llUu. M REESE LIBRARY OK THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA. Received, ^^^Str^&C/', .188^^ Accessims iVb._=^^^:4^-^ Shelf No... ^J^f:^., Oi ^2£^-^ Digitized by tine Internet Arciiive in 2007 witii funding from IVIicrosoft Corporation littp://www.arcliive.org/details/englislilanguageiOOgreericli THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE ITS GRAMMATICAL AND LOGICAL PRINCIPLES. FOE THE USE OP GRAMMAR AND HIGH SCHOOLS AND ACADEMIES, BY HARRIS R. GREENE, A. M., PBQTOIPAIi or OBBAD UTSTITUTB, AND LATE FRINCIPAL OF THE HIOH S<7H00L, WOBOXSTSR, MASS. BOSTON: HOUGHTON, OSGOOD AND COMPANY. 1879. QOtl CormGBT, 1879, Bt HABRIS R. GREEIOL All rights reserved. Ur£RSn>E, CAMBRIDGl: •TSBEOTTPKD AKD PBINTED BT H. 0. HOUGHTON AWD COMPANY. PREFACE. In the following pages an attempt has been made to discuss the principles^ grammatical and logical, of the English Language. In Part I., the discussions are confined to Forms of Expression. There are in our language certain generic forms^ which are here classified under the heads of Word- forms, Phrase-forms, and Clause-forms, in some one of which as a fixed organic structure of language, thought is always embodied. These generic forms, or moulds of thought, are moreover the same, substantially, in organic form and character, in all languages. Hence, in these organic verbal structures, all wi-itten thought, whether ancient or modern, finds its constant expression. While, therefore, a knowledge of these forms is indispensable to a clear understanding of the syntactical structure of the English, and to the philosophy of verbal combination generally in our tongue, such knowledge becomes of im- mense value, the moment the pupil enters upon the study of the syntax of a foreign language ; for the leading grammatical principles, here discussed, are the same in all tongues. Hence the pupil enters upon the study of his Latin, his Greek, his French, or his German syntax, iv PREFACE. with a perfect knowledge, already gained, of the under- lying principles of verbal combination, upon which the rules of syntax in these various languages are based. Hmicc the mastery of the syntax in any foreign language is accomplished with ease and pleasure, and in a tithe of the time usually expended under the present method. Upon this, the author speaks not unadvisedly, but after an experience in this method of teaching language of, at least, fifteen years. The methods now in vogue always give the pupil the false impression, that every language has methods of syn tactical structure peculiar to itself^ and that consequently, with each new tongue all the principles of syntax must be learned again de novo. Thus the pupil traverses the same road again and again, without knowing the fact, or indeed so much as dreaming that there is anything in common between the old path and the new. He comes to look upon the syntax of each new language as a field of investigation entirely new ; and what is worse, he leaves the study of the same, under the same erroneous Impression. All this is exceedingly unfortunate. Impenetrable par- tition walls are erected" thus between the different lan- guages pursued, in the department under consideration, and thus the pupil receives neither light nor help from the work already accomplished ; and, of course, never secures any broad or extended view of the generic forms of expression common to all tongues, and consequently of the science or philosophy of the same. In Part II., the discussions have to do with the elements PREFACE. V of thought. The logical methods of the human mind are always and everywhere tlie same. When therefore the pupil has loarned these logical elements in his own tongue he has learned them for all tongues. Hence*, these once mastered, he has only to inquire, what the specific ver- lal expression of these known elements in a given tongue is, and he has at once and more perfectly than any other method or system can give him, the complete syntax of that language. And this last he acquires with great ease and facility, because, as has been before remarked, he has already become familiar with all the regular gener- ic forms of thought-expression to be found in the lan- guage pursued. He knows, in advance, that every one of the logical elements he is now to meet with must take on some one of these generic forms of expression, as its appropriate lingual dress. Hence, toilsome study be- comes enthusiastic curiosity, since the pupil is ever on the alert to discover what peculiar form of outward cloth- ing a given thought, in the language now pursued, will put on ; for it is one of the distinctive excellences of this method, as it is believed, that it leads the pupil con- stantly to work from the thought outward to its appro- priate form of expression, and not from the expression inward to the thought. Thus the pupiPs mind is held constantly to the unchanging logical basis of language as a stand-point of investigation, as he proceeds from tongue to tongue, and not to the mere grammatical turns of verbal expression which are merely accidental, and vary in their details with every new language pursued. This book is not a Grammar, and does not occuoy the vi PREFACE. place of a Grammar. It is rather related to Grammar, much as Algebra is related to Arithmetic. It presup- poses at least a knowledge of Etymology, and in our schools should follow directly a thorough acquaintance with the same. Classical pupils should commence it when they commence their Latin Grammar (if they have not before), and thus, by the time they have mastered their Latin Etymology, they will also have mastered this ; and then the work of Latin and of Greek Syntax, including Latin and Greek Prose Composition, will be found to be very greatly facilitated. It is confidently believed that this work, binding to- gether, as it does, the syntax of all languages on the common basis of universal generic forms of expression^ will be found to supply a want, which thoughtful educa- tors have long felt, in the study of language. The author has in process of preparation the same method as adapted to the Latin and the Greek. As the great majority of the discussions here apply as perfectly to the classical tongues (indeed to all tongues) as to the English, a very small volume will be sufficient to indi- cate the specific modifications peculiar to these lan- guages. This fact of itself indicates the peculiar ad- vantages of this method. The author has also nearly ready for the press, a little work designed to precede this, embodying in clear and compact form the real essentials of English Etymology and Syntax ; and like- wise, soon to follow this little Grammar and designed to supplement the present volume, a Rhetoric arranged in conformity with the purely analytical method of this work. PREFACE. vu The author knows of no grammar or work of any kind on language which has much in common with the meth- ods and discussions here pursued. He has found, how- ever, some help in special directions in Part IL, in the Greek Modes and Tenses of Professor Goodwin of Har- vard College, and also in the Greek Grammars of Crosby and Hadley. He desires also to express his indebtedness to Miss Abbie Leach, late Lady Principal of the Oread Institute, for much valuable aid and many important sug- gestions in the final revision of the manuscript. TO THE TEACHER. In the following discussions, will be found many things somewhat novel, now and then positions taken which may not be thought to be tenable, and conclusions reached which may be considered erroneous. The author antici- pates that objections will be made, for instance, to his method with the Participial Clause, possibly to some parts of the discussion of the Relative Clause, and it may be to other discussions. He begs, however, ihat these criticisms be not too hasty. He has made these matters the subject of close and protracted study for years, and holds himself ready to verify the conclusions here reached by an appeal, not indeed to English Grammars, but to the usage of the classical writers of the English Lan- guage, both in this country and in Europe. In " doing " the Exercises the author would recom- mend that difull analysis of the examples given be not demanded of the pupil, save in Division II. of Part I. Beyond this, let the pupil simply define the different log- ical elements as fast as learned. A full analysis of every example through the entire work would require too mucli time. When the pupil has completed Part II., the Exercises X TO THE TEACHER. in Part I. will furnish fresh examples for logical analy- sis, that is, the classification of the elements of thought. J||i^=" It is hoped that the teacher will read carefully the Preface, before proceeding to an examination of the book, or the instruction of classes therein. H. R. GREENE. Worcester, Mass., April ZQ^ 1879. COI^TENTS. Part I. — FORMS OF EXPRESSION, OR GRAMMATICAL TERMS. Part IL — FORMS OF THOUGHT, OR LOGICAL ELE- MENTS. PART I. Division L— FORMS OF GRAMMATICAL TERMS (generally.) Division IL — ORDERS OF GRAMMATICAL TERMS. Division IIL — FORMS OF INDIVIDUAL GRAMMATICAL TERMS. Division I. — FORMS OF TERMS. Sub-Division I. — The Word-form. Sub-Division 11. — The Phrase-form. Sub-Division III. — The Clause-form. Division II. — ORDERS OF TERMS. Sub-Division I. — The Simple Term. Sub-Division IL — The Complex Term. Sub-Division III. — The Compound Term. Division III. — INDIVIDUAL FORMS. Sub-Division I. — The Forms of the Noun-term. Sub-Division II. — The Forms of the Adjective-term. Sub-Division III. — The Forms of the Verb-term. Sub-Division IV. — The Forms of the Adverb-term. Division I. — FORMS OF GRAMMATICAL TERMS. Sub-Division I. — The Word-form. Chapter I. — Definition and Character .... xii CONTENTS. Sub-Division 11. — The Phrase-form. Chapter I. — Definition and Character of ... 3 Chapter II. — Special, Idiomatic, and Elliptical Forms . 5 Chapter HI. — Grammatical Construction .... 8 Sub-Division III. — The Clause-form. Chapter I. — The Demonstrative Clause. Section I. — Definition and Character of ... . 10 Section II. — Special, Idiomatic, and Elliptical Forms . . 12 Section III. — Grammatical Construction 16 Chapter II. — The Infinitive Clause. Section I. — Definition and Character of 20 Section II. — Special, Idiomatic, and Elliptical Forms . . 24 Section III. — Grammatical Construction . . . . 29 Chapter III. — The Participial Clause Section I. — Definition and Character of ... . 32 Section II. — Special, Idiomatic, and Elliptical Forms . . ^ 36 Section III. — Grammatical Construction 39 Chapter IV. — The Relative Clause. Section I. — Relative Forms 43 Section II. — Definition and Character of the Relative Clause 44 Section III. — Special and Idiomatic Forms 48 Section IV. — Negative and Elliptical Forms .... 53 Section V. — Grammatical Construction 58 Chapter V. — The Conjunctive Clause. Section I. — Definition and Character of ... . 66 Section II. — Special and Idiomatic Forms 69 Section III. — Elliptical Forms 74 Section IV. — Grammatical Construction 76 Chapter VI. — The Sentence ap a Grammatical Term . 79 Division H. — OKDERS OP GBAMMATICAL TERMS. Sub-Division I. — The Simple Term. Chapter I. — General Form and Character ... 88 Sub-Division II. — The Complex Term. Chapter I. — Base and Modifier 89 Chapter II. — The Complex Base 92 Chapter III. — The Complex Modifier .... 94 Chapter IV. — The Order of Modifiers .... 96 CONTENTS. xm Sub-Division III. — The Compound Term. Chapter I. — The Base and the Modifier ... 100 Chapter II. — Grammatical Construction . . .104 Division III.— FORMS OF INDIVIDUAL TERMS. Sub-Division I. — Forms of the Noun-term. Chapter I. — Definition and Character . . . 108 Sub-Division 11. — Forms of the Adjective-Term. Chapter I. — Definition and Character .' . . .112 Chapter 11. — The Appositive Form . . . . 116 Sub-Division III. — Forms of the Verb-term. Chapter I. — The Incorporated (or. Simple) Form of . 121 Chapter II. — The Copula Form of . . . . 123 Chapter III. — The Complement Term . . . .126 Sub-Division IV. — Forms op the Adverb-term. Chapter I. — Definition and Character . . . .129 Chapter II. — Forms to be Noted . . . . 133 PART II. FORMS OF THOUGHT OR LOGICAL ELEMENTS. Division L — THE LOGICAL CHARACTER OF PROPOSI TIONS. Division IL — LOGICAL CHARACTER OF THE NOUN-TERM. Division IIL — LOGICAL CHARACTER OF THE ADJECTIVE TERM. Division IV.- LOGICAL CHARACTER OF THE VERB-TERM Division V. — LOGICAL CHARACTER OF THE ADVERB- TERM. Division I. — PROPOSITIONS. Sub-Division I. — The Sentence. Sub-Division II. — The Clause. Division II. — THE NOUN-TERM. Sub-Division I. — Nature and Division of the Noun-tbkm. Sub-Division II. — The Noun-term as Subject. Sub-Division III. — The Noun-term as On.jKCT. xiv CONTENTS. Division III. — THE ADJECTIVE-TERM. Sub-Division I. — The Qualifying Adjective. Sub-Division II. — The Limiting Adjective. Division IV. — THE VERB-TEEM. Sub-Division I. — The Complement Tekm. Sub-Division II. — The Copula Term. Division V. — THE ADVERB-TERM. Sub-Division I. — The Local Modifier. Sub-Division IE. — The Temporal Modifier. Sub-Division III. — The Causal Modifier. Sub-Division IV. — The Modal Modifier. Division I. — LOGICAD CHARACTER OP PROPOSITIONS. Sub-Division I. — The Sentence. Chapter I. — The Philosophy of the Sentence. Section I. — The Sentence a Necessary Form of Speech . 137 Section II. — Logical Character and Relationship of Subject and Predicate 140 Section III. — The Subject vs. The Predicate .... 142 Chapter II. — The Logical Division of Sentences. Section I. — Declarative and Imperative Sentences . . . 146 Section 11. — Interrogative Sentences 148 Section III. — Exclamatory Sentences . .... 149 Sub-Division 11. — The Clause. Chapter I. — Logical Divisions of the Clause . . 151 Section I. — The Declarative Clause 151 Section IL — The Imperative Clause 153 Section III. — The Interrogative Clause 155 Section IV. — The Exclamatory Clause 157 Division H. — LOGIC AL CHARACTER OF NOUN-TERMS. Sub-Division L — Nature and Divisions op the Noun- term. Chapter I. — Substantive Noun-terms . . . 159 Chapter n. — Attributive Noun-terms . . . ,161 Sub-Division II. — The Noun-term as Subject. Chapter L — Real and Apparent Terms . . . 163 Chapter 11. —Logical Character of the Subject Term . 167 B. Indirect Object. CONTENTS. XV Sub-Division III. — The Noun-term as Object. Chapter I. — The Suffering Object . . . . 171 A. Direct Object. — Section I. —The Direct Suffering Object . . . 171 Section II. — The Object of Address ... 175 Section III. — The Object of Attention . . .177 Section IV. —The Object of Interest ... 180 Section V. — The Object of Association . . .183 Section VI. — The Object of- Separation . . 185 Section VII. — Direct Forms of Indirect Object . 187 Chapter II. — The Factitive Object .... 188 Chapterin.— The Causal Object 193 Division III. — LOGICAL CHARACTER OF ADJECTIVE- TERMS. Sub-Division I. — The Modifying Adjective. Chapter I. — Nature and Divisions of . . . 195 Sub-Division II. — The Limiting Adjective. Chapter I. — Designation 201 Chapter 11. — Connection 206 Chapter III. — Relationship and Inclusion . . .211 Chapter IV. — Number, Quantity, and Possession . 213 Division IV.— LOGICAL CHARACTER OF VERB-TERMS. Sub-Division I. — The Complement Term. Chapter I. — The Attributive Complement . . . 216 Chapter II. — The Substantive Complement • . . 220 Sub-Division II. — The Copula Term. Chapter I. — Rhetorical and Mixed Forms of . . 224 Chapter II. — The Verb To Be as Complete Verb-term 227 Division V. — LOGICAL CHARACTER OF ADVERB-TERMS. Sub-Division I. — The Local Modifier. Chapter I. — Nature and Division of . . . .231 Chapter II. — Place Where 232 Chapter III. — Place Whence 235 Chapter IV. — Place Whither 236 Chapter V. — Place Which Way 237 XVl CONTENTS. Chapter VT. — Place or Space How Far Chapter VII. — Place in the Form of Direct Object Sub-Division 11. — The Temporal Modifier. Chapter I. — Nature and Divisions of Chapter II. — Time When .... Chapter III. — Time Antecedent .... Chapter IV. — Time Subsequent Chapter V. — Time How Often .... Chapter VI. — Time How Long Chapter VII. — Time in the Form of Direct Object Sub-Division IH. — The Causal Modifier. Chapter I. — Real Cause, — Direct Forms Section I. — Origin and Source Section II. — Author or Agent Section III. — Purpose or Motive Section IV. — Pure Cause and Occasion . Section V. — Reason and Evidence .... Section VI. — Emphatic Forms of Direct Cause Chapter H. — Real Cause, — Remote Forms. Section I. — Interchange Section II. — Means and Instrument Section m. — Material and Constituency Section IV. — Supply Section V. — Emphatic Forms of Remote Cause . Chapter IH. — Conceived Cause. (Section I. — Condition of Unknown Fact Section II. — Future Condition . Section III. — Rhetorical Condition . Section I. — Hypothesis Contrary to Fact Section II. — Hypothesis Absolute . Section I. — Nature and Forms, etc. . Section II. — Concession. (Continued.) . (6.) Hypothesis. c) Concession. Chapter IV. — Conceived Cause. (Continued.) Section I. — Sentence Forms, Emphatic Forms, etc. Section n. — Grammatical Construction . 8ub-Division I V. — The Modal Modifier. A. Absolute or Direct Mode. Chapter I. — Qualitative Mode. (a.) Physical Qualities . . . . . 239 240 242 243 245 246 248 249 251 254 255 257 259 262 269 270 272 273 275 277 278 281 282 284 287 287 291 293 CONTENTS. XVll (b. ) Intellectual Qualities 293 (c.) State or Condition 293 {d.) Description Generally . . ... . . . 293 (e.) Specific Character . 293 Chapter II. — Quantitative Mode. Section I. — Depjree 295 Section II. — Measure of Magnitude 297 Section III. — Measure of Difference . ' 299 Chapter III. — Circumstantial Mode. (Section I. — Order 302 Section II. — Specification 303 Section III. -Conformity 307 Section IV. — Fitness 309 (Section I. — Substitution 311 Section II. -Addition 313 Section III. — Exclusion 315 Section IV. — Attendant Circumstance . . . 317 B. Relative or Indirect Mode. Chapter I. — Consequence or Result. Section I. — Quality Consequence 320 Section II. — Quantity Consequence 322 Section III. — Circumstantial Consequence 325 Chapter II. — Comparison. OuAiiTY CoMP (Section I. — Comparison of Resemblance . . 329 \ Section II. — Comparison of Distinction . 331 OuANTiTY CoMP. j Section I. - Comparison of Equality ... 332 ( Section II. — Comparison of Inequality . . 335 Special Forms, i ^^'^ Objective, Emphatic, and Negative Forms . 337 ( (6.) Inclusive," Extreme, and Elliptical Forms . 338 Division v. — AFFIRMATION AND DENIAL. Chapter I. — Nature and Division of these Terms . 841 Division VI. — COOBDINATION. Chapter I. — Partial Coordination . . . . . S44 Chapter II. — Absolute Coordination .... 845 ENGLlSlT LANGUAGE ; ITS GEAMIATICAL AND LOGICAL PEINCIPLES. PAET I. FORMS OF EXPRESSION, OR GRAMMATICAL TERMS. DIVISION I. FORMS OF GRAMMATICAL TERMS. NATURE AND DIVISION OF GRAMMATICAL TERMS. 1. All the grammatical elements that can possibly en- ter into the structure of a sentence may be classified un- der four heads * ; namely : — * The common classification of grammatical elements into Svbject, Predicate^ Object, Adjective, and Advert, is unscientific and, indeed, false. It is clear that the terms Subject, Object, and Predicate, contemplate a basis of classification, entirely different from the terms Adjective and Adverb. The two latter desig- nate attributes or qualities, and have thus an independent meaning of their own; the three former, on the contrary, indicate chiefly relations, and consequently possess no significance aside from their logical connections in a proposition. We may saj' that wise is an adjective, and that wisely is an adverb, independent of any existing logical relations in a sentence; but we cannot define wisdom as a subject or an object, though we can as a noun, and we cannot designate woi'k as a. predicate, though it would be very proper to call it a verb, because these par- ticular terms. Subject, Object, and Predicate, define words, only when holding certain specific logical relations in a proposition. Hence a lexicographer never calls any word by these names; but he denomi- nates different words as nouns, or adjectives, or verbs, or adverbs. We have then here two distinct principles of classification, widely different, dad involving an absurdity as serious, as if, in a classification of the human race 2 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. Noun-terms. Adjective-terms. Verb-terms. Adverb-terms. 2. A Noun-term is any word, or any logical combina- tion of words, having the force and performing the func- tions of a noun. Under this head are likewise classed all pronouns. (21.) 3. An Adjective -term is any word, or any logical combination of words, having the force and performing the functions of an adjective. (22.) 4. A Verb -term is any word, or any logical combi- nation of words, having the force and performing the functions of a verb. (23.) 6. An Adverb-term is any word, or any logical combination of words, having the force and performing the functions of an adverb. (24.) 6. Now any one of these four terms may be, in point of grammatical form, — (a.) A Word. (6.) A Phrase. (c.) A Clause. SUB-DIVISION I — THE WORD-FORM. CHAPTER L DEFINITION AND CHARACTER. 7. A Word-form is a single significant word. along with the Caucasian, the Negro, the Malay, etc., one should include Kingt and Serfs. It is evident then that the only proper, and, indeed, the onW possi- ^le classification is the one given above. Moreover, the names chosen seem, on the score both of propriety and of convenience, far preferable to the common terminology of Substantive, Adjective, Advei-hial, and Predicative. THE PHKASE-FORM. 3 House; John; he; who; wise; good; studious; walks; runs; is wisely; well; studiously. 1. The infinitive form of the verb, — inasmuch as the particle to expresses no relation and is merely the sign of this mood, — is considered a word-form. 2. The possessive case-form, indicates indeed a relation by its ending, but, inasmuch as it is merely an inflection^ it is not considered a phrase-form. All mere inflections^ whatever relations or elements they may indicate, belong specifically to etymological and not to general grammat- ical analysis. 3. Prepositions, conjunctions, and expletives, since they are not properly significant words, are not considered word-forms. When, however, they gain a significance by use, they become word-forms. The heavens above ; came from within ; has too many huCs. 4. A word-form is sometimes introduced by a conjunc- tion ; it is then termed a conjunctive word-form. Went as companion; considered them as friends ; more nice than wise ; influential though uneducated. Exercise 1. Tell which are word-forms in the following : — Me; of; you; men; with; and; but; below; to; too; them; through; not; stands; standing; notwithstanding; house; home; ?arm; for; who; whereof; thus; thee. SUB-DIVISION W.— THE PHRASE-FORM. CHAPTER I. DEFINITION AND CHARACTER. 8. A Phrase-form consists of a preposition and a significant term logically combined ; — that is, combined 4 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. SO as to make sense. It is therefore what is commonly termed by gi-ammariaus, an adjunct. For me ; to him ; by this ; after the war ; until now ; on account of the difficulty. 1. The prepositions thus used are commonly the fol- lowing : — (1.) The simple forms, namely, at, after, hut, by, down, except, for ^ from, in, of, on, over, past, round, since, through, till, to, under, un- til, up, with, etc. (2.) The compound forms, above, about, across, against, along, amid or amidst, among or amongst, around, athwart, — made by pre- fixing a to other words; before, behind, below, beneath, beside or he- sides, between, betwixt, beyond, made by prefixing he (= by) to other words; — according to, as to, in respect to, with respect to, with a view to, instead of, in return for, out of, on account of, for the sake of, for the purpose of, despite of, in behalf of, in consideration of, in place of, in lieu of, in case of, in conformity with, in consequence of, as regards, t?r regard to, etc., etc., — made up of two or more words. (3.) The following participles are often used as prepositions : bating, concerning, during, excepting, regarding, respecting, touching, notwithstanding, and some others. (4.) The following, also, are usually mere relation terms, namely: ahead of, aside from, apart from, owing to, piior to, previous to, anterior to, subsequent to, contrary to, and some others. 2. A phrase-form is sometimes introduced by a con- junction, making thus a conjunctive phrase-form. Rejoiceth greatly because of the hridegroom^s voice. These were regarded as among the chief obstacles. Exercise 2. Distinguish the word-forms and the phrase-forms in the following : — Who; whose; whom ; of whom; for the sake of whom ; he ; his ; him; of him; on account of him; me; my; mine; of me; in spite of me ; you ; your ; yours ; through you ; because of you ; as re- gards you; to; to him; by ; by us; our; ours ; for us; as a friend ; for a friend ; all but him came. THE PHRASE-FORM. CHAPTER II. THE PHRASE-FORM. {Continued.) Special, Idiomatic, and Elliptical Forms. 3. Not unfrequently adjectives and participles, and Bometimes even adverbs, prepositions, and conjunctions, are used as the significant term in the plirase-form. These different parts of speech, in such cases, have, of course, the force of nouns. (21.) Among the good ; by walking ; a voice from within ; from above ; spoke of your if^s and and^s. 4. By an idiom of our language a possessive may be used as the significant term of a phrase-form. A book of mine ; of yours ; of theirs ; of ours. 5. The significant term is sometimes inserted between the parts of a compound relation term. In his stead = in stead of him ; for his sake = for the sake of him. So — to us ward ; in his room ; in their place ; in his case; in my case. 6. Sometimes the preposition is placed after its noun. This order rarely occurs in prose, except when it is de- sired to secure especial emphasis for the preposition. The deep ravines and dells among. — ■ Scott. The thing is known all the world over. — Walker. 7. (1.) Sometimes the preposition is placed after its significant term and separated from it. This arrange- ment always occurs in case of that and as used as rela- tives in phrasal combinations. Whom did you speak to f Which door did he come in at f The thing that I spoke off Such persons as he lives wilh. (2.) So, likewise, with some passive and some intran- 6 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. sitive verbs used idiomatically, the constituents of the phrase are separated. (40, 1, (1).) He was spoken of; we were talked about ; the man was run over ; the boat was run into. 8. (1.) A phrase-form may itself be used as the sig- nificant term in another phrase-form. Such are called adjunctive phrase-forms. Came ^07/1 BEYOND the mountains; ran out yro77i behind us ;• /rom AMONG them; except in this; until after ten o'clock. (2.) Sometimes an adjunctive phrase-form is used as the significant term in still another phrase-form ; thus : Heard no sound except FROM BELOW US. Here, be- low marks the relation of us ; from marks the relation of helow us considered as one term, and except marks the re- lation of from helow us likewise considered, with refer- ence to except, as one term. 9. Sometimes we have what we may call double phrase- forms. Fro7n Boston to New York is many miles; from the centre to the cir- cumference is ten feet. 10. Sometimes two or more prepositions are used inde- pendently with the same significant term, the latter being really understood with the first preposition. Travels in and about Boston ; at or before the time ; on or after the first of June. 11. These last forms may be used, also, as significant terms in adjunctive phrase-forms. Thus, Except on and after the first of June. Here except marks the relation of all that follows. 12. Cautions. Adjunctive phrase-forms must be carefully dis- tinguished from simple j)hrase-forms introduced by compound prepo- sitions. The difference is manifest. The latter involve only one re- lation ; the former as many as there are different prepositions. THE PHRASE-FORM. 7 Thus: On account of him. Here the three italicised words indicate only a single relation. But: Except from WITHIN him. Here are three different relations clearly indicated, not indeed as independent, but one relation conceived as subject to another. (8, 8, (2).) 13. Ellipses. (1.) Often the whole or a part of a re- lation term is omitted. In such cases, inasmuch as a re- lation is of necessity implied, the term must be consid- ered a phrase term. Bring (to) me a book; wrote (to) him a letter; built (for) his son a house; asked (of) him a question; taught (to) us grammar; looks like (to) me ; is unlike (to) me. Lives oppodte (to) us ; near (to) the river; nigh (to) the city; like (to) his father ; give (to) me that book, etc. (2.) Sometimes the significant term is omitted. This ellipsis occurs most commonly in the case of relative pro- nouns. The man (whom) I spoke with ; a knife (which) to cut with ; a house (lohich) to live in ; the thing (which) we talked about; the person (whom) you spoke to. Exercise 3. Distinguish the word-forTns, and the phrase-forms, adjunctive, simple, and double. Note carefully elliptical and inverted forms. I. We ; us ; our ; ours ; of ours ; of us ; among us ; from among us; instead of us; except from among us; in spite of us; within and without us; from within and without us; except from within and without us ; because of yours ; for the sake of ours ; except for the sake of ours; from below (8, 3) ; except from below; from below the surface ; from above and below the surface. n. Give me this ; hand me that; builds them a house; brought us presents ; all this notwithstanding ; well known all the country through; such persons as we conversed with ; the man whom we spoke to ; the very thing that he spoke of ; what are you thinking about ; he was spoken of ; this was talked about. III. The man he spoke with; a shovel to dig with; a scythe to mow with; a boat to sail in; an estate to live upon; a branch to cling to; a knife of yours; except in this; roamed all the country over; from the sublime to the ridiculous is a long fall ; was consid- ered as wise; sorrowful because of his loss; reckoning fro-m the old- est to the youngest. 8 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. CHAPTER ni. GRAMMATICAL REGIMEN OF THE PHRASE-FORM. 15. The noun-term in a phrase should be in the objec- tive case. Errors here are especially likely to occur, in the case of the relative pronoun used interrogatively. Who did you speak to? Say, whom. Who was he talking about? Say, whom. 16. Idiomatic expressions often disregard the rules of grammar. Thus in the following English idioms, the noun-term of a phrase-form is at the same time the gram- matical subject (40, 1, (1)) of the verb. Hence it is put in the nominative case. He was talked about. Who was spoken of? We were run into. 17. Prepositions used as adverbs must be carefully noted as such. In such cases the term is not of course a phrase. About twenty men came; about forty persons were present. 18. The same noun ought not usually to be construed with two different and widely separated prepositions. Thus : — He was opposed tOj though he apparently labored ybr the measure. Say, — He was opposed to the measure, though he apparently la- bored/or it. 19. Phrase-forms should stand as near as possible to the words they modify. This was a very similar case to the one under consideration. Say, this was a case very similar to the one, etc. Exercise 4. Do the same work as in Exercise 3, and correct anything favlty in grammar. I. Above the clouds; from above; from above the clouds; above THE CLAUSE-rOKM. 9 one hundred feet high except from above ; about us ; about twenty men; around about us; from about us; from around us; about and above us; except from above us. II. 1. Flew above and at a very long distance from the peaks of the mountains. 2. Of a different nature from the former. 3. Be- cause reconciled to me. 4. Dissented from us. 5, It seemed con- sonant with the facts. 6. Were divided among all the soldiers. 7. His living corresponds to his means. 8. He died of a fever. 9. Came into the house. 10. Came in haste. 11. This is a very different matter from what we spoke of yesterday. 12. Has little influence with me. 13. I must differ from you. 14. Lives in New York. 15. Will stop in the village. 16. Was accused of having acted falsely. 17. Hostility among all these tribes. 18. We may profit by others' mistakes. 19. Confides in his honesty. 20. His prejudice to our cause. 21. They all differ among themselves. 22. Who was talked about. 23. Who was he talkinsr about. SUB-DIVISION \\\. — THE CLAUSE-FORM. DEFINITIONS AND DIVISIONS. 9. A clause is a dependent sentence. Of course, it must always have a noun-term and a verb-term logically combined. He comes — sentence ; (says) that he comes — clause. It rains — sent. ; (will go) if it rains — cl. This is wrong — sent. ; (thinks) this is wrong — cl. ; (thinks) this to be wrong — cl. 10. Clause-forms are divided, according to their special verbal structure, into five classes ; namely : — The Demonstrative Clause. The Infinitive Clause. The Participial Clause. The Relative Clause. The Conjunctive Clause. Remark. This classification embraces all possible clause-forms in our language. On the basis of structure, it cannot be different; ' ence, it is not arbitrary. 10 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. It should be likewise noted that this classification embraces all pos- Bible clause-forms in any written language. Once thoroughly learned, therefore, in the English, they will easily be recognized in any other ancient or modern language. CHAPTER I. THE DEMONSTRATIVE CLAUSE. Section I. — Definition and General Character. 11. Demonstrative clauses are such as are intro- duced by the demonstrative connective that. Says that he will come. That he has come is manifest. 1. This clause is found usually in logical connection with words expressive of, — (a.) Mental State and Action, as thinks consider, believe^ im- agine, remember, know, understand, be aware, be assured, be certain, etc. (&.) Mental Feeling and Emotion, as rejoice, mourn, marvel, wonder, fear, be pleased, be anxious, be delighted, be angry, etc. (c.) Communication of Thought, embracing all words of saying, affirming, commanding, exhorting, entreating, etc. (d.) Advantage and Disadvantage ; Transpiring and Hap- pening; Causing and Effecting, etc., as, it is best, it is desirable, it. happened, it came to pass, etc. 2. It should be noted that the words with which this clause is found are not necessarily verbs. They may be nouns or adjectives ; indeed, any part of speech express- ive of conceptions, perceptions, feelings, or facts. The fact that he came. Am sure that he will come.. The thought that all must die. The law that all must fight. Remark. Words of Physical Sensation, as those of seeing and hearing, cannot be followed by a demonstrative clause. When these words are used with this clause they really express a jnental percep- tion, and not mere physical sensation. I see that the sun is rising ( = 1 perceive that the sun is rising). I hear that she sitigs ( = I have learned the fact that she sings). THE DEMONSTRATIVE CLAUSE. 11 3. This clause is often found with prepositions, the preposition marking the relation of the entire clause. Thus used, the clause is termed adjunctive. The prep- ositions most commonly found here are m, save^ and ex- cept ; and the prepositions after ^ before^ ere (poetical), gmce, and until^ when they express time. Brought them out after that he had shewed signs and wonders. — Bible. Not to deliver any man to death before that he have the ac- cusers face to face. Departed long ere the sun had risen. Rejoices IN that he is exalted. Remark. Many grammarians teach that after, before, ere, since, and until, used as above, are conjunctions. It is a sufficient answer that in the cases in question they always express prepositional rela- tions, and consequently are prepositions precisely the same, whether they are followed by significant terms of the clause-form or by sig- nificant terms of the word-form. Thus, — Came before sunset; &e/ore your arrival; before his depar- ture; before (that) you arrived; before (that) he departed. It does not matter whether that is expressed or omitted before the clause. The meaning is precisely the same. 4. Sometimes, as in the case of the phrase-form (8, 11), the adjunctive form of the clause may itself become the significant term of another preposition. Thus, in the following, until marks the relation of all that follows it. Did not arrive until after (that) you came. Exercise 5. Point out the demonstrative clauses in the following ; also the phrase- forms. Tell the subject and the predicate of each clause, and give the corresponding sentence-form : — ILLUSTRATIONS. Declares that he will succeed. That he will succeed is a Dem. C.-f. ; he is the Subj., and will succeed is the Pred.; that is the connective. (Sent.) He will succeed. Says that this he had not thought of. 12- ENGLISH LANGUAGE. That this he had not thought q/* is a Dem. C.-f., of which he is Subj., and had thought is Pred. ; of this is a P.-f. (Seut.) This he had not thought of. This is a book of mine. A sentence. Of mine, is a P.-f. Says that he was not deceived except in this. That he was not deceived is a Dera. C-f., of which he is Subj., and teas de- ceived is Pred. Except in this is an Adjunc. P.-f. (Sent.) He was not de- ceived except in this. L 1. Hopes that he will come. 2. Says that he was to have been present. 3. Severs the wicked from among the just. 4. Says that he left me a paper. 5. The deep ravines and dells among. 6. Re- marked that this thing they spoke of. 7. Declares that their money they are proud of. 8. Thinks that he will write him a letter. 9. Says that him he had made mention of. 10. They dashed the rapid torrent through. n. 1. Ye say that in Jerusalem is the place. — Bible. 2. My good will is to it. 3. Yours it is against. 4. In purchasing the sem- blance of my soul from out the state of hellish cruelty. — Shak. 5. Here comes a spirit of his. — Id. 6. Barefoot plodi the cold ground upon. 7. Science they do not pretend to. 8. Says that he will build me a house. 9. Declares that he will travel the wide world over. 10. Brought out all the rods from before the Lord. — Bible. 11. Come out from among them. — Id. 12. Will begin on or before the first of August. 13. Says that he will do me a favor. 14. Was not permitted until after much entreaty. 15. Before that Philip called thee. — Bible. Section II. — The Demonstrative Clause. {Continued.) Special, Idiomatic, and EUiptical Forms. 5. After words of Fearing this clause is sometimes in- troduced by lest. We were anxious lest they should he destroyed. They were in terror lest the vessel might sink. 6. Occasionally and with a pleasant rhetorical effect in the way of greater animation, this clause is introduced by how (sometimes inelegantly by how that} instead of that. He declared unto them how he had seen the Lord, and that he had spoken to him, and how he preached boldly at Damascus. — Bible. THE DEMONSTRATIVE CLAUSE. 13 7. Sometimes with a somewhat softening influence, but with little or no modification of the sense, the compound connective as if is used instead of that. It seemed as if everybody was my enemy (= that everybody, etc.). I felt as f 1 could not stay a moment longer (= nearly, that I could not, etc.). This construction commonly occurs after seems, and appears and looks when used in the sense of seems. It also occurs with, feels, when used personally. It seems as if he was my enemy. I feel as if he is in the right. It appeared to me as if nothing could reform him. It looks to me as if something was wrong. 8. Adjunctive forms with before (11, 3) have an equiv- alent in the somewhat idiomatic expression or ever. This form is nearly obsolete. I was set up from everlasting, from the beginning or ever the earth was. — Bible. And we, or ever he come near^ are ready to kill him. — Bible. 9. After negative expressions and questions implying a negative, a demonstrative clause when nsed negatively is often introduced by hut, this conjunction having nearly the same force as the absolute negative not. I do not know but that you are correct (= that you are not correct). I am not sure but that he is right (= that he is not right). Who knows but that he may be dishonest f (= that he is not dishonest). Note 1. It should be noted that in the above cases the proposition contains two negatives, and that this fact gives to the whole the force of an affirmative. Thus, I am not sure but that he is correct (= I am not sure thathe is noZ correct), means merely, I believe that he is correct. Again, It cannot be but he is right, = It cannot be that he is not right = He mcst be right. Note the difference between the two forms: It cannot be but he is right ; and, It cannot be that he is right. Compare, also, It cannot be that he is right and It cannot but be that he is right. Note 2. Clauses introduced by that are pure demonstrative clauses, — those introduced by lest, how, but, and as if as discussed above, in- 14 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. asmuch as they have the substantial force, though not the exact fcyrm of pure demonstrative clauses, will be termed Demonstra- tive Clause Equicalents. 10. The connective is often cut off from the body of the clause by an intervening clause. Says that^ if you will stay, he toUl remain. Believes that, when he comes, he will bring the news. 11. Sometimes the body of the clause is divided by a parenthetical expression, having no grammatical connec- tion whatever with the clause. That such a man, said they, should be guilty seems strange. 12. For the sake of convenience or of emphasis, the subject-term, especially when it is an infinitive or a clause, is sometimes placed after the verb. In this case the ex- pletives it or there usually precede the verb. Says that there were m a:sy presetit. Thinks that it is best to go. 13. Sometimes, especially in the earlier English, the subject of this clause has already been redundantly used as the object of the principal verb, before it is introduced as the subject of the clause ; and sometimes it is repeated directly as the subject. There is, however, a gain rather than a loss of emphasis, so far as the subject term is con- cerned, in such a construction. We know you that ye have not the love of God in you. — Bible. Then Manasseh knew that the lord he is God. — Id. 14. Ellipses. (1.) The connective is often omitted. Told me (that) he would come. Thinks (that) he can do it. Fears (that) he may come. This ellipsis occurs almost always in modern English after the prepositions afte?', before., since^ and until. With except.^ save, and iji the connective is always expressed. AJler (that) he came, we departed. Was prosperous before Qhat) the THE DEMONSTRATIVE CLAUSE. 15 war broke out. But, — Was wrong in that he injured you. All went well except that we lost our baggage. Note. In the time of Shakespeare and for a hundred years after- wards, this ellipsis of that after prepositions as above indicated, al- most never occurred. Abundant illustrations of this fact may be found in the writings of those times. (2.) After negatives (9), but alone is often used with- out the accompanying that. As this connective is in such cases always implied, the sense is not modified. I do not know but (that) he is correct. (3.) Under the influence of emotion or excitement this clause is sometimes used without any governing word. That a man should be stupid enough to take such a couplet to the printer ! — Macaulay. Exercise 6. Do the same work as before. Supply all ellipses and note any pe- culiarities of expression or construction. ILLUSTRATIONS. Thinks it is best to go. It is best to go is a Dem. C.-f. — to go is Subj. and is best is Pred.; it is an expletive. Clause connective is omitted. Thinks there were many such in the city. There were many such is a Dem. C.-f. — many such is Subj. and were is Pred. In the city is a P.-f. Clause connective omitted. I am not sure but you are right. But you are right is a Dem. Equiv. C.-f. of which you is Subj. and are right is Pred. — hut = but that. (9. ) AVas prosperous before the war broke out. Before the war broke out is an Adjunc. Dem. C.-f., of which war is Subj. and broke out is Pred. Connective that is omitted. Declared unto them how he had seen the Lord. Unto them is a P.-f. How he had seen the Lord is a Dem. Equiv. C.-f., of which he is Subj. and had seen is Pred. — the Lord is a W.-f . (6.) I. 1. Fears that he may be detained. 2. Was afraid lest he might be detained. 3. I do not doubt that he will come. 4. It is improbable that he will come. 5. I am not sure but that he mav 16 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. come. 6. Who knows but he may come? 7. That he should be found guilty, thought they, would be strange indeed. 8. Hoped that he might be found innocent. 9. Thinks that it is best to remain. 10. Believes there are many other things to be known. 11. Am sure he is correct except in that. L 1. Come out from among them. 2. The sand glided from be- neath my feet. 3. A shrewd observer of men in and out of power. 4. Said he would tell me a story. 5. Were fortunate in that we had a fair wind. 6. He is not sure but you may be the man. 7. Who knows but you are the man ? 8. It cannot be that I am the man. 9. It cannot be but you are right. 10. How is it that you have deceived us in one particular ? III. 1 . Will stay until ten ; — until after twelve ; — until you come. 2. Remained after your arrival; — after you arrived. 3. Will go before six o'clock ; — before the clock strikes six. 4. Says the so- lution is correct except in this; — except that one figure is wrong. 5. Have been here since June; — since before Christmas; — since the new year came in. 6. Says he was there the whole year, except during the last of July. 7. Stayed until August; — until spring came; until after winter set in. 8. Was wise in this ; — in that he went to school; — except in that he wasted his time. 9. I heard nothing ex- cept this; — except about the war; — except that we bad conquered. IV. 1. I shall relate how her opulence and her martial glory grew together. — Macaulay. 2. It will be seen how Ireland, cursed by the domination of race over race and of religion over rehgion, re- mained indeed a member of the empire, but a distorted member. — Id. 3. It was apprehended that there might be some difficulty in executing the plan. 4. The fact is, there had been accomplished a mighty work. 5. It cannot be but some will be lost. 6. It cannot be that any are lost. 7. It cannot be but that many are lost. 8. I feel as if many might be lost. 9, Men feel as if they were invited to call on him. — Dr. McCosh. 10. It does seem as if the heathen con- veyed a truth in mythic fable. — Ih. Section IH. — The Demonstrative Clause. {Continued.) grammatical construction. 17. Real and apparent Subject. When the expletive it stands as the grammatical representative of this clause, it is really the apparent or grammatical subject of the sentence, while the clause itself as a whole is the real subject-term. THE DEMONSTRATIVE CLAUSE. 17 In the example, It is true that he came, it is the apparent and (hat lie came is the real subject-term of is ; but is has its grammatical agree- ment with it and not with the clause. NoTK. The word it has at least four different uses, which must be carefully distinguished. These are as follows : — (a.) A Personal Pronoun. (b.) An Expletive Pronoun. . (c.) An Indejinite Pronoun. (d.) A Predicative Expletive. In the first use, it always stands for a noun previously expressed; in the second, for an infinitive or for a clause always expressed; in the third, for some person or thing always clearly suggested by the words in the proposition; in the fourth, it is always found in direct logical connection with an intransitive verb or a noun^ the predicative force of which it seems to aid. He bought a book and read {/. (Per. pronoun.) 7Hs good to read. It is best that one should read. (Expl. pronouns.) It is good books that should be read. (Indef. pro.) //rains, /rgrows cold. /Ms clearing away. He will foot it to the city. Trip it as they go. Will have it that you are wrong. (Pred. Expletives.) This predicative form of the expletive occurs sometimes with a preposition. See to it that this is done. He insists upon it that he is right. 18. Words of Hindering. After words of Hindering and Pre- venting the demonstrative clause construction, though good in the Elizabethan age, is obsolete now. The participial construction is now used. This by no means hinders hut that there may he something moral in it. — Butler. (Say, hinders there heing something moral in it.) So, also, a word and a phrase-form can be used. By no means hinders it, from having something moral. Note. Hence after words of hindering and preventing we may have really three different constructions, namely, a demonstrative or a participial clause : or a word and a phrase-form combination. Could not hinder but that this should be done, Dem. cl. Equiv. ;. could not hinder this heing done ; could not hinder this from heing done. 19. Three Negatives. After two negatives real or implied (11, 9), the form with but cannot properly be used. This would be in- troducing three negatives. It should also be noted that words of Doubting and Questioning always carry with them a negative forcCj 2 18 ENGLISH LANGUAGK. and hence must always count for one negative. Hence we cannot ase but, but that, or still worse, but what in the sense of but that, after the following, namely : — (a.) Two direct negatives. (6.) A direct negative along with a word of doubting or ^lestioning. (c.) A question implying a negative along with either a direct nega- tive or a word of doubting or questioning. AVe cannot therefore use but as in the following : — It is not impossible but that he may be a thief. It can not be un- known but that he is a thief. \\Tio does not know (nobody) but that he is a thief V Who doubts (nobody) but that he is a thief ? It can- not but be but that he is a thief. 20. After negatives, as should not be used in the sense of that or whether ; and after negatives with but, what should not be used in the sense of that. I do not know as I shall go. Say — that or whether, according to the exact sense intended. I do not know but what I shall go. (Say, — tliat.) 21. Mood-Forms. After words of Asking and Entreating the potential forms will and would should be used. And after those of Commanding the auxiliaries shall and should must be employed. Asked that he would come. Ordered that something should be done at once. 22. After words of Wishing, the subjunctive form of the copula should be used. I wish that he were here (not was). We could hope that it were true (not was). 23. On the contrary after as t/(=that, 11, 7), the subjunctive form should never be used. It seems as if this course were the best. (Say, was the best.) I feel as if he icere my friend. (Say, was.) It appears as if he were right. (Say, was.) Note. It is a little remarkable that the present and the past tense may be used here with little or no difference in meaning, and with .equal accuracy, at least, in many cases. The past tense in such cases seems, however, to be more generally preferred. It seems as if he was now your friend, = It seems as if he 25 now your friend. Exercise 7. Do the same work as before ; also correct anything wrong in point of Grammar, Point out real and apparent subject-terms, and all ellipses. THE DEMONSTRATIVE CLAUSE. 19 ILLUSTRATION. It is said that he is dishonest. That he is dishonest is a Dem. C.-f. ; and is the real subject of said; — it is the apparent or grammatical subj. I. 1. It is time that he came* 2. It cannot be that he came. 3. I am not sure but he came. 4. I have no doubt but what he came. 5. He fears lest he may have come. 6. Who doubts but that he has come ? 7. All say he has come. 8. It is not improbable but that he will come soon. 9. I have no doubt that he has come. 10. Who questions that he has come? 11. Who does not know that he has come ? 12. I do not know but what he will come to-morrow. 13. I do not know as he will come. 14. Who doubts but what he could come to-morrow ? II. 1. The law that we must keep the Sabbath day. 2. The fact is that such is the law. 3. It is certain that all do not keep the Sab- bath day. 4. The command that we keep it, is divine. 5. Who doubts that the command is divine ? 6. I am not sure but some doubt it. 7. It cannot be but that many keep it. 8. They say they certainly do keep it. 9. It is best that all should keep it. 10. Some break it in that they labor. 11. Who doubts but all could keep it? 12. I wish that it was well kept. 13. He asked that we would keep it. 14. I do not question but what we ought to keep it. 15. I have no doubt but that you will keep it. 16. I fear lest all may not keep it. 17. Do you wish that it was kept? 18. We c3,nnot but hope that all shall keep it. 19. There is no question but what many do keep it. 20. The command is that all would keep it. 21. There is no danger but what some keep it. 22. I can hardly believe but many will keep it. 23. In a similar way to that of running. — Dr. Dalton. 24. They are like the movements of mastication except that they are involuntary. — Id. III. 1. We feel as if there were light emerging upon our world. — McCosh. 2. It might seem as if the contemplation of God was an infinitely higher exercise. — Id. 3. We feel as if there were a still more wonderful power. — Id. 4. We believe that there is such a being, and we feel as if all were safe. — Id. 5. They feel as if a stain had been left on their character. — Id. 6. The microscope has shown how the earth, air, and water are crowded with sentient being. — Id. 7. We have felt as if we heard nature utter indistinct whispers. — Id. 8. It needs no deep reflection to discover that hon- 20 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. ssty is the best policy. — Id. 9. We feel that it holds good for all intelligent beings. — Id. 10. It seems as if it was intended that man should enjoy such communion. — Id. 11. He feels now that the mystery has been unfolded. — Id. 12. AVe feel as if all were safe and secure. — Id. EXERCIS:^ 8. 1. Write demonstrative clauses, introducing them correctly with that, LEST, BDT, or BUT THAT, HOW, AS, AS IF, JlVC of Cach kind. 2. Write Jive having the subject after the verb. 3. Wi'ite adjunctive clauses with each of the prepositions indicated in 11, 3. CHAPTER II. THE INFINITIVE CLAUSE. Section I. — Definition and General Character. 12. Infinitive clauses are such as have their verb term in the infinitive mood. Wish him to come. Believe them to be wise. Imagines him to be hypocritical. Ordered something to be done. Caused the city to he burned. Note. That the infinitive is capable of real predication is evi- dent from the fact that it may have precisely the same force as the indicative form. Thus "Thinks that he is guilty," means precisely the same as " Thinks him to be guilty." Remark. The infinitive clause is not, as some grammarians re- gard it, a mere abridgment of the demonstrative clause. This is clear from the fact that the latter clause cannot be used at all in many cases where the infinitive is regularly used, as after words of Physical Sensation, words of Caution, Habit, etc. (11, 2, Rem.) 1. The infinitive has two tense-forms and two voice- forms. Any one of these four forms may be used as the predicate of an infinitive clause. Expects him to harness the horse. Expects the horse to be har- nessed. Supposed him to have harnessed the horse. Supposed th horse to have been harnessed. THE INFINITIVE CLAUSE. 21 2. The infinitive clause is found with the same classes of words as the demonstrative clause (11, 1), and in ad- dition it is also often used with words of Physical Sen- sation, as those of Seeing, Hearing, and Feeling. It is never found, nor indeed is any clausal construction pos- sible, with words of Tasting and Smelling. Saw Mm (to) fall. Heard her (to) sing. Felt something (to) touch me. Thinks him to he wise. Ordered the signal to be given. 8. Infinitive clauses are often introduced by the word for used, not as a relation word and making the clause adjunctive (11, 3), but as a mere expletive. It is best for us for him to leave. For him to remain seems strange. 4. Except when used as the object of a verb, the in^ finitive clause is usually of the expletive form with for. This, however, is not always the case. Thus, — The only way in which the parent can do this is himself to be what the child should be. — Dr. Hopkins. Truth to be adduced and established, feeling to be uttered, the purposes of men to be shaped, are each the objects of literary effort. — Prof. Bascom. Remark. In the older English this particle is often omitted. This is all as monstrous to our human reason As (for) my Antlgonus to break his grave. — Shak. 5. This expletive form of the infinitive clause with /or may be used adjunctively with the prepositions save, ex- cept, excepting, and hut, which, in such case, mark the relation of the entire clause following. Nothing now was important, except for the signal to be given. Every order had been given save for the boats to be in readiness. 6. The infinitive clause is also often used with for, having the force of a preposition, in which case it is of course adjunctive. I bought a book /or my friend to read. 7. This adjunctive form is sometimes itself adjunctive 22 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. with another preposition. This form must be distin- guished from 12, 5. He never makes a request except for something important to be done. 9. The adverb and the predicate form of the infinitive often closely resemble each other. Thus — T have an argument to present on the question. Adv. form. There are arguments to be presented on the question. Pred. form. I will have him (to) present his argument on the question. Pred. form. 10. Cautions. From the above it is evident that the infinitive clause-form may be easily confounded with infinitive word-forms. Therefore, note, — (1.) If the whole expression can be changed to a demonstrative clause without modifying the sense, then, in every case, it is best to regard it as an infinitive clause. Commanded the city to be burned. It is best for us to go. It is hard for Mm to study. It is lawful for them to rule. Advised something to be done. (All Inf. els.) Remark. It is best for us to walk. This may have two mean- ings, either: It is best for us to walk = that we should walk; or, It is best ybr us to walk = to walk is bestybr us. In the first signification we have an infinitive clause with for used expletively; in the second an infinitive word-form. So, — It is not lawful for the Jews to eat swine's flesh. It is hard for children to sit still. In all such cases we may take the sense in two ways, — as a rule, however, when the sense can be rendered perfectly by a demonstra- tive clause, it is better to regard these constructions as infinitive clause-foruis. (2.) When the noun before the infinitive indicates a person who is directly addressed, it must of course be taken by itself, and not as the subject of the infinitive, making with the same an infinitive clause. Bade him to go. Asked him to come. Advised us to remain. (Here the pronouns are all objects of the verbs.) (3.) Where an infinitive, which is both active and transitive in force, directly follows and relates to a neuter noun, it is an adjective or an adverb word-form; but when an infinitive passive is similarly located, it is a predicate term, and the whole an infinitive clause. I have a book to write. W.-f. There is a book to be wriUen. C.-f. THE INFINITIVE CLAUSE. 23 Gave me arguments to present. W.-f. There are arguments to he ■presented. C.-f. I have nothing to do. W.-£. There is something to he done. C.-f. (4.) Do not confound adjunctive and expletive infinitive clauses. When these clauses with for are used, as appositives, as subject, or as complement terms, they are expletive forms, otherwise adjunctive. Asks for something to be done; cold enough /or water to freeze; too cold ybr any one to work. — Adjunctive forms. For something to he done is necessary; it is not strange for water to freeze ; it is well for all to work. — Expletive forms. When adjunctive, some noun may be used in the same construction as the Inf.-cl. governed by the/or, thus showing \t% prepositional force. This is never possible with the expletive form. Thus, — Cold enough for winter, — fou afre ; or, — for afre to be made. But not, It is strange for this, or for that, or for anything ; but. It is strange for a fire to be made = that a fire should be made. (5.) The infinitive may be used as a noun-term, an adjective-term, or an adverh-term. These uses must be carefully distinguished from its use as a verb. To see is pleasant. (Noun.) To kill a man is murder. (Noun.) To be wicked is to be unhappy. (Noun.) Flee from the wrath to come. (Adj.) Went to see the city. (Ado.) Worked hard to get his lessons. (Adv.) Commanded something to be done. (Verb.) Ordered the city to be burned. (Verb.) For him to work seems hard. ( Verb.) Exercise 9. Point out the phrase-forms and the clause-forms, and tell the subject and the predicate of each clause. ILLUSTRATION. Wished him to come. Him to come is an Inf. C.-f., of which him is the Subj,, and to come is the Pred. Nothing remained but for the boats to be lowered. But for the boats to be lowered is an Adjunc. Inf. C-f., for is an expletive. Boats is the Subj., and to be lowered is the Pred. It is too warm for us to travel to the city. For us ta travel is an Adjunc. Tnf. C.-f., us is the Subj., and to travel is the Pred. ; to the city is a P.-f . 24 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. L 1. Believes it to be true. 2. Thinks that it is true. 3. It is thought that it is true. 4. The belief that it is true seems strange 5. The belief is that it is true. 6. For it to be true seems inexpli- cable. 7. It seems strange for it to be true. 8. That it is true is wonderful. 9. Would it be strange for it to be true? 10. Can it be that it is true? 11. It seems as if it is true. 12. I feel as if it must be true. 13. It cannot be but that it is true. 14. It is not impos- sible that it may be true. n. 1. Thinks that there was something wrong. 2. Who knows but something may have been wrong? 3. There is no doubt that something was wrong. 4. Fears that there might have been some- thing wrong. 5. Was anxious lest his friend should die. 6. It was ordered that he should come. 7. The order was for him to come. 8. The order was that he should come. 9, It seems as if he ought to come. 10. He shows how at his conversion he was guided by Ananias and how he subsequently worshiped at the Temple. — Hackett. ni. 1. A book proper for all to read. 2. Wishes the book to be read. 3. I bought a book to read. (12, 8.) 4. I bought a book for you to read. 5. Thought the book was to be read. 6. Orders the book to be read. 7. Expects you to read the book. 8. For you to read is not irksome. 9. He says he sat down to read a book. 10. I think myself to be a good reader. 11. I have no wish except that I may read. 12. I hope that I may read in the years to come. 13. I wish the years to come. 14. I say I cannot read except in the years to come. 15. Says he has a book to read and a horse to ride. 16. Who doubts that he has books to read? Section H. — The Infinhwe Clause. (^Continued.) SPECIAL, IDIOMATIC, AND ELLIPTICAL FORMS. 12. With passive verbs, whether finite or 'participial in form, the constituent parts of this clause are often sepa- rated. Thus, — They believe the Cretans to he liars, — in the passive voice becomes — The Cretans were believed to be liars, or, The Cretans being be- lieved to he liars. So, They found this man to he dishonest ; passive voice, This man was found to he dishonest, or, This man having been found to he dis- honest. THE INFINITIVE CLAUSE. 25 13. The same construction often occurs with a few ad- jectives of affirmation (166, 1) used as complement terms. He is certain to he found out This is certain to become generally known. We shall be sure to succeed. He is not likely to succeed (=it is not likely that, etc.). Note. In the older English we often find this form of the infini- tive clause with some other adjective complements; especially with better and with best. You were best to go to bed. — Shak. I were better to be eaten to death. — Id. I were best to leave him. — Id. 14. The subject of the infinitive clause is sometimes placed after the verb. In this case, when the subject term is an infinitive or a clause, the clause is regularly introduced by the expletives it or there. The words in small capitals in the following are the suTDJect terms. They make (to be) ready their arrow. — Bible. We hold (/o be) guilty every man here. Let there (to) be light. Thinks it (to be) wrong to steal. Thinks it (to be) best that he should go. Holds it (to be) a sin to lie. 15. Ellipses. The particle to^ the regular sign of the infinitive, is usually omitted after words of Searing, Seeing, and Feeling, and the verbs make, bid, let (= per- mit), have, and a few others. Heard him (to) speak. Saw him (to) move. Felt it (to) touch me. Had him (to) educate my son. 16. So, also, in the older English after better and best, (12, 13, N.) Poor lady, she were better (to) love a dream. — Shak. Thou wert better (to) gall the devil. — Id. Madam, You We best (fo) consider. — Id. Remark. It is worthy of note that out of these elliptical forms seems to have been derived the very common English idiom, You had better, you had best, you would rather, you had rather, etc. 17. After words of Saying, Thinhing, Making, Regard- 26 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. ing^ and some others, the infinitive itself of the copula is omitted. Declare him (to be) an enemy. Make him (to be) king. Supposed the work (to have been) accomplished. 18. The subject, when the same as that of the princi- pal verb, is usually omitted, but not always. He wishes (himself) to be good. Pretends (himself) to be wise. Hopes (himself) to be made king. But, Fancied himself (to be) a king. She imagines herself (to be) beautiful. 19. The subject is sometimes omitted, when not the same as that of the principal verb. In such case it can be easily supplied by the mind. Have often heard ( persons) say that animals have foreknowledge of a coming storm. Had scarcely heard (any one) tell of any poetry, etc. — De Quincey. 20. Cautions. Elliptical infinitive clause-forms must be distin- guished from mere word-forms. (1.) If the noun or pronoun following the principal verb makes with the same, without the. infinitive, either no sense at all or not the true sense, then we have an infinitive clause ; otherwise a word-iovva. merely. Thinks him (to be) honest. Holds it (to he) true. Made Mm (to be) king. Constituted him (to be) chief. Will have him (to) do it. Thought him (to be) wise. Ordered the bridge (to be) cut down. (All Inf. els.; sens^ incomplete without the Inf.) But, Named him Charles.' Called him a thief. Asked him a ques- tion. Taught him grammar. (Non-inf . els. ; sense complete ; Inf. could not be supplied.) (2.) So, also, with passive verbs. He was thought (to be) honest. We were made (to be) rulers. They were made (to be) slaves. He was believed (to be) guilty. Inf. els. He was chosen ruler; was elected president; was named Charles ; was taught grammar. "Word-forms. (3.) Do not confound word-forms with as and the complement terms of an infinitive clause. Considered him (to be) honest. Inf. cl. Regarded him as honest. Conj. W.-f. Thought him (to be) a Christian. Inf. cl. Looked upon THE INFINITIVE CLAUSE. 27 him as a Christian. Conj. W.-f. //e was made ('. Bmwj^inrj. THE RELATIVE CLAUSE. 49 21. The relative clause, when introduced by that in the sense of a relative adverb or a relative phrase, is es- pecially frequent, when the antecedent of the relative is the pronoun it (11, 17, (c) ), standing usually at the head of the sentence, and expressing some person or thing easily supplied by the mind. It was to him that I spoke (= ih.e. person to whom was he). It was there that he lived (==. The place where he lived was there). It was then that he came (= The time lohen he came was then). 22. In these it constructions we sometimes have two relative clauses, one referring to the subject of the sen- tence, the other to the complement of the same. It was then, when you came, that I arrived (== The time, at which I arrived, was the time when you came). It was to him lohom you saw that I spoke (=: The person, to whom I spoke, was he whom you saw). It is this ease and ductility of method hy which it winds in and out of every opportunity that MAKES IT PLEASING. — Bascom's Rhet. Remark. This singular idiom above discussed has nothing corre- sponding to it, in the ancient classics. The* French, however, has the same idiom precisely. 23. This clause is often introduced by as in the sense of a simple pronoun. It is impossible for him to succeed, as everybody knows (= which everybody knows). He is a highly educated man, as I have learned since (== which I have learned since). 24. As often has the force of a relative pronoun when the latter could not be substituted in its place. This is always the case when it occurs after the words such and same^ used as antecedents or correlatives. Such as we have. The same as they have, 25. In a similar manner as often introduces this clause with the force of a relative adverb. When thus used it always involves, or suggests, an ellipsis which being sup- plied clearly indicates its relative character. 60 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. We came just as you left (== at the time at which). He reads as he rides (== while, all the time during which). As the tree falls so it lies (=: In what manner the tree falls in that manner it lies). He spoke as follows (== in that manner which follows). Is as tall as you are (= is so much tall which amount you are tall). As rapidly as he could speak {= with so much rapidity with which rapidity he could speak.) Did as you directed (= after the manner according to WHICH, etc.) So all such expressions as, — as soon cw he came ; as far as he traveled; as much as you please ; as fast as possible, etc. 26. Like as is not unfrequently used in the older Eng- lish instead of as. Was tempted in all points like as we are. Like as a father pitieth his children so the Lord, etc. — Bible. 27. The relative Jioiv, used as the correlative of so, to express measure of difference (12, 2), introduces a rela- tive clause. This thing, by how much higher it is by so much greater fall I am to fear. — Mcintosh. 28. Some of these forms are used adjunctively. It is not a moral ide!i, except as it is a condition of moral action (= except in so far as, etc.) — Hopkins. We gave to all accord- ing as each had need. 29. After words of asking, inquiring, petitioning, etc., this clause is often introduced by if with the sense of whether (14, 3). If has also sometimes the force of as. Asked (/" it were true. Inquired (/" there were many present. If he has vices he has many virtues also (= As on the one hand he has, etc., so on the other hand, etc.). 30. The constituents of this clause are often separated, especially in questions. Who did you say was present ? What did they think the trouble was ? 31. This clause is sometimes divided by a parenthet- ical expression having no grammatical connection with the clause itself; therefore not to be noticed in the analy- sis of the same. THE RELATIVE CLAUSE. 61 A remark, which, said he, was exceedingly unjust. 32. Relative infinitive clauses are sometimes divided into three parts. Who was he thought to he ? Of what was the man supposed to be guilty ? 33. This clause may be combined with a demonstra- tive, an infinitive, "or a participial clause. Such are termed Relative demonstrative, Relative infinitive, or Relative participial clauses. Who do men say that 1 amf — Bible. (Rel. dem.) Whom do they think me to be? (Rel. inf.) What is it best for them to do? (Rel. Expl. Inf.) What did you see done? (Rel. part.) Which being removed, the effect ceases. — Wayland. (Rel. part.) 34. Cautions. Distinguish carefully demonstrative clauses, in- troduced by THAT, from relative clauses introduced by the same word. It was there that I saw him. (Rel. cl. that = where.) It was true that I saiv him. (Dem. cl. that has no relative equiv- alent.) It is you that he laboredjvr. (Rel. cl. that -.- for = for whom.) It is certain that he labored for you. (Dem. cl. no equivalent for that.) It is he that I spoke to. (Rel. cl. that =: whom.) It is true that I spoke to him. (Dem. cl.) On the same day that you arrived. (Rel. cl.) Says that you arrived on that day. (Dem. cl.) Exercise 19. Do (he same work as in previous exercises. ILLUSTRATIONS. At the time that he came. That he came is a Rel. C.-f. of which he is Subj., and came is Pred. That (= when =:at which) is a Rel. Adv., and time is its antecedent. It was you that I spoke to. That I spoke to is a Rel. C.-f., of which / is the Subj., and spoke the Pred. That is the Obj. of to, and with it malces a Rel. P.-f. ; it (=the person) is its antecedent. 52 ENGLISH LANGUAGE.. Who is it that you saw? That you saw is a Rel. C-f., of which you is Subj., and saw is Pred. That is Obj. of saw, and it ( = the person) is its antecedent. Such as we have. As we have is a Rel. C.-f. — of which we is the Subj., and have is the Pred. As is the Rel. and the Obj. of have, and such is its antecedent. Said that he was learned, as all know. That he was learned is a Dem. C.-f., of which he is Subj., and was leaitied is Pred. As all know is a Rel. C.-f., of which all is Subj., and know is Pred. As (=what) is a Rel. and is the Obj. of know, and the Dem. cl., that he was leai'ned, is its antecedent. He came as you left. As you left is a Rel. C.-f., of which you is Subj., and left is Pred. As (= when) is a Rel. Adv., and has no aniecedent. A man is not truly virtuous except as he is conscientious. Except as he is conscientious is an Adjunc. Rel. C.-f., of which he is Subj., and is conscientious is the Pred. Except marks the relation of the whole clause. As is a Rel. Adv., and has no antecedent. Asked if he had come. If he had come is a Rel. C.-f., of which he is Subj., and had come is Pred. 7/" (= whether) is a Rel. Connective. What was he supposed to be talking about. What he to he talking about is a Rel. Inf. C.-f., of which he is Subj., and to be talking is Pred. (See 12, 12.) What about (= about what) is a Rel. P.-f. I. 1. The sight that he saw was beautiful. 2. The fact that he saw a beautiful sight. 3. The fact that I mentioned (14, 18) about his seeing a beautiful sight. 4. Says that I mentioned the fact. 5. It is time for me to see. 6. It was this that I saw. 7. It was there that I saw. 8. Thus it was that I saw. 9. At the time that I saw. 10. By what means was it that you saw the sight ? 11. It cannot be but he saw the sight. 12. Spoke of your having seen it. n. 1. He saw as you see. 2. He saw what you see, as he him- self knows. 3. He saw as much as you see. 4. He saw all that there was to be seen, as all know. 5. Saw as much as any one. 6. Spoke about what he saw. 7. Told by what means he saw. 8. Whoever saw, was rewarded. 9. It was he to whom I spoke that saw the sight. 10. It is manifest that he saw the sisht. 11. How THE RELATIVE CLAUSE. 63 could it be that be should see the sight! 12. He certainly is said to have seen it III. 1. Ask the teacher if we can go. 2. It cannot be but he will succeed. 3. Who questions that he will succeed? 4. Who knows but he may V 5. He told how he had been eminently suc- cessful and had made large sums of money. 6. He was guilty of treachery, than which no crime is more despicable. 7. Told when and how he became a traitor. 8. Was he supposed to have been a traitor? 9. Was it he who was with us tbat they thought to be a traitor? IV. 1. There have been many instances of men liaving been first strangled and then crucified. — Dr. Farrar. 2. Never was a prophecy more clearly fulfilled, — the men going about in the guise of women, with swords concealed (13) under their gay robes; the priests struck by darts from the upper court of the Temple and falling slain by their own sacrifices; the corpses themselves lying in piles and mounds on the very altar steps; the fires feeding luxu- riously on cedar- work overlaid with gold; friend and foe trampled to death in promiscuous carnage (13) . — Id. 3. At the very time when the author gave him the book for perusal. — Campbell. 4. The pronoun their is plural for the same reason that who is Section IV. — The Relative Clause. {Continued.^ ^ NEGATIVE AND ELLIPTICAL FORMS. 35. After negatives, real or implied, a negative rela- tive clause is often introduced by hut liaving the force of not (11, 9). Here, as in the case of the demonstrative clause in similar constructions, the two negatives make the proposition affirmative. There is not a man who does not know his duty (= hut who knows his duty.) Who is there who does not know his duty? (= hut loho knows, etc.) He planted not a field which did not yield bounti- fully (= hut ichich yielded bountifully). Who ever planted a field which did not yield bountifully? (= hid which yielded, etc.) 36. Ellipses. The relative is very often omitted. The man (whom) you saw. The book (which) I hought. The mo- ment (that) he arrived. This is the one (lohich) I like hest. It was this (that) we were speaking of. It is you (that) we are seekinj. 64 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. This ellipsis is very common after than in comparisons and aftei negatives. We have more than (what) ice need. Has less than {what) is necessary. There is no one but (who) knows Jiis duty. There is not a moment hut (when) some one dies. Where is there a spot on earth but (where) there are traces of a divinity f 37. By a singular idiom, the adjunctive infinitive clause with for is sometimes combined with the relative form ; the relative not being usually expressed, but clearly implied (12, 6). He purchased a house /or Ats son to live in (which). Here is a knife /or you to cut with (which). There is no one for James to play with (whom). 38. In this construction, when the subject of the in- finitive clause and that of the principal verb are the same, the former is always omitted. The preposition, also, in modern English, is omitted. I have a house (for myself) to live in (which). What went ye out for (yourselves) to see. — Old Eng. 39. There is often an ellipsis of the relative before the word there used expletively and introducing the clause. Spoke of the danger (which) there was in the undertaking. Beheld the grandeur (which) there was everywhere. 40. In relative demonstrative clauses the connective is usually omitted. What did he say (that) it was f Who did you think (that) they were f What, is it desirable (that) he should do f 41. In relative clauses denoting a comparison and in- troduced by how used correlatively (14, 27), both the relative and the preceding preposition are omitted, and the word the substituted in their place. By how much we have more, by so much we want more (= the more we have, the more, etc.). THE RELATIVE CLAUSE. 65 42. Relative adjective clauses introduced by as (= in the way in which, or in the form in which) regularly omit the subject term and the copula. This doctrine as held by the Egyptians has become extinct (= as it ^^?asheld). These theories as taught by some philosophers cannot be maintained (= as they are taught). Remark. It is evident, in the above examples, that as is a rela- tive (14, 3) adverb. Hence, the verb-form following cannot be a participial word-form, as relative adverbs never introduce such. The construction, therefore, must be that of an elliptical clause. 43. The predicate is sometimes omitted. This is the same as that (is) ; has as much as you (have) ; it is as well for you to go as for you to remain (is well). 44. Both subject and predicate are often omitted. (1.) After negatives. He feared something he knew not what (it loas). The seed should spring up and grow he knew not how (it icas to be done). — Bible. (2.) In comparisons. Did the same as (he did) before ; behaved in the same manner as (he behaved) when you were here; he spoke as (he would have spoken) if he were mad ; he talked as (he would have talked) if he had been an orator; he acted as (he loould have acted) if he had been my friend. It is as desirable that I should study French as (that I should study) Latin (is desirable) ; he is as happy abroad as (he is) at home.. 45. Note. Constructions like the following seem like elliptical clause-forms; but as nothing is needed to complete the sense by im- plication or otherwise ; and as in many instances nothing can be sup- plied without actually harming the sense, all these and similar forms should be considered word-forms. Does not know lohat to do ; when to go ; ivhen to come ; how to pro- ceed. Cannot learn how to write. Does not understand what to begin with. Has decided what to write on ; what to speak of; whom to speak to. What is it best to do f 46. Cautions. Do not confound with other clauses relative clauses introduced. (1.) By but. Here but has the value of not with a relative. Who 56 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. is there hut has done wrong (but = who — not). Rel. cl. Who knows hut he has done lorong (but = that — not). Dem. cl. No man Uves hut has done wrong. Rel. cl. No man believes hut he ha3 done wrong. Dem. cl. (2.) By as if (14, 43, (2).) It seems as if it must be true. Dem. equiv. cl. He acts as if he were true. Conj. cl. Rel. cl. implied. I feel as if he was a thief. Dem. equiv. cl. When the word looks is used in the sense of seems, the as {/"clause is demonstrative; when it has the meaning of things look (i. e., the outside or visible appearances or phenomena indicate so and so) the as if form is conjunctive with a relative clause implied. It looks to me as if he was a thief. Dem. (Equiv.) cl. It looks very much as if he was a thief, (i. e., outside appearances so indicate.) Exercise 20. Do the same work as in previous Exercises-, note all ellipses; point out all ANTECEDENTS. ILLUSTRATIONS. There is not a man but has sinned. But has sinned is a Rel. C.-f., of which who (understood) is Subj., and hat tinned is Pred. "Wlio knows but he is dishonest? But he is dishonest is a Dem. C.-f., of which he is Subj., and is dishonest ia Pred. But (= but that) is connective. WTio is there but is dishonest ? But is dishonest is a Rel. C.-f., of which who (understood) is Subj., and is dis- honest is Pred. Bought a knife for you to cut with. For you to cut with {which) is a Rel. Inf. C.-f., also Adjunc ; you is Subj., to cut is Pred. With which is a Rel. P.-f. There is not a moment but some one dies. But some one dies is a Rel. C.-f., of which some one is Subj., and dies is Pred. When is understood, and but (when) = when not. He is as happy in one place as in another. As in another is a Rel. C.-f. (elliptical) of which he (understood) is Subj., and is happy understood is Pred. As is a Rel. Adv. In another is a P.-f. THE RELATIVE CLAUSE. 57 Who did you think they were ? Who — they were is a Rel. C.-f., of which they is the Snbj., and were is the Pred. Who is the Comp. L There is no one who does not sin; who is there but sins? I am not sure but I have sinned; who knows but I have sinned? there is not a man but knows it; he is said to have sinned; it seems strange that men sin every day; there are men that sin every day; it is he who lives there that committed that sin. II. 1. We have many things we do not know what to do with. 2. It was agreed that what goods were aboard the vessel, should be loaded. 3. Such as are turned aside unto their crooked ways. 4. Said that he arose and spoke as follows. 5. He has more than he knows what to do with. 6. Inquired if he could remain. 7. Went on to narrate how he had crossed the ocean many times and how once he had come near being shipwrecked. 8. Asked how he could cross the ocean. 9. He became a defaulter, than which what is more disgraceful? 10. There was not a moment but some one spoke. 11. He attempted smuggling his goods, which whoever under- takes is sure to be detected. 12. He made much money, I do not know how. 13. It is said they know not where to go. 14. Is it they that have no home? 15. Who is there but has some home? HI. 1. I did find him still mine enemy. 2. Hath not old cus- tom made this life more sweet? — Shak. 3. It was a gross instance of Sabbath breaking for them to be healed on that sacred day. — Farrar. 4. To strik-e him dead I hold it not a sin. 5. Let him know that it is not about Corcyra that he is deliberating. 6. It is better for jne to die than to live. — Bible. 7. Thou hast had pity on the gourd for the which thou hast not labored, neither madest it grow. — Id. 8. On an effect presenting itself to our notice we l)e- lieve that it must have a cause. — McCosJi. 9. What the cause is, is to be determined by observation. — Id. 10. We talk, indeed, of time effecting mighty changes. — Id. 11» In no such case are we to believe without proof being supplied. — Id. 12. All doubts are now decided by eternity being cast into the scale. — Id. IV. 1. There is not a man but considers himself personally in- terested. — Southey. 2. This- is one proof, that for our soldiers to equal our seamen, it is only necessary for them to be equally well commanded. — Id. 3. Every one knows that to speak of a change producing itself, or of a change' occurring with no relation whatever to any other event, is to speak nonsense. — Wayland. 4. It was 58 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. from want of acuteness of observation that Locke fell into many of his most important errors. — Id. 5. It is on the perfection of this delicate instinct, which recognizes all the laws of association, that the power of the dramatist essentially depends. — Id. 6. It may seem, from what I have said, that association evinces a power beyond our control. — Id. 7. I think it was Johnson who mentions that it was his custom in youth, as soon as he had read a book, to find some one to whom he could explain its principles. — Id. 8. Acuteness will be sharpened, and what is of greater consequence, the mind be- comes accustomed to forms of reasoning. — Wayland. 9. We love, what is of greater consequence, the instinctive love of truth. — Id. 10. They will be puerile, or what is more common, beauty and de- formity will be mingled together. — Id. Section V. — The Relative Clause. {Continued.) GRAMMATICAL CONSTRUCTION. 47. Real and Apparent Terms. The apparent subject here is not always the real subject. In the sentence, Who was said to he guilty f who is the apparent, and the relative infinitive clause who to be guilty is the real, subject. It was asked loJio was guilty. Here it is the apparent and the following relative clause is the real subject. 48. So likewise in the sentence, Whom do you think ^o be guilty? tohom is the apparent object, and the relative infinitive clause, whom to be guilty^ is the real object. Comp. 12, 23. So in some adjunctive forms. Thus: I was speaking of what you said; here what is the apparent^ and the whole relative clause the real^ adjunct term. 49. As in the case of the demonstrative clause (11, 13), the subject of the relative clause is sometimes previously made the (rhe- torical) object of the principal verb. This is especially common in older English and in poetry. I know thee who thou art (= I know who thou art). I see thee what thou art and know Thy likeness to the wise below. — Tennyson 50. The Antecedent. The antecedent of the relative may be a word, a phrase, a clause, or a sentence. The words in small capitals in the following are the Antecedents of the relatives. (1.) Word-forms. This thai I saw. We who came. Such as , THE RELATIVE CLAUSE. 59 be has. The means toJierebr/ he hves. Rabbi ! ichich is to say, be- ing interpreted, etc. Was brought up, as he calls it. (As = which.) Mere boy that he was, or, as he was ; noble fellow that he was, or, as he was. He studies, — that (or which) is to say, looks on his book. He Frenchifies his English, as we call it (as = which). At the SAME TIME as (== at which). Coming home late, as he did (= which he did). 51. The antecedent o£ the word-form is often a possessive. In HIS way, that comes in triumph over Pompey's blood. — Shak. Upon their woes whom fortune captivates. — Id. (2.) Phrase-forms. Came from beyond the mountains, which is Swiss territory. From centre to circumference, which is many miles. From the least to the greatest, which includes all. (3.) Clause-forms. Said that all was lost, as many feared. Thinks it is best for me to study Latin, what I cannot endure. He always went when he was sent for, as was often the case. (4.) Sentenceform. We lose, what is of incomparably greater importance, the instinctive love of truth. 52. When the antecedent is a clause or a sentence, what, which, and as may sometimes be used interchangeably. ^ He had lost all his property, what (which or as) all very well knew. 53. The antecedent is often neither expressed nor necessarily im- plied. Told where he lived. Knew who came. Asked ichat you said. 54. In some constructions the antecedent is never properly ex- pressed. This is the case. (1.) In all questions introduced by a relative. (2.) With all relatives used indefinitely. (3.) When the relative introduces a clause used as appositive or as complement. Who came? What is light? I do what I please. Whoever sins should be punished. I talk about Wia/ei'er interests me. Goes wherever he pleases. The question what gravity is no man can answer. The question is how he did it. • 55. The correlative antecedent, as, with relative clauses intro- duced by as, is often omitted. Courageous as he was, he played the coward then. (/. e., a& courageous, etc.) Bravely as they fought (i. e., as bravely, etc). 66. Choice of Relatives. Who is applied to persons, or to 60 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. animals or things personified ; wliich is applied to animals and things, and to persons considered collectively or as a body ; that and as are applied to persons, animals, or things. A man who is wise. The monkey who was made orator. The bird which sings. The committees which were appointed. The de- sire of the multitude who have power to punish. The books thcU I brought. The man that came. Such things as I have. Such men 05 I have seen. 57. The relative that should be preferred to who or which, — (1.) After who^ to save unpleasant repetition. (2.) When both persons and things are referred to. (3.) When the clause is used to designate, restrict, or define, rather than to describe or amplify the meaning of the antecedent. Relative clauses are usually restrictive after — (a.) Superlative degree-forms. (6.) The words very, same, and all. ■ (c.) The word it used as an indefinite pronoun. (14, 22.) (c?.) After the definite article and demonstrative pronouns; es- pecially it used as an indefinite pronoun. (a.) The best man that I ever saw. The first person that I met. The oldest man that there was in town. (b.) This is all that you asked. The same book that I lent you. The very thing that I desired. (c.) It is you that I saw. It was these things that troubled me. (rf.) TTie book that I borrowed. Those men that came to us. Remark. It is noteworthy that among our best writers, after it, used as an indefinite pronoun, some quite uniformly use that, in the above constructions ; some very generally use the relatives who or which : while others use sometimes one and sometimes the other. It was on the dignity of the Senate that Augustus founded his new empire. — Gibbon. It was with equal surprise that he discovered the army of Maxentius. — Id. It was not for such a purpose that he had advanced. — Id. It was not their Heavenly Father toith whom the Jews were at va- riance. — Dr. Liddon. It was the further claim to be the Son of God at which the high priest professed to be so deeply shocked, -r- Id. It is this disinterestedness which has won to Jesus Christ, etc. — /rf. At the moment that the body is raised. — Dr. Dalton. At the moment tf^cn the heart is relaxed. — Id. At the iXme that the oxy- THE RELATIVE CLAUSE. 61 gen is expelled. — Id. At tlie moment when the food enters its cavity. — Id. At the same time that the elements are taken. — Id. It is the blood which furnishes, etc. — Id. It is in this way that circulation, etc. — Id. 58. In some cases they or this is used instead of it. In every work of human fabrication they are the dispositions which announce the design = it is the dispositions that, etc. — Chalmers. They are the wretched attempts towards an art of this kind, which have so often disgraced oratory (z=it is the wretched attempts, etc., which, etc.) — Blair. They are the ardent sentiments of honor, vir- tue, and magnanimity that only can kindle ihat fire. — Id. (= it is the ardent sentiments, etc.). Search the Scriptures, for in them ye think ye have eternal life, an4 they are they which testify of me (= and they it is which testify of me). 59. Sometimes we find it used both as expletive and as pronoun in the same sentence. Such constructions, howeter, are always faulty on the score of perspicuity. It should be added that it (pronoun) is not for eloquence that a man will sometimes obtain credit. — Whately^s Rhet. 60. When there are two relative clauses, one referring to it used as subject, and the other referring to the complement term, it seems best, as a matter of perspicuity, unless there is a special reason for a different choice, to use who, which, or whom, with the complement, and that with the subject it. It is the MAN who stands there, that is to blame. It is the book which you bought that I prize so much. 61. It is worthy of note that when a relation is to be indicated, it may be expressed either with the complement term, or with the rel- ative, with no apparent diff(;rence in the sense. Of these two forms, that which puts the preposition with the complement is the more rhe- torical in the way of strength. It was on science that he lectured ; = it was science that he lec- tured on. 62. The relative adverbs which properly refer to time, place, or manner, should not be used in the place of the corresponding phrase- form, when things other than these are referred to. Books from which we learn (not whence). The persons whence I got my information (say, from whom). 63. Grammatical Concords. In the idiomatic construction of it used as indefinite pronoun, this word may refer to almost any- 62 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. thing, and it may be in sense plural, as well as singular. We can say equally well " it is this," or " it is these, ^^ the verb always re- maining in the singular form. It is worthy of note, however, that a relative clause referrin'g to it takes the number and the person of the complement term by attraction. Thus, It is they who are here that are needed. Here it and that are in sense both plural, but it takes a singular, that 2^. plural yevh. Again, It is I that am needed. Here it is third person and is likewise the true and direct antecedent of that ; and yet that takes the person of /, as is manifest in the verb- form. 64. If, however, a relative clause referring to the complement di- rectly, or any other modifying term, is thrown in between the com- plement and the that clause, the lattfir is not attracted either in per- son or in number. Thus, — It is / who am here, that is ; it is you, who are there, that is ; it is /, the founder of this institution that is ; it is you, John Brown, that is. 65. The grammatical concords of number and person in this and in all similar constructions require careful notice. Spoke to me who am here; to you who are here; to him who is here; I am the one that is ; you are the one that is ; he is the one that is : but by attraction ; It is I that am ; it is you that are ; it is they that are ; it is we that are. In each of these attracted forms, the relative clause introduced by that refers logically directly to it (= person or persons), and therefore should be regularly, in every case, in the third person, and in the singular number. 66. The grammatical concords of ca^^e between the subject and the complement of relative demonstrative and relative infinitive clauses ■^quires especial notice. Who did they think Ae was ? Whom did they think him to be? Who was it thought he was ? Whom thought they him to be ? 67. Collocation of Terms. The relative does not always stand at the head of its clause; it may be in the body of the clause, before the verb, or after the verb, or it may be near the end. Many cities, a large number of which we visited. Principles by the careful investigation of which toe became loher. I should seem guilty of ingratitude, than which nothing w more sinful. 68. The pronoun it, in the "?V" construction does not always in- troduce the sentence. 1:he relative clause. ^> He it is that is to blame. Thus it was ^ tf^ 69. Where what has an antecedent of the word-form, the latter ^7 ways follows. Loves glory, and what is far better, true virtue. — Hopkins. 70. Relative clauses should be placed as near as possible to the words they modify. Tliere are many words in the English language that are sometimes used as adjectives (say, There are in the English language many tvords that, etc.). This is a very different course of proceeding from ichat I expected (say, — a course of proceeding very different from what, etc.). 71. In a relative clause-form used substantively^ the order of words should not be the same as in a relative sentence-iorm. In the clause, the subject should precede the verb; in the sentence it should follow the verb, if simple; or come, between the auxiliary and the verb, if a compound form. ■ The question, what light is. What he was doing is not known. The question is, how it ivas done. Does what you said. C.-fs. What is light? The question, " What is light? ^^ What was he doimj? Asked, " What was he doing ?^^ How was it done? The quostion, *' How was it done ? " Sent.-fs. 72. Redundancies. The connectives and and but should never stand before a relative clause, unless used to join it to another rela- tive clause. A son of singular character, and who behaved so ill that he was put in prison. (Expunge and.) 73. Relative adverbs, being themselves equivalent to relative ^k phrases (14, 3), should not take a preposition. Such expressions, ^Bkhough sanctioned to some extent by good authors, are clearly rc- ^Hfiundant, and therefore not to be imitated. Say, whence, not from ^^mthence, etc. ^H 74. Relative clauses should harmonize, in the nature of the thought ^^■Bxpressed, with their antecedents. ^^* A solecism is when the rules of syntax are transgressed. — GouhVs Gram. A proper diphthong is where both vowels are .mounded to- f/ether. — Fisher. {Relative construction here obscure and bad.) Ellipsis is WHEN one or more words are scanting (say, — is the omis- sion of one or more words.) — Fiskh Gram. By this, we know that 64 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. * we love God, when we keep his commandments (say, — by our keep- ing his command 111 ents). Exercise 21. Do the same work as before. Point out real and apparent terms ; the subject and the complement ; all antecedents ; all ellipses ; all attracted forms ; correct anything faulty, and explain why. L 1. What did he do? 2. What was the thing done? 3. What was said to be the thing done? 4. What was the thing said to be? 5. What is it to do that? 6. Who is acting? 7. Who is an actor? 8. Who is an actor said to be? 9. Who is said to be an actor? 10. Who am I? XL 1. Who do you think me to be? 2. Who do you think I am? 3. Told whom he thought to be me. 4. Told whom he thought me to be. 5. Who was it that was thought to be me? 6. Who was it that I was thought to be ? 7. Who was it that they thought me to be? 8. Who was it that they thought to be me? 9. It seems as if T knew who you are. 10. I shall act as if I knew who you are said to be. m. 1. It was as to how we could see him, that we were convers- ing. 2. It is that book that is so beautifully illustrated, which I bought for you. 3. It is I that am here, that am to blame. 4. It is you who are there, that are to blame. 5. It is said to be the very man whom we saw last night. 6. The sweetest singer whom I ever heard. IV. 1. It is you that stand there, who is to blame. 2. Was it those people who came to see us, whence you got your information. 3. Is it us who are here, who are to blame? 4. Was it you that asked the question, what is electricity? 5. The question has arisen what is the object of our thought, where we form a general concep- tion. — Wayland. 6. Is it not you that are my best friend, to whom I am indebted ? 7. It was not foreigners only who interceded in behalf of the lords. — Prescott. 8. What then is it which has drawn the attention of critics so much. — Blair. 9. It is the faculty which is always appealed to. — Id. V. 1. This word which represents an object after it and on which it terminates. 2. Qualities of a disagreeable nature, and which to him were wholly unaccountable. 3. This is a very differ- ent line of conduct from what I anticipated. 4. A pause is made %fter something of peculiar moment has been said and on which we I THE RELATIVE CLAUSE. Q3 want to fix the hearer's attention. 5. He has not an idea in his mind but what one of these two have imprinted. — Wayland. 6. It was to their counsels, which governed the weakness of her sex, that she imputed the guilt of her resistance. — Gibbon. 7. It was a maxim of ancient jurisprudence that a slave had not any home of his own. — Id. 8. It was in the twenty-first year of his reign that Diocle- tian executed his memorable resolution of abdicating the empire. — Id. VI. 1. It is the Jews who are the fiercest persecutors. — Dr. Lid- don. 2. It was the homage of public enthusiasm that honored him. ■ — Id. 8. It is their answer which obscures the history. — Alford. 4. There can be no doubt but that this is the source of the Jor- dan. — Dr. Thompson. 5. I have no doubt but that the superin- tendent and directors were unconscious. — Dr. Hopkins. 6. Was far more vehement than what we are accustomed to. — Blair. 7. Doubts which found entrance to my soul I hardly know how. 8. That en- tity, the knowledge of the existence of which presses itself upon the intellect. — Mivart. 9. Thou knewest that I was an austere man, taking up that I laid not down and reaping that I sowed not. — Bible. 10. What I tell you in darkness that speak ye in light. — Id, 11. What that something is we know not. — Wayland. Exercise 22. 1. Write relative clauses, introducing them as follows: with a relative pronoun, a relative adverb, a relative phrase, and with but after neg- atives ; — five of each kind. 2. WWite relative demonstrative, relative infinitive, relative parti- rrpial clauses. 3. Write relative clauses, some having a clause, and some having a sentence, as antecedent. 4. Write relative clauses with as, as a pronoun and as an adverb. 5. Write relative indefinite clauses having an antecedent, and some with WHAT having a single rcord as antecedent. 6. Write relative clauses with the relative omitted, and some with all but the relative omitted. 7. Write re.ative clauses with it, used as subject of principal verb. 5 66 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. CHAPTER V. THE CONJUNCTIVE CLAUSE. Section I. — Definition and General Character. 15. A conjunctive clause is any modifying clause (not demonstrative or relative) introduced by a connective or a connective term. Will stay if you remain. Stayed because you remained. 1. The connectives commonly used to introduce the conjunctive clause are the following : — (1.) The simjjle connectives, as, although, because, if, lest, pro- vided, seeing, that, though, than, unless, etc. . (2.) The compound iorms, forasmuch as, inasmuch as, in case, in order that, even if even though, provided that, seeing that, so that, as that, etc. 2. Cautions. Do not confound -with other clauses similar in form conjunctive clauses introduced, — (1.) By THAT, — Said that he might learn. Dem. cl. A study that he might learn. Rel. cl. Studied that he might learn. Conj. cl. Thinks that he died. Dem. cl. Smote him that he died. — Bible. Conj. cl. Believes that you asked her. Dem. cl. Were you in doubt, sir, that you asked her f — Shak. Conj. cl. Declares that I am subdued. Dem. cl. Their cheer is the greater that I am subdued. — Shak. Conj. cl. (2.) By LEST. With words of fearing, apprehension, anxiety, etc. LEST has the force of tJiat, and consequently introduces a demon- strative clause; and in all other connections it has the force of that not (= in order that — not), and hence introduces a conjunctive clause. Feared lest he would come (== that he would come). Was apprehensive lest he might escape (== that he might escape). So, was troubled lest he might be betrayed; was solicitous lest he might fail. Dem. els. They furled the sails lest the boat should be capsized (= that the boat might not, etc.). So, Sin no more lest a worse thing come upon ihee. The greed of the publicans must be repressed lest they should render the public burdens intolerable. — Dr. Geike. Conj. clauses. THE CONJUNCTIVE CLAUSE. 67 (8.) By AS. It should be noted that as is a relative, and intro- duces a relative clause when it has the value of, — (a,) A Relative Pronoun. Such as we have (= which). He is an honest man as all knoio (= what). This is the same as that is (== which). Such persons as he lives toith (= whom). Half educated as he loas, he yet was very successful (= which he was). Mere boy as he was he was not equal to the responsibility (= which). Trained as he had been by the best masters, he ought to have been successful (= which). (6.) A Relative Adverb. Came as you left (= when). Reads as he walks (=. while). (c.) A Relative Phrase, and referring to so, or to as (= in the degree) as its correlative or antecedent. Not so old as you are (= in that degree in which). Am as learned cw he is (== in that degree in ichich). (d.) A Relative Phrase, the antecedent or correlative of which is not expressed but clearly implied. Walks as you walk (= in the manner in which). Lives as if he were rich (= in the manner in which he would live, if, etc.) Did as he was told (= in the manner in which). So likewise in the following idiomatic expressions: — Rapidly as he came he arrived too late (= coming as rapidly as, etc.). Early as it was the town was all astir (= It being as early as, etc.). Old as he was he fought vigorously (=: being as old as, etc.) In all other cases as is a conjunction. It is time, as I think; As it is true I shall act upon it; As you love your country,! pray you act for her defense. (4.) By if. Asked if he had gone. Rel. cl. We should have remained if he had gone. Conj. cl. We should have known it if he had gone. Conj. cl. Exercise 23. Do the same work as before. If he has suffered we ought to befriend him. If he has suffered is a Conj. cl., of which he is Subj., etc. I. Although he came; that he came; if he came; (the man) who xime; unless he comes; as much as you have; inasmuch as you have 68 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. come; am certain in that case ; in case you are certain; arranged these in order; in order that these may be arranged; so that he might come; said that he might come; worked hard that he might come; a place that he might come to; it would be strange if he should come; such as came; many came, as we all know; as many came, we were crowded ; as many as came were crowded; were crowded inasmuch as many came; as much as we were crowded we were not uncomfortable. IL Fought as valiantly as he; fought valiantly, as all know; fight as valiantly as you please, you cannot conquer them; valiantly as he fought he was overcome; valiant as he was, he could not conquer; as he fought very valiantly he conquered; fighting, as he did, on horseback, he had the advantage; he fights as he works, — vigor- ously ; mere boy as he was, he yet fought valiantly; as he was a mere boy he could not be expected to fij^ht valiantly; being an ex- perienced soldier, as he was, he fought bravely ; as he was an expe- rienced soldier, he fought bravely; much as he has fought, he is an unskillful soldier ; as he has fought much in his day, he ought to fight well. III. 1. Will stay if you will speak. 2. Stayed because you spoke. 3. Said that you spoke. 4. As you spoke I stayed. 5. I remained as long as you were speaking. 6. Said that he might speak. 7. Went that he might speak. A word that he might speak. 8. Asked if he might speak. 9. Arose so that he might speak. 10. If he could speak he would. 11. Inquired if he could speak. 12. Said that he could speak. 13. A word that he could speak. 14. It is true that he could not speak. 1 5. It is this word that he could not speak. 16. Was angry unless he could speak. 17. I do not know but he may speak. 18. We were terrified lest he might speak. 19. We held him lest he might speak. 20. Was it he that spoke ? 21. Was it here that he spoke ? 22. Is it true that he spoke ? 23. Who doubts that he spoke? 24. The man that he spoke to. 25. I felt rejoiced that he spoke. 26. He gained so much courage that he spoke. IV. 1. We have as many as you. 2. As you have many, give us some. 3. He gave us sdine, ^s you may well know. 4. As you know all about it, tell us. 5. He knows the whole story, as I am told. 6. I know nothing except as I am told. 7. As he was telling the story, you came in. 8. As he was telling a story, I did not dis- turb him. 9. He tells stories as he works. 10. He works very much THE CONJUNCTIVE CLAUSE. 69 as he talks, — without any life. 11. He talks as you talk. 12. As you are talking, I will keep silent. V. 1. A ship with every sail set, speeding its way to its haven. — Dr. Hopkins. 2. A stone with its faces hewn and fitted to bo joined with others. 3. It seems as if there is a distinct compartment of God's work which we call the Cosmos. — McCosh. 4. It would appear as if there was little coherence in society. — Id. 5. They had not heard how in the far off village of Galilee He had raised the dead. — Farrar. 6. There was no possibility of the undertaking being ever again repeated. — Abbott. 7. Does not know of there having been a single stranger present. 8. There can be no doubt of this thing having been generally known. 9. I do not know that I shall be able to walk for a week. Section II. — The Conjunctive Clause. (Continued.') Special and Idiomatic Forms. 8. Conjunctive clauses are sometimes introduced by «o, or 80 -be ; rarely by be it so. Shall not go, so my friend does not come after me ; so be he is found guilty it will go hard with him. Be it so she will not here Before your grace consent to marry with Demetrius. J beg the ancient privilege of Athens. — Shak. (= if she will not, etc.). Note. The above conjunctive terms arise from an ellipsis of the form if it so be that. It seems best not to supply this ellipsis in analysis and consequently to consider these expressions as mere con- nectives. Remark. In the older English the full form is retained. If so were that I might, etc. — Chaucer. If so be thou darest. — Shakespeare. 4. Very frequently /or is used, in the sense of because^ and thus introduces this clause, — The flowers were frozen, for the night was cold. I hate hiniyforke is a Christian. 5. Relatives, prepositions, and some other terms, not properly conjunctions, are often used with the force of 70 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. conjunctions. In such cases the clauses they introduce are termed conjunctive clause equivalents. Thus : — (1.) With SINCE (= inasmuch as). Since you will not go with us, we must go alone. Conj. Equiv. Since you returned, many hours have elapsed. Dem. cl. Adjunc. (11, 3). (2.) With BEFORE (= sooner than, in the sense of a comparison). 1 would starve before 1 would steal (= sooner than). Conj.-equiv. cl. I shall starve be/ore provisions come. Dem. cl. Adjunc. (3.) With AF I ER (= inasmuch as, though, or since). After he la- bored so hard for me I ought to have made him some return (= since). Conj. Equiv. cl. After he had taken all possible pains with his smi^s education, it amounted to nothing (=: though.) Conj. Equiv. cl. After he returned we left. Dem. cl. Adjunc. (4.) With FOR ALL, /or all that (== though or although). For all there were so many, yet were not the nets broken. — Bible. (= though.) Conj. Equiv. cl. (5.) With NOW (= inasmuch as, since). Now he is here the rest will soon follow. Conj. Equiv. cl. (6.) With AS FAR AS, SO FAR AS, AS LONG AS, SO LONG" AS, AS SOON AS, AS GOOD AS (when there is no notion of comparison in- dicated, i. e., when = inasmuch as, because, etc.) As long as nothing is found against him, he should be acquitted. Conj. Equiv. cl. It matters not who he is, so long as suspicions fasten upon him (= since). Conj. Equiv. cl. We shall have no difficulty so far as he is concerned. Conj. Equiv. cl. Started as soon 05 li ica* light (== when). Rel. Equiv. cl. (7.) With WHEN or while (= since, inasmuch as, etc.). Can you excuse him when you know he is guilty {= since). Conj. Equiv. cl. How could he be discharged while all the testimony was against him? (= inasmuch as). Conj. Equiv. cl. 6. A conjunctive clause introduced by if and refer- ring to it used expletively, often involves a demonstrative, an infinitive, or a participial clause. If the Jews held Christ to be a false Messiah it was because He llaimed divinity = that the Jews, etc., if (= as) they did. — ^Dr. Liddon. We should consider it almost miraculous, if two men should be affected thus = for two men to be, if, etc. — Wayland. Mr. H. would think it very strange if we were to urge this = for us to urge ^his, if, etc. — Macaulay. It is a wonder, too, if it is not th'is which THE CONJUNCTIVE CLAUSE. 71 is called love = it's not being this, if, etc., is a wonder too. — Riley. Jf they kept it it was because they thought it wrong to break it = their keeping it, if, etc., is because. 7. Sometimes any one of two or three of these clauses can be substituted with little modification of sense. This is the gift of God, if a man have power to rejoice in his labor. — Southey. (== that a man should have power, if, etc. =for a man to have power, etc.) It is no wonder if they fainted in the race. — Gibbon, (== that they fainted =for them to faint = their fainting.) 8. After negatives real or implied, a negative con- junctive clause is often introduced by hut that or but (== that not^. He never went out but that he took cold (= that he did not take cold). She is not so diyine but that she looks human (= that she does not look human). 9. There are three forms of negation after which we may have this form of the conjunctive clause. (1.) Direct denial. I never go out but 1 meet my friend. It never rains but it pours. I never do him wrong but he does buy my injuries to be friends. — Shak, Is not so small but he can be seen. (2.) Question implying doubt or denial. Who ever did wrong but he was sorry ? Can a crime be committed but it will be found out f When does it rain but it pours f Who doubts whether a man ever does wrong but he is sorry? (3.) Condition implying denial. He would have failed but that his friends came to his aid. There might have been harm but that my master rather played than fought. — Shak. Am not comforted to live but that there is this jewel in the world. — / hid. 10. Cautions. Be careful not to confound with other kinds of clauses conjunctive clause-forms introduced by, — (1.) Since, before, after. (11, 3.) Have stayed here 5mce yoM /e/?. Adjunc. Dem. cl. Since you pw- vose to leave 1 shall not stay. Conj. cl. Went before you left. Adjnnc. Vera. cl. Before I would leave I would submit to anything. Conj. cl. equiv. Went after yon left. Adjnnc. Dem. cl. After he did all that could be done he should not be l)lamed. Conj. cl. equiv. 72 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. (2.) When and while. (14, 5.) When he is found he will be tried for his crime. While the witnesses were giving their testimony he was anxious. Rel. els. Compare 5, 7. (3.) As (oT so) LOXG as; as (or so') far as; as (or so) soon AS. Stayed as long as you stayed ; went as far as he ; shall return as soon as possible. Rel. els. Compare 5, 6. (4.) But or but that. (11, 9; 14, 35.) It is not certain hut (or lut that) he may come. Dem. cl. Who knows but (or but that) he may come, Dem. cl. Who is there but (or but that) may come. Rel. cl. There is noth- ing but (or but that) he can do. Rel. cl. Did not speak so low but (or but that) we heard him. Conj. cl. We should not have known it but (or but that) we heard him speak. Conj. cl. (5.) As if. It seems as if he must be guilty. Dem. equiv. cl. It appears to me OS if he must be guilty. Dem. equiv. cl. It looks very much as if it would rain soon. Conj. cl. (Rel. cl. implied). He looks as if he were a mad man. Conj. cl. (Rel. cl. implied.) Exercise 24. Do the same work as before. Give equivalent clauses for all clause- forms that have such. LLLinSTRATIONS. I feel as if T cannot stay. As if I cannot stay {= that I cannot stay), is a softened form of Dem. cl., of which /is Subj., and cannot stay is Pred. Asif is di compound connective. He acts as if he were mad. As if he were mad, is a Conj. cl., with an elliptical Rel. cl. (=he acts as he tcould act if he were mad). He is Subj., and were mad is Pred. As if is not a compound connective, but two connectives, the first involving an ellipsis. If he has suffered it was for your sake. If he has suffered is a Conj. cl., involving a participial clause (=his having suffered, if he has). He is Subj., and has suffered is Pred. Poor as he was, he was highly respected. As he was is a Rel. cl., = being as poor as, etc. I. Coming very early, as he did; early afj it was he found us up; THE CONJUNCTIVE CLAUSE. 73 it was early, as all knew; came as^arly as he could ; valiant, as he was ; valiantly as he fought; fought as valiantly as you; having fought valiantly, as all knew; as he was valiant he fought well. II. So be the night shall be cold; since that cold night; since the nights began to be cold ; since the night was cold. III. Came before your arrival; before you arrived; would die be- fore he would come ; so he comes at all it will be before he dies. IV. After our departure ; after we departed ; after all that he had done ; after he had done all that he could ; after what had been done. V. As long as you do not like him, discharge him ; keep him as long as you can; as far as that is concerned it is of no consequence; went as far as he did ; arrived as soon as the others ; started as soon .as the sun set. VI. If he contributed it was not because he wished to; if he had wished to contribute he could; it would have been strange if he had; inquired if he had; we should think it strange if he did; it seems as if he ought ; he acts as if he were a poor man ; poor as I am I contribute. VII. It is not certain but he can learn; who knows but he can learn; who is there but can learn; he is not so ignorant but he can learn ; there is no one but can learn ; there is no one so dull but he can learn something. VIII. We suffered for the night was cold ; was cold only for one night; for all the night was so cold, no one suffered; for all to be so cold is not common ; the night must have been cold for all to suffer so much; for all they suffered so much, they did not complain; for all to suffer is hard indeed ; all complained for all suffered ; he suf- fered for all. IX. 1. I am not sure that he is correct. 2. We are as correct as you are. 3. As you are correct, I am satisfied. 4. You are cor- rect, as every one knows. 5. As to your being correct, that is another question. 6. Take such books as I give you. 7. As I gave you those books take them. X. 1. 'Ihcre must have been a frost, for the flowers are faded. 2. For flowers to be faded is not unusual. 3. Water is good for wilted flowers. 4. The flowers have been fading since morning ; since you watered them. 5. Since they have faded others have bloomed. 6. -Since they have faded, throw them away. 7. I threw them away before they faded. 8. I would throw any away before I would see them fade ? 9. Who has flowers but he sees them fade? 74 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 10. They would have faded but^hat I watered them. 11. It must have rained, for the ground is wet. 12. It is not strange for the gi'ound to be wet. 13. We cannot walk, as the ground is too wet. 14. The ground is too wet for us to walk. 15. It never rains but the ground is wet. 16. Even if the ground is wet, we shall walk. 17. It has rained so that the ground is very wet. 18. As the ground is very wet, we shall not walk. 19. We never walk but we wet our feet. 20. ^Y}lo is there but sometimes gets wet feet? 21. I do not know but we shall wet our feet. 22. Take care lest you get wet feet. 23. It was my feet that got wet. 24. It was there that I wet my feet. 25. It was true that I wet my feet. Section III. The Conjunctive Clause. (^Continued.) ELLIPTICAL FORMS. 11. In this clause, the connective is often omitted. Were he present (= if he were). Had you been there (= if you had). Should he come (= if he should. So, — Could he only be present. Were he to know it. Heedless of the blasts of life ; blow they ever so rudely (= though they blow). 12. In conjunctive clauses introduced by than after comparatives, there is an ellipsis sometimes of the sub- ject, sometimes of the predicate. I love painting better than (I love) music. Painting is more fas- cinating than music (is). What was done is more important than why it was done (is important). It is more praiseworthy for one to practice than for one to preach (is praiseworthy). It is more expedi- ent that I should go than that I should remain (is expedient). We have more than (what) is wanted (is). Asks that no more than (what) a fair price (is) be demanded (11, 10). I like his studying Latin better than (I like his studying) Greek. 13. After the connectives than ifm combination there is an ellipsis of the entire clause. (See also similarly 14, 48 [2]). Acted no better than if he had been mad (= than he icould have acted if, etc.). Behaved worse than if you had been present (=zthan h^ would have behaved if, etc.). THE CONJUNCTIVE CLAUSE. 75 14. After a condition implying denial^ very peculiar idiomatic forms arise from an ellipsis which may be eas- ily supplied. I should have fallen had it not been for you., or hut for you (= had not my not falling been through you). He would have been killed hut for you (= had his not being killed been through you). Exercise 25. Do the same work as before. Supply all ellipses; when relative clauses occur, point out antecedents. ILLUSTRATIONS. Be he ever so active, he will accomplish nothing. Be he ever so active is a Conj. cl., of which he is subj. and be so active is Pred. The connective though is omitted. He acts as if he were our friend. As (= as he would act) implies a Rel. cl. of which he is the Subj. and would act is the Pred. Jf he were our friend is the Conj. cl. L 1 . Were he to study he would excel. 2. He will excel so he studies hard. 3. Could he have excelled he would have been hap|)y. 4. Be he ever so studious he will never excel. 5. Recites as if he studied hard. 6. He studies harder than you. 7. He studies harder than if he had more time. 8. What you study is as important as how you study. 9. I do not know what to study. 10. He is a good student as everybody knows. 11. As a student he excels all. 12. As he is a good student he ought to excel. 13. He stmlies as he plays, with all his might. 14. As he grows older, he stiidics harder. 15. He will never im|)rove except as he studies. 16. It does seem as if all might be studious. 17. He spoke as if he believed all were studious. 18. I would study hard before I would be ignorant. 19 1 was ignorant before I began to study. 20. Since you began to study an hour has elapsed. 21. Since you study well, you will improve. 22. He never sits down but he begins to study. 23. Who is there but can study? n. 1. It was this that rendered the war so sanguinary, 2. It was by such institutions that the nations of the empire melted away into the Roman name and people. — Gibbon. 3. It is a just obser- 76 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. vation that victorious Rome was herself subdued by the arts of Greece. — Id. 4. Augustus was accustomed to boast that he had found his capital of bi-ick, and that he had left it of marble. — Id, 5. It was on the dignity of the Senate that Augustus founded his new empire. — Id. 6. About the same time that they resigned to the Romans the country, they were driven from Asia. — Id. 7. The proceedings commenced against Protagoras; a price set upon the head of Diagoras; Aristotle obliged to fly; — these facts attest the in- tolerance of the people. — ■ Id. 8. They were as well versed in the arts of this world as they were ignorant of the secrets of fate. — Id. 9. The emperor proposed the question whether the worship of Jupiter or that of Christ should be the religion of the empire. — Id. 10. The question what that nature is is entirely different from any that may respect the ultimate ground. — Hopkins. 11. I have noth- ing to add to what was there said. 12. It is this fact that the will of God is always to be obeyed that gives the system its plausibility. — Hopkins. 13. He commands that for which we can see no good reason except that he commands it. — Id. 14. If there be nothing back of will that is to be accepted, whatever it may be, there is nothing for faith to rest upon. — Id. Section IV. — The Conjunctive Clause. (^Continued.} GRAMMATICAL CONSTRUCTION. 19. Conjunctive clauses expressing a condition should be intro- duced by unless and not by except or without. Except the Lord build the house, they labor in vain, etc. —Bible. (Say unless, for the sense is, if the Lord do not build, etc.) You will never live to ray age without you keep yourself in breath with exercise (say unless ; the sense is, if you do not, etc.). 20. Conjunctive clauses expressing comparison or exclusion (133) should be introduced by than and not by hut, except, or besides. Cyrus was no sooner on the throne but he was engaged in war. — Rollin. (Say, than he was, etc.) 21. A conjunctive clause introduced by than should not be con- strued with a positive degree form even by implication. As good, or even better than you (say, as good as you are, or even better than you). 22. A conjunctive clause introduced by than, and expressing a comparison, should exclude the object compared. Iron is more use- ful than all metals (say, than all other metals). THE CONJUNCTIVE CLAUSE. 77 23. Conjunctive clauses introduced by than and denoting com- parison should generally be brought as near as possible to the word they modify. This is a much better statement of the case than yours (say, This statement of the case is much better than yours). I have no other method of silencing him than the one I took (say, I have no method of silencing him other than the one I took). Exercise 26. E Do the same work as in Exercise 21. Correct all had grammar and explain the rules violated. I. 1. I am not sure but what it is right. 2. He does everything but what is right. 3. There is not a thing but what is right. 4. We ask nothing but what is right. 5. We seek nothing else but what is right. 6. Who doubts but that whatever is, is right ? 7.1 feel as if it might be right. 8. I do not know as I feel so. 9. He no sooner spoke of it but I saw he was right. 10. Except one speaks how can we tell what he thinks ? 11. He is as wise or even wiser than you. 12. He thinks he is wiser than anybody. 13. This in a dif- ferent statement from the one I heard. 14. Was frightened lest he might not be saved. 15. It is not impossible but that he may be saved. 16. Ordered that something might be done at once (11, 21). 17. I wish that my friend was now liere. 18. Who was thought to be I? 19. Who wast thou thought to be? 20. I am not sure but that he was supposed to be me. n. 1. Yours is a larger farm than mine. 2. The conjunction is placed between the terms which it connects except there is a trans- position. — Gould Brown. 3. The Classics contain little else but histories of murders. — Buchanan. 4. I doubt not but it will appear in the perusal. — Locke. 5. No sooner was the princess dead but he freed himself. — Johnson. 6. It is not improbable but that the articles were used originally. — Priestly. 7. We do not know but that all the planets are inhabited. 8. No more is required but sim- ply an act of vision. — Karnes. 9. Ought is an imperfect verb, for it has no other modification but this one. — Priestly. 10. No condi- tion is so high but it may have fears. III. 1. The reception of a prophet mightier than him, and whose slioes he was not worthy to bear. — Murray. 2. Whom do men .»^ay that I, the Son of man, am? 3. Then understood they how that he bade them not beware of the leaven of bread. 4. He may slay t8 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. him, not without the prince be willing. — Shak. 5. I never can see him but I am heart-burned an hour after it. — Id. 6. I doubt not but to fashion it if you three will but minister such assistance as I shall give you. — Id. 7. I will not be sworn but love may trans- form me to an oyster. — Id. 8. It cannot be but thou hast murdered him. — Id. 9. I am not so low but that my nails can reach unto thine eyes. — Id. 10. For fear lest day should look their shames upon. — /(/. 11. Is not this the day that Hermia should give an- swer? — Id. 12. They never meet but there is a skirmish of wit be- tween them. — Id. 13. Only this commendation can I aiford her, that were she other than she is (15, 15), she were unhandsome; and being no other but as she is I do not like her. — Id. 14. Con- stantine condemned to the flames any Jew who threw stones at a Christian convert. IV. 1. It is this habit which confers professional ability. — Wai/- land. 2. He felt it extremely when your uncle went to live in chambers. — Macaulay. 3. I am gratified by all in your letter ex- cept what you say about your cough. — Id. 4. The commissioners could not doubt but that he had plate for which he had neglected to make an entry. — Souther/. 5. It is this moral radiance that so often breaks forth in Mr. Wesley's writings, which alone would com- pensate an unprejudiced reader, etc. — Id. (15, 10.) 6. It was the moral discipline which fixed his attention. — Id. 7. Inquire for some other sources besides those recognized by Locke. — Wayland. 8. A solecism is when the rules of syntax are transgressed. — Gould^s Gram. 9. A metonymy is where the cause is put for the effect. — Kirkham. Exercise 27. Write one -conjunctive clause, — 1. With each of the connectives mentioned in 15, 1, (1). 2. With each of the connectives in 15, 1, (2). 3. With so, so he. and be it so (15, 3). 4. With /or, and /or all (15, 4 and 7). 5. With since, before, after ; and also an adjunctive demonstra- tive with each of the same. 6. With icken and ichile : and also a relative clause with each. 7. With as far as, as long as, as soon as ; and also a relative clause with each. 8. With but, or but that ; and also a demonstrative and a relative clause with each. THE CONJUNCTIVE CLAUSE. 79 9. With thai; and also a demonstrative and a relative with the same. 10. With if; and also a relative, and a demonstrative, an infinitive or participial equivalent with the same. 15, 6. CHAPTER VI. THE SENTENCE AS A GRAMMATICAL TERM. 16. We have seen that the grammatical constituents of a sentence are in forni, words, phrases, or clauses. Now a sentence as such, may become a constituent in another sentence. Indeed, every direct quotation is such a constituent. tSaid he would do U^ C.-f. Said " / will do it,^^ Sent. Asked who it was, C.-f. Asked " Who is it ? " Sent. 1. Sentences used independently must be distinguished from clauses and from sentences used as constituents, or elements of other sentences. Confusion can arise only where the principal verb is thrown into the body or at the end of the sentence, parenthetically. In such a cas6 we have, of course, always, an independent sentence pre- cisely the same as if a principal verb did not appear at all. T^us: — / must go. Independent Sent. " / must go" said he. Ind. Sent. He said " I must go.'' Dep. Sent. He said Ihat he must go. C.-f. What is light ? Ind. Sent. ' ' What w light f ' ' inquired they. Ind. Sent. They asked, " WJiat is light ? " Dep. Sent. They asked what light is. C.-f. Advance! Ind. Sent. ^'■Advance !'' cried out the commander. Ind. Sent. The commander cried out, ^'■Advance !'' Dep. Sent. The commander cried out that they should advance. C.-f. He will he a painter. Ind. Sent. " He will he a painter,'' thought I. Ind. Sent. I thought " He will he a painter." Dep. Sent. I thought that he would he a painter. C.-f. How heautiful the scene is ! Ind. Sent. " Hoio heautiful the scene is! " exclaimed all. Ind. Sent. All exclaimed, " How heautiful the scene is!" Dep. Sent. All exclaimed, hoto beautiful is the scene I C.-f. 80 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. Note. It will be noted that the grammatical structure of the de- pendent senteDce is precisely the same as that of the independent sentence, with the simple exception that except in the Scriptures quotation marks are always used in the case of the former. When, however, the sentence-form becomes a clause-form, there is always a change in the grammatical regimen in person, sometimes in mood, and sometimes, as in the case of interrogative and exclamatory sen- tences, in the order of the words. (30, 3.) 2. Sentences are often introduced by an expletive. There were many persons present at the time. It is clear that many were present. 3. Sentences are often conjunctive. And he said unto his disciples, the days will come, etc. And he »poJce a parable unto them to this end, etc. Nevertheless when the Son of man cometh shall hejind faith on the earth ? But when Jesus saw it, he was much displeased. For / say unto you that none of those men which were bidden shall taste of my supper. — Bible. His appointment as Latin Secretary was renewed. Nor was his college standing altered. — Dr. Collier. His life was a smooth and quiet stream. But it icasfast gliding to its rest. — Id. No one could blame him. For what else could he do f I am not terrified. For is not death as natural as life ? — Id. 4. The word now at the beginning of a sentence is really a connective. It always, when properly used, links its own proposition, somewhat weakly it may be, but al- ways really to the preceding, and thus makes its sentence conjunctive. Now I tell you before it come, that when it is come, ye may be- lieve. Remark. The sentence-form of expression is, of course, mu.jh more vivid and energetic than the clausal. It is used almost exclu- sively in the Bible, especially in the Old Testament, — indeed, in older literature generally it prevails more extensively than in modern writing. 5. Not unfrequently we have a construction bearing some resemblance to the sentence-form on the one hand and to the clause-form on the other. It constitutes, in- THE CONJUNCTIVE CLAUSE. 81 deed, a kind of mixture of the two forms, and might be termed the half -sentence form. Mr. Webster said: " Mr. President, I shall enter on no encomium upon Massachusetts; she needs none; there she is; behold her, and judge for yourselves. There is her history ; the world knows it by heart. The past, at least, is secure." Sent. form. Mr. Webster spoke : He would enter on no encomium upon Massa- chusetts. She needed none. There she was ; they might behold her, and judge for themselves. There was her history; the world knew it by heart. The past at least was secure. Half Sent.-form. Mr. Webster said that he should enter on no encomium upon Mas- sachusetts ; that she needed none ; that there she was ; that they might behold her and judge for themselves; that there was her his- tory ; that the world knew it by heart. He said that the past at least was secure. Clause-form. 6. Cautions. These various forms must be carefully distin- guished, especially in interrogative sentences. Joab said to the king: ^^ What hast thou done? Why is it that thou hast sent him away f " Sent. " What hast thou done f Why is it that thou hast sent him away f '* said Joab. Sent. Joab asked the king what he had done ; why it was that he had sent Mm away. C.-f. Joab addressed the king : What had he (the king) done f Why was it that he had sent him away f Half- Sent. Come and see. Ind. Sent. He said, ^^ Come and see." Dep. Sent. *'Come and see" said he. Ind. Sent. He commanded him to come and see. C.-f. Gave command that he should come and see. C.-f. He made an- swer : He should come and see. Half- Sent. Remark. In lano-uajre text-books sentence-forms are termed Direct Quotation, or Oratio Directa ; and the corresponding clause- forms are called Indirect Quotation^ or Oratio Ohliqua. The terms we have used, namely, sentence-forms and clause-forms, seem much more simple, as well as more significant and helpful in the analysis of language. Exercise 28. Do the same work as hefore ; distinguish carefully independent sen" fences, dependent sentences, half sentences, and clause-forms. 6 82 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. ILLUSTRATION. ** I have ordered," he says, " the springs to be cleared from the lilacs, and the grass to be weeded of dandelions." — Macauloi/'s Life. A Sentence, of which /is Subj. and have ordered, etc., is Pred. He says is parenthetical, and has no influence on the construction. The sprinys to be cleared is an Inf. C.-f., of which springs is Subj., etc. From the lilacs is a P.-f. The grass to he weeded is an Inf. C.-f-, of which grass is Subj., etc. Of dande- lions is a P.-f. L 1. Pilate asked him, "Art thou the King of the Jews?" 2. Pilate asked him whether he was the king of the Jews. 3. ** Art thou king of the Jews," said Pilate. 4. Pilate asked him if he was king of .the Jews. 5. Art thou king of the Jews ? II. 1. I know not what thou sayest. 2. Peter said, *' I know not what thou sayest." 3. "I know not," said Peter, "what thou sayest." 4. Peter said that he did not know what he said. 5. Pe- ter made reply: He did not know what he said. III. 1. He saith unto them, " Fill the water-pots with water." 2. He commanded that they should fill the water-pots with water. 3. He commanded them to fUl the water-pots with water. 4. " Fill the water-pots," said he, " with water." 5. He now spoke : The water-pots should be filled with water. IV. 1. He said, " Soldiers, what ought you to do?" 2. I ask you, soldiers, what you ought to do. 3. He said that he asked the soldiers what they ought to do. 4. He asked the soldiers, " What ought you to do ? " 5. He asked the soldiers what they ought to do. 6. He spoke: What ought they, the soldiers, to do? How long would they hesitate ? The enemy was even then at hand. Could they permit him to advance nearer ? V. 1. They say unto him, " By what authority doest thou these things ? " 2. They asked by what authority he did these things. 3. They made answer: ^y what authority did he do these things? 4. " By what authority," said they, " doest thou these things ? " VI. 1. He exclaimed, "I wished to try, my son, whether you were duly sensible that you are a consul." — Licy. 2. " I wished to try, my son, whether you are sensible that you are a consul," said he. 3. He made response: He wished to try his son whether he was duly sensible that he was a consul. 4. He said to his son that he wished to try whether he was duly sensible that he was a consul. VH. 1. " You have no conception," writes one of his sisters, THE CONJUNCTIVE CLAUSE. 83 '* of the change which has come over this household. It is as if the sun had deserted the earth." — Life of Macaulay. 2. No person, we are sure, who has read this memoir, will doubt that there are men whose abuse is an honor. — Id. 3. But, depend upon it, you do not know what you are asking for. — Id. 4. A sort of vague expectation that there will be something to see. — Id. 5. He found himself at once lodged as nobly as a great prince. — Id. 6. I had seen what I was told were olive trees as I was whirled down the Rhone. — Id. 7. Now that the French have settled in Africa, and that a Bavarian prince reigns in Greece, some researches may be made. — Id. 8. Was interested in the bust of Julius, with the head veiled. — Id. 9. As I descended the hill, the huge Pontine marsh was spread but below. 10. He had nothing to say except that he had given his opinion about election committees to me in private. 11. We remember how in early childhood we wearied our understandings in attempting to grasp it. — Wayland. 1 2. What profit is it if we slay our brother and conceal his blood ? — Bible. 13. It might seem as if mankind could combine the more readil}'. — McCosh. 14. Saw Paris drenched in the blood of the Huguenots. — Collier. Exercise 29. 1. Change the following sentences — whether dependent or indepen- dent — into clause-forms : — 1. "Tell me," said he, "most accomplished parrot, thou who hast everywhere been admitted to the bowers of beauty, hast thou in the course of thy travels met with the original of this portrait? " >— Irving. 2. "Excuse my merriment," said he, "but the mere mention of love always sets me laughing." — Id. 3. " Oh, sweetest of parrots," cried she, "joyful indeed are thy tidings, for I was faint and weary." — Id. 4. The prince replied, " Be not offended, most solemn owl, abstract thyself for a time from meditation." 2. Change the following clauseforms into sentence-forms : — 1. Joseph begged them that they would not fear. 2. They said that Joseph would hate them. 3. Pharaoh ordered them to go up and bury their father. 4. They told him that they were true men and not spies. , 5. They said that they came down to buy food. 6. Pharaoh told Joseph that he dreamed that he stood upon the bank of a river. 7. They asked him why he looked so sad. 8. They said that they were verily guilty in the sight of their brother, in that they saw the anguish of his soul when he besought them, and 84 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. they would not hear. 9. Joseph begged them to do this and live, for he feared God. 10. He asked him why he wept, and whether those tears were shed for him. 3. Change the following into half sentence-forms, and then into clause- forms : — 1. Mr. Burke said: " In that public storm, too, I had my private feelings. I had seen blown down and prostrate on the ground sev- eral of those houses to whom I was chiefly indebted for the honor this city has done me." .... 2. " I am a debtor to the debtors; I confess judgment; I owe what, if ever it be in my power, I shall most certainly repay, — ample atonement to liberty for my unhappy lapse.'* 3. *' Then his lord said unto him, ' O thou wicked ser- vant! I forgave thee all that debt because thou desiredst me. Shouldst thou not also have had compassion on thy fellow servant even as I had pity on thee ? ' " 4. Change the folloioing into the sentence-form and then into the clause- form: — Mr. Webster made reply: He would not suffer himself to be ex- cited into warmth by his opponent's denunciation of the measure. Among the feelings which at that moment filled his breast, not the least was that of regret at the position in which the gentleman had placed him. The gentleman was doing himself an injustice. The cause he had espoused found no basis in the Constitution. 5. Make i\iQ parenthetical verb term in the following, t\iQ principal verb in the proposition. 1. I am, I think, a better correspondent than you. 2. I could, I believe, complete geometry in another term. 3. There are, we ad- mit, spontaneous affections in the soul. 4. There is, it seems, a vast difference between virtue and goodness. 5, Why, he asks, is lan- guage better than science? 6. How magnificent, said he, was the scene before us ! 7. It would be a grand thing, we admit, if all could agree on this matter. RECAPITULATION.— (In brief.) 1. FOUB and only four terms can enter into the struc- ture of a sentence ; the noun teem, the adjective TERM, the VERB TERM, and the ADVERB TERM. 2. These may all take the form of a WORD, a phrase, a CLAUSE, or indeed, of a SENTENCE. THE CONJUNCTIVE CLAUSE. 86 3. The WOBD-FORM may be simple or conjunctive, 4. The PHRASE-FORM has the preposition usually he- •fore the significant term ; but it may come after it, and it may be separated entirely from it. 5. The phrase-form may be adjunctive or conjunc- tive. It may omit the preposition^ or the tignificaiit term. 6. The Clause-form may be demonstrative, in- finitive, PARTICIPIAL, RELATIVE, Or CONJUNCTIVE. 7. The Demonstrative clause-form is introduced by THAT. It is often adjunctive and the connective is often omitted. 8. The Demonstrative Clause Equivalent, may be introduced by lest, HOW (inelegantly how that), AS IF, and BUT or but that. 9. The Infinitive clause-form has its predicate in the infinitive mood. It is often expletive with for, and often ADJUNCTIVE with FOR and other prepositions. 10. The Infinitive clause often has its constituent parts separated^ and is very often elliptical in some of its parts. 11. The Participial clause-form has its predicate in the participial mood. It is often adjunctive. 12. The participial clause often has its parts separated^ and there is often an ellipsis of the copula. 13. The Relative clause-form is always introduced by a relative pronoun^ a relative adverb^ a relative con junction^ or a relative phrase. It is frequently adjunc- tive, and very often elliptical in some of its parts. 14. The Relative Clause Equivalent, may be intro- duced by THAT (as pronoun and as adverb')., AS (ja.^ pro- noun and as adverb) if, but, and the. (14, 41.) 15. The Conjunctive clause-form is introduced by a subordinate connective. There is often an ellipsis of some of its parts. 86 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 16. The Conjunctive clause Equivalent may be in- troduced by SINCE, BEFORE, AETER, FOR ALL, 01* FOR ALL THAT, NOW, WHEN, WHILE, and SO, SO BE, or SO BE THAT. A Sentence may be a constituent of another sentence. Independent sentences must be distinguished from sen- tences used as constituents in a proposition, and the latter from half-sentence-forms and clause-forms. DIVISION n. ORDERS OF GRAMMATICAL TERMS. NATURE AND DIVISION OF ORDERS. 17. We have seen that grammatical terms are divided into three general classes. (6.) Now each of these three classes may be divided into three orders^ namely : — (a.) SUVIPLE. (5.) Complex. (c.) Compound. 1. A Simple Term consists of a single word-form, phrase-form, or clause-form, unmodified. W.-f. Wisdom, goodness, wise, good, much, loves, studies. P.-f. Ofwvidom, icith goodness, hy studying, C.-f. Thai you are wise, if he is good and great, since he studies. 2. A Complex Term consists of a single word-form phrase-form, or clause-form, and some modifying term in logical combination. W.-f. Much wisdom, great goodness, very wise, studies well. P.-f. Of much wisdom, with much goodness, by studying ivell. C.-f. That you are wise, as all know ; if he is good, which we believe; since he studies, a remarkable fact. 3. A Compound Term consists of two or more sim- ORDERS OF GRAMMATICAL TERMS. 87 pie or complex terms joined by a coordinate connec- tive. W.-f. Wise and good ; studious and learned. P.-f . Of wisdom and of goodness ; with great power and with great ability. C. -f . That the earth is round and that it revolves. 4. Thus Grammatical Terms may take three different forms, called Classes ; and each of these three different classes may be considered under three sub-divisions, called Orders. Hence, we have in all, nine elementary constructions : namely, — (a.) The Simple., Complex^ and Compound Word-form. (5.) The Simple., Complex., and Compound Phrase- form, (c.) The Simple., Complex., and Compound Clause-form, 5. We may also have simple, complex, and compound sentence-forms. (16.) He cried out: "lam innocent." S. Sent.-f. He said, "lam innocent," what all believe. Cx. Sent.-f. He said, " I am inno- cent, but you are guilty. ' ' Cd. Sent.-f. Exercise 30. Analyze the following. ILLirSTRATION. Great goodness. Cx. W.-f. Of great goodness. Cx. P.-f. Of wisdom and ^ower. Cd. P.-f. (Spoke) of this being done. S. Adjunc. Part. C.-f. V 1. Wise. 2. Very wise. 3. Wise and good. 4. Very wise and very good. 5. Of wisdom. 6. Of wisdom and goodness. 7. Of great wisdom and of much goodness. 8. If he is wise. 9. If he is wise, which I believe. 10. If he is wise, and if you are good. 11. If he is wise, which I believe, and if you are good, which some doubt. 12. That he should come. 13. That the earth revolves, a mystery. 14. That planets move, and that stars are fixed. 15. Until he came. 16. Though he should go, and though we should remain. 17. From 88 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. among the people. 18. (Thinks) that he may learn. 19. (A thought) that he may learn. 20. (Studies) that he may learn. 21. That he may learn, an easy matter. 22. His being present. 23. (Knows) what he can learn and what he cannot learn. 24. As the day was unpleasant, and as we were weary. SUB-DIVISION l^THE SIMPLE TERM, — * — CHAPTER I. GENERAL FORM AND CHARACTER. 18. The Simple Term is, as we have said, a single word, phrase, or clause-form unmodified. (17, 1.) 1. When several words are idiomatically or figuratively combined, they often have the force of a single compound word, and must be considered as simple word-forms. Thus, a simple verb term is often made up of several in- dividual words. (23, 2.) He brought on a fever (= contracted) ; gave up his situation (= surrendered) ; the supports gave way (== yielded) ; the thief was taken up (= arrested); have got through with it (= have accom- plished). 2. So also the various mood and tense forms must be regarded as constituting with the verb, only simple word- forms. He might have been loved ; he was to have been present; he has got to suffer death. 3. Many terms apparently complex or compound are idiomatic expressions, yielding only one simple concep- tion, and hence must.be regarded as simple word-forms. Will come by and by ; have seen it time and again ; comes here now and then; ran pell melly twice three is six; Jive and three makes eight. 4. So, also, certain phrase-forms, apparently complex THE COMPLEX TERM. 89 or compound, since the conception they express is simple, must be regarded as simple phrases. Will not speak to each other ; went out one hy one ; walked off one after another ; day after day passed ; took town after town ; all came from the least to the greatest ; between you and me he is wrong. EXEKCISE 31. Point out the Simple Terms which are composed of more than one word. I. Burned up the house; went up the ladder; look up the ques- tion; sent up the bundle ; cast up the account; worked up the case. II. The building gave way; he is much cast down ; went on with his work; might have gone to his work; was to have worked for me. in. Stays hour after hour; advances step by step; learns little by little; from Boston to Providence is not far; has spread from shore' to shore ; company after company was cut down ; successful teaching must be line upon line. SUB-DIVISION W. — THE COMPLEX TERM, CHAPTER I. BASE AND MODIFIER. 19. A COMPLEX TERM, as we have seen (17, 2), con- sists of a word, phrase, or clause-form, and some modi- fier logically combined. Now the former of these con- stituents is called the base. The italicised words in the following are the bases. True goodness ; very wise ; studies well ; learns lessons ; struck me ; in my home ; in the beginning of the world ; by reading about heroes ; thai he came, as all know; for me to do well, what my friends desire. 1. Any expression which may constitute a word-form, a phrase-form, a clause-form, or a sentence-form, may con- stitute a base as well as a modifier. Whatever is modified is base with reference to the term that modifies. 90 ENGLISH LANGUAQE. Stone houses. Houses of stone. Houses which are made of stone. Cx. Word-iorms. By studying grammar. By studying about grammar. By studying what is called grammar. Cx. PArase-forms. That the planets revolve^ a well known fact. That the planets re- volve, according to general belief. That the planets revolve, wHat all believe. Cx. Clause-forms. Note. When the base is a phrase-form the modifier may limil more especially, — (1.) The Significant Term. Men of great wisdom; ran with wonderful rapidity. (2.) The Relation Term. Far ABOVE us; a. foot below the surface; much in advance of the army; leaped clear over the wall ; am quite behind the times. (3.) Both the Significant and the Relation Term, i. e., the Phrase- form as a ichole. Was colonized mostly by the English ; he spoke to me only ; the produc- tions consist c/«'e^// of corn and cotton; distributes ih^mforthe most part AMONG THE LOWER RANKS. 2. The base and the base only determines the class of the entire term. If the hase is a word., the whole term is of the word-form ; if the base is a phrase^ the whole is a phrase-form ; if the base is a clause, the whole is a clause- form ; if the base is a sentence, the whole is a sentence. W.-fs. He who is studious; the /ac^ of our disagreement; the leginning of wisdom; the question what is to be done. P.-fs. By studying LiQim] by mingling with men; by doing what you said; in the statement that we were wrong; at the order for us to march. C.-fs. That the earth revolves, a remarkable fact; that he came in season, what all know; for us to study, something new ; the sun lis- ing, as he said ; if it shall rain, what none can tell. 3. Cautions. (1.) Complex word-forms must not be confounded with complex clause-forms. An element is complex only when the whole is modified. Hence a clause is not complex when its subject or its object only is modified ; that is, the presence of a complex element in a clause does not make a complex clause. I SHALL GO if it does not rain. Cx. W.-f. (Shall go) if it does not rain, what we all earnestly wish. Cx. Cl.-f. The fact that he was guilty. Cx. W.-f. THE COMPLEX TERM. 91 They said that he was guilty. Cx. W.-f . That he is guilty, as everybody lelieves. Cx. Cl.-f. (2.) Complex word forms must be distinguished from forms com- plex in appearance only (18,. 3). Walked hand in hand; drop by drop wears away the stone ; stayed month af- ter month ; six by nine glass; lives y/*om hand to mouth. (3.) Complex phrase-forms must be distinguished from simple ad- junctive phrase-forms and both from apparent complex phrase-forms. From the great ocean. Cx. P.-f. ; from beyond the ocean. S. Adjunc. P.-f. ; from ocean to ocean. S. P.-f. (apparently Cx.). Exercise 32. Analyze according to Illustrations. Good men. A term of the Cx. "W.-f.; men is the B., and modified by good, S. W.-f. Reads books. Cx. W.-f. Beads is the B., and modified by boohs, S. W.-f. By reading books. Cx. P.-f. By reading is the B., and modified by books, S. W.-f. The fact that he came. Cx. W.-f. Fact is the B., and modified by that he came, S. Dem. C.-f. Was settled mostly by the Dutch. Cx. W.-f. Was settled is the B., and mod. by rem., a Cx. P.-f. of which btf the Dutch is B. aud mod. by mostly (as a whole), etc. Lives far from us. Cx. W.-f. Lives is B., and mod. by rem., a Cx. P.-f. of which from us is B. and mod. hyfar (the preposition yV-owi chiefly modified). That he came, a fact. Cx. C.-f. That he came is the B., and modified by a fact. Cx. W.-f. Rises round by round. Cx. W.-f. Bises is the B., and mod. by rem., a S. W.-f. (apparently Cx. W.-f.). From shore to shore, a thousand miles. Cx. P.-f. From shore to shore is B., a S. P.-f. (apparently Cx. P.-f.), and mod. by rem. a Cx. W.-f., etc. I. A day; in a day; after some days; day after day ; two days; by day ; day by day ; except by day. 92 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. II. Much more ; between these ; from the shore ; from shore to shore ; round by round ; after one year ; year after year; spoke thus; except in this. III. Works mostly at shoeraaking; works with great rapidity; lives just above us; lives mostly on fruit; lives among his friends; stays occasionally with us; stays only with us; goes often to the city; goes only to the city ; goes only with his friends ; goes with one friend only. IV. 1. Books. 2. My books. 3. Books of history. 4. About studying history. 5. History of France. 6. In histories of Eng- land. 7. Facts about England. 8. Facts which I know. 9. Some- thing for you to do. 10. Orders something to be done. 11. Theo- ries as to what light is. 12. That light is material, a theory. 13. That the sun is fire, what some believe. 14. Doubts whether any one knows. 15. How it came to pass, a question. 16. Spoke of what you said. 17. Books for all to read. 18. That he reads what he likes. 19. That he reads much, as all know. 20. If he is a scholar, what none believe. 21. Would make no explanation what- ever (156, 3). 22. Bought a horse for you to ride. 23. The news that we were defeated. 24. That we were defeated, melancholy news. CHAPTER n. THE COMPLEX TERM. (Continued.) The Cojnplex Base. 4. A base with reference to a given modifier may, to- gether with such a modifier, constitute a second, or com- plex base., with reference to another modifier ; again, this modifier, together with such complex base, may consti- tute a third base with reference to another modifier, and BO on. Thus : — Fragrant red roses. Here roses is the base with reference to red, but red roses is the base with reference to fragrant^ for the sense is not fragrant roses, but fragrant red roses. Again, Large fragrant red roses. Here fragrant red roses is the base with reference to large, as is evident from the sense. Those large fragrant red roses. Now large fragrant red roses is evi- THE COMPLEX TERM. 93 dently the base of the modifier with reference to those and is the fourth successive base in order. So the phrase-form, thus: " By walkinnr in the street, with fi-iends, by moonlight, for an hour." Here we have four successive bases. It will be observed that the order of the modifiers in the phrase- form is the reverse of that in the word-form. In the latter, the first base comes last, in order of collocation; in the former, it comes first. Thus : Those large fragrant RED ROSES. BY WALKING IN THE STREET, WITH FRIENDS, by moonlight, for an hour. 5. When, however, these modifiers /oZ^oe^; the base, the idiom of our language demands that they take the form of a compourid term. Thus, — Large, /ra^mni, BEAUTIFUL RED ROSES == large fragrant ROSES, beautiful and red = roses large, fragrant, beautiful, and red. Here, in the second form of the example, large fragrant roses is a complex base, and modified by beautiful and red, which, coming after the base, now assume the compound form. In the third form, roses is a simple base, and modified by the remainder as a compound term for the same reason. Exercise 33. Analyze as before. 1. Very studious. 2. Exceedingly wise. 3. Rich in resources. 4. Struck me severely. 5. By talking falsely about people. 6. Came with colors flying. 7. Saw him fall. 8. Saw houses burned. 9. Struck him because he was angry. 10. He was untruthful, as you know. 11. Fragrant white roses. 12. Large brick houses. 13. We, ourselves. 14. Cicero, the orator. 15. With immense force. 16. Works diligently. 17. Friends whom 1 love. 18. Be- lieves that the earth is stationary. 19. Doubts that the soul is im- mortal. 20. Those English histories. 21. His large gold watch. 22. Several huge, black, English iron ships. 23. To read by gas- light. 24. To study about art. 25. By lecturing on astronomy to students. 26. Said what he would do. 27. Told when you came. 28. Asked where they were. 29. That he was guilty, a plain fact. 30. Talked of his coming. 31. Sat with his hands folded (13, 11). 32. Says ho told you that you must do what had been ordered by the commander. 33. That he is rich, a mere report, as all know. 94 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. CHAPTER III. THE COMPLEX TEEM. {Continued.) TJie Complex Modifier. 6. A modifying term of an}^ cla%8 or order may mod- ify a given base of any cla^s or order. Thus, modifiers of the word-form or phrase-form may modify bases of the clause-form ; or modifiers of the clause-form may modify bases of the word-form or phrase-form, etc. For example : — rl. W.-f. Goodmoxi. Base W.-f. Mod. •< 2. P.-f . Men of goodness. ' 3. C.-f . Men tvlio are good. rl. W.-f. Of ?Hse men. Base P.-f. Mod. •] 2. P.-f. Of men of wisdom. is. C.-f. Of men wJio are wise. 1 . W.-f. That men fight, a mystery. 2. P.-f. As there was no bread hy reason of Base C.-f. Mod. -^ famine. 3. C.-f. That the planets are inhabited, ?rAa< many believe. So, likewise, the base or the modifier in the above might in each case be S., Cx., or Cd. T. A modifier of a given class may be frequently changed into one of another class. Thus : — Walks rapidly = with rapidity. Generous men = of generosity = who are generous. She never goes out hut she takes cold = icithout taking cold. S. A modifier, with reference to a given base^ may, together with such a base, constitute a complex modifier with reference to another base ; and this again, with such complex base, may constitute a third modifier Avith reference to still another base, etc. Most capacious dwellings. Here, most is the modifier with refer- ence to capacious, but most capacious is the modifier of dwellings THE COMPLEX TERM. 95 for the sense is not capacious dwellings, but most capacious dwell- ings. Again, " Miich (the) most capacious dwelling." Here, much is the modifier of most, and the complex element, much most is the modi- fier of capacious, and the complex form much most capacious is the modifier of dwelling. 9. Complex modifiers must be carefully distinguished from complex bases. The sense will always determine. Thus: — Several black horses. Here we have a complex base, with refer- ence to several, for the sense is hot several horses, but several black horses. Again. Very black horses. In this case, very modifies simply black; in the other, several modifies black horses. Hence, the differ- ence is manifest. Note. Observe the difference in the following, as indicated by the italicized words : — Fragrant red roses. Extremely red roses. More beautiful houses. Those beautiful houses. To live in the city from choice. To live in the city of Bos- ton. 10. Sometimes the same modifier contains both a com- plex base and a complex modifier. Very black Arabian horses. Here, Arabian horses is the complex base of very black, which is a complex modifier ; for the sense is not very black- Arabian-horses, or very-black- Arabian horses, or very black-Arabian horses, but very-black ^raiian-HORSES. ^^^Analyze according to Illustration. More beautiful books. Cx. W.-f. Books is B., and mod. by more beautiful, Cx. W.-f., of which beautiful is B. and mod. by more, S. W.-f. Good kings of England. Cx. W.-f. Kings is B., and mod. by of England, S. P.-f. Kings of Eng- land is Sec. B., and mod. by good, S. W.-f. Jewels of gold from rich mines in California. Cx. W.-f. Jewels is B., and mod. by the remainder, of Cx. P.-f., of which Exercise 34. 96 ENGLISH LANGUAGE.. of gold is B., and mod. by remainder, of Cx. P.-f. From mines is B., and mod. by m California, S. P.-^f. ; andyVom mines in California is Sec. B. and mod. by rich, S. W.-f. 1. Very beautiful. 2. Lincoln's administration. 3. Our friends. 4. City of Boston. 5. Kings of France. 6. Laws of Moses. 7. With great care. 8. Stillness of death. 9. Shines with bril- liancy. 10. Reared in opulence. 11. Went to learn. 12. Said that he would go. 13. Looks where he leaps. 14. Labor whereby he lives. 15. Law-giver from beneath my feet. 16. Almanac for this year. 17. Excellent gold watches. 18. Men whom I saw. 19. Cities which he passed. 20. Fights for pay. 21. Clouds in the air. 22. Ten fine black Canadian ponies. 23. The promise that he would go. 24. If the planets are inhabited, a probable sup- positi Dn. 25. Said that the planets revolve, and that the stars are fixed. 26. Saw the soldiers advancing. 27. Heard you speak. 28. Prevented his speaking. 29. Heard of your speaking. CHAPTER IV. THE COMPLEX TERM. {GontinuedL) Hie Order of Modifiers. 11. That there is a fixed order in the arrangement of modifiers preceding the base (19, 6, 8), is sufficiently- manifest. We say involuntarily, — and the usage is uni- versal, — as follows : — Large red roses, and not red large roses. The old stone tower, and not the stone old tower. 12. It is manifest that there is sound philosophy in this, and the explanation seems easy. We always place nearest the base the terms indicating the most obvious, that is, the most easily apprehended qualities. Hence: — (1.) Qualifying adjective terms are -placed nearer than limit- ing adjective terms, because qualities, as a rule, are more easily and readily cognized. Thus: — Ten large apples. My white horse. Mary's velvet hat, etc. Here it is evident that magnitude, color, and material in the three examples are respect- ively more obvious than number and possession, which of necessity must come to our knowledge later. THE COMPLEX TERM. 97 (2.) We place always nearest the base the words indicating the most obvious qualities, those less obvious next, and so on. Now, as a rule, qualities which address the sight are the most obvious. Those which address the touch or the taste come next in order, and those which address the judgment or the reason come last. Note. The words which express the qualities addressed to the five senses are sufficiently obvious. It may not have been noticed, however, that magnitude, number, and in the main form, address the judgment, and hence words indicating these stand always beyond those expressing the action of. the senses. Xa7"^e 7'ecZ apples; ten small sweet axtples] soft green velvet. (3.) Of several qualities equally obvious, the most important stands nearest the base; of several qualities addressing- the same organ or faculty, those demanding the least exertion stand always nearest. Of LIMITING modifiers number is not so readily fixed upon as size, and size not so quickly as form. Hence, the order in the follow- ing:— Ten small houses; ten round tables; small round tables; ten small round tables ; red apples ; sweet red apples ; small sweet red apples ; fve small round sweet red apples ; several old men ; several fne-looking old men. 13. An apparent exception to the above order is found in the fact that the name of the country where a thing is made or produced, and the material of which a thing is composed, is commonly placed next the base. The explanation, probably, is that in many cases the place of pro- duction, or of manufacture, or the material used, is considered the most important circumstance, as that alone not unfrequently deter- mines the value of all other desirable qualities. Large Canadian ponies; valuable Russia iron; ten small gold iStriw watches ; beautiful i^renc^ fashions ; large white brick French-roofed houses; red brick houses ; black velvet dresses. 14. When several modifiers of apparently equal importance ad- dress the same sense, the modifier representing the most permanent quality should stand nearest. Thus : — The overhanging, unclouded sky; say, The unclouded overhanging sky. Overhanging is a constant, unclouded a temporary qualification. The yellow waviiiff gr&m; say, The waving yellow grain. Yellow in compar- atively constant, waving is only incidental. So say, the starry blue sky; the clear blue sky ; the advancing somber cload; and not the converse of these. 7 98 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 15. Sometimes for the sake of Emphasis, or of Euphony, it seems desirable to reverse the true order, as given above. In such cases the element becomes compound in character. The blue starry sky (= blue and starr}'). So, the yellow {and) waving grain ; the overhanging (and) unclo'uded sky. 16. The definite article the and the demonstrative pronouns thuf and that, always hold the last place. Words of locality, even when used to designate, retain their place next to the base (15). Thus: — 421 3 53 2 1 That large house across the street. The large beautiful apple-tree in the 4 corner of the garden. 17. So all appositive terms used to designate or identify the ob- ject, come logically, qext the base. The beautiful virtue of benevolence. Of benevolence modifies all that goes before. The sublime law of nature, that aU bodies attract all other bodies. Here the appositive clause modifies all before. So, That eloquent, noble-souled statesman, Webster. The great, fertile, pop- ulous continent of America. That low, miserable vice of dander. 18. There is an anomaly in this matter of collocation in the case of the articles. With many, such, all, and often with complex com- parative adjective terms, and some others, the article comes next or near the base. Many a flower; many a time; such a man; all the books; so noble a man; more sublime a view ; by far the greater part ; as good a man, etc. 19. When there are several modifiers of different classes, some placed before and some after the base, the true logical order can be determined frequently only by the explanation made above (19, 12). 2 1 1 Stone towers (of great age) = vei'y old stone towers. Large apples iof de- 2 1.2 licious sweetness) = large deKciouslg sweet apples. Ten small houses {of ex- 3 ... 13 quisite beauty) = ten smaU exquisitely beautiful houses. Beautiful Swiss watches 2 of gold = beautiful gold Swiss watches. 20. When all the modifiers of whatever class can be converted into word-forms, the order will appear at once from mere force of habit in the way of usage. 1.2 1 Those books {which were lost) = those lost books. Macaulay's History of Eng- 12 3 land = Macaulay's English History. Several large volumes {which were pub- lished in England) = several large English volumes. ,_ THE COMPLEX TERM. 99 21. In regard to verb terms it should be noted that the order as a rule is first objective terms and then adverb terms. The principle of collocation is the same as in the case of noun terms. We cognize 'more readily the object of an act than subordinate facts connected with the same. The object term is also the more important. Struck him severely. Here struck is modified by him, and strtick him is modified by severely. So, saw him yesterday. 22. When there are several adverb terms the most obvious conies nearest, the less so next, and so on as in the case of adjective terms. So also, of several equally obvious, the most important comes nearest the base. Struck him severely, yesterday, in my house. 23. Of course the order of modifiers, with verb terms may be changed for rhetorical reasons. ^-y^"" |\ E £ V r Exercise 35. u ^ '^l^^js ''^ ^^ ILLUSTRATIONS. ^ / Jf f Many elegant combs of beautiful ivory. -^^ ,y *• Cx. W.-f. Comhs is B., and mod. by of beautiful ivory, Cx. P.-f., of which of ivory is B., and mod. by beautiful. Combs of beautiful ivory is sec. B., and mod. by elegant, and this with the previous, as third B., is mod. by many. Sailed his yacht beautifully up the river last week. Cx. W.-f. Sailed is B., and mod. by his yacht, Cx, W.-f., etc. (answere what). Sailed his yacht is sec. B., and mod. by beautifully, S. W.-f. (answers how). Sailed his yacht beautifully is a third B., and mod. by up the river, a Cx. P.-f. (answers which way) ; and all a fourth B., is mod. hj last week, Cx. W.-f., etc. I. 1. Those Swiss watches. 2. Very beautiful Swiss watches. 3. Ladies*^ Swiss watches. 4. Black Arabian horses. 5. Ten Arabian horses. 6. Ten very beautiful black Arabian horses. 7. Several Arabian horses of great value. 8. Black and white Arabian horses of great size which I bought in Spain. 9. Many sweet oranges of immense size. 10. Ten large yellow pears of most exquisite flavor. IL 1. Universal biographical dictionary. 2. Lexicon of the Latin language. 3. Books of the Chronicles of the Kings. 4. Josephus* History of the Jewish War. 5. Philosophical grammar of the Eng- lish language. 6. Author of the Poor Man's Library. 7. Writings of the Apostolic Fathers of the first century. 8. At the Court of Elizabeth, Queen of England, in the sixteenth century. 9. At the 100 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. City of Boston, in the State of Massachusetts. 10. Those three large, beautiful, cloth-bound volumes of American poetry. 11. Builds with great rapidity most elegant houses. 12. Said that you knew. 13. Since the weather was cold, an unfortunate circumstance. 14. If he had failed in business, what everybody expected. 15. Said that he was right, what you disbelieved. 16. Orders for the houses to be burned and for the city to be utterly destroyed. 1 7. Will do what is best, if he is able. 18. Said that as the sun rose, the fleet sailed. 19. Will give you such valuables as are in my possession. 20. Have done so many a time. SUB-DIVISION \\\. — THE COMPOUND TERM. — • — CHAPTER I. THE BASE. 20. Any two or more terms, not combined as base and modifier^ but being all bases or all modifiers equally with reference to another term, constitute a Compound Term. W.-f. Large rivers and oceans. Large and beautiful rivers. We read and write. P.-f. Men of wisdom and of power. Works with ease and icith rapidity. C.-f. If you come 2iu^ if we go. It is best /or you ^o come and /or us to go, Sent.-f. We tcill come, and you will go. Who is this and what is his name ? 1. The constituents of a compound term are called co- ordinates. Coordinate terms may be either absolute or partial^ according as they are logically independent, or exercise some modifying influence over one another. (164, 165.) 2. Coordinate terms when absolute are usually joined by the con- nectives and ; but ; both — and ; neither — nor ; nor — nor ; either — or; now — now; on the one hand — on the other hand; not only —' hul also, but likewise, etc. THE COMPOUND TERM. 101 Men wse and good ; not wise but good; both wise am:? good; not only wise hut also good. 3. Coordinate terms when partial are commonly joined by hut, yet, notwithstanding , nevertheless. Men poor but influential (poor and influential are logically related). So, — learned yet simple, he has many faults yet he is much beloved. 4. Participles are often used as coordinates with other forms of the verb. This is always the case, of course, when they state a fact of the same rank and importance substantially as that indicated by other verb forms. Said that having written his letters, he werd out to walk, =: that he wrote his letters, and went out to walk. Having traversed the plain, and crossed the river, we advanced towards the enemy = we traversed the plain, crossed the river and advanced, etc., or traversing the plain and crossing the river, they advanced, etc. Remark. The above coordinate use of the participle, especially of the passive form of the same, is very common in the ancient classics. Note. It should be noted that when clause-forms become coordi- nate the clausal connective or particle is always retained, either ex- pressed or clearly understood. Said that you must go and that I must remain. It is best for us to go but for you to remain. (12, 3.) 5. Coordinates are of the clause-form only when the several clauses have each its own noun term and its own verb term. If John writes and James reads. Cd. C.-f. If John writes and reads. S. C.-f. with Cd. Pred. If John and James read. S. C.-f., with Cd. Subj. term. If John and James read and write. S. C.-f., with Cd. Subj., and Cd. Pred. 6. Cautions. (1.) Complex compound terms must be distin- guished from terms complex and compound. Large rivers and mountains. Cx. Cd. T. Large rivers and small mountains. Cx. and Cd. T. (2.) Compound terms must be distinguished from those that are such only in appearance (18, 3). 102 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. The sound increased more and more. S. W.-f. (apparently Cd.)- He has visited me time and again. S. W.-f. (apparently Cd.). Has visited me morning and evening (Truly Cd.). (3.) Compound phrase-forms must be distinguished from simple phrase-forms having a compound significant term. Thus: — Went between hills and {between) mountains, along the valleys. Cd. P.-f. Went between the hill and the mountain (does not mean, of course, between the hill and between the mountain, which would be nonsense). S. P.-f. with Cd. Significant Term. &o Among friends and foes. Cd. P.-f. \ between you and me. S. P.-f. — Cd. SigniQcant Term. 7. Compound terms must not be confounded with complex terms. The difference is manifest. Between the constituents of a com- pound term, a connective is either expressed or clearly implied. This is never true of complex terms. Good and wise and patriotic men. Cd. Mod. (Mod. = modifier.) Much more patriotic men. Cx. Mod. Those patHotic old men. Cx. B. The dreary lonely day. Cd. Mod. The long lo/iely day. Cd. Mod. The very lonely day. Cx. Mod. The lonely winter day. Cx. B. The loud resounding cataract. Cx. Mod. The rocky thundering cataract. Cd. Mod. The beautiful bow-crowned cataract. Cx. B. The trackless sandy beach. Cx. B. The sandy trackless beach. Cd. Mod. (19, 17). The beautiful sandy beach. Cx. B. The soft sandy beach. Cd. Mod. 8. The importance of noting carefully the logical relation of terms will be evident from the following : — The black and white horse. Cx. W.-f. The black and the white horse. Cd. W.-f. The black and white horses. Cx. W.-f. The black and (he white horses. Cd. W.-f. Here, in the first example, reference is made to one horse of a black and white or dappled color; in the second, reference is made to two horses, of which one is black and the other white ; in the third, reference is made to two or more horses whose color is black and white; in the fourth, reference is made to two classes of horses, of which one is black and the other is white. Exercise 36. Analyze according to Illustrations. Large sweet apples. Cx. W.-f. Apj)les is the Base and modified by sweet, S. W.-f., and sweet apples is Sec. B. and mod. by large, S. W.-f. By studying French. Cx. P. f. By studying is B., and mod. by French, S. W.-f. THE COMPOUND TERM. 103 Marched many miles before it was light. Cx. W.-f. Marched is B., and mod. by many miles, Cx. W.-f., of which miles is B. and mod. by many, S. W.-f. Marched many miles is Sec. B., and mod. by before it was light, S. Adjunc. Dem. C.-f. Ten large Florida oranges, ripe and sweet. Cx. "W.-f. Oranges is B., and mod. by Florida, S. W.-f. Flmida oranges is sec. B., and mod. by npe and sweet, Cd. W.-f. Floi'ida oranges ripe and sweet is third B., and mod. by large, S. W.-f., and all is mod. by ten, S. W.-f. Every man, woman, and child. Cx. Cd. W.-f. Man, woman, and child is the B., and mod. by every, S. W.-f. Houses and stores which were burned. Cx. Cd. W.-f. Houses and stores is B., and mod. by the remainder, S. Rel. C.-f. I. Between us; between you and me; came two by two; came by twos; marched four abreast; three times three is nine; little and often fills the purse; spoke frequently; spoke time and again; re- sounds from the ocean ; resounds from ocean to ocean ; spoke to us ; spoke to each other ; are driven from post to pillar ; from pole to pole, the earth's diameter ; told such and such things. II. 1. Those large houses. 2. Very large houses. 3. Large white houses. 4. Exceedingly white houses. 5. Ten very white houses. 6. Ten very large and very white houses. 7. Large and convenient houses. 8. Exceedingly large and very convenient bouses. 9. Some large brick houses and barns of mine. 10. Several houses which I sold and which you bought. 11. Brick and stone houses. 12. The brick and the stone house. 13. The brick and the stone houses. *III. 1. Of great size and beauty. 2. Among our friends and our foes. 3. Since the sun shines and the rain falls every day. 4. Three score and ten large buildings of fine granite. 5. Brown and Smith, copartners in the business of shoemaking. 6. Many noble sons and daughters of Adam and Eve. 7. The deep blue sea (20, 9). 8. Every tree and shrub and herb of the field. 9. English manners and customs and habits. 10. The old world and the new. 11. The old and the new world. 12. The old and new worlds. 13. Of immense wealth, honor, and greatness. 14. From the cities, towns, and hamlets, of the extensive domains of our country beyond the Rocky Mountains. 15. Knows that suns shine, stars twinkle, and winds blow. 16. Knew him to be a traitor and you to be loyal. IV. 1. She has neither wealth nor wisdom. 2. I doubt not he 104 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. will either come or send. 3. There is no question that not only- knowledge, but wisdom also is gained by study and observation. 4. I pray you watch about Leonato's door, for the wedding being there to-morrow, there is a great stir to-night. — Shak. 5. The most peaceable way for you, if you do take a thief, is to let him show him- self what he is (41, 2) and steal out of your company. — Id. 6. I should first tell her how the prince, Claudio, and my master, saw afar off in the orchard this amiable encounter. — Id. 7. They stay for you to give your daughter to her husband. — Id. 8. Unless he have a fancy to this foolery as it appears he hath, (he) is no fool for fancy as you would have it appear he is. — Id. (This last sentence has six clauses. Find them.) CHAPTER n. THE COMPOUND TERM. (Continued.) Grammatical Constrvdion. 10. Coordinates should usually be of the same c^a55, and — if of the clause-form — they should be of the same kind. A violation of this rule produces inharmony and more or less of ineleganee in a sentence. WoBD-FORM. Wise and generous men (not, Men wise and of generosity). "Works constantly and rapidly (not, constantly and with rapidity.) Phrase-forsis. Men of wisdom and of generosity. Works with vigor and with rapidity. Clause-forms. Told who he was, and whence he came (not told his name and whence he came). Believed him to be guiUy^and that he ought to be pun- ished (better: that he was guilty and that he ought, etc.). 11. Coordinates are not of necessity the same parts of speech, but are always the same kind of logical elements; that is, all are or should be noun terms, adjective terms, adverb terms, or ^erb termjj. (1.) Noun Terms. Cities and toicns were burned. James and you were present. Adjectivk Terms. Good and great men. Men of wisdom and of power. Adverb Terms. Writes easily and elegantly; went to see and to be seen ; workf< for pi-aise and for pelf ; excels in both brain and brawn. Verb Terms. We read and write; saw them singing and dancing; felt myself sink and fall; said that they having charged, completely routed the enemy (20, 4). 12. Connectives should be placed as near as possible to the terms they are designed to join. THE COMPOUND TERM. 105 He neither will study himself nor permit the others to; — say, He will neither study himself, nor, etc. He excels both in Latin and Greek; — say, he excels in both Latin and Greek. 13. Ellipses. Sometimes one of the constituents of a compound term is omitted. This happens when the same term (i. e., the base) is made to refer to different objects. Thus, the Jirst and the second volume. Here, of course, ttvo volumes are referred to, and the expression fully ex- pressed would be: The Jirst volume and the second volume. Now, in the case of such ellipses, the article, if used with one term, should be repeated with all, or else the base should be made plural. The north and the south pole; the first, the second, and the third army corps. The north and south poles ; the Latin and Greek languages ; the old and new worlds. 14. Article and Plural Forms. Sometimes both the article and the plural form are needed to make the sense clear. Thus: — The black and white horses. Here the obvious meaning is, dappled horses; it might mean, however, different horses, some black and some white. All am- biguity would be removed by saying, the black and the white horses, in case one wishes to designate two classes of horses. 15. On the contrary the article should not be repeated, when only one person or thing is referred to, and should not be used at all un- less the sense demands it. The husband, father, and patriot prays. Washington Allston was both a painter and a poet. — Wayland. Better, — was hoih. painter and poet. 16. No ellipses should be permitted, which involve a false construc- tion. He can and is willing to do his part ( = He can to do. Say, He can do, and etc.) He stood opposite and only a short distance from me ( = opposite from. Say, He stood opposite to me, etc.). He is as good or even better than you ( = as good than you. Say He is as good as you, or, etc.). 17. When there are a number of copulative coordinates, the con- nective is usually expressed only with the last. A modifier common to all is expressed only with the first. Works faithfully, vigorously, and successfully. Kings of England, Ireland, and Scotland. Every man, woman, and child. 18. When, however, greater emphasis is required, these ellipses are all supplied. When Time and Pain and Chance and Death expire. — Young. 106 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 19. Prepositions and modifiers should be repeated when the sense seems to demand it, or obscurity or ambiguity would result from this omission. The freedom of Rome and of Italy was now secured. 20. Or and Nor. When several coordinates are to be severally denied, nor is used ; when affirmed, or is used. Ye have no portion, nor right, nor memorial in Jerusalem. 21. Neither is the proper correlative of nor^ and should be used in- stead of not when only two coordinates are used. He will not have time nor capacity. — Bolinghrohe. Say, — neither. 22. When several coordinates follow a negative with which nega- tive they are not coordinate ; if used in an affirmative sense, they are connected by or, if in a negative, by nor. Let no man be too confident nor too diffident. "Wrong : say, or ; the sense is, Let no man be {either) too confident or too diffident. He did not mention Leonora's nor her father's death. — Murray. Wrong: the sense is: He did not mention {either) Leonora's or her father's death. 23. Coordinates taken negatively should not be joined by a nega- tive. The light of Christ is not nor cannot be darkness. — Barclay. Let's be no stones NOB no stocks I pray. — Shak. In each case say and instead of nor. Exercise 37. Do the same icork as in the previous exercises : correct any faults in construction; note all improper ellipses or additions. I. 1. The conduct of the Second and Third Gregory. — Gibbon. 2. The separation of the East and the West. — Id. 3. Marched to the conquest of Spoleto and Rome. — Id. 4. The link of ancient and modern, of civil and eccledastical history. — Id. 5. United in the same person the title and authority of king. — Jd. 6. Trans- pierced by the pen of Valla, an eloquent critic and a Roman patriot. — Id. 7. The grammar and logic, the music and astronomy of the times. — Id. 8. The eastern and western empires. — Id. 9. The powers of the Gothic and Grecian princes. — Id. II. 1. Give me not counsel, nor let no comforter delight mine ear. — Shak. 2. She cannot love nor take no shape nor project of iiflFection. — Id. 3. There is no difficulty nor dispute about them. — FORMS OF INDIVIDUAL GRAMMATICAL TERMS. 107 Tooke. 4. So as not to cloud that object nor to bury it. — Blair. 5. Thou canst not tell whence it cometh nor whither it goeth. — Bible. 6. Whose character was not sufficiently vigorous nor de- cisive. — Hume. 7. Never calumniate any man nor give the least encouragement to calumniators. 8. I shall not attempt to convince nor to persuade you. 9. Seemed not to understand ceremony, or to despise it. HI. 1. He will not have time, no, nor capacity neither. — Bol- ingbroke. 2. There was none of you that convinced Job or that an- swered his words. — Bible. 3. There is no darkness nor shadow of death. — Id. 4. Mourn not nor weep. — Id. 5. We must try whether or no we cannot increase the attention. 6. There can be no rules laid down nor no manner recommended. 7. No skill could obviate nor no remedy dispel. — Goldsmith. 8. Prudery cannot be an indication neither of sense nor of taste. 9. But that Scripture nor no other, speaks not of imperfect faith. — Barclay. 10. Which do not continue nor are not binding. — Id. 11. It not being per- ceived no more than the air. — Campbell. 1 2. When there is no marked nor peculiar character in the style. 13. They have seldom or ever an opportunity. 14. He has been outdone by no poet. 15. We seldom or ever see those forsaken who trust in God. — At- ierbury. DIVISION III. FORMS OF INDIVIDUAL GRAMMATICAL TERMS. K Heretofore (Divisions T. and II.) we have been considering, in a general way., the various Forms OF Expression by which Thought is indicated in discourse ; — that is, the various Lingual Moulds, so to speak, in some one of which every thought of whatever kind or character is necessarily cast. We come now to apply what we have learned, to the Individual Terms (1) which make up the structure of the sentence, "and consequently to inquire WHICH OF 108 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. THESE FIXED ORGANIC FORMS, with which we are now presumed to be well and familiarly acquainted, these Four Grammatical Terms in language, may individually assume. SUB-DIVISION \.— THE NOUN-TERM, CHAPTER L DEFINITION AND CHARACTER. 21. Any word or any logical combination of words used to name a thing, a thought, or a conception, is a Noun-term. Hence, anything whatever that can be made the subject of thought or of remark, as such, may be a Noun-term ; hence, therefore, any term whatever that can be used either as the Subject or the Object Term of a verb is a Noun-term. (2.) 1. The Word-form of th^ Noun-term (7) may be any part of speech. Thus : — (1.) A Noun of any kind. Casar conquered ; men die ; truth will prevail. (2.) A Pronoun of any kind. PTedie; loAo comes ; <^eywent; none are absent. (3.) An Adjective. The good are happy; ten were present; some remained; little was done; did his6w<; did right. (4.) An Adverb. Now is the time; how is not why; yes, was his reply; said no. (5.) A Verb. A march was made ; their retreat was certain ; took a ride. So the Infinitive. To see is pleasant ; to sttidy is tiresome ; begins to study. THE NOUN-TERM. 109 So, also, the Participle. Seeing is believing; walking is healthful; commenced singing. (6.) A Preposition. The ups and downs of life ;ofis& small word. (7.) A Conjunction. Your i/'s and your and's. (8.) An Interjection. He cried out, Oh ! Alas ! 2. The Phbase-form of the noun-term rarely occurs. Beyond the mountain is the enemy's country. 3. The Clause-form may be, — (1.) A Demonstrative CLAUSE. Says that he is a traitor ; it seems as if he must be a traitor (11, 7); I feel as if he was a traitor ; told hoio he was a traitor ; it cannot be but he is a traitor. (2.) An Infinitive clause. Believe him to be a traitor ; it seems strange for him to be a traitor ; all think him a traitor ; he feels himself to be a traitor. (3.) A Participial clause. His {■= he) being a traitor was not generally known ; you may rely on (13, 16) his {= him) being a traitor; imagine him deserting to the enemy; saw him ex- ecuted as a traitor. (4.) A Relative clause. Who the traitor is is not known ; why he did so is a mystery; told why he did it; asked if he was a traitor ; wonders xohether he can escape. 4. The Noun- term may be also a Sentence. He said, ^' I am a traitor.'" ^^ He is a traitor^'''' is the report everywhere. 5. A Half Sentence (16, 4). He replied : He was not a traitor ; these men were persecuting him ; why did they work to ruin him ; had he ever wronged them ? 6. The kind of a term, as the class, is always determined by the base, — if the base is a noun-term, the whole will be a noun-term; if an adjective term, the whole will be adjective, etc. 110 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. EXEECIgE 38. Analyze; name the noun-terms^ and tell what part of speech they were in their primary use. rLLUSTRATION. • Said yes. A Cx. W.-f. Said is the B., and mod. by yes, a N.-T. of the S. W.-f. Ye* is primarily an adverb. Now is the time. A simple sentence. Now is the Subj., a N.-T. (primarily an adverb), and is the time is the Pred. Ordered something to be done. A Cx. W.-f., of which ordered is the B., and mod.T)y rem., a N.-T. of the Inf. C.-f., etc. Avoids rudeness of manners. A Cx. W.-f. Avoids is the B., and mod. by rem., a N.-T. of Cx. W.-f., etc. It seems as if it must be true. A simple sentence. It is an expletive ; as if it must be true is the Subj., a N.-T. of the Dem. Equiv. C.-f. ; seems is Pred. It cannot be but it is false. A simple seiitence; it is expletive; but it is false (= that it is not false) is the Subj., a N.-T. of the Dem. Equiv. C.-f. ; cannot be is the Pred. Told how the thief escaped. A Cx. W.-f. ; told is the B., and mod. by the rem., a N.-T. of the Rel. C.-f. Told how the thief had actually made his escape, and how the offi- cers were then in pursuit of him. A Cx. W.-f.; tdd is the B., and mod. by the rem., a N.-T. of the Cd. Dem. Equiv. C.-f. He replied: Why were they persecuting him? Did they wish to ruin him utterly. A simple sentence. He is Subj., a N.-T. of S. W.-f., and the rem. is Pred., ^f which replied is the B., and mod. by rem., two N.-T.'s of Half Sent.-f. He said, ' ' You are persecuting me. Do you wish to ruin me ? ' ' A simple sentence, etc. Said and rem. is Pred., of which said is B., and mod by rem., two N.-T.'s of Sent.-f. THE NOUN-TERM. Ill Saw a herd of buffaloes cross the prairies. A Cx. W.-f. Saw is the B., and mod. by rem., a N.-T. of the Inf. C-f. Herd of buffaloes is the Subj., a N.-T. of the Cx. W.-f., etc. ; {to) cross the prairies is the Pred. of the Cx. W.-f. of which to cross is the B. and mod. by rem., a N.-T. of the Cx. W.-f., etc. I. 1. Loves his country. 2. Thinks himself free. 3. Imagines you are free. 4. Said to me, yes. 5. Says that above is not below. 6. Enjoys walking and riding. 7. Came soon after. 8. Shall call you again. 9. Wept a last adieu. 10. Gave our little all. 11. Gave all his property away. 12. Has much, wishes more. 13. Has much; has more money. 14. Said no more. 15. Reads much and the best. 16. Says the nays have it. 17. Answered nay. 18. Says he has none. 19. Thinks him better. H. 1. Our man Sancho felt himself well off. — Irving. 2. What they found, nobody knows. — Id. 3. Not knowing what remedy to prescribe. — Id. 4. Who this Lindaraxa was I have never heard ex- plained. — Id. 5. I knew it to be the rush of water through subter- ranean channels. — Id. 6. I occasionally feel myself happier without society. — Jd. 7. Five lost their lives as well as their crowns. — Macaulay. 8. Cruel massacres, followed by cruel retribution, prov- inces wasted, convents plundered, and cities razed to the ground, make up the greater part of the history of those evil days. — Id. IH. Distinguish sentences, half sentence forms, and clause forms. Note all forms used as noun-terms. 1. They answered, " We cannot tell." They said that they could not tell. " We cannot tell," said they. 2. He said, " 1 will also ask you one question." He said that he would ask them one question. He then spoke : He would ask them one question. 3. He made inquiry. Was I of Eton? I repHed that I was not. Had I a father living? I had not. But you have a mother? I had. And she thinks of sending you to Eton? I answered that she had expressed such an intention. All people think highly of Eton. — De Quincey. 4. We were followed by a sort of persecution, — would we not sec the bell? Would we not see the model? Surely we would not go =iway, without visiting the whispering gallery ? — De Quincey. 5. Whispered low the dying soldier, pressed her hand and faintly smiled. Was that pitying face his mother's, did she watch beside her child? WMttier, 112 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. SUB-DIVISION 11— THE ADJECTIVE-TERM, CHAPTER I. DEFINITION AND CHARACTER. 22. Any word or any logical combiDation of words used, as a whole, to indicate the attributes or qualities of objects, or some circumstance connected directly with the same, is an Adjective-term. Hence any term what- ever used as a modifier of a JSfoun-term is an Adjective- term (3). 1. This is true of all real noun- terras, whatever may happen to be their special use in a given case. Men of great wisdom; these are good men ; this is the book which I showed you; shall go ten miles farther; several feet higher ; built a fine house; dug a deep hole, etc. 2. The noun-term is sometimes implied, simply, in an expression, which, as a whole, is not substantive in char- acter. Shall stay if it rains, as now seems very probable. (The relative clause modifies the noun-conception in " if it rains,'' and is an adjec- tive element.) Went TO SEE THE CITY, what he had long desired. (The relative clause is adjective and modifies the noun-conception in to see the city, namely, the seeing of the city.) 3. The Word-form of the Adjective-term may be any part of speech, namely : — (1.) An Adjective. Ten men; good men: these men: some men. (2.) An Article. A man ; the man. (3.) A Noun. (7oH watches; iron rods; «7»er spoons; JVortoay pine; John's knite. THE ADJECTIVE-TERM. 113 (4.) A Pronoun of any kind, ify horse; whose book; what book; I, myself; we, ourselves. 5. A Verb. A work horse ; a play ground ; a study table. iSo, Infinitive Form. rhe time to come; a sight to behold. So, Participle Form. Singing birds; ploughed lands; the slain king; bottled beer; raised bread; the following day. (6.) An Adverb. The hither side ; the only man; an upward flight; an onward march. (7.) A Preposition. AJi/path; the through ixa.va.\ an wntZer garment; trees ten feet through {= thick). (8.) A Conjunction. An if clause ; these but constractions. 4. The word-form is often conjunctive with as. "We as business men could not approve of such conduct (= in the capacity of business men (7, 4)). He, who went forth as a rebel, returned as a conqueror. 5. Participial word-forms are sometimes idiomatically combined with prepositions or infinitives in such a way that, without supplying something, they seem incapable of analysis. In such cases it will be best to regard them as simple terms (18) . He, being ^oTcen to, made reply. This thing, having been alluded to, became the theme of conversation. The person referred to is present. This man, being thought to be guilty, was punished. He, being said to be learned, was much honored. Remark. For the analysis of forms like the above, when ex- pressed in full with finite verbs, and not in a way elliptically as here, see 12, 23, and 40, 1. 6. The Phrase-form more commonly takes the preposition of; almost any preposition, however, may be used. ^len of wisdom; words of kindness; a talk about poetry ; a walk with you; a struggle /or life ; the man befoi'e me ; the sky above me. 7. The Clause-form may be, — (1.) A Dem. cl. (Adjunctive.) The day after you left us ; a moment before he came ; a delay until the boat arrived. 114 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. (2.) An Inf. Cl. (Adjunctive.) A proposition for something to he done ; a plea /or aU the poor to he educated. (3.) Part. Cl. (Adjunctive.) ThQ TQa^son of his going so soon. The oh^Qction to this heing done. Difficulties in the way of anything being accomplished. The story of the Elector asking S.for a franc and another doing the same im- mediately. — Moore. The anecdote about the ink-bottle sti-iking one of the lead Muses. — Id. The story of a man being mounted on a chameleon. — Id. The impossibility of such expressions being allegorical. — Dr. Farrar. (4.) A Relative Clause. The man tcAo came. The things whereof f spoke. The iniquity whereby they sinned. In the day that thou eatest thereof . This is the same solution as that is. The theorj' as stated by Huxley (14, 26 and 42). The case as reported by the papers. "Who is there but knows his duty ? It is you that is to blame {it =: per- son). (14, 22.) This it is that you must do {it = thing). It is here that a dijfi- culty arises {it z= place, and that = where). It M'as because the readiest exam- ples were to be had from the Bible that any were taken from that source {it == reason, and iAa< =r why). — Dean Alford. It is to the latter of them that I would now call attention. — Id. (it = the one and that = to which.) It was at this juncture that Demosthenes now stepped forward {it = time, and that = when). — Dr. Smith. It was by favor of darkness that our vessel had contrived to elude them. — Id. {it = means, and that = by which). It is no feeble blow that will destroy a giant. — Whately {it = thing, and that = which). (5.) A Relative Cl. (Adjunctive.) The question as to how we may proceed. Has everything except what he most needs. Does nothing but what he is obliged to. A discussion 07i whatever interested them. Spends much besides what he earns. (6.) A Rel. Inf. Cl. (Adjunctive and elliptical.) Here is a book /or you to look at {which) ; a path for you to walk in {which) ; a work /or you to perform {which). Exercise 39. Analyze ; name all noun-terms and all adjective-terms ; when words are used out of their primary use, tell the part of speech to which they belong primarily ; note carefully all antecedents. ILLUSTRATION. The iniquity whereby they sinned. A N.-T. of Cx. W.-f., of which iniquity is B., and mod. by rem., an Adj.-T. of the Rel. C.-f. They is the Subj., a N.-T. of S. W.-f., and sinned whereby is Pred. of Cx. W.-f. Sinned is B., and mod. by whereby, S. W.-f. THE ADJECTIVE-TERM. 115 In the day that thou eatest thereof. Cx. P.-f.; in the day is B., and mod. by rem., an Adj.-T. of Rel. C-f., if which thou is Subj., and the rem. is the Pred. Eatest is B., and mod. by thereof, an Adv.-T. of S. W.-f. Eatest thereof is Sec. B., and mod. by that {= when or in which, 14, 20), an Adv.-T. of S. W.-f. The question as to how we shall proceed. A N.-T. of the Cx. W.-f. ; the question is B., and mod. by rem., an Adj.-T. of the Rel. C-f., Adjunc, etc. I. A hiding place; a place for us to hide; in the same place that we hid before ; I hid in the place where you hid ; it was there that he hid; it was true that he hid; it was then that he hid; it was clear that he hid; it was thus that he hid; it cannot be but he hid; it is time for us to hide ; there are always places for one to hide ; one moment after he hid; a delay until all are hidden ; who knows but he has hidden ; all the while that you were hidden ; a hiding place, with huge rocks overhanging from above, with thick foliage shutting out all the light, and with a small aperture opening into a dark cave; with clothes torn into tatters, with hands and faces scratched and bruised, we issued from our hiding place. II. 1. Our possessions. 2. The hour for dinner. 3. Walks about town. 4. To do one's best. 5. Every creature's rights. 6. At the close of day. 7. A farewell address. 8. Spoke a long farewell. 9. Went into a far country. 10. Came from far. 11. The day- spring from on high. 12. An exceedingly high tower. 13. The President's proclamation. 14. A road through a tangled growth of underbrush. • 15. Scouts to watch the enemy. 16. Two huge round pillars of Parian marble. 1 7. Armaments which thunder-strike the walls of rock-built cities. 18. Various reasons why we remained. 19. The place where Warren fell. 20. Men on whom we relied. 21. Several lots from the sale of which he became rich. 22. All questions of whatever nature they may be. 23. Am not sure but I may fall. in, 1. Who is there but may fall? 2. On the day that you ar- rived. 3. It was then that I first saw him. 4. Thus it was that he conquered. 5. Objections to this being done. 6. The question as to who should be made president. 7. The soldier with his right arm gone, and his body mutilated, was borne to the tent. 8. The day before the battle was fought was bright and warm. 9. When the matter to be remembered is dates, it is better to refer to tables where such knowledge is to be found. 10. The first thing to be 116 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. established is that the man is dead. — Wayland. 11. The time drew near that Israel must die. IV. 1. It was in \\\q twenty- first year of his reign that Diocletian executed his resolution. — Gibbon. 2. " It was not for such a pur- pose," he replied, " that we have advanced from the shores of the western ocean." — Id. 3. It is with pleasure that we can observe this humane inconsistency. — Id. 4. Asked whether it was to in- vade the house of God that they had implored this protection. — Id. 5. What was more to the purpose, there was a most excellent din- ner. — Macaulay. 6. What is worth the praise of ten Hay dens, I was told that Mrs. L. had paid me the same compliment. — Id. 7. The station of Shakespeare in literature is now irrevocably set- tled, not so much — which (14, 51) happens in other cases — by a vast overbalance of favorable suffrages as by acclamation. 8. But was it not possible that even this sum might meet the case ? I re- plied that probably it was. AVould I undertake an Oxford life on such terms ? Most gladly, I said. — De Quincey. CHAPTER IL THE ADJECTIVE— TERM. {Continued.) The Appositive Form. 8. The Adjective Element not un frequently takes the form of an appositive, that is, a term expressing the same thing, thought, or conception as the term it modifies. 9. The appositive adjective- term is very commonly of the word- form. We, the undersigned ; we ourselves; the thing itself; he, the mayor; they, the people; John, the disciple; the disciple John; the bad habit smoking. 10. The Word-form of the appositive is often introduced by the expressions, to wit, namely, viz., as, that is, as for instance. The three cardinal virtues, viz., faith, hope, and charity. Many words are differently spelled, as: inquire, enquire, jail, gaol, skeptic, sceptic. 11. A possessive is sometimes used appositively. John the Baptises head. William the Conqueror's victories. 12. Sometimes the base is a possessive. (Compare 14, 50.) Stopped at Browr^s, the bookseller. THE ADJECTIVE-TERM. 117 13. An appositive is sometimes used partitively or distributively. They went every one to his own home. All were sick, some with one thing and sovie with another. They each went to his own home. They went each to his own home. 14. The Phrase-form of the appositive term usually has of. The city of Rome. The vice of drinking; the vicious habit of smoking; the sin of lying; the algebraic signs of-{- and — ; the amount of ten dollar^; the epithet of lazy. 15. The appositive phrase-form is often very beautifully used in the way of metapJior. The storm q/* tear. The wintry blast q/* osiViye and ordinary forms of this modifier when of the phrase-form. The city of Boston (App.). The streets of Boston (not App.)- The sleep oj death {A.ipp.). The silence q/" (Zea^A (not App.). The habit of drinhing (App.). The evil effects of drinking (not App.). The degree ofD. D. (App.)- The mean- ing ofD. D. (not App.). The title of Hon. was given to the man (App.). The title of the mun was Hon. (not App.). (2.) Do not confound appositive adjective clauses with ordinary modifying clauses; especially in the case of relative forms. Tlie clause is appositive, of course, only when, as a whole, it means the same as the term it modifies. The inquiry what light ts (App.). The inqmry concerning what light is (not App.). The thought of what would become of himself (App.). The report of 'ohat had happened (not App.). (3.) The ordinary and appositive forms of the relative indefinite clause are especially liable to be confounded. The rule above given will enable us to decide. Whomsoever he saw idle -Rm he punished (App.). Whatever he saith vnto you do IT (.\pp.). Wherever there is any work to be done there is the place for you to be (App.). But, Whatever this thing may be I will. have nothing to do with it (not App.). Whatever he may say about this matter, it certainly does not in the least con- cern him (not App.). THE ADJECTIVE-TERM. 119 Exercise 40. Do the same work as before ; name all nouns^ adjectives, and apposU live terms, ILLUSTRATIONS. The fact that he came. A N.-T. of the Cx. W.-f. of which yac< is B., and mod. by rem., an App. Adj.- T. of the Dem. C.-f. The order for the town to be burned. A N.-T. of the Cx. W.-f. ; order is B., and mod. by rem., an App. Adj.-T. of the Inf. C.-f. (Adjunc.) All departed, every one to his own home. A simple sentence, all every one is Subj., a N.-T. of Cx. W.-f., of which all is B., and mod. by every one, an App. Adj. T., of Cx. W.-f. Departed to his own home is Pred., of which departed is B., and mod. by rem., Cx. P.-f., etc. I. 1. The letter b. 2. We ourselves. 3. The practice of smok- ing. 4. The evil of smoking. 5. Asked the name of the poem. 6. Asked the origin of the name of " Thanatopsis." 7. Called at Smith's the tailor. 8. Stopped in Smith the tailor's shop. 9. The three principal orders of Architecture, namely: the Doric, the Ionic, and the Corinthian. 10. Spoke of Shakespeare's use of the word reck, that is, care. 11. The four great periods of the world: namely: the golden, the silver, the brazen, and the iron age. 12. The degree of LL. D. 13. The meaning of LL. D. II. The space of a mile ; the rite of circumcision ; the importance of circumcision; the name of dominus. — Gibbon; the title of mayor. — Id. ; the appellation of great. — Id. ; the ridiculous epi- thets of the bard, the stammerer, the fat, and the simple. — Id. ; the Greek word Basileus. — Id. ; the science of music; the study of music; the age of ten; the fire of his wrath; the severity of his wrath; the vocation of law; the value of law; a measure of five yards; the profession of medicine ; the month of July ; the heat of July ; the quantity of a bushel; the business of a grocer. III. 1. The sad thought that all must die. 2. The thought that you had in your mind. 3. That all must die, a sad thought. 4. That all must die, as every one knows. 5. The great question, what is the future life. 6. The great question, which we were discussing, about the future life. 7. Whoever honored him, the same he hon- ored. 8. He honored all who honored him. 9. Talked of his fail- 120 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. ure, as he called it. 10. Grieved at the calamity; houses burned, gardens destroyed, cattle driven off, all things ruined. 11. The fact of all this being well known. 12. The fact that all this was well known. 13. The fact that he spoke of this being so well known. 14. The idol cast to the ground, the idol temple purged of its pollu- tions, the multitude clothed and in their right mind ; these are some of our additional testimonies to the Gospel. — Mcllvaine. IV. 1. The thought of one Christian striking another on the cheek. — Ecce Deus. 2. The novelty lies here, that he does not ground the mutual obligations of men on a common descent. — Id. 3. The idea of one all-prevailing mind having created the whole. — McCosh. 4. Herein is my father glorified, that ye bear much fruit (18). — Bible. 5. The problem how depraved men may be restored. — AJford. 6. That dreadful military execution at Peshawur; forty men blown at once from the mouths of cannon, their heads, legs, and arms flying in all directions. — Macaulay. 7. The father revealed, the son incar- nate, the Holy Ghost sent down from heaven, redemption wrought, salvation given; all coming at once upon men's minds. — Prof. Ber- nard. 8. The young officer made inquiry: Did the recruit know his family, the De Eurasas? Oh yes, everybody knew them. Did the recruit know httle Catalina? Catalina replied that he did. — De Quincey. V. 1. The crier pronounced the salutary admonition, " Let none enter these holy walls unless he is conscious of a pure and innocent mind." — Gibbon. 2. We may still remark a very singular fragment of antiquity, the bodies of three serpents twisted into one pillar of brass. — Id. 3. Saw with alarm the prospect of Spain strengthen- ing herself by this alliance. — Prescott. 4. The rare example was afforded of the same man continuing the favorite of two generations. — Id. 5. It was a gay spectacle, these Moslem Chiefs, in their rich Oriental costumes, with their gaudy-colored turbans, and their loose flowing mantles of crimson, the beams of the rising sun glancing on their polished weapons, their bows of delicate workmanship, and their scimiters from the forges of Alexandria. — Id. THE VERB-TERM. 121 SUB-DIVISION ill, — r^^ VERB-TERM. CHAPTER I. THE SIMPLE FORM. 23. The Verb-term may consist either of a single verb or of the copula and some additional term. For the sake of distinction we will call the first the simple, and the second the copula form of the verb-term. 1. In the simple form the verb- term is necessarily always of the word-form. Almost any part of speech may become by use q. verb- term. Thus, it may be, — (1.) A Finite Verb. He loves, studies, walks. (2.) An Inf. or a Part. Saw him {to) come. Saw him coming. Saw a machine moioing. (3.) A Noun. He heads the movement; ships the goods ; shovels sand. She Phcebes me. — 8hak. (4.) A Pronoun. What me none of your whats. — ShaJs. (5.) An Adjective. They will better their condition. Was worsted in the fight. Has thinned oat. (6.) An Adverb. How to while away the time. Will further his enterprise. (7.) A Preposition. Forward, men ! Down, minions ! On, ye brave ! 2. Sometimes a preposition or an adverb enters idiomatically into the structure of a verb-term as an organic constituent of the same. Bum up (= consume); keep on (= continue); stand out (= resist); set by (= esteem)', give way (= fall); make up {= constitute); take up (= arrest. So, insist on; lay up; lay out; look after; account for; look upon; keep up (his 122 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. Greek); decide on ; ma^ «/) (my mind) ; cast up (accounts); and so generally when the preposition or the adverb has no distinct and definite signijicance of its own. We have a peculiar character to A-cep vp. — Lamb. His name was much set by. — Bible. I cannot think whom he takes after. — Lamb. 3. Occasionally we find two or more words in idiomatic combina- tion, and together making up the verb term. Thus : — Get rid of; look up to ; look down upon ; have to do with ; make away vnth ; do away with. His daughter seems amiable, and looked up to by father and mother. — Moore. 4. The constituents of the idiomatic forms are often jseparated. Bum the house down ; cannot make it out. Pen her up. — Shak. Must look it up; talk it over ; think it over; gave his property all away. 5. The word it is sometimes idiomatically combined with a noun or an adjective, and sometimes with a verb, making with the same the verb-term. Thus : — Foot it ; rough^it ; cpieen it. — ShaJc. (11, 17, (d). Exercise 41. Do the same work cis before. Tell all nourij adjeclive, and verb terms. ILLUSTRATIONS. Enjoyed the ride there and back. A V.-T. of the Cx. W.-f.; enjoyed is B., and mod. by rem., a N.-T. of Cx. W.-f. ; ride is B., and mod. by there and back, an Adj.-T. of Cd. W.-f. Found trees of one hundred feet in height. A V.-T. of the Cx. W.-i.; found is B., and mod. by the rem., a N.-T. of Cx. W.-f.; trees is B., and mod. by rem., an Adj.-T. of Cx. P.-f. Of feet is B., mod. by one hundred, an Adj.-T. of Cx. W.-f. Of one hundred feet is Sec. B., and mod. by in height, an Adj.-T. of S. P.-f. Made the meaning out. A V.-T. of the Cx. W.-f., of which ma^Ze out is B., and mod. by rem., a N.-T. of Cx. W.-f. I. 1. Insists on my going. 2. Has laid out much money. 3. Can- not account for it satisfactorily. 4. The supports gave way. 5. Burned up many buildings of fifty feet in height. 6. Stood out against the assailing foe for many months. 7. Kept on his course of most ruinous intemperance. 8. Looks down upon all his best friends even^ 9. Has much to do with public affairs. 10. Penned the poor persons up in a room ten feet long and six feet wide. 11. Saw THE VERB-TERM. 123 very large trees. 12. Trees two hundred feet high and ten feet through (^AroM^^ = thick). 13. Keeps up his Latin. 14. Shall decide on this. Has laid up much money. n. 1. Law which is what science seeks. — Hopkins. 2. The ques- tion what is it that consciousness gives. — Id. 3. We are able to state precisely what has not always been done, the relation between Christianity as a remedial system and moral philosophy. — Id. 4. In the activity of the susceptibilities the movement is from without in- ward. — Id. 5. We always feel ourselves at liberty to forego the enjoyment of pleasures. — Id. 6. The distress occasioned by even the smallest particle of food getting entangled in the larynx. — Dr. Dalton. 7. Enjoyed the singular privilege of bestowing pardon on slaves. — Gibbon. 8. A lively writer has not hesitated to pronounce Colchis the Holland of antiquity. — Id. 9. The name of Cyril of Alexandria is famous in controversial story, and the title of Saint is a mark that his opinions and his party have finally prevailed. — Id. 10. The triumph of Nestorius was clouded by the name of in- cendiary. — Id. 11. We cannot account for his coming. 12. The formal determination of making away with (23, 3) Christ. — French. 13. Sent W. to look after your business. CHAPTER IL THE VERB-TERM. (Continued.) The Copula Form. 6. The Verb-term always embraces two d^tinct con- stituents : that which simply affirms and that which is affirmed. Both these parts may be incorporated into one word, or they may be separated into two. When thus separated the affirming element is termed the copula, and that which is affirmed, because it completes the full pred- ication, the complement. Thus: — It rains = is raining. It snoiOA = is snowing. In these examples we have the two forms : that in which the cop- ula or affirming element is incorporated and the form in which it is riepnrated. • Remark. When the copula is combined with the present pnrtici- 124 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. pie as complement, the two constitute what is termed in grammar the progressive form of the verb ; when combined with the past parti- ciple, they constitute the passive voice form of the verb. It matters not, however, what the completing word is, whether present participle, or past participle, or adjective, or noun; any term whatsoever, used with the copula to complete the predication, that is, to indicate the thing predicated, is a complement term and must be so considered. 7. All mood, tense, and voice modifications belong to the copula and not to the complement. This is suffi- ciently evident when the copula is wholly differentiated fi-om the complement. In such cases the copula always exhibits these forms. Thus : — He is studious ; may have been studious; could have been studious. He was working; should have been working. He was a hero; 7Jiay have been a hero; can be a hero; must have been a hero. 8. When the copula is only partially differentiated, these are partly exhibited in the copula and partly incor- porated. He has loved = has (been) loving; might have worked = might have (been) working. 9. Copula forms, when composed of more than one word, consist frequently (tf the verb to be, combined with the so-call«l auxiliary verbs. There are, however, cer- tain other forms, not generally regarded as auxiliary verbs, which, nevertheless, are mere modifications of the copula and should be so regarded. Such are the follow- ing:— He is to be present ; was to be ; has to be ; had to be ; was to have been ; might have had to be ; ought to have been ; was wont to be ; was accustomed to be ; u^ed to be ; was about to be ; was going to be ; is mU- ing to be; seems to be; appeared to be; is apt to be ; is used to being ; is bound to be ; has had to be. Remark 1. Now all these are mere mx)od forms of the copula, as truly as the more commonly recognized forms with tJie auxiliary may, THE VERB-TERM. 125 sTially can, must, etc. They are all idiomatic forms indeed, but good English. They are not mechanical combinations but organic forms of language as truly as the two components of the infinitive. As therefore they cannot be separated in thought, they must not be in analysis, or even in grammatical parsing. Remark 2. Analysis demands simply that the copula, when wholly separated, shall be distinguished from the complement. All other facts pertaining to it, in the way of mood and tense mod- ifications, belong to the department of grammar. Remark 3. We have seen that the copula is sometimes wholly separated from the complement, and sometimes partially or wholly combined with the same. For the sake of convenience, to distin- guish the one from the other, we will call the former the copula verb- term, and the latter simply the verb-term. Exercise 42. • In the following, distinguish copula and simple forms. In the copula fonns tell what is copula and what complement. ILLUSTRATIONS. Has been growing. A Cop. V.-T., has been is Cop. and growing is Comp. Has grown. A Simple V.-T. Had been loved. A Cop. V.-T., has been is Cop. and loved is Comp. Might have been learned. Cop. V.-T., might have been is Cop., and learned is Comp. Has had to be studying. Cop. V.-T., has had to be is Cop. and rem. Comp. I. He has been going; has gone; went; might have gone; might have been going; was to have been going; ought to have gone; ought to have been going ; appeared to be going; seemed to go ; had to be going; had to go; is about to be going; is about to go; shall have been going; shall have gone. n. He is learning; is learned; has learned; has been learning; has had to learn ; might have been learned; might have been learn- ing; ought to have been learning; could not have been learned; is 126 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. going to be learned ; is going to learn; will have learned; did learn; kept learning; is about to learn; was to have been learning. in. 1. He was to be studying at ten. 2. Was studying his les- son. 3. Has studied well. 4. He studies vigorously. 5. Is clear that he studies. 6. Is best for him to study. 7. IVlight have been inconvenient for them to study. 8. Was accustomed to be studious. 9. Are going to be students. 10. Ought to have been good stu- dents. 11. Is wilUng to be very studious. 12. Must have studied hand. 13. Must have been a very hard student. 14. We study all our lessons very carefully. 15. We ought to have been working. 16. He was to have been at home at ten. 17. We have to be stu- dious to get our lessons. 18. He is about to be punished. 19. They were to have been rewarded. IV. 1. I must have to undergo. — Macaulay. 2. This lane keeps ascending amongst wooded steeps. — De Quincey. 3. Connection with what seems to me to be an external world. — Wayland. 4. They were apt to make sad the hearts of those whom God had not made sad. — Southey. 5. At midnight there was a cry made. 6. While Coleridge was being thus wholesomely drilled, — Shah'p. 7. There is a force uniformly directed to an end. — Hopkins. 8. While the Excursion was being composed. — Shairp. 9. The sufferings which were so heavily to weigh him down. — Id. 10. I have thought over what you say. 11. Campbell is bringing out a book about his Maj- esty. — Macaulay. 12. Made up his mind to come to the interview. — Id. CHAPTER in. THE COJfPLEMENT TEEM. 10. A complement is any word or any logical combin- ation of words joined with a copula to complete the pred- ication. He is good. This is Tie. The order is ^br tis to go. The inquiry is toho will gof Who art thou? What is this? 11. The Word-form may be any part of speech that can be used as a noun-term, or an adjective-term. He is learning; is learned ; is a learner. We are studying; are studious; are students. She is loving ; is loved ; is lovely; is a lover. Am sure ; am C"?? ti- ient ; am certain {= know). 12. The Phrase-form is any phrase that can be used as a noun- THE VERB-TERM. 127 term (21, 2) or an adjective- term. When the latter, the preposi- tions o/, in, out of, without, at, on, or upon, are most common. The tree is of the height of fifty feet (= is fifty feet high). The well is a hun- dred feet in depth {= a hundred feet deep). The object is of the form of a rectangle (= is rectangular in form). The flower is of the color of the rose {= is rose-hued in color). He is in distress (= distressed), in misery (= miserable), at liberty (= free), without guilt (= guiltless), out of pain (= painless). 13. Sometimes the copula and complement of .the phrase-form have together the value of one complete verb. I am of the opinion that he is right = I believe^ etc. 14. The Clause-form may be any one of the five clause-forms. Thus, — (1.) Dem. Cl. The fact is that he came. The order was that we should go. (2.) Inf. Cl. (Expl.-f.). The command was /or the city to be burned. The plan (was said) to be for the whole city to be burned. (3.) Part. Cl. The objection to him was his {=■ he) having once been a traitor. (4.) Rel. Cl. The point is how he can be saved at once. The question is what is to be done frst ? The theme of discussion was how we could cross the river. The subject of talk was who should be president. (5.) CoNj. Cl. The express condition is, if the enemy shall be seen to advance. Note. Clause-forms following the verb to be are or are not com- plement terms, according as they do or do not designate the same thought or thing as that indicated by the subject term. (See Cop- ula as Principal Verb, Part II.) The plan is /or the children to eat this food. Comp. T. This food isfcn^ the children to eat {is =z was obtained or bought). Adv.-T. Remark. Complement terms should never be denominated ap- positives, after the manner of many grammarians. An appositive is essentially an adjective element, and performs an adjective function; a complement is essentially a predicative element, and is a real con- stituent of a verb-term (23, 6). 128 ENGLISH LANGUAGE Exercise 43. Do the same work as in the last exercise ; note carefully the various forms of the verb-term; note all words used in other than their pri- mary signif cation. ILLUSTBATION, Being is a present participle. A. simple sentence. Being is the Subj., a N.-T. of the S. W.-f., and the rem. is the Pred., a Cop. V.-T., of which is is the Cop. and the rem. is the Com p. of the Cx. "W.-f., etc. The mouth of the river is sixty fathoms deep, and half a league broad. A simple sentence. The mouth of the river is the Subj., a N.-T. of the Cx. W.-f., etc., the rem. is the Pred., a Cop. V.-T. of which is is the Cop. and the rem. is Comp. of the Cd. "W.-f. : sixty fathoms deep is the first Coord. Cx. W.-f., of which deep is base, etc.; half a league broad is the second Coord. Cx. W.-f., etc. All- were in great consternation at the calamity. A simple sentence. All is Subj., a N.-T. of S. W.-f., and the rem. is the Pred., a Cop. V.-T., of which were is Cop , and the rem. is the Comp. of Cx. P.-f. ; in consternation is B., and mod. by great ; in great consternation is second B., and mod. by rem., an Adj.-T. of the Cx. P.-f., etc. I. 1. This is love. 2. He is loving. 3. They are lovers. 4. They are in love. 5. We might have been his foes. 6. He ought not to have been our foe. 7. The fact is that he was our foe. 8. For him to be our foe is strange. 9. What is strange is yet true. 10. We were to have been present. 11. Whoever was present was hon- ored. II. The area was a foot square; an area of a foot square was left; there was a balance of ten dollars; the amount of ten dollars remained; the figure is metonymy; the figure of metonymy is com- mon; the ordinance of baptism is very old; the virtue of charity is very beautiful; the height of the tower must be two hundred feet; a height of two hundred feet is not verj' high; he has to cairy a bur- den of one hundred pounds; the expression, the Sabbath of old age, is a metaphor. III. 1. Thinks himself neglected. 2. Felt himself gradually being drawn into the whirlpool. 3. Yon are the cruellest she alive. — Shak. 4. Will know the way. — Id. 5. Her breath will mist the stone. — Id. 6. And 'gins to pale his ineffectual fire. — Id THE ADVERB-TERM. 129 7. How might she tongue me. — Id. 8. Why old men fool and children calculate. — Id. 9. Hath so cowarded and chased your blood. — Id. 10. My death's sad tale may yet undeaf his ear. — Id. 11. And witch the world with noble horsemanship. — Id. 1 2. Grace me no grace nor uncle me no uncles. — Id. 13. Graved in the hol- low ground. — Id. 14. The mouthed graves. — Id. 15. Wouldst thou be windowed in great Rome. — Id. 16. To have him see me womaned. — Id. 17. God doth not shine honor upon all men equally. — Id. 18. Every stride I take will but remember me what I've lost. — Id. 19. This aspect of mine hath feared the valiant. — Id. 20. Thank me no thankings and proud me no prouds. — Id, IV. 1. There can be no form of duty without reference to Him. — Hopkins. 2. There can be no genuine religion without morality. — Id. 3. There is more to be said about this. 4. He was what no other man ever was, perfectly unselfish. — Dr. Ellicott. 5. This is what offended the Jews. — Id. 6. The peculiar feature of his works is that their scenes are always placed in the ordinary walks of life. — Id. 7. The spectacle of a great nation casting off the religion of their fathers, and plunging into the abyss of atheism. — Dr. Alexander. 8. The idea of Nicolas having founded the hereti- cal sect of the Nicolainites. — Id. 9. He thought the fact of the miracles of witchcraft being contemporary would make it easy to test them. — Leckey. SUB-DIVISION \M. — THE ADVERB^TERM. ^ CHAPTER I. DEFINITION AND CHARACTER. 24. Any word, or any logical combination of words used as a whole to indicate the attributes or qualities of actions or states, or any circumstance connected directly with the same or with the qualities themselves of objects, actions, or states, is an Adverb-term. Hence, any term used as a modifier of a verb -term., an adjective^ term., or an adverb -term is an Adverb-term, 130 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. Note. Some modifiers sustain a double relation, being in char- licter clearly both adjective and adverbial; and apparently partaking as much of the nature of the one as of the other. Thus : — He SAT a long time with his eyes closed, or he, with his eyes closed, sat a long time. So, He came shouting; they went running; she went off mad ; she arrived home in great destitutkm. He stl'hied all da}' with a severe headache, or he, with a sevei'e headache, studied all day. So also a relative infinitive clause, the relative constituent being essentially adjective in form as well as in force, and the infinitive constituent being equally adverbial in both, foim smd force. I BOUGHT a BOAT for my boy to sail in {which) = in which for my boy to sail. Here bought is the base of the adverbial infinitive factor, and boat is the base of the adjective relative factor. 1. The Word-form may be any part of speech. Thus, it may be, — (1.) An Adverb. Studies attentively ; very studious ; very attentively ; extremely wise. (2.) An Adjective. A little above ; much below. May speak louder or softer. — Sheridan. Drink deep or taste not. — Pope. (3.) A Noun. Stone blind; sky blue; snow whiter a head taller; a mile farther. (4.) A Pronoun. What boots it at one gate, to make defense. — Shak. (5.) An Article. The more money we have, the more money we want. Not the less true. (6.) A Verb. iS»»ac^• went the whip ; whizz ca.me the hsilla. ' So, a Participle or an Infinitive. Came running; the ball went whizzing; scalding hot ; passing strange; went to see ; lives to learn. {7.) A Preposition. Goes in and out; walks up and down. (8.) A Conjunction. There were but three present. 2. The word-form may be conjunctive. THE ADVERB-TERM. 131 Went cw commander ; they condemned him as a traitor ; we admire him at toise and learned; he planned so as to deceive everybody; exerted himself with all his might so as to secure the position. 3. The Phrase-form may take any preposition. W&lks with rapidity ; cold in the extreme; severe beyond expression; taller ly an inch ; came in haste ; arrived before suniise. 4. The Clause-form may be any one of the five clauses. It is more commonly, however, a participial ^ a relative, or a conjunctive clause. (1.) Part. Cl. The business Jinished, we went home. The troops arriving, the fight com- menced. (2.) Adjunc. Part. Cl. "Was delayed on account of the bridge having been broken down. We are sure, on the same effect presenting itself, that it must have come from a cause. — I>r. McCosh. (3.) Rel. Cl. Started when it was day. Did as you said. As studious as you are. Arrived just as you left. As rapidl}' as he could run. Reads as he walks. As he com- menced so he ended. Lives where I live. Whatever happens, I shall go. (4.) Adjunc. Rel. Cl. Walks well except when he is intoxicated. They have their root in what we call the will. — Dr. Hopkins. It is not a moral idea except as it is a condition of moral action. — Id. , (5.) CoNj. Cl. or Conj. Cl. Equiv. Works that he may live. As they were weary they stayed over night. We must go, for the sun is up. She is not so perfect but she sometimes does wrong. He never goes out but he takes cold. (6.) Adjunc. Inf. Cl. He must have been very eloquent for everybody to be charmed with his tprxiking. He keeps a horse for his son to ride. Things not proper foi' chiU. dren to eat. The wall is too high /or us to climb. (7.) Adjunc. Dem. Cl. Was treacherous in that he deceived me. Arrived^e/bre (that) the sun rose. All went well except that toe lost a horse. Exercise 44. Do the same work as before and tell all noun, adjective, and adverb Wms; note all words used out of their primary signification. 182 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. ILLUSTRATION. Studies while he can. A Verb-term of Cx. W.-f. Studies is B., and mod. by rem., an Adv.-T. of Eel. C.-f., etc. Things improper for children to eat. A N.-T. of the Cx. W.-f. Things is B., and mod. by rem., an Adj.-T. of Cx. W.-f., of which improper is B., and mod. by rem., an Adv.-T. of Adj. Inf. C.-f., etc. Works with rapidity and success. A Verb-term of the Cx. "W.-f. Works is B., and mod. by rem., Adv.-T. of the Cd. P.-f. Trees fifty feet high. A N.-T. of the Cx. "W.-f., of which trees is B., and mod. by rem., an Adj.-T. of Cx. "W.-f.; kiffh is B. and mod. hyjiftyfeety an Adv.-T. of Cx. W.-f., etc. Trees of ten feet in circumference. A N.-T. of Cx. "W.-f. Trees is B., and mod. by rem., an Adj.-T. of Cx. P.-f., of which of feet is B. and mod. by teA, an Adj.-T. of S. W.-f. Of ten feet is Sec. B., and mod. by rem., an Adj.-T. of S. P.-f. I. 1. Very noble men. 2. A rapid upward flight. 3. Cares not a farthing for this. 4. Roads exceedingly long. 5. Logs very thick. 6. Walls much higher. 7. Came yesterday. 8. Uncommonly beau- tiful. 9. Thinks he is very sick. 10. Was there yesterday. 11. Writes very neatly and quite rapidly. 12. Believes he will suc- ceed. 13. Learns most rapidly. 14. The grave where he was buried. 15. Sowed the seed where the soil was rich. 16. Will be respected wherever he may be. 17. Remembers what he reads. 18. Speaks always so as to be heard. 19. A tall awkward country lad with a lounging gait. — Irving. 20. A spring of pure sweet water that stole out of the side of the hill. 21. Those consonants whose sounds cannot be protracted. 22. Philosophy, whose end is to instruct us in the knowledge of human nature. — Campbell. 23. Re- members best those things whose parts are methodically arranged and mutually connected. — Beattie. 24. Hemmed around with woes, which, who that suffers, -would not kneel and beg for exile. — Cow- per. 25. Eden was a scene of harmless sport, where kindness on His part, who ruled the whole, begot a tranquil confidence in all. — Id. II. 1. Spoke of his wandering about. 2. Asked what you were about. 3. Came after me. 4. Came after I came. 5. Arrived very THE ADVERB-TERM. 133 soon after. 6. Has all he wishes. 7. Was all alone. 8. Saw all his friends. 9. We arrived all safe and sound. 10. They went all to their several homes. 11. Sells cheap goods. 12. Sells goods cheap. 13. Observed a long fast. 14. We shall fast long. 15. Si- loa's brook that flowed fast by the oracle of God. 16. They were everyone fast asleep. 17. Took a long rest. 18. Longs for rest. 19. Will rest long after to-day. 20. The warlike appellation of Greeks was imposed. — Gibbon. 21. The sallies, as it might be pre- tended, of some loose adventurers, were disowned by the nation. — Id. 22. It must be remembered that the name of Turks was extended to a whole family of Asiatic races. —. Id. ^ CHAPTER II. THE ADVERB-TERM. {Gontin Forms to he Noted. 5. In some forms of the adverb modifier especial care is required to see the true logical relation of the same to other elements. Thus we have : — Very thick walls. Here walls is modified by very thick, and thick is niodified by very, telling hoto thick. Walls three feet thick. Here toaUs is modified b}' three feet thick, and thick is modified by three feet^ telling how thick. It might be written, Three-feet thick walls. Walls too thick for an enemy to break through. Here toe (= too much)yt>r an enemy to break through as a whole tells how thick, and migh. be written, Too-{much)for-an-enemy-to-breah-through, thick walls. Walls more thick than any others that I ever saw in the whole world. Here more than any others that I ever saw in the whole world, as a whole, . tells how thick, and might be written, More-than-any-others-that-J-ever-saw-in- the-whole-world thick walls. Walls as thick as they are high. Here as {= so much) as they are high tells how thick, and might be written w (= so much) as-they-are-high thick walls. 134 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. Walls thick enough for any height. Here enough for any height tells how thick. Walls so thick that no power can pierce them. Here so that no power can pierce them, tells the thickness. Remark. Thus it matters not how many words are required to indicate a single quality or a single modifying circumstance, all thus used, whether more or less, constitute one term, — an adjective-term if a noun-term is the base ; an adverb-term if a verb, adjective, or adverb-term is the base. ExEEcrsE 45. ILLUSTRATIONS. Men as wise as you are. A N.-T. of the Cx. W.-f., of which men is B., and mod. by rem., an Adj.-T. of the Cx. W.-f.; wise is B. and mod. by as (=so much) as you are (telling how wise, — an Adv.-T. of the Cx. W.-f.; as (=so much) is B., and mod. by rem., an Adv.-T. of Kel. C.-f., etc. Such a noise that I cannot talk. A N.-T. of the Cx. W.-f.; noise is B., and mod. by rem., an Adj.-T. of the Cx. W.-f. Such is B., and mod. by rem., an Adv.-T. of the Conj. C-f., etc. Too tired to sleep. An Adj.-T. of the Cx. W.-f., of which tired is B., and mod. by rem., an Adv.- T. of the Cx. W.-f. Too is B., and mod. by to deep, an Adv.-T. of S. W.-f. Has more money than I. Cx. W.-f. Has is B., and mod. by rem., a N.-T. of the Cx. W.-f. ; money is B. and mod. by rem., an Adj.-T. of Cx. W.-f., of which more is B. and mod. by than I, an Adv.-T. of the Conj. C.-f. (Elliptical). Food enough to last three months. A N.-T. of the Cx. W.-f. Food is B., and mod. by rem., an Adj.-T. of the Cx. W.-f.; enough is B., and mod by rem., an Adv.-T. of Cx. W.-f.; to last is B., and mod. by three months, an Adv.-T. of Cx. W.-f., etc. Work too hard for a boy to perform. A N.-T. of Cx. W.-f., of which work is B., and mod. by rem., of whiih hard is B. and mod. by too (= too much) and rem., an Adv.-T. ; too is B. and mod. by -em., an Adv.-T. of Adj. Inf. C.-f., etc. Bought a horse for my boy to ride. A V.-T. of Cx. W.-f. Bought is B., and mod. by a horse, a X.-T. of Cx. W.-t Bought a horse is Sec. B., and mod. by rem., an Adj.-T. of Eel. Inf. C.-f., etc. '=:for my boy to ride which). THE ADVERB-TERM. * 135 The same man that I saw. A N.-T. of the Cx. W.-f . Man is B., and mod. by rem., an Adj.-T. of Cx. W.-f.,of which same is B. and mod. by rem., an Adv.-T. of the Rel. C.-f., etc. The most, learned man in Europe. A N.-T. of Cx. W.-f. Man is B. and mod. by rem., an Adj.-T.' of Cx. W.-f. ; of which learned is B. and mod. by rem. (— most of the 7nen in Europe ....), an Adv.-T. of which most is B. and mod. by rem., an Adv.-T. of Cx. P.-f. ; of the men is B., and mod. by in Europe, etc. The best scholar in the class. A N.-T. of the Cx. W.-f., of which scholar is B., and mod. by rem., an Adj.- T. of Cx. W.-f., of which best is B. and mod. by (of the scholars) in the chiss, an Adv.-T. of Cx, P.-f., etc. Lived many years ago. A V.-T. of Cx. W.-f. Lived is B., and mod. by rem., an Adv.-T. of Cx. W.-f. ; ago is B., and mod. by many years, an Adv.-T. of Cx. W.-f., etc. Weather too cold for June. A N.-T. of the Cx. W.-f. Weather is B., and mod. by rem., an Adj.-T. of Cx. W.-f. ; cold is B. and mod. by too (=too much) for June, an Adv.-T. of Cx. W.-f., of which too is B. and mod. hyfor June, Adv.-T. of S. P.-f. I. 1. Very cold weather. 2. Weather colder than it was last year. 3. Weather too cold for us to work. 4. Weather cold enoui^h to freeze. 5. As cold weather as I ever saw. 6. The weather is much too cold for the month of June. 7. The qoldest weather that I ever knew. 8. It was so cold that it froze all night. 9. Weather so cold as to freeze alcohol. 10. Weather colder by far than any weather I ever knew before. 11. The most intensely cold weather that was ever known in this country. 12. Weather sufficiently cold to freeze even mercury, what was never known before, in this latitude at least. II. 1. A high spire. 2. A very high spire. 3. A spire of on(^ hundred feet in height. 4. A spire of one hundred feet high. 5. A spire of the form of a cone. 6. A spire like a cone in form. 7. A spire of the color of the sky. 8. A spire skylike in color. 9. A spire too low to be seen. 10. A spire so low as not to be seen. 11. A spire too small for a chime of bells. 12. A spire too small for the building itself. 13. A spire so small that it looks insignificant. 14. A spire not so small but it may be seen at a distance. 15. Exceedingly high U'alls. 16. Walls a hundred feet high. 17. Walls of a hundred feet in height. 18. Walls ten feet higher than our walls. 19. Walls too high for an enemy to scale. 20. Walls so high that no enemy can vver scale them. 21. Walls too high for the purpose for which they 136 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. were built. 22. Walls high enough to keep out any foe. 23. Walls as high as men could make them. 24. The highest walls I ever saw. 25. The walls must have been very high for the enemy to have been kept out. III. 1. Farms as fertile as gardens. 2. Farms txx> stony to plow. 3. Such waves as I never saw before. 4. Will come as soon as pos- sible. 5. Objects so bright as to dazzle the eyes. 6. The same per- son that you met. 7. Many and heretofore unknown problems, so plain as to require no explanation. 8. Roads so muddy as to prevent travel. 9. People wiser than the ancients. 10. Friends as kind as near relatives. 1 1 . Became so fatigued that he could not sleep. 1 2. Has more money than brains. 13. Land too barren to cultivate. 14. Acts like a mad man. 15. Will go if you will stay. 16. The most beau- tiful garden that I ever saw. 17. The wisest man in America. 18. The finest house on the street. 19. A flock of idle crows sport- ing high in air, about a dry tree that overhung a sunny precipice. — Irving. 20. Nicholas Vedder, a patriarch of the village and landlord of the inn at which he took his seat. — Id. 21. Will certainly do whatever thing goeth out of our own mouth. — Bible. IV. 1. On the banks of the river Til, which derived the epithet of Black from its black or gloomy forests. — Gibbon. 2. The rare and inestimable treasure of fresh water (22, 15). — Id. 3. Consid- ers his absolute will as the only rule of moral action. — Id. 4. Branded with the epithets* of savage and unmusical. — Id. 5. That prince, your ally in words, your enemy in actions, has alike insulted his friends and his foes. — Id. 6. This general, the Achilles, a.s he was named, of the Vandals. — Id. 7. The patriarch, as he was now styled, of Alexandria. — Id. 8. The original name of Langbards is expressive only of the peculiar length of their beards. THE SENTENCE. 137 PAET II. FORMS OF THOUGHT OR LOGICAL ELEMENTS. NATURE AND DIVISION OF LOGICAL ELEMENTS. 25. Heretofore we have been considering the various lingual forms which grammatical terms may assume in discourse. We come now to consider the various Ele- me7its of Thought which these terms may indicate. We are now, therefore, to consider in order the special logical significance of (1), — (a.) NoUN-TERMS. (5.) Adjective-terms. (c.) Verb-terms. (c?.) Adverb-terms. Note. As tlie human mind is everywhere and in all ages the same, the methods of thinking are of necessity precisely the same. Hence, when we have learned the elements of thought in one language, we have learned the same for all languages. Here, then, we are laying the foundation for the most successful study, not only of our own language, but of all languages. DIVISION I. THE LOGICAL CHARACTER OF PROPOSITIONS. SUB-DIVISION \. — THE SENTENCE. — « — CHAPTER L THE PHILOSOPHY OF THE SENTENCE. Section I. — The Sentence a Necessary Form of Speech. 26. All discourse of whatever kind is composed of sen- tences. All sentences are composed of logical elements. 138 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. Before entering therefore upon the discussion of these logical constituents of the sentence, we will consider the logical character of the sentence itself. What then is the sentence ? The common definition is, a collection of words making complete sense. This is too general. We need now to know the philosophy of the sentence. Is it something peculiar to the English language ? Is it a conventional thing, or is it a neces- sary outgrowth of the human mind ? Is it a mere acci- dent^ or is it a law of human speech ? In the matter of mathematics one nation may base its arithmetical method on a system oi jives ; another, as we, on a system of tens ; one nation may decide to have three hundred and sixty degrees in a circle, another may decide to have four hundred. Now do nations differ thus in re- gard to the underlying philosophy of speech ? This whole matter we must now consider. 1. First, then, it must be noted that two terms are in- dispensable to the structure of a sentence; a noun-term and a verb-term. These, when thus logically combined, are called the Subject and the Predicate. But why are just two constituents found indispensable? Why not three^ or four, or five 9 Or why is not 07ie sufficient. To answer these questions we must look more closely into the matter. 2. The communication of thought, for which sentences exist, necessarily supposes two things, (1.) Certain things known to the speaker which are not known to the hearer. (2.) Certain things known to both in common. Hence, when the knowledge of both speaker and hearer is precisely the same in quantity Or in kind, or when again the knowledge of the one is entirely distirict from the knowledge of the other, so that the two have no THE SENTENCE. 139 knowledge in common^ communication is impossible ; for nothing new can be given in the former case, and noth- ing can be made intelligible to the hearer in the latter case. For this reason, then, namely, because of these two conditions of speech, two terms are indispensable to a sen- tence ; and inasmuch as the communication of thought involves no other condition, no additional essential ele- ment is needed. 3. Now, of these two constituent parts, the one used to indicate the things known only to the speaker, is called the Subject term ; and the one employed to indicate the things known to both speaker and hearer in common, is named the Predicate term ; that is, in every sentence^ IN EVERY LANGUAGE, the Subject term is a symbol used to express the facts and conceptions in the mind of the speaker ; and the Predicate term is a symbol used to in- dicate the facts and conceptions familiar to both speaker and hearer. 4. The philosophy, then, of sentence-makifig, that is, of speech^ is very simple. It is an arrangement, a symbol- ism, by which the speaker, out of the hearer's own stock of present knowledge, creates in the mind of the hearer ideas, conceptions, thoughts, similar to those in his own mind. 6. Thus A. wishes to give to B. an idea of a pearl. B. has no conception whatever of the object, but he has very perfect ideas of color, of form, of magnitude. Here, then, we have the two constituents of the sen- tence. A.'s conception of a pearl unknown to B., and B.'s conception of color, form, and magnitude, etc., in common with A.'s. The former is the material for a Subject, and the latter furnishes material for a Predicate; hence, a sentence is readily formed. A Pearl — ivhite; viwoth ; shining ; hard. 140 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. Note. Of course the bond or link connecting the two constituents may be any conventional sign, mark, or symbol. In our language it is the verb to he with its various modifications. Sometimes this verbal link stands alone, sometimes it is incorpo- rated in the complement term, itself. (23, 6.) John is working. John works. Remark. From tlie above it is evident that in this process of sentence-making the speaker does not really communicate his thoughts to the hearer at all. On the contrary, by calling up and combining into new forms, ideas already familiar to the hearer, he actually creates in the mind of the hearer conceptions or images en- tirely new to him. Section II. — The General Logical Character and Relationship of the Svhject and the Predicate. 6. We have seen that the Subject term with reference to the hearer is a symbol for things unknown^ and that the Predicate term is a sj^mbol for things knoivn. Now the things not generally known are, in the main and of necessit}^ individuals and species in distinction fi'om classes smd families. Hence, the latter constitute, for the most part, the common stock of knowledge, and hence, in a very lai'ge number of instances, these more generic con- ceptions must constitute the Predicate in sentence-mak- ing ; while the less generic, that is, the individual or the species, will constitute the Subject. Thus : — The panther is a quadruped ; a quadruped is an animal; the oak is a tree; a tree is a plant; oxygen is a gas ; a gas is an intangible sub- stance. 7. Of course, in many sentences the subject does not stand to the predicate in the relation of less to more gen- eric. Both are often equally specific, or equally generic, and often both things are known to the hearer as well as to the speaker. Thus, in the sentence, '' CsBsar conquered Gaul," the hearer and speaker alike are supposed to know perfectly what is meant by both terms. Do then prop- THE SENTENCE. 141 ositions like these come under the principle alread}^ laid down ? Clearly the same principle precisely is involved. In the above sentence, all there is in the subject term that gives it any significance as a subject is something un- known to the hearer. He does indeed know who Ccesar is, in a general way, but he does not know everything about him, and among other things he is not supposed, by the speaker, to know the fact he now states, namely, that he was the Conqueror of Gaul. Hence, here likewise the subject term contains something unknown to the hearer, and that unknown something is just what permits it to become a subject term in this particular case. 8. Hence, the subject term always indicates something wholly or partially unknown to the hearer ; it matters not how much he knows about it. So long as there is anything, however small, which he does not know, there is in just this deficit of knowledge all that is essential to constitute the subject term of a proposition to him. 9. This explains the logical relation of subject and predicate in all such sentences as the following, where both terms are known in a general way to both speaker and hearer, but where always something about the subject knoivn to the speaker is not known to the hearer. Thus : The stars are suns. This man is a thief. Your brother is a hypo- crite. So in all cases where the predicate expresses action or state. Thus, Mary seivs. Here both terms are well known to the hearer, but the speaker takes it for granted that one thing at least about Mary is not known to his hearer, namely, that she sews, 10. But in some sentences the two terms are identical. Thus, right is right, laiv is law. Is the same principle true here ? Clearly the same. The speaker now assume? 142 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. that there is some shade of meaning, some latent force embodied in that word used as subject term which his hearer does not appreciate, at least, does not feel suflB- ciently in the particular relation in which he is now using it. This shade of meaning, this latent force, thus known or felt only by the speaker, is sufficient to make it a sub- ject term and with a real significance as such. 11. In some cases the speaker's intention is simply to call to mind what the hearer knows, but is presumed to hsive forgotten; — or he may wish simply to emphasize a thing, a thought, or a quality, where the hearer does not sufficiently feel the thing emphasized. It does not matter what specific thing he seeks, the principle laid down is precisely the same. 12. In all cases, then, the sentence must have tivo terms : one indicating something knoivn to the speaker 2kwdi felt by him sufficiently, but not known, or, if known, not felt sufficiently, by the hearer ; — the other indicat- ing things known to both. The former will always con- stitute the subject, the latter the predicate. Remark. It is evident from what has been said that the speaker's only material for building up in the mind of the hearer the images he would produce, is the hearer's present knowledge. In proportion, then, as his knowledge is ample, in that proportion will the speaker's work of image, or conception building, be facilitated and, ultimately, become successful. To construct a fine edifice we must have abun- dant and varied material. So, also, to construct fine mental images, we must have abundant and varied intellectual material. Hence, because of the paucity of their ideas, the poverty of their mental furnishings, the difficulty of speaking intelligibly to children, and to the unlettered, generally. There is almost nothing out of which to construct the images sought, and hence the work must at best be very imperfectly done, or perhaps stop altogether. Section III. — The Subject vs. The Predicate. 13. Only when the predicate consists of a copula and a THE SENTENCE. 143 complement separate from each other (23, 6), can there be any difficulty whatever in deciding which term is Sub- ject, and which is Complement or Predicate. In such cases, however, unless the true logical character and rela- tion of the two elements are thoroughly understood, there will often arise the most perplexing doubt. Now the principle above laid down will always be a sufficient guide and may be embodied in the following universal rule. That which expresses what is known to the speaker only is always the Subject term ; that whiclt indicates what is known to both speaker and hearer, is always the Comple- ment term. Note. Thus " The wages of sin is death." Which is the Subject term? Manifestly u'a/7e. we this people. — Bible. So, Adjective-terms. Fidelity to him; hostility to us; a blessing to his race ; an enemy to our enterprise. (3.) The Clause-form is a relative or a participial clause, or the same in the adjunctive form. Works for whoever will pay him ; was opposed to their habitations being un- protected. So, Adjective-terms. An advantage to whoever will try it. A fatal objection against mental philosophy being made a study. — Shairp. 3. Mixed Forms. This element often has in combination, — ( 1 . ) Object of A ddress. I will apologize to you for my conduct (= and for your satisfaction). (2.) Object of Association. (48, 3 (2).) Will fight with us { = and /or us); will fight against us; will contend on our side ; the wolves made havoc among the jheep. (3.) Object of Separation. Deprived him of his money {i. e., and to his loss). Took his money from him {i. e.y and to his injury). (4.) Causal Object. (52, 4 (2).) Was alarmed /o?" her child { = and in the interests of). (5.) Purpose. (95, 4, 1.) Fights/or his country { = and to defend). (6.) Specification. (127, 7 (2).) Could not recommend mental science /or the young ( = in the case of). 182 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. (7.) SuhstUution. (131, 5 (2).) I am here to speak /or my friend (= and injplace of). EXEECISE 64. Do the same work as before. ILLUSTRATIONS. Leave me your book on Taste. 3/e ( = for me) is an Adv.-T., of S. P.-f., and denotes Obj. Int Tour book is a N.-T. of Cx. W.-f ., and denotes Dir. Suf. Obj. ; book is base, etc. On taste is an Adj.-T. of S. P.-f., and denotes Obj. Att. Talks to whoever will listen, on whatever interests him. To whoever vnU listen is an Adv.-T., of Adjunc. Rel. C.-f., and denotes Obj. Add. On whatever interests him is an Adv.-T., of Adjunc. Rel. C.-f., and de- notes Obj. Att. ; him is a N.-T., S. W.-f., and denotes Dir. Suf. Obj. I. Kind to us; speaks to us; agreeable to us; a word to us; a favor to us ; a thought as to us; a present to us. II. Handed me a letter; brought me a gift; asked me the news; lent me a book; hired me a horse; begged me to come ; left me his watch; told me his views; bought me a farm; efitreated me tore- main; sold me his house ; read a book to me ; brought a book to me; told the news to us; sent the news to us; promised us everything; denied us nothing. III. Works for whomsoever he pleases ; fatal to his being elected ; an objection to the thing being done ; favorable to your promotion; helpful to your being promoted (13, 16 N.). IV. 1. Objects to anything being done. 2. It is to her that we are so much obligated. 3. The objections against the system of the world being what it is. — Robertson. 4. It has been asserted that the gloom of his life was owing te his views of truth being unsatis- factory to himself. — Life of Robertson. 5. It was for this earthly paradise that nature had reserved her choicest forms. — Gibbon. 6. Michelet speaks of it as little among the thousands of Judah. — McCosTi. 7. The phraseology about the phenomenon appearing and being connected together. — Id. 8. Would answer no questions as to how he got it. — Id. 9. Earnest inquirers into the nature of vir- tue. — Id. 10. We might talk of a combination of gases, or of any other corporeal substance, producing an idea. — Id. 11. Legends tell us how the dragons came and bowed to him. — Dr. Farrar. THE NOUN-TERM AS otjidjij 12. This work does not admit of (43, 4) mu polemical divinity. — Ecce Deus. Section IV. — The Object of Assodatimi: 48. This element expresses an association ot commin- gling of persons or things, or a tendency or approximation to the same. Though in no sense a local modifier (76), it nevertheless often suggests an idea of place. It occurs with words of Approaching and Meeting ; Uniting and Joining; Intercourse and Union ; Combining and Mixing^ and words of Motion generally. 1. CoNSTiiUCTiON. (1.) The Word-form is usually an adverb or an adjective. The things wherewith it was combined ; he was joined thereto ; united there- ivith ; knit together. Went abne ; a solitary flight. Negative Association. (2.) The Phrase-form involves a large number of prepositions; the most common are about, above, amid, amoiig, at, before, behind, below, beneath, beside, between, beyond, by, in, into, on, over, through, to, under, unto, upon, with, within, etc. The man before me ; was among them ; stood beside you ; js shut up to his own thoughts ; within the circle of his friends. So, Adj. -terms: Intercourse with the good; keeps company with the had; walks with his children ; went toith his brother. (3.) The Clause-form is, as elsewhere, a relative, or a particip- ial clause, or the same in the adjunctive-form. Associates vnth whoever befriends him. Putting this (dong with his having failed in business. 2. Cautions. This element must be carefully distinguished from place; whenever a real locality is indicated it is not the Object of Association. Thus, — Comes to the city (Place); came to his friends (Assoc). Stood behind the gate (Place); stood behind me (Assoc). Lives among the mountains (Place); lives among his friends (Assoc). t3. Mixed Forms. This element may combine, as subordinate, with, — I (1.) Object of Address. (45, 5 (1).) 184 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. • (2.) Object of Interest. Fought with the English ; against the French ; on their side. (3.) Agent. (94, 4, (1).) Was greatly respected among the common people ( = by and among). (4.) Purpose. (95, 4, (2).) Was engaged in collecting taxes. (5.) Means. (100, 4, (1).) (6.) Specification. (127, 7, (3).) He looks small beside them. (7.) Addition. (132, 6.) This man 0^17 with many others suffered martyrdom. (8.) Concession. (113, 6, (1).) He stood unmoved in ike presence of his deadliest enemies. Exercise 65. Point out all Subject and all Object terms and classify the latter. ILLUSTKATIONS. Says he will come to you and confer with you on the matter. That (understood) — matter inclusive is a N.-T., of the Dem. C.-f. To you is an Adv.-T. of S. P.-f., and denotes Obj. Ass. With you is an Adv.-T. of S. P.-f., and denotes Obj. Add. On that matter is an Adv.-T. of Cx. P.-f., and denotes Obj. Att., etc. Had communication with him as to what he meant. With him is an Adv.-T. of S. P.-f., and denotes Obj. Add. As to what he meant is an Adv.-T. of Adjunc Rel- C.-f., and denotes Obj. Att. L Clings to me ; goes to me; went with me; speaks to me; looks for me; talks of me; writes to me; writes about me; writes beside me; communicates with me; walks with me. IL Made a speech to us; for us; about us; among us; in the midst of us; against us; in our behalf; in our midst (8, 5). IIL Heard him; heard of him; heard for him; heard about him; he was heard ; he was heard of. IV. Corresponds with us; lives with us; communicates with us; stays with us; speaks with us; works with us; talks with us; plays mth us; mingles with us; converses with us; associates with us. THE NOUN-TERM AS OBJECT. 185 V. 1. A hand thrust into the wound finishes what Simeon so well began. — Ecce Deus. 2. Uninformed as to what the kingdom of heaven is to be. 3. Our reader hears at last of victory being' gained. — Macaulay. 4. Ask of me whatsoever thou wilt and I will give it thee. — Bible. 5. She said unto her mother, What shall I ask? — Id. 6. Reports were circulated regarding him. 7. Another remark respecting these men being false witnesses is that St. Paul must have been a false declarer of the truth. — F. Robertson. 8. The original cause of the Christian history being believed. — Paley. Section V. — The Object of Separatum, 49. This element is the exact opposite of the Object of Association. It expresses dissociation^ disunion., dis- severation, disintegration. Like Association it also often suggests the idea of place, but never properly indicates locality. It is found with words denoting failurS and want; those of depriving and freeing ; abstaining and separating ; excluding and disjoining ; removing and ex- pelling.^ etc. 1. Construction. (1.) The Word-form is an adverb or an adjective-term. Was expelled therefrom ; therefrom he was driven. (2.) The Phrase-form has commonly the prepositions o/, /rom, without, and occasionally others. Has gone /rom us; is iree from fear ; stripped o/" Ais ornaments; is without friends ; free from care. So Adj. -forma. Freedom from sickness ; removal from office. (3.) The Clause-form is, as before, a relative or a participial clause, or the same in the adjunctive form. 'Free from whatever encumbers me; asideyrom this being the fact. 2. Mixed Forms. The Object of Separation often involves Ob- ject of Interest. Took the shepherd yrow the sheep (i. e., and to their loss). Alienated all his irlenda from him {i. e., to their detriment). 186 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. EXEBCISB Q6. Do the same work as he/ore, ILLUSTKATIONS. Stripped of all his possessions. Of all his possessions is an Adv.-T. of Cx. P.-f., denoting Obj. Sep., of which of possessions is B., etc. Is free from whatever corrupts one's morals. From— morals inclusive is an Adv.-T. of Adjunc. Rel. C.-f., and denotes Obj. Sep. One's morals is a N.-T. of Cx. W.-f., and denotes Dir. Suf. Obj. I. Went from them; went to them; went for them; went among them; went against them; went behind them; went in behalf of them ; went before them ; for the sake of them. n. Divested himself of his glory ; could not be broken of (= from) his old habits; trees are stripped of leaves; bereft of his friends; devoted to his friends ; removed from us ; has come among us; aside from us; went from us; came to us; confers with us. III. 1. Cincinnatus was called from the plow. 2. Cleanse thou me from secret faults. 3. They rest from their labors, and their works do follow them. 4. It was purified from what appears to be its real faults. 5. He and his posterity were excluded from the suc- cession. 6. Ferdinand YII. was released from his thraldom and re- stored to the plenitude of his power. 7. "V^^lo was the author of Ju- nius's letters is not known. 8. God tempers the wind to the shorn Iamb. 9. Suspicion and distrust are the greatest enemies to friend- ship. 10. They were sure of his having been the murderer. IV. 1. It is in connection with these associations that mention is made of one Zenodorus. — Lewes. 2. The new clamor that has been raised about new religions being founded on miracles. — Alexander. 3. Lay such a stress upon the gift being new. — Bobertson. 4. The remarkable spectacle of a Christianity existing together with a disbe- Uef in miracles. — Jd. 5. Cannot prevent poor images and impres- sions passing through our minds. — Darwin. G. It is no argument against savage man being a social animal that tribes inhabiting ad- jacent districts are always making war with each other (one another) .— Id. 7. It is to this that I request the reader's attention. THE NOUN-TERM AS OBJECT. 187 Section VI. — The Indirect Object. (^Continued.) 60. The Indirect Object often has the form of the Dh-ect Object. (Compare 42, 1, 2, and 3.) Thus, — (1.) Address (45). Addressed the people; signaled the enemy; informed us; ac- quainted them with the matter; notified him; advised him; com- manded the soldiers to advance. So with the words, order, bid^ charge, direct, etc. (2.) Attention (46). Talks science ; talks politics ; handled the matter well ; discussed woman'' s rights. (3.) Interest (47). Aids me ; arrests him ; helps us ; harms m5 ; favors them. So with the words, relieve, succor, befriend, oblige, accommodate, stand by (23, 2). (4.) Association (48). Joins MS ; mingles these things ; approaches me ; connects the two , entwines the tendrils, etc. (5.) Separation (49). Disjoin them ; separate these things ; unweave the threads. So, disen- tangle, unravel, untwist, unloose, divide, sever, etc. 1. Cautions. Do not confound direct and indirect objects. When a preposition is sometimes expressed and sometimes omitted in a given case, or when the mind spontaneously supplies a relation term, the object must be considered as indirect. Taught Mm this = taught this to him, in which form the preposition could not be omitted. So, Wrote him a letter = wrote a letter to him; asked him a favor = asked a favor of ^m. Ind. Objects. 2. Emphatic Forms. These modifiers, when placed before the verb, become emphatic. To him we speak ; these he addressed; us he commands ; from you we go; of you he said not a word. 3. Here the it construction is often used, and always with force in the way of emphasis. It was to him that I spoke; or, To him it was that I spoke. It was about you ^hat we were talking; or About you it was that we were talking. It is^br this that I labor; to you it is that I come; it is o» astronomy that he lectures, etc. 188 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. Exercise 67. Point out all objeclivetnodifiers, direct and indirect. I. Talked politics ; talked to me ; talked about me ; told me ; told this; told of it; told all about it; told of you. II. Helped us; helpful to us; favored us ; is favorable to us ; joined us; joined himself to us; harmed us; is harmful to us; argued the matter; argued on the matter; separated the two; separated him- self from them. III. It was to them that he spoke; it is on this that I shall write it is with you that we shall associate; it is for you that I labor; this it is that we shall speak of; what was it that you referred to? IV. The man that he spoke to; do not know whom he spoke to; such as he associates with; knows what he is talking about; told whom he was working for ; those men that you live with ; the per- sons that we live among; asked what you should lecture on ; such books as I never met with ; talked about what you were speaking of ; spoke of what you alluded to. CHAPTER IV. THE FACTITIVE OBJECT. 61. The Factitive Object is the product or effect of the act of the verb. Unlike the suffering object it may limit either transitive or intransitive verbs. Built a house; dug a ditch; made an^opening ; invented a ma- chine ; wrote a hook ; cut a piece ; grew a man ; was named John ; was sentenced to death, 1. With intransitive verbs it sometimes merely repeats the meaning of the verb. This is called its Iterative form. Swear an oath; speak a word ; fight a battle ; go a journey ; stiike a blow. 2. In this iterative form, it is frequently a word of kindred for m^ as well as of similar meaning. Blow a blast ; run a race ; die a death ; see a sight ; fight the good fight; rejoice with, great Joy, etc. I THE NOUN-TERM AS OBJECT. 189 3. The Iterative form occurs frequently in certain idiomatic and special constructions to indicate quantity^ price, value, merit, and crime, etc. • It weighs a pound (i. e., a pound is the weight, hence iterative) ; measures a yard; numbers a hundred ; is apprized at ten dollars ; is valued at Jive cents; was condemned to imprisonment for life; was sentenced to be hanged ; was charged with theft. 4. The Factitive Object often expresses the result of opinion, inquiry, investigation, or hearsay, whether true or false. . Was regarded as learned; was looked upon as accomplished ; was taken for an enemy ; this passes for good money ; he passes for smart ; was deemed a hypocrite. 5. The Factitive Object is found with many verbs used idiomatically. Take fire ; take aim ; take cold ; bear stvay ; cast a shade ; make use ; take notice ; struck unih blindness ; come to blows ; smitten with palsy. 6. The Factitive Object is often found in connection with a Suffering Object. Name him John ; struck me a blow ; cut him a piece ; asked him a question ; sung him a song ; painted his house white. (See 43-47.) So, also, the Degree form of the Fact. Obj. (120, 4 (1)). Sung himself hoarse; worked himself weary ; froze the cloth stiff; heated the iron red, rocked himself asleep; planed the Doard smooth. 7. Construction. (1.) The Word-form is commonly a noun- term, as above, and occurs very often. It is also not infrequently an adjective. The water became wine ; he died a good death ; painted white ; was colored blue. (2.) The Word-form is often conjunctive with as. Regarded him as a friend; looked upon him as my enemy; he was refjarded 190 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. (3.) The Phrase-form (an advecb-term) has usually the prepo- fiitions ?o, m, into, and sometimes ybr and with. Cut to pieces; rent in tlkiin; three joined in one; divided into parts; tumble into ruin; engr&yed. with Jigures; -was charged with theft ; was apprized at ten dollars; was held at jive guineas; took himyor his brother; so, ^(^'.-terms. The invention of printing; the manufacture of doth ; development into life. (4.) The word and the phrase form sometimes seem hardly to dif- fer in force. Compare 43, 2 (2). Died a happy death = died with a happy death. Blew a loud blast = blew •oith a loud blast, etc. (5.) Here, also, phrase-forms are sometimes of the nature of direct Factitive Objects (43, 2 (2)). Dream of something (= dream something). Dreamed of falling {= that he fell). (6.) The Clause-form may be any one of the five clause-forms, except only the conjunctive. Made him (to) go ; caused the thing to be done ; thought that he shoidd speak ; invented what everybody admired. So, Adj.-terms. The expectation thai he would come. The command ^or thi army to murch. (7.) Cautions. (1.) A Suffering and a Factitive Object fol- lowing a verb (51, 6) must not be confounded with infinitive clause- forms when the copula is omitted (12, 17). Thus: — Made him'k.ing. Here him is not the rea? object of made (12, 24). Such clearly is not the sense. The meaning is, made him to be king. So, made the stick straight ; created her queen; esteemed him wise; imagined us innocent. (2.) Distinguish carefully such forms as the following: — (a.) Thought him my friend. Inf. CI. (6.) Regarded him as my fnend. W.-f, (c.) Considered him wise. Inf. CI. (d.) Considered him as wise. W.-f. (e.) Esteem such as he. Rel. CI. (f) He was thought to be wise. Inf. CI. ig.) He was regarded a5 icise. W.-f. (h.) He was considered wise. Inf. CI. (f.) He was considered as wise. W.-f. In the above, all italicized terms, except in (e), (/), and (h), are Factitive Objects, — (e) is an Adj.-T., and (/) and {h) are subject terms (12, 12), facti- tive in notion, 41, (3). (3.) The Factitive Object, when of the clause-form, must be care- fully distinguished from the Suffering Object. Remember that fac- titive objects have no existence, in the form indicated, prior to the action expressed by the principal verb. Hence, the expression of THE NOUN-TERM AS OBJECT. 191 any existing fact is suffering object; but the wording of one's thought is something neWj and therefore factitive. So, all imperative clauses, since they all create an obligation ^34, 2), are obviously factitive. Told what you said. Suf. Obj. Thought that he should say something. Fact. Obj. Said that you had come. Suf. Obj. Thought that you might come. Fact. Obj. CoiisideTed what you said. Suf. Obj. Considered himself iniined. Fact. Obj. Said that he had gone. Suf. Obj. Ordered that he should go. Fact. Obj. Ordered him to be sent. Fact. Obj. Thought that he ought to go. Fact. Obj. Obliged him to go. Fact. Obj. Found that he was going. Suf. Obj. Knew o/ his (= him) going. Suf. Obj. The command for him to go. Fact. Obj. (App. form). 8. Mixed Forms. The Factitive Object often involves the adverb- ial element of Degree (120, 4, (1)). Here the Word-form is com- monly adjective. Bleached white (= to whiteness); frozen • sfi/f (= to stiffness); planed smooth (= to smoothness). So, vrrung dry ; stretched straight ; hsLUxmered thin ; shut tight; washed c/eaw ; polished bright ; he&ted hot. The phrase-form of the above is common. BsLshed to atoms ; heated to redness; sharpened to a point; frozen to death; broken into a thousand pieces ; reduced to nothing. Ex:eKCiSE 67. L^ Do the same work as lefore. ^ Wash me white as snow. Me is a N.-T. of S. W.-f. and denotes Dir. Suf. Obj. White as snow is an Adj.-T. of Cx. W.-f., and denotes Fact. Obj., of which white is B. and mod. by rem., etc. Called him learned. Him is a N.-T. of S. W.-f., and denotes Dir. Suf. Obj. Learned is an Adj.-T. of S. W.-f., and denotes Fact. Obj. Wrung the cloth dry. The cloth is a N.-T. of Cx. W.-f., and denotes Dir. Suf. Obj. Dry is an Adv.-T. of S. W.-f., and denotes Fact. Obj. with Degree. Thou2;ht that he was right. That he was right is a N.-T. of Dem. C-f., and denotes Fact. Obj. I. Digs stones; digs holes; digs forme; digs with me; digs be- side me. JI. Cut an opening; cut a board ; cut a caper; cut my aci\on what is light. App. Tlh.Q qxxQ^Hon of what is light. App. The talk about what light is. Non-App. (3.) A term used figuratively may be followed by a phrase-form iv'ith of, used, — (a.) Appositively and expressing designation, (b.) Non-appositively and expressing designation. (c.) Non-appositively and expressing various adverbial elements. These must be carefully distinguished. Thus: — (a.) App. as Desig. The stream of life {i. e., the stream, viz., life): the storm of war (t. «., the storm, viz., war); the sleep of death (i. e., the sleep, viz., death), etc. (b.) Non-App. as Desig. The king of day (i. e., the sun); the lamps of heaven (». c, the stars); the win brother of sleep (i. e., death). 204 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. (c.) Non-App. as Adv.-T, Veins of diamonds; the coasts of life. — Mrs. Brovming. The bankruptcy of consciertce. — Lowell. (4.) A qualifying adjective is sometimes used merely to deJiJie a noun used metaphorically, and thus has rather a limiting than a quali- fying force. The fowery race (= flowers); the ^nny tribe (= fishes); the feathered song- sters (= birds); the insect tribes (= insects). — Thompson. Nature's pleasant robe of green. — Wordsworth. 9. Mixed Forms. Designation sometimes involves, — (1.) Description. The man thai we saw. Desig. A man who was finely dressed. Descrip. The man who was finely dressed. Desig. and Desc. (2.) Cause. ' Them, who honor me, I will honor. (3.) Condition or Hypothesis. Who would be free, themselves must strike the blow. — Byron. (= Those who would be free and if they would. ) (4.) Concession. Those men who had always been our foes now claimed our protection (•'. e. though they had, etc.). 10. Designation may combine as subordinate with, — (1.) Object of Attention (46, 4, (2)). Read me Macaulay's essay on Milton. (2.) Place. I live in the house on the hiU. (3.) Time. The day after you came ; the last Monday in June. Exercise 70. Classify aU Objective and all Adjective Elements. The appellation of the Just. Of the Just is an App. Adj.-T. of the Cx. P.-f., and denotes Designation. The fact of his having come. Of his having come is an App. Adj.-T. of the Part. C.-f., and denotes Desig. His IS the Subj. and the rem. is the Pred. THE LIMITING ADJECTIVE. The sword of the spirit. Of the spirit is an App. Adj.-T. of the Cx. P.-f., and de Bword, viz., the* Spirit). Sword is a pure Metaphor. The storm of war. Of war is an App. Adj.-T. of S. P.-f., and denotes Desig. The ending of the war. Of the war is an Adj.-T. of Cx. P.-f., and denotes the Dir. Suf. Obj. The question whereon he spoke. Whereon he spoke is an Adj.-T. of Eel. C.-f., and denotes Desig. Whereon is an Adv.-T. of S. W.-f., and denotes Obj. Att. The question what heat is. What heat is is an App. Adj.-T. of Rel. C.-f., and denotes Desig. I. The beginning of war ; the talk of war; the tempest of war; the argument about war; the fact that there is war; the fact of there being a war; tlie war which is now raging; a war which is bloody; the closing of the war. XL The dark night; a night which was dark; the night that I mentioned; loves the night; a lover of night; an address to night; spoke of the night; rejoices in night; day merged into night; the silver queen of night. HI. The desire of life; desires life; am fond of life;' the stream of life; knows little of life; death changed into life; gave him life; made him live; clings to life. IV. The full meridian of his glory; rills of oily eloquence; — Cowper : my May of life. — Shak. ; of praise a mere glutton ; the fires of passion ; the great eye of heaven. — Spencer ; the modern archi- tects of sentences. — Lowell ; the landscape gardeners of literature. — Id. ; smothered the simplicity of Chaucer under feather-beds of verbiage. — Id. ; the wheels of weary life. — Dryden ; I am lost in my own web of thought. :— Id. ; faith builds a bridge across the gulf of death . — Young ; our earthly house of this tabernacle ; the dregs of life ; " Through all depths of sin and loss Drops the plummet of thy Cro'ss." V. 1. The niece is the plump little black-eyed Dolores already mentioned. — Irving. 2. The adjacent valleys, no one of which but is the scene of some wonderful tale. — Id. 3. The good Antonia is a woman of strong and intelligent, though uncultivated mind. — Id. 4. The natural magic and simple alchemy which made his am- ple treasures to overflow. — Id. 5. Downy sleep, death's counter- 206 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. feit. — Shak. 6. Memory, the warder of the brain. — Id. 7. Eat- ing the bitter bread of disappointment. — Id. 8. The milk of human kindness. — Id. 9. The clouds, those beauteous robes of heaven. — Young. 10. To spend the Sabbath of old age in peace. — Words- worth. VI. The name of Candix has been extended to the whole island. — Gibbon. 2. The sun of science has arisen in the West. — Id. 3. The Uttle human tadpole which the old toad of a father would not suffer to stay. — De Quincey. 4. James VL, the thick-speaking, unwashed pedant, acquired the name of the British Solomon. 5. Has this great advantage, that every change of sovereign super- sedes old quarrels. — Mommsen. 6. The rumor of the consul hav- ing returned to Rome. — Id. 7. The phenomenon of this northern race emerging amidst the Greek nations. — Id. 8. This is Aris- totle's famous doctrine, that virtue is a mean, a harmony of man's powers. — Shairp. 9. Prosperity succeeded by cruel reverses, hap- piness suddenly clouded, success bravely won, the austerer victory of failure manfully borne, these things make a life truly eventful. — R. H. Stoddard. CHAPTER IL CONNECTION. 62. It is often desirable to draw especial attention, not to the object or the action itself., but to some attri- bute or quality of the same, or to some circumstance con- nected with it. In this case the former modifying terms become the hase and the former base becomes the modi- fier., constituting the element of Connection. The orig- inal base, which thus as modifier constitutes the element under consideration, may be a noun-term or a verb-term ; hence, the new base may be derived from either an ad- jective or an adverb modifier. 1. Adjective-terms. (1.) Physical Qualities. The height of the mountain (a high mountain) ; the depth of the river (a deep river) ; the brightness of the sun (the bright sun) ; the sickness of our men (our sick men) ; the lateness of the hour (a late hour) ; the convenience of the locality (a convenient locality). (2.) Mental Qualities. The wisdom of Solomon (wise Solomon); the patience of Job (pa- THE LIMITING ADJECTIVE. 207 tient Job); the righteousness of our cause (our righteous cause); the skill of the man (skillful man); the wit of Sheridan (witty Sheridan); the meekness of Moses, etc. (3.) Number and Quantity. The number of the slain (the numerous slain) ; the abundance of the spoils (the abundant spoils); the immensity of the empire (the im- mense empire). 2. Adverb-terms. (1.) Place and Time. The locality of the fight (fought here") ; the place of the meeting (met in this place)] the point of departure (left us at this place). The date of your birth (was born at such a time) ; the time of their arrival (arrived at such a time) ; the period of the duration of the war (the war continued so long). (2.) Causal (90). The purpose of his coming (came for such a purpose) ; the reason of your coming (came for this reason); the condition of his continu- ing (can continue if so and so). (3.) Modal (123). The severity o/ his pain (pains him severely)] the vehemence of his outcry (cried out vehemently) ; the rapidity of the motion (moves rapidly)] the immensity of the height (immensely high). The imple- ment of his murder (murdered him with some implement) ; the special character of his greatness (great in something) ; the rule of his life (lives according to some rule) ] the principle of its working (works on some principle) , etc. (4.) Affirmation and Negation (155, 156). The certainty of his coming (will certainly come) ; the probability of this being done (will probably be done); the possibility of something being effected (something may possibly be effected). Note. It will be noticed in all the above examples, that the ordi- nary modifying term has become the modified term. This constitutes a good test of the element. 3. This element is also used figuratively. The depth of sorrow : the height of bliss; the grandeur of the en-- terprise ; the beauty of his character. 4. Sometimes this inverted form is used in the place of the normal form. This constitutes the figure of Me- tonymy of Attribute, and is often used with fine effect vvhen the author would direct the attention of the reader 208 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. to some particular characteristic of an object, which he would especially emphasize. Not distant, for a length of colonnade Invites us (= a long colonnade). — Cowper. 5. Sometimes in this form it becomes a strong instru- ment of satire. The sleep of LentiUus and the corpulence of Cassius were there (= sleepy Lentulus and corpulent Cassius). — Cicero, 6. The epithet (69) form of the adjective often be- comes the base in the formation of this element. The sa// ocean, Ep. ; the S2dtness of the ocean, Con. The billowy ocean, Ep. ; the hiWovfS of the ocean, Con. The twinkling stars, Ep. ; the twinkling of the stars. Con. The crawling snake, Ep. ; the crawl- ing of the snake, Con. The sportive sea-gull, Ep. ; the sportiveness of the sea-gull, Con. 7. So, any fact or circumstance of the nature of epi- thet, that is, something which always characterizes the object in the form contemplated. Thus, men always ex- ist as nations^ tribes^ or races ; bees always live in swarms ; sheep always go in flocks, and wolves in packs. Hence, we have, — The race of savages ; a tribe of Indians ; a swarm of bees ; a flock of sheep ; a pack of wolves. 8. So, also, of any fact or circumstance which always characterizes objects in special habitual relations. A pair of shoes ; a yoke of oxen ; a span of horses ; a set of China ; a suite of rooms ; a company of soldiers ; a gang of work- men; a crew of sailors; a nest of birdlings ; a bevy of girls. 9. So, also, of adverb modifiers of the nature of epi- thet. The planets, for example, always move in curved lines ; rivers always flow in a meandering course ; tides move backwards and forwards, etc. Hence, — The curvature of planetary motions ; the meanderings of river courses ; the alternation of tidal flow ; the regularity of the earth's THE LIMITING ADJECTIVE. 209 revolution; the harmony of natural forces; the slowness of plant growth. 10. So likewise of any fact^ function^ exercise, habit, or diitT/ which ahvays characterizes or is always connected with the object indicated by the modifying term, — • The responsibilities of a teacher; the dignity of a bishop ; the du- ties of a mother ; the habits of good society ; the rank of a colonel ; the position of a clerk. 11. Construction. (1.) The Word-form is most commonly a possessive. The river^s flow = the flow of the river (the Jloiving river) ; the rainboto^a beauty = the beauty of the rainbow {beautiful rainbow); the oceaw's swell = the swell of the ocean (the swelling ocean). So, the ocean's depth; the lihfs whiteness; the mountain's height, etc. (2.) The Phrase-form commonly has of. The twinkling of the stars; the growth of the plants ; the majesty of the law; the sublimity of the scene ; the grandeur of an Italian sunset. (3.) The Clause-form is either relative or participial. The reason of their being present ; the possibility of this being done ; the truth of tchat you said ; the grandeur of what has been accomplished ; the impossibil- ity of what he proposes. 12. Cautions. Do not confound this element with - — (1.) Qualitative Adjective Elements. Connection always expresses an object, thought, or fact, in distinction from an attribute or quality, to which reference is made, and which constitutes the base of the element. The wise king, Qual.; the wisdom of the Jclng, Con. Men of wisdom, Qual.; the wisdom oj' men. Con. Trees of great magnitude, Qual. : the great mag- nitude o/" rto7' to this; the night before the battle. (3.) The Clause-form is an adjunctive demonstrative, or an adjunctive participial clause. Came before you left; ere you departed; previous to this being done^ all had left. (4.) A somewhat singular idiomatic form sometimes occurs. The lions had the mastery of them and brake all their bones to pieces, or ever they came at the bottom of the den. — Bible. (Note the greater emphasis of or ever as compared with before. See 11, 8.) Note. The amount of priority of time comes under a different head and -will be discussed in a subsequent section (122). 2. Mixed Forms. This element often involves, — (1.) Time how long. I shall not give it up before I have finished it (= before and until). (2.) Concession (but with an implied negation). Before ^e had fairly recovered he recommenced his work (= before and though he had not, etc)- Hastened into Macedonia before these wicked men could learn of my arrival. Id. (3.) Purpose (negative form). We must hurry away before the officers apprehend us (= and, that they may not). (4.) Designation. "We came the day before you left. k 246 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. Exercise 85. Do the same work as before. I. Came at noon ; before noon ; before you arrived ; at your ar- rival; when you arrived; while you were away; just as you left; ere you left. II. Came to you ; came before now ; came to me ; came to my house; came into my room ; came into use; came from the East; came from his friends; came into the city ; came into vogue. III. The day before yesterday ; the day previous ; the day of the fight; the day you came; the day of your arrival; at the very mo- ment that he arrived (14, 56, (3) 6). IV. Will speak before noon; will speak before a large assembly; will speak from a platform ; the previous speech; the political speech; the speech of yesterday ; the anniversary speech; the dinner speech; the Banker Hill speech; the Fourth of July speech; the temperance speech ; the eloquent speech ; the speech on eloquence; the speech on the floor of Congress ; the place of the speech ; the eloquence of the CHAPTER IV. THEE SUBSEQUENT. 86. The character of this form of Time will be mani- fest from the examples below. 1. Construction. (1.) We have, as Word-forms, the follow- ing : hereafter, henceforth, henceforward, thenceforth, afterwards, sub- sequently, etc. (2.) The Phrase-form has the prepositions after, behind, since, and some others. Arrived after nine ; was behind his appointment ; has come dnce then. (3.) The Clause-form is a demonstrative, a relative, or a parti- cipial clause. The demonstrative is always adjunctive. Arrived after you left {= after that, 11, 14). This done (= this having been done, i. e., after we had done this), we departed. When we had done this,we left (when = after). (4.) An adjunctive participial form sometimes occurs in older English and in poetry, but rarely elsewhere. It is, however, very common in Latin. THE TEMPORAL MODIFIER. 247 Nor delayed The winged saint, afttr hia charge received. — Milton. He after Eve seduced, unminded slunk Into the wood fast by. — Id. Note. As regards the amount of time subsequent, see Measure of Difference (122). 2. Mixed Forms. Time subsequent often involves, — (1.) Cause or Occasion. When the wind had subsided,we took a sail (= when, in the sense of after, and because). Our work having been completed, we went home. The time having arrived, we commenced. (2.) Concession. This combination is very common. After all that was said to him, he still persisted in his course (= aft er and in spite of, etc.). (3.) Designation. Arrived the first day after the battle. II *^ «^ E^ »s '^-^ ^/^ Exercise 86.' X^^"^ ^T} Do the same work as in the previous Exercise. .^^ -W I A. I. Mows grass, a good swath, after dinner, after he dines, before" " light, before it is light, at sunrise, when the sun rises, in the meadow, on the hill sides, across the field, around the field, when he chooses, what he chooses, for us, for whoever will pay him. II. Plays after work, after sunset, after the sun has set, base ball, with us, in the evening, in the park, on the green sward, by the river, whatever is pleasant, a good play, with whoever will play with him. III. Came home at midnight, ere it was light, in the gray of the morning, in the rain, in perplexity, in a fog, in much sorrow, in the morning. IV. Came early; came the Tuesday before Christmas; came the day after you arrived; came just as the sun set; will come the first Monday after the fourth of July ; came within a rod of their camp ; encamped far from us. k 248 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. CHAPTER V. . TIME HOW OFTEN, OR INDEFINITE FREQUENCY. 87. The Word-form here is an adverb, as : constantly^ occasion- ally, sometimes, hourly, daily, annually, seldom, rarely, often, frequently j repeatedly, perpetually, continually, etc. 1. Adjectives and nouns are also used. A cfa% paper; annual meeting; anniversary gathering; hourly trips; has a dollar a day ; sails twelve knots an hour. 2. Construction. (1.) The Word-form is often a noun in the plural. He works nights and sleeps days (= every night, etc.); works Mondays; goes to market Saturdays. (2.) The Phrase- FORM has the prepositions at, for, on, in, per, and some others. Arrivals at every hour; has forty dollars per month; works for me on Mon- days. (3.) The Clause-form is a relative indefinite, or a conjunctive (33, 1, (2)). The form with as is not infrequent (14, 26). Goes whenever he wishes ; always arrives as the train comes up ; Ifitisrubbed on a magnet, it acquires the property of attracting iron filings. — Norton. If a stone is dropped from a balloon, it falls towards the earth; if ether is mixed with solid carbonic acid, gas will escape {if '= whenever). 3. Cautions. Do not confound this element with Comparison (148). As often as he walks, he takes his children. Here, '^ as he walhs^^ is Comp. and not Time, though the whole expression indicates time. 4. Mixed Forms. Indefinite Frequency often involves Hypoth- esis (111, 10). Whenever it rains hard, we are allowed to go into our tents (= if it rains hard, etc.). Exercise 87. Do the same work as before. J. Talks perpetually, to every person, on everything, about everybody, long talks, himself hoarse, us all to death, every day, in the morning, at night, before light, after midnight, in the house, THE TEMPORAL MODIFIER. 249 simong friends, with strangers, out of doors, as he walks, when lu' eais, whilst he works, before the learned, wherever he is, to -whoever will listen, whenever he can open his mouth, himself empty, everybody dumb. II. An hourly messenger; a faithful messenger; a pleasant ride; a daily ride ; an early ride; the previous ride ; a perilous ride; a ride about town ; a ride over the bridge ; a ride home ; a ride out of town ; a ride across the plain; a ride up the hill; the ride was long; the length of the ride. III. Plays fine music; plays for us; plays in the parlor; will play soon, here, now, often, in the evening, in our presence, before callers, an hour, hourly, whatever she knows, wherever she is, to whoever will attend. CHAPTER VI. TIME HOW LONG, OR DURATION. 88. Duration like extent of space (81, 2) may be in- dicated in four ways. We may mark, — (1.) The period itself. (2.) The beginning of the period, the end being known. (3.) The end of the period, the beginning being known. (4.) The beginning and the end of the period. Stayed a month ; stayed since June ; stayed until October ; stayed from June to October. 1. The beginning and the end of a period is sometimes indicated by a single phrase-form. Rome was not built in a day. 2. Construction. (1.) The Word-form when referring to a definite j)eriod is usually a noun ; when to an indefinite, usually an adverb or an adjective. Shall stay rt week; Si month; always ; forever ; eternally. An everlasting ]oy ] a. momentary Tp\e&s\ive; an Aour's delight. (2.) Duration, marked by the end of the period, is often indicated Vy the conjunctive word-form as yet. As yet they had never known what poverty is (= up to this time). (3.) The Phrase-form has the prepositions during, for, through^ throughout, of, in, within, from, to. 250 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. Continned during the month; through the year; after May; from May to June ; writes a discourse at one sitting. ^ Shall be gone a month. From everlasting to everlasting thou art God. — Bible. (5.) The Clause-form is adjunctive, demonstrative, participial, or relative. Shall remain uTitil the snow comes; has been here since the birds came; shall remain while the storm continues. 6. Mixed Forms. Time How Long may combine with (1.) Time Antece- dent. This combination occurs when the time element marks the end of one state of things as made possible only by the beginning of another. I will not go until I hare told my errand (until and before). (2.) Cccuse. We have this combination very frequently, and it occurs when the time element marks the duration of some acting force or influence with ref- erence to some result of the same, of equal duration. While the waves roll the ship will rock (i. e., while and because). While the ship rocks the passengers are fearful (i. e, while and because). So, also, when this element is a word- form, not a modifier denoting Comparison (142). As long as the wind blows the waves will roll (t. e., as long as and because). As long as he continued faithful 1 continued to pay him well. This combination occurs also when the time ele- ment marks the beginning of some new force or influence with reference to a new state of things thereby produced. This new state of things is usually the direct opposite to the previous one. We did not fear until the wind began to blow (and then we did fear because it blew). They were all in terror until they reached the shore (and then and therefore they were no longer terrified). (3.) Purpose. We have this element incorporated when the time-term marks the limit of an action or an effect, put forth for the accomplishment of an end which it designates. He worked until he accomplished his purpose {i. e., until and that he might). They will tight until they conquer (i. e., until and that tJiey may). (4.) Consequence. This element is always involved when the time modifier marks the limit of an action, a force, or an influence with reference to some result coming from the same: The snow continued to melt until the inver over- flowed its banks (t. e., until and so that). He studied until he became completely exhausted. (5.) Condition. Here the time element marks the end of uncertainty with reference to some conceived act, circumstance, or change. I cannot go until you give me permission (i. e., until and unless). <■ (G.) Concession. Here the time element marks the duration of some force or influence which seems more or less incompatible with the statement in the main proposition. While he was suffering severely from pain in his head, he still con- tinned to write (:= while and though). Exercise 88. Do the same work as before. I. Has been gone a year, since July, since your coming, since you came. THE TEMPORAL MODIFIER. 251 II. Goes to-day, every day, next week, every week, continually, for ft month, for a friend, a long journey, after Christmas, at New Year's, to London, towards London, across the ocean, over the sea, through the kingdom, from home. III. An absence of many years' duration ; an absence for a period of many years; the thirty years' war; a war of the length of thirty years ; a war of thirty years in duration. IV. Consumed a month in mere play ; played a month ; spent a day in looking about town;. stayed in town a day, looking about; traversed the whole valley in the search ; walked many miles in the search; left the city at ten; went from the city about ten. V. 1. It was towards the middle of the thirteenth century, and just after his return from the Siege of Seville, that he commenced the splendid palace of the Alhambra. — Irving. 2. He joined us as we entered the gate. — Id. 3. We proceeded along the Zacatur, the main street of what in the time of the Moors was the Great Bazaar, and where small shops still retain the Oriental character. — Id. 4. Made this their place of refuge, whence they might depredate upon Granada. — Id. 5. As we were at supper, two poor Asturians put in in distress. — Id. 6. The matin peal from church and con- vent below me rang sweet (72) in the morning air, as I descended. ^Id. CHAPTER VIL THE TEMPORAL MODIFIER. (Continued.) 89. Time sometimes takes the form of a Direct Object. Spent a month in Paris (= stayed a month) ; he preceded me a month (= came before me, etc.) ; it antedates the landing of the Pilgrims; spends his Sabbaths at home (= stays at home every Sab- hath). So, — Clause-forms. Will spend what time I can spare with you. 1. As in the case of Place, Time is often emphasized by means of the construction with it. It was then that I first understood him ; it was during this time that he suffered so much ; it is mornings that I especially need your ser- vices ; it was after he reached home that he was taken sick. 252 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 2. Time is very often beautifully indicated by means of some fact or circumstance in nature. As in a shady nook I stood behind Just then returned at shut of evening Jloivers. — Milton, 3. Time, like Place, or Space (81, 3), is sometimes in- dicated by a kind of rhetorical circumlocution. Here, also, as in the case of Space, the modifying phrase is an apposition of Designation. The war continued for a period of thirty years. Remained there for the space of three months. Duration (= continued thirty years ; remained three months). Returned after an interval of three weeks. The comet will return after a period of a hun- dred YEARS (= returned after three weeks ; will return after a hun- dred years'). Time Subsequent. Arrived in the month of June; commenced in the year 1878 (= arrived in June; commenced in 1878). 4. These cases must be distinguished from forms not having the appositive modifier. Returned after an absence of ten days. Here ten days is a simple adjective-term of Time How Long ; it is not appositive, the teji days is not the absence, but the length of the absence. So, Arrived after a delay of a week. Was helpless during a sick- ness of several months. Recovered after an illness of a month. 5. Sometimes, for the sake of emphasis, the modifying time clause is made the principal proposition. In this case the original leading proposition becomes, of course, the subordinate clause. We saw the nature of the difficulty as soon as we arrived, = we had no sooner arrived than we saw the nature of the difficulty {Time element emphatic). It was done as quickly as it was said, = it was no quicker said than done (^Time element emphatic). In the above forms, the principal proposition when made subordinate becomes a term of comparison. Not unfrequently, however, it denotes time the same as the THE CAUSAL MODIFIER. 253 original modifying clause. In sucli cases we have a kind of inversion of the temporal element. Thus, — He commenced work before he had hardly recovered from his sick- ness (Ordinary form). He had hardly recovered from his sickness when (or before) he commenced his work (Inversion, the time ele- ment made the principal proposition and the principal proposition made a time element). 6. Cautions. Do not confound adverb-terms of Time, with noun- terms of direct object, or adjective-terms of designation (61). Told when you came; asked how long you stayed^ Dir. Obj. The time when you came ; the period during which you remained, Adj.-T. of Desig. Went when you came ; shall stay while you stay, Adv.-T. of Time. Exercise 89. I. Sailed a distance of several leagues; enjoyed a sail of several leagues ; rode the distance of ten miles; took a ride of ten miles. II. Made a stay of several days; remained for a period of several days; arrived after a period of several days; arrived the last day in June; recovered after a sickness of ten days; came back after an absence of ten days ; shall go back after a vacation of one week ; began to improve after an interval of one week ; shall come in the month of May ; shall come in the beginning of May; shall come the first Monday in May; shall come sometime in May; shall return in May. SUB-DIVISION \\\. — THE CAUSAL MODIFIER, NATURE AND DIVISIONS. 90. That every effect has a cause is an hituition. It is simply impossible to conceive of a change, whether in the world of mind, or in the world of matter, other- wise than as the result of some adequate cause. It is evident that causation may be immediate, me- diate, or remote ; that is, the direct cause of a given effect 254 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. is always itself the effect of some other prior cause, and this again is the result of another cause still more remote. Thus, a tree is uprooted by the wind, but the wind itself was produced by heat, and heat was originated by the sun, etc., each effect being produced by a cause, which cause itself was the effect of a previous cause. Thus cause lies back of cause, and if we trace the chain of causation back to the beginning, we shall find that, in every instance, it finally links itself with mind, either human or divine ; that is, all final causation is in its nature the product of mind energy — of .a free will. But in the practical experiences of life we take cogni- zance of cause, in the main, only as we find it in some- what direct connection with the effect produced. Again, cause may be real^ as in the cases just contem- plated, or it may be only conceived. Hence, Causal Ele- ments generally may be divided into — (a.) Real Cause. (5.) Conceived Cause. CHAPTER L BEAL CAUSE. DIRECT . FORMS. Divisions of Real Cause. 91. Real Cause may be divided, as being more or less immediate and direct, into, — (a.) The Mobe Direct Cause. (6.) The More Indirect or Remote. 92. Direct Cause may be subdivided into, ^- (a.) Origin or Source. (6.) Author or Agent. (c.) Purpose or Motive. (d.) Cause Proper. THE CAUSAL MODIFIER. 255 Section I. — Origin or Source. 93. This Modifier denotes that whence anything pro- ceeds, springs, or arises. Flowers spring from seeds; grovrs from the soil; was descended fro7n noble anceatri/ ; received favors froin us ; heard the news froiii Mm ; I had the facts from you ; learn of me ; took the disease from his brother. 1. It is often used figuratively, and thus refers to things immaterial. I extract a sweet From all my bitter woes. — Cowper. 2. This modifier is often found with words of reaso7i- ing^ judging., concluding^ etc. ; after such expressions as, is a result of ; is a result from ; is in consequence of; is inferred from; is derived from; draw a conclusion from ; etc. This conclusion follows inevitably /7*07n the premises given. All this must be inferred directly /rom the testimony rendered. 3. Construction. (1.) The Word-form is a possessive, an adjective, or an adverb. Sun light; the sun's light; the book whence I received this information. (14, 11.) (2.) The Phrase-form has the prepositions /rom, of in, by, and some others; also, the expression, at the hands of etc. Sprung from English stock ; what is this derived from f of whom are these the descendants V the conclusion derived /rom such premises ; from this we infer that you are right. (3.) The Clause-form is an (adjunctive) relative, or participial clause. Will grow from whatever soil will produce anything. Our pleasure arises from the plan being well conducted. — Blair. A species of beauty arises from fJie perception of means being adapted to an end. — Id. 4. Cautions. Do not confound Origin with Separation (49) •)r Place Whence. There is always a Causal notion in the first, which is invariably wanting as a leading conception, at least, in the .^st two. 256 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. • Ores come from the earth. Place whence. Plants grow /row oor he has many friends; whatever may come I am decided to go; while all that is very true I must still maintain my opinion ; I shall go whether it rains or shines; he got well at once, without any thing being done for him; inch though he is, he never gives anything. After what you said to him so kindly and so persuasively, he still pursued his old course; after he had reached the very pinnacle of glory, he was still as unhappy as ever; for all there were so many, yet was not the net broken. — Bible. Mixed Forms. Concession may be combined as a subordinate constituent, with (1.) Object of Association (48, 3, (8)). He stood fearless before the frown- ing king ; they were calm and peaceful amoTi^f their bitterest foes. (2.) Place (77, 4, (6)). He walked fearless along the brink of the precipice. THE CAUSAL MODIFIER. 289 (3.) Time (84, 3, (4)). She learns rapidly even when she has no teacher. Often works when he is sick. (T. When.) Wrote beautiful poetry before he was in his teens. (T. Antecedent.) After he reached seventy he did most excellent work. (T. Subsequent.) (4.) Designation. Those whom we most helped turned against us. Exercise 106. I. Is without friends; is happy without friends; is unhappy in the midst of friends; lives without the city; lives without an income; was imprisoned without the state; was imprisoned without a trial; learned without study; learned without a teacher; learned without books. II. Love him with all his faults; saw him with all his friends; spoke with him; ate with him; can walk rapidly even with a heavy burden; prospered with little capital; lived well with a small in- come. III. At least, supports himself; took the prize after all; to say the least, he is honest ; he was first in his class, and that too with poor health ; was successful in spite of all difficulties; for all that, he was ^luch beloved. IV. Don't know what will happen; will go whatever may happen; happen what may, I shall go; whoever else may stay, I shall go ; will punish whoever may stay; if you stay, I shall not; had you stayed, I should not have stayed; while all the rest stayed, he would go. V. Was condemned without a trial ; went at the risk of life ; was worthy of respect with all his faults; even though it were true ; though it should prove true ; though he were dead ; though every man should die ; though the whole world were against me ; though he is poor ; if he had been poor ; if he is poor; if I lose every cent; though he lost every cent; had you been there ; if it be stormy; if it had stormed; even if it should storm. CHAPTER IV. CONCEIVED CAUSE. (^Continued.) Section I. — Sentence-Forms and Emphatic-Forms, etc. 114. Any one of the various modifiers under this head way take the form of a Sentence ; it may be imperative, 19 290 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. or declarative, or interrogative. In this case, the verbs let^ grants allow, he, say are more commonly used in Con- cession, and suppose and say in Condition and Hypothe- sis when the sentence is imperative. Say what you please, I shall go. Let come what may, T am content. Grant you are right, the case is not altered. (Cone. Imp. Sent.) Sup- pose it should rain to-morrow. Say you were worth a million dollars. Suppose, for instance, that two and two made jii^e. (Cond. or Hyp. Imp. Sentences). It does not matter what he does, he cannot harm us. (Cone. Dec. Sent.) Is he rich and powerful f Very well, we shall make no concessions. (Cone. Int. Sent.) Has then the steamer really arrived f I rejoice. I shall soon see my friends. (Cond. Int. Sent.) 1. These sentence forms are often elliptical. I shall go, come what may (let come, etc.). Do what they please, they cannot deter me (= Let them do, etc.). Go where you will, you will find misery (=: Go thou).. Be it so, it makes no difference (== Let it be so). No matter who he is, he cannot intimidate me (= It does not matter, etc.). 2. The principal clause is sometimes elliptical. Whai if we should be found out ? Cond. (= what would happen, etc.) What if your father knew it ? Hyp. What if your house is burned ? Cond. What if you have no friends ; go forward. Con- cession. So, What if he is ignorant and inexperienced, let him try. 3. Emphatic Eorms. Emphasis is gained by inver- sion in the order of words, and b\^ abbreviated forms. Learned though he be, he cannot teach me. Had he been here, we had been saved from this trial. Be he as rich as Croesus j I will not marry him. Come what may, we are safe. No matter what he does, he cannot harm me. 6. Conditional, hypothetical, and concessional ele- ments often occur in sentences, introduced by it used expletively, and involving an implied subject term (15, 10). It is strange indeed if he has come (i. e., his having come, if he has come, etc.) (Fact. Cond. form.) It would be strange if he THE CAUSAL MODU'IER. 291 should come. (Fut. Cond. form.) 1/ men do sometimes break the latcs, IT is not to be wondered at. (Rhet. Cond. form.) It would have been remarkable if he had succeeded. (Hypothesis Cont. to Fact.) It would be nothing wonderful if the moon is inhabited. (Abs. Hyp.) Though I should lose tliousands more, it would not discourage me. (Fut. Concession.) Section II. — Grammatical Construction. 1. The Fact Condition. This modifier when of the clause- form, whether present or past, should always be put in the indica- tive .mood. If there be a letter for me in the Post Office (say If there is) ; if my friend be still living (say, is). 2. Future Condition. When the near future is referred to, the Indicative (present or future tense) or the Subjunctive may be used ; when a more remote future or a greater degree of Contingency is implied, the Potential may be used. If it rains to-morrow, or if it shall rain to-morrow, or if it rain to-morrow. (All are correct.) Near Future. If it should rain this week, or this month. (Remote Future). 3. Rhetorical Condition. Here the present Indicative is used. If what I have said is true (not be). If there is any justice in heaven (not be). 4. Hypothesis Contrary to Fact, when referring to the present, takes the Subjunctive, when a Subjunctive form is possible. If my friend were here now (not was). If this were true (not was). When modified by this clement, the main proposition is often put in the indicative mood in place of the potential, with a considera- ble gain in force and vividness. If thou hadst been here, my brother had not died (= would not have). -- Bible. 5. Absolute Hypotheses, when equivalent to relative indefinite clauses, take the Indicative Mood. J/ steel be rubbed on a magnet, it becomes a magnet (say, is rubbed = when- ever steel is rubbed, etc.). If the power be increased, the volume will be dimin- ished (say, is increased = whenever the power is increased, etc.). So, If the path of the sun be followed (say is). Other forms of Absolute Hypothesis may have the Indicative, the Subjunctive, or the Potential. 292 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. If I should go to the north pole; if the ocean were to become dry land; "if my country were to speak to me." — Cicero. 6. Concession has the same construction as Condition, case for case, except that Future Concession does not take the Indicative Mood. Though it should rain to-morrow; though it had rained yesterday; though it w?e*'« raining now; though the power m increased, etc. 7. Except should not be used in the sense of unless in conditional clauses. Except ye repent, etc.; s&y, 'unless, or if ye do not repent. Exercise 107. Do the same work ds before. Correct such examples as are faulty, I. If a weight be suspended from a point. — Norton; if mercury- be poured in the open arm. — Id. ; if the column is raised fifteen inches. — Id. ; if the open end is connected thus. — Id.; if the pres- sure is less than our atmosphere. — Id. ; if a ball be suspended by a string. — Id. II. If it be asked how this is. — Wayland ; if I am asked why 1 believe this. — Id. ; if these things be proved. — Id. ; if a sound is made near to me. — Id. ; if the student finds his mind unstable. — Id. ; if it be the law of our nature. — Id. ; if there be a universal cause. — Id. ; if youth is consumed in sin. — Id. ; if, then, a system of rules is meant. III. If I was you ; if he was the king ; if life be short : even if my friend was here; if my father were here; if that were true; I feel as if it were true ; it seems as if he were my friend ; it appears as if he was guilty ; he acts as if he were worth a million ; it seems as if he was my friend. SUB-DIVISION W. — THE MODAL MODIFIER. NATURE AND DIVISIONS. 116. The Modai^term expresses some quality of an Action or a State, or some circumstance connected with the same, very much as an adjective element indicates some quality of a noun-term. THE MODAL MODIFIER. 293 A foolish speech. Adj. El. Sixiaks foolishly. Adv. El. A sweet Bong. Adj. El. Sings sweetly. Adv. El. An honest man. Adj. El. Deals honestly. Adv. El. 116. Modal elements may be in general character, — (a.) Direct and Absolute. (6.) Indirect and Relative. ^\ng?, sweetly ; rea,ds finely ; works vigorously. Direct mode. Sings like herviother ; reads as you read; works so as to accomplish much. Indirect Mode. (a.) DIRECT OR ABSOLUTE MODE. 117. This Modifier may be divided into three (a.) The Qualitative. (6.) The Quantitative. ((?.) The Circumstantial. CHAPTER I. QUALITATIVE MODE. Nature and Divisions. 118. The Qualifying Adverb may, like the quali- fying adjective (54) express, — (a.) Physical Qualities. Moves vigorously. (&.) Intellectual Qualities. Thinks clearly. (c.) State or Condition. Lives in ease, (d.) Description Generally. Works in this way. 1. The qualitative element often indicates another notion or conception, somewhat resembling state or con- dition, and yet so distinct from it as to be worthy of special consideration. We may call it the element of Specific Character. 294 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. This form of quality is usually a conjunctive word-form with as (sometimes a phrase-form with for) used in the sense of in the character of; in the form of; in the capacity of; in the nature of; in the light of; in the way of; in the rank of; in the sphere of; in the guise of etc. It exists as a vapor (= in the form of) ; gained fame as an orator (z^ in the character of) ; they came to us as friends (= in the guise of); it operates as a wholesome force (=. in the way of). So, oratory was cultivated as an art ; we respect him as a man ; as a Christian I cannot approve of it. 2. Construction. (1.) A very large number of qualifying ad- verbs are formed directly from qualifying adjectives. Thus, sweet, sweetly; honest, honestly ; great, greatly ; wise, wisely ; broad, broadly, etc. These derivatives constitute a large proportion of the word- forms of this element. (2.) The Phrase-form has commonly the prepositions in, with, and without. Works with ease ; lives in comfort ; walks vnthout difficulty. (3.) The Clause-form is relative. Works in whatever way best suits him. .S. Cautions. Do not confound Specific Character, when indi- cated by a conjunctive word-form with as, with the following ele- ments expressed in the same way. (1.) Factitive Object (51). Looked upon him as an enemy. Fact. Came as our enemy. Spec. Char. He was considered as a member of the society. Fact. We respect him as a member of the society, but dislike him as an officer in the same. Spec. Char. (2.) Semi-Predicatice (13, 10). Spoke of this church as standing in his day. Predicative; As a church, it served a good end in its day. Spec. Char. Exercise 108. I. Labors earnestly; intelligently; conscientiously; faithfully; daily; early; late; Mondays; through the year; for a livelihood; for money; forme; at home; abroad; among his friends; through necessity; because he likes to; because no one aids him; because he has children; because he is well; because he finds something to do. II. Speaks loudly; sweetly; clearly; intelligibly; roughly; wisely; Boftly; conscientiously; constantly; about me; to me; for uie ; THE MODAL MODIFIER. 295 against me; on science; hourly; an hour ; on Sunday; on Sundays; logically ; incoherently ; smoothly ; correctly ; because he wishes to ; since he has something to say; because he has a tongue; because no one prevents him ; through an interpreter ; whenever anyone listens; wherever he happens to be; while he is working; what he pleases. III. Argues with power; moves with rapidity ; deals with fairness ; said with solemnity; chilled with cold; struck with astonishment; rejoices with great joy ; lives with strangers ; was popular with some ; unhappy with all his riches ; shall arrive soon with a fair wind ; ad- vanced-^ith a view to cross the stream ; corresponds with us ; failed to secure his situation with all his recommendations. IV. 1. Wisely therefore it is ordered, that we should have Nature for our instructor. — Lord Karnes. 2. It is surprising how quickly and for the most part, how carefully, we judge of character. — Id. 3. The members of a period connected by proper copulatives, glide smoothly arid gently along. — Id. 4. Antithesis ought only occa- sionally to be studied, when it is naturally demanded by the com- parison or opposition of objects. — Jamieson^s Rhel. 5. Oratory is the art of speaking justly, methodically, floridly, and copiously, upon any subject. CHAPTER 11. QUANTITATIVE MODE. Nature and Divisions. 119. This Modifier expresses the quantity of a given quality ., as indicated by an adjective or an adverb term. Very wise; very wisely; exceedingly proud; exceedingly proudly; intensely interesting. 1. Verb-terms expressive of mental state and action^ feeling., and emotion (11, 1), are often modified by this element. Rejoices greatly; grieves beyond measure; sorrows immoderately; values highly. 2. The Quantitative element may mark, — (a.) Degree. (b.) Measure of Magnitude. (c.) Measure of Difference. 296 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. Section I. — Degree. 120. Degree indicates the quantity of such qualities as are incapable of measurement. Hence the quantity thus expressed is always indefinite. Very white ; quite good ; somewhat colored ; a little black ; exceed- ingly proud. 1. Construction. (1.) The Word-fokm may be an adverb, a relative adverb, or an adjective. Thus for, — (1.) MoDEKATK Degree. Very, pretty, much, well, considerably, etc. (2.) GiiKAT Degkek. Extremely, excessively, exceedingly, intensely, immod- erately, vastly, extraordiimrily, inexpressibly, unutterably, wonderfully, etc. (3.) Painful Degkee. Amazingly, surprisingly, shockingly, frightfully, dreadfully, Jwri-ibly, cruelly, terribly, etc. (4.) Complete I)e(;ree. Quite, entirely, wholly, totaUy, utterly, completely, perfectly, fully, abundantly, etc. So, also, relative adverbs. How delightful ; how noble ; what the better off are you for all your excessive labor. So, likewise, adjectives. An exuberant growth; a lavish expenditure ; severe suffering; sxcesdve in- temperance ; untold misfortunes. (2.) The Phrase-form has many prepositions and is not uncom- mon. Temperaite in the extreme ; successful in the main; courageous to thedea^j they were all killed to a man. (3.) The Clause-form is relative indefinite, sometimes adjunc. They vex me beyond what I can endure. 2. Mixed Forms. This element is often combined with: (1.) Factitive Object. Starved to death ; washed clean ; burned to a ci-isp ; fell flat ; faded ichite ; reduced to a skeleton. (2.) Space How Far. Filled his barns up to the roof; the rubber can be stretched a yard. Exercise 109. Cla:vill arrive in the evening; shall go in my carriage ; shall stay in my room ; was cut in two ; was rent in twain ; will be back in ah hour ; was successful in the main ; went in a hurry ; sat in silence. Section II. — Measure of Magnitude. 121. This modifier expresses the quantity of such qual- ities as are capable of measurement, as, for instance, those expressive of physical dimension^ age^ quantity^ weighty or speed. Quantity of this kind may be indicated either definitely or indefinitely. Ten feet high ; a mile long ; forty years old ; a one-pound weight. Def. Quantity. Exceedingly high; immensely }ong\ quite old; somewhat heavy. Indef. Quantity. 1. This modifier, as indicating the quantity or measure of a quality, occurs, of course, only with words of quality. Hence it is usually found with adjective and adverb- terms, and with verbs which involve a qualitative notion. The fare was diminished /rom three dollars to two (diminished = made lower, a word of quality). So, The price was advanced /rom one dollar to two; the road was lengthened /ro7n ten miles to twenty; the well was deepened /rom twenty to thirty feet. 2. Sometimes the word of quality is not expressed. Id 298 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. all such cases, however, the conception of quality is evi- dently /07 preciated. — Jordan. 5. The Turks and their allies marched in seven equal and artificial divisions. — Gibbon. G. If the di'struction was less complete, it was owing to the experience which had taught the Moslems to keep at a safe distance. — Id. 7. By confession even of priestly hatred no art or science scarcely was foreign to this universal scholar, who was deep in thought, indefatigable in reading, and eloquent in diction. — Alford. 8. In the case of sight, if the question be asked what produces this knowledge, we can give no answer. — Wayland. 8. He grew up in loveliness of' soul, And this deep mountain valley was to him Soundless with all its streams. — Wordsworth. Section III. — Conformity. 128. Conformity is that in accordance with which any- thing is or is done. Was condemned according to law ; she was dressed to her taste , was chosen by the people contrary to custom (Negative Conf.). 1. This element may be easily distinguished when it seems to be obscure, from the fact that the expression, " in conformity with," may be used always, and make good sense. Dresses fashionably (= in conf. with fashion). Resulted as I told you (= in conf. with what I told you). Made peace on this condi- tion (= in conf. with this condition). 2. Construction. (1.) The Word-form is an adverb or an adjective. A legal trial (= according to law); the customary celebration (= according to custom); my usual occupation (= in conformity with habit or use); w&s justly condemned ; legally convicted. Negative Form; extraordinary proceedings (contrary to custom); unwonted gatherings ; illegal trial ; one deports him orderly, the other contrariwise. (2.) The Phrase-form has to, on, under, at, with, by, in, afteri according to, in accordance with, in conformity wUh, pursuant to, agree' able or agreeably to, etc. Is handsome to me (t. e., in my view or opinion); danced to the music of the flute ; took place pursxiant to custom ; tlie lieat varies according to the distance ; 308 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. the thing operates on this principle ; made peace on these conditions ; this is the waj- in which it works; the weight varies with the pressure ; read another letter to the same purport. (3.) In the negative form the preposition forms, contrary to, in op- position to; counter to ; antagonistic to (8, 1, (4)) are used. Acts contrary to law ; in opposition to my commands. (4.) The Clause-form is participial, relative, or conjunctive. He ought to be punished, / being judye. Writes a« I directed him (in the rianner in which, Rel. cl.)- Walks or rides accoi'ding as he pleases (Adjunc. Rel. cl.). Acts according to (or \n conformity with) whatever influence is brought to bear upon him (Adjunc. Rel. cl.). He was guUty as they thought (not= in the manner in which, but Conj. cl.). It is true as I believe, Conj. cl. 3. Cautions. Do not confound Conformity with Specification. Correct in my view, Conf. ; correct in this thing, Spec 4. Mixed Fokms. This element may involve : (1.) Obj. of Interest, Went contrary to my wishes ; acted in opposition to my commands. (2.) Cause. Did as you told me (i. e., and because you told me); sacrificed ac- cording to custom (i. c, and because it was the custom). It was in conformity with your advice that he came {i. e., and because you so advised). (3.) Comparison, as Proportion (149, 10, (1)). His blindness increases with his years {i. e., according to and in proportion to). It is diminished in propor- tion to the pressure {i. e., according to and as the pressure increases). Exercise 115. L The diflSculty was settled amicably; was settled legally; was settled yesterday; was settled quickly ; was settled for all time; was settled in our favor ; was settled by arbitration ; was settled in an hour. II. A council was called according to custom; by order of the president; at the request of the people; to deliberate on the subject; in the month of May; because of the danger ; as no time could be lost. III. "Works by rule ; in the morning ; every morning ; as he is directed; when he pleases; as he pleases; before light; before others are up; according to his custom; ten hours a day ; in his garden; for his friends ; when he feels well. IV. 1. Had a talk Avitli Lady H. about tlie English language wherein she thinks herself a critic. — Macaulay. 2. There is some- thing nauseous to me in a German professor telling the world, on his own authority, that two of the Latin |)oets were ignorant of the THE MODAL MODIFIEK. 309 quantity of a certain word. 3. Upon the nearest point of land to the Swedish coast stands Cronenburg Castle, built after Tycho Brahe's design. 4. In the image (140) of God created he him. 5. The connection is explicable only on the principle of these men having been the internunciators of the divine will. 6. A practice which was continued from custom until after the reign of Edward III. 7. Lest T deal with you after your folly, in that ye have not spoken of me the thing which' is right. — Bible. 8. He shall smite the earth with the rod of his mouth. — Id. 9. Conditioned on the annual subscription being reduced from two guineas to one. — Smiles. 10. In order to prevent the Belgian enterprise becoming converted into a stock- jobbing speculation. — Id. 11. I remember my father once refusing to receive from the government what they thought a piece of valuable pasturage. — Id. 12. On Mr. N. sitting down Mr. M. proceeded to examine Mr. S. with the view of removing from the minds of the committee an impression so unfavorable. — Id. 13. Should repeat his opinion preparatory to such line being surveyed. — Id. Section IV. — Fitness. 129. This modifier is based upon the fitness^ adapta- tion, appropriateness, adjustment, or correspondence gen- erally which one object — fact, thought, or thing — holds to another. Good for food ; fit to eat; suitable /or a child; proper to read; the key /or the lock; the time /or dinner; the hour for the gather- ing ; readiness /or marching ; a reason /or going ; ground /)r my opin- ion; a good site /or a house ; the remark applies to you; is pertinent to the case ; acts consistently with his profession ; this has a direct relation to that. 1. This element is constantly used to mark correspond- ences between the capabilities or characteristics of per- sons and the duties to be performed by them. Worthy to rule ; entitled to vote ; qualified to teach ; competent to hold office; cii\iah\e of working ; able to v^alk ; fit to govern ; has a right to speak. 2. Construction. (1.) The Word-form is common. A pertinent remark; an apt quotation; harmonious chords of music; improper conduct; irrelevant talk. 310 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. (2.) The Phrase-form has commonly to or /or. A time to mourn and a time to Laugh ; good /or nothing ; suitable/or spring ; well planned /or a church; convenient/or cooHn^ ; well adapted /or its use; worthless /or this purpose ; acted suitably to the occasion. (3.) Negative Fitness. This, of course, always indicates a want of adaptation or of correspondence between two different things. Heavy /or o child ; cold /or June ; hot^^ January ; warm /or this latitude ; small/or (or of) his age ; rich /or a peasant; poor for a king ; learned for an African; tall /or a Dutchman; a mast small /or a sJiip ; a steeple small/or the church ; spoiled /or a house ; will not do for a bam. (4.) Negative Fitness is often found with such expressions as alien to, foreign to, inconsistent wiih^ irrelevant to, incompatible with. A statement incompatible with the facts; a vocation alien to my feelings ; for- eign to my wishes. (5.) The Clause-form is relative, participial, infinitive, or de- monstrative (adjunctive). Good /or what it was intended ; proper for your children to read; it is time for us to go ; a good place for one to stand. 3. Cautions. Do not confound Fitness with — (].) ObJ. of Interest. It involves no exclusive notion of advantage or disad- vantage (47). Good to yoM, Obj. Int.; good to eat, Fitness. Useful /or me, Int.; useiul for washing, Fitness. (2.) Purpose or Motive. It does not imply an intelligent agent back of it in whom it is a motive power. Plans to rule, Pur. ; is fit to rule, is worth}' to rule, Fit. Lives to eat, Pur. ; is fit to eat. Fit. (3.) Specification. This holds good for all liguids (= in c&se of), Spec; is light for a liquid, Fit. (Neg. form). Correct time for New York, Spec; cold for New Yoi'k (t. e., not corresponding to the usual New York temperature), Fit. (Neg.) Material common /o7'5oys, Spec; a burden hezvy for a boy, Fit. (Neg.). (4.) Connection. The hoar of (= at which it happened) meeting, Connec; the hour/or the meeting (t. e., the appointed hour), Fit. The place of gather- ing, Connec. ; the place for the gathering, Fit. 4. Mixed Forms. Fitness combines, — (1.) ObJ. of Interest. Food good /or children; a house convenient /or a vnall family. (2.) Comp. of Equal. It is good enough /or me ; wise enough /or o H/i^'. (3.) Comp. of Inequal. Too good for me ; too heavy /or a boy ; too cold/or June ; too small /or his age. (4.) Concession. He fought bravely considering he was but a youth (t. e. fought well for a youth and though he was but a youth). THE MODAL MODIFIER. 311 Exercise 116. I. Good to us; good for food; good to drink; good to every one; good in language ; good at figures ; good for the kind; good for this purpose ; good to his friends. II. Wishes to rule; begins to rule; longs to rule; plans to rule ; spoiled for a ruler; knows how to rule; means to rule; is fit to rule; is worthy to rule ; is going to rule ; he is said to rule ; contrived so as to rule; is adapted to rule; it is proper for some one to rule ; it is fitting for you to rule ; you are fit to rule ; he is compelled to rule ; compelled him to rule; begged him to rule; it seems strange for Lim to rule; he ought to rule for he is wise. III. 1. The human imagination, bold and venturesome though it be, feels as if it could not penetrate the depths of space which as- tronomy discloses. — Dr. Mc Cosh. 2. The reason (129) for each man fashioning a god after his own heart. — Id. 3. The thought of there being no presiding power to overlook their destiny. 4. He observes how stone is fitted to stone and buttress to buttress to that •which it supports, and how all the parts are in beautiful adaptation to each other. — Id. 5. The desirableness of more light being let in to dispel the gloom. — Id. 6. He feels now as if he had obtained what he wanted ; — a truth which gives coherence to every other truth. — Id. 7. The sorrowful complain of the silence, as cruel. — Id. B. Weaker or Remoter Forms. 130. The remoter forms of mode may be divided into, — (a.) Substitution. (6.) Addition. (c.) Exclusion. (J.) Attendant Circumstance. Section I. — Substitution. 131. The name of this modifier sufficiently indicates its nature. Will go in your place; your friend came instead of you; in place o/ music she took drawing. 312 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 1. Construction. (1.) Word-forms occur; as, — They worked alternately at the pumps; words used interchangeabHy. (2.) The word-form is often the word rather used representatively. He is absolutely impersonal, or rather he is all persons in town (rather = in- stead of that expression impersonal). — Backus. (3.) The Phrase-form has the prepositions for^ icith, and some others, and such compound and idiomatic forms as, in turn, hy turns, in place of, in room of, in lieu of, instead of. Served as a substitute for me ; he and you worked by turns ; will go in your ttead ; went in his place ; reigned in room of his father ; had a log for a pillow. (4.) The Phrase-form is often conjunctive with the compound connective rather than. Holds by might, rather than by right {= instead of). (5.) The Clause-form is adjunctive, relative, or participial. Say this instead of what J told you. In lieu of this being attended to. 2. Cautions. Distinguish this modifier from, — (1.) Obj. of Association. Came to us ; came among us. Obj. Assoc. Came instead of us. Sub. (2.) Connection. Took the place of his father, Connec. He commanded in place of his father, Sub. Performed the duties o/" Aisyrt^Acr, Connec. 'dentin lieu of his father. Sub. Occupied the position of the commander, Connec. Served in the room of his commander, Sub. 3. Mixed Fokms. This modifier combines: (1.) Object of Interest. Will go for you {i. e., in your place to accommodate you) ; selected him instead of me (i. e., to my loss). (2.) Purpose. He had a log for a pillow {i. e., in place of and to serve for). Exercise '117. L Worked in his place; worked in his house; chooses this instead of that; will go instead of him ; will go for the sake of him; will go as a substitute (118, 1), for you; will go for you; stands in your shoes; take this in return for your kindness; found this on my re- turn. II. 1. Mankind complain of their nature that it is governed by chance rather than by intellectual power. — Sallust. 2. Admonished him to court the friendship of the Romans rather by attention to THE MODAL MODIFIER. 313 them as a body, than by practicing on individuals. — Id. 3. Ju- gurtha as he grew up, being strong in frame, graceful in person, and vigorous in understanding, did not allow himself to be enervated by pleasure. — Id. 4. Kept secret what he heard. — Id. 6. This in- telligence it was that excited the feelings of the citizens. — Id. III. 1. If thou be not the captain of the host before me, continu- ally, in the room of Joab. — Bible. 2. Thy son whom I will set upon thy throne in thy room. — Id. 3. They dwelt in their steads until the captivity. — Id. 4. Their children whom he raised up in their stead, them Joshua circumcised. — Id. IV. 1. After two years Festus came into Felix' room. — Bible. 2. And Zadok the priest did the king put in the room of Abiathar. — Id. 3. Dt-stroyed them utterly, and dwelt in their room. — Id. 4. David fought with the Philistines and slew them with great slaughter. — Id. 5. He put a pillow of goat's hair for a bolster and covered it with a cloth. — Id. 6. Jonathan knew that it was de- termined of his father to slay David. — Id. 7. Esau, who for one morsel of meat sold his birthright. Section II. — Addition. 132. The character of this element will be sufficiently clear from the following examples, — Has much besides this ; receives a thousand dollars a year in the way of perquisites in addition to his regular salary. Has other re- sources than the income of his farm. 1. Construction. (1.) The Word-form is an adjective, an adverb, or a noun. TJie words also^ else, more, besides, too, likewise, are very common. Can do this and that too; is learning music also; does this likewise; some- thing besides ; something else; has nothing more. So other forms: an eariro wheel; an additional fact; ten dollars to boot ; a surplus garment; a supernumerary officer ; a supplementary fact. (2.) The Word-form after more and other (== more) is conjunc-" tive. Have other reasons than this for refusing. Is lazy ; more than this is a drunk- ard. (3.) The Phrase-form has besides, amx)ng, in addition to, mth, 314 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. together with, along with, among, including, inclusive of, and some idio- matic forms, as, into the'bargain, aside from (== besides). Many besides him ; these with many others; this, including board; five hun- dred a year and my clothes into the bargain; nothing other than this (= besides this); did this among other things; has other reasons than this {= besides this); aside from this there are many other duties. (4.) The Clause-form is adjunctive, participial, or relative. Much was stolen besides what was lost ; in addition to his having been con- victed of theft, he was also accused of arson. 2. Cautions. Do not confound this modifier with (1.) Obj. of Association, There were only two beside me, Assoc; there were only two besides me. Add. 3. Mixed Forms. Addition combines often the element of Obj. of Association. He with ten others was rescued (=: with and in addition to); these together with their wives and children ; the young, along with many aged and infrm, were expatriated; this among other things occasioned difficulty. Exercise 118. I. One besides me ; one beside me ; came one by one ; came by my request; came according to promise; more came; ten more came; has his board and something besides; has nothing else; nothing additional; knows nothing farther about it ; will go a mile farther. II. Will go into your room; will go in your carriage; will go with you; will go for you; will go to you; will go, as you insist upon it; will go, if you insist upon it; would have gone if you had insisted upon it; will not go, urge me as you may ; will not go with you, or rather will not go with you if you go there. III. 1. There were but two or three rooms habitable. — Irving. 2. In consideration of keeping the palace in order the good dame is allowed all the produce of the gardens excepting that she is expected to pay an occasional tribute of fruits and flowers to the governor. — Id. 3. The streets are deserted except by the water carriers. — Id. 4. Many implements fabricated under his directions by cunning artif- icers, the occult properties of which were known only to himself. — Id. 5. As to the summit of the mountain, the site of the promised palace, it remained a naked waste. — Id. 6. The turban was gene- rally abandoned except in the western provinces. — Id. 7. He questioned him touching his knowledge of the land. — Id. THE MODAL MODIFIER. 315 8 These our actors, As I foretold you, were all spirits, and Are melted into thin air. Shakespeare. 9. No prince, no peer, shall have just cause to say, — God shorten Harry's Jaappy life one day. Sliak. Henry IV. 10. There is a special providence in the fall of a sparrow. Shak. Hamlet. 11. What is six winters. They are quickly gone To men in joy, but grief makes one hour ten. Shak. Rich. I. Section III. — Exclusion. 133. Exclusion eliminates from the statement made whatever the same does not proj^erly cover. It usually refers to solne definite logical element. Spoke to all except to me (Obj. Add. excluded). Talks about nothing hut politics (Obj. Att. excl.). Will go to no one but me (Obj. Assoc, excl.). Have been to every place except to your store (Place Whither excl.). Works every day except Sundays (Time How Often excl.). Can write with nothing hut a steel pen (Means or Instrument excl.), etc., etc. 1. This element may be indicated either by direct statement, as, Nothing was accomplished hut this, or by necessary implication, as. Only this was accomplished. So, No one was present except me = I only was present. He cannot write except with a steel pen = he can write only with a steel pen. 2. After negatives the elements of Exclusion and of Addition may be used interchangeably without mateiially modifying the sense. Has nothing hut this to recommend him = has nothing besides this to recommend him = has only this to recommend him. 3. Construction. (1.) The Word-form is commonly con- junctive with than, in such expressions as else, than, other than, other- wise than, more than. 316 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. Gets nothing more than a simple hnowledge. — Wayland (= nothing except a simple knowledge; = also,' nothing besides, etc). Wanders in search of every other object than that directly before him. — Id. (= every object except, etc.)- The classics contain little else than histories of wars (= little else except or be- tides). I could not do otherwise than obey. (2.) The Phrase-form has hut, except^ excepting, save, without, less, minus, with the exception of, exclusive of. " Twent}' less ten; all save one; the inhabitants exclusive of foreigners. (3.) The phrase-form is often adjunctive (8, 8). Cannot be done except by effort ; will not work except for me ; is never idle save on Mondays ; the city was deserted except by the slaves. (4.) The Clause-form is adjunctive, demonstrative, infinitive, participial, or relative. Nothing except that he became bankrupt ; everything but what we most needed ; nothing remained to be done except for the word of command to be given ; is always present save when I want him; cared for nothing except his (z= him) having become so very angry. !lJothing was the matter only that I was very tired (= except that, etc.). After negatives, else, besides, etc., denoting Addition, may be fol- lowed by except, introducing a terra of Exclusion, but not other- wise (15, 20). He studies Latin and nothing else except algebra. I own a farm and nothing besides excejit a small cottage in the city. But in all other cases these words (else, besides, other, etc.) must either be omitted, or, if used, must be followed by than (15, 20). He troubles me, he does nothing else but laugh (wrong: say either, he does nothing else than laugh, or he does nothing but laugh). Exercise 119. I. Only one came ; nothing except this ; we alone were present ; all save you and me ; is a host in himself; cannot escape save by a miracle ; a pope is nothing more than a man. II. The house was finished with the exception of papering ; was finished to my mind ; was finished pursuant to agreement; was fin- ished save in a few details ; was finished conformably with the con- tract ; was finished save that the windows were not put in. III. Nothing but leaves ; has leaves rather than fruit ; has some- thing other than leaves or fruit ; has nothing else than leaves ; has flowers besides leaves ; has leaves in lieu of flowers ; the flowers grow THE MODAL MODIFIER 317 on branches; they are flowers only in appearance; they arc real flowers in my view ; what are flowers good for ? if I had one I could tell you ; had you one, you could not tell me. IV. The love of flowers; the beauty of flowers; the plucking of flowers; the blooming of flowers; the circulation of the blood; the poisoning of the blood; the redness of the blood; the freezing of water;' the pumping of water; the clearness of the water ; the ripen- ing of fruit; the gathering of fruit; the deliciousness of fruit; the growth of fruit. V. Smells the flower; smells of the flower; the smell of the flower; tastes the fruit; tastes of the fruit ; the taste of the fruit; looks at the plant; sees the plant; feels it ; feels of it ; the feeling of it; strikes the log ; strikes on the log; strikes at the log; strikes the log in two ; strikes through the log ; strikes a blow upon the log. Section IV. — Attendant Circumstance. 134. This modifier, as its name indicates, expresses merely some circumstance remotely connected with an action or a state. She slept loith the window open. He sat down with his Jlocks graz- ing around him. 1. Construction. (1.) The Word-form and the Phrase- form rarely if ever occur. The Clause-form is most commonly an (adjunc.) Participial Clause, with with, usually elliptical (13, 11). He studies with his door {being) open. He left the city with all his debts (being) unpaid. 2. Cautions. Do not confound this element with (1.) Slate or Condition. Sat with her feet (being) wet ; rode with his hat {being) off; works with his gloves {being) on ; fought with his coat {being) off; etc. State or Cond. Sat with every door {being) locked; rode witha carriage {being) in front of her; fought with mountains (being) upon each side of them. Att. Cir. • (2.) Association. Slept with his friend, Assoc. Slept with afre in his room, Att. Cir. (3.) Concession. Went shopping with no money in her pocket. Cone. Started off down town with her house left all open, Att. Cir. 318 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. Exercise 120. I. Works with his door shut; works with his coat off ; works with a bad headache ; works with his eyes shut; works with ease; works with rapidity; works according .to rule; works for us; works against us; works with us; works for money ; works in my place ; works to get rich; works because he likes to; works from necessity. II. Sat smiling; came smiling; said with a smile ; looked smiling; saw her smile ; saw her smiling ; had a smile on her face ; sat with a smile on her face ; thinks that she smiled ; thinks of her as smil- ing- III. Saw the door open ; saw the open door ; sat with the door open; saw the door opening ; the door opening, he walked out; saw him open the door; saw the door opened by him; spoke of the door having been opened ; left the room with all the doors open ; the door being open, he took cold ; his taking cold had no connection with the door being open. IV. 1. Americanisms are nothing more than old English. 2. They never think of religion but with enmity. 3. Whence did that principle spring but from the Bible? 4. This among other things was the cause of the removal. 5. Men had nothing else with which to explore the heavens. 6. They sent out unto him their disciples with the Herodians. 7. Let us go into the next towns, that I may preach there also. 8. I am obliged to you for your letter. 9. Wished not the world to do this or to do that, except simply to pay him for the books he kept writing. Section V. — Remote Mode. (^Continued.) 135. Emphatic Forms. It was in your place that he suffered aU this. It w&s for suck a con- sideration that he parted with it, etc. 1. Grammatical Construction. It should be re- membered that than only is the proper correlative of else^ other ^ other ivise^ rather^ more^ etc. (16, 20). Always place these modifiers, as all other modifiers, as nearly as possible to the words they modify. I only spoke a word. Say: I spoke only a word. THE MODAL MODIFIER. 319 Exercise 121. Do the same work as hefore. Correct anything ungrammatical. I. 1. A metaphor is nothing but a short comparison. 2. There is no other dictator here but use. 3. No man has a right to use any- thing except for the use for which it was given. 4. If a man strive for masteries he is not crowned except he strive lawfully. 5. This involves no principle, except that the party has no right to prolong the time. 6. Ye, should not worship any other except God. 7. Their re- lation is not otherwise to be ascertained but by their place. 8. Sight gives us nothing but the different shades of color. 9. If I am asked why I believe thus, I can give no other account of it than that I am so made. 10. We can refer it to no other cause but the structure of the eye. 11. Has not any idea in his mind but what one of them has imprinted. .12. Macaulay had an opinion that men, the business of whose lives lies elsewhere than among the classics, may amuse themselves to more purpose than by turning good English poetry into Greek and Latin verses. II. 1. This saying is commonly reported among the Jews until this day. 2. For fear of him the keepers did shake. 3. Have thou nothing to do with that just man for I have suffered many things this day in a dream because of him. 4. I have sinned in that I liave betrayed the innocent blood. 5. Thou also art one of them, for thy speech betray eth thee. 6. He said, How can I, except some man should guide me. 7. They covenanted with him. 8. Ye know that after two days is the feast of the passover (61). 9. I knew thee that thou art an hard man. 10. Thou hast been faithful over a few things. 11. I have gained besides them five talents more. 12. Watch, for ye know neither the day nor the hour. 13. Because iniquity shall abound the love of many shall wax cold. 14. Woe unto you, hypocrites, for ye make clean the outside of the cup. For a pretense, ye make long prayers. 15. All their works they do for to be seen of men. 320 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. (b.) INDIRECT OR RELATIVE MODE. NATURE AND DIVISIONS. 136. This form of the Modal Element like the Direct or Absolute form (117) may be in essential character, — (a.) Qualitative. (5.) Quantitative. (c.) Circumstantial. 137. Any one of these specific forms of mode (the qualitative, the quantitative, and the circumstantial), may be indicated by means of d Consequence, a Comparison, or both. Hence, Indirect or Relative mode is discussed under two heads, — (a.) Consequence. (6.) Comparison. CHAPTER L CONSEQUENCE. Section I. — Quality Consequence. 138. This modifier expresses a quality by noting a consequence or result. He led such a life that everybody hated him. 1. Construction. (1.) The Word-forms are effectively, effi- ciently, effectually, vainly, uselessly, profitably, etc., and the corre- sponding adjectives. Works vainly (t. c, in a way to accomplish nothing); fruitless efforts; useless labor. (2). The Word-form is sometimes a conjunctive infinitive form. He so planned aa to secure the position. Gave such a look as to terrify them. (3.) The Phrase-form commonly has without. They work without accomplisliing nnyihin into pyramids {i. e., into them and ^t^ethem); smoke curled up into wreaths ; gems cut into diamonds. (2.) Connection. It had the shape oj' a bird (t. e., like and of); the form of a man ; the similitude of an ox. Exercise 126. I. Lives like savages; looks like a savage; resembles a savage in features; is similar to one in disposition; acts as if he were a savage; it looks very much as if he was a savage ; it does not seem as if he could be a real savage ; I feel as if he must be a genuine savan;e ; he may not be a savage even if he acts as if he were one ; who knows but he may be a savage ? it is not certain but I can do it ; there is THE MODAL MODIFIER. 8S1 no question that I can do it ; I feel as if I can do it ; it seems as if you could do it; he looks as if he could do it; he looks as if he were a savage himself; he appears very well for one so ignorant; it is un- fortunate for one to be so ignorant that one acts like a sava