mm^ 'i:^^ -ft Ur-H *ii m "imm m W'i'HW- ^fm m^^^Kf^m)c^_^cmance act, and turn us out at once." " Oho, comme vous y allez, Monsieur r Anglais ! " exclaims the bilious Meridional, EGYPT UNDER THE BRITISH. 69 almost gnashing his teeth at the sight of the three or four quiet British officers in uniform who lunch and dine at the hotel, at a separate table, every day — " We do not deceive ourselves with respect to the strength of England ; we do not suppose that France alone can drive you out.*' " Nobody else wishes us to go," retorts the Briton ; " I travel in a business which takes me among all the nationalities here, and I can tell you that, so far from wishing us to go, they are all anxious that we should remain. Your own countrymen, who are here with capital invested in the country, are as anxious as the rest. Of course, they won't tell you so. Qui n'entend qu'tme cloche^ as you said just now, only hears one sound. Go among the other nationalities, and inquire for yourselves. But, if you want to know what they think of France, don't tell them that you are French. But let us have some hard facts about your grievances." Pertinacity and patience extract the following three assertions, after which the case completely collapses : (i) That the French are pushed out of government places by the British ; (2) that where they do hold places under the Egyptian Government, they are seldom at the heads of 70 EGYPT UNDER THE BRITISH. departments ; (3) that the Egyptian authorities favour British goods by passing them more quickly through the custom-house. To the last point it is the German who replies. If the French busi- ness men established here cannot take the trouble which the English and the others take to get their goods promptly through the customs, the only people to blame are the French themselves. With regard to the first point, the French func- tionaries are exceedingly numerous in the Egyp- tian Government departments, and it is held by the other nationalities that, considering the proportions of the several colonies, France is over- represented, and by a good deal, in this direction. With regard to the second point, which is admitted, the fact results logically from the situation, but would be less conspicuous if French functionaries could be less political. So our French friends are informed upon the verandah ; and the utmost ingenuity and perseverance cannot draw from them anything further in the way of " hard fact." What is the use, however, of expending time in argument and testimony upon folk whose anger and prejudice lead them back invariably to the same position, even when their silence acknow- ledges it to be untenable ? Not many hours have EGYPT UNDER THE BRITISH, yi elapsed before we hear, from the same source, once more, " Oh, the English are in possession, and they manage that all the commercial advan- tages shall go to themselves. It's quite natural." The " advantages " in question — where do they lie, the seeker after information eagerly asks, and asks in vain. What has come out, hitherto, of my own most careful and laborious inquiries is this, that numbers among the British commercial community complain of conditions which place them at a distinct dis- advantage as compared with competitors belong- ing to the other nationalities, whether native or foreign. They say that the British authorities, in their dread of even appearing, by a stretch of excited imagination, to favour their own country- men, again and again pass over the latter, to the detriment not alone of British industry, but, in the long run, of the public interest. A recent example furnished to me shows that a govern- ment department under English direction, inviting open tenders, declined the tender of a local English house and accepted that of a local Greek, although the latter's total exceeded the other by ^^150, and the Greek, a " man of straw," was obliged to fall back upon the English house to execute the 72 EGYPT UNDER THE BRITISH. contract. Another instance is that of a local British firm tendering in " open adjudication " to a government department at the rate of ;^22 per ton, as against £2^ by a rival contractor, not British nor Egyptian. The tender of £27 per ton was accepted ; whereupon the contractor applied to the British firm which had offered at ;^22, and entered into a sub-contract with them at £26. It is also complained that the British function- aries do not sufficiently comprehend the extent to which official backsheesh, or jobbery, honeycombs particular branches of the administrative system, and militates against the British contractor. A third and characteristic disadvantage suffered by the resident British contractor is due to the non-pliancy of the manufacturer at home. " Tenders were invited for a large quantity of locks and keys," a member of the British colony informed me, " and I sent in an offer from England, with samples. An Arab firm underbid us, but with a greatly inferior product. We could have underbid the Arab firm with an article exactly similar to his ; and, if no better article was wanted, why should we not have been content to make it .^ I wrote to England in that sense, but they would EGYPT UNDER THE BRITISH. 73 not do anything on the inferior pattern, and so the contract went to the natives, and no doubt the stuff supplied will answer all their purposes." A British agent in a different line of business pointed out to me, during a journey on the suburban line to Ramleh, that the locomotives in use upon the Alexandria and Ramleh Railway Company, a British enterprise, were, like those of the Egyptian State Railway, of Belgian or Franco- Belgian make. An English firm of engineers had tendered at 2j per cent, over the Belgian company, and rather than abate their figure by 2^ per cent, for the sake of the footing to be acquired, they had let the order go.* ♦ Mr. Rennell Rodd, in his report to Lord Cromer on British commercial relations with Egypt, expresses the opinion that the local English firms demand excessive commission-rates, and that they consequently suffer in competition with the foreign middle- man or broker, who — especially the German — ^has shown that a safe business can be done on a very low commission. "It is a matter for serious consideration," observes Mr. Rodd, " whether the fact that British trade in Egypt is conducted so largely through foreign agents on the one hand, and that English houses in Egypt, on the other hand, are letting trade pass out of their hands by their unwillingness to do business on a scale of profit with which other nations are content, may not be the prelude to a considerable falling-off in the total British import to this country. vSuch a symptom has not yet manifested itself to any considerable extent, but the fact that British metal imports have not increased in pro- portion to the greatly increased demand is, perhaps, a significant warning of danger." This report, forwarded by Lord Cromer, was 74 EGYPT UNDER THE BRITISH. With reference to the loose and facile obser- vation quoted in the first few lines of this chapter, to the general effect that the foreign rulers over an uncivilized country are " not liked " — although the speaker was scarcely justified in the parallel which he went on to allege was the case of France and Algeria — the attitude of the middle-class rural population of Egypt was tersely sketched to me by a British subject who has lived in this country for thirty years, and who is now the postmaster of an up-country agricultural centre. " To begin with," he related, "no Egyptian Arab understands the sentiment of gratitude, and every Arab is a born liar. You dine with them, and they are full issued by the British Foreign Office on the i6th of last month (April). A study of the tables prepared and commented upon by Mr. Rodd points to coals, textiles, and metals or machinery as the three categories with which British trade is chiefly concerned in Egypt. Whilst a general upward movement continues in the first- named of the three, and the British share in the second still pre- ponderates, in metals and machinery the British imports have not augmented in proportion to the rapid advance in the Egyptian demand. German imports, generally, increased from ;^64,ooo in 1890 to ^^230,000 in 1894. Belgian imports, generally, increased from ;^iii,ooo in 1890 to ;^374,cxxD in 1894. On the whole, however, Mr. Rodd sums up that *' if British houses will only devote to the maintenance of their present position an energy and enterprise similar to that which is displayed by other nations who are now tiying to secure a footing in the Egyptian market, there need be no cause for anxiety." EGYPT UNDER THE BRITISH. 75 of compliments about the English. You fancy you are surprising a private conversation when you catch the words, in a whisper between them, ' This Englishman is an excellent person ; what excellent people the English are ! ' They tell you that it is the grandest thing possible for the country that the English have displaced the French. The French are sons of this, that, and the other, and if they were here as the English are, they would eat up all the land. The next day they are dining with a Frenchman. They tell the Frenchman that the English are sons of this, that, and the other, and that the country is going to the dogs. 'If we could only have the French here/ they tell him, ' the country would be saved.' The day after that, they dine with one of their own people, a sheikh, and then they cry out, ' All these Christians are sons of this, that, and the other, and it's a bad thing for the land of Pharaoh that they ever came in.' " One of the leading financiers of contemporary Egypt favoured me with an interview on the general topic of the British occupation from a non-British standpoint " You might describe me as ex-president of a foreign Chamber of Com- merce," said he ; "I am not Italian ; I am not 76 EGYPT UNDER THE BRITISH. French ; I am an Austrian, and I am emphatically, emphatically, in favour of the British occupation. The benefits it has conferred are equal to anything that could possibly be produced. They are not equal to, but above, any that would be produced by any other state of affairs. I insist upon the point, because any other occupation, whether by a Latin or a Saxon people, whether it were German, or, I will add, even Austrian, would be a source of permanent and daily conflict between the European colony and the occupying army. And I will explain why, in my own opinion. The English army is peculiarly one that is penetrated with the civilian idea. Other armies are armies of soldiers. By that I mean professional soldiers ; the English army is one of private gentlemen. They have not the habit of military ostentation — P habitude de faire sonner le sabre sur le pavi — which irritates European colonies in all countries — in all countries of the world. As evidence of this, look at what passes in Tunis — everywhere, in fact, under a Latin or a German occupation. A conquered country, on the other hand, will not cede to the civilian element alone. Now, the English, to their honour I say it, whilst preserving the order which has been indispensable for the development of EGYPT UNDER THE BRITISH. 77 Egypt, have known how to give way to the dement civil. lis s'effacent. They do not wound suscepti- bilities, and they never come into collision with the various colonies. In their social relations they are of an amabiliti parfaitey and of a discretion extraordinaire. So much from the point of view of our relations with the occupying army. From the point of view of the country itself, it would come to absolutely the same thing, so far as business is concerned, whether the occupying nation were England or any other. The foreign occupation amounts to a guarantee of security, for the property, or the lives, it may be, of the Europeans ; it is a guarantee, also, for the fellah — for the inhabitants in general. The natives can now be certain that their taxes will be payable at regular periods, and that they will be of settled and definite sums ; the taxation is no longer capricious and arbitrary. At the commencement of the year the natives can now make up their accounts ; they know what they have to pay. It was unfortunately not so in the past. As things now are, for the agriculturist, every one has the water on his land in his turn ; the rich landlord does not crush the small owner by possessing himself of all the supplies of water from the 78 EGYPT UNDER THE BRITISH, canals." After paying a tribute to the manner in which the British authorities had extended the network of irrigation cuttings, the speaker con- tinued : " Unhappily the treaties of commerce that have existed are bad. The country cannot develop itself, either industrially or agriculturally, because of those treaties ; they constitute the sore spot in Egypt. The treaties of commerce are not to be confounded with the capitulations. The Caisse de la Dette seeks to increase the customs revenue at the expense of the local resources, so that whilst the products of the country pay, in general, 9 per cent, on their entry into the towns, foreign products pay 7 J per cent, to the customs revenue, but are liberated from the town dues, or octroi. Consequently, agriculture in Egypt is at a direct disadvantage. Then, the machines, which are one of the essential conditions of agriculture, must pay duty before they can come in from abroad. The Caisse de la Dette tries to augment the resources of the creditors as much as possible. Well, there is now a considerable surplus. The Egyptian Government, under the English, is begged to diminish the taxes, and they reply, * We will, but give us the surplus of the economies,' whereupon the French Government says, * We will EGYPT UNDER THE BRITISH. 79 consent on one condition — that you evacuate the country.' There is the financial position ; it's a cercle vicieux. The English will not go, and the French use their treaty power to aggravate the situation. As a result of this histoirCy you have a serious evil for the country, because there are more than two millions sterling, as resources, in the Caisse de la Dette, which cannot be touched" A member of the great financial syndicate presided over by the speaker was present during the inter- view, and he interrupted with the correction, " Three millions and a quarter sterling now." *'Very well — there you have a treasure which is buried in the earth — a capital which brings nothing, but which increases every day, to the detriment of the interests of the taxpayer of t^e country. The Caisse de la Dette, representing the bondholders, will not employ these economies in valeurs locales, which would be another way of aiding industry and agriculture, under the pretext that at a moment of crisis the valeurs locales cannot be sold." As a Havas telegram had brought the news that Moustapha Kamel, the " leader of the Young Egypt party," had been lecturing in Paris " against the occupation of Egypt by the English," the 8o EGYPT UNDER THE BRITISH. opportunity seemed a good one to obtain an independent account of Young Egypt. In common with many others, no doubt, I had received through the post a copy of the lecturer's pamphlet, published at Toulouse. Melik was the Kamel who attempted to destroy the third pyramid of Ghizeh, at about the end of the twelfth century, and who desisted in his work of destruction only after months of almost fruitless effort ; Moustapha would appear to prefer destruction on an infinitely vaster scale. " The detractors of the British occupation, in this country," answered the millionnaire financier, " are, in my opinion, a number of Egyptian young men (^ne quantiti de petits jeunes gens Egyptiens) who ignore all ^dea of patriotism, and set up opposition merely to get themselves talked about, and to procure places and employments which their talent would not otherwise permit them to hope. Ce sont des demi-savants. They have usually been to Europe, where they have acquired very little real knowledge, but a good deal of presumption, coupled with all the defects of a foreign civilization." My informant concluded : " If the British occupation were to be replaced by any other — even if a European concert were to EGYPT UNDER THE BRITISH, 8i decide that, with the assent of the people, Egypt should become neutralized — a plebiscite in Egypt would result, I feel quite sure, in selection of Great Britain as the dominating influence." CHAPTER VI. Between busy modern Alexandria, the Cottono- polis of the Mediterranean, and ancient Masr-el- Kahira, the populous but much less markedly Levantine capital of Egypt, great indeed is the contrast. The whole movement of Alexandria seems to tend towards the Stock Exchange and the adjacent banks and contractors' offices, and every coast along the entire Mediterranean has con- tributed to its medley population — two hundred thousand odd in all. Among the Europeans, who form at least 25 per cent, of the total, the Greeks and Italians predominate. It has become not un- common at Alexandria to see the ordinary public notices of the town in four languages — Arabic, French, English, and Italian, — and this is the case not merely around the financial and shipping centres, but on the local railway line as far out as Ramleh. The author of "John Bull sur le Nil," EGYPT UNDER THE BRITISH, 83 a few years ago, related that an Italian whom he encountered at Alexandria had just returned from London, whither he had gone to " learn English in order to push his business." But French ought to suffice, he objected. " Oh no," replied the Italian, " no longer. To keep on good terms with the London houses you must write to them in their own language." " You are in commerce ? " " Yes ; my father owns a cotton press, under the style of C. H. and Co." " An English firm, no doubt ? " " No. My father is Italian, our partner is French, and we are financed by Greek bankers." " Then why not * Cie! instead of ' Co.' } " " To humour our English buyers. Indeed, the word compagnie is no longer de mode in Egypt. In business it is England that dominates." English and French may be jostling each other for supremacy as the official spoken medium, or the official and commercial written medium ; but the prevalent spoken medium among the business men of Alexandria is probably Italian. Most of the Scotchmen and Englishmen I met in Egypt hold at command an unfinished, rough-and-ready sort of French or Italian — sometimes a little of both, if less of each — similar to the French and English heard from the average German in England. I have 84 EGYPT UNDER THE BRITISH. not yet come across a single Scotchman or English- man, however, resident in this cpuntry who did not speak Arabic ; from the halting phrases, of course, of the comparative tyro, to the fluency of the old inhabitant, and the exceptional literary perfection of a certain gifted or cultured few. There is one case, not to be too particularly specified, but recognizable by the majority of his compatriots of anything like long residence here, in which an Englishman, speaking Arabic better than many Arabs themselves, turned Mussulman, married wives, made his fortune, and preached in the mosques. Still, the Levantine mercantis have made the external business life of Alexandria much more their own than the British have done. It is to Cairo that the phrase " V Orient anglicanisi^^ bestowed upon Alexandria by the author of " John Bull sur le Nil," properly belongs. British branch houses and agencies crowd so thickly one upon another in the principal promenade and thoroughfare, the Piccadilly of Cairo — the Esbekieh Gardens replacing the Green Park — that the later arrivals, or the less fortunate, have spread into the side avenues and streets, and confront the view at advantageous corners for some little distance into the outskirts. The English language EGYPT UNDER THE BRITISH. 85 turns up unexpectedly over and over again ; the quick and imitative Arab may not yet have mastered it in more than a fragmentary form, but in and about Cairo he will understand and use its phrases when, often, either French or Italian will be as " heathen Greek " to him, and when no variety of Greek would be intelligible. The regular flux and reflux of the well-to-do British and American tourist, the " winterings " here by our valetudinarians, the great share of the British upper classes in the determination of the fashion- able movement, have apparently had most to do with the production of this result. A tramway is projected for facilitating communication between Cairo and the Ghizeh Pyramids ; in the meantime the coaches, breaks, private carriages, and other vehicles which travel along the main road from the banks of the Nile to the border of the Libyan Desert are interspersed with British cyclists, of whom even the ladies have ceased to dumfounder the urban fellaheen, and to puzzle the asses or alarm the camels. With a tone of good-breeding and refinement substituted for a seaport grossness and a too frequent holiday 'Arryism, the " angli- canization " of Cairo, now, may be compared in extent to that of Boulogne-sur-Mer. And yet it 86 EGYPT UNDER THE BRITISH, was here, in the capital, the seat of the govern- ment, the kernel of the administrative system, the most English of all the towns, that I first discerned pronounced misgivings as to the duration of the British rule. "Rule," however, is not the word, nor is it " influence ; " contact with the British official spheres of Cairo has taught me a new expression. The expression I have obtained with the British official hall-mark, so to put it, is " British semi-rule." Before touching upon the doubts and disquietudes in question, I propose to reproduce some general utterances by British engineers, contractors, etc., whose business lies directly with the rural population of Egypt, as well as with that of the towns. This is evidence which belongs less to Cairo than to the townships of the districts traversed by the main line. The railway from Alexandria to Cairo runs through the Behereh province, of which Damanhour, with twenty-three thousand inhabitants, is the capital, and the Gharbiyeh province, with Tantah, thirty- five thousand inhabitants, as its capital ; and the excellence of the railway service decidedly deserves mention in passing. Besides the goods trains, laden with cotton, wheat, maize, rice, sugar, or other agricultural produce, and besides the ordinary EGYPT UNDER THE BRITISH, 87 slow passenger service, three " express " trains — so-called, although they make about four stoppages on the journey — run daily between Alexandria and Cairo, each way, covering the entire distance of a hundred and thirty miles in three hours and twenty or twenty-five minutes. " All the townships are full of Greeks," declared one of my informants, not of British origin, but a British subject. "The Greeks advance money to the fellaheen ; the fellah will often be found to have borrowed quite recklessly ; and if he cannot pay, the Greek forecloses. That is where these Greeks make their money in Egypt ; they are just like sponges on the villages. The fellah may be either the owner of a small piece of ground or the tenant ; if he is the tenant only, the Greek won't advance him anything unless he gets the guarantee of the sheikh. The sheikh of the village of course possesses a good portion of the land — he would not be a sheikh unless he were a man of some property, — and his guarantee is in- dispensable if you want to do business with one of the fellahs. No one can give the fellah credit ; if you want to conclude any agreement, you go to the sheikh, who signs a paper of guarantee. It is the village that answers for the fellah you are in treaty 88 EGYPT UNDER THE BRITISH. with, and the sheikh guarantees, as the head man of the community." "Have you found the fellaheen quick at profiting by improved methods ? Does he buy machinery willingly ? " " Willingly ? I will give you an instance that happened only this week. I was at Alexandria about a large contract with England. An Arab called at our agent's office to buy an engine. He had come in from one of the villages, and was accompanied by two or three hundred other fellahs. They had all come in together from the village, about this purchase ; and the Arab said he wanted an engine, with boiler, all complete, of such and such horse-power, to drive so many mills. I gave him a price. It was at a figure which left us an extremely small profit ; in fact, we should not sell at that figure in England, but as competition is so great here, and the Greeks will sell an engine for almost no profit, we thought we would let it go. After we had been talking to him for hours, he said that somebody else offered him an engine for ;f200 less. Well, it simply couldn't be. No engine of the kind could be produced at the price. We told him so, and he threatened to go to the other people. We answered, *A11 right,' and he said 'Good-bye,' and went away. Next day he came back with all his retinue. EGYPT UNDER THE BRITISH. 89 and began again, * What is the price of that engine ? ' I replied, ' I told you yesterday/ * That is too much,' he said ; ' give me your lowest figure.' I said, ' I have already given you the lowest figure.' He offered i^iCX) less, instead of ^200 the day before. I told him we could not possibly do it ; and then he promised to think it over, and went away. I will bet you that that man comes another fifty times, and sits there all day long in the office, with all his people about him, drinking coffee and smoking cigarettes, and talking about this purchase. We can't possibly reduce our quotation to him ; but in order to save time, I took that man to an engine we have in the stores, and explained to him the difference between that and the other, cheaper, engines. I showed him the construction, the fittings, all the extras that were included in our price, and everything. But he doesn't care two- pence about that. He wants an engine at ;^350 — that's all he wants. A job like that can go on for months and months, and in the end he will buy the flimsiest thing he can get. It's the same experience all round ; the average fellah will buy the cheapest thing he can procure, and that is why there are Germans who do some business here. You see, the fellah has no needs. He eats coarse maize 90 EGYPT UNDER THE BRITISH. bread, lives in a mud hut, wears a gown, and never has to think about protection from the cold. If he makes twenty-five or thirty shillings a week, he can support two or three wives well." The speaker went on to inveigh against the facility with which the fellah can still, as he says, rid himself of a wife of whom he has grown tired, by complaining to the Kadi that she " does not look after his house." The Kadi hears the lady's account of the matter, and tries to reconcile the spouses ; if he fails, he hands the husband a certificate, and the marriage is annulled, the divorced party receiving a little pecuniary com- pensation. Perhaps, the Kadi's hands are not quite innocent of backsheesh. In this way, the fellah who cannot afford to maintain more than one wife is enabled to put his spouse away from him and " take a younger one." The speaker also inveighed against the Turkish pashas, both for the immorality of their lives and for their selfish and unscrupulous hostility to the true welfare of the country. He had recently been invited to the palace of a pasha for whose mills he was to supply machinery, and, while lost in admiration at the taste and sumptuousness of the interior, he could not forgive his host for possessing four legitimate EGYPT UNDER THE BRITISH. 91 wives — one of whom had brought him a great deal of property — besides a harem thirty-six strong. So angry seemed he at this fact, indeed, that if the custom of the country had permitted him access to the " ladies' household," or even to a view of it, his feelings might unluckily have got the better of him. I asked my informant whether his firm pushed their business by means of show-cards through the country districts. He replied in the negative, asserting that the country-people did not look at show-cards, notwithstanding the fact that the illustrations of machines at work might immedi- ately concern them, and might be accompanied by printed explanations in the vernacular. " How do you get orders from them, then ? " " By reputa- tion." " And how is a new firm to push its way into a reputation ? " " Not by show-cards. By agents, who visit the districts, and by being in with the sheikhs." " What goods do you supply to the fellaheen t Agricultural implements } " " No ; engines. Formerly, before the development of the irrigation by the English, and when the fellaheen had few canals for their land, engines and pumps were needed in large quantities, in order that the water should be brought up to the land. The fellaheen used portable and centrifugal pumps for 92 EGYPT UNDER THE BRITISH. this purpose. Since the English have extended the system of the canals, the demand for pumps has vastly fallen off. That industry, a British industry, has suffered ; but, of course, we know that the paramount object must be the prosperity of the whole country, and we have nothing to say. In another direction, more engines are wanted now, because more mills are being put up. Flour- mills are being put up all over the country. In England the miller grinds the corn and sells it in the market. The practice here is for the fellaheen to send small quantities of corn to the miller for their own use. The wife, for instance, buys a bushel of corn, takes it to the mill and has it ground, and then goes home and bakes the bread with it. You can see fifty or a hundred of them every day round these mills, all bringing their little quantities of corn with them, to be ground, and carried home. Therefore, what we have to supply here, is a small kind of mill, not the large ones we have at home. Another industry which has ob- tained a good hold in Egypt is the cotton ginning — that is, taking the cotton seed out of the cotton before it is shipped to England. Numbers of big factories here, built by the most important com- mercial people, have done very well with the cotton EGYPT UNDER THE BRITISH. 93 ginning, and made a lot of money. They have the electric light and everything else, and in some places you might think yourself in the district round Manchester." With reference to the characteristics of the fellah, he insisted that the native had an apparently in- curable aversion to accuracy of statement. With- out being conscious or desirous of misleading, the native could not resist the pleasure of varying the facts, or the tale, as they were. The trait had extended to certain resident Europeans. "As for getting the truth out of the fellaheen, you may talk to them for twenty years, and you will never know where you are. They have no idea of ranging things straight for you. They tell lies for the sake of telling them." The principal in an English engineering firm hurriedly summed up the results of the British occupation to me as follows : Egyptian Stock at a height which it never reached before, and which in the past would have seemed fabulous ; and a cotton output of which about the same thing can be said. "And the English have ruined my busi- ness for me," he added, an Englishman himself. " I used to supply great numbers of pumps for getting the water on to the land ; and the English 94 EGYPT UNDER THE BRITISH, authorities have developed irrigation to such a tune, that the pumps are no longer required." He smiled as he spoke of his ruin, and it was clear, from the dimensions of his establishment, as from the activity prevailing therein, that he had been able to adapt himself to the altered circumstances tolerably well, and to supply something else. He promised to furnish me with information more in detail ; but whilst his contracts rushed him off towards one part of the country, my own errand called me in the opposite direction. Another English business-man, adverting to the rivalry between Alexandria and Port Said, con- sidered the Peninsular and Oriental Company's abandonment of the service to the former town to be a " point gained by Port Said." His partner observed that the withdrawal of any big passenger line from Alexandria meant a loss to British shipping. It was " said that the service to Alex- andria did not pay the Peninsular and Oriental ; but look at the position they have held ! People who come to Egypt usually want to travel by the route Alexandria and Cairo. They have no harbour at Port Said ; whereas we have splendid docks here." The first speaker resumed : " I am inclined to believe that there is some political EGYPT UNDER THE BRITISH, 95 reason for the preference of Port Said over Alex- andria. From Mansourah large quantities of goods are now shipped down the Nile to Damietta. The bulk still goes to Alexandria, but a big amount goes away from it now." " Do you know of any engineering difficulties that prevent the construction of a direct railway between Port Said and Alex- andria ? " " It may be that the land is too swampy," answered one. " Oh ! but it must be feasible," objected another ; " we have got over greater difficulties than are to be met with across the Delta, there." A third interposed : "The line has been applied for several times, but it has been refused by the Egyptian Government." " Why 1 " For all response I won the Egyptian resident's compassionate smile. If there is one thing that amuses the European resident of long experience, it is the guilelessness of the new arrival, who expects to find reasons assignable for whatever anomalies, hard cases, and backwardnesses he may observe under the British semi-rule in Egypt. "We think that the British occupation is not generally visible enough," then remarked one of the company. "The British do not show what they could. The natives are not impressed by what they see. You seldom find the British 96 EGYPT UNDER THE BRITISH, soldiers marching through the town, and when they do march, it is usually at hours when very few people are about. The whole thing is done most quietly. It is extraordinary how the British soldiery are managed. There is apparently nothing of them." "With regard to offences against the law," observed the first speaker, subsequently, "less crime exists now in Egypt than perhaps, in the proportion, in any other known country." "Do you consider that the local French press has done much harm } " " A great deal. But the greatest harm was done by our own Government, in recoil- ing from what everybody expected us to do after Tel-el-K^bir. All the trouble has come from that.'* Inquiries elsewhere on the subject of the Belgian locomotives employed on the State railway, led to interesting explanations. As on the Alexandria- Ramleh local line, so throughout the main system. " Nearly every engine I have recently seen on the lines up to Beni-Souef," replied a British con- tractor, "is of Belgian make. Last year, or the year before, tenders were invited on an open ad- judication, and the Belgian sent in a price about 2 J per cent, below the lowest English figure. The English replied that they could not budge EGYPT UNDER THE BRITISH, 97 from their amount, which was the lowest prac- ticable, and orders for about ten locomotive engines went to the French — we say * French ' and ' Belgian ' indifferently, in this matter of the con- tracts." The speaker proceeded to describe the " French element on the board of direction of the railway " in terms which need not be repeated. I learnt from another source that a contract for files had gone to Belgium simply because, with the heartiest intentions in the world, the English firm communicated with could not possibly compete at the price submitted by Belgians to the railway board. The correspondence tells its own story. "In reference to your inquiry for files," wrote the English merchants and engineers, from London, " we can quote you for these as follows : 1490 dozen files, to the Egyptian Railway Company's specification, in best new warranted hand-cut steel files, ;f 1042 net cash, suitably packed and delivered c.i.f Alexandria. The list price of these files would be ;£'2850, and our price, therefore, repre- sents a discount of 62J per cent, and 2J per cent, off the list. For your information, we may say that these orders for files were placed in the hands of one maker in this country for something like ten or twelve years, but for the last two years they H 98 EGYPT UNDER THE BRITISH. have been placed in Germany. From what we can gather, there appears to be some jealousy existing between the English Administrator and his French colleague on the board, which had the result of letting the German or Belgian manu- facturer step in, and take the orders which would otherwise come to this country. There is no doubt about it that the German file is neither equal in quality, appearance, or finish, to the Sheffield-made article. The price we have quoted is an extremely low one, and should, we think, enable you to secure the business. We are sending you eight sample files, stamped with our name, so that you can submit them to the authori- ties." After the reply from Egypt, with particulars as to the price at which Belgians were tendering, the firm wrote further: **0n looking into the price of the files, we find that it practically amounts to something like 79 per cent, off the Sheffield list, a price at which it is impossible to supply th& weight of plain crucible steel in the commonest quality, to say nothing of forging into shape, annealing, cutting, and hardening. It is evident, therefore, that Bessemer steel is being used, and we think that if you could get a chance of comparing in actual work the sample we sent EGYPT UNDER THE BRITISH. 99 you, with those being supplied from Germany, you might perhaps be able to stand a better chance of future business. We think it is more than likely that one of our files would cut one of the others in two." The order went to two different makers in Belgium. The second of the above notes was accompanied by an estimate respecting an addi- tional matter, an " inquiry for plates and bars." The statement of prices which the firm appended was followed by the remark : " The shipbuilding strike on the Clyde is, to a certain extent, respon- sible for this." "Here was a case where the English really wanted to cut out the foreigners," commented my informant, " and, on good quality, we could have done it." "Are not the people who invite the tenders capable of discriminating ? " " They ought to be. But, of course, if they are satisfied with the stuff they get for cheapness, we can't help it." The conversation ended with the final term of so many dialogues in Egypt — backsheesh. " I should like to know," remarked an auditor, " how it is that divers clerks, Syrians and others, are able, on their salaries, to build fine houses. One man who got into the Public Works Department, on a small salary, has just built a house costing £^qqo. Some loo EGYPT UNDER THE BRITISH, of the Syrians ruin everything. They muddle up matters to such an extent that the heads of departments positively can't tell where they stand. Jobbery of all sorts is going on." " But you have lived here twenty-five years," I ventured to remind him ; " surely you can say that official backsheesh is diminishing 1 " " It did diminish for a time after 1882," was the response; "it diminished a good deal, naturally, under the English. But the last three years have witnessed a serious revival of it." A local newspaper, printed in French and Arabic, contained, amongst its miscellaneous paragraphs on the front page, a complaint that the Alexandria Municipality should be ordering an air-pump from America. " Always the wretched system, dear to nos occupants^ of purchasing abroad what can be procured in Egypt, the system which prompts them, for instance, to buy school tables in London under the pretext that the ' wood is drier in England ! ' " The probability is that no one ever gave any such reason as this, in the terms of the statement. Nor was it even certain, I believe, that the school tables were coming from any part of Great Britain. An English contractor told me that the Belgian firms were found to devote so much more attention than the English to orders of EGYPT UNDER THE BRITISH, loi that class, that they would be dealt with by a natural preference. Written to for a quotation, the Englishman would as often as not leave the matter until the last moment, and then direct his clerk, off-hand, to reply with a rough estimate — " Oh, say 30J. each." A Belgian firm, on the contrary, would go into everything, putting down each item of cost, and presenting finally a detailed specification. It seems surprising that the Opposition press in the French language here should omit from its regular stream of misrepresentations the plausible falsehood which would picture the British as "getting all the best land of the country into their hands." Many of the natives in the towns may safely be reckoned upon to credit assertions much farther from the truth. The priest attached to one of the most ancient mosques in Cairo told me, as he showed me round, that the English who were in Egypt had " come from the King of Con- stantinople." Apparently under a mistake as to the nationality of his interlocutor, he continued that there were too many of the English people with red jackets in Egypt ; it was the will of the King at Constantinople that they should be in the land, but, personally, he disapproved of the fact. There were the " people by the Nile bridge, the I02 EGYPT UNDER THE BRITISH. people at the Citadel, and the people at Alexan- dria;" all the points thus indicated are British garrisons. He did not know why the British remained in Egypt, nor why they had entered the country. " Is the Arab fanatical ? " I asked him. " Yes ; perhaps," he answered. The ** perhaps," in the surroundings, almost illustrated Nubar Pasha's definition of eloquence as distinguished from loquacity. "Loquacity," responded that states- man to a French visitor who had pressed him to define the two, " is the art of using a great many words to say nothing ; eloquence is the inspiration of saying a great deal in a nothing." The boy who had fastened the slippers over the Christian's boots at the entrance to the central court — the usual precaution against defilement of the holy paving — marched in the Christian's wake, repeating verses from the Koran. Another sore-eyed boy, crouching in an eastward corner and wagging his head unceasingly to and fro, droned off the chap- ters of the Koran which he had learnt by rote. These would be priests one day, explained my white-robed guide. Like himself, they would know much of the Koran by heart — and would know nothing else, he might have added, to judge by a certain promising look, in both, of complete EGYPT UNDER THE BRITISH, 103 ahrutissement. A priest was permitted four wives ; he himself had four such partners to his austere existence ; and he concluded — halting at the threshold of the inner sanctuary, in order not to be seen by the "blind" beggars who waited in a cluster for their backsheesh at the porch — by soliciting " backsheesh for the priest," and by ac- cepting fivepence. Whilst the faithful washed their feet, their hands, and their faces in the marble fountain at the centre of the court — the ablution preparatory to prayer — and whilst earlier arrivals, on their knees towards the east, mumbled their litany, and with their foreheads thrice touched the ground, some notion of the frightful influence which might be disposed of by a fanatic ignoramus such as this Koran-crammed teacher of men, in- evitably stole over the mind. He himself might credit and disseminate any absurdity. But who is it that is acquiring the " best land in Egypt " ? Not the British ; and not the Christians. My first authority on the point was a practical man of business. "Jewish syndicates are buying up the best land in the country," said he ; " large tracts are already in their hands. They have bought up the Helouan railway, and they are starting enormous factories. I04 EGYPT UNDER THE BRITISH, They possess themselves of any good enterprise. Most of them are in the Italian consulate ; they are not British, but Italian and Levantine Jews. Very nearly two-thirds of the commercial money used in Egypt at the present time is Jewish. Except the Credit Lyonnais, the banks are all con- nected with Jews. British capitalists don't come here ; or, if they do, they are frightened to death of these low people who get hold of the money. I have been in the East for more than twenty years, and the class of Greeks and low foreigners that flourish here are about the lowest and most unprincipled lot you can find." "The banks at Alexandria will not discount a single bill," put in a bystander. "All our bills we have to keep. You have to go to the Jews in the Serafia (the Seraf is the money-changer). The banks will not advance anything." In another quarter I was told that the Alexandria bank managers complained that the English banks restricted credits, and that, as they could not get their bills taken up, business suffered considerably. The present phase of the Eastern question, however, had no doubt a great deal to do with the reluctance and stagnation. "Lord Cromer has stated that he cannot recommend British capitalists to put their money into Egypt," EGYPT UNDER THE BRITISH. 105 remarked one of the speakers just quoted ; "he has stated it officially, in a report home." This impression appeared to be pretty confidently enter- tained, but I think I may say, without any fear of contradiction from official head-quarters at Cairo, that it is erroneous. Lord Cromer would be only too glad to see investments of British capital in this country.* Here are some remarks by a British engineer and contractor, who has his workshop in the midst of the fellaheen. " My district is one of the richest in cotton and sugar-cane," he related, " and the natives agree that they never heard of better days. They don't find any fault with the Government. I am speaking of the fellaheen, not of the pashas." "Do they connect their improved condition with the British, or don't they know anything about it ? " " Oh yes, they know that the people who • Mr. Rennell Rodd's report, published by the Foreign Office in April, 1896, contains the passage : "A certain want of enterprise is, indeed, noticeable as regards the attitude of British trade and capital towards Egypt, In spite, for instance, of the considerable profit and ready openings for agricultural undertakings in this country, where the sugar industry is annually assuming a more important development, next to no British capital seems to find its way to Egypt, though Englishmen are readily found to engage in far more speculative operations in countries affording far less guarantees of security." io6 EGYPT UNDER THE BRITISH, have done the good are the English. At the same time, although they acknowledge that they are well off just now, the dislike to foreigners con- tinues. I have noticed that they judge the French- man to be more suave than the Englishman, but not so straightforward. The money-lenders in the villages are mainly Greeks and Syrians ; in fact, that is how the Greeks and Syrians live. There would be a good opportunity for the establishment of an English bank now, to lend money to the fellaheen. You see, every village guarantees its own people, and it would be a boon to the fellaheen to get advances at a fairly reasonable rate, instead of paying from 20 to 30 per cent, as they do now." " From 20 to 30 per cent. ? " " Yes ; in this way : As the law limits the rate of interest to 9 per cent, the Syrians and Greeks lend in one denomi- nation of money, and stipulate for recoupment in another. Suppose they advance twenty louis ; they exact, from the fellah borrower, a receipt for twenty sovereigns, so that they draw an interest in advance, and charge a further interest on the repayment. A State bank would be a grand thing for the fellaheen. They need the advances for buying their seed." "Do they not save money ? " " Some of them. Some of them are EGYPT UNDER THE BRITISH, 107 rich now. In Ismail's time, they used to bury their profits in the ground, and borrow money at high interest for the next crops. They pre- ferred that to the suspicion of being well off, because of the rapacity of the pachas. In my own experience, the fellah does not often bank his money, yet. He either hides it, or buys another piece of ground, or marries another wife. They must certainly be in a more flourishing con- dition of late years, because, although they have never had any idea outside squalor, they are furnishing their houses better now, and they are decorating them more in the European style." " The British have spoilt the fellah," broke in a listener, whose familiarity with the rural population goes back to " Ismail's time ; " " you can't talk to the fellah now ; he is getting as * cheeky ' as anything." "They cannot deny the good the British have done," resumed the engineer. " I was reminding some of them the other day of the land near Toukh, which during Ismail's time was offered for nothing if the recipient would under- take to pay the taxes. It was offered, I know, to an Englishman, and he would not accept it. At the present day that land is worth £/^o or £^0 an acre." A discussion sprang up as to the io8 EGYPT UNDER THE BRITISH. position of the British engineer in competition with the foreigner. " The British officials favour foreigners more than they do their own country- men," grumbled the oldest resident in the company ; and I saw once more that this was the general opinion of the British contractor. Profiting by the presence of a railway surveyor, I asked for an explanation of the fact that no direct line con- nected Alexandria and Port Said. "There are lakes and canals to be crossed, for one thing," was the reply, " but another consideration relates to the possible diversion of traffic from Alexandria. Port Said would be the better port of the two, I should say. Freights can be taken for less from Port Said than from Alexandria. With respect to the development of the local railways under the Occupation, the passenger traffic has trebled, right through the country, since 1882. The fellaheen have had more money to spend, and the fares have been reduced. A railway was projected from Alexandria to Selhieh, and was to have been carried into Syria ; but we understood that the scheme was abandoned partly on the score of costliness, and partly on that of injuring the interests of Alexandria." On the subject ot the money-lenders in the villages, it was repeated to EGYPT UNDER THE BRITISH. 109 me from a different source that a common arrange- ment was for **the Greeks to lend so much in pounds sterling, to be paid back in Egyptian pounds, which with ordinary interest on the loan came to 2J per cent, per month — 30 per cent per annum, 30 per cent, being a very moderate rate here in Egypt." What was wanted, I heard again and again, was a State bank. To summarize numerous complaints, it seems that the British officials in Cairo are liable to be hoodwinked by the natives under them, in their various Government departments. The Arab engineer, for instance, expects backsheesh, and he manages to favour an Arab contractor over a British contractor, because the former understands that backsJieesh is to be given. If the impunity with which the practice is maintained should, coupled with the stress of competition, tempt a British contractor to fight the native with his own weapon, viz. bribes, the Government native engineer is afraid to accept the backsheesh from the British source, because he thinks he will be reported in Cairo. The British inspectors attached to the different circles of the Irrigation Depart- ment must necessarily rely upon their native staff ; the latter extort backsJieesh from the contractors ; no EGYPT UNDER THE BRITISH, and if the contractors refuse the backslieeshy the reports that are made are unfavourable to them. If the inspector hears of any such case he " comes down sharp, very sharp ; " but sometimes he may feel that he is helpless. The system may be too widespread, and at the same time almost intan- gible. Among these distributors of official back- siteesh, the Copts and the Syrians were especially denounced. I heard it urged that the " Cairo head- officials do not mix with the fellaheen," and that " there are two or three rings." When the British Government official from India has " gone about bullying," he is apt to suppose that he has been extremely effectual. "When the irrigation engineers turned up here from India," commented one aggrieved personage, "all the Arabs and native Government officials were scared at them ; but during the last five or six years the natives have become accustomed to them, and they have worked back into the routine that was checked, which simply means jobbery." Proposing to close this chapter of the story from the standpoint of the English busi- ness man, I meet at the last moment with fresh grievances. The latest order for locomotives -from the Egyptian State Railway went to the EGYPT UNDER THE BRITISH. in Belgians "because, although their product was visibly inferior, they tendered £'ijO less per engine than Neilson, of Glasgow." " And if it had only been ;£'io less," according to another comment, " an English engine would not be ordered against a Belgian." " Why ? " " Because the railway influence is more or less French. Neilson, of Glasgow, was offering, at only ;f 30 more, an engine that was infinitely superior." Then there are the cases of the Manouth and Ashmoune line, and the Behari railway. The contract was given out about eighteen months ago, and by this time the work should be finished. "As the firm who obtained the contract are French, the engineers of the State Railway are hobnobbing with them, and no notice is being taken of the delay ; whereas, if the firm had been English, the officials would have been down upon them at once, and their guarantee money would have been seized. The truth of the matter was that the French firm tendered at a figure at which they could not execute the work." A confirmation of this concluding statement reached me through a different channel. "A British contractor here," said my informant, " came to our bank about his tender for the Behari rail- ^ way. The practice is, when tenders are invited, 112 EGYPT UNDER THE BRITISH. to furnish schedules in which a lump sum is put down. The contractor may tender at above or below that sum — put it at ;^ 60,000. He had nearly settled the business, I believe, but when we looked at the schedule we saw it could not be done ; and the contract went to a French firm." Cannot our Government do more for our own people ? — such is the reiterated demand. What can they do ? I put the question to one of the aggrieved, a Scotch- man. "It is not that the individual wants his Government to help him," was the response, good- humouredly made; "as MTherson of Glasgow said, * A MTherson scorns assistance.* But we think we are less fairly dealt with than the rest. If the British control the government of the country, and the Egyptian railway is a State railway, the British ought to exert themselves sufficiently to prevent these abuses. We are not strong enough here." An anecdote of backsheesh in another direction affords a curious glimpse of the life "in the vil- lages." A sheikh who had received certain pay- ments, handed the total amount, from ;£'700 to ;f 800, to a servant, to be placed in the safe which he kept in a wall of his house. The servant dis- appeared, and her master, on going to the safe to EGYPT UNDER THE BRITISH, 113 withdraw a portion of the money, found that the latter had disappeared also. The superintendent of the local police, a native, expressed serious doubts as to the possibility of tracing the thief, and doubts more serious still as to the likelihood of recovering the funds. He promised, however, to devote his best attention to the inquiry. The police succeeded in tracing the fugitive, and, as the latter's facilities for expenditure had neces- sarily been few, in recovering nearly the whole sum. When apprised of the arrest, the native police superintendent lost no time in informing the sheikh, privately, that the search would prove a most difficult undertaking, and that the cost might " eat up," in some unexplained way, all the lost property. Nevertheless, it might be practicable for the superintendent to bring matters to a quick and satisfactory termination, by means of special industry and influence. The sheikh quite under- stood. " How much does he require ? " asked the sheikh. "He would have well merited ^200," replied the superintendent. The bargain arranged, the sheikh contentedly accepted the missing funds minus ^200, backsheesh to " him," the native super- intendent. "But give the poor soldiers £2$" the superintendent then entreated, and £2$ further I 114 EGYPT UNDER THE BRITISH. passed into his hands as backsheesh to the soldiers. An English official went down from Cairo not long afterwards, and, in the course of attend- ance at the moudirieh^ snapped up little significant morsels of dialogue which were ostensibly not intended for his ear. " Was he not lucky to get that ;^225 ! " observed one of the natives in apparently a confidential communication to another. "Oh, but the £2^ was for the soldiers," remarked the other. *'Why, you don't suppose that he gave any of it to the soldiers ! " returned the first speaker. " He did not give them any- thing. He kept it all for himself" The English effendi insisted upon an investigation, and the ;£"225 had to be refunded to the sheikh. As for the defaulting servant, when interrogated before the native judge, she argued that the money ought properly to belong to herself. She had been living in immoral relations with the respected sheikh for a considerable period, and he had never made her any present, nor paid her any wages. " It's a great pity, and very shocking,'' remarked the native judge subsequently, to the person from whom I have the narrative — "but some of our people will lead these disgraceful lives." "And that old judge," in the words of EGYPT UNDER THE BRITISH. 115 the narrator, "is one of the worst of them, himself" The difficulty of pronouncing upon the senti- ments of the native population with respect to the British semi-rule is continually illustrated in the conflicting accounts by experienced British resi- dents. The latter would doubtless agree upon one point, however, when all is said and done, viz., that to look for any definite public opinion in Egypt is absurd. There are the hot and cold fits of fanaticism, which, as at Tantah during the Riaz Pasha crisis, may be worked up into a certain effervescence by political agitators ; but, outside fanaticism, the people have probably no bias, and outside money and their wives no interest. They can be induced to admit that the country has " never seen better times since the days of Pharaoh," and in the next breath they will be exclaiming, "Show us where the country is one bit the better!" An Englishman who goes into the regions up the Nile on archaeo- logical missions told me that the habitual utter- ances of the Bedouins with whom he treated was that they did not care " whether France or England had Egypt," but that since the English were there, they knew they would be paid for what they sold. ii6 EGYPT UNDER THE BRITISH. A Scotchman who dwells amongst the fallaheen described the latter as fully convinced that the English would " never go away now," but as wide awake to the desirability of professing discontent in order to secure indulgence and extra liberal treatment. To take a third view, that of a man whose knowledge of the natives is confined to the urban population — a man who, not a British subject, but an Anglophil trusted at head-quarters — "these people believe that England is on the eve of her ruin, and that at a puff of wind " — he blew into his hand, as if to enforce the idea — "she would collapse in pieces and in dust." I have had this last impression, by the way, from a Gladstonian also, a Yorkshire Gladstonian at an Egyptian table dhdte, and he seemed to be rather gratified at the prospect. CHAPTER VII. If we turn to the Egyptian newspaper press, we find that, whatever may be the conclusion to be drawn from the fact, the Opposition journals in French and Arabic largely outnumber those which appear in support of the British occupation. The particular instance of the Journal Egyptietiy issued daily in French, with the engagements proffered by the Gladstone Government of 1882 a stereo- typed feature of the front page, has already been referred to, and mention has also been made of broadsheets in Arabic which reproduce the viru- lent attacks and misrepresentations to be found in the French organs. With its population of about half a million, Cairo probably sees more of this newspaper warfare than all the other towns of Egypt put together, although the Egyptian Gazette^ the single newspaper appearing daily in the English language, is published at Alexandria. ii8 EGYPT UNDER THE BRITISH. The contents of the Gazette are printed in French as well as in English. It may be regarded as the semi-official journal of the Occupation ; and besides its authoritative character and position in regard to all administrative matters and move- ments, it is a sound literary and scholarly pro- duction. But to the European non-resident the criticism continually occurs that the Egyptian Gazette^ like the majority of the older British residents, seems to assume too easily that the extravagances and the misstatements emitted on the other side must be notorious, and that, conse- quently, they can be disdained. News is not so plentiful in Egypt that indefatigable refutations of falsehood, and steady repetitions of all disproof as often as the calumny turns up again, would oust large quantities of interesting matter. There are always the people of short memories who need reminders, and the other people of less knowledge who need education. The Progrh, an Anglophil daily paper, published in French at Cairo, does excellent service by occasionally tackling the Opposition journals in quite their own tone. Add to the Pr ogres and the Gazette an Arabic broad- sheet, the Mokattam, issued at Cairo, and the whole of the Egyptian press avowedly in the EGYPT UNDER THE BRITISH. 119 British interest has been named. The Italian and Greek papers are left out of account.* On the other side, that of distinct opposition, the Echo cT Orient, advertising itself as the only newspaper in Egypt sold for half a piastre, or a penny farthing, has reinforced the French press within the last seven months. The Memphis^ bi-weekly, in French and Arabic, is also a new- comer, dating from eight or ten months. One piastre, " tariff," or 2j " "The Minister for Public Instruction is taking the matter earnestly in hand. But, you see, the difficulty about popular education here is that the Moslems who talk, and write, and guide the rest, have not the teachers themselves, and will not accept them from outside. There are Mo- hammedan primary schools, with sheikhs from El Azhar University to teach, but the instruction is confined to Arabic, with a little, a very little, arithmetic. A great need exists for popular education. The masses would still be capable of believing what they received as gospel from the Tantah Sheikh in 1882, viz. that during the night he had swallowed three of the British ironclads at Alexandria, and that he was preparing, with the aid of the Prophet, to swallow more. With regard to the higher classes in the towns, the incoherence which, prior to the British occupation, despatched a man into the law who had been studying mechanics, or into medicine when he had been studying law, has latterly, disappeared. I re- member that, before 1882, we found a man who EGYPT UNDER THE BRITISH. 171 had been sent by the Government to Paris as a pupil in agriculture, holding the exalted Govern- ment office of toll-collector on a bridge. Since the sensible and equitable British administration has shown them that all careers are open to them if they will properly equip themselves, the natives of the towns are crowding into channels which they had previously been accustomed to regard as not for Egyptians, but for Turks and Europeans. An Egyptian who studies medicine now adopts the medical profession afterwards, instead of something else. The old Egyptians may tell you that the number of native students at the medical schools is less now than formerly ; but they do not give you the reasons. One of the reasons is that the studies have a more direct bearing now upon the subsequent careers ; another is that the young men are attracted by the salaries paid in the Civil Service." " How does Egypt under the British occupation compare with Syria under Turkish rule .? " "Since 1882 the positions have been reversed. Fifteen years ago all the Arabic newspapers were published in Syria, and had to be brought here from that province ; now they are published here, and go into Syria. Syrians who visit Egypt, and 172 EGYPT UNDER THE BRITISH, see what has been done, envy us. ' What has come over Egypt ? * they say. ' Oh, if only our country were as Egypt is now ! ' " I asked Dr. Nimr and Dr. Sarruf for their opinion as to the real sentiments of the fellaheen towards England. " The Opposition Arab sheets tell their readers that the English have made the Mohammedans of India a downtrodden, poor, and miserable population," was the reply, " and the fellaheen say to you, * Yes, we are very happy now ; but suppose the English are not satisfied to let us go on as we are — suppose they take our wives and daughters, and begin to treat us as they treat the Moslems of India I * You assure them that they have been misled as to this, and you try to elicit from them some expression as to the per- manency of the English rule. * The English must go,' they answer you, ' because Moslems must not be ruled by Christians/ You speak about other matters, and they make no secret of their joy at the altered condition of affairs, their prosperity, their freedom from oppression, their knowledge that if official backsheesh has to be given, it is not the English who exact it, or who profit by it, and, indeed, that the English do their best to EGYPT UNDER THE BRITISH. 173 save the fellaheen from it. *Ah, if we could only count upon the English keeping up this glorious era ! ' they say. Then you come round to your first question, and you ask whether these words of theirs are merely empty words. * No/ they answer, *we are truly grateful to the Eng- lish ; but Moslems must not be ruled by Chris- tians.' No fanaticism or misrepresentation, however, can blind them to the vastly increased productiveness of the country since the application by the English of the irrigation methods which they introduced from India. Do you know that we raise in Egypt, now, three times more cotton per acre than is raised in America? And there are certain projects, quite feasible, for largely extending the area now under cultivation." To go into much more of the varied, practical, and anecdotic matter contributed by both partners might perhaps weary the far-off British reader, engrossed at home, as the telegraph teaches his Egyptian friends, with sudden problems all strange to the immense Mohammedan world. "The Egyptian Question," summed up Dr. SarrCif, "is the difference between Turkey and Egypt before and after the British occupation." " Many of the fellaheen in Upper Egypt," added ■174 EGYPT UNDER THE BRITISH. Dr. Nimr, " now date after the Year of the Bless- ing, that is, after 1883. They say, in both Upper and Lower Egypt, *0h, this is the time of the Blessing,' and they fix occurrences as having happened so many years after the Year of the Blessing. We have published in our columns letters of testimony and gratitude, with the many signatures, volunteered, of the correspondents — in Arabic, of course ; and the attempts which have been made in the highest quarters to persecute those poor men — fruitless attempts in every case, so far as we know — have not prevented similar tributes to the English rule from others. When we receive such communications we print them under a heading which is a text in the Koran, 'Declare aloud the blessings and the gifts that are sent to you by God.' " CHAPTER X. One further document, in the same form of local and direct evidence. M. Kyriacopoulo, the pro- prietor and editor of the Progrhy and an Egyptian whose long experience and intimate acquaintance with the East renders his testimony of peculiar value, reviewed the whole subject so comprehen- sively, in the course of a talk at his office, that I think I cannot do better than simply reproduce his words. "The Egyptian Question ought to be called, from my point of view," premised M. Kyriaco- poulo, "the Question of the civilization of Africa. The commerce of the world is necessarily con- cerned in seeing that the civilizing and humani- tarian work be undertaken by that Power amongst them all which practises free trade. Unfor- tunately, the general interest does not always weigh in the balance against separate political considerations ; and so we have the Egyptian 1/6 EGYPT UNDER THE BRITISH. Question subordinate to the solution which may be arrived at in the main question of the East centering round Constantinople. If Russia suc- ceeded in planting herself at Constantinople, it would not be the civilization of Africa alone, but your British dominion in Asia, which would come into play. Mistress of Constantinople, Russia would be able to organize naval forces in every sea, and she would oblige you to maintain still larger forces always in readiness, to defend, for instance, the Suez Canal route to your possessions in Africa as in India. I was well acquainted with Sir Henry Bulwer at Constantinople in bygone years, and, at a time prior to his appointment as Ambassador, he did me the honour of discussing Eastern politics with me frequently. He stated to me that if the Turks persisted in refusing to introduce reforms into their Government, England would detach herself completely from all interest in the Ottoman Empire, and would occupy Egypt as a means of securing her own national interests. The idea made an impression upon me at that time ; but, later, when I had studied the Eastern Question rather more minutely, I perceived that Sir Henry Bulwer was not a great diplomatist if he really believed that England would be EGYPT UNDER THE BRITISH. 177 safeguarding her interests by the course he laid (Jown — that is, by an abandonment of the Turkish Question, which would leave Russia free to go to Constantinople. It became, and still is, my opinion that the 7ioeud of the British future in Africa must be sought at Constantinople. You will object to me that you cannot eternally hinder a Power like Russia, a great expansive force, from descending towards the Mediterranean. That is true ; but what are the precautions which England has taken in presence of that eventuality ? You will scarcely argue that you must wait for the danger to declare itself before you adopt precautions. The help you gave to the cause of Italian unity was an act of justice which to-day is bearing fruit ; you are rewarded for that by the possession of an ally, and of a point d'appui to the west of the Mediterranean. What are the precautions adopted in the direction of the east of the Mediterranean ? I do not see any. Never- theless, a maritime element exists there which ought not to be neglected — the Greek race. The Greek race is opposed to the Slav, is anxious to safeguard its independence, and seeks, above all, to avoid absorption or inclusion by Russia. If, however, Russia arrived at a domination of N 178 EGYPT UNDER THE BRITISH. Constantinople, the rayonnement of her influence, even if Greece succeeded in preserving her inde- pendence, would be such that the Hellenic element would inevitably gravitate towards the Russian centre. The consequence would be that Russia, which is to-day a great Continental power, but not a great maritime power, would then have procured the arm now lacking to her, and would have completed her forces. *' Turning from the general question to that of Egypt internally, I say that you have for you, firstly the bondholders, and, secondly, all the Europeans who dwell in Egypt and wish for an effectual guarantee for the future. English policy, by civilizing the Egyptians, will arrive at a con- ciliation of two elements at present opposed, viz. the native and the European. The masses in Egypt may be fanatical, but their fanaticism would be altogether inoffensive if it were not fed by considerations of a material order. Christian peoples do not sufficiently understand, perhaps, that the Mussulman religion itself is founded upon materialism. Excitations of the fanatical feeling arise in our own epoch as much from a social inequality as from anything else. The native, who for ages has been tyrannized and despoiled, EGYPT UNDER THE BRITISH. 179 has in our own epoch seen by the side of him the European, covered by treaties, protected by his consul, and prospering upon his advantages. It was largely to the envy and hatred thus pro- duced that the rising and massacre of 1882 were due. England, by her labours to ameliorate the position of the natives, and to efface the great inequalities that have existed, as well as by her development of the public wealth, and her gift of justice and liberty to the native, will reconcile the two elements by the most practical means. There is not a native who does not recognize at heart the benefits of the British occupation. If you talk with the poorer classes, the petit peupky they will tell you that never, at any period of their history, have they been as free as they are to-day ; only, they fear to manifest their senti- ments because of the instability of the situation. They are not sure that this situation will continue. I will not enumerate all the good which the English administration has accomplished in Egypt. The most conspicuous benefit resides in the vast extent of land which their system of irrigation has brought into cultivation ; but a moment must come when there will be no more new land for the Department of Irrigation to place before the i8o EGYPT UNDER THE BRITISH. people, with the means now at its disposal. If it should be sought to augment still more the surface cultivabky the English administration will find itself confronted by a difficulty considered to be insurmountable — the absence of credit, the poverty of the finance. The Egyptian Budget is the Budget of a country in bankruptcy. The engagements entered into with the bondholders before the occupation constitute the worst fetters now for the wider development of agriculture; the Government cannot apply its savings to the great works of public utility which will be requisite for the further extension of the arable area." Here M. Kyriacopoulo touched the one pre- eminent topic for the fellaheen, as connected with the future. The BarragCy constructed by M. Mougelle about fifty years ago, has already been alluded to. It consists of sluices across both branches of the Nile at a point just below their separation, a few miles outside Cairo ; the object being to hold the water back for irrigation purposes, instead of permitting wasteful flow into the sea. The credit of the undertaking is commonly con- ceded to the French engineer named above ; but, apart from the fact that the work remained partially inoperative until perfected by the British, EGYPT UNDER THE BRITISH. i8i under Lord Cromer, it was not by M. Mougelle, but by a compatriot of his who preceded him, that the scheme was laid before the Egyptian Govern- ment. And, before either of them, the idea belongs to Mohammed AH, that "barbarian of genius," as a British official terms him ; whilst, a score of years earlier than Mohammed Ali's notion of damming up one of the two river courses, Napoleon, who uttered a good deal of fustian in Egypt, but also detected the essential in much, declared that not a drop of the Nile water ought to be allowed to reach the sea at all. The dream for the future among those of the fellaheen who know what Upper Egypt is already producing, pictures some such structure as the present Barrage high up along the main bed of the Nile, with sections of canals performing in those regions that which they themselves have witnessed in Middle Egypt and the Delta. There will be land to be had.* "That would be a work preliminary to many * Their Opposition broad-sheets tell them pretty frequently, too, of a trans-Soudanese trade that might have been retained but for England. They are reminded that there was a time when, to put the same record in the words of Sir Samuel Baker, '* fifteen English steamers were plying upon the great White Nile, before the Soudan was abandoned by the despotic order of Great Britain, and handed back to savagedom and wild beasts." i82 EGYPT UNDER THE BRITISH. others of enormous usefulness to the country/' proceeded M. Kyriacopoulo ; " but although there are millions sterling in the Caisse de la Dette Publique, these savings cannot be devoted to the purpose, cannot be applied at all, because of the past conventions with the Powers, and because the latter cannot all be induced to consent. A new conversion might be executed, but the Powers oppose. No heavier injustice could be inflicted upon a country in full development. If the British Government wish to spare Lord Cromer the per- petual role of Sisyphus, it ought to advise means for disentangling the Egyptian Government from engagements that were taken in view of a situation now non-existent. I do not believe that diplo- matic dangers would result from such a course. The interests of the bondholders would not be in the slightest degree injured by the proceeding ; the public wealth would be increased. The British Government should declare that the engagements of Egypt having been entered into at a period of bankruptcy, and the country being now in full financial development, and needing to be placed on its feet, all such engagements are suspended for the whole duration of the occupation. This would be all the more just, as, having assumed the EGYPT UNDER THE BRITISH. 183 responsibility by your occupation, you are entitled to have your elbows free for your task. As there cannot be rights without responsibility, there ought not to be responsibility without rights. The highest service has been rendered to the country, again, by the separation of the judicial and the executive powers, since 1883. It is no longer competent for a Governor, a Minister, or the Khedive him- self, to intervene in judicial affairs. In Europe you can scarcely conceive what that simple separa- tion of the two functions has done. The fellaheen feel themselves to be sheltered by a safeguard they never knew until then, and they are actually in far more easy circumstances now, with cotton at less than £2 per kantar, than they were when it stood at from ;£"io to ;^ii; at one moment it reached ;^I2. It is the simple separation of the judicial and administrative powers, not the efficiency of the tribunals — because these are still defective — that has worked this miracle. I say they are defective, because you have passed from one extreme to the other ; you have given the native judge too much independence before he has become fitted to use it, and judgments are delivered which are in contempt of the evidence, and amount to an abuse." 1 84 EGYPT UNDER THE BRITISH. Questioned on the subject of Egyptian Oppo- sition, the speaker added : " You have the oppo- sition of the classes dirigeantes. Egypt has always had two markedly distinct classes — the one that dominated, the other that was ruled The former had been successively the Nubians, the Assyrians, the Persians, the Macedonians, the Romans, the Turks ; and the natives have been the classe dominee. We have now families which came into Egypt with Mohammed Ali, and a large number of Turkish families which migrated from Greece when Greece was declared independent. That is the class which has supplied the officers of the army, the governors, the Ministers — public functionaries in general. They have fused to some extent with the native element, so that in their houses these families talk Arabic rather than Turkish, and their number has grown by the addition of natives who were admitted to administrative functions by Ismail Pasha. As soon as they become Bey or Pasha, these natives exceed the Turks in oppres- siveness ; they have ceased to be natives, ceased to be one with the fellah. Guerrazzi wrote, ^ Non vi e tirannia peggior^ di quella del servo divenuto padrone' There is no tyranny worse than that of the servant become master, and it EGYPT UNDER THE BRITISH. 185 applies very well to those natives promoted under Ismail. At the head of the class thus formed, you have the clergy and the chief of the State ; and it seems impossible that that class should ever reconcile itself to the British occupation, because you can never give them back what they have lost. Under the old corrupt state of things fortunes were easy to make. But this class, in striving against the British occupation, are wrong if they fancy that they could recover the possession of the abuses they have lost, should the Maison Britaiiniqiie give way. If the English went away from here, all the people of that class would find themselves overrun or overthrown by the mass of the natives. Should the English yield, and leave us, there would be for a brief interval the strange phenomenon of a chef d'Etaty who is Turkish, using Egyptian instruments for a tyranny over the Egyptian people. But the first ambitious officer who, like Arabi under Tewfik Pasha, should raise the standard of revolt, would see the whole of the fellaheen group themselves around him. That would be so at the present moment, without the army of occupation. The presence of the British troops, and of Lord Cromer, acts as the counterweight to the absolute power of the i86 EGYPT UNDER THE BRITISH. Khedive, and as a check upon it. You must not talk of evacuation unless you have lost your reason, or unless you are satisfied with merely making money, under no matter what regime, and are indifferent to what happens beyond that. Of course, the French understand the sentiments of the classe dirigeante^ and turn them to account, but if the country could be told that the existing situation is not provisional, your difficulties would diminish as if by magic. You see, the native population has the impression that the English intend to go away at some time or other, and they feel it to be a matter of life and death to them to put themselves on good terms with those who would then come into power, viz. the classe dirigeante I have described. It is not a question of patriotism ; the editors of the Opposition Arabic sheets know that as well as I do, but they have learnt to use the phrases which have a patriotic ring. The harm is the consequence of Mr. Glad- stone's repeated pledges. That man, by his shallow conception of Egyptian conditions, and by his never-failing talk, did more to wrong the fellah, and more to retard the progress of the country, than anything else that dates from the events in 1882, — or, I ought to say, not Mr. Gladstone, but EGYPT UNDER THE BRITISH. 187 England under his influence. You were wrong, too, in assuming when you came here that you ought to govern through the governing class, and limit yourself to the control. You ought to have understood that the governing class is antipathetic to the people. If you did it to gain the goodwill of that classe di7'igeante, you made so prodigious a blunder that" — the speaker broke into a laugh — *' I can hardly characterize it" Adverting to the scanty but invariable grounds of the opposition by the French themselves, M. Kyriacopoulo ended : " The French come and tell you such absurd things that you might well marvel where they have left their senses. For instance, they will say that agriculture and the finances are in a terrible state, when you know that the exact contrary is the case, and they ought to know it, too. In fact, they do know it. They have too much intelligence to believe what they come and tell you. I wager that among themselves they laugh at what they have said. As for the * neutralization ' of Egypt, you cannot trancher une questmz by a word. We have to look at internal government here, and what is * neutralization ' ? If it signifies any- thing, it is * internationalization,' which is precisely the rigime of privilege, confusion, bribery, and i88 EGYPT UNDER THE BRITISH. hopelessness, of which the country had a bitter experience prior to 1882 — of which the capitula- tions are a visible reminder — and from which you partially rescued the Egyptian people by the fact of your occupation in 1882." CHAPTER XL Returning to Ismailia by the main line from Cairo, the traveller whose own term of sojourn in the country has reached its close feels for the first time, perhaps, at the spectacle of leisured people about to follow the road he is relinquishing, the force of the strange charm which Egypt exerts. These people may be the men of commerce for whom the certitude of a settled Egypt, insensitive to European diplomatic rumours, would mean the investment of capital at present holding aloof, though wanted ; or they may be mere cyphers in social distractions, contributing their share to a common useful end, unwittingly ; or they may be new eager Egyptologists, bound for the latest wonders of the recovered past. While still beneath the cloudless skies, and still within the spell, the traveller returning would perhaps wish to change his place with one of these ; even the invalid, semi-comatose, and " condemned " elsewhere, seems iQo EGYPT UNDER THE BRITISH. for an instant enviable, as he departs upon his way towards the calm, the rest, the magic air, the peaceful panoramas of the stately Nile in Upper Egypt. But Ismailia, as the half-way settlement along the Suez Canal, brings us into touch, however faintly, with all that lies outside. When the Oxford tutor of the present Khedive, Abbas, took his leave of Egypt after a twelve months* residence, he wrote of the pang with which, despite all motives for the contrary, he " turned to face the dreariness of Europe." Fifteen years have elapsed. At Ismailia, now, the visitors into Egypt from England are mingled with Australian colonists and British Indians, deviating from their homeward or their outward routes to pay their honours to the land in Occupation, and to see for themselves what their countrymen have done ; and the relation of the news from Europe to the circumstances and the case of Egypt becomes, under the stress of recent developments, a topic for them all. Mr. A. J. Butler was pro- bably thinking of England, solely, when he wrote of the dreary outlook in 1881. His pupil, Abbas, then seven years old, has since succeeded to his father, Tewfik Pasha ; and if the present Khedive has not altogether borne out his tutor's description EGYPT UNDER THE BRITISH. 191 of him, as "remarkable for his sweetness of dis- position," he has eventually shown that he can learn. Men have come, and men have gone. The situation has altered. There were three years of British rule, immediately after 1883, "based on the principle of doing no good, and suffering all evil ; " but neither in England itself, nor in Europe generally, can there be said to be much dreariness of prospect just now for the British subject or the colonist, looking forth from Egypt. " We know that we have stronger hands at home now," re- marked one of the last of the business men with whom I talked at Cairo — a Scotch engineer ; " Rosebery was an improvement upon what we had had before from the same party ; he was not too weak ; he was just strong enough ; but, even with Rosebery, we never knew what was going to happen. As soon as the present Government succeeded to the Rosebery Administration, the Egyptian Question in Egypt — in Egypt — became quite quiet." Some of the warmest expressions of pride with respect to the task pursued by the British in this country, proceeded from Australians. One of the latter proved to be so little accessible to the notion of any dreariness as connected with "home" that he consulted me repeatedly as to 192 EGYPT UNDER THE BRITISH. the likelihood of his arriving in England in time to witness a snowfall. He had heard of snow- storms on the Derby Day, and later. " Ah, it evidently doesn't appeal to you in the same manner," said he ; " but I haven't seen snow for ten years, and there's something so cosy about it ! " The wretched nature of the railway communi- cation between Ismailia and Port Said was referred to in the earliest of these chapters. As we crawled onward I had ample opportunity of verifying certain assurances not credited on the occasion of the journey in the inverse direction. When travelling from Port Said to Ismailia, I had been told that the beautiful islet-dotted expanse, fringed with palms, which stretched away to the horizon on our left across the canal, was not a lake, but mirage. " There is no water over there," had stated the Suez Canal Company's British pilot ; " that's all desert." And desert I found it to be, on returning along the same ground. Desert on the one side as on the other ; and at the bare line which had thus been clothed in illusion the rim of the sun would peer, and rise to-morrow, just as at this moment it neared the bare line opposite to the west, and dropped out of sight. In the gloom, the flashing of the electric light from vessels advancing at their EGYPT UNDER THE BRITISH. 193 snail's pace through the canal gives to that turn- pike road of the world a mysterious and, indeed, imposing character which it is far from possessing under the light of day. Another of the three or four British pilots employed by the Suez Canal Company sat in the adjoining compartment of the pinched carriage, and the sound of his voice, some- times in one language, sometimes in another, recalled the accents of his comrade, and the linguistic proficiency of that comrade, on the occasion when the vista of brown desert towards Syria had been veiled in the counterfeit " due to refractions of light." Instances of the ease with which the British in general who are scattered up and down the Levant sustain their share in the polyglot conversations thereabouts, became all the more noticeable from the fact that a present neighbour was one of the overrated linguistic Germans who are met with abroad as travelling representatives of English commercial houses. This gentleman, with good English, but quite inferior French, and with no other language apart from his own, intimated that he travelled for his English firm from Spain to Morocco, and from Morocco through Algiers, Tunis, and Egypt. Another German, whom I came O 194 EGYPT UNDER THE BRITISH. across at Cairo, and who represented an extremely important English manufacturing firm, had a boisterous inaccurate kind of English, a lumbering, irritating sort of French that must have cost his employers many orders from French-speaking customers, but good Spanish, which he required for business tours through South America. The managers of English hotels, too, were usually Germans who had learnt their business, as they acknowledged — when they did not boast of it — in subordinate situations in London. " We work for little, so long as we are learning," I heard an hotel- manager say rather vengefully, to an Englishman who had levelled the reproach that the Germans underbid, — " but, when we know, we exact our terms." The two particular cases above mentioned, however, are types of several. Both those gentle- men appeared to be in receipt of liberal salaries, but I could not discover that they possessed any special business gifts. On the contrary, the tedious- ness of their explanations, a lack of real discernment and tact, with an insistence upon their personal opinions where they were clearly but half-informed, seemed to ruffle and annoy some of the very people with whom they hoped to conclude agreements ; and no amount of suppleness or flattery, afterwards, EGYPT UNDER THE BRITISH. 195 would succeed in removing the irritation they had unconsciously aroused. That they should be found filling such excellent situations for English houses must convey to numbers among their customers a poor idea of the capabilities to be reckoned upon among the English themselves. The strong points to be perceived in them were steadiness, and a martinet attention to their business. As a linguist the average German commercial traveller in the East is, of course, far outshone by the Levantine ; and if the latter's title to a responsible firm's confidence needs a great deal of guarantee, there are Englishmen and Scotchmen out here who have been born in the Levantine's own latitudes. A Briton has come out in the past, and has married into the nationality amidst which he has settled, and the children grow up to speak the languages that are all around them. I was introduced at Alexandria to a British non-commissioned officer attached to the staff at Cairo who was reputed to speak five languages. That seemed a respectable total, but on meeting him again accidentally at Cairo, and on inquiring whether it were the fact, I learnt from him that the figure should have been, not five, but eight. He was the son of an English 196 EGYPT UNDER THE BRITISH. missionary who had gone out to Syria ; he had been born in Syria ; and his languages were Russ, Greek, Italian, German, French, English, Turkish, and Arabic. The British authorities at Cairo are well supplied with such cases. Egypt alone is a school for Italian and modern Greek, to say nothing of Arabic, French, and English. There being small domestic and no parochial politics in and about Egypt, international affairs are talked by everybody, and many of us were asked, during the recent " strained relations " with Germany, why, with the German press and public adopting towards England so unexpected a tone, Germans were retained in any responsible English situations. German sentiment was supposed to have exhibited the greatest ingratitude towards a country which formed the most secure and most profitable outlet for hosts of industrious Germans, ultimately serving the Fatherland. However this may be, the young men who compete for scanty clerkships in the towns of Great Britain can reconquer ground lost to foreigners, and considerably embellish their prospects, if they will take the trouble to acquire — not in literary perfection, nor for nonsensi- cal ostentation, but for practical use, as far as the comparatively narrow bounds of commercial EGYPT UNDER THE BRITISH. i97 intercourse — two foreign languages. It has not always been pleasant to hear a would-be patroniz- ing German traveller, "manager" of a "foreign department " in England, talk in a lofty style about " my shorthand clerks," ie. the English clerks who are placed under him by English employers, and who appear usually to be satisfied with the accomplishments of shorthand and type-writing, in which they can be undersold now by women. Since the previous journey along the Suez Canal Company's foolish little line, fitful disturbances had continued in the Turkish provinces to be visited by the English missionary whose acquaint- ance I made at that time. When I parted from him, he was bent on purchasing cartridges for his revolver ; I could glean no subsequent news of him. The recollection of the acquaintance brought to the memory his queer account of the Ottoman spy system in Egypt. The tale of a secret organization of which the members recognize one another by the fashion of wearing or carrying a rose, or of clasping the hand when walking in pairs, had a ring of the fantastic, nor did the useful purpose to be answered by the system become readily apparent But futile things are, no doubt, what the Porte does habitually. The reverend 198 EGYPT UNDER THE BRITISH. gentleman in question stated that he had been in Arab cafSs, discoursing with the native Moslems upon the Armenian grievances, when the entrance of a single individual, not differing outwardly from the rest, would either at once divert the conversa- tion to topics entirely irrelevant, or empty the establishment. At other times, said he, " men come in and relate stories, and after a while they give out a sign. The ordinary people gradually disappear, until the only persons remaining are those who have received the sign, and who have information to lodge, or to exchange." One of my informants in responsible quarters at Cairo put the total of such spies through the Turkish provinces at ten thousand. The system is hollow enough in Egypt at the present time, but under a less whole- some regime, or under any new fanatical incentive, it might assume the character of a very stern reality indeed. These are Ottoman spies, reporting in Egypt to the non-official agency which the Sultan set up at Cairo with Mukhtar Pasha — a reluctant representative of such business — at its head. What have they to report, I asked. The " current thought of the country," was the missionary's response ; and under the existing regime, peaceful and prosperous, the reply seemed rather absurd. EGYPT UNDER THE BRITISH, 199 " Any stuff they can concoct," was the response of my informant at Cairo. The latter quoted one of his own friends, a known Turkish spy — to be a spy for the Sultan is to be a great man — as avowing that " the bigger the lie, the better it is for us." It may be wondered by the reader whether any Intelligence Department devotes attention to such matters, in the British occupa- tion. The answer to be met with everywhere in Egypt is, "Lord Cromer knows everything that goes on." Allusions to the British Consul-General have hitherto been few in these pages. If Lord Cromer himself were consulted as to any narrative of benefits conferred upon Egypt by the British, he might confidently be expected to stipulate for no mention whatever of his name. The subject cannot be so dismissed. The onerous part he has sustained in this guidance of a country towards order, solvency, strength, and the brightest of outlooks, moral and material, may be well enough known within the country itself, and within every Governmental sphere in Europe, but is hardly understood at home among his compatriots in general. The frightful complexities and ardu- ousness of the task, its peculiar delicacy, the 200 EGYPT UNDER THE BRITISH. sensitiveness of the whole undertaking to all sorts of influences unconnected with Egypt herself, must await the deliberate historian for an adequate measure of justice ; but they ought not to escape the popular attention altogether, while the man who has wrought so much for both England and Egypt continues at his post. These are no lines due to suggestion, interest, or favour. The attempt to portray broadly the Egypt of the day, Egypt at a stage of evolution, will have never departed from the completest independence of official opinion or bias, if any such there be. As a matter of fact, the opinion of a British official in Egypt is about as hard to elicit as anything can be in this world. The sincerest testimony to Lord Cromer's value resides perhaps in the dread with which his eventual retirement is contemplated by all classes. Even the French and Turkish oppo- sition can scarcely be described as pining for the day when Lord Cromer will be no longer in Egypt ; for the successor might prove less tolerant. The mixed European community fear the departure of Lord Cromer, for the reason that his successor might prove less strong ; whilst the masses of the fellaheen look to the same prospect with anxiety EGYPT UNDER THE BRITISH. 201 because his successor might prove less " paternal " for them, and less equitable. If we consult the British, whether they have settled in the country before or since the occupation, we discover that both the older type of resident, who thinks the courbash ought never to have been abolished, and deems the Arab incorrigibly ungrateful and men- dacious, and the newer generation, who hold to the virtues of a gentle and humane rule for the native population, view the contingency with mis- giving. The simple rumour that Lord Cromer has been studying Turkish of late suffices to depress the friends of the British occupation. Why should the "King of Egypt," as he is currently styled, need the Turkish language, unless he were proposing to exchange Cairo for Constantinople ? So runs the argument, among supporters and opponents alike ; and the pessimistic fringe of the British official circles at Cairo nourish their gloomy forebodings upon reiterations of the in- disputable fact that *'we have promised to go," and upon stories of the difficulty experienced in obtaining British candidates for the Egyptian civil service. " So-and-So, just the man for such-and- such a place, would not come out, because he sees no guarantee for a career ; " and somebody else of 202 EGYPT UNDER THE BRITISH. exceptional fitness, who would have been well inclined to disregard the " career," could not really afford to accept, " being a poor man, and not con- vinced that it would last." We have promised ; now comes the question, as Lord Cromer might say, "whether we can go." It may be laid down without fear of contradiction that Lord Cromer himself does not see how England possibly can go out of Egypt. Looking at the enormous interests involved, it is in the highest degree improbable that the whole machine would ever be allowed to collapse ; but nobody — " nobody on earth " was the phrase used to myself — has hitherto been able to guarantee to British capital that the English would stay ; and the investors who have held back have been outrun by bolder or more sagacious men of Continental nationalities. British capital would be welcomed in Egypt by the British authorities; but it must go there on a large scale, and those who despatch it must not imagine that they can reap a great deal by diplo- matic means. Lord Cromer's answer to the com- plaint that tenders from home are shelved for those of Belgian, French, or German origin would be that the English must suit themselves to their customers, and that when they offer a certain EGYPT UNDER THE BRITISH. 203 article, and something else is wanted, they must either endeavour to supply the article required, or put up with defeat at the hands of people who do what the English either cannot or will not do. The contracts given out to foreign firms by Govern- ment departments are defended on the ground that the only general basis upon which such busi- ness can be transacted must be that of accepting the tender which is lowest. The British manu- facturer at home is sometimes found by the repre- sentatives of his Government in Egypt to be a personage who wants a great deal of help, and yet to be very hard to help ; he is slow in adapting him- self to a diversity of requirements, and he is bad at taking advice. In the matter of the locomotive engines, the grievance of the British contractors at Alexandria and Cairo, the case is regarded in official circles as merely one of underselling with a Belgian product which, although it would not have satisfied the people at home, satisfied the people here, viz. those who framed the specification and were going to pay the money. Lord Cromer cannot interfere to specially protect British industry. He pursues one aim — the development and happi- ness of Egypt. His answer to the charges that official backsJieesh still flourishes, and, indeed, has 204 EGYPT UNDER THE BRITISH. increased during the past three years, would be, firstly, that no definite instances of any such bribery are brought forward ; secondly, that back- sheesh cannot be eradicated by a stroke of the pen ; and, thirdly, that the British authorities in Egypt are "trying to do what Lord Cornwallis did in India in 1796," viz. to pay the Government officials upon a scale which will enable them to subsist with- out accepting bribes. In this way, with prompt punishment when any such cases are discovered, the corruption should diminish by degrees, and should die out as far as human frailty may permit. " Until our time in Egypt," a British functionary at Cairo said to me, " a man could not live without receiving bribes. Jobbery became inevitable ; and it existed everywhere." .Lord Cromer's comment, again, upon the fact that the greatly ' extended irrigation by the British since 1883 had virtually ruined a branch of British industry in Egypt, ought to be served up as often as possible by the three journals which champion the Occupation, to the unscrupulous French and Arabic press of the other side. " Instead of having to buy pumps, the fellaheen get water now by a system of gravi- tation," said he ; " it is possible that the English may have suffered by the decline in the demand, EGYPT UNDER THE BRITISH. 205 but that is part of our work in Egypt — that is the testimony to what we have done." There are six millions of fellaheen who know at the present time not only that the irrigation cuttings bring the precious Nile to the soil itself, but that the rich man can no longer monopolize the water, or take it out of his turn. Lord Cromer has been asked whether he thinks that the fellaheen understand that good has been wrought for them. "They understand water and justice," he replied.* - Have the fellaheen short memories for the good that has been done ? 1 have frequently heard the point debated, and it ought never to be lost sight of by the Mokattam^ the Progrh^ and the Egyptian Gazette. They have not short memories for the * An anecdote of the British Consul-General, in the midst of divers recent diplomatic pre-occupations, has been retailed through the polyglot gossip of Egypt with universal relish for an instance of characteristic imperturbability. Lord Cromer is a player of lawn- tennis ; and he was accustomed to meet three other followers of the game, for a " four," every afternoon. The diplomatic situation suddenly became acute. One only of the four attended at the daily rendezvous. The other three, penetrated with a sense of the grave difficulties in which British interests ought to consider themselves all at once involved, deemed it the more seemly course, or the more delicate attention to the chief of the Maison Britannique, to stay away. Lord Cromer, who alone attended, was exceedingly surprised, the story goes, that any one should break an appointment, and exceedingly disappointed that he should lose his ** afternoon set." 2o6 EGYPT UNDER THE BRITISH, performances by the French at the commencement of the century. They have not forgotten that the French under Napoleon stabled their horses in the mosques, and that when the French military occupation collapsed. Napoleon's troops put up to auction the Egyptian women and girls whom they had appropriated. When at the capital, I repeated to a personage well situated to follow popular sentiment throughout the country, the assertion by the well-known Austrian financier at Alexandria that a plebiscite through Egypt would certainly yield a majority in favour of the British occu- pation. "He might have gone farther," was the response ; " he might have added that if the vote could be secret, it would yield, not a majority, but unanimity." And what will be said of this, by way of testi- mony to the progress achieved under the British — that a movement has latterly arisen in Syria for union with Egypt ! A Syrian gentleman of inde- pendent position, and of the remarkable culture which is the splendid fruit of the work done in that province by the American Missionary Society, admitted the existence of the movement to me in the cautious words : " Many Syrians would be ready, on a partition of Turkey, to propose to the EGYPT UNDER THE BRITISH. 207 Khedive that Syria should be annexed to Egypt." We have discussed the gratitude of the fellaheen ; we cannot tell what gratitude is to be expected from the Khedive. The latter is a young man ; *' we were none of us very wise, I suppose, when we were his age," observed M. Kyriacopoulo, I remember ; and in some things he is growing to resemble his grandfather, Ismail. Those who can speak of IsmaYl Pasha from direct cognizance, assert that the resemblance can be traced in personal appearance as well as in particular attributes. He has had a tendency towards dictation, however, which is all his own, unless we seek for it still further back in the dynastic progeniture. But, in the first place, the Khedive Abbas II. is not popular in Egypt — the family itself, being Turkish, is not popular, — and, in the second place, his frame of mind appears to have undergone a material change since his visit to Constantinople last year. The story current in Cairo is that, apart from the half-million sterling which he was reported to have offered the Sultan as an inducement towards joint action against England, he addressed himself to the Porte in the character of a useful ally. On arriving at Con- stantinople, he found that he was nothing but a 2o8 EGYPT UNDER THE BRITISH, vassal there. The Sultan kept him in attendance day after day before he would grant an audience, then received him most haughtily, and, next, forbade him to quit Constantinople until he had received permission. For two months the Khedive was kept hanging about. At length, after an interval which had taught him de visu the real proportions of British power, he was allowed by his suzerain to return ; and, in order to conceal the fiasco, the Opposition Arabic sheets in Egypt represented to their readers among the fellaheen that he had been yachting in the Mediterranean, and had passed some time upon an island in the Archipelago which belongs to the Khedivial house. He has abilities, and up to the present he has exhibited a good deal of pertinacity. People say in Egypt : " The Khedive is under Lord Cromer ; Lord Cromer is king." * At the * The phrase has travelled as far as the columns of anti-British Continental journals, where its reproduction has been so managed as to convey the idea that Lord Cromer's compatriots are the people who bestow that appellation upon him, or that his lordship himself has usurped the title. Behind those columns are opponents whom the popular colloquialism unavoidably displeases. The man the least likely to be pleased with it, however, is the British Consul- General. No one who has been present at a meeting of the British Consul-General with the Khedive can have failed to observe the studious deference of his lordship's bfearing towards the Sovereign of the State. EGYPT UNDER THE BRITISH. 209 same time they are not altogether proof against the little surprises which the Khedive occasionally seems to arrange. Not to dwell upon the incidents of a moment only, there is for numerous persons a marked significance in his exclusive encourage- ment of the French at the Cairo Opera-house. This public establishment is the property not of the State, nor of private individuals, but of the Khedive. It has a French manager ; French plays are performed there by a French company ; and the Khedive pointedly supports it by an almost nightly attendance. I was told at Cairo — the speaker was not of British nationality — that, however inferior the French art might be that he got there, the Khedive was determined to keep out the English. A ridiculous detail in the situation had been the attitude of the manager on the arrival of the troupe. He displayed the tricolour, assembled the company, and addressed them in solemn terms to the effect that they were here not merely to illustrate French art, but to " uphold the prestige of the French flag." A tribute must be paid, once more, to all those British administrators who have severally suc- ceeded in doing various things that had previously been deemed impossible. Their most conspicuous P 2IO EGYPT UNDER THE BRITISH. achievements we have seen. But, quietly, without self-advertisement, or airs of superior claim to recognition, — in plain devotion to the work before them for the time — they have done other useful things, both in detail and in large breadth of plan. They have to a great extent cured the native Egyptian of his aversion to military service ; the conscription has now become almost popular. They have organized an efficient police force ; have set up a coinage which substitutes for the previous chaos a currency combining the pound sterling with the decimal system ; and they are only debarred from pushing on a large scheme of education by the absence of funds. I have presented many witnesses in the course of this inquiry ; and, not in any instance, although the evidence has not invariably been of identical purport, have the depositions been in the smallest degree warped or modified. The conclusion shall still be in the words of others : ** I do not know if the English govern everywhere as they govern in Egypt," summed up at Cairo a native of high and responsible position — a gentleman whom Mr. Chamberlain saw and questioned very minutely, when he was in Egypt — " but if they do, then I say that they are sent by God to rule the world." 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With 40 Illustrations by Phiz. 21s. David Copperfleld. With 40 Illustrations by Phiz. 21s. Bleak House. With 40 Illustrations by Phiz. 21s. Little Dorrit. With 40 Illustrations by Phiz. 21s. The Old Curiosity Shop. With 75 Illustrations by George Catter- MOLE and H. K. Browne. 21s. Barnaby Rudg-e : a Tale of the Riots of 'Eighty. With 'j^ Illustrations by George Cattermole and H. K. Browne. 21s. Christmas Books. With all the original Illustrations. 12s. Oliver Twist. With 24 Illustrations by George Cruikshank. lis. A Tale of Two Cities. With 16 Illustrations by Phiz. Qs. Oliver Twist and Tale of Two Cities. In one volume. 21s. *,* 'I he remainder of Dickens's Works were not originally printed in demy 8vo. THE ILLUSTRATED LIBRARY EDITION. In 30 volumes, demy Sz'c, green cloth, loilh Original Illusirations, £lfi. Separate volumes , 10s. each. Pickwick Papers. With 42 Illustrations by Phiz. 2 vols. Kicholas Nickleby. With 40 Illustrations by Phiz, 2 vols. 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Christmas Stories. With 14 Illustrations. 2!.dwin Drood and Other Stories. With 12 Illustrations by S. L. Fii.DES. Uniform with above. Life of Charles Dickens. By John Forster. With Portraits. 2 vols. 34 Books published by Chapman & Hall, Ltd. CHARLES DICKENS'S \^OKK.S.— Continued. THE LIBRARY EDITION. In 30 volumes, post Svo, red cloth ^ with all the Original Illustrations, ^12. Separate volumes Sj'. each. Pickwick Papers. With 43 Illustrations. 2 vols. Nicholas Nickleby. With 39 Illustrations. 2 vols. Martin Chuzzlewit. With 40 Illustrations. 2 vols. [2 vols. Old Curiosity Shop and Reprinted Pieces. With 36 Illustrations. Barnaby Rudgre and Hard Times. With 36 Illustrations. 2 vols. Bleak House. With 40 Illustrations. 2 vols. Little Dorrit. With 40 Illustrations. 2 vols. Dombey and Son. With 38 Illustrations. 2 vols. David Copperfield. With 38 Illustrations. 2 vols. Our Mutual Friend. With 40 Illustrations. 2 vols. Sketches by "Boz." With 39 Illustrations. Oliver Twist. 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Old Curiosity Shop. With 8 Illustrations. 3s. 6d. A Child's History of England. With 4 Illustrations. 3s. 6d. Edwin Drood and Other Stories. With 8 Illustrations. 3s. Qd. Christmas Stories. From Household Words. With 8 Illusls. 3s. Qd. Sketches by "Boz." With 8 Illustrations. 3^. 6d. American Notes and Reprinted Pieces. With 8 Illustrations. 3s. 6d. Christmas Boobs. With 8 Illustrations. 3.r. 6.^. Oliver Twist. With 8 Illustrations. 3^. 6d. Great Expectations. With 8 Illustrations. 3s. 6d. A Tale of Two Cities. With 8 Illustrations. 3.v. Hard Times and Pictures from Italy, With 8 Illustrations. 3j-. Uncommercial Traveller. With 4 Illustrations. 3^^. Uniform with the above. The Life of Charles Dickens. With Illustrations. 2 vols. Is. The Letters of Charles Dickens. With Illustrations. 2 vols. Is. Books published by Chapman & Hail, Lid. 35 CHARLES DICKENS'S WORKS.—Conh'nued. THE CROWN EDITION. /// 17 volumes, large crown Zvo, maroon cloth. Original Illustrations, £4: 5s. Separate volumes, 5s. each. Pickwick Papers. With 43 Illustrations by Seymour and Phiz. Nicholas Nickleby. With 40 Illustrations by Phiz. Dombey and Son. With 40 Illustrations by Phiz. David Copperfield. With 40 Illustrations by Phiz. Sketches by "Boz." With 40 Illusts. by Geo. Cruikshank. Martin Chuzzlewit. With 40 Illustrations by Phiz. Old Curiosity Shop. With 75 Illustrations by George Catter- MOLE and H. K. Browne. Barnaby Rudge. With 78 Illustrations by George Catter- MOLE and II. K. Browne. Oliver Twist and A Tale of Two Cities. With 24 Illustra- tions by Cruiksiiank and 16 by Phiz. Bleak House. With 40 Illustrations by Phiz. Little Dorrit. With 40 Illustrations by Phiz. Our Mutual Friend. With 40 Illustrations by Marcus Stone. American Notes ; Pictures from Italy ; and A Child's History of England. With 16 Illustrations by Marcus Stone. Christmas Books and Hard Times. With Illustrations by Landseer, Maclise, Stanfield, Leech, Doyle, F. Walker, &c. Christmas Stories and Other Stories, including Humphrey's Clock. With Illustrations by Dalziel, Charles Green, Ma- HONKY, Phiz, Catter.mole, etc. Great Expectations and Uncommercial Traveller. With 16 Illustrations by Marcus Stone. Edwin Drood and Reprinted Pieces. With 16 Illustrations by Luke Fildes and F. Walker. Uniform with the above. The Life of Charles Dickens. By John Forster. With Portraits and Illustrations. The Dickens Dictionary. A Key to the Characters and Principal Incidents in the Talcs of Charles Dickens. By Gilbert Tikrck, with additions by Wn.i.iAM A. Wheeler. The Lazy Tour of Two Idle Apprentices ; No Thoroughfare ; The Perils of Certain English Prisoners. By Charles Dickens and Wilkie Collins. With Illustrations. • • Thtse Stories are how reprinted in complete /orm /or the firtt time. 36 Books published by Chapman & Hall, Ltd. CHARLES DICKENS'S V^OKKS.— Continued. THE HALF-CROWN EDITION. In 21 volumes, crown 8vo, blue cloth, Original Illustrations, £2 12j. Qd. Separate volu^nes, 2s. Qd. each. The Pickwick Papers. With 43 Illustrations by Seymour and Phiz. Barnaby Rudge. With 76 Illustrations by Cattermole and Phiz. Oliver Twist. With 24 Illustrations by Cruikshank. The Old Curiosity Shop. With 75 Illustrations by Cattermole, &c. David Copperfleld. With 40 Illustrations by Phiz. Nicholas Nickleby. With 40 Illustrations by Phiz. Martin Chuzzlewit. With 40 Illustrations by Phiz. Dombey and Son. With 40 Illustrations by Phiz. Sketches by •' Boz." With 40 Illustrations by George Cruikshank. Christmas Books. With 64 Illustrations by LandseeRj Doyle, &c. Bleak House. With 40 Illustrations by Phiz, Little Dorrit. With 40 Illustrations by Phiz. Christmas Stories. With 14 Illustrations by Dalziel, Green, &c. American Notes and Reprinted Pieces. With 8 Illustrations by Marcus Stone and F. Walker. Hard Times and Pictures from Italy. With 8 Illustrations by F. Walker and Marcus Stone. A Child's History of Eng-land. With 8 Illusts. by Marcus Stone. Great Expectations. With 8 Illustrations by Marcus Stone. Tale of Two Cities. With 16 Illustrations by Phiz. Uncommercial Traveller. With 8 Illustrations by Marcus Stone. Our Mutual Friend. With 40 Illustrations by Marcus Stone. Edwin Drood and Other Stories. With 12 Illustrations by Fildes. THE PICTORIAL EDITION. /« 17 volumes, with over ()00 Illustrations, royal d>vo, red cloth, £2 19 j-. Qd. Separate volumes, Sj. Qd. each. Dombey and Son. With 62 Illustrations by F. Barnard. David Copperfleld. With 61 Illustrations by F. Barnard. Nicholas Nickleby. With 59 Illustrations by F. Barnard. Barnaby Rudge. With 46 Illustrations by F. Barnard. Old Curiosity Shop. With 39 Illustrations by Charles Green. Martin Chuzzlewit. With 59 Illustrations by F. Barnard. Oliver Twist and a Tale of Two Cities. With 53 Illustrations by J. Mahoney and F. Barnard. Oxir Mutual Friend. With 58 Illustrations by J. Mahoney. Bleak House. With 61 Illustrations by F. Barnard. Pickwick Papers. With 57 Illustrations by Phiz. Little Dorrit. With 58 Illustrations by J. Mahoney. Great Expectations and Hard Times. With 50 Illustrations by J. A. Fraser and H. French. American Notes, Pictures from Italy, and A Child's History of England. With 33 Illustrations by Frost, Gordon, &c. Sketches by "Boz" and Christmas Books. With 62 Illustrations by F. Barnard. Christmas Stories and Uncommercial Traveller. With 49 Illustrations by E. G. Dalziel. Edwin Drood, and other Stories. With 30 Illusts. by L. Fildes, &c. The Life of Charles Dickens. By John Forster, With 40 Illus- trations by F. Barnard and others. Books publisJied by Chapman & Hall, Ltd. 37 CHARLES DICKENS'S \NORKS.— Continued. THE HOUSEHOLD EDITION. In 22 volumes, huluding the ^^ LIFE,** croimi ^tOy green cloth, £^ Ss. Qd. Martin Chuzzlewit. With 59 Illustrations. 5j. David Copperfield. With 60 Illustrations and a Portrait, bs. Bleak House. With 61 Illustrations. 6s. Little Dorrit. With 58 Illustrations. 6^. Pickwick Papers. With 56 Illustrations, 5s. • Our Mutual Friend. With 58 Illustrations. 5s. Nicholas Nickleby. With 59 Illustrations. 5s. Dombey and Son. With 61 Illustrations. 5s. [Illusts. 5s. Edwin Drood ; Reprinted Pieces ; and other Stories. With 30 Barnaby Rudge. With 46 Illustrations. 4j. Old Curiosity Shop. With 32 Illustrations. 4j. Christmas Stories. With 23 Illustrations. 4j. Oliver Twist. With 28 Illustrations. 3j-. Great Expectations. With 26 Illustrations. 3s. Sketches by " Boz." With 36 Illustrations. 3^. Uncommercial Traveller. With 26 Illustrations. 8s. Christmas Books. With 28 Illustrations. Ss. The History of England. With 15 Illustrations. 3s. American Notes and Pictures from Italy. With 18 Illusts. Si-. A Tale of Two Cities. With 25 Illustrations. 3s. Hard Times. With 20 Illustrations. 2s. Qd. The Life of Dickens. By John Forster. With 40 Illusts. 5s, The Illustrations in this Edition are by the same artists as in the Pictorial Edition. See page 36. THE CHRISTMAS BOOKS. REPIIINTEI) FROM THE ORIGINAL PLATES. Illustrated by John Leech, D. Maclise, R.A., R. Doyi.e, &c. Fcap. Svo, red cloth, \s. each. The five volumes, complete in a case, 5s, A Christmas Carol in Prose. * The Chimes : A Goblin Story. The Cricket on the Hearth : A Fairy Tale of Home. The Battle of Life : A Love Story. The Haunted Man and the Ghost's Story. SIXPENNY EDITION. Bleak House. With 18 Illustrations by F. BARNARD. Sketches by *'Boz." With Illustrations by F. Barnard. American Notes and Italy. With Illustrations by A. B. Frost. Oliver Twist. With Illustrations by J. Mahonky. Readings from the Works of Charles Dickena. As selected anfl read by himself and now published for the first time. Illustrated. A Christmas Carol and the Haunted Man. Illustrated. The Chimes and the Cricket on the Hearth. Illustrated. Battle of Life ; Hunted Down ; a Holiday Romance. Illus, 38 Books published by Chapman & Hall, Ltd. CHARLES DICKENS'S ^O'KYi^.— Continued. THE CABINET EDITION. /;/ 32 volumes, small /cap. Svo, Alarble Paper Sides, uncut edges, £2 8s. Separate volumes \s. Qd. each. In Sets only, bound in decorative blue cloth, cut edges and gilt tops, complete in cloth box, £2 \0s. Christinas Books. With 8 Illustrations. Martin Chuz?lewit. With 16 Illustrations. 2 vols. David Copperfield. With 16 Illustrations- 2 vols. Oliver Twist. With 8 Illustrations. Great Expectations. With 8 Illustrations. Nicholas Nickleby. With 16 Illustrations. 2 vols. Sketches by "Boz." With 8 Illustrations. Christmas Stories. With 8 Illustrations. The Pickwick Papers. With 16 Illustrations. 2 vols, Barnaby Rudge. With 16 Illustrations. 2 vols. Bleak House. With 16 Illustrations. 2 vols. American Notes and Pictures from Italy. With 8 Illustrations. Edwin Drood ; and Other Stories. With 8 Illustrations. The Old Curiosity Shop. With 16 Illustrations. 2 vols. A Child's History of England. With 8 Illustrations. Dombey and Son. With 16 Illustrations. 2 vols. 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