UNIVERSITY OFCAL.^..,
AT LOS ANGELES

■I^^^v^i ! !'l I

it^

iCi;.'<': :;'- \\ 1%'i

te:tgi<itI.iuK.T

I-'iii. I. — Music. Alti r an oil p.iiiituif; attributed t<> Mulo/./.j d.i l.nli (1438-1494).

National Gallery,

BOARD OF EDUCATION, SOUTH KENSINGTON,
VICTORIA AND .VLBERT MUSEUM.

MUSICAL
INSTRUMENTS

CARL ENGEL

UlTH SEVENTY-EIGHT ILLUSTRATIONS

REVISED EDITION.

LONDON :

PRINTED FOR HIS MAJESTY'S STATIONERY OFFICE.

By WV.MAX and SONS, Limiikd, 109, I-ErTi;i< Lank, K.C.

And to be purchased, eilher directly or through any Booksiller, from

WYMAX AND SONS, LiMiTKi), 109, Fetter Lane, Fleet Street, K.C. or

OLIVER AND BOYD, Tweepdaee Coiirt, Edinuurgh ; or

E. POXSONBY, 116, Graiton Street, ntru .^N.

1908.

Price IS. G.I.; in Cloth, 2s. ^d.

t t » » »

» • c
t < t

Music
Library

460

N O T \l

In the preparation of the revised edition of the late Dr. Engel's
handbook, first published in 1875, care lias been taken to make
as few alterations as possible and to express no views from
which he might have dissented.

The greatly enlarged chapter relating to post-medianal
instruments has been chieily compiled from Dr. Engel's
Descriptive Catalogue of the musical instruments in the
Museum, published in 1874.

The pages relating to the .\ncient Egyptians have been
revised by Dr. W. I\I. b'linders Petrie, those dealing with the
(ireeks, Etruscans raid Komans by J)r. Cecil 11. Smith, and
the description of Chinese and Japanese instruments by Dr.
Stephen \V. Bushell. The thanks of the Doard are due to
these gentlemen for their valuable co-operation.

9S4J. 1,0110 W I. :»•_';{_'. m/OS. \Vy. \. S. {)\\~\r

.J32

CON T E X T S .

Pagf.

Ill

Vll

Note - - - . .
List of Contents

., ,, Illustrations
Chapter I. — Introduction j

II. — I're-Historic Rtlics and Anciiiit I-:},'yptian - - y

III- — Assyrian and Ikbrtw - - - - - - i^)

I^'- — Cireek, Etruscan and Roman 2/

v.— Oriental ---■-... ^^^

VI. — American Indian - - - - . . - q8

. 'VII. — I'-uropean Instruments of tlie Midille Ages - - «3

vi.
, \I1I. — European Instruments of the Middle Ages - - 92

, MX.— El

-European Instruments of the Middle Ages - - 99
i X. — Post-Media!val Instruments - - . .

Al'I'HNDIX •--.......

I.\UEX - --.-...

104

List of illi'stkations.

Fig. Page.

-Mi;sic, after au oil painting attribiittil to Mclozzo tla

Forii (1438-1494) . . - . Frontispiece

-Paintku Wooden Harp. Ancient Kgy])tian. XVIIItli

tlynasty (B.C. 1450) . - . . Facing 10

-Bronze and Rkkd Flutes. Ancient Egyj)tian. k.c. 6ou,

or later ------ Facing 12

. — Bronze Sistra. Ancient Egyptian. XXlIn(I-XX\'Ith

dynasty (b.c. 1000-600) - - - Facing 14

-Series of Bells. Ancient Egyptian. Late Period - 15

-A MrsE WITH a Harp, and two others with Lyres.

From a Greek vase - - - - - - 29

7. — Pair of Bronze Flutes, with mouthpiece in the form of a
bust of a M;rnad holding a bunch of grapes.
Greek ------- Facing 30

8. — A MrsE Playini; the Diai'los. Greek - - - 31

9. — Wall Painting of a youth wearing a myrtle wreath and
])laying on the Doiule Pipes. Said to have
been found in a columbarium in the Vigna Ammen-
dola on the Appian Way near Rome, about 1823.
British Museum ----- Facing 34

10. — TuuA, Cornu and Lituus. Roman " " - 35

II. — Hsi'AN. Chinese -------- 42

12. — (a) Ch'in (a species of Lute). Modern Chinese

(b)- Shi':ng (Mouth Organ). Chinese. 19th century

Facing 42

13. — {a) Koto (a sjiccies of Lute). Japanese. 19th century -

(b) Biwa (a species of Guitar). 5lodern Japanese

14. — (a) S.\RiNDA AND Bow. luilian (J3engal). 19th century -

(b) RuDRA Vina. Southern Indian (Madras). i9tli

centur\' --------

Facing 48

15. — (a) Kemangeh or Sitara or Fiddle. IVrsian. About
1800 ---------

(b) NuY (Flute). Persian. i9t]i centur\-

viii MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS.

Fig. Page.

i6, — Pottery Whistles, with lingei-hoks. Ancient Mexican - 59
17. — Pottery Flageolets, with finger-holes, (a) and (c)
Ancient Mexican ; (h) from the Island of Sacrificios

Facing 60

18. — Bone Flutes. Ancient Peruvian, (a) and (6) Truxillo ;

19. — HuAYR.v-PUHURA, discovcrcd in a Peruvian tomb - - 64

20. — Wooden Trumpet. Used by Indians near the Orinoco - 65

21. — JuRUPARis, with and without cover. South American - 66

22. — BoTUTO. Used by Indians near the Orinoco - - - 68

2-. — CiTHARA. From a 9th century MS. formerly in the

monastery of St. Blasius in the Black Forest - - 84
24. — Psalterium. From a 9th century MS. formerly in the

monastery of St. Blasius in the Black Forest - - 85

25. CiTHARA. From a 9th century MS. formerly in the monas-
tery of St. Blasius in the Black Forest - - - 85

26. King playing Psaltery. After an engraving in N. X.

Willcmin's Monuments Franrais Inidits, Vol. I.,
pi. 19, taken from llortus DcHciurum, a MS. of the
12th century .---.-. 86

2j. — Nablum. From a 9th century MS. at Angers - - 86

28. Female playing a Species of Citole. From a 9th

century MS. formerly in the monastery of St.
Blasius in the Black Forest . - - . 86

25._11ari'. From a 9th century MS. formerly in the monastery

of St. Blasius in the Black Forest - - - 87

30.— Crwtii. Welsh. 1 8th century - - •■ Facing 90

31. — Organistrum 93

12. — Sackbut 94

32^ Organ. From a wth century psalter in the library of

Trinity College, Cambridge 95

34.— Organ (Grand Orgue). After an engraving in N. X.

Willemin's Monuments Frani^ais Inrdils - - 96

,5. Bas-relief, representing a group of musicians, formerly

at the abbev of St. Georges de Boscherville. Late
iith century (?). After an engraving in N. X.
Willemin's Monuments Fran<;ais Inidits Facing 98

,(5_ HuRDY-GuRnY (Vielle). With arms of France and crowned

monogram of Henry II. on back and front. About

1550 Facing 100

,- Tympanum of the Glory Gate of the Cathedral of Santiago

(Ic Compostelia. Dated 11 88. From a jilaster

ca.st in the Victoria and Albert Museum Facing 100

38 Minstrel Gallery, Exeter Catheilral. 14th century.

From a plaster cast in the Victoria and Albert
Museum Facing 102

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. ix

Fro. Page.

39. — Lute. Italian (WiKtian). Beginning of tlu- i-tli century

Fiuing IU4

40. — Angel Playing a Lute. After an oil painting by

Anibrogio (la Pn-dis. Late 15th century I-'aciiiu 104

41. — Archlute. Inscribed " Rauche in ("handos Street.

London, 1762 " - - • - - - Facing 104

42. — Chitarrone. Italian. Made by Buclunberg in Rome,

anno 1614 ------ I'aciiic; lofi

43.— Pandurina. French. Second half of i6th century F</f/)//7 108

44- — Guitar. French (?). 17th century - - racing 108

45- — QuiNTERNA, OR Chiterna. German. Dated i 539 Fac)»? loS

4'5. — Cither. German. End of 17th century - Facing 108

47- — Mari' Theorbo. Made by Harley. English, .\bout

1800 ----... Facing no

48. — Harp Ventura. English. Early 19th century Facing no

49- — Banduria. English. Early 19th century - Facing no

50.— Harp. Old Irish - Facing no

51. — Harp. French. About 1770- - - - Facing 112

5^- — Violin. Saiil to have belonged to James I. English.

Early 17th century - - . . Facing 112

53.— -Vngel Playing a Viol. After an oil painting by

Ambrogio da Predis. Late 1 5th century Facing 104

54- — Viola DA Gamba. Italian. .About i6(;o - - Facing 114

55- — Viola da Gamba. Italian. 17th century - Facing 114

5^5. — Viola di Bardone, or Bariton, with Bow. German.

17th century Facing 114

57- — Viola d'Amore. Probably English. Late 17th century

Facing 1 1

58.— Double-Bass, with Bow. Known as " The Giant."

Italian. 17th century - - - Facing 116

59. — Sordino, or Pochette. Probably German. Late 17th

or early i8th century - - - Facing iiS

60. — BOcHE, OR ScHKiTiun.z. Made by Eieurot, of the Val
d'.Vjol in the \'()sgis Mountains. Early 19th
century 'Facing iiS

61. — Virginal. I'ornurly belonging to (hutn I-^lizalnth.

Italian. Second lialf of ir)th century Facing 118

62. — Virginal, Flemish. Second half of if4h century Facing 118

63. — Spinet. Made l)y .\nniba'e dei Rcssi of Milan. Italian.

Dated 1577 - - . _ . Facing 120

64 — Spinet. Signed " Jolxanues Pla\er fecit" linglish.

-About 1700 Facing uo

65. — Clavichoku. Inscribed " P-artliold Friti: ficit, Braun-
schweig, anno 1751." German. iSth century

Facing i j(j

X MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS.

Fig. Page.

66.— Clavicembalo. Signed " Joanes Antonius Baflfo,

Vcnctus." Italian. Dated 1574 - Facing 122

67. — Clavecin. Made by Pascal Taskin of Paris. French.

Dated 1786 Facing 124

68. — Organ-Hakpsichord, or Claviokganu.m. Formerly in
the chapel of Ightham Mote, near Sevenoaks,
Kent. Probably English - - - Facing 124

69. — Triple Flageolet. Italian. About 1820 - Facing 124

70. — Flauto Dolce, or Flute. Ivory. Inscribed " Anciuti

a Milan, 1740 " Facing 124

71. — Flageolet. Italian. Middle of iSth century Facing 126

yz. — Oboe. Made by Anciuti of Milan. Formerly in the
possession of the composer Rossini. Latter half
of 1 8th century Facing 126

y^. — Bassoon, species of. English. Late i8th, or early 19th

century .---.. Facing 128

74. — The Serpent. Made by Gerock Wolf, in London.

English. Early 19th century - - Facing 128

75. — Serinette or Bird Organ. French. Period of Louis

XIV. Facing 128

j6, — Organ (Positive). German. Dated 1627 - Facing 128

jj. — Bagpipes. English. i8th century- - Facing 130

78. — Handel's Harpsichord. Made by Amheas Ruckers, of

Antwerp, 165 1 - - - - - Facing 134

MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS.

INTRODUCTION.

Music, in however primitive a stage of development it may
be with some nations, is universally appreciated as one of the
Fine Arts. The origin of vocal music may have been coeval
with that of language ; and the construction of musical
instruments evidently dates with tlie earliest inventions
which suggested themselves to human ingenuity. There
exist even at the present day some savage tril)es in Australia
and South America who, although they have no more than
the five first numerals in their language and are thereby unable
to count the fingers of both hands together, nevertheless
possess musical instruments of their own contrivance, with
which they accompany their songs and dances.

Wood, metal, and the hide of animals are the most common
substances used in the construction of musical instruments.
In tropical countries bam])oo or some similar kind of cane
and gourds are especially made use of for this purpose. The
ingenuity of man has contrived to employ in producing music,
horn, bone, glass, pottery, slabs of sonorous stone — in fact,
almost all vibrating matter. The strings of instruments
have been made of the hair of animals, of silk, the runners of
creeping plants, the fibrous roots of certain trees, of cane,
catgut (which, absurdlv referred to the cat, is from the shecj),
goat, lamb, camel, and some othcc anim.ils), ni-tal, lic.

'.)S4-_'. ;\

2 MUSICAL INSTRU.lfENTS.

The mode in which individual nations or tribes are in the
habit of embelhshing their musical instruments is sometimes
as characteristic as it is singular. The negroes in several
districts of Western Africa affix to their drums human skulls.
A war-trumpet of the king of Ashantee which was brought
to England is surrounded by human jawbones. The Maoris
in New Zealand carve around the mouth -hole of their trumpets
a figure intended, it is said, to represent female lips. The
materials for ornamentation chiefly employed by savages
are bright colours, beads, shells, grasses, the bark of trees,
feathers, stones, gilding, pieces of looking-glass inlaid like
mosaic, etc. Uncivilised nations are sure to consider any-
thing which is bright and glittering ornamental, especially if it
is also scarce. Captain Tuckey saw in Congo a negro in-
strument which was ornamented with part of the broken frame
of a looking-glass, to which were affixed in a semicircle a
number of brass buttons with the head of Louis XVI. on them,
— perhaps a relic of some French sailor drowned near the
coast years ago.

Again, musical instruments are not infrequently formed
in the shape of certain animals. Thus, a kind of harmonicon
of the Chinese represents the figure of a crouching tiger.
The Burmese possess a stringed instrument in the shape of
an alligator. Even more grotesque are the imitations of
various beasts adopted by the Javanese. The natives of
New Guinea have a singularly shaped drum, terminating in
the head of a reptile. A wooden rattle like a bird is a favourite
instrument of the Indians of Nootka Sound. In short, not
only the inner construction of the instruments and their
peculiar quality of sound exhibit in most nations certain
distinctive characteristics, but it is also in great measure
true as to their outward appearance.

An arrangement of the various kinds of musical instru-

INTRODUCTION. 3

ments in a regular order, beginning with tliat kind which is
the most universally known, and progressing gradually to the
least usual, gives the following results. Instruments of
jiercussion of indefinite sonorousness or, in other words,
jnilsatile instruments which have not a sound of a fixed pitch,
as the drum, rattle, castanets, etc., are most universal. Wind
instruments of the flute kind — including pipes, whistles, flutes,
Pandean pipes, etc. — are also to be found almost everywhere.

Much the same is the case with wind instruments of the
trumpet kind. These are often made of the horns, bones,
and tusks of animals ; frequently of vegetable substances
and of metal. Instruments of percussion of definite sonor-
ousness are chiefly met with in China, Japan, Burmah, Siam,
and Java. They not infrequently contain a scries of tones
produced by slabs of wood or metal, which are beaten with
a sort of hammer, as our harmonicon is played.

Stringed instruments without a finger board, or any similar
contrivance which enables the performer to produce a num-
ber of different tones on one string, are generally found among
nations whose musical accomplishments have emerged from
the earliest state of infancy. The strings are twanged with
the fingers or with a piece of wood, horn, metal, or any other
suitable substance serving as a pleclriiin : or are made to ^■ibrate
by being beaten with a hammer, as our dulcimer. Stringed
instruments provided with a finger-board on which different
tones are producible on one string by the performer shortening
it more or less — as on the guitar and violin — are met with
almost exclusively among nations in a somewhat advanced
stage of musical progress. Such as are played with a bow
are the least common ; they arc, however, known to the
Chinese, Japanese. Hindus, Persians, Arabs, and a few other
nations, besides those of Europe and lluir descendants in
other countries.

9842. ' A •_'

4 MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS. ^S

Wind instruments of the organ kind — i.e., such as are con-
structed of a number of tubes which can be sounded together
by means of a common mouthpiece or some similar con-
trivance, and upon which therefore chords and combinations
of chords, or harmony, can be produced — are comparatively
of rare occurrence. Some interesting specimens of them
exist in China, Jai)an, Laos, and Siam.

Besides these various kinds of sound-producing means
employed in musical performances, a few others less widely
diffused could be pointed out, which are of a construction not
represented in any of our well-known European specimens.
For instance, some nations have peculiar instruments of
friction, which can hardly be classed with our instruments of
percussion. Again, there are contrivances in which a num-
ber of strings are caused to vibrate by a current of air much
as is the case with the iEolian harp ; which might with equal
propriety be considered either as stringed instruments or
as wind instruments. In short, our usual classification of
all the various species into three distinct divisions, viz.,
Stringed Instruments, Wind Instruments, and Instruments
of Percussion, is not tenable if we extend our researches over
the whole globe.

The collection at South Kensington contains several foreign
instruments which cannot fail to prove interesting to the
musician. Recent investigations have more and more
elicited the fact that the music of every nation exhibits some
distinctive characteristics which may afford valuable hints
to a composer or performer. A familiarity with the popular
songs of different countries is advisable on account of the
remarkable originality of the airs ; these mostly spring from
the heart. Hence the natural and true expression, the
delightful health and vigour by which they are generally
distinguished. Our more artificial compositions are, on the

INTRODUCTION. 5

other hand, not infrequently deficient in tliosc charms,
because they often emanate from the fingers or the i)en rather
than from the heart. Howbeit, the i)redominance of fX-
pressive melody and effectiv^e rhythm 6\'er harmonious com-
binations, so usual in the popular compositions of various
nations, would alone suffice to recommend them to the careful
attention of our modern musicians. The same ma\- he said
with regard to the surprising variety in construction and in
manner of exj^ression prevailing in the popular songs and
dance-tunes of different countries. Indeed, every nation's
musical effusions exhibit a character peculiarly their own,
with which the musician would find it advantageous to
familiarise himself.

Now, it will easily be understood that an acquaintance with
the musical instruments of a nation conveys a more correct
idea than could otherwise be obtained of the characteristic
features of the nation's musical compositions. Furthermore,
in many instances the construction of the instruments reveals
to us the nature of the musical intervals, scales, modulations,
and suchlike noteworthy facts. True, inquiries like these
have hitherto not received from musicians the attention
which they deserve. The adepts in most other arts are in this
respect in advance. They are convinced that useful informa-
tion may be gathered by investigating the productions even
of uncivilised nations, and by thus tracing the gradual progress
of an art from its primitive infancy to its highest degree of
development.

Again, from an examination ot the nui-.ie;il instniineiits of
foreign nations wv may derive valuai)le hints for the improve-
ment of our own ; or even for tlu' iiu'ention of new. Several
principles of construction have thus been adopted by us from
eastern nations. For instance, the jrcc rccd used in the
iiarmonium is an importation fiom CJiina. The oigan builder

6 MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS.

Kratzenstein, who lived in St. Petersburg during the reign
of Catherine II., happened to see the Chinese instrument cheng,
which is of this construction, and it suggested to him, about
the end of the i8th century, to apply the free reed to certain
organ stops. At tht' present day instruments of the har-
monium class have become such universal favourites in
western Europe as almost to compete with the pianoforte.

Several other well-authenticated instances could be cited
in which one instrument has suggested the construction of
another of a superior kind. The prototype of our pianoforte
was evidently the dulcimer, known at an early time to the
Arabs and Persians, who call it santir. One of the old names
given to the dulcimer by European nations is cimhal. The
Poles at the present day call it cymbaly, and the Magyars in
Hungary cimbalom. The clavicembalo, the predecessor of
the pianoforte, was in fact nothing but a cembalo with a
key board attached to it ; and some of the old clavicembali
still preserved, exhibit the trapezium shape, the round hole
in the middle of the sound-board, and other peculiarities of
the first dulcimer. Again, the gradual development of the
dulcimer from a rude contrivance, consisting merely of a
wooden board across which a few strings are stretched, is
distinctly traceable by a reference to the musical instruments
of nations in different stages of civilisation. The same is the
case with our highly perfected harp, of which curious speci-
mens, representing the instrument in its most primitive
condition, are still to l)c found among several barbarous
tribes. We might perhaps infer from its shape that it origi-
nally consisted of nothing more than an elastic stick bent by a
string. The Damaras, a native tribe of South-western Africa,
actually use their bow occasionally as a musical instrument
when they are not engaged in war or in the chase. They
tighten the string nearly in the middle by means of a leathern

INTRODUCTION. 7

thong, whereby they obtain two distinct sounds, which, for
want of a sound board, are of course very weak and scarcely
audible to anyone but the performer. Some neighlwuring
tribes, however, possess a musical instrument very similar in
appearance to the bow, to which they attach a gourd, hollowed
and open at the top, which serves as a sound-board. Again,
other African tribes have a similar instrument, superior
in construction only inasmuch as it contains more than one
string, and is provided with a sound-board consisting of a
suitable piece of sonorous wood. In short, the more improved
we find these contrivances the closer they approach our harp.
And it could be shown, if this were requisite for our })resent
purpose, that much the same gradual ])rogrcss towards per-
fection, which we observe in the African harp, is traceable
in the harps of several nations in different parts of the
world.

Moreover, a collection of musical instruments deserves the
attention of the ethnologist as much as of the nmsician.
Indeed, this may be asserted of national music in general ;
for it gives us an insight into the heart of man, reveals to us
the feelings and predilections of different races on the globe,
and affords us a clue to the natural affinity which exists
between different families of men. Again, a collection
must prove interesting in a historical point of \'iew. Scholars
will find among old instruments specimens which were in
common use in England at the time of Queen Ivlizabeth,
and which are not unfrequently mentioned in the literature
of that period. In many instances the passages in which
allusion is made to tliciu can hardly be uiuUirstood, il we are
unacquainted witli tlie shai)e and construction of the instru-
ments. Furthermore, these relics of liygone times bring
before our eyes the manners ami customs of our torelatluMs,
and assist us in understanding them correctly.

8 MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS.

It Mill be seen that the modification which our orchestra has
undergone, in tlie course of scarcely more than a century, is
great indeed. Most of the instruments which were highly
popular about a hundred years ago have either fallen into
disuse or are now so much altered that they may almost be
considered as new inventions. Among Asiatic nations, on
the other hand, we meet with several instruments which have
retained unchanged through many centuries their old con-
struction and outward appearance. At South Kensington
may be seen instruments still in use in Egypt and western
Asia, precisely like specimens represented on monuments
dating from a period of three thousand years ago. By a
reference to the Eastern instruments of the present time we
obtain therefore a key for investigating the earlier Egyptian
and Assyrian representations of musical performances ; and
likewise, for appreciating more exactly the biblical records
respecting the music of the Hebrews. Perhaps these evidences
will convey to some inquirers a less high opinion than they
have liitherto entertained, regarding the musical accom-
plishments of the Hebrew bands in the solemn processions of
King David or in Solomon's temple ; but the opinion will
be all the nearer to the truth.

There is another point of interest about such collections,
and especially that at South Kensington, which must not be
left unnoticed. Several instruments are remarkable on
account of their elegant shape and tasteful ornamentation.
This is particularly the case with some specimens from Asiatic
countries. The beautiful designs with which they are em-
bellished may afford valuable patterns for study and for
adoption in works of art.

II.

PREHISTORIC RELICS AND ANCIENT EGYPTIAN.

A REALLY complete account of all the nuisical instriiincnts
from the earliest time known to us would require much more
space than can here he afforded. We can attemj)t only
a concise historical survey. We venture to hope that the
illustrations interspersed throughout the text will to the
intelligent reader elucidate many facts which, for the reason
stated, are touched ui)on l)ut cursorily.

Pre-Historic Relics.

A musical relic has been exhumed in the department of
Dordogne in France, which was constructed in an age wJicn
the fauna of France included the reindeer, the rhinoceros
and the mammoth, the hy;ena, the bear, and the cave-lion.
/''It is a small bone somewhat less than two inches in length;
in which is a hole, evidently l:)orcd bj' means of one of the
little flint knives which men used before acquaintance witli
the employment of metal for tools and wea})ons.* Man\'
of these flints were found in tlu' same place with the bones.
Only about half a dozen of the bones, of which a considerable
number have been exhumed, possess the artificial hole.

M. Lartet surmises the perforated bone to have been used
as a whistle in hunting animals. It is the first digital i)]ialaiix
of a ruminant, drilled to a certain depth l)y a smooth eyhn-
drical bore on its lower surface near the ex])anded u])per
articulation. On applying it to the lower lip and blowing
into it a shrill sound is yielded. Three of these i)halanges are

" Figured and dc-scribcd in Lartet A: Christy's ReliquicB AquitauiccB,
London, 11^65-75, PI. B. v., p. 48.

10 MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS.

of reindeer, one is of chamois. Again, among the reHcs
which have been brought to hght from the cave of Lombrive,
in the department of Ariege, occur several eye-teeth of the
dog, which have a hole drilled into them near the root. Pro-
bably they also yield sounds, like those reindeer bones, or
like the tube of a key. Another whistle — or rather a pipe,
for it has three finger-holes by means of which different tones
could be produced — was found in a burying-place, dating
from the stone period, in the vicinity of Poitiers in France ;
it is rudely constructed from a fragment of stag's horn. It
is blown at the end, like a flute d bee, and the three finger-holes
are placed equidistantly. Four distinct tones must have
been easily obtainable on it : the lowest, when all the finger-
holes were covered ; the other three, by opening the finger-
holes successively. From the character of the stone utensils
and weapons discovered with this pipe it is conjectured that
the burying-place from which it was exhumed dates from
the latest time of tlie stone age. Therefore, however old it
may be, it is a more recent contrivance than the reindeer-
bone whistle from the cavern of the Dordogne.

The Ancient Egyptians.

The most ancient nations historically knt)\vn j)ossessed
musical instruments which, though in acoustic construction
greatly inferior to our own, exhibit a degree of perfection
which could luive been attained only after a long period of
cultivation. Many tribes of tlie present day have not yrt
reached this stage of musical progress.

As regards the instruments of the ancient Egyj^tians we
now possess perhaps more detailed information than of those
appertaining to any other nation of antiquity. This informa-
tion we owe especially to tlu- exactness with which the instru-

«*"

I'Ki 2.-l'AiM Ki> WooDi.N 11*1(1'. Aiicieiii E;;ypti.ni. X\ 1 1 Itli Ivna-tv (ii.. . m5j).

liiili-.li Miiseiiin.

THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. ir

ments are depicted in scul}:)tures and paintings*. Whoever
has examined these interesting monuments with ewn ordinary
care cannot but be convinced that the rt'jiresen tat ions which
they exhibit are faithful transcrijits from life. Moreover, it
there remained any doubt respecting the accuracy of the
representations of the musical instruments it miglit be dis-
pelled by existing evidence. Several specimens have bet-n
discovered in tombs, preserved in a more or less perfect
condition.

The Egvptians possessed various kinds of harps, some of
which were elegantly shaped and tastefully ornamented.
The largest were about 6J- feet high ; and the small ones
frequently had some sort of stand which enal)led the per-
former to play upon the instrument while standing. The
name of the harp was bene. Its frame had no front pillar ;
the tension of the strings therefore cannot have l)een aiu'thing
like so strong as on our present harp. (Fig. 2.)

The Egyptian harps most remarkable for elegance of form

and elaborate decoration are the two which were first noticed

by Bruce who found them painted in fresco on the walls of a

sepulchre at Thebes, supposed to be the tomb of Rameses III.

who reigned about 1170 B.C. Bruce's discover}- created a

sensation among musicians. The fact tliat at so remote an

age the Egj'ptians should have possessed harps which vie with

our own in elegance and beauty of form ajipeared to some

so incredible that the correctness of Bruc(^'s rej^resentations.

as engraved in his " Travels," was greatly doubted. Sketches

of the same harps, taken subsequently and at dilTerent times

from the frescoes, have since l)een pulilished, but they differ

more or less from each other in app.nirance and in the nuinber

of strings. A kinrl of triangul.ir harp of the EgNptians wa^

* The best instance is to Ix- fomul in lA-psiiis' Dttikiiinlcr, III. luc.a..
where a music-school of the .\khenali-n iienud (al)oiit 14110 B.e.) i^
depicted.

12 MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS.

discovered in a well-preserved condition and is now deposited
in the Louvre. It has twenty-one strings ; a greater number
than is generally represented on the monuments. All these
instruments, however much they differed from each other in
form, had one peculiarity in common, namely the absence of
the fore pillar.

The nefer, a kind of guitar, was almost identical in con-
struction with the Tamboura at the present day in use among
several eastern nations. It was evidently a great favourite
with the ancient Egyptians, and occurs in representa-
tions of concerts dating earlier than from B.C. 1500. The
nefer affords the best proof that the Egyptians had made
considerable progress in music at a very early age ; since it
shows that they understood how to produce on a few strings, by
means of the finger-board, a greater number of notes than were
obtainable even on their harps. The inst . ..ment had two or
four strings, was played with a plectrum and appears to have
been sometimes, if not always, provided with frets. In the
British Museum is a fragment of a fresco obtained from a
tomb at Thebes, on which two female performers on the nefer
are represented. The painter has distinctly indicated the
frets.

Small pipes or flutes of the Egyptians have been discovered,
made of reed, with three, four, five, or more finger-holes. There
are some interesting examples in the British Museum ; one of
which has seven holes burnt in at the side (Fig. 3). Two
straws were found with it of nearly the same length as the
pipe, which is about one foot long. In some other pipes
pieces of a kind of thick straw have also been found inserted
into the tube, obviously serving for a similar purpose as the
reed in our oboe or clarionet.

The seba, a single flute, was of considerable length, and the
performer appears to have been obliged to extend his arms

THE ANCIENT EGYPT TINS. 13

almost at full length in order to reach the furthest finger-hole.
As sebd is also the name of the leg-bone (like the Latin tibia) it
may be supposed that the Egyptian flute was originally made
of bone.- Those, however, which have been found are of
wood or reed.

A flute-concert is ])ainted on one of the toml)s in the
pyramids of Gizeli and dates, according to Lepsius, from an
age earlier than B.C. 2000. Eight musicians are jierforming
on flutes. Three of them, one behind the other, are
kneeling and holding their flutes in exactly the same
manner. Facing these are three others, in a jirecisely
similar position. A seventh is sitting on the ground to
the left of the six, with his back turned towards them, but
also in the act of blowing his flute, like the others. An
eighth is standing at the right side of the grouj) with his
face turned towards them, holding his flute before him with
both hands, as if he were going to put it to his mouth, or had
just left off playing. He is clothed, while the others have
only a narrow girdle round their loins. Perhaps he is the
director of this singular band, or the 50/0 performer who is
waiting for the termination of the Inlti before renewing his
part of the i)crlormance. The division of the players into
two sets, facing each other, suggests the possibility that the
instruments were classed somewhat like the first and secontl
violins, or the //fir///o pn'ino and flaiilo secondo ot our orchestras.
The occasional employnimt of the interval of the third, or
the fifth, as accompaniment to tlie melody, is not unusual
even with nations less advanced in nuisic than were tli'
ancient Egyj)tians.

The Double-Pipe, called »i(i)n, apj^eais to have been a
very popular instrument, if we judgr from tla- fr('(iu('ncy of
its occurrence in lln' representations of musical performances.
Furthermore, the Egyi)tians had. as tar as is known to u-,.

14 MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS.

two kinds of trumpets ; three kinds of tambourines, or little
hand diTims ; three kinds of drums, chiefly barrel-shaped ;
and various kinds of gongs, bells, cymbals, and castanets.
The trumpet appears to have been usually of brass. A
peculiar wind-instrument, somewhat the shape of a cham-
pagne bottle and perhaps made of pottery or wood, also occurs
in the representations transmitted to us.

The Egyptian drum was from two to three feet in length,

covered with parchment at both ends and braced by cords.

The performer carried it before him, generally by means of a

band over his shoulder, while he was beating it with his hands

on both ends. Of another kind of drum an actual specimen

has been found in the excavations made in the year 1823 at

Thebes. It was i| feet high and 2 feet broad, and had cords

for bracing it. A piece of catgut encircled each end of the

drum, being wound round each cord, by means of which the

/ cords could be tightened or slackened at pleasure by pushing

I the two bands of catgut towards or from each other. It was

\ beaten with two drumsticks slightly bent. The Egyptians

\had also straight drumsticks with a handle, and a knob at the

end. The Berlin museum possesses some of these. The

third kind of drum was almost identical with the darabuka

of the moiern Egyptians. The Tambourine was either

round, like that which is at the present time in use in

Europe as well as in the east ; or it was of an oblong square

shape, slightly incurved on the four sides.

The Sistrum consisted of a frame of bronze into which three
or four metal bars were loosely inserted, so as to produce a
jingling noise when the instrument was shaken. (Fig. 4.)
The bars were often made in the form of snakes, or they ter-
minated in the head of a goose. Not unfrequently a few
metal rings were strung on the bars, to increase the noise.
The frame was sometimes ornamented with the figure of a

•ii.. 1. -I'kon/k Sime<a. Anrii in E;;yiMi,in. \\1 lii.i-\X\'ltli ilyii.oiy (ii.i . i-

Brili^li Miistiiiii.

: \

THE ANCIENT ECYPTTiNS. 15

cat. The largest sistra which have been found are about
eighteen inches in length, and the smallest about nine inches.
The sistrum was principally used by females in religious
performances. Its Egyptian name was scshcsh. ^

The Egyptian cymbals closely resembled our own in shape.
There are several pairs of them in the British museum. One-
pair was found in a coffin enclosing the mummy of a sacred
musician, and is deposited in the sami' case with the inunimy
and coffin. Among the Egyptian antiquities in the British
museum are also several small bells of bronze (Fig. 5). The
largest is 2] inches in height, and the smallest three-quarters
of an inch. Some of them have a hole at the side near the
toj) wherein the clapper was fastened.

A ^-

Fio. 5.— Sepif.s of Beli-S. Ancient HKyptian. Late Period.
The smaller c.\amples were sewn on wcarinfi apparel.
British Museum.

III.

ASSYRIAN" A\D HEBREW.
The Assyrians.

Our acquaintance with the Assyrian instruments has
been derived ahnost entirely from the famous bas-rehefs
which have been excavated from the mounds of Nimroud,
Khorsabad, and Kouyunjik (the site of the ancient Nineveh),
situated near the river Tigris in the vicinity of the town of
Mosul in Asiatic Turkey.

The Assyrian harp was about four feet high, and appears
of larger size than it actually was on account of the ornamen-
tal appendages which were afhxed to the lower part of its
frame. It must have been but light in weight, since we find
it not unfrequently represented in the hands of persons who
are playing upon it while they are dancing. Like all the
Oriental harps, modern as well as ancient, it was not pro-
vided with a front pillar. The upper portion of the frame
contained the sound-holes, somewhat in the shape of an hour-
glass. Below them were the screws, or tuning-pegs, arranged
in regular order. The strings were perhaps made of silk, like
those which the Burmese use at the present time on their
harps ; or they may have been of catgut, which was used
by the ancient Egyptians.

The largest assemblage of Assyrian musicians which has been
discovered on any monument consists of eleven performers
upon instruments, besides a chorus of singers. The first
musician — probably the leader of tlic band, as he inarches
alone at the head of the procession — is playing upon a harp.

ASSYRIAN AND If H BREW. 17

Behind him arc two men : one with a dulcimer and the otlier
with a doul)le-pip)e ; then follow two men with harps. Next
come six female musicians, four of whom are playing upon
harps, while one is Mowing a douhle-i>ii)e and another is
beating a small hand-drum covered only at the top. Close
behind the instrumental performers are the singers, consisting
of a chorus of females and children. They arc cla])]iing their
hands in time with the music, and some of the musicians are
dancing to the measure. One of the female singers is holding
her hand to her throat in the same manner as the women
in vSyria. Arabia, and Persia are in the habit of doing at
the i)re.sent day when i)roducing, on festive occasions,
those peculiarly shrill sounds of rejoicing which have been
repeatedly noticed by travellers.

The dulcimer is in too imjierfect a state on the bas-relief
to familiarize us with its construction. The slal) representing
the procession in which it occurs has been injured ; the defect
which extended over a portion of the dulcimer has been re-
paired, and it cannot be said that in repairing it much musical
knowledge has been evinced.

The instrument of the Trigonon sj')ccies was held hori-
zontally, and was twanged with a rather long plectrum sliglitlv
bent at the end at which it was held by tlic performer. It
is of frequent occurrence on the bas-reliefs. A number of them
appear to have been generally i)layed together. At any rate.
we find almost invariably on the monuments two togt'ther.
evidently imi)lying " more than one," " a number." The
left hand of the j-jcrformer seems to have been occu])ied in
checking the vibration of the strings wlien its discontinuance
was required. From the jiosition of the strings the performer
could not have struck them as those of the dulcimer are strnck.
If he did not twang them, he may have drawn the jilectrum
across them. Indeed, for twanging, a short pU'ctriini wnuid
9S4J. I?

i8 MUSICAL TNSTRU}fENTS.

have been more practical, considering that the strings are
placed horizontally one above the other at regular distances.
It is therefore by no means improbalile that we hav^e here
a rude prototype of the violin bow.

The lyre occurs in three different forms, and is held horizon-
tally in playing, or at least nearly so. Its front bar was
generally cither oblique or slightly curved. The strings were
tied round the bar so as to allow of their being pushed upwards
or downwards. In the former case the tension of the strings
increases, and the notes become therefore higher ; on the
other hand, if the strings are pushed lower down the pitch
of the notes must become deeper. Tlic lyre was played with
a small plectrum as well as with the lingers.

The Assyrian trumpet was very similar to the Egyptian.
Furthermore, we meet with three kinds of drums, of which
one is especially noteworthy on account of its odd shape,
somewhat resembling a sugar loaf ; with the tamb ourine ;
with two kinds of cymbals ; and with bells, of which a con-
siderable number have been found in the mound of Nimroud.
These bells, which have greatly withstood the devastation
of time, are but small in size, the largest of them being only
3 J inches in height and 2| inches in diameter. Most of them
have a hole at the top, in which probably the clapper was
fastened. They are made of copper mi.xed with 14 per cent,
of tin.

Instrumental music was used by the Assyrians and Baby-
lonians in their religious observances. This is obvious from
the sculptures, and is to some extent confirmed by the mode
of worship paid by command of king Nebuchadnezzar to
the golden image ; " Then an herald cried aloud, To you it
is commanded, O people, nations, and languages, that at what
time ye hear ihc sound of the cornet, flute, harp, sackbut,
psaltery, dulcimer, and all kinds of musick, ye fall down and

ASSYRIAN AND HEBREW. 19

worship the golden image that Nebuchadnezzar the king has
set up." The kings appear to have maintained at their courts
musical l)ands, whose office it was to perform secular music
at certain times of the day or on fixed occasions. Of king
Darius we are told that, when he had cast Daniel into the
den of lions, he " went to his palace, and passed the night
fasting, neither were instruments of musick brought before
him ; " from which we may conclude that his band was in
the habit of playing before him in the evening. A similar
custom prevailed also at the court of Jerusalem, at least in
the time of David and Solomon ; both of whom ajipcar to have
had their royal private bands, besides a large number of
singers and instrumental performers of sacred music who
were engaged in the Temple.

Tin- Hi:hri-:ws.

As regards the musical instruments of the Hebrews, we
are from biblical records acquainted with the names of many
of them ; but representations to be tnisted are still wanting,
and it is chiefly from an (Examination of the ancient Egyptian
and Assyrian instruments that we can conjecture almost to a
certainty their construction and caj^abilities. From various
indications, which it would be too circumstantial here to
point out, we believe the Hebrews to haw ] possessed the
following instruments :

The H.\rp. — There can hv no doubt that tlic Htbrews
possessed the liarj), seeing that it wasacomnntn instrument
among tlie Egyptians and Assyrians. IJut it is uncertain
which of the Hebrew names of the stringed instruments oc-
curring in the P)ible really designates thf harp.

The Dulcimer. — Some writers on Hebrew nuisie cousidi-r
the nevcl to have been a kind of dulcimer ; others coiij(( tun.'
9S42. II •_'

20 MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS.

the same of the psnnferin niciilioiiod in llie book of Daniel, —
a name wliicli a]ipcars to l)e sjmonymous willi the psalterion
of tlie Greeks, and from wliich also the jiresent oriental dul-
cimer, saniir, may have been deri\-cd. Some of the instru-
ments mentioned in tlio l)ook of Daniel may have been
synonymous with some wliicli occur in other parts of the
Bible under Hebrew names ; the names given in Daniel being
Chald;can. Tlie asor was a ten-stringed instrument played
with a plectrum, and is su]ijK)sed to have liornc some re-
semblance to the ncv:l.

The Lyre. — This instrument is represented on some
Hebrew coins generally ascribed to Judas Maccab^eus, who
lived in the second century before the Christian era. There
are several of them in the British Museum ; some are of
silver, and the others of copper. On three of them are lyres
witli three strings, another has one with five, and another
one with six strings. The two sides of the frame appear to
have been made of the horns of animals, or they may
have been of wood formed in imitation of two liorns which
originally were used. Lyres thus constructed are still found in
Abyssinia. The Hebrew square-sha])ed lyre of the time of
Simon Maccabaeus is ])ro])abl3' identical witii lln' psalterion.
The kinnor, the favourite instrument of king David, was most
likely a lyre if not a small triangular harp. The \\rc was
evidently an universally known and favoured instrument
among ancient eastern nations. l-Jeing more simple in
construction than most other stringed instruments it un-
doubtedly preceded them in antiquity. The kinnor is men-
tioned in the Bil)le as the oldest stringed instrument, and
as the invention of Jubal. Even if the name of one particular
stringed instrument is here used for stringed instruments
in general, which may possibly be the case, it is only reason-
able to suppose that the oldest and most universally known

ASSYRIAN AND HEBREW. 21

stringed instrument would be mentioned as a rejiresentativu
of tlie whole class rather tlian any other. Besides, the
kinnor was a light and easily i)ortal)le instrument ; king
David, according to the Rabbinic records, used to suspend
it (lurini; the night over his pillow.' All its uses mentioned
in the Bible are especialh* applicable to the hre. And the
resemblance of the word kinnor to kithaya, kissar, and similar
names known to denote the lyre, also tends to confirm the
supposition that it refers to this instrument. It is, however,
not likely that the mstruments of the Hebrews — intleed
their music altogether — should have remained entirely
unchanged during a period of many centuries. Some modi-
fications were likely to occur even from accidental causL-s ;
such, for instance, as the influence of neighbouring nations
when the Hebrews came into closer contact with them.
Thus may be explained why the accounts of the Hel)rew
instruments given by Josephus, who lived in the first century
of the Christian era, are not in exact accordance with those
in the Bible. The lyres at the time (jf Simon Maccabieus
may probably be different from those which were in use about
a thousand years earlier, or at the time of David and Solomon,
wlirii the art of music with the Hebrews was at its zenith.

There a])pears to bu a probability that a Hebrew lyre
of the time of JosL'])h (about 1700 i;.c.) is i\'])resented on an
ancient Egy])tian painting* discovered in a tomb at Jniii
Hassan — which is tlie name of certain grottoes on the eastern
])ank of the Nile. Sir Gardner Wilkinson, in his " Mannrrs
and Customs of the Ancient Egyi)tians," observes : " If,
wln'ii we become better acquainted with the interj)retation
of hieroglyphics, the 'strangers' at lUni Hassan should prow
1- 'le arrival of Jacob's family in lvg\ pt. wr may examim-

* For coloured plate iifUr lliis j aiiiliii^,' si c Wilkinson's Aiuuiit
lliiyptians, Vol. I., i'l. xii. (facing' [lui^c- 4.'^<>).

22 MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS.

the Jewish lyre drawn by an Egyptian artist. That this
event took place about the period when the inmate of the
tomb Uved is highly probable — at least, it 1 am correct in con-
sidering Usertsen I. to be the Pharaoh who was the patron of
Joseph ; and it remains lor us to decide whether the disagree-
ment in the number of j^ersons here introduced, thirty-seven
being written over llK-ni in hieroglyphics, is a suflicient
objection to their identity. It will not be foreign to the
present subject to introduce those figures, which are curious,
if on]}- considered as illustrative of ancient customs at that
early period, and which will be looked upon with unbounded
interest should they ever be found to refer to the Jews.
The first figure is an Egyptian scribe, who presents an account
of their arrival to a person seated, the owner of the tomb,
and one of the jjrincipal officers of the reigning Pharaoh.
The next, also an Egyptian, ushers them into his presence ;
and two advance bringing presents, the wild goat or ibex
and the gazelle, the productions of their country. Four men,
carrying bows and clubs, follow, leading an ass on which
two children are placed in panniers, accompanied by a boy
and four women ; and, last of nil, another ass laden, and
two men — one holding a bow and club, the other a lyre, which
he plays with the plectrum. All the men have beards, contrary
to the custom of the Egyptians, but very general in the East
at that period, and noticed as a peculiarity of foreign un-
civihzed nations throughout their sculptures. The men have
sandals, the women a sort of boot reaching to the ankle,
both which were worn by many Asiatic people The lyre
is rude, and differs in form from those generally used in
Egypt." In the engraving thr lyre-player, another man,
and some strange animals from this group, are represented.

The Tamboura. — Minvim, muchulath, and ncvcl are
usually supposed to be the names of instruments of the lute

ASSYRIAN AND HEBREW. 23

or guitar kind. Minnim, however, aj^pcars more likely to
imply stringed instruments in general than any particular
instrument.

"The Single Pipe. — Chalil and nckcb were the names of the
Hebrew pipes or tlutes.

The Double Pipe. — Probably the mishrokitha mentioned
in Daniel. The mishrokitha is represented in the drawings of
our histories of music as a small organ, consisting of seven
pipes placed in a box with a mouthpiece for l)lowin{^. But
the shape of the pipes and of the box ;is well as the row of
keys for the fingers exhibited in the representation of the
mishrokitha have too much of the European type not to
suggest that they are prol)ably a product of the imagination.
Respecting the illustrations of He])rew instruments which
usually accompany historical treatises on music and com-
mentaries on the Bible, it ought to be borne in mind that most
of them are merely the offspring of conjectures founded on
some obscure hints in the Bible, or vague accounts by the
Rabbins.
^~~^1IE Syrinx ok P.\nde.\n Pipe. ^Probably the iii!,ab,
which in the Englisli authorised version of the Bible is ren-
dered " organ."

Till-: Ba'.i'II'E. — The word siiinphonia, which occurs in the
book of Daniel, is, by Forkel and others, supposed to denote
a l)agpipe. It is remarkable that at the present day the
bagpii)e is called by the Italian peasantry Zami)ogna.
Another Hebrew instrument, the iiKii^rcphd, generally de-
scribed as an organ, was more likely only a kind <»f bagpipe.
The mui^rcphu is not mentioned in the Bii>le l)Ui is described
in the Talmud. In tract Krachin it is recorded to have been
a powerful organ which stood in the temple at Jerusalem,
and consisted of a case or wind-chest, with ten holes, con-
taining ten pii)es. Ka( h i)iiir was capaljlc ol emitting ten

24 MUSICAL TNSTRUXfENTS.

different sounds, by means of finger-holes or some similar
contrivance : thus one hundred different sounds could be
produced on this instrument. Further, the magrcpha is
said to have been provided with two pairs of bellows and
with ten keys, by means of which it was played with the
fingers. Its tone was, according to the Rabbinic accounts,
so loud that it could be heard at an incredibly long distance
from the temple. Authorities so widely differ that we must
leave it uncertain whether the much-lauded magrepha was
a bagpipe, an organ, or a kettle-drum.

The Trumpet. — Three kinds are mentioned in the Bible,
viz., the key en, the shophur, and the chatzozerah. The first
two were more or less curved and might properly be con-
sidered as horns. Most commentators are of opinion that
the keren — made of ram's horn — was almost identical with
the shophur, the only difference l)eing that the latter was
more curved than the former. The shophar is especially
remarkable as being the only Hebrew musical instrument
which has been preserved to the present day in the religious
services of the Jews. It is still blown in the synagogue, as
in time of old, at the Jewish new-year's festival, according
to the command of Moses (Numb. xxix. i). The chatzozerah
was a straight trumpet, about two feet in length, and was
sometimes made of silver. Two of these straight trumpets
are shown in the famous triumphal procession after the fall
of Jerusalem on the arch of Titus.

The Drum. — There can be no doubt that the Hebrews
had several kinds of drums. We know, however, only of
the toph, which appears to ha\e been a taml)ourinc or a small
hand-drum like the Egyptian darabuka. In the English
version of the Bible the word is rendered timbrel or tabret.
This instrument was especially used in processions on occa-
sions of rejoicing, and also frequently by females. \Vc find

ASSYRIAN AND IIEBRFAV. 25'

it in the hands of !\Iiriani. when she was celehrating with
the Israehtish women in songs of joy the destruction of
Pharaoh's host ; and in the hands of Jephtha's daughter,
when she went out to welcome her father. There exists at
the present day in the East a small hand-drum called doff,
diff, or adiife — a name which appears to I)e synonymous
with the Hebrew topli.

The Sistrum. — Winer, Saalschiitz, and several other com-
mentators are of opinion that the menaaneim, mentioned in
2 Sam. vi. 5, denotes the sistrum. In the English Bil^le
the original is translated cymbals.

Cymb.\ls. — The tziitzdim. mctzilloth. and uictzilthaim.
appear to have been cymljals or similar metallic instruments
of percussion, differing in shape and sound. \

Bells. — The little bells on the vestments \f the liigh-
priest were called ■phaamon. Small golden bells were attached
to the lower part of the robes of the high-priest in
his sacred ministrations. The Jews have, at the })resent
day, in their synagogues small l)ells fastened to the rolls of
the Law containing the Pentateuch : a kind of ornamenta-
tion which is supposed to have been in use from time
immemorial.

Besides the names of Hebrew instruments already given
there occur several others in the Old Testament, upon the
real meaning of which much diversity of o])inion ])revails.
Johel is by some commentators classed with the truni])ets,
but it is by others believed to designate a loud and cheerful
blast of the trumpet, used on i)articidar occasions. \i Jobcl
(from which juhilare is supposed to be (leri\-ed) is identical
with thf name Jiibul, the inventcjr (jf musical instrinnents.
it would ai)pear that the Hebrew^ a])preciated prt-eiiiinently
the exhilarating power of music. S/talisOini is supposed to
denote a triangle. Ncchilulh, '^itlitli, and niachalalh, which

26 MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS.

occur in the headings of some psalms, are also by commen-
tators supposed to be musical instruments. Nechiloth is
said to have been a flute, and gittith and machalath to have
been stringed instruments, and machol a kind of flute. ' Again,
others maintain that the words denote peculiar modes of
performance or certain favourite melodies to which the psalms
were directed to be sung, or chanted. According to the
records of the Rabbins, the Hebrews in the time of David
and Solomon possessed thirty-six different musical instru-
ments. In the Bible only about half that number are
mentioned.

Most nations of antiquity ascribed the invention of their
musical instruments to their gods, or to certain superhuman
beings. The Hebrews attributed it to man ; Jubal is men-
tioned in Genesis as " the father of all such as handle the harp
and organ " {i.e., performers on stringed instruments and
wind instruments). As instruments of percussion are almost
invariably in use long before people are led to construct
stringed and wind instruments it might perhaps be surmised
that Jubal was not regarded as the inventor of all the
Hebrew instruments, but rather as the first professional
cultivator of instrumental music.

IV.

GREEK, ETRUSCAN AND ROMAN".
The (jkekks.

Many musical instruments of the ancic-nt Greeks are known
to us 1)}' name ; but resj)ecting their exact construction and
capabilities there still ])revails almost as nuich diversity of
opinion as is the case witJi those of the Hebrews.

It is generally believed tliat the Greeks derived lluir nnisical
system from the Egyptians. Pythagoras and other pliijo-
sophers are said to have studied nuisic in Egypt. It would,
however, a})pear that the Egyi:)tian influence upon Greece, eis
far as regards this art, has been overrated. Not only have the
more perfect Egyi)tian instruments — such as Uie larger harj)s,
the tamboura — never ])een much in favour with the Greeks,
but almost all the stringed instruments which the Greeks
possessed are stated to have been originall\" deri\ed from
Asia. Strabo saj's : " Those who regard the whole of Asia, as
far as India, as consecrated to Bacchus, point t(j tliat country
as the origin of a great portion of the i)resent nmsic. One
author speaks of ' striking forcibl\- the Asiatic kithara,'
another calls the pii)es Berecynthian and Phrygian. Some
of the instruments also have foreign names, as Xablas,
Sambyke, Barbitos, Magadis, and many others."

We know at present little UKjre ol ihese instruments than
that they were in use in Greece. The Magadis is described as
having twenty strings. The other three are known to ha\e
been stringed instruments. But they cannot haw been any-
thing like such universal favourites a.s the lyre, because lliis

28 MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS.

instrument and perhaps the trigonon are ahnost the only
stringed instruments represented in the Greek paintings on
pottery and other monumental records. If, as might perhaps
be suggested, their taste for beauty of form induced the
Greeks to represent the elegant lyre in i)reference to other
stringed instruments, we might at least expect to meet with
the harp ; an instrument which equals if it does not surpass
the lyre in elegance of form.

The representation of a Muse with a harp, depicted on
a splendid Greek vase now in the Munich Museum {Mun.
Vase Cat. No. 805), may be noted as an exceptional instance.
This valuable relic dates from the end of the filth century
B.C. The instrument resembles in construction as well as
in shape the Assyrian harp, and has fifteen strings. The
Muse is touching them with both hands, using the right hand
for the treble and the left for the bass. She is seated,
holding the instrument in her lap. The little tuning-pegs,
whicli in number are not in accordance witli the strings, are
placed on the sound-board at the upper part of the frame,
exactly as on the AssjTian liar]). If we have here.' the Greek
harp, it \vp.s more likely an importation from Asia than from
' Egypt. <Cln short, as far as can be ascertained, the most
complete of the Greek instruments appear to be of Asiatic
origin. Especialh' from the nations who inhabited Asia
Minor the Greeks are stated to have adopted several of
the most popular. Thus we may read of the short and
shrill-sounding pipes of the Carians ; of the Phrygian pastoral
flute; of the three-stringed kithara of the Lydians; and so on.
The Greeks had lyres of various kinds, more or less differing
in construction, form, and size, and distinguished by different
names ; such as lyra, kiihara, chelys, phonninx, etc. Lyra
appears to have implied instruments of this class in general,
and also the lyre with a body oval at the base and held in

GREEK, ETRUSCAN AND ROMAN.

the arms of the performer ; wliile tlie kithara liad a square
base and was held against tlie side by a sash anmnd it. The
chelys was a small lyre with the body made of the sliell of a
tortoise, or of worxl in imitation of the tortoise. The phor-
minx was a large lyre, and, like the kithara, was used at
an early period singly, for accompanying recitations. It is
recorded that the kilhara was employed for solo ])erformances
as early as B.C. 700.

The design on the Greek vase at Munich (already alluded
to) represents the nine Muses, of whom three are given in the
engraving (Fig. 6), viz., one with the luirp, and two others
with lyres. Some of the lyres were pro\-idefl with a bridge,

I'K,. 6. — A Muse with a Hari', and two (Ulu rs with L\i(i s.
l-'roin a Greek vaso in tin Munich Mnsiinn.

while Others were without it. The largest was held [)r()b;ib]y
on or between the knees, or were attached to the left arm by
means of a band, to enable the perforniir to use iiis hands

30 MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS.

without impodiinent. The strings, made of catgut or sinew,
were more usually twanged with a plektron than merely with
the fingers. The flektron was a short stem of ivory or metal
pointed at l)(»th ends.

A fragment of a Greek lyre which was found in a lomb near
Athens is deposited in the British Museum. The two pieces
constituting its frame are of wood. Their length is about
i8 inches, and the length of the cross-bar at the top is
about 9 inches. The instrument is unhappily in a condition
too dilapidated and imperfect to be of any essential use to
the musical inquirer.

The tri^onon consisted originally of an angular frame, to
which the strings were affixed. In the course of time a third
bar was added to resist the tension of tlie strings, and its tri-
angular frame resembled in shape the Greek delta. Subse-
quently it was still further improved, the upper bar of the
frame l:)eing made slightly curv'ed, whereby the instrument
obtained greater strength and more elegance of form.

The ma^adis, also called pektis, had twenty strings which
were tuned in octaves, and therefore produced only ten tones.
It a])i)ears to have been some sort of dulcimer, but information
respecting its construction is still wanting. There appears to
have been also a kind of Imgpipe in use called ma^adis, of which
nothing certain is known. Possibly, the same name may have
been applied to two different instruments.

The hayhUos was likewise a stringed instrument of this kind.
The samhyke is traditionally said to ]ia\-e been invented by
Ibykos, about 560 B.C. The simikon liad thirty-five strings,
and derived its name from its inventor, Simos, who lived about
600 B.C. It was perhaps a kind of dulcimer. The nabln had
ten, or according to Josephus, twelve strings, and probabl}'
reseiuMcd the nevel of the Hebrews, of wliitli but little is
known with certainty. The pandoura is supposed to have

K i1

CREEK, ETRUSCAN AND RO^rAN.

been a kind of lute witli tlirce striiif^'s. Several of the
instruments just noticed were used in (ireece, chiefly by
musicians who had immigrated from Asia ; they can there-
fore liardly be considered as national musical instruments
of the Greeks. The Dumochord had (as its name implies) only a
single string, and was used as a tuning string.
~~^The aulo<;, of which there were many varieties, was a highly
popular inslruiniMit, and differed in construction from the
flutes and pipes of the ancient Egyptians. Instead of being
blown through a hole at the side near the \.o\) it was held
like a llageolct. and a vibrating reed was inserted into the
mouth-piece, so that it might be mon^ properly described as
a kind of oboe or clarinet. The (in-eks were accustomed to
designate by tlie name of aiilos all wind instruments of the
flute and oboe kind, some of which were constructed like

the flageolet or like our anti-
quated flute d bee. The single
thitv was called »ionaiilos (Fig.
7), antl the double one diniilos
(Fig. 8). A liiaiilos.wlnch was
found in a tomb at Athens,
is in the British Mustnun. The
wood oi which it is made
seems to be cedar, and the tubes
are fifteen inches in length,
l^acli tube has a separate
mouth-piece and six tlnger-
iiok'S, ii\'e of which are at the
upper sidi' and our is under-
neat h.

Ihe syrinx, or Pandean j'ipe,
had from three to nine tubes,

lu. 8.-A Muse i.Uyiut; ilK n.AiLos. , ''"' Sevell WaS til.' usual

32 MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS.

numl)er. The straii^ht trumpet, 5ff//)/'//.v, and the curved horn,
keras, made of brass, were used exchisively in war. The
small hand-drum, called tympanon, resembled in shape our
tambourine, and was covered with parchment at the back
as well as at the front. The kynibala were made of metal,
and resembled our small cymbals. T\\^J<rotala were almost
identical with our castanets, and were made of wood or
metal.

The Etruscans .\nd Rom.a.ns.

The Romans are recorded to have derived some of their most
popular instruments originally from the Etruscans, a jieople
which at an early period excelled all other Italian nations in the
cultivation of the arts as well as in social refinement, and which
possessed musical instruments similar to those of the Greeks.
It must, however, be remembered that many of the vases
and other specimens of art which have been found in Etruscan
tombs, and on which delineations of lyres and other instru-
ments occur, are supjwsed to be productions of Greek artists
whose works were obtained from Greece by the Etruscans,
or who were induced to settle in Etruria.
^ The flutes of the Etruscans were not unfrequently made of
iVory ; those used in religious sacrifices were of box-wood, of a
species of the lotus, of ass' bone, bronze and silver. A bronze
flute^ somewhat resembling our flageolet, has been found in a
tomb ;>likewise a huge trumpet of bronze. An Etruscan cornu
is deposited in the British Museum, and measures about four
feet in Irngth.

To the Etruscans is also attributed by some the invention
of the hydraulic organ. The Greeks possessed a somewhat
similar contrivance which they called hydraiilis, i.e., water-
thitc. and wliic li j)n)hahly ^was identical with tjie urganiim

GREEK. ETRUSCAN AND Ru.\LiN. 33

hydranlicnm ot the Romans. The instrument ought more
properly to be regarded as a pneumatic organ, for the sound
was produced by the current of air througli the pipes ; the
water apphed serving merely to give the necessary pressure to
the l)ellows and to regulate their action. The pijies were
probal:)ly caused to sound by means of sto{)s, pcrha])s resemb-
ling those on our organ, which were drawn out or pushed in.
Thf constructinii was evidently Init a ])rimitive contrivance,
contained in a case which could hv carried l)v one or two
persons and which was placed on a table. The highest degree
of perfection which the hydraulic organ obtained with the
ancients is perhaps shown in a representation on a coin of the
Emjjeror Xero, in the British Museum. Only ten j)i[ics are
given to it, and there is no indication of any ke3board, which
would probably luue been shown liad it existed. The man
standing at tlu' side and holding a laurel leaf in his hand is
surmised to represent a victor in the e.Kliibitions of the circus
or the amphitheatre. The hydraulic organ probably was
played on such occasions ; and the medal containing an
imj^rcssion of it may have been bestowed uj)on the victor.

During the time of the Republic, and especially subsetpientl}'
under the reign of the Emperors, ihr Romans adopted
many new instruments fromdreece, Egypt, and e\-en from
western Asia; without essentially improving any of their
importations.

Their most favourite stringed instrument was the lyre, (jf
which they had various kinds, called, according to their form
and arrangement of strings, lyra. cithara, chclys, tcstudo, and
fidis (or fides). The name cornu was gi\-en to the hre when
the sides of the frame terminatetl at the top in the sliaj)e
of two horns. The barbilos was a kintl of lyre witli a large
body, which gave the instnunent somewhat the shape of ilic
Welsh crii'lh. The psaltcriiim was a kind of lyre of an oblong
9842. C

34 MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS.

square shape. Like most of the Roman lyres, it was played
with a rather large plectrum. The /rigoniim was the same as
the Greek irigonon. It is recorded that a certain musician of
the name of Alexander Alexandrinus was so admirable a per-
former upon it that when exhibiting his skill in Rome he
created ths greatest furore. Less common, and derived from
Asia, were the samhuca and nahlia, the exact construction
of which is unknown.

Srho. flute, tibia, was originally made of the shin bone, and
mbd a mouth-hole and four finger-holes. Its shape was
retained even when, at a later period, it was constructed of
other substances than bone. The tibia gingrina consisted
of a long and thin tube of reed with a mouth-hole at the side
of one end. The tibia obliqua and tibia vasca were provided
with mouth-pieces affixed at a right angle to the tube ; a
contrivance somewhat similar to that on our bassoon. The
I tibia longa was especially used in religious worship. The
tibia curva was curved at its broadest end. The tibia ligula
appears to have resembled our flageolet. The calamus was
nothing more than a simple pi]')e cut off the kind of reed which
the ancients used as a pen for writing.

The Romans had double flutes as well as single flutes. The
double flute consisted of two tubes united, cither so as to have
a mouth-piece in common or to have each a separate mouth-
piece. If the tubes were exactly alike the double flute was
called tibia pares ; if they were different from each other,
tibia impares. Little plugs, or stoppers, were inserted into
the finger-holes to regulate the order of intervals. The tibia
was made in various shapes. The tibia dextra was usually
constructed of the upper and thinner part of a reed ; and the
tibia sinistra, of the lower and broader part. The performers
used also the capistruin, — a bandage round the cheeks identical
with the phorbeia of the Greeks.

Fir,. Q.— Wai.i. I',\intin<. i>I a yi'iuli ue;ii in),' ;i iii\ rill- u 11 .all ^iml |>l,i\ iiifi mi iIh Donlil.- I'ipi
Kchtori'd ill pl.icts. S;ii<l to liMve In iii tmiiKl in .1 (■.■Itiiiili.iriuiu jii ilu- \'i;;ii.i Aiiiiikii>Ii'I.i
nil tilt' Appiaii Way m-.u Ruhr, iLn.iit it.'i.

Iiliti>.ll M:s: ii:r.

CREEK. ETRUSCAN AND ROMAN.

The British Museum contains a wall painting (Fig. 9) repre-
senting a Roman youth playing the double pipes, which is
stated to have been disinterred in the year 1823 on the Via
Appia. Here the holmos or mouth-piece, somewhat resembling
the reed of our oboe, is distinctly shown. The finger-holes,
probably four, are not indicated, although they undoubtedly
existed on the instrument.

^ Furthermore, the Romans had two kinds of Pandean pipes
viz., the syrinx and the fishdoi^Thc l)agpipe, /ibia u/ricularis,
is said to have liecn a favourite instrument of the Emperor
Xero.

The coniu was a large horn of bronze, curN'cd. The \)vr-
former held it under his arm with the broad end upwards
over his shoulder. It is represented in the engraving (Fig.

10), with the (uba
and the lituus.

The tuba was a
straight trumpet.
Both the cormt and
the Utl)ii were eni-
])loyc(l ill war to con-
vey signals. The
same was the case
with the bitccina, —
originally perhaps a
conch shell, and
afterwards a simple
horn of an animal,
— and the /i/iiiis.
which was bent at the broad end but otherwise straight. The
tympanum resembled the tambourine, and was beaten like
the latter with the hands. Among the Roman instruments of
percussion the scabcllum, which consisted of two ])lates com-

l)B4-j. ^-' -

l-iG. 10.— TiiiA CoRNL- and Lituus.

36 MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS.

bined by means of a sort of hinge, deserves to be noticed;
it was fastened under the foot and trodden in time, to produce
certain rythmical effects in musical performances. The
cymhahim consisted of two metal plates similar to our
cymbals. The crotala and the crusmata were kinds of cas-
tanets, the former being oblong and of a larger size than the
latter. The Romans had also a triangulum, which resembled
the triangle occasionally used in our orchestra. The sisiriim
they derived from Egypt with the introduction of the worship
of Isis. Metal bells, arranged according to a regular order
of intervals and placed in a frame, were called tintinnabula.
The crepitaculum appears to have been a somewhat similar
contrivance on a hoop with a handle.
'T' Through the Greeks and Romans we have the first well-
authenticated proof of musical instruments having been
introduced into Europe from Asia/ The Romans in their
conquests undoubtedly made their musical instruments
known, to some extent, also in western Europe. But the
Greeks and Romans are not the only nations which intro-
duced Eastern instruments into Europe. The Phoenicians at
an early period colonized Sardinia, and traces of them are
still to be found on that island. Among these is a peculiarly
constructed double-pipe, called lioncdda or latmedda. Again,
at a much later period the Arabs introduced several of their
instruments into Spain, from which country they became
known in France, Germany, and England. Also the
crusaders, during the eleventh and twelfth centuries, may have
helped to familiarize the western European nations with
instruments of the East.

ORIENTAL.

The Chinese.

\AllowIi\g for any exaggeration as to chronology, natural ^
to the lively imagination of Asiatics^ there is no reason to
doubt that the Chinese possessed long before our Christian
era musical instruments to which they attribute a fabulously
high antiquity. There is an ancient tradition, according
to which they obtained their musical scale from a miraculous
l)ird, called jen^-huang, which appears to have been a sort of
phanix. When Confucius, who lived about B.C. 551-479.
happened to hear on a certain occasion some Chinese music,
he is said to have become so greatly enraptured that he could
not take any food for three months afterwards. The sounds
which produced this effect were those of K'uei, the Orpheus
of the Chinese, whose j^erformance on the ch'ing — a kind of
harmonicon constructed of slabs of sonorous stone — would
draw wild animals around him and make them subservient
to his will. As regards the invention of musical instruments
the Chinese have other traditions. In one of these we are
told that the origin of some of their most popular instruments
dates from the period when China was under the dominion
of heavenly spirits, called ("h'i. Another assigns the inven-
tion of several stringed instruments to the great Fu-hsi who
was the founder of the ciiipin; and who lix-ed about n.r. ;o()o,
which was long after the dominion ol the Ch'i, or spirits.
Again, another tradition holds that the most important
instruments and systematic arrangements of sounds are an
invention of Kii-wa, sist-r and successor ol Fu h-^i.

G92232

38 MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS.

According to their records, the Chinese possessed their
much-esteemed cKing 2200 years before our Christian era, and
employed it for accomi)anying songs of praise. It was re-
garded as a sacred instrument. During rehgious observances
at the solemn moment when the ch'ing was sounded sticks of
incense were burnt. It was likewise played before the em-
peror early in the morning when he awoke. The Chinese
have long since constructed various kinds of the ch'ing,
by using different species of stones. Their most famous
stone selected for this purpose is called yii. Yii includes
the two varieties of jade, nephrite and jadeite. It is not
only very sonorous but also beautiful in appearance. It
is found in mountain streams and crevices of rocks.
The largest known specimens measure from two to three
feet in diameter, but examples of this size rarely occur. The
yii is very hard and heavy. Some European mineralogists,
to whom the missionaries transmitted specimens for exam-
ination, pronounce it to be a sj)ecies of agate (ma-nao).
It is found of different colours, and the Chinese appear to
have preferred in different centuries particular colours for
the ch'ing.

The Chinese consider the yU especially valuable for musical
purposes, because it always retains exactly the same pitch.
All other musical instruments, they say, are in this respect
doubtful ; but the tone of the yii is influenced neither by
cold nor heat, nor by humidity, nor drjaiess.

The stones used for the ch'ing have been cut from time to
time in various grotesque shapes. Some represent animals :
as, for instance, a bat with outstretched wings ; or two
fishes placed side by side : others are in the shape of an
ancient Chinese bell. The angular shape appears to be the
oldest form and is still retained in the ornamental stones of
the picn-ch'ing, which is a more modern instrument than the

ORIENTAL. 39

citing. The tones of the picn-ch'ing are attuned according
to the Chinese intervals called lii, of which there are twelve
in the compass of an octave. The same is the case with
t)ie other Chinese instruments of this class. They vary,
however, in pitch. The pitch of the siiiig-ch'iiii;, for instance,
is four intervals lower than that of the picn-cK ing.

Sonorous stones have always ])een used In' the Chinese /
also singly, as rhythmical instruments. Such a single stone is
called fe-cJiing.

The ancient Chinese had several kinds of bells, frequently
arranged in sets so as to constitute a musical scale. The
Chinese name for the bell is chiing. At an early period they
had a somewhat square-slia])ed bell called t'e-chung. Like
other ancient Chinese bells it was made of cojjper alloyed with
tin, the proportion being one part of tin to six of coj)per.
The t'e-chiing, which is also known by the name of piao, was
principally used to indicate the time and divisions in musical
performances. It had a fixed pitch of sound, and several of
these bells attuned to a certain order of intervals were not
unfrequently ranged in a regular succession, thus forming a
musical instrument wliich was called picn-chnng. The
musical scale of the sixteen bells which the pien-chiiiig con-
tained was the same as that of the ch'ing before mentioned.

The hsilan-chung was, according to ])()pular tradition,
included with the antique instruments al the time of Con-
fucius, and came into popular use during llie Han dynasty
(from B.C. 200 until A.D. 200). It was of a peculiar oval
shape and had nearly the same quaint ornamentation as the
t'e-chung ; this consisted of s\-ml)olical figures, in four (li\'i-
visions, each containing nine mammals. The mouth was
cresccnt-shai)ed. Every figure had a deep meaning referring
to the seasons and to the mysteries of ilu- P.uddhist religion.
Tile largest hsiian-chnng was about t\\ent\- inches in length ,

40 MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS.

and, like the t'e-chung, was sounded by means of a small
wooden mallet with an oval knob. None of the bells of this
description had a clapper. It would, however, appear that
the Chinese had at an early period some kind of bell provided
with a wooden tongue : this was used for military purposes
as well as for calling the ]:)Coplc together when an imperial
messenger promulgated his sovereign's commands. An
expression of Confucius is recorded to the effect that he
wished to be " A w'ooden-tongued bell of Heaven," i.e., a
herald of heaven to proclaim the divine purposes to the
multitude.

The fang-hsiang was a kind of wood-harmonicon. It con-
tained sixteen wooden slabs of an oblong square shape, sus-
pended in a wooden frame elegantly decorated. The slabs
were arranged in two tiers, one above the other, and were all
of equal length and breadth but differed in thickness. The
cKim-tu consisted of twelve slips of bamboo, and was
used for beating time and for rhythmical purposes. The
slips being banded together at one end could be expanded
somewhat like a fan. The Chinese state that they used the
ch'un-tii for writing upon before they invented paper.

The yii, likewise an ancient Chinese instrument of per-
cussion and still in use, is made of wood in the shape of a
crouching tiger. It is hollow, and along its back are about
twenty small pieces of metal, pointed, and in ap])earance not
unUke the teeth of a saw. The i)crformer strikes them with
a sort of plectrum resembling a brush, or with a small stick
called chen. Occasionally the yii is made with pieces of
metal shaped like reeds. -«

The ancient yii was constructed with only six tones which
were attuned thus — /, g, a, c, d, f. The instrument appears
to have deteriorated in the course of time ; for, although
it has gradually acquired as many as twenty-seven pieces

ORIENTAL. 41

of metal, it evidently serves at tlie jircsent day more for
the production of rhythmical noise than for the execution of
any melody. The modern yii is made of a species of wood
called k'iuov ch'iii ; and the tiger rests generally on a hollow
wooden pedestal about three feet six inches long, which
serves as a sound-board.

The chn, likewise an instrument of percussion, was made
of the wood of a tree called ch'in-mu, the stem of which
resembles that of the pine and whose foliage is much like that
of the cypress. It was constructed of boards about three-
quarters of an inch in thickness. In the middle of one of the
sides was an aperture into which the hand was passed for
the purpose of holding the handle of a wooden hammer, the
end of which entered into a hole situated in the bottom of
the chu. The handle was ke})t in its place by means of a
wooden pin, on which it moved right and left when the instru-
ment was struck with a hammer. The Chinese ascribe to
the chu a very high antiquity, as they almost invariably
do with any of their inventions when the date of its origin
is unknown to them.

The po-fii was a drum, about one foot four inches in length,
and seven inches in diameter. It liad a parchment at each
end. which was prepared in a peculiar way by being boiled
in water. The po-fu used to l>e partly filled witli a ])re])ara-
tion made from the husk of rice, in order to mellow the sound.
The Chinese name for the drum is kn.

The chin-kit, a large drum fixed on a pedestal which
raises it above six feet from the ground, is embcllisheil
with symbolical designs. A similar drum on which natural
phenomena are depicted is called Ici-ku ; and anotlier of
the kind, with figures of certain birds ant! beasts wliicli are
regarded as symbols of hmg life, is called yvng-kn, and
also tsu-kn.

MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS.

The flutes, ii, yikh, and ch'ih were generally made of bamboo.
The kuan-tzu was a Pandean pipe containing twelve tubes of
bamboo. The hsiao, hkewise a Pandean pipe, contained
sixteen tubes. The p'ai-hsiao differed from the hsiao inasmuch
as the tubes were inserted into an oddly-shaped case highly
ornamented with grotesque designs and silken appendages.
. The Chinese are known to have constructed at an early

\^'' period a curious wind-instrument, called hsilan (the "Chinese

ocarina") (Fig. ii). It
was made of baked clay/
and had five finger-holes,/
three of which were
placed on one side anc^
two on the opposite side!,
as in the cut. Its tones
were in conformity with
the pentatonic scale.
The reader unacquainted with ilie pentatonic scale may
ascertain its character by playing on the pianoforte the scale
of C major with the omission of / and h (the fourth and seventh) ;
or by striking the black keys in regular succession from
/-sharp to the next /-sharp above or below.

The sheng (Fig. i2h) is one of the oldest instruments of
the Chinese still in use, and may be regarded as the most
ancient species of organ with which we are exactly acquainted.
Formerly it had either thirteen, nineteen, or twenty-four
tubes placed in a calabash; and a long curved lube
served as a mouth-piece. A similarly-constructed instru-
ment, though different in outward appearance, is the
ken of Siam and P>urniab'; The Siamese call the ken
"The Laos organ," and it is principally used by the in-
habitants of the Laos states. Moreover, there deserves to be
noticed another Chinese instrument of this kind, simple in

Fig. II.— Hst'AN.

111.. i2^-(i. Cii'iN (a spi-< iis (if I.iilt ;. Mndi rii CliiiK se. Nu. >;-'7u. I.. ;^A in., W . Un.
li. Siii.N(. (Mouth <)ri;an). Chiiusi-. il,i1i cciiiury. No. 977 '7.'. L. 1 7 iii..\\ . 4 ', in.
f. Vi.-i;ii-< h'in (Moon Giiit.ii). Cliincsi . mtli CLiitiuy. No. .■50- --•
Virloriii anil Albert Mu^clUll.

ORIENTAL. 43

construction, which probably represents the shcng in its most
primitive condition. It is to be found among the Miao-tsze,
or mountaineers, who are supposed to be the aboriginal in-
habitants of China. They call it sang. This species has no
bowl, or air-chest ; it rather resembles the Panpipe, but is
sounded by means of a common mouthpiece consisting of a
tube, which is placed at a right angle across the pipes. The
Chinese assert that the sheng was used in olden time in the
religious rites performed in honour of Confucius. Tradescant
Lay, in his account of the Chinese, calls it " Jubal's organ,"
and remarks, " this sei^ns to be the embryo of our multiform
and magnificent orgapj^

The ancient stringed instruments, tiie cii in (Fig. 12a) and ^c,
were of the dulcimer kind, they are still in use, and specimens
of them are in the Museum.

The yiteh-ch'tn (Fig. I2() is a favourite nistrument ol the
Chinese. The Canton pronunciation of yueh-ch'in is yiiet-kiim,
and this may be the reason why some European travellers
in China have called the instrument gut-komm. The wood 01
which it is made is called liy the Chinese shwan-chc. The
strings are twanged with a plectrum, or with the nails, which,
it will be remembered, are grown l)y the Chimse to an ex-
travagant length.

The Buddhists introduced from Tibet into China their god
of music, who is represented as a rather jovial-looking man
witli a moustache and an imperial, playing tlic fi-p'ci, a kind
of lute with four silken strings. Perhaps some interesting
information respecting the ancient Chinese musical instru-
ments may be gathered from the famous ruins of the Buddhist
temples Angcor-Wnt and Angcor-Tlwrn, in CanibotUa. Tliese
splendid ruins are supi)osed to be al)ove two thousand years
old : and, at any rate, the circumstance ol thuir age not being
known to the Caml)odians suggests a higli antiquity. On

44 MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS.

the bas-reliefs with which the temples were enriched are
figured musical instruments, which European travellers
describe as " flutes, organs, trumpets, and drums, resembling
those of the Chinese." Faithful sketches of these representa-
tions, might, very likely, afford valuable hints to the student
of musical history.

<;.

The Japanese.

"he Japanese musical instruments are in the main derived
from those of China, and their names consequently represent
the Japanese pronunciation of the Chinese sounds. -

The hiwa (Fig. 13^*) is almost identical with the Chinese
p'i-p'a. The example illustrated is of wood, lacquered
black and ornamented with a band of Japanese design in
gold lacquer. It has four silken strings, and two very
small sound holes.

The sa-iniseii (the Chinese san-hsien or " three-stringed
guitar ") is played especially by the Japanese ladies, and
is as great a favourite with them as the lute was formerly
with us. An exam])le in tlic Museum (Fig. 13c) has three
strings of silk. Both the hm<a and the sarnisen are played
with a 'wooden plectrum. The ko-kiu is the Japanese violin,
and resembles a small sarnisen, but has four strings. It is
held head upwards and played with a loose-strung bow.

The Ja])ancse have several instruments of the dulcimer
class, called koto (the Chinese ch'in) (Fig. 130). Some species
of the koto are played with plectra affixed to the fingers ;
and there are different successions of intervals adopted in
the tuning of the several species.

The ikuta-goto is provided with thirteen movable bridges,
by means of which the pitch of the strings is regulated. The
bridges are of wood, and aboul 2\ inches in height. The

rriS»i{--i;

Mg. I ;. — <(. Kiiio fa sjiecits of I.iUl). J.iI'Iium. luili cniluiy.
L. 75g in., W. gl in. \o. 43<j-'9i.
/i. BiWA (a species of Guitar). M'o<l<.Tn Japantst-. H. ; ■} in.,

(liani. 1 1 in. No. S38-'6c..
1. Samiskn. Japanese. 1.. 37', in. No. Ijcj-'a^.

VicUiiia -uiil .Ml ert Mii>i i.ni.

(ORIENTAL. 45

ikitia-golo is learnt chiefly by Japanese ladies moving in the
upper circles of society. It is a rather expensive instrument,
and requires much practice. The perfornur places it on the
floor, and, sitting in the usual Japanese attitude, hends
over it and twangs the strings with her fingers, the tii)S of
which are encased in plectra, resembling thimbks. which
terminate in a little projecting piece of ivory in size and
form like the finger nail.

Of wind instruments the Japanese use three principal
kinds :-^,i) The fnyc, like our flute, with six or seven finger-
Tioles ; (2) the hichiriki, a reed-flageolet, with seven finger-
holes and two thumb-holes ; (3) the shakiihachi. a liam.boo
pipe 20 inches high. '

The sheng (described on p. 42) is also ])0])u]ar in Japan.
The Japanese name f(jr it is slio. The general name in
Japanese for the drum is taiko (^ Chinese in kii. "large
drum " ). The Japanese have a great variety of drums,
some of which are used at religious ceremonies in th(
temj)les. The shimc-daiko is a shallow drum hung obUcjueU
before the player in a low wooden frame. It is l)eat(ii
with two plain sticks, and is used to accom])any singers.
The isudzumi is a small hand-drum with hour-glass-shaped
l)ody.

The Japanese have different kinds of gongs {dora ^- ("liinese
t'ung-lo, " copper gong " ), which are used in the service
of the temple, in processions, at funerals, and on se\-eral
other solemn occasions. The dohachi ( Chinese t'liu'^
Po, " copper bowl ") resembles a copjxT basin. Another
consists of two metal basins susjxmded by cords (ju a frame
composed of a pole and two cross-sticks.

The Ja])anese, as well as the Chinese, ])ossess suj)erbly
ornamented gongs (Ar/) raised on a stand. Those of the
former are perha])s the more magnificent.

46 MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS.

The Japanese em])loy large bells {kanc or isnri-gane =
Chinese chiing) in their Buddhist worship. There is a famous
bell, richly decorated, near the Daibutsu at Kioto, which is
struck*, at different hours of the day, with a heavy wooden
mallet ; and its sound is said to be particularly sonorous,
mellow, and far-reaching. Another celebrated Japanese bell
is placed on a high hill near the town of Nara. It is suspended
in a wooden shed, close to the Todaiji Temple. A thick pole,
affixed to the rafters, is drawn backwards, and then, by being
let loose, is made to rebound so as to hit the bell sideways in
the usual manner. This bell is admired throughout the
countr\', and pictures representing it are sold on the spot
to the visitors, who have to ascend a long flight of narrow
steps before they reach its station on the summit of the
hill. Small bells {rin) are used by the Buddhist priests in
Japan while officiating in the temple, just as is the case in
China, Thibet and other districts of the Asiatic continent.

The Hindu?.

In the Brahmin mythology of the Hindus the demi-god
Nareda is the inventor of the vina. the principal national
instrument ot Hindustan. His mother, Saraswati, the consort
of Brahma, may ])e regarded as the Minerva of the Hindus.
She is the goddess of music as well as of speech. To her is
attributed the invention of the systematic arrangement
of the sounds into a musical scale. She is represented seated
on a peacock and playing either on the southern vina or the
bill, stringed instruments of the lute kind. Brahma himself
we occasionally find depicted as a vigorous man with four
handsome heads, beating with his hands upon a small drum ;
and Vishnu, in his incarnation as Krishna, is represented
as a beautiful youtli ])laying upon a llute. The Hindus

ORIENTAL.

construct a peculiar kind of tiutc, the hansi. which thcv
consider as the favourite instrument of Krishna.

The sankha, or conch-shell trumpet of victory, one of the
important attributes of \'ishnu the pri'server, and his consort
Lalcshmi, is occasionally represented in tlie possession of
Siva, and other deities. Siva the destroyer, and his consort
Parvati, also carry the hitdhitdika, or damarit, a rattle-drum
shaped like an hour-glass.

It is a suggestive fact that we find among several nations
in different parts of the world an ancient tradition, according
to which their most popular stringed instrument was originally
derived from the water. Thus with Xareda and the vina.
the latter has also the name kach'-hapi, signifying a tortoise
{tcstudo), whilst nara denotes in Sanskrit water, and narada,
or nareda, the giver of water. Like Xareda, Xereus and his
fifty daughters, the Xereides, were much renowned for their
musical accomplishments ; and Hermes (it will he remembered)
made his lyre, the chelys, of a tortoise-shell. The Scandi-
navian god Odin, the originator of magic songs, is mentioned
as the ruler of the sea, and as such he had the name of Nikarr.
In the depth of the sea he i)layo(l the harj) with liis sul)ordinate
spirits, who occasionally came u}) to tlie surface of the water
to teach some favoured human being their wonderful instru-
ment. Wiiinamoinen. the divine ])layer on the I'^inni^h
kantcle (according to the Kalewala, the old national epic
of the Finns) constructed his instrument of hsh-bones. The
frame he made out of the bones of the i)ike ; and the teeth of
the pike he used for the tuning-pegs.

Jacob Grimm in his work on German mythology points out
an old tradition, preserved in Swedish and Scotch national
ballads, of a skilful harper who constructs his instrument
out of the bones of a young girl drowiitd \)\ a wickrd W(>man.
Her fingers hr u<es for the tuning screws, and her gohUm

48 MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS.

hair for the strings. The harper plays, and his nuisic kills
the murderess. A similar story is told in the old Icelandic
national songs ; and the same tradition has been preserved
in the Faroe islands, as well as in Norway and Denmark.

May not the agreeable impression produced by the rhythmi-
cal flow of the waves and the soothing murmur of running
water have led various nations, independently of each other,
to the widespread conception that they obtained their favourite
instrument of music from the water ? Or is the notion
traceable to a common source dating from a prc-historic age,
perhaps from the early period when the Aryan race is surmised
to have diffused its lore through various countries ? Or did it
originate in the old belief that the world, with all its charms
and delights, arose from a chaos in which water constituted
the predominant element ?

Howbeit, Nareda, the giver of water, was the offspring of
Brahma the creator ; and Odin had his throne in the skies.
Indeed, many of the musical water-spirits appear to have
been originallN- considered as rain deities. Their music may,
therefore, be regarded as derived from the clouds rather than
from the sea. In short, the traditions respecting spirits and
water are not in contradiction to the opinion of tlie ancient
Hindus that music is of lioavenly origin, but rather tend to
support it.

The earliest musical instruments of the Hindus on record
have, almost all of them, remained in popular use until the
present day scarcely altered. Besides these, the Hindus
possess several Arabic and Persian instruments which are of
comparatively modern date in Hindustan : evidently having
been introduced into that country scarcely i,ooo years ago, at
the time of the Muhammadan irruption. There are several
treatises on music extant, written in Sanskrit, which contain
descriptions of the ancient instruments.

I'll,. 14. — ii. S.XKiMiA AND I'jiiw. Indiiin (Boii.t;.iO. njtli cintmy. I.. _•? in. , bow ii, 111.

No. iS... iKcr' •'.-;2.

/>. Ki'DRA \'lN\. Siiuthi^ni Iiidi.in (M.ulrav). mill ri 11111: y, I,, liin-

I. S.VKANi.l AMI I'.OW. Snllthllll Ill'liall. l'(lll c. iiliuy. L. ■.• in.

Nil. 1)2 1 iS. I S.

\'icl<)ii:i iikI Allii rl Mu. niii.

- ORIENTAL. 49

Of these the Bharata Natya S'astra l)y Bharata Aluni
(period : B.C. 200 to a.d. iou), and the Sangita Ratnakara,
arc prol)al)ly the oldest and most \ahial)Ir. The hitter,
according to information suj)phe(l by the hite Major C. K.
Day, is an exhaustive work, consisting of seven adliyayas,
compiled by Sarnga Deva. son of Sotala De\a, King of
Karnata, and grandson of Bhaskara. a Kashmirian (i)eri(>d :
so far undetermined).

The villa is luidouhtedly of higli anticiuity. It has seven
wire strings, and moval)le frets wiiirh are generally fastened
with wax. (iourds, often tastefully ornamented, are affixed
for the ])uri)0se of increasing the sonorousness. Then- are
several kinds of the -ri-iia in tlifferent districts.

Concerning tlie two [jrincipal presi-nt-day (U'rix-ations from
the ancient viiui, the following al)hre\i;ited di'scriptions of the
rudra vina of Southern India and tlie bin or viahati vina of
Northern India, are obtained from " The ^fusic an<l Musical
Instruments of Southern India," liy the late M;ijor ('. K. Day
(London, i8()i).

The rudra vina {sec h'ig. 14/') is composed of a pe;u"-slia])e(l
body of thin wood, hollowed out ol the solid ; wooden bell\ ;
four princij)al metal strings }mssing over twenty-h)ur frets
and three shortt'r wires j)lace(l at the side of the linger-board ;
also a single detachable hurra, or hollow gourd, fasteni'd to the
under-side of the nick, near the head, to increase tin- \-olume
of sound. In the method of ])laying it differs from that of
other Indian musi'al instrnnunts, the left liand i)eing iiii-
ployed to sto]> the strings on the fnts, whilst ti-i' fingers,
or ratlier ti;e fing<r-n;ujs. of the right hand are used, w it hout
plectra, for striking. The hin, or lualut/i vina. differs from
the rudra vina in shape and in metliod of playing. Two
large gourd-resojiators rej)lace the wooden body wiiji its
small hurra ; the side strings are ])la(ed two on the Idt

50 MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS.

side and one upon the right ; the frets vary from nineteen
to twenty-two in number ; and in playing, the two first fingers
of the right hand are armed with wire plectra.

The shrangi, or the common fiddle of Southern India
(Fig. i4r) has a wooden body hollowed out of a single block,
a parchment belly, three strings of thick gut, and usually
fifteen sympathetic strings of wire, tuned chromatically.
Sometimes a fourth princi])al string of wire, called luruj, is
added. It is played with a bow, the instrument being held
vertically, head uppermost ; the tone resembling that of the
viola. The sarangi of Northern India, usually carved with a
conventional swan-shaped head, has a rounded body, and
possesses a lesser number of sympathetic wires.

The sdrinda, or Bengal fiddle (Fig. 14a), another of the few
bowed instruments of India, consists of a hollow wooden body,
usually decorated with carving, a curious parchment belly
covering only the lower half of the body, and three strings
either of gut or silk.

The Hindus divided their musical scale into several intervals
smaller than our modern semitones. They adopted twenty-
two intervals called s'ruti in tlic compass of an octave, which
may therefore be compared to our chromatic intervals. As
the frets of the vina are movable the performer can easily
regulate them according to the scale, or mode, which he
requires for his music.

The harp has long been obsolete. If some Hindu drawings
of it can be relied upon, it had at an early time a triangular
frame and was in construction as well as in shape and size
almost identical with the Assyrian harp.

The Hindus claim to have invented the violin bow. They
maintain that the ravanaslra, one of their old instruments
played with the bow, was invented about 5,000 years ago by
Ravana, a mighty king of Ceylon. However this may be,

' - ORIENTAL. 51

there is a great probability that the fiddle-bow originated in
Hindustan ; because Sanskrit scholars inform us that there
are names for it in works which cannot be less than from
1,500 to 2,000 years old. The non-occurrence of any instru-
ment played with a bow on the monuments of the nations of
antiquity is by no means so sure a proof as has generally
been supposed, that the bow was unknown. The fiddle in its
primitive condition must have been a poor contrivance.
It probably was despised by players who could produce better
tones with greater -facility by twanging the strings with their
fingers, or with a plectrum. Thus it may have remained
through many centuries without experiencing any material
improvement. It must also be borne in mind that the monu-
ments transmitted to us chiefly represent historical events,
religious ceremonies, and royal entertainments. On such
occasions instruments of a certain kind only were used, and
these we find represented ; while others, which may have been
even more conmion, never occur. In 2,000 years' time
people will jwssibly maintain that some highly perfected
instrument popular willi them was entirely unknown to us,
because it is at present in so primitive a condition that no one
hardly notices it.

" What the ravanastra, or r7ibanastra, was like is rather
doubtful, but at the present time there exists in Ceylon a
primitive instrument played with a l>ow, called vinavah. which
has two strings of different kinds, one made of a species
of flax, and the other of horsehair, which is the material also
of the string of the bow. . . . The hollow i)art of this in-
strument is half a cocoa-nut shell polished, covered with the
dried skin of a lizard, and })erforated below." (Day, p. 102.)

This instrument again is almost identical with the Chinese
fiddle called ttr-heen, which also has two strings, and a body
consisting of a small block of wood, hollowed out and covered

9842. i> -i

52 MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS.

with the skin of a serpent. The nr-heen has not been mentioned
among the most "ancient instruments of the Chinese, since
there is no evidence of its having been known in China before
the introduction of the Buddhist rehgion into that country.
From indications, which to point out would lead too far here,
it would appear that several instruments found in China
originated in Hindustan. They seem to have been gradually
diffused from Hindustan and Thibet, more or less altered
in the course of time, through the East as far as Japan,
v^nother curious Hindu instrument, probably of very high
antiquity, is the piingi, or jinagovi, also called toumrie and
magoudi. It consists of a gourd or of the ciiddos nut,
hollowed, into which two reed-pipes are inserted. The piingi
therefore, somewhat resembles in appearance a bagpipe.
It is generally used by the saperd or snake-charmer, who
plays upon it when exhibiting the antics of the cobra. The
name magoudi, given in certain districts to this instrument,
rather tends to corroborate the opinion of some musical
historians that the magadis of the ancient Greeks was a sort
of double-pipe, or bagpipe/

Many instruments of Hindustan are known by different
names in different districts, and there are many varieties.
On the whole, the Hindus jwssess about fifty instruments.
To describe them properly would fill a volume. Some,
which are in the Museum, will be found well described and
illustrated in the previously mentioned work by the late
Major C. R. Day, which, in addition to affording much valuable
information to the student and collector, contains a lengthy
bibliography of Indian music and musicnl instruments.

The Persians and Arabs.

Of the musical instruments of the ancient Persians, before
the Christian era, scarcely anything is known. It may be

ORIENTAL. 53

surmised that they closely resembled those of the Assyrians,
and probably also those of the Hebrews.

The harp, chang. in olden time a favourite instrument of the
Persians, has gradually fallen into desuetude. A small harp
is represented in the celel)rated sculptures which exist on
a stupendous rock, called Tak-i-l'.ostan, in the vicinity of the
town of Kermanshah. TJicse sculptures are said to have
been executed during the lifetime of the Persian monarch
Chosroes II. (591-628). They form the ornaments of two
lofty arches, and consist of rei)resentations of field sports
and aquatic amusements. In one of the boats is seated
a man in an ornamental dress, with a halo round his head,
who is receiving an arrow from one of his attendants ;
while a female, who is sitting near him, plays on a Trigonon.
Towards the top of the bas-relief is represented a stage, on
which are performers on small straight trumpets and little
hand drums ; six harpers ; and four other musicians, appa-
rently females— the first of whom i)lays a tiate ; the second,
a sort of Pandean pipe ; the third, an instrument which is too
much defaced to be recognisable ; and the fourth, a bagpip,'.
Two har{)s of a peculiar shape were copied by Sir Gore Ousely
from Persian manuscripts about four hundred years old,
resembling, in the principle on which they are constructed,
all other oriental harps. There existed evidently various
kinds of the chang. It may be remarked here that the instru-
ment tschenk (or chang) in use at the i)resent day in Persia,
is more like a dulcimer than a harp. 7'he Arabs adopted
the harp from the Persians, and called it junk.

The Persians appear to have adopted, al an early period,
smaller musical intervals than semitones. When the Arabs
conquered Persia (.\.D. 641) the Persians had already attainctl
a higher degree of civilisation tiian their conquerors. The
latter found in Persia the cultivation of music considerabl\-

54 MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS.

in advance of their own, and the musical instruments superior
also. They soon adopted the Persian instruments, and
there can bs no doubt that the musical system exhibited by
the earliest Arab writers whose works on the theory of music
have been preserved was based upon an older system of the
Persians. In these works the octave is divided in seventeen
one-third-iones — intervals which are still made use of in the
East. Some of the Arabian instruments are constructed
so as to enable the })erformer to produce the intervals with
exactness. The frets on the lute and tamboura, for instance,
are regulated with a view to this object.

The Arabs had to some extent become acquamted with
many of the Persian instruments before the time of their
conquest of Persia. An Arab musician of the name of Nadr
Ben el-Hares Ben Kelde is recorded as having been sent to
the Persian King Chosroes II., in the sixth century, for
the purpose of learning Persian singing and performing on
the lute. Through him, it is said, the lute was brought to
Mekka. Saib Chatir, the son of a Persian, is spoken of as
the first performer on the lute in Medina, a.d. 682 ; and of an
Arab lutist, Ebn Soreidsch from Mekka, a.d. 683, it is especially
mentioned that he played in the Persian style ; evidently
the suj^erior one. The lute, el-ood, had before the tenth
century only four strings, or four pairs j)roducing four tones,
each tone having two strings tuned in unison. About the
tenth century a string for a fifth tone was added. The strings
were made of silk neatly twisted. The neck of the instrument
was provided with frets of string, which were carefully regu-
lated according to the system of seventeen intervals in the
compass of an octave before mentioned. Other favourite
stringed instruments were the taynboura, a kind of luti' with
a long neck, and the quaiiun, a kind of dulcimer strung with
lamb's gut strings (generally ilinu" in unison tor each tone)

1-"1G. I5.— ''• Kemam.kii, SiiAKA or I'liuii.i:. I'rr-i.in. Ab'iut i- No. >;) ;i(-

1.. ^n[ in. ; (iiiiiii. S in.
/'. NiN (I'liitf). I'tr>i;iii. Kithcinmry I.. ];:iii. Kn. .,y, ■>!.
1. Sam in (l>ulciim,-i) Cam:. Pi rsi.iii. 1. jiiii.; W. uliii. N.>. 771, ',-(..

Victoria and Allnii Musmiii.

ORIENTAL. 55

and played upon with two little pk'ctra which the performer
had fastened to his fingers. The qiiannn is likewise still in
use in countries inhabited by Muhammadans. The Persian
santir, the prototype of our dulcimer, is mounted with wire
strings and played with two slightly curved sticks. The
musician depicted in the left-hand corner of Fig. 15c is
playing a santir.

Al-Farabi, one of the earliest Arabian musical theorists
known, who lived in the beginning of the tenth century, does
not allude to the fiddle-bow. This is notewortlu' inasmuch as
it seems in some measure to supj^ort the opinion maintained
by some historians that the bow originated in England or
Wales. Unfortunately we possess no e.xact descriptions of
the Persian and Arabian instruments between the tenth and
fourteenth centuries, otherwise we should proljubly have
earlier accounts of some instrum.'nt of the violin kind in
Persia. Ash-shakandi, who lived in Spain about a.d. 1200,
mentions the rahob, which may have been in use for centuries
without having been thought worthv of notice on account
of its rudeness. Persian writers of the fourteenth century
speak of two instruments of the violin class, \\z.. the rahdb
and the kcmdngch. As regards the kemnngi'/i, the Aral)s them-
selves assert that they obtained it from Persia, and their
statement appears all the more worthy of belief from the fact
that both names, rahob and kemdngch. are originally Persian.

The nuy, a flute (Fig. 15^), and the surnai, a species of
oboe, are still popular in the East.

The sitara is a Persian three stringed instrum -nt with a
wooden body and a parchment belly (Fig. I5(/).

The Arabs must ha\-e been indefatigable constructors
ot nnisiral instruments. Kiesewetti'r gives a li>^t ol .ibove
two hundred names ot Ar.ibian instruments, and this does
not inchide many known to us througli S|)aius!i historians.

56 MUSICAL INSTRUMIiNTS.

A careful investigation of the musical instruments of the
Arabs during their sojourn in Spain is particularly interesting
to the student of mcdinsval music, inasmuch as it reveals the
Eastern origin of many instruments which are generally
regarded as European inventions. Introduced into Spain
by the Saracens and the Moors they were gradually diffused
towards northern Euroi)e. The English, for instance,
adopted not only the Moorish dance (morris dance) Init also
the kuitra (gittern), the el-ood (lute), the rabob (rebec), the
nakkdrah (naker), and several others. In an old Cornish
sacred drama, su})posed to date from the fourteenth century,
we have in an enumeration of musical instruments the nakrys,
designating " kettle-drums." It must be remembered that
the Cornish language, which has now become obsolete, was
nearly akin to the Welsh. Indeed, names of musical in-
struments deri\V(l from Ihe Moors in Spain occur in almost
every European language.

Not a few fanciful stories are traditionally preserved
among the Arabs testifying to the wonderful effects they
ascribed to the power of their instrumental performances.
One example will sufflce. Al-Farabi had acquired his pro-
ficiency in Spain, in one of the schools at Cordova which
flourished as early as towards the end of the ninth century,
and his reputation became so great that ultimately it ex-
tended to Asia. The mighty Caliph of Bagdad himself
desired to hear the celebrated musician, and sent messengers
to Spain with instructions to offer rich presents to him and
to convey him to the court. But Al-Farabi feared that it
he went he should be retained in Asia, and should never
again see the home to which he felt deeply attached. At
last he resolved to disguise himself, and ventured to under-
take the journey which promised him a rich harvest. Dressed
in a mean costume, he made his appearance at the court

ORIENTAL. 57

just at the tirnc when tlie cahpli was being entertained with
his daily concert. Al-Farabi, unknown to everyone, was
permitted to exhibit his skill on the lute. Scarcely Iiad he
commenced his performance in a certain musical mode
when he set all his audience laughing aloud, notwithstanding
the efforts of the courtiers to suppress so unbecoming an
exhibition of mirth in the royal presence. In truth, even
the cali[)h himself was comj)clled to I)urst out into a ht of
laughter. Presently the ])erformer changed to another
mode, and the effect was that immediately all his hearers
began to sigh, and soon tears of sadness replaced the previous
tears of mirth. Again he i)layed in another mode, which
e.xcited his audience to such a rage that they would have
fought each other if he, seeing the danger, had not directly
gone over to an appeasing nuxU'. After this wonderful
exliibition of his skill Al-Farabi concludetl in a mode which
had the effect of making his listeners fall into a profound
sleej), during which he took his departure.

It will lie seen that this incident is almost identical with
one recorded as having happened about twelve hundred
years earlier at the court of Alexander the Oreat, and which
forms the subject of Dryden's "Alexander's Feast." The
distinguished flutist Timotheus successively aroused and
subdued different passions by changing the musical modes
during his jierformance, exactly in the same way as did
Al-Faral)i.

VI.

AMERICAN INDIAN.

If the preserved antiquities of the American Indians,
dating from a period anterior to our discovery of the western
hemisphere, possess an extraordinary interest because
they afford trustworthy evidence of the degree of progress
which the aborigines had attained in the cultivation of the
arts and in their social condition before they came in contact
with Europeans, it must be admitted that the ancient musical
instruments of the American Indians are also worthy of
examination. Several of them are constructed in a manner
which, in some degree, reveals the characteristics of the
musical system prevalent among the people who used the
instruments. And although most of these interesting relics,
which have been obtained from tombs and other hiding-
places, may not ])0 of great anti(inil\-. it has been satisfactorily
ascertained that they are genume contrivances of the Indians
before they were influenced l)y European civilisation.

Some account of these relics is therefore likely to prove of
interest also to the ethnologist, especially as several facts may
perhaps be found of assistance in elucidating the still un-
solved problem as to the probable original connection of the
American with Asiatic races.

Among the instruments of the Aztecs in Mexico and of the
Peruvians none have been found so frequently, and have
been preserved in their former condition so unaltered, as
pipes and flutes. They are generally made of pottery or of
bone, substances which are unsuitable for the construction

AMERICA X INDIAN. 59

of most other instruments, but which are remarkably well
qualified to withstand the decaying influence of time. There
is, therefore, no reason to conclude from the frequent occur-
rence of such instruments that they were more common
than other kinds of which specimens haw rarely been
discovered.

The Mexicans possessed a small whistle formed of baked
clay, a considerable number of which have been found.
Some specimens (Fig. 16) are singularly grotesque in shape,

^Mn^

Fig. 16. — Pottery Whistlef. Ancient Mexican. British Museum.

representing caricatures of the human face and figure, birds,
l)easts, and flowers. Some were provided at the top with a
finger-hole which, when closed, altered the pitch of the
sound, so that two different tones were prodiicihle on the
instrument. (3thers had a little Itall <i| haked r\;\\ l\ing
loose; inside the air-chamber. When the instrument was
blown the current of air .set the ball in a \ibratinf; motion,

6o MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS.

thereby causing a shrill and whirring sound. A similar
contrivance is sometimes made use of by Englishmen for
conveying signals. The Mexican whistle most likely served
principally the same purpose, but it may possibly have been
used also in musical entertainments. In the Russian horn
band each musician is restricted to a single tone ; and similar
combinations of performers — only, of course, much more
rude — have been witnessed by travellers among some tribes
in Africa and America.

Rather more complete than the above specimens are some
of the whistles and small pipes which have been found in
graves of the Indians of Chiriqui in Central America.

The pipe of the Aztecs, which is called by the Mexican
Spaniards pito, somewhat resembled our flageolet : the
material was a reddish pottery, and it was provided with
four finger holes. Although among about half a dozen speci-
mens which the writer has examined some are considerably
larger than others, they all have, singularly enough, the same
pitch of sound. The smallest is about six inches in length,
and the largest about nine inches. Several pitos have been
found in a remarkably well-preserved condition. They are
easy to blow, and their order of intervals is in conformity

with the pentatonic scale, thus: /j r— J-#-|

The

usual shape of the pilo is that here represented (Fig. 17a & c).
A specimen of a less common shape, is given in Fig. lyb.
They are all in the British Museum. Indications suggestive
of the popular estimation in which the flute (or perhaps,
more strictly speaking, the pipe) was held by the Aztecs are
not wanting. It was played in religious observances, and we
find it referred to allegorically in orations delivered on solemn
occasions. For instance, at the religious festival which was

-3

.-^^

/!r

l''i(,. 17. -Pii'i^ (llii'^eolcts of poiti I y). i(.aiKl<. Ancient M( \ic.m.
'•. Iroiii the Inland uf S.Kiificios.
British Mii^iMiiii.

III.. 11. Hc.m: I'"m 1 1 >. Ancii 111 I'l nivlin.
./. .11x1 /'. I'nixillo. , . I iiii.c.

Hi ili-.li Mii-iiirii.

AM ERIC AX INDIAN. 6i

held in honour of Tezcatlepoca — a divinity depicted as a
handsome youth, and considered second only to the supreme
being — a young man was sacriliced who, in preparation tor the
ceremony, had been instructed in the art of playing the flute.
Twenty days before his death four young girls, named after
the principal goddesses, were given to him as companions ;
and when the hour arrived in which he was to be sacrificed he
observed the established symbolical rite of l)reaking a flute
on each of the steps, as lie ascended the tcmi)le.

Again, at the pul)lic ceremonies which took j)lace on the
accession of a prince to the throne the new monarch addressed
a prayer to the god, in which occurred the following allegt)rical
expression : — " I am thy flute ; reveal to me thy will ;
breathe into me thy breath like into a flute, as thou hast
done to my predecessors on the throne. As thou hast opened
their eyes, their ears, and their mouth to utter what is good,
so likewise do to me. I resign myself entirely to thy guidance."
Similar sentences occur in the orations addressed to the
monarch. In reading them one can hardly fail to be re-
minded of Hamlet's reflections addressed to (iuildenstern,
when the servile courtier expresses his inability to '• govern
the ventages " of the pipe and to make the instrument
" discourse most eloquent music," which the prince bids
him to do.

!\I. de Castelnau in his " E.\])edition dans rAiiuriciue,"
gives among the illustrations of ol)jccts discoxcrrd in ancient
Peruvian tombs a flute made of a human bone. It has four
finger holes at its upjier surface and a])p(.-ars to haw been blown
into at one end. Two bone flutes (Figs. i8/> A: (), in appear-
ance similar to the engraving given liy .M. de Castelnau, which
have been disinterred at Tru.xillo. are deposited in thelhitish
Museum. They are about si.v inches in length, and each
is provided with five finger holes. One of these has all Wu)

62 MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS.

holes at its upper side, and one of the holes is considerably
smaller than the rest. The specimen which we illustrate
(Fig. i8a) is ornamented with some simple designs in black.

The other has four holes at its upper side and one under-
neath, the latter being placed near to the end at which the
instrument evidently was blown. In the aperture of this
end some remains of a hardened paste, or resinous substance,
are still preserved. This substance probably was inserted
for the purpose of narrowing the end of the tube, in order
to facilitate the producing of the sounds. The same con-
trivance is still resorted to in the construction of the bone
flutes by some Indian tribes in Guiana. The bones of slain
enemies appear to have been considered especially appropriate
for such flutes. The Araucanians having killed a prisoner,
made flutes of his l)ones, and danced and " thundered out
their dreadful war songs, accompanied by the mournful
sounds of these horrid instruments." Alonso de Ovalle saj^s
of the Indians in Chili: "Their flutes, which they play
upon in their dances, are made of the bones of the Spaniards
and other enemies whom they have overcome in war. This
they do by way of triumph and glory for their victory. They
make them likewise of bones of animals ; but the warriors
dance only to the flutes made of their enemies." The
Mexicans and Peruvians obviously possessed a great variety
of pipes and flutes, some of which are still in use among
certain Indian tribes. Those which were found in the famous
ruins at Palenque are deposited in the museum in Mexico.
They are : — The cuyvi, a pipe on which only five tones were
producible ; the huayllaca, a sort of flageolet ; the pincullu,
a flute ; and the chayna, which is described as " a flute
whose lugubrious and melancholy tones filled the heart
with indescribable sadness, and brought involuntary tearsi
into the eyes." It was perhaps a kind of oboe,

AMERICAN INDIAN. 63

The Peruvians had the syrinx, wliich they called huayra-
puhura. Some clue to the proper meaning of this name
may perhaps be gathered from the word huayra, which
signifies " air." The hiiayra-puhura was made of cane, and
also of stone. Sometimes an embroidery of needlework
was attached to it as an ornament. One specimen which
has been disinterred is adorned with twelve figures precisely
resembling Maltese crosses. The cross is a figure which
may readily be supposed to suggest itself very naturally ;
and it is therefore not so surprising, as it may appear at a
first glance, that the American Indians used it not un-
frequently in designs and sculptures before they came in
contact with Christians.

The British Museum possesses a hnayra-puhura consisting
of fourteen reed pipes of a brownish colour, tied together in
two rows by means of thread, so as to form a double set of
seven reads. Both sets are almost exactly of the same dimen-
sions and are placed side by side. The shortest of these
reeds measure three inches, and the longest six and a half.
In one set they are open at the bottom, and in the other they
are closed. Consequently octavos are produced. The reader
is probabh' aware that the closing of a pipe at the end raises
its pitch an octave. Thus, in our organ, the so-called stopjied
diapason, a set of closed pip?s, requires tubes of only half the
length of those which constitute the open diapason, although
both these stops produce tones in the same pitch ; the only
difference between them being the quality of sound, which
in the former is less bright than in the latter.

The tones yielded by the huayra-puh'.ira n\ (piestjon are as

follows : A\ A * TT "' r ~ '^*^ highest octave is

indistinct, owing to some injury done to the shortest tubes ;

MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS.

but sufficient evidence remains to show that the intervals
were purposely arranged according to the pcntatonic scale.
This interesting relic was brought to light from a tomb at Arica.
Another huayra-puhura (Fig. 19), likewise still yielding
sounds, was discovered placed over a corpse in a Peruvian
tomb, and was procured l:)y the French general, Paroissien.
This instrument is made of soapstone, and contains eight
pipes. It now belongs to the Rev. Canon J. H. Rawdon.*

Ifni^llll In the Museum may

li-ljlLIlL 1 ' J 1 +

be seen a good plaster

cast taken from this

curious relic. The height

is five and three-quarter

inches, and its width

six and a quarter

inches. Four of the

tubes have small lateral

finger-holes, which, when

closed, lower the pitch

a semitone. These holes

are on the second, fourth, six, and seventh pipe, as

shown in the engraving. When the holes are open, the

i L a * -r

tones are : •/■jr nrt-a^^^tf— I — ; and when they are closed :

Fig. 19.— Hl'ayra-puhi'ra, discovered
in a Peruvian loinb.
The properly of the Rev. Canon Rawdon.

TIk' other tubes have nnaUeral)le tones.
The following notation exhibits all the tones producible on

the

instrument : W, -TTj3-^^S=?^P-f~f '^

The musician is likely to speculate what could have induced

* - / lansactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, Vol. %x, ,
Part I ( i'-'5i'j.

A MERIT. IX INDIAN.

the Peruvians to adopt so strange a series of intervals : it
seems rather arbitrary than premeditated.

If (and this seems not to be improbal)le) the Peruvians con-
sidered those tones which are produced by closing the lateral
holes as additional intervals only, a v^ariety of scales or kinds
of modes may have been contrived by the admission of one
or other of these tones among the essential
ones. If we may conjecture from some
remarks of Garcilasso de la Vega, and
other historians, the Peruvians appear to
have used different orders of intervals
for different kinds of tunes, in a way
similar to what we find to be the case
with certain Asiatic nations. We are
told, for instance, "Each poem, or song,
had its appropriate tune, and they could
not put two different songs to one tune ;
and this was why the enamoured gallant,
making music at niglit on his flute, with
the tune which l)elonged to it, told the
lady and a'l the world the joy or sorrow
of his soul, the favour or ill-will which he
possessed; so that it might be said that bMMr'- A
he spoke by the flute." Thus also the
Hindus have certain tunes for certain
seasons and fixed occasions, and likewise
a number of different modes or scales
used for i)articular kinds of songs.

Trumpets are often mentioned by
writers who have recorded the manners
and customs of the Indians at the time
of the discovery of America. There are, Fio. ?«.

WOODHN Tl<llMITT,llSC(l bv

however, scarcely any illustrations to be I'Hi'ans near the Orinoco.'

9842.

M USICA L INSTRUMENTS.

relied on of these instruments transmitted to us. The Conch
was frequently used as a trumpet for conveying signals in
war.

Fig. 20 represents a kind of trumpet madu of wood, and
nearly seven feet in length, which (nimilla found among
the Indians in the vicinity of the Orinoco../Tt somewhat
resembles the jnruparis (Fig. 21), a mysterious instrument of
the Indians on the Rio Haupes, a tributary of the Rio Negro,
South America. The juruparis is regarded as an object of
great veneration. Women are never jjermitted to see it.
So stringent is this law that any woman obtaining a sight of
it is put to death — usually by poison. No youths are allowed
to see it until they have been subjected to a series of initiatory
fastings and scourgings. The jnruparis is usually kept hidden
in the bed of some stream, deej) in the forest ; and no one
dares to drink out of that sanctified stream, or to bathe in its
water. At feasts the juruparis is brought out during the
night, and is blown outside the houses of entertainment.
The inner portion of the instrument consists of a tube made
of slips of the Paxiaba palm {Triartca cxorrhiza). When the

■> ^- gv- -' T^- rr9 ,-, .^^.. i«;_r^,j „.__..

■^~' — 'II — n"-" 1 ii"'iiiii I ■ir'tji

}"-" -— ^g" -"-'! -rj ^ laii m .j..AMfcj [ ^. -m^A>». .-^^.M'»y^..»./ CT ..«aM

Fig. 21.— JiRi'PAKis, with and witliout cover, \ised by Indians on (lie Rio Haupds.
In the Mustinn at Kf.w Gardens.

Indians arc about to use the instrument they nearly close the
upper end of the tube with clay, and also tie above tin- oblong

square liolc (shown in tlie engraving) a portion of the leaf of
the Uaruma, one of the arrow-root family. Round the tul)e
are wrapped long strips of the tough bark of tlie Jel)aru(P</n-
voa grandi flora). This covering descends in folds below the
tube. The length of the instrument is from four to fi\-e feet.
The illustration (Fig. 21), which exhibits the jiiruparis with
its cover and without it, has been taken from a specimen in
the museum at Kew gardens. The mysteries connected witli
this trumpet are evidently founded on an old tradition from
l^rehistoric Indian ancestors. ] urn pari means " demon " :
and with several Indian tribes on the Amazon customs and
ceremonies still prevail in honour of Jurupari.

The Caroados, an Indian tribe in Brazil, have a war trumpet
which closely resembles the jiiruparis. ^^'itIl this people it is
the custom for the chief to give on his war trumpet the signal
for battle, and to continue blowing as long as he wishes the
battle to last. The trumpet is made of wood, and its sound is
described by travellers as very dee}) but rather j)leasant.
The sound is easily produced, and its continuance does not
require much exertion ; Init a peculiar vibration of the lips is
necessary which requnes practice. Another trumpet, the
ture, is common with many Indian tribes on the Amazon
who use it chiefly in war. It is made of a long and thick
bamboo, and there is a si)lit reed in the mouthpiece. It
therefore partakes rather of the character of an oboe or
clarinet. Its tone is described as loud and harsh. The
iure is especially used by the sentinels of predatory hordes,
who, mounted on a lofty tree, give the signal of attack to their
comrades.

Again, the aboiigines in Mexico had a curious contrivance of

this kind, the acocofl. now more usually called clarin. The

former word is its old Indian name, and the latter appears to

have l)ecn first given to the instrument by the Spaniards. The

9S42. V. -'

.V USICA L INSTR UMENTS.

acocotl consists of a very thin tube from eight to ten feet in
length, and generally not quite straight but with some irregular
curves. This tube, which is often not thicker than a couple of
inches in diameter, terminates at one end in a sort of bell, and
has at the other end a small mouthpiece resembling in shape
that of a clarinet. The tube is made of the dry stalk of a
plant which is common in Mexico, and which likewise the
Indians call acocotl. The most singular characteristic of the
instrument is that the performer does not blow into it, but
inhales the air through it ; or rather, he produces the sound by
sucking the mouthpiece. It is said to require strong lungs to
perform on the acocotl effectively according to Indian notions
of taste.

The hotuto, which Gumilla saw used by some tribes near the

lie 23.— BiiTVTo, used by Indians nc;n the Oriiu.co.

A^fERFrAN INDIA y. 69

river Orinoco (Fig. 22), was evidently an ancient Indian
contrivance, but appears to have fallen almost into oblivion
during the last two centuries. It was made of baked clay
and was commonly from three to four feet long ; but some
trumpets of this kind were of enormous size. The bohito with
two bellies was usually made thicker than that with three
beUies and emitted a deeper sound, which is described as
having been really terrific. These trumpets were used on
occasions of mourning and funeral dances. Alexander von
Humboldt saw the boliito among some Indian tribes near the
river Orinoco.

Besides those which have been noticed, other antique wind

instruments of the Indians are mentioned by historians ; but

the descriptions given of them are too superficial to convey a

distinct notion as to their form and purport. Several of these

barbarous contrivances scarcely deserve to be classed with

musical instruments. This may, for instance, be said of certain

musical jars or earthen vessels producing sounds, which the

Peruvians constructed for their amusement. These vessels

were made double ; and the sounds imitated the cries of

animals or birds. A similar contrivance of the Indians in

Chili, preserved in the museum at Santiago, is described by

the traveller S. S. Hill as follows : — " It consists of two

earthen vessels in the form of our india-rubber bottles, but

somewhat larger, with a flat tube from four to six inches in

length, uniting their necks near the top and slightly curved

upwards, and with a small hole on the upper side one third of

the length of the tube from one side of the necks. To produce

the sounds the bottles were filled with water and suspended

to the bough of a tree, or to a beam, by a string attached to the

middle of the curved tube, and then swung backwards and

forwards in such a manner as to cause each end to be alternately

the highest and lowest; so that the water might pass backwards

70 MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS.

and forwards from one bottle to the other through the tube
between them. By this means soothing sounds were produced
which, it is said, were employed to lull to repose the drowsy
chiefs who usually slept away the hottest hours of the day.
In the meantime, as the bottles were porous, the water within
them diminished by evaporation, and the sound died gradually
away."

As regards instruments of percussion, a kind of drum deserves
special notice on account of the ingenuity evinced in its con-
struction. The Mexicans called it- /^/)0Ma2;//t. They generally
made it of a single block of very hard wood, somewhat ol)long
square in shape, which they hollowed, leaving at each end a
solid piece about three or four inches in thickness, and at its
upper side a kind of sound-board about a quarter of an inch
in thickness. In this sound-board, if it may be called so, they
made three incisions ; namely, two running parallel some dis-
tance lengthwise of the drum, and a third running across from
one of these to the other just in the centre. By this means they
obtained two vibrating tongues of wood which, when beaten
with a stick, produced sounds as clearly defined as are those
of our kettle drums. By making one of the tongues thinner
than the other they ensured two different sounds, the pitch of
which they were enabled to regulate by shaving off more or
less of the wood. The bottom oi the drum they cut almost
entirely open. The traveller, M. Nebel, was told by archaeo-
logists in Mexico that these instruments always contained the
interval of a third, but on examining several specimens which
he saw in museums he found some in which the two sounds
stood towards each other in the relation of a fourth ; while
in others they constituted a fifth, in others a sixth, and in some
even an octave. This is noteworthy in so far as it points to a
conformity with our diatonic series of intervals, excepting the
seventh.

AMERICAN INDIAN. 71

Tlie teponaztli was generally carv^cd with various fanciful
and ingenious designs. It was beaten with two drumsticks
covered at the end with an elastic gum, called nlc, which
was obtained from the milk}' juice extracted from the
ule-tree. Some of these drums were small enough to be
carried on a string or stra]) suspended round the neck of
the player ; others, again, measured upwards of 5 feet in
length, and their sound was so powerful that it could be heard
at a distance of three miles. In some rare instances a speci-
men of the teponaztli is still preserved by the Indians in
Mexico, especially among tribes who have been comparatively
])ut little affected by intercourse with their European ag-
gressors. Herr Heller saw such an instrument in the hands
of the Indians of Huatusco — a village near Mirador in the
Tierra Templada, or temperate region, occupying the slopes
of the Cordilleras. Its sound is described as so very loud as
to be distinctly audible at an incredibly great distance. This
circumstance, which has been noticed by several travellers,
may i:)erhaps be owing in some measure to the condition of
the atmosphere in Mexico.

Instruments of percussion constructed on a principle more
or less similar to the teponaztli were in use in several other
parts of America, as well as in Mexico.

The largest kind of Mexican teponaztli appears to have been
generally of a cylindrical shape. Clavigero gives a drawing of
such an instrument. Drums, also constructed of skin or parch-
ment in combination with wood were not unknown to the
Indians. Of this description Wcis, for instance, the hiiehitctl
of the Aztecs in Mexico, which consisted, according to Clavi-
gero, of a wooden cylinder somewhat above 3 feet in height,
curiously carved and painted and covered at the top with
carefully prepared deer-skin. And, what aj^pears the most
remarkable, the parchment (we are told) could be tightened

72 MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS.

or slackened by means of cords in nearly the same way as with
our own drum. The huehuetl was not beaten with drum-
sticks but merely struck with the fingers, and much dexterity
was required to strike it in the proper manner. Oviedo
states that the Indians in Cuba had drums which were
stretched with human skin. And Bernal Diaz relates that
when he was with Cortes in Mexico they ascended together the
Teocalli (" House of God "), a large temple in which human
sacrifices were offered by the aborigines ; and there the
Spanish visitors saw a large drum wliich was made, Diaz
tells us, with skins of great serpents. This " hellish instru-
ment," as he calls it, i)roduced, when struck, a doleful sound
which was so loud that it could be heard at a distance of
two leagues.

The name of the Peruvian drum was huanca ; they had
also an instrument of i^ercussion, called chhilchiles, which
appears to have been a sort of tambourine.

The rattle was likewise jjopular with the Indians before
the discovery of America. The Mexicans called it ajacaxtli.
In construction it was similar to the rattle at the present
day commonly used by the Indians. It was oval or round
in shape, and ap])ears to have been usually made of a gourd
into which holes were pierced, and to which a wooden handle
was affixed. A number of little pebbles were enclosed in the
hollowed gourd. They were also made of pottery. The
little balls in the ajacaxtli of })ottery, enclosed as they are,
may at a first glance ap])ear a puzzle. Probably, when the
rattle was being formed they were attached to the inside
as slightly as possible ; and after the clay had been baked
they were detached by means of an implement passed through
the holes.

The Tezcucans (or Acolhuans) belonged to the same race as
the Aztecs, whom they greatly surpassed in knowledge and

^ • ' A.\rHRirAX /.V/)/.LV. 73

social refinement. Nezahualcoyotl, a wise monarch of the
Tezcucans, abhorred human sacrifices, and erected a large
temple which he dedicated to " The unknown god, the cause
of causes." This edifice had a tower nine storeys high, on the
top of which were placed a number of musical instruments of
various kinds which were used to summon tlie worshippers
to prayer. Respecting these instruments especial mention is
made of a sonorous metal which was struck with a mallet. Tliis
is stated in a liistorical essay written by Txtlilxochitl, a native
of Mexico and of royal descent, who lived in the beginning
of the seventeenth century, and who may be supposed to have
b'3en familiar with the musical practices of his countrymen.
But whether the sonorous metal alluded to was a gong or a
bell is not clear from the vague record transmitted to us.
That the I^ell was known to the Peruvians appears to be no
longer doubtful, since a small copper specimen has been found
in one of the old Peruvian tombs. This interesting relic
is now deposited in the museum at Lima. M. de Castelnau has
published a drawing of it. The Peruvians called their bells
chanrares ; but it remains questionable whether this name
did not designate rather the so-called horse bells, which were
certainly known to the Mexicans, who called them yotl. It
is noteworthy that these yotl are found figured in the picture-
writings representing the various objects which the Aztecs
used to pay as tribute to their sovereigns. The collection
of Mexican antiquities in the British Museum contains a
cluster of yotl-bells. Being nearly round, they closely re-
semble the Schcllcn which the Germans are in the habit of
afh.xing to their horses, particularly in the winter when they
are driving their noiseless sledges.

Again, in South America sonorous stones are not unknown, t
and were used in olden time for musical purposes. The traveller
G. T. \'igne saw among llie Indian antiquities preserved

74 MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS.

ill the town of Cuzco, in Peru, " a musical instrument of
green sonorous stone, about a foot long, and an inch and a half
wide, flat-sided, pointed at both ends, and arched at the back,
where it was about a quarter of an inch thick, whence it
diminished to an edge, like the l)ladc of a knife ... In the
middle of the back was a small hole, through which a piece of
string was passed ; and when suspended and struck by any
hard substance a singularly musical note was produced." Hum-
boldt mentions the Amazon-stone, which on being struck by a
hard substance yields a metallic sound. It was formerly cut
by the American Indians into very thin plates, ])erforated in
the centre and suspended by a string. These plates were
remarkably sonorous. This kind of stone is not, as might
be conjectured from its name, found exclusively near the
Amazon. The name was given to it as well as to the river by
the first European visitors to America, in allusion to the
female warriors respecting whom strange stories are told.
The natives pretending, according to an ancient tradition,
that the stone came from the country of " Women without
husbands," or " Women living alone."

As regards the ancient stringed instruments of the American
Indians our information is indeed but scanty. Clavigero says
that the Mexicans were entirely unacquainted with stringed
instruments ; a statement the correctness of which is ques-
tionable, considering the stage of civilisation to which these
people had attained. At any rate, we generally find one or
other kind of such instruments with nations whose intellectual
progress and social condition are decidedly inferior. The
Aztecs had many claims to the character of a civilised com-
munity and (as before said) the Tezcucans were even more
advanced in the cultivation of the arts and sciences than the
Aztecs. " The best histories," Prescott observes, " the best
poems, the best code of laws, the purest dialect, were ail

A}ff':RicAN ixnrAN. 75

allowed to \)v Tezcucan. The Aztecs rivalled their neighbours
in splendour of living, and even in the magnificence of their
structures. They displayed a pomp and ostentatious
pageantry, truly Asiatic." Unfortunately historians are
sometimes not sufficiently discerning in their communications
respecting musical questions. J. Ranking, in describing the
grandeur of the establishment maintained by Monte;5uma, says
that during the repasts of this monarch " there was music of
fiddle, llutc, snail-shell, a ki'ttle-drum. and other strange
instruments." But as this writer does not indicate the source
whence he drew his information respecting Montezuma's
orchestra including the fiddle, the assertion deserves scarcely a
passing notice.

The Peruvians possessed a stringed instrument, called tinya,
which was provided with five or seven strings. To conjecture
from the unsatisfactory account of it transmitted to us, the
iinya appears to have been a kind of guitar. Considering the
fragility of the materials of which such instruments are gene-
rally constructed, it is perhaps not surjirising that we do not
meet with any specimens of them in the museums of American
antiquities.

A few remarks will not be out of place here referring to
the musical performances of the ancient Indians, since an
acquaintance with the nature of the performances is likely to
afford additional assistance in appreciating the characteristics
of the instruments. In Peru, where the military system was
carefully organised, each division of the army had its trum-
peters, called cquc'ppacamayo, and its drummers, called
huancarcamavn. When the Inca returned with his troops
victorious fn^m bailie his first act was to repair to the tem[)le
of the Sun in order to of^er up thanksgiving ; and after the
conclusion of this ceremony the i)eo])le celebrated the event
with festivities, of which music and dancing constituted a

76 MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS.

principal part. Musical performances appear to have been
considered indispensable on occasions of i)ublic celebrations ;
and frequent mention is made of them by historians who have
described the festivals annually observed b}' the Peruvians.

About the month of October the Peruvians celebrated a
solemn feast in honour of the dead, at which ceremony they
executed lugubrious songs and plaintive instrumental music.
Compositions of a similar character were performed on occasion
of the decease of a monarch. As soon as it was made known
to the people that their Inca had been " called home to the
mansions of his father the sun " they prepared to celebrate
his obsequies with becoming solemnity. Prescott, in his
graphic description of these observances, says : " At stated
intervals, for a year, the people assembled to renew the ex-
pressions of their sorrow ; processions were made displaying
the banner of the departed monarch ; bards and minstrels
were appointed to chronicle his achievements, and their songs
continued to be rehearsed at high festivals in the presence
of the reigning monarch — thus stimulating the living by the
glorious example of the dead." (The Peruvians had also
particular agricultural songs, which they were in the habit of
singing while engaged in tilling the lands of the Inca ; a duty
which devolved upon the whole nation. The subject of these
songs, or rather hymns, referred especially to the noble deeds
and glorious achievements of the Inca and his dynasty.
While thus singing, the labourers regulated their work to the
rhythm of the music, thereby ensuring a pleasant excitement
and a stimulant in their occupation, like soldiers regulating
their steps to the music of the military band) uThese liynins
pleased the Spanish invaders so greatly that they not only
adopted several of them but also composed some in a similar
form and style. This appears, however, to have been the case
rather with the poetry than with the music.

AMERKAX INDIAN. 77

The name of the Peruvian elegiac songs was haravi. Some
tunes of these songs, pronounced to be genuine specimens,
have been pubhshed in recent works; but their genuineness
is questionable. At all events they must have l)een much
tampered with, as they exJiibit cxacth' the form of the Spanish
bolero. Even allowing that the melodies of these compositions
have been derived from Peruvian harivaris, it is impossible to
determine with any degree of cer;tainty how much in lliem
has been retained of the original tunes, and liow mucli has
been su})})lied besides the harmony, which is entirely an addi-
tion of the European arranger. The Peruvians had minstrels,
called haravecs {i.e., "inventors"), whose occupation it was to
compose and to recite the haravis.

The Mexicans i)ossessed a class of songs which served as a
record of liistorical events. Furthermore they had war-songs,
love-songs, and other secular vocal compositions, as well as
sacred chants, in the practice of which boys were instructed
by the priests in order that they might assist in the musical
performances of the temple. It aj)pertained to the ofhce of
the priests to burn incense, and to perform music in tlu' temple
at stated times of the da}'. The commencement of the
religious observances which took place regularl}- at sunrise, at
mid-day, at sunset, and at midnight, was announced l)y signals
blown on trumpets and pipes. Persons of high position re-
tained in their service professional musicians whose duty it was
to compose ballads, and to perform vocal music with instru-
mental accompaniment. The nobles themselves, and occa-
sionally even the monarch, not infrequently delighted in
composing ballads and odes.

Especially to be noticed is tlie institution termed " Council
of music," which the wise monarch Nezialuialcoyoll toumliil in
Tezcuco. This institution was not intended exclusi\'cly for
promoting the cultivation of music ; its aim comprised the

78 MUSICAL INSTRU^fENTS.

advancement of various arts, and of sciences such as history,
astronomy, etc. In fact, it was an academy for general
education. Probably no better evidence could be cited
testifying to the remarkable intellectual attainments of the
Mexican Indians l)cforc the discovery of America than this
council of music. Although in some respects it appears to
have resembled the ])oard of music of the Chinese, it was
planned on a more enlightened and more comprehensive
principle. The Chinese " board of music," called Yoh Pil, is
an office connected with the Li Pa or " board of rites,"
established by the imperial government at Peking. The
principal object of the board of rites is to regulate the cere-
monies on occasions of sacrifices offered to the gods ; of
festivals and certain court solemnities ; of military reviews ;
of presentations, congratulations, marriages, deaths, burials
— in short, concerning almost every possible event in social
and public life.

The reader is probably aware that in one of the various
hypotheses which have been advanced respecting the Asiatic
origin of the American Indians China is assigned to them as
their ancient home. Some historians suppose them to be
emigrants from Mongolia, Thibet, or Hindustan ; others
maintain that they are the offspring of Phoenician colonists
who settled in Central America. Even more curious are the
arguments of certain inquirers who have no doubt whatever
that the ancestors of the American Indians were the lost ten
tribes of Israel, of whom since about the time of the Babylonian
captivity history is silent. Whatever may be thought as to
which particular one of these speculations hits the truth,
they certainly have all proved useful, in so far as they have
made ethnologists more exactly acquainted with the habits
and predilections of the American aborigines than would
otherwise have been the case. For, as the advocates of each

AMERICAX I XI) IAN. 79

hypotlicsis have carefully collected and adduced every evidence
they were able to obtain tending to support their views, the
result is that (so to say) no stone has been left unturned.
Nevertheless, any such hints as suggest themselves from an
examination of musical instruments have hitherto remained
unheeded. It may therefore perhaps interest the reader
to have his attention drawn to a few suggestive similarities
occurring between instruments of the American Indians and
of certain nations inhabiting the eastern hemisphere.

We have seen that the Mexican pij)e and the Peruvian
syrinx were purposely constructed so as to produce the
intervals of the pentatonic scale only. There are some addi-
tional indications of this scale having been at one time in
use witli the American Indians. For instance, the music
of the Peruvian dance cachua is described as having ])een
very similar to some Scotch national dances ; and the most
conspicuous characteristics of the Scotch tunes are occasioned
by the frequently exclusive employment of intervals aj)])er-
taining to the pentatonic scale. We find precisely the same
series of intervals adopted on certain Chinese instruments,
and evidences are not wanting of the pentatonic scale having
been popular among various races in Asia at a remote period.
The series of intervals appertaining to the Chiriqui pi])c,
mentioned on p. 60, consisted of a semitone and two whole
tones, like the tetrachord of the ancient Greeks.

In the Peruvian huayra-piihura made of soapstone some of the
pipes possess lateral holes. This contrivance, which is rather
unusual, occurs on the Chinese shcng. The chayna, mentioned
on \). 62, seems to have been provided with a reed, like the
oboe : and in Hindustan we find a species of oboe called
sJiehna. The /iire of the Indian trihc^s on the Amazon, men-
tioned on p. 67, reminds us of the trumi)ets /nn. or fu'un, of
the Hindus. The name appears to have been known also to

8o MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS.

the Ara])s ; ])ut there is no indication whatever of its having
been transmitted to the peninsula by the Moors, and after-
wards to South America by the Portuguese and Spaniards.

The wooden tongues in the drum tcponaztli may be con-
sidered as a contrivance exclusively of the ancient American
Indians. Nevertheless a construction nearly akin to it may
be observed in certain drums of the Tonga and Fiji islanders,
and of the natives of some islands in Torres Strait. Likewise
some negro tribes in Western and Central Africa have certain
instruments of percussion which are constructed on a principle
somewhat reminding us of the tcponaztli. The method of
bracing the drum by means of cords, as exhibited in the
hitehiietl of the Mexican Indians, is evidently of very high
antiquity in the East. It was known to the ancient Egyptians.

Rattles, Pandean pipes made of reed, and conch trumpets,
are found almost all over the world, wherever the materials of
which they are constructed are easily obtainable. Still,
it may be noteworthy that the Mexicans employed the conch
trumpet in their religious observances apparently in much
the same way as it is used in the Buddhist worship of the
Tibetans and Kalmuks.

As regards the sonorous metal in the great temple at Tezcuco
some inquirers are sure that it was a gong : but it must be
borne in mind that these inquirers detect everywhere traces
proving an in\'asion of the Mongols, which they maintain to
have happened about six hundred years ago. Had they
been acquainted with the little Peruvian bell they would
have had more tangible musical evidence in support of their
theory than the supposed gong ; for this bell certainly bears
a suggestive resemblance to the little hand-bell which the
I^uddhists use in their religious ceremonies.

The Peruvians interjiolated certain songs, especially those
which they were in the haliit of singing while cultivating

AMERICAN IXDIAN. 8i

the fields, with the word hailli which signified "Triumph."
As the subject of these compositions was principally the
glorification of the Inca. the burtU'n hailli is perhaps all the
more likely to remind Europeans of the Hebrew hallclKJah.
Moreover, Adair, who lived among the Indians of North
America during a period of about forty years, speaks of some
other words which he found used as burdens in hymns sung
on solemn occasions, and which appeared to him to correspond
with certain Hebrew words of a sacred import.

As regards the musical accomplishments of the Indian
tribes at the present day they are far below the standard
which we have found among their ancestors. A period of
three hundred years of oppression has evidently had the
effect of subduing the melodious expressions of happiness
and contentedness which in former times appear to have been
quite as j)revalent with thc^ Indians as they generally are
with independent and flourishing nations. The innate talent
for music evinced by those of the North American Indians who
were converted to Christianity soon after the emigration of the
Puritans to New England is very favourably commented on
by some old writers. In the year 1661 John Elliot published
a translation of the psalms into Indian verse. Tlie singing
of these metrical psalms by the Indian converts in their
l)laces of worship appears to liave been actually superior to
the sacred vocal j)erformances of their Christian brethren
from Europe ; for we find it described by several witnesses as
" excellent " and " most ravishing."

In other parts of America the priests from S])ain tlid
not neglect to turn to accounl the susceptibility of the
Indians lor music. Thus, in central America the Dominicans
composed as early its in the middle of the sixteenth centur}' a
sacred poem in the Guatemalian dialect c<jntaining a narrative
of the most important events rceordrd in the Bible. This

9H42. F

82 MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS.

production they sang to the natives, and to enhance the effect
they accompanied the singing with musical instruments. The
alhiring music soon captivated the heart of a powerful cazique,
who was thus induced to adoj^t the doctrines embodied in
tJie composition, and to diffuse them among his subjects,
who likewise delighted in the performances. In Peru a
similar experiment, resorted to by the priests who accom-
panied Pizarro's expedition, proved equally successful. They
dramatised certain scenes in the life of Christ and represented
them with music, which so greatly fascinated the Indians
that many of them readily embraced the new faith. Nor
are these entertainments dispensed with even at the present
day by the Indian Christians, especially in the village churches
of the Sierra in Peru ; and as several religious ceremonies
have been retained by these people from their heathen fore-
fathers, it may be conjectured that their sacred musical
performances also retain much of their ancient heathen
character.

Most of the musical instruments found among the American
Indians at the present day are evidently genuine old Indian
contrivances as they existed long before the discov^ery of
America. Take, for example, the peculiarly-shaped rattles,
drums, flutes, and whistles of the North American Indians, of
which some specimens in the Museum are described in the
large catalogue. A few African instruments, introduced by
the negro slaves, are now occasionally found in the hands
of the Indians, and have been by some travellers erroneously
described as genuine Indian inventions. This is the case
with the African marimha, which has become rather popular
with the natives of Guatemala in central America ; but
such adaptations are very easily discernible.

VII.

EUROPEAN INSTRUMENTS Ol- THE MIDDLE

AGES.

. ^Ian'y representations of musical instruments of the middle
ages have been preserved in manuscripts, as well as in sculp-
tures and paintings forming ornamental portions of churches
and other buildings. Valuable facts and hints arc obtainable
from these evidences, pnA-ided they are judiciously selected
and carefully examine(tr> The subject is, however, so large
that only a few observations on tlie most interesting instru-
ments can he offered here, rnfortunately there still prevails
much uncertainty respecting several of the earliest repre-
sentations as to the precise century from which they date,
and there is reason to believe that in some instances the
archneological zeal of musical investigators has assigned a
higher antiquity to such discoveries than ran he satisfactorily
proved.

It appears certain that the most ancient Eun)p(\an in-
struments known to us were in form and construction more
like the .Asiatic tlian was the case witli later ones. Before
a nation has attained to a f;i.iriy high degree of civilisation
its progress in the cultivation of music, as an art, is very slow
indeed<; riie instruments ft)uud at the i)resent ilay in Asia
are scarcely superior to those which were in use among oriental
nations abjut three thousand years ag*<: It is, therefore,
perhaps not surprising that no material nnprovement is per-
ceptible in the construction of the instruments of European
countries during the lapse of nearly a lliousand years. True,

9842. V 2

MUSIC, \ L INSTRUMENTS.

evidences to be relied on referring to the first five or six cen-
turies of the Christian era are but scanty ; although indi-
cations are not wanting which may help the reflecting musician.
There are some early monuments of Christian art dating
from the fourth century in which the lyre is represented. In
one of them Christ is depicted as Apollo touching the lyre.
This instrument occurs at an early period in western Europe
as used in popular pastimes. In an Anglo-Saxon manuscript
of the ninth century in the British Museum (Cleopatra C. VIII.)
are the figures of two glecmen, one playing the lyre and the
other a double-pipe. M. de Coussemaker has published in
the " Annales Archcologiques " the figure of a cro^vned
personage ])laying the lyre, which he found in a manuscript
of the ninth or tenth centuiy in the lil^rary at Angers. The
player twangs the strings with his fingers, while the Anglo-
Saxon gleeman before mentioned uses a plectrum.

Cithara was a name applied to several stringed instruments
greatly varying in form, power of sound, and compass. The
illustration (Fig. 23) represents a cithara from a manuscript

of the ninth century,
formerly in the library
of the great monastery
of St. Blasius in the
Black Forest. When m
the year 1768 the mona-
stery was destroyed by
tire, this valuable book
perished in the flames ; fortunately the celebrated Abbot
Gerbert possessed tracings of the illustrations, which were
saved from destruction. He published them, in the year 1774,
in his work " De cantu et musica sacra." As the older works
on music were generally written in Latin we do not learn
from them the popular names of the instruments ; the writers

Tig. 23.— Cithara. rrom a 9th century MS.
formerly in llu; monastery of St. lilasius
in the Black Forest.

EUROPEAN: THE MIDDLE ACES.

I'lG. 24 - PsALTERiUM. Ffom a MS. of the (jth century

formerly in the monastery of St. Blasiiis in tliu

Black Forest.

merely adopted such
Latin names as they
tliought the most ap-
propriate. Thus, for
instance, a very
simple stringed instru-
ment of a triangular
shape, and a some-
what similar one of
a square shape (Fig.
24), were designated
1) y the n a me of
psalicriiim.

The cithara here
illustrated (Fig. 25) is
evidently an improvc-

0000

/,'/ ^ h //////////■/ /i illi i II / // /' * ff « ' '( // 'I II I 'I V 1 II W \> W A W *\ V W \, W V V \ \v\ \

I'Ki. -.'5. — CiTiiAKA. r'roiii a MS. of the ■jtli ci-niiiry, forini-rly in tin inunasttry
St. Blasiui ill the HIacki I'orest.

MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS.

me nt upon the triangular psalterium (Fig. 26), because it has a
sort of small sound-board at the top. Scarcely better, with
regard to acoustics, appears to have been the instrument
designated as nahlum, which is engraved (Fig. 27) from a
manuscript of the ninth century at Angers.

Img. 26.— King Playing P^altkuv. After
an engraving in N. X. Willeinin's Monu-
mcnts i'nin(;ais Ineili!s,\'o\. 1., pi. 19, taken
from Hortus Ddiciarum, a MS. of the
i2th century.

I'lG. 20. — l-'ciiialc playing a species

of CiTOLE. From a gth century

MS. formerly in the monastery of

St. Blasius, in the Black Forest.

A small psalterium
with strings placed
over a sound-board
was a])parently the
prototype of tYiccitole,
a kind of dulcimer
which was played
with the fingers
(Fig. 28). The names
were not only often vaguely applied by the mediaeval writers,
but they changed also in almost every century. The psal-
terium, or psalterion (Italian saltcrio, Enghsh psaltery), of the
fourteenth century and lattu" had the tra])ezium sha]ie of the
dulcimer.

The Anglo-Sa.vons frequently accompanied their vocal

I'lC. 2;

-N/.uLiM. liuiii A gth century MS. at
Angers.

EUROPEAN: THE MIDDEE AGES.

effusions with a harp, more or less triangular in shape, an
instrument which may be considered rather as constituting
the transition of the lyre into the harj). The harp was
especially popular in central and northern Europe, and
was the favourite instrument of the German and Celtic
bards and of the Scandinavian skalds. In the next illus-

Fir,. 29 — Hari'. From a 9th century MS. formerly in tlip monastery of St. Ulasius

in the Black Forest.

tration (Fig. 29) from the manuscript of tlie nion.istcry
of St. Blasius twelve strings and two sound-holes are given
to it. A harp similar in form ,uul si/c, hut witliout the

88 MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS.

front ])illar, was known to the ancient Egyptians. Perhaps
the addition was also non-existent in the earliest specimens
appertaining to European nations ; and a sculptured figure
of a small harp constructed like the ancient eastern harp has
been discovered in the old church of Ullard in the county
of Kilkenny. This curious relic, which is said to date from
a period anterior to the year 800, is illustrated in Bunting's
" Ancient Music of Ireland." As Bunting was the first who
drew attention to this sculpture his account of it may interest
the reader. " The drawing," he says, " is taken from one of
the ornamental compartments of a scupltured cross, at the
old church of Ullard. From the style of the workmanship,
as well as from the worn condition of the cross, it seems older
than the similar monument at Monasterboice which is known
to have been set up before the year 830. The sculj)ture is
rude ; the circular rim which binds the arms of the cross
together is not pierced in the (juadrants, and many of the
figures originally in relievo are now wholly abraded. It is
difiicult to determine whether the number of strings repre-
sented is six or seven ; but, as has been already remarked,
accuracy in this respect cannot be expected either in sculp-
tures or in many picturesque drawings." The Finns had a
harp {harpu, kantele) with a similar frame, devoid of a front
pillar, still in use until the commencement of the last century.
One of the most interesting stringed instruments of the
middle ages is the rotta (German, Rotte ; English, rote). It
was sounded by twanging the strings, and also by the applica-
tion of the bow. The first method was, of course, the elder
one. There can hardly l)e a doubt that when the bow came
into use it was applied to certain po])ular iiistrunu'nts wliich
previously had I)een treated like the cithara or the p sal/ enum.
The Hindus at the present day use their suroda sometimes as
a lute and sometimes as a fiddle. In some measure we do the

EUROPEAN: THE MIDDLE AGES. 89

same with the vioUn by playing occasionally pizzicato. The
rotta from the manuscript of St. Blasius is called in Gerbert's
work cithara teutonica, while the harp is called citlnwa
anglica; from which it would apjiear that the former was
regarded as ])re-eminently a German instrument. Possibly
its name ma3' have been originally chrotta and the continental
nations may have adopted it from the Celtic races of the
British isles, dropping the guttural sound. This hypothesis
is, however, one of those which have been advanced by
some musical historians without any satisfactory evidence.

In the rotta the ancient Asiatic lyre is easily to be recog-
nized. An illumination of king David j)laying the rotta forms
the frontispiece of a manuscript of the eighth century prt'-
served in the cathedral library (»f Duiliaiu ; it is musically
interesting inasmuch as it represents a rotta of an oblong
square shape like that just noticed and resembhng the Welsh
crwth. It has onl}' five strings which the performer twangs
with his fingers. Again, a very interesting representation
of the Psalmist with a kind of rotta occurs in a
manuscript of the tenth century, in the British Museum
(V'itellius F.XI.). The manuscript was much injured b\-
a fire in the year 1731 ; but Professor Westwood has suc-
ceeded, with great care, and witli the aid of a magnifying
glass, in making out the lines of tlie figure. As it has been
ascertained that the psalter is written in the Irish semiuncial
character it is highly probable that the kind of rotta repre-
sents the Irish cionar emit, which was played by twanging the
strings and also by the application of a bow. Unfortunatelv
we possess no well-authenticated rejiresentation of the W'elsli
cr^vth of an early })erio(l ; otlierwise we should in all probability
fuiil it jilayed with the fingers, or with a plectrum. Venantius
Fortunatus, an Italian who lived m tiu^ second half of the
si.xth century, nirutions in a poem the " I'hrotta Britanna."

90 MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS.

He does not, however, allude to the bow, and there is no
reason to suppose that it existed in England. Howbeit,
the Welsh cnoth (Anglo-Saxon, CA-z/rt'/f ,• English, crowd) is only
known as a species of fiddle closely resembling the rotta, but
having a fi^ngerboard in the middle of the open frame and
being strung with only a few strings ; while the rotta had
sometimes above twenty strings. As it may interest the
reader to examine the form of the modern crwth we give an
illustration of it (Fig. 30). Edward Jones, in his " Musical
and poetical relicks of the Welsh bards," records that the
Welsh had before this kind of crwth a three-stringed one called
" Crwth Trithant," which was, he says, " a sort of violin, or
more })roperly a rebeck." The three-stringed crwth was chiefly
used by the inferior class of bards ; and was probably the
Moorish fiddle which is still the favourite instrument of the
itinerant bards of the Bretons in France, who call it rebck. The
Bretons, it will be remembered, arc close kinsmen of the Welsh.
A player on the crwth or crowd (a crowder) from a bas-
relief on the under part of the seats of the choir in Worcester
cathedral dates from the latter part of the fourteenth century.*
It was probably identical with the rotta of the same century
on the continent.

An interesting drawing of an Anglo-Saxon fiddle — or
fithele, as it was called — is given in a manuscript of the
eleventh century in the British Museum (Cotton, Tiberius,
c. 6). The instrument is of a pear shape, with four strings,
and the l)ridgc is not indicated. A German fiddle of the
ninth century, called lyra, copied by Gerbert from the manu-
scripts of St. Blasius, has only one string. Other records of
the employment of the fiddle-bow in Germany in the twelfth
and thirteenth centuries are not wanting. For instance, in
the famous " Nibelungenlied " Volker is described as wielding
See E Aldis, Carvings and Sculptures of Worcester Cathedral (IV).

l-'ic. 5(>— Ckwi II. Wclsli 1 -ih ciMitiiiy. I,. .■-■ in, W. cj^ in.
\'ic|()i'ia ami .Mbcrt Miis uiii.

EUROPEAN: 77//: MIDDLE AGES. 91

the fiddle-bow not less dexterously than the sword. And in
"Chronicon picturatum Rrunswicense " of the year 1203,
the following miraculous sign is recorded as having occurred
in the village of Ossemer : " On Wednesday in \\'hitsun-
week, while the parson was fiddling to his peasants who were
dancing, there came a flash of lightning and struck the par-
son's arm which held the fiddle-bow, and killed twenty-four
people on the spot."

Among the oldest representations of performers on instru-
ments of the violin kind found in England those deserve to
be noticed which are painted on the interior of the roof of
Peterborough Cathedral. They are said to date from the
twelfth centurv. One of these figures is particularl\- in-
teresting on account of the surprising resemblance which Ins
instrument bears to our present violin. Not only the incur-
vations on the sides of the Ixjdy but also the two sound-holes
are nearly identical in shape with those made at the present
day. Respecting the reliance to be placed on such evidence,
it is necessary to state that the roof, originally constructed
between the years 11 77 and 1194, wiis thoroughly repaired
in the year 1835. Although we find it ;isserted that " the
greatest care was taken to retain every part, or to restore it
to its original state, so that the figures, even where retouched,
are in effect the same as when first j)ainted," it nevertheless
remains a debatable question whether the restorers have not
admitted some slight alterations, and have therein' some-
what modernised the appearance of the instruments. A
slight touch with the briish at the sound-holes, the screws,
or the curvatures would sulfice to produce modifications
which might to the artist appear as being only a renovation
nl the original representation, but which to the musical investi-
gator greatly impair the value of tin; evidence. Sculi)tures are,
therefore, mor^' t<> be ri'lied upon in cx-idcnce than trescoes.

VIII.

EUROPEAN INSTRUMENTS OF THE MIDDLE AGES.

(CoiiUnued.)

The construction of the organistrnm (Fig. 31) requires but
little explanation. A glance at the finger-board reveals at once
that the different tones were obtained by raising the keys
placed on the neck under the strings, and that the keys were
raised by means of the handles at the side of the neck. Of
the two bridges shown on the ])ody, the one situated nearest
the middle was formed by a wheel in the inside, which pro-
jected through the sound-board. Tlic wheel which slightly
touched the strings vibrated them by friction when turned
by the handle at the end. The order of intervals was c, d, e,
/, g, a, b-flat, h-natural, c, and were obtainable on the highest
string. There is reason to suppose that the other two strings
were generally tuned a fifth and an octave below the highest.
The organistrnm may be regarded as the predecessor of the
hurdy-gurdy, and was rather a cumbrous contrivance. Two
persons seem to have been required to sound it, one to turn
the handle and the other to manage the keys. Thus it is gene-
rally represented in mediaeval concerts.

The monochord was mounted with a single string stretched
over two liridges which were fixed on an oblong box. The
string could be tightened or slackened by means of a turning
screw inserted into one end of the l)ox. The intervals of the
scale were marked on the side, and were regulated by a sort
of movable ])ridge placed beneath the string when required.
As might be expected, the monochord was chiefly used by
theorists ; for any musical performance it was but little

EUROPEAN

V 1/ ^ _

im: MUDLi; agfs.

■^1

' 'Tj

-j

.1 1 i^ '

suitable. Al)out a thousand
years ago when this mono-
chord was in use the musical
scale was diatonic, with the
exception of the interval of
the seventh, which was chro-
matic inasmuch as both b-fJut
and b-natural formed part of
the scale.

This ought to be borni'
in mind in examining the
representations of musical
instruments transmitted to
us from that period. )

As regards the wind instru-
ments popular during the
Middle Ages, some were of
quaint form as well as of rude
construction.

The chorus, or chorim, had
either one or two tubes. There
were several varieties of this
instrunn'ut ; sunietimes it was
constructed with a bladder
into which the tube is in-
serted ; this kind of chorus
resembled the bagpipe;
another kind resembled the
pungi of the Hindus, men-
tioned on ivage 52 . The name
chorus was also applied to
certain stringed instruments.
One of these had much the

MUSIC. \ L INSTRUMENTS.

form of the cithara, page 84 It appears, however, probable

that chorus or char on originally designated a horn (Hebrew,

keren ; Greek, keras ; Latin, cornu).
y
-^ The iiutes of the Middle Ages were blown at the end, like the

flageolet. Of the syrinx there are extant some illustrations of
the ninth and tenth centuries, which exhibit the instrument
with a number of tubes tied together, just like the Pandean
})i]:ie still in us(\ In one specimen,* from a manuscript of the
eleventh century, the tubes were inserted into a bowl-shaped
box. This is probably the frestele, fretel, or fretiau, which in
the twelfth and thirteenth centuries was in favour with the
French menetriers.

Some large Anglo-Saxon trumpets may be seen in a manu-
script of the eighth century in the British Museum. The
largest kind of trumpet was ]:)laccd on a stand when lilown. Of
the oliphant, or hunting horn, some line specimens are in the
Victoria ar.d Albert Museum collection. The sackbut (Fig

32), probably made of
metal, could be drawn
out to alter the pitch
of sound. The sackbut
of the ninth century
had, however, a very
tliftcrcnt shajjc to that
in use about three
centuries ago, and much more resembled the present trombone.
The name sackbui is supposed to be a corruption of sambuca.
The French, about the fifteenth century, called it sacqiieboiite
and saquebutte.

The most important wind instrument — in fact, the king of all
the musical instruments — is the organ.

The pneumatic organ is sculptured on the base of an obelisk

* See illustration in Ann. Arch., IV., p. 37.

Fig. 32.— Sackiuit.

EUROPEAN Till: MIDDLE ACES.

which was erected in Constantinople nndtT Thcodosius the Great
towards the end of the fourtli century. The ])ellows were
pressed by men standing on them. This interesting monu-
ment also exhibits j)erformers on the double tlutc. The
hydraulic organ, which is recorded to haw been already known
about two hundred years before tlie Christian era, was according
to some statements occasionally employed in churches during
the earlier centuries of the Middle Ages. Probably it was more
frequently heard in secular entertainments," for wliic-h it was
more suitable ; and at the beginning of the fourteenth century
it appears to have been entirely su])plantcd b}- the pneumatic
organ. The earliest organs had only about a dozen ])ipes.
The largest, which were made aboul iiini' lumdrcd years ago,
had only three octaves, in which tlic chromatic intervals did
not occur. Some {progress in the construction of the organ is
shewn in a ])salter of Eadwine, in the library of Trinity College,
Cambridge (Fig. 33). The instrument has ten ]n])es, or per-
haps fourteen, as four of them a])pear to be double pij^es

Fig. 33.— Organ. I-'rom a 12th century psalter in ibc Library of Trinity Collt gc, Cambridge.

MUSIC A L i:VSTRUMENTS.

It required four men exerting all their power to produce
the necessary wind, and two men to play the instrument.
Moreover, both players seem also to be busily engaged in
directing the blowers about the proper supply of wind.
Six men and only fourteen pipes!

Another illustra-
tion is given of an
organ of the 14th
century (Fig. 34).
The pedal is
generally believed
to have been in-
vented by Bern-
hard, a German,
who lived in Venice
about the year
1470. There are,
however, indica-
tions extant point-
ing to an earlier

^*£-_

Fig. 34. — Our.AN (Grand Orguo), after an engraving in N. X.

Willemin's Monuments I'rancais Inldiis, Vol. I., pi. 133,

taken from a i)salter of the 14th century.

date of its invention. Perhaj^s Bernhard was the first who, by
adopting a more practicable construction, made the pedal
more generally known. On the earliest organs the keys of the
finger-board were of enormous size, compared with those
of the present day ; so that a finger-board with only nine keys
had a breadth of from four to five feet. The organist struck
the keys do\vn with his fist, as is done in playing the carillon
still in use on the Continent, of which presently some account
will be given. •

Of the little portable organ, known as the regal or regals,
often tastefully shaped and eml)ellished, some interesting
sculptured representations are still extant in the old ecclesias-
tical edifices of England and Scotland. There is, for instance,

EUROPEAN: THE MIDDLE AGES. 97

in Beverley Minster a figure of a man plajang on a single regal,
or a regal provided with only one set of pipes ; and in Melrose
Abbey the figure of an angel holding in his arms a double regal,
the pipes of which are in two sets. The regal generally had
keys like those of the organ but smaller. A painting in the
National Gallery, attributed to Melozzo da Forli (1438-1494)
contains a regal which has keys of a peculiar shape, rather
resembling the pistons of certain brass instruments. (Fig. i,
Frontispiece) To avoid misapprehension, it is necessary to
mention that the name regal (or regals, rigols) was also applied
to an instrument of percussion with sonorous slabs of wood.
This contrivance was, in short, a kind of harmonica, resembling
in shape as well as in the principle of its construction the little
glass harmonica, a mere toy, in which sHps of glass are ar-
ranged according to our musical scale. In England it appears
to have been still known in the beginning of the eighteenth
century. Grassineau describes the " Rigols " as " a kind of
musical instrument consisting of several sticks bound together,
only separated l^y beads. It makes a tolerable harmony,
being weU struck with a ball at the end^of a stick." In the
earlier centuries of the Middle Ages there appear to have been
some instruments of percussion in favour, to which Grassi-
neau's expression " a tolerable harmony " would scarcely
have been applicable. Drums, of course, were known ; and
their rhythmical noise must have been soft music, compared
with the shrill sounds of the cymhalum (a contri\^ance con-
sisting of a number of metal plates suspended on cords, so that
they would be clashed together simultaneously) or with the
clangour of tlic cymhalum constructed with bells instead of
plates ; or with the piercing noise of the biinibiiliim, or bom-
bulont; an instrument which consisted of an angular frame
to which were loosely attached metal plates of various shapes
and sizes. The lower part of the frame constituted the
9842. G

98 MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS.

handle ; and to produce the noise it evidently was shaken
somewhat like the sistnim of the ancient Egyptians*

The triangle nearly resembled the instrument of this name
in use at the present day ; it was more elegant in shape and
had some metal ornamentation in the middle.

The tintinnahultim consisted of a number of bells arranged
in regular order and suspended in a frame.

* See illustration in Ann. Arch., iv., p. 98.

— o

t75 2.

< i

"f. y.

IX.

EUROPEAN IXSTRUMEXTS OF THE MIDDLE AGES.

(Coniinued).

Respecting tlie orchestras, or musical bands, represented
on monuments of the Middle Ages, there can hardly be a doubt
that the artists who sculptured them were not unfrequently led.
by their imagination rather than by an adherence to actual
fact. It is, however, not likely that they introduced into such
representations instruments that were never admitted in the
orchestras, and which would have appeared inappropriate to
the contemporaries of the artists. An examination of one
or two of the orchestras may therefore find a i)lacc here,
especially as they throw some additional light upon the char-
acteristics of the instrumental music of mediaeval time.

A very interesting group of music })erformers, dating, it is
said, from the end of the eleventh century, is preserved in a
bas-relief which formerly ornamented the abbey of St. Georges
de Boscherville and which is now removed to the museum
of Rouen (Fig. 35). The orchestra comprises twelv^e per-
formers, most of whom wear a crown. The first of them
plays upon a viol, which he holds between his knees as
the violoncello is held. His instrument is scarcely as large as
the smallest viola da gamba. By his side are a royal lady and
her attendant, the former playing on an organistrum of which
tlie latter is turning the wlieel. Next to these is represented
a ])erformer on a syrinx; and next to liiin a ])erformer on a
stringed instrument resembling a lute, which, however, is too
much dilapidated to be recognisable. Then we have a musician
9842. o 2

103 MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS.

with a small stringed instrument resembling the nahliim {see
p. 86). The next musician, also represented as a royal per-
sonage, plays on a small species of harp. Then follows a
crowned musician ])laying the viol which he holds in almost
precisely the same manner as the violin is held. Again,
another, likewise crowned, plays upon a harp, using with the
right hand a plectrum and with the left hand merely his
fingers. The last two performers, apparently a gentleman and
a gentlewoman, are engaged in striking the iintinnahuluni — a
set of bells in a frame.

In this group of crowned minstrels the sculptor has intro-
duced a tumbler standing on his head, perhaps the vocalist
of the company, as he has no instrument to play upon. Pos-
sibly the sculptor desired to symbolise the hilarious effects
which music is capable of j^roducing, as well as its elevating
influence upon the devotional feelings.

The two positions in which we find the viol held is worthy
of notice, inasmuch as it refers the inquirer further back than
might be expected for the origin of our peculiar method of
holding the violin, and the violoncello, in playing. There
were several kinds of the viol in use, differing in size and in
compass of sound. The most common number of strings
was five, and it was tuned in various ways. One kind had

a string tuned to the note {^^J' ■»-

running at the side

of the finger-board instead of o\'er it ; this string was,
therefore, only capable of producing a single tone. The four

other strings were tuned thus : ildi' _j_U-( ( | ^__|_j_ : Two

other species, on which all the strings were placed over the

and :

finger-board, were tuned : ^r^-^-^z X_ ■^|)_4_j zp

l-i.. {fi. Hi Ki.v-Gi KDV (\'kllc). With anris of 1 r.incr miuI cnuvm.l
iiionuKrani of Henry II. on li.i<l< ami fu>iii. N'<-;ir the Ii.ukII.' iii.- in. mo-
jjranis uf CallK-rim- il<- Mr<licis. AImmU i-,^... I.. --} ni., W . Nj in.

No. ■.•.■.j-'»i(>.
\'i(:li.ria am! .\ll>i il Mnsi inn.

o =

■11

U"^

■05

EUROPEAN: THE MIDDLE AGES. lol

A very beautiful vidtc is repre-

sented in Fig. 36. It is of French workmanship of about
1550, with monograms of Henri 11.. and is i)reserved in the
Museum.

The contrivance of placing a string or two at the side of the
finger-board is evidently very old, and was also gradually
adopted on "other instruments of the violin class of a somewhat
later period than that of the vielle ; for instance, on the lira
di braccio of the Italians. It was likewise adopted on the lute,
to obtain a fuller power in the bass ; and hence arose the
theorbo, the archlnte, and other varieties of the old lute.

A grand assemblage of musical performers is represented on
the Portico della Gloria of the famous pilgrimage church of
Santiago de Compostella, in Spain. This triple portal, which
is stated by an inscription on the lintel to have been executed
in the year 1188, consists of a large semi-circular arch with a
smaller arch on either side. The central arch is filled by a
tympanum, round which are twenty-four life-sized seated
figures, in high relief, representing the twenty-four elders seen
by St. John in the Apocalypse, each with an instrument of
music. These instruments are carefully represented, and are
of great interest as showing those in use in Spain abftul the
twelfth century. A cast of this sculpture is in the Musuum

(Fig. Z7)-

In examining the group of musicians on this sculpture the
reader will probably recognise several instruments in their
hands whicli are identical with those already described in the
preceding pages. The organistriiDi, played by two persons, is
placed in the centre of the group, perhaps owing to its being the
largest of the instruments rather than that it was distinguished
by any su])eriority in si.und or musical effect. Besides the
small liarp seen in the IkukU ijI the eighth ainl nimlirnth

102 MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS.

musicians (in form nearly identical with the Anglo-Saxon
h^rp) we find a small triangular harp, without a front-]:>illar,
held on the lap by the fifth and eighteenth musicians. The
salterio on tlie laj) of the tenth and seventeenth musicians
resembles the dulcimer, but seems to be played with the
fingers instead of with hammers. The most interesting instru-
ment in this orchestra is the vihiiela, or Spanish viol, of the
twelfth century. The first, second, third, sixth, seventh,
ninth, twentieth, twenty-second, twenty-third, and twenty-
fourth musicians are depicted with a vihiiela which bears a
close resemblance to the rehcc. The instrument is represented
with three strings, although in one or two instances five tuning-
pegs are indicated. A large species of vihiiela is given to the
eleventh, fourteenth, fifteenth, and sixteenth musicians.
This instrument differs from the rebec in so far as its body is
broader and has incurvations at the sides. Also the sound-
holes are different in form and position. The bow does not
occur with any of these viols. But, as will be observed, the
musicians are not represented in the act of playing ; they are
tuning and preparing for the performance, and the second of
them is adjusting the bridge of his instrument.

The minstrel gallery of Exeter Cathedral (Fig. :^^) dates
from the fourteenth century. The front is divided into twelve
niches, each of which contains a winged figure or an angel
playing on an instrument of music. There is a cast also of
this famous sculpture at South Kensington. The instru-
ments are so much dilapidated that some of them cannot be
clearly recognised ; but, as far as may be ascertained, they
appear to be as follows : — (l) The lute or ])ossibly cittern ;
(2) the bagpipe ; (3) the clarion or the shalm ; (4) the rebec ;
(5) the psaltery or the harp ; (6) the Jew's harp (?) ; (7) the
sackbut or the clarion ; (8) the regals ; (9) the gittern, a small
guitar strung with catgut ; (ro) the shalm (?>); (11) the timbrel,

r 2

EUROPEAN: THE MIDDLE AGES. 103

resembling our present tambourine, with a double row of
gingles ; (12) cymbals. Most of these instruments have been
already noticed in the preceding pages. The shalm, or shawm,
was a pipe with a reed in the mouth-hole. The khiU was an
English wind instrument of the same construction. If it
differed in any respect from the shalm, the difference con-
sisted probably in the size only. The wait obtained its name
from being used principally by watchmen, or waights, to
proclaim the time of night. Such were the poor ancestors of
our fine oboe and clarinet. -'

POST-MEDL]i\'AL IXSTRUMENTS.

Attention must now be drawn to some instruments which
originated during the Middle Ages, but which attained their
highest popularity at a somewhat later period.

About 300 years ago the lute (Fig. 39) was almost as popular
as is the pianoforte at the present day. Originally it had
eight thin catgut strings arranged in four pairs, each pair
being tuned in unison ; so that its open strings produced four
tones ; but in the course of time more strings were added.
Until the sixteenth century twelve was the largest number, or
rather, six pairs. Eleven appears for some centuries to have
been the most usual number of strings ; these produced six
tones, since they were arranged in five pairs and a single
string. The latter, called the chanterelle, was the highest.
According to Thomas Mace, the English lute in common use
during the seventeenth century had twenty-four strings,
arranged in twelve pairs, of which six pairs ran over the
finger-board and the other six by the side of it. This lute
was therefore, more properly speaking, a theorbo. The neck
of the lute, and also of the theorbo, had frets consisting of
catgut strings tightly fastened round it at the proper distances
required for ensuring a chromatic succession of intervals.
The illustration (Fig. 40) represents a lute-player of the late
fifteenth century. The order of tones adopted for the open
strings varied in different centuries and countries ; and this
was also the case with the notation of lute music. The most
coimnon practice was to write the music on six lines, the
upper line representing the first string ; the second line, the

l-"l<.. i<(. — 1,1 Ti.. Il.ili.iM (\i iicliaii). HiKiiiiiiiiK of 171I1
CL-ntiM V. L. ^2.1 in., W. 1.. in. N.i. ii:;s,-'()).

Victoria ;iiiil Allien ^^llM■lll^.

I'"|i.. 40. — Anyil playiii;; a I.ul: , afic
an oil paintiiiti liy Ainliroiiio lia I'ri ili
Laic 15th cuiitiiry.

N .iliiiiia) Cialleiv.

I'll,. T ;.— Aiigil |>layiiij; a \"ii)l, allcr an nil

p.iintiiii,' by Anihio^ji.i ila I'lcilis. I.att-

1 ^lll oimiry.

Xalioiial C'lalltiv.

Tu;. .|i- — Ak( HI 1 I 1.. I iisciilccl " K iiichi in ( li.nnloi

Street London, iy(y^." I. .|<;1 ni., \\ . i.\\ in.

N'o. (j-';i •

\'ictoria anil AIIhiI Mu^ciiin.

POST-MEDLEVAL. 105

second string, etc., and to mark with letters on the hnes the
frets at which the fingers ought to be placed — a indicating
the open string, b the first fret, c the second fret, and so oh.

The lute was made of various sizes, according to the purpose
for which it was intended in performance. The treble-lute
was of the smallest dimensions, and the bass-lute of the largest.
The theorbo, or double-necked lute which appears to have
come into use during the sixteenth century, had in addition
to the strings situated over the finger-board a number of others
running at the left side of the finger-board which could not
be shortened by the fingers, and which produced the bass tones.

The archlute is a large theorbo with a peculiar arrangement
of the strings (Fig. 41). Several of them wi'rc doubled, the
additional string being tuned an octave higher than the other.
Tiie process of tuning such instruments was evidently trouble-
some and tedious. Mattheson, the quaint contemporary of
Handel, in his " Das Neu-eroffnete Orchestre," Hamburg, 1713,
remarks :— " H a lutenist attains the age of eighty, you may
be sure he has tuned sixty years ; and the worst of it is that
among a hundred players, especially of the amateurs, scarcely
two are capable of tuning with accuracy. Now there is
something amiss with the strings ; now with the frets ; and
now again with the screws ; so that I have been told that in
Paris it costs as much money to keep a lute as to kee}) a
horse." Also Mace, an enthusiastic admirer ot the lute,
testifies to the difficulty of keeping the instrument in proper
condition ; for his treatise on the lute and theorbo (contained
in " Musick's Monument," London, lOjO) is replete with
rules for stringing, tuning, cleaning, repairing, etc. And, as
regards preserving the instrument, lie gives the advice —
" Yuu shall dtj well, ever when ycni lay it l)y in the day-time,
to put It nito a bed that is constantly used, l)ct\veen llir rug
and blank 't."

io6 MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS.

The chitarrone is a theorbo with an extraordinarily long
neck, by which the length of the eight bass strings is consider-
ably increased (Fig. 42). The largest instruments of this kind
were made some centuries ago, in Rome. They were used in
the theatre for accompanying the voice, before the Clavicem-
balo, or Harpsichord, was introduced for this purpose. The
finest instruments of the lute kind were made in Italy, espe-
cially at Bologna, Rome, Venice, and Padua. Many of the
manufacturers in Italy were, however, foreigners. Evelyn,
in his Diary (May 21, 1645), speaking of Bologna, says,
" This place has also been celebrated for lutes made by the
old masters, Mollen [Maler ?], Hans Frey, and Nicholas
Sconvelt, which were of extraordinary price ; the workmen
were chiefly Germans." One of the earliest and most cele-
brated of these makers was Lucas Maler (or " Laux Maler "
as he inscribed his name on his instruments). He lived at
Bologna about 1415.

Other celebrated lute-makers* were : —

Ludwig Porgt, Regensburg, 1525.

Hanns Gerle, Nuremberg, b. about 1505, d. 1599.

Hans Neuscdler, Nuremberg, d. 1563.

Sebastian Rauser, Verona, working about 1590 to 1605.

Mattheus Buchenberg, Rome, working about 1592-1619.

Hanns Fichtholdt, Ingoldstadt (?), about 1612 ; his lutes,
the backs of which arc made with narrow strips of
wood, in the Italian manner, were formerly much
prized by connoisseurs.

Paolo Belami, Paris, about 1612, probably an Italian.
His lutes were highly valued.

Joachim Tielke, Hamburg, b. 1641, d. 1719.

* For a more complete list of lute-makers see Von LiitgendorfF, Die
Geigeit- und Lautenmacher vom Miltelalter bis zur Gegenwart, Frankfort,
1904.

III.. (J. -(■ ill 1 AlikDSK. Il

^ili.iii.

i.i, li>

UiichiiilicTg ill KoiiKj, aniii

. il.i.(.

74 il'-

No. io<>-

02.

Vic(un,i .iiid .\lli( rl Muse 11111.

POST-MEDLE]'AL. 107

Antoni(j Castaro, Rome, about 1615.

Christofilo Rochi, Padua, about 1620.

Sebastian Rochi, Venice, about 1620.

Clays von Pommersbach, Cologne, probably during tlie

sixteenth century.
Magnus Tieffenbrucker, Venice, latter half of seventeenth

century.
Wendelin Tieffenbrucker, Padui, working about 1572-
1611, and Leonhard Tieffenbrucker, Padua (?), during
the sixteenth century ; their lutes were rather flat and
long in body.
Michael Hartung, Padua, working about 1602 to 1624 ;

he was a pupil of Leonhard Tieffenbrucker.
Raphael Mest, Fiissen, working about 1610 to 1650 ; said

to have been pupil of iMicliacl Hartung.
Johann Christian Hoffmann, Lci])zig, working about 1710
to 1750 ; his kites were exported to Holland and
England.
.Martin Schott, Prague, latter halt of seventeenth century.
Sebastian Rauch, Prague, working about 1700 to 1724.
Matthias Hummel, Nuremberg, end of seventeenth

centur}^
SL'l)astian Schelle, Nuremberg, working about 1700 to
1745 ; his lutes were much valued, not only in Germany,
but also in other European countries.
There used to l)e in Italy various kinds of mandolines, of
which the Milanese and the Neapolitan were the most
common. The lirst-named had usually ten strings, con-
stituting five pairs. The Neapolitan mandolino had eight
strings, constituting four pairs. The strings were usually
twanged with a ([uill. Mozarl, in his " Don (iiovanni," has
made use of the Ncai)olitan iiidih/cliii" 111 tlic sereiuule : but,
as the instrument hiis fallen into disuse, at least ni nuist

io8 MUSICAL myiRUMENTS.

countries except Italy, the part written for it by Mozart is
now generally played on the violin, pizzicato. The mandolino
is now often strung with catgut strings. It resembles a
diminutive lute ; but its fingerboard has metal frets, and its
strings are fastened to little ivory pins at the end of the
body, instead of b?ing looped through holes in the bridge.
The convex back of the mandoline is deeper than that of
the lute. It is one of the handsomest musical instruments.

Besides the mandoline the Italians had various instruments
in shape resembling the lute. Of this description are, for
instance, the mandora, mandorina, and the pandurina. The
mandoline differs from the pandurina chiefly in having a
rounder and deeper body, and in having the tuning-pegs
placed at the back of the head ; while the pandurina has a
sort of scroll, with the tuning-pegs situated sideways, similar
to the old English cither (Fig. 43), The mandora had usually for
each tone two strings, which were of catgut and wire; and there
were eight pairs of them. The mandorinaha.d four wire strings.

The guitar (Fig. 44) is evidently an importation from the East,
but it has undergone various modifications since its adoption
by European nations. It was an instrument of the Moors in
Spain, and became known in France about the nth century.
The French called it formerly guiterne, and the English
gitiern, ghittern, and gy thorn. At the time of Henry VIII.
we find it occasionally called " the Spanish viol." At an
early period it probably had the oval shape of the kuitra, still
in use by the Arab musicians in Tunis and Algiers. In Spain
it had formerly also the name of vihueLi.

Instruction books for the old Spanish guitar have been
written by : — Ludovico Milan, Valencia, 1534 ; Sixtus
Kargel, Mayence, 1569 ; Joannes Carolus, Lerida, 1626 ;
Pictro Milioni, Rome, 1638 ; Lucas Ruiz dc Ribayaz, Madrid,
1672, etc. The number of guitar nianuils publislied during

l'"i,.. 13. — I'asdi KINA. Oil till' iMCk is carved ;i

Uioiiii coiisistiiifj of Jiiiiii, Miiiciva :iml \'iiuis.

l-'nnch. Scrcpiiil h.ilf of 161I1 niitiiiy. I.. i6Un.,

W. .(4 ill. No. 2iii '6(1.

\ ictoria .mil .\11» 11 Mii^iiiiii

I'll.. (.|. — ("■UlTAI

. Iniicli (')■ '7'li I iiitiiry- I-
1 1 J in. N<j. 07ii-'7-'.

\'icl'>ii.i iiiiil Allicrl Mus. 1:111.

j ill., W.

I'lll. 45. — IJrlNI 1 KNA. OK ClIIIIUNA. IllSClibcil " |(l.ll.llilll IlL'lki

in IlambiirH, i5,>j," ''iit nl lalir il.iu-.
L. .?5 i ill., W. yj in. Xd. iij-.'-'(hj.

\'ictoria aiiil All)Lit Miisoiiin.

Ph.. ./i. — Ci niKK. G( riiiiiii. Ivml ul 171I1 ri ntui y. I.. ;i.lm.
\l). ■.■m ':'2.

\'i(;l.iri;i .111(1 All>i rl Mi.m iiui.

POST-MEDl.EVAL. 109

the i8th century is enormous. Germany alone contributed
above fifty.

The guitar was a fashionable instrument in England, played
by ladies, in the time of Charles II. On the Continent it
generally had ten catgut strings, of which two were always
tuned in unison. At the present day it hiis six strings, the
two of which are of silk covered with silver wire, and the
others are of catgut.

A species of guitar is the qiiinierna, or chiferna, somewhat
resembling a violin in shape (Fig. 45). It was used about two
centuries ago, especially in Italy, by the lower orders of
musicians and comedians for accompanying their vocal
performances. It was pla^-ed with the fingers instead of a
plectrum.

The cithern, cittern, or cither (Fig. 46), which during the
sixteenth and seventeenth centuries was a popular instrument
in England, where it was often played in the barbers' shops,
had four pairs of wire strings.

Its top generally terminated in a grotesquely-carved human
head. The cithers made in England during the eighteenth
century have generally at the top some inlaid ornamentation
in ivory, mother-of-pearl, or fancy wood.

Although not well suited for the performance of harmonious
combinations, since its wire strings are twanged with a quill,
and therefore only such chords can be properly ]:)roduccd as
are on strings following each other in uninterrupted succession,
the cither, nevertheless, possesses considerable charms.

Tlicre are several conjectures as to the deri\'ation of the
German name zither or zittcr. Some sui)})ose it to h.- from
" zittern," on account of the peculiarly trembling sound of the
instrument. During the first centuries of the Christian era
the word cythera [cithara) implied almost any stringed instru-
ment, especially if the strings were twanged with a j^lcctrum,

no MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS.

or with the fingers. It is also noteworthy, though perhaps only
as a singular coincidence, that the Persians and Hindus have
a three-stringed species of ^^7^^r, which they call sitar, from the
Persian word si, " three," and tar, " a string." The Hindu
sitar is, however, now usually mounted with five strings.

The harp-guitar and harp-theorho (Fig. 47) were manu-
factured in England with the intention of improving the
sound of the guitar and theorbo by adopting for them the
body of the harp.

There was also another invention of this kind, called the
harp-lute.

The harp-ventura (Fig. 48) was invented at the beginning of
the last century by Signor Angelo Benedetto Ventura, pro-
fessor of music, and teacher of the guitar and harp-lute to
the Princess Charlotte of Wales. The example given has a
back of satin wood, and sides of turtle shell ; the belly and
pillar are painted and gilt. It has nineteen catgut strings,
six of which are covered with wire.

The banduria (Fig. 49) a lyre-shaped guitar, was often
strung with wire instead of catgut, and played with a plectrum
generally made of tortoise-shell. The specimen illustrated is
made of various woods, has three sound-holes, a machine
head, and twelve catgut strings tuned in pairs.

The Spanish peasants call their rustic guitar vihuela ;
and it appears probable that the " gittrons that are called
Spanish vialls," mentioned in the list of musical instruments
of Henry VIII. (Harl. MSS. 141Q, p. 202) were small guitars
of this description.

The Irish harp {clarscth) illustrated in Fig. 50, belonged
formerly to a celebrated Irish harper. A similar one, which is in
the possession of the Marquess of Kildare, bears the date 1671.

Considering the scarcity of the old Irish clarseth, mention
may be made of a fine specimen formerly in the collection of

1]>.. 4;. IIaki TiM.OKiKJ. Maili- 1>\ Hal 1( \. Enuli^li. .\l»iiii i^mj.
L. ;Cj ill. N(.>. .-y, '.-.•.

\ii luri.i iinl AlbuM Mi.scuiii.

I'll.. .|i.— II\ur Vi-SiinA. Sii-imUciI liiiiii the iri\(ni.)|-, Si^ill■il' S'iiuui.i.
liii^^li-li. l-,ai'ly U)tll C( liuiiy. I,. ; ; ill. N'n. .•^S-'o.-.

\'ii.lijri.i .iiiil AIIm ri Miisluiu

Ii'.. y,j. |;aM'!i;ia. I.ii„Ii li. l.ail) i,ili liiiIiii\. I . .; ill. .\
\H:|i 'li.i .iimI All'i II Mu-.i iiiM.

li'.. ic- IIaui'. Ol.l Iri^li. II. :;.' ill., W. 4 ; ill. N^i. tiio-
\'icti.iri.i ;inil .\1Iki1 Mi.si niii.

POST-MEDI.EVAL. tit

Irish antiquities belonging to Thomas Crofton Crokcr, from
which it was purchased, in the year 1854, at an auction in
London, by Thomas Bateman, Esq. It bears on its front the
inscription, Made by John Kelly for the Rev. Charles Bunworth
Baltdaniel, 1734. At the contentions or meetings of the
bards of Ireland, between the years 1730 and 1750, which were
generally held at Bruree, county Limerick, the Rev. Charles
Bunworth was five times chosen umpire, or president. Al-
though this harp is not of high antiquity, it is an interesting
example of the ancient form and construction, and likewise of
the ancient manner of ornamenting the instrument. A wood
engraving of it, from a drawing by Maclise, is given in " A
Descriptive Catalogue of the Antiquities and Miscellaneous
Objects preserved in the Museum of Thomas Bateman, at
Lomberdale House, Derbyshire," Bakewell, 1S55. An ac-
count of the Irish harps deposited in the Museum of Dublin is
to be found in" A Descriptive Catalogue of the Antiquities in
the Museum of the R()\-aI Irish Academy," by W. R. Wilde,
Dublin, 1863. The illustrations of the Irish harp in the works
of Bunting and similar writers may be supposed to be known
to musicians.

The number of strings appears to have been greater on the
older specimens recorded than on the later ones. Pnetorius,
in his " Syntagma musicum," etc., vol. ii., Wolfenbiittel,
1619, gives an illustration of the Irish harp, in which it is
represented with forty-three strings. He describes the
instrument as having a pleasant resonance, and being con-
structed with a considerable degree of ingenuity. The
illustration exhibits the same shape, with the fore-bar bent
outwards, which is shown in the present specimen.

Some harps after the model of the old Irish clarseth, which
are painted and gilt, were made in Dul)lin in the beginning of
the last century.

112 MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS.

The small harp of the middle ages of Central and Western
Europe, depicted in old sculptures and paintings, generally
exhibits the front-bar of its frame somewhat bent outwardly,
much as is the case with the Irish clarseth. Gradually the
number of its strings was increased ; and, likewise the strength
of the frame for resisting the tension of the strings. The
front-bar of our harp is straight, or a front-pillar. Until the
seventeenth century only the diatonic series of intervals was
properly obtainable on the instrument. The performer had,
however, a method of producing occasionally a semitone by
pressing the finger against the string towards the end, much in
the same manner in which the Burmese produce chromatic
intervals on the soitng. Towards the end of the seventeenth
century the Tyrolian harj) makers adopted little plates with
hooks, which could be moved so as to press upon the strings,
and thereby shorten them, for the production of the semitones,
more rapidly and unerringly than could be done by the fingers.
A French harp of the period of Louis XVI. is illustrated
(Fig. 51). It is carved and gilt in the style of Gouthiere,
and decorated with oak foliage and acorns ; at the top of
the pillar is a figure of a Cupid.

Students who examine the old instruments above described
will probably wish to know something about their quality
of tone. " How do they sound ? Might they still be made
effective in our present state of the art ? " are questions which
naturally occur to the musical inquirer having such instru-
ments brought before him. A few words bearing on these
questions may therefore not be out of place here.

It is generally and justly admitted that in no other branch
of the art of music has greater progress been made during the
last century than in the construction of musical instruments.
Nevertheless, there are people who t^iink that we have also

^^H

^^^^^^^^^^/^^

■~^^^^^^^^k

■i

^^Ml

^^^BW

III

^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^K -'^'h^I

^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^Kl

y'^^^^'^-^m

^^^^^^K

^'»^^m

^^^H

51 — llAir. li.ncli. All. Mil 177.,. II. fi ; in.. W. ; . 111.
\'i(:i..n.i .iii.l All. II .\I 11 ■mil.

■l"-7- 5;

l-'i... --..■. -Viol. IS. S.il.l t.. li.ivi 1m Ic.iik'i'l I" I'lii" " I-
Liij^lisli. i;.irlv 171I1 c. lUiHV. I.. -•;', 111.. W. 111.

\'ii i.>i ,.1 ,111 1 \\\'i 1 1 M'i.s 11.11.

POST-MEDLEVAL. 113

lost something here which might with advantage be restored.
Our various instruments by being more and more perfected
are becoming too much aUke in quahty of sound, or in that
character of tone which the Frencli call timbre, and the
Germans Klangfarhe, and which professor Tjmdall in his
lectures on sound has translated clang-iini. Every
musical composer knows how much more suitable one clang-
tint is for the expression of a certain emotion than another.
Our old instruments, imperfect though they were in many
respects, possessed this variety of clang-tint to a high degree.
Neither were thev on this account less capable of expression
than the modern ones. That no improvement has been made
during the last two centuries in instruments of the viohn
class is a well-known fact. As to lutes and cithers the collec-
tion at South Kensington contains specimens so rich and
mellow in tone as to cause musicians to regret that these
instruments have entirely fallen into oblivion.

As regards beauty of appearance our earlier instruments
were certainly superior to the modern. Indeed, we have now
scarcely a musical instrument which can be called beautiful.
The old lutes, cithers, viols, dulcimers, etc., are not only
elegant in shape but are also often tastefully ornamented
with carvings, designs in marquetry, and painting.

Of the stringed instruments used in our orchestra, the
violin (Fig. 52) is the one which has been longest preserved
entirely unaltered. Its name (Italian, violino), a diminutive
oiviola,s\xggQSis>Wr.\i owr tenor [viola dibraccio) is the older in-
strument of the two. The viol (Fig. 53 , facing p. 104) in use about
three centuries ago, was however somewhat different in shape.
As the oldest-known instruments played with a bow, whicli in
European countries preceded the violin, may be mentioned : —
The rebec, which, it appears, was lirst popular in Spain ;
the crwth of the Welsh ; the fuUa of the Norwegian, which, m

114 MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS.

shape somewhat resembled the crwth, and which, with some
sUght modifications, is still occasionally to be found in Iceland,
where it is called langspiel ; and the fithele of the Anglo-
Saxons.

Such were the instruments from which our violin has
gradually bsen developed, until it attained, in the seventeenth
century, that degree of perfection which has never since been
surpassed. The violin makers whose instruments are still
most highly valued are : — Antonio Amati, whose most
flourishing period dates between the years 1592 and 1619 ;
Nicolo Amati, the nephew of the preceding, 1662-1692 ;
Giuseppe Guarneri, 1690-1707 ; Antonio Stradivari, 1700-
1725 ; and Jakob Stainer, 1650-1670. All these celebrated
makers, except Jakob Stainer, were Italians, living at
Cremona. Jakob Stainer (or Jacobus Steiner) was a native
of Absani, a village near Innsbruck in the Tyrol. Few
musical instruments have experienced so great an increase
in price as the violins of these celebrated makers. Stainer
used himself to carry his violins to the monasteries situated
in the neighbourhood of Absam, where he lived. He sold
them at 40 florins apiece. It was not until after his death that
his workmanship was duly appreciated.

The viola da gamba (French, basse de viole ; German, Knie-
geige) derives its name from its being held between the knees
of the performer (Figs. 54 and 55). It was the predecessor
of the violoncello, and was made with frets. It was a favourite
instrument in England at the time of Queen Elizabeth, and
even ladies played it occasionally. In England it was called
base viol, and also viol-de-gambo. Sir Toby Belch, in Shake-
speare's " Twelfth Night," says of Sir Andrew Aguecheek : —

" He plays o' the viol-de-gamboys, and speaks three or
four languages word for word without book, and hath all
the good gifts of nature."

Ii',. =,). — \'i"i \ ii\ <"i\\ii;\. Il ili.iii. Al I I

11. I ' ill, W. 1 1 ill. N". 7 ;" ' '61.

XitiiiiKi .mil ,\lli. n Mum iiiii.

1-lr, ;:; \|ia\ li\ C WII'.A. It.llMll. I 71I1 Cl Ml 111 \ . 1.. ,|7; ill
No, If.:-'-:...

Vicluna in. I AILc ii Mum inn

l-'|l.. ,fl. — \'lMl. A III HaKIii iM , I 'U Hah\ IMS, Willi !!••«.

Iiis(iili( il " J.ic|iic -. S.iin|ii.ii , a r.tiliii." (i.riiiaii.

171I1 CI iitiiiy. I., ^t iii.,\V i6l Ml. N'i. 1 HI. I 1 II' 7"-

\'i(i.in.i .iM'l Ali'i 1 1 Miisruiii.

POST-MEDI.UVAL. _ 115

Among the English public ])erformers on the viola da
gamba are recorded a Mrs. Sarah Ottey, in the year 1723,
and a Miss Ford in 1760. Carl Friedrich Abel, a German,
who lived in London during the latter hall of the eighteenth
centurj', was the last porformer of celebrity on this instru-
ment. Johann Sebastian Bach has employed it in his
admirable " Passionsmusik des Mattha;us"; and there are
some fine " Suites," still occasionally to be met with, composed
for it by M. de Caix d'Hcrveloix, published in the year 1710.
The tone of the viola da gamba is rather nasal. l)ut swct-t and
expressive ; indeed, it is to be regretted that this charming
instrument has fallen into disuse. There is, however, a
gamba stop in the organ, which resembles the famous vox
humana stop, and which has recently been much favoured
by organ builders.

The violoncello cams into competition with the viola da
gamba at the beginning of the eighteenth century, and has
now entirely superseded its predecessor.

A viola di bardone in the Museum (Fig. 5O) has a neck of
carvx'd and pierced box-wood, terminating in a figure of
Apollo playing the lyre ; the principal tinger-l)oard is of ivory,
engraved and inlaid with eliony and tortoiscshell, with figures
of Jupiter and Juno, and a lady i)]aying a lute ; the second
finger-board is a'so of pierced and engraved i\-ory. The
instrument has four catgut and fourteen metal symi)ath(.'tic
strings, and a double wrest. It was made 1)\- Jaques Sain])r.ac',
of Berlin, and is said. to have bt-longeil to Qu;uu. nmsic nuister
of Frederick the (ircat.

The most accomplished performers on the viola di Jmrdont
were Anton Lidl of Vienna (to whom is sometimes erroneously
ascribed the invention of this instrument) and Ki'.rl Franz, ;i
musician of the band of Prince Hstcrhazy, about the middle
of the i8th century. Lidl played on the viola di bardone in

ii6 MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS,

concerts in England during the year 1776. Joachim Tielke
of Hamburg, the manufacturer of a specimen in the Museum,
was an instrument maker whose lutes were much esteemed
on account of their fine tone, and their elegant ornamenta-
tion. He made them of ebony inlaid with ivory, mother-of-
pearl, silver, and gold.

Joseph Haydn wrote sixty-three compositions for the
viola di hardone by order of Prince Esterhazy, who was himself
a performer on tliis instrument, and who admired it greatly.
Its tone is soft and very expressive, but rather tremulous ;
owing to this quality, probably, it was also called viola di
fagotto. It never became very popular, since its rather
complicated construction offered too many difficulties in its
treatment. In Germany it was generally called Baryton.

The viola d'amore (Fig. 57) was often strung entirely with
wire. It appears to have l>een a novelty to Evelyn, for he
records in his Diary of November 20th, 1679, " I dined
with Mr. Slingsby, Master of the Mint, with my wife, invited
to hear music, which was exquisitely performed by four of the
most renowned masters : Du Prue, a Frenchman, on the lute ;
Signer Bartholomeo, an Italian, on the harpsichord ; Nicholao,
on the violin ; but above all, for its sweetness and novelty,
the viol d'amore of five wire strings played on with a bow,
being but an ordinary violin played on lyre- way by a German."
Mattheson (" Das Neu-Eroffnete Orchestre," Hamburg,
; 713) describes the viola d'amore as being mounted with four
wire strings, and with one catgut string for the highest tone.

He praises its sweetness of sound, but does not mention the
sympathetic strings. The transformation of the wire-strung
viola d'amore into the so-called psaltery or sultana, which has
no sympathetic strings, is indicated in the following statement
by Sir John Graham Dalyell (" Musical Memoirs of Scotland,"
Edinburgh, 1849), "The instrument was first introduced in

l-"i(. 57. — Vioi.v i>Amoki. I'n.lial.ly ICiii^lisli.
cii tury. L. ■j-;[ in. No. ist'"'-

N'iciHiia aiul Allierl Mii-.uiiiii.

..Ill I'lli

I'll., v. Dill I'll I'a'--', Willi Uiiw. Kiiiiwii .IS •'Tin (li.iiit.
I ,. I . ; 111., W ).• ill. N'.i. I '■;-'■;.•.

\i(iiiria .Hill .Mill II .Mii-i uiii.

li. ill. 111. 1 ;ih tmiiiry.

POST-MEDLTiVAL. 117

public in London during the year 1715, when it was heard
between the acts of an opera. It was known in Scotland
in the middle of the centur}', and a taste for it was probably
encouraged l)y the performance of Passerini, an Italian
resident in Edinburgh, in the \-ear 1752, when it was said
to be a new instrument called violc d'amour. Passerini was
manager of the Gentleman's and St. Cecilia Concert, where
he and his wife had a permanent engagement as skilled
musicians. He played solos and accompanied singing with
the instrument. Perhaps the viole d' amour underwent
several modifications, as its name was changed to psaltery,
in the belief of its being the ancient instrument so denominated,
wliich is quite different according to most authoritit'S, not
belonging to the lidicinal tribe. In 1754 a concert for the new
instrument called the psaltery was announced for Signor
Carusi's benefit concert in Etlinburgh, and j)erformed by
Pasquali, another Italian musician, also resident there.
From its soft and simple nature it was eulogised in lyin as
unequalled for delicacy and sweetness. I knew a lad}- many
years ago in Edinburgh who i)layed melodies with great
delicacy on this instrument, which was strung with wire, and
had frets on the finger-board." From these accounts it would
appear that the viola d'amore strung entirely with wire was
not much used in England before the year 1700, although
it evidently existed in this countr}- in the seventeenth centur}-.

The double-bass (Italian, contrcbasso, violonc ; French,
conlrebasse ; German, grosse Bassgeigc, Kontrabass) is either
four-stringed or three-stringed. A three-stringed example
known as " The Giant " presented by Dragonetti to the
Duke of Leinster, and given by the latter to the Museum,
is illustrated in Fig. 58.

Dragonetti, the cclel)rated virtuoso on the double-b.iss,
came to England in tlie year 1794. His favourite instru-

ii8 MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS.

ment, upon which hv pkiyed in pubhc concerts, was a " Gaspar
di Salo," which he obtained from the Convent of St. Pietro at
Vicenza, and wliich he never could be induced to part with,
although ;^8oo, it is said, was offered him for it by one of
his rich and enthusiastic pupils in England. After the death
of Dragonetti this bass, and another valuable one by Stradi-
varius, were sent back to Italy, he having bequeathed them
in his will to the town of Venice. Dragonetti died in the
year 1846 at his house in Leicester Square, at the age of
eighty-three. A year before his death he was still able to
assist in the public performances at the Beethoven Festival in
Bonn. His friend H. Philipps mentions in his " Musical
Recollections " that the ends of Dragonetti's fingers had
gradually become quite flat and deformed from playing.

Some double-basses of extraordinarily large size are known
to have been made in England. William Gardiner (" Music
and Friends," London, 1838, p. 70) mentions sucli an instru-
ment, made by Martin in Leicester, which he saw in the year
1786, and which, if his statement may be relied upon, " was of
such height that Mr. Martin was obliged to cut a hole in the
ceiling to let the head through ; so that it was tuned by going
upstairs into the room above."

A sordino (French, pochette ; German, Taschengeige) is
illustrated in Fig. 59. About 300 years ago the sordino was
kept by gentlemen in a case resembling a pen case, which
they put in the pocket when they went to a singing party ; and
they used the instrument for insuring correct intonation while
singing madrigals and catches. Kircher, in his " Musurgia
Universalis," Romaj, 1650, calls it linterculus, no doubt from
its resemblance to a small boat.

Fig. 60 represents a h^che (German, Schciiholz) made by
Fleurot, of the Val d'Ajol, in the Vosges Mountains, early m
the last century.

Fir.. 50.— SoiiDiNO, on r,-,( iilTTK. PfolaMv ('.<riiiaii.

N.I. 4=;7-'S.?.

I.at( i7tli or early iSih CLiuiuy. I.. 17I in.

l-"ii;. (hi.- Hl'iMi, 'IK Si III II 111)1./. M.iili- l>y l-lruri'i, ,1' the X'.il ilAjnl in ilic \'i >^;i s Mountains.

l-^arlv mill irntiiiv. I.. .• ]. In. N<'. .■n..- '.'<.•.

\';rhii I.I .iliil .Mill It Mum nni.

.y.

POST-MEDl.l-AAL. 119

At the present day the people twang the biiche with a
quill ; hut in olden time it was played thus : — The performer,
having placed the instrunifnt on a table, twanged the strings
with the thumb ot his right hand, while lu- used his left hand
in j)ressing down, bv means of a little stick, those strings
which are placed over the frc-ts. and which, being tuned in
unison, serve for |)roducing the melody. The other strings,
tuned a fifth lower, were occasionally struck as an accompani-
ment.

Primitive in construction, and imperfect for our present
musical performances as the Schcilholz is. it ne\-ertheless is
interesting, not only on account of its popularity three cen-
turies ago. but also because it is the ])rototyi)e of the hori-
zontal cither, which has come somewhat into vogue in the last
century.

The m )st popular mstiu'.nents played with a bow, in the
seventeenth century, were the treble-viol, the tenor-viol, and
the bass-viol. It was usual for viol players to have " a chest
of viols," a case containing four or more viols, of different
sizes. Thu^, Thomas Mace in his directions for the use of
the viol, " .Musick's Monununt " 1O76, remarks, " Your best
provision, and most complete, will be a good chest of viols,
six in number, viz.. two basses, two tenors, and two trcl)les,
all truly and proi)ortionately suited." The violist, to be
properly furnished with his requirements, luul therefore to
supply himself with" a larger stock of instruments than the
violinist of the present day.

The virginal (Figs. 61 and 62) is said to lia\-e obtained
its name from having been intended especially to l)c
played by young ladies. The statement of some writers
that it was called virginal in compliment to Queen 1-diza-
beth, is refuted by the fact of its being mentioned anunig
the musical instruments nl King Henrv \'ill., in llie

120 MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS.

beginning of the sixteenth century. Probabl}' the name
was originally given to it in honour of the Virgin Mary,
since the virginal was used by the nuns for accompany-
ing their hymns addressed to the Holy Virgin. It was made
of various sizes, but generally small in comparison with our
square pianoforte. The Italians, about three hundred years
ago, constructed a small portable instrument of this kind,
which they called ottavino (or octavina) because its pitch was
an octave higher than that of the clavicembalo, or harpsichord.

Queen Elizabeth was a performer OT\i\).e virginal {seeVig. 61)
as well as on the lute. Sir James Melville, the Scotch ambas-
sador, records in his memoirs an interview with OueenElizabeth,
in the year 1564, in which he heard her play upon the virginal :
— " Then sche asked wither the Oucn (Mary of Scotland)
or sche played best. In that I gaif hir the prayse." During
the Shakesperian age a virginal generally stood in the barbers'
shops for the amusement of the customers. The instrument
had evidently retained its popularity at the time of the Great
Fire of London ; for Pepys (Diary, September 2nd, 1666)
records : — " River full of lighters and boats taking in goods,
and good goods swimming in the water ; and only I observed
that hardly one lighter or boat in three that had the goods
of a house in, but there was a pair of virginalls in it."

The instrument has metal strings, one for each tone, which
are twanged by means of small portions of quill, attached to
slips of wood called " jacks," and provided with thin metal
springs. Its construction is therefore similar to that of the
spinet and harpischord. Crowquills were most commonly
used in the construction of such instruments ; but other
materials, as for instance leather, whalebone, and even elastic
strips of metal, were occasionally adopted instead.

There evidently prevailed, some centuries ago, much vague-
ness in the designation of certain stringed instruments with a

■r.

POST-MEDI.EVAL. 121

key-board. The term clavichord seems to have not unfre-
quently been appHed to any stringed instrument with a key-
board, no matter what its interior construction might be.
Johann Walther. in his " Musicahsches Lexicon," Leijizig,
1732, describes the virginal (or " Virginale," as he calls it),
in these words: — " Ein Clavier vors Frauenzimmer " {a
clavichord for ladies). The following brief explanation of the
difference between the spinet and the clavichord may therefore
be of interest to some inquirers.

The spinet (Italian, spinetta or spinetio ; French, epinette) is
said to have derived its name from the little quill (spina) used
in its mechanism, which is the same as that of the harpsichord
and the virginal, descril)ed before.

The more commonly-known s])inet (Figs. 63 and 64)
resembles in shape the harpsichord and the grand j)iano.
It is, however, smaller than the harpsichord, and its ke}--
board is placed in a somewhat oblique direction. The tone
of the sjnnct was generally a fif/h higher than that of the
harpsichord.

The clavichord (Italian, clavicordo ; German, Clavier, or
/•C/^rt'itT), differs from the spinet inasmuch as it is of an oblong-
square shai)e (Fig. 65), and esi)ecially in its l)eing constructed
with so-called tangents, i.e., metal pins wliich i)ress under the
strings when the keys are struck. The strings are of thin brass
wire. The oldest specimens of the clavichord still extant are
from three to four feet in length, and about two feet in width.
The lower keys are black, and the u]:)i)er ones arc white.
There is only a single string for each tone and its upj)er semi-
t(jne ; thus, there is but one string for C and C-sharp, and
likewise for D and D-sharp, and so on. The semitone is pro-
duced by a second tangent, which touches the string at a
place a little distant from that at wlm h it is touched ]>y the
tangent j-roducing the whole-tone. On being i)ressed under

122 MUSICAL TNSTFWMENTS.

the string, tlic taiigt-nt divides it into two vilirating parts,
one ot which is considerably longer than the other and gives
the sound^ The other part is too short to be distinctly
audible, and therefore does not very perceptibly interfere
with the clearness of the sound. Moreover, its vibration
is checked l)y a strij) of cloth interlaced with the strings. It
will easily b;; understood that of the two tangents, the one
which most shortens the sounding ])art of the string, must
produce a tone of a higher pitch than the other.

Such was the construction of the clavichord until about the
year 1700, when it was improved in so far as that each key
was supplied with a separate string. The clavichord is pre-
eminently a German instrument. "^Although now almost entirely
supplanted by the pianoforte, it is still occasionally to be met
with in the house of the German village schoolmaster and of
the country parson. Though l)ut weak in sound, it admits
of much expression ; and most of the German classical com-
posers who lived before the invention of ths pianoforte preferred
the clavichord to the harpsichord. In England it has never
become popular. Considering the simplicity of its con-
struction, it might be surmised that the price of a clavichord
was generally very moderate. In the latter half of th3
eighteenth century the prices charged for such instruments by
some of the best manufacturers were as follows : — Carl Lemmo,
in Brunswick, made clavichords of various qualities, which
fetched from three to twelve Louis d'ors a-piece ; he also made,
for exportation to Batavia, clavichords with a compressed
sounding-board, invented by his father in the year 1771 ;
Kramer, in Gottingen, charged from four to fourteen Louis
d'ors, according to size and fmisli ; and Wilhelmi, in Cassel,
charged from twenty to hfty thalers, — from about £2 to £y los.

The clavicembalo (often designated merely cembalo) is called
in German " Fliigel," on account of its shape somewhat

POST-MEl)I.E\ AL. 133

resembling the wing of a l)irtl. Clavicemhnli formerly in use
generally had a comjiass of liw octaves. The instrument
was usually supplied with some stops by means of which
the quality of sound could in some measure be modified.
Furthermore, it was frequently made with two kcylioards,
one for the loud and another lor the soft tones. The harpsi-
chord made in England was precisely of the same construction.
In fact, the best harpsichord makers in England were emigrants
from the continent, and the founders of some of the great
pianoforte manufactories still flourishing in London. Burk-
hardt Tschudi, for instance, a harpsichord maker from Switzer-
land, was the founder of Broadwood's celebrated manufactory,
which dates from the year 1732. Kirkm in. a German (who,
!)efore he established himself in England, wrote his name
Kirchmann) sold his harpsichords in London, according
lo the German Musical Almanac for the year 1782, at the
price of from 60/. to qu/. apiece. In the beginning of the
eighteenth century many of the harpsichords made in England
had. according to Grassincau (Musical Dictionary, London,
1740), a compass of only four octaves.

However, already as early as in the sixteentii and seven-
teenth centuries, harpsichords or clavicembali, of a superior
cpiality, manufactured by Hans Ruckers and his sons Jean
and AndrciLS, were imported into England. The instrunaents
of these celebrated Antwerp manufacturers were tastefully
embellished, and the best Dutcli painters not infrequently
enriched them with devices. The consequence has been
that after the invention of the i)ianoforte, many of these
old harpsichords were taken to pieces in order to ])reserve the
valuable panels. The ])rice of a tinr harpsichord by Ruckers
about 1770, was £120.

Tlie old claviccmhulo by Antonio Baffo, of Venice (Fig. 66),
has slips of prepared leather instead of tin- usual crowcjuills,

124 MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS.

which, if original, would show that the statement of some
writers as to Pascal Taskin in Paris being the first to use
leather is erroneous, Taskin, in constructing in the year
1768 the Clavecin ct peau de huffle, may have revived an old
invention, which, however, he seems to have much improved.
He made a clavecin with three keyboards, two of which were
connected with actions constructed of crowquills. and the
third with an action of leather. The modification in quality
of sound thereby obtained was greatly admired.

The illustration (Fig. 67) represents a clavecin made by
Pascal Taskin in the year 1786. The case is highly orna-
mented with Japanese figures and gilding.

The invention of the clavicembalo as well as of the clavicordo,
is by some old writers ascribed to Guido Aretinus (or Guido
d' Arezzo), the famous monk who is recorded to have invented,
in the year 1025, the vSolmisation, and also to have first
conceived the idea of employing lines and dots in the notation
of musical sounds. Unauthentic though the tradition may
be which assigns to Guido the invention of the stringed
instruments with a keyboard, it apj)ears very probable that
some rude kind of clavichord was first constructed about
his time, or soon after.

The claviorgannm, or organ-harpsichord, consists of an
organ and a harpsichord (or a spinet) combined. Either can
b(> played separately or with the other together. The separa-
tion and the union are effected by means of a stop or a pedal.
The claviorgannm was, some centuries ago, not uncommon.
It enables the performer to sustain the sound at pleasure,
which on the harpsichord is as little possible as on the piano-
forte. A claviorgannm from Ightham Mote, near Sevenoaks,
illustrated in Fig. 6S, affords evidence of a higher antiquity
of instruments of this kind than might perhaps be expected.
It bears the inscription, Lodowicus Theewes me fecit, 1579.

o .

'•J

? o

O -r 3

2^ I

■o «

Fic,. 6!j. — Thii'I.k I'l.Ar.i OIF r. Italian. Ahout 1S20
I.. .'jI ill. No. 2Q5-'H2.

X'icliii'i.i ainl All) II Miisciiin.

I-'IC. 7.,. — I-I.AIIO 1)"1 < 1 "l< 111 1 I .

Iviiiv. Iii-icrilii .1 •■ Aiicliili .1 Mil. Ill,

i7.(c)." I.. 1- ' in. N'l. ■!.\>:ir'''i-

X'ictiiri.i .iii'l AIIh II Miisi-uiii.

POST-MEDr.EVAL. 125

There is scarcely more remaining of this interesting rehc than
the outer case ; but this is so elaborately finished that, if
the mechanism was constructed with equal care and success,
it must have been a superior instrument. The maker is
unknown in musical history. Perhaps lie belonged to the
family of Treu (also written Trew), musicians of repute in
Anspach about the year 1600.

The pianoforte, which now has entirely superseded the
harpsichord, was first constructed at the beginning of the
eighteenth centur>-, in Italy and (xermany. About tlic
year 1767 it was from Germany introduced into England ;
but the English musicians for a considerable period ol)jected
to it, and preferred to retain the harpsichord.
"~^ That there was. in the time of Shakespeare, a species of
flageolet, called recorder, is undoubtedly known to most
readers from the stage direction in Hamlet : Re-enter players
with recorders. The recorder is also mentioned by Milton, and
described by Bacon, who states that " the figures of recorders,
flutes and pipes are straight ; I)ut the recorder hath a less
bore, and a greater above and below." An illustration of
this old instrument, which has now become very scarce, is
given in " The Genteel Companion ; Being exact Directions
for the Recorder : etc." London, 1683.

The flauto dolce (French, flute donee, and flute a bee), much
in use some centuries ago, was made of various lengths (Fig.
70). The Germans called it Pflockflote, i.e., a flute with a
plug in the mouth-hole. The most common flute a bee was
made with six finger-holes, and its compass embraced some-
what more than two octaves. Several of the finger-holes
required to ])c only partly covered in order to ])roduce the
desired tone. There was often a kry on this instrument
in addition to the finger-holes. This flute was mucii in
favour in England ; licnce it was called in France " Flute

126 MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS.

d'Angleterre." It has gradually been supplanted by the
" Flute traversiere," or " German Flute."

The flageolet (Fig. 71), the smallest flute a bee, was formerly
played in England even by ladies. Pepys, in his Diary (March
1st, 1666), records : — " Being returned home, I find Greeting,
the flageolet-master, come, and teaching my wife ; and I do
think my wife will take pleasure in it, and it will be easy for
her, and pleasant."

The flageolet was made of various sizes. Pepys (Diary,
January 20th, 1667) records : — " To Drumbleby's, the pipe-
maker, there to advise about the making of a flageolet to go
low and soft ; and he do show me a way which do do, and
also a fashion of having two pipes of the same note fastened
together, so as I can play on one and then echo it upon the
other, which is mighty pretty."

The double flageolet was invented by Bainbridge about the
year 1800. The triple flageolet (Fig. 69) is less common but
equally useless for musical ])erformances of the present day.
The " Harmonicon," London, 1830, records : — " Within these
few years Mr. Bainbridge has added a bass joint to his double
flageolet and the tone resembles the lower notes on a German
flute. The effect produced by the combination of three notes
is very good and mellifluous. The bass joint is fixed at the
back of the double flageolet, and the breath is conveyed by
means of a tube ; and by the introduction of what are termed
stop-keys, a solo, duet, or trio may be instantaneously per-
formed. The bass notes are produced by keys pressed with
the thumb of the left hand." The writer remarks that " this
instrument being pucely English, I consider it deserving of
being recorded as a very ingenious invention."
The hautboy or obo^ (Fig. 72) came into more general
use about the year 1720.

Jhe most noteworthy kinds of the hautboy of the time of

l-'ii;. 71. — Ii.Ai.i.iii.i. 1.

Il.ili.iii. Mill. Ill of lilli ccMliny.
I., -jij III., I li.iiii. kI iikmiiIi. I : ill.

) 1 , ; ■. < M • ■! . aI M 1. i'\ \ I II ml
1.) Mil, 111 ; l.iiiin rl\ In ilu |m.v,m— .icn
i.l ilic <'.iiii|Mi-.c r Kir-siiii. I.:ilUi

ll.lir 111 18II1 ClIlllHN. I.. 2l\ 111.,

|)i,iiii. Ill nil mil, 2 '. 111. N". 11 •.•--' u

\'ii iiiri.i .ml Alln ri Mnscai

POST-MEl)l.K\'AL. 127

Handel and Sebastian Bach are, — the ohoe da caccia, which is
identical with the corno iiiglese {English horn, cor anglais), a
large hautboy still occasionally employed in the orchestra,
and the oboe d'amore, or ohoe liingo, whch has fallen into
oblivion. The {)itch of the ohoe d'amore was a minor third
lower than that of tlie common hautboy, or ohoe piccolo ;
and its sound, owing to the narrowness of the l)ore at its further
end, was rather weak, but ])articularly sweet.

The precursor of the hautboy' was evidently the bom-
bardino, or chalumeau. The bombardino, also called in Italian
bombardo piccolo, was a small bombardo, an instrument of the
hautboy kind, about three centuries ago much in use on the
Continent.

The Germans called the bombardo " Pommer," which
appears to be a corruption of the Italian name. The bom-
bardo was made of various sizes, and with a greater or smaller
number of finger-holes and keys. That which produced the
bass tones was sometimes of an enormous length, and was
blown through a bent tube, like the bassoon, the invention
of which it is said to have suggested.

The smallest instrument, called chalumeau (from calamus,
" a reed ") is still occasionally to be found among the peas-
antry in the Tyrol and some other parts of the Continent.
The Germans call it Schalmei, and the Italians pifjero pas-
torale. In England it was formerly called shawm or shalm.

The clarinet, likewise an instrument oi this class, is said to
have been invented by Denner, in Niirnberg, about the year
1700. The clarinet has only a single vibrating reed in the
mouth-piece ; the hautboy has a double one.

The invention of the hcissoon (Italian, fagotto ; French
basson ; (ierman, Fagoti) is ascril)e(l to Afranio. a c;uion of
Ferrara, who constructed the first m the year 1539. The
instrument was, however, an improved bombardo rather than

128 MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS.

a new invention. As' early as the year 1550, the celebrated
wind-instrument maker Schnitzer, in Niirnberg, manufactured
bassoons which were considered as very complete. Fig. 73
illustrates a species of bassoon bound with brass with brass
keys, and complete with mouth-piece and reed.

Various bassoons of small dimensions in use about two
centuries ago, and earlier (the dokiano, Quartfagott, Q uintj agott,
tenor-bassoon, corthol, etc.), are now antiquated.

In the list of musical instruments of Sir Thomas Kytson.
of Hengrave Hall, about the year 1600, recorded in the " His-
tory and Antiquities of Hengrave, Suffolk," by John Gage,
London, 1822, is mentioned "A Curtail," which was probably,
the corthol or French courtaut, an early kind of bassoon, a speci-
men of which, dating from the fifteenth century, is preserved
in the Conservatoire de Musique at Paris. According to
Praatorius (anno 1619) the fagotto piccolo, a small species of
bassoon, was called in England single corthol.

The invention of the serpent (Fig. 74) is attributed to Edme
Guillaume, a canon of Auxerre in France, anno 1590. It was,
however, no new invention, ]:)roperly speaking, but merely
an improvement upon the old Basszinken, the management
of which was rendered more convenient by giving a serpentine
winding to the tube. This instrument subsequently became
rather poi)ular. It was used in military bands and in pro-
cessions until about the middle of the last century. The
French made use of it also in church to support the voices.
Towards the end of the eighteenth century it appears to have
still been a common substitute for the organ in France.
Dr. Burney, in his " Journal," London, 177J, states that he
frequently met with it in the churches of that country, and he
expresses a more favourable opinion of its suitableness for
promoting edification than might have been expected from a
refined niusician : — " It gives the tone in chanting, and play3

|.-,,,, -;._l',\>s.,.,s, ^|M tirsnf. I;iikIi--1i. I..iI. iSlli ..1 , .,ii\ i ,lli r. Ml ill \

I.. \'6\ 111. No. "(7- 7'-

\'K:iur:.i iiiul AHu n Mii'-i uin.

1 1.., 7|.- Till SlII'lNi. M.icii li\ Cii I. cK Wi'll, 111 l.i>ii<l.iii. i;iif;li>li. |-..iii> I'llii n mImi \ . l...;;.ii

N.J. j36-'S.'.

\'h li.ri.i .iml All)i ii Mu^iuiii.

j'-ic. 75.— Si nisKiiJ; iiK Hiun ( )i<<.an. l-rciirli. HeiiMil of Louis Xl\'. 11.--! in.

No. r,29-*'>i.

X'ictoria ami AIli< ri Mu-cuin.

I .. 11! in., W. V in.

' » ll^t<l

POST-MEDL£\AL. 129

the bass when they sing in parts. It is often ill-played, but
if judiciously used would have a good effect. It is, however,
in general overblown, and too powerful for the voices it
accompanies ; otherwise, it mixes with them better than the
organ, as it can augment or diminish a sound with more deli-
cacy, and is less likely to overpower or destroy, by a bad
temperament, that perfect one of wliich the voice only is
capable."

The scrindic, or bird organ (Fig. 75), was formerly used in
France by ladies to teach airs to little singing birds, especially
to a kind of siskin or canary, called in French sey-in ; hence the
name of the instrument.

The organ positive (Fig. 76) is distinguished from the organ
portative in so far that the former was a larger instrument,
generally placed on a table an.i blown by an attendant,
while the latter was carried about by the performer in religious
processions and on such-like occasions.

In England some rude species of organ is said to have ];)2en
used in public worship as early as about the middle of the
seventh century. It was, however, on the Continent, i)rinci-
pally in Germany, that almost all {\\v important imj^rove-
ments originated which gradually brought llie organ to its
present high degree of perfection. Many old organs of line work-
manship are still extant in the churches of Gcrmanw During
the iSth century especia]l\- several large organs of deserved
celebrity were built in that country ; suffice it to instance
those of the brothers Andreas and Gottfried Silbermaim. In
England the important inventions of the continental builders
were not readily adoi)ted. Recently, liowever, se\-eral huge
organs of very fine workmansliip ]ia\-e been constructed in
England, chielly for use in concert rooms, or pul)lic halls.

The regal, often mentioned in Englisli literature of the
time of Shakespeare, and earlier [sec ali,n p. <jO), was a small
ys42 I

130 MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS.

organ portative. There was till about the end of the i8th
century a "Tuner of the Regals," in the Chapel Royal St.
James's, with a salarj- of 56/. The name regal is supposed
to have been derived from rigahello, a musical instrument
of which scarcely more is known than that it was played
in the churches of Italy before the introduction of the
organ.

The expression " a payre of regalls," used by writers some
centuries ago, evidently implies only a single instrument.
Thus also the virginal is not unfrequently mentioned as " a
payre of virginalls." Moreover, it appears that the regal
was occasionally made with two sets of pipes, so as to con-
stitute a double organ of its kind.

In the following lines from Sir W. Leigh ton's " Teares or
Lamentations of a Sorrowful Soulc," London, 1613, this little
organ is mentioned in combination with other curious instru-
ments now antiquated, most of which will be found in the
present collection : —

" Praise him upon the claricoales,

Tile lute and simfonie :
With tlic dulsemers and the regalls,

Swcete sittrons melody."

The bagpipe (Fig. jy) appears to have been from time
immemorial a special favourite instrument with the Celtic
races ; but it was perhaps quite as much admired by the
Slavonic nations. In Poland, and in the Ukraine, it used to be
made of the whole skin of the goat in which the shape of the
animal, whenever the bagpipe was expanded with air, appeared
fully retained exhibiting even the head with the horns ; hence
the bagpipe was called kosd, which signifies a goat.

The bagpipe is of high antiquity in Ireland, and is alluded to
in Irish poetry and prose said to date from the tenth century.
-Apig gravely engaged in playing the bagpipe is represented in
an illuminated Irish manuscript, of the year 1300.

l-'ii. 77.— I'.A'.i HI >. iMi^li-li. iMh CI iiliiry.

\'icli.ri,i .mil AUm II Miisiuin

I,. ^11 ill. N'l. I Tc7

POST-MEDIJiVAL. 131

The hell has always been so much in popular favour in
England that some account of it must not be omitted. Paul
Hentzner, a (ierman, who visited England in the year 1598,
records in his journal : " The people are vastly fond of great
noises that fill the ear, such as firing of cannon, drums, and the
ringing of bells ; so that in London it is common for a number
of them that have got a glass in their heads to go up into some
belfry, and ring the bells for hours together for the sake of
exercise." This may be exaggeration, — not unusual with
travellers. It is, however, a fact that bell-ringing has been a
favourite amusement with Englishmen for centuries.

The way in which church bells are suspended and fastened,
so as to permit of their being made to vil)rate in the most
effective manner without dama'^ing l)y their vibration the
building in which they are placed, is in some countries ver\'
peculiar. The Italian campanile, or bell tower, is not un-
frequently separated from the church itself. In Servia the
church bells are often hung in a frame-work of timl)er bnilt
near the west end of the church. In Zante and other islands of
Greece the belfry is usually scj)arate from the church. The
reason assigned by the Greeks for having adopted this plan is
that in case of an earthquake the bflls an^ Hk(*I\- to tall and,
were they placed in a tower, would destroy tlu' roof of the
church and might cause the destruction of the whole building.
Also in Russia a special edifice for the bells is generally separate
from the church. In the Russian villages the bells are not
unlrequentlv hung in the branches of an oak-tree near the
church. In Iceland the bell is usually placed in the lych-gate
leading to the graveyard.

The idea of forming of a number of bells a musical instru-
ment such as the carillon is said by some to liave suggt'sted
itself first to the English and Dutch ; but what wr have seen in
Asiatic countries sufficiently refutes this. Moreo\-er, not only

'.t«42. K

132 MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS.

the Romans employed variously arranged and attuned bells,
but also among the Etruscan antiquities an instrument has
been discovered which is constructed of a number of bronze
vessels placed in a row on a metal rod. Numerous bells,
varying in size and tone, have also been found in Etruscan
tombs. Among the later contrivances of this kind in European
countries the sets of bells suspended in a wooden frame,
which we find in mediaeval illuminations, deserve notice. In
the British Museum is a manuscript of the fourteenth century
in which King David is depicted holding in each hand a hammer
with which he strikes upon bells of different dimensions,
suspended on a wooden stand.

It may be supposed that the device of playing tunes by means
of bells merely swung b}' the hand is also of ancient date. In
Lancashire each of the ringers manages two bells, lioltling one
in either hand. Thus, an assemblage of seven ringers insures
fourteen different tones ; and as each ringer may change his
two notes by substituting two other bells if required, even
compositions with various modulations, and of a somewhat
intricate character, may be executed, — provided the ringers
are good timeists ; for each has, of course, to take care to fall in
with his note, just as a member of the Russian horn band
contributes his single note whenever it occurs.

Peal-ringing is another pastime of the kind which may be
regarded as pre-eminently national to England. The bells
constituting a peal are frequently of the number of eight,
attuned to the diatonic scale. Also peals of ten bells, and
even of twelve, are occasionally formed. A peculiar feature
of peal-ringing is that the bells, which are provided with
clappers, are generedly swung so forcibly as to raise the
mouth com])letely upwards. The largest peal, and one of
the finest, is at E.xeter Cathedral : another celebrated one
is that of St. Margaret's, Leicester, which consists of ten

POST-MEDI.liVAL. 133

bells. Peal-niif^ing is of an early date in Enj^land ; Egelric,
abbot of Croyland, is recorded to have cast about the year 960
a set of six bells.

The carillon is especially popular in the Netherlands and
Belgium, ])ut is also found in Gennany, Italy, and some
other European countries. It is generally placed in the
church tower, and also sometimes in other public edifices. The
statement repeated by several writers that the first carillon
was invented in the year 1481 in the town of Alost is not
to be trusted, for the town of Bruges claims to have possessed
similar chimes in the }-ear 1300. There are two kinds of
carillons in use on the Continent, viz. : clock chimes, which
arc moved by machinery, like a self-acting barrel-organ ;
and such as are provided with a set of keys, by means of
which the tunes are played by a musician. The carillon in
the •' Parochial- Kirche " at IVrlin, which is one of the finest
in Germany, contains thirty-seven bells ; and is provided
with a key-board for the hands and with a pedal, which
together place at the disposal of the performer a compass of
rather more than three octaves. The ke\s of the manual are
metal rods somewhat above a foot in length, and are j^ressed
down with the jxilms of the hand. Th" keys of the pedal are
of wood ; the instrument requires not onh" great dexterity,
but also a considerable physical ])ower. It is astcMiishing
how rapidly passages can be executed upon il i)y the player,
who is generally the organist of the church in which he acts
as carillnnncur. When engaged in the last-named capacity
he usualK' wears leathern gloves to ])r()tr(t his fingers, as
they are otherwise ai)t to become ill fit for the more delicate
treatment of the organ.

The want of a contrivance in the carillon for stopping the
vibration has the effect of making rai)id passages, if heard
near, sound as a confused noise ; onh* at some distance are

9842. K 1!

134

M USICA L INSTR UMENTS.

they tolerable. It must be remembered that the carillon
is intended especially to be heard from a distance. Succes-
sions of tones which form a consonant chord, and which
have some duration, are evidently the most suitable for this
instrument.

Indeed, every musical instrument possesses certain charac-
teristics which render it especially suitable for the production
of some particular effects. The invention of a new instru-
ment of music has, therefore, not unfrequently led to the
adoption of new effects in compositions. Take the piano-
forte, which was invented in the beginning of the eighteenth
century, and which has now obtained so great a popularity ;
its characteristics inspired our great composers to the in-
vention of effects, or expressions, which cannot be properly
rendered on any other instrument, however superior in some
respects it may be to the pianoforte. Thus also tlie im-
provements which have been made during the present century
in the construction of our brass instruments, and tlic in-
vention of several new brass instruments, have evidently
been not without influence upon the conceptions displayed in
our modern orchestral works.

Imperfect though this essay may be it will probably have
convinced the reader that a reference to the history of the
music of different nations elucidates many facts illustrative
of our own musical instruments, which to the unprepared
observer must appear misty and impenetrable. In truth,
it is with this study as with any otlicr scientific pursuit.
Tlic unassisted eye sees only faint ncbul.e, where with the aid
of the telescope bright stars are revealed.

APPENDIX.

Handel's Hakpshhord.

The following documentary evidence of this instrument's
authenticity as Handel's harpsichord (Fig. yS) has been trans-
mitted by Messrs. Broadwood : —

33, Great Pulteney Street, London,
November i8lh, 1868.

Handel's harpsichord was bought by us of Mr. Hooper, a
pianoforte tuner at Winchester, in 1852. He had obtained it
from Dr. Chard, the Cathedral organist of that city, who had
taken pains to prove it to be the same instrument whicli
Handel had left by will to his friend and amanuensis, Chris-
topher Smith. In Handel's will, dated June, 1750, was the
l)equest : — ' I give and bequeath to Christopher Smith my
large harpsichord, my little house-organ, my music books,
and 500/. sterling ; ' and in a codicil, dated 6th of August,
1756 : ' I give to Christopher Smith 1,500^. additional to the
legacy already given to him in my will.' Dr. Chard wrote to
the Rev. George Coxe, of Twyford (Rector of St. Michael's,
Winchester), to obtain his testimony to the identity of this
harpsichord with the ' Large Harpsichord ' of the will. I\Ir.
Coxe was nearly related to Smith, and had frequently heard
him play upon it. On the 13th of ^lay, 1842, and in the
l)resence of witnesses, Mr. Coxe confirmed this. Dr. Chard
states in the document signed by Mr. Co.xe, that this harp-^i-
chord was left willi a large collection of llaiultl's MSS. by
Christopher Smith Id liis step-daughter, the Dowager Lady
Rivers, who parted with it to Mr. W'ickliam, a surgeon, \\lio,
in liis turn, partetl with it to the Rew Mr. Hawtrey, l'rel)en-
dary of Winchester, alter whose tleath it came into liu' pos-
session of Dr. Chard.

136 MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS.

This interesting relic of Handel is also worthy of notice
from having been one of the best-constructed instruments of
the celebrated harpsichord makers, the Ruckers family of
Antwerp. It is not remarkable for any beauty of decoration
beyond the conventional ornamentation of the period ; but
the structure shows great skill in the manufacture, and that
the harpsichord had become neany perfected in the middle
of the seventeenth century.

The two key- boards were used for variety of tone. The
lower key-board, the jacks of which acted upon two sets of
strings in unison, and one set an octave higher, was the louder
in tone ; the upper key-board, acting on one set of strings
only, was the softer. But the lower key-board could be made
to act upon one set of strings only, by means of stops drawn
out by the hand of the performer. In touching the keys, a
distinctive quality of tone may still be recognised, particularly
in the higher notes, a reedy but soft and delicate timbre testi-
fying to the former beauty of tlie instrument. It may be
assumed as certain that the keys are not of Handel's time.
We do not know when the present key-boards were put, or
by whom, but the style of the white and black keys is un-
doubtedly modern. Neither can it be doubted that there
were originally keys in keeping with the fashion of the harpsi-
chord, which we may suppose to have been worn out, to
account for the substitution of those existing. The case of
deal, black japanned, the brass hinges, the ornamentation,
and the mottoes are original. Inside the top is inscribed : —

Sic transit Gloria Mundi;
on the flap or folding of the top —

Miisica Donum Dei ;
and on the slip of wood above the upper keys —

Andreas Ruckers mc fecit, Antwerpia, 1651.
There is a date on the sounding-board ' 1651," and 111 tin-

APPENDIX. 137

ornamental sound-hole are the initials "A. R." Among the
flowers represented on the sounding-board may be seen a
concert of monkeys, one beating time, another playing the
viol da gamba, etc. A third motto existed until about fifteen
years ago — Ada Virum Prohant. This was rubbed of^ by a
workman engaged in mending the lock-board (upon which
this motto was), which had been split.

As a musical instrument, this harpsichord has lived its life.
It is not now capable of being tuned, and any attempt to
improve the accord of it might ]irove disastrous l)y the
sounding-board giving way altogether. It is, therefore, of
consequence to the preservation of the woodwork that tuning
should not be attempted.

John' Broadwood cS: Sons.

Letter to the Rev. G. Coxe, Twyford, Rector of St. INIichael's,
Winchester : —

Mv De.\r Sir, — Will you oblige me by certifying (if I am
correct) the following : —

The celebrated Mr. Smith (or Schmidt) was Handel's
private friend, and amanuensis. This said Mr. Smith was
presented by Handel with his favourite fine double-keyed
harpsichord, made l)y the best makers of the day, Andreas
Ruckers of Antwerpia, 1651. This said instrument you
have heard repeatedly Mr. Smitli play on. Mr. Smith was
father-in-law to you as well as your sister, the late Dowager
Lady Rivers ; and at his death, the said harpsichord, together
with a large collection of Handel's oratorios, etc., etc., MSS.,
came into the hands of tlie Dowager Lady Rivers. This in-
strument was parted with to a .Mr. Wickham, surgeon, who
parted with it to the Rev. W. Hawtrey, Prebendary of Win-
chester Cathedral, upon the death ot wliom 1 purchased it at
the sale of his effects ; an<l in my jx^ssessioii it still remains.

138 MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS.

Is not this the identical instrument now spoken of ? Your
early answer to these queries, as the only living witness, will
oblige.

Dear Sir,

Yours faithfully,

G. W. Chard.
P.S. — Will you oblige me by certifying on this sheet of
paper, and returning it ?

Answer.
I certify that the above statement is correct, as far as my
knowledge goes.

George Coxe.
Twyford, May l^lh, 1842.

Witness to the above signature,

Susanna Gregg.
J AMES Harris.

INDEX.

Abyssinian instruments, 20.

Acocotl, 67.

Adair, quoted, 81.

Adufe, 25.

.-Eolian harp, 4.

African instruments in America,

82.
Ajacaxtli, 72.
Al-Farabi, lutist, 55-57.
American Indian instruments,

58 se(j.
American

psalms
American

metrical

Inilians,
of, 81.

Indians, musical per-
formances of, 75.

American Indians, North, musical
talent of, 81.

Anglo-Saxon instruinints, 84, 86,
90, 94.

Arab instruments, 3, 36, 48, 53
seq., 108.

Arabs in Spain, 36, 56.

Archlute, loi, 105.

Ashantcc, trumpet from, 2.

Ash-shakandi, 55.

Asor, 20.

Assyrian instruments, 16 seq.

Aulos, 31.

Aztecs, instruments of thi', 58, 59.

Bach, 115.
Bacon, quoted, 125.
Bagpipe, Celtic, 130.
,, Greek, 130.

Hebrew, 23.

Irish, 130.

medineval, 102.

Persian. 53.
,, Polish, 130.

Roman, 35.
Bainbridge, inventor, 126.
Handuria, 1 10.
Bansi, 47.

Barbitos, 27, 30, 33.
Baryton, 116.
Basspon, 127, 12S.
Bass-viol, 114, 119.
Basszinken, 12S.

Bells, Assyrian, 18.
Butldhist, 80.
,, Chinese, 39, 40.
Egyptian, 14, 15.
linglish, 131.
Etruscan, 132.
Hebrew, 25.
,, Japanese, 46.
Mexican, y^.
Peruvian, y;}, 80.
Roman, 36, 132.
hanging of, 131.
ringing of, 131, 132.
Bene, 11.

Beni Hassan, painting at, 21.
Bernhard, inventor of the pedal,

96.
Beverley Minster, sculpture at, 97.
Bin, 49.

129

manuscript at, 89,

de,

Bird Organ,
Biwa, 44.
Blasius, St.

90.
Bombardino, 127.
Bombardo, 127.
Bombulom, 97.
Bone instruments, 58.
Boscherville, St. Georges

sculpture from, 99.
Botuto, 68.

Bow, 50. 55, 88,90, 113, 119.
Bridges, movable, 44.
Bruce, his discovery of harps on
frescoes, 1 1 .

Buccina, 35.

Buche, 1 18, 119.

Budbudika, 47.

Buddhism, 39, 43, 52

Buddhist Temples,
on, 43, 44.

Bunibulum, 97.

Hunting, (juoted, 88.

Hurmi'se instruments, j, 3, 42.

Burney, Dr., quoted, 128.

Cachua, Peruvian danee, 79.

Calamus, 34.

Cambodia. tenii)les ni. 43.

bas-reliefs

140

M USICA L INS TR U ME NTS .

Capistnin\, 34.
Caiians, pipes of the, 28.
Carillon, 131, 133.
Caroados, trumpet of the, 67.
Castanets, Egyptian, 14.

,, Greek, 32.

,, Roman, 36.

Cembalo, 122.
Ceylon, instruments of, 5 r.
Chalil, 23.
Chalumeau, 127.
Chang, 53.
Chanrares, y^.
Chatzozerah, 24.
Chayna, 62, 79.
Chclys, 28, 29, 33, 47.
Chen, 40.
Cheng, 6.
Chhilchiles, 72.
Cli'ih, 42.
Chimes, 133.
Ch'in, 43, 44.
Chinese " Board of Music," yS.

instruments, 2, 3, 4, 6,
37 seq., 43-
Ch'ing, 37, 38, 39.
Chin-ku, 41.
Chiriqui Indians, pipe of, 60,

79-
Chiterna, 109.
Chitarrone, 106.
Ch'iu (wood), 41.
Ch'un-tu, 40.
Chorus, or choron, 93.
Clui, 41.
Chung, 39.
Cionar cruit, 89.
Cithara, 33, 84, 85, 94.
,, Anglica, 89.
Teutonica, 89.
Cither, 109, 119.
Cithern, or cittern, 102, 109.
Citole, 86.
Cittern, 102, 109.
Clarin, 67.
Clarinet, 127.
Clarion, mediaeval, 102.
Clarscth, 110-112.
Clavecin, 124.
Clavicembalo, 6, 122, 124.
Clavichords, 121.

makers of, 122.

prices of, 122.
Clavicordo, 124.

Claviorganum, 124.

Conch trumpets, Hindu, 47.

jNIexican, 80.
Confucius, 37, 39, 40, 43.
Congo, instrument of the, 2.
Constantinople, obelisk at, 95.
Cor anglais, 127.
Corno inglese, 127.
Cornu, Etruscan, 32.
,, Roman, 33, 35.
Corthol, 128.
Courtaut, 128.
" Chronicon picturatum Bruns-

wiccnse," quoted, 91.
Crotala, 36.
Crowd, see Crwth.
Crusaders, 36.
Crusmata, 36.
Crwth, 89, 90, 113.
Cuddos nut, instrument made of,

52.
"Curtail," A, 128.
Cymbals, Assyrian, 18.

Egyptian, 14, 15.

Greek ^2.

Hebrew, 25.

media;val, 103.

Roman, 36.
Cymbalum, 36, 97.
Cythera (cithara), 109.

Dalyell, Sir J. G., quoted, 116.

Damaras, 6.

Damaru, 47.

Darabuka, 14. 24.

Darius, 19.

David, King, 19.

Day. Major C, R., 49, 52.

Diaulos, ^1.

Ditf, 25.

Doll, 25.

Dohachi, 45.

Dolciano, 128.

Dora, 45.

Dordogne, 9.

Double-bass, 117.

flageolet, 126.

pipe, in Anglo-Saxon MS.,
84.
Double-pipe, Egyptian, 13.
Greek, 31.
,, ,, Pho^niciau, 36.

,, Roman 34, 35.*
Dragonetti, Signor. 117. 118.

INDEX.

141

Drums. American Indian, S2.
Assyrian, 17, 18.
,, Chinese, 41.
,, Egyptian, 14.
Fiji, 80.
Greek, 32.
Hebrew, 24.
Hindu, 47.
Japanese, 45.
mediaeval, 5O, 97.
Mexican, 70.
New Guinea, 2.
Persian, 53.
Peruvian, 72.
of Tonga, 80.
of Torres Strait Islands,
80.
Dublin Museum, harps in, 1 1 1.
Dulcimer, 6.

Anglo-Saxon, 86.
Assyrian, 17.
Greek, 30.
Hebrew, 19.
Persian, 54. 55.

Egyptian nistruments, 8, 10
sec].. 27,98.

Elizabeth, Queen, 119, 120.

El-ood, 54, 56.

English instruments, 104.

Etruscan ,, 32 seq.

Europe, introduction of instru-
ments in. 36.

European instruments, 83 seq.

Evelyn, tpioted, 106, 116.

Exeter Cathedral, minstrel gallery
in, 102.

Fagott, 127.
Fagotto piccolo, 128.
Fang-hsiang, 40.
Fiildlc, Anglo-Saxon, 90.

Bengalesc, 50.

Chinese, 51.

German, 90.

Hindu and Indian, 50, 88.

Mofirish, 90.
Fidis or Fides, zi-
Fidla, 113.

I'innish instrument, 47, 88.
I'istula, 35.
ntli.le (hddle), I 14.
Flageoh-t, English, 12;, I2('.
Japancsi , 45.

Flauto dolce, 125.
Flutes, American Indian. 82.
Arab, 55.
,, Aztec, 60.
Chinese, 42.
Egyptian, 12.
Flutes, Etruscan, 2~-
,, German, 126.

Greek, 31.
,, of Guiana Indians, 62.

Hebrew, 23, 26.
,, Hintlu, 47.
,, Japanese, 45.
,, Mexican, 58 seq.
,, Peruvian, 58 seq.
Phrygian, 28.
Roman, 34.
Flute a bee, 125.

,, d'Angleterre, 125, 126.
,, traversiere, 126.
Forkel. quoted. 23.
Fortunatus, cjuoted, 89, 90.
Franz, Karl. 115.
Free reed, 5.
French instruments, 112. 125,

126, 128, 129.
Frestele, Fretel or Fretiau, 94.
Fuye, 45.

Gage, Jolui, quoted, 128.

Gaspard di Salo, 1 18.

Gerbert, Abbot, mentioned, 84,

89, 90.
C.ittern, 56, 102, 108.
Gittith, 2^, 26.
Gizeh, 13.
Gongs, Chinese, 45.-

Egyptian, 14.

Jai)anese, 45.
,, Mi'xican, 80.

Tezcucan, y^.
Cireek instrunients, 2/ seq.
Guatemahi, instrument of, 82.
Guitar, instruction books for, 108,

109.
Guitar, Japanese, 44.

media;\'al, 102.

]U)st-nudian-al, loS, 109.

Sjianisli, 110.
Clut-komm, 43.
Gvlliorn, iu8.

Handel's hari)sichord, 135.
Harmonica, i^y.

142

MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS.

Harmonicon, Chinese, 2, ^y, 40.
Harmonicon, The, quoted, 126.
Harps, Anglo-Saxon, Sy.
Arabian, 53.
Assyrian, 16, 28.
Burmese, 16.
,, Celtic, 87.

Egyptian, 1 1.
Finnish, 88.
French 112.
,, German, 87.
,, Greek, 28, 29.

Hebrew, 19.
,, Hindu, 50.

Irish, 88, I lo-i 12.
mediaeval, 89, 100-102.
Persian, 53.
Scandinavian, 87.
Harp-guitar, 1 10.

,, lute, 1 10.
Harpsichord, 116, 121, 123.

Handel's, authen-
ticity of, 135 secj.
Harpsichord-makers, 123, 136.
Har])-theorbo, 1 10.
Harpu, 88.
Harp-ventura, 110.
Hautboy, 126.
Haydn, 116.

Hebrew instrunients, ig seq.
Hentzner, Paul, cpioted, 131.
Hichiriki, 45.
Hindu instruments, 3, 46, 52,

88, 89, 93.
Hindus, musical scale of, 50.
Hohuos or mouth-])iece, 35.
Horn, English, 127.
,, Greek, ^2.
,, Hebrew, 2^
Hsiao, 42.
Hsiian, 42.
Hsiian-chung, 39.
Huanca, 72.
Huayllaca, 62.
Huayra-puhura, 63, 79.
Huehiu'tl, 71, 80.
Hydraulis, 32.

Icelandic instrument, 1 1,^.

Ikuta-goto. 44, 45.

Instrument makers, 106, iii,

114-116, 118, 122-126, 128,

129,136,137.

Instruments, decoration of, 2,
8, II, 16, 39, 41, 42, X09, 112,
113, 115, 1 16, 123, 136.

Intervals, diatonic, 112.

,, in American Indian in-

struments, 79.

Intervals in Chinese instruments,

Intervals in Persian instruments,

S3-

Irish bards, meetings of, iii.

,, instruments, 89.
Isis, worship of, 36.
Italian instruments, 106-109, ii3.

120, 123, 130.
Japanese instruments, 3, 4, 44 seq.
Jars, musical, 69.
Javanese instruments, 2, 3.
Jerusalem, Temple of, 19, 23.
Jew's harp, 102.
Jinagovi, 52.
Jobel, 25.

Jones, Edward, quoted, 90.
Junk, 53.
Juruparis, 66.

Kach'-hapi, 47.

Kalmuks, trumpet of the, 80.

Kane, 46.

Kantele, 47, 88.

Kei, 45.

Kemangeh, 55.

Ken, 42.

Keras, 32.

Keren, 24.

Keyboards, instruments witli,

120-125.
Khorsabad, 16.
Kinnor, 20.
Kioto, bell at, 46.
Kithara, Asiatic, 27.

Greek, 28, 29.
K'iu (wood), 41.
Ko-kiu, 44.
Kosa, 1 30.
Koto, 44.
Kouyunjik, 16.
Kratzenstcin, 6.
Krotala, 32.
Ku, 41.
Kuan-tzu, 42.
K'uei, musician, t^j.
Kuitra, 56, 108.
Kymbala, 32.

IXDEX.

143

Langspiel, 114.

Laos, instruments of, 4, 42.

Launedda, 36.

Lay, T., quoted, 43.

Lci-ku, 41.

Li'ighton, Sir \V. , quoted, 13(3.

Lidl, Anton, 115.

Lionedda, 36.

Lira di braccio, loi.

Lituus, 35.

Lombrive, 10.

Lute, 104, 105, 116.

Arab, 54.,

Hindu, 89.

Japanese, 44. -.

mediaeval, 102.
,, Moorish, 56.

Tibetan, 43.
Lute-makers, ])rincipal, 106, it6.
Lutists, Arabian, 54, 55, 56.
Lydians, Kithara of, 28.
Lyra, German, 90.

Greel:, 28.

Roman, t,^.
Lyre, 84.

Assyrian, 18.

Greek, 27 seq.
,, Hebrew, 20.

Roman, 33.

Mace, Thomas, quoted, 104, 105,

119.
Machalath, 22, 25, 26.
Machol, 26.
Magadis, 27, 30, 52.
Magoudi, 52.
Magrepha, 23, 24.
Mam, 13.

MandoHne, 107, loS.
Mandora, 108.
Mandorina, 108.
Marimba, 82.

Martin, instrument-mak-T, 118.
Mattheson, quoted, 105.
M'lozzo da Forh", painting liy, 97.
Melrose Abbey, sculpture at, 97.
Melville, Sir James, quoted, 120.
Menaaneim, 25.
Metzilloth, 25.
Metzilthaim, 25.

Mexican instruments, 59, 80 seq.
Miao-tsze, 43.
Middle Ages, instruments of the,

83.

Minnim, 22, 23.
Miriam, 25.
Mishrokitha, 23.
Monaulos, 31.
Monochord, 31, 92.
Moorish instruments, 56, 108.
Mosul, bas-relief from, 16.
Mozart, 107.

Munich Museuna, vase in, 28.
Music, ancient books on, 48, 84.
supposed origin of, 47.

Nabla, 30.

Xablas, 2y.

Nablia, 34.

Nablum, 86, 100.

Naker, 56.

Nakkarah, 56.

Nakrys, 56.

Nara, bell near, 46.

Nebucha(biezzar, 18.

Nechiloth, 25, 26.

Nefer, 12.

Nekeb, 23.

Nevel, 19, 22, 30.

New Guinea, instruments of, 2.

New Zealand, instruments of, 2.

" Nibelungcnlied," The, 90.

Nimroud, i6, 18.

Nineveh, 16.

Nootka Sound, instrument of, 2.

Norwegian instruments, 113.

Nuy, 55.

-/ •
-7-

Oboe da caccia, i
d'amore, 12
Hindu, 79.
lungo, 127.
Persian, 55.
l^iccolo, 127.
Ocarina, Chinese, 42.
Octave, Arabian, 54.
Chinese. 39.
Octavina (Ottavino),
Oliphant, 94.
Organ, liurmese, 42.
,, Chinese, 42.
Engiisli, 129.
French, 129.
Gamba sto]) in,
German, i2().
Hebrew, 24.
hydraulic, ^ij.
piitumatic, 94.

1 20.

1 1 !;.

144

M USICA L INSTRUMENTS.

Organ, portative, 129, 130.
positive, 129.
,, Siamese, 42.
Organ-builders, German, 129.'
Organ-harpsichord, 124.
Organistrum, 92, 99, loi.
Orchestras, mcdiajval, 99.
Orpheus, Chinese, ^7.
Ottavino, or Octavina, 120.
Ovalle, Alonso de, quoted, 62.

P'ai-hsiao, 42.

Palenquc, instruments from, 62.

Pandean pipes, 23, 31, 35, 42, 53,

So.
Pandoura, 30.
Pandurina, 108.
Pasquali, Signor, 117.
Passerini, Signor, 117.
Pedal, invention of, 96.

in harpsichord, 124.
Pektis, 30.

Pepys. quoted, 120, 126.
Persian instruments, 3, 4S, 52

seq.
Peruvian instruments, 58, 59.
Peruvians, songs of the, 80, 81.
Phaamon, 25.
Ph'cnicians, 36.
Phorheia, 34.
Phorminx, 28, 29.
Pianoforte, 123. 125, 134.
Piao, 39.

Pien-ch'ing. 38, 39.
Pien-chung. 39.
Pilfero pastorale, T27.
Pincullu, 62.
P'i-p'a, 43, 44.
Pipe of the Aztecs, (x).
Berccynthian, 27.
Carian, 28.
,, of Chiricjui Indians, 60, 79.

Egyptian, 12.
,, Greek, 31.

Hebrew, 23.
,, Japanese, 45.
Mexican, 58 seq.-
Peruvian, 58 seq.
Phrygian, 27.
Pitch of Chinese instrunients, 39.
the oboe, 127.
,, the ottavino, 120.

whistle sounds, 59.
Pito. 60.

Plectrum, 30, 40, 44, 45, 109, 1 10.

Plektron, see Plectrum.

Po-fu, 41.

Poitiers, 10.

Post-mediseval instruments, 104

seq.
Pottery, instruments of, 58 seq.
Pra^torius, quoted, in.
Pre-historic relics, 9.
Psalms, musical directions in, 26.
Psalterion, 20.
Psaltcrium, 33, 85, 86.
Psaltery, 102, 116, 117.
Psanterin, 20.
Pungi, 52, 93.

Quanun, 54, 55.

Quartfagott, 128.

Quills for twanging strings, 107,

109, 119.
Quills in virginal, 120.
Quinterna, 109.
Quintfagott, 128.
Quyvi, 62.

RabAb, 55, 56.
Ranking, J., quoted, 7S-
Rattles. 80.

American Indian, 72, 82.

Indian, 2.
Ravanastra, 50.
Rebec. 56, 102, i 13
Rebek, 90.
Recorder, 125.
Regal, or regals, 96, 102. 129.
Rigabello, 130.
Rin, 46.

Roman instruments, 32 seq.
Rote, 88.
Rotta, 88, 89.

Sarangi, 50.
Sackbut, 94, 102.
Sainprae, Jaques, 115.
Salpinx, 32.
Salterio, 102.
Sambuca, 34, 94.
Sambyke, 27, 30.
Samisen, 44.
Sang, 43.
San-hsien, 44.
Sankha, 47.

Santiago de Compostella, sculp-
ture at, 10 1.

INDEX.

Santir, 6, 20, 55.
Sardinia, 36.
Sarinda, 50.
Scabelluin, 35.
Scale. Chinese, 37. 39.
diatonic, 132.
pcntatonic, 42. 79.
Scandinavian harp, S7.
Schahnei, 127.
ScliL-itholz, 118, 1 19.
SchnitZ'.-r, instrument maker, 128.
Se, 43.
Seba, 12.
Scrinettc, 129.
Serpent, 128.
Scshcsh, 15.

Shak"speare, quoted, 114.
Shakuhaclu, 45.
Shalisbim, 25.

Shahii, or shawm, 102, 103, 127.
Shehna, 79.
Slieng, 42, 43, 45.
Shime-daiko, 45.
Sho, 45.
Shophar, 24.
Shwan-che, 43.

Siain, instruments used in. 3. 4, 42.
Siniikon, 30.
Sistrum, Egyptian, 14, 98.

,, Hebrew, 25.

,, Roman, 36.

Sitar, 1 10.
Sitara. 55.
Solomon, 19.
Sonbno, i 18.
Spain, Arabs in, T,fi, 56.
S]>anish instruments, 36, no.
Spinet, 121.

Stones, sonorous, 39, 7_^.
Stops of the clavicembalo, 123.
Stop in organ-liar psichoril, i 24.
Strabo, cpioted, 27.
Stradivarius, i 18.
Strings, catgut, i, 30, 108-1 kj,

115.
Strings, silk, i, 43. 44. 54. x^?-
Strings, sympathetic, 115, 116.
w'ire, 55, 108-110, 115-
I 17, 120, 121.
Sultana, 1 16.
Sum])honia, 23.
Sung-ch'ing. 39.
Surnai, S5-
Suroda."88, 89.

Syrinx. Griek, 31.

Hel)ri-w, 2T,.
medi;eval, 94, 99.
IVruvian, 63.
Roman, 35.

Tabret, 24.
Taiko, 45.
Talmud, The, 23.
Tamboura, Arabian, 54.

Egyptian, 27.
Hebrew, 22.
Tambourine, Assyrian, 18.

Egyptian, 14.

Hebrew, 24.

Peruvian, 72.

Roman, 35.
Tangents in the clavichord ,121.
T'e-ch'ing, 39.
T'e-chung, 39, 40.
Tenor (violin), 1 13.
Tenor-bassoon, 128.
Tenor- viol, 119.
Teponaztli, 70, 80.
Testudo, 33.
Tezcucans, instrumiiits of the

Thebes, 11, 12, 14.
Theorbo, 101 , 104, 105.
Ti, 42.

Tibetan instruments, 43, 80.
Tibia, 34.

,, curva, 34.
,, dextra, 34.
gingrina, 3.^.
ligula, 34.
longa, 34.
oblicpia, 34.
sinistra, 34.
utrieularis. 34.
vasca , 35.
Tibiaj impares, 34.

pares, 34.
Timbrel, 24. io2.
Timotheus, tfutist, 57.
Tintinnabula, 36.
Tintinnabulum, i<>i).
Tiny a, 75.
Titus, arch of. 24.
Tone of instruments, 112, 113.
Toph, 24, 25.
Toumrie, 52.
■Trel)le-viol, 1 19.
Triangle, 1 lebrew, 25.

146

MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS.

Triangle, Roman, 36.

Trianguhim, 36.

Trigonon, 17, 28, 30, 53.

Trigonum, 34.

Triple Flageolet, 126.

Trombone, 94.

Trumpets of South American

Indians, 65.
Trumpets, Anglo-Saxon, 94.
Ashantec, 2.
Assyrian, 18.
of the Caroados, 67.
Egyptian, 14.
Greek, 32.
,, Hebrew, 24 seq.

,, Hindu, 47, 79.

of the Kalmulfs, 80.
,, Mexican, 80.

,, New Zealand, 2.

,, Persian, 53.

,, Thibetan, 80.

Tschenk (Chang), 53.
Tsu-ku, 41.
Tsudzumi, 45.
Tsuri-gane, 46.
Tuba, 35.

Tuckey, Captain, 2.
Ture, 67, 79.

''Tuner of the Regals," 130.
Tuning of the spinet, 121.
Tymimnon, 3^.
Tympanum, 35.
Tyrolean harp-makors, 112.
Tzeltzelim, 25.

Ugab, 23.
Ur-hccn, i;i.

52-

Ventura, Signer, no.
Vielle, 10 1.
Vihuela, 102, no.
\'ina, 46, 47, 49.

,, , mahati, 49.

,, , rudra, 49.
Vin avail, 51.
Viol, mediaeval, 99, 100.

I)OSt-media;val, 113, 119.

,, Spanish, 102, 118.
Viola da gamba, 114, 115.

,, d'amore, 116.

,, di bardonc, 115.
Violin, 91, 113, 1 14, 116.
Japanese, 44.
iVrsian, 55.
Violoncello, 114, 11 5.
Virginal, 119-121, 130.

Wait, the instrument, 103.
Walther, quoted, 121.
Welsh instruments, 89, 90.
Whistles, American Indian, 82.

,, Mexican, 59, 60.

Wilkinson, Sir G., quoted, 21.

Ying-ku, 41.
Yotl, 73.
Yu, 40, 41.

,, stone made into the ch'ing, 38.
Yiieh, 42.
Yiieh-ch'in, 43.

Zampogna, 23.
Zante, belfries in, 131.
Zither, or Zitter. 109.

e«..-rL,.-« ""'versify of California
mm MUS-I dn?^ . !"*^ REGIONAL LIBRARY FACILITY

KM/ U W^ti;^ 405 Hilgard Avenue, Los Angeles, CA 90024-1388

"e*"""" this material to the library

_ *rom which It was borrowed.

UZ. \j J.

e4T 3 IS

IW^rc '/

QUARTER L0| SEP21 jgjg

FEB 10 1?

Scni A"

f "£

l§

Form L9-Series

UNIVE >

I A

O l-J L kj

T T r- D A ■cjy

AA 000 331 122 2

Music
Library

ML
li60
E57in
1908

r -

DEC

, vr. '

UCLA - Music Library

ML 460 E57m 1908

L 006 967 622 9