 ) "Of all types of buildings, the school building stands out most conspicu- 
 ously in its want of rational treatment. To secure a perfectly sanitary, useful, 
 convenient, practical, and, lastly, ornamental success in a school building, 
 
 181 
 
Chicago has among the school buildings recently erected admirable exam- 
 ples of what such buildings should be. The sites have been in general 
 well chosen, with due regard to school needs, although this end would 
 have been more fully gained in many cases if the board of education had 
 been able to condemn properties distinctly required for its purposes. 
 School-yards have been provided where it seemed feasible. This feature 
 we especially commend, and in further extension of school accommoda- 
 tions we believe that it should be followed invariably. There can be no 
 question, also, that fire-proof construction should be insisted upon, and 
 that the same care should be given as heretofore to securing proper heat- 
 ing and ventilation. Some criticism has been heard from competent 
 authorities in regard to the lighting of school-rooms, and the attention 
 of the board of education is invited to this point. ( 4 ) While the general 
 arrangement of our newer buildings is to be commended, we believe that 
 greater variety in architectural appearance would add to the attractiveness 
 of the schools and to the beauty of the city. To this end we suggest com- 
 petitive plans from the best professional architects. 
 
 Since in our elementary schools many studies have been added recently 
 which require the fitting of special rooms, we recommend that due refer- 
 ence to these be taken in the plans of new buildings. Manual training, 
 that is, wood work for boys and domestic science for girls, will prove, we 
 hope, a permanent feature of our course of study, and proper accommo- 
 dations should be furnished. More may be done perhaps in equipping 
 for work in physical culture, and every school building should be provided 
 with a good assembly hall properly lighted for evening use. In the sec- 
 ondary schools we believe that better provision should be made for the 
 free movement of pupils from room to room( 5 ), and we note in this con- 
 nection the introduction of elevators in the larger schools of other cities. ( 6 ) 
 
 No sound principle has been followed in the naming of school buildings 
 in Chicago, and the list at present is decidedly incongruous. While it is 
 
 deserves the serious attention of every right-minded architect and every public- 
 spirited man connected with the school system." — A. H. Kirchner, Architect 
 St. Louis (Mo.) School Board, N. E. A. Proceedings, 1898. 
 
 (4) "The medical inspection of the schools, not only in regard to the sani- 
 tary condition of the school-house, but in regard to the physical condition of 
 the children, it seems to me should receive more attention. There should be a 
 medical inspector for every large building, at least. He should be paid a salary 
 sufficient to insure the services of a competent man, and his duty should be very 
 clearly defined."— Henry Sabin, Ex-State Superintendent of Instruction. Iowa. 
 
 (5) This need arises from the customary shifting of the pupils in the high 
 schools to different rooms at the end of each school period. 
 
 (6) Philadelphia and Detroit. 
 
 182 
 
well that the names of men, distinguished in the history of the city, should 
 be thus honored, it is safer not to use names of living- residents. 
 
 The prime necessity of additional school buildings in Chicago has been 
 treated at length. This is a problem which has confronted other cities. ( 7 ) 
 Chicago should not fall behind New York, which at great sacrifice is deter- 
 
 (") "The subject of school building is an all-absorbing topic in most of the 
 large cities and towns of this country, as well as in some of those in the old 
 world. In England, suffering from overcrowding exists to such a degree the 
 school boards in many places are hiring temporary quarters wherever possible. 
 In London alone, forty school buildings are under construction, not one of which 
 approach in size and accommodation the average public school building of New 
 York. The claim is made that this most universal lack of schools is caused by 
 phenomenal increases of population and want of a proper appreciation of the 
 fact. It must, however, be admitted that any administration awakening to a full 
 realization of affairs, would hesitate before increasing- the tax budget $5,000,000 
 or $6,000,000 in any one year. It is perhaps for this, as well as for other rea- 
 sons that the board of education in New York suffered and did the best possible 
 with the amounts offered from year to year for new schools to meet the ever 
 increasing population. 
 
 "From 1884 to 1897 inclusive, bond issue for public school purposes was 
 authorized to the amount of $33,000,000 : 93 school sites were acquired and 94,- 
 900 sittings furnished. Notwithstanding the large amounts appropriated, from 
 time to time, immediate results therefrom were not available, as the process of 
 condemnation sometimes occupied upwards of twenty months. The result was 
 the passage of a law limiting the time of condemnation to six months, and this 
 has been finally reduced to four months. Within the next two and a half years 
 New York will have provided nearly 150,000 sittings 
 
 "The selection of the school sites has been a problem. Careful consideration 
 of the nature of the soil and the proximity to anything that might create a nui- 
 sance or cause annoyance to the work of the school, is necessary. 
 
 "Wise legislation and marvelous development in building methods and the 
 cheapening of the introduction of new materials, has placed New York in the 
 enviable position of not having erected any but fire-proof public school buildings 
 since the year 1892. High school and college buildings have been erected in 
 various parts of the country of fire-proof construction, but New York is the 
 only city thus far that has made provision for housing the helpless little children 
 in structures of this character. Boston is preparing to follow the example set, 
 but shrinks from the task even as she marvels how New York introduces 
 gymnasiums and many other features in elementary school buildings while in 
 Boston they are found only in the high school. 
 
 "The older school buildings have been noted for their dark, unwholesome, 
 low-ceiled play-rooms ; lack of opportunity to obtain fresh water for drinking 
 purposes; inadequate and inferior sanitary accommodations; lack of out-door 
 play-grounds; small, dark, close rooms, over-heated and unventilated, and with 
 two or three children seated at one long desk ; wardrobes in the clas>-r< 11 >ms ; lack 
 of room for physical and manual training, etc. 
 
 "In every one of our new buildings successful effort has been made to meet 
 these criticisms. In the first and most essential particular they are fire-proof 
 throughout, of steel skeleton construction, with steel beams and brick arches for 
 the ventilation of the floor system ; terra cotta partitions, iron and stone stairs and 
 an abundance of light and' air. The indoor play-rooms are large and unob- 
 structed by interior walls. They are about on a level of tin streel and have high 
 ceilings with plenty of air and light. Their floors are paved with rock asphalt 
 similar to the street pavements. Drinking facilities are furnished so thai fifty 
 or sixty children can obtain water at the same time, the troughs to receive the 
 waste being so designed that the children's clothing, large or small, is not wet 
 
 183 
 
mined upon remedying- immediately a situation which is far worse than 
 that prevailing in Chicago, and which will involve at least five times the 
 expenditure necessary here. We believe that steps should be taken imme- 
 diately to repair our admitted deficiencies, either by issuing school bonds 
 for sites and buildings, or by levying for a few years the maximum tax 
 allowed by state law for these purposes. ( 8 ) 
 
 from the spattering of the water. The sanitary conditions are most adequate. 
 The side-walls of the closets are lined with glazed brick, the floors paved with 
 asphalt and the roof is usually provided with skylights, in order to avoid dark 
 corners and consequent uncleanliness — for darkness and uncleanliness go hand 
 in hand ; in fact they are inseparable. 
 
 "The class-rooms contain about 625 square feet, lighted usually by one large 
 opening often 16 feet wide by 19 feet in height, thus avoiding the cross lights that 
 are so injurious to a child. Forced ventilation is provided on the basis of thirty 
 cubic feet of fresh air per capita per minute. The children are provided with 
 single desks and seats of the adjustable pattern with isles between each row. 
 All wardrobes for clothing are placed outside the class-rooms, steam pipes being 
 introduced where practicable to dry and warm the clothing and induce a circula- 
 tion of fresh air. The fifth stories of the newer buildings are fitted up for manual 
 training. Each building is wired for electric lighting, some having their own 
 dynamos complete, thus" making them available for evening schools and lecture 
 purposes. 
 
 "With a site costing $14,000 per square foot, or $300,000 for a building cover- 
 ing little over eight city lots, the amount of ground which can be given for out- 
 door play-ground is a problem. The solution has been found by providing in 
 addition to the indoor play-room on the first floor and the outdoor play-ground 
 at the rear of the building, a roof play-ground, well protected with fencing, 
 located well above the adjoining houses. The extent in square feet of play- 
 grounds of the newer buildings average about as follows : Inside play-ground, 
 11.229; outside play-grounds, 4.224; roof play-grounds, 9.527. 
 
 "The plan of school number 165, is in the form of a letter H, being placed with 
 the ends of the wings resting on the street lines and the main part of the building 
 parallel with the longer axis and the block thus forming blank walls along the 
 lines of the adjoining property and effectually shutting out all nuisances. Light 
 for the class-rooms is taken from the courts on either side and facing the streets, 
 being self-contained as to air and light, while opportunity for architectural effect 
 is not wanting. 
 
 "The average cost per square foot of the non-fire-proof four-story building as 
 erected a few years ago, was about $14.25. The cost of a five-story fire-proof 
 building as recently erected is but about $1.60 per square foot more, and it is 
 possible that in the development of this type of architecture this difference will 
 be almost, if not quite, eliminated in the near future." — C. B. J. Snyder, in Educa- 
 tional Review, January, 1898. 
 
 (8) If the issue of school bonds be authorized, interest on these would be 
 largely met through the saving of rentals, now paid by the board. On the othc r 
 hand, if the maximum, allowed for building purposes, were levied for three 01 
 four years, ample accommodations could be furnished. 
 
 184 
 
2lppentit;ce0. 
 
&ppcnD(j: A. 
 
 COMPARATIVE STATEMENT OF SALARY SCHEDULES AND PER 
 CAPITA COST OF INSTRUCTION. 
 
 To make any fair comparison of teachers' salaries is difficult. Not only do living 
 expenses greatly vary in different cities, but the requirements made of teachers in 
 the way of preparatory training and of continuous study after appointment, both of 
 which involve considerable expense, are far greater in some cities than others. These 
 points should be considered carefully in the fixing of teachers' salaries, but they 
 introduce much confusion into a comparative statement of schedules. A city has 
 the right to demand the best service available for the salaries paid and unless inade- 
 quate or unjust requirements are made for admission and promotion, the best 
 teachers will be secured. If Boston and New York are able and willing to pay 
 proportionately more to teachers than Baltimore or Washington, they have a right 
 to expect a more competent force. Chicago compares favorably with other cities in 
 the average pay of teachers, as may be seen by the following summary, and if the 
 teaching body fails in efficiency, the reason must be sought rather in an irrational 
 proportionment of salaries and in an unsound plan of promotion. 
 
 In Boston, the minimum salary for primary and grammar school teachers is $552 
 and the maximum salary is $936, reached in the ninth year of service. Philadelphia 
 pays a minimum salary of $470 to primary teachers and of $670 to teachers in the 
 grammar schools. The maximum reached after five years' service is $620 in the 
 primary schools and $820 in the grammar schools, with an additional $50 for eighth 
 grade teachers and a special schedule for men teachers in the seventh and eighth 
 grades, with a maximum of $980 and $1,050 respectively. In St. Louis, elementary 
 teachers are classed as first, second, and third assistants, with salaries varying from 
 $400 to $500 for the first year, and from $560 to $700 for the fifth year, after which 
 there is no further advance. Brooklyn pays a minimum of $400 and with gradual 
 advances a maximum of $700 to primary teachers after six years' service. Grammar 
 school teachers reach a maximum of $1,000 after seven years. The highest salary- 
 paid to elementary teachers in Cincinnati is $700 for primary and $800 for grammar 
 grade teachers, attained by length of service and success. Cleveland fixes a maxi- 
 mum of $700 for primary and $75« for grammar school teachers, dependent only 
 upon length of service. The minimum salary for primary and grammar school 
 teachers in Chicago is $500 and the maximum of $1,000 is reached after ten years' 
 service. The following comparative table of salaries of teachers in high schools was 
 prepared by a committee of the secondary school teachers of Chicago. 
 
Albany, N. Y. 
 
 Boston, Mass 
 
 Buffalo, N. Y 
 
 Baltimore. Md 
 
 Chicago, 111. 
 
 Cincinnati, O 
 
 Cleveland, O 
 
 Columbus, O. 
 
 Detroit, Mich 
 
 Denver, Colo 
 
 Hartford, Conn 
 
 Indianapolis, Ind... 
 Kansas City, Mo. -- 
 
 Louisville, Ky 
 
 Milwaukee, Wis 
 
 Newark, N. J 
 
 New Haven, Corin.- 
 
 New York, N. Y 
 
 Omaha, Neb. 
 
 Philadelphia, Pa. - 
 
 Pittsburg, Pa 
 
 Providence, R. I. -- 
 
 Rochester, N. Y 
 
 St. Paul, Minn. 
 
 -San Francisco, Cal. 
 
 St. Louis, Mo 
 
 Syracuse, N. Y 
 
 Toledo, O 
 
 Washington, D. C. - 
 Worcester, Mass. .— 
 
 S-,500 
 3,060 
 1,600 
 i.Soo 
 2,800 
 2,100 
 1,600 
 1,600 
 1,800 
 1,700 
 2,500 
 1,500 
 2,000 
 1,800 
 1,700 
 2,000 
 1,800 
 3,000 
 1,400 
 3,000 
 1,700 
 2,000 
 2,300 
 1,400 
 1,860 
 2,400 
 1,500 
 1,500 
 1,500 
 2,300 
 
 Si, 000 
 
 1.17'' 
 600 
 
 850 
 
 1,200 
 800 
 800 
 700 
 800 
 
 1,500 
 800 
 810 
 
 1,000 
 900 
 
 1,200 
 690 
 900 
 700 
 500 
 650 
 600 
 
 1,000 
 700 
 
 1,200 
 700 
 
 1,000 
 
 800 
 
 500 
 
 800 
 
 Maximum. Minimum 
 
 $ 800 
 
 1,836 
 1,500 
 1,200 
 2,000 
 1,200 
 1,600 
 1,400 
 1,400 
 1,200 
 1,500 
 
 1,200 
 1,250 
 1,700 
 
 1,200 
 2,500 
 1,400 
 I-550 
 
 2,000 
 
 9OO 
 
 1,100 
 
 1,860 
 
 2,400 
 800 
 
 1,200 
 
 1,100 
 
 1,000 
 
 S 700 
 
 972 
 
 400 
 600 
 
 850 
 
 600 
 
 800 
 
 700 
 700 
 
 800 
 
 "675 
 
 1,000 
 900 
 
 600 
 900 
 700 
 400 
 
 600 
 600 
 400 
 
 1,200 
 
 700 
 
 550 
 800 
 
 400 
 600 
 
 These comparative statements show that Chicago has acted generously in fixing 
 the salaries of the teaching force and has therefore a right to demand well-trained, 
 efficient and enthusiastic teachers. The average pay of teachers does not, however, 
 determine fully, and perhaps not even in the largest measure, the excellence of the 
 teaching body. The salaries of different positions must be carefully proportioned. 
 Length of service should be the primary but not the important basis in allotting 
 increase of pay. /Successful experience and .increased scholarship should be reckoned 
 more vital conditions of promotion. The salary schedule of a city should be framed 
 with the main idea of securing and recognizing the presence of these qualities in the 
 teaching body. 
 
 Of our large cities, New York seems to have taken the soundest stand in this 
 matter. The salary schedule of the boroughs of Manhattan and the Bronx, adopted 
 in January, 1898, was drawn up in accordance with the provisions of the city charter. 
 
 The salaries of all elementary teachers, except those in the service of the board at 
 the time this by-law became effective, are determined by the following schedule : 
 
 188 
 
teachers' salary (men). 
 
 Probationary year, salary $ 720 
 
 Grade i— Minimum salary for regular teachers • ■ • • ■ • 1,000 
 
 Grade 2— Those who have taught three years in Grade i are eligible to apply 
 
 f or 1 .350 
 
 Grade 3— Those who have taught two years in Grade 2 are eligible to apply for. 1,620 
 
 Grade 4— Those who have taught two years in Grade 3 are eligible to apply for. 1,890 
 
 Grade 5— Those who have taught two years in Grade 4 are eligible to apply for. 2,250 
 
 teachers' salary (women). 
 
 Probationary year, salary $ 504 
 
 Grade 1— Minimum salary for regular teachers • • 570 
 
 Grade 2— Those who have taught three years in Grade 1 are eligible to apply 
 
 f or 750 
 
 Grade 3— Those who have taught two years in Grade 2 are eligible to apply for. 936 
 
 Grade 4— Those who have taught two years in Grade 3 are eligible to app y for. 1,1 iO 
 
 Grade 5— Those who have taught two years in Grade 4 are eligible to apply for. 1,350 
 
 No discrimination is made in the pay of different years in the elementary schools, 
 but it is understood that teachers who receive the highest salaries are to be assigned 
 in general to the first primary grade and to the last two grades of the grammar 
 schools. The admission or promotion of teachers to each of the five grades referred 
 to in the above schedule is based upon an examination to establish the "fitness" and 
 "merit" of the applicants, which are ascertained in the following manner : 
 
 " 'The fitness' of the candidate shall be determined by an inquiry and ex- 
 amination in relation to the following matters, namely: (1) Personal character- 
 istics, in which shall be included morals, habits, temperament and health ; (2) Rec- 
 ord as a teacher as shown by the reports of the city superintendent and assistant 
 superintendents during the period covered by services in the grade from which 
 advancement is sought, and by statements both oral and written of the principal or 
 principals under whom the candidate may have taught during such period, as to 
 results obtained by him or her in the attendance, scholarship, discipline or promo- 
 tions of his or her classes; (3) The personal qualifications as a teacher, namely: 
 Ability to impart instruction to classes, ability to maintain discipline, familiarity with 
 the by-laws, rules and regulations of the board of education applicable to class 
 instruction and discipline. 
 
 "The 'merit' shall be determined by a written examination in the general knowl- 
 edge of the candidate in the methods of teaching the subjects of instruction which 
 will be required, and also in such subject or subjects as the applicant may select, 
 which broaden the general culture of a teacher in any direction, as well as in dis- 
 tinctively school work; and the use of the English language and grammar shall be 
 considered in determining the value of the applicant's work. 
 
 "The written record of the examination both as to 'fitness' and 'merit' shall be 
 preserved. 
 
 "The result of the examination for 'fitness' shall count 50 per cent in the general 
 average, and the examination for 'merit' 50 per cent." 
 
 The minimum salary of principals of elementary schools is $2,750 for men and 
 $1,700 for women. After three years' service in each class, men may apply for 
 $3,000 and again for $3,250, and women for $2,000 and $2,200. Men principals who 
 supervise thirty or more classes receive an addition of $250 and women an additional 
 
 189 
 
$300. The maximum salary, however, for men principals who supervise nine classes 
 or less, is $2,500, while women principals of similar schools receive a maximum of 
 $1,500. Principals are promoted from one class in the salary schedule to another on 
 conditions similar to those affecting regular teachers. 
 
 In a small town the superintendent of schools may fairly fix the compensation of 
 teachers within the limits of the appropriation of the board. In a large city a fixed 
 schedule of salaries is essential and must be carefully drawn up to be either effective 
 in securing a good force or fair to the individual teachers. Opinions may differ in 
 regard to the proportionate pay of men and women in the New York schedule, but 
 the provisions in regard to promotion seem to offer a satisfactory solution of the 
 salary problem. 
 
 A good basis for a comparison of expenditures for school purposes in various 
 cities might seem to be afforded in a table showing the per capita cost of instruction 
 in a few typical cities. The following table has been accordingly prepared, and 
 furnishes some interesting data, although it is very difficult to deduce any proper 
 conclusions from them. The figures are obtained by dividing the total expenditures 
 for current expenses, including salaries and incidentals, by the number of pupils 
 enrolled, by the average daily membership, and by the average daily attendance. No 
 wide variation in the cost of instruction appears except in the case of St. Louis and 
 of Cleveland, where the maximum salaries for elementary teachers is at least 15 
 per cent lower than in Boston or Chicago. No fair deduction can be made from such 
 a table, as to the relative economy in administration in these cities, since some of 
 them are much more generous than others in the scope of their provisions for public 
 education. 
 
 PER CAPITA COST OF PUBLIC EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES IN THE 
 FOLLOWING CITIES FOR THE YEARS FROM 1893 TO 1897. 
 
 FOR ALL CURRENT EXPENSES. 
 
 Upon number en- 
 rolled _ 
 
 Upon average daily 
 membership 
 
 Upon average daily 
 attendance 
 
 1893, 1894, 1895, 1896, 1897, 
 
 CHICAGO. 
 
 $1972 $19.26 $20.22 $20.68 $2047 
 
 24.55 23.85 24.61 25.12 2475 
 
 26.52 25.6O 26.40 26.95 26.4.S 
 
 1893, 1894, 1895, 1896, 1897, 
 
 PHILADELPHIA. 
 
 $16.83 $l8.IO $17.67 $18.47 $17.98 
 
 2I.06 22.78 22.55 23.32 22.47 
 
 24.52 24.75 25.05 26.80 24.64 
 
 Upon number en- 
 rolled 
 
 Upon average daily 
 membership 
 
 Upon average daily 
 attendance 
 
 BROOKLYN. 
 
 $17.62 $17.59 $ l8 -o5 $ l8 -30 $18.46 
 23.26 23.12 23.15 23.22 23.37 
 25.73 26.03 25.37 26.38 26.06 
 
 ST. LOUIS. 
 
 $14.36 $14.23 $14-59 $14-75 $15-12 
 
 18.92 18.27 18.59 18.87 I9-OS 
 20.72 19.75 20.14 20.44 20.64 
 
 190 
 
Upon number en- 
 rolled 
 
 I 'poii average daily 
 membership 
 
 Upon average daily 
 attendance 
 
 1893, 1894. 1895. 1S96, 1897- 
 
 BOSTON. (') 
 
 $20.55 $20.41 $20.95 $20.72 $2146 
 
 3.63 23.32 2372 24.20 24.65 
 6.69 26.23 26.72- 26.98 2778 
 
 Upon number en- 
 rolled 
 
 Upon average daily 
 membership 
 
 Upon average daily 
 attendance --- 
 
 MINNEAPOLIS. 
 
 $20.25 $20.99 $20.49 $20.24 $20.96 
 
 26.01 26.50 25.27 2577 25.90 
 
 27.32 27.54 26.l6 26.66 26.80 
 
 1893. 1894. 1895, 1896, 1897. 
 
 CLEVELAND. 
 
 118.94 $i8.33'$i8.5o $18.84 $18.48 
 23.84 23.32 23.42 23.30 22.43 
 24.77 23.87 24.88 24.62 23.63 
 
 $19.06 $18.29 
 26.68 24.82 
 29.08 26.99 
 
 (') The figures in Boston are based upon the day schools alone. 
 
 Reference has been made in various parts of this report to the rapid growth of 
 Chicago and the consequent difficulties of administration involved in the retention 
 of an antiquated plan of management. The following table, showing the number of 
 teachers and of pupils and the expenditures for various purposes during the last 
 nine years, may be, therefore, of interest : 
 
 OUTLINE STATEMENT OF THE GROWTH OF THE CHICAGO PUBLIC SCHOOL SYSTEM. 
 
 89O 
 89I 
 
 892 
 
 8u 3 
 894 
 895 
 896 
 
 807 
 
 2,711 
 3,001 
 
 3.300 
 3.520 
 3,812 
 4,326 
 4,668 
 4.9H 
 5,268 
 
 135. Ui 
 146,751 
 157.743 
 166,895 
 185.3^8 
 201,380 
 213,825 
 225,718 
 236,239 
 
 $1,467,663 
 2,298,782 
 2,555.821 
 2,796,271 
 
 3,034,255 
 3,492,122 
 
 3.843,504 
 4,044.643 
 4,459,222 
 
 $70,650 
 93- 1 79 
 85,646 
 110,040 
 118,578 
 131,676 
 1 26,800 
 124,879 
 141,285 
 
 TEXT- BOOKS 
 
 FOR INDIGENT 
 
 PUPILS. 
 
 $1,959 
 2,686 
 2,799 
 2,358 
 16,108 
 26,242 
 1 8,007 
 23.298 
 38,670 
 
 191 
 
appcntJfjc b. 
 
 PUBLIC KINDERGARTENS. 
 
 At the request of the Educational Commission, Miss Elizabeth Har- 
 rison, of the Chicago Kindergarten College, kindly submitted the follow- 
 ing suggestions on the subject of kindergarten work. The connection of 
 the kindergarten with the public school is set forth in its fundamental 
 aspects in the succeeding paper by Professor Edmund J. James, of the 
 University of Chicago. 
 
 Chicago, October 5, 1898. 
 To the Educational Commission — Gentlemen: 
 
 In answer to your recent favor I would say that the best argument for the kinder- 
 gartens becoming a part of the public school system lies in the fact that the child is 
 taken by the kindergarten at so early a period that his ideas are not yet clearly or 
 definitely molded, and by the kindergartner through her knowledge of the right 
 training of the emotional and its result upon the will and thought, he is easily 
 influenced toward the right lines of conduct, not only by the conversation and stories 
 of the kindergarten, but also by its plays and games in whieh he enacts the part 
 of ideal family life, workman and citizen, thus gaining through play an impression 
 of the correct relationships. 
 
 Coming to the kindergarten so early as his fourth or fifth year, he is trained 
 in courtesy of manner and correct speech without any loss of self-respect, or any 
 seeming criticism upon his home life, good manners and good speech being taken 
 as a matter of course in his new environment, and as experience has often shown, 
 in many cases transferred by him to the home life; we have found that parents as 
 a rule are much more willing to take the innocent corrections and suggestions of 
 their little children than those of older ones. 
 
 Again, an important reason for the spending of a due proportion of public money 
 upon children of this age is, that habits of industry and constructive ability are 
 formed before habits of destruction and idleness can have become attractive to 
 the child. 
 
 A still more important reason in the eyes of those who are familiar with the 
 workings of the kindergarten is the impetus which it gives to creative and original 
 work on the part of the child training him, as it does, to expect to invent and 
 create new forms, new combinations and new uses of each element of material which 
 he possesses. This, if rightly carried out in the advanced grades, means, in my 
 
 IQ2 
 
judgment, untold added wealth to the community at large by means of the added 
 creativity and increased resources of its citizens. 
 
 I need hardly speak of the more apparent advantages, such as habits of punctu- 
 ality, respect, reverence, co-operation and self-control in which the child is thus 
 early trained before their opposites can be established by the street, the alley and 
 the saloon. 
 
 As to the second point, of the best methods for establishing kindergartens in the 
 public schools, weC 1 ) would by all means recommend the system now being carried 
 out by the board of education, viz. : That of receiving as applicants for positions in 
 the public school kindergartens, only such kindergartners as have certificates showing 
 that they have had at least two years of study and practice work in some thorough 
 and well recognized training school ; out of the number thus selected who pass the 
 examination, we would recommend that those be selected for positions, first, whose 
 personality and general culture is the largest; good health and a pleasant manner 
 are also of great help in good kindergarten work. A certain amount of knowledge 
 of music, especially vocal music, is also an additional recommendation, but this is 
 not an absolute essential in Chicago, as there are three large training centers here, 
 and an instrumental musician can always be supplied from among the volunteers who 
 are serving as cadets in the schools. In my judgment it is far more essential that 
 the kindergartner has a thorough psychological understanding of her materials and 
 of the needs of her children than that she should be able to play for their marches 
 and games, as the latter can be supplied by an assistant; the former cannot. 
 
 Such rigid and exacting requirements would necessarily prevent any wholesale 
 establishment of kindergartens, but I most strongly recommend that all kindergartens 
 established in Chicago schools shall be well established, even if somewhat slowly. 
 I should say some fifteen or twenty kindergartens, perhaps more, might be thus 
 manned each succeeding year. 
 
 The present system of entering all new kindergartners first as assistants, and 
 having tested them in this position, promoting them to a directorship, as is now 
 done in public schools of Chicago, is, in general, the wisest procedure. This, I 
 think, would not necessitate promotion from length of time of employment so much 
 as ability shown by the assistant, as many kindergartners in one year can better show 
 their fitness for the more responsible position of directorship than others in two 
 or three years. This, of course, is a delicate matter and would have to be left to 
 the judgment of the kindergarten supervisor and the kindergarten committee of 
 the board of education. I would suggest that they could be aided by a written 
 report from the kindergarten director in whose kindergarten the candidate for pro- 
 motion has been at work. 
 
 This brings me to your fourth point, which is, viz. : The most economical manner 
 in which Chicago kindergartens can be conducted. 
 
 In my judgment the kindergartners in the city of Chicago are paid too large a 
 sum in proportion to the many capable and conscientious workers in the primary 
 grades, who, from the nature of their work, and the greater maturity of the children 
 they have in charge, are required to give two hours more of time in the schoolroom. 
 I would therefore recommend that the salary of paid assistant or advanced cadet be 
 
 C 1 ) Miss Harrison is speaking also for Mrs. J. N. Crouse, Joint Principal of the Chicago Kinder- 
 garten College. 
 
 193 
 
placed at $15 or $20 rather than the salary of the director he cut, or the time allotted 
 the children for attendance upon kindergarten be shortened. 
 
 Our reasons for these suggestions are that lowering the salary of the director of 
 the kindergarten would, of necessity, drive many of our best and most experienced 
 directors to other cities where the salaries are larger, and where they are in need 
 of such directors. In the second place, it would lessen in the minds of the assistant 
 or cadet the desirability of the goal to be reached by promotion. 
 
 If the salary of the director is kept at a good living price, you will find that many 
 fine, capable women whose homes are in Chicago, or who have means of partially 
 maintaining themselves, will be willing to accept the position of assistant or advanced 
 cadet with the prospect before them of a well paid directorship, whereas if the direc- 
 tor's salary is cut the motive for entering the candidacy for a directorship will be 
 lessened. 
 
 Should the period given to kindergartens be cut, the efficiency and influence of 
 the work will be lessened in proportion, and the real benefit to be derived from it 
 much interrupted and decreased. 
 
 As to economy in material used, I have never yet seen a kindergarten connected 
 with public schools where there did not seem to be a lavish and unnecessary expendi- 
 ture for materials. Our experience in conducting charity kindergartens has 
 proved to us that after a kindergarten is once furnished with its tables, chairs and 
 gifts, there need not be an expenditure for a kindergarten of forty or fifty children 
 of more than $3 per month. 
 
 Much of the regulation as to current expenses necessarily depends upon the 
 supervisor's watchfulness and the director's ability to make use of the odds and 
 ends of materials. 
 
 As to the third point in your letter, viz. : How the work of the kindergarten may 
 be brought into closer connection with that of the primary grades, we would suggest 
 that twice per month the kindergarten and primary teachers of the city meet together ; 
 on the first occasion a committee of kindergartners be appointed by their supervisor 
 or the board to explain the kindergarten principles and methods. At the second 
 meeting the primary grade teachers be given the floor and their methods explained. 
 
 So far as my personal experience goes I have never known a wide-awake, efficient 
 kindergartner to be connected with a public school where she did not interest the 
 primary grade teachers next to her, and be of much assistance to them in helping 
 them to select the best stories and songs for their children, together with the sugges- 
 tion of some plays and games- and physical exercises which could without injury be 
 transferred from the kindergarten to the primary relaxation. On the other hand, 
 the best primary grade teachers of our city have been of much help to kindergartners 
 in suggesting to them more definite language exercises for the children, and such 
 points of nature study as will prepare the children for their prescribed course in 
 the primary grade. 
 
 The highest compliment I have ever heard paid by a primary teacher to a kinder- 
 gartner has come to me many times in the remark: "The kindergarten children 
 seem to expect to be on friendly relations with us at once." 
 
 In many cases where the child comes from the home extreme reserve and often- 
 times opposition has first to he overcome. 
 
 We do not think it advantageous to introduce many of the kindergarten "gifts" 
 
 194 
 
and "occupations" into the primary grades, as most of them are intended for and 
 adapted to the use of children under six years of age. This mistake has been made 
 by many primary teachers in the past. There is some of the material, however, 
 which, if rightly understood, could be advantageously used. 
 
 We would also suggest that all earnest and inquiring primary grade teachers 
 should read Froebel's "Education of Man.'' and from it add to 4heir own high 
 enthusiasm concerning the calling of a teacher. 
 
 Thanking you for the courtesy which allows this communication, I remain, 
 Cordially and sincerely yours, 
 
 Elizabeth Harrison. 
 
 the kindergarten and the public school. (!) 
 
 In order to set forth clearly and satisfactorily the thoughts which underlie this 
 paper, it seems necessary to preface the argument with a brief consideration of the 
 basis and province of the kindergarten. 
 
 The average child in our society comes in conscious contact during the first six 
 to ten years of his life with four great institutions — the family, the school, the church, 
 and the state. They all share in educating him, both directly and indirectly, for life 
 in human society. The particular share which each of these institutions takes in 
 the education of the child is a varying one, changing with time, place, and circum- 
 stance. As a matter of fact, it has been determined thus far in human history, to a 
 large extent, unconsciously — oftentimes seemingly by accident. To a certain extent, 
 indeed, this is true, not only of the distribution of the work of education, but also of 
 all national effort in behalf of education itself. But with every step in human civiliza- 
 tion we have come nearer and nearer to the time when public attention shall be more 
 and more concentrated on what is beyond all doubt the most important question in 
 any given generation, viz., that of the education of the next, and the time when the 
 conviction shall be forced home upon the public consciousness with an absolutely 
 irresistible force that all that has been done in education is but the merest beginning, 
 and that we must open our minds and hearts and purses in earnest in the 'support of 
 this cause if we would look forward to the future of our race with reasonable hope 
 and complacency. There are, fortunately for us, many signs of a deep and general 
 awakening on this important subject, not only in our own midst but across the seas 
 both east and west, in Asia as well as in Europe. Within the last fifteen years a 
 system of popular schools, looking towards bringing the opportunities for a school 
 education within the reach of every child in the community, has finally been estab- 
 lished in the southern half of our own country, in England, in France, in Italy, and 
 in other European countries, and in Japan and India. Those who, twenty years 
 ago, would have prophesied that these things would come to pass within this century, 
 would have been derided and ridiculed as little short of lunatics. Who would dare 
 prophesy what the next fifteen years will accomplish in this direction? 
 
 Every advance on the formal side of education, ending in the establishment of 
 new institutions, has been accompanied by a no less marked, though not so easily 
 discernible, advance on, what, for lack of a better term, I may call the ideal side. 
 That is to say. the public consciousness is becoming more and more sensible of the 
 fact that we need a more thoughtful, careful, persistent study of the nature of educa- 
 
 (') An address by Edmund J. James, University of Chicago. 
 
 195 
 
tion itself, and of the further fact, that we may determine, to a very large extent, 
 what particular share of this educational work we shall assign to the various institu- 
 tions mentioned above. In other words, we have already begun consciously to dis- 
 tribute the work of educating the child and to look to these various institutions for 
 certain definite contributions to this all important end. It cannot have escaped the 
 attention of even the most careless observers in this field, that the present tendency 
 in human society is toward assigning a continually increasing sphere in the educa- 
 tion of the child to public institutions. It has not been so very long— many of you 
 can remember the time— when the education of the average child in this community 
 was left entirely to the family, the street, and the church, with precious little of the 
 latter. We now offer to the majority of our children the opportunity of free school- 
 ing for about eight years of their life, and to a small number the addition of four 
 years more. In other words, we leave, at present, the education of the child until 
 his sixth year entirely in the hands of the family. We then offer to the family the 
 opportunity of calling in the assistance of the school in the education of its younger 
 members for the next eight years of their lives. 
 
 One of the great questions now before the educational world is this: Can the 
 family properly look out for the education of the child until its sixth year, and. if 
 it can, does it actually do so, or can we insure its doing so? It is this question then 
 to which I first ask your attention. 
 
 We all agree, I think, and at least the society in which we live is agreed, that the 
 family cannot or at least will not properly look out for the education of its children 
 after the sixth year. Now what is the basis of this conclusion? As I look at it, it 
 is simply this : There is a certain minimum of knowledge and training, both mental 
 and moral, which, for the safety and welfare of society, it is necessary should be 
 realized in the great majority of its members. This knowledge and training— educa- 
 tion we may call it — can be best acquired in the years from five or six to fourteen or 
 fifteen. If the opportunity for obtaining this minimum is not placed within the reach 
 of the mass of our children at a small expense within those years, it will not be sought 
 either by the children themselves or by their parents for them. 
 
 If this be a correct statement of the case, it is evident that our present arrange- 
 ment is justifiable only on condition that the completion of the fifth year marks the 
 period at which the public education of the child, as distinguished from the family 
 education, may best begin. Whether this be so or not is one of the most vexed 
 questions of pedagogical theory, and I shall not attempt more than to indicate briefly 
 my views on the subject and give my reasons for holding them. We must first state 
 the case clearly, and we shall find, I think, that such a statement will contribute very 
 much toward our arriving at substantial agreement on the most important of the 
 points at issue. 
 
 When one speaks of public education, most people think of the education which 
 is given by our schools as at present constituted. This is the source of the first 
 difference in opinion which clearly arises from a misunderstanding. We may grant 
 that the beginning of the sixth year is the proper time for the child to enter school, 
 as that institution is at present organized, and to take up the routine of school duties, 
 and yet maintain that the public education of the child should begin at a much earlier 
 age. All that is necessary to reconcile these two positions is to insist on the necessity 
 of a different institution, which shall look after the education of the child prior to 
 
 196 
 
its entering school. This is practically the position of a large and growing body of 
 theoretical and practical educationalists, and I fully accept their opinion in this 
 respect. 
 
 Whether five, six, or seven is the proper age to begin school-work is not by any 
 means a well-settled point, but we may take it for granted, I think, that the time 
 will fall within those limits. Suppose we accept as the proper age that which is 
 generally taken as the beginning of the so-called legal school age, viz., the close of 
 the fifth year. For the sake of argument, then, we may grant that children should 
 not attend school before the age of six years. On the other hand, we maintain that 
 the public education of the child should begin much sooner, meaning by public educa- 
 tion simply a systematic training outside of the family and in company with other 
 children, with a view to developing and training the powers of the child-mind. This 
 can be best accomplished in a special institution organized for this particular purpose 
 —an institution which shall bridge over the chasm between the nursery and the 
 school. Such an institution the kindergarten claims to be. There are, therefore, 
 two points to be considered : First, the reason for such an institution ; second, the 
 extent to which tne kindergarten satisfies the demand. 
 
 In discussing the reason for, and the necessity of, such an institution, I shall 
 appeal to two classes of facts: (i) Those of physiology and psychology, and (2) 
 those of the daily life of children, which are patent to us all. Professor Bain, in 
 his "Education as a Science," calls attention to the fact that "The brain grows with 
 great rapidity up to seven years of age; it then attains an average weight of forty 
 ounces in the male. The increase is much slower between seven and fourteen, when 
 it attains forty-five ounces; still slower from fourteen to twenty, when it is very 
 near its greatest size. It would seem pretty clear that there is some connection be- 
 tween intellectual power and brain-growth. Consequently, of the more difficult 
 intellectual exercises, some that would be impossible at five or six are easy at eight 
 through the fact of brain-growth alone. This is consistent with all our experience, 
 and is of value as confirming that experience. It often happens that you try a pupil 
 with a peculiar subject at a certain age and you entirely fail; wait a year or two 
 and you will succeed, and that without seemingly having done anything expressly to 
 lead up to that point, although there will inevitably be within that period some sort of 
 experience that helps to pave the way. In regard to the symbolical and abstract 
 subjects, such as arithmetic, algebra, geometry, and grammar, I think the observation 
 holds. A difference of two or three years will do everything for those subjects. 
 
 This, however, is but one aspect, although a very important one of the varying 
 rate of brain-growth. If we follow the analogy of the muscular system, we shall 
 conclude that the times of rapid growth are times of more special susceptibility to 
 the bents imparted at those times. If the brain is still unable to grapple with the 
 higher elements, it is making or may make great progress with the lower ; whatever 
 it can take hold of it can fix and engrain with an intensity proportionate to its rate of 
 growth. 
 
 These two facts indicate the Scylla and Charybis between which the educationist 
 and the educational system must steer with great care. On the one hand, we must 
 be careful not to introduce any elements into the education of the child which are 
 out of the reach of its intellectual effort, as that might dwarf and stunt or even 
 destroy its growing powers. On the other, we must be sure to introduce them just 
 
 197 
 
as rapidly as the mind grows up to them or we shall fail to make the desired im- 
 pression at the right time. If we begin too early we may interfere with the powers 
 needed for growth, or, if it should not be quite so bad as this, it will take a much 
 greater expenditure of nervous force than would be necessary at a later stage. We 
 begin too late if we allow time to pass by when good and useful impressions could be 
 made with perfect safety to the physical and mental health. 
 
 This point is so exceedingly important that I may be pardoned if I repeat it in 
 a little different form. In the physical growth of the child it passes through a series 
 of stages, at each of which the wants of the body call for a different diet. If you 
 attempt to feed the young infant on bread and meat, you will, in all probability, 
 destroy the organism. If you fail to incorporate the proper elements in its diet, the 
 result will be seen in impaired nutrition and backward development. It is just as 
 fatal to healthy growth to fail to add the new elements as they are needed as it is to 
 introduce them prematurely. There is a succession of tides in the physical develop- 
 ment of the child which must be taken at their flood if we are to hope for the best 
 results. It is just so in his mental development. When the time comes for a given 
 impression, and the time goes by without it being made, it is a lost opportunity — 
 gone never to return. At the very least, it means that the impression, if it ever be 
 gained, will be acquired at an increased cost, while it may, also, and often does, 
 mean that it will never be acquired at all. I cannot help believing that the old educa- 
 tion erred not only in the direction of introducing subjects to the child prematurely, 
 but also, and quite as seriously, in the opposite direction of failing to introduce 
 much to the child in its earlier years which it should have introduced; and to-day 
 we are, I think, much nearer correcting the sin of commission than the equally 
 serious one of omission. 
 
 We have not as yet obtained a satisfactory estimate of the relative educational 
 values of the different years of childhood. But nearly all observers and students 
 of the subject, nearly all psychologists and thoughtful teachers, agree that for 
 certain classes of impressions the first six or seven years of the child are worth 
 all the rest put together. Why do we find so many dull children in our families, 
 in the street, and in the school? I believe that we shall come to see more and 
 more with the lapse of time that our education or lack of education is responsible 
 for very much of this dullness. The crisis in the child's life came and passed 
 unnoticed. No thoughtful helper was at hand to offer just the food which his 
 mental stomach craved, and when the food came the time for it was long past—* 
 the child had been practically condemned to become a dwarfed and stunted mem- 
 ber of society. So much for what I should call the physiological argument. 
 
 It is not necessary, however, to go to physiology or psychology for a very 
 striking and, to my mind, conclusive proof that the period between the nursery 
 and the school is one of the most valuable of all for conveying and deepening 
 impressions. How many of us have seen, either in our own children or those of 
 others, or both, most striking evidences of an all pervading and never resting 
 curiosity? The child wishes to know everything and asks endless questions about 
 things above and beneath the earth. Now this insatiable curiosity, which is in 
 the child only a reflection of the same quality in the race. may. under proper 
 guidance, become the most powerful of educational instruments. But how often. 
 pray, is it under such guidance? It is the rule that this most valuable of all 
 
 198 
 
mental attitudes is gradually worn away by the conduct of mothers, of fathers, 
 of sisters, of brothers, and friends. "Go away; don't bother me, you little fool, 
 with your eternal questions; you are enough to try the patience of a saint" — is. 
 perhaps, the most common form of putting a quietus on the questioning spirit. It 
 takes a long while, sometimes, even with such vigorous treatment, to kill out or 
 beat down this desire and practice of questioning everything. But it has gener- 
 ally so far succeeded by the time the child starts to school that the teacher must 
 begin her work by trying to revive this passion in the child by her cunning devices. 
 It cannot be expected that the average parent, or even the average servant girl, 
 to whom our wealthy people leave their precious charges most of the time, can 
 be prepared, I will not say to answer all these questions, for that not even Solomon 
 with all his wisdom could do, but to take advantage of these questions to direct 
 and train the child's attention along lines from which it can hope to derive profit. 
 Nobody can do this in a satisfactory manner but one who has made the study 
 of child-life and the mind the serious occupation of his life. And when we think 
 of the glorious opportunities which are all the while being lost to our children 
 for the lack of just such people in charge of them, it makes the heart sick on 
 account of hope deferred ; for how can we hope to see society move on at any 
 reasonable rate of speed so long as we allow these invaluable powers to go to waste 
 in the present wholesale manner. 
 
 But there is still another reason why there is great need of an intermediate in- 
 stitution between the nursery and the school, and that is the great desire on the 
 part of children, who have grown old enough to run out of the nursery, for the 
 companionship of their fellow children. It is not necessary for me to enlarge upon 
 this thought. It is a fact patent to all. Nor is this a desire which it is safe not to 
 gratify. Since our children must live in the society of their fellow-men, they 
 cannot begin too soon that education which comes from well-ordered intercourse 
 with their equals. The moral education of the child does not, practically cannot, 
 begin until he comes in contact with other children of equal age, and tries to live 
 with them and enter into their lives and let them enter into his. This element 
 cannot be found within the family. It must be sought without. The question 
 then comes, where is it to be found? As a matter of fact, it is generally sought in 
 the street — oftentimes without any supervision, generally with no better supervision 
 than that which an elder brother or sister or a servant girl can give. It would not 
 seem to need much argument to prove, that the education of the child in all that 
 relates to his duties to his fellow-men can be best begun by such intercourse with 
 his fellows under the care of one who has made it his business to teach and train 
 such children. 
 
 If these considerations be just, it must follow that there is great need for 
 some kind of an educational institution which shall begin with the child as soon 
 as he leaves the nursery and take him along in the years which elapse until his 
 mental maturity is such that he is fit to enter the school and take up its systematic 
 and long continued labors. It will not do to say that the family can and will do 
 this. The average mother has no time to look after the intellectual and moral 
 development of her child in the proper way. Even if she had the time she is 
 utterly unfit by education and training to undertake any such thing, and if she 
 attempted it she would likely do more harm than good. Moreover, the very best 
 
 199 
 
mother cannot by any possibility be to her little child what his playmates are. 
 She cannot take their place as companions for him, and wherever it is attempted 
 the results are disastrous in the extreme. The more confident a mother is that 
 she can do this the more striking the proof of her utter unfitness for the work. Such 
 an institution then is a necessity, not only for the poor child whose out-door life 
 must be spent in the street, but just as necessary for the child of parents of wealth 
 and leisure. It is, in other words, a permanent category in educational life, and 
 should form an integral part of every educational system. 
 
 Now the kindergarten claims to be just such an institution, and I believe that, 
 in its best specimens, it fairly justifies the claim. I am aware that there is much 
 nonsense talked upon this subject. Some of its most enthusiastic votaries, who 
 are at the same time its worst enemies, talk as if it were now a perfect institution — 
 a very absurd claim, of course, in view of the fact that so much is still unknown 
 about the limits and sequence of the development of the human faculties. After 
 making due allowance, however, for all the curious vagaries of the friends of the 
 kindergarten, it must still be admitted that there is a valuable residuum left which is 
 worth our serious attention. It is, at any rate, the only thing we have. At its 
 best it is very good, and at its worst is capable of improvement, while, as a rule, 
 it is vastly better than nothing. 
 
 It now remains to discuss the relation of the kindergarten to our public educa- 
 tional system. If you have followed me thus far you will have no difficulty in infer- 
 ring my conclusion that the kindergarten should be made an integral part of our 
 system of public education. If it supplies an imperative want of society, and at the 
 same time a want which private enterprise will not supply, there remains only one 
 thing to do, and that is for society to assume the burden of its support. That pri- 
 vate enterprise will not supply it adequately, I think, is perfectly plain from the whole 
 history of education. In no free country, at no time and under no circumstances, 
 have large educational institutions of a high rank been supported entirely at private 
 expense. It was formerly the argument against free schools, that if there were 
 any real demand for education it would be met by the establishment of new 
 schools, and as for those people who would not or could not pay tuition — why, they 
 would not send their children anyhow, since people valued only that for which they 
 paid something. Adam Smith said a century ago, that "an elementary school system 
 could be supported from fees alone." There is no doubt about that, I suppose. The 
 whole question is, whether such a free-school system would be worth anything or 
 not. It is certain that no system of schools which is expected to reach the great 
 majority of our children could at the present day be supported by fees alone, and 
 so convinced have we become that popular education in the widest sense is impossible, 
 except on the basis of free schools, that we have now formally adopted that 
 system in every state in the Union. So successful has it been, that it is only a 
 question of time, and that not a very long time either, when the leading European 
 nations will follow our example. 
 
 The same thing is true of the kindergarten as of our schools. Its advantages will 
 never be open to the masses of the people until it has been incorporated into our 
 public school system and thrown open free of charge to all children in the com- 
 munity. The drift of events is steadily toward this consummation, and all the. 
 signs of the times indicate its steady, though at times slow, approach. 
 
This policy is to be justified, in my opinion, on the same grounds exactly as 
 those which have been urged with so much success in favor of the free public school. 
 It is necessary to secure a certain minimum of education in the great mass of the 
 people — a minimum, too, which, fortunately, is continually rising. We cannot hope 
 to get this minimum if we allow the three years of most favorable opportunity to 
 go to waste as we are now doing. What would be the objection to putting the 
 school age from ten to eighteen, instead of from six to fourteen as at present? 
 There would be two very serious objections: (i) four of the most valuable years 
 of the child would go to waste, making it simply impossible to achieve any valuable 
 results; (2) not more than one child would go from fourteen to eighteen where 
 twenty go from six to ten. Even as it is now, the great majority of our children 
 do not go after they become ten or twelve years of age, so that the practical school 
 age, under present circumstances, does not include more than four or five years for 
 most of the children. The decrease in the number of children, as one goes up 
 in the school grades, is one of the most lamentable facts of our educational system. 
 Now it may be possible to prevent this to some extent by changing the character 
 of the schools in the direction of greater practicalness, such as would be secured by 
 the general introduction of industrial training and similar improvements; but the 
 real cause of most of this decrease, particularly in the upper grades, is to be found 
 in the fact that the children at ten or twelve can begin to earn something, and as soon 
 as they can they must. This cause is likely to be an enduring one, and we cannot 
 probably remove it for a long time to come. 
 
 The case lies then as follows: Three years from the nursery to the school 
 wasted, or worse than wasted, for educational purposes ; four or five years spent in 
 the school— a period which is utterly inadequate to acquire the desired degree of 
 education, and no great hope of extending this period for some time to come. What 
 shall be done? It seems to me the answer is clear: utilize those three years which 
 now go to waste, and during which you can get hold of the children and thus 
 make up as far as possible for the years which you cannot get from ten or twelve 
 to thirteen or fifteen. Do not misunderstand me. I do not wish to shorten the 
 school age at all, rather lengthen it, so that as long as there is a child, youth, or 
 adult in the community without an education he shall have the opportunity to avail 
 himself of such advantages as are offered. But by all means utilize these three 
 years by which you may lengthen the actual period of education to the average 
 child from four to seven years, because in this way you can attain the best educa- 
 tional results. The free public kindergarten may be justified then on the ground 
 that it is the best if not the only means of attaining the object of all public educational 
 systems, viz., popular education. It is the usual testimony of thoughtful teachers, 
 that children who have had three years in a good kindergarten can make much 
 more rapid progress in their regular school work than those who have lead the 
 hap-hazard sort of life which generally falls to the lot of children in that period, 
 and whether this be so or not, no one who has studied the subject, can doubt that 
 the life of the kindergarten pupil is fuller and richer by far than it would have been 
 without this training. 
 
 I am fully aware that this step means a very large increase of our appropriations 
 for school purposes, but I believe that it will richly repav us for all our outlay. 
 
 The most striking fact in our modern financial budgets— local, state, and general. 
 
in this country and in Europe — is the rapid increase in the expenditures for school 
 purposes. It has already become the largest single item in our local and state 
 budgets, and all the indications point to its early incorporation in our national budget, 
 for, if the Blair bill passes, or any similar one, the Federal government will begin 
 a policy which, in my opinion, will not be stopped, of making large annual grants 
 to the cause of education. This large expenditure, in spite of mismanagement and 
 misapplication, has proved, as a whole, very profitable to the communities which 
 have made it, and I believe that we are just making a fair beginning in this direction. 
 We shall make heavier and heavier outlays for this purpose. 
 
 On the other hand, I believe that such outlays, viewed merely as investments 
 of so much capital on the part of society, will make the largest kind of returns. 
 
 The educational policy of a country should be directed toward developing ail its 
 intellectual wealth, just as its economic policy should look toward developing its 
 material wealth. Our present educational system, both in its lower and higher 
 members, is as incomplete and unsatisfactory when viewed from this aspect as 
 would be our economic policy if, instead of encouraging by our laws the rise of many 
 or all kinds of industry, we should direct all our efforts toward utilizing our coal 
 deposits alone. It has not been so very long, for example, since the only kind of 
 higher institution in this country was the old-fashioned college with its ironcast 
 course of Latin, Greek and Mathematics. The only kind of talent which we, as 
 a country, were utilizing was that very scarce fraction which could be developed 
 by an exclusively literary training. Even in the common school "readin, ritin, and 
 rithmetic" formed the beginning and the end of all "larnin." Those to whom the 
 most mechanical presentation of these subjects did not appeal were voted hopelessly 
 dull, and forthwith shut out from all so-called higher education. One hundred and 
 twenty-five years ago the only so-called higher institution of learning in the country 
 was the college, the only secondary institution the academy, and the only primary 
 school the old-fashioned a-b-c and parsing machine. There was no medical, dental, 
 law, veterinary or technical school of any kind, no normal school, no industrial school, 
 no school of art or design, no business college — nothing, absolutely nothing, but the 
 college and the theological seminary. Every step of our educational advance has 
 been marked by the establishment of some new kind of school or the expansion of 
 some old one, in such a way as to amount to the same thing. The rise of these new 
 institutions has been accompanied by an enormous increase in the material and 
 intellectual resources of the race. It is fair to claim that the enormously rapid 
 growth of modern communities in all that distinguishes civilization from barbarism, 
 as compared with ancient communities, is due to the fact that we are at last begin- 
 ning to utilize for the first time in human history some small part of the intellectual 
 power of the race. Just consider for a moment. The ancient Greek had no place in 
 his society for the student of natural science — no place for a Galileo, or Newton, or 
 Huxley, or Helmholtz, or Harvey, or Pasteur, or Stephenson, or Wait, or Whitney, 
 or Edison — no means of calling them forth, no means of encouraging them if they 
 had been at hand, or rather a most efficient means which he was not slow to use of 
 forcing them down and eliminating them from society. Even such a man as Socrates 
 thought that people who busied themselves about such things were worse than use- 
 less, and at least should be the slaves of the rest. That was twenty-two centuries 
 ago, and yet it has only been within the memory of some of the youngest of us that 
 
■even the most advanced of our American colleges have finally opened a place for 
 such men within their sacred walls. The whole history of human education, nay. 
 of human civilization itself, is but the history of a long series of melancholy attempt-, 
 to limit in every possible way the development of new talent and ability. It is only 
 within this century, and indeed almost within this generation, that we are finally 
 coming to see that there is an infinite variety of human talent and taste, and an 
 infinite variety of possible science, and that we can expect to utilize the former fully 
 for our benefit only when the latter is made as accessible as possible to all alike. 
 This means, of course, the establishment and development of new kinds of schools, 
 which shall bring home to each type of mind in our society the opportunity of finding 
 that for which it is specially and peculiarly suited, and this in spite of much opposi- 
 tion from some quarters, and all too slowly in most places, we are finally making 
 up our minds to do, and have, indeed, already made a fair beginning in that direction. 
 
 This work is important, and must and will go on. But there is another aspect to 
 the question which specially interests us in this connection. All these institutions 
 are for the advanced child— the child whose tastes are already to some extent 
 formed or destroyed — the range of whose senses has already been to a great 
 extent circumscribed. If we would be consistent, if we would attain the most valu- 
 able results, we must go back of this point in our educational processes, we must 
 get at the child during the period of most rapid growth ; we must seek an opportunity 
 to call forth and train in the right way all its mental powers, to evoke, if possible, 
 all the varieties of its activity at the very time when this can be done to the most 
 advantage. It is only in this way that we can hope to awaken and keep alive all 
 the possibilities of the future man ; only in this way that we can hope to develop 
 and utilize all the mental wealth of our society. 
 
 The kindergarten, or some institution of that kind, can do this very work. It 
 can take the child at the earliest practicable age ; can train its eye to see, its ear to 
 hear, its tongue to speak, its hands to do. Can call forth and train its sense for 
 beauty, for color, for rhythm, for order, both in the material and moral world. Can 
 develop its sense of duty and justice, thus helping it into right relations toward 
 its surroundings in the home and in society — all things of fundamental importance 
 to every one of us, rich and poor, laborer and capitalist, ignorant and wise — and. 
 moreover, all things which can be best started in those very years, and should be 
 started under proper guidance. A wrong bent in this period, a neglect at this time, 
 can never be made good by any amount of after training. 
 
 If we are agreed then so far (i) that the kindergarten, or some similar institution, 
 is necessary to a complete educational system; (2) that it is a logical and necessary 
 complement of our present system of free public education, if the ends for which 
 the latter is organized are to be achieved; (3) that it is bound to become an integral 
 p«rt of this system, the only remaining question is this : What is the first thing to 
 be done by those who wish to bring about this ultimate result as soon as possible? 
 
 It is not necessary to say to you that the character of a school is determined 
 bv its teacher ; we all know that. The same thing is true, in a still larger sense per- 
 haps, of the kindergarten. Whether the kindergarten is worth anything or not 
 depends entirely upon the teacher, and the first requisition therefore in any system 
 of kindergartens is to have a sufficient number of properly qualified, specially trained, 
 kindergarten teachers. The supply of such teachers will not be large enough unless 
 
 203 
 
there is an adequate opportunity for their proper education. Such an opportunity 
 can be found only in a public training school for kindergarten teachers, and such 
 a school we must have if we wish to see the kindergartens generally established. 
 
 Perhaps, however, the most judicious step for the present would be the estab- 
 lishment of a kindergarten class in connection with our present city normal school, 
 into which those young women could go, who, by taste, incline to that branch of 
 the work. It should be organized, of course, in connection with an actual kinder- 
 garten, and under the care of the best trainer of kindergarten teachers who can be 
 found in the country. The kindergartens now in existence under your care should 
 be liberally supported by the city, the salaries of the teachers advanced, and the 
 positions made practically permanent. In this way a career could be opened for those 
 young women who have tastes in this direction, and the career should be made at 
 least as desirable as that of any other career in connection with public school work. 
 
 Another advantage in connecting it with the normal school would be that those 
 young women who are preparing for primary work could also have an opportunity to 
 see something of kindergarten work. In my opinion, no teacher should be allowed 
 to go into a primary school who had not studied, both theoretically and practically, 
 the kindergarten and its work. 
 
 In conclusion, I would summarize what I have already said : 
 
 (i) That the three years preceding the school age are, for certain educational 
 purposes, the most valuable years of the child's life. 
 
 (2) That under our present system of public and private education these years 
 are, relatively speaking, wasted. 
 
 (3) That this waste is just as general among the rich as among the poor, and is 
 little less ruinous to the former than to the latter. 
 
 (4) That it may be largely saved by the general introduction of some such 
 institution as the kindergarten. 
 
 (5) That such general introduction is only possible in the form of free kinder- 
 gartens, established in connection with our public schools, in sufficient numbers to 
 accommodate all children sent to them. 
 
 (6) That the necessary outlay for such kindergartens would be amply repaid 
 to society by the increased productiveness of the generation educated within them. 
 
 (7) That, owing to the economic conditions of our society, which prevent the 
 majority of our children from going to school beyond the tenth year, the only 
 means of securing the minimum of education absolutely necessary to the welfare 
 of our society lies in utilizing for educational purposes the three years preceding 
 the school age, and the only institution which promises to do this is the kindergarten. 
 
 (8) That the essential condition of success in this movement is a supply of 
 properly trained teachers, which can be insured only by the establishment of an 
 adequately equipped training school for kindergarten teachers. 
 
 (9) That the first step towards this is the establishment of a kindergarten class 
 in connection with the city normal school. 
 
 204 
 
SlppcnDijc c. 
 
 COMMERCIAL TRAINING IN EUROPE AND THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 A. COMMERCIAL SCHOOLS IN EUROPE. 
 
 Public attention has only recently been directed in the United States to the 
 importance of commercial training and almost nothing has been done so far among us 
 in this direction. Our "business colleges" have been of considerable service in 
 giving young men and women a command of the "facilities — stenography, typewrit- 
 ing, bookkeeping, etc. — of ordinary business ; but nowhere has there been any serious 
 attempt to afford a sound, broad preparation for commercial and industrial pur- 
 suits. In Europe, on the contrary, there has been developed in the last thirty years 
 a large number of secondary schools of commerce, admirable alike in board concep- 
 tion, in comprehensive execution and in practical results. Founded originally by 
 private or semi-public bodies, they are now liberally supported by the city and 
 national governments. 
 
 The school of commerce at Venice is interesting not only as one of the earliest 
 schools of this kind, but also on account of the breadth of its foundation. The city 
 and province joined in 1866 with the government in establishing not. only a 
 higher school of commerce, but a law faculty for those looking forward to the 
 consular career and a normal school to prepare teachers to give instruction in foreign 
 languages and commercial science. The first year's work is alike for all. A 
 thorough grounding is given in Italian literature, in commercial arithmetic and 
 geography, in the institutions of commerce and the study of commercial products, 
 in algebra and the elements of the civil law and in the French, German and English 
 languages. The succeeding two years continue these lines and add a study of com- 
 mercial, maritime and industrial law, the history of commerce and commercial 
 statistics and political economy. In the consular section an additional two years' 
 course is given, after which the graduates find, as it appears, ready admission to 
 government service. In connection with the school the city has established a com- 
 mercial museum, which has proved of great value as offering the basis for a compara- 
 tive study of raw materials and manufactured products of different countries. Not 
 only Venice, but Florence, Turin, Genoa, Naples and Rome have established higher 
 schools of commerce, and many smaller cities have followed their lead, until now 
 the peninsula is fairly dotted with them all the way from the Alps to Sicily. 
 
 In France the subject of commercial education has received special attention for 
 a number of years. Schools of commerce are maintained directly or subsidized by 
 the state in all the large cities. One of the best examples is the Ecole des Hautes 
 Etudes Commerciales, founded in 188 1 by the Paris Chamber of Commerce, which 
 had already assumed, in 1868, the management of the Superior School of Commerce. 
 
 20s 
 
In addition to these two schools, the Paris Chamber of Commerce controls also 
 a third, located in the Avenue Trudaine. At Lyons. .Marseilles and Havre private 
 corporations have founded commercial schools. Others are nourishing at Rouen, 
 Bordeaux and Rheims. These schools have so justified themselves in the eyes of 
 the French public that the government has subsidized them to a considerable extent 
 and has granted an appropriation for traveling scholarships for their graduates, in 
 order to assist in extending the field of commercial activity abroad. 
 
 While much has been done in commercial education in Italy, France, Belgium 
 and the Netherlands, the best examples of such schools are found in the German- 
 speaking countries. Austria was foremost in the field, and there we 
 find not only the Commercial Academy in Vienna, established by the Chamber 
 of Commerce, but also a new "export academy," under government auspices, with 
 a yearly subsidy of $8,000 and a similar grant from the Chamber of Commerce. Both 
 of these schools have full courses extending through three years, while the condi- 
 tions of admission are high enough to justify for them fully the rank of secondary 
 institutions. In Graz, Innsbruck, Linz, Aussig and Prague there are flourishing 
 schools, with enrollments of from 300 to 500 pupils. Many smaller but commercially 
 important cities have similar institutions, and throughout Austria-Hungary we find 
 not less than fifty commercial schools of various grades. 
 
 Germany proper, however, is the true home of the commercial school. Here 
 its importance was early recognized, and earnest efforts have been made to solve 
 in this way the preparation for modern business activity. In the province of 
 Brandenburg, in the Kingdom of Prussia, there are fourteen commercial "continua- 
 tion schools." In the Rhine provinces there are twenty-one, including the one at 
 Aix-la-Chapelle, recently so splendidly housed by the city in new quarters. 
 In the province of Saxony there are eleven; in Hannover, twelve; in 
 Schleswig-Holstein flourishing schools at Kiel, Flensburg and Schleswig; in West- 
 phalia, ten, and nearly two-score more in the smaller provinces of Prussia; in 
 Bavaria, eighteen; in the Kingdom of Saxony, not less than forty; in 
 Wurtemburg and in the duchies and grand duchies, nearly fifty, while the old com- 
 mercial cities of the Hansa league are not behind in this systematic effort to advance 
 the commercial and industrial prosperity of the country. 
 
 These efforts have not been in vain, and probably to no one thing does Germany 
 owe today her foremost commercial position more than to her commercial schools, 
 which have turned out thousands of young men well equipped for business pursuits. 
 Her success is well deserved, for she has worked out an unparalleled system of 
 commercial training from the supplementary evening schools in the small community 
 to the recently established Leipsic College of Commerce, which is fully up to the 
 university grade. No fact is so striking as the thoroughgoing way in which this has 
 been done. This thoroughness can be more easily seen perhaps by glancing over the 
 following weekly hour-plan of the Leipsic Public School of Commerce: 
 
 -Hours- 
 
 3d class. 2d class. 1st class. 
 
 German 4 3 3 
 
 English 5 4 4 
 
 French S 4 4 
 
 Mathematics 3 3 4 
 
 Commercial arithmetic 5 3 2 
 
 206 
 
Hours -- 
 
 3d class. 2d class. 1st class. 
 
 Physics 3 2 
 
 Mechanical technology • ■ 2 
 
 Chemistry 2 2 
 
 Study of products • • l 
 
 Geography 2 
 
 History - 2 
 
 Commercial science ~ 
 
 Commercial law • ■ 1 
 
 Office work 2 
 
 Correspondence • • 2 
 
 Bookkeeping • • 3 
 
 Political economy ■ • 2 
 
 Penmanship 3 2 
 
 Drawing 2 
 
 Athletics 2 
 
 Total • 36 35 36 
 
 Instruction is also given as optional work in : 
 
 Hours 
 
 3d class. 2d class. 1st class. 
 
 Italian 2 2 
 
 Spanish • • 2 
 
 Stenography 2 : * 
 
 The Leipsic course of study is practically duplicated in something like two- 
 score schools in German-speaking countries. This curriculum has been worked 
 out after an experience of more than forty years. Instruction is given by a 
 separate corps of teachers specially trained for this work and with the aid of text- 
 books prepared specifically for commercial schools. It is safe to say that no subject 
 included in the course is taught in the same way as in other schools of like grade. 
 This is true even of the modern language work, which after the initial prepara- 
 tion in the grammar is treated in a very different manner from that of the ordinary 
 gymnasium or real school. 
 
 England has come to a realizing sense of the deficiencies in business training 
 more particularly through noticing the extent to which English firms are preferring 
 to employ German-trained clerks. The London Chamber of Commerce is granting 
 certificates to students, who can show proficiency in commercial instruction. It has 
 given prizes and scholarships to those most successful in examinations, and more 
 than 300 firms and business men who are members of the London chamber, have 
 agreed to prefer for their service those who hold commercial certificates. The 
 technical education board and the City of London College are uniting in the estab- 
 lishment of a higher commercial school in connection with that institution. The 
 plan now proposed clearly recognizes the inadequacy of a six-months or one-year 
 course as having about as much relation to effective commercial training 
 as the ability to hold a plane has to a broad course in architectural engineering. 
 The same idea has been clearly grasped in New York, where even a four years' 
 course in the ordinary city high schools is recognized as insufficient and where the 
 demand is strong for a distinctive secondary school of commerce. 
 
 207 
 
B — COMMERCIAL TRAINING AND THE PUBLIC HIGH SCHOOL. (1) 
 
 In considering the project of a Commercial High School, I shall pursue mainly 
 two lines of thought — first, the relation of such an institution to the educational 
 system in general, and, second, its relation to the business interests of the community. 
 
 And first, as to its educational or pedagogical aspects. All secondary education 
 should have a liberal tendency. Its main object should be to train the. pupils to 
 think, to aid them in getting possession of all their powers and in acquiring habits 
 of order, neatness, promptness and fidelity. It should be regarded in a pre-eminent 
 sense as a foundation upon which the pupil may build safely and rapidly in the future 
 years. For a long time men thought that the study of the classics and mathematics 
 was the only method of laying such foundations, and even now the influence of 
 that idea still remains powerful in the field of secondary education. 
 
 This idea did comparatively little harm as long as the mediaeval conditions of 
 life in which the idea originated still existed. But when the modern era opened and 
 natural science with all its wonderful achievements started into life, it was only 
 with the very greatest difficulty that it could secure any representation whatever 
 in our schools and colleges, owing to the prevalence of the idea above mentioned. 
 The adherents of the old style of education were not content with preserving it as 
 one of the pathways toward culture — side by side with education based on modern 
 subjects — but they insisted that it should still remain the only one. 
 
 The attempt was, of course, predoomed to failure — as surely as the later con- 
 test of the stage-owners and stage-drivers against the railways — but it served to 
 hinder progress for a long period. Natural science, however, finally made its way 
 into the schools and a road to culture was cast up, based on modern subjects. 
 
 The history of education repeated itself again immediately. The defenders 
 of the old and the champions of the new education combined to prevent any further 
 innovations. The representatives of natural science joined with the defenders of 
 the classics in maintaining that there are only two roads to true culture — the 
 classics and natural science. An illustration of this tendency was afforded a few 
 years ago, when the movement in favor of Manual Training High Schools was 
 begun. These two parties united in opposing the introduction of the so-called Manual 
 Training Schools, on the ground that their curriculum could offer no suitable intel- 
 lectual training. But the Manual Training Schools are demonstrating that there 
 is still another road to culture besides that through the classics, mathematics and 
 natural sciences — in the narrow sense in which the last term is sometimes used. 
 
 And now those of us who believe in the training furnished by the Commercial 
 High School as one of the legitimate avenues to education, maintain that there 
 is still another highway to that state of mind and heart known as culture. Just 
 as the study of human history — as expressed in language and literature; or as 
 the study of the external world, as in natural science; or as the study of the prin- 
 ciples of mechanical and artistic creation may lead the child on to the fullest devel- 
 opment of its powers — one line of work appealing to one child and another to 
 another; so the study of human history, as revealed in the relation of man to 
 his environment, looked upon as a means of supplying his wants (Political Economy), 
 and the study of human history as revealed in the development and organization 
 of the complex machinery of business and society (Politics and Sociology) are 
 
 ( l ) Address by Edmund J. James, University of Chicago. 
 
 208 
 
as truly means of mental development as any of the preceding, and appeal to some 
 children, to whom any of the former is a weariness of the flesh. 
 
 And just as the study of the classics will accomplish the highest educational 
 result for one type of mind, and that of natural science for another, and that of 
 mechanics and art for another, so that of politics and economics and business will 
 do it for still another. 
 
 As educationists, we plead for this school in the interest of the educational 
 enrichment of our scheme of public training. There are boys in our community 
 to whom none of the existing courses appeal, whom this course would be a means 
 of awakening, arousing, training, educating. 
 
 To put it in another way, all of us believe that a proper educational foundation 
 is absolutely necessary, and that the period of secondary education is the time 
 for laying such foundation ; but we cannot concede that there is only one kind 
 of proper foundation. On the contrary, just as the character of the soil and the 
 surrounding circumstances make a foundation which would be suitable for one 
 building entirely unsuitable for another, so the variety in the structure of boys' 
 minds, in their tastes, their inherited tendencies, their ambitions, point to the fact 
 that no one scheme of education can lay a suitable foundation for all boys in the 
 community. 
 
 Variety of schools and courses is, in our view, absolutely necessary to develop 
 the latent intellectual wealth of society. These courses should be all thorough, 
 liberal, culture-giving — and there should, in the interest of education itself, be at 
 least four such schools — one devoted to Language, Literature and Mathematics : 
 another to Mathematics and Natural Science ; another to the principles underlying 
 mechanical and artistic creation ; and still another to Politics, Economics and 
 Business. The first two exist now in the ordinary high schools. The third is 
 provided for by our manual training schools. The fourth we are arguing for at 
 present. It is not proposed that any one of these courses should exclude all the 
 elements of the other. Quite the contrary. Each one would contain necessarily 
 much that is found in the others ; but it is meant simply that the various courses 
 shall be built up around the respective nuclei indicated. 
 
 It will thus be seen that while we argue for a Commercial High School, which 
 shall answer the wants of a new class in the community, we are not asking for a 
 trade school in any different sense from that in which the present high schools 
 or the manual training schools are technical or trade schools. The object of all 
 three alike is liberal education, is foundation laying; the only difference is in the 
 subject matter of instruction used for the purpose. 
 
 Having thus indicated our idea as to the relation of this school in an educational 
 way to existing schools, a point to which I shall again revert at the end of the 
 paper, and having suggested its pedagogical justification, let us see what such a 
 school would be in its relation to the life of the community at large. 
 
 In the midst of the recent renascence of public interest in everything which 
 concerns the welfare of our community, certainly the promotion of our trade and 
 commerce should not be overlooked. In a great manufacturing center we some- 
 times lose sight of the fundamental importance of trade to modern business. There 
 is. of course, no danger of the commercial members of society failing to realize 
 its function, but the great mass of the community may easily underestimate the role 
 
 209 
 
which commerce and commercial organization plays in our modern industrial 
 communities. 
 
 It may well be questioned whether, even in the case of the individual manufac- 
 turer, his prosperity, his industrial solidity, does not depend quite as much, in the 
 long run, upon his ability to market his wares well, *. e., upon his ability as a 
 merchant, as it does upon his ability to manufacture efficiently, i. e., cheaply; and 
 there can be no doubt at all that a nation cannot be a great manufacturing nation 
 under modern conditions unless it be also a great commercial nation. The supremacy 
 of England in the world market of to-day is due quite as much to the enterprise 
 of English traders as to the skill of English manufacturers. 
 
 Nor must we forget that while the function of the trader in foreign commerce 
 is unquestioned, it is none the less important in our domestic intercourse. The 
 welfare of a manufacturing industry depends to a large extent upon the ability of 
 its enterprisers to gauge the varying wants of different communities and to adapt 
 their industry to the production of the things which are wanted, or which, in 
 common parlance, will sell. This last work, i. e., the study of the public tastes and 
 demands, is par excellence the work of the trader, and it is none the less commer- 
 cial in character because the successful manufacturer devotes much time and atten- 
 tion to it, because that simply means that the manufacturer himself is, in so far, a 
 trader. 
 
 Our manufacturing interest, then, can never attain that place which it might, 
 nor even hold its present proud position, unless our commercial enterprise hold 
 pace with it or even outrun it. The rapid growth of New York as a manufacturing 
 center finds its explanation in large part in its extraordinary growth along com- 
 mercial lines. 
 
 But I am sure that I need not dwell further on this point before an audience 
 like this. The essential importance of our city's trade to our city's prosperity you 
 will all concede. 
 
 I will content myself, therefore, with one more remark on this subject, and that is, 
 that it seems to me that the possibility of establishing and extending our commer- 
 cial connections seems to be even more important now than ever before in our history. 
 
 The growing capacity of our mills cannot be utilized unless we find new and 
 more fruitful markets either at home or abroad ; and if their growing capacity cannot 
 be utilized, the possibility of efficient production will be much diminished. The 
 finding out of new markets is a function of the trader. I said new markets either 
 at home or abroad. I believe that our manufacturing industry has reached a state 
 along many lines which would enable it to compete under present conditions in 
 the world market, if we had a race of traders who would search out the wants of 
 foreign countries and induce our manufacturers to consult their peculiarities. 
 
 If the tendency now prevalent in congress shall have its way, and our tariff 
 policy is destined to be radically changed, I see no salvation for American manu- 
 facturing industry except to throw itself as never before into the fields where it 
 is at a relative advantage, and press out into the competition for foreign markets 
 which is now so keen in Europe. In this work our commercial enterprise must 
 again come to the front, or our endeavors will be in vain. 
 
 In this new struggle for industrial supremacy there seems no reason in the 
 nature of things why this city should be left far in the rear. Its situation is favor- 
 
 210 
 
able, and if it should develop half the enterprise in the way of improving and 
 defending its position which has been shown of late years by several great European 
 cities — notably Hamburg, Antwerp, Geneva, and lately Manchester — it would again 
 start on a career of commercial expansion which would enable it to hold its own: 
 for all time to come, even if it could not hope to regain its old position at the head 
 of American commerce as well as industry. 
 
 In the brief time at my disposal this evening I cannot, of course, undertake 
 even to mention all the conditions of a flourishing trade, or to outline, even in 
 the meagerest way, the policy we must follow if we would hold our own in com- 
 merce and manufacturing under present conditions ; nor, even if I had the time, do 
 I flatter myself that I should be able to do it. 
 
 On the other hand, it has been my business for some years to contemplate, as 
 a student, the great world of modern business, and to utilize the result of my 
 studies in the work of education ; and in the course of my studies, here and else- 
 where, I have arrived at certain conclusions as to the importance of some elements 
 in this problem which are often neglected, and it is one of these which I wish to 
 present this evening. 
 
 Manifold and complicated are the conditions which determine the commercial 
 prosperity or decadence of a city or a country — and he who assigns any one reason 
 for it demonstrates his incapacity in this department of human investigation. With- 
 out wishing to assign too much importance to the following consideration, we may 
 yet claim that it is a very fundamental condition of a flourishing trade that the 
 directors of commerce and industry — those selected few who by their natural talents 
 and acquired skill have become the captains and princes in industry and trade — 
 shall find it possible to obtain efficient assistance in their enterprises. The average 
 man and woman in our society will never reach a loftier position than that of high 
 private ; but the possibility of achievement on the part of great commanders, 
 whether in war or trade, depends primarily upon the degree of intelligence and 
 efficiency to be found in the average private. 
 
 Is there an adequate provision for this need in our community? Does the 
 director of business enterprises find it easy to get the right kind of assistance? Ask 
 any intelligent and successful business man among your acquaintances. I am 
 not talking now, of course, of clerks, or stenographers, or typewriters, or book- 
 keepers — whose business is largely mechanical, though even in this department it 
 is safe to say that of fifty candidates for any fairly responsible position, not more 
 than five can be considered eligible. I am thinking of positions which demand 
 fidelity, intelligence, special knowledge and sound judgment — responsible and dis- 
 cretionary positions, in other words — positions in which initiative enterprise and 
 reliable qualities are called for. I take it there can be only one answer to this 
 question, unless our experience has been very different from that of busi- 
 ness men in other cities and other countries. 
 
 My proposition, then, is that a school of the grade of the ordinary city high 
 school, whose curriculum should be made up to a considerable extent of subjects 
 relating to modern trade and industry — its origin, development, organization, rela- 
 tions, etc. — would do a substantial service to our trade and commerce by increasing 
 the number of properly qualified young men who are seeking the positions of assist- 
 ants in our commercial houses. 
 
 211 
 
Of course, no one will maintain for an instant that such a school could turn 
 out young men acquainted with the details of commercial life, and qualified to take 
 positions at the head of important branches of business — such knowledge and fitness 
 can only be acquired in actual business life and through the experience of years. But 
 it could turn out young men, seventeen or eighteen years of age, with a deep interest 
 in commercial life, with considerable knowledge of the general history of com- 
 merce, with some acquaintance with the most important operations of modern 
 commercial business, with some knowledge of finance, with a good English educa- 
 tion, and with an ambition to succeed in commercial undertakings — in a word, a 
 band of youth ready to enter upon the work of acquiring business experience 
 with eagerness and enthusiasm. The training which such a school could furnish 
 would enable a lad to learn the business more thoroughly and in a shorter time 
 than he could have done without such advantages. Such a school would, more- 
 over, offer an opportunity to learn modern languages thoroughly, so that those 
 boys who wish to prepare themselves to represent our firms abroad could find good 
 facilities for such education. 
 
 The statement of the case, it would almost seem, ought to carry conviction with it, 
 but there is a number of considerations which, taken together, afford us an almost 
 absolute demonstration of the desirability of such an institution. 
 
 In the first place, consider how few opportunities the modern business house 
 offers the youth who enters it for an all-round training for commercial life. The 
 division of labor, characteristic of our modern world in general, has been carried 
 out in commerce also so far that it is difficult for a boy to get a chance to see all 
 sides of the business. He is put into one department, and, if he succeeds in it, 
 that constitutes a reason for keeping him there, unless some accident makes it 
 absolutely necessary to try him in a new place, because no one else can be found 
 for it. Working in a department of that sort for a long time is necessarily narrow- 
 ing, and if the youth does not bring to his work a general training which enables 
 him to learn from everything he sees or touches, he is very apt to cease growing, 
 and, consequently, to fail at critical moments when responsibility must.be laid upon 
 him. A course of systematic training along business lines before entering on his 
 work would prepare him for learning his special business more rapidly and thor- 
 oughly and would enable him to take up new work with so much the more cer- 
 tainty of success. The differentiation of work seems destined to be carried farther 
 and farther, and with every step in this direction it will become more difficult for 
 a boy to get a suitable training for business entirely within the business houses. It 
 is, however, a notorious fact that the modern business man has no time to devote 
 to apprentices, i. c, to youth who enter his house to learn the business, and to 
 whom he is bound to give time and attention, so that they may learn it. He now 
 hires a boy and pays him ofttimes more than his services are really worth, but, 
 in return, feels himself bound to do nothing more than get the most out of him 
 he can, without regard to whether the boy learns anything or not. In a word, the 
 merchant 01 to-day cannot afford to lake the time necessary to train the average 
 youth into a good assistant. 
 
 The modern question, then, in this country, is not, can a school give a better 
 training than an apprenticeship system; but can a school give anything worth the 
 having, along this line, as the choice is between the school and nothing? 
 
Now, experience shows, I think, not only that such a school can give some- 
 thing worth the boy's while to take, considering the fact that the apprenticeship 
 system is gone, but that, even where the latter is in existence, the Commercial 
 High School offers an element in the youth's training which is valuable and which 
 the apprenticeship system does not afford. 
 
 This brings me to the consideration that the value of a Commercial High School 
 to the trade and commerce of a community has been amply demonstrated by a 
 somewhat extended experience in continental countries. In the Europe of to-day 
 the law of competition is at work in the extremest form. The struggle of France 
 and Germany and Italy and Austria and Russia for the supremacy in Europe has 
 become so bitter and all absorbing that no means of getting ahead is left unused. 
 The ordinary methods employed in the military sphere are striking, and so well 
 known as to call for no mention. But the methods in the industrial sphere are 
 no less striking and fundamental— passing over the question of prohibitory and 
 differential tariffs, which have been used in the most unsparing way— it is sufficient 
 for us, in this connection, to direct attention to the evident belief on the part of 
 all the nations that, other things being approximately equal, the question of edu- 
 cation is the fundamental question, and that that nation will ultimately triumph 
 which secures the best educational results. Consequently, schools of all kinds 
 have been established and developed, including military schools, to train soldiers 
 and officers ; agricultural schools to train farmers, who, by reason of intelligence, 
 can hold their own against America and India; industrial schools of all sorts to 
 train mechanics, foremen, etc., and, finally, recognizing the importance of Commerce 
 to Industry, commercial schools of all grades, from those intended to train sten- 
 ographers, clerks, shop girls, etc., to those for the future directors and managers of 
 great business firms. 
 
 In proportion as competition has increased at home and abroad have these schools 
 been multiplied. Within a short time the German government has established, in 
 Berlin, a school where youth, preparing for business careers in Asia, could learn 
 all the leading languages of Eastern and Western Asia, including Chinese, Jap- 
 anese, Arabic and Turkish. France has done much the same, and in both countries 
 there is the keenest rivalry in providing facilities for their youth to learn the lead- 
 ing modern languages spoken in the Western World, especially English, Italian 
 and Spanish. Belgium, which is so largely dependent for its prosperity on foreign 
 trade, is following rapidly along the same line. 
 
 In Germany, the apprenticeship system in the business houses is still preserved, 
 and the laws enable a parent to hold a merchant to a pretty close account for 
 his duty toward the apprentice. But in spite of this fact, the popularity of the 
 commercial high school is rapidly increasing, because it is recognized that it offers 
 a training for which the apprenticeship system is no adequate substitute. Many 
 merchants allow youth in their employ, who are bound to service for a term of 
 years, to attend these schools for a certain number of hours a day, and even pay 
 their tuition for them to boot ; because they consider that the efficiency of the boys 
 is vastly increased by it. 
 
 The results of these schools are evident, not merely in the improvement in 
 business methods, which has gone on very rapidly in the last twenty years in these 
 countries, but also in the work of these nations in foreign trade. Youth who have 
 
 213 
 
had such a training are eagerly sought by English houses, either in England itself 
 or in English trade centers. It is a well-recognized fact that German youth are, 
 to an appreciable extent, supplanting English lads in the great commercial houses 
 of London. 
 
 Various parliamentary commissions, appointed to examine into the causes of 
 recent industrial depression in England and the reasons for the rapid growth of 
 German commerce in places hitherto entirely subject to English influence, have 
 emphasized this fact, and have, furthermore, called attention to the circumstance that 
 these German youth, who are employed in English houses, soon set up business for 
 themselves and become most efficient agents of German firms in the very heart and 
 center of English trade. They attribute the willingness of English business men 
 to employ German youth in preference to English youth, chiefly to the fact that 
 they ordinarily possess a much better general and special training. It is a signifi- 
 cant fact, in this connection, that there is not, in all England, a single commercial 
 high school which would bear comparison with any one of a hundred in Germany. 
 
 The most striking testimonial to the value of such schools to the trade and com- 
 merce of the locality and nation is to be found in the fact that the great majority 
 of the most prominent continental schools are supported not by the government 
 but by private associations of merchants and business men in general, or by boards 
 of trade, chambers of commerce, and similar organizations. 
 
 A further evidence that the training of these schools is considered valuable may 
 be seen in the fact that in spite of the high tuition fees the attendance is rapidly 
 growing. Thus at the School of Higher Commercial Studies, in Paris, where the 
 tuition is $200 a year — equal to, say, $250 or $300 in this country— a rate far in 
 excess of that charged in any schools here, the attendance rose by regular stages 
 from 65 in 1881-82 — the year of opening — to 244 in 1892-93. 
 
 The Superior School of Commerce, of Paris, has graduated nearly 6,500 youth 
 since its establishment in 1820, though the tuition is also very high for French 
 conditions, being $150 per year. 
 
 It is hardly necessary to say that these Schools are recruited — not from the poorer 
 classes of the community, but from the well-to-do — in fact, their pupils are the 
 sons of successful business men themselves. In America such schools must be open 
 to all. 
 
 Before turning to the second proposition which I shall advance on this subject. 
 I may remark, in passing, that the kind of school I am arguing for does not exist 
 at present in any American community. The so-called business colleges, which 
 are so numerous in our cities, are doing, many of them, valuable work; but they 
 have to do chiefly with facilities — they train their pupils for what might be almost 
 called mechanical work. They offer courses, running from three to six months— in 
 extraordinary cases to a school year of nine or ten months. They are, in their 
 worst specimens, mere cram shops, and do almost nothing toward training their 
 pupils in those habits of thought and conduct which, after all, are more important 
 than mere technical knowledge. 
 
 I am arguing here for schools which take the boy at fifteen years of age and keep 
 him steadily at work for three years, or better for four years, until he not only 
 knows many things well, but until he has acquired such habits of steady work and 
 
 214 
 
application, promptness, neatness and thoughtfulness, as will make him an invaluable 
 assistant in any business office. 
 
 Now, such a school as this would not only be of value to our trade and com- 
 merce by furnishing it with properly trained lads, but, as already noted, to our exist- 
 ing system of public education as well. Our High Schools furnish an opportunity 
 for our youth to obtain a preparation for college or the professional school; our 
 Manual Training High Schools offer our boys an opportunity to get a preparatory 
 training for the schools of engineering, or such a training as will enable them to 
 enter with profit our machine shops and factories. The former trains— generally 
 speaking — for the learned professions, i. e., it gives a kind of training which a boy 
 should have before he takes up his professional studies ; the latter for the great 
 department of the handicrafts and engineering professions. We need another insti- 
 tution, side by side with these, which will train for the great field of commercial 
 activity and business in general. 
 
 If one objects to the statement that the course of the High Schools "trains for" 
 professions, we may say instead, as indicated in the first part of this paper, that 
 while it gives a liberal training, the subject matter of much of its instruction is 
 such as to be specially useful to young men who expect to enter the professions; 
 and it is in this sense and no other that tne properly organized Commercial High 
 School would train for business life. The result is the same in either case. They 
 are both liberal institutions, giving a general training— using for this purpose in one 
 case chiefly language and literature; in the other chiefly the sciences relating to 
 society and business. 
 
 I may say, in passing, that the need of commercial education will not be satisfied 
 by the establishment of a commercial course side by side with other courses in our 
 existing high schools. All educational experience demonstrates that such a course 
 does not receive that care and attention which are necessary in order to make it 
 thoroughly efficient. Its interests would be habitually neglected and subordinated 
 to the supposed interests of all older courses, and just as it was necessary to estab- 
 lish the Manual Training High Schools as separate schools and not mere courses 
 in the Central High School in order to secure for them and the kind of training 
 underlying them a fair chance, so it will be necessary to organize the Com- 
 mercial High Schools separate from both. 
 
 Closely connected with the proposition that a Commercial High School is 
 demanded in the interests of our public educational system, is my last proposition, 
 that it is called for in the interest of the boys themselves. This is, of course, the 
 converse almost of the first. It is proper that the community should provide 
 facilities for the youth to get a preparation for college or the professional school ; 
 it is proper for it to provide facilities to get a preparation for the engineering school 
 or for the life of the shops or the factories ; but it is no less proper for it to provide 
 facilities for the youth to get a training in preparation for the great field of busi- 
 ness and commercial life. It is, indeed, unfair to look out for the interests of the 
 youth who wish to enter a profession or take up engineering, and yet do nothing 
 for him who wishes to enter a business career. 
 
 Of course, in planning such a school, reference must be had to the fair claims 
 of an educational institution. Just as the high schools do not undertake to teach 
 law or medicine or theology, but do aim to give that general training which is 
 
 215 
 
common and desirable to the members of all the professions; just as the Manual 
 Training High School does not undertake to prepare its students to be carpenters, 
 machinists and engineers, but does aim to give that general training which is com- 
 mon to all the various branches of skilled manual labor, and which underlies the 
 calling of engineers, so the Commercial High School would not undertake to turn 
 out a cotton or wool or grain merchant, a banker, broker or insurance agent, but 
 it would aim to give a training and a body of knowledge which would be found 
 equally useful in all these and similar occupations. The Commercial High School 
 would be expected to keep in mind, as its sister institutions, that the man is, after 
 all, higher than his calling; that its work is education and training, not cramming, 
 and that its pupils should be first of all honest men, intelligent and educated gen- 
 tlemen and patriotic and public-spirited citizens, and then good brokers, bankers and 
 merchants— or, rather, that they should be one and all at the same time. 
 
 Before closing it may not be amiss to indicate briefly the content of the curriculum 
 of such a school. It should be, in my opinion, at least three years in length, and 
 better four than three, admitting boys directly from the grammar schools of the 
 city, as do our present high schools. 
 
 Accounting, of course, should occupy a prominent place. It ought to be taught 
 more as a matter of principle than detail, i. e., with an idea of enabling the pupils 
 to understand easily any system which they may have to learn in subsequent life, 
 rather than trying to make expert accountants of them in any one line. It should 
 be at once more scientific and more practical than at present. It should be used, 
 moreover, as a means of studying commercial and industrial life. If a man under- 
 stands thoroughly the system of accounting which a great business house has 
 developed as a result of its daily experience through years of work, he has gained 
 an insight into some of the most characteristic features of that business. 
 
 The books of a great railway corporation, for example, are an epitome not only 
 of the actual transactions of such company, but they are a reflex of the ideas of 
 the managers as to some of the most difficult questions of policy in regard to 
 transportation. 
 
 This subject of accounting needs, moreover, much more attention than it has 
 received thus far. When it is impossible for the managers of a great railway system 
 after months of effort to do more than indicate in a very general way what has 
 been done with the funds belonging to the company, there is surely needed no argu- 
 ment on this question. 
 
 Side by side with accounting should be pursued, of course, the ordinary mathe- 
 matical courses of a high school, except that some attention should be given to the 
 application of arithmetic and algebra to the operations of commercial life — includ- 
 ing operations in commission and interest, calculation of all sorts, foreign exchange, 
 arbitration of exchange, foreign systems of weights, measures and money, interest 
 on stock, bonds, annuities, premiums, etc. 
 
 The history of commerce and commercial systems should also form a constituent 
 of the course. The youth should study the origin and development of commerce 
 and its methods from the earliest times down to the present — both as to articles 
 which have formed the staples of commerce and the methods by which business 
 was transacted. 
 
 Commercial geography — dealing with the origin of. and the methods of obtain- 
 
 216 
 
ing and producing, the various articles of modern commerce, should also receive 
 much attention. . 
 
 The study of commercial products and their peculiarities is also important. The 
 youth who has completed such a course should know in a general way the various 
 "purposes, for example, for which the different kinds of wool are utilized— should 
 understand why a manufacturer of woolen goods needs wool from a certain place 
 in the world for his product, and why that particular kind of wool is grown success- 
 fully in that particular place. He should also he able to recognize by sight the most 
 important grades and conditions of this product. 
 
 A consideration of the modern systems of transportation should also be included 
 in such a course— not merely a history of its origin and development— but an exam- 
 ination of the different systems of railroad and steamship tariffs and the principles 
 underlying them, together with the various methods of shipment and the law relating 
 to the responsibility of shipper and transporter. 
 
 It would go without saying that opportunity should be offered to pursue modern 
 languages so thoroughly that the pupil could speak and write them with fluency, so 
 as to utilize them in business correspondence. In such a school Spanish should 
 receive special attention, as the possibility of spreading our trade rapidly in the 
 South American states depends, among other things, on our having properly edu- 
 cated young men who can go into those countries and transact business in their 
 languages. 
 
 Training in penmanship and business correspondence, and the correct and fluent 
 use of English, would be understood as fundamental elements in such a course, 
 while general history and literature, American history and American literature, and 
 our American political system and political economy, should all receive that ample 
 attention which their importance in the liberal training of educated American citi- 
 zens demands. Opportunity should also be given to those students who desire to 
 learn stenography and typewriting and the other subjects of instruction represented 
 in our ordinary business college courses. 
 
 It is believed that a curriculum based on these ideas, worked out in its details 
 by competent educators and properly taught by experienced teachers, could afford 
 a training which every young man would do well to obtain before entering upon 
 a practical career in business. He would acquire habits of work and methods of 
 working which would be invaluable to him. He would develop the moral qualities 
 necessary to a good man of business— a certain aptitude for commercial affairs, 
 a desire for work, the love of order and economy, the spirit of enterprise, clear- 
 ness of judgment and uprightness. He would acquire a certain amount of informa- 
 tion and a habit of observation and reflection upon what he experienced in busi- 
 ness that would stand him in good stead through all his subsequent life. 
 
 He would, in short, have a good preparation to begin to learn his business, and 
 the advantages of his early training would show themselves more and more clearly 
 as time went on. 
 
 217 
 
appcttDir d. 
 
 THE FREE LECTURE SYSTEM OF NEW YORK CITY. 
 
 The movement for free evening lectures in the public schools of New York was 
 inaugurated some ten years ago. The suggestion had been made that lectures on 
 scientific and historical subjects would prove very beneficial to a large class in the 
 community. A bill was accordingly introduced into the legislature and was 
 approved by the governor on June 9, 1888, authorizing the board of education to 
 employ competent lecturers to deliver evening lectures on the natural sciences and 
 kindred subjects, to provide necessary books, stationery, charts and other equip- 
 ment, and to arrange for free lectures in at least one school in each ward of the 
 city. This act was twice amended to give the board the power of free advertising 
 and of locating the lectures, if necessary, in other than school buildings. Fifteen 
 thousand dollars were appropriated for the first year, and between January and 
 April, 1889, 186 lectures were given in six school houses to a total attendance of 22,149, 
 an average of 115 at each lecture. From October, 1889, to April, 1890, 339 lectures 
 were given in seven schoolhouses to a total attendance of 26,632, an average of 
 81 at each lecture. The experience of the second season showed the neces- 
 sity of more adequate supervision, and Dr. Henry M. Leipziger was appointed 
 special superintendent for this work. A new system of administration was adopted, 
 the corps of lecturers was changed, the use of the stereopticon was introduced, and 
 special efforts were directed to announcing and explaining the lectures. The result 
 was an increase during 1890-91 of over 50,000 in attendance as compared with the 
 previous year. Since then the growth has been constant. In 1897-98. 1,597 lectures 
 were delivered at forty-one different places to a total attendance of 509,571. 
 
 Mr. Leipsiger says very truly, (!) however, that "these figures do not convey 
 the real significance of the movement. The continuity of interest is the most satis- 
 fying sign. The demand for the lectures, the many expressions of pleasure and of 
 benefit derived, all indicate that this scheme for adult education has come to stay. 
 Eight years ago 185 lectures were given in six places ; about 25,000 was the total 
 attendance. Now forty places, and an attendance of half a million. Has not an 
 intellectual appetite been created, and, like other appetites, does it not grow by what 
 it feeds on? * * * How could it be otherwise, if we survey what has been 
 presented to these half a million of learners by 200 teachers? Every realm of human 
 knowledge is represented. My aim has been to get the best information possible 
 and to present it in popular form, so that the truth may reach the largest numbers. 
 
 "The subjects during the past winter have all been arranged in courses of from 
 four to ten each. Let me just name a few of these courses: 
 
 (') Address at the Eighth Annual Reunion of Lecturers in the Free Lecture Course in New York 
 City, May 30, 1898. 
 
 218 
 
"Six lectures on 'Electricity' have been repeated seven times. 
 
 "Six lectures on 'Geography of the United States' have been repeated twenty- 
 seven times. 
 
 "Six lectures on 'American History.' including 'Representative Americans' and 
 'National Government,' have been repeated twenty-six times. 
 
 "Six lectures on 'Literature' have been repeated nineteen times. 
 
 "Six lectures on 'Astronomy' have been repeated seven times. 
 
 "Six lectures on 'The Human Body' have been repeated ten times. 
 
 "Five lectures on 'First Aid to the Injured' have been repeated four times. 
 
 "Ten lectures on 'History of Civilization' have been repeated once. 
 
 "Six lectures on 'Music' have been repeated twelve times. 
 
 "Six lectures on 'History of New York City' have been repeated seven times. 
 
 "Six lectures on 'Municipal Government of New York' have been repeated four 
 times. 
 
 "Five lectures on 'Descriptive Geography' have been repeated twenty-five times. 
 
 "With all the courses of lectures a syllabus containing a selected bibliography 
 was distributed, and at many of the courses, particularly on historical and socio- 
 logical subjects, a discussion between the audience and the lecturer continued, 
 lasting frequently until the janitor reluctantly reminded the lecturer of the flight 
 of time. With the course of lectures on 'First Aid to the Injured' a medical 
 handbook was distributed, and at the close of the course an examination was held 
 and certificates issued to those who passed it creditably. These facts are told to 
 bring more clearly before you the truth that the chief purpose of the lecture course 
 is education. And I therefore say that, considering the serious nature of the sub- 
 jects treated, that the result of the course just closing is most gratifying. It has 
 proven that the people are awakening to the fact that education is a continuous 
 performance, that the school gives but the alphabet, that the words must be formed 
 during life. 
 
 "One further feature of last season's work, just begun, deserves more than a 
 passing notice. The experiment has been made of bringing the library into close 
 connection with the lectures. Books relating to the topics treated at the various 
 lectures were borrowed from the free circulating libraries and lent to such of the 
 auditors as desired to continue their reading. Never were there enough books to 
 satisfy the demand, and while the books were given without any of the customary 
 safeguards used by libraries, all the books have been safely returned. 
 
 "The fact has been established that the people will come — that the nation will 
 go to school. During the coming year I shall suggest to our committee the wisdom 
 of establishing two kinds of lectures, one for larger audiences, where subjects that 
 appeal to large bodies will be treated, and at the other, more special in their nature, 
 and where those only will come who are interested in that particular subject; that 
 the entire winter at any particular center be devoted to but one or two subjects, and 
 that definite course of reading or study be followed. I am sure that by this time 
 we have prepared some such body of students. The division that I have suggested 
 will satisfy those who are already prepared for higher study and those who are 
 just entering on the appreciation of the delights of intellectual pleasure. For — 
 believing, as I do, in the educational purpose and value of these lectures — I also 
 believe, to an extent, in their wisdom from the recreative side. The character of 
 
 219 
 
 " OF THJS 
 
 I VZRSITY 
 
our pleasure is an index of our culture and our civilization. A nation whose favorite 
 pastime is the bull fight is hardly on a plane with one that finds pleasure in the 
 lyceum lecture. So if we can make the pleasure of our people consist in the delights 
 of art, in the beauties of literature, in the pursuit of science or the sweet influence 
 of music, and gradually turn them away from so much that is lowering in our 
 midst, are we not doing a real public service, and is not this theory the real founda- 
 tion on which the support of the free public library rests? Is not refinement, too, 
 one of the ends for which we are aiming, not alone knowledge, but culture, not 
 alone light, but sweetness, and if we can turn our youth from the street corner 
 to the school playground, transformed into a temple of learning, are we not helping 
 to that end? 
 
 "One thing can positively be said as a result of this lecture movement — for it 
 is a movement, since it is full of life — that there is a constantly growing element 
 in this New York of ours that is looking for intellectual and spiritual guidance, who 
 welcome the knowledge of the scientist, are moved by the skill of the artist, are 
 touched by the words of the orator and inspired by all to loftier lives. And it 
 seems to me that men who spend their lives in accumulating knowledge, in adding 
 to the world's treasury of wisdom, should find the greatest light in its dissimulation. 
 
 "It has given me the greatest pleasure to receive letters from university pro- 
 fessors who looked at the beginning with some slight scorn in the attempt to popu- 
 larize knowledge, in which they now admit their change of view. They certainly 
 have carried out the advice of one of the speakers at a certain college dinner to some 
 professors, 'that they should rise superior to their own superiority.' 
 
 "The scholar owes his highest duty to the state. It is his duty to do what he 
 can to raise the moral tone of the community in which he lives, to be of it, not , 
 above it ; not to be lost in the mass, but to help leaven it. And never was that 
 duty more demanded than in a great democracy, for our republic is still on trial. 
 Nobly is it weathering the gales that beset it, for the popular conscience has always 
 responded to the right. So I say the highest duty that our scholars can perform is 
 to bring their knowledge and raise the average. We have faith in democracy, and 
 we believe that, through popular education, as Mr. Larned says, 'the knowledge 
 of the learned, the wisdom of the thoughtful and the conscience of the upright will 
 some day be common enough to prevail over every fractious folly and every mis- 
 chievous movement that evil minds or ignorance can set astir.' " 
 
^ppcnttr e. 
 
 VACATION SCHOOLS AND PLAYGROUNDS. 
 
 Vacation schools have come from a recognition of the necessity of providing 
 in large cities some pleasant and profitable occupation during the summer for chil- 
 dren of school age. Men and women interested in social questions have been 
 the first to comprehend this, and so far it has been solved rather by the efforts 
 of private individuals and associations than by the official action of boards of 
 education, although responsibility in this matter must rest ultimately on these bodies. 
 The first vacation school was established in Boston in 1885, and since then, as Miss 
 American has pointed outC 1 ) vacation schools have been organized in New York, 
 Chicago, Cambridge, Cleveland, Brooklyn, Philadelphia, Indianapolis and New- 
 Haven. 
 
 In New York City the Association for the Improvement of the Poor secured 
 in 1894 the use of four public school buildings and held summer sessions at a cost 
 of $5,000. The results accomplished by this association during the next four years 
 led the board of education to adopt vacation schools as a part of the public school 
 system, and to appropriate $10,000 for the maintenance of ten schools during the 
 summer of 1898. On the request of the Civic Club, the Philadelphia Board of 
 Education opened three vacation schools in 1898, equipped them admirably and 
 secured the best available teachers. Nature study and manual training were made 
 the basis of the curriculum, but the work in each school was wisely left to the 
 individual principals. 
 
 The first vacation school in Chicago was opened in the Joseph Medill School 
 by the educational committee of the Civic Federation in 1896. Various forms of 
 manual training work were included in the morning session, and weekly excursions 
 for the pupils were also made possible through the generosity of the Chicago Record. 
 The school accommodated only 360 children, but over 4,000 applied for admission. 
 A similar school was conducted in 1897 by the settlement of the University of 
 Chicago under the management of Miss Mary McDowell. The experiments of 
 these two years showed a wide demand for vacation schools, and were so fruitful 
 in good results that the Chicago Women's Club undertook this work in December, 
 1897. A vacation school committee was appointed, which obtained the aid of forty- 
 three city and suburban women's clubs. Through the efforts of a joint committee 
 a fund of $9,600 was raised for vacation schools. Five schools were opened on 
 July 5 with 2,000 pupils, while 6,000 applied for admission. The average daily 
 
 (') See "The Movement for Vacation Schools" by Sadie American, in the American Journal of 
 Sociology, November, 1898, an I " Vacation Schools " by Richard Waterman, jr., in N.E.A. Proceedings. 
 1S98, p., 404. 
 
attendance was 1887, and the average cost per child for instruction was $2.34 for 
 six weeks and 78 cents per capita for the weekly excursions. ( 2 ) 
 
 The five schools opened in Chicago were placed in the sections where the great- 
 est need of vacation schools was apparent, namelv. in the tenement districts, largely 
 inhabited by families of foreign birth or descent. Of the enrollment in the schools 
 20 per cent was Italian, 18 per cent Jewish, 18 per cent German, 12 per cent Irish, 
 11 per cent Swedish, 6 per cent American, 2 per cent Polish and 1 per cent colored. ( 3 ) 
 Excellent results were accomplished in nature study and manual training, while 
 the weekly excursions proved a most valuable part of the work. In a word, the 
 experience of 1898 may be reckoned conclusive proof of the value to Chicago of 
 vacation schools, and should be sufficient evidence to the board of education of the 
 advisability of incorporating as soon as possible these schools in the public system. 
 
 Recent experiments and investigation have showed the need also of small play- 
 grounds.^) In several cities school yards have been opened under private man- 
 agement during summer months. The Massachusetts Emergency and Hygienic 
 Association has maintained playgrounds in Boston for ten years, especially for 
 young children. Each yard was well equipped for various kinds of kindergarten 
 work and was under the charge of a regular instructor. Providence, Philadelphia 
 and Baltimore have followed the example of Boston. In Philadelphia one play- 
 ground supported by Hull House, and since 1896 a well-equipped playground, opened 
 education granted the use of four school yards, for the maintenance of which the 
 city council appropriated $1,000. Each yard was in charge of the janitor of the 
 school and of a kindergartner. Chicago has had for five years an excellent play- 
 grounds supported by Hull House, and since 1896 a well-equipped playground, opened 
 by the settlement of the Northwestern University. In 1898 the city council made an 
 appropriation of $1,000, which was expended by the vacation school committee of the 
 women's clubs in maintaining playgrounds in the yards of six school buildings. 
 An additional contribution of $750 by private parties helped to secure efficient 
 supervision by a kindergartner for the younger children and by a young man for 
 the charge of the older boys. In the matter of playgrounds, ( 5 ) as in the case of 
 vacation schools, the results accomplished in the summer of 1898 were such as to 
 justify prompt action by the board of education in opening all school yards, at least 
 in the crowded districts, for free use as playgrounds on Saturdays during the school 
 year and on every day through the summer months. 
 
 ( 2 ) See Report of the Chicago Vacation School Committee of Women's Clubs, 1898. 
 
 C 3 ) See " Chicago Vacation Schools" by O. J. Milliken, Vacation School Superintendent in the Amer- 
 ican Journal of Sociology , November, 1898. 
 
 (*) See "The Movement for Small Playgrounds" by Sadie American, in the American Journal 0/ 
 Sociology, September, 1898. 
 
 ( B ) See " Municipal Playgrounds in Chicago" by Charles Zueblinin the American Journal of Soci 
 ology, September, 1898. 
 
COMPULSORY ATTENDANCE LAWS. 
 
 The history of school legislation in the United States has no more interesting 
 chapter than that which treats of the growing sentiment of the American public in 
 favor of compulsory attendance and of the various attempts which have been made 
 to secure effective laws. Proper legislation has not been easily secured, and even 
 now changes are being constantly made which look to a widening of the scope of 
 these laws and to an increase in ease and thoroughness in their enforcement. 
 Massachusetts has taken and held a leading position in this, as in many other 
 phases of school administration. New York has revised again and again her laws 
 on this point, and now, in common with several other states, has provisions which 
 seem at once fair to all classes in the community and readily and efficiently enforced. 
 
 While there is a general similarity in attendance laws, the school acts of differ- 
 ent states vary considerably in details. Illinois makes the compulsory school age 
 from seven to fourteen, and requires an attendance for at least sixteen weeks, 
 twelve weeks to be consecutive. Pennsylvania has ordered the attendance of every 
 child between the ages of eight and sixteen years, during at least 70 per cent of 
 the time in which schools in the respective districts are in session. In Connecticut 
 the compulsory school age is from eight to sixteen, and the law reads that every 
 child shall attend during the entire session of the school in his district. New 
 York makes a similar provision, while Massachusetts insists on an attendance of 
 thirty-two weeks for every child between the ages of seven and fourteen. 
 
 Almost as much variation is found in different states in the exceptions which 
 are made in favor of poor families, which need the earnings of children within the 
 school age. Pennsylvania provides that the compulsory education act shall not 
 apply to any child between the ages of thirteen and sixteen years, who is regularly 
 engaged in any useful employment or service. New York limits compulsory attend- 
 ance to eighty days each year for children between twelve and fourteen years of 
 age, who are "regularly and lawfully engaged in useful employment or service." 
 and frees all children between the ages of fourteen and sixteen, who are similarly 
 employed. In Connecticut children over fourteen years of age are not subject to 
 compulsory attendance while lawfully employed. No child under fourteen can 
 be employed lawfully in any mechanical, mercantile or manufacturing establish- 
 ment, and no child under fourteen who has resided in the United States nine 
 months can be lawfully employed in any work unless he has attended school at 
 least twelve weeks of the preceding twelve months, and six weeks of this attend- 
 ance must have been consecutive. Massachusetts makes no exceptions in its 
 compulsory attendance law for children between seven and fourteen years of age, 
 
and requires further that no child under sixteen years of age shall be employed in 
 any factory, workshop or mercantile establishment unless he can read at sight 
 and can write legibly simple sentences in the English language, or is regularly 
 attending a public evening school. 
 
 Various methods are employed in different states to secure the enforcement of 
 compulsory education acts. Illinois provides for the appointment of truant officers 
 to report all violations under the law, and fixes a fine of not less than one or 
 more than five dollars for all willful neglect on the part of any parent or guardian 
 to secure the attendance of a child and a fine of not less than three or more than 
 twenty dollars for every willfully false statement concerning the age of a child or 
 the time he has attended school. Pennsylvania makes the fine not to exceed two 
 dollars for the first conviction and not to exceed five dollars for each subsequent 
 conviction, and requires the school board of cities and permits the school boards 
 of boroughs and townships to employ one or more attendance officers. Connecticut 
 fixes a similar fine at not to exceed five dollars for each week's failure on the part 
 of any person to comply with the school attendance law, and orders every town to 
 appoint three or more truant officers to enforce attendance. The law further orders 
 the police to arrest all boys between eight and sixteen who are habitual truants 
 during the usual school hours of the school terms, and permits them to question 
 any boy under sixteen years of age during such hours and if he be a truant from 
 school orders them to send him to such school. New York makes a violation of 
 the compulsory act a misdemeanor, punishable for the first offense by a fine not 
 exceeding five dollars, and for each subsequent offense by a fine not exceeding 
 fifty dollars, or by imprisonment not exceeding thirty days or by both such fine 
 and imprisonment. But the penalty for violation may be avoided by the parent 
 or guardian giving notice to the school authorities of his inability to secure the 
 attendance of the child. In such case recourse is had to the truant school act. 
 The penalty in Massachusetts is a fine of not more than twenty dollars, to which 
 any person is liable having under his control a child between seven and fourteen 
 years of age, who fails for five day sessions or ten half-day sessions within any 
 period of six months to cause such child to attend school. 
 
 The school attendance laws of these typical states seem to contain in varying pro- 
 portions the essentials of proper legislation on this point. It is common experience, 
 however, that the penalties and the other means of enforcement are inadequate to 
 secure the proper results unless provision is made also for truant schools which are 
 described in the following appendix. 
 
 224 
 
appeuMr g. 
 
 PARENTAL SCHOOLS. 
 
 Permissive or compulsory acts looking to the establishment of truant or parental 
 schools have been passed by a number of states. Pennsylvania has enacted that 
 "boards of directors or controllers of any school district, or of two or more districts, 
 may establish special schools for children who are habitual truants or who are insub- 
 ordinate or disorderly during their attendance upon instruction in the public schools, 
 and may provide for the proper care, maintenance and instruction of such children 
 in such schools." The child may be sent directly to the school with the consent of 
 the parent or guardian, but otherwise only after conviction before a proper magis- 
 trate. The sentence is for a period not exceeding the remainder of the school term 
 in the respective district, and the child is subject to parole for good conduct by the 
 authorities of the school after four weeks' attendance. Pennsylvania further per- 
 mits the school directors of any district not having a parental school to contract 
 with any other district for the care of truant or disorderly children. Practically the 
 same provisions are made by the state of New York with an additional require- 
 ment that industrial training be furnished in every truant school. 
 
 Massachusetts has in general the most adequate compulsory education law, and 
 enforces this in part by the compulsory establishment by each county, with three 
 or four exceptions, of a county truant school, the parental school of Boston being 
 reckoned the county school for Suffolk. The state provides further that two or 
 more committees may for the purpose of economy unite in the support of a union 
 truant school which must in no case be at or near a penal institution. The term of 
 sentence is for a period not exceeding two years, and the county commissioners 
 may, with the approval of the justice who imposed the sentence, discharge or after 
 notice to the school authorities parole a child, and a special provision is made for 
 the temporary release of a child in case of death or serious illness in his immediate 
 family. The courts are given considerable latitude in the enforcement of the truant 
 act. A magistrate, for example, may make such order as he deems expedient con- 
 cerning the payment by the parent of the cost of the support of any child while in 
 the county school ; may place a child, after conviction, not in a truant school, but 
 under the oversight of a truant officer for such a period and upon such conditions 
 as he may deem best. If the child violates the conditions of his probation the truant 
 officer may, without warrant or other process, take the child before the court for 
 another disposition of the case. If the children in the truant schools persistently 
 violate the regulations of the school, they may, upon complaint by the county com- 
 missioners and after conviction in each case, be committed by the court to state 
 reformatories. Minor provisions of the Massachusetts law are also interesting. 
 
Any person who is convicted of inducing or attempting to induce any child to absent 
 himself unlawfully from school, or who employs or harbors while school is in session 
 any child absent unlawfully from school is liable to a fine of not more than fifty 
 dollars. Truant cases may be brought before any magistrate, in the first instance 
 by a summons or if that is not answered, or if it seems likely that it will not be 
 answered, by a warrant, to be served by the truant officer or by any officer empowered 
 to serve criminal processes. Truant officers do not receive fees for their services. 
 They are empowered to make complaints, serve legal processes and carry into execu- 
 tion judgments under the compulsory attendance law. 
 
 A review and comparison of truant schools show certain principles and pro- 
 visions which have led to the most satisfactory results. 
 
 (i) For the proper enforcement of compulsory school attendance acts, the estab- 
 lishment of truant schools should be sufficiently general as to make their influence felt 
 in all parts of the state. While the establishment may be optional with the counties 
 or with the boards of education in smaller towns and cities, it should be compulsory 
 in large cities. Moreover, every community which is without a truant school should 
 have the privilege and should be required to contract with some other community 
 possessing a truant school for the care of its truants, or should be empowered to 
 unite with other communities in the establishment of a school ; 
 
 (2) Commitment to a truant school should be as free as possible from all stigma, 
 and children convicted of penal offenses should in no case be assigned to such a 
 school. The truant school, moreover, should not be located at or near any penal 
 institution; 
 
 (3) If the consent of the parent or guardian can be secured, the assignment of 
 the child to a parental school should rest with the board of education. If legal 
 process is necessary, a summons should be used preferably to a warrant, and as 
 far as feasible, the case should come before one court or one kind of magistrate in 
 order to secure uniformity of judgment, and truant cases should be heard at a 
 special time in a court room cleared for this purpose ; 
 
 (4) Sentence to the truant school should be for an indeterminate period up to 
 the limit of school age with a privilege of parole or discharge after four weeks, each 
 case to be judged by the authorities of the school, subject to the approval of the 
 superintendent in cities and of the school authorities in smaller communities ; 
 
 (5) The truant school should be in session continuously, for to release the boys 
 during the summer involves, in large cities at least, a distinct danger of deterioration ; 
 
 (6) Since in every school there are several classes of boys of varying degrees of 
 incorrigibility, the "cottage" plan of housing them has proved an advantage ; this 
 permits the ready separation of boys into fairly uniform groups and thus avoids the 
 danger which would come from indiscriminate association of the older boys with the 
 younger and of the more corrupt boys with those who are less evilly inclined ; 
 
 (7) A truant school should control, if possible, sufficient outlying acreage as to 
 give opportunity for at least orchard and garden work, which will at once permit 
 proper out-of-door exercise and reduce the expenses of the school ; 
 
 (8) The course of study should be distinctly different from that of the public 
 schools and should emphasize in large measure hand-training. Truant and incor- 
 rigible boys are usually quite disinclined to purely intellectual work. In order to 
 win them over to serious study their interest must be aroused from another side, 
 and for this purpose manual training has proved of great value. 
 
 226 
 
flppenDfr h. 
 
 SELF-GOVERNMENT BY PUPILS. 
 
 The problem of discipline in the public schools has been greatly simplified accord- 
 ing to many experienced teachers by the introduction of self-government by the 
 pupils. This question has recently come to the front to a remarkable degree among 
 thoughtful educators. Chicago offers several notable examples of what can be 
 accomplished in this way, not only in facilitating school discipline, but also in giving 
 practical training in the habit of good citizenship. 
 
 Among the secondary schools, the Hyde Park High School has developed, on the 
 initiative of Principal Charles W. French, an excellent scheme of self-government 
 through the organization of pupils. In the John Crerar grammar school, the prin- 
 cipal, John T. Ray, introduced about three years ago a similar plan which has been 
 in practical operation with increasing satisfaction to teachers, to pupils and to parents. 
 The details of the plan may be seen in the following : 
 
 RULES FOR PUPIL GOVERNMENT. 
 
 Motto: "Of all— by all— for all." 
 
 I. On the first Monday of each school month a girl and a boy tribune shall be 
 elected by ballot in each room above the second grade. 
 
 II. (a) The tribunes are the official spokesmen of the room. To them all com- 
 plaints or reports of misconduct shall first be made by the pupils, and from them 
 the teacher shall first seek any information pertaining to order or discipline. 
 
 (b) The tribune shall receive all complaints and investigate, caution, advise and 
 warn pupils as to their conduct, settling disputes and protecting the rights of indi- 
 viduals and of the school against wrongdoers if possible. 
 
 (c) The tribune shall report misconduct to the teacher only after a pupil has 
 been cautioned. The teacher shall deprive the offender of privileges until he goes 
 to the tribune and makes proper pledges of future right conduct, when the tribune 
 will ask to have the offender's privileges restored. 
 
 III. Pupils are expected not only to do right themselves, but to assist actively in 
 influencing other pupils to right conduct by personal influence and warning, or by 
 reporting misconduct to the tribune of rooms to which the offender belongs. 
 
 IV. (a) Citizens may be appointed from each room after the third week in each 
 term to the number of one-half or more of the membership. Two-thirds elected by 
 the pupils of the room and one-third and all further additions by the teacher. 
 
 (b) Citizens shall be elected or appointed from those who excel in personal 
 good conduct, and particularly in assisting in the general good government of the 
 school. 
 
 227 
 
(c) Citizens are to be accorded all possible liberties about the school, the same 
 as teachers. They are expected to take the same active interest at all times in the 
 good order of the school as the teachers. They may enter the front door at any 
 time, may leave the room when necessary and may sit in the reading-room before or 
 after school. 
 
 (d) Citizens shall have the right to vote on all matters pertaining to the general 
 welfare of the school, and from their number shall be appointed all committees of 
 inquiry, etc. 
 
 V. (a) Tribunes or citizens shall be removed by the teacher or principal at any 
 time for misconduct or lack of attention to tribune or citizen duties. 
 
 (b) Teachers may appoint additional citizens at any time for general good con- 
 duct or for special praiseworthy acts. 
 
 VI. A pin may be worn by the tribunes and the citizens to show their rank, 
 privileges and duties. 
 
 "These rules were not written," says Mr. Ray, "from theory, but have been 
 evolved through three years of careful experimenting by the principal and teachers 
 of the John Crerar school. When the plan was first introduced, the pupils were led 
 to see that they were responsible not merely for their individual conduct, but equally 
 for the general good conduct and welfare of the school ; that a wrong done by any 
 pupil was a wrong against the whole school community. Thev were taught that the 
 wrong acts of individuals should be corrected, if possible, by personal influence and 
 counsel, either directly or through the proper officer. If this failed, it was their duty 
 to make a report in order that the teacher might restrain or correct the disorderly 
 or dishonest pupil. 
 
 "All surveillance of the pupils outside of the schoolrooms, 1 the stairs, during 
 the recesses and on the playgrounds was entirely removed. The pupils were 
 informed that right conduct and observance of all school regulations were expected of 
 them out of the presence as well as in the presence of the teachers. Self-mastery and 
 active assistance in influencing those unable or unwilling to control themselves prop- 
 erly were made the cardinal virtues of good citizenship in s-Jiool. 
 
 "The pupils soon responded to the trust put in them. They became more self- 
 respecting and deferential, and began to take a pride in the right conduct of the 
 school. The well-disposed purils asserted themselves and exercised a good influence 
 over the careless or indifferent. They learned to settle among themselves the many 
 little irregularities that formerly fell to the teachers, either by the influence of the 
 older pupils or through the scnool officers — the tribunes and the citizens. Thus 
 they learned the lesson that every democratic community must learn, namely, the 
 necessity of regulating their own community affairs. They discovered the import- 
 ance of choosing competent and conscientious officers and learned also that the 
 largest liberties can be gained only by carefully protecting those which they have, 
 from abuse, since most restrictions which have to be placed in a school or a com- 
 munity come from the abuse of liberty by the few. 
 
 "The habit of self-control and of active participation in the conduct of the school 
 community became fixed, and will no doubt better fit the child for the more important 
 citizenship of adult life. The practice of 'tattling' was carefully distinguished from 
 the manly exposure of wrongdoing for the purpose of preventing or suppressing 
 an evil. The children were thus educated to avoid in after life the idle gossip that is 
 
pernicious or the greater evil of being indifferent to the enforcement of law, order 
 and good conduct in the community. 
 
 "The unanimous opinion of the teachers participating in this experiment is : 
 
 "First, That there has been a marked improvement in the moral tone of the pupils ; 
 
 "Second, That the government of the school, and particularly of the rooms, is 
 much easier than by the old method ; 
 
 "Third, That this plan can be applied as satisfactorily to the primary as to the 
 higher grades, and makes possible the teaching of practical citizenship to all children 
 from their first entrance to the school ; 
 
 "Fourth, That the only way to teach citizenship successfully is by thus combining 
 the practice of civic duties with theoretic instruction, and that both of these are essen- 
 tial elements of the course if the public schools are to fulfill the purpose for which 
 they were established." 
 
 O *P p^- «^i in colors on celluloid and are enclosed in 
 
 ^UOHNUJERAR^f dasp pjns fcQ be worn by the tribunes and 
 
 ^J? c HOO\^ c i t i Z ens. 
 
 8 Y AlA." x 
 
 The pins, designed by Mr. Ray for the 
 . John Crerar School and since adopted in 
 . other schools, are represented in the ac- 
 cuts. The badges are printed 
 
 itf'f'ty/i 
 
 VGITIZEIN f 
 
 "3n John Crerar^ 
 
 <5v .,i-r 
 
 ^Y AlV 
 
 229 
 
appcntur i. 
 
 THE LEGAL STATUS OF THE CHICAGO BOARD OF EDUCATION. 
 
 The question of the legal status of the Board of Education of the City of Chicago, 
 and its relations to the municipal government of said city, has been a fruitful source 
 of discussion for many years past, and a great diversity of opinion has existed upon 
 the subject. 
 
 It has been claimed on the one hand that the Board of Education of the City of 
 Chicago and the City of Chicago are legally distinct bodies, the first created by 
 the general school law of the State of Illinois, and the latter by the act for the 
 incorporation of cities and villages. On the other hand, the contention has been 
 that the Board of Education of the City of Chicago is now a mere subordinate 
 department of the municipal government, exactly as was the case when the City 
 of Chicago was governed under the provisions of the special charter of 1863. 
 
 This question has been raised, directly and indirectly, in sundry cases which have 
 been before the Supreme Court of the state, and for the purpose of showing that 
 the question is still unsettled, and can be determined only by further action on the 
 part of the legislative department or subsequent decisions by the Supreme Court, it 
 is deemed advisable to quote briefly from a few recent opinions of the court, bearing 
 upon the subject. 
 
 In the case of The People v. Brenan, et at, decided on December 26. 1898. the 
 board of education contended that the civil service law had no application to its 
 employes for the reason that said board is a separate and distinct quasi public corpo- 
 ration, created by the general school law of the state, and, therefore, could not be 
 considered a mere subordinate department of the city government, and further con- 
 tended that substantially all of the provisions of the city charter of 1863, relating to 
 the management of schools, had been repealed by the general school law of 1872 
 and subsequent amendments thereto. The appeal was prosecuted by the board of 
 education solely for the purpose of endeavoring to obtain from the Supreme Court a 
 decision which would finally determine the legal relations existing between the City 
 of Chicago and the board of education. 
 
 In deciding the case the Supreme Court held that the employes of the board of 
 education are under the jurisdiction of the civil service commissioners, except so 
 far as they are exempted by the civil service act itself, but declined to give any 
 opinion which would determine the relations between the board of education and 
 the City of Chicago. The only light which is shed by the opinion upon this very 
 important question is the following language: "After a careful examination and 
 consideration <>f the various statutes and decisions hearing upon the question, and the 
 arguments of counsel, it seems dear to us thai tin- Board of Education of the City of 
 
 230 
 
Chicago is still connected with, dependent upon, and to some extent a part of, the 
 municipal government of that city, and as such, that its offices and places of employ- 
 ment fall within the operation of the civil service act." 
 
 In the case of Adams v. Brenan, et al, also decided on December 26, 1898, the 
 court says : "The Board of Education of the City of Chicago is a public corporation, 
 created by the legislative authority as an agent of the state, for the purpose of 
 maintaining public schools and school buildings within that subdivision of the state. 
 For the purposes of that function it receives from the tax payers, and holds as trustee, 
 the school fund, and is bound to administer it for the beneficiaries of the trust." 
 
 In the case of Kinnare v. City of Chicago, 171 111. 332, decided February 14, 
 1898, the same being an action brought against the board of education and the City 
 of Chicago to recover damages for a personal injury, the court held: "It, there- 
 fore, appears the appellee, (board of education) is a corporation or quasi corporation, 
 created nolens volens by the general law of the state to aid in the administration of 
 the state government, and charged as such with duties purely governmental in char- 
 acter. It is simply an agency of the state, having existence for the sole purpose of 
 performing certain duties deemed necessary for the maintenance of an 'efficient 
 system of free schools' within the particular locality in its jurisdiction." 
 
 These few citations of authority are certainly sufficient to show that the legal 
 status of the board of education has not yet been finally and irrevocably determined 
 by the decisions of the court, and that, as above stated, the question will probably 
 remain in doubt until there has been some definite legislation upon the subject, or a 
 further decision of the Supreme Court, in a case where this question is solely and 
 directly involved. 
 
 In view of the uncertainty which exists upon this subject, it has been deemed 
 desirable that any proposed legislation, emanating from the recommendations of this 
 commission, should contain provisions which, as far as possible, will settle this 
 question, heretofore productive of much annoyance, delay and inefficiency in the 
 transaction of business relating to the public school system of the city. C 1 ) 
 
 Donald L. Morrtll. 
 
 0) See Appendix K, " A Proposed School Law for Chicago," Section 20. 
 
 23] 
 
£ppcnt)ir J. 
 
 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL REFERENCES ON CITY SCHOOL SYSTEMS. 
 
 The student who desires to investigate the history and the present condition of 
 city school systems in the United States will find little material that is well-arranged, 
 compact and easily accessible. No serious attempt has been made to summarize this 
 subject since the valuable pamphlet of John D. Philbrick, on "City School Systems 
 in the United States" was published by the Bureau of Education in 1885. There is, 
 however, a wealth of material of various kinds. First of all, come the annual reports 
 of the various superintendents of schools and the reports and rules of city boards of 
 education. These are indispensible in any adequate study of municipal education. 
 The reports of the United States commissioner of education include much that is valu- 
 able on various sides of the subject. The proceedings of the National Educational 
 Association, of the New England Institute of Education, of the various state and 
 interstate associations of teachers, both in the elementary and the secondary schools 
 and in colleges and universities, repay a careful review. Much that is valuable can 
 be found also in the files of various educational journals and in some volumes included 
 in the International Education Series. More specifically of interest, aside from Phil- 
 brick's pamphlet already mentioned, is the report of the Committee of Fifteen, 
 of the National Educational Association, on the training of teachers and the organ- 
 ization of city school systems. In addition to the articles and addresses from which 
 quotations have been made, the following references are pertinent to the general scope 
 of this report : 
 "The Relation of the High School to the Higher Education," by William J. Tucker. 
 
 in Education, June, 1898. 
 "The State Normal School and Its Mission, from the Standpoint of a Superintendent 
 
 of Schools," by Geo. Ripley Pinkham, in Education, May. 1898. 
 "Vacation Schools," editorial in Indiana School Journal, June, 1898. 
 "How Compulsory Education Fails," by John Gibson, in the Educational Review 
 
 (London), April, 1898. 
 "Reform in School Administration," by Joseph W. Errant, in the Public School 
 
 Journal, September, 1897. 
 "The Organization and Administration of a School," by Hiram Hadley, in the Public 
 
 School Journal, November, 1897. 
 "Grading and Promotion of Pupils," by John T. Prince, in Educational Review, 
 
 March, 1898. 
 "A Proposed New School Law for Boston," editorial in Educational Review, March 
 
 1898. 
 "The Best Method of Examining and Certifying Teachers," by Henry E. Shepherd, 
 
 in Education, February, 1881. 
 
 232 
 
'The Education of the Public with Reference to Normal Schools and Their Work." 
 
 by Grace C. Bibb, in Education, July, 1881. 
 'Educational Principles of the Kindergarten," by E. Shirreff, president of the London 
 
 Frocbel Society, in Education, May, 1881. 
 'School Supervision," by N. A. Calkins, in Education, May, 1882. 
 'The Origin and Growth of the Kindergarten," by Elizabeth P. Peabody, in Educa 
 
 tion, May, 1882. 
 'Manual Education in Public Schools," by L. H. Marvel, in Education, May, 1882. 
 'The High School: Its Relation to the Lower Grades of Public Schools," by John 
 
 Hancock, in Education, November, 1882. 
 'The Relation of the High School to Business Life: With the True Course of 
 
 Studies," by William Mowry, in Education, November, 1882. 
 •True Place of a Normal School in the Educational System," by D. L. Kiehle, in 
 
 Education, March, 1883. 
 'The High School ; Its Necessity and Right to Exist as a Part of the True System of 
 
 Public Education," by J. L. Pickard, in Education, November, 1882. 
 'The High School : Its Relation to Schools of Technology," by C. O. Thompson, in 
 
 Education, November, 1882. 
 'Compulsory Education," by Ben Blewett, in Education, September, 1883. 
 'The Examination of Teachers," by Ely Tappan, in Education, November, 1883. 
 'The Function of the Normal School," by E. C. Hewett, in Education, January, 1884. 
 'Manual Training," by C. M. Woodward, in Education, January, 1884. 
 'Manual Labor Training in the Public Schools," by Charles O. Thompson, in Educa- 
 tion, July. 1884. 
 'Duties of School Superintendents," by John T. Prince, in Education, March, 1884. 
 "Normal Schools : Their Necessity and Growth," by Thomas Hunter, in Education, 
 
 January, 1885. 
 'Manual Training in General Education," by C. M. Woodward, in Education. July, 
 
 1885. 
 "Intellectual Training in the School," by E. H. Long, in Education, January, 1885. 
 "The Normal School Problem," by W. H. Payne, in Education, March 1895. 
 "The Place of Manual Training in the General Scheme of Education," by May Mack- 
 intosh, in Education, November, 1886. 
 "Industrial Education in the Public School," by John W. Dickinson, in Education, 
 
 June, 1887. 
 "Examinations and Promotions," by Emerson E. White, in Education, March, 1888. 
 "The Normal School in the United States," by A. D. Mayo, in Education, December. 
 
 1887. 
 "The Psychology of Manual Training," by William T. Harris, in Education, May, 
 
 1889. 
 "Educational Value of Manual Training," by George P. Brown, in Education. Juno, 
 
 1889. 
 "The Place of the Public High School," by C. W. Cabeen, in Education, May. 1800. 
 
 233 
 
appCttDtjC K. 
 
 A PROPOSED SCHOOL LAW FOR CHICAGO. 
 
 An act to amend an act entitled, "An Act to Establish and Maintain a System of 
 Free Schools," in force May 21, 1889, by repealing sections seventeen (17) to twenty- 
 eight (28), both inclusive of article VI. of said act and by adding to said article VI. 
 nineteen (19) new sections to be numbered respectively from seventeen (17) to 
 thirty-five (35). 
 
 Be It Enacted by the People of the State of Illinois Represented in the Genera! 
 Assembly, that 
 
 An act entitled, "An act to Establish and Maintain a System of Free Schools," 
 in force May 21, 1889, be and hereby is amended by repealing sections seventeen (17) 
 to twenty-eight (28), both inclusive of article VI. of said act and by adding to said 
 article VI. nineteen (19) new sections to be numbered respectively from seventeen 
 (17) to thirty-five (35), which shall read as follows, to-wit : 
 
 Section 17. In cities having a population exceeding 100,000 inhabitants, from and 
 after this act shall take effect, there shall be created a board of education, which shall 
 consist of eleven (11) members, to be known as trustees, and to be appointed by the 
 mayor, with the consent of the city council, two of whom shall be appointed for the 
 term of one year, three for the term of two years, three for the term of three years, 
 and three for the term of four years. At the expiration of the terms of any member 
 of said board of education his successor shall be appointed in like manner and mem- 
 bers shall hold their office for the term of four years from the first day of July of the 
 year in which they are appointed. Any vacancy which may occur in the membership 
 of said board of education shall be filled through appointment by the mayor, with 
 the approval of the city council, for the unexpired term. If any person so appointed 
 shall fail to qualify within thirty days after his appointment, the office shall be filled 
 by a new appointment for the unexpired term. 
 
 Sec. 18. Any member of the board of education may be removed by the mayor 
 upon proof either of official misconduct in office or of neglect of official duties or of 
 misconduct in any manner connected with his official duties or otherwise which tends 
 to discredit his office or the school system ; or for mental or physical inability to 
 perform his duty as a member, but before such removal of said member, he shall 
 receive due and timely notice in writing of the charges and a copy thereof, and shall 
 be entitled to a hearing on like notice before the mayor and to the assistance of 
 counsel on said hearing. 
 
 Sec. 19. Any person twenty-one years of age, having resided in such city five 
 years next preceding his appointment, shall be eligible to membership on such board 
 of edm 
 
 For the purpose of enabling such board of education to perform the 
 234 
 
duties imposed and exercise the powers granted by this act, the board of education 
 shall be and is hereby declared to be a body politic and corporate. 
 
 Sec. 21. The title to all property real and personal now or that may hereafter 
 be acquired for school or educational purposes, and also the title to all property 
 real and personal purchased for school or educational purposes with any school 
 moneys derived from any source whatever, shall be vested in the city in trust, for 
 the use of schools and shall be at. all times under the care and control of the board 
 of education. All conveyances of real estate shall be made to the city in trust for 
 the use of schools and all sales of real estate or of interest therein used for school 
 purposes or held in trust for school purposes shall be made at the discretion of the 
 mayor and the comptroller of the city upon the unanimous request of such board of 
 education. The city shall have power to take and hold in trust for the use of schools 
 property, real or personal, devised, bequeathed or transmitted to it for the purposes of 
 education in said city, but all such property shall be under the care and control of said 
 board of education. The board of education shall have power in the name of the city 
 and for said city to dispose of such personal property used in the schools or other 
 buildings under the charge of said board, as is no longer required for use therein, 
 and all moneys realized by the sale thereof shall be paid over to the city treasurer, 
 and be deposited or held by him to the credit of the school tax fund. 
 
 Sec. 22. All moneys raised by taxation for school purposes or received from 
 the state common school fund or from any other source whatever for school purposes 
 shall be held by the city treasurer, who is hereby constituted the treasurer of the 
 board of education, as a special fund for school purposes only, subject to the order 
 of the board of education upon warrants to be countersigned by the mayor and the 
 comptroller, and no power given to the board of education shall be exercised by the 
 city council of the city. 
 
 Sec. 23. Said board of education shall not add to the expenditures for school 
 purposes anything over and above the amount that shall be received from the state 
 common school fund, the rental of school lands or property, the income of all funds 
 devoted to and set apart for school purposes, and the amount annually appropriated 
 for such purposes. If said board shall so add to such expenditures, the city shall 
 not in any case be liable therefor ; and nothing herein contained shall be construed 
 so as to authorize any such board of education to levy or collect any tax upon the 
 demand or under the direction of such board of education. 
 
 Sec. 24. Said board of education shall from its own number elect a president, 
 and shall also elect a secretary of the board, a superintendent of schools, a business 
 manager, and an auditor, and shall also elect such other officers and employes as 
 such board shall deem necessary, and shall prescribe their respective duties and 
 compensations and terms of office, subject to the conditions hereinafter contained. 
 
 Sec. 25. Said board of education shall provide well-bound books, at the expense 
 ot the school tax fund, in which shall be kept the faithful record of all its proceedings. 
 The yeas and nays shall be taken and entered upon records of the proceedings of 
 the board upon all questions involving the expenditure of money, and none of the 
 powers herein conferred upon the said board of education shall be exercised except 
 at a regular meeting of said board. 
 
 Sec. 26. Said board of education shall have the entire charge, superintendence, 
 and control of the public schools of the city, and shall have power, and it. shall be 
 its duty: 
 
 235 
 
First — To erect or purchase buildings suitable for school houses and general 
 school purposes, keep the same in repair, and protect them from unnecessary 
 deterioration and injury; 
 
 Second — To buy, or to acquire property under the act providing for the exercise 
 of the right of eminent domain, or to lease property, for school houses or school pur- 
 poses, with the necessary grounds, or for the use of the board of education and to rent 
 buildings or rooms for school purposes or for the use of the board of education ; 
 
 Third — To furnish schools with the necessary fixtures, furniture, apparatus, fuel 
 and such other supplies as in its judgment shall be necessary for school purposes; 
 
 Fourth — To maintain, support and establish schools, and supply the inadequacy of 
 the school fund for the salaries of teachers from the school taxes ; 
 
 Fifth — To determine from time to time how many and what classes of teachers 
 are needed in the public schools, to employ teachers, to examine and determine the 
 qualifications of applicants for appointment as teachers, to issue suitable certificates 
 to all persons so examined and found qualified to serve as teachers and to fix the 
 amount of the compensation of teachers, all, however, subject to the provisions here- 
 inafter contained ; 
 
 Sixth — To prescribe the studies in the different schools and the text-books to 
 be used, but no text-books shall be used except upon the recommendation of the 
 superintendent of schools as hereinafter provided ; 
 
 Seventh — To lay off and divide the city into school districts for the purposes of 
 supervision and inspection as hereinafter provided, and from time to time to alter 
 the same and to create new ones, as circumstances may require ; 
 
 Eighth — To lease school property for a period not longer than ninety-nine (99) 
 years from the date of granting any lease and to loan moneys belonging to the school 
 fund and to collect debts due to the school fund and to prosecute in its own name all 
 actions at law and equity necessary for the preservation of school funds and school 
 property ; 
 
 Ninth — To expel any pupil who may be guilty of gross disobedience or miscon- 
 duct and to dismiss or remove any teacher whenever in its opinion he or she is not 
 qualified to teach or whenever from any cause the interests of the school may in 
 their opinion require such dismissal or removal, subject to provisions hereinafter 
 contained. 
 
 Tenth — To enact by-laws, rules and regulations for the proper execution of all 
 duties imposed upon the board, its members and committees ; for the transaction of 
 all business pertaining to the same, for defining the duties of all school officers, for 
 the proper execution of all powers vested in the board by law and for the promotion 
 of the best interests of the public schools and the public school system committed to 
 its care ; 
 
 Eleventh — To give in all grades of the public school system such a specific train- 
 ing in civics as will inculcate an enlightened sentiment of patriotism through a 
 knowledge of the various forms of popular government and of the duties as well as 
 the rights of American citizenship ; 
 
 Twelfth — To establish an efficient system of civil service rules, in accordance 
 with which all appointments and promotions and dismissals shall be made in con- 
 nection with positions other than teaching positions in the service of the board. 
 
 Said board of education shall further have power, 
 
 First — To establish and maintain kindergartens for children under six years 
 
 236 
 

 of age, manual training, commercial and other high schools, normal schools, vacation 
 schools and truant schools and a system of free educational lectures for adults : 
 
 Second — To establish and maintain evening schools and to provide special classes 
 in such schools for the instruction of adult pupils and pupils whose avocations are 
 such as to prevent their attendance upon day schools ; 
 
 Sec 27. The president of the board shall be elected annually in such manner 
 and at such time after the )'early appointment of new members and not later than the 
 second regular meeting of the board after such appointment, as the board may 
 determine by its rules and shall preside at its meetings, and shall have the same 
 power to vote thereat as any other member, but shall not have the power of 
 veto; he shall exercise a general superintendency over the affairs of the board 
 and shall perform such duties as may be imposed upon him by the rules of the board. 
 
 Sec. 28. The secretary of the board shall be elected annually, at the same time 
 and in the same manner as provided herein for the election of the president, and 
 shall receive such salary as the board may direct, and shall be required to give 
 a bond for the faithful performance of his duties in such sum as the board shall 
 from time to time determine. He shall have charge of the rooms, and such books, 
 papers and documents of the board as pertain to his office, and shall, in addition to 
 his duties as secretary of the board, perform such other duties, not otherwise provided 
 for herein, as may be required by the board or by its committees. The secretary of 
 the board is hereby authorized to administer oaths and take affidavits in all matters 
 pertaining to the schools of the city. 
 
 Sec. 29. The superintendent of schools shall be elected for a term of six years 
 and shall be paid such salary as the board shall from time to time determine, but 
 this salary shall not be reduced during his term of office. He may be removed by a 
 two-thirds vote of all the members of the board, but only for cause upon written 
 charges. He shall have the right of visitation and inquiry in all of the 
 schools of the city, and shall report to the board of education on the 
 educational system of the city, and upon the condition of any and all 
 of the schools thereof. He shall have a seat in the board of education 
 and the right to speak on all educational matters before the board, but shall 
 not have the right to vote. He shall also, as often as he can consistently with his 
 other duties, visit the schools of the city and inquire into the method of instruc- 
 tion, management and discipline. He shall select text-books for such studies as 
 the board of education may determine shall be taught, and apparatus for such pur- 
 poses as the board of education may authorize, and his determination thereof shall 
 be final unless disapproved by a two-thirds vote of all the members of the board not 
 later than the second meeting after the report is made thereto. He shall have 
 power to appoint assistant superintendents, supervisors, principals, teachers and 
 attendance officers to such positions as the board of education shall from time to 
 time authorize, to promote teachers and fix their grade in the salary schedule and 
 dismiss any officer or teacher so appointed ; provided, however, that all such appoint- 
 ments, promotions, compensations and dismissals shall be reported to the board and 
 shall stand as final unless disapproved by a two-thirds vote of all the members 
 thereof not later than the second meeting after the report is made thereto ; pro- 
 vided, further, that no teacher or attendance officer shall be appointed and no 
 teacher be promoted until after examination and approval by an examining board 
 hereinafter provided for; and provided, further, that every person applying for a 
 
 237 
 
position as teacher when approved by the examining board shall be given by the 
 superintendent a provisional certificate of qualification for two years, which after 
 proof of success for this period shall be made permanent ; and provided, lastly, that 
 her shall be considered definitely employed during good service and on good 
 behavior until after such successful probation of two successive years. 
 
 Sec. 30. The business manager shall be elected for a term of six years and shall 
 be paid such salary as the board shall from time to time determine, but this salary 
 shall not he reduced during his term of office; he shall be required to give such bond 
 for the faithful performance of his duties, as the board may determine. He may be 
 removed by a two-thirds vote of all the members of the board, but only for cause upon 
 written charges. He shall have supervision over the business affairs of the board, 
 and under its supervision shall have charge, custody and control of all securities of 
 the board ; shall collect rents and interest and fulfill the duties in general of financial 
 agent of the board. He shall, subject to the prior approval of the board, appoint the 
 architect or architects of school buildings, and advertise and award the contracts for 
 the construction and repair of such buildings either wholly or in part and for the 
 purchase of all supplies required for the board and schools or officers and employes 
 of the board ; provided, that he may, without such prior approval, expend for repairs 
 and supplies a sum not to exceed $200 in each case. He shall exercise a careful over- 
 sight over the construction of all school buildings and over all repairs on such build- 
 ings. He shall have the appointment, direction and discharge and shall fix the com- 
 pensation in accordance with schedule of salaries established by the board, of the jani- 
 tors, engineers and other persons whom he shall require to assist him in the business 
 affairs of the board; provided, that all such appointments shall be to positions which 
 the board of education shall have authorized and that all such appointments and dis- 
 missals shall be in accordance with the civil service rules established by the board, 
 and shall be reported to the board at its next regular meeting and shall stand as final 
 unless disapproved by a majority vote of all the members thereof not later than the 
 second meeting after the report is made thereto. He shall perform all other executive 
 duties relating to the details of the business affairs of the board, but not subject to 
 its prior approval, and report such acts, together with a statement of all expenditures 
 for repairs and supplies not exceeding the sum of $200 in each case, as aforesaid, to 
 the board at its next regular meeting and said acts and expenditures shall stand as 
 final unless disapproved by a majority vote of all the members of the board not later 
 than the second meeting after the report is made thereto. 
 
 Sec. 31. A board of examiners shall be appointed to examine by written and oral 
 tests all applicants for appointment as teachers in and for such cities and to recom- 
 mend to the superintendent for certification those who pass the required tests of 
 character, scholarship and general fitness. Such board of examiners shall consist 
 of the general superintendent of schools, one assistant superintendent selected by 
 him and three special examiners elcetled by the board of education upon the nomina- 
 tion of the superintendent ; provided, that in the case of a vacancy, the superintendent 
 must nominate to the board at least three times as many eligible persons as there 
 are vacancies to be filled ; and provided, further, that no person otherwise connected 
 with the school system of the city shall serve as special examiner. The terms of the 
 first three special examiners so elected shall be one, two and three years respectively, 
 and as their term- expire their successors shall be elected for a full term 
 
 of three years which shall thereafter be the full and regular term of office of said 
 
 238 
 
examiners. They may be removed by a two-thirds vote of all the members of the 
 board, but only for cause and upon written charges. The special examiners shall 
 be paid such compensation as the board of education shall prescribe. To be eligible 
 as a special examiner, an applicant must possess either a bachelor's degree from a 
 college or university, or an equivalent educational training, together with at least 
 five years' successful experience in teaching since graduation. This board shall from 
 time to time hold such examinations as the city superintendent may prescribe in 
 accordance with the rules of the board of education, and shall certify to the superin- 
 tendent for entry on the various eligible lists, the names of all who successfully pass. 
 Except as superintendent or assistant superintendent, as supervisor or director of a 
 special branch, as principal in a normal school or high school, no person shall be 
 appointed whose name does not appear upon the proper list of eligibles. The examin- 
 ing board shall have supervision of all examination for entrance and graduation from 
 the city normal school, and the genera! supervision under the direction of the superin- 
 tendent of all examinations in the public schools of such city. 
 
 Sec. 32. Said board of education shall for the purposes of school inspection divide 
 the city into special inspection districts, each of which districts shall include not more 
 than ten schools, and shall appoint for each inspection district a committee of six 
 commissioners who shall be residents of the district and who shall serve without 
 compensation. The terms 'of the commissioners first appointed on each committee 
 shall be for two members one year, for two members two years and for two members 
 three years, and as their terms respectively expire their successors shall be appointed 
 for the full term of three years, which shall thereafter be the full and regular term of 
 office of said commissioners. Said commissioners are hereby authorized and directed 
 to visit each school of the respective districts, to observe in detail the work and equip- 
 ment of each school and its teaching and discipline and the sanitary and other 
 arrangements of the school building, and to make reports as a committee direct to the 
 board of education. Said board of education shall have power to appoint an inspector 
 with such assistants as may be needed to investigate and report upon the recom- 
 mendations of each committee of resident commissioners ; but the inspector and 
 assistants shall not be otherwise connected with the school system. 
 
 Sec. S3. All contracts to be entered into by or in behalf of the said board of 
 education in connection with the erection and repair of school buildings or the 
 purchasing of supplies, when the expense thereof shall exceed the sum of $200, 
 shall be let to the lowest responsible bidder in the manner to be prescribed by the 
 rules and regulations of the board. All of such contracts shall be signed by the 
 president of the board of education, or in his absence, by such other officer as the board 
 may designate and shall be attested by the secretary of such board. The board of 
 education shall have power by its by-laws to prescribe the period of all advertising 
 for contracts to be entered into by or on behalf of said board, the rules which are to 
 determine the acceptance or rejection of all bids given for any work, labor or 
 materials advertised for, and the security to be required to insure the performance of 
 such contract. 
 
 Sec. 34. For the purpose of securing a better enforcement of any compulsory 
 education law now existing or which may hereafter be enacted, it is hereby made the 
 duty of all police officers of such city to give assistance to the board of education in 
 that behalf, and particularly to question any boy or girl under fourteen (14) years 
 of age who is found frequenting the streets of the city during school hours and at 
 
 239 
 
the time not under parental control, and if such child is a truant, to report the case 
 to the proper officers of the board of education, and to give to such officers any and 
 all information at their disposal relating to such cases. 
 
 Sec. 35. All acts and parts of acts inconsistent with this act, and all provisions 
 of any special city charters relating to schools in cities of over 100,000 inhabitants 
 are hereby repealed, but nothing herein contained shall be construed as repealing an 
 act entitled. "An Act to Provide for the Formation and Disbursement of a Public 
 School Teachers' and Public School Employes' Pension and Retirement Fund, in 
 Cities Having a Population Exceeding 100,000 Inhabitants," approved May 21st, 1895, 
 and in force July 1st, 1895. 
 
ADVISERS TO THE CHICAGO EDUCATIONAL COMMISSION. 
 
 The following gentlemen kindly consented to act as advisers to the commission, 
 and by personal interview or by letter rendered much valuable service in the prepara- 
 tion of the report. 
 
 F. L. Buss, Principal, High School, Detroit, Mich. 
 
 Richard Boone, President, Normal School, Ypsilanti, Mich. 
 
 Edward Brooks, Superintendent of Schools, Philadelphia, Pa. 
 
 Elmer E. Brown, University of California. 
 
 Nicholas Murray Butler, Columbia University. 
 
 James H. Canfield, President, Ohio State University. 
 
 John W. Cook, President, Illinois State Normal University. 
 
 Charles DeGarmo, Cornell University. 
 
 N. C. Dougherty, Superintendent of Schools, Peoria, Ills. 
 
 Andrew S. Draper, President, University of Illinois. 
 
 William L. Dudley, Vanberbilt University. 
 
 Larkin Dunton, Principal, Boston Normal School. 
 
 S. T. Dutton, Superintendent of Schools, Brookline, Mass. 
 
 Warren Easton, Superintendent of Schools, New Orleans, La. 
 ^* Charles W. Eliot, President, Harvard University. 
 
 D. W. Fisher, President, Hanover College. 
 
 C. B. Gilbert, Superintendent of Schools, Newark, N. J. 
 
 Daniel C. Gilman, President, Johns Hopkins University. 
 
 Aaron Gove, Superintendent of Schools, Denver, Colo. 
 
 J. M. Greenwood, Superintendent of Schools, Kansas City, Mo. 
 ^» William T. Harris, United States Commissioner of Education. 
 
 Edward L. Harris, Principal, High School, Cleveland, Ohio. 
 — - Paul H. Hanus, Harvard University. 
 
 W. N. Hailman, Superintendent of Indian Schools, Washington, D. C. 
 .-* G. Stanley Hall, President, Clark University. 
 
 Charles D. Hine, Secretary, State Board of Education, Connecticut. 
 
 B. A. Hinsdale, University of Michigan. 
 
 James L. Hughes, Supervisor of Schools, Toronto, Canada. 
 
 Ray Greene Huling, Cambridge, Mass. 
 
 John Jasper, Superintendent of Manhattan and the Bronx, New York City. N. Y. 
 
 Richard H. Jesse, President, University of Missouri. 
 
 L. H. Jones, Superintendent of Schools, Cleveland, Ohio. 
 # David Starr Jordan, President, Leland Stanford, jr., University. 
 
 241 
 
D. L. Kiehle, University of Minnesota. 
 
 Henry M. Leipziger, Assistant Superintendent, New York City. N. Y. 
 Seth Low, President. Columbia University. 
 
 E. O. Lyte, Principal. State Normal Scliool, Millersburg, Pa. 
 James M.u Alister, President, Drexol Institute. 
 
 WILLIAM II. Maxwell, Superintendent of Schools, New York City. N. Y. 
 
 W. H. Morgan, Superintendent of Schools, Cincinnati, Ohio. 
 
 J. H. Phillips, Superintendent of Schools, Birmingham, Ala. 
 
 George M. Philips, Principal, State Normal School, West Chester, Pa. 
 
 William B. Powell, Superintendent of Schools, Washington, D. C. 
 
 Henry Saiun, Ex-State Superintendent of Schools, Iowa. 
 
 Edwin P. Seaver. Superintendent of Schools, Boston, Mass. 
 
 J. G. Schurman, President, Cornell University. 
 
 Charles R. Skinner, State Superintendent of Schools, Iowa. 
 
 James Henry Smart, President, Purdue University. 
 
 F. Louis Soldan, Superintendent of Schools. St. Louis, Mo. 
 
 Thomas B. Stockwell, State Superintendent of Instruction. Rhode Island. 
 
 C. F. Thwixg, President, Western Reserve University. 
 
 Arnold Tompkins, University of Illinois. 
 
 E. E. White, Columbus, Ohio. 
 
 Henry A. Wise, Superintendent of Schools, Baltimore, Md. 
 
ERRATA 
 
 On page 237 in lines 37 and 44 the words 
 "two-thirds" should read "majority." 
 
 Jnticv of J9amcj8. 
 
 Ailing, Charles, vii, xvi. 
 Alton, Geo. B., 102. 
 American, Sadie, 221, 222. 
 Andrews, E. Benjamin, 99. 
 Association of Public School Kinder- 
 gartners, 96. 
 
 Balliet, Thomas M., 38. 
 
 Bartlett, George H., 148. 
 
 Beale, William G., ix, 16, 17. 
 
 Bibb, Grace C, 233. 
 
 Bicknell, Thomas W., 147. 148. 
 
 Blewett, Ben, 233. 
 
 Bliss, F. L., 241. 
 
 Blodgett, Mary M., 96. 
 
 Bluthardt, Theodore J., 163, 164. 
 
 Boone, Richard G., 241. 
 
 Boykin, James C., 4, 18, 35. 
 
 Brand, Rudolph, vii, xvi. 
 
 Brooks, Edward, 114, 241. 
 
 Brown, Elmer E., 241. 
 
 Brown, George S.. 233. 
 
 Butler. Nicholas Murray. 4. 7. 10, 42, 62, 
 
 63. 67, 70, 72, 73, 115. 120, 121, 122, 
 
 241. 
 
 Cabeen. C. W., 233. 
 
 Calkins. N. A., 37, 233. 
 
 Canfield, James H., 241. 
 
 Cameron, D. R., 10, 26, 28, 32, 40, 45, 46. 
 
 74, 79, 107, 108, 139, 153- 
 Chicago Association of Collegiate 
 
 Alumnae, 137. 
 Cook, John W., 114, 120, 121, 241. 
 Colegrove, Chauncey P., 176. 
 Committee of Fifteen, viii, 4, 6, 7, 10, 12, 
 
 13, 26, 27, 39, 41, 42, 43, 47, 69, 70, 
 
 84, 85, 86, 91, 94, 119, 120, i2i, 123, 
 
 124, 125, 135, 232. 
 Coste, Paul F„ 14. 
 Corwith, Charles R., vii, xvi. 
 Cleveland, Grover, 176. 
 Crouse, Mrs. J. N., 193. 
 
 Dewey, Edmund S., 181. 
 De Garmo, Charles, 241. 
 Dickinson, John W., 233. 
 
 Dougherty, N. C, 241. 
 Draper, Andrew S., 3, 4, 10, 18, 22, 23, 25, 
 26, 27, 34, 35, 37, 38, 39, 40, 166, 
 
 Duddleston, George, vn, xvi. 
 Dudley, William L., 93, 241. 
 Dunton, Larkin, 241. 
 Dutton, S. T., 14, 76, 86, 87, 123, 130. 131. 
 133, 134, 163, 241. 
 
 Easton, Warren, 67, 68, 241. 
 
 Eby, Frederick, 130, 135, 136. 
 
 Ella F. Young Club, 54, 9°, 93, 127, 129. 
 
 130, 138, 145, 155, 172, 173. 
 Eliot, Charles W., 84, 85, 241. 
 Errant, Joseph W., 12, 14, 232. 
 Every Day Club, 137, 155, 156, 163. 
 
 Fisher, D. W., 241. 
 Fitzpatrick, Frank A., 23, 25. 
 Forshay, James A., 130. 
 French, Charles W., 227. 
 
 George Rowland Club, 48, 50, 53, 54, 73, 
 77, 78, 90, 107, 133, 135, 155, 163, 
 172, 173- 
 
 Gibson, John, 232. 
 
 Gilbert, Charles B., 95, 96, 131, 136, 137, 
 241. 
 
 Giles, William A., 175, 176, 177, 178. 
 
 Gilman, Daniel C, 241. 
 
 Gove, Aaron, 241. 
 
 Greenwood. J. M., 241. 
 
 Gresham, Otto, ix. 
 
 Hadley, Hiram, 232. 
 
 Mailman. W. N., 241. 
 
 Hall, G. Stanley, 2, 114, 241. 
 
 Halle, E. G., 17, 27, 36, 63, 98, 99, 107, 
 
 no, in, 171. 172, 175- 
 Hammond, Jason E., 181. 
 Hancock, John, 100, 233. 
 Hanus. Paul H., 241. 
 Harris, Edward L., 241. 
 Harris. William T., 19. 38, 39- 74. 75. 233, 
 
 241. 
 Harrison, Carter H, vii. 
 
 243 
 
Harrison, Elizabeth, 192, 195. 
 
 Harper, William R., vii, viii, xvi. 
 
 Hart, Albert Bushnell, 168. 
 
 Hewett, E. C, 233. 
 
 Hill, Charles W., 162, 163. 
 
 Hine, Paul D., 241. 
 
 Hinsdale, B. A., 44, 241. 
 
 Howland, George, 46, 85, 101. 
 
 Hughes, James L., 241. 
 
 Huling, Ray Greene, 87, 130, 241. 
 
 Hunter, Thomas, 233. 
 
 Jackman. Wilbur S., 87, 88. 
 
 James, Edmund J., 150, 151, 192, I9S. 208. 
 
 James, George F., viii, xvi. 
 
 Jasper, John, 241. 
 
 Jesse, Richard H., 241. 
 
 Jones, L. H., 241. 
 
 Jordan, David Starr, 44, 46, 69, 74, 241. 
 
 Kennedv, John, 37. 
 Kiehle, D. L., 85, 233, 242. 
 Kirchner, A. H., 181, 182. 
 Kohtz, Louis O., vii, xvi. 
 
 Lane, A. G., 39. 46, 79, 93, 94, "7. LS9, 
 
 163. 
 Leipziger. Henry M., 218, 242. 
 Loesch. Frank J., ix. 
 Long. E. H., 233. 
 Low. Seth, 43, 44, 62, 143, 242. 
 Lyte, E. O., 242. 
 
 MacAlister, James, 166, 242. 
 
 Macintosh. May, 233. 
 
 Mack, WilliamS., 38, 40, 41, 42. 
 
 Mair, Charles A., vii, xvi. 
 
 Marble, Albert P.. 8, 25, 37, 39, 40, 44, 
 
 148. 
 Marvel, L H., 233. 
 Maxwell, W. H., 36, 43, 47, 51, 52, 242. 
 Mayo, A. D., 233. 
 McDowell. Mary, 221. 
 McLaren, John, 27. 
 McPherson, Simon J., vii, xvi. 
 Milliken. O. J., 222. 
 Morgan, W. H.. 242. 
 Morrill, Donald L., ix, 9, 10. 13, 15, 16, 
 
 231. 
 Morton, A., 109, 153. 
 Mowry, William A.. 109, no, 233. 
 Munson. A. F., 136. 
 Myers. Ida Gilbert, 121. 
 
 Nettlehorst, Louis, 3, 8, 9, 79. 
 Nightingale, A. F., 105. 
 
 Payne, W. H., 233. 
 
 Peabodv. Elizabeth P., 233. 
 
 Philbrick, John D., 2, 3, 24, 36, 37, 114, 
 
 115, 116, 123, 127, 128. 
 Phillips, J. H., 52, 93, 242. 
 Philips, George Morris, 10, 242. 
 Pickard. J. L, 5, 8, 10, 11, 12, 17, 36, 46, 
 
 47, 88, 89, 90, 233. 
 Pinkham, George Ripley, 232. 
 Powell, William B., 166, 242. 
 Principals, High School, Chicago, 46. 
 Prince, John T., 232, 233. 
 
 Ray, John T., 227. 
 
 Rogers, Bernard F., vii, xvi. 
 
 Rosenthal, James, ix. 
 
 Sabin, Henry, 49, 55, 67, 96, 105, 112, 154. 
 
 155, 182, 242. 
 Schurman, J. G.. 242. 
 Seaver, Edwin P.. 119, 163, 164, 242. 
 Shearer, William J., 94, 95. 
 Shepherd. Henry E., 232 
 Shirreff, E., 233. 
 Singer, Edgar A., 156, 157, 158, 159, 161. 
 
 162. 
 Skinner, Charles R., 242. 
 Small. Albion W., 174, 175, 177, 178. 
 Smart, James Henrv, 242. 
 Snyder, C. B. J., 183, 184. 
 Soldan, F. Louis, 13, 14, 242. 
 Story, Allan C, 7, 16. 
 Stockwell, Thomas B., 63, 242. 
 Stolz, Joseph, vii. xvi. 
 
 Tappan, Ely, 233. 
 Tarbell, Horace S., 41, 42. 
 Thompson. Charles O., 233. 
 Thurston, Henry W., 177, 178, 179. 
 Thwing, C. F., 242. 
 Tompkins, Arnold, 242. 
 Tucker. William J., 232. 
 
 Vandewalker. Nina C, 95, 122. 
 
 Walker, Charles M., vii, xvi. 
 Waterman, Richard, Jr., 221. 
 Webster. William Clarence, 160. 
 White. E. E.. 2, 4, 14. 25, 41, 43, 233, 242 
 Williams, Frederick Newton. 133. 
 Wise. Henry A.. 114, 242. 
 Woodward/C. M., 233. 
 
 Yeager, R. L, 3, 8. 17. 18. 24. 
 
 Zueblin. Charles, 222. 
 
 244 
 
Sutler of ^ubicct& 
 
 Accommodations, School, see School Ac- 
 commodations. 
 Academic Study in the Normal School, 
 
 124. 
 Architect, Selection of, 21, 28. 
 Architecture, School, 180-184. 
 
 Sanitary Principles in, 180, 182, 183. 
 Variety in, 180, 182. 
 Assistant Superintendents, 32, 33, 4Q, 50, 
 
 237- 
 Appointed by Superintendent, 32, 45- 
 
 47, 237- 
 Duties of, 49. 50, 54, 55- 
 More Needed in Chicago, 49. 
 
 Bibliographical References on City 
 
 School Systems, 232. 
 Board of Education. 
 
 Appointment of, by the Mayor, 5-9, 234. 
 Committees of the, 15, 23, 25. 
 
 School Management by, xii, xiii, 23. 
 Duties of a, 1, 13-15, 235. 
 Legal Status of the Chicago, 230, 235. 
 Members of a, to Represent the Whole 
 
 City, xiii, 4, 5. 
 Methods of Selecting a, 2-5. 
 Non-Partisan, Necessity of a, 3-8. 
 Number of Members, 9-1 1, 23, 234. 
 Powers of a, xiii, 15-19, 235. 
 President of. Election and Duties, 235, 
 
 237- 
 Qualifications for Membership on a, 8. 
 
 234. 
 Removal of Members, 18, 234. 
 Salary for Members of a, II. 
 Secretary of, 237. 
 Title for Members of the Chicago, 20, 
 
 234- 
 Term of Office of Members, 1, 12, 234. 
 Buildings. School. 
 
 Architecture of, 180-184. 
 
 Difficulty of Securing, in Chicago, xii. 
 
 171. 
 
 Fire-Proof Construction in, 183. 
 Fuller Use of, 150. 
 More, Needed in Chicago, 171- 173. 
 Repair of, 29. 
 
 By Contract, 239. 
 Sanitary Principles in, 183. 
 
 Business Manager. 
 
 Appointment of, 21, 26, 238. 
 
 Bond of, 22, 31. 
 
 Duties of, xvi, 28-31, 238. 
 
 In St. Louis, 29. 
 Janitors Appointed by, xiv, 30, 238. 
 Necessity of a, 27, 28. 
 Removal of, 21, 28, 238. 
 Salary of the, 26. 
 Term of Office, 28, 238. 
 
 Census, School. 
 Method of Taking, 170. 
 Unsatisfactory, in Chicago, 169. 
 Chicago School System, Outline State- 
 ment Showing the Growth of the. 
 191. 
 City Council and the Board of Education, 
 
 xii, 1, 4, 16, 171. 
 Civics in the Public Schools, 174-179. 236. 
 Syllabus for Teachers of, 178. 
 Text-Books for Instruction in. Lack- 
 ing, 176. 
 Civil Service Rules for the Board of Edu- 
 cation, 31, 236. 
 Commercial High School, 107. 208. 
 Course of Study for a, 108, 109, 216. 
 Power to Establish a, 236. 
 Commercial Training in Europe, 205 
 Commission, Educational, of Chicago, vii. 
 Compulsory Attendance. 
 
 Illinois Law for, Unsatisfactory, 161. 
 
 239. 
 Laws in Other States, 223. 
 Parental Schools and, 160- T64, 225. 
 Condemnation, Power of, for School 
 
 Purposes, xiii, 1, 15, 236. 
 Contract. School Repairs and Supplies 
 
 by, 28. 239. 
 Constructive Work in the Elementary 
 Schools, T29-133, T35- 
 By Regular Teachers, 137. 
 Course of Study. 
 Domestic Science in the. 129. 13?. 
 Elementary School, Ill-Arranged. 85. 
 
 86. 
 Enrichment of the. 87. 
 Manual Training High School, to Be 
 Extended. 112. 
 
 245 
 
Need of Revision of the, xiv. 
 Normal School, to Be Extended, i [9. 
 Under Committee Management, \ii. 
 
 Departmental (instruction, 55, 125. 
 Discipline, School. 
 
 See Pupils. Government by. 
 Domestic Science. 
 
 In the Elementary Schools. 129. 1,35. 
 
 In the Manual Training High Schools, 
 in, 112. 
 
 Instruction in, by Regular Teachers, 
 
 Drawing j n 1 he Chicago Schools, 129. 133. 
 Under One Supervisor, 138. 
 
 Education, Waste in, 84, 201. 
 Educational Commission of Chicago, vii. 
 Elementary Schools. 
 
 See Schools, Elementary. 
 England. Commercial Training in, 207. 
 Evening Schools. 
 
 Course of Study in, 149. 
 
 Functions of, 147-150. 
 
 Power to Establish, for Adults, 23;. 
 
 Superintendent of, Recommended, 147, 
 149. 
 Examination of Teachers, 
 
 Different Methods of, 61. 
 
 By Superintendent. 62. 
 
 By Separate Board, 63. 
 Examining Board, 
 
 Appointment of, Recommended. 58, 62, 
 238. 
 
 In New York City, 62. 
 
 Normal School and the. 72. 
 
 Qualifications for Membership on, 72, 
 239- 
 
 To Supervise School Work, 72. 
 
 'I'm Tesl Teachers for Promotion, 72. 
 
 Faculties and Councils, School, xv, 167- 
 
 168. 
 France, Commercial Training in, 205. 
 Free Evening Lecture System. 
 
 Necessity of, 150. 
 
 New York City, 218. 
 
 Power to Establish in Chicago, 237. 
 
 German in the Elementary Schools. [31. 
 Instruction in. by Regular Teachers, 
 
 1.17- 
 Germany, Commercial Training in. 108, 
 
 206. 
 Growth of the Chicago Public School 
 
 System, 101. 
 
 I [igh Schools, 98-112. 
 Commercial, Recommerided, 107-111. 
 Course of Study in, 103. 
 
 246 
 
 Evening, 149. 
 Functions of, 99-103. 
 Longer Session in, 106. 
 Manual Training, in Chicago, in, 112. 
 Men Teachers in, 106. 
 Qualifications of Teachers in, 103. 
 Salaries of Teachers, 188. 
 Teaching Force in Chicago, Deficient, 
 104, 105. 
 
 Inspectors, School, Duties of, 57, 143. 
 Instruction, Public, Per Capita Cost of, 
 
 in American Cities, 190. 
 Italy, Commercial Training in. 205. 
 
 Janitors, 
 
 Appointment of, 30. 
 
 Supervision of by Principals, 55. 
 John Crerar School, Self-Government by 
 Pupils in, 227. 
 
 Kindergartens, 
 
 Arguments for Public, 195. 
 More Needed in Chicago, xv, 95. 
 Power to Establish Public, 236. 
 Salaries in, 193. 
 Teachers, Training of, 122, 193. 
 
 Latin in the Elementary Schools, 130. 
 Law, Compulsory, see Compulsory Law. 
 
 New School, for Illinois, xvi, 234. 
 Lay Element in School Supervision, 139- 
 
 143, 239. 
 Lectures, Free Evening, 150. 
 
 In Chicago. 151. 
 
 In New York, 151, 218. 
 
 See also. Free Lecture System. 
 Leipsic Public School of Commerce, 206. 
 
 Manual Training, 
 
 Accommodations for. 180, 182. 
 High Schools, Additional, Recom- 
 mended, in. 
 Power to Establish, 237. 
 In the Elementary Schools, 129-133. 
 Mayor. Selection of Board of Education 
 
 by the. 5-9, 234. 
 Music in the Chicago Schools. 133, 135. 
 Under One Supervisor, 138. 
 
 Nature Study. 
 
 Tn the Elementary Schools, 132. 
 
 In Vacation Schools, 152. 
 New York City. 
 
 Free Lecture System of, 151, 218. 
 
 New School Buildings of, 183. 
 
 School Veommodations in, De- 
 ficient. 171. 
 
 School Problem in, 65. 
 
Normal School, 
 
 Admission to, Conditions of. 116, 118. 
 Course of Study, 119, 125. 
 
 To be Lengthened in Chicago, 120. 
 Kindergarten Training in, 122, 204. 
 Location of Chicago, 127. 
 More Buildings for, in Chicago, 126. 
 Physical Examination for Admission, 
 
 113, n8. 
 Power to Establish a, 237. 
 Practice and Observation, Facilities 
 
 for. in, 123, 127-8. 
 Supervision of Graduates of, 126. 
 
 Parental School, 160-164, 225. 
 
 Power to Establish, 237. 
 Paris, Commercial Schools in. 205. 
 Physical Culture in Chicago Schools, 
 
 133, 135- 
 
 Accommodations for, 180, 182. 
 
 Under One Supervisor, 138. 
 Play-Grounds, City, 
 
 School-Yards as, xv, 155, 222. 
 Politics, City, in School Affairs, 3, 4. 
 Principals, School. 
 
 Appointment of, 45. 
 
 Duties of, 51. 
 
 Freedom of, 54. 
 
 Privileges of, in Selecting Teachers, 53. 
 
 Qualifications of, 53. 
 
 Teaching by, 56. 
 Promotion, 
 
 Of Teachers, 74, 75. 
 
 Conditions of, in New York City. 
 189. 
 
 Semi-Annual. of Pupils, 82, 88-90, 93. 
 Pupils, Government by, 177, 227. 
 
 Resident Commissioners, 
 
 Appointment of, xv, 139, 239. 
 Duties of, 142. 
 
 Popular Representation Through, 140. 
 Provided in New York, 141. 
 
 Salaries, 
 
 Comparative Schedule of, 187. 
 
 Ill-Proportioned in Chicago, 76. 
 School Accommodations, 
 
 Inadequate in Chicago, xiii, 98, 171-173. 
 School Buildings, 
 
 Fire-Proof Construction of, 180. 
 
 Special Architecture of, 182. 
 School Census, see Census. 
 Schools, Elementary, 
 
 Course of Study in Chicago, 82-93. 
 
 Domestic Science in, 129. 136. 
 
 Drawing in, 129, 133. 138. 
 
 .Manual Training in, 92. 130. 
 
 Schools, Evening, see Evening Schools. 
 School Faculties and Councils, see 
 
 Faculties. 
 Schools, High, see High Schools. 
 School Supplies, Purchase of by Con- 
 tract, 2^. 
 Secretary of Board of Education, 237. 
 Sites, School, 
 
 Danger from Ill-Chosen, 34. 
 
 Modify School Architecture, 180. 
 Special Studies, see Drawing, Manual 
 Training, Music, etc. 
 
 General Supervision of, 50. 
 
 Instruction in, by Regular Teachers. 
 137- 
 
 Value of, 130-136. 
 Superintendent, 
 
 Appointment of, 33, 35, 237. 
 
 Duties of, 43-48, 237. 
 
 Larger Powers for the, xiv. 
 
 Qualifications of, 37. 
 
 Relation to the Board of Education. 41. 
 
 Removal of the, 32, 42. 
 
 Salary of the, 32, 42. 
 
 Seat on the Board for, 48. 
 Supervision, School, 
 
 By Inspectors, 57. 
 
 By Resident Commissioners, 139. 
 
 By Superintendent, 43. 
 Supervisors, 
 
 Appointment of, by Superintendent, 45. 
 
 To Have Complete Charge of the Sev- 
 eral Subjects, 50. 
 
 Tax Levy for School Purposes by the 
 
 Board of Education, 17-19. 
 Teachers, 
 
 Appointment of, by Superintendent, 
 xiv, 45-6o, 65, 237. 
 Provisional, for Two Years, 73. 
 Separate from Examination, 62. 
 Certificates from Superintendent, 48. 
 Conditions of Admission for, in Chi- 
 cago, 65-71. 
 Dismissal of, 45, 81. 
 Examination of, 61, 71, 72. 
 Force in Chicago, xi. xiii. 
 Institutes, xiv, 165. 
 Library, xiv, 165, 166. 
 More Men, Needed in Chicago, 78-80. 
 Number of, in Chicago, (>o, 191. 
 Physical Examination of, xiv, 07. 
 Promotion of, 74. 75. 
 
 In New York City, 189. 
 Salary Schedule, 
 In Chicago, xiv, 63, 76, 78. 
 In New York City, 189. 
 Training of, xiv, 65. 
 
 247 
 
Text-Books, 
 
 Choice of, by Superintendent. 40, 44 
 Revision of List in Chicago, xii, xiv 
 
 144. 
 Use of, by Teachers, 146. 
 
 Training for Citizenship. 174, 179, 236. 
 
 Truant Schools, see Parental Schools. 
 
 Vacation Schools, 221. 
 Course of Study in. 154. 
 Established in Chicago, 155. 
 Need of, in Large Cities, xiv. 52-54. 
 
 221. 
 Power of Board of Education to Open. 
 237- 
 Venice, Commercial School of. 205. 
 
 Ungraded Rooms and Schools. Functioi 
 of, 156-159- 
 
 Wards. Election 
 by, 2. 
 
 of School Trustees 
 
 248 
 
 ' Or ~7~. 
 
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