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The Consolations of Death
In Ancient Greek Literature
By
SISTER MARY EVARISTUS, MA.
of
THE SISTERS OF CHABITY, HALIFAX, N. S.
A DISSERTATION
Submitted to the Catholic Sisters College of the Catholic
University of America in Partial Fulfillment
of the Requirements for the Degree
Doctor of Philosophy
Digitized by the Internet Archive
in 2007 with funding from
Microsoft Corporation
http://www.archive.org/details/consolationsofdeOOmorarich
The Consolations of Death
In Ancient Greek Literature
SISTER MARY EVARISTUS, M.A.
of
THE SISTERS OF CHARITY, HALIFAX, N. S.
A DISSERTATION
Submitted to the Catholic Sisters College of the Cathoh
University of America in Partial Fulfillment
of the Requirements for the Degree
Doctor of Philosophy
NA.ICXAI SA'.TAL PICS' 'MC , WA'iUNOTON, D. C.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
Introduction 7
CHAPTER I
The Inevitableness of Death 10
Universality of death a motive for consolation. Views
of death in Homer. Homeric epithets for death. No
power can ward off death. Consolation afforded by the
thought that it cannot come before the appointed time.
Inevitableness of death as depicted in the Lyric Poets, *
Tragedians, Plato, Lysias, Apollonius Rhodius, ps.-
Plutarch, Plutarch.
CHAPTER II
Others Have Had to Die 19
Treatment of t&kos in Homer, ov <roi /xopoj. Tragic
Poets, Plutarch, ps.-Plutarch. Examples of those who
have borne sufferings nobly. Extension of t&kos. Even
better men have died.
CHAPTER III
Death the Payment of a Debt to Nature 26
Should not complain when loan is claimed. Simonides
of Ceos. Euripides. Plato. ps.-Plutarch.
CHAPTER IV
Death Not to be Regarded as Unexpected 28
Nothing ought to appear unexpected. Meditation on
death will rob it of its terrors and fears. ccKoSeia
Sophocles. Euripides. fieXerr] Oavdrov of Plato. Socrates'
attitude towards death. Plutarch's treatment of t&kos.
ps.-Plutarch.
CHAPTER V
Death a Release from Sorrows 31
Miseries of life. Homer. Hesiod. Pindar. Inconstancy
of Fortune. Crantor. Life a punishment. Better not to
have been born. Death a blessing, a remedy for evils.
Treatment of t6tos by Tragedians. Story of Xerxes.
Views of Epicharmus, Arcesilaus, Hegesias, Alcidamas,
Prodicus of Ceos. Consolation for mourners. Used by
Socrates, Lucian, ps.-Plutarch. Death a peaceful
sleep. Socratic argument. Death the end of a journey.
Socrates. ps.-Plutarch.
3
2G9inn
e Consolations of Death
CHAPTER VI
Death Before Sorrow Has Come Considered a Boon . 40
Untimely death. Pathos of early death. Consolation
of family ties. Misfortune for parents to survive their
children. Those who die early have escaped many mis-
fortunes. Many would have been saved from great
calamities if they had met an earlier death. Story of
Termaeus of Elysia. "Troilus wept less than Priam."
Early death mark of favor of the gods. Not longest life,
but most virtuous, is best. Life short compared with
eternity.
CHAPTER VII
Dead Do Not Suffer from the Loss of Life's Blessings . 44
Apprehension that the dead feel the loss of the pleasures
of this life removed by consolers. Plutarch. Socrates.
CHAPTER VIII
Comfort Derived from Giving Expression to Grief . . 45
Crantor's consolation. View taken by Homer. Stoic
objection. Uselessness of grief. Used as a consolation
in Homer, in Tragic Poets. Archilochus. Letter to
Xanthippe. Display of grief unbecoming. Euripides.
Plato. ps. -Plutarch. Evil effects of grief, firjdev
ayav. Moderation treated by Plato, Plutarch. Incon-
sistency of Stoics. Plutarch ad Uxorem. ps. -Plutarch.
yv&du aavrdv. Grief is not pleasing to the dead.
CHAPTER IX
Consolation through Recollection of Past Joys ... 54
Memory of past pleasure should help dissipate grief.
Recollection of blessings still possessed. Effect of time.
CHAPTER X
Immortality of the Soul 57
Belief among the Greeks in a future life. Pindar,
Sophocles. Euripides. Vagueness of the idea of im-
mortality. Used as a consolation by Plato, ps. -Plato,
ps.-Plutarch.
CHAPTER XI
Glory in Death 60
Renown as an incentive. Death when prosperous.
Death in performance of a noble action. Story of Cleo-
bus and Biton. Alcestis. Death for country. Patriot-
ism of Greeks. Effect. Funeral orations. Subject of
orations, t&itol of consolation. Children belong pri-
In Ancient Greek Literature 5
marily to the state. Iphigenia. Battle song of Tyrtaeus.
ps.-Platonic Epistle. Demosthenes. Sacrifice of life
payment of debt to country. Death of hero increases
the glory of the state. Most glorious and noble of
deaths. A mark of favor of the gods. Hero receives due
rites of burial, imperishable glory, and immortal renown.
He leaves a glorious heritage. Patriot is welcomed by
his brave ancestors and honored by the gods. State as-
sumes charge of families. Words of comfort from the
deceased.
CHAPTER XII
Consolation Appropriate to Particular Circumstances 79
Epicurus. Pericles. Cyrus. Music as a means of
consolation.
Conclusion 81
In Ancient Greek Literature 7
INTRODUCTION
"The whole life of man is full of griefs, nor is there rest from
toils, "* exclaims Euripides, and again: "There is no nature of man
so obdurate which on hearing thy groans and the long plaints of
misery would not let fall the tear." 2 These two sentiments to
which Euripides has given expression are the source of a literature
of consolation, the beginnings of which are found in the earliest
Greek writers, and whose development into a system of topics of
consolation adapted to every kind of grief was completed in the
classical literature.
Thoughts of consolation are supplied by the poets in words of
charming sweetness. Many of them the philosophers have bor-
rowed from the poets and clothed in language of sublime gravity.
The rhetoricians in turn have added the magnificent impetus of
their rhetorical art and formed for this style of writing certain
rules. 3 Their development was practically complete by the time
of Cicero. Any person, who, in his day, required words of con-
solation, could have recourse to the charm of the poet, the gravity
of the philosopher, and the magnificence of the rhetorician to
furnish the material he required. Cicero remarks: "There are
particular treatises on banishment, on the ruin of one's country,
on slavery, on weakness, on blindness, and on every incident that
can come under the name of evil. The Greeks divide these into
different treatises and distinct works." 4
The duties of the consoler were also laid down. Plutarch says,
"The discourse that ought to come from friends and people dis-
posed to be helpful should be consolation and not mere assent.
For we do not in adverse circumstances need people to weep and
wail with us like choruses in a tragedy, but people to speak
plainly to us and to instruct us. . . . " 5
1 Hipp. 189.
2 Hec. 296.
Cf. Androm. 421; Ores. 299; Hipp. 913; Aeschy., Prom. 240;
Ov., El. i, ix.
3 Hieron., Ep. Ix, 5, 8.
4 Tusc. Disp. iii, xxxiv.
5 de Ex. 599B. Cic, T. D. iii, xxxi, thus expresses the
same thought — Haec igitur officia sunt consolantium, tollere
aegritudinem funditus, aut sedare, aut detrahere quam plurimum,
aut supprimere, nee pati manare longius, aut ad alia mentem
traducere. Cf. Stob., iii, 113; Mein., iv, p. 349, 1.319, 1.326;
Ibid., p. 356, 1.577; p. 357, 1.610, p. 359, 1.674.
8 The Consolations of Death
Death, "the Sleep that is due to all/' 6 has, from its universality,
been the occasion of more consolatory literature than any of the
so-called evils of man. The Homeric age was remarkable for its
simplicity. The view taken of life was serious but not pessimistic.
Little reflection was made on death, which was considered a
necessary evil — an evil, however, which should be preferred to a
greater evil, an ignoble life. With the development of philosophy
the view taken of life assumed a different form. Naturally con-
sequent on this was a change in the view taken of death. The
Stoic braved death, even despised it; to him suicide pointed to a
means of escape from the miseries of life. To the Epicurean it
meant the end of all things. The manner of Socrates' death is
explained by his hopes of a future happiness, hopes which contain
the germ of the Christian Faith. This changed attitude towards
death gave rise to new tottol of consolation.
Unfortunately a large part of the consolatory writings has been
lost. Crantor's Consolatio is especially to be regretted, for it
was highly praised by the ancients; a golden book, Cicero calls it;
and Panaetius tells Tubero that this book is worth learning by
heart. 7 This work found many readers, for it treated of sorrow
not as a reprehensible emotion as did the Stoics, but rather as a
natural impulse requiring only to be kept within bounds. Cicero
used it as the basis of his work, and the ps. -Plutarch did the
same in his ad Apolloniam. A like fate befell Cicero's Consolatio, 8
a work written to assuage his own grief at the death of his beloved
daughter Tullia, in which he collected all the various arguments
used by consolers on such occasions. 9
The only critical discussion of this style of literature to which
I am indebted has been written by Buresch. 10 This writer has
devoted an exhaustive study to the remains of all Consolatory
literature down to the Sixth Century A. D. 11 He treats of its
6 Callimachus, Ep. 17.
7 Cic.,Acad. Q. II,XLIV.
8 The Tusculan Disputations in part supply for the lost Consola-
tio, for Cicero here repeats much said in his earlier work.
• T. D. Ill, XXXI; IV, XXIX.
10 Most notable among the other critics is Skutsch, who has
given a full analysis of the Consolatio ad Liviam with a view to
fixing its date. Cf. Pauly-Wissowa, Real-Encyclopadie, Stutt-
gart, 1901, Vol. IV, p. 394.
11 Consolationum a Graecis Romanisque Scriptarum Historia
Critica, Lipsiae, 1889.
In Ancient Greek Literature 9
beginnings, growth and best productions. As above stated, much
of the literature of Consolation has been lost. With painstaking
fidelity, Buresch has sought out everything in any way suited to
restoring the nature and meaning of the lost writings. Many
also of the works on this subject remain matter of dispute. He
with the same care, has endeavored to establish the authorship or
approximate date of these disputed writings. In sketching the
field of his research he suggests a further work — the gathering
together and arranging of the individual arguments and topics of
Consolation which ancients have used. The scheme of the present
thesis has been the following out of this suggestion of Buresch.
No attempt has been made in the present writing to view the sub-
ject from a philosophical standpoint. Though this at first sug-
gested itself as a possibility, an investigation of the matter dis-
closed so vast a field for research that it was necessary to limit
the subject to one of its various aspects. Nor have the Latin
authors been quoted in the text; though they, especially Cicero and
Seneca, might perhaps furnish more abundant material. The
reason in this instance, as before, is that by their insertion the
scope of the thesis would be unduly extended. These authors are,
however, freely referred to in the footnotes. Nor has there been
any effort to show that in its fullest sense Consolation is found in
something far more exalted than philosophy — in Christianity
which brings the consciousness of the presence and power of
Christ, the dominant feature in religious consolation.
The purpose, therefore, of this treatise is the collection, classifica-
tion, and arrangement in logical order under the different roxot,
of the Consolations of death as expressed in the literature of
ancient Greece.
10 The Consolations of Death
CHAPTER I
THE INEVITABLENESS OF DEATH
The consideration that death is the common lot of all mankind,
the natural consequence of birth, and that man, a creature of a
day, 12 as Aeschylus calls him, must yield to it, offers a species of
consolation to all. This aspect of death, therefore, is distinctly
consolatory and will furnish us the first of the t&koi under which
the motives affording consolation will be considered.
Examining the passage of Homer in which death is mentioned,
we feel constantly that he regarded death as something harsh and
evil, 13 the deadly doom which no one who is born escapes. 14 "But
swiftly on him came the evil which not one of them could ward
off from him although they desired it." 15 "But harsh fate de-
voured me, the fate which was appointed me when I was born." 16
His favorite epithets for death are severe and stern, as "black
fate," "evil destiny," "the fates of black death," "of death that
lays men low." 17 These allusions to death readily evoke the
image of the ktjp on the Chest of Cypselus described by Pausanius, 18
or of the Krjpes of the Homeric poem, the Shield of Hercules.
With peculiar tenderness and pathos the same poet dwells on
the inevitable law of death. This is illustrated in the following
passages.
The father of gods and men, deliberating whether he would
save his favorite Hector from the avenging hands of Achilles, was
chided by Athene: "A man who is mortal, doomed long ago by
fate, wouldst thou wish to redeem back from ill-boding death." 19
Hera addressed to him the same reproach when he wished to snatch
12 Prom. 253, 546, 944. Cf. Eur., Or. 976; Soph., Antig. 790;
Pin., Pyth. vii. 95, viii. 135; Bacchy., iii. 76.
13 Cf. Odyss. xi. 488; II. iii. 454.
14 Odyss. xxiv. 29. p.olp' 6X017, rifv oD tls bXeverai 6s xe
yevriTaL. Cf. Hesiod, Theog. 764.
16 II. xv. 449. . . . Taxa 8'avTip
rj\de xaxbv, to ol oft tls kpvxaxev Up.kvo3v irep.
16 II. xxiii. 78. dXX' kp.1 iiiv xrjp
apxpkxo-ve GTvyepri, rf irep X&x« yiyvopevov irep.
17 xrjp p.k\aiva, xaxos fiopos, xrjpes p,e\avos davaToio, et alia.
18 Paus., v. xix. 6.
19 II. xxii. 179. avbpa OvqTov kovra, 7rdXtu Tewpuyhov aifffj,
a\p €0eXeis BavaroLo dvaijxcos e^avaXvaaL.
In Ancient Greek Literature 11
his beloved Sarpedon from the "tearful war." 20 And as if to give
greater vividness to this impossibility of avoiding Fate we find,
"And Eunomus, the augur, yet with all his auguries did not ward off
black death; but was vanquished by the hand of the fleet-footed
Achilles in the river when he slew the Trojans there and the rest." 21
Although Axylus had entertained all men, yet there was not one
to save him from his doom. 22 Nor did the wonderful mace of
Ereuthalion 23 or the golden attire of Nastes 24 hold back from
them in any wise grievous destruction. "Nor yet did it
avail aught to the two sons of Merops that their father be-
yond all men knew soothsaying and would have hindered them
from marching to murderous war: for the fates of black death
led them on." 25 Though Abas and Polyidus were sons of
Eurydamus, dreamer of dreams, yet he discerned no dreams for
them. 26 "Amphiaraus, the rouser of the host, whom Zeus, lord
of the aegis, and Apollo loved with all manner of love, yet he
reached not the threshold of old age." 27 "For, lo you, death,
which is the common lot, the gods themselves cannot avert even
from the man they love, when the baleful fate of death that
lays men at their length, shall bring him' low." 28 "Thou,
20 Ibid. xvi. 441.
21 II. ii. 858. . . . xai "Evvopas oico^ktt^s'
dXX' ovx oiuvolaiv kpvaa.ro xrjpa fikXaivav,
dXX' kddfJLfj virox^po'l iroS&xeos Aiaxidao
ev iroTapLLo, 66l irep Tpams xepai^e xai aXXous.
22 II. vi. 14. . . . <pi\os d'rjv avdpkiroiai
iravTas yap <piXkeaxev 68$ ewt, olxla vaiow.
aXXa ol ov tls Tcbv ye tot 1 r\pxeae Xvypov oXedpov
irpbadev viravTiaaas.
23 II. vii. 143. . . . 60' ap' ov xopvvrj ol oXedpov
Xpcu07*€ aidtipeirj. . . .
24 II. ii. 872. 6 xai xpwbv *xuv irbXepov 8'tev r)VTe xovprj,
vrjinos, ov8e tL ol to y^eir rjpxeae Xvypov 6Xedpov }
dXX' kbapLt] vwo x*P<?i iroS&xeos 'Aiaxi5ao
ev iroTap,o).
25 II. ii. 833. . . . no 8k ol ov tl
Treideadrjv' xijpes yap ayov fieXavos OavaToio.
26 II. v. 150. rots ovx epxofievois 6 yepcov explvaT 1 ovelpovs,
aXXa a<peas xparepos Ato/xi^s 'e£evapi$e.
27 Odyss. xv. 244. . . . Xaoaaoov 'Apupiapaov
ov irepl x-qpi (pLXei Zeus T^alXloyos xai 'A7r6XXcop
iravToiriv ^tXorr/r' ' ovo' IxeTO yypaos ov86v.
28 Ibid. iii. 236. dXX' rj tol davaTov p.'ev oiio'dov ov8e deoi irep
xai <piXa) av8pl 8vvavTai aXaXxefiev, biriroTe xev 8t\
fiolp 7 oXori xaOeXflat TavrjXeyeos BavaToio.
12 The Consolations of Death
too, Achilles, peer of gods, fate will destroy beneath the wall of
the noble Trojans." 29 "Son of Atreus, we said that thou of
all heroes wast always dear to Zeus, whose joy is in the thunder,
seeing that thou wast lord over many great warriors in the
land of the Trojans where we Achaeans suffered afflictions.
But deadly doom was to visit thee too, which no one who is born
avoids." 30 "I accept death ... for not the mighty Heracles
escaped death, although most dear to Cronian Zeus the king." 31
Although in these passages little is said about consolation
directly, yet through all there is a note of fatalism which may at
any time become a note of comfort. We find this in the words
Sarpedon uses for his own encouragement and to urge on his
friend Glaucus in the presence of death. "Ah, friend, if having
escaped from this war, we were to be ageless and immortal, neither
would I myself fight in the foremost ranks, nor would I send thee
into war that gives renown; but now ten thousand fates of death
beset us, which it is impossible for a mortal to escape or avoid —
let us go forward." 32 And again in the words of tenderness with
which Thetis endeavors to console Achilles mourning over the
body of Patroclus. " My child, the man who lies here we must let
be, although we are grieved; for by the will of the god from the
beginning was he brought low." 33
Passages similar to these are found where comfort is derived
29 II. xxiii. 80. xai oe vol ai>rco fxolpa, Oeols eTnelxeV 'AxiXXeO,
TeLxei VTO Tpoooiv evrjyevecov airokkadai. Cf. Eur.,
Ale. 987.
30 Odyss. xxiv. 28. rj r' apa xai vol irp&Ta irapacrrriaeadai ep,e\\e
HOlp 1 'o\oi), T7)V ov TLS ClXeueTCU 6s X€ yevr^rai.
31 II. xviii. 115. xrjpa 5' €70; tots 5e£op;cu, binroTe xev 8rj
Zeus ede\y reXecrcu i)8 adavarot, deol aXXoi,
ovde yap ov8e /3it; 'HpaxXr/os <pvye xijpa,
os 7rep (piXraTos eaice Au K.povLoovi clvclkti
32 II. xii. 322. co, irkirov, el p.lv yap Tr6\ep.ov irepi Tovbe ipvybvrt
aiel drj peWoifxev ayrjpco r'adavarco re
ecro-eo-0', ovre xev auros evl Trpioroicn fxaxoip.rjp
ovTe xe oe crreXXot/xt p.axyv « xv5iavet,pav'
vvv 5'ejU7T77s yap xrjpes kipecrraaiv Bavaroio
pLvplat, as ovx eari ipvyelv fiporov ovd 1 i;7raXu£cu,
lofiev, Cf. Odyss. xvi, 446.
33 II. xix. 8. Texvov ep,6v, tovtov p,ev eaaoftev axvbp.evoi irep
xeZadai, eirel 8i) irp&ra deccv lorrjTL bap.a<jdr\.
In Ancient Greek Literature 13
from the thought that death, though inevitable, cannot come
before the time ordained by the gods. "Although we are afflicted
we shall not yet go down to the house of Hades before the day of
destiny comes." 34 It is this the noble Hector uses to comfort his
sorrowing wife. "Dear one, do not grieve excessively. For no
men will hurl me into Hades against my fate; but I say no man,
either coward or valiant, when once he has been born, has fled
from destiny." 35
But nowhere is the pathos of man's mortality expressed with
more wonderful power and strength than in the simple words —
"Even as are the generations of leaves, such are those also of
men; the wind scatters the leaves on the earth, but the forest
budding brings and produces others in the season of spring: thus
the generation of men, one produces and another ceases." 36
Simonides of Ceos was impressed by the Homeric expression when
he wrote, "Nothing among men remains eternally lasting. The
man of Chios has well said this one best thing, 'like the generation
of leaves, such is the race of men.' " 37 Scattered throughout his
writings are allusions to this aspect of death. "The strength of
man is slight but his troubles are incurable, for a short time labor
about labor. Yet unavoidable death threatens him, for an equal
share of this is the portion by lot both of the good and the bad." 38
34 0dyss.x. 174. ~Q, (pl\oi, ov yap tclo xaTabv coped'', axvvpevoi irep,
els 'At5ao bopovs, irpiv pbpaipov r)pap eirekdr}.
35 II. vi. 486. baipovir), pi) pol tl \lrjv axaxi£eo Ovpq>.
ov yap t'ls pi virep alaav avr)p "Ai5t irpo'Caxf/ei,.
polpav S'ov riva cpTjpL ireipvypevov eppevai avbpccv,
ov xaxbv, ovbe pev eo-6\6v, eiri)v ra irpcbra ykvqrai.
Cf. H. ix. 320. xardav 1 opus 6 r'aepyos avrjp o re 7ro\Xa kopy&s.
Aeschy., Cho. 103; Lysias, Fun. Or. 77; Hor., Od. i. iv. 13; i.
xxviii. 19; ii. iii.£l; iii. i. 14; Proper., El. iii. xviii. 21.
36 II. vi. 146. otrj irep (pvWoov yeveri, toltj 5e xal avbp&v.
<pv\\a to, pev r' avepos xaM^Sis X"t, a\\a 8e 0' v\rj
T-rfKedbwaa cpveL, eapos 5' einyiyverai copy.
ws avbpwv yevei] 17 pev <pveL rj 5' 0.^0X17761. Cf. II.
xxi. 463.
37 Bergk, iii. Sim. 85 (60).
(ovdev ev avBpu-Koiui p'evei XPW 1 epireSov alei)
ev be to xaWtcrTOv Xlos eeuirev avrjp.
olrj irep (pvWojv yevei), toltj be xal avbpcov.
88 Ibid., 39. (54). ' avOpuiroiv dXlyov pev xapTos, airpaxToi 5<
pe\rjb6ves,
14 The Consolations of Death
"Death comes even to the coward." 39 Callinus in his exhortation
to battle urges the inevitableness of death as an inspiration to
valor. "For in no wise is it fated that a man should escape
death, not even if he is of immortal ancestors. Very often escaping
the strife of battle and the din of javelins he goes his way, but the
fate of death overtakes him in his home." 40 Demosthenes is
imitating Callinus in the striking passage: "For all mankind the
end of life is death, even if one shutting himself up in a cage pro-
tects himself; but it is necessary for brave men to strive always for
all honors, placing good hope before them, and to endure courage-
ously whatever the deity ordains." 41 This strain of pathos at the
thought of the mortality of man appears frequently in the Odes
of Pindar. "All must die." 42 "On the rich and the poor alike
the end of death falls." 43 "For equally comes the wave of death
and falls on the fameless and the famed" (or on the unexpecting
and expectant). 44 "We all in like manner die, although our lots are
different." 45 Or as Theognis expresses it, "No one by paying a
ransom can escape death or heavy disease or severe old age coming
ai&vi be iravpc>) wbvos dpxpl irbvco.
6 b'a<pvxTos ojjl&s e'Kixp'ep.arai Bdvaros.
xelvov yap taov \axov pcepos o'i r'ayadoi
octls re xaxbs. . . .
39 Ibid., 65. (106). 6 b'av Bdvaros xix* xal rbv <pvyb/iaxov.
40 Ibid., iiCal. 1 (1). 12ff.
ov yap 7ra>s Bdvarbv ye (pvyelv elp.app.evov euriv
dvbp\ ovb'ei irpoybvoov jj yevos dBavdrodv.
woWaxi drj'ioTrJTa cpvycdv xal Sovirov dxovrcav
epxercu, kv 5'o'lxu) fiolpa xix^v Bavarov.
41 de Cor. 258. 7repas fiev yap airaaiv avBpcowoLs tov /3'lov Bavaros,
xav kv olxlaxco rts avrov xaBelp^as rrjpf}. del 8e rovs ayaBovs 'dvbpas
kyxeipelv p.ev airao-iv del rots xaXots, rrjv dyaBrjv Trpo^aKKop,'evovs
eKiriba, cpepetv 8 J av 6 Beds 5i5a3 yevvaicos.
42 Berkg, i. 01. i. 82. Bavelv b'lcnv dvdyxa. Cf. Ibid., iii. Diagoras
2; Anth. Lyr., Phanocles 2; Stob., iii. 118; Cons., ad Li v. 357;
Sen., ad Marc xvii; Proper., El. ii. xxviii. 58; Ver., Georg. iii.
67; n. 275.
43 Ibid., Nem. vii. 27. d<pvebs irevLxpos re Bavaroxrwopov
aap.a v'eovr ai. Cf. Odyss.. xiii. 59: Pyth.,
Carm. Aur. 15.
44 Ibid., Nem. vii. 44. dXXd xoivbv yap epxerai
xvpJ 'At'5a, ireae b'adbxrjTov ev xal boxeovra.
45 Ibid., Isth. vii. 59. BvacrxojjLev yap bpicos diravres.
baip,U)V b'aCaos.
In Ancient Greek Literature 15
upon him." 46 In Anacreon also we find mentioned this necessity
of death, but, as in many of the odes of Horace, the motive is
rather that of the "carpe diem." 47
There are a number of references in the tragic poets to the inevi-
tableness of death bringing with it the consolatory reflection that
the calamity should be borne with calmness. In Euripides (Hercules
Furens 281), Megara, in spite of her own natural repugnance to
death, encourages Amphitryo to meet it nobly. " I think it a dread-
ful thing to die, yet I consider that mortal foolish who strives against
necessity. But since we must die, we ought to die not wasted
away by fire furnishing laughter to our enemies." 48 " Endure with us
death, which nevertheless awaits thee. I call upon thy nobleness,
old man; for whoever is eager to escape from misfortunes sent by the
gods, he is eager but his eagerness is foolish. For what must be no
one will make that it must not be." 49 Under similar circumstances,
Euripides (Orestes 1022) shows Orestes reproaching Electra for
her groans and tears. "Wilt thou not in silence, ceasing from
womanish groans, make up thy mind to what is decreed? These
things are indeed lamentable, but yet thou must bear thy present
fate." 50 In Euripides' Alcestis (614 ff.), Pheres makes use of this
46 Max. 727. ov8' av 'airoiva 8i8ovs Qo.vo.tov (pvyou ou8e fiapeias
vovo~ovs ov8e xaxbv yijpas eTepxopevov. Cf. Ibid.,
1010, 1187; Bergk, ii. Solon, 24. (5.) 7; Ibid., ps.-
Phocy. 110; Soph., Antig. 952; Proper., El. iv.
xi. 2.
47 Bergk, Anac. 38.(24); 43. (25.); 34. (23.); 48. (39.); 50. (36);
Cf. Hor., Od. i. xxviii, xxxv; ii. xiv, xviii; iii. xxiv; iv. vii.
48 xal to xcLTdavelv
8eiv6v vop.L£u)'T(x) 5' avayxalco Tpoira)
OS aVTlTtlVtl GXO.IOV rjyovpai fipOTOV.
ripas 8\ €T6i8rj 8el davelv, Ovrjaxetv XP*& V
pri irvpl xo,Tai;avdevTO.s, exBpolaiv ye\cov
8l86vto.s, ... Cf. Mull., Democ. frg. 44.
49 1.307. To\pa ped' rjpcov 66.vo.tov, 6s pevei cr'opus.
Trpoxa\ovpe6 } evyevetav, co yepov, aedev.
rds T(hv decbv yap ocrrts expox^el tvxcls,
irpodvpos eo~Tiv, 17 irpodvp'io. S'cupp&v.
6 XPV T^p ov8els prj xp*&v drjaei ttotIe. Cf. JodrelFs note on
necessity, Ulus. of Eur. Ale. 259, liii; Campbell, Soph. frg.
236.
50 ov crly y 6.<peZaa tovs yvvaixeiovs yoovs
o-rep^ets to. xpavdevT' ; olxTpa pev rd5', dXX' opus
((pepeiv G^avayxr] rds irapecrT&a as Tvxas). Cf . Mein., iv. p.
344. 1. 151.
16 The Consolations of Death
consolation when condoling with Admetus over the loss of his
wife. "I come, my son, sympathizing with thee in thy mis-
fortunes, no one will deny that thou hast lost a good and chaste
wife. But it is necessary to bear these things although they are
hard to bear." 61 And Atossa (Aeschylus, Persians 294 ff.) found
in it some alleviation for her grief over the misfortunes which had
befallen the Persian army. "This calamity is too great for me to
speak or enquire about our sufferings. Nevertheless it is necessary
for mortals to endure afflictions when the god sends them." 52
The threat of death did not deter Antigone (Sophocles, Antigone
460 ff.) from disobeying the orders of the king and burying her
brother. "For I know I must die and why not? Even though
you had not proclaimed it; and if I die before my day, I count it
gain." 53 We have the Chorus, in the same author (Electra 860) ,
reminding Electra in her grief that "death is natural to all man-
kind," 54 and again (1171): "thou art begotten of a mortal father,
Electra, reflect; and mortal is Orestes; do not lament excessively,
for to suffer this is owing to us all." 55 The ps. -Plato expresses
this necessity with even greater emphasis: "Not one of us has
been born immortal; nor if this should happen to anyone would he
become happy, as it seems to the multitude." 56 And this fact is
51 T}KU> xaxoiaL ooivi Gvyjcap,vu)v, r'exvov.
kadXrjs yap, ovdeis avrepel, xal ucappovos
yvvaixos rip,apTr)xas. dXXd ravra p,ev
<pepeiv avayxrj xalirep bvra 8vcr<popa
Cf. Ibid., 1070; Androm. 1233; n. 197.
52 virepftaWei yap i]5e dvpapopa,
to /JLTjTe \e£cu /xi)t' epcor^crat iraBrj.
6/icos 5' avayxr) irrjfiopas jSporois ip'epeiv
deuv bihovTuv. Cf. Campb., Soph., Frag. 523; Eur., Hec.
228.
63 QavovfievT] yap e^rjbrj, tI 5' ov\
xel iirj (TV xpovxrjpv^as. el 8e rod xpbvov
irpbudev davov/iai xepdos avr' kyu> \eyw.
84 ira<ri Ovarols e<pv p,6pos.
Cf. Sen., Ep. 99.9. cui nasci contigit, mori restat.
65 QvrjTov TT€(pvxas irarpbs, 'HXe«rpa, cppovei,
QV7)T0S 6' 'Ope<TT7)S.
&<jt€ fir} \lclv ar'eve.
(TraaLV yap r/filv tovt' (HpeiKerat iradelv.)
Cf. Diog. La., ii. Anaxag. ix; Xen. x; Cons., ad Liv., 367.
56 Ep. vii. 334E. obre yap ire<pvxev aBavaros ripicov ovdels. o\jt j
el to) £up./3cu77, ykvoiTO av ev5alp.u)v, cos boxel rols toWoIs.
In Ancient Greek Literature 17
borne out by the myth of Tithonus consumed by "cruel immor-
tality" "and longing for the state of happy men who have the
power to die." 57
With effective eloquence Lysias introduces in his Epitaphios
(77) this motive of consolation. "I do not know why we should
grieve over such things. For we are not ignorant that we are all
mortal. Why are we afflicted at such events as if one ought not
to have expected them? Why support with so much impatience
accidents which come from our nature, when we know that death
makes no difference between the cowardly and the brave?" 58
Jn the passages of Apollonius Rhodius, illustrating this point, a
close parallel is seen between his turns of thought and even his ex-
pressions and those of Homer. "On the same day a pitiless fate
there seized Mopsus, son of Ampycus, and he escaped not a bitter
doom by his prophecies, for there is no averting of death. " 59 "And
here his destined fate smote Idmon, son of Abas, skilled in soothsay-
ing, but his soothsaying did not save him, since necessity led him on
to death." 60 "They say that Tiphys, son of Hagnias, died; nor was
it his destiny to sail any farther. But a short sickness laid him to
rest, there on the spot, far from his native land." 61 "I will dare
(the contest)," said Aeson, "even if it is my doom to die, for
nothing will fall on man more rigorous than dire necessity." 62
57 Cf . Tennyson's Tithonus.
58 'AXXd yap ovx old 1 6 tl 8el roiavTa oXoipvpeaBai. ov yea
eXavBavofiev fifxas avrovs ovres BvtjtoL cbarerl del, a ira\ai irpoae-
8oxcop.ev ireio-eadaL, virep tovtcov vvv axBecBai, fj \lav ovto) fiapkoos
<pepeiv eirl rats rrjs (pvaeccs crvp.<popals, kiriaTaiJLevovs otl 6 Bavaros
xoivos xal rols x^tptcrots xal toIs (3e\T LaroLs ; Cf. Cic. ad Fam. iv. 5
where Servius Sulpicius extended this reasoning farther and found
consolation from beholding the ruins of former magnificent cities.
Polyb., xxxix. 5.
69 Argon, iv. 1502. "EvBa xal 'AfjLirvxl8r}v aura* evl T^uari M6\f/ov
vrjXeirjs e\e t6tp,os ' dSeuxea 5' ov cpvyev alaav
liavToavvais ' ov yap tls awoTpoirlr) Bavaroio.
60 Ibid. ii. 815. "E^a 5' 'AfiavTiadriv -we-Kpuixev-q ijXao-e jiolpa
"ldfjiova, p.avToavvr\ui xexao-fxevov dXXd jjllv ovtl
liavToavvai eaauxjav, 'eirel xpeco r\ye hap.y\vai.
61 Ibid. ii. 854. ' Ayvidhr\v Tlcpvv Bav'eeiv (pans. ov8e ol r/ev
juoip' en vavriWeaBai exaur'ep^. aWa vv xal tov
avBi ixivvvBab'n) iraTprjs e«ds evvaae vovaos,
62 Ibid. hi. 429. rX^o-ojucu, el xal p.oi Bav'eeiv fxopos. ov yap er'aWo
'plyiov avBp&TTOLai xaxijs eTiKelaeT 1 dvayxrjs,
18 The Consolations of Death
And when the same hero and his companions killed in mistake the
hospitable king of the Doliones, bitter grief seized them. "Yet
he filled up the measure of his fate; for it is not lawful for mortals
to escape from it." 63
The author of the Plutarchian Consolation to Apollonius tells
his friend that "each one ought to know that not only he himself
is mortal in his nature, but it is the lot for mortal life and things
to be quickly changed into the opposite." 64 "Why is it wonderful
... if that perishes which by nature is perishable?" 65 "If
therefore anyone is angry when he is dying himself, or resents the
death of his children, is it not very plain that he has forgotten
that he himself is a man and that he has begotten mortal children?
For a man that is sensible cannot be ignorant that man is a mortal
creature and born for this, that he must die." 66 In de Tranquili-
tate Animi, Plutarch dwells on the same thought. "And with
regard to things that seem to pain us by their very nature, as
sickness and anxieties and the death of friends and children, we
should remember that line of Euripides, 'Alas! and why alas? We
only suffer what mortals must expect.' For no argument so lays
hold of emotion when borne down and dejected as the remem-
brance of the common and natural necessity to which man is
exposed owing to the body, the only part which he gives to fortune;
for in his most important and influential part, he is secure." 67
63 Ibid. i. 1035. p.olpav avewXrjaep. tt)v yap Be/jus ovttot 1 d\u£cu
dvr)Tolaiv.
64 103F. xP'h 7<*P ov P-bvov eavTov elbevaL BvrjTov ovra tt\v
<pv<nv, a\\a xal otl Bptjtc^ avyx\r)pbs eoTL /3toj xal irpayp.aaL
'padlotS p.€0l(TTafl€VOLS Tpbs TOVVCLVTIOV.
65 Ibid. 106D. t'l yap BavpiaaTov . . . el to cpBapTov tydapTat;
66 Ibid. 116B. 6 ovv fj avros peWccv aToBvrjo'xeLV rj Texvoiv airo-
davbvTOW i) ir e p ay avaxT 03V ttcos ov xaraipav&s kri\k\rjaTai otl xal
avros avBpcoirbs eari xal tcl rkxva Bvqra eykvvrfcrev; ov yap kcrri
(ppevas exovTos avBpkirov ayvoelv otl 6 avBpuiros $6)ov kcrTL Bvtjtov,
ovb y otl y'eyovev els to airoBavelv.
67 475C. 7rp6s be tcl (pvaeL boxovvTa \virelv, ola vbaoL xal
irbvoL xal BavaTOL (pLXuv xal Tenvuiv, exelvo to EvpLwlbeLOv
* oI/iol. t'l 6' otp,OL\ Bptjtcltol it en bv6 ] ap,ev '.' ovbels yap
ovtq) tov TraBrjTLXOv xaTa<pepop.'evov xal bXLa&avovTas clvtl-
\apLpaveTaL \byos, cbs b Trjs xolvtjs xal (pvaLxris avapvrjuLv
tolcov avayx7}s, rj 5ta rd o-w/xa pepiLypevos b avBpwiros pbvrjv
TavTrjv rjjj tvxv kofiijv blboiffLV, ev be rots xvplutcltols xal
tieyiffTOLs do"v?aXi)s e(jTt\xev. Cf. n. 99.
In Ancient Greek Literature 19
CHAPTER II
OTHERS HAVE HAD TO DIE
This fellowship in misfortune is one of the sources of its greatest
alleviation. The reflection that other men have had to die, that
others have had to part with friends, helps to soften grief and
moderate tears. 63 Hence this reflection furnishes a tokos closely
connected with the preceding one.
The minstrel, singing the story of the misfortunes of the Danaans
who had gone to the Trojan war, recalled even more vividly to
the constant Penelope the memories that were wasting her heart
with comfortless sorrow; and she begged him to cease such strains
and sing other deeds of gods and men. But Telemachus answered
that she should allow the minstrel to gladden their hearts as the
spirit moved him, for men prize the song which rings newest in
their ears — "but let thy heart and mind endure to listen, for not
Odysseus only lost in Troy the day of his returning, but other
men also perished." 69
The Chorus, which portrays the pervading sentiment of the
action in the dramas, dwells upon this phase of consolation. Re-
peatedly it reminds Admetus that he is not the only one who has
lost a noble wife. "Admetus, thou must bear this calamity; for
thou art not the first nor the last of mortals who has lost an
excellent wife." 70 "But puttest thou no bound to thy sorrows?
They are heavy to bear but still . . . endure, thou art not the
first man that has lost . . . thy wife; but different calamities
of mortals strike different men." 71 "Thy wife is dead, she left her
love behind: what new thing is this? Death has already destroyed
68 Cf. Mullach., Pythag. Frag. 3; Sen., Polyb. i; Cons., ad Liv. 59.
69 Odyss. i. 353.
col 5' iTLToXfiCLTU} xpablrj xai 0vp.6s axoveiv'
ov yap 'OSuo-o-eus olos airuiXeae vbaTi\iov rffxap
kv TpoLy, ttoWol 8e xai aXXot (fibres 6\ovto.
Cf. Hor., Od. i. xxviii, ii. x, iii. ix.
70 Eur., Ale. 416. "AS/zt/t', avayxrf raade avfjupop as <pkpeiv
ov yap tl irpcoTos ' ov8e Xoiadios fipoTibv
yvvaixbs ead\fis rjp.w\axes.
71 Ibid. 890. — irkpas 8e y J ovbev aX7€a>f TiBr}s . . .
— /3apea p.ev <pkpeiv, bp.0is 8e. . . .
— t\o.6 j ' ov ov irpoiTOS aiXecras. . . .
— yvvalxa ' avpupopd 5' eTepovs erepa
7ri€f €i (pavelaa BvaTOiv.
20 The Consolations of Death
the wives of many." 72 This theme is often introduced by the
formula ov goi /jl6vo), which at once classifies this t&itos. Such is
the consolation offered by the Chorus to Theseus in Euripides,
Hippolytus 834 ff. "Not to thee alone, O king, have these evils
happened, but with many others thou hast lost an excellent wife." 73
Lamenting over the sorrows of Hermione, in Euripides, Andro-
mache 1041 ff., it enumerates the evils that have fallen on Trojans
and Greeks. "Not upon thee alone, not upon thy friends have
sad griefs fallen." 74 In the same strain it endeavors to comfort
Electra, in Sophocles' play of the same name (153 ff.). "Not on
thee alone of mortals, O child, has grief fallen." 75 And in pas-
sionate language it endeavors to console Antigone in that play of
Sophocles (944 ff.) by reminding her of mythological examples of
similar suffering. "The form of Danae, too, endured to leave the
light of heaven in dungeons secured with brass, and concealed in
a sepulchral chamber she was bound. . . . But the power of
fate is a marvelous one. Neither happiness, nor war, nor tower,
nor black sea-beaten ships, escape it. And the king of the Edo-
nians, the quick-tempered son of Duyas, was imprisoned for his
fierce anger, being shut up by Bacchus in a rocky prison; and thus
he distills the dreadful fury of his madness, in full force. . . .
By the Cyanean deeps of the double sea, the shores of the Bos-
phorus, and the (inhospitable) Thracian Salmydessus, where
Mars dwells near their cities, saw the accursed wound, inflicted
with blindness, on the two sons of Phineus by a cruel stepmother,
a wound darkening the wretched balls of their eyes which were
72 Ibid. 930. Wave bapap, eXiTre <pi\lav
t'l vkov robe; iroWols
77S77 irapeXvaev
davaros bapapras.
n ov crol rab\ o)va%, rfkBe by povco xa^d,
ttoXXccj' per 1 aXXco 5' coXeaas xebvov Xexos.
Cf. Sen., Polyb. xxi.
74 ovxi- o"ot pbva
bvacppoves kirkireaov, ov <pi\oi(Ti \virai'
Cf. Helen, 464.
75 ovtol aol povva, rkxvov,
axos kipavr} /3porco^,
Cf. Ibid. 289, £ dvadeov /jLiarjfxa, aol fiovr) iraTrjp
redprjKev; aXXos 5'ovtls ev irkvdei Ppor&v;
where Electra complains to the chorus that her heartless mother
repoaches her for grieving for her father.
In Ancient Greek Literature 21
struck with bloody hands, by the points of the shuttle; and pining
away in misery, they wept the wretched sufferings of their mother,
since they were the children of an ill-fated marriage. But she
owned the seed of the sons of Erectheus, of ancient lineage; and
in far distant caves was nursed amid the storms of her father, a
daughter of Boreas, fleet as the steed over the steep crag, a child
of heaven, but even over her, my daughter, the eternal Fates
prevailed." 76
The goddess Thetis, in Euripides (Andromache 1231 ff.), makes
use of the same consolation, "O Peleus, I, Thetis, on account of
76 erXa xal Aapdas obpdviov (pees
dXXd£ai bep.as kv xctXxo5erots auXcus'
xpvKTonkva 5' kv TVfifirjpeL 0aXdpco xare^euxdr]'
ko.it oi koX yevea rt/uos, a> irai iraZ,
xal Ztjvos t ap,ieveoxe yovas xP V(T °pbTOvs.
dXX' d potpiSia tls bvvaois betva
ovt" 1 dv viv 6\f3os ovt j "Aprjs, ov irvpyos, ov\ dXLxTvirot
xeXaival vaes kxipvyoiev.
{evxQy 5' 6$;vxo\os iraZs 6 Apvavros,
'Kbuv&v fiacnXevs, xepropiLois bpyaZs,
ex Aiovvaov irerpoobei xaTcupapxros kv beap.Ho.
ovtoj tols pavlas 8eiv6v diroaTd^ei
dvdrjpov re p'evos. xelvos kireyvo pavlais
\j/avix)v rbv debv kv xepropiois yXooaoais.
iraveaxe pev yap kvdeovs yvvaZxas evibv re irvp,
<ptXavXovs r' 7]p'edi?e Mouaas.
7rapd be l^vavedv irekayei bibvpas dXds
dxral Bo(77r6piai ^5' 6 Qpyxcov (d^evos)
HaXpvbr] verbs, lp 1 dyx^oXis "Ap-qs
biaaoZo-L ^cvelbats
elbev aparbv eXxos
TV<pXcodev e£ a7ptas bdpapros,
dXabv dXaarbpoLOLV bppdrwv xvxXols,
apaxOkvToov ixp 1 alpaTrjpaZs
xelpeoaL xai xepxlboov dxpaZaiv.
xard be raxbpevoi pkXeoi peXeav wddav
xXaZov, parpos exovres dvvp<pevrov yovdv'
a be oireppa pev apxaioyovuv
avTao' 'EpexQeibdp,
TrjXeiropoLs 5' kv avrpois
rpdipt] dvkWaio-Lv kv irarp^ais
Bopeas apLTrwos opdoirobos virep irayov,
Beoiv 7rats. dXXd xdir' kxeiva
MoZpai p.axpalo)ves eo~xov, & iraZ.
Cf. II. v. 382; Callimachus, Elegy on Bath of Pallas.
22 The Consolations of Death
thy former nuptials am come, leaving the dwellings of Nereus.
And first indeed, in thy present evils, I advise thee not to bear
anything too impatiently; for I also, who should have brought
forth children free from grief, have lost the son whom I bore to
thee, the swift-footed Achilles, the first man in Greece." 77 In
like manner does Odysseus, in Euripides, Hecuba 322, coming to
demand of Hecuba her daughter for sacrifice, remind the grieving
mother that she is not the only one laboring under great affliction :
"There are with us aged matrons and old men, not less wretched
than thou art, and brides bereft of the noblest husbands, whose
bodies the ashes of Troy conceal. Endure this." 78
It is the opinion of Plutarch that "By this it greatly conduces
to contentedness to notice how famous men have borne the same
troubles." 79 We shall cease to blame and to be discontented
77 II^XeD, x&pw vol 7 & v irapos vvpupevp.aT ccv
rixo) 0eTts \nrov(ra N^pecos 86p.ovs.
xal Tp6~)T<L ixev 8rj tols irapeaToxriv xaxols
Hrjdev tl \lav dvapopelv wap-qveaa'
x 1 aych yap, fji> clxXclvtcl XPV V t'lxt€lv rkxva,
&7TcbX€(7' kx (TOV WCLlSa TOV Ta\VV TTOddS
'AxtXXea rexoixra irp&Tov 'EXXdSos.
78 eialv nap* r\pXv ovdev rjvaov a6\iai
ypalcu yvvaixes rjde irpevpvrai aedev,
vvpxpai t' clp'kttojv vvp-ipiuv ttjt 6)p,tvai,
&v r\be xevOei crco/iar' 'IScua xbvis.
ToKp,a Tab.
79 de Tranq. An. 467E. Sid xal tovto irpos evBvpiav ii'zya, to
tovs ev86i-ovs airodeupelv, el p,r)8ev vtto tccv avT&v ireirovdaaLv.
Cf. Apoll. Ty., Ep. xvic. Cic, T. D. iii. xxiv, xxv, xxxiii; iv. xxix.
discusses this method of consolation rather fully. He tells us
consolers have examples of those who are deprived of their children,
for they who are under any great grief are comforted by instances
of like affliction; and the endurance of any misfortune is rendered
more easy by the fact of others having undergone the same. He
makes use of this for his own consolation on the death of Tullia;
for, in opposition to Carneades, he thought that one in affliction
may be induced to bear calmly what others have borne with tran-
quility and moderation. This consolation he admits is not always
effective, for some have borne grief worse from hearing of this
common condition of man and he concludes-ne ilia quidem con-
solatio firmissima est, quamquam et usitata est, et saepe prodest:
non tibi hoc soli. Prodest haec quidem, ut dixi, sed nee semper, nee
omnibus: sunt enim qui respuant; sed refert quomodo adhibeatur.
Ut enim tulerit quisque eorum, qui sapienter tulerunt, non quo
quisque incommodo affectus sit.
In Ancient Greek Literature 23
with the state of affairs if we see others cheerfully and without
grief enduring the same things." 80 The ps.-Plutarch resorts to
this method for alleviating sorrow, for he quotes for his friend the
passage of Euripides in which Dictys comforts Danae 81 by bidding
her consider the condition of those who have suffered equal or
greater affliction. 82 Not content with this passage from the poet,
he reminds him of those conspicuous examples who have borne
the death of their sons generously and with a great spirit; for
instance, Anaxagoras of Claxomenae, Demosthenes of Athens,
Dion of Syracuse, King Antigonus. 83 Here one may recall that
saying of Socrates which remarks that if we gathered into one
common heap our misfortunes so that every man might take an
equal portion from it, most people would be glad to take their own
and depart. Antymachus, the Poet, used such a plan when his
wife Lyde died, whom he tenderly loved. He wrote an elegy
upon her, which he called by her name. He enumerated all the
calamities which had befallen great men; and so by the sorrows of
other men he lessened his own. Thus it is evident that he who
comforts another who is grieving and shows him, by reckoning
up their several misfortunes, that he suffers nothing but what is
common to him with the rest of mankind, takes the surest way to
80 Ibid. 469A ourco xal tols irpaypaai irav(r6p.e6a p.epup6p.evot
xal dvaxepaLvovres, av erepovs ravrd Trpoo-8exop.evovs aXvircos xal
IXapcos bpoipev.
81 Nauck, 460.
82 ad Apoll. 106A. 6 8e irapap.vBovp.dvos ry\v Aavcnjv Svawev-
Sovaav A'lxtvs (prjal
Voxels abv "Aidijv rdv tl ippovTi^eiv ybojv
xal 7raZ6' avrjaeiv tov gov, el deXous arkveiv)
irav&aL. pXeirovaa 5'eis to. tup xeXas xaxd
pacov ykvoi av, el Xoyl^eadau deXois
oaoL re 8eapols eppepoxXevvrai fiporihv,
oaot re y-qpaaxovaiv bfxpavol rexvcov,
tovs r' ex peyLcrrov oXjStas rvpavvlSos
to pL7]8ev ovTas. TavTa ae axoirelv xpecoy.'
xeXevet yap avT-qv kvdvpeladai to. tq)v taa xal pel^u Svgtvxovvtccv,
cos e<jop.'ev7\v eXauppoTepav.
83 Ibid. 118D. 'ATrofiXeireiv 8e xal irpbs tovs ei^eptos xal p,eyaXo-
(ppovcos tovs e-irl tols viols yevopevovs davarovs xal irpaus
viroo-TavTas Cf. Eur., Ale. 903; Stob., iii. 108; Cic,
T. D. iii. xxiv; Sen., Marc. xii. ff.; Polyb. xxxiii. ff.; Diog. La.,
loc. cit. n. 55.
24 The Consolations of Death
lessen the opinion he had of his condition and brings him to believe
that it is not altogether so bad as he took it to be. 84
As if to give greater consolatory power to this manner of view-
ing death, we have the added thought that, not only have others
suffered it, but even better men have died. Ares was filled with grief
and indignation at the news of his son's death, and was preparing
to avenge it immediately, when Athene, fearing the wrath of
Zeus, restrained him. "I bid thee now again restrain thy anger
for thy son, for already many a man stronger than he and better
with his hands, has fallen or yet will fall." 85
Well did Achilles avenge the death of his friend, for not only
the perpetrator of it fell beneath his spear, but he who before had
preferred to spare the lives of his captives, now had no mercy on any
Trojan who came into his power. Lykaon, the youthful son of
Priam, a second time his captive, pleaded earnestly with him, re-
minding him of his former clemency; for the soul of the youth
longed to flee from evil death and dark destruction. In vain was
his eloquence — "Yes, friend, thou too must die; why dost thou
thus lament? Patroclus, too, is dead, who was better far than
thou. Dost thou not see also what kind of a man I am, how noble
and great? And my father was a good man, and a goddess mother
bore me. Yet over me, too, are death and strong fate." 86 His
84 Ibid. 106B. evravBa yap av tls ekxvaeie xai rr)v rov Icoxparovs
<pcovr)v f rr)v olopevrjv, el o~vveLo~ eveyxaipev els rb xolvov ras drvxlas,
(bare bie\'eaBa.i rb laov exaarov, dapevcos av rovs ir\eiovs ras avrcov
\a/3bvras ajreXBelv. exprfaaro be rr\ toiolvtt) ayuyrj /cat 'kvripaxos 6
iroir]Tr)s. airodavovarjs yap rrjs yvvaixos avrco Avbrjs, irpbs r)v (pCko-
crTopy us elxe, rrapapvBLOV rrjs Xvirrjs aurco eTrolrjae rr)v eXeyelav rr\v
xaXovpevrjv Avbr}v,ei;apLBprio-apevos ras rjpcoLxds a vpyop as, rols clWot-
p'lols xaxols eXdrrco rr)v eavrov tolcov Xvirrjv. ware xaraipaves
elvaL otl 6 Trapap.vBovp.evos rov \e\vTri)p'evov xai beixvvccv xolvov
xai rroWwv to o-vpfie(3r)xbs xai rcov xai er'epOLS o-vpfiefirjxbroov eXar-
tov ttjv bb^av rov \e\vTrr\pevov peBlarrjaL xai roLavrrjv riva iroiel
ttLo-tlv avru, on e\arrov rj r)\lxov cbero rb avp(3e(3r)xbs eoriv.
85 Horn., II. xv. 138.
too a' av vvv xekopai peB'epev x°^ ov ulos tr)os'
77077 yap ris rov ye ftlrjv xai xetpas apelvcov'
77 Trk(par\ rj xai erreira ireiprjaeraL.
86 II. xxi. 106. ctXXd, <pi\os, Bave xai av' rlrj b\o<pbperai ourcos;
xarBave xai Tlarpox\os, 6 irep ceo izoWbv apelvcov.
ovx bpaas olos xai eyu xa\bs re peyas re;
Trarpbs 5' el/*' ayaBolo, Bed be pe yeivaro prjrrjp'
&XX' €7rt roi xai epol Oavaros xai polpa xparaii)'
Cf. Lucr., de Rerum Natura, III, 1026.
In Ancient Greek Literature 25
treatment of the lifeless body of Hector aroused the anger of
Apollo, who reproached the gods for their cruelty in allowing it as
if the loss of a dear friend were peculiar to him alone. "It may
happen that many a man lose even some dearer one, a brother of
the same womb born or even a son; yet he brings his wailing and
lamentation to an end, for the Fates have given an enduring soul
to men." 87
87 Ibid. xxiv. 46.
jueXXet fiev irov tls xal (piKrepov aWov oXeaacu,
rje xaaiyvr\rov 6p.oyaaTpi.ov r}€ xal vlov'
d\X' 77 rot xXavaas xal odvpdfieros p.eder]xe'
ttXtjtop yap Motpat Bvp.6v Oeaav avdpuiroiGiv.
26 The Consolations of Death
CHAPTER III
DEATH THE PAYMENT OF A DEBT TO NATURE
Another view taken of death and one which was used to furnish
grounds for consolation was the reflection that death is simply the
payment of a debt due to nature. 88 One can scarcely lament or
complain when obliged to return what has simply been loaned.
As Simonides of Ceos puts it, "One bids farewell when I, Theo-
dorus, die; another will bid farewell to him, we all owe a debt to
death." 89 "But cease from your grief for the dead" is Thetis'
last injunction to Peleus (Euripides, Andromache 1270), "for to
all men this vote has been ratified by the gods, to die is a debt." 90
The same advice is given by Heracles, in Euripides, to the sorrow-
ful servant: "Death is a debt that all mortals owe; and there is
not one of them who knows whether he shall live the coming day;" 91
and by the Chrous to Admetus : " . . . but learn that to die is
a debt we all owe." 92
Plato, moreover, adds that "should a person not pay as a
debt his life rather quickly, Nature, as a usurer, stands near and
takes as a pledge from one his eye-sight, from another his hearing,
and frequently both. . . . " 93
88 Cf. Hor., Ars Poet. 63. Debemur morti nos nostraque.
89 Bergk, iii. Sim. 122. (178.)
Xalpet tls, Qeodcopos eirei Bavov ' aXXos €7r' av tco
XaiprjaeL ' davaTa) iravTes 6(pei\6p,eBa.
Cf. Anth. Gr. p. 109, 4.
90 Eur., Androm. 1270.
iravaat 8e Xvtttjs tcov TeBvrjxoToov virep'
iracnv yap avdpkiroiaiv r/5e irpos Beoiv
^/7}(pos xkxpavTai xarBavelv r' 6<pel\eTai.
91 Ale. 782. jSporots airacn xardavelv (xpeLXeraL,
x 1 ovx 'i(TTL dvrjT&v bans k^eiriaTaTat
ttjv avpiov ixkWovaav el jSiajo-ercu' Cf. Soph., El. 1173.
92 Ibid. 418. yiyvuaxe be
cbs ttclctlv rfpuv xardavelv 6<pei\eTai.
Cf. Anth. Pal. xi. 62; Mein. p. 342, 69.
93 ps. -Plato, Ax. 367B. xav nrj tls Bclttov cos xp € °s airo8i8ip to
£t}v, 6)$ ofioXocrTaTis rj ipvais eiriaTaaa 'evexvpa^ei tov ixev
oipaiv. . . .
In Ancient Greek Literature 27
Life is called by the ps. -Plutarch "a fatal debt which our
fathers contracted and we are bound to pay; which is to be done
calmly and without complaint, when the creditor demands it." 94
More than that, "we ought not to take it amiss if they (the gods)
demand those things which they lent us only for a short time; for
the common brokers, unless they are unjust, will not be displeased
if they are called upon to refund their pawns." 95
94 ad Apoll. 106F. bib xal poipibiov xP^os elvat \eyeraL to tijv,
cos airododrjGOiJLevov 6 ebavelcravTO rjpcov ol Trpoiraropes. 6 br) xal
evxo\o)s xaTa^XrjTeov xal aaTtvaxrus, orav 6 baveiaas airaiTr}'
Cf. Cic, T. D. i. xxxix; Sen., Marc, x, Polyb. x, xi.
95 Ibid. 116A. ov bel ovv bva<popelv , eav a txpr\uav rjp.lv wpbs
oXlyov, TavT 1 aitanuxsiv' ovbe yap ol TpaTre^lrat, xadairep elco-
dapev \eyeiv 7roXXdxis, airatTOvpevot ra B'epaTa bvcrxepaivovcnv ktcl
rfi airodocret., kavirep evyvupovuxri.
' Cf. Epict, i. i. 32, iv. i. 103, Ench. 11; Cons., ad Liv. 369; Sen.,
Marc, x, Polyb. xxix.
28 The Consolations of Death
CHAPTER IV
DEATH NOT TO BE BECARDED AS UNEXPECTED
Closely connected with man's mortality and the necessity he is
under of paying the debt he owes to nature, is the reflection that
nothing happens to him which he is not formed by nature to bear.
Therefore it follows that nothing ought to appear unexpected. And
since so large a part of the evil of death lies in its unexpectedness,
many consolers think that meditation on death will rob it of its
terrors and fears. \ This doctrine, according to Cicero, was taught
by the Cyrenaics. 96 It is the result of philosophic speculation on
death and belongs to the theory of attaining to airadeLa by the
study of the workings of nature, found among the teaching of the
Stoics. 97 We find little trace of it in Homer and but slight refer-
ence to it in the tragic poets. The wretched Philoctetes (So-
phocles, Philoctetes 504), in concluding his pitiful appeal to Neo-
ptolemus, counsels him to reflect on coming misfortune in order
that he may be prepared to meet it. "But it is necessary when
one is free from woes, to look to misfortunes; and when one is
living prosperously, to watch his life very closely, lest he slip into
destruction." 98 In a fragment of Euripides we find this doctrine
mentioned. "I learnt from a wise man to turn my attention to
anxieties, and misfortunes, to consider exile, (sudden) untimely
death, and all other kinds of evil so that if I should suffer any of
these things, they would not fall upon me unprepared." 99
96 T. D. iii. xiii, xxii, xxxi.
97 Zeller, x; Marc. Aur., v. 18; viii. 46; Epict., Ench. v, xxi;
Sen., Marc, ix, Polyb. xxx, Helv. v, de Tranq. An. xi; Cons., ad
Liv. 399.
XPV o exTos ovtcl irrjfxdToov tcl oeiv opav,
X&rav tls ev £rj, rrjvLxavTa tov j3lov
axoirelv iaoKkttcl, firj bioupBapeis \d6rj.
Cf. Horn., Odyss. xxiii. 262.
99 Nauck, frg. 964.
ey<h be (raura) irapa ao<pov tlvos ptaBoov
els <ppovr Idas vovv avpupopas r' efiaWoprjv,
(pvyas r' kpLavrco irpoarideU warpas kp,ijs
davarovs r' awpous xal xaxcov dXXas 68ovs,
IV el tl irdaxoip, 7 cov ebb^a^ov <ppevl,
fxri not vetopes TrpoaireGov fidWov baxoi.
Cf. ad Apoll. 112D, 108E; loc. cit., n. 67.
In Ancient Greek Literature 29
Plato dwells at length on this teaching and formulates his
fieXerrj davdrov which is to take such an essential part in the
education of his /z€7aXo7rpe7r77s av-qp. "In reality, then, those who
pursue philosophy rightly, prepare to die; and to them of all men
death is the least formidable. . . . If they altogether hate the
body and desire to keep the soul by itself, would it not be great
folly if when this happens, they should be afraid and grieve ?" 100
He cannot conceive how a man of magnificent intellect capable of
contemplating all time and all being can possibly consider human
life as a thing of consequence or death as anything terrible. 101 In
another chapter of the same book he censures the poets who
inspire men with fear by the descriptions they give of the world to
come. "If men are to be brave, must not these things be told
them and such things as may make them least of all afraid of
death; or do you think that anyone can ever be brave who has
this fear within him?" 102
This constant reflection on death proved a great source of com-
fort to Socrates and taught him to meet it calmly, "for to fear
death, O Athenians, is nothing else than to appear wise without
being so; for it is to appear to know what one does not know.
For no one knows but that death is the greatest of all blessings
that happen to a man; but men fear it as if they well knew it is
the greatest of evils." 103
"Who would say," asks Plutarch, "that the grief of Plato at the
death of Socrates was identical with the grief of Alexander at the
death of Clitus? For grief is beyond measure intensified by falling
100 Phaedo 67E. rco ovtl apa, e<pr} & 2tjU/xta, ol opOcos <pi\oao<p-
ovvres airodvrjcrxeiv /zeXercocu, xai to redvavai rfxicrra avr ols avSpcoiruv
<po(3epov. ex rcovde 8e axoireu. el yap 01 a/3 €/3\?7 prat p.ev Travraxv
too aoonaTL, avrrjv 8e xad 1 avrrjv eiridvpiovai ttjv Tj/vxriv 'ex*w, tovtov
8e yi.yvop.evov (pofiolvro xai ayavaxrolev, ov iroWrj av akoyia etr},
.... Cf. Epict., ii. i, xxvi; Cic, T. D. i. xxxi; notes 202, 208.
101 Rep. vi. 486A.
102 Ibid. iii. 386A. el fieWovcnv elvai dvdpelot, ap 1 ov ravra re
\exreov xai ola clvtovs iroLrjaai rjxiara rbv Savarov bebi'evai', fj
fiyel riva 7ror' av Yei/eaflat avbpelov, exovra ev avrco tovto t6
delpa;
103 Plato, Ap. 29A. to yap tol Bavarov dedievat, w avbpes, ovoev
aWo evTLV, fj hoxelv ao<pdv elvai, p.r) ovra. boxelv yap eldevat
eo-Tiv a ovx olbev. olde p,ev yap ovdels rbv davarov, ovb 1 el Tvyxwu
tcc avOpcjTrco ttclvtoov iLeyiarov ov rdv ayadoiv ' oeoiacn 5' cos tv
elbores, otl iieyiarov t&v xaxcov eari.
30 The Consolations of Death
out against expectation: and the calamity that comes unlooked
for is more painful than that we may reasonably fear." 104 In
another work the same author remarks in this connection, "Many
are shocked at this saying of Menander — 'No man can say I shall
not suffer this' — being ignorant how great a help it is to freedom
from pain to be able to look fortune in the face." 105 "For it is
the fear of death and not the desire of life that makes the foolish
person adhere to the body. . . . But he who understands the
nature of the soul and reflects that the change it will undergo at
death will be either to something better, or at least not worse, has
in his fearlessness of death no small help to ease of mind in life." 106
The author of the Consolatio ad Apollonium blames one who gives
as an excuse for his grief that the calamity was sudden and un-
expected: "But you should have expected it and considered the
vanity and uncertainty of human affairs." 107
104 de Vir. Mor. 449E. t Is yap av (pair] tov. . . . f) rfi IIX cltwvos
kirl Zcoxpdret TeXevTrjaavTi \viry tt\v 'A\ei;avbpov bua KXeZroz>,
avTov uve\elv bpp.r)(ravTOs; eiriTeivovTai yap ov nerpicos xal t£$
irapa \byov at \virai, xal to Trap 1 e\iriba <7u/i7rrco/xa tov xaTa
\byov bbvvqpoTepov
105 de Tranq. An. 476D. xaWoi xoXXoi xal to tov Mevavbpov
ire<pplxacnv ' ovx ecrTiv elirelv {wvTa Tour' ov Tretco/iai,' ayvoovvTes
ocrov karl Tpbs a\virlav ayadbv to pe\eTav xal bvvacrdai irpbs
tt)v Tvxf]v aveqybai toIs opuaviv avTifiXeireiv, Cf. Kock, iii. 355.
106 Ibid. 476A. tov p.ev yap avbrjTov b tov davaTov <pb(3os ovx o
tov {rjv irbBos exxp'ep.auQai tov (rco/xaros iroiel, . . . 6 be tt)v tt)s
tfrvxys <pv(7iv a/jLcao-yeircas eTnvoccv xal tt)v els to fiekTiov avTr)s fj
/jLtjbev xdxiov ev tt} TeKevrj) fieTa^oXrjv ein\oyi^bp.evos, ov paxpov ex«i
Trjs irpbs tov fiiov evdvpilas e<pbbiov tt)v irpbs tov BavaTov bnpofiiav.
Cf. Cic, T. D. ii. i, iv; iii. xiv.
107 ad Apoll. 112D. * dXX' ov yap t)\tt^ov <prjai Vaura ireia-
eudai, ovbe irpoaebbxwv. 1 dXX' expyv ere irpoaboxav xal irpoxaTa-
xexpixevai tcov avdpooireLajv ttjv abifkoTtiTa xal ovbeveiav,
Cf. n. 58.
In Ancient Greek Literature 31
CHAPTER V
DEATH A RELEASE FROM SORROWS
A consolation for death is naturally derived from the considera-
tion that life is afflicted by a multitude of sorrows from which
death offers a welcome release.
The sentiment uttered by Homer — "of all things that breathe
and creep upon the earth there is nothing more miserable than
man" 108 — has been re-echoed by his successors. Sorrow, accord-
ing to the same poet, is man's natural portion, "this is the lot the
gods have spun for miserable men that they should live in pain." 109
Hesiod fancied that all evils were let loose by the opening of Pan-
dora's box — "the woman opening with her hands the large lid of
the jar dispersed and brought about mournful evils for men." uo
" Full indeed is the earth of woes and full the sea, and in the day as
well as in the night diseases unbidden haunt mankind silently
bearing ills to men." 111 Pindar dwells frequently on this thought,
"No one is or shall be free from troubles." 112 "We each bear
different lots by nature, one one, another another, but it is im-
108 Odyss. xviii. 130. ovbiv axihvoripov yala rp'&pei avdp&iroLO,
ttclvtuv 6<raa re yalav ein irvelei re xal epwei.
Cf. II. xvii. 446; Mullach., Emped. Carm. 30; Mein., p. 358, 1.640;
p. 134 ii.
109 II. xxiv. 525. &s yap eirexXuaavTo Oeoi 5et\oZai Pporolvi,
£6)€iv axw/JLevois'
Cf. Soph., O. C. 1230; Bacchy., frg. 9; Apoll. Rh., Argon, i. 82;
Eur., Ale. 802; Sen., Marc. xi. n. 1.
110 O. D. 94. dXXa yvvrj x^ipeo'O'i nldov p.kya 7rayz' acpeXovaa
eaxedacr 1 ' avSpdciroicn 5' kfirfaaro xrjdea \vypa.
111 Ibid. 101. irXeLrj p.h> yap yala xaxcbv, irXeir) de daXaaaa'
vovctol 5' avdpiCTTOKnv kip 1 rifxepy, at 5' kirl vvxtI
avrbp-aroi (poiTcbaL xaxa Bvqrolcn <pkpovaai
0-1777,
Cf. Aeschy., Per. 703; Eur., I. A. 1330; Stob., iii. 98; Mullach.,
Democr. frg. 10; Cic, T. D. i. xxxi; et alia.
112 Pyth. v. 54. ttovcov 6' ov tls awoxXapos kariv out 1 everai.
Cf. Aeschy., Choeph. 1018; Campbell, Frg. 373; Aeschy., Supp.
329; Agam. 1327; Eur., Ion. 381; Mein.,iv. p. 351, 1. 419; p. 357
1.599; et alia; notes 38, 193.
32 The Consolations of Death
possible for one to have complete happiness." U3 "The gods give
to mortals two evils for one good." 114 "What part of life," asks
Prodicus of Ceos, "is free from evils?" 115 And the ps. -Plutarch
reminds the sorrowing Apollonius that "it is no unusual thing for
a man to be unfortunate." 116 "The inconstancy of Fortune,"
Crantor tells us, "joined us at the beginning of our journey and
has accompanied us ever since." 117 This inconstancy of Fortune
is an added misery to the lot of man, for "no one knows what will
happen in the course of tomorrow or in the course of an hour." 118
Reflecting on this, Polymestor in Euripides (Hecuba 954) offers
words of sympathy to the afflicted Hecuba: "I weep seeing thee
and thy city and thy daughter who has lately died. Alas! there
is nothing secure, neither glory, nor when one is faring well is
there a certainty that he will not fare ill." 119
Considering the manifold evils of life, "many have come to
the conclusion that life is a punishment; and to be born a human
113 Nem. vii. 54. <pvq. 5' exaaros diapepopev (3lotclv Xaxovresy
6 pkv tcl, tcl 5'aXXoi' Tvxtiv 5'eV abvvarov
evbaipovlav airaaav avtXbpevov. Cf. Pyth.
vii. 20; Bergk, ii. Solon 13. (4.) 63; Ibid.,
Sim. Amorg. i. (1.) 20; Bacchy., v. 54.
114 Pyth. iii. 81. tv 7rap' ka\6v wr)para avvbvo balovrai fiporols
adavaroi' Cf. Horn., II. xxiv. 527.
115 Mullach., ii. p. 138. tl pepos rrjs r)\ixLas apoipov toiv aviapcbv.
. . . Ibid., Democr. 41; ps.-Plato, Ax. 366 D; Eur., H. F. 1314;
Aeschy., Agam. 554; Soph., O. T. 1186; Mein., iv. p. 195, x. p.
351, 1.419.
116 104D. xaivov arvxciv ovbh avdpooirco dXXd ^d^res tclvt6
Treirovdapev. Cf. Dem., de Cor. 328.
117 Mullach., Crantor frg. 9. 77 r' abrjXos clvtt) tvxv irbppuQtv
rjp.lv xal er' a7r' apxys rjxoXovdrjxev. . . . Cf. Ibid., Emped. 116,
Epicharm. 188; Bacchy., ix. 45; ad Apoll. 104C; Bergk, ii. Archil.
9. (48.); Eur., Ale. 785; Sen., Marc, xxiii.
118 Bergk, ii. ps.-Phocy. 116. ovdels jLyvcoaxei, ri per'avpiov r)
tL /ie<9' cbpav. Cf. Ibid., i. Oly. vii. 44, ii. 61, Ibid., iii. Sim. 32.
(46.); Theognis, 159; Eur., Troad. 1203; Or. 340, 976; Dem., de
Cor. 311; Stob., iii. 105; Callim., Epigr. xv; Polyb., viii, xxiii, 11;
Mein., iv. p. 341' 1.57; p. 353, 1.488, et alia.
119 baxpvoi <r' eicropcov ttoXlv re <rr)v
Tf)v r'dpricos davovcrav eyxovov creOev.
<pev.
ovx €<jtl ttigtov ovhkv, ovt 1 £u5o£ia ovt 1 avxah&s
TTpCKKTOVTOL pi) TTpCL^eLV XCLX&S.
Cf. Eur., Or. 1; Bacchy., frgg. 20, 21.
In Ancient Greek Literature 33
being, the highest pitch of calamity." 120 It is related of Silenus
that, being importuned by his captor Midas regarding the most
desirable thing among men, he answered, "Not to be born is the
best for both sexes. This should have the first place in our
choice and the next is, when we are born, to die as soon as pos-
sible." 121 This same sentiment has been preserved among the
maxims of Theognis. 122
From these considerations we have a favorite t&itos used by
consolers, that death is not an evil but a blessing, a remedy for evils. 129
"Who but for death," exclaims Aesopus, "could escape from thee,
O life? Thy griefs are a thousandfold and it is not easy to escape
them or bear them." 124
Prometheus, in Aeschylus' play of the same name (1.778 ff.),
laments his lot that he cannot die : " thou wouldst hardly bear the
agonies of me to whom it is not doomed to die, for this would be
an escape from suffering." 125 "For to die is considered the
greatest remedy for evils." 126 "Since often length of days has
brought us nearer to pain, but there is an ally who brings all alike
120 Mullach., Cran. frg. 12. ttoWols yap xai acxpots avbpacnv, ov
vvv ctXXd 7rdXat xexXavaTau r' avdpdcinva, TipcopLav fjyovpevois
elvai rov fiiov xai apxv v T0 yevkaBai avdpanrov o~vp<popav rr\v
p,eyL(TTT)v' Cf. ad Apoll. 115B; Cic, T. D. i. passim, iii, xxxii.
121 ad Apoll. 115E. avOpcowous 8e irapLirav ovx lart yeveadai rd
iravroiv apiGTOV ov8e peTaax^lv tt}s tov fieXTlarov (pvcrecos (apiarov
apa iraai xai iraaaLs to p.r} yeveadaC)' to p.kvToi p.€Ta tovto xai
TrpcoTov TOiv avdpwirco avvaTcov, bevTepov 8k f to yevop,evovs airodavelv
cos rdxto-ra. Cf. Sen., Marc. xxii. For the sentiment closely
allied to this, "Mourn for the new born, rejoice for the dead."
Cf. Ax. 368A; Cic, T. D. i. 48, 115,
122 1.425ff. Cf. Bacchy., v. 160; Soph., O. C. 1225; Nauck, frg.
908; et alia.
123 Cf. Stob., iii. 120; Cic, in Cat. iv. iv; Lucr., de R. N. iii.
915ff.; Sen., Marc, xix, xx, Polyb. xxviii.
124 Anth. Lyr. Aesopus, viii (reading a vcltov). ttccs tls avev dava-
tov ere cpvyoL, /8t€; fivpia yap aev \vypa' xai ovTe <pvyeiv evyapks,
ovt€ <pepeiv. Cf. Bergk, ii. Mimner. 2. (2.) 9; Eur., Troad. 606.
125 7) dvcnreTcbs av tovs ep.ovs ad\ovs (p€pOLS t
otco davelv p.kv €o~tlv ov 7reTrpcop,€vov'
avTT) yap rjv av tt^Ploltcov airaWayrj'
Cf. Soph., Phil. 797, Trach. 1255; notes 56, 57.
126 Eur., Herac 595. to yap davelv
xaxcbv neyicrTov ipa.pp.axov vopii^tTai.
Cf. Or. 1522, 187; Soph., Trach. 821.
34 The Consolations of Death
to an end . . . death appears in the end." 127 Sophocles regarded
death as "the final physician of diseases." 128 And the daughters
of Danaus, in Aeschylus (Suppliants 810), prefered it to forced
nuptials, "death is free from mournful ills." 129 Heracles, in the
Trachinae of Sophocles (1.1169 ff.), interpreted the release from
toils foretold by the oracle as a life of prosperity but it meant for
him death. "It said to me that at this time now actually present
there should be consummated to me a release from the toils laid
upon me; and I thought that I should live in prosperity, but this
was nothing else except that I should die. For to the dead no
toil arises." 130 Andromache (Euripides, Troades 636 ff.) envies
the fate of Polyxena, realizing the miseries she has been spared.
"To be not born I say is the same as death, but to die is better
than to live grievously; for not perceiving his ills he in nothing
grieves . . . now she, just as if she had not beheld the light, is
dead and knows none of her own troubles." 131
Artabanus finds Xerxes shedding tears at the thought of the
briefness of human life, but he shows him we suffer other things
more pitiable than this. "In this so brief life there is not one,
neither of these men nor of others, born so happy that it will not
occur to him, not once but oftentimes, to wish to die rather than
to live. For calamities befalling him and diseases distur 1 ing
127 Soph., O. C. 1215. €7T€t 7roXXa \xkv at fiaxpal dp,epat xare-
devro 8ij \vwas eyyvTepco, ... 6 8'ewLxovpos LaorekeaTos, . . .
aXupos axopos avairecprjve Oclvcltos ks reKevrav.
128 Campbell, frg. 631. dXX' ead 1 6 Oclvcltos Xolados larpos votruv.
Cf. Eur., Hip. 1373.
129 T0 yfrp aV€ ip eXevdepov —
rat ipiXaiaxr oov xaxdv.
Cf. Eur., Hec. 214.
130 rf p,ot xpb v( # T 4> r^^ rt KaL irapbvTi vvv
e<pa(rx6 p.6xBo)v t&v kpeaT&Tuv epot
\vaiv TeXeiadcu' xabbxovv irpa^eiv xaXcbs.
to S'-qv ap' ovdev aWo irX-qv Bavelv ejxe.
rots Yap Oavovo-i p,6xos ov irpoayiyveTcu.
Cf. Soph., O. C. 955; El. 1170; Aeschy., Agam. 1364;
Sept. 335; Eur., Ale. 937.
131 to jxi} yeveaBat rw davelv luov XeYco,
tov £ijv 5e \vjrpa)s xpelvabv eo-rt xaTdavelv.
a\yei yap obbh tcov xaxuv fjadrjfxevos'
xelvq 5', opotcos coairep ovx Idovaa ipoos,
TeOvrjxe xovdev ol8e twv avTrjs xaxojv.
In Ancient Greek Literature 35
him make life, though really short, appear to be long; so that death,
life being burdensome, becomes a most desirable refuge for men." 132
To Plato death seemed the only thing that was a benefit to all
mankind. "Probably, however, it will seem wonderful to you if
this alone of all other things is certain and it never happens to
man as is the case with all other things, since to them it is better
to die than to live." 133 Frequent meditation on death convinced
Socrates that it was better for him to die and be free from care.
"Moreover we may conclude from this that there is a great hope
that death is a blessing. . . . What has befallen me appears
to be a blessing and it is impossible that we think rightly who
suppose death is an evil. . . " . 134 " What has happened to me is
not the effect of chance, but this is clear to me that now to die
and to be freed from cares is better for me." 135 4
Speaking of the separation of soul and body Epicharmus says,
"The earthly part returns to the earth; the spirit, above. What
in all this is grievous? Nothing at all." 136 And Arcesilaus re-
marks, "Death, which is called an evil, has this distinct from all
other things that are thought evils, that when it is present it
never grieves anyone; but when remote and in expectation only*
132 Herod., vii. 46. ev yap ovrca j3pax€t /Step ovdels ovtoj av~
dpojiros euv ebbaipuv ire<pvxe, ovre tovtwv ovTe tccv aXXcop, tu> ov
TrapacrTrjcreTai ttoWclkls xai ovxl a7ra£ redv ava.1 fiovkeadai paWov fj
£weiv. at re yap crvpspopal TpoairlirTOvaaL xai at vovaot avvTapda-
aovaac xai fipaxvv eovra paxpbv hox'eeiv elvai iroieixri tov filov'
out to 6 pev davaros poxOrjPVS eovarjs rrjs £6r}s xarojpvyr] alpeTCOTaTrj
tco avdpcoTTCo y'eyove.
133 Phaedo, 62A. to- cos p'evTOi BavpaaTov gol (pavelrai, el tovto
pbvov roiv dWoiv awavTOJV dir\ovv ecrrt, xai ovdeirore ru7xdi>€t
tco avQpwiru), to<77T€p xat r'aXXa karlv, ore xai ots fiehTtov TeBvavai
Cf. Ibid. 84B; Cic, T. D. i. xxxi, xxxiv.
134 Plato, Apol. 40C, B. evvorjaoopev 8e xai Tribe, cbs iroWri eXirls
kariv dyaBbv avro elvai xivhvvevei yap poi to i-vp(3e(3rjxbs
tovto, ayadov yeyov'evai ' xai ovx eaO 1 oirus rjpels bpQ&s viroXa-
pfiavopev, oaoL olbpeBa xaxbv elvai to TeBvavai.
135 Ibid., 4lD. ovde to. epd vvv airb tov avTopaTov y'eyovev, dXXd
pot dijXov eaTL tovto, otl 77077 TeQvavai xai awriWaxBai wpaypaTOiv
fie\Tiov r}v poi.
136 Mullach., Epicharm. frg. 263.
yd pev els 7a>, irvevp 1 avu.
t'l Ttovde xaX€7r6j>; ovde ev.
Cf. ad Apoll. 110A; Verg., Aen. xii. 647.
36 The Consolations of Death
then it afflicts us." 137 According to Hegesias, death withdraws
us from evil, not from good. 138 So fully impressed wasAlcidamas
with this thought that he wrote a book in praise of death endeavor-
ing to establish the advantages of it by an enumeration of the
evils of life. 139 And Prodicus of Ceos, after enumerating the
various ills that attend man from childhood to old age, comes to
the conclusion, "even the gods, understanding human affairs,
release more quickly from life those on whom they set the greatest
value." 140
This aspect of death is used not only to afford a motive for
meeting death with resignation and even a feeling of relief, but it
is also employed as a source of consolation for the mourners.
When Hecuba (Euripides, Troades 268) asked Talthybius con-
cerning her daughter, he answered, "Deem your daughter happy
for she is well ... a fate possesses her so that she is released
from toils." 141 "Invite all the Persians and allies to my burial,"
said Cyrus, "to rejoice with me that henceforth I shall be in
security so that I shall no longer suffer any evil, whether I shall be
with God or whether I shall no longer have any being." 142 In the
account of Socrates' condemnation given by Xenophon he tells us
that the master made use of this motive to console his weeping dis-
ciples : "Do you now weep? Do you not long since know that from
the moment I was born death was decreed for me by nature? If,
however, I were dying amid blessings, it is clear that I and those
who wish me well should grieve, but if I am losing life when
troubles are to be expected, I think you all ought to rejoice with
137 ad Apoll. 110A. ' tovto to \ey6p,ei>oj> xaxov 6 davaros p,6vov
to)v aWoiv tccv vevofiio-fxevcov xax&v irapov p.lv ovbkva iruTOT 1
eXvTrjaev, airov 5e xal irpoahoxiciievov \vireZ.'
138 Cic, T. D. i.xxxiv. Cf. Soph., O.C. 1220; n. 297.
189 Cic, T. D. i. xlviii.
140 Mullach., ii. p. 138. Aid tovto xal oi deol tcov avBpwireioiv
eTL<TT7HJLOV€S OVS OLV 7T€pt TrXeLcTTOV TOl&VTCU, BoLTTOV CLir aWaTTOVGl
tov far. Cf. Ax. 367B; ad Apoll. 108E; notes 167, 171.
141 evdai/jLOVLJ^e iralda crrjv ' exei xa\ws.
€X €L TroTfjLOS vlv, wore' d7rr;XXdx^at ttovcov.
142 Xen., Cyr. viii.vii. 27. Uepaas pikvToi iravTas xal tovs avp,-
liaxovs €7r£ to pLvij/jLa Tovp.6v irapaxaXelTt (Jvvr\uBt]o Ojikvovs kp.ol,
otl kv raj aa<pa\ei r/drj eoro/xcu, cos p.7]8ev av <etl xaxov iradelv, prjTe
fjv jieTa tov 6eiov ykvoip,ai /i^re r\v p.7}8ev Itl co.
In Ancient Greek Literature 37
me as being happy." 143 "And to me," Xenophon remarks, "he
seems to have met a fate approved of by the gods, for he left the
most troublesome part of life and met the easiest of deaths." 144
We find in Lucian de Luctu: "The mourners take it for granted
that a terrible blow has fallen both upon themselves and the
object of their lamentation, yet they indeed know not clearly
whether the fate of the departed is miserable and worthy of grief
or the opposite, pleasant and better : They turn to grief in a formal
manner and through habit." 145
Reminding him of the miseries of life the author of the Consola-
tion to Apollonius consoles his friend for the loss of his son by the
reflection, "She (nature) saw the woes of life and with what a
torrent of cares it overflowed — which if we wished to number,
we would grow very angry with it and confirm the opinion com-
mon amongst some, that death is better than life. If then the
condition of human life is such as they speak of, why do we not
rather applaud their good fortunes who are freed from the drudgery
of it, than pity and deplore them as most people do through
folly?" 146
143 Xen., Apol. 27. r) dpn 8axpveTe\ ov yap Ta\ai Icrre 6tl e£
6tov wep eyevoprjv, xaTeipr)<pio~pevos f)v pov vto tt)s <pvo~eojs 6 davaros',
aXXd p'evToi el pev ayadaiv eTippeovToiv Tpoa.T6Wvp.ai, 8r)\ov
otl epol xal toIs epols evvois \vTt)Teov' el 8e xaXe7ra>j> Tpoaboxo-
pevcov xaraXuco tov 0lov, eyk pev olpai cos evTpayovvTos kpov Taaiv
vplv evdvprjTeov elvai.
144 Ibid., 32. epol pev ovv boxel deoipiKovs polpas TeTVxr)x'evai
tov pev yap filov to xttXe7rcbraroj' a7reXi7re, tqjv 8e Bavaroiv tov
pavTov ervxev.
Cf. Xen. Mem. iv. viii.
145 de Luctu 1, 15. (922.) xal cos atpoprjra r)yovvTai ra <rvp-
fiaivovTa a<plcn re aureus ol bbvpbpevoi xal exelvois oh oSvpovrai,
ov pa tov H\ovTOJva xal $epae<p6vr)v, xar' ov8ev eTio'rapevoi cracpcoj
ovre el Tovrjpa ravra xal Xi>7r7/s a£ia r) Tovvavrlov r)8ea xal /SeXrico
reus TaOovaL, vopco 81 xal ^vvrjdela rr\v \vttjv eTirpeTOVTes. Cf.
Cic. loc. cit. n. 208.
146 ad Apoll. 1074A, C. opa 8e xal tov 0'lov t6 oSvvrjpov xal
to ToWals <ppovTi<jiv eTrjvTXrjpevov, as el (3ov\olpeda xaTaptBpela-
0cu, \lav av avTOv xaTayvolrjpev, eTaXrjOevaai pev 8e xal tt)v Tap'
evloLs xpaTovaav 86^av cbs apa xpelTTov eaTi to Tedvavau tov ^r)v.
. . . TOLOVTOV 8i} TOV jSlOU TC0J> avdpCOTOJV OVTOS oloV OVTOL <pao~i,
tcos ovx ev8aipovi$eiv paWov Tpoa-qxei tovs a.To\vdevTas ttjs ev
aurco Xarpeias rj xaTOiXTelpeiv re xal dprjvelv, OTep ol toWoI Spcocrt
8c 1 apadlav; Cf. Cic, ad Fam. iv. 5.
38 The Consolations of Death
In connection with the attitude towards death as offering a
release from miseries and pain, the comparison of death to a
peaceful sleep 1 " naturally follows. This is a common figure of
speech in both ancient and modern literature. Homer calls
death and sleep twin brothers, 148 and Pausanius describes
them as they are represented on the Chest of Cypselus — a black
boy and a white boy in the arms of their nurse Night. 149 Traces
of this comparison may be seen in modern grave inscriptions
which have their counterpart in many of the ancient epigrams.
"Here Saon, son of Dicon of Acanthus, rests in holy sleep: say
not that the good die." 150
Passing from this we have the Socratic argument based on this
comparison. " To die is one of two things : either the dead may be
annihilated and have no sensation of anything at all or, according
to the common saying, there is a certain change and a passage of
the soul from one place to another. If there is no sensation at all,
as it were a sleep in which the sleeper has no dreams, death would
be a wonderful gain." 161 The author of the Consolatio ad Apol-
lonium comments upon this passage and concludes if death is a
sleep, there is no cause to fear it. 152
Here likewise may be added another familiar comparison, that
life is a pilgrimage and death the end of the journey. 153 Some
147 Aeschy., Agam. 1540; Soph., Trach. 1005, 1041; Ai. 831;
Antig. 810, 832; Phil. 861; Eur., Hipp. 1377, 1386; Mullach., ii.
p. 145.13; n. 6.
148 II. xvi. 672, 682. Cf. Ibid. xi. 241, xiv. 231, 482, xvi. 456;
Odyss. xiii. 80; ad Apoll. 107F; Cic, T. D. i.xxviii; Verg., Aen,
vi. 522; et alia.
149 Paus., v. xviii.
150 Anth. Gr. vii. 451.
T#5e Xacov 6 Atxcovos ^kxavBios iepov virvov
xoLfiaTcu Bvr)<rxeiv lit) Xt7€ tovs ayaBovs.
Cf. Ibid. 219, 459, et alia.
151 Plato, Apol. 40C. 8volv yap darepov eari to TeBvavai. r) yap
olov p.i)8lv elvat,, p.'t]h > atadrjaiv p.i)btp.iav p.rj8evds €\€lv tov TeBv€0)Ta,
77, xara ra Xeyopeva, fi€Ta^o\r) tls Tvyx&veL ovua xal /jLeToixrjaLs
TTJS ^UX^S, TOV TOTTOV TOV €vBkv8t tU aWoV TOTTOV, Xal elT€ 5?) 1X7)-
defila alcrdrjo-ls kariv, dXX' olov vttvos, 6T€L8av tls xaBevdoov LX'qb 1
ovap p.r]8ev opq., daviiaaiov xkp8os av etrj 6 BavaTos. . . .
152 ad Apoll. 107D. Cf. Cic, T. D. i. xli.
153 Eur., H. F. 433; Soph., Trach. 874; Ax. 365B; ad Apoll.
117F, 119F; Bergk, iii. Anac. 38. (24.); Sen., Polyb. xxviii. Nullus
portus nisi mortis est.
In Ancient Greek Literature 39
derive motives of consolation from viewing death in this light,
considering it as a port or haven which affords shelter from the
vicissitudes of life. 154
Continuing the argument brought forward in the preceding
tokos, Socrates says to his judges, "But if, on the other hand,
death is a removal from here to another place, and what is said
is true, that all the dead are there, what greater blessing can there
be than this?" 155
The author of the Consolatio ad Apollonium, quoting the words
of Socrates, adds, " If death be like a journey neither on this
account is it an evil." 156
154 Cic, T. D. i. xl. xlix.
155 Plato, Apol. 40C. el 5' au olov airodrjfxrjaal eariv 6 davaros
evdevbe els a\\ov tottov, xal a\Tjdrj tan tcl \eybpeva, arc apa exel
elcn iravres ol TeOvedres, ri p.ei$ov ayadov tovtov elrj, aj avdpes
dtxaarai',
156 i07J\ e j y e nfjy aTodrju'ia wpooeoixev 6 davaros, ovd' ourarc
tdTi xaxbv '
40 The Consolations of Death
CHAPTER VI
DEATH BEFORE SORROW HAS COME CONSIDERED A BOON
The objection was sometimes made that it is not death but an
untimely death that is deplorable; for it was considered the
greatest misfortune to die unmarried and childless, or for parents
to survive their children. 157 The pathos of a young life snatched
away without having experienced the joys of motherhood and the
happiness of family affection finds expression throughout the
tragic poets. 158 It is also emphasized in the epitaphs. 159 And
here, too, is found the consolation the remembrance of such
blessings has given to the deceased. "O passer by, do not blame
my monument, because I have died I have nothing that is deserv-
ing of tears. I have left my children's children, I have departed
from a wife of my own age. I have given three children in mar-
riage, whose children I have often fondled in my arms, having no
cause to weep over the sickness or death of any of them. . . . " wo
"Looking intently on my husband at my last hour, I praised both
the gods of the lower world and the god of marriage, the one be-
cause I have left my husband alive, the other because he was such
a man. . . . " 161
157 Sen., Marc. xvii. Nullum non acerbum funus est, quod
parens sequitur.
158 Eur., H. F. 480ff.; Hec. 402fJ.; I. A. 1218fL; Or. 1029ff.;
x Alc. 163ff.; Soph., Antig. 813, 876ff.; Luc, de Luctu 13; notes
260, 285, 294; et alia.
159 Anth. Gr. vii. 182, 186, 361, 487, 498; et alia.
160 Ibid. vii. 260.
Mf) MCM^W 7rapicbj> tcl fxvrjfjLaTa jjlov } irapodlra '
bbhev t%03 Qprjvuv a£io*> ov6e Bavdov.
rkxvwv rexva \e\onra ' jjlltJs aweXavaa yvvcuxds
avyyypov ' rpiaaols iratalv eduxa y&fiovs,
ki; &v iroWaxi iraldas epiols kvexolp.i(ra xokirois,
ovdevbs ot/xa>£as ov voaov, ov davarov
ot fie xaTCLO-ireicravTes inr^ixova top yXvxvv vttvov
xoL/idadaL x&pyv iren^av kir 1 evcefieuv.
Cf. Plato, Hip. Mai. 291D.
161 Ibid. vii. 555.
'Es ttoctiv adprjaaaa 7rap' €(rxartr;s \iva p.oipr)s
rjveaa xal x^ovlovs, rjveaa xal £vyiovs.
tovs juei>, otl $o)6v \iirov av'epa, tovs 5', on TOLOV.
dXXa iraTrjp \xi\ivoi waLalv k(p J rjnerkpois.
Cf. Ibid. 667.
In Ancient Greek Literature 41
Writing to his wife who was grieving over their little daughter's
being deprived of this domestic happiness, Plutarch observes, "if
you grieve over her dying unmarried and childless you can comfort
yourself with the thought that you have had both these advan-
tages." 162
As said above, it was considered a great misfortune for parents
to survive their children. It was this thought that caused such
intense grief to the mother of Jason when he was departing on his
perilous journey. "Would that on that day, when, wretched
woman that I am, I heard King Peleus give his evil command. I
had straightway given up my life and forgotten my cares, so that
thou thyself my son with thine own hands mightest have buried
me; for that was the only wish left me still to be fulfilled by thee." 16 *
Homer brings in this thought, "He repaid not his dear parents
for his nurture for his life was short. 164 ..." The author of
Ad Apollonium replies to the complaint of the sorrowing father
that he should have died first that his son might bury him, for
that was according to nature, "it is clearly according to human
nature but not according to the providence of the gods and their
arrangement of the world. For him who is happy, it was not
according to nature to stay in this life longer than the time ap-
pointed him." 165
162 ad Ux. 611C. el b' exeivrjs ex^is olxrov ay afiov xai axcu6os
olxofJLevrjs, avdis exeis eir J dXXois r\biu aeavT-qv woielv, nrjbevos tovtojv
aTeXrj fiyd' ap.oipov yevop.ev7\v
163 Apoll. Rh., Argon, i. 278.
Ai0' cxpeXov xelv 1 riiuip, 6t j e^eLirovros axovva
beikri eyui UeXLao xaxrjv (3(l(Tl\tios e<perp.i]V,
clvtLx 1 airb ^vxv v P-eO&ev, xi)b'euv re Xa0e<r0cu,
Oipp 1 avrbs p.e refjau <pL\cus rapxv<rao xepv'w,
r'exvov ep.bv ' rb yap olov erjv en Xoarbv eeXbup
kx vedev, dXXa be iravra 7rdXat Bpe-wry\pia rcevou.
Cf. Verg., Aen. xi. 150; viii. 578; Eur. Ale. 290; Troad. 1180;
Androm. 1208; Med. 1032; Anth. Gr. p. 594.2; Cons., ad Liv. 157;
Quint., Inst. vi. Introd.
164 II. iv. 477. ovbe roxevat
dpeirrpa <pI\ols aic'ebuxe, pnvvvdabios be oi ai&v.
Cf.flbid. xvii. 301; xxiii. 222. E
165 119F. tovto yap elvai xara <pvariv, rrjv r\per'epav brjXovbrL
xai rrjv avdpwTivqv, dXX' ov xara rr\v roiv 6\oov irpbvoiav xai ttjv
xoo-p-LX-qv Sidra£u>. exelvw be to) p.axapi<jB'evri ovx fjv xara tpvtnv
irepatrepo: rod airovenTjOevros avro} XP 0V0V irpbs top evdabe /Sior
Trepip.'eveiv t . . .
42 The Consolations of Death
The great motive for consolation in such cases is found in the
reflection that those who die early have escaped many misfortunes
and that not a few would have been saved from greater calamities if
they had met an earlier death. u& In this connection a story found
in a fragment of Crantor's Consolatio is frequently quoted by
consolers. Termaeus of Elysia, bitterly bewailing the loss of his
son, went to a place of divination to be informed why he was
visited with so great an affliction. He was consoled by the answer
that it was not well either for the youth or his parents that he
should live. 167 Here also may be quoted a passage from the
Consolatio ad Apollonium. "Troilus in truth wept less than
Priam even if he perished in his youth, while his father's kingdom
flourished and his riches abounded, which Priam afterwards
laments." 168 Therefore death cannot be called untimely if it
removes one from future evils. An anonymous comedian well
expresses this consolation: "If you knew that this life which is
taken from him would be passed in happiness, death would be
untimely, but if, on the other hand, this life was to bring him
hopeless grief, death perhaps was the more obliging of the two." 169
"You ought not therefore to mourn for those who die young as if
they were deprived of the enjoyments of life for it is uncertain,
as we have often said, whether they are deprived of good or evil." 170
"Who knows but that the Deity, with a fatherly providence and
166 Soph., O. T. 1349; Cic, T. D. i. xxxiv, xlv;Sen., Marc, xx;
n. 53.
167 Mullach., Cran. frg. 10. Cf. ad Apoll. 109B; Cic, T. D.
i. xlviii; Kock, iii. p. 36. 125 "Ov ol deoi <pCKov<nv a-KoBvy\(jxei veos..
168 113F. p.elov yap tWtos eddxpvae TpouXos rj Ilpta/xos, xav
UplafJLOS avros, el irpoere\evTrjaev ex' axp,ai-ov(TT}s avrq ttjs fiaai-
\elas xai Trjs Tocravrrjs rvxrjs fjv edprjvei.
Cf. Apoll. Rh., Argon, i. 253; Cic, T. D. i. xxxv, xxxix; adFam.
iv. 5.
169 Mein., iv. p. 669. eZr' el p.ev rjdeis ottl tovtov tov (3Lov,
6v ovx €/3tco<rc, £&v SievTvxrjaev av,
6 Oavaros ovx evxaipos' el 6' rfveyxev av
ovtos 6 /3tos tl tcov kvqxkuTOjv, t(T COS
6 Oavaros avros gov yeyovev evvovarepos.
Cf. ad Apoll. 110E; Campbell, Frag. 760.
170 ad Apoll. 115F. ov XPV ovv tovs airodvrjaxovTas v'eovs dprjvelv
6tl tcov ev rcj? p.axpa> /Step vop.L^op.'evoiv ayaBihv aTrearep'qvTai.
tovto a8rj\ov, cbs iroWdxis etirop,ev, elr' ayadcov a-weurep'qp.evoi
Tvyx&vovo-iv etre xaxwv.
In Ancient Greek Literature 43
tenderness, foreseeing what is to happen the human race, has taken
some purposely out of this life by an untimely death." 171
A further motive for consolation in the case of an early death is,
" not the longest life but the most virtuous is best." 172 For " goodness
of life is its measure, not length of time." 173 This motive is found
among the consolations in the Epistle to Sotira. "Happy was
Gryllus and whoever else chooses not the longest life but the most
virtuous." 174 And moreover the longest life is relatively short.
"According to Simonides, thousands, even numberless years are
but a point compared to eternity; rather, they are but the very
smallest part of a point." 175
171 Ibid. 117D. t'is yap olbev, el 6 Beds Trarpixcbs xrjdo/jievos rod
avdpooireiov yevovs xal irpoopdcyLevos ra p.e\\ovra avp.^rjaeadaL
Tpoe^ayet tlvols ex tov £rjv dcopous; Cf. Ibid. 111E; Bergk, i. Isth.
frg. 3. (26.) for the story of Trophonius and Agamedes.; Ax.
367B; ad Apoll. 109A; Cic, T. D. xlvii; n. 140.
172 ad Apoll. 111A. oux 6 naxpoTdTos fiios apto-ros d\X' 6 <tttov-
baibraTos. Cf. Cic, T. D. i. xxxix, xlv. Nemo parum diu vixit,
qui virtutis perfectae perfecto functus est munere. Sen., Marc,
xxiv; Ep. 93.2; Cons., ad Liv. 285, 447.
173 Ibid. HID. p.krpov yap tov fiiov to xa\6v, ov t6 tov
Xpovov p.rjxos.
174 Xen., Op. iv. p. 291. paxapios ovv 5i] TpvWos xal octls ov t6
p.T\xiuTOV e\6p.evos tov fiiov, to 8e p.era aperrjs.
175 ad Apoll. 111C. to. yap x^Xta xal ra ixvpiaxara Xl/jlci3v18tjv
err} <jTiyp.i\ tls kaTiv aopiaTos, p.a\\ov 8e p.bpibv tl PpaxvraTov
aTiyp.fis.
Cf. Plato, Rep. vi. 498D; Cic, n.174; Sen., Marc xx.
44 The Consolations of Death
CHAPTER VII
DEAD DO NOT SUFFER FROM THE LOSS OF LIFE'S BLESSINGS
A great source of grief is the opinion that the dead are deprived
of the advantages and pleasures of this life and that they are
sensible of their loss.
Consolers endeavor to remove this apprehension by representing
that the dead are neither in need of the blessings of life nor of life
itself; therefore, they do not suffer from the deprivation of its good
things. 17 *
On this point Plutarch writes words of comfort to his wife sorrow-
ing at the thought that their little daughter feels the loss of life's
joys and blessings; "even the loss of important things does not
grieve us when we have no use for them. It was only little things
your Timoxena was deprived of . . . how can one be said to be
deprived of things of which one had no knowledge or percep-
tion?" 177
This fear causes sorrow not only to the mourner but also to the
soul anticipating its separation from the body, as was the case of
Axiochus, who was pained at the thought of being deprived of the
pleasures and enjoyments of this world. But Socrates removes this
apprehension of his dying friend, "throw aside then all silliness of
this kind knowing this, that after the union of the soul with the
body has once been dissolved by the former being settled in its
own home place, the body, that is left, is of the earth and devoid
of reason, nor is it a man. For we are soul, living immortal, shut
up in a mortal prison." 178
176 Cicero enlarges on this point, feeling that this apprehension
is the origin of lamentation and tears. T. D. i. v-vii, xiii, xxxvi,
xxxvii, xliii, xliv, xlvi; Lucr., de R. N. iii. 874ff.; Sen., Marc, xix;
Polyb. xxvii; chap. v.
177 ad Ux. 611D. toov /leyaXcov areprjaeis aTofiaWovcn to \virovv
els to txrj belaBai ireptyevo^evai. Hijxo^kva 5' 17 arj fXLxpcov p,ev kar-
ep7)Tai, puxpa yap eyvu xai fjuxpols exatpe. &p 8 1 ovt 1 ataBrjaLP
io~x.ev ovt 1 e\afiei> eirivoiav, 7rcos av CTepeaBac XkyoiTO\
178 Ax., 365E. iravra Toiyapovv tov Totovde (pXvapov airoaxed-
acrcu, tovto evvorjaas, otl ttjs avyxplcrews axa£ bia\vBel(T7]s, xai
ttJs yfsvxvs €is tov olxelov Idpvvdeio-rjs tottov, to vwoXetipdev o-cop,a,
7€co5es bv xai aKoyov, ovx tariv 6 avBponros, 17/xets p.ev yap kap,h
\f/vxy, £6)ov aBavarov, kv dvrjTO) xadetpypikvov <ppovpio*.
Cf. n. 245.
In Ancient Greek Literature 45
CHAPTER VIII
COMFORT DERIVED FROM GIVING EXPRESSION TO GRIEF
Amid the considerable varieties found in the motives for con-
eolation mention is sometimes made of the comfort derived from
giving expression to grief. 179
Crantor's book on consolation found many readers, for he
treated of grief, not as a reprehensible emotion, but as a passion
to be kept within bounds.
Although we find that during the Trojan war, when truce was
declared that each party might bury its dead, the great Priam
forbade his people to weep, so "in silence they heaped the corpses
on the pyre, stricken at heart," 180 yet this was not the usual attitude
of Homer. For elsewhere he does not censure the shedding of
tears but regards them as a source of consolation to the survivors
and the due of the departed. "Not indeed do I deem it unbecom-
ing to weep for any mortal who has died and met his fate. This
is now the only honor we pay to miserable men to cut the hair
and let the tear fall from the cheek." 181
The deprivation of the consolation of weeping over the body of
Odysseus was a cause of great grief to his family. "His mother
wept not over him, nor prepared him for burial, nor his father, we
who gave him birth, nor did his bride of rich gifts, the constant
Penelope, bewail her lord upon the bier, as was fitting, nor close
his eyes, for this is the due of the departed." 182 To be deprived of
179 Cf. Plut., de C. I. 455C; Odyss. xv. 399; II. xxiii. 97; Soph.,
El. 150; Eur., Supp. 79; Troad. 604; Androm. 93; Hel. 950; Ale.
1080 (Jerram's note); Luc, de B. C. ix. 55, 111; Sen., Polyb
xxiii amara quadam libidine dolendi.
180 II. vii. 427. oi>5' eta x\aieiv Hpiapos p:eyas' ol 8e aiu-ny
vexpovs irvpKairis eireprjveov ax^vjievoi xijp,
181 Odyss. iv. 195. vep.eaa03p.ai ye p.ev ovbev
x\aleiv 6s xe davyat fipor&v xal irbrpov eir'tair-p.
tovto vv xal yepas olov ol^vpolai fiporolai,
xeipaadai re xbpt\v $a\'eeiv t' airb baxpv irapei&v.
Cf. Ibid. xix. 264.
182 Ibid. xxiv. 292. ovb'e e p.rjTrjp
x\avae irepiaTeihaaa irarrjp 0', ol p.iv rexop.eada'
ovb 1 a\oxos iroXvdcopos, kxe<ppuv TlyveXoireia,
xiaxva' ev \exeeaaCv eov irbaiv, cos eirekxeL,
b<pda\p,ovs xade\ovaa' to yap yepas earl davbvrwv.
Cf. Ibid. 190; II. xi. 452; xxi. 123; xxii. 426.
46 The Consolations of Death
this sad satisfaction the mother of Hector considered the climax
of their woes — "Now sitting in the hall let us weep afar off, even
this did powerful fate with its thread spin for him at that time
when he was born." 183 And his father was willing to risk his life
for this mournful gratification. "Let Achilles straightway slay
me when I have taken my son in my arms and sent forth my
desire of lamentation." 184
Yet as the good nurse says in conforting Penelope, "It is an
evil to grieve always and never cease." 185 Hence we have the
Stoic objection to a display of grief which furnishes a motive
frequently employed by consolers : namely, the uselessness of grief
and the impossibility of bringing back the dead by our tears. And
Niobe is often referred to as a sad example of excessive mourning. 186
In the interesting scene between Achilles and Priam, the hero
is touched by the grief of the old man and endeavors to stay his
tears — "Although greatly afflicted, we shall let our sorrows lie
quietly in our hearts for no advantage comes of chill lament." 187
Again he comforts him, "keep courage and lament not unceasingly
in thy heart. For thou wilt avail nothing by grieving for thy
son, neither wilt thou bring him back to life." 188 Similar advice
was given to the Homeric Menelaus — "No more, son of Atreus,
weep for a long time thus obstinately; since we shall find no help
therein." 189
183 II. xxiv. 208. vvv 8e x\aLa)p.6P avevBev
rinevoi ev pLtyapco' tu> 5' o>s irodu Molpa xparair\
yiyvonevoo eirevrjcre \Lvu>, ore p.iv tIexov avrrj,
184 Ibid. xxiv. 226. avrixa yap /xe xarartivtitv 'AxiXXeus
&YK&S eXovr 1 ep.6v vlbv, kwijv ybov e£ epov
e'lrjv.
185 Odyss. xviii. 174. kirel xaxiov T€vdrjp.evaL axpirov aiel.
Cf. Ibid. xix. 120; Soph., Antig. 883; Verg., Aen. ii.74.
186 Soph., El. 150ff.; Antig. 823; Stob., iii.124; ad Apoll.
116C; Cic, T. D. iii. xxvi, xxviii.
187 II. xxiv. 522. a\7ea 5' ejuTrrys
kv dvfxq xaTdxelvdcu eaaoyev axvv^vol Tep'
ov yap tls irprj^Ls 7re\erat xpvepolo yooio.
Cf. Ibid. ix. 408; Sen., Polyb. xxi; Marc. vi.
188 Ibid. xxiv. 549. avax^o, /X7/5' aKiavTov 68vpeo gov xara 6vp,6v'
ov yap tl TrpriZeis axaxwzvos vlos erjos,
ovde pav avarrjaeLS,
Cf. Cons., ad Liv. 427.
189 Odyss. iv. 543. nrjxeri, 'Arpeos vie, iroXvv xpovov acrxeXes ovtos
x\aV, eirel ovx avvaiv riva 8rjop,ev'
In Ancient Greek Literature 47
This uselessness of grief is emphasized also in the tragic poets.
Thus we have the Chorus employing it to comfort Electra in
Sophocles' play of that name, " Yet still thou wilt never raise thy
father at least from the lake of Pluto which is common to all,
neither by shrieks nor prayers. ... In matters wherein there
is no release from evil, why, I pray thee, dost thou give thyself up
to unbearable grief." 190 And calming the grief of Admetus —
"thee the goddess has seized in the grasp of her hands, from
which there is no escape, but bear it for thou wilt never by weep-
ing bring back on earth the dead from beneath." 191 And in
answer to his groans they tell him, "thou hast gone through
grief I well know. . . . thou nothing aidest her that is below." 192
In like manner, in the Oedipus, Coloneus sympathizing with the
daughters of Oedipus — "but since he has happily at least, dear
virgins, finished the term of life, cease from this sorrow, for there
is no one who will not be seized by misfortune." 193 Theseus adds
his voice to theirs — "cease, virgins, from your weeping; for in
those cases where joy is stored up beneath the earth, we ought
not to mourn, for there would be just indignation." 194
The Hecuba of Euripides, taught by misfortune the uselessness
of striving against her troubles, thus advises Andromache —
"But do thou, dear child, dismiss the fortunes of Hector; thy tears
cannot restore him." 195 And the same author has Theoclymenus
190 El. 137. d\V ovtol t6v 7' Ig ' kiba
irayxoivov \ip.vas warep 1 av —
(Travels ovre yboiGiv ovt 1 avTais. . . .
ev oh avaXvals ecniv ovbe^la xax&v
t'l fiot rcoi> bva<popcov eipiei\ Cf. Eur., Hec. 960.
191 Eur., Ale. 984. xal <r' ei> cupvxTOMri x^P^v *lXe Sea beo-fjiols.
t6\(jlcl 5" ov yap ava^eis tot ' evepdev
xXaloov tovs (pdifievovs avu.
192 Ibid. 874. bC bbvvas e^as, aa<p' olba. . . .
rav vepde 6' ovbev u(pe\eis.
193 Soph., O. C. 1720. dXX' kirel 6\(3Lcos 7' eXvaev
to TeXos, co <pL\ai, /3tou,
XrjyeTe tov 5' axous. xax&v yap bv<ra\coTos
ovbels.
194 Ibid. 1751. waveTe dprjvwv, iralbes' ev ols yap
X<xpis rj x^ovia £ui>' airoxetTaL,
irevdelv ov XPV' vefxeens yap.
Theseus here performs his usual office of consoler. Cf. H. F.;
Supp.
195 Troad. 697. dXX', co (pl\r) iral, rets pkv "ExTopos Tvxas
eaaov' ov p,rj baxpva viv ccbcrfl to. aa
48 The Consolations of Death
give similar advice to Helen in her pretended grief for Menelaus,
"but do thou, wretched one, not for things that cannot be mended
. . . wasting away thyself. But Menelaus has his lot and thy
husband being dead cannot live.*' 196 Also Heracles to Admetus:
Her. "Do not I pray thee go beyond all bounds, but bear it in
conformity to fate/' Ad. "It is easier to exhort than suffering
to endure." Her. "But what advantage can you gain if you
wish to groan forever?" 197
Neither by bewailing shall I heal anything," says Archilochus,
"nor shall I make it worse by attending to pleasure and
banquets." 198
In the letter to Xanthippe after the death of Socrates, this
thought is dwelt upon: "Pray do not weep any more for it will
not help and it may do harm. Remember what Socrates said and
try to follow his practice and precepts, since by grieving you will
wrong both yourself and your children. . . . " 199
Not only is grief useless but the display of it is unbecoming the
dignity of a noble man.
Amphitryo, in Euripides (Hercules, Furens 1204), appeals to
the dignity of Hercules when endeavoring to moderate his grief.
"O child, let go thy garment from thine eyes; throw it away;
show thy face to the sun. Thy dignity contesting struggles
against tears. 200 The same author, in Iphigenia in Aulis 446,
196 Hel. 1285. av d\ co raXaiva, /jltj Vt rots avqvvroLS
rpvxovaa aavT-rjv. . . . Mei>eXecos 5' e\ei ttotjjlov,
xoux av bvvairo £rjv 6 xardavuv ivbais.
197 Eur., Ale. 1077. fj.ii vvv virepftaXX', dXX' ev aia l/jl us <pepe.
paov irapaivelv r) iradovTa xaprepelv.
ri 5' av irpoxoTTTOLs, el deXois del creveiv\
Cf. Apoll. Rh., Argon, i. 295, ii. 880.
198 Bergk, ii. Archil. 13. (53.) ovre tl yap xXaicov IrjaofiaL ovre
xclxlov Orjcra} rep7rco\ds xal da\ias kpeirccv.
199 Xen., Op. iv. p. 289. Ep. viii tcov 8e iro\\a>v vol daxpvuv,
uyadrj, cl\ls. ovrjaei yap ovdev, a~x e ^ov 8e tl xal fiXaipeL. dvap.L-
p,V7]axov yap &v eXeye Hooxpar-qs xal rots ijdeaLV avrov xal rots
Xoyois ireipcb axoXovdelv' ewel \vKovp.kvq Trap 1 exaara xal veavTrjv
adix-fiveus xal tovs iraldas.
200 o) rkxov' irapes air 1 6p.fjLaT03v
ireirXov airodixe, p'eBos deXta) 5eZi-ov.
jSdpos avTLTraXov, baxpvois avvapuXXaTa'i.
Cf. Soph., Trach. 1200; Ai. 319; Eur., H. F. 1227, 1248, 1412;
Cic, ad Fam. iy. 5; iv. 6; ad Brut. i. 9; Cons., ad Liv. 345; Sen.,
Polyb. xxiv, xxv; Hier., Ep. lx. 14.
In Ancient Greek Literature 49
has Agamemnon complain of this dignity which deprives him of
the liberty of yielding to his feelings. "But thus lowness of
birth has some advantage. For such persons are at liberty to
weep and say all kinds of things. But to him who is of noble
birth all these miserable things belong. We have our dignity
as ruler of our life and are slaves to the multitude. For I am
ashamed indeed to let fall the tear; yet again, I, wretched, am
ashamed not to weep having come into the greatest calamity." 201
Plato well elaborates this in his Republic 387D: "We say
that the good man will not consider death terrible to any other
good man who is his comrade. . . . And therefore he will not
sorrow for him as if he had suffered something terrible. . . .
And therefore he will lament least and will bear with greatest
moderation any misfortune of this sort which may happen. . . .
Then rightly shall we remove the lamentations of famous men,
and we shall assign them to women — not even excellent women —
and to cowardly men." 202
The author of the Consolatio ad Apollonium uses this as a
motive to calm the grief of his friend. "They say that he who
instituted laws for the Lycians commanded the citizens, when
they mourned to put on women's apparel, wishing to show that
201 17 bvayeveia 5' cos e\ei tl xPW^ov.
xal yap baxpvaaL pabicos aureus exeL,
airavra r' elirelu. rco be yevvalco <pvglv
avokfia raDra. irpouTa.T'qv be tov /Siou
tov byxov exopev rco r' oxXco bovkevopev.
kyCo yap ex^aXelv pev albovpaL baxpv,
to p.i} baxpv<rai 6' avBis albovpaL rdXas,
cs rds peyiaras cvpupopas cupiypevos.
Cf. Soph., Antig. 1246; note 208.
202 <papev be bi}, otl 6 eTrieixrjs avrjp rco eirLeLxei, ovirep xal eralpos
kcTTiv, to redvavai ov beivov r\yy\o~tTai . . . ovx apa virep 7' exelvov
cos beivov tl irewovdoTOS obvpoiT 1 av. . . . dXXd prjv xal Tobe Xey-
opev, cos 6 tolovtos pa\iGTa avTos avTcc avTapxrjs irpos to ev £rjv xal
biaxpepovTccs twv aWcov r\XLUTa eTepov irpoabeiTai. . . . rixiGTa
ap* ai/rcp beivov aTeprjdfjvaL vleos 77 abe\<pov rixPW aTOiV V dXXou tov
Tdv tolovtojv . . . 77*10-7-' apa xal obvpeadat. (pepeiv be cbs 7rpaorara,
oTav tls avTov TOLavTT] i;vp<popa xaTaXafiy . . . 6p0cos a'p av e£cup-
olpev tovs dprjvovs tccv ovopaaTcov avbpuiv, yvvai^l be airobibolpev,
xal ovbe TavTats aTovbalais, xal 6<tol xaxol tccv avbp&v, tva rjplv
bvo~xepaLvu<jiv opoia tovtols iroielv ovs brj ipapev kirl <pv\axfj Trjs
Xcbpas Tpkipeiv. Cf. Cic, T. D. iii. xxi, xxiii; Mein. iv. p. 353 1.480.
50 The Consolations of Death
sorrow was an effeminate thing, and therefore was not suitable
for self-possessed men or men claiming a liberal education." 203
A further reason sometimes urged to repress excessive grief is
the evil effects which result from it. Plato frequently mentions
the evils caused by indulging in sorrow 204 and the author of the
Consolatio ad Apollonium makes use of them as a motive for
consolation. 205 Plutarch also in his letter of consolation to his
wife speaks of the danger of allowing grief to take possession of the
heart; for when it is fully established, it is hard to dislodge. Where-
fore, it should be kept out by avoiding the outward marks of
sorrow. 206
In connection with the foregoing t&kol, stress is laid on the
necessity of applying the great precept, "Nothing in excess" to
grief as well as to every other circumstance of life.
Plato in his Republic censures the poets who introduce their
heroes lamenting excessively over their misfortunes. "You
know that, somehow, the best of us, hearing Homer or some other
of the poets imitating some of the heroes when in grief pouring
forth long speeches in their sorrow or bewailing and beating their
breasts, are delighted; and yielding ourselves, we follow and
sympathise with them, seriously praising him as a good poet who
most affects us in this manner. . . . But whenever domestic
grief happens to any one of us, you observe on the other hand
that we pride ourselves on the opposite behaviour, if we can be
quiet and endure; this latter is the part of a man, that which we
then praised is the part of a woman.*' 207
203 il<£F. T0V T&p Avxioov Po/JLoBeTTjv <paul 7rpo0-rd£cu rots avrov
7roXtrats, kirav irevOcoat,, yvvaixeiav apcpieaapevovs ecrdiJTa irevdelv,
kpjpaiveiv ^ov\r\dkvra ort yvvaix&bes to tclOos xal ovx appbrrov
avbpaai xu)p,ioLs xal 7ratoetas eXevOepiov pier air e Trotrj p evois. Cf.
Cic, ad Fam. iv. 5.
204 Laws 727D; Rep. 430A, 606; Menex. 247. Cf. 102C, 112E,
114E, 117F. Cf. Bacchy., xvii. frg. 8; Mein., p.351, 1.414, p.349,
1.316; Cic, T. D. iv. xvi, xvii.
205 ll7p\ TroXXot rdv kirl ir\kov TrevdrjvavTcov /ier' ov to\v rots
inr* avT&v xaToSvpBeZaLV eTrr)xo\ovdr)aav, ovbev ex tov irevdovs cxpeXos
irepLiroirjaapLevoi, p\b.Tr\v d'eavrovs xaraixicrapievoi rats xattouxtats.
206 ad Ux. 609F. ff. Cf. Luc, de Luctu 12.
207 Rep. 605C. axovu)V crxbirei. ol yap ttov /SeXrto-rot rjpLuv
axpoo)p.evoL '0/ii7pou r) aXXou rt^os rcoj/ Tpaycodioiroiibi' pLip.ovp.kvov
Tiva tojv rip&ajv ev irkvdei bvra xal p.axpav 'prjviv airorelvovra hv
rots bovppiols fj xal abovr as re xat xoirropevovs, olad' ort x aL P°^^ v
In Ancient Greek Literature 51
Elsewhere in the same book he remarks, "We said somewhere,
said I, that a good man, meeting with such a misfortune as losing
his son or anything else which he values highly will bear it more
easily than other men. . . . But now we shall consider this
whether he will not grieve at all, or that this is impossible but he
will moderate his grief. . . . Tell me this now about him,
whether do you think he will fight against grief and oppose it
more when he is observed by his equals or when he is in solitude
alone by himself? It will make much difference when he is seen.
When he is alone, I think he will dare and utter many things of
which he would be ashamed if any one heard him and he will do
many things which he would not wish any one to see him doing.
. . . Is it not reason and law commanding him to resist on the
one hand, and passion exciting the wound with regard to the grief
on the other?" 208
And in the Laws he tells us, "It is unseemly to order, or not,
persons to weep for the dead. But to forbid them to wail loudly
and to send the voice like a messenger out of the house." 209
Plutarch writes in the same strain. "Excessive grief, or fear,
or joy of the soul, not mere joy, grief or fear, is like to a body
re xal evSbvTes 17/ids clvtovs eirbfieda ^vfxwd<rx.ovTes xal airov8~
a£oi>T€s eiraivovjiev cbs ayadbv Trotrfn-rjv, 0$ av 17/ids 6 tl /idXtcra
ovtco biadri . . . orav 8e olxelbv tlvl rjjJLojv xij8os ykvrjTau, kvvoels
av on eirl tu> kvavTLU) xa\\(i3Trt£6fi€da, av bvvoifxeda rjavxlav ayeiv
xal xapTepelv, cbs tovto nev avdpos ov, exelvo 8e yvvatxbs, 5 Tore
kTyvovfjLev.
Cf. Laws 732B; Cic, T. D. ii. xi.
208 Ibid. 603E. avrjp, rjvd'eyu, eirieLxris TotacrSe rvxys /itra-
axu>v, vlbv airoXkaas r t tl a\\o coi> irepl irXeivTov iroteirat, eXkyofikv
irov xal Tore otl pacrra otaet, tcoj> &XXcoj>. iravv ye. vvv 8k ye togV
kinoxeypitiiLeda, irbrepov ov8ev axGeo'erai, 77 tovto /xev aSvvaTOV, [xeTpi-
aaei 8k 7rcos irpbs Xvtttjv. ovtco . . . To8e vvv /xol irepl avTov elire
iroTepov fj,a\\ov avTov olei t-q Xvtti naxel<r9ai re xal avTiTeiveiv,
oTav bpaTai virb tuv 6jucucoj>, 77 oTav ev epT)p.ia p,bvos avTos xad'
avTov yiyvt]Tai\ to\v ttov . . . fiovudels 8k ye, ol/iaL, xoXXd fiev
ToXfirjcreL (pdky^aadat, a el rts avTov axovoi alo^vvoLT 1 av, 7roXXd
8e TOLrjaet, a ovx av 5e£cur6 Tiva I8elv 8p&VTa . . . ovxovv to fiev
avTiTeiveiv 8iaxe\evbp.evov \byos xal vbp.os e<JTi, to 8e e\xov eirl
rds \vwas auro to irados. Cf. Luc, de Luctu i. 15; Epict., Ench. v;
Sen., de Tranq. An. xv. Cic, T. D. III. 26, says men show grief
because they think it is the right thing to do.
209 959E. 8axpveiv p.ev tov TeTeXevTtjxoTa, eTiTaTTetv fj fiy,
a\iopipov. dprjvelv 8e xal <i£co ttjs olxlas (puvrjv e^ayykWeLV,
airayopeveiv.
52 The Consolations of Death
swollen or inflamed. 210 And the pseudo-Plutarch warns his friend
against it. "To mourn excessively and to accumulate grief, I say,
is unnatural and results from a foolish opinion we have of it;
therefore, we ought to shun it as injurious and worthless and most
unbecoming a virtuous man, but to be moderately affected by grief
must not be condemned. . . . Therefore the saying is con-
sidered a worthy one that in such accidents wise men will neither
be without any passion nor grieve excessively. . . . For it is
the part of a wise and well educated man to be the same in regard
to any prosperous event, and in regard to misfortune to nobly
preserve what is fitting." 211
In this point the Stoics are not consistent with their principles;
for, notwithstanding their doctrine of a7rd0eia, they admit that a
man cannot be wholly free from mental affections, but he can
modify them and not let them get the mastery. 212
We find Plutarch in his simple and tender letter of condolence
to his wife making certain concessions to nature: "I fear if we put
aside our grief, we may put aside also the remembrance of her." 213
And again, "Only, my dear wife, let us both take care in this
present suffering. I myself know and see how great the misfortune
is; but if I should find you grieving excessively, this would trouble
me more than the event itself." 214 After praising the fortitude
and moderation which he heard she had shown in the trying cir-
cumstance, he continues, " for not only ought the chaste woman to
remain incorrupt in the Bacchanalian revels; but she ought to
210 de Vir. Mor. 452A. olbovvri yap eoixe xal (pXeypaivovTt,
ccopaTL to ireptaXyovv xal irepixapes xal irep'upofiov tt)s ^vxvs, ov
rd x ai P° v ovbe to \virovpevov ovbe to <pofiovpevov.
211 ad Apoll. 102D, E, 103A. to be irepa tov peTplov irape-
x<pepeadaL xal avvavi-eLV tcl irevdrj irapa <pv<tlv elval (prjpt, xal bird
tt)s ev 7ip.lv <pav\r)s ylyveuOai bo^rjs. bid xal tovto pev eaTeov coj
(5\afiepov xal (pav\ov xal o"irovbaiois avbpaaiv r)xio~Ta irp'eirov, tt)v
be peTpioicadeiav ovx airoboxipavTeov. . . . ovt 1 ovv airaBels kicl
tcop tocovtojv vvpupop&v 6\6yos a^iol ylyveudai tovs ev (ppovovvTas
ovt6 bvcriradels. . . . ireiraibevp'evoiv 5' ecrrt xal aouppbvoiv avbp&v
irpos re tols boxovaas evTvx'ias tov avTov elvai, xal irpos tcls aTvxias
ipvKa^ai yevvalcos to irpeirov.
212 Zeller, c. ix; Sen., Marc, vii; Polyb. xxxvii.
213 ad Ux. 608D. dXXd xal bebia iraXtv, pr) ovvex$a\upev Tq>
\vkovvti tt)v pvf)prjv.
214 Ibid. 608C. p,6vov, & yvvai, Tf)pet xapeTu> iradeL xal aeavTrjv
eirl tov xadeaTcoTos' eyo) yap avTos pev olba xal bpL£oo to o~vp(3e-
/877x6s r)\ixov ecTTLv' av be ae to? bva<popeiv virepfiaWovaav evpco,
tovto p,OL paWov evox\r)<reL tov yeyovoTOS.
In Ancient Greek Literature 53
consider her self-control not less necessary in the surges of sorrow
and emotion of grief, contending, not against natural affection,
as most people think, but against the excesses of the soul." 215
Nor does the author of the Consolatio ad Apollonium advise his
friend to lay aside all grief, for "to be distressed and grieve for
the death of a son is the natural beginning of sorrow and it is not
in our power to prevent it. For I do not approve of those who
boast of a stern and harsh apathy which is not possible, and is of
no use, for it would destroy the benevolence of loving and being
loved which is above all necessary to be preserved." 216
To the necessity of applying the maxim prjbtv dyav to grief, the
same author adds the advisibility of reflecting on the other sentence
inscribed on the Delphic oracle — yvcodi aavrbv — for having the
precept of the oracle impressed upon the mind is a great help to
easily conform to all the affairs of life and to bear them well. 217
A further t biros of consolation relating to lamentation and
mourning and one which appeals to the natural affections of the
mourner is that the deceased would not wish to see those whom he
loves grieve. "As your son when he was living with you did not
wish to see you or his mother sad, so now when he is with the gods
and feasting with them he would not be pleased with your manner
of acting." 218
215 Ibid. 609A. ov ydp ' kv fiaxxcvpao-t, 'bel pbvov rrjv ccixppova
fikvetv dbiatpBopov, dXXd prjbkv oteadai t)ttov tov kv irkvOeo-t.
uaKov xai to xlvripa tov iradovs kyxpareias beloSai biap.axop.kvqs
ov irpbs to (piKbcTopyov, cos ol xoXXot vopl^ov<nv, dXXd irpbs Tb
axbXavTOV ttjs xf/vxr/s.
216 102C. Tb pkv ovv a\yelv xai baxveadat Te\evTr)aavTOs vlov
<pvaixiiv exei tt\v dpxrjv ttjs \vtttis, xai ovx k<p' r)plv. ov yap lyuyt
crvpxpkpopai toIs vpvovai tt)v aypiov xai ax\ripav airaBtiav, e£co
xai tov bvvaTOv xai tov avpxpkpovTOs ovaav' cup at pf) a er at yap
rfp&v avTfj tt)v kx tov (piKelvBai xai tpCKelv tvvoiavfiv navTbs p,a\\ov
bLa<T<pteiv avayxalov.
Cf. Hor., Od. i. xxiv, ii.x.
217 ad Apoll. 116D.; Cic, T. D. i. xxii; Mein., p. 356 1.584.
218 ad Apoll. 121F. cos yap ovbk avpfii&v r)plv r)bkws ecopa xar^ets
6vTaS OVT€ ck OVT6 TT\V pTJTkpa, OUTCOS Ol)bk VVV p.tT 0. 06(tiV &V XOl
tovtois o-vvevTLajpepos evapeaTrjffeiep dv t% TOiavTrj vp.6jv biaycayrj.
Cf. Luc, de Luctu 16ff.; Cons., ad Liv. 467; Sen., Marc, iii;
Polyb. xxiii ff.; Cic, T. D. iii.xxix; n. 341.
For the opposite view that mourning gives comfort to the dead
see Headlam, p. 233, n. 2; also epitaph of Solon, Bergk, Poet.
Lyr. Solon 21. (21.).
54 The Consolations of Death
CHAPTER IX
CONSOLATION THROUGH RECOLLECTION OF PAST JOYS
For the mourner to turn his attention to the thought of the
pleasure which had been experienced in the company of the loved
one is considered by some an efficacious means of mitigating
sorrow. This gives rise to another totos of consolation; namely,
the memory of the past pleasures should help dissipate grief.
Plutarch uses this in his letter of consolation to his wife. Speak-
ing to her of the affectionate and winning ways of their little
daughter, he adds, "I see no reason, my dear wife, why these and
such things that gave us delight in her life time, should now, when
recalled to memory, grieve and trouble us. . . . But as she
gave us the greatest pleasure in embracing her and even in seeing
and hearing her, so ought her memory living and dwelling with
us give us more, many times more joy than grief." 219 "We ought
not to erase from our memory the two years she was with us but
consider them a pleasure since they furnished enjoyment and
delight; and not deem a blessing of short duration as a great evil,
nor be unthankful for what was given us because fortune did not
give us it as long a time as we wished." 220
And continuing he adds a further means of consolation — the
recollection of the blessings we still enjoy. "He who in such cases
mostly tries to remember his blessings and turns and diverts his
mind from the dark and disturbing things in life to the bright
ones, either altogether suppresses his grief or makes it small and
dim from a comparison with his comforts." 221
219 ad Ux. 608D, E. dXX' ovx bpco, 7u*/cu, 8lcl t'l tclvtcl xai tcl
roiavra ^ccarjs pev erepirev r)pas vvvl 8' aviaaeL xai avvrapa^ei,
XapfiavovTas eirLvoiav avTOiv. . . . 8ei yap, toairep avrrj ttolvtcov
r)biGTOV rjp.lv aenracrpa xai d'eapa xai axovapa irapelxev eavrrjv
ovtco xai rr)v eirivoiav avTr)s kvbiaLTaaBai xai avpfiiovv r)plv irXeov
exovaav, paWov 8e iroWairXaaLOV, to evcppalvov r) to \virovv' . . .
Cf. Apoll. Ty., xciii; Sen., Marc, iii; Polyb. xxix; Hor., Od. i. 24.
220 Ibid. 61 OE. tt)v 8' ev peace 5ieriaz> k^aupelv pev ov 8el ttjs
pvf)pr}s, cos 8e X&P IV xai airoXavaLV irapacrxovaav ev f)8ovfi TideaOaC
xai pr) to paxpov ayadov peya vopi£eiv xaxbv' pr}8' otl to eXxt^*-
bpevov ov irpoo-edrjxev r) tvxv, * a * Trept tov Sodevros axapiGTelv.
Cf. Hier., Ep. lx. 7.
221 Ibid. 610E. ev 8e toIs tolovtols 6 paXutTTa ttjs pvrjprjs tccv
ayaBibv airapvTopevos xai tov (3Lov irpos Ta (ptcTeiva xai \ap,irpa
In AnQient Greek Literature 55
In his essays Plutarch mentions this motive several times.
"It is good when things happen against our wish not to overlook
how many pleasant and agreeable things happen to us, but by
mingling the evils with the good diminish them." 222 "Why, my
dear Sir, do you regard so intently your troubles, keeping them
always vivid and fresh while you do not turn your attention to
your present good?" 223 "It is madness to be distressed over what
is lost and not to rejoice at what is left." 224 "Men turning from
the pleasant and agreeable things occupy themselves with the
remembrance of unpleasant things." 225 "For those of us who are
sensible make our life pleasanter and more endurable by mitigating
our sorrows with the consideration of our blessings, while with
many people as with sieves the worse things remain and adhere
to them while the best pass through." 226
The effect of time on all things human has suggested to consolers
another tokos for calming grief. "All-subduing" time 227 will
have its influence on sorrow and will soften pain and dull the sharp
edges of grief.
The Homeric Menelaus realized its influence on his mourning
for his lost companions. "Yet awhile I satisfy my soul with
lamentation and then again I cease; for soon there is enough of
chill lamentation." 228
peraarpepuv xal percupepwv ex rccv axoreiv&v xal rapaxrix&v rr)v
biavoiav, rj iraraTraaLV eafieae to Xvttovv fj rrj wpbs rovvavriov
pl^et pixpbv xal dpavpbv eTrolrjaev. Cf. Epict., frg. 8, p. 482; Sen.,
Marc, xii; Polyb. xxxff.; Helv. xvii; Ep. 99.3; Cons., ad Liv. 377.
222 de Tranq. An. 469A. ayadbv to'lvvv ev tols a/3ov\r}TOis avp,-
TtT&p.ao'L irpos evdvplav xal to pr) irapopav oca irpoo~<pi\rj xal aarela
irapeaTiv rjp.lv, a\\a piyvvvras e^apavpovv rdx*lpova rols ($e\rioai.
223 Ibid. 469B. t'l to aeavrov xaxbv, a> p.axapt,e, \Lav xarafiXeweLs
xal iroiels evapyes del xal irpb<r<parov dyadols be irapovaiv ov irpo-
uayeis rr)v biavoiav, . . . Cf. Cons., ad Liv. 411.
224 Ibid. 469D. pavixbv yap ecri tols awoWvpevois aviaadat pr)
Xaipecv be rols aco^opevots, . . .
225 Ibid. 473E. avdpuwoL rdv IXapcbv xal wpoarjvcbv diroppeovres
kpTr\kxoiVTat rals rdv arjbcov dvapvf)ae(n'
226 de Ex. 600D. aXX' r)pcbv avrccv ol pev vovv e\ovres ex r&v
ayaddv rols xaxols 'eirapvrbpevoi rbv fiiov tolovclv r)bioj xal ttotl-
p&repov, rols be iroWols Courcep rjdpols eppevei xal irpoaiuxerat
rd <pav\brara, rcov fieXribvuv virexpebvrcov.
227 Bacchy., xii. 205; n. 313; Sen., Marc. viii. Dolorem dies
consumit.
228 0dyss. iv. 102. aWore pev re you ippeva repiropai, aWore 5'
avre iravopai' atyripds bexbposxpvepolo yboio.
56 The Consolations of Death
"Time is a lenient god," 229 the chorus assures Electra (Sophocles,
Electra 179). There are similar passages in Euripides' Alcestis.
"Time will soften thy grief: he that is dead is nothing." 230 "Time
will soften the evil but now it is still strong." 231
In the Anthology under the name of Plato we have, "Time
bears away all things. A long time knows how to change names,
and forms, and nature, and even fortune." 232 Philetas says,
''but since time comes which is appointed by Jove to soften
sorrow, and it alone has a remedy for griefs." 233 "All things
yield to time," says Simonides of Ceos, "with its sharp teeth it
grates down everything, even the strongest." 234 The ps. -Plutarch
advises his friend to consider the effect that time has had on the
grief of others and apply it to his own, for time will assuage it
too. 235
229 xpbvos yap evyapris deos.
280 381. xpopos fJLaXd^ei a'' ovbkv ead' 6 xarBavcov.
Cf. Soph., O. C. 437.
281 1085. xpovos /zaX&£€i, vvv 8'e<r9' rjfiacrxei xaxbv.
Cf. Cic, ad Fam. iv.5; T. D. iii. xxii.
232 Bergk, ii. Plato 19.
Kiuv iravra <pepei. 8o\ixbs xpovos 6l8ev djuei/3eu>
ovvop.a xal p,op<priv xal (pvaiv i)8& rbxr\v.
Cf. Aeschy., Eum. 280; Prom. 981; Bacchy., xvii. 45; Campbell,
Frag. 598.
233 Anth. Lyr., Phil. i. (1.)
'AW or eirl xpt> vo * €X0#, 6s ex Aids a\7€a irkacreiv
2XXax€, xal irevdeuv <papp.axa p.ovvos exet.
Cf. Verg., Buc. Eel. ix. 50; Hor., Ep. ii. ii.
234 Anth. Lyr. Sim. 176. (66.)
5 tol xpovos 6i;vs bbbvTas
iravra xara^iix^ *<u tA /3tatorara.
2M adApoll. 115A.
In Ancient Greek Literature 57
CHAPTER X
IMMORTALITY OF THE SOUL
However far back we go we find that an instinctive belief in a
future life runs in an undercurrent through the whole course of
Greek literature. But this belief assumes only a vague and
shadowy form. 236 Pindar (Olympian II), speaks of the fine
rewards in Elysium which await the purified. 237 Sophocles
(fragment 753) gives us a glimpse of a similar vision. "Thrice
blessed those of mortals who having beheld these mysteries come
to Hades; for to them alone it is allowed to live there; but to the
others there are all evils/' 138 The same reward is held out by
Euripides (fragment 852), but it is not limited to the initiated.
"Whoever in life honors his parents, he is both when living and
dead a friend to the gods." 239 Sophocles represents Antigone (897)
as cherishing a hope of meeting her parents and brother, and also
Electra (832) anticipating the consolation of the hope of the future
life suggested by the Chorus. Euripides has Admetus (Alcestis
363), tell his wife to expect him in the other world and prepare a
mansion for him. 240 Yet in all this, the doctrine of immortality
is not spoken of in a sufficiently definite manner to offer much as
a real consolation for death. 241 It is only in Plato 242 and his
338 Coulanges, "La Cite Antique," i, c. ii; Perrot, "La Religion
de la Mort;" Zeller, c. ix; Rhode, "Psyche" passim; Campbell,
"Religion in Greek Literature" pp. 176ff.
237 01ymp. ii. 61; Cf. frgg. 129, 130, 131, 133, 134, 137.
338 Nauck, 753. cos rp Is 6\Piol
xelvoL fipoTtcv, o'i ravra depxOkvres Te\rj
/xoXcocr' cs "Ai5ou' Tol<r8e yap fiovois kxel
$r\v £<jti, toIs 5' aXXotcrt iravr exel xaxa.
For the "Mysteries 5 see Campbell, "Religion in Greek Literature."
339 Nauck, 852.
5crrts 8e tovs tcxovtcls ev j8to> <r€/3ei,
55' earl xal £u)v xal dav&v deois (piKos.
Cf. frg. 1018. 6 vovs yap f}p.(bv kcrriv ev IxacrTco 6e6s.
Kock, iii. p. 214; p. 6, 11; Aeschy., Choe. 323; Bergk, ii; ps.-
Phocy., 115; n. 301.
340 Cf. Fur., Hel. 1678, 1014; Hec. 422; I. A. 1608, 1621; Ale.
744; Troad. 459; Aeschy., Agam. 1555; Choe. 323; notes 41, 134,
247.
241 Resignation, rather than hope, was the characteristic virtue
of the Greek. Where hope is used as a means of encouragement
it is generally because to 5' airopelv avdpos xaxov. Eur., H. F.
105. Cf. Butcher, "Some Aspects of the Greek Genius," chapter
on Melancholy of the Greeks, pp. 133ff.
242 Phaedo passim; Apol. passim; Phaedr. 245; Rep. vi. 498,
58 The Consolations of Death
followers we find it dwelt upon to any extent as a motive for this
purpose.
The object of the discussion in the Phaedo was, as Socrates
observes, to console himself and his friends by showing to them
the advantages a philosopher gains by death. 243 And for this
purpose he spends the last hours of his life trying to convince his
disciples of the immortality of the soul. When the time for his
death approached, Crito asked him what wishes he had regarding
his children or other matters and how they should bury him.
"Just as you please," answered Socrates, "if only you can catch
me and I do not escape from you." And at the same time smiling
gently and looking round on us, he said, "I cannot persuade
Crito, my friends, that I am that Socrates who is now conversing
with you and who puts in shape each part of the discourse; but
he thinks I am he whom he will shortly behold dead and asks
how he ought to bury me. But that long argument which I have
just made, that when I have drunk the poison I shall no longer
remain with you, but going off I shall depart to some happy state
of the blessed, this I seem to have said to him in vain, though I
intended at the same time to console both you and myself." 244
The happiness reserved for the good in the future life is more
particularly dwelt upon in the pseudo-Platonic Axiochus and
it is effective in calming and consoling the dying philosopher.
"You are not, Axiochus," Socrates assures his dying friend,
"changing your existence for death but for immortality; nor will
you have a deprivation of good things but a still purer enjoyment
of them; nor pleasure mixed up with a mortal body, but unmixed
x. 608; Meno 81, 86; Gorg. 523A; Laws xii. 959B, 967E et alia
Cic. T. D. i. passim; Somn. Scip.
243 Cf . Archer-Hind, Phaedo, Introd.
244 Phaedo, 11 5C. "Ottcos dv, eiprj, fiovXrjade, eavirep ye \af3rjre
fxe, xal ijlt) exabyte vpds. TeXdaas be dpa ri(JVXV> xa ' L irpbs ripas
airofiXeipas, elirev, ov ireldco, ecprj, to dvbpes, Kplrccva, cos eyco eipi
ovtos 6 ZccxpaTrjs 6 vpvl biaXeybpevos, xal biaraTTtcv exaarov tccv
Xeyopevtov dXX' oterat pie exelvov elvai ov 6\J/eTcu oXlyov varepov
vexpov, xal epoora 5t) 7rcos p.e Oairrf). otl bt eyd 7raXat ttoKvv
\6yov TreTToirjpaL, cos eireibdv tt'loj to cpappaxov, ovx'eri vp.lv 7ra.pap.evcb,
dXX' olxr)<ropai dirtcov els paxapcov hi) rivas evbaipovias, ravra
poi boxcc avTco aXXtos X€7eu>, wapapvOovpievos apa pev vpas, dpa
b' epavTov.
In Ancient Greek Literature 59
with every pain. For leaving this prison you will go there where
all is without trouble, and moanings, and old age; and life is
calm and with no taste of ill. 245 . . . Then relating to him the
^tory heard from Gobryas of the joys of the blessed and the punish-
ment of the wicked in the next world he concludes — "These
things I heard from Gobryas; and you, Axiochus, can decide upon
it. For carried along myself by reason I know firmly this alone,
that the soul is wholly immortal and that when it is removed
from this spot it is without pain. So above or below you must
be happy, Axiochus, if you have lived piously." 246
This consolation is made use of in the Consolatio ad Apollonium,
but there is lacking that fullness and that note of certainty which
add to the effectiveness of the preceding quotations. "Now if
the saying of the ancient poets and philosophers is true, as is
likely, that to the righteous there is a certain honor after their
departure from this life, as it were the privilege of the first place,
and a certain spot appointed in which their souls dwell, you ought
to have fair hopes concerning your departed son that it is appointed
for him to be numbered among these." 247
The hope of glory and happiness in the future life furnishes
one of the t&kol of consolation treated under the funeral orations
in the following chapter. 248
245 370C. axrre ovx els davarov dXX' els adavacrlav peTafSdWeLs*
d> 'A£toxe' ov8e cupaipecnv e^eis tccv dyadihv, dXX' elkixpiveo repay
tt)v airoXavcTiv' ov8e fj.ep.iyp.evas OvrjTco cco/xart tols ridovas, dXX'
axpaTOVs airaacbv d\yrj86vcov. xelae yap dipl^rj, povoodels ex
r-qsbe rr\s elpT-qs, evda aizova iravra xal aurevaxra xa\ ayqpara,
ya\rjvos be tls xal xaxdv ayovos filos.
Cf. Cic, Som. Scip. 3ff.; Sen., Marc, xxiv, xxv; n. 178.
246 372 A. ravra p,ev eyo3 f/xovaa irapa Tufipvov' av 6' av hiri-
xpiveias, 'A£tox€. eydb yap \6yoo avde\xbp.evos, tovto pbvov epireScos
ol8a, otl tyvxr\ airaaa dddvaros' rj 8e ex rovbe tov x^plov pera-
aradelaa, xal dXviros. hare rj xoltco r) olvoj ev8aipovelv ae 8el,
'A£toxe, fiefiLooxoTa evaeficos.
247 120B. el 8' 6 tccv ira\aLccv -KOirjTOiv re xat <pi\oab<po}v \6yos
eorlv dXrjdrjs totnrep elxbs ex^LV, ovtlc xal rots evaefiecn tccv p.era-
Wa^avrccv eo~Ti tls npr) xal irpoe8pla xadairep \eyerat, xal x&P°s
tls diroTeraypevos ev at 8iaTpif3ovo-LV al tovtccv if/vxal, xaXds
e\irl8as ex*w ae 8el irepl tov paxapiTOv vl'eos crov, otl tovtols
avyxaTapL0prjdels avveaTaL.
248 Cf . notes 329-333, 338.
60 The Consolations of Death
CHAPTER XI
GLORY IN DEATH
If the belief in the immortality of the soul was so vague and
indefinite among the Greeks that it could furnish little as a means
of consolation for death, it was far otherwise in the case of a
glorious death. The hope of an immortal renown was a strong
incentive for them to meet death calmly and gladly. To die
when prosperous or when performing some noble deed was con-
sidered a fitting end for a noble life. Aeschylus says, "We should
call him happy who has ended his life in beloved prosperity." 249
This also was Solon's idea as we learn from his answer to Croesus. 250
Diogenes Laertes relates that the same was the opinion of Antis-
thenes 251 and we find it verified in the example of Cyrus the Great
who found his greatest consolation at the hour of death in the
consideration of his own good fortune and the prosperous condi-
tion of his family and country. 252
But even happier was he considered who met his death in the
performance of some noble action. The story of Cleobus and
Biton 253 is used to show that the gods bestow death as a reward
for a glorious deed, and the devotion and self-sacrifice of Alcestis
has received the highest praise. Cassandra (Aeschylus, Agamem-
non 1303) exclaims "there is comfort in a noble death. " 254 And in
Sophocles' Antigone the chorus consoles Antigone with the hope
of posthumous fame because her death will be so glorious. 255 She
249 Agam. 919. 6\/3i<rcK bk XPV
0Lov TeXevTrjvavT' kv evearol (piky.
Cf. Campbell, frg. 583; Soph., O. T. 1529; Eur., Androm. 100.
250 Herod, i. 30 32.
251 vi. Antisth. 5. Cf. Mullach., ii. p. 292, frg. 117.
kpwTTjdeis rl /jLCLKapi&Tepov kv avdpdimois, e<j>rj 7 evruxovvra
CLToBavelv.
252 Xen., Cyrop. viii. vii. 7, 27.
253 Herod., i. 31 Cf. ps.-Plat., Ax. 367C; Plut., ad. Apoll. 108F;
Polyb., xxii. 20; Cic, T. D. i. xlvii.
254 Cf. Horn., II. xxii. 304; Eur., Hec. 518ft\; Phoen. 991; Troad.
394.
aXX' €u*\ea>s rot xardavelv x&>P l s /Sporcjj.
255 Antig. 817, 834ff. Cf. Bacchy., viii. 76-87; Ibid. xii. 63.
In Ancient Greek Literature 61
had previously expressed her own sentiments when she said (1.97)
"I shall not suffer anything so terrible as an ignoble death." 256
Of all glorious deaths none could be compared to the death for
country, for among the Greeks patriotism occupied a very promi-
nent place as a moral duty of the highest order. 257 Its influence
was felt through every fibre of the moral and intellectual life. A
necessary consequence of this attitude was the willingness with
which men sacrificed their lives for their country. 258 The hopes
of a lasting memorial and a glorious reputation among men com-
pensated for the loss of life. This thought naturally led to the
development of topics of consolation which found their most
elaborate form in the funeral orations which were used as a means
to honor the brave dead and to encourage and console those whom
they had left. 259 Examples of these are extant from Gorgias,
Thucydides, Xenophon, Isocrates, Hyperides and one each under
the names of Lysias, Plato and Demosthenes. The subject of
these orations was generally the same — a eulogy on the dead,
their country and their ancestors, motives of comfort to their
relations from the renown they had acquired, the honor paid them
by the state, their reception in the lower world and the care the
state would take of their parents and families. This was followed
by an exhortation to the living to submit to their destiny as
heroically as the fallen warriors had done.
Throughout Greek literature we find many motives given to
encourage the patriot in his self-sacrifice and to furnish comfort
and consolation for his family and relatives. Among them we
may distinguish the following:
The children belong less to their parents than to the city. The
power exercised by this motive in inspiring patriotism is exempli-
fied in the case of Iphigenia (Eur., I. A. 1386), offering herself as a
victim for her country in spite of the natural repugnance she, like
all Greek women, felt at the horror of dying unwed. She consoles
her mother by reminding her, "you have brought me forth for the
common good of Greece, not for yourself alone . . . (1397).
258 TeLaofxcLL yap ov
togovtov ovdev there p.rj ov xaXcos Bavelv.
257 Coulanges, Bk. iii. Stob., ii. 39.
258 Hor., Od. iii; ii. 13. Dulce et decorum est pro patria mori
Cic, de Off. I. xyii. 57.
259 Polybius, vi, liii, liv. describes the effect of such panegyrics
on the Romans.
62 The Consolations of Death
I give my body for Greece; sacrifice it and destroy Troy. For
this for a long time will be my memorial, and this my children, my
wedding and my glory." 260 Again she repeats it (1.1502):
"You have nurtured me as a safety for Greece, I shall not refuse
to die." 261
This same sentiment sounds the inspiring note of Tyrtaeus'
battle song: "Come O youth! of noble Sparta, of warrior fathers!
On the left throw forward your shield, and on the right brandish
bravely your spear. Do not spare your lives, for it is not the
hereditary custom for Sparta." 262 The pseudo-Platonic Epistle
(ix) furnishes an expression of this ideal. " Each one of us is not
born for himself alone, our country claims one part of our birth,
our parents another." . . . 263 Demosthenes shows that this was
the attitude of the Athenians. "Each of them considered that
he was not born for his father and mother only but also for his
country.
What is the difference? He that thinks himself born for his
parents only, waits for his appointed and natural end; he that
thinks himself born for his country also, will sooner perish than
behold her in slavery and will regard the insults and indignities
which must be borne in an enslaved state as more terrible than
death." 264
260 tcl(tl yap //"EXX^^i xoivbv erexes, ovxl vol fibvfl.
5t5co/u aco/ia tovjjlov 'EXXdfo.
Over, exTOpdelre Tpoiav. tclvtcl yap p.vr\p.ela p,ov
bia iiaxpov, xal iralbes ovtol xal yafioi xal 86%' ep.r).
261 edpefaB' 'EXXdSi p.e <paos'
Bavovaa b' ovx ava'ivop.ai.
262 Bergk, ii. Tyrtaeus, 15. (11.)
"AyeT ,& XirapTas evavbpov
xovpoi irarepcov irokiaTav, \aiq. p.ev Itvv 7rpo/3dXe<70e,
bbpv 5' euroXjucos (jSdXXere) p.i] (peibbp.evoi tcls fwas'
ov yap irarptov rq. 27rdpra.
263 Ep. ix. 358A. exaaros rip,cbv ovx aurcjj pbvov y'eyovev, dXXd
Tijs yeveaeo)S i)p.o}v to p.ev tl rj irarpls pepi^eTai, to be tl, ol yev-
vrjcravTes' to de, ol XolitoI <pi\oi.
Cf. Plato, Crito 50E, 51A; Bergk, iii, Sim. 92 (151); Mein., iv.
p. 346 1.216; Cic, T. D. i. xlviii, iii, xxiv; ad Catil. i. vii; de
Off. i. vii. 22.
264 de Cor. 205. rjyelTo yap avT&v exaaTos, ovxl tco iraTpl xal
txi p.7]Tpl p.bvov yeyevijo-dai, dXXd xal tyi iraTpibi. biapepet be
ti\ otl b p.ev rots yovevai [ibvov yeyevijadai vop.L£a)v tov ttjs elfiap-
In Ancient Greek Literature 63
Naturally consequent on this thought is the motive, that the
sacrifice of life is the payment of the debt due to one's country. Speak-
ing of the brave dead Lysias brings out this — "they have died as
heroes ought to die paying the country the price of their educa-
tion." 265
For the Greeks the consolation that they derived from the
accomplishment of their duty was greatly heightened by the hope
that their death would increase the glory of the state. This is
expressed in simple but lofty and inspiring words in the Epitaph
on the Lacedaemonian dead. "These men having set a crown of
imperishable glory on their beloved land are folded in the dark
cloud of death." 266 No less noble is the one on the Athenian
dead — " ... for hastening to set a crown of freedom on
Greece. . . , 267 "
Further consolation was derived from the thought that death
for country ivas the most glorious and noble of deaths. Hector
(Iliad, xv. 494), uses it to urge on his followers: "But assembled
together, fight by the ships and whoever of you is smitten by dart
and meets his fate and death, let him die. For we do not die
dishonorably fighting for our country." 268 The epitaph on the
Athenian dead quoted above breathes the same sentiment: "If
pevqs xal top avroparov Qb.vo.rov Treptpevei, 6 8e xal ry 7rarpioi,
virep rod prj Tavrrjv kiuSeZv SovXevovvav, airodvyaxeiv edeXrjaei.,
Kal dcxfrepurepas riyqaeTCu rds vfipecs Kai rds ariplas, as ev 8ov-
Xevovaji rff iroXei. (p'epeiv avayxt).
265 Epitaph. (2.) 70. ereXevTTjaav 8e rbv (iiov, &airep XPV rovs
ayadovs aTroBvyaxeLVj ttj pev yap irarpibi to. rpo<peZa airodovres,
rols 8e 6pe\pa(iL Xviras xaraXiirovTes.
Cf. Soph. O. T. 323; Polyb. iii.cix. 12.
266 Bergk iii. Sim. 99. (154.)
"Aafiearov xXeos ot8e <piXrj irepl xarpiot Sevres
xvdveov Qo.va.TOv apxpefiaXovro vepos'
ov8e redvaai davovres, ewel a<p apery xaOvirepdev
xvbalvova dvayei buparos e£ 'A£6ea>.
267 Ibid. 100. (153.)
Et to xaXcos dvrjaxeLV aperrjs pepos earl pkytarov,
riplv ex iravTuv rovr aireveipe rvxv'
'EXXd5i yap airevSovres eXevdeplrjv rrepideZvai
xeiped' ayrjpavTu xP^P-^ol evXoyiri.
268 dXXd paxead' kiri vtjvalv aoXXees' 6s 8e xev vpeccv
fiXrjpevos rje rvirels ddvarov xal irorpov eirlo"jrxi,
redvaro)' ov ol deixes apvvopevoi wept irarprjs
redvapev'
64 The Consolations of Death
to die nobly is the chief part of excellence to us of all men fortune
gave this lot. . . . " 269 Alcaeus expresses it in few words — "It
is noble for a warrior to die." 270
After having experienced all the horrors of war, Cassandra
(Euripides, Troades 400), advises one to avoid it if possible, but
she adds, "if it come to this, it is no base crown to die nobly for
the city." 271 The same author (Hecuba 346) shows Polyxena
freely offering to meet her doom — "I will follow thee both on
account of the decree of fate and even desiring to die; but if I
were not willing I should appear base and too fond of life. . . .
Lead on, Odysseus." 272 And again he has the chorus (Heraclidae
618) using the glory resulting from the self-sacrifice of Macaria
as a source of consolation: "Do not, falling down, bear thus the
things sent by the gods and do not grieve excessively; for she,
wretched one, has a noble share of death in behalf of her brother
and her country. Nor will an inglorious reputation among men
await her; virtue ascends through toils." 273
This tottos is employed in the funeral orations of Thucydides
and Lysias; and, as was the case in the example last quoted, it is
used as a means of comforting the mourners. Pericles (Thucydides
ii. 44) thus addresses them: "As many of their parents are as
present I address with words of encouragement rather than of
condolence. . . . For they know that the life of man is troubled
by the various changes of fortune; but fortunate are they who
draw for their lot a death as glorious as that which these now
269 Cf. note 267.
270 Bergk, iii. Alcaeus 30. "Apein xarQav-qv xa\ov. Cf. Hor.,
Od. iii. ii.
271 el 8"es t68' e\6oL, <jre<pavos ovx alaxpos tt6\€l
KaXcos oKeadai,
979 ««/# / —»> I I
*™ cos ey/ojjLai ye tov t avayxaiov x a P LV
Bavelv re XPVtova ' el 8e pr) fiovXfjcropai,
xaxr) ipavovpai xal (pi\6\pvxos yvvr).
ayov p,',
273 aAAa ai) /jlt) irpoiriTVUiv tcl decov <pepe, p.rj8' virepaKyei
(ppovrlba \vira'
ev86xtp,ov yap e\ei davarov p,epos a p.e\ea irpb r abe\ip&v
xal yas'
ou5' axXerjs viv 56£a wpos avdp&iroov virode^eTai'
a 8'apera fiaivei, 8lol poxQuv.
In Ancient Greek Literature 65
have ... to whom life has been so measured out as to be
happy in it and to terminate it in like manner." 274 And in the same
strain Lysias (Oration 2, 78), offers words of consolation: "Now
old age and sickness overcome nature; and fate, the arbiter of our
destinies, is inexorable, so we ought to consider those most happy
who end their days by risking their lives in the greatest and most
noble deeds, not turning away from their own fortune, nor await-
ing an ordinary death but choosing the most noble." 275 Plutarch
quotes Epaminondas as having said, "He who dies in war is the
most honorable." 276
The nobility of the warrior's death is enhanced by the fact that
his fate is deserving of admiration, even of envy.
Euripides, in whose writings the sentiment of patriotism is
strongly marked, gives us several examples of heroic devoion to
country, among them the splendid one of Menoeceus. The
courage to meet death, which his example imparts, is shown in the
glowing words of the Chorus: "We admire, yes, we admire him
who has gone to death for the sake of his land, to Creon indeed
having left lamentation, but about to make the seven-towered
gates of the land greatly victorious. Thus may we be mothers,
thus may we be blessed in our children." 277 Lysias dwells on this
tokos in his funeral oration. "These men both when they ^ere
living and also after their death are worthy of envy 278 . . . the
274 tovs TOivbe vvv Toxeas, oaoi irapecTe, ovx 6\o<pvpopai paWov
t} TapapvOrjaopac' ev TroXvTpoirois yap i-vptpopals kiri<rTavT<u
Tpaxpevres t68' evTirx.es, ot av rrjs evwpereo'TaTrjs \ax(^o'iv i &<rirep
ol8e pev vvv, TeXevrrjs, vpels 8e Xvwrjs, xal ols evevSaLpovrjvai re 6
/Sios bpoLus xal ev t e\evTt\ a ai ^vvepeTprfi-q.
275 VVV 81 fj T€ (fVGLS Xal VO<TWV Y\TT03V Xal yrfpCJS, T€ 8alfJL(jJV 6 TTfV
i)p.eTepav polpav eLXrix&s airapaLT7)Tos. ware irpoa-qxei tovtovs
ev8aip.oveaTa.Tovs y\ye\aBai, otrtves virip peyivTOiV xal xaWicrrajv
XLv8vvevaavT€S ourco rbv (3Lov eTeXevrrjaav, ovx emTpe\j/avTes irepi
avrojv rfi tvxVi ovo ' avapelvavTes tov avrbparov davarov, aXX'
exXe^apevoi tov xoXXigtov.
276 192C. "EX€7€ 5^ tov kv iroXkpcp OavaTOV elvat koXXiotov.
277 Phoen. 1054. ay aped' ay aped',
6s eirl davarov oixercu 7as virep Trarpcoas
KpeovTL pev Xnrwv ybovs, to. 5' eirTairvpya xXrfdpa 7<is
xaXXivixa drjauiv. yevolped' &8e parepes,
yevoiped' evreicvoi,
278 Or. 2.69. ovtol 81 xal fcovres xal axodavbvTes fi/Xwroi
66 The Consolations of Death
honors which they received are envied by everybody . 279 . . .1
consider them happy and their death seems to me worthy of
envy. 280
A further source of consolation is contained in the thought that
death for country is a blessing and a mark of favor of the gods since
Ares spares the coward not the brave. 281
Even in Hades we find the shade of Agamemnon congratulating
Achilles on his good fortune in being cut off in battle. "Happy
art thou, son of Peleus, godlike Achilles, who didst die in the land
of Troy, far from Argos; and about thee fell others, the best sons
of the Trojans and the Achaeans, fighting for thy body." 282 That
the gods had not so favored his master was a subject of regret to
Eumaeus. "I myself well know, concerning my lord's return,
that he was exceedingly hated by all the gods that they did not
not slay him among the Trojans nor in the arms of his friends when
he had terminated the war." 283 The same sentiment animated
Odysseus himself when he felt he had survived the war only to
fall a prey to Poseidon: "Thrice blessed those Danaans, yea four
times blessed, who perished at that time in wide Troy for the sake
of the sons of Atreus." 284
Hecuba (Euripides, Troades 1167), weeping over the son of her
beloved Hector regrets that the gods had not granted him the
glorious destiny of dying for his country: "O dearest one, how
unfortunate a death has come to thee! For if thou hadst died in
279 Ibid. 79. £r)\o)Tai 8e vtto tclvtuv avBp&iroiv at tijucu'
280 Ibid. 81. eyt) p,ev ovv avTovs xal p,a*api£*co tov Bavdrov xal
281 Bergk, iii. Anac. 101. (Ep. 14.)
"ApTjs 8' ovx ayaBoov <peL8eTai, dXXd xaxccv.
282 Odyss. xxiv. 36. 6Xj3ie Ilr)\eos vie, Beols €7rietx€X' 'AxiXXeD,
6s Baves ev Tpoiji exds "Apyeos' apxpl 8e c'dXXoi
XTelvovTO Tp&uv xal 'AxataJv vies aptaroL,
fiapvafievoi irepi <relo'
283 Ibid. xiv. 365. €70* 5' eu 618a xal avrbs
vbvTOV ep.olo avaxros, 6 r' tjxB^to iraa deolvi
irayxv M^X', orrt p.iv ov tl /ierd Tpcbt(ro"t hap.auaav
ije <pi\oov ev xcpo'iv, eirel iroXepLOv ToXvirevae.
284 Ibid. v. 306.
TpMTfiaxapes Aavaol xal rerpaxis, ot tot 1 oXovto
Tpolr] ev evpeir) x^P lv 'ArpetS^o-t (pepovTes.
Cf. Verg., Aen. i. 94.
In Ancient Greek Literature 67
behalf of the city having attained to youth and met with marriage
and godlike power, thou wouldst have been blessed." 285
One of the motives which had special power of inspiration and
which consoled the patriot for the sacrifice of his life, was the
certainty that he would be honored with the due rites of burial.
No stronger motive could be adduced than this, 286 because among
the ancient Greeks there was a deep-seated conviction that, with-
out proper sepulture for the body, the soul wandered about
homeless and in misery. 287 The pomp and glory attending a
public burial appealed to them in a particular manner.
The anguish and horror caused by the thought of being deprived
of sepulture is seen in the case of Odysseus threatened by
death at sea, when on his homeward journey. "Would that I
too had died and met my fate on that day when the crowd of
Trojans cast their brass-tipped spears upon me dying for the son
of Peleus. So should I have received my dues of burial and the
Achaeans would have spread my fame, but now it is fated for me
to be seized by a pitiful death." 288 In the meeting of Achilles and
Agamemnon in Hades the former sympathizes with his friend
because he had been spared in war only to suffer a most ignoble
death on his home-coming, and had been deprived of the glorious
burial which would have been some compensation for his death.
"Would that, having enjoyed the honor of which thou wast lord,
thou hadst met death and fate among the Trojans. The Achaeans
285 & ipi\raB\ cos aoi davaros rfkBe bwrvxys-
el plv yap Waves irpo iroXeus, r/firis tvx&v
yafJL&v re xal rrjs laodeov rvpavvldos,
paxapios ti<t6' av, el tl ruvde p.axapiov' Cf. Eur., Androm.
1182.
286 Euripides' plays Antigone and Suppliants show the import-
ance attached to proper burial. Cf . Troades 735, where Talthy-
bius warns Andromache that the Greeks will punish her resist-
ance by not allowing burial for her child. Soph., Ai. 1129; Eur.,
Hec. 50.
287 Cf. Coulanges, loc. cit., n. 236 and Tarbell: "Greek Ideas
as to the Effect of Burial on the Soul," Trans. Am. Philol.
Ass., 1884, vol. xv, pp. 36 ff.
288 Odyss. v. 308.
cos hr\ eycb y'cxpeXov Bav'eeiv xal ttot^ov emaireiv
77/zart rcy ore p.oi irXelarou x^Xx^pea dovpa
Tpcoes eirep'pLxl/av wept U-qXelcovi davbvri.
rep x'ekaxov xrep'emv, xal p.ev x\eos r\yov 'Axtuot.
vvv be p.e \evya\eco davarco elpapro dAcopai.
68 The Consolations of Death
would have made for thee a tomb and for thy son there would be
great renown." 289 Homer again brings out the same point in
the case of Telemachus, who feels his grief for his father would
be lessened if he knew he had fallen in battle and had received
the rites of burial from his friends. "Really I would not have
thus grieved for his death if he had fallen among his fellows in
the land of Troy or in the arms of his friends when he had finished
the war. The Achaeans would have built him a tomb and for
his son there would be a great renown." 290 Like Telemachus,
Orestes (Aeschylus, Choephori 345) laments that he had not the
consolation of having his father die in battle and receive suitable
sepulture. "For if, my father, thou hadst been slain beneath
Ilion by the spear of some Lycian, thou wouldst have left fair re-
nown in the house and in the path of thy children; thou wouldst
have founded for them a crowned life and thou wouldst have had
a high-mounded barrow on a land beyond the sea, a thing easy to
bear for the house." 291
The consolation offered by this totos is seen in the pathetic
epitaph for the young lives so freely sacrificed at Chalcis: "We
fell under the clefts of Dirphys and a memorial is raised over us
by our country near the Euripus, not unjustly, for we lost lovely
youth facing the rough cloud of war." 292 And Euripides also
employs it, in Troades 386, where Cassandra, speaking of the
289 Ibid. xxiv. 30. cos o^eXes ti/xtjs airovrjpevos, rjs irep avaaaes,
8r)nco ire Tp&uv Bavarov xal irorpov eirunrelv
rcjj x'ev tol rvpfiov fiev eiroLrjo-av Havaxaiolf
i]de xe xal <ra> iraiol fieya x\eos ^par* owiaaci).
290 Ibid. i. 236. eirel ov xe davovri irep co5' axaxoLp,r)v f
el p.era oh erapoun daprj Tp&oov evl drffico,
rje <pi\o)V ev xepvlv, eirel iro\epov roXvTevae.
rco x'ev ol rvpfiov pev eiroLrjaav Havaxatol
rj8e xe xal co 7rcu5t p'eya x\eos r7par' OTrlcracj.
291 el yap i»tt' 'IXicp
irpos twos Avxlov, irarep, boplrp^ros xaTrjvapiadrjSf
Xi7rcbj> av evxXeiav ev bopoitjiv Texvuv r' ev xeXevdois
eirLo-TpewTov cuco xriacras TrdXirxuarov av elxes
rcupov biairovriov yas bdopacnv eixpoptjTOV.
292 Bergk, Anth. Lyr. Sim. 89. (148.)
Alpfpvos ebprjdrjpev viro tttvxI, a^pa tV hp* fjp.lv
eyyvOev EvpLirov b^poala x'exvrai,
ovx abixcos' eparrjv yap air coXea apev veoTrjra
Tpyxelav troXepov be^apevoi ve<pe\r)v.
In Ancient Greek Literature 69
Trojan heroes, thus addresses her mother: "But the Trojans in
the first place died in defence of their country, which is the highest
renown, and the corpses of those whom the spear destroyed,
carried to their homes by their friends, have received an enclosure
of earth in their fatherland, decked by the hands of those whom
it was meet." 293 The same author (Heraclidae 586) represents
this as the only favor which Macaria desired as a return for the
sacrifice of her life. "If a release from troubles and a return
should ever be found for you through the gods, remember to bury
her who saves you as is fitting; most nobly would be just, for I
was not wanting to you but died for my race. This is my heir-
loom, instead of children and virginity." 294
In his Republic, Plato, out of conservatism in matters of religion,
prescribes that the will of Apollo should be followed in honoring
the brave dead. "Must we learn of the god how heroic and
divine men are to be buried and with what distinction and we
shall do as he bids . . . and in ages to come shall we reverence
their tombs and kneel before them as at the graves of heroes?" 295
In several of the funeral orations this reward of a public burial
is offered as a consolation to the mourners.
"It is a grievous thing," Demosthenes admits, "for a father
and mother to be bereaved of their children, and to be deprived
of the dearest supports of their old age; but it is a splendid thing
to see them possessing eternal honors and a public memorial of
293 Tpa>€S be Trptbrov p.ev 7 to xaWiarov xXeos,
virep irarpas Wvrjaxov' ovs b 1 eXot 86pv,
vexpol 7' es olxovs <pepopevoL (pLXuv viro
ev 777 irarpica TrepcfioXas elxov x^ovos,
Xepvlv irepLCTTaXevTes cov expv v viro'
294 xav airaWayr) irovuv
xal vocrros vp.lv evpeO-p 7ror' ex deoiv,
pep.V7)crde tt\v accTtipav ojs daxf/ai xpt& v -
xdXXto-rd rot blxaiov' ov yap kvbtiis
vplv TrapeaT7]v, dXXd irpovdavov yevovs.
rd5' clvtl waldcov tori poi xeipifKLa
xal irapdeveias.
295 V. 469A. AuairvdopevoL apa tov Oeov, 7rcos XPV t °vs baip.o-
vlovs T€ xal delovs riBkvai xal rlvt 8La<p6pcc, ovtq) xal Tavry 6r]aop.ev
ff av ££177777(11; . . . xal tov \oiirov brj xP°v° v &* baip.bv(j3V, ovtoj
depairevaopev re xal wpoaxw-qaopev avrccv rds dijxas; Cf. Ibid.
465E; Cic, Phil. ix. i.
70 The Consolations of Death
their valor and considered worthy of sacrifice and perpetual
games 296 . . . since in their bodies they will not suffer diseases,
and in their souls they will be free from those troubles which the
living experience in times of misfortune; and their last obsequies
are now paid to them with all due honor and solemnity. How
can we fail to regard them as happy, to whom the whole country
gives a public burial . . . ?'' 297
Commemorating the fallen heroes, Lysias says, "They are buried
at the expense of the State; there are celebrated at their tombs
games in which strength, wisdom and wealth shine since they are
worthy; for those who die in war are honored with the same honors
as the gods." 298 Special mention of the games is also made in the
Menexenus: "(The State) never fails to honor these dead every
year. It performs what has been appointed for all in common;
and what has been appointed for the individual for each, and in
addition to this it appoints games both gymnastic and equestrian
and all kinds of poetry . . . " 299
A stimulus that was scarcely less effective for the patriot than
the preceding motive was the hope of an imperishable glory and an
immortal renown* 00 A number of illustrations of this may be
296 Fun. Or. 1400. xa^tirbv irarpl xal firjTpl Taidccv areprjOvaL
xal kprjpois elvcu tcov oixtior ar uv yriporpbipoiv' aep.vdv oe y y
ayqp&s ripas xal pvrjprjv aperrjs drjpoaia xry\<jap.kvovs I8elv, xal
dvaitbv xal axkvuv r)£icopevovs aBvaroiV.
297 Ibid. 1399. eireira vbauv dwadeZs ret croj/zara xal \vttuv
aireipoL rets i/'uxas, as kirl rots <rv/ji(3efir)x6(nv ol {covres exovaiv, kv
p,eya\ji ripri xal xal 7roXXa> £17X00 t&v vopi^opevcov Tvyxavovatv.
ovs yap awaaa piev rj irarpls Bairrei 077/zocrta, xolvcov 5' kiraivwv
p.6voi Tvyxhvovcn, ttoOovgi 5' ov pbvov crvyyeveZs xal 7ToXitcu, dXXct
waaav oarjv 'EXXdSa XPV TrpoaeLireZv, avpTreirevdTjxe 8e xal rrjs
oixovp.evT)s to irXeZarov p,kpos, ttus ov XPV tovtovs evbalpovas
vop,i$ €adai\ Cf. Cons., ad Liv. 460.
298 Or. 2.80. xal yap tol dairTOvrat bripoula, xal aycoves t'l-
BevTai C7r' avroZs pcoprjs xal co<plas xal tt\ovtov, ojs d^lovs ovras
tovs ev to) Tro\ep,u) TeTeXevTrjxoras raZs avTais rivals xal tovs
adavarovs ripaodai.
299 ps-Plat., Menex. 249B. avrovs 8e tovs TeXevrrjcravTas tl-
Huaa ovbeirore ex\eLTrei xad 1 exaarov hviavrbv, avrrj ra vopu^opkeva
iroiovaa xoivfj iraaiv airep ibia exaarco id la yiyverai. irpbs 8e
tovtols dyecvas yvp.vt.xovs xal Ittttlxovs rideZaa, xal povatxrjs
ira(T7]s. ... Cf. Ibid. 234C.
300 Cf. Horn., II. vi. 449; Bacchy., viii. 76, 87; xii. 63; Cic,
Phil. ix. ii. ff.
In Ancient Greek Literature 71
taken from the lyric poets especially from the epigrams — expres-
sions of unequalled pathos with a depth of consolation which is
implied rather than expressed. Tyrtaeus expresses it in forcible
language, "Him they bemoan both young and old and the whole
city is distressed with dreadful grief. . . . Never will his
good name or his renown perish, but going under the earth he
becomes immortal." 301 In Pindar we have: "Let him know this
well, who bearing ruin to the enemy, wards off slaughter from his
dear country, that living, and, even after death, he will be honored
with the greatest renown by the citizens." 302 Callinus: "Little
and great mourn for him if he die." 303 Anacreon: "Around his
funeral pyre the whole city weeps for Agathon, who died for the
people of Aldera." 304 Mnasalcas: "These men defending their
native land, that lay with tearful fetters on her neck, clad them-
selves in the dark dust; but they have gained a great reputation of
valour; looking at them let a citizen dare to die for his country." 305
Aeschylus: "These men also steadfast in fighting, dark Fate de-
stroyed when defending their native land rich in flocks; but al-
301 Bergk, ii. Tyrtaeus 12. (8.) 27.
rbv 6' y o\o<pvpovTaL ixev 6/zcos veoi rjbe yepovres,
apya\eu> re irbdu) iracra xkxrjbe ttoXls'
xal tu/xj8os xal 7ral8€S ev avSpccwois dpiaTjfJLOL
xal iraibcav walbes xal ykvos e^OTrlao).
ov8e irore xXeos ea0\bv d7r6XXuT<u oi>5' bvop} clvtov,
dXX' vwb yr)s 7rep euv yiyverai adavaros,
Cf. Cons., ad Liv. 265.
302 Bergk, iii. Pin. Isth. vii. 27.
taTtt yap <ra<pes, bans tv ravra veipeXa xaXa^"aj/ ai'/uaros
irpb <pi\as TrcLTpas anvverai,
\01ybv avrapkpoiv evar'tut CTparco,
a<TT&v 7e*>ea pkyiarov x\kos av£co*>.
fcocoi> r' awb xal davcov.
303 Bergk, ii. Callinus 1. (1.) 17.
top b 1 bXiyos arevaxci xal fieyas, rj n Trady'
304 Ibid. iii. Anacreon 100. (Ep. 15.)
'Afibrjpoov -wpodavbvra rbv alvofilrjv kyadoiva
waa 1 kirl irvpxalr)s 7/5' efibrjae ttoXls'
ovTtva yap roibvbe vkicv 6 <pi\aip.aTOs "Aprjs
rjvapLcrev GTvyepijs ev arpo<pdXLyyL judx^s.
305 Anth. Pal. vii. 242. Mnasalcas.
o'ibe TrcLTpav, TroXvbaxpvv kir } axrxkvL bt<rp.bv exovaav,
'pvbp,evoL bvcxpepdv ap<pe(3aXovro xbviv,
"Apvvvrai 5' aperas alvov ixkyav. dXXd tls aarcop
Tovab 1 eaibcbv BvaaxtLV rXdrco virep irarpibos.
72 The Consolations of Death
though they are dead, their glory is alive." 306 Simonides of Ceos:
"... we lie possessing praise which grows not old." 307
"Although they are dead they have not died, since their excellence
praising them from above leads them from the house of Hades." 308
This motive for consolation with many of the foregoing ones
is expressed in language that can scarcely be surpassed in the noble
and lofty lines of Simonides on the heroes of Thermopylae. Such
was the inborn patriotism of the Greek that his highest aspiration
was filled, the loss of his life was compensated for, his descendants
were consoled by the fact that his burial place was regarded as
sacred as a shrine*™ and his winding sheet was the deep grief and
continual remembrance of his fellow citizens. "The fate of those
who died at Thermopylae is renowned, their destiny beautiful,
their burial mound is an altar, instead of lamentation there is
remembrance and grief is their praise. Neither decay nor all-
subduing time shall ruin such a winding sheet. This shrine of
brave men has received the glory of Greece to dwell there. And
Leonidas, the Spartan king, bears witness having left great adorn-
ment of valour and eternal glory." 310
Euripides has Iphigenia use this hope of future glory to
strengthen her own resolution and to give consolation to her
mother. " My renown that I have freed Greece will be blessed." 311
306 Ibid. vii. 255; Aeschy. vii. 255.
xvavkr) xai rovade ju€i>€7X€as &\e<rev avbpas.
ixolpa iro\vppt]vov irarplba 'pvofihovs'
£cobv 5e <pdt,p.evQ)v xeXerat xXeos, ol wore yviois
T\i]p,oves 'Ocrcrcuaj> apxpieaavro xbviv.
307 Loc. cit., n. 267.
308 Loc. cit., n. 266.
309 Cf. Aeschy., Cho. 106. al5ovp,evrf aoi(3oop,6v cos tv/jl^ov irarpos.
Eur., Ale. 995, Troad. 96; Plato, Rep. xii. 959C.
310 Bergk, iii. Sim. 4. (9.)
Toor kv Qepp,oirv\cus davbvrcov
evx\eris p.ev a tvxcl, xa\6s o' 6 7ror/xos,
/Scojuos cV 6 Ta<pos, irpb ybeev 8e /xpdcrris, 6 S' oIxtos eiraivos'
kvToupiov be tolovtov ovt : evpeos
ovd 1 b irav8ap,aTO)p ap,avp6i(T€i xpovos.
avdpcbv dyadcov 68e arjxbs olxerav evbo^lav
'EXXdoos etXero' juaprupct be xai Aecopioas
6 XirapTas /SacnXeus, dperds \x'tya.v XcXoittcos
xoapiov akvaov x\kos re.
311 1. A. 1383.
raura Travra xardavovaa pvaop,ai, kcll fiov x\kos
'EXXdS' cos rjXevOepooaa, p,axapiov yev^aerat.
Cf. Eur., Phoen. 1313.
In Ancient Greek Literature To
Similarly he represents the Chorus offering words of comfort to
the sorrowing Iolaus: "Nor will an inglorious reputation among
men await her." 312
Plato discusses the effect of this love of fame on the actions of
ambitious men. "If you consider the love of glory which is in
man, you would wonder at the absurdity of those things which
I have said, unless you bear in mind and reflect how strongly they
are affected with the desire to become renowned and to lay up
forever undying fame. And for this they are all willing to incur
all kinds of dangers, even more than they would for their children,
and to expend their money, and to undergo all labors, and even
to seek death. For do you think, said she, that Alcestis would
have died in behalf of Admetus, or Achilles to avenge Patroclus,
or your own Codrus to preserve the kingdom of his sons unless they
thought they would obtain an immortal renown for valor, which
actually does still exist among us?" 313 In the Republic, speaking
of the patriot's death, he says, "And of those who die in battle
whoever meets his end gloriously shall we not in the first place say
he is of the golden race?" 314
In the funeral orations the ideas furnished by this t&kos are
treated by the orators in their usual language of panegyric. It
appears in Isocrates as: "For we find that great souls and souls
who love honor, not only prefer praise to such things; but would
choose to die nobly rather than to live being anxious about honor
rather than life ; and they do all in their power that they may leave
an immortal remembrance of themselves." 315
312 Loc. cit. n. 273. Cf. n.
313 Symp. 208C. eirel ye xal rdv avBp&iroov el ede\et.s els T-qv
(piXoTLjjiLav (3\e\pai, dav/ia^ois av ttJs aXoylas irepl a ey& elprjxa,
el fir) evvoels evdvp,rjdels cos betvus biaxeivrai epcori tov bvopaarol
yeveaBai xal "xXeos es tov ael \pbvov bBb.va.rov Karadeadai," xal
virep tovtov xivbvvovs re xivdvveveiv eroLp:oi elcrt iravras en p.a\\ov fj
virep Tuv Traidwv, xal xpi7M ar & ava\Laxeiv xal irbvovs irovelv ovari-
vaaovv xal VTrepairodvrjaxeLV' eirel olei av, e\prj } "A\xrjo~TLV virep
WdnrjTOv airbdavelv av, t) 'AxtXXea IlaTpbxXcp eirairoOavelv, r\
irpoairodavelv tov vp'erepov JLbbpov virep rrjs /3atuX€ias tu>v iral8(t)v,
p.rj olop.evovs adavarov pvqprjv aperr\% irepi eavribv eaeadai, fjv vvv
rjpels exofiev;
314 Rep. 468E. toiv be brj airodavovraiv eirl arpare'ias 6s av
evboxtfiijaas TeXevrrjo-ri ap" 1 ov irpuirov p.ev (pr}aoop:ev tov xpvvov
yevovs elvai;
315 Evag. 189B. evprjaopev yap tovs <pi\oTlpovs xal pLeya\o\j/vxovs
74 The Consolations of Death
In Hyperides the expression of the topic is, * 'Nevertheless we
must take courage and lighten our grief as we may, and remember
not only the death of the departed but also the noble reputation
that they have left behind. For they have not suffered things
worthy of tears, but they have done deeds deserving of great
praise. If they came not to old age among men, they have the
glory that never grows old and have been made blessed per-
fectly." 316 Demosthenes has it, "Their renown will be a consola-
tion to the mourners. How can we fail to regard them as happy
who alone receive the general praise, who are regretted not only
by their kindred and fellow-citizens, but by all the people bearing
the name of Greeks and whose loss afflicts the greatest part of
the habitable world?" 317
Lysias phrases it: "Their memory does not grow old and their
honors are envied by all men." 318 "Wept as mortal on account of
their nature, they are sung as immortal on account of their
bravery. . . ." 319 "I regard as the only mortals for whom it
was a good to be born, men of mortal bodies who leave after
them an immortal memory on account of their bravery." 320
And in the funeral oration found in Thucydides : ". . . those of
you who have passed your prime must congratulate yourselves on
the thought that the best part of your life was fortunate and that
to)V avbp&v ov ixbvov dvrl tuv tolovtuv kiraivtladai fiovXo/jievovs
dXX' clvtI tov {rjv airodvrjGxeLV evx\eo)s aipovfievovs, xal /jlclWov
irepl ttJs bo^ys rj tov @Lov o"KOvba$ovras, xal irdvra ttolovvtcls,
oxtos dddvarov ttjv irepl clvtcov p,pr]p,r)j> xaTaXetyovaiv.
316 Or. vi. 41. cfytcos be \PV Oappelv xal rrjs Xvirrjs irapaipeiv els
to evbexbfievov, xal p.ep.v-qaQai p.i] jjlovov tov Bavarov tcov TereXevTT)-
xoto)V, dXXd xal ttjs apexes r}S xaTaXeXo'nvao-iv. ov yap dprjvuv
a£ia ireTTOvdacnv, dXX' eiraLvc*)i> fieyaXcov Treiroirixa<nv. el be
yrjpws Bvr]Tov p.i] fxereaxov, dXX' evbo^lav ayrjparov el\r)<pa<rii>
evbalvoves re yeyovaat Kara iravra.
317 Fun. Or. 1399. Loc. cit. n. 297.
318 Fun. Or. 79.
xal yap ayr\paroi p,ei> avrcbv at p,VTJp,ai, frjXcoTcu
be virb iravrcov avBpcciruv at ri\iai '
319 Ibid. 80. ol irevdovvrai p.ev btd tyjv <pvaiv cos OvqToi,
vp,vovvrai be cos addvaroi bid ttjv dpeTTjv.
320 Ibid. 81.
Xal jJLOVOLS TOVTOLS dvdp&TTOOV Ol/ZCU XptlTTOV
elvai yevecrdai, o'iTLves, €7reio?7 OvrjTcov
Goop.aTOOv ervxov, dddvarov p.v^p.'qv bid tyjv
dperifv avr&v xaTeXiirov'
In Ancient Greek Literature 75
the brief span that remains will be cheered by the fame of the
departed. It is only the love of honor that never grows old;
and honor, not gain, rejoices the heart of age. . . . 321 For offer-
ing their lives in common they received individually that renown
which never grows old and a most honorable sepulchre, not that
in which their bodies lie but rather that in which their glory
remains, to be commemorated on every occasion in deed and story.
For heroes have the whole earth for their tomb; not only in their
own country, where the column with its epitaph declares it, but in
distant lands there is enshrined in every breast a record unwritten
with no tablet to preserve it except that of the heart." 322
The treatment of Gorgias is: "These men then are dead, but
the feeling of their loss is not dead with them; but immortal in
mortal bodies it lives although they are not living." 323
The honor bestowed upon the patriot naturally redounds to
his family and this thought leads to another consolatory tokos :
the patriot wins a glorious heritage for his descendants, "for hered-
itary honor is to descendants a treasure honorable and magnifi-
cent." 324 The regret caused by the deprivation of this honor is
shown in several of the preceding quotations 325 and the charioteer
of the Euripidean Rhesus, complaining bitterly of the ignoble
death of his master, furnishes another example. "For to die with
glory, if one must die, I think is painful to the dying. Why
321 Hist. ii. 44. 6<tol 5' av Trapa^rjxaTe, tov re 7r\eo^a xkpbos ov
r}VTvxeiT6 fiiov riytlade xal Tovbe fipaxvv e&eadcu, xat. rf] Tuvbe
evx\ela xov<pi£eade. to yap (pCKoTipov ayrjpcov pbvov, xal ovx kv tw
dxpeta) ttjs r)\Lxlas to xepbaiveiv, &<nrep Tivks <pacn, paWov TepTei,
dXXd to TLpaadai.
322 Ibid. 43. xoivfi yap to. o-co/zara btbbvTes, Ibia tov ayrjpuv
ewatvov k\ap@avov, xal tov Ta<pov kirio-qpoTaTOv, ovx kv <io xelvTau
paWov, dXX' kv $ 17 56£a avTcov irapa tu> kvTv\bvTi aiel xal \byov
xal epyov xaipco aeipv-qaTOs xarX€i7T€Tcu. avbpcov yap kirupavicv
iraaa yrj Tcupos, xal ov GTrfK&v pbvov kv t-q olxela arjpalvei kiri-
ypaipi], dXXd xal kv ttj pi) irpo(7T]xovo"r] aypacpos pvrjpa Trap' exaaTCC
Trjs yvuprjs paWov 77 tov epyov kvbiaLTaTai.
323 'E7rtra^tos. Touyapovv avTcbv airodavbvTccv 6 ttoBos ov avv-
airedavev, dXX' adavaTOs kv aacopaTOLS acopacn £j) ov £qjvtcov.
324 ps.-Plat., Menex. 247B. elvai pev yap Tipas yovecov kxybv-
ols, xa\6s drjaavpos xal peyaXoirpeirrjs' Cf. Cic, Offic. i. 23.
325 Cf. notes 289, 290, 291.
76 The Consolations of Death
not? — But for the living it is the pride and the fair renown of
their house/ ' 326
Tyrtaeus in stirring words gives expression to this consolation:
"his tomb and children will be remarkable among men and the
children of his children and his race henceforth." 327 Demosthenes
also employs it in the words of sympathy addressed to the
mourners: "It is an afflicting thing for children to be left fatherless
orphans but it is a glorious thing to be the inheritor of a father's
renown; and while we shall find the deity, to whom all mortals
must yield, the cause of this grief, the honor and the glory are
due to their resolution, who chose bravely to die." 328
Yet another motive of consolation, and one used especially
by the orators, was that the advantages accruing from a noble
death were not limited to this world but followed the patriot to
the next. He will be received as a friend by his brave ancestors and
will be honored in a special manner by the gods.
In the Menexenus Socrates gives us the message the noble
heroes sent to their descendants, "On this account then first and
last, through all time and by all means, endeavor to have the
desire to surpass to the utmost ourselves and ancestors in glory.
If you pursue these objects you will come to us as friends to
friends. . . ." 329 Xenophon in this connection says, "Justly
would he be blessed. . . ." 330 And Isocrates uses it to console
the son of Evagaras: "So that if some mortals have become
immortal through virtue I think he is worthy of this destiny, if
we take it as a sign that while he was living here he was more
326 Eur., Rhesus 758. Oavelv yap eiwXews p.'ev, el Bavelv xp*&v }
\virpov p.ev oljiai too 6 a vbvr l-tt cos yap ov; —
toIs £coai 6' 67x0s xal bopoov evbo^la.
327 Loc. cit., n. 301.
328 p un# Or. 1400. \vinipdv iraialv 6p<pavols yeyevriudai irarpos'
xa\6v be ye x\-qpovop.elv warpa>as evbo^ias. xal rov p,ev Xvirrjpov
tovtov rov baip.ov' atriov evprjaofiev bvra, 00 (pvvras avdpcoTrovs
elxeiv avayxt], rov be tl/jllov xal xa\ov rrjv toiv edeXrjaavToov xaXcos
awodvijcrxeLV alpeuiv.
329 Menex. 247A. kv evexa xal irp&Tov xal vurarov xal biairavros
iraaav ttclvtccs Tpodvp,lav Treipaade e%eiv, owcos /idXtcrra p,ev virep-
fiaXelcrde xal 17/uas xal tovs wpoadev evxXela. . . . xal eav p,ev ravra
eirLTTjbevarjTe, <pi\oi irapa (pi\ovs 17/xds CKpl^eaOe, brav brj vp.as ri
irpoarjxovcra p,olpa xop,laij'
Cf. Cons., ad Liv. 329; Senec, Polyb. ix, Marc. xxv.
330 Ages., x. 4.
bixaioos b 1 av exelvbs ye p,axapi£oiro, . . .
In Ancient Greek Literature 77
favored and honored than they." 331 In Hyperides, we have: "If
there is feeling in the underworld, and if, as we conjecture, the
care of the Divine Power is over it, then it is likely that they who
have rendered aid to the worship of the gods in the hour of its
desolation will meet with greatest favor from the deity." 332
Demosthenes uses it even more effectively: "One might well say
that they are with the gods below, holding the same rank with
brave men of a former age in the islands of the blest." 333
Another motive which naturally furnishes consolation to the
heroes is: The State will take charge of the parents and children
of those who die in battle. Thucydides: "Their children will be
brought up to manhood at public expense." 334 Menexenus:
"You yourselves surely know the carefulness of the State, that
laying down laws concerning the children and parents of those
who have died in war, it takes care of them." 335 Hyperides: "As
many as have left children, the State will become guardian for
the children of these." 336 Lysias: "This is indeed the only favor
we have to give to those who lie there, if we become as interested
in their parents as they would be themselves, if we cherish their
children as if we were their fathers, if we protect their wives as
they would if they were living." 337 Demosthenes: "They them-
331 Evag., 203A. wcr' el Tives tccv irpoyeyevrjevojv 6V aper^v
adavcLTOL yeybvacnv, olfxcu xaxelvov iji-icbcdai Tavrrjs rijs ocopeds,
arjiieLois xP^M^os, ort xal tov evddbe XP 0V0V evTVxeo-repov xal
deoipikevTepov exelvcov ota/SejStcoxep.
332 Or., vi. 43. el o' euTiv atcrdr]o'LS ev "Ai5ou xal eirifieXeia wapa
tov baifiovlov, &o"irep i)iro\ap.fiavop,ev, elxbs tovs rats rt/*ais rajj>
deCov xaraXvopevais fior]dr}<rai>Tas Tr\elaTTjs xrjbefiovlas viro tov
baip.ovlov Tvyxweiv.
333 Yun. Or., 1399. ovs irapebpovs eixorus av tls <prjaai rots xdrco
0eots elvai, rr\v avTTfv ra£tV exoj>ras rots irpoTepois ayadols avbpdaiv
ev fiaxapuv v-qvois. . . . Cf. Cic, Somn. Scip. III. 5.
334 Hist., ii. 46. avT&v tovs iralbas to aird rovbe brjfioala 77 7ro\ts
likxpu r)iSr/s 6pe\l/6t, Cf. Theoc, Epig. xiv.
335 Menex., 248E. ttjs be iroXeus tare irov xai avTol tt}V kin-
Hekeiav, otl vop.ovs 6ep.evq irepl tovs t&v ev raj ToXepico Te\evTi)(ravTUV
iralbas re xal yevvrjTopas, €7rtp,eXetrat,
336 'E7rtrcuptos vi. 43. ouoi be iralbas xaTakekoiiraaiv 17 r^s
7rarpt5os evvoia €7rirpoy?os aurots t&v icaibuv xaTaaT-qaerai.
337 'Extra^tos 75. p.6vr\v b^av p.01 boxovpev TavTt)v rots evddbe
xtLjjLevois airobovvac xdpiv, el tovs p.lv Tox'eas avTcbv 6juota)s &<rirep
exelvoL irepl iroWov iroiolp.eda, tovs be iralbas ovtus aGira$oLp,e6a
oiairep avrol iraTepes ovTes, rats be yvvai^lv el tolovtovs fioTjdovs
17/xds avTOvs irap'exoip.ev, ololirep exelvoi £covTes y\oav.
78 The Consolations of Death
selves (the dead heroes), if we judge rightly, are happy: for, in the
first place, they have exchanged a short space of time for immortal
glory; their children will be brought up with honor in the state,
and their parents will be maintained in their old age and be
regarded with reverence, having their renown as a consolation in
their grief. " 338
Finally the deceased are imagined as addressing words of consola-
tion for the survivors. 339 This artifice as already seen is employed
in the Menexenus : "But our fathers and mothers who are surviving
must be comforted that they should bear as easily as possible their
misfortune if any should happen, and not lament with them . . .
but heal and mitigate their sorrow by reminding them the gods
have heard what they have especially prayed for. For they did
not pray that their children would be immortal but that they
would be brave and renowned ... by bearing, too, their
misfortunes like men they will be thought to be in reality the
parents of manly children and to be such themselves. 340 . . . We
entreat then both our fathers and mothers to spend the rest of
their lives in adopting this very same sentiment, and to know well
that they will please us most by not lamenting and bewailing us;
and if the dead have any feeling for the living they will be the least
agreeable to us by disfiguring themselves and bearing ill their
misfortunes." 341
338 'Erara^ios 1399. ol b'evbaLfioves rco bixa'ao Xo7io>iaJ. irpccTov
fiev avrl luxpoi) XP 0V0X) tto\vv xai rbv airavT'' tvxXtiav ayrjpo) xcltcl-
Xeiwovaiv, kv # xai iralbes ol tovtojv bvofiaaTol Tpa<pr)o-ovTaL, xai
yovels (ol tovtcov) irep't^eirTOL yqporpo<pi)o'ovTai, wapayf/vxv^ Tty
TckvBet jr\v tovtuv evx'Keuav exovres. Cf. n. 300.
339 Loc. cit. n. 329. Cf. Lucian, de Luctu; Cic, ad Fam. iv. 5;
ps.-Plut., ad Apoll. 121E.; Cons., ad Liv. 445; Sen., Marc. xxvi.
340 Cf. Dem. 'ETTiraptos 1400.
341 Menex. 247C. warkpas be rmcbv, oh elai, xai ju^repas el XPV
Trapafivdeladai, cbs XPV ppcra <p'epeiv tt)V avp.(popav, eav apa %vp.(3ri
yeveadai, xai p.ri ^vvobvpeaBai' . . . 'aXX' lainevovs xai Tpavvovras,
avanLjjLvr)(TX€LV avrovs on &v evxovrai, ra p.'eyi<STa clvtoZs ol deol
eTTTjxooL yeybvaaiv. ov yap aBavarovs a<piffi ralbas evxovro yevea-
dai, dXX' ayaBovs xai evx\eels' &v ervxov, iieyiaruv ayaBcov ovtcov.
. . . xai (p'epovres pev avbpelus rds avyupopas, bb^ovai tw ovti
avbpe'uov iralbiav irarepes elvai, xai avrol tolovtol' . . . 248B.
bebfieBa brj xai Trarepoiv xai firjrepcov, rfi avrfi ravTy biavola XP&-
fxevovs tov eirlXonrov fiiov blayeiv' xai elbevai on ov BprjvovvTes
ovbe 6\o<pvp6fjLevoL 17/xas, rjp,lv pLaKiara xaptouvrat' aXX' el ns earl
rots Tt\tVT7)x6(Jiv atadrjaLs tojv {uvtcov, ovtccs axapivroi elev av
juaXto-ra, eavrovs re xaxovvres, xai fiapeois (pepovres rds ^v/Mpopas.
In Ancient Greek Literature 79
CHAPTER XII
CONSOLATION APPROPRIATE TO PARTICULAR CIRCUMSTANCES
Some motives for consolation have been met which do not
readily come under the preceding ro7rot. 342 These will be briefly
touched on here.
Diogenes Laertes relates that Epicurus, although dying in the
greatest suffering, found consolation from the recollection of his
philosophical contemplations. 343
Plutarch tells us that the conviction that he had never caused
an Athenian to put on mourning was a source of comfort to
Pericles at his last hour. 344
To the dying Cyrus the thought of his own happy life and the
prosperous condition in which he was leaving his family and
country was a motive for meeting death with joy. 345
It will not be inappropriate to add to the rorot of consolation
the touch of songs, "wise daughter of the Muses" with its power of
comforting.
Pindar beautifully expresses the calming influence of music.
"Less does warm water avail to bathe the limbs for soothing, than
words of praise wedded to the music of the lyTe.' ,346 Hesiod
similarly describes its effect in relieving sorrow, "For if anyone
having grief in his fresh sorrowing spirit pines away grieving in
heart, presently the minstrel, servant of the Muses, chants the
renowned deeds of the men of yore and the gods who hold Olympus,
and straightway he who is sorrowing forgets. . . ," 347 And
342 Cf. Jerram's Eur. Ale. n. 1. 348, on 8ep.as to gov.
343 Diog., La. x., Epic. x. Cf. Cic, de Fin. ii. xxx. 96; T. D. i.
xlv. Sed profecto mors turn aequissimo animo oppetitur, quum
suis se laudibus vita occidens consolari potest.
344 Ap. Gr. Com. Perikles.
345 Cf . n. 252.
346 Bergk, i. Nem. iv. 4.
ov8e Beppbv v8o)p togov ye pa\Baxd revxeu
yvla, toggov evXoyla <pbpp.iyyi Gvvdopos.
347 Theog., 98. el yap tls xal irevBos exoiv veoxr)8h Bvp.co
a^rjraL xpa8irjv axaxvpevos, avrap dot56s
yi.ovGa.oiv Bepairuv xXeea irporepoiv dvBpojwojv
vp.vr)Gr) paxapas re deovs, ol '0\vp.irov exovGiv,
oXty o ye 8vG<ppoGvveo3V extX^crat ovb'e tl xrjdecav
ap.ep.vrjT at' raxeus 8e 7raperpa7rc5ajpa dedcav.
Cf. Eur., Med.190. where the nurse
80 The Consolations of Death
Socrates, comforting the dying Axiochus, places the hearing of
music among the pleasures to be enjoyed in the after life by the
good. 348 In his treatise de Virtute Morali, Plutarch mentions
the zeal of Pythagoras for music which he introduced to calm and
soothe the soul. 349 Later in the same work he speaks of the
musical instruments which, although inanimate, yet speak to
man's passions, rejoicing with him and mourning with him. 350
Although Plato would banish from his Republic all music sugges-
tive of lamentation and sorrow, yet he wished to preserve such
harmonies as would help men to meet death or any other blow of
fortune with courage and firmness. 351
laments the use of music at festivals where there is enough to
supply pleasure but
(TTvyiovs 8e fipoT&v ovSels Xviras rjvpero novay xal ir.oXvxbpdois
&5als iraveiv, e£ &v Oavaroi deival re rvxat (npaWovai 86/jlovs.
348 ps. -Plato, Ax. 371D. xal p.ov(Tixa axova/jLara, . . . Cf. n. 245.
349 441E. eixos \ikv ecrri jj,r)dZ Hvdayopav ayvorjaai, Texfiatpo-
ixkvois rfj wepl p-ovuixyv (rirovdrj rov avSpos, fjv eirrjyayeTO ry ipvxv
X7]\yarea)s evexa xal irapafivdlas,
350 443A. xal oaa piovaix-qs irpo<rtp8a xal irpovriyopa p,r)xav7](Ta-
nkvqs avQpwirivois waBecnv a\f/vxa awqbtTai xal avveinBpyvel xal
avvq,8ei xal avvax6\a<TTalvet,. . . .
351 Rep. iii. 398E. ff.
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