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LIBRARY 
 
 OF THK 
 
 University of California. 
 
 I CALIFORNIA WINE MAKERS' CORPORATION 
 
 zAccession ■ 8 7 2 o 7 Clevis 
 
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CUP AND PLATTER. 
 
Extracts from some Press N'otices of 
 
 THE COMMON-SENSE MANAGEMENT OF 
 THE STOMACH. 
 
 BY 
 
 G. OVEREND DREWRY, M.D. 
 
 Price 2s. 6d. 
 
 THIRD EDITION. 
 
 "Dr. Drewry has written a little book on the Management of the 
 Stomach, which certainly justifies the promise of common sense oon- 
 veyed in the title.'" — Saturday Reviezv. 
 
 " We can recommend the book as a sound and safe guids." — Morning 
 Post. 
 
 "A very excellent manual on a highly important subject. It is 
 written in a clear and simple style, and its occasional touches of humour 
 recall the manner of the famous Abernethy."— Cr^/Zi/r. 
 
 "We commend Dr. Drewry's book to our readers." — Cluirch Tisnes. 
 
 " Full of sound, practical advice regarding the maintenance of the 
 health in infancy, childhood, youth, maturity, decline of life, and old 
 di^e."— Edifibiirgk Daily Review. 
 
 "A trustworthy family guide for the preservation of health." — Non- 
 conformist. 
 
 "It is well written, sensible, and practical, and may be rsad with 
 profit by every one, whether in or out oi\L&2\x!t\." —Glasgow News. 
 
 Henry S. King S: Co., London. 
 
CUP AND PLATTER; 
 
 OR, 
 
 NOTES ON FOOD AND ITS EFFECTS. 
 
 BY 
 
 G. OVEREND DREWRY, M.D., 
 
 Al'THOR OF "the CO.M.MON'-SENSE MANAGEMENT OF THE STOMACH, 
 
 AND 
 
 H. C. BARTLETT, PH.D., F.C.S. 
 
 Henry S. King & Co., London. 
 1876. 
 
UBRAR> 
 
 ( 1 he n'^/i/s of liansla.i n and of rcprchicticn are nscrzrJ.) 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 THESE chapters contain in a condensed 
 form the notes of a series of lectures 
 which were given for the purpose of explaining- 
 in a simple manner the most important points 
 in connection with this subject. It is worthy 
 of note that the necessity for action in the 
 matter was felt by the lecturers as the result of 
 their daily observation on the two distinct classes 
 of agents concerned in the processes of digestion 
 and assimilation; namely, those in the body^ 
 termed digestive principles, and those outside 
 the body, the various components of food. This 
 was how an analyst whose daily business it is to 
 examine foods, and a physician who devotes him- 
 self especially to the treatment of the stomach, 
 from their two distinct fields of observation, were 
 led to the same conclusion. From every logical 
 deduction derived from the most practical ex- 
 perience, it became apparent that a more extended 
 knowledge of this all-important subject must be 
 unfolded to the minds of all classes, both for the 
 successful treatment of diseases, and for the main- 
 tenance of health. 
 
 87237 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 Chap. 
 
 Introduction .... 
 
 Page 
 
 I. Water 
 
 i? 
 
 II. Milk 
 
 31 
 
 III. Breadstuffs .... 
 
 44 
 
 IV. Meat, Fish . - - - - 
 
 • 65, 69 
 
 V. Vegetables and Fruit 
 
 72 
 
 VI. Food Accessories .... 
 
 . 80 
 
 VII. Beer .-..-- 
 
 86 
 
 VIII. Wine 
 
 lOI 
 
 IX. Spirits ..... 
 
 - "7 
 
 X. Tea, Coffee, Cocoa 
 
 - 139 
 
 XI. Kitchen Illustrations and Cookery - 
 
 - 147 
 
 XII. 
 
 . 156 
 
CUP AND PLATTER: 
 
 NOTES ON FOOD AND ITS EFFECTS, 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 THE importance of an extended knowledge of 
 the principles which regulate the processes 
 of digestion and assimilation of food cannot be too 
 highly estimated. It is the possession of this know- 
 ledge, and this alone, which can enable persons to 
 discriminate between the good and bad in food, to 
 select those foods which are suitable for the purposes 
 required, and to reject those, unfortunately now so 
 common, which are manufactured to secure large 
 profits, altogether without regard to wholesome and 
 judicious composition. 
 
 The first great principle which must be realised, 
 is that the body itself, in all its various structures, 
 is composed of different groupings of the same 
 elements as exist in the several kinds of food. The 
 
 I 
 
Clip and Platter 
 
 next is, that after the arrangement of the compo- 
 nents of food has been altered by the juices with 
 which they come into contact in the body during 
 digestion, by which they are rendered soluble, they 
 are taken up and assimilated, that is, they join the 
 other elements similar to themselves already pre- 
 sent in the structure, and in this manner alone new 
 tissue is formed. It is manifest from this that 
 food, to be properly balanced, must contain a 
 sufficiency of all the various components of the 
 body in something like the proportion in which 
 those components are wasted in healthy organisms. 
 
 If there is an insufficiency of any of these com- 
 ponents, those tissues requiring that particular 
 component necessarily dwindle, being worked off 
 in the splitting up of their composition and the 
 elimination of their waste products, and not having 
 the necessary increment of their own kind to main- 
 tain them at their normal standard, they become 
 gradually worn out. 
 
 Now, if every one were born healthy, and there 
 were no constitutional diseases, the proper system 
 of diet might soon be arrived at ; but inasmuch 
 as, from the earliest times to the present, a cer- 
 tain peculiar tendency to some one particular form 
 of disease, or a deviation from health, has been 
 recognised in each individual, it is of the highest 
 importance to ascertain in whicli r^'rection the 
 
Introduction. 
 
 tendency lies. By a well-regulated system of life, 
 and notably by a proper selection of food, we may 
 counteract that disposition, affording in plenty those 
 matters which are lacking, and withholding such as 
 in each individual case tend to form compounds in 
 excess of those necessary for health. 
 
 In this way, for example, taking infancy and 
 childhood, the well-known disease called " rickets " 
 is caused by a deficiency of phosphate of lime, on 
 the presence of which solidity of bone depends. 
 A healthy child may be starved into rickets by 
 withholding those components of food, otherwise 
 plentiful, which contain these salts, just as a 
 rickety child may be fed into health by giving 
 food which contains them in full proportion. 
 
 In the case of rickets, lime is an absolute neces- 
 sity ; but in the case of children brought up to 
 drink plentifully of water charged with lime, we 
 find Goitre, or Derbyshire neck, all kinds of de- 
 posit in the urine, and often stone in the bladder. 
 Here, that which is beneficial to a rickety consti- 
 tution is most injurious when the system is over- 
 charged. Advancing, we may take the cases of 
 pallor and weakness so common in over-crowded 
 towns and cities, which are due to a want of salts of 
 iron in the blood ; in them, the kind of food taken 
 is of the utmost importance, in order that it may 
 provide a sufficiency of such salts. 
 
Cup and Platter. 
 
 Again, in constitutional diseases, such as gout, 
 rheumatism, or diabetes, which are well known to 
 depend upon an excessive formation of uric acid, 
 lactic acid, and sugar respectively, the mode of 
 controlling them is obvious, namely, to exclude as 
 much as possible those matters which science teaches 
 us favour the formation of these compounds, and 
 to give those only which will nourish sufficiently 
 without encouraging these diseases. 
 
 So, in cases in which there is a difhculty in the 
 absorption and assimilation of various matters, such 
 as fats, which, either in that form or in the form of 
 oil, are incapable of being absorbed, and which re- 
 quire a process similar to that of saponification, it 
 is of the utmost importance, not only to those struc- 
 tures containing them, but to the health of the 
 entire body, that food should contain those matters 
 in that condition, or that the agents necessary to 
 produce it shall be present at the time of digestion. 
 
 The converse also holds good in cases where 
 there is a tendency to an excessive deposit of fat, 
 and to a degeneration of the muscular tissues into 
 fat, which is frequently a cause of death. If care 
 be taken to exclude as much as possible those 
 foods which directly tend to form fat, and if a 
 sufficiency of exercise is also insisted upon, this 
 tendency is diminished. 
 
 It is, however, of the utmost importance that the 
 
Introduction, 
 
 treatment be very gradual, inasmuch as healthy 
 assimilation of the food cannot go on if one com- 
 ponent which has been largely taken be suddenly 
 stopped altogether. Such an experiment would be 
 attended with considerable danger. 
 
 If, when these postulates have been stated, we 
 regard the nutrition of early infancy, childhood, 
 youth, maturity, and old age, we shall form a 
 correct estimate of the healthy condition of the 
 body under these several periods of life. Natural 
 instinct has not been found wanting in providing 
 food suitable for the sustentation of existence at 
 any stage of the progress of the human body, but 
 science must be regarded as curbing exuberance 
 of appetite or predilection, and on the other hand 
 as producing desire for those foods most suitable 
 when the want of natural vigour has precluded the 
 natural appetite from asserting itself. 
 
 At the commencement of human life, milk, and 
 milk only, must be considered the natural food, the 
 milk of the mother, if healthy, being the most 
 desirable of all. In many cases where conditions 
 exist which prevent the child from obtaining a 
 sufficiency of its natural sustenance, the fresh milk 
 of cows, slightly diluted and sweetened, is almost 
 universally found to form a very suitable substitute ; 
 but the essential of freshness can never be too 
 strongly insisted upon, as the stomach of a young 
 
Cup and Platter, 
 
 infant is almost invariably found far too prone to 
 
 excite acidity in milk foods, whenever the milk 
 itself contains the faintest germs of an acid re- 
 action. 
 
 It may be pointed out with the greatest possible 
 emphasis, that milk which is fresh and sweet, as far 
 as taste is concerned, may yet contain the germs 
 that have been alluded to, such conditions being 
 utterly impossible of identification by the adult 
 palate. 
 
 From such remarks it may be understood in 
 what manner condensed milk has been found so 
 frequently advantageous as food for infants, and 
 for reasons which are more fully entered into in the 
 consideration of that important item, milk, in its 
 particular classification as food in these chapters. 
 When, however, other food is wanted during in- 
 fancy, it should never be adopted without medical 
 advice, and particularly without due scrutiny of the 
 character of food recommended. 
 
 Starches of all kinds at this period of life must 
 be avoided, and the description of food which is 
 more valuable under these circumstances will be 
 touched upon in due course. As the demands of 
 the body increase both in volume and variety, 
 the amount of starchy matter, such as is exhibited 
 in bread, flour, oatmeal, and vegetables, becomes 
 more admissible, and as progress is made in the 
 
Introduction. 
 
 digestive functions these are found to be requisites, 
 besides other forms of food which contain more 
 nitrogenous matter, such as meat, fish, eggs, and 
 other strong nourishment of a similar kind. 
 
 In gradually leading up to the diet now indicated, 
 we come to the period of youth where all these are 
 necessitated in larger quantities, and when for the 
 first time in this climate a small quantity of light 
 beer or wines of low alcoholicity may be occa- 
 sionally taken with benefit. In health, perhaps, a 
 greater superstructure of strength may be obtained 
 without the use of any alcoholic fluids ; but in many 
 cases the consideration of this question must be 
 left to those most competent to judge whether 
 they are required or not. No pharisaical objec- 
 tion must be taken to good beer or wine, when its 
 use is properly advocated ; but until after full 
 maturity of grow th this must be generally con- 
 sidered to be but little required. 
 
 In adtfilt life the danger to be apprehended from 
 injudicious diet, whether solid or liquid, is certainly 
 at its minimum ; but that is only during this par- 
 ticular time. The results of injudicious eating 
 or drinking will be assuredly manifest at a later 
 period, if either of these have been indulged in to 
 any considerable extent. Generous diet is by no 
 means to be despised, especially when bodily exer- 
 cise carries off any slight superabundance. Meagre 
 
8 Cup and Platter. 
 
 diet, on the other hand, is certainly not sufficient 
 to maintain that severe condition of mental exer- 
 tion or monotony of avocation which are unfor- 
 tunately the lot of many under the subdivision of 
 labour which now exists. 
 
 To remedy the difficulty of digestion and as- 
 similation of strong food in those who are unable 
 to eliminate its waste products, great care should 
 be taken that the nourishment they select should 
 be of such a character as to be easily digestible, and 
 to afford the special nutriment that they require. 
 Fatty matters, which as cerebrin probably carry 
 the phosphatic salts to their destination in the bj'ain 
 and nerves, form important components of the food 
 suitable to persons of sedentary habits of life. 
 
 The necessity for this is pointed out in the ac- 
 companying diagram which shows the relations 
 of the composition of the various tissues of the body 
 to that of the analysis of the several proximate 
 principles of food. Passing on to that which is 
 demanded by the decline of life, while additional 
 ease of digestibility is a sine qua iioii, more frequent 
 meals may be consistently advocated, and a more 
 stimulating diet, though less in quantity, is that 
 which experience has found to be most suitable. 
 
 Alcoholic fluids, in contradistinction to the more 
 heavily saccharine wines and beers, are frequently 
 found to exert a beneficial influence, and they can 
 
Introduction, 
 
 be no more dispensed with in many instances than 
 can the nourishing but easily digestible food, just 
 alluded to, as the proper food for persons living 
 under the artificial conditions of civiHsed life. 
 
 The chief ultimate elements forming the proxi- 
 mate principles of food are found in the body as 
 under : — 
 
 Oxygen . 
 Hydrogen 
 
 Carbon . 
 Hydrogen 
 Nitrogen 
 Oxygen . 
 
 Carbon . 
 Hydrogen 
 
 Water, 
 
 Gelatin, 
 
 Fat, 
 
 [ Of which the body consists to 
 < the extent of nearly three- 
 ( fourths. 
 
 One of the main components of 
 the cellular and muscular 
 tissues, and particularly of 
 the skin and bones. 
 
 J The adipose tissues and nerve 
 ( and brain substance. 
 
 Hydrogen *. I .1 Starch, gum, ^ \ Are transformed, yielding vital 
 
 Oxygen 
 
 and sugar, 
 
 force and sometimes fat. 
 
 Phosphate of lime. The bones, etc. 
 
 Fibrin and 
 Albumin, 
 
 ( The muscular 
 '/ etc. 
 
 tissues, blood, 
 
 Phosphorus 
 Calcium . 
 Oxygen . 
 
 Carbon . 
 
 Hydrogen 
 
 Nitrogen 
 
 Oxygen , 
 
 Sulphur . 
 
 Carbon . 
 Calcium . 
 Oxygen . 
 
 In addition to these — 
 
 Chlorine, Sodium, Fluorine, Potassium, Iron, and Magnesium enter 
 into the composition of several of the juices and tissues in different 
 proportions. 
 
 Carbonate of lime, The bones, etc. 
 
lO Cup and Platter. 
 
 In this diagram the identity of the com- 
 ponents of food and the constituents of the body- 
 are shown, and the mode in which chemical 
 changes occur in organic as in inorganic chejmistry 
 may be seen. It may be well to give the shortest 
 possible description, of the processes of digestion 
 and assimilation. 
 
 The mechanism employed in these processes 
 consists in the organs concerned in mastication, 
 insalivation, deglutition, the action of the stomach, 
 duodenum, lacteals, and absorbents. The reagents 
 which produce the chemical changes in the various 
 kinds of food are contained in the saliva, the gas- 
 tric fluids, bile, and the pancreatic fluid. The first 
 of these owes its peculiar power of converting 
 starch into sugar to the presence of an albuminoid 
 compound called ptyalin. The solvent power of 
 the gastric juice, which is specially directed to the 
 breaking up of the nitrogenous matters such as 
 meat, consists, again, of another albuminoid fer- 
 mentative substance termed pepsin, which is only 
 found in activity in conjunction with hydrochloric 
 or other acids ; these in themselves are secreted 
 and brought out by the stomach during the process 
 of digestion. 
 
 Supposing the digestion of those portions of the 
 food, just alluded to, to have passed so far, the dis- 
 solved matter is poured out from the stomach into 
 
Introduction. 1 1 
 
 the duodenum, or upper portion of the intestine, 
 along with the other constituents of the food 
 which have not been acted on by saHva or gas- 
 tric juice. In this portion of the ahmentary canal 
 the mass of food which is called chyme receives 
 the admixture of two most important fluids, the 
 bile and the pancreatic juice. 
 
 The action of the bile is a distinctly antiseptic 
 one, preventing the tendency to putrefaction and 
 the development of the gases incident thereto. It 
 also has the vitally important action of the pre- 
 paration of fatty matters of food for their ultimate 
 solution by the pancreatic fluid. 
 
 This is a matter which has been hitherto but 
 httle understood ; but from some experiments 
 which we have recently made, we have every 
 reason to believe that the essential bearings of 
 the subject will be better understood in the future, 
 and that results will be obtained of such a character 
 as will furnish the clue so long wanting for the 
 successful treatment of those diseases in which 
 emaciation is the most prominent symptom. 
 
 The food mass, or chyme, is by this time trans- 
 formed into a milky fluid called chyle, mixed with 
 those matters which have escaped the action of the 
 process described. Such action continues to a 
 greater or less extent upon these during their pas- 
 sage through the remainder of the intestines ; but 
 
12 Cup mid Platter. 
 
 the cellulose or woody fibre of the vegetables, and 
 the harder or more fibrinous portion of the meat, 
 and a large proportion of starch, still continues its 
 onward progress, and is ultimately disposed of in 
 an undigested form. 
 
 The absorption of matters in true solution takes 
 place in the stomach, and these, such as the aqueous 
 portion of soup, saccharine, and alcohol, are taken 
 up by the stomach absorbents. But although this 
 is very rapid with such solutions, the great work of 
 selection and nutrition is accomplished after the 
 food is passed into the intestines. Here, again, is 
 a point, the consideration of which has been much 
 neglected heretofore, viz., the carriers of the chyle, 
 or lacteals, \Yhich suck up through the lining mem- 
 brane of the small intestines, during their entire 
 length, the real nutriment of the food as it passes 
 over them, from thence to be distributed through- 
 out the various tissues of the body ; and each of 
 which, in a condition of health, is replenished by 
 a process termed assimilation, or the adding of 
 those matters to themselves which are similar to 
 their composition. 
 
 The mode of exemplification adopted at the 
 lectures was very simple, namely, by samples in 
 illustration of the various matters treated upon. 
 Those selected were such as were most worthy of 
 note in regard to their own peculiarities, or as types 
 
Introduction, \% 
 
 of the different food values which may in a greater 
 or less degree be found as components of simple 
 or manufactured articles of food. 
 
 Some were purchased without the vendors being 
 aware to what purposes they were being applied, 
 some were supplied at the request of the lecturers, 
 in consequence of their properties having been 
 previously ascertained by personal examination, 
 and some found their way to the lecture-hall 
 without any notification from whence they came, 
 or indeed of those who were good enough to send 
 them. 
 
 None, however, were submitted as affording any 
 exemplar of the subject touched upon, unless they 
 had, either for the purpose of these lectures, or pre- 
 viously, been subjected to the most rigorous and 
 searching analysis. From this it may be easily 
 understood that many of the samples purchased, 
 supplied, or volunteered, were not considered suit- 
 able for exemplification. 
 
 It is by no means one of the least pleasing expe- 
 riences to be able to state emphatically, that in 
 spite of the general disposition to depreciate, we 
 have found to a much larger extent than we antici- 
 pated evidences of the attempt to bring forward 
 pure, sound, and unadulterated articles of food, 
 which only require a sufficient guarantee of a 
 uniformity of their quaHty, and an extended pub- 
 
14 Cup and Plattm\ 
 
 licity, to enable them to supplant the inferior and 
 sophisticated, if not spurious, articles with which 
 the market is now flooded for the sake of profit. 
 
 If we contrast the amount of food deterioration 
 consequent upon ignorance, as compared with that 
 resulting from deliberate dishonesty, there can be 
 but little doubt that want of knowledge is respon- 
 sible for an incredibly larger proportion of food 
 waste than is due to any villainy of corruption or 
 venality of trade instinct. 
 
 Every subject can be divided into as many parts 
 as may be desired ; for our present purpose we 
 should wish to save the patience of those interested, 
 and consider, firstly, foods essential, which, to include 
 anything beyond the period of infancy, must com- 
 prise water, milk, and breadstuffs. Then, a some- 
 what discursive selection of the common articles of 
 diet may be found appropriate ; after which, a few 
 food accessories, albeit non-essential, are still of too 
 much consequence to be passed over in any general 
 enquiry as to the results produced by the combina- 
 tion of food and food adjuncts commonly taken in 
 the daily diet. 
 
 At the present time, scientific opinion is divided 
 as to whether stimulants are to be properly classed 
 as foods or not. In this regard the much larger 
 series of stimulants denominated alcoholic is that 
 alone which is generally alluded to. As yet, the 
 
Introdiidioji , 15 
 
 food value of alcoholic fluids is by no means ex- 
 haustively determined, and although we incline to 
 the opinion that the important part played by 
 alcoholic fluids in the process of nutrition must be 
 sooner or later generally admitted, still the food 
 value attributed to the so-called non-alcoholic 
 stimulants, tea, coffee, and cocoa, has been fre- 
 quently over-rated. 
 
 Without attributing to each of these articles the 
 power of injury which the ignorant and excessive use 
 of the first two indubitably entails, if from no other 
 point of view than that a larger attention has been 
 devoted to the subject of cocoa in these chapters, 
 it must be recorded in favour of that article, that no 
 evidence at present exists of its having caused 
 nervous irritability, and deterioration of tissue 
 consequent upon that state, which have followed 
 as certainly upon the misuse of tea as upon that 
 of opium or ardent spirits. 
 
 One chapter is devoted to the cookery of food. 
 When it is considered that this is neither a matter 
 of economy alone, nor of the gratification of the 
 palate, but, including these, presents the far higher 
 phase of rendering the majority of food either 
 particularly suitable for digestion and assimilation, 
 or of more or less completely spoiling it in all these 
 respects, the space devoted to it cannot be con- 
 sidered too great. 
 
1 6 Cup and Platter, 
 
 If nature enables us to obtain crude pabulum 
 which merely necessitates selection, ignorance of 
 the real action of heat upon food, as displayed in 
 the rough-and-ready cookery of ordinary life, must 
 be held responsible for the annihilation of at least 
 a large per-centage both of the nutritive value of 
 food, and of its savour. 
 
Water, 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 WATER. 
 
 WATER, although it forms a most important 
 constituent of all kinds of food, must here 
 be regarded not as that which is so combined, 
 but such as we obtain from our cisterns and wells, 
 and use either for culinary operations or for more 
 purely drinking purposes. 
 
 We are accustomed to note in the newspapers 
 that the water supplied by the great companies is 
 found, upon inspection, to be more or less con- 
 taminated, and unfit for consumption. 
 
 Some persons suppose that if water were per- 
 fectly pure, that is, free from all matters held in 
 solution or suspension, whether animal, vegetable, 
 or mineral, this would be the best adapted for 
 drinking purposes. 
 
 Distilled water would fulfil all these require- 
 ments, and yet it is almost universally found to 
 be disagreeable, or at least insipid. This arises 
 from the curious fact that distillation of water 
 by ordinary means leaves an almost inappre- 
 
 2 
 
1 8 Clip and Platter. 
 
 ciable quantity of foreign matter, which is yet 
 sufficient to taint the flavour of the water which 
 has undergone this process. If such precautions 
 be taken as to obviate this almost invariable con- 
 comitant, the want of aeration, or the absence 
 of that sparkling quality which is communicated 
 either by carbonic acid gas during the welling up 
 of the purest water from deep chalk springs, or the 
 falling of drops of rain through the air, a certain 
 portion of which is absorbed by them in the 
 passage, they will fully suffice to prove how little 
 desirable the purest waters are for domestic use. 
 
 Well aerated rain water has its undoubted value 
 for certain purposes, and at certain periods and 
 conditions of life, particularly with those who are 
 liable to calcic deposits. In this respect it can 
 only be considered valuable for table use in an 
 unmixed form. Externally, for general purposes 
 of ablution, it is certainly advantageous. 
 
 For making tea, coffee, and cocoa ; brewing, or 
 extracting those soluble matters which perhaps it 
 would accomplish with the greatest economy, it is 
 actually objectionable from its excess of solvent 
 power. The softer waters invariably dissolve out 
 other matters which it is of great importance both 
 in regard to flavour and dietetic excellence to 
 avoid. 
 
 Perhaps the finest water obtainable, with which 
 
Water. 1 9 
 
 we are acquainted, is that derived from the pre- 
 viously mentioned deep chalk springs. These 
 contain the smallest possible amount of putre- 
 factive (organic) constituents, and a desirable 
 amount of hardness, so called, from the presence 
 of carbonate of lime or chalk. 
 
 When there is an excess of hardness from car- 
 bonate of lime, it can only be occasioned by an 
 excess of carbonic acid retained in the water, and 
 this may invariably be removed by the very simple 
 process of boiling. Hardness, however, may be 
 occasioned by other constituents than carbonate of 
 lime. Some of these are objectionable, others 
 directly injurious. Sulphate of lime or gypsum 
 would perhaps be designated as both objectionable 
 and injurious, and large districts are supplied with 
 water containing this salt in considerable quanti- 
 ties. 
 
 Various metallic salts of iron, copper, and lead 
 are frequently found in the water supply of many 
 localities, iron existing in a variety of forms soluble 
 in water. The iron-stone formation, or soils in which 
 a certain amount of iron is to be found, invariably 
 furnish salts of iron in waters derived from them, 
 of which chalybeate springs are striking examples. 
 Waters which tinge all articles of food prepared 
 with them, or stain linen with what is termed iron 
 mould, are familiar enough in many parts of the 
 
20 Cup and Platter. 
 
 kingdom ; and in these localities the difficulty is 
 to obtain water which is altogether free from this 
 mineral. 
 
 The best mode of dealing with this water is by 
 judicious filtration. It demands a very peculiar 
 medium for the removal of this constituent from 
 such waters. The best filters for such purposes 
 are those composed of a particular charcoal, either 
 containing a considerable proportion of carbonate 
 of lime naturally, or in which a large per-centage 
 of this substance has been incorporated. 
 
 We have in the course of our enquiries become 
 acquainted with three distinct systems of filtration 
 which accomplish this end. But as these have to 
 be more particularly described with regard to their 
 removal of salts of lead and copper, which are not 
 so much objectionable in flavour and appearance, 
 as really pois'onous, we will describe the nature of 
 these salts before proceeding to the explanation of 
 the chemical action of the filters. 
 
 The presence of salts of lead, copper, and perhaps 
 some of the rarer metals, in drinking waters, is far 
 more common than is usually supposed. Water 
 that is free from these contaminations nine months 
 in the year may at certain seasons take up and 
 hold with great persistence poisonous quantities of 
 these metals. Without dwelling upon the pecu- 
 liarities of the waters which naturally contain the 
 
Water. 2 1 
 
 mineral constituents of the mining districts, a much 
 greater emphasis must be laid upon the fact that 
 certain other salts, particularly those containing 
 nitric or hydrochloric acids, which are derived from 
 the decomposition of vegetable and animal matters, 
 cause otherwise tolerably pure water to dissolve 
 and hold in solution considerable quantities of 
 many metals with which they may come in 
 contact. 
 
 When it is considered that the water supply of 
 Great Britain is chiefly carried in leaden service 
 pipes from the mains, stored in metallic cisterns, 
 and frequently heated in contact with copper, it 
 must become apparent that water in a condition to 
 dissolve any of these metals is accorded every facility 
 for so doing, and there has been less recognition 
 of the evils caused than might have been antici- 
 pated. This is undoubtedly due to the fac^ that 
 the poisonous influence is cumulative, and scarcely 
 discernible in its earlier stages : a certain amount 
 of mischief may exist for a time, and be referred to 
 other causes. 
 
 It is only when slow poisoning has proceeded for 
 a considerable time that the effects become so 
 manifest as to demonstrate the cause. Long prior 
 to this, a predisposition to other diseases is noticed, 
 and in the majority of these instances no suspicion 
 attaches to the original causation. 
 
22 Clip and Platter, 
 
 Take lead-poisoning as a type. The most pro- 
 minent symptoms which reveal themselves in the 
 earlier stages of this condition are usually referred 
 to deranged functions of the liver; these are ner- 
 vousness, slight numbness of the limbs, chilliness, 
 the various forms of indigestion, especially consti- 
 pation, and a more or less unhealthy tinge in the 
 skin. It is only when these conditions have ad- 
 vanced to the stage of colic, commonly known as 
 painters' colic, wasting of the limbs, blueness of the 
 nails, and a distinct blue line on the gums, that 
 the true nature of the origin of this train of symp- 
 toms is certain to be discovered. 
 
 The effect of metallic salts in minute subdivision 
 taken daily is more deadly than the taking of a 
 very much larger quantity of the same poison at 
 intervals can possibly be. 
 
 There are chemical as well as physiological 
 reasons for this, inasmuch as the acid salts necessary 
 to cause a considerable amount of solution of lead 
 or other metals are precisely those which accom- 
 pany the decomposition of vegetable or organic 
 matters ; so we find, particularly in the autumn, 
 that the impurities passing into very ordinary 
 sources of drinking water are not only metallic but 
 are those due to the putrefaction ©f the organic 
 matters. Chlorides, nitrites, and nitrates are usually 
 distiijguishable in water at this period of the year. 
 
Water, 23 
 
 aid analysis determines with great precision the 
 amount of nitrogenous matter. 
 
 If this proceeds from previous sewage contamina- 
 ton, or indeed from infiltration of organic matters 
 incubative of germ-life, these may produce either 
 the worst forms of zymotic disease, or merely that 
 lowered condition of vitality which predisposes 
 those subjected to it to every form of infection. 
 Were there nothing more specific than the mere 
 putrefaction of vegetable matters liable to taint 
 drinking waters, adequate filtration would be the 
 most available means at present of rendering the 
 water fit to drink; and as these can be combined 
 to a certain extent with other reagents, whidi are 
 specially adapted for the removal of metallic 
 poisons, great stress may be laid upon the obvious 
 advantages of filtration of water, both by public 
 companies and in the domestic household. 
 
 Certain fermentations of organic matters, how- 
 ever, especially those denominated putrefactive, 
 tend undoubtedly to that peculiar diminution of 
 vital force which renders the persons subjected to 
 their influences particularly liable to the action of 
 the specific fever poisons when they are exposed to 
 them. Even with these matters the oxidation 
 occasioned by certain systems of filtration is of the 
 greatest value. Every system of filtration fails in 
 the removal of the specific poison germs conveyed 
 
24 Cup and Platter, 
 
 by any means, excretal or otherwise, into drinking 
 waters ; hence the necessity for obtaining water 
 for table use from the purest possible sources. 
 
 Undoubtedly, water obtained from deep chall< 
 springs may have been originally tainted with every 
 kind of impurity, including germs of the worst 
 specific poisons ; but in the slow filtration and oxi- 
 dation incident upon passing through many hun- 
 dred feet of the least pervious chalk formations, 
 the excessive length of time, or chemical action so 
 produced, is alone found equal to the perfect puri- 
 fication of surface waters. 
 
 The estimate formed by certain engineers as to 
 the period requisite for surface water to find its 
 way into the lower stratification from which it is 
 obtained in these springs is so extraordinary, that 
 we can only allude to the suggestion as manifestly 
 absurd. It is, however, certain that no filtration 
 through a sufficient depth of this filtering medium 
 can be accomplished artificially. P^or this, and for 
 many other reasons scarcely within the province of 
 these pages, it is impossible to discuss the vast 
 system of filtration necessary or advisable on the 
 part of the water companies, inasmuch as it is 
 scarcely probable that a company will ever be able 
 to deal with water derived from rivers in such a 
 manner as to render them either safe or altogether 
 agreeable, particularly, as long as vast quantities of 
 
Water. 25 
 
 sewage are permitted to flow into our water sup- 
 plies above the reservoirs. 
 
 It becomes the more incumbent upon us to pro- 
 vide ourselves with the best means of obviating 
 those conditions which are so frequently reported in 
 the Times or other papers. Turbidity of water, and 
 its containing living organisms and fungoid growths, 
 to say nothing of the fishes and worms often found 
 in domestic cisterns, are evidences vouched for by 
 the officials appointed by Government to inspect 
 the water supply of this metropolis, and our own 
 investigations prove an impregnation with matters 
 far worse than any of these. 
 
 The construction of those filters which we have 
 found most suitable for the removal of organic 
 matters has uniformly been that in which means 
 are adopted to prevent any great pressure of the 
 water through the medium. In one of the Silicated 
 Carbon filters this is admirably accomplished by 
 making the only porous surface of the first chamber 
 into which the water flows one of its upright walls. 
 This prevents the formation of a sediment on the 
 top of the usual flat diaphragm when the water 
 comes in contact with this as a second filtering 
 bed. 
 
 In another filter, that of Mr. Rawlings, a some- 
 what similar action is obtained by the admission of 
 the water in such a way that it is distributed from 
 
 
26 Cicp and Platter, 
 
 a cup-shaped vessel over the surface of the filtering 
 medium, the effect being in both instances a ten- 
 dency to prevent the accumulation of deposit from 
 mere gravitation. 
 
 The only media we have found of any real value 
 in the oxidation of organic matters, and as second- 
 arily available for the removal of precipitated lead 
 from water, are the charcoals, either animal or 
 mineral ; those formed from wood or other vege- 
 table sources being much less efficient. 
 
 In treating of filters, one of the most important 
 matters to be invariably borne in mind is, that no 
 matter how valuable the filtering medium may be, 
 it can only remain effective for a certain period of 
 time. Of course the length of time a filter will 
 remain effective depends on the amount of matter 
 to be removed from water, the quantity of water 
 passing through the filter daily, and the frequency 
 with which the upper chamber of the filter is 
 cleansed ; but the purifying action of the charcoal 
 must sooner or later come to an end. According 
 to our experience this occurs much more rapidly 
 than is generally stated. 
 
 Far greater confidence might be placed upon a 
 system of domestic filtration if filter makers would 
 warn their customers that the filtering medium will 
 have to be removed periodically ; and if we say 
 that with the inferior waters, such as those supplied 
 
Water, 27 
 
 by certain water companies, no domestic filter 
 supplying an ordinary-sized house can be con- 
 sidered to do its work efficiently for more than 
 twelve months, we shall be according a far greater 
 continuance of filtering power than is possessed by 
 any but the best. 
 
 With a better class of water perhaps such filter 
 may last twice as long, but it may be laid down as 
 an axiom that no filter can be relied on for more 
 than twelve months without renewal of the filtering 
 medium. 
 
 Considerable attention has been arrested by 
 certain disclosures lately made with regard to the 
 impurities and poisonous properties of a large 
 section of the mineral waters now manufactured. 
 From a very exhaustive examination of these, 
 specially undertaken to determine the amount of 
 these contaminations, we have been greatly struck 
 both with the organic impurities of waters used, 
 and the metallic poisons introduced by the present 
 abominable method of manufacture, in the coarse 
 mechanical endeavour to imitate the natural effer- 
 vescent springs. 
 
 The common aerated water makers have been 
 content to impregnate inferior water with crude 
 carbonic acid, which carbonic acid is generated or 
 retained in lead-lined vessels. When it is consi- 
 dered that water containing an excess of carbonic 
 
28 Cup a?id Platter. 
 
 acid, which is the only cause of the effervescence of 
 these waters, both dissolves and holds in solution 
 large quantities of lead, it must be seen that the 
 receivers and pipes afford the metal for this 
 poisonous solution to the greatest possible extent ; 
 and as some of these are jointed and brought into 
 immediate contact with copper and brass fittings, 
 the rapidity of this solution is greatly accelerated 
 by the galvanic action which is necessarily pro- 
 duced. 
 
 To demonstrate this impregnation of aerated 
 waters with lead we had only to send out and pro- 
 cure some of the lemonade and soda water exten- 
 sively sold in the neighbourhood to show a power- 
 ful reaction with sulphuretted hydrogen, blackening 
 the water, and even rendering it turbid : from a 
 grain to a grain and a half of lead to the gallon was 
 reached in some of the samples examined. We are 
 glad to say that in those instances where proper 
 precautions had been taken to exclude lead from 
 contact with aerated water, the waters so produced 
 were found free from all trace of this poison, but in 
 almost all samples of lemonade certain small quan- 
 tities of lead were detected, evidently introduced 
 during the process of concentration of citric acid in 
 leaden vessels. 
 
 For this reason several of the German efferves- 
 cent mineral waters have deservedly borne a high 
 
Water, 29 
 
 reputation. Bottled at the natural springs, free 
 from metallic and organic impurity, selzer water 
 from Nassau, Apollinaris and other waters, may be 
 said to be absolutely pure from organic or metallic 
 pollutions ; the saline ingredients of selzer water, 
 however, contain by far too large a proportion of 
 chloride of sodium (common salt) to render it 
 particularly suitable for assuaging thirst, and it is 
 therefore the less to be advocated as an ordinary 
 beverage. 
 
 On account of the large constituent of mineral 
 matters to be found in many of these German 
 waters, they are, according to the salts they con- 
 tain, particularly efficacious in the treatment of 
 many constitutional disorders. This efficacy 
 has been so long well attested, that it is unneces- 
 sary to enlarge upon their medicinal effects ; we 
 wish, however, to point out that they are not as 
 perfect in their combinations as is desirable, from 
 the fact that they are almost all imbued with 
 accidental ingredients which diminish their curative 
 value, as well as render them nauseous. We do 
 not see how these adventitious constituents can be 
 eUminated from the natural waters; some, for 
 instance, such as sulphuretted hydrogen and other 
 sulphur compounds, must always militate against 
 the general use of these otherwise valuable waters. 
 Efforts are now being made to reproduce the most 
 
30 Ctip and Platter. 
 
 desirable of these free from accidental objection- 
 able constituents, both in the form of a pure aerated 
 liquid and in the shape of a concrete substance. 
 Our experience of the effect produced by these 
 purified salines has been highly favourable in com- 
 parison with those obtained direct from the natural 
 springs. 
 
Milk, 
 
 31 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 MILK. 
 
 MILK is correctly stated to be the only food 
 complete in itself. Not only is milk fur- 
 nished with every requisite of nutrition, but for a 
 certain period of life, that of early infancy, it is the 
 only food required in a condition of health, and in 
 many instances the addition of any other descrip- 
 tion of food besides milk is absolutely injurious. 
 
 The natural secretion which is provided for all 
 young animals, varying only in the proportion of 
 its constituents, is curiously enough adapted to the 
 necessities of the younger carnivora whose future 
 diet is flesh alone, and for the little lambs who will 
 ultimately browse upon herbage. Milk is therefore 
 the universal food, as well as the perfect food, for 
 the whole range of mammalia. 
 
 It must not be supposed that milk contains, 
 either in the principles of its composition, or in their 
 relative proportions, the strong meat fit for the sus- 
 tentation of mature life. 
 
 The great divergence before alluded to, between 
 
32 Cup and Platter, 
 
 flesh on the one hand and vegetable food on the 
 other, is quite sufficient to prove that milk by itself 
 cannot replace the diet suited to the instincts of 
 animal life after the earlier portion of its exist- 
 ence. If this be granted with regard to the carni- 
 vora and herbivora, the analogy will hold good 
 when the natural instincts predispose to an omni- 
 vorous diet, whether these be exhibited among 
 four-footed mammals or by human bipeds. It is 
 therefore necessary to clear away the oft-repeated 
 error that the milk diet, however essential in infancy, 
 is a proper and judicious food to place entire de- 
 pendence on in after life. 
 
 Regarding milk in its very essence as a food, it 
 must be taken from the standpoint of its use as 
 nourishment from the moment of birth. When 
 the first natural secretion of milk is obtained, 
 whether from the human mother or the cow, it is 
 composed of ingredients very different in propor- 
 tion and quality from that of the milk intended for 
 the subsistence of the young animal. Its first 
 peculiarity is that it contains a large excess of 
 solid matters generally, and particularly an ex- 
 cess of mineral matters or salts, which cause it to 
 assume a purgative action. 
 
 The first milk of the cow is termed beastings by 
 the dair3'men, and its extra richness and yellow 
 colour is sometimes shown in the milk retailed by 
 
Milk. i^ 
 
 them. It cannot, however, be considered advisable 
 to distribute this mixed up with the later milk of 
 other cows. In the human subject the peculiarity 
 of the first milk is of a like nature, and is termed 
 colostrum. 
 
 Human milk contains about eleven per cent, of 
 solids, in which the sugar greatly preponderates. 
 Neither the casein or cheesy matter nor the butter 
 is nearly so abundant as in the milk of the cow ; 
 nor are the salts contained in the human milk 
 present to the extent of much more tlian a third of 
 those found in cows' milk. From this it is evident 
 that in all attempts to feed infants upon cows' milk, 
 it must be reduced by the addition of water to 
 such an extent as will somewhat approximate it to 
 the milk derivable from a healthy natural source. 
 
 This may be roughly stated to be accomplished 
 by the addition of one-third water, and a little 
 sugar. The reason for this dilution of cows' milk 
 when employed for infant feeding will be better 
 shown by contrasting the amount of solids and 
 their composition ; and to render this comparison 
 more complete it may be as well to subjoin par- 
 ticulars of the components of th(? milk of asses and 
 goats. Both of these have been frequently pre- 
 scribed and used as substitutes for human milk 
 when cows' milk has been found to disagree. The 
 milk of the cow averages about thirteen to four- 
 
34 Cnp and Platter. 
 
 teen per cent, of solids, of which the casein forms 
 about one-third part. This, however, varies to some 
 extent inversely with the amount of butter present. 
 The quantity of sugar of milk is perhaps more 
 constant, but in all really good dairy milk the 
 amount of salts, composed of phosphoric acid, 
 lime, and magnesia, almost invariably reaches as 
 much as seven parts in a thousand. The solids 
 of asses' milk more nearly approximate to those 
 of the human mother, being about ten per cent. 
 Of these the cheesy matters and butter bear but 
 a small proportion, while the sugar is present to 
 the extent of about half the total solids. The 
 salts or mineral matters are about half those in 
 cows' milk, and therefore more nearly resemble 
 the human secretion in this respect. Goats' milk, 
 on the other hand, bears a closer similarity to that 
 of cows, the casein or cheesy matter predomi- 
 nating in this instance ; and goats' milk can only be 
 considered as more closely approaching the natural 
 food of the infant inasmuch as there is less butter, 
 and considerably less salts. 
 
 In alluding to the difference of proportion in 
 the composition of different milks, a much greater 
 attention might have been accorded to the amount, 
 small as it is, of albumin, or the equivalent of the 
 white of ^gg, which is to be found in milk of all 
 kinds. 
 
Milk. 35 
 
 The albumin present is at first in a highly- 
 soluble form, and is therefore particularly easy of 
 digestion in that condition. It is, however, very 
 prone to decomposition, and not only to decompose 
 of itself, but also to excite fermentation in the other 
 constituents of the milk. To such an extent is 
 this the case, that in warm weather a distinct 
 change can be detected within a few hours of 
 milking, if the milk has not been rapidly and 
 efficiently cooled directly it is obtained. 
 
 When examined under the microscope, milk 
 which has been carelessly treated or allowed to 
 retain too high a temperature, commences to ex- 
 hibit the peculiar germs of lactous fermentation. 
 These germs are distinct evidence of an acid 
 change long before any acidity can be detected by 
 the palate ; and among other reasons for the early 
 development of this very undesirable fermentation, 
 one must be particularly alluded to. Any neglect 
 of the most scrupulous cleanliuf^ss in the milking 
 sheds, or vessels into which tbe milk is drawn, or 
 in the coolers or cans, or any other utensils with 
 which the milk may come i.i </j?/itact, or even a 
 close or unhealthy atmosphere, may prove suffi- 
 cient not only to set up this process of lactous 
 fermentation, but as the milk is highly absorbent 
 of the minutest particles which are carried by air, 
 bad flavour may be communicated, and noxious 
 
36 Ctip and Platter. 
 
 influences disseminated, unless the most careful 
 precautions are observed to prevent the possibility 
 of contamination. 
 
 The influence of the surrounding air upon milk 
 IS greatly increased when the large bulk collected 
 in churns after cooling is again divided into small 
 quantities, and as in all instances the smaller the 
 quantities of Hquid so exposed, the greater the 
 amount of surface subjected to the aereal or 
 gaseous influences, so the advantage of systema- 
 tically closing and sealing up all the small cans 
 used in distributing milk is quite evident, irrespec- 
 tive of the security it affords against adulteration 
 with water, or the abstraction of the cream. In 
 other words, most of the contamination and all 
 adulteration generally believed to take place some- 
 how between the dairy farm and the consumer is 
 prevented by means at once simple, satisfactory, 
 and inexpensive. 
 
 We believe that this method was first adopted 
 by the Aylesbury Dairy Company, as a valuable 
 safeq-uard in addition to their other means for 
 preventing sophistication or any possible contami- 
 nation. 
 
 However good the general average of milk in 
 any given district may be, it must always be borne 
 in mind that the character and flavour must vary 
 considerably according to the season of the year 
 
Milk, 37 
 
 and the mode of feeding adopted. In summer, 
 when the cows can roam among pastures and 
 obtain a plentiful supply of rich, juicy, and suitable 
 grazing, it is well known that the quality of the 
 milk and its peculiarly characteristic odour are 
 greatly enhanced, and it is at this period that the 
 finest-flavoured butter is alone procurable. 
 
 When in the winter months cows are stall fed, 
 and in addition to hay, turnips, oil-cake, and other 
 artificial foods form a large proportion of their 
 daily diet, the strong flavours introduced thereby 
 into the milk and butter derived from it are pecu- 
 liarly obnoxious to many persons of delicate 
 taste. This is a sufficient reason for the repug- 
 nance frequently evinced by infants for cows' milk 
 under these conditions. 
 
 It is also unfortunate that a very much larger 
 quantity of milk is obtainable in summer than in 
 winter, the drawback being that in many dis- 
 tricts it is altogether impossible to convey it to 
 market while still sufficiently fresh for feeding 
 infants. The well-known effects produced upon 
 many persons by eating turnips, carrots, etc., are 
 strangely enough reproducible on partaking of the 
 milk supplied from cows fed upon these root crops. 
 
 Great inconvenience frequently arises from the 
 flatulent distention occasioned from this source : 
 this is a fact well known to every mother of a 
 
38 Cup and Platter, 
 
 family, and we cannot devote too great atten- 
 tion to the feeding of our milch cattle to prevent 
 the ill effects so constantly produced from these 
 and other causes. 
 
 A great step has been made towards equalising 
 the supply of milk at all seasons of the year by 
 condensing it. When milk is cheapest and best, 
 it is produced in the largest quantities, and is most 
 likely to turn sour. The large milk-condensing 
 establishments can then obtain the richest milk, 
 and treat it so as to afford the best summer milk- 
 ings, which, by the simple addition of water, can be 
 reproduced in the most convenient form at a time 
 when such milk is not otherwise obtainable. 
 
 A great prejudice existed at first against con- 
 densed milk. This was no doubt originally occa- 
 sioned by the idea that that forwarded from 
 Switzerland was composed principally of goats' 
 milk. This was not the case, as its analysis con- 
 clusively proved. A slight difference of flavour 
 tended to augment this prejudice, and it was not 
 evident, until the late Dr. Edward Smith attempted 
 to show that the milk itself was really inferior, that 
 the attention of those qualified to judge was di- 
 rected to it for the purpose of setting the question 
 at rest. Unfounded opposition has frequently 
 been the means of bringing out the proper merits 
 of many scientific improvements in the prepara- 
 
Milk, 39 
 
 tlon of food, but never, perhaps, with greater eclat 
 than in this instance. 
 
 Analyses were made of the condensed milks, 
 proving them to be very superior to most of the 
 milk sold prior to the passing of the adulteration 
 of food act. The effects of using this condensed 
 milk were watched attentively by the medical pro- 
 fession, and the result now is that condensed milk 
 is almost universally recommended as the best 
 source of obtaining really wholesome milk in a 
 condition of greater uniformity than can be ob- 
 tained from any of the smaller dairies. 
 
 The sugar which is necessary to maintain the 
 semi-fluidity of condensed milk is by no means 
 objectionable. For infants' food, as we have 
 pointed out, a certain amount of sugar must be 
 added to the diluted cow's milk before it becomes 
 a suitable substitute for the milk of the mother ; 
 in fact, the only drawback incident to condensed 
 milk is the slight peculiarity of flavour which it 
 communicates to tea or delicate puddings, cus- 
 tards, etc. 
 
 No greater mistake could have been made in 
 the estimation of the value of milk than that re- 
 sulting from the crude and misleading mode 
 generally adopted. In the first place, the glass 
 instrument termed by the sellers a lactometer is 
 roughly adjusted to show by the specific gravity 
 
40 Cup and Platter. 
 
 of the milk to what extent it is supposed to be 
 watered. We have seen an instrument of this 
 kind, the stem of which was divided into four 
 parts, marked pure milk, quarter water, half 
 water, three-quarters water, and all water. 
 These are still sold for about is. 6d., and have 
 been largely purchased under the delusion that 
 they would afibrd some indication of the quality 
 of the milk. 
 
 Now, if we consider that the fatty matters are 
 much lighter than water, and that the cheesy 
 matters are much heavier than water, and that 
 the proportion of water varies in perfectly pure 
 milk to some extent, it must be evident, at once, 
 that as the butter and cheesy matters are greater 
 or less, so the specific gravity of the milk must 
 be proportionably higher or lower in milk to 
 which no water has been added ; in fact, the 
 highest specific gravity would be shown by a milk 
 from which the greater part of the cream had been 
 abstracted. 
 
 Fraudulent milk-dealers were well acquainted 
 with this fact, and, taking advantage of it, first 
 skimmed off the cream, and then lowered the 
 specific griivity by means of the addition of water, 
 producing that indication in the lactometer which 
 exactly accorded with pure milk. 
 
 Some progress has been made in the detection 
 
Milk. 41 
 
 of adulteration in milk ; but even now, at the hands 
 of many so-called analysts, the false assumption is 
 made that the mere proportion of water capable 
 of being dried out of a given sample of milk will 
 furnish accurate indications from which the amount 
 of admixture of water with the milk can be ascer- 
 tained. The truth is, that the examination of milk 
 to ascertain its purity and suitability as food for 
 delicate infants and invalids is one necessitatingr a 
 far more elaborate system of analysis than can 
 possibly be accorded for any of the fees which are 
 own paid for making it. 
 
 If it is considered worth while to pay fees of 
 from three to ten guineas for accurate and com- 
 plete quantitative analyses of milk for the great 
 dairy companies and the condensed milk factories, 
 so that they may obtain reliable data on which to 
 conduct their operations, no one will be surprised 
 to find the most absurd discrepancies of result in 
 the perfunctory analyses now so commonly put 
 forward. 
 
 Perhaps, scarcely sufficient emphasis has been 
 laid upon the immediate use, for the purpose of 
 feeding children, of milk which has been recently 
 obtained ; and at the risk of seeming to repeat 
 the caution against the use of milk in which fer- 
 mentation has commenced, we wish to draw par- 
 ticular attention to the fact that the spores or cells 
 
Cup and Platter. 
 
 which are found in the mouths of children suffering 
 from that condition, commonly known as thrush, are 
 identical with those in milk fungus, which ulti- 
 mately form blue mould on the surface of milk 
 long exposed to the air. The smallest particle of 
 milk fungus is sufficient to cause germination of 
 growths throughout the newest and freshest milk. 
 
 Here, we have the direct cause of thrush in 
 infants from carelessness in cleansing the vessels in 
 which the milk is kept, and the feeding bottles in 
 which it is conveyed to the child ; and as a hint 
 which will be found valuable in the administration 
 of milk by the feeding bottle, it may be as well to 
 remark that there is a want of sufficient attention 
 to the very important fact that the natural tem- 
 perature of milk from the breast is invariably that 
 of the blood, namely, about lOOo Fahrenheit, and 
 milk and water for feeding should be therefore 
 maintained as nearly as possible at this tempera- 
 ture. This can only be ascertained by means of 
 the thermometer. 
 
 In adult life there are many diseases in which 
 the use of milk as a principal article of diet is 
 strongly indicated, and in others as much to be 
 avoided ; and it is only upon close investigation 
 of the conditions of the body, and its digestive 
 organs, that satisfactory conclusions can be arrived 
 at ; but, generally speaking, it must be considered 
 
Milk. 43 
 
 one of the great reasons why a milk diet has been 
 in many cases tried and discarded as valueless, that 
 many other articles of food have been taken at the 
 same time which are not compatible with it. The 
 result in this instance is the formation of large 
 masses of curd and cheese, so to speak, which are 
 necessarily productive of the most objectionable 
 results. On the other hand, the value of a well- 
 regulated milk diet, in conjunction with other 
 suitable foods, cannot be over-estimated in cases 
 where, from long previous mismanagement, the 
 digestive powers have become impaired. In these, 
 as in infancy, all the elements of nutrition are thus 
 presented in a condition requiring the smallest di- 
 gestive effort, and rest for the digestive organs is 
 obtained, whilst the nutrition of the body is ade- 
 quately accomplished. 
 
44 Cup and Platter, 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 BREADSTUFFS. 
 
 TWENTV years ago, when the microscope was first 
 brought to bear upon the examination of the 
 breadstuffs in common use, the immediate result 
 of its revelations was a general scare. The 
 popular notion of bread, at least in England, pre- 
 supposed that made of only one kind of cereal, in 
 the form of very finely dressed flour. 
 
 If the most overweening confidence was placed 
 in the staft" of life, a term of which bread seems 
 to have enjoyed a monopoly, that confidence was 
 shaken to its very foundation by a statement to the 
 effect that the flour of barley, oats, beans, peas, rice, 
 and many other grains had been detected in or- 
 dinary bakers' bread ; and not only so, but that 
 many other matters not coming properly within the 
 definition of breadstufls, such as sulphate of copper, 
 alum, and plaster of Paris, together with other 
 mineral abominations under the term of "Jona- 
 than," besides a heavy leavening with mashed 
 potatoes, were proved to be used by bakers. 
 
Breadshiffs. 45 
 
 At this period by far the larger quantity of bread 
 in common use was that termed households, and 
 was made, or supposed to have been made, of that 
 description of white flour bearing the same name. 
 An inferior description of bread was also sold, 
 made of what is known as seconds flour, and bear- 
 ing the same designation. The more expensive 
 kind was sold either as best or fancy bread. In 
 addition to these, brown bread, milk loaves, French 
 and tinned loaves, were all of them in much more 
 moderate demand ; but the real old-fashioned bread 
 of the past century could hardly be purchased 
 throughout the length and breadth of the land. 
 
 In Scotland, oat cakes, pease bannocks, bean 
 and pea bread, rye cakes, are now gradually being 
 exchanged for the ordinary whiter breads familiar 
 to English consumers. But on the Continent the 
 great mass of the breadstuffs forming that portion 
 of the food of the people is still of a more varied 
 and coarser description. 
 
 Between all those varieties, which, if space would 
 permit, might include many others, it may be of 
 some little service to point out wherein consists the 
 true nutritive value in a greater or less proportion 
 of the various cereals. From the following table, 
 the average components of the meals and flours 
 which are in common use can be compared : — 
 
46 
 
 Cup and Platter, 
 
 TABLE 
 
 Of average components of Meals and Flours in 
 common use : — 
 
 
 
 
 >> 
 
 M 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 C 
 
 
 1 
 
 Water . . . 
 
 Nitrogenous 
 matter . . 
 
 Starch, gum, 
 sugar, etc. 
 
 Fat 
 
 Mineral mat- 
 ter ... . 
 
 I4-I 
 
 I3"4 
 
 677 
 21 
 
 27 
 
 15-0 
 
 IO-8 
 70-5 
 
 2-0 
 17 
 
 15-9 
 
 72-3 
 
 2-4 
 
 2'I 
 
 15-5 
 123 
 
 64-2 
 5-2 
 
 2-8 
 
 137 
 
 8-1 
 
 69-9 
 6-9 
 
 1*4 
 
 14-3 
 
 22'I 
 
 58-9 
 2-1 
 
 2-6 
 
 lo-i 
 
 24-5 
 
 59-2 
 2-9 
 
 3 '3 
 
 10 -o 
 
 5-1 
 
 83-6 
 
 7 
 
 •6 
 
 72-1 
 
 17 
 
 25-1 
 •3 
 
 •8 
 
 As far as their composition is concerned, it will not 
 be difficult to comprehend the separate and distinct 
 uses to which they may at different times be 
 applied. Wheat undoubtedly occupies the first 
 place in the estimation of Englishmen. Wheaten 
 bread may now be found forming the most sub- 
 stantial portion of the daily food in this country. 
 As such, every portion of the grain must be re- 
 garded according to the quantity and digestibility 
 of the nourishment it affords. But as certain por- 
 tions produce immediate effects other than those 
 of mere nutrition, it will be necessary to particu* 
 
Brcadstu-ffs. 47 
 
 larlse as briefly as possible the peculiarities of 
 each. 
 
 When wheat is well grown and soundly harvested, 
 it soon attains that condition which fits it for being 
 made into bread of several kinds, the most ancient 
 method being to subject the grain to a heavy 
 pounding in a rude mortar of wood or stone. The 
 exterior portion of the husk, which becomes easily 
 detached during this process, was simply winnowed 
 away by blowing with the mouth, and with these 
 latter particulars we have nothing to do. 
 
 The heavier cortex or covering of the grain itself 
 is of a somewhat complicated structure. No less 
 than five separate cuticles or skins have been shown 
 to exist. Within the cellular formation of these 
 skins a curious fermentative albuminous principle is 
 found, which in itself not only affords a most valu- 
 able nutritive quality, but has also the effect of 
 rendering the flour of the kernel more easy of con- 
 version into a digestible condition, and materially 
 assists in a rude panilication or bread-making, 
 which, however primitive, affords a strong and 
 healthy food staple. 
 
 This process of making bread from wheat, as 
 adopted in more ancient times, is still practised in 
 many eastern countries; and, as if to show an inevi- 
 table cycle in the annals of food, as of other his- 
 torical events, more recent researches into the food 
 
48 Cup a7id Platter, 
 
 value of various descriptions of bread are now 
 tending towards the re-establishment in pubHc 
 favour of whole meal bread not altogether dissi- 
 milar to that made by the rough-and-ready process 
 just described. 
 
 Prior to the efforts which have been made within 
 the last few years to show the nature and propor- 
 tions of the nourishment to be found in the different 
 portions of the grain, the fashion for extremely 
 white bread had been almost universally accepted. 
 From the finest wheat bread — prepared by the most 
 costly methods of selection, ground by the most 
 exquisite machinery into the finest and most im- 
 palpable of flours, dressed through silken sieves, 
 until only that portion which would yield a bread 
 of the most dazzling whiteness was retained — to the 
 commoner and cheaper bread upon which the 
 poorer classes have so much to depend, the desire 
 for whiteness and whiteness alone was the one test 
 which was applied to both the flour and the bread. 
 
 Unfortunately, great beauty of colour is not 
 compatible with any mixture of the outer covering 
 of the grain ; and, as in the outer portion both of 
 the kernel and covering the larger proportion of 
 nitrogenous, fatty, and mineral matters is con- 
 tained, bt'ead with an undue preponderance of 
 starch has been that which has met with the 
 greatest favour and demand. No scientific writer 
 
Bveadstuffs, 49 
 
 upon the subject would object to the utilisation of 
 all the starchy matters contained in wheat flour. 
 But we are of opinion that, for the general nourish- 
 ment of the people, it is both wasteful and injurious 
 that the mere starchy portion of the wheat should 
 be used, to the exclusion of those other portions 
 which contain the largest proportion of muscle, 
 bone, and other tissue-formers, and which, indeed, 
 confer upon wheat its manifest superiority over 
 any other kind of grain as a combination of 
 nutriment. 
 
 No bread, properly so called, can be made from 
 any other grains than those of wheat and barley 
 by themselves. If flour made from any other 
 grain is attempted to be raised into spongy or 
 vesiculated bread, a satisfactory result cannot be 
 obtained. This arises from the want of the gluten 
 in all other kinds of flour. A certain quantity of 
 any of the other flours may, however, be nlixed 
 with wheat flour, which will enable it to take the 
 form desired. It is for this reason, doubtless, that 
 wherever fermented bread is required to be made, 
 wheat has always been considered the most valu- 
 able of brcadstuffs, holding, as it does, a high 
 position in the nutritive scale, as regards the 
 amount of gluten, nitrogenous, and flesh-forming 
 principle. 
 
 The injury and fraud which is occasioned by the 
 
 J. 
 
50 Cup end Platter. 
 
 introduction of any considerable quantity of potato 
 or rice flour must become at once evident, Inasmuch 
 as these tend only to Increase the proportion of 
 starch in the bread, and destroy that balance of 
 the various principles which have been found to 
 be so admirably formed by nature in wheat flour. 
 If any great economy could be shown in the use 
 of rice or potatoes for this purpose, their weakness 
 in this regard should be counteracted by the addition 
 of some of the more nitrogenous flours. For this 
 purpose oatmeal, pea and bean flour, and, perhaps, 
 the flour of some other grain, now little known in 
 England, but extensively used in India, might be 
 judiciously employed ; always bearing In mind that 
 all these possess strong flavours disagreeable to 
 many, and are, besides, undoubtedly difficult of 
 digestion, and of a consistence which can only be 
 obviated by a method of cooking especially adapted 
 for them. Long simmering at a temperature of about 
 1 80° renders peas, beans, lentils, and other legu- 
 minous seeds fit to be used as food, and without 
 this they ought not to be introduced into bread 
 which Is only subjected to a brief period of ordinary 
 baking. 
 
 The general means adopted in the manufacture 
 of bread, to render it light and spongy, is that 
 occasioned by the fermentative action of yeast 
 upon the dough, the chemical efl"ect of which is to 
 
Breadstuffs, 5 1 
 
 evolve carbonic acid gas, steam, and a certain 
 small quantity of vapour of alcohol, by the splitting 
 up of the constituents sugar and starch into these 
 compounds. If there were no true gluten, which 
 is a viscid substance somewhat similar to birdlime, 
 the gaseous matters would at once force their way 
 through the dough, and disappear ; but when there 
 is a due proportion of gluten in the dough, its 
 tenacity enables the little puffs, or bubbles of gas, 
 to be imprisoned in the mass which now takes the 
 form technically termed sponge. The art of the 
 baker consists in being able so to regulate the 
 evolution of gas, that it shall neither be formed 
 so rapidly as to force its way through, notwith- 
 standing the gluten, nor so slowly and irregularly 
 as to leave any portion of the bread solid. 
 
 Everything depends upon the condition of the 
 flour, the relative proportions of gluten and starchy 
 matters contained in it, and the experience or 
 ability with which the dough is worked up with 
 the yeast. The difference observed in bread baked 
 under the most advantageous circumstances, as com- 
 pared with bread carelessly prepared, or neglected 
 at any stage, is the difference between bread that 
 is both wholesome and pleasant, and bread which 
 can be neither one nor the other. 
 
 Objection has been taken to the impurities 
 introduced in common bakers' yeast. These are. 
 
52 Clip and Platter. 
 
 in themselves, undoubtedly, a source of much of 
 the sourness and bad flavour with which we are 
 familiar in bread, and we can confidently assert 
 that if the general public were aware of the putrid 
 condition and disgusting effluvia, to say nothing of 
 the fungoid and other growths induced thereby, 
 attention would be demanded on the part of the 
 inspectors, under the Adulteration Act, to put a 
 stop to the use of ferments in various stages of 
 decomposition. 
 
 The whole subject of bread-making, as carried 
 out in the ordinary bakers' cellars, is one so teem- 
 ing with all that is repulsive, that even adequate 
 description is impossible in all its loathsome details. 
 The personal habits of the poor men, who have to 
 work at the most unseasonable of hours, and con- 
 tinue their exertions throughout so large a portion 
 of the day and night, are almost necessarily opposed 
 to all our ideas of cleanliness and decency. Fre- 
 quently sleeping in the bakehouse before kneading 
 the dough, they proceed with violent exertion to 
 accomplish this laborious process whilst a consider- 
 able portion of their naked bodies streams with 
 perspiration, as they dash their arms beyond the 
 elbows into the viscid mass. 
 
 The accommodation provided for ablution prior 
 to engaging in their heavy labour is seldom such 
 as would meet the approval of the least fastidious. 
 
Breadstuffs, 53 
 
 We are afraid that very few of the master bakers 
 make such a personal inspection of their men as 
 can enable them to declare truthfully that they are 
 in any respect fit to be employed upon an operation 
 which demands such scrupulous cleanliness. In 
 touching as lightly as possible upon the filth inci- 
 dent to the common operation of bread-making 
 thus carried out, we have no wish to assume that 
 there are no exceptions to this deplorable state of 
 things ; on the contrary, we have ourselves in- 
 spected several large bakeries, where the attention 
 to cleanliness in this particular leaves nothing to 
 be desired.* Three methods have come before our 
 notice by which the risk of contamination from 
 bad yeast and personal contact is most efficiently 
 guarded against. The first is that in which the 
 use of yeast is altogether superseded by the pro- 
 duction of carbonic acid gas, resulting from the 
 admixture of hydrochloric acid with pure bicar- 
 bonate of soda in the bread ; the effect of this is 
 to leave in it a small proportion of chloride of 
 sodium (common salt). So small is the proportion 
 left in the bread, when this is properly carried out, 
 that some additional salt has always to be added 
 to the bread to give it the requisite flavour. There 
 can, therefore, be no objection whatever to such a 
 
 * Notably, the cleanliness of Perkin's sleam bakeries, as 
 worked by Messrs. Hill and Son, 
 
54 Ctip and Platter, 
 
 plan when the soda and acid are of ascertained 
 purity. 
 
 The second plan has been very successfully 
 worked on a large scale by first generating car- 
 bonic acid in a separate vessel, at a great pressure, 
 and then regulating its admixture with the dough by 
 an admirable mechanical contrivance. In addition 
 to this safeguard, machinery has been adapted to 
 the kneading of the dough in close vessels. With- 
 out going into the mechanical details, sacks of flour 
 are emptied into a hopper at the top of the build- 
 ing, the flour is mixed with the proper quantity of 
 water, the dough thus made is impregnated v/ith 
 carbonic acid, and at the bottom of the receptacle 
 where this operation takes place there is an open- 
 ing from whence the dough as fit for baking is 
 expelled and cut off, falling into tins, which are 
 then immediately placed in the oven, the bread 
 never having come in contact with any portion of 
 the baker's person * 
 
 We have thus described two different means of 
 obviating the necessity of using yeast if desired, 
 and also proved by personal investigation that 
 mechanical kneading of the dough will produce 
 bread in every respect as light and as perfect as 
 can be obtained by manual labour. In our objec- 
 tion to the use of yeast when acid or decomposed, 
 
 * Bread made by this process is called aerated bread. 
 
Breadstuffs. 55 
 
 we have laid much stress upon the evils which 
 result from it in that condition, but again we should 
 wish to be understood that there is no necessity for 
 the employment of unsound yeast, inasmuch as 
 yeast is capable of being delivered at a considerable 
 distance before any such decomposition can possibly 
 occur. In proof of this we have had samples for- 
 warded from Austria, France, and Holland, which, 
 to our surprise, proved far purer than the generality 
 of brewers' yeast in this country. Under the 
 microscope, the cells were seen to be perfectly 
 clean, well developed, and full of germinating nuclei 
 plainly ready to burst forth into the most vigorous 
 life, when subjected to a suitable temperature after 
 mixing with the flour and water. 
 
 The importance of ascertaining the purity of 
 yeast is one which seems to have been greatly 
 underrated, and we are convinced that if personal 
 cleanliness on the part of the baker's journeyman 
 were insisted on, or the mechanical arrangements 
 which have been described were generally adopted, 
 we should require nothing more as a guarantee 
 than the soundness of the condition of the flour, 
 and the absence of false ferments or decomposition 
 in the yeast, to provide bread infinitely more 
 nourishing, wholesome, and agreeable, than that 
 usually found even in shops of considerable pre- 
 tensions. 
 
56 Cup and Platter. 
 
 From the foregoing tables it will be seen that 
 starch forms by far the largest proportion of the 
 nutritious principles comprised in breadstuffs ; and 
 including the potato with these we have repre- 
 sented the compounds of starch with other food 
 principles which are of such vital importance to 
 the nutrition of the body. 
 
 It is necessary, here, to describe the use of starch, 
 and the changes which it has to undergo when 
 taken into the body, before it can be assimilated or 
 absorbed. Starch is composed of carbon, oxygen, 
 and hydrogen. There can be little doubt that the 
 largest amount of carbon necessary to the body is 
 introduced by the splitting up of the elements of 
 the starch. Oxygen is also liberated, and performs 
 its most important functions in the internal 
 economy. But before starch can be dissolved 
 and so absorbed, it is necessary that it shall be 
 converted into a soluble form by the action of a 
 vegetable or animal ferment. 
 
 Practically, we take starch, after its conversion 
 by vegetable ferments, in the shape of sugar; and 
 it is equally essential, when unchanged starch is 
 eaten, that the animal fermentative principle con- 
 tained in the saliva, called ptyalin, shall be inti- 
 mately blended with the starchy food during its 
 mastication in the mouth, so that in its passage 
 through the stomach, and chiefly in its second 
 
Breadstuffs, 
 
 passage through the intestines, it may become 
 similarly converted into sugar, which, being com- 
 pletely soluble, is taken up by the absorbents. A 
 certain portion of the starchy matter is also con- 
 verted by the pancreatic juice, also a nitrogenous 
 ferment, the action of which is chiefly directed to 
 fatty matters. But it must be emphatically pointed 
 out that unless this conversion of starch does take 
 place, it cannot be absorbed or assimilated. It 
 must either pass out of the body unchanged, or 
 decompose by putrefaction. 
 
 The lactous fermentation which occurs gives 
 rise to unhealthy conditions, and it is only when 
 the starch has been properly converted into sugar, 
 or absorbed, that its constituent carbon, oxygen, 
 and hydrogen are gradually separated, and form 
 the compounds which are finally excreted in the 
 form of carbonates, carbonic acid, and ammonia. 
 If these changes are impeded or arrested, an excess 
 of uric or it may be lactic acid is formed in the 
 system, constituting the material of disease in gout 
 and rheumatism ; hence the necessity for taking 
 starch in such moderation that it can be acted upon 
 by the amount of saliva available for its solution : 
 and considerable stress must be laid upon the 
 extreme value of its thorough mastication. 
 
 For this reason, as is well known, stale bread is 
 more wholesome than new. The mastication it 
 
58 Cup and Platter, 
 
 demands before it can be swallowed is sufficient 
 to ensure proper admixture with the saliva, whereas 
 with a softer and more easily swallowed crumb of 
 new bread, many persons have not appreciated 
 the necessity of retaining it in the mouth long 
 enough for this admixture to take place. 
 
 In one of the most intractable of diseases, namely, 
 diabetes, which depends upon the excessive for- 
 mation of sugar in the body, the most obvious 
 mode that we have of controlling the disease is to 
 reduce the supply of starchy matter. For this 
 purpose a bread is made from which almost the 
 whole of the starch has been removed, and which 
 therefore consists mainly of nitrogenous and 
 mineral matter; but the entire withholding of 
 starchy matters, so frequently insisted on in the 
 treatment of this disease, cannot be said to be 
 warranted by results. We are strongly of opinion 
 that unless a certain portion of starch and sugar 
 be permitted, the assimilation of the other nutri- 
 tious principles of food generally cannot be satis- 
 factorily carried out. 
 
 If our attempt has been successful in showing 
 that the most complete nutrition derivable from 
 wheat is only to be obtained when the whole of 
 the grain is bruised without separating any of the 
 flour from the different portions of the external 
 envelope, it must be obvious that when such bruised 
 
Breadstuff's, 59 
 
 grain is made into bread, the entire nutritive value 
 is secured. Certain difficulties stand in the way 
 of accomplishing this, and it is not to every baker 
 that it is given to strike so far aside from his 
 ordinary handicraft as to be able to accomplish 
 the baking of a tolerable loaf of bread from such 
 materials. 
 
 In the first place, it is unfortunately not easy to 
 procure whole meal of the requisite quality. 
 
 The difficulties of dealing with the preparation 
 of such meal are incident to the general use of 
 mill stones instead of the primitive pestle and 
 mortar. No doubt, ordinary malt rollers would 
 accomplish every object, but we fear few mills 
 supplying bakers are possessed of these very useful 
 contrivances. Whole meal from wheat is, how- 
 ever, to be obtained, and as the matter has already 
 been scientifically considered, very little has been 
 left to be accomplished in the mode of preparation 
 of this meal by those few millers who have already 
 established a reputation for its production. In the 
 same way very few baking firms have encountered 
 the difficulties to be overcome in making palatable 
 bread from the best whole meal. 
 
 Here, again, the impediments due to the mecha- 
 nical details of ordinary bread-miaking, and those 
 obstacles which invariably intrude themselves 
 where any rule-of-thumb practice is depended 
 
6o Cup and Platter 
 
 upon, have been most successfully surmounted by 
 the indomitable perseverance of one or two more 
 enlightened purveyors, and we have great pleasure 
 in testifying to their success. In dealing with 
 this certainly refractory material for bread-making, 
 altogether beside the question of deriving the full 
 nutritive profit which is obtainable from wheat, 
 there are other considerations of the very greatest 
 moment immediately connected with the use, oc- 
 casional or habitual, of whole meal bread, which, be 
 it understood, is something considerably different, 
 and very superior in its effectiveness, from the 
 ordinary brown bread, sometimes recommended, 
 but which frequently falls far short of the effect 
 which it is intended to produce. 
 
 The essential difference between common brown 
 bread and the whole meal bread of which we have 
 spoken, is that brown bread consists of ordinary 
 flour with a certain amount of ground bran re- 
 mixed with it ; but the latter ought never to be 
 ground at all, as it contains the invaluable cerealin 
 and certain other portions of the envelope, and 
 the outer cortex should not be broken into 
 spiculae, or sharp-pointed fragments, but merely 
 bruised. In this form the immediate action upon 
 the bowels is rather stimulative than irritant, inas- 
 much as the peristaltic or vermicular movement is 
 accelerated by the passage of those harder portions, 
 
Breadstwffs. 6 1 
 
 and is not to any considerable extent scratched or 
 irritated by any undue breaking up into angular 
 fragments. In addition to this there is an absence 
 of those thin scales into which bran is ordinarily 
 rubbed, which remain as sources of irritation. 
 
 Dealing with breadstuffs in their application to 
 bread alone, we have endeavoured to put forward 
 points of most general interest, and at the same 
 time of the highest importance. But in addition 
 to these, a very large amount of the same flours 
 and meals have to be considered in their relations 
 to other foods under the generic term " Farina- 
 ceous." It would be useless to recapitulate what 
 has been already stated with regard to the consti- 
 tuents of these substances, but it becomes a still 
 greater necessity at this time when so many absurd 
 doctrines are promulgated, to state incisively those 
 dietetic laws which cannot be violated with im- 
 punity. 
 
 Infants' foods are put forward ad ?imts€am. The 
 best of these undoubtedly contain certain elements 
 of nutrillon combined in proportions somewhat 
 approximating to those which science would dic- 
 tate. There are not many, however, that v/e shall 
 be able to class In this category, certainly not 
 half-a-dozen. It would be invidious to point out 
 in detail the full advantages of some of these, but 
 it is necessary In the first place to draw a deep 
 
62 Cup and Platter, 
 
 line of demarcation between those foods that are 
 suitable for infants and those others which may 
 be considered better adapted for the use of invalids 
 of more mature years.* 
 
 If infants are to be fed at all upon anything 
 to supplement diluted milk or the equivalent of 
 that which they would derive from their mothers, 
 it must be insisted that this supplemental food 
 shall be rendered soluble without necessitating any 
 action either of the saliva or of any of the other 
 juices of the body. The peculiar principle called 
 diastase, wdiich is produced by the malting of grain, 
 causes the transformation of the starchy matters 
 into sugar, which renders them entirely soluble, in 
 which condition alone are they capable of being 
 taken up by the absorbents, and so assimilated. 
 
 One or two infants' foods are already before the 
 public, in which these conditions have been duly 
 recognised. The rest of the foods advertised as 
 suitable for infants consist of but little else than 
 cooked or baked flour, in which state ordinary 
 wheat flour is to a very small degree more easy of 
 
 * In exemplification of this point, we have shown that 
 Liebig's " Food for Infants," as prepared by Messrs. Savory 
 and Moore, contains but very little untransformable starch, 
 while Mr. Mellin carries the malting still further, and renders 
 almost all the starch soluble. " Farina vit^i?," on the other 
 hand, is very highly nutritious food for invalids, but is not 
 adapted for very young infants. 
 
Breadstuff's. 63 
 
 digestion. To whatever extent the starchy matters 
 are not capable of conversion by the other prin- 
 ciples contained in the food, the starchy constituents 
 must be considered objectionable to all young 
 infants, inasmuch as there is no power in their 
 saliva of transforming this starch. 
 
 For this reason we feel bound to protest against 
 the very improper pretensions daily made in the 
 advertisements of certain cornflours. Some of 
 these boldly state the very reverse of the truth, to 
 the effect that their wonderful preparations contain 
 all the essential elements of nutrition, whereas, in 
 fact, they are almost universally found on exami- 
 nation to consist of starch alone. In other words, 
 when prepared with water only, as is directed on 
 the labels of some of these, they contain no nutri- 
 ment which is assimilable by an infant of less than 
 five or six months of age. If no other food is 
 taken, starvation must inevitably result. This has, 
 unfortunately, occurred in too many instances, as 
 shown by the records of Coroners' and police courts 
 during the last two years. 
 
 Where foods of this kind are used by mothers 
 as thickening of diluted milk for young infants, it 
 must be remembered that they cannot digest the 
 starch, and it must become liable to the most ob- 
 jectionable decomposition. We all know how prone 
 infants are to the formation of acidity and wind. 
 
Cup and Platter. 
 
 The first is almost invariably that which is de- 
 nominated lactous, and the second is but the 
 necessary consequence of this fermentation. Both 
 of these usually occur from indigestible starchy 
 matters, when such are present in- the food, unless 
 the bowels are so active as to be able to expel the 
 starch unchanged before decomposition can take 
 place. If any mucilaginous matter is required to 
 give to the diluted milk a thicker consistency, and 
 render it, as it is termed, bland, the mucilaginous 
 matter in contradistinction to coagulum afforded 
 by barley-water may be used with advantage. 
 
 It can never be repeated too often that milk 
 food is the proper food of all infantile life. If the 
 circumstances under which this is obtainable have 
 been thoroughly investigated, and after due inquiry 
 found to be inadequate to the support of the infant, 
 an inquiry which can never be too fully or too 
 perseverlngly carried out before being abandoned, 
 then, and then only, are the best kinds of those 
 truly soluble infants' foods to be advocated. All 
 others must be condemned on the strongest possible 
 grounds ; the evidence upon which that condem- 
 nation is based being attested by the best medical 
 evidence of the present day, viz., that the majority 
 of deaths among infants not nurtured upon milk 
 are occasioned by injudicious food substitutes 
 mainly consisting of starch. 
 
j\Icaf. 6 =^ 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 MEAT. 
 
 IF food were considered under the ancient de- 
 scription of meat and drink, the meaning of 
 the word meat would be very different from that 
 which we have to discuss. The old adage, "What 
 is meat to some may be poison to others," un- 
 fortunately is sometimes true of that portion of 
 our food obtained from the butchers' shops. Many 
 persons, in selecting their daily joint, believe, when 
 they secure the meat which is charged at the 
 highest price, that they obtain the finest possible 
 nourishment. 
 
 They may sometimes be correct, they may some- 
 times also obtain fine flavour, the most juicy con- 
 dition, and the most tender fibre. The aesthetic 
 enjoyments of carving may be indulged in so as to 
 display at once the dexterity of the carver, the 
 skill of the butcher, and the ripeness of the an imal ; 
 and, at the same time, a sufficiently scientific 
 veterinary surgeon would pounce down upon the 
 tempting helpings, and declare that that which is 
 
 5 
 
G6 Cup and Platter. 
 
 most inviting has only been obtained by the 
 degeneration of the most valuable qualities of the 
 meat. 
 
 Every one must occasionally notice in the news- 
 papers reports of meat having been seized as unfit 
 for human food. The evidence upon which such 
 meat is condemned is not of such a nature as will 
 bear the strictest scientific investigation. That a 
 large quantity of the meat undoubtedly comes into 
 the market in a condition unfit to be consumed is 
 unfortunately but too true ; but we have great 
 reason to fear that the essential points of discri- 
 minating between that which is lik®iy to prove 
 absolutely injurious, that which is objectionable, and 
 that which would pass muster, are not yet suffi- 
 ciently understood, either by the inspectors whose 
 duty it is to investigate these matters, or by the 
 purchasers. 
 
 It may appear ridiculous to declare, with some em-" 
 phasis, that at no time of the year is the liability of 
 purchasing diseased meat so great as immediately 
 after the great cattle shows. Instances, however, 
 have not been wanting to prove that the beasts 
 exhibited have been in that condition in which fat 
 deposited externally, and intersticially (as marbling 
 of the meat), and also in the viscera, has reached 
 such a degree as to admit of the easy passage of 
 the finger through the walls of the pericardium, or 
 
Meat, 67 
 
 membrane which surrounds the heart. Mr. Gant 
 testified that this was the precise condition in 
 which he found several beasts exhibited by the 
 late Prince Consort, the slaughter of which antici- 
 pated by a very brief period the inevitable termina- 
 tion of their lives by disease (fatty degeneration). 
 
 A very few years ago a London fog of more than 
 usual intensity was found sufficient to destroy the 
 slight vitality of a large number of beasts so ex- 
 hibited. There was no evidence that other animals 
 in the metropolis, living under ordinary circum- 
 stances, and stalled, suffered to any extreme degree 
 from this smoke-laden atmosphere ; and the moral 
 pointed by this event seems to be that the unnatural 
 feeding necessary to the production of this mass of 
 flesh, together with the treatment which entirely 
 precluded the exercise necessary to cause free 
 expansion of the lungs — in fact, the forcing system 
 generally adopted — is one which must result in 
 the production of flesh minus vitality, and in food 
 with a minimum of justly balanced nutrition. 
 
 In considering the question of the food value of 
 meat, it must be remembered that it supplies a 
 distinct requirement. It is moreover accepted in 
 this position by the instincts of mankind \\\ general, 
 as especially supplying the place of the nitrogenous 
 and muscular elements of food in daily diet. It is 
 not either purchased or used as a substitute for 
 
68 Cup and Platter. 
 
 butter or fatty matters, nor can it be economically 
 applied for this purpose. 
 
 A very curious calculation might be made as to 
 the amount of fat purchased of the butcher, and 
 paid for as meat, of which a portion is trimmed off 
 by the cook, and a large amount becomes drip- 
 ping, while of the remainder, that which is left on 
 the plate will show how little is really consumed. 
 The marine store dealer in this instance probably 
 obtains the greatest advantage out of our national 
 desire for fat meat, which is evidently satisfactory 
 to the eye alone. The fat of venison is generally 
 appreciated to the fullest possible extent, because 
 of the scarcity of a due deposit of adipose tissue in 
 an animal so active as the deer. On the other 
 hand, stall-feeding of oxen, and the confining of 
 sheep for feeding purposes, and other means of 
 obtaining an undue development of carcase weight, 
 produce a flabby muscular tissue. Such a deposit as 
 this can only be wasted in the slaughter-house, the 
 kitchen, and on the table. 
 
 These same observations apply to the feeding of 
 pigs. Every housekeeper is acquainted with the 
 difference which exists between bacon which swells 
 in the pot, and that which shrinks. This depends 
 upon the solidity of tissue^ which is consequent to 
 a certain extent upon the feeding of the animal, 
 and to a small degree upon the peculiar breed. 
 
Meat. 69 
 
 Diseases of meat present peculiar appearances, 
 sometimes easily recognisable, at others not so 
 obvious. One of the most deadly of these is the 
 presence of encysted parasites known in pork by 
 the scientific name of iricJiincB spiralis. The dangers 
 incident to the presence of this deadly parasite are 
 only to be overcome by a full cooking temperature 
 equal to that of boiling water. There are various 
 other diseases of animals w^hich render their flesh 
 unsuitable for human food. But the length of time 
 during w^hich meat may be kept short of the produc- 
 tion of real putrefaction has yet to be determined 
 as bearing upon its wholesomeness. This is a point 
 to which we have directed attention, and we hope 
 at no distant date to be assured that its dietetic 
 importance is more generally appreciated. 
 
 FISH. 
 
 The flesh of fish bears a closer resemblance to 
 butchers' meat than is sometimes recognised. In- 
 deed, the analogy between the flesh of sturgeon 
 and veal is sufficiently obvious both in appearance 
 and flavour. The difference between certain kinds 
 of flsh having what is termed white flesh and other 
 fish having red or pink flesh will not always afford 
 any indication as to the relative proportion of 
 nutriment which either kind may possess in nitro- 
 
70 Cup and Platter, 
 
 genoiis substance, soluble albuminoid matter, and 
 even less in regard to its constituent of oil. But it 
 may be accepted that those fish which contain the 
 largest quantity of oil are, from that very fact, more 
 liable to prove difficult of digestion. 
 
 The fibrinous portion of many descriptions of fish 
 is naturally harder and coarser than the generality 
 of animal flesh. The necessity is, therefore, greater 
 that in cooking every attention should be given to 
 rendering the muscular fibre as tender as possible. 
 
 In consequence of some little delicacy being 
 requisite in the preparation of fish for the table, no 
 little prejudice has been excited against it among 
 the labouring classes. It is also supposed to be 
 very inferior to flesh meat in nutriment. This is 
 not the case to the extent supposed, the amount of 
 nitrogenous matter being, on an average, about the 
 same as in lean meat ; It Is, however, generally less 
 available, as it cannot be kept fresh for the same 
 length of time. Notwithstanding which, if diffi- 
 culties had not been interposed by those interested 
 in Billingsgate Market, a very large quantity of 
 most valuable food might be daily brought to 
 London, and retailed at the most moderate prices.* 
 
 * The establishment of wholesale and retail markets for 
 fish in London has been again and again attempted, and the 
 history of Columbia Market affords one of the most lament- 
 able instances of failure. 
 
Meat. 
 
 All efforts to accomplish this have unfortunately 
 up to the present time been frustrated by trade 
 devices, and while thousands throughout the country 
 are suffering in health from the want of that descrip- 
 tion of nourishment which fish would cheaply afford, 
 thousands of tons of fish are permitted to rot as 
 manure on the sea coast. 
 
Cup and Platter, 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 VEGETABLES AND FRUIT. 
 
 VEGETABLES must be dealt with, for our pre- 
 sent purpose of illustration, from a totally dif- 
 ferent point of view from that in which the botanist, 
 herbalist, or vegetarian would regard them. Wehave 
 no intention of treating of the vegetable kingdom 
 in general, much less of attempting to give any idea 
 of the food principles peculiar to any very extended 
 series of edible vegetable matters. Some of the 
 commonest of those vegetables which find their 
 way to our tables will be quite sufficient to enable 
 us to point out the leading features which must be 
 thoroughly recognised as appertaining more par- 
 ticularly to this very varied and important group of 
 food substances. 
 
 If, for one reason more than another, we should 
 select, even if we were not compelled, a few of the 
 commoner descriptions of vegetables as types, it 
 would be because that vast variety which does 
 exist of vegetable productions suitable for the table 
 is unfortunately almost unattainable in this country. 
 Potatoes, cabbages, onions, carrots, and turnips. 
 
Vegetables and Fruit. 73 
 
 with a few more, express the extreme limits of all 
 that an ordinary greengrocer desires to offer his 
 customers for selection ; the rest are luxuries, and 
 must be paid for as such, even if, as is the case 
 with some of the choicest of our salads, they can 
 be obtained by those who seek them at the mere 
 cost of collection. 
 
 The potato may, perhaps, be taken as the most 
 generally valuable of our common table vegetables. 
 The natural assumption of food value accorded to 
 the potato depends not only upon its solidity 
 (containing a quarter its weight of solid mat- 
 ters, the remaining three quarters being water), 
 but also from the circumstance that these solids 
 contain no less than 16 or 17 per cent, of starch, 
 and from ij to 2 per cent, nitrogenous matter, 
 together with mineral matters of a very varied 
 constitution. 
 
 The estimate of the nutrition which this vegetable 
 affords is not entirely to be confined to the pro- 
 perties of its components, but also to the existence 
 of certain dilute acids, citric and phosphoric, 
 which probably cause a remarkable anti-scorbutic 
 effect to be produced by the raw potato. How 
 much of this citric and phosphoric acid is pre- 
 served after the process of cooking must depend 
 considerably upon the method adopted. But the 
 hygienic value of potatoes which have neither ger- 
 
74 Cup ajid Platter, 
 
 minated, nor become changed by long keeping, is 
 more likely to be under than over estimated. 
 
 Errors, however, are likely to be perpetrated when 
 the dietetic importance of potatoes is so far mis- 
 understood as to lead persons to believe that it 
 is easy to consume and digest a sufficient amount 
 of this tuber to enable it to become a substitute for 
 more highly nitrogenous and flesh-forming foods. 
 This has had much to do with many of our national 
 difficulties in deahng with Ireland. The hibernian 
 predilection, which has been so well known as to 
 cause potatoes to be termed " Murphys," absolutely 
 caused a famine when better food was offered and 
 rejected. 
 
 It may have been a mistake to supply maize, 
 which requires a totally different method of cookery, 
 but we can speak from our own experience of the 
 superiority of well-creed or perfectly swollen rice, 
 drained from superfluous moisture, in the place of 
 potatoes, whenever the latter are diseased, badly 
 grown, or of inferior quality. The green vegetables, 
 such as cabbage, contain too small a proportion of 
 nitrogenous matters to render them an important 
 item for consideration in daily food. But the 
 immense variety of their chemical and physical 
 qualities suggests other values than those to be 
 attributed to the considerable amount of cellulose 
 and vegetable acids. 
 
Vegetables and Fruit. 75 
 
 If, in variety alone, they tempt the appetite or 
 stimulate digestion, both by their alkaloids, flavours, 
 and agreeable crispness when uncooked; so, also, 
 as regarded from an economical point of view 
 '' greens " accomplish a result by no means to be 
 despised, in assisting to fill the stomach, so that 
 the mechanical necessities of the digestion are aided 
 in the supplemental action they afford to the more 
 nitrogenous foods. 
 
 We must not lose sight of the peculiar principles 
 inherent to the lettuce, asparagus, celery, spinach, 
 watercress, and radish. Some of these are truly 
 medicinal. The volatile principles contained in 
 many of them approximate more closely than might 
 be suspected to those of certain spices and highly 
 stimulative condiments. They should therefore be 
 accepted rather as addenda to any meal than as 
 forming substantial nourishment. 
 
 Carrots, parsnips, turnips, and beetroot are roots 
 in which the starchy matters are found already 
 transformed to a considerable extent into sugar 
 from an early period of their growth. Some of 
 these contain fatty matters to a great extent, and 
 all of them possess peculiar flavours due to volatile 
 constituents which exercise different effects upon 
 different individuals. In themselves the saccharine 
 and mineral components are not to be dissociated 
 at the table from the harder ligneous cellulose 
 
76 Clip and Platter. 
 
 which form the fibrous structure of those vege- 
 tables, which when they are slow-grown renders 
 them extremely difficult of mastication, if not im- 
 possible of digestion. On the other hand, a forced 
 growth of extreme rapidity prevents the due de- 
 velopment of their higher flavours and saccharine 
 extractives, augmenting principally the watery 
 constituents. 
 
 It may be remarked that the development of 
 the distinctive peculiarities and valuable qualities 
 of most vegetables is Increased to a very great 
 extent by out-door culture, in the same way as the 
 finest flavours are imparted to fruit by the direct 
 influence of the sun's rays. 
 
 A few very enthusiastic individuals have lately 
 thrust themselves- into print for the purpose of 
 attempting to demonstrate that man is a frugivorous 
 animal. If they had been content to assert that 
 mankind maybe considered as manifesting a strong 
 predilection for fruit, no one would seek to gainsay 
 the palpable truism ; but when certain inaccurate 
 delineations of the osteology of the skulls of man, 
 monkeys, and tigers are put forward to prove 
 that man is by nature destined to live upon fruit, 
 it can only be replied that in no part of the world 
 does he do so. 
 
 Some years back, during a scarcity of the potato 
 crops, a number of letters appeared In the Times, 
 
Vegetables and Fruit, 77 
 
 urging that in times gone by the people of Devon- 
 shire subsisted chiefly upon apples. When, however, 
 it is shown that apples contain not more than a 
 quarter of the flesh-forming principles of the potato, 
 it must become evident how utterly illogical any 
 such inference must be deemed. Pleasant, agree- 
 able, and wholesome as ripe, fresh, well-grown fruit 
 undoubtedly is to the majority of healthy persons, 
 the cooHng and laxative properties possessed by 
 certain descriptions are those to which the greatest 
 value must be accorded. Taken broadly, fruit is not 
 food ; but the question of its use for any such pur- 
 pose need scarcely be discussed, as we are strongly 
 of opinion that no one, unless compelled to do so 
 for a time, has ever attempted to make use of it for 
 this purpose. 
 
 Here the plea for vegetarianism must be im- 
 partially considered from the same aspect. The 
 pretensions put forward are almost invariably in- 
 correctly stated, their postulate being that man 
 not only can, but should, subsist entirely upon vege- 
 tables and fruit. No one can doubt that life may 
 be maintained for a considerable period upon the 
 breadstuffs and other vegetable products, v/ithout 
 the use of any matters of animal origin what- 
 ever. In eastern countries the food of certain 
 religious sects may be said to be mainly vegetable ; 
 but without refining upon the point, how far it is 
 
78 Cup and Platter, 
 
 exclusively so, or what are the conditions of the 
 people so fed, we have to regard, not only what 
 can be done, but what has been done, to maintain 
 this theory. 
 
 In this and other countries enthusiasts have 
 ridden their hobbies as hard upon vegetarianism 
 as upon any crude theory, whether of morality, 
 religion, or dietetics. But in no work that we are 
 acquainted with has it ever been seriously pro- 
 posed that vegetarianism, pure and simple, should 
 even be introduced. 
 
 If we accept the cookery books which seek 
 to allure us from our animal foods and other 
 so-called abominations, we find that the sum total 
 of animal matters introduced into vegetarian 
 cookery exceeds in food value those in the dietetic 
 scale adopted in many of our most successful 
 public institutions throughout the country. In 
 fact, what with milk, eggs, butter, and cheese, 
 animal matters are employed to an extent which 
 far surpasses that procurable by many of the 
 poorer classes of this and other countries, whose 
 greatest desire is to obtain as much animal food 
 as possible. 
 
 But if vegetarian cookery books are uncon- 
 sciously frank in demonstrating their total want 
 of consistency, those who uphold the use of vege- 
 tables alone are usually found to be still more 
 
Vegetables and Fruit, 79 
 
 egregious in the manner in which they actually 
 carry their theories into practice. Dr. W. B. 
 Carpenter estimated the average quantity of non- 
 vegetable food consumed in the house of a friend 
 of his, professing these untenable principles, to be 
 considerably in excess of the animal food consumed 
 by the members of his own household. 
 
 The crude notions of monomaniacs on these 
 subjects occasion, fortunately, but little injury, 
 while they merely essay to demonstrate the eftects 
 upon their own persons ; nature is almost in- 
 variably sufficiently powerful in its impulses to 
 prevent them from undermining their constitutions 
 by any too strict adhesion to their particular 
 fancies. It is only when children, invalids, and 
 others unable to select for themselves are forced 
 and compelled to eke out what little nourishment 
 they can obtain from purely vegetable sources, 
 that it becomes necessary to step in with the 
 authoritative declaration that a vegetarian diet 
 pure and simple is utterly unsuited for the nutri- 
 tion of man. 
 
8o Cup and Platter. 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 FOOD ACCESSORIES. 
 
 MANY articles of consumption which cannot 
 be termed food, but which yet contain 
 principles either essential for the digestion of food^ 
 or stimulative to assist in that digestion, may be 
 enumerated as food accessories, and one absolutely 
 necessary to life cannot conveniently otherwise be 
 classified. Of course, we allude to common salt 
 (chloride of sodium). 
 
 The peculiar type of individuals who find com- 
 fort in the belief that they have discovered some 
 wonderful virtue in the total abstention from 
 animal foods or from alcoholic drinks, occasionally 
 find vent for their eccentricities in endeavouring to 
 do altogether without salt, and more particularly 
 in promulgating their notions upon this craze ; 
 others eat salt in enormous quantities with the 
 greater portion of their food, evidently without 
 being aware that a sufficient quantity of it can be 
 swallowed to produce results of a very dangerous 
 nature. 
 
Food Accessories^ Si 
 
 A morbid appetite for the excessive use of salt is 
 only another form of that depraved condition which 
 incites a desire to partake largely of matters which 
 a healthy instinct would avoid, as certainly as if 
 the noxious consequences had been fully explained. 
 An instance of this kind occurred within our own 
 experience, in which a woman continued for some 
 years to eat dry uncooked flour in considerable 
 quantities, sometimes as much as a tea-cupful at 
 a time. Indeed, a peculiar tendency appears to 
 exist among idiots and maniacs for the swallowing 
 of any little miscellaneous unconsidered trifles with 
 ostrich-like avidity, and in some countries an 
 infatuation for dirt eating (not metaphorically) 
 has become so great, that hundreds, who cannot 
 be restrained from this strange gratification, fall 
 victims to the efi'ects of a diseased imagination, 
 producing a wasting of bodily powers by this 
 means. 
 
 The use of salt, then, may be safely regulated by 
 a healthy instinct. But the necessity for salt may 
 be expbined by the composition of the gastric 
 juice. The most pow^erful solvent acid which 
 insures the digestion of food is that known as 
 hydrochloric. This is furnished entirely by the 
 amount of salt, either chloride of sodium or po- 
 tassium, taken with the food, or naturally contained 
 in it. Unless a large quantity of this acid is 
 
 6 
 
82 Cup and Platter. 
 
 present in the gastric juice, the other digestive 
 principles are inert, or are not given out during 
 the passage of food through the stomach. 
 
 Nothing more need be urged to show the vital 
 necessity for a sufficiency of salt accompanying the 
 daily food. But it is somewhat curious to note 
 how many persons declare that they do not take 
 salt, on the plea, among others, of its being in some 
 way mysteriously connected with original sin and 
 all the consequent evils that flesh is heir to. 
 
 These, perhaps otherwise sane individuals, appear 
 to be unaware that most mixed food contains a 
 certain proportion of salt, and the objection to it 
 can therefore be one of degree only, as is the case 
 with alcohol, with which we shall presently have 
 to deal at length. Without laying down any hard 
 and fast line with regard to the amount of salt 
 required to be taken with the daily food, we can 
 only suggest that it must bear some approximate 
 relation to the amount of flesh-forming food which 
 has to be digested by the gastric juice. 
 
 Vinegar (acetic acid) may undoubtedly rank next 
 to salt as a valuable food accessory. When taken 
 in small quantities, this acid, if not too strong, which 
 is usually the fault of the more expensive malt 
 vinegars, exercises a digestive influence upon the 
 gelatinous constituent of the harder portion of the 
 meat. The total quantity of vinegar consumed in 
 
Food Accessories, 83 
 
 this country Is so immensely greater than is usually 
 supposed, that we have to think for a moment as to 
 the form in which it is chiefly taken. There can 
 be no doubt that cold meat creates a demand for 
 some such solvent, and the pickles, so largely con- 
 sumed by the lower classes with cheese and other 
 food, and by those in better circumstances with 
 cold meat, supply this requirement, in addition, 
 also, to affording an increased stimulus to the di- 
 gestive organs from the various peppers and spices 
 which they contain. 
 
 In the same way, salad-dressing of vinegar and 
 oil enables uncooked vegetable matter to be 
 digested by thousands who could not tolerate raw 
 vegetables without it ; the acidity of the vinegar 
 being counteracted to some extent by the smooth- 
 ness of the oil, v/hile the oil is rendered more palat- 
 able by the vinegar, and in addition to its food 
 value acts as a mechanical lubricant to the intes- 
 tines. 
 
 Mustard possesses not only stimulating proper- 
 ties, but is a valuable tonic and excitant. When 
 largely diluted, it becomes an emetic, as most 
 persons are aware ; but it is peculiar to this con- 
 diment, that unless mixed with water, the sharp 
 aromatic pungency is not developed. For this 
 reason the acid preparation of mustard used by the 
 French and Germans possesses little of the power- 
 
84 Cnp and Platter. 
 
 ful flavour of that which we are accustomed to use 
 in this country. 
 
 Even if mustard be mixed with wine containing 
 as much alcohol as common sherry, the volatile oil 
 which gives it its full strength is not developed ; 
 for, be it understood, the pungency of mustard is 
 the result of the peculiar fermentation which takes 
 place immediately a sufficient quantity of water is 
 added to it. 
 
 Peppers are of two kinds, those which are pro- 
 perly spices, such as black pepper and the w^hite 
 which is derived from it ; the others, such as the 
 different kinds of capsicum from which red peppers 
 are produced, are derived from pods dried and 
 ground — that which is by far the most largely used 
 in this country, of course, being the former. 
 
 The effects of these are carminative, anti-spas- 
 modic, and stimulant, affording some little relief in 
 cases of deranged functions, especially wuth regard 
 to the digestion of vegetables, and they also form a 
 pleasant seasoning when used in small quantities 
 in the various culinary operations. 
 
 Red peppers are more directly stimulating, and, 
 at the same time, may be considered in some 
 instances as irritants. Where the lining membrane 
 of the bowels is in a state of relaxation, as in sum- 
 mer diarrhoea, the action of this pepper is more 
 directly astringent. This action is only produced 
 
Food Accessories, 8 s 
 
 when administered occasionally. If habitually 
 taken, cayenne pepper produces a congested condi- 
 tion of the whole alimentary canal, and, particularly, 
 engorgement of the liver. In all cases of congestive 
 dyspepsia, highly seasoned food should be avoided. 
 
 All kinds of pepper seem the most approved of 
 when taken with those articles of food which 
 demand the accompaniment of salt. But other 
 stimulants of considerable activity appear to blend 
 pleasantly with those kinds of food which contain 
 or are combined Avith sugar. These are the spices 
 known as such, and although their uses are better 
 appreciated in Eastern countries, perhaps, than at 
 home, still we all recognise the important aid, 
 culinary and gustative, which they afford when 
 delicately handled. 
 
 Unfortunately, cooks incompetent to the develop- 
 ment of the more subtle flavours of their materials 
 disguise the poverty of their resources with a super- 
 abundance of the contents of the spice box. All 
 harmony of flavour is thus destroyed, and the 
 digestive advantages which a moderate amount of 
 spice undoubtedly confers are lost in the nausea 
 which they occasion. 
 
86 Clip and Platter. 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 BEER. 
 
 WE may commence the subject of alcoholic 
 stimulants with that which in this country 
 and in the colder climates has the largest consump- 
 tion. Not being a wine-producing country, nor one 
 in which spirits are mainly depended upon, beer, or 
 the immediate product of fermented liquors, is that 
 which must be considered the staple product, best 
 suited to the tastes and requirements of the climate. 
 Beer, as we have known it in our own personal 
 experience, is a very different article from that 
 which was in vogue one or two generations ago. 
 
 As we shall have to revert to the beers of the 
 present day in the endeavour to point out to what 
 degree they are suitable generally, or more or less 
 so in particular instances, we may touch upon the 
 beers of the past to show the progress that has 
 been made, not only in the public taste, but in the 
 brewing- of beers, which have from time to time 
 followed the demands of greater intelligence on 
 the part of the consumers. So stimulated to the 
 
Beer, 87 
 
 production of more suitable beverages, that recog- 
 nition of progressive superiority which is the reward 
 of foresight in commercial enterprise has been 
 obtained. 
 
 Until the production of the pale ales, Avhich were 
 first exported to India as being more suitable on 
 account of their lightness and less alcoholicity, 
 strong beers of every kind were more easily brewed 
 and better appreciated than beer of a delicate and 
 lighter description, and until it became fashion- 
 able to believe that everything bitter was a valuable 
 tonic, few persons would have cared to indulge in 
 that excess of hop flavour which was necessary 
 to keep season-brewed beers over the summer, 
 in which the extractive matters were so much 
 reduced. 
 
 At that time, what were termed vatted ales, 
 porter, or stout, were alone to be relied on, and to 
 enable beer to stand one or two years in the vat, 
 these were first brewed to contain the maximum 
 of extract of malt, so as to leave, after fermen- 
 tation, a considerable body of saccharine matter, 
 which would sustain a slight secondary fermenta- 
 tion for an almost indefinite period. Acidity meant 
 then something much more nearly approaching 
 vinegar than that which we are accustomed to 
 complain of in the present day. In fact, what was 
 termed hardness would represent an acetous con- 
 
88 Cup afid Platter. 
 
 dition of beer quite undrinkable according to the 
 present tastes. 
 
 The only difference between that kind of beer 
 which was ready for consumption soon after being 
 brewed, and those which were termed stock ales, 
 consisted in the former somewhat resembling what 
 we now call mild ale, and the latter being brewed 
 to so much greater strength as to enable it to keep 
 without becoming absolutely sour. We are not 
 alluding to table or small beer, which washy and 
 unpalatable decoctions were scarcely more than 
 the rinsings of the mash-tub or the results of in- 
 judicious home-brews. We are rather concerned 
 to notice those beers which were of highest repute, 
 and acquired the highest prices. These may be 
 briefly divided into two classes — new beers and 
 old beers ; the one being sweet, clammy, and 
 almost repulsive from the heavy loading of sac- 
 charine and other extractive matter, only slightly 
 fermented out, and therefore prone to carry on fer- 
 mentation in the stomach, and to produce the well- 
 known train of symptoms termed heartburn, acidity, 
 flatulence, etc. 
 
 The other, almost valued by its age like port 
 wine, was not despised, if in addition to the 
 strongest possible alcoholicity it contained com- 
 pound ethers and acids sufficient to render it 
 highly intoxicating ; so that the beer-drinkers of 
 
Beer. 89 
 
 the so-called fine old ales had generally sufficient 
 respect for their potency to drink them out of very 
 small glasses, and usually in moderate quantities. 
 
 These beers were sipped rather than drunk, and 
 deep draughts or thirst-assuaging potations must 
 have been supplied from the small beers rather 
 than from those which appeared to excite their 
 greatest admiration. 
 
 It is a very singular circumstance, even at the 
 present time, to find that the intoxicating qualities 
 of different kinds of stimulants are so little under- 
 stood that they are almost invariably referred to as 
 being due to the per-centage of alcohol present. If 
 anything could show the fallacy of this rough-and- 
 ready estimate of their inebriating constituents, it 
 would be the well-known effect of a small quantity 
 of the old and strong ale. 
 
 By the common analysis which is supposed to 
 gauge the amount of alcohol, and which may be 
 quite sufficient for excise purposes, the per-centage 
 of proof spirit would not probably exceed fifteen 
 or sixteen per cent., less, in fact, than the pro- 
 portional alcohol of the purest and weakest 
 French wines. 
 
 Few persons are, we should imagine, liable to be- 
 come prostrated by a pint bottle of any of the wines 
 which are imported under the shilling duty. A pint 
 of old ale, however, which has been long enough in 
 
 C4/ f«MAH\b^ 
 
go Cup and Platter, 
 
 the cellar to develop the acids and ethers before 
 alluded to, is more than sufficient to upset the 
 equilibrium of some of the strongest of those who 
 drink beer habitually. When these facts came to 
 be recognised as being utterly incompatible with 
 the consumption of beer in hot climates, a very 
 successful attempt was made to counteract the bad 
 effect of keeping and transport by increasing the 
 amount of hops, while the amount of malt extract 
 was simultaneously lowered. Beer was by this 
 means exported to India which was more adapted 
 for its requirements ; and as its success was every- 
 where apparent, as contrasted with the stronger 
 and more alcoholic beers sent out previously, greater 
 virtues were perhaps attributed to the bitterness 
 than at any time properly belonged to its tonic 
 effects. 
 
 From India the taste for the thinner bitter ales 
 was brought back to this country, and for many 
 years bitter beers were considered a kind of 
 panacea for want of appetite, loss of digestive 
 power, and many other deranged conditions with 
 which it had no relation. A sort of false appetite 
 for bitterness was stimulated, and less attention 
 was paid to the other valuable characteristics of 
 beer than to the two fashionable requirements — 
 that of paleness and excess of hop flavour. 
 
 At this time the pale ales of Burton came pro" 
 
Beer, 9 1 
 
 minently to the fore. The pecuh'arity of the water 
 of that locality prevented the extraction of some 
 of the less desirable constituents of the malt, and 
 at the same time extracted only the finer and less 
 acrid bitters of the hop, so as to develop in the 
 beer the aroma of the hop oils rather than that of 
 the hop resin. The natural peculiarity of the 
 Burton water has had a most valuable tendency 
 towards controlling the inordinate desire for over- 
 bitterness, until by natural selection that portion 
 of the public capable of appreciating the supe- 
 riority of Burton beer began to set their faces 
 against the coarse, heavy, bitter beers which had 
 been so widely recommended and consumed. 
 
 It would be utterly impossible to enter upon the 
 viimiticB of the process of brewing, as at present 
 carried on ; suffice it to say that ales brewed with 
 soft water are almost inadmissible on account of 
 their liability to develop considerable quantities of 
 lactic, acetic, and other objectionable acids, while, 
 on the other hand, the resinous matter of the hop, 
 giving to them the coarse harsh bitter, which 
 dwells upon the tongue, cannot but be considered 
 an injurious astringent, if the beer containing it 
 is regularly partaken of. 
 
 We have not hesitated to recognise the value 
 of light ales other than those of Burton, but in all 
 cases where these have been found to come up to 
 
92 Cup and PI a tier. 
 
 fair standards of dietetic excellence, they must 
 have been brewed with good and pure water con- 
 taining or having artificially introduced the equiva- 
 lent of the salts of the Burton springs. 
 
 The essentials of good wholesome ale may be 
 briefly enumerated : a moderate strength, not ex- 
 ceeding from 9 to 12 per cent, of proof spirit, only 
 a sufficiency of extractive left in the beer to enable 
 it to retain its life, briskness, and a mellow and 
 evanescent bitterness preponderating but slightly 
 over the sweeter flavours of the malt. 
 
 It is, in fact, a happy combination of those 
 flavours which constitutes the perfection of all lighter 
 ales. What are now termed mild ales should not 
 differ very greatly from what we have described, 
 except that less hop is used. These milder beers, 
 again, with age, acquire certain delicate ethers of a 
 less pronounced character than those which were 
 formerly held in esteem. 
 
 We now come to another kind of beer, in which 
 the distinctive peculiarities are attained by the use of 
 high-dried or black malt. These have been always 
 produced in great perfection in the vicinity of 
 London, and some of the breweries chiefly devoted 
 to the brewing of stout and porter date back nearly 
 a couple of centuries. The word stout seems to 
 imply, and no doubt did convey with considerable 
 accuracy, the notion that it contained as large a 
 
Beer. 93 
 
 proportion as could conveniently be introduced into 
 it of the solid matters of the malt ; in some kinds 
 the soluble extractive amounts to more than 25 
 per cent. This would no doubt ferment, and become 
 extremely objectionable, if it were not for the anti- 
 septic influence of certain portions of the malt, 
 which has been acquired by the process of drying 
 at a very high temperature. 
 
 But if properly prepared, extracts of malt for 
 black or brown beers should be less liable to after- 
 fermentation than that used for the stronger ales. 
 With these, again, the keeping qualities of the hop 
 are not so essential as when pale malt is used. If, 
 therefore, brewers of London porter and stout use, 
 as they do, fine hops, it is rather to improve the 
 flavour of their beer, than to overcome the efl'ects 
 of any probable decomposition. For some time 
 past somewhat thinner stout has been preferred, 
 and with good reason ; and so a beer somewhat 
 between porter and stout has been put forward as 
 being suitable for general requirements. 
 
 Why it should be necessary to designate light 
 stout ^' cooper," we cannot say ; but this designa- 
 tion seems to convey some particular blend of the 
 two best qualities of porter and stout, and it is un- 
 doubtedly superior, when brewed directly to the 
 desired strength, than when stout and porter are 
 mixed together in the rough-and-ready manner in 
 
94 Cup and Platter. 
 
 which this compound beverage was originally pre- 
 pared, namely, by drawing the two constituents 
 from the separate barrels as received from the 
 breweries; and is to be preferred, where quick 
 draught can be assured, to similar beer which has 
 been bottled. 
 
 But the difficulty which always exists in small 
 families drawing their own beer is, first of all, a loss 
 of the carbonic acid which constitutes the so-called 
 briskness or life in the beer, and the disposition 
 which accompanies this loss of carbonic acid gas, 
 and the introduction of air into the barrel, namely, 
 the commencement of acetous fermentation, which 
 in time changes the beer into vinegar. Then, again, 
 the stirring up of the sediment of the beer, by the 
 beer engines of the publicans, necessitates the use 
 of finings to throw down and precipitate these 
 matters in such a form as they will not easily 
 cloud the beer. For this purpose, gelatine dissolved 
 in sour beer or crude acetic acid is very commonly 
 used, and cannot be considered otherwise than 
 detrimental to the beer. 
 
 The difficulty, also, of getting beer into good 
 condition in cellars where the temperature cannot 
 be properly regulated, renders beer kept under 
 these disadvantages flat, cloudy, and altogether 
 unsatisfactory. For these reasons a considerable 
 quantity of beer is bottled, even for a rapid con- 
 
Beer. 95 
 
 sumption, and there is a decided advantage to 
 many persons in being able to keep a beer imme- 
 diately available, which it would not be if it had 
 to be stored in barrels which can only be kept in 
 proper cellars. 
 
 Here, however, we enter upon that which consti- 
 tutes a large trade in itself, and is one that requires 
 more knowledge and care than is usually supposed. 
 An objection to bottled beer has been more or less 
 prevalent, in consequence, first of all, of the large 
 amount of carbonic acid gas which is generated 
 after bottling, and of the presence, also, to a greater 
 or less degree, of other acids, chiefly acetic, which 
 are likely to be produced in bottled beers during 
 the process of flattening which all beer has to 
 undergo before bottling. 
 
 Generally, beer bottling cannot be considered 
 to be sufficiently Vv'ell understood, or carried out 
 with the requisite care, to prevent very unequal 
 results. There are, however, some firms who 
 devote themselves especially to this branch of 
 industry, and undeviating attention, scrupulous 
 cleanliness, and great discrimination in the beers 
 they purchase, enable them to send out bottled 
 beers of almost invariable excellence. We have 
 been much surprised to find that in certain hands 
 the science of beer bottling has been brought 
 to such a point of perfection, that almost every 
 
96 Ctcp and Platter. 
 
 bottle may be relied on as sound and in proper 
 condition* 
 
 The difference between the introduction of car- 
 bonic acid gas in large quantities in soda-water, 
 and that conveyed into the digestive organs by the 
 medium of beer at high pressure, is easily marked 
 by the after effects. In the first place, distention 
 by flatus is frequently removed with great rapidity 
 by the eruptive escape of the gas almost as soon as 
 it is swallowed. When bottled beers are highly 
 charged with this gas, particularly in the case of 
 stout, the large amount of saccharine and other 
 extractives carries the carbonic acid beyond the 
 stomach into the bowels, producing that great 
 and unpleasant distention which renders these 
 bottled beers inadmissible in a large number of 
 cases. 
 
 But if this mechanical condition were the only 
 drawback, less objection might be taken to the 
 general use of bottled beer, than when a con- 
 siderable quantity of acetic and lactic acids are also 
 present, inasmuch as these betoken a continued 
 fermentative action which not only carries the 
 amount of carbonic acid then present into the 
 
 ■^ Messrs. Newman and Son furnished samples of their 
 " Dietetic Stout," which we submitted to the most trying 
 vicissitudes of temperature for nearly six months, yet proved 
 on testing to be quite sound. 
 
Beer, 97 
 
 bowels, but proceeds to generate there a vast 
 quantity more of it. 
 
 Although beer may be regarded as being our 
 national beverage, several points must be taken 
 into consideration in forming an opinion as to 
 the quantity which may be beneficially consumed 
 by people during different periods of life. The most 
 prominent of these, undoubtedly, are constitu- 
 tional temperament and general habits, especially, 
 with regard to the amount of exercise taken. In 
 childhood, unquestionably, much benefit is often 
 obtained by the use of small quantities of light and 
 sound beer; but although this is of special value in 
 the case of delicate children, where from want of 
 appetite they are indisposed to take a sufficiency 
 of their ordinary food, still it must not be argued 
 that during the earlier years of life any stimulant 
 is generally advisable. 
 
 But if in individual cases a stimulant appears 
 necessary, without doubt, in the majority of 
 instances, beer is preferable to wine. It need 
 hardly be pointed out that spirits are, in no case, 
 to be administered in lieu of beer. Beer cer- 
 tainly does introduce peculiar constituents of food 
 matter, altogether independent of the amount of 
 alcohol contained in it, and, in some instances, these 
 are of extreme value, and can hardly be so advan- 
 tageously or readily assimilated in any other form. 
 
 7 
 
Cup and Platter. 
 
 In addition to this, the gentle stimulant increases 
 both the desire for other food, and also the power of 
 digesting it. In one particular regard, the admi- 
 nistration of malt-saccharine by means of beer 
 tends directly to the solution and digestion of 
 the other starchy portions of the food. In this 
 manner it greatly assists the function of the sali- 
 vary glands, and, perhaps, that of the pancreatic 
 fluid. Too little recognition has been bestowed 
 upon the importance of this healthy fermentative 
 action. 
 
 Passing from the period of childhood to that of 
 the rapid growth of youth, where, in addition to the 
 strain put upon the system in the formation of new 
 tissue, a very large amount of exercise is usually 
 and advantageously taken, beer, if it cannot be 
 regarded accurately as food, distinctly occupies the 
 place of a most important adjuvant, stimulating 
 nervous power, and assisting assimilation, together 
 with the consequent formation of the various 
 structures of the body. 
 
 Good sound beer, in moderate quantities, may 
 be regarded as something more than the mere 
 saccharine which may be taken up. When it is 
 instinctively and generally desired, its value should 
 not be under-estimated, nor should it be withheld 
 when no distinct evidence is shown of its pro- 
 ducing any ill effects in the shape of inflammatory 
 
Beer. 99 
 
 or congestive mischief. In all instances, however, 
 strict moderation must be observed. 
 
 In adult life, persons having sedentary occupa- 
 tions can only take a small quantity of beer daily 
 with benefit. Whereas those who live much in the 
 open air, and take a large amount of exercise, are 
 able to consume comparatively large quantities of 
 this beverage with apparent impunity, although, in 
 either case, the benefit is by no means so certain 
 as when a well-regulated allowance is adhered to. 
 Whenever a large amount of rich food, together 
 with wines and spirits, are habitually taken, the 
 loaded or congested condition of the liver and 
 other organs of elimination, generally produced 
 by these habits, renders the taking of beer in 
 any quantity highly injurious, tending, as it does, 
 to the excessive formation of uric acid, the pre- 
 sence of which, in excess, constitutes the condition 
 generally known as gout. 
 
 There is no reason to suppose that the popular 
 notion of beer being productive of rheumatism and 
 gout, wlun a moderate and proper diet is adhered 
 to, is correct, unless the beer be taken in very large 
 quantities ; and, therefore, according to the most 
 enlightened opinions of the present time, there is 
 no necessity to abstain altogether from malt 
 liquors during an attack of these diseases. 
 
 In cases where there is a distinct tendency to 
 
loo Cup and Platter. 
 
 calculous deposits, beer is certainly not admissible. 
 In old age it is, also, scarcely to be recommended ; 
 the impaired powers and feeble digestion, requiring 
 stimulants, need those which are more readily 
 diffused and absorbed. There are, however, many 
 old persons of hale and hearty constitutions who 
 can take beer as easily as they can take other 
 food. 
 
Wine. I o i 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 WINE. 
 
 IN the fermentation of beer, for the production 
 of a certain amount of alcohol, it is always 
 necessary to introduce a more rapid and vigorous 
 ferment than naturally exists in malted grain, from 
 which beer is brewed. In grape juice, whether 
 pressed from unripe, ripe, or over-ripe grapes, a 
 certain amount of natural ferment is always present, 
 which is sufficient to set up that alcoholic fermenta- 
 tion which, when carried out under suitable con- 
 ditions, results in wine of different kinds, according 
 to the nature of the grape, the soil, and the climate 
 in which it is grown. 
 
 It is only within certain limits of temperature 
 that vines produce such grapes as are best adapted 
 to wine-making, or, in other w^ords, in which the 
 true vinous fermentation is naturally produced of 
 sufficient strength to counteract and prevent the 
 working of other ferments, which are invariably 
 objectionable, and sometimes fatal to the wines in 
 which they germinate in any quantities. 
 
I02 Cup a?id Platter, 
 
 If we take a line through Europe, a little north 
 of the Rhine district, extending eastward, the wine- 
 growing zone may be considered to be comprised in 
 the southern portion. From the more luscious and 
 highly saccharine wines of the south, which are 
 pressed from grapes affording the strongest vinous 
 fermentation, owing to the excess of sugar, to the 
 thinner and more delicate wines of France and 
 Germany, where the chief difficulty is to prevent 
 formation of acetic acid, from the v\^ant of sufficient 
 saccharine to enable the fermentation to proceed 
 with a rapidity which ensures soundness, every 
 description of grape is attempted to be made into 
 wine. In addition to these varieties of materials 
 for wine-making, there is a still greater distinction 
 in the different products, according to the skill of 
 the grower, the after-treatment, and the other 
 circumstances above mentioned. 
 
 To so great an extent has the classification of 
 wine proceeded, that it is utterly impossible, within 
 the space devoted to our present consideration of 
 the subject, to do more than furnish certain typical 
 illustrations of a few of the more ordinary descrip- 
 tions of wine in common use. 
 
 We must proceed south for the exemplification 
 of the strongest natural wines. Those of Portugal, 
 Spain, Italy, and Greece, varying always among 
 themselves according to the situation of the 
 
Wine, I o^ 
 
 vineyard, may be said to include that extreme of 
 alcoholic fermentation which can be naturally 
 wrought out from grape juice, without any other 
 treatment except pressing and allowing it to stand 
 at certain temperatures during its fermentation. 
 
 From a vast number of analyses of wines, well 
 ascertained to be altogether free from added spirit, 
 it may be assumed that the highest average alco- 
 holicity does not exceed 26 per cent, of proof. 
 In some rare instances we have found these limits 
 exceeded by some two or three per cent. But a 
 hard and fast line of 26 per cent, of proof spirit, 
 under which the minimum duty of one shilling is 
 charged, cannot be definitely considered as marking 
 the extremity of natural alcoholic fermentation in 
 wine ; and, therefore, if some natural wines come in 
 under the half-crown duty, by containing a small 
 amount more alcohol than that permitted, they 
 should not be stigmatised as having been necessarily 
 fortified. 
 
 If, however, we are content to agree that 22 or 
 23 per cent, of proof spirit is the general alcoholicity 
 of the strongest natural wines, we are enabled to 
 afford some estimate of the amount of fortification 
 which these wines have been subjected to when the 
 analysis shows our importations to contain a larger 
 amount. 
 
 In all cases, natural wines shipped to this country 
 
I04 Cup and Platter. 
 
 without fortification, whether coming from Spain 
 or Portugal, differ considerably from the ordinary- 
 sherries and ports of commerce, resembling rather 
 the stronger wines of France and Greece. These 
 natural wines, when made with sufficient experience 
 and care, matured under competent supervision, 
 and shipped at the proper season of the year, 
 present to the palate attractions of a very refined 
 description — the true and perfect vinous flavour, 
 the bouquet of ripe grape ethers, and the charac- 
 teristic refreshing quality which no wine can possess 
 ivhen heavily fortified. 
 
 The natural acids, sometimes toned down, neu- 
 tralised, or precipitated, by chemical treatment, 
 should be distinctively marked, but there is no 
 necessity whatever for their being associated with 
 the acetic acid produced by bad fermentation 
 which is the result of a decomposition, at once 
 injurious to the keeping qualities of the wine, and 
 to its value as a dietetic. 
 
 We may be asked at this point, why a very 
 little acetic acid or vinegar should be consi- 
 dered objectionable in wine, or injurious to the 
 stomach. In the first place, it indicates an un- 
 soundness which must tend to increase until the 
 wine becomes worthless before it can mature. In 
 the second, the acetous fermentation which it 
 betokens is of the self-producing nature, and is 
 
Wine, 
 
 105 
 
 carried on in the stomach, among the other consti- 
 tuents of food, after the wine is drunk. On the 
 other hand, a considerable constituent of tartaric 
 acid, the natural acid of the grape in the wine, can 
 be generally tolerated, and a certain amount of this 
 acid is essential to the development of every true 
 vinous flavour. 
 
 All things considered, we should prefer of the 
 stronger wines those which contain no adventitious 
 spirit, and among such, some of the Greek, Italian, 
 Spanish, and Portuguese wines are worthy to be 
 laid down in bottle ; for within a few years they 
 attain a maturity, flavour, and bouquet, which en- 
 titles them to rank among the highest class of wines. 
 
 The word maturity has here to be considered 
 as the product of a continuous but very gentle and 
 insensible fermentative change, by which the 
 natural alcohol, in the presence of extractive 
 matters and acids, develops odorous aldehydes 
 and ethers, and precipitates out the surplus 
 tannates and tartrates. In some wines are formed 
 what is termed crust, in others a small flocculent 
 sediment. But in every case where the wine is 
 originally sound, or free from acetous fermenta- 
 tion, and unbrandied, it is invariably improved by 
 keeping, and reaches its perfection in from three 
 to ten or twelve years. 
 
 This applies only to the stronger natural wines. 
 
io6 Cup and Platter, 
 
 In many instances the wine is made from good 
 grapes, yet, from peculiarities but little understood, 
 it cannot be shipped safely without the addition 
 of a small amount of alcohol, and this is more neces- 
 sary in certain wines of very hot climates, seeing 
 the temperature is that most favourable for acetous 
 fermentation. Three or four per cent, of alcohol is 
 added at different times, before it arrives in the wine 
 merchants' hands, where it is vatted or blended 
 according to the traditions of the particular firm or 
 the prevalent taste of the different markets. 
 
 This moderate addition of grape spirit of good 
 quality is not to be confounded with the heavy 
 fortification of poor, thin, and unsound wines with 
 coarse raw grain, or potato spirit, so generally 
 adopted to arrest the further formation of acetic 
 acid, and to conceal the presence of that which 
 already exists ; and it is lamentable to be obliged 
 to confess that the discrimination of, we are afraid, 
 the majority of the public is so little to be de- 
 pended upon, that they almost seem to prefer 
 those inferior and highly fortified wines to the 
 delicate and exquisite products of the natural 
 fermentation of the grape. 
 
 A great outcry has been made with regard to 
 what is termed the chemistry of sherries, and from 
 the public discussion of the subject it has become 
 apparent to us that extremely crude notions are 
 
Wine, 1 07 
 
 rife. The unscientific readers of the public journals 
 have been led to believe, on the one hand, that 
 plaster of Paris remains as such in wine so treated, 
 while those who can boast of a further insight into 
 chemistry are invited to believe that by certain 
 chemical processes wines can be " deplastered." 
 
 But as the real nature of the decomposition 
 which takes place on the addition of plaster 
 (gypsum or sulphate of lime) to wines, which must 
 naturally contain potassium tartrate, can only 
 leave sulphate of potash with a certain am.ount 
 of tartrates in solution, while it precipitates tartrate 
 of lime ; it is evident that only traces of lime can 
 remain in solution, and therefore, there can be, 
 practically, no plaster present to which objection 
 can be taken. 
 
 Others dilate on the small quantity of sulphate 
 of potash which is thus dissolved in the wine, and 
 declare that it is unwholesome in itself, and that it 
 injures the wine. We cannot believe that the very 
 minute quantity of sulphate of potash, which can 
 have but a very slight effect, can be really prejudi- 
 cial, but it certainly must, to some extent, destroy 
 the natural flavour of the wine. Unfortunately, the 
 factitious dryness and other distinctive character- 
 istics of much of the sherry sold is due to the 
 addition of other ingredients far more obnoxious 
 than sulphate of potash. 
 
Io8 Clip and Platter, 
 
 We need not enumerate the many nostrums 
 which are recommended for this purpose ; suffice it 
 to say that the natural so-called dry flavour of fine 
 wine may be considered rather the negative quality 
 of the absence of saccharine, than the positive 
 flavour of astringency and dryness imported into 
 it by the added matters. 
 
 Before proceeding to the lighter wines of France 
 and Germany, we cannot pass over the two im- 
 portant types of wine known as Port and Madeira. 
 The basis of port is the fine full-bodied red wine, 
 approaching most nearly, perhaps, to the heavy 
 wines of Bordeaux and Burgundy. It has, however, 
 a much greater astringency than the generality 
 of these, and is known in Portugal as wine that is 
 grown in the Alto Douro. Such wine is usually 
 fortified with a little grape spirit, after the pro- 
 cess of the first fermentation. 
 
 When it arrives in the hands of the Oporto 
 merchants, it is again strengthened with more 
 spirit, until, from the generally accepted desire on 
 the part of the English consumer, it contains so 
 large a proportion of alcohol, that it requires far 
 greater age in wood or in bottle than any other 
 wine which is imported into this country. Hence 
 the high price which old bottled vintage ports 
 always command. 
 
 We may remark that the finest samples of port 
 
Wine* 1 09 
 
 wine with which we are acquainted have so far lost 
 the large excess of additional alcohol, that by the 
 time they have arrived at perfection they do not 
 contain more than some seven degrees proof spirit 
 beyond that of the natural wine. 
 
 Madeira would not have claimed our attention 
 some few years back, owing to the successive failures 
 of the vines of the island ; but within the last three 
 or four years the improvement in the culture has 
 been such, that, probably, at no period in the history 
 of these vintages have finer wines been shipped to 
 this country than are now daily arriving. 
 
 This wine, as most people are aware, is one of 
 the most luscious in flavour. Its peculiar richness 
 is produced, first, by climate, and secondly, by the 
 grapes being allowed to remain on the vines for a 
 very much longer period than is usual in most 
 other countries, except, perhaps, Greece. With 
 these wines the entire per-centage of added spirit 
 amounts to about five per cent, prior to shipment, a 
 very small addition in comparison to many other 
 wines. From its greater body, it is a wine which 
 requires a long keeping to render it agreeable to 
 connoisseurs. The changes which are effected in 
 the extractives, although slowly developed, dispose 
 of considerable proportions of the sweetness, and at 
 the same time bring out the aroma and the delicate 
 qualities so much prized in wines of this class. 
 
no Cttp and Platter. 
 
 The wines of France, which we can now touch 
 upon, are those of Burgundy, Bordeaux, and Eper- 
 nay. The greater fulness and alcohohc strength 
 of the wines of Burgundy place them next in the 
 category to port and sherry. Some Burgundies 
 have maintained high repute, and sell for prices 
 which are almost prohibitory. But in these, as well 
 as in the other red wines of this district more avail- 
 able for general consumption, there is a peculiarity 
 by no means easy of description or explanation as 
 regards its stimulative properties. It is generally 
 agreed that the strong wines of Burgundy are 
 heating, to a degree, far beyond their alcoholicity. 
 
 The white wines, however, have not this effect. 
 Some of these are marvellous examples of perfec- 
 tion, but the cheaper varieties are not generally 
 made with sufficient care to enable them to bear 
 their transport, and the consequence is that an 
 enormous quantity of unsound wine of this de- 
 scription is daily finding its way into this country. 
 
 The red wines of Bordeaux, generally comprised 
 under the generic term of claret, constitute a 
 special class of themselves, descending, by infinite 
 gradations, from some of the finest wines in the 
 world down to the thin, poor, but highly astringent 
 inky vinegar so commonly retailed in the grocers' 
 shops. Vintage wines of Chateau Lafitte, Margaux, 
 Latour, and other renowned vineyards command 
 
Wine. 1 1 1 
 
 the admiration of all who can afford to purchase 
 them; but the quantities which are produced in the 
 best years from these vineyards is infinitesimally 
 small, as compared with the wines sold under such 
 denominations, and it is a matter of extreme dif- 
 ficulty to become possessed of more than a few 
 dozen, no matter how high the price paid. 
 
 Good Bordeaux wine of medium character, plea- 
 sant in taste, and wholesome in effect, could be 
 shipped to this country in sufficient abundance to 
 satisfy all ordinary demands, at prices w^iich should 
 not necessarily debar its use among the middle 
 classes. But with the present rage for excessive 
 cheapness, red wines of all kinds, from many coun- 
 tries, and in varying degrees of unsoundness, are 
 blended and treated so as to conceal their defects 
 for a time, and under the name of claret the very 
 economical section of the community try to per- 
 suade themselves that they are drinking wine, when, 
 in truth, they cannot obtain anything that deserves 
 the title for the price. 
 
 Epernay furnishes us with the most approved ex- 
 ample of the white wine which is bottled before 
 fermentation is completed, and after undergoing 
 various processes by which the carbonic acid gas is 
 retained, reaches us in the form of sparkling wine. 
 Other districts grow wine almost equal to the 
 Epernay standard, and in many years no advan- 
 
112 Clip and Platter, 
 
 tage can be said to be distinguishable between 
 the sparkling wines of Epernay and several other 
 districts. 
 
 Beyond the cultivation of a certain class of grape, 
 and its successful pressing and fermentation, the 
 manufacture of champagne depends to an extraor- 
 dinary degree upon the skill of the bottler. The 
 time and labour which is necessarily occupied during 
 the various processes of disgorgement of the sedi- 
 ment formed in bottling the wine, and the liqueuring 
 and final corking, together with the loss from the 
 bursting of bottles, inevitably raises the cost, and 
 it is absolutely impossible that wines, in reality 
 champagnes, can be sold in this country at the 
 price at which some so purporting are offered. 
 
 Sparkling wine, however, may be pleasant and 
 wholesome, and satisfy all the requirements of any 
 but the most fastidious, if a sound wine and ade- 
 quate knowledge are insisted on. There is no 
 reason, therefore, why good sparkling wine should 
 not be obtainable at moderate prices. Indeed, we 
 have had samples in which the most careful analysis 
 failed to detect the presence of any injurious 
 matters, and which must be considered as whole- 
 some, and are undoubtedly pleasant wines. We 
 are glad to observe that there is a growing taste 
 for the drier and lighter descriptions of sparkling 
 wines, in which the presence of a minimum of 
 
Wijie. 1 1 3 
 
 liqueur is not sufficient to prevent the immediate 
 detection of any inferiority of the wine. 
 
 German wines, such as are represented by those of 
 the Rhine Provinces, generally known by the name 
 of hock, are extremely light and high-flavoured 
 wines. The peculiarity of the finer qualities of 
 these consists in the wonderful development of 
 bouquet and flavour, together with a slight amount 
 of spirituous strength and extractive. 
 
 When Rhenish and other German wines are in 
 the slightest degree unsound, very little real flavour 
 and natural aroma is produced, and the ingenuity 
 of wine-growers is continually brought into play 
 to foist upon the public inferior wines which 
 have been flavoured and made up to resemble 
 others of a better character. The selection of 
 wholesome German wine necessitates considerable 
 critical acumen ; but in those years when the vin- 
 tages are good, a plentiful supply of wine of excel- 
 lent quality is obtainable at moderate prices, and 
 to many persons these light and refreshing wines 
 are pecul'arly agreeable during the summer months. 
 
 From this brief sketch of the most important 
 wines in general consumption, it will be readily 
 understood that for dietetic purposes they must be 
 divided into three distinct classes. The stronger 
 wines, such as port, sherry, madeira, and Burgundy, 
 are to be regarded as wines for occasional use, and 
 
 8 
 
114 Cup and Platter, 
 
 may therefore be rather looked upon in the h'ght 
 of Hqueurs. For ordinary daily consumption, 
 wines of lighter character and less alcoholicity, 
 such as Bordeaux, hock, and the less alcoholic 
 wines of Spain, are to be preferred. 
 
 The fallacy of drinking those containing nearly 
 40 per cent, of proof spirit is evident when we 
 consider that the highest amount of alcohol which 
 can be formed in wine only amounts to some 26 or 
 28 per cent. Ardent spirits are not usually taken 
 without dilution with water to a much greater ex- 
 tent, and in an ordinary glass of whisky or brandy 
 and water there is not more than 1 5 per cent, of 
 proof spirit. 
 
 Many people have been for years in the habit 
 of drinking sherry and port containing the per-cent- 
 age of alcohol above mentioned, who would have 
 strongly objected to drink spirit and water, from 
 the mistaken idea that they were taking in the 
 wine a weaker fluid than the spirit and water would 
 have been. 
 
 The great value of the sparkling wines, apart 
 from their pleasant and exhilarating qualities, 
 chiefly consists in the small per-centage of alcohol 
 which these wines contain, but, from the presence 
 of the carbonic acid with which the wine is charged, 
 the spirit is rendered much more speedily difi"us- 
 ible, so as to produce a greater stimulating effect 
 
Wim 
 
 II 
 
 than the taking of far larger quantities of any 
 alcoholic fluid would be without the presence of 
 this gas. It is for this reason, coupled with the 
 ease with which it is retained in the stomach in 
 many diseases in which sickness forms a prominent 
 feature/that its value is now so generally recognised 
 by physicians in their treatment. 
 
 In selecting wines for consumption with meals, 
 it may be broadly taken that white wines are more 
 easily digestible by most persons than the red. The 
 presence of an excess of tannin produces an as- 
 tringent action which has a tendency to impede 
 digestion of other food in the stomach ; but from the 
 same cause the red wines generally considered 
 suitable for dessert are in fact so, the earlier stages 
 of digestion being then completed. It must not, 
 however, be supposed that all white wines are 
 suitable for dinner wines, those which contain the 
 smallest amount of saccharine matters being better 
 adapted for this purpose than wines of a sweeter 
 character. This is the reason why many people 
 are unable to drink certain champagnes with their 
 dinners, on account of the heavy liqueuring which 
 these wines frequently undergo. 
 
 At no period, so much as at present, has it been 
 necessary to exercise caution in the selection of 
 wines for dietetic purposes, and although, perhaps, 
 there never was so much good wine to be pur- 
 
Cup and Platter, 
 
 chased at so low a price, yet, certainly, there never 
 was so large an amount of worthless, sophisticated, 
 and unwholesome trash absolutely glutting the 
 market. 
 
 If the difference between a high-class wine, the 
 excellence of which has been at all times recognised, 
 and the vile imitations with which it has been 
 attempted to simulate these, can be always traced 
 by their immediate effects; so in a much wider 
 ratio we can perceive tke cumulative effect upon 
 health induced by the consumption of unsound 
 wine, as compared with the benefit derivable from 
 wines of wholesome character even at the same 
 price. "^ 
 
 ^ Characteristic samples of the different wines were fur- 
 nished for analysis by Messrs. Burn and Turner, the Pure 
 Wine Company, Messrs. Rutherford and Co., IMessrs. 
 J. L. Denman and Co., Messrs. Stapleton and Co., and 
 others. 
 
spirits, 1 1 7 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 SPIRITS. 
 
 DISTILLED spirits occupy a very different 
 place in the dietetic scale from that of fer- 
 mented beverages. Beer, as we have seen, is 
 produced by the addition of a special ferment, 
 which has nothing whatever to do with the natural 
 fermentation which would occur in the aqueous 
 extract of malt. Wine, on the other hand, requires 
 no added ferment beyond that which it naturally 
 contains to produce a certain amount of alcoholic 
 strength, which will conduce to its own preser- 
 vation, and to the development of those finer 
 flavours common to all sound fermented bever- 
 ages which have been kept until they are fully 
 matured. 
 
 Spirits are those portions of any fermented sac- 
 charine fluid selected, which, being volatile, are 
 carried over by the steam and afterwards con- 
 densed, and form what is called the distillate. It is 
 altogether a mistake to imagine that the ordinary 
 
1 1 8 Cup mid Platter. 
 
 spirits of commerce are represented by their equi- 
 valent of pure alcohol. We are much astonished to 
 find in the ordinary analysis of beer, wine, brandy, 
 whisky, gin, and rum, and indeed of any other 
 spirits subjected to the usual examination, that it 
 is considered sufficient to state that they contain 
 a certain amount of alcohol in proportion to the 
 water, and to give the amount of the solid ingre- 
 dients, either in solution or suspension. 
 
 Such an analysis conveys an incorrect notion of 
 the true constituents, for we have to take into 
 account the number of other fluids, the influence 
 of which must inevitably modify, to a greater or 
 less degree, all the effects producible, either by 
 fermented beverages or spirituous liquids in which 
 they are contained. 
 
 We have to notice, particularly, the aldehydes, 
 which distil at very low temperatures, not exceeding 
 '^']° Fahrenheit ; the ethers, which, together with 
 tlie aldehydes, contain all the finer and more 
 volatile flavours, as well as the more subtle of 
 the aromas peculiar to the products of fermen- 
 tation ; and the whole range of entirely volatile 
 substances which accompany both these compounds, 
 the boiling point of which does not exceed ioo° 
 Fahrenheit. With very little of the ordinary 
 effects of alcohol, all these are so extremely dif- 
 fusible, that the stimulus they create of themselves 
 
spirits. 119 
 
 cannot be measured by any comparison with that 
 of pure alcohol. 
 
 We are tolerably well acquainted with the action 
 of some of these ethers. Restorative medicine 
 would lose some of its most important agents, if 
 the ethers were expunged from the pharmacopeia. 
 Yet these are almost universally estimated in con- 
 junction with the true alcohol in spirits (ethyl 
 alcohol) ; not only so, but with those other alcohols 
 of a much higher boiling point, which contain 
 certain odoriferous principles in close association 
 with other poisonous matters, and which in a con- 
 glomerate form are denominated fusel oil (amylic 
 alcohols). 
 
 All this may appear complicated, but it is, un- 
 fortunately, the nature of the distillates which we 
 recognise as ordinary spirits of commerce. Unless 
 we understand the different constituents which are 
 to be found in these compounds, we might as well 
 revert to the old standard test for the value of 
 spirituous liquors, by the hydrometer, which merely 
 gives the specific gravity of any number of com- 
 pounds that may be present, or perhaps we should 
 have to remain satisfied with the still more valu- 
 able experience {}) which is afforded of the purity 
 and suitability of these liquors by the effects the 
 next morning after partaking of them. 
 
 We have assigned to the aldehydes and ethers a 
 
I20 Cup and Platter. 
 
 special diffusibility as well as delicacy of flavour 
 and scent which is peculiar to them. We have 
 not hesitated to class the generality of these among 
 the remedies which are to be most highly es- 
 teemed among stimulants. Their medicinal use by 
 themselves, however, must be regulated by the most 
 competent advice. Here, we have to regard them 
 in their relative position in connection with alcohol. 
 
 The ordinary distillates from fermented liquors 
 contain only a moderate amount of the lighter 
 ethereal products, until the spirit has been kept 
 for some time, or has been subjected to a very 
 special process of distillation. In either case, the 
 proportion of volatile matters boiling at lower 
 temperatures is found to be greatly increased, and 
 this process is attended by the production of a 
 distinctive perfume, and flavour. 
 
 It is not necessary to enter upon the minutiae 
 of this most complex subject, nor to attempt to 
 define to what extent some of these may be due 
 to the heavier aromatic constituents. We must, 
 however, draw attention to the fact that pure 
 alcohol contains very little, if any, of these. In- 
 deed, in proportion to its purity, there is a corre- 
 sponding loss of scent and taste, and excepting 
 the sensation of heat, which it occasions on the 
 palate, pure alcohol has no distinctive amount 
 of either of these peculiarities. Pure alcohol boils 
 
spirits. 1 2 1 
 
 at a temperature of 173°, and can only be obtained 
 by distillation after mixing with half its weight of 
 fresh quicklime. Absolute alcohol, such as is 
 thereby attained, has a specific gravity of '973, 
 and may be regarded as ether and a certain per- 
 centage of water, which cannot be removed without 
 decomposing the alcohol. 
 
 Proof spirit consists, as nearly as may be, of 
 equal parts of absolute alcohol and water ; and in 
 consequence of proof spirit being taken as the 
 standard of alcoholic strength in all fluids by the 
 Excise, great discrepancies may be observed in the 
 manner of reporting the analysis of various fer- 
 mented and spirituous liquors. Some chemists 
 adhere to the per~centage of absolute alcohol 
 which they contain, others adopt the proof 
 spirit ; while in many of the tables constructed a 
 few years back, and which we are sorry to find 
 copied into most of the later works upon the 
 subject ; alcoholic strengths of various beverages 
 have been estimated by the highest standard of the 
 then pharmacopeia, which had a specific gravity of 
 •825, and contained about ten per cent, of water. 
 Brand's tables were all reckoned according to this 
 latter standard, and others have used the alcoholic 
 tables of Drinkwater, Ure, Fownes, and Tralles. 
 Those of the Excise Department are not in accord- 
 ance with any except Ure's, and are in themselves 
 
122 Clip and Platter. 
 
 by no means accurate. Many of the divergencies 
 may be accounted for by the use of these different 
 tables, but quite as many must be undoubtedly due 
 to the attempt at estimation by mere specific gra- 
 vity of the various alcohols and ethers which come 
 over in the distillate together, but which, in reality, 
 if fractionated, are found to possess different specific 
 gravities and different boiling points. 
 
 Before entering upon the characteristics of the 
 various spirits in ordinary use, it may be well to 
 describe as shortly as possible the general process 
 of distillation. Any fermented liquor being taken 
 and heated in a close vessel or still, the lighter por- 
 tions of the volatile matters are first converted into 
 vapour. If a pipe or head connect the still with 
 the worm or other condensing apparatus, sur- 
 rounded with a cool medium such as water or ice, 
 these vapours will be again condensed and sepa- 
 rated from those fluids which have not yet attained 
 their boiling points. Although they are roughly 
 separated, they carry over a certain portion of the 
 vapours of the alcohols left in the still, which would 
 not otherwise be enabled to rise over the head. 
 They are, therefore, always mixed with a consider- 
 able quantity of vapours of alcohol, and water, and 
 other liquids of higher boiling points. 
 
 As the heat increases, the alcohol is itself vapor- 
 ised, and, as it expands so as to fill the condensing 
 
spirits. 123 
 
 tube, is ccoled to such a degree that it again becomes 
 liquid. With this, as in the former instance, a con- 
 siderable quantity of water is carried over, and the 
 evolution of spirit of varying alcoholicity is not 
 completed until the temperature of 212° has been 
 reached. 
 
 According to the amount of spirit in the original 
 fermented liquor, the distillate will be weaker or 
 stronger, but it requires to be redistilled or rectified 
 before it will attain the strength desired, and with- 
 out which it is impossible to get rid of the large 
 amount of fusel oil and other noxious products 
 which the first distillation of fermented liquors 
 almost invariably contains. 
 
 We need not describe the ingenious methods by 
 which continuous distillation and rectification can 
 be achieved, nor will time or space permit an 
 adequate exemplification of the marvellous advan- 
 tage to be obtained from a thorough, efiective, and 
 scientific rectification. But we shall have to allude 
 to this point more particularly in connection with 
 whisky. It is enough to say that the small still 
 system can only produce drinkable spirits at one 
 operation, when the foreshot or first portion which 
 comes over is removed, and when of the remainder 
 only a certain portion is taken for drinking pur- 
 poses ; that which is left is termed feints, from the 
 unpleasant character of its smell and taste. 
 
Cup and Platter 
 
 In the ordinary way, spirit is distilled in Great 
 Britain from grain and malt, the commoner quali- 
 ties having their mash consisting mainly of raw 
 grain, with just sufficient malt introduced to gra- 
 dually convert the rest. In the economy of malt, 
 the conversion of the raw grain is insufficiently 
 carried out, and in distilling the extract in solu- 
 tion an amount of amylic alcohol (fusel oil) is con- 
 temporaneously evolved with the true and purer 
 spirit. 
 
 In Scotland, many distilleries use malt only, or 
 malt with so moderate a proportion of grain that 
 no more fusel oil is carried over than must neces- 
 sarily occur in all raw distillations. It is then the 
 work of the rectifier, who may in some instances be 
 also the distiller, to remove as much as he can of 
 these deleterious matters, without sacrificing the 
 higher flavours which convey the distinctive pecu- 
 liarities of whisky. 
 
 Some persons have imagined that whisky is com- 
 posed of spirit, into which other flavouring matters 
 have been imported, and we are afraid that a large 
 amount of the cheaper descriptions of spirits sold 
 under this denomination are so compounded. 
 Spirit the most impure and objectionable is largely 
 imported from Holland, Germany, and France, 
 also from Russia (rye spirit), which is rendered as 
 free as possible from its own nauseous peculiarities ; 
 
Spirits, 125 
 
 beet-root spirit, potato spirit, and spirit distilled 
 from rice and every description of damaged grain, 
 are imported to this country in enormous quan- 
 tities, and at prices with which our own distillers 
 cannot compete, and, therefore, offer great tempta- 
 tion to unprincipled rectifiers ; and, when we are 
 assured that such spirit is offered at prices vary- 
 ing from lod. to is. 4d. per gallon, we can easily 
 understand how such large quantities of vile and 
 deleterious spirits are compounded from these 
 noxious bases. 
 
 The rectification of these spirits demands the 
 use of large quantities of grey salts, which are com- 
 posed of caustic lime and potash. By this means 
 what is termed silent spirit is produced, bearing no 
 resemblance whatever to the pure distillate of 
 whisky spirit. No one could be found to drink 
 this silent spirit, unless he had proclivities akin 
 to those savages who luxuriate in such delicacies 
 as train oil and whale blubber. For common con- 
 sumption, therefore, the silent spirit requires fla- 
 vouring, whether it be made into whisky, gin, or 
 brandy. 
 
 But it is necessary first to follow out the produc- 
 tion of true whisky, inasmuch as this alone of all 
 spirits distilled in this country should be the most 
 direct product of the distillation of malted grain. 
 
 If, in the first place, a fine malt spirit is produced. 
 
126 Cup and Platter, 
 
 and this is rectified by continuous distillation to the 
 required strength, it must then be stored for several 
 years before it can be considered wholesome or 
 fit to drink. Some whiskies mature with much 
 greater rapidity than others, but this depends 
 mainly upon the amount of fusel oil which they 
 contain. In almost every instance new whiskies 
 are imbued with these dangerous constituents to a 
 degree which renders them highly injurious and 
 sometimes poisonous, and, as it is difficult to obtain 
 any guarantee that all the different whiskies which 
 are blended together in the ordinary whiskies of 
 commerce have attained a sufficient age to reduce 
 the amount of fusel oil to its minimum, the public 
 will do well to assure themselves that they are not 
 purchasing blends of whisky which contain vary- 
 ing proportions of unmatured spirit. 
 
 From a large number of samples of whisky which 
 we have examined during the past year, we con- 
 clude that there are not many brands of aged 
 whisky which can be depended upon in this par- 
 ticular, and we have therefore been gratified in 
 having proved to our own satisfaction that a novel 
 process of distillation* which has been adopted in 
 Scotland does eliminate to a most perfect degree 
 the fusel oil, which would otherwise be only got 
 rid of by the lapse of years. 
 
 * Bernard's. 
 
spirits, 1 2 7 
 
 Gin is invariably compounded from silent spirit, 
 or the portion of spirit which remains after the finer 
 whisky spirit has been drawn off. This is treated 
 in the same manner as the foreign spirits before 
 mentioned ; and at this after-rectification, are 
 added the various flavourings of the different gin 
 spinners. 
 
 The best gin is flavoured with juniper berries, 
 angelica root, coriander seeds, and a few other 
 matters which give it a characteristic flavour. 
 Other compounders use turpentine, capsicum, and 
 ingredients, which convey the notion of far greater 
 strength, after dilution, than would be given by the 
 amount of alcohol which the gin contains. 
 
 But, in any case, gin must be regarded as a 
 flavoured and medicated spirit, which, although to 
 a certain extent admissible in some instances, 
 when largely diluted with Avater, still, from the cir- 
 cumstance that it is usually taken without any 
 further dilution than that to which it is submitted 
 at the hands of the retailer, is probably more in- 
 jurious 'n its effects upon the body than any other 
 spirit. 
 
 Brandyshouldbe the puredistillateofwine,but we 
 fear that very little brandy of that character comes 
 into this country. We are aware that large quanti- 
 ties of damaged wine are distilled, but the great use 
 of the spirit so obtained is that of fortifying other 
 
128 Cup and Platter, 
 
 wines. In the brandy districts it is true that grapes 
 are pressed, and the wine so made is distilled. But 
 with the great majority of instances the merks or 
 marks, which are technical terms for the residue of 
 the wine-pressing, are fermented and distilled, fur- 
 nishing no inconsiderable proportion of the brandy 
 which we import. 
 
 In addition to the spirit so obtained, an enormous 
 quantity of grain spirit is turned into brandy by 
 flavouring with the so-called oil of cognac and other 
 essences which give it that which is now generally 
 held to be the true brandy flavour ; and when we 
 find that the very characteristic which may be re- 
 garded as of medicinal value, namely, its astrin- 
 gency, and which, together with its colour, can only 
 be acquired from the oaken casks in which it is 
 stored, or from certain added matters, it must be 
 seen that brandy owes most of its peculiarities to 
 adventitious aids. 
 
 It is on this account that ordinary brandy spirit 
 produces a train of symptoms so clearly marked in 
 persons who drink it habitually. A pure brandy, 
 distilled alone from a good white wine, should 
 possess neither colour nor astringency, and we may 
 remark that no pure spirit as it comes from the still 
 either contains or will develop any colour what- 
 ever, unless it is brought into contact with colouring 
 matters which it can absorb. 
 
spirits. i2g 
 
 Rum is distilled from sugar, and as the generality 
 of it is made from molasses, a large quantity of 
 peculiar ethers and alcohols are carried over into 
 the distillate, which are seldom found in any 
 other kind of spirit. One of these is butyl 
 alcohol, which, as it becomes oxidised, produces 
 certain volatile flavours, identical with those 
 evolved during the decomposition of butter and 
 cheese. 
 
 To the presence of these compounds must be 
 attributed that condition of so-called biliousness 
 following the drinking of rum which has not 
 been kept for a sufficient length of time. When 
 rum has been stored for very many years, butyric 
 ether is formed, which gives to it the true pineapple 
 flavour. This is, unfortunately, however, but too 
 easily simulated, and, therefore, aftbrds no criterion 
 of that thoroughly matured spirit we can consider 
 wholesome. 
 
 Having now described the principal varieties of 
 fermented and distilled alcoholic beverages gene- 
 rally consumed, it is, perhaps, of even greater impor- 
 tance to describe their effects, both as stimulants 
 and dietetics. In the perennial discussion of this 
 subject, which has lately acquired a greater interest 
 than ever, the general view taken is supposed to 
 relate to one particular alcohol. The innumerable 
 modifications produced by its combination with 
 
 9 
 
130 Cup and Platter, 
 
 many kinds of extractives, its presence in varying 
 proportions as affecting its immediate influence, and 
 the train of consequences following the systematic 
 use of any of them, appear to have been altogether 
 overlooked. 
 
 Of the eleven alcohols, each having a definite 
 and different elementary composition, only five, or 
 at the outside six, have any immediate connection 
 with the alcoholic stimulants of common use. 
 What is usually understood by alcohol is that which 
 is denominated ethylic, and is best understood 
 under the term pure spirits of wine ; but as an 
 adulterant, methylic alcohol (wood spirit) has some- 
 times been attempted to be mixed in with the 
 commoner spirits of commerce, after a sufficient 
 rectification to remove the greater part of its dis- 
 tinctive odour and flavour ; a much lower duty being 
 charged on the manufacture of wood spirit than 
 that of spirits of wine for consumption. 
 
 For this purpose, that which is called methylated 
 spirits is mixed to contain ten per cent, of the 
 former, for the purpose of dissolving certain gums 
 in the manufacture of varnish. In the attempt to 
 evade the duty which would be levied upon drink- 
 able spirit, this methylated spirit is subjected to 
 different processes of rectification, with the idea of 
 removing the methyl alcohol. But as the entire 
 removal of this methyl alcohol would be attainedj 
 
spirits, 131 
 
 with so great an expense, that it would be rendered 
 unprofitable, it is usually only partially performed, 
 the result being a spirit containing an appreciable 
 quantity of this most objectionable contamination. 
 
 This is a comparatively rare form of adulteration, 
 but certain samples have been submitted for ex- 
 amination which contain a sufficient quantity of 
 crude wood spirit to render them injurious, although 
 by ingenious means the obnoxious flavour and smell 
 inherent to commercial methylated spirit have been 
 almost entirely covered, if not removed. 
 
 The next alcohol is propylic, which is naturally 
 present to a small extent in the distillates of the 
 mark brandies of the South of France ; it pro- 
 duces a slight acidity in its oxidation by age, and 
 however much we may deprecate the use of spirits 
 containing this alcohol, a slight flavouring of it is 
 not always objected to by drinkers of coarse spirits. 
 
 Butylic alcohol has been already mentioned 
 as a constituent of rum, and some wines develop 
 flavours not altogether dissimilar to those of rum, 
 when long keeping ha.3 oxidised certain portions of 
 their compounds. 
 
 Amyhc alcohol, of which fusel oil is mainly 
 composed, furnishes considerations of much greater 
 importance than any of the foregoing in their 
 relation to the spirits of commerce. It has 
 been regarded, but without any foundation, as an 
 
132 Cup and Platter. 
 
 adulterant ; that is to say, as something which 
 has been added for flavouring or for fraudulently 
 increasing the bulk of British spirits ; it is, how- 
 ever, a constant product of almost every kind of 
 distillation. 
 
 The spirit of pure fermented sugar is free from 
 any amylic alcohol. The next purest source of 
 alcoholic fermentation is that of pure grape juice 
 which is fully fermented out. Almost equal to 
 this, is the alcohol developed by the fermentation 
 of perfectly malted barley, such as exists in the 
 best samples of beer and whisky. Whenever the 
 fermentation of raw grain is carried out with the 
 assistance of only a small quantity of malted grain, 
 a considerable quantity of amylic alcohol is formed 
 from the decomposition of the starch which has not 
 been changed into sugar, and from this circumstance 
 the name amylic alcohol has been derived from the 
 word amylum, starch. 
 
 The vilest description of amylic alcohol, which 
 carries with it the most disgusting volatile matters 
 accompanying fusel oil, is found when damaged 
 grain, rice, potatoes, or beetroot form the distiller's 
 mash ; and incredible quantities of crude spirit con- 
 taining these abominations are shipped to different 
 ports of this country for rectification, and are here 
 blended with all kinds of wines, and mixed with 
 other spirits and flavourings. 
 
spirits, 133 
 
 There are certain combinations of the higher 
 alcohols which accompany the distillates of all 
 mashes made from coarse damaged vegetable 
 substance ; but these are, perhaps, more prevalent 
 in the distillation of the commoner brandies of the 
 wine-producing countries than in that of raw grain. 
 The crudity of these common brandies is due to 
 the carelessness of preparation, and hence the 
 deleterious properties justly attributed to them. 
 
 Premising that a distinctive action must be oc- 
 casioned by each of the several alcohols enumerated 
 above, and that these vary also according to the pro- 
 portion present, the immediate effects of beverages 
 containing ethylic or common alcohol must now 
 be pointed out. In doing so, it is necessary to 
 mention two distinct classes of effects, which in all 
 cases vary with the alcoholic strength of the fluids 
 imbibed ; first, those produced upon the mem- 
 branes v/ith which these fluids come into contact ; 
 secondly, those produced upon the nervous and 
 circulatory systems, and through them upon those 
 tissues in which the more minute vessels are dis- 
 tributed. 
 
 The specific action of alcohol on the membranes 
 depends upon its strength. In its concentrated 
 form it acts as an astringent, by causing contraction 
 of fibre through the abstraction of water from it. 
 This is proved in the laboratory by the preservative 
 
134 Cup and Platter. 
 
 action that it exercises in not permitting a sufficient 
 quantity to exist in the muscular or other tissues to 
 enable them to putrefy. 
 
 As soon as the alcohol becomes diluted with 
 water beyond a certain point, this preservative 
 action is lost, and its power of causing contraction 
 in living membrane is also reduced by the amount 
 of its dilution. So that, in considering what are 
 termed the effects of alcohol, it is of the utmost 
 importance that the actual alcoholic strength of 
 the beverage spoken of should be known. As the 
 tendency of alcohol, even moderately diluted, is to 
 become still more so, the effect upon living mem- 
 brane must be always less and less astringent, and 
 the sensation of heat upon the tongue and palate, 
 felt in drinking strong alcoholic beverages, is un- 
 doubtedly due to astringency. 
 
 The phenomena next in sequence are the effects 
 of alcoholic fluids upon the secretions of the stomach 
 and bowels. The active principles of those impor- 
 tant solvents of food, termed the gastric, pancreatic, 
 and salivary juices, are always precipitated and 
 rendered inert whenever alcoholic fluids are taken 
 beyond a certain strength ; but it must be remem- 
 bered that when these alcoholic fluids reach the 
 stomach in very small quantities, the alcohol is 
 generally absorbed with great rapidity, and in many 
 nstances the increased flow of gastric juice and 
 
spirits. 135 
 
 other fluids, caused through the agency of the 
 stimulus applied to the nervous system by its 
 absorption, more than compensates for the tem- 
 porary arrest of the digestive power of these juices. 
 
 The effects of the constant taking of strong 
 alcoholic fluids upon the liver must also be re- 
 cognised. It is unnecessary to describe at length 
 the complex structure of this organ ; but from its 
 close vascular connection with the stomach, it will 
 be readily understood that a large quantity of the 
 alcohol taken into it finds its way directly through 
 the circulation into the liver. When this habitually 
 occurs, the first effect noticeable is a condition of 
 congestion, which interferes with the activity of 
 the biliary excretions and the elimination of bilious 
 matters from the blood ; this is followed by an 
 inflammatory condition resulting in interstitial 
 deposit and the enlargement which necessarily 
 accompanies this condition, which is afterwards 
 changed into one of contraction caused by the 
 reabsorption of this deposited matter. 
 
 In this stage of disease, that which is generally 
 known by the name of obstruction occurs. The 
 healthy circulation of the blood through the liver 
 is retarded to an extent which seriously interferes 
 with the action of the heart; and the kidneys 
 having to eliminate a certain portion of the bile, 
 which under healthy conditions is never present in 
 
136 Cup and Platter » 
 
 their secretion, frequently become themselves dis- 
 eased. Thus, various forms of dropsy, from their 
 more prominent symptoms termed hepatic, car- 
 diac, or renal, manifest themselves. 
 
 Passing on to the effects of alcohol upon the 
 nervous and circulatory systems, undoubtedly the 
 first action is that which is generally understood 
 by the word "stimulation ;" and if this condition 
 be not prolonged or too frequently repeated, it 
 may be looked upon as beneficial ; but where 
 alcoholic beverages are taken in large quantities 
 or too frequently, the condition of depression fol- 
 lowing this exhilaration is such as to render a 
 further supply of these beverages a too welcome 
 alleviation. Under these circumstances, a certain 
 per-centage of alcohol is maintained in the circula- 
 tion, which produces a well-marked train of effects 
 upon all the tissues of the body. 
 
 Among these, the febrile conditions are greatly 
 aggravated by the amy lie and other alcohols which 
 may be present, and which can only be regarded 
 as deleterious impurities. The action of fusel oil 
 upon the brain, apart from the injurious effects on 
 the stomach which it produces, is so irritating as 
 to cause symptoms closely allied to the delirium 
 of fever. 
 
 On this account we cannot lay too great stress 
 upon the necessity of abstaining from any spirits 
 
spirits. 
 
 which contain it. It may be generally accepted 
 that the per-centage of proof spirit, whether con- 
 tained in wine or taken as spirits and water, should 
 never exceed 30 per cent. 
 
 In dealing with modifications of alcoholic beve- 
 rages, which arise from their combination with 
 extractive matters, we have endeavoured to explain 
 that the presence of a moderate amount of saccha- 
 rine is of less moment when the spirituous strength 
 is low, such, for instance, as is to be found in 
 beer or certain descriptions of wine ; and when we 
 consider the question of liqueurs, we find that many 
 of these are little better than highly alcoholised 
 syrups heavily flavoured. If these flavourings con- 
 sist of volatile ethers and essences, little objection 
 can be raised to them. 
 
 But in the case of the ordinary bitters of com- 
 merce, when their flavours are derived from ex- 
 tractives and alkaloids which are cumulative in 
 their effects, dissolved in strong alcohol fre- 
 quently of the worst description, a strong syrup 
 enables it to be drunk without diluting the 
 powerful bitters which cover the coarse flavour of 
 the spirit. All combine to render such com- 
 pounds unwholesome in the extreme. 
 
 A light liqueur of agreeable flavour and moderate 
 alcoholicity, in which the spirit is of the required 
 purity, would no doubt be generally accepted as 
 
138 Cup and Platter, 
 
 free from these defects. If to this be added a 
 delicate diffusible tonic and a comparatively small 
 proportion of saccharine, such a liqueur would be 
 found really beneficial as an occasional tonic stimu- 
 lant, and might be said to be superior to the 
 majority of wines which are generally taken for 
 these purposes. 
 
Tea^ Coffee, Cocoa, 139 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 TEA, COFFEE, COCOA. 
 
 OF these non-alcoholic stimulants, tea obtains 
 an importance in this country, far exceeding 
 the consumption of either of the others. This is 
 evidenced by the largeness of the ever-increasing 
 imports. The relative value of different kinds of 
 tea is still, however, but little understood. In the 
 purchase of certain descriptions, as compared with 
 others, strength of flavour is more sought for than 
 true delicacy, indeed, roughness is supposed to co- 
 exist in the same degree with its refreshing quali- 
 ties. 
 
 Too little heed has been paid to the amount of 
 extract which can be obtained from its infusion, 
 and too much value is attached to what is deemed 
 pungency, and the depth of colour which is im- 
 parted to the water. As long as tea-dealers can 
 sell a low-priced tea which has sufficient bitterness, 
 blackness, and astringency to make a strong im- 
 pression upon the palate, such tea is considered 
 cheap and particularly suited to the requirements 
 
I40 Cup and Platter, 
 
 of those who wish to get the most they can for 
 their money. 
 
 When tea of a better description is desired, 
 advantage is taken of the prompting of a more 
 educated taste to increase the nominal value to an 
 extent which precludes the general consumption of 
 the finer kinds. If we consider the composition of 
 tea, we find that the diffusible alkaloid '* thein," 
 to which its stim.ulating effects are chiefly due, 
 may exist in an inverse ratio both with price and 
 flavour. 
 
 The amount of astringency may also exceed or 
 fall short of that which would be considered most 
 desirable, while the amount of tea flavour which 
 can be obtained from a given weight of different 
 samples of tea is so little understood by even pro- 
 fessional tea-tasters, that true economy in buying 
 is often neglected in the endeavour to supply an 
 article possessing the rugged characteristics before 
 pointed out. 
 
 The adulteration of tea, to which public atten- 
 tion has been largely directed during the last few 
 years, is one on which extremely crude notions are 
 prevalent. Prosecutions have taken place when a 
 few grains of sand have been found, which really 
 constitute no palpable fraud upon the purchaser. 
 Grave objections have also been taken to the 
 facing of tea by the Chinese, which, by the way, 
 
Tea^ Cojffee^ Cocoa. 141 
 
 is only done in compliance with the desire of the 
 English retailer; and the matters, so introduced, 
 have been greatly exaggerated, both with regard 
 to the proportion they bear to the leaves, and also 
 as to the injurious influences they are supposed to 
 possess. 
 
 We are altogether averse to the entire system of 
 tea-facing and colouring, more, however, on the 
 ground that it tends to pass off an inferior tea for 
 a better article, than in consequence of any great 
 injury which is likely to be caused by it. 
 
 We have been far more concerned in the endea- 
 vour to obtain a reliable standard by which the 
 real value of different samples of tea may be esti- 
 mated, and we are happy to be able, at length, to 
 place reliance upon the recently formulated means 
 of making what is called a tea " assay." This 
 method of analysis determines the amount of 
 extract obtained by infusion, the proportion of 
 astringency, the stimulating component, and the 
 entire quantity of the mineral matters. 
 
 By this means the presence of even two or three 
 per cent, of exhausted tea leaves can be detected 
 without fail. Any addition of colouring matter, 
 or, in fact, any other adulteration, is immediately 
 revealed ; and we are convinced, that by adopting 
 a scientific examination of the constituents, in con- 
 tradistinction to the empyrical method adopted by 
 
142 Ctip and Platter, 
 
 tea-tasters, the public will be able to judge for 
 themselves whether, in satisfying their palates, they 
 are purchasing that which represents the best 
 money value ; besides which, some security is 
 afforded to the merchant in the purchase of the 
 cargoes. 
 
 Coffee also contains a corresponding alkaloid, 
 which has been termed cafein ; but the chief 
 difference between coffee and tea consists in the 
 fatty matters and in the volatile oils. As much 
 as ten or twelve per cent, of fat is present in the 
 coffee-bean. There is also a considerable amount 
 of sugar and dextrine. 
 
 It is difficult to compare the per-centage compo- 
 sition of coffee with tea, in estimating the effects 
 produced by drinking a cup of one or the other, 
 according to taste. A much greater weight of 
 coffee is generally used than that of tea in pre- 
 paring the same quantity of beverage for break- 
 fast or other meals, the greater astringency of tea 
 rendering it more economical in this respect. 
 
 Unlike tea, which is used without any further 
 treatment after it is imported, the quality of coffee 
 depends, to a great extent, upon the care which is 
 exercised in the roasting. Not only so, it must be 
 freshly roasted and ground fine, the degree of 
 fineness of the grinding having much to do with 
 the amount of extract obtainable by percolation. 
 
Tea^ Coffee, Cocoa, 143 
 
 It is altogether beyond our present scope to 
 consider the different varieties of coffee, from the 
 veritable Mocha to the lowest colonial. In France, 
 the selection of beans has far more to do with the 
 excellence of the beverage than its domestic pre- 
 paration. In that country all the beans are most 
 carefully hand-picked, to exclude with the utmost 
 rigour any that are defective or damaged. 
 
 The presence of a very few mouldy beans, or 
 those which have become decomposed, is sufficient 
 to injure a large quantity of the very finest sample ; 
 and if a proper system of percolation is adopted, 
 by which the infusion first obtained is returned and 
 strained through the partially exhausted ground 
 coffee (of which an adequate quantity must not be 
 stinted), as good a cup of coffee can be prepared in 
 this country, from properly selected beans, fresh 
 roasted and ground, as any that has ever delighted 
 the epicure of Paris-. 
 
 Little advance has been made in the improve- 
 ment of the quality of coffee generally sold, but 
 in the article of cocoa most noteworthy progress 
 can be recorded, not, perhaps, so much in the 
 amount of the importation of this article, as in its 
 mechanical preparation. 
 
 Combining, as it does, an alkaloid with a consi- 
 derable amount of nitrogenous matter, together 
 with starch and gum, cocoa contains so large an 
 
144 Citp mid Platter. 
 
 amount of fatty matter, that its mere infusion is 
 incapable of extracting those properties which 
 would enable it to compete with tea or coffee. 
 
 By bruising the cocoa nib, and simmering it for 
 many hours, a certain amount of flavour is obtained, 
 and this partakes, to some extent, of the refreshing 
 character of tea ; still, however, this is so extra- 
 vagant a method of obtaining, at best, a poor result, 
 that it has been found necessary to grind the nib 
 after roasting, and drink it rather as a mixture than 
 an infusion. The first attempts that were made in 
 this direction partially failed, in consequence of the 
 difficulty of taking up the large amount of fat, equal 
 to nearly half of its bulk. 
 
 The ingenuity of the dealers was next exem- 
 plified by their causing it to assume the form of 
 an emulsion, by adding considerable quantities of 
 starch or farina. When boiling water is poured 
 upon the ""ground cocoa mixed with any kind of 
 starch, the thickening so well known to every laun- 
 dress takes place, the particles of cocoa fat included 
 are held in suspension by the coagulum formed by 
 starch, and a mixture of greater or less consistency 
 is obtained, according to the quantity used. 
 
 Unfortunately, such preparations of cocoa resem- 
 ble too closely the composition of melted butter. 
 There can be no doubt that the opportunity afforded 
 to manufacturersof lowering the priceof cocoa, which 
 
Tea^ Coffee^ Cocoa. 145 
 
 realizes more than a shilling per pound wholesale, 
 by the addition of farina at 2?;d., has tended to dis- 
 gust that portion of the community who object to 
 mixtures, such as these, in lieu of the fragrant, 
 refreshing qualities of true cocoa. 
 
 Within a short period, several manufacturers have 
 overcome this difficulty by removing a large portion 
 of the superfluous fat ; they are thus able to grind 
 cocoa to the highest degree of fineness, so that, in 
 fact, it can be mixed with boiling water without 
 the necessity of any extraneous matter to hold it 
 in suspension. 
 
 This removal of the excess fat also renders the 
 cocoa extremely easy of digestion ; and when so 
 prepared, it can be recommended as affording one 
 of the best descriptions of nutritive beverages 
 adapted to the requirements of the most delicate 
 stomachs. 
 
 Of those who could not tolerate the thick greasy 
 mixtures which have been so persistently puffed 
 under the name of homoeopathic cocoas and other 
 catching titles, few are found to object to those 
 more scientifically prepared cocoas which have been 
 just described ; and as the question of pure versus 
 adulterated cocoas was discussed with no little 
 acrimony a short time back, we are enabled to 
 speak positively to the perfect purity and highly 
 desirable qualities of some of the many sample 
 
 10 
 
146 Cup and Platter, 
 
 which have been recently submitted to the most 
 searching investigation.* 
 
 Tea and coffee contain but a low per-centage of 
 ingredients capable of assimilation, or conversion 
 into bodily tissue; they may, therefore, rank chiefly 
 as stimulants in the effects they produce upon the 
 nervous system; and, as with alcoholic fluids, so 
 in the case of these non-alcoholic stimulants, due 
 moderation must be observed, or the effects of 
 over-indulgence will be evidenced by a condition 
 of nervous irritability and consequent depression 
 similar to that which follows the excessive use of 
 alcohol. 
 
 Cocoa, when deprived of superabundant fat, re- 
 tains much of the stimulating effects attributed 
 both to coffee and tea. It has, however, in addition 
 the nutritive value of the nitrogenous matter which 
 it possesses to a far greater extent than either tea 
 or coffee. On this ground it has a real food value ; 
 and when the question of dietetic economy has to 
 be considered, it must be acknowledged that cocoa 
 has a higher value than either of them. 
 
 * Cadbiir^^'s Cocoa Essence and Schweitzer's Cocoatina 
 are prominent examples of the success attending the sale of 
 scientifically prepared pure cocoas, even from a time prior to 
 the Adulteration of Foods Act. 
 
Kitchen Illustrations and Cookery. 147 
 
 CHAPTER XI. 
 
 KITCHEN ILLUSTRATIONS AND COOKERY, 
 
 THIS subject comprises no small portion of 
 domestic economy. If the various articles 
 of food are well bought, properly prepared for 
 cooking, and then judiciously subjected to such 
 culinary operations as are best adapted to develop 
 their nutriment and agreeable flavours to the fullest 
 extent, most food must be generally considered 
 wholesome. 
 
 If veal and pork are less easy of digestion than 
 beef or mutton, and if some vegetables are prone to 
 disagree with a certain number of persons, it must 
 be remembered that the existing condition of the 
 digestive process may be estimated by the activity 
 with which they perform their functions indiscri- 
 minately upon all articles of food. 
 
 If sufficient exercise is taken, and a healthy ap- 
 petite is not immoderately indulged, good cookery 
 will aid previous selection as to quality, and, as we 
 know, the less eligible descriptions of food may be 
 taken, not only with impunity, but witn considerable 
 satisfaction. 
 
148 Cup and Platter, 
 
 As, however, we should have but very Httle to 
 say if we were to address alone those to whom 
 nothing comes amiss, we must endeavour to afford 
 assistance, both in the selection of food and its 
 cooking, to enable persons v/ith less sturdy powers 
 of digestion to enjoy and assimilate a sufficient 
 variety of the different kinds of food. We are 
 anxious also to relieve as far as possible the mono- 
 tony which often ensues from depending too ex- 
 clusively upon the superior digestibility of a few 
 viands which are generally supposed to be more 
 suitable in such cases. 
 
 It is obviously impossible to give instruction 
 on what the cookery books entitle "how to mar- 
 ket." But until a little more care is devoted to 
 cookery, our knowledge of how to purchase, both 
 economically and with some judgment as to quality, 
 is valueless, and we may still pursue the haphazard 
 plan of allowing tradespeople to send in pretty 
 much what they please, in contradistinction to the 
 care and vigilance which is exercised with so much 
 advantage in the cities of France and Germany. 
 
 We have in England much to contend against, 
 in the indisposition butchers and other tradesmen 
 manifest to supply the small quantities which 
 enable a sufficient diversity to be given to the con- 
 tinental breakfast and dinner. There is, happily, 
 no such thing as cold meat cookery abroad, nor, 
 
Kitchen Ilhisirations and Cookery. 149 
 
 indeed, is it usual to serve up cooked food a second 
 time, or after it has become cold. 
 
 Here, if two or three persons wish to partake of 
 anything beyond chops or steaks, they must be 
 content to see what is left of the leg of mutton or 
 joint of beef reproduced on several occasions. As, 
 however, we have to deal with our opportunities, 
 such as they are, and not with such as we ought to 
 have, we can only inculcate the necessity for exer- 
 cising all possible ingenuity in avoiding the constant 
 recurrence of some of our standard dishes, which, 
 particularly in the article of meat, may be said to 
 contrast the alternatives of beef for mutton, by 
 suggesting that of mutton for beef. 
 
 If we take as an example of want of thrift in the 
 purchase of meat, the way in which a few mutton 
 chops are bought, this will give as good an instance 
 perhaps, as if we could enter upon similar details 
 attending the other dealings with the butcher. 
 
 We note that if a loin of mutton is taken down 
 from the hooks, the number of chops wished for are 
 cut off, and they are then weighed, a few scraps 
 having been previously removed from the ends. 
 After weighing, however, the butcher proceeds to 
 trim them somewhat more closely ; and, in a general 
 way, a difference of several ounces in the pound will 
 be discovered between the weight charged for and 
 that obtained. 
 
i50 C^ip and Platter. 
 
 Now, if the cook were to again remove a con- 
 siderable portion of the remaining fat, almost in- 
 variably in excess of that which is ever eaten, 
 this fat might be carefully rendered down, and 
 made available for other purposes, without any 
 loss. But if the chop is to be cooked, as alone 
 it can be, to preserve the juice of the meat, and 
 develop that peculiarity of flavour which a well- 
 cooked mutton chop is supposed to possess, the 
 operation of broiling over a sufficiently rapid fire 
 converts a large portion of the fat into fuel, a result 
 which demonstrates the cost and waste attending 
 so simple a mode of cooking as that of broiling. 
 
 A half-pound mutton chop when cut from the 
 cascase rarely weighs more than five ounces by the 
 time it is brought to table, and of this the bone and 
 portion of the tail, which are frequently left, still 
 further reduce the amount of nutriment so obtained 
 to little more than two or three ounces. 
 
 By the ordinary methods of boiling much food 
 value is extracted ; hence the value of the broth. 
 But we are afraid, from various experiences, that the 
 greater part 'of what is termed pot liquor is usually 
 thrown away, or otherwise badly utilised. 
 
 To understand how this is likely to occur, we 
 must endeavour to explain the action of heat upon 
 different kinds of food ; and, from the variety of 
 methods in which it is applied , it will be shown t 
 
Kitchen Illustrations and Cookery, 151 
 
 act as a means of extraction in certain instances, 
 while in others it enables the extractive matters to 
 be retained and preserved within the food itself 
 
 The three principal modes of applying heat to 
 food are those of roasting, boiling, and stewing, 
 which, in other words, may be expressed as subject- 
 ing the various matters to dry heat and moist heat, 
 with modifications of temperature. The operation 
 of roasting, taking meat as an example, consists in 
 submitting it to the immediate action of dry heat, 
 whether directly from an open fire, radiated, or 
 reflected. 
 
 It differs essentially from that of baking, not 
 only in temperature, but also in the amount of 
 ventilation, or constant accession of fresh air, which 
 removes from the meat all the unpleasant emana- 
 tions which it would be liable to reabsorb in a close 
 oven ; this is attended by a considerable amount of 
 loss, both of value and of juice by evaporation. 
 But no other method of cooking can impart that 
 most agreeable and delicate flavour, which is desig- 
 nated osmazome, to the same perfection that can 
 be obtained by roasting, and this cannot be obtained 
 in any close oven, however ingenious the arrange- 
 ment of some kitcheners may be. 
 
 Of these there are an infinite variety, and in 
 some of them an attempt has been made to secure 
 ventilation, which reduces the objection that has 
 
152 Cup and Platter. 
 
 been previously taken to this modification of 
 baking. 
 
 The most successful of these, that has come 
 before our notice, is one in which the heat is com- 
 municated by means of gas burners, which are so 
 arranged that they secure perfect combustion, and 
 force a large current of hot-air throughout every 
 portion of the roaster, and this combines so great 
 an economy of heat with excellence of ventilation, 
 that one of the smallest ordinary fish-tail burners, 
 placed in a properly constructed chimney, suffices 
 to roast a 7lb. joint at the cost of less than a half- 
 penny for the gas consumed.* 
 
 The temperature best adapted for roasting varies 
 from 400 to 500 degrees Fahrenheit. Contrary to 
 the ordinary practice, meat should be subjected to 
 the greatest heat for the first quarter of an hour, 
 after Avhich it should be reduced by about 100 
 degrees either by removing the joint farther from 
 the fire or lowering the amount of gas. 
 
 As an instance of this, the most perfect method 
 of broiling is that of dipping a chop or steak into 
 a little oil or melted fat, by which means, when 
 placed on the gridiron, it immediately blazes up, 
 scorching, and instantaneously sealing the mouths 
 of the tubules of the meat. This action is so 
 instantaneous, that it is entirely superficial, and 
 * Southby's patent. 
 
Kitchen Ilhtstrations ayid Cookoy. 153 
 
 leaves the interior of the meat to be gradually 
 though quickly cooked at a more moderate tem- 
 perature. To preserve evenness in broiling, the 
 meat requires to be constantly turned with tongs, 
 and on no account ought a fork to be used, since 
 by puncturing the meat its juices are lost. 
 
 Baking is only adapted for cooking where the 
 application of heat is required to be sustained at a 
 lower temperature than that of roasting, and where 
 no objection can be taken to the presence of a 
 certain amount of vapour. Although this is in- 
 compatible with the crispness of roast meat, it is, 
 no doubt, advantageous to pastry, which would 
 otherwise be dried up on the surface before the 
 interior could be sufficiently cooked. 
 
 Boiling, which is the application of moist heat, 
 and which, in no instance, can exceed 212°, renders 
 this mode inapplicable when a lower temperature 
 is desired, in which case the -more accurate term 
 would be stewing or simmering. 
 
 For the same reason that we have advocated the 
 application of the higher temperatures for roasting 
 at the commencemient, so we, also, in the case of 
 boiling meat, where the pot liquor is not intended 
 to be used for soup, cannot too strongly urge the 
 necessity for plunging the meat into boiling water 
 for a few minutes before the actual cooking com- 
 mences. After this has been done, the vessel must be 
 
154 C^ip a7id Platter. 
 
 withdrawn from the fire for some minutes to allow 
 the water to become cooler, never again bringing 
 it up to the full boiling point. 
 
 The reason for this is to prevent the juice of the 
 meat from being gradually dissolved out and taken 
 up by the water. The convenience of such procedure 
 is shown conversely in the process of making soup, 
 and is of course available to a certain extent when 
 the meat is intended to be eaten, and the broth is 
 afterwards made into soup. 
 
 Having insisted upon the necessity of meat being 
 only subjected to the boiling temperature at the 
 commencement of the process, we have to point 
 out that this boiling temperature must be main- 
 tained for the proper cooking of all kinds of 
 puddings made of suet for a period much longer 
 than is generally supposed. If we assume that it 
 is advisable to double the length of time suggested 
 by the most exigeants writers on cookery, we hope 
 we shall not make too great a demand on the 
 patience of the cooks. 
 
 Similarly, we have always found recipes for cook- 
 ing farinaceous foods direct far too short a time for 
 their cookery, and they are further not sufficiently 
 particular as to temperature, the essential point in 
 the proper cooking of these foods being the proper 
 swelling up of the starch corpuscles throughout 
 the whole, and at the same time coagulating the 
 
Kitchen Illustrations a?id Cookery, 155 
 
 albuminoid matter without rendering the gluten 
 tough and stringy. This is best attained by pro- 
 longing the period of their cookery, and reducing 
 the temperature to about 180°. 
 
 The cooking of vegetables in some instances 
 depends upon the care which is exercised in ex- 
 tracting certain unpleasant and coarse flavours. 
 This is well exemplified in the case of cabbage 
 and onions. It may be observed that the latter 
 can only be rendered wholesome by frequently 
 changing the water in which they have been boiled, 
 and that even garlic may be rendered so mild and 
 free from acridity by carrying this out to the fullest 
 extent, that while it can be recognised as a deli- 
 cious adjunct to many dishes, hardly any one un- 
 acquainted with the continental method of cooking 
 it would be aware of its presence. 
 
 On the other hand, the vast majority of the 
 vegetables usually boiled would better preserve 
 their nutritive value if they were steamed ; their 
 own peculiar flavours are preserved by this means ; 
 and although some have objected to a certain loss 
 of brightness in colour, many of the most delicate 
 vegetables can only be thoroughly appreciated 
 when cooked by steam. 
 
156 Gip (Did Platter, 
 
 CHAPTER XIL 
 
 HAVING touched upon the main points of im- 
 portance in connection with the commoner 
 articles of food, we feel how inadequate any at- 
 tempt must be to do more than excite a certain 
 interest in the endeavour to convey even the most 
 general information on so large a subject. 
 
 In order to arrive at a really accurate knowledge 
 of the composition of food as it relates to the 
 nutrition of the body, and also in the very im- 
 portant aspect it assumes in pleasing the palate, 
 both by variety and judicious selection, a greater 
 knowledge of physiology, of chemistry, and even 
 of botany would be required, than is generally 
 comprised in the ordinary course of education. 
 
 It may seem a simple matter for each to decide 
 for himself that which he likes, and therefore 
 fancies is best adapted for him. But without 
 more accurate data, and more widely extended 
 experience of the effects of the various kinds of 
 food than can ever fall to the lot of one individual 
 
Cup and Plalter. 157 
 
 whose observation is restricted to his own person, 
 the result must be unsatisfactory. 
 
 In the present day, when no sufficient censorship 
 exists to expose the unblushing falsehoods put 
 forth by advertisers of all sorts of food, both liquid 
 and solid, which are, in reality, anything but what 
 they pretend to be, it becomes necessary to obtain 
 some better insight into the general principles 
 which govern this subject than the vague notions 
 generally entertained. 
 
 When it is popularly supposed that the thicker 
 the soup, the more nutritious it must be ; when the 
 most marvellous virtues are attributed to calves'- 
 foot jelly, arrowroot, and corn-flour ; and when 
 port wine is regarded as infusing, by some myste- 
 rious means, vital power and muscular strength 
 into the most enfeebled frames, it is necessary 
 that the composition of these articles, and their 
 effects, should be made known. 
 
 It is absolutely necessary for every one to com- 
 prehend that, unless tissue-forming principles are 
 taken into the body, tissue cannot be maintained 
 and reproduced. In fact, that unless matter 
 capable of distribution and assimilation is con- 
 veyed by means of food, inevitable waste must 
 occur, and all the powers and functions of life 
 become impaired. 
 
 In other words, starvation ensues, not only when 
 
15S Cup and Platter, 
 
 there is an insufficient quantity of food consumed 
 in the aggregate, but starvation of certain tissues 
 takes place whenever there is a lack of the peculiar 
 principles necessary for their support. 
 
 This is the case in health, and a well-regulated 
 system of diet in the treatment of disease is of 
 even higher importance than the drugs which have 
 been found to be most useful in controlling its 
 more prominent symptoms. 
 
 Diseases of an acute or active nature doubtless 
 require the use of powerful drugs, and in these, 
 nourishment must be given in forms as fluid and 
 readily absorbable as possible ; but in that very 
 large class of diseases which may be described as 
 constitutional, or chronic, no benefit can be looked 
 for from the use of drugs, unless an intelligent super- 
 vision and rigid adherence to the rules of diet laid 
 down be enforced. 
 
 As instances, we may mention those cases, un- 
 fortunately now so common, of gout, rheumatism, 
 diabetes, etc., in all of which it can be proved most 
 conclusively that more benefit is derived from 
 proper diet and well-regulated habits of life than 
 any special drugs which are known. 
 
 It is, we need hardly point out, fallacious in the 
 extreme to imagine that occasional doses of medi- 
 cine can successfully combat the results of daily 
 and hourly indulgence in those very kinds of 
 
Cup and Platter, 159 
 
 aliment which ought to be most carefully avoided. 
 Nor can the effects of intemperance be remedied by 
 any specific nostrums which can be devised. 
 
 If disordered or impaired bodily functions have 
 already reduced the strength below its normal 
 standard, this has only occurred from want of 
 assimilation of food ; it must be repaired from that 
 source alone. The medicine in this case plays 
 only the part of an auxiliary ; the real work of 
 rebuilding must be done by food. 
 
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 IDS. 6d., or the set complete, £2 3S- 
 
 Contents. 
 Vol. I. — Miscellaneous Poems. 
 II. — Miscellaneous Poems. 
 III. — Princess and other Poems. 
 IV. — In Memoriam and Maud, 
 v.— Idylls of the King. 
 VI.— Idylls of the King. 
 
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 Green 
 
 
 
 s. d. 
 
 Poems reduced from Qs. to 
 
 6 
 
 Maud and other Poems „ 
 
 , 5S. „ 
 
 3 6 
 
 The Princess 
 
 , 5S. „ 
 
 3 6 
 
 Idylls of the King „ 
 
 , 7^- „ 
 
 5 
 
 The Holy Grail 
 
 , 75. „ 
 
 4 6 
 
 Gareth and Lynette „ 
 
 , 5s. „ 
 
 3 
 
 Idylls of the King, collected „ 
 
 , I2S. „ 
 
 6 
 
 Enoch Arden ,, 
 
 , 6s. „ 
 
 3 6 
 
 In Memoriam >, 
 
 . 6s. „ 
 
 4 
 
 All the various editions of Mr. Tennyson's Works may als 
 
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Henry S. King and Co.^s Catalogue. 15 
 
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Henry S. King and Co.*s Catalogue. 
 
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 OHN GREY (of Dilston); MEMOIRS. By his 
 
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