llUu. 
 
 M 
 
 REESE LIBRARY 
 
 OK THE 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA. 
 
 Received, ^^^Str^&C/', .188^^ 
 
 Accessims iVb._=^^^:4^-^ Shelf No... ^J^f:^., 
 
 Oi ^2£^-^ 
 
Digitized by tine Internet Arciiive 
 
 in 2007 witii funding from 
 
 IVIicrosoft Corporation 
 
 littp://www.arcliive.org/details/englislilanguageiOOgreericli 
 
THE 
 
 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 
 
 ITS 
 
 GRAMMATICAL AND LOGICAL 
 PRINCIPLES. 
 
 FOE THE USE OP 
 
 GRAMMAR AND HIGH SCHOOLS AND ACADEMIES, 
 
 BY 
 
 HARRIS R. GREENE, A. M., 
 
 PBQTOIPAIi or OBBAD UTSTITUTB, AND LATE FRINCIPAL OF THE HIOH S<7H00L, 
 WOBOXSTSR, MASS. 
 
 BOSTON: 
 HOUGHTON, OSGOOD AND COMPANY. 
 
 1879. 
 
QOtl 
 
 CormGBT, 1879, 
 Bt HABRIS R. GREEIOL 
 
 All rights reserved. 
 
 Ur£RSn>E, CAMBRIDGl: 
 
 •TSBEOTTPKD AKD PBINTED BT 
 
 H. 0. HOUGHTON AWD COMPANY. 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 In the following pages an attempt has been made to 
 discuss the principles^ grammatical and logical, of the 
 English Language. 
 
 In Part I., the discussions are confined to Forms of 
 Expression. There are in our language certain generic 
 forms^ which are here classified under the heads of Word- 
 forms, Phrase-forms, and Clause-forms, in some one of 
 which as a fixed organic structure of language, thought 
 is always embodied. These generic forms, or moulds of 
 thought, are moreover the same, substantially, in organic 
 form and character, in all languages. Hence, in these 
 organic verbal structures, all wi-itten thought, whether 
 ancient or modern, finds its constant expression. While, 
 therefore, a knowledge of these forms is indispensable to 
 a clear understanding of the syntactical structure of the 
 English, and to the philosophy of verbal combination 
 generally in our tongue, such knowledge becomes of im- 
 mense value, the moment the pupil enters upon the study 
 of the syntax of a foreign language ; for the leading 
 grammatical principles, here discussed, are the same in 
 all tongues. Hence the pupil enters upon the study of 
 his Latin, his Greek, his French, or his German syntax, 
 
iv PREFACE. 
 
 with a perfect knowledge, already gained, of the under- 
 lying principles of verbal combination, upon which the 
 rules of syntax in these various languages are based. 
 Hmicc the mastery of the syntax in any foreign language 
 is accomplished with ease and pleasure, and in a tithe of 
 the time usually expended under the present method. 
 Upon this, the author speaks not unadvisedly, but after 
 an experience in this method of teaching language of, at 
 least, fifteen years. 
 
 The methods now in vogue always give the pupil the 
 false impression, that every language has methods of syn 
 tactical structure peculiar to itself^ and that consequently, 
 with each new tongue all the principles of syntax must 
 be learned again de novo. Thus the pupil traverses the 
 same road again and again, without knowing the fact, or 
 indeed so much as dreaming that there is anything in 
 common between the old path and the new. He comes 
 to look upon the syntax of each new language as a field 
 of investigation entirely new ; and what is worse, he 
 leaves the study of the same, under the same erroneous 
 Impression. 
 
 All this is exceedingly unfortunate. Impenetrable par- 
 tition walls are erected" thus between the different lan- 
 guages pursued, in the department under consideration, 
 and thus the pupil receives neither light nor help from 
 the work already accomplished ; and, of course, never 
 secures any broad or extended view of the generic forms 
 of expression common to all tongues, and consequently 
 of the science or philosophy of the same. 
 
 In Part II., the discussions have to do with the elements 
 
PREFACE. V 
 
 of thought. The logical methods of the human mind are 
 always and everywhere tlie same. When therefore the 
 pupil has loarned these logical elements in his own tongue 
 he has learned them for all tongues. Hence*, these once 
 mastered, he has only to inquire, what the specific ver- 
 lal expression of these known elements in a given tongue 
 is, and he has at once and more perfectly than any other 
 method or system can give him, the complete syntax of 
 that language. And this last he acquires with great ease 
 and facility, because, as has been before remarked, he 
 has already become familiar with all the regular gener- 
 ic forms of thought-expression to be found in the lan- 
 guage pursued. He knows, in advance, that every one 
 of the logical elements he is now to meet with must take 
 on some one of these generic forms of expression, as its 
 appropriate lingual dress. Hence, toilsome study be- 
 comes enthusiastic curiosity, since the pupil is ever on 
 the alert to discover what peculiar form of outward cloth- 
 ing a given thought, in the language now pursued, will 
 put on ; for it is one of the distinctive excellences of this 
 method, as it is believed, that it leads the pupil con- 
 stantly to work from the thought outward to its appro- 
 priate form of expression, and not from the expression 
 inward to the thought. Thus the pupiPs mind is held 
 constantly to the unchanging logical basis of language as 
 a stand-point of investigation, as he proceeds from tongue 
 to tongue, and not to the mere grammatical turns of 
 verbal expression which are merely accidental, and vary 
 in their details with every new language pursued. 
 
 This book is not a Grammar, and does not occuoy the 
 
vi PREFACE. 
 
 place of a Grammar. It is rather related to Grammar, 
 much as Algebra is related to Arithmetic. It presup- 
 poses at least a knowledge of Etymology, and in our 
 schools should follow directly a thorough acquaintance 
 with the same. Classical pupils should commence it 
 when they commence their Latin Grammar (if they have 
 not before), and thus, by the time they have mastered 
 their Latin Etymology, they will also have mastered 
 this ; and then the work of Latin and of Greek Syntax, 
 including Latin and Greek Prose Composition, will be 
 found to be very greatly facilitated. 
 
 It is confidently believed that this work, binding to- 
 gether, as it does, the syntax of all languages on the 
 common basis of universal generic forms of expression^ 
 will be found to supply a want, which thoughtful educa- 
 tors have long felt, in the study of language. 
 
 The author has in process of preparation the same 
 method as adapted to the Latin and the Greek. As the 
 great majority of the discussions here apply as perfectly 
 to the classical tongues (indeed to all tongues) as to the 
 English, a very small volume will be sufficient to indi- 
 cate the specific modifications peculiar to these lan- 
 guages. This fact of itself indicates the peculiar ad- 
 vantages of this method. The author has also nearly 
 ready for the press, a little work designed to precede 
 this, embodying in clear and compact form the real 
 essentials of English Etymology and Syntax ; and like- 
 wise, soon to follow this little Grammar and designed to 
 supplement the present volume, a Rhetoric arranged in 
 conformity with the purely analytical method of this 
 work. 
 
PREFACE. vu 
 
 The author knows of no grammar or work of any kind 
 on language which has much in common with the meth- 
 ods and discussions here pursued. He has found, how- 
 ever, some help in special directions in Part IL, in the 
 Greek Modes and Tenses of Professor Goodwin of Har- 
 vard College, and also in the Greek Grammars of Crosby 
 and Hadley. He desires also to express his indebtedness 
 to Miss Abbie Leach, late Lady Principal of the Oread 
 Institute, for much valuable aid and many important sug- 
 gestions in the final revision of the manuscript. 
 
TO THE TEACHER. 
 
 In the following discussions, will be found many things 
 somewhat novel, now and then positions taken which may 
 not be thought to be tenable, and conclusions reached 
 which may be considered erroneous. The author antici- 
 pates that objections will be made, for instance, to his 
 method with the Participial Clause, possibly to some 
 parts of the discussion of the Relative Clause, and it may 
 be to other discussions. He begs, however, ihat these 
 criticisms be not too hasty. He has made these matters 
 the subject of close and protracted study for years, and 
 holds himself ready to verify the conclusions here reached 
 by an appeal, not indeed to English Grammars, but to 
 the usage of the classical writers of the English Lan- 
 guage, both in this country and in Europe. 
 
 In " doing " the Exercises the author would recom- 
 mend that difull analysis of the examples given be not 
 demanded of the pupil, save in Division II. of Part I. 
 Beyond this, let the pupil simply define the different log- 
 ical elements as fast as learned. A full analysis of every 
 example through the entire work would require too mucli 
 time. 
 
 When the pupil has completed Part II., the Exercises 
 
X TO THE TEACHER. 
 
 in Part I. will furnish fresh examples for logical analy- 
 sis, that is, the classification of the elements of thought. 
 
 J||i^=" It is hoped that the teacher will read carefully 
 the Preface, before proceeding to an examination of the 
 book, or the instruction of classes therein. 
 
 H. R. GREENE. 
 
 Worcester, Mass., April ZQ^ 1879. 
 
COI^TENTS. 
 
 Part I. — FORMS OF EXPRESSION, OR GRAMMATICAL 
 TERMS. 
 
 Part IL — FORMS OF THOUGHT, OR LOGICAL ELE- 
 MENTS. 
 
 PART I. 
 
 Division L— FORMS OF GRAMMATICAL TERMS (generally.) 
 Division IL — ORDERS OF GRAMMATICAL TERMS. 
 Division IIL — FORMS OF INDIVIDUAL GRAMMATICAL 
 TERMS. 
 
 Division I. — FORMS OF TERMS. 
 
 Sub-Division I. — The Word-form. 
 Sub-Division 11. — The Phrase-form. 
 Sub-Division III. — The Clause-form. 
 
 Division II. — ORDERS OF TERMS. 
 
 Sub-Division I. — The Simple Term. 
 Sub-Division IL — The Complex Term. 
 Sub-Division III. — The Compound Term. 
 
 Division III. — INDIVIDUAL FORMS. 
 
 Sub-Division I. — The Forms of the Noun-term. 
 Sub-Division II. — The Forms of the Adjective-term. 
 Sub-Division III. — The Forms of the Verb-term. 
 Sub-Division IV. — The Forms of the Adverb-term. 
 
 Division I. — FORMS OF GRAMMATICAL TERMS. 
 
 Sub-Division I. — The Word-form. 
 
 Chapter I. — Definition and Character .... 
 
xii CONTENTS. 
 
 Sub-Division 11. — The Phrase-form. 
 
 Chapter I. — Definition and Character of ... 3 
 
 Chapter II. — Special, Idiomatic, and Elliptical Forms . 5 
 
 Chapter HI. — Grammatical Construction .... 8 
 
 Sub-Division III. — The Clause-form. 
 
 Chapter I. — The Demonstrative Clause. 
 
 Section I. — Definition and Character of ... . 10 
 
 Section II. — Special, Idiomatic, and Elliptical Forms . . 12 
 
 Section III. — Grammatical Construction 16 
 
 Chapter II. — The Infinitive Clause. 
 
 Section I. — Definition and Character of 20 
 
 Section II. — Special, Idiomatic, and Elliptical Forms . . 24 
 
 Section III. — Grammatical Construction . . . . 29 
 
 Chapter III. — The Participial Clause 
 
 Section I. — Definition and Character of ... . 32 
 Section II. — Special, Idiomatic, and Elliptical Forms . . ^ 36 
 
 Section III. — Grammatical Construction 39 
 
 Chapter IV. — The Relative Clause. 
 
 Section I. — Relative Forms 43 
 
 Section II. — Definition and Character of the Relative Clause 44 
 
 Section III. — Special and Idiomatic Forms 48 
 
 Section IV. — Negative and Elliptical Forms .... 53 
 
 Section V. — Grammatical Construction 58 
 
 Chapter V. — The Conjunctive Clause. 
 
 Section I. — Definition and Character of ... . 66 
 
 Section II. — Special and Idiomatic Forms 69 
 
 Section III. — Elliptical Forms 74 
 
 Section IV. — Grammatical Construction 76 
 
 Chapter VI. — The Sentence ap a Grammatical Term . 79 
 
 Division H. — OKDERS OP GBAMMATICAL TERMS. 
 
 Sub-Division I. — The Simple Term. 
 
 Chapter I. — General Form and Character ... 88 
 
 Sub-Division II. — The Complex Term. 
 
 Chapter I. — Base and Modifier 89 
 
 Chapter II. — The Complex Base 92 
 
 Chapter III. — The Complex Modifier .... 94 
 
 Chapter IV. — The Order of Modifiers .... 96 
 
CONTENTS. xm 
 
 Sub-Division III. — The Compound Term. 
 
 Chapter I. — The Base and the Modifier ... 100 
 Chapter II. — Grammatical Construction . . .104 
 
 Division III.— FORMS OF INDIVIDUAL TERMS. 
 
 Sub-Division I. — Forms of the Noun-term. 
 
 Chapter I. — Definition and Character . . . 108 
 
 Sub-Division 11. — Forms of the Adjective-Term. 
 
 Chapter I. — Definition and Character .' . . .112 
 Chapter 11. — The Appositive Form . . . . 116 
 
 Sub-Division III. — Forms of the Verb-term. 
 
 Chapter I. — The Incorporated (or. Simple) Form of . 121 
 
 Chapter II. — The Copula Form of . . . . 123 
 
 Chapter III. — The Complement Term . . . .126 
 
 Sub-Division IV. — Forms op the Adverb-term. 
 
 Chapter I. — Definition and Character . . . .129 
 Chapter II. — Forms to be Noted . . . . 133 
 
 PART II. 
 FORMS OF THOUGHT OR LOGICAL ELEMENTS. 
 
 Division L — THE LOGICAL CHARACTER OF PROPOSI 
 TIONS. 
 
 Division IL — LOGICAL CHARACTER OF THE NOUN-TERM. 
 
 Division IIL — LOGICAL CHARACTER OF THE ADJECTIVE 
 TERM. 
 
 Division IV.- LOGICAL CHARACTER OF THE VERB-TERM 
 
 Division V. — LOGICAL CHARACTER OF THE ADVERB- 
 TERM. 
 
 Division I. — PROPOSITIONS. 
 
 Sub-Division I. — The Sentence. 
 Sub-Division II. — The Clause. 
 
 Division II. — THE NOUN-TERM. 
 
 Sub-Division I. — Nature and Division of the Noun-tbkm. 
 Sub-Division II. — The Noun-term as Subject. 
 Sub-Division III. — The Noun-term as On.jKCT. 
 
xiv CONTENTS. 
 
 Division III. — THE ADJECTIVE-TERM. 
 
 Sub-Division I. — The Qualifying Adjective. 
 Sub-Division II. — The Limiting Adjective. 
 
 Division IV. — THE VERB-TEEM. 
 
 Sub-Division I. — The Complement Tekm. 
 Sub-Division II. — The Copula Term. 
 
 Division V. — THE ADVERB-TERM. 
 
 Sub-Division I. — The Local Modifier. 
 Sub-Division IE. — The Temporal Modifier. 
 Sub-Division III. — The Causal Modifier. 
 Sub-Division IV. — The Modal Modifier. 
 
 Division I. — LOGICAD CHARACTER OP PROPOSITIONS. 
 
 Sub-Division I. — The Sentence. 
 
 Chapter I. — The Philosophy of the Sentence. 
 
 Section I. — The Sentence a Necessary Form of Speech . 137 
 
 Section II. — Logical Character and Relationship of Subject and 
 
 Predicate 140 
 
 Section III. — The Subject vs. The Predicate .... 142 
 
 Chapter II. — The Logical Division of Sentences. 
 
 Section I. — Declarative and Imperative Sentences . . . 146 
 
 Section 11. — Interrogative Sentences 148 
 
 Section III. — Exclamatory Sentences . .... 149 
 
 Sub-Division 11. — The Clause. 
 
 Chapter I. — Logical Divisions of the Clause . . 151 
 
 Section I. — The Declarative Clause 151 
 
 Section IL — The Imperative Clause 153 
 
 Section III. — The Interrogative Clause 155 
 
 Section IV. — The Exclamatory Clause 157 
 
 Division H. — LOGIC AL CHARACTER OF NOUN-TERMS. 
 
 Sub-Division L — Nature and Divisions op the Noun- 
 term. 
 
 Chapter I. — Substantive Noun-terms . . . 159 
 
 Chapter n. — Attributive Noun-terms . . . ,161 
 
 Sub-Division II. — The Noun-term as Subject. 
 
 Chapter L — Real and Apparent Terms . . . 163 
 Chapter 11. —Logical Character of the Subject Term . 167 
 
B. Indirect Object. 
 
 CONTENTS. XV 
 
 Sub-Division III. — The Noun-term as Object. 
 
 Chapter I. — The Suffering Object . . . . 171 
 
 A. Direct Object. — Section I. —The Direct Suffering Object . . . 171 
 
 Section II. — The Object of Address ... 175 
 
 Section III. — The Object of Attention . . .177 
 
 Section IV. —The Object of Interest ... 180 
 
 Section V. — The Object of Association . . .183 
 
 Section VI. — The Object of- Separation . . 185 
 
 Section VII. — Direct Forms of Indirect Object . 187 
 
 Chapter II. — The Factitive Object .... 188 
 
 Chapterin.— The Causal Object 193 
 
 Division III. — LOGICAL CHARACTER OF ADJECTIVE- 
 TERMS. 
 
 Sub-Division I. — The Modifying Adjective. 
 
 Chapter I. — Nature and Divisions of . . . 195 
 
 Sub-Division II. — The Limiting Adjective. 
 
 Chapter I. — Designation 201 
 
 Chapter 11. — Connection 206 
 
 Chapter III. — Relationship and Inclusion . . .211 
 Chapter IV. — Number, Quantity, and Possession . 213 
 
 Division IV.— LOGICAL CHARACTER OF VERB-TERMS. 
 Sub-Division I. — The Complement Term. 
 
 Chapter I. — The Attributive Complement . . . 216 
 Chapter II. — The Substantive Complement • . . 220 
 
 Sub-Division II. — The Copula Term. 
 
 Chapter I. — Rhetorical and Mixed Forms of . . 224 
 
 Chapter II. — The Verb To Be as Complete Verb-term 227 
 
 Division V. — LOGICAL CHARACTER OF ADVERB-TERMS. 
 
 Sub-Division I. — The Local Modifier. 
 
 Chapter I. — Nature and Division of . . . .231 
 
 Chapter II. — Place Where 232 
 
 Chapter III. — Place Whence 235 
 
 Chapter IV. — Place Whither 236 
 
 Chapter V. — Place Which Way 237 
 
XVl 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 Chapter VT. — Place or Space How Far 
 
 Chapter VII. — Place in the Form of Direct Object 
 
 Sub-Division 11. — The Temporal Modifier. 
 Chapter I. — Nature and Divisions of 
 Chapter II. — Time When .... 
 Chapter III. — Time Antecedent .... 
 Chapter IV. — Time Subsequent 
 Chapter V. — Time How Often .... 
 Chapter VI. — Time How Long 
 Chapter VII. — Time in the Form of Direct Object 
 
 Sub-Division IH. — The Causal Modifier. 
 
 Chapter I. — Real Cause, — Direct Forms 
 
 Section I. — Origin and Source 
 
 Section II. — Author or Agent 
 
 Section III. — Purpose or Motive 
 
 Section IV. — Pure Cause and Occasion . 
 
 Section V. — Reason and Evidence .... 
 
 Section VI. — Emphatic Forms of Direct Cause 
 
 Chapter H. — Real Cause, — Remote Forms. 
 
 Section I. — Interchange 
 
 Section II. — Means and Instrument 
 Section m. — Material and Constituency 
 
 Section IV. — Supply 
 
 Section V. — Emphatic Forms of Remote Cause . 
 
 Chapter IH. — Conceived Cause. 
 
 (Section I. — Condition of Unknown Fact 
 Section II. — Future Condition . 
 Section III. — Rhetorical Condition . 
 Section I. — Hypothesis Contrary to Fact 
 Section II. — Hypothesis Absolute . 
 Section I. — Nature and Forms, etc. . 
 Section II. — Concession. (Continued.) . 
 
 (6.) Hypothesis. 
 
 c) Concession. 
 
 Chapter IV. — Conceived Cause. (Continued.) 
 
 Section I. — Sentence Forms, Emphatic Forms, etc. 
 Section n. — Grammatical Construction . 
 
 8ub-Division I V. — The Modal Modifier. 
 A. Absolute or Direct Mode. 
 Chapter I. — Qualitative Mode. 
 
 (a.) Physical Qualities . . . . . 
 
 239 
 240 
 
 242 
 243 
 245 
 246 
 248 
 249 
 251 
 
 254 
 255 
 257 
 
 259 
 
 262 
 
 269 
 270 
 272 
 273 
 275 
 
 277 
 278 
 281 
 282 
 284 
 287 
 287 
 
 291 
 
 293 
 
CONTENTS. XVll 
 
 (b. ) Intellectual Qualities 293 
 
 (c.) State or Condition 293 
 
 {d.) Description Generally . . ... . . . 293 
 
 (e.) Specific Character . 293 
 
 Chapter II. — Quantitative Mode. 
 
 Section I. — Depjree 295 
 
 Section II. — Measure of Magnitude 297 
 
 Section III. — Measure of Difference . ' 299 
 
 Chapter III. — Circumstantial Mode. 
 
 (Section I. — Order 302 
 
 Section II. — Specification 303 
 
 Section III. -Conformity 307 
 
 Section IV. — Fitness 309 
 
 (Section I. — Substitution 311 
 
 Section II. -Addition 313 
 
 Section III. — Exclusion 315 
 
 Section IV. — Attendant Circumstance . . . 317 
 
 B. Relative or Indirect Mode. 
 Chapter I. — Consequence or Result. 
 
 Section I. — Quality Consequence 320 
 
 Section II. — Quantity Consequence 322 
 
 Section III. — Circumstantial Consequence 325 
 
 Chapter II. — Comparison. 
 
 OuAiiTY CoMP (Section I. — Comparison of Resemblance . . 329 
 
 \ Section II. — Comparison of Distinction . 331 
 
 OuANTiTY CoMP. j Section I. - Comparison of Equality ... 332 
 
 ( Section II. — Comparison of Inequality . . 335 
 
 Special Forms, i ^^'^ Objective, Emphatic, and Negative Forms . 337 
 
 ( (6.) Inclusive," Extreme, and Elliptical Forms . 338 
 
 Division v. — AFFIRMATION AND DENIAL. 
 
 Chapter I. — Nature and Division of these Terms . 841 
 
 Division VI. — COOBDINATION. 
 
 Chapter I. — Partial Coordination . . . . . S44 
 
 Chapter II. — Absolute Coordination .... 845 
 
ENGLlSlT LANGUAGE ; 
 
 ITS GEAMIATICAL AND LOGICAL PEINCIPLES. 
 
 PAET I. 
 
 FORMS OF EXPRESSION, OR GRAMMATICAL 
 TERMS. 
 
 DIVISION I. 
 
 FORMS OF GRAMMATICAL TERMS. 
 
 NATURE AND DIVISION OF GRAMMATICAL TERMS. 
 
 1. All the grammatical elements that can possibly en- 
 ter into the structure of a sentence may be classified un- 
 der four heads * ; namely : — 
 
 * The common classification of grammatical elements into Svbject, Predicate^ 
 Object, Adjective, and Advert, is unscientific and, indeed, false. It is clear that 
 the terms Subject, Object, and Predicate, contemplate a basis of classification, 
 entirely different from the terms Adjective and Adverb. The two latter desig- 
 nate attributes or qualities, and have thus an independent meaning of their own; 
 the three former, on the contrary, indicate chiefly relations, and consequently 
 possess no significance aside from their logical connections in a proposition. We 
 may saj' that wise is an adjective, and that wisely is an adverb, independent of 
 any existing logical relations in a sentence; but we cannot define wisdom as a 
 subject or an object, though we can as a noun, and we cannot designate woi'k as 
 a. predicate, though it would be very proper to call it a verb, because these par- 
 ticular terms. Subject, Object, and Predicate, define words, only when holding 
 certain specific logical relations in a proposition. 
 
 Hence a lexicographer never calls any word by these names; but he denomi- 
 nates different words as nouns, or adjectives, or verbs, or adverbs. 
 
 We have then here two distinct principles of classification, widely different, 
 dad involving an absurdity as serious, as if, in a classification of the human race 
 
2 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 Noun-terms. 
 Adjective-terms. 
 Verb-terms. 
 Adverb-terms. 
 
 2. A Noun-term is any word, or any logical combina- 
 tion of words, having the force and performing the func- 
 tions of a noun. Under this head are likewise classed 
 all pronouns. (21.) 
 
 3. An Adjective -term is any word, or any logical 
 combination of words, having the force and performing 
 the functions of an adjective. (22.) 
 
 4. A Verb -term is any word, or any logical combi- 
 nation of words, having the force and performing the 
 functions of a verb. (23.) 
 
 6. An Adverb-term is any word, or any logical 
 combination of words, having the force and performing 
 the functions of an adverb. (24.) 
 
 6. Now any one of these four terms may be, in point 
 of grammatical form, — 
 (a.) A Word. 
 (6.) A Phrase. 
 (c.) A Clause. 
 
 SUB-DIVISION I — THE WORD-FORM. 
 
 CHAPTER L 
 
 DEFINITION AND CHARACTER. 
 
 7. A Word-form is a single significant word. 
 
 along with the Caucasian, the Negro, the Malay, etc., one should include Kingt 
 and Serfs. It is evident then that the only proper, and, indeed, the onW possi- 
 ^le classification is the one given above. Moreover, the names chosen seem, on 
 the score both of propriety and of convenience, far preferable to the common 
 terminology of Substantive, Adjective, Advei-hial, and Predicative. 
 
THE PHKASE-FORM. 3 
 
 House; John; he; who; wise; good; studious; walks; runs; is 
 wisely; well; studiously. 
 
 1. The infinitive form of the verb, — inasmuch as the 
 particle to expresses no relation and is merely the sign of 
 this mood, — is considered a word-form. 
 
 2. The possessive case-form, indicates indeed a relation 
 by its ending, but, inasmuch as it is merely an inflection^ 
 it is not considered a phrase-form. All mere inflections^ 
 whatever relations or elements they may indicate, belong 
 specifically to etymological and not to general grammat- 
 ical analysis. 
 
 3. Prepositions, conjunctions, and expletives, since they 
 are not properly significant words, are not considered 
 word-forms. When, however, they gain a significance 
 by use, they become word-forms. 
 
 The heavens above ; came from within ; has too many huCs. 
 
 4. A word-form is sometimes introduced by a conjunc- 
 tion ; it is then termed a conjunctive word-form. 
 
 Went as companion; considered them as friends ; more nice than 
 wise ; influential though uneducated. 
 
 Exercise 1. 
 
 Tell which are word-forms in the following : — 
 
 Me; of; you; men; with; and; but; below; to; too; them; 
 through; not; stands; standing; notwithstanding; house; home; 
 ?arm; for; who; whereof; thus; thee. 
 
 SUB-DIVISION W.— THE PHRASE-FORM. 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 DEFINITION AND CHARACTER. 
 
 8. A Phrase-form consists of a preposition and a 
 significant term logically combined ; — that is, combined 
 
4 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 SO as to make sense. It is therefore what is commonly 
 termed by gi-ammariaus, an adjunct. 
 
 For me ; to him ; by this ; after the war ; until now ; on account 
 of the difficulty. 
 
 1. The prepositions thus used are commonly the fol- 
 lowing : — 
 
 (1.) The simple forms, namely, at, after, hut, by, down, except, for ^ 
 from, in, of, on, over, past, round, since, through, till, to, under, un- 
 til, up, with, etc. 
 
 (2.) The compound forms, above, about, across, against, along, 
 amid or amidst, among or amongst, around, athwart, — made by pre- 
 fixing a to other words; before, behind, below, beneath, beside or he- 
 sides, between, betwixt, beyond, made by prefixing he (= by) to other 
 words; — according to, as to, in respect to, with respect to, with a view to, 
 instead of, in return for, out of, on account of, for the sake of, for the 
 purpose of, despite of, in behalf of, in consideration of, in place of, in 
 lieu of, in case of, in conformity with, in consequence of, as regards, 
 t?r regard to, etc., etc., — made up of two or more words. 
 
 (3.) The following participles are often used as prepositions : 
 bating, concerning, during, excepting, regarding, respecting, touching, 
 notwithstanding, and some others. 
 
 (4.) The following, also, are usually mere relation terms, namely: 
 ahead of, aside from, apart from, owing to, piior to, previous to, anterior 
 to, subsequent to, contrary to, and some others. 
 
 2. A phrase-form is sometimes introduced by a con- 
 junction, making thus a conjunctive phrase-form. 
 
 Rejoiceth greatly because of the hridegroom^s voice. These were 
 regarded as among the chief obstacles. 
 
 Exercise 2. 
 
 Distinguish the word-forms and the phrase-forms in the following : — 
 Who; whose; whom ; of whom; for the sake of whom ; he ; his ; 
 him; of him; on account of him; me; my; mine; of me; in spite 
 of me ; you ; your ; yours ; through you ; because of you ; as re- 
 gards you; to; to him; by ; by us; our; ours ; for us; as a friend ; 
 for a friend ; all but him came. 
 
THE PHRASE-FORM. 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 THE PHRASE-FORM. {Continued.) 
 
 Special, Idiomatic, and Elliptical Forms. 
 
 3. Not unfrequently adjectives and participles, and 
 Bometimes even adverbs, prepositions, and conjunctions, 
 are used as the significant term in the plirase-form. 
 These different parts of speech, in such cases, have, of 
 course, the force of nouns. (21.) 
 
 Among the good ; by walking ; a voice from within ; from above ; 
 spoke of your if^s and and^s. 
 
 4. By an idiom of our language a possessive may be 
 used as the significant term of a phrase-form. 
 
 A book of mine ; of yours ; of theirs ; of ours. 
 
 5. The significant term is sometimes inserted between 
 the parts of a compound relation term. 
 
 In his stead = in stead of him ; for his sake = for the sake of 
 him. So — to us ward ; in his room ; in their place ; in his case; 
 in my case. 
 
 6. Sometimes the preposition is placed after its noun. 
 This order rarely occurs in prose, except when it is de- 
 sired to secure especial emphasis for the preposition. 
 
 The deep ravines and dells among. — ■ Scott. 
 
 The thing is known all the world over. — Walker. 
 
 7. (1.) Sometimes the preposition is placed after its 
 significant term and separated from it. This arrange- 
 ment always occurs in case of that and as used as rela- 
 tives in phrasal combinations. 
 
 Whom did you speak to f Which door did he come in at f The 
 thing that I spoke off Such persons as he lives wilh. 
 
 (2.) So, likewise, with some passive and some intran- 
 
6 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 sitive verbs used idiomatically, the constituents of the 
 phrase are separated. (40, 1, (1).) 
 
 He was spoken of; we were talked about ; the man was run over ; 
 the boat was run into. 
 
 8. (1.) A phrase-form may itself be used as the sig- 
 nificant term in another phrase-form. Such are called 
 adjunctive phrase-forms. 
 
 Came ^07/1 BEYOND the mountains; ran out yro77i behind us ;• 
 /rom AMONG them; except in this; until after ten o'clock. 
 
 (2.) Sometimes an adjunctive phrase-form is used as 
 the significant term in still another phrase-form ; thus : 
 Heard no sound except FROM BELOW US. Here, be- 
 low marks the relation of us ; from marks the relation of 
 helow us considered as one term, and except marks the re- 
 lation of from helow us likewise considered, with refer- 
 ence to except, as one term. 
 
 9. Sometimes we have what we may call double phrase- 
 forms. 
 
 Fro7n Boston to New York is many miles; from the centre to the cir- 
 cumference is ten feet. 
 
 10. Sometimes two or more prepositions are used inde- 
 pendently with the same significant term, the latter being 
 really understood with the first preposition. 
 
 Travels in and about Boston ; at or before the time ; on or after the 
 first of June. 
 
 11. These last forms may be used, also, as significant 
 terms in adjunctive phrase-forms. Thus, Except on and 
 after the first of June. Here except marks the relation 
 of all that follows. 
 
 12. Cautions. Adjunctive phrase-forms must be carefully dis- 
 tinguished from simple j)hrase-forms introduced by compound prepo- 
 sitions. The difference is manifest. The latter involve only one re- 
 lation ; the former as many as there are different prepositions. 
 
THE PHRASE-FORM. 7 
 
 Thus: On account of him. Here the three italicised words indicate 
 only a single relation. But: Except from WITHIN him. Here are 
 three different relations clearly indicated, not indeed as independent, 
 but one relation conceived as subject to another. (8, 8, (2).) 
 
 13. Ellipses. (1.) Often the whole or a part of a re- 
 lation term is omitted. In such cases, inasmuch as a re- 
 lation is of necessity implied, the term must be consid- 
 ered a phrase term. 
 
 Bring (to) me a book; wrote (to) him a letter; built (for) his son 
 a house; asked (of) him a question; taught (to) us grammar; looks 
 like (to) me ; is unlike (to) me. Lives oppodte (to) us ; near (to) the 
 river; nigh (to) the city; like (to) his father ; give (to) me that book, 
 etc. 
 
 (2.) Sometimes the significant term is omitted. This 
 ellipsis occurs most commonly in the case of relative pro- 
 nouns. 
 
 The man (whom) I spoke with ; a knife (which) to cut with ; a house 
 (lohich) to live in ; the thing (which) we talked about; the person 
 (whom) you spoke to. 
 
 Exercise 3. 
 
 Distinguish the word-forTns, and the phrase-forms, adjunctive, simple, 
 and double. Note carefully elliptical and inverted forms. 
 
 I. We ; us ; our ; ours ; of ours ; of us ; among us ; from among 
 us; instead of us; except from among us; in spite of us; within and 
 without us; from within and without us; except from within and 
 without us ; because of yours ; for the sake of ours ; except for the 
 sake of ours; from below (8, 3) ; except from below; from below 
 the surface ; from above and below the surface. 
 
 n. Give me this ; hand me that; builds them a house; brought us 
 presents ; all this notwithstanding ; well known all the country 
 through; such persons as we conversed with ; the man whom we spoke 
 to ; the very thing that he spoke of ; what are you thinking about ; 
 he was spoken of ; this was talked about. 
 
 III. The man he spoke with; a shovel to dig with; a scythe to 
 mow with; a boat to sail in; an estate to live upon; a branch to 
 cling to; a knife of yours; except in this; roamed all the country 
 over; from the sublime to the ridiculous is a long fall ; was consid- 
 ered as wise; sorrowful because of his loss; reckoning fro-m the old- 
 est to the youngest. 
 
8 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 CHAPTER ni. 
 
 GRAMMATICAL REGIMEN OF THE PHRASE-FORM. 
 
 15. The noun-term in a phrase should be in the objec- 
 tive case. Errors here are especially likely to occur, in 
 the case of the relative pronoun used interrogatively. 
 
 Who did you speak to? Say, whom. Who was he talking about? 
 Say, whom. 
 
 16. Idiomatic expressions often disregard the rules of 
 grammar. Thus in the following English idioms, the 
 noun-term of a phrase-form is at the same time the gram- 
 matical subject (40, 1, (1)) of the verb. Hence it is put 
 in the nominative case. 
 
 He was talked about. Who was spoken of? We were run into. 
 
 17. Prepositions used as adverbs must be carefully 
 noted as such. In such cases the term is not of course a 
 phrase. 
 
 About twenty men came; about forty persons were present. 
 
 18. The same noun ought not usually to be construed 
 with two different and widely separated prepositions. 
 Thus : — 
 
 He was opposed tOj though he apparently labored ybr the measure. 
 Say, — He was opposed to the measure, though he apparently la- 
 bored/or it. 
 
 19. Phrase-forms should stand as near as possible to 
 the words they modify. 
 
 This was a very similar case to the one under consideration. Say, 
 this was a case very similar to the one, etc. 
 
 Exercise 4. 
 
 Do the same work as in Exercise 3, and correct anything favlty in 
 grammar. 
 
 I. Above the clouds; from above; from above the clouds; above 
 
THE CLAUSE-rOKM. 9 
 
 one hundred feet high except from above ; about us ; about twenty 
 men; around about us; from about us; from around us; about and 
 above us; except from above us. 
 
 II. 1. Flew above and at a very long distance from the peaks of 
 the mountains. 2. Of a different nature from the former. 3. Be- 
 cause reconciled to me. 4. Dissented from us. 5, It seemed con- 
 sonant with the facts. 6. Were divided among all the soldiers. 
 7. His living corresponds to his means. 8. He died of a fever. 
 9. Came into the house. 10. Came in haste. 11. This is a very 
 different matter from what we spoke of yesterday. 12. Has little 
 influence with me. 13. I must differ from you. 14. Lives in New 
 York. 15. Will stop in the village. 16. Was accused of having 
 acted falsely. 17. Hostility among all these tribes. 18. We may 
 profit by others' mistakes. 19. Confides in his honesty. 20. His 
 prejudice to our cause. 21. They all differ among themselves. 22. 
 Who was talked about. 23. Who was he talkinsr about. 
 
 SUB-DIVISION \\\. — THE CLAUSE-FORM. 
 
 DEFINITIONS AND DIVISIONS. 
 
 9. A clause is a dependent sentence. Of course, it 
 must always have a noun-term and a verb-term logically 
 combined. 
 
 He comes — sentence ; (says) that he comes — clause. It rains — 
 sent. ; (will go) if it rains — cl. This is wrong — sent. ; (thinks) this 
 is wrong — cl. ; (thinks) this to be wrong — cl. 
 
 10. Clause-forms are divided, according to their special 
 verbal structure, into five classes ; namely : — 
 
 The Demonstrative Clause. 
 The Infinitive Clause. 
 The Participial Clause. 
 The Relative Clause. 
 The Conjunctive Clause. 
 
 Remark. This classification embraces all possible clause-forms 
 in our language. On the basis of structure, it cannot be different; 
 ' ence, it is not arbitrary. 
 
10 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 It should be likewise noted that this classification embraces all pos- 
 Bible clause-forms in any written language. Once thoroughly learned, 
 therefore, in the English, they will easily be recognized in any other 
 ancient or modern language. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 THE DEMONSTRATIVE CLAUSE. 
 
 Section I. — Definition and General Character. 
 
 11. Demonstrative clauses are such as are intro- 
 duced by the demonstrative connective that. 
 
 Says that he will come. That he has come is manifest. 
 
 1. This clause is found usually in logical connection with words 
 expressive of, — 
 
 (a.) Mental State and Action, as thinks consider, believe^ im- 
 agine, remember, know, understand, be aware, be assured, be certain, 
 etc. 
 
 (&.) Mental Feeling and Emotion, as rejoice, mourn, marvel, 
 wonder, fear, be pleased, be anxious, be delighted, be angry, etc. 
 
 (c.) Communication of Thought, embracing all words of 
 saying, affirming, commanding, exhorting, entreating, etc. 
 
 (d.) Advantage and Disadvantage ; Transpiring and Hap- 
 pening; Causing and Effecting, etc., as, it is best, it is desirable, 
 it. happened, it came to pass, etc. 
 
 2. It should be noted that the words with which this 
 clause is found are not necessarily verbs. They may be 
 nouns or adjectives ; indeed, any part of speech express- 
 ive of conceptions, perceptions, feelings, or facts. 
 
 The fact that he came. Am sure that he will come.. The thought 
 that all must die. The law that all must fight. 
 
 Remark. Words of Physical Sensation, as those of seeing and 
 hearing, cannot be followed by a demonstrative clause. When these 
 words are used with this clause they really express a jnental percep- 
 tion, and not mere physical sensation. I see that the sun is rising 
 ( = 1 perceive that the sun is rising). I hear that she sitigs ( = I 
 have learned the fact that she sings). 
 
THE DEMONSTRATIVE CLAUSE. 11 
 
 3. This clause is often found with prepositions, the 
 preposition marking the relation of the entire clause. 
 Thus used, the clause is termed adjunctive. The prep- 
 ositions most commonly found here are m, save^ and ex- 
 cept ; and the prepositions after ^ before^ ere (poetical), 
 gmce, and until^ when they express time. 
 
 Brought them out after that he had shewed signs and wonders. — 
 Bible. Not to deliver any man to death before that he have the ac- 
 cusers face to face. Departed long ere the sun had risen. Rejoices 
 IN that he is exalted. 
 
 Remark. Many grammarians teach that after, before, ere, since, 
 and until, used as above, are conjunctions. It is a sufficient answer 
 that in the cases in question they always express prepositional rela- 
 tions, and consequently are prepositions precisely the same, whether 
 they are followed by significant terms of the clause-form or by sig- 
 nificant terms of the word-form. Thus, — 
 
 Came before sunset; &e/ore your arrival; before his depar- 
 ture; before (that) you arrived; before (that) he departed. 
 It does not matter whether that is expressed or omitted before the 
 clause. The meaning is precisely the same. 
 
 4. Sometimes, as in the case of the phrase-form (8, 11), 
 the adjunctive form of the clause may itself become the 
 significant term of another preposition. Thus, in the 
 following, until marks the relation of all that follows it. 
 
 Did not arrive until after (that) you came. 
 
 Exercise 5. 
 
 Point out the demonstrative clauses in the following ; also the phrase- 
 forms. Tell the subject and the predicate of each clause, and give the 
 corresponding sentence-form : — 
 
 ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 Declares that he will succeed. 
 That he will succeed is a Dem. C.-f. ; he is the Subj., and will succeed is the 
 Pred.; that is the connective. (Sent.) He will succeed. 
 
 Says that this he had not thought of. 
 
12- ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 That this he had not thought q/* is a Dem. C.-f., of which he is Subj., and had 
 thought is Pred. ; of this is a P.-f. (Seut.) This he had not thought of. 
 
 This is a book of mine. 
 A sentence. Of mine, is a P.-f. 
 
 Says that he was not deceived except in this. 
 That he was not deceived is a Dera. C-f., of which he is Subj., and teas de- 
 ceived is Pred. Except in this is an Adjunc. P.-f. (Sent.) He was not de- 
 ceived except in this. 
 
 L 1. Hopes that he will come. 2. Says that he was to have been 
 present. 3. Severs the wicked from among the just. 4. Says that 
 he left me a paper. 5. The deep ravines and dells among. 6. Re- 
 marked that this thing they spoke of. 7. Declares that their money 
 they are proud of. 8. Thinks that he will write him a letter. 9. 
 Says that him he had made mention of. 10. They dashed the rapid 
 torrent through. 
 
 n. 1. Ye say that in Jerusalem is the place. — Bible. 2. My good 
 will is to it. 3. Yours it is against. 4. In purchasing the sem- 
 blance of my soul from out the state of hellish cruelty. — Shak. 5. 
 Here comes a spirit of his. — Id. 6. Barefoot plodi the cold ground 
 upon. 7. Science they do not pretend to. 8. Says that he will 
 build me a house. 9. Declares that he will travel the wide world 
 over. 10. Brought out all the rods from before the Lord. — Bible. 
 11. Come out from among them. — Id. 12. Will begin on or before 
 the first of August. 13. Says that he will do me a favor. 14. Was 
 not permitted until after much entreaty. 15. Before that Philip 
 called thee. — Bible. 
 
 Section II. — The Demonstrative Clause. {Continued.) 
 Special, Idiomatic, and EUiptical Forms. 
 
 5. After words of Fearing this clause is sometimes in- 
 troduced by lest. 
 
 We were anxious lest they should he destroyed. They were in terror 
 lest the vessel might sink. 
 
 6. Occasionally and with a pleasant rhetorical effect in 
 the way of greater animation, this clause is introduced by 
 how (sometimes inelegantly by how that} instead of that. 
 
 He declared unto them how he had seen the Lord, and that he had 
 spoken to him, and how he preached boldly at Damascus. — Bible. 
 
THE DEMONSTRATIVE CLAUSE. 13 
 
 7. Sometimes with a somewhat softening influence, but 
 with little or no modification of the sense, the compound 
 connective as if is used instead of that. 
 
 It seemed as if everybody was my enemy (= that everybody, etc.). 
 I felt as f 1 could not stay a moment longer (= nearly, that I could 
 not, etc.). 
 
 This construction commonly occurs after seems, and 
 appears and looks when used in the sense of seems. It 
 also occurs with, feels, when used personally. 
 
 It seems as if he was my enemy. I feel as if he is in the right. It 
 appeared to me as if nothing could reform him. It looks to me as if 
 something was wrong. 
 
 8. Adjunctive forms with before (11, 3) have an equiv- 
 alent in the somewhat idiomatic expression or ever. This 
 form is nearly obsolete. 
 
 I was set up from everlasting, from the beginning or ever the earth 
 was. — Bible. And we, or ever he come near^ are ready to kill him. — 
 Bible. 
 
 9. After negative expressions and questions implying a 
 negative, a demonstrative clause when nsed negatively is 
 often introduced by hut, this conjunction having nearly 
 the same force as the absolute negative not. 
 
 I do not know but that you are correct (= that you are not correct). 
 I am not sure but that he is right (= that he is not right). Who 
 knows but that he may be dishonest f (= that he is not dishonest). 
 
 Note 1. It should be noted that in the above cases the proposition 
 contains two negatives, and that this fact gives to the whole the 
 force of an affirmative. Thus, I am not sure but that he is correct 
 (= I am not sure thathe is noZ correct), means merely, I believe that 
 he is correct. Again, It cannot be but he is right, = It cannot be 
 that he is not right = He mcst be right. 
 
 Note the difference between the two forms: It cannot be but he is 
 right ; and, It cannot be that he is right. Compare, also, It cannot 
 be that he is right and It cannot but be that he is right. 
 
 Note 2. Clauses introduced by that are pure demonstrative clauses, 
 — those introduced by lest, how, but, and as if as discussed above, in- 
 
14 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 asmuch as they have the substantial force, though not the exact 
 fcyrm of pure demonstrative clauses, will be termed Demonstra- 
 tive Clause Equicalents. 
 
 10. The connective is often cut off from the body of 
 the clause by an intervening clause. 
 
 Says that^ if you will stay, he toUl remain. Believes that, when he 
 comes, he will bring the news. 
 
 11. Sometimes the body of the clause is divided by a 
 parenthetical expression, having no grammatical connec- 
 tion whatever with the clause. 
 
 That such a man, said they, should be guilty seems strange. 
 
 12. For the sake of convenience or of emphasis, the 
 subject-term, especially when it is an infinitive or a clause, 
 is sometimes placed after the verb. In this case the ex- 
 pletives it or there usually precede the verb. 
 
 Says that there were m a:sy presetit. Thinks that it is best to go. 
 
 13. Sometimes, especially in the earlier English, the 
 subject of this clause has already been redundantly used 
 as the object of the principal verb, before it is introduced 
 as the subject of the clause ; and sometimes it is repeated 
 directly as the subject. There is, however, a gain rather 
 than a loss of emphasis, so far as the subject term is con- 
 cerned, in such a construction. 
 
 We know you that ye have not the love of God in you. — Bible. 
 Then Manasseh knew that the lord he is God. — Id. 
 
 14. Ellipses. (1.) The connective is often omitted. 
 
 Told me (that) he would come. Thinks (that) he can do it. Fears 
 (that) he may come. 
 
 This ellipsis occurs almost always in modern English 
 after the prepositions afte?', before., since^ and until. With 
 except.^ save, and iji the connective is always expressed. 
 
 AJler (that) he came, we departed. Was prosperous before Qhat) the 
 
THE DEMONSTRATIVE CLAUSE. 15 
 
 war broke out. But, — Was wrong in that he injured you. All went well 
 except that we lost our baggage. 
 
 Note. In the time of Shakespeare and for a hundred years after- 
 wards, this ellipsis of that after prepositions as above indicated, al- 
 most never occurred. Abundant illustrations of this fact may be 
 found in the writings of those times. 
 
 (2.) After negatives (9), but alone is often used with- 
 out the accompanying that. As this connective is in 
 such cases always implied, the sense is not modified. 
 
 I do not know but (that) he is correct. 
 
 (3.) Under the influence of emotion or excitement this 
 clause is sometimes used without any governing word. 
 
 That a man should be stupid enough to take such a couplet to the 
 printer ! — Macaulay. 
 
 Exercise 6. 
 
 Do the same work as before. Supply all ellipses and note any pe- 
 culiarities of expression or construction. 
 
 ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 Thinks it is best to go. 
 It is best to go is a Dem. C.-f. — to go is Subj. and is best is Pred.; it is an 
 expletive. Clause connective is omitted. 
 
 Thinks there were many such in the city. 
 There were many such is a Dem. C.-f. — many such is Subj. and were is 
 Pred. In the city is a P.-f. Clause connective omitted. 
 
 I am not sure but you are right. 
 
 But you are right is a Dem. Equiv. C.-f. of which you is Subj. and are right 
 is Pred. — hut = but that. (9. ) 
 
 AVas prosperous before the war broke out. 
 
 Before the war broke out is an Adjunc. Dem. C.-f., of which war is Subj. 
 and broke out is Pred. Connective that is omitted. 
 
 Declared unto them how he had seen the Lord. 
 
 Unto them is a P.-f. How he had seen the Lord is a Dem. Equiv. C.-f., of 
 which he is Subj. and had seen is Pred. — the Lord is a W.-f . (6.) 
 
 I. 1. Fears that he may be detained. 2. Was afraid lest he 
 might be detained. 3. I do not doubt that he will come. 4. It is 
 improbable that he will come. 5. I am not sure but that he mav 
 
16 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 come. 6. Who knows but he may come? 7. That he should be 
 found guilty, thought they, would be strange indeed. 8. Hoped 
 that he might be found innocent. 9. Thinks that it is best to 
 remain. 10. Believes there are many other things to be known. 
 11. Am sure he is correct except in that. 
 
 L 1. Come out from among them. 2. The sand glided from be- 
 neath my feet. 3. A shrewd observer of men in and out of power. 
 
 4. Said he would tell me a story. 5. Were fortunate in that we 
 had a fair wind. 6. He is not sure but you may be the man. 
 7. Who knows but you are the man ? 8. It cannot be that I am the 
 man. 9. It cannot be but you are right. 10. How is it that you 
 have deceived us in one particular ? 
 
 III. 1 . Will stay until ten ; — until after twelve ; — until you come. 
 2. Remained after your arrival; — after you arrived. 3. Will go 
 before six o'clock ; — before the clock strikes six. 4. Says the so- 
 lution is correct except in this; — except that one figure is wrong. 
 
 5. Have been here since June; — since before Christmas; — since 
 the new year came in. 6. Says he was there the whole year, except 
 during the last of July. 7. Stayed until August; — until spring came; 
 until after winter set in. 8. Was wise in this ; — in that he went to 
 school; — except in that he wasted his time. 9. I heard nothing ex- 
 cept this; — except about the war; — except that we bad conquered. 
 
 IV. 1. I shall relate how her opulence and her martial glory grew 
 together. — Macaulay. 2. It will be seen how Ireland, cursed by 
 the domination of race over race and of religion over rehgion, re- 
 mained indeed a member of the empire, but a distorted member. — 
 Id. 3. It was apprehended that there might be some difficulty in 
 executing the plan. 4. The fact is, there had been accomplished a 
 mighty work. 5. It cannot be but some will be lost. 6. It cannot 
 be that any are lost. 7. It cannot be but that many are lost. 8. I 
 feel as if many might be lost. 9, Men feel as if they were invited to 
 call on him. — Dr. McCosh. 10. It does seem as if the heathen con- 
 veyed a truth in mythic fable. — Ih. 
 
 Section IH. — The Demonstrative Clause. {Continued.) 
 grammatical construction. 
 17. Real and apparent Subject. 
 
 When the expletive it stands as the grammatical representative 
 of this clause, it is really the apparent or grammatical subject of the 
 sentence, while the clause itself as a whole is the real subject-term. 
 
THE DEMONSTRATIVE CLAUSE. 17 
 
 In the example, It is true that he came, it is the apparent and (hat lie 
 came is the real subject-term of is ; but is has its grammatical agree- 
 ment with it and not with the clause. 
 
 NoTK. The word it has at least four different uses, which must 
 be carefully distinguished. These are as follows : — 
 
 (a.) A Personal Pronoun. 
 
 (b.) An Expletive Pronoun. 
 . (c.) An Indejinite Pronoun. 
 
 (d.) A Predicative Expletive. 
 
 In the first use, it always stands for a noun previously expressed; 
 in the second, for an infinitive or for a clause always expressed; in 
 the third, for some person or thing always clearly suggested by the 
 words in the proposition; in the fourth, it is always found in direct 
 logical connection with an intransitive verb or a noun^ the predicative 
 force of which it seems to aid. 
 
 He bought a book and read {/. (Per. pronoun.) 7Hs good to read. 
 It is best that one should read. (Expl. pronouns.) It is good books 
 that should be read. (Indef. pro.) //rains, /rgrows cold. /Ms 
 clearing away. He will foot it to the city. Trip it as they go. Will 
 have it that you are wrong. (Pred. Expletives.) 
 
 This predicative form of the expletive occurs sometimes with a 
 preposition. 
 
 See to it that this is done. He insists upon it that he is right. 
 
 18. Words of Hindering. After words of Hindering and Pre- 
 venting the demonstrative clause construction, though good in the 
 Elizabethan age, is obsolete now. The participial construction is 
 now used. 
 
 This by no means hinders hut that there may he something moral in 
 it. — Butler. (Say, hinders there heing something moral in it.) 
 
 So, also, a word and a phrase-form can be used. 
 
 By no means hinders it, from having something moral. 
 
 Note. Hence after words of hindering and preventing we may have 
 really three different constructions, namely, a demonstrative or a 
 participial clause : or a word and a phrase-form combination. 
 
 Could not hinder but that this should be done, Dem. cl. Equiv. ;. 
 could not hinder this heing done ; could not hinder this from heing done. 
 
 19. Three Negatives. After two negatives real or implied (11, 
 9), the form with but cannot properly be used. This would be in- 
 troducing three negatives. It should also be noted that words of 
 Doubting and Questioning always carry with them a negative forcCj 
 
 2 
 
18 ENGLISH LANGUAGK. 
 
 and hence must always count for one negative. Hence we cannot 
 ase but, but that, or still worse, but what in the sense of but that, after 
 the following, namely : — 
 
 (a.) Two direct negatives. 
 
 (6.) A direct negative along with a word of doubting or ^lestioning. 
 
 (c.) A question implying a negative along with either a direct nega- 
 tive or a word of doubting or questioning. 
 
 AVe cannot therefore use but as in the following : — 
 
 It is not impossible but that he may be a thief. It can not be un- 
 known but that he is a thief. \\Tio does not know (nobody) but that 
 he is a thief V Who doubts (nobody) but that he is a thief ? It can- 
 not but be but that he is a thief. 
 
 20. After negatives, as should not be used in the sense of that or 
 whether ; and after negatives with but, what should not be used in the 
 sense of that. 
 
 I do not know as I shall go. Say — that or whether, according to 
 the exact sense intended. I do not know but what I shall go. (Say, 
 — tliat.) 
 
 21. Mood-Forms. After words of Asking and Entreating the 
 potential forms will and would should be used. And after those of 
 Commanding the auxiliaries shall and should must be employed. 
 
 Asked that he would come. Ordered that something should be 
 done at once. 
 
 22. After words of Wishing, the subjunctive form of the copula 
 should be used. 
 
 I wish that he were here (not was). We could hope that it were 
 true (not was). 
 
 23. On the contrary after as t/(=that, 11, 7), the subjunctive 
 form should never be used. 
 
 It seems as if this course were the best. (Say, was the best.) I 
 feel as if he icere my friend. (Say, was.) It appears as if he were 
 right. (Say, was.) 
 
 Note. It is a little remarkable that the present and the past tense 
 may be used here with little or no difference in meaning, and with 
 .equal accuracy, at least, in many cases. The past tense in such 
 cases seems, however, to be more generally preferred. 
 
 It seems as if he was now your friend, = It seems as if he 25 now 
 your friend. 
 
 Exercise 7. 
 
 Do the same work as before ; also correct anything wrong in point of 
 Grammar, Point out real and apparent subject-terms, and all ellipses. 
 
THE DEMONSTRATIVE CLAUSE. 19 
 
 ILLUSTRATION. 
 
 It is said that he is dishonest. 
 
 That he is dishonest is a Dem. C.-f. ; and is the real subject of said; — it is the 
 apparent or grammatical subj. 
 
 I. 1. It is time that he came* 2. It cannot be that he came. 3. I 
 am not sure but he came. 4. I have no doubt but what he came. 
 5. He fears lest he may have come. 6. Who doubts but that he has 
 come ? 7. All say he has come. 8. It is not improbable but that 
 he will come soon. 9. I have no doubt that he has come. 10. Who 
 questions that he has come? 11. Who does not know that he has 
 come ? 12. I do not know but what he will come to-morrow. 13. I 
 do not know as he will come. 14. Who doubts but what he could 
 come to-morrow ? 
 
 II. 1. The law that we must keep the Sabbath day. 2. The fact 
 is that such is the law. 3. It is certain that all do not keep the Sab- 
 bath day. 4. The command that we keep it, is divine. 5. Who 
 doubts that the command is divine ? 6. I am not sure but some 
 doubt it. 7. It cannot be but that many keep it. 8. They say they 
 certainly do keep it. 9. It is best that all should keep it. 10. Some 
 break it in that they labor. 11. Who doubts but all could keep it? 
 12. I wish that it was well kept. 13. He asked that we would keep 
 it. 14. I do not question but what we ought to keep it. 15. I have 
 no doubt but that you will keep it. 16. I fear lest all may not keep 
 it. 17. Do you wish that it was kept? 18. We c3,nnot but hope 
 that all shall keep it. 19. There is no question but what many do 
 keep it. 20. The command is that all would keep it. 21. There is 
 no danger but what some keep it. 22. I can hardly believe but 
 many will keep it. 23. In a similar way to that of running. — Dr. 
 Dalton. 24. They are like the movements of mastication except that 
 they are involuntary. — Id. 
 
 III. 1. We feel as if there were light emerging upon our world. 
 — McCosh. 2. It might seem as if the contemplation of God was an 
 infinitely higher exercise. — Id. 3. We feel as if there were a still 
 more wonderful power. — Id. 4. We believe that there is such a 
 being, and we feel as if all were safe. — Id. 5. They feel as if a 
 stain had been left on their character. — Id. 6. The microscope has 
 shown how the earth, air, and water are crowded with sentient 
 being. — Id. 7. We have felt as if we heard nature utter indistinct 
 whispers. — Id. 8. It needs no deep reflection to discover that hon- 
 
20 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 ssty is the best policy. — Id. 9. We feel that it holds good for all 
 intelligent beings. — Id. 10. It seems as if it was intended that man 
 should enjoy such communion. — Id. 11. He feels now that the 
 mystery has been unfolded. — Id. 12. AVe feel as if all were safe 
 and secure. — Id. 
 
 EXERCIS:^ 8. 
 
 1. Write demonstrative clauses, introducing them correctly with that, 
 
 LEST, BDT, or BUT THAT, HOW, AS, AS IF, JlVC of Cach kind. 
 
 2. Write Jive having the subject after the verb. 
 
 3. Wi'ite adjunctive clauses with each of the prepositions indicated 
 in 11, 3. 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 THE INFINITIVE CLAUSE. 
 
 Section I. — Definition and General Character. 
 
 12. Infinitive clauses are such as have their verb term 
 in the infinitive mood. 
 
 Wish him to come. Believe them to be wise. Imagines him to be 
 hypocritical. Ordered something to be done. Caused the city to he 
 burned. 
 
 Note. That the infinitive is capable of real predication is evi- 
 dent from the fact that it may have precisely the same force as the 
 indicative form. Thus "Thinks that he is guilty," means precisely 
 the same as " Thinks him to be guilty." 
 
 Remark. The infinitive clause is not, as some grammarians re- 
 gard it, a mere abridgment of the demonstrative clause. This is 
 clear from the fact that the latter clause cannot be used at all in 
 many cases where the infinitive is regularly used, as after words of 
 Physical Sensation, words of Caution, Habit, etc. (11, 2, Rem.) 
 
 1. The infinitive has two tense-forms and two voice- 
 forms. Any one of these four forms may be used as the 
 predicate of an infinitive clause. 
 
 Expects him to harness the horse. Expects the horse to be har- 
 nessed. Supposed him to have harnessed the horse. Supposed th 
 horse to have been harnessed. 
 
THE INFINITIVE CLAUSE. 21 
 
 2. The infinitive clause is found with the same classes 
 of words as the demonstrative clause (11, 1), and in ad- 
 dition it is also often used with words of Physical Sen- 
 sation, as those of Seeing, Hearing, and Feeling. It is 
 never found, nor indeed is any clausal construction pos- 
 sible, with words of Tasting and Smelling. 
 
 Saw Mm (to) fall. Heard her (to) sing. Felt something (to) touch 
 me. Thinks him to he wise. Ordered the signal to be given. 
 
 8. Infinitive clauses are often introduced by the word 
 for used, not as a relation word and making the clause 
 adjunctive (11, 3), but as a mere expletive. 
 
 It is best for us for him to leave. For him to remain seems strange. 
 
 4. Except when used as the object of a verb, the in^ 
 finitive clause is usually of the expletive form with for. 
 This, however, is not always the case. Thus, — 
 
 The only way in which the parent can do this is himself to be 
 what the child should be. — Dr. Hopkins. Truth to be adduced and 
 established, feeling to be uttered, the purposes of men to be shaped, are 
 each the objects of literary effort. — Prof. Bascom. 
 
 Remark. In the older English this particle is often omitted. 
 This is all as monstrous to our human reason 
 As (for) my Antlgonus to break his grave. — Shak. 
 
 5. This expletive form of the infinitive clause with /or 
 may be used adjunctively with the prepositions save, ex- 
 cept, excepting, and hut, which, in such case, mark the 
 relation of the entire clause following. 
 
 Nothing now was important, except for the signal to be given. 
 Every order had been given save for the boats to be in readiness. 
 
 6. The infinitive clause is also often used with for, 
 having the force of a preposition, in which case it is of 
 course adjunctive. 
 
 I bought a book /or my friend to read. 
 
 7. This adjunctive form is sometimes itself adjunctive 
 
22 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 with another preposition. This form must be distin- 
 guished from 12, 5. 
 
 He never makes a request except for something important to be 
 done. 
 
 9. The adverb and the predicate form of the infinitive 
 often closely resemble each other. Thus — 
 
 T have an argument to present on the question. Adv. form. 
 There are arguments to be presented on the question. Pred. form. 
 I will have him (to) present his argument on the question. Pred. 
 form. 
 
 10. Cautions. From the above it is evident that the infinitive 
 clause-form may be easily confounded with infinitive word-forms. 
 Therefore, note, — 
 
 (1.) If the whole expression can be changed to a demonstrative 
 clause without modifying the sense, then, in every case, it is best to 
 regard it as an infinitive clause. Commanded the city to be burned. 
 It is best for us to go. It is hard for Mm to study. It is lawful for 
 them to rule. Advised something to be done. (All Inf. els.) 
 
 Remark. It is best for us to walk. This may have two mean- 
 ings, either: It is best for us to walk = that we should walk; or, It is 
 best ybr us to walk = to walk is bestybr us. 
 
 In the first signification we have an infinitive clause with for used 
 expletively; in the second an infinitive word-form. 
 
 So, — It is not lawful for the Jews to eat swine's flesh. It is hard 
 for children to sit still. 
 
 In all such cases we may take the sense in two ways, — as a rule, 
 however, when the sense can be rendered perfectly by a demonstra- 
 tive clause, it is better to regard these constructions as infinitive 
 clause-foruis. 
 
 (2.) When the noun before the infinitive indicates a person who is 
 directly addressed, it must of course be taken by itself, and not as the 
 subject of the infinitive, making with the same an infinitive clause. 
 
 Bade him to go. Asked him to come. Advised us to remain. 
 (Here the pronouns are all objects of the verbs.) 
 
 (3.) Where an infinitive, which is both active and transitive in 
 force, directly follows and relates to a neuter noun, it is an adjective 
 or an adverb word-form; but when an infinitive passive is similarly 
 located, it is a predicate term, and the whole an infinitive clause. 
 
 I have a book to write. W.-f. There is a book to be wriUen. C.-f. 
 
THE INFINITIVE CLAUSE. 23 
 
 Gave me arguments to present. W.-f. There are arguments to he 
 ■presented. C.-f. I have nothing to do. W.-£. There is something to 
 he done. C.-f. 
 
 (4.) Do not confound adjunctive and expletive infinitive clauses. 
 When these clauses with for are used, as appositives, as subject, or 
 as complement terms, they are expletive forms, otherwise adjunctive. 
 
 Asks for something to be done; cold enough /or water to freeze; too 
 cold ybr any one to work. — Adjunctive forms. 
 
 For something to he done is necessary; it is not strange for water to 
 freeze ; it is well for all to work. — Expletive forms. 
 
 When adjunctive, some noun may be used in the same construction as the 
 Inf.-cl. governed by the/or, thus showing \t% prepositional force. This is never 
 possible with the expletive form. Thus, — 
 
 Cold enough for winter, — fou afre ; or, — for afre to be made. But not, 
 It is strange for this, or for that, or for anything ; but. It is strange for a 
 fire to be made = that a fire should be made. 
 
 (5.) The infinitive may be used as a noun-term, an adjective-term, 
 or an adverh-term. These uses must be carefully distinguished from 
 its use as a verb. To see is pleasant. (Noun.) To kill a man is 
 murder. (Noun.) To be wicked is to be unhappy. (Noun.) Flee 
 from the wrath to come. (Adj.) Went to see the city. (Ado.) 
 Worked hard to get his lessons. (Adv.) Commanded something to 
 be done. (Verb.) Ordered the city to be burned. (Verb.) For him 
 to work seems hard. ( Verb.) 
 
 Exercise 9. 
 
 Point out the phrase-forms and the clause-forms, and tell the subject 
 and the predicate of each clause. 
 
 ILLUSTRATION. 
 
 Wished him to come. 
 
 Him to come is an Inf. C.-f., of which him is the Subj,, and to come is the 
 Pred. 
 
 Nothing remained but for the boats to be lowered. 
 
 But for the boats to be lowered is an Adjunc. Inf. C-f., for is an expletive. 
 Boats is the Subj., and to be lowered is the Pred. 
 
 It is too warm for us to travel to the city. 
 
 For us ta travel is an Adjunc. Tnf. C.-f., us is the Subj., and to travel is the 
 Pred. ; to the city is a P.-f . 
 
24 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 L 1. Believes it to be true. 2. Thinks that it is true. 3. It is 
 thought that it is true. 4. The belief that it is true seems strange 
 5. The belief is that it is true. 6. For it to be true seems inexpli- 
 cable. 7. It seems strange for it to be true. 8. That it is true is 
 wonderful. 9. Would it be strange for it to be true? 10. Can it be 
 that it is true? 11. It seems as if it is true. 12. I feel as if it must 
 be true. 13. It cannot be but that it is true. 14. It is not impos- 
 sible that it may be true. 
 
 n. 1. Thinks that there was something wrong. 2. Who knows 
 but something may have been wrong? 3. There is no doubt that 
 something was wrong. 4. Fears that there might have been some- 
 thing wrong. 5. Was anxious lest his friend should die. 6. It was 
 ordered that he should come. 7. The order was for him to come. 
 8. The order was that he should come. 9, It seems as if he ought 
 to come. 10. He shows how at his conversion he was guided by 
 Ananias and how he subsequently worshiped at the Temple. — 
 Hackett. 
 
 ni. 1. A book proper for all to read. 2. Wishes the book to be 
 read. 3. I bought a book to read. (12, 8.) 4. I bought a book 
 for you to read. 5. Thought the book was to be read. 6. Orders 
 the book to be read. 7. Expects you to read the book. 8. For you 
 to read is not irksome. 9. He says he sat down to read a book. 
 10. I think myself to be a good reader. 11. I have no wish except 
 that I may read. 12. I hope that I may read in the years to come. 
 13. I wish the years to come. 14. I say I cannot read except in the 
 years to come. 15. Says he has a book to read and a horse to ride. 
 16. Who doubts that he has books to read? 
 
 Section H. — The Infinhwe Clause. (^Continued.) 
 
 SPECIAL, IDIOMATIC, AND ELLIPTICAL FORMS. 
 
 12. With passive verbs, whether finite or 'participial in 
 form, the constituent parts of this clause are often sepa- 
 rated. Thus, — 
 
 They believe the Cretans to he liars, — in the passive voice becomes 
 — The Cretans were believed to be liars, or, The Cretans being be- 
 lieved to he liars. 
 
 So, They found this man to he dishonest ; passive voice, This man 
 was found to he dishonest, or, This man having been found to he dis- 
 honest. 
 
THE INFINITIVE CLAUSE. 25 
 
 13. The same construction often occurs with a few ad- 
 jectives of affirmation (166, 1) used as complement 
 terms. 
 
 He is certain to he found out This is certain to become generally 
 known. We shall be sure to succeed. He is not likely to succeed 
 (=it is not likely that, etc.). 
 
 Note. In the older English we often find this form of the infini- 
 tive clause with some other adjective complements; especially with 
 better and with best. 
 
 You were best to go to bed. — Shak. I were better to be eaten to 
 death. — Id. I were best to leave him. — Id. 
 
 14. The subject of the infinitive clause is sometimes 
 placed after the verb. In this case, when the subject 
 term is an infinitive or a clause, the clause is regularly 
 introduced by the expletives it or there. The words in 
 small capitals in the following are the suTDJect terms. 
 
 They make (to be) ready their arrow. — Bible. We hold (/o 
 be) guilty every man here. Let there (to) be light. Thinks it 
 (to be) wrong to steal. Thinks it (to be) best that he should go. 
 Holds it (to be) a sin to lie. 
 
 15. Ellipses. The particle to^ the regular sign of 
 the infinitive, is usually omitted after words of Searing, 
 Seeing, and Feeling, and the verbs make, bid, let (= per- 
 mit), have, and a few others. 
 
 Heard him (to) speak. Saw him (to) move. Felt it (to) touch me. 
 Had him (to) educate my son. 
 
 16. So, also, in the older English after better and best, 
 (12, 13, N.) 
 
 Poor lady, she were better (to) love a dream. — Shak. Thou wert 
 better (to) gall the devil. — Id. Madam, You We best (fo) consider. 
 — Id. 
 
 Remark. It is worthy of note that out of these elliptical forms 
 seems to have been derived the very common English idiom, You 
 had better, you had best, you would rather, you had rather, etc. 
 
 17. After words of Saying, Thinhing, Making, Regard- 
 
26 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 ing^ and some others, the infinitive itself of the copula is 
 omitted. 
 
 Declare him (to be) an enemy. Make him (to be) king. Supposed 
 the work (to have been) accomplished. 
 
 18. The subject, when the same as that of the princi- 
 pal verb, is usually omitted, but not always. 
 
 He wishes (himself) to be good. Pretends (himself) to be wise. 
 Hopes (himself) to be made king. But, Fancied himself (to be) a 
 king. She imagines herself (to be) beautiful. 
 
 19. The subject is sometimes omitted, when not the 
 same as that of the principal verb. In such case it can 
 be easily supplied by the mind. 
 
 Have often heard ( persons) say that animals have foreknowledge 
 of a coming storm. Had scarcely heard (any one) tell of any poetry, 
 etc. — De Quincey. 
 
 20. Cautions. Elliptical infinitive clause-forms must be distin- 
 guished from mere word-forms. 
 
 (1.) If the noun or pronoun following the principal verb makes 
 with the same, without the. infinitive, either no sense at all or not the 
 true sense, then we have an infinitive clause ; otherwise a word-iovva. 
 merely. 
 
 Thinks him (to be) honest. Holds it (to he) true. Made Mm (to 
 be) king. Constituted him (to be) chief. Will have him (to) do it. 
 Thought him (to be) wise. Ordered the bridge (to be) cut down. (All 
 Inf. els.; sens^ incomplete without the Inf.) 
 
 But, Named him Charles.' Called him a thief. Asked him a ques- 
 tion. Taught him grammar. (Non-inf . els. ; sense complete ; Inf. 
 could not be supplied.) 
 
 (2.) So, also, with passive verbs. 
 
 He was thought (to be) honest. We were made (to be) rulers. They 
 were made (to be) slaves. He was believed (to be) guilty. Inf. els. 
 
 He was chosen ruler; was elected president; was named Charles ; 
 was taught grammar. "Word-forms. 
 
 (3.) Do not confound word-forms with as and the complement 
 terms of an infinitive clause. 
 
 Considered him (to be) honest. Inf. cl. Regarded him as honest. 
 Conj. W.-f. Thought him (to be) a Christian. Inf. cl. Looked upon 
 
THE INFINITIVE CLAUSE. 27 
 
 him as a Christian. Conj. W.-f. //e was made (<o be) ruler. Inf. cl. 
 He was regarded as ruler. Conj. W.-f. He is considered (to he) dis- 
 honest. Inf. cl. He is looked upon as dishonest. Conj. W.-f. 
 
 (4.) Do not confound word-forms, phrase-forms, and infinitive 
 clause-forms after the v/ord found. Found him dead {dead modifies 
 him as an adjective). So, Found him sorrowful, happy, alive, cheer- 
 ful, working, playing, etc. Found it true (= to be true). Inf. cl. 
 Found him gone ; found him away. Inf. els. But, Found him in the 
 city ; — in his home. Here the italicized forms are adverb terms of 
 place modifying /owwcZ. 
 
 Exercise 10. 
 
 Do the same work as in Exercise 9. Note carefully all omissions , 
 distinguish predicate infinitives from adjective and adverbial infinitives. 
 
 ILLUSTEATIONS. 
 
 They were thought to be wise. 
 Theij to be wise is an Inf. C.-f., of which they is the Subj. and to be wise is 
 the Pred. 
 
 Thinks it wrong to be wastefuL . 
 
 It wrong to be wasteful is an Inf. Cl.-f., of which to be wasteful is the Subj. 
 and to be wrong is the Pred.; to be is omitted, and it is an expletive. 
 
 Fancied himself a king. 
 
 Himself a king is an Inf. C.-f., of which himself is the Subj. and to be a king 
 is the Pred.; to be is omitted. 
 
 Regarded him as a hero. 
 
 No clause. Him is a W.-f. and as a hero is a Conj. W.-f. 
 
 Considered him a hero. 
 
 Him a hero is an Inf. C.-f., of which him is the Subj. and to be a hero is the 
 Pred. ; to be is omitted. 
 
 Asked him a question. 
 
 No clause. Him {=. of him) is a P.-f. (elliptical) and a question is a W. -f 
 
 Begged him to come. 
 
 No clause. Him {= of him) is a P.-f. (elliptical) and to come is a W.-f. 
 
 There is much to be done. 
 
 Much to be done is an Inf. cl., of which mttch is the Subj. and to be done is 
 .the Pred. 
 
28 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 I. Found her sick ; found her away ; found her sleeping ; found it 
 false; found nothing done; found them in the city; found him at 
 work ; found the city burned. 
 
 n. 1. He thinks them wise. 2. They are thought to be wise. 
 3. Are they thought wise ? 4. The fact that they are wise. 5. How 
 is it that they are so wise? 6. We hold them wise. 7. They made 
 wise all their pupils. 8. We do not think wise all learned men. 
 
 9. Let there be much wisdom. 10. Thinks it not wrong to be wise. 
 11. Holds it a sin to be willingly ignorant. 12. It is best for all to be 
 educated. 13. It cannot be but he can learn. 14. Wise we thought 
 him to be. 15. They named him John. 16. They elected him king. 
 17. They made them counselors. 18. We named them counselors. 
 19. We begged them to be present. 20. We wished them to be 
 present. 21. We found them present. 22. Let there be present 
 every man. 23, It is painful to us for them to go. 24. They will 
 make him leader. 25. Tliey have named him leader. 26. Thinks it 
 best to have a leader. 27. Let these be our leaders. 28. They have 
 chosen him leader. 29. Says he is to be leader. 
 
 III. 1. Heard something fall. 2. ..Saw the sun set. 3. Perceives 
 that the sun is setting. 4. Felt something touch me. 5. Felt that I 
 had been wronged. 6. Held a book in his hands. 7. Held that he 
 was right. 8. Let some one be present. 9. Let there be estab- 
 lished in every town a good school. 10. Make manifest his glory. 
 11. Found the city burned. 12. Supposed the work accomplished. 
 13. Show him to be innocent. 14. He was shown to be guilty. 
 15. It would be better for the city for the streets to be lighted 
 every night. 16. Nothing now remained but fo^ the boats to be 
 lowered. 17. We know it to be him. 18. It was known to be he. 
 19. Was it known to be he? 20. They say it was he. 21. "Who 
 knows but you are correct. 22. Who doubts that I am right? 
 23. There is no question that we are correct. 24. He was supposed 
 to be correct. 
 
 IV. 1. Made him work. 2. He was made to work. 3. The fact 
 is that he was working. 4. Is it true that he was made to work ? 
 5. AVho knows but he is willing to work? 6. "Who doubts that he 
 can work ? 7. Let it be understood that he is to work. 8. Thinks 
 it a hard thing to work. 9. Is it thou<rht a hard thincr to work ? 
 
 10. We saw him work. 11. Ordered the thing to be done. 12. Or- 
 dered him to do it. 13. Made him king. 14. Named him Cjesar. 
 15 Advised him to go. 16. It is best for all to do risrht. 17. There 
 
THE INFINITIVE CLAUSE. 29 
 
 is somethins: to be done. 18. He commanded something to be 
 done. 
 
 V. 1. He is too great a favorite for me to remonstrate with him. 
 — Lamb. 2. He found it to be his father. — Id. 3. What is it for 
 truth to rule? — Hopkins. 4. Before these days rose up Theudas, 
 boasting himself to be somebody. — Bible. 5. Command thou that 
 they hew me cedar trees. — Id. 6. In the best of the land make 
 thy father and brethren to dwell. — Id. 7. For them to suggest 
 to him a repetition of the feeding of the five thousand would be a 
 presumption. — Farrar. 
 
 Section III. — The Infinitive Clause. (^Continued.) 
 
 GRAMMATICAL CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 21. Real and Apparent Terms. In the sentence, He was 
 thought to be wise, it is manifest that the true subject of the sen- 
 tence is the infinitive clause, He to be wise, since that is the thing of 
 which the affirmation is made. It is equally clear that he is the 
 grammatical nominative to was thought. Hence, he is really the ap- 
 parent subject of the sentence. 
 
 So in the sentence, It was best /or him to go, it is really the gram- 
 matical nominative to the verb, or apparent subject, while the infini- 
 tive clause for him to go is as clearly the true subject. 
 
 22. Again, in the sentence. We believe him to be wise, him is the 
 grammatical or apparent oh]ect, and him to be wise is the real ob- 
 ject. Thus the grammatical must be carefully distinguished from 
 the logical elements. 
 
 23. Still again, in the sentences, He teas believed to be wise, and 
 We believed him to be ivise, the subjects of the infinitive predicates 
 are he and him respectively. Hence it is clear that in an infinitive 
 clause the case of the subject-term is not controlled by the infinitive, 
 but by the prior grammatical construction of that term with the 
 principal verb. 
 
 So, also, the principal verb agrees grammatically with the appar- 
 ent subject-term. Thus, — 
 
 He was believed to be wise. They loere believed to be wise. 
 
 The same is true of passive infinitive clauses used as subject-terms 
 with the verb to be employed as a principal verb. (73.) 
 
 There is something to be done. There are many things to be 
 done. 
 
80 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 24. Concord of Case Forms. In the expletive form of this 
 clause for takes after it the objective case, since, though logically 
 considered it is really an expletive, grammatically it is ?i. preposition^ 
 and demands its regular regimen. 
 
 25. In the same way it, as an expletive or indefinite pronoun, con- 
 trols the person and number form of the verb, because it is the 
 fjrammaticaL subject. Thus, It is these that came. Here the real 
 subject-term is, it z= persons, which, as being plural, should have a 
 plural verb, but the verb is properly singular, to agree with its gram- 
 matical subject it. 
 
 26. The complement must be of the same case-form as the sub- 
 ject-term. Care must be exercised especially in interrogative sen- 
 tences. He was supposed to be /. We supposed liim to be me. 
 For him to be me is impossible. Who was thought to be 7 ? Whom 
 do they think me to be? PFAo do they think / am? Who was he 
 thought to be? Whom do they suppose him to be? Who is it sup- 
 posed he was ? 
 
 27. Tense Forms. The present infinitive expresses time coordi- 
 nate with that of the principal verb, or subsequent to it ; the perfect 
 infinitive expresses time completed before that of the principal verb. 
 Hence the latter must not be used when reference is made to time 
 present or future. This rule is frequently violated in connection with 
 verbs of hoping, expecting, intending, etc., which, of course, contem- 
 plate futurity. 
 
 I expected him to have been present last night (say to be). I im- 
 agined myself to have been in a far country (say to be). 
 
 EXEECISE 11. 
 
 Do the same work as before, first correcting anything wrong in 
 grammar ; note all real and apparent terms. 
 
 ILLUSTKATIONS. 
 
 We think Cffisar to be a great general. 
 CiBsar to be a great general is an Inf. C.-f. Ccesar is Subj. and to be a great 
 general is Pred. CcBsnr is the apparent and Ccesar to be a great general is the 
 real object-term of think. 
 
 Caesar is thought to be a great general. 
 Ccesar to be a great general is an Inf. C.-f. Ccesar is Subj. and remainder 
 is Pred. Ccesar is the apparent and Ccesar to be a great general is the real subj 
 oi is thought. 
 
THE INFINITIVE CLAUSE. 31 
 
 Was he thought to be me ? 
 
 He to be me is an Inf. C-f., of which he is Subj. and to be me is Pred. He is 
 the apparent and he to he me is the real subj.-terra of was thought. Me should 
 be/: (12,28.) 
 
 I. 1. Was it thought to be me? 2. Some thought him to be me. 
 3. Who knows but it was meV 4. It is true that he was taken to be 
 me. 5. For him to be me is impossible. 6. I am not sure but it was 
 you. 7. There is no doubt but you are correct. 8. Who doubts but 
 you are correct? 9. There can be no question but he is right. 10. 
 Does any one doubt but you are correct? 11. It is not impossible 
 but you are right. 12. I said I did not know but what you would 
 come. 13. Ye see how that not many men are called. 14. Be cau- 
 tious lest you offend him. 15. Fears lest he may be offended. 
 
 16. Who doubts but he may be offended? 
 
 II. 1. Him do they think to be guilty? 2. Whom do they think 
 to be guilty ? 3. Whom think you is guilty ? 4. Was he thought to 
 be guilty ? 5. Was he thought to be me ? 6. Do they think him to 
 be me? 7. Who do they think he is? (Ans.) Me. 8. Who do 
 they think him to be? (Ans.) Me. 9. Who do you think has come? 
 (Ans.) Him. 10. Let him and I go together. 11. I know it to be 
 they. 12. Do you not know it is they? 13. Let not them but me 
 remain here. 14. Who doubts but that he is guilty? 15. There is 
 no question but what he is guilty. 16. I have no doubt but it is so. 
 
 17. We do not feel sure but it may be true. 18. It cannot be but it 
 is true. 19. He told how that he was present, and said there was no 
 doubt but it was true. 20. It seems as if he were guilty. 21. I feel 
 as if he were innocent. 
 
 Exercise 12. 
 
 1. Write five infinitive clauses without ybr. 
 
 2. Write five with /or used as a preposition. 
 
 3. Write five with for used expletively. 
 
 4. Write five adjuncfive expletive infinitive clauses. 
 
 5. Write five adjunctives with for used as a preposition and all 
 governed by another preposition. . 
 
 6. Write five with the subject following the verb. 
 
 7. Write five with the sign of the infinitive omitted. 
 
 8. Write five with the copula omitted. 
 
 9. Write five with passive verbs. 
 
32 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 10. Write five with the words sure and certain as complement of 
 tlje principal verb. 
 
 CHAPTER HI. 
 
 THE PARTICIPIAL CLAUSE. 
 
 Sectiox I. — Dejinition and General Character. 
 
 13. Participial clauses are such as have their predicate 
 terra in the participial mood. 
 
 He felt himself sinking. Insists upon (23, 2) evei'i/ step being taken. 
 — Ecce Deus. The fact of the letter having been written by the two 
 lords. — Prescott. The letter having been written, his task was accom- 
 plished. I never heard of this being questioned. — Bii<hop Mcllvaine, 
 Speaking of the work of the law being written in their hearts. — Chal- 
 mers. Have heard of a mere general fact being employed to explain 
 the phenomenon. — Dr. McCosh. Worthy of an attempt being made 
 to explain it. — Td. So far from this mental econmny falling into dis- 
 order. — Chalmers. We insist on (23, 2) everything being proved. — 
 Id. Egmont was too staunch a Catholic to warrant his own faith 
 being called into question. — Prescott. Without previous notice being 
 given to the parish. — Hume. A Chrl^tless Theism she wishes to see 
 organized into a working system. — Id. 
 
 Note 1. That the participle is capable of rea\ predication is man- 
 ifest from the examples given above, in any one of which the parti- 
 cipial clause could be changed to a demonstrative clause, that is, a 
 clause with a finite verb, without materially modifying the sense. 
 Thus, He felt that he teas sinking. Insists (hat every step should be 
 taken. The fact that the letter had been written. As the letter had been 
 icritten his task was accomplished. I never heard that this was ques- 
 tioned. 
 
 Note 2. The substantial difference in the character of predication 
 between the participial und the Jiiiite forms of t^ie verb is found in the 
 fact that the latter merely state a fact or a thought, while the former 
 generally paint the same to the itnagination. For this reason tlie 
 participle when used predicatively might very properly be termed the 
 pictorifd mood of the verb. 
 
 Thus note in the following the exceedingly vivid and giaphic 
 character of the description. No other form of construction could 
 compare at all with the participial in the rhetorical effect produced. 
 
THE PARTICIPIAL CLAUSE. 33 
 
 They were reduced to the last extremity; with their ammunition 
 nearly exhausted; their weapons battered and broken; their for tijications 
 yawning with breaches like some tempest-tost vessel ivith its seams 
 opening in every direction and ready to founder; the few survivors 
 covered tvith wounds ; and many of them so far crippled as to be 
 scarcely able to drag their enfeebled bodies along the ramparts. — 
 Prescott. 
 
 1. The participle has two Yoice-forms, and three tense- 
 forms, namely, ^present (active and passive), loving^ be- 
 ing loved ; a perfect (active and passive), having loved, 
 having been loved; and a past (passive), loved. Now 
 any one of these forms may be used as the verb-term of 
 the participial clause. 
 
 Saw the city burning. The general spoke of the city being burned 
 at once. They having burned their city, we left. There was a report 
 of many cities having been burned. We saw the cities burned. 
 
 2. Participial clauses are found with the same classes 
 of words as demonstrative and infinitive clauses. 
 
 We saw the king slain. Heard the national air played by the 
 band. Felt something touching me. Remembers Sheridan going 
 down to Wansted. — Moore. We find no trace of these having been 
 present with him. — Carlyle. Had his son educated at Oxford. Had 
 his arm amputated. 
 
 3. In its adjunctive form it may take the following 
 prepositions : about., concerning., by., to., for, from, in, of, 
 with, regarding, notwithstanding, upon, touching, and 
 some others. 
 
 The mere fact of pictures or images being destined for tcorship. — 
 Mommsen's Rome. In the event of mercenaries being required. — Ibid. 
 Is the difference to be accounted for by Coleridge, like most men of 
 genius, having his days now above himself now below? — Dr. Shairp, 
 The tradition of there being apart of the sea directly over the earth. — 
 Whewell. 
 
 4. Cautions. (1.) It should be noted that the participle may be 
 Used as a noun, an adjective, an adverb, or a verb. These four 
 
34 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 uses must be carefully distinguished. Of course, in its last use only 
 can it constitute a predicate. 
 
 Walking is healthful. (Noun.) We like singing and dancing. 
 (Noun.) 
 
 Singing birds. (Adj.) Those singing the best songs were re- 
 warded. (Adj.) A mowing machine. (Adj.) The slain king. 
 (Adj.) 
 
 These came running. (Adv.) They went off shouting. (Adv.) 
 
 Heard them 5m^m^. (Verb.) Saw these rfancm^r. (Verb.) Saw 
 a machine mowing. (Verb.) They running, we also fled. (Verb.) 
 
 (2.) Participles used adverbially, adjecticely, and predicatively 
 sometimes closely resemble one another. Do not confound them. 
 
 He rode galloping ; they marched Jigkting ; the horses came canter- 
 ing. Adv. terms. 
 
 He lay sleeping ; was found dying ; was caught stealing ; punished 
 those whispering ; talked with those remaining. Adj. terms. 
 
 Spoke of his (= him) sleeping ; heard you speaking ; objected to 
 those remaining; prevented their (== them) whispering ; imagined 
 himself dying. Verb terms. 
 
 The general crossing the river, we advanced. (Verb.) The gen- 
 erals crossing of the river caused us to advance. (Noun.) The 
 crossing of the river by the general induced us to advance. (Noun.) 
 Those crossing the river were assailed = those who were crossing, etc. 
 (Adj.) We talk of troops crossing rivers. (Vei*b.) 
 
 Remark. Whenever the participle has the value of a relative 
 clause, it is of course an adjective word-form. 
 
 Those dwelling in caves were saved = those loho dwell, etc. (Adj.) 
 
 Told about savages living in caves. (Verb.) 
 
 Note. Participial clauses are not, as some grammarians assert, 
 mere abridgments of other clause constructions. Tliey are purely 
 independent forms, expressing thoughts and facts in a manner en- 
 tirely peculiar to themselves. (12, Rem.) They may be regarded 
 in a few instances as synonymous with other forms of construction, 
 but not as abbreviated forms. See 13, N. 2. 
 
 ■ Remark. As organic forms of discourse, participial clauses are 
 among the most useful in our language. Possessing as they do, in 
 a rery large degree, the valuable qualities of brevity, force, and per- 
 spicuity, they have found likewise extensive use in Latin, while in the 
 Greek they are of more frequent occun-ence than any other form of 
 the clause. 
 
THE PARTICIPIAL CLA 
 
 Exercise 13. . «. ^ v. -*. vt ^ 
 
 Do the same work as in previous exercises, — dikinffuplf^arefmy^* %j 
 participles used as noun, adjective, adverb, and verb terms. ' * 
 
 ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 The men having been rescued (we went home rejoicing). 
 The men having been rescued is a Part. C.-f., of which the men is Subj. and 
 the remainder is Pred. 
 
 (Rejoiced greatly) at the men having been rescued. 
 At the m,en having been rescued is a Part. C.-f. Adjunc, of which the men is 
 Subj. and the remainder is Pred. 
 
 Saw the men rescued. 
 
 The men rescued is a Part. C.-f. ; men is Subj. and rescued is Pred. 
 
 The men rescued were not men of my acquaintance. 
 
 Men is a W.-f., rescued is a W.-f. (=:who were rescued, an Adj. T.), of my 
 acquaintance is a P.-f . 
 
 I. Saw him kill the bird ; saw him killing the bird; saw the bird 
 killed; had him kill the bird ; had the bird killed ; the bird having 
 been killed, we left; he was seen killing the bird; his (= he) kill- 
 ing the bird caused him to be blamed; could not prevent his (=:hini) 
 killing .the bird; all those having killed birds were punished ; he is 
 sure to kill birds, an opportunity being afforded him. 
 
 II. ' 1. Saw him eating. 2. Found them sleeping. 3. Saw a 
 mowing machine. 4. Saw a machine mowing. 5. They came run- 
 ning. 6. Saw them running. 7. Running is good exercise. 8. Saw 
 him run. 9. Feared the people living on the mountain. 10. Have 
 heard of people living on mountains. 11. Passports are not de- 
 manded of strangers entering France. 12. Talked about strangers 
 entering France. 13. They said they saw the murdered king. 
 14. They saw the king murdered. 15. They found him murdered. 
 (12, 22.) 16. He was known to have been inurdored. 17. The king 
 having been murdered, they fled. 18. Who doubts that the king Avas 
 murdered? 19. For him to be murdered was a terrible thing. 
 
 III. 1. We have a battle to fight. 2. There are battles to be 
 fouoht. 3. For battles to be fought is a necessity. 4. Who doubts 
 that battles must be fought ? 5. We have seen battles fought and 
 won. 6. We have heard of battles being won and lost. 7. It cannot 
 be but some battles will be lost. 8. I hear the battle is lost. 9. We 
 
36 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 hold it an evil to lose a battle. 10. He commands the battle to be 
 fought. 11. He commands us to fight the battle. 12. Is the bat- 
 tle to be fought to-day ? 13. Encouraged the soldiers commencing 
 to fight. 14. The soldiers commencing the fight were all killed. 
 15. For brave soldiers to be killed is hard. 16. It must have been a 
 hard-fought battle for our men to have lost it. 1 7. The battle being 
 lost we retreated. 18. These, retreating rapidly, escaped the enemy. 
 19. We found them retreating. 20. We saw them retreat. 
 
 IV. 1. Objections against the former being from God. — Butler. 
 There is no such thing as water becoming hard. — Id. . 3. It is a 
 wicked contrariety to Nature for a man to murder his brother. — Dr. 
 Alexander. 4. The circumstance of the ice remaining unmelted. — 
 Id. 5. This being noised abroad, his party encouraged the idea of 
 miracles having been performed. 6. They saw the fig-tree dried up 
 from the roots. — Bible. 7. Suppose a person were to insist (23, 2) 
 on this usage being carried out. — Alford. 8. It being much easier 
 for uncultivated minds to comprehend a similitude than an abstract 
 term. — Whately. 9.. The objection to the original inscription being 
 put down. — Moore. 10. The fact of the apostles having spoken in 
 the presence of thousands. — Mcllvaine. 
 
 Section II. — The Participial Clause. (Continued.) 
 
 SPECIAL AND IDIOMATIC AND ELLIPTICAL FORMS. . 
 
 6. As in tlie case of the infinitive clause with passive 
 verbs and passive participles, the constituents of the par- 
 ticipial clause are often separated. 
 
 They were heard talking. He was seen running. 
 
 7. As in the case of the clauses already discussed, the 
 subject of this clause sometimes follows the predicate. 
 In this case the expletives it or there commonly precede. 
 In the following the subject-terms are in small capitals. 
 
 There being a large army there we returned. Spoke of its (== it) 
 being impossible to move. It being considered best that we should 
 MOVE forward, the tents were struck. 
 
 8. Sometimes the constituent parts of the predicate 
 are divided by the subject-term. 
 
THE PARTICIPIAL CLAUSE. 37 
 
 Was sure of there having been many mistakes made. 
 
 9. This clausal construction must not be confounded 
 with a participial word-form introduced by the- connective 
 as. 
 
 Discharged him as being unreliable. Not a clause. Him and as 
 being are separate word-forms. Spoke of Ids (= him) being unreli- 
 able. Clause-form. 
 
 10. Sometimes the participle seems to combine both 
 a predicative and an adjective force, making really a 
 semi-participial clause-form. Sometimes, also, the predi- 
 cative force shades off so gradually into the attributive, 
 that it is difficult to tell which is the stronger factor ; or 
 whether, indeed, the participle is not entirely attributive 
 in character. 
 
 Spoke of him as lecturing in the West. = of his lecturing and 
 being a lecturer in the West. Sejni-part. clause. 
 
 We talk of such things troubling us (Part, clause) ; we talk of such 
 things as troubling us (Semi-part, clause); we discharged the man 
 as troubling us (Adv. T.); represented him as constantly troubling 
 everybody (Adj. T.); I remember her taking the sacrament (Part, 
 clause); the painter represents her taking the sacrament {ki\]. T .) \ 
 Spoke of her as taking the sacrament (Semi-part, clause). 
 
 11. Mlipses. The copula in a participial clause is 
 sometimes omitted. 
 
 This (having been) done, we left. And so, his love (having been) 
 satisfied, they climbed into the boat. — Dr. Farrar. He worked with 
 his coat (being) off. Sat with his hands {being) folded. 
 
 In cases like the last two examples above, the copula being never is, and of 
 course never should be supplied. (So of the copula to be in 12, 17.) That in 
 such cases, however, beitifj is certain!)'- implied, is manifest from the sense. Sat 
 with WKT feet ; here, ivet is attributive. Sat with his/eef wet; here, wet is 
 predicative. That is, there is the same difference between the two as there is 
 between the red rose, and the rose is red; in other words, being is rea-Uyfelt in 
 the thought. 
 
 12. When the subject of this clause is the same as 
 that of the principal verb it is usually omitted, but not 
 always. \ 
 
38 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 He felt Qiiinself) honored. Bnt, He imagined Idmself lying on the 
 battle-field. I felt myself growing weaker and weaker. 
 
 EXEECiSE 14. 
 Do the same work as in preceding exercises. 
 
 ILLUSTRATION. 
 
 They were seen swimming. 
 
 They swimming is a Part- C-f., of which they is Subj. and swimming is Pred. 
 
 Spoke of there being a large company in the room. 
 
 There being a large company is a Part. C.-f., of which large company is the 
 Subj. and being is the Pred. In the room is a P.-f. 
 
 The report of there having been many battles fought against the 
 
 enemy. 
 Of there having been many battles fought is a Part. C.-f.; many battles 
 is the Subj., and having been fought is the Pred. Against the enemy is a P.-f. 
 
 This done, we left for the scene of action. 
 This done is a Part. C.-f., of which thisls Subj. and done {= having been done) 
 is the Pred. For the scene and of action are P.-fs. 
 
 I. 1. We saw the ship sailing. 2. The ship was seen sailino-. 
 3. The sight of the ship sailing was very beautiful. 4. The ship sail- 
 ing, we departed. 5. They said the ship had sailed. 6. We be- 
 lieved the ship to have sailed. 6. It was thought that the ship had 
 sailed. 8. The ship was said to have sailed. 9. The ship having 
 sailed, we returned home. 10. We are not certain of the ship hav- 
 ing sailed. 11. The ship sailing with all her canvass spread was a 
 beautiful sight. 12. Is it true that the ship has sailed? 18. The 
 fact is that the ship has sailed. 14. The fact of the ship having al- 
 ready sailed surprised us. 15. Was it said that the ship had sailed? 
 
 II. 1. Saw them coming. 2. Saw them come. 3. Saw that they 
 weie coming. 4. They were seen coming. 5. They were seen to 
 come. 6. It was perceived that they were coming. 7. It is best 
 for them to come. 8. It is best that they should come. 9. Were 
 they seen coming? 10. Were they seen to come ? 11. Was it best 
 for them to come? 12. Was it best that they should come? 
 13. Saw the army defeated. 14. Saw that the army was defeated. 
 15. Commanded the order to be read. 16. The command for the 
 order to be read. 1 7. It was commanded that the order should be 
 read. 18. Made him read the order. 19. He was made to read the 
 
THE PARTICIPIAL CLAUSE. 39 
 
 order. 20. Prevented the order being read. 21. Am certain of the 
 order having been read. 
 
 III. 1. We cannot prevent past images and impressions contin- 
 ually passing through our minds. — Darwin. 2. The fact of the 
 higher apes not using their vocal organs doubtless depends on their 
 intelligence not having been sufficiently advanced. — Ihid. 3. It 
 is no argument against savage man being a social animal, that the 
 tribes inhabiting (4, Rem.) adjacent districts are almost always at war. 
 — Ihid. 4. This point being once reached, there is only an arti- 
 ficial barri-er to prevent his sympathies extending to the men of all 
 natrons and races. — lUd. 
 
 Section III. — The Participial Clause. (Continued.) 
 
 GRAMMATICAL CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 13. Real and Apparent Terms. We have the sentence, She 
 was heard singing. It is clear that the thing heard, — that of which 
 the affirmation is really made, is not she, but she singing. Hence the 
 true subject of the sentence is the participial clause, she shiging It 
 is equally manifest, however, that she is the apparent or grammatical 
 nominative to the verb. (40, 1, (3).) 
 
 In the same way, in the sentence. It being impossible to laud, Ave 
 anchored off shore. The expletive it is the apparent and to land is 
 the rea/ subject. (11,17.) 
 
 In the same way also we may have a real and an apparent object. 
 Thus in the sentence, We saw the army defeated ; the armg is the 
 apparent, and the army defeated is the real object. 
 
 So likewise in the adjunctive form, the apparent object of the 
 preposition is not always the i'eal object of the same. Thus in the 
 following: — 
 
 They could not go forward on account of the bridge being broken 
 down. Here bridge is the apparent object of the preposition, while 
 the whole participial clause is the real object of it. 
 
 14. Concord* OF Case-forms. It should be noted that par- 
 ticiples have no control over the case-form of their subject-term. 
 This, as in the case of the subject of the infinitive, is in the nonji- 
 native or in the objective, according as it is the apparent subject or 
 apparent object of the principal verb. Saw him running. He was 
 seen running. 
 
 15. When the subject of the participle has no grammatical connec- 
 tion whatever unth the principal verb, as there is no reason for a change 
 
40 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 »f case, it remains in the nominative. This is usually called the case 
 absolute. He departing, we went away. They arriving, our fears 
 were removed. 
 
 16. When the subject of this clause is a proper tiame, or sl personal 
 pronoun in the following constructions, it is commonly put in the 
 possessive case, otherwise not. 
 
 (1.) After all prepositions. 
 
 (2.) J/ler words of Doubting and Denying, Hindering and Prevent' 
 ing. Commanding and Conceiving, and some others. 
 
 (3.) When the clause as a whole is made the subject-terrnof aprepo' 
 sition. 
 
 Doubts his arriving in season. Denies his being in the secret. 
 Prevented Ccesar^s commencing the flight. Ordered t?teir crossing 
 the river. Imagine John^s going to college; was vexed at their com- 
 ing; his being a Roman secured his liberty. 
 
 Note. In the case of common nouns English writers uniformly 
 use either the nominative or the objective case-form, according to the 
 general principles of government and concord, unless ambiguity 
 would arise. 
 
 This anomalous use of the possessive case was permitted primarily 
 to prevent ambiguity. Thus, He being a foreigner prevented his 
 election. 
 
 This sentence is perfectly grammatical, but in this form it is hot 
 clear whether he (in the clause, he being a foreigner') is the subject of 
 the sentence, or the subject of the participial clause. Hence, to re- 
 move all ambiguity, it is considered better to put the pronoun in the 
 possessive case, even though the rules of grammar are thereby vio- 
 lated, than to speak so as not to be clearly understood. As, how- 
 ever, ambiguity in this particular rarely occurs except in the 'jase 
 oi proper names 2ii\d personal pronouns, in all other cases the rules of 
 grammar are by our best authors almost invariably observed. 
 
 The report of an armed force having assembled there. — Prescctl. 
 The fact of their priesthood having been drawn exclusively from tlio 
 Incas. — Id. (See, also, 13.) 
 
 17. The complement of a participle, like that of other forms of the 
 verb (12, 28), takes the same case as its subject. When the sub- 
 ject is in the possessive case, the complement takes the case which 
 the subject would have had but for the anomalous use of the pos- 
 sessive. 
 
 His (=he) being a ybrei^/jer prevented his election. (Comp. Xom. 
 Case.) Spoke of his (= him) being a foreigner. (Comp. Obj. Case.) 
 
THE PARTICIPIAL CLAUSE. 41 
 
 Prevented his (=. him) being considered a foreigner. (Conip. Obj. 
 Case.) Am sure of its {= it) being him. (Comp. Obj. Case.) 
 
 18. The word as should not be combined with the participle 
 when the participle is to have a predicative force. 
 
 The existence of society depends on men and women as enttnng 
 into a social relation. — Dr. UopJcins. Say, depends on me?i and 
 women entering, etc. 
 
 19. Sometimes, however, the adjective form and the predicative 
 form may be used equally well and with little difference of meaning. 
 
 He spoke of it as being well known in his day = spoke of iis 
 being well known, etc. 
 
 20. Participles, like infinitives, have no time of their own. The 
 present active and passive, and the past passive indicate time co- 
 ordinate with that of the principal verb; the only difference being 
 that the former expresses progressive, but incomplete action, the lat- 
 ter progressive and completed action. Thus, Saw the city burning. 
 (Pres. l^iirt. f incomplete action.) Saw ^Ae city burned. (Past Part., 
 completed action.) 
 
 The perfect participle, on the other hand, indicates time com- 
 pleted before the time of the principal verb. 
 
 Spoke of his son having graduated the year before. 
 
 Note. The present participle may also indicate future time, that 
 is, time subsequent to that of the principal verb. 
 
 Talked about his son going to college next year. 
 
 Exercise 15. 
 
 Do the same work as in preceding exercises. Correct such examples 
 as are faulty, and explain the reason for the correction; distinguish 
 real and ajjparent terms. 
 
 I. 1. Was not sure of its being me. 2. They thought it to be 
 me. 3. Says that it must have been me. 4. Its (=: it) not being 
 me should make no difference. 5. For it to be me is impossible. 
 6. Who was thought to be me? 7. Who, was it supposed, Avas me? 
 8. Who was he supposed to be ? 9. Who did you suppose him to 
 be? 10. Who doubts but that it was me? 11. It is not impossi- 
 ble but that it was me. 12. We do not know but what it was you. 
 13. Oh, that it had been me! 
 
 II. 1. Fears lest he is killed. 2. We saw him killed. 3. I saw 
 them kill him. 4. Ordered him to be killed. 5. Ordered them to 
 kill him. 6. We will prevent this being done. 7. Who doubts but 
 
42 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 it is done already ? 8. Did any one see it done ? 9. I hold it an 
 awful thing to kill a man. 10. Can we prevent the crime's being 
 perpetrated? (13, 16.) 11. I do not know but what it has ah-eady 
 been perpetrated. 12. Was any one seen to kill him? 13. How 
 is it that he was killed ? 14. Let them be punished and not you 
 and I. 15. Let there be no escape for them. 
 
 III. 1. I can recall my mother telling him he had better go at 
 once to his father. — Moore. 2. The combatants separated with- 
 out either party having the advantage. — Prescott. 3. Several ex- 
 amples of Arabian sovereigns visiting the court of Castile. — Id. 
 4. Communications were cut off in consequence of the neighboring 
 fortresses being in possession of the enemy. — Id. 5. Her disquie- 
 tude had been increased by the fact of Scotland having become a 
 party to the war. — Id. 6. An account of my being seen at White's 
 Sunday. — Macaulay. 7. Have taken so much pains to prevent it 
 being known. — /(/. 8. Commanded the admiral to see that order 
 carried into execution. 9. The Albemarle was nearly overset, in 
 consequence of her masts having been made too long. — Souihey^s 
 Life of Nebion. 10. There can be little doubt but that the expedi- 
 tion would have faded. — Id. 11. The Duke of Clarence will take 
 a lively interest for my son-in-law, on his name being mentioned. — 
 Id. 12. His shattered frame had sufficiently recovered for him to 
 resume his duties. — Id. 13. Feel an interest in the powers of 
 genius being duly appreciated. — T. Moore. 14. On Crabbe men- 
 tioning Dudley North, he inquired about him. — Id. 15. He men- 
 tioned Smith having told me he meant to make use of it. — Id. 
 
 IV. 1. Who ever heard of a deist as exercising such rei^entance? 
 Hopkins. 2. Cannot conceive of an Infinite Being having fully the 
 attributes of personality. — Id. 3. Spoke of this tree as standing 
 entire in his boyhood. 4. The prisoners had their right foot cut 
 off. — Hume. 5. It accounts for Italy having been the great as- 
 sailant of the Goths. — Lecky. 6. An account of a miracle hav- 
 ing taken place. — Id. 7. Lady H. told how she had dreamed that 
 a mad dog bit her foot. — Macaulay. 8. It would appear as if there 
 was little coherence in society. — McCosh. 9. It is not impossible 
 but that something may be done. 10. I feel as if he were a good 
 man. 11. It seems as if there were a government by general laws. 
 <— McCosh, 
 
THE RELATIVE CLAUSE. 43 
 
 Exercise 16. 
 
 Write jive participial clauses using a present participle, Jive using a 
 past, Jive of the adjunctive form. Jive with the subject term following the 
 predicate ; five used independently or absolutely ; foe with the particip- 
 ial copula omitted ; five with the subject and predicate terms separated ; 
 five with the subject term the same as the subject of the principal verb; 
 five of the semi-participial clause-form. 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 THE RELATIVE CLAUSE. 
 
 Section I. — Relatives. 
 
 14. A Relative is, in general, a word which combines 
 the offices of a pronoun and a connective. 
 
 He built a house in which he lived =He built a house and in it he 
 lived. Here which is equivalent to and it. 
 
 Note. These words are termed relatives because they relate to an 
 antecedent noun or pronoun. Thus, house, in the above example, is 
 the antecedent of the following relative. 
 
 1. Relatives are divided into, 
 
 (1.) Relative Pronouns, namely: who, which, what; and the 
 compounds, whoever, whosoever, whatever, whatsoever, whichever, which- 
 soever, etc. 
 
 (2,) Relative Adverbs, namely: tohere, whence, johither, ivhen, 
 while, whilst, why, how ; the compounds of where with the prepositions 
 at, by, fore (^f or'), from, in, unto, by, into, upon, with, and with the 
 connective as, etc. ; and the compounds of whither, tchen, and how, 
 with ever or soever. 
 
 (3.) Relative Adjectives, namely: which, what, and the com- 
 pounds of the same with ever or soever. 
 
 (4.) Relative Connective j namely: whether. 
 
 2. The conjunctions that, as, and if often have the value of rela- 
 tives. 
 
 The man that came; such things as J have ; asks if he can go. 
 (if = whether). 
 
 3. Relative adverbs have generally the value of relative phrases. 
 The place where = in which. The time when = at which. 
 
44 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 At the time that = when = at loliich. In the same manner a^ = in 
 which. 
 
 4. Relatives compounded with ever and soever, since they refer to 
 what is indejinite or general, are termed indefinite relatives. Does 
 whatever he pleases. Speaks to whomsoever he wishes. Goes wher- 
 ever he pleases. 
 
 5. The relative what is used sometimes definitely and sometimes 
 indefinitely. 
 
 Told what you said (definite.) Told what he pleast-d (indefinite). 
 
 6. What, used as a relative pronoun to introduce a clause, must 
 not be confounded with the same word used as an adverb in the sense 
 of partly. 
 
 What by hard labor and constant industry, and what by the ut- 
 most economy and care, he bettanie quite wealthy. 
 
 7. Whatever, used adverbially in the sense of at all, must not be 
 confounded with the same in its pronoun use. 
 
 He has nothing lohalever to offer as an excuse. 
 
 Exercise 17. 
 
 Distinguish the relative pronouns, the relative adverbs, and the relative 
 phrases. Give the relative j)J»'CUie which is (he equivalent of each relative 
 adverb. Point out the compound forms. 
 
 Who ; while ; which ; whence ; how ; why ; whom ; whereby ; who- 
 soever; for whom; to whom; whomsoever; in which; whereat; what; 
 whatever; whereto; for whom; wheresoever; which man; whose 
 book. That whereof he spoke. The city wherein he lives. Noth- 
 ing whatever can move me. The means whereby he lives. At the 
 time that you came. 
 
 Section II. — The Relative Clause. 
 
 DEFINITION AND GENERAL CHARACTER. 
 
 8. ReLitive clauses are such as are introduced by a rel- 
 ative., or a relative phrase. 
 
 The house ivhich he bought ; — in lohich he lives ; — where he lives ; 
 — to which he came ; — whither he came ; — of which he spoke ; — where- 
 of he spoke. 
 
 9. Relative clauses are found in logical connection with 
 all kinds of words. In tliis respect, their use is much 
 
THE EEL ATI VE CLAUSE. 45 
 
 more extensive than that of the three clauses previously 
 discussed. 
 
 10. In its adjunctive form the relative clause is found 
 with nearly all the prepositions in the language. 
 
 Talked about what you said; speaks to whoever will hear him; al- 
 ways conies EXCEPT when we want him. I am not decided as to 
 whether I shall go or whether I shall stay. Your salary will depend osr 
 whether you mean to work or not. 
 
 11. A preposition at the head of a relative clause may 
 mark the relation of the following relative merely, or of 
 the entire clause. These cases must be carefully distin- 
 guished. 
 
 He knows to whom he spoke. (To governs whom only; = he spoke 
 to whom.) Kel. cl. Non-Adjunc. form. The man for whom he 
 worked. {For governs whom only == worked for whom.) Rel. cl. 
 Non-Adjunc. form. Much depends on who the king is. {On governs 
 \\iQ whole clause, (}iOQs not mean, on who; but on who the king 
 IS.) Ad June. Rel. cl. Gives to whomsoever he loves. {To governs the 
 whole clause.) Adjunc. Rel. cl. 
 
 12. Sometimes an adjunctive relative clause contains a 
 relative phrase. 
 
 We were talking about what you referred to. Here about marks 
 the relation of the clause to the principal verb, while to marks the 
 relation of what simply to the verb referred. 
 
 13. So in all cases the function of the relative itself 
 as distinguished from the relative clause should be care- 
 fully noted. Thus, — 
 
 Told what he wanted. Here the whole clause is the object of told, 
 while what is the object of wanted. 
 
 Speaks to whoever will listen. Here, the whole clause is the object 
 of /o, and whoever is the subject of tcill listen. 
 
 Has not where to lay his head. The whole clause is the object of 
 has, and where, as an adverb, modifies to lay. 
 
 The place whither he came. Here, the wliole clause as an adjec- 
 tive term modifies place, and whither, as an adverbial terra, modifies 
 
46 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 Lectures on what he understands. The whole clause is governed 
 by on, and tchat is the object of understands. 
 
 Whoever comes first is first served. The whole clause is the sub- 
 ject of w, and whoever is subject of comes. 
 
 14. The relative may be used in its own clause as suh- 
 ject.^ object., complement., or as an adjective., or an adverb- 
 ial modifier. 
 
 He who came. (Subj.) Those whom we love. (Obj.) Asks who 
 he is. (Comp.) Told what things he said. (Adj.) He whose son 
 lam. (Adj.) Told w^ere he went. (Adv.) Told wA ere 0/ he spoke. 
 (Adv.) 
 
 15. A relative clause may contain two relatives hold- 
 ing different logical relations to the predicate. Thus it 
 may have a relative for its subject and a relative for its 
 object. 
 
 It tended to treason, which whoever should attempt would be at once 
 arrested. 
 
 16. This clause may be introduced by two or more 
 relatives, holding the same logical relations to the predi- 
 cate. 
 
 Inquired where, when, and how this thing was done. (All Adv. 
 terms.) 
 
 Cautions. Do not confound relative clauses introduced by how 
 with demonstrative clauses (equivalents) introduced by the same 
 word. 
 
 We remember how late he used to read every night. (Rel. cl.) 
 
 We remember how he used to read late every night. (Dem. (equiv.) 
 cl.) 
 
 They asked how the settlement was defended. (Rel. cl.) 
 
 I shall relate how this settlement was successfully defended. — ^la- 
 caulay. (Dem. (equiv.) cl.) 
 
 It is not known how he went away. (Rel. cl.) 
 
 Ye have heard how I said unto you I go away. (Dem. (equiv.) cl.) 
 
 Exercise 18. 
 
 Do the same work as in previous exercises. Also tell the use of the 
 relative in each clause. Point out all antecedents. 
 
THE RELATIVE CLAUSE. 47 
 
 ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 Talked about what you said. 
 
 About what you said is a Rel. C.-f . Adjunc ; about governs the whole clause of 
 which you is subj. and said is Pred. 
 
 What is the Obj. of said and has no antecedent. 
 
 Knows about what you were talking. 
 
 About what you were talking is a Rel. C.-f. of which you is Subj. and were 
 talking is Pred. 
 
 What is object of about and with it makes a Rel. P.-f. The Rel. has no 
 antecedent. ^ * 
 
 Were talking about what you spoke of. 
 
 About what you spoke q/*is a Rel. C.-f. Adjunc. (about governs the Rel. cl. as 
 a whole), you is the Subj., and spoke is the Pred. 
 
 What is the Obj. of of, and with it makes a Rel. P.-f. The Rel. has no 
 antecedent. 
 
 The subject whereon he lectured. 
 
 Whereon he lectured is a Rel. C.-f., of which he is Subj. and lectured is Pred. 
 Whereon is an Adv. and subject is its antecedent. 
 
 I. 1. The book which was interesting. 2. What book was in- 
 teresting? 3. Whatever is true is interesting. 4. Told what he 
 read. 5. Spoke about what he had read. 6. This is what we read. 
 7. Much depends on what one reads. 8. Told in what books he 
 was interested. 9. Is interested in what pleases him. 10. What 
 pleases is not necessarily valuable. 11. Reflects on what he reads. 
 12. Remembers what he reflects upon. (8, 6.) 13. Asked Avhether 
 it was true. 
 
 II. 1. The place where I live. 2. The means whereby he lives. 
 3. The theme whereon he spoke. 4. The reason why he came. 
 5. The question what light is. 6. Told whence he came. 7. Whence 
 he came is not known. 8. What was done was not known. 9. 
 Speaks to whoever listens. 10. Relies on what is told him. 11. 
 Relies on what you told him. 12. The thing whereon he relies. 
 
 III. 1. Look unto the rock whence ye are hewn, and to the hole of 
 the pit whence ye are digged. — Bible, 2. Tells us that the poet liere 
 alludes to the fable of the giant Enceladus lying under Mount ^tna. 
 Blair. 3. It is hard that these should be allowed to man their sliifis 
 from your subjects. — Dale. 4. There are frequent examples of 
 persons, when just about to suffer death, taking a passionate fari*- 
 well of the sun, moon, and stars. — Blai?-. 6. What is gained is not 
 equal to what is lost. — Ibid. 7. His "Jerusalem Delivered" was 
 published in 1574. — Ibid. 8. "The Pi-ovoked Husband" is, j)crliaps, 
 
48 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 the best comedy in the English language. — Ihid. 9. However thi-: 
 may have been, when they found that the English intended to 
 evacuate the island, they sent to make their peace with the French. 
 
 — Southey. 
 
 IV. 1. It is a just observation, that victorious Rome was subdued 
 by the arts of Greece. — Gibbon. 2. It seemed as if the Romans 
 had entered upon the Carthaginian heritage. — Munsen. 3. Ye have 
 heard how I said unto you, I go away. — Bible. 4. The mind feels 
 as if it must have some response. 5. ^Must be remedied by the 
 wealth being taxed. — McCosh. 6. I thought myself agreeable. — 
 Macaulay. 7. Much of the praise I know to be undeserved. 
 
 — Ibid. 8. Professed himself quite an admirer. — Ibid. 
 
 Section III. — The Relative Clause. {Continued.) 
 
 SPECIAL AND IDIOMATIC! FORMS. 
 
 17. The relative clause is often introduced by that in 
 the sense of the simple relative pronouns who or ivhich. 
 Such clauses must be carefully distinguished from de- 
 monstrative clauses. (11.) 
 
 A lesson that he may learn (Rel. cl.) Thinks that he may learn 
 (Dem. cl.) 
 
 18. In the older English that is often used in the sense 
 of the relative what. 
 
 We speak that we do hioio {= what). That thou doest do 
 quickly. — Bible. 
 
 19. That is often used in the sense of a relative adverb, 
 or a relative phrase. (14, 3.) 
 
 At the time that he came (= at which). Children of the age 
 that we find them in the grammar schools (=: at which). In the 
 day THAT thou eatest thereof, etc. (= in which). 
 
 20. In place of the above construction we find occa- 
 sionally, in the poets especially, an imitation of the 
 Latin method in similar logical connections. 
 
 Which suddenly broke off 
 What time he dropped the wallet of the flesh. — .l/r>'. Bmwj^inrj. 
 
THE RELATIVE CLAUSE. 49 
 
 21. The relative clause, when introduced by that in the 
 sense of a relative adverb or a relative phrase, is es- 
 pecially frequent, when the antecedent of the relative 
 is the pronoun it (11, 17, (c) ), standing usually at the 
 head of the sentence, and expressing some person or thing 
 easily supplied by the mind. 
 
 It was to him that I spoke (= ih.e. person to whom was he). It was 
 there that he lived (==. The place where he lived was there). It was 
 then that he came (= The time lohen he came was then). 
 
 22. In these it constructions we sometimes have two 
 relative clauses, one referring to the subject of the sen- 
 tence, the other to the complement of the same. 
 
 It was then, when you came, that I arrived (== The time, at 
 which I arrived, was the time when you came). 
 
 It was to him lohom you saw that I spoke (=: The person, to 
 whom I spoke, was he whom you saw). It is this ease and ductility 
 of method hy which it winds in and out of every opportunity that 
 MAKES IT PLEASING. — Bascom's Rhet. 
 
 Remark. This singular idiom above discussed has nothing corre- 
 sponding to it, in the ancient classics. The* French, however, has 
 the same idiom precisely. 
 
 23. This clause is often introduced by as in the sense 
 of a simple pronoun. 
 
 It is impossible for him to succeed, as everybody knows (= which 
 everybody knows). He is a highly educated man, as I have learned 
 since (== which I have learned since). 
 
 24. As often has the force of a relative pronoun when 
 the latter could not be substituted in its place. This is 
 always the case when it occurs after the words such and 
 same^ used as antecedents or correlatives. 
 
 Such as we have. The same as they have, 
 
 25. In a similar manner as often introduces this clause 
 with the force of a relative adverb. When thus used it 
 always involves, or suggests, an ellipsis which being sup- 
 plied clearly indicates its relative character. 
 
60 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 We came just as you left (== at the time at which). He reads as 
 he rides (== while, all the time during which). As the tree falls 
 so it lies (=: In what manner the tree falls in that manner it lies). 
 He spoke as follows (== in that manner which follows). Is as tall as 
 you are (= is so much tall which amount you are tall). As rapidly 
 as he could speak {= with so much rapidity with which rapidity he 
 could speak.) Did as you directed (= after the manner according 
 to WHICH, etc.) So all such expressions as, — as soon cw he came ; 
 as far as he traveled; as much as you please ; as fast as possible, etc. 
 
 26. Like as is not unfrequently used in the older Eng- 
 lish instead of as. 
 
 Was tempted in all points like as we are. Like as a father pitieth 
 his children so the Lord, etc. — Bible. 
 
 27. The relative Jioiv, used as the correlative of so, to 
 express measure of difference (12, 2), introduces a rela- 
 tive clause. 
 
 This thing, by how much higher it is by so much greater fall I am 
 to fear. — Mcintosh. 
 
 28. Some of these forms are used adjunctively. 
 
 It is not a moral ide!i, except as it is a condition of moral action 
 (= except in so far as, etc.) — Hopkins. We gave to all accord- 
 ing as each had need. 
 
 29. After words of asking, inquiring, petitioning, etc., 
 this clause is often introduced by if with the sense of 
 whether (14, 3). If has also sometimes the force of as. 
 
 Asked (/" it were true. Inquired (/" there were many present. If 
 he has vices he has many virtues also (= As on the one hand he has, 
 etc., so on the other hand, etc.). 
 
 30. The constituents of this clause are often separated, 
 especially in questions. 
 
 Who did you say was present ? What did they think the trouble 
 was ? 
 
 31. This clause is sometimes divided by a parenthet- 
 ical expression having no grammatical connection with 
 the clause itself; therefore not to be noticed in the analy- 
 sis of the same. 
 
THE RELATIVE CLAUSE. 61 
 
 A remark, which, said he, was exceedingly unjust. 
 
 32. Relative infinitive clauses are sometimes divided 
 into three parts. 
 
 Who was he thought to he ? Of what was the man supposed to be 
 guilty ? 
 
 33. This clause may be combined with a demonstra- 
 tive, an infinitive, "or a participial clause. Such are 
 termed Relative demonstrative, Relative infinitive, or 
 Relative participial clauses. 
 
 Who do men say that 1 amf — Bible. (Rel. dem.) Whom do 
 they think me to be? (Rel. inf.) What is it best for them to do? 
 (Rel. Expl. Inf.) What did you see done? (Rel. part.) Which 
 being removed, the effect ceases. — Wayland. (Rel. part.) 
 
 34. Cautions. Distinguish carefully demonstrative clauses, in- 
 troduced by THAT, from relative clauses introduced by the same 
 word. 
 
 It was there that I saw him. (Rel. cl. that = where.) 
 
 It was true that I saiv him. (Dem. cl. that has no relative equiv- 
 alent.) 
 
 It is you that he laboredjvr. (Rel. cl. that -.- for = for whom.) 
 
 It is certain that he labored for you. (Dem. cl. no equivalent for 
 that.) 
 
 It is he that I spoke to. (Rel. cl. that =: whom.) 
 
 It is true that I spoke to him. (Dem. cl.) 
 
 On the same day that you arrived. (Rel. cl.) 
 
 Says that you arrived on that day. (Dem. cl.) 
 
 Exercise 19. 
 
 Do (he same work as in previous exercises. 
 
 ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 At the time that he came. 
 That he came is a Rel. C.-f. of which he is Subj., and came is Pred. 
 That (= when =:at which) is a Rel. Adv., and time is its antecedent. 
 
 It was you that I spoke to. 
 That I spoke to is a Rel. C.-f., of which / is the Subj., and spoke the Pred. 
 That is the Obj. of to, and with it malces a Rel. P.-f. ; it (=the person) is its 
 antecedent. 
 
52 ENGLISH LANGUAGE.. 
 
 Who is it that you saw? 
 That you saw is a Rel. C-f., of which you is Subj., and saw is Pred. 
 That is Obj. of saw, and it ( = the person) is its antecedent. 
 
 Such as we have. 
 As we have is a Rel. C.-f. — of which we is the Subj., and have is the Pred. 
 As is the Rel. and the Obj. of have, and such is its antecedent. 
 
 Said that he was learned, as all know. 
 
 That he was learned is a Dem. C.-f., of which he is Subj., and was leaitied is 
 Pred. 
 
 As all know is a Rel. C.-f., of which all is Subj., and know is Pred. 
 
 As (=what) is a Rel. and is the Obj. of know, and the Dem. cl., that he was 
 leai'ned, is its antecedent. 
 
 He came as you left. 
 As you left is a Rel. C.-f., of which you is Subj., and left is Pred. 
 As (= when) is a Rel. Adv., and has no aniecedent. 
 
 A man is not truly virtuous except as he is conscientious. 
 Except as he is conscientious is an Adjunc. Rel. C.-f., of which he is Subj., 
 and is conscientious is the Pred. Except marks the relation of the whole clause. 
 As is a Rel. Adv., and has no antecedent. 
 
 Asked if he had come. 
 If he had come is a Rel. C.-f., of which he is Subj., and had come is Pred. 
 7/" (= whether) is a Rel. Connective. 
 
 What was he supposed to be talking about. 
 What he to he talking about is a Rel. Inf. C.-f., of which he is Subj., and to be 
 talking is Pred. (See 12, 12.) 
 
 What about (= about what) is a Rel. P.-f. 
 
 I. 1. The sight that he saw was beautiful. 2. The fact that he 
 saw a beautiful sight. 3. The fact that I mentioned (14, 18) about 
 his seeing a beautiful sight. 4. Says that I mentioned the fact. 
 
 5. It is time for me to see. 6. It was this that I saw. 7. It was 
 there that I saw. 8. Thus it was that I saw. 9. At the time that 
 I saw. 10. By what means was it that you saw the sight ? 11. It 
 cannot be but he saw the sight. 12. Spoke of your having seen it. 
 
 n. 1. He saw as you see. 2. He saw what you see, as he him- 
 self knows. 3. He saw as much as you see. 4. He saw all that 
 there was to be seen, as all know. 5. Saw as much as any one. 
 
 6. Spoke about what he saw. 7. Told by what means he saw. 
 8. Whoever saw, was rewarded. 9. It was he to whom I spoke that 
 saw the sight. 10. It is manifest that he saw the sisht. 11. How 
 
THE RELATIVE CLAUSE. 63 
 
 could it be that be should see the sight! 12. He certainly is said 
 to have seen it 
 
 III. 1. Ask the teacher if we can go. 2. It cannot be but he 
 will succeed. 3. Who questions that he will succeed? 4. Who 
 knows but he may V 5. He told how he had been eminently suc- 
 cessful and had made large sums of money. 6. He was guilty of 
 treachery, than which no crime is more despicable. 7. Told when 
 and how he became a traitor. 8. Was he supposed to have been 
 a traitor? 9. Was it he who was with us tbat they thought to be a 
 traitor? 
 
 IV. 1. There have been many instances of men liaving been first 
 strangled and then crucified. — Dr. Farrar. 2. Never was a 
 prophecy more clearly fulfilled, — the men going about in the guise 
 of women, with swords concealed (13) under their gay robes; the 
 priests struck by darts from the upper court of the Temple and 
 falling slain by their own sacrifices; the corpses themselves lying in 
 piles and mounds on the very altar steps; the fires feeding luxu- 
 riously on cedar- work overlaid with gold; friend and foe trampled 
 to death in promiscuous carnage (13) . — Id. 3. At the very time 
 when the author gave him the book for perusal. — Campbell. 4. The 
 pronoun their is plural for the same reason that who is 
 
 Section IV. — The Relative Clause. {Continued.^ 
 
 ^ NEGATIVE AND ELLIPTICAL FORMS. 
 
 35. After negatives, real or implied, a negative rela- 
 tive clause is often introduced by hut liaving the force of 
 not (11, 9). Here, as in the case of the demonstrative 
 clause in similar constructions, the two negatives make 
 the proposition affirmative. 
 
 There is not a man who does not know his duty (= hut who knows 
 his duty.) Who is there who does not know his duty? (= hut loho 
 knows, etc.) He planted not a field which did not yield bounti- 
 fully (= hut ichich yielded bountifully). Who ever planted a field 
 which did not yield bountifully? (= hid which yielded, etc.) 
 
 36. Ellipses. The relative is very often omitted. 
 
 The man (whom) you saw. The book (which) I hought. The mo- 
 ment (that) he arrived. This is the one (lohich) I like hest. It was 
 this (that) we were speaking of. It is you (that) we are seekinj. 
 
64 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 This ellipsis is very common after than in comparisons and aftei 
 negatives. 
 
 We have more than (what) ice need. Has less than {what) is 
 necessary. There is no one but (who) knows Jiis duty. There is not 
 a moment hut (when) some one dies. Where is there a spot on earth 
 but (where) there are traces of a divinity f 
 
 37. By a singular idiom, the adjunctive infinitive 
 clause with for is sometimes combined with the relative 
 form ; the relative not being usually expressed, but 
 clearly implied (12, 6). 
 
 He purchased a house /or Ats son to live in (which). Here is a 
 knife /or you to cut with (which). There is no one for James to play 
 with (whom). 
 
 38. In this construction, when the subject of the in- 
 finitive clause and that of the principal verb are the same, 
 the former is always omitted. The preposition, also, in 
 modern English, is omitted. 
 
 I have a house (for myself) to live in (which). What went ye out 
 for (yourselves) to see. — Old Eng. 
 
 39. There is often an ellipsis of the relative before the 
 word there used expletively and introducing the clause. 
 
 Spoke of the danger (which) there was in the undertaking. Beheld 
 the grandeur (which) there was everywhere. 
 
 40. In relative demonstrative clauses the connective is 
 usually omitted. 
 
 What did he say (that) it was f Who did you think (that) they 
 were f What, is it desirable (that) he should do f 
 
 41. In relative clauses denoting a comparison and in- 
 troduced by how used correlatively (14, 27), both the 
 relative and the preceding preposition are omitted, and 
 the word the substituted in their place. 
 
 By how much we have more, by so much we want more (= the 
 more we have, the more, etc.). 
 
THE RELATIVE CLAUSE. 65 
 
 42. Relative adjective clauses introduced by as (= in 
 the way in which, or in the form in which) regularly 
 omit the subject term and the copula. 
 
 This doctrine as held by the Egyptians has become extinct (= as 
 it ^^?asheld). These theories as taught by some philosophers cannot 
 be maintained (= as they are taught). 
 
 Remark. It is evident, in the above examples, that as is a rela- 
 tive (14, 3) adverb. Hence, the verb-form following cannot be a 
 participial word-form, as relative adverbs never introduce such. The 
 construction, therefore, must be that of an elliptical clause. 
 
 43. The predicate is sometimes omitted. 
 
 This is the same as that (is) ; has as much as you (have) ; it is as 
 well for you to go as for you to remain (is well). 
 
 44. Both subject and predicate are often omitted. 
 
 (1.) After negatives. 
 
 He feared something he knew not what (it loas). The seed should 
 spring up and grow he knew not how (it icas to be done). — Bible. 
 
 (2.) In comparisons. 
 
 Did the same as (he did) before ; behaved in the same manner as 
 (he behaved) when you were here; he spoke as (he would have 
 spoken) if he were mad ; he talked as (he would have talked) if he 
 had been an orator; he acted as (he loould have acted) if he had been 
 my friend. It is as desirable that I should study French as (that I 
 should study) Latin (is desirable) ; he is as happy abroad as (he is) 
 at home.. 
 
 45. Note. Constructions like the following seem like elliptical 
 clause-forms; but as nothing is needed to complete the sense by im- 
 plication or otherwise ; and as in many instances nothing can be sup- 
 plied without actually harming the sense, all these and similar forms 
 should be considered word-forms. 
 
 Does not know lohat to do ; when to go ; ivhen to come ; how to pro- 
 ceed. 
 
 Cannot learn how to write. Does not understand what to begin 
 with. Has decided what to write on ; what to speak of; whom to speak 
 to. What is it best to do f 
 
 46. Cautions. Do not confound with other clauses relative 
 clauses introduced. 
 
 (1.) By but. Here but has the value of not with a relative. Who 
 
56 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 is there hut has done wrong (but = who — not). Rel. cl. Who 
 knows hut he has done lorong (but = that — not). Dem. cl. 
 
 No man Uves hut has done wrong. Rel. cl. No man believes hut 
 he ha3 done wrong. Dem. cl. 
 
 (2.) By as if (14, 43, (2).) 
 
 It seems as if it must be true. Dem. equiv. cl. 
 
 He acts as if he were true. Conj. cl. Rel. cl. implied. 
 
 I feel as if he was a thief. Dem. equiv. cl. 
 
 When the word looks is used in the sense of seems, the as {/"clause 
 is demonstrative; when it has the meaning of things look (i. e., the 
 outside or visible appearances or phenomena indicate so and so) the 
 as if form is conjunctive with a relative clause implied. 
 
 It looks to me as if he was a thief. Dem. (Equiv.) cl. It looks 
 very much as if he was a thief, (i. e., outside appearances so indicate.) 
 
 Exercise 20. 
 
 Do the same work as in previous Exercises-, note all ellipses; point 
 
 out all ANTECEDENTS. 
 
 ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 There is not a man but has sinned. 
 
 But has sinned is a Rel. C.-f., of which who (understood) is Subj., and hat 
 tinned is Pred. 
 
 "Wlio knows but he is dishonest? 
 
 But he is dishonest is a Dem. C.-f., of which he is Subj., and is dishonest ia 
 Pred. But (= but that) is connective. 
 
 WTio is there but is dishonest ? 
 
 But is dishonest is a Rel. C.-f., of which who (understood) is Subj., and is dis- 
 honest is Pred. 
 
 Bought a knife for you to cut with. 
 
 For you to cut with {which) is a Rel. Inf. C.-f., also Adjunc ; you is Subj., to 
 cut is Pred. With which is a Rel. P.-f. 
 
 There is not a moment but some one dies. 
 
 But some one dies is a Rel. C.-f., of which some one is Subj., and dies is Pred. 
 When is understood, and but (when) = when not. 
 
 He is as happy in one place as in another. 
 
 As in another is a Rel. C.-f. (elliptical) of which he (understood) is Subj., and 
 is happy understood is Pred. As is a Rel. Adv. In another is a P.-f. 
 
THE RELATIVE CLAUSE. 57 
 
 Who did you think they were ? 
 
 Who — they were is a Rel. C.-f., of which they is the Snbj., and were is the 
 Pred. Who is the Comp. 
 
 L There is no one who does not sin; who is there but sins? I am 
 not sure but I have sinned; who knows but I have sinned? there is 
 not a man but knows it; he is said to have sinned; it seems strange 
 that men sin every day; there are men that sin every day; it is he 
 who lives there that committed that sin. 
 
 II. 1. We have many things we do not know what to do with. 
 2. It was agreed that what goods were aboard the vessel, should 
 be loaded. 3. Such as are turned aside unto their crooked ways. 
 4. Said that he arose and spoke as follows. 5. He has more than he 
 knows what to do with. 6. Inquired if he could remain. 7. Went 
 on to narrate how he had crossed the ocean many times and how 
 once he had come near being shipwrecked. 8. Asked how he could 
 cross the ocean. 9. He became a defaulter, than which what is 
 more disgraceful? 10. There was not a moment but some one 
 spoke. 11. He attempted smuggling his goods, which whoever under- 
 takes is sure to be detected. 12. He made much money, I do not 
 know how. 13. It is said they know not where to go. 14. Is it 
 they that have no home? 15. Who is there but has some home? 
 
 HI. 1. I did find him still mine enemy. 2. Hath not old cus- 
 tom made this life more sweet? — Shak. 3. It was a gross instance 
 of Sabbath breaking for them to be healed on that sacred day. — 
 Farrar. 4. To strik-e him dead I hold it not a sin. 5. Let him 
 know that it is not about Corcyra that he is deliberating. 6. It is 
 better for jne to die than to live. — Bible. 7. Thou hast had pity 
 on the gourd for the which thou hast not labored, neither madest it 
 grow. — Id. 8. On an effect presenting itself to our notice we l)e- 
 lieve that it must have a cause. — McCosJi. 9. What the cause is, 
 is to be determined by observation. — Id. 10. We talk, indeed, of 
 time effecting mighty changes. — Id. 11» In no such case are we to 
 believe without proof being supplied. — Id. 12. All doubts are now 
 decided by eternity being cast into the scale. — Id. 
 
 IV. 1. There is not a man but considers himself personally in- 
 terested. — Southey. 2. This- is one proof, that for our soldiers to 
 equal our seamen, it is only necessary for them to be equally well 
 commanded. — Id. 3. Every one knows that to speak of a change 
 producing itself, or of a change' occurring with no relation whatever 
 to any other event, is to speak nonsense. — Wayland. 4. It was 
 
58 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 from want of acuteness of observation that Locke fell into many of 
 his most important errors. — Id. 5. It is on the perfection of this 
 delicate instinct, which recognizes all the laws of association, that 
 the power of the dramatist essentially depends. — Id. 6. It may 
 seem, from what I have said, that association evinces a power beyond 
 our control. — Id. 7. I think it was Johnson who mentions that it 
 was his custom in youth, as soon as he had read a book, to find some 
 one to whom he could explain its principles. — Id. 8. Acuteness 
 will be sharpened, and what is of greater consequence, the mind be- 
 comes accustomed to forms of reasoning. — Wayland. 9. We love, 
 what is of greater consequence, the instinctive love of truth. — Id. 
 10. They will be puerile, or what is more common, beauty and de- 
 formity will be mingled together. — Id. 
 
 Section V. — The Relative Clause. {Continued.) 
 
 GRAMMATICAL CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 47. Real and Apparent Terms. The apparent subject here 
 is not always the real subject. In the sentence, Who was said to 
 he guilty f who is the apparent, and the relative infinitive clause 
 who to be guilty is the real, subject. It was asked loJio was guilty. 
 Here it is the apparent and the following relative clause is the real 
 subject. 
 
 48. So likewise in the sentence, Whom do you think ^o be guilty? 
 tohom is the apparent object, and the relative infinitive clause, whom 
 to be guilty^ is the real object. Comp. 12, 23. 
 
 So in some adjunctive forms. Thus: I was speaking of what you 
 said; here what is the apparent^ and the whole relative clause the 
 real^ adjunct term. 
 
 49. As in the case of the demonstrative clause (11, 13), the 
 subject of the relative clause is sometimes previously made the (rhe- 
 torical) object of the principal verb. This is especially common in 
 older English and in poetry. 
 
 I know thee who thou art (= I know who thou art). 
 I see thee what thou art and know 
 Thy likeness to the wise below. — Tennyson 
 
 50. The Antecedent. The antecedent of the relative may be a 
 word, a phrase, a clause, or a sentence. The words in small capitals 
 in the following are the Antecedents of the relatives. 
 
 (1.) Word-forms. This thai I saw. We who came. Such as 
 
, THE RELATIVE CLAUSE. 59 
 
 be has. The means toJierebr/ he hves. Rabbi ! ichich is to say, be- 
 ing interpreted, etc. Was brought up, as he calls it. (As = 
 which.) Mere boy that he was, or, as he was ; noble fellow 
 that he was, or, as he was. 
 
 He studies, — that (or which) is to say, looks on his book. He 
 Frenchifies his English, as we call it (as = which). At the 
 SAME TIME as (== at which). Coming home late, as he did (= 
 which he did). 
 
 51. The antecedent o£ the word-form is often a possessive. 
 
 In HIS way, that comes in triumph over Pompey's blood. — Shak. 
 
 Upon their woes whom fortune captivates. — Id. 
 
 (2.) Phrase-forms. Came from beyond the mountains, which is 
 Swiss territory. From centre to circumference, which is many 
 miles. From the least to the greatest, which includes all. 
 
 (3.) Clause-forms. Said that all was lost, as many feared. 
 Thinks it is best for me to study Latin, what I cannot endure. 
 He always went when he was sent for, as was often the case. 
 
 (4.) Sentenceform. We lose, what is of incomparably greater 
 importance, the instinctive love of truth. 
 
 52. When the antecedent is a clause or a sentence, what, which, 
 and as may sometimes be used interchangeably. ^ 
 
 He had lost all his property, what (which or as) all very well 
 knew. 
 
 53. The antecedent is often neither expressed nor necessarily im- 
 plied. 
 
 Told where he lived. Knew who came. Asked ichat you said. 
 
 54. In some constructions the antecedent is never properly ex- 
 pressed. This is the case. 
 
 (1.) In all questions introduced by a relative. 
 
 (2.) With all relatives used indefinitely. 
 
 (3.) When the relative introduces a clause used as appositive or 
 as complement. Who came? What is light? I do what I please. 
 Whoever sins should be punished. I talk about Wia/ei'er interests me. 
 Goes wherever he pleases. The question what gravity is no man can 
 answer. The question is how he did it. 
 
 • 55. The correlative antecedent, as, with relative clauses intro- 
 duced by as, is often omitted. 
 
 Courageous as he was, he played the coward then. (/. e., a& 
 courageous, etc.) Bravely as they fought (i. e., as bravely, etc). 
 
 66. Choice of Relatives. Who is applied to persons, or to 
 
60 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 animals or things personified ; wliich is applied to animals and things, 
 and to persons considered collectively or as a body ; that and as are 
 applied to persons, animals, or things. 
 
 A man who is wise. The monkey who was made orator. The 
 bird which sings. The committees which were appointed. The de- 
 sire of the multitude who have power to punish. The books thcU I 
 brought. The man that came. Such things as I have. Such men 
 05 I have seen. 
 
 57. The relative that should be preferred to who or which, — 
 
 (1.) After who^ to save unpleasant repetition. 
 
 (2.) When both persons and things are referred to. 
 
 (3.) When the clause is used to designate, restrict, or define, rather 
 than to describe or amplify the meaning of the antecedent. 
 
 Relative clauses are usually restrictive after — 
 
 (a.) Superlative degree-forms. 
 
 (6.) The words very, same, and all. 
 ■ (c.) The word it used as an indefinite pronoun. (14, 22.) 
 
 (c?.) After the definite article and demonstrative pronouns; es- 
 pecially it used as an indefinite pronoun. 
 
 (a.) The best man that I ever saw. The first person that I met. 
 The oldest man that there was in town. 
 
 (b.) This is all that you asked. The same book that I lent you. 
 The very thing that I desired. 
 
 (c.) It is you that I saw. It was these things that troubled me. 
 
 (rf.) TTie book that I borrowed. Those men that came to us. 
 
 Remark. It is noteworthy that among our best writers, after it, 
 used as an indefinite pronoun, some quite uniformly use that, in the 
 above constructions ; some very generally use the relatives who or 
 which : while others use sometimes one and sometimes the other. 
 
 It was on the dignity of the Senate that Augustus founded his new 
 empire. — Gibbon. It was with equal surprise that he discovered the 
 army of Maxentius. — Id. It was not for such a purpose that he 
 had advanced. — Id. 
 
 It was not their Heavenly Father toith whom the Jews were at va- 
 riance. — Dr. Liddon. It was the further claim to be the Son of 
 God at which the high priest professed to be so deeply shocked, -r- 
 Id. It is this disinterestedness which has won to Jesus Christ, etc. 
 — /rf. 
 
 At the moment that the body is raised. — Dr. Dalton. At the 
 moment tf^cn the heart is relaxed. — Id. At the iXme that the oxy- 
 
THE RELATIVE CLAUSE. 61 
 
 gen is expelled. — Id. At tlie moment when the food enters its 
 cavity. — Id. At the same time that the elements are taken. — 
 Id. It is the blood which furnishes, etc. — Id. It is in this way 
 that circulation, etc. — Id. 
 
 58. In some cases they or this is used instead of it. 
 
 In every work of human fabrication they are the dispositions which 
 announce the design = it is the dispositions that, etc. — Chalmers. 
 They are the wretched attempts towards an art of this kind, which 
 have so often disgraced oratory (z=it is the wretched attempts, etc., 
 which, etc.) — Blair. They are the ardent sentiments of honor, vir- 
 tue, and magnanimity that only can kindle ihat fire. — Id. (= it is 
 the ardent sentiments, etc.). Search the Scriptures, for in them ye 
 think ye have eternal life, an4 they are they which testify of me 
 (= and they it is which testify of me). 
 
 59. Sometimes we find it used both as expletive and as pronoun in 
 the same sentence. Such constructions, howeter, are always faulty 
 on the score of perspicuity. 
 
 It should be added that it (pronoun) is not for eloquence that a 
 man will sometimes obtain credit. — Whately^s Rhet. 
 
 60. When there are two relative clauses, one referring to it used 
 as subject, and the other referring to the complement term, it seems 
 best, as a matter of perspicuity, unless there is a special reason for a 
 different choice, to use who, which, or whom, with the complement, 
 and that with the subject it. 
 
 It is the MAN who stands there, that is to blame. It is the book 
 which you bought that I prize so much. 
 
 61. It is worthy of note that when a relation is to be indicated, it 
 may be expressed either with the complement term, or with the rel- 
 ative, with no apparent diff(;rence in the sense. Of these two forms, 
 that which puts the preposition with the complement is the more rhe- 
 torical in the way of strength. 
 
 It was on science that he lectured ; = it was science that he lec- 
 tured on. 
 
 62. The relative adverbs which properly refer to time, place, or 
 manner, should not be used in the place of the corresponding phrase- 
 form, when things other than these are referred to. 
 
 Books from which we learn (not whence). The persons whence I 
 got my information (say, from whom). 
 
 63. Grammatical Concords. In the idiomatic construction of 
 it used as indefinite pronoun, this word may refer to almost any- 
 
62 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 thing, and it may be in sense plural, as well as singular. We can 
 say equally well " it is this," or " it is these, ^^ the verb always re- 
 maining in the singular form. It is worthy of note, however, that a 
 relative clause referrin'g to it takes the number and the person of the 
 complement term by attraction. Thus, It is they who are here that 
 are needed. Here it and that are in sense both plural, but it takes a 
 singular, that 2^. plural yevh. Again, It is I that am needed. Here 
 it is third person and is likewise the true and direct antecedent of 
 that ; and yet that takes the person of /, as is manifest in the verb- 
 form. 
 
 64. If, however, a relative clause referring to the complement di- 
 rectly, or any other modifying term, is thrown in between the com- 
 plement and the that clause, the lattfir is not attracted either in per- 
 son or in number. Thus, — 
 
 It is / who am here, that is ; it is you, who are there, that is ; it 
 is /, the founder of this institution that is ; it is you, John Brown, 
 that is. 
 
 65. The grammatical concords of number and person in this and 
 in all similar constructions require careful notice. 
 
 Spoke to me who am here; to you who are here; to him who is here; 
 I am the one that is ; you are the one that is ; he is the one that is : 
 but by attraction ; It is I that am ; it is you that are ; it is they that 
 are ; it is we that are. 
 
 In each of these attracted forms, the relative clause introduced 
 by that refers logically directly to it (= person or persons), and 
 therefore should be regularly, in every case, in the third person, and 
 in the singular number. 
 
 66. The grammatical concords of ca^^e between the subject and the 
 complement of relative demonstrative and relative infinitive clauses 
 ■^quires especial notice. 
 
 Who did they think Ae was ? Whom did they think him to be? 
 Who was it thought he was ? Whom thought they him to be ? 
 
 67. Collocation of Terms. The relative does not always 
 stand at the head of its clause; it may be in the body of the 
 clause, before the verb, or after the verb, or it may be near the 
 end. 
 
 Many cities, a large number of which we visited. Principles by 
 the careful investigation of which toe became loher. I should seem 
 guilty of ingratitude, than which nothing w more sinful. 
 
 68. The pronoun it, in the "?V" construction does not always in- 
 troduce the sentence. 
 
1:he relative clause. <r> ^> 
 
 He it is that is to blame. Thus it was <Aa< Ae bn^ame . r^A. V^^o v' \\ 
 is tV ^Aa< 15 guilty ? Wliere is it that you said you iHi^^d? Was iri^^ ^ 
 Boston that he lived ? What can it be that so troubles hith^ '>^ tf^ 
 
 69. Where what has an antecedent of the word-form, the latter ^7 
 ways follows. 
 
 Loves glory, and what is far better, true virtue. — Hopkins. 
 
 70. Relative clauses should be placed as near as possible to the 
 words they modify. 
 
 Tliere are many words in the English language that are sometimes 
 used as adjectives (say, There are in the English language many 
 tvords that, etc.). This is a very different course of proceeding from 
 ichat I expected (say, — a course of proceeding very different from 
 what, etc.). 
 
 71. In a relative clause-form used substantively^ the order of words 
 should not be the same as in a relative sentence-iorm. In the clause, 
 the subject should precede the verb; in the sentence it should follow 
 the verb, if simple; or come, between the auxiliary and the verb, if 
 a compound form. 
 
 ■ The question, what light is. What he was doing is not known. 
 The question is, how it ivas done. Does what you said. C.-fs. What 
 is light? The question, " What is light? ^^ What was he doimj? 
 Asked, " What was he doing ?^^ How was it done? The quostion, 
 *' How was it done ? " Sent.-fs. 
 
 72. Redundancies. The connectives and and but should never 
 stand before a relative clause, unless used to join it to another rela- 
 tive clause. 
 
 A son of singular character, and who behaved so ill that he was put 
 in prison. (Expunge and.) 
 
 73. Relative adverbs, being themselves equivalent to relative 
 ^k phrases (14, 3), should not take a preposition. Such expressions, 
 ^Bkhough sanctioned to some extent by good authors, are clearly rc- 
 ^Hfiundant, and therefore not to be imitated. Say, whence, not from 
 ^^mthence, etc. 
 
 ^H 74. Relative clauses should harmonize, in the nature of the thought 
 
 ^^■Bxpressed, with their antecedents. 
 
 ^^* A solecism is when the rules of syntax are transgressed. — GouhVs 
 Gram. A proper diphthong is where both vowels are .mounded to- 
 f/ether. — Fisher. {Relative construction here obscure and bad.) 
 Ellipsis is WHEN one or more words are scanting (say, — is the omis- 
 sion of one or more words.) — Fiskh Gram. By this, we know that 
 
64 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. * 
 
 we love God, when we keep his commandments (say, — by our keep- 
 ing his command 111 ents). 
 
 Exercise 21. 
 
 Do the same work as before. Point out real and apparent terms ; the 
 subject and the complement ; all antecedents ; all ellipses ; all attracted 
 forms ; correct anything faulty, and explain why. 
 
 L 1. What did he do? 2. What was the thing done? 3. What 
 was said to be the thing done? 4. What was the thing said to be? 
 5. What is it to do that? 6. Who is acting? 7. Who is an actor? 
 8. Who is an actor said to be? 9. Who is said to be an actor? 
 10. Who am I? 
 
 XL 1. Who do you think me to be? 2. Who do you think I am? 
 3. Told whom he thought to be me. 4. Told whom he thought me 
 to be. 5. Who was it that was thought to be me? 6. Who was 
 it that I was thought to be ? 7. Who was it that they thought me to 
 be? 8. Who was it that they thought to be me? 9. It seems as 
 if T knew who you are. 10. I shall act as if I knew who you are 
 said to be. 
 
 m. 1. It was as to how we could see him, that we were convers- 
 ing. 2. It is that book that is so beautifully illustrated, which I 
 bought for you. 3. It is I that am here, that am to blame. 4. It is 
 you who are there, that are to blame. 5. It is said to be the very 
 man whom we saw last night. 6. The sweetest singer whom I ever 
 heard. 
 
 IV. 1. It is you that stand there, who is to blame. 2. Was it 
 those people who came to see us, whence you got your information. 
 3. Is it us who are here, who are to blame? 4. Was it you that 
 asked the question, what is electricity? 5. The question has arisen 
 what is the object of our thought, where we form a general concep- 
 tion. — Wayland. 6. Is it not you that are my best friend, to whom 
 I am indebted ? 7. It was not foreigners only who interceded in 
 behalf of the lords. — Prescott. 8. What then is it which has drawn 
 the attention of critics so much. — Blair. 9. It is the faculty which 
 is always appealed to. — Id. 
 
 V. 1. This word which represents an object after it and on 
 which it terminates. 2. Qualities of a disagreeable nature, and 
 which to him were wholly unaccountable. 3. This is a very differ- 
 ent line of conduct from what I anticipated. 4. A pause is made 
 %fter something of peculiar moment has been said and on which we 
 
 I 
 
THE RELATIVE CLAUSE. Q3 
 
 want to fix the hearer's attention. 5. He has not an idea in his 
 mind but what one of these two have imprinted. — Wayland. 6. It 
 was to their counsels, which governed the weakness of her sex, that 
 she imputed the guilt of her resistance. — Gibbon. 7. It was a maxim 
 of ancient jurisprudence that a slave had not any home of his own. 
 — Id. 8. It was in the twenty-first year of his reign that Diocle- 
 tian executed his memorable resolution of abdicating the empire. — 
 Id. 
 
 VI. 1. It is the Jews who are the fiercest persecutors. — Dr. Lid- 
 don. 2. It was the homage of public enthusiasm that honored him. 
 ■ — Id. 8. It is their answer which obscures the history. — Alford. 
 4. There can be no doubt but that this is the source of the Jor- 
 dan. — Dr. Thompson. 5. I have no doubt but that the superin- 
 tendent and directors were unconscious. — Dr. Hopkins. 6. Was far 
 more vehement than what we are accustomed to. — Blair. 7. Doubts 
 which found entrance to my soul I hardly know how. 8. That en- 
 tity, the knowledge of the existence of which presses itself upon the 
 intellect. — Mivart. 9. Thou knewest that I was an austere man, 
 taking up that I laid not down and reaping that I sowed not. — 
 Bible. 10. What I tell you in darkness that speak ye in light. — 
 Id, 11. What that something is we know not. — Wayland. 
 
 Exercise 22. 
 
 1. Write relative clauses, introducing them as follows: with a relative 
 pronoun, a relative adverb, a relative phrase, and with but after neg- 
 atives ; — five of each kind. 
 
 2. WWite relative demonstrative, relative infinitive, relative parti- 
 rrpial clauses. 
 
 3. Write relative clauses, some having a clause, and some having a 
 sentence, as antecedent. 
 
 4. Write relative clauses with as, as a pronoun and as an adverb. 
 
 5. Write relative indefinite clauses having an antecedent, and some 
 with WHAT having a single rcord as antecedent. 
 
 6. Write relative clauses with the relative omitted, and some with all 
 but the relative omitted. 
 
 7. Write re.ative clauses with it, used as subject of principal verb. 
 
 5 
 
66 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 THE CONJUNCTIVE CLAUSE. 
 
 Section I. — Definition and General Character. 
 
 15. A conjunctive clause is any modifying clause (not 
 demonstrative or relative) introduced by a connective or 
 a connective term. 
 
 Will stay if you remain. Stayed because you remained. 
 
 1. The connectives commonly used to introduce the conjunctive 
 clause are the following : — 
 
 (1.) The simjjle connectives, as, although, because, if, lest, pro- 
 vided, seeing, that, though, than, unless, etc. 
 
 . (2.) The compound iorms, forasmuch as, inasmuch as, in case, in 
 order that, even if even though, provided that, seeing that, so that, as 
 that, etc. 
 
 2. Cautions. Do not confound -with other clauses similar in 
 form conjunctive clauses introduced, — 
 
 (1.) By THAT, — 
 
 Said that he might learn. Dem. cl. A study that he might learn. 
 Rel. cl. Studied that he might learn. Conj. cl. 
 
 Thinks that he died. Dem. cl. Smote him that he died. — Bible. 
 Conj. cl. 
 
 Believes that you asked her. Dem. cl. Were you in doubt, sir, 
 that you asked her f — Shak. Conj. cl. 
 
 Declares that I am subdued. Dem. cl. Their cheer is the greater 
 that I am subdued. — Shak. Conj. cl. 
 
 (2.) By LEST. With words of fearing, apprehension, anxiety, etc. 
 LEST has the force of tJiat, and consequently introduces a demon- 
 strative clause; and in all other connections it has the force of that 
 not (= in order that — not), and hence introduces a conjunctive 
 clause. Feared lest he would come (== that he would come). Was 
 apprehensive lest he might escape (== that he might escape). So, 
 was troubled lest he might be betrayed; was solicitous lest he might 
 fail. Dem. els. 
 
 They furled the sails lest the boat should be capsized (= that the 
 boat might not, etc.). So, Sin no more lest a worse thing come upon 
 ihee. The greed of the publicans must be repressed lest they should 
 render the public burdens intolerable. — Dr. Geike. Conj. clauses. 
 
THE CONJUNCTIVE CLAUSE. 67 
 
 (8.) By AS. It should be noted that as is a relative, and intro- 
 duces a relative clause when it has the value of, — 
 
 (a,) A Relative Pronoun. 
 
 Such as we have (= which). He is an honest man as all knoio 
 (= what). This is the same as that is (== which). Such persons as 
 he lives toith (= whom). 
 
 Half educated as he loas, he yet was very successful (= which he 
 was). Mere boy as he was he was not equal to the responsibility 
 (= which). Trained as he had been by the best masters, he ought 
 to have been successful (= which). 
 
 (6.) A Relative Adverb. 
 
 Came as you left (= when). Reads as he walks (=. while). 
 
 (c.) A Relative Phrase, and referring to so, or to as (= in 
 the degree) as its correlative or antecedent. 
 
 Not so old as you are (= in that degree in which). Am as 
 learned cw he is (== in that degree in ichich). 
 
 (d.) A Relative Phrase, the antecedent or correlative of which is 
 not expressed but clearly implied. 
 
 Walks as you walk (= in the manner in which). Lives as if he 
 were rich (= in the manner in which he would live, if, etc.) Did as 
 he was told (= in the manner in which). 
 
 So likewise in the following idiomatic expressions: — 
 
 Rapidly as he came he arrived too late (= coming as rapidly as, 
 etc.). Early as it was the town was all astir (= It being as early as, 
 etc.). Old as he was he fought vigorously (=: being as old as, etc.) 
 
 In all other cases as is a conjunction. It is time, as I think; As it 
 is true I shall act upon it; As you love your country,! pray you act 
 for her defense. 
 
 (4.) By if. 
 
 Asked if he had gone. Rel. cl. 
 
 We should have remained if he had gone. Conj. cl. 
 
 We should have known it if he had gone. Conj. cl. 
 
 Exercise 23. 
 
 Do the same work as before. 
 
 If he has suffered we ought to befriend him. 
 
 If he has suffered is a Conj. cl., of which he is Subj., etc. 
 
 I. Although he came; that he came; if he came; (the man) who 
 xime; unless he comes; as much as you have; inasmuch as you have 
 
68 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 come; am certain in that case ; in case you are certain; arranged 
 these in order; in order that these may be arranged; so that he 
 might come; said that he might come; worked hard that he might 
 come; a place that he might come to; it would be strange if he should 
 come; such as came; many came, as we all know; as many came, 
 we were crowded ; as many as came were crowded; were crowded 
 inasmuch as many came; as much as we were crowded we were 
 not uncomfortable. 
 
 IL Fought as valiantly as he; fought valiantly, as all know; fight 
 as valiantly as you please, you cannot conquer them; valiantly as he 
 fought he was overcome; valiant as he was, he could not conquer; 
 as he fought very valiantly he conquered; fighting, as he did, on 
 horseback, he had the advantage; he fights as he works, — vigor- 
 ously ; mere boy as he was, he yet fought valiantly; as he was a 
 mere boy he could not be expected to fij^ht valiantly; being an ex- 
 perienced soldier, as he was, he fought bravely ; as he was an expe- 
 rienced soldier, he fought bravely; much as he has fought, he is an 
 unskillful soldier ; as he has fought much in his day, he ought to fight 
 well. 
 
 III. 1. Will stay if you will speak. 2. Stayed because you spoke. 
 3. Said that you spoke. 4. As you spoke I stayed. 5. I remained 
 as long as you were speaking. 6. Said that he might speak. 7. Went 
 that he might speak. A word that he might speak. 8. Asked if he 
 might speak. 9. Arose so that he might speak. 10. If he could 
 speak he would. 11. Inquired if he could speak. 12. Said that he 
 could speak. 13. A word that he could speak. 14. It is true that 
 he could not speak. 1 5. It is this word that he could not speak. 
 16. Was angry unless he could speak. 17. I do not know but he 
 may speak. 18. We were terrified lest he might speak. 19. We 
 held him lest he might speak. 20. Was it he that spoke ? 21. Was 
 it here that he spoke ? 22. Is it true that he spoke ? 23. Who 
 doubts that he spoke? 24. The man that he spoke to. 25. I felt 
 rejoiced that he spoke. 26. He gained so much courage that he 
 spoke. 
 
 IV. 1. We have as many as you. 2. As you have many, give 
 us some. 3. He gave us sdine, ^s you may well know. 4. As you 
 know all about it, tell us. 5. He knows the whole story, as I am 
 told. 6. I know nothing except as I am told. 7. As he was telling 
 the story, you came in. 8. As he was telling a story, I did not dis- 
 turb him. 9. He tells stories as he works. 10. He works very much 
 
THE CONJUNCTIVE CLAUSE. 69 
 
 as he talks, — without any life. 11. He talks as you talk. 12. As 
 you are talking, I will keep silent. 
 
 V. 1. A ship with every sail set, speeding its way to its haven. 
 — Dr. Hopkins. 2. A stone with its faces hewn and fitted to bo 
 joined with others. 3. It seems as if there is a distinct compartment 
 of God's work which we call the Cosmos. — McCosh. 4. It would 
 appear as if there was little coherence in society. — Id. 5. They 
 had not heard how in the far off village of Galilee He had raised 
 the dead. — Farrar. 6. There was no possibility of the undertaking 
 being ever again repeated. — Abbott. 7. Does not know of there 
 having been a single stranger present. 8. There can be no doubt of 
 this thing having been generally known. 9. I do not know that I 
 shall be able to walk for a week. 
 
 Section II. — The Conjunctive Clause. (Continued.') 
 Special and Idiomatic Forms. 
 
 8. Conjunctive clauses are sometimes introduced by «o, 
 or 80 -be ; rarely by be it so. 
 
 Shall not go, so my friend does not come after me ; so be he is found 
 guilty it will go hard with him. 
 
 Be it so she will not here 
 Before your grace consent to marry with Demetrius. 
 J beg the ancient privilege of Athens. — Shak. 
 (= if she will not, etc.). 
 
 Note. The above conjunctive terms arise from an ellipsis of the 
 form if it so be that. It seems best not to supply this ellipsis in 
 analysis and consequently to consider these expressions as mere con- 
 nectives. 
 
 Remark. In the older English the full form is retained. 
 
 If so were that I might, etc. — Chaucer. 
 
 If so be thou darest. — Shakespeare. 
 
 4. Very frequently /or is used, in the sense of because^ 
 and thus introduces this clause, — 
 
 The flowers were frozen, for the night was cold. I hate hiniyforke 
 is a Christian. 
 
 5. Relatives, prepositions, and some other terms, not 
 properly conjunctions, are often used with the force of 
 
70 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 conjunctions. In such cases the clauses they introduce 
 are termed conjunctive clause equivalents. Thus : — 
 
 (1.) With SINCE (= inasmuch as). 
 
 Since you will not go with us, we must go alone. Conj. Equiv. 
 Since you returned, many hours have elapsed. Dem. cl. Adjunc. (11, 3). 
 
 (2.) With BEFORE (= sooner than, in the sense of a comparison). 
 
 1 would starve before 1 would steal (= sooner than). Conj.-equiv. 
 cl. I shall starve be/ore provisions come. Dem. cl. Adjunc. 
 
 (3.) With AF I ER (= inasmuch as, though, or since). After he la- 
 bored so hard for me I ought to have made him some return (= since). 
 Conj. Equiv. cl. After he had taken all possible pains with his smi^s 
 education, it amounted to nothing (=: though.) Conj. Equiv. cl. 
 After he returned we left. Dem. cl. Adjunc. 
 
 (4.) With FOR ALL, /or all that (== though or although). For all 
 there were so many, yet were not the nets broken. — Bible. (= though.) 
 Conj. Equiv. cl. 
 
 (5.) With NOW (= inasmuch as, since). 
 
 Now he is here the rest will soon follow. Conj. Equiv. cl. 
 
 (6.) With AS FAR AS, SO FAR AS, AS LONG AS, SO LONG" AS, AS 
 
 SOON AS, AS GOOD AS (when there is no notion of comparison in- 
 dicated, i. e., when = inasmuch as, because, etc.) 
 
 As long as nothing is found against him, he should be acquitted. 
 Conj. Equiv. cl. It matters not who he is, so long as suspicions fasten 
 upon him (= since). Conj. Equiv. cl. We shall have no difficulty 
 so far as he is concerned. Conj. Equiv. cl. Started as soon 05 li ica* 
 light (== when). Rel. Equiv. cl. 
 
 (7.) With WHEN or while (= since, inasmuch as, etc.). 
 
 Can you excuse him when you know he is guilty {= since). Conj. 
 Equiv. cl. How could he be discharged while all the testimony was 
 against him? (= inasmuch as). Conj. Equiv. cl. 
 
 6. A conjunctive clause introduced by if and refer- 
 ring to it used expletively, often involves a demonstrative, 
 an infinitive, or a participial clause. 
 
 If the Jews held Christ to be a false Messiah it was because He 
 llaimed divinity = that the Jews, etc., if (= as) they did. — ^Dr. 
 Liddon. We should consider it almost miraculous, if two men should 
 be affected thus = for two men to be, if, etc. — Wayland. Mr. H. 
 would think it very strange if we were to urge this = for us to urge 
 ^his, if, etc. — Macaulay. It is a wonder, too, if it is not th'is which 
 
THE CONJUNCTIVE CLAUSE. 71 
 
 is called love = it's not being this, if, etc., is a wonder too. — Riley. 
 Jf they kept it it was because they thought it wrong to break it = 
 their keeping it, if, etc., is because. 
 
 7. Sometimes any one of two or three of these clauses 
 can be substituted with little modification of sense. 
 
 This is the gift of God, if a man have power to rejoice in his labor. 
 — Southey. (== that a man should have power, if, etc. =for a man to 
 have power, etc.) It is no wonder if they fainted in the race. — Gibbon, 
 (== that they fainted =for them to faint = their fainting.) 
 
 8. After negatives real or implied, a negative con- 
 junctive clause is often introduced by hut that or but (== 
 that not^. 
 
 He never went out but that he took cold (= that he did not take 
 cold). She is not so diyine but that she looks human (= that she 
 does not look human). 
 
 9. There are three forms of negation after which we may have 
 this form of the conjunctive clause. 
 
 (1.) Direct denial. 
 
 I never go out but 1 meet my friend. It never rains but it pours. I 
 never do him wrong but he does buy my injuries to be friends. — Shak, 
 Is not so small but he can be seen. 
 
 (2.) Question implying doubt or denial. 
 
 Who ever did wrong but he was sorry ? Can a crime be committed 
 but it will be found out f When does it rain but it pours f Who doubts 
 whether a man ever does wrong but he is sorry? 
 
 (3.) Condition implying denial. 
 
 He would have failed but that his friends came to his aid. There 
 might have been harm but that my master rather played than fought. — 
 Shak. Am not comforted to live but that there is this jewel in the 
 world. — / hid. 
 
 10. Cautions. Be careful not to confound with other kinds of 
 clauses conjunctive clause-forms introduced by, — 
 
 (1.) Since, before, after. (11, 3.) 
 
 Have stayed here 5mce yoM /e/?. Adjunc. Dem. cl. Since you pw- 
 vose to leave 1 shall not stay. Conj. cl. Went before you left. Adjnnc. 
 Vera. cl. Before I would leave I would submit to anything. Conj. 
 cl. equiv. Went after yon left. Adjnnc. Dem. cl. After he did all 
 that could be done he should not be l)lamed. Conj. cl. equiv. 
 
72 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 (2.) When and while. (14, 5.) 
 
 When he is found he will be tried for his crime. While the witnesses 
 
 were giving their testimony he was anxious. Rel. els. Compare 5, 7. 
 
 (3.) As (oT so) LOXG as; as (or so') far as; as (or so) soon 
 
 AS. 
 
 Stayed as long as you stayed ; went as far as he ; shall return as 
 soon as possible. Rel. els. Compare 5, 6. 
 
 (4.) But or but that. (11, 9; 14, 35.) 
 
 It is not certain hut (or lut that) he may come. Dem. cl. Who 
 knows but (or but that) he may come, Dem. cl. 
 
 Who is there but (or but that) may come. Rel. cl. There is noth- 
 ing but (or but that) he can do. Rel. cl. 
 
 Did not speak so low but (or but that) we heard him. Conj. cl. We 
 should not have known it but (or but that) we heard him speak. Conj. 
 cl. 
 
 (5.) As if. 
 
 It seems as if he must be guilty. Dem. equiv. cl. It appears to me 
 OS if he must be guilty. Dem. equiv. cl. It looks very much as if it 
 would rain soon. Conj. cl. (Rel. cl. implied). He looks as if he were 
 a mad man. Conj. cl. (Rel. cl. implied.) 
 
 Exercise 24. 
 
 Do the same work as before. Give equivalent clauses for all clause- 
 forms that have such. 
 
 LLLinSTRATIONS. 
 
 I feel as if T cannot stay. 
 As if I cannot stay {= that I cannot stay), is a softened form of Dem. cl., of 
 which /is Subj., and cannot stay is Pred. 
 Asif is di compound connective. 
 
 He acts as if he were mad. 
 As if he were mad, is a Conj. cl., with an elliptical Rel. cl. (=he acts as he 
 tcould act if he were mad). He is Subj., and were mad is Pred. As if is not a 
 compound connective, but two connectives, the first involving an ellipsis. 
 
 If he has suffered it was for your sake. 
 If he has suffered is a Conj. cl., involving a participial clause (=his having 
 suffered, if he has). He is Subj., and has suffered is Pred. 
 
 Poor as he was, he was highly respected. 
 As he was is a Rel. cl., = being as poor as, etc. 
 I. Coming very early, as he did; early afj it was he found us up; 
 
THE CONJUNCTIVE CLAUSE. 73 
 
 it was early, as all knew; came as^arly as he could ; valiant, as he 
 was ; valiantly as he fought; fought as valiantly as you; having 
 fought valiantly, as all knew; as he was valiant he fought well. 
 
 II. So be the night shall be cold; since that cold night; since the 
 nights began to be cold ; since the night was cold. 
 
 III. Came before your arrival; before you arrived; would die be- 
 fore he would come ; so he comes at all it will be before he dies. 
 
 IV. After our departure ; after we departed ; after all that he had 
 done ; after he had done all that he could ; after what had been 
 done. 
 
 V. As long as you do not like him, discharge him ; keep him as 
 long as you can; as far as that is concerned it is of no consequence; 
 went as far as he did ; arrived as soon as the others ; started as soon 
 .as the sun set. 
 
 VI. If he contributed it was not because he wished to; if he had 
 wished to contribute he could; it would have been strange if he had; 
 inquired if he had; we should think it strange if he did; it seems 
 as if he ought ; he acts as if he were a poor man ; poor as I am I 
 contribute. 
 
 VII. It is not certain but he can learn; who knows but he can 
 learn; who is there but can learn; he is not so ignorant but he can 
 learn ; there is no one but can learn ; there is no one so dull but he 
 can learn something. 
 
 VIII. We suffered for the night was cold ; was cold only for one 
 night; for all the night was so cold, no one suffered; for all to be so 
 cold is not common ; the night must have been cold for all to suffer 
 so much; for all they suffered so much, they did not complain; for 
 all to suffer is hard indeed ; all complained for all suffered ; he suf- 
 fered for all. 
 
 IX. 1. I am not sure that he is correct. 2. We are as correct as 
 you are. 3. As you are correct, I am satisfied. 4. You are cor- 
 rect, as every one knows. 5. As to your being correct, that is another 
 question. 6. Take such books as I give you. 7. As I gave you 
 those books take them. 
 
 X. 1. 'Ihcre must have been a frost, for the flowers are faded. 
 2. For flowers to be faded is not unusual. 3. Water is good for 
 wilted flowers. 4. The flowers have been fading since morning ; 
 since you watered them. 5. Since they have faded others have 
 bloomed. 6. -Since they have faded, throw them away. 7. I threw 
 them away before they faded. 8. I would throw any away before I 
 would see them fade ? 9. Who has flowers but he sees them fade? 
 
74 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 10. They would have faded but^hat I watered them. 11. It must 
 have rained, for the ground is wet. 12. It is not strange for the 
 gi'ound to be wet. 13. We cannot walk, as the ground is too wet. 
 14. The ground is too wet for us to walk. 15. It never rains but the 
 ground is wet. 16. Even if the ground is wet, we shall walk. 17. It 
 has rained so that the ground is very wet. 18. As the ground is 
 very wet, we shall not walk. 19. We never walk but we wet our 
 feet. 20. ^Y}lo is there but sometimes gets wet feet? 21. I do not 
 know but we shall wet our feet. 22. Take care lest you get wet 
 feet. 23. It was my feet that got wet. 24. It was there that I wet 
 my feet. 25. It was true that I wet my feet. 
 
 Section III. The Conjunctive Clause. (^Continued.) 
 
 ELLIPTICAL FORMS. 
 
 11. In this clause, the connective is often omitted. 
 
 Were he present (= if he were). Had you been there (= if 
 you had). Should he come (= if he should. So, — Could he only 
 be present. Were he to know it. Heedless of the blasts of life ; 
 blow they ever so rudely (= though they blow). 
 
 12. In conjunctive clauses introduced by than after 
 comparatives, there is an ellipsis sometimes of the sub- 
 ject, sometimes of the predicate. 
 
 I love painting better than (I love) music. Painting is more fas- 
 cinating than music (is). What was done is more important than 
 why it was done (is important). It is more praiseworthy for one to 
 practice than for one to preach (is praiseworthy). It is more expedi- 
 ent that I should go than that I should remain (is expedient). We 
 have more than (what) is wanted (is). Asks that no more than 
 (what) a fair price (is) be demanded (11, 10). I like his studying 
 Latin better than (I like his studying) Greek. 
 
 13. After the connectives than ifm combination there 
 is an ellipsis of the entire clause. (See also similarly 
 14, 48 [2]). 
 
 Acted no better than if he had been mad (= than he icould have 
 acted if, etc.). Behaved worse than if you had been present (=zthan 
 h^ would have behaved if, etc.). 
 
THE CONJUNCTIVE CLAUSE. 75 
 
 14. After a condition implying denial^ very peculiar 
 idiomatic forms arise from an ellipsis which may be eas- 
 ily supplied. 
 
 I should have fallen had it not been for you., or hut for you (= had 
 not my not falling been through you). 
 
 He would have been killed hut for you (= had his not being killed 
 been through you). 
 
 Exercise 25. 
 
 Do the same work as before. Supply all ellipses; when relative 
 clauses occur, point out antecedents. 
 
 ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 Be he ever so active, he will accomplish nothing. 
 
 Be he ever so active is a Conj. cl., of which he is subj. and be so active is 
 Pred. The connective though is omitted. 
 
 He acts as if he were our friend. 
 
 As (= as he would act) implies a Rel. cl. of which he is the Subj. and would 
 act is the Pred. Jf he were our friend is the Conj. cl. 
 
 L 1 . Were he to study he would excel. 2. He will excel so he 
 studies hard. 3. Could he have excelled he would have been hap|)y. 
 4. Be he ever so studious he will never excel. 5. Recites as if he 
 studied hard. 6. He studies harder than you. 7. He studies harder 
 than if he had more time. 8. What you study is as important as 
 how you study. 9. I do not know what to study. 10. He is a 
 good student as everybody knows. 11. As a student he excels all. 
 12. As he is a good student he ought to excel. 13. He stmlies as he 
 plays, with all his might. 14. As he grows older, he stiidics harder. 
 15. He will never im|)rove except as he studies. 16. It does seem 
 as if all might be studious. 17. He spoke as if he believed all were 
 studious. 18. I would study hard before I would be ignorant. 19 1 
 was ignorant before I began to study. 20. Since you began to study 
 an hour has elapsed. 21. Since you study well, you will improve. 
 22. He never sits down but he begins to study. 23. Who is there 
 but can study? 
 
 n. 1. It was this that rendered the war so sanguinary, 2. It 
 was by such institutions that the nations of the empire melted away 
 into the Roman name and people. — Gibbon. 3. It is a just obser- 
 
76 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 vation that victorious Rome was herself subdued by the arts of 
 Greece. — Id. 4. Augustus was accustomed to boast that he had 
 found his capital of bi-ick, and that he had left it of marble. — Id, 
 5. It was on the dignity of the Senate that Augustus founded his new 
 empire. — Id. 6. About the same time that they resigned to the 
 Romans the country, they were driven from Asia. — Id. 7. The 
 proceedings commenced against Protagoras; a price set upon the 
 head of Diagoras; Aristotle obliged to fly; — these facts attest the in- 
 tolerance of the people. — ■ Id. 8. They were as well versed in the 
 arts of this world as they were ignorant of the secrets of fate. — Id. 
 
 9. The emperor proposed the question whether the worship of 
 Jupiter or that of Christ should be the religion of the empire. — Id. 
 
 10. The question what that nature is is entirely different from any 
 that may respect the ultimate ground. — Hopkins. 11. I have noth- 
 ing to add to what was there said. 12. It is this fact that the will 
 of God is always to be obeyed that gives the system its plausibility. 
 — Hopkins. 13. He commands that for which we can see no good 
 reason except that he commands it. — Id. 14. If there be nothing 
 back of will that is to be accepted, whatever it may be, there is 
 nothing for faith to rest upon. — Id. 
 
 Section IV. — The Conjunctive Clause. (^Continued.} 
 
 GRAMMATICAL CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 19. Conjunctive clauses expressing a condition should be intro- 
 duced by unless and not by except or without. 
 
 Except the Lord build the house, they labor in vain, etc. —Bible. 
 (Say unless, for the sense is, if the Lord do not build, etc.) 
 
 You will never live to ray age without you keep yourself in breath 
 with exercise (say unless ; the sense is, if you do not, etc.). 
 
 20. Conjunctive clauses expressing comparison or exclusion (133) 
 should be introduced by than and not by hut, except, or besides. 
 
 Cyrus was no sooner on the throne but he was engaged in war. — 
 Rollin. (Say, than he was, etc.) 
 
 21. A conjunctive clause introduced by than should not be con- 
 strued with a positive degree form even by implication. 
 
 As good, or even better than you (say, as good as you are, or even 
 better than you). 
 
 22. A conjunctive clause introduced by than, and expressing a 
 comparison, should exclude the object compared. Iron is more use- 
 ful than all metals (say, than all other metals). 
 
THE CONJUNCTIVE CLAUSE. 77 
 
 23. Conjunctive clauses introduced by than and denoting com- 
 parison should generally be brought as near as possible to the word 
 they modify. 
 
 This is a much better statement of the case than yours (say, This 
 statement of the case is much better than yours). I have no other 
 method of silencing him than the one I took (say, I have no method 
 of silencing him other than the one I took). 
 
 Exercise 26. 
 
 E Do the same work as in Exercise 21. Correct all had grammar 
 and explain the rules violated. 
 
 I. 1. I am not sure but what it is right. 2. He does everything 
 but what is right. 3. There is not a thing but what is right. 4. We 
 ask nothing but what is right. 5. We seek nothing else but what 
 is right. 6. Who doubts but that whatever is, is right ? 7.1 feel 
 as if it might be right. 8. I do not know as I feel so. 9. He no 
 sooner spoke of it but I saw he was right. 10. Except one speaks how 
 can we tell what he thinks ? 11. He is as wise or even wiser than 
 you. 12. He thinks he is wiser than anybody. 13. This in a dif- 
 ferent statement from the one I heard. 14. Was frightened lest he 
 might not be saved. 15. It is not impossible but that he may be 
 saved. 16. Ordered that something might be done at once (11, 21). 
 17. I wish that my friend was now liere. 18. Who was thought to 
 be I? 19. Who wast thou thought to be? 20. I am not sure but 
 that he was supposed to be me. 
 
 n. 1. Yours is a larger farm than mine. 2. The conjunction is 
 placed between the terms which it connects except there is a trans- 
 position. — Gould Brown. 3. The Classics contain little else but 
 histories of murders. — Buchanan. 4. I doubt not but it will appear 
 in the perusal. — Locke. 5. No sooner was the princess dead but 
 he freed himself. — Johnson. 6. It is not improbable but that the 
 articles were used originally. — Priestly. 7. We do not know but 
 that all the planets are inhabited. 8. No more is required but sim- 
 ply an act of vision. — Karnes. 9. Ought is an imperfect verb, for 
 it has no other modification but this one. — Priestly. 10. No condi- 
 tion is so high but it may have fears. 
 
 III. 1. The reception of a prophet mightier than him, and whose 
 slioes he was not worthy to bear. — Murray. 2. Whom do men 
 .»^ay that I, the Son of man, am? 3. Then understood they how that 
 he bade them not beware of the leaven of bread. 4. He may slay 
 
t8 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 him, not without the prince be willing. — Shak. 5. I never can see 
 him but I am heart-burned an hour after it. — Id. 6. I doubt not 
 but to fashion it if you three will but minister such assistance as I 
 shall give you. — Id. 7. I will not be sworn but love may trans- 
 form me to an oyster. — Id. 8. It cannot be but thou hast murdered 
 him. — Id. 9. I am not so low but that my nails can reach unto 
 thine eyes. — Id. 10. For fear lest day should look their shames 
 upon. — /(/. 11. Is not this the day that Hermia should give an- 
 swer? — Id. 12. They never meet but there is a skirmish of wit be- 
 tween them. — Id. 13. Only this commendation can I aiford her, 
 that were she other than she is (15, 15), she were unhandsome; 
 and being no other but as she is I do not like her. — Id. 14. Con- 
 stantine condemned to the flames any Jew who threw stones at a 
 Christian convert. 
 
 IV. 1. It is this habit which confers professional ability. — Wai/- 
 land. 2. He felt it extremely when your uncle went to live in 
 chambers. — Macaulay. 3. I am gratified by all in your letter ex- 
 cept what you say about your cough. — Id. 4. The commissioners 
 could not doubt but that he had plate for which he had neglected to 
 make an entry. — Souther/. 5. It is this moral radiance that so 
 often breaks forth in Mr. Wesley's writings, which alone would com- 
 pensate an unprejudiced reader, etc. — Id. (15, 10.) 6. It was the 
 moral discipline which fixed his attention. — Id. 7. Inquire for 
 some other sources besides those recognized by Locke. — Wayland. 
 8. A solecism is when the rules of syntax are transgressed. — 
 Gould^s Gram. 9. A metonymy is where the cause is put for the 
 effect. — Kirkham. 
 
 Exercise 27. 
 
 Write one -conjunctive clause, — 
 
 1. With each of the connectives mentioned in 15, 1, (1). 
 
 2. With each of the connectives in 15, 1, (2). 
 
 3. With so, so he. and be it so (15, 3). 
 
 4. With /or, and /or all (15, 4 and 7). 
 
 5. With since, before, after ; and also an adjunctive demonstra- 
 tive with each of the same. 
 
 6. With icken and ichile : and also a relative clause with each. 
 
 7. With as far as, as long as, as soon as ; and also a relative 
 clause with each. 
 
 8. With but, or but that ; and also a demonstrative and a relative 
 clause with each. 
 
THE CONJUNCTIVE CLAUSE. 79 
 
 9. With thai; and also a demonstrative and a relative with the 
 same. 
 
 10. With if; and also a relative, and a demonstrative, an infinitive 
 or participial equivalent with the same. 15, 6. 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 THE SENTENCE AS A GRAMMATICAL TERM. 
 
 16. We have seen that the grammatical constituents 
 of a sentence are in forni, words, phrases, or clauses. 
 Now a sentence as such, may become a constituent in 
 another sentence. Indeed, every direct quotation is such 
 a constituent. 
 
 tSaid he would do U^ C.-f. Said " / will do it,^^ Sent. 
 Asked who it was, C.-f. Asked " Who is it ? " Sent. 
 1. Sentences used independently must be distinguished 
 from clauses and from sentences used as constituents, or 
 elements of other sentences. Confusion can arise only 
 where the principal verb is thrown into the body or at 
 the end of the sentence, parenthetically. In such a cas6 
 we have, of course, always, an independent sentence pre- 
 cisely the same as if a principal verb did not appear at 
 all. T^us: — 
 
 / must go. Independent Sent. " / must go" said he. Ind. Sent. 
 He said " I must go.'' Dep. Sent. He said Ihat he must go. C.-f. 
 
 What is light ? Ind. Sent. ' ' What w light f ' ' inquired they. Ind. 
 Sent. They asked, " WJiat is light ? " Dep. Sent. They asked what 
 light is. C.-f. 
 
 Advance! Ind. Sent. ^'■Advance !'' cried out the commander. 
 Ind. Sent. The commander cried out, ^'■Advance !'' Dep. Sent. 
 The commander cried out that they should advance. C.-f. 
 
 He will he a painter. Ind. Sent. " He will he a painter,'' thought I. 
 Ind. Sent. I thought " He will he a painter." Dep. Sent. I thought 
 that he would he a painter. C.-f. 
 
 How heautiful the scene is ! Ind. Sent. " Hoio heautiful the scene 
 is! " exclaimed all. Ind. Sent. All exclaimed, " How heautiful the 
 scene is!" Dep. Sent. All exclaimed, hoto beautiful is the scene I 
 C.-f. 
 
80 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 Note. It will be noted that the grammatical structure of the de- 
 pendent senteDce is precisely the same as that of the independent 
 sentence, with the simple exception that except in the Scriptures 
 quotation marks are always used in the case of the former. When, 
 however, the sentence-form becomes a clause-form, there is always 
 a change in the grammatical regimen in person, sometimes in mood, 
 and sometimes, as in the case of interrogative and exclamatory sen- 
 tences, in the order of the words. (30, 3.) 
 
 2. Sentences are often introduced by an expletive. 
 There were many persons present at the time. It is clear that 
 
 many were present. 
 
 3. Sentences are often conjunctive. 
 
 And he said unto his disciples, the days will come, etc. And he 
 »poJce a parable unto them to this end, etc. Nevertheless when the 
 Son of man cometh shall hejind faith on the earth ? But when Jesus 
 saw it, he was much displeased. For / say unto you that none of 
 those men which were bidden shall taste of my supper. — Bible. 
 
 His appointment as Latin Secretary was renewed. Nor was his 
 college standing altered. — Dr. Collier. His life was a smooth and 
 quiet stream. But it icasfast gliding to its rest. — Id. No one could 
 blame him. For what else could he do f I am not terrified. For 
 is not death as natural as life ? — Id. 
 
 4. The word now at the beginning of a sentence is 
 really a connective. It always, when properly used, links 
 its own proposition, somewhat weakly it may be, but al- 
 ways really to the preceding, and thus makes its sentence 
 conjunctive. 
 
 Now I tell you before it come, that when it is come, ye may be- 
 lieve. 
 
 Remark. The sentence-form of expression is, of course, mu.jh 
 more vivid and energetic than the clausal. It is used almost exclu- 
 sively in the Bible, especially in the Old Testament, — indeed, in 
 older literature generally it prevails more extensively than in modern 
 writing. 
 
 5. Not unfrequently we have a construction bearing 
 some resemblance to the sentence-form on the one hand 
 and to the clause-form on the other. It constitutes, in- 
 
THE CONJUNCTIVE CLAUSE. 81 
 
 deed, a kind of mixture of the two forms, and might be 
 termed the half -sentence form. 
 
 Mr. Webster said: " Mr. President, I shall enter on no encomium 
 upon Massachusetts; she needs none; there she is; behold her, and 
 judge for yourselves. There is her history ; the world knows it by 
 heart. The past, at least, is secure." Sent. form. 
 
 Mr. Webster spoke : He would enter on no encomium upon Massa- 
 chusetts. She needed none. There she was ; they might behold 
 her, and judge for themselves. There was her history; the world 
 knew it by heart. The past at least was secure. Half Sent.-form. 
 
 Mr. Webster said that he should enter on no encomium upon Mas- 
 sachusetts ; that she needed none ; that there she was ; that they 
 might behold her and judge for themselves; that there was her his- 
 tory ; that the world knew it by heart. He said that the past at least 
 was secure. Clause-form. 
 
 6. Cautions. These various forms must be carefully distin- 
 guished, especially in interrogative sentences. 
 
 Joab said to the king: ^^ What hast thou done? Why is it that thou 
 hast sent him away f " Sent. 
 
 " What hast thou done f Why is it that thou hast sent him away f '* 
 said Joab. Sent. 
 
 Joab asked the king what he had done ; why it was that he had sent 
 Mm away. C.-f. 
 
 Joab addressed the king : What had he (the king) done f Why was 
 it that he had sent him away f Half- Sent. 
 
 Come and see. Ind. Sent. He said, ^^ Come and see." Dep. Sent. 
 *'Come and see" said he. Ind. Sent. He commanded him to come 
 and see. C.-f. 
 
 Gave command that he should come and see. C.-f. He made an- 
 swer : He should come and see. Half- Sent. 
 
 Remark. In lano-uajre text-books sentence-forms are termed 
 Direct Quotation, or Oratio Directa ; and the corresponding clause- 
 forms are called Indirect Quotation^ or Oratio Ohliqua. The terms we 
 have used, namely, sentence-forms and clause-forms, seem much 
 more simple, as well as more significant and helpful in the analysis 
 of language. 
 
 Exercise 28. 
 
 Do the same work as hefore ; distinguish carefully independent sen" 
 fences, dependent sentences, half sentences, and clause-forms. 
 6 
 
82 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 ILLUSTRATION. 
 
 ** I have ordered," he says, " the springs to be cleared from the 
 lilacs, and the grass to be weeded of dandelions." — Macauloi/'s 
 Life. 
 
 A Sentence, of which /is Subj. and have ordered, etc., is Pred. He says is 
 parenthetical, and has no influence on the construction. The sprinys to be 
 cleared is an Inf. C.-f., of which springs is Subj., etc. From the lilacs is a P.-f. 
 The grass to he weeded is an Inf. C.-f-, of which grass is Subj., etc. Of dande- 
 lions is a P.-f. 
 
 L 1. Pilate asked him, "Art thou the King of the Jews?" 
 2. Pilate asked him whether he was the king of the Jews. 3. ** Art 
 thou king of the Jews," said Pilate. 4. Pilate asked him if he was 
 king of .the Jews. 5. Art thou king of the Jews ? 
 
 II. 1. I know not what thou sayest. 2. Peter said, *' I know not 
 what thou sayest." 3. "I know not," said Peter, "what thou 
 sayest." 4. Peter said that he did not know what he said. 5. Pe- 
 ter made reply: He did not know what he said. 
 
 III. 1. He saith unto them, " Fill the water-pots with water." 
 
 2. He commanded that they should fill the water-pots with water. 
 
 3. He commanded them to fUl the water-pots with water. 4. " Fill 
 the water-pots," said he, " with water." 5. He now spoke : The 
 water-pots should be filled with water. 
 
 IV. 1. He said, " Soldiers, what ought you to do?" 2. I ask 
 you, soldiers, what you ought to do. 3. He said that he asked the 
 soldiers what they ought to do. 4. He asked the soldiers, " What 
 ought you to do ? " 5. He asked the soldiers what they ought to 
 do. 6. He spoke: What ought they, the soldiers, to do? How 
 long would they hesitate ? The enemy was even then at hand. 
 Could they permit him to advance nearer ? 
 
 V. 1. They say unto him, " By what authority doest thou these 
 things ? " 2. They asked by what authority he did these things. 
 
 3. They made answer: ^y what authority did he do these things? 
 
 4. " By what authority," said they, " doest thou these things ? " 
 
 VI. 1. He exclaimed, "I wished to try, my son, whether you 
 were duly sensible that you are a consul." — Licy. 2. " I wished 
 to try, my son, whether you are sensible that you are a consul," said 
 he. 3. He made response: He wished to try his son whether he was 
 duly sensible that he was a consul. 4. He said to his son that he 
 wished to try whether he was duly sensible that he was a consul. 
 
 VH. 1. " You have no conception," writes one of his sisters, 
 
THE CONJUNCTIVE CLAUSE. 83 
 
 '* of the change which has come over this household. It is as if the 
 sun had deserted the earth." — Life of Macaulay. 2. No person, 
 we are sure, who has read this memoir, will doubt that there are 
 men whose abuse is an honor. — Id. 3. But, depend upon it, you 
 do not know what you are asking for. — Id. 4. A sort of vague 
 expectation that there will be something to see. — Id. 5. He found 
 himself at once lodged as nobly as a great prince. — Id. 6. I had 
 seen what I was told were olive trees as I was whirled down the 
 Rhone. — Id. 7. Now that the French have settled in Africa, and 
 that a Bavarian prince reigns in Greece, some researches may be 
 made. — Id. 8. Was interested in the bust of Julius, with the 
 head veiled. — Id. 9. As I descended the hill, the huge Pontine 
 marsh was spread but below. 10. He had nothing to say except 
 that he had given his opinion about election committees to me in 
 private. 11. We remember how in early childhood we wearied our 
 understandings in attempting to grasp it. — Wayland. 1 2. What 
 profit is it if we slay our brother and conceal his blood ? — Bible. 
 13. It might seem as if mankind could combine the more readil}'. — 
 McCosh. 14. Saw Paris drenched in the blood of the Huguenots. 
 — Collier. 
 
 Exercise 29. 
 
 1. Change the following sentences — whether dependent or indepen- 
 dent — into clause-forms : — 
 
 1. "Tell me," said he, "most accomplished parrot, thou who 
 hast everywhere been admitted to the bowers of beauty, hast thou 
 in the course of thy travels met with the original of this portrait? " 
 >— Irving. 2. "Excuse my merriment," said he, "but the mere 
 mention of love always sets me laughing." — Id. 3. " Oh, sweetest 
 of parrots," cried she, "joyful indeed are thy tidings, for I was 
 faint and weary." — Id. 4. The prince replied, " Be not offended, 
 most solemn owl, abstract thyself for a time from meditation." 
 
 2. Change the following clauseforms into sentence-forms : — 
 
 1. Joseph begged them that they would not fear. 2. They said 
 that Joseph would hate them. 3. Pharaoh ordered them to go up 
 and bury their father. 4. They told him that they were true men 
 and not spies. , 5. They said that they came down to buy food. 
 6. Pharaoh told Joseph that he dreamed that he stood upon the 
 bank of a river. 7. They asked him why he looked so sad. 8. They 
 said that they were verily guilty in the sight of their brother, in 
 that they saw the anguish of his soul when he besought them, and 
 
84 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 they would not hear. 9. Joseph begged them to do this and live, 
 for he feared God. 10. He asked him why he wept, and whether 
 those tears were shed for him. 
 
 3. Change the following into half sentence-forms, and then into clause- 
 forms : — 
 
 1. Mr. Burke said: " In that public storm, too, I had my private 
 feelings. I had seen blown down and prostrate on the ground sev- 
 eral of those houses to whom I was chiefly indebted for the honor 
 this city has done me." .... 2. " I am a debtor to the debtors; 
 I confess judgment; I owe what, if ever it be in my power, I shall 
 most certainly repay, — ample atonement to liberty for my unhappy 
 lapse.'* 3. *' Then his lord said unto him, ' O thou wicked ser- 
 vant! I forgave thee all that debt because thou desiredst me. 
 Shouldst thou not also have had compassion on thy fellow servant 
 even as I had pity on thee ? ' " 
 
 4. Change the folloioing into the sentence-form and then into the clause- 
 form: — 
 
 Mr. Webster made reply: He would not suffer himself to be ex- 
 cited into warmth by his opponent's denunciation of the measure. 
 Among the feelings which at that moment filled his breast, not the 
 least was that of regret at the position in which the gentleman had 
 placed him. The gentleman was doing himself an injustice. The 
 cause he had espoused found no basis in the Constitution. 
 
 5. Make i\iQ parenthetical verb term in the following, t\iQ principal 
 verb in the proposition. 
 
 1. I am, I think, a better correspondent than you. 2. I could, I 
 believe, complete geometry in another term. 3. There are, we ad- 
 mit, spontaneous affections in the soul. 4. There is, it seems, a vast 
 difference between virtue and goodness. 5, Why, he asks, is lan- 
 guage better than science? 6. How magnificent, said he, was the 
 scene before us ! 7. It would be a grand thing, we admit, if all 
 could agree on this matter. 
 
 RECAPITULATION.— (In brief.) 
 
 1. FOUB and only four terms can enter into the struc- 
 ture of a sentence ; the noun teem, the adjective 
 
 TERM, the VERB TERM, and the ADVERB TERM. 
 
 2. These may all take the form of a WORD, a phrase, 
 a CLAUSE, or indeed, of a SENTENCE. 
 
THE CONJUNCTIVE CLAUSE. 86 
 
 3. The WOBD-FORM may be simple or conjunctive, 
 
 4. The PHRASE-FORM has the preposition usually he- 
 •fore the significant term ; but it may come after it, and 
 it may be separated entirely from it. 
 
 5. The phrase-form may be adjunctive or conjunc- 
 tive. It may omit the preposition^ or the tignificaiit 
 term. 
 
 6. The Clause-form may be demonstrative, in- 
 finitive, PARTICIPIAL, RELATIVE, Or CONJUNCTIVE. 
 
 7. The Demonstrative clause-form is introduced by 
 THAT. It is often adjunctive and the connective is 
 often omitted. 
 
 8. The Demonstrative Clause Equivalent, may be 
 introduced by lest, HOW (inelegantly how that), AS IF, 
 and BUT or but that. 
 
 9. The Infinitive clause-form has its predicate in the 
 infinitive mood. It is often expletive with for, and 
 often ADJUNCTIVE with FOR and other prepositions. 
 
 10. The Infinitive clause often has its constituent parts 
 separated^ and is very often elliptical in some of its 
 parts. 
 
 11. The Participial clause-form has its predicate in 
 the participial mood. It is often adjunctive. 
 
 12. The participial clause often has its parts separated^ 
 and there is often an ellipsis of the copula. 
 
 13. The Relative clause-form is always introduced 
 by a relative pronoun^ a relative adverb^ a relative con 
 junction^ or a relative phrase. It is frequently adjunc- 
 tive, and very often elliptical in some of its parts. 
 
 14. The Relative Clause Equivalent, may be intro- 
 duced by THAT (as pronoun and as adverb')., AS (ja.^ pro- 
 noun and as adverb) if, but, and the. (14, 41.) 
 
 15. The Conjunctive clause-form is introduced by a 
 subordinate connective. There is often an ellipsis of some 
 of its parts. 
 
86 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 16. The Conjunctive clause Equivalent may be in- 
 troduced by SINCE, BEFORE, AETER, FOR ALL, 01* FOR 
 ALL THAT, NOW, WHEN, WHILE, and SO, SO BE, or SO BE 
 THAT. 
 
 A Sentence may be a constituent of another sentence. 
 
 Independent sentences must be distinguished from sen- 
 tences used as constituents in a proposition, and the latter 
 from half-sentence-forms and clause-forms. 
 
 DIVISION n. 
 
 ORDERS OF GRAMMATICAL TERMS. 
 
 NATURE AND DIVISION OF ORDERS. 
 
 17. We have seen that grammatical terms are divided 
 into three general classes. (6.) Now each of these 
 three classes may be divided into three orders^ namely : — 
 (a.) SUVIPLE. 
 
 (5.) Complex. 
 (c.) Compound. 
 
 1. A Simple Term consists of a single word-form, 
 phrase-form, or clause-form, unmodified. 
 
 W.-f. Wisdom, goodness, wise, good, much, loves, studies. 
 
 P.-f. Ofwvidom, icith goodness, hy studying, 
 
 C.-f. Thai you are wise, if he is good and great, since he studies. 
 
 2. A Complex Term consists of a single word-form 
 phrase-form, or clause-form, and some modifying term in 
 logical combination. 
 
 W.-f. Much wisdom, great goodness, very wise, studies well. 
 P.-f. Of much wisdom, with much goodness, by studying ivell. 
 C.-f. That you are wise, as all know ; if he is good, which we believe; 
 since he studies, a remarkable fact. 
 
 3. A Compound Term consists of two or more sim- 
 
ORDERS OF GRAMMATICAL TERMS. 87 
 
 pie or complex terms joined by a coordinate connec- 
 tive. 
 
 W.-f. Wise and good ; studious and learned. 
 P.-f . Of wisdom and of goodness ; with great power and with great 
 ability. 
 
 C. -f . That the earth is round and that it revolves. 
 
 4. Thus Grammatical Terms may take three different 
 forms, called Classes ; and each of these three different 
 classes may be considered under three sub-divisions, 
 called Orders. Hence, we have in all, nine elementary 
 constructions : namely, — 
 
 (a.) The Simple., Complex^ and Compound Word-form. 
 (5.) The Simple., Complex., and Compound Phrase- 
 form, 
 
 (c.) The Simple., Complex., and Compound Clause-form, 
 
 5. We may also have simple, complex, and compound 
 sentence-forms. (16.) 
 
 He cried out: "lam innocent." S. Sent.-f. He said, "lam 
 innocent," what all believe. Cx. Sent.-f. He said, " I am inno- 
 cent, but you are guilty. ' ' Cd. Sent.-f. 
 
 Exercise 30. 
 
 Analyze the following. 
 
 ILLirSTRATION. 
 
 Great goodness. Cx. W.-f. Of great goodness. Cx. P.-f. Of wisdom and 
 ^ower. Cd. P.-f. 
 
 (Spoke) of this being done. 
 
 S. Adjunc. Part. C.-f. 
 V 1. Wise. 2. Very wise. 3. Wise and good. 4. Very wise and 
 very good. 5. Of wisdom. 6. Of wisdom and goodness. 7. Of 
 great wisdom and of much goodness. 8. If he is wise. 9. If he is 
 wise, which I believe. 10. If he is wise, and if you are good. 11. If 
 he is wise, which I believe, and if you are good, which some doubt. 
 12. That he should come. 13. That the earth revolves, a mystery. 
 14. That planets move, and that stars are fixed. 15. Until he came. 
 16. Though he should go, and though we should remain. 17. From 
 
88 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 among the people. 18. (Thinks) that he may learn. 19. (A 
 thought) that he may learn. 20. (Studies) that he may learn. 
 21. That he may learn, an easy matter. 22. His being present. 
 23. (Knows) what he can learn and what he cannot learn. 24. As 
 the day was unpleasant, and as we were weary. 
 
 SUB-DIVISION l^THE SIMPLE TERM, 
 
 — * — 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 GENERAL FORM AND CHARACTER. 
 
 18. The Simple Term is, as we have said, a single 
 word, phrase, or clause-form unmodified. (17, 1.) 
 
 1. When several words are idiomatically or figuratively 
 combined, they often have the force of a single compound 
 word, and must be considered as simple word-forms. 
 Thus, a simple verb term is often made up of several in- 
 dividual words. (23, 2.) 
 
 He brought on a fever (= contracted) ; gave up his situation (= 
 surrendered) ; the supports gave way (== yielded) ; the thief was 
 taken up (= arrested); have got through with it (= have accom- 
 plished). 
 
 2. So also the various mood and tense forms must be 
 regarded as constituting with the verb, only simple word- 
 forms. 
 
 He might have been loved ; he was to have been present; he has got 
 to suffer death. 
 
 3. Many terms apparently complex or compound are 
 idiomatic expressions, yielding only one simple concep- 
 tion, and hence must.be regarded as simple word-forms. 
 
 Will come by and by ; have seen it time and again ; comes here now 
 and then; ran pell melly twice three is six; Jive and three makes 
 eight. 
 
 4. So, also, certain phrase-forms, apparently complex 
 
THE COMPLEX TERM. 89 
 
 or compound, since the conception they express is simple, 
 must be regarded as simple phrases. 
 
 Will not speak to each other ; went out one hy one ; walked off one 
 after another ; day after day passed ; took town after town ; all came 
 from the least to the greatest ; between you and me he is wrong. 
 
 EXEKCISE 31. 
 
 Point out the Simple Terms which are composed of more than one 
 word. 
 
 I. Burned up the house; went up the ladder; look up the ques- 
 tion; sent up the bundle ; cast up the account; worked up the case. 
 
 II. The building gave way; he is much cast down ; went on with 
 his work; might have gone to his work; was to have worked for me. 
 
 in. Stays hour after hour; advances step by step; learns little by 
 little; from Boston to Providence is not far; has spread from shore' 
 to shore ; company after company was cut down ; successful teaching 
 must be line upon line. 
 
 SUB-DIVISION W. — THE COMPLEX TERM, 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 BASE AND MODIFIER. 
 
 19. A COMPLEX TERM, as we have seen (17, 2), con- 
 sists of a word, phrase, or clause-form, and some modi- 
 fier logically combined. Now the former of these con- 
 stituents is called the base. The italicised words in the 
 following are the bases. 
 
 True goodness ; very wise ; studies well ; learns lessons ; struck me ; 
 in my home ; in the beginning of the world ; by reading about heroes ; 
 thai he came, as all know; for me to do well, what my friends desire. 
 
 1. Any expression which may constitute a word-form, 
 a phrase-form, a clause-form, or a sentence-form, may con- 
 stitute a base as well as a modifier. Whatever is modified 
 is base with reference to the term that modifies. 
 
90 ENGLISH LANGUAQE. 
 
 Stone houses. Houses of stone. Houses which are made of stone. 
 Cx. Word-iorms. 
 
 By studying grammar. By studying about grammar. By studying 
 what is called grammar. Cx. PArase-forms. 
 
 That the planets revolve^ a well known fact. That the planets re- 
 volve, according to general belief. That the planets revolve, wHat all 
 believe. Cx. Clause-forms. 
 
 Note. When the base is a phrase-form the modifier may limil 
 more especially, — 
 
 (1.) The Significant Term. 
 
 Men of great wisdom; ran with wonderful rapidity. 
 
 (2.) The Relation Term. 
 
 Far ABOVE us; a. foot below the surface; much in advance of the army; 
 leaped clear over the wall ; am quite behind the times. 
 
 (3.) Both the Significant and the Relation Term, i. e., the Phrase- 
 form as a ichole. 
 
 Was colonized mostly by the English ; he spoke to me only ; the produc- 
 tions consist c/«'e^// of corn and cotton; distributes ih^mforthe most part 
 
 AMONG THE LOWER RANKS. 
 
 2. The base and the base only determines the class of 
 the entire term. If the hase is a word., the whole term is 
 of the word-form ; if the base is a phrase^ the whole is a 
 phrase-form ; if the base is a clause, the whole is a clause- 
 form ; if the base is a sentence, the whole is a sentence. 
 
 W.-fs. He who is studious; the /ac^ of our disagreement; the 
 leginning of wisdom; the question what is to be done. 
 
 P.-fs. By studying LiQim] by mingling with men; by doing what 
 you said; in the statement that we were wrong; at the order for us to 
 march. 
 
 C.-fs. That the earth revolves, a remarkable fact; that he came in 
 season, what all know; for us to study, something new ; the sun lis- 
 ing, as he said ; if it shall rain, what none can tell. 
 
 3. Cautions. (1.) Complex word-forms must not be confounded 
 with complex clause-forms. An element is complex only when the 
 whole is modified. Hence a clause is not complex when its subject 
 or its object only is modified ; that is, the presence of a complex 
 element in a clause does not make a complex clause. 
 
 I SHALL GO if it does not rain. Cx. W.-f. (Shall go) if it does not rain, 
 what we all earnestly wish. Cx. Cl.-f. The fact that he was guilty. Cx. W.-f. 
 
THE COMPLEX TERM. 91 
 
 They said that he was guilty. Cx. W.-f . That he is guilty, as everybody 
 lelieves. Cx. Cl.-f. 
 
 (2.) Complex word forms must be distinguished from forms com- 
 plex in appearance only (18,. 3). 
 
 Walked hand in hand; drop by drop wears away the stone ; stayed month af- 
 ter month ; six by nine glass; lives y/*om hand to mouth. 
 
 (3.) Complex phrase-forms must be distinguished from simple ad- 
 junctive phrase-forms and both from apparent complex phrase-forms. 
 
 From the great ocean. Cx. P.-f. ; from beyond the ocean. S. Adjunc. P.-f. 
 ; from ocean to ocean. S. P.-f. (apparently Cx.). 
 
 Exercise 32. 
 
 Analyze according to Illustrations. 
 
 Good men. 
 A term of the Cx. "W.-f.; men is the B., and modified by good, S. W.-f. 
 
 Reads books. 
 Cx. W.-f. Beads is the B., and modified by boohs, S. W.-f. 
 
 By reading books. 
 Cx. P.-f. By reading is the B., and modified by books, S. W.-f. 
 
 The fact that he came. 
 Cx. W.-f. Fact is the B., and modified by that he came, S. Dem. C.-f. 
 
 Was settled mostly by the Dutch. 
 Cx. W.-f. Was settled is the B., and mod. by rem., a Cx. P.-f. of which btf 
 the Dutch is B. aud mod. by mostly (as a whole), etc. 
 
 Lives far from us. 
 
 Cx. W.-f. Lives is B., and mod. by rem., a Cx. P.-f. of which from us is 
 B. and mod. hyfar (the preposition yV-owi chiefly modified). 
 
 That he came, a fact. 
 Cx. C.-f. That he came is the B., and modified by a fact. Cx. W.-f. 
 
 Rises round by round. 
 Cx. W.-f. Bises is the B., and mod. by rem., a S. W.-f. (apparently Cx. 
 W.-f.). 
 
 From shore to shore, a thousand miles. 
 Cx. P.-f. From shore to shore is B., a S. P.-f. (apparently Cx. P.-f.), and 
 mod. by rem. a Cx. W.-f., etc. 
 
 I. A day; in a day; after some days; day after day ; two days; 
 by day ; day by day ; except by day. 
 
92 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 II. Much more ; between these ; from the shore ; from shore to 
 shore ; round by round ; after one year ; year after year; spoke thus; 
 except in this. 
 
 III. Works mostly at shoeraaking; works with great rapidity; lives 
 just above us; lives mostly on fruit; lives among his friends; stays 
 occasionally with us; stays only with us; goes often to the city; 
 goes only to the city ; goes only with his friends ; goes with one friend 
 only. 
 
 IV. 1. Books. 2. My books. 3. Books of history. 4. About 
 studying history. 5. History of France. 6. In histories of Eng- 
 land. 7. Facts about England. 8. Facts which I know. 9. Some- 
 thing for you to do. 10. Orders something to be done. 11. Theo- 
 ries as to what light is. 12. That light is material, a theory. 
 13. That the sun is fire, what some believe. 14. Doubts whether 
 any one knows. 15. How it came to pass, a question. 16. Spoke 
 of what you said. 17. Books for all to read. 18. That he reads 
 what he likes. 19. That he reads much, as all know. 20. If he is 
 a scholar, what none believe. 21. Would make no explanation what- 
 ever (156, 3). 22. Bought a horse for you to ride. 23. The news 
 that we were defeated. 24. That we were defeated, melancholy news. 
 
 CHAPTER n. 
 
 THE COMPLEX TERM. (Continued.) 
 
 The Cojnplex Base. 
 
 4. A base with reference to a given modifier may, to- 
 gether with such a modifier, constitute a second, or com- 
 plex base., with reference to another modifier ; again, this 
 modifier, together with such complex base, may consti- 
 tute a third base with reference to another modifier, and 
 BO on. Thus : — 
 
 Fragrant red roses. Here roses is the base with reference to red, 
 but red roses is the base with reference to fragrant^ for the sense is 
 not fragrant roses, but fragrant red roses. 
 
 Again, Large fragrant red roses. Here fragrant red roses is the 
 base with reference to large, as is evident from the sense. 
 
 Those large fragrant red roses. Now large fragrant red roses is evi- 
 
THE COMPLEX TERM. 93 
 
 dently the base of the modifier with reference to those and is the 
 fourth successive base in order. 
 
 So the phrase-form, thus: " By walkinnr in the street, with fi-iends, 
 by moonlight, for an hour." Here we have four successive bases. 
 
 It will be observed that the order of the modifiers in the phrase- 
 form is the reverse of that in the word-form. In the latter, the first 
 base comes last, in order of collocation; in the former, it comes first. 
 Thus : 
 
 Those large fragrant RED ROSES. BY WALKING IN THE STREET, 
 WITH FRIENDS, by moonlight, for an hour. 
 
 5. When, however, these modifiers /oZ^oe^; the base, the 
 idiom of our language demands that they take the form 
 of a compourid term. Thus, — 
 
 Large, /ra^mni, BEAUTIFUL RED ROSES == large fragrant 
 ROSES, beautiful and red = roses large, fragrant, beautiful, and 
 red. 
 
 Here, in the second form of the example, large fragrant roses is a 
 complex base, and modified by beautiful and red, which, coming 
 after the base, now assume the compound form. In the third form, 
 roses is a simple base, and modified by the remainder as a compound 
 term for the same reason. 
 
 Exercise 33. 
 
 Analyze as before. 
 
 1. Very studious. 2. Exceedingly wise. 3. Rich in resources. 
 4. Struck me severely. 5. By talking falsely about people. 6. Came 
 with colors flying. 7. Saw him fall. 8. Saw houses burned. 
 9. Struck him because he was angry. 10. He was untruthful, as 
 you know. 11. Fragrant white roses. 12. Large brick houses. 
 13. We, ourselves. 14. Cicero, the orator. 15. With immense 
 force. 16. Works diligently. 17. Friends whom 1 love. 18. Be- 
 lieves that the earth is stationary. 19. Doubts that the soul is im- 
 mortal. 20. Those English histories. 21. His large gold watch. 
 22. Several huge, black, English iron ships. 23. To read by gas- 
 light. 24. To study about art. 25. By lecturing on astronomy to 
 students. 26. Said what he would do. 27. Told when you came. 
 28. Asked where they were. 29. That he was guilty, a plain fact. 
 30. Talked of his coming. 31. Sat with his hands folded (13, 11). 
 32. Says ho told you that you must do what had been ordered by 
 the commander. 33. That he is rich, a mere report, as all know. 
 
94 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 THE COMPLEX TEEM. {Continued.) 
 
 TJie Complex Modifier. 
 
 6. A modifying term of an}^ cla%8 or order may mod- 
 ify a given base of any cla^s or order. Thus, modifiers 
 of the word-form or phrase-form may modify bases of 
 the clause-form ; or modifiers of the clause-form may 
 modify bases of the word-form or phrase-form, etc. For 
 example : — 
 
 rl. W.-f. Goodmoxi. 
 Base W.-f. Mod. •< 2. P.-f . Men of goodness. 
 
 ' 3. C.-f . Men tvlio are good. 
 
 rl. W.-f. Of ?Hse men. 
 Base P.-f. Mod. •] 2. P.-f. Of men of wisdom. 
 
 is. C.-f. Of men wJio are wise. 
 
 1 . W.-f. That men fight, a mystery. 
 
 2. P.-f. As there was no bread hy reason of 
 Base C.-f. Mod. -^ famine. 
 
 3. C.-f. That the planets are inhabited, ?rAa< 
 many believe. 
 
 So, likewise, the base or the modifier in the above might in each 
 case be S., Cx., or Cd. 
 
 T. A modifier of a given class may be frequently 
 changed into one of another class. Thus : — 
 
 Walks rapidly = with rapidity. Generous men = of generosity 
 = who are generous. 
 
 She never goes out hut she takes cold = icithout taking cold. 
 
 S. A modifier, with reference to a given base^ may, 
 together with such a base, constitute a complex modifier 
 with reference to another base ; and this again, with 
 such complex base, may constitute a third modifier Avith 
 reference to still another base, etc. 
 
 Most capacious dwellings. Here, most is the modifier with refer- 
 ence to capacious, but most capacious is the modifier of dwellings 
 
THE COMPLEX TERM. 95 
 
 for the sense is not capacious dwellings, but most capacious dwell- 
 ings. 
 
 Again, " Miich (the) most capacious dwelling." Here, much is the 
 modifier of most, and the complex element, much most is the modi- 
 fier of capacious, and the complex form much most capacious is the 
 modifier of dwelling. 
 
 9. Complex modifiers must be carefully distinguished 
 from complex bases. The sense will always determine. 
 Thus: — 
 
 Several black horses. Here we have a complex base, with refer- 
 ence to several, for the sense is hot several horses, but several black 
 horses. 
 
 Again. Very black horses. In this case, very modifies simply 
 black; in the other, several modifies black horses. Hence, the differ- 
 ence is manifest. 
 
 Note. Observe the difference in the following, as indicated by 
 the italicized words : — 
 
 Fragrant red roses. Extremely red roses. More beautiful houses. Those 
 beautiful houses. To live in the city from choice. To live in the city of Bos- 
 ton. 
 
 10. Sometimes the same modifier contains both a com- 
 plex base and a complex modifier. 
 
 Very black Arabian horses. Here, Arabian horses is the complex 
 base of very black, which is a complex modifier ; for the sense is 
 not very black- Arabian-horses, or very-black- Arabian horses, or very 
 black-Arabian horses, but very-black ^raiian-HORSES. 
 
 ^^^Analyze according to Illustration. 
 
 More beautiful books. 
 
 Cx. W.-f. Books is B., and mod. by more beautiful, Cx. W.-f., of which 
 beautiful is B. and mod. by more, S. W.-f. 
 
 Good kings of England. 
 
 Cx. W.-f. Kings is B., and mod. by of England, S. P.-f. Kings of Eng- 
 land is Sec. B., and mod. by good, S. W.-f. 
 
 Jewels of gold from rich mines in California. 
 
 Cx. W.-f. Jewels is B., and mod. by the remainder, of Cx. P.-f., of which 
 
 Exercise 34. 
 
96 ENGLISH LANGUAGE.. 
 
 of gold is B., and mod. by remainder, of Cx. P.-f. From mines is B., and mod. 
 by m California, S. P.-^f. ; andyVom mines in California is Sec. B. and mod. by 
 rich, S. W.-f. 
 
 1. Very beautiful. 2. Lincoln's administration. 3. Our friends. 
 4. City of Boston. 5. Kings of France. 6. Laws of Moses. 
 7. With great care. 8. Stillness of death. 9. Shines with bril- 
 liancy. 10. Reared in opulence. 11. Went to learn. 12. Said 
 that he would go. 13. Looks where he leaps. 14. Labor whereby 
 he lives. 15. Law-giver from beneath my feet. 16. Almanac for 
 this year. 17. Excellent gold watches. 18. Men whom I saw. 
 19. Cities which he passed. 20. Fights for pay. 21. Clouds in 
 the air. 22. Ten fine black Canadian ponies. 23. The promise 
 that he would go. 24. If the planets are inhabited, a probable sup- 
 positi Dn. 25. Said that the planets revolve, and that the stars are 
 fixed. 26. Saw the soldiers advancing. 27. Heard you speak. 
 28. Prevented his speaking. 29. Heard of your speaking. 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 THE COMPLEX TERM. {GontinuedL) 
 Hie Order of Modifiers. 
 
 11. That there is a fixed order in the arrangement of 
 modifiers preceding the base (19, 6, 8), is sufficiently- 
 manifest. We say involuntarily, — and the usage is uni- 
 versal, — as follows : — 
 
 Large red roses, and not red large roses. The old stone tower, and 
 not the stone old tower. 
 
 12. It is manifest that there is sound philosophy in this, and the 
 explanation seems easy. 
 
 We always place nearest the base the terms indicating the most 
 obvious, that is, the most easily apprehended qualities. Hence: — 
 
 (1.) Qualifying adjective terms are -placed nearer than limit- 
 ing adjective terms, because qualities, as a rule, are more easily and 
 readily cognized. Thus: — 
 
 Ten large apples. My white horse. Mary's velvet hat, etc. Here it is 
 evident that magnitude, color, and material in the three examples are respect- 
 ively more obvious than number and possession, which of necessity must come 
 to our knowledge later. 
 
THE COMPLEX TERM. 97 
 
 (2.) We place always nearest the base the words indicating the 
 most obvious qualities, those less obvious next, and so on. Now, as a 
 rule, qualities which address the sight are the most obvious. Those 
 which address the touch or the taste come next in order, and those 
 which address the judgment or the reason come last. 
 
 Note. The words which express the qualities addressed to the 
 five senses are sufficiently obvious. It may not have been noticed, 
 however, that magnitude, number, and in the main form, address the 
 judgment, and hence words indicating these stand always beyond 
 those expressing the action of. the senses. 
 
 Xa7"^e 7'ecZ apples; ten small sweet axtples] soft green velvet. 
 
 (3.) Of several qualities equally obvious, the most important stands 
 nearest the base; of several qualities addressing- the same organ or 
 faculty, those demanding the least exertion stand always nearest. 
 Of LIMITING modifiers number is not so readily fixed upon as size, 
 and size not so quickly as form. Hence, the order in the follow- 
 ing:— 
 
 Ten small houses; ten round tables; small round tables; ten small round 
 tables ; red apples ; sweet red apples ; small sweet red apples ; fve small round 
 sweet red apples ; several old men ; several fne-looking old men. 
 
 13. An apparent exception to the above order is found in the 
 fact that the name of the country where a thing is made or produced, 
 and the material of which a thing is composed, is commonly placed 
 next the base. 
 
 The explanation, probably, is that in many cases the place of pro- 
 duction, or of manufacture, or the material used, is considered the 
 most important circumstance, as that alone not unfrequently deter- 
 mines the value of all other desirable qualities. 
 
 Large Canadian ponies; valuable Russia iron; ten small gold iStriw watches ; 
 beautiful i^renc^ fashions ; large white brick French-roofed houses; red brick 
 houses ; black velvet dresses. 
 
 14. When several modifiers of apparently equal importance ad- 
 dress the same sense, the modifier representing the most permanent 
 quality should stand nearest. Thus : — 
 
 The overhanging, unclouded sky; say, The unclouded overhanging sky. 
 Overhanging is a constant, unclouded a temporary qualification. 
 
 The yellow waviiiff gr&m; say, The waving yellow grain. Yellow in compar- 
 atively constant, waving is only incidental. 
 
 So say, the starry blue sky; the clear blue sky ; the advancing somber cload; 
 and not the converse of these. 
 7 
 
98 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 15. Sometimes for the sake of Emphasis, or of Euphony, it seems 
 desirable to reverse the true order, as given above. In such cases 
 the element becomes compound in character. 
 
 The blue starry sky (= blue and starr}'). So, the yellow {and) waving 
 grain ; the overhanging (and) unclo'uded sky. 
 
 16. The definite article the and the demonstrative pronouns thuf 
 and that, always hold the last place. Words of locality, even when 
 used to designate, retain their place next to the base (15). Thus: — 
 
 421 3 53 2 1 
 
 That large house across the street. The large beautiful apple-tree in the 
 4 
 corner of the garden. 
 
 17. So all appositive terms used to designate or identify the ob- 
 ject, come logically, qext the base. 
 
 The beautiful virtue of benevolence. Of benevolence modifies all that goes 
 before. 
 
 The sublime law of nature, that aU bodies attract all other bodies. Here the 
 appositive clause modifies all before. 
 
 So, That eloquent, noble-souled statesman, Webster. The great, fertile, pop- 
 ulous continent of America. That low, miserable vice of dander. 
 
 18. There is an anomaly in this matter of collocation in the case 
 of the articles. With many, such, all, and often with complex com- 
 parative adjective terms, and some others, the article comes next or 
 near the base. 
 
 Many a flower; many a time; such a man; all the books; so noble a man; 
 more sublime a view ; by far the greater part ; as good a man, etc. 
 
 19. When there are several modifiers of different classes, some 
 placed before and some after the base, the true logical order can be 
 determined frequently only by the explanation made above (19, 12). 
 
 2 1 1 
 
 Stone towers (of great age) = vei'y old stone towers. Large apples iof de- 
 
 2 1.2 
 
 licious sweetness) = large deKciouslg sweet apples. Ten small houses {of ex- 
 
 3 ... 13 
 
 quisite beauty) = ten smaU exquisitely beautiful houses. Beautiful Swiss watches 
 
 2 
 
 of gold = beautiful gold Swiss watches. 
 
 20. When all the modifiers of whatever class can be converted 
 into word-forms, the order will appear at once from mere force of 
 habit in the way of usage. 
 
 1.2 1 
 
 Those books {which were lost) = those lost books. Macaulay's History of Eng- 
 
 12 3 
 
 land = Macaulay's English History. Several large volumes {which were pub- 
 lished in England) = several large English volumes. ,_ 
 
THE COMPLEX TERM. 99 
 
 21. In regard to verb terms it should be noted that the order as 
 a rule is first objective terms and then adverb terms. The principle 
 of collocation is the same as in the case of noun terms. We cognize 
 'more readily the object of an act than subordinate facts connected 
 with the same. The object term is also the more important. 
 
 Struck him severely. Here struck is modified by him, and strtick him is 
 modified by severely. So, saw him yesterday. 
 
 22. When there are several adverb terms the most obvious conies 
 nearest, the less so next, and so on as in the case of adjective terms. 
 
 So also, of several equally obvious, the most important comes 
 nearest the base. 
 
 Struck him severely, yesterday, in my house. 
 
 23. Of course the order of modifiers, with verb terms 
 may be changed for rhetorical reasons. ^-y^"" |\ E £ V r 
 
 Exercise 35. u ^ '^l^^js ''^ ^^ 
 
 ILLUSTRATIONS. ^ / Jf f 
 
 Many elegant combs of beautiful ivory. -^^ ,y *• 
 
 Cx. W.-f. Comhs is B., and mod. by of beautiful ivory, Cx. P.-f., of which 
 of ivory is B., and mod. by beautiful. Combs of beautiful ivory is sec. B., and 
 mod. by elegant, and this with the previous, as third B., is mod. by many. 
 
 Sailed his yacht beautifully up the river last week. 
 Cx. W.-f. Sailed is B., and mod. by his yacht, Cx, W.-f., etc. (answere 
 what). Sailed his yacht is sec. B., and mod. by beautifully, S. W.-f. (answers 
 how). Sailed his yacht beautifully is a third B., and mod. by up the river, a Cx. 
 P.-f. (answers which way) ; and all a fourth B., is mod. hj last week, Cx. W.-f., 
 etc. 
 
 I. 1. Those Swiss watches. 2. Very beautiful Swiss watches. 3. 
 Ladies*^ Swiss watches. 4. Black Arabian horses. 5. Ten Arabian 
 horses. 6. Ten very beautiful black Arabian horses. 7. Several 
 Arabian horses of great value. 8. Black and white Arabian horses 
 of great size which I bought in Spain. 9. Many sweet oranges of 
 immense size. 10. Ten large yellow pears of most exquisite flavor. 
 
 IL 1. Universal biographical dictionary. 2. Lexicon of the Latin 
 language. 3. Books of the Chronicles of the Kings. 4. Josephus* 
 History of the Jewish War. 5. Philosophical grammar of the Eng- 
 lish language. 6. Author of the Poor Man's Library. 7. Writings 
 of the Apostolic Fathers of the first century. 8. At the Court of 
 Elizabeth, Queen of England, in the sixteenth century. 9. At the 
 
100 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 City of Boston, in the State of Massachusetts. 10. Those three 
 large, beautiful, cloth-bound volumes of American poetry. 11. Builds 
 with great rapidity most elegant houses. 12. Said that you knew. 
 
 13. Since the weather was cold, an unfortunate circumstance. 
 
 14. If he had failed in business, what everybody expected. 15. Said 
 that he was right, what you disbelieved. 16. Orders for the houses 
 to be burned and for the city to be utterly destroyed. 1 7. Will do 
 what is best, if he is able. 18. Said that as the sun rose, the fleet 
 sailed. 19. Will give you such valuables as are in my possession. 
 20. Have done so many a time. 
 
 SUB-DIVISION \\\. — THE COMPOUND TERM. 
 
 — • — 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 THE BASE. 
 
 20. Any two or more terms, not combined as base and 
 modifier^ but being all bases or all modifiers equally with 
 reference to another term, constitute a Compound Term. 
 
 W.-f. Large rivers and oceans. Large and beautiful rivers. We 
 read and write. 
 
 P.-f. Men of wisdom and of power. Works with ease and icith 
 rapidity. 
 
 C.-f. If you come 2iu^ if we go. It is best /or you ^o come and /or 
 us to go, 
 
 Sent.-f. We tcill come, and you will go. Who is this and what is 
 his name ? 
 
 1. The constituents of a compound term are called co- 
 ordinates. Coordinate terms may be either absolute or 
 partial^ according as they are logically independent, or 
 exercise some modifying influence over one another. 
 (164, 165.) 
 
 2. Coordinate terms when absolute are usually joined by the con- 
 nectives and ; but ; both — and ; neither — nor ; nor — nor ; either — 
 or; now — now; on the one hand — on the other hand; not only —' 
 hul also, but likewise, etc. 
 
THE COMPOUND TERM. 101 
 
 Men wse and good ; not wise but good; both wise am:? good; not only wise 
 hut also good. 
 
 3. Coordinate terms when partial are commonly joined by hut, yet, 
 notwithstanding , nevertheless. 
 
 Men poor but influential (poor and influential are logically related). So, — 
 learned yet simple, he has many faults yet he is much beloved. 
 
 4. Participles are often used as coordinates with other 
 forms of the verb. This is always the case, of course, 
 when they state a fact of the same rank and importance 
 substantially as that indicated by other verb forms. 
 
 Said that having written his letters, he werd out to walk, =: that he 
 wrote his letters, and went out to walk. 
 
 Having traversed the plain, and crossed the river, we advanced 
 towards the enemy = we traversed the plain, crossed the river and 
 advanced, etc., or traversing the plain and crossing the river, they 
 advanced, etc. 
 
 Remark. The above coordinate use of the participle, especially 
 of the passive form of the same, is very common in the ancient 
 classics. 
 
 Note. It should be noted that when clause-forms become coordi- 
 nate the clausal connective or particle is always retained, either ex- 
 pressed or clearly understood. 
 
 Said that you must go and that I must remain. It is best for us to go but for 
 you to remain. (12, 3.) 
 
 5. Coordinates are of the clause-form only when the 
 several clauses have each its own noun term and its own 
 verb term. 
 
 If John writes and James reads. Cd. C.-f. If John writes and 
 reads. S. C.-f. with Cd. Pred. 
 
 If John and James read. S. C.-f., with Cd. Subj. term. If John 
 and James read and write. S. C.-f., with Cd. Subj., and Cd. Pred. 
 
 6. Cautions. (1.) Complex compound terms must be distin- 
 guished from terms complex and compound. 
 
 Large rivers and mountains. Cx. Cd. T. Large rivers and small mountains. 
 Cx. and Cd. T. 
 
 (2.) Compound terms must be distinguished from those that are 
 such only in appearance (18, 3). 
 
102 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 The sound increased more and more. S. W.-f. (apparently Cd.)- He has 
 visited me time and again. S. W.-f. (apparently Cd.). Has visited me morning 
 and evening (Truly Cd.). 
 
 (3.) Compound phrase-forms must be distinguished from simple 
 phrase-forms having a compound significant term. Thus: — 
 
 Went between hills and {between) mountains, along the valleys. Cd. P.-f. 
 Went between the hill and the mountain (does not mean, of course, between the 
 hill and between the mountain, which would be nonsense). S. P.-f. with Cd. 
 Significant Term. 
 
 &o Among friends and foes. Cd. P.-f. \ between you and me. S. P.-f. — Cd. 
 SigniQcant Term. 
 
 7. Compound terms must not be confounded with complex terms. 
 The difference is manifest. Between the constituents of a com- 
 pound term, a connective is either expressed or clearly implied. This 
 is never true of complex terms. 
 
 Good and wise and patriotic men. Cd. Mod. (Mod. = modifier.) 
 
 Much more patriotic men. Cx. Mod. Those patHotic old men. Cx. B. 
 
 The dreary lonely day. Cd. Mod. The long lo/iely day. Cd. Mod. The 
 very lonely day. Cx. Mod. The lonely winter day. Cx. B. 
 
 The loud resounding cataract. Cx. Mod. The rocky thundering cataract. 
 Cd. Mod. The beautiful bow-crowned cataract. Cx. B. 
 
 The trackless sandy beach. Cx. B. The sandy trackless beach. Cd. Mod. 
 (19, 17). The beautiful sandy beach. Cx. B. The soft sandy beach. Cd. Mod. 
 
 8. The importance of noting carefully the logical relation of terms 
 will be evident from the following : — 
 
 The black and white horse. Cx. W.-f. The black and the white horse. Cd. 
 W.-f. The black and white horses. Cx. W.-f. The black and (he white horses. 
 Cd. W.-f. 
 
 Here, in the first example, reference is made to one horse of a black and white 
 or dappled color; in the second, reference is made to two horses, of which one is 
 black and the other white ; in the third, reference is made to two or more horses 
 whose color is black and white; in the fourth, reference is made to two classes of 
 horses, of which one is black and the other is white. 
 
 Exercise 36. 
 
 Analyze according to Illustrations. 
 
 Large sweet apples. 
 
 Cx. W.-f. Apj)les is the Base and modified by sweet, S. W.-f., and sweet 
 apples is Sec. B. and mod. by large, S. W.-f. 
 
 By studying French. 
 Cx. P. f. By studying is B., and mod. by French, S. W.-f. 
 
THE COMPOUND TERM. 103 
 
 Marched many miles before it was light. 
 
 Cx. W.-f. Marched is B., and mod. by many miles, Cx. W.-f., of which 
 miles is B. and mod. by many, S. W.-f. Marched many miles is Sec. B., and 
 mod. by before it was light, S. Adjunc. Dem. C.-f. 
 
 Ten large Florida oranges, ripe and sweet. 
 
 Cx. "W.-f. Oranges is B., and mod. by Florida, S. W.-f. Flmida oranges 
 is sec. B., and mod. by npe and sweet, Cd. W.-f. Floi'ida oranges ripe and 
 sweet is third B., and mod. by large, S. W.-f., and all is mod. by ten, S. W.-f. 
 
 Every man, woman, and child. 
 
 Cx. Cd. W.-f. Man, woman, and child is the B., and mod. by every, S. W.-f. 
 
 Houses and stores which were burned. 
 
 Cx. Cd. W.-f. Houses and stores is B., and mod. by the remainder, S. Rel. 
 C.-f. 
 
 I. Between us; between you and me; came two by two; came by 
 twos; marched four abreast; three times three is nine; little and 
 often fills the purse; spoke frequently; spoke time and again; re- 
 sounds from the ocean ; resounds from ocean to ocean ; spoke to us ; 
 spoke to each other ; are driven from post to pillar ; from pole to pole, 
 the earth's diameter ; told such and such things. 
 
 II. 1. Those large houses. 2. Very large houses. 3. Large white 
 houses. 4. Exceedingly white houses. 5. Ten very white houses. 
 6. Ten very large and very white houses. 7. Large and convenient 
 houses. 8. Exceedingly large and very convenient bouses. 9. Some 
 large brick houses and barns of mine. 10. Several houses which I 
 sold and which you bought. 11. Brick and stone houses. 12. The 
 brick and the stone house. 13. The brick and the stone houses. 
 
 *III. 1. Of great size and beauty. 2. Among our friends and our 
 foes. 3. Since the sun shines and the rain falls every day. 4. Three 
 score and ten large buildings of fine granite. 5. Brown and Smith, 
 copartners in the business of shoemaking. 6. Many noble sons and 
 daughters of Adam and Eve. 7. The deep blue sea (20, 9). 
 8. Every tree and shrub and herb of the field. 9. English manners 
 and customs and habits. 10. The old world and the new. 11. The 
 old and the new world. 12. The old and new worlds. 13. Of 
 immense wealth, honor, and greatness. 14. From the cities, towns, 
 and hamlets, of the extensive domains of our country beyond the 
 Rocky Mountains. 15. Knows that suns shine, stars twinkle, and 
 winds blow. 16. Knew him to be a traitor and you to be loyal. 
 IV. 1. She has neither wealth nor wisdom. 2. I doubt not he 
 
104 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 will either come or send. 3. There is no question that not only- 
 knowledge, but wisdom also is gained by study and observation. 
 4. I pray you watch about Leonato's door, for the wedding being 
 there to-morrow, there is a great stir to-night. — Shak. 5. The most 
 peaceable way for you, if you do take a thief, is to let him show him- 
 self what he is (41, 2) and steal out of your company. — Id. 6. I 
 should first tell her how the prince, Claudio, and my master, saw afar 
 off in the orchard this amiable encounter. — Id. 7. They stay for 
 you to give your daughter to her husband. — Id. 8. Unless he have 
 a fancy to this foolery as it appears he hath, (he) is no fool for fancy 
 as you would have it appear he is. — Id. (This last sentence has 
 six clauses. Find them.) 
 
 CHAPTER n. 
 
 THE COMPOUND TERM. (Continued.) 
 
 Grammatical Constrvdion. 
 
 10. Coordinates should usually be of the same c^a55, and — if 
 of the clause-form — they should be of the same kind. A violation 
 of this rule produces inharmony and more or less of ineleganee in 
 a sentence. 
 
 WoBD-FORM. Wise and generous men (not, Men wise and of generosity). 
 
 "Works constantly and rapidly (not, constantly and with rapidity.) 
 
 Phrase-forsis. Men of wisdom and of generosity. Works with vigor and 
 with rapidity. 
 
 Clause-forms. Told who he was, and whence he came (not told his name 
 and whence he came). Believed him to be guiUy^and that he ought to be pun- 
 ished (better: that he was guilty and that he ought, etc.). 
 
 11. Coordinates are not of necessity the same parts of speech, but 
 are always the same kind of logical elements; that is, all are or 
 should be noun terms, adjective terms, adverb terms, or ^erb 
 termjj. (1.) 
 
 Noun Terms. Cities and toicns were burned. James and you were present. 
 
 Adjectivk Terms. Good and great men. Men of wisdom and of power. 
 
 Adverb Terms. Writes easily and elegantly; went to see and to be seen ; 
 workf< for pi-aise and for pelf ; excels in both brain and brawn. 
 
 Verb Terms. We read and write; saw them singing and dancing; felt 
 myself sink and fall; said that they having charged, completely routed the 
 enemy (20, 4). 
 
 12. Connectives should be placed as near as possible to the 
 terms they are designed to join. 
 
THE COMPOUND TERM. 105 
 
 He neither will study himself nor permit the others to; — say, He will neither 
 study himself, nor, etc. He excels both in Latin and Greek; — say, he excels 
 in both Latin and Greek. 
 
 13. Ellipses. Sometimes one of the constituents of a compound 
 term is omitted. 
 
 This happens when the same term (i. e., the base) is made to refer 
 to different objects. Thus, the Jirst and the second volume. Here, 
 of course, ttvo volumes are referred to, and the expression fully ex- 
 pressed would be: The Jirst volume and the second volume. Now, in 
 the case of such ellipses, the article, if used with one term, should 
 be repeated with all, or else the base should be made plural. 
 
 The north and the south pole; the first, the second, and the third army corps. 
 The north and south poles ; the Latin and Greek languages ; the old and new 
 worlds. 
 
 14. Article and Plural Forms. Sometimes both the article 
 and the plural form are needed to make the sense clear. Thus: — 
 
 The black and white horses. Here the obvious meaning is, dappled horses; it 
 might mean, however, different horses, some black and some white. All am- 
 biguity would be removed by saying, the black and the white horses, in case 
 one wishes to designate two classes of horses. 
 
 15. On the contrary the article should not be repeated, when only 
 one person or thing is referred to, and should not be used at all un- 
 less the sense demands it. 
 
 The husband, father, and patriot prays. Washington Allston was both a 
 painter and a poet. — Wayland. Better, — was hoih. painter and poet. 
 
 16. No ellipses should be permitted, which involve a false construc- 
 tion. 
 
 He can and is willing to do his part ( = He can to do. Say, He can do, and 
 etc.) He stood opposite and only a short distance from me ( = opposite from. 
 Say, He stood opposite to me, etc.). He is as good or even better than you ( = 
 as good than you. Say He is as good as you, or, etc.). 
 
 17. When there are a number of copulative coordinates, the con- 
 nective is usually expressed only with the last. A modifier common 
 to all is expressed only with the first. 
 
 Works faithfully, vigorously, and successfully. Kings of England, Ireland, 
 and Scotland. Every man, woman, and child. 
 
 18. When, however, greater emphasis is required, these ellipses 
 are all supplied. 
 
 When Time and Pain and Chance and Death expire. — Young. 
 
106 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 19. Prepositions and modifiers should be repeated when the 
 sense seems to demand it, or obscurity or ambiguity would result 
 from this omission. 
 
 The freedom of Rome and of Italy was now secured. 
 
 20. Or and Nor. When several coordinates are to be severally 
 denied, nor is used ; when affirmed, or is used. 
 
 Ye have no portion, nor right, nor memorial in Jerusalem. 
 
 21. Neither is the proper correlative of nor^ and should be used in- 
 stead of not when only two coordinates are used. 
 
 He will not have time nor capacity. — Bolinghrohe. Say, — neither. 
 
 22. When several coordinates follow a negative with which nega- 
 tive they are not coordinate ; if used in an affirmative sense, they are 
 connected by or, if in a negative, by nor. 
 
 Let no man be too confident nor too diffident. "Wrong : say, or ; the sense is, 
 Let no man be {either) too confident or too diffident. 
 
 He did not mention Leonora's nor her father's death. — Murray. Wrong: 
 the sense is: He did not mention {either) Leonora's or her father's death. 
 
 23. Coordinates taken negatively should not be joined by a nega- 
 tive. 
 
 The light of Christ is not nor cannot be darkness. — Barclay. Let's be no 
 stones NOB no stocks I pray. — Shak. In each case say and instead of nor. 
 
 Exercise 37. 
 
 Do the same icork as in the previous exercises : correct any faults in 
 construction; note all improper ellipses or additions. 
 
 I. 1. The conduct of the Second and Third Gregory. — Gibbon. 
 2. The separation of the East and the West. — Id. 3. Marched to 
 the conquest of Spoleto and Rome. — Id. 4. The link of ancient 
 and modern, of civil and eccledastical history. — Id. 5. United in 
 the same person the title and authority of king. — Jd. 6. Trans- 
 pierced by the pen of Valla, an eloquent critic and a Roman patriot. 
 — Id. 7. The grammar and logic, the music and astronomy of the 
 times. — Id. 8. The eastern and western empires. — Id. 9. The 
 powers of the Gothic and Grecian princes. — Id. 
 
 II. 1. Give me not counsel, nor let no comforter delight mine 
 ear. — Shak. 2. She cannot love nor take no shape nor project of 
 iiflFection. — Id. 3. There is no difficulty nor dispute about them. — 
 
FORMS OF INDIVIDUAL GRAMMATICAL TERMS. 107 
 
 Tooke. 4. So as not to cloud that object nor to bury it. — Blair. 
 5. Thou canst not tell whence it cometh nor whither it goeth. — 
 Bible. 6. Whose character was not sufficiently vigorous nor de- 
 cisive. — Hume. 7. Never calumniate any man nor give the least 
 encouragement to calumniators. 8. I shall not attempt to convince 
 nor to persuade you. 9. Seemed not to understand ceremony, or to 
 despise it. 
 
 HI. 1. He will not have time, no, nor capacity neither. — Bol- 
 ingbroke. 2. There was none of you that convinced Job or that an- 
 swered his words. — Bible. 3. There is no darkness nor shadow of 
 death. — Id. 4. Mourn not nor weep. — Id. 5. We must try 
 whether or no we cannot increase the attention. 6. There can be 
 no rules laid down nor no manner recommended. 7. No skill could 
 obviate nor no remedy dispel. — Goldsmith. 8. Prudery cannot be 
 an indication neither of sense nor of taste. 9. But that Scripture 
 nor no other, speaks not of imperfect faith. — Barclay. 10. Which 
 do not continue nor are not binding. — Id. 11. It not being per- 
 ceived no more than the air. — Campbell. 1 2. When there is no 
 marked nor peculiar character in the style. 13. They have seldom 
 or ever an opportunity. 14. He has been outdone by no poet. 
 15. We seldom or ever see those forsaken who trust in God. — At- 
 ierbury. 
 
 DIVISION III. 
 
 FORMS OF INDIVIDUAL GRAMMATICAL TERMS. 
 
 K Heretofore (Divisions T. and II.) we have been 
 considering, in a general way., the various Forms OF 
 Expression by which Thought is indicated in discourse ; 
 — that is, the various Lingual Moulds, so to speak, in 
 some one of which every thought of whatever kind or 
 character is necessarily cast. 
 
 We come now to apply what we have learned, to the 
 Individual Terms (1) which make up the structure of 
 the sentence, "and consequently to inquire WHICH OF 
 
108 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 THESE FIXED ORGANIC FORMS, with which we are now 
 presumed to be well and familiarly acquainted, these 
 Four Grammatical Terms in language, may individually 
 assume. 
 
 SUB-DIVISION \.— THE NOUN-TERM, 
 CHAPTER L 
 
 DEFINITION AND CHARACTER. 
 
 21. Any word or any logical combination of words 
 used to name a thing, a thought, or a conception, is a 
 Noun-term. Hence, anything whatever that can be made 
 the subject of thought or of remark, as such, may be a 
 Noun-term ; hence, therefore, any term whatever that can 
 be used either as the Subject or the Object Term of a 
 verb is a Noun-term. (2.) 
 
 1. The Word-form of th^ Noun-term (7) may be 
 any part of speech. Thus : — 
 
 (1.) A Noun of any kind. 
 
 Casar conquered ; men die ; truth will prevail. 
 
 (2.) A Pronoun of any kind. 
 
 PTedie; loAo comes ; <^eywent; none are absent. 
 
 (3.) An Adjective. 
 
 The good are happy; ten were present; some remained; little was done; did 
 his6w<; did right. 
 
 (4.) An Adverb. 
 
 Now is the time; how is not why; yes, was his reply; said no. 
 
 (5.) A Verb. 
 
 A march was made ; their retreat was certain ; took a ride. 
 
 So the Infinitive. 
 
 To see is pleasant ; to sttidy is tiresome ; begins to study. 
 
THE NOUN-TERM. 109 
 
 So, also, the Participle. 
 
 Seeing is believing; walking is healthful; commenced singing. 
 (6.) A Preposition. 
 The ups and downs of life ;ofis& small word. 
 (7.) A Conjunction. 
 Your i/'s and your and's. 
 (8.) An Interjection. 
 He cried out, Oh ! Alas ! 
 
 2. The Phbase-form of the noun-term rarely occurs. 
 
 Beyond the mountain is the enemy's country. 
 
 3. The Clause-form may be, — 
 
 (1.) A Demonstrative CLAUSE. 
 
 Says that he is a traitor ; it seems as if he must be a traitor (11, 7); I feel as 
 if he was a traitor ; told hoio he was a traitor ; it cannot be but he is a traitor. 
 
 (2.) An Infinitive clause. 
 
 Believe him to be a traitor ; it seems strange for him to be a traitor ; all 
 think him a traitor ; he feels himself to be a traitor. 
 
 (3.) A Participial clause. 
 
 His {■= he) being a traitor was not generally known ; you may rely on (13, 16) 
 his {= him) being a traitor; imagine him deserting to the enemy; saw him ex- 
 ecuted as a traitor. 
 
 (4.) A Relative clause. 
 
 Who the traitor is is not known ; why he did so is a mystery; told why he did 
 it; asked if he was a traitor ; wonders xohether he can escape. 
 
 4. The Noun- term may be also a Sentence. 
 
 He said, ^' I am a traitor.'" ^^ He is a traitor^'''' is the report everywhere. 
 
 5. A Half Sentence (16, 4). 
 
 He replied : He was not a traitor ; these men were persecuting him ; why did 
 they work to ruin him ; had he ever wronged them ? 
 
 6. The kind of a term, as the class, is always determined by the 
 base, — if the base is a noun-term, the whole will be a noun-term; if 
 an adjective term, the whole will be adjective, etc. 
 
110 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 EXEECIgE 38. 
 
 Analyze; name the noun-terms^ and tell what part of speech they 
 were in their primary use. 
 
 rLLUSTRATION. 
 
 • Said yes. 
 
 A Cx. W.-f. Said is the B., and mod. by yes, a N.-T. of the S. W.-f. Ye* 
 is primarily an adverb. 
 
 Now is the time. 
 
 A simple sentence. Now is the Subj., a N.-T. (primarily an adverb), and is 
 the time is the Pred. 
 
 Ordered something to be done. 
 
 A Cx. W.-f., of which ordered is the B., and mod.T)y rem., a N.-T. of the 
 Inf. C.-f., etc. 
 
 Avoids rudeness of manners. 
 
 A Cx. W.-f. Avoids is the B., and mod. by rem., a N.-T. of Cx. W.-f., 
 etc. 
 
 It seems as if it must be true. 
 
 A simple sentence. It is an expletive ; as if it must be true is the Subj., a 
 N.-T. of the Dem. Equiv. C.-f. ; seems is Pred. 
 
 It cannot be but it is false. 
 
 A simple seiitence; it is expletive; but it is false (= that it is not false) is the 
 Subj., a N.-T. of the Dem. Equiv. C.-f. ; cannot be is the Pred. 
 
 Told how the thief escaped. 
 
 A Cx. W.-f. ; told is the B., and mod. by the rem., a N.-T. of the Rel. C.-f. 
 
 Told how the thief had actually made his escape, and how the offi- 
 cers were then in pursuit of him. 
 
 A Cx. W.-f.; tdd is the B., and mod. by the rem., a N.-T. of the Cd. Dem. 
 Equiv. C.-f. 
 
 He replied: Why were they persecuting him? Did they wish to ruin 
 him utterly. 
 
 A simple sentence. He is Subj., a N.-T. of S. W.-f., and the rem. is Pred., 
 ^f which replied is the B., and mod. by rem., two N.-T.'s of Half Sent.-f. 
 
 He said, ' ' You are persecuting me. Do you wish to ruin me ? ' ' 
 
 A simple sentence, etc. Said and rem. is Pred., of which said is B., and mod 
 by rem., two N.-T.'s of Sent.-f. 
 
THE NOUN-TERM. Ill 
 
 Saw a herd of buffaloes cross the prairies. 
 
 A Cx. W.-f. Saw is the B., and mod. by rem., a N.-T. of the Inf. C-f. 
 
 Herd of buffaloes is the Subj., a N.-T. of the Cx. W.-f., etc. ; {to) cross the 
 prairies is the Pred. of the Cx. W.-f. of which to cross is the B. and mod. by 
 rem., a N.-T. of the Cx. W.-f., etc. 
 
 I. 1. Loves his country. 2. Thinks himself free. 3. Imagines 
 you are free. 4. Said to me, yes. 5. Says that above is not below. 
 6. Enjoys walking and riding. 7. Came soon after. 8. Shall call 
 you again. 9. Wept a last adieu. 10. Gave our little all. 11. Gave 
 all his property away. 12. Has much, wishes more. 13. Has much; 
 has more money. 14. Said no more. 15. Reads much and the best. 
 16. Says the nays have it. 17. Answered nay. 18. Says he has 
 none. 19. Thinks him better. 
 
 H. 1. Our man Sancho felt himself well off. — Irving. 2. What 
 they found, nobody knows. — Id. 3. Not knowing what remedy to 
 prescribe. — Id. 4. Who this Lindaraxa was I have never heard ex- 
 plained. — Id. 5. I knew it to be the rush of water through subter- 
 ranean channels. — Id. 6. I occasionally feel myself happier without 
 society. — Jd. 7. Five lost their lives as well as their crowns. — 
 Macaulay. 8. Cruel massacres, followed by cruel retribution, prov- 
 inces wasted, convents plundered, and cities razed to the ground, 
 make up the greater part of the history of those evil days. — Id. 
 
 IH. Distinguish sentences, half sentence forms, and clause forms. 
 Note all forms used as noun-terms. 
 
 1. They answered, " We cannot tell." They said that they could 
 not tell. " We cannot tell," said they. 
 
 2. He said, " 1 will also ask you one question." He said that he 
 would ask them one question. He then spoke : He would ask them 
 one question. 
 
 3. He made inquiry. Was I of Eton? I repHed that I was not. 
 Had I a father living? I had not. But you have a mother? I had. 
 And she thinks of sending you to Eton? I answered that she had 
 expressed such an intention. All people think highly of Eton. — De 
 Quincey. 
 
 4. We were followed by a sort of persecution, — would we not sec 
 the bell? Would we not see the model? Surely we would not go 
 =iway, without visiting the whispering gallery ? — De Quincey. 
 
 5. Whispered low the dying soldier, pressed her hand and faintly 
 
 smiled. 
 Was that pitying face his mother's, did she watch beside her child? 
 
 WMttier, 
 
112 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 SUB-DIVISION 11— THE ADJECTIVE-TERM, 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 DEFINITION AND CHARACTER. 
 
 22. Any word or any logical combiDation of words 
 used, as a whole, to indicate the attributes or qualities of 
 objects, or some circumstance connected directly with 
 the same, is an Adjective-term. Hence any term what- 
 ever used as a modifier of a JSfoun-term is an Adjective- 
 term (3). 
 
 1. This is true of all real noun- terras, whatever may 
 happen to be their special use in a given case. 
 
 Men of great wisdom; these are good men ; this is the book which 
 I showed you; shall go ten miles farther; several feet higher ; built a 
 fine house; dug a deep hole, etc. 
 
 2. The noun-term is sometimes implied, simply, in an 
 expression, which, as a whole, is not substantive in char- 
 acter. 
 
 Shall stay if it rains, as now seems very probable. (The relative 
 clause modifies the noun-conception in " if it rains,'' and is an adjec- 
 tive element.) 
 
 Went TO SEE THE CITY, what he had long desired. (The relative 
 clause is adjective and modifies the noun-conception in to see the city, 
 namely, the seeing of the city.) 
 
 3. The Word-form of the Adjective-term may be 
 any part of speech, namely : — 
 
 (1.) An Adjective. 
 
 Ten men; good men: these men: some men. 
 
 (2.) An Article. 
 
 A man ; the man. 
 
 (3.) A Noun. 
 
 (7oH watches; iron rods; «7»er spoons; JVortoay pine; John's knite. 
 
THE ADJECTIVE-TERM. 113 
 
 (4.) A Pronoun of any kind, 
 ify horse; whose book; what book; I, myself; we, ourselves. 
 
 5. A Verb. 
 
 A work horse ; a play ground ; a study table. 
 
 iSo, Infinitive Form. 
 rhe time to come; a sight to behold. 
 So, Participle Form. 
 
 Singing birds; ploughed lands; the slain king; bottled beer; raised bread; the 
 following day. 
 
 (6.) An Adverb. 
 
 The hither side ; the only man; an upward flight; an onward march. 
 (7.) A Preposition. 
 
 AJi/path; the through ixa.va.\ an wntZer garment; trees ten feet through {= 
 thick). 
 
 (8.) A Conjunction. 
 
 An if clause ; these but constractions. 
 
 4. The word-form is often conjunctive with as. 
 
 "We as business men could not approve of such conduct (= in the capacity of 
 business men (7, 4)). He, who went forth as a rebel, returned as a conqueror. 
 
 5. Participial word-forms are sometimes idiomatically combined 
 with prepositions or infinitives in such a way that, without supplying 
 something, they seem incapable of analysis. In such cases it will be 
 best to regard them as simple terms (18) . 
 
 He, being ^oTcen to, made reply. This thing, having been alluded to, became 
 the theme of conversation. The person referred to is present. 
 
 This man, being thought to be guilty, was punished. He, being said to be 
 learned, was much honored. 
 
 Remark. For the analysis of forms like the above, when ex- 
 pressed in full with finite verbs, and not in a way elliptically as here, 
 see 12, 23, and 40, 1. 
 
 6. The Phrase-form more commonly takes the preposition of; 
 almost any preposition, however, may be used. 
 
 ^len of wisdom; words of kindness; a talk about poetry ; a walk with you; a 
 struggle /or life ; the man befoi'e me ; the sky above me. 
 
 7. The Clause-form may be, — 
 (1.) A Dem. cl. (Adjunctive.) 
 
 The day after you left us ; a moment before he came ; a delay until the boat 
 arrived. 
 
114 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 (2.) An Inf. Cl. (Adjunctive.) 
 
 A proposition for something to he done ; a plea /or aU the poor to he educated. 
 
 (3.) Part. Cl. (Adjunctive.) 
 
 ThQ TQa^son of his going so soon. The oh^Qction to this heing done. Difficulties 
 in the way of anything being accomplished. 
 
 The story of the Elector asking S.for a franc and another doing the same im- 
 mediately. — Moore. The anecdote about the ink-bottle sti-iking one of the lead 
 Muses. — Id. The story of a man being mounted on a chameleon. — Id. The 
 impossibility of such expressions being allegorical. — Dr. Farrar. 
 
 (4.) A Relative Clause. 
 
 The man tcAo came. The things whereof f spoke. The iniquity whereby they 
 sinned. In the day that thou eatest thereof . This is the same solution as that 
 is. The theorj' as stated by Huxley (14, 26 and 42). The case as reported by the 
 papers. "Who is there but knows his duty ? It is you that is to blame {it =: per- 
 son). (14, 22.) This it is that you must do {it = thing). It is here that a dijfi- 
 culty arises {it z= place, and that = where). It M'as because the readiest exam- 
 ples were to be had from the Bible that any were taken from that source {it == 
 reason, and iAa< =r why). — Dean Alford. It is to the latter of them that I 
 would now call attention. — Id. (it = the one and that = to which.) It was at 
 this juncture that Demosthenes now stepped forward {it = time, and that = 
 when). — Dr. Smith. It was by favor of darkness that our vessel had contrived 
 to elude them. — Id. {it = means, and that = by which). It is no feeble blow 
 that will destroy a giant. — Whately {it = thing, and that = which). 
 
 (5.) A Relative Cl. (Adjunctive.) 
 
 The question as to how we may proceed. Has everything except what he 
 most needs. Does nothing but what he is obliged to. A discussion 07i whatever 
 interested them. Spends much besides what he earns. 
 
 (6.) A Rel. Inf. Cl. (Adjunctive and elliptical.) 
 Here is a book /or you to look at {which) ; a path for you to walk in {which) ; 
 a work /or you to perform {which). 
 
 Exercise 39. 
 
 Analyze ; name all noun-terms and all adjective-terms ; when words 
 are used out of their primary use, tell the part of speech to which they 
 belong primarily ; note carefully all antecedents. 
 
 ILLUSTRATION. 
 
 The iniquity whereby they sinned. 
 A N.-T. of Cx. W.-f., of which iniquity is B., and mod. by rem., an Adj.-T. of 
 the Rel. C.-f. They is the Subj., a N.-T. of S. W.-f., and sinned whereby is 
 Pred. of Cx. W.-f. Sinned is B., and mod. by whereby, S. W.-f. 
 
THE ADJECTIVE-TERM. 115 
 
 In the day that thou eatest thereof. 
 
 Cx. P.-f.; in the day is B., and mod. by rem., an Adj.-T. of Rel. C-f., 
 if which thou is Subj., and the rem. is the Pred. Eatest is B., and mod. by 
 thereof, an Adv.-T. of S. W.-f. Eatest thereof is Sec. B., and mod. by that 
 {= when or in which, 14, 20), an Adv.-T. of S. W.-f. 
 
 The question as to how we shall proceed. 
 
 A N.-T. of the Cx. W.-f. ; the question is B., and mod. by rem., an Adj.-T. of 
 the Rel. C-f., Adjunc, etc. 
 
 I. A hiding place; a place for us to hide; in the same place that 
 we hid before ; I hid in the place where you hid ; it was there that 
 he hid; it was true that he hid; it was then that he hid; it was 
 clear that he hid; it was thus that he hid; it cannot be but he hid; 
 it is time for us to hide ; there are always places for one to hide ; 
 one moment after he hid; a delay until all are hidden ; who knows 
 but he has hidden ; all the while that you were hidden ; a hiding 
 place, with huge rocks overhanging from above, with thick foliage 
 shutting out all the light, and with a small aperture opening into a 
 dark cave; with clothes torn into tatters, with hands and faces 
 scratched and bruised, we issued from our hiding place. 
 
 II. 1. Our possessions. 2. The hour for dinner. 3. Walks about 
 town. 4. To do one's best. 5. Every creature's rights. 6. At the 
 close of day. 7. A farewell address. 8. Spoke a long farewell. 
 9. Went into a far country. 10. Came from far. 11. The day- 
 spring from on high. 12. An exceedingly high tower. 13. The 
 President's proclamation. 14. A road through a tangled growth of 
 underbrush. • 15. Scouts to watch the enemy. 16. Two huge round 
 pillars of Parian marble. 1 7. Armaments which thunder-strike the 
 walls of rock-built cities. 18. Various reasons why we remained. 
 19. The place where Warren fell. 20. Men on whom we relied. 
 21. Several lots from the sale of which he became rich. 22. All 
 questions of whatever nature they may be. 23. Am not sure but I 
 may fall. 
 
 in, 1. Who is there but may fall? 2. On the day that you ar- 
 rived. 3. It was then that I first saw him. 4. Thus it was that 
 he conquered. 5. Objections to this being done. 6. The question 
 as to who should be made president. 7. The soldier with his right 
 arm gone, and his body mutilated, was borne to the tent. 8. The 
 day before the battle was fought was bright and warm. 9. When 
 the matter to be remembered is dates, it is better to refer to tables 
 where such knowledge is to be found. 10. The first thing to be 
 
116 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 established is that the man is dead. — Wayland. 11. The time drew 
 near that Israel must die. 
 
 IV. 1. It was in \\\q twenty- first year of his reign that Diocletian 
 executed his resolution. — Gibbon. 2. " It was not for such a pur- 
 pose," he replied, " that we have advanced from the shores of the 
 western ocean." — Id. 3. It is with pleasure that we can observe 
 this humane inconsistency. — Id. 4. Asked whether it was to in- 
 vade the house of God that they had implored this protection. — Id. 
 5. What was more to the purpose, there was a most excellent din- 
 ner. — Macaulay. 6. What is worth the praise of ten Hay dens, I 
 was told that Mrs. L. had paid me the same compliment. — Id. 
 7. The station of Shakespeare in literature is now irrevocably set- 
 tled, not so much — which (14, 51) happens in other cases — by a 
 vast overbalance of favorable suffrages as by acclamation. 8. But 
 was it not possible that even this sum might meet the case ? I re- 
 plied that probably it was. AVould I undertake an Oxford life on 
 such terms ? Most gladly, I said. — De Quincey. 
 
 CHAPTER IL 
 
 THE ADJECTIVE— TERM. {Continued.) 
 
 The Appositive Form. 
 
 8. The Adjective Element not un frequently takes the 
 form of an appositive, that is, a term expressing the same 
 thing, thought, or conception as the term it modifies. 
 
 9. The appositive adjective- term is very commonly of the word- 
 form. 
 
 We, the undersigned ; we ourselves; the thing itself; he, the mayor; they, 
 the people; John, the disciple; the disciple John; the bad habit smoking. 
 
 10. The Word-form of the appositive is often introduced by the 
 expressions, to wit, namely, viz., as, that is, as for instance. 
 
 The three cardinal virtues, viz., faith, hope, and charity. Many words are 
 differently spelled, as: inquire, enquire, jail, gaol, skeptic, sceptic. 
 
 11. A possessive is sometimes used appositively. 
 John the Baptises head. William the Conqueror's victories. 
 
 12. Sometimes the base is a possessive. (Compare 14, 50.) 
 Stopped at Browr^s, the bookseller. 
 
THE ADJECTIVE-TERM. 117 
 
 13. An appositive is sometimes used partitively or distributively. 
 They went every one to his own home. All were sick, some with one thing 
 
 and sovie with another. They each went to his own home. They went each 
 to his own home. 
 
 14. The Phrase-form of the appositive term usually has of. 
 
 The city of Rome. The vice of drinking; the vicious habit of smoking; the 
 sin of lying; the algebraic signs of-{- and — ; the amount of ten dollar^; the 
 epithet of lazy. 
 
 15. The appositive phrase-form is often very beautifully used in 
 the way of metapJior. 
 
 The storm q/* tear. The wintry blast q/* <fca<^. — Dr. Thompson. The Sab- 
 bath of old age. — Wordsworth. The god of this world. — Bible. 
 
 16. The Clause-form of the appositive term is very common and 
 may be any one of the five clauses (10). 
 
 (1.) Dem. C.-f. 
 
 The fact that he came. The law that we must not kill. The news that the 
 enemy was defeated. 
 
 (2.) Inf. C.-f. 
 
 The order /or the city to be burned. The plan for a great army to be raised. 
 (12, 3.) 
 
 (3.) Part. C.-f. 
 
 That dreadful sight, — the dty burning, the enemy advancing, the citizens 
 terrifed and appalled. 
 
 (4.) Rel. C.-f. 
 
 The inquiry what magnetism is. Whatsoever he commandeth that do ye. He 
 put to him the simple inquiry how far it-was from sea to sea. — Br. Smith. 
 
 (5.) CONJ. C.-F. 
 
 Went for this purpose in order that he might see the city. On this express con- 
 dition, provided he will raise one half the money. 
 
 (6.) Adjunc. Dem. C.-f. 
 
 Showed himself a traitor in this: namely, in that he disclosed our plans to the 
 
 enemy (10). 
 
 (7.) Adjunc. Inf. C.-f. 
 
 I have ever labored hard for this : namely, for all both blacks and whites to 
 have equal I'ights. 
 
 (8.) Adjunc. Part. C.-f. 
 The fact of the apostle having spoken in the presence of thousands. — Mcll- 
 
118 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 vaine. The news of the battle fought, of the city burned, and of thousands of 
 our men slaughtered, carried desolation into every home. The circumstance of 
 the girl having refused the testimony in court. — Moore. The report of Lady 
 Byron being ahout to marry Cunningham. — Id. 
 
 (9.) Adjunc. Rel. C.-f. 
 
 The problem of how one may square a triangle. The great question of what 
 can be done with thefreedmen. 
 
 1 7. The appositive may be, also, — 
 (1.) A Sentence. 
 
 The adage, " A new broom sweeps clean.^* The old saying, " Honesty is the 
 best policy.^' 
 
 (2.) A Half-sentence. 
 
 We heard that reply of his : He could not be to blame in the matter. Every- 
 one made mistakes sometimes. It was human to ei'r. 
 
 18. The base of an App. Adj.-T. may be an adverb. 
 
 Hereby perceive we the love of God because he laid down his life for us. 
 (16 (5), and 14, 3.) 
 
 19. Cautions. (1.) Care must be taken not to confound flj9/>osiViye 
 and ordinary forms of this modifier when of the phrase-form. 
 
 The city of Boston (App.). The streets of Boston (not App.)- The sleep oj 
 death {A.ipp.). The silence q/" (Zea^A (not App.). The habit of drinhing (App.). 
 The evil effects of drinking (not App.). The degree ofD. D. (App.)- The mean- 
 ing ofD. D. (not App.). The title of Hon. was given to the man (App.). The 
 title of the mun was Hon. (not App.). 
 
 (2.) Do not confound appositive adjective clauses with ordinary 
 modifying clauses; especially in the case of relative forms. Tlie 
 clause is appositive, of course, only when, as a whole, it means the 
 same as the term it modifies. 
 
 The inquiry what light ts (App.). The inqmry concerning what light is (not 
 App.). The thought of what would become of himself (App.). The report of 
 'ohat had happened (not App.). 
 
 (3.) The ordinary and appositive forms of the relative indefinite 
 clause are especially liable to be confounded. The rule above given 
 will enable us to decide. 
 
 Whomsoever he saw idle -Rm he punished (App.). Whatever he saith vnto 
 you do IT (.\pp.). Wherever there is any work to be done there is the place 
 for you to be (App.). 
 
 But, Whatever this thing may be I will. have nothing to do with it (not App.). 
 Whatever he may say about this matter, it certainly does not in the least con- 
 cern him (not App.). 
 
THE ADJECTIVE-TERM. 119 
 
 Exercise 40. 
 
 Do the same work as before ; name all nouns^ adjectives, and apposU 
 live terms, 
 
 ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 The fact that he came. 
 A N.-T. of the Cx. W.-f. of which yac< is B., and mod. by rem., an App. Adj.- 
 T. of the Dem. C.-f. 
 
 The order for the town to be burned. 
 A N.-T. of the Cx. W.-f. ; order is B., and mod. by rem., an App. Adj.-T. 
 of the Inf. C.-f. (Adjunc.) 
 
 All departed, every one to his own home. 
 
 A simple sentence, all every one is Subj., a N.-T. of Cx. W.-f., of which all 
 is B., and mod. by every one, an App. Adj. T., of Cx. W.-f. Departed to his own 
 home is Pred., of which departed is B., and mod. by rem., Cx. P.-f., etc. 
 
 I. 1. The letter b. 2. We ourselves. 3. The practice of smok- 
 ing. 4. The evil of smoking. 5. Asked the name of the poem. 
 6. Asked the origin of the name of " Thanatopsis." 7. Called at 
 Smith's the tailor. 8. Stopped in Smith the tailor's shop. 9. The 
 three principal orders of Architecture, namely: the Doric, the 
 Ionic, and the Corinthian. 10. Spoke of Shakespeare's use of the 
 word reck, that is, care. 11. The four great periods of the world: 
 namely: the golden, the silver, the brazen, and the iron age. 12. The 
 degree of LL. D. 13. The meaning of LL. D. 
 
 II. The space of a mile ; the rite of circumcision ; the importance 
 of circumcision; the name of dominus. — Gibbon; the title of 
 mayor. — Id. ; the appellation of great. — Id. ; the ridiculous epi- 
 thets of the bard, the stammerer, the fat, and the simple. — Id. ; 
 the Greek word Basileus. — Id. ; the science of music; the study of 
 music; the age of ten; the fire of his wrath; the severity of his 
 wrath; the vocation of law; the value of law; a measure of five 
 yards; the profession of medicine ; the month of July ; the heat of 
 July ; the quantity of a bushel; the business of a grocer. 
 
 III. 1. The sad thought that all must die. 2. The thought that 
 you had in your mind. 3. That all must die, a sad thought. 4. That 
 all must die, as every one knows. 5. The great question, what is 
 the future life. 6. The great question, which we were discussing, 
 about the future life. 7. Whoever honored him, the same he hon- 
 ored. 8. He honored all who honored him. 9. Talked of his fail- 
 
120 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 ure, as he called it. 10. Grieved at the calamity; houses burned, 
 gardens destroyed, cattle driven off, all things ruined. 11. The fact 
 of all this being well known. 12. The fact that all this was well 
 known. 13. The fact that he spoke of this being so well known. 
 14. The idol cast to the ground, the idol temple purged of its pollu- 
 tions, the multitude clothed and in their right mind ; these are some 
 of our additional testimonies to the Gospel. — Mcllvaine. 
 
 IV. 1. The thought of one Christian striking another on the cheek. 
 
 — Ecce Deus. 2. The novelty lies here, that he does not ground 
 the mutual obligations of men on a common descent. — Id. 3. The 
 idea of one all-prevailing mind having created the whole. — McCosh. 
 4. Herein is my father glorified, that ye bear much fruit (18). — 
 Bible. 5. The problem how depraved men may be restored. — AJford. 
 6. That dreadful military execution at Peshawur; forty men blown 
 at once from the mouths of cannon, their heads, legs, and arms flying 
 in all directions. — Macaulay. 7. The father revealed, the son incar- 
 nate, the Holy Ghost sent down from heaven, redemption wrought, 
 salvation given; all coming at once upon men's minds. — Prof. Ber- 
 nard. 8. The young officer made inquiry: Did the recruit know his 
 family, the De Eurasas? Oh yes, everybody knew them. Did the 
 recruit know httle Catalina? Catalina replied that he did. — De 
 Quincey. 
 
 V. 1. The crier pronounced the salutary admonition, " Let none 
 enter these holy walls unless he is conscious of a pure and innocent 
 mind." — Gibbon. 2. We may still remark a very singular fragment 
 of antiquity, the bodies of three serpents twisted into one pillar of 
 brass. — Id. 3. Saw with alarm the prospect of Spain strengthen- 
 ing herself by this alliance. — Prescott. 4. The rare example was 
 afforded of the same man continuing the favorite of two generations. 
 
 — Id. 5. It was a gay spectacle, these Moslem Chiefs, in their rich 
 Oriental costumes, with their gaudy-colored turbans, and their loose 
 flowing mantles of crimson, the beams of the rising sun glancing on 
 their polished weapons, their bows of delicate workmanship, and 
 their scimiters from the forges of Alexandria. — Id. 
 
THE VERB-TERM. 121 
 
 SUB-DIVISION ill, — r^^ VERB-TERM. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 THE SIMPLE FORM. 
 
 23. The Verb-term may consist either of a single verb 
 or of the copula and some additional term. For the sake 
 of distinction we will call the first the simple, and the 
 second the copula form of the verb-term. 
 
 1. In the simple form the verb- term is necessarily always of the 
 word-form. Almost any part of speech may become by use q. verb- 
 term. Thus, it may be, — 
 
 (1.) A Finite Verb. 
 
 He loves, studies, walks. 
 
 (2.) An Inf. or a Part. 
 
 Saw him {to) come. Saw him coming. Saw a machine moioing. 
 
 (3.) A Noun. 
 
 He heads the movement; ships the goods ; shovels sand. She Phcebes me. — 
 8hak. 
 
 (4.) A Pronoun. 
 
 What me none of your whats. — ShaJs. 
 
 (5.) An Adjective. 
 
 They will better their condition. Was worsted in the fight. Has thinned 
 oat. 
 
 (6.) An Adverb. 
 
 How to while away the time. Will further his enterprise. 
 
 (7.) A Preposition. 
 
 Forward, men ! Down, minions ! On, ye brave ! 
 
 2. Sometimes a preposition or an adverb enters idiomatically into 
 the structure of a verb-term as an organic constituent of the same. 
 
 Bum up (= consume); keep on (= continue); stand out (= resist); set by 
 (= esteem)', give way (= fall); make up {= constitute); take up (= arrest. So, 
 insist on; lay up; lay out; look after; account for; look upon; keep up (his 
 
122 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 Greek); decide on ; ma^ «/) (my mind) ; cast up (accounts); and so generally 
 when the preposition or the adverb has no distinct and definite signijicance of 
 its own. We have a peculiar character to A-cep vp. — Lamb. His name was 
 much set by. — Bible. I cannot think whom he takes after. — Lamb. 
 
 3. Occasionally we find two or more words in idiomatic combina- 
 tion, and together making up the verb term. Thus : — 
 
 Get rid of; look up to ; look down upon ; have to do with ; make away vnth ; 
 do away with. His daughter seems amiable, and looked up to by father and 
 mother. — Moore. 
 
 4. The constituents of the idiomatic forms are often jseparated. 
 
 Bum the house down ; cannot make it out. Pen her up. — Shak. Must look 
 it up; talk it over ; think it over; gave his property all away. 
 
 5. The word it is sometimes idiomatically combined with a noun 
 or an adjective, and sometimes with a verb, making with the same 
 the verb-term. Thus : — 
 
 Foot it ; rough^it ; cpieen it. — ShaJc. (11, 17, (d). 
 
 Exercise 41. 
 
 Do the same work cis before. Tell all nourij adjeclive, and verb 
 terms. 
 
 ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 Enjoyed the ride there and back. 
 A V.-T. of the Cx. W.-f.; enjoyed is B., and mod. by rem., a N.-T. of Cx. 
 W.-f. ; ride is B., and mod. by there and back, an Adj.-T. of Cd. W.-f. 
 
 Found trees of one hundred feet in height. 
 A V.-T. of the Cx. W.-i.; found is B., and mod. by the rem., a N.-T. of Cx. 
 W.-f.; trees is B., and mod. by rem., an Adj.-T. of Cx. P.-f. Of feet is B., 
 mod. by one hundred, an Adj.-T. of Cx. W.-f. Of one hundred feet is Sec. B., 
 and mod. by in height, an Adj.-T. of S. P.-f. 
 
 Made the meaning out. 
 
 A V.-T. of the Cx. W.-f., of which ma^Ze out is B., and mod. by rem., a N.-T. 
 of Cx. W.-f. 
 
 I. 1. Insists on my going. 2. Has laid out much money. 3. Can- 
 not account for it satisfactorily. 4. The supports gave way. 
 5. Burned up many buildings of fifty feet in height. 6. Stood out 
 against the assailing foe for many months. 7. Kept on his course of 
 most ruinous intemperance. 8. Looks down upon all his best friends 
 even^ 9. Has much to do with public affairs. 10. Penned the 
 poor persons up in a room ten feet long and six feet wide. 11. Saw 
 
THE VERB-TERM. 123 
 
 very large trees. 12. Trees two hundred feet high and ten feet 
 through (^AroM^^ = thick). 13. Keeps up his Latin. 14. Shall 
 decide on this. Has laid up much money. 
 
 n. 1. Law which is what science seeks. — Hopkins. 2. The ques- 
 tion what is it that consciousness gives. — Id. 3. We are able to 
 state precisely what has not always been done, the relation between 
 Christianity as a remedial system and moral philosophy. — Id. 4. In 
 the activity of the susceptibilities the movement is from without in- 
 ward. — Id. 5. We always feel ourselves at liberty to forego the 
 enjoyment of pleasures. — Id. 6. The distress occasioned by even 
 the smallest particle of food getting entangled in the larynx. — Dr. 
 Dalton. 7. Enjoyed the singular privilege of bestowing pardon on 
 slaves. — Gibbon. 8. A lively writer has not hesitated to pronounce 
 Colchis the Holland of antiquity. — Id. 9. The name of Cyril of 
 Alexandria is famous in controversial story, and the title of Saint 
 is a mark that his opinions and his party have finally prevailed. — 
 Id. 10. The triumph of Nestorius was clouded by the name of in- 
 cendiary. — Id. 11. We cannot account for his coming. 12. The 
 formal determination of making away with (23, 3) Christ. — French. 
 13. Sent W. to look after your business. 
 
 CHAPTER IL 
 
 THE VERB-TERM. (Continued.) 
 
 The Copula Form. 
 
 6. The Verb-term always embraces two d^tinct con- 
 stituents : that which simply affirms and that which is 
 affirmed. Both these parts may be incorporated into one 
 word, or they may be separated into two. When thus 
 separated the affirming element is termed the copula, and 
 that which is affirmed, because it completes the full pred- 
 ication, the complement. Thus: — 
 
 It rains = is raining. It snoiOA = is snowing. 
 In these examples we have the two forms : that in which the cop- 
 ula or affirming element is incorporated and the form in which it is 
 riepnrated. 
 • Remark. When the copula is combined with the present pnrtici- 
 
124 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 pie as complement, the two constitute what is termed in grammar 
 the progressive form of the verb ; when combined with the past parti- 
 ciple, they constitute the passive voice form of the verb. 
 
 It matters not, however, what the completing word is, whether 
 present participle, or past participle, or adjective, or noun; any 
 term whatsoever, used with the copula to complete the predication, 
 that is, to indicate the thing predicated, is a complement term and 
 must be so considered. 
 
 7. All mood, tense, and voice modifications belong to 
 the copula and not to the complement. This is suffi- 
 ciently evident when the copula is wholly differentiated 
 fi-om the complement. In such cases the copula always 
 exhibits these forms. Thus : — 
 
 He is studious ; may have been studious; could have been studious. 
 He was working; should have been working. 
 
 He was a hero; 7Jiay have been a hero; can be a hero; must have 
 been a hero. 
 
 8. When the copula is only partially differentiated, 
 these are partly exhibited in the copula and partly incor- 
 porated. 
 
 He has loved = has (been) loving; might have worked = might 
 have (been) working. 
 
 9. Copula forms, when composed of more than one 
 word, consist frequently (tf the verb to be, combined with 
 the so-call«l auxiliary verbs. There are, however, cer- 
 tain other forms, not generally regarded as auxiliary 
 verbs, which, nevertheless, are mere modifications of the 
 copula and should be so regarded. Such are the follow- 
 ing:— 
 
 He is to be present ; was to be ; has to be ; had to be ; was to have 
 been ; might have had to be ; ought to have been ; was wont to be ; was 
 accustomed to be ; u^ed to be ; was about to be ; was going to be ; is mU- 
 ing to be; seems to be; appeared to be; is apt to be ; is used to being ; 
 is bound to be ; has had to be. 
 
 Remark 1. Now all these are mere mx)od forms of the copula, as 
 truly as the more commonly recognized forms with tJie auxiliary may, 
 
THE VERB-TERM. 125 
 
 sTially can, must, etc. They are all idiomatic forms indeed, but good 
 English. They are not mechanical combinations but organic forms 
 of language as truly as the two components of the infinitive. As 
 therefore they cannot be separated in thought, they must not be in 
 analysis, or even in grammatical parsing. 
 
 Remark 2. Analysis demands simply that the copula, when 
 wholly separated, shall be distinguished from the complement. 
 
 All other facts pertaining to it, in the way of mood and tense mod- 
 ifications, belong to the department of grammar. 
 
 Remark 3. We have seen that the copula is sometimes wholly 
 separated from the complement, and sometimes partially or wholly 
 combined with the same. For the sake of convenience, to distin- 
 guish the one from the other, we will call the former the copula verb- 
 term, and the latter simply the verb-term. 
 
 Exercise 42. • 
 
 In the following, distinguish copula and simple forms. In the copula 
 fonns tell what is copula and what complement. 
 
 ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 Has been growing. 
 A Cop. V.-T., has been is Cop. and growing is Comp. 
 
 Has grown. 
 A Simple V.-T. 
 
 Had been loved. 
 
 A Cop. V.-T., has been is Cop. and loved is Comp. 
 
 Might have been learned. 
 
 Cop. V.-T., might have been is Cop., and learned is Comp. 
 
 Has had to be studying. 
 
 Cop. V.-T., has had to be is Cop. and rem. Comp. 
 
 I. He has been going; has gone; went; might have gone; might 
 have been going; was to have been going; ought to have gone; ought 
 to have been going ; appeared to be going; seemed to go ; had to be 
 going; had to go; is about to be going; is about to go; shall have 
 been going; shall have gone. 
 
 n. He is learning; is learned; has learned; has been learning; 
 has had to learn ; might have been learned; might have been learn- 
 ing; ought to have been learning; could not have been learned; is 
 
126 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 going to be learned ; is going to learn; will have learned; did learn; 
 kept learning; is about to learn; was to have been learning. 
 
 in. 1. He was to be studying at ten. 2. Was studying his les- 
 son. 3. Has studied well. 4. He studies vigorously. 5. Is clear 
 that he studies. 6. Is best for him to study. 7. IVlight have been 
 inconvenient for them to study. 8. Was accustomed to be studious. 
 9. Are going to be students. 10. Ought to have been good stu- 
 dents. 11. Is wilUng to be very studious. 12. Must have studied 
 hand. 13. Must have been a very hard student. 14. We study all 
 our lessons very carefully. 15. We ought to have been working. 
 16. He was to have been at home at ten. 17. We have to be stu- 
 dious to get our lessons. 18. He is about to be punished. 19. They 
 were to have been rewarded. 
 
 IV. 1. I must have to undergo. — Macaulay. 2. This lane keeps 
 ascending amongst wooded steeps. — De Quincey. 3. Connection 
 with what seems to me to be an external world. — Wayland. 4. They 
 were apt to make sad the hearts of those whom God had not made 
 sad. — Southey. 5. At midnight there was a cry made. 6. While 
 Coleridge was being thus wholesomely drilled, — Shah'p. 7. There 
 is a force uniformly directed to an end. — Hopkins. 8. While the 
 Excursion was being composed. — Shairp. 9. The sufferings which 
 were so heavily to weigh him down. — Id. 10. I have thought over 
 what you say. 11. Campbell is bringing out a book about his Maj- 
 esty. — Macaulay. 12. Made up his mind to come to the interview. 
 — Id. 
 
 CHAPTER in. 
 
 THE COJfPLEMENT TEEM. 
 
 10. A complement is any word or any logical combin- 
 ation of words joined with a copula to complete the pred- 
 ication. 
 
 He is good. This is Tie. The order is ^br tis to go. The inquiry 
 is toho will gof Who art thou? What is this? 
 
 11. The Word-form may be any part of speech that can be used 
 as a noun-term, or an adjective-term. 
 
 He is learning; is learned ; is a learner. We are studying; are studious; 
 are students. She is loving ; is loved ; is lovely; is a lover. Am sure ; am C"?? ti- 
 ient ; am certain {= know). 
 
 12. The Phrase-form is any phrase that can be used as a noun- 
 
THE VERB-TERM. 127 
 
 term (21, 2) or an adjective- term. When the latter, the preposi- 
 tions o/, in, out of, without, at, on, or upon, are most common. 
 
 The tree is of the height of fifty feet (= is fifty feet high). The well is a hun- 
 dred feet in depth {= a hundred feet deep). 
 
 The object is of the form of a rectangle (= is rectangular in form). The 
 flower is of the color of the rose {= is rose-hued in color). 
 
 He is in distress (= distressed), in misery (= miserable), at liberty (= free), 
 without guilt (= guiltless), out of pain (= painless). 
 
 13. Sometimes the copula and complement of .the 
 phrase-form have together the value of one complete 
 verb. I am of the opinion that he is right = I believe^ 
 etc. 
 
 14. The Clause-form may be any one of the five clause-forms. 
 Thus, — 
 
 (1.) Dem. Cl. 
 The fact is that he came. The order was that we should go. 
 
 (2.) Inf. Cl. (Expl.-f.). 
 
 The command was /or the city to be burned. The plan (was said) to be for 
 the whole city to be burned. 
 
 (3.) Part. Cl. 
 
 The objection to him was his {=■ he) having once been a traitor. 
 
 (4.) Rel. Cl. 
 
 The point is how he can be saved at once. The question is what is to be done 
 frst ? The theme of discussion was how we could cross the river. The subject 
 of talk was who should be president. 
 
 (5.) CoNj. Cl. 
 
 The express condition is, if the enemy shall be seen to advance. 
 
 Note. Clause-forms following the verb to be are or are not com- 
 plement terms, according as they do or do not designate the same 
 thought or thing as that indicated by the subject term. (See Cop- 
 ula as Principal Verb, Part II.) 
 
 The plan is /or the children to eat this food. Comp. T. 
 
 This food isfcn^ the children to eat {is =z was obtained or bought). Adv.-T. 
 
 Remark. Complement terms should never be denominated ap- 
 positives, after the manner of many grammarians. An appositive is 
 essentially an adjective element, and performs an adjective function; 
 a complement is essentially a predicative element, and is a real con- 
 stituent of a verb-term (23, 6). 
 
128 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 
 
 Exercise 43. 
 
 Do the same work as in the last exercise ; note carefully the various 
 forms of the verb-term; note all words used in other than their pri- 
 mary signif cation. 
 
 ILLUSTBATION, 
 
 Being is a present participle. 
 
 A. simple sentence. Being is the Subj., a N.-T. of the S. W.-f., and the 
 rem. is the Pred., a Cop. V.-T., of which is is the Cop. and the rem. is the 
 Com p. of the Cx. "W.-f., etc. 
 
 The mouth of the river is sixty fathoms deep, and half a league 
 
 broad. 
 
 A simple sentence. The mouth of the river is the Subj., a N.-T. of the Cx. 
 W.-f., etc., the rem. is the Pred., a Cop. V.-T. of which is is the Cop. and the 
 rem. is Comp. of the Cd. "W.-f. : sixty fathoms deep is the first Coord. Cx. W.-f., 
 of which deep is base, etc.; half a league broad is the second Coord. Cx. W.-f., 
 etc. 
 
 All- were in great consternation at the calamity. 
 
 A simple sentence. All is Subj., a N.-T. of S. W.-f., and the rem. is the 
 Pred., a Cop. V.-T., of which were is Cop , and the rem. is the Comp. of Cx. 
 P.-f. ; in consternation is B., and mod. by great ; in great consternation is second 
 B., and mod. by rem., an Adj.-T. of the Cx. P.-f., etc. 
 
 I. 1. This is love. 2. He is loving. 3. They are lovers. 4. They 
 are in love. 5. We might have been his foes. 6. He ought not to 
 have been our foe. 7. The fact is that he was our foe. 8. For him 
 to be our foe is strange. 9. What is strange is yet true. 10. We 
 were to have been present. 11. Whoever was present was hon- 
 ored. 
 
 II. The area was a foot square; an area of a foot square was 
 left; there was a balance of ten dollars; the amount of ten dollars 
 remained; the figure is metonymy; the figure of metonymy is com- 
 mon; the ordinance of baptism is very old; the virtue of charity is 
 very beautiful; the height of the tower must be two hundred feet; a 
 height of two hundred feet is not verj' high; he has to cairy a bur- 
 den of one hundred pounds; the expression, the Sabbath of old age, is 
 a metaphor. 
 
 III. 1. Thinks himself neglected. 2. Felt himself gradually 
 being drawn into the whirlpool. 3. Yon are the cruellest she alive. 
 — Shak. 4. Will know the way. — Id. 5. Her breath will mist 
 the stone. — Id. 6. And 'gins to pale his ineffectual fire. — Id 
 
THE ADVERB-TERM. 129 
 
 7. How might she tongue me. — Id. 8. Why old men fool and 
 children calculate. — Id. 9. Hath so cowarded and chased your 
 blood. — Id. 10. My death's sad tale may yet undeaf his ear. — Id. 
 11. And witch the world with noble horsemanship. — Id. 1 2. Grace 
 me no grace nor uncle me no uncles. — Id. 13. Graved in the hol- 
 low ground. — Id. 14. The mouthed graves. — Id. 15. Wouldst 
 thou be windowed in great Rome. — Id. 16. To have him see me 
 womaned. — Id. 17. God doth not shine honor upon all men 
 equally. — Id. 18. Every stride I take will but remember me what 
 I've lost. — Id. 19. This aspect of mine hath feared the valiant. 
 
 — Id. 20. Thank me no thankings and proud me no prouds. — Id, 
 IV. 1. There can be no form of duty without reference to Him. 
 
 — Hopkins. 2. There can be no genuine religion without morality. 
 
 — Id. 3. There is more to be said about this. 4. He was what 
 no other man ever was, perfectly unselfish. — Dr. Ellicott. 5. This 
 is what offended the Jews. — Id. 6. The peculiar feature of his 
 works is that their scenes are always placed in the ordinary walks 
 of life. — Id. 7. The spectacle of a great nation casting off the 
 religion of their fathers, and plunging into the abyss of atheism. — 
 Dr. Alexander. 8. The idea of Nicolas having founded the hereti- 
 cal sect of the Nicolainites. — Id. 9. He thought the fact of the 
 miracles of witchcraft being contemporary would make it easy to test 
 them. — Leckey. 
 
 SUB-DIVISION \M. — THE ADVERB^TERM. 
 ^ CHAPTER I. 
 
 DEFINITION AND CHARACTER. 
 
 24. Any word, or any logical combination of words 
 used as a whole to indicate the attributes or qualities of 
 actions or states, or any circumstance connected directly 
 with the same or with the qualities themselves of objects, 
 actions, or states, is an Adverb-term. Hence, any term 
 used as a modifier of a verb -term., an adjective^ term., or an 
 adverb -term is an Adverb-term, 
 
130 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 Note. Some modifiers sustain a double relation, being in char- 
 licter clearly both adjective and adverbial; and apparently partaking 
 as much of the nature of the one as of the other. Thus : — 
 
 He SAT a long time with his eyes closed, or he, with his eyes closed, sat a long 
 time. 
 
 So, He came shouting; they went running; she went off mad ; she arrived 
 home in great destitutkm. He stl'hied all da}' with a severe headache, or he, 
 with a sevei'e headache, studied all day. 
 
 So also a relative infinitive clause, the relative constituent being 
 essentially adjective in form as well as in force, and the infinitive 
 constituent being equally adverbial in both, foim smd force. 
 
 I BOUGHT a BOAT for my boy to sail in {which) = in which for my boy to sail. 
 Here bought is the base of the adverbial infinitive factor, and boat is the base of 
 the adjective relative factor. 
 
 1. The Word-form may be any part of speech. Thus, it may 
 be, — 
 
 (1.) An Adverb. 
 
 Studies attentively ; very studious ; very attentively ; extremely wise. 
 (2.) An Adjective. 
 
 A little above ; much below. May speak louder or softer. — Sheridan. Drink 
 deep or taste not. — Pope. 
 
 (3.) A Noun. 
 
 Stone blind; sky blue; snow whiter a head taller; a mile farther. 
 
 (4.) A Pronoun. 
 
 What boots it at one gate, to make defense. — Shak. 
 
 (5.) An Article. 
 
 The more money we have, the more money we want. Not the less true. 
 
 (6.) A Verb. 
 
 iS»»ac^• went the whip ; whizz ca.me the hsilla. ' 
 
 So, a Participle or an Infinitive. 
 
 Came running; the ball went whizzing; scalding hot ; passing strange; went 
 to see ; lives to learn. 
 
 {7.) A Preposition. 
 Goes in and out; walks up and down. 
 
 (8.) A Conjunction. 
 There were but three present. 
 
 2. The word-form may be conjunctive. 
 
THE ADVERB-TERM. 131 
 
 Went cw commander ; they condemned him as a traitor ; we admire him at 
 toise and learned; he planned so as to deceive everybody; exerted himself with 
 all his might so as to secure the position. 
 
 3. The Phrase-form may take any preposition. 
 
 W&lks with rapidity ; cold in the extreme; severe beyond expression; taller 
 ly an inch ; came in haste ; arrived before suniise. 
 
 4. The Clause-form may be any one of the five clauses. It is 
 more commonly, however, a participial ^ a relative, or a conjunctive 
 clause. 
 
 (1.) Part. Cl. 
 
 The business Jinished, we went home. The troops arriving, the fight com- 
 menced. 
 
 (2.) Adjunc. Part. Cl. 
 
 "Was delayed on account of the bridge having been broken down. We are 
 sure, on the same effect presenting itself, that it must have come from a cause. 
 — I>r. McCosh. 
 
 (3.) Rel. Cl. 
 
 Started when it was day. Did as you said. As studious as you are. Arrived 
 just as you left. As rapidl}' as he could run. Reads as he walks. As he com- 
 menced so he ended. Lives where I live. Whatever happens, I shall go. 
 
 (4.) Adjunc. Rel. Cl. 
 
 Walks well except when he is intoxicated. They have their root in what we 
 call the will. — Dr. Hopkins. It is not a moral idea except as it is a condition of 
 moral action. — Id. , 
 
 (5.) CoNj. Cl. or Conj. Cl. Equiv. 
 
 Works that he may live. As they were weary they stayed over night. We 
 must go, for the sun is up. She is not so perfect but she sometimes does wrong. 
 He never goes out but he takes cold. 
 
 (6.) Adjunc. Inf. Cl. 
 
 He must have been very eloquent for everybody to be charmed with his 
 tprxiking. He keeps a horse for his son to ride. Things not proper foi' chiU. 
 dren to eat. The wall is too high /or us to climb. 
 
 (7.) Adjunc. Dem. Cl. 
 
 Was treacherous in that he deceived me. Arrived^e/bre (that) the sun rose. 
 All went well except that toe lost a horse. 
 
 Exercise 44. 
 
 Do the same work as before and tell all noun, adjective, and adverb 
 Wms; note all words used out of their primary signification. 
 
182 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 ILLUSTRATION. 
 
 Studies while he can. 
 
 A Verb-term of Cx. W.-f. Studies is B., and mod. by rem., an Adv.-T. of 
 Eel. C.-f., etc. 
 
 Things improper for children to eat. 
 
 A N.-T. of the Cx. W.-f. Things is B., and mod. by rem., an Adj.-T. of 
 Cx. W.-f., of which improper is B., and mod. by rem., an Adv.-T. of Adj. Inf. 
 C.-f., etc. 
 
 Works with rapidity and success. 
 A Verb-term of the Cx. "W.-f. Works is B., and mod. by rem., Adv.-T. of 
 the Cd. P.-f. 
 
 Trees fifty feet high. 
 
 A N.-T. of the Cx. "W.-f., of which trees is B., and mod. by rem., an Adj.-T. 
 of Cx. "W.-f.; kiffh is B. and mod. hyjiftyfeety an Adv.-T. of Cx. W.-f., etc. 
 
 Trees of ten feet in circumference. 
 
 A N.-T. of Cx. "W.-f. Trees is B., and mod. by rem., an Adj.-T. of Cx. 
 P.-f., of which of feet is B. and mod. by teA, an Adj.-T. of S. W.-f. Of ten 
 feet is Sec. B., and mod. by rem., an Adj.-T. of S. P.-f. 
 
 I. 1. Very noble men. 2. A rapid upward flight. 3. Cares not 
 a farthing for this. 4. Roads exceedingly long. 5. Logs very thick. 
 6. Walls much higher. 7. Came yesterday. 8. Uncommonly beau- 
 tiful. 9. Thinks he is very sick. 10. Was there yesterday. 
 11. Writes very neatly and quite rapidly. 12. Believes he will suc- 
 ceed. 13. Learns most rapidly. 14. The grave where he was 
 buried. 15. Sowed the seed where the soil was rich. 16. Will be 
 respected wherever he may be. 17. Remembers what he reads. 
 18. Speaks always so as to be heard. 19. A tall awkward country 
 lad with a lounging gait. — Irving. 20. A spring of pure sweet 
 water that stole out of the side of the hill. 21. Those consonants 
 whose sounds cannot be protracted. 22. Philosophy, whose end is to 
 instruct us in the knowledge of human nature. — Campbell. 23. Re- 
 members best those things whose parts are methodically arranged 
 and mutually connected. — Beattie. 24. Hemmed around with woes, 
 which, who that suffers, -would not kneel and beg for exile. — Cow- 
 per. 25. Eden was a scene of harmless sport, where kindness on 
 His part, who ruled the whole, begot a tranquil confidence in all. — 
 Id. 
 
 II. 1. Spoke of his wandering about. 2. Asked what you were 
 about. 3. Came after me. 4. Came after I came. 5. Arrived very 
 
THE ADVERB-TERM. 133 
 
 soon after. 6. Has all he wishes. 7. Was all alone. 8. Saw all 
 his friends. 9. We arrived all safe and sound. 10. They went all 
 to their several homes. 11. Sells cheap goods. 12. Sells goods 
 cheap. 13. Observed a long fast. 14. We shall fast long. 15. Si- 
 loa's brook that flowed fast by the oracle of God. 16. They were 
 everyone fast asleep. 17. Took a long rest. 18. Longs for rest. 
 19. Will rest long after to-day. 20. The warlike appellation of 
 Greeks was imposed. — Gibbon. 21. The sallies, as it might be pre- 
 tended, of some loose adventurers, were disowned by the nation. — Id. 
 22. It must be remembered that the name of Turks was extended 
 to a whole family of Asiatic races. —. Id. ^ 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 THE ADVERB-TERM. {Gontin 
 
 Forms to he Noted. 
 
 5. In some forms of the adverb modifier especial care 
 is required to see the true logical relation of the same to 
 other elements. 
 
 Thus we have : — 
 
 Very thick walls. 
 
 Here walls is modified by very thick, and thick is niodified by very, telling hoto 
 thick. 
 
 Walls three feet thick. 
 
 Here toaUs is modified b}' three feet thick, and thick is modified by three feet^ 
 telling how thick. It might be written, Three-feet thick walls. 
 
 Walls too thick for an enemy to break through. 
 
 Here toe (= too much)yt>r an enemy to break through as a whole tells how thick, 
 and migh. be written, Too-{much)for-an-enemy-to-breah-through, thick walls. 
 
 Walls more thick than any others that I ever saw in the whole world. 
 
 Here more than any others that I ever saw in the whole world, as a whole, . 
 tells how thick, and might be written, More-than-any-others-that-J-ever-saw-in- 
 the-whole-world thick walls. 
 
 Walls as thick as they are high. 
 
 Here as {= so much) as they are high tells how thick, and might be written 
 w (= so much) as-they-are-high thick walls. 
 
134 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 Walls thick enough for any height. 
 Here enough for any height tells how thick. 
 
 Walls so thick that no power can pierce them. 
 Here so that no power can pierce them, tells the thickness. 
 Remark. Thus it matters not how many words are required to 
 indicate a single quality or a single modifying circumstance, all thus 
 used, whether more or less, constitute one term, — an adjective-term 
 if a noun-term is the base ; an adverb-term if a verb, adjective, or 
 adverb-term is the base. 
 
 ExEEcrsE 45. 
 
 ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 Men as wise as you are. 
 A N.-T. of the Cx. W.-f., of which men is B., and mod. by rem., an Adj.-T. 
 of the Cx. W.-f.; wise is B. and mod. by as (=so much) as you are (telling how 
 wise, — an Adv.-T. of the Cx. W.-f.; as (=so much) is B., and mod. by rem., 
 an Adv.-T. of Kel. C.-f., etc. 
 
 Such a noise that I cannot talk. 
 A N.-T. of the Cx. W.-f.; noise is B., and mod. by rem., an Adj.-T. of the 
 Cx. W.-f. Such is B., and mod. by rem., an Adv.-T. of the Conj. C-f., etc. 
 
 Too tired to sleep. 
 An Adj.-T. of the Cx. W.-f., of which tired is B., and mod. by rem., an Adv.- 
 T. of the Cx. W.-f. Too is B., and mod. by to deep, an Adv.-T. of S. W.-f. 
 
 Has more money than I. 
 Cx. W.-f. Has is B., and mod. by rem., a N.-T. of the Cx. W.-f. ; money is B. 
 and mod. by rem., an Adj.-T. of Cx. W.-f., of which more is B. and mod. by 
 than I, an Adv.-T. of the Conj. C.-f. (Elliptical). 
 
 Food enough to last three months. 
 A N.-T. of the Cx. W.-f. Food is B., and mod. by rem., an Adj.-T. of the Cx. 
 W.-f.; enough is B., and mod by rem., an Adv.-T. of Cx. W.-f.; to last is B., 
 and mod. by three months, an Adv.-T. of Cx. W.-f., etc. 
 
 Work too hard for a boy to perform. 
 A N.-T. of Cx. W.-f., of which work is B., and mod. by rem., of whiih hard 
 is B. and mod. by too (= too much) and rem., an Adv.-T. ; too is B. and mod. by 
 -em., an Adv.-T. of Adj. Inf. C.-f., etc. 
 
 Bought a horse for my boy to ride. 
 A V.-T. of Cx. W.-f. Bought is B., and mod. by a horse, a X.-T. of Cx. W.-t 
 Bought a horse is Sec. B., and mod. by rem., an Adj.-T. of Eel. Inf. C.-f., etc. 
 '=:for my boy to ride which). 
 
THE ADVERB-TERM. * 135 
 
 The same man that I saw. 
 A N.-T. of the Cx. W.-f . Man is B., and mod. by rem., an Adj.-T. of Cx. 
 W.-f.,of which same is B. and mod. by rem., an Adv.-T. of the Rel. C.-f., etc. 
 
 The most, learned man in Europe. 
 A N.-T. of Cx. W.-f. Man is B. and mod. by rem., an Adj.-T.' of Cx. W.-f. ; 
 of which learned is B. and mod. by rem. (— most of the 7nen in Europe ....), 
 an Adv.-T. of which most is B. and mod. by rem., an Adv.-T. of Cx. P.-f. ; of 
 the men is B., and mod. by in Europe, etc. 
 
 The best scholar in the class. 
 A N.-T. of the Cx. W.-f., of which scholar is B., and mod. by rem., an Adj.- 
 T. of Cx. W.-f., of which best is B. and mod. by (of the scholars) in the chiss, 
 an Adv.-T. of Cx, P.-f., etc. 
 
 Lived many years ago. 
 A V.-T. of Cx. W.-f. Lived is B., and mod. by rem., an Adv.-T. of Cx. W.-f. ; 
 ago is B., and mod. by many years, an Adv.-T. of Cx. W.-f., etc. 
 
 Weather too cold for June. 
 A N.-T. of the Cx. W.-f. Weather is B., and mod. by rem., an Adj.-T. of Cx. 
 W.-f. ; cold is B. and mod. by too (=too much) for June, an Adv.-T. of Cx. 
 W.-f., of which too is B. and mod. hyfor June, Adv.-T. of S. P.-f. 
 
 I. 1. Very cold weather. 2. Weather colder than it was last year. 
 3. Weather too cold for us to work. 4. Weather cold enoui^h to 
 freeze. 5. As cold weather as I ever saw. 6. The weather is much 
 too cold for the month of June. 7. The qoldest weather that I ever 
 knew. 8. It was so cold that it froze all night. 9. Weather so cold 
 as to freeze alcohol. 10. Weather colder by far than any weather I 
 ever knew before. 11. The most intensely cold weather that was ever 
 known in this country. 12. Weather sufficiently cold to freeze even 
 mercury, what was never known before, in this latitude at least. 
 
 II. 1. A high spire. 2. A very high spire. 3. A spire of on(^ 
 hundred feet in height. 4. A spire of one hundred feet high. 5. A 
 spire of the form of a cone. 6. A spire like a cone in form. 7. A 
 spire of the color of the sky. 8. A spire skylike in color. 9. A spire 
 too low to be seen. 10. A spire so low as not to be seen. 11. A spire 
 too small for a chime of bells. 12. A spire too small for the building 
 itself. 13. A spire so small that it looks insignificant. 14. A spire 
 not so small but it may be seen at a distance. 15. Exceedingly high 
 U'alls. 16. Walls a hundred feet high. 17. Walls of a hundred feet 
 in height. 18. Walls ten feet higher than our walls. 19. Walls too 
 high for an enemy to scale. 20. Walls so high that no enemy can 
 vver scale them. 21. Walls too high for the purpose for which they 
 
136 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 were built. 22. Walls high enough to keep out any foe. 23. Walls 
 as high as men could make them. 24. The highest walls I ever saw. 
 25. The walls must have been very high for the enemy to have been 
 kept out. 
 
 III. 1. Farms as fertile as gardens. 2. Farms txx> stony to plow. 
 3. Such waves as I never saw before. 4. Will come as soon as pos- 
 sible. 5. Objects so bright as to dazzle the eyes. 6. The same per- 
 son that you met. 7. Many and heretofore unknown problems, so 
 plain as to require no explanation. 8. Roads so muddy as to prevent 
 travel. 9. People wiser than the ancients. 10. Friends as kind as near 
 relatives. 1 1 . Became so fatigued that he could not sleep. 1 2. Has 
 more money than brains. 13. Land too barren to cultivate. 14. Acts 
 like a mad man. 15. Will go if you will stay. 16. The most beau- 
 tiful garden that I ever saw. 17. The wisest man in America. 
 18. The finest house on the street. 19. A flock of idle crows sport- 
 ing high in air, about a dry tree that overhung a sunny precipice. — 
 Irving. 20. Nicholas Vedder, a patriarch of the village and landlord 
 of the inn at which he took his seat. — Id. 21. Will certainly do 
 whatever thing goeth out of our own mouth. — Bible. 
 
 IV. 1. On the banks of the river Til, which derived the epithet 
 of Black from its black or gloomy forests. — Gibbon. 2. The rare 
 and inestimable treasure of fresh water (22, 15). — Id. 3. Consid- 
 ers his absolute will as the only rule of moral action. — Id. 4. 
 Branded with the epithets* of savage and unmusical. — Id. 5. That 
 prince, your ally in words, your enemy in actions, has alike insulted 
 his friends and his foes. — Id. 6. This general, the Achilles, a.s he 
 was named, of the Vandals. — Id. 7. The patriarch, as he was now 
 styled, of Alexandria. — Id. 8. The original name of Langbards is 
 expressive only of the peculiar length of their beards. 
 
THE SENTENCE. 137 
 
 PAET II. 
 
 FORMS OF THOUGHT OR LOGICAL ELEMENTS. 
 
 NATURE AND DIVISION OF LOGICAL ELEMENTS. 
 
 25. Heretofore we have been considering the various 
 lingual forms which grammatical terms may assume in 
 discourse. We come now to consider the various Ele- 
 me7its of Thought which these terms may indicate. 
 
 We are now, therefore, to consider in order the special 
 logical significance of (1), — 
 (a.) NoUN-TERMS. 
 
 (5.) Adjective-terms. 
 (c.) Verb-terms. 
 (c?.) Adverb-terms. 
 
 Note. As tlie human mind is everywhere and in all ages the same, 
 the methods of thinking are of necessity precisely the same. Hence, 
 when we have learned the elements of thought in one language, we 
 have learned the same for all languages. Here, then, we are laying 
 the foundation for the most successful study, not only of our own 
 language, but of all languages. 
 
 DIVISION I. 
 
 THE LOGICAL CHARACTER OF PROPOSITIONS. 
 
 SUB-DIVISION \. — THE SENTENCE. 
 
 — « — 
 
 CHAPTER L 
 
 THE PHILOSOPHY OF THE SENTENCE. 
 
 Section I. — The Sentence a Necessary Form of Speech. 
 
 26. All discourse of whatever kind is composed of sen- 
 tences. All sentences are composed of logical elements. 
 
138 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 Before entering therefore upon the discussion of these 
 logical constituents of the sentence, we will consider the 
 logical character of the sentence itself. 
 
 What then is the sentence ? The common definition 
 is, a collection of words making complete sense. This is 
 too general. We need now to know the philosophy of 
 the sentence. Is it something peculiar to the English 
 language ? Is it a conventional thing, or is it a neces- 
 sary outgrowth of the human mind ? Is it a mere acci- 
 dent^ or is it a law of human speech ? 
 
 In the matter of mathematics one nation may base its 
 arithmetical method on a system oi jives ; another, as we, 
 on a system of tens ; one nation may decide to have three 
 hundred and sixty degrees in a circle, another may decide 
 to have four hundred. Now do nations differ thus in re- 
 gard to the underlying philosophy of speech ? 
 
 This whole matter we must now consider. 
 
 1. First, then, it must be noted that two terms are in- 
 dispensable to the structure of a sentence; a noun-term 
 and a verb-term. These, when thus logically combined, 
 are called the Subject and the Predicate. But why are 
 just two constituents found indispensable? Why not 
 three^ or four, or five 9 Or why is not 07ie sufficient. 
 
 To answer these questions we must look more closely 
 into the matter. 
 
 2. The communication of thought, for which sentences 
 exist, necessarily supposes two things, 
 
 (1.) Certain things known to the speaker which are not 
 known to the hearer. 
 
 (2.) Certain things known to both in common. 
 
 Hence, when the knowledge of both speaker and 
 
 hearer is precisely the same in quantity Or in kind, or 
 
 when again the knowledge of the one is entirely distirict 
 
 from the knowledge of the other, so that the two have no 
 
THE SENTENCE. 139 
 
 knowledge in common^ communication is impossible ; for 
 nothing new can be given in the former case, and noth- 
 ing can be made intelligible to the hearer in the latter 
 case. 
 
 For this reason, then, namely, because of these two 
 conditions of speech, two terms are indispensable to a sen- 
 tence ; and inasmuch as the communication of thought 
 involves no other condition, no additional essential ele- 
 ment is needed. 
 
 3. Now, of these two constituent parts, the one used 
 to indicate the things known only to the speaker, is called 
 the Subject term ; and the one employed to indicate the 
 things known to both speaker and hearer in common, 
 is named the Predicate term ; that is, in every sentence^ 
 IN EVERY LANGUAGE, the Subject term is a symbol used 
 to express the facts and conceptions in the mind of the 
 speaker ; and the Predicate term is a symbol used to in- 
 dicate the facts and conceptions familiar to both speaker 
 and hearer. 
 
 4. The philosophy, then, of sentence-makifig, that is, of 
 speech^ is very simple. It is an arrangement, a symbol- 
 ism, by which the speaker, out of the hearer's own stock 
 of present knowledge, creates in the mind of the hearer 
 ideas, conceptions, thoughts, similar to those in his own 
 mind. 
 
 6. Thus A. wishes to give to B. an idea of a pearl. B. 
 has no conception whatever of the object, but he has very 
 perfect ideas of color, of form, of magnitude. 
 
 Here, then, we have the two constituents of the sen- 
 tence. A.'s conception of a pearl unknown to B., and 
 B.'s conception of color, form, and magnitude, etc., in 
 common with A.'s. The former is the material for a 
 Subject, and the latter furnishes material for a Predicate; 
 hence, a sentence is readily formed. A Pearl — ivhite; 
 viwoth ; shining ; hard. 
 
140 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 Note. Of course the bond or link connecting the two constituents 
 may be any conventional sign, mark, or symbol. In our language it 
 is the verb to he with its various modifications. 
 
 Sometimes this verbal link stands alone, sometimes it is incorpo- 
 rated in the complement term, itself. (23, 6.) John is working. 
 John works. 
 
 Remark. From tlie above it is evident that in this process 
 of sentence-making the speaker does not really communicate his 
 thoughts to the hearer at all. On the contrary, by calling up and 
 combining into new forms, ideas already familiar to the hearer, he 
 actually creates in the mind of the hearer conceptions or images en- 
 tirely new to him. 
 
 Section II. — The General Logical Character and Relationship of 
 the Svhject and the Predicate. 
 
 6. We have seen that the Subject term with reference 
 to the hearer is a symbol for things unknown^ and that 
 the Predicate term is a sj^mbol for things knoivn. Now 
 the things not generally known are, in the main and of 
 necessit}^ individuals and species in distinction fi'om 
 classes smd families. Hence, the latter constitute, for the 
 most part, the common stock of knowledge, and hence, in 
 a very lai'ge number of instances, these more generic con- 
 ceptions must constitute the Predicate in sentence-mak- 
 ing ; while the less generic, that is, the individual or the 
 species, will constitute the Subject. Thus : — 
 
 The panther is a quadruped ; a quadruped is an animal; the oak is 
 a tree; a tree is a plant; oxygen is a gas ; a gas is an intangible sub- 
 stance. 
 
 7. Of course, in many sentences the subject does not 
 stand to the predicate in the relation of less to more gen- 
 eric. Both are often equally specific, or equally generic, 
 and often both things are known to the hearer as well as 
 to the speaker. Thus, in the sentence, '' CsBsar conquered 
 Gaul," the hearer and speaker alike are supposed to know 
 perfectly what is meant by both terms. Do then prop- 
 
THE SENTENCE. 141 
 
 ositions like these come under the principle alread}^ laid 
 down ? 
 
 Clearly the same principle precisely is involved. In 
 the above sentence, all there is in the subject term that 
 gives it any significance as a subject is something un- 
 known to the hearer. He does indeed know who Ccesar is, 
 in a general way, but he does not know everything about 
 him, and among other things he is not supposed, by the 
 speaker, to know the fact he now states, namely, that he 
 was the Conqueror of Gaul. Hence, here likewise the 
 subject term contains something unknown to the hearer, 
 and that unknown something is just what permits it to 
 become a subject term in this particular case. 
 
 8. Hence, the subject term always indicates something 
 wholly or partially unknown to the hearer ; it matters 
 not how much he knows about it. So long as there is 
 anything, however small, which he does not know, there 
 is in just this deficit of knowledge all that is essential to 
 constitute the subject term of a proposition to him. 
 
 9. This explains the logical relation of subject and 
 predicate in all such sentences as the following, where 
 both terms are known in a general way to both speaker 
 and hearer, but where always something about the subject 
 knoivn to the speaker is not known to the hearer. Thus : 
 
 The stars are suns. This man is a thief. Your brother is a hypo- 
 crite. 
 
 So in all cases where the predicate expresses action or 
 state. Thus, Mary seivs. Here both terms are well 
 known to the hearer, but the speaker takes it for granted 
 that one thing at least about Mary is not known to his 
 hearer, namely, that she sews, 
 
 10. But in some sentences the two terms are identical. 
 Thus, right is right, laiv is law. Is the same principle 
 true here ? Clearly the same. The speaker now assume? 
 
142 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 that there is some shade of meaning, some latent force 
 embodied in that word used as subject term which his 
 hearer does not appreciate, at least, does not feel suflB- 
 ciently in the particular relation in which he is now using 
 it. This shade of meaning, this latent force, thus known 
 or felt only by the speaker, is sufficient to make it a sub- 
 ject term and with a real significance as such. 
 
 11. In some cases the speaker's intention is simply to 
 call to mind what the hearer knows, but is presumed to 
 hsive forgotten; — or he may wish simply to emphasize 
 a thing, a thought, or a quality, where the hearer does 
 not sufficiently feel the thing emphasized. It does not 
 matter what specific thing he seeks, the principle laid 
 down is precisely the same. 
 
 12. In all cases, then, the sentence must have tivo 
 terms : one indicating something knoivn to the speaker 
 2kwdi felt by him sufficiently, but not known, or, if known, 
 not felt sufficiently, by the hearer ; — the other indicat- 
 ing things known to both. The former will always con- 
 stitute the subject, the latter the predicate. 
 
 Remark. It is evident from what has been said that the speaker's 
 only material for building up in the mind of the hearer the images 
 he would produce, is the hearer's present knowledge. In proportion, 
 then, as his knowledge is ample, in that proportion will the speaker's 
 work of image, or conception building, be facilitated and, ultimately, 
 become successful. To construct a fine edifice we must have abun- 
 dant and varied material. So, also, to construct fine mental images, 
 we must have abundant and varied intellectual material. Hence, 
 because of the paucity of their ideas, the poverty of their mental 
 furnishings, the difficulty of speaking intelligibly to children, and 
 to the unlettered, generally. There is almost nothing out of which 
 to construct the images sought, and hence the work must at best be 
 very imperfectly done, or perhaps stop altogether. 
 
 Section III. — The Subject vs. The Predicate. 
 
 13. Only when the predicate consists of a copula and a 
 
THE SENTENCE. 143 
 
 complement separate from each other (23, 6), can there 
 be any difficulty whatever in deciding which term is Sub- 
 ject, and which is Complement or Predicate. In such 
 cases, however, unless the true logical character and rela- 
 tion of the two elements are thoroughly understood, there 
 will often arise the most perplexing doubt. Now the 
 principle above laid down will always be a sufficient guide 
 and may be embodied in the following universal rule. 
 That which expresses what is known to the speaker only 
 is always the Subject term ; that whiclt indicates what is 
 known to both speaker and hearer, is always the Comple- 
 ment term. 
 
 Note. Thus " The wages of sin is death." Which is the Subject 
 term? Manifestly u'a/7e.<?. Paul was speaking to the Romans. They, 
 in common with the whole world, knew most certainly what is meant 
 by the word death; but they did not know what ain is, or what its 
 wages or consequences are in any Christian sense. This, Paul, the 
 speaker, knew, and hence he says, The wages of siyi is death. 
 
 Again we have the sentence: " His pavilion were dark waters and 
 thick clouds of the sky." — Bible. Which is the Subject term? 
 Clearly the translators considered dark loaters, etc., the Subject term, 
 since they put the copula in the plwal form. A grammarian of note 
 also says with reference to this sentence, waters and clouds are sup- 
 posed to form the Subject. But there can be no doubt as to what is 
 here the Subject. David is describing in a poetical way was his con- 
 ception of the Pavilion of God. Nobody knows, certainly, what his 
 conception is; but everybody knows what waters and clouds are: 
 hence pavilion must be the Subject term and dark waters and clouds 
 must be the Complement. 
 
 14. In the case of propositions with substantive com- 
 plements (69), the subject term and the complement 
 term are equally specific. In such case, we are to do 
 precisely the same as in other forms of the proposition. 
 The question here, also, will be, which term is the one 
 Icnown to the speaker or writer and not to the hearer or 
 reader, that is, which term is the speaker making the 
 
144 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 subject of remark. Thus : " The place where this hap^ 
 pened was Boston," or ••' Boston was the place where this 
 happened^ Clearly, the italicized term, whether coming 
 first or last, is, for the reason above indicated, the Sub- 
 ject. 
 
 15. Of course it does not matter which term stands 
 first in the sentence. The matter of order of collocation 
 will be controlled by the principles of rhetoric. Thus : 
 Strength and honor are her clothing. — Bible, Here 
 clothing is the subject, for this is what the writer knotvs 
 and what the reader is supposed not to know, though he 
 does know what strength and honor are. Here, again, 
 our translators evidently misconceived the subject. 
 
 16. In the case of questions, something, unknown to 
 the questioner, is sought for, of course, not communicated. 
 Hence here, in both the question and the answer, this un- 
 known thing sought for by the asker, and communicated 
 by the answerer, will be the subject term. 
 
 Who is this f This is my friend. What book is that ? It is " Par- 
 adise Lost." 
 
 Who are you ? Who labors ? Who is laboring ? What is a la- 
 borer? 
 
 17. When one of the terms is figurative as a whole and 
 the other literal, the latter will always be the subject 
 term, when as or like can be placed before the figurative 
 term and make good sense. 
 
 Life is a vapor ( = as a vapor). A virtuous woman is a crown of 
 glory to her husband (= as a crown, etc.). A lion was he in the 
 fight (= as a lion, etc.). 
 
 Exercise 46. 
 
 Tell which is Subject and which is Predicate in the following : — 
 L 1. Who studies ? 2. \\nio is a student ? 3. Who is studying? 
 4. Who is studious ? 5. What does he study? 6. Who is thought 
 to be studying ? 7. Who is thought to l)e a student? 8. Who is 
 
THE SENTENCE. 145 
 
 a student thought to be? 9. Who is thought to be a student? 
 10. Are you a student? 11. Who are you ? 12. Are you thought 
 to be a student ? 
 
 n. 1. Red is a color; red is the color. 2. Paris is the place; 
 Paris is a large city; Paris is the city spoken of. 3. That' we study 
 is the rule; that you study is desirable. 4. Ten feet is the height; 
 ten feet is a certain distance ; ten feet is twice five feet. 5. Noio is 
 a word; now is the word; now is an adverb; now is the adverb 
 mentioned ; now is not how. 6. Knowledge is power; knowledge is 
 the power most needed. 7. He is the man; he is a thief; he is my 
 friend. 8. Happiness is wealth; contentment is happiness; wealth 
 is contentment. 
 
 III. 1. Who was Plato? 2. The end thereof is the way of death. 
 3. Candor is the brightest gem of criticism. 4. What is Christian 
 law ? 5. Locusts and wild honey was his meat. 6. A week is seven 
 days. 7. The shortest distance between two points is a straight 
 line. 8. The name of a thought or a thing is a noun. 9. A portion 
 of land surrounded by water is an island. 1 0. A period is a round 
 dot. 
 
 IV. 1. This is the singer. 2. Is this the singer? 3. Who is this 
 singer? 4. What is a singer? 5. Who is singing? 6. Who is the 
 singer ? 7. Is it he that sings ? 8. Is it he whom we saw that 
 sings? 9. Are you a singer ? 10. Are you singing? 11. Is it you 
 that was singing? 12. You it was that was sinjring. 13. A singer 
 is a person that sings. 14. Who is thought to be singing? 15. Who 
 is thought to be a singer? 16. Who is a singer thought to be? 
 17. Who was it thought was the singer? 18. Is he a singer? 19. Is 
 a person who sings a singer? 20. Is a singer a person who sings ? 
 21. Is a person who sings said to be a singer ? 22. Is a singer said 
 to be a person who sings ? 23. Was it you that was thought to be 
 a singer? 24. What singer are you ? 25. Who sings? 26. Who 
 is a singer ? 27. It is strange for you to sing. 28. It seems as if T 
 could sing. 29. It would be strange if I could not sing. 30. It is 
 wonderful how she can sing. 31. I wonder if you can sing? 
 
 V. 1. The law of the wise is a fountain of life. — Bible. 2. The 
 ransom of a man's life are his riches. — Id. 3. A faithful ambassa- 
 dor is health. — Id. 4. The crown of the wise is their riches. — Id. 
 5. The foolishness of fools is folly. — Id. 6. A sound heart is the 
 life of the flesh. — Id. 7. Children's children are the crown of old 
 men. — Id. 8. The name of the Lord is a strong tower. — Id. 9. A 
 
 10 
 
146 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 foolish son is the calamity of his father. — Id. 10. Wisdom is a de- 
 fence. — Id. 11. The fear of the Lord is the beginning of wisdom. 
 — Id. 12. What adds to the silence and loneliness is the absence of 
 singing birds. — Irving. 
 
 CHAPTER IL 
 
 THE LOGICAL DIVISION OF SENTENCES. 
 
 Section I. — The Declarative and the Imperative Sentence. 
 
 27. Sentences may be divided, logically, into four 
 classes : — 
 
 (a.) Declarative. 
 (5.) Imperative, 
 (c.) Interrogative. 
 (d.) Exclamatory. 
 
 28. Declarative sentences are such as make a direct 
 assertion. 
 
 We study. Roses are red. This is the man. 
 
 1. Declarative sentences may take the indicative or 
 the potential mood form. 
 
 We study; may study ; are to study ; have to study ; ought to have 
 studied, etc. 
 
 29. Imperative sentences are such as express, — 
 (a.) Compulsion. 
 
 (5.) Command. 
 
 (c.) Exhortation. 
 
 ((£.) Entreaty. 
 
 (e.) Wish. 
 
 1. These five kinds of imperative sentences differ 
 chiefly in the relationship) of the parties concerned. If 
 something is sought by a superior from an inferior^ and 
 the former immediately enforces his demand, we have 
 compulsion ; when the relationship is the same, but no 
 
THE SENTENCE. 147 
 
 force is exercised, we have command ; when the parties 
 are of equal rank, exhortation ; when the party making 
 the request is the inferior of the two, entreaty ; when 
 appeal is made to no person in particular, merely a wish. 
 
 Soldiers, march ! (Comp. or command.) Comrades, let us march. 
 (Exhortation.) Ca.pta\n, may loe march f (Entreaty.) Oh, that we 
 may soon march ! (Wish.) 
 
 2. In imperative sentences the subject term is gen- 
 erally omitted. 
 
 Soldiers, advance (ye). Come (ye) unto me. Be not (thou) 
 overcome of evil. 
 
 3. Imperative sentences are sometimes formed from 
 declarative or exclamatory sentences by means of an 
 ellipsis. As this ellipsis is never supplied by the mind, 
 it is better not to notice it in analysis. These impera- 
 tive sentences are conjunctive (16, 3) ; they always ex- 
 press a wish, and are commonly introduced by 0, or Oh, 
 Would, If only, etc. 
 
 (I) Would (= wish) that he were here! O (how I wish) that I 
 were with him 1 (How glad I should be) If only I were with him ! 
 
 Of course the interjections 0, Oh, Would, etc., are not to be no- 
 ticed in analysis. 
 
 4. Imperative sentences may be in the imperative, the 
 subjunctive, or the potential mood form. 
 
 Thou shall not go. You shall go. Remain there. 
 
 5. Imperative sentences in the potential mood must 
 not be confounded with declarative sentences in the same 
 mood. The difference is clear, — the former always im- 
 po.se an obligation or a necessity ; the latter simply state 
 the same. It should be noted that shall in the third 
 person merely states what is obligatory. 
 
 You must go. You shall go. Thou shalt not steal. Imp. sen- 
 tences. 
 
148 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 He shall go , you will have to go ; you ought to go ; you are hound to 
 go ; / will go ; I am hound to go ; 1 must go, etc. Dec. sentences. 
 
 6. The same form may be either imperative or declar- 
 ative according as it does or does not impose an ohliga- 
 tion, 
 
 Charles, you must he at home by four o'clock. Imp. sent. If you 
 wish to go with us, you must he here at four (must be = will have to 
 be}. Dec. sent. 
 
 Exercise 47. 
 
 Distinguish the Declarative and the Imperative sentences. 
 
 1. He will come. 2. He shall come. 3. You shall come. 4. You 
 will come. 5. You must come, and you shall come. 6. Let him 
 come. 7. He is to come. • 8. He will have to come. 9. Thou shalt 
 come. 10. I am bound to come. 11. I ought to come. 12. He 
 might come. 13. He was to have come. 
 
 Section IL — The Interrogative Sentence. 
 
 30. Interrogative sentences are such as ask a ques- 
 tion. 
 
 Has he come? Shall we remain? Who comes? 
 
 1. These sentences are generally introduced by a rela- 
 tive., an auxiliary., or the copula. 
 
 Whence did he come? Who is this? Have they come? Are 
 they wise? 
 
 2. Interrogative sentences having a negative predicate 
 usually imply an affirmative answer. Such are termed 
 affirmative interrogative sentences. 
 
 Did they not come? Has he not learned his lesson ? 
 
 3. Interrogative sentences differ inform from declara- 
 tive sentences chiefly in the order of the words. 
 
 He was there. Was he there? They have come. Have they 
 ^ome ? 
 
 4. The interrogative form often commences with do or 
 
THE SENTENCE. 149 
 
 did when the declarative form would not use these aux- 
 iliaries at all. Not so, however, in old English. 
 
 He comes. Does he come ? He sang. Did he sing? But, Thou 
 believest. Believest thou ? He came in season. Came he in sea- 
 son ? 
 
 5. The interrogative form is used sometimes, not for 
 the purpose of asking a question, but to secure greater 
 emphasis ; the evident absurdity of questioning a thing 
 being often the strongest way of asserting. Such forms 
 constitute the Rhetorical Interrogation. 
 
 He that planted the ear shall He not hear ? He that formed the 
 eye, shall He not see f Canst thou by searching Jind out God? 
 
 6. The interrogative form is often used very beauti- 
 fully, and with no small rhetorical force, to present a 
 point emphatically with reference to whioh the writer 
 wishes to state the facts or his own opinion. This form 
 of the rhetorical interrogation is entirely different in log- 
 ical character from the above. 
 
 Is the apostle contrasting his preaching with the philosophy of the 
 Greeks ? Jesus crucified is his whole philosophy. 
 
 Is he prescribing the law of apostolic labors ? Other foundation 
 can no man lay than Jesus Christ. Is he unfolding the nature of the 
 church 1 It is not a self-organized multitude of religionists who 
 agree in certain tenets, but the Body of Christ. — Dr. Liddon. 
 
 Section IH. — The Exclamatory Sentence. 
 
 31. Exclamatory sentences are such as involve 
 feeling or emotion. They may be in form declarative, 
 imperative, or interrogative. 
 
 He has fled! You saw the king! Has he fled! Saw you the 
 king! Oh, that he had fled! Alas, that I did not see the king! 
 
 1. Exclamatory sentences are often introduced with 
 the relative what or how. 
 
 What a spectacle was that! How grand was the scene! 
 
150 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 Exercise 48. 
 
 Distinguish the different kinds of sentences and tell the subject and 
 the predicate in each. 
 
 J. 1. He comes. 2. Who comes? 3. Who is the new comer? 
 4. How he comes! 5. May he come? 6. Oh, that. he may come! 
 7. Do not come. 8. Be not absent long. 9. Who is absent ? 
 10. Who is the absentee? 11. How long he was absent! 12. You 
 must not be absent. 13. Must he remain? 14. He shall remain. 
 15. Shall he remain ? 16. He will remain. 
 
 n. 1. He was there. 2. Would he were there ! 3. He must 
 have been there. 4. Was he not there? 5. He was to have been 
 there. 6. Was he to have been there ? 
 
 HI. 1. You must work. 2. You ought to work. 3. You shall 
 work. 4. Shall you work? 5. Will you work? 6. You ought to 
 work. 7. Will you not work ? 8. You will have to work ? 9. Has 
 he to work? 10. He must have been working. 
 
 IV. 1. O death, where is thy sting? O grave, where is thy vic- 
 tory ? 2. And he said, Take thy bill and write four score. 3. He 
 said unto him. Son, thou art ever with me, and all that I have is 
 thine. 4. It was meet that we should be merry. 5. He said unto 
 them, Know ye what I have done to you? 6. To what purpose is 
 the multitude of your sacrifices unto me ? 7. Shall not the judge 
 of all the earth do right ? 
 
 V. 1. Is Paul arguing against sins of impurity? Christians have 
 only to remember that they are the members of Christ. 2. Would 
 he summarize the relations of the Christian to Christ ? To Christ 
 he owes his mental philosophy, his justification before God, his re- 
 demption from sin and death. — Dr. Liddon. 3. Who hath heard 
 our report ? and to whom is the arm of the Lord revealed ? — Bible. 
 4. Am I not an apostle? am I not free ? have not I seen Jesus Christ 
 our Lord? — Bible. 5. Then said Jesus unto them, Children, have 
 ye any meat? — Bible. 6. Lovest thou me more than the^ic? — Bible. 
 
 Write several declarative^ several imperativcj several interrogative and 
 teveral exclamatory sentences. 
 
|S THE CLAUSE. 151 
 
 SUB-DIVISION W. — THE CLAUSE. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 THE LOGICAL DIVISIONS OP THE CLAUSE. 
 
 Section I. — The Declarative Clause, 
 
 32. Clauses may be divided/logically, into four classes : 
 (a.) Declarative. 
 (J.) Imperative, 
 (c.) Interrogative, 
 (c?.) Exclamatory. 
 
 33. Declaratiye Clauses, are of the same logical 
 character as declarative sentences. 
 
 He is wise (Dec. Sent.). Says that he is wise (Dec. cl.). He is 
 good (Dec. Sent.). He (is said) to he good (Dec. cl.). 
 
 1. Declarative clauses may be, in general method of 
 statement, either definite or indefinite. 
 
 (1.) Definite Declarative Clauses. These may be in 
 form any one of the five (10). 
 
 Believes that he is guilty. Thinks him to he guilty. He is thought 
 to he guilty. They are thought to he guilty f Am certain of his 
 (== him) heing guilty. The man who is guilty. Was punished, for 
 he was guilty. He should be punished if he is guilty. He will not be 
 punished severely though he is gyiUty. 
 
 (2.) Indefinite Declarative Clauses. These express 
 what is indefinite or general. They are all relative in 
 form and are always introduced by indefinite relatives, 
 and hence their name. 
 
 Whoever will persevere will succeed. We do what we please. Speaks 
 to whoever will listen. Whenever he came he made a great stir. 
 
 2. These clauses may represent any mood- form, except 
 only the imperative. , 
 
152 ENQLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 Says that he is- wise (Indie), — that he may he wise, — that he has 
 to study^ — that he is to he punished, etc. (potential). If he were wise 
 (subj.). Believes him to he wise (Inf.). Will prevent this being 
 done (Part.). 
 
 EXEECISE 49. 
 
 Change the following declarative sentences into declarative clauses, 
 having each of the Jive clausal constructions when possible , 
 
 ILLUSTRATION. 
 
 They labor, Sent.-f. Says that they labor, Dem. C.-f. Saw them 
 (to) labor, or they were seen to labor. Inf. C.-f. Spoke of their labor- 
 ing, Part. C.-f. The place where they labor, Rel. C.-f. Will prosper 
 because they labor, Conj. C.-f. 
 
 1. She dances. 2. Beautiful was the scene. 3. Loud was the re- 
 port. 4. The soldiers march. 5. Ships sail. 6. The band is play- 
 ing. 7. Your studies are interesting. S. It is time to go. 9. It 
 was he that I saw. 10. There was a great fire. IL It was about 
 you that we were talking. 
 
 Exercise 50. 
 
 Change in the following the declarative clauses into declarative sen- 
 fences. 
 
 1. Thinks himself learned. 2. Heard something fall. 3. Feels as 
 if it was just. 4. Felt liimself falling. 5. It is true that he came. 
 6. The fact is that sin is destructive. 7. Spoke of there being many 
 present. 8. It is not impossible that he may come. 9. He never 
 rides but he takes cold. 10. He was thought to be educated. 
 11. We are sure of your being an honest man. 12. The fruit which 
 they ate. 13. The house in which w6 live. 14. The theme whereon 
 he spoke.. 15. Grieves that you have gone. 
 
 Section H. — The Imperative Clause. 
 
 34. Imperative clauses are of the same general char- 
 acter, logically considered, as imperative sentences. 
 
 Honor .thy father, Sent.-f. Commands that ice should honor our 
 father, C.-f. Be ye patient, Sent.-f. Begs that ye may be patient y 
 C.-f. 
 
THE CLAUSE. 163 
 
 Ohf will he not come ! Sent. f. We pray that he will come; or, We 
 hope that he ivill come; or, Our desire is that he will coine, C.-fs. 
 
 1. These clauses baay be in form demoustrative, infini- 
 tive, or participial. 
 
 Ordered that this should be done. Ordered this to be done. Insisted 
 on this being done. It was ordered that this should be done. This 
 was ordered to be done. The order was /or this to be done. 
 
 2. The Will may be moved, restrained, or coerced in 
 various ways. Clearly, it matters not by what agency 
 or power it is thus influenced ; whenever this end is ac- 
 complished the words indicating this fact always take 
 after them the Imperative clause, when the element fol- 
 lowing is a clause at all. 
 
 Now the Will may be influenced, moved, or coerced, — 
 (1.) Directly hy Will, that is, by the authority, of aw- 
 other. 
 
 Here the imperative clause occurs with words of, — 
 
 (a.) Compelling; as, compel, force, make, constrain, oblige, etc. 
 
 (6.) Commanding ; as, command, order, bid, require, charge, in- 
 sist on, direct, ordain, decree, enact, etc. 
 
 (c.) Exhorting; as, advise, counsel, recommend, admonish, cau- 
 tion, warn, persuade, exhort, etc. 
 
 (c?.) Entreating ; as, request, beg, solicit, entreat, importune, sup- 
 plicate, implore, demand, ask, pray, petition, etc. 
 
 (e.) Wishing; as, wish, desire, want, long {for), ijearn (for), etc. 
 
 (2.) By opposing circumstances, as physical obstacles ; 
 the laws and customs of society, etc. Here the impera- 
 tive clause occurs with words denoting, — 
 
 Compulsion; Necessity; Custom; Habit; Expediency, etc. Many 
 of these are impersonal forms. 
 
 Il is indispensable ; it is unavoidable ; it is fated ; it must be ; it must 
 ue.eds be; it is necessary ; there is a necessity, etc., and their opposites. 
 
 It is customary ; it is usual ; it is common ; it is the practice ; it is the 
 fashion, etc., and their opposites. 
 
 // is best ; it is expedient ; it would he belter ; it is desirable ; it is 
 proper ; it is becoming ; it isftting; it is advisable, etc., and their op- 
 posites. 
 
154 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 (3.) By one's own moral sense. Here this clause is 
 found with words expressing, — 
 Moral Obligation and Duty Generally. 
 
 It is Just ; it is right ; it is honorable ; it is obligatory ; it is fair ; it 
 is equitable ; it is legitimate ; it is justifiable ; it is meet ; it is demanded; 
 it is required, etc. 
 
 3. Cautions. Lnperative clauses must be distinguished from de- 
 clarative clauses. Imperative clauses are always logically connected 
 with some imperative word, such as the above. 
 
 Thinks that it should be done. Dec. C.-f . It is just that it should be done. 
 Imp. cl. 
 
 Spoke of this being done by you. Dec. cl. Insists on this being done by you. 
 Imp. cl. 
 
 He was thought to have been executed. Dec. cl. He was ordered to be ex- 
 ecuted. Imp. cl. 
 
 It was reported that the toton had been burned. Dec. cl. It was decreed that 
 the town should be buimed. Imp. cl. 
 
 Says that he may be saved. Dec. cl. Begs that he may be saved. Imp. cl. 
 
 It is true that he should be punished. Dec. cl. It is right that he should be 
 punished. Imp. cl. 
 
 Exercise 51. 
 
 Change thefollomng imperative sentences into imperative clauses, let 
 each take the Dem., the Inf., and the Part, form when possible. 
 
 illustrations . 
 
 Do it. Imp. Sent.-f. Commanded that we should do it, or, Made 
 us (to) do it. Insisted on our doing it. C.-fs. 
 
 1. Come, ye. 2. Soldiers, charge. 3. Do not fall back. 4. Ad- 
 vance, men. 5. Come, let us reason together. 6. Turn ye, for why 
 will ye die (98, 3). 7. Let us sing anew song. 8. Deliver us from 
 temptation. 9. Do something. 10. May his life be spared, O King I 
 11. Would that he were here! 
 
 Exercise 52. 
 
 Distinguish declarative and imperative clauses in thefolloicing. Class- 
 ify the imperative clauses according to (34, 2 (1) (2) and (3)). 
 
 1. Insists on something being done; says something has been done; 
 thinks something ought to be done ; is sure of something having been 
 done; directs something to be done; demands that something shall 
 
THE CLAUSE. 155 
 
 be done; it is true that something has been done; begs that it may 
 be done ; longs for something to be done; regrets that it has not been 
 done; will see that it is done ; something having been done, we are 
 satisfied; it is just that something be done; it is clear that it has 
 been done ; it is certain ^that it ought to be done ; advised that it 
 should be done; forbade anything being done ; recommended this to 
 be done; saw nothing done; made us do it; obliged all to do some- 
 thing; forbids this being done; it is demanded that this be done; it is 
 right that this be done. 
 
 Section III. — The Interrogative Clause. 
 
 36. Interrogative clauses are such as involve a que&- 
 tion. Any interrogative sentence may be changed into 
 an interrogative clause, and vice versa. 
 
 Who is it? (Int. Sent) Asks ivlio it is (Int. cl.) Has he come. 
 (Int. Sent.) Inquires whether he has come. (Int. cl.) 
 
 1. The interrogative clause is found not simply with 
 words of asking. It may occur with almost any word 
 that can take after it a (demonstrative or infinitive) de- 
 clarative clause. (See 11, 1 ; 12, 2.) 
 
 Told who it was ; was in doubt who it was ; asked who it was ; could 
 not think who it was ; was certain who it was; questioned who it was ; 
 meditated who it might be ; did not care who it was. It makes no dif- 
 ference ivho it was. (Int. C.-fs.) 
 
 Do not know whether it is sunrise ; very much doubts if the sun has 
 risen; will not tell whether the sun has risen; asks whether it u sunrise; 
 is thinking whether it is sunrise. (Int. C.-fs.) 
 
 Inquired what he was doing ; told what he was doing ; was thinking 
 what he was doing ; no one knew what he was doing ; we are sure of 
 what he was doing. (Int. C.-fs.) 
 
 2. These clauses can take only the indicative and the 
 potential mood-forms. They differ from the correspond- 
 ing sentence-form in two particulars : — 
 
 (1.) They usually change the order of the words. 
 (2.) They never take the mark of interrogation (?). 
 
 3. Interrogative clauses are all in point of form relar 
 tive clauses (14, 8). 
 
156 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 Even when there is no relative in the sentence, it be- 
 comes necessary to introduce one when the sentence takes 
 the form of a clause. 
 
 May we go ? (Int. Sent.) Asks if we may go, (Int. cl.) Will 
 he do it ? (Int. Sent.) Inquires whether he will do it. (Int. cl.) 
 
 Who is this f Asks who this is. "What have you f Inquires what 
 you have. 
 
 Remark. These clauses in all Latin and Greek grammars are 
 termed Indirect questions, — an unfortunate name for two reasons : 
 first, because the English grammars have the same name for any 
 question that cannot be answered by yes or no, — and this makes 
 confusion of terms ; and, second, because the same grammars that 
 denominate these clauses indirect questions, call the corresponding 
 sentence forms interrogative sentences, thus multiplying names need- 
 lessly and confusing the learner. Either say Interrogative sentences, 
 and then Interrogative clauses ; or say, Direct questions, and Indirect 
 questions. 
 
 4. Cautions. (1.) Do not confound indefinite declarative and in- 
 terrogative clauses. The former are introduced always by a relative 
 either actually compounded with the termination ever or soever, or 
 clearly implying the same. 
 
 Goes where he wishes. Indef. cl. Tells where he wishes to go. Int. cl. Eats 
 what is set be/ore him. Indef. cl. Does not care what is set before him. Int. 
 cl. 
 
 (2.) Distinguish also relative interrogative from relative declara- 
 tive clauses. The former are always found with words of Physical 
 Sensation, Mental State or Action, or Communication of Thought. 
 
 I did what you told me. Rel. Dec. I do not know what you told me. Rel. 
 Int. He asked what you told me. Rel. Int. I will do what you told me. Rel. 
 Dec. 
 
 EXEKCISE 53. 
 
 Distinguish the different kinds of clauses in the following. Tell the 
 specific logical character of each imperative clause (34, 2 (1), (2), and 
 
 (3)). 
 
 1. Made him do it. 2. Who was made to do it? 3. Was think- 
 ing who did it. 4. Was he thought to have done it ? 5. Who was 
 thought to have done it? 6. It was thought that he did it. 7. Urged 
 his doing it. 8. The fact that he did it. 9. The law that all shall 
 doit. 10. The report that aU have done it. 11. The rule is that 
 
THE CLAUSE. V ^ ' //^ ''^ lki^J\ 
 
 this thing shall be done. 12. Inquires if it has been (ionft.^^3.^o»- -^ 
 mands that it be done. 14. It is obligatory that it be dono.^J I5r\j^ /^ 
 is true that it is obligatory. 16. Was considering what is (^ka-'* ^ 
 tory. 17. It is clear that some things are imperative. 18. What 
 is imperative who can tell? 19. It is best for me to do right. "^ 
 20. It is impossible for me to do right always. 
 
 Exercise 54. 
 
 Change the following sentences into clauses ; each into two or three 
 kinds of clauses when possible. 
 
 ILLUSTRATION. 
 
 Who was it ? (Sent.-f.) Asked who it was (C.-f.) 
 
 Has he come f (Sent.-f.) Inquires whether he has come. (C.-f.) 
 
 What did you fnd? (Sent.-f.) I do not know what you found. 
 
 (C.-f.)- 
 
 Where am I going f (Sent.-f.) I do not know where I am going, 
 
 (C.-f.) 
 
 Is it sunrise? (^Sent.-t) He dovibts if the sun has risen. (C.-f.) 
 Who is king ? (Sent.-f.) It makes a great difference who is king. 
 
 (C.-f.) 
 I. 1. Have you done it? 2. You are to do it. 3. Do it. 4, Let 
 
 it be done. 5. Can it be done? 6. Would that it might be done! 
 
 7. Oh, that it were done now! 8. Were you to do it? 9. You must 
 
 do it. 10. You shall do it. 11. Will you do it ? 12. Might not he 
 
 have done it ? 
 
 IL 1. She paints. 2. Does she paint? 3. Is she to be a painter? 
 
 4. If only she could paint! 5. She must paint. 6. She will have 
 
 to paint. 7. Will she not have to paint ? 8. Is she not to be a 
 
 painter? 9. Was she not accustomed to paint? 10. Ought she 
 
 not to paint? 11. Who can paint well? 12. Would she were a 
 
 good painter ! 13. She is bound to paint. 
 
 Write several interrogative clauses, with words of A sking, Telling, 
 
 Thinking, etc. 
 
 Section IV. — The Exclamatory Clause. 
 
 36. Exclamatory clauses are such as, like the corre- 
 sponding sentences, involve feeling or emotion. Any ex- 
 clamatory sentence may be changed into a corresponding 
 exclamatory clause, and vice versa. 
 
158 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 What a grand spectacle was that ! (Excl. sent.) He remarked 
 wTiat a grand spectacle that was! (Excl. cl.) How beautiful was 
 the sunset ! Told how beautiful the sunset was I 
 
 1. Exclamatory clauses may be in form any one of the 
 five clause-forms. 
 
 We shouted that the enemy had Jled ! (Excl. Dem.) Cried out 
 for his men to advance! (Excl. Inf.) Are you sure of hvi (=him) 
 being a scoundrel! (Excl. Part) Will not go because you are 
 afraid! (Excl. Conj.) 
 
 2. These clauses may take any mood-form of the verb. 
 Unlike the interrogative clause (35, 2), they scarcely 
 differ at all from the corresponding sentence-form, — tak- 
 ing the same mark of exclamation, and preserving usually 
 the same order of the words. 
 
 How grand a scene that was ! Remarked how grand a scene that 
 was! 
 
 Kemark. The four different logical forms of the clause above 
 discussed should be carefully studied and thoroughly mastered. 
 They are all found in the Latin and in the Greek, as well as in the 
 modem languages, and a knowledge of the logical distinctions which 
 they involve is indispensable to a successful prosecution of the study 
 of any language, whether ancient or modern. 
 
 Remark. In all Latin and Greek grammars, both interrogative 
 and exclamatory clauses are termed alike Indirect Questions ! Of 
 course this occasions, of necessity, much needless perplexity. 
 
 Exercise 55. 
 
 Distinguish the different kinds of clauses. 
 
 I. 1. Says he is a student. 2. It is important whether he studies 
 or not. 3. Told who was studying. 4. Mark, how he studies ! 
 5. What a student he is few are aware! 6. Does not know what 
 he is studying. 7. What one should study most is not always ob- 
 vious. 8. It makes a great difference what and how we study. 
 9. Do you know what to study? 10. Learns, because when he 
 studies, he studies! 11. I wish I were a student! 12. Asks if he 
 can commence study. 
 
 IL 1. Does what he can. 2. Tells what he can do. 3. What he 
 
NATURE AND DIVISIONS OF THE NOUN-TERM. 159 
 
 did always satisfied me. 4. What he did is not known. 5. Who- 
 ever came was well treated. 6. Who came is of no importance. 
 7. Goes where he pleases. 8.' Told where he went. 9. Wherever 
 he went he found friends. 10. Where he went is uncertain. 
 11. Did what you said. 12. Told what you said. 13. What you 
 said is not true. 14. I wish that it were true. 15. We pray that 
 it may prove true. 16. Whatever is true will be known. 17. We 
 do not know what is true in this case. 
 
 Exercise 56. 
 
 Change the above clauses into sentences where it is possible. 
 
 Change the following sentences into clauses : — 
 
 1. What a view was that! 2. How grand was the prospect! 
 3. Oh, that I could see this view again! 4. When did you see it? 
 5. How perfectly sublime it was! 6. Was it not grand ! 7. It 
 must have been very fine. 8. You ought to have seen it! 9. Can I 
 not see it? 10. May you see it sometime 1 11. Every person should 
 see it. 
 
 Write several exclamatory clauses. 
 
 DIVISION II. 
 
 THE NOUN-TERM. 
 — « — 
 
 SUB-DIVISION I— NATURE AND DIVISIONS OF 
 THE NOUN-TERM. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 SUBSTANTIVE NOUN-TEEMS. 
 
 37. All Noun-terms, of whatever class or order (6, 17) 
 may be considered under two very important divisions. 
 These we may call, — 
 
 (a.) Substantive Noun- terms. 
 
 (h) Attjjibutive Noun-terms. 
 
160 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 38. Substantive Noun-terms are such as designate 
 individual things^ facts^ or thoughts. They may be of 
 the word, the phrase, or the clause form. 
 
 CcBsar conquered Gaul. We study astronomy. W.-f . 
 
 Beyond (he Mississippi is called the West. P.-f. 
 
 Says that astronomy is a science. Believes you to be a student. 
 C.-f. 
 
 1. Construction. (1.) The Word-form of the substantive 
 noun-term may be smy proper noun, or any pronoun used as a noun- 
 term. 
 
 (2.) Proper nouns are the names of individuals. 
 
 John, CcBsar, London, Monday, May. 
 
 (3.) Rhetorical circumlocutions, in the form of appellatives or of 
 metaphors, are often used as proper noun-terms. 
 
 The Eternal City (t. e., Rome). The City of Seven Hills {i. e., Rome). The 
 Mediterranean of the North (t. e., The Baltic Sea). The Empire State {i. e., 
 New York). The Saniian Sage (t. e., Aristotle). The Lord^s day (i. e., Sun- 
 day). 
 
 (4.) Proper noun-terms are, also, the names of groups, considered 
 individually, that is, as distinguished from other groups of the same 
 kind. 
 The Americans; the English; the Choctaws; the Azores; the Browns. 
 
 (5.) The Phrase-form of this element only very rarely occurs. 
 All phrase-forms, however, when used as noun-terms, are of the 
 substantive kind. 
 Below us is in the valley (one place only is designated). 
 
 (6.) The Clause-form may be any one of the five clauses, ex- 
 cept only the conjunctive. For the most part clause-forms, when 
 used as noun-terms, are of the substantive character. It is evident 
 that as proper nouns designate individual objects so clauses designate 
 individual facts or thoughts. The subject term of a clause may b§ 
 attributive, and the verb-term likewise ; but the clause itself, as such, 
 usually designates only one fact or one thought. 
 
 Said that Coesar conquered Gaul. An individual fact; hence, Subs. N.-T. 
 Says that Uons are carnivorous. An individual fact. Subs. N.-T. Thinks that 
 his brother will come. An individual thought. Subs. N.-T. Believes that the 
 good will he happy. Also one thought. Subs. N.-T. So, Commands something 
 to be done. Insists on this being done. Asked what was done. 
 
NATURE AND DIVISIONS OF THE NOUN-TERM. 161 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 ATTRIBUTIVE NOUN-TERMS. 
 
 39. Attributive noun-terms are such as designate not 
 individual things, but only the attributes^ qualities^ or 
 characteristics of things, either singly or in groups. 
 
 Goodness, redness, bird, horse, man. 
 
 1. Attributive noun-terms of the word-form compre- 
 hend all common nouns, including, — 
 
 (a.) Abstract nouns. 
 (5.) Verbal nouns, 
 (ff.) Concrete nouns, 
 (d.^ Collective nouns. 
 \ (e.) Diminutive nouns. 
 
 2. Common noun-terms are such as designate the 
 names of species, classes, or genera as such. They are 
 not the names of individual objects, but of certain quaU- 
 ties or attributes common to many objects. Thus, tree 
 is not the name of any particular object ; it designates 
 simply a group of particular qualities that characterize 
 a large class of plants. 
 
 3. Proper nouns often become common nouns by use ; 
 that is by being made to designate a class. 
 
 Some mute, inglorious Milton here may rest. Here, some Milton = 
 a great poet. 
 
 4. Abstract nouns are the names of qualities considered 
 apart from any object in which they may inhere. 
 
 Goodness (from good), virtue (virtuous); truth (true); bravery 
 (brave); height (tigh) ; nobility (noble); redness (red). 
 
 6. Verbal nouns may be either abstract or concreted 
 
 Abstract verbals are the names of actions or conditions 
 
 considered apart from the person or thing that acts, or is 
 
 in any particular state or condition. 
 11 
 
162 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 TJiougTit (thinks) ; sight (sees) ; feeling (feels) ; meaning (means) ; 
 hearing (hears) ; love (loves) ; hate (hates). 
 
 Destruction (destroys); overthrow (overthrows); promotion (pro- 
 motes) ; elevation (elevates). 
 
 Knowledge (knows) ; belief (believes) ; defense (defends) ; concep- 
 tion (conceives). 
 
 To see or seeing (sees) ; to study or studying (studies) ; to dance, or 
 dancing (dances) ; to sit, or sitting (sits). 
 
 6. Concrete verbals are such as combine the concep- 
 tions of both agent and action. 
 
 Thinker (= one who thinks), seer, hearer, lover, hater. 
 Destroyer, promoter, elevator, defender, singer. 
 Student, sailor, actor, governor. 
 
 7. Collective nouns are the names of a number of sepa- 
 rate qualitative conceptions considered as one whole. 
 
 School, army, class, congregation, people, assembly. 
 
 8. Diminutive nouns are derivative and designate the 
 mere miniature of the object indicated by the primitive. 
 
 Hillock (hill); leaflet (leaf) ; rivulet; eyelet; lambkin ; bootee; gosr 
 ling; animalcule; manikin; birdie. 
 
 9. The Phrase-form rarely occurs. 
 
 Out of debt is out of misery, — above us is not below us. (Here the 
 phrase-forms indicate general not individual conceptions.) 
 
 10. So the Clause-form also occurs. 
 
 For one to be out of debt is for one to be out of misery. For one to 
 steal is base (== stealing is base). 
 
 Exercise 67. 
 
 Distinguish the different kinds of noun-terms. ^ 
 
 I. Bird, birdling, goose, goshng. 
 
 11. Goodness, to be good, for one to be good. 
 
 ni. Sight, seeing, seer, to see, that one should see, for one to see, 
 what I see. 
 
THE NOUN-TERM AS SUBJECT. 163 
 
 ' rV. Beginner, beginning, to begin, for one to begin; (knows) 
 ■when he begins, what he begins. 
 
 V. Defense, defender, defending, to defend, for them to defend, 
 that they should defend; (spoke of) the town being defended. 
 
 VI. The Granite State, the granite hills; the sweet sin'^er of Is- 
 rael, the sweet singers of Italy; the Washington of South America 
 (Bolivar^, the Washingtons of ancient times ; the Holy Land, holy 
 saints; the Celestial Empire, celestial phenomena; Athens, the 
 Athens of America, the Athenians; Demosthenes, the Demosthenes 
 of Rome. 
 
 VII. Race, racer; painting, painter, a painting; sculpture, sculp- 
 tor; art, artist, artificer, artisan ; intrusion, intruder, intruding, to 
 intrude; condenses, condensation ; conductor, conduction. 
 
 VIII. Grandeur; grandfather; politeness; refinement; hate, 
 hatred; love, lover, loving; weight, weigher, weighing; mover, mo- 
 tion, locomotive. 
 
 IX. Boy; Charles; girl; Mary, the Marys; the four Georges; the 
 twelve CaBsars; (called at) the Smiths; the Russian, the Russians. 
 
 X. The Morning Star of the Reformation; the Augustan Age of 
 English Literature; the Golden Age; the Bactrian Sage; the Apos- 
 tle to the Gentiles; the myriad-minded poet. 
 
 XL Adam; man; mortals; that all men are mortal ; that all must 
 die ; for him to steal; what he said; the sun rising (we departed) ; 
 within me is not without me. 
 
 SUB-DIVISION W.— THE NOUN-TERM AS SUBJECT. 
 CHAPTER L 
 
 REAL AND APPARENT TERMS. 
 
 40. The Noun-term, as such, can perform two and 
 only two functions in a proposition : namely, the Sub- 
 jective and the Objective. 
 
 Not infrequently with passive verbs, the real subject 
 term is not the same as the apparent or grammatical 
 BUDJect term. 
 
164 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 This discrepancy occurs, for the most part, in the fol- 
 lowing cases : — 
 
 (1.) When an Adverb-term, expressing an indirect object in the 
 active voice, is made the subject term in the passive voice. 
 
 In this case the real subject is implied in the verb, or the verb 
 may be said to be used absolutely impersonally; that is, without any 
 subject either expressed or implied, while the apparent subject tertu, 
 — the noun or pronoun immediately preceding the verb, — is really 
 the indirect object, the same precisely as when following the active 
 form of the verb. Thus, spoke to you. Passive, you were spoken 
 to = there was a speaking to you. Here you is the apparent sub- 
 ject term, but logically., along with the preposition to, it is the indi- 
 rect object, the same as after the active form of the verb. Wrote on 
 science ; science was written on = there was a writing on science. 
 Science is the apparent subject term of was written, and the real 
 subject is implied in the verb. So, the following: — 
 
 Kan over a child, a child was run over. Laughed at us ; we were laughed at ; 
 talked about you ; you were talked about. Wrote to him ; he was written to, 
 etc. 
 
 So, also, when the Adverb term is found in connection with a 
 Noun-term as direct object, after the active voice. 
 
 Thus, Taught me (8, 13) grammar; passive, /was taught gram- 
 mar. Here / is the apparent subject-term ; but, as the thing really 
 taught was grammar, grammar is the real subject term. In these 
 cases, then, the real subject-term is the apparent object term, while 
 the noun preceding the verb is the apparent subject term. 
 
 Showed <o me a picture; /was shown a picture. Paid (to) him (8, 13) ten 
 dollars ; he was paid ten dollars. Refused {to) him admission; he was refused 
 admission. Made sport q/* Aim ; Ae was made sport of. Made use of argu- 
 ments ; arguments were made use of. 
 
 (2.) When an Adjective-term, used as a modifier of the direct 
 object in the active voice, is made the subject term. In these cases 
 the direct object is always a verbal noun (39, 5). 
 
 Thus. Took possessioB of the country ; passive; the country wna 
 taken possession of. Here after the active form, of the country is an 
 adjective-term modifying possession', and yet, by this strange Eng- 
 lish idiom, with the passive form it becomes the granmiatical subject 
 term. So, — 
 
 We lost sight of him ; he was lost sight of. Edward took possession of th 
 ■hrone ; the throne was taken possession of. 
 
THE NOUN-TERM AS SUBJECT. 165 
 
 (3.) When the active form has a clause for its object term, there 
 is likewise a want of coincidence between the real and the appar- 
 ent subject term, with \hQ passive form. 
 
 Said that it was true ; it was said that it was true. Believe him to be wise ; he 
 was believed to be wise. Whom they supposed to he guilty ; who was supposed 
 to be guilty. We saw him murdered; he was seen murdered. (12, 23.) 
 
 Note. It should be noted, that when the active voice is followed 
 by two direct objects, in the passive voice the same word is both 
 real and grammatical subject term. Thus, the direct object of an 
 active verb may always become the subject of the passive voice of 
 the same, but the indirect object of the active can never become the 
 real subject of the passive (40, 1 (1)). That is, it is simply impos- 
 sible for a given person or thing to sustain at the same time two 
 directly incompatible relations. A person directly acted upon, as is the 
 case with the subject of the passive voice, cannot, also, at the same 
 moment, be the person indirectly affected by the same act. Thus, 
 Named him John; passive. He was named John. Here he is the true 
 subject term, because the direct object before; but. Taught John 
 logic; passive, John was taught logic. Here logic is the real sub- 
 ject term, and John is only the apparent subject term. 
 
 Remark. It is manifest that the idioms above discussed, are, 
 like most idioms, entirely unphilosophical. Our language tolerates 
 them because of the greater convenience of their use than that of 
 the longer impersonal forms of expression. They are often highly 
 inelegant in point of rhetoric, but it must be confessed that what is 
 lost in elegance is often more than made up in force. These idioms, 
 however, are not tolerated, except very sparingly, in the Latin and 
 in the Greek, while in the German and the French they are ex- 
 cluded altogether. Thus, Dixit de te; passive, De te dictum est, 
 and not Tu dictus es de, the strangely anomalous English construc- 
 tion. 
 
 Exercise 58. 
 
 Analyze according to the Illustrations. 
 
 ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 They were thought to be wise. 
 A simple Dec. Sent. They — to be wise is the Subj., a N.-T. of the Dec. Inf. 
 C.-f., of which they is Subj. and tobe wise is Pred., a Cop. V.-T., of which to be 
 is Cop. and wise is Comp. Were thouyht is the Pred. of the sentence, a Cop. V.- 
 T., of which were is Cop. and thouyht is Comp. 
 
166 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 Whoever dreads punishment deserves it. 
 A simple Dec. Sent. Whoever dreads punishment is Subj., a N.-T. of Rel. 
 Indef. C.-f., of which, etc. Deserves it is the Pred., a V.-T. of Cx. W.-f., of 
 which, etc. 
 
 Was the war talked about? 
 
 An interrogative Sent. The Subj. is implied. Was talked about the war is 
 the Pred., a V.-T. of the Cx. W.-f., etc. 
 
 His (== he) coming surprised us. 
 A Dec. Sent. His coming is the Subj. and the rem. is Pred. The Subj. is a 
 N.-T. of the Part. C.-f., of which, etc. The Pred. is a V.-T. of the Cx. W.-f., 
 of which, etc. 
 
 1. We were spoken to. 2. Some were found fault with. 3. The 
 soldiers were said to be brave. 4. Bands were heard playing the 
 National Song. 5. The men are said to be weary. 6. The fact of 
 his having failed in business (13, 16, N.) distressed his friends. 
 
 7. It is astonishing how they fought. 8. Whoever labors succeeds. 
 9. It is asked for what we are fighting. 10. For them to suffer is 
 wrong. 11. It is wrong that they should suffer. 12. Their suffer- 
 ing thus is a wrong. 13. Who, is it said, is to blame? 14. What 
 was supposed to be the fact? 15. Can it be known who the thief 
 is? 16. May it be found out who he is ? 17. Who was thought to 
 be to blame ? 18. It is evident that he is to blame. 19. His being 
 to blame seemed strange. 20. Whoever is to blame shall be pun- 
 ished. 21. It was remarked how sublime the scene was! 22. Men 
 were run over. 23. Was war talked of ? 24. You were spoken to. 
 25. Let it not displease my Lord that I cannot rise up before thee. 
 — Bible. 
 
 Exercise 59. 
 
 Point out the grammatical nominative and the true logical subject in 
 the following : give a more elegant construction, when possible, by mak- 
 ing the granvnar and the logic harmonize. 
 
 1. We must be allowed the privilege of farming our own lands. — 
 Murray^ s Gram. 2. The children of Israel alone have been denied 
 the possession of it. — Keiih. 3. He was paid fifty dollars. 4. I 
 have been shown a book. — Campbell. 5. Tooke was refused ad- 
 mission only because he had been in holy orders. — Purley. 6. Its 
 reference to place is lost sight of. — Bullion's Gram. 7. What strik- 
 ing lessons are we taught by the tenor of this history! — Bush. 
 
 8. He has been left no less than eighty thousand pounds. — Priest- 
 ^.ey's Gram. 9. He was offered the command of the British army. 
 
THE NOUN-TERM AS SUBJECT. 167 
 
 — Grimshawh Hist. 10. A widow may be granted such a privilege. 
 
 — Spectator. 1 1 . Let him not be shown the parsing table. — Nut- 
 tinges Gram. 12. If the walks were a little taken care of that lie be- 
 tween. — Addison. 13. Suppose I am offered an office or a bribe? 
 
 — Pierpont. , 
 
 CHAPTER 11. 
 
 THE NOUN-TERM. {Continued.) 
 The Logical Character of the Subject. 
 41. The Subject term may express, — 
 
 I 
 
 and either as an agent or a cause. 
 
 ». He comes ; they stand ; ive love; he knows; this surprises us. 
 (2.) That which is aeted upon, whether physically or 
 mentally. 
 
 We are loved ; he is known ; they are struck. 
 
 ^(3.) The product or effect of an act. 
 Blows were struck; a hole was dug; a house was built; a piece was 
 (4.) Something of which a quality is predicated. 
 Snow is white; roses are red ; he is virtuous. 
 (5.) Something of which some state or condition is 
 predicated. 
 
 Winds are blowing; snoiu is falling; he is sick; we are in trou- 
 ble (57). 
 
 ^(6.) An object, of which the class ov family is affirmed. 
 The rose is a plant; oxygen is a gas; we are men. 
 (7.) Something with reference to which some state, 
 feeling, judgment, or exercise of mind is indicated. Here, 
 among other cases, belong many clause-forms of the Sub- 
 ject term. 
 
 That you are the man is manifest; that he should he found guiliy is 
 sad; for him to do so is strange; what light is is not clear. 
 
168 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 1. The Subject term may be emphasized by means of 
 the it construction. In this case, however, it becomes 
 the complement. 
 
 He has come (the pronoun being emphasized) = It is he that has 
 come = He it is that has come. 
 
 2. Redundant forms should be noted here (11, 13). 
 Then Manasseh knew the Lord that he was God = knew thai the 
 
 Lord was God. • 
 
 3. The subject is sometimes made especially emphatic 
 and rhetorical bi/ being directly referred to^ before being 
 indicated in its proper logical relations in the proposition. 
 
 The pilgrim fathers, where are they? These men; why, they 
 should be punished. 
 
 This rhetorical form is sometimes softened by being 
 made less direct*. In this case it is always a phrase-form, 
 with as to or as for. 
 
 As for these men, they ought to be punished. As to our army 
 having been defeated, that is impossible. 
 
 4. Constkuction. The Subject term may be in form a Word, 
 a Phrase, or a Clause, and as a clause it may take any one of the 
 five clause-forms, except the conjunctive (10). 
 
 Exercise 60. 
 
 Point out all subject terms whether of sentences or of clauses ; classic 
 fy the same according to their logical signifcance; tell also the form. 
 and the order of each. Classify the sentences and the clauses logically, 
 
 ILLTJSTRATIONS. 
 
 He comes. 
 A Dec. Sent. Ee is the Subj. T. of S. W.-f., and denotes the actor. 
 
 His coming surprised us. 
 A Dec. Sent. His coming is the Subj. T. of the Part. C.-f. Dec, and denotes 
 the cause. His is the Subj. T. of the S. W.-f., and denotes the actor. 
 
 He was struck. 
 
 A Dec. Sent. He is the Subj. T. of the S. W.-f., and denotes the Obj. actea 
 v^on. 
 
THE NOUN-TERM AS OBJECT. 169 
 
 As to that thing, it cannot be done. 
 A Dec. Sent. It is the Subj. T., of the S. W.-f., etc. As to that thing is a 
 rhetorical introduction of the Subj. T. of the Cx. P.-f. 
 
 As to their having fled, that is impossible. 
 
 A Dec. Sent. That is the Subj. T., of the S. W.-f., and rem. is Pred. As to 
 their having fled is a rhetorical introduction of the Subj. of the Adjunc. Part. 
 C.-f. 
 
 I. Birds sing ; birds are bipeds ; birds are happy; birds were killed; 
 birds fly; birds are flying; birds are animals; birds breathe; bu-ds 
 were made before man; birds are light. 
 
 n. This is a rose; roses are plants; roses bloom; roses are red; 
 roses grow ; roses were destroyed ; roses are fragrant. 
 
 III. Rebuilds; houses are built; the house is red; the house is 
 small ; the house is in ashes ; the house was burned ; the house was 
 made ; houses are buildings ; it is houses that were built. 
 
 SUB-DIVISION III.— t^je; noun-tejrm as object. 
 
 CHAEACTER AND DIVISIONS OF TELE OBJECTIVE 
 ELEMENT. 
 
 42. All verb modifiers are in narae either Noun-terms 
 or Adverb-terms. All noun-terms used as verb modifiers 
 are either words or clauses. 
 
 Adverb-terms, however, may be words, phrases, or 
 clauses. 
 
 Saidsi^w; said that he came. N.-Ts. Said thus; said to me; 
 said to whoever would listen. Adv.-Ts. 
 
 Note. Phrase-forms, it must be noted, when modifying elements^ 
 are never noun-terms. They are sometimes used thus, as subjects or 
 complements, but never as mndijiers. 
 
 1. Noun-terms used as the direct modifiers of verbs, 
 express Objective relations. Thus, — 
 
 Struck the log; talked science; addressed them; helped us; ap- 
 proached us ; left MS ; cut pieces ; mourned his death. 
 
 2. Exactly similar to the above in character, and dif- 
 
170 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 fering from them only in implying a relation to the verb 
 somewhat less direct, are the following adverb-terms : — 
 
 Struck on the log ; lectured on science ; spoke to them ; acted for 
 us; came towards us ; went Jrom us'; cut in pieces ; mourned over his 
 death. 
 
 3. If now we call the modifiers in the first class of ex- 
 amples, objective elements, we must denominate those in 
 the second class objective elements likewise ; for the 
 logical character of the two is precisely the same ; the 
 only difference being that in the first class the modifiers 
 are more direct than those in the second. 
 
 Hence, clearly, adverb-terms may indicate less direct, 
 that is, indirect objective relations. 
 
 4. Again, all noun modifiers are, in name, adjective- 
 terms ; but the following noun modifiers express precisely 
 the same Jcind of modification in logical force, as the 
 modifiers above indicated. Thus, — 
 
 The striking of the log. 
 
 The lecturing on science ; the lecture on science ; the lecturer on 
 science. 
 
 The addressing of them ; the address to them. 
 
 The helping of us.; the helper of us ; the help /or us. 
 
 The approach to us; the leaving ofus; the departure /rom us. 
 
 The cutting of pieces ; the cutter of pieces ; the cutting iiiio pieces. 
 
 The lamenting of his death ; the lamenting ocer his death. 
 
 So likewise of possessive adjective-terms. 
 
 The army's defeat = defeat of the army; his destruction = de- 
 struction of him; our overthrow = overthrow of us ; his murder = 
 murder of him. 
 
 5. It will be noted that the noun-terms above are all verbals 
 (39, 5), as of necessity they must be in the logical relations they 
 there sustain. 
 
 Hence, adjective-terms (with verbal nouns) indicate objective re- 
 lations, and hence, from the above it is evident that objective rela- 
 tions may be expressed by what are nominally noun-terms, adverb- 
 terms, or adjective-terms. 
 
THE NOUN-TERM AS OBJECT. 171 
 
 Remark. Fixing now these distinctions in mind we will, under 
 the head of Noun-terms, as being the most perfect illustration of ob- 
 jectives, discuss in full the various kinds of objective modifiers, 
 whether expressed by noun, adverb, or adjective terms, reserving 
 to a future page the discussion of Adverb and Adjective elements in 
 their more normal uses. 
 
 6. All Objective elements, then, whether direct or in- 
 direct, are divided into three classes : — 
 (a.) The Suffering Object. 
 (5.) The Factitive Object. 
 ((?.) The Causal Object. 
 
 Remark. The term Suffering Object is used, of course, only as 
 ja. name, and does not necessarily imply any idea of real suffering in 
 the object indicated. Thus, Bought a hook ; book is the suffering 
 object. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 THE SUFFERING OBJECT. 
 
 The suffering object may be either — 
 
 A. Direct. 
 
 B. Indirect. 
 
 A. The Direct Object. 
 Section I. 
 43. The Direct Suffering Object is that upon which 
 the action of the verb is directly exerted or expended. 
 
 Struck me ; burned a house ; said that he was wise ; felt himself 
 sinking ; saw Mm fall ; asked ivho came. 
 
 1. The Direct Object sometimes indicates that upon 
 which the action of the verb is only partially exerted. 
 This is called the Direct Object Partial form. 
 
 He ate of the fruit. Part. form. Ate the fruit. Complete form. 
 Partook of the repast ; drank of the tvine ; fed on manna. Part. form. 
 
 2. Construction. (1.) The Word-form may be a noun-lcnn 
 or an adjective-term. 
 
 Begins this; begins to study; begins studying ; its beginning {= beginning (/ 
 it ■=. beginning it). 
 
172 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 (2.) The Phrase-form has almost invariably the preposition o/, 
 though /or is sometimes used. It is always an adverb or an adjective 
 term. Though these are phrase-forms, they denote direct objects; 
 that is, the preposition seems to have little or no force in the way of 
 marking an indirect relation as such. A similar use of the prepo- 
 sition, in this substantially non-relational force, occurs in the case of 
 appositives of the phrase-form (22, 14). 
 
 Am sure of this; am certain of this; am conscious of this ( = know this). 
 
 Have feUt of this, tasted of this, smelt of this, heard of this {= cognized 
 this). 
 
 Am a divider of the spoils; the dividing of the spoils; a division of the 
 spoils {= dividing the spoils). 
 
 (3.) The Clause-form may be in form any one of the five, ex- 
 cepting only the last (10). 
 
 Knew that he was honest. Imagine him to be conceited. Thinks himself {to 
 be) wise. Knows who came. Saw the city destroyed. 
 
 (4.) The adjunctive clause-form is common. 
 
 Am certain of this being the man. Am sure of what you said. I never heard 
 of this being queMioned. — Mcllvaine (=r I never knew of or learned of this being 
 questioned = I never knew or heard, or learned that this was questioned). 
 
 So, We read of no writer against Christianity having attempted to paralyze 
 the argument. — Mcllvaine. Did not tell of a single Christian having perished 
 in the siege. — Jd. 
 
 So, Adj. terms. Made mention of your being sick ; the report of what was 
 said; the consideration of what ought to be done. 
 
 3. Emphatic Forms. (1.) This element is made emphatic by 
 being placed first. 
 
 Silver and gold have I none ; him have I honored ; these have we loved. 
 
 (2.) Sometimes the subject of an objective clause is made em- 
 phatic by being introduced first as the object of the principal verb 
 (41, 2). 
 
 I know THEE who thou art. — Bible. He sought to see Jesus, who he was. — 
 Id. 
 
 (3.) The Object term is often made emphatic and rhetorical, pre- 
 cisely as the Subject term may be (41, 3). 
 
 That man ! I would not have him in my employ for any consideration. Ai 
 for that man, I would not employ him. As to ci'ossing the mountains, we can- 
 not do IT. 
 
 4. Cautions. Do not confound the predicative use of preposi- 
 tions, and their use in the phrase-form of the direct object. In the 
 
i 
 
 THE NOUN-TERM AS OBJECT. 173 
 
 latter case, of seems to be the only preposition used; while, on tho 
 contrary, of seems almost never used in the former case. Hence, 
 the two uses may be easily distinguished. (See 23, 2.) 
 
 r Exercise 61. 
 
 Note carefully all Subject and all Object terms ; tell the general 
 names of all other modifiers. 
 
 ILLUSTBATION. 
 
 Gets money. 
 Money is a N.-T. of S. W.-f. denoting the Dir. Suf. Obj. 
 
 The getting of money. 
 Of money is an Adj.-T. of S. P.-f., denoting the Dir. Suf. Obj. 
 
 Reported their defeat. 
 
 Cx. W.-f. Reported is B., and mod. by rem., a N.-T. of Cx. W.-f., denoting 
 Dir. Suf. Obj. ; of which defeat is B. and mod. by their, an Adj.-T. of S. 
 W.-f., denoting Dir. Suf. Obj. 
 
 The value of money. 
 Of money h an Adj.-T. of S. P.-f., and does not denote an Object. 
 
 I. My home; my ruin; my books; my promotion; my position; 
 my elevation; my helper; my friend; my destroyer. 
 
 n. Tells stories; a teller of stories; tells what you said; tells what 
 he pleases. 
 
 III. Your overthrow; -your friend; your defeat; your possessions; 
 your being his enemy was your ruin. 
 
 IV. French beginners; French language; a French student; 
 French empire; the French overthrow; French fashions; French 
 admirers; French possessions; French defeat. 
 
 V. Loves money; is a lover of money; is fond of money. 
 
 VI. The possession of money; knows what money is; is sure that 
 this is money; is certain of this being money. 
 
 VII. Am sure that this is true; am certain of that being true; 
 knows that it is true; asks what is true; inquired when you arrived; 
 am sure of his arrival; am certain of his having arrived; it cannot 
 be but he has arrived ; who doubts that he has arrived ; asked if he 
 had arrived; believes him to have arrived ; thinks himself learned. 
 
 VIII. 1. Our anticipation of nature's constancy being so fully 
 realized. — Chalmers. 2. We are sure of intelligence having been 
 engaged in the execution of each. — 7c?. 3. We insist on everything. 
 
174 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 being proved and on nothing being assumed. — Id. (23, 2). 4. A 
 strange mixture of greatness and of littleness. — Macaulay. 5. It 
 was one of the signs of Jesus being the true Messiah that the poor 
 had the Gospel preached (13) to them. — Dr. Alexander. 6. I felt 
 as if I had never known what intellectual enjoyment was (is). — Ma- 
 caulay. 7. It seemed as if we could never have borne to part. — Id. 
 
 B. The Indirect Object. 
 Classification. 
 
 44. The indirect forms of the Suffering Object are es- 
 pecially important, and may be divided into the following 
 classes, namely : — 
 
 (a.) The Object of Address. 
 
 (6.) The Object of Attention. 
 
 (c.) The Object of Interest. 
 
 ((?.) The Object of Association. 
 
 (g.) The Object of Separation. 
 
 Remark 1. These Indirect Objectives, though primarily suffi- 
 ciently distinct, gradually approach each other, until the lines of 
 separation finally disappear altogether. 
 
 The same is true of Direct as related to Indirect objects, and of 
 Indirect objects as related to Adverbial Elements (75), and likewise 
 of the latter to one another. 
 
 Indeed, all logical elements gradually shade off more or less into 
 one another. In their characteristic and typical form, always clear 
 and pronounced, so as to bu perfectly unmistakable, these, like hun- 
 dreds of specimens in natural science, — botany, chemistr}--, natural 
 history, — come finally to approximate one another so nearly that 
 their boundary lines become thoroughly confused. 
 
 This fact, however, so far from being a defect in the science of 
 human thought, really constitutes one of its chief excellencee; for it 
 is the nicer shadinsrs of thought and not the wide jreneric differences 
 that constitute the perfection of language. Nor is this any obstacle 
 or impediment in the way of the successful prosecution of Logical 
 Analysis. Indeed, this fact greatly enhances the interest and the 
 value of the study ; for it is not the inost obvious distinctions, but 
 the leaal, that compel study and severe thought, and thus secure at 
 .once interest, enthusiasm, and mental discipline. 
 
THE NOUN-TERM AS OBJECT. 175 
 
 Remark 2. If the above classification seems to any one too 
 minute, it must be answered that these various objective relations 
 simply do exist in thought and in language ; moreover, that they are 
 really important, and therefore must not be neglected. Valuable as 
 a knowledge of them is to the student in English, this knowledge be- 
 comes even more valuable to the pupil in the classics. 
 
 Section I. — The Object of Address. 
 
 45. The Object of Address may be either direct or 
 indirect. When direct it constitutes what is commonly 
 termed the Nominative Independent. 
 
 Soldiers ! march. O Jupiter, hear me. Come, Mary, and help 
 me. 
 
 1. When indirect it denotes that to which or to whom 
 some faciei thought^ or emotion is by any means commu- 
 nicated or made known. 
 
 Spoke to me ; wrote to you ; made a sign to him ; whom did he 
 speak to ? appealed to us ; applied to them. 
 
 2. It is likewise used to express the object addressed 
 in the way of interrogation. 
 
 Asked him, inquired of you, requested of me. 
 
 3. It is also used to indicate a statement^ argument, or 
 demand, to which a reply is made. 
 
 Replied to this; made answer to my question; responded to the 
 call ; made answer to his arguments. 
 
 4. Construction. (1.) The Word-form is commonly an ad- 
 verb or an adjective. An argument whereto I made a sufficient re- 
 ply. 
 
 When direct, the object of address is always a word-form. 
 
 Come, gentle May. Hail, Holy Light ! Watchman, tell us of the night. 
 
 (2.) The Phrase-form (adverb-term) usually has the preposi- 
 tion to, unto, or with; with words of asking, of ov from. 
 
 I* was revealed <o A »wi ; sing unto the Lord; proclaimed to the people; in- 
 quired of us; requested of me; will reply to that; whom we spoke to; conferred 
 with vie. 
 
 So ylc?;.-term3. A signaHo the enemy ; the epistle to the Romans; a proc- 
 lamation to the soldiers; made a request of me. 
 
176 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 (3.) The preposition is sometimes separated from its object and 
 sometimes omitted. 
 
 Will write you a letter; told him a story ; asked me when you came ; whom 
 did tie talk to. 
 
 (4.) The Clause-form is a relative adjunctive clause. 
 Spoke to whoever would listen. Replied to what had been said ; writes to who- 
 ever will read his letters. 
 
 5. Mixed Forms. (1.) This element often involves the Object 
 of Association. In this case the prepositions with^ before, and among 
 are used. The adverb together may be ustd alone. 
 
 Declare these ihing^ among the people ; we talked together (i. e., to one a?*- 
 other) ; lectured before our society. 
 
 (2.) It is also combined as subordinate with Object of Interest. 
 He scolded at me ; railed at me. 
 
 Exercise 62. 
 
 Do the same work as before. 
 
 XLLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 Spoke to me. 
 
 To me is an Adv.-T., and denotes the Obj. of Add. 
 
 Said this to me. 
 
 This is a N.-T., and denotes the Dir. Suf. Obj. To me is an Adv.-T., and 
 denotes the Obj. of Add. 
 
 A signal to the enemy. 
 To the enemy is an Adj.-T., and denotes the Obj. of Add. 
 
 An announcement of good news to the soldiers. 
 Of good news IS, 2in Adj.-T,, and denotes the Dir. Suf. Obj. (= the announ- 
 eing good news). To the soldiers is an Adj.-T., and denotes the Obj. of Add. 
 
 He was written to. 
 He is apparent Subj.,— real Subj. is not expressed. To he {— him) is an 
 Adv.-T., and denotes Obj. of Add. 
 
 I. Spoke to us ; a speech to them ; speaking to tliem ; spoke the 
 truth ; a speaker of the truth ; a truth-teller ; a teller of lies ; tells us 
 lies. 
 
 II. Spoke to James ; requested of James to come; said, "Come, 
 James"; James, come; asked that James would come; struck 
 James; told James all the news; James was spoken to. 
 
THE NOUN-TERM AS OBJECT. 177 
 
 III. Promised him that he would come. Asked him who had 
 come. Wrote him what had happened. Explained to him how it 
 was done. Denied him the request. Denied him money. Made a 
 sign to him what to do. A talk with you; a letter to me ; an oration 
 to the people. 
 
 IV. 1. The gods were said to communicate with men. 2. The 
 soldiers slew whoever conferred with the enemy. 3. David subdued 
 the Philistines and the Moabites. 4. Nero is said to have burned 
 Rome. 5. Socrates taught the Athenian youth many beautiful .les- 
 sons of morality. 6. The Indians used bows and arrows. 7. Jupi- 
 ter had many temples. 8. A proclamation was made to all the peo- 
 ple. 9! We saw the soldiers retreating. 10. Declare liis glory 
 among the heathen. 11. Then said Jonathan unto David, " What- 
 soever thy soul desireth, I will do." 12. Will read the writing unto 
 the king. — Bible. 13. O, thou king, make known unto me the inter- 
 pretation thereof. — Id. 14. Then said he unto me, '* Prophesy 
 unto the wind." — Id. 15. I hardly exchanged a word with any 
 human being. — Macaulay. , 
 
 Section II. — The Object of Attention. 
 
 46. The Object of Attention is that about which any- 
 thing is thought, felt, or in any way communicated. It is 
 found with words of mental state and action, and of 
 communication of thought (11, 1). 
 |K Talked of you; spoke of what you said. 
 
 1. Remoter forms of the Object of Attention occur 
 not unfrequently in cases such as the following : — 
 
 He alluded to that matter (= spoke of, nearly). 
 So, He referred to the war in the course of his remarks. Refer- 
 ence was made to his (= him) having failed in business. 
 
 2. Construction. •(!.) The Word-form is an adjective, a 
 demonstrative, or relative adverb. 
 
 Thou shalt meditate therein. — Bible. This new doctrine whereof thou 
 ppeakest. — Id. A mathematical treatise (= treatise on mathematics), a politi- 
 cal discussion (= a discussion on politics), historical work ( = a work on his- 
 tory). 
 
 (3.) The Phrase-form (adverb-term) involves a large number of 
 prepositions. Thus, in the less emphatic forms, of is comrnonly used, 
 12 
 
178 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 but about, on, upon, concerning, regarding, respecting, in regard to, as 
 *'egards, as to, touching, after, and some others, are likewise oftea 
 used. 
 
 Spoke of this; talked oiouf me ; irAai he talked about; lectures on science; 
 what did he speak of; will write upon the war; inquire after one's health. 
 
 So Adj. -terms. A. story about dogs ; a discourse on music; a work onagri- 
 culture. 
 
 (4.) The Clause-form is either a relative or a participial clause, 
 and always adjunctive. 
 
 Reasons aboui whatever phases him; talks on whatever pUases him ; lectures 
 on what we wish to htar. 
 
 Spoke about something being done at once. Told about your {= yony getting 
 lost in the streets of Boston. 
 
 So AdJ.-iervis. A discussion on what should be done. The question as to 
 how one shall succeed. The news about the enemy having been defeated. 
 
 3. Cautions. (1.) This object must be carefully distinguished 
 from the Direct Object, Partial Action-form (43, 1). The Object 
 of Attention, it must be remembered, is always found with words 
 of mental action, or emotion, or those expressing communication of 
 thought; the Obj. of Partial Action never. Thus: — 
 
 Speak of, talk of, think of, hear of etc., take Obj. of Att. ; taste of, partake 
 of, eat of, etc., take Obj. Part. Act. 
 
 (2.) The Direct Suffering Object, when a phrase-form with of 
 (43, 2), must not be confounded with the Object of Attention. 
 
 Never knew of his being angry (= him to be angry). Have heard of his 
 being angry sometimes {=^ that he was, etc.). Will not permit of this being 
 done (= this to be done). Spoke of soldiers having been stationed there (= said 
 that soldiers, etc.). Dir. Suf. Obj.-forms. 
 
 Knows nothing of this matter; have heard of this thing ; spoke of the soldiers 
 stationed there. Obj. Att. 
 
 4. Mixed Forms. This element may involve, — 
 (1.) Causal Object (52, 6 (1)). 
 
 Complained about his loss (= about and at). Att. and Causal. 
 
 (2.) Designation (61, 13, 1). 
 
 The story about Jack the Giant Killer. Att. and Desig. A story about Jack 
 the Giant Killer. Att. only. 
 
 (3.) Description. This combination occurs chiefly in the semi-par- 
 ticipial form (13, 10). 
 
 Talked about this disease being very prevalent. Att. Talked about this disease 
 AS being very prevalent. Att. and Descrip. 
 
THE NOUN-TERM AS OBJECT. 179 
 
 (4.) Specification (127, 10 (1)). 
 Am well informed about business matters (= about and in respect to). 
 
 Exercise 63. 
 
 Do the same work as before. 
 
 illustration: 
 
 Spoke of what you said. 
 
 Of what you said is an Adv.-T., of Adjunc. Rel. C.-f., and denotes the Obj. of 
 ^tt. 
 
 Shalt meditate therein. 
 
 Therein, is an Adv.-T. of S, W.-f., and denotes Obj. of Att. 
 Lectured to us on science. 
 
 To us is an Adv.-T. of S. P.-f., and denotes Obj. of Add. On science is an 
 Adv.-T. of S. P.-f., and denotes Obj. Att. 
 
 A school question. 
 
 School is an Adj.-T. of S. W.-f., and denotes Obj. of Att. (= a question about 
 schools). 
 
 Spoke of his defeat. 
 
 Of his defeat is an Adv.-T. of Cx. P.-f., and denotes Obj. Att. His is an Adj.- 
 T. of S. W.-f., and denotes Dir. Suf. Obj. (= the defeat of him = the defeat- 
 ing him). 
 
 I. Knew it; knew of it; knew of its (= it) being done; never 
 knew it to be done; never knew of its (= it) being done; knew 
 about its being done ; knew him; knew of him; knew of his having 
 failed ; knew that he had failed ; referred to the matter (13, 16 N.). 
 
 II. Heard of it; heard of his (=him) being drunk ; heard about 
 somebody being drunk ; heard that he was drunk ; have heard of 
 him ; never heard anything bad of him ; never heard of such a thing 
 being done; never heard that such a thing had been done; never 
 thought of it ; never thought of his (== him) being a foreigner ; never 
 thought him to be a foreigner; never thought that he was a for- 
 eigner. 
 
 III. Have learned it ; have learned of it; he has learned of our 
 (=: us) coming; has learned that we have come ; has learned about 
 some one coming; objects to their (= them) coming; am sure of 
 this ; was not conscious of his being here. 
 
 IV. Spoke of him, to him; about him; spoke of several men hav- 
 
180 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 ing been killed ; this concerns him ; a remark concerning him ; in- 
 quired after him ; a word as regards him ; he respects me ; he said 
 respecting me. 
 
 V. A treatise on politics ; a political treatise; a valuable treatise ; 
 a treatise touching state affairs ; a treatise written on state affairs. 
 
 VL A discussion of science; the value of science; the study of 
 science ; the importance of science ; the love of science ; the glory of 
 science; am fond of science; am speaking of science; a learner of 
 science; learns science; a scientific question; a difficult question ; a 
 scientific discussion ; a logical discussion ; a legal discussion. 
 
 VI. 1. There is no mention of a single Christian having perished in 
 the siege of Jerusalem. — F. Robertson. 2. We cannot see what the 
 argument has to do with St. Paul going to Troas. — Id. 3. Where 
 does the Scripture speak of Judas not working out his own destiny ? 
 
 — Id. 4. We have no suggestions to offer as to how all this could 
 be done. — Id. 5. It is to this that the Psalmist refers. — Id. 6. A 
 question as to a leper being clean or unclean. — Id. 7. Speaks of 
 similar measures as being very common. — Lecky. 8. Some of the 
 ancients had a notion about fire being the portal of the unseen world. 
 
 — Id. 9. He insisted upon himself leading his horse to the stable. 
 
 — Carlyle. 10. The religious man feels as if they helped him. — 
 McCosh. 11. Inquire whether what we take to be law is really 
 moral law. — Id. 
 
 Section III. — The Object of Interest. 
 
 47. The Object of Interest is the thing for which or 
 the person for tvhom anything is done ; or the persons 
 or the things whose interests are in any way affected, 
 whether favorably or unfavorably. 
 
 Works for us ; useful to them /-hostile to our cause ; faithful to his 
 friends ; am indebted to you ; owes this to your kindness ; yields to the 
 rules ; submits to the law. 
 
 1. Remoter forms of Object of Interest are such as the 
 following : — 
 
 Conforms to his rmshes ; falls in with your plans; coincides with your 
 opinions ; am in sympathy with your belief,- agree with you ; disagree 
 with you; differ /rom you; am opposed to the movement ; object to this 
 being done; am not in favor of (8, 12) that being done. 
 
I 
 
 THE NOUN-TERM AS OBJECT. 181 
 
 Remark. It is this element which is commonly recognized in 
 classical grammars as the object of advantage or disadvantage. It is 
 found with nouns, verbs, adjectives, and other words denoting assist- 
 ance, henejit, favor, fidelity, convenience, safety, service, etc., and their 
 opposites. 
 
 2. Construction. (1.) The Word-form is a demonstrative, or 
 a relative adverb, or a possessive. 
 
 Useful thereto. Whereto it is especially advantageous; our benefit (= a ben- 
 efit to MS) ; our profit (= a profit to us). 
 
 (2.) The Phrase-form (adverb-term) has commonly the prepo- 
 sitions to, for, in, or in behalf of. The preposition is sometimes sep- 
 arated from its noun-term and sometimes omitted entirely. (8, 7 
 and 13.) 
 
 Lives/or his children; bring {to) me a book; hand {to) me a knife; spoke in 
 our behalf {&, 5); built {for) me a house ; preserve {to) you a posterity. — Bible. 
 Whom do you work /or? The man that Ilabored /or. Curse (/or> we this 
 people. — Bible. 
 
 So, Adjective-terms. Fidelity to him; hostility to us; a blessing to his race ; 
 an enemy to our enterprise. 
 
 (3.) The Clause-form is a relative or a participial clause, or 
 the same in the adjunctive form. 
 
 Works for whoever will pay him ; was opposed to their habitations being un- 
 protected. 
 
 So, Adjective-terms. An advantage to whoever will try it. A fatal objection 
 against mental philosophy being made a study. — Shairp. 
 
 3. Mixed Forms. This element often has in combination, — 
 ( 1 . ) Object of A ddress. 
 
 I will apologize to you for my conduct (= and for your satisfaction). 
 
 (2.) Object of Association. (48, 3 (2).) 
 
 Will fight with us { = and /or us); will fight against us; will contend on our 
 side ; the wolves made havoc among the jheep. 
 
 (3.) Object of Separation. 
 
 Deprived him of his money {i. e., and to his loss). Took his money from him 
 {i. e.y and to his injury). 
 
 (4.) Causal Object. (52, 4 (2).) 
 
 Was alarmed /o?" her child { = and in the interests of). 
 
 (5.) Purpose. (95, 4, 1.) 
 
 Fights/or his country { = and to defend). 
 (6.) Specification. (127, 7 (2).) 
 
 Could not recommend mental science /or the young ( = in the case of). 
 
182 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 (7.) SuhstUution. (131, 5 (2).) 
 I am here to speak /or my friend (= and injplace of). 
 
 EXEECISE 64. 
 Do the same work as before. 
 
 ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 Leave me your book on Taste. 
 
 3/e ( = for me) is an Adv.-T., of S. P.-f., and denotes Obj. Int Tour book 
 is a N.-T. of Cx. W.-f ., and denotes Dir. Suf. Obj. ; book is base, etc. On 
 taste is an Adj.-T. of S. P.-f., and denotes Obj. Att. 
 
 Talks to whoever will listen, on whatever interests him. 
 To whoever vnU listen is an Adv.-T., of Adjunc. Rel. C.-f., and denotes Obj. 
 Add. On whatever interests him is an Adv.-T., of Adjunc. Rel. C.-f., and de- 
 notes Obj. Att. ; him is a N.-T., S. W.-f., and denotes Dir. Suf. Obj. 
 
 I. Kind to us; speaks to us; agreeable to us; a word to us; a 
 favor to us ; a thought as to us; a present to us. 
 
 II. Handed me a letter; brought me a gift; asked me the news; 
 lent me a book; hired me a horse; begged me to come ; left me his 
 watch; told me his views; bought me a farm; efitreated me tore- 
 main; sold me his house ; read a book to me ; brought a book to me; 
 told the news to us; sent the news to us; promised us everything; 
 denied us nothing. 
 
 III. Works for whomsoever he pleases ; fatal to his being elected ; 
 an objection to the thing being done ; favorable to your promotion; 
 helpful to your being promoted (13, 16 N.). 
 
 IV. 1. Objects to anything being done. 2. It is to her that we 
 are so much obligated. 3. The objections against the system of the 
 world being what it is. — Robertson. 4. It has been asserted that 
 the gloom of his life was owing te his views of truth being unsatis- 
 factory to himself. — Life of Robertson. 5. It was for this earthly 
 paradise that nature had reserved her choicest forms. — Gibbon. 
 6. Michelet speaks of it as little among the thousands of Judah. — 
 McCosTi. 7. The phraseology about the phenomenon appearing and 
 being connected together. — Id. 8. Would answer no questions as 
 to how he got it. — Id. 9. Earnest inquirers into the nature of vir- 
 tue. — Id. 10. We might talk of a combination of gases, or of any 
 other corporeal substance, producing an idea. — Id. 11. Legends 
 tell us how the dragons came and bowed to him. — Dr. Farrar. 
 
THE NOUN-TERM AS 
 
 otjidjij 
 
 12. This work does not admit of (43, 4) mu 
 polemical divinity. — Ecce Deus. 
 
 Section IV. — The Object of Assodatimi: 
 
 48. This element expresses an association ot commin- 
 gling of persons or things, or a tendency or approximation 
 to the same. Though in no sense a local modifier (76), 
 it nevertheless often suggests an idea of place. It occurs 
 with words of Approaching and Meeting ; Uniting and 
 Joining; Intercourse and Union ; Combining and Mixing^ 
 and words of Motion generally. 
 
 1. CoNSTiiUCTiON. (1.) The Word-form is usually an adverb 
 or an adjective. 
 
 The things wherewith it was combined ; he was joined thereto ; united there- 
 ivith ; knit together. Went abne ; a solitary flight. Negative Association. 
 
 (2.) The Phrase-form involves a large number of prepositions; 
 the most common are about, above, amid, amoiig, at, before, behind, 
 below, beneath, beside, between, beyond, by, in, into, on, over, through, 
 to, under, unto, upon, with, within, etc. 
 
 The man before me ; was among them ; stood beside you ; js shut up to his own 
 thoughts ; within the circle of his friends. 
 
 So, Adj. -terms: Intercourse with the good; keeps company with the had; 
 walks with his children ; went toith his brother. 
 
 (3.) The Clause-form is, as elsewhere, a relative, or a particip- 
 ial clause, or the same in the adjunctive-form. 
 
 Associates vnth whoever befriends him. Putting this (dong with his having 
 failed in business. 
 
 2. Cautions. This element must be carefully distinguished from 
 place; whenever a real locality is indicated it is not the Object of 
 Association. Thus, — 
 
 Comes to the city (Place); came to his friends (Assoc). Stood behind the gate 
 (Place); stood behind me (Assoc). Lives among the mountains (Place); lives 
 among his friends (Assoc). 
 
 t3. Mixed Forms. This element may combine, as subordinate, 
 with, — 
 I (1.) Object of Address. (45, 5 (1).) 
 
184 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 • (2.) Object of Interest. 
 Fought with the English ; against the French ; on their side. 
 
 (3.) Agent. (94, 4, (1).) 
 Was greatly respected among the common people ( = by and among). 
 
 (4.) Purpose. (95, 4, (2).) 
 Was engaged in collecting taxes. 
 
 (5.) Means. (100, 4, (1).) 
 (6.) Specification. (127, 7, (3).) 
 He looks small beside them. 
 
 (7.) Addition. (132, 6.) 
 
 This man 0^17 with many others suffered martyrdom. 
 (8.) Concession. (113, 6, (1).) 
 
 He stood unmoved in ike presence of his deadliest enemies. 
 
 Exercise 65. 
 
 Point out all Subject and all Object terms and classify the latter. 
 
 ILLUSTKATIONS. 
 
 Says he will come to you and confer with you on the matter. 
 That (understood) — matter inclusive is a N.-T., of the Dem. C.-f. To you 
 is an Adv.-T. of S. P.-f., and denotes Obj. Ass. With you is an Adv.-T. of S. 
 P.-f., and denotes Obj. Add. On that matter is an Adv.-T. of Cx. P.-f., and 
 denotes Obj. Att., etc. 
 
 Had communication with him as to what he meant. 
 With him is an Adv.-T. of S. P.-f., and denotes Obj. Add. As to what he 
 meant is an Adv.-T. of Adjunc Rel- C.-f., and denotes Obj. Att. 
 
 L Clings to me ; goes to me; went with me; speaks to me; looks 
 for me; talks of me; writes to me; writes about me; writes beside 
 me; communicates with me; walks with me. 
 
 IL Made a speech to us; for us; about us; among us; in the 
 midst of us; against us; in our behalf; in our midst (8, 5). 
 
 IIL Heard him; heard of him; heard for him; heard about him; 
 he was heard ; he was heard of. 
 
 IV. Corresponds with us; lives with us; communicates with us; 
 stays with us; speaks with us; works with us; talks with us; plays 
 mth us; mingles with us; converses with us; associates with us. 
 
THE NOUN-TERM AS OBJECT. 185 
 
 V. 1. A hand thrust into the wound finishes what Simeon so 
 well began. — Ecce Deus. 2. Uninformed as to what the kingdom 
 of heaven is to be. 3. Our reader hears at last of victory being' 
 gained. — Macaulay. 4. Ask of me whatsoever thou wilt and I will 
 give it thee. — Bible. 5. She said unto her mother, What shall I 
 ask? — Id. 6. Reports were circulated regarding him. 7. Another 
 remark respecting these men being false witnesses is that St. Paul 
 must have been a false declarer of the truth. — F. Robertson. 8. The 
 original cause of the Christian history being believed. — Paley. 
 
 Section V. — The Object of Separatum, 
 
 49. This element is the exact opposite of the Object 
 of Association. It expresses dissociation^ disunion., dis- 
 severation, disintegration. Like Association it also often 
 suggests the idea of place, but never properly indicates 
 locality. It is found with words denoting failurS and 
 want; those of depriving and freeing ; abstaining and 
 separating ; excluding and disjoining ; removing and ex- 
 pelling.^ etc. 
 
 1. Construction. (1.) The Word-form is an adverb or an 
 adjective-term. 
 
 Was expelled therefrom ; therefrom he was driven. 
 
 (2.) The Phrase-form has commonly the prepositions o/, /rom, 
 without, and occasionally others. 
 
 Has gone /rom us; is iree from fear ; stripped o/" Ais ornaments; is without 
 friends ; free from care. So Adj. -forma. Freedom from sickness ; removal 
 from office. 
 
 (3.) The Clause-form is, as before, a relative or a participial 
 clause, or the same in the adjunctive form. 
 'Free from whatever encumbers me; asideyrom this being the fact. 
 
 2. Mixed Forms. The Object of Separation often involves Ob- 
 ject of Interest. 
 
 Took the shepherd yrow the sheep (i. e., and to their loss). Alienated all his 
 irlenda from him {i. e., to their detriment). 
 
186 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 EXEBCISB Q6. 
 Do the same work as he/ore, 
 
 ILLUSTKATIONS. 
 
 Stripped of all his possessions. 
 
 Of all his possessions is an Adv.-T. of Cx. P.-f., denoting Obj. Sep., of which 
 of possessions is B., etc. 
 
 Is free from whatever corrupts one's morals. 
 From— morals inclusive is an Adv.-T. of Adjunc. Rel. C.-f., and denotes 
 Obj. Sep. One's morals is a N.-T. of Cx. W.-f., and denotes Dir. Suf. Obj. 
 
 I. Went from them; went to them; went for them; went among 
 them; went against them; went behind them; went in behalf of 
 them ; went before them ; for the sake of them. 
 
 n. Divested himself of his glory ; could not be broken of (= from) 
 his old habits; trees are stripped of leaves; bereft of his friends; 
 devoted to his friends ; removed from us ; has come among us; aside 
 from us; went from us; came to us; confers with us. 
 
 III. 1. Cincinnatus was called from the plow. 2. Cleanse thou 
 me from secret faults. 3. They rest from their labors, and their 
 works do follow them. 4. It was purified from what appears to be 
 its real faults. 5. He and his posterity were excluded from the suc- 
 cession. 6. Ferdinand YII. was released from his thraldom and re- 
 stored to the plenitude of his power. 7. "V^^lo was the author of Ju- 
 nius's letters is not known. 8. God tempers the wind to the shorn 
 Iamb. 9. Suspicion and distrust are the greatest enemies to friend- 
 ship. 10. They were sure of his having been the murderer. 
 
 IV. 1. It is in connection with these associations that mention is 
 made of one Zenodorus. — Lewes. 2. The new clamor that has been 
 raised about new religions being founded on miracles. — Alexander. 
 3. Lay such a stress upon the gift being new. — Bobertson. 4. The 
 remarkable spectacle of a Christianity existing together with a disbe- 
 Uef in miracles. — Jd. 5. Cannot prevent poor images and impres- 
 sions passing through our minds. — Darwin. G. It is no argument 
 against savage man being a social animal that tribes inhabiting ad- 
 jacent districts are always making war with each other (one another) 
 .— Id. 7. It is to this that I request the reader's attention. 
 
THE NOUN-TERM AS OBJECT. 187 
 
 Section VI. — The Indirect Object. (^Continued.) 
 60. The Indirect Object often has the form of the 
 Dh-ect Object. (Compare 42, 1, 2, and 3.) Thus, — 
 (1.) Address (45). 
 
 Addressed the people; signaled the enemy; informed us; ac- 
 quainted them with the matter; notified him; advised him; com- 
 manded the soldiers to advance. So with the words, order, bid^ 
 charge, direct, etc. 
 
 (2.) Attention (46). 
 
 Talks science ; talks politics ; handled the matter well ; discussed 
 woman'' s rights. 
 
 (3.) Interest (47). 
 
 Aids me ; arrests him ; helps us ; harms m5 ; favors them. So with 
 the words, relieve, succor, befriend, oblige, accommodate, stand by 
 (23, 2). 
 
 (4.) Association (48). 
 
 Joins MS ; mingles these things ; approaches me ; connects the two , 
 entwines the tendrils, etc. 
 
 (5.) Separation (49). 
 
 Disjoin them ; separate these things ; unweave the threads. So, disen- 
 tangle, unravel, untwist, unloose, divide, sever, etc. 
 
 1. Cautions. Do not confound direct and indirect objects. 
 When a preposition is sometimes expressed and sometimes omitted 
 in a given case, or when the mind spontaneously supplies a relation 
 term, the object must be considered as indirect. 
 
 Taught Mm this = taught this to him, in which form the preposition could 
 not be omitted. 
 
 So, Wrote him a letter = wrote a letter to him; asked him a favor = asked 
 a favor of ^m. Ind. Objects. 
 
 2. Emphatic Forms. These modifiers, when placed before the 
 verb, become emphatic. 
 
 To him we speak ; these he addressed; us he commands ; from you we go; of 
 you he said not a word. 
 
 3. Here the it construction is often used, and always with force in 
 the way of emphasis. 
 
 It was to him that I spoke; or, To him it was that I spoke. It was about you 
 ^hat we were talking; or About you it was that we were talking. 
 
 It is^br this that I labor; to you it is that I come; it is o» astronomy that he 
 lectures, etc. 
 
188 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 Exercise 67. 
 
 Point out all objeclivetnodifiers, direct and indirect. 
 
 I. Talked politics ; talked to me ; talked about me ; told me ; told 
 this; told of it; told all about it; told of you. 
 
 II. Helped us; helpful to us; favored us ; is favorable to us ; joined 
 us; joined himself to us; harmed us; is harmful to us; argued the 
 matter; argued on the matter; separated the two; separated him- 
 self from them. 
 
 III. It was to them that he spoke; it is on this that I shall write 
 it is with you that we shall associate; it is for you that I labor; this 
 it is that we shall speak of; what was it that you referred to? 
 
 IV. The man that he spoke to; do not know whom he spoke to; 
 such as he associates with; knows what he is talking about; told 
 whom he was working for ; those men that you live with ; the per- 
 sons that we live among; asked what you should lecture on ; such 
 books as I never met with ; talked about what you were speaking of ; 
 spoke of what you alluded to. 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 THE FACTITIVE OBJECT. 
 
 61. The Factitive Object is the product or effect of 
 the act of the verb. Unlike the suffering object it may 
 limit either transitive or intransitive verbs. 
 
 Built a house; dug a ditch; made an^opening ; invented a ma- 
 chine ; wrote a hook ; cut a piece ; grew a man ; was named John ; 
 was sentenced to death, 
 
 1. With intransitive verbs it sometimes merely repeats 
 the meaning of the verb. This is called its Iterative 
 form. 
 
 Swear an oath; speak a word ; fight a battle ; go a journey ; stiike 
 a blow. 
 
 2. In this iterative form, it is frequently a word of 
 kindred for m^ as well as of similar meaning. 
 
 Blow a blast ; run a race ; die a death ; see a sight ; fight the good 
 fight; rejoice with, great Joy, etc. 
 
I 
 
 THE NOUN-TERM AS OBJECT. 189 
 
 3. The Iterative form occurs frequently in certain 
 idiomatic and special constructions to indicate quantity^ 
 price, value, merit, and crime, etc. • 
 
 It weighs a pound (i. e., a pound is the weight, hence iterative) ; 
 measures a yard; numbers a hundred ; is apprized at ten dollars ; is 
 valued at Jive cents; was condemned to imprisonment for life; was 
 sentenced to be hanged ; was charged with theft. 
 
 4. The Factitive Object often expresses the result of 
 opinion, inquiry, investigation, or hearsay, whether true 
 or false. . 
 
 Was regarded as learned; was looked upon as accomplished ; was 
 taken for an enemy ; this passes for good money ; he passes for 
 smart ; was deemed a hypocrite. 
 
 5. The Factitive Object is found with many verbs used 
 idiomatically. 
 
 Take fire ; take aim ; take cold ; bear stvay ; cast a shade ; make 
 use ; take notice ; struck unih blindness ; come to blows ; smitten with 
 palsy. 
 
 6. The Factitive Object is often found in connection 
 with a Suffering Object. 
 
 Name him John ; struck me a blow ; cut him a piece ; asked him a 
 question ; sung him a song ; painted his house white. (See 43-47.) 
 
 So, also, the Degree form of the Fact. Obj. (120, 
 4 (1)). 
 
 Sung himself hoarse; worked himself weary ; froze the cloth stiff; 
 heated the iron red, rocked himself asleep; planed the Doard 
 smooth. 
 
 7. Construction. (1.) The Word-form is commonly a noun- 
 term, as above, and occurs very often. It is also not infrequently 
 an adjective. 
 
 The water became wine ; he died a good death ; painted white ; was colored 
 blue. 
 
 (2.) The Word-form is often conjunctive with as. 
 
 Regarded him as a friend; looked upon him as my enemy; he was refjarded 
 
190 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 (3.) The Phrase-form (an advecb-term) has usually the prepo- 
 fiitions ?o, m, into, and sometimes ybr and with. 
 
 Cut to pieces; rent in tlkiin; three joined in one; divided into parts; tumble 
 into ruin; engr&yed. with Jigures; -was charged with theft ; was apprized at ten 
 dollars; was held at jive guineas; took himyor his brother; so, ^(^'.-terms. The 
 invention of printing; the manufacture of doth ; development into life. 
 
 (4.) The word and the phrase form sometimes seem hardly to dif- 
 fer in force. Compare 43, 2 (2). 
 
 Died a happy death = died with a happy death. Blew a loud blast = blew 
 •oith a loud blast, etc. 
 
 (5.) Here, also, phrase-forms are sometimes of the nature of 
 direct Factitive Objects (43, 2 (2)). 
 
 Dream of something (= dream something). Dreamed of falling {= that he 
 fell). 
 
 (6.) The Clause-form may be any one of the five clause-forms, 
 except only the conjunctive. 
 
 Made him (to) go ; caused the thing to be done ; thought that he shoidd speak ; 
 invented what everybody admired. 
 
 So, Adj.-terms. The expectation thai he would come. The command ^or thi 
 army to murch. 
 
 (7.) Cautions. (1.) A Suffering and a Factitive Object fol- 
 lowing a verb (51, 6) must not be confounded with infinitive clause- 
 forms when the copula is omitted (12, 17). Thus: — 
 
 Made him'k.ing. Here him is not the rea? object of made (12, 24). Such 
 clearly is not the sense. The meaning is, made him to be king. 
 
 So, made the stick straight ; created her queen; esteemed him wise; imagined 
 us innocent. 
 
 (2.) Distinguish carefully such forms as the following: — 
 
 (a.) Thought him my friend. Inf. CI. (6.) Regarded him as my fnend. 
 W.-f, (c.) Considered him wise. Inf. CI. (d.) Considered him as wise. W.-f. 
 (e.) Esteem such as he. Rel. CI. (f) He was thought to be wise. Inf. CI. 
 ig.) He was regarded a5 icise. W.-f. (h.) He was considered wise. Inf. CI. 
 (f.) He was considered as wise. W.-f. 
 
 In the above, all italicized terms, except in (e), (/), and (h), are Factitive 
 Objects, — (e) is an Adj.-T., and (/) and {h) are subject terms (12, 12), facti- 
 tive in notion, 41, (3). 
 
 (3.) The Factitive Object, when of the clause-form, must be care- 
 fully distinguished from the Suffering Object. Remember that fac- 
 titive objects have no existence, in the form indicated, prior to the 
 action expressed by the principal verb. Hence, the expression of 
 
THE NOUN-TERM AS OBJECT. 191 
 
 any existing fact is suffering object; but the wording of one's 
 thought is something neWj and therefore factitive. So, all imperative 
 clauses, since they all create an obligation ^34, 2), are obviously 
 factitive. 
 
 Told what you said. Suf. Obj. Thought that he should say something. Fact. 
 Obj. Said that you had come. Suf. Obj. Thought that you might come. Fact. 
 Obj. CoiisideTed what you said. Suf. Obj. Considered himself iniined. Fact. 
 Obj. Said that he had gone. Suf. Obj. Ordered that he should go. Fact. Obj. 
 Ordered him to be sent. Fact. Obj. Thought that he ought to go. Fact. Obj. 
 Obliged him to go. Fact. Obj. Found that he was going. Suf. Obj. Knew o/ 
 his (= him) going. Suf. Obj. The command for him to go. Fact. Obj. (App. 
 form). 
 
 8. Mixed Forms. The Factitive Object often involves the adverb- 
 ial element of Degree (120, 4, (1)). Here the Word-form is com- 
 monly adjective. 
 
 Bleached white (= to whiteness); frozen • sfi/f (= to stiffness); planed smooth 
 (= to smoothness). So, vrrung dry ; stretched straight ; hsLUxmered thin ; shut 
 tight; washed c/eaw ; polished bright ; he&ted hot. 
 
 The phrase-form of the above is common. 
 
 BsLshed to atoms ; heated to redness; sharpened to a point; frozen to death; 
 broken into a thousand pieces ; reduced to nothing. 
 
 Ex:eKCiSE 67. 
 
 L^ Do the same work as lefore. 
 
 ^ Wash me white as snow. 
 
 Me is a N.-T. of S. W.-f. and denotes Dir. Suf. Obj. 
 
 White as snow is an Adj.-T. of Cx. W.-f., and denotes Fact. Obj., of which 
 white is B. and mod. by rem., etc. 
 
 Called him learned. 
 Him is a N.-T. of S. W.-f., and denotes Dir. Suf. Obj. 
 Learned is an Adj.-T. of S. W.-f., and denotes Fact. Obj. 
 
 Wrung the cloth dry. 
 The cloth is a N.-T. of Cx. W.-f., and denotes Dir. Suf. Obj. 
 Dry is an Adv.-T. of S. W.-f., and denotes Fact. Obj. with Degree. 
 
 Thou2;ht that he was right. 
 That he was right is a N.-T. of Dem. C-f., and denotes Fact. Obj. 
 
 I. Digs stones; digs holes; digs forme; digs with me; digs be- 
 side me. 
 JI. Cut an opening; cut a board ; cut a caper; cut my ac<iuaint- 
 
192 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 ance; cut a figure ; cut wood; cut chips; cut his hand; cut a gash ; 
 cut the log to pieces ; cut a hole for me ; cut the cord in two. 
 
 in. Made a remark 4 made money; made me a present ; made me 
 captain ; made him an offer ; made him a slave ; made them a house; 
 made tbem unhappy; made us a carriage; made us friends; made 
 us as enemies. 
 
 IV. Took aim ; took food ; took the hint ; took my hand ; took 
 cold ; took a fever ; took his leave ; took my money. 
 
 V. Washed the street ; washed a gully ; washed the linen white ; 
 washed his face clean. 
 
 VI. Painted the canvas ; painted a portrait ; painted my father ; 
 painted the White Mountains ; painted a landscape ; the canvas was 
 painted with my brush ; the canvas was painted with a beautiful 
 portrait. 
 
 VII. The invention of printing ; love of printing ; spoke of print- 
 ing ; help to printing ; has knowledge of printing. 
 
 Vni. The discovery of America ; the manufacture of powder ; 
 the production of flowers ; the destruction of flowers. 
 
 IX. Shot the man dead ; shot the dead man ; pumped the well dry; 
 pumped the dry well ; painted the house white ; painted tbe white 
 house ; heated the iron hot ; heated the hot iron hotter. 
 
 X. Heated the iron to redness ; dashed the cup to atoms ; washed 
 the cloth to whiteness. 
 
 XI. 1. A small spark makes a great fire. 2. Empty vessels make 
 the greatest sound. 3. Cherish the buds of virtue and they will 
 blossom into benevolence. 4. He who promises runs in debt. S.Eg- 
 bert, the first King of Wessex, united the seven Saxon Kingdoms, 
 called the Heptarchy, into one monarchy. 6. Henry VII. taught 
 the peaceful arts of civilized life to a warlike and turbulent people. 
 7. Repeat not among strangers what you hear among friends. 
 
 8 Just to sit, 
 
 And watch the morning quicken in the gray, 
 
 And hear the' silence open like a flower. — Mrs. Broivning. 
 
 9 But a wife 
 
 Will put all right and stroke his temples cool. — Id. 
 
 The still house seemed to shriek itself alive. — Id. 
 
THE NOUN-TERM AS OBJECT. 193 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 THE CAUSAL OBJECT. 
 
 52. The Causal Object is that which is the true excit- 
 ing cause of the action or state indicated by the verb, and 
 which at the same time completes the meaning of the 
 same verb. It tl^us differs very essentially in logical 
 character from the Suffering Object and the Factitive 
 Object. It always occurs with words of mental state, 
 feeling^ or emotion (11, 1). 
 
 Laments his death ; wept his departxire ; mourns our loss. 
 
 1. Words of Physical Sensation often take after them 
 the Causal Object. The senses are sometimes involun- 
 tary and passive^ i. e., acted upon hy external objects, 
 sometimes voluntary and active, acting upon the same. 
 In the former case the object is, of course, causal ; in the 
 latter suffering (43). 
 
 Tastes it (Causal) ; will taste of it (Suf.) ; smells it (Causal) ; will 
 smell of it (Suf.) ; feels it (Causal) ; will feel of it (Suf.) ; hears it 
 (Causal) ; will listen to it (Suf.). 
 
 So similarly some words of Mental State and Action. 
 
 Did not think of it (i. e., it did not occur to me), Causal; was 
 thinking of it (i. e., ray mind was dwelling upon it), Suf. 
 
 I remembered the circumstance (i. c, it came into my mind, or oc- 
 curred to me), Causal ; I recalled the circumstance (i. e., I brought it 
 to myself by a direct mental act), Suf. 
 
 2. Some other forms, closely reseinbling the above, 
 have not the same logical character. Thus there seems 
 to be almost no difference of meaning between know it 
 and know of it : dreamed it, and dreamed of it ; the word 
 and the phrase-form alike indicating the Direct Suffer- 
 ing Object (43, (2)). 
 
 Remark. In the classics, especially in the Greek, these causal 
 13 
 
 k 
 
194 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 objects are distinctly recognized as such, and sptcial constructions, 
 appropriate to their causal character, assigned them. 
 
 3. Construction. (1.) The Word-form is less common than 
 the phrase and clause forms and is usually a noun, or an infinitive. 
 
 Am Sony to leave you ; am glad to see you ; delights to do good ; laments his 
 fate. 
 
 (2.) The Phrase-]^orm has the prepositions in, at, abouty with, 
 for, by, over, upon, and some others. 
 
 Rejoices at your success ; glories in their advancement ; grieves o»er his mis- 
 fortunes. 
 
 So, the Adj. -Xermi: Exultation at his success; laughter at his eccentricity ; 
 amazement at the sight ; sadness at your loss. 
 
 (3.) The Clause-form may be demonstrative, participial, or 
 relative. 
 
 Rejoices that you were successful ; rejoices at your (= you) having been suc- 
 cessful; was pleased at what he said. 
 
 (4.) Mixed Forms. This element sometimes involves, — 
 
 (1.) OhJ. of Attention. This combination occurs only with words 
 
 denoting Communication of Thought, and involving at the same time 
 
 Mental Feeling and Emotion. 
 
 Complains of his treatment (= at and about). Murmured at his disappoint- 
 ment {= at and about). Grumbled at my promotion (= at and about). 
 
 So, rejoices over his victoines ; exults at their defeat ; whines at his lot ; be- 
 moans his great loss. (46, 4, (1).) 
 
 (2.) Obj. of Interest. (47, 3 (4).) 
 Am anxious ybr his safety ; am sorry ybr you. 
 
 Exercise 68. 
 
 Do the same work as before. 
 
 ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 Am glad to meet you. 
 
 To meet you is an Adv.-T. of Cx. "W.-f ., and denotes Causal Obj., of which 
 to meet is B. and mod., etc. 
 
 I. Laughed at me; ran at me; grumbles at me. 
 IL Glories in success; rejoices in his prosperity; delights in music. 
 III. Concerned for his money; labors with his friends; took him 
 for you. 
 
THE QUALIFYING ADJECTIVE. 195 
 
 IV. Jealous of his friends ; fond of his friends ; talks of his friends; 
 boasts of his friends; admirer of his friends; ashamed of his friends. 
 
 V. Is vexed with you ; is in love with you ; works with you ; sports 
 with you; converses with you ; died with a happy death; was struck 
 with consternation. 
 
 VI. 1. The process by which nations were being fused into one 
 universal society. — Ecce Deus. 2. A number of nations had been 
 forced into a sort of unity. — Id. 3. To pr^ent it all falling into 
 fragments. 4. Burns has been called the peasant poet. 5. I feel no 
 pain, at the idea of that which has belonged to me being profaned. 
 
 — Robertson. 6. It is clear that he was very much shocked at a 
 charge of murder being converted into one which only imputes unbe- 
 lief. — Id. 7. War was gradually improved into an art and degraded 
 into a trade. — Gibbon. 8. The cavalry was divided into ten 
 troops. — Id. Account for (23, 2) so many of his sayings being 
 found amongst their pages. 9. Brought to the Catholic church many 
 of those persons who disparage whatever church they may belong to. 
 
 — Southey. 10. To acquaint working-men with the fact of a new 
 association being formed. 
 
 DIVISION ill. 
 
 THE ADJECTIVE-TERM. 
 
 SUB-DIVISION \. — THE QUALIFYING ADJECTIVE, 
 
 63. The Adjective-term, as such, can be used only as 
 the modifier of a noun-term (22). When the comple- 
 ment of a verb-term, it becomes linked to the same, as 
 an essential part of it., and must be so considered. 
 
 1. Adjective elements may be divided into two gen- 
 ( ral classes : 
 
 The Qualifying or Descriptive Adjective. 
 
 The Limiting or Circumstantial Adjective, 
 
 Note. It should be noted, in the analysis of all complex terms, 
 that the base determines the logical character of an element. No 
 
196 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 matter how complex the term, it must be classed as a whole according 
 to the logical classification of the base. 
 
 A work ofetry great excellence ; trees ./J/Xy feet high ; a well forty feet 
 DEEP (Adjective-terms of Quality). 
 
 Traveled as far as his strength would allow; works chiefly with his pen. 
 (Adverb-terms of Time and of Means). 
 
 In the case of some idiomatic or anomalous forms, there seems to 
 be an exception to this rule. 
 
 Trees of fifty feet in height. Here the modifying term in height, and not 
 the base, of fifty feet, determines the logical character of the element as a whole. 
 The sense is precisely the same as if written, TvdQS fifty feet high, and the ele- 
 ment, in each case, is as a whole Physical Quality. 
 
 So, A man offoi'ty years of age. The element as a whole is Quality and not 
 Measure of Magnitude (121). 
 
 Lives yary^'cwi the sea. The element is Place where and not whence. So, 
 also, Came within a mile of {= from) the toion. Space How far. 
 
 The base of an element does not always make complete sense, 
 apart from its modifier. In such cases, however, it must still be re- 
 garded as the base. 
 
 A circle o/* (ten) feet in diameter. Lived (several years) ago. A tree (a 
 hundred feet) high. 
 
 54. The Qualifying Adjective expresses in the 
 main, — 
 
 (a.) Physical Qualities, 
 (6.) Mental Qualities. 
 (c.) State or Condition, 
 (f?.) Description G-enerally, 
 
 55. Physical Qualities. The physical qualities 
 of matter, to which reference is most frequently made, 
 are those pertaining to, — 
 
 a. Material qualities generally^ as, — 
 
 (1.) Extension. Long, sTiort, high, low, broad, deep, thick, thin, 
 etc. 
 
 (2.) Form. Square, round, spherical, oval, circular, ^t, rectangu^ 
 lar, etc. 
 
 (3.) Size. Large, small, diminutive, little, huge, immense, ponder- 
 ous, etc. 
 
 (4.) Density. Dense, solid, compact, porous, spongy, etc. 
 
THE QUALIFYING ApjECTIVE. 197 
 
 h. Those apprehended directly hy the Physical Senses^ 
 as those of — 
 
 (1.) Sight. White, Hack, dim, bright, red, yellow, green, shining, 
 beautiful. 
 
 (2.) Hearing. Sonorous, resonant, loud, clamorous, vociferous, 
 stunning, and the opposite of them. 
 
 (3.) Smell. Fragrant, balmy, aromatic, redolent, etc. 
 
 (4.) Taste. Sweet, sour, acid, acrid, pungent, salt, delicious, etc. 
 
 (5.) Feeling. Rough, hard, hot, sharp, etc., and the opposites 
 of them. 
 
 6Q. Mental Qualities. The intellectual character- 
 istics of objects of most common occurrence are those 
 which refer to — 
 
 (1.) Mental State 'ANd Action. Noble, prudent, skillful, 
 cautious, careful, etc. 
 
 (2.) Moral and Religious Affections. Right, just, virtuous, 
 pious, sacred, divine, etc. 
 
 (3.) Communication of Thought. Simple, distinct^ terse, 
 plain, clear, racy, etc. 
 
 1. Words, properly expressive of physical attributes, 
 are frequently used to indicate intellectual qualities. 
 Such words are then said to be used figuratively, 
 
 A Aarc/ heart; a sweei disposition; sound judgment; cZear insight ; 
 strong reasoning. 
 
 57. State and Condition. 1. Adjective Elements 
 expressive of State or Condition may refer either to mat- 
 ter or to mind. They may be readily distinguished, and 
 no classification is necessary. 
 
 A rich man ; those in good health ; found them in great despond- 
 ency ; a c/^eer/wZ disposition; a sac? heart. 
 
 2. Specific Character. Some forms, denoting in a 
 general way State or Condition, seem to express more 
 exactly what may be termed the specific cliaracter of an 
 object. These terms are commonly introduced by as, 
 used in the sense of in the form of in the character of, in 
 
198 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 the guise of^ in the way of^ in the manner of^ in the style 
 of^ in the sphere of^ etc. 
 
 The doctrine as taught hy the ancients is not now received. Those 
 men as philosophers were highly esteemed. Water as a vapor con- 
 stitutes what we call steam. 
 
 68. Description generally. All Adjective modi- 
 fiers not coming properly under any of the above classes 
 belong to this. 
 
 69. Sometimes the qualifying adjective indicates a 
 cofistarit quality of an object ; it is then called an Epi- 
 thet. In this form it has both a proper and a figurative 
 use. 
 
 The blue sky ; the salt ocean ; the ledjy grove ; yellow autumn 
 (Proper epithets). 
 
 Rills of oily eloquence. — Coicper. Iron war. Corrosive famine. 
 — Thompson. 
 
 Fair-handed spring; rosy-footed May; meek-eyed morn ; smiling 
 plenty; young-eyed health. — Thompson. (Figurative epithets.) 
 
 1. Occasionally this term is used for the purpose of 
 some late7it meaning, which it can be made to yield, 
 rather than for its obvious signification, which is im- 
 possible in the connection. It thus constitutes one form 
 of Epigram. 
 
 A name, a mortal immortality. — Young. Sullen joy; pious fraud; 
 soft anguish ; the charming agonies of love. — Thompson. 
 With pious sacrilege a grave I stole, 
 With impious piety that grave I wronged. — Dr. Young. 
 
 2. Construction. (1.) The Word-form of the qualifying ad- 
 jective is commonly an adjective proper. All parts of speech, how- 
 ever, are thus used (22, 3). It is often an appositive. 
 
 Red roses; running water; the slain king; a weak mind; Angelo, a painter^ 
 tctdptor, and architect. 
 
 Note. — Any of the above adjective elements may take the form 
 pf complement terms (23, 11). 
 
 Roses are red ; water is running; the king is slain; his mind ia weak, etc. * 
 
THE QUALIFYING ADJECTIVE. 199 
 
 (2.) The Phrase-form may have almost any preposition ; o/, 
 however, is most common. This form is never appositive. 
 
 Men of power ; rooms with spaciom windows; men in misery; men out of 
 misery. 
 
 (3.) It is worthy of note, that adjective-terms of the phrase-form, 
 when denoting physical • and mental qualities, generally take the 
 preposition q/*, but when indicating state or condition, they have 
 usually the prepositions m, at, or without. 
 
 A wall of great height ; a vosq of beautiful form ; aQowerof sweet fragrance ; 
 a man of great wisdom; a city in ruins; a man in distress ; a prisoner at lib- 
 erty ; a person vdthout sin. 
 
 (4.) The Clause-form is usually relative or participial. It is 
 never an appositive (22, 8). 
 
 A man who is intelligent. Birds which have beautiful plumage. 
 These theories as (they are) set forth by Darwin are inadmissible. These 
 doctrines as (they are) taught in the Bible are true. 
 
 3. Mixed Forms. The qualifying adjective may involve, — 
 (1.) Designation. A qualifying adjective very often j9omfs omZ the 
 
 species or the individual meant; that is, a quality is used to designate 
 
 a thing. 
 
 Harness the red horse; take good care of the sick lamb (here is cause also) ; 
 buy me a sweet apple. 
 
 But in, I bought a red horse ; we have a sick lamb ; we have stoeet apples, 
 etc., the adjective is only qualifying. 
 
 (2.) Cause. 
 
 Bad boys should be punished (i. e., because they are bad). So, Interesting. 
 books are sought after; men o/' /;rinaJ9Ze are trusted ; rich men are flattered; 
 the towns iohich were hostile were burned; the soldiers that showed themselves 
 brave were promoted. 
 
 (3.) Purpose. 
 
 Built a wall which should protect the city (i. e., such as might and that it 
 might); appointed a commission of five who should deliberate on the state of the 
 kingdom (i. e., to deliberate, etc.). 
 
 (4.) Con&equence. 
 
 Formed an alliance that proved injurious to himself (= such that, etc.); there 
 is not a man but knows right from wrong {of such a character that, etc.). (138, 
 
 (5.) Concession. 
 This man, who was both a thief and a liar, was permitted to retain his place. 
 
200 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 (6.) Specijica'.wn. 
 
 As an orator he was much admired. All loved him as a teacher (= in the 
 character of, or in the capacity of). • 
 
 Exercise 69. 
 
 Classify all objective and all qualifying adjective modifiers. 
 
 ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 Truths which are incomprehensible. 
 
 Which are incomprehensible is an Adj. -T. of Rel. C.-f., denoting Mental Qual- 
 ity (involving Consequence). 
 
 The wandering eye 
 Unfixed is in a verdant ocean lost. 
 Wandering is an Adj.-T. of S. W,-f., and denotes State or Cond. Unfixed is 
 an Adj.-T. of S. W.-f. and denotes State or Cond. In a rerdant ocean is an 
 Adv.-T. of Cx. P.-f., of which in ocean is B., and mod. by verdant, an Adj.-T. 
 of S. W.-f. Verdant ocean is an explaining Met. for green fields, of which ver- 
 dant is the explaining term. 
 
 I. Towers very high ; towers fifty feet high ; towers of fifty feet in 
 height. 
 
 II. Stones of a beautiful hue ; stones of the hue of the emerald ; 
 stones of diamond brightness ; stones of the brightness of diamonds. 
 
 III. Very broad rivers; rivers ten leagues broad; rivers ten leagues 
 in breadth; rivers of the breadth of ten leagues; rivers more broad 
 than deep ; rivers too shallow for navigation. 
 
 IV. Very talented men ; men of great talent ; men who are very 
 talented; men of the intellect of Plato; men of Plato's intellect; 
 men who are equal to Plato. 
 
 V. 1. The question which they discussed. 2. Clear reasoning on 
 the subject of reforms. 3. Saw light clouds of red and purple. 
 4. Large green angular blocks. 5. Happy, cheerful, and humor- 
 ous people. 6. Young, beautiful, and thoughtful children. 7. An 
 interesting discourse on the habits of Indians. 8. Was shocked 
 at the melancholy sight. 9. Has fallen to pieces. 10. Convenient 
 for you. 11. Transformed into a stone. 12. Thrown irito a fever. 
 13. Gave directions to the men. 14. Took hold of me (43, 3). 
 15. Has taken a severe cold. 
 
 VI. 1. Be not overjoyed at anything. 2. Violent fires soon burn 
 out. 3. Learning makes life sweet. 4. The soldiers made procla- 
 mation that they would sell the Empire to whoever would purchase 
 
THE LIMITING ADJECTIVE. 201 
 
 it. — Milman. 5. He who weeps for everybody soon loses his eye- 
 sight. 6. Folly is not long pleased with itself (52). 7. The wise 
 man kn^bws he knows nothing, the foolish man thinks he knows 
 everything. 8. The pitcher that goes often to the well comes home 
 broken (24, N.) at last. 
 
 SUB-DIVISION W. — THE LIMITING ADJECTIVE, 
 
 60. The Limiting Adjective may be divided into, — 
 (a.) Designation, 
 
 (5.) Connectioni 
 (tf.) Relationship, 
 (c?.) Inclusion, 
 (e.) Possession, 
 (/.) Number, 
 (jg.^ Quantity, 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 DESIGNATION. 
 
 61. Designation limits a generic term to a particular 
 class or individual. 
 
 T%is house ; this man; that man; I myself; the word home; what 
 man ; yonder man ; the State of Maine ; the City of Boston ; the 
 title of Hon. 
 
 The man whom I saw ; the place where I live ; the theme whereon 
 I spoke ; the report that I heard. 
 
 Construction. (1.) The Word-form is commonly the definite 
 article the^ a demonstrative adjective, — this, that, there, those, yon, 
 yonder ; or a relative adjective, lohich, what. 
 
 This book ; yonder scene ; which man ; what city. 
 
 (2.) The Word-form is often an appositive. 
 
 The city Rome ; the letter 8 ; the sign + ; the prefix de ; my man John, etc. 
 
 (3.) It is often conjunctive with av; and often introduced by viz., 
 namely, to wit, for example, etc. (22, 10.) 
 
 There are many virtues ; as, honesty, truthfulness, economy, etc. There are 
 two continents ; viz., the Eastern and the Western. ^ 
 
202 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 (4.) The word-form is frequently a possessive. 
 
 A pound's weight = the weight of a pound; an hour's time =: the time of an 
 kour. So, a. foot's length; a man's height; a ton's burden; a dollar's yforlh 
 (of sugar), etc. 
 
 (5.) The Phrase-form of this element is commonly an Apposi- 
 tive. In this form its use is quite extensive, Thus : — 
 
 The season of Spi<ng ; the month of June ; the hour of six, etc. 
 
 The quality of hardness ; the attribute of wisdom ; the property of ductility ; 
 the figure of a cone. 
 
 The sense of smell; the sensation of cold ; the organ of the eye ; the faculty 
 of memory, etc. 
 
 The distance of a mile ; the length of ten feet ; the depth of forty fathoms ; 
 the measure of one yard; a circumference of one mile. 
 
 The amount often dollars; the quantity of a bushel ; the weight of a pound ; 
 the area of an acre ; the extent of a mile. 
 
 The vice of inteinperance ; the virtue of patience; the sin of lying; the habit 
 of smoking; the custom of dnnking wine; the practice of fashionable calling. 
 
 The name of Bosphorus ; the t\\\^ of Pasha ; the epithet of coward; the nick- 
 name of Jo; tlie sign of plus ; the appellation of Defender of the Faith; the 
 cognomen of Julius; the figure of allegory ; the ^citncQ of Astronomy ; the color 
 of red. 
 
 The continGnt of America ; the gulf of Mexico ; the lake of Ontario ; the falls 
 of Niagara; the State of Maine ; the town of Concord; the straits of Dover: 
 the island of Cuba. 
 
 The crime of murder ; the sentence of death ; a fine often pounds; the pun- 
 ishment of exile. 
 
 So, also, often appositively and figuratively, compare (22, 15). 
 
 The sleep of death (i. c, death); the sabbath of old age (t. c, old age); the 
 sword of the spirit {i. e., the spirit).; the god of this loorld (i. e., this world); the 
 shield of faith (t. e., faith). 
 
 (6.) Non-appositive forms of this element are often found in con- 
 nection with the explaining metaphor. 
 
 The Venice of the North {i. e., Stockholm); the Michael Angelo of Germany 
 {i. e., Schinkel); the Scottish Virgil {i. e., Buchanan). 
 But not always, thus, — the Sage of Athens ; the Monk of Eisleben. 
 
 Remark. It is worthy of notice, that in some cases, mere usage 
 has determined whether the appositive shall be of the word or of the 
 phrase-form, and good English demands that there shall be no dcr 
 parture from the rule. Thus we always say: — 
 
 The city of London, the State of Maine, and the continent of America; but 
 we also invariably say, the river Rhine, the river Nile, the steamer Canonicus, 
 Ihe ship Constitution, etc. 
 
THE LIMITING ADJECTIVE. 203 
 
 (7.) The Clause-form may be any one of the five clauses. It 
 is often an appositive. 
 
 The fact that he came ; the command for him to come ; the fact of his having 
 come; the question whether he has come; the condition, namely, if he should 
 come. Such of them as were honest he promoted. 
 
 The /jrocccrfin^rs coOTTwcncec? against Protagoras; & price 5e£ upon the head of 
 Diogenes; the danger of Alcibiades; Aristotle obliged to fly ; Stilpo banished; 
 Anaxagorus hardly escaping death ; Pericles himself compelled to appear before 
 the tribunals and make his defense; a priestess executed for having introduced 
 strange gods ; Socrates condemned and drinking the hemlock ; thksk facts at- 
 test too loudly to be called in question, the religious intolerance of the most hu- 
 mane and enlightened people in Greece. — Milman. 
 
 8. (1.) Cautions. This element is especially liable to be con- 
 founded with many forms of the qualifying adjective. Where the 
 hase is modified by the article the or a demonstrative, this^ that, these, 
 those, an adjective-term following is commonly restrictive or limiting 
 and not descriptive or qualifying. 
 
 President Washington. Desig. Washington, the Father of his country. 
 Descrip. The cit}-^ q/'i^ome. Desig. Rome, the mistress of the world. Descrip. 
 
 The great senator, Webster. Desig. Webster, a great senator. Descrip. 
 The man that you saw. Desig. A man who is very intelligent. Descrip. 
 
 (2.) Do not confound ordinary and appositive forms. Remember 
 an appositive element as a whole means the same as the hase. Do 
 not mistake the antecedent of a relative merely for a base of a rela- 
 tive clause (22, 19). 
 
 The sin o/ Z^in^f. App. The sinfulness o/Zt/m^r. Non-App. The length o/" 
 a mile. App. The length q/'i^e roac?. Non-App. 
 
 The (\Vie?>i\on what is light. App. Tlh.Q qxxQ^Hon of what is light. App. The 
 talk about what light is. Non-App. 
 
 (3.) A term used figuratively may be followed by a phrase-form 
 iv'ith of, used, — 
 (a.) Appositively and expressing designation, 
 (b.) Non-appositively and expressing designation. 
 (c.) Non-appositively and expressing various adverbial elements. 
 
 These must be carefully distinguished. Thus: — 
 (a.) App. as Desig. 
 
 The stream of life {i. e., the stream, viz., life): the storm of war (t. «., the 
 storm, viz., war); the sleep of death (i. e., the sleep, viz., death), etc. 
 
 (b.) Non-App. as Desig. 
 
 The king of day (i. e., the sun); the lamps of heaven (». c, the stars); the 
 win brother of sleep (i. e., death). 
 
204 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 (c.) Non-App. as Adv.-T, 
 
 Veins of diamonds; the coasts of life. — Mrs. Brovming. The bankruptcy 
 of consciertce. — Lowell. 
 
 (4.) A qualifying adjective is sometimes used merely to deJiJie a 
 noun used metaphorically, and thus has rather a limiting than a quali- 
 fying force. 
 
 The fowery race (= flowers); the ^nny tribe (= fishes); the feathered song- 
 sters (= birds); the insect tribes (= insects). — Thompson. Nature's pleasant 
 robe of green. — Wordsworth. 
 
 9. Mixed Forms. Designation sometimes involves, — 
 
 (1.) Description. 
 
 The man thai we saw. Desig. A man who was finely dressed. Descrip. The 
 man who was finely dressed. Desig. and Desc. 
 
 (2.) Cause. 
 
 ' Them, who honor me, I will honor. 
 
 (3.) Condition or Hypothesis. 
 
 Who would be free, themselves must strike the blow. — Byron. (= Those 
 who would be free and if they would. ) 
 
 (4.) Concession. 
 
 Those men who had always been our foes now claimed our protection (•'. e. 
 though they had, etc.). 
 
 10. Designation may combine as subordinate with, — 
 (1.) Object of Attention (46, 4, (2)). 
 
 Read me Macaulay's essay on Milton. 
 
 (2.) Place. 
 I live in the house on the hiU. 
 
 (3.) Time. 
 The day after you came ; the last Monday in June. 
 
 Exercise 70. 
 
 Classify aU Objective and all Adjective Elements. 
 
 The appellation of the Just. 
 Of the Just is an App. Adj.-T. of the Cx. P.-f., and denotes Designation. 
 
 The fact of his having come. 
 
 Of his having come is an App. Adj.-T. of the Part. C.-f., and denotes Desig. 
 His IS the Subj. and the rem. is the Pred. 
 
THE LIMITING ADJECTIVE. 
 
 The sword of the spirit. 
 Of the spirit is an App. Adj.-T. of the Cx. P.-f., and de 
 Bword, viz., the* Spirit). Sword is a pure Metaphor. 
 
 The storm of war. 
 Of war is an App. Adj.-T. of S. P.-f., and denotes Desig. 
 
 The ending of the war. 
 Of the war is an Adj.-T. of Cx. P.-f., and denotes the Dir. Suf. Obj. 
 
 The question whereon he spoke. 
 Whereon he spoke is an Adj.-T. of Eel. C.-f., and denotes Desig. Whereon 
 is an Adv.-T. of S. W.-f., and denotes Obj. Att. 
 
 The question what heat is. 
 What heat is is an App. Adj.-T. of Rel. C.-f., and denotes Desig. 
 
 I. The beginning of war ; the talk of war; the tempest of war; 
 the argument about war; the fact that there is war; the fact of 
 there being a war; tlie war which is now raging; a war which is 
 bloody; the closing of the war. 
 
 XL The dark night; a night which was dark; the night that I 
 mentioned; loves the night; a lover of night; an address to night; 
 spoke of the night; rejoices in night; day merged into night; the 
 silver queen of night. 
 
 HI. The desire of life; desires life; am fond of life;' the stream 
 of life; knows little of life; death changed into life; gave him life; 
 made him live; clings to life. 
 
 IV. The full meridian of his glory; rills of oily eloquence; — 
 Cowper : my May of life. — Shak. ; of praise a mere glutton ; the fires 
 of passion ; the great eye of heaven. — Spencer ; the modern archi- 
 tects of sentences. — Lowell ; the landscape gardeners of literature. 
 — Id. ; smothered the simplicity of Chaucer under feather-beds of 
 verbiage. — Id. ; the wheels of weary life. — Dryden ; I am lost in 
 my own web of thought. :— Id. ; faith builds a bridge across the gulf 
 of death . — Young ; our earthly house of this tabernacle ; the dregs 
 of life ; 
 
 " Through all depths of sin and loss 
 Drops the plummet of thy Cro'ss." 
 
 V. 1. The niece is the plump little black-eyed Dolores already 
 mentioned. — Irving. 2. The adjacent valleys, no one of which but 
 is the scene of some wonderful tale. — Id. 3. The good Antonia 
 is a woman of strong and intelligent, though uncultivated mind. — 
 Id. 4. The natural magic and simple alchemy which made his am- 
 ple treasures to overflow. — Id. 5. Downy sleep, death's counter- 
 
206 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 feit. — Shak. 6. Memory, the warder of the brain. — Id. 7. Eat- 
 ing the bitter bread of disappointment. — Id. 8. The milk of human 
 kindness. — Id. 9. The clouds, those beauteous robes of heaven. — 
 Young. 10. To spend the Sabbath of old age in peace. — Words- 
 worth. 
 
 VI. The name of Candix has been extended to the whole island. 
 — Gibbon. 2. The sun of science has arisen in the West. — Id. 
 3. The Uttle human tadpole which the old toad of a father would 
 not suffer to stay. — De Quincey. 4. James VL, the thick-speaking, 
 unwashed pedant, acquired the name of the British Solomon. 
 5. Has this great advantage, that every change of sovereign super- 
 sedes old quarrels. — Mommsen. 6. The rumor of the consul hav- 
 ing returned to Rome. — Id. 7. The phenomenon of this northern 
 race emerging amidst the Greek nations. — Id. 8. This is Aris- 
 totle's famous doctrine, that virtue is a mean, a harmony of man's 
 powers. — Shairp. 9. Prosperity succeeded by cruel reverses, hap- 
 piness suddenly clouded, success bravely won, the austerer victory 
 of failure manfully borne, these things make a life truly eventful. — 
 R. H. Stoddard. 
 
 CHAPTER IL 
 
 CONNECTION. 
 
 62. It is often desirable to draw especial attention, 
 not to the object or the action itself., but to some attri- 
 bute or quality of the same, or to some circumstance con- 
 nected with it. In this case the former modifying terms 
 become the hase and the former base becomes the modi- 
 fier., constituting the element of Connection. The orig- 
 inal base, which thus as modifier constitutes the element 
 under consideration, may be a noun-term or a verb-term ; 
 hence, the new base may be derived from either an ad- 
 jective or an adverb modifier. 
 
 1. Adjective-terms. (1.) Physical Qualities. 
 
 The height of the mountain (a high mountain) ; the depth of the 
 river (a deep river) ; the brightness of the sun (the bright sun) ; the 
 sickness of our men (our sick men) ; the lateness of the hour (a late 
 hour) ; the convenience of the locality (a convenient locality). 
 
 (2.) Mental Qualities. 
 
 The wisdom of Solomon (wise Solomon); the patience of Job (pa- 
 
THE LIMITING ADJECTIVE. 207 
 
 tient Job); the righteousness of our cause (our righteous cause); the 
 skill of the man (skillful man); the wit of Sheridan (witty Sheridan); 
 the meekness of Moses, etc. 
 
 (3.) Number and Quantity. 
 
 The number of the slain (the numerous slain) ; the abundance of 
 the spoils (the abundant spoils); the immensity of the empire (the im- 
 mense empire). 
 
 2. Adverb-terms. (1.) Place and Time. 
 
 The locality of the fight (fought here") ; the place of the meeting (met 
 in this place)] the point of departure (left us at this place). 
 
 The date of your birth (was born at such a time) ; the time of 
 their arrival (arrived at such a time) ; the period of the duration of 
 the war (the war continued so long). 
 
 (2.) Causal (90). 
 
 The purpose of his coming (came for such a purpose) ; the reason 
 of your coming (came for this reason); the condition of his continu- 
 ing (can continue if so and so). 
 
 (3.) Modal (123). 
 
 The severity o/ his pain (pains him severely)] the vehemence of 
 his outcry (cried out vehemently) ; the rapidity of the motion (moves 
 rapidly)] the immensity of the height (immensely high). The imple- 
 ment of his murder (murdered him with some implement) ; the special 
 character of his greatness (great in something) ; the rule of his life 
 (lives according to some rule) ] the principle of its working (works on 
 some principle) , etc. 
 
 (4.) Affirmation and Negation (155, 156). 
 
 The certainty of his coming (will certainly come) ; the probability 
 of this being done (will probably be done); the possibility of something 
 being effected (something may possibly be effected). 
 
 Note. It will be noticed in all the above examples, that the ordi- 
 nary modifying term has become the modified term. This constitutes 
 a good test of the element. 
 
 3. This element is also used figuratively. 
 
 The depth of sorrow : the height of bliss; the grandeur of the en-- 
 terprise ; the beauty of his character. 
 
 4. Sometimes this inverted form is used in the place 
 of the normal form. This constitutes the figure of Me- 
 tonymy of Attribute, and is often used with fine effect 
 vvhen the author would direct the attention of the reader 
 
208 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 to some particular characteristic of an object, which he 
 
 would especially emphasize. 
 
 Not distant, for a length of colonnade 
 Invites us (= a long colonnade). — Cowper. 
 
 5. Sometimes in this form it becomes a strong instru- 
 ment of satire. 
 
 The sleep of LentiUus and the corpulence of Cassius were there 
 (= sleepy Lentulus and corpulent Cassius). — Cicero, 
 
 6. The epithet (69) form of the adjective often be- 
 comes the base in the formation of this element. 
 
 The sa// ocean, Ep. ; the S2dtness of the ocean, Con. The billowy 
 ocean, Ep. ; the hiWovfS of the ocean, Con. The twinkling stars, Ep. ; 
 the twinkling of the stars. Con. The crawling snake, Ep. ; the crawl- 
 ing of the snake, Con. The sportive sea-gull, Ep. ; the sportiveness 
 of the sea-gull, Con. 
 
 7. So, any fact or circumstance of the nature of epi- 
 thet, that is, something which always characterizes the 
 object in the form contemplated. Thus, men always ex- 
 ist as nations^ tribes^ or races ; bees always live in 
 swarms ; sheep always go in flocks, and wolves in packs. 
 Hence, we have, — 
 
 The race of savages ; a tribe of Indians ; a swarm of bees ; a flock 
 of sheep ; a pack of wolves. 
 
 8. So, also, of any fact or circumstance which always 
 characterizes objects in special habitual relations. 
 
 A pair of shoes ; a yoke of oxen ; a span of horses ; a set of 
 China ; a suite of rooms ; a company of soldiers ; a gang of work- 
 men; a crew of sailors; a nest of birdlings ; a bevy of girls. 
 
 9. So, also, of adverb modifiers of the nature of epi- 
 thet. The planets, for example, always move in curved 
 lines ; rivers always flow in a meandering course ; tides 
 move backwards and forwards, etc. Hence, — 
 
 The curvature of planetary motions ; the meanderings of river 
 courses ; the alternation of tidal flow ; the regularity of the earth's 
 
THE LIMITING ADJECTIVE. 209 
 
 revolution; the harmony of natural forces; the slowness of plant 
 growth. 
 
 10. So likewise of any fact^ function^ exercise, habit, 
 or diitT/ which ahvays characterizes or is always connected 
 with the object indicated by the modifying term, — • 
 
 The responsibilities of a teacher; the dignity of a bishop ; the du- 
 ties of a mother ; the habits of good society ; the rank of a colonel ; 
 the position of a clerk. 
 
 11. Construction. (1.) The Word-form is most commonly a 
 possessive. 
 
 The river^s flow = the flow of the river (the Jloiving river) ; the rainboto^a 
 beauty = the beauty of the rainbow {beautiful rainbow); the oceaw's swell = 
 the swell of the ocean (the swelling ocean). 
 
 So, the ocean's depth; the lihfs whiteness; the mountain's height, etc. 
 
 (2.) The Phrase-form commonly has of. 
 
 The twinkling of the stars; the growth of the plants ; the majesty of the law; 
 the sublimity of the scene ; the grandeur of an Italian sunset. 
 
 (3.) The Clause-form is either relative or participial. 
 
 The reason of their being present ; the possibility of this being done ; the truth 
 of tchat you said ; the grandeur of what has been accomplished ; the impossibil- 
 ity of what he proposes. 
 
 12. Cautions. Do not confound this element with - — 
 
 (1.) Qualitative Adjective Elements. Connection always expresses 
 an object, thought, or fact, in distinction from an attribute or quality, 
 to which reference is made, and which constitutes the base of the 
 element. 
 
 The wise king, Qual.; the wisdom of the Jclng, Con. Men of wisdom, Qual.; 
 the wisdom oj' men. Con. Trees of great magnitude, Qual. : the great mag- 
 nitude o/" <Ae trees, Con. Flowers oJ' great beauty, Qual.; the great beauty 
 of the Jlowers, Con. 
 
 (2.) Direct Suffering Object (adjective form). 
 
 The cropping of the grass, Obj.; the growing of the grass (the growing 
 grass), Con. The production of wind (producing wind), Dir. Obj. ; the blow- 
 ing of the wind (the blowing wind), Con.; the power of the loind (the power- 
 ful wind), Con. The ruin of the tree, Obj. ; the growth of the tree. Con. 
 
 The destruction of the Jlock, Obj.; the beauty of thejloek. Con. 
 
 The hunting of wolves, Obj. ; the rapaciousness of wolves, Con. • 
 
 The binding of the fawn, Obj. ; the bounding of the fawn, Con. 
 
 The diverting of the brook, Obj. ; the ripple of the brook, Con. 
 14 
 
210 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 (3.) Designation. 
 
 The depth of the ocean, Con.; the depth of a hundred feet, App. and Desig. 
 The color of the rose, Con.; the color of red, App. and Desig. 
 The name of my friend. Con.; the name of " Jones," App. and Desig. 
 The I'iver's depth, Con. ; a. fathom's depth, App. and Desig. 
 The hour of the meeting, Con. ; the hour of twelve, App. and Desig. 
 The number of the slain. Con. ; the number of one thotisand, App. and 
 Desig. 
 
 Note. The form or construction is sometimes ambiguous, convey- 
 ing two distinct meanings. Thus, — 
 
 The winding of the stream, could mean either the turning of the stream (Dir. 
 Obj.) ; or the meandering of the stream; t. e., the meandering stream, Con. 
 
 The duties of a parent. Here the phrase-form may indicate either Con. or 
 Desig. 
 
 13. Mixed Forms. Connection may involve, — 
 (1.) Origin and Source. 
 
 The fragrance of the rose {anidfrom the rose) ; the heat of the sun (and from 
 the sun). 
 
 (2.) Comparison of Equality. 
 
 They built a horse the size of a mountain (i. e., as large as a mountain.) — 
 Virga. 
 
 (3.) Comparison of Resemblance. 
 
 " What seemed his head 
 The likeness of a Idngly crown had on." — Milton. 
 
 Exercise 71. 
 
 CPxissify all Objective and all A djective modifiers. 
 
 I. The cruelty of war; the time of the war; the magnitude of the 
 war; the tempest of war; the bloody war. 
 
 IL The city Rome; the city of Rome; the glory of Rome; Rome, 
 the conquering city ; Rome, the city of seven hills ; Rome, the Lon- 
 don of Italy. 
 
 IIL This mountain; the towering mountain ; the sky-cleaving 
 mountain; the mountain's height; the mountain's base; the top of 
 the mountain ; the sides of the mountain ; the mountain air ; the 
 mountain's grandeur. 
 
 IV. The fading of the flower; the ruin of the flower; the beauty 
 of the flower ; the plucking of the flower; the growth of the flower; 
 »he form of the flower ; the blooming of the flower ; the care of the 
 flower. 
 
THE LIMITING ADJECTIVE. 211 
 
 V. The reason of his coming ; the fact of his coming ; the proba- 
 bility of his coming; am sure of his coming; the uncertainty of his 
 coming; the prevention of his coming; the date of his coming ; the 
 occasion of his coming ; the frequency of his coming; the encourage- 
 ment of his coming; the manner of his coming. 
 
 VI. 1. The fact of the demand being made known shows a desire 
 to vex his life. — Dr. Farrar. 2. There are many instances of men 
 having been first strangled and then crucified. — Id. 3. Would soon 
 invade them and bereave them of their liberties. — Hume. 4. I 
 am amazed at grown men believing in clairvoyance. — Robertson. 
 5. Knew that his time was short and grieved with a grief such as 
 only noble spirits feel, to think that he must leave his work half fin- 
 ished. — Macaulay. 6. It was to this sect, whose principles appear 
 so frivolous, that the English owe the freedom of their constitution. 
 — Hume. 7. Ye know how I kept back (11, 6) nothing that was 
 profitable to you. — Bible, 
 
 CHAPTER III.. 
 
 KELATIONSHIP AND INCLUSION. 
 
 63. Relationship indicates civil, political, social, do- 
 mestic, and blood connections. 
 
 The mayor of the city : the general of the army ; the servants of 
 my uncle ; my father^ s brother ; the sister of my friend. 
 
 1. Relationship is often used very beautifully in the 
 way of figure. 
 
 The father of his country ; the child of sorrow; the mother of in- 
 vention; the handmaid of religion ; sleep, the sister of death. 
 
 So, also, in the way of Epigram. The child is the father of the 
 man. 
 
 2. Mixed Forms. Relationship often involves, — 
 (1.) Origin and Source. 
 
 Was the son of William Penn. 
 (2.) Direct Object. 
 The ruler of the people ; the commander of the army. 
 
 64. Inclusion expresses the whole to a part of which 
 reference is made. 
 
212 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 Some of the people; one of them; who of mortals; enough of 
 praise. 
 
 1. It may indicate the whole of an organic bod}^ to 
 some organ, member, or part of which, reference is made. 
 
 The head of the man ; the trunk of the tree.: the wings of the bird. 
 
 So, likewise, often very beautifully in the way of figure. 
 
 The head of the lake ; the foot of the mountain : the arm of the 
 sea; the mouth of the river; the brow of the hill; the heart of the 
 matter ; the sinews of war. 
 
 2. Cautions. Inclusion must be distinguished from, — 
 (1.) Connection and Designation. 
 
 One of them (Inc ), the number of them (Con.); some of my fi-iends (Inc.); 
 the number of myfnends (Con.); the number of ten (Desig.) 
 
 A large part of the money (Inc.); the amount of the money (Con.): the 
 amount of a thousand dollars (Desig.). 
 
 (2.) Construction. Relationship and Inclusion are commonly 
 in form either possessives or phrases with of A relative indefinite 
 clause is also used. 
 
 3. Mixed Forms. Inclusion sometimes combines with the ele- 
 ment of, — 
 
 (1.) Obj. of Association. 
 
 One among them (t. e., among and of). 
 
 (2.) Obj. of Separation. 
 
 Two from the crowd (i. e., from and of) ; ten out of the number (t. c, out of 
 and of). 
 
 Exercise 72. 
 
 Do the sam£ work as before. 
 
 I. My son ; the son of my sister ; one of my sisters ; the number 
 of my sisters ; the number of six ; the age of my sons ; the age of 
 ten; sons ten years old ; sons of the age of ten ; sons of ten years of 
 age. 
 
 II. Some milk ; some of the milk ; the quantity of the milk ; the 
 color of the milk ; the whiteness of the milk ; the milk of kine ; the 
 milk of the word (Bible) ; cream colored milk ; milk of the color of 
 cream. 
 
 III. The mayor of the city ; the size of the city ; the destruction 
 of the city ; the beauty of the city; the site of the city; the burning 
 of the city ; the length of the city ; a city, a mile long ; a city of the 
 
THE LIMITING ADJECTIVE. 213 
 
 length of a mile ; a city of a mile in length ; a city of great beauty ; 
 the great beauty of the city ; this city, the Athens of America ; Paris, 
 the r^ondon of France. 
 
 IV. The perceptions discolored ; the appetites contesting with rea- 
 son ; the senses victorious over faith ; anger blowing the overheated 
 fires of malice ; low jealousies skulking in dark angles of the soul ; 
 all the powers that should be strong in harmony loosened from one 
 another; these are the motions of sins when self-government is gone 
 (13). — Bushnell. 
 
 V. 1. The primitive Italian custom of the husbandmen having 
 common midday meals, the origin of which the myth connects with 
 the introduction of agriculture. — Mommsen. 2. He beheld the city 
 and wept over it. 3. The epithet of hollow was applied to a long 
 and fruitful valley. — Gibbon. 4. A swarm of the fictitious descend- 
 ants of Mohammed are honored with the appellation of Sheik or Emir. 
 — Id. 5. I find myself unable to think of this change as an isolated 
 fact. — Wayland. 6. Instances have been known of men taken from 
 the cross and restored to life. — Farrar. 7. Deprecates the idea of 
 man surrendering himself entirely to the will of God. — Id. 8. Pro- 
 cured to the place of interview the name of ^'the field of the cloth 
 of gold." — Hume. 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 NUMBER, QUANTITY, AND POSSESSION. 
 
 65. Number may be expressed either collectively or 
 distrihutively ; collectively, by the words, many., several., 
 sundry., divers., numerous., manifold., all., none., few., more., 
 etc. ; distributively by the words each., every. 
 
 Definite number is expressed, of course, by the nu- 
 merals. 
 
 Many men; several children; numerous difficulties; eacTi person; 
 two books. 
 
 1. Number, in the form of totality, is sometimes em- 
 phasized as follows : — 
 
 They all came, from the least even to the greatest. They were all 
 killed to a man. 
 
214 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 2. Distributive number is sometimes indicated by such 
 idioms as the following, — 
 
 They took town after town (i. e., many towns). Day after day 
 elapsed (i. e., matiy days). I have seen him many a time (i. e., many 
 times). 
 
 GQ. Quantity is expressed by the* words, much^ ample, 
 considerable^ small, little, scanty, etc. With reference to 
 objects not usually counted, soine, any, and no, are often 
 used. 
 
 Much money; some water; no food ; scanty supplies, etc. 
 
 Note. Definite quantity is expressed, of course, by absolute 
 measurements. It is to be noted, however, in this case, that the 
 words of measure are never the modifying term, but always the base. 
 Hence definite quantity never takes the form of an adjective element. 
 
 A bushel of grain; & pound of meat; a ton of coal, etc. 
 
 67. Possession is used to indicate oivnership. It is 
 usually a possessive, a phrase-form whose relative word 
 is of, or a relative clause. 
 
 3/y house ; JbAn's knife; ^AetV possession ; your home. 
 A house of mine ; a book of yours ; a horse of his ; the property 
 of my father. 
 
 1. Mixed Forms. Possession may involve Designation. 
 Bring me your hat ; rode Brown's horse; send me Mary's gloves. (61, 12.) 
 
 Remark. It must be noted that the possessive by no means always 
 denotes possession. On the contrary, this case-form may express 
 many different logical elements. 
 
 John's defeat (Suf. Obj.). John's advantage (Obj. Int.)- John's perform- 
 ance (Agent). 
 
 The sun's rays (Origin and Source). 
 
 The river's breadth (Connection). A day^s work (Time, How Long). Your 
 lather (Relationsliip). 
 
 Exercise 73. 
 
 Do the sam£ work as before. 
 
 I. Your house; your sister; your age; your learning; your ruin; 
 your address; your watch; your son; your complexion ; your hands; 
 
THE COMPLEMENT. 215 
 
 your gloves; a friend of yours; one of your friends; the number of 
 your friends. 
 
 II. Many horses ; many of the horses ; the number of the horses ; 
 the color of the horses ; the color black ; the color of black ; a span 
 of horses; a span of black horses ; a black and white horse ; several 
 black and white horses; Alexander's horse, Bucephalus ; the horse 
 of Alexander, King of Macedonia. 
 
 III. Her beauty ; her taste ; her learning ; her mother ; her pro- 
 motion; her dress; her mind ; her eyes ; her elevation; her fall; her 
 salvation ; her creed ; her friend. 
 
 IV. The shield of faith ; the excellence of faith; the ship. of state; 
 the ruler of the state ; the voyage of life ; our life, a voyage ; the 
 golden dew of sleep. — Shak. ; the silence of sleep; the hour of 
 sleep ; sleep, the sister of death. 
 
 V. The soul of the enterprise; the foot of the mountain; the 
 height of the mountain ; the brow of the hill; the slope of the hill; 
 the hand of industry; the promotion of industry. 
 
 VI. The salt ocean; the saltness of the ocean; the green grass; 
 the verdure of the grass; the feeling of fear; the sensation of fear ; 
 pale-faced fear ; the organ of sight ; the quickness of sight ; the sen- 
 sation of sight; the enjoyment of sight; the destruction of the sight. 
 
 DIVISION III. 
 
 THE VERB-TERM. 
 
 SUB-DIVISION I — THE COMPLEMENT. 
 
 NATURE AND DIVISIONS. 
 
 67. The Complement Constituent (23, 10) in the 
 Verb-term is the essential and significant element. It 
 3xliibits two very distinct and widely separated logical 
 forms, viz. : — 
 
 (a.) The Attributive Complement, 
 
 (h.) The Substa7itive Complement, 
 
216 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 CHAPTER L 
 
 tHE ATTRIBUTIVE COMPLEMENT. 
 
 68. The Attbibutive Complement is always of the 
 nature of an adjective-term ; that is, it always expresses 
 qualities^ or attributes in distinction from objects. It may 
 be in name, grammatically, a participle, an adjective, or 
 even a noun, but whatever it is nominally, it always is 
 essentially an adjective ; that is, it always conveys an 
 adjective conception (39). 
 
 He is loving ; is loved; is lovely; is lovable ; is a lover ; is in love. 
 
 We are tcorJdng; are workers; are at work; are learning; are 
 learned ; are learners. 
 
 1. Attributive or quality words usually embrace quite 
 a large number of individuals, and the complement term 
 when attributive is alwajs larger in extent of reference 
 than the subject terra. Thus, — 
 
 This is a spaniel; a spaniel is a dog ; a dog is a quadruped ; a 
 quadruped is a vertebrate ; a vertebrate is an animal ; an animal is a 
 being. Snow is white ; snow and scUt are white; snow, and salt, and 
 cotton are white, etc., — and thus we might constantly enlarge the 
 subject term without ever equaling the extent of the complement 
 term, until we reach an identical term. Thus, — everything white is 
 white = white is white (nearly). 
 
 2. It follows from the above that limiting terms, as ad- 
 jectives of designation, number or quantity (61, Qb^ QQ^t 
 can never constitute the complelnent term in an attribu- 
 tive proposition ; nor indeed, in any proposition except 
 when they are identical in meaning with the subject. 
 
 Thus we cannot say properly, The spectators were one hundred ; 
 his pupils were forty ; the wall is ten feet ; my books are a hundred, 
 etc. 
 
 When such expressions do occur they are always elliptical, and 
 there is always implied some attributive term on which the mind rests 
 as the real complementary conception. Tlius, in the above exam- 
 
THE COMPLEMENT. 217 
 
 pies, the sense is, were one hundred in number; were forty in num- 
 her ; is ten feet in height^ etc., — these terms indicating special forms 
 or kinds of magnitude. 
 
 3. It should be noted, however, that number, when re- 
 ferred to indefinitely^ — that is, in the way of aggregation 
 rather than of a number of individual objects, — can be 
 used as complement. 
 
 The flowers were abundant ; these plants are num^rou^ ; the cases 
 of this kind are many. 
 
 Note. It should be observed that while in the ordinary forms 
 the quality term constitutes the base of the complement, in the above 
 and all similar expressions the quality term is the modifying constit- 
 uent. 
 
 Thus, the wall is ten feet high. Here high is the base of the com- 
 plement term. The wall is ten feet in height. Here ten feet is the 
 the base and in height is an adverb-term. 
 
 So, He is forty years old = is forty years of age = is of the age of 
 forty years. 
 
 4. Now attributive complements express in the main: — 
 (1.) Action. 
 
 He works (23, 6); is working; is a worker. 
 
 (2.) State or Condition. 
 He sits ; is sitting ; sleeps ; is sleeping ; is sleepy ; is a sleeper. 
 
 (3.) Quality proper. 
 Snow is white : she is learned. 
 
 (4.) Classification. 
 
 Tiiis is an oak ; an oak is a plant ; water is a fluid ; charity is a virtue ; walk- 
 ing is an action. 
 
 5. Verb-terms expressing action must be distinguished 
 from those that indicate atate or condition. 
 
 The winds bloio, state, etc. ; the trumpets bloid, state, etc. ; the 
 men blow the trumpet, action ; the snow blows^ state, etc. The lead 
 sinks, state, etc. ; he sinks the lead, action. 
 
 The clock ticks , state; the wheel revolves, state; the lamp humSy 
 
 state. 
 
 6. It should be noted that in the present tense particu- 
 
218 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 larly, the copula form is the regular form to indicate or- 
 dinary present action. Thus we say always, — 
 
 He is reading (not reads) ; they are singing (not sing) ; I am writ- 
 ing (not write) J etc. 
 
 7. On the contrary the non-copula form of the verb is 
 used to designate : — 
 
 (1.) The simple generic verb conception, 
 I hope be will^eome ; they desire me to remain ; he says she is honest. 
 (2.) Specially modified verb conceptions^ as : — 
 (a.) What is customary or habitual, 
 
 Mary paints {i. e., is accustomed to paint = is a painter). So 
 she sings ; he writes; we labor ; James dances; do yon play chess? 
 
 (5.) Hence, what is habitual in nature, that is, the 
 activities and changes in natural life. 
 
 Fishes swim; hirdsfiy ; lions roar ; dogs hark ; men reason; flow- 
 ers Woom; plants ^^o^c; tides ^oto; winds 6Zo?^. 
 
 (c.) Past action as present (historical present), or 
 the figure of vision. 
 
 The assassin enters, , . . he paces the lonely hall, ... he winds up 
 the ascent of the stairs • and reaches the door of the chamber. — 
 Webster. 
 
 8. Construction. (1.) The Woed-form of this 
 complement may be any word that expresses quality, at- 
 tribute, or description. 
 
 Hence it may be, a verb (incorporated form, 23, 6), & participle, a 
 qualifying adjective, or a common noun. 
 
 (2.) The Phrase-form may be any phrase that des- 
 ignates quality or description, — that is, ^ny term that 
 has the value of a qualifying adjective-teTvci, Such phrase- 
 forms are usually introduced by in, at, out of, ivithout, 
 and of, and can usually be changed into word-forms. 
 
 He is in misery (= miserable) ; at peace (= peaceful) ; without fear 
 (= fearless). 
 
 So, they are at war with one another ; the ocean is of the color of 
 
THE COMPLEMENT. 219 
 
 the sky (== sky-like in color) ; the block is of the form of a cube (= is 
 cuhe-like in iorm). 
 
 (3.) Clause-forms can rarely, if ever, be used. Only 
 relative clauses express quality/ — but in this form the 
 quality to be predicated is always aflBrmed in the clause, 
 and of course cannot be repeated. 
 
 Thus, we can say, The wise man, or. The man is wise; but if 
 we have, The man who is vnse, the adjective clause who is wise can- 
 not be made a complement thus. The man is who is wise. 
 
 Remark 1. If the attributive proposition may be called a contriv- 
 ance for the economizing of labor, there is, indeed, no labor-saving 
 machine in the world at all comparable to it. The single assertion, 
 " The rose is a flower," is equivalent to as many separate assertions as 
 there are roses in the world, multiplied as many times as there are differ- 
 ent qualities which enter into the conception indicated by the word flower ! 
 
 On the ground of the general resemblance of roses, we are able to 
 aflirm of them all at once what is true of each; and moreover, by 
 means of the quality term (or common noun), flower, we are able to 
 affirm of each, by the same single assertion, all the different qualities 
 that belong to the conception of a flower. That is, by a single prop- 
 osition, we affirm of all the roses in the world all the qualities that 
 make up the conception oi flower. 
 
 Kemakk 2. Propositions with attributive complements are, by 
 far, the most useful and important. They constitute the language 
 of all classification, and classification is science, and science, in the 
 main, constitutes our knowledge. Classification is also the condition 
 of all reasoning, and therefore of all argumentation. Hence we may 
 say, that all important knowledge lies stereotyped in the form of at- 
 tributive propositions. 
 
 Exercise 74. 
 
 Note the copula and the complement; when the complement is a phrase, 
 change it to a corresponding word-form. Classify each complement 
 (54). Classify all objective and all adjective elements. Point out all 
 Subject-terms both in sentences and in clauses. 
 
 I. Is fearful; is in fear; is a student; is studious; is studying; is 
 at his studies. 
 
 II. Are slaves; are enslaved; are in slavery; our .slaves; many 
 slaves; the number of slaves; works for the slave; makes them 
 slaves; called them slaves ; the name slave; the misery of the slave; 
 the emancipation of slaves; men reduced to slavery. 
 
220 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 III. The snow falls; snow is falling; snow is white; snow is cold; 
 snow is matter ; snow is frozen water ; snow is light ; snow melts ; 
 the snow is melting ; the lightness of the snow ; the color of the 
 snow ; the color of white ; the whiteness of the snow ; the removal 
 of the snow; the melting of the snow ; the beauty of the snow; snow 
 ten feet deep ; snow of the depth of ten or more feet ; snow ten feet 
 in depth ; the temperature of snow ; the sensation of cold ; the sense 
 of feeling; snow melted into water; mist congeals into snow; the 
 mist becomes snow; made the snow melt; calls frozen mist snow; 
 the Saxon word snow ; buried in snow ; hves in the snow ; talks 
 about snow. 
 
 IV. 1. We feel as if there were (picas') light lingering upon our 
 world. — McCosh. 2. He saw Paris drenched in the blood of 
 Huguenots and himself narrowly escaped death. — Collier. 3. To 
 obviate the difficulty of the Crown Prince becoming the head of a 
 party, antagonistic to the King. — Abbott. 4. Their felt weakness 
 cannot brook the thought of there being no presiding power over- 
 looking their destiny. — McCosh. 5. Water can exist as ice, as 
 water, or as steam. — Norton. 6. All bodies may be divided into 
 very minute particles: stones may be crushed to powder. — Id. 7. A 
 compressing force flattens some bodies iuto thin sheets. — Id. 
 8. Weight has been defined as the measure of the earth's attraction. 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 THE SUBSTANTIVE COMPLEMENT. 
 
 69. The Substantive Complement always indicates in- 
 dividual objects, or what are so considered in distinction 
 from attributes (38). It may be grammatically an ad- 
 jective, but, thus used, it becomes in force an object-word, 
 in distinction from a quality-word considered as such. 
 Moreover, whatever the complement-term is in character, 
 or in extent of meaning, the subject -terra is always the 
 same in these respects. 
 
 This man is Charles: my name is Charles; the number is ten; 
 the figure is 6 ; the quantity is a bushel ; the sensation is heat ; the 
 amount was ten dollars. 
 
THE COMPLEMENT. 221 
 
 1. A substantive complement, as we have seen, always 
 represents a substantive conception. The subject-term 
 of every proposition is also a substantive or noun- term. 
 Hence, as one noun element, object, thought, or concep- 
 tion, cannot be predicated of another noun element, it 
 follows that in a substantive proposition, a noun element 
 under one name is simply predicated of the same thing 
 under another name. Hence, here, as we have said sub- 
 ject-term and complement- term are in character and in 
 extent of meaning substantially identical. 
 
 The complement term of propositions then, always 
 performs one of two functions, — it either indicates a 
 quality co7iception, which characterizes the subject, in the 
 proposition, in common with many other individual ob- 
 jects ; or it expresses an object the same in essential 
 character as the subject, but referred to under another 
 name. 
 
 Thus we can say: " These horses are black," for black is a quality- 
 term and may be affirmed of horses among many other things ; but 
 we cannot say " These horses are fen," iorten is not a quality-wordj 
 though we can say the number of the horses is ten, the complement 
 meaning the same thing as the subject under another name and 
 producing thus a substantive proposition. 
 
 So we cannot say " The road is ten miles,'' but we can say, *' The 
 length of the road is ten miles." So, the city is Boston ; thif Book is 
 the Bible ; the icord is charity ; the prejix is de ; the sign is -|-, etc. 
 
 2. The substantive complement expresses, properly : — 
 (1.) Designation (61). 
 
 It is he ; this man is Brown ; who art thou? what is this? 
 
 (2.) Possession. 
 This knife is yours (i. e., your knife) ; that is mine ; it is John's, 
 
 3. Occasionally in substantive propositions the subject 
 (ind complement terms are identical in name as well as- in 
 signification. 
 
 Right is right ; honor is honor ; a lie is a lie. 
 
222 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 4. Construction. (1.) The Word-form is usually a proper 
 noun ; a personal pronoun ; or a limiting adjective (60). 
 
 This is Broum ; the figure is afire ; the length is ten feet ; the time is sunrise , 
 this is she ; who is this ? 
 
 (2.) It may be a qualifying adjective, but only when the subject 
 refers to the same quality directly. 
 
 This color is tchite ; that hue is reddish ; this taste is saltish ; this sensation is 
 cold ; the curve is circular ; the form is cubical. 
 
 (3.) As the subject can be easily distinguished from the comple- 
 ment (both always referring to the same thing), it is often indicated 
 by the pronoun it without an antecedent. 
 
 It was night (= the time); it is bedtime (= the hour); it is time to get up ; it 
 is he; it is John (11, 17, N.). 
 
 (4.) The Phrase-form may be any phrase which as a whole can 
 be used substantively. Of course, the phrase, as such, will be iden- 
 tical in meaning with the subject noun-term. (21, 2.) 
 
 The theme of his discourse was about minerals. The indirect object of address 
 is to me. The js/ace of meeting was at my house. The time for the gathering 
 is at noon. The purpose of the assembly is for raising money. The method of 
 conveyance is by coaches. 
 
 (5.) 'Ihe Clause-form of the substantive complement is common. 
 Clauses used as complements are usually substantive, and all kinds 
 of clauses may be thus used (10). 
 
 5. Cautions. (1.) Substantive complements of the phrase-forra 
 must be carefully distinguished from modifying terms of similar form 
 and similarly connected. It must be remembered that these terms 
 used as complements, are always noun-terms (21) and identical in 
 meaning with the subject term, which they serve merely to explain 
 or identify, while as modifiers they are always adjective-terms or 
 adverb-terms and their meaning has nothing whatever in common 
 with that of the subject term. Thus, compare the following with the 
 above (69, 4 (4)). 
 
 The discourse was about minerals; the address is to me ; the meeting was at my 
 house ; the gathering is at noon ; the assembly is for raising money ; the convey- 
 ance is by coaches. Here the phrase-forms are not complement terms. 
 
 (2.) Both substantive complements and modifying elements as 
 above, must be distinguished from attributive complements. 
 
 The place of meeting was without the city. Subst. Comp. The 
 meeting was without the city. Adv.-T. as modifier. The meeting 
 was tcithout harmony (== inharmonious). Adj. Comp. 
 
THE COMPLEMENT. 223 
 
 6. Emphatic Forms. Here, likewise, when it is desired to 
 make the complement emphatic the it construction is used. Thus in 
 the following examples, the italicized phrase-forms are substantive 
 comi)lements, the phrase as a whole being a noun-term and substan- 
 tially identical in meaning with the thing or the thought suggested 
 by the indefinite pronoun it. 
 
 It was about minerals that he discoursed (= the theme on which). It was to 
 me that he spoke (= the person to whom). It was at my house that they met 
 (= the place where). 
 
 It was at noon that they gathered (= the time at which). It was for raising 
 money that they assembled (=: the purpose for which). It was by coaches that 
 they traveled (= the means by which). 
 
 7. From the above it is evident that the two constituents of sub- 
 stantive propositions, like the two members of an algebraical equa- 
 tion, merely represent the same thing under different symbols. 
 While, therefore, they are of value in the way of identification, it is 
 evident that they are of no value in the line of scientific classifica- 
 tion, of lexicography, or of logic. Hence, were we confined to this 
 form of proposition, science would be impossible, argumentation 
 would be impracticable, and human knowledge must be exceedingly 
 limited. 
 
 Exercise 75. 
 
 Distinguish Attributive and Substantive Complements ; note the special 
 force of all complements (54) ; give the subject and the predicate in 
 each case; classify all objective and adjective elements. 
 
 I. The daisy is a plant; this plant is a daisy; a plant is an object; 
 this object is a plant ; the daisy blooms ; plants grow ; the daisy is 
 yellow and white ; yellow is a color ; this color is yellow. 
 
 II. The cloth is blue ; the color is blue ; was colored blue. 
 
 III. Ice is cold; the sensation is cold; the coldness of the ice ; the 
 feeling of cold. 
 
 IV. He is a hunter; he is a man who hunts; a hunter is a man 
 who hunts; the hunter is hunting; he is in the hunt; it is a hunter 
 that hunts; it is time to hunt; it is in the park that he hunts; it is 
 with dogs that he hunts ; it is in the morning that he hunts ; who 
 hunts? who is he ? who is the hunter ? who is the man who hunts? 
 
 V. This thing is a time keeper ; a time keeper is a thing; a clock 
 is a time keeper; a watch is a time keeper; a watch is a chronome- 
 ter ; a time keeper is a chronometer ; a time keeper is a thing that 
 keeps time ; a clock is a thing that keeps time ; this is a watch; this 
 
224 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 is my watch ; this is a gold watch ; this is your gold watch ; it i. j. 
 gold watch that I have ; a watch keeps time ; the clock strikes ^ I 
 hear the clock strike. 
 
 VL This is the place ; the place is here ; the place is beautif .i; 
 the place of meeting was in my room; the meeting was in my roosi; 
 the time was at noon ; the gathering was at noon ; the gathering was 
 lai*ge; the number was large; the number was twenty. 
 
 VII. It is he ; it is a man; he is a man ; he is a painter; a painter 
 is a man ; a painter is a man who paints; he is at his painting; who 
 is this painter? this painter is Jones ; this painter is an artist; an 
 artist is a painter who paints artistically; was taught painting; made 
 him a painter; called him a painter; was considered as an artist. 
 
 VIII. This is a robin; a robin is a bird; a bird is a biped; a 
 biped is an animal having two legs; a bird is an animal having two 
 legs; this bird is large; the size of this bird is large; this bird is 
 brown; the color is beautiful ; the color is brown; the color brown is 
 beautiful; the bird is heavy; his weight is heavy; his weight is a 
 pound; he weighs a pound. 
 
 SUB-DIVISION \\,— THE COPULA, 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 RHETORICAL, IDIOMATIC, AND MIXED FORMS OF THE COP- 
 ULA. 
 
 70. The Copula has no special significance. Its ofi&ce 
 is merely to affirm, that is to bind together, in logical 
 union the Subject and the Complement terra. It may 
 however incorporate in itself several logical elements, and 
 this with considerable gain, both in brevity and em- 
 phasis, over the ordinary form. The elements most com- 
 monly combined thus are those that express :. — 
 
 (a.) Description. — (Epithet form, 59.) 
 (6.) Specification, 
 
 71. Description or Epithet Incorporated. — We have 
 the form : ^* He — is — a stalkins: lion." Here is is the 
 
THE COPULA. 225 
 
 Copula and stalking lion is the complement. Now the 
 language can be made much more vivid and striking if 
 we make a turn in the expression, and, detaching the 
 the epithet (59) stalking from the complement, com- 
 bine it with the Copula. Thus, " He stalks a lion." 
 
 Here it is evident that the last form differs from the 
 first in nothing except rhetorical force ; nothing more 
 and nothing less certainly is really affirmed, 
 
 1. The Copula, then, may take on an epithet of the 
 complement, for the sake of rhetorical effect, without 
 losing its essential character as copula. Thus, — 
 
 He rules a king = is a ruling king. He crawls a snake = is a 
 crawling snake. I strut a gentleman = am a strutting gentleman. — 
 Lamb. 
 
 2. In the same way the Copula may take on an epithet 
 
 of the subject term. 
 
 The winds blow soft = the Uoioing winds are soft. The sun shines 
 bright = the shining sun is bright. The stream of life ran silent (:= 
 the running stream of life was silent). — Carlyle. The gap yawns 
 wide (= the yawning gap is wide). — Young. 
 
 72. Specification Incorporated (127). — Again, we 
 have the sentence : ^' The apple is sweet to the taste." 
 Here is is the Copula and the rest is the complement. 
 Now in this case, by means of an idiom, we may combine 
 the modifier of the complement with the Copula and thus 
 shorten and really improve the expression. Thus ; The 
 apple tastes sweet. Here, whether expressed in the one 
 ov in the other form, the thing affirmed in each case is 
 pi-ecisely the same ; namely, the sweetness of the apple. 
 We only transfer, in the second form, a comparatively 
 unimportant modification from the complement to the 
 copula. 
 
 The music sounds beautiful = is beautiful to the ear. The rose 
 %ii)i^.!ls sweet = is sweet to the smell ; feels smooth = is smooth to the 
 15 
 
226 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 feeling or toucTi ; appears honest = is honest in appearance ; seems 
 wise, or seems to be wise = is wise in appearance. 
 
 So, also, He was horn a Roman = icos a Roman hy birth; was 
 horn free = was free by birth. 
 
 Cautions. Do not confound these mixed Copula forms with 
 Factitive Object. 
 
 Was elected kiny, Fact. ; was born a king, Mixed Cop. 
 
 He became a hero, Fact. ; he triumphed a hero, Rhet., or Mixed Copula. 
 
 Remark. From the above it is evident that such expressions as — 
 
 "I walked a queen," "He stood a man," are simply bad composition, bad 
 rhetoric. The verbs used have really no significance. It would be equally 
 proper to say, " I walk a sface," or, " He stood a stripling. ^^ 
 
 2. Emphatic forms. The Complement of whatever form, may 
 be made emphatic by being placed first. 
 
 Grand was the scene; poor indeed I am ; short was his life ; a villain he is; 
 it is a thief that he is. " Luckless prince that I am," said he, "to have been 
 brought up in seclusion." — Irving. 
 
 Exercise 76. 
 
 Do the same work as he/ore, note the element incorporated with the 
 Copula. 
 
 ILLUSTRATION. 
 
 He stalked a lion. 
 A S. Sen. ffe is Subj. and rem. is Pred., a Cop. V.-T. ; stalked is Mixed or 
 Rhetorical Cop. (combining an epithet of the Comp.); lion is Comp. of S. W.-f. 
 
 The rose is blooming red. 
 A Simple Sentence. Bose is Subj , and rem. Pred., a Cop. V.-T. ; is blooming 
 is a Mixed or Rhet. Cop. (combining an epithet of the Sub.), and I'ed is Comp. 
 
 I. 1. The clay burns white. 2. The milk tastes sour. 3. Mag- 
 nesia feels smooth. 4. Matters look more encouraging. 5. The 
 Bong seemed familiar. 6. Rivers which run nectar. 7. He soars 
 an eagle, high in the air. 8. Said that he looked too honest to be a 
 villain. 9. Thinks the man looked about forty years old. 10. He 
 could not have been over thirty years of age. 11. Affirms that you 
 ought to have been at work on his -arrival. 12. He has learning, 
 and what is better, sterling integrity. 13. The ship looked truly 
 magnificent as she came in, with streamers flying and with every 
 «ail set to the breeze. 
 
THE COPULA. 227 
 
 II. 1. It can never be optional with a man whether he will have 
 a moral character or not. — Dr. Hopkins. 2. His only option is 
 whether it shall be good or bad. — Id. 3. It is the man himself, the 
 person, the self, the ego, the one whatever you please to term it, that 
 we hold responsible. 4. The Seedling plantlet finds itself provided 
 with all the organs of vegetation, that even the oldest plant pos- 
 sesses. — Gray. 5. Koot on the one hand, and stem with its foliage 
 on the other, make up the whole plantlet as it springs from the seed. 
 — Id. 6. Makes what seems to be one round leaf with the stem 
 running through the centre. — Id. 7. The name is not much used 
 except in cases where they form only one set, as in the lily. — Id. 
 8. What are called double flowers, such as full roses (61, 11), are 
 blossoms, which under the gardener's care have developed, with 
 all their essential organs changed into petals. — Id. 9. The pontiff 
 was born a Roman. — Gibbon. 10. Thcf wretch that was buried a 
 man, is dug up a witness. — Curran. 
 
 CHAPTER IT. 
 
 THE VERB TO BE AS BOTH COPULA AND COMPLEMENT, t. «., 
 AS PRINCIPAL VERB. 
 
 73. We have seen that several intransitive verbs have 
 sometimes the force of the simple Copula. On the other 
 hand, the verb to he is often used as a complete verb-term. 
 In this case it usually suggests another verb which more 
 fully expresses its evident meaning. Here, of course, 
 representing by implication both Copula and Comple- 
 ment, it caiinot talqe an additional term as Complement. 
 
 Must believe that he is (= exists). —5i6/e. The grass of the field 
 which to-day is (= stands, is growing), and to-morrow is cast into 
 the oven. — Bible. 
 1. The verb to be has this noun-copula use regularly: — 
 
 (1.) After the word THERE uspd expletively. 
 
 (2.) When modified by any Indirect Objective or an 
 Adverbial element. (44 and 74.) 
 
 (3.) When standing at the end of a proposition. 
 
228 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 There are many tilings we do not understand (are = exist). There 
 is not a perfect man (is = lives). 
 
 He is in Boston (=: remains or livex'). This was yesterday (= 
 happened). I shall he there at twelve (= shall arrive). 
 
 Troy jrflw (= was standing). All things that now are (= exist). 
 
 2. These cases, however, must not be confounded with 
 those in which there is a mere separation of the copuLa 
 from its complement, by one or more intervening words. 
 
 There were many present = many were present. There was some- 
 thing important accomplished. 
 
 3. Sometimes the auxiliaries have and ^vill are used 
 as complete verb-terms. 
 
 I have a horse (oivn). I willed it (= wished or desired). I would 
 that it were mine. 
 
 EXEBCISE 77. M 
 
 Analyze as before; note carefully Copula and incorporated uses of 
 the verb to be. 
 
 ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 There is only one condition. 
 
 A Simple Sentence. Only one condition is the Subj., a N.-T. of the Cx. W.-f., 
 etc. ; is is the Pred., a Complete V.-T. {= remains or exists) ; thei-e is an Expl. 
 
 There is only one condition to be granted. 
 
 A Simple Sentence. Subj. as above; is to be granted is Pred., a V.-T. of 
 which is to be is Cop., and granted is Comp. 
 
 There is nothing to be said* about it. 
 
 A Simple Sentence. Nothing to be said about it is Subj., a N.-T. of Cx. W.-f., 
 of which nothing is B., and mod. hj to be said, an Adj.-T. of S. W.-f.; is is 
 Pred., a Complete V.-T. ; about it is a S. P.-f., and denotes Obj. Att. 
 
 Is out of the city. 
 
 Is is a Complete V.-T. Out of the city is an Adv.-T. of Cx. P.-f. 
 
 Is out of pain. 
 
 Is is the Cop., and rem. is Comp., an Adj.-T. of S. P.-f., denoting State or 
 Cond. 
 
THE COPULA. 229 
 
 Is with his friendsi 
 Is IS a Complete V.-T. With his friends is an Adv.-T. of Cx. P.-f., and de- 
 notes Obj. Ass., of which with friends is B., and mod. by his^ an Adj.-T. of S. 
 W-f., denoting Relationship. 
 
 I. 1. Pie is in bed; in distress; on the sofa; in his room; in great 
 hopes; in the city; in despair; on the sea; in great distress. 2. The 
 place of discussion was in the pubHc hall. 3. The discussion was in 
 the public hall. 4. The hour of meeting was at four. 5. The gath- 
 ering was at four. 6. The only way possible was by coercion. 
 7. The method of boring was by steam drills. 8. The rite of cir- 
 cumcision is very ancient. 9. The age of circumcision is passed. 
 10. The habit of smoking is common. 11. The sinfulness of smok- 
 ing is questioned. 12. Much increase is by the strength of the ox. 
 ^ Bible. 
 
 II. 1. This is home. 2. There is a home for all. 3. The name 
 of home is sweet. 4. The name is not the same as the thing. 5. It is 
 not the name home, but the thing that we most love. 6. There is no 
 word corresponding to the English term home in the French. 7. The 
 very word home is beautiful to me. 8. It is around my old home in 
 the country that my fondest recollections cluster. 9. My home is 
 not in ruins now. 10. My home was in New England. 11. My 
 boyhood was full of joy. 12. There Avas much to make it hopeful. 
 13. It is in our homes that our hopes first spring up. 14. There are 
 many unhappy homes, where the occupants are in wretchedness and 
 in sorrow. 15. These never knew what a true home is. 16. Any 
 home is much what the occupants make it. 17. There are many 
 fathers who make their homes very unhappy. 18. What home is 
 there but has some sorrow ? 19. AVho ever left his home but he was 
 in deep sorrow? 20. The truth is that any home is better than 
 none. 21. For a home to be perfectly blissful, is impossible. 
 
 III. 1. There is only one alternative. 2. There is to be granted 
 only one alternative. 3. There are actions which have a moral 
 quality. 4. Some actions are neither moral nor immoral. 5. There 
 might have been one book worth buying. 6. There might have been 
 one book bought. 7. There might have been one book in his pos- 
 session. 8. There is in every animal a mysterious principle which 
 we call life. 9 . Life is a mysterious thing. 1 0. '^here is not in 
 nature a greater mystery. 11. There is no greater mystery to be 
 found in nature. 12. This mystery is far too subtle for man to ex- 
 plain. 13. There can be no doubt that there are more mysteries in 
 heaven and earth than are dreamt of in our philosophy. 
 
280 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 . DIVISION lY. 
 
 THE ADVERB-TERM. 
 
 NATURE AND DIVISIONS OF THE ADVERBIAL ELEMENT. 
 
 74. Actions are never conceived of as independent and 
 isolated facts. They all, of necessity, hold relations to 
 time and place ; to a cause which produced them ; to 
 persons or things affected by them ; to circumstances 
 more or less intimately characterizing them. All these 
 things are implied in connection with every act ; some, 
 or all of them,- according to the importance and dignity 
 of the act, are clearly suggested to the mind. 
 
 Thus, we hear, "A railway train ran off the track," and the 
 mind asks instantly, ^ny one Au7*< ? When? Where? How? What 
 were the circumstances ? Nor is it satisfied until all these questions 
 have been answered. All these things are suggested by the act, and 
 an answer to all is necessary, in an important sense, to complete the 
 full meaning, that is, the full significance of the act. 
 
 Now some of these things, considered as logical ele- 
 ments, are termed Objective elements, and some Adverb- 
 ial elements. It is clear that we cannot draw a sharp 
 line of division between them and say, as most gramma- 
 rians do, that some terms complete the meaning of the 
 verb, and these, therefore, we will call Objective ele- 
 ments ; and that the rest add neiv circumstances to the 
 same, and these therefore we will term Adverbial ele- 
 ments ; for all help to complete the meaning of the verb 
 and none certainly add any new thing, fact, or phenom- 
 enon, that had not already a direct connection with the 
 act, and that has not also, probably, been already sug- 
 gested to the mind. 
 
THE LOCAL MODIFIER. 231 
 
 Hence any division of elements into Objective and 
 Adverbial must be, to some extent at least, arbitrary. 
 Some, indeed, are in a more emphatic sense completing^ 
 and some are more decidedly circumstantial^ but the 
 former gradually shade into the latter and the lines where 
 the two meet are as indistinct and as indeterminable as 
 those which separate twilight and darkness (44, R.). 
 
 75. We have already discussed what seem more prop- 
 erly Objective Modifiers both direct and indirect. (43, 
 44.) 
 
 All other verb Modifiers naturally fall under the fol- 
 lowing four divisions, namely : — 
 
 (a.) The Local Modifier. 
 
 (6.) The Temporal Modifier. 
 
 (c.) The Causal Modifier. 
 
 (c?.) The Modal Modifier. 
 
 SUB-DIVISION \. — THE LOCAL MODIFIER, 
 CHAPTER L 
 
 NATURE AND DIVISIONS OF THE LOCAL MODIFIER. 
 
 76. Place may t)e either Greographical or Topical; 
 geographical, in the obvious sense of that term ; topical, 
 when indicating place of any kind, not properly geograph-" 
 ical. 
 
 In Asia; in London; from Paris ; in the gulf; on the sea; in the 
 air ; under the ocean. (Geographical Locality.) 
 
 In bed ; on the table ; in my mouth ; on my face ; in the veins ; under 
 ^e skin; in the first book of the jEneid ; in the 6th Chapter of Romans. 
 (Topical Locality.) 
 
 1. Topical place is often figurative in character; it. is 
 always so, when referring to things mental or spiritual. 
 
232 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 Lives in our affections ; in our memories ; had something in mind ; 
 feel sad in my heart; grieved in spirit; is fixed in my memory; has a 
 place in my sympathies. 
 
 2. This element involves five different local relations : 
 
 (1.) Place Where. 
 
 (2.) Place Whence. 
 
 (3.) Place Whither. 
 
 (4.) Place Which Way. 
 
 (5.) Place or Space How Far. 
 
 Walks in his yard (where). Walks from his yard (whence). Walks 
 to his yard (whither). Walks through his yard (which way). Walks 
 the length of his yard (how far). 
 
 CHAPTER IL 
 
 PLACE WHERE. 
 
 77. This element tells where a fact or a movement is 
 or exists. It may be conceived of as a mere point, or as 
 coextensive with the universe. We may say with equal 
 propriety that a given thing took place in this room, in 
 this country, in this world, in the universe. 
 
 1. This element is found, for the most part, with words 
 denoting state or action, but not progressive motion, 
 otherwise than in the sense of action. 
 
 2. Construction. (1.) The WoRD-roitM is usually either an 
 adverb or an adjective-terra. 
 
 Stays here, there, somewhere, elsewhere, nowhere, etc. A suburban building; 
 an ylmencan river ; a .ffusstan custom ; an aem/ flight; that tree <Aere. 
 
 (2.) The Phrase-form involves the use of a large number of prep- 
 ositions. 
 
 The most common are, at, around, about, above, before, behind, be- 
 low, beneath, beside, over, out of, under, underneath, upon, »?, near, 
 with, tcithin, icithout. 
 
 Works under ground ; encamped around the city ; winds about the 
 oak; is about the hour; is under the loater ; is near the city ; is within 
 Vie building ; is on his horse; in his carriage^ etc. 
 
THE LOCAL MODIFIER. 233 
 
 (3.) The Clause-form is commonly a relative. 
 Stays wherever he is happy ; works where he can see his friends. 
 
 (4.) Place where Is sometimes indicated by means of a circumlo- 
 cution, in the form of a relative clause. 
 
 There is, as you go out of the city, a large hill (= just out of the city). 
 They searched the land from the wilderness of Ziou unto Rehob, as men cojm 
 to Hamath. — Bible. , 
 
 3. Cautions. Distinguish Place where from : — 
 (1.) Ohj. of Association. 
 
 Lives in good society, Assoc. ; lives in his own house, PI. where. 
 Stays among his friends, Assoc. ; stays among the rocks, PI. where. 
 
 (2.) State or Condition. 
 
 Is out of pain, without hope, without protection, State; is out of the city; 
 without the walls; without the camp, Pi. where. 
 
 4. Mixed Forms. Place may involve, — 
 (1.) Quality. 
 
 Mountain air ; sea breezes; Shejield cutlery ; Rtissiaiion; India silk; Pais- 
 ley shawls ; Lyons velvet. 
 
 (2.) Designation. 
 
 My Boston friends ; our London correspondents ; the book on the table ; the 
 chair in the corner ; the man in the arm-chair, etc. 
 
 (3.) Purpose (95, 5 (1)). 
 
 He works only where he can see his friends ; encamped tohere they might get 
 abundance of provisions. 
 
 (4.) Cause or Occasion (96, 8 (5)). 
 
 He stood sad and tearful at the grave of his friend; she wept a long time 
 where her child was buried. 
 
 (5.) Hypothesis (111, 10). 
 
 Wherever I meet him he insults me = if I meet him anywhere, etc. 
 
 (6.) Concession (113, 6 (2)). 
 
 I was calm where everybody else was in perfect consternation ; he obtained a 
 good education where there was not a single school (= where and though). 
 
 (7.) Means (100, 4 (a)). 
 
 I crossed the ocean in a steamship (in and by means of). So, Holds it in his 
 hands; bears him on his shotdders, etc. 
 
234 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 Exercise 78. 
 
 Analyze, classifying all Modifiers, Objective, Adjective, and Adver- 
 bial ; note and classify the different kinds of Complements ; note also 
 any Rhetorical Copulas. 
 
 ILLUSTKATIONS. 
 
 Is in bis room. 
 
 Jn his room is an Adv.-T. of the Cx. P.-f., and denotes Place Where ; in 
 room is the B., etc. 
 
 Is in great sorrow. 
 
 In sorrow is a Comp.-T. (68, 8 (2)) of S. P.-f., and denotes State or Cond. ; t« 
 torrow is B., etc. 
 
 The greatness of his sorrow. 
 
 Of his sorrow is an Adj.-T. of Cx. P.-f., and denotes Connection — of which 
 of sorrow is B., etc. 
 
 His sorrow became joy. 
 Joy is a N.-T. of S.W.-f., and denotes Fact. Obj. 
 
 I. Works in tbe shop; works with rae; sits on the sofa; is in bed; 
 is in earnest; is up stairs; is at liberty; is in the cellar; is in his 
 right mind; is in the yard; is in great hopes; is without the yard ; 
 is without friends ; is out of town; is out of money; is on the table; 
 is on my mind ; stands opposite to our store; stands opposite to me. 
 
 n. Flies in the air; swims in the sea; swims among the fishes; 
 now he swims a fish and now he flies a bird; the fish became a bird; 
 he flies among the birds; he is a bird ; he became a large bird; the 
 bird is large; the bird is red; the color of the bird; this color is red; 
 red is a color ; it was colored red. 
 
 III. Where is the dog? what is a dog? of what color is the dog? 
 what is his name; he is here; he is under the table; he is in his 
 kennel; he is in pain ; a dog is a quadruped ; a dog is an animal; a 
 quadruped is an animal; an animal is a thing; the thing is a dog; 
 the dog is black ; his color is black ; his name is Veto ; the name of 
 Veto is a strange name ; we like the name Veto and also the dog 
 Veto. 
 
» 
 
 THE LOCAL MODIFIER. 235 
 
 CHAPTER in. 
 
 PLACE WHENCE. 
 
 78. This modifier indicates the point from which a 
 motion or a movement starts or proceeds. 
 
 Went from the house ; spoke /rom the platform ; cried out from the 
 deck; addressed us /row the pulpit (76). 
 
 1. Construction. (1.) The Word-form is commonly an jid- 
 jective or an adverb. 
 
 Departed thence; has gone hence; a heavenly messenger (=from Heaven). 
 
 (2.) The Phrase^form has commonly the prepositions from^ out 
 of 
 
 Has gon& from home ; a \o\cq from above ; a sound /rom vnihin. 
 
 (3.) The Clause-form is a relative adjective clause. 
 
 Procured provisions from whatever places it was possible. 
 
 m 
 
 2. Cautions. Distinguish Place whence from Object of Sep- 
 aration and from State or Condition. 
 
 Is out of patience. State; has gone out of town, PI. Whence. 
 Is without pain, State; has moved out of the city, PI. Whence. 
 Has gone /row me, from among us; out of society, Obj. Sep.; has gone /row 
 my mind, from my memory, PI. Whence. 
 
 EX^ERCISE 79. 
 
 Do the same work as in the last Exercise. 
 
 I. Goes out of town ; is out of town ; walks out of town ; works out 
 of town; moves out of town; lives out of town ; rode olit of town; 
 drove out of town; stays out of town; is out of business; is out of 
 money; is out of hearing ; is out of work; is out of the city; is out of 
 his head ; is out of the state; is out of patience. 
 
 II. Spoke from the platform ; spoke from his heart ; spoke from 
 among us ; spoke in the crowd; spoke to the crowd; spoke of the 
 crowd; spoke for the crowd; spoke many words; spoke what he 
 pleased ; spoke what he had prepared ; spoke in much pain ; spoke 
 in a hall ; spoke in tears ; spoke without emotion. 
 
236 " ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 PLACE WHITHER. 
 
 79. This modifier indicates the point at which a mo- 
 tion or a movement terminates ; that is, it expresses the 
 limit of motion. 
 
 Went to Boston ; came into my mind (76). 
 
 1. Construction. (1.) The Word-form is an adverb, or an 
 adjective. 
 
 Will go thither ; has come here ; the Boston road (= road to Boston) ; the 
 New York express (= express to New York.) 
 
 (2.) The Phrase-form commonly has the prepositions to, unto, 
 into. 
 Went to the mountains; into the forest; up to the summit of the hill. 
 
 (3.) The Clause-form is relative (adjunctive). 
 We came to wJiere there was a fountain of water. 
 
 2. Cautions. Distinguish this form from Factitive Object, and 
 Obj. Association. 
 
 Came to town, PI. Whither; came to his fnends, Obj. Ass.; came to want, 
 Fact. Obj. 
 
 Went to his home, PI. Whither; went to them, Obj. Ass.; went into a ft, 
 Fact. Obj. 
 
 3. Mixed Forms. Place whither sometimes involves the ele- 
 ment of Hypothesis. 
 
 Will go whithersoever thou goest (= and if thou goest anywhere). 
 
 Exercise 80. 
 
 Do the same work as in last Exercise. 
 
 I. Sailed to Havana; a sail to the island; lives on the island, in 
 comfort, with us, in our memory, in ease, at home. 
 
 II. Has gone to his friends, to the country, into the forest, into 
 bankruptcy, to them, to sleep, into retirement, into a prison, into 
 consumption. 
 
 III. Arrival at home; lives at home; lives here ; comes here; 
 comes hither ; went from here ; went Jit^nce ; went to them ; went 
 
THE LOCAL MODIFIER. * 237 
 
 into a valley ; went into a spasm ; the way to that place ; a journey 
 to the mountains. 
 
 IV. The New York line ; the Boston express ; a voyage to Havre; 
 Havre is in France; it is a city; a city is a large town; this large town 
 is Havre ; the town is large ; the circumference is twenty miles. 
 
 V. Came to where you stood; went from where w^were stand- 
 ing ; will remain where we are ; told where we were; told whence he 
 came; told whither he was going (35). 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 PLACE WHICH WAY. 
 
 80. This modifier indicates the Route^ or Direction of 
 any act or movement. 
 
 Went by way of Liverpool ; by the shore line ; through France; over 
 the sea ; across the river. (Route.) 
 
 Made for the port ; sailed for London ; came towards the town ; 
 turned to the left ; was looking down the river ; came towards us ; was 
 aiming aft^; pointed upward. (Direction.) 
 
 1. Construction. (1.) The Word-form is an adjective or an 
 adverb. 
 
 "Moves obliquely ; vertically; upwards; downwards. 
 
 A westward course ; an upward flight; a horizontal movement. 
 
 (2.) The Phrase-form has the prepositions for, by, through^ 
 along, above, around, beneath, over, under, across, to, and some others. 
 
 Sailed yb?' London ; towards England; through the gulf; along the coast ; be- 
 side the shore; around the cape. 
 
 Went out by the door ; through the window. 
 
 (3.) The Clause-form is an adjunc. relative clause. 
 The army moved forward by whatever route was most practicable. 
 
 2. Cautions. Distinguish Place which way from, — 
 (1.) Object of Association (48). 
 
 Rode among the people; rode through the crowd; came to us. (Assoc.) 
 Rode around the hills; rode through the city; came towards us. (Route or 
 Direction.) 
 
 (2.) Place Whilher. 
 
 Sailed towards London; sailed /w London. (Route or Direction.) 
 
 Sailed to London. (Whither.) 
 
238 " ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 8. Mixed Forms. Tliis element may involve, — 
 (1.) Object of Interest. 
 Struck at me ; shot at me. 
 (2.) Means. 
 Effected his es6ape through a window (= through and by means of). 
 
 Exercise 81. 
 
 Do the same work as before. 
 
 I. Stays in the city ; walked through the town ; walked around 
 the town; walked across the town; flew over the town; tunneled 
 under the town ; made a proclamation to the town; the people of the 
 town ; the beauty of the town ; built the town ; burned the town ; 
 talked of the town; town joined to town; the town deprived of its 
 citizens; the town is populous; it is a place of fifty thousand inhab- 
 itants; the number of citizens is fifty thousand ; the number is large; 
 the mayor of the town ; the town has grown large ; it was burned to 
 ashes. 
 
 II. Shot him ; shot at him; the shooting of him ; a shooting at him. 
 Ate berries; at« of berries ; the eating of berries; fed upon berries ; 
 
 consumed berries; the consumption of berries. 
 
 Tasted of wine ; the tasting of wine ; sipped wine ; drank wine ; 
 the drinking of wine; partook of wine. 
 
 Smells of flowers ; smells flowers ; a lover of flowers ; loves flowers; 
 the love of flowers. 
 
 Caught it; caught at it; struck it ; struck at it ; a stroke at it; 
 felt of it; clutched at it. 
 
 He was shot at ; wine was tasted of ; flowers were smelled of. 
 
 III. Sailed for Java, towards Java, around Java ; went via the 
 Cape; went through the strg-its; sailed easterly; the wind is east- 
 erly; the direction of the wind is easterly; the wind blows easterly ; 
 the blowing of the wind ; an easterly wind ; a violent wind ; the 
 wind blows violently; the violence of the wind; feel the wind blow; 
 felt it blowing; it is the wind that blows; it is on the ocean that it 
 blows hard. 
 
 IV. Has fallen from a window; from his position; from grace; 
 from the roof ; from our respect ; into the water ; into decay ; into 
 the river ; into ruin ; to my lot; to pieces; fell in with me ; fell into 
 a rage ; fell sick ; fell short ; fell flat ; fell out of the boat ; fell out 
 with me; fell into difficulty. 
 
 V. Pointed up; pointed to the west; looked down; looked down 
 
THE LOCAL MODIFIER. - 239 
 
 upon me ; the house looks to the south ; it looks beautiful ; spoke 
 through the hall ; spoke in the hall ; spoke of the hall ; spoke from the 
 hall; spoke in front of the hall; spoke before the people ; spoke to 
 the people; spoke against the people; spoke over against my house. 
 
 CHAPTER VL 
 
 SPACE HOW FAR, OR DISTANCE. 
 
 81. This element marks the distance over which a 
 movement proceeds. 
 
 Sailed ten leagues ; walked Jive miles ; rode the length of the city ; 
 journeyed a long way. 
 
 1. As Distance^ this element is used in many relations, 
 not strictly referable to the above definition (76, 1). 
 
 Went over shoe in the mud ; the knife cut to the lone ; plunged the 
 dagger in up to the hilt. 
 
 2. Extent of Space may be indicated in four ways. 
 We may mark, — 
 
 (a.) The distance itself. 
 
 (6.) The point of departure, the terminus being known, 
 (c.) The point of rest, the point of departure being known, 
 (ri.) The point of departure and the point of rest. 
 Walked forty miles ; walked from Boston ; walked to New York ; 
 walked /rom Boston to New York. 
 
 3. Distance is sometimes indicated by a kind of rhe- 
 torical circumlocution. Here the measure indicated by 
 the modifying phrase is an appositive element of Desig- 
 nation. 
 
 Rode a distance Of ten milks. Ascended to a height of a thou- 
 sand FEET. Sank to the depth of a hundred fathoms, etc. (= 
 rode ten miles; ascended a thousand feet ; sank a hundred fathoms). 
 
 4. Construction. (1.) The Word-form may be a noun, an 
 adverb, or an adjective. 
 
 Walked a mile; sailed a learjue ; have traveled /ar ; a long ride; a short 
 •un ; has come forty miles. 
 
240 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 (2.) The Phrase-form has the prepositions, over, through, of. 
 Has journeyed over thewhole road ; has wandered through the city ; a journey 
 of forty miles. 
 
 (3.) The Clause-form is relative (commonly adjunctive). 
 Traveled over whatever distance there is from BostoT\, to New York. 
 5. Mixed Forms. Space How Far, or Distance, sometimes 
 combines Agency. 
 "Was well known throughout the State (= by and all over). 
 
 Exercise 82. 
 
 Do the same work as before. 
 
 J. Rode a mule; rode the distance of a mile; rode across the plain; 
 rode around the plain; rode from the plain, up the hill; rode at my 
 side; rode against me; rode for me; rode among us; rode away from 
 us; rides over the waves; rides at anchor; rides a fine horse; rode 
 from Maine to Georgia; rode a long ride; rode a long distance; rode 
 through the gate; rode through the crowd; rode to the west; rode 
 to the town ; rode a fine steed ; he rides an officer, but I trudge a 
 private (70). 
 
 IL Sailed a league; the space of a league; sailed from the South; 
 sailed from the port ; sailed for the light-house ; sailed for me ; a 
 sail to the north ; a northerly sail ; a sail of ten leagues ; a transat- 
 lantic voyage; a voyage of many miles; the length of the sail; sailed 
 a long sail; sailed a long distance ; sailed down the river; rose to 
 the height of a mile ; is respected throughout the country. 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 THE LOCAL MODIFIER. (Continued.) 
 
 82. Place often takes the form of Direct Object. 
 
 Left the city (= departed from) ; reached the town (= came to) ; 
 traversed the plain (= went across); descended the hill (= went 
 down); made a long Journey (== traveled many miles, etc.) 
 
 1. Do not confound adverb-terms denoting place with 
 noun-terms expressing cZiVec^ suffering object^ or adjective- 
 terms of designation. 
 
 Told where you stopped, N.-T. denoting Dir. Suf. Obj. The place 
 

 THE LOCAL MODIFIER. 241 
 
 where you stopped, Adj.-T. denoting Desig. Stayed where you stopped, 
 Adv.-T. denoting place Where. 
 
 Told whence he came, N.-T. of Dir. Suf. Obj. The country whence 
 he came, Adj.-T. of Desig. Returned whence he came, Adv.-T. of 
 place Whither. 
 
 Inquired whither you were going, N.-T. of Dir. Suf. Obj. The city- 
 whither you are going, Ad;f.-T. Desig. Shall go whither you are going, 
 Adv.-T. of Place Whither. 
 
 2. Place is often rendered emphatic by means of the 
 it construction. 
 
 It was here that I saw him ; it was from this place, that they emi- 
 grated ; it is to London that we go; it was hy the Shore line that wc 
 came ; it is a long journey that we have. 
 
 3. Place is sometimes indicated by idiomatic forms. 
 (53, 1, N. Exercise 32.) 
 
 Encamped within a mile of (= from) the town, PI. Where. Lives 
 far from the sea-shore, PI. Where. Came (up to) within a mile of the 
 city, Space How Far and PI. Whither (combined). 
 
 Exercise 83. 
 
 Do the same work as hefore ; correct anything wrong. 
 
 I. Visited Rome; went to Rome; abandoned Rome; stopped in 
 Rome ; departed from Rome ; occupied Rome ; lived in Rome ; trav- 
 ersed Rome ; went through Rome ; came towards Rome ; was ap- 
 proaching Rome; it was Rome that I visited; it was to Rome that I 
 came; Rome is a city; Rome is populous ; the population of Rome; 
 the grandeur of Rome; Rome is called the Eternal City; Rome is the 
 city of Seven Hills; this city is Rome. Shall live in Rome. Shall 
 live in Italy. 
 
 II. This is where I live ; the place where I live ; stays where I 
 live; tells where I live; inquires where I live. 
 
 III. Swims in the sea; glides through the water; swam ten miles; 
 swam to the shore; swam up the river; swam for the shore; was 
 transformed into a fish; he was a bird; was hatched a bird; lived a 
 worm and died a butterfly; there are fishes in the sea; there are 
 fishes swimming in the sea. 
 
 IV. 1. There is a third difference ; we always feel ourselves at 
 liberty to forego the enjoyment of pleasure. — Hopkins. 2. The 
 
 16 
 
242 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 movement is from without, inward. — Id. 3. That man has such 
 faculties, there can be no doubt. — Id. 4. What the supreme end 
 of man, as fixed by God, must be, will be determined by what he is 
 in himself. — Id. 5. It is only in Britain that an age of fable com- 
 pletely separates two ages of truth. 6. Of James the First, as of 
 ■John, it may be said that if his administration had been able, it 
 would probably have been fatal to our country. — Macaulay. 7. I 
 feel as if I were twenty years older since Thursday. — Id. 8. '* I 
 could almost wish," he writes, " that what is to be, were to be im- 
 mediately." — Id. 
 
 SUB-DIVISION \l — THE TEMPORAL MODIFIER. 
 
 — • — 
 
 CHAPTER L 
 
 NATURE AND DIVISIONS OF THE TIME ELEMENT. 
 
 83. Time may be either Natural or Circumstantial ; — 
 natural when indicated by the astronomical or natural 
 divisions of time ; circumstantial, when expressed by 
 facts, events, or occurrences. 
 
 Natural Divisions. "0/2^^0, at night ; on Wednesday; in May; 
 in the winter. Stayed a day ; a week; a month ; a year. 
 
 Circumstantial Divisions. Came when you came ; before the 
 battle ; after the war. Stayed during the meetings ; while you stayed ; 
 while the war lasted. 
 
 1. Time, like space, is a purely relative conception. 
 We can think of it, only in given relations, never abso- 
 lutely. 
 
 Hence the date of any event is altogether arbitrary, 
 being simply so many years before or after some event 
 agreed upon as a basis of time measurement. This stan- 
 dard may be, and frequently is, one thing in one country 
 and another thing in another. 
 
 2. This element involves five different temporal rela- 
 tions, namely : ■ — 
 
THE TEMPORAL MODIFIEB. 243 
 
 (1.) Time When, or Simultaneous. 
 
 (2.) Time Before, or Antecedent. 
 
 (3.) Time After, or Subsequent. 
 
 (4.) Time How Long, or Duration. 
 
 (5.) Time How Often, or Degree of Frequency. 
 
 Rides in the morning (when). Rides before moi-ning (before). 
 Rides after the morning (aiter). Rides all the morning (how long). 
 Rides every morning (how often). 
 
 CHAPTER n. 
 
 TIME WHEN. 
 
 84. Time When, like Place Where (77), may be 
 thouglit of as a point, or as a period coextensive with in- 
 finity : — 
 
 We may say, with equal propriety, that a thing hap- 
 pened this moment, this year, this century, since the 
 Cliristian Era, since the creation of the world, or within 
 the past eternity of God's existence. 
 
 1. Time When is sometimes expressed indefinitely, that 
 is, as a point of time somewhere within a given period. 
 
 Will return in an hour ; will be back in the course of three months; 
 shall visit you while you are in the city. 
 
 2. Construction. (1.) The Word-form is an adverb, or an 
 adjective, and sometimes a noun. 
 
 Comes noio ; to day ; came yesterday ; last week ; Inst mont/i ; last May. 
 The J/r/y meeting; C/iWs^mas festival ; /as< year's fashions. 
 
 (2.) The Phrask-fohm has the preposition at, on, by, about, bc- 
 ticeen, with, and others. 
 
 Arrived on Monday ; about six o'' clock; between six and seven; will be here by 
 Thursday ; the birds come with the flowers ; rises tclth the sun. 
 
 (3.) The Clause-form may be relative or participial. 
 Came ichen it was time; left as you entered; started at the sun^s Hsiny ; the 
 sun lisiny, we started ; as soon as the sun rose,v/e started (14, 20). 
 
 3. Mixed Forms. Time When often involves the elements of, — - 
 (1.) Causal Object. 
 
 I tremble when I think of it {= when and at the thought of it). 
 
244 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 (2.) Cause or Occasion. 
 
 The battle being over^ the enemy retired (= when and because the battle was 
 over); on my friend's recovery I returned home (when and because, Occasion); 
 shall come when you need me ; has friends in prosperity ; as soon as he saw me, 
 he fled (= when and because). 
 
 (3.) Comparison (proportional form, 148, 10 (2)). 
 
 The combat thickens as the datf advances ; he grows more and more robust as 
 he grows old. 
 
 (4.) Concession. 
 
 He frequently works when he is sick (= when and though). 
 
 (5.) Means. 
 
 We are not lowering the dignity of science when we command it to worsliip 
 God (= when and by commanding it), etc. All human excellence has been at- 
 tained zrA en the mind has kept before it the ideas of the great and the good, 
 the beautiful and the perfect (= when and by the mind keeping before it, etc.). 
 
 Exercise 84. 
 
 Classify alb elements heretofore discussed. 
 
 I. Will come immediately, at once, next week, at your bidding, 
 when you say; came here ; came then; came as you left ; while you 
 were at your studies ; came last evening. 
 
 II. The morning air; the delicious air; the sea air ; the mountain 
 air; the air is fresh; the freshness of the air; the air of Italy; the 
 heated air. 
 
 III. The evening breeze ; the cooling breeze ; the breeze blows 
 soft; the softness of the breeze; the summer breeze. Will work 
 to-moiTow ; works for you ; works at home ; was at work as you 
 arrived ; is a good worker; a worker is a man who works ; this man 
 is a good worker; works in the village; works in the evening; works 
 in the rain. 
 
 IV. Will sing at nine at your house, at the fair, on the stage, 
 on her arrival, to the audience, before the audience, a sweet song 
 about her native land, for her friends. 
 
 V. Was singing as you came, when you left, at your arrival, 
 when you left her, in the hall, in the evening, in the distance. 
 
THE TEMPORAL MODIFIER. 246 
 
 CHAPTER m. 
 
 TIME ANTECEDENT. 
 
 85. The examples below will sufficiently indicate this 
 form of Time, 
 
 1. Construction. (1.) The Word-form is commonly an ad- 
 verb. 
 
 llsLS -worked hitherto ; w&a previously intemTpersite ; sailed ten days a^o; was 
 here not long since. 
 
 (2.) The Phrase-form has the prepositions before, ere, and the 
 forms anterior to, prior to, antecedent to, etc. 
 Shall go before night; happened 2>rto7' to this; the night before the battle. 
 
 (3.) The Clause-form is an adjunctive demonstrative, or an 
 adjunctive participial clause. 
 
 Came before you left; ere you departed; previous to this being done^ all had 
 left. 
 
 (4.) A somewhat singular idiomatic form sometimes occurs. 
 
 The lions had the mastery of them and brake all their bones to pieces, or ever 
 they came at the bottom of the den. — Bible. (Note the greater emphasis of or 
 ever as compared with before. See 11, 8.) 
 
 Note. The amount of priority of time comes under a different 
 head and -will be discussed in a subsequent section (122). 
 
 2. Mixed Forms. This element often involves, — 
 (1.) Time how long. 
 
 I shall not give it up before I have finished it (= before and until). 
 (2.) Concession (but with an implied negation). 
 
 Before ^e had fairly recovered he recommenced his work (= before and 
 though he had not, etc)- Hastened into Macedonia before these wicked men 
 could learn of my arrival. Id. 
 
 (3.) Purpose (negative form). 
 
 We must hurry away before the officers apprehend us (= and, that they may 
 
 not). 
 
 (4.) Designation. 
 "We came the day before you left. 
 
 k 
 
246 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 Exercise 85. 
 
 Do the same work as before. 
 
 I. Came at noon ; before noon ; before you arrived ; at your ar- 
 rival; when you arrived; while you were away; just as you left; ere 
 you left. 
 
 II. Came to you ; came before now ; came to me ; came to my 
 house; came into my room ; came into use; came from the East; 
 came from his friends; came into the city ; came into vogue. 
 
 III. The day before yesterday ; the day previous ; the day of the 
 fight; the day you came; the day of your arrival; at the very mo- 
 ment that he arrived (14, 56, (3) 6). 
 
 IV. Will speak before noon; will speak before a large assembly; 
 will speak from a platform ; the previous speech; the political speech; 
 the speech of yesterday ; the anniversary speech; the dinner speech; 
 the Banker Hill speech; the Fourth of July speech; the temperance 
 speech ; the eloquent speech ; the speech on eloquence; the speech on 
 the floor of Congress ; the place of the speech ; the eloquence of the 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 THEE SUBSEQUENT. 
 
 86. The character of this form of Time will be mani- 
 fest from the examples below. 
 
 1. Construction. (1.) We have, as Word-forms, the follow- 
 ing : hereafter, henceforth, henceforward, thenceforth, afterwards, sub- 
 sequently, etc. 
 
 (2.) The Phrase-form has the prepositions after, behind, since, 
 and some others. 
 
 Arrived after nine ; was behind his appointment ; has come dnce then. 
 
 (3.) The Clause-form is a demonstrative, a relative, or a parti- 
 cipial clause. The demonstrative is always adjunctive. 
 
 Arrived after you left {= after that, 11, 14). This done (= this having been 
 done, i. e., after we had done this), we departed. When we had done this,we left 
 (when = after). 
 
 (4.) An adjunctive participial form sometimes occurs in older 
 English and in poetry, but rarely elsewhere. It is, however, very 
 common in Latin. 
 
THE TEMPORAL MODIFIER. 247 
 
 Nor delayed 
 The winged saint, afttr hia charge received. — Milton. 
 
 He after Eve seduced, unminded slunk 
 Into the wood fast by. — Id. 
 
 Note. As regards the amount of time subsequent, see Measure 
 of Difference (122). 
 
 2. Mixed Forms. Time subsequent often involves, — 
 (1.) Cause or Occasion. 
 
 When the wind had subsided,we took a sail (= when, in the sense of after, and 
 because). Our work having been completed, we went home. The time having 
 arrived, we commenced. 
 
 (2.) Concession. This combination is very common. 
 
 After all that was said to him, he still persisted in his course (= aft er and in 
 
 spite of, etc.). 
 
 (3.) Designation. 
 Arrived the first day after the battle. II *^ «^ E^ »s '^-^ ^/^ 
 
 Exercise 86.' X^^"^ ^T} 
 
 Do the same work as in the previous Exercise. .^^ -W I A. 
 
 I. Mows grass, a good swath, after dinner, after he dines, before" " 
 light, before it is light, at sunrise, when the sun rises, in the 
 meadow, on the hill sides, across the field, around the field, when 
 
 he chooses, what he chooses, for us, for whoever will pay him. 
 
 II. Plays after work, after sunset, after the sun has set, base 
 ball, with us, in the evening, in the park, on the green sward, by 
 the river, whatever is pleasant, a good play, with whoever will 
 play with him. 
 
 III. Came home at midnight, ere it was light, in the gray of the 
 morning, in the rain, in perplexity, in a fog, in much sorrow, in the 
 morning. 
 
 IV. Came early; came the Tuesday before Christmas; came the 
 day after you arrived; came just as the sun set; will come the first 
 Monday after the fourth of July ; came within a rod of their camp ; 
 encamped far from us. 
 
 k 
 
248 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 CHAPTER V. . 
 
 TIME HOW OFTEN, OR INDEFINITE FREQUENCY. 
 
 87. The Word-form here is an adverb, as : constantly^ occasion- 
 ally, sometimes, hourly, daily, annually, seldom, rarely, often, frequently j 
 repeatedly, perpetually, continually, etc. 
 
 1. Adjectives and nouns are also used. 
 
 A cfa% paper; annual meeting; anniversary gathering; hourly trips; has a 
 dollar a day ; sails twelve knots an hour. 
 
 2. Construction. (1.) The Word-form is often a noun in the 
 plural. 
 
 He works nights and sleeps days (= every night, etc.); works Mondays; goes 
 to market Saturdays. 
 
 (2.) The Phrase- FORM has the prepositions at, for, on, in, per, 
 and some others. 
 
 Arrivals at every hour; has forty dollars per month; works for me on Mon- 
 days. 
 
 (3.) The Clause-form is a relative indefinite, or a conjunctive 
 (33, 1, (2)). The form with as is not infrequent (14, 26). 
 
 Goes whenever he wishes ; always arrives as the train comes up ; Ifitisrubbed 
 on a magnet, it acquires the property of attracting iron filings. — Norton. If 
 a stone is dropped from a balloon, it falls towards the earth; if ether is mixed 
 with solid carbonic acid, gas will escape {if '= whenever). 
 
 3. Cautions. Do not confound this element with Comparison 
 (148). 
 
 As often as he walks, he takes his children. Here, '^ as he walhs^^ is Comp. 
 and not Time, though the whole expression indicates time. 
 
 4. Mixed Forms. Indefinite Frequency often involves Hypoth- 
 esis (111, 10). 
 
 Whenever it rains hard, we are allowed to go into our tents (= if it rains 
 hard, etc.). 
 
 Exercise 87. 
 
 Do the same work as before. 
 
 J. Talks perpetually, to every person, on everything, about 
 everybody, long talks, himself hoarse, us all to death, every day, 
 in the morning, at night, before light, after midnight, in the house, 
 
THE TEMPORAL MODIFIER. 249 
 
 simong friends, with strangers, out of doors, as he walks, when 
 lu' eais, whilst he works, before the learned, wherever he is, to 
 -whoever will listen, whenever he can open his mouth, himself 
 empty, everybody dumb. 
 
 II. An hourly messenger; a faithful messenger; a pleasant ride; 
 a daily ride ; an early ride; the previous ride ; a perilous ride; a ride 
 about town ; a ride over the bridge ; a ride home ; a ride out of town ; 
 a ride across the plain; a ride up the hill; the ride was long; the 
 length of the ride. 
 
 III. Plays fine music; plays for us; plays in the parlor; will play 
 soon, here, now, often, in the evening, in our presence, before 
 callers, an hour, hourly, whatever she knows, wherever she is, to 
 whoever will attend. 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 TIME HOW LONG, OR DURATION. 
 
 88. Duration like extent of space (81, 2) may be in- 
 dicated in four ways. We may mark, — 
 
 (1.) The period itself. 
 
 (2.) The beginning of the period, the end being known. 
 
 (3.) The end of the period, the beginning being known. 
 
 (4.) The beginning and the end of the period. 
 
 Stayed a month ; stayed since June ; stayed until October ; stayed 
 from June to October. 
 
 1. The beginning and the end of a period is sometimes 
 indicated by a single phrase-form. 
 
 Rome was not built in a day. 
 
 2. Construction. (1.) The Word-form when referring to a 
 definite j)eriod is usually a noun ; when to an indefinite, usually an 
 adverb or an adjective. 
 
 Shall stay rt week; Si month; always ; forever ; eternally. 
 An everlasting ]oy ] a. momentary Tp\e&s\ive; an Aour's delight. 
 
 (2.) Duration, marked by the end of the period, is often indicated 
 
 Vy the conjunctive word-form as yet. 
 As yet they had never known what poverty is (= up to this time). 
 
 (3.) The Phrase-form has the prepositions during, for, through^ 
 throughout, of, in, within, from, to. 
 
250 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 Continned during the month; through the year; after May; from May to 
 June ; writes a discourse at one sitting. ^ 
 
 Shall be gone a month. From everlasting to everlasting thou art God. — 
 Bible. 
 
 (5.) The Clause-form is adjunctive, demonstrative, participial, 
 or relative. 
 
 Shall remain uTitil the snow comes; has been here since the birds came; shall 
 remain while the storm continues. 
 
 6. Mixed Forms. Time How Long may combine with (1.) Time Antece- 
 dent. This combination occurs when the time element marks the end of one 
 state of things as made possible only by the beginning of another. I will not 
 go until I hare told my errand (until and before). 
 
 (2.) Cccuse. We have this combination very frequently, and it occurs when 
 the time element marks the duration of some acting force or influence with ref- 
 erence to some result of the same, of equal duration. While the waves roll the 
 ship will rock (i. e., while and because). While the ship rocks the passengers 
 are fearful (i. e, while and because). So, also, when this element is a word- 
 form, not a modifier denoting Comparison (142). As long as the wind blows the 
 waves will roll (t. e., as long as and because). As long as he continued faithful 
 1 continued to pay him well. This combination occurs also when the time ele- 
 ment marks the beginning of some new force or influence with reference to a 
 new state of things thereby produced. This new state of things is usually the 
 direct opposite to the previous one. We did not fear until the wind began to blow 
 (and then we did fear because it blew). They were all in terror until they 
 reached the shore (and then and therefore they were no longer terrified). 
 
 (3.) Purpose. We have this element incorporated when the time-term marks 
 the limit of an action or an effect, put forth for the accomplishment of an end 
 which it designates. He worked until he accomplished his purpose {i. e., until 
 and that he might). They will tight until they conquer (i. e., until and that tJiey 
 may). 
 
 (4.) Consequence. This element is always involved when the time modifier 
 marks the limit of an action, a force, or an influence with reference to some 
 result coming from the same: The snow continued to melt until the inver over- 
 flowed its banks (t. e., until and so that). He studied until he became completely 
 exhausted. 
 
 (5.) Condition. Here the time element marks the end of uncertainty with 
 reference to some conceived act, circumstance, or change. I cannot go until 
 you give me permission (i. e., until and unless). <■ 
 
 (G.) Concession. Here the time element marks the duration of some force or 
 influence which seems more or less incompatible with the statement in the main 
 proposition. While he was suffering severely from pain in his head, he still con- 
 tinned to write (:= while and though). 
 
 Exercise 88. 
 
 Do the same work as before. 
 
 I. Has been gone a year, since July, since your coming, since 
 you came. 
 
THE TEMPORAL MODIFIER. 251 
 
 II. Goes to-day, every day, next week, every week, continually, 
 for ft month, for a friend, a long journey, after Christmas, at New 
 Year's, to London, towards London, across the ocean, over the sea, 
 through the kingdom, from home. 
 
 III. An absence of many years' duration ; an absence for a period 
 of many years; the thirty years' war; a war of the length of thirty 
 years ; a war of thirty years in duration. 
 
 IV. Consumed a month in mere play ; played a month ; spent a 
 day in looking about town;. stayed in town a day, looking about; 
 traversed the whole valley in the search ; walked many miles in the 
 search; left the city at ten; went from the city about ten. 
 
 V. 1. It was towards the middle of the thirteenth century, and 
 just after his return from the Siege of Seville, that he commenced 
 the splendid palace of the Alhambra. — Irving. 2. He joined us as 
 we entered the gate. — Id. 3. We proceeded along the Zacatur, the 
 main street of what in the time of the Moors was the Great Bazaar, 
 and where small shops still retain the Oriental character. — Id. 
 4. Made this their place of refuge, whence they might depredate 
 upon Granada. — Id. 5. As we were at supper, two poor Asturians 
 put in in distress. — Id. 6. The matin peal from church and con- 
 vent below me rang sweet (72) in the morning air, as I descended. 
 ^Id. 
 
 CHAPTER VIL 
 
 THE TEMPORAL MODIFIER. (Continued.) 
 
 89. Time sometimes takes the form of a Direct Object. 
 
 Spent a month in Paris (= stayed a month) ; he preceded me a 
 month (= came before me, etc.) ; it antedates the landing of the 
 Pilgrims; spends his Sabbaths at home (= stays at home every Sab- 
 hath). 
 
 So, — Clause-forms. 
 Will spend what time I can spare with you. 
 1. As in the case of Place, Time is often emphasized 
 by means of the construction with it. 
 
 It was then that I first understood him ; it was during this time that 
 he suffered so much ; it is mornings that I especially need your ser- 
 vices ; it was after he reached home that he was taken sick. 
 
252 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 2. Time is very often beautifully indicated by means 
 of some fact or circumstance in nature. 
 
 As in a shady nook I stood behind 
 Just then returned at shut of evening Jloivers. — Milton, 
 
 3. Time, like Place, or Space (81, 3), is sometimes in- 
 dicated by a kind of rhetorical circumlocution. 
 
 Here, also, as in the case of Space, the modifying 
 phrase is an apposition of Designation. 
 
 The war continued for a period of thirty years. Remained 
 there for the space of three months. Duration (= continued 
 thirty years ; remained three months). Returned after an interval of 
 three weeks. The comet will return after a period of a hun- 
 dred YEARS (= returned after three weeks ; will return after a hun- 
 dred years'). Time Subsequent. Arrived in the month of June; 
 commenced in the year 1878 (= arrived in June; commenced in 
 1878). 
 
 4. These cases must be distinguished from forms not 
 having the appositive modifier. 
 
 Returned after an absence of ten days. Here ten days is a simple 
 adjective-term of Time How Long ; it is not appositive, the teji days 
 is not the absence, but the length of the absence. 
 
 So, Arrived after a delay of a week. Was helpless during a sick- 
 ness of several months. Recovered after an illness of a month. 
 
 5. Sometimes, for the sake of emphasis, the modifying 
 time clause is made the principal proposition. In this 
 case the original leading proposition becomes, of course, 
 the subordinate clause. 
 
 We saw the nature of the difficulty as soon as we arrived, = we 
 had no sooner arrived than we saw the nature of the difficulty {Time 
 element emphatic). 
 
 It was done as quickly as it was said, = it was no quicker said than 
 done (^Time element emphatic). 
 
 In the above forms, the principal proposition when 
 made subordinate becomes a term of comparison. Not 
 unfrequently, however, it denotes time the same as the 
 
THE CAUSAL MODIFIER. 253 
 
 original modifying clause. In sucli cases we have a kind 
 
 of inversion of the temporal element. Thus, — 
 
 He commenced work before he had hardly recovered from his sick- 
 ness (Ordinary form). He had hardly recovered from his sickness 
 when (or before) he commenced his work (Inversion, the time ele- 
 ment made the principal proposition and the principal proposition 
 made a time element). 
 
 6. Cautions. Do not confound adverb-terms of Time, with noun- 
 terms of direct object, or adjective-terms of designation (61). 
 
 Told when you came; asked how long you stayed^ Dir. Obj. 
 The time when you came ; the period during which you remained, Adj.-T. of 
 Desig. 
 Went when you came ; shall stay while you stay, Adv.-T. of Time. 
 
 Exercise 89. 
 
 I. Sailed a distance of several leagues; enjoyed a sail of several 
 leagues ; rode the distance of ten miles; took a ride of ten miles. 
 
 II. Made a stay of several days; remained for a period of several 
 days; arrived after a period of several days; arrived the last day in 
 June; recovered after a sickness of ten days; came back after an 
 absence of ten days ; shall go back after a vacation of one week ; 
 began to improve after an interval of one week ; shall come in the 
 month of May ; shall come in the beginning of May; shall come the 
 first Monday in May; shall come sometime in May; shall return in 
 May. 
 
 SUB-DIVISION \\\. — THE CAUSAL MODIFIER, 
 
 NATURE AND DIVISIONS. 
 
 90. That every effect has a cause is an hituition. 
 It is simply impossible to conceive of a change, whether 
 in the world of mind, or in the world of matter, other- 
 wise than as the result of some adequate cause. 
 
 It is evident that causation may be immediate, me- 
 diate, or remote ; that is, the direct cause of a given effect 
 
254 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 is always itself the effect of some other prior cause, and 
 this again is the result of another cause still more remote. 
 Thus, a tree is uprooted by the wind, but the wind itself 
 was produced by heat, and heat was originated by the 
 sun, etc., each effect being produced by a cause, which 
 cause itself was the effect of a previous cause. 
 
 Thus cause lies back of cause, and if we trace the 
 chain of causation back to the beginning, we shall find 
 that, in every instance, it finally links itself with mind, 
 either human or divine ; that is, all final causation is in 
 its nature the product of mind energy — of .a free will. 
 But in the practical experiences of life we take cogni- 
 zance of cause, in the main, only as we find it in some- 
 what direct connection with the effect produced. 
 
 Again, cause may be real^ as in the cases just contem- 
 plated, or it may be only conceived. Hence, Causal Ele- 
 ments generally may be divided into — 
 
 (a.) Real Cause. 
 
 (5.) Conceived Cause. 
 
 CHAPTER L 
 
 BEAL CAUSE. DIRECT . FORMS. 
 
 Divisions of Real Cause. 
 
 91. Real Cause may be divided, as being more or 
 less immediate and direct, into, — 
 
 (a.) The Mobe Direct Cause. 
 
 (6.) The More Indirect or Remote. 
 
 92. Direct Cause may be subdivided into, ^- 
 
 (a.) Origin or Source. 
 (6.) Author or Agent. 
 (c.) Purpose or Motive. 
 (d.) Cause Proper. 
 
THE CAUSAL MODIFIER. 255 
 
 Section I. — Origin or Source. 
 
 93. This Modifier denotes that whence anything pro- 
 ceeds, springs, or arises. 
 
 Flowers spring from seeds; grovrs from the soil; was descended 
 fro7n noble anceatri/ ; received favors froin us ; heard the news froiii 
 Mm ; I had the facts from you ; learn of me ; took the disease from 
 his brother. 
 
 1. It is often used figuratively, and thus refers to 
 things immaterial. 
 
 I extract a sweet 
 From all my bitter woes. — Cowper. 
 
 2. This modifier is often found with words of reaso7i- 
 ing^ judging., concluding^ etc. ; after such expressions as, 
 is a result of ; is a result from ; is in consequence of; is 
 inferred from; is derived from; draw a conclusion 
 
 from ; etc. 
 
 This conclusion follows inevitably /7*07n the premises given. All 
 this must be inferred directly /rom the testimony rendered. 
 
 3. Construction. (1.) The Word-form is a possessive, an 
 adjective, or an adverb. 
 
 Sun light; the sun's light; the book whence I received this information. 
 (14, 11.) 
 
 (2.) The Phrase-form has the prepositions /rom, of in, by, and 
 some others; also, the expression, at the hands of etc. 
 
 Sprung from English stock ; what is this derived from f of whom are these 
 the descendants V the conclusion derived /rom such premises ; from this we infer 
 that you are right. 
 
 (3.) The Clause-form is an (adjunctive) relative, or participial 
 
 clause. 
 
 Will grow from whatever soil will produce anything. Our pleasure arises 
 from the plan being well conducted. — Blair. A species of beauty arises from 
 fJie perception of means being adapted to an end. — Id. 
 
 4. Cautions. Do not confound Origin with Separation (49) 
 •)r Place Whence. There is always a Causal notion in the first, 
 which is invariably wanting as a leading conception, at least, in the 
 .^st two. 
 
256 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. • 
 
 Ores come from the earth. Place whence. Plants grow /row <Ac «oi/. Origin. 
 Took plants jTroTU us. Sep. 
 
 5. Mixed Forms. This modifier sometimes involves, (1.) Specif cathm. 
 Age doth profit in the powers of the understanding (t. c, derives profit /roni 
 and in the case of them). He finds much advantage in vigorous exercise; finds 
 much enjoyment in music 
 
 (2.) Connect'wn. The fragrance of flowers; the heat of the sun. 
 
 (3.) Relationship. The son of James I. Elizabeth was the daughter of Henry 
 VIII. 
 
 Exercise 90. 
 
 Classify all modifiers heretofore discussed. 
 
 ILLUSTBATIONS. 
 
 The smell of the orange. 
 Of the orange is an Adj.-T., denoting Con. and Origin. 
 
 The size of the orange. 
 Of the orange is an Adj.-T., denoting Con. 
 
 Oranges spring from seeds. 
 From seeds is an Adv.-T., and denotes Origin. 
 Ate of the orange. 
 
 Of the orange is an Adv.-T., and denotes Dir. Suf. Obj. (Partial action 
 form). 
 
 I. The form of the pear; the culture of the pear ; the sweetness of 
 the pear; the beauty of the pear; the grafting of the pear; the 
 color of the pear; the home of the pear; the stem of the pear; a 
 piece of the pear ; partook of the pear ; talked of the pear ; the skin 
 of the pear; an idea of the pear; a discussing of the pear; a discus- 
 sion about the pear; an English pear; a mellow pear; it becomes a 
 pear; it is a pear ; a pear is a fruit. 
 
 II. The light of the stars ; the brightness of the stars ; the heat 
 of the stars ; the color of the stars ; the creation of the stars ; the 
 form of the stars; the number of the stars; the size of the stars; 
 the beauty of the stars; the influence of the stars; the destruction 
 of the stars; the attraction of the stars; the motions of tlie stars; 
 the naming of the stars; the names of the stars ; the shining of the 
 stars ; a talk about the stars; revolves about the stars; a book on the 
 stars; the regions above the stars; a flight among the stars; came 
 
THE CAUSAL MODIFIER. 257 
 
 from the stars ; saw a shooting star ; saw a star shoot ; he now shines 
 a star; he is a star; made the glittering stars; made the stars glit- 
 ter; the stars shine bright; the stars are bright; the stars look 
 bright. 
 
 Section II. — Author or Agent. 
 
 94. Agency may be considered either as Voluntary or 
 as Involuntary. 
 
 A. Voluntary Agency. All free intelligences, when 
 acting freely, are voluntary agents. 
 
 Done by me ; a history by Hume; conquered by the English. 
 
 (1.) Anything may be made a voluntary agent, rhetor- 
 ically, by the figure of personification. 
 
 Wrought by thee, O Wind. 
 
 (2.) Agency may be either active or passive ; that is, 
 it may or may not involve direct active effort. 
 
 Was struck by him ; conquered by the French ; killed by the sav- 
 ages (Active Agency). 
 
 Was influenced 63/ wze ; was beloved by all; was respected by his 
 friends (Passive Agency). 
 
 (3.) Voluntary Agency is sometimes expressed by a 
 figure, or by a rhetorical circumlocution. 
 
 More good is accomplished by the pen than by the sword (i. e., by 
 the writer than by the soldier) ; was eloquently described by the pen 
 of Walter Scott (i. <?., by Walter Scott) ; was planned by the brains 
 of a master ; was wrought out by a strong intellect ; was rescued by 
 the hands of ?iis slave ; was subdued by the will of his father ; was 
 thus decided by the bench ; was well argued by the bar ; is held heret- 
 ica. by the A merican pulpit ; has been confirmed by the church in all 
 ages. On all hands it is agreed that so far as Josephus goes, he con- 
 firms the accuracy of our books. — Hopkins. 
 
 B. Involuntary Agency. Animals in a certain 
 sense, at least, as distinguished from mere inanimate 
 causes^ are self-acting ; they are, however, at the same 
 
 17 * 
 
258 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 time, as distinguished from free intelligences^ more or less 
 under the control of natural instincts. Hence we term 
 all animals involuntary agents. 
 
 Killed hy a hear ; torn hy a dog ; bitten hy a snake ; chased hy a 
 tiger. 
 
 1. This element sometimes takes the form of a mere 
 ligure of speech. 
 
 The revolutions made hy the earth. 
 
 2. Construction. (1.) The Word-form of this element is a 
 possessive, an adverb, or an adjective. 
 
 This was divinely accomplished (= by Deit}'); the enemy^s march (= by the 
 enemy); my labor (= labor performed by me) ; a. parent's care (= care exercised 
 hy a parent). 
 
 (2.) The Phrase-form has &^, sometimes tciVA ; adjective-forms 
 take of. 
 
 Was taught hy him ; the deeds of men (= performed hy men) ; the poems of 
 Ossian; was held in high honor wilh the majority. 
 
 Passive Agency, especially in the older English, often has the 
 preposition of. 
 
 Was seen of Cephas ; read and known of all men ; was seen many days of 
 them. — BiMe. 
 
 (3.) Passive agency is also sometimes indicated by to, a construc- 
 tion corresponding somewhat to the Latin and the Greek Dative of 
 Agency. 
 
 It was known to aU (= known hy all) ; it seemed to me correct (». e., was so 
 seen hy ms) ; it was clear to me ; was evident to them ; was manifest to all; was 
 obvious to everybody. 
 
 It seems clear to him (t. c, it is apparently apprehended hy him); it seems 
 manifest to all; it seems evident to us, etc. 
 
 (4.) When two or more different parties are considered as involved 
 in the same act, passive agency has sometimes the form of on the part 
 of, or at or by the hands of. 
 
 Was well received on the part of the Democracy ; he has been severely dealt 
 with at the hands of his oivn friends. " This is admitted on all hands." — Dr. 
 J^cpkins. , 
 
 Note. It is worthy of note, that in the French, Active Agency 
 ih regularly expressed by par in the phrase-form, and Passive as 
 regularly indicated by de. 
 
THE CAUSAL MODIFIER. 259 
 
 (5.) The Clause-form is a relative (Adjunc). 
 Can be done hy whoever will undertake the matter. 
 
 S. Cautions. Distinguish, especially when an adjective-term of 
 ^he phrase-form, the following, namely, Dir. Suf. Obj. ; Dir. Fact. 
 Obj., Connection, and Agency. Thus, — 
 
 The destruction of the human race, Suf. Obj. ; the creation of the human 
 race, Fact. Obj. ; the growth of the human race, Con. ; the acblevetnents oftht 
 human race. Agency. 
 
 4. Mixed Forms. Agency may involve, (1.) Object of Association. "Was 
 much honored among the people ( = by and among). 
 
 (2.) Means. "We are represented in Congress by Judge Williams (=by and 
 through). 
 
 Exercise 91. 
 
 Classify all modifiers. 
 
 I. My son; my friend ; my home ; my ability ; my health; my la- 
 bor; my ruin; my destruction; my hands; my name; my promotion; 
 my writing; my reading; my books; my parents. 
 
 II. Was addressed to me; was known to me; was spoken to me; 
 was given to me; has written to me; has come to me; was a friend 
 to me; it seemed to me; useful to me. 
 
 III. Will come by evening; was done by him; came by the N. Y. 
 line; was standing by me; will arrive by ten; was conquered by 
 them ; will come back by June ; will come back by Cape Horn ; ho 
 passed by me on the street. 
 
 IV. The works of Milton ; the praises of Milton ; the culture of the 
 vine; the fruit of the vine; the destruction of the vine; the beauty 
 of the vine; the vice of anger; the suppression of anger; the effects 
 of anger; the sinfulness of anger ; the deeds of men ; the creation of 
 men; the exploits of men; the governing of men; was speaking of 
 men ; was beloved of men. 
 
 Section HI. — Purpose or Motive. 
 
 95. This modifier denotes the object or end for which 
 an act is put forth, and which is the exciting cause of 
 the same. 
 
 We should eat to live and not live to eat. 
 
 1. Construction. (1.) The Word-form may be an adjective, 
 a noun (used conjunctively), or an infinitive (used alone or conjunc- 
 iively with so as). 
 
260 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 Managed so as, if possible, to get the portion; planned so as not to be circurr^ 
 vented. 
 
 A passenger car (= to carry passengers); took him as guide {z= to guide); 
 went as cumpaniom (= to accompany); went to see; studies to learn; planned so 
 as to give time for preparation. 
 
 (2.) When an adjective term, it often involves an ellipsis. 
 
 Built a house to live in {= in which to live); tools to work with ; a knife to cut 
 uUh (14, 37). 
 
 (3.) The Phrase-form may have the prepositions /or, to, a, on, 
 in, after, and some others. The infinitive with the relation term 
 on purpose to is not uncommon. 
 
 Fought for glory ; fought in self-defense ; went a hunting ; seeks after glory; 
 works to this end; did this on purpose to deceiv^e me. 
 
 (4.) The following relation-terms are sometimes used : — 
 
 With a view to get the throne; with the design of surprising the enemy; for 
 ihepuipose o/" seeing the city ; by way q/" keeping this in remembrance; in quest 
 of gold. 
 
 (5.) The Clause-form may be infinitive, participial, relative, or 
 conjunctive. 
 
 Did this to the end that ye may believe; purchased a book yb?' my child to 
 read; proposed a plan which might prevent this in future (= to prevent, etc.); 
 vfQTitthat {so that, in order that) he might see ; run, lest you be overtaken (= that 
 you may not, etc.); in order to its (the conscience) being roused there must be an 
 address from a higher region. — McCosh. 
 
 Formerly the subjunctive mood was used. 
 Hold him that he stir not. 
 
 (6.) Sometimes an element denoting Purpose is modified by an- 
 other element expressing Purpose likewise, and sometimes this last 
 by still another. 
 
 The better to unite the parts of the government and to bind them into :ne 
 system, which might sekve (5) both FOR DEFENSE against foreigners and 
 FOR THE SUPPORT of domestic peace, William reduced the ecclesiastical 
 revenues under the same laws. — Prescott. 
 
 2. Cautioxs. (1.) Distinguish Purpose from Obj. of Interest. 
 Works /or money, Purpose; works/or 7ne, Obj. Int. 
 
 (2.) Certain infinitive forms of Purpose must be carefully distin- 
 guished from forms apparently similar, but having other logical sig- 
 nifications. 
 
THE CAUSAL MODIFIER. 261 
 
 Have a horse fo r^e (= for riding), Pur.; have to ride a hoise (mood-form 
 of the verb merely). 
 
 lie furnished me something to rfo (= for me to do), Pur.; I have something 
 to do (= which should be done), Adj.-T. Description ; there is something to be 
 done, Inf. CI.; something is to be done, Mood-form inerely. 
 
 I have a boat to sail in every day, Pur. ; I have to sail in a boat every day, 
 jMood-form. 
 
 I was there at noon to see you, Pur.; I was to see you there at noon, Mood- 
 form. 
 
 I used my knife to cut with, Pur.; I v^ed to cut with my knife, Mood-form. 
 
 There is work to do {i. e., work awaiting accomplishment), Adj.-T. Descrip. 
 there is work to be done (what is or exists?), Ans.; work to be done, Inf. el. as 
 Subj.-T. ; work is to be done, Mood-form (23, 9); I have work to do, Adj.-T. 
 Descrip.; I have to do work, Mood-form (23, 9) ; he gave me work to do (= for 
 me to do), Pur. (Comp. 12, 10 (3)). 
 
 3. Mixed Forms. Purpose may combine with itself. (1.) Object of Interest. 
 'Yini^ht for freedom, Pur. simply; fought /or the slave (= for and in behalf 
 of), Pur. and Int. So, often with the expressions, for the sake of, for (our) 
 sake, in behalf of , in (our) behalf, in (our) favor, in (our) behoof, in the interest 
 of Pur. and Int. are combined. 
 
 (2.) Object of Association. Fought over the spoils. Was engaged tn (^ef^tn^ 
 subscribers. 
 
 4. Purpose may be combined as subordinate with, (1.) Place Where (77, 
 4 (3)). Took his stand where he might watch the movements of the enemy. 
 
 (2.) Time How Long (88, 6 (3)). Fought till they conquered. 
 
 (3.) Adjective Elements (59, 3, 3). Ascended a hill whence he might see the 
 cU.j. 
 
 (4.) Condition (111, 9 (1)). If one would learn one must study (». e., if and 
 in order to learn). 
 
 (5.) Substitution. He took a log for a pillow (i. e., for and in place of). 
 
 (G.) Time Antecedent. We must make our escape before the police can arrest 
 U5 {i. e., and in order that they may not). 
 
 Exercise 92. 
 
 Classify (lie modifiers. 
 
 I. Desires to see; -went to see; began to see; he is to see; some- 
 thing to see; looked for a place to see; chose a time to see; has to 
 see ; am to see ; has gone to see ; was to see; hopes to see; there is 
 mnch to see ; there is much to be seen. 
 
 II. AVent as commander; went to command ; went for the purpose 
 of commanding ; went as leader ; was considered as leader ; consid- 
 ered him as leader; considered him leader; went that he might lead ; 
 feared lest he might not lead. 
 
 III. Hunt after gold; went after us; went at sunrise ; went after 
 
262 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 the sun rose; went for money; went for you ; fought in the ranks; 
 fought in the city; fought in self-defense; fought in uniform; fought 
 in the morning ; fought in the cause of liberly. 
 
 IV. Bought a book for my son; bought a book for my son to read; 
 bought a spoon to dip with ; looked for a place to start from ; hired 
 a boat for all to sail in ; has something for you to do ; there is noth- 
 ing to do ; there is nothing to be done ; nothing for them to do. 
 
 V. 1. Close not your lips at night till you have opened them in 
 prayer. 2. Men blame themselves only for the purpose of being 
 praised. 3. " Give alms that thy children may not ask them," says 
 a Danish proverb. 4. It was said of Socrates that he brought phil- 
 osophy down from heaven to inhabit among men. — Addison. 
 5. Another explanation is that Ephratah may have been the name 
 given to some of his daughters. 
 
 Section IV. — Pure Cause and Occasion. 
 96. This element is the physical or the logical antece- 
 dent of any change, whether material or spiritual. Evi- 
 dently mind may act upon both matter and mind ; and 
 matter also may act upon both matter and mind. 
 Hence, — 
 
 1. Cause may be, in nature, either material or spir- 
 itual. 
 
 Moved &y his love; saddened by his death ; overwhelmed by his 
 fall ; overcome with fear ; struck down by lightning ; driven by the 
 wind ; parched by the sun ; destroyed by pestilence ; sick with a fever ; 
 weary with exertion ; suffering with headache^ etc. 
 
 2. With words of condemning and punishing the crime 
 is usually an element of cause. 
 
 Was condemned for theft (t. e., because he stole). "Was executed 
 for murder-; was imprisoned for felony ; was punished for hU crime. 
 
 3. In the form of Occasion this modifier indicates not 
 so much the direct cause, as that which permitted^ or 
 facilitated^ or precipitated the action of the real cause. 
 
 The flowers were frozen because it was very cold, Direct Cause; 
 the flowers were frozen because they were uncovered, Occasion. (Of 
 course the true cause of the freezing was the same as before). 
 
THE CAUSAL MODIFIER. 263 
 
 4. As Occasion this element also indicates that which 
 enables us, wholly or in part, to explain or to account for 
 any change or phenomenon simply, without any refer- 
 ence to its true cause. 
 
 The damsel arose and walked, /or sAe was of the age of twelve years. 
 He found nothing but leaves, for the time of fgs was not yet. lie 
 went away sorrowful, /or he had great posse<isions. 
 
 5. Occasion often takes the form of a negative of the 
 real cause of an opposite state of things. 
 
 The meat spoiled because it icas not salted, Occasion ; it kept he- 
 cause it was salted, Cause. So, Took cold because she did not wear 
 her cloak. The child died for want of care. The battle was lost 
 because the reserves came too late. Occasion. 
 
 6. CoNSTKUCTiON. (1.) The WoRD-FORM is a participle (often 
 used conjunctively and often elliptical), an adverb, or an adjective. 
 
 Was condemned as [being) a malefactor ; was arrested as being one of the 
 conspirators ; those dwelling (13, 4) in the mountains became hardy (= because 
 they dwelt, etc.) ; he, being weary, retired early. 
 
 (2.) The Word-form is often a participle, followed directly by a 
 relative clause (14, 50, (1)), affirming the truth of the fact, or the 
 thought indicated by the participle, and thereby intensifying its cau- 
 sal force. 
 
 Translated, as it was, frmx the Latin Vulgate, it makes the Latin the 
 principal source of our theological vocabulary. — Macaulay. Knowing, as he 
 must have known, that he was in the wrong, he should have confessed his fault. 
 CoKROBORATED, as it was, by m^ny witnesses, the story gained credence; 
 
 (3.) The Phrase-form has the prepositions by, with, for, of, to, 
 on, from, and others. It is sometimes conjunctive. 
 
 Palsied with fear ; exhausted with labor; sick/ron* a cold; congratulates 
 them on their success; death /rom cholera; rejoiced because of your success; dis- 
 tinguished/or /tis /earwiw^; famous for its fne wines; on reading the newt he 
 became angry ; almost dead/or hunger. 
 
 So, also, the forms, by reason of, in consequence of, owing to, in 
 view of, on the ground of. 
 
 A long sickness oimng to severe and sudden cold ; in consequence of a cold. In 
 view of all the difficulties which must be met, he gave up the undertaking. 
 
 (4.) The Clause-form is relative, participial, or conjunctive, 
 
264 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 introduced by because^ since, as, inasmuch as, for, in that, as long as 
 (= since), when (= since, 15, 5), and after (= inasmuch as), 
 15, 5. 
 
 The fort having surrendered, we retired. Could not move forwards on ac- 
 count of the bridge having been broken down. As {or since, because, inasmuch as) 
 the bridge was broken down, we could not move forwards. As long as he would 
 not work at all,l discharged him. After what you said to me I concluded I 
 would not go on (15, 5). The door having been left unfastened, t\ie goods were 
 stolen. 
 
 7. Cautions. Distinguish Cause from — 
 
 (1.) Causal Object. Cause is purely adverbial; Causal Object is 
 both a causal and an objective modifier. 
 
 Rejoices at your success, Causal Obj. ; rejoiced because of your success, Cause. 
 Was grieved at his death, Causal Obj. ; was grieved because he died, Cause. 
 
 (2.) Origin and Source. Here there is little difficulty except when 
 the preposition /rom is used. 
 
 Note the fact that from = through, by, or with always introduces 
 cause. 
 
 Fragrance comes from the rose, Origin ; weariness comes from, hard labor, 
 Cause. 
 
 (3.) Agency. Note that agency, whether voluntary or involun- 
 tary, is always an animate being, and in some sense at least self- 
 acting, the latter never, except by a figure (94, 1). 
 
 When we speak of lightning, fire, the wind, or the forces of nature 
 generally as agents, we do so only by a figure. 
 
 Killed by lightning ; by the plague (Cause); killed by a robber ; by the weapon 
 of an enemy {Y. Agency); killed by a lion; by a serpent; bitten by a mouse; 
 stung by a bee (Inv. Agency). 
 
 (4.) Cause as pure Cause should be distinguished from Time com- 
 bining Cause, and from pure Time. 
 
 As long as he would not work at all, I discharged him, Pure Cause. I paid 
 him as long as he worked for me. Time and Cause; his name will live as long as 
 ike sun shines. Time only. 
 
 (5.) Conjunctive word-forms with as = as being and denoting 
 cause, must be distinguished from the same form in other cases, viz. 
 from, — 
 
 (a.) Purpose (95). Here as has the force of /or. 
 
 Refuses to accept the good as the aim of life (as = for). Sin is the choice of 
 self-gratification as the end of life (as = for). 
 
THE CAUSAL MODIFIER. 265 
 
 (&.) Appositice Adjective Element of Designation (61, 1). Here as 
 =z such as, or as for example. 
 
 All the vices, as: sensuality, ambition, avarice, pi-ide, envy, etc. (as = as for 
 example). 
 
 (c.) Factitive Object (51). 
 Represented them as wanting in integrity. 
 
 8. Mixed Forms. Cause may be combined with the following as subordinate 
 constituent: (1.) Object of Association. Am very happy among my new (xssoci- 
 ates. 
 
 (2.) Description (58). Wise men are respected. Men of true genius are 
 well known. 
 
 (3.) Designation (61). Those who were loyal the king promoted. 
 
 (4.) State or Condition (57). Men in distress at once win our sympathies. 
 
 (5.) Place (77, 4, (4)). He is always happ3' where his friends are (i. e., and 
 because he is where they are). 
 
 (6.) Time (84, 3, (2)). When you came I was delighted. As long as you were 
 away I was sad. 
 
 (7.) Specifcation {127 , 6, ('4)). Did very wrong z» thus deceiving you. 
 
 (8.) Conformity. Acts alweLya from noble principles. 
 
 (9.) Object of Interest (in a modified form). His recovery was due to your 
 kind attentions {= ip consequence of and owing to). This is all owing to your 
 negligence. 
 
 EXEECISE 93. 
 
 Classify all modifiers, 
 
 I. Pale with fear; satisfied with his lot; struck with terror ; smit- 
 ten with disease; begins with the day; mingles with his friends; 
 talked with me; weary with travel; overcome with the heat; frowns 
 with envy; exults with joy; died with a happy death; engraved with 
 figures; cried out with terror; cried out with a loud voice; was held 
 in honor with the nobles ; was in communication with the nobles. 
 
 II. Was promoted for his bravery; fought for his country ; fought 
 for glory; sailed for China ; died for his enemies; mistook him for 
 you; was chosen for life; was chosen for his fitness and ability; was 
 taken for me; was admired for his bravery; has served for ten years; 
 labors for my good ; was searching for gold ; was promoted for his 
 faithfulness; started for home; was imprisoned for he was guilty; 
 we love him for his mother. 
 
 III. Killed by lightning; killed by an Indian; killed by a lion; 
 sick with a fever; died of a fever. 
 
 Will return by Shore Line; will return by May; will return by and 
 by; was done by you; lives by the sea. 
 
266 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 rV. Was punished as a thief ; was regarded as a thief; was im- 
 prisoned as being a thief; he being a thief was punished; he being 
 a thief, they punished him ; his being a thief procured his punish- 
 ment ; as he was a thief, he was punished ; they caught him as he 
 was thieving. 
 
 V. Congratulate you on your success ; condemned him on a charge 
 of treason ; condemned him on his arrival ; lives on the mountain; 
 lives on vegetable diet; goes on an errand; the train came up on 
 time ; thrown on his own responsibility ; lives on his income ; went 
 on his way home ; is based on this principle ; is founded on a rock. 
 
 Section V. — Reason and Evidence. 
 
 97. Reason is that which produces knowledge or con- 
 viction of some thing. It may be an intellectual conyic- 
 tion of a fact, or of a change ; or it may be a moral con- 
 viction of a duty or of an obligation. 
 
 The man must be dead, for his body is cold ; A = B, C = B ; hence 
 A = C ; for things equal to the same thing are equal to each other. 
 Mental conviction. Praise the Lord for He is good. Moral Con- 
 viction. 
 
 1. Reason as used in jurisprudence is termed Evidence. 
 Evidence when conclusive becomes Proof. 
 
 This man must be the murderer, for he declared he would kill him 
 (Evidence), /or we saw him commit the deed (Proof). 
 
 2. Reason or Evidence may be based upon, — 
 (1.) Personal Knowledge or Experience. 
 
 He is there,/??* / see him. It will rain, for the clouds are dark and lowering. 
 (2.) Testimony. 
 
 Hannibal must have lived, for many historians assert it. He must have been 
 a learned man, /or all icho knew him affirm it. 
 
 (3.) The Relation of Cause or of Occasion to an Ef- 
 fect. 
 
 Some vessels must have been lost, for the storm was very severe. The plants 
 are probably frozen, as it was very cold last night. 
 
 (4.) The Relation of Effect to Cause. 
 
 It must have been a severe storm, /or several vessels were shipwrecked. It 
 certainl}' must have been cold last night, /or our plants are all frozen. 
 
THE CAUSAL MODIFIER. 267 
 
 (5.) Analogy, or Parity of Reasoning. 
 
 The ship will doubtless arrive in safety, ybr she has made a Hundred such t»y- 
 ages. "We must die, /or all who have lived be/ore us have died I 
 
 3. Cautions. Reason must be distinguished from Cause and Oc- 
 casion ; the latter produces an effect, the former produces simply 
 knowledge or conviction of the same. 
 
 The man died, because he was poisoned (Cause) ; the man is dead,^w he does 
 not breathe (Reason). 
 
 4. Construction. The three forms of the element, that is, the 
 word, the phrase, and the clause, are substantially the same as in 
 the case of Cause and Occasion. The only difference worthy of note 
 is the fact that, in the clause-form of Reason, the connective for is 
 used much more frequently. 
 
 5. Mixed Forms. Reason or Evidence sometimes involves Consequence. 
 He must have been a very bad man /or aU his children to leave him. 
 
 Exercise 94. 
 
 I. He must be well educated, for he has studied faithfully; for his 
 teachers say so ; because he attended the best schools ; because he 
 is a fine writer; because he moves in literary circles ; becaut^e he has 
 a fine library. 
 
 II. He traveled extensively, for he wished to see the country ; for 
 his friends desired it; because he had plenty of money; because he 
 thought his health would be improved. He must have travelled ex- 
 tensively, for he seems familiar with all the foreign art galleries; 
 for he had a very great fondness for travel. 
 
 III. 1. The expulsion of these was due to the valor of a Tlieban 
 prince. — Siointon. 2. As food was cheap, owing to its being easily 
 obtained, the race increased rapidly. — Id. 3. He was far from 
 being the unquestioned master of his own actions. — Id. 4. The 
 pyramids were designed as the sepulchres of kings. — Id. 5. The 
 commerce of Tyre is described as very extensive at this time. — Id. 
 
 6. The fine arts were discouraged as leading to effeminacy. — Id. 
 
 7. When he became king he set on foot a plan for the elevation of 
 Macedonia. — Id. 8. With the fall of Epaminondas, Thebes her- 
 self fell. — Id. 9. This was a very skillful stroke of policy on the 
 part of Philip. — 7c?. 10. The government of the people, for the 
 people, by the people. — Id. 11. It was a system that made possible 
 for the first time in the world's history a great nation. — Id. 
 
268 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 Section VI. — Direct Cause. {Continued.') 
 
 98. The causal term may be made empliatic by being 
 brought forward in the sentence. Here, as elsewhere, 
 the " it " construction is very common. 
 
 It is from good soil only that sucli plants will grow well. It was 
 hy Ccesar that Gaul was conquered. It was to see the city that I 
 went. It was by the wind that the tree was uprooted. 
 
 1. This element, with considerable gain in the way of 
 emphasis, sometimes takes the form of a proposition of 
 the nature of a sentence. 
 
 She turned as pale as a sheet, so much was she terrijied. 
 
 The ship was thrown on her beam ends, so terrific was the storm. 
 
 2. Cause and Reason often have the form of a conjunc- 
 tive sentence with /or (16, 3). 
 
 Every idle word that men shall speak they shall give account 
 thereof in the day of judgment. For by thy words thou shalt be justi- 
 fied. 
 
 Exercise 95. 
 
 Classify the Elements. 
 
 1. They had no redress, seeing that the nobles were the magis- 
 trates of the fief. — Swinton. 2. King Philip became embroiled with 
 Rome owing to his having made a treaty with Hannibal. — Id. 
 3. This was a very skillful stroke of policy on the part of Philip. — 
 Id. 4. The pyramids were designed as sepulchres of kings. — Id. 
 5. His soldiers refused to go farther ; so he had to prepare to return 
 home. — 7c?. 6. The archway was pierced with holes through wliich 
 melted lead could be poured upon an enemy. — Id. 7. It is said 
 that they took as their model a stranded Carthaginian vessel. — Id. 
 
 8. This had grown to great importance in the twelfth century. — Id. 
 
 9. The capture of Nero was hailed by the Christians as a glad omen. 
 
 — Id. 10. It is with the fall of the Western Empire that we are 
 concerned, for with the fall of it ancient history ends. — Id. 11. The 
 Romans represented them as wanting in integrity. — Id. 12. It 
 .ay like a purple stain upon the horizon, so mighty was the distance. 
 
 — De Quincey. 13. Growing into terraces and towers of wondrous 
 altitude, so mighty was the pass. — Id. 
 
THE CAUSAL MODIFIER. 269 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 REAL CAUSE. — REMOTE FORMS. 
 
 Remote Cause may he subdivided into, — 
 
 (a.) Interchange. 
 
 (b.) Means and Instrumenti 
 
 (c.) Material and Constituency. 
 
 (d.) Supply. 
 
 Section I. — Interchange. 
 
 99. This element in its primary form is a kind of 
 comhination of Cause and of Purpose. It is always 
 hased upon the relations involved in reward, recompense, 
 indemnity, compensation, reparation, requital, considera- 
 tion, return, etc. 
 
 A present ybr your kindness ; I thank you for your help; sold it for 
 a dollar ; your trouble /or your pains ; an eye for an eye ; a blow /or 
 his impudence ; a reward for your honesty. 
 
 1. Interchange often takes a distributive form. 
 
 Costs a dollar a yard (= for every yard) ; sells for fifty cents per 
 gallon ; for ten dollars a barrel. 
 
 2. Construction. (1.) The Word-form scarcely occurs. 
 (2.) The Phrase-form commonly has for, or zn, or by, in such 
 
 expressions as, in exchange for, in return for, in consideration of. 
 
 (3.) The Clause-form is relative. Will sell for what you will 
 give. 
 
 3. Cautions. Interchange must be distinguished from the Fac- 
 titive Object. 
 
 Took him /or you ; look him /or his brother ; mistook him /or the king, Fact. 
 Object. Will go for sufficient pay ; he sold his country /or gold, Interchange. 
 
 Exercise 96. 
 
 Classify all the Elements. 
 
 I. Gave him a reward for his faithfulness; made him a present for 
 his kindness; will do this in return for these favors ; does this out of 
 love to you; does this to make you happy; thanks for your favor; 
 
270 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 am obliged to you for what you did for me ; I owe you an apology 
 for what I did; I desire to apologize to you; I have come to apolo- 
 gize to you ; my act sprung from my hasty temper ; it cannot be but 
 my apology will be well received on your part. 
 
 IL 1. Beyond this there was and still is a place called the Frog- 
 gery, from an old tradition of frogs having been kept there. — Lord 
 Gladstone'' s Life of Faraday. 2. The place was already famous with 
 the memories of Rumford and [of], Young. — Id. 3. The next morn- 
 ing there was an interview; which resulted in the young aspirant for 
 scientific work being engaged to help the famous philosopher. — Id. 
 4. I thought myself in an uncivilized country, for never before nor 
 since have I seen such wretched beings. — Id. 5. Supported by her 
 son whom she occasionally visited, and of whose growing reputation 
 she was not a little proud. — Id. 6. On inquiry being made, it ap- 
 peared that he had been the guest of the queen. — Id. 7. The num- 
 ber of suggestions offered to me very freely and with perfect good 
 will and simplicity on the part of the proposers is remarkably great. 
 — Id. 
 
 Section II. — Means and Instrument. 
 100. This element, as the name implies, is something 
 which stands between (medius), the doer and the thing 
 done, and which is more or less helpful in producing the 
 result secured. 
 
 Fabius conquered ly delay ^ lives hy hard laior, Means; cut wUh a 
 knifCf killed with a cannon ball, Instrument. 
 
 1. Free intelligences become means, when their will is 
 controlled by another (94, A.). 
 
 The captain manages the ship with a crew of forty men; Brown 
 works his plantation with twenty slaves and ten mules. Means. 
 
 2. Construction. (1.) The Word-form is an adverb, an ad- 
 jective, or a participle. 
 
 Things mentally discerned (= with the mind); a water wheel (i. e., moved by 
 water): a steam engine (t. e., propelled by steam), etc.; mental labor. Burning 
 the bridge, they cut off the enemy's retreat. Exercising daily she preserved her 
 health. 
 
 (2.) The adverbs, thus, thereby, whereby, and so, referring to a pre- 
 vious statement, are often used. 
 
THE CAUSAL MODIFIER. 271 
 
 The array burned the bridge and thus cut off the enemy's retreat (= by this 
 means). He worked very hard, and so accomplished his task (= by such hard 
 work). He had a long rope and thereby effected his escape. 
 
 (3.) The Phrase form has the prepositions by, with, at, and 
 others. 
 
 Done by hand / desolates a nation at a blast. 
 
 (4.) The Clause-form is participial, or relative. 
 
 Fought with whatever they could lay their hands upon. 
 
 These rites began by the priest taking one of the male lambs destined to be 
 slain ana leading it to each point of the compass in turn, and by his (= him) 
 swinging a vessel of oil on all sides. — Dr. Geike. 
 
 3. Cautions. Do not confound Means with Cause. Means al- 
 ways implies an agent or an actor behind it and using it for the end 
 sought. 
 
 Cut with a knife, Means. Died with a fever, Cause. 
 
 4. Mixed Forms. Means may have in combination with it: (1.) Object of 
 Association. Occupied himself in looking at the pictures. 
 
 (2.) Agency (94, 4, (2)). Has spoken to us through the prophets. 
 
 5. Means may be combined as subordinate with, (1.) Place (77, 4, 7). Will 
 carry it in my hands. Made his exit through a window. Sent his baggage in 
 the steamer (in and by means of). (2.) Time (84, 3, (5)). You accomplish all 
 when you effect this {= when and by). (3.) Condition (107, 3, (1)). You will 
 prevent their retreat if you bum the bridge (if and by doing it). 
 
 Exercise 97. 
 
 Do the same work as before. 
 
 I. Brought them in his carriage; can hold it in my hands; put it 
 in my hands; was in an oven; was baked in an oven; was done by 
 my agent; made a contract with him by my agent; have traveled 
 throughout the world; this view is admitted throughout the world; 
 was proclaimed among the people; was held in high respect among 
 all the people; lives among the people. 
 
 II. Smoothed with a plane ; cut with a knife ; swore with an oath; 
 found fault with us; talked with me ; stays with his family; angry 
 with you; combines with traitors; disconnection with the party; 
 rises with the lark; converses with us; conquered the enemy with a 
 thousand men. 
 
 III. Was overwhelmed by numbers; was rescued by your aid; 
 teaches by example; was taught by you; will return by the steamer; 
 will return by way of Boston; will return by January; was burned 
 by lightning; blown down by the wind; torn by wild beasts; shot by 
 a savage. 
 
272 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 IV. 1. Rebuke with soft words and hard arguments. 2. We les- 
 sen our wants by lesj^ening our desires. 3. History teaches by ex- 
 ample. 4. By reading we enrich the mind ; by conversation, we 
 polish it. 5. A clear conscience fears no accusation. 6. The fear 
 of God is the beginning of wisdom. 7. One fault can never justify 
 the commission of another. 8. Dispatch is the soul of business, and 
 method the soul of dispatch. 9. Deem every day of your life a leaf 
 in your history. 10. Her sisters abhor the monster, into so many 
 shapes she turns herself, so hideous are her forms. — Virgil. 11. The 
 loss of her flowers excites the maiden's grief, so great is the inno- 
 cence of her childish years. — Ovid. 
 
 12. See how the morning opes her golden gates, 
 
 And takes her farewell of the glorious sun ; 
 
 How well resembles it the prime of youth. 
 
 Shak. Henry VI. 
 
 Section IH. — Mateiial or Constituency. 
 101. This modifier expresses the elements, parts, or 
 constituents that compose or make anything what it is. 
 
 A fence made of wood ; an assembly of freemen ; a yard of cloth , 
 a square foot of land; faith is made up of hope and belief. 
 
 1. CoNSTRUCTiox. (1.) The Word-form is commonly an ad- 
 jective. 
 
 A gold watch ; a glass house ; a icooden pail ; a 5tone-built castle. 
 
 (•i.) The Phrase-form has the preposition of sometimes m, 
 fro7n, and others. 
 
 Made of clay ; formed from every creature's best. — ShaJs. ; I have a friend 
 in this man ; they had bitter foes in the Indians ; left his children legacy enough 
 in his good name and example.' 
 
 (3.) The Clause-form is relative (adjunctive). 
 Built of whatever materials were at hand. 
 
 2. Cautions. Do not confound this element with adjective ele- 
 ments. 
 
 A man of genius, Quality; a man of straw, Material. 
 
 A pound ofvieat, a rod of land, an inch of tape. Material ; a part of that 
 meat, some of the land, a piece of the tape, Inclusion. 
 
 A flake of snow, Con.; a man of snow, a ball of snow, Material. 
 
 A ton of iron, Material ; a ton of that iron, Inclusion; a kettle of iron, Ma- 
 terial. 
 
THE CAUSAL MODIFIER. 273 
 
 Exercise 98. 
 
 I. A cargo of flour; heaps of gold; men of wealth ; persons of in- 
 fluence; globules of water; flakes of snow ; bereft of reason ; a yard 
 of cambric; some of the paper ; a dozen of eggs. 
 
 II. Took town after town (19, 3, (2)) ; tribe after tribe was sub- 
 dued ; the obedience of Italy was little by little extended to the 
 countries outside; the most sublime structures ever reared by the 
 hand of man (94, 3). 
 
 III. 1. They were scoffed at by the infidels, as the Mohamme- 
 dans were called. 2. The popes, as the spiritual head of Christen- 
 dom, held a position of great importance. 3. He directed their at- 
 tention to Spain as a fit "base of operations" against Rome. 
 4. Archery was cultivated as an art at Athens. 5. The boundaries 
 of the empire as established by Augustus. 
 
 IV. 1. Contrary to his high will whom we resist. 2. Loves vice 
 for itself. — Milton. 3. Farthest from him is best. — Id. 4. I 
 come no spy. — Id. 5. Gods adored among the nations round. — Id. 
 6. Gods disguised in brutish forms rather than human. 7. Who 
 can deceive his mind whose eye views all things. — Id. 8. He lordly 
 sits our envied sovereign. — Id. 9. Advise if this be worth at- 
 tempting. — Id. 10. Know I come no enemy. — Id. 11. What 
 owe I to his commands above who hates me. — Id. 12. Down he 
 drops ten thousand fathom deep. — Id. 
 
 Section IV. — Supply. 
 
 102. This modifier denotes that with which anything 
 is adorned, enriched, endowed, equipped, furnished, filled, 
 loaded, etc., whether literally or figuratively. 
 
 Loaded with coal; burdened with care; filled with corn; filled 
 with cares ; filled with joy. 
 
 1 Construction. (1.) The Word-form is an adjective. 
 
 The rocky mountains; sandy deserts; wooded hills; grassy plain; cloudy 
 
 skies. 
 
 (2.) The Phrase-form has commonly the prepositions with^ of. 
 
 Tables loaded with food ; adorned with gold and gems ; a pail of milk (= filled 
 wi.h milk) ; a cask of beer. 
 18 
 
274 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 (3.) The Clause-form is relative (adjunctive). 
 
 We build with what we deem eternal rock. — Cowper. 
 
 2. Cautions. (1.) Supply often resembles Material or Constit- 
 uency. 
 
 A bowl of milk (= filled with), Supply; a pint of milk {= made up of), Ma- 
 terial. 
 A box of cotton cloth. Supply ; a yard of cotton doth. Material. 
 A shipload of marble, Supply; a statue of marble, Material. 
 
 (2.) Do not mistake Cause or Means for Supply. The latter is 
 always a kind of apposiiive with the principal verb. 
 
 Loaded with coal (the coal is the lading) ; filled with water (the water is the 
 filling), etc. ; ornamented with earrings, adorned with Jewels, presented him 
 with ten dollars. Supply. 
 
 Made a fire with coals, quenched my thirst with water, made it beautiful icith 
 earrings, made an impression with her jewels, Means. 
 
 Black witJi coal, spoiled with water, handsome with earrings, beautiful 
 toith jewels. Cause. 
 
 3. Mixed Forms. This element sometimes involves: (1.) Object of Asso- 
 ciation. Dressed in her silk; arrayed in a purple robe ; surrounded toith water; 
 bounded on one side by the ocean. 
 
 (2.) Means. Kewarded him with a smile. 
 
 Exercise 99. 
 
 I. Adorned with flowers; covered with verdure; loaded with 
 viands; sick with a fever; tarried with him ; rejoiced with great 
 joy; inlaid with pearls; hearts filled with joy; conferred with him; 
 united with the church; pale with fear; frozen with cold; burdened 
 with fruit; was accounted wise with many; went with a view to join 
 the army ; overcome with exhaustion. 
 
 II. A pail of cedar; a pail of water; a pail of yours; the poems of 
 Bryant; the home of Bryant; the exploits of Achilles ; the ruin of 
 Achilles ; the prowess of Achilles ; the battles of Achilles ; the his- 
 tory of Achilles; a goblet of glass; a goblet of wine; a goblet of 
 yours. 
 
 III. Knowledge dwells in heads replete with thoughts of other 
 men; wisdom in minds attentive to their own. Thou hast made Jiim 
 a little lower than the angels and crowned him with glory and honor. 
 
 IV. Sick of consumption; beloved of all; spoke of his journey; 
 tasted of the milk; deprived of his property; inquired of me; a 
 pound of meat; the brightness of the sun; the habit of smoking; the 
 
THE CAUSAL MODIFIER. 275 
 
 ivil of smoking; the light of reason; the river of life; the city of 
 New York; a pair of scissors; a span of horses; the morning of life; 
 the shield of faith; the invasion of Spain; a pail of yours; a pail of 
 oak; a cluster of grapes; a swarm of bees; the creation of the worlds; 
 the destruction of the worlds; the form of the worlds; figures of the 
 form of a cube ; flowers of the color of the rose ; buildings of stone ; 
 the erection of buildings; the removal of buildings. 
 
 Section V. — Remote Cause. (Continued.) 
 103. The four elements under this head often take the 
 emphatic form, — 
 (1.) Interchange. 
 
 "Was it for this paltry sum that he was betrayed ? For all your kindness I can 
 never requite you. For so inslgnijicant a sum it was, that he sold his country. 
 Is it possible that ybr money men will sell their honor? 
 
 , (2.) Means. 
 
 Not by might, nor by power, but by my spirit saith the Lord. By the deeds of 
 the law shall no man be justified. It is by hard work alone that anything noble 
 can be achieved. 
 
 (3.) Material. 
 
 It was of the finest silk that these garments were made. 
 (4.) Supply. 
 
 With all things beautiful and expensive his house is filled. It is with clothing 
 that our troops now need to be supplied. 
 
 Note. These elements in interrogative propositions, should bo 
 noted. 
 
 What did you give /or it ? What will you trade /or f What will you work 
 for? Interchange. 
 
 How did you do it ? What do you work with ? JTow did you get across the 
 river? Means. 
 
 What is it made of? Of what is that house built ? Material. 
 
 What is the ship loaded with ? What must he be supplied with t Supply. 
 
 Exercise 100. 
 
 Do the same work as before, put all causal elements in emphatic form 
 when possible. 
 
 L When does he work? where ? why? for what ? for whom ? for 
 how much? with what? how often? how long? with whom? on 
 what? to what end? 
 
276 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 IL What does he study? what doe she study for? whom does he 
 study wiih '? why does he study ? when ? where ? how long and how 
 often does he study V 
 
 IIL 1. This superintendence both as to ideas and words may be 
 illustrated by the case of a father conducting a cliild along a narrow 
 path. — Dr. Alexander. 2. This can be accounted for only by the 
 supposition xti the epistle being genuine. 3. It is because of an elas- 
 tic spring being there. — Chalmers. 4. Made all the more conspic- 
 uous by a very marvelous result having been obtained out of very 
 unpromising materials. — Id. 5. The speediest method of reaching 
 this is by a single judge deciding cases on the spot. — Dr. Hopkins. 
 
 IV. 1. They grow by what they feed upon. — Id. 2. The hedges 
 were rich with white roses. 3. It was during the progress of these 
 events that Louis sacrificed another victim to his jealousy of the 
 nobles in the person of Jacques. — Smith. 4. The tents of the Hun- 
 garians were of leather, their garments of fur. — Id. 5. The ear 
 and the eye of the House soon detected, in his replies from the bench, 
 signs of superior training. 
 
 CHAPTER in. 
 
 CONCEIVED CAUSE. 
 
 Nature and Divisions. 
 
 104. This form of the causal modifier contemplates a 
 cause, not as already existing or as having previously ex- 
 isted, but as probable^ or possible ; that is, as a mere 
 conception of the mind. 
 
 He works hecause he is poor (Real Cause). If he becomes poor, 
 he will have to work (Conceived Cause). 
 
 1. Conceived Cause may be divided into, — 
 
 (a.) Cqndition. 
 .(6.) Hypothesis. 
 (c.) Concession. 
 
 (a.) CONDITION. 
 
 Nature and Divisions. 
 
 105. A Condition is a conceived, that is, a possible or 
 a probable Cause. 
 
THE CAUSAL MODIFIER. 277 
 
 The ground is wet because it rained last night, Real Cause; in case 
 it should rain the ground will be wet, Conceived Cause. 
 
 1. A Condition, then, is a conjecture, with reference 
 to things unknown. Manifestly in no other case can 
 there be true conjecture, since a want of knowledge is 
 always the very basis of conjecture. Now, the unknown 
 covers all the future aijd a large part of the present and 
 the past. Hence, all real conditions are classed either as 
 Fact Conditions, or as Future Conditions. 
 
 2. Again, a known fact is often put in the form of a 
 condition, for the sake of rhetorical effect merely. This 
 pseudo form may be called the Rhetorical Condition. 
 
 Hence, we have two real conditions and one rhetorical 
 condition. Thus, — 
 
 (a.) The Fact Condition (real). 
 
 (6.) The Future Condition (real). 
 
 (c.) The Rhetorical Condition (pseudo). 
 
 Section I. — The Unknown Fact Condition. 
 106. This Condition contemplates something unknown 
 in the present or in the past. Of course there can be no 
 contingency as regards the /ac^ itself; for all things in 
 the present and the past are alveadj fixed and settled as 
 facts, and there can be no change. This Condition, there- 
 fore, is based upon a contingency of knowledge simply. 
 There is a fact, but it is not known. 
 
 If the steamer has arrived ; if she arrived last month ; if she is now in 
 port. 
 
 1. The Unknown Fact Condition embraces facts cov- 
 ering the whole period of the past, from the very begin- 
 ning of things down to the present moment. If we 
 choose, we may term all conditions referring to the pre- 
 sent. Present Fact Conditions, and those referring to the 
 past, Past Fact Conditions. 
 
278 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 K the yessel is now in port; if I have a letter in the post office ; if 
 my friend is still aKve; if iEneas still lives and breathes the vital air. 
 — Virgil (Present Fact Conditions). 
 
 If the vessel has been lost ; if there was a letter for me; if my friend 
 teas alive yesterday; if this earth was once in the form of chaos 
 (Past Fact Conditions). 
 
 2. Construction. (1.) The Word-form is an adverb used 
 representatively (100, 2, (2)). 
 
 He must have gone to the city, else where can he be ? (= if he has not). 
 
 (2.) The Phrase-form hardly occurs. 
 
 (3.) The Clause-form is conjunctive, and introduced by if, pro- 
 vided, provided that, so, so that, so be, so be that, in case, and unless 
 (negative form). 
 
 Jn case the steamer has arrived; so be he has recovered ; unless he is now at 
 home; etc. 
 
 EXEECISE 101. 
 
 I. If my friend has arrived he -will soon come to us; he asked if 
 my friend had arrived. 
 
 n. If the stars are suns, they are probably attended by planets of 
 their own ; we should like to know if the stars are suns. 
 
 III.. In case he is the man we are all right; there is no doubt 
 that he is the man. 
 
 IV. Provided that person is my friend we shall have a good 
 time; it is not impossible that he is my friend. 
 
 V. So be the city is burned, all my property is lost; there is no 
 question that the city is burned. 
 
 VI. They burned the city because they were enraged ; on hearing 
 the order they burned the city; the command being given, the city 
 was burned ; the city was burned because it had no fire engines ; the 
 city was burned on account of the water being frozen everywhere. 
 
 VII. 1. We close our eyes upon the apprehension of something 
 falling into them. — Chalmers. 2. There being few scholars in the 
 land, he invited learned men from Europe. — Collier. 3. Many 
 kings made their mark at the foot of charters for want of skill to 
 write their names. — Id. 4. It was from this error of JK?graent 
 that he enlisted the people against him. — Lewes. 5. • He prepared 
 to collect a treasure which might discharge the obligation of an im- 
 mense donative (95, 1, (5)). — Gibbon. 
 
THE CAUSAL MODIFIER. 279 
 
 Section IT. — The Future Condition. 
 107. This Condition contemplates something in the 
 future. Here, unlike the field of the Fact Condition, 
 there is, of course, neither fact nor knowledge^ — all is 
 pure contingency. 
 
 If the steamer comes (ot Come) next week ; if she should arrive in ten 
 days. 
 
 1. As the Fact Condition covers all time back of the 
 present moment, so the Future Condition embraces all 
 time beyond the present instant. It may involve very 
 different degrees of uncertainty, covering thus all con- 
 ceivable cases from the veri/ probable to the barely possi- 
 ble. 
 
 If my friend conies to-morrow; if my friend should ever come; if it 
 should rain xvithin a month ; if there should ever live again such a mail 
 as Shakespeare. 
 
 2. Construction. (1.) The Word-form is a participle, or an 
 adverb used representatively (100, 2 (2)). The adverbs moj«t com- 
 monly used thus, are so, else, and otherwise. 
 
 It may rain, otherwise we shall go (i. e., if it does not rain). 
 Do what I command you, so shall ye be m^' disciples (f. e., if ye do thus). 
 So, a participle, Failing in this you will be dismissed (i. e., if you fail in this). 
 
 (2.) The Phrase-form has the prepositions with, without, and 
 such expressions as in case of in the event of. 
 
 With a fair wind one more day, we shall reach the port (= if the wind is fair, 
 etc.). Without his help, our plan will fail {= if we shall not have his help). 
 In the event of his failure, we must be secured. 
 
 (3.) The Clause-form is conjunctive or participial. When con- 
 junctive, the connective terms if, If it so he that (or the abbreviated 
 forms of the same), if so be that, so be that, so be, so that, and so 
 (15, 3, N.), provided, provided that, in case, unless, etc., are used.. 
 Here the indicative present or future, the potential and the subjunc 
 live mood forms are used, often with little difference of meaning. 
 
 If he comes {come, shall come, or should come) this afternoon. This happening, 
 all would be instantly changed (= if this should happen). If I may but touch 
 \Iie hem of his garment, I shall be healed. — Bible. 
 
280 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 3. Mixed Forms. The Future Condition may involve : (1.) Means. If we 
 work vigorously, we shall soon accomplish our task ( = if and hy working vigor- 
 ously). 
 
 (2.) Time. You will meet with obstacles so long as you pursue that course 
 (if and so long as). 
 
 Future Condition may be combined with Time How Long. I cannot study 
 until I have better health (= until and unless). 
 
 Exercise 102. 
 
 Do the same work as be/ore. 
 
 I. If my friend comes this afternoon ; if he has come ; if he should 
 come ; if he is here; if he should be here to-day; if he came yester- 
 day; if he came last week; in case he should be here soon; if he 
 could be present this evening. 
 
 II. Provided that is true; provided it proves true; inquired if it 
 was true; in case it turn out to be true; says it is true; who knows 
 but it is true; it cannot be but it is true ; we do not doubt that it is 
 true; does not know whether it is true or not; thinks it to be true; 
 am sure of its being true ; should it prove true. 
 
 III. 1. It being granted that if there be a war in Europe prices 
 will rise. — Wayland. 2. The land army was employed for the in- 
 vasion of Apulia, in the event of war being declared. — Mommsen. 
 3. These were selected as the victims of spiritual tyranny. 4. Had 
 recommended Narbonne as the first Roman colony. 5. Embraced 
 the Bible as the rule of faith. 
 
 IV. 1. K now thou hast understanding, hear this. — Job. 2. They 
 shall afflict you from the entering in of Hamath unto the river of 
 the wilderness. — Bible. 3. Call upon thy God, if so be that God 
 will think upon us, that we perish not. — Id. 4. Let us cast lots 
 that we may know for whose cause this evil is come upon us. — Id. 
 5. Cast me forth into the sea; for I know that for my sake this great 
 tempest is upon you. — Id. 6. They know not to do risht who 
 store up violence and robbery. — Id. 7. The barns are broken 
 down, for the corn is withered. — Id. 8. If so be it yield, the 
 strangers shall swallow it up. — Id. 9. Of their silver and their 
 gold have they made their idols. — Id. 10. Seemeth it a small 
 thing to you to have eaten up the good pasture? 
 
 Section in. — The Rhetorical Condition. 
 108. A known fact or truth is often put in the form 
 
THE CAUSAL MODIFIER. 281 
 
 of a Condition, for the purpose of creating a stronger 
 impression. To question a thing is often the very strong- 
 est wsij of affirming it. 
 
 A Condition of this kind being employed thus simply 
 for rhetorical effect, is called the Rhetorical Condition. 
 
 1/ they have persecuted me, they will also persecute you; if they 
 have kept my saying, they will keep yours also. — Bible. 
 
 1. This Condition is almost always of the clause-form, 
 and is most commonly a conjunctive clause in the indica- 
 tive mood, introduced by if. 
 
 If this law governs bodies at small distances, why should it not at 
 great distances? — Wayland. 
 
 2. As the Rhetorical Condition always asserts a fact or 
 a truth, and is really conditional only in form, it cannot 
 be mistaken for a real condition. 
 
 If the soul is immortal, it should be cared for (= since the soul, 
 etc.). 
 
 3. This Condition is often used by a writer to enforce 
 with greater emphasis a position already admitted, or an 
 argument seen to be conclusive. 
 
 If these remarks be (are) true, they throw some light upon the 
 subject of education. — Wayland. 
 
 4. This Condition is also often used to give especial 
 emphasis to some quality, fact, or circumstance. 
 
 If I ever was weary, I was that night. If there ever was a good 
 man, he was one (i. e., he was exceedingly good). 
 
 5. Cautions. Do not confound the Rhetorical with the Present 
 Fact Condition. In the case of the former the fact \s always known, 
 or assumed to be known ; in the latter it is always unknown. 
 
 If he is a learned man, he will soon make it manifest. Fact. Cond. If there 
 ever was a learned man, he is one. Rhet. Cond. 
 
 6. Mixed Forms. Rhetorical Condition often involves Asseveration (168). 
 If my name is Jones, that thing will be done. 
 
282 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 Exercise 103. 
 
 Classify all modifiers heretofore discussed. 
 
 I. If the steamer has arrived ; if she arrives to-morrow ; if she is 
 now in port; if there is a sun in the heavens ; if there is any justice 
 in Deity ; if my friend has come; if I have a friend in the world. 
 
 II. 1. If he be able to fight with me, we will be your servants. -- 
 Bible. 2. If ye then be (are) risen with Christ, seek those things 
 which are above. — Id. 3. I cannot help thinking (13, 12) that I 
 shall succeed if I have voice enough to make myself heard. — Mac- 
 aulay. 4. Christ's first disciples had a sympathy with him, and his 
 mode of teaching had an adaptation to them which arose from the 
 fact of the master and the disciples being cotemporaries and fellow 
 companions. — Ecce Dens. 5. Labors to demonstrate that there is 
 no adequate proof of there being one God. 6. Tlie men of Nineveh 
 shall rise up in judgment against this generation, and shall con- 
 demn it, because they repented at the preaching of Jonas. — Bible. 
 7. It was through temptation that the first Adam fell from a state of 
 nature. 
 
 (&.) HYPOTHESIS. 
 
 Nature and Divisions. 
 
 109. An Hypothesis is a statement based upon a mere 
 arbitrary supposition., either contrary to certain known 
 facts, or utterly regardless of all facts or realities. 
 Hence this element will be considered under two heads, — 
 
 (a.) Hypothesis Contrary to fact. 
 
 (6.) Hypothesis Absolute. 
 
 Note. As in the case of the first form of Hypothesis above, the 
 real fact is always known, and as in the case of the second form 
 there is no recognized contingency which as such has any bearing 
 upon the proposition it modifies, it is clear that these Hypotheses 
 ire in no sense true conditions. 
 
 Section I. — Hypothesis Contrary to Fact. 
 
 110. In this form of Hypothesis the statement is always 
 directly contrary to the known fact. Hence there can 
 be no diflficulty in recognizing it. 
 
THE CAUSAL MODIFIER. 283 
 
 If I were rich (which is not the fact) ; if I were a king ; if I were 
 you ; if 1 owned the universe; if black were -white. 
 
 1. Construction. (I.) The AVord-form of this element is 
 commonly the adverb othei-wise or else, used representatively (100, 
 2, (2)). ' 
 
 We fled, otherwise we should have been captured {i. c, if we had not fled). 
 He is sick else he would have been here. 
 
 (2.) The Phrase-form has the prepositions with, without. 
 
 With a fair wind we should have reached the port long since (= if the wui^ 
 had been fair). With only a thousand men more we should have conquered {i. e., 
 if we had had only that number more). Without your aid we should have cer- 
 tainly failed (= if we had not had your aid). 
 
 (3.) A peculiar idiomatic form occurs occasionally. 
 
 Should have fallen butfoi' you ; could not have lived but for the did you ren- 
 dered (15, 18). 
 
 (4.) The Clause-form is conjunctive, and has the same connec- 
 tives as the conditional clause (106, 2, (3)). The form but, or but that 
 is also common. 
 
 If he had come ; provided he had come ; so he were here ; in case he had 
 lived; unless he had arrived in season. 
 
 Nor ever thence 
 Had ris'n or heaved his head, but that the will 
 And hi(jh permission of all-i'uling Heaven 
 Left him at large. — Milton. 
 
 But that I am forbid, I could a tale unfold. — Shak. 
 
 Exercise 104. 
 
 Do the same work as before. 
 
 I. If she sings; if she can sing; if she had sung; if she would 
 sing; if she were now singing; if I loved singing; if my friend loves 
 singing; if only she had syng at that concert; if she sings at the 
 next; if singing is worth cultivating; if she had properly cultivated 
 her voice; if singing at times is desirable; if she were a good singer; 
 she sings, else we should not have invited her; with good singing, 
 all would have passed off well; she came singing; she sings when she 
 is happy; she is happy when she sings; if ever there was a good 
 singer, she is one; it is not strange if she does sing when she is happy. 
 
 II. 1. Leopold, on a representation to the effect having been 
 made to them, at once stated that the lines already conceded would 
 
284 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 always be protected, and that no new lines would be granted with- 
 out the proprietors of the latter being fully heard. — Smiles. 2. The 
 foundation on which their case stood is cut from under them ; for the 
 Act of Parliament, the committee will recollect, prohibits any per- 
 son using any animal power. — Id. 
 
 Section II. — Hypothesis Absolute. 
 
 111. This is a mere supposition made without any ref- 
 erence whatever to facts or realities. 
 
 If I could Jly to the moon ; if he should become rich in five minutes, 
 If the sun should rise in the West. 
 
 1. Hypothesis Absolute is often highly serviceable as a 
 basis of argumentation and proof, as in the case of pure 
 mathematics and also in the way of scientific investiga- 
 tion ; it is often valuable in illustration and explana- 
 tion ; and not unfrequently used with a good degree of 
 rhetorical effect in polemic discourse. 
 
 If x=z 10 then y = 6 ; if two angles and the included side of one is 
 equal to the two angles and the included side of the other each to each, 
 then, etc. If the pressure is less than our atmosphere the air will ex- 
 pand. // now we exhaust the air, then, etc. If now I were to com- 
 mand you, Catiline, to be apprehended. — Cicero. 
 
 2. Hypothesis is constantly used to indicate the cases 
 upon which as a basis laws are enacted, or punishments 
 threatened. 
 
 If ye offer a sacrifice of peace offerings unto the Lord, ye shall offer 
 it at your own will. If a man take away thy coat give him thy cloak 
 also. 
 
 3. Such expressions as, /or example^ for instance^ to il- 
 lustrate^ etc. (elements of purpose), are often thrown in. 
 This is almost always true when Hypothesis is used, as it 
 often is, for illustration, explanation, or rhetorical effect. 
 
 If, for instance, these two gases are combined. If for instance, I let 
 this ten pound weight fall at the same moment with this fve pound weight. 
 
THE CAUSAL MODIFIER. 
 
 both will reach the ground at the same instant. 
 he made equal to the breadth and to the thickness, then 
 
 4. Construction. (1.) The Word-foum is 
 
 2. (2))- \X^-*- -^J- - 
 
 The pressure must be increased, else the experiment will fail (— <r l(^?Jjotl. % ^ 
 (2.) The Phrase-form has with or without. ^^-tr^lji / 
 
 He can make no progress without a teacher (= unless he has a teacher). — 
 
 (3.) The Clause-form is participial, or conjunctive with the 
 connectives already mentioned for conditional forms. The form .so 
 long as is also used. 
 
 The air, noio, being removed, the water will instantly boil = if the air is re- 
 moved, the water will boil. If you add sufficient heat^ stea.m is formed. You 
 may say what you please so long as you tell the truth (= if only, etc.). Forbids 
 our doing this without permission being Jirst obtained from himself (= unless, 
 etc.). 
 
 5. Cautions. (1.) Do not confound this element with Conditions. 
 Notice that a true Condition, when stated, is a real conjecture^ an 
 honest weighing of objective contingencies, with reference to their 
 real bearing upon some plan, purpose, or enterprise; while an Hy- 
 pothesis is a mere supposition purely subjective in character, and 
 having no reference whatever to any future contingencies. Thus, — 
 
 Jf the moon is inhabited; if I had ten millions of dollars; if for instance, the 
 earth were solid gold ; if I could fy across the ocean ; if a =b ; let the angle a 
 
 the angle b ; suppose the distance to the sun only one hundred miles, etc. (Hy- 
 potheses). 
 
 Jf it should be moonlight this evening ; if ever I should cross the ocean ; if the 
 earth should ever be destroyed (Conditions). 
 
 (2.) This element is also to be distinguished from the Rhetorical 
 Condition. The latter always indicates really (though in theybnn of 
 a condition) an existing ^ac/, or truth; often an habitual occurrence ; 
 the former merely a supposed case, to he taken for granted only for 
 the time being, in connection with its present logical relations. 
 
 In the case of the latter you can always say : if so and so, ivhich is 
 the fact, or which is the truth ; or which often occurs ; in the case of 
 the former you can never affirm thus, — 
 
 If health is desirable {which is the fact); if the soul is mmorto/ (which is - 
 true); if this matter is important (as it is) etc. (Rhet. Conditions). 
 
 Jf the two angles are equal (as a mere supposition); if equals are added to 
 equals; if the earth were four times larger than it is; if I were an Englishman^ 
 etc. (Hypotheses). 
 
 6. Mixed Forms. This element may involve: (1.) Purjme. Tf we would 
 
286 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 write well we must write earnestly (»'. e., if we would and that we may). — Way- 
 land. 
 
 (2.) Specification, If it be compared with the rest of the peninsula, this region 
 may truly deserve the appellation of the happy {i. e., if it be compared and in 
 comparison with). 
 
 (3.) Attendant Circumstance. He cannot read without spelling every word. 
 
 7. Hypothesis often has the value, very nearly, of a relative in- 
 definite clause denoting either time or place. 
 
 If any man shall compel thee to go a mile {= whenever a man shall compel 
 thee to go a mile). 
 
 Exercise 105. 
 
 Do the same work as before ; correct any italicized forms. 
 
 I. If it does not rain; if it had not rained; if it should not rain; if it 
 were raining; if it was raining; if it never rained; if it rained last 
 night; should it rain to-morrow (15, 15); had it rained yesterday; it 
 would be strange if it rained every day; if it rains, he always stays 
 at home ; if it rains there several weeks in the wet season, it is beau- 
 tiful weather the rest of the year; if, then, rain is favorable to veg- 
 etation, we ought to welcome it; asks if we shall go, if it rains; asked 
 if we should have gone, if it had not rained ; it would harm the crops, 
 if it should rain too long; the crops are injured because it rained so 
 long; the crops would have been injured if it had rained too long; 
 who doubts that it rained? there is no question that it has rained. 
 
 II. 1. If it had rained I should have remained at home. 2. If my 
 friends were now present. I should be happy. 3. If you had been 
 there, you would have rejoiced at the sight. 4. If all knowledge 
 were wisdom, the world would be bright with light (96). 
 
 III. 1. If a man cannot know what he is conscious of, it would 
 seem that he cannot know anything. — Hopkins. 2. Had we t^een a 
 world once made and coming forth from the observed fiat of an in- 
 telligent Deity, then the sight of every other world might have jus- 
 tified the inference that, for it too, there behooved to have been a 
 world-maker. — Id. 3. The family being regarded thus, as a divine 
 institution, and society being regarded as a combination of families, 
 Bociety will have a double life. — Id. 4. If I say '' Livy writes," or 
 " Livy has written," I imply that the book is now extant — Id. 
 
THE CAUSAL MODIFIER. 287 
 
 (c.) CONCESSION. 
 
 § 1. Nature and Divisions. 
 
 112. A Concession is a conceded Condition or Hypothe- 
 sis, and is always something, nacre or less opposed in char- 
 acter to what would be expected to follow under the 3ir- 
 cumstances indicated. 
 
 J/ he is rich, he may have a fine house (Cond.). Though lie is rich, 
 he does not have a fine house (Cone). Had he been rich, he would 
 have had a fine house (Hyp.). Though he had been rich, he would 
 not have had a fine house (Cond.). If the soul is immortal, it should 
 be cared for (Rhet. Cond.). Though the soul i<t immortal, it is not 
 cared for (Cone). 
 
 1. To each Condition and to each Hypothesis, there' is 
 a corresponding Concession. Hence, as there are three 
 Conditional forms, and two forms of Hypothesis, there 
 are five forms of Concession corresponding in essential 
 character to them. 
 
 ( Conceded Conditions.^ 
 
 (a.) Concession of Unknown Fact. 
 
 *(&.) Future Concession. 
 
 (c.) Concession of Known Fact. 
 
 (Conceded Hypotheses.) 
 
 (d.) Concession Contrary to Fact. 
 
 (e.) Concession of Absolute Hypothesis. 
 
 Even if he is in town (do not know), we shall not see him (Cone, of 
 Unknown Fact.). Though he should be in town next week, I shall not 
 see him (Future Cone). Though he is in town every day (a known 
 fact), I do not see him (Cone, of Known Fact.). Though he had 
 been here, I should not have seen him (Cont. to Fact. Cone). 
 Though he should fly over my head, I should not see him (Cone of 
 Abs. Hyp.). 
 
 Section II. — Concession. (^Continued.) 
 
 113. Construction. (1.) The Word-form of Concession is 
 an adjective or a pnrticiple, used alone or conjunctively; a noun 
 
288 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 used appositively; and often such expressions as to say nothing more, 
 to say the least, etc. 
 
 This man scorned, abused, persecuted, was yet happy. Though young, he was 
 yet strong and efficient. 
 
 Note. The expressions, to say the least ; to say nothing more, etc., 
 seem to modify something implied rather than Avhat is really stated. 
 Thus, — 
 
 He was, to say the least, an honest man. He took good care of his family, to 
 say nothing more. 
 
 (2.) The Word-form may be an appositive. 
 
 This man, the noblest citizen of Athens, was j'et banished. He, a wicked man 
 and a criminal, was honored. 
 
 (3.) The Word-form is often an adjective, an adverb, or a par- 
 ticiple, followed directly by a modifying relative clause. 
 
 Bad as he teas, many respected him (14, 49). Good as he was, he sometimes 
 did wrong. Rapidly as he ran, he could not overtake me. 
 
 (4.) The Phrase-form has the prepositions at, with, without, for, 
 considering, notwithstanding ; such relation terms as in spite of, regard- 
 less of; and such expressions as at best, at least, at most, at all events, 
 after all, for all that, at the risk of, at the hazard of. The phrase- 
 form is sometimes preceded by the expression and that too, with an 
 increase in emphasis. 
 
 He applied for a situation without a recommendation {= though he had no 
 recommendation). With all his faults I love him (= though he has many 
 faults). He went in spite of all entreaties to the contrary. At least do this 
 (= though 3'ou do nothing more). After all he remained where he was ; a 
 man 's a manybr all that; walked rapidly, and that too with a heavy burden. 
 
 (5.) The Clause-form may be participial, relative, or conjunc- 
 tive. The connectives most commonly used are if (=^ even if), even 
 if, though, although, albeit, while (15, 7), and /or all (15, 4). 
 
 //"Ae is />oor he has many friends; whatever may come I am decided to go; 
 while all that is very true I must still maintain my opinion ; I shall go whether 
 it rains or shines; he got well at once, without any thing being done for him; 
 inch though he is, he never gives anything. After what you said to him so 
 kindly and so persuasively, he still pursued his old course; after he had reached 
 the very pinnacle of glory, he was still as unhappy as ever; for all there were so 
 many, yet was not the net broken. — Bible. 
 
 Mixed Forms. Concession may be combined as a subordinate constituent, 
 with (1.) Object of Association (48, 3, (8)). He stood fearless before the frown- 
 ing king ; they were calm and peaceful amoTi^f their bitterest foes. 
 
 (2.) Place (77, 4, (6)). He walked fearless along the brink of the precipice. 
 
THE CAUSAL MODIFIER. 289 
 
 (3.) Time (84, 3, (4)). She learns rapidly even when she has no teacher. 
 Often works when he is sick. (T. When.) Wrote beautiful poetry before he was 
 in his teens. (T. Antecedent.) After he reached seventy he did most excellent 
 work. (T. Subsequent.) 
 
 (4.) Designation. Those whom we most helped turned against us. 
 
 Exercise 106. 
 
 I. Is without friends; is happy without friends; is unhappy in the 
 midst of friends; lives without the city; lives without an income; 
 was imprisoned without the state; was imprisoned without a trial; 
 learned without study; learned without a teacher; learned without 
 books. 
 
 II. Love him with all his faults; saw him with all his friends; 
 spoke with him; ate with him; can walk rapidly even with a heavy 
 burden; prospered with little capital; lived well with a small in- 
 come. 
 
 III. At least, supports himself; took the prize after all; to say the 
 least, he is honest ; he was first in his class, and that too with poor 
 health ; was successful in spite of all difficulties; for all that, he was 
 ^luch beloved. 
 
 IV. Don't know what will happen; will go whatever may happen; 
 happen what may, I shall go; whoever else may stay, I shall go ; 
 will punish whoever may stay; if you stay, I shall not; had you 
 stayed, I should not have stayed; while all the rest stayed, he would 
 
 go. 
 
 V. Was condemned without a trial ; went at the risk of life ; was 
 worthy of respect with all his faults; even though it were true ; 
 though it should prove true ; though he were dead ; though every 
 man should die ; though the whole world were against me ; though 
 he is poor ; if he had been poor ; if he is poor; if I lose every cent; 
 though he lost every cent; had you been there ; if it be stormy; if it 
 had stormed; even if it should storm. 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 CONCEIVED CAUSE. (^Continued.) 
 
 Section I. — Sentence-Forms and Emphatic-Forms, etc. 
 
 114. Any one of the various modifiers under this head 
 way take the form of a Sentence ; it may be imperative, 
 
 19 
 
290 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 or declarative, or interrogative. In this case, the verbs 
 let^ grants allow, he, say are more commonly used in Con- 
 cession, and suppose and say in Condition and Hypothe- 
 sis when the sentence is imperative. 
 
 Say what you please, I shall go. Let come what may, T am content. 
 Grant you are right, the case is not altered. (Cone. Imp. Sent.) Sup- 
 pose it should rain to-morrow. Say you were worth a million dollars. 
 Suppose, for instance, that two and two made jii^e. (Cond. or Hyp. 
 Imp. Sentences). It does not matter what he does, he cannot harm us. 
 (Cone. Dec. Sent.) Is he rich and powerful f Very well, we shall 
 make no concessions. (Cone. Int. Sent.) Has then the steamer 
 really arrived f I rejoice. I shall soon see my friends. (Cond. Int. 
 Sent.) 
 
 1. These sentence forms are often elliptical. 
 
 I shall go, come what may (let come, etc.). Do what they please, 
 they cannot deter me (= Let them do, etc.). Go where you will, you 
 will find misery (=: Go thou).. Be it so, it makes no difference 
 (== Let it be so). No matter who he is, he cannot intimidate me 
 (= It does not matter, etc.). 
 
 2. The principal clause is sometimes elliptical. 
 
 Whai if we should be found out ? Cond. (= what would happen, 
 etc.) What if your father knew it ? Hyp. What if your house is 
 burned ? Cond. What if you have no friends ; go forward. Con- 
 cession. So, What if he is ignorant and inexperienced, let him try. 
 
 3. Emphatic Eorms. Emphasis is gained by inver- 
 sion in the order of words, and b\^ abbreviated forms. 
 
 Learned though he be, he cannot teach me. Had he been here, we 
 had been saved from this trial. Be he as rich as Croesus j I will not 
 marry him. Come what may, we are safe. No matter what he does, 
 he cannot harm me. 
 
 6. Conditional, hypothetical, and concessional ele- 
 ments often occur in sentences, introduced by it used 
 expletively, and involving an implied subject term (15, 
 10). 
 
 It is strange indeed if he has come (i. e., his having come, if he 
 has come, etc.) (Fact. Cond. form.) It would be strange if he 
 
THE CAUSAL MODU'IER. 291 
 
 should come. (Fut. Cond. form.) 1/ men do sometimes break the 
 latcs, IT is not to be wondered at. (Rhet. Cond. form.) It would 
 have been remarkable if he had succeeded. (Hypothesis Cont. to 
 Fact.) It would be nothing wonderful if the moon is inhabited. (Abs. 
 Hyp.) Though I should lose tliousands more, it would not discourage 
 me. (Fut. Concession.) 
 
 Section II. — Grammatical Construction. 
 
 1. The Fact Condition. This modifier when of the clause- 
 form, whether present or past, should always be put in the indica- 
 tive .mood. 
 
 If there be a letter for me in the Post Office (say If there is) ; if my friend be 
 
 still living (say, is). 
 
 2. Future Condition. When the near future is referred to, 
 the Indicative (present or future tense) or the Subjunctive may be 
 used ; when a more remote future or a greater degree of Contingency 
 is implied, the Potential may be used. 
 
 If it rains to-morrow, or if it shall rain to-morrow, or if it rain to-morrow. 
 (All are correct.) Near Future. If it should rain this week, or this month. 
 (Remote Future). 
 
 3. Rhetorical Condition. Here the present Indicative is 
 used. 
 
 If what I have said is true (not be). If there is any justice in heaven (not 
 be). 
 
 4. Hypothesis Contrary to Fact, when referring to the present, 
 takes the Subjunctive, when a Subjunctive form is possible. 
 
 If my friend were here now (not was). If this were true (not was). 
 
 When modified by this clement, the main proposition is often put 
 in the indicative mood in place of the potential, with a considera- 
 ble gain in force and vividness. 
 
 If thou hadst been here, my brother had not died (= would not have). -- 
 Bible. 
 
 5. Absolute Hypotheses, when equivalent to relative indefinite 
 clauses, take the Indicative Mood. 
 
 J/ steel be rubbed on a magnet, it becomes a magnet (say, is rubbed = when- 
 ever steel is rubbed, etc.). If the power be increased, the volume will be dimin- 
 ished (say, is increased = whenever the power is increased, etc.). So, If the 
 path of the sun be followed (say is). 
 
 Other forms of Absolute Hypothesis may have the Indicative, the 
 
 Subjunctive, or the Potential. 
 
292 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 If I should go to the north pole; if the ocean were to become dry land; "if 
 my country were to speak to me." — Cicero. 
 
 6. Concession has the same construction as Condition, case for 
 case, except that Future Concession does not take the Indicative 
 Mood. 
 
 Though it should rain to-morrow; though it had rained yesterday; though it 
 w?e*'« raining now; though the power m increased, etc. 
 
 7. Except should not be used in the sense of unless in conditional 
 clauses. 
 
 Except ye repent, etc.; s&y, 'unless, or if ye do not repent. 
 
 Exercise 107. 
 
 Do the same work ds before. Correct such examples as are faulty, 
 
 I. If a weight be suspended from a point. — Norton; if mercury- 
 be poured in the open arm. — Id. ; if the column is raised fifteen 
 inches. — Id. ; if the open end is connected thus. — Id.; if the pres- 
 sure is less than our atmosphere. — Id. ; if a ball be suspended by a 
 string. — Id. 
 
 II. If it be asked how this is. — Wayland ; if I am asked why 1 
 believe this. — Id. ; if these things be proved. — Id. ; if a sound is 
 made near to me. — Id. ; if the student finds his mind unstable. — 
 Id. ; if it be the law of our nature. — Id. ; if there be a universal 
 cause. — Id. ; if youth is consumed in sin. — Id. ; if, then, a system 
 of rules is meant. 
 
 III. If I was you ; if he was the king ; if life be short : even if my 
 friend was here; if my father were here; if that were true; I feel as 
 if it were true ; it seems as if he were my friend ; it appears as if he 
 was guilty ; he acts as if he were worth a million ; it seems as if he 
 was my friend. 
 
 SUB-DIVISION W. — THE MODAL MODIFIER. 
 NATURE AND DIVISIONS. 
 
 116. The Modai^term expresses some quality of an 
 Action or a State, or some circumstance connected with 
 the same, very much as an adjective element indicates 
 some quality of a noun-term. 
 
THE MODAL MODIFIER. 293 
 
 A foolish speech. Adj. El. Sixiaks foolishly. Adv. El. A sweet 
 Bong. Adj. El. Sings sweetly. Adv. El. An honest man. Adj. El. 
 Deals honestly. Adv. El. 
 
 116. Modal elements may be in general character, — 
 (a.) Direct and Absolute. 
 (6.) Indirect and Relative. 
 
 ^\ng?, sweetly ; rea,ds finely ; works vigorously. Direct mode. 
 Sings like herviother ; reads as you read; works so as to accomplish 
 much. Indirect Mode. 
 
 (a.) DIRECT OR ABSOLUTE MODE. 
 117. This Modifier may be divided into three 
 
 (a.) The Qualitative. 
 (6.) The Quantitative. 
 ((?.) The Circumstantial. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 QUALITATIVE MODE. 
 
 Nature and Divisions. 
 
 118. The Qualifying Adverb may, like the quali- 
 fying adjective (54) express, — 
 
 (a.) Physical Qualities. Moves vigorously. 
 (&.) Intellectual Qualities. Thinks clearly. 
 (c.) State or Condition. Lives in ease, 
 (d.) Description Generally. Works in this way. 
 
 1. The qualitative element often indicates another 
 notion or conception, somewhat resembling state or con- 
 dition, and yet so distinct from it as to be worthy of 
 special consideration. We may call it the element of 
 Specific Character. 
 
294 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 This form of quality is usually a conjunctive word-form with 
 as (sometimes a phrase-form with for) used in the sense of in the 
 character of; in the form of; in the capacity of; in the nature of; in 
 the light of; in the way of; in the rank of; in the sphere of; in the 
 guise of etc. 
 
 It exists as a vapor (= in the form of) ; gained fame as an orator 
 (z^ in the character of) ; they came to us as friends (= in the guise 
 of); it operates as a wholesome force (=. in the way of). So, oratory 
 was cultivated as an art ; we respect him as a man ; as a Christian I 
 cannot approve of it. 
 
 2. Construction. (1.) A very large number of qualifying ad- 
 verbs are formed directly from qualifying adjectives. Thus, sweet, 
 sweetly; honest, honestly ; great, greatly ; wise, wisely ; broad, broadly, 
 etc. These derivatives constitute a large proportion of the word- 
 forms of this element. 
 
 (2.) The Phrase-form has commonly the prepositions in, with, 
 and without. 
 
 Works with ease ; lives in comfort ; walks vnthout difficulty. 
 
 (3.) The Clause-form is relative. 
 
 Works in whatever way best suits him. 
 
 .S. Cautions. Do not confound Specific Character, when indi- 
 cated by a conjunctive word-form with as, with the following ele- 
 ments expressed in the same way. 
 
 (1.) Factitive Object (51). 
 
 Looked upon him as an enemy. Fact. Came as our enemy. Spec. Char. 
 He was considered as a member of the society. Fact. We respect him as a 
 member of the society, but dislike him as an officer in the same. Spec. Char. 
 
 (2.) Semi-Predicatice (13, 10). 
 
 Spoke of this church as standing in his day. Predicative; As a church, it 
 served a good end in its day. Spec. Char. 
 
 Exercise 108. 
 
 I. Labors earnestly; intelligently; conscientiously; faithfully; 
 daily; early; late; Mondays; through the year; for a livelihood; 
 for money; forme; at home; abroad; among his friends; through 
 necessity; because he likes to; because no one aids him; because he 
 has children; because he is well; because he finds something to do. 
 
 II. Speaks loudly; sweetly; clearly; intelligibly; roughly; wisely; 
 Boftly; conscientiously; constantly; about me; to me; for uie ; 
 
THE MODAL MODIFIER. 295 
 
 against me; on science; hourly; an hour ; on Sunday; on Sundays; 
 logically ; incoherently ; smoothly ; correctly ; because he wishes to ; 
 since he has something to say; because he has a tongue; because no 
 one prevents him ; through an interpreter ; whenever anyone listens; 
 wherever he happens to be; while he is working; what he pleases. 
 
 III. Argues with power; moves with rapidity ; deals with fairness ; 
 said with solemnity; chilled with cold; struck with astonishment; 
 rejoices with great joy ; lives with strangers ; was popular with some ; 
 unhappy with all his riches ; shall arrive soon with a fair wind ; ad- 
 vanced-^ith a view to cross the stream ; corresponds with us ; failed 
 to secure his situation with all his recommendations. 
 
 IV. 1. Wisely therefore it is ordered, that we should have Nature 
 for our instructor. — Lord Karnes. 2. It is surprising how quickly 
 and for the most part, how carefully, we judge of character. — Id. 
 3. The members of a period connected by proper copulatives, glide 
 smoothly arid gently along. — Id. 4. Antithesis ought only occa- 
 sionally to be studied, when it is naturally demanded by the com- 
 parison or opposition of objects. — Jamieson^s Rhel. 5. Oratory is 
 the art of speaking justly, methodically, floridly, and copiously, upon 
 any subject. 
 
 CHAPTER 11. 
 
 QUANTITATIVE MODE. 
 
 Nature and Divisions. 
 
 119. This Modifier expresses the quantity of a given 
 quality ., as indicated by an adjective or an adverb term. 
 
 Very wise; very wisely; exceedingly proud; exceedingly proudly; 
 intensely interesting. 
 
 1. Verb-terms expressive of mental state and action^ 
 feeling., and emotion (11, 1), are often modified by this 
 element. 
 
 Rejoices greatly; grieves beyond measure; sorrows immoderately; 
 values highly. 
 
 2. The Quantitative element may mark, — 
 
 (a.) Degree. 
 
 (b.) Measure of Magnitude. 
 
 (c.) Measure of Difference. 
 
296 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 Section I. — Degree. 
 
 120. Degree indicates the quantity of such qualities as 
 are incapable of measurement. Hence the quantity thus 
 expressed is always indefinite. 
 
 Very white ; quite good ; somewhat colored ; a little black ; exceed- 
 ingly proud. 
 
 1. Construction. (1.) The Word-fokm may be an adverb, a 
 relative adverb, or an adjective. Thus for, — 
 
 (1.) MoDEKATK Degree. Very, pretty, much, well, considerably, etc. 
 
 (2.) GiiKAT Degkek. Extremely, excessively, exceedingly, intensely, immod- 
 erately, vastly, extraordiimrily, inexpressibly, unutterably, wonderfully, etc. 
 
 (3.) Painful Degkee. Amazingly, surprisingly, shockingly, frightfully, 
 dreadfully, Jwri-ibly, cruelly, terribly, etc. 
 
 (4.) Complete I)e(;ree. Quite, entirely, wholly, totaUy, utterly, completely, 
 perfectly, fully, abundantly, etc. 
 
 So, also, relative adverbs. 
 
 How delightful ; how noble ; what the better off are you for all your excessive 
 labor. 
 
 So, likewise, adjectives. 
 
 An exuberant growth; a lavish expenditure ; severe suffering; sxcesdve in- 
 temperance ; untold misfortunes. 
 
 (2.) The Phrase-form has many prepositions and is not uncom- 
 mon. 
 
 Temperaite in the extreme ; successful in the main; courageous to thedea^j 
 they were all killed to a man. 
 
 (3.) The Clause-form is relative indefinite, sometimes adjunc. 
 They vex me beyond what I can endure. 
 
 2. Mixed Forms. This element is often combined with: (1.) Factitive 
 Object. Starved to death ; washed clean ; burned to a ci-isp ; fell flat ; faded 
 ichite ; reduced to a skeleton. 
 
 (2.) Space How Far. Filled his barns up to the roof; the rubber can be 
 stretched a yard. 
 
 Exercise 109. 
 
 Cla:<sify all elements. 
 
 I. Grieves deeply; daily; continually; intensely; unreasonably; 
 in temperately; to excess; about his loss; over his misfortunes; be- 
 cause he is without friends; because he is not rich. 
 
THE MODAL MODIFIER. 297 
 
 II. Modest to excess; crushed to atoms; correct to a fraction; 
 transformed to a beast; sharpened to a point; was known to us; sat- 
 isfied to the full; filled to the brim; sunk to the bottom; came to 
 them; pleasing to us; near to him; burned to ashes; cut o£E to a 
 man; struggled to the utmost; has gone to sleep; has gone to the 
 city; went to see ; the time to come; something to be done; wishes 
 to hear; came to hear; was glad to hear; related to me; has gone to 
 ruin; has gone to his friends ; has run to weeds ; has run to his work. 
 
 III. Grand in the extreme ; delights in music ; lives in luxury ; is 
 in great sorrow; spends money in gaming; is deserted in adversity 
 (84, 3, (2)) ; looks well in her new dress; happy in your friendship; 
 there is money in that enterprise; will pay in advance (84); will 
 pay in a month; will pay in June; >vill arrive in the evening; shall 
 go in my carriage ; shall stay in my room ; was cut in two ; was rent 
 in twain ; will be back in ah hour ; was successful in the main ; went 
 in a hurry ; sat in silence. 
 
 Section II. — Measure of Magnitude. 
 
 121. This modifier expresses the quantity of such qual- 
 ities as are capable of measurement, as, for instance, those 
 expressive of physical dimension^ age^ quantity^ weighty or 
 speed. Quantity of this kind may be indicated either 
 definitely or indefinitely. 
 
 Ten feet high ; a mile long ; forty years old ; a one-pound weight. 
 Def. Quantity. 
 
 Exceedingly high; immensely }ong\ quite old; somewhat heavy. 
 Indef. Quantity. 
 
 1. This modifier, as indicating the quantity or measure 
 of a quality, occurs, of course, only with words of quality. 
 Hence it is usually found with adjective and adverb- 
 terms, and with verbs which involve a qualitative notion. 
 
 The fare was diminished /rom three dollars to two (diminished = 
 made lower, a word of quality). So, The price was advanced /rom 
 one dollar to two; the road was lengthened /ro7n ten miles to twenty; 
 the well was deepened /rom twenty to thirty feet. 
 
 2. Sometimes the word of quality is not expressed. Id 
 
298 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 all such cases, however, the conception of quality is evi- 
 dently /<gZ^. 
 
 Very rapid riding; exceedingly rapid riding; riding sixty miles an 
 hour (rapid). — i. e., with the rapidity of so and so. Rides very rap- 
 idly; rides sixty miles an hour (^rapidly). 
 
 Compare with above, — A very high tower; a tower sixty feet high. 
 Is eery old ; is seventy years old. 
 
 So we may say with equal propriety, — ; 
 
 Rode with the rapidity of sixty miles per hour; and, a tower of the height of 
 sixty feet. Moves at the rate of one hundred miles an hour ; and, a well of the 
 depth of one hundred feet (61, (5)). 
 
 3. The word square is used idiomatically. Thus, — 
 
 An area <of ) ten feet square (t. e., ten feet long and ten feet broad) ; here, 
 ten feet must be made to modify square, which is used to indicate really two 
 different dimensions. 
 
 4. Emphatic Forms. 
 
 It is a thousand miles that we travelled ; it was only by a boaVs length that 
 they rowed; it is only an inch that he moved. 
 
 5. Construction. (1.) The Word-form is commonly an ad- 
 verb or a noun. 
 
 Very long ; a. foot long; a man^s height; a six-inch pipe. 
 
 (2.) The Phrase-form has commonly of, but other words are 
 used. 
 
 A ship of fifty feet in length; a circle of one mile in circumference; a piston 
 of ten-inch (in) stroke ; a pipe of one-inch (in) bore. 
 
 (3.) The preposition is often omitted. 
 
 Trees (oi) fifty feet in height; planks (of) six inches in thickness ; vessels of 
 fifty tons (in) burden ; an arch of one hundred feet (in) span. 
 
 Note. It is worthy of note that we can use three forms of ex- 
 pression here. 
 
 A tree sixty feet high. Quality; = of sixty feet in height. Spec; =z of the 
 height of sixty feet, Quality ; and, of sixty feet, Desig. 
 
 A man forty years old ; = forty years of age ; ■=ofthe age of forty years. 
 (See 61.) 
 
 (4.) The Clause-form is a relative (Adjunc). 
 Ships of whatever magnitude you may desire. 
 
 6. Cautions. Do not confound Measure of Magnitude with — 
 (1.) Space How Far or Distance. 
 
THE MODAL MODIFIER. 299 
 
 SAiled ten miles ; rode forty leagues ; cMmhed a Jiundred feet. (Distance.) 
 A tree ffty feet in lieight; a tree ffty feet high; a ship of one hundred tons 
 ourden. (Meas. of Mag.) 
 A height of fifty feet; a burden of one. hundred tons. (Desig. App. form.) 
 
 Exercise 110. 
 
 I. A long timber ; very long ; ten feet long ; of great length ; of 
 twenty feet in length; of the length of twenty feet. 
 
 II. An old man ; exceedingly old ; immensely old ; a hundred years 
 old ; a hundred years of age ; of the age of a hundred years ; of very 
 great age. 
 
 III. A route of five miles ; a road of five miles in length ; a ride 
 of five miles; a street five miles long ; a sail of one hundred leagues ; 
 an ocean a thousand miles broad; a depth of ten fathoms; a flight 
 of ten miles ; a distance of ten miles. 
 
 IV. Wells a hundred feet deep; trees a hundred feet in height; 
 trees ten feet through; wheels ten feet in diameter; ships forty tons 
 burden ; arches a thousand feet span ; cubes ten feet square ; 
 spheres of six feet radius ; glass 6X10 inches; a distance of a hun- 
 dred miles ; a ride of a hundred miles ; a railway one hundred miles 
 long ; a road of the length of a hundred miles ; a tower of one hun- 
 dred feet in height; a three-inch pipe; cannon of three-inch bore. 
 
 V. 1. The Atlantic Ocean is said to be three thousand miles 
 broad. 2. Ninety-four inches of rain falls yearly in the tropics. 
 3. The great tunnel under the river Thames in England is thirteen 
 hundred feet long. 4. Westminster Hall is two hundred and sev- 
 enty feet in length and seventy-four feet in breadth. 5. The meas- 
 ure of the temple is two hundred feet in length and one hundred in 
 breadth. 6. Asked his opinion as to what he would like, for I know 
 he would wish me to remain at Oxford. 
 
 Section III. — Measure of Difference. 
 122. This modifier expresses the amount of difference 
 whereby one quantity exceeds or falls below another. 
 
 Afoot longer ; an incJi shorter; a little above us; much below us; a 
 greal deal more ; somewhat less. 
 
 1. This element may limit any term expressive of the 
 notion of degree or quantity. Thus it is found with noun- 
 
300 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 terms, adjective-terms, ad verb- terms, and verb-terms; 
 with adjectives and adverbs it is found witb all the three 
 degrees of comparison. 
 
 Twice as much ; half as great ; as large again ; four times as long. 
 Positive Deg. 
 
 Much more ; considerably larger; ten feet longer ; a yard too much. 
 Comp. Deg. 
 
 By far the most; much the largest ; the longest hy ten feet ; a head 
 the tallest. Sup. Deg. 
 
 We came out five minutes ahead ; came in ahead ly the booths 
 length; surpassed us a little; lengthened an inch; prolonged a day; 
 increased a thousand. 
 
 So, also, in connection with local and temporal rela- 
 tions. 
 
 Rode mucA farther; advanced a mile nearer; lives two miles be- 
 yond. Place. 
 
 Long ago; several years since ; a month before he came; a year after 
 you arrived; a little while before; ten years later; an ^our earlier; 
 shortly after. Time. 
 
 2. Construction, (1.) The Word-form is commonly a noun, 
 an adjective, or an adverb. 
 
 Much better ; a head taller; an inch longer; a shade darker; just below the 
 surface (22, 3, (7)) ; close behind me; hard by the stream; nearly a thousand; 
 about a thousand (24, 1, (7)); what the better is this? 
 
 (2.) The Phrase-form commonly has hy^ sometimes other prep- 
 ositions. 
 
 Taller hy an inch ; farther by ten miles; fell short by a yard; younger iy a 
 year; %/ar the best. 
 
 (3.) The Clause-form is relative. 
 Can lengthen or shorten it by whatever amount you please. 
 
 3. Cautions. Do not confound Measure of Difference with, — 
 (1.) Designation. 
 
 Older by ten years; surpassed him much ; went farther by ten miles ; and took 
 a dollar too much, etc. Meas. of Dif. 
 
 A disparity in age oj" ten years; an excess of one yard; a majority of one; 
 a balance of one dollar ; a deficit of ten yards. App.-form of Desig. 
 
 (2.) Quantity. 
 
 A A/nrtW disparity'; a /i«Ze excess ; an insignificant ha\a.nce; a Zar^e deficit; a 
 large majority. 
 
THE MODAL MODIFIER. 301 
 
 (3.) Distance. Measure of Difference always implies a comparison. 
 
 Drove ten miles beyond tiie city (= farther than). Is several leagues ahead 
 of us (=: farther on). Afoot below the surface (= lower than). A mile above 
 the dam (= higher up than). Meas. of Dif. 
 
 The villages are two miles apart ; Boston is ffty miles from Providence ; a 
 place ten miles from here ; encamped a mile from us. Drove ten miles around 
 the city; went several leagues &\ong with us; dropped down a fool ; swam a 
 mile beside the dam ; rode two miles to the village, etc. Dista::ci. 
 
 EXEKCISE 111. 
 
 I. Very great ; much greater ; twice as great ; greater by one half; 
 exceedingly great ; somewhat greater ; much the greatest ; by far the 
 greatest. 
 
 n. Quite old ; ten years old ; ten years older ; ten years the old- 
 est ; ten years of age ; of the age of ten years ; as old again ; twice 
 as old ; one half as old ; a disparity of one year ; older by ten years. 
 
 III. Had one vote more ; one too few; one majority ; small major- 
 ity ; a majority of ten ; a much larger vote ; an excess of forty ; ex- 
 celled them forty votes ; fell short ten ; a deficit of ten ; a small de- 
 ficit; ten too many; overrun ten votes; a surplus often; a large 
 surplus. 
 
 IV. Many miles long; many miles longer; the length of many 
 miles; an inequality of many miles; an inequality by ten miles; 
 much the longest ; ten times the length; three fold longer; one third 
 as long; as long again. 
 
 V. Very soon; a day sooner; very late; several days later; many 
 years ago; several days before; a week after; a little while since; 
 a long time ago; just after; a moment before. 
 
 VI. Kode ten miles; rode ten miles farther; measured a yard; fell 
 short a yard ; shortened it a yard ; a foot long ; was lengthened a 
 foot; the height of ten feet; was ten feet high; ten feet more ele- 
 vated ; a foot under the earth ; a foot below the surface; just above 
 the ground ; an inch above the ground. 
 
 VII. Encamped near the city; a mile from the city; a mile be- 
 yond the city; within a mile of the city; beside the enemy; in front 
 of the enemy ; a hundred yards in front of the enemy (122, 3) ; a 
 hundred yards to the rear of the enemy ; forty paces to the left; 
 forty paces farther on the left. 
 
 VIII. A head taller; a quart less; less by a great deal; a great 
 ileal more; an hour ago; a moment since; has been gone an hour; 
 stopped a moment; houses two miles apart; close together; just be- 
 hind me; i-lo.se behind me. 
 
802 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 CIRCUMSTANTIAL MODE. 
 
 Nature and Divisions. 
 
 123. This element expresses some fact or circum- 
 stance more or less directly characterizing an action or a 
 state ; or, at least, holding some logical connection with 
 the same. It may be divided into, — 
 
 A. The Stronger Forms. 
 
 B. The Weaker Forms. 
 
 124. A. The Stronger Forms may be subdivided into, — 
 
 (a.) Order. 
 (6.) Specificatiox. 
 (c.) Conformity. 
 (rf.) Fitness. 
 
 125. B. The Weaker or Remoter Forms are, — 
 
 (a.) Substitution. 
 
 (6.) Addition. 
 
 (c.) Exclusion. 
 
 (rf.) Attendant Circumstance. 
 
 A. Stronger Forms. 
 
 Section I. — Order. 
 
 126. The nature of this modifier is sufficiently indi- 
 cated by its name. 
 
 Came in crowds ; walked two by two ; marched in single Jile. 
 
 1. It often occurs with words of barter. 
 
 Buys hy the yard ; by the dozen. Will be sold by the square foot. 
 Shall dispose of these by the box ; by the barrel ; sells by the cargo. 
 
 2. Construction. (1.) Word-forms. 
 
 Canne helter-skelter ; ran pell-mell ; we mSiTched three deep. 
 
 (2.) Phrase-forms. 
 
 Bees move in swarms ; crows often go in flocks ; the enemy advanced in a 
 solid column ; m&Tched by companies ; stood in rows; were slaughtered 6t/ Am»- 
 ireds and by thousands; sat in groups ; sells flour by the bari'el. 
 
THE MODAL MODIFIER. 803 
 
 (3.) Clause FORMS. 
 They marched in what is called the Grecian phalanx. 
 
 5. Cautions. Do not confound this modifier with Factitive Ob- 
 ject. 
 Were separated into companies. Fact. Obj. Marched in companies. Order. 
 
 Mixed Forms. It may combine the element of Means: Advanced by long 
 marches; rises step by step; descends by easy gradations; proceeded by long ^ 
 rapid strides. 
 
 Exercise 113. 
 
 I. They rove in herds; in the plains ; on the mountains; in quest 
 of prey; in the midst of winter; in search of food; in the night; in 
 large companies. 
 
 II. They fly rapidly; over our heads; far above us; twenty miles 
 an hour; in large flocks; a long journey; to the north; with great 
 rapidity; upward; seaward; to the sea; over the mountain tops; far 
 above the mountain tops. 
 
 III. Marched in squads; in haste ; in mid-winter; ten miles; ten 
 miles farther; to Boston; from Boston; through Boston; through 
 the mud; on the pavement; up Main Street; at the command of 
 the captain; to meet the enemy; when it was day; a distance of 
 ten miles; all day; several days; everyday; on Mondays; for o lory; 
 for theircountry ; for ten dollars a month; for fear of being late; for 
 provisions; for want of provisions. 
 
 IV. AVere divided into companies; advanced in companies; formed 
 companies ; commanded companies ; spoke to the companies ; min- 
 gled with the companies. Came in pairs; arranged in pairs; walked 
 in pairs; in threes ; single file ; one by one ; four abreast ; to the right; 
 in columns ; in haste. 
 
 V. 1. To remarkable ability as a soldier, he added many noble 
 traits as a man. 2. We see the shadows grow fainter as we ad- 
 vance. 3. We now return to what took place in Macedon subse- 
 quently to the death of Alexander. 4. With the fall of Epaminon- 
 das, Thebes herself fell. 5. Barbarians though they were, the 
 Teutons had a deep vein of earnestness in their character. 
 
 Section II. — Specification. 
 127. Specification explains in what sense the term it 
 modifies is to be understood, or in what respect it is 
 true. 
 
304 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 This differs from that in color ; resembles me in character ; sur- 
 passed all in scholarship ; skilled in law ; beautiful of form ; rich in 
 lands. 
 
 1. Specification often indicates a person or a thing, to 
 whom or to which an application of some law, principle, 
 or truth is made. 
 
 Try it in the case of a dog; the same principle holds good in the 
 case of all plant life ; this law holds good for all vertebrates (= in 
 case of). 
 
 2. It sometimes limits words of mental feeling and 
 emotion. 
 
 Wonderful to tell ; strange to relate ; frightful to behold. 
 
 3. It is often used to explain terms used figuratively. 
 This construction somewhat resembles the explaining 
 metaphor (61, 9). 
 
 Soft of speech ; quick of perception ; sharp of intellect ; sluggish in 
 disposition. 
 
 4. It is occasionally used merely for rhetorical effect. 
 In this case it simply expresses what has already been 
 clearly implied in the word it modifies, thus adding 
 nothing indeed to the sense., but something in the way of 
 rhetorical force. In this form it somewhat resembles the 
 Iterative Fact. Obj. (51, 1). 
 
 Hoarse of voice ; anxious in mind; innumerable in multitude. — 
 Cicero; savage in their barbarity. — Id. 
 
 5. Construction. (I.) The Word-form is an Adverb, an 
 Adjective, or a Noun (often conjunctive). 
 
 InteUectunlly j^reat (= great in intellect) ; apparently moves (= moves to all 
 appearance) ; succeeds as a teacher ; excels as a linguist. 
 
 The adverb otherwise or else, or some word of similar meaning, is 
 often used representatively (100, 2, (2)). 
 
 In one feature, though otherwise (= in other respects) being different, Lamb 
 resembled Scott. — Macaulay. 
 
 (2.) The Phrase-form has the prepositions to, in, at, for, withy 
 rer/ardlng, respecting, as regards, in respect to, in reference to, icith 
 
THE MODAL MODIFIER. 305 
 
 reference to^ as to, in case of, in the matter of, in point of, in the way 
 of, etc. 
 
 Ahoy in years; qmck at ft/ures ; hard of heart; well informed as regards 
 science; a foreigner to all appearance; liquids are but slij^htly reduced in 
 poen^o/'w^Mwe under pressure; the law holds true for all liquids ; it is true »n 
 his case; it is not the fact in our case (8, 5). The effect of rapid cooling in the 
 case of glass is about the same as in the case of steel. In public speaking, many 
 men fail utterly at first. It was thus with Demosthenes. No book can com[)are 
 with the Bible ybr variety and importance of information. — Hopkins. He con- 
 quered Britain, not in the way of mere hearsay, but in the way of actual occu- 
 pancy, with camps and armies. — Tacitus. It iflight be a claw for all thejltsh 
 there is upon it {i. e., so far as any flesh is concerned). — Dickens. This is mere 
 play to that. It is worthless to me (t. e., in my case). 
 
 (3.) This element sometimes takes an idiomatic form with the ex- 
 pression for all. 
 
 You may do as you please/or all me. You may take your own course /cw-ai/ 
 1 care. 
 
 (4.) The Clause-form is relative, participial, infinitive, or con- 
 junctive. 
 
 James was always boasting of his skill in what he called kingcraft. — ^fac- 
 aulay. As regards this matter being found out, I am not to blame. You ma}' 
 do as you please as far as I am concerned. 
 
 6. Cautions. Do not confound this element with, — 
 (1.) Obj. of Attention. 
 
 I have nothing to sa}', as regards enlisting, Obj. Att. There is great activity 
 as regards enlisting, Spec. He spoke in regard to learning, Obj. Att. He is 
 great as regards learning, Spec. 
 
 (2.) Purpose. 
 
 I gave him this'as a keepsake forever (i. e., to be such forever). He begged 
 this as a favor {i. e., in the way of a favor). Spec. Went for water. Pur- 
 pose. This law holds true^or water. Spec. 
 
 7. MiXKD Forms. Specification involves occasionally, — 
 
 (1.) Object of Attention. Am in doubt as to that matter. Is very much 
 troubled as to what he ought to do. 
 
 (2.) Obj. of Int. Could not advise such treatment for the sick (t. c, in the 
 case of and for). 
 
 (3.) Object of Association. He looks small beside you {i. e., in comparison 
 with and beside). 
 
 (4.) Cause. Did wrong in sending us away, or in that he sent us away (i. e., 
 in and because). 
 
 Specification may be combined as subordinate with (1.) Hypothesis. It would 
 look small if {it should be) compared with my house. 
 
 (2.) Time. The soil seems rich when (it is) compared with that of New Eng- 
 land. 
 
 20 
 
306 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 Note. Specification is one of the most useful, interesting, and 
 frequent elements in language. It is very common in the Latin and 
 Greek, and indeed in all languages. It is recognized in our classical 
 text-books under the various appellations of " Specification," "Lim- 
 itation," " Accusative of Part," " Accusative of nearer definition." 
 *' SynecdochicaZ Accusative," " SynecdochfaZ Accusative," " Greek 
 Accusative," '* Accusative of Respect," etc., etc., etc. The classical 
 student should know that all these expressions are only differtn*- 
 names for the same element. 
 
 Exercise 114. 
 
 I. A foreigner in appearance ; ten feet in length ; six inch bore ; 
 forty tons burden; a hundred feet span; a hundred feet long; ten 
 feet through; ten feet thick. 
 
 II. Rejoices in hope; lives in seclusion; lives in the valley; lives 
 in comfort; lives in France; painful in the extreme; will return in 
 an hour; came in multitudes; came in June; came in families ; dashed 
 in atoms; was killed in the war. 
 
 III. Was scorned as a gossip ; surpassed all as a musician ; went 
 as leader; condemned as a criminal; took him as a (juide; ten dol- 
 lars as a reward; regards him as my friend; spoke of him as a hypo- 
 crite ; refers to me as authority; excels ^as a painter ; looked upon 
 him as a fine painter; asked it as a gift. 
 
 IV. Firm of purpose; swift of foot; mindful of favors; commis- 
 sion of crime; love of the beautiful; his view of the beautiful; the 
 fragrance of roses; the color of roses; the sense of smell; the sensa- 
 tion of smelling; light of heart; the flowers of heaven ( — i. e., the 
 stars); the measure of a yard ; hoarse of voice; the amount of ten 
 pounds; a kettle of iron ; a kettle of water. 
 
 V. Physically well; exceedingly well; well forme; well in some 
 respects; morally wrong ; entirely wrong; mentally strong; extremely 
 strong; ostensibly friendly; friendly sometimes; excessively friendly ; 
 apparently false ; wholly false; false in one particular. 
 
 VI. 1. A story told him by Wordsworth of Sir George Beaumont 
 saying one day to Crabbe at Murray's, on Crabbe putting an extin- 
 guisher on a candle which had been imperfectly put out and the 
 smoke of which was curling up in graceful wreaths, " What, you 
 ^ poet and do that?" — Moore. 2. Thou shalt not be afraid for 
 the terror by night. — Bible. 3. Herein is that saying' true. — Id. 
 4. Those who feel an interest in the powers of genius being duly ap- 
 
THE MODAL MODIFIER. r>07 
 
 preciated. — Jordan. 5. The Turks and their allies marched in 
 seven equal and artificial divisions. — Gibbon. G. If the di'struction 
 was less complete, it was owing to the experience which had taught 
 the Moslems to keep at a safe distance. — Id. 7. By confession 
 even of priestly hatred no art or science scarcely was foreign to this 
 universal scholar, who was deep in thought, indefatigable in reading, 
 and eloquent in diction. — Alford. 8. In the case of sight, if the 
 question be asked what produces this knowledge, we can give no 
 answer. — Wayland. 
 
 8. He grew up in loveliness of' soul, 
 
 And this deep mountain valley was to him 
 Soundless with all its streams. — Wordsworth. 
 
 Section III. — Conformity. 
 
 128. Conformity is that in accordance with which any- 
 thing is or is done. 
 
 Was condemned according to law ; she was dressed to her taste , 
 was chosen by the people contrary to custom (Negative Conf.). 
 
 1. This element may be easily distinguished when it 
 seems to be obscure, from the fact that the expression, 
 " in conformity with," may be used always, and make 
 good sense. 
 
 Dresses fashionably (= in conf. with fashion). Resulted as I told 
 you (= in conf. with what I told you). Made peace on this condi- 
 tion (= in conf. with this condition). 
 
 2. Construction. (1.) The Word-form is an adverb or an 
 adjective. 
 
 A legal trial (= according to law); the customary celebration (= according to 
 custom); my usual occupation (= in conformity with habit or use); w&s justly 
 condemned ; legally convicted. 
 
 Negative Form; extraordinary proceedings (contrary to custom); unwonted 
 gatherings ; illegal trial ; one deports him orderly, the other contrariwise. 
 
 (2.) The Phrase-form has to, on, under, at, with, by, in, afteri 
 according to, in accordance with, in conformity wUh, pursuant to, agree' 
 able or agreeably to, etc. 
 
 Is handsome to me (t. e., in my view or opinion); danced to the music of the 
 flute ; took place pursxiant to custom ; tlie lieat varies according to the distance ; 
 
308 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 the thing operates on this principle ; made peace on these conditions ; this is the 
 waj- in which it works; the weight varies with the pressure ; read another letter 
 to the same purport. 
 
 (3.) In the negative form the preposition forms, contrary to, in op- 
 position to; counter to ; antagonistic to (8, 1, (4)) are used. 
 Acts contrary to law ; in opposition to my commands. 
 (4.) The Clause-form is participial, relative, or conjunctive. 
 
 He ought to be punished, / being judye. Writes a« I directed him (in the 
 rianner in which, Rel. cl.)- Walks or rides accoi'ding as he pleases (Adjunc. 
 Rel. cl.). Acts according to (or \n conformity with) whatever influence is brought 
 to bear upon him (Adjunc. Rel. cl.). He was guUty as they thought (not= in 
 the manner in which, but Conj. cl.). It is true as I believe, Conj. cl. 
 
 3. Cautions. Do not confound Conformity with Specification. 
 Correct in my view, Conf. ; correct in this thing, Spec 
 
 4. Mixed Fokms. This element may involve : (1.) Obj. of Interest, Went 
 contrary to my wishes ; acted in opposition to my commands. 
 
 (2.) Cause. Did as you told me (i. e., and because you told me); sacrificed ac- 
 cording to custom (i. c, and because it was the custom). It was in conformity 
 with your advice that he came {i. e., and because you so advised). 
 
 (3.) Comparison, as Proportion (149, 10, (1)). His blindness increases with 
 his years {i. e., according to and in proportion to). It is diminished in propor- 
 tion to the pressure {i. e., according to and as the pressure increases). 
 
 Exercise 115. 
 
 L The diflSculty was settled amicably; was settled legally; was 
 settled yesterday; was settled quickly ; was settled for all time; was 
 settled in our favor ; was settled by arbitration ; was settled in an 
 hour. 
 
 II. A council was called according to custom; by order of the 
 president; at the request of the people; to deliberate on the subject; 
 in the month of May; because of the danger ; as no time could be 
 lost. 
 
 III. "Works by rule ; in the morning ; every morning ; as he is 
 directed; when he pleases; as he pleases; before light; before others 
 are up; according to his custom; ten hours a day ; in his garden; 
 for his friends ; when he feels well. 
 
 IV. 1. Had a talk Avitli Lady H. about tlie English language 
 wherein she thinks herself a critic. — Macaulay. 2. There is some- 
 thing nauseous to me in a German professor telling the world, on his 
 own authority, that two of the Latin |)oets were ignorant of the 
 
THE MODAL MODIFIEK. 309 
 
 quantity of a certain word. 3. Upon the nearest point of land to 
 the Swedish coast stands Cronenburg Castle, built after Tycho 
 Brahe's design. 4. In the image (140) of God created he him. 
 5. The connection is explicable only on the principle of these men 
 having been the internunciators of the divine will. 6. A practice 
 which was continued from custom until after the reign of Edward 
 III. 7. Lest T deal with you after your folly, in that ye have not 
 spoken of me the thing which' is right. — Bible. 8. He shall smite 
 the earth with the rod of his mouth. — Id. 9. Conditioned on the 
 annual subscription being reduced from two guineas to one. — Smiles. 
 10. In order to prevent the Belgian enterprise becoming converted 
 into a stock- jobbing speculation. — Id. 11. I remember my father 
 once refusing to receive from the government what they thought a 
 piece of valuable pasturage. — Id. 12. On Mr. N. sitting down Mr. 
 M. proceeded to examine Mr. S. with the view of removing from the 
 minds of the committee an impression so unfavorable. — Id. 13. 
 Should repeat his opinion preparatory to such line being surveyed. 
 — Id. 
 
 Section IV. — Fitness. 
 
 129. This modifier is based upon the fitness^ adapta- 
 tion, appropriateness, adjustment, or correspondence gen- 
 erally which one object — fact, thought, or thing — holds 
 to another. 
 
 Good for food ; fit to eat; suitable /or a child; proper to read; 
 the key /or the lock; the time /or dinner; the hour for the gather- 
 ing ; readiness /or marching ; a reason /or going ; ground /)r my opin- 
 ion; a good site /or a house ; the remark applies to you; is pertinent 
 to the case ; acts consistently with his profession ; this has a direct 
 relation to that. 
 
 1. This element is constantly used to mark correspond- 
 ences between the capabilities or characteristics of per- 
 sons and the duties to be performed by them. 
 
 Worthy to rule ; entitled to vote ; qualified to teach ; competent to 
 hold office; cii\iah\e of working ; able to v^alk ; fit to govern ; has a 
 right to speak. 
 
 2. Construction. (1.) The Word-form is common. 
 
 A pertinent remark; an apt quotation; harmonious chords of music; improper 
 conduct; irrelevant talk. 
 
310 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 (2.) The Phrase-form has commonly to or /or. 
 
 A time to mourn and a time to Laugh ; good /or nothing ; suitable/or spring ; 
 well planned /or a church; convenient/or cooHn^ ; well adapted /or its use; 
 worthless /or this purpose ; acted suitably to the occasion. 
 
 (3.) Negative Fitness. This, of course, always indicates a 
 want of adaptation or of correspondence between two different things. 
 
 Heavy /or o child ; cold /or June ; hot^^ January ; warm /or this latitude ; 
 small/or (or of) his age ; rich /or a peasant; poor for a king ; learned for an 
 African; tall /or a Dutchman; a mast small /or a sJiip ; a steeple small/or the 
 church ; spoiled /or a house ; will not do for a bam. 
 
 (4.) Negative Fitness is often found with such expressions as 
 alien to, foreign to, inconsistent wiih^ irrelevant to, incompatible with. 
 
 A statement incompatible with the facts; a vocation alien to my feelings ; for- 
 eign to my wishes. 
 
 (5.) The Clause-form is relative, participial, infinitive, or de- 
 monstrative (adjunctive). 
 
 Good /or what it was intended ; proper for your children to read; it is time 
 for us to go ; a good place for one to stand. 
 
 3. Cautions. Do not confound Fitness with — 
 
 (].) ObJ. of Interest. It involves no exclusive notion of advantage or disad- 
 vantage (47). Good to yoM, Obj. Int.; good to eat, Fitness. Useful /or me, 
 Int.; useiul for washing, Fitness. 
 
 (2.) Purpose or Motive. It does not imply an intelligent agent back of it in 
 whom it is a motive power. Plans to rule, Pur. ; is fit to rule, is worth}' to rule, 
 Fit. Lives to eat, Pur. ; is fit to eat. Fit. 
 
 (3.) Specification. This holds good for all liguids (= in c&se of), Spec; is 
 light for a liquid, Fit. (Neg. form). Correct time for New York, Spec; cold 
 for New Yoi'k (t. e., not corresponding to the usual New York temperature), 
 Fit. (Neg.) Material common /o7'5oys, Spec; a burden hezvy for a boy, Fit. 
 (Neg.). 
 
 (4.) Connection. The hoar of (= at which it happened) meeting, Connec; 
 the hour/or the meeting (t. e., the appointed hour), Fit. The place of gather- 
 ing, Connec. ; the place for the gathering, Fit. 
 
 4. Mixed Forms. Fitness combines, — 
 
 (1.) ObJ. of Interest. Food good /or children; a house convenient /or a 
 vnall family. 
 
 (2.) Comp. of Equal. It is good enough /or me ; wise enough /or o H/i^'. 
 
 (3.) Comp. of Inequal. Too good for me ; too heavy /or a boy ; too cold/or 
 June ; too small /or his age. 
 
 (4.) Concession. He fought bravely considering he was but a youth (t. e. 
 fought well for a youth and though he was but a youth). 
 
THE MODAL MODIFIER. 311 
 
 Exercise 116. 
 
 I. Good to us; good for food; good to drink; good to every one; 
 good in language ; good at figures ; good for the kind; good for this 
 purpose ; good to his friends. 
 
 II. Wishes to rule; begins to rule; longs to rule; plans to rule ; 
 spoiled for a ruler; knows how to rule; means to rule; is fit to rule; 
 is worthy to rule ; is going to rule ; he is said to rule ; contrived so 
 as to rule; is adapted to rule; it is proper for some one to rule ; it is 
 fitting for you to rule ; you are fit to rule ; he is compelled to rule ; 
 compelled him to rule; begged him to rule; it seems strange for Lim 
 to rule; he ought to rule for he is wise. 
 
 III. 1. The human imagination, bold and venturesome though it 
 be, feels as if it could not penetrate the depths of space which as- 
 tronomy discloses. — Dr. Mc Cosh. 2. The reason (129) for each 
 man fashioning a god after his own heart. — Id. 3. The thought of 
 there being no presiding power to overlook their destiny. 4. He 
 observes how stone is fitted to stone and buttress to buttress to that 
 •which it supports, and how all the parts are in beautiful adaptation 
 to each other. — Id. 5. The desirableness of more light being let 
 in to dispel the gloom. — Id. 6. He feels now as if he had obtained 
 what he wanted ; — a truth which gives coherence to every other 
 truth. — Id. 7. The sorrowful complain of the silence, as cruel. — 
 Id. 
 
 B. Weaker or Remoter Forms. 
 
 130. The remoter forms of mode may be divided 
 into, — 
 
 (a.) Substitution. 
 
 (6.) Addition. 
 
 (c.) Exclusion. 
 
 (J.) Attendant Circumstance. 
 
 Section I. — Substitution. 
 
 131. The name of this modifier sufficiently indicates 
 its nature. 
 
 Will go in your place; your friend came instead of you; in place o/ 
 music she took drawing. 
 
312 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 1. Construction. (1.) Word-forms occur; as, — 
 They worked alternately at the pumps; words used interchangeabHy. 
 
 (2.) The word-form is often the word rather used representatively. 
 
 He is absolutely impersonal, or rather he is all persons in town (rather = in- 
 stead of that expression impersonal). — Backus. 
 
 (3.) The Phrase-form has the prepositions for^ icith, and some 
 others, and such compound and idiomatic forms as, in turn, hy turns, 
 in place of, in room of, in lieu of, instead of. 
 
 Served as a substitute for me ; he and you worked by turns ; will go in your 
 ttead ; went in his place ; reigned in room of his father ; had a log for a pillow. 
 
 (4.) The Phrase-form is often conjunctive with the compound 
 connective rather than. 
 
 Holds by might, rather than by right {= instead of). 
 
 (5.) The Clause-form is adjunctive, relative, or participial. 
 
 Say this instead of what J told you. In lieu of this being attended to. 
 
 2. Cautions. Distinguish this modifier from, — 
 (1.) Obj. of Association. 
 
 Came to us ; came among us. Obj. Assoc. 
 Came instead of us. Sub. 
 
 (2.) Connection. 
 
 Took the place of his father, Connec. He commanded in place of his father, 
 Sub. Performed the duties o/" Aisyrt^Acr, Connec. 'dentin lieu of his father. 
 Sub. Occupied the position of the commander, Connec. Served in the room of 
 his commander, Sub. 
 
 3. Mixed Fokms. This modifier combines: (1.) Object of Interest. Will 
 go for you {i. e., in your place to accommodate you) ; selected him instead of 
 me (i. e., to my loss). 
 
 (2.) Purpose. He had a log for a pillow {i. e., in place of and to serve for). 
 
 Exercise '117. 
 
 L Worked in his place; worked in his house; chooses this instead 
 of that; will go instead of him ; will go for the sake of him; will go 
 as a substitute (118, 1), for you; will go for you; stands in your 
 shoes; take this in return for your kindness; found this on my re- 
 turn. 
 
 II. 1. Mankind complain of their nature that it is governed by 
 chance rather than by intellectual power. — Sallust. 2. Admonished 
 him to court the friendship of the Romans rather by attention to 
 
THE MODAL MODIFIER. 313 
 
 them as a body, than by practicing on individuals. — Id. 3. Ju- 
 gurtha as he grew up, being strong in frame, graceful in person, and 
 vigorous in understanding, did not allow himself to be enervated by 
 pleasure. — Id. 4. Kept secret what he heard. — Id. 6. This in- 
 telligence it was that excited the feelings of the citizens. — Id. 
 
 III. 1. If thou be not the captain of the host before me, continu- 
 ally, in the room of Joab. — Bible. 2. Thy son whom I will set upon 
 thy throne in thy room. — Id. 3. They dwelt in their steads until 
 the captivity. — Id. 4. Their children whom he raised up in their 
 stead, them Joshua circumcised. — Id. 
 
 IV. 1. After two years Festus came into Felix' room. — Bible. 
 2. And Zadok the priest did the king put in the room of Abiathar. 
 — Id. 3. Dt-stroyed them utterly, and dwelt in their room. — Id. 
 4. David fought with the Philistines and slew them with great 
 slaughter. — Id. 5. He put a pillow of goat's hair for a bolster and 
 covered it with a cloth. — Id. 6. Jonathan knew that it was de- 
 termined of his father to slay David. — Id. 7. Esau, who for one 
 morsel of meat sold his birthright. 
 
 Section II. — Addition. 
 
 132. The character of this element will be sufficiently 
 clear from the following examples, — 
 
 Has much besides this ; receives a thousand dollars a year in the 
 way of perquisites in addition to his regular salary. Has other re- 
 sources than the income of his farm. 
 
 1. Construction. (1.) The Word-form is an adjective, an 
 adverb, or a noun. 
 
 TJie words also^ else, more, besides, too, likewise, are very common. 
 
 Can do this and that too; is learning music also; does this likewise; some- 
 thing besides ; something else; has nothing more. 
 
 So other forms: an eariro wheel; an additional fact; ten dollars to boot ; a 
 surplus garment; a supernumerary officer ; a supplementary fact. 
 
 (2.) The Word-form after more and other (== more) is conjunc-" 
 tive. 
 
 Have other reasons than this for refusing. Is lazy ; more than this is a drunk- 
 ard. 
 
 (3.) The Phrase-form has besides, amx)ng, in addition to, mth, 
 
314 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 together with, along with, among, including, inclusive of, and some idio- 
 matic forms, as, into the'bargain, aside from (== besides). 
 
 Many besides him ; these with many others; this, including board; five hun- 
 dred a year and my clothes into the bargain; nothing other than this (= besides 
 this); did this among other things; has other reasons than this {= besides this); 
 aside from this there are many other duties. 
 
 (4.) The Clause-form is adjunctive, participial, or relative. 
 
 Much was stolen besides what was lost ; in addition to his having been con- 
 victed of theft, he was also accused of arson. 
 
 2. Cautions. Do not confound this modifier with (1.) Obj. of 
 Association, 
 
 There were only two beside me, Assoc; there were only two besides me. 
 Add. 
 
 3. Mixed Forms. Addition combines often the element of Obj. of Association. 
 He with ten others was rescued (=: with and in addition to); these together with 
 their wives and children ; the young, along with many aged and infrm, were 
 expatriated; this among other things occasioned difficulty. 
 
 Exercise 118. 
 
 I. One besides me ; one beside me ; came one by one ; came by 
 my request; came according to promise; more came; ten more came; 
 has his board and something besides; has nothing else; nothing 
 additional; knows nothing farther about it ; will go a mile farther. 
 
 II. Will go into your room; will go in your carriage; will go with 
 you; will go for you; will go to you; will go, as you insist upon it; 
 will go, if you insist upon it; would have gone if you had insisted 
 upon it; will not go, urge me as you may ; will not go with you, or 
 rather will not go with you if you go there. 
 
 III. 1. There were but two or three rooms habitable. — Irving. 
 2. In consideration of keeping the palace in order the good dame is 
 allowed all the produce of the gardens excepting that she is expected 
 to pay an occasional tribute of fruits and flowers to the governor. — 
 Id. 3. The streets are deserted except by the water carriers. — Id. 
 4. Many implements fabricated under his directions by cunning artif- 
 icers, the occult properties of which were known only to himself. — 
 Id. 5. As to the summit of the mountain, the site of the promised 
 palace, it remained a naked waste. — Id. 6. The turban was gene- 
 rally abandoned except in the western provinces. — Id. 7. He 
 questioned him touching his knowledge of the land. — Id. 
 
THE MODAL MODIFIER. 315 
 
 8 These our actors, 
 
 As I foretold you, were all spirits, and 
 Are melted into thin air. 
 
 Shakespeare. 
 
 9. No prince, no peer, shall have just cause to say, — 
 God shorten Harry's Jaappy life one day. 
 
 Sliak. Henry IV. 
 
 10. There is a special providence in the fall of a sparrow. 
 
 Shak. Hamlet. 
 
 11. What is six winters. They are quickly gone 
 To men in joy, but grief makes one hour ten. 
 
 Shak. Rich. I. 
 
 Section III. — Exclusion. 
 
 133. Exclusion eliminates from the statement made 
 whatever the same does not proj^erly cover. It usually 
 refers to solne definite logical element. 
 
 Spoke to all except to me (Obj. Add. excluded). Talks about 
 nothing hut politics (Obj. Att. excl.). Will go to no one but me 
 (Obj. Assoc, excl.). Have been to every place except to your store 
 (Place Whither excl.). 
 
 Works every day except Sundays (Time How Often excl.). Can 
 write with nothing hut a steel pen (Means or Instrument excl.), etc., 
 etc. 
 
 1. This element may be indicated either by direct statement, as, 
 Nothing was accomplished hut this, or by necessary implication, as. 
 Only this was accomplished. So, No one was present except me = 
 I only was present. He cannot write except with a steel pen = he 
 can write only with a steel pen. 
 
 2. After negatives the elements of Exclusion and of 
 Addition may be used interchangeably without mateiially 
 modifying the sense. 
 
 Has nothing hut this to recommend him = has nothing besides this 
 to recommend him = has only this to recommend him. 
 
 3. Construction. (1.) The Word-form is commonly con- 
 junctive with than, in such expressions as else, than, other than, other- 
 wise than, more than. 
 
316 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 Gets nothing more than a simple hnowledge. — Wayland (= nothing except 
 a simple knowledge; = also,' nothing besides, etc). Wanders in search of every 
 other object than that directly before him. — Id. (= every object except, etc.)- 
 The classics contain little else than histories of wars (= little else except or be- 
 tides). I could not do otherwise than obey. 
 
 (2.) The Phrase-form has hut, except^ excepting, save, without, 
 less, minus, with the exception of, exclusive of. 
 " Twent}' less ten; all save one; the inhabitants exclusive of foreigners. 
 
 (3.) The phrase-form is often adjunctive (8, 8). 
 
 Cannot be done except by effort ; will not work except for me ; is never idle 
 save on Mondays ; the city was deserted except by the slaves. 
 
 (4.) The Clause-form is adjunctive, demonstrative, infinitive, 
 participial, or relative. 
 
 Nothing except that he became bankrupt ; everything but what we most needed ; 
 nothing remained to be done except for the word of command to be given ; is 
 always present save when I want him; cared for nothing except his (z= him) 
 having become so very angry. !lJothing was the matter only that I was very 
 tired (= except that, etc.). 
 
 After negatives, else, besides, etc., denoting Addition, may be fol- 
 lowed by except, introducing a terra of Exclusion, but not other- 
 wise (15, 20). 
 
 He studies Latin and nothing else except algebra. I own a farm and nothing 
 besides excejit a small cottage in the city. 
 
 But in all other cases these words (else, besides, other, etc.) must 
 either be omitted, or, if used, must be followed by than (15, 20). 
 
 He troubles me, he does nothing else but laugh (wrong: say either, he does 
 nothing else than laugh, or he does nothing but laugh). 
 
 Exercise 119. 
 
 I. Only one came ; nothing except this ; we alone were present ; 
 all save you and me ; is a host in himself; cannot escape save by a 
 miracle ; a pope is nothing more than a man. 
 
 II. The house was finished with the exception of papering ; was 
 finished to my mind ; was finished pursuant to agreement; was fin- 
 ished save in a few details ; was finished conformably with the con- 
 tract ; was finished save that the windows were not put in. 
 
 III. Nothing but leaves ; has leaves rather than fruit ; has some- 
 thing other than leaves or fruit ; has nothing else than leaves ; has 
 flowers besides leaves ; has leaves in lieu of flowers ; the flowers grow 
 
THE MODAL MODIFIER 317 
 
 on branches; they are flowers only in appearance; they arc real 
 flowers in my view ; what are flowers good for ? if I had one I could 
 tell you ; had you one, you could not tell me. 
 
 IV. The love of flowers; the beauty of flowers; the plucking of 
 flowers; the blooming of flowers; the circulation of the blood; the 
 poisoning of the blood; the redness of the blood; the freezing of 
 water;' the pumping of water; the clearness of the water ; the ripen- 
 ing of fruit; the gathering of fruit; the deliciousness of fruit; the 
 growth of fruit. 
 
 V. Smells the flower; smells of the flower; the smell of the 
 flower; tastes the fruit; tastes of the fruit ; the taste of the fruit; 
 looks at the plant; sees the plant; feels it ; feels of it ; the feeling of 
 it; strikes the log ; strikes on the log; strikes at the log; strikes the 
 log in two ; strikes through the log ; strikes a blow upon the log. 
 
 Section IV. — Attendant Circumstance. 
 
 134. This modifier, as its name indicates, expresses 
 merely some circumstance remotely connected with an 
 action or a state. 
 
 She slept loith the window open. He sat down with his Jlocks graz- 
 ing around him. 
 
 1. Construction. (1.) The Word-form and the Phrase- 
 form rarely if ever occur. 
 
 The Clause-form is most commonly an (adjunc.) Participial 
 Clause, with with, usually elliptical (13, 11). 
 
 He studies with his door {being) open. He left the city with all his debts 
 (being) unpaid. 
 
 2. Cautions. Do not confound this element with (1.) Slate or 
 Condition. 
 
 Sat with her feet (being) wet ; rode with his hat {being) off; works with his 
 gloves {being) on ; fought with his coat {being) off; etc. State or Cond. 
 
 Sat with every door {being) locked; rode witha carriage {being) in front of 
 her; fought with mountains (being) upon each side of them. Att. Cir. • 
 
 (2.) Association. 
 
 Slept with his friend, Assoc. Slept with afre in his room, Att. Cir. 
 
 (3.) Concession. 
 
 Went shopping with no money in her pocket. Cone. Started off down town 
 with her house left all open, Att. Cir. 
 
318 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 Exercise 120. 
 
 I. Works with his door shut; works with his coat off ; works with 
 a bad headache ; works with his eyes shut; works with ease; works 
 with rapidity; works according .to rule; works for us; works against 
 us; works with us; works for money ; works in my place ; works to 
 get rich; works because he likes to; works from necessity. 
 
 II. Sat smiling; came smiling; said with a smile ; looked smiling; 
 saw her smile ; saw her smiling ; had a smile on her face ; sat with 
 a smile on her face ; thinks that she smiled ; thinks of her as smil- 
 ing- 
 
 III. Saw the door open ; saw the open door ; sat with the door 
 open; saw the door opening ; the door opening, he walked out; saw 
 him open the door; saw the door opened by him; spoke of the door 
 having been opened ; left the room with all the doors open ; the door 
 being open, he took cold ; his taking cold had no connection with the 
 door being open. 
 
 IV. 1. Americanisms are nothing more than old English. 
 2. They never think of religion but with enmity. 3. Whence did 
 that principle spring but from the Bible? 4. This among other 
 things was the cause of the removal. 5. Men had nothing else with 
 which to explore the heavens. 6. They sent out unto him their 
 disciples with the Herodians. 7. Let us go into the next towns, 
 that I may preach there also. 8. I am obliged to you for your letter. 
 9. Wished not the world to do this or to do that, except simply to 
 pay him for the books he kept writing. 
 
 Section V. — Remote Mode. (^Continued.) 
 
 135. Emphatic Forms. 
 
 It was in your place that he suffered aU this. It w&s for suck a con- 
 sideration that he parted with it, etc. 
 
 1. Grammatical Construction. It should be re- 
 membered that than only is the proper correlative of else^ 
 other ^ other ivise^ rather^ more^ etc. (16, 20). Always 
 place these modifiers, as all other modifiers, as nearly as 
 possible to the words they modify. 
 
 I only spoke a word. Say: I spoke only a word. 
 
THE MODAL MODIFIER. 319 
 
 Exercise 121. 
 
 Do the same work as hefore. 
 Correct anything ungrammatical. 
 
 I. 1. A metaphor is nothing but a short comparison. 2. There 
 is no other dictator here but use. 3. No man has a right to use any- 
 thing except for the use for which it was given. 4. If a man strive 
 for masteries he is not crowned except he strive lawfully. 5. This 
 involves no principle, except that the party has no right to prolong the 
 time. 6. Ye, should not worship any other except God. 7. Their re- 
 lation is not otherwise to be ascertained but by their place. 8. Sight 
 gives us nothing but the different shades of color. 9. If I am asked 
 why I believe thus, I can give no other account of it than that I am 
 so made. 10. We can refer it to no other cause but the structure of 
 the eye. 11. Has not any idea in his mind but what one of them 
 has imprinted. .12. Macaulay had an opinion that men, the business 
 of whose lives lies elsewhere than among the classics, may amuse 
 themselves to more purpose than by turning good English poetry 
 into Greek and Latin verses. 
 
 II. 1. This saying is commonly reported among the Jews until this 
 day. 2. For fear of him the keepers did shake. 3. Have thou 
 nothing to do with that just man for I have suffered many things 
 this day in a dream because of him. 4. I have sinned in that I liave 
 betrayed the innocent blood. 5. Thou also art one of them, for thy 
 speech betray eth thee. 6. He said, How can I, except some man 
 should guide me. 7. They covenanted with him. 8. Ye know that 
 after two days is the feast of the passover (61). 9. I knew thee 
 that thou art an hard man. 10. Thou hast been faithful over a 
 few things. 11. I have gained besides them five talents more. 
 12. Watch, for ye know neither the day nor the hour. 13. Because 
 iniquity shall abound the love of many shall wax cold. 14. Woe 
 unto you, hypocrites, for ye make clean the outside of the cup. For 
 a pretense, ye make long prayers. 15. All their works they do for 
 to be seen of men. 
 
320 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 (b.) INDIRECT OR RELATIVE MODE. 
 
 NATURE AND DIVISIONS. 
 
 136. This form of the Modal Element like the Direct 
 or Absolute form (117) may be in essential character, — 
 
 (a.) Qualitative. 
 (5.) Quantitative. 
 (c.) Circumstantial. 
 
 137. Any one of these specific forms of mode (the 
 qualitative, the quantitative, and the circumstantial), may 
 be indicated by means of d Consequence, a Comparison, 
 or both. Hence, Indirect or Relative mode is discussed 
 under two heads, — 
 
 (a.) Consequence. 
 (6.) Comparison. 
 
 CHAPTER L 
 
 CONSEQUENCE. 
 
 Section I. — Quality Consequence. 
 
 138. This modifier expresses a quality by noting a 
 consequence or result. 
 
 He led such a life that everybody hated him. 
 
 1. Construction. (1.) The Word-forms are effectively, effi- 
 ciently, effectually, vainly, uselessly, profitably, etc., and the corre- 
 sponding adjectives. 
 
 Works vainly (t. c, in a way to accomplish nothing); fruitless efforts; useless 
 labor. 
 
 (2). The Word-form is sometimes a conjunctive infinitive form. 
 
 He so planned aa to secure the position. Gave such a look as to terrify them. 
 
 (3.) The Phrase-form commonly has without. 
 
 They work without accomplisliing nnyihin<j (— in such a way as to accomplish 
 nothing). 
 
THE MODAL MODIFIER. 321 
 
 (4.) The Clause-form is commonly relative or conjunctive with that 
 referring to so or such. After negatives and expressions implying a 
 negative a relative clause with but is often used (14, 34). 
 
 He so planned that he received the position. Gave such a look that he terrified 
 t/iem. They work in such a way that they accomplish nothing. 
 
 With Negatives. 
 
 There is not a man who does not know his duty = but knows his duty, i. e., of 
 such a character that he does not, etc. So, What man is there but knows his 
 duty f Do nothing which you would wish to conceal, i. e., of such a character 
 
 that, etc. 
 
 (5.) After some negative expressions this element is somewhat 
 peculiar. 
 
 Who am I that I should be son-in-law to the kingf — Bible. With what sa- 
 cred rites he has consecrated it I know not, that he thinks it necess(try to plunge 
 it into the body of a consul. — Cicero. What manner of man is this that even 
 the winds and the seas obey him ? — Bible. 
 
 2. Mixed Forms. Quality Consequence may be combined with: — 
 
 (1.) Evidence and Proof. The soil must be rich and fertile /or such crops 
 to be taken from it. He must have been a good man, ybr so many people to be 
 interested in his welfare. 
 
 (2.) This element is also combined as subordinate with adjective elements 
 of Quality, — with Place and with Time (59,3, (4)). Made an investment 
 which in a short time resulted in his bankruptcy (= such that). 
 
 Exercise 122. 
 
 I. Lived to no purpose; lived for himself ; lived to help others; 
 lived so as to help others ; so lived that he helped others; lived as 
 he pleased ; lived as you live; lived differently from you; so lived 
 that all loved him; led such a life that all hated him; lived a good 
 life ; lived a Christian; lived much like a philosopher; lived very un- 
 like an honest man; lived on one thousand a year; lived among us; 
 lived ten miles from me ; lived by his wits ; lived a long life for he 
 took good care of his health ; would have led a good life but for 
 vicious associates. 
 
 II. 1. Who knows but he reads fiction? 2. Who is there but 
 reads fiction? 3. There is no doubt that he reads fiction. 4. There 
 is no one but reads fiction. There is no question that he reads fic- 
 tion. 5. It is not certain but he reads fiction. 6. He reads fiction 
 constantly without growing any wiser. 7. Here is a man who does 
 not read fiction. 8. He reads much without learning anything. 
 9. Thou hast both seen him and it is he that talketh with thee. 10. A 
 
 21 
 
322 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 stranger will they not follow, for they know not the voice of stran- 
 gers. 11. The people rejoiced for all the glorious things that were 
 done by him. The servant said, It is done as thou hast commanded. 
 
 Section II. — Quantity Consequence. 
 
 139. This indicates some kind of Quantity ; as, De- 
 gree, Measure of Magnitude, or Measure of Difference 
 (120, 121, 122), by means of a Consequence resulting 
 from the same. 
 
 She sings very sweetly, so that all who hear are delighted. She 
 sang so sweetly /Aaf all were charmed ; a painting of so great excel- 
 lence that all admired it (Deg. Conseq.). The well is so deep, thai 
 you cannot see the bottom ; this man is so old that he cannot walk 
 (Meas. of Mag. Conseq.). He looked so much better that we did not 
 know him ; she is so much taller than you, that you look small beside 
 her (Meas. of Dif. Conseq.). 
 
 1. Sometimes, for the most part in older English, the 
 quantitative term to which the consequent clause refers is 
 only implied. 
 
 Smote him that he died. — Bible. = Smote him so severely that, 
 etc. 
 
 2. Consequence is sometimes rather imaginary and 
 rhetorical than real. Comp. 108. 
 
 I am so far from believing what you say thai I believe the exact op- 
 posite (clearly, believing the opposite of a statement is in no sense a 
 consequence of not believing the statement itself). 
 
 3. CoNSTRUCTiox. (1.) The WoRD-FORM is commonly a con- 
 junctive infinitive-form. 
 
 We are not so ignorant as not to know our letters ; a man of so 
 great perseverance as to astonish everybody. 
 
 (2.) The Phrase-form has commonly the preposition to andidth- 
 out. 
 
 The train rushed on with tremendous velocity to the terror of all the passen- 
 gers (i. e., ao fast that all were terrified). 
 Cannot go out so late without taking cold. 
 
THE MODAL MODIFIER. 323 
 
 (3.) The Clause-form is commonly conjunctive with that (some- 
 times but) or participial (adjunctive). 
 
 We are not so ignorant that we do not know our letters; a man of so great 
 perseverance that he astonished everybody ; seemeth it a small (t. e., so small) 
 thing unto you, to have eaten up the good pasture, but (=z tliat) you must tread 
 down with your feet the residue oj' your pastures ; and to have drunk of the deep 
 waters, but (= that) ye must foul the residue with your feet. — Bible. 
 
 (4.) After Negatives. Here the clause-form is a participial 
 (adjunctive) or a conjunctive with but, or but that. 
 
 They could not keep the thing so secret but that it got out (15, 12). No man 
 is so wicked but he loves virtue = no man is so wicked that he does not love virtue 
 (15, 12). A man cannot work so constantly and so perseveringly but that some- 
 thing will be accomplished = that something will not be accomplished = without 
 something being accomplished. 
 
 (5.) Occasionally, especially in older English, this element takes 
 the form of a relative (adjective) clause. 
 
 There is nothing so inconsiderable which may not appear dreadful to an im- 
 agination that is filled with omens and prognostics. — Addison. 
 
 4. Cautions. Do not confound Consequence with, — 
 (1.) Comparison of Equality and Fitness. 
 
 Am strong enough to walk ; am prepared to fight ; am high enough to see a 
 vast distance, Comp. and Fit. 
 
 Am so strong that I can walk ; am fully prepared, so that I can fight ; am so 
 high that I can see, etc., Conseq. 
 
 (2.) Comparison of Inequality and Fitness. 
 
 Am too hard-hearted to be moved by suffering; deports himself more viciously 
 than even his best friends can endure = too viciously /(^ even his best friends to 
 endure, Comp. and Fitness. 
 
 Am not so hard-hearted as not to be moved ; deports himself so viciously that 
 his best friends cannot endure it, Conseq. 
 
 5. Mixed Forms. Quantity Consequence is sometimes combined as subordi- 
 nate with — 
 
 (1.) Evidence and Proof {91, 1). Here an Inf. or a Rel. clause may be used. 
 He must have been a very cruel man for all his children to leave him. {His 
 children leaving him is referred to as both a consequence and a proof of his great 
 cruelty). It must have stormed very hard last night foi' the snow to be so deep. 
 How deeply unbelief must be rooted in our hearts when we are surprised to find 
 our prayers answered ^=-for us to be surprised to find, etc. 
 
 Note. Do not confound the above with Pure Evidence and Proof. It must 
 have been very cold last night/or the ground to be frozen so deep, Conseq. and 
 Proof. It must have been very cold last night, for the ground is frozen very 
 deep. Proof, simply. 
 
 (2.) Time Hoxo Long. He walked until his feet became sore (= until and so 
 long that). He spoke tiU he was hoarse (». e., and so long that). 
 
324 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 (3.) Comp. of Ineq. (Compare 129, 4, 3). Their zeal is wanner than that it 
 tciU be allayed. — Dr. South ey. 
 
 Note. The above may be expressed in three ways, with a slight modifica- 
 tion of meaning. Thus: Their zeal is so warm that it will not be allayed, Pure 
 Conseq. Their zeal is too warm to be allayed, Comp. of Ineq. and Conseq. 
 Their zeal is warmer than that it will be allayed, Comp. of Ineq. and Conseq. 
 This last is the ordinary Latin construction for this mixed element, namely, 
 quam ut, etc. 
 
 Exercise 123. 
 
 I. 1. Not so blind as not to see. 2. Is so blind that he cannot 
 see. 3. Who is so blind as not to see ? 4. Who is so blind but he 
 may see? 5. There is no doubt that he may see. 6. It is not cer- 
 tain but he can see. 7. Was he so blind as not to see at all ? 8. He 
 cannot see without opening his eyes. 9. Who knows but he sees? 
 10. It cannot be but he sees. 11. There is not a man but sees.. 
 12. Who is there but sees? 13. Who ever opens his eyes without 
 seeing? 14. Who ever sees without opening his eyes? (Ill, 4, (2)). 
 15. Ask him if he sees. 16. It would be strange if he did not see. 
 17. It does seem as if he must see. 18. I feel as if he might see if 
 he wished to. 19. Few men are so blind but that they may see. 
 20. I am not sure but that they may see. 
 
 II. 1. The decree of the assembly for Alcibiades to come home. 
 — Smithes Greece. 2. Decided on (23, 2) dispatching a large fleet 
 under Nicias, with the design of assisting Egesta. — Jd. 3. He ad- 
 vised them to send an army into Sicily, and, by way of causing a 
 diversion, to establish a fortified post at Decelea. — Id. 4. Upon 
 arriving in the city, Gylippus sent a message to the Athenians allow- 
 ing them a five days' truce to collect their effects. — Id. 5. Pisan- 
 der carried a resolution that a committee of ten should be appointed 
 to prepare a new constitution. 
 
 III. 1. If the New Testament contained no examples of the Apos- 
 tles employing force, this was simply because in their time no priest 
 had Christianity. — Lecky. 2. The vital soul it is, which if it ever 
 dwelt in man, dwelt in Wordsworth. 3. If the scriptures of the 
 Paulians were pure, they were not perfect. 4. Sent forth a dove to 
 see if the waters were abated. 5. If any man be a worshipper of 
 God, him he heareth. 6. If ye love me, keep my commandments. 
 7. If I bring him not unto thee, let me bear the blame. 
 
THE MODAL MODIFIER. 325 
 
 Section HI. — Circumstantial Consequence. 
 
 140. This element indicates some form of circumstan- 
 tial mode (123), by means of a Oonsequence, It ex- 
 presses, of course, neither quality nor quantity like those 
 just discussed. 
 
 He arrived seasonably so that we were not disappointed. He was 
 for many years a prisoner, so that he knew little of what had happened, 
 
 1. This form of Consequence is often rather imagined, 
 presumed, or pretended than real. (Comp. 139, 2.) 
 
 I cannot leave my home hut some one is sure to call. I never re- 
 ceive a letter hut my sister is sure to get one also on the same day = 
 without my sister also receiving one on the same day. 
 
 2. Construction. (1.) The Word-form is an adverb. 
 He came early, fortunately for us. 
 
 (2.) The Phrase-form is not uncommon. 
 
 She never goes out without talcing cold. I never hear the story without laugh- 
 ing. He reformed, to the joy of all his friends. He went to sea, to the great 
 grief of his parents. 
 
 (3.) The Clause-form is Conjunctive Clause, introduced b^' 
 that, hut that, but, and so that, or an adjunctive Participial clause. 
 
 She never goes out that she does nut take cold = but she takes cold. I never 
 hear the story that I do not laugh =: hut that I laugh. He never shoots but a 
 bird falls = that a bird does not fall = without a bird falling. He served in the 
 war as a private, so that he knew little of what was going on outside of his own 
 company. 
 
 3. Circumstantial, like Quality Consequence, is sometimes a con- 
 junctive clause used somewhat peculiarly. 
 
 Who did sin, this man or his mother, that he was bom blind f {{. e., as a con- 
 sequence of such sin). AVhat has he achieved that he should be so honored by 
 the kingt Who are you that you take such liberties f 
 
 4. Cautions. Do not confound this form of Consequence when 
 expressed by without with, — 
 
 (1.) Hypothesis Absolute. 
 
 One cannot be a good teacher without being a good scholar (= unless one is) 
 He cannot be fiuccesniul without understanding his business (unless). 
 
326 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 (2.) Hypothesis Contrary to Fact. 
 
 Without some friends to help him he would iwt have succeeded at all; without 
 9ome success he would have been utterly discouraged. 
 
 (3.) Concession. 
 
 He did succeed without understanding his business. 
 (4.) Att. Circumstance, or State and Condition. 
 
 He made his escape without any one knowing it, Conseq. Went to ride unth- 
 out his hat {being) on. State and Cond. 
 
 5. Mixed Forms. This element sometimes involves, — 
 
 (1.) Time How Long. This stream receives tributary after tributary until it 
 becomes a great stream (= until and so that). 
 
 (2.) This element is sometimes combined as subordinate with Evidence and 
 Proof {97, 5). He must have been a hero indeed for so many to come so far to 
 do him honor. It must have rained last night fur the ground to be so wet. 
 
 Exercise 124. 
 
 I. 1. He never reads that without laughing. 2. He laughed im- 
 moderately, to the mortification of all present. 3. He never laughs 
 at'all hut he laughs immoderately. 4. Who is there but sometimes 
 laughs immoderately? 5. Who knows but he laughed immoderately? 
 6. There is no doubt that he laughed. 7. He says he never reads 
 but he laughs. 8. I do not know but he laughs when he reads. 
 9. It is true that if he reads he laughs. 10. I wonder if he always 
 laughs when he reads. 11. I should not wonder if he should some- 
 times laugh. 12. Who questions that he laughed? 13. Read in such 
 a way that he laughed. 14. It is true that he laughed. 15. It is 
 thus that he laughed. 16. The fact that he laughed is manifest. 
 17. It is not certain but he laughed. 18. Does he ever read without 
 laughing? 19. Does he ever read without spelling his words? 
 20. Does he ever read without stumbling? 21. Does he ever read 
 without some one helping him? 22. What a fine reader he must be 
 for everybody to listen so long and so attentively! 23. What is his 
 peculiar excellence that all are so charmed with him ? 24. Who is 
 he that he takes so with everybody? 25. Who is there but admires 
 him? 26. No one ever saw him without admiring him. 
 
 H. 1. Have you forgotten the experience of yesterday, that you 
 do this again ? 2. Men feared the French would prove perfidious, 
 to the king's danger. — Shak. 3. They may do this without any 
 hindrance to business. — Addison. 4. In a little time after, I saw 
 
THE MODAL MODIFIER. 327 
 
 him leap upon the stage and act his part with great applause. — Id. 
 5. Contentment is of so great value that it can never be purchased 
 dearly. 6. William the Conqueror is said to have been so strong 
 that scarcely any person in that age could bend his bow, or handle 
 his arms. 7. The soul considered with its Creator, is like one of 
 those mathematical lines that may draw nearer to another, to all 
 eternity, without a possibility of touching it. — Addison. 8. No 
 condition is so high but may have fears. 9. They are not able to 
 read it over to themselves without laughing. — Id. 10. I'll not 
 meddle with it (conscience). It makes a man a coward; a man 
 cannot steal but it accuseth him ; a man cannot swear but it checks 
 him; it made me once restore a purse of gold. — Shak. 11. Left 
 Polysperchon regent, much to the surprise and mortification of his 
 son Cassander. 
 
 12. I should not see the sandy hour-glass run. 
 But I should think of shallows and of flats, 
 And see my wealthy Andrew docked in sand. 
 
 Shak. 
 
 Section IV. — Consequence. {Continued.) 
 
 141. JEmphatic Forms. FoT the sake of emphasis, the Conse- 
 quent Clause is sometimes made to take the form of an independent 
 proposition. In this case the leading proposition becomes usually 
 subordinate. 
 
 I am so far from believing you that I believe the very opposite, Common form. 
 So far from believing you, I believe the very opposite, Emphatic form. 
 
 So, The piiesthood, so far from having power with Heaven, are seen to be 
 helpless (= are so far that they seem, etc.). In the first minute it lay like a pur- 
 ple stain upon the horizon, so mighty was the distance (=: so mighty was the 
 distance that, etc. ) — De Quincey. 
 
 She was almost beside herself, such was her terror (= such was her terror that, 
 etc. Here the second clause really expresses Cause). 
 
 1. Synonymous Forms. Negative Consequence, after a nega- 
 tive, admits of several equivalent forms of expression. 
 (1.) Quality Consequence. 
 There is no man who does not know his duty =■ but knows his duty. 
 
 (2.) Quantity Consequence. When the subject of the consequent 
 clause is the same as that of the principal verb, there may be three 
 constructions ; when different, two. 
 
328 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 He is not so cruel as that (or that) he does not pity misery = but (or but that) 
 he pities misery = as not to pity misery. Subj. Same. 
 
 No man is so wicked that his conscience does not check him = hut (or but that) 
 his conscience checks him = Subj. Dif. 
 
 (3.) Circumstantial Consequence. 
 
 He never does wrong that his conscience does not check him = but (or but that) 
 his conscience checks him = without his conscience checking him. 
 
 Exercise 125. 
 
 I. He secured the position without a recommendation; he cannot 
 secure this position without a recommendation ; he went to get the 
 place without a recommendation ; he started off without a penny in 
 his pocket ; one should never travel without having some money ; 
 without some money in his pocket he would have been greatly an- 
 noyed; he is never annoyed without showing it in his face. 
 
 II. 1. He did not speak so low but that some heard him. 2. He 
 would have spoken louder, but that some would have heard him. 
 3. It cannot be but that some one heard him. 4. Who knows but 
 that some one heard him. 5. One rarely speaks but that some one 
 hears him. 6. It is impossible but that some one heard. 7. He 
 spoke loud enough for me to hear him. 
 
 CHAPTER n. 
 
 COMPARISON. 
 
 Definition and Divisions, 
 
 142. This modifier indicates quality or quantity by 
 means of a. Comparison, 
 
 He is like (to) you; such a man as he is; fought like heroes ; is 
 dressed similar to you. Quality. 
 
 Fought as bravely as the enemy ; learns as rapidly as we ; as good 
 as he is wise. Quantity. 
 
 143. Comparison, then, may be considered under two 
 divisions : — 
 
 A. Quality Comparison. 
 
 B. Quantity Comparison. 
 
THE MODAL MODIFIER. 329 
 
 144, Quality Comparison may have reference to points 
 of similarity or to points of dissimilarity. Hence, it 
 may be sub-divided into, — 
 
 (a.) Comparison of Resemblance. 
 
 (5.) Comparison of Distinction. 
 
 146. Quantity Comparison may have reference to 
 equalities or to inequalities, in the matter of quantity. 
 Hence this element may be sub-divided into, — 
 
 (a.) Comparison of Equality. 
 
 (6.) Comparison of Inequality. 
 
 A. Quality Comparison. 
 
 Section I. — Comparison •/ Resemblance. 
 
 146. This element indicates a quality by instituting a 
 Comparison with another known quality. 
 
 John studies a^ you do ; walks like his father ; these are such as 
 you have. 
 
 1. Construction. (1.) The Word-form is not uncommon. 
 They have similar tastes ; their dispositions are alike ; they dress similarly ; 
 
 a boyish caper; a child-like faith; a. planetary motion. 
 
 (2.) The Phrase-form has usually the prepositions to or tcilh. 
 To is often omitted. 
 
 Looks like {to) his mother; of like soil with that oj" America. Man is con- 
 structed on the same general type with other animals. He bears a resemblance 
 to you. Man has been compared to an ape. 
 
 (3.) The Clausk-form is participial, or relative, with as, or 
 like as. 
 
 Did as he did bejw^e ; some such a position oa he desired. This is like to a 
 man being fined for breaking the Sabbath. Such a thing has never been 
 known as any one being soi'ry, in the hour of death, that he had embraced 
 Christianity. — Mcllvaine. 
 
 (4.) The Clause-form is often elliptical. 
 
 Did as before (= as he did, etc.); walks like his father (= like as his father 
 walks (a walk could not resemble a person, of course)). 
 
 2. Cautions. Do not confound Comparison of Resemblance 
 with, — 
 
830 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 (L) Description and Designation. 
 
 Such flowers as were in blossom he gave to me ; such books as were Jictitious 
 he gave away. Descrip. and Desig. 
 
 This is very much such a book as mine ; I shall not build such a house as 
 yours. Comp. of Res. 
 
 (2.) Conformity. When the objects referred to are similar in ' 
 character we have Comparison. 
 
 Celebrated the feast after the manner of their fathers (i. e., just as their 
 fathers did). Built a church after the model of the Parthenon (t. e., like the 
 Parthenon in shape, etc.). Lives after the style of a king {i. e., as a king lives) 
 Comp. But, worked after the plan that was given him ; did according to (oi 
 after) the command of the king. Conf. 
 
 (3.) Conjunctive Clause (equiv's) as Noun-terms (15, 10). 
 It seems as if he was mad. Noun-term. He acts as if he were mad. Comp. 
 and Hyp. 
 
 3. Elliptical Forms. This element is sometimes only implied. 
 This occurs usually with, — 
 
 (1.) Condition. 
 
 He looks as if he was guilty (». e., he is guilty and looks so). Rhet. Cond. 
 He looks as if he had seen trouble. Past. Cond. He looks as if he might be 
 guilty. Pres. Cond. It looks as if it might rain soon. Fut. Cond. (15, 14, (5)). 
 
 (2.) Hypothesis. 
 
 He acts as if he were a Icing. Cont. to fact. Hyp. 
 
 He talks as if he could soon master the world. Absolute Hyp. (14, 43 (2)). 
 
 (3.) Sometimes the hypothetical clause is elliptical in part. 
 Treated his kindness and generosity, as a matter of course (= as if it were). 
 Describes as one voluntary act the calamities of years (= as if it had been). 
 
 4. Mixed Forms. This element often combines: (1.) Factitive Object. 
 Cannon balls piled n\> into pyramids {i. e., into them and ^t^ethem); smoke 
 curled up into wreaths ; gems cut into diamonds. 
 
 (2.) Connection. It had the shape oj' a bird (t. e., like and of); the form of 
 a man ; the similitude of an ox. 
 
 Exercise 126. 
 
 I. Lives like savages; looks like a savage; resembles a savage in 
 features; is similar to one in disposition; acts as if he were a savage; 
 it looks very much as if he was a savage ; it does not seem as if he 
 could be a real savage ; I feel as if he must be a genuine savan;e ; he 
 may not be a savage even if he acts as if he were one ; who knows 
 but he may be a savage ? it is not certain but I can do it ; there is 
 
THE MODAL MODIFIER. 8S1 
 
 no question that I can do it ; I feel as if I can do it ; it seems as if 
 you could do it; he looks as if he could do it; he looks as if he were 
 a savage himself; he appears very well for one so ignorant; it is un- 
 fortunate for one to be so ignorant that one acts like a sava<re. 
 
 II. Lives for self; starts for the city; sails for London; was as- 
 tonished for a moment ; was distinguished for his generosity ; was 
 working for promotion ; was fearful for his child ; was tall for his 
 age; was celebrated for his acquisitions; was blamed, for he was 
 guilty ; was industrious for a savage ; the principle holds good for 
 all metals ; is best for you to go. 
 
 Section II. — Comparison of Distinction. 
 
 147. This element indicates some quality or circum- 
 stance by contrasting the same with some other known 
 quality or circumstance. 
 
 This is different from that; acts differently from what he did for- 
 merly ; stood opposite to where he stood before. 
 
 1. Construction. (1.) The Word-form is an adverb or an 
 adjective. 
 
 The two are very unlike ; could not act differently ; could' not do otherun$e. 
 
 (2.) The Phrase-form is the most common. 
 
 Dissimilar to this, distinct from that. This is unlike to that; different from 
 tJiat ; the reverse of that ; the converse of the proposition ; stood opposite to his 
 former position {i. e., turned half around) ; sweet is the opposite of sour. 
 
 (3.) The Clause-form is an adjunctive participial or relative ; 
 sometimes a conjunctive clause with than. 
 
 Produced a result very different from what had been intended ; turned in a 
 direction contrary to what he took. Our experiences now are other than those of 
 mere children {= different from). 
 
 2. Cautions. This element must not be confounded with, — 
 (1.) Conformity. 
 
 Acted contrary to his instructions^ Neg. Conf. ; acted differently from what 
 \e acted before, Comp. of Dis. 
 
 (2.) Addition. 
 
 I have otlier things than my own private affairs to attend to, Add. We have 
 feelings now other than those we had when friends (= different from), Comp. 
 of Dis. 
 
 (3.) Exclusion. 
 It has no other effect than to produce surprise (= except). 
 
332 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 » Exercise 127. 
 
 I. This is diverse from that ; did contrary to his instructions; this 
 is the converse of that; he is very unlike his brother; doctrines 
 other than those I taught you ; a consequence very unlike what I 
 had anticipated ; was turned directly opposite to what it was before. 
 
 II. 1. Acted like an insane man ; acted as if he were insane. 2. It 
 seems as if he must be insane. 3. It looks as if he was insane. 
 i. Who kLOws but he is insane? 5. It is not known certainly but 
 he is insane. 6. He talks differently from an insane man. 7. It 
 would be sad if he should become insane. 8. He looks as if he were 
 insane. 9. I look upon him as an insane man. 10. If he were in- 
 sane, he would not talk thus. 11. He would not have become in- 
 sane but for this. 
 
 IH. 1. Researches altogether alien from what is now my main ob- 
 ject. 2. Addison may be considered much more remarkable for 
 taste than (for) imagination. 3. The thing that is uttered from the 
 inmost part of a man's soul differs altogether from what is uttered by 
 the outer. — Carlyle. 
 
 B. QUANTITY COIMPARISON. 
 Section I. — Comparison of Equality. 
 
 148. This modifier indicates some Quantitative Ele- 
 ment (119 ) by means of a Comparison. 
 
 He is as learned as you, Degree expressed by Comp. My house is 
 as large as yours, Meas. of Mag. by Comp. My house is as much 
 larger than yours as yours is larger than his, Meas. of Dif. by Comp. 
 Shall stay as long as you, Time. Shall come as soon as I can find 
 my friend, Time. Went as far as you did, Space How Far. 
 
 1. The Comparison may refer to the same quality as 
 it exists in different objects, or to different qualities as 
 they exist in the same or in different objects. 
 
 He is as wise as you are (wise) ; he is as wise as he is good ; he is 
 as good as you are learned. 
 
 2. This modifier sometimes marks a constant equality 
 ^n the increase or the decrease of two constantly varyin*^ 
 
THE MODAL MODIFIER. 333 
 
 quantities. It then indicates what is termed a Propor- 
 tion, 
 
 The heat increases as the sun rises (==. in proportion as). So, 
 The cold intensifies as we ascend the mountain ; liquids expand as 
 their temperature rises ; he grows wiser as he grows older ; his wisdom 
 .increases with his years ; the more we have the more we want. 
 
 3. Sometimes both increase and decrease with refer- 
 ence to some one object and in some one respect are in- 
 dicated. In this case the relation term according, is 
 commonly used. 
 
 Our youth become more virtuous or more vicious accordino as 
 
 they associate with the good or the bad. 
 
 4. Sometimes it marks an equality between two fixed 
 proportions or ratios. Here it indicates Meas. of Dif. 
 (122). 
 
 A. is as much taller than B.as B.is taller than C. ; this differs from 
 that as much as light differs from darkness ; she as much resembles 
 you as you resemble your own sister. Five is as much smaller than 
 ten as six is smaller than tioelve (= five is to ten as six is to twelve 
 5: 10: : 6: 12). 
 
 5. Construction. (1.) The Word-form is common. 
 
 They are equally studious ; all things alike praise him ; waves mountains high 
 {i. e., as high as mountains); sun bright; snow? white ; ^re red; lightning-like 
 speed; a snai^/iA;e pace ; Spartan-like &\m^\\c\ty . 
 
 (2.) The Phrase-form has commonly to. When, however, a 
 Proportion (148, 2) is involved with is often used. 
 
 Equal to you in strength. The danger increases with the velocity of locomotion 
 {i. e., in proportion as the velocity increases); his interest strengthened with hit 
 years. 
 
 (3.) In Old English, to indicate a comparison of proportions or 
 ratios, the correlative forms byhowmuchj by so much are used. These 
 are now commonly abbreviated into the — the (14, 41). 
 
 The which, by how much higher it is 6y so much greater fall I am to fear {= 
 The which, the higher it is, the greater the fall). — Mcintosh. 
 The colder it is the better I feel. 
 
334 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 (4.) The Clause-form is usually a relative with as and is often 
 elliptical (14, 42 and 43). 
 Men as wise as Solomon (was); has not half as many books as you (have). 
 
 6. Mixed Forms. Comparison of equality combines : (1.) Connection. 
 This is the size o/* a mountain (= as large as is the magnitude of a mountain). 
 Goes with the speed q/* lightning (= as rapid as is the speed o/ lightning). So, 
 This is the stillness of death. Shone with the brightness of the sun. 
 
 (2.) Fitness. This combination is a very common and a very important one. 
 This weather is appropriate ybr July. Simple Fitness. But, — This weather 
 is hot ENOUGH ybr July. Here a Comjiarison is instituted between the existing 
 weather and the ordinary weather of July in regard to heat, and it is found that 
 they agree. So, — Men enough to conquer. Here a comparison is made be- 
 tween the existing nUm^er of men and the number requisite to conquer, and it is 
 found that they agree. So, — Sufficiently prepared /or the war. A hat 
 large ENOUGHybr the boy ; weather cold enough for January ; quiet enough 
 for Sunday, etc. 
 
 (3. ) Comparison as Proportion also involves, — 
 
 (a.) Conformity. The pupils are ranked according to their prof ciency (= in 
 proportion to and in conformity with). Our success or our failure will be ac- 
 cording to whether we act honestly, or dishonestly (= and in proportion as). 
 
 {b.) Time. The heat increases as (=: while) <Ae 5wra y-ises. 
 
 (c.) Specifcation. Sings well enough /or 7?ie. 
 
 Exercise 128. 
 
 I. As old as you ; grows wise as he grows old ; as wise as he is 
 aged ; as good as he is wise ; has as much wisdom as you have good- 
 ness ; is like to you in wisdom ; will not compare with you in physi- 
 cal strength ; is equal to you in age ; is not unlike you in dispo.<i- 
 tion; acts as if he were very old; it seems as if he must be very old. 
 
 II. Works well for a boy ; works 'iov a dollar a day; works for his 
 friends; has worked for a year; is none the better for his medicine ; 
 started for Boston ; was delayed for a month; celebrated for his 
 learning; should have been lost but for you; would not have gone 
 except for this; it must be so, for I saw it; fought for his country; 
 fought for money ; fought well for he was brave ; took him for his 
 brother; took a five dollar bill for a ten dollar bill; gave much 
 money for his ransom ; cannot compare with him for eloquence ; was 
 taken for dead; is old enough to walk; is sufficiently prepared for 
 the fight; is as good as you; good as he is, he does wrong ; you do 
 wrong too; I am lazy and nothing more ; shall not be lazy any more. 
 
THE MODAL MODIFIER. 335 
 
 Section II. — Comparison of Inequality. 
 
 149. This modifier like the previous expresses some 
 Quantitative element by mfeans of Comparison. 
 
 He is wiser than thou ; more beautiful than she ; he is more learned 
 than wise ; has more square acres than you have square feet. 
 
 1. Construction. (1.) The Word-form is common. 
 Unusual interest; unwonted earnestness ; preeminently wise; I learned As- 
 tronomy chiefly from you (t. e., from you more than from others). 
 
 (2.) A conjunctive word-form with than sometimes occurs. 
 
 I would rather go than stay ; would rather die than surrender ; would sooner 
 starve than steal; would choose rather to live in poverty than to acquire dishon- 
 estly. 
 
 (3.) In the Phrase- form we have the prepositions of to^ above ^ 
 hefore, below, behind, over, and some others. 
 
 Superior to him ; inferior to that man ; this preponderates over that ; has got 
 ahead of us ; Ye come behind (them) in no g\lt.— Bible. The muses, pleasing 
 above all things. — Virgil. Just before all. — Id. A race far below the blacks. 
 
 (4.) The Clause-form is conjunctive with than, rather than, 
 sooner than. 
 
 More learned than you ; farther than it is from here to London ; nothing is 
 more common than for a man to sin. 
 
 (5.) Occasionally a relative or a conjunctive clause (adjunctive- 
 form) is used. 
 
 Suffers beyond what he can endure (= more than). Replied that he would die 
 before he would give up his arms (= rather than or sooner than). Xenophon. 
 
 (6.) Ellipses often occur. 
 
 Am better than he {is); grows handsomer every day {i. e., than he was on the 
 previous day); my health is better {i. e., than it was); he is the greatest living 
 general (i. e., the greatest of all living generals); the weather is much colder 
 (i. e., than it has been); it is better for us to go (i. e., than it would be for us to 
 stay); (see also, 15, 16). 
 
 2. Cautions. Do not confound this element with, — 
 (1.) Substitution (131). 
 
 Would rather beg than steal. Comp. Accomplishes by brain rather than by 
 brawn (= instead of), Subs. 
 
 (2.) Exclusion. 
 
 Barbarisms are nothing more than had English, Excl. Has more bad English 
 than he has good English, Comp. 
 
336 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 (3.) Addition. 
 
 This is play and nothing more, Addition. He likes play more than study, 
 Comp. 
 
 (4.) Time How Long. 
 He shall not do so any more, Time. I have not any more than you, Comp. 
 
 3. Mixed Forms. This element may combine: (1.) Fitness. Too early to 
 go to bed; too young to walk ; too old to go to the war (129, 4 (3)). A house 
 TOO small for that family ; a wagon too large /or one horse ; too cold /or July ; 
 too heavy /or a boy ; a battle too bloody /or the number engaged. — Licy. 
 
 So, negative forms. Spoke too loud not to be heard ; was exposed too long 
 twt to take cold ; is too honest a man not to be trusted. 
 
 (2.) Substitution. She chose the blue in place of the black (= in preference to 
 and in place of). 
 
 Note. Here frequent ellipses occur. 
 
 The coat is too small (t. e., for the person) ; my tea is too hot (t. e., to drink); 
 the pie is too sweet (t. e., to be palatable); I have stayed too long, etc. 
 
 Exercise 129. 
 
 I. It is a cold day; colder than yesterday; the coldest of the 
 month; is not colder than I have known it to be; is too cold to 
 travel ; is too cold for April ; would not be cold for February ; 
 much too cold for ray comfort ; cold enough to freeze ; so cold that 
 it froze last night ; not so cold as to freeze very deep; froze the pond 
 thick enough for skating ; it must have been cold for the ice is thick ; 
 it froze hard yesterday, for it was very cold ; if it had been warm it 
 would not have frozen ; if it is cold, it always freezes ; it would have 
 frozen in the day-time, but for the sun; the pond was frozen hard; 
 the ice was a foot thick; ice feels cold ; ice is cold; ice looks cold ; 
 if ice were not cold, it would be useless in summer ; all ice is not 
 equally cold ; ice here is not as cold as the ice in Greenland ; Green- 
 land ice does not differ from our ice except that it is colder and 
 harder. 
 
 II. Sings well for a child ; too young to sing very finely ; sings too 
 low to be heard far ; sings loud enough for me ; sings as loud as a 
 grown person ; sings herself hoarse every day; sings to us; sings for 
 us; sings very sweet songs; sings in church Sundays; sings like a 
 nightingale; sings very differently from you ; sings much better than 
 she plays ; plays well when she is in constant practice ; she will sing 
 us something, if we ask her; she is not too young to take lessons in 
 sinjrinjr. 
 
THE MODAL MODIFIER. 337 
 
 C. COMPARISON. (Continued). 
 
 150. Comparison may take the form of Direct Object-terms. 
 Resemble one, imitate one, copy one, mimic one, outstrip one, distance one, 
 
 surpass one, outdo one, ♦ 
 
 151. Emphatic Forms. 
 
 It is to him tiiat he bears so strong a resemblance. It is from me that he dif- 
 fers so much. 
 
 152. Negative Forms. The negative form of one kind of Com- 
 parison is usually equivalent to the affirmative form of its opposite. 
 The former is, however, often the more forcible way of stating the 
 thought. Thus, — 
 
 (1.) Resemblance. 
 
 His ways of work are not like (to) yours = are unlike yours = are different 
 from yours. 
 
 (2.) Distinction. 
 
 This is not dissimilar to that = is similar to that. In many respects the an- 
 cients were not unlike the moderns = were like (to), etc. 
 
 (3.) Equality. 
 
 He is not as wise as you = he is less wise than you. Nothing else is as lovely 
 as virtue = all else is less lovely than virtue. 
 
 This is not as small as that (= is larger than that) ; is not as learned as you 
 (= is less learned than you); such waves as I never saw before (t. e., greater 
 than I ever saw). 
 
 So, — I value it as I value no other book = more than any other book. I ad- 
 mire him as I admire no other writer = more than, etc. 
 
 (4.) Inequality. 
 
 He is not wiser than j'ou = he is only as wise as you. 
 
 So, — I do not value it more than any other book. I do not admire him more 
 than any other writer. 
 
 153. Inclusive Forms. When it is a matter of indifference which 
 of the two terms of a Comparison should be considered as the ob- 
 ject compared (that is the base of the comparison), both are in- 
 cluded in the modifier. This we may call for the sake of distinction 
 the Inclusive form of Comparison. Thus, — 
 
 1. Resemblance. 
 
 There is a similarity between (or in) the two. (i. e., it is immaterial whether 
 we say this is similar to that, or that is similar to this). So, — There is a strong 
 resemblance between the father and the son (t. e., they look like {fo) one 
 another). 
 
338 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 2. Distinction. 
 
 There is a difference between this and that. We should discrimiuate carefully 
 between what is morality and what is religion. A distinction is to be made be- 
 tween what we think and what we know. There is no difference in the two. 
 
 3. Equality. 
 
 There is an equality of ratios ; in the amounts; between this and that. 
 
 4. Inequality. 
 
 There is an inequality of (or in the) shares assigned us; the better one of the 
 two; the best of the three ; the best of all; the greatest of historians. 
 
 154. ExTKEME Forms. A comparison when carried to the ex- 
 treme often merges intoanother element. Thus, — 
 
 1. Comparison of Resemblance becomes Identity or Designation. 
 In this case which or that is used instead of as. 
 
 This is something the same as that ; is much the same as that ; is almost pre- 
 cisely the same as that, Comp. of Res. 
 
 This is the same thing that you spoke of; this is the self same man that I met 
 yesterday, Designation (as Identity). 
 
 2. Comparison of Distinction when carried to the extreme often be- 
 comes direct Antithesis (171, 3). 
 
 This is UNLIKE (to) that; is very unlike (to) that; is entirely unlike (to) 
 that, Comp. of Dis. This is one thing and that is another, Antithesis. 
 
 3. Comparison of Inequality when carried to the extreme often be- 
 comes Substitution. 
 
 He conquered as much by love as by force ; more by love than by force ; 
 FAR MORE by love than by force. Comp. of Ineq. 
 
 He conquered by love rather than by force (= by love instead of by 
 foi'ce.) Substitution. 
 
 155. Elliptical Forms. The element of Comparison is often 
 only implied (14, 43, (2)). 
 
 Treated me as if he had been my brother (= as he would have treated me, 
 etc.), Comp. of Res. Did not treat me otherwise than if he had been my brother 
 (= than he would, .... etc.), Comp. of Dis. Succeeded as well as if he had 
 been trained for it (= as he would, etc. ), Comp. of Equal. Succeeded much bet- 
 ter than if he had not been trained (= than he would, etc.), Comp. of Inequal. 
 
 1. Inclusive forms of Comparison (153) are often elliptical. 
 
 The best boy {of aU the boys) in the class; the wisest man {of all the men) in 
 Europe; the greatest general {of all the generals) that ever lived; the most 
 beautiful spectacle {of all) that I ever witnessed. 
 
 2. It is noteworthy that the verb in the relative clause followin<T 
 
THE MODAL MODIFIER. 339 
 
 these ellipses is regularly put in the singular to agree (by attraction) 
 with the noun expressed instead of the noun implied. 
 
 He is the wisest king (of all the kings) that reigns in Europe. The most 
 beautiful star (of all the stars) that twinkles in the heavens. 
 
 156. Formal or Rhetorical Comparison. Comparison of 
 Resemblance and of Equality are sometimes merely /ormaZ ; that is, 
 we have the grammatical form without the logical signijicance of com- 
 parison. 
 
 As fully as I have entered upon the internal evidence ; as satisfactory as I re- 
 gard the proof ; as heartily as I deprecate a merely historical religion, I would 
 yet say that I believe in no religion that is not supported by historical evidence 
 — Dr. Hopkins. 
 
 Can I doubt that there is such a city as Rome, or such a person as Queen Vic- 
 toria; or that there has been such a person as Napoleon, or George the FourUi. 
 
 In the above examples clearly no real comparison is intended. 
 Such are mere rhetorical forms of comparison. So, in the same way, 
 we have rhetorical conditions (108). 
 
 1. In the forms with as — as, the first as is sometimes omitted, as 
 also other words which properly accompany it (14, 54). 
 
 Valid as is the evidence of testimony we feel that we do not rest upon that 
 alone. — Hopkins (= the evidence of testimony being as valid as it is). 
 
 157. Cautions. Distinguish carefully between Comparison («■?«- 
 pecially when expressed by a relative clause introduced hy a.<) an<l 
 other elements having forms more or less similar, as, — 
 
 (1.) Predication (13, 10). 
 
 Spoke of you as being a great reader = spoke of your being a great reader. 
 Alluded to me as being good authority = alluded to my being good authority. 
 
 (2.) OhJ. of Attention. 
 
 Am not certain as to what is the truth in the case. As to that, I will inform 
 you soon. 
 
 (3.) Fact. Obj. 
 
 Looked upon him as an enemy ; regarded him as a friend; I thought of him 
 as my enemy; a line is a magnitude conceived of as having length tcifhout 
 breadth or thickness. 
 
 (4.) Slate or Condition. 
 
 He came as a suppliant; they appear in history as kings and princes; these 
 long alienated brothers now embraced each other as friends. I shall go as cap- 
 tain. 
 
 (5.) Designation. App. form. 
 
 This is true of many animals; as, the dog and the horse : verbs take the ob 
 
340 ENGLISH LAl!JGUAGE. 
 
 jective case form ; as, struck him. We have ideas of qualities; as, $weet, hard^ 
 etc. 
 
 (6.) Time. 
 
 Came as you entered (as = when); reads as he rides (as = while). 
 
 (7.) Cause. 
 
 Demands this as his right ; came quickly as the cars did not once stop ; was 
 condemned as a criminal; was pleased with the book as helping me in my diffi- 
 culty ; as business men we cannot tolerate such actions ; refers to me as author- 
 ity in the matter. 
 
 (8.) Conformity. 
 
 He was poor, as I have said ; did as he was told ; this doctrine, as I under- 
 stund it. 
 
 (9.) Purpose. 
 
 Gave him much money a* a reward {= to reward him) ; threatened exile as a 
 punishment; took him as a guide. 
 
 (10.) Specific Character. 
 
 He was very eminent as a scholar and a inan of letters. He excelled as a 
 pupil, but failed utterly as a teacher. 
 
 (11.) Consequence. 
 He so managed as to become very rich. 
 
 (12.) Inclusion. 
 
 He is one of our best writers; is among our finest historians, Inclusion. 
 He is the best one of our writers ; is the finest among our historians, Comp. 
 
 158. Mixed Forms. The Inclusive form of Comp. of Ineq., may have in 
 combination : (1.) Ohj. of Assoc. The tallest man among the crowd (= of and 
 among), the best among English historians (of and among). 
 
 (2.) Inclusion. ThQ no\i\QSt among the noble ; the bravest q/" <Ae Jrare. 
 
 159. Grammatical Construction. (1.) The words dissimilar ^ 
 opposite, contrary, etc., take the preposition to; — different always 
 has from. 
 
 Understood me the very opposite yroni what I intended (say to what, etc.). 
 
 (2.) No ellipses should be permitted which when supplied would 
 compel a false construction. 
 
 He is OS good or even better than I. (Say, as good as I or even better; as is 
 not a correlative with than. ) 
 
 (3.) Elements of Comparison like all other modifiers should be 
 brought as nearly as possible to the words they modify. Errors oc- 
 cur very frequently here. 
 
 This was a very different construction of the case from the one intended 
 (Say, this construction of the case was very different from, etc.). 
 
AFFIRMATION AND DENIAL. 341 
 
 Exercise 130. 
 
 Do the same work as hereto/ore. Correct all that is wrong and ex- 
 plain the rule violated (159). 
 
 I. We need food and clothing more than amusement ; we need 
 something other than simply food and clothing; we aim for something 
 more than merely to eat and to drink; we would rather eat than 
 read ; the body certainly grows by eating rather tlian by reading; 
 there is a great difference between eating and reading; there is as 
 much difference between eating and drinking as there is between 
 body and mind ; mind is not at all like to body ; is not body mere 
 clay? 
 
 II. 1. I only desired one book. 2. This is a different course of 
 proceeding from what I expected. 3. It was by the French that 
 our ranks were chiefly cut down. 4. Classical studies merely re- 
 garded as a means of culture are desirable. 5. I could take no other 
 method of silencing him than the one I adopted. 6. They were 
 mostly annoyed by the shouting. 7. It was by the Jews that trade 
 was chiefly carried on. 8. This seems to be a different occasion 
 from that previously considered. 9. He gave similar directions to 
 those our commander had given. 
 
 DIVISION V. 
 AFFIRMATION AND DENIAL. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 * NATURE OF THESE TERMS. 
 
 160. These may take the form of, — 
 
 (a.) Affirmation (absolute or contingent). 
 
 (b.) Negation (absolute or contingent). 
 
 (c.) Asseveration. 
 
 (</.) Oath. 
 
 (e.) Appeal. 
 
 (/.) Imprecation. 
 
 161. Absolute afiirmation excludes all doubt or uncertainty. 
 He will certainly come. It is unquettionahly true. 
 
342 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 Contingent affirmation implies more or less of doubt. 
 He will probably come. He may possibly come; very likely he may come. 
 
 1. Affirmation is sometimes expressed directly and formally by a 
 relative clause with as (14, 25). 
 
 Living as she did among perfect strangers. Philosopher as he i^cw, marked 
 attention flattered him. — 3fay Somerville. This struggle, following as it did 
 the Peloponnesian war. — Swinton. Divided cw the Greeks were politically. — 
 Id. Mere boy as he was, he had great influence with the soldiers. 
 
 2. Emphatic affirmation is often expressed by such forms as most 
 assuredly ; hy all means; beyond all doubt. 
 
 You must be here by all means ; without doubt he is past recovery. 
 
 162. Negation, like affirmation, may be either absolute or contin- 
 gent. The same forms of expression are used as in the case of 
 Affirmation, together with an Absolute negative. 
 
 He certainly viiW not come; he mny possibly not come; he wWl probably not 
 come.. 
 
 1. A slight negative force is given to a proposition by such ex- 
 pressions as almost, hardly, scarcely, barely, all but, quite, etc. 
 
 He almost succeeded ; hardly knew me ; was all but rescued ; did not quite 
 hear you. 
 
 2. Emphatic denial is often indicated by nothing, by no means, 
 not at all, not in the least, in no case, in no wise. 
 
 Had spent all that she had and was nothing bettered (= not at all bettered); 
 him I will in no wise cast out. 
 
 3. The indefinite relative whatever, seems often to have the force 
 simply of emphasizing a negation. 
 
 I will have nothing whatever to do with him (= at all). Has accomplished 
 nothing whatever {= at all). 
 
 4. Emphatic denial sometimes takes the form of rhetorical com- 
 parison. 
 
 There is no such word as fail (= the word fail has no real existence). I do 
 not believe any such thing as what 3'ou say (= I do not believe at all what you 
 say). 
 
 163. Asseveration adds emphasis, and perhaps positiveness to 
 a statement. 
 
 No, as I am a man. As I live, saith the Lord, etc. 
 
 164. Oath is more emphatic and solemn than Asseveration. 
 
 By the Gods, I will not pursue them. — Xenqphon. 
 
AFFIRMATION AND DENIAL. 343 
 
 165. Appeal is of the nature of an Oatb. It differs from it in 
 that it is used only with imperative sentences or clauses. 
 
 I entreat you, by all that you hold dear, do not now desert us. 
 
 166. Construction. (1.) In the Word-form of Affirmation 
 and of Negation, adverbs and adjectives are used. Thus, certain^ 
 sure, true, etc.; truly ^ doubtless, certainly, nowise, unquestionably, 
 surely, etc. (Absolute). 
 
 Probable, possible ; probably, possibly ; hardly, perhaps ; foi'sooth, pera^iven- 
 ture; etc. (Contingent). 
 
 (2.) The Phrase-form is not uncommon. 
 
 Without doubt ; of a truth; of a certainty ; for certain; in fact ; in reality, 
 etc. (Abs. forms). 
 
 In all probability ; without much doubt, etc. (Cent, forms). 
 
 (3.) The Clause-form does not occur except in the case of the 
 (usually elliptical) conjunctive clause with if for contingent affirma- 
 tion. 
 
 I shall return by four o'clock if not before {znjiossibly before). She is hand- 
 some, if not positively beautiful. 
 
 167. Asseveration, Oath, Appeal. 
 
 1. Construction. (1.) The Word-form is commonly a noun- 
 term. 
 
 Heavens_ ! How have I wronged him ! 
 
 (2.) The Phrase-form has commonly the preposition by, some- 
 times on, and others. 
 
 On my honor ; on the word of a gentleman; by my troth. If you stay the 
 time, upon mine honor, you die. — Shak. Asseveration. 
 
 By Hercules; by Heaven; by the f/ods ; by Jupiter, etc. Oath. 
 
 By your altars and your f res ; by all that you hold dear ; by the memory of 
 your fathers, etc. Appeal. 
 
 (3.) The Clause-form is commonly relative or conjunctive, and 
 usually involves some other element. 
 
 As the Lord liveth and as my lord the king liveth, surely in what place my lord 
 the king shall be, even there also will thy servant be. 
 
 2. Mixed Fokms. These elements often either combine or involve the ele- 
 ments of : (1.) Condition or Hypothesis. If my name is Brown, you will see 
 some fine game when I come home. Asseveration and Khet. Cond. 
 
 (2.) Cause. As you love your country, I pray you act for her defense. Ap- 
 peal and Cause. 
 
344 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 168. Imprecation is commonly indicated by a sentence-form. 
 May the omnipotent father hurl me amid thunder-bolts to the shades and to 
 night profound if I violate thee, O Chastity, or break thy laws! — Virgil. 
 
 EXEKCISE 131. 
 
 I. He spoke truly; spjoke well; spoke a long time; spoke on 
 science; spoke of something having happened; spoke of this as 
 something new; spoke of you as being a fine scholar; beyond doubt 
 you are a fine scholar; it cannot but be true; you are excellent, if 
 not superior in scholarship ; so far from being a poor scholar you are 
 a very excellent one. You could accomplish a four years' course in 
 two, so fine a scholar are you. You are without doubt the finest 
 scholar in the city. 
 
 II. He that gathered much hath nothing over ; in nothing shall I 
 be ashamed ; there is nothing better for me than that I should es- 
 cape; the girdle was profitable for nothing; shall go free for noth- 
 ing; the poor man had nothing save one ewe lamb; ye hare nothing 
 to do with us; it avails me nothing; let nothing fail; they go to 
 nothing; make my speech worth nothing; lest thou bring me to 
 nothing ; it is thenceforth good for nothing ; have nothing to eat; 
 found thereon nothing but leaves; gather up the fragments, that 
 nothinjr be lost. — Bible. 
 
 DIVISION VI. 
 COORDINATION. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 PARTIAL COORDINATION. 
 
 169. A few of the elements heretofore considered are often ele- 
 vated into the rank of terms nearly coordinate with the elements 
 which they modify. Those thus used are termed Partial Coordinates. 
 They may express, — 
 
 1. Hypothesis. 
 
 He would have fallen, but I ran and saved him = if I had not run and saved 
 him. I should have gone but it rained = had it not rained. 
 
COOUDINATION. 345 
 
 2. Concession. 
 
 W.-FS. Houses large but inconvenient = though large. He is nek yet 
 Bctive = (though sick). 
 
 P.-Fs- Always amony the vicious yet always good. Is without fi-iends, yet 
 happy. Ever inj/nin, yet ever in content. 
 
 C.-Fs. He says that it may rain^ but that he shall go. He has many faults, 
 nevertheless I still love him. 
 
 Tlie Concessive Coordinate is often strengthened by the expres- 
 sions indce'l, it is true. 
 
 He is rceahhri^ it is true^ but he has no friends. ITe studies hard^ it is title, but 
 he makes small progress. 
 
 3. Rhetobical Condition, 
 
 If he has strong friends, I have strong friends also. If your friend is a great 
 poet,, my friend is a great artist. 
 
 Exercise 133. 
 
 Do the same icork as before ; note carefully the different kinds of Co- 
 ordinates. 
 
 I. 1. The poor as well as the rich were invited. 2- Says that he 
 was rich, yet very unhappy. .3. Persons very poor, but very happy. 
 4. Very poor people. 5. Those poor people. 6. By far the most 
 wealthy man. 7. That wealthy old man. 8. A man old and wealthy, 
 but despised and even hated, 9. Men vicious, and therefore de- 
 spised. 10. Men wealthy, yet despised. 11. Said that people 
 might despise the man, but, as for himself, he should honor him. 
 12. Said that he would have been convicted ; but a friend got him 
 off. 
 
 CHAPTER 11. 
 
 ABSOLUTE COORDINATION. 
 
 170. When the coordinate terms are substantially of the same 
 rank or importance, and have no modifying influence whatever over 
 one another, they are termed absolute coordinates. 
 
 Mary sings and plays ; studies Latin and Greek ; is toeU bred and well edu- 
 cated ; very ignoi'ant and foolish. 
 
 171, Absolute coordinate terms aiay be, — 
 
 1. Copulative. Tliese are such as are considered together, 
 rither affirmatively or negatively. Tlie connectives are, ntnl. ftoth — 
 
346 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 one?, affirmative ; neither — nor (= not — and not), nor — noi'^ neg- 
 ative. 
 
 You and I are students. Neither you nor 1 are students (= not you and not 
 I). 
 
 (1.) When additional emphasis or importance is to be given one 
 of the coordinates ; or when such coordinate is affirmed against some 
 anticipated prejudice, question, or doubt, the negative not and the ad- 
 verbs only, merely, siinply, and even are used with the connective 
 hut. 
 
 The young and even the old took part; he not only lies, but steals. Not the 
 learned merely hut even the ignorant were interested. 
 
 2. Alternative. Coordinates are alternaiice, when only one is 
 considered as true or as having application, in a given logical con- 
 nection ; which one however is not indicated. The connectives are, 
 either — or, whether — or, or sometimes or alone. 
 
 Either slavery or liberty must die ; will you have this or that f 
 (L) Alternative coordinates must not be confounded with nega- 
 tive copulative coordinates, joined by the connectives neither — nor. 
 
 He will study eif/ic?' Latin or Greek. (Alt. Coord.) He will siu^y neither 
 Latin nor Greek. (Cop. Coord, negative.) 
 
 3. Ajntithetical. Coordinates are antithetical when they are 
 set forth in contrast. Here the connectives hut, while, whereas, are 
 most commonly used. 
 
 Learning is good, but wisdom is better. Born of rich hut ignorant parents. 
 
 (1.) The Antithesis is strengthened by the correlative forms now 
 — now, here — there, on the one hand — on the other hand, as — so. 
 
 They move forward now to the right, now to the left. As once we were 
 friends so now we will be enemies. 
 
 (2.) Antithetical Coordinate clauses are sometimes introduced by 
 if=as (14, 30). 
 
 If England has her vices, she has her virtues also = as on the one hand Eng- 
 land has many vices, so on the other she also has man}' virtues. 
 
 (3.) Copulative and Alternative Coordinates are sometimes anti- 
 thetical likewise, in force, the antithesis being in the ter?7is themselves. 
 
 The rich and the poor ; the king and the peasant; you are to be either some- 
 thing or nothing in the world. 
 
 4. Temporal or Local. Time and Place sometimes take the 
 form of a coordinate proposition. 
 
 And it was at Jerusalem, the feast of Dedication, and it was winter. 
 Up rose the sun, and up rose Emilie. 
 
COORDINATION. 847 
 
 Exercise 134. 
 
 Do the same work as before ; note carefully copulative^ antithetical^ 
 and alternative coordinates. 
 
 I. 1. At one time, John Fox, the author of " Fox's Book of Mar- 
 tyrs," was all but starving in London. — Culller. 2. An idea 
 occurred to me which very likely may have been noticed by a hun- 
 dred people before. — Macaulay. 3. They had, as it seemed, all but 
 torn Spain from the house of Bourbon. — Id. 4. My sense of sight 
 does not inform me at all what color is. — Wayland. 5. I am noth- 
 ing jealous. — Shak. 
 
 IT. 1. No clergyman should be instituted into any benefice with- 
 out previous notice being given. 2. Without any regard being had 
 to a God, there might be a reciprocal play of moral feelings. 3. Who 
 can think of Waterloo without thinking of Brussels or Quatre Bras? 
 
 4. The extent to which practical skill can be carried without any 
 knowledge of principles is remarkable. 5. Let him that is without 
 sin cast the first stone. 
 
 172. Note. The elements heretofore discussed do not comprise 
 all the varied logical conceptions which may appear in discourse. 
 They do embrace, however, all the more important cases. Indeed, 
 the distinct elements not here noted and classified, are of rare occur- 
 rence, and usually of comparatively little value. Such elements, 
 when met with in analysis, must, of course, be disposed of as un- 
 classified. 
 
UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY 
 
 THIS rOOK IS DUE ON THE LAST DATE 
 STAMPED BELOW 
 
 NOV 
 
 5 1^' 
 
 23Ma/55DW 
 MAY 11 1955 
 
 30m-6,'14 
 
YP n\f,7o