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ELLIPSIS IN OLD FRENCH
ELLIPSIS IN OLD FRENCH
WILLIAM EDWIN KNICKERBOCKER
SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY, IN THE FACULTY OF PHILOSOPHY,
COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY
NEW YORK
191 I
TO MY WIFE
This Work Is Affectionately
Dedicated
232999
NOTE.
The following dissertation waa examined by the De-
partment of Eomanee Languages and Literatures of
Columbia University and, being accounted a valuable
tho at certain interesting points a debatable contribu-
tion to the history of Old French syntax, was accepted
in partial fulfilment of the requirement for the degree
of doctor of philosophy.
Henry Alfred Todd.
Columbia University, January, 1911.
PEEFACE.
The subject of the present study was suggested by
Professor Henry A. Todd, of Columbia University, and
a paper on this topic was written for the Seminar in
Komance Philology conducted by him. This work was
the beginning of the investigations whose results are
herein recorded. The author is deeply indebted to Pro-
fessor Todd, and gladly takes this opportunity to express
sincere appreciation of his constant kindness and learned
advice.
The author also acknowledges with gratitude his in-
debtedness to Professor Adolphe Cohn, Professor Carlo
L. Speranza and Professor Louis A. Loiseaux for the
training he received from them as a student of Eomance
languages and literatures.
W. E. K.
New York City, Januaby, 1911.
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
PAGE
Introduction 15
Texts Examined 17
Principal Works Consulted 19
Periodicals Consulted 21
CHAPTEB
I. Coalescence 23
Preposition a 23
Preposition de 25
Conjunction et (no ellipsis; correction of
readings ) 26
Adverb i (y) 26
Le, la, les before W, lor 27
Non-ellipsis of Ze, to, les before li, lor 29
Conjunction se 30
Pronoun se 30
II. Non-repetition of closely recurring words and
syllables 33
Preposition de 33
Pronoun en (note on its personal use) 34
Verb merd — origin of the Modern French use
of merci expressing thanks 34
Mes — airb kolvov (see p. 41) 37
Adverb ne 37
Conjunction que 38
Sufax -ment 39
Prefixes
BeS' 39
S'entre- (note on atonic form of the re-
flexive pronoun before an infinitive) 39
Re- 40
Groups of Words — an-d KOivov 41
III. The Noun 43
Non-repetition of the Noun 45
12 TAiiLE OF Contents.
PAGE
IV. The Adjective 48
The Possessive Adjective 49
The Article 49
The Definite Article 50
The Indefinite Article 53
Non-repetition of the Adjective 53
The Possessive Adjective 54
The Definite Article 54
V. The Pronoun 56
The Nominative Pronoun — origin of the
Modern French form of interrogation . . 66
The Accusative Pronoun 57
Simple ellipsis (see reflexive pronoun) .... 57
Before a Dative Pronoun 58
Noun serving as object to two verbs 59
Referring to a phrase or fact 60
The Predicate Pronoun (use of si) 61
The Reflexive Pronoun 63
Origin of the stressed form of the Pro-
noun before an Infinitive governed by
a Preposition (63)-68
Verbs used refiexively and non-reflexively 70
Reflexive Verbs 72
Non-reflexive Verbs 73
After Prepositions 76
Before a repetition of the Pronoun 78
The Dative Pronoun 78
L' = li 78
Pronoun en 79
Demonstrative Pronoun cil 81
Demonstrative Pronoun ce 83
The Relative Pronoun 85
Indeflnite qui (" whoever ") 86
Non-repetition of the Pronoun 87
The Accusative Pronoun 87
Pronoun in the Dative Case not repeated
in the Accusative 88
The Reflexive Pronoun 89
Table of Contents. 13
V. The Pronoun — Continued. page
The Dative Pronoun 89
Pronoun in the Accusative Case not re-
peated in the Dative 90
Pronoun en 91
Demonstrative Pronouns oil and ce 91
The Relative Pronoun 91
VI. The Verb 93
Causative Verb faire 95
The Infinitive with pooir 99
Auxiliary Verb avoir omitted when replacing
estre 100
In the second term of a comparison 100
Before the repetition of the Verb 100
Non-repetition of the Verb 100
In the same form with the same word for
the subject 100
In the same form with a different word for
the subject 103
In coordinate clauses of parallel construc-
tion 103
Origin of the use of a singular verb with
a plural subject (103)-105
Form of the Verb variable, with the same
word for the subject 106
Depending on a Verb in a second clause. . . 106
8e . . . non 106
In a different form referring to a different
subject 108
Faire que sages — meaning of qu^ 108
Verb replaced by faire 112
In the second term of a comparison 112
VII. The Adverb 113
Non-repetition of the Adverb 117
Modifying Verbs 117
Modifying Adjectives 120
Modifying Adverbs 121
VIII. The Preposition 122
A 122
The Indirect Object 124
Before dependent infinitives 126
14 Table of Contents.
VIII. The Preposition — Continued. page
De 126
With Nouns and Adverbs of Quantity 128
Use of de with the Article before Adverbs
of Quantity 128
En, o, par 129
Pot 131
Use of que in the sense of " why " 131
Non-repetition of the Preposition 133
IX. The Conjunction 137
Non-repetition of the Conjunction 140
X. The Phrase 145
Au 145
Introduced by de 145
Por savoir 147
Introduced by que 147
In expressions in which que is followed by
an Infinitive 147
Probable origin of qui ainz ainz 149
In expressions such as faire que sages (see
p. 108 ) , saluer come frans 149
Origin of the Modern French use of et qui for
qui 150
After si 150
After tant 150
After trop 151
Formation of the superlative 151
Caused by a following expression of the
same idea 153
Non-repetition of the Phrase 152
After si and tant 153
In a different form 153
OiCy oil, naie, nenil 153
Conclusion 155
Vita 157
IJSTTRODUCTIOK
Ellipsis is the omission of words or groups of words
which are obviously understood. When, then, a word is
not used in cases in which usage has not made its em-
ployment of such regular occurrence as to cause its omis-
sion to be felt as such, there is no true case of ellipsis.
Certain omissions of this kind, however, are necessarily
included in a study of ellipsis.
In Old French, ellipsis divides itself into two classes :
(1) conscious or intentional omission — as. Come il
chanja (sc. color), come il pali, Cliges 4364 — by far the
more usual, and found probably in all languages; (2)
unconscious or unintentional omission — as, il ira for
il i ira — which is the result of a purely phonetic develop-
ment. On a division of the first class — that of the non-
repetition of words — there have been written three dis-
sertations — ^by H. Hirschberg, L. Klatt and E. Lotz —
which, however, are incomplete, and do not preclude its
treatment here.
In our study of the ellipses found in Old French —
which are particularly numerous as the language did
not undergo the conservative influence of grammarians
— the ordinary omissions have been given only the small
attention they have seemed to require, while the more in-
teresting ellipses have received detailed exposition, often
leading to attempts to explain their origin (see, e. g.,
Chapters I and II, particularly '' le, la, les before li, lor/'
p. 27, and '' merci/' p. 34; the origin of the Modern
French form of interrogation, p. 56; the use of the
16 Introduction.
stressed form of the pronoun before an infinitive gov-
erned by a preposition, p. 68; a singular verb with a
plural subject, p. 105; que meaning "why/^ p. 131; qui
ainz ainz, p. 149) ; and concerning certain words and
constructions, attempts have also been made to give a
clearer conception of their meaning (as fair& que sages
etc., p. 108) and of their use (the personal use of en,
p. 34; atonic pronouns before infinitives, p. 39; V for
the dative li, p. 78; qui, p. 85; verbs with a causative
meaning, p. 95; ne, p. 37, etc.).
For this study, texts of the earliest centuries only have
been examined — from the Serments de Strasbourg
through the twelfth century, and Deu le omnipotent of
the thirteenth century — as showing the ellipsis and usage
of the language at the earliest stage possible.
It is believed that the Table of Contents has been
made sufficiently complete to render an index super-
fluous.
TEXTS EXAMINED
WITH INDICATION OF ABBREVIATIONS EMPLOYED.
Serments Strasb. Les Serments de Strasbourg, in Les plus
anciens monuments de la langue frangaise, E. Kosch-
witz, Leipzig, 1902.
Ste. Eul. Prose de sainte Eulalie. See Serments Strasb.
Pass. La Passion du Christ. See Serments Strasb.
St. L6g. La Vie de saint Leger. See Serments Strasb.
Gorm. Fragment de Oormund et Isemhard, Robert Heillg-
brodt, in Boehmer's Romanische Studien, 3 (1878), p.
501 ff.
St. Alex. La Vie de saint Alexis, G. Paris and L. Pannier,
Paris, 1887.
P61. de Ch. (Pdlerinage de Charlemagne) Earls des gros-
sen Reise nach Jerusalem und Const antinopel, E. Kosch-
witz, Leipzig, 1900.
Rol. La Chanson de Roland, L. C16dat, Paris, sixth edition.
Alb6ric, Fragment de VAlheric de Besangon, in K. Bartsch's
Chrestomathie de Vancien frangais, p. 17; Leipzig, 1884.
Gr6g. La Vie du Pape Gregoire le Grand, V. Luzarche,
Tours, 1857.
Reim. Reimpredigt {Grant mal fist Adam), H. Sucliier,
Halle, 1879.
Epoux, Le Mystdre de VEpoux. See Serments Strasb.
Erec, Erec und Enide, W. Foerster, Halle, 1896.
Clig. Cligis, W. Foerster, Halle, 1901.
Auc. Aucassin et Nicolete, H. Suchier, French edition by
A. Counson, Paderborn, 1903.
Ch. L. {Le Chevalier au Lyon) Tvain, W. Foerster, Halle,
1906.
Omnip. Deu le omnipotent. See Reim.
Alterations in passages quoted from the above works have
been made as follows: In citations taken from the Passion,
Gormund et Isemhard, Grant mal fist Adam, Aucassin et
2
18 Texts Examined.
Nicolete and Deu le omnipotent, capitals have been used to
indicate the first word of each verse; in those from the
Passion and Gormund et Isemhard, the sign under the u,
showing its close sound, has been omitted, as well as the
letters in parenthesis in the latter poem, in which also the
letters in brackets have been inserted.
PEINCIPAL WOEKS CONSULTED.
Appel, C. — Provenzalische Chrestomathie, Leipzig, 1902.
Bartsch, K. — Chrestomathie de Vancien frangais, Leipzig,
1884.
Bergmann, K. — Die Ellipse im Neufranzosischen, Freiburg,
1908.
Beyer, B. — Ueber den Oebrauch von " tout " im Alt- und im
Neufranzosischen, Diss. 72 pp., Berlin, 1905.
Constans, L. — Chrestomathie de Vancien frangais, Paris,
1906.
Corte, W. — Ueber die ivirklichen und scheinbaren Ellipsen
im Franzosischen, Zerbst; Pt. I, 1857; Pt. II, 1863; Pt.
Ill, 1870.
Darmesteter, A. — Vie des mots, Paris, 1887.
. Historical French Grammar, English edition by
A. Hartog, London, 1899.
Diez, P. — Orammatik der romanischen Sprachen, Bonn, 1882.
Ebering, E. — Syntaktische Studien zu Froissart, in Zts. f. r.
Ph., 5, 323-376.
E5tienne, B. — Essai de grammaire de Vancien frangais, Paris, ^^^-^^
1895.
Fredenhagen, H. — Ueber den Oebrauch des Artikels in der
franzosischen Prosa des XIII. Jahrhunderts, Beihefte zu
Zts. f. r. Ph., Heft 3.
Gebhardt, C. — Zur subjektlosen Konstruktion im Alt fran-
zosischen, in Zts. f. r. Ph., vol. 20 (1896), pp. 27-50.
Gelbrich, P. — Remarques sur Vemploi de Varticle en vieux
frangais, Diss. 79 pp., Langenbielau, 1881.
Gessner, E. — Programm zur Lehre vom franzosischen Pro-
nomen, Berlin, 1873.
Godefroy, F. — Dictionnaire de Vancienne langue frangaise,
Paris, 1881, 10 vol.
Grober, G. — Orundriss der romanischen Philologie, Strass-
burg, 1888-1901.
Hirschberg, H. — Au^lassung und Stellvertretung im Alt-
franzosischen, Diss. 49 pp., Gottingen, 1878.
Horning, A. — Le pronom neutre " il " en langue d'o'il, in
Rom. Stud., 4, 229 ff.
20 Principal Works Consulted.
Johannssen, H. — Der Ausdruck des Concessivverhdltniss im
Altfranzosischen, Diss. 70 pp., Kiel, 1884.
/ Johnston, O. — Use of " le, la, les " before " me, te, nous, vous,
' lui, leur " in Old French, in Mod. Lang. Notes, vol. 15
(1900), pp. 1-12.
Klatt, L. — Die Wiederholung und Auslassung gewisser
Form- Oder Bestimmungsworter in der Prosa des XIII.
Jahrhunderts, Diss. 24 pp., Kiel, 1878.
Koch, H. — Der Artikel im altfranzosischen Rolandsliede^
Diss. 63 pp., Greifswald, 1902.
Le Coultre, J. — De Vordre des mots dans Grestien de Troyes,
in Programm des Vitzthumschen Gymnasiums, Dresden,
1875.
Lotz, E. — Auslassung, Wiederholung und Stellvertretung im
Altfranzosischen, Diss. 41 pp., Marburg, 1885.
Maetzner, E. — Franzosische Grammatik, Berlin, 1885.
w Meyer-Lubke, W. — Chrammaire des langues romanes, Paris,
1890-1906.
Nyrop, K. — Grammaire historique de la langue frangaise,
Copenhagen; vol. 1 (second ed.), 1904; vol. 2, 1903; vol.
3, 1908.
Paris, G. — La litterature frangaise au moyen dge, Paris,
1905.
Perle, F. — Die Negation im Altfranzosischen, in Zts. f. r.
Ph., 2, 1-24 and 407-418.
Ritchie, R. — Recherches sur la syntaxe de la conjonction
*• que " dans Vancien frangais. Diss. 197 pp., Paris, 1907.
Schayer, S. — Zur Lehre vom Gehrauch des unhestimmten
Artikels und des Teilungsartikels im Altfranzosischen
und im Neufranzosischen, in Berliner Beitrage, Diss.
152 pp., 1897.
Schuchardt, H. — Transitive yerl)en aus intransitiv-reflexiven,
in Zts. f. r. Ph., 32 (1908), p. 231 ff.
Schulze, A. — Die Wortstellung im altfranzosischen direkten
Fragesatze, in Herrigs Archiv, 71, pp. 185-212, 303-356.
Stowell, W. — Old French Titles of Respect in Direct Ad-
dress, Baltimore, 1908.
Tobler, A. — Yermischte Beitrage zur franzosischen Gram-
matik, Leipzig; vols. 1 and 2, 1886; vol. 3, 1899; vol. 4,
1908.
Zauner, A. — Romanische Sprachwissenschaft, Leipzig, 1905.
PERIODICALS CONSULTED
WITH INDICATION OF ABBREVIATIONS EMPLOYED.
Berliner Beitrage — Berliner Beitrdge zur germanischen und
romanischen Philologie, ed. by E. Ebering; Berlin,
1893 ff.
Gott. Gel. Anz. — Oottingische QeleUrte Anzeigen, Gottingen,
1802 ff.
Herrigs Archiv — Archiv fur das Studium der neueren
8prachen und Litteraturen, Elberfeld (later Braun-
schweig), 1846 ff.
Litbl. — Literaturhlatt fiir germanische und romanische
Philologie, ed. by O. Behagel and F. Neumann; Heil-
bronn (later Leipzig), 1880 ff.
Mod. Lang. Notes — Modern Language NoteSj ed. by A.
Elliott; Baltimore, 1886 ff.
Revue de phil. fr. — Revue de philologie frangaise et de
litterature, ed. by L. Cl^dat; Paris, 1887 ff.
Rom. — Romania, Paris, 1872 ff.
Rom. Forsch. — Romanische Forschungen, ed. by K. Vol-
moller; Erlangen, 1882 ff.
Rom. Stud. — Romanische Studien, ed. by E. Bohmer; vols.
1-3, Strassburg, 1871-1878; vols. 4-6, Bonn, 1880-1895.
Zts. f. r. Ph. — Zeitschrift fiir romanische Philologie, ed. by
G. Grober; Halle, 1877 ff.
Zts. f. vergl. Sprachforseh. N. F. — Zeitschrift fiir vergleich-
ende Sprachforschung auf dem Oebiete der indogerma-
nischen Sprachen, Neue Folge, Berlin (later Gutersloh),
1852 ff.
CHAPTER I.
Coalescence/
The Modem French Je mis hien aise developed from
Je sids hien a aise; so the Old French II li done was
originally II le li done. If intentional, such omissions
would be surprising and their explanation perplexing.
But their origin lies in a phonetic reduction which is
contrary to logic and grammar, and which results from
the fusion of similar sounds: thus the preposition a
coalesced with the initial vowel sound of aise. This
phase of the study of ellipsis is probably the most in-
teresting, and may at first seem the most surprising, but
is in reality quite natural, for it is the least violent kind
of ellipsis inasmuch as the speaker is unaware of the
gradual disappearance of the coalescing word. Other
occurrences of coalescence are given below in alphabetical
order.
Preposition a*.
Both a aise and aise occur in the twelfth century :
Or estoie je trop a eise, Erec 2590; Ainz va plus else
et plus soef Que s^il estoit an une nef, ib. 1401.
^ See Kr. Nyrop, Oram., vol. 1, pp. 279-280.
^G. Paris (Rom. 29 (1900), pp. 262, 3) shows that ente
is contracted from a ente, and that gait apens developed
from agait a apens, and agait in turn from a agait.
The reduction of dehe + ait to dehait (G. P., Rom. 18
(1889), p. 469; E. Sheldon, ib. 32 (1903), p. 444) is likewise
due to the fusion of vowel sounds; thus: Dehait ore qui por
vos i cantera, Auc. 22, 9. When the force of the verb was no
longer felt, it was often repeated as a separate word, as:
Dehait ait qui ja en parlera, ib. 18, 25.
24 Ellipsis in Old Feench.
The verb comander ' requires the preposition a before
the dependent infinitive/ The omission of this preposi-
tion, however, evidently due to absorption, is not infre-
quent when the following word begins with a or the pre-
ceding word terminates in this sound :
Sa pucele comande aler Isnelemant a lui parler, Erec
153; Ses chevans comande anseler, ib. 1432 and 4283;
Comanda gant vaslez beignier/ ib. 2016; Sa fame
comande atorner, ib. 2294; Et comanda les corz soner,
ib. 2335; Si ot comande a porter* Tantes et pavellons
et trez, ib. 3948; Et comanda une esche esprandre, ib.
5128; Li rois comanda aprester Le soper, ib. 5580; Si
comanda metre sa sele, Ch. L. 727.
The fusion of the preposition a with the initial vowel
of Auste apparently occurs in the following passage from
Enfances Ogier:''
Tot droit Aiiste est Kalles herbergies.
It is uncertain that the following is an example of the
coalescence of the preposition; this is pointed out by
Tobler:''
' The cases in which this verb governs the infinitive with-
out a preposition, and in which no fusion could have oc-
curred, are few, and in none of those found does the infini-
tive immediately follow the principal verb. Examples:
Les trois chevaus li comandoit Devant li mener et chacier,
Erec 2916; Comanderent les couches feire, ib. 4270; Mainte-
nant comande fors treire Deus corones de son tresor, ib.
6836.
* Examples will be found in St. Leg. 220; Rol. 1138; Erec
2618, 2625, 3656; Clig. 4602; Ch. L. 143, 202, 1988, 2139, 3968,
3971.
° See Le Coultre, p. 54.
•Better aporter. Cf. Et fet aporter un antret, ib. 4219;
Et fet ses armes aporter^ ib. 4284.
^ In Les Chansons de Oeste et les Routes d'ltalie, J. B6dier,
Rom., 36 (1907), p. 165, 1. 4.
»V. B. 1, 182 (article 32) note: " Es ist nicht ganz sicher,
dass die Stelle hieher gehort, da avoir apris in der Bedeu-
tung * gewohnt sein ' . . . ausser mit a und dem Infinitiv
(Ge congnois Hen pieg'a Dangler; II j a apris a ledangier,
Coalescence. 25
Tant con li hon a plus apris A * delit et a joie vivre,
Ch. L. 3578.
Perhaps the omission of the preposition a in avoir
710171 (see p. 122) is due to coalescence, for, in this ex-
pression, the verb was probably used most frequently in
the third person singular of the present indicative.
Compare the Portuguese a for a a, and the fusion in
Eoumanian of the article a with a final a of the preced-
ing word to which it relates, as, piatra (see Zauner, 1,
147). The Old Spanish ela reduces to el before a tonic
a of the following noun : thus, el alma.
Be,
Probably in an imperfect pronunciation of de — as is
likely to occur, e. g., in the Modern French comhien de
dictionnaires, etc. — is to be seen the cause of the ellipsis
of this word in the following passages :
Ambes levres li fait talier, Anc la langue que aut en
quieu. Com si I'aut tot vituperet, Dist Evruins, qui tant
fu mels: " Hor at perdut don (sc. de) Dieu parler;
Ja nen podrat mais Dieu loder," St. Leg. 157; so also
ib. 167; Desire part la citet demie Hue grant Troevent
vergiers, Pel. de Ch. 264; S^estut sor les deus piez de-
riere, Ch. L. 3398; De treis choses fu (t. e. la passiun),
Isi le ai jo lu, E apris de mestre. Di pire matire (Pur
veirs le pus dire) ISTe purreit ele estre, Omnip. 32a ; Les
mains devant, Aiol 368 °; Les deus poes devant, Doon de
Maience, p. 47 " ; Des pies devant, Huon de Bordeaux,
p. 55 '; Le trait deriere. Ph. de Thaiin, BesUaires, 35';
La garde riere, Ambroise, La guerre saint e, 1913.*
A leidir et a menacier, Rose 3140) auch mit reinem Infinitiv
vorkommt (cil ki ait apris Estre envoixies et chantans et
jolis, Bern. LHs. 467, 2)."
* When ellipses) might not be immediately recognized,
italics have been used to indicate their occurrence.
• From Nyrop, Oram., vol. 3, p. 328.
26 Ellipsis in Old French.
Compare the omission of -do of modo in the Italian
a mo' d^introduzione, a mo' delle nazioni orientali.
EL
In CUges 5903 — Se je vive ne la te rant, Ou tu m'oci ou
tu me pant! — there is probably no assimilation of the con-
junction e(t) with the final vowel of vive, which must be
viv e — for vif e, as f would be in intervocalic position —
since, in the present tense, se does not require the sub-
junctive.
Similar to this are the following passages from Oregoire:
Lors aparceit al chief les tables Beles d'ivoire (=ivoir* e)
convenables, 37-13; Esp§e ot bone (= bon' e) bien tren-
chant, 59-1.
liY).
The rarity of the appearance of the adverb i before
the future and conditional of aler is due to its coales-
cence with the initial vowel of this verb.^* That the ad-
verb was used in this position is attested by examples of
its survival :
Vos n^i iroiz, Erec 215; Wi irai pas, ib. 3907; Mes je
n^i iroie por rien, ib. 4012; Et bien vos poist, si i iroiz,
ib. 4020; Bien otroie qu'il i ira, Clig. 4977; Amis, ains
i ira Jehanz, ib. 6284; Lez a lez n'i iroient pas, Lance-
lot'' 2179; Et dit: " Aussins i irai gie,'' ib. 2193; " Et
je," fet il, " i irai donques," ib. 2291 ; Mes j^i irai se vos
volez, ib. 2387.
But one example has been found of the change to
which i and the following t of a verb other than aler
were subject:
Que chascun jor alot veeir Celes (read C'eles, i. e.
8'eles) ierent (not i event) e saveeir S^aucuns ne fust
qui les remuast, Greg. 70-13.
^^ W. Corte, Pt. Ill, p. 36, says: " Y " wird des Wohlklangs
wegen bei j'irai und j'irais unterdruckt.
"W. Foerster, Halle, 1899.
Coalescence. 27
The juxtaposition of these two vowel sounds produced
a similar result when this adverb followed qui and ^;
Passet Gironde a molt granz nes qu'i sont, Eol. 3688 ;
De eels de France les plus saives qu^i sont, ib. 3703; An
tot le chastel n'a remes Home ne fame, droit ne tort, . . .
Qui (=: qui i) puisse aler, qui n'i voise, Erec 5698; Et
la dameisele i estoit, Qui sa seror deseritoit; Qu^ele avoit
puis mout pres tenue La cort, s'atandoit la venue Sa
seror, qui (=: qui i) vient et aproche, ib. 5845; — La
reine Ganievre i cort Et s^i vint meismes li rois, Erec
1524; Et li Francois i fierent et si chaplent, Eol. 1347,
in which the adverb would hardly refer to both verbs
because of et si.
Editors print qu'i and s'i, as Cledat and Foerster have
done in the above citations, when the need of the pres-
ence of the adverb has been noticed. Though this orthog-
raphy shows the presence of both words, which was no
doubt felt, at least in early times, it is as incorrect as it
is advantageous. Would it not be quite as reasonable,
and more consistent, to write je ni'rai pas for je n'irai
pas, since i is not omitted with any other tense of alerf
They are cases of coalescence and not of elision.
Le, la, les before li, lor.
The ellipsis of the accusative pronoun of the third
person before the dative pronoun of the same person "* —
Et je (sc. le) lor irai avant dire, Erec 4166 — is of such
frequent occurrence that its use in this position has been
said seldom to occur. Ebeling '' takes exception to these
statements, supporting his argument with many exam-
ples. Yet the fact remains that the ellipsis occurs very
much more frequently than the full form.
"For its omission before the dative of other pronouns,
see p. 58.
" Georg Ebeling, AuJ)eree, Halle, 1895, note to 1. 655.
28 Ellipsis in Old French.
On first consideration one might suppose the accusa-
tive pronoun to have been employed enclitically. Losing
its vowel because of the following I, it would be scarcely
distinguishable in sound from the dative pronoun, with
the result that the accusative pronoun disappeared.
However, the word preceding the accusative often ter-
minated in an I. Such close proximity of three I sounds
could hardly have failed to result in the disappearance
of the second, i. e. of the accusative pronoun. Probably
this is the true explanation of the origin of the ellipsis,
and the loss of the enclitic accusative came later, being a
more violent ellipsis, for before 1% lor, and following an
I the accusative is rarely found. Of Ebeling's twenty-
nine examples, only two are of the accusative in this
position, whereas fourteen show its use after a vowel.
That there are more examples of its omission after a
vowel than after I is not surprising, since more of the
pronouns, as well as ne and si, which frequently precede
the object pronouns, terminate in a vowel {je, tu, ele,
cele, qui) than in I (il, cil). The occurrence of the
ellipsis after consonants other than I was, no doubt, a
later development.
Ellipsis of le:
(a) after I: Uescut vermeil li fraint, del col li portet,
Eol. 1576; Fiert Pinabel sor Thelme d^acier brun,
Josqu^al nasel li at frait et fendut, ib. 3926.
(&) after a vowel: Le destre poing at perdut, n'en at
mie. Si li trenchat li cuens Eollanz li riches, Eol. 2719 ;
Je li dirai, nel leirai pas, Erec 2843.
(c) after a consonant other than I: Sil fiert amont
sor Fhelme ad or gemet; Tot li detrenchet d^ici que al
nasel, Eol. 1995; Erec par le hiaume le sache, A force
del chief li arrache, Erec 985.
Coalescence. 29
Ellipsis of la:
(a) after I: Danz Oliviers trait at sa bone espede . . .
Et il li at com chevaliers mostrede, Rol. 1367; "La clef
en Fentraile trovai/^ II lur mostra, Greg. 104-14.
(h) after a vowel: "Re voudroie por nule rien Qu^ele
eiist d^autre robe point Jusque la reine li doint, Erec
1376 ; Si li rant la corone an pes, Car bien est droiz que
tu li les, Clig. 2493.
(c) after a consonant other than I: Del brant d^acier
la more li presentet, Desor le front Phelme li en detren-
chet, Enmi le vis li at faite descendre, Rol. 3918; " Une
chose me creantez . . /' La dame tantost li otroie, Ch.
L. 2552.
Ellipsis of les:
(a) after. I: Cil li aportet; receit les Alexis, St. Alex.
57c; Cil li fist aporter, et li reis les regut, Pel. de Ch. 191.
(h) after a vowel: Et fet ses armes aporter. Yaslet
corent, si li aportent, Erec 4284; A grant painne tenoit
ses lermes, Mes honte li feisoit tenir, Ch. L. 2702.
(c) after a consonant other than I: Garnemens de-
manda ciers, On li a aparellies, Auc. 9, 5; S^il viaut
armes, an li atorne, Ch. L. 3139.
Though about 140 examples of this ellipsis have been
found in the works examined, there occur there very few
instances of the appearance of the accusative pronoun
before the dative pronoun of the third person :
Recent Falmosne quant Deus la li tramist, St. Alex.
20c; Ainz preiet Deu qued il le lor pardoinst, ib. 54d.
There are more examples of its use when following
the dative pronoun or when it is separated from it, for
then the possibility of coalescence is, of course, pre-
cluded :
Lui Tcomandat cil reis Lodiers, St. Leg. 20 ; Rendit lo
qui lui l^comandat, ib. 26 ; Lui la consent qui de Rome
esteit pape, St. Alex. 75c ; Conpeignie m^i a tenue, Et je
la revuel li tenir, Ch. L. 5734.
30 Ellipsis in Old French.
It is curious that the accusative pronoun is omitted,
though rarely, at the beginning of a verse :
Pour essauchier crestiente, Lor a Diex a pastor doune,
Greg. 110-15; Celes ranposnes a sejor Li sont el cuer
batanz et fresches, Mes de son gucre et de ses bresches
Li radoucist novele Amors, Ch. L. 1354.
Conjunction se.
Though come may alone signify " as if,^^ it is probable
that the omission of se before ce is caused by its coales-
cence with this word, particularly as con se ce has not
been found in the works studied :
et avoit Jes mameletes dures, qui li souslevoient sa
vesteiire, ausi con ce fuissent deus nois gauges, Auc. 12,
23; Que aussi, con ce fussent pailles, Fet del hauberc
voler les mailles, Ch. L. 4525.
It is ce which does not appear in Ch. L. 930,
Estoit si estroiz li trespas, Oon se fust uns santiers
batuz.
Eeflexive Pronoun se.
" Comme tons les verbes pronominaux a I'origine, ^ se
lever,^ dans les temps composes, pent etre purement passif
(sans pronom reflechi) : ' Turpins est levez ' = ' Turpin
s'est leve \'^ This is the statement made by Cledat in
the glossary to his edition of the Roland, under lever.
What is the origin of this use? Can it be simply a
substitution of the present tense for the past indefinite —
the substitution of a tense denoting completed action for
one describing the accomplishment of such action ? The
substitution would be unaccountable.
It is not improbable that the ellipsis of the reflexive
pronoun — for such it seems to be — originated in a pho-
netic development, se sont giving sont through an imper-
fect articulation of the vowel, due to the same sibilant's
Coalescence. 31
preceding and following it/* particularly as the pronoun
may have been used enclitically with the preceding word
when it terminated in a vowel, and the omission extend-
ing to the reflexive pronouns of the other persons, aided
by the fact that those of the first and second persons
plural may easily have been mistaken for subjects when
the latter were omitted."
Though very often this omission may be seen, it is
difficult to cite indisputable examples, since Old French
is so inconsistent in the use of the tenses ; the following,
however, seem reasonably sure cases of the ellipsis " :
Ad icest mot sont Franceis escridet, Eol. 1180; Puis
sont tornet Baivier et Aleman, ib. 3960 ; Quant ce fu fet
et atorne, Li message sont retome A lor seignor Erec
arriere. Qui les re^ut a bele chiere, Erec 1907; Quant li
uns ot Tautre bande, A Deu sont antrecomande, ib. 3929 ;
Quant tote la messe oie orent. Si sont el pales retorne. Ja
fu tot fet et atorne, ib. 6918; Et vers Cliges vos mes-
feistes, Wil n^est de rien vers vos mesfez, Clig. 6580; Et
que que il se desarmoient, Le lion corant venir voient
. . . Desarme sont einsi parlant, Et li lions ne vint pas
lant, Ch. L. 6455-6493.
The Modern French use of etre in conjugating many
verbs denoting change of position may be somewhat in-
debted to this use of the auxiliary verb estre.
"Cf. savous i= savez-vous) and avous (= avez-vous) ;
see Nyrop, Oram., vol, 2, p. 168. In English, with some
careless speakers, the words say I become, through analogy
with the third person singular, says I, pronounced sez J,
which sometimes contracts to s'z I, s's I and even s'J.
" This ellipsis would originate, of course, after the use of
the verb estre with reflexive verbs had become customary,
and a possible theory that sont = s'ont, is unsupportable,
inasmuch as the use of the verb avoir in such cases is not
often found with the other persons in the works studied.
^^Zauner, 2, 136, in making mention of this construction,
confuses it with the omission of the reflexive pronoun, ob-
ject of a dependent infinitive (see p. 63 ff.).
32 Ellipsis in Old French.
Only three cases have been found in which pener, in
the sense of "to exert one's self/' "to work/' is not
clearly reflexive. In one of them it is not certain that
s' is not the reflexive pronoun :
Dessoz la vile an un destor Avoit Jehanz f eite une tor,
S'i ot par mout grant san pene, Clig. 5555.
In the following passage it may be a case of coalescence
of the reflexive s' with the preceding nominative s of
mires. While the omission of the reflexive pronoun with
the negative verb later in the poem makes such a conclu-
sion doubtful, the possibility of a form mires i may have
caused a mires n'i:
Cos d'espee garist et sainne Mout tost, des que mires
i painne, Ch. L. 1371. Compare : Se desleaus mires n'i
painne, ib. 5384.
CHAPTEE II.
Non-repetition of Closely Eecurring Words and
Syllables/
Through a tendency to avoid a repetition of the same
sound, there originated important and, in some cases,
violent ellipses, distinct from simple non-repetition —
which relieves heaviness and awkwardness of expres-
sion — inasmuch as they render the sentence grammatic-
ally incomplete, and are often unconscious omissions.
Words and groups of words, as well as the suffix -ment
and certain prefixes were thus affected.
1. Complete Words.
De.
Mes por quoi fust ele coarde De sa dame reconforter
Et de s'enor amonester,* Ch. L. 1594.
The omission of de before plus in the following pas-
sage may be attributed to its use before foi:
Car il ne cuidoient ancores, Qu'il eiist baron plus de
foi, Clig. 432.
*Cf. the Modern French plus tdt que plus tard, which,
according to Littr^ (under tdt), is for plutdt plus tdt que
plus tard (see also Tobler, V. B. 3, 144-145), and the Eng-
lish " inside and out," and " outside and in/* In English,
also, we occasionally hear, among careless speakers, such
errors as, " You'll oblige me by stop talking,'' in which
the second termination -ing, immediately following, is prob-
ably the cause of the suppression of the first. So, too, the
verb " to go " is not repeated in such sentences as, " I am
going out," for " I am going to go out."
^See Tobler, V. B. 1, 181 (article 32), and note. In the
Gott. Gel. Anz., 1877, p. 1614, two examples are given:
DHluec partir congiet rouvai, Watr. 12,332; Des mauvais
parler se teisoit, ib. 45, 50. Likewise, the partitive article
never occurs after de.
34 Ellipsis in Old French.
Compare the Modern French ret our de Paris for de
retour de Paris.
En,
In the following passage the occnrrence of the preposi-
tion en may properly be considered the cause of the omis-
sion of the pronoun before at: '
Sonez voz graisles tant que en ceste ost at, Eol 2110.
Merd,
That the Modern French merci — ^^ thank you^^ — is
a shortened form of vostre merci, which is in turn the
result of the ellipsis of the verb merci — first person
singular of the present indicative of mercier — ^the full
form thus being merci vostre merci — " I thank your
grace, i. e., you ''' — is found to be at least probable by an
' If one would consider that tant que , . . at refers to the
men rather than to the clarions, en would still be expected,
for its use in the sense of de vos is not unfamiliar to Old
French :
Quant jo n'ai prot de vos (1. e. s'esp^de) nen ai meins
cure! Tantes batailles en champ en ai vencudes. . . . Ne
vos ait hom qui por altre s'en fuiet! Rol. 2305; Ma dame a
seignor vos regut, Mon los et mon consoil an crut, Ch. L.
3653; Ne ne trovai qui me deist de vos chose, qui me seist;
Car il n'an savoient noveles, ib. 3695; Et sachiez bien, que
vos meimes I poez mout grant honte atandre, Se reangon
n'an viaut an prandre! ib. 5266.
En also refers to the other persons: To the first person
singular :
Mes garde bien, je te comant, S'est nus, qui de moi te
demant. Que ja novele ne Tan dies, Ch. L. 739 ; " Certes, vos
estes mal baillie, S'autremant de vos ne pansez." " Tu," fet
la dame, " qui tant sez, Me di, comant j'an panserai, Et ja a
ton los an ferai," ib. 6574.
Referring to the second person singular:
Ainz que t'ousse si'n fui molt desirrose; Ainz que nez
fusses si'n fui molt angoissose; Quant jo t'vid net si'n ful
Non-repetition of Eecurring Words. 35
examination of the use of the Old French vostre merci.
The cause of the omission of the verb is precisely similar
to that of the omission of de in the Modem French
retour de Paris — ^the close recurrence of the same word.
When vostre merci was no longer generally used in the
sense of voils, the early force of vostre ceased to be felt
in this expression, and the word was finally dropped.
If this theory be correct, vostre merci has here the
meaning of the Spanish Vuestra Merced and the Portu-
guese Vossa Merce, not an unlikely meaning, considering
its use in these other Romance languages, but one which
has not been generally noted or conceded. In the fol-
lowing examples it seems clearly to have such significa-
tion:
Ne vos i covient plus atandre : Vostre merci, ralez vos
an! Erec 4110; Ne vos poist pas, Ja avuec moi n'iroiz
un pas. Les voz granz merciz, remenez ! ib. 4299 ;
Hastez vos, la vostre merci ! ib. 4371 ; Bel a parle vostre
liede e goiose; Or te vei mort, tote en sui corocose, St. Alex.
92a.
Referring to the third person singular — most often found
and fairly common; a few examples are:
Sainz Alexis out bone volentet: ... Li cors en gist en
Rome la citet, Et I'anme en est enz el paradis Deu, St. Alex.
109a; Que la tenisse en France o a Dun la citet! Car jo'n
fereie puis totes mes volontez, P61. de Ch. 406; Ensorquetot
si ai jo vostre soer, Sin ai un fil, Rol. 294; Or guart chascuns
que granz cols i empleit, Male changon ja chant^de n'en
seit, ib. 1013; For ce que D6s a comand6 Que il seit k Rome
amen6 E que en facent Apostoile, Gr6g. 103-15; Erec la voit,
mout s'an mervoille, Erec 4336.
Referring to the first person plural:
L'un an covandra ja verser, Ou moi ou lui, ne sai le quel,
Ch. L. 4148.
Referring to the third person plural:
par quoi il ne s'aperceusgent, et qu'ele s'en gardast, Auc
14, 31; Garde toi des souduians . . . (16, 3) je m'en garde-
rai bien, et dix m'en gart! ib. 15, 13.
36 Ellipsis in Old French.
merci, Floire et Blanchefleur, 1899 (du Meril)*; Ce me
plest mout et atalante^ Yostre merci, que dit m'avez, Clig.
2318 ; ^^ Dame/^ fet il, '' vostre merci, Quant vostre sire
m^assailli, Quel tort oi je de moi deffandre?^^ Ch. L.
1999.'
N'ot only are the following citations meaningless if
vostre merci has not this value, but the sense requires the
verb merci. This verb — ^like its Modem French descend-
ant remercier — requires de before the noun expressing
that for which thanks are rendered; unless, then, merd
is understood in the last of these examples, the preposi-
tion is unaccountable:
"Jo vos donrai un pan de mon pais Des Cheriant
entresqu^en Val Marchis/^ Et cil respont : " Sire, vostre
mercit!'' Eol. 3207; "Biaus sire/' fet il, "Men veigniez!
Se moi herbergier deigniez, Vez Fostel aparellie ci."
Erec respont: "Vostre merci!'' Erec 387; "Tot vos
presterai sanz dotance; Que ja riens n'an sera a dire."
" La vostre merci, biaus douz sire ! " ib. 622 ; " La vos
vuel avuec moi mener, S'i ferons noz plaies sener." Erec
respont : " Bon gre vos sai De ce qu'o'i dire vos ai. W\
irai pas, vostre merci," ib. 3903 ; " Yos et trestoz voz oirs
f ranchis . . ." Jehanz respont : " Yostre merci ! " Clig.
5644; " Je sui vostre, et vos soiiez D'ore an avant ma
* Quoted by Godefroy in his Dictionnaire, under merci. It
is found at 1. 2156 of Bekker's edition in Philologische und
Mstorische Abhandlungen der Koniglichen Akademie der
Wissenschaften zu Berlin, 1844, pp. 1-41.
''The meaning of **by your grace'* can hardly apply to
the above examples, though in some cases the context ren-
ders such a reading possible, as in the following passages,
yet even here the fact that vostre merci, soe merci, etc., may
not have this meaning is not at all precluded :
Quier mei . . . parchamin ... go pri toe mercit, St.
Alex. 57a; Et je li pri, qu'ele s'an teise. Que ja chose, qui me
despleise, Ne me comant, soe merci, Ch. L. 121; Grant enor
me porterent tuit, Les lor merciz, an la meison, ib. 570; Mes
vos, la vostre grant merci, M'i enorastes et servistes, ib.
1012.
NON-EBPETITION OF EeCUREING WoEDS. 37
dameisele ! '' " Vostre merci, sire ! " f et ele, Ch. L.
2438; Vostre merci de la promesse, Que volan tiers la
feriiez, ib. 3740.
So in Old Provengal :
Domna, dis el, vostra merce, Car . . . Appel, p. 22,
1. 589 ; translated in the glossary as " dank Euch."
Mes.
With toz jorz, accompanied by a future or conditional
verb, mes is regularly required. A striking example of
anh Koivoif (scc p. 41) may therefore be furnished by the
following quotation, in which mes probably has a double
meaning, referring both to toz jorz (Latin magis) and
to amis (Latin meus) :
Si me plevi et fianga Que toz jorz mes amis seroit, Erec
6280.
Ne,
Following the conjunction ne, the negative adverb ne
is often omitted. As it is only in this position that the
non-repetition of the negative particle frequently occurs
— except when omitted together with some other word * —
there can be no doubt that the omission is due to the
juxtaposition of the two words :
Mes cil ne tar dent ne atandent, Erec 774; Mes ele
n'apargut ne sot La dolor don il se pleignoit, ib. 4598;
et si ne sai Queus maus ce est, qui me justise, Ne sai don
la dolors m'est prise, Clig. 662 ; II nel salue ne Fancline,
ib. 2480; Aussi con la busche, qui fume, Tant que la
flame s^i est mise. Que nus ne sofle ne atise, Ch. L. 1778 ;
Qu^onques traison vers sa dame Ne fist ne dist ne ne
pansa, ib. 4438.
" See non-repetition of the adverb, p. 118.
38 Ellipsis in Old French.
In the following, ne, rhyming with veriU, is appar-
ently used in place of the feminine past participle nee
and the negative ne; its position, which would be nn-
usual for the latter, is thus explained :
Sachez pur verite, Unkes femme de mere ne Tant
snffri en nn jur, Omnip. 116d.
Que,
Than that is expressed in Old French by que, as in
Rol. 2336, Mielz voeil morir, qu'entre paiiens remaignet^
of which, logically, the complete form would be que {ne
voeil) qu'entre paiiens remaignet — " I wish more to die
than (I wish) that I should remain among pagans/^ The
Modem French construction which expresses both words,
but which is avoided because of its displeasing sound,*
helps to account for the fact that the use of the conjunc-
tion que in such sentences of comparison did not develop
in the early language, aided by the usage which permitted
of its omission in nearly every case.*
Other examples are:
Mes n^an set plus que bel le voit, Clig. 2813 ; Angois
sofferoie jo que je feiisse tous deserites et que je perdisse
quanques g'ai, que tu ja Feiisses a mollier ni a espouse,
Auc. 8, 26 ; Encor ainme je mix que je muire ci, que tos
li puples me regardast domain a merveilles, ib. 16, 14;
Encor aim jou mix asses Que me mengucent li le, Li lion
et li sengler. Que je voisse en la cite, ib. 17, 16.
^ See Tobler, V. B. 1, 184 (article 32).
"Littr^ (Dictionnaire) under aimer, Rem. 4, says:
" Aimer mieux, pr6sente quelquefois une construction diffi-
cile. Par exemple: J'aime mieux que vous alliez k Paris
que que vous perdiez votre temps chez vous. Ces deux que
sont lourds. Pour les ^viter, on en a parfois supprim6 un:
J'aimerais mieux souffrir la peine la plus dure Qu'il etit recu
pour moi la moindre ^gratignure, Mol. Tart. Ill, 6.
® See omission of the conjunction que, p. 138 fE.
Non-repetition of Eecureing Words. 39
2. Suffix -ment.
When adverbs formed by the addition of -merit were
used consecutively, this termination was regularly re-
quired with each of the adverbs thus formed. There are,
however, a few instances of its use with but one of these
adverbs — a usage which is still found in some of the Ko-
mance languages. Only one example has been found in
the works studied : ^^^
Vers Sarrazins reguardet fierement, Et vers Frauceis
et humble et dolcement, Eol. 1162.
3. Prefixes.
It is probable that the non-repetition of prefixes had
a broader application in Old French than is shown by
the few cases found in the works on which this study is
based.
Des'.
As osteus vienent, si s^aeisent, Si se deshuesent et
atornent, Erec 6454.
S'entre-''
Entre, usually together with the reflexive pronoun, is
frequently not repeated :
Vont sei entrebeisier, noveles demander, Pel. de Ch.
147; Si s^antrabatent et adantent, Li un les autres
^°See Tobler, V. B. 1, 101 (article 14), edition of 1902.
Foerster, Zts. f. r. Ph. 2, 88, and Aiol, note to 1. 3011,
shows that mainte (mmntre) comunalment is an example
of this form of ellipsis.
Compare the use of -ieme found in Modern French, as:
La quatre ou la cinquieme page (Nyrop, Gram. vol. 2, p.
349).
^ S\ not soi, though preceding an infinitive. It is gen-
erally believed that the stressed form of the object pronoun
is uniformly used in this position. Tobler (V. B. 2, 49)
40 Ellipsis in Old French.
acravantent, Clig. 1751; Si s^antrecontrent et regoivent,
ib. 3583; Qu^il ne s^antracolent et beisent, ib. 5129 ; Tant
galoperent et conirent, Qu^il s'antrevirent et conurent,
Erec 2347; Si s^antrebeisent et saluent, ib. 2351; La
s^antrevienent et desfient, ib. 3773 ; Si s^antrebeisent et
acolent^ ib. 6357 ; Si s'antresaluent et beisent, ib. 6453 ;
Si s^antrafolent et ocient, Ch. L. 3269; Antrebeisier et
acoler S^alassent ainz que afoler; Qu^il s^antrafolent et
mehaingnent, ib. 6115.
Ee-,
It is uncertain whether the omission of the prefix be-
fore veoir in the following quotation is due to its occur-
says, "... dass tonlose Pronomina erst in sehr spater Zeit
sich proklitisch mit Infinitiven verbinden " ; Poerster (glos-
sary to Ch. L. under se), speaking of soi, says that it
stands " stets bei refl. Infinitiv," and (note to L 3119)
" beim Inf. immer soi "; Ebeling (note to 1. 202 of Auheree)
gives soi emplumer as the infinitive of this reflexive verb,
and the same form of this pronoun is used before the in-
finitive throughout the notes, etc., etc. But, in the works
examined, this stressed pronoun is required before the in-
finitive only when a preposition precedes {De quatre parz
voient venir Lor batailles por aus secorre, Clig. 1764; see
p. 67), which must have given rise to this belief. In Erec
3433 — Qui sa fame tolir li panse Et lui ocirre sanz defanse —
it is unquestionable that the tonic form is used because of a
decided stress on the pronoun.
Instances of either form of the object pronoun before an
infinitive, when not preceded by a preposition, are few, as it
is usually placed before the auxiliary verb (Que an lui
mout fier me puis, Ch. L. 4906). The cases noted in which
the unstressed form occurs (1) when governed by the in-
finitive, (2) when governed by the principal verb, follow:
(1) Qui eps les morz fait se revivre. Pass. 35; Por go
laissat Deus se neiier, Que de toz nos aiet pitiet, ib. 199;
Pilaz ses mains dunque at lavet. Que de sa mort poisse-s
neter, ib. 237; Alquanz en croiz fait les lever, ib. 491; Por
ciel tiel duol rova s clergier, St. Leg. 65 (diplomatic text.
See clergier, under ellipsis of the causative verb faire, Chapt.
VI) ; Vait s'apoiier soz le pin a la tige, Rol. 500; Puis m'en
combatre a Charle et a Franceis, ib. 566; Vont s'adober
desoz une sapeide, ib. 993; Vait le ferir li cuens, ib. 1198;
Vait le ferir en I'escut amirable, ib. 1660; Vait le ferir en
guise de baron, ib. 1902; Feites m'aparellier et querre, Que
Non-repetition of Eecureing Words. 41
rence in the preceding verse, or whether it is merely a
faulty manner of expression :
Quant son ami revenir voit Que ja mes veoir ne cui-
doit, Erec 4557.
4. Groups of Words.
The non-repetition of words which are necessarily a
part of a following clause as well as of that in which they
stand, has been treated by others " and called dno koipov.
The following are found in the works studied :
Sa barbe blanche comancet a detreire, Ad ambes mains
les chevels de sa teste, Rol. 2930 ( ?) ; E-vos iluec errant
j'aie tot mon estovoir, Erec 5268; Nus n'i poeit se acuintier,
Tristan 93 (Constans' Chrestomathie, p. 77). (2) B per es
mund rova-ls aler, Toz baptizier en trinited, Pass. 453;
Laisset Tentrer en un monstier, St. L^g. 98; Laissiez le
vivre, Rol. 3811; laissez m'ester, Gr6g. 106-1.
It also occurs before the infinitive used imperatively:
Charles, ne t'esmaiier, P61. de Ch. 647 (See Etienne, p.
198).
It is not surprising that the stressed pronoun occasionally
occurs before the infinitive (Yont sei entrehaisier, P^l. de
Ch. 147, 253, 848 [sei omitted 1. 147 diplomatic text]. Fait
sei porter en sa chambre voUice, Rol. 2593; Yien mei servir
dHci qu'en Oriente, ib. 3594), for this form of the pronoun
is often used without apparent reason: Que cele noit lui
neierat, Pass. 114 (Cf. Tierce veiz Piedres lo neiat, ib. 194) ;
Femnes lui vont de tres sevant, ib. 257 (Cf. Sainz Piedres
sols sevant lo vait, i&. 167) ; Si piement lui apellat, ib. 249;
Qui lui alassent decoler, St. Leg. 222; Lai s'aproismat qui
lui ferit, ib. 232; NH at celui nH plort et sei dement, Rol.
1836; Qui tei at mort, ib. 2935; Que des pechez sei deschar-
jast, Greg. 112-7 — and, though after the verb the stressed
form is more usual (Met sei en piez, Rol. 2277; Met sei sor
piez, ib. 2298; Porpensent sei de Uen ferir, Greg. 61-8; Por-
pensa sei que . . . ib. 63-10; Reposa sei sor le rosel, ib. 94-
18; prist soi a desmenter, Aiol et Mirabel 1802 [W. Foerster,
Heilbronn, 1876-1882]), the unstressed form is also found
in this position: Qo U preiat, paiast s'od lui, St. Leg. 108;
Tornat s'als altres, ib. 206; Aidiez m'a plaindre le dol de
mon ami, St. Alex. 93b; Trait se vers lui Greg. 61-4.
"See Tobler, V. B. 1, 115 ff. (article 21), and Nyrop,
Oram., vol. 1, p. 453. See mes, p. 37.
42 Ellipsis in Old French.
sor destre, Por le pleisir le Eei celestre, Deus pecheors
d'une abate D'omes i ot de sainte vie, Greg. 34-3 ; Plui-
sors miracles i fist Diex, Contrais drecher e veir orbex
E parler ceus qui erent mu E coursoir de par Jesu, ib.
109-17 (i fist Diex refers also to the verses following it,
for veir and parler must depend on the causative verb
faire).
CHAPTER III.
The Noun.
Frequently occurring nouns such as horn, feme, etc,
are often omitted :
Jeo nel lerreie pur (hume) terrestre, Gorm. 222; II ne
vait giens cume terrestre Prof vait bruiant cume tem-
peste, ib. 228; Car Isembarz i est remes Od quarrante
milliers d^armes, ib. 516; Par ceste meie destre, Rol. 47;
Vint milie sont ad escuz et a lances, ib. 913; Querre li
vint uns de Raains, Uns riches dux qui fu romains, Greg.
32-3; Nel fis as letrez, Reim. 127d; Qu^an ne trueve
grant ne petit. . . . Clig. 4744 ; N'i a chevelu ne chauve,
ib. 4772; Si morut come forsenez/ ib. 6729; une vielle,
Auc. 4, 22; a haute prime, ib. 18, 5; au point de none,
ib. 20, 31; entre prime et tierce, ib. 22, 29; Que del
forsene tant s'aproche, Qu^ele . . . Ch. L. 2989; Cest
cheval, que je main an destre, Prenez, ib. 3084; Qu^il n'a
el monde si estrange, Cui je autretant n'an deisse, ib.
6306.
The omission of the noun in other cases is more rare :
Amor: Por Deu, Greg. 15-10, so ib. 51-3; por Deu le
grant, ib. 20-19, so ib. 23-19.^
Armes: Et s^a fet son escu vermoil Et tot Fautre her-
nois oster, Et fet les blanches aporter, Clig. 4876.
Bataille: Sur sun escu li duna grande, Gorm. 70 ( ?) ;
Si se conbatent une chaude, Ch. L. 6135.
Cheval. As es per oner, monter, poindre and other
verbs are often coupled with cheval, the latter is not in-
^ Cf . Come hon f orsenez et sauvage, Ch. L. 2828 ; Por Tome
forsene repestre, ib. 2878. Cf. also, however, p. 149.
''Cf. por Deu amor, Gr^g. 1-1; por amor Deu le rei, ib.
39-23; Por amor Deu, ib. 46-16; so ib. 47-18 and Rol. 3768.
44 Ellipsis in Old French.
frequently omitted when they are used, and even, as in
the following, when it has not been mentioned :
Esperonant vient al gravier, Greg. 59-21 ; N^ont puis
talent de remonter, ib. 59-24; A la rescosse poingnent
tnit, ib. 63-23.
Chose: De doel morrai, s^altre ne m^i ocit/ Eol. 1867;
" Onqnes mes/^ f et il, " n'oi tel ^^ * ; Ceste vos iert mout
ehier vandue/ ib. 3569.
Color: Come il chanja, come il pali/ Clig. 4364.
Cop (Son) : Oil recuevre, si Fa feme, Erec 183 ; Anmi
le piz li dona tel Mes sire Yvains, que la pel fausse/ Ch.
L. 4200.
Deniers, souz or argent et or may be supplied in Ch. L.
5320 : Des nuiz grant partie veillons Et toz les jorz por
gaeignier.
Feste : A saint Michiel tendrat molt halte feste/ Eol.
53 ; Huit jorz apres la saint Jehan/ Ch. L. 2574.
Main (8a) : Et li cuens hauce, si refiert, Erec 4842.
Pas: Seignor baron, soef alez tenant," Eol. 1165;
D'andeus parz a trois ganz se content, Clig. 2882.
Peche: En icel lue espeneit E deservit . . . Aveir
. . . confort, Greg. 116-8.
Personne (often not expressed) : Se ici n'eiist fors
que toi. Que sens fusses et sanz aie, Erec 5034; Car ja
n'amera se lui non, Clig. 2899 ; Qu^il n^iert mes, qui por
' The omission may be that of personne; see note to ellip-
sis of the adjective altre, p. 48.
* It is barely possible that it is novele that is here omitted.
'^ It is not impossible to consider parole the word to be
supplied in this sentence.
•'Cf. Li reis Marsilies at la color mud^de, Rol. 441; Unques
ja n'i murent color, Gr6g. 108-10; Mes je li vi color changier,
Clig. 4442; Li uns por I'autre color mue, ib. 5126. See
phrase De color, p. 146.
^Cf. Cil li reva tel cop doner, Que . . . Clig. 1921; Et cil
li a tel cop don6, Que . . . Ch. L. 5656.
^ Cf. Vos le sivrez a feste saint Michiel, Rol. 37.
• Cf. Jusqu'a la feste saint Jehan, Ch. L. 2750. See Nyrop,
Gram., vol. 3, 375-378.
^° So C16dat, in his glossary to the Roland, under tenir.
The Noun. 45
nos parot, Ch. L. 4369; N^iert mes qui die ne qui lot
. . . ib. 4373.
Rien (often not expressed) : Mais n'at talant li facet
se bien non," Eol. 3681 ; N^avet fors le cuer e les os, Greg.
105-11; Que ja n^i avroiz se preu non, Erec 5054; Uan
dit que il n'i a si grief A trespasser come le suel, Clig.
2288 ; De tot Favoir du monde n'ai je plus vaillant, que
vos vees sor le cors de mi. line lasse mere avoie, si
n'avoit plus vaillant que une keutisele, Auc. 24, 53 ; Ne
nos a leissie li jaianz Fors tant con nos avons ceanz,
Ch. L. 3889.
The expression en grant, grande, en granz, grandes
was probably formed through the omission of some noun.
Tobler" understands by it — and, it seems, quite logic-
ally — in grosser (Not, Bedrdngniss, Sorge), in grossen
(No ten, Besorgnissen) , to which may be added " de-
sire ^' :
De son voloir an grant la tienent, Ch. L. 2108; Mes
mout le veomes an grant Des cos vangier, que Pan li
done, ib. 3226.
NON-REPETITION OF THE NOUN.
One of the most frequent ellipses is the non-repetition
of the noun :
Granz folcs ariedre, granz davant, Pass. 45 ; La mortel
vide li prist molt a blasmer, De la celeste li mostret veri-
tet, St. Alex. 13c; Bries est cist siecles, plus durable
atendeiz, ib. 110c; En som cez maz et en cez haltes
vernes, Eol. 2632 ; Je vous ferai bons couvens. Et quex,
biax fix? Auc. 8, 31; Et prist se vesture a Pune main
devant et a Tautre deriere, ib. 12, 16; Puis demanda,
quex hon c^estoit, ne s'il avoit guerre, et on li dist : Oil,
grande, ib. 28, 12; Et fist tel tans, con feire dut. Et
" Cf. C'est uns avoirs qui rien ne vaut, S*an estor non, ou
an assaut, Clig. 1305; N'i aveit chose se fens non, Gr^g.
108-3.
^^Li dis dou vrai aniel (Leipzig, 1871), note to 1. 2.
46 Ellipsis m Old French.
quant Deus redona le bel, Sor le pin vindrent li oisel,
Ch. L. 806 ; Mes la dameisele li prie . . . Come cortoise
et de bon eire, ib. 1305.
A noun need not be repeated in a succeeding clause in
which it is modified
(a) by an adjective in the comparative degree :
E si le prenge a seignor^ Quar ele ne pot aveir meilor,
Grreg. 68-21; Et se ele fu en peine de I'entrer, encor fu
ele en forceur de I'isgir, Auc. 16, 22.
(b) by an adjective preceded by si:
S^an vet feisant chiere dolante; Qu'ains si dolante ne
veistes, Clig. 5694; Et cil vient la, qui mout covoite Le
pain, si le prant et s'i mort. Ne cuit que onques de si
fort 'Ne de si aspre eiist goste, Ch. K 2842.
(c) by tel:
Covert d'une coute si riche, Qu'ains n'ot tel li dus
d'Osteriche, Ch. L. 1041 ; " an quel meniere? '^ " An tel,
que graindre estre ne puet, An tel, que de vos ne se muet
Mes cuers, n'onques aillors nel truis. An tel, qu'aillors
panser ne puis, An tel, que toz a vos m'otroi,'' etc., ib.
2024.
The non-repetition of plus used as a noun does not
usually occur. The ellipsis is found in the following
Car plus de bien et plus d'enor Trova assez li vavassor,
Qu'an ne li ot conte ne dit ; Et an la pucele revit de san
et de biaute gant tanz, Que n'ot conte Calogrenanz, Ch.
L. 779.
The possessive pronoun, without as well as with the
definite article, is formed by the non-repetition of the
noun, as a noun is formed from an adjective. Compare,
for instance, the following:
Mes tant di de la moie part, Ch. L. 6240; la terre Qui
mon pere est et moie apres, Erec 1331.
The Noun. 47
A noun is occasionally omitted in the first clause when
it is used in the second : "
Or te pri et quier et demant, Se tu sez, que tu me con-
soille Ou d^avanture ou de mervoille, Ch. L. 364.
"Examples of incorrect omissions of this sort are given
in Tobler's V. B., 3, 13, as: ge ne vi Ne n'oi parler a nului
De rien qui . . . Messire Thibaut, li romanz de la poire, 485.
CHAPTEE IV.
The Adjective.
Because of the part which the adjective necessarily
plays in the sentence, its omission would not be expected.
Yet the complete idea may sometimes be conveyed with-
out the aid of the adjective.
AUre is the most frequently omitted adjective : *
Si fait ma medre plus que femme qui vivet, St. Alex.
42b; Plus vos amai que nule creature, ib. 97c; Corant i
vint Margariz de Sibilie . . . Wi at paiien de tel cheva-
lerie, Eol. 955 ; Deus, quel vassal ! soz ciel n'a tel ! Erec
1255.
Mauves: Qui qu'an face chiere ne groing, Clig. 2345 ; *
Des que li tans fu trespassez, Ch. L. 459.
Premier: A vos conbatuz ne me fusse, Ainz me cla-
masse recreant Devant le cop, ce vos creant, Ch. L. 6280.
Quel: " Ha ! ^^ font il, " fame, chose avere De voir
dire et de mantir large,^^ ' Ch. L. 4414.
Tel: qu'il i a une beste que, se vos le poi'ies prendre,
vos n^en donriies mie un des menbres por cine cens mars
d'argent,* Auc. 22, 35.
^A similar ellipsis is found in colloquial English, as: He
has accomplished more than anyone (else) I know.
On the other hand, altre is sometimes superfluous: On-
ques nH ot autre al veiller Fors la dame el chevaler, Gr6g.
20-3; Apres cele mort Wout altre confort. En enfern n'alast,
Reim. 5a; Ne vuel pas sandier le gaignon, Qui se her ice et
regringne, Quant autre mastins le rechingne, Ch. L. 646. In
the last quotation the adjective expresses the idea of com-
parison, contrast, as it may also in Ch. L. 4519, De priiere
ate li font Les dames; qu'autres hastons n*ont. See Tohler,
V. B. 3, 72-73. Compare the Modern French use of the word,
expressing contrast, as: Nous autres Frangais.
^Cf. the English, "to make a (wry) face."
•It is possible that the omission before chose is that of
c'est.
* Cf. Car li beste a tel me6ine, que, se vos le po6s prendre,
Tos ser6s garis de vo mehaig (read mehaing), Auc. 22, 37.
The Adjective. 49
Tot: De la contrede ont porprises les parz, Ne mais
que tant com Femperedre en at, Kol. 3332.
The Possessive Adjective.
Instances of the omission of the possessive adjective
are few :
Liiedes mains cnme ladron, Si Tent meinent a passion,'
Pass. 163; Avant toz vait a passion, ib. 256; Alques vos
ai dit de raizon Que Jesus fist por passion, ib. 445 ; En
piez se drecet," Rol. 195 ; Sor piez se drecet, ib. 2234; Par
ancessors dei jo tel plait tenir, ib. 3826; Car d^Athenes
estoit nais. An la cite d'ancesserie Avoient mout grant
seignorie Toz jorz si ancessor eue, Clig. 2462; Es vous
Nichole au peron, Trait viele, trait argon,' Auc. 39, 12 ;
Et trovai un chemin a destre, Ch. L. 180 ; Mes cil le
trai ... En qui fu s^esperance,' Omnip. 80a.
The exclamation par foi is elliptical for par ma foi:*
Par foi, done sui je fole, Clig. 511; Mil mars? Voire,
par foi, trois mile, Ch. L. 1279 ; Par foi, c'est mervoille
provee, ib. 6021.
The Article.
Because of the lack of uniformity which still existed
in the use of the article, its omission in cases when its
employment would be expected, can hardly be termed
ellipsis. For this reason, and because its use has already
■^Cf. Sa passions toz nos redenst. Cum aproismat sa
passions ... A la citet volt aproismier, Pass. 12; Fort
sacrament lor comandat Por remembrer sa passion, ib. 94;
Miel e peisson equi manjat, En veritet les confirmat; Sa
passion peissons tostez E li miels signet deitet, ib. 441.
" Cf. Isnelement sor lor piez relev6rent, Rol. 3575; Gu6nes
li cuens a ses piez se presentet, ib. 3792; Isnelement se dr6-
cent sor lor piez, ib. 3884.
^ Cf. si prist se viele, Auc. 38, 19.
' s' is lacking in the MS.
•Cf. Par ma foi, sire, I'anperere, Clig. 368; Doit an atan-
dre, par ma foi, Ch. L. 5913.
For the omission of vostre with mercif see merci, Chapt.
II, and crier, Chapt. VI.
50 Ellipsis in Old French.
been treated/" merely a few examples contrasting the use
and the omission of the article are here given.
(A) The Definite Article.
II tot entorn t'arbergeront Et a terre crevanteront,
Pass. 59 ; Que quaisses mort a terre vindrent, ib. 399 ; A
terre vait^ culpe bati, Gorm. 660. — Cf, Josqn'a la terre
si chevel li baleient, Eol. 976; Qui lui vedist Sarrazina
desmembrer, Un mort sor Taltre a la terre jeter . . . ib.
1970; Puis a la terre Tabati, Greg. 43-6; Me mist a la
terre tot plat, Ch. L. 54; desgant A la terre, ib. 2259.
No-l consentent fellon Judeu, Pass. 222; Et en son
chief fellon Fasisdrent, ib. 248. — Cf. Dune lo receivent
li fellon, ib. 243 ; Si s'escrevantent li fellon, ib. 250.
Pois que Deu filz suspenduz furet, Pass. 312. — Cf, Que
lo Deu fil neiier li fait, ib. 192.
Franc^ desherbergent, Rol. 701. — Cf. or se dorment
li Franc, ib. 2521.
Reis Corsablis il est de I'altre part, Rol. 885; Reis
Canabeus, ib. 3429.-0/. li rois Artus, Clig. 119, 436,
1095, etc.
Par Sehre amont tot lor navilie toment, Rol. 2642 ; les
rives de Sainne, Ch. L. 5980. — Cf. Desor le Sebre at sa
gent adunede, Rol. 2758.
Cors ont gaillarz et fieres contenances, Les chies floriz
et les barbes ont blanches, Rol. 3086.
Molt les ot enemis lacies De fors e de dobles pechies,
Greg. 3-17 — Cf. Encore fist li enemis Icel saint ome
faire pis, ib. 3-13.
Molt fu ten tee en eel ore E Diables me corut sore,
Greg. 11-15 ; Lores fu Deables angoissos, ib. 66-11. — Cf.
Li Diables n^en sot nient, ib. 10-9; Le deble est un de
ceus . . . Omnip. 7a.
es ondes de mer, Gr^g. 22-24. — Cf. Dreit al rivage de
la mer, ib. 25-18.
^*»H. Fredenhagen; P. Gelbrich; H. Koch; S. Schayer;
Tobler, V. B. 2, 96 ff. (article 15).
" Usually without the article in the Roland.
The Adjective. 51
Fu el batel en mer getes, Greg. 33-12; Yeiant lui, la
geta en mer, ib. 95-20. — Cf. E quant il fu nez, en la mer,
Le fis, por mon peche, geter, ib. 78-9.
E por aprendre auques de letre, Greg. 23-11; Li abes
I'a en conrei pris E en la eloistre a letres mis, ib. 41-7 ;
Com cil qui esteit senez E de letres bien doctrinez, ib.
56-3. — Cf. Quant des letres auques saura, ib. 23-21; E
des letres aprist si bien Que . . . ib. 41-14 ; gramaires ea
E des letres el (read es) doctrines, ib. 48-3.
Morz que demore et que atant. Que ne me prant sanz
nul respit? Trop m^a la morz an grant despit! Erec
4656.
Je sai bien garir d' idropique. Si sai garir de I'arte-
tique, De quinancie et de cuerpous, Clig. 3023.
Que de rans ne s'an part aucuns? Clig. 4651. — Cf,
Del ranc as autres se desrote, ib. 4666 ; Des rens s'en ist
trestot premier, Greg. 59-6.
Tant con pins est plus biaus que charmes, Et li loriers
plus del seii, Clig. 4778.
Por cent mile mars d'or mier Ne le fesist on si lie, Auc.
9, 3 ; Les X mars d'argent, Greg. 42-10.— 0/. Les IIII
mars de For fin, Greg. 39-10; Tos les X mars de Fargent,
ib. 38-12.
il met pie en estrier, Auc. 20, 29. — Cf. II mist le pie
fors de Festrier, ib. 24, 80.
Toz jorz doit puir li fumiers Et taons poindre et maloz
bruire, Enuieus enuiier et nuire, Ch. L. 116.
Quant il an a et else et leu, Ch. L. 1322c. — Cf. Qui
m'a done le leu et Feise De feire chose, qui vos pleise, ib.
1083.
Que Deus et droiz li eideront, Ch. L. 4333 ; Que Deus
et droiz a un se tienent, ib. 4445. — Cf. Deus et li droiz
. . . An soit an a'ie a celui, ib. 5983.
iWith the possessive adjective — particularly in the
earliest poems — and with the possessive pronoun, the use
of the article is optional :
venront li di Que t^asaldront toi enemi, Pass. 57.—
€f. Li toi chaitif per totes genz Menet ent ierent a tor-
52 Ellipsis in Old French.
menz, ib. 65 ; A sos fedeils lavat les piez^ ib. 92. — Of. Les
SOS talenz at fort montret, ib. 73; Quar soe fin vedeir
voldrat, ib. 168. — Of. La soe mort mult demandant, ib.
204.
Si n^est pas la besoingne moie, Ch. L. 5071. — Of. Le
vostre seignor et le mien, ib. 129.
(B) The Indefinite Article.
Contrast the following omissions of the indefinite
article :
Altre revendrat Kil reguarderat, Eeim. 54d; je sni
messages, Erec 6430; Qu'aingois grant piece qu'il fust
jorz, Clig. 1804; Tint cort si riche come rois, Ch. L. 4;
il n'avoit Herbergie chevalier errant, ib. 258; Et un man-
tel sanz harigot, ib. 5428 ; Se cil sens jorz fust trespassez,
ib. 5859,
with its use in some of the following passages, in which
the omission of the article would not have been sur-
prising :
Liverrai lui une mortel bataille, Eol. 658 ; Cil est uns
cuens, ib. 917; Uns altre le tint Ainz que il fust nez,
Eeim. 54b; Carras de Corque, uns rois mout fiers, Erec
1965; Qui por un po n^anrage vis, ib. 4790; vaut miauz
. . . Uns cortois morz qu'uns vilains vis, Ch. L. 31; Un
vilain, qui ressanbloit mor . . . Vi je seoir sor une
goche, Une grant mague an sa main, ib. 288; Oroilles
mossues et granz Auteus come a uns olifanz, ib. 299;
Je sui uns hon, ib. 330; Je sui, ce voiz, uns chevaliers,
ib. 358; N'e cuit qu'onques si fort pleiist, Que d^eve i
passast une gote, ib. 416; Li perrons iert d^une esme-
raude, Perciez aussi come une boz, ib. 424; Vint plus
tost qu'uns alerions, ib. 487; Mout amander et ancherir
Se puet de prandre un buen seignor, ib. 2098 ; Mout doit
an amer et cherir, Un prodome, quant an le trueve, ib.
3210; Dessoz la pel li a tolue Une grant piece de la
hanche, ib. 4224; Mes se uns chevaliers s'an ose Por li
armer . . . ib. 4796; Cil qui ja n'iert Sanz un lion, ib.
The Adjective. 53
5020 ; Et Tine grant piece demorent, ib. 5208 ; Et quant
ele Fot esgardee Une grant piece, ib. 6237; Eois, s'or
puet estre desresniee Ma droiture ne ma querele Par nn
chevalier, done Piert ele, ib. 5944.
NON-REPETITION OF THE ABJECTIVE.
The non-repetition of the adjective occurs more fre-
quently than the simple omission. The most typical of
the few examples are :
Mes plus est hiaus de celui d^ier Et plus de Lancelot
del lac, Clig. 4786 ; estoit si bele, que plus ne pooit estre,
Auc. 24, 73."
Dont il ne puet estre que une De grant san et de cor-
teisie, Ch. L. 2410 ; A eus grant dolur E a nus honor Le
jur apparilierent, Omnip. 74a.
Mais, si Dex me volt consentir, Onques del mal ne
fust si lez Cum tu del bien seras irez, E je serai, Greg.
81-8 ; Ja mais n^ierc liede, chiers filz, ne n^iert tes pedre,
St. Alex. 27e.
Quel veie e chemin tuit prenent fin ! " Eeim. 125a.
Tel nen out Alixandre ne li vielz Constantine, ^N'e
n'out Creissenz de Eome, Pel. de Ch. 366.
The repetition of tot in the same number and gender
is usually avoided :
Et tuit li juene et li chenu, Erec 559 ; Si ai perdu de
mon avoir Tot le meillor et le plus chier, Ch. L. 3124. —
However, Toz torz et toz mesfez vos quit, Ch. L. 2012.
The familiar ainc ne fu si omits the repetition of the
adjective :
Quant or i vint Aucassins, Dolans fu, ainc ne fu si,
Auc. 11, 8; Or fu lies, ainc ne fu si, ib. 41, 4; Or fu lie,
ainc ne fu si, ib. 41, 10.
"The omission of hiaus in the second of the following
verses would correct the meter: Que molt par est tiaus e
cortois, Onques plus tiaus nH ot cuens ni rois, Gr^g. 20-7.
"Text A reads: Que valt le c; text B: Quele voie quel
chemin.
54 Ellipsis in Old French.
non-repetition of the possessive adjective.
There are but few cases in which this form of ellipsis
appears : "
Que me remembre de sa dolor et ire, Eol. 489 ; Or le
appellerent Lur rei e seniur, Omnip. 98b.
Though the gender of the second noun is different,
the possessive adjective is not repeated in Omnip. 111b,
Ore n'ad nul ke sente Ma peine e turment.
NON-REPETITION OF THE DEFINITE ARTICLE.
The definite article is customarily repeated. All the
exceptions ^^ found are given :
Granz fut li duols, forz marrimenz. Pass. 121; La
defers sont corut li plusor et alquant. Pel. de Ch. 339;
Mais go ne set li quels veint ne quels non, Rol. 2567 ; Les
fameilous fai saoler, Les nuz vestir e conreer, Morz sevei-
lir e enterrer E les nuz vestir e chancier, Greg. 83-23;
Tant se sont martele les danz Et les joes et les nasez Et
poinz et bras et plus assez, Tanples et hateriaus et cos.
Que . . . Erec 5974; Toz li fruiz et blez et vins i vient,
ib. 5400."
Even when the form of the article would be different,
the omission in question is not unknown to Old French :
Se li ciaus chiet et terre font, Erec 4436 ; Cors as gent
et avenant, Le poil blont et reluisant, Yairs les ex, ciere
riant, Auc. 15, 6 ; Si vi qu'il ot grosse la teste . . . Che-
"Hirschberg, p. 17, says that this part of speech is re-
peated without exception.
"Hirschberg, p. 16, says: "die Wiederholung des be*
stimmten Artikels ist unter alien Umstanden und ohne Aus-
nahme erforderlich."
" In Rol. 2412 — tant me puis esmaiier Que jo ne fui a
I'estorn comencier! — a Vestorn comencier = al comencier
Vestorn; not a rare construction.
The Adjective. 55
vos meschiez et front pele . . . Oroilles mossues et granz
. . . Les sorciz granz et le vis plat . . . Barbe noire,
grenons tortiz, Et le manton aers an piz, Longue eschine,
torte et bogue, Ch. L. 295.
No example of the non-repetition of the indefinite
article has been found.
CHAPTEE Y.
The Pronoun.
1. The Nominative Pronoun/
Notwithstanding Tobler^s suggestion "" of the contrary
possibility, there seems to be no omission which may be
termed ellipsis in sentences which, according to him,
express a "direct question in the form of an indirect
question/^ as:
E icil dunt sunt Qui la richesse unt? Keim. 29a; Li
avoir dunt li vint? ib. 54a; II qu'en porterat Quant il
s^en irat? ib. 55a; Li prince qu^en unt Qui ale s'en sunt?
ib. 92a; Morz que demore et que atant. . . ? Erec 4656;
Et de sa biaute moi que chaut? Clig. 901; Et disoient:
" Ce que puet estre? " ^ Ch. L. 1111; Mes ce comant pot
avenir, Que tu mon seignor oceis . . . ? ib. 1232 ; " Qui
est, qui se demante si ? ^^ Et cil li respont : " Et vos,
qui ? ^^ ib. 3571 ; Por Deu, biaus sire, ce qu'espiaut, Que
onques mes ne vos veimes Ne vostre non nomer n^oimes,
ib. 4616; Dameiseles, que j^ai veiies An cest prael, don
sont venues . . . ? ib. 5227 ; Et il, que fet des deus mau-
fez? ib. 5587.
There is apparently an inversion of the subject,* prob-
ably at first for emphasis, with a pronoun replacing it
^With the exception which follows, the omission of the
nominative pronoun is not treated in this study, for usage
had not yet rendered the employment of this pronoun
requisite.
^ V. B. 1, 56 (article 10) : " Wer gem von Erganzen, Hin-
zudenken u. dgl. redet, wiirde etwa sagen miissen, es sei
vor diesen Fragesatzen im Gedanken einzuschalten: * ich
mochte wohl wissen/ * nun sage mir einer/ ' darf man
f ragen ' oder ahnliches."
^Cf. Old Provengal: Cosbx leuf aisso que vol dirf Appel's
Chrest., Jaufre, p. 20, 1. 429.
* Jules Le Coultre, p. 27, says: Dans le Chevalier au Lyon
nous trouvons plus d'un exemple de cette construction, mais
sans Temploi pleonastique du pronom, que Crestien ne con-
nalt pas pour les phrases interrogatives.
The Pronoun. 57
understood after the verb, since the pronoun is sume-
times expressed.** This inversion, in which may be seen
the forerunner of the general Modern French form of
expressing the interrogative, lost, in later times, like est-
ce que, much of its early force, which, however, is still
retained in certain cases, as when the subject is a pro-
noun — Lui, que fait-ilf — precisely as in Ch. L. 5587°
above, with the pronoun omitted after the verb. The
omission of the pronoun in interrogative sentences is not
unusual in Old French.'
2. The Accusative Pronoun.
Since the pronoun is employed to replace some noun
to which allusion has been made, the meaning of a sen-
tence is often unimpaired through its omission. The
ellipsis of the pronoun is therefore of frequent occur-
rence.
A. Simple Ellipsis.®
Drecent lor sigle, laissent corre par mer, St. Alex. 16d ;
Danz Alexis entrat en une nef : Ovrent lor vent, laissent
corre par mer, ib. 39a; En France dolce iert menede chai-
tive, Qo voelt li reis par amor (sc. la) convertisset, Kol.
3673; Si li tendi e si li dist: " Qu'il gardast enz e si (or
si = si i?) leissist, Greg. 49-19 ; E li bons venz les a droit
mis En cele encontree, tot droit, De quel sa mere dame
^Uaveirs Gharlon est il apareilliezf Rol. 643; and so with
Crestien, contrary to Le Coultre's statement (see note 4),
Et mes sire Gauvains, chaeles, Li frans, li douz, ou iert il
donques? Ch. L. 3697. See Schulz, Herrig's Archiv, Bd. 71,
p. 305.
'The verses preceding show the idea of emphasis: Que
petit d'a'ie li fet Escuz ne hiaumes, que il et; Car, quant sor
le hiaume Vataingnent, Trestot li anbuignent et fraingnent
. . . Mout font andui a redoter, 5579-5586.
^See Tobler, Zts. f. r. Ph. 3 (1879), p. 144 ff.— e* dont
n'aprendra? Fl. u. Bl.; E de ta medre que n'aveies mercitf
St. Alex. 88c.
» See below, p. 63 ft.
58 Ellipsis in Old French.
estoit, Qui (sc. le) fist metre es ondes de mer, Por la
grant honte eschiver, ib. 52-14 ; Ceo crei : ne laissast, Ne
volsist foler, Eeim. 71e; La mague a deus mains leva Et
euida ferir a droiture Parmi le chief sanz coverture, Erec
4454 ; Et cuide ferir de rechief A delivre parmi le chief,
ib. 4465 ; Ancor i a de teus reduiz, Que nus hon ne porroit
trover, Clig. 5576; Je li cuit feire tel assaut Qu'il con-
perra mout duremant, Erec 2818 ; " craves vos fait de
Mcolete . . .?^^ "car laisgies ester/^ ' Auc. 6, 8-14;
" Charles ne crient home qui seit vivanz.^^ " Laissiez
ester/' dit Marsilies li reis, Eol. 2740; Confortez vos!
Leissiez ester, Erec 5863; celui troverent, Que il por
ocirre queroient, Ch. L. 1097; Communement crierent:
^ Li rei Juda K^a nus venir denia ! ' haute voiz loerent,
Omnip. 94c.
The pronoun would refer to a following noun in
Omnip. 82a,
La peine deservie Tant ne greve mie Cum cele ke vent
a tort. II n^out point deservi. Pur go semla a li Sun
turment plus fort.
B. Before a Dative.
The omission of the pronoun in this position is com-
paratively rare : ^^
" Le" before "te": Je te dirai, Ja mon non ne te
celerai," Erec 1059.
' If laissier ester means " to cease," there is no ellipsis.
Cf., however, laissez m'ester, Gr6g. 106-1; Nicolete laise
ester, Auc. 2, 27.
^"Except before a dative of the third person, for which
see Chapt. I.
^ Probably a true case, for the use of le with dire is cus-
tomary. Compare :
Dites le moi, S'il est a conte ou a roi. Des que ci amen6
m'avez, Dites le moi, se vos savez, Erec 5383; Qui que il
soit, dites le nos, ib. 5424; Dites le moi, se vos savez. An
quel leu cist maus vos tient plus, Clig. 3018; Et jel vos dis
mout bien avant, Ch. L. 1719; Je le vos dirai sanz mantir,
ib. 3624; " Gi6," fet il, " nel vos dirai mie. Querez autrui,
qui le vos die! '* ib. 5237; Jo les vus dirrai, Ausi cum jo sal,
Omnip. 6a; Pur veirs le vus di, ib. 50e; Pur veir le vus di,
ib. 79b. See also P61. de Ch. 741; Clig. 3028, 6597.
The Pronoun. 59
" Le" before "vos'': Dites qui vos a devant mis,
Greg. 45-8 ; " Alez/^ fet il, " je vos comant, A mon sei-
gnor seiiremanV^ Clig. 2171; ISTe cuidiez pas que je
vos die, Por feire demorer mon conte, ib. 4636 ; " Di le
moi, jel te comant.'^ " Je vos dirai? ^^ ib. 6597.
'*" Les " hefore " vos " : Ne tant sot is n'estes et sages.
Que plus trovoiz ici estages, Se je ne vos mostre et an-
saing, Clig. 5581.
C.
A noun may serve as object to two verbs, even of dif-
ferent clauses, not being repeated in the form of a pro-
noun before the second verb :
Trestoz li poples lodet Deu e graciet, St. Alex. 108e;
Point le cheval, laisset corre ad espleit, Rol. 3547 ; Puis
prist les tables maintenant E le bon paile alisandrin E
les IIII mars de Tor fin ; Si enporta ensemble o sei, GTreg.
39-8; Les tables prist, si enporta, ib. 69-16; List i les
tables e laissa, ib. 70-11; Torchent les chevaus et es-
trillent, Erec 359 ; Je n^aim ma vie ne ne pris, ib. 4343 ;
Granz vitance est de chevalier Nu desvestir et puis liier
Et batre si vilainnemant, ib. 4413; conduit Vers li ses
iauz covertemant Et ramainne, Clig. 2801; Thessala
trible sa poison, Especes i met a foison Por adoucir et
atanprer, ib. 3251; Dus, recovree avons t^amie. Or n^an
manront li Grejois mie, ib. 3693 ; prent s'amie devant lui
baisant et acolant, Auc. 26, 21 ; S'au bacin viaus de Feve
prandre Et dessus le perron espandre . . . Ch. L. 395;
il aporterent Par ci le cors, por metre an terre, Ch. L.
^Comander requires the pronoun. Compare:
Jo m'escondirai ja, se vos le comandez, A jurer sairement
o jui'se a porter, P61. de Ch. 34 ; " Volentiers," dist li coens,
"quant vos le comandez," ib. 554; so ib. 580; Ne parlez
mais, se jo nel vos comant, Rol. 273; Or irez vos certes
quant jol comant, ib. 289; Puis quel comant, aler vos en
estoet, ib. 300; Ferez, Franceis! car jol vos recomant, ib.
1937; Franceis descendent, Charles I'at comandet, ib. 2952;
Lors ont le chapelain mand^ Si con li cuens I'ot comand6,
Erec 4767; Car avant mener ne vos doi Si con li rois I'a
comande, ib. 5866; Relevez sus, jel vos comant, Clig. 381;
Cele vient, quant il le comande, ib. 3240, and below ib. 6597.
60 Ellipsis in Old French.
1070; Et fiert son piz et esgratine, ib. 1486; qui anbri-
cona Le roi tant que il li bailla La reine et mist an sa
garde, ib. 3923.
The noun-subject of the first clause is not replaced by
a pronoun when it is the object of the second, in Eol.
3625,
PaUen s'en fuient, com damnes Deus le voelt: En-
chalcent Franc et Femperedre avoec.
The noun-object of a preposition in the first clause is
not replaced by a pronoun when object of the verb in the
second," in Clig. 267,
Que des vaslez mout lor enuie. Que Damedeus a port
conduie.
D.
Eeferring to a phrase or fact, the accusative pronoun
is sometimes omitted : "
Bites-mei tost que vos voles, Por Deu vos pri, ne me
seles, Greg. 15-9; Et se je puis,^^ jusqu'au tierz jor Me
serai mis el retor, Erec 265; Mais se je puis, il ne vos
tenront ja, Auc. 26, 20 ; Mes se je puis, sire vassaus, Sor
vos retornera li maus, Ch. L. 497.
With comander this pronoun is usually employed";
exceptions are:
Si com comandez. Pel. de Ch. 847; Se vos comandez,
Sire, toz voz mires mandez, Clig. 5743.
" The following examples are given by Tobler in the Oott.
Gel. Anz. 1875, p. 1070: Deivent en Deu aveir fiance E en-
norer de lur sustance, Wace, 8. N. 19; tendit ses mains por
juer a la corone e por prendre, Serm. poit. 193.
^* See p. 61.
^^ Though the pronoun is usually lacking in the expression
se je puis, it was probably understood, at least in early
times. Cf. Longement nH serai prise, Se jel puis mie, Auc.
5, 24.
" See note 12, p. 59.
The Pronoun. 61
The same is true of dire"; the following omissions
occur :
Et iert ovrez tant sotilmant. Dire vos puis certainne-
mant, Que nus . . . Erec 2647; Biaus fiz, por Deu, ne
dites ! Clig. 123; s'il Faime si com il dist, Auc. 19, 11;
Einsi tres leide creature Qu'an ne porroit dire de boche,
Ch. L. 290.
With (1) daignier, (2) oser, (3) savoir and (4)
voloir the omission of the pronoun is not unusual :
(1) Ja le leissames por peresce, Espoir, que nos ne
nos levames, Ou por ce, que nos ne deignames! Ch. L.
80; Qu^ onques les chevaus an nul leu N"e ferirent ne
maheignierent, Qu^il ne vostrent ne ne deignierent, ib.
856.
(2) Volentiers le baisast, mais por son pere n^oset,
Pel. de Ch. 826; Dirai li done tot en apert? . . . Je
n^oseroie, Erec 3742; Que seul a seul, se Cliges ose, Iert
antr^aus bataille prise, Clig. 3948.
(3) " Ne sai ''—'' 'Ne sai," ce dit chascuns, Erec 765;
Mes dites moi, se vos savez, Li chevaliers . . . Ch. L.
1799; Si vus savez, numez Li queus vus ferri, Omnip.
43b.
(4) Se li reis voelt, jo i puis aler bien, Eol. 258 ; Mais,
si Dex me volt consentir, Onques del mal ne fust si lez
Cum tu del bien seras irez, G-reg. 81-8; Mais je le vos
conterai, se vos voles, Auc. 22, 25.
E. The Predicate Pronoun.
The predicate pronoun is rarely used in Old French :
mout me poise. Que por nos deus se conbatront Dui si
prodome con cist sont, Ch. L. 5968; Ainz cort li uns a
Fautre sore Plus fieremant qu^ains mes ne firent, ib.
6158 ; N^estes si estordiz ne vains. Que je autant ou plus
ne sole, ib. 6254.
" See note 11, p. 58.
62 Ellipsis in Old French.
Yet, as Tobler ^* points out, its use was not unknown.
Examples, supplementary to his list, are:
Je sui vostre et estre le vuel, Erec 3367; Car se je par
vos ne le sui, Ne serai chevaliers clamez, Clig. 354; Eois,
s^or puet estre desresniee Ma droiture ne ma querele Par
un chevalier, done Fiert ele Par cestui, Ch. L. 5944.
Si, which might be considered to replace a predicate
pronoun, has no such value according to Tobler, who
says, " ein pradikativer Ausdruck ganzlich f ehlt.^^ " The
statement leaves room for doubt. Is this si not similar
in meaning to the English " so,^^ which is equivalent to
a predicate pronoun? At least many of Tobler's ex-
amples do not exclude this possibility, particularly those
in which si is accompanied by et. This is true also of the
following :
Ne cuident pas que il ne soient Tuit de contes ou de
roi fil ; Et por voir si estoient il, Clig. 322.
Moreover, Tobler does not consider si with fairs to
have the value of a pronoun, and his statement that it is
"beinah eine Konj unction ^^ seems questionable. If it
be equivalent to a pronoun, there is no way by which this
meaning can be shown more clearly than by the follow-
ing examples :
" Laissiez les morz tot issi com il sont ^^ . . . " Dreiz
emperedre, chiers sire, si ferons,^^ Eol. 2435-2441 ; " Vos
n'i iroiz ! '' ^' Je si ferai,^^ Erec 215 ; " Ne ne te fis honte
ne let.'' Erec respont: "Si avez fet,'' ib. 1007; Mes
Deus li porra bien eidier, Et je cuit que si fera il, ib.
3428 ; si apela la dame et li dist qu'ele alast por Aucassin
son ami. Et ele si fist, Auc. 40, 37.
Furthermore, the object pronoun does not, to my
knowledge, occur with si thus employed, apparently giv-
"V. B. 1, 87 (article 15).
The Pronoun. 63
ing si the force of a pronoun, whereas it is found in the
negative :
J'i puis aler molt bien. — N'el ferez certes, dist li cuens
Oliviers, Eol. 254; Erec a la dame comande Qu^ele
dorme, et il vellera. Cele respont que nel f era ; Car n'est
droiz, et feire nel viaut, Erec 3090.
It will be seen from above citations that the use of si
in place of the pronoun in cases such as the following,
would be entirely in accordance with Old French usage :
Lors dit au lion, qu'il se traie Arriere et que toz coiz
se gise, Et il le fet a sa devise, Ch. L. 4472.
F. The Reflexive Pronoun.
The freedom with which object pronouns might be
omitted in Old French has been seen." Usage of the
reflexive pronoun was not more rigid. In general, un-
necessary object pronouns often remained unexpressed
in many cases in which Modern French requires them.
Since the pronoun, as object to the principal verb, was
often necessary to a complete understanding of the sen-
tence, and was also used, as in most languages, when the
idea might be conveyed without its aid, it was usually
expressed with the principal verb. This is also true to a
certain extent of the reflexive pronoun, but its appear-
ance was governed rather by the usage of the verb as a
reflexive. As there was no emphasis on this pronoun, the
unstressed form — whether reflexive or not — was used,^
and usually placed before the verb, or before the first of
two verbs necessarily dependent on each other to express
the idea, as aler followed by an infinitive or a present
participle, and comencier, cuidier, devoir, oser, pooir,
" P. 57 ff.
64 Ellipsis in Old French.
prendre a, rover, sa/ooir, venvr and voloir governing in-
finitives :
For eiel tiel dnol rova s clergier^ St. Leg. 65 (diplo-
matic text. See clergier, p. 96) ; Danz Alexis la prist
ad apeler, St. Alex. 13b; En la samaine qued il s'en dut
aler, ib. 59a; De nnle chose certes ne Tsai blasmer^ ib.
69b ; Yait s^apoiier ^ soz le pin a la tige, Eol. 500 ; se vait
escridant, ib. 2843; Que a lui se puisse accorder, Greg.
97-6; Que mort trover vos i cuidoie, Clig. 5068; A de-
menter si se prist,"^ Anc. 11, 10 ; et qu'il le viegne cacier,
ib. 18, 19 ; Et qui or me voldra antandre, Cuer et oroilles
me doit randre, Ch. L. 169; W\ a celi, qui s'ost movoir,
ib. 344; se commencierent a esbruir,^ Bersuire, T, Liv,
(Godefroy).
But when the dependent verb is unnecessary for the
completion of the simple principal statement, being
added simply to modify or enlarge on the statement, the
preceding noun or pronoun — whether object or subject —
often indicates clearly the object of this subordinate
verb, and the object pronoun may then be omitted, (a)
reflexive, (&) non-reflexive:
(a) En tei deis prendre grant porpens E contenir""
en itel guise Que il ne tort a vilenie, Greg. 28-10;
Aparelliez sui de defandre,"^ Erec 5931; mais ele n^avoit
cure de marier,"*' Auc. 38, 10; S'ales selonc cele forest
esbanoiier,'" ib. 20, 22; Apres mangier sanz remuer,"
Ch. L. 595; D^ici m^en voi pur asperir,*' 8. Bran-
2" See p. 39, note 11.
^Not to be mistaken for the reflexive of prendre and
comencier, as has been done by Suchier (glossary to Auc.)
and Godefroy (under esbruir, neuter) respectively. See
lists, p. 70 ff.
^No other example of the non-reflexive use (when the
meaning is reflexive) has been found.
*' Only one other example of the non-reflexive use has been
found.
^ Thus even with aJer. Eshanoiier is more often reflexive.
Suchier (glossary to Auc.) says: " inf. avec pron. r6fl. sous-
entendu.'*
^ More often reflexive.
The Pronoun. 65
dan, 1316, Michel (Godefroy) ; Trois jorz i dort seins
esperir,^ Gerv., Best. (Godefroy) ; Dune s'en ala li ber,
ni out ke kurecer,*' Gam., 8, Thorn. (Godefroy) ; M out
ke kurucer,** id., ib. ; ou n^ot qu'espaorir/" Herb. Leduc,
Folq. de Cand. p. 157, Tarbe (Godefroy) ; n^i ot qu^es-
pauerir,"* Beuv. d'Hanst. (Godefroy) ; A sun pere se vout
gaber Et en gabant li vout monstrer . . . Wace, Brut
(Bartsch^s Chrest. 113, 4) ; ne vos caut d'esmaier,'" Chev.
au cygne, II, 3558, Hippeau (Godefroy) ; Ne vous ehaut
d'esmaier,^ Berte, 324, Scheler (Godefroy) ; ne s^a de
coi reconforter," Roman de Renart (Bartsch^s Chrest.
213, 28) ; Pur go vus pri del tut gehir, Merci crier e
repentir," Vie de saint Gilles, 2819 (Godefroy) ; A Huit-
sand est venuz, ala par le graver Pur esgarder Fore et
pur esbaneier,*^ Gam., Vie de 8. Thorn. (Godefroy) ; En
mervillant "" mes cuers s'esveille, Kenclus de Moiliens,
de Carite, LXXI, 6, Van Hamel (Godefroy); Ne le
quidai pas eslongier, Assi con por esbanoier " M'en parti
al solel levant, Durmars le Gallois, 3923, Stengel (Gode-
froy) ; Le menerent li desloial pour esbanier au defors
de la cite, Chron. de 8. Den. (Godefroy) ; Alons i tost
abanoiant, Eob. de Blois, Poes. (Godefroy).
(b)^ S'il vint a li por conforter, Greg. 21-7; Quant
desarmez les orent toz, Por mostrer a lor janz dessoz, Les
ont as deffanses montez, Clig. 2159; Especes i met a
foison Por adoucir et atanprer, ib. 3252; huis ne fenestre
N^est nus qui an cest mur veist, Et cuidiez vos qu'an le
poist An nule guise trespasser Sanz anpirier et sanz
quasser? ib. 5604; Ja la voloient au feu metre Por rostir
et por greillier, ib. 6016; si traist au chastel por asalir,
Auc. 8, 4; c^'on le remenroit en le vile por ardoir, ib. 16,
31 ; prent s'amie devant lui baisant et acolant, ib. 26, 21;
il aporterent Par ci le cors, por metre an terre, Ch. L.
1070; celui troverent, Que il por ocirre queroient, ib.
1097; Qui voit qu'an le quiert por ocirre, ib. 1553; Ke
^ These are the only cases of non-reflexive use found (ex-
cept some in which the verb depends on faire. See p. 66).
*^More often reflexive.
^ See Tobler, Oott. Gel. Anz. 1875, p. 1070.
5
6B Ellipsis in Old French.
quistrent nostre sire Nent sulement pur occire, Tant
furent feluns^ Mes crucifier Pur lungement pener,
Omnip. 83d.
It may be partly through this frequent omission of
the object pronoun that the substantive use of the infini-
tive became general:
Car quan que avums, Dunt nos tant penums De Vsl-
munceler . . . Eeim. Ilia; Qui au descire mist s^an-
tante, Erec 6739; II n^i a que del consirrer,^ Ch. L.
3119; Wi ot neant de Teschaper Ne del ganchir ne del
deffandre, ib. 3284.
Even the verbs depending on covenir, estovoir, faire^
laissier, her, mener, oir, veoir, and usually when de-
pending on venir, though necessary to the principal state-
ment, are used without the reflexive pronoun, for the
object of the above verbs is identical, with that of the
dependent infinitive, or, as with venir, the subject of the
principal verb is the same person as the object of the
dependent infinitive, and thus no obscurity results. A
decided tendency to omit the unimportant reflexive pro-
noun — object of a dependent infinitive — is thus seen :
Oovenir: Des or aler les an covient, Erec 5260 ; Cuida,
qu'a lui le covenist Conbatre,'' Ch. L. 3389 ; Li cuers li
faut, si le covint pasmer,"" La Bataille d'Aliscans
(Bartsch's Ohrest, 80, 40).
^In a note to this verse Foerster says: Nur ist zu be-
merken, dass consirrer refl. ist, das Refl.-Pron. . . . aber
beim subst. Inf. fallt.
^A rare exception is found in Pass. 35: (Jesiis) Qui eps
les morz fait se revivre.
When depending on comander, atorner, which is in all
other cases reflexive, is used without the reflexive pronoun
in Erec 2293: Erec ne vost plus sejorner; Sa fame comande
atorner. But it is not, of course, certain that fame is the
object of comande.
*^ Usually reflexive.
^ See p. 71, note 47.
The Pronoun. 67
Estovoir: Panse (m'arester li estuet, Erec 3581 ; Iluec
I'estuet anuit logier, ib. 4121; Recroire ou reposer Fes-
tuet, ib. 5014.
Faire: E si le face o sei soper E un petit al feu chau-
fer," Greg. 88-13 ; Por lui feire plus esmaiier ^ Li ra une
anvaie feite, Erec 3856 ; A tant uns messages acort, Que
il orent fet avancier," ib. 6424 ; Lors le fet la dame dre-
cier/' Ch. L. 6738; El fosse les unt fait ruer/' Wace,
Rou (Bartsch's Chrest., 123, 30).
Laissier: ne les laist guaires departir," Gr^g. 59-20;
Ainz qu^il le laissast remuer," Erec 3988 ; Et cez janz de-
partir laissiez; Qu'il se departiront par tans, Ch. L.
1312 ; Or nos laisies a vos paier'° et acorder," Rerumt de
Montauban (Bartsch's Chrest., 83, 26).
Loer: Si con je vos lo contenir," Ch. L. 1315.
Mener: Et ele me mena seoir,*' Ch. L. 238.
O'ir: " Ne vos conoistroie des mois, Se je nomer ** ne
vos ooie Ou desarme ne vos veoie.^' Lors s'est mes sire
Yvains nomez, Ch. L. 2276.
Venir: Furent venu esbanoiier," Clig. 1268; Mes s'a
ma cort voloit venir Cist chevaliers o nos deduire/" ib.
4972.
Veoir: La verrez . . . L^un acier depecier a l^altre et
entroschier,** Pel. de Ch. 547 ; Que je les veisse deduire "
De vostre mort, Ch. L. 3744; Ses voient antreconjoir/^
ib. 6317.
The dependent infinitive described above — which is
unnecessary for the statement of the principal idea — is
regularly preceded by a preposition, and the object pro-
^ Reflexive in all other cases.
This omission of the reflexive pronoun, object of the verb
depending on faire, is still found in Modern French: je Ven
ferai repentir.
^*More often reflexive.
^ Usually reflexive.
^" Reflexive in all other cases.
" Though the example is not satisfactory, it is noteworthy
that no examples of the reflexive use of a verb depending
on mener have been found.
68 Ellipsis in Old French.
noun, when used, occurs in the stressed form. It is
probably the general belief that the reason for this form
of the pronoun is the influence of the preceding preposi-
tion ^^ — ^that it was felt to be governed by it. Examina-
tion, however, points to a different cause.
It will be seen from the following examples that in
the earlier writings the object pronoun — reflexive or
non-reflexive — when occurring in this position, usually
bears a certain amount of stress, which is in some cases
only the stress resulting from a desire to distinguish this
pronoun from one preceding or following :
Al due Willeame vindrent pur els (i= soi) esbaneier,
Bou, Andresen (Godefroy) ; S'amors me chastie et menace
Por moi aprandre et anseignier, Doi je mon mestre desdei-
gnier ? Clig. 682 ; Que desirranz et anvieus Sui ancor de
moi remirer El front, ib. 806; Que ja a tant n'iert de
male part Cliges, s^il set que ele Faint Et que tel vie por
lui maint Con de garder son pucelage Por lui garder son
eritage, ib. 3224 ; Et je cuit que por aus grever Leva ainz
qu^ele (= la lune) ne soloit, ib. 1702; De lui armer
mout se travaillent, Ch. L. 4160; Si se pooient esjoir
Mout de li veoir et oir, ib. 5371 ; Por lui eidier cele part
cort Et por lui meisme deffandre, ib. 5642.
In view, then, of the frequent omission of the unim-
portant object pronoun, and a decided stress on it in
many of its occurrences, it appears that the stressed form
is probably due to an emphasis laid on the word, and not
to the influence of the preceding preposition. It may
therefore be assumed that at an early period only the
stressed form was used in this position, for, if unem-
phatic, the pronoun would be omitted — a usage in ac-
cordance with the brevity of expression of the Latin
mother tongue. If, then, the pronoun, though not em-
^^ See Le Coultre, p. 55.
The Pronoun. 69
phatic, were to be inserted for any reason, it is highly
improbable that it would be used in any but the stressed
form, possibly aided by a freedom in the use of this form
of the pronoun when apparently not required.^
There was later a tendency to insert the pronoun when
not strictly necessary for the understanding of the sen-
tence, the result of which is seen in Modern French
usage. The occasional appearance of the unnecessary
non-reflexive object pronoun may be considered to mark
the rise of this tendency — that of the reflexive pronoun
probably being due to a different cause, i, e., an exten-
sion of the use of this pronoun with verbs ordinarily re-
flexive, to the position in question — an extension less
surprising than its considerably more usual omission.
Examples of this use of the pronoun are :
As tables joeent por els esbaneiier, Rol. Ill ; Sebile la
roine par delez le gravier Fu de sa tante issue por li es-
benoier, J. Bod., Sojx,, LXVII, Michel (Godefroy).
The following lists of verbs, including only those
found in the works examined for this dissertation, are
given with a view of showing Old French usage of the
reflexive pronoun, for it is only with this knowledge at
hand that the ellipsis of this pronoun can be studied.*"
^* See p. 41, note. Cf. also: Erre a tant par le pais Sei
reponant cum hom fuitiSj Ben., D. de Norm., II, 5904, Michel
(Godefroy).
"" It is hoped that the following lists are correct, but the
diflaculty of precise classification will be readily understood,
as examples of usage contrary to that here recorded may
occur in writings not studied for this work, since only the
works on which this dissertation is based, together with
Godefroy's Dictionnaire, and the glossaries (with their ref-
erences) of Bartsch's Chrestomathie and that of Constans,
have been consulted for the present study. See pp. 63-69.
70
Ellipsis in Old French.
Verbs used reflexivel}^ and non-
ahaissier{r)
acointier a, de(r)^
acorder (r)
acouchier
adeser
adoucir
adrecier (r) (to
turn, go)
aerdre
aferir (n)
afiler
agregier (n4:,rl)
ajoster
(en) aler
alumer {n 3, r 1)
amasser
amender
angoissier
apareillier (r)^
apercevoir
apoiier (r)
aprochier
aproismier
arester
ariver (n)
assembler
assener (n)
asseoir (r)
atargier
avaler (n)
daignier (n 2, r
haissier
coarder (n)
comb aire (f)
consirer (r)
contretenir
copier
corrocier (r)
couchier (r)
craindA-e de +
object, (r)
crester (r)
crever (n)
cr oiler
cropir
deduire (r)
deg racier
delaiier (n)
dementer (r)
demorer (n)
reflexively : *^
departir (r)
descendre {Ujrl)
descirer
desclore
descombrer (r)
1) desevrer (n)
desmesurer (r)
desperer (r)
desver (n)
desvoiier
detrier
devenir (n)
doloir (r)
dormir (n)
doter (r)
emhroncMer (r)
empaindre
empirier (n)
encliner
enflamer (figura-
tively)
engraignier (n)
enhardir (r)
envoisier
esbair (r)
*^ Verbs noticeably more often reflexive or non-reflexive
are indicated by a following (r) and (n) respectively. No
letter following shows that usage is fairly equally divided.
Note is made of the number of examples found of either
form when it is unusual.
^^ Only one example of the non-reflexive use has been
found. See Godefroy.
"^ Only two examples of non-reflexive use found, Gr6g.
101-5; 101, 24.
The Pronoun.
71
eshanoiier (r)
eschaper (n)
esclicier (n) (to
break into
pieces, splinter)
cs crier
esforder
esjo'ir (r)
e$movoir (r)
espandre
espanir (to
bloom)
esploitier (n)
espo enter (r)
esragier (n)
essorer
estanchier
estendre (r)
ester (n)
estoner (r)
estordre
estre (n)
esveillier (r)
faindre (r)
(en) f(nr
forfaire
forsener (n)
gaher
garder (que)
garnvr (r)
gesir (n)
guenchir (n)
herhergier
issir
joer de (r)
joster (n)
lander (r)**
lasser
lever (r)^
logier (r)
marier (r)^
merveillier (r)
mescroire
mesfaire
monter (n)
morir (n)
movoir
nagier (n)
ohlier (n)
osteler (r)
oster
paler (r) (to be-
come recon-
ciled)
partvr (de) (r)
pasmer (r)"
passer (r)**
peder
penser (n)
plaindre (r)
plorer (n)
porpenser (r)
porrir (n)
prendre (n) (to
terminate)
prendre a -f-
verb (n)
prendre esgart de
prendre regart de
raler (n)
en raler (r)
ralumer (r)"
recroire (n)
redoter (r)
redreder
relever
remanoir (n)
rememhrer
removoir (r)
remuer (r)
renoveler
repeirier (with
en, r)
repenser (r)
** Only one case of non-reflexive use, Rol. 2154.
*'' Reflexive in slightly more than two-thirds of the cases
found.
*'^ Only one case of non-reflexive use, Clig. 3138.
" Only one case of non-reflexive use, Rol. 1348.
*^ When not referring to time.
*^ Only one case of non-reflexive use, St. Alex. 124e.
72
Ellipsis in Old French.
repondre (r)
saner
tenir {fig., r)
reposer (n)
sejorner (n)
torner {71)
resaner
sentir (r)^
traire
resordre
seoir (n)
travailUer (r) (to
resortir (to draw
sevrer{r) (to
sep-
exert oneself)
back)
arate oneself
trespasser (n)
respasser (n)
from)
trestorner (n)
ressoignier
sofrir (to wai
Lt)
triholer
retarder
solacier
vanter de (r;
retenir
sordre (n)
en venir (r)
retorner
taire (r)
vestir (n)
retraire
tapi/r
vestir de (r)
revenir (with en,
tarder
vvvre (n)
_r)
targier
en voler
rire
temer (n)
Eefiexive verbs
(when the meaning
is reflexive) :
ahandoner
aquiter de
conforter
ahrier
ar^t^er (to hasten)
contenir
acheminer
armer
en corre
acoilUr
atarder
crier (to sing,
acoster
atendre a (to
Auc. 5, 13)
icoter (to alight;
rely on)
croire de
to lie down)
atorner
dehatre (to fight,
agenouilUer
atropeler
quarrel)
aloser (to distin-
avancier
defendre
guish oneself;
chauffer
degeter (to throw
to boast)
darner (to com-
oneself around)
amesurer
plain; to <
3all)
dehurter
apenser
complaindre
(to
depaner
apondre
complain)
desarmer
aprester
concroire
desconforter
^° Only one case of non-reflexive use, which may be due to
coalescence: Quant ele senti eiihraceej Gr6g. 9-6.
The Pronoun.
73
desfigurer
espaorir
en prendre a
deshaitier
esperir {to Siwake)
prendre garde
destoldre
esprover
quatir
desvestir (de)
estreindre (to
racheminer
detenir
wrap oneself
ragenouillier
devoUer
up, etc.)
rasseoir
diverser
esvertuer
reclamer (to ap-
drecier
ferir (to strike,
peal to, to call
embatre
speaking of
upon)
emhler
light, etc.; to
reconforter
empasser
throw oneself)
reconoistre (to
endormir
fier
remember)
engresser
geter (to throw
repentir de
enhastir
oneself)
resjo'ir
en entrer
giieitier (to gnardi
revengier (Ch. L.
eshatre
oneself; to ex-
643)
esbruire (to rush
pect)
ruer
in alarm)
hosier
sofrir de
escoilUr (to rush)
loer
sostenir
escrevanter
memhrer (per-
tooillier (to roll,
(Pass. 250)
sonal)
wallow)
es freer "
metre (a)
transmetre (St.
eslaissier
mostrer
Leg. 86)
esloignier (to go
noier
vengier de
away)
prendxre (a) (to
esmaier
compare one-
esmerveillier °^
self)
Non-reflexive verbs :
ahelir (to please)
afehlir
ardoir
acoisier
apaisier (to be-
avenir
acostumer (per-
come quiet.
haaillier
sonal)
calm)
beer
" One example of
non-reflexive use in
the fourteenth cen-
tury, J. d' Arras, Melus (Godefroy).
74
Ellipsis in Old French.
hoivre
encomender
froissier
hrisier
encroistre
garir (to recover,
chalemeler
entendre a
to heal)
clialoir
entreprendre (to
hurter (Ch. L.
cheoir
commit an er-
935)
chevauchier
ror — Erec
joer (not fol-
ccmencier^
5554)
lowed by the
condormir (Pass.
errer (to start, to
genitive)
122)
travel)
joindre a (to at-
conter
escarteler (Erec
tack, to join in
converser (to
977)
combat)
stop, remain)
esclairier (refer-
jo'ir (to take
crier (to shout)
ring to the
pleasure in, to
croistre (to grow)
"day-)
rejoice)
croistre (cromsir)
escouter
laissier (to de-
cuidier (to be-
escumer
sist)
lieve)
esgarer (to go
laver
depecier
astray — Ch. L.
luire
dependre
771)
mangier
desherhergier
espartir (to
memhrer (imper-
desteler
lighten)
sonal)
devier
estenceler
mentir "
durer
fahloier
mesavenir
emhraser
fausser
mescheoir
empUr (Erec
fendre
mesprendre
4747)
finer
metre a oevre
enchanter
fondre
(Ch. L. 1523)
enchargier (Ch.
fraindre
naistre
L. 4416)
fremir
noter
"2 An example of the reflexive use occurs in the fourteenth
century: ainsi se commenga la bataille, Froissart (Bartsch's
Chrest., 431, 8).
^ The following reflexive use — according to Godefroy —
occurs: De tot se ment^ Men le poez prover, Rol. ms. Ch§,-
teauroux, ccccxiii, 26.
The Pronoun.
75
noveler
r assembler (Ch.
songier
ovrir '*
L. 6220)
sortir
palir
receter
sospirer
parler
recJieoir
sovenir
parvenir
recomencier
suer
passer (referring
reluire
tarir
to time)
resaillir "
toner
percevoir (not
resoner
travaiUier
followed by
rogir
trembler
the genitive)
rompre
tresaler (refer-
perder
saillir (to spring,
ring to time)
peser
jump)
tressaillir
plaire (imper-
sanglotir
tressuer
sonal)
sechier
tumer
plovoir
senibler (to seem)
valoir
porparler
servir de
veillier
quacier (Ch. L.
sifter
venter
6129)
sivre
vuidier (to emp-
raleiier (Eol.
sofrir (to suffer)
ty out, be-
3525)
sorter
come empty)
Occasionally the reflexive pronoun required by the
second of two dependent infinitives is omitted, when the
first of these verbs is not reflexive. The omission is thus
caused by the failure to repeat the auxiliary, before
which object pronouns are usually placed :
Wi poissent ansanble antrer, N^anmi la porte antran-
contrer, Ch. L. 911.
Reciprocal action is regularly denoted by reflexive
verbs compounded with the preposition entre. Some-
" Reflexive in one case in the fourteenth century — with
Froissart (see Godefroy).
^ Possibly reflexive in the following, as Grodef roy says :
II joint ses pies, se resaut ens la mer, Huon de Bord., 5391,
A. P.
76 Ellipsis in Old French.
times the reflexive pronoun, together with this prefix, is
omitted : ^^
Puis fierent il nut a nut sor lor hroignes, Eol. 3585;
Si fierent parmi les blazons, Erec 2880.
G. After Prepositions.
Prepositional objects are often omitted in Old French.
Probably no omission of the pronoun standing for
things or animals was felt after a preposition, for its
use in this position was rare."' But because of the fre-
quent employment of the personal object pronoun, omis-
sions of this pronoun are, with most prepositions, true
cases of ellipsis.
Ellipses occur with the following prepositions :
Apres: Li miens tote voie s'atorne, De lui siure et
dealer apres, Clig. 4512; Alez avant, j'irai apres, ib.
5596; Si tost s'an fuit . . . Et mes sire Yvains de ran-
don Quanqu^il puet, apres esperone, Ch. L. 876 ; El droit
chemin s'est anbatuz Li chevaliers mout sagemant, Et
mes sire Yvains folemat (read folemant) Hurte grant
aleiire apres, ib. 932 ; Mes il les anchause de pres Et tuit
si conpeignon apres, ib. 3259; Tantost mes sire Yvains
s^an part Et li lions toz jorz apres, ib. 3770.
Arriere: Espoir tost eschaperiiens. Car cil sont ancor
mout arriere, Erec 3558.
Avuec: Enchalcent Franc et Pemperedre avoec, Eol.
3626.
''^The prefix alone may also be lacking: Si se conhatent
une chaude, Ch. L. 6135; Et par po quHl ne s'escervelent, ib.
6141; Si se donent males groigniees, ib. 6145; Que si par
igal s'anvaissent Qu'a . . . ib. 6202.
^"^ In the following instances it is so used :
Marsilies fait porter un livre avant . . . Sor lui jurat li
Sarrazins Espans, Rol. 610; Li destriers est et coranz et
adates . . . Beste nen est qui encontre lui alget, ib. 1651-
1657; Si desgendent u sablon Deles le rive. Aucassins fu
desgendus entre lui et s'amie, Auc. 27, 18; et vint au palais
et desgendi entre lui et s'aipie, ib. 28, 22; ... le fust, qui
est coverz De I'escorce, qui sor lui nest, Ch. L. 1034.
The Pronoun. 77
Delez: Charlemaignes s'assist et sis ruistes barnez, Li
reis Hugue li Forz et sa moillier delez^ Pel. de Ch. 400 ;
An un lit le fist seul couchier . . . An un autre lit jut
delez Enide ansanble la reine, Erec 4272 ; Erec ont sus
couchie anvers . . . Enide chevauche de lez, ib. 4732.
Derriere: Les dis eschieles Charlon li at mostredes:
"Vedez Forgoeil de France la lodede. Molt fierement
chevalchet Femperedre, II est deriedre od cele gent bar-
bede/^ ""* Pol. 3314; Le prise par devant et loe Teus qui
derriers li f et la moe, Clig. 4549 ; Une autel porte avoit
deriere Come cele devant estoit, Ch. L. 956 ( ?).
Devant: Puis si chevalchet od sa grant ost banide.
Devant chevalchet uns Sarrazins, Abismes, Rol. 1630;
Ferir la vost parmi le vis : Et cele a son braz devant mis,
Erec 181 ; Or venez petite anbleiire ! J^irai devant grant
aleiire, ib. 4189; Et li lions lez lui costoie . . . Devant
a la voie s^aquiaut Tant qu^il santi dessoz le vant, Si
come il s'an aloit devant, Bestes sauvages an pasture,
Ch. L. 3412.
Encontre: A grant honor encontr'issirent, Pass. 36;
Encontre li grant joie firent. Sa feme est encontre
venue, Greg. 18-22 ; Encontre vint esperonant, ib. 73-18 ;
Et quant li rois les a veiies, Ancontre se lieve an estant,
Erec 1680; Li dui anpereor ansanble, Quant il oirent la
novele De Cliges et de la pucele, Ancontre vont a mout
grant joie, Clig. 3936; Ancontre tuit et totes issent, Et
la dame devant toz vient, Ch. L. 3300.
Enmi: Li- un pendirent a destre Li autre a senestre
Enmi li sauveur, Omnip. 46d.
Entor: Car li Sesne estoient antor, Qui le rescoent par
estor, Clig. 3605 ; Jhesucrist estut E entur li grant brut
De cele mauveise gent, Omnip. 23a; Si sun enemi . . .
Ust este entur, ib. 79a; Kar il sistrent entur Trestuz e
Tagarderent, ib. 86c.
Environ: Dis Chanelieu chevalchent environ, Rol.
3269 ; Tuit sont venu a la devise, Li cuens et les janz an-
viron, Erec 1070; Anviron sont les janz venues, Clig.
^^ Cf. Sa redreguarde lairrat deriedre sei, Rol. 574.
78 Ellipsis in Old French.
4942; Vienent corant tot anviron Ses voient antrecon-
joir, Ch. L. 6316.
H. Before a Repetition of the Pronoun.
In a few cases the pronoun is omitted when it occurs
in a following clause :
Gregoires entent et bien Foi*, Greg. 92-19 ; Quant des-
armez les orent toz, For mostrer a lor janz dessoz, Les
ont as deffanses montez/^ Clig. 2159.
3. The Dative Pronoun.
Only the few following examples of the ellipsis of the
dative pronoun have been found:
Vedez m^espede qui d^or est enheldide, Si la tramist
li amiralz de Primes, Eol. 966; Qu^il n'i a chevalier si
buen, N^estuisse vuidier les argons, Clig. 1324 ;(?) So-
vent demande le conges, Greg. 44-16.
In speaking of parts of the body or of wearing
apparel :
Entro taliat les piez dejus, St. Leg. 233 ; Que Thelme
[li] ad [de] trenchie, Gorm. 392; La face . . . fu tote
muee, Greg. 5-23.
Foerster is evidently in error when he says : " wie be-
kannt, li ^ ihm ^ nur vor en (inde) elidirt werden kann,'^^
for this elision occurs occasionally before verbs, estovoir
in particular :
Blans vestiment si Tat vestit. Pass. 219 ; Et com Paut
tolut lo quieu Li corps esteret sovre Fs piez, St. Leg. 229 ;
Quant Charles veit que tuit li sont faillit, Molt Fembron-
chat et la chiere et li vis, Rol. 3815; L^uns Fenseyned,
beyn parv mischin, De grec sermon et de latin, Alberic
88 ; E tant cele chose maintint, Qu^une dancele Faparsut,
^^ The omission of the comma after dessoz would make the
close relationship of the second and third of these verses
clearer.
«» Note to 1. 4165, in his edition of Ch. L. So Nyrop, Gram.
1, p. 277.
The Pronoun. 79
Greg. 70-24; Cil le voit venir, si Tescrie. Quant Erec
Fot, si le desfie, Erec 2859; Ancor de remenoir Tenor-
tent, ib. 4286 ; Et mout le crieme et mout Fenorte, Clig.
3891; Tot son hernois et son ator Ot aporte, si T (= les
li) atorna,*" Ch. L. 758.
Si Festuet ensi aler, Greg. 86-9; Assez I'estuet s^ofrir
(read sofrir) grant mal, ib. 87-12; Que Testut morir,
Eeim. 4f ; Or Testuet morir, ib. 65f ; Mult I'estuet plorer
Por sei acorder a sun creator, ib. 82a; Vuelle ou non,
retorner Testuet, Erec 188 ; Ne porent le roi retenir, Ne
Pestuisse a terre venir, ib. 2205 ; Morir Festut, ib. 2873 ;
Car maintenant dormir Testuet, Clig. 3350 — and so very
often.
L' for the dative occurs enclitically used when a conso-
nant follows; this is rare:
Jesus li buons mot no-1 sonat, Pass. 214; Qo Tdemon-
strat que se paiast, St. Leg. 110; Co Tdemonstrat amis
li fust, ib. 112.
4. Pronoun en.
The use of the pronoun en was much the same in Old
French as it is to-day. It was not, however, required in
a clause in which an adjective is used relating to a pre-
viously occurring noun :
Tenez mon helme, onques meillor ne vi, Eol. 629 ; En-
cui avrons un eschiec bel et gent, Nuls reis de France
n'out onques si vaillant, ib. 1167; Li arcevesques est molt
bons chevaliers; Nen at meillor en terre desoz ciel, ib.
1673 ; Se j'ai parenz, nen i at nul si prot,*"" ib. 2905 ; Et
" Cf. S'il viaut armes, an li atorne, ib. 3139.
•* As en is not used in such cases in the Roland more than
in other poems (see 1. 629 and 1167 above, and 1044 and
2223), it would be better, and more consistent, if n'en in the
following passages were written as one word, as it is in
ib. 1673 and 2905 above:
Tenez m'espede, meillor n'en at nuls horn, Rol. 620; Bien
i at or, matistes et jaconces . . . Vostre emperedre si bones
n'en out onques, ib. 638; Deus! quels seissante i at en sa
compaigne! Onques meillors n'en out reis ne chataignes,
ib. 1849.
80 Ellipsis in Old French.
ses janz avnec li refont Si grant duel, que greignor ne
pueent, Ch. L. 1246; De jant mauveise avez vos mout,
Mes ja n^i avra si estout, Qui sor eheval monter an ost,
ib. 1633.
Yet en is sometimes so used :
Qo'st Lodevis, meillor n^en sai en France, Eol. 3715
(not nen, as a consonant follows) ; El chastel mout grant
joie avoit De chevaliers et de puceles; Car mout an i
avoit de beles, Erec 348 ; Tuit sont venu a la devise, Li
cuens et les janz anviron, Les puceles et li baron. De liez
et de maz an i ot, ib. 1070; Je ai trois palefroiz mout
buens, Onques mellors n'ot rois ne cuens . . . Wan a pas
un mellor del ver, ib. 1387 ; Ainz avroiz eii tant de honte,
Que plus n'an porroiz avoir, Ch. L. 5220.
The ellipsis of en occurs when referring to a preceding
noun:
Sed alcuns d'elz beive venein, Non avrat mel, qo set
por veir. Pass. 461 ; Nuls huem n^est tant sages En iceste
vie. Que en sun ede Oiist aconte La disme partie, Eeim.
96b; Si sai, se je Posoie dire, D^anchantemanz et de cha-
raies . . . Plus qu'onques Medea ne sot, Clig. 3028 ; Et
por ce que par lui seiist Li dus sa perte et duel eiist, ib.
3811; Mes cist travauz li est delice, Qu'ele ne puet estre
lassee, ib. 4576 ; Que covant manti li avoit Et trespassez
estoit li termes, Ch. L. 2700 ; Jo vus dirrai un cunte . . .
Jo vus dirrai partie, Kar tut ne pus jo mie, Omnip. 41a ;
Ki out veu eel cruelte, Ne la dust par pite Agarder
surement. Mes en eus point n'aveit, ib. 90a; E nepor-
quant la seinte Cuvint fere pleinte, Kar tenir ne se poeit,
ib. 107d.
En omitted, referring to a clause or thought contained
therein :
Cum cele charn vidret morir, Quel avret duol, no-1 set
huom vifs. Pass. 331; Assez est mielz que la vide i per-
dent. Que nos perdons clere Espaigne la bele, Ne nos
aions les mals ne les sofraites, Eol. 58; Quant go veit
Guenes qu^ore s'en rit EoUanz, Done at tel doel, por poi
The Pronoun. 81
d^ire ne fent, ib. 324 ; Jo Focidrai a mon espiet trenchant,
Se Mahomet me voelt estre guaranz, ib. 867; " Ferat vos
ai . . .^^ Eollanz respont : " Jo n'ai n'ient de mel/^ ib.
2005 ; Del cuer li issent li sospir, Quar ne se pot pas ab-
stenir, Greg. 85-3 ; ^N'en "" estuet doter : Kil vint delivrer,
Ceo fut Jesucrist, Eeim. 7d; "Mangiez, que je vos an
semoing." Cele respont : " Sire, n^ai soing," Erec 4813 ;
Mes Famors devandra hai'ne, Que j'ai a vos, setirs soiiez,
Ch. L. 2564.
With numerals, when the noun to which the numeral
relates is omitted, the ellipsis of en is very rare :
Ja ne troverez une qui m'ait en charn tochiet. Pel. de
Ch. 549 ; Et Francois les esguardent, n'i out un n'en
parolt, ib. 812; Mais non i ab un plus valent De chest
dun faz Talevament, Alberic 23.
But when the article accompanies the numeral, the
omission is of regular occurrence : **
Veant moi a les deus ocis, Et demain ocirra les quatre,
Ch. L. 3866.
Occasionally the omission of the pronoun seems to be
due to its use in a following clause :
Tant atandrai qu^il s'apargoive, Se ja s^an doit apar-
cevoir, Clig. 1016; Cliges ot Tenor et le pris, Et li Greu
mout grant joie an orent, ib. 4184; se je li pooie dire,
par quoi il ne s^aparceiisgent, et qu'ele s^en gardast, Auc.
14, 30.
5. The Demonstrative Pronoun cil.
Cilj in its various forms, is not usually employed with
qui when referring to no particular person or persons,
though examples of its use are not wanting.
^'Not N'en. Text B reads: Ne nestot duter; Text C:
Nient nestot duter.
•* Lotz, p. 22.
6
92 Ellipsis in Old French.
Omitted in the nominative:'^
Molt bien espleitet cui damnes Deiis aitidet! Eol.
3657; Qui an la meison estoit, Mont pooit grant joie
veoir, Erec 1300; Qui mellor quiert, ne set qu'il viaut,
ib. 1399; Que bien est an prison, qui aimme, Ch. L.
1942 ; Car mout est fos, qui se demore, ib. 2135.
Omitted in the accusative : °° ,
Deus aimet forment Qui bien se repent, Eeim. 74a;
Toz sens s'an yint au chief del ranc Por joster, se il
trueve a cui, Erec 2172; Ne je ne truis, qui m'an def-
fande, Ch. L. 3605 ; Se je ne truis, qui s^ost conbatre, ib.
3868; S^onques an ta vie trovas, Qui te feist honte ne
let . . . ib. 5132.
Cil, referring to some particular person or persons, is
generally used when qui occurs."
Cil not used in the nominative:
Quar anc non fut nulz huom charnels. En eel enfern
non fust alez. Usque qui sens pechiet venist Comune lei
por toz solsist, Pass. 381; Qui Pout portet volentiers le
nodrit, St. Alex. 7b; Anuit m^avint une avison d^un
»" Examples of its use are :
Merveillos tort at Cil qui aveir at, Reim. 53a; Depecier et
corronpre suelent Cil qui de conter vivre vuelent, Erec 21;
Et cil est a son avoir sers, Qui toz jorz le garde et acroist,
Clig. 164; Tot aussi con cil plus se cuist, Qui au feu
s*aproche et acoste, Que cil qui arriers s'an oste, ib. 598.
*^ Examples of its use are:
N'i at celui qui mot sont ne mot tint, Rol. 411; Cel n'en
i at qui ne s'escrit . . . ib. 1618; Car qui tost va la droite
voie. Passe celui qui se desvoie, Erec 5577; Et gaus puet Tan
nices clamer, Qui cuident que les vuelle amer, Quant une
dame . . . Ch. L. 2459.
"^ Examples :
In the nominative: Et cil, qui iert a mort plaiiez, Li es-
chapa, Ch. L. 954; Et cil, cui il estoit mestiers, Manja, ib.
1053; Qu'ancore estoit leanz sanz faille Cil, qui feite avoit
la bataille, ib. 1183.
In the accusative: Quant vit celui, qui nuz estoit . . .
Ch. L. 2832; Por po que li prodon n'esrage, Quant ot celui,
qui . . . ib. 4125.
The Pronoun. 83
angele, Qu'entre mes poinz me depegout ma hanste Qui
at jugiet Eollant a redreguarde, Eol. 836; Kil vint
delivrer, Ceo fut Jesiicrist^ Eeim. 7e ; Si ont anquis et
demande, Qui est qui ce li avoit fet, Clig. 6494.
No omission of this pronoun in the accusative, before
quij has been found.
In the dative the omission is rare :
Et com ?aut duit de cele art, Eendit lo qui lui I'co-
mandat,"* St. Leg. 25.
When not accompanied by qui, cil is seldom omitted :
Tel noise et del fraint demenoit Uns seus chevaliers,
Ch. L. 481 ; Onques teus oz ne fu veiie Con li rois Artus
assanble, ib. 1094.
6. The Demonstrative Pronoun ce.
Ce, followed by que, when both are in the accusative
case, is not required in Old French : Qui mellor quiert,
ne set qu'il viaut, Erec 1399. In the works considered,
taken as a whole, the use of the pronoun is found slightly
more than its omission.
With the nominative qui, que, the accusative ce is more
often omitted than employed :
Et li prie, s'il fet a dire, Que li die, qui la fet rire,
Clig. 1573; Mes teus cuide mout tost venir. Qui ne set
qu^est a avenir, Ch. L. 2587.
With both the nominative qui and the accusative que,
ce in the nominative is regularly employed. An excep-
tion is seen in Clig. 3074,
Et se maus puet estre, qui pleise, Mes enuiz est ma
volantez.
•^Cf. Qu'il doint I'enor de la bataille Celui qui por li se
travaille, Erec 893; S'a la chemise presantee Celui cui ele
mout agree, Clig. 1187.
84 Ellipsis in Old French.
When reference is made to an entire clause, ce is used
more frequently than omitted. The omission occurs in
the following:
Dona, que droiz fu, chapes noires, Erec 6538.
After a preposition, before que, ce is very rarely
omitted :
Batiziez la, por que Deus en ait I'anme, Eol. 3981 ; Li
pechere ne se oblia De que li abes comanda, Greg. 39-15;
Por beneis qui m'as garie Por que de joie m^as saisie, ib.
114-15.
With dont, ce is used when the sense requires it, as in
Modem French. There are a few examples of its
omission :
Que n^ai don me puisse defandre, Erec 3848 ; Qui que
parot, mout li est tart Que il voie et sache et conoisse
Don il sont tuit an tel angoisse, ib. 5726; Mes tens cuide
feire son preu . . . Qui porchace don il se diaut, Clig.
640; Ja ne diroit, don cil joi'st, ib. 4556; Se je te doing,
don miauz te vives ! Ch. L. 5979."'*
The ellipsis of ce governed by empres and apres is not
unusual. These prepositions, in the temporal sense, were
in the process of becoming adverbs, meaning " after-
ward,^^ " then.'^ Examples of this omission of ce are :
Apres parlat ses filz envers Marsilie, Eol. 495; Ne
demora gueires apres Que recomanga tot ades La guerre,
Greg. 57-21; Idons se paume maintenant. Apres en
vint al lit corant, ib. 72-24 ; Grant piece apres li a randu
La dameisele son salut, Erec 6235.
It may seem at first that apres is here purely an ad-
verb. That such was not, however, the feeling of the
*^ There is no ellipsis of ce with dont followed by an in-
finitive, for in that case Old French did not require the
pronoun.
The Pronoun. 85
period is shown by the frequent use of the pronoun in
similar instances. For one who inclines toward the
theory of the adverbial use of this preposition, the omis-
sion of the pronoun in the first two of the following ex-
amples would almost certainly give this value to apres:
Mais, ce ne sai-je dire pas, De quel pais fu icil las, Ne
que par apres ce devint Ne que veie des iluec tint, Greg.
50-22; Fiz fu d^une suer e d^un frere E apres se (= ce)
fu ses mariz, ib. 112-14; E apres ce demaintenant Si
(— si i) mist dou eel, ib. 22-(S; Apres ce me pria . . .
Ch. L. 262 ; Et apres ce le roi pria . . . ib. 2302.
Old French used the demonstrative pronoun to a much
greater extent than is true of present usage. It was
more customary in the earliest period in such sentences
as the following:
" Par ma feit! ^^ (sc. go) dist li reis, " Charles at fait
folie,^' P^l. de Ch. 629; "Sire/' (sc. go) dist Charle-
maignes, "herseir nos herberjastes/' ib. 652; Charles
respont : Molt grant viltet (sc. go) me semblet, Eol. 3595.
7. The Eelative Pronoun.
Qui is very often omitted when introducing a negative
clause dependent on a statement of general negation :
Et Franceis les esguardent, n'i out un n'en parolt. Pel.
de Ch. 812 ; Wi at paiien nel prist et ne Padort, Eol. 854.
Less frequently found, though not rare, is the omis-
sion of qui introducing an affirmative clause dependent
on a statement of general negation :
Soz ciel n'at rei plus en ait de meillors, Eol. 1442 ; Soz
ciel n'at gent Tosast requerre en champ, ib. 1782.
The same is true of qui introducing a negative clause
dependent on a statement of general affirmation :
Mais tot seit fel chier ne se vendet primes, Eol. 1924.
86 Ellipsis in Old French.
Qui is least frequently omitted when both the depend-
ent and principal clauses are affirmative :
Car m^eslisez nn baron de ma marche, Marsilion me
portast mon message, Eol. 275.
Qui may stand in place of qui que:
Et qui viaut enor guehaignier, A gaus se doit acon-
paignier, Clig. 4257; Mes qui li dona cest consoil. . . .
Ne me poist miauz acorer, ib. 4476.
This pronoun is not infrequently used in the sense of
the English colloquial " whoever ^' (" it does not matter
who ''), or " if anyone '' — i. e., without an antecedent: "*"
Et qui le voir dire an voldroit, Deus se retient devers
le droit, Ch. L. 4443.
At least in the works examined, occurrences of this
sort are easily explainable through a freedom of use of
the indefinite qui, like the corresponding English word.
Thus, in Erec 6325, d'enui croist son conte Qui deus foiz
une chose conte, it is a short step from saying : Whoever
relates a thing twice renders his tale wearisome, to the
form: Whoever relates a thing twice, his tale becomes
wearisome, while the theory " that the latter construction
resulted from an ellipsis encounters, in addition to the
naturalness of the extended use of this word, two prin-
cipal obstacles: (1) the subjunctive, as would be ex-
pected, follows s'est qui ... in most cases. If this use
of qui, then, is due to the omission of s'est, this mood
would, no doubt, be found in some instances after the
simple qui, but no examples of this have been discov-
'•> Cf. p. 81.
"^Romania, 1907, pp. 134-5, reads: Das heziehungslose
Relativum. La construction ** qui o soi la porte, n'est pas
desloiaut^ " est expliqu6e {Romanische Forschungen, xvi,
398, L. Jordan — q. v.) par I'ellipse d'une proposition con-
ditionelle impersonelle: " s'est qui o soi, etc."
The Pronoun. 87
ered"; (2) the extended use is often iinqnestionable, as
well when soit occurs,
Seit qui Tocidet, tuit paiz puis avriomes, Eol. 391;
Soit qui vos pregne je sui pres de doner, Raoul C. 5798,"
as when qui qiie is used, as is often the case :
Cui que seit dols, a nostre os est il goie, St. Alex. 101c;
Qui ques rapelt, ja n^en retorneront, Kol. 1912; Cui que
tomer doie a enui, Ja cist espreviers vostre n^iert, Erec
820; Car bien est droiz, cui qu'il soit let, Que ceste da-
meisele Tet, ib. 845; Mes qui qu'an soit liez et joianz,
Mes sire Yvains en fu dolanz, Ch. L. 677; Et qui que
remaingne a sejor, II (= Yvains) viaut estre jusqu'a
tierz jorz, ib. 695.
NON-REPETITION OF THE PRONOUN.
1. The Accusative Pronoun.
A.
It is customary for a pronoun to stand as object to
both verbs of a compound predicate without being re-
peated : '*
II les asolst et pardonat, St. Leg. 226 ; Qui la gart an
pes et maintaigne, Clig. 428; Li autre (jugent) qu^an
les pande ou arde, ib. 1441 ; Ses anvaissent et requirent,
"Except, of course, when this mood is required for other
reasons, as, when replacing the pluperfect indicative, the
imperfect of the subjunctive is used: Qui It o'ist les dens
ensamhle marteler — ./. martel sor Venglume ne feist noise
tel, Qui de Bourg. 1701 (see following note).
" Quoted by L. Jordan.
'*See Tobler, V. B. 1, 92 (article 15). This is clearly
demonstrated by the non-repetition of the pronoun when
the negative adverb is repeated, contrary to the rule that
both the adverb and a pronoun, preceding a verb, are not
repeated before a second verb: Si quHl nel tlesce ne ne
quasse, Clig. 5615. Compare this with the following, which
might well have been made to read the same: Si quHl ne le
tlesce ne quasse, ib. 714.
88 Ellipsis in Old French.
ib. 1893 ; Si le requiert et anvaist, ib. 1425 ; Mes li fains
Fangoisse et esforce, Ch. L. 2852.
The omission in coordinate clauses is less general :
Quant jol vos dis, compaing, yos ne deignastes, Rol.
1716; Dit le vos ai, et di ancore, Erec 3005.
It is curious that s {les), in the following passage, is,
in the first verse, the object of the dependent verb, ferir,
and, in the second, that of the principal verb, veoir:
Las me verrez ensemble par tel vertut ferir, Et voler
contre mont, si m^escrierai si, Que . . . Pel. de Ch. 595.
Occasionally the pronoun is not repeated in the un-
stressed form after being used as a stressed pronoun :
Charles, por quel gabastes de mei et escharnistes ? "
Pel. de Ch. 643.
B.
An interesting ellipsis occurs when a pronoun in the
dative case is not repeated in the accusative : ^"
Et lui aidiez, et por seignor tenez, Ex)l. 364; Truisque
sil li vieigne aidier E de ses enemis vengier, Greg. 33-3 ;
Enclina li parfondement. Puis salua doceement, ib. 56-1 ;
Se tu or androit a tes mains Me devoies les iauz sachier
Ou trestote vive escorchier, Erec 4850; Et je venoie a
grant besoing Por li eidier et delivrer, ib. 5076 ; Puis lor
a dit et conjure L^anperere que voir an d'ient, Clig. 5758 ;
Qu^amors li enorte et semont, ib. 6191 ; Mes la dameisele
repeire, Qui li viaut conpeignie feire Et solacier et de-
porter, Et porchacier et aporter, Quanqu^il voldra, a sa
devise, Ch. L. 1541.
" It may be the stressed pronoun which is omitted in this
case, for this form was more freely used in the earlier
poems. See end of note, p. 41.
'' See Tobler, Oott. Gel. Anz. 1875, p. 1071, and V. B. 1, 92-
93 (article 15); Etienne, Gram., p. 212.
The Pronoun. 89
C.
The reflexive pronouii is ordinarily not repeated be-
fore each verb to which it refers :
Si demora tant delez li Qu^il s^oblia et andormi, Ch.
L. 51; II se detort et grate, ib. 3511; Si se herice et
creste ansanble, ib. 5531; S^esmervoillent et esbaissent,
ib. G201.
The unstressed reflexive pronoun te, following the ap-
pearance of tei as object to a preposition, is omitted in
Greg. 28-10,
En tei deis prendre grant porpens E contenir en itel
guise Que il ne tort a vilenie.
2. The Dative Pronoim.
A.
The non-repetition of the dative pronoun is far from
being unusual :
II Qo li dist e adunat, St. Leg. 9; Uescu li ad frait e
malmis, Uhauberc desmaela e malmist, Gorm. 456 ; Et si
li dit bien et afiche . . . Clig. 2216 ; Qui son cuer li for-
tret et tot, ib. 5091 ; Et mout li plot et abeli, Ch. L. 5927.
In the following quotation, li, understood before the
second verb (==to her), is different in meaning from
the dative pronoun expressed before the first (= for
her) :
II li (= le li) ont quis e aporte, Greg. 21-21.
The stressed dative pronoun lui is omitted with the
preposition, following the use of the stressed form of
the accusative pronoun lui, in,
Por lui leidir et feire honte, Ch. L. 5574.
One example has been found of the omission of the
unstressed dative pronoun when the stressed accusative
90 Ellipsis in" Old French.
form precedes, but the pronoun, being vos, would not
alter in form :
Onques voir tant ne s^avilla, Qu'il deist de vos vilenie
Tant come il a fet corteisie, Ch. L. 2212.
B.
There are a few examples in which a pronoun in the
accusative is not repeated in the dative case : '^
Qui la menace mout et chose Et comande qu'ele se
teise, Erec 3724; Si la rebeise et fet grant Joie, ib. 6465 ;
Mout doucemant les aparolent Et font joie si com il
durent, ib. 6592 ; Nus ne le puet conforter Ne nul bon
consel doner, Auc. 7, 4 ; ves ci vostre anemi qui tant vous
a guerroie et mal fait, ib. 10, 38; Et la dame toz les
semont Et prie qu^ancontre lui voisent, Ch. L. 2324 ; Que
pitiez Vi semont et prie Qu^il face secors et aie, A la
beste, ib. 3373; Meismes la fille au seignor Le sert et
porte grant enor, ib. 5411; Li evesche del pais L^ad a
resun mis E demande suvent . . . Omnip. 23d.
It would be more grammatical if the pronouns in the
accusative, in the following passages, were repeated as
datives, for the verb faire generally ^* requires the dative
of the pronoun when a transitive verb is dependent on it :
II les fait revestir et chapes afubler. Pel. de Ch. 143 ;
Demain la (t. e. Teve) ferai eissir de son chenel, Es-
pandre par cez chans, que vos tuit le verrez, Toz les
celiers emplir qui sont en la citet. La gent le rei Hugon
et moillier et guaer, En la plus halte tor lui meisme
monter, ib. 556.
"" See Tobler, V. B. 1, 92-93 (article 15) ; Tobler, Oott. Oel
Anz. 1875, p. 1071; Ebering, Zts. f. r. Ph. 5, 364; Etienne,
Gram., p. 212.
'* Examples of exceptions are: Les feisoient U escu croire
Que ceste mangonge fust voire, Clig. 2105; Ne ja amer ne
la feist Autrui se lui meisme non, Ch. L. 5378.
The Pronoun: 91
3. The Pronoun en.
Like the non-repetition of the accusative and dative
pronouns, that of en is not a rare ellipsis :
Ne poet muder n'en plort et ne sospirt, Eol. 2381 ; C'il
(i. e. Cil) est mi fiz de mon frere. Tote en sui certe, rien
ne dot, Greg. 78-20; Tuit an consoillent et parolent, Erec
5503; Erec an pesa plus assez Qu'il ne mostra sanblant
as janz, ib. 6524; Tant en ocient et estaingnent, Clig.
1952; Tote I'oz an fremist et bruit, ib. 3966.
Other pronouns are not repeated when this ellipsis of
en occurs :
Si Tan enuie et poise, Clig. 3273; Et les escuz (ont)
dehachiez toz . . . Si que les pieces an depandent, N'il
ne s'an cuevrent ne deffandent, Ch. L. 827.
4. The Demonstrative Pronouns cil and ce.
The demonstrative pronouns need not be repeated :
Ceus ke alerent devant, E ke vindrent suant . . .
Omnip. 94a ; Ce qu'ele plore et qu'ele list, Vossist qu^ele
leissie eust, Ch. L. 1420.
5. The Eelative Pronoun.
The repetition of qui at the beginning of each clause
which it introduces is required in Old French, but such
an omission is not one of the rare ellipses :
Molt est pesmes Eollanz, Qui tote gent voelt faire
recredant, Et totes terres met en chalengement, Eol. 392 ;
Veire paterne, qui onques ne mentis, Saint Lazaron de
mort resurrexis, Et Daniel des Icons guaresis, Guaris de
mei Tanme de toz perilz, ib. 2384; Car li real lor con-
tredi'ent Qui mout fieremant les desfient Et la traison
lor reprochent, Clig. 1745; Dame, qui cuideroit trover
Celui, qui le jaiant ocist Et les trois chevaliers conquist,
II le feroit buen aler querre, Ch. L. 6602.
92 Ellipsis m Old French.
The relative que of qui que is found unrepeated :
Mes qui que venist ne qui non, Erec 6570 ; Mes qui que
vaingne ne qui voise, Ch. L. 1063.
The non-repetition of the relative pronoun in a dif-
ferent case from that which precedes/'' occurs more
rarely :
ISTominative pronoun omitted replacing the accusative :
Qo dit la geste et cil qui el champ fut;, Li her sainz
Gilies, por cui Deus fait vertuz ; Et fist la chartre el mos-
tier de Lodun,^ Rol. 2095.
Accusative pronoun omitted replacing the nominative:
Ceste est et de cors et de vis . . . La plus jantis et la
plus bele Qui soit jusque la, ce me sanble, Ou li ciaus et
la terre assanble, Erec 1782.
'» See Tobler, V. B. 1, 93 (article 15).
^° Since this is evidently the meaning of the sentence, the
semicolon after vertuz might better have been a comma.
CHAPTEK VI.
The Verb.
The verb is essential in thought to every sentence.
Nevertheless it is often not expressed, as the meaning
may be conveyed without it. This is true of the follow-
ing verbs :
Aler: Or del bien feire et del cerchier Et sus et jus et
pres et loing! Clig. 6650; Biaus sire, or avant! Ch. L.
4669 ; Or avant, bele, ib. 5933.
This seems most probably the omitted verb in.
Baron franceis, as chevals et as armes, Eol. 2986.
Aporter: Qa mes armes et mon cheval ! Ch. L. 4145.
Clamer: Deus ! meie colpe vers les toes vertuz, Kol.
2369.
Corir: Si s'antrevienent d'un eslais Plus tost que cers
qui ot les glais Des chiens qui apres lui glatissent, Clig.
4931.
Crier: In the following passage from St. Alex., and
in others similar to it, either vostre is omitted as well as
the verb crier, or the verb avoir is to be supplied :
Seinors de Rome, por amor Deu, mercit, 1. 93a; "Or
me le dites, . . . Se vos de rien ne mesfeistes. Quant vos
mon seignor oceistes?^^ "Dame,^^ fet il, "vostre
merci,'' ' Ch. L. 1995.
Dire\' " Onques mes,'' fet il, "n'oi tel/' Erec 3251;
Si grant felunie Unkes ne fu oie En geste n'en chaungun,
Omnip. 71a.
^ Crier is often expressed with merci: Aussi con por merci
crier, Ch. L. 351; Dame, ja voir ne crierai Merci, ib. 1975.
^ Dire is required with oir in the sense of the Modern
French entendre dire:
Quant par la terre oirent dire Que d'Aquitaine iert mors
li sire, Gr6g. 31-13; S'est ja tant dit et poploii6 Que nes icele
dire I'ot, Clig. 2978; N'iert eschapez, que il seiissent Ne
qu'il oi dire Teiissent, Ch. L. 573.
94 Ellipsis in Old French.
Estre: E vint a Eome quant ele pot La o ele l^Apos-
toile sot/ Greg. 112-21; (est) Granz folcs ariedre, granz
davant : Grand e petit Den vont landant, Pass. 45 ; Ahi !
con vaillant chevalier! Ch. L. 3199; (sont) Com felix
eel qui par feit Fhonorerent ! St. Alex. lOOe; (sett)
Felix li lius on ses sainz cors herberget! ib. 114e; La
main destre leva adonques La dame et dist : Trestot einsi
Con tu Pas dit, et je t'otroi . . . Ch. L. 6650; (sera)
E bien e mal puis recevron, Selonc le fait le gueredon,
Greg. 82-7; (fzc) A poi de duel que ne morut, Greg.
72-20 (and often the verb in the present tense is omitted
with a poi, a bien pres: A poi le cuer ne li part d'ire, ib.
12-14; A bien pres que des oilz ne plore, ib. 75-4) ; Ainz
vint poignant tot a relais De ci que devant le palais/
ib. 74-9.
Often the verb — probably estre — is omitted with the
phrase a (vostre) comant:
(suis) " Volentiers/' dist il, " sire, tot al vo<stre co-
mant," Pel. de Ch. 470; (somes) " En Rencesvals irez as
porz passant, Si aiderez a conduire ma gent." Et oil
respondent : " Sire, a vostre comant," Eol. 944.
Probably estre, in the subjunctive, is understood before
a vostre plaisir (" be it at your pleasure, as you please ") :
Erec respont : " I^eissiez m'an pes ! Nel f eroie an nule
meniere." Cil voit n'i a mestier proiiere, Si dist : " Sire,
a vostre pleisir ! Or nos an poons bien teisir," Erec 1284.
The expression goes a step farther from the complete
form when the preposition is dropped :
" Mes vostre non savoir desir." ^^ Sire," f et il, " vostre
pleisir. Quant vos mon non savoir volez, ISTe vos doit pas
estre celez," Erec 4513.
'This omission with savoir regularly occurs:
Mes tant sevent de fier corage Le roi . . . Clig. 1653;
Tant con celui vivant savra, ib. 3450; Mes nel set pas si pres
de li, ib. 3763; Et tant vos resai de fier cuer . . . ib. 3989.
* Possibly vint is the omitted verb; see ellipsis of venir
The Verb. 95
Faire: Quant dedenz avez lit assez Ne sei que deit,
mais puis plorez, Greg. 77-1.
Monter: Or as chevaus por lui secorre ! Clig. 3549.
Parler: Quant chascun dels enfans entent Del bon
conceil, plore forment, Greg. 17-23.
Recevoir: Je Fotrei, Sire, grez e mercis de mei, Greg.
84-11.
Venir. Not infrequently omitted with jusque {en-
tresque) : '
Entresqu'ad Ais ne volt prendre sojorn, Eol. 3696;
Jusqu'au tref le roi ne recroient, Clig. 2194; Jusqu'a
I'anpereor ne fine, ib. 2479; Jusqu'a Coloingne ne
s'areste, ib. 2699; Li dui anpereor cheminent, Jusque
outre Eeneborc ne finent, ib. 3395 ; Ja cist afeires n^iert
contez Jusque devant Fanpereor, ijb. 6498.
Voter: Vint plus tost qu^uns alerions, Ch. L. 487.
The Causative Verb faire.
One is often said to perform an act when he is merely
the cause of its accomplishment — He hurled his father,
He built a house. Thus it was not unusual in Old
French for verbs, through the omission of faire, to as-
sume a causative function. Examples follow :
Aparoir: A tant es vos un angele cui deus i aparut!
Pel. de Ch. 672.
Apeler (S'). The modern use of this verb may be the
result of the ellipsis of faire. Compare :
JSTeporquant ne vos doi celer, Comant je me faz apeler,
Ch. L. 4611.
Aprendre: Qui trovera Penfant petit, Norir le face
gentement, De ceaus dis mars qui sont d^argent, E por
aprendre auques de letre, Greg. 23-8.
Ardoir: Tuit dient que mout est cortois Alixandres et
bien apris Des chevaliers qu^il avoit pris. Quant au roi
" Compare: Tote la droite voie tindrent Tant que a Caradi-
gan vindrent, Erec 1087; Ne flna jusqu'a Jehan vint, Clig.
6176. Estre is used in its place after tant que in, Ne finent
tant qu'an Orece sont, Clig. 6748.
96 Ellipsis in Old French.
nes avoit randuz; Qu'il les eiist ars ou panduz/ Clig.
1358.
Ariver\' il les mena Tant qu^al rocher les arriva, Greg.
104-21.
Clergier: Por eel tel duol rovat clergiet Si s^ent entrat
en un monstier, St. Leg. 65. (The diplomatic text reads
rova s clergier; the alteration does not seem warranted.)
Conreer: Uemperere de France fait conreer sa gent:
Cels qui od lui alerent conreat gentement, Pel. de Ch. 76.
(Corir. Instead of corir being elliptical for faire corir
son cheval, in such cases as the following, the action is
spoken of as being done by the person :
ISTe t^estovra gueires loing corre . . . Lors s'est Erec
mis es galos, Erec 4356-4374; Vers Tome nu, que eles
voient, Cort et desgant Tune des trois, Ch. L. 2892.)
Descendre: Mult at deus atrait E par povres fait, Puis
qu^il fist le mund, Maint tyrant vencu, D'orgoil descendu
Cels qui oil Funt, Eeim. 43a.
Empaindre: Totes ses oz at empeintes en mer, Rol.
2629.
Enclore: Qui sont cil, qui de trai'son Yos apelent et an
prison Vos ont anclose an cest reclus? Ch. L. 3645.
Enserrer: Et por ce, se nus hon fei'st L'ostel as noires
armes querre, An une chanbre les anserre, Clig. 4716.
The idea is causative as is shown by the following :
Les armes qu'il porta le jor Comande que soient re-
postes, ib. 4816.
Ensevelir: Por ce font li baron mandee Que ta terre
vienges saisir E ton chier frere ensevelir/ Greg. 29-16.
'Cf. Ne viaut que d'aus eiist seisine Li rois, car toz lest
(read les) fei'st pandre, Clig. 1352.
^So with Froissart:
qu'en Albion les arriva et mist, Froiss. II 382, 18; se il
voloit consentir §, ariver les Engles en ses fortereces dou
clos de Constentin, ib. VII 483 (taken from Ebering, Zts.
f. r. Ph. 5, 334).
* Cf. Les fameilous fai saoler, Les nuz vestir e conreer,
Morz seveilir e enterrer E les nuz vestir e chancier, Gr^g.
83-23; Et fera les cors metre an terre, Erec 4958; et le fist
ensevelir con empereor honorablement, V. H. 223 (citation
from Fredenhagen, p. 74).
The Verb. 97
Mander: " Feites mon chapelain mander, Et vos alez
la dame querre . . /^ Lors ont le chapelain mande Si
con li cuens Tot comande, Et la dame ront amenee, Erec
4762.
Monter: Por la joie croistre et monter, Erec 6330; Les
(i. e. the men) ont as deffanses montez, Clig. 2161; Cist
plez ne doit avant venir, Ne Fan nel doit plus hant mon-
ter, Ch. L. 100.
Morir. The nse of morir in the sense of "to kill"
may have originated in the ellipsis of the causative verb.
In the following examples morir has this meaning, used
in the past indefinite and pluperfect tenses — not in the
present and imperfect with mort as an adjective, which
it is, however, possible to consider as the point of de-
parture from the original meaning, since, as a transitive
verb, it is used in Old French only in the compound
tenses:
Par tantes terres est alez conquerant, Tanz cols at pris
de bons espiez trenchanz, Tanz riches reis morz et vencuz
en champ ! Eol. 553 ; Qui tei at mort, France dolce at
honide, ib. 2935 ; Se tu avoies mort ou pris Un chevalier
qui n'a pooir De relever . . . Erec 5042; Bien avez les
hiaumes vetiz De ceus que j'ai veincuz et morz, ib. 6108 ;
Car mes sire est a mort bleciez, Et bien sai que vos Favez
mort, Ch. L. 982 ; Mes Yvains a ma dame morte, ib. 2742
(it is a year since Yvain last saw her) ; 'Ne ne set, a cui
se confort De lui, qu^il mei'smes a mort, ib. 2791 ; Et que
devant lui s'umelie Por le serpant, qu'il avoit mort, Et
lui delivre de la mort, ib. 3404.
Ocirre: "Si ne faites de cest enfant Tot ce que je
comanderai Certes jamais ne mainjerai.^^ Quant la dame
li ot ce dire Cuida que le vosist ocire, Greg. 20-14;
" Ocirre ferai or androit . . . Yostre seignor devant voz
iauz." "... Trop seriiez fel et tra'ites Se vos I'oci'eiiez
einsi, Erec 3357; "Dame, ja voir ne crierai Merci, ainz
7
98 Ellipsis in Old French.
vos mercierai De quanque vos me voldroiz feire . . ."
'' Et se je vos oci ? '' \ Ch. L. 1975.
Pendre: see Ardoir,
Plovoir. Possibly the omission of faire in the last
verse of the following passage is the result of a confusion
of the personal il in the previous verse with an imper-
sonal il:
Li covandroit feire a lui pes, Ou il ne fineroit ja mes
De la fontainne tormanter Et de plovoir et de vanter/"
Ch. L. 6523.
Revenir: Lors por revenir * sa color Le comancierent
a beignier, Erec 5222.
Revestvr: Povres mesaeisiez eslut Plus de gant et seis-
sante et nuef, Si les revesti tot de nuef, Erec 6534.
Soner is used with faire ^^ as well as without it. The
latter usage came about through the ellipsis of the causa-
tive verb, for in Classic Latin sonare was not used in the
sense of "to cause to sound.^^
" Sonez voz graisles, que mi paiien le sachent.^^ Par
tote Post font lor tabors soner Et cez boisines et cez
graisles molt clers, Rol. 3136 ; Cil est molt proz qui sonet
Polifant, ib. 3193; Sonent flautes et fresteles, Timbre,
tabletes et tabor, Ch. L. 2352.
' A little farther on we read :
Et je cult, que rien ne vaudroit. Quant fet ocirre vos
avroie, ib. 2006.
^"Cf. Et s*i feroit tant foudroiier Et tant vanter et taut
plovoir Que . . . ib. 6520; Puis errerent tant que il virent
La fontainne et plovoir i firent, ib. 6533.
* Zauner, 2, 148, translates this verse by " well seine
Parbe wiederkam," which, though differing from Foerster's
interpretation, is substantiated by nothing in the text. Com-
pare the following passage in Old Provengal:
E laissa-1 (= so caval) a sa volontat Falser de la bella
erba fresca, Que-1 reven lo cor e-1 refresca, Appel, p. 16,
1. 160.
"Examples: Tost fait le glas soner par la citet menut,
P§1. de Ch. 197; Par tote Tost font lor tabors soner, Rol.
3137; En I'un funt soner E bien acorder Les dolz estrumenz,
Reim. 102a.
The Verb. 99
Sovenir: Quant il lor prist a sovenir, Que . . . Ch. L.
4052.
Venter: see Plovoir.
Vestir: Premieremant se fist lacier lines chauces de
blanc acier. Apres vest un hauberc . . . (2654) Tuit se
pranent a mervoillier, Por quoi il armer se feisoit . . .
Quant del hauberc I'orent arme Un hiaume a cercle d'or
liste . . . Uns vaslez sor le chief li lace, Erec 2637.
Infinitive with pooir.^
Some verb, such as empeschier accompanying a nega-
tive clause, and acomplir with an affirmative clause, is
sometimes omitted with pooir. The omission of the
neuter accusative pronoun le was probably of later de-
velopment; it still remains in the first of the following
examples :
Longement n^i serai prise, Se jel puis mie, Auc. 5, 24 ;
Mais se je puis, il ne vos tenront ja, ib. 26, 20 ; Que ja
par force, que je puisse, . . . Ne li leirai mon heritage ! "*
Ch. L. 4783. — Et se je puis, jusqu'au tierz jor Me serai
je mis el retor, Erec 265; Mes se je puis, sire vassaus,
Sor vos retomera li maus, Ch. L. 497.
The omission of aler, depending on pooir, is not un-
usual :
II est si fiebles qu^il ne poet en avant, Eol. 2228 ; En-
dormiz est, ne poet mais en avant, ib. 2520; Quant fu
venu a tant Ke ne pout avant, Murir li cuvint, Omnip.
63a.
Faire is the verb most frequently left to be understood
with pooir:
Soz ciel n^at gent qui plus puissent en champ, Eol.
3049; La pucele quant miauz ne puet, Yuelle ou non,
" See Tobler, Oott Gel. Anz., 1877, p. 1610.
"Cited also by Tobler, who gives several other examples
as well, V. B. 1, 101 (article 17).
100 Ellipsis in Old French.
retorner Festuet, Erec 187; A cest mot s'est Erec levez
An son seant^ qu^il ne pot plus, ib. 5088 ; Done porroie je
mout petit, Clig. 516 ; For quoi ne puet li miens toz sens
Autretant con li suens par Ini? ib. 4506; Tant puet et
tant set et tant vant . . . Ch. L. 632.
Auxiliary avoir Omitted When Eeplacing estre.
But one example of this ellipsis has been found :
Tant s'est Alixandre penez Et tant fet par son bel
servise. Que mout Taimme li rois et prise, Clig. 418.
Omission of Yerb in the Second Term of a Comparison.
In comparisons, a negative verb is sometimes omitted*
following an affirmative :
Vint plus tost qu'uns alerions (sc. ne vole), Ch. L.
487; Vint d^ire plus ardanz que (sc. n'est) brese, ib. 812;
si m^en poise asses plus que de mi, Auc. 24, 56 (here
faire would replace peser) ; Si devint plus noire que terre,
Ch. L. 5938.
Omission before a Eepetition of the Verb.
When occurring in a following clause, a verb is most
frequently omitted after devoir ^ pooir, savoir and voloir:
Et li autre si come il doivent Ses armes pranent et
regoivent, Ch. L. 4683; Tant com poons, I'avons sel6,
Grreg. 11-21; Quanqu'il puet, apres esperone, Ch. L. 881;
Or te pri et quier et demant, Se tu sez, que tu me con-
soille, ib. 364; Ore a tot einsi come il viaut La dameisele
delivree, ib. 4566.
non-repetition of the verb.
1.
The repetition of the verb in the same form, with the
same word for the subject, is avoided in Old French :
Alquant dels palmes prendent raimes, Dels oliviers
alquant les branches. Pass. 37; Grand font escham,
The Yeeb. '' '^ ' lioil
grand cridaizon, ib. 286; Cent colombes i at tot de
marbre en estant; Chascune est a fin or neielee devant
. . . De cuivre et de metal tresjetet dons enfanz, Pel. de
Ch. 350; Voeillet o non/* Eol. 1419; Que set tres bien
tos seaiis (i. e. ceaus) sauver, Que il plaist, en terre e
en mer, Greg. 33-19 ; Une norisse a demandee Por Ten-
fant norir, e louee, ib. 39-17; ceste nostre ferte Qui ne
pot par force estre prise, Ne par assaut estre conquise,
ib. 54-6; Fai le gesir sor eel estraim, De lez tes rez le
laisse aval, ib. 87-10; Si que riens antrer n'i pooit, Se
par dessore n'i voloit," Erec 5743; Ou soit de terre ou
de tresor/* Clig. 5147; qu'il ne voloit estre cevalers ne
. . . faire point de quanque il deust," Auc. 2, 16.
So the auxiliary verb avoir may be compounded with
two past participles even when both are transitive with
different objects :
Si ont au chaple des espees Les guiges des escuz cou-
pees Et les escuz dehachiez toz, Ch. L. 825.
Devoir, pooir, voloir may govern two infinitives, each
sometimes with an object depending on it :
Desfier me deiissiez vos, S^il eust querele autre nos,
Ou au mains droiture requerre, Ch. L. 493 ; Que puisses
ceaus tables raveir E que est ens escrit saveir, Greg. 24-5 ;
Que ne Ppoeient sol covrir, Le environ son cors tenir, ib.
96-23; Comander vos vuel et priier, Ch. L. 136.
A negative verb is often not repeated as an affirmative
in the same form :
Wi ont escuz ne lances ne espees trenchanz, Mais fuz
ferrez de fraisne et escharpes pendanz, Pel. de Ch. 79;
"Cf. veullies u nan veulUes, in Nouvelles frangoises,
quoted by Lotz, p. 6 bottom; Voille n'en (read nen) voille,
Gr6g. 67-24; cf. the English "willy nilly."
"The insertion of the adverb relating to a non-repeated
verb is unusual.
" Soit is often not repeated, so in Clig. 5982. Cf. Ou soit de
Men ou soit de mal, ib. 5947; see also Erec 3358, 4224.
"Cf. qu'il ne veut estre cevaliers ne faire point de quan-
que faire doie, ib. 4, 6.
16^ ' Ellipsis in Old French.
Icist pechez dont parler veuil, Ne fait a dire par orgueil,
Mais por eissample d'autre gent, Greg. 1-9; Erec ne
voloit pas antandre A cheval n^a chevalier prandre, Mes
a joster et a bien feire, Erec 2215 ; Moi ne cant n nons
aillons . . . mais qne je soie aveuc vous, Anc. 27, 12;
Or ne devez vos pas songier, Mes les torneiemanz ongier,
Ch. L. 2503/'
The infinitive alone is repeated in Greg. 92-16 :
Ne deust estre d^abaie ; Mais estre en nn hermitage.
Conversely, a negative verb is occasionally omitted
following its use affirmatively :
E pur eus vine en terre E pur nul autre afere, Omnip.
68d; A las! qnei a il fet? A null si ben nun, ib. 109e.
In the following, estre, if repeated, would be the prin-
cipal verb, whereas after palais it is an auxiliary :
Li palais fut d^azur listez et avenanz, Pel. de Ch. 344.
The contrary may be the case in :
Li frein sont d^or, les seles d^argent mises, Eol. 91.
Estre appears as an auxiliary to an intransitive verb
in the following quotation^ while, if repeated, it would
serve as an auxiliary to a passive verb :
Fors fu la dame descendue E receue a grant enor,
Greg. 18-24.
An interrogative verb need not be repeated declara-
tively :
Et done sui je ses anemis ? Nenil certes, mes ses amis,
Ch. L. 1459.
" Ellipses such as those occurring in the passages cited by
Tobler, V. B. 3, 13, are probably the result of a further ap-
plication of the ellipsis seen in the above examples:
" Se del vivre ne trovon ci, N'i at neient del sejorner,
Mais del metre nos en la mer (d. h. en la mer nos estuet
metre), En. 351"; "Or escri done en tel maniere Au
premier a ta dame chiere Qu'il n'i ait mot de vilanie, Mes
d'enor et de cortoisie (tuit 11 mot soient). Clef d*amor, 691."
The Verb. 103
A verb in the infinitive is omitted after being nsed as
a noun in Ch. L. 5224 :
" Que del rissir est 11 neanz/^ " Ne je ne quier/^ fet
il, " biaus f rere ! ^^
In coordinate clauses when the construction is parallel,
the verb, in the same form, relating to a different sub-
ject, is usually not repeated :
Petit se conoissent andui: ISTe la conois ne ele lui,
Greg. 57-9 ; Si blasme Fune et Tautre loe, Uune tient vil
et Tautre chiere, Clig. 740; Einsi fuit li faucons por
Fane, Et li girfauz por le heiron, Et li gros luz por le
veiron, ib. 3854; Et li valles fu grans et fors . . . et li
cevaux, sor quoi il sist, rades et corans, Auc. 10, 4; ja
ne sera ses amis, n^ele s^amie, ib. 19, 21; Toz jorz doit
puir li fumiers Et taons poindre et maloz bruire, Enuieus
enuiier et nuire, Ch. L. 116; L'escu a pris par les
enarmes, Et Keus le suen, si s'antreleissent, ib. 2244 ; Car
Feiist il or afiee Et ele lui de nue main, ib. 2065.
To a complete statement there is frequently added in
Old French a noun which is grammatically the subject
of a coordinate clause whose predicate, which is under-
stood, is, with occasional slight variation, identical with
that of the preceding clause :
Que Charles diet, et trestote sa gent . . . Eol. 2362;
Si com li venz le demenot, E Fonde qui le debotot, Greg.
33-23; Uanperere les convoie Et Fanpererriz cui mout
poise, Clig. 240; Li rois Artus mut Fandemain Et la
reine et ses puceles, ib. 436 ; oent les noveles. Que li rois
vient et si baron, ib. 438 ; Que sans lor faut et hardemanz
A dire ce qu^il ont an pans, ib. 3862; Et li sire de la
meison Se lieve et tuit si conpeignon, Ch. L. 4935 ; Mes
sire Yvains el vergier autre Et apres lui tote sa rote, ib.
5360.
104 Ellipsis in Old French.
Thus far, it is a clear case of a natural ellipsis. When
the verb in the first clause precedes its subject, there is
still the same ellipsis, though it is less apparent :
Molt bien i fiert Oliviers et Eollanz, Eol. 1413; Es-
clariz est li vespres et li jorz, ib. 1807; Ou'st I'arces-
vesques et li cuens Oliviers? Ou est Gerins et ses com-
paing Geriers ? Ou est Oton et li cuens Berengiers, Ive
et Ivories, que j^aveie tant chiers? Qu^est devenuz li
Guascoing Engeliers, Sanson li dus et Anseis li fiers?
ib. 2403 ; Sis guiderat Geboins et Lorenz, ib. 3022 ; Re-
paidret lui vigor et remembrance, ib. 3614; Plore li
freres e la suer, Greg. 14-23 ; Trestuit dient que mar fu
Sis cors, sis senz e sa vertu, ib. 41-21; Grant plaint e
grant duel en mena Tuit li clergie e li autre home Qui a
eel tens ierent a Eome, ib. 97-16; Ja est morz Adam,
ISToe, Abraam, Moyses, Davi, Salemum li sages, Eeim.
120a; Plore la pucele et li pere, Erec 1462; Liez an iert
ma dame et mes sire, ib. 4165; A Puis de la chanbre
defors Fu Dodiniaus et Sagremors Et Keus et mes sire
Gauvains, Ch. L. 53 ; Se leva mout isnelemant Mes sire
Yvains et sa pucele, ib. 5452.
When a verb in the singular may be followed by two
or more singular subjects, it is natural that the ellipsis
should be still further lost sight of, and that one or more
plural subjects should follow the singular verb. This
use has been explained " by assuming the verb to be used
impersonally, with the logical subject following, while
another theory ''° is that the idea of the plurality of the
following subject has not yet clearly entered the mind
when the verb is spoken, thus also accounting for the
non-agreement in modern times of the past participle
with a following object. The latter theory does not, how-
"A. Horning, Rom. Stud., 4, 260; E. Gessner, p. 14.
^Tobler, V. B. 1, 192 (article 34).
The Verb. 105
ever, explain the construction seen in the following
An ce metez antante et cure. Que feite soit an tel me-
niere Et la sepouture et la biere, Que . . . Clig. 5338.
The use of the plural subject- word following a singu-
lar verb has not been found in the works examined, and
Horning " says that there are no examples of this " im-
personal ^' use of the verb before the middle of the twelfth
century. Since, therefore, the elliptical use of two singu-
lar subjects after the singular verb preceded the above
described "impersonal" use of the verb by at least
three-quarters of a century, it seems probable that the
latter is in reality due originally to a broader application
of the construction which developed through the ellipsis
of the verb, whatever may have been the manner of view-
ing it in later years.
The use of the two singular subjects with a singular
verb is found later preceding the verb, but, except when
the subjects were so similar in meaning that they may
have been thought of as expressing but a single idea,
the incongruity of this construction doubtless prevented
its frequent use :
La plus jantis et la plus bele Qui soit jusque la, ce me
sanble, Ou li ciaus et la terre assanble, Erec 1784 ; Toz li
peitraus et li lorains Fu d^or et d'esmeraudes plains, ib.
5333; Toz li fruiz et blez et vins i vient, ib. 5400; Mes
force et hardemanz li doble, Clig. 1912; Vie et joie lor
est despiz, ib. 2082 ; Proesce et amors qui Tanlace Le fet
hardi et conbatant, ib. 3804; Cui sans et memoires n'an
faut, ib. 3876; An Bretaingne sont li prodomo Qu^enors
et proesce renome, ib. 4255; Mes ses cuers et ses esperiz
Est a Cliges, ib. 4346; Ses gens cors et ses viaires, Sa
106 Ellipsis in Old French.
biautes le cuer m'esclaire, Auc. 3, 15; Deus et li droiz
. . . An soit an aie a celui, Qui ^ . . . Ch. L. 5983.
The verb, sometimes in a different form, but relating
to the same subject, is "usually not repeated when de-
pending on some verb in the second clause, particularly
devoir^ oser, pooir, savoir, soloir, voloir:
Tot no-1 vos pois eu bien compter, No-1 puot nulz
huom de medre nez,^ Pass. 447 ; Sempre fist bien o que
il puot, St. Leg. 40; Quant de la mer eschape sont Et
venu la ou il voloient, Clig. 284; Cist cinq font duel de
lor seignor Si grant qu^il ne pueent greignor, ib. 2085;
Que mains jeue qu'ele ne siaut, ib. 2998; Que plus le
loent tuit ansanble Qu^il ne devroient, ib. 5017; Et aut
plus tost que il ne siaut, Ch. L. 1835 ; " De remenoir vos
prieroie.^^ " Certes, dame, je n^oseroie,^^ ib. 4623 ; Si les
salue et les enore De quanque ele set et puet, ib. 5834;
Avra il droit, se il se plaint? Nenil; qu^il ne savra de
cui, ib. 6104.
Se , . , , non!^
This familiar locution originated in the non-repetition
of the verb, sometimes together with the ellipsis of a
pronoun :
Mais n^a talent li facet se bien non (sc. li facet), Eol.
3681 ; Et po fet an se par lui non (sc. le fet), Clig. 2588 ;
'^Q se set a cui conseillier S^an panser non et an veillier,
ib. 2991 ; Car ja n'amera se lui non, ib. 2899 ; Je nel vos
demant se por lui non, Auc. 24, 29.
^Cf. Que Deus et droiz li eideront, Ch. L. 4333; Que Deus
et droiz a un se tienent, ib. 4445.
^Cf. Et le duel, qui ja n'iert descriz; Que nus ne le por-
roit descrivre, Ch. L. 1174.
" See Tobler, V. B. 3, 68 ft.
The Verb. 107
The verb is occasionally repeated after non (ne) or
replaced by faire :
Car rien ne soi, don mans me vaingne, Se de ma vo-
lante ne vient, Clig. 3078; Mes ce coment pot avenir,
Que tu mon seignor oceis, S^an tra'ison ne le feis ? Ch. L.
1232; Ja mes si riche mariage N^avroiz, se vos cestui
n'avez, ib. 5718; Que pou puet on fame trouer Qui de son
cors face mesfet, Se par autre fame nel fet, Ebeling's
Auberee, 664.
The meaning of " but rather '' is evidently due to an
extension of its use, the idea of exception, which se . . .
non expressed, having assumed the added idea of con-
trast :
et si estoit entecies de bones teces, qu'en lui n'en avoit
nule mauvaise, se bone non, Auc. 2, 14.
The possibility that estre is the omitted verb in some
cases deserves consideration which it has not received. It
is not only often more appropriate, as in Auc. 2, 14,
above, and in Erec 5739, below, but also requisite, as in
Auc. 14, 6, below :
El vergier n^avoit anviron Mur ne paliz se de Per non,
Erec 5739 ; Et puis que vos ariies jut en lit a home s^el
mien non . . . Auc. 14, 6.
It is important that se . . . ne is found followed by
estrCj though related words and phrases usually follow
the verb, instead of separating se and non:
S^a dit a toz qu'ele ne viaut Que nus hon an sa chanbre
vaingne . . . Se n^est Tanperere ou ses nies, Clig. 5670;
Par ou riens nule s^an alast, Se ce n^iert oisiaus, Ch. L.
1113; Ne n'a tesmoing de sa loange, Se ce n^est por
fausse losange, ib. 2189.^
**Cf. je cuit Qu'il n'i avoit ne fer ne fust Ne rien, qui de
cuivre ne fust, Ch. L. 214.
108 Ellipsis m Old French.
4.
The non-repetition of the verb in a different form,
relating to a different subject, occurs less frequently than
under other circumstances:
Li uns li fiert en sun escu, Les treis al blanc hauberc
menu, Gorm. 622; Et desimes tel chose, que estre ne
delist, Pel. de Ch. 666; La fu li reis qui tote Espaigne
tint. Tot entorn lui vint milie Sarrazin, Rol. 409 ; E !
gentilz reis, ja sont vencut nostre home, Li amiralz ocis
a si grant honte ! ^ ib. 3642 ; Qu^il ne s'amassent anbedui,
Gil celi et cele celui, Glig. 2271; " Or vos en alez antre-
metre, S'asseez vostre sepouture . . ." Jehanz respont:
" Yolantiers, sire,^^ ib. 6104 (after volantiers the verb
would naturally be replaced by faire) ; " Mais je doi
plorer et dol f aire/^ " Et tu de quoi, frere ? " Auc. 24,
45; "Queus hon es tu?'' "Tens con tu voiz," Gh. L.
331 ; " Je gart si cestes et Justis, Que ja n'istront de cest
porpris.'' " Et tu coment? '' ib. 341 ; " Et que voldroies
tu trover ? '' " Avantures por esprover Ma proesce,'' ib.
361; De la fontainne poez croire, Qu'ele boloit come eve
chaude, ib. 422 ; " Qui est, qui se demante si ? " Et cil
li respont : " Et vos, qui ? '' ib. 3571.
The non-repetition of the verb may occur when a
preposition is required before it:
Et dient tuit, qu'onques ne finent, Erec 6374.
Faire que sages.
In expressions such as faire, dire, que sages, the verb
is not repeated:
Jo fereie que fols, Rol. 1053 ; Et de ce firent mout que
preu, Gh. L. 855; "Vos dites,'' fet li rois, "que sage,''
(fem.) ib. 4786.
^The following passage is cited by Tobler, V. B. 1, 204
(article 36), as an example of the superfluous qui: De
marhre sont li piler et li pan, Et les fenestres entaillies
The Verb. 109
There is at least as much reason for considering this
que in the sense of " as/^ as there is for believing it to
mean " what/^ Tobler * takes the latter view : " Unbe-
streitbar ist auch, dass in Yerbindungen wie il a fait que
gentiex rois Et qv£ sages et que courtois, Cleom. 15127
. . . nach der von Diez a. a. 0. vorgetragenen Auffassung
des H. Estienne in der That que das eben besprochene
Relativum, also mit neufranzosischem ce que gleich-
zusetzen, und dass dazu als Verbum des verkiirzten Rela-
tivsatzes aus dem Hauptsatze fait, font, feroit, eust fait
hinzu zn denken ist/^ and Foerster *" translates firent qv^
preu '' darin handelten sie wie wackere Manner/^ adding,
" Die Konstr. ist eigentlich fiTent [ce] qwe [/on/] yreu;
genau so 1435 ai je dit que sages f " whereas Cledat " says :
" ' Faire que ' suivi d'un adj. ou d^un subst. attribut =
agir en; faire en, comme dit encore Corneille (le Cid) :
^Ayez soin que tons deux f assent en gens de coeur/
L^ancienne langue aurait dit: 'f assent que gens de
coeur/ La Fontainne (Fable du pot de terre et du pot
de fer) : ^ II ferait que sage/ "
An object preceded by de often accompanies the verb
in these expressions, and while it may be thought that the
preposition is used because the object of the verb is qu^,
it is fully as probable that it is because the verb is in-
transitively used :
N"aimes li dus d'igo at fait que proz, Rol. 2423; De
tant fist mout Erec que sages, Erec 232; Et de ce fist
que bien apris, Clig. 6111; Et de ce firent mout que
preu, Ch. L. 855 ; ne cuit mie savoir, Qu'ele me het plus
d'argent, Et Vaigle d'or qui reluist et resplent, Orenge 462.
But, considering the frequent occurrence of the non-repeti-
tion of the verb, it seems more likely that the verb est is to
be supplied after aigle, and that qui is required.
^V. B. 1, 11 (article 2).
^ Note to 1. 855, Ch. L.
* In his glossary to Rol., under faire.
110 Ellipsis in Old French.
or androit, Que nule rien^ et si a droit. D' " or androit ^'
ai je dit que sages, ib. 1432.
Since faire """ and dire ^^ are used intransitively in Old
French, and que is used in the sense of come^^ no ob-
stacle remains to the belief that que is here an adverbial
conjunction, which belief is strengthened by a compari-
son of the use of que and the nominative adjective fol-
lowing verbs other than faire and dire, with the use of
come with such verbs.^*
All that remains to prove the theory is the discovery
of examples in which either the verb is intransitive or
some other word or a phrase is unquestionably the object.
While no examples have been found of some other word
as object, come then replacing que, there are some of
intransitive verbs and of phrase objects accompanying
que with the nominative adjective, but the phrase may
be considered by some as explanatory of que, taken as
the object. It is not surprising that instances of the use
of a word-object are lacking, when one bears in mind
" Sez tu, come li amant font? Content le tans et la seison,
Ch. L. 2760.
""Cil rois don je vos di fu nains, Erec 1995; De mon
seignor Gauvain vuel dire, ib. 2224.
^^ See Tobler, V. B. 2, 53. Compare: si que vous av6s oi
et entendu, Auc. 6, 1, and, si con vos av^s oi et entendu, ib.
10, 1, — ce ne porroit estre que vos m'amissi6s tant, que je
fac vos. Fenme ne puet tant amer I'oume, con li horn fait
le fenme, ib. 14, 18, — Tant con fins ors le cuivre passe Et
plus que je ne di ancor, Clig. 2774, and, Et aussi fieremant
ou plus Corent li uns as autres sus, Con li lion a proie
corent, ib. 1753, and, se j'estoie ausi rices hom que vos estes,
Auc. 24, 31.
^^Come usually occurs in such cases: Chascuns parolet
altresi come hom, Rol. 2559; Beisiee Va come cortois, Erec
1835; Erec manja come malades, ib. 5168; Enide come debo-
neire La salue, ib. 6230. Examples of the use of que are
given below.
The Verb. Ill
that the expression que sages, etc., occurs, with compara-
tively few exceptions, only with faire and ^iVe, which, it
is believed, are generally to be taken in such cases as
intransitive verbs.
In some of the following examples, of which some are
cited by Tobler" in support of his statement that this
construction is found with verbs other than faire^ que is
clearly not a pronoun, and is probably an adverbial con-
junction in the other examples as well :
Per tot ovrat que verus deus," Pass. 7 ; il dist que cor-
teis: "Dame, molt estes bele,'' "^ Pel. de Ch. 716; ele
dist molt que fole. Que ja preisat barnet si bien come le
nostre, ib. 819; Salemon dit que droicturiers Que . . .
Trist. I, 72; tu paroles que fols. Barb. u. M. I, 358, 57;
or as que bris parle, Nyrnes 896 ; De ce s'apense li vilains
que senez, Que sel est chier el regne dont fu nez,^' Nymes
880; and (V. B. 2, 53), Et tressaut et fretelle que foeille
an vent de bise, Bast. 1269.
Since, therefore, que in the expression que sages, etc.,
is sometimes an adverbial conjunction, and there seem to
be no cases in which it expresses beyond doubt the mean-
ing of "what,^^ the facts tend to disprove Tobler^s as-
sertion.
" V. B. 1, 12.
** The verse following is : Per tot sustint qued huom char-
nels, in which the thought may be " bore everything," " suf-
fered."
" Cf . Cele lor dit come af eitiee : " Seignor, ma dame est
desheitiee," Clig. 5475; Merci crier vos vuel Del grant ou-
trage et de I'orguel, Que je vos ai dit come fole, Ch. L. 1795;
Et dist come verais amis: " Dame, ja voir ne crierai Merci,
ib. 1974; Et cil li respont come frans: ** Ja mar an seroiz
an espans!" Erec 611; Ele respont com af eitiee: "Sire
..." ib. 4176; Si respondi come esfreee . . .Que . . . Ch.
L. 3680.
*• Cf. Puis s'apanse come cortois. Que . . . Clig. 3274.
112 Ellipsis in Old French.
5. Verb Eeplaced by faired
As has often been remarked, the substitution of faire
in Old French for some preceding verb is frequently
made. A few examples are given :
ISTuls hom vidist un rey tan ric Chi per batalle et per
estrit Tant rey fesist mat ne mendic Ne tanta terra cun-
quesist Ne tan due nobli occisist Cum Alexander Magnus
fist, Alberic 12; Que il la garde en tel enor Cum freres
deit faire seror, Greg. 6-17 ; Lors Tesgardent a grant mer-
voille Trestuit plus qu^onques mes ne firent, Clig. 4836 ;
Que por ce ne pert ele mie, Que il ne Faint come s'amie,
Et ele lui tot autresi, Con Fan doit feire son ami, ib.
6755; Mais je vos aim plus que vos ne facies mi, Auc.
14, 16.
6. Non-repetition of the Verb in the Second Term of
Comparisons.
Verbs are often not repeated in comparisons in either
the same or a different form. In some cases the verb
faire would take the place of the repeated verb.
Tient Durendal, qui plus valt que fins ors, Eol. 1540 ;
Li nains fu fel tant que nus plus," Erec 218; Qu'or an
sai plus que hues dearer, Clig. 1032 ; Si vi qu^il ot grosse
la teste Plus que roncins ne autre beste, Ch. L. 295 ; Tu
seras de meillor cheance Que chevaliers, qui i fust onques,
ib. 406 ; Et mes sire Gauvains an a Qant tanz plus grant
joie que nus, ib. 2286 ; Qu^ele estoit au mien esciant Plus
bele que nule deesse, ib. 2366; mes plus li enuie. Que li
bois ne la nuiz, la pluie, ib. 4845 ; Si devint plus noire
que terre, ib. 5938.
"^ See Diez, Oram. 3, 415.
^See Tobler, V. B. 1, 84 (article 15).
CHAPTEE VII.
The Adverb.
Because of the function of the adverb, its omission is
comparatively rare. The ellipsis of the following ad-
verbs occurs:
En.
ITe seront veil n'ancontre, Tant que la pucele an son
tre Porront prandre et (sc. en) mener quite, Clig. 3635.
I (Y).'
With the impersonal verb avoir, no rule governs the
use of i:
Wi at eschipre quis claint se par lui non, Eol. 1522;
N*en at meillor en terre desoz ciel, ib. 1674.
In nearly all other cases the use of this adverb corre-
sponds to that of Modern French. The following omis-
sions are to be noted :
Dis blanches mules fist amener Marsilies, Eol. 89;
Qui go jujat que deussez aler, Par Charlemaigne n'iert
guariz ne tensez, ib. 353 ; De Sarragoce Charles guarnist
les tors Montet li reis od ses homes trestoz, ib.
3676 ; Que demain a joie vandrai, Erec 1039 ; Li cuens et
troi autre vassal S'estoient venu apuiier, ib. 3214; La
sele mise et anfrene L^'a uns escuiiers amene, ib. 3697 ;
Ele n^osa mie parfont antrer por les bestes sauvages, Auc.
18, 3; Vint au chastel li cuens Aliers A serjanz et a
chevaliers Et mirent feu et prirent proies, Ch. L. 3143 ;
I sembla plus dure La peine e plus hunie A sa mere
ke estut, Omnip. 103b.
^ For the omission of i with the future and the conditional
of aler, see Chapt. I.
8
114 Ellipsis in Old French.
La,
Old French required the use of la with ou in a manner
similar to present-day usage. Examples of its omission
are as follows : ^
Que, en mon vivant, ne Fai mise sa biaute fust bien
acise, Greg. 5-1 ; S^an alast ancui desconfiz Ou il remas-
sist toz honiz, Ch. L. 3241.
Ne*
The omission of the negative adverb ne is rare and
striking. It is omitted in the following passage :
II ne nos vait Si bien, que nuil seignor i ait, Ci (sc. n')
a fors sol une pucelle, Greg. 54-11.
With nus. In its omission with nus, one can hardly
see a survival of the Latin negative nullus, for in French
this word had assumed an affirmative meaning, and the
ellipsis occurs nearly as often with onques, which was
originally affirmative :
Ke si grant barnages ait nul rei suz eel, Pel. de Ch.
312 (diplomatic text) ; IsTuls hom vidist un rey tan ric,
Alberic 12 ; Mes se mes sire estoit or morz, De moi seroit
nus reconforz, Erec 2971; Mes del mangier fu nus de-
duiz; Qu^il n^i ot pain ne vin ne sel, Ne nape ne coutel
ne el, Ch. L. 3468 ; Ki vousist ben penser, De beivre et
de manger N^avereit nul desir (in MS. iV"* is written en),
Omnip. 16d (cf. meter ib. 69d, e).
With onques:
De totes parz Pont si avironet Que a vis onques i pot
hom habiter, St. Alex. 115d; Ainz an font tel joie et tel
^On the other hand, la may he used superfluously:
E vint k Rome quant ele pot L^ o ele TApostoile sot, Gr6g.
112-21; A tant vers la chanbre retorne La ou mes sire
Yvains sejorne, Ch. L. 1727; Si la manroit vers un pleissi6
La, ou ele Tavoit leissi6, ih. 4975.
' See pp. 100 and 112, and Perle.
The Adverb. 115
feste. Come il onques porent greignor, Clig. 4994 ; Unkes
petit ne grant De meseise suffri tant, Omnip. 38d.
After craindre: Ne is required after craindre in Old
French as in Modern French. But few omissions are
found :
criem qu'ele seit perdue, Pel. de Ch. 322 ; For ce qu'il
iert de haut parage, Si cremeit aveir hontage, Que ele en
fust depeuplee E entre la gent abaissee, Ne sis freres ne
fust honis, Greg. 23-1; Or lairai a tant, Ne voil dire
avant, Car criem quMl enuit, Reim. 129a; Car il crient
mout, et si a droit. Que morte ou afolee soit, Clig. 6059.
With avoir and que expressing a lapse of time :
Je cuit que plus de cent anz a Que home ne feme i
entra, Greg. 93-11.
In positive comparisons of inequality, ne was used as
it is to-day. But one example of its omission has been
found :
Mielz sostendreiet les empedemenz Qu^ele ne perdiesset
sa verginitet, Ste. Eul. 16 (ne does not appear in the
diplomatic text).
The following show the non-employment of this ex-
pletive after a negative, as in Modem French:
Ne plus ne se pueent pener D'aus anpirier et d^aus
grever. Que il se painnent et travaillent, Erec 5969; Ne
li uns Fautre rien n'esloche Ne plus que feist une roche,
Clig. 1925; Lors ne plest le roi ne agree Que plus an
facent qu'il ont fet, ib. 4962; Onques de rien ne m'apar-
gui Ne de sa fille ne de lui. Que mains volantiers nie
veissent Ne que mains d'enor me feissent, Qu'il avoient
fet Tautre nuit, Ch. L. 565 ; Ne cuit greignor esfrois feist.
Que li jaianz fist au cheoir, ib. 4246.
Ou.
Ainc dix ne fist ce regne, Ne par terre ne par mer,
Se f i quidoie trover, Ne t'i quessisge, Auc. 35, 12.
116 Ellipsis in Old French.
Plus (Mes).
Plus (mes) is sometimes omitted between ne and
que:
Que a vos ne s^an prant nes nne, Ne que au soloil fet
la lune, 'Ne de biaute ne de valor . . . Erec 833; Wa-
vriiez vos force vers nos l!^e qu'uns aigniaus contre deus
los, ib. 4433; Si que riens antrer n'i pooit, Se par dessore
n'i voloit, Ne que s'il fust toz clos de fer, ib. 5743 ; Et sui
je done por ce s'amie? Nenil, ne qu^a un autre sui,
Clig. 916; Que ja veoir ne le porra Nus hon, tant et les
iauz overz, Ne que le fust, qui est coverz De I'escorce,
qui sor lui nest, Ch. L. 1034.
The Modern French ne , , . que ("only^^), elliptical
for ne mes (plus) que^ had already developed by the
twelfth century:
II n'i a que del consirrer, Ch. L. 3119; Si n'i ot que
de Favaler Le pont et del leissier aler, ib. 4165.*
Si.
Que is often used in Old French in the sense of si que :
Des espuruns puint Fauferant Que il en fist raier le
sang, Gorm. 16; Hues le fiert tut a bandun Que mort
Pabat as piez Gormund, ib. 283 ; Et moi recreant et lasse.
Que plus ne me porrai defandre, Erec 5846; S^antre-
fierent des fers tranchanz Que parmi les escuz luisanz
Passe de chascune une toise, ib. 5945 ; Ains li desronpent
* Cf . Ne li uns I'autre rien n'esloche Ne plus que feist une
roche, Clig. 1925; Qu'uns cors ne puet deus cuers avoir . . .
Ne plus que les voiz qui s'assanblent Si qu'une chose sole
sanblent, ib. 2847; Que ja tant hardi n'i avra, Tant con la
bataille durra, Qui s'ost movoir por nul afeire Ne plus qu'il
s'oseroit Fuel treire, ib. 4043; Que je ne sai dire, quel part
II sont al§ ne plus que vos, ib. 6604.
"^ See L. Cledat's article, Les vieilles locutions " mais que,
ne mais que,'' in Revue de philologie frangaise, vol. 20
(1906), p. 16.
« Cf. Si n'i a mes que del monter, Ch. L. 2623.
The Adverb. 117
ses dras, qu'a painnes peiist on nouer desus el plus entier,
et que li sans li isgi des bras . . . qu' apres le vallet
peiist on suir le trace du sane, Auc. 24, 3.
Vite.
The omission of vite evidently occurs in Eol. 890 :
Plus cort a piet que ne fait una chevals.
NON-BEPETITION OF THE ADVERb/
1. Modifying Verbs.
The non-repetition of an adverb modifying a verb
regularly occurs after the second verb when it follows
the first of two or more coordinate verbs, and it is often
omitted with the first verb when it follows the second :
E li promet tres bien e jure . . . Greg. 19-16; Mais la
dame dist bien e jure . . . ib. 31-17; Or vos aim assez
plus et pris, Erec 672; Or ne les siut plus ne convoie,
Clig. 4206 ; Et les janz aimment plus et prisent Le vif,
qu'onques le mort ne firent, Ch. L. 2168; Je quier ce,
que je ne vi onques. Mien esciant, ne ne conui, ib. 4902 ;
— Ainz dit qu^il pause et cuide bien Que . . . Clig.
4898; Mes sire Yvains plore et sospire Si fort, qu'a
painnes li puet dire . . . Ch. L. 2579.
When preceding the first verb it is sometimes omitted
before the second : '
Et li venz durs et forz, qui tant bruit et fremist, Pel.
de Ch. 379; Mels vay et cort del an primeyr Que altre
emfes del seyentreyr, Alberic 7.4; Ne vost plus sofrir ne
atandre, Erec 1919; Si con li girfauz grue randone. Qui
de loing muet, et tant Faproche, Qu'il la cuide prandre,
et n'i toche; Einsi fuit cil, et cil le chace Si pres, qu'a
po qu'il ne I'anbrace, Ch. L. 882; S'il ne viaut sa mort et
desirre, ib. 1554.
' See Hirschberg, p. 33.
" More often when a second adverb or a pronoun occurs
with it before the verb; see below, p. 118.
118 Ellipsis in Old French.
The adverb i is usually repeated before each verb, ex-
cept when these verbs refer to the same subject, in which
case it is generally omitted before the second verb :
Son cors medisme i assalt et requiert, Eol. 2551; Car
tuit i forgent et martelent, Clig. 4863; Sor la fosse sont
li baron Qui le cors i couchent et metent, ib. 6148.
The omission of i with one or more of several verbs
referring to different subjects is seen in the following
Et vint i Otes, si i vint Berengiers, Et vint Sanson et
Anseis li fiers, Rol. 795; Mout i vint a riche conroi Li
cuens . . . [Apres i vint Menagormon . . .] Et cil de la
Haute Montaingne I vint a mout riche conpaingne. De
Treverain i vint li cuens . . . Apres vint li cuens Gode-
grains . . . Yint Maheloas, uns hauz ber, Erec 1934;
Cort i la fille, cort la mere, Ch. L. 4257.
An adverb rarely appears only before the second verb :
Gregoires entent e bien I'oi, Greg. 92-19.
When preceding a past participle, an adverb need not
be repeated before a second past participle used in con-
junction with the same auxiliary :
S^ont tant anquis et demande . . . Clig. 4585; Lors
ont par tot cerchie et quis Et reverchie et remiie, Ch. L.
1186 ; Si fu mout feruz et botez, ib. 1192.
If the adverb precedes a verb together with another
adverb or an object pronoun, both adverbs, or the adverb
and the pronoun, are very often left to be understood be-
fore a following verb :
Si qu^il ne le blesce ne quasse, Clig. 714; Qui forment
le prisent et loent, ib. 2208; Et mout s'i fie et asseiire,
ib. 3233; Que nus mal n^i antant ne pause, ib. 5156; Que
je n^i muire ne estaingne, ib. 5341 ; Et mout se travaille
et esforce, ib. 6232; Mes n'i areste ne demore, Ch. L.
159; M^i enorastes et servistes, ib. 1013.
The Adverb. 119
Such non-repetition also occurs when the adverb fol-
lows the first verb:
Gregoire I'ot bien e entent, Greg. 55-15; Car il ne
Faimme tant ne prise, Ch. L. 4118.
In the following, the non-repetition of the adverb ne
occurs with that of the reflexive pronoun and the prefix
entre :
Et mervoille est . . . Qu'il ne s^antracolent et beisent,
Clig. 5127.
Eepetitions of only ne are rather surprising : *
Mes n^i cesse ne ne repose De joie feire et de chanter,
Erec 6168; Que nus n^i maint ne ne converse, Clig. 5565;
Si qu^il nel blesce ne ne quasse, ib. 5615.
When se . . . non refers to two things, non follows
the first and is not repeated :
Ne eel jor ne lor lut antandre S^a logier non et as trez
tandre, Clig. 1259; C^est uns avoirs qui rien ne vaut,
S'an estor non, ou an assaut, ib. 1305.
Si used with que is not necessarily repeated with the
latter :
Si que vers lui ne se deffandent Et que an sa merci se
randent, Ch. L. 4555.
In the following, it appears before only the first of the
infinitives to which it relates :
Car tu verras si foudroiier, Vanter et arbres pegoiier,
Plovoir, toner et espartir. Que . . . Ch. L. 401.
So tant is sometimes not repeated before each que in-
troducing clauses descriptive of it:
Mes mout li vient a grant enui Quant ele nel siut et
convoie Tant qu^ele sache et qu^ele voie. . . . Erec 5870;
Si qu^onques li Grejois nes virent, Tant que de la valee
issirent Et que li nies le due s^adresce, Clig. 3417; Jorz
" See the non-repetition of ne, above, p. 37.
120 Ellipsis in Old French.
i sejorna ne sai quanz, Tant que il et ses lions furent
Gari et que raler s'an durent, Ch. L. 4700.
Haut is not repeated in the comparative in Ch. L.
1152:
A la foiiee s'escrioit Si haut, qu'ele ne pooit plus.
2. Modifying Adjectives.
An adverb modifying several adjectives is not repeated
when placed before the verb :
Car plus le trueve bataillant. Fort et legier et assail-
lant, Clig. 4127 ; Car mout est palie et changiee, ib. 4355 ;
Tant f u li tans pesmes et f orz, Que . . . Ch. L. 445 ; Si
me leissa honteus et mat Qu^onques puis ne me regarda,
ib. 542 ; Mout vint sinple, mate et teisanz, ib. 3960.
With the above exception, adverbs qualifying adjec-
tives are, in general, more often repeated before each
adjective. The following non-repetitions may be noted :
Assez: Or seit fait par madraines, Assez creiides et
enligniedes dames, Rol. 3982.
Mes: Car nus n^est mes frans ne cortois, Ch. L. 4381.
Mout: Fu mout sotis et angigneus, Erec 6717; La
porte fu mout haute et lee, Ch. L. 907; Mout angoisseus
et antrepris Remest dedanz la sale anclos, ib. 962; Ja
verroiz plainne ceste sale De jant mout enuieuse et male,
ib. 1067; Tant qu^il oi anmi le gaut Un cri mout dole-
reus et haut, ib. 3343; Qui est mout bele et jante et
sage, ib. 5717.
8i: Mes ele est si polie et droite, Qu^ . . . Clig. 782;
Onques nule beste sauvage . . . Ne fu si ardanz n'an-
ragiee. . . . ib. 3700; Cist moz li est si douz et buens.
Que . . . ib. 4386 ; Et ot le vis si pale et blanc . . . ib.
5781.
Also when used with que:
Et une pucele vint ci, li plus bele riens du monde, si
que nos quidames que ce fust une fee, et que tos cis bos
en esclarci, Auc. 22, 31.
The Adverb. 121
Tant: Estoit tant avenanz et bele, Que . . . Clig.
452; Ne tant sotis n^estes et sages, Que . . . ib. 5581;
Nus horn n'est si esbahis, Tant dolans ni entrepris . . .
Aug. 1, 10.
Tot: Qu^ele est tote seiire et certe, Que . . . Ch. L.
1741 ; Et li sane tot chaut et boillant Par mainz leus fors
des cors lor bolent, ib. 6210.
Tres: E-vos Gregoire molt hontos E tres pencis e
angoissos, Greg. 51-13; Et fu une avenanz brunete, Tres
sage et veziiee et cointe, Ch. L. 2416.
Two adverbs together — the first relating to the sec-
ond — are sometimes not repeated before the second ad-
jective :
Si bien parlant et anseigniee, Ch. L. 242.
An adverb is not necessarily repeated with the same
adjective modifying a second noun :
S'i ot mout grant fole et grant presse, Ch. L. 1091.
3. Modifying Adverbs.***
The repetition of an adverb does not necessitate that
of another adverb qualifying it:
Plus bele assez et plus cortoise, Erec 823 ; Cist est an
toz androiz Assez plus janz et plus adroiz, Clig. 4775.
^^'See the non-repetition of two adverbs together, above,
subdivision 2, p. 121.
CHAPTER YIII.
The Preposition-.
Except in certain expressions^ true ellipses of the
preposition are rare; but the state of the language, un-
settled in some respects, gives rise to several seeming
omissions.
1. A.'
The preposition a is evidently omitted in the follow-
ing passages:
As premiers cols i ont ocis Gnaltier, (sc. A) Tnrpin de
Reins tot son escnt perciet, Rol. 2076; (sc. a) itant de
tens Que apris ait auques de sens Quant des letres auques
saura, Idonc les tables conoistra, Greg. 23-19.
Nouns which explain the service of other nouns —
which in English are preceded by " as '' or " for '' — ^may
be used in Old French without the preposition a;"
Ne n^i a nule, n'et ami Chevalier vaillant et hardi,
Erec 53 ; Doner li volent baron Un roi de paiiens felon,
Auc. 39, 28 ; Si li veut on doner cascun jor baron un des
plus haus rois de tote Espaigne, ib. 40, 10.
Avoir non is doubtless the result of the ellipsis of the
preposition, whose use still survives in a few instances in
Old French:'
Fenice ot la pucele a non, Clig. 2725 ; Aucassins avoit
a non li damoisiax, Auc. 2, 9.
^For the omission of a with vostre plaisir, see above,
p. 94.
^This is probably not because of an ellipsis; compare
the use of the dative of purpose in Latin, as Optavitque
locum regno, Aen. 3, 109.
* This use of the preposition is similar to its use in sen-
tences such as the following: Qu'ele u un riche conte a
frere, Erec 1564.
The Preposition. 123
Estre a vis often contracts to estre vis:
Mai avons fait, ce nos est vis^ Greg. 80-11 ; Vis m'est
que . . . Erec 630; Et si m^est vis que . . . ib. 1125.
Favre son miauz seems to have developed through the
ellipsis of the preposition; the use of the complete form
is not rare :
Or feites au miauz que porroiz, Clig. 6585; Feites au
miauz que vos porroiz, Ch. L. 5554; Et cil del garir se
pena, Tant que lor plaies ressena Au miauz et au plus
tost qu'il pot, ib. 6507.
After jusque, ordinarily followed by a, the preposition
is occasionally lacking : *
Jusque none des lo meidi, Pass. 309; Jusque la terre
per mei fent, ib. 328.
It is not required after jusque followed by ci or la:
Si vos ai jusque ci norrie, Clig. 3033; Qui ira bien
jusqu'a la cort Le roi Artu au mien espoir Au mains
jusqu'a demain au soir; Que jusque la n'iert il trovez,
Ch. L. 1828.
Mervoilles is sometimes used without the preposition :
Que mervoilles li estoit tart Que a la cort le roi venist,
Erec 1480 ; Mervoilles les esgarda Tan, ib. 2006.
In expressions of time the preposition may be omitted :
le matin le dirai,'' Pel. de Ch. 58 ; Un jor de Pasque,*
. . . Erec 27; Toz jorz serai mes vostre ancele/ ib. 4368;
* Ad after usque is found in Latin with reference to both
time and place: usque ad vesperum pugnatum est, Caesar 1,
50; usque ad castra hostium accessit, ib. 1, 51.
''Cf. Al matinet . . . Esveilliez est li emper^dre Charles,
Roi. 2845; Et dit qu'il le convoiera Au matin quant il s'an
ira, Erec 1427.
•'Cf. Am se paiierent a eel jorn, Pass. 208; Co 6st en mai,
al premier jorn d'est^t, Roi. 2628; A un jor de Grece
s'esloingne, Clig. 2694; Au jor qui fu nomez et pris, ib.
4629; A la nuit de la cort s'an anble, ib. 6172.
■^The preposition is often found with tozjorz, as:
A tot jors mais vos son penas livreias, Epoux 94.
124 Ellipsis in Old French.
(together with the article) Un en aveie, cil fut ocis hier
seir,' Eol. 2745 ; Car hui matin vos vi plorer des oelz, ib.
3629.
A survival of the Latin eonstniction is seen in the fre-
quent expression of possession without the aid of the
prepositions a and de:
N"e vos chaille de Fanhatine Mon seignor Keu, le se-
neschal ! Ch. L. 132 ; Comant puis je demorer ci Et veoir
les choses ma dame, ib. 3534; Gauvains ai non, fiz le roi
Lot, ib. 6267.
The Indirect Object.
A substantive indirect object need not be preceded by
the preposition a:
L^arcevesque Turpin comandet seit conduiz, Pel. de
Ch. 202; Totes voz anmes otreit il paredis, Eol. 1855;
Toz premerains ?at dit I'emperedor, ib. 2424; si priet
damne Deu Que . . . ib. 2449 ; Puis li a fait jurer trea
bien Qu^il ne Tdira, por nule rien, Home ne feme qui seit
nez, Greg. 38-17; Et si grant enor li portassent, Et sa
dame tot einsimant. Con le suen cors demainnemant,
Erec 1866; Tot ont son oste presante, ib. 1892; Quant
Deu pleira, ib. 2758; Enide (indirect object) par le frain
le rant, ib. 4056 ; Des qu'il est mon seignor Gauvain, ib.
4073; ceste novele Sera ja mon seignor mout bele, ib.
4163; L^antret ont le roi aporte, ib. 4229; Ja a contee la
novele Le roi Artu, ib. 4578; Erec an pesa, ib. 6524;
An avoit fet don et seisine Le roi Artu, ib. 6731; Le sert
et porte grant enor, Con Fan doit feire son buen oste, Ch.
L. 5412.
VemTj when expressing motion toward, is regularly
followed by a, but occasionally this prepositional con-
struction is replaced by the dative pronoun :
* Such is, no doubt, the origin of the expressions hier soir
and hui matin for at least demain au soir occurs: Au mains
jusqu'a demain au soir, Ch. L. 1830, and hier au soir is
found later.
The Preposition. 125
Devers nn gnalt uns granz leon li vient, Eol. 2549;
a esperun Liir vint poignant, Greg. 64-16 ; Erec lor vint
lance sor f autre, Erec 4443 ; Veez, comant il les antasse,
Come il lor vient, come il lor passe, Ch. L. 3217; Les
petiz e les granz, Yeir les enfanz Li sunt venu le jor,
Omnip. 93d.
When the idea is figurative the preposition is less fre-
quently used:
Ne vos puet venir enor maire, Greg. 67-10; Certes k
merveile me vient Coment la terre me sostient, ib. 79-5 ;
Granz biens vos an porra venir, Ch. L. 1316; Qu'a grant
mervoille chascun vient, Qui est cil, qui se contretient,
ib. 6203.
Demonstrative personal pronouns, and the pronoun
qui, may be used in the dative case without being pre-
ceded by a:
Qu^il doint Tenor de la bataille Celui qui por li se tra-
vaille, Erec 893; Cesti . . . Donrai je del blanc cerf
Tenor, ib. 1778; Demanda li, cui il estoit, ib. 3218.
The stressed form of the dative pronoun preceding the
verb is usually found without the preposition,' and even
when it follows the verb directly or is separated from it
by other words the preposition is not required : "
Eepaidret lui vigor et remembrance, Eol. 3614; Plai-
roit vos oir . . .? Auc. 39, 16. — N^estuet doter ne vos
ne lui^ Erec 5057; Moi plot et lui de Tautre part, ib.
6283 ; Qu'enor te feroie et moi honte, Clig. 4165.
•Examples of its use:
Plus haut seignor, qu'a moi n'afiert, Avrai au jor que ce
sera, Ch. L. 2130; N'a moi n'ataint n'a moi n'afiert. Que
. . . ib. 4808.
" Cf. Povretez f et mal as plusors Et autresi fet ele a moi,
Erec 510; II n'out point deservi Pur go semla a li Sun tur-
ment plus fort, Omnip. 82d.
126 Ellipsis in Old French.
Omission of a before Dependent Infinitives."
Ellipses of this sort are few :
Lors comancent gresles soner Et bnisines par tote Post,
Clig. 1476 ; Qui sa fame tolir li pause ^^ Et lui ocirre
sanz defanse, Erec 3433 ; Et s^il vos plest nn poi atandre,
ib. 1328; Mes totes voies Pesposa Li cuens, qu'einsi feire
li plot, ib. 4772 ; Se li pleiist a ce antandre, Clig. 454 ;
Plairoit vos oir nn son D^Ancassin nn franc baron . . . ?
Anc. 39, 16; Si com desanz Dieu prist loder, St. Leg.
182.
2. 2)e."
The preposition is required in the following passages :
Les rens issi corteisement, Greg. 61-10; S'aporta un
chapon an rost . . . Et (sc. de) vin, qui fu de buene
grape, Plain pot d^un blanc henap covert, Ch. L. 1048;
S^ot puis tote sa livreison Pain a plante et veneison, ib.
2885.
Rien meaning " at all " is less usual than de rien :
Que rien ne prise son dangler, Erec 816 ; Se vos amez
rien vostre cors, ib. 5795.
Adjectives following mie and rien are not preceded
by de:
"Ne rien n'i a egre n'amere, Clig. 3256; Ne li ofrez
mie avenanz, Ch. L. 4800.
Point, strengthening the negative, requires the prepo-
sition before the noun object. The use of the preposition
^ On the other hand, the preposition is unnecessarily used.
Aimer mielz and estovoir regularly require no preposition,
but the infinitives depending on them are preceded by a in
the following examples: Encor ameroie je mix a morir,
Auc. 14, 12; Del mangier a purler n'estuet, Clig. 5038. Two
other examples of estovoir taking a are found in Godefroy.
" Penser may take either a or de.
" See the ellipsis of the preposition a.
The Pbeposition. 127
with mie is more general in the earlier poems than in the
twelfth century. Examples of the omission of de in
such cases are:
Et cil poingnent tot maintenant, Que demoree n'i ot
point, Clig. 4840; Et les chevaus mie ne let, Erec 3076;
Qui sa dolor mie ne cele, ib. 4612; qu^il n^a mie tort,
Ch. L. 2200.
Before past participles which follow nouns expressed
or understood, the preposition is sometimes used, some-
times omitted:
Car Isembarz i est remes Od quarrante milliers
d^armes, Gorm. 516; De eels de France vint milie d^ado-
bez, Eol. 2777. — Deus ! tantes hanstes i at parmi brisie-
des, ib. 3386 ; Salmana e Zeb Ot cent milie armez At
Gedeon pris, Eeim. 47b.
With pres and loinz the dative pronoun is often used
in place of the prepositional construction :
Cist nos sont pr^s, mais trop nos est loinz Charles,
Eol. 1100.
Pres governing ci and iluec does not usually require
the preposition:
Sont ci pres an une gaudine, Erec 4004; Ci pres tro-
veras or androit un santier, Ch. L. 374; Qui soz Farbre
ierent iluec pres, Erec 3966.
An unusual ellipsis is found in the omission of the
preposition after pres governing a noun:
Dune s^adunevent li fellon, Yedeir alevent pres Jesum,
Pass. 171.
Milie seldom causes the noun it multiplies to be pre-
ceded by de, as it does in the following examples :
EnsembFod vos quinze milie de Frans, Eol. 3019 ; En-
sembPod els quinze milie de Frans, ib. 3196.
128 Ellipsis in Old French.
8'aprochier regularly requires de or vers before the
person or place toward which motion is made. The prep-
osition is omitted in Erec 5894 :
Erec s'aproche cele part.
Through the omission of de, nouns sometimes assume
the role of adjectives :
ISr^out mantel hermin, Vair ne sabelin, Reim. 36d;
Puis m'afubla un cort mantel, Ver d'escarlate peonace,
Erec 232; Si soulevas ton train Et ton pelicon ermin,
Auc. 11, 23.
Pltis is used in the sense of the modern de plus:
que fereient il plus? Rol. 2812; Mar i avra cop feru
plus, Clig. 4966.
With Nouns and Adverbs of Quantity.
With most nouns and adverbs of quantity, de more
often precedes the noun to which they refer." Examples
of their use without the preposition follow :
Assez: Assez ont venaison de cerf et de sengler, Pel.
de Ch. 834 ; Jo vos donrai or et argent assez, Rol. 75 ; Ja
redoter ne li covient, Que assez terre ne li doingne, Ch.
L. 2506.
Mout, usually separated by the verb from the noun to
which it refers, is used without the preposition more
often than the other adverbs :
Mout avoit le jor conqueste Enor et joie et seignorage,
Erec 1310; Mout ot evesques et abez Au lit seignier et
benei'r, Clig. 3330; Deduit de bois et de riviere I ot
mout, qui le vest avoir, Ch. L. 2468.
Plus: Ainz a plus los de lui atandre, Clig. 4705; Ja
tant n^i porroiz reverchier . . . Que plus trovoiz ici
" ConHen, but little used in the earliest writings of Old
French when referring to nouns, requires the preposition:
ja ne savras Conoistre, conMen tu avras De proesce ne de
vertu, Clig. 2603.
The Preposition. 129
estages, ib. 5580; Mes per ce ne fet mie a croire, Que vos
aiiez plus mal de moi, Ch. L. 3588.
PoV": Quant paiien vidrent que Franceis i out poi
. . . Eol. 1940; Car n'i avoit mie po jant, Erec 5125;
Mout ot biaute et po savoir, Clig. 2772.
Tant: Tant cos d'espee et de lance Avoit sor son escu
eiiz . . . Erec 3976; Tant i ot Greus et tant Tiois. . . .
Clig. 2704; Que tant fera conjuremanz Et poisons et
anchantemanz . . . ib. 3197.
Trop, The omission with trop is rather rare :
go dist li reis: "Trop avez maltalent/' Eol. 288; Ce
m'est avis, trop i a letre, Clig. 1412.
The definite article sometimes accompanies the preposition
used with the nouns and adverbs of quantity — particularly
assez — and with grant masse, as well when there is no
qualifying adjunct as when one is used:
Assez i at de la gent paienor, Rol. 2694; Cll uit eschape-
rent, Qui puis engendrerent Assez des enfanz, Reim. 26a; Et
des autres barons assez I ot avuec aus amassez, Erec 319;
Chascuns del sane grant masse i pert, ib. 970; Des barons
i ot, ce me sanble, Avuec aus grant masse venuz, ib. 1092;
Mes des rois i ot ancor plus, ib. 1964; Ancor i at assez del
jor, ib. 4016.
De occasionally occurs after a general negation, like
the modem partitive article :
S^an moi n' avoit de hardemant . . . Erec 5856.
3. En.
Croire Deu seems to have existed beside croire en Deu:
Li reis creit Deu, faire voelt son servise, Rol. 3666.
" Petit in the sense of poi regularly requires the preposi-
tion:
Car de Franceis i at assez petit, Rol. 1239; se Dex m'otreie
Que un sol petit de sens aie, Gr6g. 81-11 ; Que grant bien vos
fera, ce pans, Anuit un petit de repos, Erec 5118.
9
130 Ellipsis in Old French.
Compare the following Old Provengal passage:
Bos cristias, qui ere perf eita ment Deu la patema . . .
Et en Ihesu, Appel, p. 149, 1. 150.
4. 0.
Ensemble requires o before its object; it is omitted in
the following :
Et li vaslet les chevans tindrent Qui ansanble Tescniier
vindrent, Erec 3167; An un autre lit jut delez Enide
ansanble la reine, ib. 4276.
5. Par,
One does not often meet with the omission of the
preposition par; possible examples are :
Qo^st sa mercit quMl nos consent Fhonor/* St. Alex.
73c; (sc. Par) Cez degrez de la sale vint al palais errant,
Set milie chevaliers i troverent seanz, Pel. de Ch. 335 ; Et
fist trois seiremanz antiers (sc. par) L'ame Uterpan-
dragon son pere Et la son fil et la sa mere, Ch. L. 662.
Par foi, for par ma foi, is further shortened to the
simple foi:
Foi que je doi Deu et ses sainz, Mout a anviz la leisse-
roie ! Ch. L. 2530.
Old French usage does not require the preposition in the
following cases, contrary to expectations:
Tornez ariere les chemins, Gorm. 442; Fuiant s'en turnent
les chemins, ib. 449; Tornez ariere les estrees, ib. 492; par
grant vertut chevalchent Cez veies longes et cez chemins
mout larges, Rol. 2851; Charles chevalchet et les vals et les
monz, ib. 3695; Chevauchi§ ont des le matin Jusqu'au vespre
le droit chemin, Erec 5367.
" Compare examples of the use of the preposition :
Ainz preiet Deu qued il le lor pardoinst Par sa mercit,
quer ne sevent que font, St. Alex. 54d; Rent li la chartre
par la toe mercit, ib. 74c.
The Preposition. 131
6. For.
Either 'por or devant — probably the former — is omitted
in Clig. 3848 :
A ce me sanble que je voie Les chiens foir devant le
lievre Et la tortre chacier le bievre . . . Einsi fuit li
vilains sa megle . . . Einsi fnit li faucons por Pane Et
li girfauz por le heiron, etc.
Before savoir, the omission of por is sometimes found :
Comencerent a apeler, Saver se il encore vesquist,
Greg. 104-24; Des or mes aler m'an covient Veoir les
janz, qui leanz sont, Savoir, quel chiere il me f assent,
Ch. L. 5342.
Que in the Sense of " Why.''
The use of qiie in the sense of " why '' seems to be due
to the ellipsis of por." Introducing a question stated
" Tobler, V. B. 3, 37, refers it to the Latin use of quid.
R. Ritchie, p. 73, says that the exclamatory que is used
but little except after the interjections Deus! and Ids! and
that the following clause adds the reason for the call upon
God and for the exclamation las! — thus giving que the
meaning of "because" (je suis las parce que . . .). This
theory encounters serious objections. Firstly, it is Impos-
sible that que has this meaning in several cases in which
no interjection precedes, but in which the latter fact seems
to be his only reason for supposing this word not to be
exclamatory, and which may consequently be considered as
the same que: see Clig. 6136, Gr§g. 105-20, Erec 4656, Omnip.
85a, below. Secondly, in all the examples which he cites,
the idea of the exclamatory " why " is as plausible as that
of " because," particularly as por que sometimes actually
occurs in Old French after the interjection, as in Pass. 316,
below, and even when the verb is negative, as in Gr6g. 79-11,
below — which, according to Dr. Ritchie, is generally the
case after the exclamatory que — while in certain other
cases que stands for a preceding por que, as in Ch. L. 1227
and ib. 3547, below. It is also important that por que in
the other examples cited below is as exclamatory as the
que to which reference has been made, and might easily
have replaced it in these instances.
132 Ellipsis in Old French.
emphatically/' which borders on an exclamation, the
preposition bears no emphasis, for que is the principal
word of the expression." The loss of the preposition is
then of small wonder.
Lasse! que n^ai nn home qui m^ocidet! Eol. 2723;
Dens! que ne sont li cors si pres, Que . . . Clig. 4514;
"Morz/^ fet chascune, "reangon De ma dame que ne
preis?'' ib. 6136.
That this use of que originated in the omission of the
preposition seems probable on examination of cases in
which the idea is expressed by por with que, but repeated
by que alone:
Por qu^ies vers moi acoardie. Quant vers mon seignor
fus hardie? Chose vainne, chose faillie, Que ne t'ai or
an ma baillie ! Que ne te puis ore tenir ! Ch. L. 1227 ;
Por quoi m^espamg? que ne me tu? ib. 3547.
Por que, even when expressing some emotion, is used
not only in sentences in which the verb is affirmative, as
in the above examples — and this in the earliest of Old
French, as:
Por quei-m tradis en ton baisuol? Pass. 150; Heli,
heli, por quei-m werpis! ib. 316; Filz Alexis, por quei
t^portat ta medre ? St. Alex. 27a —
but also when the sentence is negative :
Hai ! Dex, por quei ne me donas Que je morusse, en
elle pas Que fu batizee et levee, Greg. 79-11.
While que meaning "why^^ usually occurred nega-
tively, it is not confined to the negative use :
"Particularly so in: EI reis amis, que vos id nen estes!
Rol. 1697.
"No longer object of the preposition, que does not develop
into quoi; compare its use in such sentences as. Que dites-
vous? and the exclamatory use of que: Que je vous plains,
Madame! Iphigenie, act 2, scene 1. The absence of pas to-
day in sentences introduced by que ne is manifestly not due
to ellipsis.
The Preposition. 133
E quel m^eschavissez ensi? Greg. 105-20; Morz que
demore et que atant . . . ? Erec 4656; A tele mort le
jugerent E go li agarderent (Ke volez lunge cunte?) . . .
Omnip. 85a ; A las ! ke sui vive . . . ! ib. 108b.
Thus por que may be used in every case in which this
que occurs. If, then, this que is a survival of Latin usage,
there is no apparent reason for vrhich it is so nearly uni-
versally — especially in the earliest period — confined to
sentences in which the exclamatory or the emotional idea
predominates, whereas it is in precisely such sentences
that the preposition woidd be omitted.
NON-REPETITION OF THE PREPOSITION.
The non-repetition of the preposition is unusual ex-
cept when accompanied by that of some other word.
IWhen two or more infinitives having a common ob-
ject are governed by the same preposition, the object is
ordinarily placed between the preposition and the first
infinitive without repeating either before the second
infinitive :
Por lui deduire et deporter, Erec 3947 ; Por aus con-
duire et convoiier, ib. 4297; Granz vitance est de cheva-
lier Nu desvestir et puis liier Et batre si vilainnemant,
ib. 4413; Por la joie croistre et monter, ib. 6330; qui ne
repose De poisons feire et atanprer, Clig. 3248; Mes la
parole leissent tuit De lui loer et losangier, ib. 5024.
All other examples of the non-repetition of the prepo-
sition, which have been found, follow :
A.
Par molt chieres peintures a bestes et serpenz,^ A
totes creatures et a oisels volanz, Pel. de Ch. 345 ; Sante
" It would have been more in accordance with Old French
usage if the editor had not suppressed the preposition be-
fore serpenz, which is expressed in the diplomatic text. This
is also true concerning the repetition of the preposition de
in P61. de Ch. 224, 265, 706.
134 Ellipsis in Old French.
li doint sainz esperiz, A la jantil dame et la sage, Clig.
5660 (here the repetition of the preposition would be
expected since the article is repeated).
Before a dependent infinitive :
Tei covenist helme e bronie a porter, Espede ceindre
come tui altre per, St. Alex. 83a; Por go le juz a pendre
et a morir, Et son cors metre el champ por les mastins,
Eol. 3831 ; Tant a a dire et a retreire An chascune chose
portreire, Clig. 833 ; Le me covandra il a feire Et guerpir
tot le mien afeire, ib. 5511 ; Cele se test ne ne lor viee
Sa char a batre ne manmetre, ib. 6014; Et il lor comande
a ovrir Les mantiaus et les chies lever, Ch. L. 3968.
Ayres,
Apres le travail et la painne Que ele avoit le jor eii,
Ch. L. 4894.
Avers,
les flors des margerites . . . estoient droites noires
avers ses pies et ses ganbes, Auc. 12, 25.
De,
De pain et vin sanctifiet. Pass. 97 ; Mais que de Sara-
zins et paiens nos guardez,"^ Pel. de Ch. 224; Troevent
vergiers plantez de pins et loriers blans,^ ib. 265 ; Sages
fu et membrez et pleins de mal et viz, ib. 438 ; Portendue
est trestote de palies et cortines,""" ib. 706; Que me re-
membre de sa dolor et ire, Qo^st de Basan et son fredre
Basilic, Rol. 489; E neporquant ne li defuit Ne de sa
boche ne son desduit, Greg. 8-13; La tierce oevre fu de
musique, A cui toz li deduiz s'acorde, Chanz et deschanz,
et sons de corde, De harpe, de rote et viele, Erec 6770;
De quanque ele les requiert, Et quanque fu et quanque
iert, Li font certainnement savoir, ib. 6787; De bien
faire et bien dire chascune s^aparoille, Evangile anx
Femmes (Constans^ Ohrest., p. Ill, 1. 26).
The Preposition. 135
Delez.
Li un delez le bois se tindrent, Li autre la riviere vin-
drent, Clig. 1735.
En,
En une feit, une vertet Tuit soi fedeil deivent ester;
Li sues regnez non est devis, En charitet toz est nniz,
Pass. 273; K^en charnel delit Metent trop lur quer, En
beivre e en manger, En trop reposer, E swef dras afnbler,
Omnip. 62b.
Entre,
Because of its meaning, entre is naturally not required
before the second object :
Antre cez diz et cez tangons Revint Erec de pasmei-
sons, Erec 4853.
0.
grant processiun E joie e changun, Omnip. 92a;
Od noise e grant cri, ib. 96d; so ib. 102f.
In the following quotation it is uncertain whether the
ellipsis is that of the preposition or of the verb :
Montet li reis od ses homes trestoz, Et Bramimonde,
qu^il meinet en sa prison, Rol. 3679.
Par.
se je li pooie dire, par quoi il ne s^aperceiisgent, et
qu^ele s'en gardast, Auc. 14, 30.
In the expression par un et un the preposition is not
repeated :
A mon seignor Gauvain s'acointe Et as autres par un
et un, Clig. 394; Ses ancontre par un et un, ib. 3722.
136 Ellipsis in Old French.
For.
Pro Deu anrnr et pro diristian poblo et nostro com-
mun salvament, Serments Strasb. 1; Ne por or ned ar-
gent ne paremenz, Por menace reiiel ne preiement, Ste.
Eul. 7.
The other examples are of the non-repetition of por
before a second infinitive:
Por orellier et escouter . . . Erec 133 ; Ne vos ai rien
dit par orguel, Mes por savoir et esprover . . . ib. 3368 ;
Et comanda une esche esprandre, Por alumer et clarte
feire, ib. 5129; Especes i met a foison Por adoucir et
atanprer, Clig. 3252 ; Ke quistrent nostre sire Nent sule-
ment pur occire . . . Mes crucifier Pur lungement pener,
Omnip. 83d.
8anz,
Sanz cupe e resun E sanz nul' achesun Fu il mis i
mort, Omnip. 81a.
CHAPTEE IX.
The Conjunction.
The simple ellipsis of the conjunction *' is limited to
the omission of et, que and se.
Et
Not only when connecting clauses, but also when con-
• necting words and phrases, the conjunction e^ is found
omitted in Old French. The rhetorical value of its
omission may be the cause in certain cases :
A fou a flamme vait ardant, St. Leg. 133; A grant
furor, a grant flaiel. Si I'recomandet Lodebert, ib. 193 ;
Ad encensiers, ad ories chandelabres . . . Metent le cors
enz el sarcou de marbre, St. Alex. 117a; Vont sei entre-
baisier, noveles demander. Pel. de Ch. 147 ; Si longement
toz tens m'avez servit. Ad oes Charlon si granz pais con-
quis! Kol. 1858; Tolez les seles, les freins qu^il ont es
chies, ib. 2485 ; Quant il fu tiels qu'il puet aprendre, A
ses letres un poi atendre, Greg. 41-5; Li peeheres qui
povres fu, Qui les X mars aveit ^u . . . ib. 42-5; Si li
aporte isnelement Les tables qu'il ot gardees Qui el ber-
suel furent trovees, ib. 49-16; Sachez que je sui ci pe-
chables Dont Festoire est escrite es tables, Dont oissez
merveiles e duel, ib. 77-23; (Pria) Que Dex Ten rendist
guerredon, Consente le en sa maison, ib. 86-3; Noe, ses
treis fiz. Quant vint li periz. Volt deus retenir. Lor quatre
moilliers, Eeim. 24a; Or fait um gardins, Vingnes e
molins, Granz palais, granz tors, ib. 88a; Enide ot la
noise et le bruit De lor armes, de lor chevaus, Erec 3548.
^» The conjunction ne need not precede the first of a series
of objects or predicate words following a negative verb:
N'odrat de nos paroles ne novdles, Rol. 55; N'i perdrat
Charles . . . palefreit ne destrier, ib. 755 (cf. Ne n'i perdrat
ne roncin ne somier, ib. 758) ; Qu'il n'est onbrages ne restis,
Erec 1397; Qui n'estoient fausses ne faintes, Ch. L. 4388.
138 Ellipsis m Old French.
Que.'''
The conjunction que is unnecessary in Old French
under nearly all circumstances.
Introducing an object clause :
Isembarz veit n^i metra fin, Gorm. 450; L^arcevesque
Turpin comandet seit conduiz . . . Pel. de Ch. 202 ; ne
puis laissier nel die, ib. 683 ; Or set li coens Bernarz, lui
estoet comencier, ib. 771 ; ne poet muder n^en plort, Eol.
825; Marsilion de meie part nonciez Contre Franceis li
sui venuz aidier, ib. 2674; Mes je criem bien, ne vos
enuit, Erec 2543 ; Gardez ja n'an parlez a moi, ib. 2772 ;
Je quid, dix le veut avoir, Auc. 25, 5.
Introducing a clause explanatory of a preceding word,
expressed or understood :
Mielz te furet non fusses nez, Pass. 151; Qo fut loncs
temps od sei lo tint, St. Leg. 28 ; Qo li preiet laissast lo
tot, ib. 106; Qo Pdemonstrat amis li fust, ib. 112; Ploiist
al rei de gloire, de sainte maiestet, Charlemaignes, mis
sire, Toiist ore achetet, Pel. de Ch. 450; Merveile est de
duel n^enrage, Greg. 28-2.
Introducing a clause modifying an adjective:
Por la vestre amistet prez sui la meie port. Pel. de Ch.
806; Se li reis voelt, prez sui por vos le face, Eol. 316.
Introducing a clause (1) after si:
De nos pechiez somes si avoglet. La dreite vide nos
font tresoblider, St. Alex. 124c; Ad icest mot si s^esbal-
dissent Franc, Cel n^en i at Monjoie ne demant, Eol.
1481.
(2) after tant:
Tant Fas celet molt i as grant pechiet, St. Alex. 64e ;
Tant sui jo plus dolenz, Ne puis a vos tenir lone parle-
ment, Eol. 2835.
^^^ See Ritchie, p. 128 ff.
The Conjunction. 139
(3) after tel:
De Sarrazins vedrat tel discipline, Centre nn des noz
en troverat morz qninze, Eol. 1929; De Durendal li
donat nn colp tel Le destre poing li at del cors sevret, ib.
2780.
(4) after a general negation:
Qu'il ne vienent a eve, n'en partissent li guet, Ne n'en-
contrent avogle, ne seit renluminez, Pel. de Ch. 256;
Nul leu n'avoit tornoiemant Nes i anvoiast richemant
Aparelliez et atornez, Erec 2453.
Que is not usually employed with the third person of
the present subjunctive used imperatively :
Pregnet li reis sa fille, Pel. de Ch. 486; La soit, Clig.
4520.
Introducing the second clause of comparison:
Et la luors de sa biaute Eant el pales plus grant clarte,
Ne feissent quatre escharboncle, Clig. 2749.
Introducing a clause of purpose :
Or guart chascuns que granz cols i empleit, Male chan-
gon ja chantede n'en seit, Eol. 1013.
The conjunction is unnecessary in indirect discourse —
e. g., Qo li preiet laissast lo tot, St. Leg. 28. Tobler*
shows that both its use and its omission are found in
direct discourse, and cites, among others, the example,
Et li unt di(s)t: Joseph, de fi, Sire, nous te crions
merci. Quant Joseph a ce entendu, Mout liez et mout
joianz en fu Et dist que " ce n'est pas a moi, Meis au
seigneur en cui je croi,^^ S. Graal 2321.
Ainz is not frequently used for the temporal conjunc-
tion ainz que:
Mes por ce, que nos ne veimes Ma dame, ainz fustes
vos levez, Ch. L. 84.
«V. B. 1, 216 ff (article 39).
140 Ellipsis in Old French.
After a poi, por poi, the conjunction is often omitted :
A poi le cuer ne li part d^ire, Greg. 12-14; Que por
po ne li fant par mi Li cuers, Ch. L. 408.
Both fors and fors que ' are used in the same sense :
Eien ne pueent veoir mi oel Fors une chose qui me
pleise, Clig. 5424 ; II n'avoit nul oir, ne fil ne fille, fors
un seul vallet, Auc. 2, 8 ; Ne nus ne s^i porroit fier Fors
moi, Ch. L. 352.
Que may be suppressed in ne mais que:
E dist Ernouz : " Estez mei ci, Meie ert la terre e li
pais, Que nen suleie hume servir Ne mais sul Deu qui ne
menti, E Fempereur Loevis, Gorm. 174.
Por ce is not usual for por ce que:
Que puis ne puissent, par nul plait, De lor pech^ merci
crier, Por ce n^ont cure d^amender, Greg. 2-16.
Que ne — " unless '^ — may be expressed by ne alone :
Ja ne morreit en estrange regnet Ne trespassast ses
homes et ses pers, Eol. 2864.
Se,
Omission of the conjunction se:
Ne Fconoisseie plus qu'onques ne Fvedisse, St. Alex.
87e; Au roi an ala congie prandre Que a sa cort, ne li
grevast, Ses noces f eire li leissast, Erec 1920 ; Aussi come
por soheidier Seroit feite ceste besoingne, Clig. 5446.
non-repetition of the conjunction.
The non-repetition of the conjunction is not an un-
usual ellipsis. Some conjunctions are more often not
repeated than otherwise; such are come, des que, quant,
que que and se (si) meaning " and '^ and " if.''
•EJxamples of the use of fors que:
Que nus ne le sot fors que nos, Erec 6287; Ne de lui ne
veomes rien Fors que les esperons tranchiez, Ch. L. 1124;
Et je n'oi consoil ne aie Fors que moi sole, ib. 3676.
The Conjunction. 141
Come,
Oil com sonent et boglent et tonent ensement Com
tabors o toneires o granz cloche qui pent. Pel. de Ch.
358; Cliges ot que cil le leidange Come fos et mal afei-
tiez, Clig. 3492; Puis Fanbraga parmi les flans Li rois
come jantis et frans, Ch. L. 2385.
Des qwe.
" Keus/^ f et li rois, " des qu'il vos plest Et devant toz
Tavez rovee . . '^ Ch. L. 2236; Car des que il le tint as
mains Et il furent seul per a per, W\ ot neant de I'es-
chaper, ib. 3282; Mes or iert mes sire Yvains fos, Des
qu'il li a tome le dos, Et voit le col nu a delivre, Se
longuemant le leisse vivre, ib. 5649.
Entreusque,
Entreusque Aucassins estoit en le canbre, et il regre-
toit Nicolete s^amie, li quens Bougars de Valence . . .
ne s'oblia mie, Auc. 8, 1.
Et
Though not rare, the non-repetition of et is found less
than might be judged from the frequent occurrence of
its simple omission:
Et benediet Charlon et Prance dolce, Son conpaignon
Rollant desor toz homes, Rol. 2017; Et bien savoit qu'il
seroit rois Et ele mei'sme enoree Riche reine coronee,
Erec 688; Tant se sont martele les danz Et les joies et
les nasez Et poinz et braz et plus assez, Tanples et hate-
riaus et cos. Que . . . ib. 5974; Toz jorz doit puir li
fumiers Et taons poindre et maloz bruire, Enuieus
enuiier et nuire, Ch. L. 116.
Jusqu'a tant que,
Mes por neant vos esmaiiez Jusqu'a tant que veil aiiez
Que mes escuz iert depeciez Et je dedanz le cors bleciez,
Et vos verroiz covrir de sane Les mailles de mon hauberc
blanc, Erec 5839 (notwithstanding the change in mood
from subjunctive — miez — to indicative — verroiz) .
142 Ellipsis in Old French.
Ne.
Ne por or ned argent ne paremenz, For menace reiiel
ne preiement, Ste. Enl. 7; Ne Tamerai a trestot mon
vivant, Ne Olivier, por go qu^est ses compaing, Les doze
pers, por go qn^il Faiment tant, Eol. 284 ; N^avoit chastel,
vile ne tor, Ke meison fort ne abeie, Ospital ne herberge-
rie, Erec 3138.
Quant.
Quant jo serai en la bataille grant, Et jo ferrai et mil
cols et set cenz, De Durendal vedrez Tacier sanglent, Eol.
1077; Se je m^an vois, je revandrai Quant Deu pleira
et je porrai, Erec 2757; Quant de Bretaigne revenoient
Et lor seignor an amenoient, Clig. 2411 ; Quant mes mois
sera conplis, Et je serai bien garis, Auc. 29, 9.
Que."
Quer toit en ont lor voiz si atempredes Que toit le
plainstrent et toit le doloserent, St. Alex. 119c; Mande
que a lui parler vaingne Ne ses traitors ne retaingne,
Clig. 1365; S^est droiz qu^an reverance Pet Et mout le
crieme et mout Penort, ib. 3890.
In faire que sages, etc., the adverbial conjunction que °
need not be repeated:
Que fel fesoie et desleaus Et traitres et forsenez, Eree
3650.
Que que.
Que que il son conte contoit, Et la reine Tescoutoit, Si
s'est de lez le roi levee, Ch. L. 61.
* On the other hand, que is in many instances incorrectly
repeated (see Ritchie, p. 169) :
Et sachiez bien certainnemant. Que se vos ne m'i anvoiiez
Et le don ne m'an otroiiez, Que j'irai sanz vostre congi6,
Clig. 4262; Garins lor avoit comand6 que, se il le pooient
prendre, qu'il I'ocesissent, Auc. 14, 25.
^ See above, pp. 109-111.
The Conjunction. 143
Se {Si).
(1) Meaning ^^ if ^^:
Et sachiez bien certainnemant, Que se vos ne m'i an-
voiiez Et le don ne m'an otroiiez . . . Clig. 4262; il n'a
mie tort, Se il se prise et il se vante, Ch. L. 2200 ; Se tu
ton lion ne chasties Et tu nel fes an pes ester . . . ib.
4460.
(2) Meaning '' and '' :
Si recevrez la lei de chrestiiens, Serez ses horn par
honor et par bien, Eol. 38 ; Si recevrai la chrestiiene lei,
Serai ses horn par amor et par feit, ib. 85.
(3) Meaning "whether,^^ the repetition is more cus-
tomary :
car me mostres De qui ce fu, ce vos sav^s, Qu'il fu,
que devint ou verti ; Se il fu mors ou il gari, Greg. 51-3 ;
!N"e siet se mors fu o vesqui, ib. 112-18.
The ellipsis is more striking when the subject pronoun
is repeated, as in Ch. L. 2200, ib. 4460 and Greg. 51-3,
above.
Tant que.
La chace mout longuemant dure Tant que cil, qui
fuient, estanchent Et cil, qui chacent, les detranchent,
Ch. L. 3264; Cele part a esperone, Tant qu'ele aproche
vers un pont Et vit . . . ib. 4876 ; Et ele de Perrer s^es-
ploite Vers le chastel la voie droite, Tant qu^ele i vint et
demanda . . . ib. 4939.
Conjunctions Eeplaced by que!"
In the early language, que is very rarely substituted
for the repeated conjunction, as is so usual in Modern
French; but, in the case of a compound conjunction, as
" See Hirschberg, p. 41, and Ritchie, p. 164 ff.
144 Ellipsis in Old French.
por ce que, tant qiie,^ que alone more often precedes the
second clause.
Por ce que,
Et mes sire Yvains an anvoie Devant la rote nn es-
cuiier, Qui portoit un faucon gruiier, Por ce, que il ne
sospreissent La dame, et que ses janz feissent Contre le
roi les rues beles, Ch. L. 2314.
Se,
Se ici n^eiist fors que toi, Que sens fusses et sanz aie.
Mar fust feite ceste anvaie, Erec 5035.
^ See the non-repetition of the adverb tant, p. 119.
CHAPTEE X.
The Phrase.
Omissions of groups of words of which the principal
interest of the ellipsis lies in one word, while the omis-
sion of the others necessarily follows, have been treated
in the chapter under which this word falls. But when
the importance of the ellipsis consists in the omission of
all the words equally — as de tens, d'ore in Quant les ot
o'iz une piece , Ch. L. 6366 — it is discussed in the present
chapter.
Au is often omitted in the expression au plus tost
qu'il pot:^
S'an est issnz plus tost quMl pot, Erec 3701 ; Plus tost
qu'il pot au mur se prant, ib. 6482; Eevenu sont plus
tost qu'il porent, Clig. 4615; A I'avesprer plus tost qu'il
pot Est repeiriez a son repeire, ib. 4812.
Similarly, it is omitted in the following:
Que plus lieemant se contint Qu'ele pot, Erec 2683.
Au may be omitted with mien escient : '
Por ce mien esciant cuit gie, Que . . . Ch. L. 1771;
Je quier ce, que je ne vi onques, Mien esciant, ne ne
conui, ib. 4902.
De cheminer, de chevauchier, de dire are the phrases
most often omitted depending on the verb finer:*
An une forest autre sont, Jusque vers prime ne
finerent. Par la forest tant cheminerent . . . Erec
*Cf. Qu'au plus tost qu'il porra retort, Erec 2285; De la
tor se sont aprochi§ Au plus tost que il onques porent, Clig.
6218.
*Cf. Come onques au mien esciant Chevaliers sor sele ne
sist, Qui . . . Ch. L. 1290.
*Cf. Ainz ne fina de cheminer Tant que il vint an une
plainne, Erec 3936.
10
146 Ellipsis in Old French.
4308; Et dient tnit, qn^onques ne finent: ^^Deus saut
celui . . /^ ib. 6374; Li dui anpereor clieminent, Jusque
outre Eeneborc ne finent^ Clig. 3395.
De (sa) color:
Cum aviez la face clere La chiere bele e culuree, Cum
Tavez ja teinte e muee ! Gorm. 481 ; Si est forment muee
e teinte, Greg. 10-18 ; An sa color ses mans apert, Car
mout est palie et changiee, Clig. 4354.*
De nature:
Encore fist li enemis . . . Greg. 3-13; E le frere li
enemis De sa seror si fort mespris . . . ib. 8-1 ; Done fu
joios li enemis, ib. 9-21."
D'ore, de tens is often left to be understood : *
Et or sai bien n'avons guaires a vivre, Rol. 1923 ; Trop
a mis a li atomer, Erec 2669 ; eingois grant piece qn'il
fust jorz . . . Clig. 1804; Quant li rois esgardez les ot
Une piece . . . ib. 4951; C'est granz diaus, que po a
vescu, Ch. L. 2095; S^un po eiissiez plus est6 . . . ib.
4406; Sire, il avint mout grant pieg'a Que . . . ib.
5256.
After comparisons, phrases — such as de lui, d'els,
etc. — ^may remain unexpressed :
Un almagor i at de Moriane: W2A, plus felon en la
terre d^Espaigne, Eol. 909 ; De plus felons n'odrez parler
jamais, ib. 3248.
Many other phrases, introduced by the preposition de,
axe omitted in Old French, of which a few examples
follow :
*Thus cTiangier and muer are regularly employed in
speaking of one's appearance, and refer to the color, as:
La face . . . fu tote mu6e e perrie De sa color, Gr6g. 5-23;
E vit la dame neire e teinte ... Or estes ja tote mu6e
E pale e decolor^e, ib. 74-16 to 75-7.
■^Cf. E li enemis de nature, Gr6g. 8-17.
•Of. Un petit d'ore sont arm6, Gr6g. 59-11; D6s iluec n'ot
qu'un poi de tens, lb. 68-3; Or m*a an po d'ore abeissiee,
Erec 2784; and Modern French pidga, avant peu^ sous pett,
un peu. See Tobler, V. B. 2, 1 (article 1).
The Phrase. 147
En sun puign tint le brand d'acier, Tuz fut sanglenz
e enochies, (sc. del sane) De Sarrazins envermeillies,
Gorm. 338; Qu^il ne la trovera pas vuide (sc. de def-
fanse), Ainz li iert mout bien deffandue, Se cele ne li
est randue, Clig. 2868; Que avuec moi ne avuec li N"e
remest nus; ce m^abeli, Que plus (sc. de janz) n^i queroie
veoir, Ch. L. 234; Ja ainz ne passeroit quinzainne (sc.
de jorz), ib. 666; Si que il i vandra la voille (sc. (de) la
feste ') Mon seignor saint Jehan Batiste, ib. 668.
D''aus is usually omitted in U uns V autre :
Si het li uns Fautre de mort, Ch. L. 6066.
Por savoir is sometimes understood :
Mais qui I'avrat, sort ont gitet, Pass. 270; S'il en fu
lez, n^estuet pas querre, Greg. 63-4; Lors a an son cuer
remir6 Qui cil estoit et de queus mors, Clig. 888; Li
traitor sont a consoil, Qu^il porront feire et devenir, ib.
1648; se painnent Comant il lor facent savoir Ce don
porront grant joie avoir, ib. 2148; Mes a sa dame le
diroit, S^il an puet le congi^ avoir, Ch. L. 2542.
Phrases introduced by que are not infrequently
omitted :
Nos les aemplirons, ne poet remaneir mie (sc. que nel
facions), Pel. de Ch. 690; Si ne mengai ne ne hue, trois
jors a passes (sc. que ne Tai fait), Auc. 24, 51; Qu^il
iroit veoir la fontainne, Ja ainz (sc. qu'il le feist) ne
passeroit quinzainne, Ch. L. 665; Je desgandi; il n^i ot
el (sc. que poisse feire) Que mestier avoie d^ostel, ib. 203.
Qv^ Followed by an Infinitive.
The use of que with an infinitive appears elliptical, as
in the following examples :
Quant aler dei, n^i ai plus que targier, Eol. 338; Apres
n'i ot que demorer, Greg. 30-3 ; Quant el mantel n^ot rien
que feire, Erec 1631 ; Miauz qu^eles pueent s'antremetent
^ See ellipsis of the noun feste, p. 44, above.
148 Ellipsis in Old French.
De li an tel guise atorner Qu'an n'i truisse rien qu'aman-
der, ib. 1662; Or ne li set que reprochier, ib. 5138; An
eles n^ot que anseignier, ib. 5224; Dame, que dire? que
teisir? Clig. 4308; N^avons ore plus que feire, ib. 5651;
De ce n'as tu que f aire, Auc. 2, 32 ; De ce n'eiist Aucas-
sins vos ^x que faire, ib. 4, 14; En paradis qu^ai je a
f aire ? ib. 6, 25 ; aveuc ciax n'ai jou que f aire, ib. 6, 33 ;
De ce n'aves vos que faire, ib. 6, 18 ; Je ne vos sai or plus
que dire, Ch. L. 1080; Wi eiissiez que demorer, ib. 1626;
Plus que conter ne vos savroie, ib. 2161.
Precisely in what the omission consists — if this use of
que is due to an ellipsis — cannot be determined with
certainty. The verbs devoir and pooir naturally suggest
themselves as meeting all requirements, but the fact that
que with the infinitive is most often found after the
verb avoir makes it seem more probable that some form
of avoir with the preposition a was omitted; thus aveuc
ciax n'ai jou que (sc. faie a) favre. Whether these words
were ever in actual use or only existed vaguely in the
mind, it would be natural to omit them because of the
close recurrence of the same verb, as well as the awk-
wardness of the expression.
It is not likely that with demorer and targier, que
means " why, reason for which,^^ for apparently it occurs
only with verbs which have a transitive use, and is em-
ployed as an object.
Quel dolor * or some similar expression may have been
understood in exclamations introduced by de:
Filz Alexis, de ta dolente medre! St. Alex. 80a; Filz
Alexis, de la toe cham tendre! ib. 91a; chiers amis,
de ta jovente bele! ib. 96a; Lasse, cheitive, Del mellor
®Cf. A las! quele dolur, Fiz, de ta colur, Omnip. 113a. It
is possible that ai, go est or the impersonal a originally com-
pleted the exclamation.
The Phrase. 149
chevalier qui vive, Del plus franc et del plus jantil ! Erec
4347.
The complete form of the familiar qui ainz ainz evi-
dently does not exist :
Et qui ainz ainz des tantes issent, Erec 4204 ; Si s'an-
trevienent qui ainz ainz^ Clig. 4695 ; Et toz li peuples i
acort, Et un et autre, qui ainz ainz, ib. 6508 ; Que il s'an
fuient qui ainz ainz, Ch. L. 3258.
However, an inkling of the origin of this expression
may be gained from a consideration of the following
passage : Pitts tost i vint qui plus tost i pout corre, St.
Alex. 103b, which might easily have given rise to a qui
plus tost plus tost (i vin{d)rent) , Applying the reverse
manner of reasoning to qui ainz ainz, it is not difficult
to imagine, at least fairly correctly, that this expres-
sion is the result of contraction in sentences similar in
construction to the above passage from Saint Alexis,
Thus, for the first of the above examples, one may sup-
pose the complete form to have been : Qui ainz des tantes
puet {issir), ainz an ist^
Horn, dame {cil, cele) qui est is usually omitted after
come and qu£ followed by an adjective : ^"^
Si le requiert come hardiz, Erec 2879; Si les salue
come frans, ib. 3143; Eemenez, si feroiz que sages, ib.
4251.
'Cf. Villehardouin: II ne demandent mie chascuns qui
doit aler devant; mais qui angois puet angois arive, in Ex-
traits des chroniqueurs frangaiSy by G. Paris and A. Jean-
roy, p. 50, paragraph 3.
**• After come the omitted words sometimes occur:
Tiret sa barbe com hom qui est iriez, Rol. 2414; Charles
se dort com hom qui 'st travailliez, ib. 2525; Puis salua do-
ceement, Come cil qui esteit senez, Gr6g. 56-2. Cf. Vait le
ferir com hom molt vertudables, Rol. 3424; De sa destre
main s'est seigniee Come dame bien anseigniee, Erec 2383.
150 Ellipsis in Old French.
Qui est is required in the following passage because
of the subsequent use of the relative pronoun preceded
by the conjunction et : ^
"Ha/^ fet il, "janz fole et yilainne, Janz de tote
mauvestie plainne Et qui a toz biens a failli, Ch. L. 5119.
Se je truis ou, etc., is evidently elliptical, the idea
being, " If I find means by which to bring it about,
accomplish it '' :
Se je truis ou, molt grant bataille i iert, Eol. 2676;
S^il troevent ou, bataille cuident rendre, ib. 3004; S^il
troevent ou, bataille i iert molt grant, ib. 3025.
After si phrases are often understood : "
Charles est fiers, et si home vaillant. One ne vi gent
qui si fust combatant (sc. come els), Rol. 3515; Wi ot
chevalier si loe (sc. con lui), Erec 86; Lors comanga li
diaus si forz (sc. com il ainz pot). Quant Enide cheoir le
vit, ib. 4608; Qu^ele eschape lues et destant," Que riens
nule adoise a la clef, Ja n^i tochera si soef (sc. que ne
destande), Ch. L. 918; Que ja voir ne li avenist. Que si
vilmant se contenist (sc. com il fist), Se il n^eiist le san
perdu, ib. 2931.
So after tant a phrase is frequently unexpressed : "
La joie de la cort demant. Que nule rien tant ne covoit
(sc. come cele), Erec 5604; Mes de ce vos puis fol clamer,
Quant vos le m^avez tant cele (sc. com avez fet), Ch. L.
584; N^onques an ma vie n^anpris Bataille, don tant me
dossisse (sc. come me duel de cestui), Ne chevalier, cui
tant vossisse Conoistre (sc. come je vos vuel conoistre),
ne cuidai veoir, ib. 6242.
"This construction, originating in an ellipsis, remains in
Modern French, as: Bonaparte se decida d une mesure
terrible, et qui est le soul acte cruel de sa vie, L. A. Thiers'
UExpedition de Bonaparte en Egypte, by C. Fabregou, Bos-
ton, 1907, p. 53.
" See Tobler, V. B. 1, 110 ff. (article 19).
" Holland edition — descent.
The Phrase. 151
This use of tant extends so that, as the ellipsis is less
clearly borne in mind, it virtually assumes the sense of
molt:
For ta seror, qui est tant gente, Greg. 4-24 ; la cortoise
dameisele. Qui tant est avenanz et bele, Ch. L. 703.
Ellipsis of the phrase after trop: ^*
N"e sa honte ne son enui N'e li loeroit ele mie ; Car trop
est sa leans amie, Ch. L. 1746.
The superlative is formed through the ellipsis of the
second term of the comparison; thus the comparative
acquires the force of the superlative : "
N^ot mal, don tant Poisse plaindre, Tant est ses maus
plus forz et graindre, Clig. 5483 ; le riens en tot le mont
que je plus amoie, Auc. 6, 9.
There are still many omissions of groups of words,
more difficult of classification, of which a few examples
follow :
Plainons ensemble le dol de nostre ami, Tu (sc. plain-
dras eel) del seinor, jo Tferai por mon fils, St. Alex. 31d;
Se revenisses ta ^spose conforter, (sc. go ne fust) Por
felonie nient ne por lastet, ib. 95d; Des ! cum grant duel
e quel damage (sc. ce est, or que je ne puisse morir),
Greg. 28-1; Deus, quels dous manages (sc. ceo est) !
Eeim. 96a; Aussi con (sc. ce fust) por anveiseiire Prist
le destrier et monta sus, Erec 3962; Et but petit, que il
n'osa (sc. boivre molt), ib. 5169; Au tref le roi est re-
tornez Et tuit si conpaignon ansanble (sc. o lui), dig.
1200 ; La sepouture si assist Que nule autre chose n^i ot
(sc. a feire), ib. 6156 ; des qu'il vos plest (sc. a la bataille
comancier) Et devant toz Favez rovee, ISTe vos doit pas
estre veee, Ch. L. 2236; Qu'il plovoit a si grant desroi.
Con Damedeus avoit de quoi (sc. feire plovoir), ib. 4841.
"See Tobler, V. B. 1, 85 (article 15).
" See Nyrop, Oram. vol. 2, p. 320.
152 Ellipsis in Old French.
A phrase is sometimes omitted because of words fol-
lowing in another clause :
For quant il puot tant fait de mel, St. Leg. 135; Fuis
se combatit (sc. od els) E toz les venquit, Keim. 46d;
Feites m^aparellier et querre, Que j^aie tot mon estovoir,
Erec 5268 ; Et li dist que, se il voloit, A mangier li apor-
teroit, Ch. L. 1043; Ce qu^ Amors viaut (sc. que j'aim),
doi Je amer, ib. 1453; Ses salue et met a reison, S'il
sevent, que il li apraingnent Noveles (sc. d'un chevalier)
et qu^il li ansaingnent Un chevalier, que ele quiert, ib.
5016.
NON-REPETITION OF THE PHRASE.
Many examples of this form of ellipsis are found:
" For la vostre amistet prez sui la meie port.'' " Et jo,
sire, (sc. sui prez que port) la meie/' dist Hugue, Fel. de
Ch. 806 ; Que mort I'abat, cui qu'en peist o cui non, Eol.
1279 ; Sanglent en at et Fhalberc et la brace, Ses bons
chevals le col et les espalles, ib. 1343; Que mains jeue
qu'ele ne siaut Et mains rit et mains esbanoie, Clig.
2998; Cist est an toz androiz Assez plus janz et plus
adroiz De celui d'ier as noires armes, Tant (sc. plus
janz) con pins est plus biaus que charmes, Et (sc. tant
plus janz con) li loriers (sc. est plus biaus) del seii, ib.
4775 ; Flus que nul de toz ses neveuz L'aimme li rois et
plus I'enore, ib. 5062; Ne je nel puis a moi retreire Ne
je ne quier ne je ne puis, ib. 5190; Don il ne fera ja
proiiere Ne autre por li, Ch. L. 1514; Qu'avuec aus
furent li meillor Des chevaliers et toz li plus, ib. 2692 ;
Set, que li lions Fan mercie Et que devant lui s'umelie
For le serpant, qu'il avoit mort, Et (sc. por) lui (sc.
qu'il avoit) delivre de la mort, ib. 3403; Si serai arse
sanz respit For mal de vos et por despit, ib. 3719.
After si and tant: "
Je ne me puis mes sostenir, Si sui atainz et sormenez,
Ch. L. 6300. — Et le p;rodome avuec sa fille. Qui an enor
"See Tobler, V. B. 1, 110 fP. (article 19).
The Phrase. 153
feire s'essille, Tant est frans et de buene part, Ch. L.
705 ; Et li serpanz est venimeus, Si li saut par la boche
feus, Tant est de felonie plains, ib. 3359.
Phrase not repeated in a different form :
Sempre fist bien o que il puot, St. Leg. 40 ; De ses pers
priet a Deu que les apelt, Et puis de lui a Pangele Ga-
briel, Rol. 2261; Peine tei forment Plus que (sc. ne te
penereies a fuir) un serpent Pechie a fuir! Reim. 78a;
Qu'il n'i avoit si povre rue, Ne fust plainne de chevaliers
. . . N'ostel tant povre ne petit, Erec 552 ; Del hernois
a parler ne fet; Car la granz povre tez ne let (sc. a an
parler), ib. 735; Por quoi aussi come an prison Est
gardee an Costantinoble, Ja n'iert tant riche ne tant
noble, Uanpererriz, queus qu'ele soit, Clig. 6772; Le
deble est un de ceus, Le mund un autre de eus, Ke sunt
mut decevable. . . . E nostre char pulente ... (sc.
Fautre de eus) . . . N^ad nul si suttil Hume . . . Ke
ne seit deceu . . . Par acun des treis, Omnip. 7a.
Oie, (nl" naie, nenil.
Tobler's view, that o'il and nenil are derived from hoc
ille and non ille, has supplanted that of Perle" — ^that
they developed from hoc illud and non illud. It might
be added that they are more likely compounds of the
Gallic form of the Latin words, as are oie and mite."
These formulas of reply originated through ellipses of
the verb and of the phrase :
Oie: " Ene conissies vos que je vos ai pris? " " Sire,
oie " (= je conois), Auc. 10, 73 ; " me conissies vos ? ^'
fait Aucassins. " Oie, je sai bien que vos estes Aucas-
sins," ib. 24, 33 ; " Et vouriies vos que je vos en ven-
jasse?" " Oie,'' fait il, " volentiers,'' ib. 32, 5; "saves
"See Zts. f. vergl. Sprachforsch., N. F. 3 (1876), 423.
^'Zts. f. r. Ph. 2 (1878), p. 4.
«>See G. Paris, Rom. 7 (1878), 465; Foerster, Zts. f. r. Ph.
2 (1878), 171.
154 Ellipsis in Old French.
vos nient de cele Nicolete . . ? ^^ " Sire, oie, j^en sai
con de le plus france creature . . /^ ib. 40, 3.
Oil: "Est ce tote la fins?^^ fait Aucassins. "Si
m^ait dix/^ fait li peres, " oil/^ Auc. 10, 57 ; " sont ce ci
vostre anemi ? " " Oil sire," fait li rois, ib. 32, 3.
Naie: Cuidiez vos or que je vos die Queus achoisons
le fist mo voir? Naie (= je ne la vos dirai mie), Eree
6478; Qui le conoist?— Ne gie.— Ne gie, Clig. 4679; or
ne quidies mie que j^atendisse tant que Je trovasse un
coutel . . . Naie voir, tant n^atenderoie je mie, Auc.
14,7.
Je non also occurs, but not in place of naie:
" Car m'an dites voire novele, Se vos savez, ou il toma
Et s^il an nul leu sejorna ! " " Je non," f et il, " se Deus
me voie ! " Ch. L. 4920.
Nenil: Or ne quidies mie . . . qu^il ferist cevalier
ne autres lui ! Nenil niSnt ! Auc. 10, 6.
The omission of a phrase after a personal pronoun is
not confined to the negative:
" Que je sui de ceste bataille Outrez et recreanz sanz
faille I " " Mes gie I "— " Mes gie," fet cil et cil, Ch. L.
6355.
With volentiers phrases are often not repeated : ^
" Proiiez Tan, nies ! " " Volantiers, sire," Clig. 4975.
**The phrase is sometimes omitted when volentiers is
accompanied by the personal pronoun: Or di coment. — je
volentiers, Eles 611 (cited by Tobler, V. B. 1, 4).
CONCLUSION
It has been seen that occurrences of ellipsis are very
numerous, and that the kinds of omission are many, for
ellipsis affects practically every part of speech as well as
groups of words. Most of the omissions are intentional,
and result from a desire to avoid unnecessary words.
Non-repetition has been found to be the most usual kind
of such omissions, for it serves to relieve the sentence of
awkwardness of expression. Among unintentional omis-
sions, which, resulting from the fusion of similar sounds,
are comparatively few, several striking examples of
ellipsis have appeared.
In the progress of the work, we have studied the origin
of those ellipses which seemed to require explanation, and
have attempted to establish more precise information
concerning the meaning and use of certain words and
constructions. It is believed that "coalescence^^ and
" the non-repetition of closely recurring words and syl-
lables '^ have been shown to possess real importance, and
to be distinct phases of ellipsis — facts which seem hith-
erto to have escaped notice. And it is hoped that the
present study may give rise to further investigation and
the discovery of other noteworthy ellipses.
YITA.
The author of this dissertation was born in Upper
Eed Hook, New York, September 1, 1885, and received
his elementary instruction in the New York Public
Schools. After passing through the Academic Depart-
ment of the College of the City of New York, he entered
the latter institution, from which he received the degree
of B. A. in 1904. The following year, after several
months' residence in Paris, he began studies under the
Faculty of Philosophy of Columbia University, which
have continued until the present time under the instruc-
tion and guidance of Professor Henry A. Todd in Ro-
mance Philology, Professor Adolphe Cohn, Professor
Carlo L. Speranza and Professor Louis A. Loiseaux in
Romance Literatures, and Professor Jefferson B.
Fletcher and Dr. George P. Krapp in English. He
taught in the New York Public Schools from 1904 to
1907, and was then appointed to the College of the City
of New York as tutor in French, which position he still
holds.
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