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THE 
 
 ELEMENTS 
 
 OF 
 
 CIVIL ARCHITECTURE, 
 
 ACCORDING TO 
 
 saitruhiusf aria otfter anrimts;, 
 
 AND THE 
 
 MOST APPROVED PRACTICE OF MODERN AUTHORS, \ 
 ESPECIALLY PALLADIO. 
 
 BY HENRY ALDRICH, D.D. 
 
 FORMERLY DEAN OF CHRIST CHURCH 
 
 TRANSLATED BY 
 
 THE REV. PHILIP SMYTH, LL. B. 
 
 FELLOW OF NEW COLLEGE. 
 
 THIRD EDITION. 
 
 OXFORD, 
 
 PRINTED BY W. BAXTER, 
 
 FOR J. PARKER: ANDGEO.B.WHITTAKEll, AVE MARIA LA\E, 
 
 LONDON. 
 
 1824. 
 
NrpiS/s 
 
 PREFACE 
 
 TO 
 
 THE SECOND EDITION, 
 
 A COMPENDIUM of Roman and Italian 
 Architecture will not, it is presumed, be without 
 its use to the public at large, while to the travel- 
 ler it may be considered as supplying a deficiency 
 in the portable library, which has been long and 
 seriously lamented. Our best books of travels 
 give but little else than loose and vague hints 
 on this subject: the Guides and local books 
 of description are too confined in their nature, 
 and the general elementary treatises too diffuse, 
 for the purpose required. 
 
 There appears in the present work a short 
 critical history of the Art in Italy, such as is 
 necessary to be studied before any real interest 
 can be felt in visiting the beautiful specimens 
 which that country affords. Next follow, a de- 
 scription of the five Orders, and a copious list of 
 
 iy:55'?SG8 
 
vi PREFACE. 
 
 terms, accompanied with plates: some illustrations 
 of ancient Architecture, and plans of Grecian 
 and Roman houses, which will be found useful 
 in examining the remains of Herculaneum and 
 Pompeii : then a selection of engravings from 
 the best works of Bramante, Raffaelli, J. Romano, 
 Peruzzi, Palladio, Vignola, &c. 
 
 That it is not of the light trumpery of the day^ 
 the name ofALDRiCH, by whom the history was 
 composed, will be held a sufficient guarantee. 
 
 It would be an insult upon the reader's un- 
 derstanding to urge any arguments upon the 
 utility of the study of Architecture, and to at- 
 tempt either to point out the numerous sources 
 of instruction and profit to be derived from i(s 
 pursuit at home, or the numerous opportunities 
 of improvement that are lost to an ignorant man 
 who traverses the country of Palladio. 
 
ADVERTISEMENT. 
 
 J.T is presumed that the following notices, 
 concerning Architecture and Architects, 
 can scarce prove unacceptable to the 
 readers, for whose ease the Translation 
 they precede is intended. The entire no- 
 vice in that Science — the artist, whose at- 
 tention the engagements of an early prac- 
 tice have withdrawn from the history of his 
 profession — the traveller, who sets out un- 
 prepared for countries in which the wonders 
 of ancient art, and the rival works of 
 masters, who from them have learned al- 
 most to equal them, are every where ob- 
 vious—persons of these descriptions must, 
 it is presumed, receive with no unwilling 
 
viii ADVERTISEMENT. 
 
 hand the tender of such information, as 
 officious industry has here collected for 
 them from the best sources, and endea- 
 voured to bring within the shortest com- 
 pass. A pure view to utility suggested the 
 attempt : and a candid acceptance is all 
 that is hoped, in return for d labour which 
 no vanity could beguile, since no praise can 
 await its best success. 
 
 It is due to the respectable Author of 
 the Translation to declare, that he is totally 
 unaccountable for any mistakes or defects 
 in the sketch he has honoured with a place 
 at the head of his version. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 The wants of man, in solitude or in society, 
 are the sources of his invention and industry. 
 The first of his needs, after tlie means of subsist- 
 ence, is that of protection for his person and 
 stores, against the severity of chmate and the 
 mutabihty of seasons. 
 
 His earUest attempts, to provide a permanent 
 shelter for both above ground**, must have been 
 determined by the easiest apphcation of the most 
 obvious materials, such as trees and their branches, 
 reeds, shrubs, rushes, clay, mud, &c. 
 
 * If ever there was a time when man inhabited caves in 
 rocks, or burrowed under ground*, that mode of dwelling is 
 antecedent to the first idea of structure,* and therefore foreign 
 to the present purpose ; not to mention that the gloom and 
 humidity of such retreats must soon have compelled him to 
 the contrivance of a less uncomfortable abode. We read, in- 
 deed, in P. Mela and in Pliny, of an African nation of Tro- 
 glodytes, i. e. (etymologically) dwellers in caverns, on the south- 
 western coast of the Sinus Arabicus, or Red Sea ; but Mela's 
 further description of this people, as creaking rather than 
 speaking, and living upon serpents, gives their whole article 
 a very fabulous cast. 
 
 • Vitniv, b. ii. c. 1. 
 B 
 
2 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 In whatever artless manner these may at first 
 have been employed, as infant society became 
 less rude, and practice introduced dexterity, his 
 structures w^ould naturally assume some regularity 
 of form. 
 
 The usage of all the less cultivated tribes of 
 men, in the various distant regions of our earth, 
 seems to shew that the conical hut was the pri- 
 mary essay in this kind''. We find it with the 
 Kamkatschan and the Hottentot ; we meet with 
 it in the American Wigwam ; among the ancient 
 inhabitants of Asia Minors and those of the 
 new discovered islands in the southern ocean. 
 It is of ready erection, as easy removal, has de- 
 clivity for rain to run off, and sufficient resistance 
 to the ordinary force of winds. 
 
 Further experience of this form, incapable of 
 suitable enlargement when increasing families 
 were to be assembled under it, suggested the 
 more convenient one of the cubical hovel, con- 
 structed of upright trunks, or beams, planted in 
 the ground, with other beams laid horizontally 
 along their tops, and connected, at the angles 
 where they join to terminate the four sides, by 
 ligature or other fastening ; after which, the open 
 interstices might be filled up with the small 
 branches of the. trunks employed for support, 
 reeds, shrubs, &c. 
 
 '' Sir W. Chambers's Civ. Arch. pag. 1. pi. 1. 
 «= Vitniv. b. ii. c. 1. * 
 
INTRODUCTION. S 
 
 Requisite enlargement, and partition of such 
 an inclosure vertically, may have furnished the 
 first idea of apartments for separate use. The 
 conical hut must have taught the builder the ad- 
 vantage of giving declivity to the roof of his next 
 invented habitation ; and further consideration 
 would in time shew him, that as this roof might 
 be laid on at any moderate height, some addi- 
 tional solidity and elevation of his walls would 
 render his inclosed space divisible horizontally 
 by a flooring, and so gain him a story above his 
 ground plot. Such seems to have been the first 
 simple model of convenient structure for private 
 habitation ; the species of fabric with which the 
 following treatise is chiefly concerned. 
 
 How the component parts of this once esta- 
 blished form were, in the course of ages, progres- 
 sively improved ; plain props into columns ; their 
 superincumbent beams into entablatures ; the 
 members of these rendered distinct and pleasing 
 to the eye, by variety of mouldings of different 
 heights, projections, &c. aptly combined and 
 properly ornamented, is briefly explained in the 
 ensuing pages. Suffice it to have hinted here, 
 that, from such rude beginnings, the practice of 
 building grew to the dignity of an Art, whose 
 productions have been the pride of sovereigns and 
 the boast of nations. 
 
 To trace its progress towards perfection 
 through the several regions of the world, where 
 B 2 
 
4 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 it has in its birth, growth, and dedine, followed 
 the fortune of empires ; if it could be done wdth 
 any degree of success, would be an attempt 
 much beyond the limits and design of this intro- 
 duction, intended only to give the readef, new 
 to the subject, some very general notion of the 
 origin of Architecture, and of the means of its 
 revival in Europe ; and to make him somewhat 
 more particularly acquainted with those artists 
 and writers who contributed most largely to 
 that revival by their researches and communica- 
 tions. 
 
 In Greece, some few years before ^the Pelo- 
 ponnesian war, the liberal arts had advanced 
 the nearest to attainable perfection, that the re- 
 cords of them, come down to the present time, 
 have shewn them any where to have arrived. 
 Three of the universally received Orders of Archi- 
 tecture bear the name of Grecian, in acknowledg- 
 ment of the country where they originated, at 
 least whence the Romans received them. 
 
 The present Canons of Architecture seem to 
 have been formed upon the remains of Roman 
 magnificence, carried to its summit, in this kind, 
 during the reign of Augustus. What examples 
 of that magnificence the devastation of the seat 
 of Empire, involving the ruin of its proudest 
 monuments, had left standing at the revival of 
 
 ^ About 440 years before tbe Christian aera. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 5 
 
 the Arts, it was the first business of imitative 
 ability to consult. The measurement and com- 
 parison of these imperial fragments, in their 
 whole and in their parts, gave rise to the earliest 
 labours ; the variable proportion, combination, 
 and ornament of their parts engaged the first 
 studies ; and the resulting judgment of the best 
 forms, producible from these varied combina- 
 tions and proportions, deterniined the subsequent 
 practice of those masters, whose structures and 
 writings are now resorted to, as of decisive au- 
 thority for their successors. 
 
 Their vicinity to the best remaining models 
 gave the natives of Italy the priority to those of 
 other countries, in the recovery of the arts of 
 Painting, Sculpture, and Architecture: but it 
 would be injustice to suppose, that to this ad- 
 vantage alone they owe their allowed superiority 
 in them. Like the Greeks, their forerunners in 
 every walk of genius, the Italians are endowed 
 with quick perception, nice discernment, rich 
 invention. Of exquisite sensibiHty to every kind 
 and form of beauty, it is equally theirs to recog- 
 nize and to exhibit excellence, by taste and by 
 performance. 
 
 The business of the following pages is con- 
 fined to their architects, and, among those, 
 chiefly to the few who have written judiciously 
 on the Art, as well as practised it with allowed 
 success. Their varieties in the doctrine of the 
 B 3 
 
6 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 Orders have been shewn, in parallel, by different 
 professors, as Messrs. ^Chambray, BIondeH Per- 
 rault, in French ; Count Alexander Pompei, in 
 Italian, &c. ; and different schemes have been 
 proposed for fixing, from comparison of authori- 
 ties, the proportion of the entire Orders and their 
 parts ; none of which have been generally re- 
 ceived. The distributions of Vignola and Pal- 
 ladio have been most followed in practice ; and 
 those of the latter with preference in this country. 
 
 But, before we proceed to these restorers of 
 classical Architecture, we must not fail to pay 
 our first respects to an ancient^ who has left 
 us the only treatise on that art, of so early date, 
 now extant. No artist, or scholar, can be igno- 
 rant that Vitruvius is here meant ; as there is no 
 subsequent writer, who has not acknowledged 
 the large assistance all have derived from him, 
 in what relates to the history and practice of 
 Greek and Roman Architecture. Most of the 
 literature of the Art is contained in his ten 
 books ; and whoever is unread in them will 
 hardly be deemed worthy to rank with its qua- 
 lified professors. 
 
 Though Vitruvius is named by Roman au- 
 thors », little more is known of him than what 
 
 ^ Translated by Mr. Evelyn. 
 
 *^ Vitruvius Pollio flourished between 44 and 31 before 
 Christ. 
 
 ^ The elder Pliny, Frontinus, &c. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 7 
 
 has been collected from scattered passages in his 
 own work. The most probable opinion, sug- 
 gested by much disquisition concerning the place 
 ^ of his birth, is, that he was born at or near For- 
 miae'' in new Latium. From sepulchral inscrip- 
 tions, found there and in the vicinity, it is evi- 
 dent that a family of the name was settled in that 
 district ; and there is no degree of presumption, 
 from an}?^ hint he has left us, that he was born 
 elsewhere. The gratitude he, in the preface to 
 his sixth book, expresses for the indulgence of 
 his parents to him in a liberal education, toge- 
 ther with the information he displays through 
 the VA hole of his treatise, shews that he was well 
 instructed in all that could accomplish him for 
 his profession ; and, at the same time, speaks him 
 descended from persons of some ability. It fur- 
 ther appears, from his own account of himself, 
 that he made some campaigns under Julius 
 Caesar', and was known to him as an architect. 
 Upon the death of Julius, he passed to the service 
 of his great nephew and successor Augustus, at 
 the recommendation of that emperor's sister Oc- 
 tavia Major ; was by him entrusted with a share '^ 
 in the management of his military machines, and 
 rewarded with a pension for life. In acknow- 
 
 •» Now Mola di Gaeta. 
 ' Vitruv. b. viii. c. 4. Pref. to b. i. 
 
 ^ Conjointly with M. Aurelius, P. Numidius, and Cn. Cor- 
 nelius. See Pref. to b. i. 
 
 B 4- 
 
8 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 ledgment of these benefits, Vitruvius dedicated 
 his ten books of Architecture to his patron and 
 sovereign. In them he mentions but one build- 
 ing of which he was himself the architect, the 
 Basilica at Fano'. The Theatre of Marcellus, 
 at Rome, has been ascribed to him, but falsely, 
 if his practice of the Doric Order were consistent 
 with his doctrine concerning it ; dentils, to which 
 he has given express exclusion, being there em- 
 ployed in the cornice. His complaints™ of the 
 prevalence of intrigue and ignorance, over probity 
 and skill, in the profession of Architecture seem 
 to imply, that he had not his expected share in 
 the design and conduct of the works executed, 
 or going forward, in his time. The particular 
 attention he gives to moral qualities, in his de- 
 scription of a good architect '^, leaves no doubt 
 of his having been himself distinguished for pri- 
 vate and professional integrity. Provided with 
 the necessaries of life, the precepts of philosophy 
 with which his education had furnished him, 
 concurring with his natural moderation, enabled 
 him to confine his desires to the level of his hum- 
 ble fortune ; and to console himself for any de- 
 ficiency of present reputation", with the prospect 
 of those honours he hoped to deserve and receive 
 from an impartial posterity. He represents him- 
 
 ' See his description of it, b. v. c. 1 . 
 •" See Pref. to b; iii. and vi. 
 "B. i. c. 1. 
 ' Pref. to b. vi. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 9 
 
 selfp as low of stature, of infirm constitution, and 
 (at the time he dedicated his book) of an ill-fa- 
 voured countenance, from the alteration in fea- 
 ture occasioned by age. He appears to have 
 been aware that his style ^ required some apology, 
 as deficient in purity and elegance, if confronted 
 with that of other Roman writers of his time : 
 but, surely, the novelty and nature of his subject, 
 abounding with terms and notions hard to La- 
 tinize, should have mitigated the censure of Al- 
 berti, Mercurialis, and others ; too nicely atten- 
 tive to the manner, to be duly sensible to the 
 value of his communications. When our need 
 is urgent, and no choice of help at hand, should 
 we thanklessly refuse the sole assistant that of- 
 fers, because he is not perfectly well dressed ? 
 Every art has its vocabulary, and its phraseology 
 too ; harsh, it may be, and strange to the un- 
 initiated, but replete with convenience to those, 
 who are obliged to equal dispatch in operation 
 and discourse, amidst the hurry of increasing 
 employment and the momentary demand for a 
 perplexing variety of directions. The mention, 
 made by"^ himself, of his having been, for a length 
 of time, host to a C. Juhus, son of Masinissa 
 who served under J. Ca3sar, has been adducecj 
 in proof of the personal consideration in which 
 
 P Pref. to b. ii. 
 
 '• Pref. to b. vii. sub finem ; and Pref. to b. v. 
 
 ' B. viii. c. 4. 
 
10 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 Yitruvius was held: but who this C. Julius, un- 
 noticed by any cotemporary writer, was, cannot 
 now be ascertained. The very ingenious Mar- 
 quis Galiani, after refuting some conjectures on 
 the point, offers a correction of the text, reading 
 Masinthae for Masinissae, which he supports by 
 historical evidence of some force^ From the few 
 chronological data found in his work, he appears 
 to have been at the height of his reputation be- 
 tween the death of J. Caesar and the battle of 
 Actium ; that is, from the year 44 to 31 before 
 Christ. His knowledge of the Grecian Archi- 
 tecture must have been derived from books ; seeing 
 he has no where intimated his having travelled in 
 Greece. The treatise he left on that art was first 
 found by Poggio, a Florentine, in the monastery of 
 St. Gall, as is affirmed by himself, p. 346 of his * 
 Epistles ". 
 
 * Vide note 11. p. 22. of his Life of Vitruvius, prefixed to 
 his Italian translation. 
 
 ^ Vide Fabricius's account of Vitruvius, in his Biblioth. Lat. 
 by Ernesti, Lipsise 1773. vol. i. p. 483. 
 
 " What is become of this copy is unknown ; nor is it even 
 mentioned by the Marquis Poleni in his Exercitationes Vitru- 
 vianae primae, Padua 1739, 4to. wherein he has given an ela- 
 borate series of the editions, translations, commentaries, abridg- 
 ments of Vitruvius; together with a list of Manuscripts he 
 had collated, in preparation for a critical edition of this au- 
 thor he had long purposed to give. The first intelligent 
 editor of Vitruvius was Fra. Giocondo of Verona; whose 
 publication appeared at Venice 1511, fol. again with Fron- 
 tinus at Florence 1513, 8vo. The edition generally most 
 
INTRODUCTION. 11 
 
 The same obligation to brevity (in an intro- 
 duction to the translation of a piece of but 54 
 pages in the original) which forbad any attempt 
 to trace the progress of improving Architecture, 
 equally excludes all endeavour to give the less 
 pleasing account of its dechne. It seems to 
 require the comparative experience of ages to 
 determine what is most durably satisfactory, to 
 the eye and to the understanding, in the works 
 of art ; to discover the reasons of that effect ; and 
 to form upon them such rules as should generally 
 guide successful practice. These, once settled 
 and exemplified by superior artists, become the 
 standard of execution and of judgment ; and, 
 for a season, confine the operations of art to that 
 chastit}^, propriety, and dignity of manner, which 
 ennoble its productions. But, alas, this state is 
 
 esteemed is that of John de Laet. Amst. apud L. Elzev. 1649, 
 folio. Of the various translations, those of CI. Perrault in 
 French, 2d edition, Paris 1684, fol. maj. and of the Marquis 
 Berardo Galiani in Italian, Naples 1758, are incomparably the 
 best. Upon the authority of Cselio Calcagnini in a letter to 
 J. Ziegler, the celebrated Raphael of Urbino has been num- 
 bered among the commentators on Vitruvius. His labours to 
 this purpose have never appeared; nor is it very probable that 
 a first-rate gei\ius, who executed so many great works, loved 
 society, was gay and amorous, and died at thirty-seven, should 
 have bestowed a length of close application on so difficult an 
 author ; even supposing him provided with the learning re- 
 quisite for the undertaking. See Poleni Exercitat. Vitruv. 
 primjE, p. 27. 
 
12 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 never lasting ! Tired of the monotony of per- 
 fection, restless imagination, excited by the love 
 of novelty, soon breaks through the restraint of 
 rules; indulges itself in all the extravagances of 
 lawless caprice, introduces every species of incon- 
 gruity, and finally triumphs in absurdity and con- 
 fusion. Having presented this general idea of the 
 improvement and perversion of the arts, it remains 
 to offer a slight sketch of the restoration of that of 
 Architecture, from its growing corruptions after 
 the decline of the Roman empire. 
 
 Its more observable advance in recovery began 
 with FiLiPPO Brunelleschi'', a Florentine, 
 born in 1377? who distinguished himself in the 
 beginning of the fifteenth century. His first em- 
 ployment was that of a Goldsmith, from which he 
 afterwards turned his application to Sculpture, 
 and finally attached himself to Architecture. He 
 had some acquaintance with the literature of his 
 time ; and was enough versed in Geometry and 
 Perspective to teach the latter to his country- 
 man Masaccio, the first painter who naturahzed 
 the stiff manner of Giotto, and set his figures 
 fairly on their feet. He is said to have learned 
 the rudiments of his art from the churches of St. 
 John Baptist and Sant' Apostolo in Florence ; 
 the first of which is supposed to have been, in 
 the ages of idolatry, a temple of Mars ; the se- 
 
 '^ Brunelleschi, born 1377, died 1444, cet. 67. 
 
INTRODUCTIOxN. 13 
 
 cond of very ancient date and unknown inven- 
 tion: both admirable for the excellence of their 
 construction. The main proficiency, however, 
 of Brunelleschi was owing to his diligent study 
 of Roman Architecture, in his repeated visits to 
 its stupendous remains, then numerous in the 
 capital of that empire. Here he conceived that 
 boldness of design and ardour of enterprize, 
 which stimulated him -to undertake the cupola 
 of the dome at Florence, called Santa Maria 
 del Fiore. His proposal, rejected from the first, 
 was, at a convention, solicited by himself, of Itahan 
 and Oltramontane artists, with the curators of 
 the fabric, on that business in 1420, generally 
 thought so extravagant, that he was hissed and 
 driven by force out of the assemblj'. After this 
 ill treatment he retired to Rome, where having 
 well considered his project, and re-examined 
 whatever was to be found instructive for eflPecting 
 it, he, upon his recall to Florence, persisted in 
 asserting his competency to the undertaking; 
 which, after an experiment or two of his method 
 on a smaller scale, was committed to him in 
 1421, with permission to conduct it, by way of 
 trial, to the height of 12 braccia. A very insuf- 
 ficient colleague was, at the same time, joined 
 with him in the person of Lorenzo Ghiberti ; of 
 whom, by a little management, he soon got 
 rid, and remained alone in the direction to his 
 death in his 67th year, when he had carried 
 
14 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 it up and closed it in to the foot of the lantern ; for 
 which, and the ball and cross above it, he left 
 designs and instructions. The height, from the 
 pavement of the church to the foot of the lantern 
 is 154 architectural Florentine braccia^; the height 
 of the lantern 36; the diameter of the copper ball 
 4; the cross 8: the aggregate of these sums 
 
 202. 
 
 Cupolas^ had been built at Constantinople, 
 Venice, Pisa, &.c. before. The truly marvellous 
 circumstances in this great work are its volume; 
 the height at which it begins, and that to which 
 it was carried up, from the walls, without any 
 frame of timbers for its intermediate support; 
 its being double, with passage room between the 
 vaults; and its having no apparent reinforcements 
 of masonry. Its form is octagonal. Among 
 the various aukward expedients, suggested at 
 the meeting of national and foreign architects 
 above mentioned, one was to carry up an enor- 
 mous pier of earth, with pieces of money inter- 
 
 y The tables of measures in the French Encyclopedie Me- 
 thodique (the only authority at hand) state the braccio, used 
 at Florence by architects, as equal to 243 lines, or twenty 
 inches and one fourth of the pied du Roi, which is to the 
 English foot as 144 to 135. 
 
 ^ It is not uncommon, even with persons of education, to 
 call a cupola a dome ; which properly signifies the cathedral, 
 or principal church in a city or great town. This being in 
 Italy (whence we have both terms) generally crowned with a 
 cupola, has occasioned the mistake of the whoJe for the part. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 15 
 
 spersed as it rose; on its summit, properly 
 moulded, to turn the vault of the cupola; and, 
 when it was set, to let the populace remove the 
 earth for the money scattered in it. Though 
 Brunelleschi was so saving of time, as to provide 
 booths and victuallers on the top of the church, 
 that the workmen might have to come up and 
 go down but once in the day, he spent twenty-three 
 years in assiduous prosecution of the task he had 
 the mortification to leave unfinished. His regrets, 
 however, were tempered with the consolation of 
 having lived to accomplish the most difficult 
 part of the undertaking, and settle the plan of 
 the remainder. His countrymen are fond of 
 ascribing to him the honour of having first dis- 
 tinguished the characters of the three Grecian 
 Orders, and employed them with judgment. The 
 Neapolitans claim this merit for Stefano, called 
 after his master Masuccio H. who died in 1388; 
 and allege in proof the Campanile of Santa Chiara, 
 where he meant to exhibit the five Orders in 
 proper situation; but the building was carried 
 no higher than the third story, or place of the 
 Ionic. 
 
 The first great reformer of Architecture was 
 buried in the church he had so long laboured to 
 adorn; where his obsequies were attended by a 
 concourse of his fellow-citizens of all orders, 
 with every demonstration of the most affectionate 
 regret. Nor were their endeavours to perpe- 
 
16 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 tuate his memory wanting, as his bust, done by 
 his disciple Buggiano, and placed on the right 
 hand of the door of the same church, by the side 
 of that of Giotto, serves to shew. 
 
 His other buildings and designs in Florence are 
 the Sagresty (vestry) and great part of the church 
 of St. Lorenzo, with the lodgings of the canons. 
 The unskilfulness, or malice, of those who con- 
 tinued the church has much hurt the effect. S. 
 Spirito, and the habitations of the religious there. 
 The Capitolo de' Pazzi in Santa Croce; where, 
 by the side of the altar, were deposited the remains 
 of the illustrious Galileo Galilei. The uncovered 
 and almost ruined church degli Angeli, an oc- 
 tagon, for the noble family degli Scolari, was 
 carried up to the cornice after his design, pre- 
 served in the library de^ P. P. Camaldolesi of 
 Florence. The tribune of Santa Maria Ughi was 
 his idea. 
 
 He made the model of a superb palace of his 
 own invention for Cosimo de' Medici, to be built 
 facing St. Lorenzo: but the execution being 
 dropped, through fear of offence to the public, 
 the author in a pet broke the model. The palace 
 Pitti was conducted after his design as far as 
 the second tier of windows; the rest of the fa- 
 bric, with the court, was carried on by Barto- 
 lomeo Animanati, the drawings of Brunelleschi 
 being lost. Leonora of Toledo, consort of Duke 
 Cosimo, bought this palace (for the residence of 
 
INTRODUCTION. 17 
 
 the grand Dukes) of the representative of Mr. 
 Luca Pitti, for whom it was built. He gave the 
 model of the Casa de Busini, for two famihes ; 
 that of the house and loggie degh Innocenti; he 
 designed a house for the Barbadori, unexecuted ; 
 another of the Giuntini in the * Place d'Ogni 
 Santi. The portico of the hospital de^ Convales- 
 centi is believed to be his ; as was the continua- 
 tion of the Palazzo de' Capitani, with much im- 
 provement of the first plan given by Francesco 
 della Luna. Out of the Gate of St. Nicholas a 
 Villa for the aforesaid Mr. Luca Pitti. By order 
 and at the cost of Cosimo de Medici he designed 
 the Abbey of the Canons regular of Fiesole, in 
 site and manner equally convenient and pleas- 
 ing. 
 
 At Milan he planned a fortress and other 
 works for the reigning Duke Filippo Maria; arid 
 contributed his assistance in the Dome there. 
 
 •Place, conformably to the French rendering, is the only 
 word that occurs as correspondent to the Italian Piazza. And 
 here it may be for the service of the mere English reader, to 
 apprize him of a strange mistake, often made, as to the mean- 
 ing of the word Piazza ; by employing it to signify the sur- 
 rounding porticos, e. g. of Covent Garden, instead of the large 
 area they inclose, w'here the market is held, which is the real 
 Piazza, or Place. Mr. Pope, in one of his letters, has (in respect 
 to his talents I had almost said) authorized this mistake ; a 
 small one indeed, and that in a foreign language, when com- 
 pensated by the most perfect possession of his own, that the 
 longest use of it could give to the nicest ear and intellect. 
 
 C 
 
18 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 The fortress of Vico Pisano was after his model ; 
 as was the old citadel at Pisa. At the new ci- 
 tadel he suggested the idea of shutting up the 
 bridge by the two towers. The fortress of the 
 port of Pesaro was after his plan. In 1445 (says 
 Vasari) he was sent by the Republic to the assist- 
 ance of the Marquis of Mantua, for whom he di- 
 rected the embankment of a tract of the Po and 
 other works. 
 
 An admirable crucifix in wood of his execu- 
 tion, in the cappella de Gondi in Santa Maria 
 novella at Florence, attests his excellence in 
 sculpture. 
 
 Scamozzi, who was in possession of their 
 MSS. affirms that Antonio Filarete, a Florentine, 
 and Francesco Sanese, (of the family of Martini 
 of Sienna,) were of the earliest writers on Archi- 
 tecture. Both were good practitioners for their 
 time ; but the book, which the former in 1464 
 dedicated to Pietro de^ Medici, does him little 
 credit as an author. Therefore we may truly 
 say, that the first considerable writer on the 
 subject was 
 
 Leon Battista Alberti ^ canon of the 
 metropolitan church of Florence. His father was 
 Lorenzo Alberti, of a family noble and powerful 
 at Florence. His paternal uncle, for his virtues 
 and talents displayed in the council of Florence, 
 
 •* Leon Battista Alberti born 1398, his death uncertain. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 19 
 
 was created a cardinal by Pope Eugene IV. 
 His brothers, who had the same excellent edu- 
 cation with himself, were all men of ability. Our 
 Alberti, joining the most assiduous application 
 to the largest opportunities of instruction his 
 father could procure for him, became one of the 
 most generally learned men of that age ; and a 
 very eminent contributor to the restoration of 
 literature and the arts. Equally profound and 
 elegant, philosophy, law, mathematics, philology, 
 poetry, were all familiar to him. He was prac- 
 tically conversant with Painting and Sculpture ; 
 in Architecture superior (taking theory and exe- 
 cution together as necessary to complete the 
 artist) to all of his time. His work De re JEdi- 
 Jicatoria was the first systematical treatise on the 
 subject, since the earliest revival of the fine arts, 
 that received and has retained the approbation 
 of posterity. He distributed it into ten books, 
 in imitation, probably, of Vitruvius, of whom he 
 appears to have been a little invidiously emulous, 
 by his diligence in bringing forward that author's 
 errors in doctrine and faults of style. As a 
 practical architect he was employed in Rome by 
 Pope Nicolas V. in the repair of the conduit of 
 the Acqua Vergine ; and for the construction of 
 the Fontana di Trevi ; since rebuilt by Salvi, 
 with much magnificence, at the expence of Cle- 
 ment XII. At the same time, Alberti furnished 
 a design for covering the bridge of St. Angelo, 
 c 2 
 
20 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 one of the most frequented passages in that capi- 
 tal, where multitudes are still exposed to the full 
 effect of a scorching sun in the hottest months, 
 for want of such a protection. For Sigismond 
 Pandolf Malatesta he conducted, what is gene- 
 rally considered as his master-piece, the new 
 works and embelHshments of the church of St. 
 Francis at Rimini, left, however, unfinished by 
 him. For Lewis Gonzaga the reigning Marquis, 
 among other buildings in Mantua, he constructed 
 the church of St. Andrew, now much deformed 
 in the inside by pretended modern improve- 
 ments. Though the principal front of the church 
 of Santa Maria novella at Florence be deemed 
 unworthy of him, the portal is certainly a design 
 of Alberti. The loggie of the Corinthian order, 
 and the Doric front of the Palazzo Rucellai in 
 the same town, are allowed to be of his inven- 
 tion. Vasari thinks the architecture of a cha- 
 pel, he planned for the Rucellai family in Rome, 
 the best specimen of his skill in that art. 
 
 His writings are very numerous^ Many of his 
 
 *^ The titles of some of them are Momus, a moral and poli- 
 tical work in four books. Trattato di Materaatica, translated 
 by Bartoli from the inedited original. De Jure ined. trans- 
 lated by the same, with title Dello amministrare la Ragione. 
 De Causis Senatoriis, printed at Basil. Chorographia urbis 
 Romse antiquse. Libellus Apologorum, translated by the same. 
 Philodoxos, comcedia Latina. Dell' Economia tre libri, Italian. 
 Dialoghi della Republica ; della Vita civile e rusticana ; della 
 Fortuna ; published by Bartoli. De Amore et de Remedio 
 
INTRODUCTION. 21 
 
 Latin compositions, (inedited as well as edited,) 
 including his ten books De re Mdijicatpria^ were 
 translated into Italian by Cosimo Bartoli, a Flo- 
 rentine gentleman. His erudition and his Latin 
 style are equally applauded by the learned of his 
 time. Politian, no spendthrift of praise upon his 
 cotemporaries, is very large and explicit, to his 
 own patron Lorenzo de' Medici^, in that of 
 Alberti. It is known that this great man lived 
 to an advanced age ; but the time of his death is 
 unascertained. 
 
 The reformation of Architecture, begun by 
 Brunelleschi and greatly furthered by Alberti, 
 was by none of the intermediate artists so con- 
 siderably forwarded, as by the labours of Bra- 
 ma nte% a native of the dutchy of Urbino. The 
 strong inclination he had from nature to this 
 profession could not be repressed by the disad- 
 vantages of a mean extraction. His activity in 
 quest of information, and his diligence in apply- 
 ing it, compensated his want of the usual re- 
 sources. He first studied the celebrated edifices 
 in Lombardy ; but soon repaired to Rome, as the 
 
 Amoris ; Latin titles to Italian treatises. Much Latin and 
 Tuscan poetry. Statua, Latine ined. translated by the same. 
 De Picturalibri tres, Latine at Basil 1540; again with John 
 de Laet's edit, of Vitruvius, Amstel. 1649 ; translated by Bartoli 
 and Domenichi. 
 
 «! Vide Epist. VII. b.x. 
 
 ' Bramante da Castel Durante o Fermignano, born 1444, 
 died 1514, aet. 70. 
 
 c 3 
 
m INTRODUCTION. 
 
 amplest field of instruction in the fine arts. His 
 earliest patron there was the Cardinal Oliver 
 Caraffa, who employed him in building a cloister 
 for the religious Delia Pace. He next served 
 Pope Alexander VI. as subarchitect, in the foun- 
 tain of Transtevere, and on other occasions. He 
 was principally concerned in the Palazzo della 
 Cancellaria^; in the church of St. Lorenzo in 
 Damaso ; and gave the design of the palace built 
 1504 by Cardinal Adriano da Cornetos, in the 
 place of St. Giacomo Scossacavalli ; which was 
 afterwards by the said Cardinal (who had been 
 Nunzio in Scotland) presented to the king of 
 England ; has since the Reformation been in pos- 
 session of Cardinal Hieronymo Colonna ; and is 
 now in that of the S. S. Counts Giraud. That 
 of the Dukes of Sora, nella regione di Parione, 
 raised by the Cardinal Nicolo de' Fieschi, was 
 likewise his invention^. The palace of the Mar- 
 chese Corsini was begun on his design. 
 
 He superintended the construction of a house 
 planned by the great Raphael d'Urbino*, for 
 his own habitation in Borgo Nuovo ; a conde- 
 scension which nothing but the officiousness of 
 friendship could suggest; if what tradition re- 
 
 ' Built about 1512. See an elevation of this in Pietro Fer- 
 rerio*s Palazzi di Roma, torn. i. plate 24. 
 ? Vide Elements, plate 53. fig. 1. 
 ^ Vide Elements, plate 53. fig. 2. 
 » About 1513. Ibid, plate 54. fig. 1. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 23 
 
 ports be true, that Raphael was indebted to 
 Bramante for his knowledge of Architecture. 
 The gratitude of that prince of painters was, 
 however, not inadequate to this and his other 
 obligations to his compatriot artist ; seeing he 
 has transmitted him to posterity in two portraits, 
 inserted in his grand work in the Vatican. In 
 the piece called the School of Athens, he is in 
 the character of the Geometrician ; in that of the 
 dispute on the Holy Sacrament, his features are 
 given to the bald and beardless figure, that leans 
 himself and rests a book on the marble parapet, 
 and, with the left hand, points to the contents, 
 turning himself at the same time towards one 
 who seems to be his opponent. 
 
 Giulius II. created Pope in 1503, found in 
 Bramante an architect, by quickness of concep- 
 tion, invention, and execution, equal to the pro- 
 jects of his own ardent and enterprizing genius. 
 At the command of this Pontif, he formed the 
 plan of that immense court (400 paces long) be- 
 tween the old Vatican and Belvedere ; to serve 
 as a rectangular theatre for tournaments and 
 other solemn spectacles. In the execution, he 
 had to contend with a great inequality of the 
 area ; which he so judiciously divided into two 
 planes, as to obviate the bad effect of much dis- 
 proportion between length and breadth, and to 
 bring out, by his well-distributed decorations, a 
 fine perspective view of the whole from the en- 
 
 c4 
 
^4 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 trance. A detail of this noble design may he 
 seen in Vasari ; an indifferent engraving of it, 
 by Van Schoel, in the grand collection of prints 
 belonging to the Corsini library in Rome. The 
 whole of this masterpiece was deformed by the 
 erection of the present pontifical library, the 
 site of which was, by order of Pope Sextus 
 V. so fixed as to cut the magnificent theatre of 
 Bramante through the middle, and make of it 
 two courts and a private garden for the Libra- 
 rian. 
 
 The repository in Belvedere, formed in niches 
 for the reception of those invaluable specimens 
 of ancient statuary the Laocoon, Apollo, Anti- 
 nous, &c. was designed by this great architect; 
 as were also a variety of staircases, there and in 
 other apartments of the Vatican, all much ad- 
 mired for the singular ingenuity and elegance 
 of their contrivance. The grand semicircular 
 one, which occupied the nether end of the great 
 court of which we have just lamented the de- 
 formation, was long since, with some others, de- 
 stroyed by neglect, or removal of the materials. 
 
 The little round temple, in the middle of the 
 cloister of St. Pietro in Montorio, is a much ap- 
 plauded design of Bramante ; though open to 
 some objections when examined in detail. In 
 Rome, and throughout the ecclesiastical state, 
 he furnished an infinity of plans for houses, 
 churches, &c. but the grand effort of his inven- 
 
INTRODUCTION. 25 
 
 tion was reserved for a work worthy of it. Julius 
 the Second having conceived the idea of puUing 
 down the church of St. Peter, and replacing it 
 by one that should surpass in magnificence every 
 thing of the kind then extant; Bramante la- 
 boured to fulfill the desire of the ambitious Pon- 
 tif by a variety of designs; more particularly by 
 one, which placed the great front between two 
 steeples, as represented in the commemorative 
 medals, struck under Juhus II. and Leo the Tenth, 
 and wrought by the hand of the famous Cara- 
 dosso. 
 
 Without the walls of Todi^ our artist built 
 an insulated temple, in form of the Greek cross 
 with a beautiful cupola in the middle; which ap- 
 pears to have been the model of St. Peter^s. The 
 execution of this great design, actually begun in 
 1513, and carried on with all possible industry, 
 was stopped short by the death of the Pope, and 
 his own, within a year of its commencement. 
 The succeeding architects reduced, and made such 
 changes in his plan, as left little distinguishable 
 for his. 
 
 Julius rewarded this favourite architect with 
 the office del Piombo, by which he was enabled 
 to live with credit, and to indulge his liberality 
 in acts of beneficence to distressed artists and 
 other meritorious objects. He died at 70, and 
 
 '' In Umbria, dutchy of Spoleto. 
 
26 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 was buried in St. Peter^s, where his funeral was 
 attended by the Papal court, and the whole body 
 of professors of the fine arts. 
 
 Raphael Sanzio D^Urbino^ is so generally 
 known, as the most distinguished name in the 
 modern annals of painting, that any particulars 
 concerning him, but as an architect, would be 
 superfluous to the present design. He was called 
 to Florence by Leo X. to design and conduct a 
 front for the church of St. Lorenzo, which was 
 not executed. During his residence there, he 
 was architect of the Palazzo Ugoccioni, since 
 Pandolfini, in the grand Ducal Place. Attracted 
 to Rome by the notice of the same Pontif and 
 the solicitation of his countryman (and as some 
 say relation) Bramante, he there built the stables 
 of Agostino Chigi alia Lungara, near the little 
 Farnese; as hkewise the "^Palazzo CafFarelli, 
 since become that of the Cardinal Stoppani, 
 near St. Andrea della Valle. The house he 
 planned and raised at the cost of Leo X. in" 
 Borgo Nuovo for himself, has been mentioned 
 in the article of Bramante. It stood in the vi- 
 cinity of St. Peter^s, and was taken down, with 
 some others, to clear the ground for the Place 
 and Portico adjoining to that celebrated fabric. 
 
 ' Rafaello Sanzio d'Urbino, born 1483, died 1520, set. 37. 
 "'A. D. 1515. Vide Elements, pi. 53. fig. 3. 
 » A. D. 1513. Ibid. pi. 54. fig. 1. Compare P. Ferrerio, 
 torn. i. no. 15. to see the ineptiae rejected. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 27 
 
 Upon the death of Bramante, Raphael was ap- 
 pointed to succeed him as one of the architects 
 of that Dome ; for which he made a design in form 
 of a Latin cross, not much approved at the time, 
 or since. The gardens of the Vatican were laid 
 out by him ; a business, in that age and too long 
 after, thought more within the province of the 
 architect than that of the painter. Happy for 
 the works of the present day that the analogy 
 has shifted ! 
 
 Baldassare Peruzzi^ son of Antonio, of 
 a noble family in Sienna, was in his infancy car- 
 ried by his father into retirement at Volterra, 
 from the civil broils of his native district. This 
 city of refuge being afterwards sacked, the family 
 returned in indigence to its original settlement 
 at Sienna. Our young artist, initiated in Geo- 
 metry and Perspective, applied to Design and 
 Painting for subsistence, with uncommon credit: 
 but, to indulge his genius, and enlarge his means 
 of living, soon joined the study of Architecture 
 to his former pursuits, and with equal success. 
 Rome is the general resort of all who cultivate 
 the fine arts with desire of excellence. Baldas- 
 sare found a warm patron there in Agostino 
 Chigi, for whom he built a palace alia LungaraP, 
 which, having since passed to the serene house 
 
 " Baldassare Peruzzi, born 1481, died 1536, aet. 55. 
 »' A. D. 1518. See Elements, pi. 54. fig. 2. 
 
28 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 of Farnese, now goes by the name of the Farne- 
 sina. There he moreover displayed the magic 
 of his pencil, in a manner that deceived and 
 astonished even Titian. Monsignor Bottari, in 
 a note to the Neapohtan edition of Vasari, af- 
 firms, that all these paintings of Peruzzi, except- 
 ing some clair-obscures on outwalls, were in good 
 preservation in 17^9, and the painted cornices 
 still of a relief that deceived every unapprised 
 spectator. 
 
 Transferring himself, for a while, to Bologna, he 
 there made two models, in different manners, for 
 the front of S. Petronio, and other designs for 
 the service of that fabric. In the same city he 
 repaired, with additions, the palace of Count Gio- 
 Battista BentivogHo; very dexterously adapting 
 new constructions to the preserved parts of the 
 old. The portal of the Church of St. Michele in 
 Bosco, at a litde distance out of Bologna, was of 
 his invention. 
 
 At Carpi, in the states of Modena, he gave the 
 design and model of the dome, which was ex- 
 ecuted under his direction ; and began the church 
 of St. Nicholas. 
 
 Returning to Sienna, he planned the fortifica- 
 tions of that city, and made designs for some 
 houses in it. After these engagements were com- 
 pleted, repairing again to Rome, he was em- 
 ployed by Leo X. in the fabric of St. Peter's; 
 for which that Pontif began to think the plan of 
 
I INTRODUCTION. 29 
 
 Bramante too extensive ; and therefore wished 
 for another, which might appear sufficiently 
 magnificent under less volume. This the inge- 
 nuity of Peruzzi soon furnished, as may be seen 
 in Serlio^s book, much to the credit of the in- 
 ventor. 
 
 The deposit of Adrian VI. in the Church dell' 
 Anima, is of Peruzzi^s architecture ; the sculp- 
 ture of it by Michel Angelo of Sienna, with his 
 assistance. 
 
 When the Calandra of Cardinal Bibiena (the 
 first Italian comedy in prose) was performed be- 
 fore the Pope, the theatrical decorations were 
 contrived by this artist ; who exhibited two 
 scenes of such striking effect, as to excite the 
 emulation and inform the practice of those who 
 followed him in that line of painting. 
 
 Under his conduct were likewise made the 
 preparations for the coronation of Clement VII. 
 in 1524. 
 
 In less than three years after (1527) he was 
 taken prisoner, stripped of all he had, and ex- 
 tremely ill used by the Spanish soldiers, in the 
 sack of Rome by Charles de Bourbon, rebel con- 
 stable of France. 
 
 Our architect's good mien and person caused 
 him to be taken for somebody of importance, 
 and tortured for discovery of his supposed va- 
 luable effects. When found to be a painter, his 
 captors obliged him, notwithstanding his evil 
 
30 INTRODUCTION. ^ 
 
 plight from their cruel treatment, to make a por- 
 trait of the constable, who was killed as he was 
 mounting the ladder to the assault''. Escaped 
 from his persecutors, Baldassare embarked for 
 Porto Ercole in his way to Sienna. On his road 
 thither he was again assaulted, and so com- 
 pletely despoiled, as to be obliged to proceed on 
 his journey naked. 
 
 When the attention of his friends there had 
 recovered him, and supplied him with neces- 
 saries, he undertook the execution of his own 
 designs for the fortification of that city. Re- 
 solved not to act against his country, he refused 
 to serve the Pope (Clement VII.) in the siege of 
 Florence, its capital. The Pontif, by the good 
 offices of three Cardinals, friends to Peruzzi, 
 was, after some time, so far reconciled as to al- 
 low him to return to Rome, where he built two 
 palaces for the family of Massimi% (one of them 
 an oval of very difficult construction, which he 
 left unfinished,) and made designs for two villas 
 of the S. S.^ Orsini, near Viterbo, that were car- 
 ried into execution — as likewise others for edi- 
 fices in Pugha. 
 
 In this situation he began a treatise on the 
 Antiquities of Rome, and a commentary on Vi- 
 
 1 May 6, 1527. 
 
 '■ See that of Massimi Alia Valle in P. Ferrerio, torn. i. 
 no. 18. 
 
 * See P. Ferrerio, torn. ii. no. 34. date uncertain. , 
 
INTRODUCTION. 31 
 
 truvius; making drawings for the latter as he 
 went on with the work. Parts of these under- 
 takings were, when Yasari wrote, in the hands 
 of Francesco Sanese his disciple. Sebastian Ser- 
 lio, a Bolognese, and Giacomo Melighino of 
 Ferrara, architect to Paul III. became possessed 
 of the remaining part of what Peruzzi left behind 
 him; the former profited largely by his collec- 
 tions, observations, and designs, in composing his 
 own book on Architecture. 
 
 The court of the palace of the ducal family of 
 Altemps, in Rome, is supposed to have been re- 
 paired and refitted by Peruzzi. The palace of 
 the Marquis Silvestri, opposite St. Lorenzo in 
 Damaso% and the House of Sig. Giuseppe Costa 
 in Borgo* Nuovo, were built after his designs: 
 the latter was probably taken down for its vicinity 
 to St. Peter's. 
 
 This great architect and painter was born in 
 family distress ; harrassed, through life, with mis- 
 fortune ; and never in any comfortable degree 
 approached to easy, circumstances. His atten- 
 tion was more earnestly exerted in the attain- 
 ment of professional excellence, than of the gain 
 due to his services. Of this indifference to 
 pecuniary reward the most opulent of his em- 
 ployers are said to have taken such unworthy 
 
 » See P. Ferrerio, torn. ii. no. 34. date uncertain. 
 * Ibid. no. 46. date uncertain. 
 
32 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 advantage, as left his mind a prey to anxiety for 
 the fortunes of his family, and his health to de- 
 cline under that pressure, without the alleviations 
 of domestic convenience. His all was a salary 
 of 950 Roman crowns a year, as architect of 
 St. Peter^s. When in extremity, the reigning 
 Pope, Paul III. sent him 100 crowns, with many 
 unseasonable offers of promotion. Thus is ac- 
 knowledged merit, when unassuming as it gene- 
 rally is, left to live on empty praise; while the 
 man of mean talents, backed by effrontery and 
 upheld by intrigue, states his own claims, and 
 none dares to delay or refuse them. — He was 
 buried in the Rotonda, by the side of Raphael 
 d'Urbino, with the usual attendance of Artists, 
 &c. 
 
 Frater Johannes Jocundus". Neither 
 the extraction of this very learned ecclesiastic, nor 
 the exact time of his birth, are yet ascertamed. 
 That he was a native of Verona is on all hands 
 allowed. It has been said that his family name 
 was Monsignori, but without proof. J. Caesar 
 Scalio^er has affirmed his descent to have been 
 noble. Perhaps the vanity which prompted that 
 great scholar's endeavours to establish his own 
 high birth, might incline him to indulge nobility 
 to one, whom (though the fact be somewhat 
 
 " Fra. Giocondo, born some years before the middle of the 
 fifteenth century ; death uncertain. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 33 
 
 dubious) he declares to have been his preceptor ; 
 without considering that the respectabihty of 
 Jocundus, as well as his own, stood on better 
 ground than that of ancestry. He was, most 
 probably, born some years earlier than the 
 middle of the fifteenth century, the commonly 
 assigned date of his nativity. To what religious 
 society he belonged has been matter of further 
 controversy; some caUing him a Dominican, 
 others a Franciscan. The very accurate Mar- 
 quis J. Poleni", after stating the varying autho- 
 rities on this point, endeavours to adjust the dif- 
 ferences, by supposing him first a Dominican; 
 afterwards to have quitted that order, and lived 
 in the world as a secular priest; and to have 
 finally joined the society of the Franciscans. 
 No man of his time was superior to him as 
 a divine, philosopher, mathematician, or polite 
 scholar. All the arts of design he possessed in 
 an eminent degree: in Architecture he was con- 
 summate. At an early age he visited Rome and 
 its adjacencies; where he applied himself with 
 singular industry to all the remains of antiquity. 
 One fruit of this application was a volume of 
 collections he presented to Lorenzo de* Medici, 
 mentioned by Politiany, with high commenda- 
 tion of the author. This is said to have con- 
 
 * Exercit. Vitruv. primae, p. 21. 
 ^ Miscellan. cent. 1. cap. 77. edit. Ascensii, fol. cliiii. 
 D 
 
S4 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 tained more than 9000 inscriptions. The origi- 
 nal volume is missing: but the libraries of the 
 learned Marquis Scipio Maffei at Verona, and 
 that of Magliabecchi at Florence, have copies of 
 it. He resided some time in Germany, with the 
 emperor Maximilian, by whom he was much 
 esteemed. Invited by Lewis XII. into France, 
 among other buildings for that sovereign, he di-* 
 rected the construction of two bridges, of his 
 own invention, over the Seine at Paris; but cer- 
 tainly did not superintend the whole of the exe- 
 cution; as these were finished in 1507, and Jo- 
 cund us was at Venice in 1506 and lo08. During 
 his abode in Paris, he had the good fortune to 
 find, in an old library there, a more complete 
 MS. than any then known of the younger Phny's 
 Epistles =^, from which he procured an edition of 
 them at Bologna, 1498, 4to. Under favour of 
 the same opportunity, he assisted Budaeus in 
 reading Vitruvius, by his drawings as well as 
 oral explanations. 
 
 In 1506 a most important service was rendered 
 by him to the Republic of Venice. Consulted on 
 the growing danger of the Lagunes being filled 
 up, with the earth and sand discharged into them 
 by the mouth of the Brenta, he recommended 
 the making a cut to divert part of its water, with 
 
 ^ Vide Annotationes prior, et posterior. G. Budaei in Pan- 
 dect. Lutet. 1556. p. 39. F. p. 120. D. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 35 
 
 the matters brought down by it, towards Chiog- 
 gia. In consequence of that expedient, the wash 
 since carried that way has made a tract of good 
 ground of what before was sea, and the Lagunes 
 are kept free from what accumulates there. In 
 acknowledgment of this service, the celebrated 
 Lewis Cornaro called Jocundus the second 
 founder of Venice. It was afterwards thought still 
 more conducive to the end proposed to lead the 
 outlet farther southward, where it now enters the 
 sea at Porto Brondoli. 
 
 In 1511 he superintended his own edition of 
 Vitruvius, fol. at Venice, in which he very con- 
 siderably amended the text, and, by drawings and 
 other illustrations, facilitated the study of his 
 author. In [6X3, when most of the quarter of 
 Rialto, in that city, was destroyed by fire, he 
 furnished a magnificent design for rebuilding it. 
 It consisted of a forum surrounded by porticos, 
 with houses and warehouses for the merchants, 
 church, exchange, an ornamental bridge, &c. To 
 his infinite discontent this great plan was laid 
 aside, and a wretched one of Zamfragnino, a very 
 inferior architect, carried into execution some 
 years after. This and other designs of our artist 
 were in possession of the Bragadini family, op- 
 posite S. Marina. 
 
 Upon the death of Bramante, in 1514, he was 
 joined with Raphael of Urbino, and Antonio 
 Sangallo, in the direction of the fabric of St, 
 D 1^ 
 
36 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 Peter, of the Vatican, then thought in danger of 
 ruin through the insufficiency of the foundations. 
 These he assisted in making good by proper 
 underbuilding of piers and arches turned upon 
 them, "SO well applied as to ensure the stupendous 
 masses they help to support. 
 
 He restored, in 1521, the Ponte della Pietra, 
 at Verona, and, by a very simple process of 
 planking, fortified the middle pier, several times 
 destroyed by floods. After which repair it con- 
 tinued immoveable till 1757? when the whole 
 was borne down by a most formidable swell of the 
 Adige. 
 
 Jocundus was critically possessed of the Greek 
 and Latin languages. To him are owing the 
 first useful edition of Vitruvius — Illustrations of 
 Caesar's Commentaries, with the earliest plan of 
 his bridge over the Rhine, in an edition of the 
 Latin text, printed by Aldus. Ven. 1517. fol. — 
 Frontinus de Aquaeductibus, published with his 
 Vitruvius. Flor. 1513. 8vo. — Pliny's Epistles, 
 before mentioned. — Julius Obsequens was pre- 
 sented by Jocundus to Aldus, who printed the 
 first edition of this author, 1508. 8vo. — Cato de 
 re Rustica, and the Epitome of Victor, were like- 
 wise edited by our Franciscan. 
 
 That this indefatigable promoter of arts and 
 sciences lived to a very advanced age is certain ; 
 but the time and place of his decease are un- 
 known. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 37 
 
 Michel Sanmicheli * was born at Verona, 
 in 1484. From his father John and his paternal 
 uncle Bartholomew, both excellent architects, 
 he learned the rudiments of their art. At six- 
 teen he went to study at Rome, where his appli- 
 cation and discernment, exercised on the best 
 models, perfected that ability, of which domestic 
 instruction had laid the ground-work. Thus 
 qualified for practice, he began his career with 
 the Dome of Monte Fiascone, of an octangular 
 form, crowned with an elegant cupola. His 
 talent was further displayed in the Church of 
 St. Domenico, in Orvieto, and several houses in 
 both those towns. His reputation as an archi- 
 tect increasing, he was employed, in conjunction 
 with Antonio Sangallo, by Pope Clement VII. 
 in visiting all the fortifications of the ecclesias- 
 tical state. That commission fulfilled, he re- 
 turned to his own country ; where, prompted by 
 curiosity and desire of improvement, he made a 
 tour for the inspection of the fortresses of the 
 Venetian territories. In this journey, his very 
 attentive observation of those objects caused him 
 to be taken up for a spy at Padua : but his in- 
 nocence of the charge being soon proved, and 
 his ability recognized, he was strongly pressed 
 to engage in the service of the Republic. This 
 invitation his obligations to the Pope would not 
 
 * Michel Sanmicheli, born 1484, died 1559, get. 75. 
 D 3 
 
68 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 permit him, at that time, tp accept. The sohcit- 
 ations, however, of the RepubHc, added to his 
 own, procured him, not long after, leave to retire 
 from his employments under the holy see, to 
 adorn and defend his country. 
 
 His fellow-citizens, with much appearance of 
 reason, ascribe'd to Sanmicheli the invention of 
 the improved mode of fortification now in use ; 
 though the French have done themselves the ho- 
 nour of it, and few of the Italians suspect that it 
 originated with a national of their own. He 
 first introduced the pentagonal bastion, with flat 
 faces and flanks, whereas those before in use 
 were either round or square ; and it is pretended 
 that the dawn and progress of this improvement 
 may be traced in the bastions of his construction 
 at Verona, beginning with that delle Maddalene, 
 erected in 1697, wherein it is said that the ex- 
 piring old manner and the new-born amendment 
 are both observable. Count Pompei gives this 
 distinguished engineer the further credit of the 
 Orillon bastion (Baloardo con gli Orecchioni) 
 and other inventions, which have been only mo- 
 dified by succeeding military architects. These 
 new methods he applied in the fortifications of 
 Legnago, Orzi Nuovo, Castello, &c. Upon the 
 apprehension of a war with the Turks, he made 
 good all the Venetian strong holds in Dalmatia, 
 Corfu, the Morea, the Levant, Cyprus, &c. By 
 the works he raised for its defence, the city of 
 
INTRODUCTION. 39 
 
 Candia, metropolis of the island of that name, 
 was enabled to stand out a ten years* siege by 
 the Turks; to whom, after that long course 
 of devastation and carnage, it was given up 
 by capitulation, Sept. 6, 1669, a mere field of 
 ruins. 
 
 But the merit of all these specimens of his 
 aWlity as an engineer disappears, when they are 
 compared with that astonishing fortress del Lido, 
 at the mouth of the Port of Venice. The soil, 
 on which this enormous mass is built, was marsh 
 surrounded by the sea. Notwithstanding which 
 difficulty, our artist contrived, by the choice of 
 his materials, the solidity of his foundations, the 
 massiveness of the stones, and the care in their 
 conjunction, so to complete his enterprize, that 
 no changes of weather, nor constant agitation of 
 the sea, nor incidental storm, have in any degree 
 affected this construction ; which, by its com- 
 pactness, seems rather cut out of a rock, than 
 built by hand. Envy soon suggested that the 
 great quantity of heavy artillery required to fur- 
 nish this fortress, would, when discharged, in- 
 fallibly occasion its ruin. Sanmicheli, in order 
 to do away at once this malevolent suggestion, 
 begged leave to have the largest cannon of the 
 arsenal brought thither; and, furnishing all the 
 embrasures, ordered a discharge of the whole 
 number of pieces at once. This formidable ex- 
 periment caused not the least breach or crack in 
 
 b 4 
 
40 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 the works, and effectually silenced the presages 
 of the envious. 
 
 In Venice Sanmicheh gave the model of the 
 monastery of the Nuns of St. Biagio Catoldo. 
 He designed the palace de^ Cornari a S. Paolo; 
 and that of Grimani, near St. Luke's, upon the 
 great canal. 
 
 At Castel Franco, between Padua and Tre- 
 vigi, he built the Villa Soranzo, much applauded 
 for its beauty and commodiousness. At Padua, 
 a Deposit in the Church of St. Antonio, for 
 Alexander Contarini, of a curious design. 
 
 In Verona, his native town, la Porta Nuova — 
 la Porta del Palio — la Porta di San Zenone — 
 la Cappella Guareschi in S. Bernardino, in form 
 of a little round Corinthian temple : this, through 
 various avocations, he did not finish, and with 
 sorrow beheld his plan debased by those who 
 continued the work. He gave the design of the 
 front of Santa Maria in Organo, of the Olive- 
 tans, begun to be executed after his death, but 
 stopped short in the outset. In the Church of 
 St. George he contrived to strengthen the sides, 
 so as to allow him to erect a cupola upon them, 
 which no other artist had dared to attempt. 
 His circular temple of the Madonna di Cam- 
 pagna was lamed in the execution by another 
 hand — and still more so his admirable design 
 for the Lazzaretto, through a sordid economy. 
 He designed the Campanile of the Cathedral, 
 
INTRODUCTION. 41 
 
 strangely deformed, and at last let down by the 
 incompetence of the builder. Bernardino Brug- 
 noli, his nephew by a sister, rebuilt it, as he did 
 likewise that of St. George after a plan of his 
 uncle. The palaces Canossa, Bevilacqua, Pel- 
 legrini, Pompei, Verzi, are elegant designs of 
 Sanmicheli. The portals of the Pretorian and 
 Prefectitial palaces at Verona are his. Many 
 of this great architect's work, to his undeserved 
 discredit, either remained imperfect, or were 
 finished by incompetent hands. Where his own 
 superintendence could be given, all was so well 
 conducted, that Vasari says, no building of his 
 ever shewed the least crack. 
 
 His two cousins german, Matthew and Paul,, 
 were famous architects ; the former planned the 
 works and citadel of Casale, the capital of Mont- 
 serrat, at that time reputed one of the strongest 
 places in Italy; and likewise designed a grand 
 deposit of marble, in the Church of S. Francesco, 
 in that city. The latter was father of his favourite 
 disciple and cousin, John Jerome. The death 
 of this able artist (not without suspicion of poison) 
 at Famagosta in the isle of Cyprus, in his 46th 
 year, so deeply afflicted our Sanmicheli, that he 
 survived it but a very short time. He expired 
 at Verona in 1569, set. 75. The excellent school 
 he left there was some reparation of this loss to 
 Architecture. 
 
 Bernardino Brugnoli, his nephew above men- 
 
42 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 tioned, designed and executed the high Altar at 
 St. George's in Verona ; which Monsig. D. Bar- 
 baro, who translated and commented Vitruvius 
 in Italiaff, declares to be, both for the perfection 
 of the architecture and that of the carving, the 
 completest thing of the kind he ever saw, though 
 little noticed by the present artists there. 
 
 The orders of Sanmicheli were published by 
 Count Alexander Pompei of Verona, 1735, 
 printed for Jacopo Vallarsi, Verona, in folio. 
 Italian. 
 
 Michel Angelo Buonarroti''. This 
 powerful and comprehensive genius, who became 
 possessed of the three great arts of design al- 
 most as soon as he attempted them, was born 
 1474, at the castle of Caprese in the diocese of 
 Arezzo, where his father Ludovico, di Lionardo, 
 Buonarroti Simoni was magistrate of the dis- 
 trict. The life of this eminent artist having 
 been so largely written, by different hands, and 
 so generally read, it will be sufficient for the 
 present purpose to select, from the mass of par- 
 ticulars concerning him, only what relates to 
 his operative history as an architect. It is said 
 that he was 40 years of age when he took to the 
 study of Architecture, and then without a master. 
 But these circumstances cannot make his suc- 
 cess seem marvellous, when we consider that he 
 
 ** Michel Angelo Buonarroti, born 1474, died 1564, set. 90. 
 
INTRODUCTIOxN. 443 
 
 was beforehand consummate in painting and sta- 
 tuary, and perfectly acquainted with the ancient 
 remains of every kind.. 
 
 At Florence he built the Medicean Library : 
 there too he was architect of the Sagrestia 
 Nuova of St. Lorenzo, deemed his best work 
 after St. Peter's. In 1527? when the Medici 
 family were driven out of Florence, he was ap- 
 pointed surveyor general of all the fortifications 
 of the Florentine state. His military works, in 
 the capital of Tuscany, and at S. Miniato, have 
 been much applauded by competent judges of 
 their merit. 
 
 Upon the death of Antonio Sangallo, in 1546, 
 M. Angelo was, in spite of his own remon- 
 strances against the choice, declared by Paul 
 in. architect of St. Peter's, with full power to 
 act at will in his charge. His final acceptance 
 of this commission was accompanied by a re- 
 nunciation of all emolument from it : a resolu- 
 tion he strictly adhered to, notwithstanding the 
 most pressing instances of the Sovereign Pontiff. 
 Disapproving the designs of his predecessor in 
 office as faulty, of infinite expence, and tedious 
 execution, he, in fifteen days, made a model of 
 his own, at the small cost of twenty-five crowns; 
 whereas that of Sangallo had employed several 
 years, and cost above four thousand crowns. 
 His procedures in the reform of this grand fa- 
 bric, many years continued, must be learned 
 
44 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 from ampler accounts of his works of this kind, 
 than the present summary was intended to 
 give. 
 
 While those were going on, he was called to 
 the rebuilding of the Capitol, which he began 
 with the middle palace, or habitation of the sole 
 senator of modern Rome. The double-ramp 
 outward stairs were conducted by him, but no 
 other part of this edifice. The side one, or wing 
 occupied by the Conservators of Rome, was en- 
 tirely of his design ; in which there are thought 
 to be some things to blame, among many to 
 commend ; and in the former perhaps, Giacomo 
 della Porta and others, who, after him, under- 
 took the conduct of the work, may have had 
 their share. In the descent from the Capitol 
 towards the city, M. Angelo designed a Cor- 
 donata, with a balustered Parapet at its top, 
 adorned with statues and ancient monuments. 
 In the middle of the place, inclosed by the fore- 
 mentioned buildings on three sides, is the famous 
 equestrian statue of Marcus Aurelius, upon a 
 simple and well-proportioned pedestal designed 
 by Buonarroti. The great Farnese Palace hav- 
 ing been left by Sangallo, its architect, without 
 a cornice, our artist was employed to give it that 
 finishing. For this purpose he made a model in 
 wood, six braccia in height, and placed it upon 
 one of the angles of the edifice, in order to take 
 opinion of the effect; which proving much in its 
 
INTRODUCTION. 45 
 
 favour, the design was executed. The Drum, 
 upon which the Cupola of St. Peter^s was to be 
 placed, being well conducted to its height; M. 
 Angelo (who had been obliged to retire from the 
 office of architect to that fabric, with a compen- 
 sation of one hundred crowns a month, rejected 
 on the first tender of payment) was importuned 
 by his friends, of all ranks, to make a model of 
 the cupola, as a precaution against any oversight 
 on his part, or foul play of those to whom the 
 execution was entrusted. This he first per- 
 formed in clay and in small ; and, from that, 
 formed, with much attention and care, a large 
 one of wood, of which Gio. Farnese was the 
 chief workman. This was much applauded and 
 actually executed under Sixtus V. Notwith- 
 standing all his circumspection, envy, of his 
 superior talents and disinterested use of them, 
 continued to excite cabals against him, to oc- 
 casion opposition to his plans and misconduct 
 in the performance of them, by his less compe- 
 tent successors : till, upon his complaint to Pius 
 IV. it was ordered that no changes should be 
 made in his designs; which order was renewed by 
 Pius V. and duly enforced. 
 
 By order of the former of these Pontiffs, he 
 made three designs for the Porta Nomentana ; 
 to be thenceforwards called Porta Pia. The 
 least costly of these was, preferred and erected, 
 though an irregular and capricious composition. 
 
46 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 When very far advanced in years, he dictated 
 five designs to Tiberio Calcagni, an able Floren- 
 tine sculptor, for the Church of St. John of the 
 Florentines in Rome ; the richest of which was 
 chosen by the delegates. Of it a wooden model 
 was made, and preserved long after ; but, when 
 under Clement XII. the front was to have been 
 built, that model was not to be found. 
 
 It being proposed to convert the magnificent 
 remains of Diocletian's Baths into a Church of 
 the Chartreux, upon a competition of many ar- 
 chitects for that undertaking, the plan of Michel 
 Angelo had the preference, and was carried into 
 execution with general approbation ; though since 
 reformed by a modern artist Luigi Vanvitelli, too 
 much in countersense. 
 
 The Cappella Strozzi, at Florence, was de- 
 signed by M. Angelo ; as likewise the College of 
 the Sapienza in Rome, excepting the part where 
 the church is situated. 
 
 When, at the great age of 90, this so variously 
 excellent artist yielded to God a life spent in the 
 most unremitting exertion of the rich talents with 
 which his bounty had endowed him, the reign- 
 ing Pontiff, Pius IV. ordered his remains to be 
 transferred, from the church of the Apostles, 
 where they were first inhumed, to that of St. 
 Peter of the Vatican. But Cosimo I. then 
 grand duke of Tuscany, contrived, by the means 
 of the deceased's nephew Leonardo Buonarroti, 
 
INTRODUCTION. 47 
 
 to get them removed by stealth to Florence, 
 where they were received with every imaginable 
 testimony of respect; and, after the most magni- 
 ficent funeral rites (in the church of St. Lorenzo, 
 reserved for those of the sovereigns of Tuscany 
 only) that the joint efforts of genius and opulence 
 could devise, finally deposited in that of Santa 
 Croce, where he had desired to rest among his 
 honourable ancestors. 
 
 GiuLio Pippi, commonly called Giulio Ro- 
 mano % well known as the second name in the 
 Roman school of painting, has an equal title 
 to rank high as an architect. In Rome he de- 
 signed the Villa Madama, with a Palazzine now 
 ruined. Above St. Pietro Montorio another Pa- 
 lazzine in possession of the Duca Lante. The 
 plan of the church of the Madonna delP Orto. 
 Palazzo Ciccia porci'* in the Strada di Banchi. 
 And that of Cenci^ in the place of St. Eustachio, 
 contiguous to the Palazzo Lante. 
 
 The Duke of Mantua, enamoured of Giulio^s 
 talent in Architecture, left nothing undone to 
 draw him thither ; and, when he had effected it, 
 treated him with great distinction. The Palace 
 T, (so called from the resemblance of its ground- 
 plan to the form of that letter,) built by him, a 
 
 c Giulio Romano, bfom 1492, died 1546, set. 54. 
 ^ Qy. whether the saiine with no, 40. torn. 1, of Pietro 
 Ferrerio ? 
 
 * Vide Elements, pi. 54. fig. 3. 
 
48 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 little out of Mantua, is one of the most renowned 
 edifices in Italy. In addition to the merit of its 
 construction, it has to boast some of the noblest 
 efforts of his pencil ; in particular the Hall of 
 the Giants, where their fall is represented in a 
 style correspondent to the magnitude of the sub- 
 ject. This invaluable work suffered greatly by 
 the barbarism of Pandours and Hussars, who 
 used it as a guard-room, in the war terminated 
 by the peace of Aix la Chapelle in 1748. He 
 modernized and enlarged the Ducal Palace, and 
 built another at Marmiruolo, five miles from his 
 capital, for the same sovereign. In Mantua he 
 erected a house for his own residence ; and 
 there refitted the church of St. Benedict, of the 
 religious of Monte Cassino, and rebuilt the 
 Dome. There, indeed, and in the vicinity his 
 works of Architecture are so numerous, that the 
 Cardinal Gonzaga was used to say, that Mantua 
 was a creation of Giulio Romano, and all there 
 his own. 
 
 His design for the front of St. Petronio was 
 deemed the most suitable, of several presented 
 by celebrated architects. Arrived to the fulness 
 of his fame, it was confirmed to him by his ap- 
 pointment to the envied charge of architect of 
 St. Peter^s of the Vatican. Resolved to remove 
 thither with his whole household, and in actual 
 preparation for a departure, not a little displeas- 
 ing to the Duke of Mantua and his own family. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 49 
 
 he was seized with an illness that, in the issue, 
 finally closed his labours and concerns in this 
 life. 
 
 The buildings he left unfinished in Mantua 
 were carried on by Bertani, who erected the 
 Church and Campanile of Santa Barbara, called 
 the Quattrizonio, the best in Italy. 
 
 Sebastian Serlio^ of w^hom Vasari, our 
 general guide in this walk of biography, says 
 little or nothing, was born in the Bolognese ; 
 and distinguished himself as an architect in 
 Lombardy, about 1530. His master in Geome- 
 try, Perspective, Painting, and Architecture, was 
 Baldassare Peruzzi of Sienna, who formed many 
 other great artists. Serlio was one of the most 
 attentive observers of the remains of the ancient 
 Roman edifices, and the first that gave their 
 measurement, in detail, with reasonable accu- 
 racy^. He is by the Marquis MafTei^ highly 
 commended for his particular treatment of the 
 amphitheatres ; having in his book given designs 
 of those of Rome, Verona, Pola, with elevations, 
 sections, plans, and profiles. He resided some- 
 time in Venice, where he published his fourth 
 book, the first that appeared. This procured 
 him the favour, largesses, and invitation of 
 
 f Sebastian Serlio died 1552. 
 
 ^ See in his third book a valuable collection of them. 
 
 ^ Book ii. c. 1 . of his Treatise on amphitheatres. 
 
 E 
 
50 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 Francis the First to his service. The honour 
 thereby done him he did not immediately ac- 
 cept ; since it appears from the dedication of his 
 fourth book to the Marquis del Vasto, upon his 
 repubhcation of it at Venice, with additions, in 
 1540S wherein he says here in Venice, that he 
 was there in the month of February that year. 
 It is probable that he very soon after transferred 
 himself to the actual service of his royal patron, 
 who survived this acquisition but seven years. 
 Many works he certainly conducted for that 
 monarch, at the Louvre, Fontainbleau, the 
 Tournelles, and elsewhere, (besides private ser- 
 vices,) of which we have no description, nor 
 even catalogue. His intervals of leisure he em- 
 ployed in the prosecution of his Treatise on 
 Architecture. The third book of this work ap- 
 peared a year after the fourth, and was dedi- 
 cated to Francis I. In the service of that mo- 
 narch he published his first and second books ; 
 the former containing the elements of Geometry, 
 the latter those of Perspective, necessary to an 
 architect. These were followed by the fifth, (de- 
 dicated to the Queen of Navarre^,) the sixth, 
 and seventh ^ 
 
 The war with the Emperor, which recom- 
 
 * Presso Francesco Marcolini da Forli. 
 ^ Niece of Francis I. and mother of Henry IV. of France. 
 ^ The complete editions of Serlio's Architecture are those of 
 Francesco Sanese, in Venetian, 1566„ 4to. and 1588, folio. 
 
INTRODUCTION. Si 
 
 menced in 1442, could not but give some check 
 to the works Francis I. had projected for the 
 employment of Serlio; and though that termi- 
 nated by the peace of Crespi in 1544, the short 
 remainder of this monarches life, still involved in 
 a war with England ended but in 1546, and per- 
 plexed with the intrigues of his court and the 
 contests with his protestant subjects, must have 
 rendered his good will to the arts less effective 
 than zealous. Conformably to this conjecture, 
 it is recorded that Serlio retired to Lyons, where 
 he lived gouty and indigent; and that he after- 
 wards removed to Fontainbleau, and there ended 
 his days, as scanty of comfort as rich in re- 
 nown. 
 
 PiRRO LiGORio". The very honourable men- 
 tion the author of the Elements has made of this 
 artist, and the elevation of a palace of his design 
 given in the last figure of the plates, seem to re- 
 quire that something be here briefly said of him. 
 He was a noble Neapolitan of the Seggio di 
 Porta Nuova", deeply versed in the study of 
 antiquity and the fine arts. By Paul IV. he 
 was appointed architect of St. Peter^s; but in 
 that office conducted himself so offensively, by 
 his contempts of the venerable and yet capable 
 
 " Pirro Ligorio Napolitano died 1580. 
 " A sort of lodges, in different parts of the city, into which 
 the nobles are distributed. 
 
 E 2 
 
52 ' INTRODUCTION. 
 
 M. A. Buonarroti, and his rude disputes with 
 him on matters relative to his charge, that all 
 the Pope^s partiality to him, as a countryman, 
 could not keep him where he had placed him. 
 
 Pius IV. employed him to design the deposit 
 of Paul IV. The Palazzine in the wood of Bel- 
 vedere is thought to be his architecture. The 
 Palace Lancelotti°, in Piazza Navona, is like- 
 wise his invention — and he moreover painted 
 some clair-obscures, of a colour resembling bronze, 
 in Rome. 
 
 Alfonso II. last Duke of Ferrara, used his 
 service as an engineer, in securing his capital 
 from the damage it was exposed to by the in- 
 undations of the Po. In this employment he 
 ended his days at Ferrara. A great part of his 
 designs of ancient monuments (of which his mea- 
 sures are found to be not always just) may be seen 
 in the Royal Library at Turin. 
 
 GiacomoBarozzip, usually called Vignol a, 
 from a place of that name in the Modenese, 
 where he was born in 1507, was son of Clement 
 Barozzi, a Milanese of genteel family; who, not 
 being suitably provided with the aids of fortune, 
 and apprehending the effects of civil discord, 
 left his abode at Milan for a retirement at Vig- 
 nola, where he died while this son was yet very 
 
 ** Vide Elements, plate 55. fig. 3. 
 
 P Giacomo Barozzi da Vignola, born 1507, died 1573, aet. 66. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 53 
 
 young. Thus early deprived of his best support, 
 our Barozzi yielded to the direction of genius, 
 and betook himself to the study and practice of 
 painting in Bologna. This pursuit soon dis- 
 covering to him the necessity of a good know- 
 ledge of perspective, he so earnestly laboured 
 to possess himself of that part of science, as to 
 supply the want of instruction by the invention 
 of a method for himself*!. While the exercise of 
 his pencil supplied him with the mere necessaries 
 of life, what leisure his occupations of that kind 
 left him he employed in investigating the prin- 
 ciples of those arts, he could not be content to 
 practise from a sole habit of imitation. It was 
 during this first residence at Bologna that he is 
 said to have furnished Francesco Guicciardini, 
 the celebrated historian, (then governor of that 
 city,) with some excellent designs, afterwards 
 executed, at Florence, in Tarsia, a sort of mo- 
 saic of differently coloured woods, formed into 
 landscapes, architecture, and other picturesque 
 representations. 
 
 The passage was easy, from a deep acquaint- 
 ance with geometry, perspective, and design, to 
 Architecture. Vitruvius he had carefully studied. 
 Yet the attention he bestowed on that first of au- 
 
 ^ This he has given in a treatise entitled Le due regole della 
 Prospettiva pratica di Giacopo Barozzi da Vignola, republished 
 Coi Commentarj di Egnazio Danti, in Roma, 1583, folio. 
 E 3 
 
54 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 thors in this science served but to convince him, 
 that something more than vt^riting could teach 
 vras wanted to form the real architect. Where 
 to seek this the custom of all his antecessors in 
 that profession had informed him. Arrived in 
 Rome, he endeavoured to maintain himself as 
 before by his pencil, w^ith a success by no means 
 equal to his industry; and therefore, throwing 
 aside the pallet in disgust, he sought a new re- 
 source in measuring the ancient remains for the 
 Academy of Architecture, newly set on foot in 
 Rome. This employment, conducive alike to 
 his subsistence and improvement, engaged his 
 attention so strongly, as, probably, to have given 
 birth to the Treatise on the five Orders under his 
 name; which all conversant with this study must 
 have read, and some prefer to whatever else has 
 been written on the subject^. He next became 
 assistant, in the Belvedere, to Giacomo Melin- 
 ghini of Ferrara, an excellent architect; and was 
 allowed to frequent the meetings of the Aca- 
 demy of Architecture, where Marcello Cervini, 
 afterwards Pope Marcello II. M. (afterwards 
 Cardinal) MafFei, Alexander Manzuoli, and other 
 persons of distinction attended; who employed 
 Vignola in designs and works that contributed 
 to his support, and extended his reputation. 
 
 *■ Vignola's Orders have passed many editions and transla- 
 tions. The Italian one at Venice, 1570, is an early one, if 
 not the first. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 55 
 
 Francesco Primaticcio, a Bolognese and ex- 
 cellent painter, coming to Rome about this time 
 from France to collect pictures, and procure 
 copies of the most celebrated statues and re- 
 liefs, in order to their being cast in bronze, as 
 ornaments for the royal palaces, singled out 
 Vignola for his assistant there; and at his re- 
 turn carried him into France, where he passed 
 two years in planning many works which failed 
 of execution, through the distress of the times, 
 by the foreign wars and civil disturbances, with 
 which Francis I. was continually harrassed. 
 
 Returned to Bologna, he gave a design for the 
 front of St. Petronio, much approved by Giulio 
 Romano and Christoforo Lombardi'. In the 
 Facciata de' Banchi, that makes a sort of wing 
 to that Cathedral, his dextrous management of 
 the site, and some old buildings that could not 
 be removed, exhibited a further most advan- 
 tageous display of his ability ; though his design 
 was dropped short by the omission of two tur- 
 rets, that would have added greatly to its effect. 
 At Minerbio, near Bologna, he built a palace for 
 Count Isolani. But the most important service, 
 that neighbourhood owed to Vignola, was his 
 conducting the Canale del Naviglio, which ran 
 three miles wide of it, into Bologna; an achieve- 
 ment spoken of with high applause by Vasari. 
 
 • Architect of the Dome at Milan. 
 E 4- 
 
56 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 Meanly recompensed for this great work, he re- 
 moved to Piacenza ; where he gave the plan and 
 superintended the foundations of the Ducal Pa- 
 lace, of which he left the further direction to his 
 son Giacinto. The citadel of Piacenza was hke- 
 wise formed by him. It is not easy to ascertain 
 either the number, or the dates, of the various 
 edifices of this great artist dispersed , through 
 Italy. Some of them are the churches of Maz- 
 zano, St. Oreste, della Madonna degh Angeli in 
 Assisi, and a beautiful chapel in that of St. Fran- 
 cesco in Perugia. 
 
 Upon his revisiting Rome, he was by Giulius 
 III. appointed his architect, entrusted with the 
 direction of the acqua di Trevi, and the con- 
 struction of the Villa, without the Porta del 
 Popolo, called Papa Giulio*. At a small dis- 
 tance, on the Flaminian way, Vignola built a 
 chapel in the style of the ancient temples, called 
 St. Andrea di Ponte molle, a work much ap- 
 plauded. The plan of it is rectangular, the pilas- 
 ters Corinthian, without pedestals. In Rome 
 he refitted that Palace of the SSi de' Monti, 
 which has since been called the Palace of Flo- 
 rence; being become the property of the Grand 
 Duke. For the same family he began a palace 
 opposite that of the household of Borghese, but 
 was not allowed to conduct it much above the 
 
 ' Vide Elements, plate 55. fig. 1. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 57 
 
 foundations. The Cardinal Alexander Farnese, 
 who thought highly of Vignola's intelligence of 
 his art, committed to him that part of the great 
 Farnese Palace which contains the famous gal- 
 lery painted by the Carracci. By his order like- 
 wise our architect built the elegant Corinthian 
 portal of St. Lorenzo in Damaso ; and a rustic 
 door to the Farnese gardens, that does credit to 
 its inventor. The great favour of this Cardinal 
 to the order of Jesuits suggesting to him the 
 building of the magnificent church del Gesu, 
 Vignola was employed to design and conduct 
 the fabric. The foundation was laid in 1568, 
 but the superstructure was not carried on by him 
 to its termination. So far as it had the be- 
 nefit of his direction, it has every merit ; but the 
 alterations made in his plan by Giacomo della 
 Porta, who succeeded him in the superintend- 
 ence, are by no means to the advantage of the 
 work. 
 
 S. Anna de^ Palafrenieri, near the Vatican, is 
 supposed to have been built by Giacinto Barozzi, 
 after a design of his father Giacomo ; — the Ora- 
 tory of S. Marcello, the Cappella Ricci in Santa 
 Caterina de' Funari, the deposit of Cardinal 
 Ranuccio Farnese in S. Gio. Laterano, are all be- 
 lieved to be inventions of Vignola. 
 
 But, if every proof of his skill hitherto specified 
 were away, the sole palace of Caprarola, about 
 
58 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 thirty miles from Rome towards Viterbo, would 
 establish the superiority of his professional ta- 
 lents. This singularly magnificent and com- 
 modious edifice stands solitary, on the brow of 
 a barren hill, surrounded by other rocky emi- 
 nences, in a sort of gut opening into a delicious 
 country. The offices are distributed into several 
 courts, round the mid-rise of the hill, on whose 
 summit the palace is placed. It is externally of 
 a pentagonal form, flanked by five bastions, in 
 manner to give it the commanding air of a for- 
 tress. When you have passed the entrance, the 
 area within is circular, and the fabric rises by 
 two stories of porticos. One side of the pen- 
 tagon is occupied by a grand loggia and stair- 
 case ; and in the other four there are, on each 
 story, four great apartments complete ; which are 
 kept free from all communication by means of 
 the porticos, that run round the great circular 
 court. More detailed descriptions of this master- 
 piece of a great master may be seen in Vasari, 
 Danti ; and, with designs of the whole and the 
 parts, in D'Aviler's Cours d^ Architecture. It 
 may, however, be useful to add, that this palace 
 is no less respectable for the paintings of the 
 Zuccari (historical of the Farnese family) and the 
 perspectives of Vignola that adorn it, than for 
 its architecture. Mons. D. Barbaro, upon a 
 critical survey of the whole, for which he was 
 
INTRODUCTION. 59 
 
 eminently qualified, is said to have exclaimed, 
 Vincit prcBsentiafamam^. 
 
 After the death of Michel Angelo, Barozzi 
 was declared architect of St. Peter^s, and in that 
 office erected the two lateral cupolas with the 
 most agreeable effect. When the Baron Berar- 
 dino Martirani arrived in Rome from Spain, to 
 collect designs for the Escurial, and had got to- 
 gether twenty-two by the most eminent archi- 
 tects of Italy, he shewed the whole collection to 
 Vignola; who, judiciously selecting and com- 
 bining what was most masterly and congruous 
 in the ideas of so many great artists, and adding 
 his own to their best conceptions, composed a 
 design greatly superior to any single one that 
 had been shewn him. This, when presented and 
 examined, was favoured with the preference of 
 the monarch, and an invitation of its author to 
 superintend its execution; an honour his attach- 
 ment to Rome would not permit him to accept. 
 In regard to the general esteem of his probity 
 and ability, he was commissioned by Gregory 
 XIII. to settle his differences with the Grand 
 Duke of Tuscany, concerning the boundaries of 
 their respective states near Citta di Castello ; 
 and, having acquitted himself to the satisfaction 
 of his employer, died immediately upon his return 
 to Rome in 1573. His remains were deposited 
 
 ° The reality exceeds all report. 
 
60 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 in S. Maria della Rotunda'', with the most re- 
 spectful attendance of the Academicians and 
 Professors. It was, says D^Aviler, but just, that 
 the greatest partizan of ancient Architecture 
 should have sepulture in the most magnificent 
 remaining edifice of antiquity. But will not the 
 want of some monument, or record there, to 
 attest the fact and mark the spot, ultimately 
 defeat the intention in his case, as in that of B. 
 Peruzzi and other worthies, that sleep there unno- 
 ticed by the numerous successive visitants of that 
 august structure ? 
 
 Our great artist has been, not unfitly, called 
 the Legislator of Architecture. He, indeed, first 
 reduced the vao^ue and fluctuatins^ use of the 
 best authorities to system, and rendered the 
 detail of that system easy in practice. Of fruit- 
 ful yet sober invention ; ever attentive to pro- 
 priety and convenience ; solid, simple, and ma- 
 jestic, in great works ; elegant and chaste in 
 such as required the attraction of ornament ; as 
 quick in availing himself of the advantages of 
 site, as dextrous in eluding the constraints, or 
 impediments, it might oppose to his designs ; 
 had he lived nearer the times when philosophy 
 (i. e. reason and nature) was to fix the principles 
 of the fine arts, he had left us an Architecture 
 (of finite intellect we can at best say) only not 
 perfect. 
 
 * The ancient Pantheon. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 61 
 
 Andrea PALLADioy was born at Vicenza, 
 A.D. 1508, on the 30th of November, St. An- 
 drew's day, whence the choice of his Christian 
 name. His earhest apphcation was to sculp- 
 ture ; but, having the good fortune to attract the 
 notice of his illustrious townsman Count John 
 George Trissino% .who discovered his natural 
 
 y Andrea Palladio born 1508, died 1580, set. 72. 
 
 21 Son of Caspar Trissino, and Cecilia Bevilacqua of a noble 
 family in Verona, born at Vicenza A.D. 1478. Though he 
 lost his father when but seven years old, his education was 
 so well conducted, that he became one of the most knowing 
 and accomplished noblemen of his time. He was instructed 
 in Greek, at Milan, by Demetrius Chalcondyles. When 22 
 years old he went to Rome, in view to improve himself by 
 conversation with the many learned men resident there. On 
 his return, at 24, he married a lady of his own name and fa- 
 mily; but still continued his favourite studies, particularly 
 those of Poetry and Architecture. He gave the design for re- 
 forming, and in good part rebuilding, his seat at Cricoli near 
 Vicenza, commonly ascribed to Palladio ; who, probably, only 
 superintended the execution. Losing his lady early, to divert 
 his grief he returned to Rome, and there composed his tragedy 
 of Sophonisba, (the first regular piece of its kind in the Italian 
 language, and in blank verse,) which was represented in a 
 most splendid manner at the expence of Leo X. The author 
 was by that Pontiff sent ambassador to the Emperor Maxi- 
 milian I. in 1516, who honoured him with the order of the 
 Golden Fleece, and employed him, as did afterwards his suc- 
 cessor Charles V. in many important negociations with different 
 Sovereigns. Those ended, he was called to Rome by Clement 
 VII. and appointed his ambassador to Charles V. and the 
 Republic of Venice. Restored to repose in his own country, 
 in 1521, he married a second time a lady of his own name and 
 
62 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 propensity to mathematical science, he was by 
 his new patron directed to the reading of Euchd, 
 Vitruvius, and Alberti, and afterwards taken by 
 him thrice to Rome, where he dihgently mea- 
 sured and designed the choicest remains of an- 
 cient Architecture. He visited Rome a fourth 
 time, in consequence of a call to employment in 
 the fabric of St. Peter; but, finding on his arrival 
 there the Pope dead, and all things in confusion, 
 he made no other advantage of that journey than 
 to review and remeasure those relics of Roman 
 magnificence, he had before examined and ad- 
 mired. He further corrected his measures and 
 designs in a fifth journey to that capital, in com- 
 pany of some Venetian gentlemen his friends. 
 About this time he printed a little book of those 
 antiquities, usually joined to that entitled Mira- 
 
 family, Bianca Trissina. By the former match with Giovanna 
 Trissina, he had two sons, Francis and Julius; by this latter 
 a third, named Cyrus. When the issue of both grew towards 
 manhood, quarrels on matters of interest arose between them, 
 which involved their father in a long law-suit, and, in the 
 end, deprived him of most of his property. Worn out with 
 vexation, and thus reduced in circumstances, he abandoned 
 his country, and repaired to Rome; where he died the follow- 
 ing year, 1550, and was buried in the church of St. Agatha. 
 In the midst of his serious occupations he found time to com- 
 pose many considerable works in verse and prose; among 
 which is the epic poem of the Italian liberata da' Gotti. 
 
 The respect to a character so early illustrious in literature, 
 that prompted this note, will, it is hoped, render its length 
 pardonable. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 63 
 
 bilia Romse. Thus diligently prepared, he ,at 
 his return entered vigorously on practice, with 
 the most advantageous offers of employment in 
 his own country, and out of it. At 29 years he 
 was entrusted with the conduct of the public 
 Palace at Udine, called II Castello, begun by 
 John Fontana. Near the same time he planned, 
 and directed the execution of, the porticos in- 
 closing on three sides the great hall of justice 
 at Vicenza; a work of which he speaks (b. iii. 
 c. 20. of his Architecture) with more conscious- 
 ness of his success than he has upon any other 
 occasion discovered. He was invited by the 
 Cardinal of Trent to build his palace in that 
 city. By Emanuel Filibert, Duke of Savoy, on 
 the same account. By the city of Bologna, for 
 the front of the great church of St. Petronio, for 'S 
 which he made four different designs. By that 
 of Brescia, for the rebuilding the public palace 
 there, nearly destroyed by fire. The Republic 
 of Venice, his natural sovereign, both pensioned 
 and employed him, after the death of Sansovino, 
 on all occasions. In Vicenza, and its neigh- 
 bourhood, he left ample proof of his superior 
 taste and skill in a great variety of houses, villas, 
 churches, and other public buildings. The de- 
 signs of most of these he has inserted in his 
 well-known book of Architecture. It is observ-v 
 able, however, that those, who have taken his p{:^ 
 measures from the actual fabrics and compared.^;!^ 
 
64 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 them with what are set down in the designs there 
 given, have found many differences of propor- 
 tion; but, if these are not improvements as to 
 effect, it has not been noticed that they are pre- 
 judicial to it. 
 
 Palladio is generally believed to have had a 
 fifth book of his Architecture nearly ready for the 
 press when he died, containing designs of ancient 
 temples, arches, sepulchres, baths, &c. which, 
 with his other unpublished plans and writings, 
 he left to his particular friend, the Senator Gia- 
 como Contarini, (no mean judge of that art,) 
 upon whose demise they were all dispersed. 
 Some the late Earl of Burlington collected in 
 his travels, and printed with great magnificence 
 at his own expence. It is highly probable that 
 many of those scattered designs were executed 
 in different places, at different intervals, after his 
 death; with no other indication of their author 
 than what their manner must afford the discern- 
 ing observer. It is not therefore always safe to 
 deny him the credit of an invention, the style 
 should warrant his, because the date of the exe- 
 cution is posterior to his decease. 
 
 He was particularly curious in whatever re- 
 lated to the art of war, as practised by the an- 
 cients; and laboured much in the explanation 
 of Polybius and Caesar, by plans and discourses. 
 His elucidations of the former author, yet un- 
 published, were dedicated to Francis the reign- 
 
INTRODUCTION. |55 
 
 ing grand Duke of Tuscany. Those of the latter 
 are printed with BaldeUi^s Itahan translation of 
 the Commentaries. It is certain that the pro- 
 found erudition of his noble friend Trissino as- 
 sisted him greatly, in the study of the Roman 
 art of war ; and thence, by mistake, might arise 
 the tradition of the same friend having been his 
 master in Architecture likewise. Palladio ex- 
 plained many difficulties in Vitruvius to Mons. 
 D. Barbaro ; and furnished him the drawings, 
 that accompany his Italian translation of that 
 author with a commentary. 
 
 The last great effort of our architect's genius 
 was the design of the Olympic Theatre^ in Vi- 
 cenza, begun the twenty-third of May, 1380, by 
 an Academy of that name instituted in 1556, of 
 which he was a member, and had been one of 
 the first promoters. In this work he meant to 
 realize his own idea of the ancient theatres, as 
 derived from Vitruvius and the remaining Roman 
 structures of that kind ; but he hved not to con- 
 duct it further than a part of the foundations. 
 His surviving son Silla was appointed to the 
 superintendence upon his decease ; and Sca- 
 mozzi (as himself declares) directed the standing 
 scenes. The completed fabric was viewed, by 
 the best judges of the time, with rapturous ad- 
 
 * For a description and critical examination of this, see II 
 Teatro Olympico of Count Gio. Montenari. Padova, 1749, 
 8vo. 
 
66 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 miration ; and has, ever since, been reputed a 
 prodigy of the art, in a country where its won- 
 ders are not rare even to the critical eye. Its 
 form differs from that of the ancient models, in 
 being a half ellipse instead of a semicircle. This 
 change was an accommodation to site, no little 
 contributive to the merit of the whole inven- 
 tion. 
 
 Palladio is described as rather low of stature, 
 of a pleasing countenance, cheerful and open in 
 conversation, but ever observant of his superiors 
 in rank or knowledge. Fond of the society of 
 men of letters, and well able to bear his part in 
 discourse with them. In the exercise of his pro- 
 fession, he is said to have been communicative 
 and engaging to his workmen, without descend- 
 ing to a familiarity derogatory from the respect 
 they owed him. 
 
 Beside his surviving son Silla, he had Leoni- 
 das, bred an architect likewise ; and Horatio, 
 who applied to law. Both these died young, 
 within three months one of the other. Their un- 
 timely loss he laments in his dissertation on the 
 Roman mihtia, prefixed to the above-mentioned 
 translation of Csssar's Commentaries. His own 
 death happened on the nineteenth of August, 
 1580, aet. 72, at Vicenza, where he was buried, 
 with the usual honours of a superior artist, in 
 the church of the Santa Corona, of the Domi- 
 nicans. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 67 
 
 Among the numerous good Italian architects 
 of the sixteenth century, fruitful in genius of 
 every kind, pre-eminence is, by the joint suf- 
 frages of his countrymen and of foreigners, as- 
 signed to Palladio. A perfect acquaintance with 
 the hterature and sciences subservient to his art, 
 a profound study of the ancient models, and a 
 quick perception of whatever contributes to the 
 greatness of effect that distinguishes them, con- 
 spired to advance his natural aptitude for his 
 profession to excellence. Not content to mea- 
 sure and design the edifices of antiquity, as a 
 matter of form, he traced them to their found- 
 ations, examined their grosser materials, and 
 the various modes of combining them, as con- 
 ducive to strength, or reductive of expence. In 
 the superintendence of his own works he was 
 particularly attentive to the manual execution. 
 
 If we examine his peculiar style, his greater 
 buildings have an air of grandeur, that seems to 
 be the result of volume, proportion, and ornament, 
 dictated by propriety. His Villas speak them- 
 selves the retreats of nobility, veiled but not 
 hid. — If analogy between the human and ma- 
 terial fabrics (much resorted to by writers on 
 Architecture) be allowable here, perhaps we may 
 not unfitly say that the general effect of PaL 
 ladio's edifices is similar to that of personal dig- 
 nity well dressed. In a word, the perfection of 
 F 2 
 
68 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 his whole manner has occasioned him to be 
 called the Raphael of architects^. 
 
 ViNCENzo ScAMOzzi'^ succcedcd to the pub- 
 lic appointments of Palladio. He was born in 
 Vicenza, of parents in good circumstances. His 
 father Gio. Domenico, a man of letters and a 
 good architect, procured him the best masters ; 
 particularly for mathematics and design. Under 
 these his proficiency was such, as enabled him 
 to compose a large work on Perspective at the 
 age of 22, while he yet remained at Vicenza. 
 To advance himself in Architecture, he studied 
 with emulous attention the fabrics of Sansovino 
 and Palladio, then going on at Venice. With 
 
 '' Of the buildings ascribed to him, not in his book, are, in 
 Venice, the Church of S. Giorgio Maggiore, the Refectory 
 and other pieces of the Monastery — Front of that of S. Fran- 
 cesco della Vigna, built by Sansovino — del Redemtore alia 
 Zuecca de' Cappucini — deile Zitelle — di S. Lucia — some re- 
 pairs of the Ducal Palace. At Vicenza, Santa Maria Nuova — 
 Palazzo Prefettizio, his name on the east front — Facade of the 
 Palazzo Tornieri — that of the Pal. del Conte L. Schio— a house 
 of his design supposed for himself, but which, it appears, he 
 could have occupied only as a renter — Arco delle Scale del 
 Monte, from the manner thought to be a design of his — Doric 
 Loggia, and a door, in the garden of the Counts Valmarana — 
 two rustic doors in the garden of Count Porto. In Padua, nel 
 Borgo di Santa Croce, a house of singular contrivance, for the 
 conveniences it includes in small area. In Bologna, northern 
 front and court of Pal. Ruini, since Ranucci. In Parma, part 
 of the Theatre, carried on by Bernini, Spada, and Magnani. 
 
 •= Vincenzo Scamozzi born 1552, died 1616, aet. 64. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 69 
 
 the same view he next visited Rome ; where he 
 perfected himself in mathematical science by the 
 instructions of the celebrated P. Clavius; and 
 availed himself of all the advantages his situ- 
 ation afforded for accomplishing himself in his 
 profession, by the most studious observation of 
 the ancient edifices subsisting there. Not sati- 
 ated with these, his still eager curiosity carried 
 him to Naples and its adjacencies. 
 
 Upon his return he fixed at Venice, and began 
 his practical career with the Deposit of the Doge 
 Niccolo da Ponte in the church of Sa. Maria 
 della Carita; which gained him such credit as 
 procured him further honourable employment, in 
 the prosecution of the library of St. Mark, begun 
 by Sansovino, and the addition of the public 
 museum to it. He had afterwards the prefer- 
 ence of those in trust for the continuation of the 
 Procuratie Nuove, in the piazza of St. Mark ; in 
 which he added a third order to the design of 
 Sansovino; an alteration not generally approved. 
 In his own way he did not conduct the work to 
 its completion. That was effected by his suc- 
 cessor in office Baldassare Longhena. 
 
 Having conceived the design of giving to the 
 public his great work, entitled Idea dell' Archi- 
 tettura Universale, and feeling the want of some 
 information not to be acquired on his side the 
 Alps, he took the opportunity of an embassy 
 from Venice in I6OO, to travel through France, 
 F 3 
 
70 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 Lorraine, Germany, and Hungary. The enlarge- 
 ment a mind like his must receive from such a 
 field of observation as this could not but dispose 
 public opinion still more in his favour; and, ac- 
 cordingly, the demand for his services became 
 at his return to Venice distressfully great. In 
 consequence, the public and private buildings, 
 in which he was more or less concerned, in the 
 capital, at Vicenza, Padua, and other places of 
 the Venetian domain, are too numerous to be all 
 mentioned in an abridgment like this. The more 
 distinguished fabrics of his design are — in Ve- 
 nice, the palace Cornaro, on the great canal, of 
 three orders, Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian, in- 
 cluding a magnificent court — in Vicenza, the 
 palace Trissino, now Trento, a noble structure 
 — at Sabionetta in the Mantuan, a Theatre after 
 the ancient model, for the Duke Vespasian Gon- 
 zaga of that title — at Florence, the second story 
 of the palace Strozzi — in Genoa, Palazzo Ra- 
 vaschieri of three stories. Rustic, Ionic, Corin- 
 thian. In 1604 he was called to Saltsburg, 
 where he built the Cathedral. His skill as a 
 military architect is proved by the famous for- 
 tress of Palma in Friuli, of which he laid the 
 first stone in presence of the Venetian generals 
 in 1593. Besides his more known constructions 
 in Italy, he furnished a great number of designs 
 for foreign countries, at the request of sovereigns 
 and other personages. 
 
INTRODUCTION. , 71 
 
 This multiplicity of occupations much short- 
 ened the leisure he wished to employ on the 
 above-mentioned ample Treatise of Architec- 
 ture, which he intended to divide into twelve 
 books. ^ He therefore reduced it to ten; but, 
 though such is the number announced in the 
 title-page, the vyork as published in l6i5 con- 
 tains but six, i. e. books 1, 2, 3, of the first part, 
 and 6, 7? 8, of the second. The supply of this 
 imperfection was unhappily prevented by his 
 death in 1616, at the age of 64, in Venice, where 
 he had sepulture in the church of St. Giovanni e 
 Paolo, without a monument; but one was, many 
 years after, erected to his memory in the church 
 of St. Lorenzo in Vicenza, his native city. His 
 effects were left to an adoptive son Andrea To- 
 aldo, of the family of Gregorj, who took the 
 name of Scamozzi . 
 
 Concerning the professional merit of Sca- 
 mozzi judgments have been different and ex- 
 treme. Some (among these Mons. de Cham- 
 bray) disgusted, perhaps, with his ostentation of 
 extraneous erudition, his intimations of his own 
 superiority, and reticences concerning other art- 
 ists, have refused him the praise justly due to 
 him. The title of his work on Architecture^, 
 and many passages in it, certainly indicate an 
 
 ^ Idea deir Architettura Universale di V. Scamozzi, in Ve- 
 nezia, per Giorgio Valentino, 2 torn, in folio, 1615, first edition, 
 very rare. 
 
 F 4 
 
72 INTBODUCTION. 
 
 extravagant opinion of his own sufficiency; but 
 this does not prove that it had no support in real 
 abihty. His sixth book, on the Orders, w^as 
 thought to deserve a translation into French by 
 Daviler, magnificently republished, with addi- 
 tions from other parts of the author's works, by 
 Du Ruy at Leyden, 1713. Of his book of An- 
 tiquities^ the learned Marquis MafFei affirms ^ 
 that it is the only one where any thing is said on 
 the internal repartition and distribution of am- 
 phitheatres, and contains information on the 
 subject never before given or sought for. The 
 judicious Count A. Pompei is large and parti- 
 cular in praise of his Orders, and pronounces 
 the designs in his book and many of his build- 
 ings highly commendable; among the latter he 
 specifies the palace Cornaro as a master-piece 
 of art. When he succeeded to the direction of 
 fabrics, that were to be continued upon settled 
 and well-concerted plans, it must be allowed 
 that he was too prone to indulge his self opinion, 
 in the attempt to do more than enough, and bet- 
 ter than well. 
 
 ^ Discorsi sopra TAntichita di Roma di V. Scamozzi, con 
 XL Tavole in rame per Battista Pittoni, in Venezia per Fran- 
 cesco Ziletti, 1582, in folio, very rare likewise, the plates from 
 designs of Baldassare Peruzzi. 
 
 ' Libro 2'^'' degli Anfiteatri. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 73 
 
 The Author of the ensuing Elements died 
 Dean of Christ Church in 17 10. An article 
 relating to him in the Biographia Britannica 
 (perhaps not the most accurate, or complete, in 
 that valuable collection) saves the necessity of 
 mentioning things generally known concerning 
 him, and leaves us at liberty to conform to our 
 plan by hinting only what may be supposed to 
 affect his qualification, as a judge and teacher of 
 the fine arts. A person he, undoubtedly, was of 
 true and versatile genius, assisted by learning, 
 converse, and travel. An acute and accurate 
 observer, a patient thinker, a deep and clear 
 reasoner. His natural portion of these faculties 
 was improved by a perfect acquaintance with 
 mathematical science, and quickened by the sub- 
 tlety of the scholastic logic. That the vigour 
 of his conceptions might be transmitted unim- 
 paired by the expression of them, he sought, in 
 a famiHarity with classical elegance and pro- 
 priety, the habit of exhibiting them with force 
 and lustre. The warm suns of Italy, the domes- 
 ticity with congenial spirits he contracted there, 
 exalted his inbred taste, and rendered it excur- 
 sive through the whole field of arts. There he 
 became impassioned for Architecture and Music, 
 firom such specimens of both as no other coun- 
 try can afford. That the impression was not 
 merely local and momentary, his executed de- 
 
74 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 signs ^ in the one, and his yet daily recited com- 
 positions '' in the other, would enable his histo- 
 rian to prove. 
 
 Become President of a numerous and learned 
 society, in one of the two Universities that dis*- 
 tinguish our island as a nursing mother of sci- 
 ence, the suavity of his manners, the hilarity of 
 his conversation, the variety and excellence of 
 his talents, in conjunction with a fine person, 
 conciliated and attached all committed to his 
 superintendence to such a degree, that his latest 
 surviving disciples, of the first rank, have been 
 seen unable to speak, recollected ly, of their in- 
 tercourse with him, without the tenderest indica- 
 tions of affection to his memory. Ever ready to 
 direct, assist, and encourage their endeavours in 
 pursuit of useful knowledge, he lowered himself 
 (if such works be not rather fit only for a great 
 master) to the composition of different elementary 
 pieces' for their instruction. Among these, in fa- 
 vour of the few, whose happier fortunes permit 
 them to join elegant with solid information, he 
 compiled the rudiments of Architecture now of- 
 
 « The Peckwater Quadrangle at Christ Church, the Church 
 and beautiful Campanile of All Saints in Oxford, are of the 
 number, and, most probably. Trinity College Chapel. See 
 Mr. Warton's Life of Dr. Bathurst, p. 71. 
 
 ^ Those of the devotional kind are still current in all our 
 best choirs. 
 
 ' On Logic, Geometry, &c. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 75 
 
 fered to the public, through t\\e very liberal con- 
 cession of the governing Members of Worcester 
 College, friends to science too true, too zealous, 
 to rejoice in the exclusive possession of any means 
 subservient to its propagation. 
 
THE FIRST PART 
 
 OF THE 
 
 ELEMENTS 
 
 OF 
 
 CIVIL ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 Architecture is the art of building well:— the 
 
 Architect, he who practises the art; who may be con- 
 sidered in three views. 1. The sumptuary, who fur- 
 nishes the expence of the building. 2. The projector, 
 who designs the plan. 3. The * operator, or he who 
 erects, or adorns, an edifice. 
 
 Architecture is twofold: one, Civil, which is concerned 
 in edifices destined to the uses of peace, and its attend- 
 ants, the liberal arts, &c. such as churches, palaces, 
 porticos, kc. The other Military, whose province is 
 fortification and the construction of machines for war. 
 Of the first, beauty is the chief object ; of the second, 
 security; of both, conveniency. 
 
 Of this science, then, there are two divisions, of which 
 in the following books it is my purpose to treat ; and I 
 shall endeavour to instruct the projecting Architect as 
 briefly and clearly as I can ; of whom I do not demand, 
 as Vitruvius does, a knowledge of all sciences, but should 
 
 * Vitravius calls him officinator or superintendant. Surveyor in Eng- 
 lish. 
 
78 OF THE ELEMENTS OF 
 
 wish him to understand mathematics and design. I 
 should be glad if he followed this study from particular 
 inclination. For, as in all pursuits a natural propensity 
 is of great importance, in this it is an indispensable re- 
 quisite. 
 
 I shall therefore presume that I am addressing myself 
 to such a student ; and shall so explain to him the lan- 
 guage and most approved precepts of Architecture, that 
 he may either rest satisfied with my instructions^ or be 
 able by his own application to supply my omissions. I 
 shall divide the work into two parts, each consisting of 
 three books: the first part will treat of Civil Architecture, 
 the second of Military. The first book will contain 
 general rules : the second will speak of public and pri- 
 vate edifices : the third of the ornaments of building : 
 the fourth will describe fortifications: the fifth naval 
 Architecture : the sixth instruments of war. 
 
 BOOK I. CHAP. I. 
 
 OF THE APPARATUS. 
 
 IHE three chief properties of a good building are 
 these, utility, strength, and beauty. Utility will be con- 
 sulted if each part of the building be well arranged, of 
 suitable dimensions, and in proper position. Strength 
 will ensue, if the walls stand perpendicularly on well laid 
 foundations, and are thickest at the bottom. All aper- 
 tures should fall exactly one under the other, so that a 
 void space be over a void space, and walling over wall- 
 ing. Beauty arises from parts handsome and necessary, 
 correspondent to each other, and to the whole. 
 
CIVIL ARCHITECTURE. 79 
 
 To provide for these things accurately, let the Archi- 
 tect first make a draught on paper of the intended work: 
 
 1. the Ichnography, which describes the ground plot ; 
 
 2. Orthography, the elevation or front of the mansion ; 
 
 3. Sciagraphy, or Scenography, which exhibits the front 
 and the sides retiring in a perspective view. To execute 
 this requires a knowledge of design, of which I suppose 
 the Architect already possessed. 
 
 By the aid of these schemes he will ascertain the size, 
 proportion of the parts, site, ornaments, and the respec- 
 tive costs, so as to judge of the expence of the building. 
 For he should be aware, that his own credit and the 
 strength of the structure much depends upon his havmg 
 a sufficiency of materials well seasoned, workmen and 
 money at command, before he begins, that the building 
 may go on and be completed without interruption. 
 
 §. 2. The materials for building are timber, stone, 
 sand, lime, and metals. 
 
 The properest season for felling timber is from the 
 beginning of Autumn to the latter end of February, 
 when the moon is waning, and the weather temperate. 
 Green or over dried wood requires great labour in 
 working: none is fit for use that has not been laid by 
 some time, and covered over with cow-dung : timber is 
 unfit for making joists, doors, or windows, till it has 
 been cut down three years. 
 
 Air hardens stone. Stones which are fresh dug up 
 are easiest worked, and should be immediately put under 
 the tool. Those of a harder nature are employed im- 
 mediately; those of a softer kind, not till they have 
 been two years exposed to the weather. 
 
 Among stones we may reckon bricks (and tiles,) 
 
80 OF THE ELEMENTS OF 
 
 1. testaceous; "unbaked; or those which are at least five 
 years dried by the sun; or, 2. which are baked by fire, 
 but not till they have been made two years. In autumn 
 it is best to dig them, and from a white, chalky, yielding 
 earth. The loom during the winter should be kept 
 steeped, and made into bricks in the spring. The size of 
 the brick, or tile, according to the practice of the Greeks, 
 should be proportioned to the grandeur of the edifice : 
 the greatest, Pentadori, are five spans each way, and are 
 used in public buildings; moderate ones, Tetradori, four 
 spans; the smallest, called by Vitruvius Didori, by Pliny 
 more fitly Lydii, two spans, fit for private houses; which 
 the Romans likewise made use of, and which are in 
 length a foot and an half, or cubit, and a foot broad. 
 
 Sand is of three kinds; pit sand, river sand, and sea 
 sand; pit sand is the best ; but of this the white is in- 
 ferior both to the blackish and red sort: the ''Carbuncle 
 is superior to all. Among these should be mentioned 
 the earth of ^PozzuoK, which immediately hardens in 
 the water, and becomes stone. Of the river sand, that 
 is the best which is found in torrents. Sea sand is of 
 the least value; but if cleared from the saline particles, 
 by washing, is of use in the plaistering or rough casting 
 of walls. 
 
 Lime is made of stone calcined ; but that from the 
 pumice stone, shells, and river pebble, does for plaister- 
 ing walls. The best stone for burning to lime is that 
 
 to Formed of chalky earth burnt. 
 
 t A sort of earth dug out of the mountains in Hetruria, hardened by the 
 subterraneous vapours of those hills : Pliny and Vitruvius call it Carbun- 
 culus. Vitruv. ii. 4. Pliny xvii. 4. 
 
 d Pozzuoli, anciently Puteoli, a city near Naples, famous for its Mole 
 made of this earth. See Addison's Travels, Remarks on Italy, &c. 
 
• * CIVIL ARCHITECTURE. gl 
 
 which is white, very hard and dense, and which loses a 
 third of its weight in the kiln. It must remain there 
 sixty hours at least. Cement is composed from one part 
 of Hme, with three parts of pit sand, or two parts of 
 river or sea sand. 
 
 Metal has various names and uses: 1. iron for nails, 
 hinges, handles, chains, &c. 2. lead for soldering pipes 
 and roofs. The ancients made these things mostly of 
 3. copper; or 4. brass; 5. of copper, brass, and lead: 
 bronze was made in imitation of Corinthian brass. This 
 composition was usually employed for the bases of pillars, 
 and their capitals; likewise for doors and statues. But 
 of these things enough; seeing the architect, particularly 
 the inventor of the plan, has little concern in these 
 matters. 
 
 BOOK I. CHAP. II. 
 
 OF THE FOUNDATION, WALLS, AND EOOF. 
 
 §. 1. In laying foundations, first examine the soil, partly 
 by external appearances, such as plants, water, trees, 
 stones, &c. partly by making frequent openings in the 
 ground. Avoid a soil sandy, gravelly, soft, marshy, or 
 artificial, or made ground; avoid ruins also^ unless they 
 are known to be strong and firm. Buildings require a 
 -soil dry, solid, firm, that resists the spade, and does not 
 dissolve when moistened. 
 
 For, if the nature of the ground afford it, the hollow 
 for the foundation should be dug down to the solid, and, 
 in the solid, carried down to the siyth part of the height 
 
 G 
 
82 OF THE ELEMENTS OF 
 
 of the building, and a little more, if cellars or any sub- 
 terraneous offices are intended. 
 
 If the nature of the soil afford not solidity, the ground 
 must be strengthened by a multitude of piles, on which 
 the walls that surround the area, or divide it, may rest. 
 The length of the piles should be an eighth part of the 
 height of the walls: their thickness a twelfth part of 
 their own length. Let them be driven in by repeated 
 strokes, rather than by very forcible ones. 
 
 Let the foundation be twice the thickness of the wall, 
 more or less in proportion to the solidity of the ground, 
 and the dimensions of the building. Let the bottom of 
 the trench be exactly level. It was formerly laid with 
 Tiburtine stone: now a course of stones is placed over 
 planks or beams. The stones should be without mortar, 
 lest the wood be destroyed by the hme. The thickness of 
 the foundation, as well as of the wall rising above ground, 
 should gradi^ally diminish, and the diminution on each 
 side should be equal, with this certain rule,thatthe middle 
 part of the upper order should rest in a perpendicular 
 line upon the middle of the lower. To save expence, 
 the foundation work is not continued solid under the 
 whole building, but interrupted by the means of arches, 
 particularly in marshy ground: and in the walls of larger 
 buildings, columns are carried up: a thrifty and useful 
 invention, if winding stairs are placed in them^. 
 
 PLATE I. 
 
 §. 2. There are many kinds of walls : one, which Vi- 
 truvius either names uncertain, or inserted, I know not 
 which; it may be either. Uncertain, or irregular walls, 
 
 ® It is not easy to ascertain the njeaning of the Author here. Query, 
 whether he has in view those round turriform erections, at equal intervals, 
 so common in the walls of our old castles ? 
 
CIVIL ARCHITECTURE. 83 
 
 are those (see Palladio on uncertain stones) where the 
 stones are laid with their natural dimensions, and their 
 figure and size of course uncertain. This is explained by 
 scheme the first, A A. Perault properly terms that kind 
 of wall inserted, where the stones are of a determinate 
 size, and placed in a regular order; for instance, in brick 
 work. In this kind of work, the ^ rows of stones joined 
 together should be alternate, that the middle stones may 
 be rendered firm and close by those above them. This 
 rule should take place in the middle of the wall, if pos- 
 sible; if not, at both the sides. 
 
 The Greeks made their walls in the manner of brick 
 ones, with a hard stone or flint of a square form, i. e. of 
 equal depth and breadth. A wall thus constructed, they 
 called 'I<ro8ojttoj, such is B B. When the stones were ir- 
 regular in size, they termed the structure ^/suSio-oSo/xoj. 
 The third kind of edifice was called IjxttXsxtov, or involved, 
 D D, when the stones were even in front, but placed 
 fortuitously. When they filled the middle of the waif 
 internally with broken or pounded cement, they termed 
 it hoi jaixTwv, E E. If the walls are 'lo-oSojocoi, and fastened 
 together with iron, they are properly called by Perault, 
 scramped. See the example F F. AtxTvo^erov, or net- 
 work structure, G G, was much used in ancient Rome, 
 and is beautifuUo the sight, but was apt to crack. Where- 
 fore, according to Palladio, no ancient specimen of this 
 kind remains. Vitruvius has given the same account. 
 
 PLATE II. 
 
 The precepts of Palladio may be explained in the 
 second plate. The net-work, A A, is the first kind of 
 
 ^ Coagmentationes alternas, courses of stones. Corii et Cliorii. 
 i In the French language crampon6e. 
 
84 OF THE ELEMENTJ5 OF 
 
 structure, and which he disapproves. To ensure the 
 strength of which he proposes to erect brick buttresses at 
 the angles B B, and to place transversely, or longways, 
 six courses of bricks at the bottom C C, in the middle 
 three D D, wherever the net-work is raised six feet. 
 
 The second is brick work; which, especially in the 
 walls of a city or extraordinary building, is constructed 
 like the A<ajU,ixTov, for the bricks appear, E E. The 
 rubbish lies concealed in the middle, F F. In the bottom 
 there are six courses of larger bricks; then some less 
 at the height of three feet; then the walls are bound 
 again with three courses of larger bricks; an example 
 of this kind still remains in the Pantheon, and the hot 
 baths built by Dioclesian. 
 
 The third kind are walls made of cement, I I, com- 
 posed of rough pebbles out of a river or from a rock; 
 sometimes of shell, as are the walls of Turin in Pied- 
 mont. This kind of wall should be bound by three 
 courses of bricks, at the height of two feet, as K K. The 
 fourth species is the uncertain^ L L ; a specimen of which 
 still remains at ^ Praeneste. 
 
 The fifth kind is built with square stones, and is called 
 Pseudisodomum, as M M; to be seen now at Rome, in 
 the temple of Augustus. The sixth kind, which may 
 be seen at Sirmion upon the lake of Garda, is a species 
 of wooden walls, N N, and are called* Formse, and are 
 stuffed with stone, mortar, &c. at random. The planks 
 being taken away, the wall O O appears; and is called 
 formaceous. To this species, namely sixth, the seventh 
 
 h A city of Italy, twenty miles to the east of Rome. The modern name 
 is Palestrina. 
 
 i The Spaniards call these walls mud walls ; they are formed of two 
 planks set edgeways at a distance, opposite each other, according to the 
 intended breadth of the wall. See Palladio on the writings of the An- 
 cients. 
 
CIVIL ARCHITECTURE. 85 
 
 may be referred, which may be seen in the ancient walls 
 at Naples. There are two walls P P of square stones, 
 four feet thick; their distance six feet. They are bound 
 together by the transverse walls Q Q at the same dis- 
 tance. The cavity R R left between is six feet square, 
 and is filled up with stones and earth. • 
 
 According to Palladio, great care and art is necessary 
 to connect the stones, and that a proper juncture is es- 
 sential to the beauty and strength of the work. This 
 effect the ancients produced in such a manner as to 
 escape the eye: they laid their stone first in its natural 
 state, and afterwards pohshed those parts that were ex- 
 posed to view. As the wall rises above the ground, its 
 thickness should diminish proportionably in the manner 
 of a graduated pyramid. The inside structure of the 
 wall should be in a perpendicular line. The thickness 
 of the " Podium or foot of the wall is half that of the 
 foundation: in the middle of the wall, or front band, the 
 thickness is diminished half a brick: at the top, or crown 
 of the building, another half brick is taken away. Some 
 sculpture or bass-relief should conceal outwardly the 
 gradual diminution. 
 
 Above all, attention should be paid to the angles, 
 which should be rendered as firm as possible with long 
 and hard stone laid with a level and rule. The openings, 
 windows, &c. should be removed from the angles as far 
 at least as the quantum of their breadth. 
 
 §. 4. The walls being finished, the roof is to be put on, 
 which anciently used to be flat; and in warm climates is 
 so now. In cold and temperate cHmates experience has 
 taught men to carry off the droppings from their shelv- 
 
 k Called by the Italian writers il Pog^. 
 
 'g3 
 
86 OF THE ELEMENTS OF 
 
 ing roofs by placing gutters in them to collect the water 
 falling from the eaves, and to convey it by pipes into the 
 part of the court-yard, which they termed Impluvium. 
 
 Ridged roofs are either shelving two ways like a 
 cockle'*s shell, or four ways like a tortoise's shell. The 
 top of the roof should be elevated in proportion as the 
 climate is exposed to thick or frequent falls of snow. In 
 Italy Palladio advises two ninths of the breadth of the 
 building to form the height of the roof. 
 
 In England three fourths is in general the measure. 
 In Germany they raise them higher. 
 
 PLATE III. FIG. I, II. 
 
 The timber work of a roof, which Vitruvius mentions 
 b. iv. cap. 2. are these: A G the column or king post; 
 B B collar beams; C C braces; D D principal rafters; 
 E E purlines placed transversely over the principal raft- 
 ers: FF smaller rafters. We now add to these many 
 other parts, to which there are no Latin names, and we 
 place them in other directions. But the timber work 
 belongs to the surveyor's business; the architect will 
 content himself with the rules of Palladio, which advise 
 with regard to this matter that partition walls should be 
 erected, which will sustain part of the weight, and pro- 
 duce many advantages to the whole of the roof. 
 
 Roofs originally were made of reeds and leaves, or 
 leaves and clay: afterwards with reeds and straw, or with 
 clay beaten together with short straw; which custom re- 
 mains even now in cottages. Pliny relates that Rome 
 was covered with shingles, that is, with small pieces of 
 thin boards, to the time of the war with Pyrrhus. Cy- 
 naras invented burnt tiles: who found out lead, brass, 
 and copper, is unknown. Byzas of Naxus introduced 
 
CIVIL ARCHITECTURE. 87 
 
 the use of small pieces of marble cut into the fonn of 
 slates. The ancients, which one wonders at, knew not 
 of our slate stone'. 
 
 The English seldom use any metal except lead, and 
 that in the form of thin plates, and not tile fashion; 
 often slate, but chiefly burnt tiles, and those either flat 
 or crooked. 
 
 In placing them both they lay laths across the rafters, 
 to which they connect the tiles in the manner of scales. 
 The crooked and gutter tiles are so disposed as that one 
 of the latter may always be placed between two of the 
 former; the work thus constructed they imagine bears a 
 resemblance to the tails of peacocks, wherefore they call 
 such roofs PAvoNACEOus. Five representations of tiles 
 are shewn in plate 3. A is the ridge tile : B the crooked 
 tile; the rest are plain or flat tiles. 
 
 BOOK I. CHAP. in. 
 
 WHAT IS AN ORDER.? WHAT ARE ITS MEMBERS.? WHAT THE 
 GREATER AND LESSER PARTS OF THE MEMBERS.? 
 
 §. 1. I SHALL now treat of the ornaments of walls; 
 and first of columns. 
 
 A column is either attached to a wall, being inserted 
 in some part of it, or stands off* from the wall, so that the 
 air surrounds it. The one may therefore be called an 
 inserted column, the other an insulated one. For those 
 houses are called insulated, which stand distinct from 
 others, and are surrounded by the air, as an island is by 
 the salt water. 
 
 1 Peculiarly good at Horsham in Sussex. 
 G 4 
 
88 QF THE ELEMENTS OF 
 
 PLATE III. FIG. IV. 
 
 A column has three parts. The base B C ; the shaft 
 C D ; the capital D E. The other parts you see in the 
 drawing are adjuncts of the column; at the bottom, be- 
 low is the pedestal A B, above, the architrave E F, with 
 the frieze F G, and the cornice G H ; which three parts 
 are comprehended under the single term entablature 
 E H ; the column with the pedestal is termed the co- 
 lumnation A E. By the side of the column in arched 
 work imposts are placed supporting the vault of the in- 
 tercolumniation, as I I. The figure M shaped like a 
 wedge represehts the stone placed in the middle of the 
 arch, and is called the key-stone. 
 
 The shaft of a column, properly so called, is round ; 
 when the face is plain it is called a pilaster, and differs 
 only in this circumstance from the column; in every 
 other respect it resembles a column, and is subjected to 
 the same rules. It is generally inserted, but often in- 
 sulated. 
 
 An order is the graceful symmetry of a pillar with its 
 adjuncts, restrained by fixed bounds: symmetry is so 
 called, I apprehend, because it constitutes the order of 
 columns; by Vitruvius and others the symmetry is 
 termed proportion or kind. 
 
 To determine the exact symmetry, the semidiameter 
 of the column is cut into 30 parts, and is called a mo- 
 dule, whose parts are minutes ; the mensurations which 
 consist of these are expressed as in an astronomical cal- 
 culation ; for instance, 1 : 20'. signifies 1 mod. 20 min. ; 
 3 : 15'. 3 mod. 15 min.; 4 : 00'. four modules ; : 06'. six 
 minutes; and so of the rest. Wherefore the column, and 
 of course the module, may be increased or diminished at 
 the discretion of the architect. The size of the module 
 
CIVIL ARCHITECTURE. 89 
 
 being proposed, the whole symmetry of the entire order 
 is likewise ascertained, as will be shewn in its proper 
 place. 
 
 PLATE IV. 
 
 §. 2. Among the members of an order, or the greater 
 parts, we may reckon the columnation and the entabla- 
 ture. Other writers call those members, which we call 
 parts of members, and of which we have already treated. 
 Among the parts the smaller divisions or particles are 
 worked by the tool of the sculptor. 
 
 Some parts are flat, as the plinth A, which is a paral- 
 lelopiped"", and has the name and figure of a brick, or 
 rather a tile. When placed on the capital of a pillar it 
 is called an abacus, and sometimes made with hollow 
 sides, as B. 2d, The fillet, or platband C, is a kind of 
 phnth of a more oblong shape. From this the reglet D 
 and the listel E differ only by their being smaller. The 
 reglet when placed on the cornice is called the corona 
 or larmier, which always projects, and its lower part is 
 called its chin. A circular listel is called an annulet ; a 
 reglet divided, its parts alternately omitted, is called a 
 dentil F; sometimes the bisection is equal, but generally 
 the parts left remaining are the greater. 
 
 Some of these particles have cushion-like appearances, 
 or a swelling curve, as 1. the tore G, which resembles a 
 muscle or fleshy tumor; or, as others conjecture, because 
 the word torus means a rope. The lesser tore H is ex- 
 pressed diminutively by the Latins torulus. That which 
 is still less I is called an astragal, and has berries often 
 cut on it, as K. 2. The echinus L, or quarter round, is 
 
 ™ Parallelopiped (in geometry) is one of the regular bodies or solids 
 comprehended under six rectangular and parallel surfaces, the opposite 
 ones whereof are equal. 
 
90 OF THE ELEMENTS OF 
 
 half a large tore. Sculptured, as M, it is termed ovicu- 
 lated, because artists imagine the sculpture to imitate eggs 
 and anchors. This part is called an echinus, because of 
 its resemblance to the prickly coat of chesnut, and to the 
 gaping which that fruit exhibits in its state of maturity. 
 
 Other particles of an order are hollow, the common 
 name to which is scotia", from a Greek word signifying 
 darkness. The scotia is 1st horizontal in the chin of the 
 larmier, as N : 2d, upright, as O ; 3d, inverted, as P ; 
 4th, composite, that is, both inverted and upright, as Q ; 
 it resembles the hollow of a pulley, and has the Greek 
 name rgo^iXoj. 5th, the Greek word ° uTrotpvyvj R, in 
 Enghsh escape, signifies a scotia, which is inverted 
 upon the annulet, from whence the shaft of the column, 
 arises. 6th, The caro^etn^ S means a scotia upright under 
 the annulet in which it terminates. 
 
 N. B. The apothesis is less than die apophygis, from 
 whence the shaft is gradually diminished: not indeed as 
 some imagine like the frustum of a cone, but in the most 
 approved models it exhibits a small swelling downwards. 
 This is called by the Greeks the entasis of the pillar, and 
 may be most conveniently described by the same instru- 
 ment with which Nicomedes drew the figure in geometry* 
 called by him a conchoid^. 
 
 " Scotia is a semicircular channel between the tores in the bases of co- 
 lumns, or between the torus and astragal. 
 
 o The Greek words a,vo(puyyi and avo^Kfn are small hollow rings at the 
 top and bottom of the shaft of a pillar. The top is the u-ro^vyn, the bottom 
 one the a-ro^iffn. The ancients used whole unhewn trees in the infancy of 
 Architecture for their columns; and to prevent their splitting at top or 
 bottom, bound them in those places with these rings ; a're(puyh means an 
 escape, i. e. from the evil attending their splitting by the weight they sus- 
 tained ; aTaS-io-ts the removal of that inconvenience. See Baldo's Vitruvius* 
 article Apophyge, 
 
 P A name of a curve, which always approaches nearer to a straight line 
 to which it inclines, but never meets it. 
 
CIVIL ARCH4TECTURE. 91 
 
 Of this class are those channellings in the shaft of the 
 column, which are called by the several names of ''stri^, 
 sTRiGEs, or, as others name them from their shape, stri- 
 GiLEs. For thie sake of distinction we will call those 
 strij: which meet in an acute hollow, as T, and are 
 twenty in number ; striges^ which meet in an obtuse 
 one, as V, and are twenty-four. These have also their 
 swelHng and diminution in proportion to that of the co_ 
 lumn. Sometimes they are filled with a small twig, as it 
 w^re, to the third part of their height, as X, called by 
 Aristotle pa^Swo-jv. Wherefore a shaft of this kind we 
 denominate a virgated one. 
 
 Some particles of an order are formed with a waving 
 appearance, i. e. convex and concave, as the sTnTi^jj, Xua-ig, 
 xvfjiUTm', sima, upright and inverted, unda, cyma, cyma^ 
 tium, Doric, and Lesbian, which words writers variously 
 confound. That we may form a distinct notion, the 
 larger undulated one shall be called sima, or cyma, from 
 its figure : the less, from its smallness, cymatium. The 
 shape of each is fourfold: 1. upright, which is hollow 
 above and outward, as Y ; 2. inverse, which is hollow 
 below and inward, as Z ; 3, converse, which is hollow be- 
 low and outward, as T; 4. perverse, which is hollow 
 above and inward, as A. 
 
 Modillions are to be ranked among the smaller un- 
 dulated parts of a column, whose front appearances are 
 
 * In this and some other instances the translator has been under the neces- 
 sity of retaining the Latin names, as he finds none in English which will fiilly 
 come up to their meaning. Columns of this kind are ranked by the English 
 architects under the general name oijluted columns. See Baldi's Lexicon 
 Vitruvianum, under the articles Sti-iee and Striges. 
 
 ' 'ETiTiBUi X«<r/f, are synonimous words, saving the variation proceeding 
 from their situation. See Baldi's Vitnivius, under the articles WtrSif and 
 
 Cyma, cymatium, and sima, signify a wave of a smaller or greater degree. 
 
92 OF THE ELEMENTS OF 
 
 generally such as the example 12 represents; but their 
 sides are flat, as 0: sometimes inverted, as A; and al- 
 ways carved and supported with flowers. Some call them 
 mutules, but we term those mutules which are parallelo- 
 pipeds properly so called, and are either mutules single 
 in their front, as the Greek H, their side as 4>, or double 
 their front as H, the side as ^. The fixed place of all these 
 mutules and modillions is in the cornice directly under 
 the crown. The spaces between the modillions and mu- 
 tules are called caps.e; in which roses, or in short any 
 kind of flowers, are carved, as in ^. 
 
 PLATE V. 
 
 §. 3. We will now treat of the figures which are carved 
 on these smaller parts of an order; but as the modems 
 have been too profuse of these ornaments, we will men- 
 tion only those with which the ancients were most con- 
 versant. We shall take the liberty of using new words 
 for these things, as, though the things themselves remain, 
 the names of them are become obsolete; unless perhaps 
 K is the vine of Pliny and Virgil, the garland work of 
 Vitruvius, and L the encarpus of the same author, and 
 what the Italians mean by the word festoon. 
 
 Among those that want names, the carving A is called 
 by the French postes, (we will call it in Latin veredaria,) 
 meaning the same thing. B, I, M are enleafed parts ; 
 b b with jagged leaves; jS /3 with aquatic; I I with 
 purslain leaves; M M with oaken leaves. The laurel and 
 parsley, and leaves of other plants known at first sight, 
 are frequently carved. The carving C is shield fashion, 
 or orbiculated; D may be termed enchannelled : N 
 ensealed. 
 
 E is a smaller astragal, bound with a spiral line, and 
 
CIVIL ARCHITECTURE. 93 
 
 hiay be called a scytale"; F exhibits the spiral line, the 
 astragal being taken away, and may be called a tendril*; 
 G and H are beaded astragals; for distinction's sake let 
 G be called a necklace, and H a rosary. The four figures 
 represented by O are properly termed labyrinths, which 
 the ancients have described under various forms :. but 
 this rule held universally, that none were executed but 
 with right angles. 
 
 §. 4. The greater members (of the orders) are fur- 
 nished with these minuter parts with all their variations 
 and additions, whether they are plain or carved, or both. 
 For instance, the base which is called attic (see a speci- 
 men of it in plate 6.) has a plinth, a trochil, two listels, 
 and a larger and lesser tore, and its height is always 
 one module. It derives its name from the attic column, 
 (of which hereafter,) to which it particularly belongs, 
 though it be adopted very generally by other columns. 
 
 The following is the order of the members and parts 
 as they rise. First, the base of the pedestal, the trunk, 
 or die, and the cornice; next, the base of the column, 
 the shaft, and the capital; so far is termed the colum- 
 nation ; then follows the architrave, frieze, and cornice, 
 of which consists the trabeation or entablature. 
 
 Intercolumniations are constructed in five ways: the 
 first mode is araeostyle, where the space between the pil- 
 
 ' Scytale is in one sense a kind of serpent, which the twisting of the 
 spiral line may seem to represent ; and in another, the staff, which a La- 
 cedasmonian general sent to his brother officer, who had one of a similar 
 kind, round which he wound the letter he received. The form of the astra- 
 gal may be thought like this. The reader by turning to the figure E may 
 form his opinion. 
 
 t Claviculus in the original may be rendered thus perhaps, as clavicula 
 signifies a young twig or shoot of a vine, and the figure F seems to counte- 
 nance the construction. 
 
94 OF THE ELEMENTS OF 
 
 lars is 8 : OC. S. diastyle 5 : 15'. 3. eustyle 4 : 15'. 4. sys- 
 tyle 4 : 00'. 5. pycnostyle 3 : OO'." But these proportions 
 must be understood to refer to iijtercolumniations which 
 are straight ; in arched ones the spaces between the co- 
 lumns are much more extensive, nor have they any term 
 to distinguish them. 
 
 The same observation holds with respect to the lowest 
 order of columns where they are many. In this case the 
 intercolumniations of the superior orders should be equal 
 to those of the lowest: though elsewhere this circum- 
 stance would miUtate against rule. 
 
 BOOK I. CHAP. IV. 
 
 OF THE THREE ORDERS. 
 
 §.1. IN the familiar language of architects, the termsy 
 kind and order, are synonimous, and the number of the 
 orders is five; the Tuscan, Doric, Ionic, Corinthian, 
 Roman or Composite. But to distinguish the terms, 
 kind and order, we shall only call three of them orders 
 namely, the Doric, the Ionic, and the Corinthian, being 
 the most ancient, and invented by the Grecians. The 
 rest we shall name kinds. 
 
 PLATE VI. 
 
 §. 2. The Doric order, invented by the Dorians, is of a 
 robust and manly appearance: wherefore in the works of 
 
 " Araeostyle, diastyle, systyle, pycnostyle. See these proportions of dis- 
 tance in the pillars described in Ware's Body of Architecture, London edit. 
 1756, by T. Osborn and J. Shipton, in Grays' Inn. 
 
CIVIL ARCHITECTURE. 95 
 
 antiquity the. pillar was without a base, as men were sup- 
 posed to walk with bare feet. Afterwards the attic base 
 was added, which indeed gives a great beauty to the 
 order. 
 
 The height of the pedestal is 4 : 20'. the trunk has a 
 square face ; the column when insulated is high 16 : 00'. 
 when inserted 17 : 10'. The shaft may be fluted. In 
 the capital the great ring is called the hypotrachelium 
 or neck. The intercolumniations are diastyle. The en- 
 tablature is generally the fourth part of the height of the 
 shaft or nearly. 
 
 In the cornice triglyphs are sculptured, an ornament 
 peculiar to this order. They consist of three shanks, 
 E F G, and the like number of channels A, B, C + D; 
 for the two angular demichannels constitute the third. 
 Under the triglyph six drops are sculptured in the archi- 
 trave, and above, in the chin of the larmier, are eighteen 
 drops in three ranks. It is a rule to place the middle of 
 the triglyph on the middle of the pillar, and to make the 
 space square between the triglyphs, which is called the 
 metop. 
 
 In this, and in the other precepts, X marks the figure 
 of the cornice, Y of the capital, Z that of the imposts. 
 
 PLATE VII, VIII. 
 
 §. 3. The Ionic order is sometimes called the female 
 order, since it is more slim and elegant than the Doric, 
 and is thought to exhibit a matron-like appearance. 
 Wherefore many of its ornaments imitate the female 
 habit ; particularly the volutes, by which the capital of 
 the column is, as it were, curled. They are peculiar to 
 this order, and require a minute description, of which 
 hereafter. 
 
m QF THE ELEMENTS OF 
 
 The height of the pedestal is 5 : 08'. of the column 
 18 : 00'. The base, in ancient specimens, is generally 
 attic: the shaft fluted: the intercolumniations areeustyle. 
 The height of the entablature is a fifth part^ or nearly, of 
 the height of the column. The frieze is pulvinated. 
 
 The volutes of the capital were generally by the an- 
 cients made elliptic; the exact description of them is 
 unknown, but in appearance they are very beautiful : at 
 present we make them circular, according to the follow- 
 ing description. Under the echinus of the capital is the 
 astragal, the height of which, divided into two parts, 
 gives the centre of the circle, which is called the eye of 
 the volute. Then a square is drawn within the eye, and 
 in that square, another, each of whose diagonals is cut 
 into six parts, and the segments are marked in the plate 
 by their respective numbers. Lastly, having produced 
 the two straight Hues drawn through the eye at right 
 angles, dividing the square into four parts, on the centre 
 1 with the radius 1 a is described the arch a b; on the 
 centre 2 with the radius 2 b the arch be; on the centre 
 3 with the radius 3 c the arch c d, &c. 
 
 This is the appearance of the capital as viewed in front; 
 if it is seen sideways, its appearance will be as exhibited 
 in the other figure ; where the middle swelling A resem- 
 bles an upright tore with two small ones « a on each side, 
 it is called a belt. The swellings on each side, B B, are 
 called cushions : C is the side of the outmost spiral 
 line in one volute, K that in the other. 
 
 PLATE IX, X. 
 
 §. 4. The Corinthian order is more delicate than the 
 Ionic, resembling the graceful figure of a virgin . Among 
 the ancients it had much resemblance to the Ionic ; ac- 
 
eiVlL ARCHITECTURE, 97 
 
 cording to Vitruvius it imitated ^)ie Ionic in every part 
 but in the capital of the piJlar. Wherefore in the most 
 admired works the base of the column is attic; the shaft 
 fluted. The entablature is a fifth part of the height of 
 the column. 
 
 The height of the pedestal in our figure (which is taken 
 from Palladio) is a fourth part of that of the pillar: the 
 height of the pillar 19 : 00'. The intercolumniations are 
 systyle, the height of the entablature is a fifth part of the 
 column. Under the larmier afe modillions, with an 
 echinus and dentil. No objection should be raised against 
 some specimens in the antique, in which the column has 
 often 20 : 00', and its entablature has one fourth or two 
 ninths of the pillar: as each of these proportions claim 
 attention from their singular beauty. 
 
 A pretty Gf e^k story is tpld of the origin of the capital 
 of this column, which I shall omit, as Vjllalpandus gives 
 a more probable, yet a dubious account. Consult Vitru- 
 vius, b. iv. chap. 1. and Villalpandus, vol. ii. b. v. 'chap. 
 9S. Were I permitted to conjecture, I should not think 
 it improbable, that, as the shaft of a pillar represents the 
 trunk of a tree, so the tree, being lopped and sprouting 
 again, furnished the hint for the design of this capital. 
 
 The height of the capital is 2:10'. The minutes go to 
 the abacus, whose angles are cut off, ai;\d its sides arched 
 in the following manner. On the given line a a=S : 00', 
 the square a a d d'ls described^ whose diagonals and dia- 
 meters are drawn as in the plate; c^ is = 2: 00', and 
 through g is drawn ef\\ad. Then having made c h = 
 1 : 05', the periphery /A/is described passing through the 
 points,/, h,f, by 25 : e. 3. 
 
 The abacus, with its angles cut of and its sides hol- 
 lowed, has four parts which are called horns, A A. In 
 the middle of the curvature is sQme sculpture, B, which 
 
 H 
 
9S OF THE ELEMENTS OF 
 
 is called a flower or rose, whatever figure it really as- 
 sumes. C is called the bell, from its shape, and supports 
 the abacus. Its circumference is supposed to be divided 
 into eight parts, in those at the bottom are placed eight 
 leaves DD; their height : 20'. Behind these are placed 
 eight more, E E; their height is double that of the lowest 
 ones, and placed, as may be seen in the plate, alternately : 
 so that if you suppose a c the place of the lowest leaf, b d 
 will be the place of the one immediately above, &c. The 
 second leaf under the rose of the abacus has on both 
 sides a stalk F from which two tendrils sprout. The 
 greater one G under the horn of the abacus is called the 
 volute: the smaller one H under the flower, the helix. 
 Wherefore there are eight volutes, which meet in pairs 
 under the horns of the abacus; and the eight helices 
 meet in a similar manner under the flowers of the abacus. 
 They are supported by the third row of leaves springing 
 from the eight stalks. The leaves in the Grecian models 
 are those of the acanthus, in the Roman they are oftener 
 those of the olive. 
 
 BOOK I. CHAP. V. 
 PLATE XI. 
 
 OF THE TWO KINDS. 
 
 §. 1. The Romans have added to the three Grecian 
 orders two, which we call Kinds, taken from the Greeks, 
 (as in most things the Romans were their imitators.) 
 
 The first kind is Etruscan, or Tuscan, which also may 
 be called Rustic; it differs from the Doric as much as 
 
CIVIL ARCHITECTURE. 99 
 
 the appearance of an inhabitant of the country does from 
 one of a city. There is extant no ancient specimen of it 
 with an entablature. Vitruvius speaks of it as rustic 
 even to deformity; nor are modern artists more favour- 
 able to it, except Palladio. 
 
 . The height of the pedestal is 2 : 00', the face flat. The 
 pillar is 14 : 00' high; the shaft plain. The intercolum- 
 niations araeostyle. The height of the entablature is a 
 fourth part of the column. 
 
 PLATE XII, XIII, XIV. 
 
 §. 2. The second kind is Composite, which is three- 
 fold: 1. The Italian (which is called Composite by way 
 of eminence) is, I think, never mentioned by Vitruvius. 
 It is composed both of the Ionic and Corinthian; which 
 two exhibit more graces in combination, than either of 
 them would if joined singly with the Doric. The Com- 
 posite is more slender than the Corinthian, and more 
 ornamented with sculpture; if the latter bears any resem- 
 blance to a young maid, the former represents an harlot. 
 
 The height of the pedestal is a third part of the column, 
 6:20'; for the height of the column is 20:00'. The 
 shaft admits of flu tings. The intercolumniations are 
 pycnostyle. The height of the entablature is a fifth part 
 of the column; its base is attic, or rather lonico-Co- 
 rinthian. The bell of the capital, like that of the Co- 
 rinthian, is enleaved, with a capital resting on it, like the 
 Ionic; with this difi*erence, that it has a Corinthian 
 abacus, and volutes under the horns of the abacus, rising 
 as it were out of the middle of the bell. By these rules 
 Palladio, with great judgment, restrained the enormous 
 liberties which even the ancients introduced into thia 
 kind. 
 
 11 2 
 
100 OF THE ELEMENTS OF 
 
 The second species of the Composite is Dorico-Ionic; 
 the only remaining instance of which may be seen at 
 Rome, in the ruins of the Temple of Concord. The base 
 of the column is Attico-Ionic, and without a plinth, 
 except in angular pillars. The capital is lonico-Doric, 
 with the volutes projecting, as in the Itahan; the abacus 
 is Corinthian; the frieze is sculptured, but the larmier i» 
 plain. It has a beautiful appearance, and may not im- 
 properly, for the sake of distinction, be called Roman. 
 
 The third species of the Composite would be Dorico- 
 Corinthian, if any instance occurred; its appearance is 
 elegant enough, and its capital would suit the column 
 which is called Attic, of which hereafter. But we say 
 nothing of this, as it is without example. 
 
 The third species of Composite is therefore where the 
 column is of one order and the entablature of another; 
 for instance, when the column is Corinthian and the en- 
 tablature Doric. This is approved of even by Vitruvius; 
 and, in fact, was introduced in the Temple of Solomon, 
 whose columns were Corinthian supporting a Doric en- 
 tablature. From the annexed plate the whole plan will 
 be understood, and is not to be exceeded in beauty. 
 This kind may be termed Jewish, and whatever is con- 
 structed after that fashion. 
 
 PLATE XV, XVI, XVII. 
 
 §. 3. Vitruvius relates, b. i. c. 1. that human figures 
 were sometimes put in the place of columns, as symbols 
 of some signal victory. He mentions two instances of 
 this workmanship, which we arrange under the terms a 
 Foreign Kind; for such we call every kind that, though 
 in use, is not comprehended under the rules we have be- 
 fore explained. 
 
CIVIL ARCHITECTURE, 101 
 
 The first foreign kind is the Persian; in which Persian 
 men are placed in the room of columns, as in the trophy 
 of Pausanias; on these is always placed a Doric entabla^ 
 ture. 
 
 The second foreign kind is the Cariatic; where in- 
 stead of pillars female figures are substituted, supporting 
 an Ionic entablature; for, in the origin of this kind, 
 women of Caria, who were taken captives, were repre- 
 sented; and the same name was afterwards transferred 
 to all female figures. 
 
 The third foreign kind degenerates from the Italian; 
 for instead of straight piUars, we see them twisted, a style 
 unworthy of imitation; for they want strength, and are 
 unequal to bear any burden; and if they are not so in 
 fact, they have the appearance of being weak. I should 
 pronounce them to be inelegant in their form, if I were 
 not overruled by the authority of the divine Raphael. 
 Of this kind, all the parts, except the shaft of the pillar, 
 are Italian. 
 
 The fourth foreign kind is what Vitruvius calls Atti- 
 curges, Attic work, and Pliny the Attic column, having 
 four angles, and four equal sides. It differs from a de_ 
 tached pilaster, as it wants the swelling and diminution, 
 and is rather a pier than a column: nevertheless it has 
 a very regular base, which is called Attic, and its capital 
 is Dorico-Corinthian; in which, under a Doric abacus, 
 is an oviculated echinus, resting on an enleaved bell. 
 
 * Vitruvius relaWs the origin of the Cariatides. He observes that the 
 Greeks, having taken the city of Caria, (a country in Asia Minor, between 
 Lycia and Ionia, near the side of the mountain Taurus. See Plin. b. v. c. 27.) 
 led away their women captives ; and, to perpetuate the memory of their 
 servitude, represented them in their buildings supporting columns. The 
 Lacedaemonians, in like manner, having conquered the Persians at Platasa, 
 perpetuated their victory by substituting the figures of Persian men for 
 columns. See lib. i. c. 1. 
 
 h3 
 
102 OF THE ELEMENTS OF 
 
 Antes^ resemble somewhat the Attic columns, {Antce^, 
 of which I shall speak hereafter, are different,) but differ 
 in these two circumstances; first, that they are placed no 
 where except in the angles, or in the junction of walls; 
 secondly, because their base and capital retain the pro- 
 portions of the pillars with which they are associated: 
 wherefore a determinate base and capital are seen in the 
 Attic columns, but not so in the Antes. Both the Antes 
 and Attic columns have their fixed situation ; the former 
 at the extremities of walls, the latter at the sides of gates. 
 
 PLATE XVIir. 
 
 §. 4. Columns are generally coupled, though some- 
 times single. When two or more are combined, a pedi- 
 ment or frontispiece is made above the entablature, whose 
 form is either triangular, or, if smaller, round. Its cir- 
 cumference is sculptured in the same manner as the 
 cornice, and is called the cornice of the pediment. 
 
 On the angles of a triangular pediment are placed 
 Acroteria, or pedestals on which statues are erected. 
 The inside part, inclosed by the cornice of the pedi- 
 ment, is called the Tympanum, and is generally adorned 
 with figures in sculpture, expressive of the origin or use 
 of the edifice, and often with the arms of the person at 
 whose expence the building was erected. If there be an 
 inscription, the frieze is the proper place for it; it is sel- 
 dom seen in the list of the architrave. But in some 
 instances the inscription is seen both in the frieze and 
 architrave; nor in the face of the entablature is there 
 any sculpture except in the cornice. 
 
 y Antes were square pilasters placed at the corner of walls. 
 
 ^ Antae, pilasters attached to the building, and resembled pillars. 
 
CIVIL ARCHITECTURE. 103 
 
 BOOK 1. CHAP. VI. 
 
 A REVIEW OF THE ORDERS AND KINDS. 
 
 PLATE XIX, XX. 
 
 §. 1. We are much indebted to Palladio for his beau- 
 tiful selections from the remains of ancient artists, which 
 he has made with so much taste; and for the rules 
 formed on them, which he has laid down with equal 
 knowledge and judgment; applying them to the five re- 
 gular orders in such a manner that the just proportion 
 is so ascertained, and so gracefully appropriated to each 
 particular column, that we distinguish with the greatest 
 ease at first sight each individual member. Wherefore, 
 in gratitude to his services, we will pass by other writers, 
 and cheerfully follow his footsteps. 
 
 Nor would we restrain the architect by laws so rigid, 
 as never to depart from the strictness of rules. For 
 Architecture, as well as her sister arts. Painting and 
 Poetry, claims some indulgences, and may be permitted 
 to use them, when compatible with taste and elegance. 
 Variety has here an ample range; and so many are the 
 models extant, which though differing from one another, 
 yet are all graceful in themselves, that it becomes a 
 difficult task either to prescribe with accuracy, or to 
 select with judgment. Nevertheless the architect will 
 obtain a sufficient knowledge of each precept and rule, 
 if he pays an earnest attention to the following detail. 
 
 §. 2. I. Remote antiquity propped the roofs of their 
 houses with the trunks of trees, their extremities being 
 girded with iron to prevent their splitting; sometimes the 
 iron was doubled; they often put under them a stone, 
 or a tile or two, to keep them dry. They placed regu- 
 H 4 
 
104 OF THE ELEMENTS OF 
 
 larly upon these trunks beams of greater or smaller size; 
 rafters, beams % upright or transverse, joists, &c. parts 
 that were necessary to a roof or floor, (which is a kind of 
 horizontal roof.) The art in its advanced state imitated 
 these parts by sculpture in marble: the pedestal repre- 
 sented the stone; the plinth the tile; the column the 
 trunk of the tree; the sculpture of the base and capital 
 the iron braces; the architrave the beams placed upon 
 the trees; the frieze the extremities of the rafters, with 
 the intermediate spaces; the remaining parts are imi- 
 tated by the cornice, in which the modillions represent 
 the ends of the principal timbers cut off; the dentils 
 those of the upper rafters. 
 
 The origin of each part, greater or less^ should be at- 
 tended to, that its figure^ size, and situation may be given 
 to it. This rule was of such importance among the an- 
 cient Greeks, that they never suffered any part of an 
 edifice to be sculptured which did not represent some 
 part of the carpentry, in its proper situation. In a later 
 age this rule grew obsolete at Romcj but in general 
 prevails even at this day. 
 
 This rule (and Palladio adopts it) forbids frontispieces 
 to bie divided at the top, as is customary in these days, 
 because they resemble gutters; so that to divide the pedi- 
 ment is as absurd as to expose to view the roof of the 
 compluvium^. 
 
 This rule forbids the cornice to be so ktge as Serlio 
 has made it in the Composite order, and the mutules to 
 be so large as Alberti has made them in the Corinthian 
 order. This rule forbids likewise the excessive projec- 
 tion of the cornice, which is seen in the Temple of Ju- 
 
 a See BaUi's Vocabulary for a further explanation of th^ terms. Art. 
 Templa, Asseres, &c. 
 ^ Clutters receiving the rain from various roofs. 
 
CIVIL ARCHITECTURE. 105 
 
 piter, commonly called torre di nkrone. It forbids 
 the dentils to project so far as is seen in the Corinthian 
 cornice of Cataneo. It forbids the crown to be left out 
 in the cornice, (though Alberti advises it upon the au- 
 thority of the Temple of Peace, and other edifices of ge- 
 neral excellence,) for the reason that roofs are never made 
 without Temipla", This rule likewise forbids many other 
 things; which, as the architect will observe them noted 
 in modern authors, we leave them to his judgment. 
 
 §. 3. II. The description of a column is partly taken 
 from the form of a tree, and partly from the human 
 figure: from the one it derives its swelling, from the other 
 its diminution. The flutes and grooves imitate the fold- 
 ing of drapery : the plaits of the men's clokes (for the 
 Greek column is masculine) were mostly made straight: 
 those of the women's robes were sometimes twisted; an 
 imitation of which may be seen in a temple near the 
 river Trebia. That the shaft may be sculptured seems 
 defensible, by its resemblance to the tree with its bark 
 on. 
 
 §. 4. III. Buildings should be uniform; i. e. as they 
 should be strong, so they should show their firmness. 
 Those that are elegant should be conspicuously so. On 
 which account the more delicate order of pillars (if there 
 be more than one) should be placed upon the larger 
 order : twisted columns, which are called Cartouches'*, 
 and shafts braced with rings, as if they had been broken 
 and repaired, should be avoided by all means. It may 
 
 c Tetnpla, purlines ; timbers laid transversely over the greater rafters to 
 support the smaller ones. 
 
 <» The word in the original is from the Italian term Cartoccio, which 
 signifies a scroll of paper. 
 
1 06 OF THE ELEMENTS .OF 
 
 be asked, if a fluted shaft is not inferior to a plain pillar 
 by this rule ; it is certain that perpendicular channels 
 are preferable to those that are twisted. 
 
 Too much carved work is destructive of elegance; if 
 it projects too much it seems to burden the building, and 
 threaten its ruin. The sculpture lately to be seen in the 
 Baths of Dioclesian in the Corinthian style, though of 
 exquisite workmanship, was a fault rather than a beauty. 
 Artists in the classical age of Augustus were sparing of 
 sculpture. The style which is called the August, and is 
 really so, consists of a few small parts distinct from one 
 another, of accurate and bold symmetry, with little carv- 
 ing. At Rome in the Basilica^ of Antoninus, or rather 
 in the Temple of Mars, the frieze which is pulvinated, is 
 placed between two reglets or lists; by this means it is 
 conspicuous itself, and does not hide the Cymatium, 
 placed upon it. The science of optics dictated this rule, 
 and others of the same kind, which in the works of the 
 ancients call for our praise and imitation. 
 
 §. 5. IV. Variety is agreeable, if not repugnant to the 
 rules already admitted. The helices *^ in the Pantheon, 
 in the Temples of Jupiter Stator, and that of Diana at 
 Nismes, are worthy of imitation, though constructed in 
 different uncommon styles : such a variety is agreeable 
 to the caprices of Nature; but those which imitate the 
 horns of rams in the baths of Dioclesian deviate much 
 from propriety and elegance. At Nismes, instead of the 
 uppermost reglet of the cornice is an echinus under- 
 neath, the mutules are inverted. In the Temple of Jupiter 
 Tonans, one of the two echines in the cornice is carved 
 
 ^ A term for any large building, church, palace, &c. 
 f Helices, the curling stalks under the flowers in the Corinthian order. 
 From the Greek word ikiffu. Volvo. 
 
CIVIL ARCHITECTURE. 107 
 
 in an uncommon manner. In the Temples of Peace, Ju- 
 piter, and Mars, instead of the sima recta of the archi- 
 trave, an echinus is put under the scotia. In the Tem- 
 ple of Fortuna Virilis the height of the entablature is 
 regular, but half of it is given to the cornice. In the 
 Temple of Jupiter Stator the same circumstance occurs, 
 and in both the second fascia only of the architrave is 
 carved. In the Temple of Vesta at Rome the horns of 
 the abacus are not shortened. In her Temple at Tivoli, 
 the ends of the channels and the cavity of the trochile or 
 casement are not round but square: but all these devia- 
 tions are faultless. In proper places the fancy of the 
 artist wanders secure from error. 
 
 §. 6. V. The idea of fitness should above all things be 
 attended to : for this reason the ancients carefully at- 
 t^ended to the suitableness of a column to its edifice, and 
 of the ornaments to their columns. The Ionic column 
 had not been found in the Temple of Diana, but that the 
 Doric was less adapted to that edifice; and in the Tem- 
 ple of Venus even the Ionic had been improperly placed, 
 Cariatic columns in any temple would have been ridicu- 
 lous ; as it would have been introducing monuments of 
 vengeance into an asylum of mercy. The carved work 
 of the Doric order in the baths of Dioclesian is cen- 
 sured ; if it be not admitted to be excessive, it cannot be 
 thought to be manly. The same fault is to be found in 
 Scamozzi's rule for the Doric column, particularly with 
 respect to the flutings in the shaft. 
 
 But to preserve fitness, a general rule is set aside 
 with success; for instance, in the Ionic capital the faces 
 of the volutes are generally made opposite each other: 
 but with great judgment the artist has made them con- 
 tiguous, in the angular columns of the Temple of Fortuna 
 
108 OF THE ELEMENTS OF 
 
 Virilis; so that the same column very properly and hap- 
 pily corresponds with both orders. In the Corinthian 
 capital, instead of volutes and helices, figures representing 
 the horse Pegasus were substituted, even in the Augustan 
 age; but they were substituted in the Temple of Mars. 
 Ultor: instead of the flower of the abacus was seen an 
 eagle grasping thunder, but it was in the portico of the. 
 Emperor Severus. For the same reason, i. e. fitness, 
 there are Composite columns in the Temple of Concord. 
 But inventions of this kind should be attempted seldom 
 and with caution, as in no other department of the art is 
 success so precarious. 
 
 §. 7. VI. The rules observed by the ancients carry an 
 authority with them which may not be disputed. In 
 compliance with which we must not mix the Italian kinds 
 of Architecture with the Grecian orders, nor the Compo- 
 site with the Tuscan; nor should the Tuscan order be 
 introduced in edifices in a city, except in the case of an 
 insulated column. We at present neglect these circum- 
 stances, and yet preserve some practices that seem more 
 repugnant to the principles of good sense. Reason would 
 place the small fillet of the architrave upon the greater, 
 as may be seen in the arch at Verona, and the temple 
 at Pola; in most instances the practice is the reverse. 
 The moderns, according to the Roman fashion, put the 
 dentils under the mutules, (i. e. the small rafters under 
 the principal ones;) this practice the ancient Greek 
 artists condemned ; nor did Diogenes in the Pantheon, 
 being an Athenian, pursue this plan. In the ancient 
 Grecian pediments, neither mutules nor dentils are seen ; 
 but they are found in the Roman: so that the temple 
 near Scisis, a city of Umbra, whose pediment is without 
 these ornaments, is perhaps Grecian. Reason forbids 
 
CIVIL ARCHITECTURE. 109 
 
 the corona to be omitted in the cornice; but in the Tem- 
 ple of Peace, and in others, practice warrants it. Reason 
 enjoins ornamented dentils, but they are often left plain. 
 We should not indeed rashly condemn these instances, 
 but suspect our own judgment ; and presume there may 
 be a reason, of which we are ignorant, to justify their 
 use. 
 
 But every thing which is ancient in this art demands 
 not our imitation; for time which has destroyed more 
 noble, may have left us less beautiful models. Sometimes 
 necessity and not the good sense of the architect directs 
 the execution; as in the temple at Rome called del 
 BATTEsiMO Di CONSTANTINO; wlicrc between the base 
 and apophyge of an Italian column leaves are intro- 
 duced ; in the cornice under the dentil is placed an up- 
 right cima, and immediately under that another; each 
 case is unsupported by authority, but somehow or other 
 a temple was to be erected from the ancient ruins. The 
 artist deserved praise who so well complied with his task. 
 Necessity only can excuse the instance ; where he is left 
 to his own judgment, he will not follow a model defen- 
 sible only on the plea of necessity. 
 
 BOOK I. CHAP. VII. 
 
 OF ROOMS AND THEIR PROPORTIONS. 
 
 §. 1. JlJY the term habitaculum, as no better word oc- 
 curs to me, I mean what the Italians call a stanza, and 
 the English a room, which appellation comprehends any 
 space whatever encompassed with walls, a floor, a ceiling. 
 
no OF THE ELEMENTS OF 
 
 or a roof. There are various species of rooms distin- 
 guished by proper titles ; a general name (if I mistake 
 not) is no where found, but the many terms which dis- 
 criminate the species of rooms are used promiscuously 
 even by the most accurate writers. But, as mathemati- 
 cians do, we will define the terms we mean to use. 
 
 The word cubiculum implies a place where there is 
 a couch or bed to lay down on ; the word thalamus is 
 used in the same sense, but more strictly is a nuptial 
 chamber. To the cubiculum, or bed room, is annexed 
 the antecubiculum or antechamber, which Pliny the 
 younger names by the Greek word proccetium. The anti- 
 thalamus I suppose to have a different meaning; as in 
 the Greek houses it did not join to the thalamus, but an- 
 swered to it on the other side. See Vitruvius, b. vi. c. 
 10. On the right and left of the Prostas s are two rooms, 
 one of which is a thalamus, the other an antithalamus, 
 or a similar one opposite to it. Hermolaus '' is of the 
 same opinion, and objects properly to amphithalamus; 
 for, how can a room that is placed opposite to another 
 be called amphithalamus*.? And if the rooms did not 
 stand opposite one another, how could they be on the 
 right and left hand.? As we have introduced the word 
 amphithalamus, we may use it to signify a postcubiculum, 
 or room placed behind another; which sense Philander 
 seems to have annexed to it. 
 
 The word triclinium, if we regard its etymology, 
 
 S A portico, or any vacant space, entrance, &c. with square pilasters on 
 each side of it. 
 
 h Hermolao Barbaro published a translation, with notes, of Vitruvius in 
 the year 1384. By birth a Venetian, and descended from ancestors emi- 
 nent for their political and literary characters, &c. See Diet. Historique, 
 a Caen, 1783. 
 
 • Amphithalamus, composed of the Greek word u/A(p), which signifies ge- 
 nerally around, close to, and sometimes opposite. See Constantin. Lexic. 
 
CIVIL ARCHITECTURE. Ill 
 
 means a room where there are three couches or beds. 
 The Romans, whose principal repast was supper, called 
 this room a coenaculum or ccenationem. The Greek 
 words 8/xX»voj,l^axX<vo J, marked the number of the couches 
 in the room. Triclinium is a general name in Latin for 
 them all. Plautus makes use of the word biclinium, 
 and A. Gellius of scimpodium% the former meaning a 
 room with two couches, the latter, where only one was 
 to be found. Sometimes triclinium was put for the 
 couches themselves, and for the word coenaculum dieta 
 or zeta, which are synonimous. 
 
 Oeci in general meant rooms of considerable extent, 
 some of which were set apart for the use of the men to 
 feast, &c. only, and others for the women to spin in, &c. 
 Palladio and Alberti call them saloons, meaning in Eng- 
 lish great halls. 
 
 That the word exhedra means a place where there 
 were benches cannot be doubted, and is properly a room 
 for the purposes of conversations of all kinds, and to pass 
 the middle of the day in. But Cicero makes trichnium, 
 cubiculum, and exhedra synonimous. 
 
 Conclave means a room of less extent in the retired 
 parts of a house ; which, accurately speaking, does not 
 signify one room only, but many which are accessible 
 by one key. Plautus somewhere uses the word concla- 
 vium, which may assist us in finding the difference; we 
 may call conclave a closet, conclavium an apartment; 
 which I apprehend Pliny the younger by the figure sy- 
 nechdoche', expressed by the word dioeta. Apartments 
 to which men alone had access were called andrones and 
 
 ^ 'SxifAiro%tv signifies a little bench or stool with one foot only, and held 
 but one table. See Hesychius on the word. 
 
 1 A figure in speech, which takes the whole of a thing for a part, and 
 the reverse. 
 
112 OF THE ELEMENTS OF 
 
 andronitides; those the women only frequented were 
 called gynsecia or gyneeconitides; those for strangers, 
 hospitalia; for winter, hibernacula. Among the Romans 
 andrones had another signification, of which hereafter. 
 
 The word piNACOTHECA'"impHes from its derivation 
 a receptacle for pictures or painted tablets, and in this 
 meaning all writers concur ; whether it be synonimous 
 with tablinum is yet undecided. We may use the au- 
 thority of Pliny the elder, who says the tablinum con- 
 tained books and vouchers of transactions in public 
 offices. The modern name for these records is archives, 
 and sometimes storehouses; which is a general term, ac- 
 cording to Isidorus, for all places where the instruments 
 of any art whatever were deposited. Public archives are 
 sometimes called exchequers. In the roof there are often 
 rooms which we term solars, the roofs which admit them 
 are called by Vitruvius tecta ubi majora sunt spatia, 
 those which do not admit them tecta commoda. By 
 the words cella familiarica, is meant any room for ser- 
 vants, or the vestiarium, by the French called a garde- 
 robe, by us a wardrobe; for it is likewise used for any 
 recess where there is a close stool or water closet; and 
 sella, thus applied, is spelt with an s. 
 
 The terms • bibliotheca and mus^eum require no 
 translation. Of vestibules and courts we will speak 
 hereafter. 
 
 PLATE XXI. 
 
 §. 2. Rooms are in general quadrangular, seldom 
 round. If the length be 1, the breadth L, the height a, 
 from the rules of Palladio in the first instance 1 =L, in 
 the second \=^ 2U, which is the diagonal of the 
 breadth squared, and sometimes is called the diagonal 
 
 ™ From the Greek word »•/»«$ a tablet, iri^nfu to place. 
 
CIVIL ARCHITECTURE. 113 
 
 breadth; in the third 1 = 1 JL; fourth I = 1 |L; fifth 
 1=1 |L; sixth 1=2 L; and if the ceiling be flat it will 
 be a = L in the first story, but « = # L in the second. 
 But in the first story especially, a coved ceiling will be 
 handsomer and more secure, and a greater height must 
 be given to it. Wherefore if the room be square, let a 
 be sesquitertian of L; if oblong, instead of a let a mean 
 be taken between L and 1, either arithmetical =2) L + 1, 
 or geometrical = V 1 L, or harmonical =2) L + 1) 1 L. 
 There are other proportions of height, according to 
 Palladio, which are not reducible to rule. These may 
 be used occasionally, and with due discretion. 
 
 §. 3. M. Muet has laid down these proportions. The 
 least length of a saloon should be 2 L, the greatest in a 
 palace 3 L. Those of a mean size S^L and 2 |L. Let 
 the length of the antichamber be either a diagonal of its 
 breadth, or sesquialteral. Let the chamber or bed room 
 be either square, or longer than it is broad by an eighth, 
 seventh, sixth, or fifth part. To constitute the height of 
 these three rooms take | or ^ or f of their breadth in the 
 first story; and in the second let it be a twelfth part less 
 than the former. If the ceiling be arched, to form the 
 height take the breadth lessened by a sixth, eighth, or 
 twelfth part of itself, in the first story, in the second di- 
 minished by a sixth part of the former; if there be a 
 third story, the height of it will be f of the second. 
 
 The pergulae, or galleries, should have their breadth 
 16, 18, or 20 feet; in a palace 24 feet. The length 
 must be a multiple of the breadth; not less than five 
 times, nor greater than eight times. The height in the 
 first story the same as that of the saloon, antichamber, 
 and bedchamber in the same story; but in the second 
 equal to the breadth; or if the ceiling is coved, the 
 
 I 
 
114 OF THE ELEMENTS OF 
 
 breadth should be increased by a fifth, a fourth, or a 
 third part of itself. 
 
 §. 4. Floorings are made in various fashions. 1. The 
 barbaric, which Pliny reckons the most ancient, were 
 probably of the most simple construction. I imagine 
 therefore these floors were made of earth rammed down 
 till it became firm and compact, or with bones (as we see 
 often in the country) or stones driven into it. But these 
 pitched or barbaric floors, from their vague signification, 
 may, I apprehend, include floors of plaster. 2. Plaster 
 floors are made of pounded bricks and coarse sand, with 
 a mixture of lime. 3. Those floors I term coctilia whicli 
 are laid with bricks or tiles. 4. Those lapidea made 
 with hewn stone. 5. Lignea, those that are made with 
 boards joined together, such as are at present mostly 
 used. 6. Tesselated and Mosaic floors are those which 
 are composed of small pieces of marble, shell, or glass, 
 in the shape of lozenges, &c. stained with different co- 
 lours, and arranged so as to represent painting or pic- 
 tures. On account of the variety of their materials, floors 
 were called lithostrota, hyalostrota, cerostrota, ooylostrota'', 
 &c. At first these materials were confined to pavements 
 or floors, afterward they were transferred from the ground 
 to vaulted ceilings. 
 
 The subtegulanea, or floors made of tiles, come under 
 the description of the above, and likewise other obsolete 
 pavements. For an account of these, and floors exposed 
 to the open air, (which are not to be found in England, 
 but are frequent in warmer climates,) see Pliny, Nat. 
 Hist, book xxxvi. chap. 25. 
 
 " Algety laid with stone; I'aXaf, with glass; xi^ets, with horn; l,vkov, 
 with wood. 
 
CIVIL ARCHITECTURE. 115 
 
 §. 5. Ceilings are likewise constructed in various forms; 
 in some that are flat, the timbers of the story placed over 
 them are open to the view; in this case the distance of 
 the timbers from each other should be sesquialteral of 
 their thickness; a greater distance would be injurious to 
 the beauty of the ceiling, a less to the strength of the 
 wall. But for the most part the timbers are concealed 
 by wainscot or stucco; both which may be either left 
 plain, or adorned with paintings, or any other ornaments 
 in relief. In some instances many of these modes are 
 adopted, in others they are all blended together. Hence 
 arises so great a variety, that Palladio asserts that no 
 rule can invariably be laid down with respect to ceil- 
 ings. 
 
 §.6. Of vaulted ceilings the Latin names are not fully 
 ascertained. Arcus,forniv, testudo, concha, earner a°, are 
 terms applied without distinction to all vaulted ceilings 
 whatever. The two Greek words, hemisphjsrium and 
 HEMiCYLiNDRUM, are sufficiently understood, and always 
 imply the most perfect kind of arch, tliat is, the semicir- 
 cular one. 
 
 But vaults are often made not in the form of a semicir- 
 cle, but with a less degree of inflexion; or, as Vitruvius 
 expresses it, " ad circinum delumbata."" See b. vi. chap. 
 5. This kind of vault is not circular, but by the help of 
 a compass originates from a semicircle in the following 
 manner. 
 
 In Fig. 8. c a b d IS a semicircle equally divided at 
 pleasure, c d the radius drawn at right angles : c e the 
 apsis or height of the arch you intend to describe, which 
 
 o All signifying an arch. 
 
 i2 
 
116 OF THE ELEMENTS OF 
 
 the Italians term frezza, we sagitta^. On the centre c witli 
 the distance c e describe the semicircle c g e g parallel to 
 the former. Let the radii c f and the sines /g be drawn; 
 where the radii cut the periphery of the lesser circle, let 
 right lines be drawn to the sines parallel to the diameter; 
 through the points where they intersect them let the 
 equable curve a e h he drawn, which is the curve re- 
 quired. 
 
 Palladio says that the arches of ceilings, less than semi- 
 circular, are most advantageously described when they 
 have the frezza or arrow a third part of the breadth of 
 the room. This he shews by seven plans of as many 
 rooms constructed by himself, with arched roofs pecu- 
 liarly adapted to them. 
 
 1. The first he terms il volto a crocieba, or crossed 
 vault. It is formed by two arches cutting one another 
 across in the shape of an X, which Philander thinks was 
 meant by the testudo of the ancients. 2. A fascia, or 
 bark fashion; I would rather style it fornix, cradle- wise, 
 but under that term the hemicylindrical arch is compre- 
 hended. 3. and 7. is termed a remenato, whose curve 
 is a subsegment of a circle, or a segment less than a 
 semicircle. 4. Ritondo, in the French language en cul 
 DE FOUR, which we term oven-wise. This form of a ceil- 
 ing is adapted to a square room, and is thus constructed. 
 In each of the angles a kind of impost is left for it to rest 
 on; it begins with a semicircle, and gradually contracts, 
 so that in the middle it makes a subsegment of a circle, 
 and widens into a semicircular curve the nearner it ap- 
 proaches to the angles. 5. A lunette, which Philander 
 
 P Frezza, sagitta, an arrow in English. In mathematics the term sig- 
 nifies a versed line of an arch, standing on the chord like an arrow. See 
 Chambers's Dictionary. 
 
CIVIL ARCHITECTURE. 117 
 
 calls lunulated, consisting of the four parts of a crossed 
 vault. 6. A,coNCA, which may be termed a channelled 
 vault, as it resembles the hollow of a ship or pinnace, and 
 is sometimes called by the Italians a schiffo. 
 
 Palladio has spoken of the first four arches as in use 
 among the ancients, the two latter as inventions of the 
 moderns : which information may satisfy the architect 
 without paying attention to the pedantry of grammarians, 
 who in this case, as well as in others, interfere imperti- 
 nently in matters unconnected with their province. 
 
 BOOK I. CHAP. VIII. 
 
 OF APEETUEES. 
 
 Apertures are doors, windows, the tunnels of chim- 
 neys, and, according to some writers, staircases. Sir H. 
 Wootton gives the following excellent rules with respect 
 to them: first, that they should be as few and as small as 
 conveniently they may : because every aperture weakens 
 a building: wherefore, in the second place, the apertures 
 should be as distant as possible from the angles of an 
 edifice, as the angles ought to be made very strong. 
 
 Philander observes that the gates of cities were arched, 
 but in sacred and private buildings the doors and windows 
 were always quadrangular. This was the practice of the 
 ancients, but neglected by the moderns. The ancient 
 custom, as is likewise the present, was to strengthen the 
 square apertures by concealed arches. Though Vitruvius- 
 advises to contract the openings of doors at the top, as 
 may be seen in the Temple of Vesta, near the Tibur, the 
 
 i3 
 
118 OF THE ELEMENTS OF 
 
 modems have not adopted this plan: for though an 
 aperture of that kind may be more firm, yet it fails in 
 the beauty of its appearance. 
 
 PLATE XXII. 
 
 §. 2. The void space of the door is called lumen hy- 
 poTHYRi, or simply lumen ; the sides of which are in- 
 closed by two antj:, that is, jaumbs or square posts, on 
 which is placed the supercilium or upper lintel, the 
 opposite to which is the lower one or threshold, on which 
 we tread. To the ant^ and supercilium is affixed 
 what is called from that circumstance the antepagmen- 
 tum, or architrave ; the upper part of which, covering 
 the upper lintel, is called the upper architrave; the Fascia 
 running round, the Corsae. On the antepagmentum, 
 as an architrave, rests the hyperthyron, like a frieze, 
 and over that the cornice. The ornament above that 
 may be called the corona lata. The ancones, or pro- 
 thyrides, are of almost the same form with modillions; 
 they project on each side the door, and have a leaf ge- 
 nerally carved at the bottom of them. The wooden con- 
 texture that fills the aperture of the door, is called the 
 leaf of the door. The parts of which are A, the upright 
 rail; B, C the transverse ones; C the middle one; D the 
 sunk border of the pannel; E the pannel. 
 
 §. 3. The principal door of a building has no determi- 
 nate dimension; but varies according to the grandeur of 
 the house and its possessor, or its use. Palladio agrees 
 with Vitruvius, that the height from the floor to the ceil- 
 ing should be divided into three parts and a half; that 
 two parts should be given to the height of the aperture, 
 and to its breadth one, after deducting from it the twelfth 
 
CIVIL ARCHITECTURE. kt9 
 
 part of the height. M. Muet proposes the least breadth 
 of the principal door to be seven feet and a half, the 
 largest twelve feet. The height to be one and a half of 
 the breadth, or rather the double of it. 
 
 With regard to rooms, Palladio has laid down these 
 rules for the doors : the least breadth of the aperture 
 should be two feet, the greatest three feet, and the height 
 agreeable to the least, five feet ; to the greatest, six and a 
 half. M. Muet is of opinion that the least breadth should 
 be two feet and a half, and the height, suitable to it, five 
 and a half. The breadth, from three to four feet, re- 
 quires the height to be twice as much. In a royal palace 
 the breadth of five or six feet may be allowed to the 
 opening, and the height may be double of it, or some- 
 times less than double by a fifth or fourth part of the 
 breadth. 
 
 §. 4. Vitruvius being silent on the subject of windows 
 and their structure, Palladio lays down these rules. Great 
 care is to be taken (says he) that the openings of windows 
 oe not wider or narrower than is proper. Let not their 
 breadth be less than a fifth, or greater than a fourth, 
 part of the breadth of the apartment : and their height 
 be double their breadth, with an additional sixth part of 
 it; and if there be more stories than one, the height of 
 the lower one, diminished by a sixth part of it, will give 
 the height of that next above. 
 
 Windows, though belonging to rooms of unequal di- 
 mensions, yet, if in the same story, should themselves be 
 equal: to contrive this, and th^t the architect may adhere 
 without difficulty to the rules of symmetry, let there be in 
 the story a room, the length of which exceeds its breadth 
 by two thirds. Let its breadth be divided into nine 
 parts, two of which will give the breadth of the aperture 
 
 i4 
 
120 OF THE ELEMENTS OF 
 
 of the window ; and four with a sixth part added will be 
 a proper height. These dimensions will suit all the win- 
 dows of that story in which the abovesaid apartment is 
 constructed. 
 
 M. Muet has laid down the following proportions : let 
 the opening of a window be four feet and a half or five 
 feet wide : in a royal mansion six : its height at least 
 double of its width. It will be handsomer, if a fourth, 
 a third part, or one half of its width be added. In the 
 second story, the height of the first may be decreased by 
 its 12th part; in the third, a fourth part may be taken 
 from the height of the second. 
 
 PLATE XXIII. XXIV. 
 
 §. 5. The ornamental parts of doors and windows, ac- 
 cording to Palladio, are, the architrave, frieze, and cor- 
 nice. The breadth of the antepagmentum, or architrave? 
 ought to be not less than a sixth, nor greater than a fifth, 
 part of the breadth of the void: the projecture to be a 
 sixth part of its own breadth. From thence may be taken 
 the dimensions of the frieze and cornice, in the four ways 
 exhibited in the plate. In all, first let the architrave be 
 divided into four parts: let the cornice have for its height 
 five of these parts: the frieze, in the first and second de- 
 sign, three : in the third, a fourth more : in the fourth, 
 one half. The other parts will be sufliciently understood 
 by consulting the plate. 
 
 §. 6. The fire-places of the ancient Romans had not 
 chimneys, but only the funnels of them: chimneys such 
 as ours are were, if at all, very rare at Rome : but in- 
 stead of them, in the subterraneous part of the house, 
 an oblong vault was made, which was heated partly by 
 
CIVIL ARCHITECTURE. 121 
 
 lighted wood, partly by being filled with hot water; from 
 this the heat flowed to the saloons, dining rooms, and bed- 
 chambers, through ducts constructed in the inside of the 
 walls, in every direction, and reaching to the top of the 
 building; and in them were vents, made in all those 
 places where they wished to procure heat, covered with 
 lids, which were stopped or unstopped at pleasure. Our 
 own habitations would be rendered (in my opinion) much 
 more convenient if we adopted this plan. 
 
 Chimneys at present are made, for the most part, in 
 the thickness of the walls, with their openings visible in 
 the apartment, and their funnel rising outwards above 
 the top of the roof. The apertures are limited by two 
 jaumbs, and the mantle-tree, on which a pyramid is con- 
 structed, reaching to the ceiling, and on it a shelving 
 funnel is erected. The floor of the chimney is called the 
 hearth; the part opposite to the opening is called the 
 chimney's back. 
 
 Muet proposes these following proportions for chim- 
 neys: in kitchens, saloons, and dining rooms of an extra- 
 ordinary size, the breadth of the apertures should be 
 from 6 to 8 feet. Their height from 4^ to 5. The pro- 
 jection or depth from the forepart of the jaumb measured 
 to the back of the chimney from 2^ to 3 feet. Thence 
 the hollow of the pyramid gradually diminishes till it 
 reaches the bottom of the funnel 4 or 5 feet long; from 
 10 to 15 inches broad, and not more. In bedchambers 
 the breadth of the opening should be from 5| to 7 feet; 
 the height 4 feet or 4^ ; the projection 2 feet or 2^. In 
 common parlours and servants' rooms, the breadth of the 
 opening should be from 4 to 5 feet; the height and pro- 
 jection the same as in bedchambers.. 
 
 Palladio proposes, in a summary way, that the funnel 
 
122 OF THE ELEMENTS OF 
 
 in the chimneys of rooms should be from six to nine 
 inches wide, and two feet and a half long, and that the 
 opening of the funnel where it joins to the pyramid may 
 be somewhat contracted. The mantle-tree should be of 
 very elegant workmanship, and by no means of the rustic 
 kind, unless in very large buildings. 
 
 PLATE XXV— XXX. 
 
 §. 7. Staircases, properly so called, are separated or 
 subdivided by steps. Those gentle ascents sometimes 
 constructed in palaces in the place of stairs do not come 
 under this appellation. 
 
 In staircases three properties are required; 1st, that 
 they have a full and steady light; 2d, that they be large 
 in proportion to the size of the building; the steps should 
 be from 12 to 4 feet long; should they be shorter than 4 
 feet, persons meeting each other would be delayed. 3d, 
 they should be convenient ; to the building they will be 
 so, if under them lumber, &c. can be concealed ; to those 
 who ascend them, if their ascent is easy. The steps 
 should be unequal in immber, (the ancients had some 
 superstition about making them equal,) and a resting 
 place or landing should be contrived after 9, 11, or at 
 the utmost 13 steps. The height of the steps should be 
 six inches, or at least four, where there are many without 
 interruption. The breadth for the most part is a foot, 
 never more than a foot and a half. The steps should be 
 laid or joined, according to the Italian phrase con un tan- 
 tino di Scarpa with a little incHnation or slope, which 
 will greatly contribute to the ease of the^tscent. 
 
 Staircases are made either spiral, which are called 
 cockle stairs ; or in a right line, which are called straight 
 
CIVIL ARCHITECTURE. 123 
 
 ones. The spiral have less space, and are more difficult 
 to climb. Staircases are either circular or elliptical, each 
 of which is madcAvith straight steps, or (which is the better 
 mode) with contorted ones; and are either inserted in 
 the wall only, or in a pillar only, or in both. 
 
 If the pillar be in the middle, let the diameter of the 
 space be divided into three parts, one of which must be 
 given to the pillar; or (as in Trajan''s pillar) four parts 
 of the diameter, when divided into seven, must be allowed 
 to the steps. In cockle stairs, where there is no pillar, 
 let the diameter of the space be divided into four parts, 
 and two of them be occupied by the steps. The best 
 constructed staircases, particularly spiral ones, are those 
 which are void in the middle, both that they may re- 
 ceive light from above, and likewise that persons ascend- 
 ing and descending may see one another. 
 
 Among the straight staircases, which at present are 
 most common, some are oblong, and consist of two as- 
 cents, with an oblong landing placed between them, or 
 they are square. In the square ones let the space be di- 
 vided into four parts, and two given to the steps, two to 
 the void, in which the thickness of the wall will be in- 
 cluded, if there be a wall instead of a void. 
 
 Sometimes the narrowness of the place obliges the 
 architect to make steps in the angles of the landing 
 places; in this case, making the angle of the landing 
 the centre, and its breadth a radius, describe a quadran- 
 tal arch, and divide it into as many parts as the radius 
 has feet. 
 
 From these elementary rules for the construction of 
 staircases, an almost infinite variety in them is produced, 
 which it is needless to speak of in the detail. Let the 
 architect pay attention to the best models ; and, furnished 
 
124 OF THE ELEMENTS, &c. 
 
 with these general principles, make use of his own judg- 
 ment in his designs; remembering, at the same time, that 
 the due construction and commodious placing of them will 
 call for the utmost exertion of the powers of his art. 
 
THE SECOND PART 
 
 OF THE 
 
 ELEMENTS 
 
 OF 
 
 CIVIL ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 TREATING OF 
 
 PUBLIC AND PRIVATE BUILDINGS. 
 
 PLATE XXXT. 
 
 §. 1. In the preceding book all those things which con- 
 stitute strength or beauty in buildings in general have 
 been considered ; it remains now to mention what things 
 contribute to the utility of particular buildings: we will 
 begin with a private house in a city. 
 
 In choosing the situation, its vicinity to public edifices 
 should be principally attended to; that is, we should 
 build as near as convenient to the place where the business 
 of the owner chiefly calls him. Every one would wish 
 to be near a church, but especially a priest, a nobleman 
 near the prince's court, the lawyer near the hall of justice, 
 the merchant near the exchange, the trader in the prin- 
 cipal street; and every other citizen in the same manner 
 would choose his dwelling according to his occupation — 
 not far from the river, if any flows near the city; at a 
 distance from a tallow-chandler, a brewer, a soap-boiler. 
 
126 OF THE ELEMENTS OF 
 
 a butcher's shop, or any other business attended with an 
 unsavoury smell; far from the noise of the anvil, the 
 hammer, and the saw ; and, above all, (as Cato says,) at 
 a distance from bad neighbours. In short, that spot is 
 most eligible in which you can construct a regular house, 
 that is, one with right angles; where room, leisure, and 
 cleanliness may be obtained, and you may procure to 
 your house the advantages of a rural situation. If all 
 the above conveniences cannot be met with, it is prudent 
 however to aim at as many as possible. The same ob- 
 servation may extend to the other precepts. 
 
 In general there are three divisions of a city house. 
 The lower, some of whose parts are generally under 
 ground ; the middle one is consigned to the use of the 
 owner and his friends, and contains one or two stories. 
 The highest consists of smaller rooms placed over the 
 middle ones with solars, if the roof admits of them. 
 
 §. 2. In the middle part a more spacious room should 
 be constructed, and if it contains two stories, another 
 room not less should be raised over that; the lower of 
 these is by the Italians called entrata, the higher sala, 
 or saloon ; we may call them entrance and hall. The 
 halls should be as spacious as may be, wherefore a square 
 is preferable. The oblong is the better the nearer it ap- 
 proaches to the square. Palladio gives to none of them 
 a length greater than double the breadth. 
 
 Adjacent to the entrance and hall, the large, small, 
 and middle sized rooms, together with the principal stair- 
 cases, should be so placed, that an easy and free passage 
 may be had into the entrance, hall, and other apartments 
 of the same story. Moreover rooms of different size 
 should be placed near one another, so as to be of mutual 
 convenience. 
 
CIVIL ARCHITECTURE. 127 
 
 In marking the proportions of these the architect 
 should have an eye to the office and dignity of the pos- 
 sessor. Men of ordinary fortune want not houses either 
 large or magnificent. Money lenders and inn holders 
 wish to have them convenient, showy, and well secured 
 from thieves. Lawyers build them with more elegance 
 and space to receive their clients. Merchants require 
 rooms to stow their goods in ; well defended, and facing 
 the north. Men in office and noblemen demand houses 
 large, lofty, ornamented, and in short princely. 
 
 In a stately mansion the height of the larger room is 
 such, as to equal both the heights of the two lesser, by 
 which means one of them is placed over the other, by 
 the side of the larger room; which circumstance in great 
 houses is of much utihty. Rooms thus constructed, the 
 Italians call amezata, or halved; we may call them half 
 stories. These are seldom found in houses of moderate 
 size ; but in their stead closets are adapted to the larger 
 apartments, each to each, if it may conveniently be done. 
 
 The architect will likewise provide that each room has 
 its proper aspect. Summer rooms should face the north, 
 and should be large and spacious for the sake of coolness. 
 Picture rooms with the same aspect for the sake of a re- 
 gular and continued hght. Winter apartments should 
 be less than summer ones, and face the west, or rather 
 the south, as they require warmth. Rooms used in 
 spring and autumn, likewise bedchambers, should face 
 the east, on account of the morning light. For the same 
 reason libraries should be to the east, and because that 
 aspect is most favourable to the preservation of the books. 
 From the latter we ought to look into the pleasure 
 grounds. In a large house the chapel (as churches do) 
 should face the east ; so should also, in a smaller edifice, 
 the oratory, which answers to the chapel. The architect 
 
128 OF THE ELEMENTS OF 
 
 should be informed, that in houses of any splendour an 
 oratory and a museum are as requisite as a dining-room 
 or a bedchamber. 
 
 §. 3. So far with respect to the division of a house 
 above ground, which is the most magnificent part of it; 
 but in a house, as in the human body, there are parts 
 which, though of eminent use, are yet of inferior dignity 
 to the rest ; such irt imitation of nature we should keep 
 private. Some of these should be placed in the highest 
 part of the mansion. Under ground should be cellars, 
 kitchens, woodhouses, bakehouses, store rooms, laundries, 
 and other offices. Such a situation will be most con- 
 venient for them, and the body of the house will be more 
 ample, commodious, healthy, and pleasant. The stables 
 with the haylofts placed over them, and the coach houses, 
 should be separated from the mansion, and erected where 
 the dung may be most easily carried into the gardens. 
 If they are built on one side of the house, all the offices 
 on the other side, except the cellars, will exactly corre- 
 spond with them. Over each of them servants'* rooms 
 on either side should be placed suitable to their respec- 
 tive employments. 
 
 §. 4. The entrance or door of the house is generally 
 in the middle of the front, sometimes, if the situation re- 
 quires, in the middle of the side. From the door directly, 
 or with some space intervening, we arrive at the entrance, 
 and from thence proceed to the apartments. These in 
 every house should be so contrived, that they should be 
 of similar figure and dimensions, and opposite each other; 
 so that the windows on one side may correspond with 
 those on the opposite side, and be of the same size and 
 symmetry, and placed in the same horizontal line. The 
 
CIVIL ARCHITECTURE. 129 
 
 doors of the apartments should be made directly fronting 
 each other, that when they are all open the view may be 
 continued through the whole suite of rooms. The ob- 
 jection of Wootton, namely, that no room except the last 
 would be private, an able architect may obviate : especi- 
 ally if he contrives with judgment the back stairs, which 
 we call the servants' stairs. The observance of the three 
 last requisites, use, strength, and beauty, alike require, 
 and they should be observed in each particular story : in 
 the combination of them, the fourth precept above men- 
 tioned should be attended to ; namely, that void should 
 be over void, and walling over walling. 
 
 §. 5. The chimney of every apartment, if it be placed 
 in the middle of the side, will be an ornament; but this is 
 not necessary, especially in a bed room : if it be placed in 
 the comer of an apartment, the room will be enlarged by 
 it, and a common shaft with four funnels will accommo- 
 date as many chimneys. 
 
 Back stairs are useful in all houses ; where there are 
 half stories they are necessary. The principal staircase 
 should be placed as we have before described; and it will 
 be disposed to great advantage, if in the way to it the 
 more beautiful parts of the house may be seen. 
 
 Much grandeur and elegance would also be added to 
 the house by the erection of a pediment in the front ; 
 which, though less usual in England, will be found in the 
 plate. 
 
132 OF THE ELEMENTS OF 
 
 the windows. It looks towards the north, and into the 
 gardens, and so capacious are its dimensions, that it 
 would contain two triclinia placed opposite each other 
 with their respective circuits. It has folding doors in the 
 middle, and windows made to open like doors to com- 
 mand a view of the gardens. 
 
 The Egyptian oecus, far exceeding the others in 
 beauty, (see plate 34,) contains the height of two stories, 
 so that it has two orders or rows of columns. The lower 
 ones are insulated, with an architrave only placed upon 
 them, according to Vitruvius, but to which Palladio pro- 
 perly adds a frieze and a cornice. On the corona of this 
 rests an entire wall, in which is inserted a second order 
 of columns; which are either half or three-quarter ones. 
 They are placed directly over the insulated columns, and 
 are a fourth part less; and in their intercolumniations 
 are windows. In the part below, the wall stands off from 
 the columns, but is connected by means of the story above; 
 so that round the sides of the hall a walk is formed by 
 the columns, covered with a floor open to the air, and 
 with a balustrade. 
 
 §. 3. Of the CAv^DiUM we can say nothing certain. 
 Varro by cav.^dium and atrium plainly means the same 
 thing : Pliny the younger ma:kes a manifest distinction 
 between them: Palladio and Barbaro, who take Vitruvius 
 for their guide, adopt the opinion of Varro. Mr. Per- 
 rault so far agrees with Pliny, that he translates cavjsdium 
 un cour de maisofi, and atrium ww vestibule; in short, 
 Vitruvius himself does not sufficiently explain his mean- 
 ing, but makes use of cav.^dium in the plural number, 
 and divides it into five kinds. With respect to my own 
 opinion, in a niatter so doubtful every one should be left 
 to his own judgment ; but he who admits the following 
 
CIVIL ARCHITECTURE. 133 
 
 'exposition will not, I think, be far from the meaning of 
 Vitruvius. In the Roman houses there were generally 
 an ATRIUM and a peristylium; two areas open to the 
 air, or at least open to the height of the house, around 
 which the apartments were so arranged that each of the 
 courts exhibited the appearance of a market place; and 
 from the atrium into the peristylium the way lay 
 through the tablinum, whose entrance fronting, and 
 generally open, afforded an uninterrupted passage ; the 
 proportions of these three were adapted to the figure of 
 the atrium. Vitruvius, I apprehend, called each of 
 these a cav^edium, and divided them into five kinds, ac- 
 cording as the figure of the atrium varied. 
 
 PLATE XXXV— XXXIX. 
 
 §. 4. I call therefore an atrium a quadrangular area 
 oblong in a certain, proportion, all whose sides are sur- 
 rounded by apartments. Its length should be five thirds 
 of its breadth, or one and a half of it, or the diagonal of 
 its square: the height corresponding to all of these 
 should- be the same; that is, three fourths of their length. 
 
 If the apartments arranged on each side are covered 
 with shelving roofs, which are placed on the walls as not 
 to extend into the area beyond the entablature; this kind 
 of court will be called an atrium displuviatum'. 
 
 But if the eaves, as in plate 35, by the addition of 
 beams, should project a little into the area, this is called 
 a Tuscan atrium. 
 
 And if, as in plate 36, by the addition of other beams 
 on each side, the projection should become greater, and 
 the beams be supported by four insulated columns, it will 
 
 * See Vitruv. lib. vi. cap. 3. 
 
 k3 
 
134 OF THE ELEMENTS OF 
 
 be called an atrium tetrastylon, and will have the two 
 wings A A on each side opposite to each other. 
 
 N. B. " In every atrium that has wings they should 
 *' be equal and alike : each as wide as the sixth, seventh, 
 " eighth, ninth, or tenth part of the length, according as 
 " the length may be from 30 to 40, from 40 to 50, from 
 *' 50 to 60, from 60 to 80, from 80 to 100 feet. The li- 
 " minary, or, as others call them, the limitary beams, 
 " that is, their architraves, should be raised in such a 
 " manner on the top of the wall, as that the height of the 
 " wall should be equal to the breadth of the atrium." 
 The lumen or aperture of the impluvium should not be 
 more than a third or less than a fourth part of the 
 breadth of the atrium, in order that the length of it may 
 be made proportionate. 
 
 Moreover, if the two wings, as in plate 37, be orna- 
 mented with columns, this will be a Corinthian atrium; 
 if Hkewise a colonnade walk be made in the inside lower 
 than the roof of the apartments, and covered with a floor 
 open to the air, and a balustrade, this may be called for 
 the sake of distinction a Corinthiac atrium. See 
 plate 38. 
 
 Lastly, if the whole area be covered, as in plate 39, 
 with a testudo roof, it will be called atrium testudi- 
 NATUM, and will receive the light through windows six 
 feet high inserted in the crown of the wall which sur- 
 rounds the court. 
 
 §. 5. What the room called the tablinum" signified, 
 we have already explained : with respect to its figure it 
 should be square ; and, to be proportionable to the 
 ATRIUM, its side should be two thirds, or a half, or two 
 fifths, of the breadth of the atrium, according as its 
 
 " See tablinum, b. i. c. 7. 
 
CIVIL ARCHITECTURE. 135 
 
 breadth may be from 20 to 30, from 30 to 40, from 40 
 to 60 feet. Let the height under the limitary beam be 
 an eighth added to its breadth, and a third of the same 
 breadth should be added above, in consideration of the 
 ceiling. 
 
 PLATE XL. 
 
 OF THE PEEISTYLIUM. 
 
 §. 6. The PERisTYLiuM (or, according to Julius Pol. 
 lux*, PERicioN, for the Greek word xicov signifies a co- 
 lumn) seems analogous to the cloister in a convent or 
 college, for it is a quadrangular area, longer by a third 
 part than it is broad; the middle of the area is open to 
 the air, its sides forming a walk encompassed with co- 
 lumns, which are often insulated, and often Hkewise in- 
 serted, whose height is always equal to the breadth of 
 the porticos. Sometimes the insulated columns are 
 ranged over the inserted ; sometimes there are three or 
 more orders, and a wall with windows occupies the in- 
 tercolumniations, particularly of the upper order. By 
 the combination of all these modes a great variety is 
 given to the building. As the dimensions of the areaare. 
 not laid down by any writer I have seen, I shall not pre- 
 tend to define them; but that they had some certain pro- 
 portion to the ATRIUM I have not the least doubt. With 
 respect to its situation, it fronts the atrium; at least ac- 
 cording to Vitruvius, who describes its length as lying 
 transversely, and its breadth as retiring inward. The 
 difference between the peristyhum and the atrium is 
 obvious; as the wings only of the latter are adorned 
 with columns. 
 
 By the due proportion and proper disposition of the 
 
 * See his Onomasticon, or Dictionarium Reruni et Synonimorum, &c. 
 K 4 
 
136 OF THE ELEMENTS OF 
 
 ATRIUM, the TABLINUM, and PERISTYLIUM, the CAV.E- 
 
 diUm of Vitruvius before mentioned is, I apprehend, 
 completed; and if the cav^dium of PHny the younger 
 should mean any else, (as it appears to do,) it may per- 
 haps be a name common to all quadrangular areas which 
 are surrounded by apartments, and open within, but are 
 of such figure and proportions as do not properly fall 
 under the description of atria or peristylia; such as 
 for the most part are the quadrangles of colleges in the 
 Universities. 
 
 PLATE XXXV, XXXVI. 
 
 §. 7. We will now, with Palladio as our guide, form 
 the proportions of the Tuscan cavjidia. Immediately 
 from the vestibule we proceed to the atrium, whose length 
 is to its breadth as three to two, and whose breadth i» to 
 the side of the tablinum as live to two. From the tabli- 
 num we enter the peristylium, which is longer across by 
 a third part than its depth, and its porticos should be as 
 wide as the columns are high. The other parts may be 
 made as in plate 35, or varied according to the pleasure 
 of the architect, provided he adheres to the general rules. 
 
 The tetrastyle cav^dia may be thus constructed, 
 agreeable to the same writer. Through the vestibule we 
 proceed to the atrium, whose length is to its breadth as 
 five to three ; the half of its breadth gives the side of the 
 tablinum, the third of it the aperture of the impluvium. 
 The eighth part gives the breadth of the wing; and the 
 sixteenth part forms the diameter of the four columns, 
 which are likewise of the Corinthian order. The peristy- 
 lium is a third part longer crossways than in depth. It 
 has two orders of columns; those below are Doric 16 
 feet high ; the breadth of the porticos is the same. The 
 columns above are Ionic, a fourth part more slender than 
 
CIVIL ARCHITECTURE. 137 
 
 the Doric; they rest on a base or pedestal entire two feet 
 and three quarters high. 
 
 Of the TESTUDiNATED and Corinthian atrios we 
 shall treat more properly hereafter. Of the displu- 
 viATED, with Palladio, we shall say nothing. 
 
 BOOK II. CHAP. III. 
 
 OF THE PRIVATE CITY HOUSES OF OTHER NATIONS. 
 
 §. 1. Many nations, as they differ in cHmate and 
 manners, vary likewise in their modes of building. It 
 will be of singular advantage to the architect to be well 
 acquainted with their particular plans, and diligently to 
 study the ancient models, more especially those of the 
 Greek and Roman artists. We proceed therefore to treat 
 of these ; and as the designs of Mons. Perrault generally 
 explain Vitruvius, and Palladio supplies the defects of 
 M. Perrault, we will lay before the reader the plans of 
 both, and mark the places described by each of them 
 with the same letters. 
 
 PLATE XLI, XLII. 
 
 §. 2. A city house among the Greeks has no vestibule 
 opposite the street Z, and no court in the entrance, but a 
 harrow passage A, called in Greek ^ugoo^siov or gateway, 
 on one side of which are the stables B, and on the other 
 the porter's lodges C. 
 
 From thence you enter the ])eristylium, but improperly 
 so called, as it has porticos only on three sides D, and in 
 that part which faces the south there are two antae, one 
 on each side, forming an aperture to the space E retiring 
 
138 OF THE ELEMENTS OF 
 
 inward, which was called 'sygofotg and waf «?. These antspy 
 are separated by a considerable distance, being one and 
 an half of the side of the building which runs back; on 
 these piers the beams of the adjoining stories rest. On 
 the right hand and left of these are three apartments on 
 each side; two of a moderate size H H called the tha- 
 lamus and ANTiTHALAMUs; to each of which was an- 
 nexed a larger antechamber, as G, and a smaller room 
 behind T. Around the porticos in the inside were ranged 
 the common rooms for dining K, bed rooms L, and serv- 
 ants' rooms I. Beyond these antechambers, were larger 
 rooms or halls F set apart for women and their employ- 
 ments, separated by an inner room O, and looking into 
 the open courts Y. This part is called the gyn-^co- 
 
 NITIS. 
 
 More inward are the andronitides, or men's apart- 
 ments. In these the rooms are more spacious, theperisty- 
 lium of greater extent, the porticos in the highest degree 
 ornamented, the vestibules magnificent, and their doors 
 of suitable grandeur. The porticos of this peristylium 
 are four P N; all being either of the same height, or at 
 least three of them, the fourth N which fronts the south 
 may be higher than the rest. A peristylium having a 
 portico of this latter kind is called Rhodian; the reason 
 of its name is merely conjectural. In this court, toward 
 the south, are square halls T of so great an extent, that 
 in each of them four triclinia might be conveniently 
 arranged, and sufficient space left for the attendance of 
 the servants, and for games. In these the men feasted 
 without the company of women. The dining rooms, called 
 
 y The three words antae, prostas, and pastas, mean the same things, viz. 
 square columns or piers, on each side an entrance or door- way. The reader, 
 by referring to the note on b. iii. ch. 1. of Vitruvius, may inform himself 
 of the various opinions concerning these terms. 
 
CIVIL ARCHITECTURE. 139 
 
 ciziCENE, Q and rooms for pictures fronted the north. 
 The EXHEDR^* R fronted the west, and the Hbraries 
 were placed toward the east. 
 
 Apart from these edifices on either side were the lodg- 
 ings for strangers V, which were separated by passages 
 or alleys X, called by the Greeks jitso-auAat, and by the 
 Latins improperly andrones. The strangers' buildings 
 have their separate gates, dining rooms, and bedcham- 
 bers; together with storerooms furnished with provisions, 
 that they might after the first day's visit enjoy liberty 
 and retirement. The guests were received the first day 
 at the table of their host, who afterwards sent them eggs 
 chickens, olives, apples, and other productions of the 
 country : hence pictures representing these presents were 
 called XENIA. 
 
 PLATE XLIII, XLIV. 
 
 §. 3. In the entrance of Roman houses there is a ves- 
 tibule V, called by Palladio a loggia, by Perrault iArgo^u§ov, 
 In the design of Perrault the cav^dium B follows con- 
 trary to the opinion of Vitruvius, who, b. vi. ch. 8. ex- 
 pressly says that in the city the courts are next to the 
 gates; wherefore Palladio immediately next to the vesti- 
 bule places the atrium C, which in this example is testu- 
 dinated; its length is equal to the diagonal of the square 
 of its breadth, its height under the hmitary beam equal 
 to its breadth. In the design of Perrault it is Corinthian, 
 with the wings as D. 
 
 In each of the designs the tablinum follows next E, 
 then the peristyhum F, both constructed according to 
 the general rules. In the porticos of Palladio the apart- 
 ments G have the same breadth with the porticos, and 
 
 * Rooms for the purposes of conversation or sleeping. See the note on 
 Vitruvius, b. vi. ch. 5. 
 
140 OF THE ELEMENTS OF 
 
 an equal altitude, with an addition of one third for the 
 arching of the ceilings : H are Corinthian oeci, or halls : 
 I Tetrastyli, halls with four pillars; K Egyptian: L 
 Cyzicene : M Square halls : N Exhedrae : O Libraries : 
 P Stables : Q Baths : X Shrubberies : Y Walks planted 
 with trees. 
 
 The names of most of those things we have marked 
 with letters themselves explain their uses. Of the rest 
 their purposes varied according to the pleasure of their 
 possessor. The atria, or courts, were adorned with the 
 statues of the ancestors of the master of the mansion. In 
 them " likenesses taken in wax were preserved in various 
 " cabinets, that on any family deaths these representatives 
 " might accompany the funeral ceremonies, (whence we 
 " may conjecture why the courts were very near the 
 " gates,) to which every person, who had ever been con- 
 " nected with the family, repaired. On the pictures of 
 " the deceased they drew out his pedigree. The tablinum 
 " was filled with books and records of acts performed in 
 " his magistracy. The statues of conquered nations were 
 " erected without the walls, and round the confines of the 
 " mansions ; the spoils of the enemy were annexed to 
 " them; nor was it lawful for any purchaser of the place 
 " to refix these trophies.'' Plin. Nat. Hist. 35. 2. But 
 these were the manners of ancient times, more particularly 
 whilst the Commonwealth flourished. But after the death 
 of Augustus, Architecture with the other arts so far de- 
 generated, that from that time to the latest period of the 
 empire, in proportion as works of art were modern, they 
 abounded in faults and bad taste. So far with respect to 
 the private remains of ancient cities. 
 
 PLATE XLV, XLVI. 
 
 We should now treat of modern city houses peculiar 
 to each nation: but since Architecture, restored in Italy. 
 
CIVIL ARCHITECTURE. 141 
 
 has not arrived at any perfection out of that country, we 
 will add only three specimens taken from Palladio. 
 
 The first is of a monastery at Venice, which is called 
 II Convento della CARiTAjOr the Convent of Charity: 
 Palladio in the design of it imitated the style of a palace in 
 ancient Rome. He describes it in the second book of 
 his Architecture, chap. 6, as follows. 
 
 It is a Corinthian atrium, the length of which is the 
 diagonal of its breadth squared. Each wing is a seventh 
 part of its length wide. The columns are of the Com- 
 posite order, 35 feet long, and three and a half in dia- 
 meter. The aperture of the impluvium is a third part 
 of the breadth of the atrium. Not within but on the 
 side of the atrium, instead of a tablinum is a sacristy; 
 opposite to it is the chapter house ; the ceiling of each 
 rests on a Doric cornice; and in each, columns support 
 a middle wall, which divides the cells or chambers from 
 the passages. In that part next the church is a staircase 
 of an oval figure, open, and of equal beauty and utihty. 
 From the court you go directly into the peristylium, or, 
 as it is commonly called, the cloister, which has three 
 orders of pillars inserted in the wall, as in the plate. 
 Below are Doric pillars projecting three parts in four; 
 above these are Ionic, less by a fifth part; the highest of 
 all are Corinthian, diminishing in the same proportion. 
 The upper intercolumniations are filled up by a wall with 
 windows in it: the lower ones are formed by open arches. 
 In the highest order are the cells of the brothers, a space 
 being left for passages. Lest the ceilings should be too 
 heavy for the walls^ they are made of reeds, as we shall 
 shew in its proper place. Beyond the peristylium is the 
 refectory, the length of which is double the breadth; the 
 height, which is sesquialteral of the breadth, is carried to 
 the third story of the peristylium ; on each side is,a per- 
 
142 OF THE ELEMENTS OF 
 
 tieo ; tinder it a store room or wine cellar, made in the 
 same manner as cisterns are, that no water may enter. 
 Adjacent to the refectory are the kitchen, ovens, the 
 yard for poultry, wood house, laundry, garden, and other 
 necessary offices. In this convent, rooms for strangers 
 included, there are 44 apartments and 46 cells. 
 
 PLATE XLVII, XLVIII. 
 
 §. 5. The second plan represents a house insulated, 
 standing in the middle of the city of Vicentia near the 
 market place, which therefore in the first order has shops, 
 together with mezati or half stories. The entrance next 
 to which is the vestibule is made projecting, and above 
 the entrance the hall is as much larger as is the breadth 
 of the vestibule. On each side also is an entrance, in 
 which the columns supporting the story above them make 
 the breadth of the portico proportionable to its height- 
 In the middle of the building is a peristylium, (or rather 
 a cavaedium, as it is square,) the lower porticos of which 
 are of the Tuscan order, the higher of the Composite. 
 Opposite to the grand entrance is an oecus, which" may 
 be called Corinthian : in the angles are four octagon oeci, 
 capable on account of their form of being applied to va- 
 rious uses. The offices are partly in the higher stories. 
 The store rooms, &c. under ground ; for as the building 
 is placed on an eminence, no apprehension of incon- 
 venience from water can be entertained. 
 
 The next design, which casually offigrs itself, is taken 
 from the third chapter of the same book. The lower 
 rooms of this edifice are only subterraneous in part, 
 being raised five feet above ground, so that they can re- 
 ceive no inconvenience from the neighbouring river, and 
 the higher stories command a more extensive prospect. 
 
CIVIL ARCHITECTURE. 143 
 
 The apartments above ground consist of two stories; the 
 lower order is Doric, the higher Ionic. In the lower a 
 portico is extended through the whole of the front. All 
 the apartments have their ceilings vaulted; in the larger 
 ones, the height from the floor to the sagitta is an arith- 
 metical mean between 1 and L. The middle sized rooms 
 are of equal height with the others, with groined vaults- 
 The lesser rooms have entersoles with winding' staircases 
 leading to them. In the second order the hall is in the 
 middle of the front, and on each side is a lofty vestibule. 
 The height of these three rooms reaches to the roof. The 
 hall is as much larger than the entrance, as is the breadth 
 of the portico under it ; and as it projects beyond the 
 body of the building, the angles of it are supported by 
 double columns. 
 
 BOOK 11. CHAP. IV. 
 
 OF A VILLA OR COUNTRY HOUSE, AND OF A HOUSE BUILT 
 IN THE SUBURBS OF A TOWN OR CITY. 
 
 §. 1. The term villa, taken in its full sense, means a 
 country house with a farm annexed : but we shall here 
 understand no more by it than a house built for rural 
 retirement; in the size, situation, and structure of which 
 the plan of a farm house is not to be lost sight of. This 
 observation refers in some degree to the rules for the de- 
 sign, but gives no latitude to the meaning of the term. 
 
 With respect to the style of a villa, the ancients agreed 
 that it should be such that the estate and the viUa might 
 mutually accommodate each other. The situation most 
 convenient to the house is in the middle of the farm, and 
 
144 OF THE ELEMENTS OF 
 
 near, if possible, to a navigable river; if not, at least near 
 a flowing stream; for a stagnated water should be 
 avoided as a nuisance, especially if it be frequented by 
 swallows. The ancients, before they determined on the 
 spot of ground, examined the entrails of the cattle that fed 
 on the soil, and if they found their livers of a hvid co- 
 lour, they immediately deserted the place. Attention is 
 likewise to be given to the air, that it be pure and whole- 
 some; and we should choose an elevated situation, to 
 have a free current of wind. We should avoid a valley 
 inclosed by hills, for in such a spot both the sun and 
 wind will be detrimental. If you are obliged to build 
 your villa on a hill, let it have a temperate aspect, and 
 let it be placed at a distance from any other higher hill 
 or rock that may be opposite to it, lest it should be over- 
 shadowed by the hill, or from the reflection of the sun 
 from the rock it should be scorched as it were with two 
 suns. The nature of the soil should be enquired into, 
 the healthiness of which, as well as of the air and water, 
 may be discovered various ways; but these are to be 
 sought from adepts in natural history. 
 
 §. 2. The parts of a villa, according to Columella, are 
 three ; first, the mansion, where the master lodges ; se- 
 cond, the rustic, in which the bailiff" and labourers live, 
 and where the instruments of husbandry are preserved ; 
 third, the granaries, or places for storing the grain. 
 The mansion house differs not materially in its design 
 from a private house in a city. Let the granaries and 
 rooms for labourers form one continued range, and be 
 joined in such a manner to the mansion, that the master 
 may walk through the whole premises under cover. 
 
 Let the bailiff lodge near the gate, and the labourers 
 in a place where they may guard the villa. You should 
 
CIVIL ARCHITECTURE 145 
 
 remove as far from the villa house as is convenient the 
 oxen, horses, and all beasts of burden, on account of the 
 ill smell occasioned by their dung ; but let them be in a 
 spot warm and open to a current of air. Breeding ani- 
 mals, such as fowls, hogs, doves, sheep, &c. should have 
 situations suitable to their nature and use, which will 
 vary and be determined according to the different man- 
 ners and customs of the country. 
 
 Wine is of that delicate nature that nothing receives 
 hurt sooner. A cellar should be dug where no noise, 
 smell, heat, or moisture can reach ; and, according to 
 some writers, where there are no roots of trees. The 
 cellar should receive its light from the north or east; the 
 floor should sink in the middle, that if any wine should 
 run out it may not be lost. Under cover near the cellars 
 the vessels should be placed at such a height, as that, 
 when the wine in them shall have fermented, it may 
 easily be conveyed into the barrels through pipes made 
 of wood or leather. 
 
 Let the granaries front the north, as that aspect is cold 
 and dry, and the weevil-^ will not breed there ; for which 
 reason this situation is very favourable to the preserva- 
 tion of the grain. Let their floors be made with plaster, 
 or, if this cannot be done, with boards, but by no means 
 with lime, which would materially injure the grain. 
 Barns should have the same aspect as granaries, and for 
 the same reasons. Let the hay-lofts be fronting the west, 
 or rather the south ; for the sun will dry the hay, and 
 prevent it from heating and catching fire, which it often 
 does when laid up too moist. The places where the im- 
 plements of husbandry are deposited should face the 
 south, and be under cover. 
 
 * A small worm or mite that feeds on corn and other grain. 
 L 
 
 •r 
 
146 OF THE ELEMENTS OF 
 
 The area constructed for the purpose of threshing 
 should be placed in such a manner that it may be seen 
 from the mansion, but so as that neither the dust may be 
 blown towards the mansion, nor the chaff fly into the 
 garden. It should be spacious, and have the advantage 
 of the sun, and should be either pitched, or laid with 
 flint. Varro moreover advises that it should be round, 
 and swelling in the middle. Tt should have porticos on 
 all sides, which in the heat will afford a shade, and a 
 shelter against sudden showers. 
 
 PLATE XLIX. 
 
 The villa of the ancients is described by Vitruvius, 
 b. vi. c. 9. which Palladio has explained by a diagram as 
 follows. At the entrance is a vestibule, whose aspect is 
 towards the south. Near it, a passage only between, is the 
 kitchen, which receives its light from above; it is square, 
 and has a fire-place in the middle, but no chimney in 
 the side of it. On the left of it are stalls for oxen, with 
 mangers, &c. fronting the east and the fire ; by this ex- 
 pedient they prevented the oxen from looking rough and 
 unsightly. On the same side the baths, with other ad- 
 joining offices, projected towards the south as far as the 
 vestibule. Opposite to these on the right hand the rooms 
 for the wine presses answered the baths, and had the ad- 
 vantage of the south, east, dnd west aspects. Behind 
 these were the wine cellars, which received their light 
 from the north, were renioved at a distance from all noise, 
 and the heat of the sun. Over these were built the gra- 
 naries, which received their light from the same quarters. 
 On each side of the peristyle or cavaedium were placed 
 the stables in the warmest spot, but not fronting the fire- 
 place. The sheep pens, and the places for all other cat- 
 
CIVIL ARCHITECTURE. 147 
 
 tie, the hay and straw lofts and bakehouses, were placed 
 securely, and at a distance from the fire. Behind all 
 these is the mansion, whose front has the same aspect as 
 the vestibule of the villa; for in a villa the atrium or 
 coui^t is placed backwards, contrary to its situation in a 
 town house, where the court is next to the gate. 
 
 PLATE L. 
 
 §. 4. On the Brenta is a magnificent villa of Sieur 
 Mocenico, a Venetian nobleman, erected by Palladio, 
 which will serve as a specimen for a modern villa. Four 
 porticos of a circular form, and spreading out from the 
 opposite angles of the mansion, seem to invite strangers 
 to their embraces: on the sides of which, and in the 
 front, and near the river, are the stables; behind are the 
 kitchens, and over these offices appertaining to them. In 
 the middle of the front of the mansion is a loggia or 
 vestibule of eight columns of the Composite order, and 
 forty feet high, whose intercolumniations in the middle 
 are systyle, on each side pycnostyle. Behind these are 
 pilasters two feet wide, and one and a quarter thick, 
 which support an open gallery to the height of the first 
 story ; on the sides are constructed two loggias of six 
 columns each. Behind the vestibule, on each side of the 
 entrance is a dining room or triclinium, 20 feet broad 
 and 40 long ; on the side of each is an exhedra twenty 
 feet in the square, whose height is sesquitertian of its 
 side ; for a ceiling constructed with a schiffb, requires a 
 third of its side for the height of the coving. Through 
 the entrance you go into the great court, whether you 
 call it peristyle or cavaedium ; it has two orders of co. 
 lumns all round; the higher are Corinthian, a fifth part 
 smaller than the Ionic placed under them : the porticos 
 l2 
 
148 OF THE ELEMENTS OF 
 
 are as wide as their columns are high, their diameter de- 
 ducted, and the adjoining apartments are the same, in 
 order that the roof may receive as much support as pos- 
 sible from the partition wall. In the inner portico, op- 
 posite the entrance, is the grand staircase, with a double 
 ascent, as in plate 27 ; then is seen a larger saloon, or 
 oecus, 30 feet broad, the length is double and sesquial- 
 teral of the breadth. It has wings with columns, by which 
 the symmetry of the other parts is proportioned to the 
 height. The hall above this has none, as its height 
 reaches to the roof ; the apartments placed in the same 
 story are as high only as they are broad. The remaining 
 space to the height of the hall is left for entersoles. 
 
 §. 4. A house built in the suburbs is of a middle nature, 
 between the town house and the villa. In the construc- 
 tion of it neatness should be attended to, but retirement 
 more ; its principal requisites are ease and repose. Its 
 appearance is neater than the country house, and not so 
 splendid as one in the city. It neither boasts of pastures, 
 or sumptuous dining rooms; content with a study, a 
 garden, and extensive walks. It will be conducive to 
 health if it be placed somewhat on an eminence, and to 
 pleasure if it has a view of the city you have left behind 
 you. 
 
 PLATE LI, LII. 
 
 Palladio supplies us with the two following specimens 
 of houses of this sort. In the former, which every way 
 commands a fine prospect, there are four vestibules, and 
 in the middle of the house a circular hall with four en- 
 trances, which rises above the roof, and receives its hght 
 from the top. The ground plot is inscribed in a square ; 
 
CIVIL ARCHITECTURE. 149 
 
 the angular spaces are filled by four staircases for ser- 
 vants. These lead both to the entersoles, which are over 
 the smaller rooms, and to the gallery, which goes round 
 the hall to the height of the second story. The upper- 
 most apartments are eight feet high ; the offices are un- 
 der ground. 
 
 The construction of the second edidce is elegant, and 
 may be varied many ways. There are two vestibules, 
 each of which is of the Ionic order, and the podium (the 
 bottom part of the wall) projects at its lower extremity. 
 The rooms above ground have two stories; small turrets 
 are erected at the four angles. Palladio has described a 
 villa as consisting of two areas, that in the front for the 
 use of the master of the house that backward for the 
 purposes of country business. Without these the edifice 
 would be suburban; without the turrets and vestibules 
 it would become a smaller suburban house: and so also, 
 if the rooms above ground have only one story, and the 
 site being changed, the entrance be made where the 
 back door is, and a study be put in the place of the re- 
 maining vestibule, instead of a hall you substitute a sa- 
 loon in the Egyptian style, and erect watch towers in 
 the angles. 
 
 PLATE LIII, LIV, LV. 
 
 §. 6. In these three plates we have described nine 
 fronts of superb palaces, which at this time may be seen 
 in Rome. 
 
 The first is the palace of the King of England, built 
 by Bramante de Urbino in the Borgho Nuovo, A. D. 
 1504. It was lately in the possession of Cardinal Hieron. 
 Colonna. 
 
 The second is the palace of the Duke de Sora, in the 
 
150 OF THE ELEMENTS OF 
 
 Apparitors'* ward, commonly called Rione di Parione, 
 which the same Bramante built for his friend the Car- 
 dinal Nicol. de Fieschi, A.D. 1505. But I imagine 
 there was no turret annexed to it. 
 
 The third is the palace of SSri CafFarelli in the ward 
 of St. Eustachio, but described only in part. The archi- 
 tect was Rafaele d'Urbino, A.D. 1505. 
 
 The fourth is the house once belonging to Rafael him- 
 self, in the Borgho Nuovo, and was of his own construc- 
 tion, A. D. 1513. Wherefore we have here exhibited 
 the plan without the absurd and useless ornaments it is 
 now loaded with, which style was so repugnant to the 
 taste of that celebrated artist, that the additions were no 
 doubt made by some other architect. Raphael himself 
 gave the plan of this building. The person at whose ex- 
 pence it was erected was Pope Leo X. The builder was 
 Bramante. 
 
 The fifth is the palace Alia Lungara, once belonging 
 to Agost. de Chigi, a particular friend of Raphael. 
 Here is preserved the celebrated picture of Galatea by 
 Raphael, with some others. The architect was Baldas- 
 sare Peruzzi, A.D. 1518. Here Peruzzi painted a xyst 
 or portico with so much art, that the resemblance de- 
 ceived even Titian, who had been previously informed 
 of this wonderful work. 
 
 The sixth is the palace of SSri Cenci in the afore- 
 mentioned ward of St. Eustachio, close by the custom- 
 house. Julio Romano gave the design of it for his friend 
 Paoli Staci, A.D. 1535. 
 
 The seventh stands without the Flaminian gate, com- 
 monly called La Porta del Popolo. The plan of this 
 building was designed by Jacomo Barozzi da Vignola, 
 A. D. 1553, during the pontificate of Julius TIL The 
 name of the palace is Vigna di Papa GiuHo III. The 
 
CIVIL ARCHITECTURE. 151 
 
 plate represents a part of the front as somewhat pro- 
 jecting. 
 
 The eighth was erected by P. Dominico PacaneUi da 
 Faenza, the mathematician, for Cardinal Alesander, A. D. 
 1585. This edifice is in the ward commonly called Rione 
 di Monti, and fronts the Forum or La Piazza de Apo- 
 stoli. 
 
 The ninth is the palace of the Torrian family, com- 
 monly called SSri di Torres, built by Pirro Ligorio for 
 a Neapolitan nobleman, A.D. 1560. This edifice stands 
 in the Circus where games were celebrated ; it is now 
 called La Piazza Navona. To the merit of Pirro Ligorio 
 every one bears ample testimony, who professes any know- 
 ledge of Architecture, and of the arts connected with it, 
 or makes any pretensions to antiquarian researches. 
 
 I have exhibited these specimens for the benefit of 
 young students, which they may imitate with equal plea- 
 sure and advantage, either by varying them in some par- 
 ticulars, or copying from them in others. Different 
 tastes will of course approve difi*erent models : by an 
 EngKshman it has been deemed most proper to select 
 those, which he apprehended would suit best the English 
 manners. We here conclude our account of private 
 edifices. 
 
 THE END. 
 
 BAXTER, PRINTER, OXFORD. 
 
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