CONTENTS OF VOLUME II. Chapter I. Domestic Sanitary Appliances. " II. Domestic Water Supply. III. External and Internal Sanitary Arrangements for Suburban and Country Houses. IV. The Sewage Question for Villages and Isolated Country Houses. V. The Plumbing, Water Supply and Sewerage of Hos- pitals. 4 VI. Theatre Sanitation. VII. The Sanitary Features of Markets and Abattoirs. VIII. Kitchen, Laundry and Drying Room Arrangements. IX. School Sanitation. X. Bathing and Different Forms of Baths. XI. The Modern Rain Bath and Spray Baths for Insane Patients. XII. Sanitary House Inspection. SANITARY ENGINEERING OF BUILDINGS. SANITARY ENGINEERING OF BUILDINGS. BY WM. PAUL GERHARD, C. E., CONSULTING ENGINEER FOR SANITARY WORKS. Mem. Am. Public Health Association, Cor. Mem. Am. Institute cf Architects, etc. VOL I. With 103 Illustrations and 6 Plates New York : WILLIAM T. COMSTOCK, 23 Warren Street. 1899. 4 COPYRIGHT, WM. PAUL GERHARD. 1899. PREFACE. WHEN the third edition of the book, "Hints on the Drainage and Sewerage of Dwellings " was sold out, the publisher requested the author to rewrite the book and to bring the same up to date. The revision, as completed, forms the first five chapters of this book. Much out-of-date matter has been eliminated, new matter added, and in nearly all cases, new illus- trations have been prepared by the author. A part of the contents of chapters VI. to XII. has been published heretofore in articles contributed to some of the technical journals, but this matter, too, has been revised and wherever necessary enlarged, and additional illustrations have been in- serted, thus rendering the whole of more permanent value to the professions and trades interested in the subject. Each of the chapters forms a separate essay independent of the others, and owing to this fact some of the subjects are discussed in several places, though each time in a different manner. A second volume of this work, which is now in actual preparation, will con tain chapters on " Domestic Appliances," on " Domestic Water Supply," " Sani- tary Arrangements for Suburban and Country Houses," "Water Supply, Drain- age and Plumbing of Hospital Buildings," on "Theatre Sanitation," "School Sanitation," " Kitchen and Laundry Arrangements," " Sanitary Features of Market Houses and Abattoirs," "'Baths and Bathing," "The Modern Rain Batn," and on "Sanitary House Inspection." Each of the volumes will be complete in itself, and both together are intended to serve as a guide in the numerous questions arising in the sanitary engineering of buildings. The Author. 36 Union Square, New York^ January j 1 /, jSfy). 45G292 CONTENTS. CHAPTER I. Defective Plumbing and Sewer Gas. PAGB. House sanitation Sanitary features of healthful homes Purity of soil, air and water Definition of sewage and sewerage Modern conveniences Sewer air and germs of disease Defective plumbing arrangements Un- sanitary bathrooms Badly arranged slop sinks Filthy servants' water closets Pan closets Kitchen sinks Laundry tubs Pantry sinks Valve and plunger closets Untrapped or improperly trapped washbowls and bathtubs Overflow pipes Safe waste pipes Urinals Plumbing regulations Faulty arrangement of soil and waste pipes Material for soil pipes Defective pipe joints Unventilated soil pipes Ventilating caps and return bends Fresh air inlets Size of soil and waste pipes Branch wastes Defective lead pipe joints Sizes of branches for fix- tures Cellar drainage House drains of brick, wood and earthenware Necessity of general house ventilation 9-40 CHAPTER II. Traps and Systems of Trapping. Trapping of fixtures Trap on the main house drain Fresh air inlet Traps for water closets Traps for sinks, bowls, tubs Mechanical traps Anti-siphonage trap attachments Non-siphoning traps Trap venting Bye-passes 4i-?i CHAPTER III. Drainage and Sewerage of Buildings. Chief features of internal sewerage system of buildings Drainage and sewerage defined Proper arrangement of drain, soil, waste and vent pipes Difference between English and American system explained Tests of drainage and plumbing system Details regarding material and joints of soil pipes Sizes of waste pipes for fixtures Final tests by peppermint or smoke 72-104 CHAPTER IV. . Plumbing Fixtures. Description of plumbing fixtures Kitchen sinks Grease traps Laundry tubs Pantry sinks Refrigerators Stationary washstands Bathtubs Slop sinks Urinals Water closets Arrangement of plumbing fixtures Arrangement of bath and toilet rooms Local ventilation Care and management of plumbing fixtures Care of plumbing in houses closed during the summer Prevention of freezing of plumbing in houses closed during the winter 150-140 I 2 CONTENTS. CHAPTER V. Sewage Removal and Sewage Disposal. PAGE. Faulty external sewerage Cesspools Privies Removal of Sewage Sizes of house sewers .Grades Vitrified pipe sewers Laying sewer pipes Joints Disposal of sewage City sewers and house drain connections Sewerage of isolated country houses Leaching cesspools Discharge of sewage into water courses Application of sewage to the soil Surface irrigation Sub-surface irrigation Arrangement of disposal field Sew- age flush tank Automatic intermittent siphons Earth closets 141194 CHAPTER VI. The Leading Principles of Scientific House Drainage ami Sanitary Plumbing. Pipe system Trap system Fixture system Soundness of material Per- fection in workmanship Simplicity in arrangement Accessibility Safe trapping Thorough ventilation Efficient flushing Durability, efficiency and convenience Noiselessness in operation Prevention of water waste and protection against freezing Absence of complicated mechanism Cleanliness and purity 195-225 CHAPTER VII. Improved Methods of House Drainage. Plans for drainage Plumbing and drainage specifications Improvements relating to material for drains Screw-jointed wrought iron soil pipes Traps Sizes of pipes used for drainage purposes Sizes of soil and waste pipes Sizes of rainwater conductors Manner of laying drains Double system of pipes, soil pipes for water closets and separate waste pipes for baths and basins English system of plumbing inapplicable in America on account of climatic conditions Concealed work Advantage of mod- ern exposed work Modern plumbing confined to bathroom, kitchen, pantry and laundry Objections to water closets in bathrooms Improved sanitary appliances Water closets Washbasins Bathtubs Rainbaths Sinks Urinals Testing of plumbing work Modification of trap vent system Plumbing rules and regulations Plumbing work done by days' work and by contract Outside drainage and final disposal of sewage. . .226-254 CHAPTER VIII. The Proper Arrangement of Water Closet and Bath Apartments. Bathrooms in private residences Location Separation of water closet and bathroom Heating Ventilation Lighting Walls and floors Ar- rangement of bathroom fixtures Exposed and accessible plumbing work Tenement houses Hotels Club houses Office buildings Stores Warehouses Factories Theatres Churches and Synagogues School- houses Hospitals for insane Prisons, jails, penal and reformatory in- stitutions Military barracks, armories, soldiers' homes Stables and riding academies Railroad stations and ferry houses Court houses, city halls, capitol buildings Market houses Public bath houses 255-325 CONTENTS. 3 CHAPTER IX. A Plea for Sanitation in Factories and Workshops. PAGE. Need of factory and workshop sanitation Unhealthy occupations Per- sonal injuries and safety appliances to prevent them Dust Noxious vapors and gases Cleanliness Workrooms Water closet accommoda- tions Safety from fire 326334 CHAPTER X. Sanitary Drainage of Tenement Houses. Improvement of sanitary condition of the homes of workingmen Sanitary requirements for tenement houses Proper system of drainage Defects in the pipe system Defects of trapping Defects as regards fixtures Suggestions for the sanitary drainage of tenement houses System of pipes System of trapping System of fixtures 335-373 CHAPTER XL On Testing House Drains and Plumbing Work. Tests of the materials Tests during construction Water pressure test of soil, waste and vent pipe system Test of supply pipe system Test of gas piping Tests after completion Smoke and peppermint tests De- scription of peppermint test Description of smoke test Air pressure test Other odor tests Periodical inspection of plumbing work 374-401 CHAPTER XIT. Simplified Plumbing Methods. Unnecessary complication of modern plumbing work Trap venting law Objections to trap ventilation Simpler methods advocated and illus- trated Press opinions on plumbing simplified Report of William At- kinson on amendment of Brookline, Mass., plumbing laws Remarks of St. Paul, Minn., plumbing inspector on trap ventilation Views of Col. George E. Waring, Jr,, on the "back-airing" of traps Experiments of Herr Unna, of Cologne, Germany, on trap siphonagc Simplicity versus complication House drainage diagrams Conclusion 402-446 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. PAGE. Fig. i. Unsanitary arrangement of bathrooms in city houses. All fixtures cased up in woodwork 13 Fig. 2. Soil pipe from water closet trap to the sewer without extension to roof, and without fresh air pipe; no trap on main drain 25 Fig. 3. Soil pipe and waste pipe without ventilation; fixtures trapped by S-traps without vent 26 Fig. 4. Defective ventilation of soil pipe by a small vent extension to the roof. 27 Fig 5. Defective method of soil pipe ventilation by sheet metal vent exten- sion to the roof 28 Fig. 6 Top of soil pipe covered with return bend or ventilating cap 29 Fig. 7. Proper method of ventilating a soil pipe by full-size extension through roof, and fresh air inlet at foot of line 30 Fig. 8. Top of soil pipe located too near a chimney flue 31 Fig. 9. Soil pipe extension on roof located too near an attic window 32 Fig. 10. Proper method of making offset in a vent pipe; enlargement of pipes smaller than four inches below roof 33 Fig. ii. Wrong method of offset in a vent line 34 Fig. 12. Soil pipe extended full size; fresh air vent; no trap on main drain, but each fixture trapped 42 Fig. 13. House drain trapped by a running trap, fresh air pipe on house side of trap, trap under each fixture, soil pipe extended full size above the roof 43 Fig. 14. Fixtures trapped, soil pipe extended full size above roof; house drain left untrapped and without fresh air inlet 44 Fig. 15. House drain trapped by a disconnecting trap; fixtures in the house left untrapped; soil pipe extended full size above roof 45 Fig. 16. House drain trap, with fresh air inlet opening 46 Fig. 17. Trap on house drain located in a manhole with open cover 50 Fig. 18. Trap on house drain located in manhole with tight cover 50 Fig. 19. View of Bower's trap *. . . . 56 Fig. 20 Waring's sewer gas check valve 56 Fig, 21. Cudell trap 57 Fig. 22. Sanitas trap 59 Fig. 23. Puro trap 60 Fig. 24. Hydric trap 61 Fig. 25. Ideal trap 62 Fig. 26 S-trap with vent pipe at crown of trap 64 Fig. 27. Stack of air pipe for a number of S-traps 64 Fig. 28. Branch vent from fixture entering the vertical vent pipe too low; correct position indicated in dotted lines 65 Fig. 29. Imperfect arrangement of branch vent pipe by " bowing" down. . . 66 Fig 30. Objectionable bye-pass arrangement on vent pipes 67 Fig. 31. S-trap vented to prevent a long dead end in the waste pipe 68 Fig. 32. Non-siphoning trap under bowl, where this is near a thoroughly ventilated soil pipe 69 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. PAGE. Fig- 33- Diagram illustrating the application of the water pressure test to the soil, drain and waste pipe system in a city house 82 Fig- 34- Section showing the drain, soil and waste pipe system of a country house 85 Fig- 35- Illustration showing difference between common steam and recessed drainage fittings 96 Fig. 36. Watts' " Asphyxiator " smoke-testing machine 101 Fig- 37- Burns and Baillie's " Eclipse " smoke-testing machine 101 Fig. 38. American smoke-testing machine 102 Fig- 39- Improved American smoke-testing machine 103 Fig. 40. Large American smoke-testing machine 104 Fig 41. Plan of a modern bathroom 128 Fig. 42. Elevation showing exposed plumbing in a modern bathroom 129 Fig. 43. Plan showing water closet located separate from bathroom 130 Fig. 44. Plan illustrating separation of water closet and bathroom 131 Fig. 45. Local ventilation of plumbing fixtures by connection with a heated vent flue 132 Fig. 46. Cone of filtration 148 Fig. 47. Cone of pollution 149 Fig. 48. Proper method of laying earthen drains 159 Fig. 49. Plan showing disposal of sewage from a country house into a water- course with tidal current. The sewage tank is shown in detail in Fig. 50 165 Fig. 50. Detail of sewage tank with emptying gate valves operated by hand. 166 Fig. 51. Disposal of household wastes by surface irrigation 168 Fig. 52. Plan of country house with sewage disposal system by sub-surface irrigation. The flush tank is shown in detail in Fig. 66 174 Fig. 53- Profile along line of sewer from house to sub-surface irrigation field, as shown in plan in Fig. 52 175 Fig. 54 Absorption tiles with gutters and caps 176 Fig. 55- Manner of laying absorption drains 176 Fig. 56. Y-branch and Tee-branch for absorption drains 177 Fig. 57- Cross-section through a trench, with absorption drains 177 Fig. 58. Plan of sub-surface irrigation system on level ground 178 Fig- 59- Plan of sub-surface irrigation field on slightly irregular ground 179 Fig. 60. Plain hopper for slop water disposal 180 Fig. 61. Wooden tank for slop water disposal 181 Fig. 62. Field's flush tank with settling chamber for sewage disposal 183 Fig. 63. Field's annular siphon 183 Fig 64. Plan and section of modified Field's sewage flush tank 185 Fig. 65. Plan and vertical section of round sewage flush tank, with Rhoads- Williams automatic siphon 187 Fig. 66. Plan and vertical section of oblong sewage flush tank, with Rhoads- Williams automatic siphon 1 89 Fig. 67. Plain earth closet 193 Fig. 68. Rear hall bathroom 258 Fig. 69. Bathroom in centre of house 250 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. PAGE. Fig. 70. Plan showing bathroom between front and r?ar rooms 260 Fig, 71. Bathroom in rear extension; water closet separate 261 Fig. 72. Bathroom in rear extension; water closet separate 262 Fig. 73- Bathroom extension 263 Fig. 74. Bathroom extension 264 Fig. 75- Bathroom in rear extension; separate water closet for servants access- ible from rear hall 265 Fig. 76. End elevation of bathroom, shown in plan in Fig. 74 270 Fig. 77. End elevation of bathroom, shown in plan in Fig. 74 270 Fig. 78. Side elevation of bathroom, shown in plan in Fig. 74. 271 Fig. 79. Plan for a general guests' toilet room for a large hotel 289 Fig. So. Plan of a ladies' toilet room, with lavatories, in a large department store 299 Fig. 81. Plan of a balcony floor of a theatre, showing toilet room accommo- dations for the public and the stage performers 304 Fig. 82. Plan of a w r ater closet pavilion for a large school house 309 Fig. 83. Plan showing the location of plumbing in a side wing of a cottage hospital 311 Fig. 84. Detail of plumbing in cottage hospital, illustrated in Fig. 83 312 Fig. 85. Plan showing hospital plumbing located in a semi-detached tower. . . 314 Fig. 86. Plan of a congregate bathroom in a large hospital for the insane. ... 316 Fig. 87. Plan showing toilet room for a barrack building for a soldiers' home. 319 Fig. 88. Plan of toilet room, lavatories and spray baths of a large armory building 321 Fig. 89. Plan of a public rain bath 324 Fig. 90. Section through bathroom on second floor, and through butler's j>an- try and toilet room on first floor, showing simplified plumbing. . . 411 Fig. 91. Plan and section showing simplified plumbing for a group of lava- tories 412 Fig. 92. Section showing simplified plumbing for a group of hotel toilet rooms, with two water closets, one wash basin and one bath- room on each floor 414 Fig. 93. Plan of toilet room shown in section in Fig. 92 415 Fig. 94. Plan of bathroom (the section and arrangement of the plumbing for same are shown in Fig. 95) 416 Fig. 95. Section of simplified plumbing for a group of bathrooms located vertically over each over. (For plan see Fig. 94) 417 Fig. 96. Pipe system used in experiments on trap siphonage 434 Fig. 97. Spiral motion of water in vertical soil pipes 435 Fig. 98. Concave surface of w r ater flowing through a horizontal pipe 436 Fig. 99. Form of bowl and trap used in some of the experiments described.. 437 Fig. 100. Glass gauge attached to crown of traps used in the experiments. . . 438 Fig. 101. Wire basket for vent pipe on roof 440 Fig. 102. System of drainage for a house arranged according to the present rules and regulations with " back-air pipes " for all traps 444 Fig. 103. System of drainage for a house arranged in accordance with simpli- fied plumbing methods advocated in this chapter 445 LIST OF PLATES. Plate I. A modern bathroom in a private residence. (Drawn especially for this book) Between pages 1 29 and 130 Plate II. Private bathroom in hotel Between pages 268 and 269 Plate III. Perspective view of bathroom Between pages 268 and 269 Plate IV. View of single spray bath for bathing insane patients Between pages 315 and 316 Plate V. Interior view of large bathroom with spray baths at the Utica State Hospital Between pages 315 and 316 Plate VI. Comparison of simplified and complicated plumbing methods Between pages 442 and 443 I. DEFECTIVE PLUMBING AND SEWER GAS. All who are engaged in building construction must devote, at some time or other, some attention to> the subjects discussed in this volume. Architects, engineers, builders, mechanics, physicians and sani- tarians, house-owners and householders, should be interested in it. One branch of the general problem of house sanitation comprises the sewerage of the dwelling and the house plumbing, which are of more than ordinary importance from a health point of view. In the planning of a new house many details should be most carefully considered, such as the fol- lowing : Its site and location ; the character of the subsoil of the building lot ; the aspect of the house ; the construction of proper foundations and of dry and well-lighted cellars ; the means for preventing the dampness of walls ; the proper building materials ; the arrangement of rooms, halls, closets and staircases most consistent with health, comfort and conven- ience ; the lighting, warming and ventilation of the house ; its drainage, water supply and sewerage ; the ' arrangement of plumbing fixtures and plumbing- work ; the removal and proper disposal of kitchen garbage, of slops, ashes, of excreta and liquid wastes of the household. TO SANITARY ENGINEERING OF BUILDINGS. The soil on which the house is to be erected should be free from impurities and sewage contamination ; an abundance of fresh air of proper temperature and a continuous removal of vitiated air are vital necessities for the health of the inmates ; a never-ceasing and bountiful supply of pure and wholesome water is re- quired for drinking and cooking purposes, for daily ablutions of the body, for cleaning utensils, washing linen, scrubbing floors and windows, for flushing plumbing fixtures and other uses. The water brought into the dwelling under pressure must be removed from it after use, being then more or less befouled by waste matters from the human body, from soiled linen, or from personal ablutions and mixed with greasy matters from the pantry, scul- lery and kitchen. Befouled water from the household (to which may be added the waste liquids from stables and from manufacturing establishments of all descriptions) is called sewage, and the object of a sewerage system is first, the immediate removal, by means of water, of all sewage from habitations, and second, its disposal in a manner so as to render it not only innocuous, but, if possible, useful. For convenience in performing the various duties of domestic cleanliness, and further for health and comfort's sake, our modern houses are furnished with set fixtures, water closets, basins, tubs and sinks, sup- plied with hot and cold water, and connected by waste pipes to the drainage system. The proper planning of an efficient system of water supply and sewerage DEFECTIVE PLUMBING AND SEWER GAS. II for a building requires much skill, practical experi- ence and a thorough knowledge of the subject. The hints and suggestions given hereafter relate not so much to proper mechanical execution of the details of plumbing work as to a sound sanitary arrangement of the drainage system. Upon the latter will largely depend the future immunity of the building from sewer air, and consequently the freedom of its in- mates from certain preventible diseases, generally at- tributed to the entrance of gases from the sewer or cesspool through defective plumbing work. I shall not discuss at length the much vexed ques- tion of the influence of sewer air in developing or spreading certain epidemic diseases. I believe this to be a question which only biologists and physiologists are competent to answer. Neither architects, nor en- gineers, nor physicians should pronounce an individ- ual opinion, unless they have devoted years of actual study and experimenting to organic chemistry, to.biol- ogy and to the germ theory of disease. While this scientific question is pending, it seems advisable to continue to assume that gases originating from the decomposition of animal or vegetable mat- ter, especially if the decomposition goes on in the absence of oxygen, are capable of doing harm, when entering a dwelling. Just how much harm they may do will largely depend upon the constitution of the individual exposed to the influence of such germ-con- taining atmosphere. A healthy person, having much out-of-door exercise, mav breathe sewer air with im- 12 SANITARY ENGINEERING OF BUILDINGS. punity ; on the other hand, people in delicate health, women and children, may suffer severely from breath- ing impure air, the consequences being slight head- ache, nausea, vomiting, or diarrhoea, dysentery, en- teric fever, cholera, diphtheria, etc. Likewise will workingmen engaged for a whole day in cleaning sewers feel the influence of the deadly poison less than a person sleeping in an unventilated room con- taining an untrapped wash bowl or other plumbing fixture. It has been said that " pure air and plenty of it is the best cure for sewer gas." This is undoubtedly true, but how little is it as yet understood. An abun- dant supply of this life-giving element, " pure air," is needed in our houses in order to effect tht- proper ven- tilation of living and sleeping rooms, in particular of the closets and bathrooms of dwellings, of all plumb- ing fixtures, soil and waste pipes, of the house drain, the sewer and the cesspool. Says Dr. George Wilson in his book, " Healthy Life and Healthy Homes " : In order to keep the air of the house pure and healthy^ there must be no damp foundations, no damp walls, no dark and dingy cupboards or corners to confine the air and devitalize it, no filth ip or around the dwelling to pollute it, and no overcrowding. There should be cleanliness everywhere, adequate means of ventilation, plenty of window space to let sufficient light into every room, and proper appliances for warming during cold weather. Let us inquire briefly, with reference to those rooms containing plumbing fixtures, what the actual con- dition of city houses has been during the past. DEFECTIVE PLUMBING AND SEWER GAS. 13 Formerly bathrooms and water closet apartments were frequently located in the centre of the house, with no other light but that from a window opening into the staircase hall (Fig. i). One looked in vain for any means of renewing the air of the apartment. In placing the bathroom in this part of the house, it did not occur to either architect, house-owner or plumber Fig. i. Unsanitary arrangement of bathrooms in City Houses. All fixtures cased up in woodwork. that just in cases where a room containing plumbing work cannot have a window to an outside wall, ven- tilation is essential, much more so than costly furni- ture, decorated ceilings or artistic wall paper. It was not unusual in former days to find water closets and urinals placed in dark closets, lighted by a gas flame, with no other outlet for the products of combustion, 14 SANITARY ENGINEERING OF BUILDINGS. and any possible foul gases, than into the hall of the house, or, what was infinitely worse, into an adjoin- ing bedroom. Is it then surprising that complaints of sewer air should have been frequent and loud ? On the bedroom floors there was often a dark, damp, unventilated and ill-smelling closet, which con- tained a slop-sink or a slop-hopper, into which the housemaid poured the bed-chamber slops. Such a closet requires ventilation fully as much as the water closet apartment. All slop-sinks have large surfaces exposed to spatterings, and, as usually constructed, receive no flush of clean water following a discharge from a slop-pail ; they remain fouled with dirty mat- ter, which soon gives off offensive odors. The air of the closet is never changed, except when the door is opened, and then only to bring its fouled atmosphere in connection with the air of other parts of the house. In the basement we often found a nuisance created by the servants' water closet. The most remote, ill- lighted and closely confined corner of the basement or cellar was generally selected for it. Could there be anything astonishing about the usual condition in which such apparatus was found ? The closet being located in a dark, out-of-the-way place, no trouble was taken in keeping the bowl free from filth. I have seen such places in the houses of wealthy, refined and intelligent people, in the very worst state of neglect and untidiness, being seldom, if ever, looked after by the heads of the family. Yet untidiness of the ser- vants' water closet apparatus does not remain con- DEFECTIVE PLUMBING AND SEWER GAS. 15 fined to this apartment alone, but creates unwhole- some gases which spread and fill the entire dwelling. My picture is by no means overdrawn, and I know from experience extending over many years that the facts disclosed were the rule, not the exception, in the majority of homes. A somewhat closer examination of the fixtures con- nected with the drainage system usually revealed the following facts : The servants' water closet w r as of the cheapest and worst kind, a pan closet, encased in tight nailed woodwork, with no ventilation under the seat nor to the apartment. The removal of the riser, seat and cover, disclosed a floor stained by leakage of the closet valve, and ill-smelling from, the absorp- tion of spilled urine by the woodwork. Dust and dirt, and perhaps vermin, had accumulated in the hid- den corners. The closet bowl was generally flushed by a valve, supplied directly from the rising water main of the house. The flushing water entered the bowl at a point of its circumference and whirled around in a spiral motion, unable to flush the bowl, which accounted for its generally filthy appearance. The operation of pulling the handle started the flush, at the same time it caused the pan which closed the outlet of the bo\vl to tilt, thus dumping its contents into the container. Each time this was done a puff of sewer air from the container entered the apart- ment. This container or receiver has Keen called a " hidden chamber of horrors." As usually constructed it was of plain iron, with rough interior surface, of 16 SANITARY ENGINEERING OF BUILDINGS. large size to allow the movement of the pan, and re- ceived no flush whatever^ Its sides soon became coated with excrements, putrefaction began, and "sewer gas" was thus generated in the heart of the house. The plumber may have assured the house- owner that he had put a trap under the closet to cut off the gases from the soil pipe, he may have told him that there was an additional seal against gases afforded by the water in the pan, and seeing all the compli- cated machinery about the apparatus, the householder generally a layman in such matters was led to believe that he had in his house the most modern and perfect appliance. It certainly was a most perfect and ingenious apparatus to fill the house with nox- ious and health-menacing smells ! For there were openings through which the sewer air would enter the room, even when the pan was closed and the closet outlet sealed. The hole in the container for the spin- dle which works the pan was never made tight, and thus a direct connection between the container and the room was established. The bowl was fastened to the container by a mere putty joint. This crumbled away in time, or was eaten by rats, and thus another road for the gases of the container was opened. The trap of the water closet was another source of annoy- ance ; it necessarily accumulated excremental matter, as the valve.flush was not sufficiently strong to drive such matters through the dip of the trap. In old houses this trap was often of the worst kind, a D-trap, which in a short time became a filthy cesspool in the DEFECTIVE PLUMBING AND SEWER GAS. \J room. The pan quickly corroded by the action of sewer air, and thus the security of the double water seal was lost, while the bowl lost its water and became more readily fouled on this account. The floor under the pan closet was often provided with a safe to catch drippings, and its waste pipe was in many cases run into the trap, below its water line. Thus the foul water from the trap standing back in the drip pipe evaporated into the apartment. In some instances a cheap hopper, generally of iron, was used for servants' closets. This was no less objectionable than the pan closet, its flush being en- tirely insufficient to keep the rough inside of the hop- per free from excreta. The kitchen sink, usually of iron, but sometimes of soapstone or other material, was connected to the nearest soil or waste pipe by a branch pipe of lead, which as a rule was of too large a diameter, and con- sequently accumulated deposits. It frequently jo'ined the soil pipe or the main drain without even the in- terposition of a trap. When trapped, the trap was often faulty in design, for instance a bell trap, or, when an S-trap, it was much too large and conse- quently ill-flushed. Bell traps contained in their upper part a strainer, and as the latter was remov- able, kitchen servants readily acquired the pernicious habit of lifting it to brush all kinds of refuse into the outlet. They hereby not only caused frequent ob- structions of the trap and waste pipe, but they estab- lished a direct connection between the kitchen and l8 SANITARY ENGINEERING OF BUILDINGS. the gases of the sink waste pipe, when the strainer was removed. In older houses the kitchen sink was encased with carpentry, and the foul, dark space underneath the sink was utilized for the storage of cooking utensils, kerosene cans, cleaning rags, old shoes, scrubbing brushes and other matters. Laundry tubs were formerly of wood, and con- tributed, after long use, their share to the pollution of the air of the house. Such tubs are objectionable, not only because they get leaky, but because the wood absorbs the filth' of soiled linen, and is difficult to clean ; when old, they give off a very offensive odor. Moreover, they were generally closed up tightly underneath, and the floor became ill-smelling from leakage and began quickly to rot. The copper sink in the butler's pantry off the din- ing-room usually had a large reservoir or bottle trap on the large waste pipe. Ample size ,of both was formerly deemed necessary to prevent the choking up of the pipe and trap with grease. But the small stream from the pantry sink was not able thoroughly to flush the waste pipe, and the bottle trap, placed to act as a grease trap, and which should have been fre- quently cleaned, was forgotten, not being easily ac- cessible, and left to take care of itself. It filled with putrid grease, the sides of the waste pipe were coated with a similar matter, the overflow pipe from the sink formed a channel for gases, and thus the air of the butler's pantry became contaminated. The toilet-rooms and the bathrooms always con- DEFECTIVE PLUMBING AND SEWER GAS. 19 tained fixtures enclosed with tight carpentry. The water closet was generally a pan closet flushed from a valve, or in some cases supplied with water from a special cistern. Later on it was of a more expensive pattern, either a valve closet or a plunger closet. Both had serious defects, and although improvements upon the pan closet, neither in the end proved to be satisfactory types of apparatus. The flap-valve of valve closets leaked after long use, permitting the water to run out of the bowl. If the use of the closet was continued while in such a condition, the flap- valve and the walls of the container became coated with filth. The same coating with filth occurred after a time with the plunger and plunger chamber of the other type of closet. The wash bowls and bath tubs, and their traps and waste pipes, were seldom properly designed and con- structed. The wastes were often left in direct com- munication with a soil or waste pipe ; in other cases they were trapped only by running them into the water closet trap below the water line. If this trap became displaced or its contents siphoned out, a free communication was established between the soil pipe and the bathroom. Where the wastes entered the water closet trap above the water line, the gases of the container found a ready exit at the bath or bowl. A common defect of bowls and bath tubs consisted in their overflow pipe joining the waste pipe beyond the trap. But even where overflow and waste pipe were both trapped by the common S-trap, the water 2O SANITARY ENGINEERING OF BUILDINGS. seal of the latter was broken by siphonage, or it evap- orated if the bowl was not used for any length of time. When the soil and waste pipes, into which the bowl or bath tub wastes delivered, had no ventilation by an upward extension through the roof, the S-trap was sometimes forced by back-pressure. Finally the water in the trap absorbed gases and possibly germs of disease, which were given off, on the house side of the trap, into the room when the water in the trap was agitated. Stationary wash stands had either common bowls with outlet at the bottom closed by a plug, which was hung to a brass or plated safety chain, or else they were of the " tip-up " type, in which case the bowl was emptied by tilting its contents into a larger concentric bowl underneath. Both arrangements were unsanitary, for soapsuds adhered to the many links of the chain, which was difficult to clean, and the lower bowl of tip-up basins likewise presented a far from satisfactory appearance. Being covered and not easily accessible, it was seldom cleaned ; filth gradually accumulated in it, and its putrefaction caused great annoyance. The common chain and plug arrangement for bath tubs was in no respect better than that for wash bowls. Bad smells from wash bowls or bath tubs are also traced to the overflow pipes, which remain coated, should an occasional overflow occur, with slime, and receive no flushing whatever. For these reasons hid- DEFECTIVE PLUMBING AND SEWER GAS. 21 den and inaccessible overflow pipes should be dis- pensed with wherever possible. Stationary bowls and tubs, when lined underneath with a safe to prevent damage to ceilings, had safe drip pipes to carry off any overflowing water or occa- sional drips from leaky coupling or other joints. The arrangement of such drip pipes was frequently de- fective, for sometimes they were left in direct connec- tion with soil or waste pipes ; in other cases they were trapped, the traps becoming ineffective by evapora- tion of the water. In houses of more recent construc- tion a weeping pipe was arranged to supply water to such trap at frequent intervals, but even this device was unsatisfactory and dangerous. A fixture common to office rooms and to lavatories or toilet-rooms adjoining billiard rooms in private houses, is the urinal. It was usually in an extremely nasty condition, and its appearance most unsightly, owing to the feeble flush from a stop-cock, which was unable to cleanse the urinal. Urine remained spat- tered on the bowl or sometimes was spilled over on the floor, and its rapid decomposition created most pun- gent and disgusting odors. Unless of an approved pattern, with plenty of water in the bowl, and with a strong flush of water driven through a flushing rim and derived from a cistern, urinals for private houses should not be tolerated. Moreover, the improved modern water closet can generally be so constructed and fitted up as to be used in place of a urinal. When plumbing work became regulated by law 22 SANITARY ENGINEERING OF BUILDINGS. in cities and controlled by plumbing inspectors of the Board of Health, a marked influence upon the quality and general character of the plumber's work resulted, but constant vigilance was necessary to secure the proper carrying out of these regulations. The general public, in particular the vast number of families in cities who are dependent for shelter on tenement houses, apartments, or small houses built for speculation and for rent, should be thankful for the many benefits derived from the enforcement of the plumbing regulations. Briefly stated, bathrooms in the centre of the house were placed around light an'd air shafts ; less woodwork was used in fitting up sinks and tubs ; water closets and wash bowls were provided with hinged doors to render possible fre- quent inspections of hidden parts of the fixtures. The pan closet, although still used to some extent, was supplied from a special flushing cistern, and had a properly vented S-trap. In addition to this, every tub, bowl, sink, etc., was provided with a separate vented trap. The faulty arrangement of soil and waste pipes in dwellings aggravated the danger arising from defect- ive plumbing fixtures. The principal defects were : improper material for pipes, bad manner of making pipe joints, insufficient or defective ventilation of the soil and waste pipe system, and use of pipes of too large calibre. Lead soil pipes, although still the rule in England, have, fortunately, in this country, become a thing of DEFECTIVE PLUMBING AND SEWER GAS. 23 the past. They were often found corroded and honey-combed by the action of sewer air. Cast iron pipes with socket joints have since then taken their place. These are sold in lengths of five feet, with a single or double hub, and numerous fittings are manufactured to provide for changes of direction, for branch wastes, etc. In ordinary contract work, the plumber formerly used what was called " light or standard soil pipe," a very flimsy article of manufac- ture, which should never be tolerated wherever sound work is expected. The better grade of soil pipe in the market, the so-called extra heavy soil pipe and fittings, the price of which Is about double that of light pipe, were at first specified only for public or other large expensive buildings, while nowadays they are used almost exclusively everywhere. Experience with extra heavy cast iron soil pipe warrants me in saying that even the latter is very often decidedly bad, having an uneven thickness of metal, and consequently being in its weakest part no thicker than " light " pipe. As in all other engineer- ing structures, the strength and durability of a sys- tem of drainage should be determined by the strength of its weakest point. It will thus be readily under- stood that extra heavy soil pipe is no better, although more costly, than light pipe, where manufacturers take no pains to secure a uniform thickness of the metal. In plumbers' soil pipe, sand holes or flaws, which are a common occurrence, are not readily de- tected by subsequent inspection, especially if the pipe 24 SANITARY ENGINEERING OF BUILDINGS. is coated with tar or asphalt, or enameled. An equally weak point with plumbers' pipe is the shape and strength of the hub, as the tightness of the joints depends upon them. The worst defect in plumbing- work of cheaply built houses was the manner of tight- ening the joints in cast iron soil pipes. No other part of a common plumbing job showed so many defects as a stack of iron soil or waste pipe ; there was scarcely another detail in a system of drain pipes for a dwelling in which so much rascality or criminal stupidity was shown as in the manner of making joints in iron pipe, and this was especially the case wherever architects or builders permitted the pipes to be built into walls, inasmuch as under such circumstances defective joints were quite readily cov- ered up and brought out of sight. Such pipes were formerly often jointed with paper, covered with sand, or else some cheap mortar was thrown into the space between spigot and socket ; in other cases putty or red lead was used. Wherever joints were in sight some lead was, perhaps, poured on top of the sand to give the joint the appearance of having been done with the 1 proper material. Workmen were sometimes content with filling the joint with lead poured in while hot, but omitted the most important operation, that of caulking the joints after the lead had cooled off. But even where a gasket of hemp or oakum, a ladle full of hot lead and caulking tools were used, care- lessness or ignorance of the mechanic had much to do with improper and leaky joints. The manner of ap- DEFECTIVE PLUMBING AND SEWER GAS. plying the gaskets of oakum, the quality of the melted lead, its purity, the temperature to which it was kept in the pot on the fire, the manner of pouring the lead, and finally the operation of caulking it after shrink- ing, are details worthy of careful consideration, which were but seldom looked after in plumbing a building. It would not have required much reflection on the part of the mechanic to know that the safety of the occupants of a house depended to a great ex- tent upon the perfect tightness of the joints in waste and soil pipes. But the health of the inmates was unfortunately not a matter usually consid- ered by the speculative builder or by the average plumber. It is possible to make joints in cast iron soil pipe tight if the thickness of the pipe hubs is increased, if the pipe is carefully selected, inspected and tested with hydraulic pressure before leaving the foundry, or at any rate before coating the pipes with a rust-preventing solu- tion but even then it requires proper care and a good deal of attention in making the joints. Unless the Board of Health or Building Department regulations Fig. 2. Soil pipe from water closet trap to the sewer without extension to roof, and with- out fresh air pipe ; no trap on main drain. 26 SANITARY ENGINEERING OF BUILDINGS. require the testing of drain, soil, waste and vent pipes under the supervision of inspectors appointed by the Board, or unless an expert engineer superintends the drainage work in a dwelling, care is seldom, if ever, taken to attain such results. If the subsequent test- ing of soil and waste pipes shows a leak, the plumber is very apt to excuse himself by throwing all blame upon the manufacturer. He will claim, and I have frequently heard the statement made, that the latter does not manufac- ture pipes with hubs of sufficient strength t o withstand the severe knocking occasioned by the caulking tool. While this was formerly true, it cannot now be con- ^3_ "T" y sidered a valid reason for not making tight joints. Fig 3 .-So I pipe and waste pipe without venti- lation ; fixtures trapped by S-traps without T Kpl ip-i^P that vent. plumbers join in the ear- nest protest of the best architects and civil engineers against such " light soil pipe," or against extra heavy pipe with uneven thickness of metal or hubs of insuffi- cient strength, they will succeed in securing a better article of manufacture. It has been my personal observation that honest and conscientious plumbers with best possible inten- DEFECTIVE PLUMBING AND SEWER GAS. tions to do only first-class work were at times un- able to caulk the lead in the joints sufficiently tight without splitting the hub of the pipe. In other cases the joint could not be made tight owing to the im- possibility of reaching all parts of the lead in a joint with the usual caulking tools, the soil pipe being located in a recess or a partition. On the other hand, heavy cast iron socket pipes can be tightly joined, as is proven by the joints of gas and water mains. In the one case leakage of illuminating gas, and in the other \vaste of water, are effectually prevented by properly made joints. There are still some houses and formerly there were a great many in every large city where soil pipes have no Fig 4 Defective ventilation of soil pipe by a i , -i , small vent extension to the roof. 3.11 CirCUldLlOn \\ Hclie V CT, but stop at the trap of the highest water closet, and where waste pipes are run only from the drain in the cellar to the fixtures, such as sinks, tubs, bowls, etc., without upward extension (Figs. 2 and 3). In many cases the plumber thought he had provided a sufficient ven- Y 28 SANITARY ENGINEERING OF BUILDINGS. tilation by running a small (i^ or 2-inch) vent pipe through the roof (Fig. 4). In a few cases only was the extension of the soil pipe of the full size of the pipe. That this ventilating extension should be of the same material of which soil pipes are made is a rule which was formerly much violated by skin plumbers. Galvanized sheet iron or tin pipes were frequently run from the highest water closet upward through the roof (Fig. 5), the joints being imperfectly closed or not made at all, the pipes being simply slipped one into another. Even where the exten- sion of the soil pipe is of proper size and material, its object is often de- feated by a ventilating cap or a return bend (Fig. 6) placed on top of the mouth of pipe, both of which greatly impede ventilation. All these attempts at establishing an air current are futile, unless a second opening for fresh air is pro- vided at the foot of the iron soil pipe. With two Fig. 5. Defective method of soil pipe ventila- tion by sheet metal vent extension to roof. DEFECTIVE PLUMBING AND SEWER GAS. 2Q openings of the full size of soil pipe (Fig. 7) a con- stant current and dilution of the air in the pipe, and a destruction of organic matter coating the inner walls of the pipes is effected. It is now recognized as a mistake to place any ven- tilator over the mouth of soil or waste pipes. While some cowls may act very efficiently with certain di- rections of the wind, experience teaches that for the usual direction of the wind a plain open-mouthed tube affords the greatest upward movement in vertical pipes. Carelessness is often shown in the location of the fresh air pipe as well as of the soil pipe mouth. The former should be remote from windows and from the cold air box of the heating ap- paratus, and the latter not too near any skylight, air shaft or chimney top. Sewer air may be carried down a chim- ney flue and enter the dwelling through fireplaces, if proper care is not taken to locate the soil pipe mouth remote from, and at least a few feet below, chimney tops (Fig. 8) ; down drafts in chimney flues or venti- lating shafts are known to occur at times, and may thus be the cause of annoying gases in rooms. Soil pipes terminating above the roof should not be close to mansard roof windows of attic bedrooms (Fig. 9). Experience has also clearly demonstrated the need of enlarging the extension of smaller waste pipes to cap ' SANITARY ENGINEERING OF BUILDINGS. four inches diameter (Fig. 10), for smaller openings above the roof become frequently obstructed in cold climates by hoar frost, and thus the purpose of the pipe extension is practically annihilated. Much trouble has also been experienced in the past by vent pipes becoming choked with rust at the points where offsets were re- quired. (See Fig. n.) it is necessary, to pre- vent this occurrence, to make all offsets with fit- tings under an angle of at least 45 with the hori- zontal line. (See Fig. 10.) A common mistake of plumbers and builders was to make the soil and waste pipes unnecessa- rily large. Soil pipes of 5 or even 6 inches diam- eter were, and are still used, where a 4-inch pipe Fig. 7. Proper method of ventilating a soil pipe WOuld be ample tO Carry byfull-size extension through roof, and fresh "^ air inlet aj foot of line. off all the waste water that could be discharged into it. Such a pipe has proven to be sufficient for dozens of water closets on the same or on different floors. In my own practice I seldom use a soil pipe larger than four DEFECTIVE PLUMBING AND SEWER GAS. inches diameter, except in the case of tenement houses having careless tenants; of hospitals for insane, where patients are inclined to be mischievous, and in the case of high office buildings. Where only one water closet has to be served I should not hesitate to use a 3-inch pipe, provided I could rely upon a judicious use of the closet and upon constant use of the now universal toilet paper, and provided also the traps on / / ), waste pipes connected to the 3-inch soil pipe are efficiently protected against siphonage. Where vertical waste pipes are required to receive the water from sinks, bowls and tubs, located at a dis- tance from the soil pipe, experience has proven a 2-inch pipe sufficiently large ; pipes of larger size will always remain im- m perfectly flushed, and therefore become, in time, extremely foul. The effect of the previously mentioned official supervision of plumbing shows itself both in the im- proved ventilation and in the material and jointing of soil and waste pipes. Lead is the material usually employed for branch waste pipes connecting fixtures with the main soil Figl 8< ~ Top of 32 SANITARY ENGINEERING OF BUILDINGS. pipe system. Lead pipe of small diameter is more easily run than an iron pipe, and although it is quite feasible to run galvanized wrought iron waste pipes of small size to wash basins, tubs or sinks, it must be conceded that lead offers certain advantages, espe- cially in crooked runs, in corners and under floors. Foremost among the advantages should be mentioned the fact that lead pipe requires the least number of joints. For more than one reason, however, it is de- Fig. 9. Soil pipe extension on roof located too near an attic window. sirable that supply and waste pipes in concealed places should be avoided, for it is a matter of com- mon occurrence with lead waste pipes located under the floor, to have nails driven by the carpenter's care- less hand into the upper part of the waste. Unfor- tunately, the fact is not readily disclosed ; the hole, being on the top, may not leak water, but it will leak sewer air. Where lead waste pipes escape such a rough treat- ment from carpenters, they are subject to the danger DEFECTIVE PLUMBING AND SEWER GAS. 33 of being gnawed by rats. If concealed under floors, waste pipes are often run at a dead level, or where proper fall has been given to them at the time the work was done, a subsequent sagging may occur, owing to insufficient support, and the pipe, in conse- quence, becomes double trapped or air bound. Here, as in regard to plumbing fixtures, the rule should be observed to leave the piping as much as pos- sible in plain sight and open to inspection. Defective joints in lead pipe are due to ignorance or inefficiency of me- chanics. Lead pipe should always be con- nected with " wiped joints," which technical expression means that the joint should be made with solder w f iped in a Fig I0 _ Proper method of making offset in a vent 11 11 pip e I enlargement of pipes smaller than 4 shapely oval lump inches below roof . around the pipe. Very often the back part of such joints is found defective, the solder having dropped off. Where joints are out of sight, the wiped joint is usually carelessly made and un- evenly shaped ; but ofteher still the plumber rests sat- isfied with making a " cup joint," which is not as strong" nor workmanlike in appearance as the wiped joint. 34 SANITARY ENGINEERING OF BUILDINGS. Where lead pipes are joined to hubs of cast iron pipe a careless workman often inserts the lead pipe into the iron hub, filling the space with cement or putty. Such joints are not to be trusted, as putty and cement crumble away in a short time, thus allowing the escape of noxious gases. The proper way to make such joints is to use a tinned brass ferrule, which is inserted into the cast iron hub, the joint being thor- oughly caulked as in the case of iron pipes ; the lead pipe is connected to the brass ferrule by a wiped joint. Where lead pipe joins a wrought iron or brass pipe, the connec- tion is made with a brass screw nipple, soldered to the lead and tightly screwed with red lead into the iron or brass fit- ting, which is tapped to the standard thread. A radical defect exhibited in the common systems of plumbing is the use of waste pipes of too large calibre for the office which they have to perform. A 2-inch lead waste pipe for a single wash bowl* which has only a i inch coupling and strainer, and a 3-inch waste for laundry tubs or a kitchen sink, cannot pos- sibly remain well flushed, but will soon become coated with filth, and eventually clog up entirely. Fig. ii. Wrong method of offset in a vent line. DEFECTIVE PLUMBING AND SEWER GAS. 35 For an ordinary pressure of water in the supply pipes a i^-inch waste for a bowl is ample ; a 2-inch pipe empties a bath tub or a laundry tray as quickly as any one may desire ; even for a pantry or a kitchen sink anything beyond two inches is a positive injury, for larger wastes are sure to choke up with grease in a short space of time. Not only is the first cost of the lead piping greater, but such extravagant sizes lead to stoppages and consequent bills for repairs. But even in these enlightened days it is rare to find house- owners who will listen to disinterested advice. Most of them still prefer to pay the price for the larger pipe in order to be. sure that their waste pipe is " big enough to pass anything coming into it." Another mistake frequently made is to use for such waste pipes traps of a larger diameter than the pipe. Under no circumstances whatever should any trap be of larger calibre than the waste pipe ; I should prefer reducing the size of the trap one-quarter or one-half inch, in order to increase the scouring effect of the waste water. The cellar is commonly the most neglected and least thought of part of a dwelling, yet its sanitary condition has a direct bearing upon the well-being of the occupants of the house. I think I am not mis- taken in saying that from the condition of a cellar one may, w r ith tolerable accuracy, draw conclusions in regard to the healthfulnessof the whole house. A cellar should be thoroughly ventilated, for much of the air of a cellar is drawn into the upper rooms of a 36 SANITARY ENGINEERING OF BUILDINGS. house, particularly in winter time, when stoves and fireplaces create a constant suction toward the rooms. Moreover, where hot-air furnaces are placed in the cellar, these sometimes draw their air supply directly from the cellar, or, where a cold air box has been pro- vided, it is constructed of wood, and through its cracks the tainted atmosphere of the cellar enters, to be carried in a heated state to the upper floors of the dwelling. It is all-important that the cellar floor should be thoroughly dry and water-tight ; nothing is more in- jurious to health than ground-air, which is often tainted with sewer air from leakage of drains, or from cesspools, located under the cellar of a house, or from heaps of garbage and refuse, constituting the soil upon which many of our habitations are being constantly erected, notwithstanding the earnest protests of sani- tarians. A cellar should be well lighted, for this will aid in keeping it in good order and will promote cleanliness. Cellars of city houses should never be used for the storage of large quantities of vegetables which may decay, nor should any kind of rubbish be left there to decompose. They should not be made hiding places for old rags, worn-out clothing, tin cans ; and, above all, the darkest corner, or the place under the cellar stairway, should never be chosen for a servants' water closet. Where a cellar is apt to be damp or even wet at times, adequate drainage must be provided. Under DEFECTIVE PLUMBING AND SEWER GAS. 37 no circumstances should a direct connection be estab- lished between the cellar or the sub-soil under the cellar and the sewer, for by doing so sewer air is led into the house. Reliance cannot be placed upon the common S-trap, with shallow water seal, on the line of the cellar drain ; it is too often rendered useless by the evaporation of the water forming the seal. Still worse is the common so-called "cesspool or stench trap " for cellar floors, provided with a bell-trap of improper shape and insufficient water seal, which is often rendered ineffective when the loose strainer becomes displaced or lost. If there must be an open- ing in the cellar floor to remove water after wash- ing the cellar, or to provide for an unexpected leakage of water into the cellar, this opening should be of moderate size and covered with a strainer, and the branch drain leading from it to the main house drain should be trapped by a trap with very deep seal, not liable to be easily lost through evaporation, and the drain should be furthermore protected by a gate valve which can be closed. Should, however, the sewer in the street be subject to back-flooding from the tide or an unusual rise of a river, or should its size be insufficient to carry off heavy rain storms, the cellar would be in constant danger of being flooded by backwater and sewage, in which case upon the water receding deposits of foul matters are left on the cellar floor. In such cases I strongly ad- vise doing away with the opening in the cellar floor, or else I insist on the use of some back pressure or tidal valve on the drain outlet. 38 SANITARY ENGINEERING OF BUILDINGS. In most houses built a generation ago the main drain is buried below the floor, in inaccessible loca- tions, its position being often quite unknown. Fol- lowing this, glazed earthen or cement pipes were used for house drains, while the drain of the oldest buildings was usually built of brick, often square in shape, much too large in size, and with insufficient or no fall. Sometimes even troughs of wood were used to carry off waste waters. All such drains are sure to accumulate deposits and to generate disease-breed- ing gases of decay. Brick drains under houses are generally harboring places for rats, the cement of the joints crumbles away, bricks loosen and fall out, and the drains become leaky or partly choked. Some- times, in examining old houses, I have observed that vitrified pipes had been laid under the floor to take the place of such brick drains, the latter being simply cut off,, but left, full of decomposing filth, under the building. Even vitrified pipes of proper shape should never be used for drains under a dwelling house ; they often crack through settlement and have leaky joints, and the soil under cellars becomes saturated with sewage. It is impossible properly to connect an up- right soil or waste pipe to an earthen drain, for no matter how well the iron pipe may be cemented into the hub of the terra cotta drain, a settlement of the soil pipe will break off the hub ; in other cases the earthen drain settles away from the soil pipe, leaving an opening between both, through which all sewage matter is discharged into the ground under the cellar. DEFECTIVE PLUMBING AND SEWER GAS. 39 It is not my intention to completely enumerate all the defects which are found in old and even in more modern work in the plumbing" of city and country dwellings. Some of the graver and more common faults have been alluded to. Of others I mention the following : the connection of drip pipes to the soil pipe system or to traps ; the connection of the overflow from drinking water tanks or water closet cisterns to soil or waste pipes ; the direct con- nection of refrigerator wastes to any part of the drainage system ; the running of local vent pipes from closet bowls into soil pipes ; the running of soil or waste pipes into chimney flues ; the use of rain leaders as soil and waste pipes ; the use of soil pipes as rain leaders ; the use of sheet metal rain leaders as ventilators of house drains ; untrapped leaders opening near dormer windows ; the trapping- of fixtures at a distance from the outlet ; the use of one trap for a number of fixtures ; the double trapping of fixtures ; the running of air pipes of traps into ven- tilation flues ; the connection between trap vent pipes and local vent pipes from closet bowls ; junctions between vent pipes and traps made on the wrong side of the trap, bye-passes, etc. With such a large and by no means exhaustive list of possible defects in the plumbing- of a house, the im- portance of a general house ventilation cannot be too often urged. The occupants of a house may perhaps continue to enjoy good health in the face of such dangerous defects if ample provision has been made 4O SANITARY ENGINEERING OF BUILDINGS. for artificial ventilation, and as long as the practice is observed of allowing a current of pure air to sweep daily through all rooms and closets in the dwelling. The conclusions which may be drawn from what has been said above are two-fold, namely : First, that by providing a dwelling with modern conveniences, having for their object comfort, cleanliness and pro- motion of health at home, we also create the danger of air pollution in dwellings, and that although it is quite possible to have such fixtures well and safely arranged, such a result can hardly be expected from the average mechanic, and that the best course for a house-owner is to procure professional advice at an early stage of house building. Second, that no mat- ter how well the system may have been planned, con- ceived and constructed, it needs looking after from time to time, the same as any other engineering struc- ture, and just here let me remind the reader of the importance of having on permanent record the loca- tion of all pipes, fixtures, traps, hand holes, etc., inside a dwelling, in order to facilitate the inspection and repairs. II. TRAPS AND SYSTEMS OF TRAPPING. By extending soil and waste pipes at least the full size through the roof, and by providing an inlet for fresh air at the bottom on the line of the house drain, a circulation of air through the waste pipe system is established. (See Fig. 7.) The system shown in the sketch is, however, still imperfect. Although it was not unusual years ago to find waste pipes of dwelling houses thus arranged, some further provisions are re- quired to render the system complete. No amount of ventilation would suffice to keep the air pure in houses having a drainage system so arranged. Sewer air would penetrate them from cellar to attic, satu- rating bedding, upholstery, carpets, furniture, wall papers, causing loss of strength and health of the occupants, and frequently breeding disease, or even causing death. The reason why such an arrangement of the pipes is defective is obvious. Whether the house drain de- livers into a cesspool or connects with a sewer in the street, an escape of generally foul gases into the house pipes will go on. But in addition to such gases from the sewer or cesspool, the soil and waste pipes of every house contain more or less foul air (improperly called "-sewer" gas), derived from decomposing SANITARY ENGINEERING OF BUILDINGS. waste matters adhering to and coating the inside of the waste pipes. With the arrangement shown, soil pipe air, as well as air from the cesspool or the street sewer, would find a ready outlet through the branch waste pipes and fixtures into the rooms. To prevent this, some barrier ought to be placed on the waste pipes and drains, which allows the foul water to run off, at the same time making it impossible for gases to return through the same channels. This is what is commonly called " trapping "a drain or a waste pipe, and the following remarks are chiefly devoted to traps and systems of trapping. The simplest form of trap is a bend in the pipe retaining sufficient water to " form a seal." While Fig. 12. Soil pipe extended full size ; fresh air vent ; no trap on main drain, but each fixture CVCTy LTclp lo, tO d Certain extent, an obstruction to the free flow of water, and brings with it the danger of occurrence of deposits and consequent decomposition of organic waste matter, yet in a system of house drainage the traps are necessary. First in importance is the proper trapping of each TRAPS AND SYSTEMS OF TRAPPING. 43 and every fixture in a dwelling. Each water closet, urinal, slop sink, wash bowl, bath tub, sink and laundry tub should be separately trapped as near to the fix- ture as possible. Improperly trapped or untrapped fixtures are fully as much the cause of bad and un- healthy odors in dwell- ings as improper and de- fective joints in soil pipes. If, then, \ve put a trap under each and every plumbing- appliance (Fig. 12), it still remains our duty to prevent any escape of foul gases from the sewer or cesspool into the soil and waste pipes, or at the opening A, which is intended to act as- an inlet for fresh air. Waste pipes always contain more or less foul air, which is Fig. 13. House drain trapped by a running trap, diluted and rendered aS fresh air pipe on house side of trap, trap under each fixture, soil pipe extended full ITlUCh aS pOSSlble hartTl- size above the roof. less by introducing into the pipes a constant current of pure air. A trap should, therefore, be placed on the line of the house drain, between the fresh air pipe A and the sewer or cesspool. (See Fig. 13.) The opening at A will now almost continually act as an inlet, except at the 44 SANITARY ENGINEERING OF BUILDINGS. moment when a discharge through a soil pipe occurs, at which time the current may, for a short time, be reversed. As long as such inlet is judiciously located, remote from windows or piazzas, or the cold air box of the heating apparatus, an occasional downward current through the soil pipe is unobjectionable. Much diversity of opin- ion exists in regard to the necessity of trapping the main drain and the fix- tures. There are experi- enced men who claim that the fresh air pipe A and the trap on the main drain should be omitted, leaving the soil pipe to draw its supply of air for circulation from the sewer (Fig. 14). I do not favor this system where a house drain dis- charges into a cesspool, Fig. 14. Fixtures trapped, soil pipe extended full i i *1 size above roof ; house drain left untrapped WhlCh ttlUSt nCCCSSarily and without fresh air inlet. , 1 f 1 7 j be more or less foul. It would be equally objectionable, in my opinion, wher- ever a street sewer is known to be so foul as to con- stitute an " elongated cesspool." Only in cases when pipes are well jointed and fixtures well trapped, does it appear admissible to have well constructed and TRAPS AND SYSTEMS OF TRAPPING. 45 copiously flushed street sewers ventilated through the house pipes. Up to the present day such work, as regards both the drainage arrangements of dwellings and the construction of sewers, has been the excep- tion rather than the rule. Where a house drain of a single house empties into a river, a lake or into the sea, and the dis- tance from the house to the outlet is moderate, the trap on the main drain may be omitted, always supposing the work in the house to be done in the most ap- proved and perfect man- ner, to be thoroughly in- spected from time- to time, and the drain to be of proper material, laid with ample fall and securely and tightly jointed. Should the out- let be located so as to be closed at times by a high tide or otherwise, it is necessary to construct a fresh air inlet entering the drain just above the highest possible water level. In the majority of cases my decided preference is for " disconnection " or complete isolation of each Fig. 15. House drain trapped by a disconnect- ing trap ; fixtures in the house left untrapped ; soil pipe extended full size above roof. 46 SANITARY ENGINEERING OF BUILDINGS. dwelling from the cesspool or the common sewer. Mr. Mansergh, a civil engineer of large experience, ably discusses this question as follows : I would detach as far as is practicable every house from the main sewer. As a part of the whole sewerage system, every single house is brought more or less closely in connection with every other house, and by this means evils existing in some houses may become com- mon to all. The more perfectly this connection can be severed the better. The aim in all cases should be to isolate as far as possible, but at all events to cut off the direct communication to the interior. It has also been proposed to leave out the traps under the fixtures, sometimes substituting for the traps a downward draft through the fixtures by con- necting them with a heated flue. The advocates of this system (Fig. 15) require, of course, the trap on the main drain and a fresh air pipe, or, as it is sometimes called, a " disconnecting Fig. 16. House drain trap, with fresh air tf^T) " The ObieCtion tO inlet opening. ^ this plan lies in the fact that soil and waste pipes of every house contain more or less foul air, which is not always expelled at the top of the soil pipe, but will enter the interior of the dwelling through untrapped fixtures. Even the short branches from fixtures become, in time, coated with a peculiar slime, emitting unhealthy gases ; this is true in particular of the overflow pipes, which are insufficiently flushed and readily become the seat of fungoid growth. Noxious gases TRAPS AND SYSTEMS OF TRAPPING. 47 may, it is true, be withdrawn by connecting branch waste pipes to a hot flue. But the danger always remains that, at times, the flue may cease to draw ; for instance when the kitchen fire goes out over night, or in the case of a steam coil placed in a flue to increase the draft, the steam may be shut off from Saturday afternoon to Monday morning. In such instances, what is to prevent the foul gases from entering through the fixtures into the house ? More- over, it is found difficult to establish a strong, uni- form and constant downward draft through a multi- tude of untrapped plumbing fixtures. Of the three methods of arranging the waste pipes of a dwelling, as shown in Figs. 13, 14 and 15, the system illustrated in Fig. 13; showing a trap and fresh air inlet on the main drain, and a trap under every fixture in the house, is undoubtedly the safest, and therefore the best. In a system of house drainage traps are necess'ary evils. They tend to retard the flow of water through waste pipes, and, unless properly shaped, are apt to catch hair, lint, chips of straw or wood and other ar- ticles, and retain more or less decomposing matter. On this account, and also wherever the water in the trap is not changed sufficiently often, they become the cause of annoying odors. I will briefly consider the shape and construction of traps used for house drainage purposes. To all traps the following cardinal principle, so well expressed by Mr. Hellyer, should apply : 48 SANITARY ENGINEERING OF BUILDINGS. No sanitary fitting, waste pipe, soil pipe or drain should be trapped in a way that will not admit of the whole of the water in such traps being entirely changed every time a good flush of water is sent into them. Although this rule is applicable to all kinds of traps, it is true above all of traps under urinals, slop- sinks and water closets. These fixtures should, there- fore, receive a liberal flush of pure water from a special cistern after each use. With kitchen and pantry sinks, laundry tubs, bath tubs and wash basins, the case is different. The usual custom is to empty these fixtures after use, without giving the waste pipe a subsequent flushing with clean water. The last water flowing from the fixture remains in the trap. Be this waste water from a bowl, a laundry tub, a bath or a sink, it is always more or less fouled water which may emit noxious gases into the room, this depending, to a certain extent, upon the length of time during which the fixture remains unused. From this it is quite apparent that a judicious use of plumb- ing fixtures is all-important in order to prevent the traps from becoming a serious evil. When washing is done, the house-maid should ap- ply a thorough cleaning to all the tubs, and follow this with a few quarts of clean water from the faucet into each tub and its trap. The same advice may be given with reference to the use of wash basins, bath tubs, etc. Domestic cleanliness and the proper care of plumbing fixtures have much to do with the pre- vention of bad air in dwellings, but it would lead me too far to offer here more than these few pertinent remarks. TRAPS AND SYSTEMS OF TRAPPING. 49 Traps for fixtures as well as for drain pipes ought to be so shaped as to be self-cleansing. A common pipe bent in the shape of an S, and therefore called S-trap, of the same bore as the waste pipe, meets this requirement perhaps more than any other kind. In considering the various traps in use it will be well to group them into the following classes : 1. Traps for house drains. 2. Water closet traps. 3. Traps for sinks, bowls and tubs. The earliest traps placed on house drains to separate the house from cesspools or sewers were flap valves, but it was soon recognized that even the lightest flaps would tend to detain coarse waste matters and cause obstructions in the house drain. Moreover, none of the flap valves for drains form a permanently air-tight seal against gases of decomposition. An equally objectionable form of trap is the " cess- pool trap," or " mason's trap," so commonly found in old city residences and country mansions, and inva- riably filled often choked with the worst kind of putrescent matter. The traps now used for house drains have the siphon shape (Fig. 16), and are gen- erally provided with an inlet for fresh air on the house side of the water seal. Such traps are made in cast iron and also in earthenware, and are placed near the front wall in the cellar, or else outside of the house, in which case proper precautions should be taken to protect the trap from freezing and to make it access- ible for inspection and for cleaning purposes. SANITARY ENGINEERING OF BUILDINGS. I7 Trap on house drain located in a manhole with open cover. Earthen traps are glazed so as to present a smooth surface, and iron traps are coated with the black or the white porcelain enamel. In some house drain traps the fresh air inlet on the house side of the water seal is combined with the trap in one piece. When the inlet is enlarged to an air-chamber (see Fig. 15) the trap is generally called a " disconnecting trap." Most of these are of English make and used extensively in England, while only the simpler forms of drain traps are used in the United States. A double trap on the line of the main drain should not be used except where there is apt to be excessive pressure from the sewer. If it is used, a vent pipe should be placed between the first and second trap, and carried up to the roof. The drain trap is sometimes located outside of the house in a manhole, with open cover serving as a fresh air inlet (Fig. 17), or else the manhole, if near windows, has a closed cover and a fresh air pipe is carried from near the top of the manhole to a suitable distance (Fig. 18). Fig. 18. Trap on house drain located in manhole with tight cover. TRAPS AND SYSTEMS OF TRAPPING. 51 Tidal valves are useful for the protection of prop- erty below the level of high tides, and also where there is, at times, a back pressure from the sewer, in case of heavy rainfalls. It must not be forgotten, though, that in using such valves the lower or outlet part of the house drain must be increased to a capac- ity equal to the amount of sewage discharged from the house during such period of high tide, otherwise a backing up of sewage into the cellar and through basement fixtures may occur. Traps for Water Closets. The trap formerly used for water closets was the well known D-trap. It presented inviting recesses for the accumulation of grease and filth, and for this reason it should never be tolerated in a house which makes any pretense to be in a sanitary condition. The fact of its having a large cleaning screw does not make it any more acceptable, for such a screw* is inconveniently located, below the floor and out of sight. Water closet traps should not have too large a dip or seal, for otherwise it is difficult to drive paper and solids out into the soil pipe. The less quantity of water such a trap holds, with the same depth of water seal, the better will it be, for it will then be possible to change its contents entirely at each flush. No mechanical trap has as yet been devised which answers for use under water closets ; the water-seal traps are the only ones to be relied upon ; flap-valves 52 SANITARY ENGINEERING OF BUILDINGS. or ball-valves, in connection with water closet traps, are sure to get out of order after some use. The best traps for use under water closets are the S, three-quarter S and P traps, made either of lead, iron or earthenware. The last named kind are preferable to any other on account of their cleanliness, but an iron trap may have its inside surface smoothed by enam- eling the trap. The drawn lead traps, know r n as " Du Bois " traps, are smooth on their inside, and are decidedly superior to hand-made lead traps, which, after years, are liable to show defects at the seams, or to cast lead traps, which often have sandholes and other defects. Earthen or porcelain traps for water closets are always set above the floor, iron traps are placed above as well as below the floor, while lead traps are set below the floor, between the joists. Since as little plumbing as possible should be hidden from view, it is in most cases preferable to have the trap in plain sight and easy of access. Should the water closet apparatus selected require a trap below the floor, it is much better to use an iron enameled trap, for a lead trap may have nails driven in at the top by careless carpenters, or it' may get displaced or sag by reason of its weight. Speaking of water closet traps, I must not forget to call attention to an unsatisfactory manner of trapping certain forms of mechanical water closets, by omitting the water-seal trap and relying for a barrier against gases solely upon the water in the closet bowl, held in TRAPS AND SYSTEMS OF TRAPPING. 53 place by a tight-fitting plunger or plug, a flap valve, a slide valve or other mechanism. These arrangements are liable to get out of order, the water will then run out of the closet bowl and drain air easily find its way into the house, for a constant down draft from the closet into the soil pipe cannot be depended upon. Traps for Sinks, Bowls, Tubs, etc. To choose a proper trap for use under a tub, sink or bowl is a rather difficult problem, requiring sound judgment, skill and large experience. Each of the numerous patented trap devices in the market is, in the opinion of its inventor, the only safe and reliable one to use, or, as it is commonly expressed, " the only positive cure against sewer gas." Many of the pat- ented devices will, upon examination, be found to possess certain merits, which, however, are generally counterbalanced by one or more drawbacks. For instance, one trap may be self-cleansing, but extremely liable to lose its water seal, while another trap may be safe against siphonage or back pressure, but liable to accumulate grease and filth. One trap may answer under certain conditions and in a certain locality, while in another position another trap might be pref- erable. There are bell traps of various descriptions, D-traps, dip traps, bottle or pot traps, and various kinds of S-traps. All of these have as a barrier against gases a water seal of more or less depth. There are other traps which have not only such a seal by water, but also a mechanical appliance to shut off gases, such as 54 SANITARY ENGINEERING OF BUILDINGS. floating- balls of rubber or metal ; heavy self-seating valves, either rubber or metal balls, or else a conical- shaped valve to exclude sewer air. There are also traps provided with flap valves, opening- with the cur- rent of water and shutting against back pressure from the soil pipe. Other traps have, in addition to the water seal, a seal of mercury. Finally, a large num- ber of traps and trap attachments have been invented, the construction of which is such as to render siphon- age impossible, or at least very difficult. Many traps of each of the above groups, though sold under different names, are identical in principle and practically the same in construction, so that it often has been a matter of wonder to the author to understand how they all could have been patented as a " new and original invention." For sinks, no trap has been used as extensively as the bell trap, although probably no other trap offers so little security against sewer gas. It is not self- cleansing, has far too little water seal to resist siphon- age, back pressure and evaporation ; it gets readily choked, and is rendered useless when servants re- move the top strainer, thus doing away with what lit- tle seal the trap possesses. Of lead siphon traps, the " Du Bois " drawn traps, made by hydraulic pressure in the same manner as lead pipe, possess great advantages over those cast in moulds or those made with seams by hand. Such lead traps are made of various weights ; none but the extra heavy traps, equivalent in weight to the TRAPS AND SYSTEMS OF TRAPPING. 55 heaviest lead waste pipe, should be used in good plumbing. Another group of traps for sinks, bowls or tubs are the bottle traps, the general shape of the trap being somewhat like a bottle, with an inlet pipe in the cen- tre and an outlet pipe on the circumference of the bottle. The round or drum trap, which is used ex- tensively in Boston plumbing work, has a flat bot- tom and soon accumulates deposits. It may be some- what improved by rounding off the bottom. Bottle traps are often safe against siphonage where an S-trap would lose its water seal, but they are not self- cleansing ; an ordinary discharge from a sink or bowl will not entirely change the water and contents of the trap, and after collecting filth the bottle trap is not safer against siphonage than the S-trap. In the mechanical traps the additional seal by a valve, ball or flap, is intended to give increased secur- ity in case of back pressure and in case of evap.ora- tion of the water in the trap. Should the water be removed by siphonage they still have a seal, which, with the gravity valves, depends upon the accuracy with which the seat is turned. In the case of traps with a floating ball, the seal is preserved only so long as the water is not lowered enough to drop the ball from the mouth of the inlet pipe. Among mechanical traps I mention the Bower trap, shown in Fig. 19. Its construction and action has been thus described : SANITARY ENGINEERING OF BUILDINGS. The invention consists in providing a sewer gas trap with a float- ing valve which will permit the flow of water and gases carried with the water in one direction, and prevent their regurgitation. The in- let pipe of the trap extends downward into a chamber, which is of somewhat larger dimensions. The outlet pipe is arranged so that its discharge opening is relatively such to the lower end of the inlet pipe that the level of the water in the trap is always a considerable dis- tance above the opening of the inlet pipe, and the trap is ordinarily sealed by water. A float ball or valve (preferably a hollow ball of rubber) is placed in the trap beneath the end of the inlet pipe, and this valve is constantly immersed in the liquid the dimensions of the trap being such that the ball cannot escape upwards alongside of the inlet pipe. The advantages which this trap possesses are the following- : Its seal is not broken by evaporation, nor Fig. 19. View of Bower's Trap. Fig. 20. Waring's Sewer Gas Check Valve. by back pressure ; it affords a seal against absorbed gases and against back water ; the cup is removable, giving access to all parts of the trap ; it may be fitted with glass cup, exposing the rubber ball and the water seal ; freezing will rarely, if ever, injure the trap, as the hollow rubber ball may be sufficiently compressed to allow for expansion ; the screw-joint between cup TRAPS AND SYSTEMS OF TRAPPING. 57 and body of the trap is below the water line, conse- quently there can be no leakage of sewer air at this point. The chief objection to the Bower trap is its liability to become filthy in the upper corners. It is true that the ball-valve is cleaned at each discharge by being made to revolve in the chamber, the ball-valve pro- ducing an eddy which assists in scouring the bottom of the trap. But the upper corners do not get any benefit from this scour, and if used under sinks, grease will col- lect in the trap. One of the earlier gravity valve traps is Waring's sewer gas check valve (Fig. 20). The rig. 2 i -cudeii Trap. objection to this, as well as to other gravity valves, is that they catch hair, lint, etc., especially at the valve seat. The valve will then shut imperfectly and render the mechanical seal use- less. For this reason the inventor himself has aban- doned the use of this trap, except for waste pipes through which only clean water flows, for instance, for overflows from tanks. A round ball of heavy rubber or metal is more apt to keep itself and the valve seat clean by revolving. Such a valve is used in the well-known Cudell sewer gas trap, illustrated in Fig. 21. In case of siphonage or evaporation, it is claimed that the heavy ball will keep out sewer air by the downward pressure on its seat. The trap is provided on lop of the chamber 58 SANITARY ENGINEERING OF BUILDINGS. with a removable cover for cleaning purposes. The danger with a cover arranged in this manner consists in its being on the sewer side of both the water and mechanical seal. Any imperfection in the joint would render the double seal perfectly useless. The shape of the Cudell trap, which forms corners and recesses between the inner chamber and the outer walls of the trap where grease and filth may lodge, is objection- able. There are other mechanical traps with flap valves, but they are not reliable, for if any foreign matter lodges on the seat the flap will not close tightly. Trap attachments have been devised with the spe- cial object of preventing the siphoning out of the water in the trap. To these belong the Morey trap attachment. " It is soldered on traps already in use at the highest part of the bend. Any tendency of the water passing through the discharge pipe to create a vacuum causes the valve to lift, and the air rushes into the pipe, de- stroying the vacuum and preventing the trap being drawn dry. The suction ceasing, the valve drops by gravity into its seat, forming an air-tight joint, and preventing the escape of noxious vapors." A some- what similar device is the McClelland anti-siphon vent attachment, which has a mercury sealed cup. Of non-siphoning traps I mention the well-known " Sanitas" trap, the " Puro " and " Hydric " traps, and the " Ideal " trap. The well-known " Sanitas " non-siphoning trap, il- TRAPS AND SYSTEMS OF TRAPPING. 59 lustrated in elevation, and also with the cup removed to show the interior partition of the trap, in Fig. 22, is the invention of Mr. J. P. Putnam, an architect of Boston. Being convinced that there were more dis- advantages than advantages in trap ventilation, he set about to study by numerous careful experiments the action of fluids in traps when subjected to siphon- ing action. He also endeavored to ascertain if it was possible to construct a trap in such a manner and of Fig. 22. Sanitas Trap. such form as to render it anti-siphonic, while at the same time being self-cleaning. The outcome of his investigations was the device known as the " Sanitas " trap, developed by several successive steps from the ordinary pot or round trap, which is not readily siphoned out. The chief feature of the trap which renders it non-siphonic is the de- flecting partition, which allows air to pass above the water, but throws a sufficient amount of water back into the body of the trap to form a permanent water seal. Numerous practical tests have demonstrated that 6o SANITARY ENGINEERING OF BUILDINGS. the claim of the inventor is sustained. A point of importance, however, and one which is less thoroughly understood, is, that this trap is only self-scouring- when used under plumbing fixtures having very large out- lets and a quick discharge. The trap contains a suffi- cient body of water to resist any back pressure, and, being unvented, it resists evaporation for a long period of time. The trap is also so shaped that the seal can- not be destroyed by capillary attraction, as it has a water seal over three inches in depth, which is found by experiments to be the limit of height to which substances like hair, lint, twine or the like will carry the water above the normal level Fig. 23 -Puro Trap. J n ^ ^^ The " Puro " trap, shown in Fig. 23, was designed and put on the market by George F. Brown, of Phil- adelphia, the aim of his invention being to construct a trap proof against siphonage under ordinary condi- tions. The body of this trap has an enlargement or water chamber forming a part of the trap and a partition which divides the water as it flows through the trap. When a fixture is discharged which has its waste-pipe trapped by this device, a part of the water flows through the passage, which is practically a pipe of the same .diameter as the trap inlet pipe, and strikes a TRAPS AND SYSTEMS OF TRAPPING. 6r deflecting curve at the crown of the trap. It is thereby thrown back into the receiver or water chamber and forms a seal when siphonage has taken place. The walls of the trap are smooth and have no corners for the lodgment of dirt. The water passes through it with a scouring action which keeps the trap clean. A cleanout, however, is provided in the bottom of the body of the trap. The " Hydric '' non-siphoning trap, made by the Fig. 24. Hydric Trap. Hydraulic Specialty Company, of Philadelphia, is illus- trated in elevation and section in Fig. 24. The sec- tion of the trap shows that it has no interior mechan- ism or partition of any kind to obstruct the free flow of water and prevent the scouring of the trap. It is claimed that this trap is non-siphoning and retains its seal at all times, while at the same time it is self- cleansing. As shown in the section of the trap, the crown, or upper portion of the body of the trap, is used as a deflecting surface for throwing back the water 62 SANITARY ENGINEERING OF BUILDINGS. during siphoning action while the air escapes. Suffi- cient water is thus thrown back to always maintain an ample water seal. A special form of this trap, with clean-out screw on the house side of the trap, is made for use with bath tubs. The water in the " Ideal" trap (Fig. 25) is described as revolving centrifugally in its passage through the body of the trap. The inlet to the trap is at the bot- tom, and on one side or in a tangential line. This starts the water in a strong circular course, which is maintained throughout the flow. The trap has no parti- tions or other obstructions to a free waterway. It is claimed to be non-siphoning. A cleaning screw is provided at the bottom of the body of the trap. The i^-inch trap has a 3-inch depth of water seal. Of all traps mentioned the simple S-trap is the best as re- Fig. 25 ._ideai Trap. gards self-cleaning qualities. Experiments with such traps, however, have proven that they may become, in certain cases, unsafe and lose their trap seal, through one or the other of the following causes : TRAPS AND SYSTEMS OF TRAPPING. 63 1. Traps may be forced by back pressure. 2. They may lose their water seal when the fixture to which they are attached is discharged by the mo- mentum of the water rushing suddenly through the trap. 3. Traps may be either completely siphoned or their water level lowered below the dip in the trap by a flow from another fixture on the same branch pipe. 4. Traps under fixtures may be siphoned by a sud- den flow through the main soil pipe, to which these fixtures are connected by branch wastes. 5. If fixtures remain unused for any length of time the water of the trap may evaporate so much as to destroy the seal. 6. With traps on dead ends of pipes, or with unven- tilated soil and waste pipes, there is danger of the water in the trap absorbing soil-pipe air and giving same off on the house side of the trap. Even germs of disease, although not transmitted through water with- out motion, are said by scientific investigators to be liberated from the water if the latter is violently agi- tated, as, for instance, with traps under fixtures, when a discharge through such fittings occurs. These statements are also more or less true of other traps, such as bell-traps, bottle-traps, D-traps, etc. It was on account of these objections, chiefly, that the mechanical, and more recently the non-siphoning, traps were invented. It was found that the danger from siphonage could be greatly lessened, under cer- tain conditions, by emptying each branch waste pipe 6 4 SANITARY ENGINEERING OF BUILDINGS. Fig. 26. S-trap with vent p at crown of trap. independently into the main soil or waste pipe. This, however, cannot always be carried out in the construe- tion of the plumbing of buildings, nor is it, where it can be done, in all cases a protection against loss of water seal. Siphonage of traps can, in many cases, be prevented ^ e by attaching a vent pipe of suit- able diameter to the crown of the trap, leading its open end to the outer air (see Fig. 26). Such a vent pipe ren- ders traps of any kind practically safe against siphonage, provided its size is such as not to offer too much frictional resist- ance to the air passing through it to break the suction. It is quite ap- parent that the diameter of the air pipe must be increased in proportion to its length, or to the height of the building. This point is quite important and does not seem until quite recently to have been Fig- 27. Stack of air pipe for a number generally understood. of s-tr aps . The vent pipe also renders traps of any kind safe against back pressure and absorption of gases, and TRAPS AND SYSTEMS OF TRAPPING. 65 prevents stagnation of foul air in any part of the waste pipe system. In arranging such air pipes it is not necessary that each fixture trap should have an independent vent to the roof, but several branch vent pipes may be con- nected into a main air pipe of larger size, and this may run along the soil pipe and may branch into it above the highest fixture, or else it may extend above \f Fig. 28. Branch vent from fixture entering the vertical vent pipe too low ; correct position indicated in dotted lines. thereof independently (see Fig. 27). The vertical line of vent pipe should also be " dripped " at the bottom, by connecting the same, as shown in Fig. 2 7, by a Y-branch with the adjoining soil or waste line. This is done to avoid any rust accumulation at the foot of the vent line. In setting the T-branches for the fixture vent pipes, care should be taken to set the outlet at a height above the overflow point of the fixtures (see Fig. 28). 66 SANITARY ENGINEERING OF BUILDINGS. This avoids the possibility of the vent pipe becoming a waste in case of stoppage of the main waste line. The dotted lines show the correct position and height of the branch vent pipe. Branch vent pipes should never be bowed down, as shown in Fig. 29. Where the air pipe is thus run it is less efficient in action, and the same danger as shown in Fig. 28 exists of the Fig. 29. Imperfect arrangement of branch vent pipe by " bowing " down. vent becoming a waste in case the latter becomes completely choked up. Admitting that " back air" or vent pipes render S-traps practically safe against most of the above-made objections, it is also true that they largely increase the cost of plumbing work, especially so where the fixtures are not located in vertical groups. They complicate the work, are difficult to run in old build- ings, and must be largely increased, in the case of high buildings, toward the upper floors. In the TRAPS AND SYSTEMS OF TRAPPING. application of trap vent pipes bye-passes are fre- quently made by ignorant or careless workmen, whereby, although each fixture is trapped, an opening is inadvertently created through which sewer air may enter at the fixture. Such a bye-pass is illustrated in Fig. 30. In this case the trapping of the bath waste is rendered ineffective by a wrong connection of the basin waste pipe. The arrows in the illus- tration indicate the course which I sewer air would take. Trap vent pipes also increase the evaporation Fig. 30. Objectionable bye-pass arrangement on vent pipes. of water in traps and therefore aggra- vate the danger from sewer air enter- ing through fixtures in cases where these remain unused for a long time. Vent pipes stop up in time at the crown of the trap with splash- ings from soapsuds and then cease to furnish air to break the vacuum. This fact would not announce or show itself nor is it easily detected. The literature on this subject includes numerous, careful and valuable experiments upon the siphonage of traps made by Col. George E. Waring, Jr., assisted 68 SANITARY ENGINEERING OF BUILDINGS. by the writer ; by Edward S. Philbrick, C. E., and Ernest W. Bowditch, C. E. ; by J. P. Putnam and Glenn Brown, architects ; by Mr. S. Hellyer, of Lon- don, England ; Dr. Lissauer, of Dantzic, Germany ; Dr. Renk, of Munich, Germany, and others. The results of these experiments are greatly at variance. They seem to indicate that while in some cases traps need a strong protection against siphonage, Fig. 31. S-trap vented to prevent a long dead end in the waste pipe. in other cases, especially where the soil and waste pipes have ample ventilation and branch wastes are very short, such protection is not required. Where a fixture is located remote from a vertical pipe and consequently discharges through a long run of waste pipe, which would otherwise form a " dead end" (see Fig. 31), it is positively necessary to run a vent pipe from the crown of the trap upward to the outer air, which prevents, in the first place, a stagna- TRAPS AND SYSTEMS OF TRAPPING. 6 9 tion of air and at the same time stops siphonage ; and this is true of any kind of trap, not only of the class of traps known as S-traps. It should apply to non- siphoning- traps as well. If, on the other hand, such fixture is located quite near to a vertical thoroughly ventilated soil pipe, or a well-ventilated horizontal run of pipe (see Fig. 32), I should not hesitate to place under the fixture a trap Fig- 32. Non-siphoning trap under bowl, where this is near a thoroughly ventilated soil pipe. which does not siphon out, omitting the special air pipe- It is likewise dangerous to use vented S-traps with the usual small depth of water seal of only ii or 2 inches, under bowls or tubs in spare or guest rooms of large city residences, and for such dwellings generally that are occupied only a part of the year, This danger is generally disregarded or passed over lightly by enthu- siasts for "back-air piping." My personal preference in such cases would always be for a non-siphoning 70 SANITARY ENGINEERING OF BUILDINGS. trap, with a water seal which does not so easily evap- orate. Where rules of local boards of health demand an air pipe under such conditions, I advise the use of a tight-shutting stop-valve on the waste pipe, and combined with it an arrangement for a simultaneous shutting off of the hot and cold water supply to the fixtures, so as to render an overflow impossible. The latter arrangement tends to complicate the plumbing work, but, under the conditions mentioned, it would be safer than a vented S-trap. In this connection I ought to mention that several devices have been suggested for preserving the water seal of traps which prevent the loss of the water seal in traps, either through evaporation or siphonage, by connecting the trap by means of a special pipe with the water supply in such a manner that when any loss of water occurs a new supply of fresh water is imme- diately admitted. There can be no doubt about the efficiency of a de- vice of this kind, but its use would somewhat increase the expense of fitting up plumbing fixtures. An objection to such an apparatus would seem to be the danger that the ball cock might leak without the fact becoming apparent. From a sanitary point such a leakage would not be objectionable, as it would tend to change the water in the trap constantly, but this latter object could be just as well attained by keeping a dribbling stream running from the faucet into the fixture. Such an arrangement would, however, largely increase the waste of water, which is already a TRAPS AND SYSTEMS OF TRAPPING. 71 source of serious trouble to water departments ; there- fore the apparatus is not likely to meet with favor. Valuable scientific researches have also been made relating to the absorption of gases by the water in traps. Dr. Andrew Fergus, of Glasgow, was the first to experiment on this point, and his conclusions, though valuable, were modified and corrected by the result of experiments made by Dr. Neil Carmichael, Edward Frankland, Prof. Raphael Pumpelly, Dr. Wernich and Naegeli in Germany, and others. It is now generally accepted that, with a thoroughly ventilated soil and waste pipe system, little, if any, absorption of gases by the water of traps occurs. Even should such water contain germs of disease, they are not supposed to be liberated from it unless the water is violently agitated. In other words, there is no sufficient reason for feeling anxiety in regard to absorption of deleterious gases by water-seal traps. III. DRAINAGE AND SEWERAGE OF BUILDINGS. The following is a concise description of what may be called the chief features of a well-devised and well- constructed system of internal sewerage of buildings. To begin with, let us consider briefly the removal and disposal of underground or sub-soil water from the site of the buildings. The term " drainage," in distinction to " sewerage," applies to the removal of sub-soil water from the site upon which a building is to be erected. No house can be considered perfectly healthy unless provision has been made for carrying away excessive moisture from the soil. Damp and wet cellars have a well- known influence in predisposing people living in such houses to pulmonary diseases. To carry off sub-soil water, tile drains (common round land drains) should be laid at a depth well below the cellar floor, in parallel lines, their distance depending largely upon the character of the soil. The tiles may be i or 2 inches in diameter, and should be laid with open joints, well wrapped with tarred paper or strips of cotton rags, to prevent dirt from falling in at the joints. Such branch drains DRAINAGE AND SEWERAGE OF BUILDINGS. 73 should be collected into one main cellar drain of 2 inches diameter or of larger size, where the amount of water to be removed is excessive on account of springs or for other reasons. If the house is a country house this cellar drain can generally be continued to a low point, either a ditch, ravine or water course, into which it should discharge. The outlet should be built in stone or brick masonry and must be well protected by a strong grating to prevent the entrance of rats or ver- min. Where the water course is subject to back- flooding from sudden rains or some other cause, it may be necessary to apply to the outlet drain a tidal flap or ball valve. If the house stands on a city lot the only outlet gen- erally available is the street sewer. To connect such cellar drain directly to a sewer or to a house drain leading to it would be to lay sewer air on to the house. There should be a thorough disconnection between a sub-soil drain and a sewer, which can be effected by a flap-valve trap with a very deep water seal, not liable to be affected by evaporation in hot, dry weather, or by a gravel trap with an overflow to the sewer. To insure a dry and healthy cellar it is neces- sary, in addition to the cellar drainage, to concrete the cellar floor and to render it impervious to water by a good rendering of Portland cement, or better still, by a layer of asphaltum, spread on top of the concrete. Dampness of foundation walls is equally bad and dangerous to health, and can be most efficiently pre- vented by asphalting the outer face of the foundation 74 SANITARY ENGINEERING OF BUILDINGS. walls to the surface of the ground, or by the use of double walls with air space between, or better still, by an area built all around the foundation walls. The chief features of a safe internal sewerage sys- tem are as follows : All drain, soil, waste and air pipes inside of a dwell- ing (except the short branch wastes from fixtures) should be of heavy iron. The arrangement of soil and waste pipes should be as direct as possible, and long branch wastes under floors should be avoided everywhere. Each stack should run up as straight as possible, avoiding offsets, which are objectionable. None of the waste or vent pipes should be buried out of sight and rendered absolutely inaccessible. It is preferable to keep them in sight, except, perhaps, on the parlor floor. The public has long been accus- tomed and does not object to the running of steam pipes in plain sight, and there is no reason why soil pipes should not be treated in like manner. The out- side of the pipes can be painted, or, if desired, it can be gilt or bronzed, as is done with steam pipes. Where pipes must be placed in recesses or chases in the walls, or in partitions, they should be covered with hinged wooden panels, or with boards, fastened with brass screws so as to be easily removed should an inspection of the plumbing become necessary. The soil, waste and air pipe system should be made thoroughly tight, not only water-tight but air-tight as well. Hence the chief requirement is that the DRAINAGE AND SEWERAGE OF BUILDINGS. /5 pipes must be of thoroughly sound material, and that all joints be perfectly made. The system must be amply ventilated and should have no long " dead ends." Each soil pipe, therefore, must extend at least full size from the cellar to and through the roof ; waste pipes must also be extended, but should be enlarged just below the roof to four inches in diameter, to prevent obstructions of the pipes in winter through hoar frost. Wherever practicable, soil and waste pipes should run along a heated flue, as this will assist in creating an upward draft in the ventilating pipes. The extensions above the roof should, in all cases, be not less than two feet high, so as to be well exposed to air currents ; if near a chimney top, they must ter- minate well below it. In any case, the mouths of soil pipes should be located as remote as possible from ventilating shafts, chimney flues or ventilating -sky- lights. The outlets of all pipes above the roof should be kept wide open. Return bends are highly objection- able ; ventilating caps clog up in winter time through hoar frost. None of the many patent ventilators are preferable to an open-mouthed pipe. To prevent obstructions of the pipe a copper mushroom-shaped wire basket (commonly called leader guard) may be inserted into the top of the pipe. Soil pipes should not, ordinarily, be larger than four inches in diameter, and vertical waste pipes for sinks or bowls are generally made two inches in 76 SANITARY ENGINEERING OF BUILDINGS. diameter, except waste pipes for slop sinks, which are made three inches. In high office buildings and apartment houses, in tenements and factories having a large number of water closets or flushout trough closets, and also in hospitals for insane, it is better to make soil pipes five inches in diameter. Waste pipes for a large number of sinks should also be increased to three inches, Each vertical line of air pipe must be at least two inches in diameter, increasing at the upper floors (in the case of high buildings) to three and four inches in diameter, and sometimes even larger sizes. Each line of air pipe should be dripped at the bottom into the adjoining soil or waste pipe and be extended as straight as possible up through the roof, where its mouth should be kept free and exposed and provided with a screen or basket for protection against obstruc- tions. Air pipes may, however, branch into their soil pipe above the highest fixture, thus avoiding a large number of holes on the roof. Each vertical line of air pipe must have the necessary fittings to connect the branch air pipes from the traps to it. All such fittings should be set above the overflow point of the fixtures, to prevent the air pipe from acting as a waste in case the latter should become stopped up. It is a mistake, frequently made, to use inferior material (lighter pipes) for such air pipes. They unavoidably contain more or less foul gases, and their joints should therefore be as tight as those of soil and waste pipes. DRAINAGE AND SEWERAGE OF BUILDINGS. 77 Leader pipes, if inside the building, must be of cast iron or wrought iron, with thoroughly tight joints. If outside leaders open at the top near attic windows, or near chimney flues or ventilating shafts, and if they are made of metal (galvanized iron or tin) and pass near windows of living or sleeping rooms, they must be trapped by a trap with deep seal located out of reach of the frost. Heavy cast or wrought iron leaders with tight joints opening at the top remote from flues or ventilators, or windows, should not be trapped, except where roofs are used for drying pur- poses, or for pleasure, as in the case of roof gardens. Each stack of soil or waste pipe must have fit- tings in proper position to receive the flow from the fixtures. It is not absolutely necessary that the fit- tings on vertical soil pipes should be Y-branches ; a Tee-branch, especially if its flow line is shaped in a curve, will answer the purpose as well, and such is especially the case for small waste pipes joining the soil pipe. The flow from all soil and waste pipes is collected in the cellar, the aim always being to concentrate the system as much as possible, As a rule, it is better in city houses to connect the rain water leaders with the drain carrying the waste water of the household. In country residences, where the rainfall is collected in a cistern, a separate system of pipes is required, and this is also the case wherever the sewerage system of the city is planned and executed on the so-called " separate system." 78 SANITARY ENGINEERING OF BUILDINGS. The cellar is usually the place where the various soil and waste pipes of a building are connected or combined into one main drain, called the cellar or house drain. Mr. Dempsey, an English civil engineer, speaks about the arrangement of house drains as fol- lows, in his book " Drainage of Towns and Build- ings": The first step in the arrangement is to collect the whole of the drainage to one point, the head of the intended draining apparatus, and the determination of this point requires a due consideration of its relation to the other extremity of the drain at which the discharge into the sewer is to take place. In buildings of great extent, this will sometimes involve a good deal of arrangement, and it will, perhaps, become desirable to divide the entire drainage into two or more points of delivery, and conduct it in so many separate drains to the receiving sewer. The length of each drain being thus reduced to a manageable extent, the necessary fall will be more readily com- manded, and the efficiency of the system secured. ... If the rain water falling on the roof of the building, and on the yard or space attached to the house, is not applied to any other purpose, it will have to be conducted into the drain to be discharged with the sewage. These waters being purest of the contents, should be re- ceived as near as possible to the head of the drain, and made to traverse its entire length, and thus exert all the cleansing action of which they are capable. The junction between upright soil, waste or leader pipes, and the horizontal drain, is of the greatest im- portance. The best support that could be given to it is to build a brick pier under it, and to rest the weight of the upright pipe stack on it. Sometimes a strong wooden post is of service, though not making as substantial a job as a brick pier. The junction should be made with an elbow fitting of a large radius, or with Y-branchas and 45 bends, in order DRAINAGE AND SEWERAGE OF BUILDINGS. 79 to make the change in the direction of the flow as gradual as possible. A right-angled connection must not be tolerated, as it is sure to cause accumu- lation of soil matter and to create stoppages. It is to be recommended to run the main cellar drain in sight along one of the foundation walls, or to carry it along the cellar ceiling suspended from the joists or iron beams by strong iron hangers. This brings the drain in sight for inspections, and it is a recognized principle of modern house drainage that as little as possible of waste pipes and of the plumb- ing work in general should be hidden from view. The necessity of running the house drain below the cellar floor exists only in rare cases. In most cases it is possible to banish plumbing fixtures from cellars, to find a better lighted place for the laundry tubs, and a place for the servants' water closet, free from the objections heretofore made. Where there are fixtures in the cellar, the" main drain must run below the floor, and in this case it is advisable not to bury it entirely out of sight. Clean- ing hand-holes should be provided at all junctions of branch drains with the main, also near or at bends, at the trap, and at the foot of vertical stacks, so as to afford ready access to the drain pipes in case of acci- dental or malicious stoppage. These hand-holes must be left accessible, by building small manholes with covers around them. Many authorities require every drain below the cellar floor tp be laid in a trench with concrete bottom and with brick walls, accessible 8O SANITARY ENGINEERING OF BUILDINGS. throughout its entire length. This seems necessary only where inferior material is used and where the workmanship is not first-class. With heavy iron pipes, tested not only at the foundry but also after being placed under the floor of the house (by the water or air-pressure test), and with the joints well made, it is better to bury the drain pipes in concrete, leaving out places for access only wherever really needed. For all horizontal or inclined drains the rule should be laid down that no junction should be made at right angles with Tees ; 45 Y or 67^ Y-branches must be used. All changes from the straight line must be made with curves of a large radius. The fall required for the main drain will depend upon its diameter ; the latter should not exceed six inches in most cases. Where a building is unusually large it is better to have two main drains, each six inches in diameter, than one drain of nine inches. As a rule, however, four and five-inch drains are ample for ordinary sizes of dwellings. A house drain of this size should, if possible, have a fall of one-half inch to the foot, but a fall of one-fourth inch to the foot is sufficient to carry along whatever ought only to enter such pipes. If the main drain is trapped, the running trap of iron should be located just inside the cellar wall or else it may be placed outside the house in a man- hole. It should be located where it is not exposed to freezing. DRAINAGE AND SEWERAGE OF BUILDINGS. 8l In any case the trap must not be absolutely inac- cessible, as it is possible that obstructions may occur at this point. The trap should, therefore, be provided with cleaning holes, closed air-tight with well-fitting brass screw caps. It is advisable to provide near this trap a branch from a leader, so as to obtain an occa- sional direct and vigorous flush at each rainfall. To insure a full circulation of fresh air through the pipes, a fresh air pipe, of the full diameter of the iron drain, must run from just inside the trap to some point outside, well remote from windows, so as not to cause any objectionable smell, as it becomes at times though seldom an outlet instead of an inlet. There are radical differences between the English house drainage system and the system used with us, which may be readily explained by the difference in climate. It is a cardinal principle with English sani- tary engineers to locate soil pipes outside of the house, and further, to separate water closet wastes from the other wastes of the household. Waste pipes from lavatories, bath tubs, sinks, etc., are required to have no direct connection with a foul water drain ; they must discharge over open gullies, which are trapped and connected with the house drain. The severity of our climate would prohibit such an arrangement in all but the Southern States. We must keep the soil and waste pipes inside of a dwell- ing, and, on the other hand, we do not for a moment hesitate to connect bath or bowl wastes to a soil pipe, provided the latter is efficiently ventilated and the fix- tures safely trapped. 82 SANITARY ENGINEERING OF BUILDINGS. As soon as the iron soil and drain pipe system is completed, its tightness should be tested by the water- pressure or by an air-pressure test. Tightness of joints may be ascertained and secured, and defects in the piping detected, by applying a Fig- 33- Diagram illustrating the application of the water-pressure test to the soil, drain and waste pipe system in a city house. " water-pressure test." Before setting and joining any fixtures to the soil and waste pipes, all outlets are closed by India rubber plugs, squeezed with iron discs by means of a bolt and nut, and the pipes, including the lead or iron branches and brass ferrule joints, filled DRAINAGE AND SEWERAGE OF BUILDINGS. 83 with water. Should there be a leak it is readily de- tected and immediately remedied. The test is then repeated until there are no more signs of a leak. The application of the test is shown in Fig. 33, which illustrates a vertical section through a three-story city house, and also shows the proper arrangement of soil, waste and drain pipes, the plumbing fixtures being removed for the test, or not yet placed in position. For very high buildings the head of water becomes too great at the bottom of the stack, and in such cases the pipes are tested in sections. This test is undoubtedly stronger and more useful than the pep- permint or smoke test ; it is easily applied, and is one of the most important things in connection with the plumbing of dwellings. It should always be applied by the Plumbing Inspector of the Health Board in cities where plumbing is regulated by law ; for a house with a network of waste pipes, that have suc- cessfully stood this test, is a much safer place for human beings than houses the pipes of which have not been tested. Another test is the air-pressure test by a force pump and a manometer or mercury gauge. In this test every part of the pipe system is subject to a uniform pressure, while in the water test the pressure increases with every foot in height of water, thereby often put- ting an unusually severe strain on the lower part of the pipe system. It is, however, much more difficult to find leaks in a soil and drain pipe system by means of the "pneumatic" test, and for many reasons the water test appears preferable. 84 SANITARY ENGINEERING OF BUILDINGS. The completed plumbing- work is tested by a smoke test or a peppermint test, which I will describe later on. The house drain should be carried of iron pipe to a point well beyond the foundation walls. Whether it should be continued any further with iron pipe, or whether vitrified, well-glazed pipes may be used for the external sewerage, will depend entirely upon the character of the soil. For made ground, heavy iron pipe is decidedly to be preferred, but care must be taken to lay the pipes on a good solid foundation. It is also safer to run a drain of iron pipe where it passes near a well which furnishes drinking water. Occa- sionally roots of trees cause considerable trouble with vitrified pipe, especially if the joints of the latter are poorly cemented. In such a case, iron pipes, with caulked joints, are preferable. Fig. 34 represents a section through a country dwelling house, showing all drain, soil and waste pipes ; also the plumbing fixtures and the mode of trapping these. In this case non-siphoning traps are used under all sinks, basins and tubs, and the water closets have traps with a deep seal, so that there is no good reason for applying the back vent pipes, and the system is thereby much simplified and improved. A few details concerning drain and soil pipes and the method of joining them, will now be discussed somewhat in detail. For all drains laid underground or below the cellar floor, the best available material is extra heavy cast iron pipe. To quote from Capt. Douglas Galton, an expe- rienced engineer : 86 SANITARY ENGINEERING OF BUILDINGS. The use of cast iron for house drains, if the cast iron is solid, sound and free from porosity, will prevent leakage and sub-soil taint- ing beneath the house, and will be as cheap as earthenware pipes in many cases. . . . Lead joints can only be made in a strong iron pipe, and the use of these joints is, to some extent, a guarantee of soundness, but every pipe should be carefully tested by water pres- sure, to see that there are no holes or flaws. Extra heavy cast iron plumbers' soil pipes are man- ufactured in lengths of five feet, with a hub and a spigot end. As regards the strength of such pipes much will depend upon their manufacture. The metal used should be re-melted pig iron of homogene- ous texture, free and easy flowing when poured into the mould ; the fracture must show a dark gray color. Then again, great care and diligence must be bestowed upon the making and drying of the pipe moulds and cores ; the loam and sand should be care- fully chosen, in order to form smooth and substantial moulds. It is now pretty well understood by all manufac- turers of heavy cast iron pipe that the pipes should be cast on end, in order to obtain a uniform thickness of shell, which is the great desideratum for all pipes. If cast in a lying or inclined position, the molten metal poured into the mould has a tendency to float the core and bend it upward in the centre, conse- quently the thickness of the shell will be much greater at the lower part of the pipe. Experts disagree in regard to the position of the socket while casting. In England it is customary to cast heavy pipes with the socket downward. In such a position, it is claimed, the head of pressure of the fluid metal, equivalent to DRAINAGE AND SEWERAGE OF BUILDINGS. 87 the length of pipe, will secure a strong socket, free from air bubbles or other defects. The top end will often be spongy, containing floating dirt, slag, scoriae and air bubbles. Should this occur with- the socket or bell end of the pipe it would render the socket weak and often worthless for caulking purposes, while the spigot end may be cut off if necessary. A large bead is often given to the spigot end of the pipe, which is afterward removed by cutting. In Germany, on the other hand, the custom prevails of casting pipes socket upward. In the United States of Amer- ica the general practice is to cast all pipes from three inches to twelve inches diameter, socket upward, while larger sizes are always cast socket downward. There are, I believe, practical advantages, such as the easier drawing and removing of patterns, which influ- ence the American foundries to cast with socket upward. After being cast all pipes should be carefully pro- tected from sudden chills ; the cooling should be grad- ual and slow, so as to avoid imperfections in the metal. After cooling off the pipes are carefully cleaned with steel wire brushes and scrupulously inspected. All such pipes should be straight, truly cylindrical, of a uniform thickness, of a uniform and homogeneous texture, of perfect smooth surface, free from flaws or other imperfections, and the spigot end should have a true fit in the hub of the pipe. The pipe must not be brittle, and must allow of ready cutting, chipping, drilling or threading. 88 SANITARY ENGINEERING OF BUILDINGS. The weight of cast iron pipes, used for sewerage purposes, should be at least as follows : Two-inch pipe 5 -J- pounds per foot. Three-inch pipe 9^ Four-inch pipe 13 Five-inch pipe 17 Six-inch pipe 20 In particular situations it is advisable to use an even heavier pipe. After a careful and thorough inspection, each pipe must be tested under pressure in a hydraulic testing machine. While under such pressure the whole length of the pipe should be repeatedly struck hard with a heavy hammer, in order to detect flaws or weak parts of the pipe shell. If the sound of the hammer striking the pipe metal is clear or bell-like, it is a pretty sure indication of the absence of any of the above imperfections. After it is thus made sure that the pipe is free from air bubbles, flaws, shrinkage cracks, sand-holes, etc., the pipe is sometimes coated in order to protect it against corrosion. The best solution known for cast iron pipe is Dr. Angus Smith's patent coal-tar varnish. After placing the pipes in an oven, they are heated so as to well open the pores, and the solution is likewise kept hot in a tank, care being taken that it does not get too great a consistency. The pipes are then im- mersed in a bath for about fifteen or twenty min- utes, then removed, when the surplus of varnish is allowed to drip off from the pipe. There should be only a thin, smooth coating of varnish over the pipe. DRAINAGE AND SEWERAGE OF BUILDINGS. 89 For underground pipes I decidedly prefer the tar- coated pipe, but for all exposed pipes inside of build- ings the use of uncoated pipes is now universal. A word of caution seems appropriate in regard to failures of cast iron pipes through rough handling during carting, or loading and unloading. Great care must be taken not to throw any pipes violently on the ground, nor to expose the pipes to violent accidental blows. Owing to the brittleness of the material, cast iron pipes often split or break off at the ends, and the split, although hardly perceptible on the outside, may continue longitudinally very far, which fact can only be detected by the pressure test. In laying such cast iron pipes the spigot end of one pipe must be inserted as straight as possible and con- centric into the hub end of the next pipe, care being taken before doing so that the pipe is clean and free from all dirt on the inside. A gasket of oakum or dry hemp is then inserted into the space between socket and spigot, and well rammed with a caulking tool. This gasket should fill about one-half of the depth of the hub, its object being to prevent any molten lead from flowing into the pipe at the joint, but also to assist in tightening the joint. A roll of good, tough clay is placed around and pressed against the front of the pipe bell, leaving an opening on the top, where the two ends of the clay roll meet, large enough to admit of pouring in the lead. This clay ring prevents the escape of molten lead while running the joint. 90 SANITARY ENGINEERING OF BUILDINGS. The lead used for making pipe joints should be soft and pure, without any admixture of tin, zinc or other metal. If hard or impure lead is used the caulking operation strains the bells, often so much as to burst or split them. The lead is melted in a large pot kept on a furnace. It should be heated to a proper tem- perature in order to prevent too sudden cooling while pouring it. A large ladle, w r hich must be capable of holding enough molten lead for one joint, is used to pour the lead into the space between spigot and bell. It is important that enough molten lead be poured in at one operation to quite fill the joint, for if the lead is not poured in in a continuous stream, the joint will not be perfect and homogeneous. As soon as the socket is quite filled, the ring of clay is then removed and the lead allowed to cool, while the superfluous lead is cut off with a cold chisel. The lead naturally shrinks and does not make a tight joint ; it therefore requires a thorough setting up or caulking, w r hich is done first with a hammer and flat caulking tool, next with a similar broader tool, with a slight curve corresponding to the size or radius of the pipe. To insure a perfect joint the ring of lead should have an equal thickness all around. This thickness varies from one-fourth to three-eighths inch ; the ring should have a depth of from i^ to 2 inches. It is usual to require twelve ounces of lead for each inch of internal diameter of the pipe. The lead must be left exposed, so as to show the DRAINAGE AND SEWERAGE OF BUILDINGS. 9 1 marks of the caulking tools. No paint, cement or putty should be used to fill the space in front of the lead joint. A proper caulking- operation always puts a heavy strain on the sockets of the cast iron pipe, and, in order to withstand it and prevent the bursting of bells, the latter should be designed very strong, with an extra thickness of metal at the end of the hub and at the point where the socket joins the pipe. The thickness of the hub should not be in direct propor- tion to the thickness of the pipe. This latter point is less thoroughly understood. The failure of common light plumbers' pipe is largely due to the fact that both the pipe shell and the thickness of the bell are reduced to a minimum. While it may be possible to reduce the former slightly, wherever there is no heavy inside pressure or outside superincumbent weight, the latter should always be kept heavy enough to with- stand a thorough caulking. In making lead joints in cast iron pipes, much, of course, depends upon the skill, sound judgment, experience, but above all, upon the honesty of the workman. Careless or dishonest mechanics are very apt to do the caulking of the lead imperfectly, or to omit this operation entirely at the under side of a hori- zontal joint, which is difficult of access and not so readily inspected. Perfect workmanship is absolutely essential in the case of iron drain pipes not less than for water or gas mains. Cast iron pipes are sometimes cast with flanges at 92 SANITARY ENGINEERING OF BUILDINGS. both ends, but such joints are more difficult to make tight, and a flange joint, being more unyielding than a lead joint, causes fractures of the pipe. There are other joints in cast iron pipes, such as the turned and bored joint, and many patent joints, none of which, however, are used much for sewerage purposes. Rust joints in cast iron pipe are frequently used, especially for blow-off pipes from boilers and for steam pipes ; also for cast iron pipes used in green- house heating. In place of lead, an iron cement is employed to make a joint. A quick-setting cement is composed of : 98 parts fine cast iron borings. i part flowers of sulphur. i part sal ammoniac. To be mixed with boiling water before use. A slow-setting cement is made as follows : 197 parts fine cast iron boring. 1 part flowers of sulphur. 2 parts sal ammoniac. More recently, a patented compound of steel and iron, with other ingredients, called "Smooth on Joints," has been introduced, which is made up by the plumber into a paste without using heat and used in the pipe joints, where it soon solidifies and hardens. It appears to secure perfectly tight joints, which are not affected by expansion and contraction, but further experience as to durability is desirable before this new compound can be endorsed. It has the one ; great incidental advantage that it does away with the necessity of plumbers' melting pots and furnaces in DRAINAGE AND SEWERAGE OF BUILDINGS. 93 non-fireproof buildings, and therefore removes the danger of fire. Cast iron drain pipes require a number of fittings, such as elbows, Y-branches, traps, and Tee-branches, which are cast with bells and connected to the pipes in the same manner as lengths of pipe are put together. All such castings should be carefully examined before use. They should be sound, smooth, especially on the inside, without lumps, sand-holes, flaws or scoriae. The inspection of castings is very important, for, as Mr. Baldwin Latham says : There are faults, to which all articles made of cast iron are liable, and which may escape observation even after the most careful scru- tiny, and, in consequence, there will ever remain a certain degree of uncertainty as to the strength of iron castings, for there are numerous instances which may, more or less, affect the quality of the manufac- tured article, such as unequal contraction in cooling, imperfections from latent flaws which may be concealed by a covering of sound metal, the brittle nature of the material, the presence of some delete- rious agent in the metal itself, all tending to render cast iron more or less uncertain and liable to fail without warning. . . ^ . The proper admixture of the iron in the foundry is one of considerable importance in order to insure a perfect casting ; for, as different varieties of iron have different points of fusion and varying rates of cooling, unless a proper admixture is insured, the casting will have within itself an element tending to produce its own destruction, for, while some of the metal may be in perfect fusion, other parts may be imperfectly fused, while again others may be burned ; or in cooling, some of the metals may cool faster or slower than others, conse- quently the casting maybe thus brought into a state of unequal ten- sion, or, as it is technically termed, "hide-bound," when such slight influences as a sudden change of temperature may lead to its instant destruction. If cast iron pipe is used for vertical soil, waste and vent pipes, it should be of the same character and quality as above described for drain pipes, for only 94 SANITARY ENGINEERING OF BUILDINGS. pipes of such superior properties allow the construc- tion of a pipe system, equally tight as regards leak- age of sewage and of sewer air. Within the past few years rustless wrought iron pipe has been used extensively for soil, waste, air and leader lines. It was first introduced in the Durham System of House Drainage, which presented novel features of interest to engineers, architects and sani- tarians. Its chief departure from the common sys- tem of plumbing consisted in the use of rustless wrought iron pipes for all pipes above ground, espe- cially for all upright, soil, waste and vent pipes. The pipe used is the standard wrought iron, lap- welded steam pipe. This is extensively manufac- tured by "tube works" at the rolling mills, and comes in the market in lengths of about twenty feet. Bars of wrought iron of a width corresponding to the circumference of the pipe are bent up to a circular shape by means of powerful machines, while in a red heat. The ends of the smaller sizes (up to two inches in diameter) are made to butt against each other, while the larger sizes lap over. The bars are then again highly heated and welded together, after which operation they are adjusted so as to be exactly circular in shape. Before leaving the works, and while hot, the wrought iron pipes are immersed in a tank, con- taining hot liquid asphalt, which coating of the pipes effectually protects their inside against corrosion. Some building and plumbing regulations now require DRAINAGE AND SEWERAGE OF BUILDINGS. 95 all wrought iron pipes used for drainage purposes to be galvanized. All standard wrought iron pipes are tested at the works by hydraulic pressure up to 500 pounds per square inch, and a guarantee of good and durable material is thus secured. The following table exhibits the size, thickness and weights of pipes used for soil and vent pipes : SIZE OF PIPE. THICKNESS OF PIPE. WEIGHT IN POUNDS PER FOOT. 2 inches. 154 3.67 3 " .217 7-55 4 " 237 10.73 5 " 259 14.56 6 " .280 18.77 The pipes are put together the same as steam pipes, with screw joints. The screw thread, cut ex- ternally on the pipe, is slightly tapering, and so is the internal thread cut on the fittings. It is customary for pipes from two to six inches in diameter to have eight screw threads per inch. These thread's were formerly cut on a lathe, if done by machine work ; if by hand, by the use of die-stocks. Since a number of years large hand and power pipe-cutting machines have been manufactured, which use dies and cutters, by which a large saving in time may be effected. Instead of cutting internal threads of fittings in a lathe, they are now tapped by powerful tapping machines. In order to make up for imperfections in the threads of the pipe and fitting, a paste is used in making the joints, consisting of a mixture of white lead and lin- 96 SANITARY ENGINEERING OF BUILDINGS. seed oil with red lead. This paste hardens after some time and forms a tight packing in the screw joint. The pipes are cut to required lengths, from exact measurement, in a power pipe-cutting and threading machine. Straight lengths of pipe are screwed together by means of wrought iron couplings ; for changes of direction, special fittings, such as elbows, T and Y-branches are used. It is generally possible to run such soil and vent pipes from floor to floor without intermediate joints ; the total number of COM MUM STEAM firriNO. RECESSED DRAINAGE FJTTINO-. Fig. 35. Illustration showing difference between common steam and recessed drainage fittings. joints in each soil pipe stack is consequently largely reduced, and considerable labor is also saved. The fittings used for wrought iron drainage systems are recessed malleable iron fittings. Common steam fittings are unfit for purposes of house drainage, as they leave interior depressions, when the pipe is screwed up, which would collect sewage. The recessed fittings are tapped with a shoulder, and when the wrought iron pipe is screwed home its interior and that of the fitting form a practically continuous line (see Fig. 35). It occasionally happens in any system of soil or waste pipes that a length of pipe must be taken out DRAINAGE AND SEWERAGE OF BUILDINGS. 97 and replaced, which can only be effected with plumb- ers' soil pipe by bursting a fitting. Such a result can also be attained in wrought iron soil pipes by break- ing a fitting ; the new length can be inserted either by a flange joint or else by the use of a running thread and a lock-nut. It must be remembered that, in the case of plumbers' soil pipe, a heavy knocking to break the pipe is likely to loosen many, if not all, lead joints of the stack, while the screw joints are not so easily affected. It is true, on the other hand, that cast iron pipes are more easily and quickly cut for making connec- tions without the necessity of great mechanical skill or any expensive tools. Wrought iron pipes require heavy and costly stationary machines, to which the pipe must be sent to be cut and threaded, or else slow-working and expensive hand tools. The lengths must be measured very accurately and put together by skilled mechanics. Some of the fittings, for instance Y-branches and long T-Y's for wrought iron pipe, are not so easily put in place, on upright pipes in chases, as the cast iron fittings, but a skilled me- chanic is generally able, with a little ingenuity, to overcome such difficulties. It must also be consid- ered that there is a considerable saving in labor in putting up wrought iron pipe stacks as compared with the labor of erecting a stack of cast iron pipe. It has been repeatedly asserted that wrought iron rusts quicker than cast iron, if plain and entirely unprotected. This is true and well known to every 98 SANITARY ENGINEERING OF BUILDINGS. engineer, but it does not prevent engineers from using an otherwise excellent, and, in many respects and for many uses, superior material. All iron pipe used for sewerage purposes must be efficiently protected against corrosion, and such is done with cast iron pipes by coating them with coal-tar pitch, while wrought iron pipes are dipped, while thoroughly heated, into hot asphalt, or else they are zinc-coated or galvanized. There seems to be no reason why the asphalt coating, if done with equal care, should wear off, when the pipe is in use, quicker from wrought iron than from cast iron pipes. It is a fact that all soil and waste pipes are coated after a little use with a peculiar greasy slime, which tends to protect the pipe a cast iron as well as a wrought iron pipe against corrosion. As mechanical science advances better means will undoubtedly become available to protect soil pipes from corrosion. Amongst rust-preventing processes of recent origin, I mention the Bower-Barff Rustless Process, which consists in subjecting iron or steel to the action of superheated steam in a furnace, until the surface of the iron is covered with a more or less thick coating of magnetic oxide, which, as is well known, is un- affected by exposure to air or moisture. The advan- tages of such a process are obvious : above all every part of the article is reached and treated, while with painting, oiling, enameling or asphalting, corner nooks and flaws in the iron may not be reached, thus failing to secure a thorough protection against rust. DRAINAGE AND SEWERAGE OF BUILDINGS. 99 The thoroughly jointed and ventilated soil and waste pipe system receives the waste water from plumbing fixtures through short branch waste pipes, which may be of iron or else of drawn lead pipe. The latter is made of all sizes in coils of any desired length, by pressing molten lead by means of a hydraulic press through dies, through which a core is inserted. Waste pipes of lead should be of the fol- lowing sizes and weights : For one washbowl, i inches in diameter. For a row of basins, 1^-2 inches in diameter. For a bath tub, i| 2 inches in diameter. For a row of bath tubs, likely to be used at once, 2-3 inches in diameter. For a pantry sink, i| 2 inches in diameter. For a kitchen sink, 2 inches in diameter. For a set of laundry trays, 1^-2 inches in diameter. For a slop sink, 2-3 inches in diameter. The weight should be about 3^ pounds for i|-inch pipe, five pounds for two-inch pipe, six pounds for three-inch pipe, eight pounds for four-inch pipe. All joints in lead pipe should be wiped solder joints, and no cup joints should be tolerated, except where local circumstances render the wiping of a joint impossible. Where lead pipe joins iron pipe the following mode of connection is recommended : If the soil or air pipes are of cast iron, heavy brass caulking ferrules must be used, soldered to the lead pipe and caulked with oakum and lead into the hub of the iron pipe. Where the soil pipe system is of wrought iron, lead waste pipes and lead branch air pipes from traps are connected to it by brass screw nipples, wiped to the IOO SANITARY ENGINEERING OF BUILDINGS. lead pipe with solder, and screwed tightly with red lead by a wrench into the threaded opening of the fitting. Drawn brass ferrules and nipples are superior to those of cast brass. Each fixture connected to the soil or waste pipe system must be provided as near as possible to its outlet with a suitable trap, secure against siphonage, back pressure, evaporation, etc. If lead traps are used, the weight of the lead should be equivalent to the weight of the lead pipe. Each fixture should, wherever possible, discharge into the main soil or waste pipe independently. The branch wastes should in all cases be as short and direct as possible, and this will largely depend on a judicious planning and locating of fixtures by the architect. Overflow pipes, if such are used for fixtures, must connect to the waste pipe on the inlet side of the trap or below its water level. Drip pipes for safes under fixtures should not have any connection whatever with any soil or waste pipe or drain. They should be collected in the basement or cellar and discharge over an open sink, so that any leakage may be at once apparent. Refrigerator wastes must never be directly con- nected to any soil, waste or drain pipe. These wastes are very apt to become coated in a short time with slime and dirt ; they frequently stop up and are gen- erally liable to become offensive, especially the if ice DRAINAGE AND SEWERAGE OF BUILDINGS. IOI used is very impure. They should therefore be so arranged that they can readily be flushed. The outlets of all " set " fixtures except water closets Fig. 36. Watts' " Asphyxiator " smoke-testing machine. should be protected against obstruction or chokage by a fixed strainer. The plumbing work of every building, as soon as completed, should be tested by turning on the water and filling all traps. The final test is made either by Fig. 37. Burns and Baillie's " Eclipse " smoke-testing machine. means of oil of peppermint or else with the aid of a smoke-testing machine. When the peppermint test is applied an assistant goes to the roof and pours into every line a few ounces of the pure oil of peppermint. This should be followed with some hot water, so as to volatilize and IO2 SANITARY ENGINEERING OF BUILDINGS. diffuse the oil through the pipe system. The in- spector should remain in the house and as soon as the pipe system has been filled he should search for leaks or escapes along all lines of plumbing pipes and at all fixtures. A leak is readily detected by the pungent odor of the oil. In recent years the smoke test has come into use, and may be said to be preferable to the oil of pepper- mint test, because the smoke is forced through the pipe system under some pressure, and is therefore more apt to reach the dis- tant branches. It has also other advantages, among which I mention that it is useful in discovering dangerous bye-passes, and that it enables one to as- certain if all vent pipes at the roof are free and un- Fig. 38. American smoke-testing machine. obstructed b^ TUSt. The free circulation of smoke through the pipes indicates that the system is in good condition. In England use is made of rockets to generate a dense smoke. Port- able machines are also manufactured which force the smoke into the pipes either by means of rotary fans or by bellows. One of the earliest forms of smoke-test- ing machines is shown in Fig. 36 ; this is the Watts " Asphyxiator," which gives satisfactory results in the case of small buildings. A better machine is Burns DRAINAGE AND SEWERAGE OF BUILDINGS. 103 & Baillie's "Eclipse" bellows machine, illustrated in Fig. 37. An early American machine is illustrated in Fig. 38, in which a plunger or cylinder is worked up and down to force the smoke. It has a small water gauge to prevent the application of too much pressure. Fig. 39 shows the Thomson drain-testing machine, which contains a smoke generator and a set of double- acting bellows, made of leather. The operation of the machine is as follow r s : Water is first poured into the space around the fire box, then the cover is lifted and greasy cotton waste, tar paper and oakum are put into the smoke genera- tor and ignited. The bel- lows are now operated and force a dense volume of smoke in a steady stream into the pipes. The machine is either connected at the fresh air inlet or else it is placed on the roof and smoke is blown in through one of the vent pipes on the roof. As soon as the smoke appears at the other vent openings these are tightly closed and the pumping must then be con- tinued gently, while search is made in the building for leaks. Still another American smoke-testing machine is shown in Fig. 40. This is a very powerful machine and is specially adapted for larger buildings. Fig. 39. Improved American smoke- testing machine. 104 SANITARY ENGINEERING OF BUILDINGS. The testing of plumbing work is referred to more A Fig. 40. Large American smoke-testing machine. in detail in a subsequent chapter of this book, IV. PLUMBING FIXTURES. The selection of proper plumbing fixtures for a building is a matter requiring sound judgment and practical experience. It is always mistaken economy to use cheaper and inferior articles of manufacture, for such fixtures wear out much sooner than the good, although more costly appliances, and often require repairing or patching up, and the bills for the latter work, in many cases, exceed the amount of the first expenditure. A wise householder will reduce the number of plumbing fixtures in his house to a mini- mum, but will choose none but first-class appliances. How to arrange such fixtures properly, where to place them and how to keep them sweet and clean when in use, will also be discussed. I will * first, briefly, review the kind of fixtures to be used, but will not undertake to give a detailed description of all appliances at present in the market. For this I must refer the reader to the many excellent catalogues of modern plumbing appliances, some of which give very artistic illustrations of the fixtures which may be chosen for the sanitary work of buildings. Description of Plumbing Fixtures. Cast iron kitchen sinks are to be had either painted, galvanized or enameled. Galvanized and enameled IO6 SANITARY ENGINEERING OF BUILDINGS. sinks will remain good looking for only a few years, after which time the galvanizing wears out, while the enamel scales or chips off. Plain painted sinks re- quire frequent renewal of the paint and cannot be recommended. Soapstone sinks are better, but they soon assume a dark color and a greasy appearance. Sinks of wrought steel have lately been introduced into the market, and may prove to be economical and not easily worn out if protected against corrosion by the Bower-Barff rustless process. The neatest, most cleanly and best of sinks for use are those in white glazed earthenware, made in all required sizes. Their external beauty especially if put in a light, open frame, with a marble or earthenware back, and set on a tiled floor and the fact that they are non-absorbent, have made earthen or porcelain sinks the general favorites for the best class of work in dwelling houses, hospitals, hotels and institutions generally. An equally good and somewhat less costly article is a sink made in yellow or "colonial" earthenware. All kitchen sinks should have the outlet protected by a fixed strainer to prevent obstructions of the waste pipe. This pipe is generally made i^ or two inches in diameter, which size is ample in all cases. The waste should be trapped directly underneath the sink by an efficient trap. As kitchen sinks are generally located on the basement floor, an overflow pipe is un- necessary. For sinks in small households I advise against the use of any grease traps, as the grease may, with advantage, be saved instead of being poured out PLUMBING FIXTURES. JO/ into the sink. For large mansions, restaurant kitchens, boarding houses and institutions, the use of a grease trap, preferably one located outside of the house, is recommended. Grease traps inside of a dwelling, under or near a pantry or kitchen sink, are too liable to be neglected by the kitchen servants, and in most cases become cesspools and prove a serious nuisance, unless carefully and often cleaned. The neatest material for laundry tubs is glazed por- celain, as it is non-absorbent, smooth and easily kept clean. Such tubs are, of course, somewhat expensive, and for this reason are not universally used. Yellow or "colonial" earthenware tubs are nearly as service- able and somewhat cheaper. Soapstone tubs, as well as cement stone tubs, answer the purpose well enough, the latter kind being made in one piece without seams. Both kinds are infinitely superior to wooden laundry tubs. Enameled iron washtubs are also serviceable and sanitary, but require very careful handling to prevent the chipping off of the enamel. The waste pipe for a set of three or four tubs should be i^ or two inches diameter. An overflow pipe is not necessary, except where the laundry is located on the upper floors of a building. Theoretically, each tub should have a separate trap. In practice, one part is generally used for the set of tubs, placed either at one end of the set or under the middle tub, but I prefer in all cases the separate trapping of each tub, as this obviates the trouble of water backing up from one tub into the adjoining one. IO8 SANITARY ENGINEERING OF BUILDINGS. Pantry sinks are usually made of copper, either with oval-shaped or else with a flat bottom. Small earthenware sinks, for the butler's pantry, which are very clean and attractive in appearance, have the drawback that glass and crockery ware are more ex- posed in them to breakage. The finest sinks are those made of German silver and of white metal. Copper sinks are usually tinned, and, for the sake of durabil- ity, the copper must have a weight of not less than 18 ounces, or better, 24 ounces per square foot. The objection against them lies in the fact that the tinning generally wears away in a short time. It is therefore doubtful if plain planished red copper sinks are not to be preferred, provided they are kept bright and polished. The waste outlet of pantry sinks is frequently closed by a plated plug or stopper, but sometimes the waste pipe is closed by a waste valve. In both cases an overflow pipe is used, connected to the waste pipe below the water seal of the trap. Better than either arrangement is the short standing overflow, which is inserted into the socket of the waste pipe and does away with a possible nuisance caused by the separate overflow pipe. In order to prevent the standing waste from being in the way while washing dishes, I sug- gested years ago to have the pantry sink flat-bottomed, with a slight slope toward the outlet, and made with a recess for the standing waste. Such sinks are now readily obtainable from coppersmiths. The waste pipe for the sink should be not larger than two inches PLUMBING FIXTURES. 1 121 reached when necessary, are objectionable for reasons which I need not dwell upon further. Some prejudice against having plumbing appli- ances left without any casing or covering, especially on the part of women, had at first to be overcome, but good housewives have been gradually educated in these matters. All those to whom the drawbacks of the old methods are properly explained, approve now the advice of sanitarians of having every fixture open and accessible. If all women would be as prac- tical and exhibit as much good sense as Jill in Mr. E. C. Gardner's charming book, "The House that Jack Built," sanitary inspections would soon be rendered unnecessary, and the annual plumbers' bills for re- pairs would become a thing of the past. I wish it were possible she said to build a house with every- thing in plain sight, the chimneys, the hot-air pipes from the furnace, if there are any, the steam pipes, the ventilators, the gas pipes, the water pipes, the speaking tubes, the cranks and wires for the bells whatever really belongs to the building. They might all be deco- rated if that would make them more interesting, but even if they were quite unadorned they ought not to be ugly. If we could see them we shouldn't feel that we are surrounded by hidden mysteries liable at any time to explode or break loose upon us unawares. Those things that get out of order easily ought surely to be accessi- ble. I don't believe there would have been half the trouble with plumbing, either in the way of danger to health or from dishonest and ignorant work, if it had not been the custom to keep it as much as possible out of sight. There is a great satisfaction, too, in know- ing that everything is genuine. The following advice of a physician in a book en- titled "The House and its Surroundings," is equally to the point : 122 SANITARY ENGINEERING OF BUILDINGS. As to the pipes above the basement, you should insist upon hav- ing them all, within as well as without the house, as accessible as possible. Plumbers, 'try to conceal everything,' and, in consequence of this principle, when any accident occurs, the house is pulled about and the walls and woodwork damaged to a great extent, be- cause no one knows or can get at the exact direction of the offend- ing pipe. Therefore, all these pipes, including their inlets and out- lets, should be visible, or, if enclosed at all, should be cased in with wooden coverings, lightly screwed together, and not, as is usually the case, imbedded in plaster or cement, or otherwise fixed securely into the main or other walls of the building. The following quotation from the well-known English architect, Ernest Turner, referring to service pipes, might be applied in general to plumbing work, lie says : Service pipes are commonly kept carefully out of sight. This is an excellent arrangement for the plumber who is thus enabled to conceal any amount of scamped work. For the owner, its draw- backs are three, at least. 1. It makes defects or accidents more difficult of detection. 2. It makes them more mischievous in action. 3. It makes them more costly in correction. No pipes above ground, as was said in the preceding chapter, should be hidden behind anything but a hinged casing. It is an axiom of modern drainage work that there should be as little woodwork as possible around plumbing fixtures. This does not at all detract from the appearance of such work, provided the work itself is properly done and well finished. If the space un- der and around bowls, sinks, tubs and water clos- ets is kept entirely open, cleaning operations are much facilitated, and everything is at all times read- ily inspected without the necessity of using tools to remove boards or casings. An open arrangement of fixtures is equally well adapted to offices, to small PLUMBING FIXTURES. I 23 dwellings, to the most luxurious residences and to plumbing in public institutions. Fancy and ornamen- tal casings of woodwork have hitherto been consid^ ered indispensable for finishing bathrooms. The mis- taken notion of judging the quality of a job of plumb- ing by the costliness of the marble slabs, the silver plating of the faucets, the decorating and gilding of basin and water closet bowls, the expensive hard wood finish, has gradually given way to a better ap- preciation for fixtures which are properly trapped, amply ventilated and well flushed. Open plumbing work need not necessarily be done with nickel-plated piping, which must be kept bright and polished, and involves a good deal of hand labor. An equally sanitary job can be had with painted or bronzed lead or iron piping. Kitchen sinks may be supported on brackets, se- curely fastened into the walls, or else they may rest on legs set on the floor. If not objectionable on ac- count of expense, the supply and waste pipes and the traps may be of plain polished or nickel-plated brass, but a plain, neat job of lead piping will answer very well. The neatest arrangement is to have the floor under the sink or else the entire kitchen floor laid with tiles, which may also be carried up along the wall behind the sink. The sink should always be fitted with a high back of iron, glass, porcelain, slate or marble, to prevent defacing the rear wall by splashing. A pantry sink may be fitted up in a similar man- 124 SANITARY ENGINEERING OF BUILDINGS. ner, with draining shelf above and drawers below at one or both sides of the sink, but kept entirely open directly under the sink. Housemaids' sinks should be treated in the same way. Still more important is such a plain arrange- ment for slop sinks, which are otherwise liable to get very foul and offensive. It is preferable to have no> woodwork whatever around a slop hopper, everything being left in plain sight, open to inspection, access- ible for cleaning and scrubbing. Slop sinks and hop- pers should stand in a well-lighted and ventilated closet, or else, where the bathroom is of ample dimen- sions, in the bathroom. They should never be placed in a dark closet. Laundry tubs should likewise be set on legs and be left open under the tubs, leaving the waste pipe and trap in full sight. The beautiful porcelain washtubs are set on ornamental legs, either with a top frame of hard wood or without any wood at all, and with backs which may be of porcelain or marble, and through which the faucets for hot and cold water pass. Roll rim tubs, requiring no wooden framework, have recently been introduced, and such tubs are un- doubtedly the best from a practical and sanitary standpoint. Tiling for the floor of the laundry adds to its beauty and cleanly appearance. The same principles should be applied to station- ary wash basins. The marble slab should be sup- ported on ornamental iron or brass brackets, fastened to the walls, instead of having the usual cabinet work, PLUiJBING FIXTURES. 125 or else a pair of marble supports, or a handsome brass frame may be designed on which the slab rests. The slab may also be supported by wooden turned legs or by bronzed or otherwise decorated iron or brass legs. If desired, the trap may be of brass, finished or nickel- plated, and the supply and waste pipes may have the same finish, or the lead or brass piping may be finished in enamel paint or in aluminum bronze. The space under the slab and bowl should be left entirely open and the pipes exposed. Set on a hard wood or tiled floor, such a lavatory is certainly more cleanly and inviting in appearance than the apparatus formerly in use in houses. Where it is desired to leave all plumbing in sight, and where means are moderate, a handsome lead pipe job with well-shaped wiped joints is not at all objectionable. Says Mr. James C. Bayles, in describing an ideal house : None of my fixtures are boxed in. I prefer to have everything open and not to make little closets under the fixtures. To my mind there is nothing unsightly about neat pipes with cleanly wiped joints. I like to look at them when everything is as it should be. Besides, I know that these little closets are nothing but poke-holes for old shoes, dirty cloths, musty wooden pails and other bric-a-brac which properly belong in the ash barrel. The only way to prevent such accumulations is to have no place where they can accumulate. I let the plumbers who did my work know that nothing was to be covered, and that all the woodwork I should have about the basins and closets was just what was needed to hold up the slabs and seats. They could not understand why I fancied such an arrangement, but find- Ing that I had made up my mind to do as I said, they did their work with extra neatness, and when they had it finished I believe it gave them a positive pleasure to look at it. It has been quite customary in Europe, where 126 SANITARY ENGINEERING OF BUILDINGS. heavy copper tubs are used, to set bathtubs of all kinds in an open manner. The American copper-lined tubs required some exterior finish in woodwork, but the more modern enameled iron bathtubs, as well as those of earthenware, dispense with woodwork altogether. For no other fixture, however, is the open arrange- ment as important as for water closets. These should have no other woodwork but the seat ; a riser in front of the seat should always be dispensed with. Even closets with machinery, consisting of an iron body and earthen bowl, have nothing objectionable in ap- pearance if fitted up in this manner. Modern sanitary water closets all earthenware bowls without any movable parts look best if set on a floor of white tiles, or on a marble platform, the back and sides of the closet being similarly tiled, and often having a dado of ornamental or colored tiles. The seat of the closet is formed of a square or round board of ash, oak, cherry or mahogany, well finished and polished, hinged at one end or at the back, so that it may be turned up when not in use. There is no necessity for any further cover, and, arranged in this way, hopper or washout closets may well take the place of slop sinks and urinals. A similar and still better arrangement consists in having the seat at- tached directly to the closet bowl. In regard to this, we find in a recent volume, " Our Homes, and How to Make Them Healthy," the fol- lowing advice : PLUMBING FIXTURES. 12J Another point deserving of consideration by every one about to fix a new water closet apparatus, is the arrangement of the seat and the enclosure of the apparatus. The apparatus is usually fixed and enclosed, so that in course of time a vast amount of dust and dirt accumulates beneath the seat, or, indeed may have been left there by the workmen when the closet was built; and where the closet is used for emptying slops of any kind, it commonly happens that small quantities of liquid are allowed to splash on the top of the basin not sufficient, perhaps, to run away, but to keep a certain amount of permanent dampness on the floor of the space beneath the seat, and to give to the entire closet a constant smell. It would go far to pro- mote cleanliness and prevent this smell if the seat enclosure were wholly dispensed with, and the floor, with its carpet,* or oilcloth were continued entirely under the seat. In the case of all the best kinds of closet apparatus, comprising merely a basin with siphon trap beneath all in one piece of glazed stoneware there would be no- eyesore in such an arrangement, while every nook and corner would be visible, and subject to the frequent application of the broom and duster. The simplest possible method of fitting up a closet with seat, is to have a well-finished hardwood rim placed and fastened on top of the hopper, and the latter may be set on a tiled floor or on a slab of marble or of a good quality of slate. This afrange- ment is especially adapted to workshops, factories, railroad stations, hospitals, etc. Hopper closets are also made of earthenware with the top so shaped as to serve as a seat, thereby dis- pensing entirely with any woodwork, which is always more or less absorbent and becomes in time saturated with urine and perspiration from the body. If this hopper stands in a well-heated apartment, it has much to recommend it, especially for hospitals for insane * A carpet should never be recommended. The Author. 128 SANITARY ENGINEERING OF BUILDINGS. and also for factories. If placed in a room not well warmed in winter time, the closet is liable to become filthy through improper use. Arrangement of Bath and Toilet Rooms. Figs. 41 and 42 are sketches, illustrating in plan Fig. 41. Plan of a modern bathroom. and elevation the general appearance of a modern bathroom, arranged according to the principles given. Plate I. is a perspective view of a similar bathroom with open fixtures. A number of illustrations per- PLUMBING FIXTURES. 129 Fig. 42. Elevation showing exposed plumbing in a modern bathroom. 130 SANITARY ENGINEERING OF BUILDINGS. taining to this subject may be found in subsequent chapters of this volume. It is only necessary to compare these bathrooms with the one shown in Fig. i, which represents the manner formerly usual of arranging the lavatory, closet and bathtub in houses, to understand at once the great advantages of such open arrangement. Bathrooms should, wherever possible, be located Fig. 43. Plan showing water closet located separate from bathroom. near an outside wall, with windows affording ample light and ventilation. If they must be located in the centre of the house, special ventilation of the apart- ment must be provided. In regard to this matter I must refer the reader to treatises on " Ventilation,"* * A very readable account of "House Building in its Relation to Hygiene," especially on " Heating and Ventilation," has been written by Carl Pfeiffer, Esq., architect for " Wood's Household Practice of Medicine," Vol. T. PLUMBING FIXTURES. 131 and to the article on the " Proper Arrangement of Water Closets and Bath Apartments," in this volume. Speaking of the arrangement of bathrooms, I wish to state that the American custom of locating the bathtub, bowl and water closet in the same apart- ment, is, in my judgment, objectionable, and should only be adopted in the case of large residences, hav- ing a great number of bath and dressing rooms. For Fig. 44. Plan illustrating separation of water closet and bathroom. small dwelling houses, cottages, and for apartment houses, the water closet should be located in a separ- ate, well-lighted and well-ventilated apartment, with a door opening into the hallway, if possible, ad- joining the door leading to the bathroom. (See Figs. 43 and 44). A successful though somewhat complicated ar- rangement for preventing the fouling of the air 132 SANITARY ENGINEERING OF BUILDINGS. through plumbing- fixtures, consists in ventilating not only the soil and waste pipes and the traps, but, in addition to these, the house side of the trap or the generally short length of waste pipe between the fix- ture and the trap, and the overflow pipes, where such are provided. I have already mentioned that over- flow pipes, and any waste pipe not often used and rMoi/ctf me JfasTf /wo Orfxnon flee Fig- 45. Local ventilation of plumbing fixtures by connection with a heated vent flue. flushed, are liable to become foul and ill-smelling, and for overflow pipes in particular such a ventilation is desirable. It consists in running vent pipes of proper size from the house side of the trap to some constantly heated flue or shaft. (See Fig. 45). Such method of ventilation will also remove any gases that PLUMBING FIXTURES. 133 may possibly be given off from the house side of a water seal, in case the water in the latter should become stagnant. In office buildings, stores and fac- tories, it is not a difficult matter to secure a constant draft, by the use of a steam-coil or a smokestack, and even in a private dwelling such ventilation can be provided. I have, heretofore, objected to running either soil, waste or vent pipes into a heated flue, but the arrangement for ventilating fixtures differs from the former, as the ventilation is entirely on the house side of the trap. This method of ventilation may also be applied to the water closets. It is arranged either directly under the seat or else the bowl is provided with a vent pipe attachment, or the hopper is pro- vided just above the house side of the water seal with a vent. The local vent pipes attached to fixtures will secure a constant down draft through strainers and overflow pipes of basins, baths and sinks, as well as from the bowls of water closets, and will, to some extent, assist in changing or removing the vitiated air of the apartment, instead of, as is usually the case, being the cause of the pollution of the air in the rooms. For bathrooms without an external window, however, this arrangement would be insufficient, and a special ven- tilation of the room should preferably be arranged. I cannot entirely agree with those who would banish all modern conveniences from the main por- tion of the house, and would place them all in an annex, cut off from the main house. The comfort 134 SANITARY ENGINEERING OF BUILDINGS. and convenience of plumbing- fixtures would, to a great extent, be lost by following such a plan. What should be done is to abolish water closets and wash- bowls from sleeping rooms or unventilated closed closets, adjoining these as is often found in Ameri- can hotels. I believe, on the other hand, that it is quite possible to arrange a bathroom in the centre of a house, or adjoining a sleeping room, in such a man- ner as to be perfectly healthy. Mr. E. C. Gardner, the well-known architectural writer, thus describes a bathroom for a " home " : A bathroom, with all the plumbing articles it usually contains, must possess at least three special characteristics. It must be easily warmed in cold weather, otherwise the annual bill for repairs will be greater than the cost of coal for the whole house. Its walls, floors and ceilings must be impervious to sound. The music of murmur- ing brooks is delightful to our ears, so is the patter of the soft rain on the roof; but the splashing of water in a bathtub and the gurg- ling of unseen water pipes, are not pleasant accompaniments to a dinner table conversation. Thirdly, it must be perfectly ventilated not the drain pipes merely, but the room itself in summer and in winter. Two of the above conditions can best be secured by arrang- ing to have this important room placed in a detached or semi-de- tached wing; and here begin the compromises between convenience, cost and safety. It is convenient to have a bathroom attached to every chamber, and there is no doubt that this may be done with entire safety, provided the cost is not regarded. The bathroom for the chambers of the second floor should be located not too remote, but somewhat retired, and having no communication with any other room. It should be ventilated by a large open flue carried up directly through the roof; it should also have an outside window and inlets for fresh air near the floor. All the walls and partitions around it should be double and filled with mineral wool, and the floors should be deafened. The " house side " of the water closet traps should have three-inch iron pipes running to the ventilating flue beside the kitchen chimney, a flue that will always be warm, and therefore certain to give a strong upward draught at all times, which PLUMBING FIXTURES. 135 cannot be said of any other flue in the house, not even of the main drain or soil pipe which passes up through the roof. It would be easy to keep other flues warmed in cold weather by steam pipes, but in summer no steam for heating purposes is available. A " circula- lation-pipe " might be attached to a boiler on the kitchen range for this purpose, but such a contrivance would cost more than the iron pipe carried from the bathroom to the flue that is warmed by the kitchen fire. A good way to build this ventilating flue is to enclose the smoke-pipe from the range, which may of iron or glazed earthen pipe, in a larger brick flue or chamber, keeping it in place by bars 'of iron laid into the masonry. The rising current of warm air around the heated smoke pipe will be as constant and reliable as the trade winds. It has been customary, hitherto, to provide " set fixtures " not only with overflow pipes, but, in addi- tion to these, with " safes" or linings of sheet lead on the floor, turned up two or three inches, from which a drip pipe carries any leakage of water safely away, thus preventing- damage to ceilings. Such drip pipes should, under no circumstances whatever, be con- nected to any soil or waste pipe, or any sewer. They must run vertically down to the basement or to the cellar, discharging over an open sink, or into a mov- able pail, or they must stop at the ceiling of the cellar, their mouth being closed with a return bend, having a deep water seal, to prevent cellar air from rising to the upper floors. Lead safes, however, are a very unsightly addition to any plumbing fixture. The suggestions in regard to setting fixtures in an " open " manner could hardly be followed if lead safes are used. On the other hand, it seems at least very doubtful if such safes are really needed where fixtures are set without wood- 136 SANITARY ENGINEERING OF BUILDINGS. work. In the latter case a leak at a coupling of a washbowl faucet, or any other leak, would speedily be detected before doing much damage. I therefore advise doing away with "safes" as much as possible, except possibly in the case of plumbing fixtures located directly over expensively decorated parlor or dining room ceilings. In a book full of sound practical advice on matters connected with " Building a Home," the well-known architect, Mr. E. C. Gardner, discusses this matter as follows : It is customary, and doubtless wise, considering our habit of doing things so imperfectly the first time, that we have no confidence in stability, to place large basins of sheet lead under all plumbing articles, lest from some cause they should " spring a leak " and dam- age the floors or ceilings below them.. One strong safeguard being better than two weak ones, I would dispense with the " overflow " and arrange so that when anything ran over accidentally the lead basin or " safe " should catch the water and carry it through an ample waste pipe of its own to some inoffensive outlet. This would, perhaps, involve setting the plumbing articles in the most simple and open fashion which ought always to be done. Cabinets, cupboards, casings and wood finish, no matter how full of conveniences, or how elegantly made, are worse than useless in connection with plumbing fixtures, which, for all reasons, should stand forth in absolute naked- ness. They must be so strongly and simply made that no conceal- ment will be necessary. Care and Management of Plumbing Fixtures. A few words might with advantage be said in re- gard to the care of plumbing work. No matter how well planned and arranged, plumbing fixtures must be judiciously used, and require looking after from time to time. Even the best ventilated and best flushed water closet will get foul, untidy and ill- PLUMBING FIXTURES. 137 smelling, unless often cleaned ; the same is true of kitchen sinks, laundry tubs, slop hoppers and other appliances. It is especially important that the water in all traps should be frequently changed. A good housewife should instruct the housemaid in regard to these cleaning operations, w r hich should be repeated at fixed and frequent intervals, certainly as often as once a w r eek. All earthenware should be thoroughly cleaned by means of hot water, soap and a scrubbing brush ; dust and dirt must be removed, and the walls and floors frequently washed and scrubbed. All this will be much facilitated, first, by arranging the fixtures in an open manner, as described heretofore, and second, by locating each fixture in a well-lighted apartment or closet. In addition to such regular cleaning operations, sanitary inspections of the whole plumbing work are much to be recommended. A prudent householder will have the plumbing work examined at least as often as the annual house-cleaning occurs, to make sure of the reliability of all traps under fixtures, of the good condition of all flushing apparatus, of the absence of leaks, etc. The best disinfectant for plumbing work is fresh air and a bountiful flush of water, assisted by manual cleansing. It may, however, at times become neces- sary to use disinfectants in those plumbing fixtures which receive discharges from the human body A diluted solution of bichloride of mercury has been 138 SANITARY ENGINEERING OF BUILDINGS. recommended lately as being the best ; but it must be used with great caution, as it is a strong poison. Sulphate of iron or copperas is much cheaper ; both should be followed with a large quantity of clean water to prevent any chemical action on the waste pipes and traps. Considerable trouble is experienced in the proper care of plumbing in dwellings occupied only during a part of the year. There are, first, a large number of city residences which are generally closed, or at least their plumbing fixtures put out of use, for two or three months, and sometimes for a longer period during the summer. The great danger in this case is from evaporation of the- water in traps, the seal of which is rarely more than i or two inches in depth. To quote from T. M. Clark, Esq., architect : Few people need to be told that a week or two of hot weather is enough to evaporate the sealing water from the traps of washbowls, baths, or even water closets, leaving an open passage from the drains into thehouse, through which sewer vapors flow freely, often satur- ating curtains, carpets and furniture with their faint, sickly odor, to salute the family on its return home in the autumn. When we re- flect, also, that the reopening of the house usually takes place in the most fatal month of the year September when the system is especially susceptible to zymotic influences, and that the return of delicate persons from the country air to the stifling atmosphere of the city, is generally attended with a certain depression of the vital powers, the danger of sudden exposure to the influence of a house where foul vapors have for months been floating undisturbed, and their deposits accumulating and corrupting in the darkness, is evi- dent, and the trifling care which is necessary to give reasonable secur- ity against at least the unchecked circulation of foul air in the rooms will be well repaid. The ordinary water seal trap affords no protection PLUMBING FIXTURES. 139 in case of evaporation of the water ; non-siphoning traps and mechanical traps with a flap-valve, or a trap with a gravity ball-valve, or with floating ball, are preferable in this respect. Fixtures with a socket and plug, or a waste-cock (bowls, bathtubs, pantry sinks, washtubs), may be closed against sewer air by shutting the waste valve, or closing the outlet with a plug and filling the fix- ture with water. The holes in the overflow are generally closed with corks, in the case of bowls, and with paper secured with glue, over the outlet, in the case of sinks and tubs. This does not, of course, afford perfect protection, but practically it serves the purpose of excluding sewer air quite well. The com- mon open strainers for sinks can be replaced by plug strainers, and the latter inserted and the sink filled with water. In this respect, fixtures without overflow pipe offer great advantages. A much better, though more costly protection, may be found in providing each waste pipe with a lever handle round way stop-cock, to shut off when the house is being closed. It need hardly be mentioned that the water supply must be shut off from every fixture before closing the stop-cock on the waste pipe. For the traps of water closets the only remedy would be to dip out all the water and replace it by oil or by a solution of chloride of calcium. A piece of rock salt placed in the water of the trap, will tend to keep it filled by absorbing moisture from the air. These latter solutions may also be used for all traps on smaller waste pipes. I4O SANITARY ENGINEERING OF BUILDINGS. Secondly, trouble is experienced in the case of country or sea-shore dwellings, summer hotels, etc., which are closed during the winter season. The chief danger to the plumbing work arises in this case from the freezing of the water in pipes and traps. All supply pipes in such buildings should, of course, be planned and laid out in such a manner that every line of pipe can be completely drained and emptied. All waste pipes, on the other hand, should have in a good system of plumbing sufficient fall to insure the running off of all water from the pipes. The difficulty arises from the water which forms the seal in the traps. In a well-arranged system every trap is, if not in plain sight, at least easily accessible, and every trap can and should be emptied either by re- moving a brass screw at its bottom, or else by dip- ping the water out with a sponge. After this is done each fixture affords an opening to the entrance of sewer air, and must be closed in the same way as stated above for dwellings closed in summer time. It may be preferable not to empty the traps, but to throw a large quantity of rock-salt into them, which, though it does not render freezing impossible, still renders it much more difficult. If not too expensive, a mixture of glycerine and water may prove of great service. V. SEWAGE REMOVAL AND SEWAGE DISPOSAL. While faults of the interior drainage work con- tribute a large share to the pollution of the atmos- phere which we breathe, faulty external sewerage, besides being the cause of a vitiation of the air, creates a most dangerous pollution of the soil around and under habitations, and likewise frequently poisons the water from wells and springs. The water \vhich we drink must be as pure and wholesome as the air we breathe. Country houses in particular depend usually upon a w r ell or cistern situated near the house for the supply of water, hence the external sewerage of such houses is of greater importance even than that of city houses. The defects usually found in external drains or house sewers are numerous. They relate to the con- struction of the drain, to the manner of jointing pipes and laying drains, to the material of the drains, to their size and shape, and to the manner in which junctions with branch drains and with the street sewers are made. Foremost among them I mention leaky joints, for these work multifold harm. Not only does the liquid soak away into the soil to find its way to the nearest well or spring, but a constant 142 SANITARY ENGINEERING OF BUILDINGS. accumulation and gradual saturation of the soil with filth are inevitable. Then again, deposits occur in the pipes, because the force of the flush is to a great ex- tent lost if the waste water soaks away at the joints, and the solid particles of sewage remaining stranded in the pipes soon decompose and fill the pipes with gases of decay. Another cause of deposits in house drains is found in the irregular or insufficient inclination given to the pipe. How seldom is the simple precaution observed of taking levels to ascertain the available fall from the point where the drain leaves the house to the junction with the sewer! Hence we often find house drains sloping the wrong way, being in reality noth- ing but " elongated cesspools." It would be an easy matter to avoid such mistakes by the use of a com- mon spirit level. A further defect is the almost universal preference of drain-layers and ignorant builders for large pipes. Not many years ago nine and even twelve-inch pipes were used for the drainage of an ordinary city house and lot ; only lately six-inch house drains have been used for city dwellings of average size, and a five- inch pipe, which answers for most city or country houses, except for unusually large residences, is still the exception. The larger the pipe for a given amount of water, the more sluggish will the velocity of the stream be. Thus we find in the large size of drains another cause of accumulation of deposits. Mr. Dempsey, C. E., in his " Drainage of Towns and Buildings," says : SEWAGE REMOVAL AND SEWAGE DISPOSAL. 143 Sewers and drains were formerly devised with the single object of making them large enough, by which it was supposed that their full efficiency was secured. But sluggishness of action is now recognized as the certain consequence of excess of surface, equally as of de- ficiency of declination. A small stream of liquid matter, extending over a wide surface, and reduced in depth in proportion to the width, suffers retardation from this circumstance as well as from want of declivity in the current. Hence a drain which is disproportionally large in comparison to the amount of drainage, becomes an inopera- tive apparatus by reason of its undue dimensions, while, if the same amount of drainage is concentrated within a more limited channel, a greater rapidity is produced, and every addition to the contents of the drain adds, by the full force of its gravity, in propelling the entire quantity forward to the point of discharge. The English architect, Ernest Turner, well-known as a prominent sanitarian, speaks about size of drain pipes as follows in his book, " Hints to Househunters and Householders " : It is extraordinary that the practice of making drains as large as possible instead of as small as may be necessary for efficient working should have continued so long as it has. The only possible reason must be, " every drain is bound to choke sooner or later, and the larger the pipe the longer it will take before it requires cleaning." The smaller the pipe the less the friction the greater the hydrau- lic pressure the greater the velocity, and consequently the less chance there is of any obstruction taking place. It is a common notion that an ordinary medium-sized dwelling house requires a nine-inch drain; but the idea is altogether erroneous- To carry off a small quantity of water quickly, a small pipe mus^ be used. The greater the proportion of the wetted perimeter to the volume of water to be discharged, the greater, obviously, the resist- ance. If a pipe becomes choked it is generally owing to its being too large not too small or to faulty laying of construction. Mr. Eassie, in a chapter on " House Drainage," in the book " Our Homes and HOW T to Make Them Healthy," states the following: 144 SANITARY ENGINEERING OF BUILDINGS. Drains are very frequently laid down of far too large a sectional area; six inches in diameter where four inches would have sufficed, nine inches where six inches would have been sufficient, and twelve inches where nine would have been ample. This laying down of too large pipes is one of the most besetting sins in house drainage when that has been left entirely in the hands of the builder. I have taken up twelve-inch pipes in a house and replaced them with six-inch pipes. The sizes of the pipes to be used should not be decided hap- hazard, but advice taken upon this subject from a competent person. As a general rule, a four-inch pipe is sufficient for a cottage, and a six-inch pipe for an extensive dwelling. In deciding the diameter of the drain pipes, due provision must be made for the rainfall, or seri- ous floodings may be the result after every storm of unusual severity. Other defects of house drains relate to the shape and material of the pipes. Brick drains with flat bot- toms are an abomination, but some of the finest resi- dences remove (or rather retain) the household wastes through such square channels, twelve by twelve-inch in cross section. Wooden drains are not any better, for being- alternately wet and dry they quickly rot, and the roughness of the inner surfaces of such conduits tends to create deposits. Vitrified glazed sewer pipes, properly shaped, smoothly glazed and well burnt, are preferable to all other kinds, even to cement pipes. They should be laid with care, on proper foundations or supports, and be well aligned, properly jointed and laid with a reg- ular fall. Often no attempt is made to tighten the joints of vitrified pipes, and the mistaken notion seems largely to prevail that through such open joints subsoil water may be removed from the surrounding soil, the house drain thus performing a double ser- vice, for which it should never have been intended. SEWAGE REMOVAL AND SEWAGE DISPOSAL. , 145 Conduits for the removal of the foul liquid wastes from houses should be tight beyond doubt. In made ground, where drains are liable to settle and break, earthen pipes should be replaced by iron pipes, and this is true also of drains passing near a well or cistern. Another serious and frequent defect relates to the junction of branches to the main drain, T branches, i. e., right-angled connection pieces being used, which cause eddies and accumulation of deposits. The same error of construction is often made at the point where a house drain connects to a street sewer. In order to join the flow from both with the least pos- sible retardation of the current, the branch should enter the drain under an angle of 45 or 60. Deliver- ing a large drain pipe into one of smaller diameter is a mistake too often made by ignorant or skin builders. From personal notes of a recent inspection of the drainage of a large sea-side hotel on the Atlantic Coast, I quote the following : The ground underneath the building appears to be saturated with excremental and greasy filth. There is an extensive network of terra cotta drain pipes under them, a few of these being main lines, into which a large number of laterals discharge. Most of these laterals are six inches in diameter (sometimes for a single kitchen sink), but some are even larger. These drains are laid in the most wretched manner, without regard to alignment or grade, partly on the surface, partly in the ground, a few being only half covered. Few, if any joints appeared to be tight. I observed the rising tide coming out of some joints in a heavy stream; in other joints the cement had crumbled off, or had been washed out or was removed through gnawing of rats. Many drains were cracked and broken, some had large holes at the top which allowed sewer air to pass freely upwards into the buildings. Laterals joined the main sewer pipe by T-branches. I could not detect a single Y-branch; some laterals 14-6 SANITARY ENGINEERING OF BUILDINGS. even ran into the main drain in a direction against the current. The whole drainage work under the building appeared to be patch-work, done from time to time as occasion required. The waste pipes from fixtures located in the building delivered directly into the network of drains just described; all kinds of materials were used for such wastes; square wooden pipes, galvanized iron pipes, tin, lead, cast and wrought iron and earthen pipes. A bend at the junction of a vertical and a horizontal pipe was the exception; in nearly all cases junctions were made with right-angled elbows. Theonly ruling prin- ciple for the drainage of the building seemed to have been to provide drains of ample size. At times of high tide the sewage backs up in the drains and floods the surface under the building by oozing out at the joints. When the tide recedes, sewage mud is left on the ground to decompose. Hence arises the frequent complaint of offensive smells from the drains. Conditions such as herein described are by no means exceptional, and similar defects exist in many houses even at the present day, Owing to the indif- ference of the general public the actual condition of the outside drainage of a house is something seldom inquired into, except when sickness has made its ap- pearance, or when continued complaints of ill-health force it to the attention of the house occupants. The usual modes of disposing of liquid house- hold wastes and human excreta are briefly as follows : Comparatively few cities have a complete sewerage system with sewers in the principal streets to which the house drains connect. Many cities, however, are provided with a partial system of sewers, often more or less faulty in design and worse in construction. With these it is a common occurrence to find the connection between the house drain and the sewer improperly made. Other cities are still without any system of sewerage whatever, and in smaller towns SEWAGE REMOVAL AND SEWAGE DISPOSAL. 147 and villages it is a common, though much to be con- demned, practice to store the sewage of the house- hold in cesspools, which are not unusually located close to the house, in some cases even underneath the dwelling. In most cases cesspools are merely large pits dug in the ground and walled up with loese stones. The liquid contents are left to soak away into the subsoil, while all solids and grease from the kitchen remain in the cesspool to decompose and gen- erate noxious gases. Should the pores of the soil stop up and the liquid cease to leach into the ground, the cesspool is abandoned and a new hole dug close to the first one. In other instances two cesspools are built, the first one supposed to be tight, to retain the solid and grease from the household, the second one a leaching cesspool, connected with the first one by an overflow pipe, through which the filthy liquids run to be disposed of by soakage into the ground. A continuous pollution and dangerous saturation of the soil about human habitations is thus going on, while the air which we breathe is tainted by the foul emana- tions commonly known as " sewer gas." Not less dangerous than the accumulation of putrid organic matter is the pollution of the underground water by the foul liquid soaking into the ground. Chemical analysis of the water of wells, situated in proximity to cesspools, or receiving the surface drain- age from stables, cow-houses, etc., generally reveals organic matter in the water. Such contamination is 148 SANITARY ENGINEERING OF BUILDINGS. all the more serious, because in town and villages or isolated country houses the people quite often are obliged to depend upon the well for the supply of drinking- water to men and animals. Another much to be detested practice, which I am almost tempted to call a crime, is the use of an aban- doned deep well for a cesspool. And this is true for drains discharging water closet wastes into it as well as for those discharging slop water only. Practically, there is hardly a perceptible difference between either WELL, Fig. 46. Cone of filtration. kind of wastes after they have been retained for some time in a cesspool. The question is often asked : " At what distance from a well would it be safe to put a leaching cess- pool ? " Sanitary science has but one answer to this query : It prohibits the use of leaching cesspools altogether. Prof, Kedzie, of Michigan, has lately illustated the question of soil and water pollution by showing two cones, one of which he calls the cone of filtration, Fig. 46, and the other the cone of pollution, Fig. 47. SEWAGE REMOVAL AND SEWAGE DISPOSAL. 149 The first cone shows the distance and the area drained by the well. It is clear that the radius of the base of the cone must depend on the depth of the well, and on the character of the soil through which the well is sunk. Again, the area of soil which may be polluted by soakage from a cesspool will depend on the soil and on the depth of the cesspool. Practically, we are not yet able in a given case, to draw exact diagrams of the two cones. If we could do this the question of pollution of a well, in a given CfcSSPOOL - ' t '. V * \ \\ \\V\\\\ \ v\\ \v Fig. 47. Cone of pollution. instance, by soakage from cesspools, could readily be answered without the aid of chemical analysis. The diagrams, however, are admirably adapted to convey to the general public an idea of the danger incurred by locating wells and cesspools in close proximity to one another. Wherever the two cones would inter- sect each other, there a pollution is inevitable. Even where they do not cross each other, there is still some danger, for the cone of soakage might strike a water- I5O SANITARY ENGINEERING OF BUILDINGS. bearing stratum, and liquid impurities may then be carried to great distances horizontally, polluting springs and causing zymotic disease. A leaching cesspool is, under all circumstances, an abomination. Less dangerous and hardly as objec- tionable, is the accumulation of household wastes in a tight receptacle or cesspool ; but the latter should be built with particular care, made thoroughly secure against leakage, located as far away as possible from the dwelling, and efficiently ventilated. It should be of small dimensions, and it is better to build it in two compartments, the first of which retains the solids and must be frequently emptied, cleaned and disinfected; while the second larger compartment holds the liquids, which must be disposed of on the ground, on the lawn, or in the vegetable garden, by frequent pumping out. It is a mistaken notion frequently met with in rural or suburban districts where water closets are not used, that slop water from bed-rooms and kitchens cannot, per se, become a dangerous nuisance. We find such liquid wastes disposed of by running them in open street gutters to the nearest pond or brook, or else they are dumped upon the ground around the dwelling, especially near kitchen windows. The emanations from a farmer's back yard on a hot summer's day are generally extremely nauseating and unwholesome. But this is not all. Another not less dangerous nuisance is the common privy, which is still to be SEWAGE REMOVAL AND SEWAGE DISPOSAL. 151 found in some of the smaller towns, and is the rule in villages and isolated dwellings having no general water supply. The prevalent form of privy is nothing but a large hole in the ground a few feet deep, over which is erected the simplest kind of a shed, provided with a rough seat with a hole. Who has not, on a hot summer's day, when compelled to pass near such privy, felt the offensive and truly sickening influence of the vile emanations from an accumulated mass of excrement ? Indeed, it is not surprising that we should hear so much now-a-days of ''malaria" and " fever " in the country ! Another method of house drainage extensively practiced in some cities, like Philadelphia and St. Louis, but which must be utterly condemned, is to build in the rear of the yard a vault, over which a privy is erected. This vault is provided with an over- flow or connection to the street sewer. Into this runs a waste pipe from the kitchen sink, which also receives the rain-water from the whole or a part of the roof. The excrement which accumulates in the privy vault is supposed to be washed out into the sewer with the flush from a good rainfall, but-such is not the case at least the flushing out is not a thorough one. Flush- ing these vaults from a yard hydrant by means of a hose is generally neglected, and frequent stoppages between the vault and the sewer, or further on in the street sewer occur. The privy vault is seldom built thoroughly tight, consequently there is danger of soil pollution ; and even where it is tight there is 152 SANITARY ENGINEERING OF BUILDINGS. always a poisoning of the atmosphere of the rear yard with vile stenches. Such a privy vault is not much better than a common privy, and should not be tol- erated by the authorities. An English sanitary engineer has truly said : An open privy cesspool is, in most cases, a nuisance. The addi- tion of small quantities of water to effete organic matter causes fer- mentation and the liberation of the gases of decomposition, and therefore all such matter should either be washed away with plenty of water, or water should be wholly excluded from it. Either an abundance of water or none at all is alone safe in this case. Wherever cities have adopted the " water-carriage" system, the use of some kind of water closet appa- ratus, which is vastly superior in point of comfort, decency and cleanliness, should be made imperative. The admirable words of Dr. Simon, from his book, " Filth Diseases and their Prevention," are quoted here in full as being quite to the point : There are houses, there are groups of houses, there are whole vil- lages, there are considerable sections of towns, there are even entire and not small towns, where general slovenliness in everything which relates to the removal of refuse matter, slovenliness which in very many cases amounts to utter bestiality of neglect, is the local habit: where, within or just outside each house, or in spaces common to many houses, lies for an indefinite time, undergoing foetid decomposition, more or less of the putrefiable refuse which house-life, and some sorts of trade-life produce; excrement of man and brute, and gar- bage of all sorts and ponded slop waters: sometimes lying bare on the common surface; sometimes unintentionally stored out of sight and recollection in drains or sewers which cannot carry them away; sometimes held in receptacles specially provided to favor accumula- tion, as privy pits and other cesspools for excrement and slop water, and so-called dust bins, receiving kitchen refuse and other filth. And with this state of things, be it on large or on small scale, two chief sorts of danger to life arise: one, that volatile effluvia from the refuse pollute the surrounding air and everything which it contains; SEWAGE REMOVAL AND SEWAGE DISPOSAL. 153 the other, that the liquid parts of the refuse pass by soakage or leak- age into the surrounding soil, to mingle there of course, in whatever water the soil yields, and in certain cases thus to occasion the dead- liest pollution of wells and springs. To a really immense extent, to an extent indeed which persons unpracticed in sanitary inspection could scarcely find themselves able to imagine, dangers of these two .sorts are prevailing throughout the length and breadth of this coun- try, not only in their slighter degrees, but in degrees which are gross and scandalous, and very often, I repeat, truly bestial. While it cannot be denied that ill-devised and ill-man- aged water closets and their accompaniments have caused filth dis- eases to a very large extent, a far larger range of mischief has at- tached to the other kinds of privy arrangements: and of all the filth influences which prevail against human life, privies of the accumula- lative sort operate undoubtedly to far the largest extent. The intention, and, where realized, the distinctive merit of a sys- tem of water closets is, that in removing excremental matters from the house it does so with perfect promptitude and in a perfectly neat and complete manner, not having any intervals of delay, nor leaving any residue of filth, nor diffusing any during its operation; and where the water system is not in use, these objects ought still as far as pos- sible to be secured. Thus, in the absence of water closets, evidently any reasonable alternative system ought to include the following two factors, brought into thoroughly mutual adjustment: First, proper catchment apparatus in privies; and secondly, proper arrangements for privy scavenage. . . Now, hitherto, in places not having water closets, the gen- eral practice has flagrantly contravened those conditions. Either it has had no other catchment apparatus than the bare earth beneath the privy seat, and has trusted that this (receiving the excrements and often also the house slops on to its natural surface or into a hole dug into it) would absorb and drain away the fluid filth, and serve during months and years as heaping place for the remainder; or else it has had, as supplement to the privy, a large enclosed middenstead or cesspool, partly or entirely of brickwork or masonry, intended to retain large accumulations of at least the solid filth, with or without the ashes and other dry refuse of the house, and in general dividing its fluid between an escape-channel, specially provided, and such soakage and leakage in other directions as the construction has un- designedly or designedly almost always permitted. Privies such as these, have not been meant to have their filth removed except when 154 SANITARY ENGINEERING OF BUILDINGS. its mere largeness of bulk (exceeding or threatening to exceed the limits of the privy pit or cesspool or midden) might mechanically make removal necessary, or else when there might happen to arise an agricultural opportunity for the stuff; and public scavengering in relation to such privies has either had no existence, or has been adapted to the supposition of an indefinite local tolerance of accu- mulation. All this accumulation, with its attendant exhalation and soakage, and at intervals the shoveling and carting away of its masses of fcetid refuse, and the exposure of the filth-sodden catchment sur- faces of privy pits and middens, has been, as needs hardly be said, an extreme nuisance to those in whose vicinity it has been; and sometimes with the aggravating condition that, because of the situa- tion of the privy, each filth removal must be through the inhabited house. What nuisance this system at present constitutes in innu- merable populous places, including some of our largest towns, can indeed hardly be conceived by persons who do not know it in opera- tion; and the infective pollutions of air and water supply, which it occasions to an immense extent in towns and villages throughout the country, are chief means of spreading in such places some of the most fatal of filth diseases. Removal of Sewage. The removal and disposal of household wastes is properly accomplished as follows : From a point about ten feet outside of the cellar walls the house sewer may consist of strong, vitrified earthen pipes, or of cement pipes, but where the sewer passes near a well or spring, iron pipes with caulked joints are preferable. For ordinary-sized dwellings and lots, a pipe sewer four or five inches in diameter will prove ample to remove the house sewage and the largest rainfall. The more the size of the drain is restricted within the limits of desired capacity, the more self-cleansing will it be. I take the following useful table of sizes of drains from Denton's " Handbook of House Sanita- tion : " SEWAGE REMOVAL AND SEWAGE DISPOSAL. 155 TABLE L* Diameter of pipe in inches. Velocity 3 ft. per second. Velocity 4! ft. per second. Velocity 6 ft. per second. Velocity 9 ft. per second. Fall. D "rt ^ Fall. ci . G Fall. D fp ~2 tu rt . _C Fall. rt . ^C J;> ^ -;D 2 '/ID n i "* Q .s^ ^** Q .s a G .s^ 3 i 9 12 in 69 in 92 in 138 in 207 in 276 64.8 I in 30 4 115.2 i in 40.8 259.2! i in 61.2 594.0 i in 92.0 1051.2 i in 122.4 97-2 172.8 388.8 891.0 1577 in 17.2 in 23.0 in 34-5 in 51.7 in 69.0 129.6 230.4 518.4 1188.0 2102.4 I in 7.6 i in 10.2 i in 15-3 i in 23.0 I in 30.6 194 4 345-6 777 6 1782.0 3I53-6 The discharge given refers to pipes running full. For pipes running only half full, the velocity remains the same, and the discharge is just one-half of that given in the table. The inclination of the house sewer should be, wherever possible, not less than L -inch per foot, but even a fall of ^-inch to the foot will cause a sufficient velocity in the drain to remove silt and water closet matter. If the locality does not permit the pipe to be laid on this grade, a proper flushing apparatus for the house sew^er must be provided. To bring the sewer out of reach of frost it should be laid in a trench at least three feet deep. It must be laid in perfectly straight lines. Wherever changes of direction occur, these should be effected by easy curves, made of bent pipes, or else the curve should be put in the bottom of a manhole andthe pipe lines. * Another reliable table for calculating the size of house drains is given in W. P. Gerhard's "House Drainage and Sanitary Plumbing," published by D. Van Nos- trand, New York, Seventh Edition, 1898. See also the " Diagram of Sewer Calculations," constructed by the author and published in 1882, by E & F. N. Spon, London and New York. 156 SANITARY ENGINEERING OF BUILDINGS. kept perfectly straight between manholes. Branch drains should enter the main house sewer by Y-branches so as to join the flow of both pipes with- out causing eddies. Should the house sewer be very long, it is well to provide means for occasional inspec- tions, consisting of access pipes or lamp holes at dis- tances of about 100 feet, and of manholes at distances of 200 or 300 feet. If provided with open gratings or ventilating covers, manholes perform the important task of ventilating the house sewer throughout its entire length. Vitrified pipes are manufactured of various kinds of clay, ground in a mill and homogeneously mixed. The mixture is brought to a press and passed through dies, from whence the pipes issue. Smaller sizes are made in horizontal presses, while the larger sizes are preferably made in upright presses. The pipes are now ready for the glazing, and here two processes may be distinguished, the salt-glazing and the slip- glazing. In the former process the pipes are sub- jected to a very high temperature in a kiln, into which some salt is thrown, which creates a flux on the pipe surface. This gives to the pipe its glossy appearance and it also renders the pipe more impervious and not so easily affected by acids, alkalines or sewage gases. Slip-glazed pipes, on the other hand, are made by dip- ping the pipes into a peculiar glaze called slip, and then drying them in a kiln. Good vitrified pipes must be circular and true in section, of a uniform thickness, perfectly straight SEWAGE REMOVAL AND SEWAGE DISPOSAL. 157 (this is very important to insure good alignment), free from any cracks or other defects ; they should be hard, not porous, and of a highly smooth surface. The thickness of good ordinary earthen pipe should average as follows: TABLE II. Diameter of pipe in inches. 3 4 5 6 8 10 12 15 18 Thickness of 3 1 5 ai 3 . , pipe in inches. * * 16 T 8 ^ In important sewer work, pipes made somewhat heavier than stated in Table II, are used. Vitrified pipes are made in lengths of two and three feet, either plain or with a socket end. Many engi- neers prefer the plain or ring pipe, which is laid with sleeves, as this allows of an easy exchange of a single length of pipe from a pipe line already laid, while, with the socket pipe, it becomes necessary to disturb several lengths. To overcome this difficulty, pipes are also manufactured with half-sockets, or else they are made plain at both ends and are bedded with cement in earthen chairs, It is very important that vitrified earthen sewer pipes should have sockets of sufficient width and depth to permit of making proper gasket and cement joints. In pipes from five to ten inches diameter, the depth of the hub should be at least 2\ inches, and for pipes from twelve to eighteen inches it should be three inches. The width of the annular joint space should be at least -| inches. Such pipe is known in 158 SANITARY ENGINEERING OF BUILDINGS. the market as the " deep and wide socket pipe," and it enables the making of better, stronger and more water-tight joints. As an example, I give in Table III the weights and the principal dimensions of the deep and wide socket pipe, made in three-foot lengths, and in sizes from three inches up to twenty-four inches, by the Port- land Stone Ware Company, of Portland, Maine. TABLE III. Size of pipe. Weight per foot. Thickness. Space for cement. Depth of Socket. 3 inc 4 5 6 8 10 12 hes. 7 lb 10 12 17 24 s S. < Jin t i f i li ch. ? in i i ! 4 1 1 ch. i^ inc i *t *{ *l l 3 hes. Pipes in three-foot lengths are preferred as they re- duce the number of pipe joints. The smaller sizes of pipe, up to six inches, are, however, difficult to manu- facture owing to the danger of warping while being burnt in the kiln. The pipe works manufacture a large number of fit- tings for earthen pipes, such as traps, Y-branches, T-branches, junction pieces, bends, offsets, etc. Cement pipes, though not as universally used as vitrified pipe, have been manufactured for years for drainage purposes. If care is observed in their manu- facture, and if best Portland cement is taken, such pipes can be made very strong and durable and of a very uniform cross-section. They have also the ad- SEWAGE REMOVAL AND SEWAGE DISPOSAL. 159 vantage of not warping, as the smaller sizes of earthen pipes do when baked in the kiln. The in- terior of cement pipes, however, is not as smooth as that of vitrified earthen pipes, and unless well flushed cement drain pipes are more apt to become covered with a slime which may become dangerous when it putrefies and fills the pipes with gases of decomposi- tion. Where vitrified pipes are used for sewerage pur- poses, they must be continuously supported to prevent Fig. 48. Proper method of laying earthen drains. breakage, and grooves should be cut so as to make the pipes rest on their full length. (See Fig. 48.) There are but a few so-called " drain lavers " who j thoroughly understand the laying of pipe sewers. To insure tightness of joints it is well, in using socket pipes, to ram first a small gasket of oakum between spigot and hub, which will prevent the cement from entering at the joints, where in hardening it would create an obstruction. To do so, it is quite necessary that the socket should be very deep. The remainder of the space should be filled with a mortar consisting of an even mixture of best Portland cement and clean sharp sand. The cement and sand should be l6o SANITARY ENGINEERING OF BUILDINGS. thoroughly mixed dry, and then wetted up only as needed. No lime should ever be used in this mixture, nor should any cement be used that has begun to set. Cement is also wiped in front of the joint in the form of a bevel. Before refilling the trench it is to be recommended to test the pipes and joints by hydraulic pressure, by closing the main outlet of the house sewer and filling the pipes with water. Considering the usual wretched manner of laying house drains, such tests seem to be extremely necessary. Contrary to popular opinion vitrified pipes with well cemented joints are perfectly able to stand some internal pressure. Some years ago I learned of a pipe line in Wurtemberg, Germany, 4,020 metres (2-^ miles) long, and ten centimetres (four inches) in diameter, supplying a railroad tank with sixty cubic metres of w^ater daily, which line was subject, in several places, to a head of water of eight metres (26.25 feet), equivalent to 11.4 pounds pressure per square inch. In laying this line of vitri- fied pipe, each pipe was carefully inspected and tested under seventy-five pounds pressure before use. After laying the pipe and after the cement in the joints had hardened, the line was tested in sections, each section being subjected for fifteen minutes to a pressure of sixty pounds. Such severe tests of the external sewerage corre- sponding to the testing of the internal pipe system by water, will secure work of a quality and character as is desired for sanitary reasons, namely, a per- SEWAGE REMOVAL AND SEWAGE DISPOSAL. l6l fectly water-tight conduit, without any joints through which sewage may leak out or sub-soil water enter. To secure a water-tight joint under unusually diffi- cult conditions, such as surface or tidewater in sewer trenches, etc., various pipes with patent joints have been made; for instance, the " Stanford Patent Joint Pipe," which has rings of some bituminous compound cast on the spigot end, and in the socket of each pipe. Just before using them the parts to be jointed are greased, and then the spigot end carefully and truly entered into the socket. To facilitate future inspections and to remove occasional obstructions, it is to be recommended to keep a correct and detailed record of all drains, their sizes, depths and rate of fall, the location of all traps, Y-branches, manholes, lampholes, vent openings, junctions, bends, etc. Disposal of Sewage. The house sewer accomplishes the instant removal from a building of its liquid and semi-liquid wastes. The next, and in some respect more important, ques- tion is, how shall these foul wastes be disposed of ? In the case of city dwellings we generally find in the principal thoroughfares provision made for public sewers. But only in few cities are the sewers built as they should be, in accordance with a regular "sys- tem," designed and laid out by men of large experi- ence w^ho are well-qualified in this special branch of civil engineering. Doubtless there is much room for improvement in the line of sewer planning and con- l62 SANITARY ENGINEERING OF BUILDINGS. struction, but as it is not my purpose to discuss "the sewerage of cities " in this volume, the subject cannot be dwelt upon at length. Connection between house and street sewers should always be made by competent workmen, according to rules and under the supervision of sewer inspec- tors, employed by the city. Wherever a new system of sewers is being constructed, it is desirable to pro- vide special house connection pieces for every lot and dwelling on both sides along the lines of the street sewers, and sometimes the branches for each house are at once run up to the curb line. This practice has much to recommend it, for it does away with the usual annoying and detrimental breaking up of the street pavement. In all cases where sewers are built by the city, the final disposal of the sewage is a matter in which the city authorities are more directly concerned than the individual householder. The latter's work stops at the junction between house and street sewer. In cities, towns, villages or hamlets which have no sewers the case is entirely different. The serious question presents itself in such cases .to every house- owner or tenant, how to dispose of the liquid wastes of his household without creating a nuisance on his own or the neighbor's premises. In towns or villages where the houses are built closely together, there is scarcely a remedy for the evil, other than to abolish the disgusting and health- endangering cesspools in the rear of houses, and to SEWAGE REMOVAL AND SEWAGE DISPOSAL. 163 build, by united action of the citizens, a complete and well-planned system of sewers. In suburban or rural districts, and in the case of isolated buildings with ample and suitable grounds about them, the question can, fortunately, be easily solved in most cases, without incurring the expense of building sewers, the proportionate cost of which for each house would be unusually large for scattered dwellings. A leaching cesspool in a free and porous soil can sometimes be used without immediate danger to the house or to the occupants for whom it is intended or to its surroundings, provided it can be located very far from the house and on a much lower level. Such an arrangement is nevertheless attended with some risk. For the liquid sewage, which seeps away into the subsoil, may reach a subterranean fissure or stratum, along which it moves, to find its way finally into a spring or well, which may often be miles away. Outbreaks of typhoid fever, caused by drinking water contaminated in this manner, have often been traced to a leaching cesspool. The latter should, therefore, be considered as always objectionable from a health point of view. Isolated country mansions, located along the bank of a river or stream may discharge their sewage into the same, provided the water course has a swift cur- rent and carries at all seasons of the year a sufficiently large volume of water to insure a thorough and ample dilution of the sewage. Such a method of disposal, 164 SANITARY ENGINEERING OF BUILDINGS. while permissible in the case of single habitations, is not, as a rule, one which can be approved for institu- tions having a large population, or for large summer hotels. The difficulty increases for buildings on tidal estu- aries or along the seashore, for while the amount of sewage discharged would be small as compared with the vast bulk of water of the ocean, experience has shown that the bathing beaches become defiled by the sewage, which is cast up by the tides. The direct dis- charge of sewage into the sea may be permitted only when there are strong tidal currents carrying the sewage sufficiently far away to prevent its return to the shore. A plan of disposal, which can often be resorted to with success in such situations, is to store the sewage temporarily in a water-tight sewage tank, the contents of which are discharged at about one or two hours after the tide has begun to ebb. Fig. 49 shows the method of sewage disposal adopted for a country house located on a small island on the north side of Long Island. The sewage is dis- charged into a tight sewage tank, built in two recep- tables, the first one intended to retain all solids and kitchen grease, and provided with a submerged over- flow to carry the liquid sewage into the second tank. The outlet of the latter is closed by a gate-valve, and the tank is emptied once in twenty-four hours by opening the gate at the middle of the ebb tide. The outfall sewer is located on the bank of a tidal inlet, through which the outgoing tide runs with a very SEWAGE REMOVAL AND SEWAGE DISPOSAL. 1 66 SANITARY ENGINEERING OF BUILDINGS. rapid current. Occasionally, the first tank is emptied in a similar manner, by means of the other gate-valve. When the tank has been emptied, the gate-valve is, of course, closed. The details of the arrangement and construction of the sewage tank are shown in Fig. 50. Once each season both tanks should be cleaned, flushed and disinfected. The only proper and rational method of sewage disposal in cases where a free discharge of the sewage SEWAGE REMOVAL AND SEWAGE DISPOSAL. 1 67 into a water course or into the sea is not permissible, is to return to the soil as fertilizers the wastes from the household. This can be done in a variety of ways. Whatever the method adopted may be, it should be borne in mind that the sewage must be applied on or near the surface of the soil, within easy reach of the oxidizing influence of the atmosphere, and that it should not be applied in such quantities as to saturate the soil ; in other words, the sewage must not be too much diluted, and the application of the sewage to the land must be intermittent. Both surface irrigation and sub-surface irrigation have been successfully employed in disposing of household wastes. For cottages which do not have a large area of available ground about them, the method of disposal by surface irrigation may become offensive to sight and smell during the hot summer months. The disposal by sub-surface irrigation is free from these objections, but requires, on the other hand, more work in planning and laying out the sys- tem, and it also requires the laying of a network of distributing drains laid under and near the surface, which drains occasionally clog up and require taking up, washing and relaying. Surface irrigation may be adopted in connection with a small, well-ventilated and perfectly tight cess- pool or sewage tank, on the top of which is set a small pump, with hose attached, by means of which the liquid may be sprinkled over the lawn or in the kitchen garden. If preferred, a stop-gate may be i68 SANITARY ENGINEERING OF BUILDINGS. placed in the outlet pipes of the drain from the cess- pool, carrying- the liquid sewage to an irrigation field on a lower level, if a favorably located tract of land can be had. As soon as the cesspool becomes filled, its contents should be discharged by opening the stop- valve. The capacity of the cesspool should be small and the waste water of only a few days should be stored in it. It should, preferably, contain an inter- cepting chamber for grease and solids. Fig. 51 shows this method of disposal by surface irrigation for a cottage. The second method of sewage disposal, by sub- surface irrigation, has always appeared to me to be the one preferable for the majority of isolated dwell- ^/%%^%^^ Fig. 51> Disposal of household wastes by surface irrigation. ings. A description of the details of the system may, therefore, not seem out of place. This system was first brought into use in England by the Rev. Henry Moule, Vicar of' Fordington, the well known inventor of the earth closet. Sewage dis- posal by sub-surface irrigation has been extensively practiced in England by Mr. Rogers Field and Mr. J. Bayley Denton, both prominent sanitary engineers. SEWAGE REMOVAL AND SEWAGE DISPOSAL. 169 To Col. George E. Waring, Jr., of Newport, R. I., is due the credit of having introduced the system in the United States, about twenty years ago ; first, for his own house in Newport ; subsequently for a large number of country houses in the Eastern States ; finally, on a large scale, for the disposal of the sewage of the Reformatory of Women, at Sherburn, Mass., and at the Keystone Hotel, Bryn Mawr, Pa. In the past years it has been adopted by many civil engi- neers and architects for the drainage of suburban and country homes, and has received the endorse- ment of physicians, sanitarians and Boards of Health. The principle of the sub-surface irrigation system is briefly this : The porous soil next to the surface has the power of .destroying organic substances and ren- dering them innocuous, partly with the aid of the oxygen and the bacteria contained in the pores of the sub-surface, partly by means of the vegetation, since the rootlets of grass and shrubs take up nourishment from these organic matters. The liquid sewage, from which all impurities have thus been removed, settles away and becomes still more clarified by filtration through the porous or underdrained soil. The degree of purification is such that the water removed by underdrains (land drains), is generally found to be quite clear, colorless, free from taste or smell. All suspended organic impurities are reduced to harmless elements by the bacteria attaching to the soil filter, and during the intervals between consecu- tive discharges oxidation takes place. The impor- I JO SANITARY ENGINEERING OF BUILDINGS. tance of an intermittent action becomes, therefore, at once apparent. If this is secured, the upper layers of earth are enabled to take up, at each interval between discharges, oxygen from the atmosphere and prepare for the next discharge. The discharge is also made intermittent in order to prevent the ground from becoming saturated, wet and swampy. This intermittent discharge of the sewage is an essential condition of all systems of sewage disposal whether by surface or sub-surface irrigation, and nearly all descriptions of such systems, of which I know, lay special stress upon this point. Mr. Edward S. Philbrick, C. E., for instance, says in his pamphlet, "The Disposal of Sewage by Sub- Surface Irrigation " : If house sewage is allowed to flow directly into a system of porous tiles laid under the surface, the fluid parts escape at every joint and soak into the soil ; but the solid matter, which may not have become finely divided, is apt to linger in the pipes and soon fill them up so that they become practically useless until taken up and cleaned. In order to avoid this result, it has been found necessary to provide a tank or tight cesspool in which the solid particles of the sewage may become macerated and finely divided by fermentation before enter- ing the distributing pipes. Moreover, if such a tank be allowed to overflow continuously by a driblet into the porous pipes, they become choked even then. The flow must therefore be made intermittent, and be allowed to take place at intervals with such a rush as to fill the whole system of distributing pipes at once and brush away any slight obstructions which may have been deposited by previous dis- charges. There are two methods of obtaining this result. First, by providing a stop-cock or gate valve in the outlet pipe where it leaves the tank, at or near its bottom, to be opened by hand when the tank is full, and to be closed again when empty. Second, by a syphon arranged to discharge the tank automatically when filled. SEWAGE REMOVAL AND SEWAGE DISPOSAL. I Jl Col. Waring speaks of the necessity of intermittent action as follows : So far as the sub-surface system is concerned, it is essential to suc- cess that the sewage should be delivered intermittently and at con- siderable intervals. . . . The essential element of the system is the flush tank which will retain all sewage issuing from the house during the intervals between two successive discharges into the drains. This ought to be not less than twenty- four hours; where the soil is not very free and porous, it should be extended to as much as three days, according to the increasing closeness of the soil. The tank should be automatic in its action, /. e., it should not require watching or manual operation. There are a number of tanks which answer the purpose. The cardinal difference between the sub-surface irrigation system and a leaching cesspool is this : In a cesspool the amount of soil used for the purification of the sewage is quite small as compared \vith the former method, where the surface area can be chosen in proportion to the amount of sewage to be disposed of. A leaching cesspool, newly built, doubtless ac- complishes some purification and filtration of the household wastes. But the pores of the soil soon clog up, as organic matter is not completely oxi- dized at a greater depth and also because the aid of the vegetation is lost. The soil gradually becomes saturated with sewage matter, which undergoes a slow process of decomposition, during which many unwholesome gases are generated. These gases are given off at the surface and are sucked up into our dwellings, especially in winter time. The other not less serious evil due to leaching cesspools, is caused by the sewage soaking unpurified into the ground, thereby threatening to pollute our water supplies. 172 SANITARY ENGINEERING OF BUILDINGS. A sub-surface irrigation system consists essentially of two parts : First, a tight receptacle for liquid and semi-liquid house refuse, from which the water is discharged at intervals into a system of underground tiles. This receptacle is called a sewage or flush tank ; Second, a system of common two or three-inch drain tiles, laid with open joints, a few inches below the surface of the ground, permitting the liquid sewage to escape at each joint, to be partly purified by the action of roots of grass or shrubbery, and partly oxidized by the oxygen attaching to the par- ticles of the soil near the surface. The sub-irrigation field should be placed remote from the house, if possible, in a direction from which the wind blows only very occasionally. It should not be located near a well or a spring. It may, in the case of small cottages, consist of only a single line of tiles, or it may contain a large number of these, this depend- ing also upon the character of the soil. The system works best in a sandy or gravelly loam, but even in heavy clay soil it has been used with tolerable success. If the land is apt to be wet it must be thoroughly under-drained by a system of deep land drains, other- wise the sewage will soon come out at the surface and convert this into a swamp. Doubts have often been expressed as to the working of the system in winter time. Experience has taught that the distributing tiles laid close to the surface will not freeze as some would expect, the temperature of the sewage being SEWAGE REMOVAL AND SEWAGE DISPOSAL. I 73 sufficiently high to keep the sewage in the pipes in motion. In order to explain the arrangement of a sewage disposal system by sub-surface irrigation, I have shown in Figs. 52 and 53 the plan and profile of a system actually carried out at a fine country mansion on the coast of New Jersey. The plan, Fig. 52, shows the main six-inch house drain leading from the man- sion to the sewage flush tank. Manholes are placed on the line of the main sewer from the house at dis- tances of about 250 feet apart. The sewage tank is located close to the private road, but hidden from sight by shrubbery. The construction of the tank is shown in detail in Fig. 66. From it a four-inch main conduit conveys the sewage at each discharge of the tank to the sewage irrigation field. This is a nearly level stretch of land, divided into four sections, I, II, III and IV, each of which contains about 1,000 feet of absorption drains. Valves are placed near the main conduit, and enable the turning of the sewage into any of the sections. Ordinarily, two of the sections are in use, and the others are resting and become aerated and purified. The absorption drains are laid at distances of five feet apart, and as the land is nearly level, the lines are practically parallel to each other. The pro- file in Fig. 53 (in which the vertical heights are exag- gerated) shows the fall of the sewer from the house to the flush tank, and from the latter to the irrigation field. At the lowest end of the sewage conduit a blowoff pipe and gate-valve are provided. 7 6 SANITARY ENGINEERING OF BUILDINGS. The absorption tile drains are shown in Fig. 54, and are common porous land tiles, one foot long. Form- erly two-inch tiles were used, but later experience has shown that three-inch tiles give better results. The tiles are laid about ten or twelve inches below the sur- Fig. 54. Absorption tiles, with gutters and caps. face on continuous boards, or better in gutters of earthenware, which must be accurately laid at the re- quired grade in the trenches, as shown in Fig. 55. If the tiles clog up they can be taken up and cleaned, and Fig- 55- Manner of laying absorption drains. the relaying in the gutters is a rather easy matter, which can be done by any common laborer. There must be a space left at each joint of about one-fourth inch, in order to facilitate the escape of the sewage. To protect the joint from earth or dirt falling from SEWAGE REMOVAL AND SEWAGE DISPOSAL. 177 above, small caps are placed over the tiles at each joint, as shown in Fig. 55. The main lines are four inches in diameter, and the two or three-inch lines branch out from them by means of Tees or Y-branches, as the case may be, with side openings opening out from the bottom, as shown in Fig. 56. The main line is cemented tightly, as are the branches in the curved part, until they strike the depth of ten or twelve inches from the surface (the main four-inch Fi g . 5 6-Y-branchandTee- branch for absorption drains. \ T~>* i more). Fig. 57 shows a cross-sec- tion through the tiles as laid in the trench. The fall given to the absorption tiles should be just sufficient to keep the sewage in motion ; from two to three inches per 100 feet is con- sidered ample ; the main drain from the flush tank to the irri- gation field may have as much fall as circumstances will per- mit, but near the branches for the absorption drains the fall should be limited to four or six inches per 100 feet, otherwise the sewage would tend to rush to the lower part of the field and overcharge the lower lines of the drains and finally ooze out at the surface. The main four-inch drain as well as the absorption drains Fig. 57. Cross-section through a trench, with absorption drains. 178 SANITARY ENGINEERING OF BUILDINGS. must be laid with a perfectly uniform descent, and much of the success of the system will depend upon the accuracy with which this part of the work is laid out and constructed. Similar arrangements for -the disposal of the sewage from country houses are shown in Figs. 58 and 59. Fig. 58. Plan of sub-surface irrigation system on level ground. In the examples illustrated the flush tank is located at such a distance from the house as to prevent any- possible annoyance by odors or otherwise, and its out- let is at a sufficient elevation to allow of some fall to the sewage field. The sub-surface irrigation field is laid out in two sections, controlled by gate-valves, and which can be used alternately. SEWAGE REMOVAL AND SEWAGE DISPOSAL. 179 In the case of smaller houses, the sewage consist- ing of slop water only may be distributed by carry- ing it from the house by hand and pouring it out of a pail into an open hopper or receiver of wood or earthenware with a strainer, from the bottom of LA Fig. 59. Plan of sub-surface irrigation field on slightly irregular ground which hopper a line of pipe leads to the absorption drains. (See Fig. 60). For small cottages having only a kitchen sink, a receiving tank may be built of wood and located at a depth beyond the reach of frost, as shown in Fig. 61. A waste pipe from the sink runs into the tank, and when it becomes filled, the latter may be emptied by 1 80 SANITARY ENGINEERING OF BUILDINGS. hand, and thus an intermittent discharge is estab- lished. The illustration shows a ball float, which is intended to open the outlet automatically in case of forgetfulness of the occupant of the cottage. That part of the tank which is divided off by a partition, serves as a grease trap to prevent grease from clog- ging the absorption tiles. In both cases illustrated it is supposed that no water closet exists in the house. The construction of the flush tank depends upon local conditions, such as size of the house, number of inhabitants, character of the foul wastes (slop water only or slop water plus excreta), amount of water * r ~x__ M^yv^x^J&v ., &y^^J&iib&^if ^E^E^^^^JgpE^gg Fig. 60. Plain hopper for slop water disposal. used, etc. The size should be regulated so as to have, if possible, one daily discharge for otherwise the sewage in the tank might commence to decompose, making the tank practically a cesspool. The tank should, in any case, be located as far away as possible from the dwelling, but the best place for it will de- pend largely upon the topography of the grounds. The sewage field can be located at any distance from the flush tank, provided there is sufficient fall between the tank and the field. For larger buildings a tight sewage tank of dimen- sions sufficient to hold one or two days' sewage must SEWAGE REMOVAL AND SEWAGE DISPOSAL. 181 be built. Its outlet may be closed by a gate-valve, operated by hand labor. The arrangement of a sew- age tank, shown in Fig. 50, would answer this purpose quite well. As the opening and clos- ing of the gate-valve may not always be done with regularity, an automatic arrangement for the discharge is preferable. The capacity of a flush tank | should be larger than the com- s bined capacity of the absorption 03 tiles. Its whole contents should j3 I be suddenly delivered into the 1 pipes, whereby all the rows of | tiles are uniformly charged. o ^ Thus, the whole of the absorp- ^ tion field is brought into use each time the tank is emptied. The purification begins imme- diately, the clarified liquid soaks away into the ground, the im- purities being retained by the earth filter, where they are de- stroyed by oxidation, air enters the pores of the soil and pre- pares it for future use, while the tank is gradually filling for the next discharge. An important caution for all cases where the con- tents of water closets are to be disposed of combined ~ 1 82 SANITARY ENGINEERING OF BUILDINGS. with slop water, is to intercept all solids and fatty waste matters which should not be discharged with the liquid sewage into the absorption drains, as they would in a short time clog them up and also interfere with the action of the flush tank. An intercepting chamber must, therefore, be built between the house and the flush tank. This will, in a certain sense and to a certain degree, be a cesspool ; its contents, how- ever, are frequently changed, it can be kept of small dimensions and its emptying and cleaning (a matter which must by no means be neglected) is much more easily effected. It should be built of best hard burnt brick, laid in pure Portland cement, and the tank ren- dered perfectly water-tight. For sewage disposal works for large institutions, a straining chamber with two screens of vertical bars may be substituted for the intercepting tank. Where this arrangement is adopted it is important that the screens be cleaned with regularity and preferably daily. The automatic discharge of the sewage tank is usually effected by means of a siphon, but sometimes a tumbler tank is used. A flush tank built of brickwork in circular shape, and fitted with Rogers Field's annular siphon, is shown in Fig. 62. As will be seen from the plan and section, the flush tank is constructed in two chambers, the first being a settling chamber for the interception of the solids and grease, while the second is the liquid chamber, in which the siphon is usually placed. This SEWAGE REMOVAL AND SEWAGE DISPOSAI , 183 construction has been used to a large extent in the earlier works of sewage disposal for isolated country houses. In the illustration, A represents the house drain, B the intercepting chamber, C the liquid or Fi#. 62 Field's flush tank with settling chamber for sewage disposal. siphon chamber, both of which are covered with iron manhole covers D ; an overflow pipe, F, dips at least eighteen inches into the sew^age of the first chamber, to prevent solid matters or greasy scum from being Fig. 63. Field's annular siphon. carried over into the liquid chamber. // is the annular automatic siphon which operates the discharge of the tank at regular intervals ; A' is a wire screen, Mis the weir or dam needed to start the action of the siphon, L is an inspection pipe closed by a trap screw P, 184 SANITARY ENGINEERING OF BUILDINGS. and N is the drain leading to the sewage field. The Field siphon is shown on a large scale in Fig. 63. Its operation may be described as follows : When the tank fills up to the level X, the sewage begins to overflow through the inner siphon limb. When a bath or a washtub in the house are suddenly emptied into the house drain, enough sewage overflows to seal the bottom of the siphon, as the liquid cannot pass through the weir M as fast as it rushes down the siphon. The descending column of liquid carries air with it and establishes gradually a partial vacuum in the siphon. The air pressure in the tank then forces enough liquid over to charge the siphon, which is thereby started and empties the contents of the tank down to the line Z. Air now enters the outer limb of the siphon and breaks the same completely and no further discharge occurs until the tank has again become filled. To protect the siphon from obstruc- tions by paper or grease, it is advisable to place around it a screen of galvanized iron wire of one-half inch mesh. Even with this protection the siphon needs occasional cleaning. To remove obstructions in the weir, an inspection handhole Pis placed over it. The construction of the Field annular flush tank siphon was subsequently modified by Col. Waring, as shown in Fig. 64. It is best described in the words of Col. Waring : The siphon consists essentially of the following elements: i. A two-inch iron pipe, set with its hub downward at the bottom of the tank and reaching to the height to which the tank is to be filled. 2. A six-inch iron pipe set with its hub upward and closed at the top SEWAGE REMOVAL AND SEWAGE DISPOSAL. 185 with a casting carrying a handle, and leaded into place after the usual manner of soil pipe jointing. The lower end of the six-inch, pipe rests on three standards rising from a circular piece at the bot- tom of the tank. This constitutes the siphon proper, the annular Fig. 64 Plan and section of modified Field's sewage flush tank. space between the six-inch pipe and the two-inch pipe being the re- ceiving limb, and the two-inch pipe being the discharging limb. The water enters between the standards, rises to the top of the two- inch pipe, flows over into it and is discharged through it. The lower l86 SANITARY ENGINEERING OF BUILDINGS. end of this pipe delivers into a Rogers Field weir, a single casting of peculiar construction, so arranged that with an abundant flow the outlet of the two-inch pipe is sealed. The contained air is removed by the falling water, setting up a true siphonage action' which con- tinues until the liquid in the tank is reduced to the bottom of the six- inch pipe the intake of the receiving limb. At this point air is taken into the receiving limb and the flow through the siphon is stopped. The contents of the two-inch pipe continue to flow through the weir piece in which the water soon falls and admits air into the discharging limb. This causes the siphon to be completely emptied and no further flow can take place until the tank is again filled to the overflow point. In constructing the tank, the siphon is set in its centre for convenient access to it through the manhole over it. The receiving limb is so arranged that it can be readily lifted for opening'the discharging limb to inspection. In replacing it, care should be taken to rest it securely on the three standards. Fig". 65 illustrates in plan and elevation the con- struction of a sewage flush tank as adopted by the writer in more recent works of sewage disposal for country houses. It will be se*en that the flush tank differs from the examples previously illustrated in having the siphon placed outside of the liquid cham- ber in a separate circular compartment made access- ible by a manhole. The intercepting or settling cham- ber does not differ much from the others shown. It will be noticed that the manholes are formed of vit- rified pipe of large diameter. The overflow pipe con- necting both chambers is deeply trapped. The bot- tom of the first chamber is rounded to facilitate cleaning. The bottom of the sewage chamber is pitched towards the funnel-shaped mouth-piece of the siphon. The automatic siphon shown is the Rhoads-Will- iams siphon, which being placed entirely outside of SEWAGE REMOVAL AND SEWAGE DISPOSAL. i8 7 the tank, is not so easily fouled and does not become obstructed. To provide against this remote contin- gency, the liquid chamber is provided with an over- flow pipe, joining the outlet pipe beyond the siphon. Ordinarily this overflow pipe does not come into action. The intercepting chamber should be emptied 1 88 SANITARY ENGINEERING OF BUILDINGS. and cleaned at least once a month, and the accumu- lated scum and deposit removed and buried in the ground. Fig. 66 shows still another construction of the sewage flush tank, which has been adopted by the writer with great success at a number of country places. The intercepting tank is built circular in shape, and has in the bottom a cross wall near its overflow pipe, which prevents flocculent matter from being agitated and carried over into the liquid cham- ber. The sewage chamber is built oblong, with a narrow inlet. In this is placed a galvanized iron wire basket or screen of one-inch mesh, about twenty-four inches square and closed at bottom and sides, but open at the top. The overflow pipe delivers all sew- age through this basket, which is intended to retain any matters drawn over from the settling chamber. The basket can be readily lifted up by means of han- dles, and should be cleaned at frequent intervals. The sewage tank is built of brick, laid in Portland cement. Where circumstances permit, it is desirable to line the inside walls of the tank with glazed bricks or with slabs of slate. The bottom of the tank is graded towards the funnel inlet of the siphon, which is a modified Rhoads-Williams automatic siphon. Its action depends upon the sudden releasing of com- pressed air confined between the inlet end and the deep trap at its outlet. As soon as the air has been compressed in the siphon to such a degree as to over- come the resistance of the water seal in the auxiliary 190 SANITARY ENGINEERING OF BUILDINGS. trap, the water in the latter is blown out, and as this releases the confined air, the siphon is started by the head of water which has accumulated in the sewage tank, and which reaches a point several inches above the inner line of the top bend of the siphon. The siphoning action is started quite rapidly, and contin- ues until air is introduced at the funnel-shaped inlet and breaks its action. The flow then ceases com- pletely until the tank again fills up. The sewage chamber is covered with wooden cov- ers, made in several sections. Where the flush tank is located at a distance from the house, and where it is screened from view by a row of evergreens, it is a good plan to leave the covers open for the ventilation of the tank. A flush tank constructed in this man- ner is also much more readily cleaned than tanks which are arched over permanently. The disposal of household wastes is a large subject which might well demand a treatment in a special volume,* and since it was not my intention to describe all the systems of sewage disposal for coun- try houses with great minuteness, I have not men- tioned many details, nor given rules for proportion- ing the capacity of the sewage tank to the size of the house, of the area of the irrigation field and the num- ber of feet of distribution drain tiles to the size of the tank. The distance between the rows of tiles de- pends upon the nature of the soil in which they are * See the author's book "The Disposal of Household Wastes." New York: D. Van Nostrand Co., 1890. SEWAGE REMOVAL AND SEWAGE DISPOSAL. IQI laid, etc. All these matters require judgment, skill and experience on the part of the designer of the system. Local conditions will largely determine the design and arrangement of the tank and the laying out of the irrigation field. For small cottages having little or no plumbing, earth closets should be adopted in place of the usual unsanitary and health-endangering privy. They are simple and cleanly in operation, entirely inoffensive in use and well adapted to prevent danger to the health of the cottage occupants so frequently caused by the emanations from accumulations of putrefying excreta. As my remarks are limited to the disposal of excrements from single buildings, I shall not dis- cuss the extent of the applicability of the dry-earth system to villages or large communities. "The Dry- Earth System," to quote from Dr. Buchanan's officicial report made in 1869, "consists in the application, with the greatest procurable detail, of dry earth to fresh human excrement, and in the subsequent removal and use of the mixture for agri- cultural purposes." Although known in a general way since centuries, the use of dry earth for the dis- posal of excreta originated practically with the Rev. Henry Moule, Vicar of Fordington, who also devised the sub-surface irrigation system for the disposal of slop water. Dry earth possesses in a high degree, the power of deodorizing and disinfecting human excreta. A pound and a half of dried and finely sifted earth is considered sufficient for the average SANITARY ENGINEERING OF BUILDINGS. dejection. The quality of the earth used is of great .importance. Gravel and sand are useless in this res- pect, chalk is not adapted for this purpose, while clay is quite a fit material. But the best earth is that of a loamy character, such as garden earth or vege- table humus, which already contain some organic matter. The same quantity of earth can be used over again several times, provided it is thoroughly dried. Numerous mechanical contrivances have been de- vised to throw earth in proper quantities and in the right manner upon the excreta deposited in a reser- voir under the closet seat. One of the simplest arrangements for the use of small cottages is the one shown in the sketch, Fig. 67. The closet has a box containing dried and well sifted earth, which is thrown upon the excreta by means of a hand-scoop after each use. The excreta should fall into a plain box or pail, or else into a tank on wheels placed under the seat. The illustration, however, shows a tightly cemented vault, entirely above ground, open and accessible at the rear for cleaning out. From the vault the fertilizing mixture should be removed at frequent intervals to be dug under the ground. It is decidedly preferable not to locate an earth closet inside of a dwelling. Unless very strict attention is paid to the apparatus, it is apt to become offensive. A plain shed may be erected quite close to the rear of the house if desired, and made accessible by means of a covered walk, to prevent exposure in cold \veather. Particular care should be taken not to have SEWAGE REMOVAL AND SEWAGE DISPOSAL. 193 rain water drip into the cemented vault, for this would be sure to create a nuisance. Under and in front of the seat, in Fig. 67, is shown a funnel, intended to catch and remove the 'urine by Fig. 67. Plain earth closet. means of a small pipe leading to the slop water tank. Although I am aware that it is impossible to separate all urine from the excreta, I am strongly inclined to 194 SANITARY ENGINEERING, OF BUILDINGS. believe, and practical experience tends to prove, that such a separation lessens the possibility of an earth closet becoming- offensive. In my judgment there exists in no case a sound excuse for storing the human filth in the usual leach- ing, unventilated cesspool, or in a privy placed in close proximity to the household, for these constitute the best means for breeding or multiplying disease germs or spreading disease in case the seed should reach them. A mass of putrescent human filth stored beneath or near a dwelling has well been compared to a powder magazine, for one single little spark a germ in the stool of a typhoid fever patient may suffice to create vast harm and destruction. VI. THE LEADING PRINCIPLES OF SCIENTIFIC HOUSE DRAINAGE AND SANI- TARY PLUMBING.* Although there is little to be said on this subject that can be considered quite new, because sanitary house drainage has been repeatedly and exhaustively discussed by leading sanitarians, still the writer feels that even at the risk of repetition of what he has said in former writings, the principles of safe sanitary drainage cannot be too often tersely stated. There appears to be one reason in particular which makes it desirable to dwell upon these principles. It is often asserted that different authorities on sanitation do not agree as to the fundamental requirements of sanitary house drainage and that, this being the case, it is wiser to remain distrustful. I contend most em- phatically that this is a misconception, and my object in writing these pages will be sufficiently attained if I succeed in demonstrating the fallacy of this popular belief, and in convincing my readers that any differ- ences of opinion which still exist, refer altogether to some details of execution, and not to the principles * This article on the " First Principles of Scientific House Drainage and Plumb- ing Work " was originally contributed to the columns of the Metal Worker, and in order to stimulate further progress in sanitary house drainage it was subsequently issued in pamphlet form. 196 SANITARY ENGINEERING OF BUILDINGS. which should guide us in the proper arrangement of plumbing and house drainage work. It seems also desirable to preface the present article with the statement that in it I refer exclusively to the modern American plumbing and drainage practice. The English practice, in laying out plumbing work, owing to differences in climatic conditions, differs from our own in many important particulars. Hence no greater mistake can be made than to apply the rules derived from English standard text-books on plumbing and house drainage to works carried out in our own climate. Yet this is often done, particularly by people, who, without practical experience and technical training have acquired their limited knowl- edge of the subject merely by reading the English text-books, We may consider the drainage and plumbing sys- tem of a building as being composed of the following parts and sub-divisions, viz : i. THE PIPE SYSTEM. (#) The Sewer System, embracing the house drains, soil pipes, waste pipes and vent pipes. The Storm water and Sub-soil water System, embracing rain water conductors, yard drains, area drains, court drains, cellar floor drains and sub-soil drains. The Disconnected Pipe System, embracing safe wastes, tank or other overflow pipes, refrigerator waste pipes, boiler blow-offs, tell- tales, floor drains, discharge pipes from auto- PRINCIPLES OF DRAINAGE AND PLUMBING. 197 matic cellar drainers, waste pipes from foun- tains in conservatories, drip pipes from house filters, etc. (cT) The Supply System, comprising the hot, cold and circulation pipes, the cisterns, tanks, boilers, pumps, valves and faucets. (e) The Gas-piping System.* 2 THE TRAP SYSTEM. 3. THE FIXTURE SYSTEM. In considering the principles and rules which gov- ern the scientific execution and arrangement of plumb- ing work, I shall endeavor to demonstrate the prac- tical application of these rules to each of the above systems and its sub-divisions. I. Soundness of Material. The first principle is the soundness of all materials used in the construction of the work. In other words, the pipes, the traps and the fixtures must be durable, strong, cleanly, non-absorbent and non-cor- rosive. For outside house drains and sewers well-glazed terra cotta socket pipes should be used. The pipe should be of the quality known as double strong, which comes in lengths of three feet, thus reducing the number of pipe joints and the incidental chances * The g as -pipi n g system is included by me for two reasons. First, because the gas-piping of a house is in nearly all cases executed as a part of the plumbing work. Second, because it is quite important, from a health point of view, to have the gas-pipe system sound and tight and scientifically arranged, although this mat- ter is as yet hardly sufficiently appreciated by the general public. 198 SANITARY ENGINEERING OF BUILDINGS. of leakage. One important feature concerning vitri- fied pipe, is the shape and size of the socket, for upon it depend the strength and durability of the pipe- joint. Until quite recently, the pipe hubs were not manufactured of sufficient diameter and depth to enable the drain-layer to insert a gasket of oakum and the proper quantity of Portland cement mortar, but now such improved pipe is being extensively manufactured and should be given the preference wherever first-class work is expected. All soil, waste, drain and vent pipes inside of a building should be of extra heavy cast, or of heavy wrought iron. The cast-iron pipe should be free from sand-holes, cracks, flaws or other defects, the hubs of the pipe should be very heavy and deep for caulking purposes, and it is well to use only pipe and fittings which have been tested by hydrostatic pressure. With such "tested" pipe I can see no great risk in using tarred pipe, always provided the tarring is ap- plied after the test has been carried out at the foun- dry. For many reasons I prefer such tarred or asphalt- coated pipe, in particular for pipes laid underground, as well as for vent pipes and the extensions of soil and waste pipes. Another article which has many merits on sanitary grounds, is the porcelain-lined soil pipe. The question of protecting pipes from rust and cor- rosion is still more important in the case of wrought iron pipes used for house drainage purposes. If the welded seams of such wrought iron pipes are prop- PRINCIPLES OF DRAINAGE AND PLUMBING. 199 erly tested under pressure at the pipe mills, I know of no good reason why the pipes should not be pro- tected by asphalting-, galvanizing or by the rustless process. Plain wrought iron pipe, owing to its ex- treme liability to corrosion, is certainly not well adapted for underground sewage pipe conduits, nor is it at all advisable to use such plain wrought iron pipe for vent pipes in buildings. The principle of soundness of material requires also that all the parts of a pipe system be of a uniform character, hence vent pipe extensions above the high- est fixtures should always be of the same material as the flow-pipes for sewage. Upright soil and waste pipes, must, likewise, be as heavy as the horizontal portion of the main house sewer system. Where lead pipe is used for waste or vent pipes, it should be heavy drawn lead pipe. Where the waste and vent pipes at fixtures are of brass, heavy brass pipe, and not light tubing, should be used, and care should be taken to have the interior diameters of such pipes of the full bore required. Particular attention should be paid to the brass ferrules required to join lead and cast iron pipes. Extra heavy brass thimbles should be used, and when they are of cast brass they must be carefully inspected for sand-holes or flaws. The lead used for caulking cast iron pipe joints should be pure pig lead cast m bars, and no old lead piping, liable to contain solder or impurities should be taken for this purpose. 2OO SANITARY ENGINEERING OF BUILDINGS. Soundness of materials is also required in the sup- ply pipe system. Lead pipe of heavy weight, either "A," "AA,"or " AAA," according to the pressure, should be used for supply pipes, or else wrought iron pipes, protected against corrosion by galvanizing, enameling, asphalting or by a rustless process. An- nealed tinned brass pipes, although somewhat more expensive, constitute an excellent material for the supply pipes of a house. In connection with the system of supply pipes it is quite important to use only valves and shut-offs of a superior quality of steam metal and of the best makes, and the same is true of the faucets for fixtures, whether self-closing, ground-key or compression bibbs are chosen. Economy in this respect is always dearly bought. Where a superior job of gas-piping is desired, gal- vanized wrought iron pipes should be used, and under all circumstances, even with plain wrought iron piping, it is advisable to use galvanized malle- able fittings as being less liable to contain sand-holes. Traps for fixtures may be of lead, brass or iron, but in many forms of water closets the traps are moulded in glazed earthenware, and form part of the bowl. Drawn lead traps are superior to cast lead traps, and where the latter are used they should be tested for sand or pin-holes. The same precaution is advisable in the case of cast brass traps, in particular in the case of those brass traps which have an interior dividing partition. When it is necessary to use iron traps PRINCIPLES OF DRAINAGE AND PLUMBING. 2OI under water closets or other fixtures, the inside of the traps should be white enameled to insure a smooth surface and to avoid corrosion. The principle of sound material applies equally to the fixtures used in house drainage work. Porcelain or a good quality of white glazed earthenware, yel- low stoneware and strong glazed fireclay are the materials most suitable for plumbing appliances from a sanitary point of view. Annealed glass, if obtain- able, would be still more preferable for many pur- poses. The manufacture of enameled ironware has now reached a high state of perfection, and fixtures of this material, being less heavy and less expensive than all-porcelain fixtures, are extensively employed. Marble and slate, soapstone and artificial stoneware are suitable, as are also white metal, German sil- ver, tinned and planished or nickel-plated copper. Wooden fixtures are no longer used in good work, because wood, if alternately wet and dry, will soon rot and because its pores absorb organic matters and become foul in a very short time. 2. Perfection in Workmanship. The second principle requires perfection of work- manship, whether in the many forms of joints used in plumbing work, or in the manner of fastening and supporting pipes or in the proper run, alignment and grade given to the pipes for water, drainage and gas service. Without this perfection in workmanship the object of a well-planned system of plumbing will not be attained in spite of the use of sound and first class 2O2 SANITARY ENGINEERING OF BUILDINGS. material. Hence the importance of making all pipe joints absolutely tight, whether the joint be a caulked, screwed or solder-wiped joint, and whether the pipe conduit be employed for the conveyance of water, gas or fouled organic wastes. Leaky joints in water pipes may cause damage to* decorated ceilings, wall hangings or floor coverings in a dwelling house, and in warehouses, stores and office buildings, may injure the goods stored therein, or destroy important documents. Leaky joints in the gas pipe system may destroy plant life, or injure book-bindings and picture frames ; they may also cause ill-health and suffering, and sometimes death by asphyxiation, at other times dangerous gas explosions and destructive fires may result. Leaky joints in the soil, drain, waste and vent pipe system, aside from the annoyance of foul odors, are the fre- quent cause, by the introduction of disease germs, of sickness and death in many a household. The tightness of all pipe systems in a house is, therefore, a matter of the greatest moment, and should be ascertained not only before a building is completed but also from time to time after it is occu- pied, by proper tests, to which reference is made in another chapter. All joints on the sewer side of traps require par- ticular attention. Thus in all forms of water closets or other fixtures where the trap is molded in one piece with the bowl and set above the floor, the floor joint should be very carefully made. Care should PRINCIPLES OF DRAINAGE AND PLUMBING. 203 also be taken to set all fixture traps perfectly level, and to prevent, by a proper fastening, their subse- quent bending- or tipping. All iron pipe lines should be properly supported to prevent settling or sagging of the pipes, and the sup- ports should be amply strong, preferably of wrought iron and firmly attached by screws or bolts to the walls, floors or ceilings. House drains should be sup- ported on brick or concrete piers at suitable distances. Heavy lead pipes are particularly liable to sag and should always be supported on continuous wooden boards. All pipes of the water, gas, drainage and roof- water system should be arranged as direct and straight as possible. All branches in the drainage system should be Y-branches, and changes in direction must be made with curves of a large radius. Sharp curves and right angled connections are quite objectionable because tending to cause accumulations and ultimately stop- pages. The importance of employing only the best skilled labor for such work cannot be overestimated. As regards the best way of doing new plumbing work, whether by day's labor on a fixed percentage basis, or by contract work, for a stipulated sum, much may be said on both sides of the question. If an owner chooses for the work a contractor of good standing and unblemished reputation, who is personally known to him, and if this contractor has 204 SANITARY ENGINEERING OF BUILDINGS. in his employ a reliable foreman and competent mechanics, a good job may be secured at a fair and not excessive price if carried out by day's work. An equally good job may, however, be obtained in many cases if the work is given out by contract, pro- vided the owner has beforehand settled all questions of fixtures and arrangement, and also provided the work is done in accordance with carefully drawn plans and specifications, under the superintendence of some qualified disinterested expert of reputation, and provided, finally, a few judiciously selected and reliable firms of equal standing are invited to esti- mate on the work. Where the contractor is not known to the owner or architect, it is always better to have the work done by contract for a fixed sum agreed upon. Where bids for work are publicly advertised, it is gen- erally unsafe to give the contract to the lowest bidder c 3. Simplicity in Arrangement. A third principle is simplicity in arrangement, and this requirement should be applied not only to the work as a whole, but also to its different parts, to the soil pipe system, the supply system, the trap system and the .fixture system. This requirement is of the utmost importance and should be born in mind from the conception of the work to its final execution. It means that plumbing and drainage work must be carefully planned so as to secure as much compact- ness and directness as possible. It signifies, also, that plumbing fixtures should be concentrated and located, PRINCIPLES OF DRAINAGE AND PLUMBING. 2O5 as far as practicable, directly in vertical groups, in order to avoid a useless multiplication of soil pipe stacks, and the increased risk incident to a wide dis- tribution of plumbing- fixtures. This principle, furthermore, requires that the num- ber of fixtures or of outlets into the drainage system be reduced to the minimum of necessary fixtures, and that all long horizontal lateral branches be avoided, by placing the needed fixtures as close as possible to the main line of soil pipe. The plumbing work of a house should not be scat- tered, but should be confined to the toilet room, the bathroom, the kitchen, butler's pantry, scullery and laundry. Plumbing fixtures should be entirely abolished in living rooms, as well as in the cellar of a house. I am not at all in sympathy with the modern ten- dency of making plumbing work elaborate, costly and in every way complicated. The simpler a sys- tem can be laid out the better in my judgment will it be. Thus, it is objectionable to have several lines of vertical soil pipes where, by a slight change in the location of some fixture, a single line would answer the purpose. I should likewise, avoid, any complicated system of water service distribution, necessitating running supply pipes horizontally across floors and over deco- rated ceilings. The proper place for the water dis- tribution of a house is at the cellar or, better, at the basement, ceiling. The branch supply pipes in bath- 2O6 SANITARY ENGINEERING OF BUILDINGS. rooms should be kept in sight and run above the floor along- the walls. I should aim to make the whole supply system as simple as possible and should avoid, in the hot water service, the usual complicated double boiler system. In the trap system all double trapping on the main drain and at fixtures, particularly at water closets, and all manner of complicated trapping devices, such as mechanical traps, etc., are objectionable. A good rule to bear in mind is that the trapped waste from a fixture should not pass through another trap before reaching the soil or waste pipe. Where a simpler system can be arranged just as safely. I should not favor the back-venting of traps, because it adds all manner of complication to the work, because it renders the work vastly more costly, and, because it adds new dangers, and thus makes the plumbing work less safe than expected. I shall refer to this point once more when speaking of trapping. The back air or double pipe system is sometimes made still more complicated by adding a third pipe system, namely the local vent pipes, carried from the house side of the traps to some heated flue. While this method can, undoubtedly, be made to work quite efficiently, it seems to be hardly necessary where proper ventilation of the rooms containing plumbing work is provided. Simpler methods of soil and vent systems than at present required in most plumbing regulations are much to be desired. PRINCIPLES OF DRAINAGE AND PLUMBING. 2O/ Lastly, the utmost simplicity should be observed in the fitting up of plumbing" fixtures, and all kinds of complicated apparatus should be avoided as being more expensive in first cost and less efficient, and quite costly in maintenance and repairs. 4. Accessibility. The fourth principle of modern sanitary drainage is the accessibility of all parts of the work. By this we obtain not only a greater feeling of security, and acquire greater actual safety, but we also secure better workmanship, facilitate cleaning operations, expose any possible slight leaks, and ren- der all repairs to the plumbing and drainage work less difficult, less troublesome and less costly. Applying the principle of accessibility to the drains of a house, we carry them, wherever practicable, in plain sight above the floor and along the cellar walk Where we are obliged to put the main house sewers under a concrete, tiled or asphalt floor, we provide frequent cleaning and flushing handholes to gain access to the drain in case of stoppage, and we keep all such handholes accessible by means of brick man- holes, with cast iron frames and covers. The rest of the pipe may then be safely buried in concrete, in fact, I prefer this method of construction to the method sometimes required of putting such under- ground drains in trenches with brick walls and flag- stone covering, for these in time accumulate dust, dirt and dampness, besides not infrequently forming chan nels for rats and harboring places for vermin. 2O8 SANITARY ENGINEERING OF BUILDINGS. This principle efficiently carried out requires all pipes, whether for drainage, water or gas, to be placed in plain sight and kept accessible throughout. All soil and waste pipes should be thus arranged, and, as a rule, can be kept exposed, except possibly on the parlor floor, and here they should be covered by a hinged faceboard so as to be readily got at. The same rule applied to water supply pipes re- quires these to be kept outside of walls, plastered par- titions and floors. Water pipes in cellars should not be buried under the concrete floor, and the proper place for distributing pipes for hot and cold water for the upper floors is at the kitchen and laundry ceiling, and not under the parquet floor of dining rooms, as is still so often done. All rising lines should be carried exposed in closets and in the bathrooms. Even in regard to gas pipes, which are generally buried out of sight, an effort should be made to keep at least all risers and main lines exposed, while dis- tributing pipes laid under floors should be kept acces- sible by screwing the floor boards which cover the pipes down with brass screws. Rainwater pipes, overflow pipes, refrigerator wastes and other disconnected wastes, should also be kept accessible, and means provided for flushing them out at regular intervals, and all these pipes should have access holes for removing obstructions. What is true of the pipes, is also applicable to the valves and shut-offs on supply lines and gas services, so that in case of the bursting of a water pipe, or in PRINCIPLES OF DRAINAGE AND PLUMBING. 2OQ case of fire, the water and gas may be readily turned of, either from the whole house, or on the different floors, or at each particular fixture, as the case may be, without losing much valuable time in searching for hidden stop valves. All traps should likewise be kept accessible. The trap on the main drain, should, if under the floor, be encased in a brick manhole ; rainwater, area, court and yard drain traps should not be buried out of sight in the ground, but placed in the cellar where they can be got at. All traps under fixtures should remain exposed, and access given to them by clean-out caps or brass trap screws. The main house drain should be made accessible by placing frequent handholes, closed by brass trap screws, at the foot of all vertical lines, at all bends, at junctions, at traps, and so on. Last, but not least, all plumbing fixtures should remain open, exposed and accessible. Until quite recently the custom has been to box up and encase the various fixtures, water closets, wash basins, bath tubs, laundry tubs and sinks, with much useless wood- work. Fortunately, this custom has slowly but surely given way to the new method of " open " fixtures. This principle is particularly important in the case of water closets and of slop sinks. The less woodwork these fixtures are fitted up with the better they are. Until recently it required strong arguments to secure a client's approval to the open arrangement of water closet seats, but happily its advantages are now being more universally recognized and adopted. 2IO SANITARY ENGINEERING OF BUILDINGS. With the desire of making" exposed plumbing 1 as showy and handsome as possible, it has become the custom to specify polished, nickel or silver plated brass piping and traps at all open fixtures. This has recently led, owing to the increased labor involved for the servants of the household in keeping the work bright and polished, to a certain amount of prejudice, even in architects' offices, against open work. This misunderstanding for as such it must be regarded is a very unfortunate one, for it is not at all necessary, in order to have open plumbing work, to use nickel or silver plated brass piping. On the contrary, work of equal quality from a sanitary point of view, can be secured with lead or galvanized pipes, which may be suitably painted with enamel paint, or covered with silver or aluminum bronze. In the servants' quarters of a house, however, under kitchen and pantry sinks and laundry tubs, the use of lead traps and waste pipes in open work should, in my opinion, be discouraged, and lacquered brass traps and pipes should be given the preference, as being much stronger than lead work in resisting" blows or indentations caused by the careless knock- ing about of pails, cans, etc., under these plumbing" fixtures. Not only should all plumbing fixtures be arranged in an open manner, leaving all parts accessible, but preference should be given in the selection of fixtures to those without hidden and inaccessible waste valves, overflow pipes, or traps. PRINCIPLES OF DRAINAGE AND PLUMBING. 211 5. Safe Trapping. A fifth principle consists in the safe trapping of all house drains, of area, court and yard drains, of the subsoil drains, if connected with the sewer, and of all plumbing- fixtures, in order to prevent the escape of sewer or soil pipe air and disease germs into the house. Rain water pipes should, likewise, be trapped if they open near dormer windows or near vent flues or light and air shafts ; in other positions they may be left untrapped, if made of heavy cast iron or wrought iron with tight joints. The trap on the main drain serves to shut off the house from the sewer air in the common street sewer, and thus maintains a perfect isolation of each dwell- ing. All sanitarians agree that such a trap is neces- sary where houses discharge into cesspools or sewage tanks, and also where they are connected with old, ill-constructed sewers without ventilation and proper flushing appliances. It is also generally conceded to be permissible to omit the trap where the house con- nects with a well-constructed, amply ventilated sewer system, always provided the soil pipe system in the house is absolutely air tight and the fixtures safely trapped. But, since dangers to health may arise just as much, nay, even more so, from bad gases and germs evolved from the foul discharge pipes inside of a house, than from the outside sewers, it is necessary to trap all plumbing fixtures of a house separately. A popular fallacy is that all so-called " sewer gas" comes from 212 SANITARY ENGINEERING OF BUILDINGS. the public sewers. In many cases, on the contrary, house pipes generate more sewer air than is found in a well flushed and well ventilated street sewer. Therefore, each fixture should have its own trap, set as close to the fixture as practicable. This trap should be so constructed or arranged as to be abso- lutely safe against self-siphonage, against siphonage produced by the flow from adjacent fixtures, or fix- tures on upper floors, against back pressure, and against loss of water seal by capillary attraction or by evaporation. Space does not permit me to discuss separately the numerous forms of water seal and mechanical traps which have from time to time been invented. In my judgment, mechanical traps should not be used except where the waste water is comparatively clean, as at tank overflows, refrigerator wastes and the like. For fixtures discharging befouled waste water, the simple water seal traps only should be used. To render the trapping of fixtures safe against the above-named dangers, two methods may be adopted, one being the method now largely called for in Board of Health regulations of the venting or " back-airing " of traps ; the other one involving the use of non- siphoning traps or of anti-siphon trap attachments, or security shut-offs. The former method is costly, com- plicated, cumbersome, fraught with new dangers and not altogether reliable, whereas the latter is simple, efficient and safe, if judiciously arranged. My per- sonal preference, in conformity with the third funda- PRINCIPLES OF DRAINAGE AND PLUMBING. 213 mental principle of simplicity of arrangement, has always been for the second method. With few ex- ceptions, Board of Health and Building Department rules still require the method of back-air pipes. It seems quite desirable that all such rules should be re- vised so as to make it at least optionary with the owner or architect which of the two systems he will adopt. (See chapter on "Simplified Plumbing Methods.") Double trapping of house drains is likewise objec- tionable and unnecessary, and so is the double trap- ping of fixtures, particularly of water closets. Double trapping often leads in the case of fixtures having traps with back-air pipes to the establishment of dangerous "bye-passes." As regards the supply system, as well as the gas pipe system, it is almost superfluous to state that all manner of traps in such piping must be carefully avoided. The disconnected pipe system, such as refrigerator wastes, boiler blow-offs, floor drains, fountain wastes, safe wastes, tell-tales, overflows, and the courtyard and area drains, if disconnected as is sometimes done, need not ordinarily be provided with traps, because they are not connected directly with any soil, waste or drain pipe. They should discharge over a properly trapped water-supplied sink placed in the lowest part of the house, and all that is necessary is to prevent their acting as conductors of cellar air by placing a hinged brass flap valve over the outlets at the sink. Overflows and blow-offs from tanks on roofs of build- 214 SANITARY ENGINEERING OF BUILDINGS. ings may safely discharge into a roof gutter, or on the roof, or else into a leader pipe. 6. Thorough Ventilation. We come now to the consideration of a very im- portant principle in house drainage, viz : the thorough ventilation of the drainage system. In order to ren- der the soil, drain and waste pipe system of a build- ing safe, it is necessary that the air contained in the pipes be kept constantly in motion and continually changed. This is effected by extending all soil, waste and vent pipe lines the full size up to and through the roof. It is even better to increase all pipes from under the roof upward, and this enlargement is very necessary in the case of the smaller waste and vent pipes, because roof pipes smaller than four inches become sometimes closed in winter by hoar frost. All pipes above the roof should be kept open, free and unobstructed. Return bends, ventilating caps and all forms of patent ventilators practically do more harm than good. But, in order to have a circulation of air in the soil pipe system, these pipes ought to be open not only at the top, but should have, in addition, a foot vent at the lowest point. When the trap on the house drain is omitted, this foot vent is not needed, as air is then admitted from the street sewers. Where the trap is used, a fresh air inlet pipe connected with the drain at the house side of the main trap should be provided. The fresh air pipe should not terminate in close proximity to windows, or near the inlet of the PRINCIPLES OF DRAINAGE AND PLUMBING. 215 cold air box of a heating- apparatus, but it is equally important to avoid placing it where it may become obstructed and rendered entirely useless by snow, ice or dirt. Fresh air inlet gratings set flush in the side- walk, as still required by the New^ York City plumb- ing regulations, will be found in a majority of cases obstructed and ineffective. It should be a rule to avoid all dead ends in the pipe system. Hence, where a fixture cannot practi- cally be located within four or five feet from the main ventilated soil pipe, the lateral waste should, under all circumstances, be continued upwards to the roof independently, and this rule should be followed whether the fixture is trapped by a common S trap, or by a non^siphoning trap, or by a mechanical trap. Where the traps of fixtures are located within a few feet from a well ventilated upright line, it may be safely assumed that a sufficient diffusion of air takes place in the short lateral pipe, particularly if the fix- tures are in constant daily use. It is, of course, neces- sary in this case that the trap be a non-siphoning trap. The ventilation of plumbing fixtures is suitably accomplished where open or exposed work is used, by a frequent and thorough change of the air of the apartment, and hence it is important to place fixtures in well lighted rooms having outside windows. Fix- tures such as water closets or housemaids' slop sinks should never be located in dark, interior closets with- out ventilation, nor should servants' water closets be located in dark, out-of-the-way corners of a cellar. 2l6 SANITARY ENGINEERING OF BUILDINGS. Ventilation should also be provided for the tan* for drinking water, as well as for refrigerator waste pipes, particularly in the case of apartment houses. The place where the gas meter is set should likewise be well ventilated. 7. Efficient Flushing. Another cardinal principle is the efficient flushing of the whole plumbing system. It should apply not only to the main house drain, but likewise to the soil pipes, waste pipes, the lateral branches, the traps and the fixtures. The regular flushing of house drains is accom- plished, first, by laying them with a grade which will insure a cleansing velocity of the flow, and, second, by restricting them in size so as to concentrate the sewage flow. Where this object can be attained the drains may be called self-cleansing. Where the fall is necessarily light, artificial flushing appliances, such as automatic siphon flush tanks, should be constructed at the head of the drain. This, matter has, in my judgment, received far too little attention in the past. It has been customary to rely too implicitly upon the scouring power derived from the connection of rain water pipes with the sewage drains. While the beneficial effect of a good rain storm in the flushing of house drains cannot be denied, it must not be overlooked that there are often pro- tracted periods of dry weather, particularly in the summer season, when house drains are more than at other times in need of a regular periodical flush. PRINCIPLES OF DRAINAGE AND PLUMBING. 21 7 With vertical soil and waste pipes restricted in size it is believed that the daily flow from the plumbing fixtures will keep these upright pipes scoured suffi- ciently for all practical purposes. The disconnected refrigerator waste pipes need a frequent application of a thorough flush, which can in most cases be readily accomplished by branching the blow-off from the kitchen or laundry boiler into the refrigerator waste, and blowing off the boiler at reg- ular intervals. Where this cannot be done, it will be found useful to put over the refrigerator waste pipe a small automatic flush tank. Safe waste and drip pipes ordinarily receive no flushing whatever, and hence I am inclined to favor their entire omission, except, perhaps, where they serve to protect expensively decorated ceilings. Safe w^aste or drip pipes from urinal platforms are particu- larly objectionable, and are often the cause of bad odors in public toilet rooms. Where floors in toilet rooms of office buildings or in hospitals, railroad sta- tions, etc., are tiled or otherwise made water-tight, and where an abundance of water for floor washing is available, large size floor drains may with advan- tage be employed, and should discharge openly over trapped sinks on the lowest floor, or else into separate lines not connected with a foul-water sewer. The principle of constant flushing should also be applied to the traps under the fixtures, and it is suit- ably accomplished, first, by restricting the diameter of the traps so as to insure a scour through the traps, 2l8 SANITARY ENGINEERING OF BUILDINGS. and second, by the use throughout of quick emptying fixtures, having large outlets. In this respect a great improvement has been noticeable during the past years. The old-fashioned lavatories with small waste outlets, obstructed by strainers, have been replaced by basins with large out- lets, and the same is true of bathtubs and plug sinks. In the case of kitchen sinks with open strainers, the flow from which is generally a mere dribbling stream, an improvement in the discharge may be effected by the use of a flush pot or similar sink attachment, which collects the dribbling stream until it becomes filled, and then discharges rapidly the whole contents either by an automatic device, or by the lifting of a plug. Such a device is also useful as a grease trap, and much superior to the forms of grease trap com- monly used under sinks, which accumulate putrefy- ing grease, and are seldom, if ever, cleaned by kitchen servants. As regards plumbing fixtures those receiving the alvine discharges from persons, viz : water closets, urinals and slop sinks, should always be efficiently flushed from special flushing cisterns, discharged either by hand or automatically, and the bowls should be provided with proper flushing rims. Water closets, as well as other fixtures with mov- able mechanism in the bowl, or with mechanical obstructions of any kind, or those having unneces- sarily large fouling surfaces, should be avoided as being liable to remain imperfectly flushed. PRINCIPLES OF DRAINAGE AND PLUMBING. 2 19 8. Durability, Efficiency and Convenience. A further principle is that of durability, efficiency and convenience of the plumbing- work. All mate- rials, pipes, traps, fixtures and appurtenances, should be the best obtainable consistent with due economy, and all parts of the work should be so put together as to require a minimum of repairs. In this matter of subsequent repairs, in particular, the modern ex- posed and accessible plumbing work differs strongly from work as usually done in the past. In order to be efficient, a house drainage system should be so arranged as to effect a complete, rapid, and, as far as possible, automatic removal of all liquid and semi-liquid wastes. In the traps and pipes every- where all stagnation of water and air should be avoided. Furthermore, to be thoroughly efficient, soil and drain pipes, waste pipes and traps should be restricted in diameter, and should be run with perfect align- ment, avoiding- all unnecessary offsets, sharp bends and right angled connections. The water supply system, on the contrary, to be efficient, must be constructed with pipes of large bore to give a good flow of water at every fixture in the house. In like manner all shut-off valves should be of the full bore, so as not to restrict the water-way, gate valves should be used in preference to globe valves (except possibly where the water is very gritty), and round-way stop cocks in preference to the ordi- nary kind which have a reduced cross sectional area. 22O SANITARY ENGINEERING OF BUILDINGS. The same principles apply to the pipes for the dis- tribution of illuminating- gas. Sound gas pipes, prop- erly welded, and put together with galvanized fit- tings, should be employed, and in order to supply to the gas burners an ample volume of gas for efficient illumination, the pipes should be of large bore. Plumbing fixtures, in order to be efficient and con- venient, must be quick emptying, must have no large fouling- surfaces, and should be without mechanical obstructions of any kind. There are numerous kinds of waste valves for sinks, basins and bathtubs, and it is true of these appliances, as well as of Water closets, that the simpler they are constructed the more efficient they will prove in actual use. Of water closets there are a number of different types. It would lead me too far to consider, in de- tail, the requirements of a good water closet appa- ratus. Suffice it to say that all mechanical types, i. e., those having more or less complicated mechani- cal apparatus to effect a discharge, stand self-con- demned. To these belong the old-fashioned pan or Bartholomew closet, the valve closet or Bramah closet, and the plung-er closet or Jennings type of closet. Equally bad, because liable to become befouled, are long hoppers with round bowl and whirl flush (so-called Philadelphia hoppers). The only good types are flushing rim straight back long hoppers, and flushing- rim short hoppers ; the wash-out closets and the wash-down closets ; the siphon-jet and the siphon closets. The wash-out PRINCIPLES OF DRAINAGE AND PLUMBING. 221 closets, both of the front and back outlet type, have in practical use developed a number of defects, such as the fouling of the outlet shaft, which is not covered by water, as is the case with siphon, siphon-jet or wash-down closets, the insufficient depth of water standing- in the bowls and the incomplete flushing of the traps. I venture to predict that they will rapidly come out of use. My decided preference is now and has long been for wash-down, siphon-jet and siphon closets. 9. Noiselessness in Operation. The principle of noiselessness in operation requires in the supply system that all service pipes be free from water-hammer, that ball-cocks in cisterns fill the same without hissing or roaring noise, that kitchen boilers do not rumble when overheated, and that the faucets deliver water without sputtering, noise or water-hammer. In the soil and waste pipe system this principle requires that the sound of flowing water be not trans- mitted to the occupants of rooms. This easy trans- mission of sound forms, perhaps, the only objection to the free exposure of soil and waste pipes, and it must be conceded that it is not easy to overcome the drawbacks incident to such arrangement. The discharge of modern flushing rim water closets is generally accompanied with more or less disagree- able noise and gurgling sound, due to the falling water or to the escape of air in the flush pipes, or the siphon discharge of the closet, or to imperfect arrange- 222 SANITARY ENGINEERING OF BUILDINGS. ment of the flushing cistern. There are, however, ways in which this defect can be obviated, and some of the best types of approved sanitary closets and flushing cisterns are made comparatively noiseless in action. All plug, waste valve or stand pipe fixtures like washtubs, bathtubs, and wash basins, with large out- lets, cause more or less noise in emptying, due to the sucking of air into the waste pipe, and this is another minor fault inherent to some of the best modern plumbing appliances which it has not been possible to overcome readily in all cases. 10. Prevention of Water Waste and Protection Against Freezing. The importance of the principle that there should be in a good system of plumbing, no useless waste of water, should not be under-estimated. In the supply system, at faucets, valves and cisterns, as well as at fixtures, this requirement should be observed. Much waste of water is incurred where drinking water is drawn at faucets in summer time, by letting the water which has lain in the pipe system flow off unused. For this reason, it is well to keep hot and cold water pipes suitably far apart, particularly where such pipes are carried in a boxed-up casing. Again, when it is desired to draw hot water, much water is uselessly wasted by letting the hot water faucets run, in systems where no hot water circulation pipe is pro- vided. It is, therefore, true economy wherever a hot water supply is provided, to 'run from the highest PRINCIPLES OF DRAINAGE AND PLUMBING. 223 fixtures on each line a circulation pipe back into the hot water boiler, so as to keep up a continual flow and circulation. The circulation pipe must, of course, be carefully graded, and if properly arranged will enable a person to draw, at once, hot water at any fixture in the house. Water waste also occurs in winter time where the water is kept running to prevent the freezing of the pipes. But in a well arranged system due care is taken to locate all supply pipes in positions where they cannot freeze, thus pipes are never run along outside walls, and where they are of necessity exposed to freezing, the pipes are carefully protected with some approved non-conducting covering. ii. Absence of Complicated Mechanism. A leading requirement in modern plumbing and drainage work is the absence of all manner of compli- cated mechanism, liable to derangement and to foul- ing or giving rise to obstructions. Thus a good water- seal trap is considered preferable to the numerous mechanical trap-seals, whether flap valves, floating- balls, gravity sealing appliances, etc. For the same reason the hinged pan in the pan closet, the flap valve of the valve-seal closet, the plunger of the plunger type of closet, are recognized as objectionable and detrimental. In automatic flushing appliances prefer- ence is rightly given to siphons without movable parts. Finally, with wash basins, bathtubs and pantry sinks, the form of waste plug and overflow known as the "standing overflow " is generally preferred, from 224 SANITARY ENGINEERING OF BUILDINGS. a sanitary point of view, to fixtures with more com- plicated mechanism, and it can safely be asserted that in practical use such stand pipe overflows are quite as convenient and certainly more cleanly than other more complicated arrangements. 12. Cleanliness and Purity. This last requirement applies in particular to the fixture system and the method of trapping the waste pipes. It involves the entire exclusion of all manner of miniature cesspools, of containers or enlarged chambers liable to retain and accumulate foul matter. The old-fashioned pot trap as used under wash basins, bathtubs and sinks, and the still worse D trap as used under water closets, are illustrations of such faulty methods, defeating every endeavor to obtain cleanliness and purity. Pan closets, valve and plunger closets, and all kinds of unsanitary waste valves and concealed overflows, which never receive a flushing and cannot be properly cleaned, also belong to this class of defects, to which we might add the befouled safe drip pipes under fixtures. The principles of cleanliness, as applied to the pipe system, signifies that after construction all pipes be suitably cleaned and finished off. The drain pipes should be neatly painted or varnished, all supply pipes should be left without tool marks, and covered with bronze, all holes in walls, partitions, ceilings and floors should be properly closed by the plasterer and the carpenter. This is quite important in order to prevent PRINCIPLES OF DRAINAGE AND PLUMBING. 225 any upward currents of air, and the passage of foul odors along soil or waste pipes from floor to floor. Much depends, finally, upon the proper mainten- ance and care of plumbing apparatus in a household after it is put in use, but it must suffice to merely make mention of the subject here, as the maintenance of sanitary appliances has been already discussed in a previous chapter. VII. IMPROVED METHODS OF HOUSE DRAINAGE* My endeavor will be to explain some important improvements which have been brought about in the past ten years in the art of draining houses. To begin with, one quite noticeable improvement relates to drainage plans. Until a comparatively re- cent period of time, it was an exception to find elab- orate plans and sections of the plumbing and drainage system of buildings. The location of the plumbing * The matter contained in this chapter was prepared originally for an address delivered by the author at a meeting of the New York Architectural League. The address contained the following introductory sentences: " Your committee has honored me with an invitation to prepare a paper for this meeting, and has left me entirely free to select some topic from the wide and con- stantly growing field of sanitary engineering. The sanitation of houses, school hygiene, hospital construction, rain-baths, domestic gas lighting, the sanitary fea- tures of the laying out of cities, water supply, fire prevention and fire extinction, the safety in theatres and halls of amusement these were some of the numerous subjects which occurred to me as being of interest to the members of the Archi- tectural League. After thinking the matter over for some time, I concluded that it would be bet- ter to select a subject in which I have been most actively engaged in the past years. Accordingly, I decided to speak to you on 'Improved Methods of House Drainage,' although I was well aware of the fact that I could not attempt to treat the matter from any novel point of view. For while the subject is of paramount importance, and one in which every architect takes an interest, it has been quite frequently discussed, and there are numerous books, pamphlets, essays and lectures which go into the matter very fully. I can, therefore, assure you that it is with the utmost diffidence that I come before you to-night to give a brief address on what many of you will doubtless consider a dry and uninteresting subject." IMPROVED METHODS OF HOUSE DRAINAGE. 22J fixtures was, to be sure, indicated on the floor plans of the building-. Beyond this, very little information was given. It was not usual to mark the number and sizes of soil pipe stacks, neither was the run and course of the drains indicated on the plans I believe I am not mistaken in stating that in architects' offices, the practice of making 1 a special drainage plan began with the enactment of the plumbing laws. At least, I remember distinctly that, when as chief engineer of a house drainage company, it was my privilege, about ten years ago, to estimate in some of the prominent architectural offices in this and in other cities, I was given plans to estimate on where the drains and soil pipes were neither shown, nor enumerated or de- scribed in the specifications. All this has undergone a great change in the past few years. Owners of buildings are much benefited by the plumbing laws which require plumbing plans to be filed in the City Health or Building Departments. Even where in the actual construction of the work, the drainage plan is more or less modified, there is kept on record a usually tolerably accurate plan, showing the position of pipes, in case of future refer- ence. In important cases, a revised drainage plan is subsequently made, showing the work as actually put in. The contractors are benefited by it, because they know better on what work and what quantities to base their estimates. Their workmen on the build- ing are, likewise, benefited, because they can find, by referring to the plans, where the pipes are intended 228 SANITARY ENGINEERING OF BUILDINGS. to be run. The architects and the building superin- tendents are benefited, because they do not have to answer so many questions to the foreman in charge of the plumbing and drainage, and because their time is not so much taken up at the buildings in course of construction with the laying out of the sometimes complicated work. The many advantages, resulting from well-considered drainage plans, become particu- larly apparent in the case of large and important structures, such as hotels, hospitals and modern office buildings. Another improvement relates to plumbing and drainage specifications. While formerly plumbing specifications were somewhat indefinite and too gen- eral in character, with the inevitable result that esti- mates for the work ran widely apart, it is now uni- versally recognized that plumbing is a question of vital importance in building construction, and much more care is exhibited in the preparation of the speci- fication. Other things being equal, it is self-evident that the more thoroughly detailed and accurate the specifications are which does not necessarily mean elaborate the closer will the bids for the work run, and the more will the finished work conform to the expectations of the architect or his client. In this connection, I ought to state that the too general use of the printed blank plumbing specifications of the Building Department for contract work, is not in my judgment, to be approved. Such blank forms may be exceedingly convenient and labor-saving for IMPROVED METHODS OF HOUSE DRAINAGE. 22Q the inspectors of the Department, but for all, except the smallest houses or tenement buildings or simple warehouses, they are not sufficiently detailed. A con- tract for a large job should be based on a separate type written or printed specification. Too much care cannot be bestowed upon the specification. It is my experience, and doubtless others will confirm it, that the number of extras in the final plumbing bills is inversely in proportion to the completeness of the specification. I refer here, of course, only to the extras w^hich the architect finds himself compelled to order, owing to omissions in the original specifica- tions, and I do not include those sometimes quite numerous extras, which owners or building commit- tees require. Now let me turn to the question of materials. Here, too, we cannot fail to find numerous and im- portant improvements. Formerly the house drain inside the building consisted of earthenware pipes. The soil pipes were run of lead pipe, with hand-made seams. In a former chapter I have stated the objections to such materials. Happily, they have gone out of use. The first improvement consisted in using iron pipes for drains and soil pipes. For many years it was customary to use the so-called light or standard plumber's soil pipe. When the testing of drains by the water test began, the objections to these pipes at once became apparent, it being a most diffi- cult matter to caulk joints in light pipes so as to be permanently air and water tight. Hence, it came 230 SANITARY ENGINEERING OF BUILDINGS. about that, at least in the case of the better class of buildings, extra heavy cast iron pipes were specified. From this time dates the curious practice, which I have often met, of specifying- heavy pipe for the main drain and light pipe for the vertical soil and waste pipe lines. Still later, when the practice of " back- airing " traps began, heavy pipes were specified for both the drain and the soil pipe system, whereas light pipes were considered sufficiently good for vertical lines of vent pipes. A chain is not stronger than its weakest link, and authorities are now all in accord that it was a mistake to use two grades of pipes for the soil, drain and vent pipe system of a building. As is well known, the use of extra heavy pipes is now in New York City compulsory in all classes of buildings, from the cheapest tenement house to the finest private mansion. It is, perhaps, well that the rule is com- pulsory, for otherwise we should find unscrupulous plumbing contractors and speculative builders still making use of what they must know is an unsatisfac- tory material for drainage purposes. Cast iron pipe, even of the heaviest and best quality, is apt to have sand-holes or imperfect seams, hence by far the great-, est security lies in ordering from the manufacturers, pipes and fittings which have been tested at the foundry by hydrostatic pressure. The most recent improvement, as regards this point, consists in the more extensive application of screw- jointed, wrought iron pipe for drainage purposes, particularly in the case of high buildings. Having IMPROVED METHODS OF HOUSE DRAINAGE. 231 been, to some extent, personally connected with the introduction of this system in the Eastern States, I cannot help remarking that a wonderful change in opinion has taken place in architects' offices, and to a certain extent also in plumbers' shops, regarding the merits of wrought iron pipe and the use of screw- joints in place of lead-caulked joints for purposes of drainage. It is scarcely ten years ago when as chief engineer of a now defunct house drainage company I discussed with architects the advantages incident to the new method of drainage. At that time but a few architects went on record as in favor of the screw- joint construction. The majority, guided in many cases by the advice of the plumbers estimating in their offices, were opposed to the use of wrought iron for drain, soil and vent pipes. The pipes which were used then by the advocates of the screw-jointed wrought iron system were without exception pro- tected against rust, either by a thorough application of coal tar or by dipping the pipes while heated, into a bath of hot asphalt, or else the pipes and fittings were made rustless by the Bower-Barff process, or finally, galvanized pipes were used, particularly for vent lines. One can readily understand my surprise to find at the present time, buildings in which plain wrought iron pipes are used for purposes of house drainage, the pipes not being in any way protected against corrosion. The mistake for a mistake it is can be explained only by the fact that the Building Department requires cast iron pipe to be plain and 232 SANITARY ENGINEERING OF BUILDINGS. uncoated, but wrought iron piping should, in my judgment, always have some protecting coating against rust. Other improvements relating to materials, consist in the more extensive use of drawn lead traps, and of brass traps in place of cast lead pipes, or of lead traps with hand-made seams. I must, however, sound a note of warning against the use of certain brass traps with cast partitions, which are often found to have sand-holes, and are then, of course, only a delusion and afford no protection against sewer air. The use of very light brass tubing for exposed waste or vent pipes should be guarded against, as also the use of light brass traps or of traps with rough inside sur- faces. Finally, the brass pipe should be of iron pipe size, i. e., full bore, and not restricted in diameter. I pass on now to the consideration of important recent improvements regarding the sizes of pipes used for drainage-purposes and the manner of laying the drains. Of the old brick drains of large size, square in shape and ill-adapted to the removal of household wastes, it is not necessary for me to speak, as they belong to a former generation, although they are occasionally, even now, unearthed in the overhauling of older mansions. Up to within a recent period, it was the custom to use for house drains, round pipes which were much too large in diameter to perform their function in a proper manner. Even- the small- est house had a six-inch drain ; larger buildings had nine, ten and even twelve inch pipes. There is no IMPROVED METHODS OF HOUSE DRAINAGE. 235, advantage, and there are considerable disadvantages, in using pipes of too large bore. The old-fashioned absurd ideas regarding the necessity for large pipes are now abandoned. The use of small drains is a distinctive achievement of modern sanitary drainage. It is usual at present to use a four-inch pipe for the smaller houses. An average-sized four-story dwell- ing can be efficiently sewered by a five-inch drain, and a six-inch sewer is sufficiently large for a man- sion. Extensive buildings, such as institutions, office buildings, etc., may require a pipe of larger discharg- ing capacity, but in that event it is preferred to use two or more drains of restricted size as being more liable to be self-cleansing. To illustrate : The entire waste water from the plumbing fixtures in such an extensive building (vertically) as the Manhattan Life Insurance Company's building in New York City, comprising two hundred and five wash- basins, twenty-four sinks, fifty-two urinals, sixty-two water closets and including all the roof water, besides various other wastes, is successfully removed by means of two six-inch pipe sewers laid with a fall of one-quarter inch to the foot. The same principle applies to the soil and waste pipes of houses. Formerly five and six-inch soil pipes were commonly used in private houses, and the sink waste pipe was at least three, and often four inches in diameter. It is now the rule to make soil pipes of private dwellings four inches, and kitchen sink wastes are purposely restricted in size to two inches, in order 234 SANITARY ENGINEERING OF BUILDINGS. to be more self-cleansing-. As regards the branch wastes from fixtures, the modern tendency is to use small pipe's, and not only a vast improvement, but also economy in design, is thereby effected. The size of traps under fixtures is likewise restricted, with the advantage that the traps are kept well flushed. It is, under all circumstances, a difficult matter to keep traps perfectly clean, but better results are undoubt- edly attained where the diameter of traps is limited, in order to concentrate the stream and thus utilize the same in scouring the channel. One other point in connection with sizes of waste pipes is worth mentioning : I refer to the rainwater or conductor pipes. The sizes of these pipes in fact, of all vertical waste pipes cannot be determined by mathematical rules. Whereas sizes of horizontal or graded pipes can be calculated accurately by means of hydraulic formulae, or by tables evolved from these, I know of no rule by which to determine the diameters of leader pipes for roofs of given areas and of known pitch. I have likewise been unable to find rules derived from practical experience or from actual tests and experiments, although I have hunted high and low for them. The only rule of thumb which I was able to find was in a recent German architectural text-book, according to which publication the diam- eter of a leader pipe may be determined by allowing an area of one square inch in the pipe for each sixty to seventy square feet of roof surface. I presume the smaller size is intended for roofs of a flat pitch, and IMPROVED METHODS OF HOUSE DRAINAGE. 235 the larger size for steep roofs. It is not stated for what rate of rainfall the rule is applicable. Speaking generally, heavy rainfalls are much more frequent in our climate than in Germany, so that I should advise increasing, where this rule is followed, the diameter obtained, somewhat, to provide for efficient roof drainage in case of very heavy sudden showers. This question of determining the size of conductor pipes is one that constantly occurs to architects and sanitary engineers, and it is to be hoped that experiments may be undertaken tending to the solution of the problem from a practical point of view. This brings to me another question, viz : The man- ner of laying drains. Whereas formerly drains were buried in the ground and thus became entirely inac- cessible, it is now much preferred to carry the main drain of a house in plain sight above the cellar floor, either suspended from the ceiling or fastened along the cellar wall. Until quite recently it was the rule where the drain was unavoidably laid beneath the cellar floor in order to drain fixtures on this level, to place the pipe in a trench formed of brick walls with a concrete bottom, and covered with an iron cover. The drain was thus kept accessible in its entire length. A few architects and some engineers still favor this method of construction. Underground trenches, as usually built, are liable to become rat runs, to accumulate dampness and dirt, and to con- stitute harboring places for vermin. In my judg- ment, it is more preferable after the underground 236 SANITARY ENGINEERING OF BUILDINGS. drains have been thoroughly tested and made water- tight, to bed the same in the concrete and to rely for access upon a number of suitably placed and suitably arranged cleaning handholes, made accessible by brick manholes with iron covers. Such inspection and cleaning handholes are very desirable in a drain- age system, and they should be abundantly provided even where the pipe is carried above the floor, in order to avoid the cutting of pipes, a habit only too common with thoughtless mechanics in case of a stop- page in the pipes. Let us now give brief consideration to a further point in which house drainage has been greatly im- proved. Some years ago plans for the drainage of houses were submitted to me, in which the water closet pipes or soil pipes were kept separate and dis- tinct from bath, lavatory and sink wastes. This double system, as you will readily comprehend, ren- dered the drainage system much more complicated and vastly more expensive without any correspond- ing advantage. This mistake doubtless arose from following too closely the prevailing English practice as described in the English text-books on plumbing. In the absence of any practical American books on house drainage and plumbing, architects had to rely largely, ten and more years ago, on the study of English works on drainage. It is not necessary, nor even desirable, to do this now-a-days, as there are available several good books on the subjects by American authors, which clearly describe the Ameri- IMPROVED METHODS OF HOUSE DRAINAGE. 237 can practice. * Other features of the English practice of draining houses, which are equally inapplicable here on account of differences in the climatic condi- tions, are the placing of the soil pipes on the outside of the house, and the running of the smaller wastes, such as bath and basin wastes over outside gullies. A further curious mistake which I have encoun- tered in plumbing plans, is the requirement that in case of bathrooms with water closets located verti- cally over each other on succeeding floors, there should be a separate line of soil pipe for the bath- room of each floor, thus entailing a needless compli- cation, a multiplication of soil pipe stacks and a greatly increased cost of plumbing. The exactly * That this point is not universally understood, will appear from the following criticism, which appeared in a medical journal about a diagram showing the proper arrangement of a system of house drains and soil pipes, published by the author : "On one point only does Mr Gerhard's paper seem open to criticism. In his drawing of a section of a house, the waste pipes from the washbowl, the bathtub and the kitchen sink, all appear to be connected directly with the soil pipe. If this be the correct reading of the sketch Mr. Gerhard is evidently so practical a man that we make this proviso we must certainly dissent from his practice in this particular. It is surely the only safe and sound plan to arrange that the waste pipe from bath, washbowls, kitchen sinks and all other sinks, shall never be directly connected with the soil pipe, but shall independently empty outside the house into a combined basin and siphon, commonly known as a gully trap, the trap being connected with the house drain. Then, if notwithstanding all precautions in the shape of fresh air openings, any gas should come through the house drain and pass the system of the gully trap, it will be easier for it to disperse outside the house than to pass up any of the unconnected waste pipes." In reply to this criticism I wrote as follows : " Your reviewer evidently has in mind the English system of plumbing work, wherein such a separation is carried out. In the climate of the United States a discharge of waste pipes from basins, bathtubs or sinks over an outside gully is impracticable and inadmissible, owing to the danger of freezing In American plumbing practice the soil pipe for the water closets in the house almost invariably receives other branch wastes from bathtubs, washbasins, sinks, etc., and this is considered a perfectly safe practice, provided the soil and waste pipes are made of extra heavy cast iron and the joints tested under water pressure, and also provided 238 SANITARY ENGINEERING OF BUILDINGS. opposite principles are followed to-day : the work is simplified as much as possible ; plumbing fixtures in houses planned by architects are grouped together, and the drainage is concentrated as far as practicable in a single line of pipe, thus securing an abundantly flushed line and economy in construction. Not very long ago the pipes pertaining to the drain- age system of a house were universally put out of sight and the fixtures concealed by expensive and as I think useless cabinet work. Drains were placed under the cellar floor and rendered inaccessible, soil pipes were built into the walls, waste and vent pipes bedded in plastered partitions, while supply pipes were the fixtures are well and safely trapped, so that there may not exist any danger of leakage of sewer air through defective joints or through the traps being liable to siphonage or back-pressure. I refer you, in order to confirm my statements, to the plumbing rules and regu- lations of our large cities, notably those of New York City, Brooklyn, Philadel- phia, Chicago, Boston and Washington. In all these the soil pipe may receive the flow, not only from water closets, but from adjacent fixtures as well. In the new Asylum for Insane Criminals of the State of New York, and at the St. Lawrence State Hospital at Ogdensburg, the drainage and plumbing of which institutions were under my immediate charge, the soil pipes for water closets receive in many cases the wastes from basins and bathtubs, and yet the buildings are perfectly free from any escape of sewer air." Thereupon the reviewer of my book replied as follows : " Mr. Gerhard's objection to my criticism is reasonable and consistent in so far as it applies to localities where climatic disabilities make it impracticable to adopt the outside gully system. But the fact that the plumbing regulations in the cities named by Mr. Gerhard all of which labor under the climatic disadvantages to which he refers permit the flow into the soil pipe not only of water closets but of bathtubs and adjacent fixtures, is no proof that under different climatic conditions such practice is either the safest or the best. On the contrary, Mr. Gerhard's own statement is the strongest argument he could have adduced in favor of a system which, to say the least of it, minimises the risk of sewer gas. No doubt, under the expert supervision of Mr. Gerhard, all possible safeguards would be conscientiously attended to. But .the ordinary citi- zen, as a rule, has to deal with the average architect and the careless plumber. Of the shortcomings of either one or the other of these, we venture to say that if Mr. Gerhard told all he knew, ' he could a tale unfold.' " IMPROVED METHODS OF HOUSE DRAINAGE. 239 run under hardwood or tiled floors. In case of acci- dent to any of the pipes, nobody knew where to look for them, floors were torn open, the plastering cut, and rich wall decorations destroyed in the efforts to reach the pipes. One of the chief features of modern work is the exposure of all pipes. Architects and owners have now become accustomed to this improvement ; there are many who even fancy the new arrange- ment. By a clever study of the house plans, it is often feasible to carry pipes exposed, i. e., outside of walls or partitions, even on the parlor floor. In some houses built by our most prominent architects, I have found on this floor the main pipe lines kept accessible by a hardwood hinged pipe casing. What a great contrast with the builders' method of the past of box- ing everything up pipes, fixtures and all ! Just a few words on the so-called open arrange- ment of fixtures. A decided improvement in the character of workmanship has been brought about by the improved method of keeping plumbing fixtures exposed to view. The advantages from the point of view of maintenance of cleanliness and ease of in- spection are too apparent to need further discussion. I wish to dw r ell, however, for a moment, upon one point which seems to be less well understood. In conversation not long ago with one of our busiest architects, he remarked that the open arrangement of plumbing fixtures entailed a largely increased labor on the part of servants and, therefore, was not looked upon with favor by householders. This is, without 240 SANITARY ENGINEERING OF BUILDINGS. doubt, true of exposed nickel plated piping. It must not be overlooked, however, that nickel plated work and exposed work are not one and the same thing. You can have one without the other. From a sani- tary point of view, a job may be equally well and equally safely done if constructed of lead and after- wards merely painted or bronzed. Where more elaborate or expensive work is desired, the piping may be electro-copper bronzed or finished in oxidized silver, both of which do not require the constant polishing which nickel finish needs to keep it bright. Whereas in former years plumbing fixtures were scattered all over the house, necessitating a complex system of plumbing pipes, and often endangering the health of the occupants by ill-contrived and defective fixtures placed in the bedrooms, the modern practice of architects, and one which cannot be too highly praised, is to confine plumbing work to the bathroom, to the kitchen, pantry and laundry. The necessary fixtures are placed, as far as the house plan permits, in vertical groups, and all appliances, and the water closet and slop sinks in particular, are placed in well- lighted and well-ventilated apartments. There is one mistake, however, which is still fre- quently committed, to which I have elsewhere in this book called attention. The mistake to which I allude is the placing of the water closet in the same room where the bathtub or the wash-basin are located. This is objectionable on aesthetic as well as on prac- tical grounds. It is particularly so in the case of the IMPROVED METHODS OF HOUSE DRAINAGE. 24! smaller houses, and in apartment houses with only one bathroom. In more elaborate houses of rich peo- ple, where there are several bathrooms, the separation of the water closet is not so necessary for practical reasons, but I think that a bathroom with a water closet can, in all cases, be made much more inviting by contriving an ornamental screen, or a low parti- tion separating the water closet from the other fix- tures. The partition may be lined with marble or tiling and its upper part may be constructed of open fretwork. I have in mind several exquisitely finished bathrooms, designed by progressive architects, in which this division of the room was made a success- ful and greatly appreciated feature. Much improvement is noticeable in the selection of suitable and sanitary plumbing appliances. The objectionable pan closet is seldom encountered in modern plumbing work, plunger closets are out of date, valve closets are no longer fitted up, and im- proved water closet troughs have in factories and schools taken the place of the former privy sink. Wooden laundry tubs are no longer common, because better tubs of non-absorbent material may be obtained at reasonable cost. As regards the most important sanitary fixture, namely, the water closet, the number of apparatus of different make and construction is legion. Practi- cally, however, the choice lies between only a few approved types, viz.: the flushing rim long hoppers, which are good but require a large quantity of flush- 242 SANITARY ENGINEERING OF BUILDINGS. ing- water, and the improved pedestal short hoppers ; the siphon and siphon-jet closets ; and finally, the so- called wash-down closets, which have a vigorous and direct flush. It will be noticed that I do not include in this list the wash-out closets, because while I do not wish to condemn them too severely, I cannot bring myself to regard them with much favor. They have several objectionable features which do not commend them to me as a perfectly sanitary fixture. They are, notwithstanding these facts, very popular at the present time. Popularity, however, is not always a just criterion of fitness, for the same thing- may be said to have been the case with the Jennings and the Zane plunger closets, with the Hellyer or valve closet, etc., all of which are now out of date. Two points require attention where porcelain water closets with trap above the floor are used. One is the floor joint, which being on the sewer side of the water closet trap, must be made tight. The other is the con- nection between the piping and the earthenware horns of the bowls. If these are made rigid, breakage of the earthenware is the result of the slightest settle- ment of the floor. A flexible connection is, therefore, much to be preferred and can now be obtained with many of the types of closets named. I shall not discuss in detail the requirements of water closets, as this was done by me elsewhere, but must pass on to review briefly the other plumbing- appliances of houses. IMPROVED METHODS OF HOUSE DRAINAGE. 243 Speaking of washbasins, we may distinguish four principal types, viz : 1. Tip-up basins. 2. Chain and plug basins. 3. Open stand-pipe overflow basins. 4. Secret waste valve basins. Tip-up basins are generally condemned, because in their usual form they have objectionable features. If it were possible to arrange the receiver so that it would not become foul, or that it was readily access- ible for cleaning, this type of basin would have many merits. It is, without doubt, very convenient in use, has no concealed overflow, no chain and plug, is rap- idly emptied and effectively flushes its waste pipe and trap at each discharge. The objections to the second type, the common chain and plug basin, are too well known to need further comment. It is proper, however, to state that there have recently been put upon the market some modified forms of this type, which I consider great improvements upon the ordinary type. One is a siphon basin which empties rapidly, and flushes its overflow at each discharge. The overflow 7 channel is so shaped that when the plug is inserted in the bot- tom of the bowl and the same filled with water, the overflow is trapped. In office buildings and in hotels, where a stand-pipe overflow basin or a bowl with waste valve is too expensive and too complicated for general use, the siphon form of basin has much to recommend it. The other improved form is a chain 244 SANITARY ENGINEERING OF BUILDINGS. and plug- bowl in which the waste outlet has been greatly enlarged, and which has the usually hidden overflow channel made much shorter and accessible by means of a removable strainer. The third type of basin has an open stand pipe overflow, and there .are numerous modifications of the device for raising the stand pipe. From a sani- tary point of view this type has, undoubtedly, the greatest merit of all forms, still my experience has been that the general public is hardly sufficiently edu- cated in sanitary matters to appreciate its merits. By many this form of basin is utterly condemned on account of its odd shape and appearance. The favor- ite form of basin just now is the one which has the most objections from the hygienic standpoint, namely, the bowl with secret waste valve. To discuss its objec- tionable features in detail would lead me too far. Regarding that valuable fixture for personal clean- liness, the tub or bathtub, with its various modified forms, such as the foot-tub, the sitz-bath, the hip- bath, the bidet, etc., I would state that tubs of \vood lined with copper are less used than formerly in pri- vate houses, probably because they always require some sort of wooden casing, and also because they lose their bright appearance in use. Enameled iron tubs, standing free from the wall and raised from the floor, constitute a satisfactory sanitary fixture, which is only surpassed by the beautiful all-porcelain bath- tubs. Both kinds of tubs are now obtainable with a glazed roll rim, thus doing away entirely with all IMPROVED METHODS OF HOUSE DRAINAGE. 245 woodwork. I ought, perhaps, to mention in this con- nection, that a great improvement in the manufacture of American earthenware has recently taken place, and that it is now for the first time possible to obtain porcelain bathtubs made in this country. In regard to the appliances used for holding water in the bath- tub and for emptying the same, much of what I said of wash-basins applies here. In this matter I may appear to be old-fashioned, when I state that my decided preference is for an open stand pipe overflow. For baths in public institutions, for baths in fac- tories, and for people's baths, there is a growing ten- dency to discard the tub-bath in favor of the rain or spray bath, which is greatly superior from a sanitary point of view, besides having many economical ad- vantages. (See chapter on "The Modern Rain Bath," in Vol. II.) Slop sinks and housemaids' sinks are obtainable in a variety of serviceable forms, most of them excellent from the sanitarian's point of view. I wish to empha- size the fact that a flushing cistern is quite as essential in the case of a slop sink as in that of water closets. An ingenious and novel arrangement consists of a slop sink which flushes itself automatically each time slops are emptied into it. Kitchen sinks are likewise obtainable in a variety of materials. This fixture is much improved by chang- ing the dribbling stream passing through its waste into a quick and effective flush. Attempts in this direction have been made with some success, and the 246 SANITARY ENGINEERING OF BUILDINGS. devices employed are certainly worth considering. Incidentally, the question of avoiding the kitchen grease nuisance is thereby solved in a better way, to my mind, than by the employment of grease traps at the sinks, which invariably constitute a nuisance, are usually forgotten or neglected and are not to be rec- ommended. I must content myself with a mere allusion to the subject. Of urinals, it is only necessary to mention that in private houses their use is not to be encouraged, as the fixture is very difficult to keep clean. In offices and in public buildings, such as hotels, railroad sta- tions, court houses, etc., the fixture is a necessity, and great attention is required not only in the fitting up, but in its maintenance. The projecting lip of porce- lain urinals seems to me to be of doubtful advantage One point in the fitting up of the fixture is worthy of mention : the bowls are generally set up too high from the floor slab. I find it is better to set them at a height not exceeding twenty-two inches from top of lip to floor line, instead of twenty-four or even twenty-six inches, as is customary. The floor slab is thereby kept more readily free from drippings. In fitting up plumbing fixtures, the chief aim should always be the avoidance of woodwork at and around them. All fixtures should stand free from the walls and be accessible on all sides. Even the seats of water closets are now attached directly to the bowl, the closet thus stands absolutely free and detached from the wall, and the entire fixture can be reached IMPROVED METHODS OF HOUSE DRAINAGE. 247 for cleaning- and for repairs. In one respect, how- ever, modern plumbing fixtures are open to consider- able improvement : I refer to the undesirable noisi- ness accompanying the flush and the discharge of the fixtures. This problem, as experience teaches, is not easily solved. In this chapter I will only briefly allude to the testing of plumbing work. All work should be tested before acceptance, as knowledge of the safety of the plumbing work can only be obtained in this way. I regret to say that I have found only very few mechanics doing plumbing who apply to their work any test, except where this is specially in- sisted upon by the architect or the engineer. To my mind, it is one of the most important duties which architects owe to their clients, to see to it that all work is tested. For new work we have the water test and the air pressure test. This should include not merely the main horizontal lines and the vertical stacks, but likewise all the branches and the brass fer- rule joints. The finished work should be tested by the peppermint or by the smoke test, which help to show imperfections in the joints of nickel plated piping and at the floor joints. In the inspection of old work, the water test, which is the best test, can- not, for obvious reasons, be applied, and here the smoke test, or the test with oil of peppermint, intelli- gently applied, give valuable indications as to the condition of the work. (See the chapter on ''Test- ing House Drains.") SANITARY ENGINEERING OF BUILDINGS. A great step forward would be made and plumbing work vastly simplified, by abolishing, or at least modifying, the trap vent system. There are at pres- ent two quite different methods of arranging the sys- tem of trapping the fixtures in a building. In the one system, which is in accordance with the majority of plumbing regulations, and is the one at present en- forced in New York City, all traps must be back- aired or vented. We thus obtain a duplicate system of pipe lines, the work is complicated, more expen- sive and may become more unsafe, on account of the greater number of pipe joints and the possibility of " by-passes." The other system the one-pipe sys- tem, as we may call it is distinguished by its. greater simplicity, economy and, as I maintain, by its greater safety. This method substitutes non-siphoning traps or anti-siphon trap attachments for the cumbersome method of back-airing. In this system, all main soil and waste lines must be quite as fully ventilated by extending them the full size up to the roof as in the usual method. All fixtures are located directly at the lines carried up to the roof, or within a very few feet of the same. Siphonage of the traps is impossible under the ordinary conditions, quite as much so as in the back-airing system. You will find the majority of plumbers opposed to the new system : for while it simplifies the work, it reduces the amount of piping used and thereby the cost of the work. There is also much prejudice against the proposition, many plumb- ers seeming to fear that by putting themselves openly IMPROVED METHODS OF HOUSE DRAINAGE. 249 on record as in favor of it, they would by others be considered as not quite up to date in plumbing mat- ters. The fact remains undisputed and I have dem- onstrated it in many cases in my practice that the new method is, at least, quite as safe as the old one. I venture to predict that in a very few years plumb- ing- laws will be so modified as to leave it optional with the owner or architect of a building which method he will adopt. * This leads me to say a few words in regard to plumbing rules and regulations, in particular of those in force in New York City. Further advancement in plumbing requires the revision and improvement of the plumbing laws of the Building Department. Far be it from me to under-rate the good which the pres- ent rules have accomplished in the past. Ours is not, however, an age in which we can at any time afford to stand still. Constant progress is made in every department of construction and the researches of the practical sciences are everywhere utilized and em- bodied in actual practice. Let us hope to see soon a re- vision of our plumbing laws. Be it remembered that the plumbing rules of our metropolis are being largely copied by other cities. We cannot afford to fall behind in this matter. Our present rules are too in- definite in many details ; they are much too arbitrary in others. Take, for instance, the question of sizes of drain pipes, of soil pipes, of vent pipes, the diameter of traps, etc. There is certainly now sufficient prac- * See the chapter on " Simplified Plumbing Methods." 250 SANITARY ENGINEERING OF BUILDINGS. tical experience available to lay down more definite rules as to sizes. The rules should also in the future prohibit fixtures which sanitary science has long ago recognized as being absolutely bad. Pan closets, wooden sinks, wooden washtubs and privy sinks should no longer be tolerated.* Before leaving the subject of interior drainage, I wish to consider for just a moment the prevailing practice of doing plumbing work. It is without doubt feasible to have plumbing work done by day's work by a contractor of known integrity, at a certain agreed commission or profit on the net cost of labor and material, without thereby unduly increasing the cost of the work. Still, as a rule, the owner prefers to make a contract for a lump sum or stated figure. In that case, the recent practice, particularly in the case of high office buildings, of putting the plumb- ing and for that matter the heating and power plant, the electric work and the elevator machinery in the builder's general contract, for a consideration which usually amounts to much more than the fee of experts who would plan and superintend the work in the owner s interest, cannot be commended. There is not, to my mind, a single feature of merit in it, and there are, on the other hand, good reasons why these branches, which comprise the domestic engineering work of buildings, should be kept separate and under the direct control of the architect or the mechanical, * This was written before the last revision of the rules, made in January, 1897. IMPROVED METHODS OF HOUSE DRAINAGE. 251 electrical or sanitary engineering expert who may be associated with him. In conclusion, let me say a few words about the outside drainage and final disposal of the sewage, particularly of country houses, not within reach of sewers. These are questions which rarely concern the architect directly, but about which it is neverthe- less useful for him to keep informed. In the case of city houses the outside drainage is apparently a very simple matter, consisting merely in the continuation of the house drain to the public or street sewer. Still, even the sewer connection re- quires attention, as is proved by a recent case which happened on the upper west side of this city, where a builder and his plumber connected a whole row of dwellings to the pipe sewer in the street by merely breaking holes into the sewer and sticking the house drains through it. The final disposal of the sewage from habitations becomes a very difficult and sometimes troublesome matter in the case of country and suburban houses, not within reach of sewers. The purity of the local water supply must be maintained, the contamination of the soil and likewise the pollution of the air must be prevented at all hazards. To accomplish this, the disgusting and health-menacing cesspool and the privy nuisance must be done away with. Bad as a single cesspool is, the evil is only aggravated by the method sometimes pursued of having one cesspool for the water closet wastes and and another for the 252 SANITARY ENGINEERING OF BUILDINGS. kitchen sink wastes, or by having a series of cesspools with connecting overflows. Two methods of sewage disposal have been devised by engineers which offer a successful solution of the problem. One is the system of sub-surface irrigation, the other the disposal of sewage by irrigation over the surface. Inasmuch as the chief requirements are that sewage be disposed of not alone without injury to health, but also without offence to sight or smell, it is not often practicable to run the sewage over the surface of the ground near the house. Where plenty of land is available, and located at such an elevation that sewage can be conducted to it by gravity, sur- face irrigation is by far the best, the cheapest and the simplest mode of disposal. The other system, the sub-surface irrigation system, has been in successful use in many country places. It has been described and illustrated in a preceding chapter of this book, hence I need not go into details. The chief features of this system are the following : 1. Carry the sewage from the house in a tight pipe conduit leading to a sewage or flush tank. 2. Collect the sewage in a double-chambered tank, the first chamber being intended to retain the solids and kitchen grease, while the second and larger tank receives the liquid sewage by a deeply-trapped over- flow from the first chamber. 3. Discharge the liquid sewage once or twice a day, by means of an automatic siphon, into an outlet pipe leading to the sewage field. IMPROVED METHODS OF HOUSE DRAINAGE. 253. 4. Distribute the sewage by means of a main con- duit with laterals,, into a system of absorption drain tiles, laid with open joints, in trenches twelve inches deep, covered up with earth. For the details of the system I refer to Chapter V., and as regards its execution, I must warn you against having such work done by contract. Frequently have I been asked by clients and by architects, to under- take sewage disposal contracts, but I have always de- clined to do so. I know that others undertake such contracts, but the results are seldom entirely satisfac- tory. Often the mistake is made of laying an insuffi- cient number of absorption tiles ; with the result that after a season's work the field becomes overcharged with sewage. I also find sewage disposal systems laid out by others giving trouble because the tiles are laid with too steep a grade, in which case it invariably happens that the bulk of the sewage runs to the lowest end of the field, where it often breaks out on the sur- face. In other instances, again, I find the distributing tiles laid two, three and sometimes even four feet below the ground surface. This mistake arises from a lack of knowledge of the principles of the system, which require the sewage to be discharged into the upper well-aerated layers of the soil, or the sub-sur- face, where the action of the bacteria converts the sewage and the particles of organic matter attaching to the earth into harmless elements. A bad layout of the distributing tiles invariably results in failure. Sometimes the system proves un- 254 SANITARY ENGINEERING OF BUILDINGS. successful from the omission of the first or intercept- ing chamber, in which case the tiles become choked in a short time. Insufficient attention to the flush tank is another frequent reason why the method fails to give satisfaction. Owners of country houses, after adopting this method of disposal, generally make the mistake of assuming that the same is automatic and hence needs, after completion, no further attention. The fact is that nothing is automatic in the system except the siphon for emptying the flush tank, but every part of the system, including the siphon, needs attention and intelligent care and occasional cleaning. As regards the flush tank, it may be either an open or a closed tank, the latter being preferable in all cases where the flush tank must be placed near the house. The open tank, if at a distance from the house, is better, because it is more readily accessible and easier to clean. The tank may be circular in shape or else oblong. It is generally built of brick- work, lined with Portland cement. Col. Waring, who introduced this system from England, has suggested lining such open sewage tanks with enameled face brick, or with marble. I agree with him that this is quite desirable on the ground of greater cleanliness. In my own practice, I have not met clients who were willing to incur the extra expense involved, and archi- tects with whom I have been associated in such work, prefer putting marble or slate or enamel face brick, where it will show to better advantage. VIII. THE PROPER ARRANGEMENT OF WATER CLOSET AND BATH APARTMENTS. Buildings located in a sewered street should always be provided with water closet conveniences, and dwelling houses in particular should afford facilities for bathing. Considered from a health point of view, the water closet apparatus and the bathing appliance are two of the most important and necessary house- hold fixtures. Let me say right here that it is a mis- take to consider water closets in houses as being merely "necessary evils." Recent practical sanita- tion has demonstrated the fact that they can readily be made safe fixtures for the convenience and com- fort of the occupants. Much has been written about the mechanical de- tails of the construction and fitting up of these appli- ances In this article it is proposed to discuss prin- cipally the proper arrangement of the rooms or apart- ments in which such fixtures are placed in different classes of buildings. Private Residences. ESSENTIALS OF A BATHROOM. Beginning, first, with dwelling houses and residences, we may consider the following to be some of the cardinal requirements of a well-appointed bathroom : It should be conveniently 256 SANITARY ENGINEERING OF BUILDINGS. located ; it must be capable of being well heated in winter time and it should have perfect ventilation at all times, but also be free from draughts, \vhich in- volve danger of catching cold during or after bathing. Its walls and floors should be not only sound-proof, but also protected against dampness, steam vapor and water. It should be well-lighted and comfort- ably furnished. Its dimensions should be such that the bathroom may not be too cramped and rendered uncomfortable by the vapor emanating when filling the tub with hot water. The plumbing fixtures should be well arranged and well grouped, and all plumbing, and the supply pipes in particular, should be protected against exposure to frost. The apartment should be entirely safe from a sani- tary point of view, i. e., all entrance of sewer air must be carefully guarded against, and last, but not least, the whole room must be so arranged as to be easily kept clean. LOCATION. Bathrooms should be located on the upper or bedroom floors of a house, as accessible as possible to the various bedrooms, though not in a too prominent position. In the smaller houses there is generally but one bathroom, which must be conveniently reached from all the chambers. A single bathroom for ordinary- sized houses is quite sufficient, particularly where the water closet is placed, as it should be, in a separate apartment, WATER CLOSET AND BATH APARTMENTS. 257 Larger houses have several bathrooms, either one on each of the bedroom floors or sometimes several bathrooms on one floor. In the largest mansions of the rich each bedroom suite often has a bathroom attached to it, as the owner's fancy or purse may require. Elsewhere I have remarked that I am not in favor of an undue multiplication of fixtures. Besides leading to other complications, they require a larger supply of hot water than can be derived from the ordinary kitchen boiler. On the top or attic floor provision is often made for a servants' bathroom. A servants' bath, in my judgment, should never be omitted except in the smallest houses, where the necessary space for the bath cannot be spared. Sometimes it may be more conveniently arranged in the basement, in the laun- dry or even in an alcove of the kitchen, where hot water can easily be had. This latter is an essential condition, for it is a well-known fact that servants will not use a bathtub with only a cold water faucet, necessitating the carrying of the hot water for a bath in pails. We should encourage in our domestics the maintenance of cleanliness as well as provide for their comfort and health, and nothing will tend more surely to secure this than the provision of a simple bath for the use of the servants. The family bathroom should be so located in the plan of the house that it may be quickly reached from the bedrooms without the necessity of crossing long halls or corridors, which, being often insufficiently 258 SANITARY ENGINEERING OF BUILDINGS. heated, would expose the persons to the danger of catching cold. In New York City houses three dif- ferent arrangements may be distinguished, viz.: the bathroom may be located in the rear hall room of the Fig. 68. Rear Hall Bathroom. main house; or it is placed in the middle of the house, or finally the bathroom is located in an extension. Fig. 68 illustrates a bathroom placed in the rear hall room, with entrances from the hall and from the rear bedroom, and with one window to the outside. This is quite a common arrangement in the older New York City houses. WATER CLOSET AND BATH APARTMENTS. 259 Fig. 69 shows a bathroom in the centre of the house, with a special shaft for light and air, carried up to the roof and covered at the roof with a venti- lating skylight. This arrangement is very similar to the one suggested on page 131, Fig. 44. Fig. 70 is another plan having the bathroom between the front and rear rooms. In recent years considerable popular preju- dice has arisen against such a location, which precludes an outside window, but in my judgment the plan is feasible and unobjectionable, provided there is safe and tight plumb- ing, modern arrrangement of fixtures and ample and posi- tive ventilation of the bath- room. An inside bathroom is, as a rule, more convenient of access, and it is certainly much easier to heat than one located in an extension. Figs. 71 and 72 are plans of city houses having long rear extensions, in which the bathroom is located between the rear and the extension bedrooms, and is accessible from one of the rooms as well as from the hallway. Figs. 73 and 74 are plans of houses with bathroom extensions only, and in this case the bathroom is in- tended principally, I may say entirely, for the occu- pants of the rear bedroom. Fig. 69. Bathroom in centre of house. 260 SANITARY ENGINEERING OF BUILDINGS. Fig 70. Plan showing bathroom between front and rear rooms. WATER CLOSET AND BATH APARTMENTS. 26l Fig. 71. Bathroom in rear extension ; W. C. separate. SANITARY ENGINEERING OF BUILDINGS, Fig. 72 Bathroom in rear extension ; Vf. C. separate WATER CLOSET AND BATH APARTMENTS. Fig. 75 finally is a plan of a bathroom extension, in which the bathroom is accessible both from the rear bedroom and the rear service hall. The bathroom, should, wherever practicable, be located over minor rooms, such as pantries, closets, kitchens or laundries, so that in case the plumb- ing 1 , and particularly the service pipes, should become deranged o r leaky, necessitating re- pairs, valuable ceiling or wall decorations in the main rooms of the parlor floor may not be spoiled. Another reason for pre- ferring such location is Fig 73 Bathroom extension. to be found in the commendable desire to arrange the plumbing pipes as compact and straight as pos- sible, with the fixtures placed in vertical groups directly over one another. In planning, the archi- tect's aim should always be to locate the bathroom convenient to the plumbing and to the source of the hot water supply, thereby obtaining direct, short and straight waste and supply connections. All pipes 264 SANITARY ENGINEERING OF BUILDINGS. leading- to the bathroom should be so laid out and run as not to be exposed to freezing. SEPARATION OF WATER CLOSET AND BATHROOM. The very general practice in American houses of placing- the water closet in the same apartment with the bath fixture is to my mind, decidedly objection- able. The separation of the two fixtures seems to me to be demanded by practical as well as aesthet- ical reasons. Where these fixtures are placed together the water closet cannot be Fig 74. Bathroom extension. used when the bath is in use, and a bath cannot be taken when the water closet is occupied. This draw- back is particularly noticeable in small dwellings and in apartment houses having only a single bathroom WATER CLOSET AND BATH APARTMENTS. intended for general use. I am aware of the fact that the separation of the fixtures requires more space, which is not always available, and I also realize that there are cases where it is difficult to provide a sepa- rate window to each apartment. I, however, hold that in the majority of houses, the suggested sep- aration can, by skillful planning, be carried out, resulting in a great im- provement of the floor plan.* Before referring to the examples given in the accompanying illus- trations, let us inquire what some architectural and sanitary authorities have to say regarding this question. " We often see baths and water closets in the same Fig. 75- Bathroom in rear extension ; separate water closet for servants accessible from rear hall. room, says one writer. " But this is objectionable, for it matters not how clean a water closet is kept, there is often an unpleasant smell aris- ing from it as well as the inconvenience attending it." "The ordinary practice of providing a bathroom * This subject has been already discussed by the author on page 131. See. Figs. 43 and 44. 266 SANITARY ENGINEERING OF BUILDINGS. with a water closet, often the only one in the house, is a barbarity worthy of mediaeval times," says another authority. "We go, or ought to go, to the bath for cleanliness and purity, and it is abominable to place in that bathroom the outlet of a reservoir of impurity. The closet ought to be handy, but separate, with its own window and entrance lobby." Another writer says : " It is a very common cus- tom in private houses to place the bath and the water closet in the same apartment. That this is an undesir- able arrangement is evident, for the water closet is, of all places in a house, that in which a foul atmos- phere is most likely to be encountered." " It is always highly desirable that the bathroom and the water closet should be separated," is the opin- ion of another expert, "so that it may always be pos- sible to use one without the other. They may prob- ably be placed next to each other and served by the same soil pipe." A bath and a water closet have, as a matter of fact, nothing in common except the soil pipe, with which, according the best American plumbing practice, and contrary to the English practice, they may both be safely connected. Referring now again to the illustrations, which are all taken from actually carried out examples from the author's practice, Fig. 68 shows the second floor plan of a city house in which the water closet is kept sep- arate from the bath. Unfortunately, as usually arranged, the only means provided for the ventilation WATER CLOSET AND BATH APARTMENTS. 267 of the water closet apartment is the window opening into the bathroom, so that, to all practical purpose and intent, the fixtures may be considered as located together. Where such a plan is adopted, the window between bathroom and water closet* should be a fixed sash for light only, and the water closet should have a separate ventilating flue, preferably with gas burner, carried vertically up to the roof. Where the space on the floors directly above can be spared, it is advisable to place over the water closet a large ventilating shaft, covered on the roof by a good form of venti- lating skylight. This also serves to sufficiently light the apartment, and the window into the bathroom can then be dispensed with. Fig. 69 shows how the water closet and the bath may be readily separated and yet each have a win- dow, abutting on a large light and air shaft. Such an arrangement would seem to be particularly adapted to interior bath and water closet rooms of apartment houses. Fig. 71 illustrates a very good arrangement secur- ing separate bath and water closet conveniences in rear extensions of city houses. The water closet has a separate window to the rear yard and a separate entrance door from the hallway. The bath and lava- tory are located in a large room, communicating with the hall and with one of the bedrooms, and having a separate window. In Fig. 72 I illustrate a similar plan, where the bath- room is in the extension, while the water closet is 268 SANITARY ENGINEERING OF BUILDINGS. located in a separate apartment at the rear end of the main house. In larger houses, with several bathrooms on one floor, or wherever a bathroom is attached to every bedroom suite, the bath and the closet may be placed together, although even then it is preferable to locate the bath in a dressing room and the water closet and lavatory in an adjoining apartment. In bachelor's apartments, generally occupied by only one or two persons, the water closet may, for simplicity's sake, be placed in the bathroom. A good and compact arrangement of such a room, where space cannot be afforded for a separate water closet is shown in per- spective in Plate II., the example being taken from a bathroom in a large hotel building in New York City, the plumbing of which was superintended by the writer. But even where the bathroom is intended for only a single bedroom, the apartment can be made much more inviting by a partial separation, as shown in plan in Figs. 73 and 74, and in detail in Figs. 76, 77 and 78. In Fig. 73 the first room reached from the bedroom contains the lavatory and the bath, and the water closet and a sitz bath, located in the next apart- ment, are separated from it by a partition, the lower part of which is built solid and the upper part arranged with open decorative woodwork. Plate III. is a perspective view of the bathroom, shown in plan in Fig. 73. It was designed by an able firm of New York architects, and cleverly and artisti- Plate II. Private bathroom in hotel. WATER CLOSET AND BATH APARTMENTS. 269 cally finished and decorated, as the picture shows, In this room the walls are wainscoted all around with marble and the floor is finished in mosaic tiling except under the fixtures, where marble slabs are placed. The floor in the middle of the room is covered with loose rugs. One needs only to have seen such an arrangement to become convinced of its merits and superiority from both the artistic and practical stand- point. Another extension bathroom is shown in plan, Fig. 74.0 Here the water closet is partially screened from view by a partition, finished with glazed tiling and kept partly open near the ceiling by means of ornamental woodwork. Figs. 76, 77 and 78 show in detail elevations and sections of this highly success- ful bathroom scheme. In both bathrooms, Figs. 73 and 74, the advantage is secured of having direct light from windows on two sides of the room. HEATING. A cold bathroom is worse than useless ; it cannot be used to take the daily bath, and in cold weather the plumbing pipes are liable to freeze and to cause damage by leakage. Yet there are numerous dwelling houses with bathrooms which cannot be heated, except by a portable oil or gas stove. In a bathroom more heat is wanted than in the sitting room ; children, old people and invalids require a temperature of from 70 to 75 Fahrenheit when bath- ing. A gas stove alone, therefore, as a rule, proves insufficient for warming an exposed bathroom. 270 SANITARY ENGINEERING OF BUILDINGS. WATER CLOSET AND BATH APARTMENTS. 271 272 SANITARY ENGINEERING OF BUILDINGS. The usual means of warming the apartment are the hot air register from the cellar furnace, or else steam or hot water radiators placed in the apartment. In- side bathrooms are, of course, easier to heat than those located in an extension, which are particularly difficult to keep warm where the extension faces the north or northwest. In addition to the above means of heating, a cheer- ful and cozy open fireplace, with gas log or other form of gas fire, is sometimes provided, and where this is done it is well to keep in mind that even a gas fire requires a flue for the removal of the gases of com- bustion. Nothing can be more attractive than a glowing open fire in a bathroom, which precludes all danger of catching cold during and after the bath. In a heated bathroom there is no danger of the pipes or traps freezing, but in all cases it is well to remember that supply pipes should be kept away from outside walls, and that pipes which are neces- sarily exposed need special protection with some non- conducting material. VENTILATION. The popular belief that an outside window in a bathroom constitutes sufficient ventila- tion for the apartment is decidedly a mistake. In summer time the open window may answer this pur- pose not so in winter. It is a matter of common observation, and one which anybody can readily verify, that when a window is opened to ventilate a bathroom or water closet apartment, the odor from the water closet is sometimes driven directly into the WATER CLOSET AND BATH APARTMENTS. 273 interior of the house, this being caused by the cold and heavy air from the outside rushing into the room and forcing the foul air toward the inside of the house instead of permitting it to escape through the window. " A bathroom," to quote Mr. E. C. Gardner, the well-known architect and author, " should indeed have an outside window if possible, but it is not reli- able as a means of ventilation, for when the wind blows strongly against it, the draft through the door from the bathroom to the hall or adjoining chamber is sure to set into the house and away from the win- dow." An outside window at plumbing fixtures, and par- ticularly at water closets, is desirable and useful for giving light. But in order to obtain efficient ventila- tion, other means are more suitable and more positive in action than a window. Each water closet and bath apartment should, therefore, be provided with special ventilating flues for the removal of the foul air, and means should be included to insure a positive upward draught in such flues. The ventilation of toilet rooms should be in- cluded in considering the schemes for ventilating a house. It is likewise important that the ventilating flues or shafts for water closet or bath apartments should have a stronger draught than other flues in the house ; for otherwise it will happen that the move- ment of air, induced by the system of ventilation, will be from the bathroom toward the house, which would, of course, be very undesirable. 2/4 SANITARY ENGINEERING OF BUILDINGS. While bathrooms and water closet apartments should be well ventilated, yet there should be no draught, for nothing is more liable to induce a bad cold than to have a current of cold air strike the wet body of a person just emerging from the bath. LIGHTING. A sunny exposure and an outside win- dow are always desirable for a bathroom. In this particular point extension bathrooms are superior to inside rooms with light borrowed from a light shaft and to bathrooms in rear hall rooms, for it is gener- ally feasible to provide windows on two sides of an extension bathroom. The light obtained from inside shafts is quite poor on the lower floors of a high building, except where the light shaft is made of unusually large dimensions. Artificial light, either gas or electric light, should always be provided in bathrooms and in water closet apartments. In a water closet ample light insures the cleanly use and maintenance of the fixture. The daylight from a window should for like reasons fall on the seat and on the water closet apparatus. Gas burners in water closets may with advantage be so arranged as not only to light the apartment, but also to assist in creating a constant upward and outward draught in the ventilating flue. SOUND. The walls and floors of bathrooms and water closet apartments must be made proof against any transmission of sound. This is a matter of much importance and one to which more attention should be given in house building than is usually the case WATER CLOSET AND BATH APARTMENTS. 2/5 The hollow wooden floors upon which the water closet is often set act like a sounding board, and in some houses announce the fact that the closet is being flushed to the entire household. Marble plat- forms under water closets act in a similar manner, except where they are placed on a proper thick deaf- ening. The walls and partitions of a bath apartment can be deadened against sound by filling the hollow spaces with mineral wool, felting or otherwise. The ball-cocks of water closet cisterns should be provided with so called "hush pipes," which render the incom- ing supply of water more noiseless in filling the cis- tern. In selecting the water closet apparatus prefer- ence should be given, all other things being equal, to the one which is the least noisy in operation. WALLS AND FLOORS. Floors, \valls and ceilings of bathrooms should be made as nearly as possible waterproof, for there is always more or less destruc- tive vapor of steam in a bathroom, and some water is likely to be spilled on the floor and against the walls when a bath or shower is taken. In a bathroom all superfluous woodwork should be carefully avoided. The numerous joints of wood wainscoting form har- boring places for Croton bugs and beetles, especially near the hot water pipes, and even the best filled woodwork absorbs and retains moisture, while var- nished surfaces are readily attacked and their good appearance quickly destroyed by the alkalies of the bath soap. 276 SANITARY ENGINEERING OF BUILDINGS. Floor and wall surfaces about plumbing fixtures should, therefore, be rendered non-absorbent, wash- able and easily cleaned. Absolute imperviousness may be secured in a variety of ways. The floor should be made practically water-tight, but it is also desirable that it should be neither cold to the feet nor slippery. It is somewhat difficult to reconcile these, to a certain extent, conflicting require- ments. In plain bathrooms, of houses of moderate cost, the floor may consist of narrow strips of wood, the joints being carefully laid with white lead, and waterproof paper being used between the upper and lower floors. Such floors may be covered with lin- oleum. Carpets are decidedly out of place in a bath or water closet room, for dirt, dust or filth may accu- mulate in or under them, and they are not taken up sufficiently often and cleaned. In the more expen- sive bathrooms the floor is sometimes a hardwood or parquet floor, and is covered with one or several loose rugs. Tiled and marble mosaic floors are quite often adopted. If tiling is to be used, I prefer the small unglazed or vitrified, square, hexagonal or octagonal tiles, for the glazed tiles render a floor extremely slip- pery and are easily scratched by the shoes. A mar- ble mosaic floor looks very well in large public toilet rooms, but in private bathrooms a more tasty com- bination consists in the use of marble platforms under plumbing fixtures, and of vitrified white tiles with or without pattern and border, for the rest of the floor in the room. Sometimes large squares of marble WATER CLOSET AND BATH APARTMENTS. 277 tiles are used, or else the floor is cemented or asphalted, though this arrangement is more suitable for buildings other than dwelling houses. On the whole, I consider the nicest and most sen- sible combination of all for a private bathroom, to be a hardwood or parquet floor, covered with rugs, with marble slabs placed under the fixtures. The wall surfaces should also be made impervious to moisture, particularly immediately about the plumbing fixtures. Even in inexpensive houses I should advise discarding wooden wainscoting and using instead some hard non-absorbent material. A good finish for plain houses may be obtained by simply cementing the walls, or else the walls may be plastered and then oil-painted, the paint being either smooth or having stippled surfaces. Glazed or var- nished enamel or tile paper is also obtainable, which can be washed and which forms a good wall surface, not easily destroyed by the watery vapor of the apart- ment. Very often the walls are covered with hard plaster, such as Adamantine or rock plaster, which can be laid out in squares or in oblong patterns in imitation of tiles, and which looks very well and at- tractive when painted with special white bath enamel. More elaborate apartments have the walls wainscoted with large marble slabs or else covered with glazed tiles, either white or in different colors or patterns. Wherever the walls of a bathroom are tiled up to a certain height from the floor it is objectionable, from a decorative point of view, to finish the upper part 278 SANITARY ENGINEERING OF BUILDINGS. of the walls in glazed wall paper in imitation of tiling, and plain oil-painted walls are in such a case much to be preferred. ARRANGEMENT OF BATHROOM FIXTURES. In laying out the plan for a bathroom, due regard should be paid to the most advantageous shape and dimensions of the room. Ample space should be provided for the fixtures in order not to crowd these too much. As a rule, an oblong-shaped bathroom is preferable to a square room, for it is always better to put all the fixtures on one side of the room in a row. Scatter- ing the fixtures along different walls or on opposite sides generally means an increased expense in the waste, supply and vent pipe system, particularly when there is more than one door in the bathroom. A bathroom having two or even three entrance doors is always much more difficult to arrange than one with only one door. Wherever a bathroom contains a water closet, this should invariably be placed nearest to the soil pipe ; or vice versa, the main soil pipe must be located at or near the water closet. The reason for such arrangement is that it is desirable to make the branch waste pipe from this fixture to the soil pipe as short and direct as practicable. Whether the bathtub or the lavatory should stand next to the water closet, depends somewhat upon the manner of running the branch wastes. Where these are carried exposed at the ceiling underneath the bathroom (generally, in the case of extension bathrooms, a dining room pan- WATER CLOSET AND BATH APARTMENTS. 279 try), it is better to put the wash basin next to the water closet ; when the waste cannot be so exposed, the foot end of the tub should adjoin the water closet and the waste from the wash basin may be carried above the bathroom floor, along- .the wall, until it joins the soil pipe, or a Y-branch on the waste pipe from the water closet. Regarding- the space occupied by the fixtures, the water closet requires, to be comfortable, at least two feet six inches in width, though it can be set in less space ; the length of bathtubs varies from four feet to six feet six inches, and may be said to average five feet six inches ; a washstand, to be serviceable in use, should not be less than two feet six inches in width, though larger sizes are often fitted up. The depth, from the wall forward, occupied by the fixtures, is about as follows : For a water closet, from two feet to two feet three inches ; for a lavatory, one foot ten inches to two feet two inches, and for bathtubs the dimension varies according to their shape and mate- rial, the copper tub taking the least space, viz.: about two feet ; the enameled iron tubs requiring from two feet three inches to two feet eight inches in depth, not counting the space between the bathtub rim and the wall wainscoting ; and all-porcelain tubs requiring from two feet six inches to three feet one inch in width. I shall not discuss here the merits and demerits of the various water closet fixtures, and refer the reader to previous chapters in this book.* * See also W. P. Gerhard, "House Drainage and Sanitary Plumbing," yth Edition, 1898. 280 SANITARY ENGINEERING OF BUILDINGS. For a well-appointed modern bathroom either a siphon-jet closet, a siphon closet or a wash-down closet should be chosen. For water closets in sepa- rate apartments we may add to the list the flushing" rim short hopper closet, and for water closets in situa- tions exposed to freezing (servants' yard closets) the flushing rim long hopper closet. All-porcelain fixtures only should be selected for use in dwelling houses. Each closet should have a flushing cistern of suitable capacity, and preferably one large enough to give two successive flushes. Iron cisterns are objectionable, because the iron rust is apt to stain the porcelain bowl, and because the metal condenses the steam or vapor and causes annoying dripping of water. On many accounts the copper-lined wooden cisterns are preferable. The outside finish of these flushing tanks may be varied according to the character of the apart- ment. For the plainest work stained or painted wood finish is adopted. In the better class of bath- rooms the cisterns are always finished in polished hardwood to correspond to the trim of the room. Panels and mouldings are often used for embellish- ment of the cisterns, but I prefer a round-cornered tank with plain cabinet-finished surface. Fancy metal cistern trimmings, linspar and other raised and gilt or colored decorations are, to my mind, in very poor taste. The encasing of flushing cisterns with marble is more adapted for toilet rooms in public buildings. In England earthen or porcelain tanks, which may be plain or decorated, have come into use, WATER CLOSET AND BATH APARTMENTS. 28l the object apparently being to avoid all woodwork in the bathroom ; similar flushing cisterns are now to be obtained here. As a rule, the flushing cistern is placed directly over the water closet at a sufficient height to obtain a vigorous flushing and scouring of the bowl and trap. In exceptional cases, where there is a closet behind the water closet, the cistern is put here, so as to be entirely out of sight. In this case care must be taken to see that the overflow of the cistern (if it leads, as it usually does, through the flush pipe into the closet bowl) is closed or sealed, whether by a flap-valve with ball float or by an annular siphon, otherwise the odors from the use of the closet are carried by the flush pipe into the closet where the cistern is placed. For private houses the discharge of the cistern is nearly always effected by a chain and pull arrange- ment. Seat action, door attachments and automatic flushing are not suitable and not needed in private houses. Where the cistern is not directly over the closet the chain must be carried over easy-running pulleys. A bell handle or else a push button arrange- ment are occasionally substituted for the pull handle. At the water closet all superfluous woodwork must be studiously avoided. The open round, square or oval cabinet-finished seat is really the only woodwork required. Even the usual cover or lid is unnecessary, except in small bathrooms where the space for a chair is wanting. For water closets in separate apart- 282 SANITARY ENGINEERING OF BUILDINGS. ments the cover to the seat is but a relic of bygone times, and its use is much to be deprecated. Care- ful attention should be given to placing the seat in a proper position over the bowl. Urinals should never be tolerated in private houses, for here the water closet answers the purpose equally as well or even better. I do not remember ever hav- ing found a urinal in even the most expensive private residences examined by me, which was not objection- able on account of both odor and general appearance. I shall not describe the various types of fixtures serving for the daily bath. Whatever the fixture may be whether a full bathtub, or a sitz bath, foot bath, bidet, needle bath, douche or shower it always re- quires a complete system of hot and cold water sup- ply pipes, of waste and overflow pipes, a good trap and (wherever the trap is such as to be liable to siphonage) a trap vent pipe or anti-siphon vent at- tachment ; occasionally safety pans or safes are pro- vided, in particular where the bath is arranged directly over an elaborately decorated ceiling, and special disconnected safe waste pipes are sometimes carried from the safes to the lowest part of the house. All bathing appliances, as well as lavatories, should be provided with an abundant supply of both cold and hot water. A bathtub fitted up with only a cold water faucet, and necessitating the carrying upstairs of all hot water, cannot be considered as a " modern convenience," and will not be of much use. Where WATER CLOSET AND BATH APARTMENTS. 283 the hot water boiler does not furnish a sufficient amount of hot water, or where it is desired to save the expense of carrying hot water pipes to a bath- room on the attic floor for servants, hot water may be readily obtained at the fixture by fitting up one of the instantaneous gas water heaters now sold in the market. Where these are employed it is, however, necessary to make provision for a flue connection to the heating appliance. Lavatories are so numerous in design and varied in their fittings that I cannot undertake to discuss any of their details. To my mind nothing can be more objectionable in a fixture intended for the ablution of the hands and the face than the secret waste and overflow valve, which is just now the favorite fixture of architects and householders. From a sanitary point of view it is necessary that the stopper, plug or valve inserted to make the basin hold water should be in plain sight and that it should close the outlet of the bowl directly at the bottom of the latter, not at some distance away. The stand pipe overflow basin, the basin with waste plug directly in the bot- tom of the bowl, operated by some mechanism out- side of the bowl, and the siphon basin, with rubber plug and rubber cablet in place of the link chain, are the only kinds which are clean or can be readily kept clean. The latter form of bowl has the additional advantage of having an overflow flushed at each dis- charge of the basin and trapped when the bowl is filled. 284 SANITARY ENGINEERING OF BUILDINGS. Numerous appurtenances designed for rendering" the equipment of a bathroom still more complete and convenient are now obtainable, such as soap jars, cups or boxes, sponge racks and holders, towel racks and shelves, brush and tumbler holders, hooks for bath robes, devices for holding toilet paper, beveled mirrors, etc., but of these it is not necessary to speak. EXPOSED AND ACCESSIBLE PLUMBING WORK. There are still in every city and town numerous old houses where all plumbing work is completely boxed in with woodwork, the enclosed spaces being utilized for cup- boards, drawers and closets for storage of worn-out household articles. All wooden casings surrounding sinks, washstands, bathtubs and water closets form convenient receptacles and gathering places for dust, dirt and concealed spillage of liquids. Thus it comes that the many crevices, nooks and hidden corners of household conveniences simply constitute what have been aptly termed "artful contrived traps for catch- ing and hiding filth." I cannot too strongly urge the necessity of avoiding every opportunity for such concealment of dirt, for untidiness, stuffiness and unhealthiness of the room, or often of the whole house, are the unavoidable results. Plumbing fixtures should be divested of all unneces- sary enclosures. Instead of forming inviting places for dust and dirt and filth to accumulate under, they should be left, exposed to the eyes of the watchful housewife and open to the beneficial influence of air, sunlight and the housemaid's dust broom. The time WATER CLOSET AND BATH APARTMENTS. 285 is, fortunately, past when architects, builders and even house owners would shrug their shoulders about such advice. The modern principle of " non-conceal- ment " has at last been recognized as being the only correct method of finishing the sanitary appliances of a dwelling. Comfort and convenience of arrange- ment have not suffered thereby. On the contrary, the increased facilities afforded for maintenance of cleanliness are beginning to be greatly and univer- sally appreciated. With the fixtures entirely exposed and all piping kept in plain sight, it is much easier now-a-days to get access to the pipes and fixtures in order to keep them clean or to repair slight leaks or imperfections. A perfectly healthful bathroom requires, of course, a good and safe arrangement of the plumbing sys- tem, of the traps, vents, wastes and soil pipes. De- fective and inferior work, trashy materials, fittings of the cheapest possible character cannot for a moment, be tolerated. Numerous well-appointed sanitary bathrooms of modern houses point conclusively to the fact that the ills, so often associated with bad drainage and bad ventilation, with uncleanliness or foulness, are readily avoidable by the use of first-class materials, sanitary fixtures and by careful workman- ship. I have referred so far largely to the fitting up of bath and water closet apartments in private resi- dences. The suggestions made apply equally to smaller city dwelling houses, to apartment houses 286 SANITARY ENGINEERING OF BUILDINGS. and to suburban and country houses, with the pos- sible difference that in these the whole arrangement will be more simple and less elaborate in character. I now propose discussing briefly the application, with suitable modifications, of the foregoing suggestions to other classes of buildings. Tenement Houses.* Water closet accommodations in rear yards for the joint use of the dwellers in tenement houses are not to be commended. It is very much better to provide these fixtures on each of the several floors of a tene- ment house. I would go even a step farther and sug- gest, as very desirable, that each family should have a separate water closet, for thus only can cleanliness and a decent maintenance of the fixture and its sur- roundings be secured. Where, as is now usual, sev- eral families use the same water closet, there is a divided responsibility regarding the maintenance of the compartment in a sanitary condition, and it is well known that divided responsibility generally sig- nifies no responsibility at all. Elsewheref in this work I call attention to the fact that one seldom finds bathtubs fitted up in tenement houses. Some well-meaning landlords are said to have tried the experiment of fitting up bathtubs in tenement houses, but they soon grew disheartened at finding the tub used as a storage place for food, or even as a depository for coal, ashes, etc. More re- * See also chapter on " Sanitary Drainage of Tenement Houses/' f See Vol. II., chapter on " Bathing and Different Forms of Baths." WATER CLOSET AND BATH APARTMENTS. 287 cently, fixtures have been gotten up for use in tene- ments which constitute a combined wash and bath- tub, some made in wood having- a removable parti- tion between the two washtubs, while others made in artificial stoneware have a small washtub, and adjoin- ing- the same a large compartment suitable for wash- ing as well as for bathing. I incline to the belief that a much better plan would be to abolish entirely the tub and to substitute for the same a simple spray or rain bath. This could be fitted up in the basement of the tenement, and should be a moderately large compartment with dressing room, the whole fitted with door and lock, the key of which should be in the hands of the janitor. To each family a certain day in the week could be assigned for bathing, and the dwellers of the tenements would in this way secure what should prove of immense benefit to the working classes a weekly warm bath, in clean water, amidst pure surroundings. Hotels. The plumbing work in modern hotel buildings is always extensive and elaborate in character. On the bedroom floors provision must be made for private and public bathrooms, the former attached to bed- room suites and luxuriously fitted up in the same way as described in the preceding pages. There should also be on each floor a ladies' retiring room, contain- ing several water closets and wash basins. Such rooms should be conveniently located, generally at the end of a hall or corridor ; they must be easily 288 SANITARY ENGINEERING OF BUILDINGS. found, yet at the same time not be too conspicuous. The main toilet room for male hotel guests is located either on the ground floor or more often in the base- ment, and much attention should be bestowed upon its sanitary arrangements and fittings. Where the necessary space is available, I should always advise having the water closets and urinals in one apartment and placing the lavatories in a separate adjoining room. This separation is desirable in hotels as much as is in private houses the separation of the bath from the water closet. Fig. 79 illustrates in plan the gen- eral arrangement of a guests' toilet room for a large hotel, the lavatory being separated from the water closets. The number of fixtures required in the main guests' toilet room depends upon the size and character of the hotel, but a generous number should be provided if possible, in order to prevent crowding. The arrangement of the water closets varies somewhat, but in all cases it is desirable to avoid woodwork in such a toilet room. The water closet stalls are, there- fore, in the best buildings of this class, fitted up entirely in white Italian or gray Knoxville marble. Each compartment should be from 2\ to three feet wide and 4^ to five feet deep. The partitions should reach to a height of seven feet, or seven feet six inches from the floor, and should be either cut out at the floor or raised about ten inches and supported on nickel plated brass legs. This facilitates the cleaning of the tiled or marble floor. Each compartment WATER CLOSET AND BATH APARTMENTS. 289 SANITARY ENGINEERING OF BUILDINGS. should have a light flap door, and on sanitary grounds I prefer the arrangement of reverse springs, which cause the door to stand open except when the water closet seat is occupied. If so arranged the whole in- terior of the compartment is usually exposed, and greater cleanliness is thus secured. The water closet apparatus should be of the best and most approved kind, either a pedestal short hopper, a wash-down closet or a siphon closet. The fixtures should be of white porcelain and all piping and trimmings of polished or plated brass. The water closet cisterns should be of wood, lined with copper, as iron cisterns stain the bowl with rust. In work of elaborate character all cisterns are cased up in marble. The flush is either automatic by means of intermittently discharging flush tanks, or it is oper- ated by seat or by door action, though both of the latter arrangements are liable to get out of order. The simplest and undoubtedly best arrangement is the chain and pull flush, operated by the user of the closet. A novel and good arrangement consists of a combination flushing tank having two compartments, one fitted with an automatic intermittent siphon, while the other compartment is emptied by means of of the usual pull arrangement. While this may re- quire a somewhat larger amount of water, it secures the proper flushing of the closet and maintains at all times in the bowl and trap a water seal which is filled with clean w r ater. Regarding the urinals, the stalls may be of slate or WATER CLOSET AND BATH APARTMENTS. Alberene stone, but more often they are of marble. It is important that the stalls should not be too nar- row. I consider a width of two feet three inches from centre to centre as the least to be given to a public urinal. It is also important that the urinal bowls be set up at such a height as to accommodate short persons. As a rule, urinals are set up too high (i. e. t from tw r enty-four to twenty-seven inches from the floor). Practical experience has shown that a urinal is better kept and dripping on the floor pre- vented by setting the top of the front edge of the bowl at a height not exceeding twenty-two inches from the floor slab. It is likewise better to select a plain round urinal bowl and not the so-called " lipped " pattern. The latter form of bowl was introduced some years ago with the view of preventing the floor from becoming wetted and stained with drippings, but in practice it is found that the projecting lip causes the very trouble which it was designed to avoid, because for fear of contagion persons uncon- sciously stand further away from the fixture. The marble platforms of urinal stalls should not be provided with a waste outlet and drip pipe, as has frequently been done in the past. I have found it a difficult matter to educate the public or building com- mittees to appreciate the reason for this recommenda- tion, which is that urinal safe wastes invariably become very foul smelling. There is, in practice, no difficulty whatever in having the floor mopped up and cleaned at frequent intervals. Proper ventilation SANITARY ENGINEERING OF BUILDINGS. for the large toilet room is, of course, very essential, and should be included in the genera} scheme of ven- tilation of the building. About the lavatory arrangements it is hardly neces- sary to expand further, as they have been described heretofore. The general rules regarding the fitting up of a single washtand apply, of course, to a row of many basins as required for a hotel lavatory. I should, perhaps, mention that it is necessary, from a sanitary point of view, to trap each basin separately. Club Houses. The arrangement of toilet and bathrooms for club houses presents no features worthy of special men- tion. All such buildings require to be fitted up with a number of gentleman's general toilet rooms, near the bowling alleys, near the billiard room, etc. A lavatory should be provided on the dining room floor. Where the upper floors contain bedrooms for club members, it is usual to attach a complete bathroom to some or all of them. In clubs devoted to athletic exercises the bathing arrangements, particularly the shower, needle and plain spray or rain baths and sometimes swimming tanks form an important fea- ture. I may in this place mention that building com- mittees should not overlook the fact that even per- fectly fitted up toilet rooms require a system of ventilation, and inversely that even perfectly venti- lated toilet rooms require good and sanitary plumb- ing and drainage. The one requirement is entirely distinct from the other, but both are equally neces- WATER CLOSET AND BATH APARTMENTS. 293 sary. This remark may with advantage be applied to other classes of buildings. Office Buildings. Modern office buildings abound with all manner of conveniences and comforts. The rental of offices in the better class of structures is so high that tenants have a right to expect the best service and the best of everything in the line of " modern improvements." It is usual, therefore, to provide these buildings with an elaborate and costly equipment of plumbing, com- prising toilet rooms and also washstands in every office. Two possible arrangements of toilet rooms should be considered. In one system a single large general men's toilet room is provided, located either in the basement or, more frequently, on the top floor of the building. In the other system we find a smaller men's toilet room on each floor. Both systems have their advocates and champions. As a rule, owners or agents of buildings and real estate men generally favor the " one toilet room " plan, which relegates the toilets to the top of the building, thus saving valuable renting space on each office floor. Architects, sani- tary engineers and tenants are usually in favor of the opposite plan, advising that a toilet room be provided on every office floor. Doubtless much may be said in favor of either system. The writer, who has given much attention and thought to the matter, inclines strongly to the opinion, derived from practical study and observation in high office buildings, that it is a 294 SANITARY ENGINEERING OF BUILDINGS. mistake to put the toilet conveniences for men and women on one floor (generally the top floor) only. The elevator service, already insufficient in many in- stances, becomes thereby very much overtaxed. Then there is also, as regards the office tenants, a very appreciable loss of time, caused by compelling- clerks, boys, messengers, typewriters, etc., to go to the top floor. Much valuable time of employes may doubtless be saved by providing smaller toilets on every floor, or at least on alternate floors. In some office buildings we find only the ladies' toilet placed on the top floor, and this in buildings where many women are employed, is equally bad and undesirable. One way, perhaps, toward solving the difficulty would be to have on each floor a small men's public toilet room with one or two urinals and at least one washbasin, and a similar room on alternate floors for the use of women, and containing one lavatory and a ladies' urinette, a fixture frequently found attached to waiting rooms of English railroad stations. (An in- cidental advantage of the urinette fixture is that it may be connected with a two or three-inch waste pipe stack and hence does not require a large four or five- inch soil pipe, as would be necessary if the ladies' toilets contained water closets). With these con- veniences provided for the use of the offices, it may answer to place the larger men's and women's toilet rooms with water closets on the top floor. If toilet rooms are provided on every office floor for the accommodation of tenants and their customers or WATER CLOSET AND BATH APARTMENTS. 295 clients, the room should contain two water closets and at least one washbasin and one urinal for every five offices. It is desirable that the washbasin should be provided with both hot and cold water. The ladies' toilet room should, in addition to water closets and washbasins, contain a white porcelain slop sink, supplied with both hot and cold water and sometimes arranged with an overhead flushing cistern. It is bet- ter to place this appliance in the ladies' toilet, because, as a rule, the scrubbing- of offices and halls is done by scrubbing women and not by porters. If, on the other hand, the building is to have one main toilet on the top floor containing a large group of fixtures, the total number of water closets, urinals and bowls need not be as large as the aggregate number of fixtures where they are distributed on all floors. The toilet room for women should contain, in proportion, more water closets than that for man, ex- cept where ladies' urinettes are provided on alternate floors in the smaller toilet rooms, as recommended above. To omit a washstand in the public toilet rooms of a large office building is a serious error in judgment. This mistake has been made in several of the recent " sky-scrapers " in New York City. Each of the numerous offices should likewise be fitted up with a washbasin, which may have either a cold water faucet or both Hot and cold water. The space required in each toilet room for the plumbing fixtures is about as follows: For each 296 SANITARY ENGINEERING OF BUILDINGS. water closet compartment a space two feet six inches; to three feet wide and four feet to five feet deep ; for each urinal stall a space two feet three inches wide and two feet deep ; for each washbasin a space two feet six inches wide and two feet deep. This does not include the space required by persons standing at the wash- basin to wash, nor space required for access to the urinals and water closets. I strongly favor the arrangement of water closet doors in which the doors open in, instead of out, and stand open except when the compartment is occupied, but this requires a depth of compartment of at least 4^ feet, while for women this dimension should be five feet. The question of the proper material for water closet partitions is one difficult to deal with. The great desideratum is facility of cleaning the partitions and floors. Neither face brick, nor common or enameled face brick, nor large glazed tiles, are free from objec- tions. Slate partitions are objectionable on account of the dark color, and marble partitions are very ex- pensive and to a certain extent absorbent. The advantages of wooden board partitions are their lightness and cheapness ; the chief objections against them are that they are apt to warp from humid- ity, that the wood is absorbent and that wooden sur- faces offer opportunities for indecent scribbling. Par- titions of enameled or face brick occupy too much space, and besides the surface is somewhat irregular,, there are too many joints and the surface is not readily WATER CLOSET AND BATH APARTMENTS. 297 cleaned, Sometimes brick partitions are lined with glazed tiles, but in addition to the numerous joints, which easily collect dirt, the objection exists that the tiles are apt to break loose. Partitions both of hardwood and of marble are much in use in modern office buildings. I am in- clined to believe that in the near future a new mate- rial will be more generally introduced. This is ham- mered glass, used either as a lining of a partition or wall, or preferably standing free by itself. In France, glass partitions were advocated and introduced some years ago by a sanitary engineer, Monsieur Piet, and the system, which is patented, is known as the Piet & Co.'s System. From a description given by Mr. D'Esmenard in Le Gtnie Sanitaire, I learn that such glass partitions, manufactured by the glass works of Saint Gobain, consist of sheets of opaque rolled annealed glass, made in all sizes and in thicknesses varying from eleven to twenty millimetres, or from one-half to three-fourth inches. Such glass partitions present a hard, absolutely non-absorbent, perfectly smooth surface and have a very pleasing appearance. There are no joints and the partitions are perfectly aseptic and readily cleaned. The construction is very simple : Two plates of glass of equal size, and of the full height and depth of the compartment which they are to enclose, are placed in an iron frame, surrounding them on three sides and holding them tightly together The bottom of the partition, which is raised from the 2Q8 SANITARY ENGINEERING OF BUILDINGS. floor, rests in an iron frame supported by ornamental legs. The two glass partitions are joined back to back, a metallic mastic or cement putty holding them together and at the same time rendering the glass quite opaque. Such glass partitions may, of course, also be used for urinal stalls, for shower and spray bath compart- ments, for backs and sides of slop sinks, etc. They would appear to be useful and adapted not merely to office buildings, but also for the plumbing in hospi- tals, schools, railroad stations, factories, etc. One more desirable fixture for office buildings re- quires brief mention : I refer to an engineer's bath, consisting preferably of a spray or shower bath in place of the common tub, placed in the basement or sub-basement for the use of the engineer and the fire- men who attend to the boilers and power plant of office buildings. Stores. Large stores require a very complete and elaborate arrangement of toilet rooms. In recent buildings of this class the toilet rooms for customers are fitted up with all possible conveniences and with great luxur- iousness of detail. In addition to these, provision must be made for the great army of clerks and sales- women, for workmen, cash boys, for the head clerks, department managers and buyers, and for the mem- bers of the firm. The plumbing details are generally similar to those in hotel and office buildings. Fig. 80 illustrates in plan the general arrangement of a ladies' WATER CLOSET AND BATH APARTMENTS. 299 o QnfT 5- o n o U ' n o W ^ n O. - 1 ~ ft* x P V cs p o ^ n rf/y/////////////////^/^/?/. o y/////////////////. Fig. 80. Plan of a ladies 'toilet room, with lavatories, in a large department store. 3OO SANITARY ENGINEERING OF BUILDINGS. retiring and toilet room in a large department store. It will be noticed that the lavatories are placed in an ante-room separate from the water closets. Warehouses. The plumbing in warehouses is, as a rule, of a much simpler character than that in stores, but whatever fixtures are provided in the toilet rooms must be of a very strong, durable and substantial character to withstand rough usage. Separate water closet con- veniences for men and women are required as in the case of factories. Factories.* The water closet arrangements in factories are sometimes very extensive, this depending upon the total number of employes of both sexes. Here, too, the plumbing should be durable and substantial, though plain in character. The factory inspection laws of many States now wisely require that entirely separate toilet rooms for male and female operators be provided, also that the closets for the females must not adjoin those for males, but must have separate approaches. This rule, demanded by regards for decency and humanity alike, has until recently been quite universally violated. The water closet fixtures are either of the single type, or more frequently what are known as water closet ranges, troughs or latrines are used, with auto- matic flush. These answer, where the water is not * See chapter on " Sanitation in Factories and Workshops." WATER CLOSET AND BATH APARTMENTS. 3OI used too sparingly, every purpose. The seats should be divided off by slate partitions, which should be raised from the floor, and need not be carried quite as high as those in office buildings are. Doors may with advantage be omitted, this being desirable to prevent nuisances and a misuse of the fixtures. The floor of the room must be made water-tight and wash- able ; an asphalt or granolithic floor answers the pur- pose. All unnecessary woodwork should be avoided, not merely in the partitions, but also all wooden wainscoting, as the many crevices and joints are liable to accumulate dirt and vermin. The urinals should preferably consist of long enameled iron troughs with automatic flush. In the women's toilet rooms provision should be made for ample washrooms, and space should be re- served for dressing rooms. Employes in factories are constantly surrounded with dust and dirt, and one of the greatest blessings to workingmen consists in the establishment of plain factory baths, the best form of these being the mod- ern "rain" or spray bath.* In industrial establish- ments where poisonous substances are handled or manufactured, baths are indispensable for the main- tenance of the health of the workingmen. It should be remembered that the majority of factories have a power plant operated by steam, hence there is but lit- tle difficulty in fitting up some suitable bathing accom- * See Vol. II., chapter on " Bathing and Different Forms of Baths." 3O2 SANITARY ENGINEERING OF BUILDINGS. modations. Much of the exhaust steam, now use- lessly wasted, could be utilized for cheaply heating the water for the baths. High pressure steam is not always required, for exhaust steam will do the work equally well and in this way the warming of the water costs but very little. The firemen, boiler at- tendants and the engineer need the bath particularly on account of the coal dust, which settles in their working clothes, but all workmen would derive bene- fit from bathing. If they go home without having had the bath, the dust and dirt from the factory is carried on their bodies and clothing to the house. The latter is but seldom, if ever, provided with facili- ties for taking a bath. Not only would the workmen feel clean after the day's work is over, but their health would be better preserved, and their employers would secure better returns in their work. The movement for factory baths not unlike that for people's baths and children's school baths is making rapid strides, and we hope the day is not far off when every large manufacturing establishment will have a bath house attached to it. Theatres.* Even in theatre buildings the plumbing and the toilet room conveniences are often quite extensive. For the use of the audience, retiring rooms must be provided, generally two for each gallery or tier, one for rrien, the other for women. In the smaller play- * See Vol. II., chapter on " Theatre Sanitation." WATER CLOSET AND B-ATH APARTMENTS. 303 houses it is sufficient to arrange a single men's toilet room in the basement near the smoking room, and a ladies' toilet in the balcony tier. It is very essential that the toilet rooms should not be conspicuous, neither must their location be indicated by the noise of the water closet cisterns or by any disagreeable odor emanating from the apartment. There must be perfect sanitation together with perfect ventilation. The fixtures should all be selected and arranged with a view of being noiseless in operation. In the stage house one or several toilet rooms should be planned for the stage hands and supers, having due regard to the entire separation of the sexes. Near the corridor leading from the single dressing rooms there should be several conveniences (water closets, urinals, urinettes) for the actors and actresses. All sanitary requirements must be particularly ob- served in this part of the building, as here defects in plan or workmanship are apt to make themselves felt with particular severity. Water closets should never be located in dark corners under the stage, where their use and maintenance cannot be so readily con- trolled. It is, finally, necessary to provide washing sinks for the use of the supers and the chorus, and each actor's dressing room should have a very small set wa&hstand with hot and cold water faucets. Fig. 8 1 is an illustration of the left half of an upper floor plan of a modern theatre, showing ladies' and gentlemens' toilet rooms, also water closet accommo- 304 SANITARY ENGINEERING OF BUILDINGS. Fig. 81. Plan of balcony floor of a theatre, showing toilet room accommodations for the public and the stage performers. WATER CLOSET AND BATH APARTMENTS. 305 dations for the actors, and the lavatories in each of the actors' dressing rooms. Churches and Synagogues. Church buildings require very few plumbing con- veniences, except in the case of synagogues. Owing to the fact that on certain Jewish holidays the mem- bers of the congregation remain the entire day in their house of worship, it becomes necessary to pro- vide ample toilet room space. Sometimes this em- braces separate water closet rooms with lavatories for men and women, for boys and girls. It is also usual to provide a small toilet room adjoining the minis- ter's or rabbi's study, and another lavatory near the trustees' room. The fitting up of these rooms and sanitary appliances is quite similar in character to that of other public or semi-public buildings, and calls for no special comment. School Houses.* The first question of importance in connection with water closets for schools is their location ; in other words, whether interior or outdoor water closets are to be preferred. The old-fashioned outdoor yard closets, standing detached and at some distance from the main build- ing, do not merit approval. A very good plan con- sists in placing the children's toilet rooms in a sepa- rate side wing, or better still in a detached building of either one or several stories, connected with the * See Vol. II., chapter on " School Sanitation." 306 SANITARY ENGINEERING OF BUILDINGS. school house by means of a covered well-ventilated corridor. This plan is in many respects superior to the plan of putting the toilet rooms in the basement of the school, but it should be stated that, with ample ventilation and with a careful arrangement of the water closets, no very strong objection exists to a location in the basement, and there are many, whose judgment is certainly entitled to consideration, who prefer this plan. Others prefer arranging the toilet rooms for boys and girls on each of the floors of the school house. This, to my mind, is the plan having the least merits of all. In my judgment, only the teachers' closets should be arranged on the floors above the basement, and these might be used by the girls of the higher classes. Regarding the number of water closets to be pro- vided, it is usual to allow one seat to about fifteen girls or twenty boys. The boys' toilet room, should, in addition to the water closets, contain a suitable number of urinal stalls. I shall not enter into a discussion of the relative merits of the various types of school water closets and trough closets. An automatic flush is a neces- sity, as children cannot be relied upon to operate the flush after the use of the fixture. It is also desirable to put up the water closet seats at various heights to accommodate children of all ages. Trough urinals for the boys should likewise be set low. In recent years many forms of so-called 4< dry WATER CLOSET AND BATH APARTMENTS. 307 closets " have been advocated for use in schools, and some have been rather extensively advertised. I have not been able to look upon them with much favor, and in my judgment, all those so-called " dry sys- tems " which are arranged in connection with the ven- tilation of the school rooms are unsanitary, and under circumstances, positively dangerous. The difficulties of maintaining a constant current of air in one direc- tion are very great. Every school building should have a few lavatories for the use of the children. It is preferable not to place these in the water closet rooms. Finally, I should mention that it is a very desirable thing to have every public school provided with a few spray baths. These can be located either in a sepa- rate one-story pavilion or else in the basement adjoin- ing the children's playrooms. I shall refer else- where to the growing use of the " rain bath " in the public schools in Germany. Scarcely any school building is nowadays erected in German cities with- out this necessary provision for the health and clean- liness of the children, many of whom do not know in their homes the blessings and advantages derived from regular bathing. I hope, in the interest of the coming generation of our American school children, that some pen, more facile and powerful than my own, will make a strong plea to our Boards of Edu- cation in favor of " spray baths " in public schools. I am convinced that this would incidentally help to solve more than any elaborate mechanical arrange- ments the question of school room ventilation. 308 SANITARY ENGINEERING OF BUILDINGS. The teachers should make it their duty to inspect the childrens' toilet rooms at frequent intervals, and the school house janitor should be responsible for their cleanly condition. The influence of school life upon a child often makes itself felt throughout its whole life. At no period of human life are outside hurtful and unsanitary in- fluence apt to do greater harm than at the time when the organism is yet undeveloped and least liable to resistance ; hence it is very important that the sani- tary appliances in schools should be of the best kind obtainable. Fig. 82 shows in plan the arrangement of a de- tached water closet annex or pavilion for a large school house. The same is connected with the main building by covered walks, the boys' and girls' sides being divided by a high fence. The girls' side con- tains twenty closets and a teacher's closet, the boys' side eleven closets, a trough flushing urinal and a teacher's closet. Hospitals. The custom of caring for the sick in special build- ings hospitals is a very old one. In centuries gone by the arrangement of these was very primitive, yet even to-day examples of such buildings may be found, planned and constructed without due regard to sani- tation. Indeed, the defects of the sanitary arrange- ments are sometimes such that instead of the desired advantages to the sick patients, injury to the health results. WATER CLOSET AND BATH APARTMENTS. 309 X Fig. 82. Plan of a water closet pavilion for a large school house. 310 SANITARY ENGINEERING OF BUILDINGS. If anywhere, it is here where we must insist upon the most perfect sanitation. Many plumbing con- veniences are required as necessary adjuncts to each hospital ward. There should be a lavatory room, a bathroom, a \vater closet room and a hospital slop sink. All these must be so located that under no circumstances may any bad odors or sewer air pene- trate to the wards. On the other hand, the sanitary appliances must be in close proximity to the wards to enable those patients who can leave their beds to get to them without having a long distance to walk. Undoubtedly the best location of water closet and bath apartments in hospitals is in separate or detached towers or wings, connected by means of short cor- ridors, with cross-ventilation with the wards. Each ward requires at least two water closets for patients and one for nurses and attendants. The fixtures should be of the best obtainable modern type. There should be a special compartment for a hospital slop sink for the rinsing of chambers, bed pans, etc., and this should also be the best sanitary fixture obtain- able. For the men's ward the water closet room should also contain a urinal fixture with automatic flushing device. Floors and walls of the rooms in which the hospital plumbing is located should always be made water-tight, non-absorbent and easily wash- able in order to preserve absolute cleanliness. Large windows for light are essential, likewise a perfect system of ventilation. WATER CLOSET AND BATH APARTMENTS. 3!! The patients' lavatory should be in an adjoining room, alw r ays separate from the water closet, and another separate room should contain a bath, prefer- ably a glazed porcelain or an annealed glass bathtub, which must stand in the centre of the room with all sides free so the nurses can conveniently bathe patients. Fig. 83 shows the general plan of a cottage hospi- tal, wherein the plumbing is located in a semi-de- tached wing, connected with the main building by a Fig. 83. Plan showing location of plumbing in a side wing of a cottage hospital. short corridor with windows on both sides for cross- ventilation. Fig. 84 is a plan on a larger scale of the plumbing work of the same building. The room designated A in both illustrations contains a spray bath, room B contains three water closets and one slop sink, and room C contains five wash basins. Wooden, zinc or copper tubs are absolutely inadmis- sible for hospitals ; wooden or cement stone floors 3 I2 SANITARY ENGINEERING OF BUILDINGS. and porous walls are likewise bad. No materials should be employed which are not absolutely non- absorbent and aseptic. Under no circumstances what- Fig. 84. Detail of plumbing in cottage hospital, illustrated in Fig. 83. ever should any plumbing- fixtures, or even plumbing pipes, be tolerated in the hospital ward. The plumb- ing and sewerage must be constructed with the best WATER CLOSET AND BATH APARTMENTS. 313 materials and arranged so as to effect the instant re- moval of all sewage from hospital buildings. Where, as in hospitals for infectious diseases, the sewage is liable to contain pathogenic germs ^of disease, proper facilities for instant and thorough disinfection of the plumbing fixtures and their contents must be pro- vided.* Hospitals for Insane. Inasmuch as the patients kept in these buildings are persons deprived of reason, who often act in a mischievous manner and obstruct the water closet fixtures and the waste pipes, the selection of the plumbing appliances require a very careful judg- ment. All plumbing in such buildings must be par- ticularly strong, durable and substantial ; all fancy work and fittings must be considered quite out of place. Fig. 85 shows the general plan of the toilet room, lavatory and bath accommodation for a hospital for insane, all plumbing on the three floors being located in a semi-detached tower, as shown. The water closets require either an automatic flush- ing system or else closets with seat action mechanism, which latter tends to avoid the great waste of water, so noticeable in all large institutions of this character. The bathing of insane patients can best be accom- plished by means of spray or rain baths. Recent ex- * See Vol. II., chapter on " The Water Supply, Sewerage and Plumbing of Hos- pital Buildings." SANITARY ENGINEERING OF BUILDINGS. S-/fifZ/* ^ o\i r\\\\\\\\\\v\\\\\\\\\\v \ \ \ \ \ \ e \ \ ^s \ -77 fp \ Z/sfr /Tcosv \ \ \ N ^ \ \ s \ N V \\\ s \ \ \/ \ \ sJS?^ ^?0ftJ?Z \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ S ^ Fig 85. Plan showing hospital plumbing located in a semi-detached tower. WATER CLOSET AND BATH APARTMENTS. 315 amples of well-appointed bath houses for insane patients may be seen at the Utica State Hospital and at the Long Island State Hospital at King's Park, L. I. Both of these were planned and constructed by the author, who has repeatedly discussed the whole sub- ject of rain baths for the insane elsewhere. It is not necessary, therefore, to give more than a passing allusion to the subject.* Fig. 86 shows the plan of the large congregate bathroom at the Long Island State Hospital, King's Park. It contains fourteen sprays or douches, located on three sides of the room, besides three single douches in marble stalls. The apparatus for control- ling the douches is located in the adjoining room, where the lockers and tables are placed. There is also a large dressing room with adjoining toilet room. Plate IV. shows one form of spray bath apparatus as installed in a hospital ward of a State hospital. Plate V. is an interior view of the large congregate bathroom at the Utica State Hospital. It contains thirty overhead inclined douches, nine hand sprays and one needle and shower bath. The walls are lined with marble, the floor tiled with embossed unglazed tiles. In the centre of the room runs a gutter, molded in concrete and covered with a brass grating. Prisons, Jails, Penal and Reformatory Institutions. It is a cheerful sign of the times that much more attention than formerly is nowadays paid to the sani- * See chapter on " The Modern Rain Bath," Vol. II., and the other articles on bathing in same volume. 3 i6 SANITARY ENGINEERING OF BUILDINGS. Fig. 86. Plan of a congregate bathroom in a large hospital for the insane. Plate IV. View of single spray bath for bathing insane patients WATER CLOSET AND BATH APARTMENTS. 317 tary requirements of prisons and jails. Jails are often found in a notoriously unsanitary and unhealthful condition. Humanity demands that those who have temporarily lost their personal freedom should not be obliged to suffer bodily harm during imprisonment. The State must properly care for the bodily and men- tal welfare of convicts and prisoners. The arrangement of water closet conveniences in prisons depends much upon the system of prison management. Where prisoners are kept locked up together the problem is comparatively easy, and con- sists in the arrangement of a large common toilet room with water closets and urinals, of a lavatory room and of bathing arrangements. In the separate convict's cell system the question is more difficult, for in this case all the wants of prisoners should be provided for in each separate cell, and the arrange- ment becomes much more expensive. Each cell should have an enameled iron lavatory and also a flushing rim hopper, preferably with automatic flush. The quick removal of the excreta is necessary to pre- vent air pollution and the danger of an outbreak of typhoid fever in a prison. Where a water carriage system of sewers is available, a water closet is, of course, the best appliance. Where this cannot be had, portable galvanized iron pails, or better still, strong portable glazed earthenware jars, placed in a recess in the prison wall connected with a vent flue, and a daily systematic removal of the contents, are necessary. 318 SANITARY ENGINEERING OF BUILDINGS. For the bathing" of prisoners no system is so well adapted as that of spray or rain baths, because, as is now well proven, they require but little space, use lit- tle water and enable a thorough ablution of a great many prisoners in a very short space of time. Military Barracks, Armories, Soldiers' Homes. The arrangement of the water closet rooms for military barracks must be carefully planned and con- structed. Here, as in the case of prisons, we have to deal with buildings which are filled with a great num- ber of people, for the health of whom the State or the Government are in duty bound to take all possible precautionary measures. The floors and walls of such rooms must be finished with waterproof and non absorbent materials. The sanitary appliances must be the best of their several kinds, and fitted up with a view to durability and strength. Proper and ample provision should be made for light and air to the water closet apartments. Fig. 87 shows in plan the general arrangement of the toilet room and lavatory in a barrack building 1 of a State soldiers' home. As seen from the illustration, the plumbing- is located in a detached wing or tower, connected on three sides by corridors with the main building. The room containing the plumbing- is divided off into two parts. One contains the water closets, of which there are twenty, and two trough urinals, and the other contains thirty-two sectional enameled iron wash stands. WATER CLOSET AND BATH APARTMENTS. 319 s g g '/9/i? " g g ^*> 1 DlO 7] ( <0 ( M JJO 1 '//////////A Dte $ <^ j , L D i iojo / lo 'o / loio / / tz YA / / / />/ V///+ 9 C0V/?7- ' j / .-- li. r /%/fCrt Y////A\ V//////A5=.-=$7\ Fig. 87. Plan showing toilet room for a barrack building for a soldiers' home. 32O SANITARY ENGINEERING OF BUILDINGS. Fig. 88 shows in plan a very large toilet room in the basement of an armory building- for State National Guards. One apartment contains thirty water closets, twenty-four urinals and three basins. The adjoining room contains forty-four wash basins, and in a sepa- rate room ten spray baths. The best bathing arrangement for military barracks consists in the use of the spray or rain bath. The latter, in fact, originated in buildings for the housing of soldiers, at first in France and subsequently in Germany. Stables and Riding Academies. The water closet arrangements for stables are usually simple in character, although luxurious toilet rooms in large private stables are by no means rare. Sometimes these also contain a bathroom. Elaborate bathing conveniences are often found in riding acad- emies, including shower, needle and spray baths, and even large swimming pools. Railroad Stations and Ferry Houses. As a rule, the water closets and toilet rooms at- tached to the waiting rooms of ferry houses and rail- road depots are fitted up in anything but a satisfac- tory manner, although one occasionally finds an ex- ception to this statement. In the majority of instances such toilet rooms for the public are in an extremely disgraceful condition from a sanitary point of view. Indeed, one often cannot help wondering why railroad companies, instead of boasting that they WATER CLOSET AND BATH APARTMENTS. 21 ^%a=d^%fc=3E^^ . *,e-^r T'jT / Z "" * / 6^ o o O k r x/ r y|Xy r x/y r ^ 1 LQJ G/ = C a = .o Fig. 88 Plan of toilet room, lavatories and spray baths of a large armory building. 322 SANITARY ENGINEERING OF BUILDINGS. are running "the fastest train in the world," or that they have the "most luxuriously appointed vestibule, sleeping, parlor and dining- cars on their trains," should not rather bestow a little more attention to the sanitary conditions of their railroad stations ! And to go a step farther, would it not be a com- mendable idea if railroad directors would spend a part of the earnings of the roads to provide cheap but inviting facilities for bathing for their employes, particularly for the locomotive engineers and firemen, for the conductors and train hands, and for the mechanics employed in the workshops of the road ? A simple form of rain bath, plenty of warm water, a piece of soap and a clean towel, these are all the re- quisites necessary to enable the railroad employes to enjoy cleanliness, which in turn would tend to main- tain their health and working strength. Court Houses, City Halls, Capitol Buildings. In all such public buildings there is a large number of persons employed during business hours, for whom proper toilet room facilities must be provided. The convenience of the public who transact business in these buildings should likewise be considered. The details need not be discussed, as they do not differ in any essential from those for office buildings. Market Houses. The toilet rooms and sanitary appliances for these do not require special mention, and are usually simple in character. WATER CLOSET AND BATH APARTMENTS. 323 Orphan Asylums, Poor Houses, Institutions for the Blind, for the Deaf and Dumb, etc. In these buildings the arrangement of water closet and bath apartments is quite similar to those of schools, hospitals and other public institutions, and therefore they need not be considered here. Public Bath Houses. In order to retain healthfulness, all human beings require constant attention to and care of the body in order that the functions of the skin be performed with regularity. Health is best maintained by cleanliness, for which frequent ablutions, not merely of the hands and face, but of the entire body, are essential. It is a deplorable fact that many habitations are still unprovided with bathing facilities. It, therefore, becomes the sacred duty of the municipality to pro- vide for the poor in our midst a sufficient number of public baths, where they can attain cleanliness of the body. Of the several systems available, i. e., full bath- tubs, swimming baths, river or ocean baths and rain baths, the latter are designed to become more popular as they become better known. They permit bathing at all seasons of the year, are economical in the use of water, and are not only cleansing baths, but their tonic effect is far-reaching, and tends to invigorate the body by stimulating the action of its vital organs. We see, therefore, that the spray or rain bath is emi- nently adopted not merely for military barracks, 324 SANITARY ENGINEERING OF BUILDINGS, Fig. 89 Plan of a public rain bath. WATER CLOSET AND BATH APARTMENTS. 325 prisons, schools and industrial establishments; but pre-eminently as a bath for the masses.* In Fig. 89 I illustrate the first floor plan of a public rain bath, fitted up in New York City from my plans and under my immediate direction. The women's baths are located on this floor, and comprise eleven separate spray bath compartments, one room with bathtub for the bathing of infants, two water closets and one slop sink. The men's baths are located directly underneath in the basement, and are reached by separate stairs and entrance from the street. So much has been said recently about the arrange- ment of such baths that it is not necessary here to go into details. Neither is it necessary to refer to the arrangement of the toilet rooms in such structures, which, of course, must be as nearly perfect from a sanitary point of view as it is possible to make them. * See articles in Vol. II., on " Bathing " and on " The Modern Rain Bath." IX. A PLEA FOR SANITATION IN FACTORIES AND WORKSHOPS.* Of late years much has been said and much more written about the importance of healthful homes and a healthy mode of living. Little stress, however, has been laid upon the equally important duty of main- taining a good sanitary condition in buildings where a large number of people men, women or children- are congregated from early morning until late at night, to perform hand labor or brain work. There is no sound reason why buildings of the latter class such as factories and workshops, offices and stores, should not receive the same careful attention from practical sanitarians as do the homes of the rich and of the poor. Leaving aside warehouses, office build- ings and stores, I limit the following remarks to fac- tories and workshops. A lively interest has recently been revived every- where in the question of providing healthy homes for laborers and mechanics. Commissions are created in large cities to inquire into the existing conditions, and model tenement houses and improved working- men's homes are planned and erected. But the fac- tories and workshops where the same workmen, many * This article appeared first in Mechanics, January, 1886. SANITATION IN FACTORIES AND WORKSHOPS. 327 women and even children, spend day after day, seem to have been almost entirely overlooked. Certain it is that their sanitary features are less carefully con- sidered, and their actual condition but rarely in- spected. In my judgment, the physical well-being of me- chanics and workmen is a topic which deserves care- ful attention not merely from philanthropists, but from each and every manufacturer throughout our broad land. We can point, it is true, with honest pride and not a little satisfaction, to several instances where enterprising and energetic employers of labor have done a great deal toward the amelioration of the conditions under which work is carried on for them in their industrial establishments. Yet it would seem to me as if much more might be accomplished in the same direction, if our Health Boards and State Legislatures would consider this subject intelligently, and if proper and needed laws would be enacted to carry out more fully and universally the requirements of hygiene in their practical application to factories and workshops. It is an undisputed fact that much good has already been accomplished in England and other countries by a strict carrying out of proper leg- islative measures. Nor would it seem to require a spirit of humanity on the part of employers to cause needed improvements in the sanitary condition of working places. I say this advisedly, for it must be obvious to every thoughtful mind that much more work and, moreover, work of a better quality could 328 SANITARY ENGINEERING OF BUILDINGS. be done, and better results in every way accomplished, in healthful surroundings. It would not, therefore, entail hardship on employers, who at present, prob- ably owing to the extremely cjose competition in many manufacturing enterprises, often shrink from the necessary expenditures, entirely forgetting that they cannot fail to be benefited themselves by ex- penditures in the interest of the health of their opera- tives. Sanitation in factories and workshops is closely connected with the broader social question agitating our country, the labor question, or, as some prefer to call it, the struggle between capital and labor. With- out a desire to enter here into a discussion of this grave question, I will simply state that I regard it as a matter of course that, wherever a workman enters into a verbal or written agreement with a manufacturer, by which he sells to the latter his labor, this contract implies on the part of the employer the providing of all necessary means tending to protect the workingman, and, in particular, to maintain in the places where work is performed, a good sanitary condition. It seems to me that this is the first step toward the improvement of the social condition of the laboring classes, while the providing of healthful homes should be a secondary, though by no means insignificant, consideration. Incidentally I desire to draw attention to a seri- ous evil of a different character, which should be looked into by our legislators, namely, the carrying SANITATION IN FACTORIES AND WORKSHOPS. 329 on of trades in overcrowded and unventilated tene- ments. Employers of labor under such conditions are seldom possessed of means sufficient to enable them to carry out improvements. But there are, un- fortunately, instances on record where the avaricious- ness of landlords or of employers of tenement labor, has entirely drowned even the slightest feeling of humanity. Workmen in large factories and workshops are in many cases exposed to grave dangers which tend constantly to undermine their health often their only capital or to imperil their lives, and thus, per- haps, to leave their families without means of sup- port. In many occupations they are constantly sub- ject to the inhalation of irritating and injurious metallic, mineral or organic dusts, causing fatal lung diseases or consumption. In others, they are obliged to breathe for hours offensive or even poisonous vapors and gases, resulting from chemical manufac- turing processes. In another class of occupations, laborers are compelled to endure sudden and excess- ive changes of temperature, or are subjected to great heat, or to an excess of humidity, while in still another class they must necessarily perform work continuously in unfavorable and unnatural positions of the body, or must at times undergo unusual exer- tions of force. In many workshops mechanics are exposed to serious accidents and injuries resulting from coming in contact with moving machinery, and this is also the case in many manufacturing processes, 33O SANITARY ENGINEERING OF BUILDINGS. where labor-saving machinery is employed, such as in mills, etc. Another question of importance which should re- ceive careful consideration, although I can make but mere mention of it, is to what extent child labor should be permitted in factories and workshops, and also how far the employment of women in manual labor should be restricted. To reduce the possibilities of personal injuries safety appliances should be provided. All exposed danger- ous parts of machinery, such as shafting, gearing and belting, should be guarded by railings, or covered with boards, or fenced in with wire netting, to pre- vent contact with them while in motion. Elevator shafts should be securely closed and hoisting machin- ery provided with safety catches. It should be for- bidden to clean machinery while in motion, and workmen employed at dangerous apparatus should wear suitable close-fitting dress to prevent injuries to their limbs. Again, to avoid explosions, steam boil- ers should be periodically inspected, and the engineer and fireman in charge of them minutely instructed as to the management of the apparatus. Each fac- tory should have a set of proper rules and regulations for the guidance of the operatives. Greatly to be desired is a series of lectures, such as has recently been furnished to New Yorkers, delivered in winter evenings to the foremen and workmen of machine shops, mills or factories, on the " First Aid to the Injured." SANITATION IN FACTORIES AND WORKSHOPS. 33! Wherever dust is generated in the process of manu- facturing-, special mechanical appliances should be provided to carry off injurious particles before they mingle with the atmosphere of the room. In the case of chemical processes generating noxious gases or vapors, proper mechanical apparatus should be oper- ated to remove at once the poisonous gases before they are inhaled. All this seems self-evident, and is easily understood when pointed out, but in practice we frequently encounter flagrant violations of these simple rules. Aside, however, from such special means required, in special cases it is at all times necessary that the building and its surroundings should be maintained in a proper sanitary condition. This implies that the soil on which the factory or mill is erected, should be well underdrained, kept dry and free from organic contaminations, and that the structure be erected of proper materials, due precautions being observed to prevent dampness of walls and dry-rot of timbers. It means, furthermore, that there should be ample space to prevent overcrowding of the workrooms, and that separate rooms be provided where the work- men may take frequent ablutions of hands, face and body, and others where they may take their meals during recess, remote from their places of work. It means, that the most powerful factor toward the maintenance of health, cleanliness, be minutely ob- served ; in particular that floors be kept well swept and dry, that litter, rags and cotton waste be daily 332 SANITARY ENGINEERING OF BUILDINGS. removed, and that walls be whitewashed at frequent intervals. Moreover, there should be an entire freedom from any noxious effluvia and plenty of ventilation, which can be readily provided in factories owing to the always available motive power, which can be applied to the running of suitable machinery for the removal of foul air and the equally necessary introduction of large quantities of fresh air of proper temperature. All workrooms should be large, airy and well- lighted, and where artificial lighting is required, it should be arranged with a view to prevent an undue contamination of the atmosphere by gases of combus- tion. A proper system of heating, preferably by steam in all larger establishments, must be devised, due attention being paid to the proper regulation of the temperature in the workrooms and to the avoid- ance of over-heating. Ample flowing water should be provided for on all floors, for drinking purposes, for sprinkling and scrubbing of floors, for plumbing fixtures and for fire extinguishing purposes. A most desirable feature is a number of well-lighted and ventilated water closets and urinals arranged entirely separate for the operatives of both sexes. All plumbing work required should be of the plainest character, yet substantial, strong and safe, and ar- ranged with ample ventilation and preferably with automatic flushing devices, and with an entire avoid- ance of all kind of complicated and easily deranged mechanical apparatus. The removal of sewage from SANITATION IN FACTORIES AND WORKSHOPS. 333 the buildings should be complete and instantaneous, and in the case of mills or factories in rural districts, proper consideration should also be devoted to the prevention of pollution of water courses by industrial waste and to the innocuous disposal of all sewage and organic refuse matters outside of foundation walls. With manufacturing establishments in subur- ban districts, on the other hand, the points to be guarded against are the pollution of the surrounding air by chemical vapors, injurious or poisonous gases, and by smoke. All industrial buildings and workshops should be constructed with the greatest consideration of safety from fire. Every building where a large number of operatives are employed, should be made as fire-re- sisting as possible, by adopting the so-called " slow- burning " method of construction, so ably advocated since a number of years by Mr. Edward Atkinson, of Boston, and his zealous and efficient associates. Ample means should be devised and arranged for extinguishing a conflagration before it has a chance to gain much headway. Self-acting fire-alarms and automatic sprinklers are great aids in preventing loss of life and destruction of valuable property. Strong and safe staircases and exits should be arranged in proper number and position, and in addition to these a sufficient number of fire-escapes, not the usual objec- tionable iron ladders with vertical steps, but wide and strong external iron staircases, leading directly to outdoors from every large workroom on each floor of the building. 334 SANITARY ENGINEERING OF BUILDINGS. Enough has been said, I believe, to explain the importance of a healthful condition of factories. This, I am convinced, can best be attained as well as maintained, by a periodical sanitary inspection. Theoretically, all the points should be observed and looked into, which combined make up a thorough sanitary inspection of dwellings, and which the writer has discussed in his book, " A Guide to Sanitary House Inspection."* Practically, the means and ap- pliances to be adopted will differ more or less in the case of factories and workshops from those recom- mended for dwelling houses. Volumes might be written on the subject, it being quite impossible in the brief space of a single article to touch upon all points of importance. What I desire to emphasize is that true practical progress in all manufacturing industries should begin with a thorough sanitation of the places where manufacturing processes are carried on. The object of these few notes will be fulfilled if it should set all earnest and thoughtful minds think- ing about the necessity of health in the factory and in the workshop. * See William Paul Gerhard, "A Guide to Sanitary House Inspection." Pub- lished by John Wiley & Sons, 3d edition. Price, $1.00. X. SANITARY DRAINAGE OF TENEMENT HOUSES.* The term " sanitary drainage" has a peculiarly important meaning- if applied to the class of buildings known as tenement houses. Broadly speaking, the word tenement house signi- fies any building for rent, occupied by several fam- ilies living independently of each other. It includes, therefore, a large number of buildings, which have sprung up within the last few years in some of our largest cities, and which are usually called " apart- ment houses " or " flats." In the following remarks I shall, however, exclude the latter and limit them more particularly to buildings in cities intended as * The writer endeavored to confine himself in this essay, which was origin- ally prepared for the Connecticut State Board of Health, and published in the Annual Report of the Board for 1884, to a plain statement of the ordinary defects in plumbing, and to a brief summary of rules for a proper method of "Sanitary Drainage." Those readers who are in search of detailed explanations and argu- ments will find the subject fully discussed from the author's standpoint in his book: " House Drainage and Sanitary Plumbing," published by D. Van Nostrand Co,, Seventh Edition 1898, New York. The original essay was illustrated with cuts from the author's book, " Hints on the Drainage and Sewerage of Dwellings." In giving permission to reprint this article, the Secretary of the Connecticut State Board of Health, Prof. Dr. C. A. Lindsley, of New Haven, wrote as follows: " The article has served its purpose for us and we think has been very useful. It has been much inquired for. Now, if in any other form it can be made to do other good work, it will only be carrying out the purposes and aims of the Board, viz. : the better instruction of the public and an improvement in the conditions which concern their health." 336 SANITARY ENGINEERING OF BUILDINGS. Laborers' Dwellings or Workingmens' Homes. These are the buildings of which we usually think when speaking or reading of tenements, associated with which word are thoughts of indescribable misery, poverty, squalor and filth, overcrowding, disease, epidemics, infant mortality, as well as intemperance, loose morals, vice and crime. Under such modes of living an isolation in case of an outbreak of epidemic disease becomes much more difficult than in the case of private dwellings or cot- tages, and the ill influence of bad drainage in partiqu- lar upon zymotic diseases makes itself more keenly felt. Add to this the general slovenliness in every- thing relating to domestic cleanliness, the usual bad state of overcrowding, the tainted condition of the atmosphere and the lack of sunshine in most of these buildings, and it may be easily understood why the mortality rate, especially that of infants, is so ex- tremely high in buildings of this class. The effect of this arrangement of houses, says Charles E. Brace, Esq., upon the morals of our population, is even more disastrous. In many quarters of the city family life and the feeling of home are almost unknown; people live in great caravansaries which are hot and stifling in summer, disagreeable in winter, and where children associate together in the worst ways. In many rooms privacy and purity are unattainable, and young girls grow up accustomed to im- modesty from their earliest years. Boys herd together in gangs, and learn the practices of crime and vice before they are out of child- hood. Even the laborers' families who occupy separate rooms in these buildings have no sense of home. They do not own the house nor any part of it, nor have they any interest in it. All that valuable industry which, in the country, a mechanic or laborer applies in odd hours to his little homestead is here lost. The workmen spends his leisure hours in the grogshops or at the corner groceries. The gen- SANITARY DRAINAGE OF TENEMENT HOUSES. 337 eral effect of the system is the existence of a proletaire class who have no interest in the permanent well-being of the community, who have no sense of home, and who live without any deep root in the soil, the mere tools of demagogues and designing men. For ages sanitarians have agreed upon the truth of the old proverb, " mens sana in corpore sano" but not until lately has it been more generally recognized that to live healthfully we need healthful surroundings. Let us, then, strike at the root of the evil : before we try to raise the moral habits of a tenement popu- lation, let us endeavor to improve the sanitary con- dition of the workingmen's homes. In justice to our architects it must be said that they had little, if anything, to do with the planning of tenement houses until a few years ago, and it is equally true that since the last few years, when pub- lic interest was aroused in this question, a marked improvement in the planning and arrangement of " improved laborers' dwellings," erected in some of our large cities, is apparent. To the writer's mind there would seem to be no better and worthier deed for philanthropists, no prob- lem more interesting to the architect, no question more important to the practical sanitarian, than the improvement of the homes of the laboring classes in large cities, for the decent poor are the ones that through sheer necessity are compelled to live in such generally wretched abodes and hot-beds of disease, vice and crime.* * See " How the Poor Live," by George R. Sims, London. New York : Scrib- ner & Welford. 33$ SANITARY ENGINEERING OF BUILDINGS. The sanitary requirements for tenement houses are many, but most of them can be provided for without undue sacrifice of economy in building. On the other hand, it is now accepted as true, that landlords or owners, who pay proper attention to the sanitary condition of their houses, will soon be amply repaid by receiving- better rents, besides having in their tene- ments a better class of tenants. With the exception of the lowest, filthiest class of people the depraved, vicious, criminal all tenants will appreciate better sanitary appointments offered to them, and will strive to keep the tenements in proper and cleanly condition. Among the chief sanitary requirements of tene- ment buildings, are : Personal safety (fire escapes, ample stairs, strong ceilings.) Pure air and efficient ventilation. Plenty of light. Plenty of space to prevent overcrowding. Proper drainage and removal of all household waste. Plentiful supply of wholesome water. Proper disposal of garbage and ashes. Thorough dryness of cellars and foundation walls. We limit our consideration to the correct features of a proper removal, through plumbing fixtures and drain pipes, of the liquid and semi-liquid wastes, in particular of all excretions of the human body, and this is what may be called sanitary drainage, Inci- dentally, other requirements will be referred to, for SANITARY DRAINAGE OF TENEMENT HOUSES. 339 the serious evils of faulty plumbing work are intensi- fied through bad ventilation, insufficient lighting and bad planning with reference to location of plumbing fixtures, while closely connected to a proper arrange- ment of water closets is the requirement of a never- ceasing and liberal supply of water for flushing these fixtures. A proper system of drainage should remove from the household at once, and with thoroughness, all liquid wastes together with the excretions from the human body. To these is sometimes added the com- plete removal of surface and sub-soil water. The lat- ter function is important to insure a dry and healthy soil, and to prevent the dampness of habitations, which is a frequent cause of neuralgia and rheuma- tism, and tends to predispose people to consumption and pulmonary diseases. All foul wastes must be instantly removed, should stagnation occur, putrefac- tion of the organic matter will soon begin, and gases of decomposition commonly known as sewer gases although they are to a large extent generated in human habitations will endanger the purity of the air of the building. There cannot be the slightest doubt that a large number of preventable diseases, especially those known as " filth diseases," owe their propagation and spread to germs or micro-organisms, living and multiplying in such gases of decay, and if this is so, it is at once apparent how important it is to so arrange a proper system of tenement drainage as to prevent any entrance of sewer air. 340 SANITARY ENGINEERING OF BUILDINGS. The entrance of sewer air into dwellings may be due to one or more of the following causes : 1. A defective system of pipes and pipe joints. 2. A defective method of trapping. 3. A defective arrangement of fixtures. Defects in the Pipe System. Under this heading I will consider the pipe con- necting the house to the sewer, commonly called the house drain, although house sewer would be a more correct expression ; the vertical soil and waste pipes, the air pipes and vent pipes, the leader or rain-water pipes, the pipes for yard drainage, for cellar floor drainage, and finally, the drain pipes, removing the sub-soil water from the site of dwellings. As the most serious among defects of the house sewer should be mentioned leaky joints. That part of the house sewer which is outside the house is gen- erally laid with vitrified pipes. In most tenement houses built previous to the last few years, no at- tempt at jointing the pipes was ever made. The spigot end of one pipe was simply inserted into the socket of the next pipe, thus leaving a large space through which part of the filthy liquid from the house- hold settled away into the ground. It is probably assumed by ignorant builders, or drain-layers, that no harm can result from such mistaken economy. Many are entirely indifferent, even when told that a serious contamination of the sub-soil near habitations will result from such a pernicious practice. The effect of leakage on the house sewer is a quicker stopping SANITARY DRAINAGE OF TENEMENT HOUSES. 341 up by reason *of accumulation of solid matter left stranded in the pipes. Accumulations of deposits and stoppages are in- creased by the faulty, haphazard manner of laying such pipes without regard to alignment or grade. In- stances are frequent where pipes slope toward the house instead of toward the sewer. Another cause for accumulation of foul matter is the mistaken notion prevalent among builders and drain-layers, that the larger the pipe is the less chance there is for stoppage. Unfortunately, the reverse is true. The smaller a house sewer is made, within the limits of desired capacity, the more readily will it keep clean. For tenement houses having a population not overfastidi- ous in their habits, and having a large number of families living independently of each other, and not having, as in the case of private dwelling houses, a responsible head of the household, a house sewer should not, as a rule, be smaller than six inches in diameter. Even where the greatest care has been bestowed upon the drainage apparatus in building the tenement, the pipes are often afterwards made the receptacles of rags, brushes, potato parings, sticks, ashes and other substances not intended to be re- moved by the pipes, and frequent stoppages are the result. The house sewer is often continued, of vitrified pipe, through the cellar wall into the building, and where no more care upon its joints and the details of pipe laying is bestowed than outside the building, 342 SANITARY ENGINEERING OF BUILDINGS. the soil under it is soon converted into a large cess- pool. The pipes frequently break where they pass through the foundation walls when these settle, and the whole or a large part of the house sewage may thus be delivered into the ground, while a long time may elapse before such defect is even noticed or remedied. Brick conduits under the cellar floor are frequently built to act as sewers. Their shape is generally square, the bottom flat, and the sewage spreads on it in a shallow stream, the velocity of which is too small to remove deposits. The mortar used for such brick drains is often of the poorest kind ; sometimes the conduit is built of stones, laid dry. Such drains fre- quently choke up or else they collapse. They are often, after being in use some years, found completely filled with an accumulation of putrid filth. In the past years iron plumber's pipe has been used for the house sewer inside of buildings. For tene- ment houses light soil pipe, i. e., pipe having a thick- ness of only one-eighth inch, was used almost exclu- sively. This pipe has well been called a " trashy " article of manufacture, for it is often full of cracks or sand flaws, which defects are occasionally covered up with a coating of coal tar pitch. The joints in light soil pipe, owing to the weakness of the hub, are sel- dom properly made so as to be able to withstand internal pressure when tested. In the case of contract work, especially in tene- ments built by the speculative builder, almost any- SANITARY DRAINAGE OF TENEMENT HOUSES. 343 thing- else but lead is used for filling the space at each joint. Putty is largely stuffed into the joints, or cement, mortar, red lead, mixed with putty and other substitutes. Occasionally a joint is filled with paper and sand. Possibly a small amount of lead is poured on top of such fraudulent joints to give them the appearance, when a hasty examination takes place, of being properly made. Such examinations of the plumber's work were not, however, carried out in tenement houses, owing to the indifference of both owner and contractor. Testing the pipes and joints by water pressure, or by the smoke or peppermint tests, was never thought of. The consequence was a steady leakage of sewer air from the top of the joint, and drippings of sewage at its bottom. Branch drains were connected to the main house drain with right-angled junctions, causing eddies and deposits in the pipes. The junction between soil pipes or upright waste pipes and the drain in the cel- lar was equally defective. Sometimes the horizontal drain settled away from the upright pipe, and through the large aperture between both pipes sewage matter was poured on to the ground, instead of being carried away in the pipes. What I have said of imperfect joints in the horizon- tal iron drain pipes is equally true of upright soil and waste pipes. There are few, if any, soil pipe stacks in older tenement houses which are not defective in material as well as in workmanship. In buildings erected more than thirty years ago, it is common to 344 SANITARY ENGINEERING OF BUILDINGS. find lead pipe used for large soil and waste pipes. This material is equally, or even more, objectionable than the common light iron soil pipe. Lead pipes are soon corroded and honeycombed by the action of putrid soil pipe gases ; moreover, they are apt to sag and settle on account of their weight, and they are exposed to the danger of having nails driven through them, a frequent cause of unexplained bad odors in older houses. The corrosive action on lead pipes is aggravated by the entire lack of ventilation of lead soil pipes in buildings erected thirty years or more ago. Such is equally true, however, of iron soil and waste pipes, and of the smaller lead and iron branches. The writer has been shown in a plumber's shop, cast iron plumber's soil pipe which had been in a building about seven years, corroded and perforated with numerous holes on account of stagnation of sewer air in the soil pipe. In tenements of more recent date an attempt to ventilate the soil pipe was occasionally made by run- ning a small air pipe up to and through the roof. Of course such a small opening on the roof was of little use, unless a second opening at the foot of the house sewer was provided. Even if this is arranged, small pipes are insufficient, especially in winter time when they close up completely from hoar-frost. The soil pipe ought to be extended at least full size through the roof. Such vent pipe extensions were often run with galvanized sheet iron or tin pipes, both of which are materials which are absolutely inadmissible for such purpose in good work. SANITARY DRAINAGE OF TENEMENT HOUSES. 345 To locate the soil pipe top near attic windows or near ventilating shafts or chimney tops is another error of construction which causes at times sewer air to return through these channels into a building. Smaller waste pipes, if run through the roof, are often found clogged in winter time through snow or hoar- frost. No pipe extension through the roof should, therefore, be less than four inches in diameter. The top of soil or waste pipes, if extended through the roof, was generally covered with a ''ventilating" cap (probably called thus lucus a non lucendo because it does not help to ventilate), or with a return bend. The object of these contrivances was to prevent any malicious choking of soil pipes through stones or other articles which mischievous children of a tene- ment house population are very apt to throw into the pipes. There is no doubt that an open-mouthed soil pipe acts more efficiently than a pipe covered with a cowl or cap. Wherever possible, pipe extensions in tenement houses should be run at least seven feet above the roof, the mouth being then left entirely open. Wherever this cannot be done a copper wire basket on top of the pipe will prevent the throwing in of larger articles, or else some of the simpler forms of cowls may be used ; all of these being preferable to the return bend, which greatly impedes venti- lation. The foot opening, commonly called fresh-air inlet, is not found in any but the most recently built tene- ment houses. Occasionally a reversed current occurs 346 SANITARY ENGINEERING OF BUILDINGS. at such inlet, and a puff of " sewer gas " is driven out at the opening. It must, therefore, in order to be in- offensive, be located away from windows. But for the danger of its clogging in winter time through snow and ice, it would be best to run the fresh-air pipe to a catch-basin at the curb, covered with an air grat- ing. Wherever there is a strip of parking between the building and the sidewalk, a manhole may be built in which the trap is placed and the fresh-air pipe may terminate in this manhole, which may be cov- ered with an open grating to admit the outer air. Instead of a manhole an inspection shaft is occasion- ally built of glazed terra cotta pipes covered with an open grating. The smaller branch waste pipes, overflow pipes and drip pipes will be discussed later on together with the plumbing fixtures. Leader or rainwater pipes should not, if inside a building be made of sheet metal, and they should not, as is often the case with tenement houses, serve as soil pipes or as vents for soil pipes. Pipes for yard drainage should be of proper size to remove the rainwater falling on yards, and should join the main house sewer by proper Y branches. Often the house sewer has a branch running to a gully located in the cellar floor, intended to remove cellar water. Such an opening from the main house sewer into the cellar is decidedly objectionable and there is rarely a necessity for it. It is often the cause of the flooding of cellars where sewers are gorged by SANITARY DRAINAGE OF TENEMENT HOUSES. 347 storm-water or where the tide backs up into the house drain. The foul deposit left and spread in such cases on the cellar floor may* become the cause of serious disease in tenements. Drain pipes, if such are used for the drainage of the sub-soil of tenement houses, consist commonly of what are called "blind drains," these being trenches dug with some fall and filled with loose broken stones along or under the foundation walls. They generally connect with the house sewer, and even if trapped cause the sewer air to enter the cellar in periods of drought. There must always be a thorough discon- nection between such drains and the house sewer. Defects of Trapping. Wherever there is an opening in the drainage sys- tem inside a dwelling, a barrier or water-dam is, or should be, placed on the line of the waste pipe to pre- vent gases of decomposition from entering through such an opening. Such barriers are called " traps." Defective trapping of drains and fixtures is, next to defective pipes and joints, the most frequent cause of the entrance of sewer air into tenement houses. The most serious defect is the entire absence of traps under fixtures, caused either by criminal care- lessness or stupidity of mechanics, or else through equally criminal intention of "skin" builders or con- tractors. I do not refer in this connection to special systems of soil pipe ventilation with induced down- ward currents through trapless fixtures and into the pipes, though these systems cannot, in my opinion, 348 SANITARY ENGINEERING OF BUILDINGS. be considered reliable at all times. They are certainly entirely inapplicable to the drainage of tenement houses. Not less defective is a method of trapping fre- quently found in older buildings by placing one large trap at the foot of the soil pipe serving for a number of plumbing fixtures on different stories. A little re- flection must convince any one that enough sewer air is created in the soil pipe stack, in the branch waste pipes and in the overflow pipes which are then in open communication with the interior of the build- ing, to cause serious sickness. It is still more common to find several fixtures on one floor and close together, trapped by only one trap (for instance, a water closet trap), into which the wastes from the bathtub or the sink, if this is near by, are run below the water line. A slight sagging or displacement of the trap is sufficient to render the trapping ineffective. What is, in such case, to pre- vent putrid gases from the water closet container from escaping at the bath or sink ? On the other hand, the contents of the water closet trap are apt to back up a long distance in the bath waste, keeping it continually foul and allowing the impure water to evaporate at the opening in the bathtub. In recently built tenement houses we may find a separate trap under each water closet, sink or tub. But here is not the end of defects. The sink trap is usually a bell-trap in combination with a loose strainer in the bottom of the sink. Bell-traps are the worst SANITARY DRAINAGE OF TENEMENT HOUSES. 349 possible devices for trapping the waste pipes of sinks. Their seal is always quite insufficient, they easily choke, and what is worse, in cleaning the sink the loose strainer is readily lifted and all sorts of rubbish is brushed into the waste pipe, which is thus stopped up at frequent intervals. As long as the strainer is removed soil pipe gases will find their way into the kitchen. At times such strainers are not even re- placed or else they may be lost and entirely forgotten. The tenants, who are almost always ignorant in re- gard to such subjects, will then be constantly com- pelled to breathe sewer air and, with unventilated soil pipes and untrapped connections to foul street sewers, the tenements are literally turned into ''hot- beds of disease." To realize the possible conse- quences of such defective sink arrangements we must bear in mind that in tenement houses the kitchen usually serves as a living room, and not unfrequently as a bedroom. Can we then wonder at the frequent occurrence of scarlet fever or diphtheria with children sleeping in such pest-holes ? A few tenements have possibly an unvented S-trap under the sink. This too is open to severe objections. If a discharge from a sink or water closet of an upper story occurs, the rush of water past the sink waste con- nection may create sufficient suction to remove a part or all of the water in the S-trap by siphonage, leaving the opening in the sink unprotected against soil pipe gases. If the vertical w r aste pipes are not extended through the roof, back-pressure in the pipes often 35O SANITARY ENGINEERING OF BUILDINGS. forces bubbles of noxious gases through the water- seal of the S-trap, which rarely exceeds one and one- half inches in depth. Furthermore, with unventilated soil and waste pipes, the water in traps constantly absorbs gases which are afterwards given off at the house side of the trap. Occasionally a sink or tub is not used in an empty tenement for a long period of time, and as the water in the traps is subject to con- stant evaporation, a passage is soon opened for the entrance of the deadly gas, which saturates walls, ceilings and floors, and greets the new tenant when he moves in with its faint, peculiarly musty odor. In the cheapest sort of tenement houses the water closets are sometimes left entirely untrapped, or else there is but one trap at the foot of the soil pipe meant to serve for all closets on that stack. The pipe itself is, as described before, generally unventilated. Asa result sewer air continually enters the tenements, and this condition of things occurs occasionally where the water closets are placed in a bedroom or in a small closet adjoining a sleeping apartment. It is no exag- geration to say that the man who is guilty of deliber- ately putting in such construction is committing mur- der or manslaughter, and should be tried in the courts for this offense. The atmosphere is seldom better if the water closets are placed in some dark, unventi- lated place in the staircase hall. The rooms are in close communication with the hall, and as this has usually no ventilation whatever, the atmosphere of the room is poisoned by degrees. SANITATY DRAINAGE OF TENEMENT HOUSES. 351 Should the water closet have a trap it is in old houses of the D shape, which is readily converted by use into a receptacle of filth. Where S-traps are used they are nearly always unprotected against siphon- age, loss of seal by momentum, back pressure and absorption of gases. Some of the better class of tenements have bath- tubs, washbowls or laundry tubs. The wastes from bathtubs or bowls are either untrapped or trapped by an unventilated running trap, which is quickly siphoned. The overflow pipe is often connected to the waste pipe beyond the trap. Laundry tubs show the same defects. Drip pipes to remove water from " safes " in case of leakage or overflow are generally directly connected to the soil or waste pipes. Sometimes they are trapped, but the water in such a trap readily evapo- rates, leaving an open passage for gases. Such an arrangement is therefore equally unreliable. A further serious defect is the absence of a trap on the main drain. If the tenement sewer is untrapped, the pipes within the building are filled not only with gases of decomposition due to organic matter attach- ing to the inside of soil and waste pipes, but the gases from the street sewer also enter the house pipes. The conditions are infinitely worse if the tenement sewer discharges into a cesspool. Unventilated soil pipes thus become a perfect reservoir holding sewer air, and the latter is constantly passing into the living rooms. This condition of affairs accounts for the overwhelm- 352 SANITARY ENGINEERING OF BUILDINGS. ing stench and nauseating odor pervading some tene- ments from cellar to attic. Drains of older buildings are sometimes cut off from the sewer or cesspool by a large brick trap, generally known as a " mason's or cesspool trap." This soon accumulates filth, and is extremely objectionable on this account. There is often a gully in the cellar floor to remove water from the cellar, and this is generally trapped by a bell-trap, the defects of which have been ex- plained heretofore. But even where an S-trap is used, evaporation soon destroys its water-seal, and noxious sewer air freely enters the cellar. Such open- ings from the drain in the cellar floor are extremely objectionable in all buildings, and should never be permitted in tenement houses. The yard drains for removal of surface water are generally trapped by a " cesspool " trap, which is a bell-trap similar to the trap in the cellar floor. This freezes in winter time or clogs from dirt, and creates in both cases an intolerable nuisance in the yard. In summer time its water evaporates and the children of the tenement house population, when playing in the yard, are compelled to breathe sewer air even when they are out-of-doors. Bad odors are frequently carried into basement rooms, owing to foul and un- trapped yard drains. Untrapped leaders are fully as bad in this respect, and the ordinary seal of an S-trap often has not sufficient resistance against evaporation during periods of draught, if placed at the bottom of a rainwater stack. SANITARY DRAINAGE OF TENEMENT HOUSES. 353 Defects as Regards Fixtures. Plumbing- in tenement houses is usually restricted to water closets and kitchen sinks. Occasionally a sink or slop hopper is placed in the staircase hall for the common use of all families on each floor. It is not often that laundry tubs are fitted up ; the com- mon portable washtubs are in general use, and are emptied into the sink in the kitchen. A bathtub in a tenement, although very desirable on the score of cleanliness and health, is looked upon as a luxury, and is only fitted up in the higher-priced tenements. Fixtures are often scattered about in tenements instead of being placed in vertical groups. The con- sequence is that a large number of branch waste pipes are run between floors to the distant soil pipe, gen- erally without any fall, and almost always with sags and bends in the pipe, caused by insufficient support of the pipes, and likewise from the effects of the con- traction and expansion through changes of tempera- ture. The general arrangement of the plumbing work is usually such as to make a- thorough sanitary inspec- tion very difficult. This is true not only as regards the fixtures, but also as regards the traps and the pipes. It is the result of the pernicious tendency to bury as much of the plumbing as possible out of sight. To quote from a paper on " House Inspec- tion," by Prof. Fleeming Jenkin, of Edinburgh : It is commonly supposed that to investigate the sanitary fittings of a house thoroughly, it would be necessary to rip up floors, tear down paneling, break open plaster and lift the pavement of the ground 354 SANITARY ENGINEERING OF BUILDINGS. floor. . . . With a more rational system of arranging the plumb- ing work in a house, the pipes could be readily inspected without this demolition, and it is heartily to be desired that architects should give their minds to arranging every pipe so that every yard of it can be seen with little trouble, and repaired without inconvenience. . . . The first principle an engineer is taught in the drawing office is this: every part of a machine must be readily accessible for inspection and repair. The water and drain systems of a house con- stitute a large and complex system, but architects and builders have sadly neglected this condition of accessibility. The sink, which is always placed in the kitchen, is usually enclosed with tight woodwork. The space underneath the sink is used for the storage of all kinds of rags, musty shoes, dirty towels and other filthy matters, and an indescribable odor is escaping from such never-aired enclosure, as well as from the sink itself, which, as mentioned above, is rarely prop- erly trapped. Large tenement house families use the kitchen not only as a living and dining room, but also as a laundry, and frequently as a bedroom, and with the usual absence of any ventilation, the atmos- phere of such a tenement house kitchen a pestifer- ous mixture of noxious gases from the drains, foul vapors from boiling of soiled linen, odors from cook- ing, and exhalations of filthy bedding is such as to completely overpower the organs of smell of any casual visitor. However, the atmosphere in the water closet apart- ment is something infinitely worse. This is due largely, as we have seen, to the bad manner of trap- ping the closets. But the apparatus is in itself cause enough for the bad odors. Water closets in tene- SANITARY DRAINAGE OF TENEMENT HOUSES. 355 ment houses are, with rare exceptions, either pan closets or bad hopper closets. So much has been said about the utter worthlessness of pan closets for all purposes, that I may well omit to mention their faults. They are retainers and containers of human filth, and should not be tolerated in any place in- tended to shelter human beings. There are good and bad hopper closets. As the latter are, unfortunately, the cheaper ones, they are preferred by most builders of tenement houses. They become extremely filthy and disgusting in ap- pearance, owing largely to the improper method of flushing directly from the supply pipes, and further- more, owing to the often insufficient water supply. For it frequently happens that the water pressure in the mains is so much reduced as to allow the water to rise only to the lower stories, or the supply pipe is, on the score of economy, so small that if water is drawn on a low r er story, water does not run at any of the faucets in the upper stories. Water tanks are ex- tremely rare in tenements, and pumps to force the water up to them still more so. Thus the closets often remain without a flush, and this is more liable to occur in day-time, when the closets are in greatest use. A serious danger to the water supply is caused by an insufficient pressure in the supply pipes. For if the flush is started, no water flows into the closet bowl ; there is often a strong suction into the supply pipes, and polluted air and possibly disease germs SANITARY ENGINEERING OF BUILDINGS. occasionally even foul matter from the bowl are sucked into the pipes, thus poisoning the drinking water. Whoever is in doubt about any illness due to pollution of water through such defective closet arrangement should read the report by Dr. Buchanan, on an outbreak of enteric fever in Caius College, Cambridge, England.* There should be placed over each closet or group of water closets, a suitable flushing cistern. Hopper closets, especially, require such a flushing cistern with a large supply pipe from the cistern to the closet bowl, so that the water may come down in a large quantity, and with such rush as effectively to cleanse the bowl and expel all foul matter from the trap. Not content with supplying the tenement with a defective and unsanitary water closet apparatus, the builder encloses the fixture with tight carpentry and finishes the whole with a faulty arrrangement of the seat, whereby the latter and the woodwork become spattered with slop water or urine, whenever the closet is used to pour out chamber slops, or by men or boys as a urinal. The floor in the apartment is kept continually damp through such spilling and through leakage of the closet valve. Woodwork readily absorbs foul liquids and constantly emits nox- ious odors, which, combined with the gases from filth adhering to the bowl, and soil pipe air issuing from defective traps, defective joints and defective drip * See reports of the Medical Officer of the Privy Council and Local Government Board, England, New Series, No. II., 1874. SANITARY DRAINAGE OF TENEMENT HOUSES. 357 pipe connections, all suffice to exert an unwholesome influence upon the health of delicate women and children during even a short stay in such places. Water closets for tenement houses are often placed in the cellar of the building. This on many accounts is very objectionable. The cellar is usually dark, damp and ill-ventilated. Important as it is to have water closets of private dwellings located in well- lighted and well-ventilated rooms, it is imperative to give to water closets in tenements a proper location. Darkness in such a case is identical with misuse of fixtures, uncleanliness, general bad habits, vice, and even crime. Not only should there be a liberal water supply on each floor of a tenement, but there should be water closets on every floor as well. This will greatly add to the comfort of the laborers' wives and of invalids. Water closets placed either in a cel- lar or in an out-house in the yard are further objec- tionable, as none of the tenants will feel the respon- sibility of keeping such places in a decent condition. The arrangement might answer where a janitor takes care of the whole tenement, but this although desir- able for many reasons is rarely the case. In double tenements, with four families on eacn floor, there is often, owing to defective planning, want of space to locate the water closets in a proper place. They are, therefore, placed in a bedroom or in a dark, unventilated closet adjoining it. Such a location cannot be too strongly condemned. The diseases believed to be caused more or less directly SANITARY ENGINEERING OF BUILDINGS. by defective water closet arrangements are many and serious. They are, first, the bowel diseases, such as diarrhoea, dysentery, cholera ; then we have enteric fever, diphtheria, scarlet fever, typhus fever ; further- more, we have sore throat, erysipelas ; finally, we have diseases due to blood poisoning, such as septi- caemia, pyaemia and a vast amount of puerperal fever. But aside from acute illness, such wholesale poison- ing of the air in bedrooms results in general debility, lowering of vitality, frequent headache, nervousness, asphyxia, nausea, etc. It is well known that the human system has less resistance to such evil in- fluences during sleep. It is, therefore, absolutely in- admissible to place a water closet or any other plumbing fixture in any sleeping apartment of a tenement. Less dangerous, though not much better as regards cleanliness, proper use and danger from bad gases, is the arrangement of the water closet or the bath- room, if such is provided in a small room or closet adjoining the main staircase hall. The rooms are usually dark and without any provision for frequent change of air. The unwholesome gases, finding no other exit, soon pass into the staircase hall and fill the whole tenement. The water closet rooms must either have an outside window or else they must receive light and air from a special light and air shaft. By arranging the closets on different floors in vertical groups, such light and air wells can be constructed without great additional outlay of money. It seems hardly necessary to add that the water SANITARY DRAINAGE OF TENEMENT HOUSES. 359 closet shafts should not be used to ventilate living or bedrooms of a tenement. Less generally understood is the fact that such air wells, as usually constructed, are of little avail in establishing a ventilation of the water closet apartment. The air of the air shafts, which are open only at the top, is nearly all the time in a state of stagnation, and chemical and microscopical analysis readily reveals its unwholesome pollution. Ventilation signifies change of air, i. e., the expulsion of fouled air and its continuous and gradual replace- ment by pure air. To do this effectually, two open- ings are always required. Such air shafts should therefore communicate with the outer air not only at the top. but at or near the bottom as well. An effort has been made lately to substitute for such air and light shafts open courts, at least for the better class of tenement houses, thus giving to every room or closet on each floor a direct opening to the outer air. A fixture which becomes not less foul and ill-smell- ing than a water closet is the slop hopper or slop sink. It is sometimes arranged in double tenements, with three or four families on one floor, to empty slops into, especially \vhere water closets are located in the base- ment or in the rear yard. The water remaining in the trap of such slop hoppers is foul and it is dis- placed only by the further addition of foul water. Moreover, the whole surface of the sink becomes coated with a filthy slime, and emits not less sicken- ing odors than those from the water in the trap. If water is poured down through one of the sinks on the 360 SANITARY ENGINEERING OF BUILDINGS. upper floors, the traps of the sinks on lower floors, located on the same pipe stack, are nearly always emptied by siphonage, and the trap of the upper sink loses its water through momentum. An opening is thus made for the entrance of soil pipe air. When- ever special slop hoppers or slop sinks are fitted up, they must be constructed similar to water closets. They must be thoroughly trapped, and must have a flushing cistern to thoroughly cleanse the sink and trap after each use. Such is, briefly stated, the prevalent condition of the drainage apparatus in many tenement houses. A large share of the blame rests on the "speculative" builder who studies not how to economize, but how to reap the largest amount of profit by using cheap and worthless materials and by employing inferior workmen. A part of the responsibility devolves on the plumber for taking contracts at prices at w r hich he knows a perfect and substantial job cannot be done. Finally, in not a few cases where the owner is willing to pay for plain but good plumbing, the plumber's ignorance, or dishonesty, or both, must account for untrapped drains, unventilated soil pipes and ill-arranged fixtures. There is but one remedy for this condition of affairs; it is the thorough inspection by competent inspectors, employed by the city health authorities, of all build- SANITARY DRAINAGE OF TENEMENT HOUSES. 361 ings hereafter erected. Such inspection during con- struction will be of the greatest service for tenement houses, the population of which is unable, even if it recognized the serious evil, to help or protect itself. Inspections of the drainage system, however, are de- sirable for all classes of dwellings ; first, because much of the work is of necessity hidden from view after the building is completed ; second, because even dwellings of the better class are rented or may change their owner. Plumbing work in all tenements hereafter to be erected should be done according to some code or standard rules compiled by the Board of Health or sanitary authorities. Many large cities, for instance, Washington, New York, Brooklyn, Chicago, Boston, Philadelphia, and several smaller cities and towns, have such rules in force, and the success of the sys- tem of plumbing inspection has been marked every- where. As a guide in establishing such rules, the writer offers the following SUGGESTIONS FOR THE " SANITARY DRAINAGE" OF TENEMENT HOUSES. i. System of Pipes. (a.) Wherever a sewer is built in the street or at the rear of a lot, the tenement must be connected to such sewer through a proper pipe conduit. No cesspool will be permitted for the drainage of such tenement and lot. Each tenement house must have an independent sewer connection. For the house sewer outside the building strong vitrified or cement pipe should be used. Iron pipe should be used where the soil is made ground or quicksand. 362 SANITARY ENGINEERING OF BUILDINGS. Earthen or vitrified pipe must be perfectly straight, circular and true in section, of uniform thickness, free from cracks or flaws, hard burnt, smooth on the inside and highly glazed. Cement pipe should be made of best Portland Cement, true in sec- tion, of a sufficient thickness and rendered as smooth as possible on the inside. Cast iron pipes should not be less than three-eighths inch thick, of a uniform thickness, truly cylindrical, of a homogeneous texture, with smooth inside surface, free from flaws or other defects, and coated with coal tar pitch or an equivalent substance, to prevent corrosion. Joints in vitrified pipe and in cement pipe should be made with pure Portland Cement. Particular care is required in filling the bot- tom part of the joint thoroughly with cement, and in preventing any cement from protruding at the inside of joints. It is important that the pipes, whether earthen, cement or iron pipes, should be firmly bedded in the trench. Grooves must be cut for the hubs in order to give a firm bearing to the whole length of the pipe. The house sewer must be laid at least three feet deep to protect it against frost. It must be laid in straight lines, and all changes of direction should be made with curved pipes of large radius. All branch drains must join the main house sewer by Y branches. Tee branches should not be used for junctions. If the house sewer is unusually long it is recommended to provide manholes as a means of access in case of repairs or inspection. Before refilling the trench the pipe line should be tested by hydrostatic pressure. For tenement houses with more than four families it is seldom safe to use a smaller size than six inches diameter for the house sewer, except where the tenants can be relied upon to use the plumb- ing fixtures with intelligence and proper care. In the latter case a four or five inch sewer would have ample capacity and would prove to be more self-cleansing. The ordinary velocity of flow in the house sewer should not be less than three feet per second, and a velocity of four or 4^ feet is desir- able. The inclination to be given to the house sewer must be deter- mined accordingly. A six-inch pipe requires an inclination of i in 138 and i in 61.2 to create a velocity of flow in the pipe of three and 4^ feet per second respectively. This is true supposing' the sewer to run full or half full. As the ordinary or dry-weather floiv from all SANITARY DRAINAGE OF TENEMENT HOUSES. 363 plumbing fixtures in a tenement is not at all likely to fill a house sewer half full, it is evident that a greater inclination than above stated is necessary to prevent deposits in the pipes. The inclination should be calculated with reference to the maximum flow of house- hold waste water exclusive of storm water. If the required inclination cannot be given to the house sewer it is extremely desirable that means for frequent artificial flushing should be provided for. (b.) The house sewer inside of the tenement must be of heavy iron pipe. It should preferably be carried in sight along the cellar wall, sup- ported at intervals by strong brick piers. Should it be necessary to carry the house sewer below the cellar floor, access holes and cleaning handholes must be provided and the trench must not be closed before the drain has been inspected. Cleaning handholes should be provided near all junctions with branch drains or with vertical soil and waste pipes, also at or near the running trap and near bends. The pipe system in the cellar must be as compact and concen- trated as possible. If the rainwater is taken into the house sewer, it is well to connect leaders with the upper ends of the drains, thereby securing an occasional thorough scouring to the whole length of the house sewer. As to the size and inclination of the house sewer inside the dwell- ing, the rules given for outside drains should be followed. No junction should be made at right angles; all changes in direc- tion must be accomplished with Y branches and 45 bends, or with 90 bends of large radius. (f.) Soil, waste and air pipes inside of a tenement house should be of heavy iron pipe (with the exception of the short branches from the fixtures.) Soil pipes, waste pipes and air pipes must have thoroughly air and water tight joints and the pipes must be of sound material and free from any defect. Soil and waste pipes must always be arranged as direct as possible. Each stack should run up perfectly straight where practicable. The fewer offsets the stack has the better. Long branch wastes under floors must be avoided. All this can be readily attained in tenement houses by placing the fixtures of different floors one above the other in vertical groups. It is preferable to keep all soil, waste and air pipes in sight. If 364 SANITARY ENGINEERING OF BUILDINGS. they are placed in recesses or in partitions, these should be covered with wooden boards fastened with screws and made readily remov- able. No pipe should ever be buried entirely out of sight. Where water closets or bathrooms are located around a light and air well, it is to be recommended to place the pipes in this shaft. Waste pipes for vertical groups of kitchen sinks in tenements should run, wherever practicable, along the outside of a heated flue (kitchen chimney), as this will induce an upward draft in the pipes. The soil and waste pipe system must be thoroughly ventilated and should have no long " dead ends " of pipe. Each soil pipe and each waste pipe must extend as straight as possible, and at least full-size from cellar to above the roof. The extensions above the roof should in all cases be sufficiently high so as to expose the pipe mouths freely to currents of air. Pipe extensions above the roof must be located as remote as pos- sible from ventilating shafts, chimney flues, ventilating skylights, air and light wells, etc. No pipe extension through and above the roof should be less than four inches in diameter; smaller pipes clog up in winter time. All pipe mouths above the roof must be kept wide open. None of the numerous patent ventilators are as good as the open-mouthed pipe. It should be remembered that the object of soil and waste pipe extensions above the roof is, above anything else, to prevent stagnation of air in the pipes. No violent air currents are required in soil or waste pipes. Return bends on top of a pipe cause stagna- tion and are objectionable on this account; so-called ventilating caps freeze up and prevent ventilation in winter time. To protect pipes on roofs of tenement houses from malicious obstructions, the extensions should be run at least seven feet high above the roof. To insure a full circulation of fresh air through the pipes, a fresh air inlet pipe of four inches diameter, must be provided in the house drain, preferably located just inside of the trap in the drain, and its mouth run to a point out of doors, well remote from windows. Soil pipes in tenements should not be larger than five inches inside diameter, which size of pipe will answer even for half a dozen or more water closets and sinks. Vertical waste pipes for kitchen sinks or tubs need not be larger than two inches diameter; but where they receive discharges from slop hoppers they should be made three inches in diameter. Each stack of soil or waste pipe must have fittings (Y branches, half Y branches or Tee branches) in proper position and at proper height to receive the flow from fixtures. It is preferable to discharge each fixture directly and separately into the upright stack; this is easily accomplished where the soil pipe system is located in a light shaft. Junctions between horizontal branch wastes and vertical soil pipes need not be made with Y branches; Tee branches, especially if the flow line is arranged in an easy curve, are not objectionable, nor is it objectionable to run the small wastes from tubs into large soil pipes by means of right-angled connections. An oblique connection in the direction of the flow is desirable, but practical considerations favor a direct right-angled connection with T-Y fittings. Vertical pipe stacks must be strongly supported at the junction with the horizontal main sewer in the cellar in order to prevent set- tlement, which would tend to loosen the joints at the fixtures. The junction must be made with a Y branch and 45 bends or with an elbow fitting of large radius. For soil pipes and vertical stacks of waste pipes use either extra heavy cast iron pipes or standard wrought iron pipes. Both must be efficiently coated after being highly heated, with coal tar or asphalt, or else they should be treated with the Bower-Barff, or a gal- vanizing or rustless process, to prevent corrosion in the pipes. Both cast iron and wrought iron pipes must be tested before use under hydraulic pressure for any defects in the pipes. Both must be truly cylindrical and of a uniform thickness of not less than one-fourth inch. Cast iron pipes must be especially closely scrutinized for uniformity of thickness of shell. Joints in cast iron pipe must be made by inserting a gasket of picked oakum into the joint and pouring molten soft lead from a large ladle into the remaining space. After cooling and shrinking the lead must be thoroughly caulked with caulking tools to insure tight joints. Joints in wrought iron pipe are made with screw threads cut on the ends of pipe and into the shoulder of fittings. A paste of red and white lead mixed is used to act as a lubricant and to make up for imperfections in the thread. The pipes are screwed together by means of chain pipe tongs and the joints must be made as tight as if the pipes were to carry steam under pressure. Vertical lines of air pipe must be of heavy cast iron or of galva- nized screw-jointed wrought iron. Each line should be as straight as possible and be at least two inches in diameter, increasing at the 366 SANITARY ENGINEERING OF BUILDINGS. upper floors, as the height of the building increases, to three and four inches diameter. The upper end of air pipes is either run through the roof (never smaller than four inches in size) or it is branched into the adjoining soil or waste pipe above the highest fixture. Each vertical line of air pipe must have fittings of proper size to connect branch air pipes to it. Air pipes must not be used as waste or overflow pipes. To run air pipes into flues is as inadmissible as running soil or waste pipes to flues. Smaller pipe ends would stop up with soot in a short time. Soil pipe gases are gradually absorbed by the porous bricks. If the flue ventilates any room, or if it is a chimney flue, there may be at times down drafts, carrying soil pipe air into the rooms. No flue of sheet metal, earthenware or brick should be used for ventilation of soil pipes, waste pipes, drain pipes or for trap ventilation. No soil or waste pipe in a tenement house should be used as a leader. No soil, waste or air pipe system in a tenement house should be accepted as completed before its tightness has been tested by the water pressure, peppermint, smoke test or test by a force pump and manometer. If the joints do not leak under a severe pressure test the system of pipes may be considered safe against entrances of sewer air. It is a good practice to keep a plan of all drain pipes, junctions, branches, traps, access holes, etc., as a guide in case of future exam- inations or repairs.* (d.} Short branch wastes, from the fixtures to the soil, waste or air pipes, should be of galvanized wrought iron or of lead pipe. Branch wastes should always be as short and direct as possible, and as little as practicable of the pipe should be hidden under floors. If running under floors, horizontal lead pipes must be continuously supported to prevent sagging. Connections of lead pipe with cast iron or wrought iron pipe stacks should be made with brass ferrules, connected to the lead pipe with wiped joints and caulked or screwed tightly into the iron pipe. * It is not practical in the climates of our Northern States to locate soil pipes, as is commonly done in England, outside of the house walls. It is not necessary to discharge basin, tub and sink wastes over an open gully or grating in the cellar, as is recommended in English plumbing regulations. It is also perfectly proper to connect basin, tub or sink wastes to a soil pipe, if such is near and convenient. A special waste pipe is arranged in American plumbing, not for the sake of keeping the tubs or sink wastes separate from the water closet wastes, but in order to render the horizontal branch wastes as short as possible and to avoid cutting of beams. SANITARY DRAINAGE OF TENEMENT HOUSES. 367 Joints in lead pipe should always be wiped joints except joints between fixtures and traps, which may be cup joints. Branch waste pipes of lead should be of the following sizes : For a kitchen sink, i or 2 inches diameter. " bathtub, i| or 2 " basin, i| or i| " " set of laundry tubs, 2 " " slop sink, 2 or 3 " The weight of lead pipes should be at least: 2 Ibs. for i|-inch pipe. 3* " i*- " 5 " 2 - " 6 3 - " 8 " 4 - " Overflow pipes for fixtures must be as short as possible, and should either join the waste pipe between the fixture and its trap or dis- charge into the trap below its dip, or else they must be disconnected and discharged over a safe pan. Overflow pipes from water closet cisterns may discharge into the water closet bowl. Overflow pipes from drinking water tanks must never have any connection with a drain or soil pipe. They should discharge into a gutter of the roof or else over an open sink in the basement. Drip pipes for " safes " under fixtures should not have any connec- tion whatever with any soil or waste pipe or the house sewer. They should be run independently, as straight as possible, to the basement, where they should discharge over an open sink so that any leakage may be at once discovered. Refrigerator wastes must never be connected directly to any waste, soil or sewer pipe. They should empty over an open sink, cup or pan with thoroughly trapped connection to the soil or waste pipe sys- tem, and this connecting pipe should be provided with a stop cock to shut it off in case the refrigerator is put out of use. (e.) Vertical pipes for the removal of storm water from roofs (leaders or conductors) must be of cast iron or preferably asphalted or galvanized wrought iron, if put inside a dwelling, and must have thoroughly tight joints. If located outside they may be of metal (copper, tin or galvanized sheet iron). Upright leaders should not be less than three inches diameter (except for roofs of very small sheds), and their size must be proportioned to the amount of roof water to be removed. 368 SANITARY ENGINEERING OF BUILDINGS. Rain leaders in tenement houses should not be used as soil or waste pipes. Unless the rainwater is to be collected for storage in cisterns, or unless the rainfall is excluded from the city sewers (as in the separate system of sewerage), it should be discharged into the house sewer and some of it preferably at its upper ends. Pipes for the removal of storm water from courtyards and paved areas (yard and area drains) should not be less than three inches in diameter, their size being proportioned to the area to be drained. They should be taken into the cellar by the most direct route, and should join the leader pipes or the house sewer. Sub-soil water must be removed by drain pipes (common tile drains) laid at a sufficient depth below the cellar floor. Tiles of ij or two inches diameter are generally quite sufficient for this pur- pose. They should be laid with open joints well wrapped with tarred paper or strips of cotton. They are generally run in parallel lines their distance depending on the character of the ground. Such sub-soil drains for tenement houses in cities must never have a direct connection with the house sewer or any of its branches. 2. System of Trapping. (a.) The main house sewer for a tenement house should be trapped before entering the street sewer* or before discharging into a cess- pool (in places having no sewers). No connection with the house sewer should be made on the street side of the main trap. The old so-called cesspool, or mason's trap, is highly objectionable. The best drain trap is the inverted siphon or running trap. If located outside the house, it may be of cast iron or of earthenware. If located inside the house walls, it should be of cast iron. This trap must always be accessible to remove obstructions. If placed outside it may be located in a manhole. The trap must always be placed in a position where it is not exposed to the danger of freezing. It should have large cleaning handholes, but the great- est care must be taken, if the trap is placed in the cellar, that the handholes are hermetically closed with proper brass screw covers. It is recommended to run into the main trap, where practicable, a front leader, to give it a thorough scouring at each rainfall. * In cases where a city, town or village constructs an entirely new sewer system, according to a well-devised and uniform plan, it maybe possible to dispense with the trap on the main drain provided the drainage of all hoiises is subject to the inspection and carried out according to proper rules of the city authorities. SANITARY DRAINAGE OF TENEMENT HOUSES. 369 (<.) Leader pipes must be trapped only in case the top opens below or near attic windows or near flues or ventilating shafts, and when the leaders are made of metal with slip joints and pass near windows of living or sleeping rooms. Iron leaders, with tight joints, the tops of which are remote from windows, flues, ventilating shafts, etc., should not be trapped. It is preferable not to trap leaders, but if a trap is required, it should have a very deep seal, not readily lost by evaporation. The common traps in the market are entirely insufficient for such pur- pose. Great care must be taken to place the trap out of reach of the frost. It is to be recommended to place the traps for leaders inside the cellar walls, and just before the connection with the house sewer; the trap to be an inverted siphon or S-trap. Yard and area drains must always be properly trapped. Bell- traps in yard cesspools (gullies) are entirely insufficient and highly objec- tionable. The trap should have a deep seal to provide against evap- oration, and must be located out of reach of frost. The same arrangement as for leader traps is recommended. Drains to remove sub-soil water must be thoroughly disconnected from the main house sewer by a trap with very deep seal, or by a gravel trap, or a ball-valve trap. (c.) There must not be a trap at the foot of any soil or waste pipe stack, nor any other trap between the trap on the main drain and the trap under the fixture, which would interfere with a proper circu- lation of air through drain and soil pipes. All branch waste pipes connected to the soil pipe system must be provided, as near as possible to the outlet of the fixture, with a suit- able trap, secure against back pressure, siphonage, evaporation or absorption of gases. Overflow pipes must be connected to the waste pipe on the inlet side of the trap, or below its water level, or else they must be discon- nected from the waste pipe system. A separate trapping of an over- flow pipe, connected directly to a soil or waste pipe, is not to be relied upon, as the seal may often be lost by evaporation. The same is true of drip pipes for "safes," and of refrigerator wastes. The junction between trap and waste pipe must be made with great thoroughness and of great strength, and so as not to be affected by any settlement of the floor. The junction between the fixture and the trap should preferably be made movable, at least under sinks and tubs, to facilitate repairs of the fixture. 37O SANITARY ENGINEERING OF BUILDINGS. All traps should be placed as close to the fixture as possible. (d.) Traps for water closets should not have a larger depth of seal than 1 1 or two inches; traps for bowls, sinks and tubs may with advantage have a larger water seal. Traps should be self-cleansing, and free from corners or spaces which favor accumulation of filth. Traps should hold as little water in volume as possible, so that the contents of the trap may be changed each time a fixture is used. Traps should never be larger in size than the waste pipe to which they are attached. It is preferable to have the house side of the trap funnel-shaped, as this increases the scouring action of the flush. Cleaning screws or access holes of traps should be arranged below the water seal of the trap. Neither bell-traps nor D-traps should be used anywhere in the drainage system. Round pipe siphon traps S, P and running traps are the most self-cleansing traps. If used under water closets, slop hoppers, wash- tubs and bathtubs, they must be protected against siphonage by an air pipe, preferably of the full bore of the trap (except for water closets), and taken from its sewer side and near its crown, and connected to the main vertical air pipe. For kitchen sinks or wash basins, placed vertically above each other, the danger from siphonage is not great; but even here an air pipe from the crown of the trap may be required, especially if por- table washtubs are likely to be emptied out into the sinks. A good non-siphoning trap is preferable to the S-trap, and the trap vent pipe can then be dispensed with, though the waste pipe must always be extended through the roof. Where fixtures remain out of use for some length of time, as on unoccupied floors of tenements, it may be better to use a trap with deep seal, or a non-siphoning trap. ( gv rni.er /r FOOT OF /" Fig. 90. Section through bathroom on second floor, and through butler's pantry and toilet room on first floor, showing simplified plumbing. 412 SANITARY ENGINEERING OF BUILDINGS. I I 2 I 3 I* I 5 JC/ILE OF DRAWING Fig. 91. Plan and section, showing simplified plumbing for a group of lavatories. SIMPLIFIED PLUMBING METHODS. 413 branch wastes D are two inches in diameter (or larger than each basin waste), and receive by means of two inch by i^-inch Y-fittings the short branches from each basin. Each basin waste is trapped by a i^--inch non-siphoning trap as shown. The branch waste does not form a dead end at its upper part, but is continued, by pipe C, two-inches in diameter, to a vertical straight vent line B, aerating the branch waste lines. With such an arrangement, siphonage is impossible. If basin No. i is discharged, the flow of water in- duces an air current through pipe D, which is sup- plied through pipe J3, and the traps of basins Nos. 2, 3 and 4 cannot be at all affected. If basin No. 4 dis- charges, the flow of water passes the Y branches for basins Nos. i, 2 and 3, and an air current from pipe B follows. Again, should several basins on the upper floor be discharged through pipe line A, an air cur- rent is induced from the upper extension of pipe A, also from pipe D and B, and when the column of water passes the two-inch Y branches on the floor below, air also follows from pipe D and B. In Figs. 92 and 93 is illustrated the arrangement of a row of fixtures, namely, two water closets, one basin and one bathtub, on a floor, all wasting to a five-inch soil pipe B. On the next floor above are supposed to be a similar number of fixtures. It will be noticed that the lateral five-inch soil pipe branch is continued the full size not reduced receiving the basin and bath wastes each by a separate five-inch by two-inch Y 414 SANITARY ENGINEERING OF BUILDINGS. SIMPLIFIED PLUMBING METHODS. 415 4i6 SANITARY ENGINEERING OF BUILDINGS. branch, and then it is continued up above the over- flow point of these fixtures and connects with a ver- tical line of five-inch vent pipe. The bath and basin are each trapped by a non-siphoning trap, and the water closets are siphon or siphon-jet closets with a deep trap seal. Branch venting is entirely done away with and the plumbing simplified correspondingly. When one or both closets are discharged, air fol- lows through pipe D and A, and the traps of basin Fig. 94. Plan of bathroom (the section and arrangement of the plumbing for same are shown in Fig. 95.) or bath cannot be affected. The same is true when a discharge occurs through soil pipe B from the fixtures on the upper floor. The arrangement of the piping for a group of single bathrooms, located vertically over each other (as in the case of apartment houses), is shown in Figs. 94 and 95. The plan, Fig. 94, shows the bathroom to contain three plumbing fixtures, viz.: a water closet, a bath- tub and a'washstand. The open arrangement of the SIMPLIFIED PLUMBING METHODS. 417 Fig. 95. Section of simplified plumbing for a group of bathrooms located vertically over each other. 41 8 SANITARY ENGINEERING OF BUILDINGS. fixtures is shown in vertical section, in Fig. 95. All fixtures waste into a vertical soil pipe line, five inches in diameter, placed in a recess of the outer \vall near the bathroom window. Near the ceiling of each floor the main soil pipe has a five by four-inch T-Y branch, and a four-inch horizontal Y-fitting receives the branch from the water closet. Beyond this connec- tion the horizontal branch is reduced to three inches in diameter and is continued along the ceiling to a point in a closet near the basin where it rises verti- cally to a height above the overflow point of the wash basin and then connects with a main vertical vent line, three inches in diameter. The bathtub wastes by a two-inch branch into the horizontal three- inch line, and the i^-inch washbasin waste discharges into the vertical branch of the three-inch line, in order to wash out any rust which may lodge at the point where the horizontal and vertical parts of the line con- nect. On the next floor the arrangement is identi- cally the same. When the plumbing fixtures and their piping are arranged in the manner shown, there cannot be any danger of siphonage. No matter what fixture is dis- charged, provision is made for sufficient air supply to prevent any siphoning action upon the traps of ad- joining fixtures. The piping consists essentially of a stack of soil pipe five inches in diameter, a stack of vent pipe three inches in diameter, and the horizontal three-inch branch connecting with both ; each fixture is located within a few feet of a ventilated line, while SIMPLIFIED PLUMBING METHODS. 419 all branch vent pipes are omitted as being- unneces- sary, and thus the plumbing becomes very much simplified. In my practice, wherever 1 am left untrammeled by Board of Health regulations, I use this, to my mind vastly superior, because safer, simpler and cheaper system, and by numerous experiments I have demon- strated the fact that no siphonage can occur, and that the system is secure and efficient. Let architects, builders and sanitary engineers but once try this system, and I am sure, if their judgment is unbiased, they will be convinced of the merits and simplicity of the new method. A few good rules to observe in planning plumbing pipe systems according to the method advocated, are : (i.) Always avoid those conditions which favor siphonage. (2.) Do not make the soil pipes too small. (3.) Never join small branch wastes together, but give to each an independent outlet into the larger waste or soil pipe. (4.) Avoid al! long dead ends. (5.) Use traps or trap devices which maintain a water-seal under all ordinary conditions. One possible drawback lies in the fact that nearly all the non-siphoning traps at present obtainable in the market, are not fully self-cleansing. But then all traps in a house should anyway be cleaned out from time to time, so that this reduces the force of the objection. At the same time, a hint is contained 42O SANITARY ENGINEERING OF BUILDINGS. herein to inventors, who would, I believe, find ample ultimate remuneration by devoting their energies to the invention of a self-cleansing non-siphoning trap. In my judgment, the authorities who make the plumbing laws should keep themselves thoroughly posted about the progress of the art, and should examine, without fear or favor, all devices calculated to preserve and maintain a sound water-seal against any possible air disturbances in the soil pipe sys- tem. I claim that the rules drafted should be such as to secure a system which is as simple as possible con- sistent with security and efficiency. Security against back-pressure, self-siphonage or loss by momentum, siphonage, evaporation and loss of seal by capillary attraction are the chief requirements and these are unquestionably attained by the method described. If the process of simplification should tend to give us even greater security, so much more will be gained. Caeteris paribus, the simplest and least costly system must necessarily be adjudged the best. The trap vent law will, in my judgment, ultimately be repealed. Simpler and better methods will take its place. The first initiative step to be taken con- sists in so modifying the present law, as to leave the option with the owners, architects or sanitary en- gineers of buildings to choose between the simpler, better and less expensive, advanced method, or the antiquated, costly and in a good many respects, unsafe method. SIMPLIFIED PLUMBING METHODS. 42 1 The simplification of plumbing methods advocated in the preceding pages, is to my mind, of such im- portance as to render it of interest to read in this con- nection some of the verdicts as passed upon the same by the technical press. I offer no apology for reprint- ing them in full. One of the leading architectural papers in the United States, the American Architect, of Boston, ex- pressed itself in its issue of January 30, 1897, as follows : It is always a pleasure to architects to read what Mr. William Paul Gerhard writes on matters of sanitation. Alone, almost, among those who treat of such subjects in these days, he writes like an engineer familiar with all methods and appliances in use, judging them with the aid of long experience and thorough theoretical knowledge, and dispassionately choosing what he believes to be the best thing attain- able, without any reservations, exaggerations and misrepresentations on behalf of pet theories, or the private interest of himself or his friends. For this reason it is particularly noteworthy that he should have come out in this little pamphlet of a dozen pages against the system of indiscriminate trap venting which is now imposed by law on architects and plumbers in most of our large cities. It has long been understood that Mr. Gerhard did not favor indiscriminate trap venting, but, like the other professional men concerned with building matters, he has found it best to sacrifice his private opinions and submit quietly to the law, and it is only a growing conviction of the danger to health involved in the multiplication of pipes and joints which the laws render compulsory, that can have led him to protest publicly against the enforced use of the present " antiquated, costly and in a good many respects unsafe methods." The reasons which he gives for this protest are convincing enough to all those who have to do with building. As architects know, in the execution of a complicated piece of plumbing work under the present law, it is almost impossible to avoid such intercommunication of waste pipes and vent pipes as to form here and there a " bye-pass," or in other words, an open conduit for leading sewer air from the waste pipes directly into the rooms around the traps. Many a plumbing plan is 422 SANITARY ENGINEERING OF BUILDINGS. rejected by Boards of Health, because it provides, of course unin- tentionally, for such a bye-pass at the outset, and many more sys- tems, properly planned, are rendered dangerous by the carelessness of workmen in making connections. The only real reason that has ever existed for back-venting traps was to prevent them from being siphoned out by the suction from a main waste pipe discharging water enough nearly to fill it. Twenty years ago, when S-traps were in common use, this was a valid reason; but now, when non-siphon- ing traps are almost universally employed, there is no advantage in the venting system which cannot be better secured by using a five- inch soil pipe in place of a four-inch, carrying up the longer branches to the roof, and placing modern traps under the fixtures. There is, of course, no objection to back-venting a trap, especially if its situation, or other circumstances, should render this desirable; but this ought, as Mr. Gerhard says, to be left to the discretion of the architect or engineer, or, if desirable, to that of the official in- spector. The Engineering Magazine, of March, 1897, says editorially as follows : "A PLEA FOR SIMPLICITY IN PLUMBING WORK." We are in receipt of a pamphlet written by Mr. William Paul Gerhard, a civil engineer who has given a great deal of attention to the heating, ventilation, drainage and sanitation of dwellings and public buildings, and who has made a specialty of sanitary engineer- ing. Mr. Gerhard is also widely and favorably known from his numerous treatises and papers on sanitation and kindred topics ; therefore, the opinion he expresses in the particular pamphlet here noticed, entitled " Plumbing Simplified," will command attention. Doubtless the view that a simpler and less costly system of plumbing than is now practiced can be made equally serviceable and effective will be combated, especially by those whose commercial in- terests lie in maintaining the use of current appliances. If, however, Mr. Gerhard has fortified his view by irrefragible arguments, the employment of simpler modes will be only a question of time. Early in his essay the author makes his avowal of his ad- vocacy of good, sound and safe plumbing work, and puts in a dis- claimer of any " personal interest in any patented plumbing device or in a special trap," thus defending himself in advance against the suspicion that his views are biased by motives which such an in- terest might create. . . . The paper is both progressive and SIMPLIFIED PLUMBING METHODS. 423 aggressive. It closes with a prediction that " the trap vent law will ultimately be repealed, and that simpler and better methods will take its place." If the system proposed by Mr. Gerhard is better than, or even as good as, the trap vent system, its superior cheapness is sure to bring it to the front. An editorial published in the Journal of 'the Ameri- can Medical Association, of April 10, 1897, contained the following : And now comes a sanitary engineer of prominence, Mr. William Paul Gerhard, of New York, who is led by years of observation to believe that the trap venting law is a mistake which will ultimately be remedied by repeal. He makes use of non-siphoning water- sealed traps and, in case of water closets, common S-traps with such a depth of trap seal as will not be destroyed by the discharge of other fixtures. In a small building having only one or two fixtures on each floor, he leads each waste into the vertical soil pipe by a separate entrance, and when untrammeled by plumbing regulations, does away with the separate vent pipe for each trap, maintaining that the air movement through the soil pipe will prevent siphonage and that the rush of liquid through the short wastes will keep their interior clean notwithstanding the absence of vents or ventilation. In a large building where several water closets, basins and baths are aggregated on each floor he leads each waste by a separate opening into the branch of the soil pipe. This branch does not begin by a dead end at the distal fixture, but by an open end above the roof, whence it descends of full size to its junction with the soil pipe, re- ceiving its separate wastes near this junction. Its free opening above enables it to act as a vent for the traps connected with it, while its communication below with the ventilated soil pipe ghes free passage to an air movement through it. It is not to be expected that this air movement will be as free as that through the direct ver- tical extension of the soil pipe, but the frequency with which the branch is flushed by the use of its fixtures keeps it practically clean. There is no question that the separate venting of each trap com- plicates the piping and adds largely to the expense of our present system of plumbing. If Mr. Gerhard's experience is sustained by further investigation an important modification of the plumbing regulations would be warranted. Ten or fifteen years ago every sani- tarian would have protested against a proposition to modify them, 424 SANITARY ENGINEERING OF BUILDINGS. and even now many who have not given this subject consideration would no doubt promptly vote it down as a backward step in the progress of modern sanitation; but we must remember that the pres- ent regulations with their positive requirement of a vent for every trap were formulated when sewer air was regarded as sui generis in its deadly and penetrating qualities, and when it was considered that any deviation from the accepted system might be followed by the most dangerous consequences. In effecting protection at that time it is possible that the pendulum may have swung too far to one side. When a proposition of this kind comes from an experienced worker and observer in this particular field of sanitation it might be well for municipal authorities to consider the subject with a view to determining whether security with simplification and materially lessened expense might not be attained by a revision of their plumb- ing regulations. Finally, I quote the opinion expressed by the Lon- don Building News, of February 12, 1897 : Mr. William Paul Gerhard, C. E., consulting engineer, New York, has written a sensible little brochure under this title. He observes that modern plumbing work, as carried out in the States, and as re- quired by the rules of health and building departments, is open to the objection that it is unduly complicated and costly. The " trap vent- ing law " in New York, Boston and other places, requires that all traps must have a " vent pipe connected at, or near the crown of the trap, and extended either separately up to the roof, or connected with the soil pipe line above the highest fixture." This rule has been followed generally in both large and small cities. Mr. Gerhard, who is an acknowledged authority on the subject of sanitary matters, says the branch trap ventilation is carried too far, that it creates new and serious dangers and is costly. . . . Mr. Gerhard's system is cer- tainly worth the attention of all plumbers and sanitary authorities, especially those in the States. The system as shown avoids siphon- age, as air follows the discharge action in all the pipes, and the avoid- ance of the back-air pipe, with all its attendant joints and complica- tions, much simplifies the arrangement. Many of the imperfect systems in use are owing to the following of rules which were well intended at the outset, but which are not applicable to ordinary cases. The small soil pipes, long branch pipes without an independ- ent outlet, dead ends, are the sources of much trouble; and the SIMPLIFIED PLUMBING METHODS. 425 author has, by simply giving each pipe a free current of air through it, and by connecting the branch pipe with the vertical lines of soil or waste of the same size, shown how a building may be effectually drained. The article is worth attention by the authorities and by the profession generally, and those who desire to simplify existing sanitary construction. Since my article on " Plumbing- Simplified " was published, many local Boards of Health and plumb- ing -inspectors have written me and conferred with me in regard to the matter. Several cities have amended their plumbing regulations in accordance with the methods suggested, and others have ap- pointed committees to revise their rules. In December, 1896, the town authorities of Brook- line, Mass., appointed a special committee for this purpose, and from the report rendered on this sub- ject by Mr. William Atkinson, architect, of Boston, which suggests the amendment of the present laws, so that in certain cases air pipes to traps shall not be required, I quote the following : Our plumbing regulations provide that "traps shall be protected from siphonage or air pressure by special cast iron air pipes of a size not less than the waste pipes they serve, to run from the cro""n of the trap. The use of the separate air pipes to traps, or the " back- venting " of traps, as it is called, is advocated for two reasons: First To prevent traps from being forced by siphonage or back pressure. Second To aerate the traps and the branch waste pipes to which they are connected. In regard to the first reason I find that the same object may be accomplished by less complicated, and therefore better, methods In regard to the second reason I find that the aeration of traps and short connecting lines of waste pipe is sufficiently accomplished by 426 SANITARY ENGINEERING OF BUILDINGS. the influx of fresh air which accompanies every discharge of waste water through them. The reasons why back-air pipes should be discarded, provided that there exist simpler methods of accomplishing the same ends, are as follows: First They increase the liability of traps to loss of seal by evaporation. Second They afford opportunities for making " bye-passes." Third They increase the amount of piping and the number of pipe joints, thus making more plumbing to look after and keep in repair. Fourth They increase the cost of plumbing. But the most serious objection to " back-venting " is, that by pro- moting evaporation of the water seal, it actually makes traps, in many cases, a less secure barrier to the entrance of vitiated air into our dwellings than they would be without it. In ordinary S-traps " loss of seal by evaporation will occur in about two months if the trap is not ventilated, and in about two weeks if it is ventilated." In win- ter the evaporation produced by ventilation is so rapid as to destroy the seal of an ordinary i^-inch machine-made S-trap in from four to eleven days, according to the nature of the current. It therefore appears that where the traps are " back-vented," they ought to be flushed with water at least once in every four days; whereas, when unvented they may be left unused for two months without danger. Now there are many cases where plumbing fixtures are likely to remain more than four days without being used. In such cases " back-venting " becomes a serious danger. With so many reasons against " back-venting " it would seem to be important to examine into the subject to see if it is really necessary in all cases, especially as it is contended by eminent sanitary authori- ties that it is not. The most reliable lecorded experiments bearing upon this subject are those of Messrs. Putnam and Rice above referred to, a^d those of Mr. George E. Waring, Jr., and Messrs. Edward S. Philbrick and Ernest W. Bowditch These experiments show the following facts: 1. Small S-traps and certain forms of water closet traps are very weak in resisting siphonage. 2. " Round traps '' and certain modified forms of the S-trap are very strong in resisting siphonage. 3. *' Back -venting '' increases the resistance of S traps to siphonage. 4. ' Round traps " unvented are stronger in resisting siphonage than S-traps " back vented." SIMPLIFIED PLUMBING METHODS. 427 5. The efficiency of " back-venting " decreases as the length of the vent pipe is increased. 6. Any kind of a water-seal trap, whether " back-vented " or not, can be siphoned out, provided the test is severe enough. 7. Ventilation of the main stack of soil pipe at the top and bottom considerably reduces siphonic action. 8. The provision of an independent waste pipe for each trap con- siderably reduces siphonic action. 9. Making the main stack of soil pipe of larger diameter than any of the trap waste pipes considerably reduces siphonic action. 10. Traps may be made to resist " back- pressure " by a proper length of inlet pipe. 11. "Back-pressure" may be reduced to almost nothing if the piping is properly designed. These experiments do not give any information as to the follow ing points: 1. Whether or not the efficiency of round traps is increased by " back-venting " and to what extent, if it is increased. 2. The comparative efficiency of different kinds of water closet traps in resisting siphonage. 3. The effect of siphonic action on traps located above the fixture producing the siphonic action. 4. The effect of siphonic action on traps located on horizontal or inclined lines of waste pipe. 5. To what extent siphonic action may be reduced by varying the inclination of the waste pipes of the fixtures. 6. To what extent siphonic action may be reduced by making the trap outlet larger than the inlet pipe. 7. While these experiments show at least three different methods, other than " back-venting," by which siphonic action may be re- duced, yet they do not show to what extent it may be reduced by an intelligent combination of all these methods. Mr. Waring's conclusion was " that the separate ventilation of traps where the main soil pipe is four inches in diameter and open at the top and bottom, is unnecessary." In the report of Messrs. Phil- brick and Bowditch, after a general statement of the facts ascertained by the experiments, the following recommendations are made: " The ordinary S-trap alone, with ample air vent, is recommended for use under water closets and for all fixtures where its proper ven- tilation can be secured within reasonable limits of expense. The proper size and length of such vent pipes must be largely a matter of 428 SANITARY ENGINEERING OF BUILDINGS. judgment." It is then stated that the "back-venting" of round traps is " of doubtful utility." After a statement of certain objec- tions to round traps (which objections, however, have since been overcome by improvements in its design) it is stated that they " may often be properly used, however, in old houses, in places where the introduction of a vent might be inconvenient or costly." It is then stated that " the best and most simple remedy for the siphoning of traps in most cases is undoubtedly to be found in the introduction of air at the normal pressure at the crown of the trap," but that "no definite rules can be given for the size or length of vent pipes." If it is true that " back-venting " is not of such importance, but that considerations of expense and convenience may sometimes outweigh it, and if in some cases it is of doubtful utility, and if it is true that no definite rules can be given for applying it, and that in many cases it is a matter of judgment whether it ought to be em- ployed or not, then it seems to me that a law which requires the "back venting" of all traps indiscriminately, is in need of amend- ment. The only reason which can be brought forward in support of such a requirement is the supposed necessity for providing more aeration for the traps than they would otherwise get. I can find no facts to support this contention. It appears to be entirely a matter of theory. On the other hand it has been clearly shown that this very aeration of the trap by " back-venting " induces a rapid loss of its water-seal by evaporation. Having now examined at some length into the two reasons for which " back-venting " is advocated, I venture to submit the two following propositions: 1. That no trap ought to be used in plumbing that requires to be "back-vented " to protect it from siphonage. 2. That it is better plumbing practice to dispense with the uncer- tain benefits of "back-venting " in aerating the trap rather than incur the certain danger of loss of seal by- evaporation which "back-vent- ing " involves. That the "back-vent " law is in urgent need of revision is amply shown, I think, by the following extracts from recent correspondence on the subject: Mr. George E. Waring, Jr , wrote me as follows (May, 21, 1897): " Continued experience and observation tend more and more to confirm my opinion that the ' back-venting ' of traps, aside from its great cost, does more harm than good. That is to say, a trap is more likely to lose its seal if it is back-vented than if it is not." SIMPLIFIED PLUMBING METHODS. 429 Mr. Frederic Tudor wrote me as follows (May 26, 1897): "The whole subject demands exhaustive investigation and amend- ment of the law to suit the facts ascertained." Mr. William Paul Gerhard wrote me as follows (June 26, 1887): " I am heartily in sympathy with your effort to improve the pres- ent regulations, particularly as to the rules requiring every trap to be back-vented at the crown." A number of cities and towns already exempt certain traps from "back-venting," viz.: Providence, R. I. ; Newport, R. I.; Pawtucket, R. I.; Greenfield, Mass.; Rochester, N. Y.; Elmira, N. Y.; Hor- nellsville, N. Y. ; Brooklyn, N. Y.; Duluth, Minn.; Minneapolis, Minn.; Denver, Col.; Sacramento, Cal. ; Chicago, 111. Our own law exempts certain cases in repair work in old buildings. It has thus been widely recognized, even in plumbing laws, that there are some cases in which " back-venting " is unnecessary. From an annual report of the Plumbing Inspector of St. Paul, Minn., I take the following remarks re- garding the ventilation of traps : I have made a somewhat limited examination of the practical effect and desirability of the present system of so-called trap ventilation. My investigations confirm the opinion I have held for some time, that the crown or back-venting of traps, as now practiced, is worse than useless, and its attendant heavy expense to builders is very often the cause of curtailing a large amount of necessary plumbing work. The most serious objection, however, to this pernicious cus- tom is the sense of false security given to the owner or tenant of a house provided with so-called modern plumbing. I made examinations in twenty-three houses, the plumbing work in which was done in the very best and most workmanlike manner, all of them having been constructed within the last seven years, in conformity with the ordinance governing plumbing. In twelve of the houses examined I found all of the vent pipes from traps under kitchen sinks completely stopped by congealed grease and particles of vegetable matter for a space from three inches to a foot above the crown of the traps which they were supposed to "ventilate." In most cases a strong wire was required to dislodge the obstruction. Of the other eleven kitchen sink traps examined, I found only one that was perfectly clear, and all the rest of the trap vents in this house were found in the same condition, including the water closet 43O SANITARY ENGINEERING OF BUILDINGS. vent. ... In seven of the houses I found a soft, slimy sub- stance adhering to the interior surface of the vent pipes for two or three inches above the crown of the trap. While the stoppage was not complete, there was every indication that an entire obstruction would soon result. The remaining three traps examined were partially stopped up; but in the case of these the vent was placed below the crown of the trap and so fashioned that the lower line followed the descent of the waste pipe. I also found, where couplings were used at the foot of wrought iron vent pipes, that the dislodged particles of rust form an accumulation sufficient in most cases to stop the open- ing in the bend. Wrought iron pipes without a lining of some non- corrosive substance should not be used for the purpose of back vent- ing. The traps used in a majority of the cases examined were the usual form of " S " and " P " traps, with the regulation seal usually found in such traps. The result from stoppages, as indicated, will at once be apparent to any one who has given the matter the slight- est attention. In this latitude, where for weeks at a time the ends of soil and vent pipes usually extending two feet above the roof are completely sealed with accumulations of hoar frost, rendering them totally useless for the purpose of vents or for the escape of gases generated in the sewers, the matter assumes a very serious phase, requiring intelligent and immediate action. With the vent pipes over the crowns of traps inoperative, and in addition the ends of soil pipes frozen solid, the inquiry may well be made, how is it possible to avoid contagious diseases becoming epi- demic ? . The plumbing ordinance as at present in force leaves the plumber no choice as to how the work should be con- structed, no matter what his knowledge or experience may be. He is arbitrarily compelled by legislative enactment, specifying penalties for infractions, to continue to observe the requirements of an obso- lete ordinance. Domestic engineering, with all its attendant problems, is a pro- gressive science, and advantage should be taken of discoveries and improvements made in the advancement of so important a part of our domestic hygiene. The ordinance should be remodeled to con- form to modern practice. The late eminent sanitary Engineer, Col. George E. Waring, Jr., speaks thus in his book " Sewerage and Land Drainage " : SIMPLIFIED PLUMBING METHODS. 431 My own conclusion on the subject of trap ventilation is that it is almost always unnecessary; that the means prescribed are not well suited to the end in view; that there is more liability of the destruc- tion of the seal by evaporation by reason of the venting than of its destruction by siphonage when not vented; and that in those rare cases where siphonage cannot be prevented by a better arrangement of discharge pipes the best remedy would be to supply the defective traps at their summits with McClelland's mercury seal trap vents, a perfectly safe device of little cost, simple and easy of application, and sure to supply air when needed, because affording less resistance to its inflow than does the water of an S-trap of ordinary depth. The class of traps which cannot be emptied by siphonage includes all that are of great depth and diameter, in addition to Putnam's trap described above. These large and deep traps are used chiefly in connection with water closets and they constitute an important ele- ment of the various forms of siphon closet. In another recent volume, on " How to Drain a House," the same writer and expert discusses trap ventilation in the following words : Devices intended to meet existing difficulties have not all been confined to the form and construction of the trap itself. Much the most widely recommended and successfully enforced effort to meet the difficulty has been to supply what is known as the *' back-venti- lation " of traps. Having known of the early failure of this device before it^vas generally recommended to the public, and taken up in the compulsory regulations of Health Boards, I have never been able to look upon it with favor. There is no doubt that under many circumstances it does good, but I believe that, on the whole, it does more harm. Not only as confirming my own view, but as an illustration of very thorough and careful experimental work, attention may properly be called to an investigation carried on for the City Board of Health of Boston, by J. Pickering Putnam, Esq., an architect of that city. These investigations have been set forth quite fully in illustrated communications to the American Architect, which papers certainly mark a very important step forward in sanitary literature. The de- ductions to be drawn from these investigations are these: Whether compelled by local law to ventilate traps or not, I should not depend on ventilation, in the conviction that the simple S-tfap, 432 SANITARY ENGINEERING OF BUILDINGS. as ordinarily constructed and as ordinarily ventilated, is totally unreliable. If compelled by law to construct the prescribed back-ventilation, I should be tempted after its completion, to make the system inop- erative by closing the main ventilation pipe at some point near its upper end. In the matter of trap ventilation and simplification of plumbing- we owe much to the investigations and researches of Mr. J. Pickering- Putnam, a Boston ar- chitect, to whose extended writings on the subject the reader is referred for further information. One of the outcomes of his studies and experiments was the invention of an anti-siphoning trap, the well- known Sanitas trap. More recently, an important series of experiments on trap-siphonage were made in Germany, and as the conclusions reached have a bearing on the question under discussion, I give in the following a detailed account of the same, as reported by their author, Herr Unna, in a German sanitary periodical.* The plumbing regulations of the City of Cologne, Germany, until recently required " back-air pipes " at the traps of fixtures for the purpose of aerating the branch wastes and preventing the loss of water seal by siphonage. A committee, appointed to revise the rules, entertained doubts about the necessity or propriety of this rule. Some members of the committee referred to one of the leading prin- ciples of house drainage, which requires the work to be carried out with as much simplicity as possible, and pointed out the fact that the " back-air pipes " tend to complicate the system and render it liable to leaks at the numerous additional pipe joints required. This fact cannot surprise us when we learn that the rules in Cologne per- mitted the use of galvanized sheet metal pipes for vent pipes, and * My translation of this valuable report was communicated first in the columns cf the American Architect. SIMPLIFIED PLUMBING METHODS. 433 that the joints sometimes were not even soldered. The committee argued in favor of simplifying the plumbing as this would materially reduce its cost. Incidentally we are informed that a thorough ex- amination of a number of vent pipes attached to traps disclosed the fact that the vents were in nearly all cases entirely closed and stopped up by grease, coffee grounds or spider webs. While some claimed that the use of back-air pipes should be re- tained, but that they should be of heavy lead or iron, others argued in favor of their omission, because siphonage of traps could not occur in ordinary cases. To settle this important question authoritatively, the Municipal Building Department determined to have a series f experiments made. These were carried out jointly by Herr Maniewski, architect of the department, and Herr Unna, a sanitary engineer of Cologne. The experiments also gave incidentally, some very interesting infor- mation on the flow of water and air in house pipes. On a board fence, about 10 metres (33 feet) high, and 8 metres (26 feet) wide, three platforms were erected representing three stories of a building, each being 3 metres (9.9 feet) distant from the next (See Fig. 96) The pipe system used in the experiments was at- tached to the board fence with pipe bands. It consisted of a hori- zontal main sewer five inches in size, and of two vertical pipe lines, which in different experiments were made of different diameter, viz.: two, 2-J-, four and five inches. A gate-valve S was placed immedia- tely above the junction of the first vertical pipe with the sewer. The first vertical line, a waste pipe of two inches diameter (changed to 2 \ inches in some experiments), had three Y-branches as shown, and was extended full size above the top of the fence. On the lowest floor this pipe had an inclined branch waste pipe, with three Y-branches and fixtures, located at distances of i metre (3.3 feet) from each other. The main sewer was continued, as shown, to the second vertical line, which was likewise extended upward in full size, and was made 2-J-, four and five inches in diameter successively. The unshaded portions, G, of the vertical and horizontal lines repre- sent sections of full bore glass pipes, which were inserted for the purpose of making observations on the flow of water. The bowls and traps experimented upon were likewise manufactured in glass. All possible combinations of arrangement and dimensions occurring in actual practice, and the following points were considered in the experiments: i. The inside diameter of the horizontal sewer. 434 SANITARY ENGINEERING OF BUILDINGS. SIMPLIFIED PLUMBING METHODS. 435 2. The inside diameter of the vertical pipe lines. 3. The size of the waste connections of the bowls. 4. The depth of water seal in the traps. 5. The size of the strainers in the fixtures. 6. The distance of the fixtures from the vertical lines. 7. The grade or rate of inclination of the horizontal branches. 8. The influence due to enlargement, reduction and full closure of the upper ends of the vertical lines. 9. The possible modifications in the results due to the omission of the main trap. 10. The action and resistance of traps under fixtures connected with a vertical pipe line, through which large quantities of water flowed quickly and suddenly, corresponding to the carrying away of a heavy fall of rain through a roof conductor pipe, or the discharge of a bath- tub filled with water. 1 1 The resistance of water closet traps connected with a vertical soil pipe The observation of the flow of water and air by means of the sections of glass pipes inserted, established the fact that a solid water column or water piston was formed only in the case of inclined branch wastes when the top of the vertical lines was fully closed. In previous experiments, made by Herr Unna with glass models of small bore, the water poured through the bowls invar- iably formed into a piston and emptied the traps by siphonage.* With a soil pipe open at the top, water poured into a fixture, dashed against the opposite side of the at once broke up into single threads which assumed a spiral motion along the walls of the soil pipe (see Fig. 97). As the amount of water poured into the fixture was in- creased the number of threads of water increased from the circumference toward the centre of the pipe until finally the entire pipe was filled with threads of water. This breaking up of a solid body of water into a number of single films serves also to Fig. 97. Spiral motion of water in vertical soil pipes. vertical pipe, and * This shows conclusively the fallacy of making trap tests by means of small glass models. W. P. G. 436 SANITARY ENGINEERING OF BUILDINGS. explain the large volumes of air drawn in by the water, for each thread carries some air along with it. In order to gain some knowl- edge as to the amount of air sucked in, an anemometer was placed at the mouth of the vertical pipe, the instrument being made of the same diameter as the pipe and fitting tightly into the same. It was found that the discharge of one bucket of water sucked in from 60-90 liters (2,1-3.2 cubic feet) of air, according to the time con- sumed in pouring out the pail. With four pails discharged in rapid succession, nearly 500 liters (iyf cubic feet) of air were sucked in. When water was poured in at the top of the vertical soil pipe, it separated into vertical parallel threads. The air measurements gave results which were about 50 per cent, smaller than in the case of the branch waste pipe, showing, as might be expected, that there is a stronger suction in the case of smaller vertical waste lines and of lateral branches. When an increaser was placed on the top of the vertical line, the results did not differ from those of a pipe line having a full size extension. When a fitting was inserted, which reduced the area of the pipe mouth 50 per cent, the threads of the falling water became Fig. 9 8.-Con- more concentrated, and the water in the adjoining water su fl f ow e ing traps became violently agitated and was often sucked zontaTpipe h ri ~ out - when the top of the vertical line was closed entirely by a plug, the water did not break up into threads. In the larger vertical pipes the water flowed down along the sides of the pipe when it was poured out slowly through the fixture. When poured quickly, the water formed a solid piston and caused the siphonage of the traps. The water flowing through the main horizontal sewer, instead of having a level surface, formed a concave surface (see Fig. 98). This may be explained by the friction of water along the sides of the pipes which causes here a slower velocity than in the centre. In the smaller horizontal waste pipe (two-inches diameter) the flow of water showed the same results, except that when large volumes of water were poured out, a piston of water formed which created a strong suction. By extending the waste pipe at its upper end vertically and keeping the pipe end open, the same results were obtained as in the case of the vertical main line. The use of a main intercepting trap will necessarily modify the manner in which the flow of water and air in a pipe system takes place, and hence the experiments were made both without and with a trap in the main house sewer. SIMPLIFIED PLUMBING METHODS. 437 If the clean-out in the drain trap was omitted, and large volumes of water were poured through the soil pipe, the water in the trap welled up considerably and a strong outward current of air was per- ceptible, notwithstanding the fact that the first vertical waste line was open to the roof and thereby acted as a relief pipe. With a closed clean-out on the trap, the air current became sufficiently strong to force by back pressure traps with 4omm. (if inches) depth of seal. These experiments tend to show that the omission of the main trap favors a more regular flow of water through the pipe system.* Another important question to determine was how the self-cleans- ing properties of traps would be effected by an increased depth of m seal, which renders traps less liable to siphon- age, for it is obviously undesirable to use in practice traps which while resisting siphon- age, are not self-cleansing. To determine the maximum depth of seal at which traps would still be self-cleansing, Liil "^^k experiments were made with glass traps of HJ^K ^_ Q^ different diameters and of different depths of seal. These traps were entirely filled Fi t% 99 us7d F ?n rn some of The ^ with mud and sand, and the bowl filled with periments. water until a head of 40 centimeter (sixteen inches) had been reached. The effective area of the strainer was taken a.s equal to 50 per cent, of the area of the cross-section of the trap. The sand was flushed out by the water forcing its way first at the upper point of the lower trap bend (at a in Fig. 99). The results of these experiments are summarized as follows: Traps of if and two inches diameter are self-cleansing when they have a water-seal not exceeding i2omm. or nearly 4}- inches; and traps of 2\ inches diameter are self-cleansing with a seal up to five inches in depth. But Herr Unna very properly calls attention to the fact that the experimental traps were made of glass, and therefore were smoother than lead, iron or brass traps; he accordingly assumes a seal of four inches as the maximum depth of seal which a trap may have to remain self-cleansing. Further experiments were made in order to determine how long a time it takes to lose the water seal in traps by evaporation. Four glass traps, of if and two-inches diameter, with two and four-inch seal * The new plumbing regulations of the City of Cologne accordingly prohibit the use of a trap on the main drain. W. P. G. 438 SANITARY ENGINEERING OF BUILDINGS. respectively were used in the experiments. The average tempera- ture of the air Curing the experiments was 20 C. (68 Fahrenheit). All experiments agreed in showing that lomm. (f inches of water evaporated per week. A trap having a four-inch seal would accord- ingly be rendered useless by evaporation in ten weeks. The evapo- ration was much retarded when a flannel cloth dipped in oil was placed over the strainer in the fixture; it then amounted to only 6mm* (^-inch) per week. In other words, a trap with a four-inch seal would take under such conditions sixteen weeks to evaporate. About the same result was obtained by slowly pouring a wine glass of oil into the trap. Herr Unna con- cluded from these results that the usual length of summer vacation, during which houses may remain closed, will not en- danger the seal of traps, but in houses which may be left vacant for a longer period of time, he advises removing the water from the traps and substituting glycerine for same. In the experiments on siphonage, the vertical waste line consisted first of a two- inch pipe, and subsequently of a 2|--inch pipe. The diameter of the traps and branch connections was made successively ij, two and 2\ inches. The if-inch traps experimented on had trap seals of 40, 60, 80 and loomm.; the two and 2^ inch traps had seals of 60, 80, 100 and i2omm. At the highest point of its outer bend, each trap had an opening, into which was inserted a lomm. glass tube, 30 centi- meter high (twelve inches) and bent in the shape of the letter S. (See Fig. 100.) A paper scale was attached to the glass tube, and the tube was filled with water to the zero point on the scale. Different sizes of strainers were used in the fixtures. The dis- tance of the fixtures from the vertical pipe did not exceed i meter (3.3 feet.) The influence which a reduction, an enlargement or the entire closing up of the upper opening of the pipe line had, was studied by means of reducer and increasei fittings and tight -fitting plugs. Fig. 100 Glass gauge attached to crown of traps used in the ex- periments. SIMPLIFIED PLUMBING METHODS. 439 The water was poured through each one of the fixtures on the three floors successively, and the action on the trap seals of the others was watched. Experiments were also made with the two upper or the two lower fixtures, and also with all three fixtures at one time. The volume of water discharged was one pail of water con- taining 15 liters or 3! gallons, and afterwards two, three or more pails. All these experiments agreed in showing that there was no appre- ciable difference when the top of the vertical pipe line was enlarged, and that a reduction always had an unfavorable effect. These tests practically confirm the rule requiring pipes to be extended at least in full size, and showed that an enlargement is desirable to counter- act in winter time any possible reduction of the sectional area of the pipe mouth by hoar frost or icicles. The results of the experiments are summarized as follows: The " back-airing " of traps may be dispensed with provided the fol- lowing conditions are observed : 1. The cross-sectional area of the waste or soil pipe must be larger than that of the trap. For a i^-inch (4omm.) trap the waste pipe should be two inches (51 mm.), for a two-inch trap it should be about 2^ inches (6omm.) 2. The traps must be set close under the fixtures and must either connect directly with the Y-branch of the vertical waste or soil pipe, or if they are not more than i metre (3.3 feet) distant from the ver- tical ventilated pipe the horizontal branch waste must be increased in size. 3. The traps must have a depth of water-seal of four inches (loomm.) 4. The combined area of the openings in the strainer of the fix- ture must not be larger than 50 per cent, of the cross-sectional area of the trap. 5. Vertical soil or waste pipes must be carried in full size, with as few offsets as possible, to a point above the roof; it is even better to enlarge the pipes two inches, from a point twenty inches (50 c. m.) below the roof; the minimum size of roof vent pipes to be four inches (loomm.); no ventilating cap or return bend to be put on the top of the pipe; a wire basket may be used, the openings of which must be at least equal to the sectional area of the pipe. (Fig. 101.) ***-*#*.*#^ In other experiments made a horizontal or graded waste pipe of 51 mm. diameter (two inches), connected with the vertical line; it 44 SANITARY ENGINEERING OF BUILDINGS. had three fixtures connected by it by means of Y branches. '(See Fig. 96.) The fixture traps were made interchangeable and had 40, 60, 80 and loomm. water-seal. The distances of the three fixtures from the vertical lines were 2, 3 and 4 meters (6.659.9 and 13.2 feet.) The three fixtures were either discharged simultaneously or used singly, while the other two were closed. These experiments were made to determine the influence upon siphonage which the various distances from the vertical line had. The influence which various inclinations of the lateral branch had was ascertained by placing the waste pipe under inclinations of i in 40, i in 20, i in 10, i in 5, i in 2 and i in i. The summary of the results of these experiments is as follows: i. Where the distance of a fixture from the nearest vertical ven- tilated line exceeds i meter (3.3 feet) the trap must be vented, unless the horizontal waste pipe is made lomm. or about ^-inch larger, and unless the trap fulfills require- ments three and four above given. 2. A single fixture connected with the main hori- zontal sewer through a special vertical waste line, does not require a vent, but it should have a gate valve in the waste line or in the trap in order to shut off the fixture during prolonged disuse and to guard against evaporation. 3. When two or more fixtures discharge into a horizontal or inclined lateral waste, it is not neces- sary to " back air " the traps of each, provided the above conditions three and four are fulfilled, when the main lateral waste pipe is a size larger than the fixture waste, but it is necessary to extend the Fig. i oi. Wire basket for vent pipe on roof. uppermost end of the lateral waste upward through the roof. Such lateral wastes may be regarded as sub- mains, which of course always require ventilation. When the conditions named cannot all be ful- filled, the back-venting of traps may be desirable to prevent siphon- age. Similar experiments were made with the second line (2^ and four inches in diameter respectively), fixture traps being connected to the same and the action of the traps observed while larger volumes of water were poured through the vertical pipe line. It was assumed that the vertical line represented a leader pipe, and that 100 square meters (or about 1,000 square feet) of roof surface could be drained by a 24-inch leader, and 200 square meters (about 2,000 square feet) SIMPLIFIED PLUMBING METHODS. 441 by a four-inch leader. A rainfall of lomm. (f inches) per hour yields 0.28 liters (o.oi cubic feet) per second per 1,000 square feet, and double this quantity on 2,000 square feet. The water poured through the 2^-inch pipe corresponded to , i and 2 liters per second, or 1 8, 36 and 72mm. rainfall per 1,000 square feet, and to i, 2 and 4 liters per second through the four-inch pipe, or the same amount of rainfall per 2,000 square feet. In the experiment with a 24-inch vertical line a flow of water cor- responding to J liter per second did not affect the trap seal; a flow of i liter per second siphoned the trap completely. The same hap- pened of course with a flow at the rate of 2 liters per second. The same volumes poured through the vertical four-inch pipe re- duced the seal of the trap when the flow was at the rate of i liter per second, and siphoned it out completely when the rate was 2 liters per second. It follows from this that it is not permissible to connect fixtures with rainwater pipes. When any are so connected, the traps must have a seal of at least four inches, and even then it is better to vent the trap to prevent siphonage. The second vertical line was then made, first four inches in diam- eter, and subsequently five inches, and used to connect water closet traps. Each branch was made four inches, and the distance from the centre of the water closet was made 3.3 feet (i meter). The water closet traps had one and two inches of water-seal. The amount of flushing water poured through them was 15 liters, or nearly four gallons. The results were as follows: 1. Water closet traps with a trap seal of 25mm. (one-inch) always require vent pipes, even where the soil pipe is made five inches (i3omm.) in diameter. 2. Water closet traps with a two-inch water-seal require venting when the size of soil pipe is equal to that of the trap. They must also be vented if they are more than i meter (3.3 feet) away from the soil pipe, whether the latter is larger than the trap diameter or not. Back-air pipes for water closet traps can therefore be omitted only when the water-seal is two inches or more, when the closet is within 3.3 feet of the ventilated soil pipe, and when the latter is at least five inches in diameter. With a soil pipe four inches in diameter a back- air pipe is necessary. It should be stated in this connection that no experiments were made with siphon and siphon-jet water closets hav- ing a seal of three or four inches, and the reason given for this omis- 44 2 SANITARY ENGINEERING OF BUILDINGS. sion is that the closets usually fitted in Cologne have the old-fash- ioned whirl flush, which does not keep traps clean when they have an extra deep seal. It is to be regretted that further experiments were not made with siphon-jet closets, as the latter would without doubt have modified the conclusions reached by the experimenters. The experiments showed also that the reduction of the size of a five-inch soil pipe to four inches at the roof acts unfavorably, and that a single water closet with two-inch trap seal may be connected directly with a five-inch branch to the main sewer, without running a four or five-inch soil vent pipe up to the roof, provided it is not at the upper end of the house sewer, and also provided there is some vertical pipe line connected with the same sewer, which runs in full size to the roof. Herr Unna concludes from the entire series of experiments that back-air pipes are necessary only in exceptional cases and under the following conditions, viz.: (a.) Where fixture traps have less than four inches of water-seal, and traps of water closets less than two inches. (<.) Where vertical waste or soil lines are of the same diameter as the diameter of the traps connected with them. (c.) Where fixtures are connected with inside rainwater leader pipes,* not larger than four inches in diameter. (d.) Where fixtures are located more than 3.3 feet (i meter) from the vertical soil or waste line. (. <- ._ . > i uo^ c " b -''JK-'-'i-' 1 - i'itf ' , ,- , ^** - REC'D UO wn\l \i ^56 NU v x x LIBRARVusfetlNl y JUN i 1W3 CIRCULATION DEt RECEIVED T. MHMM* 1UN 3 1995 J U 1 v CIRCULATION UtH^ LD 21-95m-7,'37 U. C. BERKELEY LIBRARIES UNIVERSITY QF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY