:-NRLF 
 
 BATHER 
 THE 
 
 m, o R Y 
 
LIBRARY 
 
 OF THE 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA. 
 
 ^L- r 
 
 GIFT OF 
 
 Class 
 
HOW TO 
 
 FORETELL THE WEATHER 
 
 WITH THE 
 
 POCKET SPECTROSCOPE 
 
 BY 
 
 F. W. CORY, 
 
 M.R.C.S. ENG., F.R. MET. Soc., ETC. 
 
 OF THE 
 
 UNIVERSITY 
 
 OF 
 
 WITH TEN ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 HontJon 
 
 CHATTO AND WINDUS, PICCADILLY 
 1884 
 
 \_All rights reserved] 
 
I 
 
HOW TO 
 
 FORETELL THE WEATHER. 
 
 IN commencing an account of some new sub- 
 ject, it is customary to quote its history ; but 
 that of the rainband, one of the most important 
 features in the sky spectrum, and the first 
 noticed, has been so frequently referred to that 
 it would be a matter of supererogation on my 
 part to adduce what is now so generally 
 known. Suffice it to say that in 1872 Prof. 
 Piazzi Smyth, the Astronomer-Royal for Scot- 
 land, was the earliest to draw correct conclu- 
 sions from its appearance. 
 
 The subject of which we are about to treat 
 depends mainly upon the amount of invisible 
 
 202538 
 
4 HOW TO FORETELL THE WEATHER 
 
 aqueous vapour contained in the atmosphere. 
 Visible vapour influences the spectrum but 
 slightly, and then only by reflected light. 
 The records of hygrometry extend back for 
 more than three hundred years. Mizaldus, in 
 1554, and Mersenne, in 1644, both noticed 
 that the pitch of the strings of a violin varied 
 according to the dry ness of the air. The 
 former says,* { Musicorum instrumentoruni 
 subtensas fidiculaa ruptim dissilientes, et hostia 
 absque manifesta causa, aperiri claudique solito 
 contumaciora, aerem pluvias nobis miscere 
 palam nuntiant ;' literally meaning, *' The 
 strained strings of musical instruments sud- 
 denly snapping, and sacrificed victims, without 
 any apparent cause, opening and closing, and 
 becoming more stiff than usual, plainly tell us 
 that rains are disturbing the atmosphere/ 
 
 Even Pliny the elder, who lived A.D. 23 to 
 A.D. 79, seems to have been a rough observer 
 
 * Mizaldus, A., ' Ephemerides Aeris Perpetual Small 
 8vo. Lutetise, 1554. 
 
WITH THE POCKET SPECTROSCOPE. 5 
 
 of the dew-point, as instanced in the following 
 quotation from the eighteenth book of his ' His- 
 toria NaturahV: l Nee non in conviviis men- 
 sisque nostris vasa quibus esculentum additur 
 sudorem repositories linquentia diras tempesta- 
 tes prasnuntiant ;' which, translated, is : 'And 
 also at banquets and at our tables, vessels in 
 which there is any esculent moisture left on 
 the trays foretell fearful stprms.' Of all the 
 numerous moisture- absorbers that man has 
 applied his ingenuity to in adapting to the 
 purposes of hygrometry, such as the beard of 
 the wild oat ; beard of musk grass, or geranium 
 moschatum ; internal membrane of the arundo 
 phragmites ; skin of the frog ; Dutch weather 
 house ; schistose stone, a material so porous 
 that when saturated it weighs nearly half as 
 much again as when dry; and then the more 
 modern and scientific instruments, viz., 
 Darnell's, Kegnault's, and Dines' hygrometers ; 
 and lastly, Mason's dry and wet bulb hygro- 
 meter, that is used more frequently than any 
 
6 HOW TO FORETELL THE WEATHER 
 
 other at the present time (and which, by- the - 
 bye, was invented by Boeckmann nine years 
 before Dr. Mason was born), together with a 
 great many others constructed of animal, 
 vegetable, and mineral substances. Of all 
 these, not one has the 'power of indicating 
 the state of atmospheric moisture for more 
 than a few yards around the instrument ; but 
 there is one that will inform you of the state 
 of invisible moisture of a section of air many 
 miles in thickness, the penetration depending 
 on the amount of visible moisture present at 
 the time of observation. 
 
 The following classification suggested by 
 Pouillet is not perfect, but will do for all 
 ordinary purposes. He divides them into : 
 
 1st. Hygrometers* (or hygroscopes f) of 
 absorption. 
 
 2nd. Hygrometers of condensation, i.e., dew 
 point instruments. 
 
 * typo; (hugros), damp, and fisrpov (mctron), measure. 
 t lyptg (hugros), damp, and erxoTlw (skopeo), to look at. 
 
WITH THE POCKET SPECTROSCOPE. 7 
 
 3rd. Hygrometers of evaporation, i.e., dry 
 and Avet bulb thermometers. 
 
 4th. Chemical hygrometers, for determining 
 the amount of vapour by analysis. 
 And I think we might now add to 
 these the hygro- spectroscope, or rain- 
 band spectroscope. 
 
 During the last few years this new form 
 of hygrometer has been rapidly advancing in 
 popular favour ; but a want has been felt by 
 many an observer, which it will be my en- 
 deavour, in the following pages, to supply 
 in as brief, plainly worded, and exactly de- 
 scribed manner, as will tend to assist the tyro 
 in his preliminary difficulties, with the manipu- 
 lation and deductions therefrom, of an instru- 
 ment of such fine and delicate research. 
 
 There are two spectroscopes at present in 
 use, both of moderate dispersion ; one, called 
 1 The Eainband Spectroscope,' is an excellent 
 little instrument, very portable, and to a 
 
HOW TO FORETELL THE WEATHER 
 
 skilled and careful observer reliable for fore- 
 casting. 
 
 FIG. 1. 
 
 The other, named ' Grace's Spectroscope/ 
 now becoming the favourite, is larger, but 
 with the same amount of dispersive power ; 
 the increased size of the spectrum in it is of 
 
 FIG. 2. Spectroscope with attached Micrometer. 
 
 great utility in clearly defining lines and 
 bands, besides the advantage of being able to 
 use it earlier and later in the day than the 
 former kind, on account of the greater amount 
 of light admitted. 
 
 In several other respects it differs from the 
 first ; it has a milled wheel, with lever for 
 
WITH THE POCKET SPECTROSCOPE. 9 
 
 adjusting focus, and instead of plain glass 
 nearest the eye, a concave lens is fitted. 
 
 Mr. Browning, the eminent optician in 
 the Strand, has fixed to my Grace's an 
 adjustable photographic micrometer, with prism 
 of comparison. This combination makes the 
 perfection of an instrument for meteorological 
 purposes. 
 
 It would be as well now to proceed to a 
 
 FIG. 3. 
 
 description of the ' Eainband Spectroscope/ 
 which, with the above exceptions, will equally 
 apply to the other instrument. 
 
 It is composed of two cylinders, one fixed 
 and the other movable, the latter sliding 
 within the former; at the further end of 
 the fixed portion, which is 3-J inches in 
 length, the aperture is covered with a cir- 
 
io HOW TO FORETELL THE WEATHER 
 
 cular piece of microscopical glass, and just 
 within this are two parallel jaws, adjustable 
 by means of a milled wheel outside, to admit 
 more or less light, according to the require- 
 ments at the time of observation. The 
 movable part, 2^ inches long, has at the 
 extreme end a collimating lens to collect the 
 light which passes through the slit, and to 
 throw it in parallel rays upon the prisms placed 
 
 FIG. 4. Section of Direct Vision Spectroscope. 
 
 behind it. These prisms are five in number : 
 one, three, and five are made of crown-glass, 
 two and four of flint-glass. (Vide Fig. 4.) 
 They are all cemented together, and the effect 
 of this combination is to give an image of the 
 prismatic spectrum of sufficient dispersion to 
 show the position of the dark lines, both 
 constant or solar, and variable or telluric 
 that is, due to vapour in our atmosphere. 
 
WITH THE POCKET SPECTROSCOPE. n 
 
 Between the prisms and the eye of the ob- 
 server is another disc of glass. The total 
 length of the instrument when closed is 3f 
 inches, and its diameter -J of an inch ; while 
 Grace's is r! of an inch in diameter, and 5-| 
 inches long when closed. 
 
 In taking an observation with either instru- 
 ment, shade the eyes with the hands in such a 
 way that all extraneous light may be excluded 
 as much as possible. It is of the highest 
 importance to adjust the focus and slit of the 
 spectroscope so that the lines in the spectrum 
 may be of the clearest definition, and when 
 once adjusted it seldom requires altering. I 
 would recommend the beginner to focus either 
 the D line in the orange part of the spectrum, 
 or the E line in the green (vide Plate of Spec- 
 trum) ; and when he becomes more at home 
 with the instrument, he will find no difficulty 
 in rapidly and clearly defining any visible line 
 in other parts of the prismatic spectrum. 
 
 The inner sliding-tube ought to be slightly 
 
12 HOW TO FORETELL THE WEATHER 
 
 pushed in for examining the blue end, and drawn 
 out a little for focussing lines in the red. To 
 avoid loss of time in focussing, it is a good 
 plan to mark the inner sliding cylinder with 
 the edge of a knife, in the same manner as is 
 frequently done to telescopes. If the slit be 
 closed too much, horizontal lines parallel to 
 the length of the spectrum will probably make 
 their appearance; in almost every case they 
 are due to the presence of dust on the edges 
 of the slit. To remove this dust, open the slit 
 as widely as possible, and wipe the edges with 
 a small wedge of dry wood an ordinary 
 lucifer match cut into this shape will answer 
 the purpose. Then close the slit completely; 
 re- open it, and the lines will probably have 
 disappeared ; if not, repeat the operation. 
 Note that a camel-hair pencil, a leather, cloth, 
 piece of paper, or blowing on it. will be sure 
 to make the slit worse. Frequently, simply 
 taking off the cap from the slit and moving 
 the focussing tube in and out quickly will 
 
WITH THE POCKET SPECTROSCOPE. 13 
 
 blow the small particles away. Sometimes, 
 whilst observing, moisture by condensing on 
 the eye-piece will somewhat obscure the spec- 
 trum ; to counteract this, warm the near end 
 slightly either before the fire or sun, or by 
 applying it to the warm skin. 
 
 In a general way, observe from ten to twenty 
 degrees above the horizon, and towards the 
 quarter from which the wind is blowing or 
 likely to change to. As regards the latter point, 
 it is much easier to forecast the probable 
 direction of wind from movements of upper 
 clouds, fluctuations of the barometer, etc., 
 than it is to foretell rain. 
 
 The best hours for examining the general 
 characteristics of the spectrum are 9 a.m. and 
 3 p.m., all the year round. In computing 
 means, for various reasons it is not advisable 
 to alter these hours, as by so doing errors are 
 obviously liable to creep in. The focus and 
 slit having been correctly adjusted, compare 
 the lines and bands as seen in the spectrum 
 
14 HOW TO FORETELL THE WEATHER 
 
 with their relative positions as delineated on 
 the chart (vide Plate L), A, a, B, c, D, E, 6, F, G, 
 are constant and invariable solar lines ; a, B, 
 c, c', a , ?', S, v, w, variable lines and bands ; 
 B, cc, S, dry air lines, or low sun bands; a, d 
 r, v, w, rain bands ; r, position of principal 
 rainband. 
 
 A, a, and B, are best studied by looking 
 direct at the sun ; for in ordinary daylight B 
 is not always well defined, a still less so, and 
 A never, but, notwithstanding, is occasionally 
 just visible. A is of no meteorological value, 
 and changes very little for either high or low 
 sun. It is not known what gas or metal in a 
 gaseous state it represents in the sun ; this 
 remark likewise applies to B. ' Neither of 
 them are telluric lines, nor due to aqueous 
 vapour, but must originate between the sun 
 and our atmosphere' (Prof. Piazzi Smyth). 
 The preliminary band of B is intensified with 
 a low sun, and diminished with an increasing 
 altitude. It is spoken of as a dry-air or low- 
 
WITH THE POCKET SPECTROSCOPE. 15 
 
 sun band. The physical origination of the 
 darkness of the band at a is due to an invisible 
 gaseous state of intensely watery vapour con- 
 tained more or less in the lower part of the 
 earth's atmosphere (Smyth). A comparison 
 of the dark shadings at a and B ought always 
 to be made, if possible, when the sun is 
 shining at a low altitude, c is the red hydro- 
 gen line ; the lines about it with low sun are 
 probably due to water vapour. At c is situ- 
 ated a small rainband. 
 
 The a line must be produced by one of the 
 permanent gases of the earth's atmosphere. 
 The band at this position is telluric ; a low- 
 sunband and of a dry-air character. Its 
 variations are of great importance in fore- 
 casting rain or fine, being very conspicuous 
 before dry weather, and on the other hand 
 weak in intensity previous to wet; on one 
 occasion, when unusually distinct, fine and dry 
 weather prevailed over the whole of Western 
 Europe (Prof. Smyth). 
 
1 6 HOW TO FORETELL THE WEATHER 
 
 Next' in order is the principal rainband at 
 r, situated on the red side of the r> lines, 
 which I will subsequently refer to more in 
 detail. In the yellow strip on the other side 
 of D a line is frequently seen when the spec- 
 trum at this part is unusually clear; conse- 
 quently, before snow, when the vapour lines 
 have been considerably weakened from the 
 transformation of the invisible vapour into 
 snow crystals, this line (really made up of 
 several lines, including barium and calcium) 
 will be very prominent, at times exceeding in 
 darkness the lines in the rainband. The dry- 
 air band at 8 is a marked feature when the 
 sun is low, and merges more or less into the 
 moist air shading at v, and on the other hand, 
 should the latter be strong, for instance, be- 
 fore a thunderstorm, it will be found to en- 
 croach on the shading at S, a remarkable 
 phenomenon, the rationale of which is rather 
 difficult to satisfactorily explain. The line E 
 is one of the many that represent iron in the 
 
WITH THE POCKET SPECTROSCOPE. 17 
 
 sun. The b lines indicate the presence of 
 magnesium, nickel and iron. The distinctness 
 and definition of these important dark lines 
 are of some value in the prevision of weather, 
 as before heavy rain they are more or less in- 
 volved in the darkness that envelops the 
 violet end and almost obliterates the blue 
 hydrogen line, r, in the glaucous, or sea-green 
 coloured, region of the spectrum. The G group 
 can be generally seen in ordinary daylight, and 
 is a useful guide as to the clearness of the 
 spectrum; this is the last set visible in 'small 
 spectroscopes, but in Grace's, on several occa- 
 sions of very clear atmosphere with a bright 
 sun, I have succeeded in sighting the H lines 
 in the lavender. Many persons mistake the 
 G group for the H, which cannot be distinctly 
 defined, even in large instruments of the prism 
 variety. 
 
 THE RAINBAND. 
 
 The principal rainband is situated on the 
 red side of the D lines, involving them, and 
 
 2 
 
1 8 HOW TO FORETELL THE WEATHER 
 
 at times increasing or decreasing in intensity, 
 and approaching or receding from the c line, 
 according to the nearness or quantity of rain. 
 In spectroscopes of small dispersion it 
 exhibits itself as a dark shading; in larger 
 instruments this band will be split up into a 
 quantity of fine black lines (vide Plate II.). 
 
 Observers who have closely watched this 
 band will no doubt have noticed great varia- 
 tions in its appearance at one time being 
 narrow and condensed, or broad and extended; 
 at other times almost uniform in darkness, or 
 rapidly shading off, or exhibiting itself as two 
 dark lines to the red side of D, with one 
 bright interval frequently between them, and 
 another in the space between the more re- 
 frangible towards the green and D (Grace's 
 spectroscope shows these lines exceedingly 
 well). When they are strong and well- 
 marked, they may certainly be taken as in- 
 dicative of heavy rain. A thickness and 
 darkness about the D lines alone must not be 
 
WITH THE POCKET SPECTROSCOPE. 19 
 
 considered as a reliable rain prognostic. This 
 illusory appearance leads people frequently to 
 mistake it for the rainband proper, and to 
 give it a greater value for rain than it suffi- 
 ciently warrants. Undoubtedly, when the D 
 lines are thickened, invisible vapour is the 
 cause of it ; but the two sets of lines on the 
 red side of them are those to take into account 
 in prevising rain. 
 
 In a great many anti -cyclones I have 
 noticed this false band to be present. The 
 rainband in many cases gradually increases 
 for some time before rain. If it remains per- 
 sistently high for several days, without rain 
 falling in proportion, as much as a week 
 perhaps of wet weather will follow. An 
 increase in the percentage for the season of 
 the year is suspicious of wet : in summer or 
 warmer weather the rainband is higher than 
 in winter or cooler weather ; for example, 
 40 per cent, has a greater value for rain in the 
 latter than in the former. Most of the 
 
 22 
 
20 HOW TO FORETELL THE WEATHER 
 
 cyclones or depressions that cross England 
 from the Atlantic bring with them a large 
 body of air saturated with moisture. It is 
 interesting to gauge their individual propor- 
 tion of rainband : a small number have 70 or 
 80 per cent., a very few only 20 or 30, but 
 generally 50 or 60. In the rear of a depres- 
 sion, as a rule, periodical showers occur ; the 
 air being cleared from the previous gale or 
 heavy rain, they can frequently be seen for 
 several hours beforehand with the spectro- 
 scope, but not with the naked eye. 
 
 Sometimes, during rain, the amount of 
 rainband may be low : this for the most part 
 denotes finer weather to follow ; if, on the 
 other hand, strong, it merely shows either 
 that more rain is to follow, or the spectroscope 
 is unable to penetrate the rain then falling 
 and analyze the light on the clear side of the 
 shower. Should there be a very heavy mist 
 at the time of observing, its telescopic power 
 'will not be of much value. It would be too 
 
WITH THE POCKET SPECTROSCOPE. 21 
 
 much to expect of a spectroscope to sift the 
 light of several miles of visible aqueous 
 vapour ; in such cases it is more on a par with 
 the hygrometers, that are only serviceable for 
 a few surrounding yards of rain, Intensity 
 of rainband does not presage the fall of snow ; 
 on the contrary, the reverse does. 
 
 Mr. Capron, in his widely-known and 
 excellent little pamphlet, 'A Plea for the 
 Rainband,' has stated that the rainband is 
 low during cold winds. I can corroborate 
 this statement ; and would add, that generally 
 speaking the rainband gradually diminishes 
 for several days before snow. It seems that 
 the vapour is transformed into snow-crystals; 
 and I have no hesitation in saying that in those 
 cases, when with a low percentage of rainband, 
 rain apparently falls, it is either melted snow 
 or hail; which is proved by the fact that 
 frequently, as the precipitation increases, the 
 rain decreases and only snow or hail is seen 
 for in these cases it is highly probable that 
 
22 HOW TO FORETELL THE WEATHER 
 
 the snow becomes melted in its passage 
 through a warmer substratum of air, and as 
 the temperature of this is gradually lowered 
 by the snow, so we find an increase of the 
 latter and a diminution of the rain. 
 
 If the spectroscope be directed towards the 
 point from which the wind is blowing, and 
 should the clouds be passing in one and the 
 same direction, and 20 per cent, or less of the 
 rainband be shown, no rain will follow for at 
 least six hours, in spite of any threatening 
 appearance of the sky. 
 
 In estimating low percentages of rainband, 
 it is advisable to look direct at the yellow, 
 so as to see the band slightly askew ; by 
 doing so any shading in that situation will 
 easily become perceptible. Through observers 
 not following this simple rule, one can quite 
 understand how it is that frequent cases of 
 i no rainband visible ' are entered on their 
 charts or in their note-books. Such an 
 absence of vapour lines seldom occurs, to niy 
 
WITH THE POCKET SPECTROSCOPE. 23 
 
 knowledge. On one occasion that Professor 
 Smyth observed a disappearance of all the 
 rainband lines, a period of cold and dry 
 weather succeeded. It has never >been my 
 good fortune to note a total absence of rain- 
 band; twice or three times the shading has 
 been so slight as to be barely recognised. 
 In the other extreme of percentage for 
 example, where 80 per cent, is seen, the 
 darkness of the band is so extremely well- 
 marked as to form a most conspicuous feature 
 in the spectrum ; should such an amount be 
 visible at the zenith, rain will certainly fall 
 heavily before long. Possibly every observer, 
 without exception, may at times be rather at 
 fault in the calculation of the quantity of 
 rainband. The use of a mental scale, which 
 one must of necessity have recourse to, cannot 
 be considered infallible. To compare the 
 darkness of the rainband Avith the permanent 
 lines of the spectrum will prove impracticable 
 if Grace's spectroscope be used ; it might do 
 
24 HOW TO FORETELL THE WEATHER 
 
 for instruments of very small dispersion, but 
 these are not to be recommended as hygro- 
 spectroscopes. As far as I know, Grace's 
 is decidedly the best instrument for this 
 purpose; and fitted up as I have already 
 mentioned, with a prism of comparison and 
 micrometer, the meteorologist may feel assured 
 he is possessed of an apparatus of immense 
 practical value. 
 
 Mr. Rand Capron, in enumeration of the 
 darkness of the rainband for the purpose of 
 record, uses a scale of from 1 to 5, as follows : 
 1 means faint ; 2, faint to moderate ; 3, 
 moderate; 4, moderate to strong; 5, strong. 
 Professor Smyth recommends and employs 
 from 1 to 10 which I adopted for some time, 
 until I could recognise intermediate shading, 
 and have now for more than a year found a 
 division of the scale into 20 parts as much as 
 it is possible to accomplish. A difficulty will 
 sometimes be experienced in ascertaining the 
 percentage at the zenith in certain atmospheric 
 
WITH THE POCKET SPECTROSCOPE. 25 
 
 conditions when the sky blue is very deep and 
 dark ; it certainly is not an easy matter, and 
 all the careful manipulation and perspicacity 
 at the command of the observer is requisite. 
 It must be borne in mind that the rainband is 
 quite independent of peculiar forms and 
 characteristics of clouds indicating fine 
 weather or the reverse. 
 
 Many cases have happened where a strong 
 rainband has been noticed on a blue sky, with 
 every appearance of fine weather for at least 
 twelve hours, and rain has subsequently fallen 
 within that time; or a very small percentage 
 has been seen with most threatening clouds, 
 that seemed as if they must shortly pour forth 
 torrents of rain, yet it did not occur. Showers 
 of rain may be very localized, and have a 
 tendency to take certain routes, passing 
 perhaps within a short distance of an observer, 
 who, from the large amount of rainband 
 visible at that time in the spectroscope, may 
 prognosticate the rain that never reaches him; 
 
26 HOW TO FORETELL THE WEATHER 
 
 and unwisely conclude, because it does not 
 fall in his immediate locality, that therefore the 
 instrument is worthless as an aid to fore- 
 casting. Such reasoning is clearly fallacious. 
 At first, when I was endeavouring to prove to 
 my own satisfaction the connection between 
 rainfall and rainband, I could not help feeling 
 disappointed at what I considered absolute 
 failures as regards the value of this band as a 
 fore-runner of rain; but, thanks to the in- 
 formation given by friends, reports in papers, 
 and by searching for evidence of rain having 
 fallen in the neighbouring country, with the 
 help, I ought to add, of that modern invention 
 of proved utility, the tricycle, I was enabled to 
 entirely put aside these misgivings, and rest 
 satisfied that what had been claimed for the 
 spectroscope was no mere chimera of the 
 imagination, but the commencement of a fresh 
 branch of meteorology that would eventually 
 supply the missing link in forecasting, 
 annihilate its difficulties, and bring to our 
 
WITH THE POCKET SPECTROSCOPE. 27 
 
 knowledge facts about the upper regions of 
 the atmosphere that were never dreamt of in 
 our philosophy. 
 
 Again, it is possible for a cloud to deposit 
 its shower before reaching the observer; and 
 by his following the rain-cloud with his 
 spectroscope he will in some cases become 
 sensible of a diminution in the rainband after 
 it has passed, and perhaps perceive what has 
 astonished me in one or two instances, and 
 that is, an actual increase in the band as the 
 cloud recedes. What can be the cause of this 
 increase? Is it an aggregation of nimbus 
 clouds ? or is it perhaps a greater thickness 
 of the rain vapour as seen through the long 
 axis of the cloud ? or is it possibly an altera- 
 tion in the invisible vapour preparatory to a 
 heavier precipitation ? These are questions 
 that are very difficult for a single observer 
 to reply to. The only way to solve this pro- 
 blem is to have reports from accurate spec- 
 troscopists, with numerous rain-gauges sta- 
 
28 HOW TO FORETELL THE WEATHER 
 
 tioned at various points in the surrounding- 
 country. 
 
 Many a time, whilst watching waterspouts 
 in the tropics, I have noticed that when one 
 increases another decreases, although a 
 distance of several miles may separate them. 
 This fact may probably have some bearing on 
 the question. 
 
 The more the correlation between rainfall 
 and rainband is considered, so much the 
 greater seems the influence of electricity and 
 temperature in governing the precipitation of 
 aqueous vapour; the latter, no doubt, is a 
 great factor, for it has frequently been 
 remarked that a sudden reduction of tempera- 
 ture has produced torrents of rain with a 
 moderately high rainband. 
 
 Here the barometer is a most reliable guide, 
 by informing us of the increasing body of 
 wind prevailing over the ground current, 
 which upper current may possibly be a cold 
 north-east or warm south-west, the glass 
 
WITH THE POCKET SPECTROSCOPE. 29 
 
 falling with the latter and rising with the 
 former. Another item of especial value in 
 predicting rain is to take account of the differ- 
 ence between the rainband at the zenith and 
 near the horizon; the greater the range the 
 less likelihood of rain, and vice versd, except 
 in cases of low percentage. Of course, if a 
 thick mist is prevailing, the rainband ma} 7 be 
 the same wherever you point the spectroscope; 
 and by noticing when it lessens at the zenith, 
 you can foretell the clearing away of the 
 visible aqueous particles. The value for rain 
 in the last instance depends upon the amount 
 of rainband present. 
 
 In several mists during the last winter both 
 Mr. Rand Capron and myself have remarked 
 the band unusually high. The indications of 
 the rainband in all cases will be somewhat 
 negatived if the dry-air bands are in excess, 
 especially the a band. I would suggest to 
 observers, for the better comparison of rain or 
 snow and rainband, to take frequent notes of 
 
30 HOW TO FORETELL THE WEATHER 
 
 the temperature w the rain gauge of the rain 
 that falls. 
 
 We will pass on now to the spectroscopic 
 previsions of thunderstorms. The effect of 
 these on the spectrum is to darken certain 
 parts for instance, the blue becomes deeper, 
 and looks further away, the F line very in- 
 distinct, and the green apparently prominent 
 and nearer the eye a peculiarity I partly 
 attribute to the increase of the rainband at w. 
 This prominence of the green is only to be 
 seen in spectroscopes of moderate dispersion, 
 and not in the larger instruments. The 
 blended bands at 8 and v are much more 
 conspicuous, and extend more towards the 
 blue (they must not be confused with the 
 dark band seen at S with low sun). The 
 rainband may be much or little, depending 
 greatly upon the quantity of hail and rain 
 attending the storm. This hail in a few 
 instances seems to veil the rain-vapour behind 
 
WITH THE POCKET SPECTROSCOPE. 31 
 
 it from the spectroscope, and proves a dis- 
 appointment to the observer who depends 
 entirely upon the rainband. The small 
 amount of the dry-air band at oc must also be 
 considered, and an increase of the a with less 
 distinctness of the B. All these features make 
 up the special spectrum noticeable more or 
 less in advance of thunderstorms. 
 
 I well recollect one instance in which all 
 these features w r ere so very strongly marked 
 at the time of observing, about 10 a.m., that 
 I confidently prophesied a storm would take 
 place, although none of the other instruments, 
 nor any particular aspect of the sky, nor high 
 temperature with oppressiveness, indicated 
 that such an aerial disturbance was about to 
 occur; yet certain enough, in the evening, 
 about seven o'clock, the storm did come, much 
 to the astonishment of a great many, includ- 
 ing the friends with whom I was staying. 
 
 The prismatic colours, more especially the 
 
32 HOW TO FORETELL THE WEATHER 
 
 blue and yellow, are useful guides as to the 
 presence or absence of ozone in the air. If 
 the air is very pure, the blue will be clear, and 
 the F line will stand out distinctly; the yellow 
 will show itself a true yellow, or have an 
 orange tinge. On the other hand, when the 
 reverse is the case, the yellow will have a 
 greenish hue, and the blue will be deep and 
 dark, with an indistinctness of the hydrogen 
 line F. In most cases this peculiarity in the 
 colours will be found to precede the atmo- 
 spheric conditions. 
 
 I should recommend the observer to make it 
 his first care, when using the spectroscope, to 
 take note of any alteration in the true colours, 
 as they will be found to change after looking 
 for a short time through the instrument. The 
 next thing is the amount of rainband (on 
 sky free of cloud, if possible), at about 13 
 degrees all around, and then at the zenith. 
 After this, begin at the blue end and work 
 towards the red, carefully scanning the appear- 
 
WITH THE POCKET SPECTROSCOPE. 33 
 
 ance of the constant lines, moist and dry air 
 bands; notice if they are clear, indistinct, hazy, 
 well-defined, or prominent, and finish up by 
 noting the depth of shade at the red end 
 for a change of weather in certain conditions of 
 the atmosphere is frequently heralded by its 
 becoming clearer. 
 
 For the satisfactory prediction of weather 
 it is highly necessary to keep a record of 
 observations on a chart and in a note-book. 
 On the former ought to be dotted down the 
 percentage of rainband for eight points of the 
 compass and zenith ; also that in the direction 
 of the wind, or towards the quarter it is most 
 likely to blow from in the course of the next 
 twelve hours. The reason of the last is obvious, 
 for we necessarily must expect the weather to 
 come from that direction. In the note-book 
 enter the peculiarities of the spectrum already 
 noticed, and finally calculate, from what you 
 have observed, the probabilities of rain or 
 
 fine. 
 
 3 
 
34 
 
 HOW TO FORETELL THE WEATHER 
 
 After a few months' practice, it is astonishing 
 with what rapidity one can conduct a sys- 
 tematic observation. I use four spectroscopes 
 of different dispersion in my atmospheric 
 studies. A large two-prism one, with photo- 
 
 FIG. 5. 
 
 graphed micrometer (vide Fig. 5), arranged 
 on a wooden alt-azimuth stand, with mirror 
 for viewing the sun at different altitudes. It 
 has three powders : the highest enlarging the 
 rainband enormously, and enabling you to 
 just discern two or three lines between the 
 
WITH THE POCKET SPECTROSCOPE. 
 
 35 
 
 two D lines. A micro-spectroscope of small 
 dispersion (Fig. 6). The first form of rain- 
 band spectroscope (Fig. 1), which, being 
 accustomed to, I feel reluctant to disqualify 
 
 fat/ffCS. 
 
 FIG. 
 
 it for Grace's new and better form of hygro- 
 spectroscope (Fig. 3). To the last I have 
 adapted a stand (originally intended to hold 
 a condenser), to steady it and meet the require- 
 
 32 
 
36 HOW TO FORETELL THE WEATHER 
 
 ments of altitude and azimuth. Grace's is the 
 best all-round spectroscope, for reasons already 
 referred to in a former page, and taken in con- 
 junction with the other meteorological instru- 
 ments will prove of great assistance to the 
 observer in prognosticating weather. 
 
 THE PORTABLE CLOUD MIRROR. 
 
 I have devised a very simple pocket cloud- 
 mirror to assist the observer in ascertaining 
 the direction from which clouds are travelling ; 
 for it is a fact well known to meteorologists 
 that the direction the upper clouds (cirri) are 
 taking will often indicate the coming wind, two 
 or three days beforehand. An outline of this 
 apparatus is given in Fig. 7. 
 
 It is constructed of a plain circular mirror, 
 two or three inches in diameter. Let into 
 the centre is a small compass; from its cir- 
 cumference eight lines radiate to the outer 
 edge of the reflector; the termini of these lines 
 
WITH THE POCKET SPECTROSCOPE. 37 
 
 are equidistant from each other, and corre- 
 spond to the eight points of the compass. 
 To use the mirror it is only necessary to 
 
 The Portable Cloudj Mirror 
 
 FIG. 7. 
 
 make one of the radiating lines coincide with 
 the direction of the needle, then, if requisite, 
 tilt the mirror, and observe the reflection of 
 
38 HOW TO FORETELL THE WEATHER. 
 
 some sharp edge of cloud, and by the help of 
 the lines notice from which direction it is tra- 
 velling. This can frequently be accomplished 
 in a few seconds. 
 
s 
 
 fo 
 
EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES. 
 
 Diagrams of : Percentage of cases of rain and snow for 
 different intensities of rainband Position of lines in 
 spectrum Lines forming the rainband. 
 
 PLATE I. 
 
 IN this chart the actual appearances of the 
 lines and bands of the spectrum are not in- 
 tended to be represented, but merely their 
 relative positions as seen in Grace's spectro- 
 scope. In the case of the bands, such as 8 
 and v, the line is drawn as nearly as possible 
 in the centre of the shading. 
 
 To the red side of D will be noticed the two 
 lines, or rather, under sufficient amplification, 
 two sets of lines, of the principal rainband. 
 
42 HOW TO FORETELL THE WEA2HER 
 
 PLATE II. 
 
 Here are shown the vapour lines comprising 
 the rainband. The two sets of lines before 
 mentioned are delineated at a and b. The 
 heavy, moderate, and slight lines are correctly 
 placed and proportioned, and the very fine 
 lines only approximately so. Their thickness 
 varies with different conditions of atmospheric 
 moisture. In the construction of the diagram 
 a two-prism spectroscope with photographed 
 micrometer was used, the light of the sun 
 at a low altitude falling direct on the slit of 
 the instrument. 
 
 PLATE III. 
 
 The reader will see at a glance, in this 
 Plate, the percentage of cases of rain and 
 snow for each proportionate amount of rain- 
 band. The number of times that rain occurs 
 within twenty-four hours increases with the 
 darkness of the rainband, and vice vcn-d. 
 On the other hand, the rainband will be 
 
1883 
 
 Rcwrv STWW or JJcfH 
 
 80 
 
 r iO 
 
 60 
 
 8L 
 
 50 
 
 40 
 
 5 30 26 W 30 25 20 15 10 
 
 Haunband ) 
 
WITH THE POCKET SPECTROSCOPE. 47 
 
 observed to decrease with an increase in the 
 number of instances in which snow falls. 
 
 There are two apparent discrepancies which 
 demand a little explanation. I refer, firstly, 
 to the tendency of the line on the rain side to 
 rise at 20 per cent.; this is due to the fact that 
 five cases of cold rain were included in the 
 computation of the percentage ; but I think 
 it may be almost safely surmised that these 
 five ought to have been made use of on the 
 snow -side of the diagram, as it is highly pro- 
 bable that they were melted snow; if this be 
 admitted, and the alteration made, the lines 
 connecting the percentage will present a much 
 more direct course. Secondly, the number of 
 cases at 40 per cent, of rainband one w r ould 
 naturally expect to be more, and probably 
 rather less at 35 per cent., than is represented. 
 It is possible that errors in calculating amount 
 of rainband may account for these anomalies. 
 
 The conclusions to be gathered from this 
 diagram are the following : That where the 
 
48 HOW TO FORETELL THE WEATHER 
 
 rainband is completely absent, snow will 
 almost invariably occur. In all cases of 45 
 per cent, and upwards, rain will fall within 
 twenty-four hours. 
 
 These lead one to the indisputable inference 
 that the rainband increases before rain, and 
 diminishes before snow. 
 
WITH THE POCKET SPECTROSCOPE. 49 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 THE following correspondence and leading 
 article appeared in the Times during Sep- 
 tember, 1882. Since then the author has 
 had, with only one exception, no reason to 
 modify his experience as detailed in the two 
 letters that he contributed. In the second 
 rule of his first communication he advises, in a 
 general way, to point the spectroscope in a 
 northerly direction, according to the plan 
 adopted by Professor Piazzi Smyth ; but from 
 further experience, and greater familiarity 
 with the instrument, better results were 
 obtained by observing towards the direction of 
 the wind, or to the point it was most likely to 
 change to in the course of the day. In 1882 
 the deductions from the hygro-spectroscope 
 were somewhat wrapped in mystery there 
 
 4 
 
50 HO W TO FORETELL THE WEATHER 
 
 are still many points that require clearing up ; 
 but the author feels sure that the reader, by 
 carefully attending to the rules laid down in 
 the preceding account, will meet with success, 
 and experience an increasing interest in the 
 indications of an instrument of such telescopic 
 power. 
 
 From the Times of Sept. 12tb, 1882. 
 
 A correspondent writes under date Edin- 
 burgh, Sept. 8th : 
 
 ' In this uncertain climate of ours 
 " variable as the shade " everything that 
 bears on the forecasting of the weather is of 
 interest and importance. We have not heard 
 much hitherto of the spectroscope as a gauge 
 of the atmosphere. In Scotland we have had 
 this week what appears to be a very striking 
 instance of its trustworthiness in that capacity. 
 On Tuesday morning the following letter 
 appeared in the Scotsman : 
 
 ' " SIR, 
 
 '"Last Friday morning the spectroscopic ( rain- 
 band ' was the blackest and most intense of the season ; 
 and your issue of Saturday morning announced destruc- 
 
WITH THE POCKET SPECTROSCOPE. 51 
 
 tive floods, from most heavy rainfalls in various parts of 
 Scotland, to have occurred on that day Friday. 
 
 ' " But this morning Monday, September 4th there 
 is an absence of the ' rainband,' and a clearing away of 
 all the watery vapour lines in the spectrum of sky-light, 
 to an extent not equalled during the last two or three 
 months. 
 
 4 " In a powerful spectroscope the two solar D lines now 
 stand out clear and clean, in place of being almost lost, 
 as all through last month, in a thicket of terrestrial water- 
 vapour lines. So the farmers may be enabled to gather 
 in their crops at last, dry and in good condition, though, 
 probably, in rather cold and sharp weather. 
 
 ' " I am, etc., 
 
 ' " C. P. S." 
 
 ' The writer is quite well known to be Mr. 
 Piazzi Smyth, Astronomer Koyal for Scotland, 
 and Professor of Astronomy in the University 
 of Edinburgh. How far, then, has his predic- 
 tion been fulfilled ? The answer is amply 
 up to this date. Since Sunday we have had 
 a succession of magnificent harvest days. 
 Tuesday morning was rather dull, and it 
 appeared at first as if the very confident fore- 
 cast were about to be belied at once ; but the 
 clouds cleared off in the forenoon, and there 
 was brilliant sunshine with a cloudless sky 
 
52 HOW TO FORETELL THE WEATHER 
 
 during the greater part of the day. Wednesday 
 was a repetition of Tuesday; and as the wind 
 blew from the north-west, the air was " rather 
 cold and sharp," as the Professor's letter 
 predicted. What made the case all the more 
 curious and striking, was the fact that on both 
 these days the forecasts of the Meteorological 
 Office told us to expect " showery and un- 
 settled " weather over the greater part of 
 Scotland. The prediction for Wednesday was 
 "fair at first, then wet and unsettled." It 
 was more than " fair," not only " at first," 
 but all day it was unusually bright and clear. 
 During Tuesday and Wednesday the barometer 
 rose steadily till it reached 30'388. It fell a 
 little on Thursday, but it stood at 30-335 at 
 night. The forecast of the Meteorological 
 Office for Thursday was, " South- westerly to 
 north-westerly winds, increasing in force; 
 becoming unsettled and rainy." In point of 
 fact, the wind was westerly all day ; and, 
 instead of increasing in force, it fell away 
 toward evening to a calm. The weather did 
 not become " unsettled and rainy;" not a drop 
 
WITH THE POCKET SPECTROSCOPE. 53 
 
 of rain fell all day. The evening seemed 
 more settled than the morning ; and at eleven 
 o'clock at night the stars sparkled brilliantly, 
 and there was not a cloud in the sky. ! To-day 
 (Friday) opened with an over-clouded sky, but 
 no rain has yet fallen, although the official 
 forecast warns us that the day will be " fair 
 at first, then unsettled and rainy." As the 
 barometer has again taken an upward turn, we 
 may hope that this prediction will be again 
 falsified. 
 
 ' These results appear to me to be very 
 striking and noteworthy. There has been 
 during the week a very marked conflict of 
 opinion between the chemists and the meteoro- 
 logists, and thus far, at least, the chemists 
 have carried the day. The practical lesson 
 seems to be that more attention ought to be 
 given than seems hitherto to have been the 
 practice to the spectroscopic analysis of the 
 atmosphere. There may have been ex- 
 ceptional circumstances in the atmospheric 
 conditions of the week of which I am not 
 aware, and which have favoured the use of 
 
54 HOW TO FORETELL THE WEATHER 
 
 the spectroscope. But the indubitable fact 
 remains that in this instance the spectro- 
 scopic prevision has been amply justified and 
 proved to be correct, while the ordinary 
 meteorological forecasts have been from clay to 
 day entirely wrong/ 
 
 From the Times of Sept. 14th, 1882. 
 
 SIR, 
 
 As the subject of forecasting rain by 
 means of the amount of rainband in the spectro- 
 scope has been brought forward by one of your 
 correspondents, I beg to add my quota of 
 experience in regard to it. For the sake of 
 brevity, I will merely give a resume of the 
 result of my daily examinations with this 
 instrument. 
 
 1. In taking observations it is very im- 
 portant to have both the slit in the spectro- 
 scope and the focus properly adjusted. 
 
 2. In a general way it is best to confine 
 the observations to one particular part of the 
 sky in a northerly direction, and at an angle 
 of between 10 and 20 from the horizon. 
 
WITH THE POCKET SPECTROSCOPE. 55 
 
 3. If the amount of rainband is 20 per 
 cent, or under, there will be fine weather 
 certainly for about six hours. 
 
 4. If the percentage of rainband, say at 
 7 "a.m., is 60 and at 10 a.m. it has decreased 
 to 30, that is no reason that fine weather may 
 follow for that day, although probably no 
 heavy rain will take place. 
 
 5. If the spectroscope be directed to the 
 zenith, and 80 per cent, of the dark band 
 is shown, a downpour of rain will certainly 
 happen before long. I have observed this 
 several times with a high and steady barometer, 
 and at the time not much appearance of rain 
 notably on September 5, when the spectro- 
 scope indicated rain, but the other instruments 
 did not. 
 
 From a careful trial of this valuable adjunct 
 to the study of weather, I have come to the 
 conclusion that the use of it, meteorologically 
 speaking, has been most strangely neglected ; 
 for I feel certain that our forecasts would be 
 considerably improved if the observers at the 
 various stations in connection with the 
 
56 HOW TO FORETELL THE WEATHER 
 
 Meteorological Office were to report at the 
 same time with their other observations of 
 wind, temperature, etc., the percentage of 
 rainband in the spectroscope. The price of 
 it places it within reach of most persons ; and, 
 as regards convenience of portableness, it is 
 easily carried in the waistcoat pocket. Of 
 course, a little practice is required to read the 
 percentage of rainband, but I have found some 
 take to it quite naturally. 
 
 I am, sir, yours obediently, 
 
 F. W. CORY, F.M.S. 
 Bucklmrst-hill, Essex, Sept. 12th. 
 
 From the Times of Sept. 19th, 1882. 
 
 SIR, 
 
 The letters which have recently 
 appeared in the Times under this heading 
 testify to so much interest in the subject, that 
 I venture to send the following remarks, which 
 are the result of prolonged observation on 
 every side of the question. 
 
 But first let me explain to your general 
 readers what the spectroscopic ' rainband ' is. 
 
WITH THE POCKET SPECTROSCOPE. 57 
 
 If we look through a spectroscope directed to 
 any portion of the sky, we see a spectrum 
 tinted riband, crossed with thin black lines. 
 One of the strongest of these, situate in the 
 orange, is technically known as the D line. 
 When the instrument is directed to a pure 
 blue sky, this line is thin and faint ; but in 
 certain conditions of cloud or sky, the red side 
 of the line has a dark shadow, as if it had 
 been shaded down with a bit of rough black 
 chalk. This shading is the rainband of 
 Professor P. Smyth, who maintains that the 
 relative darkness of- this band is a measure of 
 the nearness or quantity of rain. 
 
 Unfortunately, my own observations show 
 that, though there is scarcely any exception 
 to the appearance of the rainband being 
 speedily followed by rain, yet there are 
 numberless cases of impending or actual rain 
 during which no band is visible : and that, at 
 the same moment, one portion of the sky will 
 give a band, while a neighbouring portion will 
 show none at all. With one exception I 
 have never seen a rainband except when 
 
58 HOW TO FORETELL THE WEATHER 
 
 common weather lore would have said it was 
 going to rain, while in many cases I have 
 observed such trustworthy prognostics as 
 haloes when no rainband was visible. 
 
 In fact, the rainband appears to be simply 
 a new sky prognostic, in many respects inferior 
 to those in current use, though in a few cases 
 affording information which they do not. 
 
 Of what use is any sky prognostic in weather 
 forecasting ? The whole system of modern 
 meteorology turns round the shape of isobaric 
 lines as .seen on charts similar to those 
 published daily in the Times. Observation 
 has shown that every shape of isobarics has a 
 characteristic weather and appearance, so that 
 there is little use in telegraphing up the 
 occurrence of the rainband ; for, given the 
 chart, a meteorologist can write down on it 
 not only the general weather, but the position 
 of most of the best-known prognostics at the 
 moment. His forecasts are based on the 
 estimate he forms of the change which is 
 likely to take place in the shape of the isobars 
 during the next twenty-four hours. The 
 

 WITH THE POCKET SPECTROSCOPE. 59 
 
 nature of these changes is still very imperfectly 
 known, but they certainly do not admit of any 
 mathematical calculation, like the situation of 
 a planet. The position of a forecaster is more 
 like that of a physician, who, although he has 
 classified the symptoms and ordinary course of 
 any disease, is still obliged to rely on his own 
 judgment, to a great extent, in giving the 
 prognosis of each particular case. 
 
 These are the principles on which the fore- 
 casts issued by the Meteorological Office are 
 based. For the days, and at the station from 
 which your Scotch correspondent writes, the 
 forecasts were certainly not so successful as 
 could be wished for, or as is usually the 
 case. The causes of failure cannot, of course, 
 be discussed in the columns of the Times ; but 
 I doubt whether the public have any idea of 
 the difficulty of forecasting, and even of check- 
 ing broken or unsettled weather like that to 
 which he alludes. Under those conditions, 
 rainfall is so local that half an inch may fall 
 at one place, while twenty miles off not a drop 
 will be seen ; and from the description he 
 
60 HOW TO FORETELL THE WEATHER 
 
 gives of his weather, I strongly suspect that, 
 if more records were obtained from the district 
 to which the forecasts applied, they would he 
 found to be more successful than he is inclined 
 to think. 
 
 Anyhow, it is certain that a forecaster who 
 relied on the spectroscope only would meet 
 with most disheartening failures ; and though 
 there is doubtless a rich field of research open 
 to the student of spectral vapour lines, I fear 
 that meteorologists have little to hope for from 
 the spectroscope in forecasting weather. 
 Yours obediently, 
 
 EALPH ABERCROMBY, F.M.S. 
 
 21, Chapel-street, S.W., Sept. 16th. 
 
 From the Times of Sept. 21st, 1882. 
 
 SIR, 
 
 Mr. E. Abercromby's ' prolonged ob- 
 servation ' of the spectroscope and weather 
 forecasting must have been made with a very 
 inefficient instrument, and with a very limited 
 knowledge of the objects of observation ; 
 otherwise it would be difficult to understand 
 
WITH THE POCKET SPECTROSCOPE. 61 
 
 why lie should describe the so-called rain- 
 band at D simply as a ' shading,' without 
 reference to the very pronounced lines seen in 
 it when there is much moisture in the air ; or 
 why he should state that Professor P. Smyth 
 1 maintains that the relative darkness of this 
 band is a measure of the nearness or quantity 
 of rain,' 
 
 The Astronomer Eoyal for Scotland is well 
 able to take care of himself ; and I would not 
 advert to this travesty of his teaching but 
 that some of those who are proposing to use 
 the spectroscope for meteorological purposes 
 may be misled. 
 
 Aqueous vapour absorbs light at several 
 parts of the spectrum, but principally or 
 perhaps I should rather say more visibly on 
 the red side of D, and near on the blue side 
 of c. These absorptions are simply a measure 
 of the amount of aqueous vapour in the atmo- 
 sphere. (For reasons which I will not enter 
 upon now, I believe that the absorption at the 
 last-named portion of the spectrum, termed by 
 Professor P. Smyth t c/ is due to a grosser 
 
62 HOW TO FORETELL THE WEATHER 
 
 molecule of aqueous vapour than that which 
 absorbs near D. With a thick mist there is 
 often an almost entire absence of absorption 
 near D, while at c the absorption is strong. 
 c and the band at D do not vary together.) 
 Temperature must therefore be considered 
 before the darkness of the rainband can be 
 interpreted as an indication of rain. 
 
 When we remember the enormously greater 
 thickness of the earth's atmosphere that a ray 
 of sunlight has to traverse when we observe 
 on the horizon than when we observe near 
 the zenith ; when we remember, further, that 
 the wind may have just commenced to bring 
 up quantities of aqueous vapour from a 
 particular quarter, it will be evident that Mr. 
 Abercroniby's statement * that at the same 
 moment one portion of the sky will give a 
 band, while a neighbouring portion will show 
 none/ may be quite correct without affecting 
 the question at issue. 
 
 I fear to trespass further on your space, 
 but I trust I have said enough to indicate the 
 true answers to Mr. Abercromby's difficulties. 
 
WITH THE POCKET SPECTROSCOPE. 63 
 
 I will only point out, in conclusion, that as a 
 knowledge of the isobars can only tell us the 
 probable direction of the wind, a knowledge of 
 the amount of moisture the wind is bearing 
 more accurate because more general than 
 that afforded by the hygrometer must be an 
 important factor in weather forecasting. 
 I am, sir, yours obediently, 
 
 J. F. D. D. 
 
 Sept. 19th. 
 
 From the Times of Sept. 22nd, 1882. 
 
 Sm, 
 
 I can confirm all the warnings of 
 your correspondent, Mr. Ealph Abercromby, 
 on the difficulty and uncertainty attending 
 spectroscopic forecasting of weather. 
 
 I have lately concluded a yachting cruise 
 of seven weeks on the west coast of Scotland. 
 I had with me a pocket spectroscope of admir- 
 able clearness of definition, made by Mr. 
 Browning, of London ; and I observed it 
 frequently during all varieties of weather. I 
 never could see that the ( rainband ' had any 
 predictive value. It was present frequently 
 
64 HOW TO FORETELL THE WEATHER 
 
 in weather comparatively settled, and it was 
 sometimes evanescent or absent during fine 
 intervals of weather which was very wet and 
 very broken. 
 
 I must add, however, that the ordinary 
 aneroid barometer was equally useless for 
 predictive purposes. It was unusually high 
 for days together, during which the weather 
 was very unsettled, with violent rain, and 
 even some severe gales. It completely failed 
 to indicate one gale of exceptional violence, 
 which happened on the night of August 20 ; 
 and generally I may say that throughout the 
 season it has risen and fallen contempo- 
 raneously with the changes of weather, and 
 not in anticipation of them. 
 
 One very remarkable fact, however, I have 
 observed this season, as I have often observed 
 it before that our barometer here almost in- 
 variably indicates the raging of great gales 
 over the western and even the southern shores 
 of England. 
 
 Mr. Piazzi Smyth certainly made a ' good 
 shot ' in his recent letter to the Scotsman, pre- 
 
WITH THE POCKET SPECTROSCOPE. 65 
 
 dieting some fine dry weather from a spectro- 
 scopic forecast. And it may be that the laws 
 regulating the appearances of the ' rainband ' 
 are yet capable of yielding good results to 
 skilled observers. But I suspect the skill is 
 not very easily attainable with our present 
 knowledge. Your obedient servant, 
 
 ARGYLL, 
 
 Inverary, Sept. 20th. 
 
 From the Times of Sept. 23rd, 1882, 
 
 SIR, 
 
 What may be done with the spectro- 
 scope in the matter of weather is, for the 
 present at least, confined almost entirely to 
 the question of rain as, Will it rain, or will 
 it not ; and, if it will, heavily or lightly ? 
 The manner in which the spectroscope accom- 
 plishes this useful part is by its capacity for 
 showing whether there is more or less than 
 the usual quantity of watery vapour permeat- 
 ing the otherwise dry gases in the upper parts 
 of the atmosphere, this watery vapour not 
 being by any means the visible clouds them- 
 selves, but the invisible water-gas out of which 
 they have to be formed, and by means of 
 
 5 
 
66 HOW TO FORETELL THE WEATHER 
 
 which, when over-abundant, they obtain their 
 privilege for enacting rainfall. So that never 
 were wiser words uttered and more terse philo- 
 sophy than those which are to be found in 
 the ancient Book of Job, wherein, of the 
 wondrously * balanced clouds ' high up in mid- 
 air, it is said, * They pour down rain according 
 to the vapour thereof/ 
 
 More or less of this water- vapour is always 
 in the air, even on the very clearest days, and 
 a happy thing for men that it is so ; for, as 
 Dr. Tyndall and others have well shown, it 
 moderates the excesses of hot solar radiation 
 by day and cold radiation of the sky at night, 
 and is more abundant in the hotter than the 
 colder parts of the earth. Wherefore, accord- 
 ing largely to its temperature for the time 
 being, the air otherwise consisting almost 
 entirely of nitrogen and oxygen can sustain, 
 and does assimilate, as it were, a specified 
 amount of this watery vapour, invisibly to the 
 naked eye, the microscope, or the telescope ; 
 but not so to the instrument of recent times, 
 the spectroscope. And if the air vertically 
 above any one place becomes presently charged 
 
WITH THE POCKET SPECTROSCOPE. 67 
 
 with more than its usual dose of such trans- 
 parent watery vapour (as it easily may, by 
 various modes and processes of nature), the 
 spectroscope shows that fact immediately, even 
 while the sky is still blue ; clouds soon after 
 form, or thicken if already formed, and rain 
 presently begins to descend. 
 
 But how does the spectroscope show to the 
 eye what is declared to be invisible in all 
 ordinary optical instruments ? It is partly 
 by its power of discriminating the differently 
 coloured rays of which white light is made up, 
 and partly by the quality impressed on the 
 molecules of water at their primeval creation, 
 but only recently discovered, of stopping out 
 certain of those rays so discriminated and 
 placed in a rainbow-coloured order by the prism 
 and slit of the spectroscope, but transmitting 
 others freely. Hence it is that on looking at the 
 light of the sky through any properly-adjusted 
 spectroscope we see, besides the Newtonian 
 series of colours from red to violet, and besides 
 all the thin, dark Fraunhofer, or solar origin- 
 ated lines, of which it is not my object now 
 
 52 
 
68 HOW TO FORETELL THE WEATHER 
 
 to speak, we see, I say, in one very definite 
 part viz., between the orange and yellow of 
 that row of colours, or ' spectrum/ as it is 
 called a dark, hazy band stretching across it. 
 That is the chief band of watery vapour ; and 
 to see it very dark, even black, do not look 
 at a dark part of the sky or of black clouds 
 therein, but look, rather, where the sky is 
 brightest, fullest of light to the naked eye, 
 and where you can see through the greatest 
 length of such well-illumined air as at a low, 
 rather than high, angle of altitude, and either 
 in warm weather, or, above all, just before a 
 heavy rainfall, when there is, and must be, an 
 extra supply of watery vapour in the atmo- 
 sphere. Any extreme darkness, therefore, 
 seen in that water- vapour band beyond what 
 is usual for the season of the year and the 
 latitude of the place, is an indication of rain- 
 material accumulating abnormally ; while, on 
 the other hand, any notable deficiency in the 
 darkness of it, other circumstances being the 
 same, gives probability of dry weather, or 
 absence of rain for very want of material to 
 make it ; and the band, has, therefore, been 
 
WITH THE POCKET SPECTROSCOPE. 69 
 
 called, shortly, ' the rainband.' Thus, also, 
 ' rainband spectroscopes ' have been specially 
 constructed by several most expert opticians 
 in size so small as to be carriable in the waist- 
 coat pocket, but so powerful and true that a 
 glance of two seconds' duration through one 
 of them suffices to tell an experienced observer 
 the general condition of the whole atmosphere. 
 Especially, too, of the upper parts of it, where 
 any changes as they take place there almost 
 invariably earlier than below enable such an 
 observer to favour his friends around him with 
 a prevision of what they are likely soon to 
 experience. 
 
 As an example of what may be done, and 
 done easily, after a certain amount of experi- 
 ence and understanding of the subject has been 
 acquired, I append, from a lady's meteoro- 
 logical journal, her notes of the mean tempera- 
 ture of the air and the intensity of the rain- 
 band for each of the first fifteen days of the 
 present month ; and in a final column have 
 entered the amount of rainfall measured at the 
 Eoyal Observatory, Edinburgh, on each of 
 those days. The darker the rainband, the 
 
70 HOW TO FORETELL THE WEATHER 
 
 larger is the figure set down for it ; and it will 
 be seen pretty plainly, on running the eye down 
 that column and the next one, that with an 
 intensity of either or 1 no rain follows, 
 or, we might also say, can follow ; but with 
 an intensity of 2 rainfall begins, and with 
 3 it may be very heavy. All these rain- 
 band notes have been made with a spectro- 
 scope no larger than one's little finger, pur- 
 chased some six years ago and taken on many 
 voyages and travels since then : 
 
 Date, September, 1882. 
 
 Mean Tem- 
 perature of 
 the Air. 
 
 Rainband 
 Intensity. 
 
 Depth of Rain 
 measured in 
 gauge at Royal 
 Observatory, 
 Edinburgh. 
 
 
 Beg. Fahr. 
 
 
 Inch. 
 
 Friday, 1st 
 
 57-1 
 
 3 
 
 044 
 
 Saturday, 2nd 
 
 59-2 
 
 2 
 
 353 
 
 Sunday, 3rd 
 
 58-6 
 
 2 
 
 015 
 
 Monday, 4th 
 
 54-4 
 
 
 
 
 
 Tuesday, 5th 
 
 55-7 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 Wednesday, 6th ... 
 
 55-2 
 
 
 
 
 
 Thursday, 7th ... 
 
 53-8 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 Friday, 8th 
 
 59-4 
 
 
 
 
 
 Saturday, 9th 
 
 54-0 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 Sunday, 10th 
 
 57-0 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 Monday, llth 
 
 52-2 
 
 1 
 
 040 
 
 Tuesday, 12th ... 
 
 48 -G 
 
 
 
 
 
 Wednesday, 13th 
 
 52-8 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 Thursday, 14th ... 
 
 49-5 
 
 3 
 
 062 
 
 Friday, 15th 
 
 56-2 
 
 2 
 
 570 
 
WITH THE POCKET SPECTROSCOPE. 71 
 
 But if so much can be done by so small a 
 spectroscope, the question may be well asked 
 whether more still might not be accomplished 
 with a bigger and more powerful one, espe- 
 cially seeing that the dispersive powers of 
 both chemical and astronomical spectroscopes 
 have in late years been increased to a most 
 astonishing extent. The question is impor- 
 tant, and somewhat new as well. I propose, 
 therefore, to devote the remainder of my space 
 to its answer, rather than to the practical rules 
 for using the smaller instruments, especially, 
 too, as they have been already introduced to 
 the public, both by my friend Mr. Eand 
 Capron, in his pamphlet, 'A Plea for the 
 Rainband,' and by myself in the fourteenth 
 volume of the ' Edinburgh Astronomical Ob- 
 servations ;' also in the journal of the Scottish 
 Meteorological Society, and in the September 
 number of the ' Astronomical Eegister ' for 
 1877. 
 
 The greater part of higher power spectro- 
 scopes are not suitable to rainband work, for 
 their fields are usually too dark. But having 
 
72 HOW TO FORETELL THE WEATHER 
 
 recently built up for myself a large-sized 
 variety of the instrument, possessing, per- 
 haps, the greatest combination of power with 
 transparency yet attained, and having it always 
 mounted in an upper chamber, looking out at 
 an altitude of about 5 over the north-western 
 horizon (or most suitably for ramband work), 
 I will try to describe shortly its action therein. 
 The classical ' rainband,' which in the little 
 instrument is merely a very narrow fringe to 
 an almost infinitely thin black line, is so 
 magnified laterally in the larger instrument 
 as to fill the whole breadth of the field. The 
 thin black line before spoken of is now not 
 only split into two, but each of these are 
 strong, thick, sharply defined lines, separated 
 from each other by six or seven times the 
 breadth of either. These are the celebrated 
 Solar D lines, Dl and D2, arising from the 
 sodium metalloid burning or incandescent in 
 the sun. They are, therefore, perfectly un- 
 influenced by changes of the terrestrial atmo- 
 sphere, hot or cold, wet or dry, and are, 
 therefore, invaluable as references for degree 
 
WITH THE POCKET SPECTROSCOPE. 73 
 
 of visibility of the water-vapour lines and 
 bands which rise or fall in intensity precisely 
 with those changes. There are several of 
 these earthly water-vapour lines and bands 
 in and between and about the D lines 
 themselves ; then a long breadth of band 
 towards the red side of Dl ; then a pair of 
 lines not so widely apart as the D lines, but 
 sometimes just as sharp and black ; then two 
 or three fainter bands ; then a grand triple, 
 of which the nearer line sometimes attains 
 greater blackness than either D line ; then 
 beyond that three distinct, equal-spaced, 
 isolated bands ; and further away towards the 
 red a stretch of faint haze and hazebands. 
 
 All these go to make up the one thin rain- 
 band of the little spectroscopes ; and I for- 
 tunately had, through the month of August 
 and the early days of September, occupied 
 myself each morning in noting the greater 
 or less intensity of each, and all these water- 
 vapour lines and bands in terms of the two 
 Solar constants Dl and D2 ; and every such 
 morning there was an abundance of details to 
 
74 HOW TO FORETELL THE WEATHER 
 
 see, to recognise, and to measure. But on 
 the morning of Monday, September 4th, when 
 the little instrument had truly enough marked 
 on its very small scale, I almost started at 
 finding in the large instrument every member 
 of its long rainband group, unless it were a 
 vanishing trace of one or two of the strongest, 
 utterly gone ; while the two D lines were in 
 their accustomed strength, but far greater 
 clearness, for now they were all alone in the 
 field, save the ultra thin Solar nickel line 
 between them and one or two others, equally 
 thin and Solar on their blue side. The stages 
 of perceptible shade of water-vapour lines 
 which had thus been swept away, between 
 their this day's invisibility and their tre- 
 mendous strength no longer before than the 
 previous Friday, might have been expressed 
 by a scale not divided into three parts only, 
 but into thirty ; and implied such a very un- 
 usual amount of absence of water-vapour, 
 that I not only felt sure of no rain falling 
 either next day or perhaps for several days 
 after, but that the weather must also be 
 
WITH THE POCKET SPECTROSCOPE. 75 
 
 coming on colder as well. Therefore it was 
 that I took the step of instantly writing as I 
 did to a local paper, promising the perplexed 
 farmers dry weather at last, though probably 
 sharp and cold, to get in their crops. 
 
 And how was that expectation fulfilled ? 
 Various meteorologists in different parts of 
 the country have already declared themselves 
 well satisfied with it. But I would now beg 
 further attention to the little daily register 
 already quoted, showing that from and in- 
 cluding that day, Monday, September 4th, up 
 to and including the next Saturday, not a 
 drop of rain fell at the Observatory. Between 
 the following Sunday and Monday a drizzle, 
 but only amounting to O04 inch, occurred, 
 and after that there were three more days 
 equally dry with the preceding ones. But 
 on Thursday, the 14th, the rain-band re- 
 appeared in both spectroscopes in all its 
 force ; rain began to fall the same day, 
 and next day's measure at the Observatory 
 amounted to more than half an inch. Where- 
 fore it is to be hoped that the farmers had 
 
76 HOW TO FORETELL THE WEATHER 
 
 busied themselves effectively while the dry 
 weather lasted, for the return of these spectral 
 lines of watery vapour showed that their 
 autumn opportunity was then gone by. 
 
 C. PIAZZI SMYTH, 
 Astronomer-Boy al for Scotland. 
 15, Royal-terrace, Edinburgh, Sept. 20th. 
 
 From the Times of Sept. 25th, 1882. 
 
 SIR, 
 
 Allow me to trespass a little further 
 on your valuable space, as I think the diffi- 
 culties the Duke of Argyll and Mr. Ralph 
 Abercromby have experienced can be easily 
 explained ; and, moreover, it seems to me 
 that the arguments they advance against the 
 spectroscope for meteorological purposes rather 
 prove the value of it than otherwise that is 
 to say, if used on a large scale at numerous 
 stations. I will simply mention the follow- 
 ing facts to bear out my statement. For 
 instance, in the centre of a cyclone it is 
 generally fine, and a very slight rainband 
 may be visible in the spectroscope. In such 
 a case, rain is, comparatively speaking, far 
 
WITH THE POCKET SPECTROSCOPE. 77 
 
 off. Of course, its approach to the observer 
 depends mainly upon the rate of the pro- 
 gressive motion of the storm. 
 
 During wet weather the rainband is not 
 unfrequently almost absent. This, for the 
 most part, denotes finer weather to follow. 
 Again, in many instances I have observed a 
 strong rainband in beautiful weather with 
 light and innocent-looking cumuli floating in 
 the sky ; and, as I afterwards ascertained, rain 
 had fallen about the same time at a distance 
 of at least ten miles from this place. I have 
 good reason to believe from several experi- 
 ments that, in whatever direction a strong 
 rainband is shown, in such a direction rain is 
 falling, or about to fall. The immense 
 advantage of this indication in forecasting 
 precipitation of aqueous vapour will be suffi- 
 ciently obvious to most of your readers, so 
 that I need not dwell any further on this 
 point. I hope individual observers do not 
 infer from my letter in the Times of the 14th 
 that the spectroscope can be used alone in 
 forecasting. I only recommended it as a 
 
78 HOW TO FORETELL THE WEATHER 
 
 valuable adjunct to the study of the 
 weather. 
 
 I am, sir, yours obediently, 
 
 F. W. CORY, F.M.S. 
 
 Buckhurst-hill, Essex, Sept. 22nd. 
 
 From the Times of Sept. 23rd, 1882. 
 
 It is recorded of a former Minister of the 
 United States in this country that he was 
 asked, soon after the commencement of his 
 sojourn among us, what he thought of the 
 English climate. He replied that he had not 
 experienced any climate, but plenty of weather. 
 The abundance to which he thus bore testi- 
 mony is unfortunately attended by the dis- 
 advantage of extreme irregularity; to the 
 extent that much of the important business of 
 life, and also many of its pleasures, are 
 seriously hindered by the difficulty of making 
 previous arrangements for the accomplishment 
 of any project with which bad weather would 
 interfere. From the gathering in of the 
 harvest to the organization of a picnic-party, 
 the weather either promotes or thwarts our 
 
WIHT THE POCKET SPECTROSCOPE. 79 
 
 schemes ; arid hence there has never been 
 any lack of watchfulness for conditions upon 
 which prognostications concerning it might 
 be safely founded. In nearly every village 
 there is some patriarch who is popularly 
 believed to be unusually gifted with weather 
 wisdom, or to have paid unusual attention to 
 slight signs which escape the unobserving, 
 and who is consequently sought for and con- 
 sulted alike by the frivolous and by the 
 earnest. The actions of the lower animals 
 have been studied for the sake of the powers 
 of weather foresight which many of them are 
 commonly believed to possess ; and much 
 popular lore of this kind has been tersely 
 summed up by Gilbert White, in the metrical 
 version of forty rules for predicting rain which 
 is appended to the ' Natural History of 
 Selborne/ More than forty years since one 
 Murphy undertook to predict the weather for 
 each day a whole year in advance, and issued 
 an almanack containing his predictions. 
 Early in January one of these was fulfilled in 
 an unexpected way, with the result that the 
 
So HOW TO FORETELL THE WEATHER 
 
 shop of his publisher was literally besieged by 
 an eager crowd of would-be purchasers, by the 
 first of whom the existing edition was speedily 
 exhausted, with the consequence that the 
 disappointed remainder had to be kept in 
 order and dispersed by guardians of the public 
 peace. A new edition was quickly prepared ; 
 but the predictions for subsequent days were 
 less lucky, and the almanack, although issued 
 annually for a time, soon fell into total dis- 
 repute. 
 
 Other prophets of weather have since arisen, 
 concerning some of whom the most charitable 
 view would be to suspect them of insanity ; 
 but it is only within the last few years that 
 scientific observations of meteorological 
 changes have been conducted with sufficient 
 precision to afford hope of trustworthy results. 
 The power conferred by the telegraph of 
 ascertaining from hour to hour what is occur- 
 ring in remote places has been utilized for the 
 purpose of making known the weather which 
 is apparently on its way to these latitudes ; 
 and the predictions based upon this knowledge 
 
WITH THE POCKET SPECTROSCOPE. 81 
 
 Lave been fulfilled with sufficient frequency 
 to render it apparent that the method of 
 inquiry is a useful one, while, at the same 
 time, they have been falsified so often as to 
 show that some of the causes which may 
 interfere with the transit of weather are not 
 yet fully understood. A storm may appear 
 to be directly on its way to us, and yet, 
 before it reaches our shores, it may be so 
 deflected as never actually to arrive upon 
 them. Until the laws of atmospheric move- 
 ment have been more fully investigated, 
 sources of error will not be entirely set aside; 
 but the existence of these does not affect the 
 truth that the forecasts now made are often of 
 great practical value to the country. 
 
 Our columns have lately contained a cor- 
 respondence on a new aid towards predict- 
 ing weather which is manifestly worthy of 
 attention. On Tuesday, the 5th of September, 
 a letter, since acknowledged to have been 
 written by Mr. Piazzi Smyth, Astronomer 
 Eoyal for Scotland, appeared in the Scotsman 
 newspaper ; and in this letter the writer pre- 
 
 6 
 
82 HOW TO FORETELL THE WEATHER 
 
 dieted some days of fine weather, upon the 
 ground of the disappearance ef the usual spec- 
 troscopic evidence of the presence of watery 
 vapour in the atmosphere. His prediction, 
 although it was opposed to the forecasts of 
 the Meteorological Office, was justified by the 
 event in a striking manner ; and it has since 
 given rise to an animated controversy. As 
 a contribution to this controversy, we print 
 to-day a letter from Mr. Smyth, in which he 
 enters somewhat fully into the rationale of his 
 observations ; and this may be summarized in 
 the following manner. The light which comes 
 to us from the sun is, in fact, wave move- 
 ment in an infinitely subtle fluid ; and the 
 waves are of several different rapidities of re- 
 currence, these differences impressing the eyes 
 as differences of colour. When light is 
 passed through a prism, the waves of the 
 most rapid recurrence are most refracted, or 
 bent out of their original course ; while those 
 of the least rapid recurrence are least bent ; 
 the former producing to the eye the sensation 
 of violet, the latter the sensation of red. In- 
 
WITH THE POCKET SPECTROSCOPE. 83 
 
 termediate between them are other colours, 
 depending upon waves of intermediate 
 rapidities, the general result being that the 
 beam of light acted upon is spread out into a 
 party-coloured band or spectrum. The light 
 proceeding from the sun would furnish a 
 continuous spectrum ; but in passing through 
 the solar envelopes, or through the atmo- 
 sphere, some portion of it is quenched by 
 collision with wave movement precisely of the 
 same pitch, the waves neutralizing each other, 
 and producing stillness, when the summits of 
 one series fall precisely into the hollows of 
 the other. Hence the solar spectrum is 
 traversed by a number of dark lines in definite 
 positions, and one of these, which appears 
 single in small instruments, although in larger 
 ones it admits of separation into constituent 
 parts, is due to the presence of watery vapour 
 in the atmosphere. Mr. Smyth points out 
 that this watery vapour is, so to speak, the 
 raw material of rain, and that without it rain 
 cannot be produced. He therefore infers 
 that its total absence involves of necessity a 
 
 62 
 
84 HOW TO FORETELL THE WEATHER 
 
 period of dry weather, and that its marked 
 presence indicates a state of things in which 
 the material for rain is abundant, and in which 
 rainfall must, therefore, be regarded as highly 
 probable. 
 
 Assuming the facts to be as stated, the 
 letters of the correspondents who have ex- 
 pressed doubts of the utility of the spectro- 
 scope as a means of predicting weather do 
 not appear to possess much value. No scien- 
 tifically instructed person would expect the 
 degree of abundance of watery vapour to be 
 alone conclusive with regard to a result which 
 no doubt depends partly upon this, and partly 
 upon the concurrence of many variable factors. 
 Watery vapour may be absent at a given mo- 
 ment, or in a given direction, and may be 
 rapidly brought from elsewhere, just as in 
 all probability it may sometimes be rapidly 
 conveyed away, by atmospheric movement, 
 without occasioning rainfall in a place where 
 it was actually detected. 
 
 The condition first described by Mr. Smyth, 
 in which the spectroscopic vapour-band had 
 
WITH THE POCKET SPECTROSCOPE. 85 
 
 absolutely disappeared, is not likely to be of 
 frequent occurrence ; and it would probably 
 be only something as marked as this which 
 would justify a conclusion based upon one 
 element of the question. The real value of 
 the spectroscope to meteorologists has yet to 
 be ascertained, and must depend upon the 
 power which it promises to afford of determin- 
 ing the amount or proportion of watery vapour 
 in the atmosphere at a given time, and possibly 
 also the molecular state of this vapour, and of 
 adding the facts thus made known to any 
 others which may be available for the pur- 
 poses of the inquiry. 
 
 Temperature must always constitute an im- 
 portant element in predictions founded upon 
 the presence of watery vapour, because an 
 ordinary immediate cause of rain is the arrival 
 of moisture-laden air in a region colder than 
 that from which it came. It is not likely 
 that much will ever be learned from isolated 
 observations, taken with small instruments, 
 by which the precise composition of the 
 vapour-band is not disclosed, or taken with- 
 
86 HOW TO FORETELL THE WEATHER. 
 
 out reference to conditions which may co-exist 
 in other localities. 
 
 Enough has at least been made out to 
 show that the observation of the vapour-band 
 is one which cannot be neglected for the fu- 
 ture ; and it will be time to decide upon the 
 precise import of the appearances which this 
 band may present when they have been studied 
 over extended areas, and with proper reference 
 to all associated phenomena. The progress 
 lately made in forecasting weather is sufficient 
 to justify great hope of further advances in 
 the same direction ; but it is not sufficient to 
 permit the neglect of any method of inquiry 
 which promises to render our knowledge of 
 any factor in the production of rainfall at all 
 more methodical or complete. 
 
 THE END. 
 
 BILLING AND SONS, PRINTERS, OUILDFORD. 
 
THE NEW SELF-REGISTERING ANEROID. 
 
 This instrument is extremely simple and hardy in construction. It has 
 neither spring nor chain, the motive power being obtained from Seven Vacuum 
 Chambers ; these are attached by levers to the arm carrying the pen, which 
 registers the height of the Barometer on the diagram, by means of a long alu- 
 minium arm carrying a pen. The drur 
 
 The drum revolves once in a week, motion being 
 
 given to it by an eight-day clock movement, which is out of sight inside the 
 drum. 
 
 The diagrams from this instrument are not only interesting, but much 
 more valuable than those given by an ordinary Barometer ; for instance, if an 
 observer after setting a Mercurial Barometer at 30 inches, at 8 o'clock in the 
 evening, looks at the Barometer at 8 o'clock the following morning, and finds 
 that it registers 297, he will conclude that the Barometer has fallen 3'lOths, 
 and is probably falling at that time, but the Self-Registering Aneroid might 
 show him that the Barometer had fallen 5'lOths in the night, and had risen 
 210ths since. When a storm of wind or rain is experienced, observers who 
 consult the Barometer only at long intervals, will at times remark that the 
 instrument gave no indication of the storm, yet with the Self -Registering 
 Aneroid, this would have been found a mistake, for the Barometer had pro- 
 bably fallen and risen again in the interval ; and it is well known that a rapid 
 rise after a fall, indicates a stronger gale than the fall itself. 
 
 (Small portion of a Weekly Diagram.) 
 
 The price of the New Self-registering Aneroid Barometer with 
 Fifty-two diagram papers is ... ... ... 6 
 
 Packing Box ... ... ... ... ... 016 
 
 JOHN BROWNING, 
 
 Optical and Physical Instrument Maker to JTer Majesty's Government, 
 the Royal Society, the Royal Observatories of Greemvich and Edin- 
 burgh, and the Observatories at Keiv, Cambridge, etc., etc., 
 
 63, STRAND, LONDON, W.C. 
 
 Established 100 years. 
 
THE 
 
 RAINBAND SPECTROSCOPE. 
 
 For years the prediction of the weather has received constantly incn MMHL;- 
 attention ; this makes the introduction of any new method of forecasting the 
 weather of great importance. To nearly every person in the community :v 
 means of telling in the morning whether the day will be fine orwet.is of 
 cniisi.lerablc value, to farmers and many others whose work goes on exclu- 
 sively in the open air the power of predicting this is of still greater conse- 
 quence. The Baromet(y will frequently rise for hours and yet rain come on 
 and continue falling. As a means of predicting coming rain no instrument 
 lias been introduced which equals the Rainband Spectroscope. The nsnli.1 
 ' .'<./ i/i (i r Jioi-e pro fed the a nut rnl <>r t>\ tin Bofofcuui Spec- 
 
 troscope // j>,-'d>i!;,>f} the coming of rain, and the adoption of the instrument 
 by Agriculturists might be a matter of national importance. 
 
 LIST OF PRICES. 
 
 *. <!. 
 Rainband Spectroscope with fixed slit ... ... ... 1 12 6 
 
 Leather Case extra ... ... .. ... ...010 
 
 Rainband Spectroscope of superior construction with adjustable 
 
 slit in case... ... ... .. ... ... 2 10 
 
 Grace's New Rainband Spectroscope with adjustable slit and fine 
 
 focussing adjustment in morocco case complete ... ... " S G 
 
 This instrument is of an improved optical construction, and it shows the 
 rainband as (tfjx.t.i-ct* line*. It is by far the easiest instrument to use for those 
 who are unaccustomed to the use of a Spectroscope. 
 
 A coloured diagram of the Spectrum, showing the Rainband of various 
 degrees of intensity, is given in "How to Work with the Spectroscope," by 
 John Browning, price Is. Cd. 
 
 JOHN BE OWNING, 
 
 Optical ctii'l Physical Instrument Maker to Her Majesty's 
 Government, 
 
 63, STRAND, LONDON, W.C. 
 
 Established' 100 years. 
 
JOHN BROWNING'S 
 
 PRICES OF SPECTACLES. 
 
 (Including suiting the Sight by Correspondence, respecting 
 which Particulars will be sent free.) 
 
 Per pair 
 Good steel Spectacles, with glass lenses ... .... ... 4/6 
 
 Superior light steel frames, with best glass lenses ... ... 7/6 
 
 Superior light steel frames, with Brazilian pebble lenses ... ... 10/6 
 
 Very superior light steel frames, with best Brazilian pebble lenses ... 15/- 
 Best light steel frames, with best Axis cut pebble lenses ... ... 21/- 
 
 luvisible steel Spectacles, with hook or curled sides and grooved 
 lenses for the frame to fit into, thereby giving them a very light 
 appearance ... ... ... ... ... ... 10/6 
 
 Best Invisible steel Spectacles, as above described ... ... 15/- 
 
 Gold Spectacles, from 18/6 to 70/- per pair, according to weight and 
 
 quality. 
 
 Good steel Spectacles, with tinted lenses perfectly planef for protect- 
 ing the eyes against strong light ... ... ... ... 4/6 
 
 Superior light steel frames, with coloured plane glass as above ... 7/6 
 Best steel frames, with coloured plane glass ... ... ... 10/6 
 
 Superior light steel frames, with Concave or Convex lenses of coloured 
 
 glass for protecting the eyes against strong light ... ... 10/6 
 
 Best steel frames, with coloured lenses, as above ... ... 15/- 
 
 Best tempered steel Spectacles with globular glasses, smoke coloured 
 
 or blue tinted ... ... ... ... ... 10/6 
 
 Best tempered steel Spectacles, with glasses as above and wire or silk 
 
 gauze sides for use in India or Egypt ... ... ... 15/- 
 
 Best steel Spectacles D shaped eyes with glass sides ... ... 10/- 
 
 The New Patent Preservers attached to Spectacle Frames for protect- 
 ing the eyes from top light, particularly gas, complete with lenses, 
 price from ... ... ... ... ... . ... 5/6 
 
 Cases in every instance are included in the price. 
 
 PRICES OF SPRING FOLDERS. 
 
 (Including suiting the Sight by Correspondence. ) 
 
 Good steel frames, with clear glass lenses ... ... ... 4/6 
 
 Superior light steel frames, with best glass lenses ... ... 7/6 
 
 Best light straw steel frames, with best grooved lenses ... ... 10/6 
 
 Best light steel frames, nickelized to prevent rust, and fitted with 
 
 best glass lenses ... ... ... ... ... 15/6 
 
 Gold folders from 18/6 to 70/- per pair, according to weight and quality. 
 Best Brazilian pebbles fitted to any of the above, 5/- extra. 
 
 Browning's Axis cut pebbles, 10/- extra. 
 Cases in every instance are included in the price. 
 
 JOHN BKOWNING, 
 
 Optical and Physical Instrument Maker to Her Majesty's 
 
 Government. 
 
 63, STRAND, LONDON, W.C. 
 Established 100 years. 
 
JUST PUBLISHED. 
 
 HOW TO USE OUR EYES, 
 
 AND 
 
 HOW TO PRESERVE THEM BY THE 
 AID OF SPECTACLES. 
 
 BY JOHN BROWNING, F.RA.S. 
 
 With Thirty-seven Illustration*. 
 
 Price Is. ; in cloth, Is. Gel. 
 
 '"How to use our Eyes,' by John Browning, F.R.A.S., is a 
 thoroughly practical little manual, likely to be of much use to 
 persons with weak eyes." Graphic. 
 
 "Every one who cares about his eyesight should get this little 
 book ; those who think their eyesight of no particular moment can 
 very readily dispense with it." R. A. PROCTOR, B. A., in Knowledge. 
 
 " Gives many a useful hint to those who enjoy good eyesight and 
 wish to preserve it, and gives the advice of an oculist to those 
 obliged to wear spectacles, and whose eyes are in any way affected. 
 It is a useful little volume, written in a simple style which can be 
 understood by all." Pall Mall Gazette. 
 
 " This little volume should secure a wide circle of readers. We 
 have been especially pleased with the many useful hints given by 
 Mr. Browning regarding sight-preservation. . . Mr. Browning's 
 work teems with interest, and deserves perusal from its intrinsic 
 interest, and from the amount of information which may be culled 
 from its pages regarding the physiology of seeing." Health. 
 
 OHATTO AND WINDUS, PICCADILLY, LONDON, W. 
 
 AND OF ALL BOOKSELLERS. 
 
 Sent free for Is. or Is. 6d. by the Author, 
 JOHN BROWNING, 63, STRAND. 
 
[March, 1884. 
 
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 Autobiography of a Thief. 
 
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 Frau Frohmann. 
 
 Marion Fay. 
 
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 Esther's Glove. By R. E. FRANCILLON. 
 The Garden that Paid the Rent. 
 
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