LIBRARY OF THE University of California. RECEIVED BY EXCHANGE Class Digitized by the- Internet Archive in 2008 with funding from IVIicrosoft Corporation http://www.archive.org/details/ellipsisinoldfreOOknicrich ELLIPSIS IN OLD FRENCH ELLIPSIS IN OLD FRENCH WILLIAM EDWIN KNICKERBOCKER SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY, IN THE FACULTY OF PHILOSOPHY, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY NEW YORK 191 I TO MY WIFE This Work Is Affectionately Dedicated 232999 NOTE. The following dissertation waa examined by the De- partment of Eomanee Languages and Literatures of Columbia University and, being accounted a valuable tho at certain interesting points a debatable contribu- tion to the history of Old French syntax, was accepted in partial fulfilment of the requirement for the degree of doctor of philosophy. Henry Alfred Todd. Columbia University, January, 1911. PEEFACE. The subject of the present study was suggested by Professor Henry A. Todd, of Columbia University, and a paper on this topic was written for the Seminar in Komance Philology conducted by him. This work was the beginning of the investigations whose results are herein recorded. The author is deeply indebted to Pro- fessor Todd, and gladly takes this opportunity to express sincere appreciation of his constant kindness and learned advice. The author also acknowledges with gratitude his in- debtedness to Professor Adolphe Cohn, Professor Carlo L. Speranza and Professor Louis A. Loiseaux for the training he received from them as a student of Eomance languages and literatures. W. E. K. New York City, Januaby, 1911. TABLE OF CONTENTS. PAGE Introduction 15 Texts Examined 17 Principal Works Consulted 19 Periodicals Consulted 21 CHAPTEB I. Coalescence 23 Preposition a 23 Preposition de 25 Conjunction et (no ellipsis; correction of readings ) 26 Adverb i (y) 26 Le, la, les before W, lor 27 Non-ellipsis of Ze, to, les before li, lor 29 Conjunction se 30 Pronoun se 30 II. Non-repetition of closely recurring words and syllables 33 Preposition de 33 Pronoun en (note on its personal use) 34 Verb merd — origin of the Modern French use of merci expressing thanks 34 Mes — airb kolvov (see p. 41) 37 Adverb ne 37 Conjunction que 38 Sufax -ment 39 Prefixes BeS' 39 S'entre- (note on atonic form of the re- flexive pronoun before an infinitive) 39 Re- 40 Groups of Words — an-d KOivov 41 III. The Noun 43 Non-repetition of the Noun 45 12 TAiiLE OF Contents. PAGE IV. The Adjective 48 The Possessive Adjective 49 The Article 49 The Definite Article 50 The Indefinite Article 53 Non-repetition of the Adjective 53 The Possessive Adjective 54 The Definite Article 54 V. The Pronoun 56 The Nominative Pronoun — origin of the Modern French form of interrogation . . 66 The Accusative Pronoun 57 Simple ellipsis (see reflexive pronoun) .... 57 Before a Dative Pronoun 58 Noun serving as object to two verbs 59 Referring to a phrase or fact 60 The Predicate Pronoun (use of si) 61 The Reflexive Pronoun 63 Origin of the stressed form of the Pro- noun before an Infinitive governed by a Preposition (63)-68 Verbs used refiexively and non-reflexively 70 Reflexive Verbs 72 Non-reflexive Verbs 73 After Prepositions 76 Before a repetition of the Pronoun 78 The Dative Pronoun 78 L' = li 78 Pronoun en 79 Demonstrative Pronoun cil 81 Demonstrative Pronoun ce 83 The Relative Pronoun 85 Indeflnite qui (" whoever ") 86 Non-repetition of the Pronoun 87 The Accusative Pronoun 87 Pronoun in the Dative Case not repeated in the Accusative 88 The Reflexive Pronoun 89 Table of Contents. 13 V. The Pronoun — Continued. page The Dative Pronoun 89 Pronoun in the Accusative Case not re- peated in the Dative 90 Pronoun en 91 Demonstrative Pronouns oil and ce 91 The Relative Pronoun 91 VI. The Verb 93 Causative Verb faire 95 The Infinitive with pooir 99 Auxiliary Verb avoir omitted when replacing estre 100 In the second term of a comparison 100 Before the repetition of the Verb 100 Non-repetition of the Verb 100 In the same form with the same word for the subject 100 In the same form with a different word for the subject 103 In coordinate clauses of parallel construc- tion 103 Origin of the use of a singular verb with a plural subject (103)-105 Form of the Verb variable, with the same word for the subject 106 Depending on a Verb in a second clause. . . 106 8e . . . non 106 In a different form referring to a different subject 108 Faire que sages — meaning of qu^ 108 Verb replaced by faire 112 In the second term of a comparison 112 VII. The Adverb 113 Non-repetition of the Adverb 117 Modifying Verbs 117 Modifying Adjectives 120 Modifying Adverbs 121 VIII. The Preposition 122 A 122 The Indirect Object 124 Before dependent infinitives 126 14 Table of Contents. VIII. The Preposition — Continued. page De 126 With Nouns and Adverbs of Quantity 128 Use of de with the Article before Adverbs of Quantity 128 En, o, par 129 Pot 131 Use of que in the sense of " why " 131 Non-repetition of the Preposition 133 IX. The Conjunction 137 Non-repetition of the Conjunction 140 X. The Phrase 145 Au 145 Introduced by de 145 Por savoir 147 Introduced by que 147 In expressions in which que is followed by an Infinitive 147 Probable origin of qui ainz ainz 149 In expressions such as faire que sages (see p. 108 ) , saluer come frans 149 Origin of the Modern French use of et qui for qui 150 After si 150 After tant 150 After trop 151 Formation of the superlative 151 Caused by a following expression of the same idea 153 Non-repetition of the Phrase 152 After si and tant 153 In a different form 153 OiCy oil, naie, nenil 153 Conclusion 155 Vita 157 IJSTTRODUCTIOK Ellipsis is the omission of words or groups of words which are obviously understood. When, then, a word is not used in cases in which usage has not made its em- ployment of such regular occurrence as to cause its omis- sion to be felt as such, there is no true case of ellipsis. Certain omissions of this kind, however, are necessarily included in a study of ellipsis. In Old French, ellipsis divides itself into two classes : (1) conscious or intentional omission — as. Come il chanja (sc. color), come il pali, Cliges 4364 — by far the more usual, and found probably in all languages; (2) unconscious or unintentional omission — as, il ira for il i ira — which is the result of a purely phonetic develop- ment. On a division of the first class — that of the non- repetition of words — there have been written three dis- sertations — ^by H. Hirschberg, L. Klatt and E. Lotz — which, however, are incomplete, and do not preclude its treatment here. In our study of the ellipses found in Old French — which are particularly numerous as the language did not undergo the conservative influence of grammarians — the ordinary omissions have been given only the small attention they have seemed to require, while the more in- teresting ellipses have received detailed exposition, often leading to attempts to explain their origin (see, e. g., Chapters I and II, particularly '' le, la, les before li, lor/' p. 27, and '' merci/' p. 34; the origin of the Modern French form of interrogation, p. 56; the use of the 16 Introduction. stressed form of the pronoun before an infinitive gov- erned by a preposition, p. 68; a singular verb with a plural subject, p. 105; que meaning "why/^ p. 131; qui ainz ainz, p. 149) ; and concerning certain words and constructions, attempts have also been made to give a clearer conception of their meaning (as fair& que sages etc., p. 108) and of their use (the personal use of en, p. 34; atonic pronouns before infinitives, p. 39; V for the dative li, p. 78; qui, p. 85; verbs with a causative meaning, p. 95; ne, p. 37, etc.). For this study, texts of the earliest centuries only have been examined — from the Serments de Strasbourg through the twelfth century, and Deu le omnipotent of the thirteenth century — as showing the ellipsis and usage of the language at the earliest stage possible. It is believed that the Table of Contents has been made sufficiently complete to render an index super- fluous. TEXTS EXAMINED WITH INDICATION OF ABBREVIATIONS EMPLOYED. Serments Strasb. Les Serments de Strasbourg, in Les plus anciens monuments de la langue frangaise, E. Kosch- witz, Leipzig, 1902. Ste. Eul. Prose de sainte Eulalie. See Serments Strasb. Pass. La Passion du Christ. See Serments Strasb. St. L6g. La Vie de saint Leger. See Serments Strasb. Gorm. Fragment de Oormund et Isemhard, Robert Heillg- brodt, in Boehmer's Romanische Studien, 3 (1878), p. 501 ff. St. Alex. La Vie de saint Alexis, G. Paris and L. Pannier, Paris, 1887. P61. de Ch. (Pdlerinage de Charlemagne) Earls des gros- sen Reise nach Jerusalem und Const antinopel, E. Kosch- witz, Leipzig, 1900. Rol. La Chanson de Roland, L. C16dat, Paris, sixth edition. Alb6ric, Fragment de VAlheric de Besangon, in K. Bartsch's Chrestomathie de Vancien frangais, p. 17; Leipzig, 1884. Gr6g. La Vie du Pape Gregoire le Grand, V. Luzarche, Tours, 1857. Reim. Reimpredigt {Grant mal fist Adam), H. Sucliier, Halle, 1879. Epoux, Le Mystdre de VEpoux. See Serments Strasb. Erec, Erec und Enide, W. Foerster, Halle, 1896. Clig. Cligis, W. Foerster, Halle, 1901. Auc. Aucassin et Nicolete, H. Suchier, French edition by A. Counson, Paderborn, 1903. Ch. L. {Le Chevalier au Lyon) Tvain, W. Foerster, Halle, 1906. Omnip. Deu le omnipotent. See Reim. Alterations in passages quoted from the above works have been made as follows: In citations taken from the Passion, Gormund et Isemhard, Grant mal fist Adam, Aucassin et 2 18 Texts Examined. Nicolete and Deu le omnipotent, capitals have been used to indicate the first word of each verse; in those from the Passion and Gormund et Isemhard, the sign under the u, showing its close sound, has been omitted, as well as the letters in parenthesis in the latter poem, in which also the letters in brackets have been inserted. PEINCIPAL WOEKS CONSULTED. Appel, C. — Provenzalische Chrestomathie, Leipzig, 1902. Bartsch, K. — Chrestomathie de Vancien frangais, Leipzig, 1884. Bergmann, K. — Die Ellipse im Neufranzosischen, Freiburg, 1908. Beyer, B. — Ueber den Oebrauch von " tout " im Alt- und im Neufranzosischen, Diss. 72 pp., Berlin, 1905. Constans, L. — Chrestomathie de Vancien frangais, Paris, 1906. Corte, W. — Ueber die ivirklichen und scheinbaren Ellipsen im Franzosischen, Zerbst; Pt. I, 1857; Pt. II, 1863; Pt. Ill, 1870. Darmesteter, A. — Vie des mots, Paris, 1887. . Historical French Grammar, English edition by A. Hartog, London, 1899. Diez, P. — Orammatik der romanischen Sprachen, Bonn, 1882. Ebering, E. — Syntaktische Studien zu Froissart, in Zts. f. r. Ph., 5, 323-376. E5tienne, B. — Essai de grammaire de Vancien frangais, Paris, ^^^-^^ 1895. Fredenhagen, H. — Ueber den Oebrauch des Artikels in der franzosischen Prosa des XIII. Jahrhunderts, Beihefte zu Zts. f. r. Ph., Heft 3. Gebhardt, C. — Zur subjektlosen Konstruktion im Alt fran- zosischen, in Zts. f. r. Ph., vol. 20 (1896), pp. 27-50. Gelbrich, P. — Remarques sur Vemploi de Varticle en vieux frangais, Diss. 79 pp., Langenbielau, 1881. Gessner, E. — Programm zur Lehre vom franzosischen Pro- nomen, Berlin, 1873. Godefroy, F. — Dictionnaire de Vancienne langue frangaise, Paris, 1881, 10 vol. Grober, G. — Orundriss der romanischen Philologie, Strass- burg, 1888-1901. Hirschberg, H. — Au^lassung und Stellvertretung im Alt- franzosischen, Diss. 49 pp., Gottingen, 1878. Horning, A. — Le pronom neutre " il " en langue d'o'il, in Rom. Stud., 4, 229 ff. 20 Principal Works Consulted. Johannssen, H. — Der Ausdruck des Concessivverhdltniss im Altfranzosischen, Diss. 70 pp., Kiel, 1884. / Johnston, O. — Use of " le, la, les " before " me, te, nous, vous, ' lui, leur " in Old French, in Mod. Lang. Notes, vol. 15 (1900), pp. 1-12. Klatt, L. — Die Wiederholung und Auslassung gewisser Form- Oder Bestimmungsworter in der Prosa des XIII. Jahrhunderts, Diss. 24 pp., Kiel, 1878. Koch, H. — Der Artikel im altfranzosischen Rolandsliede^ Diss. 63 pp., Greifswald, 1902. Le Coultre, J. — De Vordre des mots dans Grestien de Troyes, in Programm des Vitzthumschen Gymnasiums, Dresden, 1875. Lotz, E. — Auslassung, Wiederholung und Stellvertretung im Altfranzosischen, Diss. 41 pp., Marburg, 1885. Maetzner, E. — Franzosische Grammatik, Berlin, 1885. w Meyer-Lubke, W. — Chrammaire des langues romanes, Paris, 1890-1906. Nyrop, K. — Grammaire historique de la langue frangaise, Copenhagen; vol. 1 (second ed.), 1904; vol. 2, 1903; vol. 3, 1908. Paris, G. — La litterature frangaise au moyen dge, Paris, 1905. Perle, F. — Die Negation im Altfranzosischen, in Zts. f. r. Ph., 2, 1-24 and 407-418. Ritchie, R. — Recherches sur la syntaxe de la conjonction *• que " dans Vancien frangais. Diss. 197 pp., Paris, 1907. Schayer, S. — Zur Lehre vom Gehrauch des unhestimmten Artikels und des Teilungsartikels im Altfranzosischen und im Neufranzosischen, in Berliner Beitrage, Diss. 152 pp., 1897. Schuchardt, H. — Transitive yerl)en aus intransitiv-reflexiven, in Zts. f. r. Ph., 32 (1908), p. 231 ff. Schulze, A. — Die Wortstellung im altfranzosischen direkten Fragesatze, in Herrigs Archiv, 71, pp. 185-212, 303-356. Stowell, W. — Old French Titles of Respect in Direct Ad- dress, Baltimore, 1908. Tobler, A. — Yermischte Beitrage zur franzosischen Gram- matik, Leipzig; vols. 1 and 2, 1886; vol. 3, 1899; vol. 4, 1908. Zauner, A. — Romanische Sprachwissenschaft, Leipzig, 1905. PERIODICALS CONSULTED WITH INDICATION OF ABBREVIATIONS EMPLOYED. Berliner Beitrage — Berliner Beitrdge zur germanischen und romanischen Philologie, ed. by E. Ebering; Berlin, 1893 ff. Gott. Gel. Anz. — Oottingische QeleUrte Anzeigen, Gottingen, 1802 ff. Herrigs Archiv — Archiv fur das Studium der neueren 8prachen und Litteraturen, Elberfeld (later Braun- schweig), 1846 ff. Litbl. — Literaturhlatt fiir germanische und romanische Philologie, ed. by O. Behagel and F. Neumann; Heil- bronn (later Leipzig), 1880 ff. Mod. Lang. Notes — Modern Language NoteSj ed. by A. Elliott; Baltimore, 1886 ff. Revue de phil. fr. — Revue de philologie frangaise et de litterature, ed. by L. Cl^dat; Paris, 1887 ff. Rom. — Romania, Paris, 1872 ff. Rom. Forsch. — Romanische Forschungen, ed. by K. Vol- moller; Erlangen, 1882 ff. Rom. Stud. — Romanische Studien, ed. by E. Bohmer; vols. 1-3, Strassburg, 1871-1878; vols. 4-6, Bonn, 1880-1895. Zts. f. r. Ph. — Zeitschrift fiir romanische Philologie, ed. by G. Grober; Halle, 1877 ff. Zts. f. vergl. Sprachforseh. N. F. — Zeitschrift fiir vergleich- ende Sprachforschung auf dem Oebiete der indogerma- nischen Sprachen, Neue Folge, Berlin (later Gutersloh), 1852 ff. CHAPTER I. Coalescence/ The Modem French Je mis hien aise developed from Je sids hien a aise; so the Old French II li done was originally II le li done. If intentional, such omissions would be surprising and their explanation perplexing. But their origin lies in a phonetic reduction which is contrary to logic and grammar, and which results from the fusion of similar sounds: thus the preposition a coalesced with the initial vowel sound of aise. This phase of the study of ellipsis is probably the most in- teresting, and may at first seem the most surprising, but is in reality quite natural, for it is the least violent kind of ellipsis inasmuch as the speaker is unaware of the gradual disappearance of the coalescing word. Other occurrences of coalescence are given below in alphabetical order. Preposition a*. Both a aise and aise occur in the twelfth century : Or estoie je trop a eise, Erec 2590; Ainz va plus else et plus soef Que s^il estoit an une nef, ib. 1401. ^ See Kr. Nyrop, Oram., vol. 1, pp. 279-280. ^G. Paris (Rom. 29 (1900), pp. 262, 3) shows that ente is contracted from a ente, and that gait apens developed from agait a apens, and agait in turn from a agait. The reduction of dehe + ait to dehait (G. P., Rom. 18 (1889), p. 469; E. Sheldon, ib. 32 (1903), p. 444) is likewise due to the fusion of vowel sounds; thus: Dehait ore qui por vos i cantera, Auc. 22, 9. When the force of the verb was no longer felt, it was often repeated as a separate word, as: Dehait ait qui ja en parlera, ib. 18, 25. 24 Ellipsis in Old Feench. The verb comander ' requires the preposition a before the dependent infinitive/ The omission of this preposi- tion, however, evidently due to absorption, is not infre- quent when the following word begins with a or the pre- ceding word terminates in this sound : Sa pucele comande aler Isnelemant a lui parler, Erec 153; Ses chevans comande anseler, ib. 1432 and 4283; Comanda gant vaslez beignier/ ib. 2016; Sa fame comande atorner, ib. 2294; Et comanda les corz soner, ib. 2335; Si ot comande a porter* Tantes et pavellons et trez, ib. 3948; Et comanda une esche esprandre, ib. 5128; Li rois comanda aprester Le soper, ib. 5580; Si comanda metre sa sele, Ch. L. 727. The fusion of the preposition a with the initial vowel of Auste apparently occurs in the following passage from Enfances Ogier:'' Tot droit Aiiste est Kalles herbergies. It is uncertain that the following is an example of the coalescence of the preposition; this is pointed out by Tobler:'' ' The cases in which this verb governs the infinitive with- out a preposition, and in which no fusion could have oc- curred, are few, and in none of those found does the infini- tive immediately follow the principal verb. Examples: Les trois chevaus li comandoit Devant li mener et chacier, Erec 2916; Comanderent les couches feire, ib. 4270; Mainte- nant comande fors treire Deus corones de son tresor, ib. 6836. * Examples will be found in St. Leg. 220; Rol. 1138; Erec 2618, 2625, 3656; Clig. 4602; Ch. L. 143, 202, 1988, 2139, 3968, 3971. ° See Le Coultre, p. 54. •Better aporter. Cf. Et fet aporter un antret, ib. 4219; Et fet ses armes aporter^ ib. 4284. ^ In Les Chansons de Oeste et les Routes d'ltalie, J. B6dier, Rom., 36 (1907), p. 165, 1. 4. »V. B. 1, 182 (article 32) note: " Es ist nicht ganz sicher, dass die Stelle hieher gehort, da avoir apris in der Bedeu- tung * gewohnt sein ' . . . ausser mit a und dem Infinitiv (Ge congnois Hen pieg'a Dangler; II j a apris a ledangier, Coalescence. 25 Tant con li hon a plus apris A * delit et a joie vivre, Ch. L. 3578. Perhaps the omission of the preposition a in avoir 710171 (see p. 122) is due to coalescence, for, in this ex- pression, the verb was probably used most frequently in the third person singular of the present indicative. Compare the Portuguese a for a a, and the fusion in Eoumanian of the article a with a final a of the preced- ing word to which it relates, as, piatra (see Zauner, 1, 147). The Old Spanish ela reduces to el before a tonic a of the following noun : thus, el alma. Be, Probably in an imperfect pronunciation of de — as is likely to occur, e. g., in the Modern French comhien de dictionnaires, etc. — is to be seen the cause of the ellipsis of this word in the following passages : Ambes levres li fait talier, Anc la langue que aut en quieu. Com si I'aut tot vituperet, Dist Evruins, qui tant fu mels: " Hor at perdut don (sc. de) Dieu parler; Ja nen podrat mais Dieu loder," St. Leg. 157; so also ib. 167; Desire part la citet demie Hue grant Troevent vergiers, Pel. de Ch. 264; S^estut sor les deus piez de- riere, Ch. L. 3398; De treis choses fu (t. e. la passiun), Isi le ai jo lu, E apris de mestre. Di pire matire (Pur veirs le pus dire) ISTe purreit ele estre, Omnip. 32a ; Les mains devant, Aiol 368 °; Les deus poes devant, Doon de Maience, p. 47 " ; Des pies devant, Huon de Bordeaux, p. 55 '; Le trait deriere. Ph. de Thaiin, BesUaires, 35'; La garde riere, Ambroise, La guerre saint e, 1913.* A leidir et a menacier, Rose 3140) auch mit reinem Infinitiv vorkommt (cil ki ait apris Estre envoixies et chantans et jolis, Bern. LHs. 467, 2)." * When ellipses) might not be immediately recognized, italics have been used to indicate their occurrence. • From Nyrop, Oram., vol. 3, p. 328. 26 Ellipsis in Old French. Compare the omission of -do of modo in the Italian a mo' d^introduzione, a mo' delle nazioni orientali. EL In CUges 5903 — Se je vive ne la te rant, Ou tu m'oci ou tu me pant! — there is probably no assimilation of the con- junction e(t) with the final vowel of vive, which must be viv e — for vif e, as f would be in intervocalic position — since, in the present tense, se does not require the sub- junctive. Similar to this are the following passages from Oregoire: Lors aparceit al chief les tables Beles d'ivoire (=ivoir* e) convenables, 37-13; Esp§e ot bone (= bon' e) bien tren- chant, 59-1. liY). The rarity of the appearance of the adverb i before the future and conditional of aler is due to its coales- cence with the initial vowel of this verb.^* That the ad- verb was used in this position is attested by examples of its survival : Vos n^i iroiz, Erec 215; Wi irai pas, ib. 3907; Mes je n^i iroie por rien, ib. 4012; Et bien vos poist, si i iroiz, ib. 4020; Bien otroie qu'il i ira, Clig. 4977; Amis, ains i ira Jehanz, ib. 6284; Lez a lez n'i iroient pas, Lance- lot'' 2179; Et dit: " Aussins i irai gie,'' ib. 2193; " Et je," fet il, " i irai donques," ib. 2291 ; Mes j^i irai se vos volez, ib. 2387. But one example has been found of the change to which i and the following t of a verb other than aler were subject: Que chascun jor alot veeir Celes (read C'eles, i. e. 8'eles) ierent (not i event) e saveeir S^aucuns ne fust qui les remuast, Greg. 70-13. ^^ W. Corte, Pt. Ill, p. 36, says: " Y " wird des Wohlklangs wegen bei j'irai und j'irais unterdruckt. "W. Foerster, Halle, 1899. Coalescence. 27 The juxtaposition of these two vowel sounds produced a similar result when this adverb followed qui and ^; Passet Gironde a molt granz nes qu'i sont, Eol. 3688 ; De eels de France les plus saives qu^i sont, ib. 3703; An tot le chastel n'a remes Home ne fame, droit ne tort, . . . Qui (=: qui i) puisse aler, qui n'i voise, Erec 5698; Et la dameisele i estoit, Qui sa seror deseritoit; Qu^ele avoit puis mout pres tenue La cort, s'atandoit la venue Sa seror, qui (=: qui i) vient et aproche, ib. 5845; — La reine Ganievre i cort Et s^i vint meismes li rois, Erec 1524; Et li Francois i fierent et si chaplent, Eol. 1347, in which the adverb would hardly refer to both verbs because of et si. Editors print qu'i and s'i, as Cledat and Foerster have done in the above citations, when the need of the pres- ence of the adverb has been noticed. Though this orthog- raphy shows the presence of both words, which was no doubt felt, at least in early times, it is as incorrect as it is advantageous. Would it not be quite as reasonable, and more consistent, to write je ni'rai pas for je n'irai pas, since i is not omitted with any other tense of alerf They are cases of coalescence and not of elision. Le, la, les before li, lor. The ellipsis of the accusative pronoun of the third person before the dative pronoun of the same person "* — Et je (sc. le) lor irai avant dire, Erec 4166 — is of such frequent occurrence that its use in this position has been said seldom to occur. Ebeling '' takes exception to these statements, supporting his argument with many exam- ples. Yet the fact remains that the ellipsis occurs very much more frequently than the full form. "For its omission before the dative of other pronouns, see p. 58. " Georg Ebeling, AuJ)eree, Halle, 1895, note to 1. 655. 28 Ellipsis in Old French. On first consideration one might suppose the accusa- tive pronoun to have been employed enclitically. Losing its vowel because of the following I, it would be scarcely distinguishable in sound from the dative pronoun, with the result that the accusative pronoun disappeared. However, the word preceding the accusative often ter- minated in an I. Such close proximity of three I sounds could hardly have failed to result in the disappearance of the second, i. e. of the accusative pronoun. Probably this is the true explanation of the origin of the ellipsis, and the loss of the enclitic accusative came later, being a more violent ellipsis, for before 1% lor, and following an I the accusative is rarely found. Of Ebeling's twenty- nine examples, only two are of the accusative in this position, whereas fourteen show its use after a vowel. That there are more examples of its omission after a vowel than after I is not surprising, since more of the pronouns, as well as ne and si, which frequently precede the object pronouns, terminate in a vowel {je, tu, ele, cele, qui) than in I (il, cil). The occurrence of the ellipsis after consonants other than I was, no doubt, a later development. Ellipsis of le: (a) after I: Uescut vermeil li fraint, del col li portet, Eol. 1576; Fiert Pinabel sor Thelme d^acier brun, Josqu^al nasel li at frait et fendut, ib. 3926. (&) after a vowel: Le destre poing at perdut, n'en at mie. Si li trenchat li cuens Eollanz li riches, Eol. 2719 ; Je li dirai, nel leirai pas, Erec 2843. (c) after a consonant other than I: Sil fiert amont sor Fhelme ad or gemet; Tot li detrenchet d^ici que al nasel, Eol. 1995; Erec par le hiaume le sache, A force del chief li arrache, Erec 985. Coalescence. 29 Ellipsis of la: (a) after I: Danz Oliviers trait at sa bone espede . . . Et il li at com chevaliers mostrede, Rol. 1367; "La clef en Fentraile trovai/^ II lur mostra, Greg. 104-14. (h) after a vowel: "Re voudroie por nule rien Qu^ele eiist d^autre robe point Jusque la reine li doint, Erec 1376 ; Si li rant la corone an pes, Car bien est droiz que tu li les, Clig. 2493. (c) after a consonant other than I: Del brant d^acier la more li presentet, Desor le front Phelme li en detren- chet, Enmi le vis li at faite descendre, Rol. 3918; " Une chose me creantez . . /' La dame tantost li otroie, Ch. L. 2552. Ellipsis of les: (a) after. I: Cil li aportet; receit les Alexis, St. Alex. 57c; Cil li fist aporter, et li reis les regut, Pel. de Ch. 191. (h) after a vowel: Et fet ses armes aporter. Yaslet corent, si li aportent, Erec 4284; A grant painne tenoit ses lermes, Mes honte li feisoit tenir, Ch. L. 2702. (c) after a consonant other than I: Garnemens de- manda ciers, On li a aparellies, Auc. 9, 5; S^il viaut armes, an li atorne, Ch. L. 3139. Though about 140 examples of this ellipsis have been found in the works examined, there occur there very few instances of the appearance of the accusative pronoun before the dative pronoun of the third person : Recent Falmosne quant Deus la li tramist, St. Alex. 20c; Ainz preiet Deu qued il le lor pardoinst, ib. 54d. There are more examples of its use when following the dative pronoun or when it is separated from it, for then the possibility of coalescence is, of course, pre- cluded : Lui Tcomandat cil reis Lodiers, St. Leg. 20 ; Rendit lo qui lui l^comandat, ib. 26 ; Lui la consent qui de Rome esteit pape, St. Alex. 75c ; Conpeignie m^i a tenue, Et je la revuel li tenir, Ch. L. 5734. 30 Ellipsis in Old French. It is curious that the accusative pronoun is omitted, though rarely, at the beginning of a verse : Pour essauchier crestiente, Lor a Diex a pastor doune, Greg. 110-15; Celes ranposnes a sejor Li sont el cuer batanz et fresches, Mes de son gucre et de ses bresches Li radoucist novele Amors, Ch. L. 1354. Conjunction se. Though come may alone signify " as if,^^ it is probable that the omission of se before ce is caused by its coales- cence with this word, particularly as con se ce has not been found in the works studied : et avoit Jes mameletes dures, qui li souslevoient sa vesteiire, ausi con ce fuissent deus nois gauges, Auc. 12, 23; Que aussi, con ce fussent pailles, Fet del hauberc voler les mailles, Ch. L. 4525. It is ce which does not appear in Ch. L. 930, Estoit si estroiz li trespas, Oon se fust uns santiers batuz. Eeflexive Pronoun se. " Comme tons les verbes pronominaux a I'origine, ^ se lever,^ dans les temps composes, pent etre purement passif (sans pronom reflechi) : ' Turpins est levez ' = ' Turpin s'est leve \'^ This is the statement made by Cledat in the glossary to his edition of the Roland, under lever. What is the origin of this use? Can it be simply a substitution of the present tense for the past indefinite — the substitution of a tense denoting completed action for one describing the accomplishment of such action ? The substitution would be unaccountable. It is not improbable that the ellipsis of the reflexive pronoun — for such it seems to be — originated in a pho- netic development, se sont giving sont through an imper- fect articulation of the vowel, due to the same sibilant's Coalescence. 31 preceding and following it/* particularly as the pronoun may have been used enclitically with the preceding word when it terminated in a vowel, and the omission extend- ing to the reflexive pronouns of the other persons, aided by the fact that those of the first and second persons plural may easily have been mistaken for subjects when the latter were omitted." Though very often this omission may be seen, it is difficult to cite indisputable examples, since Old French is so inconsistent in the use of the tenses ; the following, however, seem reasonably sure cases of the ellipsis " : Ad icest mot sont Franceis escridet, Eol. 1180; Puis sont tornet Baivier et Aleman, ib. 3960 ; Quant ce fu fet et atorne, Li message sont retome A lor seignor Erec arriere. Qui les re^ut a bele chiere, Erec 1907; Quant li uns ot Tautre bande, A Deu sont antrecomande, ib. 3929 ; Quant tote la messe oie orent. Si sont el pales retorne. Ja fu tot fet et atorne, ib. 6918; Et vers Cliges vos mes- feistes, Wil n^est de rien vers vos mesfez, Clig. 6580; Et que que il se desarmoient, Le lion corant venir voient . . . Desarme sont einsi parlant, Et li lions ne vint pas lant, Ch. L. 6455-6493. The Modern French use of etre in conjugating many verbs denoting change of position may be somewhat in- debted to this use of the auxiliary verb estre. "Cf. savous i= savez-vous) and avous (= avez-vous) ; see Nyrop, Oram., vol, 2, p. 168. In English, with some careless speakers, the words say I become, through analogy with the third person singular, says I, pronounced sez J, which sometimes contracts to s'z I, s's I and even s'J. " This ellipsis would originate, of course, after the use of the verb estre with reflexive verbs had become customary, and a possible theory that sont = s'ont, is unsupportable, inasmuch as the use of the verb avoir in such cases is not often found with the other persons in the works studied. ^^Zauner, 2, 136, in making mention of this construction, confuses it with the omission of the reflexive pronoun, ob- ject of a dependent infinitive (see p. 63 ff.). 32 Ellipsis in Old French. Only three cases have been found in which pener, in the sense of "to exert one's self/' "to work/' is not clearly reflexive. In one of them it is not certain that s' is not the reflexive pronoun : Dessoz la vile an un destor Avoit Jehanz f eite une tor, S'i ot par mout grant san pene, Clig. 5555. In the following passage it may be a case of coalescence of the reflexive s' with the preceding nominative s of mires. While the omission of the reflexive pronoun with the negative verb later in the poem makes such a conclu- sion doubtful, the possibility of a form mires i may have caused a mires n'i: Cos d'espee garist et sainne Mout tost, des que mires i painne, Ch. L. 1371. Compare : Se desleaus mires n'i painne, ib. 5384. CHAPTEE II. Non-repetition of Closely Eecurring Words and Syllables/ Through a tendency to avoid a repetition of the same sound, there originated important and, in some cases, violent ellipses, distinct from simple non-repetition — which relieves heaviness and awkwardness of expres- sion — inasmuch as they render the sentence grammatic- ally incomplete, and are often unconscious omissions. Words and groups of words, as well as the suffix -ment and certain prefixes were thus affected. 1. Complete Words. De. Mes por quoi fust ele coarde De sa dame reconforter Et de s'enor amonester,* Ch. L. 1594. The omission of de before plus in the following pas- sage may be attributed to its use before foi: Car il ne cuidoient ancores, Qu'il eiist baron plus de foi, Clig. 432. *Cf. the Modern French plus tdt que plus tard, which, according to Littr^ (under tdt), is for plutdt plus tdt que plus tard (see also Tobler, V. B. 3, 144-145), and the Eng- lish " inside and out," and " outside and in/* In English, also, we occasionally hear, among careless speakers, such errors as, " You'll oblige me by stop talking,'' in which the second termination -ing, immediately following, is prob- ably the cause of the suppression of the first. So, too, the verb " to go " is not repeated in such sentences as, " I am going out," for " I am going to go out." ^See Tobler, V. B. 1, 181 (article 32), and note. In the Gott. Gel. Anz., 1877, p. 1614, two examples are given: DHluec partir congiet rouvai, Watr. 12,332; Des mauvais parler se teisoit, ib. 45, 50. Likewise, the partitive article never occurs after de. 34 Ellipsis in Old French. Compare the Modern French ret our de Paris for de retour de Paris. En, In the following passage the occnrrence of the preposi- tion en may properly be considered the cause of the omis- sion of the pronoun before at: ' Sonez voz graisles tant que en ceste ost at, Eol 2110. Merd, That the Modern French merci — ^^ thank you^^ — is a shortened form of vostre merci, which is in turn the result of the ellipsis of the verb merci — first person singular of the present indicative of mercier — ^the full form thus being merci vostre merci — " I thank your grace, i. e., you ''' — is found to be at least probable by an ' If one would consider that tant que , . . at refers to the men rather than to the clarions, en would still be expected, for its use in the sense of de vos is not unfamiliar to Old French : Quant jo n'ai prot de vos (1. e. s'esp^de) nen ai meins cure! Tantes batailles en champ en ai vencudes. . . . Ne vos ait hom qui por altre s'en fuiet! Rol. 2305; Ma dame a seignor vos regut, Mon los et mon consoil an crut, Ch. L. 3653; Ne ne trovai qui me deist de vos chose, qui me seist; Car il n'an savoient noveles, ib. 3695; Et sachiez bien, que vos meimes I poez mout grant honte atandre, Se reangon n'an viaut an prandre! ib. 5266. En also refers to the other persons: To the first person singular : Mes garde bien, je te comant, S'est nus, qui de moi te demant. Que ja novele ne Tan dies, Ch. L. 739 ; " Certes, vos estes mal baillie, S'autremant de vos ne pansez." " Tu," fet la dame, " qui tant sez, Me di, comant j'an panserai, Et ja a ton los an ferai," ib. 6574. Referring to the second person singular: Ainz que t'ousse si'n fui molt desirrose; Ainz que nez fusses si'n fui molt angoissose; Quant jo t'vid net si'n ful Non-repetition of Eecurring Words. 35 examination of the use of the Old French vostre merci. The cause of the omission of the verb is precisely similar to that of the omission of de in the Modem French retour de Paris — ^the close recurrence of the same word. When vostre merci was no longer generally used in the sense of voils, the early force of vostre ceased to be felt in this expression, and the word was finally dropped. If this theory be correct, vostre merci has here the meaning of the Spanish Vuestra Merced and the Portu- guese Vossa Merce, not an unlikely meaning, considering its use in these other Romance languages, but one which has not been generally noted or conceded. In the fol- lowing examples it seems clearly to have such significa- tion: Ne vos i covient plus atandre : Vostre merci, ralez vos an! Erec 4110; Ne vos poist pas, Ja avuec moi n'iroiz un pas. Les voz granz merciz, remenez ! ib. 4299 ; Hastez vos, la vostre merci ! ib. 4371 ; Bel a parle vostre liede e goiose; Or te vei mort, tote en sui corocose, St. Alex. 92a. Referring to the third person singular — most often found and fairly common; a few examples are: Sainz Alexis out bone volentet: ... Li cors en gist en Rome la citet, Et I'anme en est enz el paradis Deu, St. Alex. 109a; Que la tenisse en France o a Dun la citet! Car jo'n fereie puis totes mes volontez, P61. de Ch. 406; Ensorquetot si ai jo vostre soer, Sin ai un fil, Rol. 294; Or guart chascuns que granz cols i empleit, Male changon ja chant^de n'en seit, ib. 1013; For ce que D6s a comand6 Que il seit k Rome amen6 E que en facent Apostoile, Gr6g. 103-15; Erec la voit, mout s'an mervoille, Erec 4336. Referring to the first person plural: L'un an covandra ja verser, Ou moi ou lui, ne sai le quel, Ch. L. 4148. Referring to the third person plural: par quoi il ne s'aperceusgent, et qu'ele s'en gardast, Auc 14, 31; Garde toi des souduians . . . (16, 3) je m'en garde- rai bien, et dix m'en gart! ib. 15, 13. 36 Ellipsis in Old French. merci, Floire et Blanchefleur, 1899 (du Meril)*; Ce me plest mout et atalante^ Yostre merci, que dit m'avez, Clig. 2318 ; ^^ Dame/^ fet il, '' vostre merci, Quant vostre sire m^assailli, Quel tort oi je de moi deffandre?^^ Ch. L. 1999.' N'ot only are the following citations meaningless if vostre merci has not this value, but the sense requires the verb merci. This verb — ^like its Modem French descend- ant remercier — requires de before the noun expressing that for which thanks are rendered; unless, then, merd is understood in the last of these examples, the preposi- tion is unaccountable: "Jo vos donrai un pan de mon pais Des Cheriant entresqu^en Val Marchis/^ Et cil respont : " Sire, vostre mercit!'' Eol. 3207; "Biaus sire/' fet il, "Men veigniez! Se moi herbergier deigniez, Vez Fostel aparellie ci." Erec respont: "Vostre merci!'' Erec 387; "Tot vos presterai sanz dotance; Que ja riens n'an sera a dire." " La vostre merci, biaus douz sire ! " ib. 622 ; " La vos vuel avuec moi mener, S'i ferons noz plaies sener." Erec respont : " Bon gre vos sai De ce qu'o'i dire vos ai. W\ irai pas, vostre merci," ib. 3903 ; " Yos et trestoz voz oirs f ranchis . . ." Jehanz respont : " Yostre merci ! " Clig. 5644; " Je sui vostre, et vos soiiez D'ore an avant ma * Quoted by Godefroy in his Dictionnaire, under merci. It is found at 1. 2156 of Bekker's edition in Philologische und Mstorische Abhandlungen der Koniglichen Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin, 1844, pp. 1-41. ''The meaning of **by your grace'* can hardly apply to the above examples, though in some cases the context ren- ders such a reading possible, as in the following passages, yet even here the fact that vostre merci, soe merci, etc., may not have this meaning is not at all precluded : Quier mei . . . parchamin ... go pri toe mercit, St. Alex. 57a; Et je li pri, qu'ele s'an teise. Que ja chose, qui me despleise, Ne me comant, soe merci, Ch. L. 121; Grant enor me porterent tuit, Les lor merciz, an la meison, ib. 570; Mes vos, la vostre grant merci, M'i enorastes et servistes, ib. 1012. NON-EBPETITION OF EeCUREING WoEDS. 37 dameisele ! '' " Vostre merci, sire ! " f et ele, Ch. L. 2438; Vostre merci de la promesse, Que volan tiers la feriiez, ib. 3740. So in Old Provengal : Domna, dis el, vostra merce, Car . . . Appel, p. 22, 1. 589 ; translated in the glossary as " dank Euch." Mes. With toz jorz, accompanied by a future or conditional verb, mes is regularly required. A striking example of anh Koivoif (scc p. 41) may therefore be furnished by the following quotation, in which mes probably has a double meaning, referring both to toz jorz (Latin magis) and to amis (Latin meus) : Si me plevi et fianga Que toz jorz mes amis seroit, Erec 6280. Ne, Following the conjunction ne, the negative adverb ne is often omitted. As it is only in this position that the non-repetition of the negative particle frequently occurs — except when omitted together with some other word * — there can be no doubt that the omission is due to the juxtaposition of the two words : Mes cil ne tar dent ne atandent, Erec 774; Mes ele n'apargut ne sot La dolor don il se pleignoit, ib. 4598; et si ne sai Queus maus ce est, qui me justise, Ne sai don la dolors m'est prise, Clig. 662 ; II nel salue ne Fancline, ib. 2480; Aussi con la busche, qui fume, Tant que la flame s^i est mise. Que nus ne sofle ne atise, Ch. L. 1778 ; Qu^onques traison vers sa dame Ne fist ne dist ne ne pansa, ib. 4438. " See non-repetition of the adverb, p. 118. 38 Ellipsis in Old French. In the following, ne, rhyming with veriU, is appar- ently used in place of the feminine past participle nee and the negative ne; its position, which would be nn- usual for the latter, is thus explained : Sachez pur verite, Unkes femme de mere ne Tant snffri en nn jur, Omnip. 116d. Que, Than that is expressed in Old French by que, as in Rol. 2336, Mielz voeil morir, qu'entre paiiens remaignet^ of which, logically, the complete form would be que {ne voeil) qu'entre paiiens remaignet — " I wish more to die than (I wish) that I should remain among pagans/^ The Modem French construction which expresses both words, but which is avoided because of its displeasing sound,* helps to account for the fact that the use of the conjunc- tion que in such sentences of comparison did not develop in the early language, aided by the usage which permitted of its omission in nearly every case.* Other examples are: Mes n^an set plus que bel le voit, Clig. 2813 ; Angois sofferoie jo que je feiisse tous deserites et que je perdisse quanques g'ai, que tu ja Feiisses a mollier ni a espouse, Auc. 8, 26 ; Encor ainme je mix que je muire ci, que tos li puples me regardast domain a merveilles, ib. 16, 14; Encor aim jou mix asses Que me mengucent li le, Li lion et li sengler. Que je voisse en la cite, ib. 17, 16. ^ See Tobler, V. B. 1, 184 (article 32). "Littr^ (Dictionnaire) under aimer, Rem. 4, says: " Aimer mieux, pr6sente quelquefois une construction diffi- cile. Par exemple: J'aime mieux que vous alliez k Paris que que vous perdiez votre temps chez vous. Ces deux que sont lourds. Pour les ^viter, on en a parfois supprim6 un: J'aimerais mieux souffrir la peine la plus dure Qu'il etit recu pour moi la moindre ^gratignure, Mol. Tart. Ill, 6. ® See omission of the conjunction que, p. 138 fE. Non-repetition of Eecureing Words. 39 2. Suffix -ment. When adverbs formed by the addition of -merit were used consecutively, this termination was regularly re- quired with each of the adverbs thus formed. There are, however, a few instances of its use with but one of these adverbs — a usage which is still found in some of the Ko- mance languages. Only one example has been found in the works studied : ^^^ Vers Sarrazins reguardet fierement, Et vers Frauceis et humble et dolcement, Eol. 1162. 3. Prefixes. It is probable that the non-repetition of prefixes had a broader application in Old French than is shown by the few cases found in the works on which this study is based. Des'. As osteus vienent, si s^aeisent, Si se deshuesent et atornent, Erec 6454. S'entre-'' Entre, usually together with the reflexive pronoun, is frequently not repeated : Vont sei entrebeisier, noveles demander, Pel. de Ch. 147; Si s^antrabatent et adantent, Li un les autres ^°See Tobler, V. B. 1, 101 (article 14), edition of 1902. Foerster, Zts. f. r. Ph. 2, 88, and Aiol, note to 1. 3011, shows that mainte (mmntre) comunalment is an example of this form of ellipsis. Compare the use of -ieme found in Modern French, as: La quatre ou la cinquieme page (Nyrop, Gram. vol. 2, p. 349). ^ S\ not soi, though preceding an infinitive. It is gen- erally believed that the stressed form of the object pronoun is uniformly used in this position. Tobler (V. B. 2, 49) 40 Ellipsis in Old French. acravantent, Clig. 1751; Si s^antrecontrent et regoivent, ib. 3583; Qu^il ne s^antracolent et beisent, ib. 5129 ; Tant galoperent et conirent, Qu^il s'antrevirent et conurent, Erec 2347; Si s^antrebeisent et saluent, ib. 2351; La s^antrevienent et desfient, ib. 3773 ; Si s^antrebeisent et acolent^ ib. 6357 ; Si s'antresaluent et beisent, ib. 6453 ; Si s^antrafolent et ocient, Ch. L. 3269; Antrebeisier et acoler S^alassent ainz que afoler; Qu^il s^antrafolent et mehaingnent, ib. 6115. Ee-, It is uncertain whether the omission of the prefix be- fore veoir in the following quotation is due to its occur- says, "... dass tonlose Pronomina erst in sehr spater Zeit sich proklitisch mit Infinitiven verbinden " ; Poerster (glos- sary to Ch. L. under se), speaking of soi, says that it stands " stets bei refl. Infinitiv," and (note to L 3119) " beim Inf. immer soi "; Ebeling (note to 1. 202 of Auheree) gives soi emplumer as the infinitive of this reflexive verb, and the same form of this pronoun is used before the in- finitive throughout the notes, etc., etc. But, in the works examined, this stressed pronoun is required before the in- finitive only when a preposition precedes {De quatre parz voient venir Lor batailles por aus secorre, Clig. 1764; see p. 67), which must have given rise to this belief. In Erec 3433 — Qui sa fame tolir li panse Et lui ocirre sanz defanse — it is unquestionable that the tonic form is used because of a decided stress on the pronoun. Instances of either form of the object pronoun before an infinitive, when not preceded by a preposition, are few, as it is usually placed before the auxiliary verb (Que an lui mout fier me puis, Ch. L. 4906). The cases noted in which the unstressed form occurs (1) when governed by the in- finitive, (2) when governed by the principal verb, follow: (1) Qui eps les morz fait se revivre. Pass. 35; Por go laissat Deus se neiier, Que de toz nos aiet pitiet, ib. 199; Pilaz ses mains dunque at lavet. Que de sa mort poisse-s neter, ib. 237; Alquanz en croiz fait les lever, ib. 491; Por ciel tiel duol rova s clergier, St. Leg. 65 (diplomatic text. See clergier, under ellipsis of the causative verb faire, Chapt. VI) ; Vait s'apoiier soz le pin a la tige, Rol. 500; Puis m'en combatre a Charle et a Franceis, ib. 566; Vont s'adober desoz une sapeide, ib. 993; Vait le ferir li cuens, ib. 1198; Vait le ferir en I'escut amirable, ib. 1660; Vait le ferir en guise de baron, ib. 1902; Feites m'aparellier et querre, Que Non-repetition of Eecureing Words. 41 rence in the preceding verse, or whether it is merely a faulty manner of expression : Quant son ami revenir voit Que ja mes veoir ne cui- doit, Erec 4557. 4. Groups of Words. The non-repetition of words which are necessarily a part of a following clause as well as of that in which they stand, has been treated by others " and called dno koipov. The following are found in the works studied : Sa barbe blanche comancet a detreire, Ad ambes mains les chevels de sa teste, Rol. 2930 ( ?) ; E-vos iluec errant j'aie tot mon estovoir, Erec 5268; Nus n'i poeit se acuintier, Tristan 93 (Constans' Chrestomathie, p. 77). (2) B per es mund rova-ls aler, Toz baptizier en trinited, Pass. 453; Laisset Tentrer en un monstier, St. L^g. 98; Laissiez le vivre, Rol. 3811; laissez m'ester, Gr6g. 106-1. It also occurs before the infinitive used imperatively: Charles, ne t'esmaiier, P61. de Ch. 647 (See Etienne, p. 198). It is not surprising that the stressed pronoun occasionally occurs before the infinitive (Yont sei entrehaisier, P^l. de Ch. 147, 253, 848 [sei omitted 1. 147 diplomatic text]. Fait sei porter en sa chambre voUice, Rol. 2593; Yien mei servir dHci qu'en Oriente, ib. 3594), for this form of the pronoun is often used without apparent reason: Que cele noit lui neierat, Pass. 114 (Cf. Tierce veiz Piedres lo neiat, ib. 194) ; Femnes lui vont de tres sevant, ib. 257 (Cf. Sainz Piedres sols sevant lo vait, i&. 167) ; Si piement lui apellat, ib. 249; Qui lui alassent decoler, St. Leg. 222; Lai s'aproismat qui lui ferit, ib. 232; NH at celui nH plort et sei dement, Rol. 1836; Qui tei at mort, ib. 2935; Que des pechez sei deschar- jast, Greg. 112-7 — and, though after the verb the stressed form is more usual (Met sei en piez, Rol. 2277; Met sei sor piez, ib. 2298; Porpensent sei de Uen ferir, Greg. 61-8; Por- pensa sei que . . . ib. 63-10; Reposa sei sor le rosel, ib. 94- 18; prist soi a desmenter, Aiol et Mirabel 1802 [W. Foerster, Heilbronn, 1876-1882]), the unstressed form is also found in this position: Qo U preiat, paiast s'od lui, St. Leg. 108; Tornat s'als altres, ib. 206; Aidiez m'a plaindre le dol de mon ami, St. Alex. 93b; Trait se vers lui Greg. 61-4. "See Tobler, V. B. 1, 115 ff. (article 21), and Nyrop, Oram., vol. 1, p. 453. See mes, p. 37. 42 Ellipsis in Old French. sor destre, Por le pleisir le Eei celestre, Deus pecheors d'une abate D'omes i ot de sainte vie, Greg. 34-3 ; Plui- sors miracles i fist Diex, Contrais drecher e veir orbex E parler ceus qui erent mu E coursoir de par Jesu, ib. 109-17 (i fist Diex refers also to the verses following it, for veir and parler must depend on the causative verb faire). CHAPTER III. The Noun. Frequently occurring nouns such as horn, feme, etc, are often omitted : Jeo nel lerreie pur (hume) terrestre, Gorm. 222; II ne vait giens cume terrestre Prof vait bruiant cume tem- peste, ib. 228; Car Isembarz i est remes Od quarrante milliers d^armes, ib. 516; Par ceste meie destre, Rol. 47; Vint milie sont ad escuz et a lances, ib. 913; Querre li vint uns de Raains, Uns riches dux qui fu romains, Greg. 32-3; Nel fis as letrez, Reim. 127d; Qu^an ne trueve grant ne petit. . . . Clig. 4744 ; N'i a chevelu ne chauve, ib. 4772; Si morut come forsenez/ ib. 6729; une vielle, Auc. 4, 22; a haute prime, ib. 18, 5; au point de none, ib. 20, 31; entre prime et tierce, ib. 22, 29; Que del forsene tant s'aproche, Qu^ele . . . Ch. L. 2989; Cest cheval, que je main an destre, Prenez, ib. 3084; Qu^il n'a el monde si estrange, Cui je autretant n'an deisse, ib. 6306. The omission of the noun in other cases is more rare : Amor: Por Deu, Greg. 15-10, so ib. 51-3; por Deu le grant, ib. 20-19, so ib. 23-19.^ Armes: Et s^a fet son escu vermoil Et tot Fautre her- nois oster, Et fet les blanches aporter, Clig. 4876. Bataille: Sur sun escu li duna grande, Gorm. 70 ( ?) ; Si se conbatent une chaude, Ch. L. 6135. Cheval. As es per oner, monter, poindre and other verbs are often coupled with cheval, the latter is not in- ^ Cf . Come hon f orsenez et sauvage, Ch. L. 2828 ; Por Tome forsene repestre, ib. 2878. Cf. also, however, p. 149. ''Cf. por Deu amor, Gr^g. 1-1; por amor Deu le rei, ib. 39-23; Por amor Deu, ib. 46-16; so ib. 47-18 and Rol. 3768. 44 Ellipsis in Old French. frequently omitted when they are used, and even, as in the following, when it has not been mentioned : Esperonant vient al gravier, Greg. 59-21 ; N^ont puis talent de remonter, ib. 59-24; A la rescosse poingnent tnit, ib. 63-23. Chose: De doel morrai, s^altre ne m^i ocit/ Eol. 1867; " Onqnes mes/^ f et il, " n'oi tel ^^ * ; Ceste vos iert mout ehier vandue/ ib. 3569. Color: Come il chanja, come il pali/ Clig. 4364. Cop (Son) : Oil recuevre, si Fa feme, Erec 183 ; Anmi le piz li dona tel Mes sire Yvains, que la pel fausse/ Ch. L. 4200. Deniers, souz or argent et or may be supplied in Ch. L. 5320 : Des nuiz grant partie veillons Et toz les jorz por gaeignier. Feste : A saint Michiel tendrat molt halte feste/ Eol. 53 ; Huit jorz apres la saint Jehan/ Ch. L. 2574. Main (8a) : Et li cuens hauce, si refiert, Erec 4842. Pas: Seignor baron, soef alez tenant," Eol. 1165; D'andeus parz a trois ganz se content, Clig. 2882. Peche: En icel lue espeneit E deservit . . . Aveir . . . confort, Greg. 116-8. Personne (often not expressed) : Se ici n'eiist fors que toi. Que sens fusses et sanz aie, Erec 5034; Car ja n'amera se lui non, Clig. 2899 ; Qu^il n^iert mes, qui por ' The omission may be that of personne; see note to ellip- sis of the adjective altre, p. 48. * It is barely possible that it is novele that is here omitted. '^ It is not impossible to consider parole the word to be supplied in this sentence. •'Cf. Li reis Marsilies at la color mud^de, Rol. 441; Unques ja n'i murent color, Gr6g. 108-10; Mes je li vi color changier, Clig. 4442; Li uns por I'autre color mue, ib. 5126. See phrase De color, p. 146. ^Cf. Cil li reva tel cop doner, Que . . . Clig. 1921; Et cil li a tel cop don6, Que . . . Ch. L. 5656. ^ Cf. Vos le sivrez a feste saint Michiel, Rol. 37. • Cf. Jusqu'a la feste saint Jehan, Ch. L. 2750. See Nyrop, Gram., vol. 3, 375-378. ^° So C16dat, in his glossary to the Roland, under tenir. The Noun. 45 nos parot, Ch. L. 4369; N^iert mes qui die ne qui lot . . . ib. 4373. Rien (often not expressed) : Mais n'at talant li facet se bien non," Eol. 3681 ; N^avet fors le cuer e les os, Greg. 105-11; Que ja n^i avroiz se preu non, Erec 5054; Uan dit que il n'i a si grief A trespasser come le suel, Clig. 2288 ; De tot Favoir du monde n'ai je plus vaillant, que vos vees sor le cors de mi. line lasse mere avoie, si n'avoit plus vaillant que une keutisele, Auc. 24, 53 ; Ne nos a leissie li jaianz Fors tant con nos avons ceanz, Ch. L. 3889. The expression en grant, grande, en granz, grandes was probably formed through the omission of some noun. Tobler" understands by it — and, it seems, quite logic- ally — in grosser (Not, Bedrdngniss, Sorge), in grossen (No ten, Besorgnissen) , to which may be added " de- sire ^' : De son voloir an grant la tienent, Ch. L. 2108; Mes mout le veomes an grant Des cos vangier, que Pan li done, ib. 3226. NON-REPETITION OF THE NOUN. One of the most frequent ellipses is the non-repetition of the noun : Granz folcs ariedre, granz davant, Pass. 45 ; La mortel vide li prist molt a blasmer, De la celeste li mostret veri- tet, St. Alex. 13c; Bries est cist siecles, plus durable atendeiz, ib. 110c; En som cez maz et en cez haltes vernes, Eol. 2632 ; Je vous ferai bons couvens. Et quex, biax fix? Auc. 8, 31; Et prist se vesture a Pune main devant et a Tautre deriere, ib. 12, 16; Puis demanda, quex hon c^estoit, ne s'il avoit guerre, et on li dist : Oil, grande, ib. 28, 12; Et fist tel tans, con feire dut. Et " Cf. C'est uns avoirs qui rien ne vaut, S*an estor non, ou an assaut, Clig. 1305; N'i aveit chose se fens non, Gr^g. 108-3. ^^Li dis dou vrai aniel (Leipzig, 1871), note to 1. 2. 46 Ellipsis m Old French. quant Deus redona le bel, Sor le pin vindrent li oisel, Ch. L. 806 ; Mes la dameisele li prie . . . Come cortoise et de bon eire, ib. 1305. A noun need not be repeated in a succeeding clause in which it is modified (a) by an adjective in the comparative degree : E si le prenge a seignor^ Quar ele ne pot aveir meilor, Grreg. 68-21; Et se ele fu en peine de I'entrer, encor fu ele en forceur de I'isgir, Auc. 16, 22. (b) by an adjective preceded by si: S^an vet feisant chiere dolante; Qu'ains si dolante ne veistes, Clig. 5694; Et cil vient la, qui mout covoite Le pain, si le prant et s'i mort. Ne cuit que onques de si fort 'Ne de si aspre eiist goste, Ch. K 2842. (c) by tel: Covert d'une coute si riche, Qu'ains n'ot tel li dus d'Osteriche, Ch. L. 1041 ; " an quel meniere? '^ " An tel, que graindre estre ne puet, An tel, que de vos ne se muet Mes cuers, n'onques aillors nel truis. An tel, qu'aillors panser ne puis, An tel, que toz a vos m'otroi,'' etc., ib. 2024. The non-repetition of plus used as a noun does not usually occur. The ellipsis is found in the following Car plus de bien et plus d'enor Trova assez li vavassor, Qu'an ne li ot conte ne dit ; Et an la pucele revit de san et de biaute gant tanz, Que n'ot conte Calogrenanz, Ch. L. 779. The possessive pronoun, without as well as with the definite article, is formed by the non-repetition of the noun, as a noun is formed from an adjective. Compare, for instance, the following: Mes tant di de la moie part, Ch. L. 6240; la terre Qui mon pere est et moie apres, Erec 1331. The Noun. 47 A noun is occasionally omitted in the first clause when it is used in the second : " Or te pri et quier et demant, Se tu sez, que tu me con- soille Ou d^avanture ou de mervoille, Ch. L. 364. "Examples of incorrect omissions of this sort are given in Tobler's V. B., 3, 13, as: ge ne vi Ne n'oi parler a nului De rien qui . . . Messire Thibaut, li romanz de la poire, 485. CHAPTEE IV. The Adjective. Because of the part which the adjective necessarily plays in the sentence, its omission would not be expected. Yet the complete idea may sometimes be conveyed with- out the aid of the adjective. AUre is the most frequently omitted adjective : * Si fait ma medre plus que femme qui vivet, St. Alex. 42b; Plus vos amai que nule creature, ib. 97c; Corant i vint Margariz de Sibilie . . . Wi at paiien de tel cheva- lerie, Eol. 955 ; Deus, quel vassal ! soz ciel n'a tel ! Erec 1255. Mauves: Qui qu'an face chiere ne groing, Clig. 2345 ; * Des que li tans fu trespassez, Ch. L. 459. Premier: A vos conbatuz ne me fusse, Ainz me cla- masse recreant Devant le cop, ce vos creant, Ch. L. 6280. Quel: " Ha ! ^^ font il, " fame, chose avere De voir dire et de mantir large,^^ ' Ch. L. 4414. Tel: qu'il i a une beste que, se vos le poi'ies prendre, vos n^en donriies mie un des menbres por cine cens mars d'argent,* Auc. 22, 35. ^A similar ellipsis is found in colloquial English, as: He has accomplished more than anyone (else) I know. On the other hand, altre is sometimes superfluous: On- ques nH ot autre al veiller Fors la dame el chevaler, Gr6g. 20-3; Apres cele mort Wout altre confort. En enfern n'alast, Reim. 5a; Ne vuel pas sandier le gaignon, Qui se her ice et regringne, Quant autre mastins le rechingne, Ch. L. 646. In the last quotation the adjective expresses the idea of com- parison, contrast, as it may also in Ch. L. 4519, De priiere ate li font Les dames; qu'autres hastons n*ont. See Tohler, V. B. 3, 72-73. Compare the Modern French use of the word, expressing contrast, as: Nous autres Frangais. ^Cf. the English, "to make a (wry) face." •It is possible that the omission before chose is that of c'est. * Cf. Car li beste a tel me6ine, que, se vos le po6s prendre, Tos ser6s garis de vo mehaig (read mehaing), Auc. 22, 37. The Adjective. 49 Tot: De la contrede ont porprises les parz, Ne mais que tant com Femperedre en at, Kol. 3332. The Possessive Adjective. Instances of the omission of the possessive adjective are few : Liiedes mains cnme ladron, Si Tent meinent a passion,' Pass. 163; Avant toz vait a passion, ib. 256; Alques vos ai dit de raizon Que Jesus fist por passion, ib. 445 ; En piez se drecet," Rol. 195 ; Sor piez se drecet, ib. 2234; Par ancessors dei jo tel plait tenir, ib. 3826; Car d^Athenes estoit nais. An la cite d'ancesserie Avoient mout grant seignorie Toz jorz si ancessor eue, Clig. 2462; Es vous Nichole au peron, Trait viele, trait argon,' Auc. 39, 12 ; Et trovai un chemin a destre, Ch. L. 180 ; Mes cil le trai ... En qui fu s^esperance,' Omnip. 80a. The exclamation par foi is elliptical for par ma foi:* Par foi, done sui je fole, Clig. 511; Mil mars? Voire, par foi, trois mile, Ch. L. 1279 ; Par foi, c'est mervoille provee, ib. 6021. The Article. Because of the lack of uniformity which still existed in the use of the article, its omission in cases when its employment would be expected, can hardly be termed ellipsis. For this reason, and because its use has already ■^Cf. Sa passions toz nos redenst. Cum aproismat sa passions ... A la citet volt aproismier, Pass. 12; Fort sacrament lor comandat Por remembrer sa passion, ib. 94; Miel e peisson equi manjat, En veritet les confirmat; Sa passion peissons tostez E li miels signet deitet, ib. 441. " Cf. Isnelement sor lor piez relev6rent, Rol. 3575; Gu6nes li cuens a ses piez se presentet, ib. 3792; Isnelement se dr6- cent sor lor piez, ib. 3884. ^ Cf. si prist se viele, Auc. 38, 19. ' s' is lacking in the MS. •Cf. Par ma foi, sire, I'anperere, Clig. 368; Doit an atan- dre, par ma foi, Ch. L. 5913. For the omission of vostre with mercif see merci, Chapt. II, and crier, Chapt. VI. 50 Ellipsis in Old French. been treated/" merely a few examples contrasting the use and the omission of the article are here given. (A) The Definite Article. II tot entorn t'arbergeront Et a terre crevanteront, Pass. 59 ; Que quaisses mort a terre vindrent, ib. 399 ; A terre vait^ culpe bati, Gorm. 660. — Cf, Josqn'a la terre si chevel li baleient, Eol. 976; Qui lui vedist Sarrazina desmembrer, Un mort sor Taltre a la terre jeter . . . ib. 1970; Puis a la terre Tabati, Greg. 43-6; Me mist a la terre tot plat, Ch. L. 54; desgant A la terre, ib. 2259. No-l consentent fellon Judeu, Pass. 222; Et en son chief fellon Fasisdrent, ib. 248. — Cf. Dune lo receivent li fellon, ib. 243 ; Si s'escrevantent li fellon, ib. 250. Pois que Deu filz suspenduz furet, Pass. 312. — Cf, Que lo Deu fil neiier li fait, ib. 192. Franc^ desherbergent, Rol. 701. — Cf. or se dorment li Franc, ib. 2521. Reis Corsablis il est de I'altre part, Rol. 885; Reis Canabeus, ib. 3429.-0/. li rois Artus, Clig. 119, 436, 1095, etc. Par Sehre amont tot lor navilie toment, Rol. 2642 ; les rives de Sainne, Ch. L. 5980. — Cf. Desor le Sebre at sa gent adunede, Rol. 2758. Cors ont gaillarz et fieres contenances, Les chies floriz et les barbes ont blanches, Rol. 3086. Molt les ot enemis lacies De fors e de dobles pechies, Greg. 3-17 — Cf. Encore fist li enemis Icel saint ome faire pis, ib. 3-13. Molt fu ten tee en eel ore E Diables me corut sore, Greg. 11-15 ; Lores fu Deables angoissos, ib. 66-11. — Cf. Li Diables n^en sot nient, ib. 10-9; Le deble est un de ceus . . . Omnip. 7a. es ondes de mer, Gr^g. 22-24. — Cf. Dreit al rivage de la mer, ib. 25-18. ^*»H. Fredenhagen; P. Gelbrich; H. Koch; S. Schayer; Tobler, V. B. 2, 96 ff. (article 15). " Usually without the article in the Roland. The Adjective. 51 Fu el batel en mer getes, Greg. 33-12; Yeiant lui, la geta en mer, ib. 95-20. — Cf. E quant il fu nez, en la mer, Le fis, por mon peche, geter, ib. 78-9. E por aprendre auques de letre, Greg. 23-11; Li abes I'a en conrei pris E en la eloistre a letres mis, ib. 41-7 ; Com cil qui esteit senez E de letres bien doctrinez, ib. 56-3. — Cf. Quant des letres auques saura, ib. 23-21; E des letres aprist si bien Que . . . ib. 41-14 ; gramaires ea E des letres el (read es) doctrines, ib. 48-3. Morz que demore et que atant. Que ne me prant sanz nul respit? Trop m^a la morz an grant despit! Erec 4656. Je sai bien garir d' idropique. Si sai garir de I'arte- tique, De quinancie et de cuerpous, Clig. 3023. Que de rans ne s'an part aucuns? Clig. 4651. — Cf, Del ranc as autres se desrote, ib. 4666 ; Des rens s'en ist trestot premier, Greg. 59-6. Tant con pins est plus biaus que charmes, Et li loriers plus del seii, Clig. 4778. Por cent mile mars d'or mier Ne le fesist on si lie, Auc. 9, 3 ; Les X mars d'argent, Greg. 42-10.— 0/. Les IIII mars de For fin, Greg. 39-10; Tos les X mars de Fargent, ib. 38-12. il met pie en estrier, Auc. 20, 29. — Cf. II mist le pie fors de Festrier, ib. 24, 80. Toz jorz doit puir li fumiers Et taons poindre et maloz bruire, Enuieus enuiier et nuire, Ch. L. 116. Quant il an a et else et leu, Ch. L. 1322c. — Cf. Qui m'a done le leu et Feise De feire chose, qui vos pleise, ib. 1083. Que Deus et droiz li eideront, Ch. L. 4333 ; Que Deus et droiz a un se tienent, ib. 4445. — Cf. Deus et li droiz . . . An soit an a'ie a celui, ib. 5983. iWith the possessive adjective — particularly in the earliest poems — and with the possessive pronoun, the use of the article is optional : venront li di Que t^asaldront toi enemi, Pass. 57.— €f. Li toi chaitif per totes genz Menet ent ierent a tor- 52 Ellipsis in Old French. menz, ib. 65 ; A sos fedeils lavat les piez^ ib. 92. — Of. Les SOS talenz at fort montret, ib. 73; Quar soe fin vedeir voldrat, ib. 168. — Of. La soe mort mult demandant, ib. 204. Si n^est pas la besoingne moie, Ch. L. 5071. — Of. Le vostre seignor et le mien, ib. 129. (B) The Indefinite Article. Contrast the following omissions of the indefinite article : Altre revendrat Kil reguarderat, Eeim. 54d; je sni messages, Erec 6430; Qu'aingois grant piece qu'il fust jorz, Clig. 1804; Tint cort si riche come rois, Ch. L. 4; il n'avoit Herbergie chevalier errant, ib. 258; Et un man- tel sanz harigot, ib. 5428 ; Se cil sens jorz fust trespassez, ib. 5859, with its use in some of the following passages, in which the omission of the article would not have been sur- prising : Liverrai lui une mortel bataille, Eol. 658 ; Cil est uns cuens, ib. 917; Uns altre le tint Ainz que il fust nez, Eeim. 54b; Carras de Corque, uns rois mout fiers, Erec 1965; Qui por un po n^anrage vis, ib. 4790; vaut miauz . . . Uns cortois morz qu'uns vilains vis, Ch. L. 31; Un vilain, qui ressanbloit mor . . . Vi je seoir sor une goche, Une grant mague an sa main, ib. 288; Oroilles mossues et granz Auteus come a uns olifanz, ib. 299; Je sui uns hon, ib. 330; Je sui, ce voiz, uns chevaliers, ib. 358; N'e cuit qu'onques si fort pleiist, Que d^eve i passast une gote, ib. 416; Li perrons iert d^une esme- raude, Perciez aussi come une boz, ib. 424; Vint plus tost qu'uns alerions, ib. 487; Mout amander et ancherir Se puet de prandre un buen seignor, ib. 2098 ; Mout doit an amer et cherir, Un prodome, quant an le trueve, ib. 3210; Dessoz la pel li a tolue Une grant piece de la hanche, ib. 4224; Mes se uns chevaliers s'an ose Por li armer . . . ib. 4796; Cil qui ja n'iert Sanz un lion, ib. The Adjective. 53 5020 ; Et Tine grant piece demorent, ib. 5208 ; Et quant ele Fot esgardee Une grant piece, ib. 6237; Eois, s'or puet estre desresniee Ma droiture ne ma querele Par nn chevalier, done Piert ele, ib. 5944. NON-REPETITION OF THE ABJECTIVE. The non-repetition of the adjective occurs more fre- quently than the simple omission. The most typical of the few examples are : Mes plus est hiaus de celui d^ier Et plus de Lancelot del lac, Clig. 4786 ; estoit si bele, que plus ne pooit estre, Auc. 24, 73." Dont il ne puet estre que une De grant san et de cor- teisie, Ch. L. 2410 ; A eus grant dolur E a nus honor Le jur apparilierent, Omnip. 74a. Mais, si Dex me volt consentir, Onques del mal ne fust si lez Cum tu del bien seras irez, E je serai, Greg. 81-8 ; Ja mais n^ierc liede, chiers filz, ne n^iert tes pedre, St. Alex. 27e. Quel veie e chemin tuit prenent fin ! " Eeim. 125a. Tel nen out Alixandre ne li vielz Constantine, ^N'e n'out Creissenz de Eome, Pel. de Ch. 366. The repetition of tot in the same number and gender is usually avoided : Et tuit li juene et li chenu, Erec 559 ; Si ai perdu de mon avoir Tot le meillor et le plus chier, Ch. L. 3124. — However, Toz torz et toz mesfez vos quit, Ch. L. 2012. The familiar ainc ne fu si omits the repetition of the adjective : Quant or i vint Aucassins, Dolans fu, ainc ne fu si, Auc. 11, 8; Or fu lies, ainc ne fu si, ib. 41, 4; Or fu lie, ainc ne fu si, ib. 41, 10. "The omission of hiaus in the second of the following verses would correct the meter: Que molt par est tiaus e cortois, Onques plus tiaus nH ot cuens ni rois, Gr^g. 20-7. "Text A reads: Que valt le c; text B: Quele voie quel chemin. 54 Ellipsis in Old French. non-repetition of the possessive adjective. There are but few cases in which this form of ellipsis appears : " Que me remembre de sa dolor et ire, Eol. 489 ; Or le appellerent Lur rei e seniur, Omnip. 98b. Though the gender of the second noun is different, the possessive adjective is not repeated in Omnip. 111b, Ore n'ad nul ke sente Ma peine e turment. NON-REPETITION OF THE DEFINITE ARTICLE. The definite article is customarily repeated. All the exceptions ^^ found are given : Granz fut li duols, forz marrimenz. Pass. 121; La defers sont corut li plusor et alquant. Pel. de Ch. 339; Mais go ne set li quels veint ne quels non, Rol. 2567 ; Les fameilous fai saoler, Les nuz vestir e conreer, Morz sevei- lir e enterrer E les nuz vestir e chancier, Greg. 83-23; Tant se sont martele les danz Et les joes et les nasez Et poinz et bras et plus assez, Tanples et hateriaus et cos. Que . . . Erec 5974; Toz li fruiz et blez et vins i vient, ib. 5400." Even when the form of the article would be different, the omission in question is not unknown to Old French : Se li ciaus chiet et terre font, Erec 4436 ; Cors as gent et avenant, Le poil blont et reluisant, Yairs les ex, ciere riant, Auc. 15, 6 ; Si vi qu'il ot grosse la teste . . . Che- "Hirschberg, p. 17, says that this part of speech is re- peated without exception. "Hirschberg, p. 16, says: "die Wiederholung des be* stimmten Artikels ist unter alien Umstanden und ohne Aus- nahme erforderlich." " In Rol. 2412 — tant me puis esmaiier Que jo ne fui a I'estorn comencier! — a Vestorn comencier = al comencier Vestorn; not a rare construction. The Adjective. 55 vos meschiez et front pele . . . Oroilles mossues et granz . . . Les sorciz granz et le vis plat . . . Barbe noire, grenons tortiz, Et le manton aers an piz, Longue eschine, torte et bogue, Ch. L. 295. No example of the non-repetition of the indefinite article has been found. CHAPTEE Y. The Pronoun. 1. The Nominative Pronoun/ Notwithstanding Tobler^s suggestion "" of the contrary possibility, there seems to be no omission which may be termed ellipsis in sentences which, according to him, express a "direct question in the form of an indirect question/^ as: E icil dunt sunt Qui la richesse unt? Keim. 29a; Li avoir dunt li vint? ib. 54a; II qu'en porterat Quant il s^en irat? ib. 55a; Li prince qu^en unt Qui ale s'en sunt? ib. 92a; Morz que demore et que atant. . . ? Erec 4656; Et de sa biaute moi que chaut? Clig. 901; Et disoient: " Ce que puet estre? " ^ Ch. L. 1111; Mes ce comant pot avenir, Que tu mon seignor oceis . . . ? ib. 1232 ; " Qui est, qui se demante si ? ^^ Et cil li respont : " Et vos, qui ? ^^ ib. 3571 ; Por Deu, biaus sire, ce qu'espiaut, Que onques mes ne vos veimes Ne vostre non nomer n^oimes, ib. 4616; Dameiseles, que j^ai veiies An cest prael, don sont venues . . . ? ib. 5227 ; Et il, que fet des deus mau- fez? ib. 5587. There is apparently an inversion of the subject,* prob- ably at first for emphasis, with a pronoun replacing it ^With the exception which follows, the omission of the nominative pronoun is not treated in this study, for usage had not yet rendered the employment of this pronoun requisite. ^ V. B. 1, 56 (article 10) : " Wer gem von Erganzen, Hin- zudenken u. dgl. redet, wiirde etwa sagen miissen, es sei vor diesen Fragesatzen im Gedanken einzuschalten: * ich mochte wohl wissen/ * nun sage mir einer/ ' darf man f ragen ' oder ahnliches." ^Cf. Old Provengal: Cosbx leuf aisso que vol dirf Appel's Chrest., Jaufre, p. 20, 1. 429. * Jules Le Coultre, p. 27, says: Dans le Chevalier au Lyon nous trouvons plus d'un exemple de cette construction, mais sans Temploi pleonastique du pronom, que Crestien ne con- nalt pas pour les phrases interrogatives. The Pronoun. 57 understood after the verb, since the pronoun is sume- times expressed.** This inversion, in which may be seen the forerunner of the general Modern French form of expressing the interrogative, lost, in later times, like est- ce que, much of its early force, which, however, is still retained in certain cases, as when the subject is a pro- noun — Lui, que fait-ilf — precisely as in Ch. L. 5587° above, with the pronoun omitted after the verb. The omission of the pronoun in interrogative sentences is not unusual in Old French.' 2. The Accusative Pronoun. Since the pronoun is employed to replace some noun to which allusion has been made, the meaning of a sen- tence is often unimpaired through its omission. The ellipsis of the pronoun is therefore of frequent occur- rence. A. Simple Ellipsis.® Drecent lor sigle, laissent corre par mer, St. Alex. 16d ; Danz Alexis entrat en une nef : Ovrent lor vent, laissent corre par mer, ib. 39a; En France dolce iert menede chai- tive, Qo voelt li reis par amor (sc. la) convertisset, Kol. 3673; Si li tendi e si li dist: " Qu'il gardast enz e si (or si = si i?) leissist, Greg. 49-19 ; E li bons venz les a droit mis En cele encontree, tot droit, De quel sa mere dame ^Uaveirs Gharlon est il apareilliezf Rol. 643; and so with Crestien, contrary to Le Coultre's statement (see note 4), Et mes sire Gauvains, chaeles, Li frans, li douz, ou iert il donques? Ch. L. 3697. See Schulz, Herrig's Archiv, Bd. 71, p. 305. 'The verses preceding show the idea of emphasis: Que petit d'a'ie li fet Escuz ne hiaumes, que il et; Car, quant sor le hiaume Vataingnent, Trestot li anbuignent et fraingnent . . . Mout font andui a redoter, 5579-5586. ^See Tobler, Zts. f. r. Ph. 3 (1879), p. 144 ff.— e* dont n'aprendra? Fl. u. Bl.; E de ta medre que n'aveies mercitf St. Alex. 88c. » See below, p. 63 ft. 58 Ellipsis in Old French. estoit, Qui (sc. le) fist metre es ondes de mer, Por la grant honte eschiver, ib. 52-14 ; Ceo crei : ne laissast, Ne volsist foler, Eeim. 71e; La mague a deus mains leva Et euida ferir a droiture Parmi le chief sanz coverture, Erec 4454 ; Et cuide ferir de rechief A delivre parmi le chief, ib. 4465 ; Ancor i a de teus reduiz, Que nus hon ne porroit trover, Clig. 5576; Je li cuit feire tel assaut Qu'il con- perra mout duremant, Erec 2818 ; " craves vos fait de Mcolete . . .?^^ "car laisgies ester/^ ' Auc. 6, 8-14; " Charles ne crient home qui seit vivanz.^^ " Laissiez ester/' dit Marsilies li reis, Eol. 2740; Confortez vos! Leissiez ester, Erec 5863; celui troverent, Que il por ocirre queroient, Ch. L. 1097; Communement crierent: ^ Li rei Juda K^a nus venir denia ! ' haute voiz loerent, Omnip. 94c. The pronoun would refer to a following noun in Omnip. 82a, La peine deservie Tant ne greve mie Cum cele ke vent a tort. II n^out point deservi. Pur go semla a li Sun turment plus fort. B. Before a Dative. The omission of the pronoun in this position is com- paratively rare : ^^ " Le" before "te": Je te dirai, Ja mon non ne te celerai," Erec 1059. ' If laissier ester means " to cease," there is no ellipsis. Cf., however, laissez m'ester, Gr6g. 106-1; Nicolete laise ester, Auc. 2, 27. ^"Except before a dative of the third person, for which see Chapt. I. ^ Probably a true case, for the use of le with dire is cus- tomary. Compare : Dites le moi, S'il est a conte ou a roi. Des que ci amen6 m'avez, Dites le moi, se vos savez, Erec 5383; Qui que il soit, dites le nos, ib. 5424; Dites le moi, se vos savez. An quel leu cist maus vos tient plus, Clig. 3018; Et jel vos dis mout bien avant, Ch. L. 1719; Je le vos dirai sanz mantir, ib. 3624; " Gi6," fet il, " nel vos dirai mie. Querez autrui, qui le vos die! '* ib. 5237; Jo les vus dirrai, Ausi cum jo sal, Omnip. 6a; Pur veirs le vus di, ib. 50e; Pur veir le vus di, ib. 79b. See also P61. de Ch. 741; Clig. 3028, 6597. The Pronoun. 59 " Le" before "vos'': Dites qui vos a devant mis, Greg. 45-8 ; " Alez/^ fet il, " je vos comant, A mon sei- gnor seiiremanV^ Clig. 2171; ISTe cuidiez pas que je vos die, Por feire demorer mon conte, ib. 4636 ; " Di le moi, jel te comant.'^ " Je vos dirai? ^^ ib. 6597. '*" Les " hefore " vos " : Ne tant sot is n'estes et sages. Que plus trovoiz ici estages, Se je ne vos mostre et an- saing, Clig. 5581. C. A noun may serve as object to two verbs, even of dif- ferent clauses, not being repeated in the form of a pro- noun before the second verb : Trestoz li poples lodet Deu e graciet, St. Alex. 108e; Point le cheval, laisset corre ad espleit, Rol. 3547 ; Puis prist les tables maintenant E le bon paile alisandrin E les IIII mars de Tor fin ; Si enporta ensemble o sei, GTreg. 39-8; Les tables prist, si enporta, ib. 69-16; List i les tables e laissa, ib. 70-11; Torchent les chevaus et es- trillent, Erec 359 ; Je n^aim ma vie ne ne pris, ib. 4343 ; Granz vitance est de chevalier Nu desvestir et puis liier Et batre si vilainnemant, ib. 4413; conduit Vers li ses iauz covertemant Et ramainne, Clig. 2801; Thessala trible sa poison, Especes i met a foison Por adoucir et atanprer, ib. 3251; Dus, recovree avons t^amie. Or n^an manront li Grejois mie, ib. 3693 ; prent s'amie devant lui baisant et acolant, Auc. 26, 21 ; S'au bacin viaus de Feve prandre Et dessus le perron espandre . . . Ch. L. 395; il aporterent Par ci le cors, por metre an terre, Ch. L. ^Comander requires the pronoun. Compare: Jo m'escondirai ja, se vos le comandez, A jurer sairement o jui'se a porter, P61. de Ch. 34 ; " Volentiers," dist li coens, "quant vos le comandez," ib. 554; so ib. 580; Ne parlez mais, se jo nel vos comant, Rol. 273; Or irez vos certes quant jol comant, ib. 289; Puis quel comant, aler vos en estoet, ib. 300; Ferez, Franceis! car jol vos recomant, ib. 1937; Franceis descendent, Charles I'at comandet, ib. 2952; Lors ont le chapelain mand^ Si con li cuens I'ot comand6, Erec 4767; Car avant mener ne vos doi Si con li rois I'a comande, ib. 5866; Relevez sus, jel vos comant, Clig. 381; Cele vient, quant il le comande, ib. 3240, and below ib. 6597. 60 Ellipsis in Old French. 1070; Et fiert son piz et esgratine, ib. 1486; qui anbri- cona Le roi tant que il li bailla La reine et mist an sa garde, ib. 3923. The noun-subject of the first clause is not replaced by a pronoun when it is the object of the second, in Eol. 3625, PaUen s'en fuient, com damnes Deus le voelt: En- chalcent Franc et Femperedre avoec. The noun-object of a preposition in the first clause is not replaced by a pronoun when object of the verb in the second," in Clig. 267, Que des vaslez mout lor enuie. Que Damedeus a port conduie. D. Eeferring to a phrase or fact, the accusative pronoun is sometimes omitted : " Bites-mei tost que vos voles, Por Deu vos pri, ne me seles, Greg. 15-9; Et se je puis,^^ jusqu'au tierz jor Me serai mis el retor, Erec 265; Mais se je puis, il ne vos tenront ja, Auc. 26, 20 ; Mes se je puis, sire vassaus, Sor vos retornera li maus, Ch. L. 497. With comander this pronoun is usually employed"; exceptions are: Si com comandez. Pel. de Ch. 847; Se vos comandez, Sire, toz voz mires mandez, Clig. 5743. " The following examples are given by Tobler in the Oott. Gel. Anz. 1875, p. 1070: Deivent en Deu aveir fiance E en- norer de lur sustance, Wace, 8. N. 19; tendit ses mains por juer a la corone e por prendre, Serm. poit. 193. ^* See p. 61. ^^ Though the pronoun is usually lacking in the expression se je puis, it was probably understood, at least in early times. Cf. Longement nH serai prise, Se jel puis mie, Auc. 5, 24. " See note 12, p. 59. The Pronoun. 61 The same is true of dire"; the following omissions occur : Et iert ovrez tant sotilmant. Dire vos puis certainne- mant, Que nus . . . Erec 2647; Biaus fiz, por Deu, ne dites ! Clig. 123; s'il Faime si com il dist, Auc. 19, 11; Einsi tres leide creature Qu'an ne porroit dire de boche, Ch. L. 290. With (1) daignier, (2) oser, (3) savoir and (4) voloir the omission of the pronoun is not unusual : (1) Ja le leissames por peresce, Espoir, que nos ne nos levames, Ou por ce, que nos ne deignames! Ch. L. 80; Qu^ onques les chevaus an nul leu N"e ferirent ne maheignierent, Qu^il ne vostrent ne ne deignierent, ib. 856. (2) Volentiers le baisast, mais por son pere n^oset, Pel. de Ch. 826; Dirai li done tot en apert? . . . Je n^oseroie, Erec 3742; Que seul a seul, se Cliges ose, Iert antr^aus bataille prise, Clig. 3948. (3) " Ne sai ''—'' 'Ne sai," ce dit chascuns, Erec 765; Mes dites moi, se vos savez, Li chevaliers . . . Ch. L. 1799; Si vus savez, numez Li queus vus ferri, Omnip. 43b. (4) Se li reis voelt, jo i puis aler bien, Eol. 258 ; Mais, si Dex me volt consentir, Onques del mal ne fust si lez Cum tu del bien seras irez, G-reg. 81-8; Mais je le vos conterai, se vos voles, Auc. 22, 25. E. The Predicate Pronoun. The predicate pronoun is rarely used in Old French : mout me poise. Que por nos deus se conbatront Dui si prodome con cist sont, Ch. L. 5968; Ainz cort li uns a Fautre sore Plus fieremant qu^ains mes ne firent, ib. 6158 ; N^estes si estordiz ne vains. Que je autant ou plus ne sole, ib. 6254. " See note 11, p. 58. 62 Ellipsis in Old French. Yet, as Tobler ^* points out, its use was not unknown. Examples, supplementary to his list, are: Je sui vostre et estre le vuel, Erec 3367; Car se je par vos ne le sui, Ne serai chevaliers clamez, Clig. 354; Eois, s^or puet estre desresniee Ma droiture ne ma querele Par un chevalier, done Fiert ele Par cestui, Ch. L. 5944. Si, which might be considered to replace a predicate pronoun, has no such value according to Tobler, who says, " ein pradikativer Ausdruck ganzlich f ehlt.^^ " The statement leaves room for doubt. Is this si not similar in meaning to the English " so,^^ which is equivalent to a predicate pronoun? At least many of Tobler's ex- amples do not exclude this possibility, particularly those in which si is accompanied by et. This is true also of the following : Ne cuident pas que il ne soient Tuit de contes ou de roi fil ; Et por voir si estoient il, Clig. 322. Moreover, Tobler does not consider si with fairs to have the value of a pronoun, and his statement that it is "beinah eine Konj unction ^^ seems questionable. If it be equivalent to a pronoun, there is no way by which this meaning can be shown more clearly than by the follow- ing examples : " Laissiez les morz tot issi com il sont ^^ . . . " Dreiz emperedre, chiers sire, si ferons,^^ Eol. 2435-2441 ; " Vos n'i iroiz ! '' ^' Je si ferai,^^ Erec 215 ; " Ne ne te fis honte ne let.'' Erec respont: "Si avez fet,'' ib. 1007; Mes Deus li porra bien eidier, Et je cuit que si fera il, ib. 3428 ; si apela la dame et li dist qu'ele alast por Aucassin son ami. Et ele si fist, Auc. 40, 37. Furthermore, the object pronoun does not, to my knowledge, occur with si thus employed, apparently giv- "V. B. 1, 87 (article 15). The Pronoun. 63 ing si the force of a pronoun, whereas it is found in the negative : J'i puis aler molt bien. — N'el ferez certes, dist li cuens Oliviers, Eol. 254; Erec a la dame comande Qu^ele dorme, et il vellera. Cele respont que nel f era ; Car n'est droiz, et feire nel viaut, Erec 3090. It will be seen from above citations that the use of si in place of the pronoun in cases such as the following, would be entirely in accordance with Old French usage : Lors dit au lion, qu'il se traie Arriere et que toz coiz se gise, Et il le fet a sa devise, Ch. L. 4472. F. The Reflexive Pronoun. The freedom with which object pronouns might be omitted in Old French has been seen." Usage of the reflexive pronoun was not more rigid. In general, un- necessary object pronouns often remained unexpressed in many cases in which Modern French requires them. Since the pronoun, as object to the principal verb, was often necessary to a complete understanding of the sen- tence, and was also used, as in most languages, when the idea might be conveyed without its aid, it was usually expressed with the principal verb. This is also true to a certain extent of the reflexive pronoun, but its appear- ance was governed rather by the usage of the verb as a reflexive. As there was no emphasis on this pronoun, the unstressed form — whether reflexive or not — was used,^ and usually placed before the verb, or before the first of two verbs necessarily dependent on each other to express the idea, as aler followed by an infinitive or a present participle, and comencier, cuidier, devoir, oser, pooir, " P. 57 ff. 64 Ellipsis in Old French. prendre a, rover, sa/ooir, venvr and voloir governing in- finitives : For eiel tiel dnol rova s clergier^ St. Leg. 65 (diplo- matic text. See clergier, p. 96) ; Danz Alexis la prist ad apeler, St. Alex. 13b; En la samaine qued il s'en dut aler, ib. 59a; De nnle chose certes ne Tsai blasmer^ ib. 69b ; Yait s^apoiier ^ soz le pin a la tige, Eol. 500 ; se vait escridant, ib. 2843; Que a lui se puisse accorder, Greg. 97-6; Que mort trover vos i cuidoie, Clig. 5068; A de- menter si se prist,"^ Anc. 11, 10 ; et qu'il le viegne cacier, ib. 18, 19 ; Et qui or me voldra antandre, Cuer et oroilles me doit randre, Ch. L. 169; W\ a celi, qui s'ost movoir, ib. 344; se commencierent a esbruir,^ Bersuire, T, Liv, (Godefroy). But when the dependent verb is unnecessary for the completion of the simple principal statement, being added simply to modify or enlarge on the statement, the preceding noun or pronoun — whether object or subject — often indicates clearly the object of this subordinate verb, and the object pronoun may then be omitted, (a) reflexive, (&) non-reflexive: (a) En tei deis prendre grant porpens E contenir"" en itel guise Que il ne tort a vilenie, Greg. 28-10; Aparelliez sui de defandre,"^ Erec 5931; mais ele n^avoit cure de marier,"*' Auc. 38, 10; S'ales selonc cele forest esbanoiier,'" ib. 20, 22; Apres mangier sanz remuer," Ch. L. 595; D^ici m^en voi pur asperir,*' 8. Bran- 2" See p. 39, note 11. ^Not to be mistaken for the reflexive of prendre and comencier, as has been done by Suchier (glossary to Auc.) and Godefroy (under esbruir, neuter) respectively. See lists, p. 70 ff. ^No other example of the non-reflexive use (when the meaning is reflexive) has been found. *' Only one other example of the non-reflexive use has been found. ^ Thus even with aJer. Eshanoiier is more often reflexive. Suchier (glossary to Auc.) says: " inf. avec pron. r6fl. sous- entendu.'* ^ More often reflexive. The Pronoun. 65 dan, 1316, Michel (Godefroy) ; Trois jorz i dort seins esperir,^ Gerv., Best. (Godefroy) ; Dune s'en ala li ber, ni out ke kurecer,*' Gam., 8, Thorn. (Godefroy) ; M out ke kurucer,** id., ib. ; ou n^ot qu'espaorir/" Herb. Leduc, Folq. de Cand. p. 157, Tarbe (Godefroy) ; n^i ot qu^es- pauerir,"* Beuv. d'Hanst. (Godefroy) ; A sun pere se vout gaber Et en gabant li vout monstrer . . . Wace, Brut (Bartsch^s Chrest. 113, 4) ; ne vos caut d'esmaier,'" Chev. au cygne, II, 3558, Hippeau (Godefroy) ; Ne vous ehaut d'esmaier,^ Berte, 324, Scheler (Godefroy) ; ne s^a de coi reconforter," Roman de Renart (Bartsch^s Chrest. 213, 28) ; Pur go vus pri del tut gehir, Merci crier e repentir," Vie de saint Gilles, 2819 (Godefroy) ; A Huit- sand est venuz, ala par le graver Pur esgarder Fore et pur esbaneier,*^ Gam., Vie de 8. Thorn. (Godefroy) ; En mervillant "" mes cuers s'esveille, Kenclus de Moiliens, de Carite, LXXI, 6, Van Hamel (Godefroy); Ne le quidai pas eslongier, Assi con por esbanoier " M'en parti al solel levant, Durmars le Gallois, 3923, Stengel (Gode- froy) ; Le menerent li desloial pour esbanier au defors de la cite, Chron. de 8. Den. (Godefroy) ; Alons i tost abanoiant, Eob. de Blois, Poes. (Godefroy). (b)^ S'il vint a li por conforter, Greg. 21-7; Quant desarmez les orent toz, Por mostrer a lor janz dessoz, Les ont as deffanses montez, Clig. 2159; Especes i met a foison Por adoucir et atanprer, ib. 3252; huis ne fenestre N^est nus qui an cest mur veist, Et cuidiez vos qu'an le poist An nule guise trespasser Sanz anpirier et sanz quasser? ib. 5604; Ja la voloient au feu metre Por rostir et por greillier, ib. 6016; si traist au chastel por asalir, Auc. 8, 4; c^'on le remenroit en le vile por ardoir, ib. 16, 31 ; prent s'amie devant lui baisant et acolant, ib. 26, 21; il aporterent Par ci le cors, por metre an terre, Ch. L. 1070; celui troverent, Que il por ocirre queroient, ib. 1097; Qui voit qu'an le quiert por ocirre, ib. 1553; Ke ^ These are the only cases of non-reflexive use found (ex- cept some in which the verb depends on faire. See p. 66). *^More often reflexive. ^ See Tobler, Oott. Gel. Anz. 1875, p. 1070. 5 6B Ellipsis in Old French. quistrent nostre sire Nent sulement pur occire, Tant furent feluns^ Mes crucifier Pur lungement pener, Omnip. 83d. It may be partly through this frequent omission of the object pronoun that the substantive use of the infini- tive became general: Car quan que avums, Dunt nos tant penums De Vsl- munceler . . . Eeim. Ilia; Qui au descire mist s^an- tante, Erec 6739; II n^i a que del consirrer,^ Ch. L. 3119; Wi ot neant de Teschaper Ne del ganchir ne del deffandre, ib. 3284. Even the verbs depending on covenir, estovoir, faire^ laissier, her, mener, oir, veoir, and usually when de- pending on venir, though necessary to the principal state- ment, are used without the reflexive pronoun, for the object of the above verbs is identical, with that of the dependent infinitive, or, as with venir, the subject of the principal verb is the same person as the object of the dependent infinitive, and thus no obscurity results. A decided tendency to omit the unimportant reflexive pro- noun — object of a dependent infinitive — is thus seen : Oovenir: Des or aler les an covient, Erec 5260 ; Cuida, qu'a lui le covenist Conbatre,'' Ch. L. 3389 ; Li cuers li faut, si le covint pasmer,"" La Bataille d'Aliscans (Bartsch's Ohrest, 80, 40). ^In a note to this verse Foerster says: Nur ist zu be- merken, dass consirrer refl. ist, das Refl.-Pron. . . . aber beim subst. Inf. fallt. ^A rare exception is found in Pass. 35: (Jesiis) Qui eps les morz fait se revivre. When depending on comander, atorner, which is in all other cases reflexive, is used without the reflexive pronoun in Erec 2293: Erec ne vost plus sejorner; Sa fame comande atorner. But it is not, of course, certain that fame is the object of comande. *^ Usually reflexive. ^ See p. 71, note 47. The Pronoun. 67 Estovoir: Panse (m'arester li estuet, Erec 3581 ; Iluec I'estuet anuit logier, ib. 4121; Recroire ou reposer Fes- tuet, ib. 5014. Faire: E si le face o sei soper E un petit al feu chau- fer," Greg. 88-13 ; Por lui feire plus esmaiier ^ Li ra une anvaie feite, Erec 3856 ; A tant uns messages acort, Que il orent fet avancier," ib. 6424 ; Lors le fet la dame dre- cier/' Ch. L. 6738; El fosse les unt fait ruer/' Wace, Rou (Bartsch's Chrest., 123, 30). Laissier: ne les laist guaires departir," Gr^g. 59-20; Ainz qu^il le laissast remuer," Erec 3988 ; Et cez janz de- partir laissiez; Qu'il se departiront par tans, Ch. L. 1312 ; Or nos laisies a vos paier'° et acorder," Rerumt de Montauban (Bartsch's Chrest., 83, 26). Loer: Si con je vos lo contenir," Ch. L. 1315. Mener: Et ele me mena seoir,*' Ch. L. 238. O'ir: " Ne vos conoistroie des mois, Se je nomer ** ne vos ooie Ou desarme ne vos veoie.^' Lors s'est mes sire Yvains nomez, Ch. L. 2276. Venir: Furent venu esbanoiier," Clig. 1268; Mes s'a ma cort voloit venir Cist chevaliers o nos deduire/" ib. 4972. Veoir: La verrez . . . L^un acier depecier a l^altre et entroschier,** Pel. de Ch. 547 ; Que je les veisse deduire " De vostre mort, Ch. L. 3744; Ses voient antreconjoir/^ ib. 6317. The dependent infinitive described above — which is unnecessary for the statement of the principal idea — is regularly preceded by a preposition, and the object pro- ^ Reflexive in all other cases. This omission of the reflexive pronoun, object of the verb depending on faire, is still found in Modern French: je Ven ferai repentir. ^*More often reflexive. ^ Usually reflexive. ^" Reflexive in all other cases. " Though the example is not satisfactory, it is noteworthy that no examples of the reflexive use of a verb depending on mener have been found. 68 Ellipsis in Old French. noun, when used, occurs in the stressed form. It is probably the general belief that the reason for this form of the pronoun is the influence of the preceding preposi- tion ^^ — ^that it was felt to be governed by it. Examina- tion, however, points to a different cause. It will be seen from the following examples that in the earlier writings the object pronoun — reflexive or non-reflexive — when occurring in this position, usually bears a certain amount of stress, which is in some cases only the stress resulting from a desire to distinguish this pronoun from one preceding or following : Al due Willeame vindrent pur els (i= soi) esbaneier, Bou, Andresen (Godefroy) ; S'amors me chastie et menace Por moi aprandre et anseignier, Doi je mon mestre desdei- gnier ? Clig. 682 ; Que desirranz et anvieus Sui ancor de moi remirer El front, ib. 806; Que ja a tant n'iert de male part Cliges, s^il set que ele Faint Et que tel vie por lui maint Con de garder son pucelage Por lui garder son eritage, ib. 3224 ; Et je cuit que por aus grever Leva ainz qu^ele (= la lune) ne soloit, ib. 1702; De lui armer mout se travaillent, Ch. L. 4160; Si se pooient esjoir Mout de li veoir et oir, ib. 5371 ; Por lui eidier cele part cort Et por lui meisme deffandre, ib. 5642. In view, then, of the frequent omission of the unim- portant object pronoun, and a decided stress on it in many of its occurrences, it appears that the stressed form is probably due to an emphasis laid on the word, and not to the influence of the preceding preposition. It may therefore be assumed that at an early period only the stressed form was used in this position, for, if unem- phatic, the pronoun would be omitted — a usage in ac- cordance with the brevity of expression of the Latin mother tongue. If, then, the pronoun, though not em- ^^ See Le Coultre, p. 55. The Pronoun. 69 phatic, were to be inserted for any reason, it is highly improbable that it would be used in any but the stressed form, possibly aided by a freedom in the use of this form of the pronoun when apparently not required.^ There was later a tendency to insert the pronoun when not strictly necessary for the understanding of the sen- tence, the result of which is seen in Modern French usage. The occasional appearance of the unnecessary non-reflexive object pronoun may be considered to mark the rise of this tendency — that of the reflexive pronoun probably being due to a different cause, i, e., an exten- sion of the use of this pronoun with verbs ordinarily re- flexive, to the position in question — an extension less surprising than its considerably more usual omission. Examples of this use of the pronoun are : As tables joeent por els esbaneiier, Rol. Ill ; Sebile la roine par delez le gravier Fu de sa tante issue por li es- benoier, J. Bod., Sojx,, LXVII, Michel (Godefroy). The following lists of verbs, including only those found in the works examined for this dissertation, are given with a view of showing Old French usage of the reflexive pronoun, for it is only with this knowledge at hand that the ellipsis of this pronoun can be studied.*" ^* See p. 41, note. Cf. also: Erre a tant par le pais Sei reponant cum hom fuitiSj Ben., D. de Norm., II, 5904, Michel (Godefroy). "" It is hoped that the following lists are correct, but the diflaculty of precise classification will be readily understood, as examples of usage contrary to that here recorded may occur in writings not studied for this work, since only the works on which this dissertation is based, together with Godefroy's Dictionnaire, and the glossaries (with their ref- erences) of Bartsch's Chrestomathie and that of Constans, have been consulted for the present study. See pp. 63-69. 70 Ellipsis in Old French. Verbs used reflexivel}^ and non- ahaissier{r) acointier a, de(r)^ acorder (r) acouchier adeser adoucir adrecier (r) (to turn, go) aerdre aferir (n) afiler agregier (n4:,rl) ajoster (en) aler alumer {n 3, r 1) amasser amender angoissier apareillier (r)^ apercevoir apoiier (r) aprochier aproismier arester ariver (n) assembler assener (n) asseoir (r) atargier avaler (n) daignier (n 2, r haissier coarder (n) comb aire (f) consirer (r) contretenir copier corrocier (r) couchier (r) craindA-e de + object, (r) crester (r) crever (n) cr oiler cropir deduire (r) deg racier delaiier (n) dementer (r) demorer (n) reflexively : *^ departir (r) descendre {Ujrl) descirer desclore descombrer (r) 1) desevrer (n) desmesurer (r) desperer (r) desver (n) desvoiier detrier devenir (n) doloir (r) dormir (n) doter (r) emhroncMer (r) empaindre empirier (n) encliner enflamer (figura- tively) engraignier (n) enhardir (r) envoisier esbair (r) *^ Verbs noticeably more often reflexive or non-reflexive are indicated by a following (r) and (n) respectively. No letter following shows that usage is fairly equally divided. Note is made of the number of examples found of either form when it is unusual. ^^ Only one example of the non-reflexive use has been found. See Godefroy. "^ Only two examples of non-reflexive use found, Gr6g. 101-5; 101, 24. The Pronoun. 71 eshanoiier (r) eschaper (n) esclicier (n) (to break into pieces, splinter) cs crier esforder esjo'ir (r) e$movoir (r) espandre espanir (to bloom) esploitier (n) espo enter (r) esragier (n) essorer estanchier estendre (r) ester (n) estoner (r) estordre estre (n) esveillier (r) faindre (r) (en) f(nr forfaire forsener (n) gaher garder (que) garnvr (r) gesir (n) guenchir (n) herhergier issir joer de (r) joster (n) lander (r)** lasser lever (r)^ logier (r) marier (r)^ merveillier (r) mescroire mesfaire monter (n) morir (n) movoir nagier (n) ohlier (n) osteler (r) oster paler (r) (to be- come recon- ciled) partvr (de) (r) pasmer (r)" passer (r)** peder penser (n) plaindre (r) plorer (n) porpenser (r) porrir (n) prendre (n) (to terminate) prendre a -f- verb (n) prendre esgart de prendre regart de raler (n) en raler (r) ralumer (r)" recroire (n) redoter (r) redreder relever remanoir (n) rememhrer removoir (r) remuer (r) renoveler repeirier (with en, r) repenser (r) ** Only one case of non-reflexive use, Rol. 2154. *'' Reflexive in slightly more than two-thirds of the cases found. *'^ Only one case of non-reflexive use, Clig. 3138. " Only one case of non-reflexive use, Rol. 1348. *^ When not referring to time. *^ Only one case of non-reflexive use, St. Alex. 124e. 72 Ellipsis in Old French. repondre (r) saner tenir {fig., r) reposer (n) sejorner (n) torner {71) resaner sentir (r)^ traire resordre seoir (n) travailUer (r) (to resortir (to draw sevrer{r) (to sep- exert oneself) back) arate oneself trespasser (n) respasser (n) from) trestorner (n) ressoignier sofrir (to wai Lt) triholer retarder solacier vanter de (r; retenir sordre (n) en venir (r) retorner taire (r) vestir (n) retraire tapi/r vestir de (r) revenir (with en, tarder vvvre (n) _r) targier en voler rire temer (n) Eefiexive verbs (when the meaning is reflexive) : ahandoner aquiter de conforter ahrier ar^t^er (to hasten) contenir acheminer armer en corre acoilUr atarder crier (to sing, acoster atendre a (to Auc. 5, 13) icoter (to alight; rely on) croire de to lie down) atorner dehatre (to fight, agenouilUer atropeler quarrel) aloser (to distin- avancier defendre guish oneself; chauffer degeter (to throw to boast) darner (to com- oneself around) amesurer plain; to < 3all) dehurter apenser complaindre (to depaner apondre complain) desarmer aprester concroire desconforter ^° Only one case of non-reflexive use, which may be due to coalescence: Quant ele senti eiihraceej Gr6g. 9-6. The Pronoun. 73 desfigurer espaorir en prendre a deshaitier esperir {to Siwake) prendre garde destoldre esprover quatir desvestir (de) estreindre (to racheminer detenir wrap oneself ragenouillier devoUer up, etc.) rasseoir diverser esvertuer reclamer (to ap- drecier ferir (to strike, peal to, to call embatre speaking of upon) emhler light, etc.; to reconforter empasser throw oneself) reconoistre (to endormir fier remember) engresser geter (to throw repentir de enhastir oneself) resjo'ir en entrer giieitier (to gnardi revengier (Ch. L. eshatre oneself; to ex- 643) esbruire (to rush pect) ruer in alarm) hosier sofrir de escoilUr (to rush) loer sostenir escrevanter memhrer (per- tooillier (to roll, (Pass. 250) sonal) wallow) es freer " metre (a) transmetre (St. eslaissier mostrer Leg. 86) esloignier (to go noier vengier de away) prendxre (a) (to esmaier compare one- esmerveillier °^ self) Non-reflexive verbs : ahelir (to please) afehlir ardoir acoisier apaisier (to be- avenir acostumer (per- come quiet. haaillier sonal) calm) beer " One example of non-reflexive use in the fourteenth cen- tury, J. d' Arras, Melus (Godefroy). 74 Ellipsis in Old French. hoivre encomender froissier hrisier encroistre garir (to recover, chalemeler entendre a to heal) clialoir entreprendre (to hurter (Ch. L. cheoir commit an er- 935) chevauchier ror — Erec joer (not fol- ccmencier^ 5554) lowed by the condormir (Pass. errer (to start, to genitive) 122) travel) joindre a (to at- conter escarteler (Erec tack, to join in converser (to 977) combat) stop, remain) esclairier (refer- jo'ir (to take crier (to shout) ring to the pleasure in, to croistre (to grow) "day-) rejoice) croistre (cromsir) escouter laissier (to de- cuidier (to be- escumer sist) lieve) esgarer (to go laver depecier astray — Ch. L. luire dependre 771) mangier desherhergier espartir (to memhrer (imper- desteler lighten) sonal) devier estenceler mentir " durer fahloier mesavenir emhraser fausser mescheoir empUr (Erec fendre mesprendre 4747) finer metre a oevre enchanter fondre (Ch. L. 1523) enchargier (Ch. fraindre naistre L. 4416) fremir noter "2 An example of the reflexive use occurs in the fourteenth century: ainsi se commenga la bataille, Froissart (Bartsch's Chrest., 431, 8). ^ The following reflexive use — according to Godefroy — occurs: De tot se ment^ Men le poez prover, Rol. ms. Ch§,- teauroux, ccccxiii, 26. The Pronoun. 75 noveler r assembler (Ch. songier ovrir '* L. 6220) sortir palir receter sospirer parler recJieoir sovenir parvenir recomencier suer passer (referring reluire tarir to time) resaillir " toner percevoir (not resoner travaiUier followed by rogir trembler the genitive) rompre tresaler (refer- perder saillir (to spring, ring to time) peser jump) tressaillir plaire (imper- sanglotir tressuer sonal) sechier tumer plovoir senibler (to seem) valoir porparler servir de veillier quacier (Ch. L. sifter venter 6129) sivre vuidier (to emp- raleiier (Eol. sofrir (to suffer) ty out, be- 3525) sorter come empty) Occasionally the reflexive pronoun required by the second of two dependent infinitives is omitted, when the first of these verbs is not reflexive. The omission is thus caused by the failure to repeat the auxiliary, before which object pronouns are usually placed : Wi poissent ansanble antrer, N^anmi la porte antran- contrer, Ch. L. 911. Reciprocal action is regularly denoted by reflexive verbs compounded with the preposition entre. Some- " Reflexive in one case in the fourteenth century — with Froissart (see Godefroy). ^ Possibly reflexive in the following, as Grodef roy says : II joint ses pies, se resaut ens la mer, Huon de Bord., 5391, A. P. 76 Ellipsis in Old French. times the reflexive pronoun, together with this prefix, is omitted : ^^ Puis fierent il nut a nut sor lor hroignes, Eol. 3585; Si fierent parmi les blazons, Erec 2880. G. After Prepositions. Prepositional objects are often omitted in Old French. Probably no omission of the pronoun standing for things or animals was felt after a preposition, for its use in this position was rare."' But because of the fre- quent employment of the personal object pronoun, omis- sions of this pronoun are, with most prepositions, true cases of ellipsis. Ellipses occur with the following prepositions : Apres: Li miens tote voie s'atorne, De lui siure et dealer apres, Clig. 4512; Alez avant, j'irai apres, ib. 5596; Si tost s'an fuit . . . Et mes sire Yvains de ran- don Quanqu^il puet, apres esperone, Ch. L. 876 ; El droit chemin s'est anbatuz Li chevaliers mout sagemant, Et mes sire Yvains folemat (read folemant) Hurte grant aleiire apres, ib. 932 ; Mes il les anchause de pres Et tuit si conpeignon apres, ib. 3259; Tantost mes sire Yvains s^an part Et li lions toz jorz apres, ib. 3770. Arriere: Espoir tost eschaperiiens. Car cil sont ancor mout arriere, Erec 3558. Avuec: Enchalcent Franc et Pemperedre avoec, Eol. 3626. ''^The prefix alone may also be lacking: Si se conhatent une chaude, Ch. L. 6135; Et par po quHl ne s'escervelent, ib. 6141; Si se donent males groigniees, ib. 6145; Que si par igal s'anvaissent Qu'a . . . ib. 6202. ^"^ In the following instances it is so used : Marsilies fait porter un livre avant . . . Sor lui jurat li Sarrazins Espans, Rol. 610; Li destriers est et coranz et adates . . . Beste nen est qui encontre lui alget, ib. 1651- 1657; Si desgendent u sablon Deles le rive. Aucassins fu desgendus entre lui et s'amie, Auc. 27, 18; et vint au palais et desgendi entre lui et s'aipie, ib. 28, 22; ... le fust, qui est coverz De I'escorce, qui sor lui nest, Ch. L. 1034. The Pronoun. 77 Delez: Charlemaignes s'assist et sis ruistes barnez, Li reis Hugue li Forz et sa moillier delez^ Pel. de Ch. 400 ; An un lit le fist seul couchier . . . An un autre lit jut delez Enide ansanble la reine, Erec 4272 ; Erec ont sus couchie anvers . . . Enide chevauche de lez, ib. 4732. Derriere: Les dis eschieles Charlon li at mostredes: "Vedez Forgoeil de France la lodede. Molt fierement chevalchet Femperedre, II est deriedre od cele gent bar- bede/^ ""* Pol. 3314; Le prise par devant et loe Teus qui derriers li f et la moe, Clig. 4549 ; Une autel porte avoit deriere Come cele devant estoit, Ch. L. 956 ( ?). Devant: Puis si chevalchet od sa grant ost banide. Devant chevalchet uns Sarrazins, Abismes, Rol. 1630; Ferir la vost parmi le vis : Et cele a son braz devant mis, Erec 181 ; Or venez petite anbleiire ! J^irai devant grant aleiire, ib. 4189; Et li lions lez lui costoie . . . Devant a la voie s^aquiaut Tant qu^il santi dessoz le vant, Si come il s'an aloit devant, Bestes sauvages an pasture, Ch. L. 3412. Encontre: A grant honor encontr'issirent, Pass. 36; Encontre li grant joie firent. Sa feme est encontre venue, Greg. 18-22 ; Encontre vint esperonant, ib. 73-18 ; Et quant li rois les a veiies, Ancontre se lieve an estant, Erec 1680; Li dui anpereor ansanble, Quant il oirent la novele De Cliges et de la pucele, Ancontre vont a mout grant joie, Clig. 3936; Ancontre tuit et totes issent, Et la dame devant toz vient, Ch. L. 3300. Enmi: Li- un pendirent a destre Li autre a senestre Enmi li sauveur, Omnip. 46d. Entor: Car li Sesne estoient antor, Qui le rescoent par estor, Clig. 3605 ; Jhesucrist estut E entur li grant brut De cele mauveise gent, Omnip. 23a; Si sun enemi . . . Ust este entur, ib. 79a; Kar il sistrent entur Trestuz e Tagarderent, ib. 86c. Environ: Dis Chanelieu chevalchent environ, Rol. 3269 ; Tuit sont venu a la devise, Li cuens et les janz an- viron, Erec 1070; Anviron sont les janz venues, Clig. ^^ Cf. Sa redreguarde lairrat deriedre sei, Rol. 574. 78 Ellipsis in Old French. 4942; Vienent corant tot anviron Ses voient antrecon- joir, Ch. L. 6316. H. Before a Repetition of the Pronoun. In a few cases the pronoun is omitted when it occurs in a following clause : Gregoires entent et bien Foi*, Greg. 92-19 ; Quant des- armez les orent toz, For mostrer a lor janz dessoz, Les ont as deffanses montez/^ Clig. 2159. 3. The Dative Pronoun. Only the few following examples of the ellipsis of the dative pronoun have been found: Vedez m^espede qui d^or est enheldide, Si la tramist li amiralz de Primes, Eol. 966; Qu^il n'i a chevalier si buen, N^estuisse vuidier les argons, Clig. 1324 ;(?) So- vent demande le conges, Greg. 44-16. In speaking of parts of the body or of wearing apparel : Entro taliat les piez dejus, St. Leg. 233 ; Que Thelme [li] ad [de] trenchie, Gorm. 392; La face . . . fu tote muee, Greg. 5-23. Foerster is evidently in error when he says : " wie be- kannt, li ^ ihm ^ nur vor en (inde) elidirt werden kann,'^^ for this elision occurs occasionally before verbs, estovoir in particular : Blans vestiment si Tat vestit. Pass. 219 ; Et com Paut tolut lo quieu Li corps esteret sovre Fs piez, St. Leg. 229 ; Quant Charles veit que tuit li sont faillit, Molt Fembron- chat et la chiere et li vis, Rol. 3815; L^uns Fenseyned, beyn parv mischin, De grec sermon et de latin, Alberic 88 ; E tant cele chose maintint, Qu^une dancele Faparsut, ^^ The omission of the comma after dessoz would make the close relationship of the second and third of these verses clearer. «» Note to 1. 4165, in his edition of Ch. L. So Nyrop, Gram. 1, p. 277. The Pronoun. 79 Greg. 70-24; Cil le voit venir, si Tescrie. Quant Erec Fot, si le desfie, Erec 2859; Ancor de remenoir Tenor- tent, ib. 4286 ; Et mout le crieme et mout Fenorte, Clig. 3891; Tot son hernois et son ator Ot aporte, si T (= les li) atorna,*" Ch. L. 758. Si Festuet ensi aler, Greg. 86-9; Assez I'estuet s^ofrir (read sofrir) grant mal, ib. 87-12; Que Testut morir, Eeim. 4f ; Or Testuet morir, ib. 65f ; Mult I'estuet plorer Por sei acorder a sun creator, ib. 82a; Vuelle ou non, retorner Testuet, Erec 188 ; Ne porent le roi retenir, Ne Pestuisse a terre venir, ib. 2205 ; Morir Festut, ib. 2873 ; Car maintenant dormir Testuet, Clig. 3350 — and so very often. L' for the dative occurs enclitically used when a conso- nant follows; this is rare: Jesus li buons mot no-1 sonat, Pass. 214; Qo Tdemon- strat que se paiast, St. Leg. 110; Co Tdemonstrat amis li fust, ib. 112. 4. Pronoun en. The use of the pronoun en was much the same in Old French as it is to-day. It was not, however, required in a clause in which an adjective is used relating to a pre- viously occurring noun : Tenez mon helme, onques meillor ne vi, Eol. 629 ; En- cui avrons un eschiec bel et gent, Nuls reis de France n'out onques si vaillant, ib. 1167; Li arcevesques est molt bons chevaliers; Nen at meillor en terre desoz ciel, ib. 1673 ; Se j'ai parenz, nen i at nul si prot,*"" ib. 2905 ; Et " Cf. S'il viaut armes, an li atorne, ib. 3139. •* As en is not used in such cases in the Roland more than in other poems (see 1. 629 and 1167 above, and 1044 and 2223), it would be better, and more consistent, if n'en in the following passages were written as one word, as it is in ib. 1673 and 2905 above: Tenez m'espede, meillor n'en at nuls horn, Rol. 620; Bien i at or, matistes et jaconces . . . Vostre emperedre si bones n'en out onques, ib. 638; Deus! quels seissante i at en sa compaigne! Onques meillors n'en out reis ne chataignes, ib. 1849. 80 Ellipsis in Old French. ses janz avnec li refont Si grant duel, que greignor ne pueent, Ch. L. 1246; De jant mauveise avez vos mout, Mes ja n^i avra si estout, Qui sor eheval monter an ost, ib. 1633. Yet en is sometimes so used : Qo'st Lodevis, meillor n^en sai en France, Eol. 3715 (not nen, as a consonant follows) ; El chastel mout grant joie avoit De chevaliers et de puceles; Car mout an i avoit de beles, Erec 348 ; Tuit sont venu a la devise, Li cuens et les janz anviron, Les puceles et li baron. De liez et de maz an i ot, ib. 1070; Je ai trois palefroiz mout buens, Onques mellors n'ot rois ne cuens . . . Wan a pas un mellor del ver, ib. 1387 ; Ainz avroiz eii tant de honte, Que plus n'an porroiz avoir, Ch. L. 5220. The ellipsis of en occurs when referring to a preceding noun: Sed alcuns d'elz beive venein, Non avrat mel, qo set por veir. Pass. 461 ; Nuls huem n^est tant sages En iceste vie. Que en sun ede Oiist aconte La disme partie, Eeim. 96b; Si sai, se je Posoie dire, D^anchantemanz et de cha- raies . . . Plus qu'onques Medea ne sot, Clig. 3028 ; Et por ce que par lui seiist Li dus sa perte et duel eiist, ib. 3811; Mes cist travauz li est delice, Qu'ele ne puet estre lassee, ib. 4576 ; Que covant manti li avoit Et trespassez estoit li termes, Ch. L. 2700 ; Jo vus dirrai un cunte . . . Jo vus dirrai partie, Kar tut ne pus jo mie, Omnip. 41a ; Ki out veu eel cruelte, Ne la dust par pite Agarder surement. Mes en eus point n'aveit, ib. 90a; E nepor- quant la seinte Cuvint fere pleinte, Kar tenir ne se poeit, ib. 107d. En omitted, referring to a clause or thought contained therein : Cum cele charn vidret morir, Quel avret duol, no-1 set huom vifs. Pass. 331; Assez est mielz que la vide i per- dent. Que nos perdons clere Espaigne la bele, Ne nos aions les mals ne les sofraites, Eol. 58; Quant go veit Guenes qu^ore s'en rit EoUanz, Done at tel doel, por poi The Pronoun. 81 d^ire ne fent, ib. 324 ; Jo Focidrai a mon espiet trenchant, Se Mahomet me voelt estre guaranz, ib. 867; " Ferat vos ai . . .^^ Eollanz respont : " Jo n'ai n'ient de mel/^ ib. 2005 ; Del cuer li issent li sospir, Quar ne se pot pas ab- stenir, Greg. 85-3 ; ^N'en "" estuet doter : Kil vint delivrer, Ceo fut Jesucrist, Eeim. 7d; "Mangiez, que je vos an semoing." Cele respont : " Sire, n^ai soing," Erec 4813 ; Mes Famors devandra hai'ne, Que j'ai a vos, setirs soiiez, Ch. L. 2564. With numerals, when the noun to which the numeral relates is omitted, the ellipsis of en is very rare : Ja ne troverez une qui m'ait en charn tochiet. Pel. de Ch. 549 ; Et Francois les esguardent, n'i out un n'en parolt, ib. 812; Mais non i ab un plus valent De chest dun faz Talevament, Alberic 23. But when the article accompanies the numeral, the omission is of regular occurrence : ** Veant moi a les deus ocis, Et demain ocirra les quatre, Ch. L. 3866. Occasionally the omission of the pronoun seems to be due to its use in a following clause : Tant atandrai qu^il s'apargoive, Se ja s^an doit apar- cevoir, Clig. 1016; Cliges ot Tenor et le pris, Et li Greu mout grant joie an orent, ib. 4184; se je li pooie dire, par quoi il ne s^aparceiisgent, et qu'ele s^en gardast, Auc. 14, 30. 5. The Demonstrative Pronoun cil. Cilj in its various forms, is not usually employed with qui when referring to no particular person or persons, though examples of its use are not wanting. ^'Not N'en. Text B reads: Ne nestot duter; Text C: Nient nestot duter. •* Lotz, p. 22. 6 92 Ellipsis in Old French. Omitted in the nominative:'^ Molt bien espleitet cui damnes Deiis aitidet! Eol. 3657; Qui an la meison estoit, Mont pooit grant joie veoir, Erec 1300; Qui mellor quiert, ne set qu'il viaut, ib. 1399; Que bien est an prison, qui aimme, Ch. L. 1942 ; Car mout est fos, qui se demore, ib. 2135. Omitted in the accusative : °° , Deus aimet forment Qui bien se repent, Eeim. 74a; Toz sens s'an yint au chief del ranc Por joster, se il trueve a cui, Erec 2172; Ne je ne truis, qui m'an def- fande, Ch. L. 3605 ; Se je ne truis, qui s^ost conbatre, ib. 3868; S^onques an ta vie trovas, Qui te feist honte ne let . . . ib. 5132. Cil, referring to some particular person or persons, is generally used when qui occurs." Cil not used in the nominative: Quar anc non fut nulz huom charnels. En eel enfern non fust alez. Usque qui sens pechiet venist Comune lei por toz solsist, Pass. 381; Qui Pout portet volentiers le nodrit, St. Alex. 7b; Anuit m^avint une avison d^un »" Examples of its use are : Merveillos tort at Cil qui aveir at, Reim. 53a; Depecier et corronpre suelent Cil qui de conter vivre vuelent, Erec 21; Et cil est a son avoir sers, Qui toz jorz le garde et acroist, Clig. 164; Tot aussi con cil plus se cuist, Qui au feu s*aproche et acoste, Que cil qui arriers s'an oste, ib. 598. *^ Examples of its use are: N'i at celui qui mot sont ne mot tint, Rol. 411; Cel n'en i at qui ne s'escrit . . . ib. 1618; Car qui tost va la droite voie. Passe celui qui se desvoie, Erec 5577; Et gaus puet Tan nices clamer, Qui cuident que les vuelle amer, Quant une dame . . . Ch. L. 2459. "^ Examples : In the nominative: Et cil, qui iert a mort plaiiez, Li es- chapa, Ch. L. 954; Et cil, cui il estoit mestiers, Manja, ib. 1053; Qu'ancore estoit leanz sanz faille Cil, qui feite avoit la bataille, ib. 1183. In the accusative: Quant vit celui, qui nuz estoit . . . Ch. L. 2832; Por po que li prodon n'esrage, Quant ot celui, qui . . . ib. 4125. The Pronoun. 83 angele, Qu'entre mes poinz me depegout ma hanste Qui at jugiet Eollant a redreguarde, Eol. 836; Kil vint delivrer, Ceo fut Jesiicrist^ Eeim. 7e ; Si ont anquis et demande, Qui est qui ce li avoit fet, Clig. 6494. No omission of this pronoun in the accusative, before quij has been found. In the dative the omission is rare : Et com ?aut duit de cele art, Eendit lo qui lui I'co- mandat,"* St. Leg. 25. When not accompanied by qui, cil is seldom omitted : Tel noise et del fraint demenoit Uns seus chevaliers, Ch. L. 481 ; Onques teus oz ne fu veiie Con li rois Artus assanble, ib. 1094. 6. The Demonstrative Pronoun ce. Ce, followed by que, when both are in the accusative case, is not required in Old French : Qui mellor quiert, ne set qu'il viaut, Erec 1399. In the works considered, taken as a whole, the use of the pronoun is found slightly more than its omission. With the nominative qui, que, the accusative ce is more often omitted than employed : Et li prie, s'il fet a dire, Que li die, qui la fet rire, Clig. 1573; Mes teus cuide mout tost venir. Qui ne set qu^est a avenir, Ch. L. 2587. With both the nominative qui and the accusative que, ce in the nominative is regularly employed. An excep- tion is seen in Clig. 3074, Et se maus puet estre, qui pleise, Mes enuiz est ma volantez. •^Cf. Qu'il doint I'enor de la bataille Celui qui por li se travaille, Erec 893; S'a la chemise presantee Celui cui ele mout agree, Clig. 1187. 84 Ellipsis in Old French. When reference is made to an entire clause, ce is used more frequently than omitted. The omission occurs in the following: Dona, que droiz fu, chapes noires, Erec 6538. After a preposition, before que, ce is very rarely omitted : Batiziez la, por que Deus en ait I'anme, Eol. 3981 ; Li pechere ne se oblia De que li abes comanda, Greg. 39-15; Por beneis qui m'as garie Por que de joie m^as saisie, ib. 114-15. With dont, ce is used when the sense requires it, as in Modem French. There are a few examples of its omission : Que n^ai don me puisse defandre, Erec 3848 ; Qui que parot, mout li est tart Que il voie et sache et conoisse Don il sont tuit an tel angoisse, ib. 5726; Mes tens cuide feire son preu . . . Qui porchace don il se diaut, Clig. 640; Ja ne diroit, don cil joi'st, ib. 4556; Se je te doing, don miauz te vives ! Ch. L. 5979."'* The ellipsis of ce governed by empres and apres is not unusual. These prepositions, in the temporal sense, were in the process of becoming adverbs, meaning " after- ward,^^ " then.'^ Examples of this omission of ce are : Apres parlat ses filz envers Marsilie, Eol. 495; Ne demora gueires apres Que recomanga tot ades La guerre, Greg. 57-21; Idons se paume maintenant. Apres en vint al lit corant, ib. 72-24 ; Grant piece apres li a randu La dameisele son salut, Erec 6235. It may seem at first that apres is here purely an ad- verb. That such was not, however, the feeling of the *^ There is no ellipsis of ce with dont followed by an in- finitive, for in that case Old French did not require the pronoun. The Pronoun. 85 period is shown by the frequent use of the pronoun in similar instances. For one who inclines toward the theory of the adverbial use of this preposition, the omis- sion of the pronoun in the first two of the following ex- amples would almost certainly give this value to apres: Mais, ce ne sai-je dire pas, De quel pais fu icil las, Ne que par apres ce devint Ne que veie des iluec tint, Greg. 50-22; Fiz fu d^une suer e d^un frere E apres se (= ce) fu ses mariz, ib. 112-14; E apres ce demaintenant Si (— si i) mist dou eel, ib. 22-(S; Apres ce me pria . . . Ch. L. 262 ; Et apres ce le roi pria . . . ib. 2302. Old French used the demonstrative pronoun to a much greater extent than is true of present usage. It was more customary in the earliest period in such sentences as the following: " Par ma feit! ^^ (sc. go) dist li reis, " Charles at fait folie,^' P^l. de Ch. 629; "Sire/' (sc. go) dist Charle- maignes, "herseir nos herberjastes/' ib. 652; Charles respont : Molt grant viltet (sc. go) me semblet, Eol. 3595. 7. The Eelative Pronoun. Qui is very often omitted when introducing a negative clause dependent on a statement of general negation : Et Franceis les esguardent, n'i out un n'en parolt. Pel. de Ch. 812 ; Wi at paiien nel prist et ne Padort, Eol. 854. Less frequently found, though not rare, is the omis- sion of qui introducing an affirmative clause dependent on a statement of general negation : Soz ciel n'at rei plus en ait de meillors, Eol. 1442 ; Soz ciel n'at gent Tosast requerre en champ, ib. 1782. The same is true of qui introducing a negative clause dependent on a statement of general affirmation : Mais tot seit fel chier ne se vendet primes, Eol. 1924. 86 Ellipsis in Old French. Qui is least frequently omitted when both the depend- ent and principal clauses are affirmative : Car m^eslisez nn baron de ma marche, Marsilion me portast mon message, Eol. 275. Qui may stand in place of qui que: Et qui viaut enor guehaignier, A gaus se doit acon- paignier, Clig. 4257; Mes qui li dona cest consoil. . . . Ne me poist miauz acorer, ib. 4476. This pronoun is not infrequently used in the sense of the English colloquial " whoever ^' (" it does not matter who ''), or " if anyone '' — i. e., without an antecedent: "*" Et qui le voir dire an voldroit, Deus se retient devers le droit, Ch. L. 4443. At least in the works examined, occurrences of this sort are easily explainable through a freedom of use of the indefinite qui, like the corresponding English word. Thus, in Erec 6325, d'enui croist son conte Qui deus foiz une chose conte, it is a short step from saying : Whoever relates a thing twice renders his tale wearisome, to the form: Whoever relates a thing twice, his tale becomes wearisome, while the theory " that the latter construction resulted from an ellipsis encounters, in addition to the naturalness of the extended use of this word, two prin- cipal obstacles: (1) the subjunctive, as would be ex- pected, follows s'est qui ... in most cases. If this use of qui, then, is due to the omission of s'est, this mood would, no doubt, be found in some instances after the simple qui, but no examples of this have been discov- '•> Cf. p. 81. "^Romania, 1907, pp. 134-5, reads: Das heziehungslose Relativum. La construction ** qui o soi la porte, n'est pas desloiaut^ " est expliqu6e {Romanische Forschungen, xvi, 398, L. Jordan — q. v.) par I'ellipse d'une proposition con- ditionelle impersonelle: " s'est qui o soi, etc." The Pronoun. 87 ered"; (2) the extended use is often iinqnestionable, as well when soit occurs, Seit qui Tocidet, tuit paiz puis avriomes, Eol. 391; Soit qui vos pregne je sui pres de doner, Raoul C. 5798," as when qui qiie is used, as is often the case : Cui que seit dols, a nostre os est il goie, St. Alex. 101c; Qui ques rapelt, ja n^en retorneront, Kol. 1912; Cui que tomer doie a enui, Ja cist espreviers vostre n^iert, Erec 820; Car bien est droiz, cui qu'il soit let, Que ceste da- meisele Tet, ib. 845; Mes qui qu'an soit liez et joianz, Mes sire Yvains en fu dolanz, Ch. L. 677; Et qui que remaingne a sejor, II (= Yvains) viaut estre jusqu'a tierz jorz, ib. 695. NON-REPETITION OF THE PRONOUN. 1. The Accusative Pronoun. A. It is customary for a pronoun to stand as object to both verbs of a compound predicate without being re- peated : '* II les asolst et pardonat, St. Leg. 226 ; Qui la gart an pes et maintaigne, Clig. 428; Li autre (jugent) qu^an les pande ou arde, ib. 1441 ; Ses anvaissent et requirent, "Except, of course, when this mood is required for other reasons, as, when replacing the pluperfect indicative, the imperfect of the subjunctive is used: Qui It o'ist les dens ensamhle marteler — ./. martel sor Venglume ne feist noise tel, Qui de Bourg. 1701 (see following note). " Quoted by L. Jordan. '*See Tobler, V. B. 1, 92 (article 15). This is clearly demonstrated by the non-repetition of the pronoun when the negative adverb is repeated, contrary to the rule that both the adverb and a pronoun, preceding a verb, are not repeated before a second verb: Si quHl nel tlesce ne ne quasse, Clig. 5615. Compare this with the following, which might well have been made to read the same: Si quHl ne le tlesce ne quasse, ib. 714. 88 Ellipsis in Old French. ib. 1893 ; Si le requiert et anvaist, ib. 1425 ; Mes li fains Fangoisse et esforce, Ch. L. 2852. The omission in coordinate clauses is less general : Quant jol vos dis, compaing, yos ne deignastes, Rol. 1716; Dit le vos ai, et di ancore, Erec 3005. It is curious that s {les), in the following passage, is, in the first verse, the object of the dependent verb, ferir, and, in the second, that of the principal verb, veoir: Las me verrez ensemble par tel vertut ferir, Et voler contre mont, si m^escrierai si, Que . . . Pel. de Ch. 595. Occasionally the pronoun is not repeated in the un- stressed form after being used as a stressed pronoun : Charles, por quel gabastes de mei et escharnistes ? " Pel. de Ch. 643. B. An interesting ellipsis occurs when a pronoun in the dative case is not repeated in the accusative : ^" Et lui aidiez, et por seignor tenez, Ex)l. 364; Truisque sil li vieigne aidier E de ses enemis vengier, Greg. 33-3 ; Enclina li parfondement. Puis salua doceement, ib. 56-1 ; Se tu or androit a tes mains Me devoies les iauz sachier Ou trestote vive escorchier, Erec 4850; Et je venoie a grant besoing Por li eidier et delivrer, ib. 5076 ; Puis lor a dit et conjure L^anperere que voir an d'ient, Clig. 5758 ; Qu^amors li enorte et semont, ib. 6191 ; Mes la dameisele repeire, Qui li viaut conpeignie feire Et solacier et de- porter, Et porchacier et aporter, Quanqu^il voldra, a sa devise, Ch. L. 1541. " It may be the stressed pronoun which is omitted in this case, for this form was more freely used in the earlier poems. See end of note, p. 41. '' See Tobler, Oott. Gel. Anz. 1875, p. 1071, and V. B. 1, 92- 93 (article 15); Etienne, Gram., p. 212. The Pronoun. 89 C. The reflexive pronouii is ordinarily not repeated be- fore each verb to which it refers : Si demora tant delez li Qu^il s^oblia et andormi, Ch. L. 51; II se detort et grate, ib. 3511; Si se herice et creste ansanble, ib. 5531; S^esmervoillent et esbaissent, ib. G201. The unstressed reflexive pronoun te, following the ap- pearance of tei as object to a preposition, is omitted in Greg. 28-10, En tei deis prendre grant porpens E contenir en itel guise Que il ne tort a vilenie. 2. The Dative Pronoim. A. The non-repetition of the dative pronoun is far from being unusual : II Qo li dist e adunat, St. Leg. 9; Uescu li ad frait e malmis, Uhauberc desmaela e malmist, Gorm. 456 ; Et si li dit bien et afiche . . . Clig. 2216 ; Qui son cuer li for- tret et tot, ib. 5091 ; Et mout li plot et abeli, Ch. L. 5927. In the following quotation, li, understood before the second verb (==to her), is different in meaning from the dative pronoun expressed before the first (= for her) : II li (= le li) ont quis e aporte, Greg. 21-21. The stressed dative pronoun lui is omitted with the preposition, following the use of the stressed form of the accusative pronoun lui, in, Por lui leidir et feire honte, Ch. L. 5574. One example has been found of the omission of the unstressed dative pronoun when the stressed accusative 90 Ellipsis in" Old French. form precedes, but the pronoun, being vos, would not alter in form : Onques voir tant ne s^avilla, Qu'il deist de vos vilenie Tant come il a fet corteisie, Ch. L. 2212. B. There are a few examples in which a pronoun in the accusative is not repeated in the dative case : '^ Qui la menace mout et chose Et comande qu'ele se teise, Erec 3724; Si la rebeise et fet grant Joie, ib. 6465 ; Mout doucemant les aparolent Et font joie si com il durent, ib. 6592 ; Nus ne le puet conforter Ne nul bon consel doner, Auc. 7, 4 ; ves ci vostre anemi qui tant vous a guerroie et mal fait, ib. 10, 38; Et la dame toz les semont Et prie qu^ancontre lui voisent, Ch. L. 2324 ; Que pitiez Vi semont et prie Qu^il face secors et aie, A la beste, ib. 3373; Meismes la fille au seignor Le sert et porte grant enor, ib. 5411; Li evesche del pais L^ad a resun mis E demande suvent . . . Omnip. 23d. It would be more grammatical if the pronouns in the accusative, in the following passages, were repeated as datives, for the verb faire generally ^* requires the dative of the pronoun when a transitive verb is dependent on it : II les fait revestir et chapes afubler. Pel. de Ch. 143 ; Demain la (t. e. Teve) ferai eissir de son chenel, Es- pandre par cez chans, que vos tuit le verrez, Toz les celiers emplir qui sont en la citet. La gent le rei Hugon et moillier et guaer, En la plus halte tor lui meisme monter, ib. 556. "" See Tobler, V. B. 1, 92-93 (article 15) ; Tobler, Oott. Oel Anz. 1875, p. 1071; Ebering, Zts. f. r. Ph. 5, 364; Etienne, Gram., p. 212. '* Examples of exceptions are: Les feisoient U escu croire Que ceste mangonge fust voire, Clig. 2105; Ne ja amer ne la feist Autrui se lui meisme non, Ch. L. 5378. The Pronoun: 91 3. The Pronoun en. Like the non-repetition of the accusative and dative pronouns, that of en is not a rare ellipsis : Ne poet muder n'en plort et ne sospirt, Eol. 2381 ; C'il (i. e. Cil) est mi fiz de mon frere. Tote en sui certe, rien ne dot, Greg. 78-20; Tuit an consoillent et parolent, Erec 5503; Erec an pesa plus assez Qu'il ne mostra sanblant as janz, ib. 6524; Tant en ocient et estaingnent, Clig. 1952; Tote I'oz an fremist et bruit, ib. 3966. Other pronouns are not repeated when this ellipsis of en occurs : Si Tan enuie et poise, Clig. 3273; Et les escuz (ont) dehachiez toz . . . Si que les pieces an depandent, N'il ne s'an cuevrent ne deffandent, Ch. L. 827. 4. The Demonstrative Pronouns cil and ce. The demonstrative pronouns need not be repeated : Ceus ke alerent devant, E ke vindrent suant . . . Omnip. 94a ; Ce qu'ele plore et qu'ele list, Vossist qu^ele leissie eust, Ch. L. 1420. 5. The Eelative Pronoun. The repetition of qui at the beginning of each clause which it introduces is required in Old French, but such an omission is not one of the rare ellipses : Molt est pesmes Eollanz, Qui tote gent voelt faire recredant, Et totes terres met en chalengement, Eol. 392 ; Veire paterne, qui onques ne mentis, Saint Lazaron de mort resurrexis, Et Daniel des Icons guaresis, Guaris de mei Tanme de toz perilz, ib. 2384; Car li real lor con- tredi'ent Qui mout fieremant les desfient Et la traison lor reprochent, Clig. 1745; Dame, qui cuideroit trover Celui, qui le jaiant ocist Et les trois chevaliers conquist, II le feroit buen aler querre, Ch. L. 6602. 92 Ellipsis m Old French. The relative que of qui que is found unrepeated : Mes qui que venist ne qui non, Erec 6570 ; Mes qui que vaingne ne qui voise, Ch. L. 1063. The non-repetition of the relative pronoun in a dif- ferent case from that which precedes/'' occurs more rarely : ISTominative pronoun omitted replacing the accusative : Qo dit la geste et cil qui el champ fut;, Li her sainz Gilies, por cui Deus fait vertuz ; Et fist la chartre el mos- tier de Lodun,^ Rol. 2095. Accusative pronoun omitted replacing the nominative: Ceste est et de cors et de vis . . . La plus jantis et la plus bele Qui soit jusque la, ce me sanble, Ou li ciaus et la terre assanble, Erec 1782. '» See Tobler, V. B. 1, 93 (article 15). ^° Since this is evidently the meaning of the sentence, the semicolon after vertuz might better have been a comma. CHAPTEK VI. The Verb. The verb is essential in thought to every sentence. Nevertheless it is often not expressed, as the meaning may be conveyed without it. This is true of the follow- ing verbs : Aler: Or del bien feire et del cerchier Et sus et jus et pres et loing! Clig. 6650; Biaus sire, or avant! Ch. L. 4669 ; Or avant, bele, ib. 5933. This seems most probably the omitted verb in. Baron franceis, as chevals et as armes, Eol. 2986. Aporter: Qa mes armes et mon cheval ! Ch. L. 4145. Clamer: Deus ! meie colpe vers les toes vertuz, Kol. 2369. Corir: Si s'antrevienent d'un eslais Plus tost que cers qui ot les glais Des chiens qui apres lui glatissent, Clig. 4931. Crier: In the following passage from St. Alex., and in others similar to it, either vostre is omitted as well as the verb crier, or the verb avoir is to be supplied : Seinors de Rome, por amor Deu, mercit, 1. 93a; "Or me le dites, . . . Se vos de rien ne mesfeistes. Quant vos mon seignor oceistes?^^ "Dame,^^ fet il, "vostre merci,'' ' Ch. L. 1995. Dire\' " Onques mes,'' fet il, "n'oi tel/' Erec 3251; Si grant felunie Unkes ne fu oie En geste n'en chaungun, Omnip. 71a. ^ Crier is often expressed with merci: Aussi con por merci crier, Ch. L. 351; Dame, ja voir ne crierai Merci, ib. 1975. ^ Dire is required with oir in the sense of the Modern French entendre dire: Quant par la terre oirent dire Que d'Aquitaine iert mors li sire, Gr6g. 31-13; S'est ja tant dit et poploii6 Que nes icele dire I'ot, Clig. 2978; N'iert eschapez, que il seiissent Ne qu'il oi dire Teiissent, Ch. L. 573. 94 Ellipsis in Old French. Estre: E vint a Eome quant ele pot La o ele l^Apos- toile sot/ Greg. 112-21; (est) Granz folcs ariedre, granz davant : Grand e petit Den vont landant, Pass. 45 ; Ahi ! con vaillant chevalier! Ch. L. 3199; (sont) Com felix eel qui par feit Fhonorerent ! St. Alex. lOOe; (sett) Felix li lius on ses sainz cors herberget! ib. 114e; La main destre leva adonques La dame et dist : Trestot einsi Con tu Pas dit, et je t'otroi . . . Ch. L. 6650; (sera) E bien e mal puis recevron, Selonc le fait le gueredon, Greg. 82-7; (fzc) A poi de duel que ne morut, Greg. 72-20 (and often the verb in the present tense is omitted with a poi, a bien pres: A poi le cuer ne li part d'ire, ib. 12-14; A bien pres que des oilz ne plore, ib. 75-4) ; Ainz vint poignant tot a relais De ci que devant le palais/ ib. 74-9. Often the verb — probably estre — is omitted with the phrase a (vostre) comant: (suis) " Volentiers/' dist il, " sire, tot al voSee G. Paris, Rom. 7 (1878), 465; Foerster, Zts. f. r. Ph. 2 (1878), 171. 154 Ellipsis in Old French. vos nient de cele Nicolete . . ? ^^ " Sire, oie, j^en sai con de le plus france creature . . /^ ib. 40, 3. Oil: "Est ce tote la fins?^^ fait Aucassins. "Si m^ait dix/^ fait li peres, " oil/^ Auc. 10, 57 ; " sont ce ci vostre anemi ? " " Oil sire," fait li rois, ib. 32, 3. Naie: Cuidiez vos or que je vos die Queus achoisons le fist mo voir? Naie (= je ne la vos dirai mie), Eree 6478; Qui le conoist?— Ne gie.— Ne gie, Clig. 4679; or ne quidies mie que j^atendisse tant que Je trovasse un coutel . . . Naie voir, tant n^atenderoie je mie, Auc. 14,7. Je non also occurs, but not in place of naie: " Car m'an dites voire novele, Se vos savez, ou il toma Et s^il an nul leu sejorna ! " " Je non," f et il, " se Deus me voie ! " Ch. L. 4920. Nenil: Or ne quidies mie . . . qu^il ferist cevalier ne autres lui ! Nenil niSnt ! Auc. 10, 6. The omission of a phrase after a personal pronoun is not confined to the negative: " Que je sui de ceste bataille Outrez et recreanz sanz faille I " " Mes gie I "— " Mes gie," fet cil et cil, Ch. L. 6355. With volentiers phrases are often not repeated : ^ " Proiiez Tan, nies ! " " Volantiers, sire," Clig. 4975. **The phrase is sometimes omitted when volentiers is accompanied by the personal pronoun: Or di coment. — je volentiers, Eles 611 (cited by Tobler, V. B. 1, 4). CONCLUSION It has been seen that occurrences of ellipsis are very numerous, and that the kinds of omission are many, for ellipsis affects practically every part of speech as well as groups of words. Most of the omissions are intentional, and result from a desire to avoid unnecessary words. Non-repetition has been found to be the most usual kind of such omissions, for it serves to relieve the sentence of awkwardness of expression. Among unintentional omis- sions, which, resulting from the fusion of similar sounds, are comparatively few, several striking examples of ellipsis have appeared. In the progress of the work, we have studied the origin of those ellipses which seemed to require explanation, and have attempted to establish more precise information concerning the meaning and use of certain words and constructions. It is believed that "coalescence^^ and " the non-repetition of closely recurring words and syl- lables '^ have been shown to possess real importance, and to be distinct phases of ellipsis — facts which seem hith- erto to have escaped notice. And it is hoped that the present study may give rise to further investigation and the discovery of other noteworthy ellipses. YITA. The author of this dissertation was born in Upper Eed Hook, New York, September 1, 1885, and received his elementary instruction in the New York Public Schools. After passing through the Academic Depart- ment of the College of the City of New York, he entered the latter institution, from which he received the degree of B. A. in 1904. The following year, after several months' residence in Paris, he began studies under the Faculty of Philosophy of Columbia University, which have continued until the present time under the instruc- tion and guidance of Professor Henry A. Todd in Ro- mance Philology, Professor Adolphe Cohn, Professor Carlo L. Speranza and Professor Louis A. Loiseaux in Romance Literatures, and Professor Jefferson B. Fletcher and Dr. George P. Krapp in English. He taught in the New York Public Schools from 1904 to 1907, and was then appointed to the College of the City of New York as tutor in French, which position he still holds. 14 DAY USE RETURN TO DESK FROM WHICH BORROWED LOAN DEPT. This book is due on the last date stamped below, or on the date to which renewed. Renewed books are subject to immediate recall. ^fm! S4 Skr)'62jG I RiHCi-* '-^ ■ v:..^-.r ;;^.? .l UN 5 1:^3^ -J AN 2 '68 -8 AM -UOl 301966 ^J UN 41 991 nmoDisi; JUN 1 at 99 0, S 1 ACK5 \tA noM 1^ ^m '^m LP LD 21A-50m-3,'62 (C7097slO)47CI5 General Library University of California Berkeley U.C. BERKELEY LIBRARIES C03nflTSS5