UC-NRLF SB 7D S7D V*. w * t k~, J* <* f mm GIFT OF Prof. E.J.ttickson MAIN LlBKA*Y-AG*lCUL.TmtC Compliments of ^( j* 4 tl It *- ! \% ^^?^^* v>* /. ^' *'****" ^r * * *V^ T INCLUDING CEREALS AND FORAGE PLANTS. BY J. B. KILLEBREW, A. M., Ph. D., Commissioner of AgriGulture, Statistics and Mines. NASHVILLE: THE AMERICAN CO., PEINTERS TO THE STATE. 1878. MAIM UWIARY-AGfUCULTUBE Entered according to Act of Congress by J. B. Killebrew, Commissioner, in the office of the Librarian of Congress, Washington, D. C. In the preparation of this work all available sources of information to be had in Europe or America have been consulted. Free use has been made of the standard works of Gray, Flint, Gould and Howard, and also of the reports of the Agricultural Department at Washington, as well as the numerous State reports. The admirable works of Prof. S. W. Johnson, of Yale College, have supplied me with valuable in- formation. I have had access to the various publications of Baron Liebig, the pioneer in agricultural science, and have also derived much aid from the painstaking researches of Wolff and Knop, of Germany ; of Johnson, Way, Sinclair, Mechi, Voelcker. Lawes and Gilbert, of England, and from the reports of the Highland Society of Scotland. The little work of Edmund Murphy, of Ireland, has been suggestive. I have relied mainly, however, upon the experience, observation and Buccess o 4 !: 'the best farmers of our own State. Reference is made elsewhere to the great assistance received from Dr. W. M. Clarke, Dr. Gattinger and Prof. Hunter Nicholson. The work is the result of much labor, and I indulge the hope that it may be instrumental in directing the minds of our farmers to the importance of the grasses in the solu- lution of the problem of agricultural thrift and prosperity. It is due to Mrs. Clare Snivel} , of Nashville, to say that the cuts which appear in the work were executed by her, many of them from original drawings. Several verbal errors escaped the proof reader, many of which were detected and corrected before the full edition of the book was worked off. On page 14, fifteenth line from the top, there is an error in the statement made. There are in fact about eighty species of sedges and rushes found growing in the State, very few of which are eaten by cattle. The " broomsedge," so called, is not a sedge, but a true grass, belonging to the genus andropogon, and forms the 'chief summer graz- ing of the Cumberland Mountains. It should be called broom grass. J. B. KILLEBREW. July 27, 1878. To His Excellency, Governor James D. Porter : Herewith is submitted a treatise on the Grasses and Forage plants of Tennessee. The geographical position of Tennessee eminently fits it to be- come a great grain and stock-growing State. In 1840, Tennessee was the largest corn-producing State in the Union. Difficult and tedious trans- portation made it necessary to feed this corn at home, and so in 1850, it took the foremost rank in the production of hogs. The Northwest, with its virgin soil, was able to supply meat and bread cheaper than Tennessee, and it became necessary for her people to turn their attention in another direction. The demand for mules by the cotton-growing States opened a new avenue to agricultural industry, so that in 1860, she became the largest mule-producing State in the Union. The shock given to all her industries by the war, and especially to her agricu tural interests, by the destruction of her labor system, so disabled her that she bore off no prize in the census returns of 1870. The destruc- tion of her labor system, however, has tended to direct the minds of her farmers to a system of agriculture in which less labor will be required. The sowing of more grass, and the raising of beef-cattle and improved hogs and shee|^ will probably show the direction of her growth in the future. The estimates by the Agricultural Department at Washington show a gradual increase in the acreage of land devoted to hay, as indi- cated by the following table : The amount, acreage and value of hay produced in Tennessee each year, since 1870, are as follows: YEAR. TONS. ACHES. VALUE. 1870 155 000 108 391 $9 57Q 200 1871 124,000 83,783 2 055 920 1872 117,000 96694 1 808 820 1873 134,500 107 600 2 084 750 1874 114,300 103 909 2 180 844 1875 145,000 106 617 2 354 800 1876 165,000 121 323 2 237 400 The United States census shows the production of hay in Tennessee : 1850 74091 tons 1860 143,499 " 1870 116,582 " The total production of hay in the United States for 1870, was 27,316,- 048 ? or about 1,400 pounds per head for each inhabitant, while in Tennes- IV gee there were not quite 200 pounds per head, showing that, per capita, the people of Tennessee produced only one-seventh as much hay as the aver- erage production of the people throughout the United States. This is to be regretted, for the world over, agricultural prosperity may be measured by the amount of land set in permanent meadows and pastures. Believing that the tendency of the farmers of our State is to decrease the amount of land devoted to cultivated crops, and to increase the acre- age in grass, I have felt that some practical treatise on the management of the grasses would have a great tendency to stimulate the movement in this 'direction. To meet this want, this work was prepared. In its prepa- ration I have had the aid of Prof. Nicholson, of the East Tennessee Uni- versity ; of Dr. Gattinger, of Nashville, one of the most accomplished botanists in the South, who has devoted the leisure of many years to the study of the flora of Tennessee ; and of Dr. W. M. Clarke, who has kindly assisted me in preparing the work for the press. The substantial and ready assistance which these gentlemen have rendered, fully entitles them to share with me in the authorship of the work. I am also indebted to many other gentlemen in various parts of the State, whose contributions will be found scattered throughout the work. I trust you will pardon me, Governor, for adding, that to no one am I more indebted than to yourself. In discharging the long line of duties de- volving upon me by my office, I have been constantly sustained by your gentle encouragement and assisted by your judicious advice. I am sure I utter a truth when I say that no one now takes, or heretofore has ever taken, a deeper or more lively interest in the agricultural prosperity, men- tal progress and mineral development of the State than yourself. I have the honor to be, Your obedient servant, J. B. KILLEBREW. March 12, 1878. AT? Ur INCLUDING FORAGE PLANTS. I. GRASSES IN GENERAL. I In this part, besides giving a general statement as to the importance of grasses in a oiational point of view, and setting forth the best method of preparing, sowing and treating meadows and pastures, a good deal of scientific matter has been introduced. This has been done because there is springing up all over the State a class of young farmers who, recognizing tte value of scientific acquirements in connection with practical skill, earnestly desire to increase their knowledge in scientific agriculture. Just science enough has been incorporated to arouse the ambition of this class to excel in their vocation and to become familiar with the fcientific terms, without some knowledge of which it is im- possible to make any permanent progress. The description of the grasses is impossible without employing some technical terms, and these terms should be familiar to the ambitious farmer. A table has also been prepared by which any one of studious habits and an enquiring mind may soon learn to r ame the grasses with which he is brought into daily contact. The strictly scientific chapters have been designated by a star, so that the practical farmer who desires only practical information may pae over them. In the other parts of the work the technical or scientific descriptions will be put in small type. THE GRASSES CHAPTER I. THE IMPORTANCE OF THE GRASSES PLAN OF THE WORK FUNCTIONS OF THE GRASSES EXTENT OF THEIR DIFFU- SION AND HOW DIFFUSED SEDGE GRASS AND OTHER WORTHLESS VARIETIES OMITTED HOW TO TELL THE GRASSES FROM SEDGES AND RUSHES. The value of grass in agriculture is aptly stated in the old English proverb: "No grass no cattle, No cattle no manure, No manure no grass." Each line embodies a truth, and the three form an epi- tome of successful farming. No surer test of the degree of agricultural advancement of a country can be found than the relative acreage of land laid down to grass and devoted to tillage. Wherever the grass is most abundant there is the highest farming. This statement is most strikingly es- tablished by comparing the agricultural systems of France and England. In France 53 per cent, of the tillable land is annually sown in some kind of grain, while in England the grain-bearing per cent, of land is only 25. On the other hand, while France has but 22 per cent, in grass, England has 50. Notwithstanding this difference in the amount of land devoted to grain, the yield of wheat to each inhabitant is almost identical in the two countries. Every acre of grain land in England receives, on an average, the manure from the animals fed off three acres of grass. In France, on the contrary, the manure made from each acre of grass has to be spread over 2J acres of grain. In other words, each acre of grain in England gets nine loads of manure to one load given to the acre in France. OF TENNESSEE. 7 A further comparison would show that the acknowledged auperioiity of English cattle, sheep and other domestic animals, over those of France, or any other country for that matter, is due more to the superiority in quality and quantity of the meadows and pastures of that wonderful island than to anything else. If we turn our attention to other countries we shall find that the amount and character of grasses grown may always be taken as a measure of the degree of advancement to which their agriculture hag reached. It must be borne in mind that this statement holds good only of the cultivated grasses, but of these it is perhaps universally true. Under this test the agricultural system of Tennessee falls very low. It is a notable fact, often observed and com- mented upon, that the great leading, dominating error in the farming o Tennessee has been, and is, the putting too much land in corn and oats,, and too little in grass. Under this system a very large breadth of the land has been well-nigh ruined. Indeed the damage is so serious that some change has come to be absolutely necessary. Judging from the experience of other countries, the one and only thing capable of redeeming this almost ruined land and saving the farmers from absolute bankruptcy, is grass. Fortunately, the climate, soil and geographical locality of Tennessee all combine to render it by nature a grass region. In all the essentials to success in this great branch of agriculture, but few sections of the United States surpass East and Middle Tennessee, while the northern part of West Tennessee is well suited to many grasses. It is not unreasonable to anticipate at no distant day, under an im- proved system of farming, these natural capabilities will be thoroughly and judiciously developed, and where now are only vast wastes and forest wilds, trackless and unculti- vated, rich pastures will bloom and countless cattle roam. But no such result can come without a radical change in 8 THE GRASSES the farming system ; and the farmers themselves must make the change. " Providence helps thoso who help themselves." So, also: "Providence neglects those who neglect themselves." It is not to be expected that this most desirable change will be made in one year, or in any small number of years ; it is not even assumed that the change could be made in a short time. All that can be reasonably hoped for 'is that some of the more enterprising farmers may take the initiative and make a beginning. By examining the list of grasses given elsewhere, it will be seen that Tennessee bears _an abundant harvest, and that a large selection is offered the farmer. But it will not be in attempting experiments, in new or untried grasses that such enterprising farmers will find their interest. For years to come it will be wise and prudent for the great majority of farmers to confine themselves to the improved grasses. Fortunately among the grasses that have been tested are kinds adapted to each, even of the widely various soils of Tennessee. From the circumstance of the peculiar position of Ten- uessee as a border State to the cotton belt, she has lost much time in agricultural progress. The large returns of the cot- ton planters South, and the wonderful ease with which they achieved great wealth, induced those living near to attempt' the same role that succeded so well further south. With how much success this plan met, can be seen in the dilapidated farms, the huge gullies yawning with their ugly yellow faces on every hill -slope. This condition of our State is the more reprehensible when, by our side, are seen the lovely meadows and the sloping, grassy hill-sides of Kentucky, with the inevitable accompaniment of fat cattle and browsing sheep. Tennessee possesses in her bosom all the elements of a grazing country. Scarcely a foot of land exists in all her borders that will not in an eminent degree meet the wants OP TENNESSEE. 9 of some one or other of the graminece. Living streams of water, fed by perennial springs, as sweet as those of Cas- talia, hasten down the mountain slopes and lazily meander through the beautiful valleys. Being midway between the lakes and the gulf, we live just 4 where the warm, moist southern winds encounter the condensing blasts of the north, so that we are rarely the sufferers from droughts. In fact nature intended this State as a gra/ing region, while man in his thirst for riches has made it what it is. But circumstances are driving us with an irresistable impulse into our proper channel. Blessings on even a large scale are seldom recognized when given, but the roll of years will soon make them visible to all. Had our slaves continued with us, we should probably not have assumed our proper sphere for many decades to come. But, at last, we find ourselves with a large breadth of land that, though greatly worn, is still full of fertility, and without due labor to cultivate it in the old style. What is more, the only way in which these lands can be restored to their pristine condi- tion is the very way to redound to the permanent wealth of the State. This is by removing Tennesssee from her geographical position. Not changing her longitude or altering her latitude, but by simply converting her from a fourth-rate cotton State into a first-class grazing country. Grass is wealth. As lowly and humble as it appears, it comprises about one-sixth of all the vegetation of the world. It nourishes more animals than all o^her food combined, and furnishes ail the elements for the growth of man. It is true man cannot, like Nebuchadnezzer, feed as a beast of the field, but he can and does appropriate this food after it has been assimilated to his requirements by the ruminants. Not only this, but through its wonderful chemical and vital properties it extracts from the great laboratory of nature the atmosphere certain gases and fluids hostile to man's respiratory organs, thus purifying 10 THE GRASSES the air for his use, and deposits these elements in the soil, thereby enriching the earth. Hence the adage with which we set out, "no grass no cattle, no cattle no manure, no manure no grass." This explains it all. Grass enriches the land and fattens cattle, cattle feeds man and makes manure, manure enlivens the soil and makes crops. There is an eternal revolution in this. Nothing is lost in this circle. Nature repeats here her great law of the indestructibility of matter. But all soils are not good producers of any one kind of grass. Nature, in her benificence, has provided for this, for be- sides the legumens that are classed as artificials, we have about one hundred and thirty different varieties of the true grasses, including cereals. Thus the marsh and the sandy, thirsty hill-sides, the loamy valleys and the rock-ribbed mountains, the shrubby barrens and the alluvial bottoms, are all alike provided with a congenial growth. The love of the pastoral has ever existed since man took possession of this rich heritage. It has ever held a first place in the songs and poetry of the world. While the grand epics of Homer have stirred the hearts of the warlike, and made them clash the spear against the sounding shield, the gentle idyls of Virgil have recalled man to the sweets of domestic hap- piness. The piping reed of the peaceful shepherd has no less charm for humanity than the spirit-stirring drum and fife, or the joyous vibrations of the passionate violin. Art has also emulated poesy in portraying its loveliness, and the landscape is never perfect on the canvass, unless gamboling lambs or grazing herds occupy some prominent place in the picture. A traveler passing through such a scene has his eye constantly delighted with the ever chang- ing panorama. The hay wagon, with its fragrant loads, passing to the teeming barns; the beautiful hill-sides,. car- peted with its cloth of green; the grain field, with its bil- lowy waves, swayed back and forth by the gentlest kisses of OF TENNESSEE. 11 the breeze, while the tall plumes of the maize keep watch and ward over the plains, all contribute to the joy and hap- piness around. Fat cattle and bunchy sheep fitly adorn the deep green of the meadows, and is one of the highest evidences of a high civilization. There are many kinds of grasses, and they seem to be so far apart in appearance, habits, etc., that they would scarcely be considered as being allied; yet the necessary classification, depending upon the flowers, leaves, stems and roots botanically connects them. They are divided into two general classes, natural and artificial. The former includes those grasses with long, simple, narrow leaves, with a prominent mid-rib or vein in the center, and smaller ones running parallel to it, and at the base, the leaf divides and clasps the stem in such a way that the stem seems to pass through it. As a rule the stem is hollow and closed at the joints, though a few are solid stemmed. The classification of grasses would be impossible were their general appearance only considered. So great are the changes produced by modes of culture, by soil and climate, botanists, to arrive at the precise plant, therefore, have adopted characteristics that undergo no change, such as flowers, etc. From the rule of botanists in giving all plants technical names, it would be a difficult matter to recognize an old familiar friend under the new guise of a generic term, but we will endeavor, by giving also the name in common use, to remove this difficulty and bring them within the comprehension of any one who will take pains to properly read the descriptions. Artificial grass includes all leguminous plants, such as clover, peas, beans, etc., while cereals, such as maize, wheat, oats, barley, rye, rice, sorghum, dhouro, chocolate, corn and broom-corn, though really true grasses, are gen- erally classed with the artificials. 12 THE GRASSES In the limits of this work it would be impossible to give a full discription of all known graminese, so those will be considered only that are indigenous or acclimated to the soils of Tennessee, and especial attention will be given to the proper application of the grasses as adapted to the differing soils of the State. For our botanic descriptions we will, for sufficient reasons, follow those laid down by Dr. Gray in his standard work on botany. But it is not our intention to describe them under the scientific arrangement adopted by all writers on the subject into orders, genera and species, for this book is not intended as a purely scientific work, but rather as a practical hand- book for farmers. Hence, although the botanical names will in each species be given, they will be treated under a practical head. Therefore, all grasses will be classified as : 1st. Meadow, or hay grasses. 2nd. Pasture, or grazing grasses. 3rcL Wild, or grasses of no known agricultural value. 4th. Cereals. The term wild is not to be taken in a literal sense, for many of them will grow on spots too rocky, sandy or barren to produce other kinds, and they serve a useful purpose in many ways. Sheep and goats will eat many of the wild grasses rejected by horses or cattle, and all furnish seeds to feed the feathered denizens of the air ; besides, they assist in pulverizing the soil, disintegrating rocks, promoting mois- ture, beautifying the earth with a carpet of living green and in their death leave a rich legacy of fertility to the soil. There is an innate love of the beautiful in man, and many who turn in disgust from the most fragrant exotics will contemplate with great satisfaction the little spot of verdure at their door-stoop. These grasses perform important functions in nature ; extracting saline matters from the rocks, nitrogen and car- bon from the soil, ammonia, oxygen and hydrogen from the OF TENNESSEE. 13 moisture, and by their vital forces, they assimilate these elements into the necessary nutriment for man's use. As has been already stated, one-sixth of the vegetation of the world is composed of grasses. There are not less than 3,000 distinct species known to botanists, and in the following pages we have a list of 130 for Tennessee, in- cluding the cereals. A botanist of eminence took up a square foot of sward in a rich pasture, and was able to iden- tify on that one square foot, 1,000 plants, composed of 20 distinct species. Nor are grasses confined to any particular part of the earth. They thrust their tiny leaves out of the snows of the arctic regions, and rear their majestic heads, in the form of canes, in the jungles of the tropics, rivalling in height the forests around. They push their green tufts from the crevices of the tallest Alps, tempting the chamois to marvellous leaps, and on the sandy, arid deserts of Ara- bia they quicken the pace of the camel of the caravan. No marsh so brackish but has its fringe of luxuriant grass, no spot so bleak but has its cloak of verdure. Nor are they confined entirely to the surface of the earth, fpr who has not admired the beautiful winter bouquets filling the vase with feathery loveliness, or the tussocks of the gardener adorning the pit or the green-house ? To one acquainted with the subject, the facility with which grass scatters and diffuses itself is very surpris- ing. But it seems that so important a vegetation should not be subject to the fancies or caprices of man. Therefore, the seeds are prepared in such a way, that they are self- sowers. It is this remarkable facility of transportation that has given rise to the surmise of many, that it grows by spontaneous generation. Some of the seeds have hooks, and by these they fasten to any passing animal and are carried for miles. Others lie undigested in the crops of birds, or maws of animals, and are scattered with the dejectse. Snows gather them on the hill-sides and bear them far away on the 14 THE GRASSES melting torrents, and scatter them, mayhap, along some for- eign shore. The air also assists in this, and lifts them on its wings and they fly in all directions. When grass once stands, even if a passing beast cuts off its annual supply of seed, its rhizomes or creeping roots thrust their tender spongioles through the yielding soil, and thus, many a field is clothed with verdure. And besides, many of the grasses are peren- nials, and though torn and tramped by stock, they gather new strength for another year, and push on their foothold. There is a large class of so-called grasses, purposely omitted, from the fact they are but little known and of no agricultural value, with only one or two exceptions. These are*the rushes and sedges. There are about 500 varieties of those plants growing in the United States, principally on the borders of salt marshes on the coast, but with the ex- ception of the broom-sedge Carex scoparia, the species are almost unknown in Tennessee. However, on the sea-coast, these plants form an important part in feeding the stock ; their stems when young and ten- der, are eaten by cattle, when nothing better presents itself. The rushes enter also, considerably into manufactures, the reeds being used for many purposes, such as chair bottoms, baskets and hats. Some farmers also annually cut these marsh grasses, and feed to stock during the long, severe winter. It is commonly known as swale hay. Many of the large, coarse grasses that border our ponds and mat in our swamps, and are looked upon as sour grasses, belong to these species. They serve their purpose in elimi- nating the miasmatic gases that are continually being gen- erated in the ponds, from the atmosphere, thus protecting man from their deleterious influences. Besides, they fringe with their green, wavy heads, these collections of water, giving a beauty to the otherwise repulsive swamps. Their roots are perennial, and with but few exceptions, creeping. Hence the folly of assaying their destruction by digging them up. A tuft of broom-sedge may be easily OF TENNESSEE. 15 dug up, but its rhizomes, or creeping roots, are in the ground for yards around, and a piece left an inch long, is sufficient to give it another start. The only way to destroy it is by cultivation and seeding to a more vigorous grass. Japan clover is said to have the quality of rooting out and destroy- ing broom-sedge effectually, but has not received sufficient trial to give it full credence. There is a simple method of separating the grasses from these rushes and sedges, which will be briefly stated. The sheath of sedges is a hollow tube, through which the stems pass, and it cannot be removed without tearing it open. This is not the case with grass, as the sheath can be stripped down, it being open to the joint. Besides, the leaves of all grasses are two-ranked, that is, the stem has leaves on each side, some opposite, others alternate, but always only on two sides. The leaves of sedges are three- ranked, or come out on three sides of the circle of a stem. In other words, the stem forms a circle of 360 degrees. The grass leaves are 180 degrees from each other, and the sedge leaves are 120 degrees apart. In the grass-like rush the flowers are divided into six points, within which are six stamens and a triangular ovary containing three seeds. A grass has never but one seed to the ovary. The object of this work is not merely to talk of the many varieties of grasses and their wonderful beauty, but to add to the intrinsic value of the farming lands of the State. The ignorance of the difference between the many species of grasses is vast and general. It pervades all classes and oc- cupations. The farmer, himself, who depends so greatly on this provision of nature, is not exempt from this want of knowledge. Ask him the name of a grass of unusual char- acter, and he will refer you, probably, to a son or daughter who, he will tell you, has been studying botany. As for him, he has no time to fool with such stuff. And yet this want of knowledge has given a firm foothold to some of the 16 THE GRASSES greatest pests the farmer ever experienced. A gentleman in New Orleans, importing some exotics from Cuba, found a delicate sprig of grass in a pot, aod thinking it might possibly be some rare plant, set it out in his garden, and thus was introduced the terrible scourge of the South, the Cocoa grass, and from this small start, it has spread and diffused itself over half the country. The same want of knowledge brought from Europe the seeds of the cheat, and it will ever remain as a curse to the wheat grower. Our lands are everywhere covered with grasses of various kinds, but few are the farmers who can tell the kinds most sought by stock in grazing. But a careful perusal of the following pages will disclose the fact, that, of the many varieties in- digenous to the State, but few have a sufficiently nutrient character to make them valuable or desirable. Farmers should be able to make important discrimina- tions, and when they find a fertile soil covered with noxious weeds or useless grasses, they ought to be able to eradicate them, and substitute such as will improve the value of the land and also add to its beauty. A case has been brought to my notice, in which the value of such knowledge proved quite profitable. A gentleman of Davidson county, some 25 or 30 years ago, owned a large and fertile tract of land. He became impressed with the value of blue-grass, and bought at one time fifty bushels of blue-grass seed, and scattered it over a woods lot containing 75 or 80 acres of rich, black limestone land. That woods lot became the pride not only of the farm, but of the neigh- borhood. It proved a blessing, for many years, to his horses, catfle and sheep, and when, by the exigencies of the hard times, he was compelled to sell his land, it was divided into small tracts and put up to the highest bidder. That blue- grass lot was sought by all the bidders, and at last was knocked down at more than double the price per acre of any of the other lots, though it was, aside from the grass, of no more value than the remainder. OF TENNESSEE. 17 Thus, if we wish to make our farms not only a beauty and a pleasure, but also to make them profitable, we ought to sow them down with good grasses. Look over the list, examine the land desired to be sown, and select the one most suitable to its requirements. There is no fear but what one can be found. If it is such as will not grow blue-grass, there is the fescue, or vernal, or clover, or timothy, or herds grass, and many others equally good. We have them jfcr limestone or sandstone soils, for rocky or gravelly, for up- lands or lowlands. Let no one be afraid to try, if one kind fails, through any mistake, try another. If the frosts or sunshine destroy the first stand, sow for another. The seeds are, or should be, but a small obstacle to the general results. If one should ever want to sell, it will be less difficult to make the sale, and at a higher figure. Should a farmer never wish to sell, it will repay him an hundred fold with its cheering aspect, with fat cattle, fat sheep and sleek horses. 18 THE GRASSES CHAPTER II. ENGLISH PRODUCTIONS COMPARED WITH THOSE OF TEN- NESSEE COMPARATIVE VALUE OF OTHER CROPS WITH GRASS CAUSE OF LOW PRICE OF LANDS. Cotton has been for so many generations recognized as the king of all agricultural products, that the people of Tennessee were long disposed to accept his prerogative without questioning, but when the subject is fully investi- gated, grass takes precedence. The cotton crop of the Uni- ted States as a general thing reaches about 4,000,000 bags, worth about on an average $250,000,000, while the aggre- gate of the hay receipts annually reach the enormous sum of $300,000,000, and the value of pasture will fully equal this amount, though its results are not so immediately apparent, as its sales are combined with those of cattle, sheep and hogs. Before the war, the lands of Tennessee had a certain fixed or rising value. A great depreciation of prices has taken place. But this falling in price does not apply to those well arranged stock farms, scattered here and there, at long intervals through the State. They are still in demand at prices far in advance of those lands that have been, and are still being devoted to cotton and other exhaustive crops. The English farmer is able to take long leases of farms from the rich landholder, at from $20 to $50 per an- nual rent. How does he pay this extravagant rent and support his family ? He could not do it in any other manner than by improving, manuring and increasing the meadows with which they are constantly set. A Tennesseean will manure his garden, and sometimes his corn land, but whoever thinks of spreading manure on his meadows. Yet the Englishman will spend large sums of money, and de- OP TENNESSEE. 19 vote labor through the whole winter, in accumulating a large compost heap to apply to his meadows ! The result may be imagined. While the Tennessee meadows will average from 800 to 1,500 pounds of hay to the acre, Eng- lish meadows will make from two to five tons on land that has no other advantage than the care bestowed on it by the owner. Besides this, the grass grown in a damp cold climate is never so sweet and nutritious as that raised under a warm sun and with a quick growth. In this State there is an occasional drought that begins in June or July, interfering seriously with the development of the later crops. But such a condition of climate is scarcely known in the earlier months during the growth of the grass crops. Yet there is with the spring rains a degree of temperature unknown to the Englishman, a degree sufficiently high to give grass all the necessary heat to enable it to attain its full supply of sugar and nitrogen from the soil. The beautiful lands of Kentucky and Missouri, to say nothing of the Northern States, still retain a great value, and are in great demand at high prices. It is because these States have more land in meadows, while broad stretches of valuable pastures and prairies dot the landscape in every direction. Poor land will not make much grass, and without a great outlay of capital land cannot be placed in first-class order at once. But it only requires a start, and then the persevering, provident farmer will soon see his farm blossoming as the rose. Land in Europe not in- frequently reaches the sum of $1,000 per acre for purely agricultural purposes, while here it is a difficult matter to extract, with our best farming, $50 per acre, and then the expenses are to be drawn from that meager sum. Let us draw a comparison between our leading staples. Cotton here will make on average land 800 pounds seed cotton per acre. This at the usual price makes $20 per acre. Corn will produce on good land eight barrels per acre, and at 20 THE GRASSES $2.00, the laborer will get $16. Tobacco, our most remu- nerative crop, on good land will make 800 pounds of leaf, which is about $50 to $60 per acre. Wheat will make, on good land, fifteen bushels per acre, and at $1 will yield about $15. Taking the cost of production from these amounts, the average farmer will not have left, at the best, more than twelve dollars per acre. A good meadow, in full bearing, with ordinary care, will yield, with two cuttings, at least two tons per acre. The cost is altogether in har- vesting, while the trouble of sending to market is no greater than either of the other crops. This, at the price for which it has been selling for several years, will be $20 per ton. Here, then, is a difference in actual receipts of almost double that obtained from other crops, nothing paid out for production, and besides the land can be enriched year by year, until it attains an almost fabulous fertility. Nor is this all. The amount of hay produced from a single acre can be increased almost to any extent by the applica- tion of stimulating manures. If then, land in Europe can produce five tons of hay per acre, and sell for $1,000 per acre, why cannot Tennessee lands, far better naturally, and in a more genial climate, be made to rival these results ? One thing only prevents, and that is the fatal apathy and want of enterprise on the part of the land owners. It is the thirst for immediate returns. To create this state of tillage, it will be necessary to proceed slowly, and look for no re- turns of consequence for one or two years. Pressing neces- sities weigh upon the farmer, and he thoughtlessly drives on in the same interminable furrow, regardless of the loss of time and fertility. The Northern husbandman bales his hay, and is able to ship it to all parts of the South in search of a market, and after paying heavy railroad charges, is still able to sell his producee at a remunerative price. The Southern man has no freight charges to tax his hay, and yet he is content to let his Northern rival enjoy, without competition, this great market. When will our eyes be OF TENNESSEE. 21 opened to our interests, is a question often asked, but diffi- cult to answer. A capitalist invests his money in United States bonds, and without risk or labor contentedly cuts off his coupons and enjoys his ease, while the merchant, with the same cap- ital, is harrassed to death meeting bills, collecting accounts, and watching with unceasing vigilance the turn of the markets. So it is with farmers. A prudent farmer will invest his farm-capital in grass, and he contentedly watches the growth of the grass and the browsing of his cattle, while his neighbor raising corn and cotton, is busy all the year in cultivating his crops, watching his laborers, buying mules, bacon and hay from his more prudent friend, and when he counts his receipts at the end of the struggle, he will find his neighbor has absorbed the greater part of them. Not only this, but a stranger appears in the coun- try desirous of investing in land, and while he would turn from the cotton plantation at ten or twelve dollars per acre, he would gladly invest in the grass farm at forty or fifty dollars per acre. Land that will yield ten or fifteen dollars per acre clear of the expense of cultivation, cannot be supposed, and is not entitled, to the same value with land that will produce thirty to forty dollars on the same breadth. And yet the farmers of Tennessee hesitate to pursue this course. Dr. Gulliver, in the midst of his extravaganzas, uttered a truism that will go down to all ages when he said " the man who makes two blades of grass grow where one grew before, is a great public benefactor; " and when the citizens of Tennessee look at their own interest in a proper light, they will realize this truth, and then by acting on it, double or even quadruple the intrinsic value of the lands of the State. Grasses mean less labor, less worry, fewer hands, more enjoyment, finer stock and more charming homes, and as a consequence, happier families, more education, more taste 22 THE GKAESES and refinement, and a higher elevation of the moral char- acter. Let grasses be sown and our homes beautified and there will be more contentment, more satisfaction, less gloom and despondency, less carping and discontent. It is almost impossible for us to realize the splendid fu- ture that would await us in such an event. We are groan- ing under the burdens of a heavy debt incurred by our State in a more prosperous time. Now it is with diffi- culty the interest can be paid, and our creditors are alarmed at the possible loss of the debt Should more mea- dows and pastures be established, and the lands prove themselves to be, as we know they are, a tide of im- migration, of a character to be desired, would pour into our borders, the lands would be quickly cut up into smaller farms, and the returns would so increase their value, we could pay the whole debt as easily as we can now meet the interest. But, some will say, how can this be done ? On the gen- eral principle that what has been done by one man can, under the same or similar circumstances, be done by all. The amount of nay, on a given amount of land, can be raised from 800 pounds to the acre, to five tons or 10,000 pounds, simply because it has been done. Were we confined to any one species of grass, with the great diversity in the character of our soils, we might well exclaim against the chances of success, but fortunately such is not the case. There are a great many to select from, and he who has a farm with several kinds of soil, can make such selections as suit the different requirements, or he can mix the seeds of various kinds, if he labors under any un- certainty in regard to its capability. The cultivation of the grasses in Tennessee is yet in its infancy. It is true some have been engaged in it for years with eminent success, but to the masses it is a sealed book. Many have attempted it, and from a want of knowledge of judiciously selecting seeds and the proper time and manner OF TENNESSEE. 23 of sowing, have failed, and, discouraged, abandoned it. Many, and a majority, are content to secure such precarious spots as are self-sown, or where seeds have been distributed by nature, and still exhaust their lands by cultivation. C. W. Howard, of Georgia, who devoted years to the investigation of the influence of the grasses upon civiliza- tion and material progress thus presents the subject in a strong light : A planter owning one thousand acres of fair average land in the healthy portion of the cotton States is a poor man. He could not sell his land probably for more than $5, QOO. He looks to the North, and finds lands ranging from $50 to $200 per acre. He looks to England, Holland and Belgium, and finds the price averaging from $300 to $500 per acre. Why this difference ? Is the land in these countries better than ours? Not by nature if it be better it is by the difference of treatment. Is their climate better than ours? The acknowledged superiority is on our side. Are the prices of their products any better than ours ? On an average not so good. Are the taxes lighter than ours ? If we were compelled to pay their tax either at the North or in England our lands would at once be sold for taxes. Have they val- uable crops which tbey can raise and we cannot raise? There is not a farm product in either Old England or New England which we cannot raise in equal perfection at the South. Is the labor cheaper than ours ? The cost of labor at the North nearly doubles the cost of labor South. In England labor is cheaper than with us. But the difference is per- haps compensated by the poor and church rates and excessive taxes paid by the English farmers. If our climate is as good as that of the countries referred to, if our lands are as good as theirs, if our products bring as good prices, if we can grow all they can grow, if labor is cheaper with us than at the North, and if difference in taxes compensate for the cheapness of labor in England, why is it that their lands are so valuable and ours so value- less? We shall find the map of use to us in answering this question. If we take the map of the United States, and put our finger upon the States or parts of States in which lands sell at the highest price, we shall find that in those States, or parts of those States, the greatest attention is paid to the cultivation of the grasses and forage plants If we open the map of Europe we shall find that the same rule holds good. The cheapest lands in Europe are those of Spain, where little attention is paid to the grasses. The value of land rises exactly in proportion to the attention which 24 THE GRASSES is given to them, in England and Holland, reaching, for farming pur- poses, $1,000 per acre. Holland is almost a continuous meadow. This land value culminates in Lombardy, where irrigated meadow lands rent for $60 to $100 per acre. Without exception, in Europe and America, where a large portion of land is in grass or forage crops, the price of the land is high, reaching the figure as above men- tioned. On the other hand, without exception, wherever in either con- tinent the grasses do not receive this attention, landed estate is compar- ative of low value. These remarks are more applicable to Tennessee than to Georgia, for the latter State is strictly within the cotton belt, while Tennessee belongs strictly to the great grain and grass-growing region of America. Her natural destiny is to feed the population of the Cotton States, and supply them with domestic animals, and she will never realize the full wealth of her real estate and climate until grass and stock take the place of cotton and corn. OF TENNESSEE. 25 CHAPTER III. HOW AND BY WHOM GRASSES HAVE BEEN IMPROVED WOBURN EXPERIMENTS EXPERIMENTS OF LEWIS AND GILBERT WAY'S EXPERIMENTS ANALYSIS OF GRASSES TABLES BY WOLF AND OTHERS. Although, since the time of the oldest records, a large proportion of mankind have been " keepers of flocks and herds." it is only within the last century that any systematic and successful efforts are known to have been made toward selecting and improving the grasses of the meadow and pasture. And even to this day the value of a large major- ity of the grasses known remains to be tested by any ex- haustive and trustworthy experiments. The knowledge y/hich botanists have of the grasses would be of but little value to the farmers if they possessed it, since it is confined almost entirely to the mode of blooming, shape and flower and leaf, and other minor details, quite important and essential to classification, but almost useless for any prac- tical purpose on the farm. What the farmer needs t know about a grass is its nutritive value/its time of bloom- ing, its habit of growth, and favorite locality. He is inter- ested in knowing how much food it will furnish, at what time of the year, in what form, and from what character of soil. These are questions with which botanists have not, heretofore, concerned themselves, but which must be an- swered, now that farmers' sons are beginning to learn bot- any and chemistry. The first impulse was given to grass cultivation in Eng- land by the London Society for the Encouragement of Arts, Manufacturers and Commerce, which, in 1766, offered prizes for "gathering by hand the seeds of Meadow Foxtail, Meadow Fescue and Sweet Vernal Grass." The success of ZO THE GRASSES this offer was feuch as to induce the same society to offer, in 1769, a gold medal to the person who should give the best account of the properties, and comparative values of any two or more natural grasses. Previous to this sufficient attention had been given to the grasses to establish the terms natural and artificial grasses the latter being ap- plied to the plants selected fer cultivation in meadows and pastures, but which are not really grasses. As yet, however^ no systematic efforts had been made to test, by experiment or analysis, the relative values of the several grasses. In 1822 this attempt was made by the Duke of Bedford, wh'-i set his gardener, George Sinclair, to work to collect all the natural grasses of England into a grass garden, the first of the kind ever attempted in England. In this garden, and another, subsequently established for himself by Sinclair, a long series of experiments were tried with the various grasses, testing with admirable patience and skill their properties and qualities. While it is true that the chemical, tests applied by Sinclair were too meager and simple to command our implicit confidence, more valuable lessons con- cerning the grasses have never been taught than are con- tained in Sinclair's accounts of the " Woburn Experiments/' in his book called " Graminea Woburnensis." Many of these lessons have come to be accepted as fundamental truths. He first taught, that from early spring to late in winter there is no time when there is not one or more of the grasses in prime condition, some containing most nutri- ment before flowering, some while in flower, others while in seed, and others still, owing their chief excellence to their aftermath. He taught also what grasses flourished best in dry weather, and what in wet. In short he laid the foundation for the scientific study of the grasses, and all subsequent investigations have but enlarged upon his work. In 1845, Prof. Way, Consulting Chemist of the Royal Agricultural Society of England, undertook the analysis of the principal grasses with a view of ascertaining their rela- OF TENNESSEE. 27 tive values as flesh, fat and heat producers. These analyses were conducted with that consumate skill and patience which characterized all of Prof. Way's work, and their re- sult stands to-day as the best authority of the laboratory on the values of the different grasses. Between the writings of Sinclair and Way a revolution had taken place in chemistry. Organic or physiological chemistry had developed relations between the mineral, vegetable and animal kingdoms, not even suspected in the time of the earlier writer, and, far from being fully under- stood even at the present time. It was this chemical pro- gress that induced Prof. Way to undertake his work. He was fully aware, and was careful to state, that his analyses were only so many facts, to be taken along with many other known and unknown facts in physiology, before a true estimate could be formed and a final conclusion ar- rived at. Next in order came the experiments of Messrs. Lawes and Gilbert, of Rothamsted, England, which were designed to ascertain "The Effects of different Manures on the Mixed Herbage of Grass-land." The experiments extended over a period of seven years, and were conducted with every conceivable caution and care, and with a minuteness un- equaled in any other experiments. The results of these experiments, while they modify in many points, and in some overturn, the conclusions of both Sinclair and Way, on the whole add value to their works by furnishing a bet- ter interpretation of their facts. To the farmer the experi- ments of Lawes and Gilbert are invaluable. In England, in the meanwhile, quite a number of books and pamphlets had been printed on the grasses by botanists, agriculturists and seedsmen, all of more or less value, but none of material importance to the American farmer. In America, too, books have been written on grasses, one entitled " GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS" " A prac- tical treatise, comprising their natural history ; comparative 28 THE GRA-SEfc nutritive value ; methods of cultivating, cutting and curing, and the management of grass lands in the United States and British Provinces/' by Charles L. Flint, Secretary of the Massachusetts State Board of Agriculture. The other entitled " The Grasses and their Culture," by John Stanton Gould, of the New York State Board of Agriculture. Mr. Flint's book was published in 1859, and at once took rank as a hand-book of the subject. It was based upon the pre- ceding works of Sinclair and Way and is the best applica- cation of their several experiments made up to the year 1859. The wort is profusely illustrated, and will be found exceedingly useful by every intelligent farmer. The essay of Mr. Gould was prepared for the transactions of the New York Agricultural Society, and has not been published in a separate book, that we know of. It is, however, well worthy of such publication. So far as to the literature of the grasses in book form. In the agricultural journals, and in the transactions of the various State and County Agricultural Societies, there have appeared from time to time many excellent essays upon the grasses. The late Dr. Win. Gordon contributed many ex- cellent papers to various journals in Middle Tennessee on the grasses of that section, but so far no attempt has been made to form a complete list of the grasses of the State. The following are the natural grasses examined by Prof. Way: OF TENNESSEE. a a' J 03 03 ro O O O^S O G g i i i > > > ,Q o ^oggSSSf^ Bs^f III.:* 30 THE GRASSES OF TENNESSEE. 31 This table exhibits the theoretical value of these grasses as they are gathered from the field, and may stand for their pasture value. It must be borne in mind, however, that pasture grasses are rarely allowed to come into bloom be- fore cattle are turned in on them, so that these estimates will not hold absolutely true. Grasses differ widely in the amount and character of their foliage, which is an import- ant element in any estimate of their value for pasturage. Again, some of the most esteemed grasses owe their value chiefly to the fact that they appear at a time when they are much needed, that is, in early spring, rather than to their absolute richness. We give below another table of the same grasses dried at 212 Fahrenheit: NAMES. Albumino's! a ^ > 1 1 bfl < S '* A e3 T, 2.0 4.0 1.2 &9 1.8 2.G 3.7 5.4 2-9 3.2 3.2 1.9 3.0 2.8 0.2 3.1 1.8 7.6 OF TENNESSEE. 35 Composition of fresh or air-dry agricultural products, giving the aver- age quantity of water, sulphur, ash and ash-ingredients, in 1,000 parts of substance, by Prof. Wolff : SUBSTANCE. 1 i Potash. t eg" 'i 1 Phosphoric Acid. Sulphuric Acid. 1 Chlorine, Sulphur I.-HAY. Meadow Hay.... Dead ripe hay.. Red clover White clover..., Swedish clover.. Lucern .., Esparsette Green vetches. Green oats.... 66.6 66.2 56.5 603 46.5 60.0 45.3 73.4 61.8 17.1 5.0 19.5 10.6 15.7 15.2 17,9 30.9 24.1 4.7 1.9 0.9 4.7 0..7 0,7 0.8 2.1 2,0- 3.3 2.3 6.9 6.0 7.1 3.o 2.6 5.0 2.0 7.7 8.5 19.2 19.4 14.8 28.8 14.9 19.3 4.1 4.1 2.9 5.6 8.5 4.7 5.1 4.7 9.4 5.1 3.4 0.5 1.7 5.3 1.9 3.7 1.5 2.7 1.7 19.7 41.8 1.5 2.7 0.6 1.2 1.8 1.3 20.5 5.3 3.8 2.1 1.9 1.3 1.1 1.4 2.3 2.5 1.7 j 2.7 ;2. '2.6* T.5* 1.5 II. GREEN FODDER. Meadow grass, in blossom Young grass Rye' grass Timothy ?. Other grasses Oats, beginning to head " in blossom Barley, beginning to head " in blossom Wheat, beginning to head " in blossom , Rye fodder Hungarian millet Red clover White, clover Swedish clover Lucern Esparsette Anthyllis vulneraria.* Green vetches " rape. 815 23.3 20.7 21.3 700 21.0 700 21.8 17.0 770 16.& 750 22,3 680 22.5 770 22.4 690 21.7 700 16.3 23.1 13.4 13.6 10.2 17.0 11.0 12.3 820 15.7 13.7 850 13.5 . o." 11.6 5.3 6.1 7.2 7-1 6.5 8.0 5.9 7.8 5.6 6.3 8.0 4.6 2.4 3.5 4.5 4.6 1.3 6.6 5.6 4.4 1.5 2.2 1.7 2.3 1.7 1.4 1.4 2.3 2.2 1.7 1.6 2.4 1.3 1.3 2.0 -1.0 1.5 1.2 0-9 1.2 i.9 2.1 8.4 7.5 8.2 4.7 5.5 7.0 10.8 9.4 12.3 5.2 .6.7 "0.4 0.6 0.1 0.4 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.4 1,0.4 1.9 0.4 1.1 1.1 0.9 0.8 0.7 1.2 0.8 1.2 0.6 1.5 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.3 0.3 10.6 '0.4 ^0.7 .0.8 0.7 '0.3 0.4 (0.5 0.7 0.3 0.5 lei's 0.6 '0.3 '0.6 36 THE GRASSES Proximate composition of agricultural plants and products, giving the average quantities water, organic matter, ash, albuminoids, carbohy- drates, etc., crude fibre, fat, etc., by Professors Wolff and Knop,* SUBSTANCE. Organic matter. HAY. Meadow hay, medium quality Aftermath Red clover, full blossom " ripe White clover, full blossom Swedish, or Alsike clover (TrifoUum hybridum) " clover, ripe Lucern, young '* in blossom Sandlucern, early blossom (Medicago intermedia) Esparsette, in blossom Incarnate clover " (TrifoUum incarnatum) Yellow ** " (Medicago lupulina) Vetches, in blossom.... Peas " " Field spurry, in blossom (Spergula arvensi) " " after blossom Serradella " " (Omithopus sativus) before " Italian rye grass (Lolium Italicum) Timothy (Pldeum pratense) Early meadow grass (Poa annua) Crested dog's tail (Cynosuras cristatus) Soft brome grass (Bromus mollis). Orchard grass (Dactylis glomerata) Barley grass (Hordeum pratense) Meadow foxtail (Alopecurus pratensis) Oat grass, French rye grass (Arrhenatherum avena- ceum) English rye grass (Lolium perenne) Barter Schwingel (Festucaf) Sweet-cented vernal grass (Anthoxouthum, odora- lum) Velvet grass (Holms lanatus) Spear grass, Kentucky blue grass (Poa pratensis)... Rough meadow grass (Poo trivialis) Yellow oat grass (Avena flavescens) Quaking grass (Brixa media) Average of all the grasses ! 14.3 1 79.5 1 C.2 14.379$ 6.5 16.7177.1) 6.2 lli.7 77.7 5.6 8.5 10.7 16.7 ,16.7 116.7 74.8 75.0 78.3 74.0 16.7]76.9 16.71 77.2 16.7)77.1 116.7 76.1 1 16.7 ; 77.3 ..i 16.7 75.0 ..J16.7 76.3 116.7 73.8 116.7 75.5 16.7 77.7 16.776.8 14.3 '81.2 1 14.3 ' 83.3 i A > on r> 14.3 180.7 14.3! 80.4 14.3:79.9 8.2 1 41.3 9.5 i 45. 7 13.4 i 29.9 9.4 20.3 14.9 15.3 10.2 19.7 14.4 15.2 13.3 12.2 30.1 14.8 14.2 14.3 12.0 39.8 2:2..:, Jfi.9 7.8 14.6 15.3 8.7 9.7 10.1 41.7 29.2 48.8 22.' 47.2 5.5 9.5 48. >.0 14.8 14.3 75.8 9.9 14.3 79.2 6.5 14.3'81.0 4.7 14.3 '80,3 143 1 80.2 14.3180.6 14.3 78.6 14.3179.8 14.3)78.3 14.3 1 79.9 11.6 11.1 10.2 f,1.4 30.0 24.0 35.8 48 ()' 25>j 30.5 45.0 22.0 40.0 35.1 27.1 25.5, 25.2 22.0 26.0 33.9 26.1 36 o 40.7 9.6 10.6 39.5 38.9 10.4 37.5 40.2 36.7 39.1 37.6 4v!6 42.8 9.5 41.7 25.9 22.6 28.9 *7.2 29. 30.2 33.2 31.2 33.6 32.6 32.6 30.8 303 28.7 2.0 2.4 3.2 2.0 3.5 3.3 2.2 3.3 2.5 3.0 2.5 3.0 3.3 2.5 2.6 3.2 2.5 1.5 1.9 2.8 3.0 2.9 2.8 1.8 2.7 2.0 2.5 2.7 27 2.9 2.9 3.1 2.3 3.2 2.2 2.6 2.6 "This table is. as regards water and ash, a repetition of last table, but includes the newer analyses of 1865-7. Therefore the averages of water and ash do not in all cases agree with those of the former tables. It gives besides, the proportions of nitrogenou* and non-nitrogenous compounds, i. e. t albuminoids and carbohydrates, etc. It also states the averages of crude fibre and of fat, etc. The discussion of the data of thi* table belongs to the subjects of Food and Cattle-Feeding. t Organic matter here signifies the combustible part of the plant. i Carbohydrates, etc., includes fat, starch, sugar, pectin, etc., all la fart of Org. mottar except albuminoids and crude fiber. i Crude fiber is impure cellulous. T Fat, etc., is the ether-extract, and contains besides fat, \rnv 4Uorphjrll, an,d in gome cases resins Professor Samuel W. Johnson, in "How Crops Grow." OF TENNESSEE. Proximate composition of agricultural plants and products: SUBSTANCE. I 1 Organic matter. 1 Albumi- noids. 1 Carbohy- drate?, etc. I 1 i GREEN FODDER. Grass, before blossom 75.0 69.0 83.0 78.0 80.5 85.0 82.0 81.0 74.0 78.0 80.9 81.5 80.0 80.0 82.0 81 5 229 29.0 15.5 20.3 17.5 13.5 16.2 17.3 24.0 20.1 18.5 16.9 18.5 18.7 162 17.0 17.6 25.5 14.6 16.7 32.0 25.1 21.6 18.0 2.1] 2.0 1.5 1.7 2.0 1.5 1.8 1.7 2.0 1.9 1.5 1.6 1.5 1.3 1.8 1.5 1.4 1.6 1.1 1.1 2.4 0.9 1.1 2.0 3.0 2.5 3.3 3.7 3.5 3.3 3.3 4.5 4.5 4.0 3.2 2-.7 3.5 3.6 3.1 3.2 2.3 3.3 0.9 1.1 5.9 2.5 2.9 2.3 12.9 15.0 7.7 8.6 8.0 5.7 6.3 7.8 7.0 6.6 8.8 6.7 9.0 7.0 7.6 8.2 8.8 14.9 8.7 10.9 15.0 15.3 11.9 10.4 7.0 11.5 4.5 8.0 6.0 4.5 6.6 5.0 12.5 9.5 6.5 7.5 6.0 8.1 5.5 5.6 6.5 7.3 5.0 4.7 11.5 7.3 6.7 5.3 o.s 0.7 0.7 0.8 0.8 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.7 0.8 o-c 0.6 0.8 0.4 0.6 0.6 0.5 0.9 0.5 0.5 1.5 1.4 0.7 " after " Red clover before blossom full White " " " Swedish clover early blossom full " liucern, very young *' in blossom ... Sand lucern early blossom + Esparsette in Incarnate clover in (Trifotium incarnatum) Yellow clover in (Medicago lupulina) Seradella " (Ornithopus sativus) Vetches " Peas " Oats early blossom 81.0 72.9 84.3 82.2 65.6 74.0 77.3 80.0 Bye Maize late end August. " early " Hungarian millet, in blossom, (Panicum germanicum)... Sorghum sacchardtum Field spurry in blossom 38 THE GRASSES CHAPTER IV. DESIRABLE QUALITY OF GRASSES HOW TO ESTABLISH PASTURES AND MEADOWS MAINTENANCE AND IM- PROVEMENT OF MEADOWS WHAT KIND OF MANURES TO USE. Grasses, as they are to be cut for hay or fed off by stock, are called meadow grasses or pasture grasses. By their structure some grasses are fitted only for the meadow, while others are fitted only for the pasture ; a few are suited to both uses. Grasses with tuberous roots are purely meadow grasses. It is the nature of such plants to store up in their bulbs one year the material of growth for the next. It re- quires therefore a certain time for maturing the bulbs, and they must not be interfered with when formed. Manifestly cattle cropping over a field would prevent the formation of bulbs, or, if already formed, would soon destroy them, either by tramping or biting off their crowns. Timothy is a type of this grass. For the meadow it is almost without a rival for permanent pasture it is scarcely worth sowing. Again, among meadow grasses some are valued on account of the amount of nutritious seed they yield, as is the case with timothy, while others, as redtop or herds grass are principally valued for their forage. A pasture grass needs the property of springing up rap- idly after being bitten down and resisting the tramping of cattle. Blue grass is the best known type of the pasture grass. A few grasses, if left to themselves, grow rank, form thick bunches or tussocks, and get hard and tough, but if sown along with other grasses that crowd them remain slender and tender. Such is orchard grass, which also submits to frequent and close cropping, and is therefore an excellent pasture, as well as good meadow grass. OF TENNESSEE. 89 Again, grasses are esteemed for the time when they begin to grow in spring and ripen their seed in summer. The grass that comes forward in spring when other green food is wanting is especially valuable in the pasture; nor is the grass that yields an early crop of hay less valuable for the meadow. The amount and quality of the aftermath, or second crop of hay, is also an important item in estimating the eco- nomic value of any grass. Furthermore, the value of any given grass to any par- ticular farmer will depend upon its adaptability to his land. Some grasses thrive on low lands but will scarcely live on uplands, while others confine themselves to uplands entirely. Soils, and exposure too, have much to do with the success and value of different grasses. So that the farmer who comes to consider the subject of grasses, will find it no easy matter to select the best grasses for his farm. It will re- quire no small degree of study and reflection. As an aid to farmers desiring to lay down land to grass, a selected list of long-tried pasture and meadow grasses is given : PASTURE GRASSES. Kentucky blue grass Poa pratensis Wire grass P. compressa Spear grass P. annua Rough stalked meadow P. trivialis Orchard grass Dactylis glomerata Meadow fescue Holcus lanatus Meadow foxtail Alopecurus pratensis Sweet-scented vernal Anthoxanthum odoratum White clover Trifolium repens MEADOW GRASSES. Orchard grass Dactylis glomerata Red clover Trifolium pratense ' Timothy Phleun> pratense Hungarian grass .Panicum Germanicuin 40 THE GRASSES There are many other grasses included in most of the lists to be found in all the books from the time of Sinclair, and it may be that a better pasture or meadow can be made by adding them, but it will be quite enough gain for one generation if the farmers of Tennessee will put in the few given. A caution is needed in sowing meadows, not to sow clover or orchard grass with timothy, because they do not ripen with it. Clover and orchard grass, however, do ad- mirably together, and if a small proportion of sweet vernal grass be mixed with them, they make a hay of the very finest quality. As a rule, however, red clover should not be sown in a permanent meadow, because by so doing one of its most valuable properties, viz., preparing the ground for other crops, is lost, and because, being a biennial, it is likely to run out on ground not already rich. It is doubt- ful if red clover should ever be introduced into a permanent pasture. White clover, however, may be so used in many localities, especially where milk cows are kept. Though not exactly to the point of this paper, it may not be amiss to state that land too poor to carry a stand of red clover may be brought up by sowing it down in white dover and turning under the white -clover after it has been \rell pastured. Peas are also a good crop for the same purpose. Rye is an excellent pioneer crop for red clover, when sown in August, whether pastured or turned under in March. One of the chief values of red clover itself is as a preparation for wheat. A good clover sod is better than a heavy coating of manure for the wheat crop. In like manner, land that is to be put down in permanent grass can be better manured at less cost by turning under a good clorer sod than in any other way. Where this course has been followed, however, care should be taken not to apply mineral fertilizers to the grass, else the clover seeds that have been shattered into the soil may be brought forward so much as to take the grass. On any but the richest soils the establishment of a first- OF TENNESSEE. 41 class pasture or meadow is the work of many years, and of much care and attention. On the best limestone soils, where the blue grass is indigenous, it is a comparatively easy matter to get a good turf, but, unfortunately, a large portion of Tennessee is not blessed with such soil, and for these regions preparation and care are needed. It is es- pecially for such sections that these pages are written, though it cannot be denied that the pastures and meadows on the very richest of Tennessee lands would be all the better if the advice here given were followed. It would perhaps be most convenient for the majority of farmers to begin rightly with pasture lands. A large deal of the woodland of the farmers of Tennessee may, with comparative ease, be converted into very good pas- tures, simply by clearing out the undergrowth, sowing down in good pasture grasses, and depasturing closely with oattle. In many woodlands all that is needed for a fair pas- ture is clearing up and putting on the cattle. The indige- nous grass, if allowed a chance to grow, will make a passa- ble pasture. But even the best of such land will be much benefitted by a generous seeding of improved grasses and a good top dressing of manure. In addition to clearing out the undergrowth, the leaves should be raked off, and if a heavy harrow be. passed over the ground it will be all the better. The seeds may be sown just after the harrow and followed by a light brush harrow; or, they may be sown on the first snow which, in melting, will carry them into the ground evenly and to about the proper depth. Once the grass is set it needs only to be fed properly to improve. It may be slightly grazed, by young cattle, the first summer; but on no account should sheep be allowed run on young grass. It is a generally accepted notion, and doubtless a true one, that on old pastures sheep are a help, but they are certainly very destructive to young grass. In addition to the woodland pastures, every farm needs other pastures that have been cultivated. The preparation 42 THE GEASSES of these is similar in every way to the preparation for mea- dows. It should be borne in mind, however, that bottom lands that are at all inclined to be wet are unfitted for pastures. Wet or even moist land will pack under cattle. Since land once laid down in grass can never take the plow while the grass lives, all the necessary cultivation or plowing must be given it beforehand, t and, since it is to be once for all, this preparation should be as thorough as pos- sible. Thoroughly prepared land should be entirely free from standing water. The soil should be so loose and friable that the heaviest rain will not render it soggy, nor the longest drought make it crack. An easy and simple test of the presence of too much tightness in land is to dig a few holes, say two feet deep, and notice after a rain how long the water stands in them. If it stands for twelve hours after the rain has ceased, unless the rain has been of long continuance, say several days, then the land needs loosening. It is too tight holds too much water. For this the best known remedy is under-draining. This is not only the most effectual but also the most profitable remedy, and will pay wherever properly applied. The next best thing, and the thing that should always be done, whether the land is under-drained or not, is subsoiling. This can be done as thoroughly with a properly made bull-tongue plow as with the best subsoiler ever patented. The bull-tongue only needs to be made long and narrow, and sent down as deep as it can be made to go in the track of the best turning plow to be had. After it has been thoroughly plowed, a good top dressing of air-slacked lime should be given, say 250 bushels to the acre. Then the ground should be well harrowed. It will pay to cross-harrow, to be followed by a generous top dressing of manure, then the seed put in. This last operation should be thoroughly well done. The common error among American farmers in sowing grass seed is the putting on too few seed, and of too small a variety. There are undoubtedly pastures in Kentucky OF TENNESSEE. 43 where one kind of grass, blue grass, is made to answer a most excellent purpose, but the favoring circumstances which render this course practicable do not occur in many other sections, and nowhere outside of the blue grass regions. Even on this favored soil there is good reason for believing that the addition of several other kindred grasses wou!4 add much to the best pastures. Be this as it may, there can be no doubt as to the very great advantage to be derived from a variety of grasses in other localities. One of the first things observed by Sinclair in his experiments was the fact that there is naturally a constant succession in the time of blooming of different grasses. As a result of this condition of things, it is practicable to make a turf which shall continue in good heart from early spring to late winter. By reference to the table on another page, the time of blooming of the various grasses may be learned. Another most important point to be determined in seed- ing down land to pasture is the adaptability of the grass to the location and soil. It is by no means to be supposed that a grass that is rich and luxuriant in one place will be equally so in every place. The very reverse is more likely to be the case. Again, it is by no means the rankest grass that makes the finest pasture on the contrary, the finest beef and the finest mutton are both grown on grass com- paratively short though rich and nutritious. Indeed it is the experience of the best grass farmers that great fineness of grass is incompatible with great luxuriance. The notion too commonly prevails that when once a farmer has put his grass in the ground his work is done that for the future he must- trust to Providence, or, more commonly, to luck. Nothing could be further from the truth. His work is by no means done. It is only begun. In the case t of meadows and pastures, faith without works is of no avail. Providence never asks to be trusted, but demands to be obeyed. Luck is a myth there is no such thing. Results good or bad flow naturally and inevitably 44 THE GRASSES from wise attention to, or unwise neglect of the laws of nature. In the matter in hand these laws are few, simple and easily ascertained. Perhaps they may be embraced in two short sentences, viz : To preserve a good stand of grass it needs to be abundantly fed. Different grasses require different foods. If we may judge from the practice that prevails almost universally in Tennessee, farmers do not seem to be aware that pastures or meadows ever need to be manured. If there is a farmer in the State who habitually spreads ma- nure over his pastures or his meadows, he is a rare excep- tion to his class. It cannot be that this neglect comes from ignorance of the fact that every hay crop and every season's grazing extracts from the land an enormous bulk of plant material. It is difficult to conceive how any one can fail to see so large a fact. It must be, therefore, that the notion prevails because land laid down in grass does not wash away or run out so rapidly as land under the plow, that therefore it need not to be kept in heart. Such a notion is entirely erroneous.* The roots of the natural grasses are almost entirely fibrous. They descend only a few inches below the surface. Of necessity their food must be obtained in a thin layer of top soil There is no chance for the air with its warmth, or the rain with its moisture to penetrate it, and the ammonia of both air and water is almost entirely out off from the soil. There is, therefore, no source left open to the soil whence it can renew the supply of plant food^ taken off annually, either as hay or depastured by stock. In the latter case some return is made in the droppings. This, however, is never entirely equal either in kind or quality to the materials removed from the soil. But the every-day experience of the farmer is of itself the best proof that can be made, if only he would think of it. Why do farmers say that their meadows have " run out," or that OF TENNESSEE. 45 their pastures are "run out?" Simply because they have failed to feed them. Because year after year they have taken off ton after ton of hay without returning a single pound of plant food. The preparation of land for a meadow is so nearly the same as that given for a pasture that it need not be re- peated. The grasses specially adapted to the meadow are, however, quite different from those given for the pasture. Timothy, which stands at the head of the meadow grasses, is altogether unfit for the pasture, because it will neither bear tramping nor close cropping. There are, however, many most excellent grasses to be se- lected for the meadow. In making this selection it is of exceeding importance to note the time of flowering, and care should be taken not to have in the meadow, grasses that ripen at different times, for if this is allowed really good hay cannot be made. Part of the hay is obliged to be cut either too green or too ripe. It is always desirable to have more than one meadow, and so arranged that they ghall ripen in succession. This point is readily gained by selecting for the different meadows, grasses that ripen in succession. For convenience and as a help we give a list of the grasses that experience has proved to be well adapted to the pasture. These lists are given more as suggestions than as guides or recipes. After all, each farmer must exercise his own judgment as to what grasses are best suited to his pur- poses, and best adapted to his soils. The labors of Professor Way and other chemists were chiefly of value in explaining certain facts long noted by observing farmers concerning the relations of the grasses and soils. Long before any attempt at chemical analysis of the soil or the grasses had been made, it was well known to the best farmers that certain grasses were admirably 46 THE GRASSES suited to certain soils, but wholy unsuited to others. It was also well known, though by no means so generally, that certain manures stimulated the growth of certain grasses and seemed to retard the growth of others. Chemi- cal analysis disclosed that the soils that were suited to dif- ferent grasses were composed of different ingredients, or if containing the same ingredients, they were present in different proportions. Also analysis showed that the grasses that nourished on a given soil were composed largely of the plant food that characterized that soil, and on the other hand that a grass that ran out quickly on a given soil con- tained a large amount of some ingredient in which the soil was deficient. From these facts it seems but an easy step to infer that certain manures might be relied on to stimulate the growth of certain grasses ; yet simple and easy as the step seems it was not taken with anything like assurance until those dis- tinguished experimenters, Lawes and Gilbert, of Rotham- sted, England, demonstrated by a series of field experiments continued through several years, that the character of the herbage in different parts of any given pasture or meadow in^ay be entirely changed by the continued and abundant use of different manures. The reports of these experiments were made to the Royal Agricultural Society of England, and are to be found in the journals of that society from 1858 to 1865. The general results of these experiments may be briefly summarized as follows : I. Mineral Manures, (super-phosphate of lime, sulphate of soda, sulphate of magnesia), stimulated the growth of the leguminous plants, (clovers), but scarcely affected the natural grasses. II. Nitrogenous manures, (guano and ammonical salts), stimulated the natural grasses and discouraged the legumi- nous herbage. OF TENNESSEE. 47 III. A judicious mixture of mineral and nitrogenous manures increased the growth of grasses far beyond the sum of increase attained by the two used separately. IV. Farm-yard manure stimulated the growth of both the grasses and leguminous herbage, but chiefly the former. V. A mixture of mineral manures, (consisting of 200 pounds of bone ash, 150 pounds sulphuric acid, 300 pounds sulphate of potash, 200 pounds sulphate of soda, 100 pounds sulphate of magnesia, and 400 pounds each of muriate and sulphate ammonia, exceeded in increase by more than a ton per acre the increase produced by 14 tons of farm-yard ma- nure of good quality. It may perhaps be useful to relate how these experiments were tried. A piece each of meadow and pasture of uniform quality and condition was laid off and a careful examination and record made of the kinds of herbage and their propor- tions. The lands were then laid off in plats and the several manures applied year, after year. At the close of every growing season each plat was carefully examined and a record made of the proportions of the different plants pres- ent. Two of the plats were kept unmanured as standards of comparison. The hay cut from the meadow plats was carefully weighed and analyzed, so that the experiments not only show how much increase each manure gives in bulk but also what plants it increases and how it influences the quality of the hay. These results render the experiments by far the most valuable yet made in grass culture. With the exception of the chemical analyses these experiments made be repeated by any intelligent farmer. It is only through such experiments that new facts may be learned or old notions put to the test. This is the kind of work waiting the educated farmers. As a practical conclusions from their experiments, Messrs, Laws and Gilbert advise the farmers to apply a 48 THE GRASSES amount of barn-yard manure, in a well rotted state, every four or five years, and a small quantity of commercial ma- nure every year, say in January or February. Under the most favorable circumstances, however, and with the best of treatment, the establishment of a really good turf is the work of years. But when once established it is a thorough- ly safe and exceedingly profitable investment. OF TENNESSEE. 49 CHAPTER V* SHORT REVIEW OP THE LIFE-HISTORY OF PLANTS, AND THEIR CLASSIFICATION, WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO GRASSES AND FORAGE HERBS CONTRIBUTED BY DR. GATTINGER. Plants are living organic beings, deriving their origin unconditionally from other like beings (parentage), as de- tached particles of the same by fission, budding, or seed production, which, under the influence of light, heat and moisture, possess the faculty of growing and developing into bodies, exactly like those from which they have been first detached. This growth they accomplish by attracting and taking within themselves simple elements or inorganic compounds from their surroundings, which, by their power of assimilation they convert into organic compounds or tis- sues like their own. At a certain period of their growth and development they become able to reproduce themselves, which is called their state of maturity, after which their cycles of life are either closed, and the parental plant decays annual plants, or they repeat indefinitely that pro- cess of reproduction and individual growth perennials. This simple sketch of vegetable life is within the univer- sal assemblage of individual plants, which we call the vege- table kingdom, carried out under a wonderful variety of forms and methods. The human intellect, in its endeavor to understand the meaning of this untold number of forms, has, since the dawn of civilization, attempted to group the like and the unlike until it in recent days succeeded in establishing a rational system of classification. For this purpose it has been agreed upon, that the aggre- 4 50 THE GRASSES gate of individuals, descending from one another and from common ancestors, and those which resemble them as strongly as they resemble one another, should be called Species. Groups of similar or related species are called Genera. Groups of genera similarly related as the above constitute Families. The highest generalizations are denominated Classes and Divisions. All these divisions have received special denominations, and the identity of an individual is recognized by the ex- pression of the name of its generic and specific name, e. g. viola odorata, scented violet ; lilicum candidum, white lily. All plants, from the minute to the gigantic, simplest or wonderfully complex, whether aquatic, terrestrial orparisitic, in considering their method of propagation, can be grouped into two series : Series I. Phsenogamous, or flowering plants, which pro- duce flowers and seeds, the latter containing a ready-formed embryo. Series II. Cryptogamous, or flowerless plants, whose organs of reproduction are not flowers, but some more or less analagous apparatus, and which are propagated by spores or specialized cells. Omitting the cryptogamous series, which has no repre- sentatives amongst our meadow and forage plants, except as occasional intruders and fearful enemies to their life and development, in which respect they will be hereafter shortly mentioned, and scrutinizing the structure of the Pha3noga- mous series, we shall find that their growth or increase takes place either by an annual addition upon the periphery exogens, "outside growers" or the newly formed woody matter is intermingled, with the old, or deposited towards the center, which becomes more and more occupied with the woody threads as the stem grows older, and the increase in diameter takes place by gradual distension of the whole ; such plants are called endogens, or " inside growers." OF TENNESSEE. 51 The two great classes of Phsenagamous plants, indicated by this difference of the stem, possess also a marked differ- ence in the structure of their seeds. The embryo of all endogenous plants sprouts with only one cotyledon or seed leaf. Hence they are called Monocotyledonous plants. The embryo of the exogens bears a pair of cotyledons, hence exogens are also called Dicotyledonous plants. The Monocotyledons, with a stately assembly of fami- lies, furnish us with the families of the Grasses (graminece) and the Sedge family (Cyperacece) , while the Dicotyledons embrace several families, which constitute more or less val- uable pasturage herbs, but the Leguminous or Pulse family is the most important one, and deserves especial attention. It has been stated that Phsenogamous plants possess vis- ible organs of reproduction. When these organs are en- closed within envelopes for their protection, this envelope is called flower. The flower is called complete when the envelope consists of two circles of flowering leaves, the outer and lower one called the calyx, the interior and gen- erally delicately colored one, the corolla. The parts or leaves forming the calyx are termed the sepals, the parts of the corolla petals. The petals, however, are frequently absent when the flower is said to be apetalous, or petals and sepals both wanting, when the flower is called incomplete. The essential organs of flowers are likewise of two kinds and disposed in two circles, one including the other. The outer ones are called stamens. A stamen consists of a col- umn or stalk called the filament, to the apex of which is attached a rounded case, called the anther, filled with a powdery substance caljed the pollen, which it at length dis- charges through one or more slits. The remaining seed- bearing organs which occupy the summit of the flower are termed the pistils. A pistil is distinguished into three parts, the ovary, the hollow portions at the base which contains the ovules or bodies destined to become seeds ; the style or columnar prolongation of the apex of the ovary, and tbe 52 THE GEASSES stigma, a portion of the surface of the style denuded of epidermis, often assuming a great diversity of appearance. Flowers possessing both these essential organs are perfect (hermaphrodite or bi-sexual), although from absence of the floral envelopes they may be incomplete. Whenever either of these essential organs is wanting or abortive in one flower of the same individual or species, and present on another, the flower is said to be diclinous or unisexual. The flower which has the stamen only is called the male or sterile flower, and the one with pistils only female or fertile flower. In separated flowers the two kinds of blossoms may be borne either on different parts of the same individual, or upon entirely different individuals, the flowers in the first instance, like these of Indian corn or oak, are called mono3- cious (living in one house), or they are borne upon entirely different individuals, like hemp or sassafras, and then they are called dio3cious (living in two houses). One is called the male plant, the other the female. Sometimes both these conditions occur upon the same spe- cies, and plants with such flowers are called polygamous. In some flowers the floral envelopes are developed, while the pistils and stamens remain undeveloped, and are there- fore said to be neutral. In some grasses and other plants all parts of a flower are sometimes reduced to a mere rudiment. The supremacy in the vegetable world, in regard to struc- ture, is by no means so undisputed as in the animal, and several families are contesting for the prize. The power of voluntary motion is one of the essential qualities of superiority of animal over vegetable life, and wherever an approach to such power of self-motion is ob- served, we concede such species of plants a higher rank in relation to their less gifted brethren. The Leguminous family, which concerns us so much for agricultural reasons, and as a large shareholder in our mea- OF TENNESSEE. 53 dows and pastures, embraces within its ranks many a mem- ber capable of putting into motion certain parts of their bodies either as .a response or reaction to external mechani- cal or chemical irritation, executing them with considerable dispatch and regularity. Or again, some others possess the faculty of giving gradual direction to some of their organs by which unmistakeable advantages are gained for the posi- tion, the growth or seed production of the individual. In selecting one type of this family, and explaining its parts and functions, the characteristics of the Leguminous family, and along with it the process of fructification and seed production jn all Phsenogamous plants will be ex- plained. Take the bean plant. The principal member of it is the axis, which rises into the air; erect, with one part, while the other is imbedded in the earth and forms the root. The appendages of the stem are leaves, developed from the opposite sides of successive nodes, the parts between these nodes are called inter-nodes, which become shorter and shorter towards the summit of the stem, which ends in a terminal bud. Buds are also developed in the axils of the leaves, and some of them grow into branches which repeat the characters of the stem, but others, when the plant at- tains its full development, grow into stalks which support flowers, each of which consists of a calyx:, a corolla, a stam- inal tube and a central pistil ; the latter is terminated by a style, the free end of which is the stigma. The staminal tube ends in ten filaments, four of which are rather shorter than the rest, nine of them are grown together into a tube, one is free to its point of insertion. Such an arrangement has in botanical terminology been called " diadelphous," (dis two aldephus- brother). The pistil is hollow, and within, along the ventral side, (the side turned towards the axis), is attached, by short stalks, a longitudinal series of minute bodies, the ovules. Each ovule consists of a central conical nucleus, invested by two coats, an outer and an inner. Opposite the summit of the nucleus these coats are 54 THE GEASSES perforated by a canal, the micropyle, which leads down to the nucleus. The nucleus contains a sac the embryo sac in which certain cells, one of which is the embryo cell, and the rest the endosperm cells, are developed. A pollen grain deposited on the stigma sends out a thread-like prolonga- tion, the pollen tube, which elongates, passes down the style, and eventually reaches the micropyle of an ovule. Tra- versing the micropyle, the end of the pollen tube penetrates the nucleus, and comes into close contact with the embryo sac. This is the process of impregnation, and the result of it is that the embryo cell divides, and gives rise to a cellu- lar embryo. This becomes a minute bean plant, consisting of a radicle or primary root; of two relatively large pri- mary leaves, the cotyledons ; and a short stem, the plumule, on which rudimentary leaves soon appear. The cotyledons now increase in size, out of all proportion to the rest of the embryonic plant ; and the cells of which they are composed become filled with starch and other nutritious matter, legumin). The nucleus and coats of the ovule grow to accommodate the enlarging embryo, but, at the same time, become merged into an envelope which constitutes the coat of the seed. The pistil enlarges and becomes the pod ; this when it has attained its full size, dries and readily bursts along its edges, or decays, setting the seeds tree. Each seed, when placed in proper conditions of warmth and moisture, then germinates. The cotyledons of the contained embryo swell, burst the seed coat, and becoming green, emerge as the fleshy seed leaves. The nutritious matters which they contain are absorbed by the plumule and radicle, the latter of which descends into the earth and becomes the root, while the former ascends and becomes the stem of the young bean plant. The tissues which compose the body of the bean plant are bounded at the surface by a layer of epidermic cells, within which, rounded or polygonal cells make up the ground substance or parenchyma of the plant, extending to its very OF TENNESSEE. 55 centre in the younger parts of the stem and in the roots ; while in the older parts of the stem the centre is occupied by a more or less considerable cavity, full of air. This cavity results from the central parenchyma becoming torn asunder after it has ceased to grow, by the enlargement of the peri- pheral parts of the stem. Nearer to the circumference than to the centre, lies a ring of woody and vascular tissue, which, in transverse sections, is seen to be broken up into wedge-shaped bundles, by narrow bands of parenchymatous tissue, which extend from the parenchyma* within the circle of woody and vascular tissue (medulla or pith) to that which lies outside of it. Moreover, each bundle of woody and vascular tissue is divided into two parts, an outer and an inner, by a thin layer of small and very thin cells, termed the cambium layer. What lies outside this layer belongs to the bark; what lies inside it, to the wood and pith. The cells composing the cambium retain their power of multiplication, and divide by septa parallel with the length of the stem, or root, as well as transverse to it. Thus new cells are continually being added, on the inner side of the cambium layer, to the thickness of the wood, and on the outer side of it, to the thickness of the bark ; and the axis of the plant continually increases in diameter, so long as this process goes on. This is the developement of exogens. The soft parts of plants as far as they are exposed to the light, and as far as their epidermis is transparent, are green colored. This green color results from the presence, im- mediately below the epidermic tissue, and imbedded in the parenchyma, of minute, soft granules, called chlorophyll or leaf green. These corpuscles, through the agency of light, have taken their origin in the "protoplasma," a complex chemical compound essentially produced by the union of a few chemical elements, oxygen, hydrogen, carbon, nitrogen, which the plant absorbes by its roots and leaves, together with some mineral substances from the surrounding earth 56 THE GEASSES and atmosphere. These elements dissolved in water begin their circulation in the roots and leaves of the plant, and under the influence of light, air and heat, and by the con- tact with preformed protoplasm, they are gradually brought over into one or the other form of this won- derful substance. The instability of the juxtaposition of its molecules endow it with an internal and external mobility not possessed by any other body. It possesses the power to arrange and re-arrange the above elements and some others, when they come into contact with it, into organic compounds. Protoplasm is the basis of all life upon earth. The chlorophyll once formed, induces the respiration of plants. The epidermis especially, or the leaves, which are the organs of this function, possess innumerable openings, stomata, through which the air passes, to be -absorbed by the fluids in the tissues, and to give up to the chlorophyll its carbonic acid. Now the most important chemical pro- cess in the economy of the plant is effected, the carbonic acid is decomposed and carbon and oxygen are mutually set free. The carbon passing over into a new combination with hydrogen and oxygen to form cellulose the general material of vegetable fabric of cell formation. The greatest part of the inhaled oxygen is returned again into the at- mosphere. All the woody fibre now forming upon earth, and all the coal and coal oils are derived that way. It is evident, that the nitrogenous and mineral constitu- ents of plant food, absorbed by the roots from the soil have to pass from them through the stem to the leaves. That some sort of circulation of fluids must take place in the body of a plant, therefore, appears to be certain, but the details of the process are by no means clear. There is evidence to show that the ascent of fluid from the root to the leaves takes place to a great extent through the elongated ducts and spiral vessels that make up, together with parenchymatous cellular tissue, the body of the plant, OF TENNESSEE. 57 and which not unfrequently open into one another by their applied end's, and by that way form very fine capillary tubes of considerable length. The mechanism by which this ascent is effected is of two kinds; there is a pull from above and a push from below. The pull from above is the evaporation which takes place at the surface of the plant, and especially in the air-passa- ges of the leaves, where the thin- walled cells of the paren- chyma are surrounded on almost all sides with air, which communicates directly with the atmosphere through the stomates. The push from below is the absorptive action which takes place at the extremities of the rootlets, and which, for example, in a vine, before its leaves have grown in the spring, causes a rapid ascent of the fluid (sap) absorbed from the soil. A certain portion of the fluid thus pumped up from the roots to the surface of the plant doubtless exudes, laterally, through the walls of the vessels, and, passing from cell to cell, eventually reaches those which contain chlorophyll. The distribution of the compound containing nitrogen and carbon, whatever it may be, which is formed in the chlorophyll bearing cells, probably takes place by slow diffusion from cell to cell. It also can hardly be doubted that all the living proto- plasm of the plant undergoes slow oxydation, with evolu- tion of carbonic acid, and that this process, alone, takes place in the deeper seated cells. The supply of oxygen needful for this purpose is sufficiently provided for, on the one hand, by the minute air-passages which are to be found between the cells in all parenchymatous tissues, and on the other, by the spiral vessels, which appear always to contain air under normal circumstances in the woody vascular bundles. The replacement of the oxygen of the air thus absorbed, and the removal of the carbonic acid formed, will be suffi- ciently provided for by gaseous diffusion. From what has been said, it results that, in an ordinary 58 THE GRASSES plant, growing in damp earth and exposed to the sunshine, a current of fluid is setting from the root toward the sur- face exposed to the air, where its watery part is for the most part evaporated, while gaseous diffusion takes place in the contrary direction from the surface exposed to the air, through the air-passages and spiral vessels which ex- tend from the stowates to the radicles; the balance of ex- change being in favor of oxygen, in all the chlorophyll bearing parts of the plant, which are reached by the sun- light, and in favor of carbonic acid in its colorless and hidden regions. At night, the evaporation diminishing with the lowering of the temperature, the ascent of the liquid becomes very slow, or stops, and the balance of the exchange in the air-passages is entirely in favor of carbonic acid ; even the chlorophyll bearing parts oxydizing, while no carbonic acid is decomposed. In the foregoing has been given in plain and untechnical language approved facts, which, under proper guidance, every person of ordinary intelligence may be thought to study amd to observe for himself. The general principle of respiration, nutrition and reproduction of plants are, after a century's scientific work, pretty well understood, although a great deal of detail is yet to be investigated. Often, from impure motives, is science denounced as "speculation." The growth of the pollen tube, and its entrance into the ovule can be as clearly seen with the aid of a medium power of a microscope as the siomata and air-passages. That kind of speculation which is really to be feared lies within the boundaries of ignorance. For in- stance,, one can often hear assserted that the rust in the wheat is caused by the iron present in the soil of the field. The Agricultural Department in one of its recent volumes has given to the farmers a very exact analysis of this distressing phenomenon. In this, like in ever so many instances, it is again proven that the greatest evils and plagues that affect man and his operations, take their roots in the dispersion OF TENNESSEE. 59 and endless multiplication of exceedingly minute agencies, that often bring the wealth of nations on the verge of ruin, like the phylloxera of the grape vine, the pebrine on the silk worm, and scarlet fever and diptheria amongst our children. And, one need not expect to success- fully combat those enemies before the great mass of the people is able to partake and to assist in a scientific inves- tigation. To determine the differences between the various grasses requires careful study from even an advanced botanical student. The gramineaB spread over the whole globe, are a very numerous family, forming, in fact, one twenty-second part of all phaenogamous plants, and containing about 300 genera and 4000 species. Of these, 74 genera with 287 species belong to the flora of the United States east of the Mississippi, and as they unmber amongst them all cereals, they are unquestionably the most important part of the vegetable kingdom for the interest of mankind. The fol- lowing description of the family characters is given accord- ing to Gray's Manual: Grasses, with usually hollow stems (culms) closed at the joints, alter- nate two-ranked leaves, their sheaths split or open on the side opposite the blade ; the hypogynous flowers imbricated with two-ranked glumes or bracts ; the. outer pair (glumes proper) subtending the spikelet of one or several flowers ; the inner pair (paleae or palets) enclosing each par- ticular flower, which is usually furnished with two or three minute hy- pogynous scales (squamulse.) Stamens one to six, commonly three; anthers versatile, two-celled, the cells distinct. Styles mostly two or two- parted ; stigmas hairy or feathery. Ovary one-celled, one-ovuled, form- ing a seed-like grain (caryopsis) in fruit. Embryo small, on the outside and at the base of the floury albumen. Roots fibrous. Sheath of the leaves usually more or less extended above the base of the blade into a scarious appendage (ligule. ) Spikelets panicled or spiked. Inner (upper) palet usually two-nerved or two-keeled, enclosed or partly covered by the outer (lower) palet. Grain sometimes free, sometimes permanently adherent to the palets. For an easier understanding of the structure of the grass- flower and seed, and the technical terms used in describing 60 THE GRASSES them, a few species are selected and analyzed, such as are known to everybody. 1. Timothy. First described properly by the Swedish botanist, Carolus Linnaeus. A type of grass inhabiting North and Middle Europe, and made up by fourteen different forms, resembling one another so closely that they suggest to the observer a close relationship. To the aggregate Lin- naeus applied the name Phleurn. To one particular phleum that shows a predilection for pasture lands, he gave the spe- cific name "pratense." Meadow Cats-tail or Timothy grass. It is a botanical practice to put after the name of the plant also the name of the botanist who first discovered it. There- fore, Phleum pratense, L. Select a flowering specimen from the meadows, but one from the haystack may do as well. It is tall ; (not branch- ing laterally.) The flowering or top end is called " inflo- rescence." The spike is cylindrical and tolerably long, therefore an elongated spike ; it is also dense and harsh. It is terminal and solitary, sometimes spikes are terminal, spreading and numerous, like in the Crab grass, digitate like in the Bermuda or barn-yard grass. They are lateral some- times, sessile or peduncled. If arranged shortening toward the apex like the tassel of the Indian corn, this is called a pyramidal raceme. If instead of shortening toward the apex they are of about equal length, arranged around their rachis like in that delicate reddish grass by some called " old man's beard," that abounds late in the season in gar- den plots and corn fields, (Leptochloa mucronata) then we say the spikes are racemed. The manner in which the single flowers, spikelets, are ar- ranged along the spike is also very different. In this species the spikelets are closely clustered in glom- erules of 3-4 nearly sessile, densely joining one another at- tached to the rachis or main axis of inflorescence. In the mea- dow Fox-tail (Alopecurus pratensis) which greatly resembles OF TENNESSEE 61 the Timothy, 3-4 spikelets are similarly arranged to a consert- ed cylindrical spike. But if these single clusters are more or less distant from another, like in the Sweet Vernal grass (Anthoxantum ocloratum) it is said to be panicled-spiked. The barley bears a bilateral spike, spikelets in threes on each side. Hordeum hexastichum. In the Crab grass (Digi- taria or Panicum sanguinale) the spikelets are arranged to one side of the rachis ; the rachis may also be feathered on the back like in the related genus Paspalum. In the barn-yard grass the spikelets are imbricated (like the shin- gles on a roof) on a one-sided spike. To analyze so small an object as the spikelet of the Tim- othy, or other yet more minute and delicate species, some care and patience are required. The spikelet should be moistened first with a little water, after being placed upon a slip of glass, then the parts spread in a manner to expose the interior structure. The moisten- ing prevents the flying away of the tiny membranes when they are dissected or distended with a fine knife or a pair of sewing needles. A lens to magnify the object is indis- pensable. First two pairs of membranaceous leaflets are conspicu- ous. vThe lowest pair is called " glumes." They are oppo- site one another, but not exactly upon one "and the same level. There is always an upper glume and a lower glume, and the observance of their mutual relations is of great import- ance. Sometimes they are nearly of one size, like in this instance, but generally one is larger, often out of all propor- tion, or either is minute, abortive or wanting, awned or va- riously shaped, or represented by a bristle-like 'organ caljed an awn. (Beard.) They are boat-shaped (carinate), ciliate on the back (beset with short, bristly hairs), pointed and tipped with a short bristle. Glumes serve as the common involucre for the upper and interior part or parts of the spikelet. 62 THE GRASSES The upper or inner pair of leaflets or palets, (palese) is here only half the size of the former, truncate (the apex cut off) and include the ovary with two distinct styles termi- nated by feathery stigmas. From the base of the ovary ascend three stamens with thread-like filaments, versatile bilocular and comparatively large anthers. 2. Blue grass Poa pratensis. L. Inflorescence a pani- cle. It will be remembered that above the tassel of Indian corn has been designated a pyramidal raceme ; i. e. from the rachis or flower-bearing prolongation of the culm radiate secondary axis, pyramidally decreasing toward the apex. Those lateral axes again and often redivided constitute the panicle. This panicle is short pyramidal. In Poa coin- pressa (wire grass) dense and narrow, in Orchard grass clus- tered and dense; Oat (a vena sativa) is also panicled. Pani- cle at the time of fructification open and spreading at length drooping. Widely and loosely is termed diffuse, erect if the branches point upward, contracted if the branches are drawn close to the rachis, which often is the case after the flowering period. The spikelets are ovate lanceolate ovate, crowded, and most of them almost sessile on the branches. Each spike- let consists of a pair of glumes shorter than the flowers, of which there are three to five ; the uppermost flower remains small and undeveloped. (Timothy we have seen to contain in each spikelet only one flower.) Lower palet stouter in structure than the npper one, mem- branaceo-herbaceous, with a delicate scarious margin, com- pressed-keeled, pointless, five-nerved, (the intermediate nerves more obscure or obsolete) hairy at the margin and keel ; upper palet very delicate, two-toothed at the apex. Sta- mens two to three, stigmas plumose. The presence or absence, number and condition of the nerves (vascular bundles) in the glumes and palese are of the greatest importance in the analysis of grasses, for not only OF TENNESSEE. 63 the distinction of species, but even of genera is often de- termined thereby. A nerve often extends over the lamina of the glume or palet, either at the apex, or underneath, from the dorsal or keel-nerve. If this extension is small and delicate, it is named a bristle or bristly apex, if stout and lengthy, an awn or beard. 3. The common Oat. Avena sativa. L. Panicle large, simple, lax (spikelets remote). Spikelets two-flowered on capillary peduncles. Peduncles and branches rough down- ward. (Roughness felt by motion of the fingers down- ward. Glumes larger than the flowers, many-nerved, (eight to ten) thin membranaceous, awnless, persistent. (The glumes holding fast to their pedicels after the grain has fallen off.) Lower palet herbaceous, rounded and awned on the back, above the base, at the point almost bicuspidate ; the upper one bicarinate, awnless. Bicarinate means presenting the form of a Greek omega or transverse section. Awn twisted, geniculate (bent with an angle) one, to one and a half inches long. Stamina three, stigma, two plumose, palets investing the long, slightly tufted carvopsis, which is internally marked by a longitudinal furrow, hairy at the point-. The seed of grasses (coryopsis) is either free, dropping out from the palets Jike in Sporobolus and Diarrhena, or may be easily detached from the same like in the Wheat. At other times it is invested (firmly wrapped up in) one or both palese, like in Oat, or firmly connected with adhesions, like in the Barley. A significant feature in the comparison of grasses affords also the Ligule (see above) whether it be truncate, acute, smooth, hairy, bearded, papillary, etc. Characters are also derived from the root, from the nodes, mode of ramifica- tion by the branching of the .culms. 64 THF GRASSES The root is annual, perennial, creeping, stoloniferous, fibrous. Culms solitary, in tufts, recumbent, ascending, smooth or rough, the nodes are sometimes bearded, in Herds grass (Agrostis vulgaris) from the lowest nodes, bulb-like intumescences. A creeping root is in fact a stibteraneous stem. See fig. OF TENNESSEE. CHAPTER VI.* HOW TO TELL A GRASS TABLE OF GRASSES. As before stated, it is deemed necessary to speak only of those grasses indigenous to or growing in Tennessee. It will be endeavored to make the reader well acquainted with each species, and this will not be difficult if ordinary attention is paid to the directions. In speaking of each grass, both the common name and the botanic will be given. The bo- tanic names will be enclosed in brackets, and the first will denote the genus and the second the species to which the grass belongs ; for instance, blue-grass (Poa-pratensis), here Poa is the g.enus, and pratensis the species to which it be- longs. If farmers would make it their business to inspect and classify all strange grasses that may fall wider their observation, a state of intelligent inquiry would be aroused that would greatly redound to the interest of agriculture. For the benefit of such, a table is hereby appended, so that any one may analyze grasses and locate them. But little practice will be necessary to familiarize the student with the rules. Let the flowers of the grass be first examined. If but one is found in each spikelet, refer to No. 2, the left hand column, and then examine and see if they are arranged in panicles or spikes ; if the former, then refer to No. 3 of the left hand column, and see whether or not they are awned. If awned, refer to No. 4, if without awns, to No. 12 of the left hand column. If unawned, and having two glumes, refer to 13, and so on. If without glumes and aquatic, it is a Zizania or wild rice. If in the first examination the spikelets are found to have two or more flowers, refer to 26 of the left hand colnmn, and see whether the inflorescence 5 66 THE GRASSES is in panicles or spikes. If the former, refer to 27 of the left hand column. If the latter, in spikes, refer to 39, and then see whether the spikelets are two-rowed, or one- sided. If the latter, refer to 45, and see whether th*e spikes are digitate and the spikelets in two rows. If they are, refer it to the genus Eleusine. For convenience of reference a glossary is attached to this work. ANALYTICAL TABLE, 1 Spikelet with but one flower 2 1 Spikelet with two or more flowers 26 2 Flowers arranged in panicles 3 2 Flowers in spikes 16 3 With awns or beards 4 I Without awns pr beards 12 4 Glumes large 5 4 Glumes minute, unequal, one hardly seen 11 4 Glumes none, grass aquatic 2 Zizania 5 Without abortive rudiments 6 5 With an abortive rudiment of a second flower 52 Holcus 6 Paleae two 7 6 Palese three, upper awned, flowers polygamus 66 Sorghum 7 Palese, with one awn 8 7 Lower palese with three twisted awns 15 Aristida 8 Palese cartilaginous or gristly 9 8 Palese herbaceous 10 8 Palese membranaceous, panicle open 7 Agrostis 8 Palese membranaceous, panicle contracted 8 Polypogon 9 Flowers sessile or joined to stem at base 13 Oryzopsis 9 Flowers stipitate, fruit black 14 Stipa 10 Flowers naked, with one stamen 9 Cinna 10 Flowers hairy, stamens three . . .'. 12 Calamagrostis 11 Stamens three 10 Muhlenbergia 11 Stamens two 11 Brachyelytrum 12 Glumes two 13 12 Glumes none, leaves rough from the end backwards 1 Leersia 13 Palese membranaceous 14 13 Palese leathery, spikelets all cauline 56 Millium 13 Palese leathery, fertile spikelet radical 67 Amphicarpon 14 Fruit coated or covered with a husk 15 H Fruit naked 6 Sporobolus OF TENNESSEE. 67 15 Flowers stalked 7 Agrostis 15 Flowers sessile 5 Vilfa 16 Flowers awned , , 17 16 Flowers without awns 22 17 Spikes solitary 18 17 Spikes many, awnless, unilateral, paleae cartilaginous. ..59 Panicum 17 Spikelets two, fertile 63 Erianthus 17 Spikes two, polygamous, sterile, flowers bearded 64 Andropogon 18 Spikes simple or nearly so 19 18 Spikes paniculate, or lobed 21 19 Involucre none 20 19 Involucre of two or more bristles 60 Setaria 1 9 Inolucre burr-like 61 Cenchrus 20 Paleae with awns one to three times their length 3 Alopecurus 20 Paiese with awns five times their length 44 Hordeum 21 Both glumes and paleae awned 10 Muhlenbergia 21 Glumes awnless, single paleae awned 54 Anthoxanthum 21 Paleae. two, lateral flowers staminate, 53 Hierochloa 22 Flowers perfect or polygamous 23 22 Spikes monoecious 25 23 Spikes one-sided 24 23 Spikes cylindrical, solitary terminal 4 Phleum 24 Spikes two or more, spikelets suborbicular 5,8 Paspalum 24 Spikes digitate or verticillate, linear 59 Panicum 24 Spikes pedunculate, in a two-sided panicle .16 Spartina 24 Spikes sessile, in a one-sided panicle 41 Lepturus 25 Spikes all terminal, sterile above, fertile at base 62 Tripsacum 25 Fertile spikes lateral, sterile ones terminal panicled 66 Zea 26 Inflorescence in panicles 27 26 Inflorescence in spikes 39 27 Flowers awned 28 27 Flowers without awns 33 28 Lower paleae awned on the back 29 28 Lower paleae awned on the apex 32 29 Awn near the base of the paleae 30 29 Awn near the apex of the paleae ". 31 30 Apex bifid, awn bent 50 Avena 30 Apex bifid, awn bent, lower flower sterile 51 Arrhenatherum 30 Apex multifid 47 Aira 31 Paleae with two bristly teeth 49 Trisetum 31 Paleae bifid 37 Bromus 32 Lower paleae rounded, obtuse 35 Briza 32 Lower paleae entire, pointed, fruit coated 36 Festuca 82 Awn between' two teeth, twisted 48 Danthonia 68 THE GRASSES 33 Terminal flower perfect 34. 33 Terminal flower abo tive, or a mere pedical 36 34 Paleae entire, outer one mucronate . . 35 34 Glumes unequal, like the lower abortive paleae 59 Panicum 34 Glumes equal, longer than the paleae 55 Phalaris 34 Lower paleae truncate, mucronate, inner bifid 38 Uniola 34 Flowers silky-bearded on the rachis 39 Phragmites 34 Spikelets terete, paleae seven-nerved 31 Glyceria 34 Spikelets two to six, five nerved 33 Poa 34 Spikelets two to twenty, three nerved 34 Eragrostis 34 Spikelets flat, lower paleae laterally compressed 32 Bryzopyrum 35 Scales two, styles two 36 Festuca 35 Scales and styles three 40 Arunitinaria 36 Panicle contracted 37 36 Panicle large, diif use 3o Melic* 37 Lower palea one-pointed or mucronate 38 37 Lower palea pointless 29 Eatnnia 37 Lower palea three-cleft 24 Tricuspis 37 Lower palea awnless . , 25 Danthonia 38 Stamens three 28 Koehleria 38 Stamens two 26 Diarrhena 39 Spikelets two ranked 37 39 Spikelets unilateral 43 40 Glumes broad 41 40 Glumes subulate 42 40 Glumes none 46 Gymnostichum 41 Glumes two, in the upper spikelet only 42 ttolium 41 Glumes two, in each spikelet 43 Triticum 42 Glumes collateral, spikelets in twos or more ... 46 Elymus 42 Glumes opposite, spikelets solitary 45 Secale 43 One perfect among several neutral ones ." 17 Ctenium 43 One perfect flower below several neutral ones 44 43 Spikelets conglomerate or paniculate 27 Dactylis 43 Spikelets with more than one perfect flower 45 44 Spik|lets dense , 18 Bouteloua 44 Spikes filiform, racemed 19 Gymnopogon 44 Spikes slender, digitate 20 Cynodon 45 Spikes digitate, glumes and palea awnless, blunt 22 Eleusine 45 Spikes racerned, slender 23 Leptochloa The grasses which we purpose to describe in the follow- ing pages, are named in the following list. It is intended to OF TENNESSEE. 69 make the article on each grass final, as to that species, and then a few observations will be given on the adaptability of the different soils to each genus of grasses. The list is far more numerous than here given. The others are confined either to the sea coast, salt marshes, or to points of altitude far higher than is attained by any lands within our State boundaries : 70 THE GRASSES -i a : *> ts'a : a : 5 B jt .S-S-g ^ Brill sell i ^lUplH iljlll IttllmlAlJS^illHlfi i I Sill Bj l| ol> ilg?Sli4Jifliilllilh4lli lil^eii c3 ^ O O a :!> : : HH ''S'g-d x H 53^ 8 1^" o o. f : &|g : ;|&&; s!-.8 : g ^a 4n S^ ^|^3^ 1SP S bfl >^ 1 r3 i I : 045 QJ ^ r O V 9 H SfeHrf^l liilll-iiilitl & OF TENNESSEE. 71 * : j :. '. : If i : ; .2 lljifgill a 1? *! o fl S f o O m c8 Wfc 83-|.2^ T^ !T^ % OP XI t*i"3 ^^ * ' O O tf 'iS'irg |S| -to ^?s?g^a flpjg 72 THE GRASSES "0 oJ 8* 1 I'd 3 * ^H * CJ t-sl-T) ^^ c3 08 ts-s 47 p fl^ p 3 3 S P P - .g4W- B - B ^ ^ ^ pq pq pq pq pq |a OF TENNESSEE. 73 q ? * 3 "3 'o 3 'o BTB > d a ^ : : S ; a S .2 03 d * *& -3 ^ ^ I 11 ' * ""'"iimfE"* s tiSi-ilDV^r-' ' H.|llJ -" 3 ^D a g s -S rS 3 S d a r^ slfil il^ll . II i s *s s ^ 3 " S S.^ 74 THE GRASSES OP TENNESSEE. .b ***? TIMOTHY. 75 MEADOW GRASSES. II. In Part II, we shall treat of the Meadow Grasses, in the order named below : Timothy Red-Top or Herds Grassy-Tall Red-Top grass Orchard grass Wood Meadow grass Rough-stalk Meadow grass Willard's Brome or Chess English Rye grass Italian Rye grass Many-flow- ered Darnell Crab or Crop grass Millet Hungarian grass- Barn grass Bengal grass Gama grass Egyptian grass Meadow Oat grass Means, Johnson or Egyptian grass Red Clover Alsike or Swedish Clover Sapling Clover Crimson Clover Alfalfa or Lucerne Japan Clover Esparsette or Sainfoin Vetch. CHAPTER VII. TIMOTHY HERDS GRASS OR RED-TOP. TIMOTHY ( Phleum Pratense). Spikes cylindrical or elongated, glumes hairy on the back, tipped with a bristle less than half their length ; leaves long, flat, rough, with long sheaths ; root perennial, on moist soils fibrous, on dry ones bul- bous, mostly bulbous. This grass is known in New, England as Herds grass, from a Mr. Herd, who found it growing wild in New Hamp- shire, and introduced it into cultivation. Further south, 76 THE GRASSES OF TENNESSEE. a however, this name is only applied to Red-top, or Agroslis vulgaris. Mr. Timothy Hanson carried it from New York to Caro- lina, and from him it is known as timothy grass. There is much dispute as to its parent- age, some claiming it as indigenous to the United States, while many others, among them Dr. Gray, give it an Euro- pean origin. It is of little consequence where it sprang from, it stands confes- sedly at the head of all meadow grasses, not only in the amount of its yield, but in its superiority as a nutritious food for stock. It is eaten with more avidity than any other perennial grass, although it has a very coarse, rough stem, and less fodder than many others. Its leaves are abundant near the ground, but those on the stalk are com- paratively few. Like most other mea- dow grasses it attains its greatest value as a food before the seeds are ripe. The latter are very abundant and highly nu- tritious. From ten to thirty bushels are made on good land. It ripens late, and consequently favors the farmer very much, as he is able to save his wheat before cutting and curing his hay. It was a common custom at one time to sow it with clover, as it added to the value of the hay, and irom the strength of its tall stems, it prevented the clover from lodging, but the fact of ripening so much later than clover, causing a great loss from shrinkage, has done away with this practice, especially as orchard grass is so much superior in that respect. Timothy is not suitable for pasturing, having scarcely any aftermath. Besides, the TIMOTHY. 77 roots are easily destroyed if the stems are taken off be- low the first joint, this much being required for their vital- ity. For this reason, also it is necessary to be careful to set the blade of the mower sufficiently high to leave the first joint intact. As has been stated, the roots are both fibrous and bulbous. These bulbs have but few rootlets starting out from them, the plant depending for its support princi- pally on the store of nourishment laid up within the bulbs. If, therefore, the stem is shaved off entirely, the bulbs ? being deprived of all nourishment, throw out tubers all around, and these send up shoots, seeking food in the air, but they are feeble, and if spared by the frosts of win- ter are so crippled they fall an easy prey to the scorch- ing suns of summer. For the same reason pasturing will effectually destroy a timothy meadow if persisted in. The stock will bite off all vegetation, leaving the roots to perish, or if hogs are allowed to rim on it they quickly discover and destroy the succulent bulbs. When about half the blossoms turn brown, and at least the upper part of the spike or head is still purple, a yellowish spot will make its appearance at or near the first joint, and this is the true indication for the harvest to begin, for this spot will soon extend if allowed to remain, to the spike, and the whole plant will be a stem of wood. The appearance of this spot also tells of the maturity of the bulbs, and they are not so liable to injury from cutting as before. If this joint is left, the tubers will remain green and fresh during the entire winter ; but their destruction is inevitable if it is taken away at any time during the year. These remarks do not apply with equal force to timothy when it has a fi- brous root, but the two kinds are so intimately mingled there is no practical difference. Timothy stands at the head of all grasses in its nutritive qualities. A specimen taken from the field according to the above directions, yielded on analysis, water 57.21, flesh- forming principle 4.86, fat- forming principles 1.50, heat- 78 THE GRASSES OF TENNESSEE. producing principles 22.85, woody fibre 11.82, and mineral matters 2.26, in one hundred parts. (Way.) A compari- son of its relative value as a food will be made further on. But the above nutritious specimen will never be pro- duced, if the plant is allowed to stand too long. On the con- trary, as a food it would become woody and worthless, all. its starch, sugar, albuminoids, and other nutritive princi- ples having been deposited in the seeds, and the stalk is nothing more than a woody support. Cattle fed on this kind, or on hay that has been allowed to get wet and ferment, will quickly lose their flesh and the hair become rough. Timothy is exhaustive to the soil, and being a heavy feeder, requires attention. No crop can be raised on ground, that will not extract a certain amount of its vitality, but unless something is taken the farmer would receive nothing. Therefore, it is the duty of the farmer to supply by ma- nures, the deficiency that occurs. And this is made the more apparent from the fact, that, the man who applies the most manure will invariably get the best returns for his labor. On good, rich land, bottom is best, timothy will make two tons per acre. By a heavy application of compost or manure from the barn-yard, it can be raised to five tons, and the straw lengthened from two feet, its usual height, to five and even six feet, and from the same cause, the heads from two inches to twelve inches in length. It is a great and sure bearer of seeds, but the seeds are easily destroyed by heat in the mow, unless precautions are used in caring for them. In fact, so many adulterations, and non-germinating seeds are thrown upon the market, it would be well for each farmer to save his own seed, by de- voting a certain amount of ground to it. Let the timothy get fully ripe, and, by adjusting the mower, save as little stalk with the seeds as possible. This should becarefully spread and beat out as soon as convenient, and it is easily done. The time of sowing is various. If sown in the spring it TIMOTHY. 79 is liable to be killed by summer heat, and if sown late in autumn, it runs the same risk with frost. It is, therefore, bad policy to run the risk of not only losing the cost of seed but also the labor of preparing the ground. Much must be left to the judgment of the farmer in selecting a suitable day, but it is safe to say that it should always be sown in the fall, early enough to get a root strong enough to resist winter killing. If sown in a very dry soil it will incur the further danger of germinating from dews, and of being killed by the sun. Select the time when the ground is moist and the days not excessively hot. The quantity of seed per acre is various, but the sower who spares his seed will reap in proportion. Not less than 12 pounds if mixed, and if alone at least three gallons of clean seed will be required to se- cure a good stand. But it will be better to test the seeds beforehand, for a failure from bad seeds will cause a year's delay. Timothy does best on rich, alluvial, moist land. But any rich land, whether upland or lowland, will produce it, if proper attention is given. Wherever calcareous loam exists it can be profitably put to timothy. It will not grow to any extent at a greater elevation than 4,000 feet above the sea, but on any less height there is no grass capable of greater diffusion. In order to secure a stand of timothy, the follow- ing simple rules may be adopted : 1. Be sure of your seed by -testing them before sowing. 2. Put plenty of seed on the ground ; if too thin, it will require time to turf over, if too thick, it will quickly ad- just itself. 3. Sow early enough to enable the seed to get a foothold before winter sets in. Ljybe fall and winter sowings are always precarious. September is best if there is no drought, other- wise wait for a "season." 4. Unlike other grasses, timothy will not admit of pas- turage. The nipping of stock will destroy the tubers. 80 THE GRASSES OF TENNESSEE. 5. NEVER CUT THE SWARD BELOW THE FIRST JOINT. 6. Be sure to have the ground well pulverized. It is necessary to impress one idea that has already been stated. Do not allow the timothy to stand longer than the time that the yellow spot appears near the first joint, as it will from that time ripen very rapidly, and be worth- less. General Harding, before the Farmers' Club, called attention to the fact, that, the greatest enemy of tim- othy is blue-grass. If stock is allowed to pass from a blue-grass pasture, at will, to a meadow of timothy, they will quickly sow the meadow in blue-grass, and the latter will, in a short time, supersede the former. In the meet- ing above alluded to, timothy being the subject of discus- sion, Gen. Harding being called on for his views, said "he had had considerable experience with timothy. He regarded timothy the most valuable of all the grasses for hay, and more especially for hay that must be handled or shipped or baled. He had tried several varieties. Many years ago timothy was a grass of which it was a very easy thing to secure a stand, and also a considerable amount of grass, and the meadow lasted for many years. He used to have meadows twenty, and even thirty years of age, but were, even at that age, good, productive meadows. Timo- thy was introduced into this country before blue-grass." The General remarked, he considered blue-grase a great enemy of timothy meadows. Before the introduction of blue- grass, our timothy meadows lasted almost without limit, and produced year after year, for twenty or thirty years. "But since we have been growing blue-grass more extensively, it gets into our timothy meadows in a few years and will root out the timothy ; so now, in buying my timothy seed, I look more carefully for blue-gra&s seed than for the seed of any noxious weeds. I would rather sow dock I would rather sow anything in my timothy than blue- grass. Still I value blue-grass in its place, as the first of grasses, yet it causes more trouble in our mea- TIMOTHY. 81 dows than anything else. Again, our seasons have be- come dryer, and there is much greater difficulty in getting a stand of timothy than formerly. When I commenced sow- ing meadows, I had no trouble in getting a stand of tim- othy, whether I sowed the seed in the fall or in the spring, whether I sowed in the fall with wheat or barley, or in the spring with my oats. For many years I never failed. Now I sow in the fall, and the timothy is frequently winter- killed ; I sow in the spring, and it is killed by the long droughts of summer, but these difficulties should not deter us. We should continue to sow, and persevere until we get a stand. Hence, if I sow in the fall and my timothy is killed, I sow in the spring, if it is then killed, I sow again and again, until I succeed. I have never given up, and have never entirely failed, after repeated efforts. My sow- ing last spring was very fortunate; I have a very fine and promising young meadow now, of one hundred acres, that I sowed last spring a year ago. I am satisfied, however, that under the changed state of our climate, we must sow more seed than we have been in the habit of sowing. I got a good stand of timothy many years ago with a gallon of seed to the acre, now I would recommend not less than one and a half gallons, or even a peck of seecl to the acre. Again, the better the stand you get, the thicker your grass comes up the more will it keep out the weeds. The white blossom, like the blue-grass, has also increased largely, and seems to be yet increasing. That is a troublesome weed for our mea- dows. Still that is not as pernicious as it seems to the inex- perienced. True, you cannot sell white blossom in the mar- ket, but if you expect to consume the hay at home, and make your timothy with a large amount of white blossom in it, you will find you will have good hay. Stock will eat it, and readily ; mules and cattle seeming to do almost as well upon it as upon the timothy alone." "I know that some differ from me in considering the white blossom as troublesome as any other plant, and throw it 6 82 THE GRASSES OF TENNESSEE. away. I have some hands to run along the windrow and pick out the white blossoms, and make hay of the white blossoms alone ; it pays very well for the labor of separat- ing it. I would rather not have to do it, for all the labor is needed at that season of the year ; but I will not throw the white blossoms away, for it is valuable. I stack it in my pastures, and let the cattle go to it at will during the winter. I also stack my straw, and that helps the cattle." " Sometimes there is also a fine growth of crab grass, and gome fox-tail and rag weed. I rake this^up ; you cannot sell it in the market, but it largely pays for the labor of saving it. I have this winter kept a large number of steers that I expect to bring into the market next spring, and they have had nothing else but straw, and this kind of weed. I sprinkle a little salt on the stack, and the stock eat it and do well on it. I have no doubt but they would do better on the better hay, but I cannot afford to feed beef-cattle on first-class hay, worth one dollar per hundred pounds in the market, while I can save that which is not worth one cent in the market and feed it to them." "It is valuable in another respect. It comes on at the con- clusion of your harvest, and after corn is laid by. The clover comes on at the busiest season of the year, and hence I prefer the timothy." "Now, what is the proper time to cut timothy ? Some would say as soon as it blooms ; others would say, after it has bloomed and the bloom has fallen. If I could cut it all on the day I thought it would make the best hay, I would cut it just about the time it has lost the largest por- tion of its bloom. If you cut it too green like green fod- der the stalk will shrivel, and after being cured, the stalk will break short, but if allowed to get a little riper the stalk will bend." "How much sun should it have ? That is a question that can only be determined by experience. The proper time to put it up is when it has had as little sun as possible, so you TIMOTHY. 83 are assured it will not mould. If there is too much moisture in it, it will mould, and thereby injure the hay. If the weather is settled, it will cure better in cocks, but all these things must be governed by circumstances." "The best time to cut hay is just after the bloom stops. I think timothy pays best sowed alone. It can be cured bet- ter in cocks, but sometimes in bad weather it will not do to risk it in cocks. I pasture my timothy meadows, but it assists in introducing blue-grass. I would prefer to sow in the fall, as early in September as possible. I have tried plaster on timothy, but do not know that I have derived any benefit from it. The best blue-grass land is the best for timothy, and I would prefer it to be rich limestone loam." It is highly probable one cause of the General's meadows failing in six or seven years, is the fact, he admits, of pas- turing them, It is a well ascertained fact, that timothy will not bear pasturing, and attention to this and leaving the first joint uncut will most probably make our meadows again live twenty or thirty years. At the meeting of the Stock Breeders' Association, in February, 1878, Gen. W. H. Jackson, who is farming with Gen. Harding, said tkat they found the best forerunner of timothy to be Hungarian grass. If this is sown in the summer and harvested in August or September, and timothy sown upon the stubble and harrowed in, the very best stand could be obtained. The Hungarian grass destroys all noxious weeds, and gives a certain degree of compactness to the soil necessary to secure a good stand of timothy. The porosity of the soils of the Central Basin makes this, or rolling of the land, essential conditions of success. On the clayey lands of the valley of East Tennessee or the Bimlands, there is no more difficulty in securing a stand of timothy than of herds grass or clover. I have seen as much as three tons of timothy hay cut from a bottom field on Bed river in Montgomery county, nine months after seeding. 84 THE GRASSES OF TENNESSEE. BED-TOPHERDS GRASS (Agrostis vulgaris.) Erect steins, slender, smooth, polished, round; roots creeping, pan- icle oblong, leaves linear, ligule very short, lower palese mostly awnless, and stein nerved. Flowers in July. It was introduced from England, where it was known as Bent grass. When first cultivated it went by the name of English grass. There are many species now raised in England, which are still known as Fine Bent. It is scattered over the whole State and but few old pastures are free from it, but there it is so dwarfed by close grazing and treading that it shows to but little advantage. It is commonly called in these situations fine-top. Next in importance to timothy as a meadow grass stands Herds grass. Unlike the former, it also makes a good grazing grass in fact grazing is necessary to its preserva- tion, as, if allowed to go to seed a few years, it dies out. It loves a moist soil, and on swampy places that will grow scarcely anything else, herds grass will thrive wonderfully. It is the most permanent grass we have, and by means of its long, creeping roots, will even, if sown too thin, quickly take possession of the ground. It is greedily eaten, while young and tender, in the spring by all kinds of stock, and affords a fine nourishing hay, though in less quantity per acre than timothy. It grows from two to three feet high, and with its purplish panicles, when in full bloom, presents a most charming sight in its soft feathery un- dulations. It is oftener mixed with other grasses than sown alone, especially with timothy and clover. But it fails to come into harvest as early as clover, and the same objections may be urged against it that are to timothy. It yields, on moist bottom land, from one and a half to two tons per acre, but on uplands it is not a good producer. On thin lands it will RED-TOP. 85 not gain a sufficient height to justify harvesting at all. It withstands the effects of drought much better than timothy. In England it is supposed to grow best on sandy soils. Such soils suit it in West Tennessee. Its effects when fed to milk cows are to greatly enrich and yellow the butter, and European dairymen think they cannot do without it in their pastures. By the Woburn experiments at the time of flowering, it yielded 10,209 pounds of grass, which lost in drying 5,615 pounds, and furnished 532 pounds of nutritive matter. Cut when the seeds were ripe, it yielded 9528 Ibs. of grass, which lost exactly half its weight in drying and afforded only 251 Ibs. of nutritious matter. From this it would appear that this grass is doubly as valuable for feeding pur- poses when cut at the time of flowering. A writer in the Rural Sun, under date of February 18, 1878, institutes a comparison between the value of this grass and timothy. "The experience of Mr. Smith, that timothy lasts but a few years, while red-top remains permanently, corresponds with the general experience of the country, viz : that timothy lasts about three years and red-top until it is replowed. While the yield per acre on our best lands would not be so much as timothy, yet our poorer soils which will not pro- duce timothy, will bring fair crops of red-top. Timothy, having bulbous roots, is subject to be killed.by being closely cut in hot, dry weather, and is not fit for pasturage, because the bulbs where bitten or bruised by being trod upon, die, and it is also likely to form tussocks. Herds grass, on the contrary, lias fibrous roots, occupies the entire surface, makes a sod and bears close pasturage. Sown with clover, it will occupy the soil by the time the clover dies out. Herds grass seeds|are now very cheap, and half a bushel of Herds grass seed sown to the acre with the clover sown in the spring, would pay well for the small expenditure. There are 425,000 seeds in an ounce of Herds grass seed, and this small amount evenly distributed over an acre would give about nine and three-fourth seeds to each square foot, while 86 THE GRASSES OF TENNESSEE. the amount recommended, say one-half bushel of six pounds, would give, say 936 seeds to the square foot, or six and a half seeds to the square inch." For stopping gullies in old fields it is superior to blue grass, as it will throw its long, searching roots from the top down the sloping banks of the washes, and fasten to every patch of good soil at the bottom, and then from every joint starts up a stalk to get a fresh hold. It affords a very good aftermath from which, in wet falls, a fair crop may be cut. Unless well tramped in the late fall it is liable to form tufts that rise out of the soil from the effects of freezing, and are destroyed. Therefore, after cutting, let on the stock and their feet will insure a good turf, and besides, will destroy weeds. But the cattle should be taken off the pasture after rains have filled the earth with water, or it will become too rough for the proper use of the mower. The quantity of seed per acre, when sown alone, is about half a bushel. The seed is usually sold in the chaff, it being difficult to separate it. Wh$n badly cleaned a bushel per acre will not be too much. The time for harvesting is when it is in full flower, or as soon thereafter as possible, when all the elements that are . necessary to form the seeds are still in the stalk and leaves. Left to ripen fully, it becomes woody and innutritions. Many pursue the plan of mixing the timothy and Herds grass together, as they ripen together, and the Herds grass being much lower than the former fills in well, and the two will make a more abundant yield than either separate. But one requires pasturage and that will destroy the other. It should be sown in September, unless sown on wheat, and then as early as practicable, to enable the roots to get sufficient depth to resist the cold of winter. If sown alone it will, like timothy, make about a half crop the ensu- ing year. But it is a difficult matter to induce our Ten- nessee farmers to forego a crop of something every year, consequently it is usually sown over a grain field, either RED-TOP. 87 wheat, rye or barley. There are a great many marshy spots in Tennessee, especially on the Tennessee and Mississippi rivers, so full of water that nothing can be culti- vated on them, and on these fine crops of Herds grass could be secured every year, which would certainly be far preferable to allowing them to run to waste. These bot- toms are usually of surprising fertility, and would go far to supply, the great deficiency of hay and obviate the necessity of importing from our more thrifty northern neighbors. . It is a perennial, and if properly tramped every autumn will keep good an indefinite length of time. This grass also finds a most congenial soil throughout West Tennessee, in many places in that division of th State attaining the height of five feet. It is probably bet- ter adapted to all the soils of the State than any other grass. I have seen it growing in princely luxuriance 6000 feet above the sea on the bald places of the Uii'aka Moun- tains. It flourishes upon the slopes and in the valleys of East Tennessee. It yields abundantly upon the sandstone soils of the Cumberland Table-land, and beautifies th< rolling surfaces of the Highland Rim. In the Central Basin it sparkles in the beauty of its verdure, and is second only to red clover and timothy as a meadow grass. No other grass is sown so much for hay upon the lands lying at the western base of the Cumberland Table-land. In Warren county especially it is highly esteemed for its longevity and fruitfulness. In reply to a communication addressed to him in regard to this grass, Mr. P. H. Maj- bury writes as follows: (!)AKHAM, WARREN COUNTY, TENN. / January, 26, 1878. J J. B. Killebrew, Esq., Nashville, Tennessee: You ask what soils suit best for Herds grass and the best time for sowing. It grows well on clay soils, in the damp, marshy swamp lands, as well as on the highest elevations ; will grow in sandy lands,*but the land should be well packed by rolling or treading of stock. 88 THE GRASSES OF TENNESSEE. It should be sown the last of September or first of October any time after the equinoctial rains to the 15th of October. It is better to be sown alone, but will do very well sown with wheat. When sown in the spring it is usualL overrun with weeds. As a meadow or grazing grass it is very valuable. It yields on good soil from a ton to one and one-half tons of superior hay, the stems and blades much fewer and somewhat softer than timothy. I prefer it to timothy my stock prefer it. For grazing it is very valuable. Upon land where limestone is ab- sent it flourishes, has greater tenacity of life, makes a sod almost im- pervious to hoof and tooth in fact it is the blue grass of the mountain district. We have but little lime in our soils and therefore blue grass does not grow well. For a meadow I prepare the soil well with plow and harrow and sow one bushel of clean seed per acre, one-half one way and then sow the other half across the first so as to avoid leaving spaces unoccupied. A light brush maybe dragged over it or not, as ig preferred. I prefer to leave it without brush or roller. The roller ig the best ; in fact for a meadow it prepares the surface well for the mower or sythe. If sown by the first of October, alone, a crop of hay the next season may be cut perhaps equal to any it will ever after- ward yield, and worth more than a crop of wheat o^ corn. The time to cut for hay is just before the seeds ripen, but if seeds are desired let them ripen, and if cut immediately will still make fine hay. For pastures I would advise a mixture of orchard grass with it. Orchard grass grows well in the same soil with Herds grass. I am gratified that you are giving to the country so much general in- formation upon the subject of agriculture. It is yet possible to reno- vate our exhausted soils, and restore prosperity to our country again. Our soils and our mines are our wealth, but our people must be taught to understand the value of manures, the rotation of crops and the breed- ing and feeding of domestic animals. TALL RED-TOP (Tricuspis seskrioides.) Spikelets, three to twelve flowers, glumes unequal, rachis of the spike bearded below each flower, lower palea much longer than the upper, convex, hairy on the back, three nerved and three pointed by projection of the nerve, stamens three, stigmas dark purple. The Tricuspis, three pointed, is a meadow grass and thrives best on sandy soils or old fields. When in full bloom it makes a good show but does not yield a sufficiently large crop to justify sowing in preference to several others. It is said to be harsh and wiry.. ORCHARD GRASS. 89 CHAPTER VIII. ORCHARD GRASS WOOD MEADOW GRASS ROUGH STALK MEADOW CHESS OR CHEAT ITALIAN RYE GRASS MANY FLOWERED DARNEL CRAB GRASS. ORCHARD GRASS (Dactylis Glomerate.} With broadly linear, rather rough, pale and keeled leaves and a dense panicle of one-sided clusters, on which the spikelets are much crowded, each three to four flowered, both the glumes and the lat- erally compressed-keeled [lower palet tapering into a short awn, rough-ciliate on the keel. Flowers in early summer. (Gray). Whether a native of America or Europe, or indigenous to bqth coun- tries, it is well known that Orchard grass is diffused more extensively than almost any other grass, growing all over Europe, the northwestern parts of Africa, and in Asia Minor. Known as Cock's foot in England for many centuries, it was not appreciated as a forage plant until sent to that coun- try from Virginia. It is a perennial, and grows upon congenial soils any where between 35 and 47 degrees north latitude. It likes a soil moderately dry, porous, fertile and inclined to be sandy. On stiff, clay soils, retentive of moisture, the roots do not acquire such a vigor as to give a luxuriant top growth. The feeble- ness of the roots upon such a soil makes them liable to be thrown up by the earth. It may be grown successfully on a lean, sterile sort, by a top dressing of stable manure, yielding during a moderately wet season from two to three crops. In its rapid growth in early spring lies one of its chief merits, furnishing a rich bite for cattle earlier than almost any other grass. It also grows later in the fall. It 90 THE GRASSES OF TENNESSEE. / is very hardy when well set, makes a great yield/ grows rapidly and vigorously upon suitable soils, supplies a rich, nutritious hay, which, compared with timothy, is in value in the proportion of 7 to 10. It starts out early in spring, and comes into blossom about the time of red clover. It attains a height, upon good soils, of three feet, though upon soils of great fertilitv it sometimes reaches the height of five feet. After being cut, it springs up rapidly, sometimes in rainy weather growing three or four inches within a week. This quality of rapid growth unfits it for a lawn grass unless cut every week. Nevertheless this very quality makes it stand unrivalled as a pasture grass. The Hon. John Stanton Gould says in his essay upon this grass : " The laceration produced by the teetfi of cattle instead of injuring, actually stimulates it to throw out additional leaves, yielding the tenderest and sweetest herbage." The chief objection to Orchard gKass is that it grows too much in stools or tussocks^ This can l. nodding panicles, leaves lance-shaped, broad stem one to three feet high ; a native of Turkey and an annual. German Millet and Tennessee Millet have a thick, nodding spike, com- pound, six to nine inches long, purplish, afterwards yellow- ish, bristles two and three in a cluster. Introduced from Europe. MISSOURI MILLET (Panicum Italica). Same description . SM others. These grasses have been cultivated extensively in the State for many years. Besides the species mentioned, there are many others, but they are only varieties of one plant. In Europe and in the Indian Islands, the seeds are used extensively as food for man, the seeds abounding in nitro- genous principles. Great quantities of seed have been raised in the State for exportation, and the yield per aere ia very large when properly cultivated. The low prices it has y elded for the last two years, has almost put a stop to its cultivation. The reason, no doubt, of the want of demand is its inferior character as a cattle food. It at one time, en- joyed a wide-spread fame, and it was only the starving 104 THE GRASSES OF TENNESSEE. appearance of stock, that led people to depend less upon it. At one period, it was deemed sufficient food for any stock, without the aid of anything else. The fodder was hay and the seed was corn. But later investigations have demon- strated the fact, that when hay ripens seed, its usefulness as a hay measurably ceases. Were stock fed exclusively on seed-heads, with a sufficiency of good hay, they would thrive exceedingly well, or if the millet is cut while in the flower, or even when the seed is in the milky state, and fed to stock in combination with grain, they would do well. But even then, it is much inferior to oats, timothy, or herds grass. Its only special recommendation is, that it yields a larger proportion of hay than other grasses. It requires a rich, dry soil, and will stand almos^ any amount of droughts, seeming to dry up during the heat, but when it rains it will start off with renewed life, and do as well as ever. It makes large quantities of seed per acre, the Hun- garian yielding 30 bushels ; the Missouri 40 ; the Tennes- see 50 ; and the German from 60 to 80 bushels per acre. The Hungarian millet is a better hay than either of the others, but its yield is much less. The Tennessee millet perhaps yields more hay than either of the other three, but the Missouri has more reputation as a feed for cattle. Should it be wished, however, to sow for a money crop, it will be far preferable to sow the German millet. The Hun- garian has a small head, a simple spike, while the others have compound spikes, most notably the German. It is easily raised, at less cost than corn, and makes, on good ground, nearly double as many bushels as the latter per acre. It is a good grain for stock of any kind, if crushed, the smallness of the seed preventing comminution by the teeth. Should it be desirable to raise it for stock, it will make an excellent food, to feed it in the head, without the expense of threshing. For all kinds of fowls it is unsur- passed, and it is a powerful stimulant to laying eggs. Chickens having a supply to go to, will continue to lay MISSOURI MILLET. 105 through the whole winter, and at the prices it has been sell- ing for, for two years, nothing is cheaper. To sow for hay prepare the ground in a thorough man- ner, pulverizing it completely, and when the ground is in a sufficiently moist condition, in June, sow the seed, a bushel to the acre. Never sow if the ground i^too dry or too wet. If too dry, the seed near the surface will parch in the rays of the sun, and a stand will fail to appear. If too wet the usual injury to the land occurs and the crop " frenches " or turns yellow and dwarfs. After sowing, harrow well and the labor is over. The millet will require seventy or eighty days to mature, unless it is sown in July, when it will require a few days longer. Two crops of Hungarian grass can easily be raised from the same ground annually. A farmer of Davidson county raised a most excellent crop of Hungarian grass, sown the 1st day of September and cut on the 10th of October. Another, of Williamson county, secured a good crop of German millet sown on the 13th day of August, and cut on the 12th day of October. So, if a farmer, by any kind of misfortune, fails in the earlier months to secure a suffi- cient quantity of forage for his stock, he can, as a dernier resort, start very late in supplying himself, by crops of millet. Should it be desired to use the hay as a green forage, it can be cut three times at least, provided it is done before it begins to throw up the seed stalks. It is a com- mon custom in the Southern States to use it in this manner instead of buying the expensive baled hay of the North. For seed, prepare the ground as above described, and then, with a light bull-tongue or skooter plow, run light parallel rows thirty inches apart, and with a tin cup or old oyster can that has three or four holes punched in the bottom with a 4-penny nail, walk rapidly along the furrow, and the seed will sift into it from the cup about right for a stand. Cover very lightly with a cotton coverer, and then, just when the seeds begin to sprout, but before they show 106 THE GRASSES OF TENNESSEE. the sprouts above ground, run over the field with a harrow, and there will be no further trouble. Afterwards cultivate with a cultivator and double-shovel, one plowing with each being all that is required. It will be necessary to thin out the Tennessee millet with hoes, leaving a mere thread of stems, as it stodlls prodigiously, but this will be unneces- sary with either of the other three, as they scarcely stool at all. It must be cut with reap hooks, taking just enough of the head to enable the laborer to make it into bundles ; or if preferred, it can be broken off at the head, taking only the seed, leaving the stubble to renew the soil. If it is in- tended to thresh it, the reap hook must be used, as it will not thresh clean alone, but if the farmer wishes to tread it out on a barn-floor with horses, the straw would involve much waste, as the seeds become entangled with the straw, and will not easily separate from it. They are, after treading, separated from the chaff with an ordinary wheat-fan. This grass is of great value to the renter who has no opportunity of continuing in possession of the land long enough to set a meadow. But for the landowner, there is no excuse for not providing himself with the best hay the climate and soil affords, and there are plenty of good grasses to suit every variety of soil in the State of Tennes- see. If a farmer who is a landowner wishes to indulge the pride, and it is an economical pride, of having fat horses, sleek cattle, and plenty of bacon, let him at once see to his meadows, for a good meadow is next to a corn-crib to pre- pare pork for the smoke-house, as well as to fatten all kinds of stock. A crop of millet is a good forerunner for a meadow, as it destroys all the noxious weeds, and leaves the laud in fine condition for timothy or herds grass. An analysis of Hungarian grass by Wolff when green shows : 107 Ash 7.23 Potash 37.4 Magnesia 8.0 Lime 10.8 Phosphoric Acid 5.4 Sulphuric acid 3.6 Silica 29.1 Chlorine 6.4 BARNYARD GRASS (Panicum crus-galli). This grass is quite common in wet, swampy places, and has spikes alternate and in pairs, sheaths smooth, rachis bristly ; stem from two to four feet high, stout, erect or somewhat procumbent leaves half an inch broad ; panicle dense pyramidal, glumes acute ; arms variable in length, sometimes wanting ; outer palea of the neutral flower usually awned. It flowers from August to October. It is a species of millet, but has received but little atten- tion here as yet, though some efforts have been made to test it. It has never been utilized in Tennessee, but is cut on the coasts of England as a constituent of swale hay. It will, probably never supersede any of the many excellent meadow grasses we have. It is succulent and nutritive, and when green, is eaten by stock with a relish, and it gives a very large yield of hay. BENGAL GH\SS~(Setaria Germanica). A species of millet introduced from Europe> and de- scribed under the head of millets. GAM A GRASS (Tripsacum dactyloides). Spikelets in jointed spikes, staminate above, fertile below ; staminate spikelets two, both alike ; two flowered, lower glume nerved ; upper boat-shaped ; pale, thin, awnless ; anthers opening by two pores at the apex ; stems tall and large, solid, from thick creeping roots ; leaves broad and flat This is in some sections called sesame grass. It is the largest, and one of the most beautiful grasses we have, growing to the height of seven feet. It is abundant through- out the Mississippi Valley on moist, slushy places. When young and succulent, it is eaten with avidity by stock, and 108 THE GRASSES OF TENNESSEE. makes from its rapid growth a good soiling or forage crop, but when it gets large its stem is so woody stock refuse to eat it. Its leaves are very large, equal in size to the leaves of corn, but they are rough and hairy. The grass may be cut three or four times a year, and though in its native state it grows in swamps, it thrives almost equally well on dry or sandy ridges. It will grow where timothy or herds' grass will not, and consequently is well suited to a large section of our Sfete. The quantity of hay taken from one acre is simply enormous, and resembles very much corn fodder, and as a hay is fully equal to it, and it can be saved at one tenth the labor required to save fodder. The roots are as strong and large as cane roots, so let it be sown where it will not be desired to remove it. However, close grazing for a few years will destroy it. It is very nutritious and succulent when cut green. The great mass of roots it has will serve to open, loosen and improve the land upon which it grows. It should never be allowed to shoot up the seed stem when desired for hay. It is with difficulty the seed can be made to vegetate, and therefore it must be propagated by slips from the roots. Prepare the land well, lay off the furrows with a bull- tongue plow two feet apart, and drop a sro^ll piece of root about two feet apart in the furrow, covering with a board. The creeping roots will soon meet, and the ground is quickly turfed with it. It should be planted early in September. Of course, the richer the land, whether upland or bottom, the greater the yield, as the time has never yet come when poor land will make better crops of anything than fertile land. ,1 have seen it growing with great luxuriance in Montgomery county. EGYPTIAN GRASS (Dactyloctenium Eyypticum). This grass is a native of Virginia, and has diffuse stems, often creep- ing at the base ; spikes four or five, leaves hairy at the base. This is an annual grass, is found in yards, is very trouble- some, and is entirely worthless. It is not a meadow grass MEADOW OAT GEASS 109 at all, but is placed in the list simply to warn buyers of seeds not to purchase it, as the Means' grass under the name of Egyptian grass, has obtained a considerable reputation, and it would be easy for a swindler to palm off this for the former. MEADOW OAT GRASS (J.ve?ia pratensis). Spikelets three to many flowered, with an open, large, diffuse pan- icle; lower pale a seven to eleven nerved, with a long, usually twisted awn on the back, grain oblong, grooved on the side, usually hairy and free. This is a perennial grass, and is a native of Great Britain. It is one of the few grasses that do best on a dry soil. It grows to the height of only eighteen inches in its native pastures. But here it is quite a different grass, and rises to the height of from five to six feet. It will not grow well on moist soils, but on rich upland or good sandy land it grows with vigor. It deserves a place on every farm, as the hay is excellent, and is greedily eaten by stock, and be- sides, the yield is extremely large. Another advantage is that the seed will be ripe before the hay turns yellow, so that not only the hay will be saved, but a large amount of seed can be secured ; upon a barn floor enough will shatter out to supply the wants of most farmers. Or if the farm- er wishes to sell the seed, he can cut off the heads .with a cradle, and let the mower follow for the hay. Should the autumn prove a wet one, a second crop can be cut, but if there is not sufficient aftermath to justify cut- ting, do not pasture it, but allow it to grow on as long as it will, and it will about Christmas turn over, the tops turn- ing yellow, but underneath there will be a magnificent pas- ture, all prepared for the hungry stock, and it will con- tinue to sustain them until other grasses take its place. However, should it be desired to use it for hay the succeed- ing year, the stock should be removed about the middle of February. 110 THE GRASSES OF* TENNESSEE. It will seed in the fall, after being sown in the spring, which is the proper time to sow it. Sow two bushels per acre; The seed is very light and chaffy. It is a tussock g#ass, and does not spread from the roots, consequently the seed must be depended on for a stand. After the first sow- ing, there will be no difficulty in obtaining seed, as the yield is large. It affords both for hay and pasture, perhaps more green food than any grass we have. Dr. Flint de- scribes this grass under the name of Perennial Rye Grass (Lolium perenne), and thinks the best time to cut is while in the flower, and the experience of every one in other grasses would seem to justify this opinion. SORGHUM. Hi CHAPTER X. MEANS, JOHNSON, EGYPTIAN GRASS. SORGHUM (Happens*.) Rises with a stem from four to twelve feet high, according to the soil on which it grows, erect, smooth ; leaves linear, flexuous, graceful, curling down at the end like corn ; flowers in a panicle at the top, at first green, changing gradually to a yellow. A few years before the late war, Capt. Means, of South Carolina, who commanded a trading vessel to the Mediter- ranean Sea, brought from Egypt a lot of seeds, from which he got a spoonful of seeds of an unknown kind. He handed them to some one with a request that, they be sown in his garden. They came up and proved to be the grass named above. It was of an unknown quality, and but little atten- tion was paid to it, until it nearly took his garden. He had the plants dug up by the roots and thrown into a neighbor- ing gulley, where they soon began to grow, stopping the wash and spreading all around. It was now seen for the first time that it was greedily eaten by stock. This was suggestive in a country where all the hay had to be im- ported, and so seed was gathered and sown, and the wind spread the seed all around from the growing grass. It puzzled farmers to know it from corn, and it was often left for corn in the field when thinning out, so that the negroes abbreviated the local name and called it "mean grass." In 1860, Capt. Johnson, of Marion Station, Alabama, paid a visit to some relatives and heard of this grass, that had in the meantime acquired a great reputation, and on his return he carried home with him a bushel of seeds and sowed them on his plantation. Soon after he went into the Confederate service and was killed, leaving two little girls. These girls were sent to school at Tuscaloosa, but having 112 THE GRASSES* OF TENNESSEE. no guardian and no means, the president had a gentleman appointed guardian who went to Marion to see if his wards had anything. In the meantime the plantation was left alone, no one caring for it, and it was unrented. He found it a large place, and almost entirely covered with the Means grass, the winds and stock having set it everywhere. Being a shrewd man, he saw its capability and at once ad- vertised it as a stock farm, and soon rented it to Mr. E. C. Gardner and J. C. Copeland, Esq., of Nashville. They saw their opportunity, and at once, securing a number of baling presses, set to work cutting and baling hay for the Southern market. The hay proved popular and sold well wherever tried, as stock delighted in it, leaving all other kinds to eat it. Ap- plications naturally poured in for some of the grass, and so they sold immense quantities of the seed, and also of the roots, getting large prices for both. So great was its popu- larity that at the end of their five years lease a company of Northern men out-bid them, and have resorted to steam to assist in the baling process. Egyptian Sugar Cane, as its proper name is, is a daughter of the Nile, where it grows fifteen or twenty feet high. So great is its luxuriance there that it has filled all the upper Nile so that a canoe cannot be driv ? en through it. Great numbers of cattle and wild animals resort to it, and, in fact, it is the chief sustenance of ruminants in that country. When young it is very tender and sweet, the ,pith being full of sugary juice. The leaves are as large as corn fodder, and very nutritious. It has a perennial root, and so vigor- ous that when once planted it is a difficult matter to eradi- cate it. So care must be taken to plant it where it is not intended to be disturbed. The roots are creeping and throw out shoots from every joint. It is a fine fertilizer, and sown on a piece of poor washed land will, in a few years, restore it to its pristine fertility. But there is really not much difference where it is sown, for a farmer once SOEGHUM. 113 getting a good stand will not want to destroy it. It will bear cutting three or four times a year, and in fact, it has to be done, for when it matures the seed, the stem and leaves are too coarse and woody for use. Jno. B. McEwen, Esq., of Williamson county, procured a bushel of seed from Dr. Gardner, and last year cut it four times, getting a large amount of hay each time. He is de- lighted with it, and says it is the best hay he raises, and his dictum is of value, as he stands deservedly among the best of our farmers. The ground must be well prepared as in other grasses, and in September, the earlier the Better, let it be sown, one bushel to the acre. It can be propagated also by the roots, by laying off the rows each way and dropping a joint of the root two feet apart and covering with a drag. It gives the earliest pastures we have, preceding blue grass or clover a month. Hogs are fond of the roots, and any amount of rooting in it will not injure it. In fact it is a stick tight. It not only thrives well on bottoms, but it will grow just as well on upland, and though poor upland will make but little hay, yet it makes a fine pasture. It disappears in the winter altogether, but the first warm weather brings it up, and it grows with astonishing rapidity. On our lands and in our climate it will grow from five to seven feet high, while in South Carolina it will grow twelve feet high. For soiling purposes it is not equaled by any grass in our knowledge, as it can be cut every two or three weeks. There is a vast amount of land in Tennessee now de- voted to gullies that would pay at least the taxes, and after a while richly remunerate the owner, if put in this grass. It is not a pre-requisite that the land should be broken up to start it. A few sprigs of the roots set here and there in the richest spots, will secure a good stand, 8 114 THE dBASSES OF TENNESSEE. Many persons object to it on account of its great tenacity of life, matting the soil in every direction with its cane- like roots, and the rapidity with which it will spread over a field, and the difficulty of eradicating it. But these very objections should be its recommendation to owners of worn- out fields ; and if it is desired to destroy it, it is only neces- sary to pasture it closely one year, and then in the fall turn the roots up with a big plow to the freezes of a winter, renewing the breaking up once or twice during the winter, and then cultivating the next spring. The seeds are quite heavy, and weigh 35 pounds to the bushel. Every one who has tried it recommends it to 'the public. But some allowance must be made for the partiality of friends, and it would be well to give it a trial before engaging in its culture to any large extent. There would, however, certainly be no risk in sowing it upon those worn-out hill sides, so many of which form an unsightly scar upon the face of nature in Tennessee the tokens of the past. RED CLOVER. CHAPTEE XI. BED CLOVER (Trifolium pratense.) The stems are ascending, somewhat hairy, leaflets oval or somewhat ubovate, often notched at the end and marked with pale spots on the upper side, heads ovate and set directly on the end of the stalk, instead of being on the branches. This valuable forage plant was first introduced into England in 1645, during the stormy times of Charles I, and rapidly met with favor throughout the kingdom. It properly belongs to the legu- minous family, which in- cludes a considerable num- ber of other forage plants that are called artificial grasses, to distinguish them from the true or natural grasses called graminece. The botanic name trifolium comes from two latin words, tres, three, and folium, a leaf, and in England it is often called Trefoil. It may always be known by having three leaves in a bunch, and the flowers in dense, oblong globular heads. There is no grass, natural or artificial, that is more useful to the farmer or stock-grower, than Red Clover. It has been styled, with some show of reason, the corner-stone of agriculture, and tlis not only on account of its vigorous vitality, but because it adapts itself to a great variety of soils. It is widely diffused, and abounds in every part of Europe, in North America, and even in Siberia. It fur- nishes an immense amount of grazing, yields an abundance 116 THE GRASSES OF TENNESSEE. of nutritious hay, and is a profitable crop, considered with reference to the seed alone. But beyond all these, it acts as a vigorous ameliorator of the soil, increasing more than any other forage plant the amount of available nitrogen, and so becomes an important agent in keeping up the productive rapacity of the soil, increasing the yield of other crops, and adding to the wealth, refinement and culture of the farmer who sows it. SOILS ADAPTED TO ITS GROWTH. Red Clover is a biennial plant, and under judicious till- age may be made a perennial, and is specially adapted to argillaceous soils, but it will grow well upon sandy soils, when a " catch" is secured, by the application of a top- dressing of gypsum or barn-yard manure. I have seen it growing with vigor upon the feldspathic soils of Johnson county, upon the sandstone soils of the Cumberland moun- tain, and upon the sandy loams of West Tennessee, but it finds a more congenial soil in the clayey lands of the valley of East Tennessee, on the red soils of the Highland Rim, and on the limestone loams of the Central Basin. But the deep, black, porous soils of this division are not suited for clover. Such soils become very dry in summer, and opens in great cracks or fissures. The clover grows well enough, but is apt to be killed by the dry, hot weather of summer. The clayey lands of West Tennessee have no superior for the production of clover. It often grows upon these lands from four to five feet in height, and forms a mat when it falls, of great density and thickness. As much as four tons of clover hay have been taken from a single acre. There is also a soil derived from the Dyestone or Clinton forma- tion in East Tennessee that grows clover with surprising luxuriance. On such soils in McMinn* county, I have seen the ordinary Red Clover six and a half feet in height. Probably three-fourths of the lands in Tennessee will grow clover remuneratively, and of the soils which will not, a large portion is included in the old gullied fields that con- RED CLOVER. 117 stitute the shame and mark the shiftlessness of too many of the farmers. It may be set down as an infallible rale in the State of Tennessee, that good farming and abundant clovering go together. SOWING CLOVER. Clover may be sown in the latitude of Tennessee upon wheat, rye or oat fields, or alone. Instances have been re- ported to me where a splendid stand was obtained by sow- ing after cultivators in the last working of corn in July. This is unusual, however. So is fall sowing. The best time to sow is from the first of January until the first of April. If sown in January or February, the seed ought to be sown upon snow. This is not only convenient in ena- bling one to distribute the seed evenly over the land, but the gradual melting of the snow, and the slight freezes, bury the seed just deep enough to ensure rapid germination when the warm days of March come on. For the same reason, if sown in March, the seed ought to be sown when the ground is slightly crusted by a freeze. If the sowing is deferred until too late for frosty nights, the land should be well har- rowed and the seed sown immediately after the harrow. Upon land seeded to wheat, this harrowing will not only serve to secure a good stand of clover, but will add greatly to the yield of wheat. It will hasten germination and cause a larger proportion of seed to grow, to harrow the land after the seed is sown. With oats, the seeds should be sown after the last harrowing or brushing, with a slight after-brushing to cover them. It often happens when clover seed is sown with wheat or oats, especially if the land be much worn, that a " catch" will not be obtained. The practice is so universal through- out the State, of sowing clover with small grain, that many farmers labor under the impression that this is the only way of seeding land to clover. This idea is erroneous. A bet- ter stand of clover with less seed, may always be secured by sowing upon land prepared for clover alone. I hav 118 THE GRASSES OF TENNESSEE. often obtained an excellent catch upon "galled" places, by breaking the land well, and sowing the seed without any previous or after harrowing. In nine cases in ten, a stand will be secured in this way upon soils where clover sown with small grain will fail nine cases in ten. The quantity of seed to sow per acre depends upon the character of the soil, its state of pulverization, and also upon the fact whether the land has ever been seeded to clover. Upon good, fresh, rich soils where clover has not previously grown, one bushel for eight acres will be suffi- cient. If the soil is thin and unproductive, one bushel for six acres ought to be sown. If the land has been regularly rotated with clover, one-half the quantity of seed mentioned above will suffice, sometimes much less. Clover seed owing to the large quantity of oil which it . contains, is nearly in- destructible when placed ten or twelve inches beneath the surface. I once purchased a field which had been cropped continuously for ten years without rest, and almost with- out any rotation. It grew a crop of corn the year before. I purchased it in February, plowed it deeply with a large three-horse plow, and sowed it in oats. The oat crop was excellent, and I never saw clover spring up so thickly upon any land. After the oats were harvested the clover grew to the height of eighteen inches, and covered the whole field with its rich mantle of green. I did not sow one seed on it, and no clover had been permitted to grow upon it from 1859 to 1869, the year I seeded it to oats. The frequent failure to secure a good stand of clover ad- monishes the farmers of the State to exercise more care in the seeding. When sown late in the spring many of the seeds sprout, and are killed by dry weather. It would be all the better if the clover seed could be buried a half-inch (or even an inch on loose soils) beneath the surface after the middle of March. The common practice in England, is to sow not only clover, but all other grass seeds, with oats or barley, in spring. After the seeds are sown the field is har- RED CLOVER. 119 rowed and afterwards rolled, so as to cover the seeds and smooth the surface 1 of the field. Farmers are often too sparing of the seed. While upon well prepared soils a bushel to eight acres is sufficient, yet a bushel to six acres will, in a majority of cases, give better and more satisfac- tory results. In England 24 pounds are usually sown to the acre when the crop is intended for hay. The smaller the stem the more acceptable it is to cattle. When thin, the woody fibre is greatly increased. There is no greater blunder committed by the farmer, than to be sparing of grass seed. It is difficult for grass to be too thick. The plants shelter one another; they retain all the dew and moisture when thickly set, and they must push upward, as there is no lateral space to occupy. GROWTH AND MANURE. Eed Clover rarely makes much growth the first season if sown with grain. Should the weather be very seasonable after harvest, and the land fertile, it will sometimes attain the height of thirty inches and put out blooms, making an excellent fall pasture. When sown alone, it will always blossom in August. Sheep are very injurious to young clover, and should never be allowed to run on it until the second year. Grasshop- pers, too, often eat out the crown and destroy it. Dry weather in a stubble field where the rays of the sun are re- flected and repeated a thousand times from the surface of the yellow stubble, is very trying to its vitality. Yet if the land has been well and deeply broken and is moderately fertile, a sufficient stand may be depended upon. As soon as it begins to grow, in early spring, an applica- tion of two bushels of gypsum or land plaster, upon granitic or sandy soils, is absolutely necessary to get a good growth. Some interesting experiments were made in Germany by Dr. Pincus, respecting the action of gypsum (sulphate of lime) upon clover. Three plats of land of about f of an 120 THE BRASSES OF TENNESSEE. acre each, were selected in May, from the middle of a large clover field. The plants were then aoout an inch high. One of the plats was manured with 128 Ibs. of gypsum, the second with the same quantity of sulphate of magnesia, and the intervening plat was left without the application of any fertilizer. On the plat treated with gypsum the clover plants soon showed a deeper green and a more vigorous growth. The clover on the unmanured plat bloomed four or five days earlier than on the manured. On the manured plats the clover was in full flower on May 24, when it was mown. The results were from each plat Cwt. of Clover Hay. Without manure 21.6 With gypsum 30. 6 With sulphate of magnesia 32.4 It was ascertained by a closer examination, that the in- crease in weight obtained from the plats manured with the sulphate did not extend equally to all parts of the plant, but was greatest in the production of stems. There were fewer leaves, fewer flowers, but more stems on the manured than on the unmanured portions. Taking 100 parts of hay the following results were obtained : "d % S l| ONE HUNDRED PARTS OF CLOVER HAY. 3 !* | S-S'i P 5 cc a Flowers 17.15 11.72 12.16 27.45 26.22 25.28 Stems 55.40 61.62 63.0 Or putting in another form o> $ . ONE HUNDRED PARTS OF CLOVER HAY. Q i S i S QQ Clover hay unmanured . . 17.15 27.45 55.40 11.72 26. 22! 61.62 Manured with sulnhate of masnesia. . 12.16 25.28 63.0 RED CLOVER. 121 This shows that the action of the sulphates increased the woody fibre at the expense of the flowers and leaves. The relative proportion of flowers, leaves and stems was : 1 OQ 1 OQ o i qj K 3 OQ 100 160 323 " manured with gypsum . 100 216 507 '' manured with sulphate of magnesia 100 216 538 The entire crop on each plat was as follows : Unmanur'd Pounds. Manured with gyp- sum. Pounds. Manured with sul. of magnesia. Pounds. Leaves 592.9 773.7 849.5 Stems . . . . 1196 6 1927.8 1996.5 Flowers 370.5 358.5 394.0 2110 Ibs. 3060 Ibs. 3240 Ibs The ash constituents were increased in the same propor- tion as the crop. Phosphoric and sulphuric acids were much increased in quantity above the other ash constituents. The ash of the air-dry clover hay was : Unmanur'd Manured with gyp- sum. Manured with suL of magnesia. Per cent 6.95 7.96 7.94 In the entire crop 150. Ibs. 243. Ibs. 257. Ibs. Containing sulphuric acid 2 " 8 " 6 " Containing phosphoric acid 11 95 ' 21 55 " 21.82 " From an inspection of these tables it will readily appear that the sulphates checked the development of the flowers and also of seed. A larger crop of leaves and stems may be secured by the application of gypsum, but not of seed, so that an application of gypsum is not favorable for the de- velopment of the seed crop, but well suited to increase the 122 THE GRASSES OF TENNESSEE. yield of hay. Here, as is often seen in the production of wheat, the abnormal development of straw is attended with a decrease in the yield of seed. These experiments demonstrate that the quantity of sul- phuric acid applied to the field, bears no proportion to the increase in the crop. Baron Liebig, after numerous exper- iments made with gypsum upon clover, comes to the con- clusion that the action of gypsum is very complex ; that it indeed promotes the distribution of both magnesia and pot- ash in the soil. He thinks that gypsum exercises a chemi- cal action upon the soil, which extends to any depth of it, and that in consequence of the chemical and mechanical modification of the earth, particles of certain nutritive ele- ments become accessible to and available for the clover plant, which were not so before. Though having my mind constantly directed to this point, I have rarely found an application of gypsum beneficial upon clayey loams, but its effects are very apparent on strong limestone soils, such as are found in the Central Basin. On the chocolate-colored soils of Warren, Mont- gomery, Stewart and Robertson, gypsum benefits clover very little. Upon the soils of the Unaka and Cumberland mountains, it is indispensable to secure a remunerative yield of foliage. Red Clover has two growing seasons. It make* its most vigorous growth from the first of April until the 15th of June, beginning to bloom usually in the central parts of the State about the 15th of May, and attaining its full inflorescence about the 1st of June. After this, unless depastured by stock or cut for hay, the heads begin to dry up, and stems and leaves begin to fall, forming a mat upon the land. Sometimes this mat is so thick as to catch and concentrate the heats of summer to such a degree as to scald the roots and destroy the clover. Usually it is best after clover has attained its full bloom, either to cut it for hay or pasture with stock until about the first of July. When the stock is removed, or the clover hay cured and taken off, and RED CLOVER. 123 there is rain enough, a second crop will spring up from the roots. This second crop is the most valuable for seed, the seed maturing about the last of August, and sooner, if there be copious rains. To make the most abundant yield of clo- ver for grazing, it should be allowed to grow all it will, but never let it make seed, always grazing it down when in full bloom. When grazed down, take off the stock until ifc blooms again. Several successive crops may thus be made during the summer. The crop of August is unfit for graz- ing, the large quantity of seed having the effect of salivat- ing stock to such a degree as to cause them to lose flesh. It is a fact, well attested by English writers, and by ob- servant farmers of this country, that when clover has been frequently sown upon the same land, it not only fails to produce a heavy crop, but fails to appear at all. The land is then said to be " clover sick." The remedy for this is by extending the number of crops in the scale of rotation, so that clover will not come so often upon the same land. By Liebig, clover- sick land is supposed to be caused by the roots of clover impoverishing the subsoil. Mr. Keene, of England, ascribes the failure of crimson clover in that country to the fact that only clean seed is sown. He thinks the seed should be sown in the pellicle, which acts as a protection to the young plant. The -hint is worthy of a trial. Many farmers believe that fewer failures to get a catch occur when the seed is sown in the chaff. Clover has no superior as a grazing plant. When in full vigor and bloom, it will carry more cattle and sheep per acre than blue grass, herds grass or orchard grass. After it has been grazed to the earth, a few showery days with warm suns will cause it to spring up into renewed vitality > ready again to furnish its succulent herbage to domestic an- imals. Though very nutritious and highly relished by cattle, it often produces a dangerous swelling called hoven, from which many cows die. When first turned upon clover, cat- tle should only be allowed to graze for an hour or two, and 124 THE GRASSES OF TENNESSEE. then be driven off for the remainder of the day, gradually increasing the time of grazing, until they become less vora- cious in tlieir appetites, never permitting them to run upon clover when wet. Clover made wet by a rain at mid- day is more likely to produce hoven than when wet by dew* This is because when wet by rain at midday or after the stalks and leaves are heated by the sun, when taken into the stomach of a cow, this heat generates fer- mentation much sooner than when the herbage is cool, though wet with the morning dew. Cattle are more easily affected by clover than horses, because being ruminants, they take in the clover rapidly, filling the stomach at once, without chewing. Digestion is for the time checked and a rapid fermentation sets in. The remedy found most effect- ive for hoven is to stick a sharp pointed knife about six inches in front of the hip, to the left side of the backbone, and far enough from it to miss the spinal protuberances, and in the thinnest part of the flank. A cow should never be run when affected with hoven, as this treatment only inten- sifies the pain without affording relief. Stock should never be turned upon clover until it blooms The practice of many of our farmers, to turn all the stock npon a clover field early in April, is very destructive. The crown of the clover is eaten out, causing it to perish. The tread of heavy cattle has the same effect. As a soiling crop Red Clover is excelled by no crop grown within the State. The practice of soiling in thickly set- tled communities is one much commended by agricultural writers. An half-acre of clover will supply one cow through- out the months of June, July and August, if cut off and fed in a stall, while twice the amount in pasture, according to some English experimenters, will barely subsist a cow during the same period, and this will depend, of course, upon the luxuriance of the growth. Soiling (that is cut- ting the grass and feeding it green) is a very desirable prac- tice, near small towns, where many persons own small BED CLOVER. 125 lots and desire to keep a milch cow. No other grass, per- hapSj will produce a larger flow of milk. NUTRITIVE VALUE AND CONTITUENT ELEMENTS OF CLOVER. The ^nutritive value of clover was long known by feed- ers before chemical research demonstrated the same fact. It contains, when cut in bloom, nearly 4 per cent, more ni- trogenous food than timothy, and four and a half per cent, more than blue grass. According to Professors Wolff and Knop, in its green state it contains 800 parts in 1,000, of water ; about 100 parts more than timothy, and 37 parts in a 1,000 of albuminoids or flesh formers. When made into hay, cut when in bloom and well cured, Eed Clover contains 134 parts in 1,000 of albuminoids, but cut when fully ripe only 94 parts. The albuminoids contain about 16 per cent, of nitrogen. Timothy hay has 9.7 per cent, of flesh-form- ing matter, and therefore contains less nitrogen, in the pro- portion of 15 to 21, than clover hay. Barley has 10 per cent, of albuminoids, Indian corn 10.7, rye 11, oats 12, clover 13.4 per cent., so that it appears clover hay will fur- nish more muscle-producing or nitrogenous food than either corn, rye, oats or timothy, which gives strength to the state- ments of many practical farmers, that a crop can be made by feeding clover hay alone to the working animals, and they will keep up under it. Prof. Way gives the following analysis of the Eed Clover when green : Water 81. Albuminoids 4.27 Fatty matter 69 Heat producing 8 45 Woody fibre ... 3.76 Ash 1,82 One hundred pounds dried at 212 F;, gives the following: Albuminoids or flesh-formers 22.55 Fatty matter 3.67 Heat-producers (starch, sugar, gum, etc.) 44.47 Woody fibre 19.75 Ash 9.56 126 THE GRASSES OF TENNESSEE. The analysis of clover hay made by Dr. Pincns in the course of his experiments, though differing slightly in ita results from the analyses made by Wolff and Knop and Dr. Anderson, is far more interesting, because it shows the rel- ative value in a nutritive point of view of the different parts of the plant. The analysis is given in the subjoined table: BED CLOVEB. 127 O .fc~ CO 1C C3 I O t- O O COOOO5TflrHOOOS H ^nB^d aii^ng; TH 05 i> t^ co ! o o rH C^ rH CO =3 I TH O 10 Jb- 00 I O 10 00 2* O O j cqt-050oc5oo fa s I 'iweid aji;ug; co oJ t>: id co rH . t- os co o co Qg |rHrHTHTHJOCO ^ Srt I 00 t- 1^ CO I O^ O TjH PH H BS T* 10 05 co |i 1 Albumi- noids Carbohy- drates. II O 1 1 Red Clover in bloom T6.7 16.7 16.7 167 16.7 14.3 143 14.3 77.1 77.7 74.8 75 78.3 81.1 81.2 80.6 6.2 5.6 8.5 f 3 5.0 4.6 4.5 5.1 134 9.4 14.9 15.3 10.2 11.6 9.7 8.9 29 9 20.3 34 3 39 2 23.1 40 7 48.8 39.1 35.8 48.0 25 6 30.5 45.0 28.9 32.7 32.6 3.2 2.0 35 3.3 2.5 2.7 3.0 m " ripe White " Al c ike ' ' in bloom " 4li ripe . . Orchard grass Timothy . . * . Kentucky blue grass . . SAVING CLOVER SEED. , It has often been a matter of surprise that Tennessee farmers have not more generally saved their clover seed. The amount of money yearly paid out for an article which is now considered a prime necessity to good farming, has been estimated to be more than $250,000 annually. Were the lands of Tennessee incapable of producing clover seed, RED CLOVER. 135 there would be reason for this expenditure. In point of fact, however, no section of the Union will produce, acre for acre, a larger quantity of clover seed. Three bushels per acre have often been gathered, although the usual average is about one and a half bushels. As the first crop of clover, coming to maturity in June, will not perfect its seed, it is necessary to take off the first crop, either by feeding or by mowing for hay, and rely for the seed upon the after crop. The quantity of seed of this crop will depend much upon the weather. Should there be much rain or heavy winds, the yield of seed will be small, but when the weather has been fine and calm and the seed free from clock or other noxious seeds, the crop will be found as remunerative as any other grown by the farmer. A bushel of clover seed will weigh usually about 64 pounds, though 60 pounds is the standard bushel in market. The second crop of clover should be allowed to stand until the husks have becone quite brown and the seeds have passed the milky state. It should then be mowed and per- mitted to lie upon the ground until it is well cured. After it is cured rake it up into swaths. Rain will rather benefit than injure it, making it easier to separate the heads from the haulm, which is done by passing through an ordinary wheat separator. A clover huller attachment-is adjusted to the separator below the vibrator, which hulls the seeds, and they are separated from the chaff by the fan, care being taken to shut off- as much air as possible by closing the sliding doors. The crop of seed can be largely increased by mowing or feeding off the first crop of clover about the first of June, and then top-dressing with stable manure. The earlier the first crop is cut the larger will be the crop of seed. By treating the clover fields in this way, as much as three bushels of seed have been obtained from an acre. Uplands will yield more seed than bottom lands, but they should be enriched by a liberal application of manure. About the 136 THE GRASSES OF TENNESSEE. first of September is the time to mow for seed, and the straw will thresh all the better for being exposed to the weather for three weeks. The threshing is usually done in the field, though the haulm may be hauled up alter being thoroughly dry, and staqked with a good straw covering, or else stored away under shelter on a good tight floor until it suits the convenience of the farmer to thresh. Care should be taken not to run over or tramp upon the clover after it is dried, as many seeds are thus shelled out and lost. The better plan is to haul to the thresher just as soon as the straw is in a proper condition to thresh. This will save the trouble and expense of stacking. Mr. J. K. P. Wallace, writing from Anderson county to the Rural Sun, thus describes the method in use in that county : " We take a six or eight horse (the latter the better) power lever threshing machine, and attach to it the ordinary box, that is, such as does not have the grain-cleaning ap- paratus, because this would fan seed and all away. We first run the clover straw through, which takes all the seeds off and thoroughly tears up the heads. Then we plank up the (box) machinery, leaving a small opening in front of the cylinder, say six or seven inches square, and leave a smaller one at the opposite upper corner at the rear of the cylinder. Then with a small handled paddle we feed the threshed-off heads through again. The seeds are then thoroughly hulled, ready for the fanning mill. Every fifth bushel is taken by the threshers as toll. A thresher of this kind will thresh and hull from five to seven bushels per day." With the separators, one bushel in three is taken for toll. Some farmers prefer to sow in the chaff, believing that a better stand of clover is thus secured. Usually about thirty bushels in the chaff are considered equivalent to one of cleaned seed. Of course this will depend greatly RED CLOVER. 137 upon the yield of seed, and experiments ought to be made to determine the relative amount to sow when in chaff It is a curious fact, and one, I believe, first mentioned by Mr. Darwin, that the bumble bee plays an important part in the fertilization of this plant. Careful observation will no doubt reveal the fact that the amount of clover seed gathered from a particular field will, other things being equal, be in proportion to the number of bumble bees that feed upon the flowers. In the act of feeding they gather the pollen from one flower and transfer it to the next one upon which they alight, thus acting as important agents in the fructification of the flower, and consequently in increasing the production of seed. CLOVER AS A PREPARATORY CROP FOR WHEAT. No question at the present day pertaining to agriculture is more deeply interesting to the farmers of Tennessee than how to increase the yield of the wheat crop per acre, for upon this depends the profits of this standard crop, one probably more generally grown in the State than any other. It has long been noted that a soil well suited to clover is generally well adapted to wheat, but not until the pains- taking investigations of Dr. Voelcker, of England, was the fact established that the clover plant, by increasing the amount of available nitrogen in the surface soil, is the very best fore-runner for wheat, unlocking, as it were, the ele- ments in the soil necessary to a full and perfect develope- ment of the wheat crop. Prof. Way has established the fact that the carbonate of ammonia of rain-water and of manures are so absorbed and so firmly fixed by the soil that no free ammonia can be present in it. Neither pure nor carbonic acid water can extract this fixed ammonia from the soil. It must be ex- tracted by the roots of plants. A plant, therefore, with ex- tensive root ramifications, such as clover, will extract a much larger quantity than those plants with feebler roots. 138 THE GRASSES OF TENNESSEE. The clover roots bring this ammonia or nitrogen to the surface, and on their decay these nitrogenous matters are converted into nitrates in which the wheat plant finds a most congenial food. In addition to this, the leaves formed by clover contain a large amount of nitrogenous matter, and these are dropped upon the surface, increasing the amount of nitrogen available for wheat or other crops. A synopsis of Professor Voelcker's article on the causes of the benefit of clover as a preparatory crop for wheat, cannot fail to be interesting. Prof. Voelcker, writing in 1869, says: It is well known to most practical farmers that if they can succeed in growing a good crop of clover they are almost certain to get a good, paying crop of wheat. You see how all agricultural matters depend upon each other. I have come to the conclusion that the very best preparation the very best manure, if you will allow me to thus ex- press myself, is a good crop of clover. Now, at first sight, nothing seems more contradictory than to say you can remove a very large quantity of both mineral and organic food from the soil and yet make it more productive, as in the case of clover. Nevertheless, it is a fact the larger the amount of mineral matter you remove in a crop of clover, and the larger the amount of nitrogen which is carried off in clover hay the richer the land becomes. Now, here is really a strange chemical anomoly which cannot be discarded and invites our investigation, and it is an investigation which has occupied my attention, I may say, for more than ten years. This clover investigation has very much interested me, but only during the last season have I been able to bring it to anything like com- pletion, so as thoroughly to explain the strange anomoly that is pre- sented to us in the growth of clover as a preparatory crop for wheat. The explanation is very simple though puzzling when you know not the chemical points that are involved in the investigation. I cannot deny myself the gratification of showing you a few figures that in a thoroughly chemical point of view, show that clover is the most ex- haustive crop that you can possibly grow, while in a thorough practical point of view it is the most restorative crop and the best preparative crop for wheat that you can possibly grow. Now if we examine what is taken from the land in the shape of clover, we shall find that, assuming an acre of land to four tons of clover hay, these four tons of clover hay will remove 672 pounds of mineral constituents, and not less than 224 pounds of nitrogen which EED CLOVER. 139 is equal to 272 pounds of ammonia. Four tons of clover hay, the pro- duce of one acre, must contain a large amount of nitrogen, and remove from the soil a large quantity of mineral matters abounding in lime, potash and also much phosphoric acid. Now comparing what is re- moved by a crop of wheat, we find that in a clover crop we remove fully three times as much of mineral matter, and a great deal more six times as much I believe as' we do in a crop of wheat. The total, to give the exact figures, of mineral matter removed in an average crop of wheat amounts ts 175 pounds per acre. Assuming the grain of wheat to furnish 1. 78 per cent of nitrogen, and wheat straw .64 per cent., and assuming also that 1500 pounds of wheat and 3000 pounds of straw represent the average produce per acre, there will be hi the grain of wheat per acre 26. 7 pounds of nitrogen, and in the straw 19.2 pounds, or in both together 46 pounds of nitrogen, in round numbers equal to about 55 pounds of ammonia, which is only about one-fifth the quantity of nitrogen in the produce of an acre of clover. Wheat, it is well known, is especially benefitted by the application of nitrogenous manures, and as clover carries off so large a quantity of nitrogen it is natural to expect the yield of wheat after clover to fall short of what the land might be presumed to produce without manure before a crop of clover was taken from , it. Experience, however, has proved the fallacy of this presumption, for the result is exactly the opposite, inasmuch as a better and heavier crop of wheat is produced than without the intercalation of clover. I believe that a vast amount of mineral manure is brought within the reach of the corn (wheat) crop by growing clover. It is rendered avail- able to the roots of the corn crop. Clover, by means of its long roots, penetrates a large mass of soil. It gathers up, so to speak, the phos- phoric acid and the potash which are disseminated throughout a large portion of the soil ; and when the ground is plowed the roots are left in the surface, and in decaying they leave in an available condition the mineral substances which the wheat plant requires to enable it to grow. Although in clover hay these manurial matters are removed in great quantity, yet the store of mineral food that we have in six or twelve inches of soil is so great that it is utterly insignificant in comparison with what remains. In other words, the quantity of mineral matter which is rendered available and fit for use for the succeeding wheat crop is very much larger than the quantity which is removed in clover hay. But the accumulation of nitrogen after the growth of clover in the soil is very large. Even when the clover crop is insignificant, a large 140 THE GEASSES OF TENNESSEE. quantity of nitrogen, amounting to tons, is accumulated in the surface soil, and the better the clover crop the greater is the accumulation of nitrogen. In one of my experiments I tried to determine the amount of nitrogen which is left in the portion of a field where the clover was comparatively poor, and I fonnd that on the brow of the hill in that field, (for it had a considerable declivity), where the clover was weak the amount of nitrogen per acre was 1 ton, ll r cwt., 99 Ibs, while at the bottom of the hill where the clover was stronger, there being more soil, it was 2 tons, 2 cwt. and 61 Ibs. Observe too, that at the bottom of the hill the wheat was always better. Now it is in virtue, I believe, of this nitrogen that the wheat grew so much more luxuriantly. Dr. Voelcker, in his very able article, sums up the con- clusions at which he arrived in the following words : 1. A good crop of clover removes from the soil more potash, phos- phoric acid, lime, and other mineral matters, which enter into the com- position of the ashes of our cultivated crops, than any other crop usually grown in this country. 2. There is fully three times as much nitrogen in a crop of clover as in the average produce of the grain and straw of wheat per acre. 3. Notwithstanding the large amount of nitrogenous matter and of ash-constituents of plants in the produce of an acre, clover is an ex- cellent preparatory crop for wheat. 4. During the growth of clover a large amount of nitrogenous mat- ter accumulates in the soil. 5. This accumulation, which is greatest in the surface-soil, is due to decaying leaves dropped during the growth of clover, and to an abun- dance of roots, containing when dry from If to 2 per cent, of nitrogen. 6. The clover roots are stronger and more numerous, and more leaves fall on the ground when clover is grown for seed, than when it is mown for hay ; in consequence more nitrogen is left after clover seed than after hay, which accounts for wheat yielding a better crop after clover seed than after hay. 7. The development of roots being checked when the produce, in a green condition, is fed oil' by sheep, in all probability leaves still less nitrogenous matter hi the soil than* when clover is allowed to get riper and is mown for hay ; thus, no doubt, accounting for the observation made by practical men that, notwithstanding the return of the produce in the sheep excrements, wheat is generally stronger and yields better after clover mown for hay than when the clover is fed off green by eheep. 8. The nitrogenous matters in the clover-remains on their gradual decay are finally transformed into nitrates, thus affording a continuous EED CLOVEE. 141 source of food, on which cereal crops specially delight to grow. 9. There is a strong presumptive evidence that the nitrogen which exists in the air in the shape of ammonia and nitric acid, and that which descends in these combinations with the rain which falls on the ground, satisfies, under ordinary circumstances, the requirements of the clover crop. This crop causes a large accumulation of nitrogenous matters, which are gradually changed in the soil into nitrates. The atmosphere thus furnishes nitrogenous food to the succeeding wheat indirectly, and, so to say, gratis. 10. Clover not only provides abundance of nitrogenous food, but delivers this food in a readily available form (as nitrates) more grad- ually and continuously, and consequently with more certainty of a good result, than such food can be applied to the land in the shape of nitro- genous spring top-dressings. I have thus given a larger space to clover than to any other grass, natural or artificial, because I believe it is the most important plant that can engage the attention of Tennessee farmers, not only valuable in itself, but prepar- ing the land for crops that bring the highest price in the market. Upon whatever farm clover is grown in regular rotation, there will be found abundant crops, fat stock and improved husbandry. It is the main pillar of Tennessee agriculture, and it is worse than folly to attempt to make farming pay for any number of years without it. A farmer who is too poor to sow clover seed is too poor to own a farm, and however great may be his exertions (unless with- in reach of a large town where manures are abundant) if he does not sow clover he is doomed to a hopeless poverty. 142 THE GRASSES OF TENNESSEE. CHAPTER XII. ALSIKE CLOVER SAPLING CLOVER CRIMSON CLOVER LUC ERNE ESPARSETTE VETCH . ALSIKE CLOVER (Trifolium hybridum). This species of clover was introduced into England from Sweden, hence it is sometimes called Swedish clover. It gets the name Alsike from the parish of Alsike, in the province of Upland. It is a perennial found wild through- out many parts of Sweden, Norway and Finland. Alsike Clover, as compared with common red clover, has a slenderer stalk, narrower leaf, and paler colored flowers and foliage. The flower stalks are longer and the blossoms more fragrant and sweeter to the taste. When first open, the blooms are but faintly tinged with pink, subsequently they deepen into a pale red, and stand up. When the pe- riod of flowering passes the heads droop and kirn brown. The seed pods contain three or four seeds, which are kidney shaped, and from dark green to violet color, and consider- ably smaller than the seeds of red clover. This clover does not make much growth the first year, and attains full growth only in its third year. It yields less than the red clover, and has but little or no aftermath. It is hardier and sweeter than red clover, and being a pe- rennial, is more lasting, and it makes a finer hay. Wherever it has been tried, experience has taught that it is best to seed it down with red clover, or some grass, preferably orchard grass, for the reasons that it does not occupy the ground the first year, and is liable to fall and lodge badly if sown alone. I have noticed that it is much frequented by bees. ALSIKE CLOVER. 143 It does not stand the long dry summers of our latitude well, but seems to like cool, moist regions. A Michigan correspondent of the Western Ruralj who appears to have had much experience with it, says : Alsike Clover is not adapted to light sandy, or sandy and gravelly soils, with porous or leacby subsoils. With good clay subsoil, it suc- ceeds better. But it luxuriates in rich, thoroughly worked clay loani soils, rich bottom lands, prairie, and all marsh or swamp lands where they can be plowed so as to kill the wild grasses. Flowering through winter and spring does not injure it. Here it will accept the situation and display its magnificent products on the scale of five tons of finely cured hay to the acre. But mark ! deeply stirred, rich, moist land, underdrained or subsoiled, or both, will only produce this burden. The chemical action of plaster is strikingly manifest on this plant. Blos- soms are developed mo e or less when the plant is from eight to ten inches in height ; and when three and a half feet, it is a perfect sea of bioom. Millions of dollars may be added to the wealth of this country, es- pecially the West, in a few years by sowing one acre this year, and gradually extending its area. For soiling cows, horses, etc., when pas- tures fail, it is equal or superior to green corn, and attended with much less trouble in the gathering and feeding. During the past year, I cut three crops from the same ground, standing at the first cutting from two to three feet in height ; last cutting, one foot in height, as thick as it could staod, small delicate stalks, with numerous branches, and per- fectly glorified with a mass of small peach-blow colored blossoms, fill- ing the air with the most delightful and exhilarating perfume, and swarming with bees every fair day. The root is like red clover, but longer and more fibrous. The haulm is small, tender and nutritious ; when well cured as it should be, in full bloom, every spear will be eaten with avidity by all kinds of stock. There is no plant known that will produce so much good honey, but- ter, cheese, beef, mutton, wool and hay per acre, as this plant, not even excepting cor . In using the latter for soiling, you get only the haulm, while in the Alsike you get the haulm and a large yield of honey ; and if the ground is prepared as well by deep tilth, manure, and plaster, or other fertilizers, as for corn you will get as much by weight of the haulm. It bears feeding to an enormous degree. ' I think its fattening quali- ties superior to the famous blue grass of Kentucky ; and as it will flourish well on such soils as I have designated, from the Gulf to Lake Superior, farmers can easily divine its immense advantage to their pock- 144 THE GKASSES OF TENNESSEE. ets. Beside, the expense of "seeding down" every three or four years is saved. It is a great renovator and disintegrator of hard, tenacious soils Its long tap roots and numerous fibers reach deep for its pabu- lum, and thus loosen the soil and endure drought well. Some think there are two kinds of this clover. I think not. The difference in growth, etc., in diverse localities, is owing to the character of the soil. I never saw any but the large kind on land once covered with beech, maple, oak, bass, lever wood, etc., and I never saw any but the small kind on light, sandy, and gravelly soils. Also, on pebbly soils with calcareous debris, ard good tenacious subsoil it succeeds well. It is no humbug As compared with red clover, the hay is richer by two per cent, in flesh formers both cut in bloom. The analyses of both, as given by Professors . Wolff and Knop, show: ' ^2 . o & ft O 3 to M 5 Blue Grass answer? Yes, many of them have answered me hundreds of times. One is not ready just now. An- other cannot spare the money to buy seed. They are all going to sow when they get ready. I know some farmers who have been, for thirty years, going to sow grass before long, and the time has not yet come for them to begin." "Again comes up the seemingly meddlesome question, why? I will give the true answer. Our farmers have as much intelligence as farmers anywhere; but they do not sow yrass, because they do not understand well the system of man- agement. They have not studied it in good earnest. There- fore, they do not know how little labor "and expense are necessary to get a stand of grass. Their own reasoning teaches them wrongly, that the making of grass is a big and costly process; therefore, they slowly undertake it. If they knew how little labor and expense will set a large tract in grass, they would not delay one instant. If they will decide in their own minds that they do not understand how to make grass, and will apply to those who understand it, then they will all learn, that they are able, and have time enough to set their lands in grass. Then they will do it speedily." "They must first learn how to get a stand. Then they must learn how to manage, so as to make a dense and profit- able sod. It requires much more thinking than expense and labor to make good grass. Those farmers who have well studied the Blue Grass system, and have themselves covered their lands with rich pastures, can, and will freely instruct all who may apply to them to learn the system. If our farmers here will do as the Kentuckians did, they will all soon have plenty of good grass." We cannot but commend the above sensible extract from this eminent writer on agriculture, to the attention of all readers. And if the traveler will notice, as he passes through 172 THE GRASSES OF TENNESSEE. Smith county, from Lebanon to Carthage, he will see, on every side, the result of his teachings and example. In order to give point to the foregoing remarks, we will now proceed to treat on the best plan to secure a good stand of Blue Grass, and in doing so, will not be governed only by our own experience, but also by our observation of the suc- cess of others. BLUE GRASS LANDS. It is generally conceded that the lands most productive of Blue Grass are the calcareous soils. Lime is a natural stimulant to it, and it flourishes best where natural supplies of this salt are found. Go into a pasture that has an occa- sional out-cropping of limestone and the sprigs of grass, surrounding the rock will be found more luxuriant than anywhere else. Our lower silurian formation then, where- ever found, may be safely sown in this grass. The Basin of Middle Tennessee, the mountains and valleys of East Tenneseee, and the black alluvial deposits of the rivers of West Tennessee being supplied with lime from the sources whence the streams flow, are all well suited for this grass. It also grows upon many places amongst the hills of the river, though not so luxuriantly as in the black loams of the silurian and devonian formations. Lime, though a great stimulant to its growth, is not an essential ingredient in the soil. It grows on the sandy hills of Alabama and Georgia, but not so rank as on limestone soils. Blue Grass will always grow well under walnut trees. We have in Middle and East Tennessee the same charac- ter of soil that exists in the Blue Grass country of Kentucky, and, owing to our milder climate, can produce a better win- ter pasturage than can be produced in the colder climate of Kentucky. Little land exists in Tennessee but what will produce this grass profitably. Select the lot to be sown, and clean off all brush, leaves and briars. If it cannot be done with a stalk-rake, use hand rakes, as the seed must come in contact with the soil. Seed BLUE GRASS 173 sown on a bed of leaves will soon germinate, but the root- lets, being unable to burrow in the soil, will quickly parch up and die. If the land is thickly covered with trees, it will not thrive well, therefore, it is necessary the timber should be thinned out. Leave the tallest trees that are really the more valuable, taking ofi the low, bushy kinds that make too much shade. It is an admitted fact, that Blue Grass does better in partial shade than when there is none. It does not endure a drought as well as some other grasses, and consequently some degree of shade is essential to protect it from the scorching rays of midsummer. TIME AND MANNER OF SOWING. So many seasons have been recommended as the proper time of sowing, that it may be said each one, under fa- vorable circumstances, is a good time. One Kentucky far- mer says: "Any time in the winter, when snow is on the ground, sow broadcast from three to four quarts of clean seed to the acre. With the spring the seeds germinate and are very fine and delicate in the spouts. No stock should be allowed for the first year, nor until the grass seeds in June for the first time, the second year. The best plan is turn on your stock when the seeds ripen in June. Graze off your grass, then allow the fall growth, and graze all winter, taking care never to feed the grass closely at any time." Another authority says: "Follow nature and obey her dictates. The seeds ripen in June, and are scattered by the winds and rains as soon as ripe, and therefore, sow your seeds as soon as they can be gathered." This plan might be a proper one in a colder or moister climate than ours, but here it would result in the grass being often dried up by the drought that are almost invariable in the latter part of summer. Many sow, as stated in the above quotation, on winter snows, and that is a very good plan, but care should be 174 THE GRASSES OF TENNESSEE. observed to have the ground free from leaves before the snow falls. There are others who sow in the latter part of February or first of March, and this sometimes does as well as any provided time is given for the grass to get sufficient hold to resist the withering effects of the summer's drought. The main care to* be taken, is to get the grass large enough to live through freezing or dry weather. It will resist the effects of frost better than heat however, and taking this into consideration, the most approved time of sowing is in the latter part of August or first of September. If sown at this time the autumnal rains will germinate the seed, and besides, at this season there is comparatively little trash on the ground, the leaves having not yet fallen. The ground being prepared, the seeds are sown broadcast, at the rate of one bushel per acre, and the sower should be fol- lowed with a harrow, or if the ground is very loose, with a stiff brush. This will give them a sufficient covering. It is a fact, demonstrated by actual experiment, as shown in one of the tables herein contained, that grass seeds will veg- etate best at a depth of one-quarter of an inch. It may be sup- posed that, with no more covering than will be given by a harrow or brush, a great many seeds will be uncovered. This is very true, but in one pound of Blue Grass seeds, (clean seed) there are 3,888,000 seeds. By a computation every square inch of surface contains from ten to twelve seeds. With this amount on the surface, one scarcely need fear a stand, when, if one or two take root, there will be in a year an excessively close turf. There can be but little difference of opinion in regard to the treading of stock after sowing. All writers and farmers agree, that for one year, at least, it should be kept from all stock. After that, there is some difference. Dr. Gordon, who, as before stated, paid more attention to it than any one else in the State, adopted a plan of man- agement that has been repeatedly tested, with uniform suc- cess. It was this : BLUE GRASS. 175 He sowed, either in the autumn or spring months indis- criminately, as suited his convenience. He usually sowed with rye, wheat, or barley, if sowed in an open field, but if in a woods lot, he sowed with rye, or after a crop of millet. At any rate, the soil must be well cleaned off and broken up, as well as the nature of the land permits, then after the grain is sown the land is harrowed, and if possible, rolled. After this, the grass seeds were sown and brushed lightly. Immediately afterwards all the cattle, horses and sheep were turned in that could be secured. If there was not enough on his place he borrowed his neighbors' stock, and let them run on it until the ground was well packed all over the surface, and then, and not until then, were they removed. If after millet, (and that is greatly recommended, as it de- stroys more effectively than anything else all weeds,) harrow about the first of September thoroughly, sow the seed, brush as before, and then turn on the stock. If it is desired to sow in the spring, in the latter part of February or early in March, if not practicable sooner, harrow the grain field, the ground having been well prepared in the fall sowing, sow the seed and then turn stock on the wheat, rye, or barley, as the case may be. Oat land may be sown in the same way. The treading of the stock packs in the seeds and prevents the grass from drying up in the summer heats, or freezing out in frosts. Dr. Gordon considered an open, loose porous surface, to be unfavorable to the safety of the young grass, but if packed as directed, the grass will quickly spring up, get a firm hold, and the loose condition of the subsoil will favor the transmission of the roots to a good depth. The after treatment is simple, and that is to allow no stock on during the first year, but as soon as the seed stalks begin to shoot up the next year, pasture it so closely that it can not go to seed. Dr. Gordon differs in this respect from other authors, who allow it to seed one time for purposes stated below. He 176 THE GRASSES OF TENNESSEE. would not let it seed at all. His great success in this branch of agriculture will, in every country where he is known, give weight to his authority. Others say no stock should go on it for at least two years, or at least until after the first seeding, which will take place in June of the second year. Some of the best Blue Grass lots in Middle Tennessee have been started by following either of the above plans. Of one thing, there cannot be a doubt, and that is the ground should not be well broken up. On the surface it should be as firmly packed as possible to secure a perfect stand and form a perfect turf. When the surface is too loose, the grass easily dries up, and is much easier frozen out, the seeds not going into a germinating depth. Under favorable weather, seed sown in the spring on a crop of oats, will do as well as fall sowing. What is meant by favorable weather, is that no unusual dry weather super- venes. But there is always the risk of meeting with unfa- vorable weather in spring sowing, and on that account we would recommend sowing in autumn. But it is better the sowing should take place as early in the fall as the weather will permit, or, indeed, the latter part of summer, if there is a proper degree of moisture in the soil. Some farmers sow a limited amount of seed daily and over the same sur- face sprinkle shelled corn, then turn on their hogs. They root in search of the corn and thus plant the seed, doing the work of plow and harrow. This, to say the least, is a slov- enly plan, and though possibly securing a good stand the ground is so roughened, it can never make a beautiful pas- ture. If the land is loose as some soils are, it will answer a very good purpose to scratch up the surface well with a sharp toothed harrow, and this is especially the case where the roots of undergrowth exist to a great extent. AFTER TREATMENT. Of one fact, there cannot be a doubt, and in this lies the whole secret of having remunerative pastures of Blue Grass, BLUE GEASS. 177 and that is, do not pasture it to death. It is true, it will stand almost unlimited grazing, but there is a point beyond which it will cease to be profitable, and that limit should never be passed. The better plan, is to have the lots divided, and allow the stock on one until it is cropped down, and then, when no longer any pickings can be taken from it, do not allow the stock to continue to tread it, simply to have them on a grass lot. It will not only do the stock no good, but, by constant tramping, the grass is unable to throw up any fo- liage, and in time it will die, for the roots must draw some nourishment from the atmosphere, or they will perish. Allow the grass to recuperate, by changing the stock from one pasture to another, and never over-stock it. Grass that will keep ten oxen in growing order, will fatten five oxen quickly. Stock of all kinds are constant feeders, and there should always be forage enough to enable them to get plenty to eat without the labor of hunting for it. There is much variety of opinion on the amount of stock that ought to be put on an acre. This arises from the dif- ference in the capacity of the land, some soils being rich, dry and porous will stand much heavier grazing than others. It is safer to err on the safe side, and it is better to put in too few than too many. If stock are fattened quickly, they are more remunerative than when fattened slowly. Then, when one lot is sold out, they can be re- placed by others. Ordinarily two acres of good grass are re- quisite for one three-year old ox, and what will fatten one ox will fatten ten head of sheep. Blue Grass should be allowed to go to seed once or twice, or until the ground is well set or turfed over, and then never more. It is a grass that propagates itself by its creeping roots or rhizomes, and it is the disposition of all plants and animals to lose vitality in the process of reproduction. Though perennial, this habit is upon it, and though it does not actually die, its vitality is so lowered by the effort, that it lies dormant for some time afterwards, before start- 12 178 THE GKASSES OF TENNESSEE. ing again its vigorous growth. Stock should be kept out at seeding time, or before, in fact, so as not to eat down the seed stalks, as they will do. It sometimes happens that dry weather sets in during the summer months, and the grass becomes so dry it will burn. Still stock will greedily eat it. The grass having dried full of nourishing juices, it is equal to the best of hay, and stock will still fatten upon it unless the dried grass has been drenched with rains. The fall growth of some lots should be kept untouched by stock, and in this way, a fine winter pasturage will be secured. The grass will get high enough to fall over and protect the surface foliage, and stock will keep up their flesh on it during the winter without feed. When snows Ml, cattle will require to be fed, but horses, mules and sheep will paw off the snow, unless it is too deep, and get at the grass. It is the first deciduous plant that puts forth its leaves in the spring. Good fat lambs can be sent into the market earlier than from any other grass. It makes milk rich in butter, and gives the latter a fine golden color, without changing its taste, or, like clover, imparting its peculiar flavor to it. The following is an analysis of this grass as compared with some other well known grasses : (Way.) 1ST. DRIED AT A TEMPERATURE OF 212. 100 PAET8 OF FLESH FOEMING PEINCIPLES. FATTY MATTEES. HEAT PEODTJOING PBINOIPLES. WOODY FIBEE. | Blue Grass give 10.35 2 63 43 06 38 02 5 94 Timothy ... 11.86 3 55 53 35 26 46 5 28 Orchard Gras * 13.53 3.14 44. 33 33.70 5 31 Clover ... 22.55 3 67 44.47 19 75 9 56 White Clover 18 76 4.38 40.04 26.53 10.29 Sweet Scented Vernal 10.43 3 41 43.48 36 36 6 36 BLUE GRASS. 1T9 2ND. AS TAKEN FROM THE FIELD IN BLOSSOM. WITHOUT DRYING 100 PAET8 OF Ij FLESH FORMING PRINCIPLES. H fe < < p & 11 Blue Grass give ... 67.14 3 41 0.86 14.15 12.49 70.00 4.06 0.94 13.30 1011 Timothy 57.21 486 1.50 22.85 11,82 Red Clover ... 81 01 4.27 0.69 8.45 3.76 White Clover 79.71 3.80 0.89 8.14 5.38 Sweet Scented Vernal . . ... 80.35 2.05 0.67 8.54 7.15 Wolff and Knopfs analyses differ some from these, as will be seen by referring to page 36. It will be seen from these tables that Blue Grass ranks close up to the best and most popular hay grasses culti- vated in Tennessee, and is about equal to sweet scented vernal grass, which stands at the head of the pasture grasses in the Eastern States, but is not really so productive as the former. There is, in all pastures, a number of bare spots that seem to resist the efforts of Blue Grass to sod. By mixhig other seeds with the Blue Grass, these spots can be made to produce as well as other places. In a natural meadow, by careful counting, several species are often found growing intimately on every inch of earth. A table found elsewhere details the result of an actual count, and it is there seen that on a good natural pasture in one square foot of sod, there were 1,000 plants, consisting of twenty distinct species. This is nature's own arrangement, and may safely be copied. In such a pasture not an inch of surface is unoccupied. It may be thought an inch or two here and there, makes but lit- tle difference in the space occupied. But every blade of grass is of some importance, and it is astonishing the aggregate of these barren places. Below is a table of seeds that is respectfully reoommended to those wishing to start a goad pasture. 180 THE GRASSES OF TENNESSEE. MIXTURE FOR PERMANENT PASTURE. Orchard Grass flowers in May and June 4 Iba. Sweet Scented Vernal flowers in April and May 2 " Sheep Fescue flowers in May and June 4 " Herds Grass flowers in June and July 4 " Blue Grass flowers in May and June 8 " Italian Rye Grass flowers in June 4 ' Red Clover flowers in May and June 6 " 32 This mixture is enough for one acre of ground and none too much. Remember the old adage : "He that sows spar- ingly shall reap sparingly." It is better to sow too much seed than too little. If too much the weaker sprigs will die and the grass will soon accommodate itself to the capacity of the soil, but if too little is sown, it will require years for the pasture to be sodded, and the owner will be lying out of the use of so much soil during all that time. The wisdom of this mixture is seen at a glance by examining its several constituents. The blue grass, orchard grass, fescue, vernal and rye grass will be permanent. The clover takes posses- sion first and affords for two years an immediate pasture or meadow, as may be desired. By the time the clover gives out, the grasses have a fine foothold. In the Northern States farmers invariably mix white clover with their seeds, but iu Tennessee this is unneceesary, as that valuable forage plant comes up as it were spontaneously every where. And, though many farmers are prejudiced against white clover, no more valuable native forage plant exists in Tennessee. Now, once more, let it be urged on the farmers of Ten- nessee to look into this matter of pastures, and provide themselves with this highly important adjunct to every farm. No home is complete without pastures, and yet there are many who will depend either upon the fortuitous wild grasses for grazing, or feed from the crib, their stock all through the year. With a rich Blue Grass lot, no stock need be fed, except while |t work, and, indeed, it is sometimes the case EOUGH MEADOW GRASS. 181 that in dry, scarce years, crops have been made with horses and mules, that had no other provender than a Blue Grass lot. BOUGH MEADOW GBASS (Poa Trivialis.) Culms roughish backwards, leaves rough edge, the lower elongated; Lgules long, pointed; panicles dense lance shaped spikelets subsessile, two to three flowered oblong acute, five veined, flowers in May and June in the latitude of Tennessee. This is a perennial, and to the common observer, very much resembles blue grass. In the North it is a common meadow and pasture grass, mixing well with orchard grass, making twice as much when mixed with other grasses as when sown by itself. It delights in shady places, and is admirably adapted to wood pastures and the banks of streams. It stands tramping as well as herds grass, but will not bear cutting, as the exposure of the roots to the sunshine soon kills it. The seed weighs fifteen pounds to the bushel, and two-thirds oi a bushel is amply sufficient for an acre. Cattle are very fond of it,' preferring it to almost any other grass. Way's analysis of it cut in flower, shows the following result: Water, 73.60; flesh-formers, 2.58; fat, 0.97; heat-producers, 10.54; woody fibre, 10.11; ash, 2.20- Messrs. Scheven & Bitthausen's analysis shows: Water 78; flesh-formers, 2.3; fat, 0.8; heat producers, 8.4 ; woody fibre, 8.8; ash, 1.6. Wolff and Knops' analysis may be seen on page 36. Woburn experiments by Sinclair gave 7,486 pounds per acre cut in flower; loss in drying^ 5,246 pounds; nutritive matter, 233 pounds. Cut in seed produce of one acre, was 7,829 pounds; loss in drying, 4,304 pounds; nutritive matter, 336 pounds. The produce of the aftermath was 4,764 pounds and 223 pounds of nutritive matter. The chief destinction between this and the blue grass is, that the blue grass has a wooly web which en- tangles the seeds, making it difficult to sow them. In the Poa Trivialis the seeds are comparatively free. We have spoken of it under the head of Meadow grasses, though it is far better for the pasture. 182 THE GRASSES OF TENNESSEE. CHAPTEK XV. CREEPING MEADOW GRASS STRONG-SCENTED MEADOW GRASS SLENDER MEADOW GRASS MEADOW COMB GRASS QUAKING GRASS SMALL FESCUE SHEEP FES- CUE MEADOW FESCUE, AND OTHER FESCUE GRASSES COMMON REED GRASS. CREEPING MEADOW GnA.SS.~(Eragrostis reptans) This is an annual grass; flowers in July, and grows eight to eighteen inches high. It has short, nearly awl-shaped leaves, smooth, long spikelets, loose sheaths, slightly hairy on the margin; panicles from one to two inches long. It has long, creeping roots. Flint. It is very common in open pastures and fence corners, and is relished by stock; but, being an annual is not worthy of being sown. STRONG-SCENTED MEADOW GRASS.- (Eragrostis Po 1 *! Sf 1 88 a 'oS j i R| 51 | 4 Red Clover 81.01 4.27 .69 8.45 3.76 1.82 White Clover.,. 79.71 3.80 .89 8.14 | 6.38 2.08 Other analyses may be found on pages 34, and 37. JAPAN CLOVER OR KING GRASS 209 JAPAN CLOVER OB KING GRASS-- (J^spedeea striata.) Leaves pinnately three folio late; stipules small and free or falling early. Flowers purple rose color or white; stamens diadelphous; an- thers uniform; pod flat and thin, ovate or arbicular, reticulated. It has been but a few years since this plant has been brought to notice in this country, though its existence was mentioned as early as 1784 by Thunberg, a German chemist, who saw it growing in Japan. About the year 1849 it was noticed in the vicinity of Charleston, S. C., the seeds having been brought probably from Japan or China in tea boxes. A short while afterwards it was discovered at a distance of forty miles from Charleston, and still later near Macon, Ga. Within the last six years it has developed itself in many of the counties of this State, especially in Henderson and Warren, where it is covering all old fields, and in many instances rooting out broom grass and other grasses, show- ing itself well worthy of the name given it by Mr. Pendle- ton, of King Grass. It seems especially adapted to the Southern States, not nourishing above 36, growing with great luxuriance on the poorest soils and retaining vitality in its roots in the sever- est droughts. It is said to be a fine plant for grazing, and being perennial in warm climates, needs no re-sowing and but little attention. On soils unfit for anything else it furnishes good pasture and supplies a heavy green crop for turning under and improving the land. It cannot stand severe cold, and in high latitudes cannot be depended on as a good pasture grass, although it comes up and supplies an abundant forage lor a few months. It should be sown in January or February in the Southern States, and about one bushel of seed to ten acres is required to secure a good stand the first year. It is said to be an excellent renovater of old fields, and to bring them up to a high degree of fertility in an incredibly short space of time. Mr. E. M. Pendleton, of Georgia, speaking of it, says : "I am willing to concede to it several things that do not 14 210 THE GRASSES OF TENNESSEE. apply to any other plant we have ever grown in this lati- tude. 1. It grows on poor land with more luxuriance than any ether grass or weed I have ever seen ; and as it has a small leaf, rather contravenes the general idea of vegetable physi- ologists, that large leaved plants feed mostly on the atmos- phere. I suppose, however, that this deficiency is counter- acted to a large extent by the number of leaves, for they are legion. 2. It has great powers of endurance, so far as the roots are concerned ; but the brandies and leaves will parch and die out under a burning sun very -soon, especially where it grows sparsely. During a wet summer it luxuriates where- ever propagated on poor hill-sides as well as meadow lands. It loves, however, rainy seasons on thirsty lands, and I fear will not prove to be all we desire in such localities. It, however, reminds us of an anecdote of Mr. Dickson, when he was showing some gentlemen his farm during the pre- valence of a severe drought. As they passed through a corn field in which some of the stalks were actually dying for lack of moisture, one of them called his attention to several in that condition. "Yes," said he, "I perceive the fact but it dies game." And so of the Japan Clover, it dies from severe drought, but rallies again as soon as the rain sets in. 3. It is good pasturage for stock, and I think would make good hay, if cut and cured. This I intend to test the pres- ent season. But I do not believe that our stock like it as well as the native grasses, and I doubt whether it is as nu- tritious as the Bermuda. As cattle love variety, however, this may subserve a good purpose in that way. My opinion, however, is, from not a very close observation in the matter, that they would soon tire out on it exclusively. 4. It furnishes a large supply of vegetable matter to the soil, and I believe will prove to be the best humus making plant we have at the South, where so much is needed from JAPAN CLOVER OR KING GRASS 211 our clean cotton culture. As it is said to be difficult to gather the seed in large quantities, I intend to plow up the surface where it has seeded, and rake up the grass and top soil, and sow this dirt over ray oat and wheat fields, and especially on the poor places. My opinion is that a most luxuriant growth of this clover will follow, which can be turned under in the fall while green, and thus furnish not only humus but nitrogen to the soil. 5. Another rare quality of this plant is indicated in the name I have given it King Grass in the fact that it abso- lutely roots out and destroys every living plant in its wide- spread path. Not even old Bermuda, which has so long held undisputed sway over his circumscribed fields, can resist its encroaches. I have a bottom long since given up to the Bermuda. Recently I passed through it and found that the Lespedeza had almost completely throttled it, though like Mr. Dickson's corn, it died game, as here and there, peering above its enemy, could be seen an isolated sprig of Bermuda, which, as it cannot stand shade, will have to yield entirely before the close of another season. I have but little doubt that any pest like Coco or Bermuda could be rooted out by this King Grass in a few years in any locality^ and would recommend it to be sown on such fields if for no other purpose. I intend to give it a fair trial myself on one or two similar localities." In like manner the Hon. H. W. Ravenel, of South Caro- lina, regards it with great favor, and thinks its timely ap- pearance will be ultimately a source of great wealth to the people of the Southern States. Many places that were re- garded as worthless before its appearance, are now made profitable as a pasture, with the aid of this grass. Mr. Samuel McRamsey, of Warren county, says this clover made its appearance in that locality in 1870. It is fast covering the whole country. It supplies much grazing from the first of August until frost. It is short, but very hardy. Sheep are very fond of it, and cattle will eat it. It 212 THE GRASSES OF TENNESSEE. is killing out the broomsedge wherever it appears. It grows exceedingly well on red clay, and with a little care covers red hillsides that are much too common all over the State. If it will do this and destroy the broom grass, it should be cultivated. It is not good for meadow and is only valuable for pasture. The Hon. M. T. Polk considers it almost worthless for grazing, having made many experiments with it. His opinion is entitled to great weight. HERDS GRASS AND ORCHARD GRASS. These grasses have been treated at length under the head of Meadow Grasses. Both are favorite pasture grasses, in- deed, preferred for the pasture to the meadow. In my ex- perience and observation I knew of no grass which will give more general satisfaction upon every soil as a pasture grass, than Herds Grass. It is nutritious, hardy, tenacious of life, a luxuriant grower upon wet or dry soils, and is highly relished by stock. In low places where water is likely to stand after heavy rains, it will flourish and retain its vitality. Many swampy places can be made profitable by being sown in this grass, as its interlacing roots consoli- date the ground, making a tight surface over which cattle can feed without miring. It* has never been valued at its actual worth. Orchard Grass is not so hardy as Herds Grass, though probably it is more nutritious, or at least, more palatable to stock. I have observed on two pastures, side by side, the one sown with Orchard Grass and the other with Herds Grass, that stock will prefer the Orchard Grass to the Herds Grass. This may be owing to the fact, that Orchard Grass has a more rapid growth, and is therefore tenderer and more succulent. Both are good, but the Herds Grass will stand more tramping and grazing than the Orchard Grass, and will thicken into a sward while the Orchard Grass will be- come thinner year after year. The first season after sowing? HERDS GRASS AND ORCHARD GRASS. 213 Orchard Grass will make the better pasture, but every suc- ceeding year will show the Herds Grass to advantage. This closes the list of valuable pasture grasses for this State. Others now regarded as of no importance, may prove valuable by culture. One fact is certain, we have more useful grasses than we cultivate. Any three or four of the best varieties sown and properly cared for will prove a boon to the farmers of the State. 214 NATIVE FORAGE PLANTS NATIVE FORAGE PLANTS IN TENNESSEE IV. CONTRIBUTED BY DR. A. GATTINGER, NASHVILLE, TENNESSEE. The object of this contribution is to impart some specific knowledge about those plants which constitute the natural food supply of the grazing animals. I had never expected that my casual and accidental observations in this particular direction would ever come into pub- licity, and, besides the request for this met me unprepared. Yet I have considered it my duty to accept Mr. Killebrew's friendly and polite re- quest, as an opportunity to conduce some to the public welfare and to general information. During a thirty years' residence in this State, for many of them with the ample opportunities of a country physician, I have devoted the time unoccupied by professional duties, to the study and collection of the flora of this State, which I have traversed on botanical explorations from the summit of the Blue Ridge to the sandy banks of the mighty Mississippi. The grasses and leguminous plants enumerated I know, from their aspect in nature, their mode of growth, time of inflorescence, the IN TENNESSEE. 215 soil to which they are addicted, and their uses where such are known. They are, furthermore, in my private collection, and I intend to con- tinue my labors. The description of the plants are given according to the excellent works of Prof. A. Gray, A. W. Chapman's Flora of the Southern United States, Torrey's Botany of the State of New York. The wood -cuts illustrative of a few genera of grasses are from Gray'e Manual. Some information I have also derived from the Agricultural Reports Two families of plants, the Graminese (grasses and cereals) and Legurninosse (wild vines, peas, etc.), contribute in such a degree to the support of the herbivores, that all the rest is, for this purpose, almost insignificant. What plants are suitable or not can only be learned from observing stock in pastures, what they eat or reject, when they are in a well-fed condition. From a list of grasses given in a former chapter I have selected the most frequent and valuable for the subjoined special descriptions. In that portion of the United States lying east of the Mississippi and extending to the Atlantic, there are at present known to exist 287 species of the graminese indigenous to the soil. In the territory west of the Mississippi, and extending to the Rocky Mountains, there are 143 species, of which only 52 species belong to this region exclusively, ninety-one of them belonging also to the eastern region. So it appears that we have 339 species over this wide domain. About one-half of these are found within the limit of the State of Tennessee. Many of them are valuable for forage, but many are worthless or noxious to the agriculturalist. 216 NATIVE FORAGE PLANTS CHAPTER XVIIL ANDROPOGON TRIPSACUM SETARIA PANICUM PA8- PALUM GYMNOSTICHUM ELYMUS AIRA DAN- THONIA TRITICUM. ANDROPOGON, L.-- ( Andropogon.) ANDROPOGON SCOPARIUS, L. Commonly called broomsedge, a great eye-sore if it takes possession of meadows, but a good pasture grass before it shoots up its culms, after which time stock will touch it no more. It disfigures, with its straw-bundle-like tussocks, the pleasant verdure of a spring landscape, and the half decayed stalks, if mixed with new hay, incline to make it mouldy. Another such compatriot is ANDROPOGON PURCATUS, Muhl.--(Alao called Broom Grass) Taller and stouter than the former, the culm terminated with 2-4 digitate flower spikes, in the manner of crab grass. It is not so much at home in open meadows and old fields but prefers open woods, fence corners and out-of- the-way nooks. A third associate is the ANDROPOGON VIRGINICUS, L.- Closely resembles the first, but the flower spikes are near- ly wholly wrapt up in leaf-like grass blades or sheaths, and the spikelets are very much silky bearded. It is found in all sorts of localities, dry and wet, but rather dispersed over widely distant localities, and consequently not so common as the first two. IN TENNESSEE. 217 ANDROPOGON MACROURUS, mchx.~(Cluster-flowered Beard Grass. ) This has stems two or three feet high, branched, with many spikes, bushy, forming thick clusters; rough, hairy sheaths. It differs from the preceding species of same genus in growing in swampy lands Like the others, it is worthless. ANDROPOGON ARGENTEUS, ^.--(Silver Broom Grass). Spikelets in pairs, on peduncles exceeding the sheaths, dense and silky. Flowers in September. Not frequent. East Tennessee along the mountains. It is useless to the agriculturist. Another interesting species of the division of the Andro- pogoneae is the Sorghum nutans, Gray, a tall and elegant grass, 3-6 feet high, with a narrowly oblong panicle at length drooping, of russet brown and shining color. It grows either single or but few culms from one root and passes under the name of Wood Grass or Indian Grass, und is one of the most conspicuous objects in open barrens and waste places during the late fall season. The farmers in the Western countries, in default of meadows cut this and A. Scoparius and Furcatus before heavy frost, and store it as hay. Two other species related to the above are found in the State, viz : Erianthus alopecuroides and Erianthus strictus, both growing on siliceous soil, (Tullahoma, White-bluff, etc. etc). The first deserves to be cultivated as a garden orna- ment for its large and plume-like spike which is exceeding- ly graceful. TRIPSACUM DACTYLOIDES, L.--(Z%e Gama Grass}. Perennial This species is frequently overlooked for it resembles greatly a depauperate form of Indian corn from the outline of the flowerspike and the broad leaves, which look exactly like those of corn. But the tassel which is only male in corn, bears here both female aiid male flowers, and the lateral spike of the corn is absent. Where it is abundant and better supplies not on hand, it is cut and dried for fodder. 2i8 NATIVE FORAEE PLANTS SETARIA VERTICILLATA, Beauv.--(J5m% Foxtail.) Spikelets awnless, with short peduncles, cylindrical spikes two or three inches Ions:, pale green, somewhat interrupted with whorted, short clusters, bristles single or in pairs, roughened, or barbed downwards, short. This is one of the foxtail grasses, some of which are very good grazing when young. They are found on all old fields, about yards in fact wherever man is there are the foxtails. They are all annuals and take good care to sow themselves. SETARIA GLAUCA, Beauv-(-B/we Foxtail). Stem from one to two feet high, leaves broad and hairy at the base, sheaths smooth ligule bearded, spike two or three inches long dense, cylindrical, bristles six to eleven in a cluster, rough upwards; perfect flower transversely wrinkled. Flowers in July and inhabits the territory appropriated everywhere by the foxtail family, that is cultivated lands. SETARIA VIRIDIS, Beauv.-( Green Foxtail}. Has a cylindrical compouned green spike, bristles longer than the spikelets, few in cluster, perfect flower stirate lengthwise and dotted. Annual, and flowers hi June. PANICUM, L. Is a genus rich in indigenous species. The Subdivis- ion Setaria is well known through the German and Italian Millet, Panicum Italicum, etc. P. sanguinale is a common grass, abounding in cornfields at the end of summer, fur- nishes the principal picking to stock after corn-gathering, but its value at that time is but small, the saccharine matter being then converted into cellulose, and the seeds drop- ping out as they ripen, the spike is mostly empty. PANICUM GLABRUM, Gaudin. Abounds in orchards and pastures, and resembles the former very much, but the whole plant is glabrous, while the former is mostly very hairy. IN TENNESSEE. 219 PANICUM PAUCIFLORUM, Elliot. Sparsely- flowered Panic Grass. Stems upright, from oae to two feet high, rough, open panicle. Flow- ers in June and July. It is peculiar to swampy, boggy soils, and is of no value. PANICUM PILIPORME, ^.-(Slender Orab Grass). Loves silicious soil ; the plant is very smooth and delicate, the spikes 2-6, erect and filiform like the culm spikelets in two or threes, all pedi- cellate. Leaves 1-2 inches long, smooth underneath, sometimes a little hairy above, upper sheathe smooth, the lower ones sparsely clothed with fine spreading hairs. It is annual, like the preceding ones, but more succulent. The above species of Panicum all bear their spikelets crowded 2-3 together in simple and mostly one-sided clustered spikes or spike-like racemes, wholly awnless and pointless; lower flower neutral, of a single palet, lower glume minute, sometimes obsolete or wanting. They are also known under the name Digitaria, (Gray). The next division, Panicum proper, bears spikelets scattered in pani- cles, awnless. PANICUM AGROSTOIDES, Sprengl. (Agrostis-like Panic Grass). Perennial, growing July and August in wet places and very common. Culms 2-3 feet high, leaves forming a tuft at the base of the culm 2-4 lines wide ; ligule very short, obliquely terminate. Panicles usually several, the terminal one longest ; branches mostly in pairs or somewhat fasciculate, a little flexuous, finally horizantal. Spikelets three-fourths of a line long, mostly purplish, somewhat crowded and one-sided, smooth. Lower glume about half the length of the upper, very acute. Palea of the perfect flower slightly bearded at the tip. Cattle eat it. PANICUM AUTUMNALE ( Autumnal Panic Grass}. This is similar to the last, but has branching slender stems, and only grows about one foot high. It is found on sandy hillsides, and old fields. Of no value as a grazing grass, though eaten when nothipg better presents itself. Similar to this is the PANICUM AMARUM, EU.~(Bitter Panic Grass). It is very like the preceding, and grows almost every- 220 NATIVE FORAGE PLANTS where in the United States. It affects, however, the banks of streams especially. From its bitter taste it is not eaten by stock. PANICUM ANCEPS,Michx.--(FariaWe Panic Grass). Stems flat, from two to three feet high ; spikelets panicled or recom- ed, sometimes spiked ; glumes two, the lower one short, and sometimes wanting. Worthless. PANIUM PROLIFERUM, ^.-(Proliferous Panic Grass). Annual, growing in wet meadows, river banks. Cattle are very fond of this grass. Culm 1-3 feet long, succulent. Leaves 8-12 inches or more in length, and half an inch wide. Sheaths a little hairy at the throat. Panicles large and pyramidal ; the branches much divided, straight and capillary. Lower glume very broad rather obtuse ; upper one acute, about 7-nerved. Perfect flower shorter than the glumes, acute, smooth, anthers orange. PANICUM CAPILLABE, L-(OW Witch Grass). Exceedingly common around Nashville. Annual. Culm 1-2 feet high ? branching at the base and forming a tuft. Leaves flat 2-5 lines wide, hairy with long fine spreading hairs ; panicle large, pyramidal made up from very fine, brittle branches, getting easily diffracted when they become old. Spikelets very small. Old fields when covered with it look like a smoke or haze were spreading over them. Cattle will not touch it. PANICUM LATIFOLIUM--(5road-featK5d Panic Grass). Perennial. Common in barrens, especially in moist thick- ets around Nashville. It stands in full vigor in May. A very good pasture grass, bearing the closest grazing, and constantly reviving. Unfortunately it prefers to live scat- tered intermixed with other plants, not socially. Culm 1-2 feet high, simple or somewhat branching. Leaves 3-4 inches long, and an inch or more in breadth, cordate and clasping at the base, commonly smooth, but often hairy, spreading horizontally, sheaths about half the length of the internodes, ciliate at the throat, or on the entire margin. Panicle about 2 inches long, bearing usually but ten spike- lets, which are about a line and a half long. Lower glume ovate, loose, upper one strongly nerved. PANICUM CLANDESTINUM, ^-(Hidden-flowered Panic Grass). Perennial. Similar, and growing intermixed with the above, but a month later. Culm with short axillary branches, 1-3 feet high, very IN TENNESSEE. 221 leafy. The leaves broadly lanceolate, somewhat cordate, but not clasping at the base, 3-6 inches long, and an inch or more in breadth, spreading, strongly nerved. Panicles few flowered, terminal or lateral, the former either wholly concealed or only partly exserted. Glumes acute. Lower flower with inferior palea resembling the glumes, upper palea membraaaceous, oblong, obtuse, about two-thirds the length of the lower one Perfect flower triandrous, anthers and stigma purple. Val- uable. PANICUM DICHOTOMUM I*.~(Polymorphus Panic Grass) Perennial, growing in copses and woods, flowering and growing all summer and fall. Daring its growth it assumes a very variable habit. Culm 8-2i inches high, at first simple, mostly erect, but sometimes procumbent, especially when growing in tufts in open places ; smooth or pubesent. Radical leaves, short and very broad, often purplish and usually smooth. Primary panicle more or less exserted, and usually rather compound, the branches mostly flexuous. Late in the season this panicle breaks off, and the culms produce branches which are usual- ly fastigiate and crowded with small simple panicles either exserted or partly concealed among the clustered leaves. Spikelets very small, about one-half line long, obtuse. In shady thickets it grows sometimes 2-3 feet upwards in crawling and scrambling between bushes. Medium quality. PANICUM VIRGATUM, L.~-(Totf smooth Panic Grass). This species grows in wet and sandy soil, one of the largest of the indigenous Panicums. Sometimes it attains a hight of seven feet, leaves very long, flat of a yellowish tinge when old ; spikelets about two lines long; branches of the compound, loose and very large panicle, (9 inches to 2 feet) drooping. Not valuable. Flowers in August. PANICUM CBUS GALLI, It.~(arn-yard Grass). Likes manured soil, occurs everywhere in yards, ditches and miry places. Annual; Calm 2-3 feet high, stout, erect or somewhat procum- bent ; leaves inch or more in breadth. Panicle dense, pyramidal, the spikelets crowded ia dense, spike-form racemes. Glumes acute, awn- ed, or awns wanting. Glumes and lower palea hispid, rhachis bristly ; sheaths smooth. Medium quality rough food. Eaten by cattle. PASPALUM, I*.~(Paspalum). The various species which represent this genus within the border of the State of Tennessee, rank, in my opinion, fore- 222 NATIVE FORAGE PLANTS most by the number of individuals, nutritious qualities and tenacity of life, amongst the whole of the grazing herbage. They are perennials, with thick, strong, running roots, often making a dense matting. Wherever they take hold other plants disappear. The blue grass is specifically known to the farmer, and he recognizes it amongst other wild- growing species. The manifold other species waving their culms in the breeze or creeping along the ground, he is ac- customed to speak of as wild grasses, and to pass over them without any especial care or notice. Should he once be able to discriminate those superficially resembling forms, he would certainly pass a very different judgment about the relative importance of the blue grass and the other na- tive species. Blue grass and Paspalum are frequently intermixed, but the latter succeeds the former by four to five weeks, and comes in full force after the former has long perished away. ' Of the twelve species known to exist in tlfe Southern States, seven have been found in this State. They are vigorous growing, succulent grasses, with heavy culms, large and smooth seed grains, with a smooth and thin epidermis. They must surely be very nutritious, and their habit under cultiva- tion ought to be studied. Inflorescence Paspalum laeve (1); a closed spikelet magnified (2); the same with the parts displayed (3). PASPALUM PLUITANS,Poir.~(^oa/< Chess.) Also in wheat fields ; the whole plant soft, downy. They are all three annuals, adventitious from Europe. Troublesome weeds as they arc in wheat fields, if sown for themselves, they will make very heavy crops of hay, and will be eaten by cattle. BROMUS KALMII, Gray,- Is the only indigenous kind. Perennial. Culms 2-& feet high. Panicle 3 inches long, the branches short and nearly simple, spikeletg drooping on capillary peduncles, closely of 7-12 flowered, densely silky 228 NATIVE FOE AGE PLANTS all over ; awn only one-third the length of the lance oblong flower. Dry ground, scattered in the woods. Ought to be tried how it does under cultivation. BROMUS CILIATUS, ^--(Ciliated Broom Grass). Has a compound panicle, loose nodding, spikelets seven to twelve flowered, flowers tipped with awns less than their length, leaves large. Culms three to four feet high. Grows in old fields. Worthless. PESTUCA, Linn--(.Fescwe Grass). A spikelet of F. elatior enlarged (1); as i * : r' flower (2); lower part of a lower palet outspread, (3). Spikelets 3 ; many flowered, panicled or race- mose ; the flowers not webby at the base. Glumes unequal, mostly keeled. Palets chartaceous, or almost coriaceous, roundish on the back, more or less 3-5 nerved, acute pointed, or often bristle- awned from the tip, rarely blunt ; the upper most- ly adhering at maturity at the enclosed grain. Stamens 1-3, flowers and leaves often dry and harsh PESTUCA MYURUS, L, and FUSTUCA TENELLA, Willd. Are both annuals, growing single, flowers awned, paniclef contracted. They appear early and make good sheep pasture. PESTUCA ELATIOR, L-(!Ta Fescue Grass). Perennial, growing in wet grass lands ; panicle narrow, contracted before and after flowering, erect, with short branches ; spikelets crowd- ed 5-10 flowered ; flowers rather remote, oblong, lanceolate. PESTUCA NUTANS, WHld-(Nodding Fescue Grass.). Perennial ; 2-4 feet high, growing in copses. Panicle of several long and slender, spreading branches, mostly in pairs, drooping when old, rough, naked below the spikelets, on pretty long pedicels. It is a strong looking grass. It never grows gregarious. Both these species are eat- en by cattle and are of medium quality. PESTUCA OVINA, Ir~-(Hard Fescue Grass.) Is a low growing perennial, with a contracted one-sided panicle, grows gregarious, often covering extensive patches. Excellent for sheep; flowers in May The Fescues have been described in "pasture grasses. " IN TENNESSEE. 229 POA, Ij. (Meadow Gh-ass). Panicle of Poa compressa, reduced in size (1); a magnified spikelets (2); a sepa- rate flower more magnified (3); a lower palet cut across and somewhat outspread (4)', vate or lanceolate, laterally compressed, several; 2-10 flowered in an i )i;iicl e. Glumes mostly shorter than the flowers; the lower smaller. Low- er palet membranaceous; herbaceous, with a delicate scarious, margin ; compressed, keeled, pointless, 5 nerved, (the inter- mediate nerves more obscure or obsolete), the principal nerves commonly clothed at and towa ds the base with soft hairs ; upper palet membranaceous, 2, toothed ; base of the flower often cobwebby. Stamens 2-8. Stigmas simply plumose. Grain oblong, free. Culms tufted from perennial roots, except Poa annua. Leaves smooth, usually flat and soft The softness and greater roundness of the spikelets, the absence of bristle awned tips, the open pyramidal panicle give this genus a habit which distinguishes it readily from the allied genus Festuca. Besides the species formerly described with the cultivated grasses, there remain to mention : POA ALSODES, Gray (Leafy Meadow Grass.} The uppermost leares often sheathing the capillary branches of the loose panicle, which generally stands in threes or fours Lower palet very obscurely nerved, villose on the keel below. Woods. Flowers in April and May. It is a scattered growing grass. POA SYLVESTRIS, Gra,y~(Sylvan Meadow Grass.) Spikelets very small, loosely 2-4. flowered. Culms flatish, erect; branches of the oblong pyramidal panicle short, numerous, in fives or more. A very light and tender grass, growing scattered through the woods. May. POA DEBILIS, Torrey~( Weak Meadow Grass). Panicle loose, few flowered, somewhat spreading; the branches mostly in pairs, flexuous, a little rough ; spikelets ovate, obtuse, 3 flowered ; the flowers webbed at the base, smoothish lower palea oblong, obtuse, slightly 3-nerved ; leaves and sheaths smooth ; ligule, oblong, acute. Perennial. Flowers in May; a soft eatable, but too scattered growing grass. 230 NATIVE FOKAGE PLANTS ERAGROSTIS CAPILLARIS, Ness (Hair-panided Meadow Grass.} Spikelets small, two to four flowered, greenish and purplish, leavei and sheaths hairy ; panicle loose, delicate and spreading and one to two feet long. It flowers in August and September, and grows in poor waste places. May be used in dried flower bouquets. ERAGROTIS TENTHS, Gray--(Z>eftcafc Spear Grass.) Glumes awl-shaped and very acute ; lower palea three-nerved, leaves from, one to two feet long; panicles very loose, one to two feet long. Flowers from August until frost sets in. It grows on rich sandy soil, and is of no value for graz- ing. Exceedingly common on river banks. ERAGROTIS PURSHII, Schrad--(/SWAem Eragrostis). Has a lengthened, widely spreading panicle, very loose ; branching stems spikelets two to seven-flowered; glumes and lower palea acute. Flowers in August. Nashville. No value. ERAGROSTIS MEGASTACHYA, IAn}a-(Pungent Eragrostis.) Flowers in August or September, and emits a sharp, pungent odor, when fresh, hence its name. It grows on sandy fields ; Nashville in all gardens as a weed. It is re- jected by stock. EATONIA Raff, (Eatonia)-- Spikelets usually 2-flowered, and with an abortive rudiment or pedi- cel, numerous in a contracted or slender panicle, very smooth. Glumei somewhat equal in length, but very dissimilar, a little shorter than the flowers; the lower narrowly linear, keeled, 1 -nerved ; the upper broad- ly obovate folded round the flowers, 3-nerved on the back, not keeled, scarious margined. Lower palet oblong, obtuse, compressed, boat- shaped, naked, chartaceo is ; the upper very thin and hyaline. Sta- mens 3. Grain linear oblong, not grooved. EATONIA PENNSYLVANIA, Gray- (Pennsylvanian Eatvnia.) A perennial and slender grass with simple and tufted culms, polished and shining spikelets like no other of the indigenous grasses. It grows plentifully in Middle Tennessee, loves borders of woods and thickets. Cattle seem to prefer it to any other pickings in the woods. IN TENNESSEE. 231 DIARRHENA, Baff.--(Dwfr*ena). Spikelets several flowered, smooth and shining, one or two of the up- permost flowers sterile, glumes ovate, much shorter than the flowers, coriaceous ; the lower one much smaller. Lower palet ovate, convex on the back, rigidly coriaceous, its 3 nerves terminating in a strong and abrupt cuspidate or awl-shaped tip. Squamulae ovate, ciliate. Sta- mens two. Grain very large, obliquely ovoid, obtusely pointed, rather longer than the palets, the cartilaginous, shining pericarps not adherent to the seed. A nearly smooth perrennial, with running rootstalks, producing simple culms, 2-3 feet high, with long linear lanceolate flat leaves towards the base, naked above, bearing a few short pedicelled spikelets in a very simple panicle. DIARRHENA AMERICANA, Beauv. American Diarrhena, is the only species frequent in our woods, and in quality as food about equal to the cheat. ELUSINE INDICA, Gaert (Crab Grass Yard Grass}. Spikelets 2-6 flowered, with a terminal naked rudiment, closely imbri- cate-spiked on one side of a flattish rhachis ; the spikes digitate. Glumes membranaceous pointless, shorter than the flowers. Palets awn- less and pointless; the lower ovate, keeled, larger than the upper. Sta- mens 3. Pericarp containing a loose oval, and wrinkled seed. Culms oblique compressed and flat at the base. Spikes 2-4. It is found in every garden, around every house, and is spread over most parts of the world. It is an annual, but its roots holds so firmly to the soil that it is difficult to pull it up with the hand. It forms very good and lasting pick- ing for all stock. It is also called Wire-grass or Dog's-tail. MELICA MUTICA, W*\t. (Blunt-spiked Melim). Spikelets one-five flowered; glumes convex, obtuse, and large. Stamens three, panicle loose, smooth and simple. On cliffs and in copses, 1J-2 feet high, soft and eatable. One of the earliest spring grasses. GLYCERIA PALLIDA, TRIN.--(Pa?e Manna Grass). Panicle erect, with hairy branches ; has few, linear, oblong spike- lets, from five to nine flowered ; lower palea oblong, minutely five- toothed; short, sharp- pointed, pale-green leaves; stems creeping at the base, from one to two feet long. It grows in shallow water, or very wet, boggy places, and is of no agricultural value whatever, as it will not grow on good, dry soils. 232 NATIVE FORAGE PLANTS GLYCERIA CANADENSIS, ^-(Rattlesnake Grass.) Has a spreading panicle, oblong, pyramidal, with drooping spikelets, six or eight flowered, long rough leaves, creeping perennial root, palea awnless, the lower rounded on the back, and flowers in July. It resembles quaking grass very much ; in swampy places, and rises from two to three feet high. Doubtful whether it occurs in this State. GYMNOPOGON BBEVIFOLIUS, Trin--( and is an actual saving to the farmer, and then he knows what he is sowing. Should it be necessary, however, to buy seeds, always delay a few days to test them. This is easily done by placing a certain ascertained number on a wet cloth, folded several times to retain moisture, and covering them over with a single thickness of the same. Keep the cloth damp a few days and the good ones will swell up and sprout while the defective ones will be covered over with mould. Count the sprouts, and by an easy computation, one can then ascertain the proportion of good seeds. Then sow in the proportion and there will be no difficulty in securing a stand. The wisdom of this precaution may be known when it is stated that nearly all the grass seeds are worthless at the end of three years, only a small proportion of them germinating. Even clover seeds that will keep their vitality when in the ground, and covered up, will lose this vitality in four or five years, if exposed to the atmosphere. The millets are scarcely worth sowing after the second year. The selection of the species being deter- mined on, the next consideration is the propriety of mixing or sowing alone, and in this connection, the best argument in favor of mixing should be taken from nature. 250 MANAGEMENT OF MEADOWS. No pasture, however luxuriant, is found to consist of one grass alone. In all meadows sown alone, there will be found naked spots, and these seem to depend upon some incompatibility of the soil, at that point, with the grass sown. These spots would be occupied possibly by other species if sown, and thus the whole surface would be cov- ered. Some grasses are disposed to turf the ground while others form tussocks, therefore it is best to mix, if sowing a tussock grass, a grass that will turf well. Some grasses have a heavy under-growth of surface foliage while others have this sparingly. These two" peculiarities would be done away with if the two were combined. It is not, however, proper to combine the pasture grasses with the meadow grasses. As a rule the former have creep- ing roots and are more vigorous than the latter, and they would soon overpower them and destroy the meadow. This, of course, is spoken in reference to the perennial pasture grasses. Another condition of mixing is the number to be com- bined. As a rule, it is beyond question, that a meadow sown with a variety of seeds will do better and make more hay than when one kind is used. It is no easy matter to explain why, but nature does it, and she rarely errs in her primitive growth. To show the variety of growth on a piece of natural meadow, the following table is given, which was made from a careful count by Mr. Sinclair. It shows that the greater the number of species, the greater the num- ber of plants to the square foot, and where the species are reduced the number of plants also decrease. The soil should be supplied with seed enough to suit every constitu- ent in it, and then if one fails another may answer the pur- pose, and the difference in cost of a few seed is but a small part to the value of a good meadow. MANAGEMENT OF MEADOWS. 251 AVERAGE NUMBER OF PLANTS AND SPECIES TO THE SQUARE FOOT OF SWARD. OHAEAOTEE OF THE TUEF. Whole number of Plants on the square foot. Natural grasses. *1 ^ ? ,2 o Distinct species. 1, A square foot taken from the richest nat- ural pasture capable of fattening one large ox or three sheep to the acre was found to contain .... 2. Rich old pasture capable of fattening one large ox and three sheep per acre 1000, 1090 940 1032 60 58 2 Another old pasture contained 910 880 30 12 4. An old pasture of a damp, moist and mossy surface . . . 684 510 8 5. A good pasture, two years old, laid down to rve grass and white clover 470 453 18 6, A sod of narrow leaved meadow grass (Poa angustifolia) 6 years old 192 1 7. A sod of meadow foxtail by itself 6 years old . . . .*. 80 1 8. Rye grass by itself 6 years old 75 1 9. Meadow irrigated and carefully managed . . 1798 1702 96 It will be seen by this table that numbers 1, 2 and 9 have more varieties of grasses than any others, and accord- ing to the table, are more thickly covered with plants. A custom prevails among the grass farmers of the North and East to mix a great number together some having as many as a dozen different kinds on one meadow. In this way those vacant spots we have spoken of will be filled up with selected seeds, instead of seeds of an inferior or noxious sort. The ground will be covered, and it is better to select the best varieties. The more especially is this the case, when it is expected, as most farmers will do, to pas- ture, to some extent the meadow, or when it is wished to train it as a meadow a few years, and ultimately let it pass into a grazing lot. It is quite a common custom in this State to mix clover and orchard grass, or clover and herds grass, or clover and timothy, and sometimes timothy and herds grass are mixed, and this is about the extent of mix- ing done. 252 MANAGEMENT OF MEADOWS. In the great meadows of the North Western and New England States where grass culture has been practiced for years it has been demonstrated often that the admixture of several varieties increases many fold the yield of grass, even if not wanted for pasturage. It secures an early stand, and if the ground fails to suit one species another will nourish, and thus, all vacant spots are covered. These spots of even an inch or two may seem insignificant, but when they are multiplied all over a large field they will materially affect the yield. The crop is made up of single stalks, and every stem is of importance in the aggregation. While we have the best evidence of the good effects of sowing several varieties together, it is strange that farmers of enlarged and intelligent experience will persist in putting down only one kind, unless it be to save seed. No man who has gone over a timothy or orchard grass meadow can Lelp but notice the many vacancies that could be filled. These often occur from freezes, the heat of the sun, birds, defective seed and incompatibility of soils. This would certainly not be the case if attention was directed to its pre- vention. Nature sets the example, and as a rule she is found to be the most trustworthy teacher. It is sometimes the case that the land is exactly suited to timothy, herds grass or clover, and by sowing these to- gether, or even separate, we succeed in covering the ground* but this is rarely found to be the case. It should be kept in mind in the selection of seeds to put those together that will blossom at the same time, unless it is intended for a pasture, in which case the reverse should be considered, for then it is best to so arrange it so as to have a succession of ripening crops, and the stock can be sup- plied throughout the year with such grasses as will be young, tender and succulent. But in the case of meadows it is desirable only to have such as will ripen together, as otherwise those cut too green will lose greatly by shrinkage. Another care to be thought of, is to put down grasses as nearly alike as possible as regards the aftermath. MANAGEMENT OF MEADOWS. 253 Some require or are improved by the tramping of stock. If left to themselves they have a tendency to tuft or spring out of the soil until their roots are exposed, when they fall a prey to the sun or to the freezes. These tufts or tussocks, as they are also called, will leave at least half the ground bare, and thus, also, much oi the hay is lost. But if tramped by stock the grass is pressed back into the soil and a turf is kept up that covers the whole surface. Some of the grasses, however, as timothy, do not require and will not bear grazing, for various reasons. These grasses ought not to be mixed with those that are benefited by tim- othy, and should such be disposed to tuft, the use of a heavy roller is the only remedy, and the vacant spaces can easily be reset by sowing seeds of the same or other varieties on them, and then giving them a light coat of manure. It may be assumed that in nearly all meadows or pastures olover should be a constituent. It is an easy matter to se- cure a stand of it. The clover will, in the course of two or three years, disappear from the meadow, leaving the grass in possession of the ground. But it has not left without a blessing, for it has reached up into the air with its long arms and drawn down great stores of ammonia, nitrogen, carbonic acid, and other valuable elements that grass re- quires, and has pushed them down into the soil; while on the other hand, it has pumped up immense quantities of potash and other salts that are, in their natural state insolu- ble, and not available to the grasses, and when it dies, it bequeaths these valuable manures to its successors. Nor is this all. Its long roots permeate the ground to a prodigious dopth, for so humble a plant, and when the roots decay the soil is so honey-combed that rains penetrate to the sub- soil easily and the grass roots follows to a much greater depth than they could otherwise attain. And while all these services are being rendered the ciover is giving to its owner large yields of the best of hay. What a faithful ser- vant is this plant ! 254 MANAGEMENT OF MEADOWS. Before proceeding to the subject of the proportions in which seeds should be mixed, we will give a table prepared by the Messrs. Lawson, of Edinburgh, the celebrated seeds- men, who have demonstrated the truth of its statements by actual experiments. It contains the weight of seeds per bushels, the number of seeds in a bushel, the depth of soil in inches and fractions of an inch, at which the greatest number of seeds will germinate, the depth of soil in inches and fractions of an inch at which no seeds will germinate, the depth of soil at which half the seeds will germinate, and the average per cent, of loss in the weight of grass in drying, when cut at time of flowering. One thing is to be remarked, and it of the utmost importance too, and that is, seeds are much lighter when dry or old, than when fresh, and therefore, it is better to make a calculation by pounds rather than by measure, as in the case of old, light seeds, more of them by number would be sown, and a bettey chance for a stand be given in the increased number, and thus an allowance be given for defective seeds. MANAGEMENT OF MEADOWS. 255 NAMES OF GRASSESS. c3 .s 1 O * 11 ! fl Average No. of seeds in an ounce. Depth of soil in inches and fractions of an inch at which the greatest No. of seeds will germinate. De^tlTof soil in inches and fractions of an inc i at which only half the seeds will germinate. Depth of soil in inches and fractions of an inch at which none of the seeds will germinate. Average percentage of loss in the weight of grass when dry, cut in time of blossoming. White Top ' Red Top, Herds Grass . . . Tufted Hair Grass . 13 i 12 14 5 6 7 10 26 12 10 14 14 14 15 10 13 15 7 15 18to30 25 48 44 15 13 15 15 5* 64 64 65 60 26 500.000 425. 000 1 132.000 76.000 71.000 21.000 15.500 28.000 40.000 39.000 20.500 64.000 26.000 24.700 39.000 58.000 33.000 95.000 27.000 15.000 80.000 42.000 74.000 173.000 243 . 000 217.000 10.000 118.000 16.000 16.000 32.000 12.000 10.280 to ^ to J to i to | i to * u to 1 to i to i to J to i to ^ i to i i to i to i i to f i to * to J to * to 1 to i to i to i to i | to 1 *to | to 1 1 to li 1 toli litol* *to i f to 1 f to 1 1 to 1J f to 1 f to 1 f to 1 f to 1 1 to 1 Htou Itoli f to 1 ito | litolf |to 1 litol* litolj tto | 2to2| 1 2i H 2 4 2 aj a* 2f 2 2| 21 s* 8* 3i 2f 2 11 4 2 2 2 H 4} , .65 .63 .63 .57 ,45 .29 .52 .65 .60 .30 .35 .73 .50 .38 .32 .50 .5* .57 .72 Meadow Foxtail Sweet Scented Vernal. . . Tall Oat Grass Slender Wheat Grass. . . . Crested Dogs tail Orchard Grass . Hard Fescue. Tall Fescue Sheep's Fescue Meadow Fescue . Slender- Spike Fescue Red Fescue Red Meadow Grass.. Common Manna Gras*. . . Meaidow Soft Grass Ital an Rye Grass Per'-nnial Rye Grass. . . . Mill e t Grass Ree TWELFTH FOE WORN FIELDS WITH GULLIES. &a s a 0*2 Ibs. Blue Grass 4 Orchard Grass 4 Gamma Grass 1 peck rootfc Bermuda Grass . . 1 peck roots Egyptian Sugar Corn or Means i bushel roots Red Clover . .... 8 These twelve mixtures, mostly adopted from Dr. Flint's work, with alterations to suit climate and soil will, as a rule, meet the demands of almost every variety of land in Tennessee. Of course any variation may be made in either the species or in the proportions, according to the fancy, bearing in mind the general amount of seed used in the above mixtures. The first mixture, or Lawson's, is prepared for Scotland, and we were induced to engraft both that an JKhe Nos. 2, 3, 4, 5, 8 and 9, which were arranged for a higher latitude, from the fact that much land in the State of Tennessee lies at so high an elevation that it is equivalent to a lower tempera- ture. For instance, in East Tennessee, we find grasses on the higher mountains, that are only found on the crests of the White Mountains in New Hampshire. So, in descending the mountains, and even in the higher valleys, these grass- es are in a flourishing condition, that will not grow at all, or very imperfectly, on* the water courses of Middle Tennessee. In a visit to the Unaka Mountains, last September, in com- pany with some members of the Association for the Advance- ment of Science we saw some grasses growing in great lux- uriance on the "Balds" of that range, and on the top of th Roane Mountain that we had never seen elsewhere, but Prof. Chickering, of Washington City, recognized them as similar to those seen on Mt. Washington and in Canada. 264 MANAGEMENT OF MEADOWS. There were Poa annua, the spear grass of Maine, but com- mon on low lands in the State; Agrostis perennans, or Thin grass, a plant peculiar to marshy places ; Phleum alpin- um, Carex juncea, a rush-looking sedge, or rather a grass- like sedge; Aira flexuosa, or wood hair grass, an ornamental grass of the Northern latitudes ; Danthonia compressa, or wild oat grass, and Trisetum molle, or downy persoon. Be- sides these were many others not determined by any of the botanists in the company. These grasses afford an immense pasturage during the summer to vast herds of cattle that are driven by the citizens for miles around to summer on them. Gen. Wilder, who owns a large section of land there, in- formed us the grass, when enclosed from the stock, grew to the hight of four feet. Very many varieties existed, all growing promiscuously together. This goes far to show the great difference of the development of the species in different localities, for at lower .altitudes, with the excep- tion of the Carex juncea these grasses grow quite low. We think the lists given are sufficiently large to embrace almost every wAt of a grass grower in Tennessee. We di- rect special attention to No. 12 for use on some of the many worn out fields resulting from cotton culture. They stare at us on every side, and make an exceedingly unsightly ap- pearance on a well ordered farm. The long creeping roots will swing down into f he gullies and soon put a stop to washes, and the immense herbage will, after a while, renew the fertility of the soil. No. 10 is another mixture designed for the same purpose. It is only a matter of judgment to be exercised by the owner which he will take. No. 1 1 is a good mixture to use for hay, a few years, but the blue grass will ultimately master the others and will thrive on the fertility induced by the others. Nos. 1 and 2 are regular meadow grasses, amply proven by use in the New England States, and number 3 is better adapted for orchards or thin woodlands, especially lawns, too large to be devoted solely to ornamental purposes. MANAGEMENT OF MEADOWS. 265 On light sandy soils number 4 would be a good selection, and would be well adapted to the Rim counties as well as to West Tennessee or that portion consisting of sandy soils. Number 5 would come in on any portion of the State where swampy lands that can be drained exist, and these lands are plentiful, both on uplands and bottoms. This character of land is exceedingly fertile when reclaimed from the coldness of water, abounding in all the elements necessary to pro- duce largely most excellent grass. Nunber 6 is intended for those bottom lands not swampy, yet moist during most of the winter months. There is a great quantity of land on every creek and river in Tennessee lying on the flood plateau, and ordinarily the meadows are so injured by frequent overflows that the grass is either destroyed or greatly injured. Number 7 will meet the indications on these lands and survive any ordinary deposit of water. Numbers 8 and 9 are intended to be sown on the hill lands or mountain sides whose soil is full of gravel or rock. These are mostly creeping grasses, and will run over and hide large ledges of rock. ' Clover is mixed with all the different numbers for the especial purposes stated heretofore, and we think even if it had no qualities as a hay grass, it should enter into every pas- ture for its great fertilizing qualities. In ,the first few, or New England groups, white clover is selected as one of the constituents. We might safely leave that out, as it is indigenous here and will spring up quickly on every pasture and meadow in "clover years," as they are termed, for some years it seems to disappear almost entirely, and then it cov- ers the ground in the most unexpected manner every where. This is not the case in New England, and there it must be sown to get a stand. These assumptions are not to be taken without verifica- tion by experiment, but are to be considered merely as the opinion of one farmer given to another, but a careful course of experiments could soon settle the question of the truth- 266 MANAGEMENT OF MEADOWS. fulness of our opinion. Of one thing we are certain, and that is, that in following nature by a large admixture of species, we will get much quicker, and with but a small in- creased cost, a close firm turf or sward on both meadows and pastures. Some will say if we follow nature we ought to sow only those grasses that are natural to the soil. But it must be remembered that if this rule was observed we would deprive ourselves of the advantage of acquiring all those improved kinds found elsewhere. We would have no timothy or herds grass or blue grass, but only those kinds that may have been brought by winds or floods, or dropped by birds, and often seeds are brought in these ways that are not specially adapted to the soils where accident brings them. On the contrary, it should be the aim of every man to use his best endeavors to grasp that which is good, and improve that which he has. He should not hesitate to try everything that comes with a good character, and if he is deceived now and then, yet he sometimes gets a rich reward for his labor and expense. TIMES AND MANNER OF SOWING. Up to 1810 the almost invariable rule among all farmers was to sow grass seeds in the Spring of the year on crops of grain. Since that time the practice has changed to a great extent, and while some still adhere to Spring sowing, the great majority of farmers sow in the early fall. Some few sow grass alone, but the most of them sow with some kind of grain. There are many who contend it is much better to sow alone, as the half crop that will be harvested the next year is fully equivalent to the value of the grain crop, while if the two are sown together, they both work injuriously on each other. The stand of grass is injured, and the yield of grain is diminished. With all that, the general custom is to sow on grain fields, and wait until the second year for hay. Those who contend for the latter way, say, if the grass is sown alone it will be so delicate the first MANAGEMENT OF MEADOWS 267 year that the weeds will come up faster than it will, and destroy to a great extent the young grass ; for at the time the mower should run over it to destroy the weeds, the farmer is so busy with the other crops, he neglects to attend to it, until the weeds have greatly injured the grass. But one thing is very essential, let it be sown with whatever it may, it must be in the ground long enough before frosts to take a deep root, or much of it will be destroyed by cold. Clover rnusv, however, in either case, be reserved until Spring, as, when young, it is very sensitive to the effects of cold unless it is sown in August. It is the custom of some farmers to sow clover and other grass seeds, mixed in the last plowing of late corn. Should that course be decid- ed on the corn must be late, and plowed on the level prin- ciple, and the clover sowed after the last plowing. Some crops have succeeded admirably, put in on this plan. But the better plan will be to prepare the ground well, as already stated, and sow the seed, if alone, from the 15th of Septem- ber to the 15th of October; if with a grain crop as soon as it can be put in safely. Wheat is sow n, as a general practice, too late to insure a stand of grass that will resist the winter, and it is therefore better to sow with rye or barley. Let the time of sowing be when it may, the farmer must watch for a season, otherwise the moisture brought up by plowing^ will be sufficient to germinate the seeds, but not to make them live, and even if the moisture is not enough to make them germinate, there may be enough to sprout them, and they will still be destroyed. If it is the intention to sow on a stubble, it is better, as soon as possible after harvest, to prepare the land and sow in some of the August seasons, and if sown then the clover sowing may not be deferred, but sown with the other seeds, as they will iiave ample time then to root enough to with- stand the cold of winter. Timothy, or herds grass, sown in September or October alone, will always make a good crop the next summer. 268 MANAGEMENT OF MEADOWS. As compared with spring sowing, we may safely prefer rail. Both heat and cold are injurious to young grass plants, but of the two, cold is much less injurious than the droughts of summer. It was the experience of the writer, on one occasion, to sow a large meadow. He began about the 1st of September and sowed on until rains stopped him, and again in the middle of October, and finished early in March. On the September sowing there was a magnificent stand that stood over the ground with a solid turf. On the October crop the stand was fair, but much was destroyed during the winter, and the weeds were very troublesome the next year. On the March sowing the stand promised as well as the September crop, but the droughts of summer destroyed it completely. But there will always be a difference of opinion on this subject, and this difference mainly arises from the difference in the character of soils. Seme soils are better sown in the spring, while others secure better results by fall sowing and in either case the successful farmer will advocate his plan. But in either case, as Gen. Harding truthfully says, a man will fail sometimes, let him sow when he will. No amount of prescience is sufficient to foresee all the casual- ties his labor is subject to, and for a man to give up or des- pair for one or two or even three failures, argues but poorly for his success as a farmer. He must continue to try, and when he succeeds he will have the proud satisfaction of knowing that he is master of the ground. A few words only are necessary in regard to the manner of sowing. In the first place, the ground should be thor- oughly prepared, and a season on hand, and if a* rain has fallen since the ground was put in order, and packed the surface, run a sharp toothed harrow over it to break up the crust, then sow the seed and roll it in. A light harrowing will also do on clayey soils. If its surface is too rocky, stumpy or sloping, to admit a roller, the next best thing is to brush it with a light full brush. If the surface is MANAGEMENT OF MEADOWS. 269 perfectly smooth before the seeds are sown a light brushing does very well, but if it is not, a roller is preferable, as it will not cover so deeply as a brush. Remember that all seeds covered two inches deep will not germinate. If sown with grain, smooth the ground over with a brush after the grain is sown, and let a hand follow immediately behind and cast the seed into the brush. Never use a heavy thin brush, but if the limbs are full of twigs it will not mat- ter as to weight. Then it will not cover too deeply. It may be necessary, and generally is, to roll the land in the spring, especially if the meadow is a stiff clay soil, as the frosts of winter will usually heave up most of the soil, thereby carrying up roots and earth, and unless it is packed in again the succeeding droughts will surely destroy the grass. All these directions are not to be taken as applying to every locality, or situation, for as a difference of soil and climate affects the results, so only can experience, controlled by reason, govern the complete details of this, or any other species of planting. CUTTING, CUEING AND STORING HAY. There has been, and still is more differences of opinion among hay farmers, as to the proper time of cutting, than upon any other point connected with hay. There are different times for the different varieties, but as a rule there should be but one way. The time of flowering is, unques- tionably, the general indication for the harvest to begin. At this time the saccharine juices that go to the formation and development of the seed, are stored in the stalk and leaves, and if saved then, they will loose only their watery constituents, and the grass will be as palatable and succu- lent as when standing, and will be eaten clean by all kinds of stock. Still, some wait until the pollen falls and the seeds are in the milk, and those practising this plan contend that the hay not scour the horses so badly, But there is another 270 MANAGEMENT OF MEADOWS. reason why some defer the cutting to so late a date, and that is, it will not lose so much water, and consequently will be heavier and so bring more money. A good authority says, "I .cut in the blossom when the hay is designed for milch cows, or for fattening beeves, be- cause in that state it makes more beef, and induces the cows to give more milk ; but if for work stock, horses or oxen, I cut six days later, or thereabouts, because it does not scour or loosen the animal so much as when cut in the blossom/ 7 In either case, however, in an extensive crop, if the har- vesting begins at the blossoming period, it will be six days before it is finished. It is very evident if the hay is cut after the ripening of the seeds, the leaves will have but little sustenance, and the stems will be only woody fibre, the nutritive elements having nearly all gone to the seed. It is the testimony of most farmers that the rowen or the afterneath is better for milcn cows, and for fattening purposes than the first cut- ting, which goes to prove that the earlier period, that is, at blossoming, is the best, from the fact that the season gener- ally compels the farmer to cut the rowen before the grass is past the time of blossoming. Another reason for not allowing the grass to manure the seed, is, that the meadow will sooner run out. When the seed forms, the vitality of the grass becomes impaired, and it falls a victim much easier to either excessive cold or heat. It is the disposition of all vegetation to die after it has made provision for perpetuation, and those grasses that have perennial roots are the exception to the rule, but all partake more or less of this principle. And besides it creates a heavier draft upon the soil than if cut sooner. Some exceptions exist in regard to some of the meadow grasses in the list, as will be seen by referring to the table at the end of this chapter. This refers only to some of the coarser grasses, not in general use in Tennessee. For instance, if the "Means" grass is allowed to even blossom, MANAGEMENT OF MEADOWS. 271 it is almost worthless. The Gamma grass and possibly the Lucerne should be cut as often as it is high enough to run the mower through them, as they become very hard, stiff and woody if they grow too rank, whereas, they are, if cut in time, very sweet and nutritious. There is also much difference of opinion in regard to the proper time for cutting clover. Some will take a stalk and tie a knot in it, and if much sap exudes from it, they will leave it until it will barely show moisture. Others will cut when the field is about half in blossom, while still others will defer it until about half the heads are brown and the seed are in a milky state. But the mass of testimony is in favor of cutting clover when a few brown heads show them- selves over the field. If the crop is exceptionally heavy, it is better to begin even before any brown heads appear. It seems strange that the clover will be heavier when cut green, but it is nevertheless true, and it is more relished by stock. Besides when cut early the leaves are not so liable to shatter as it is when dryer or later cut. And the leaves form no inconsiderable portion of this mass of clover hay. It is a well known fact that just before the formation of the seed there is a larger per cent, of sugar, starch and glu- ten in the stalk than at any other time. When the grass first springs up it is filled almost entirely with water, as any one can satisfy himself by chewing a stem in its different periods of growth. As the plant grows and matures, the water gradually becomes impregnated with these substances, and at its blossoming period, these elements exist in their great- est quantity in fact nature is now storing up material from which to form the seed, and these stores are held ready in the stalk, to effect that purpose. These elements are all so- luble in water, and consequently, are easily dissolved by the juices of the stomach. But if these principles are al- lowed to go to the seed, they leave the stalk, and at once the plant starts on its downward course, becoming more and more woody, until finally decay sets in, and the hay is then 272 MANAGEMENT OF MEADOWS. worthless ; because the woody fibre is insoluble in the stom- ach. By reference to the table given at the close of this chapter of experiments on different grasses, it will be seen there are exceptions to this principle some grasses giving more nutritive principles at seeding time, than others, while in blossom; but still, with this fact in view, if the grasses are allowed to go to seed, they impoverish the soil, lessen the age of the meadow, and utterly destroy the chance for a second crop and the quantity of hay saved is almost al- ways greater at any time before seeding than afterwards. Prof. Kirtland draws the following conclusions from many careful observations as regards timothy : 1. "That timothy is a perennial plant, which renews it- self by an annual formation of bulbs," or perhaps, more correctly speaking, tubers, in which the vitality of the plant is concentrated during the winter. These form in whatever locality the plant is selected without reference to dryness, or moisture. From these proceed the stalks that support the heads and leaves, and from the same source spread out the numerous fibres forming the true roots. 2. To insure a perfect development of tubers a certain amount of nutrition must be assimilated in the leaves and returned to the base of the plant, through the stalk. 3. As soon as the process of nutrition is completed, it becomes manifest by a state of desiccation or dryness, al- ways commencing at a point directly above either the first or second joint of the stem near the crown of the tubers. From this point the desiccation gradually progresses up- ward, and the last portion of the stalk yielding its fresh- ness is that adjoining the head. Coincident with the be- ginning of this process, is the full development of the seeds, and with its progress they mature. Its earliest appearance is evidence that both the tubers and seeds have received their requisite supplies of nutrition, and that neither the stalk nor the leaves are longer necessary to aid them in completing their maturity. A similar process occurs in th MANAGEMENT OF MEADOWS. 273 onion just above the bulb, indicating a maturity of that organ. 4. If the stalk be cut from the tubers before this evi- dence of maturity appears, the necessary supplies of nutri- tion will be arrested, their proper growth will cease, and an effort will be made to repair the injury by sending out small lateral tubers, from which weak unhealthy stalks will proceed, at the expense of the original tubers. All will ul- timately perish, either by the drought of autumn or the cold of winter. 5. The tubers, together with one or two of 'the lower joints of the stalk, remain fresh and green during the win- ter, if left to take their natural course ; but if, by any means, this green portion be severed, at any season of the year, the result is the death of the plant." From these five propo- sitions, the following conclusions are drawn: 1. "The timothy grass cannot, under any circumstances, be adapted for pasture, as the close nipping of horses and sheep is fatal to the tubers, which are also extensively de- stroyed by swine, if allowed to run in the pasture. 2. That the proper time for mowing timothy, is at any time after the process of desiccation has commenced on the stalk, as noted in the third proposition. It is not very essential whether it is performed a week earlier or later, provided it be postponed till that evidence of maturity has become manifested. 3. All attempts at close shaving the sward, should be avoided while using the scythe, and in guaging the mowing machines, care should be taken to run them so high that they will not cut the timothy below the second joint above the tuber." Any one can verify these propositions and conclusions, by going late in the fall to a meadow of timothy and examin- ing for himself. He will see that those tubers that have a green stalk, however short, will be large, full, healthy and and green, while on the contrary, those cut close will have 18 I 274 MANAGEMENT OF MEADOWS. a withered appearance, and often will be dead. I have often seen tussocks perfectly dead, and until this idea was brought to my attention, was unable to account for it. There is also, it is proper to state, a small insect that is peculiar to timothy, and sometimes the death of the plant may properly be attributed to its ravages. The presence of the insect or its burrows in the bulb will enable the observer to attribute it to its proper cause. CUTTING. Perhaps no invention of agricultural machinery, and their name is legion, has afforded more positive benefit to the farmer than the introduction of the mowing machine. Be- fore its invention, no farmer could, with certainty and suc- cess, secure a large amount of hay. It ripens in the hottest of the weather and at a time when the labor of the country is, as a general thing, all actively employed ; so if a man did get enough, it was at an exorbitant price, fearfully reducing his profits. Then the grass, if of one crop, all needs cutting at once, so it would be impracticable to save it all in prime condition. The oldest instrument used, was a sickle, and for many years the farmer had to content him- self with grasping with one hand what he cut with the other, and woe unto the back during this slow and painful operation. It was a great improvement on the sickle when the mowing blade or scythe came into use, though there were found then as now plenty (if old men who adhered to the way of their fathers, and thought the scythe an inno- vation that would soon disappear. Though a great im- provement, yet it is a most laborious operation, and a man that can cut down an acre a day is rarely to be found. It is a severe test of strength, and brings into play nearly every muscle of the body, so that there is no rest for any. But the mowing machine has rendered it unnecessary to use it, except in rocky or very broken spots, where the ma- chine will not go. It is altogether unnecessary to adduce any arguments to prove the superiority of the mower over MANAGEMENT OF MEADOWS. 275 the old plan. It will cut from six to eight acres in a day, and will spread the hay as it goes, better than a man will do it, and when cut by hand, it requires one man to every four or five hands to do the spreading alone. Many persons object to the mowers, from the ease with which they are damaged. This can be obviated to a great extent, by buying in the first place, a well-constructed ma- chine. No man may expect to get a cheap machine to do as good work or to keep up as long at it as one that has been faithfully constructed and carefully arranged. Then a farmer must himself be a careful manipulator. He must not expect to run his mower with impunity over roots, rocks or grubs. But if carefully handled and properly driven, there is no reason why one may not last through many years. Another improvement is the horse rake. The first one used was the horizontal rake, that running under the swath heaped it up until the teeth were full, when by a slight lift of the handles, it turned over, leaving the hay in wind- rows. This it did very well, and still does well, but an- other has come into very general use, that is a little more extensive, but gives the driver a seat on it, and certainly gathers up the grass cleaner than the other. These are of various patents, and the selection is a matter of taste, all of them being good machines. The Tedder is another machine that is used extensively in the Northern States, where the weather is more uncer- tain than here, and the hay dries much slower than beneath the Southern sun. It is seldom used in Tennessee, and is but seldom necessary. It is used for the purpose of shak- ing up and re-spreading the hay. Should a rain overtake the hay before it is put into cocks, it will be a very useful in- strument to lift it from the ground and lay it down again lightly, thus allowing free circulation of air under it. Being now supplied with the necessary machines to commence harvest, it is necessary, as a preliminary, to put 276 MANAGEMENT OF MEADOWS. them in good condition, for the job. A carpenter would make but a poor progress, were he to commence a building without having sharp tools, so the mowing machine blades must not only be well ground, but they must be kept in that condition. When the blades become dull, their efficiency will be greatly impaired, leaving bunches of grass over the meadow, and adding greatly to the draught of the horses. Not only must they be well sharpened, but all the nuts should be tightened, as a loose bolt will often produce a breakage. Oil must literally flow upon all the rubbing surfaces. Many of the journals require to be oiled every fifteen or twenty minutes good, pure oil should be used that will not dry and gum up the works. When starting in, select the longest "through/' as the fewer turns the less loss of time. Keep an even, steady gait, as it will not be so apt to tire or fret the horses. Don't get fretted or out of temper if some slight delay occurs from carelessness, or accidents, but resolve to profit by the expe- rience, and avoid like contingences in the future. There is a wonderful difference in the skill and effectiveness of dif- ferent drivers. Some seem to glide over the ground with- out difficulty, all day with the grass falling as gently before them as if laid down by the touch of fairies, while others will storm, fret and frown all day with but little work done and both horses and themselves be worn out at night. We have refrained from going into a history or descrip- tion of the various machines in use. They began at an early day, about 1830. Since the introduction of William Manning's, a great many different machines have come into use, and the very best evidence of the efficiency of all of them is that each man who owns one thinks that "make" the best. It is usual to have a mower and reaper combined but when a man is farming on a sufficiently extensive scale' it is better to have them separate, ior the motion necessary to be given to the sickle, in mowing, is too rapid in reap- ing, and consequently does not do so well. MANAGEMENT OP MEADOWS. 277 Do not fail to have spare nuts, and especially spare sec- tions for the blade, as the breaking of a section which will occasionally occur with the most careful management, great- ly impedes the efficiency of the machine, and tires the horses with the harder pull it gives them. It is unnecessary to say, that in beginning the harvest of - the hay, it must not be commenced with threatning weather overhead, but rather await a good day, if the hay needs cutting ever so much, as it is better to have well-cured, over-ripe hay, than hay with all the sugar gum and gluten washed out by repeated rains. CURING, This is a point upon which there is as much difference of opinion, perhaps, as on any other point connected with harvesting. Some prefer to let it get dry on the ground, just as it is left by the mower, while others cure it in the wind-row, and still others cure it in the cock. This refers to the true grasses, for almost every one who makes hay of the clovers pursues one plan, which will be spoken of di- rectly. This difference in the plans of curing, results chiefly from the great difference there is in the curing quality of the various grasses. Timothy cures much easier and quicker than herds grass, while the coarser grasses, such as Gamma, Egyptian and others, require still longer time than herds grass. Formerly, it was the universal custom to allow it to lie until it was almost dry, before raking, but that custom is fast giving place to a more rapid method. Now, with many of our best farmers, it is deemed sufficient to allow it to remain on the gro/und after cutting a time, only long enough for it to become wilted, and then with a rake it is put into wind-rows. Hands follow immediately with hand rakes, or pitchforks and throw it up into cocks. Some do not even cock it, but, if the weather is favorable, allow it to remain in the wind- row for a day, or the second evening 278 MANAGEMENT OF MEADOWS. after cutting, and then gather it up in wagons and carry to the rick or barn. But, probaby, the surest plan is to put it into cocks the evening after it is cut in the morning, and allow it to remain in this state for two or three days, ac- cording as the promise of good weather may be, then throw open the cocks and spread the hay before hauling up. It can be easily determined at this stage whether or not it is sufficiently cured. If, when examined, the cocks have become heated, by opening them out the heat that has been generated will readily become dissipated, and there is not much likelihood of its becoming again heated, One fact is well ascertained and that is, the sooner it goes into the rick or barn after cutting, without spoiling, the better will be the hay and the more will it be relished by stock. It is much better to run some risk of barn heat, than to allow it to get a wetting. In the green state in which it is when cut, nearly all the nutritious properties of the grasses are in a soluble condition. To allow the rains to fall on the hay, will quickly dissolve them, and when washed out, the hay becomes almost worthless. A slight amount of heat is advantageous, as it is the result of fermentation, by which sugar is evolved and all its nourishing qualities become in- tensified, but if it proceeds too far, the hay becomes sour and is greatly injured. Some farmers adopt the plan of arresting its disposition to heat by sprinkling salt upon it, as it is stored. This is a good plan, and increases the fondness of stock for it if too much is not applied. One hand should apply the salt as it is thrown in, at the rate of about two quarts to the two-horse wagon load. Should the farmer not wish to sell his hay, and is scarce of a supply, he can increase the quantity of provender by mixing, as it is put into the heap, a thfl^ or even a half of straw, or inferior hay, that has been left over, and in the curing process which takes place the juices of the new hay will penetrate and sweeten the straw, greatly improving its character, without deteriorating its own quality. MANAGEMENT OF MEADOWS. 279 A most excellent farmer says, he waits until, the dew is off, then starts his mower, and in the evening about 4 o'clock starts the rake, and has hands following with forks, and by the time the dew is falling, has it all in cocks. The next morning after the dews dry up, he opens and throws out the cocks, and immediately after dinner begins to haul to the barn. When it is intended to let it remain in the corks for se- veral days, great care should be exercised in properly form- ing the hay into cocks in view of wet weather. We have no assurance of continued good weather, and should at all times be prepared for the worst. Cocks indifferently made would be, if possible, worse than if spread out, for the water would penetrate them all through and the hay would in a short time mould or rot. In the first place, they should be made large, not less than one hundred pounds in each at any time. Then make them as sharp at the top as possible, so as to be stout and secure against winds. Make the sides nearly perpendicular, and lastly, comb them down well from top to bottom with a pitchfork so as to throw as many stems as possible parallel with one other, thatching it out well in order the better to shed the water. But even with the most careful management, all the outer layer and some of the interior, will be destroyed by long continued rains. Some farmers in the Northern States provide themselves with cloth caps. These will effectually protect the cocks from injury, and if properly cared for, will last many years. It is true in our warm climate they are not so much re- quired as, with proper care, the entire crop can generally be saved without injury, but if any one should desire to al- low the cocks to remain for several days in the field, it would be a matter of economy to provide themselves with caps. They are made of 5-4 duck, cut square, with a twine tied at each corner, and fastened to a peg. After the cock is made, a man follows with the caps, and fastens the pegs 280 MANAGEMENT OF MEADOWS. in the ground at the four corners, pulling the cloth out as far as necessary to tighten the cover, so that it will stand over the hay like an umbrella. With these covers on, the cocks can bid defiance to the heaviest storms, as, although a little dampness would penetrate at first, they will soon swell and tighten, so as to be water proof. In passing grass into hay and taking it into market, it is necessary to handle it quite frequently. The slovenly plan of some farmers to use forks made of a sapling, is to be greatly reprehended. Like all other trades, the use of good tools is essential to good farming, and no one should be with- out good three-pronged steel forks. It expedites work very much, and as a mere labor saving tool, is economical. Besides, it enables the hand to take and pass the grass more completely, leaving no gleanings behind. And then it greatly relieves the strain on the laborer. So do not, in this work, begin until good forks and hand rakes are provided. Sometimes the rake is very necessary, especially if from ac- cident the hay gets beaten into the stubble by an unexpect- ed thunder shower. The farmers of the present day, enjoy an advantage un- known and unthought of by our forefathers. Heretofore we had weather prophets, men who would look wise, look all around at the clouds, and generally guess wrong as to continued fair weather. The moon was looked to as a har- binger of rain, and great stress laid upon the way it hung in the heavens when new moon began. There were, and are, many signs, portent and valuable, both to the mariner and farmer, and an observant person will often be able to see a storm in the mystic future. But all these signs pale into insignificance compared with the " probabilities" column of our daily papers. The chief of the signal office, stationed at Washington, receives from stations, all over the United States, information of coming storms, rains and winds, and by long experience, is able to tell almost with absolute accu- racy the beginning of a wet spell, for at least twenty-four MANAGEMENT OF MEADOWS. 281 four hours in advance, and can give a very good idea of it for two or three days beforehand. In every daily postoffice in the United States a bulletin is posted, every morning, of these facts, so that it will not be difficult for those not seeing a paper, to become informed, through one or the oth- er methods, and most farmers now base their time of harvest- ing on these predictions. The absolute necessity of getting a favorable time for this important work, will render the trouble and expense in procuring the necessary information, of small moment. The crop of the entire year, the health and comfort of all the stock on the place, depend upon the hay being properly saved, and a mistake or error on this point will entail a serious loss, one that will cost far more than the subscript! in to a good paper to say nothing of the useful information, to be derived from it besides. The foregoing remarks apply to the true grasses only. With clovers and the leguminous plants it is different. Several plans will be detailed, each good, and the reader can then make his own selection. Cut clover when the dew is off, let it wilt, and rake it into wind-rows. Allow it to remain in this state until the dew is off the next morning, and begin at once to haul and place in the barn, sprinkling salt in small quantities over every layer In this way the entire crop will be exposed -only about 24 hours, which is amply sufficient for it. It will heat and go through a heavy sweat, but this will not injure it, and it will look as fresh and almost as green when cured, as when standing. The salt is essential to its proper preservation. Another plan is to begin the formation of cocks on the evening of the first cutting, putting in all that was cut in the morning, and the next morning cocking what was cut the previous evening, thus gividg each cutting twelve hours of sun. These grasses cannot take more sun than this with- out becoming so dry they will lose their leaves and blossoms A great risk is run by cocking clover unless the farmer is provided with cloth caps, as, from the crooked, tortuous 282 MANAGEMENT OF MEADOWS. stems, it is impossible to shield the clover from the admis- sion of water. The cocks are examined from day to day as the curing process advances, until the farmer is convinced, from his experience, the hay is well cured. Should no wet weather intervene the hay will be excellent, and will re- main, uninfluenced by heat, in the barn an indefinite length of time. Some farmers provide themselves with split sticks, about the size of pea sticks, three feet long, driving them into the ground, three together, open at the bottom and close at top, in the shape of a tripod, and form the cocks upon them, thus giving them air in the interior. Heating is thus prevented, and the process of curing advances with much greater rapidity, and good hay is soon made. By this plan the hay will be well cured in two days at most, while by the other plan it will require three or four days. How- ever, from the personal experience of the writer, which is considerable, the first plan detailed is the safest and best, and he has never failed to secure good bright nutritious hay. It would seem to many, that it would easily heat, mould and rot from the quantity of water. in the stalks and foliage, but, there being a large percentage of sugar in it, it becomes candied and, after this, there is no difficulty in its keeping. Should the farmer have a quantity of good clean wheat, oat, or rye straw, it is a, very good practice, and a safe one, to throw a layer of it between each load of clover. It will permit the passage of the air and the aroma of the clover will penetrate the straw, each in this manner benefitting the other, so that both will be eaten with a relish by cattle. For milch cows and sheep, clover hay, vetches, peas and beans are far superior to any other kinds of hay. Cows will yield more and better milk than from the other grasses, but for horses, the timothy and herds grass hays are superior to clover. There are some other kinda of hay procured from the cereals, that must be treated in a different manner from MANAGEMENT OF MEADOWS. 283 any of the preceding grasses, but this subject will be treated under the head of cereals, as soiling crops. STOEING. But little need be said on this subject, as the practice of every one now is to provide, as far as practicable, for stor- age under shelter. It was formerly deemed sufficient to stack the hay in the meadow, and enclose it with a pen, until wanted for use or sale. Farmers often, instead of making conical stacks, put the entire crop into a long roof-shaped rick, In making either one or the other, care must be taken to carry it up with regularity, having no sink or depressions in it, as they would serve only to convey rains to the interior. The rake must be freely used on its sides to straighten out the stems and remove all loose hay that would otherwise be a waste. Of the two plans ricks are decidedly the better, as less surface is exposed to the rains, and consequently there is less loss. When it is desired to remove hay from a rick, it can be hewed from the end, either with an ordinary chop- ping- axe, a broad axe, or with a regular hay knife, such being made and sold for the purpose. By this means, the roof of the rick will be intact, and the hay is not injured by exposure. On the other hand, in removing a stack it has to be attacked at the top of the cone, and unless it is all taken before it rains, the remainder is greatly injured. But the stack and rick are both disappearing under the improved ideas of economic farming, and the hay shelter can now be seen on nearly every man's farm. It consists of tall shelters of beams and posts, without side-boarding. It is cheaply made, and is an invaluable aid to successful hay making. These shelters or barns are indispensable to hay made of clover, as it will not stand any amount of moisture, 284 MANAGEMENT OF MEADOWS. however slight. The same may be said of several of the true grasses, and of all the leguminous plants. Some, intending to feed all their hay, construct these shelters with a rack in the centre, and a set of joists about six feet from the ground, thus furnishing both food and shelter to the stock at the same time, and obviating the necessity of further handling. Another plan of feeding, is to build a shelter with a sliding roof, or one that will rest on a large stack, and descend with the hay as it is eaten underneath, while the bottom is planked up around about five feet high, to pre- vent the stock from treading on the hay. But this is more expensive and does not afford any shelter to the cattle, like the sheds provided with central racks. When it is not desired to have a number of sheds, and it is the intention of the farmer to soon dispose of his crop, it is customary to provide one shed, sufficiently large, in a convenient locality adjacent to the meadow, and stack all the hay just outside and around it, or near enough to be tossed under it to a hay press, and as soon as the crop is all secured the baling begins, and is continued until it is all stored in the form of bales beneath the shed, where it can safely await a favorable time for sale. Right here, let it be remembered that if a farmer wants a good price for his hay. it must be prepared with a view to sale from the beginning. It must be free of weeds, as no man, who purchases hay, wants to pay three or four cents a pound for worthless or noxious weeds, and however good these weeds may be, and there are some that are good feed, no man wants to pay hay prices for them. So should the meadow be infested with weeds, and they are cut with the hay, it will pay the farmer to have boys go over the windrows where they are all col- lected with the hay and pull them out. Of course they will not all be withdrawn, but many of them will be carried to the stack. In baling, it can be culled again and the greater part taken out, and should it not be done, it will enable the MANAGEMENT OF MEADOWS. 285 purchaser to make a valid objection to really superior hay and get it at an inferior price on account of the weeds. Then in making the bales, be sure to have a good power- ful press. The heavier the bales, the less the cost of trans- portation and the smoother the look given the bale. Let it be neatly bound by either hoops, splits, or what is better, wire. The latter can be purchased at a cost but little higher than will be received for it again as weighed with the hay, and the bales will present a neater appearance than can possibly be given by the clumsier process of splits nailed to a board. This will of itself often decide a purchaser in .favor of the sale. A buyer, going into a commission house to fill an order, will naturally be influenced by the neatness of the commodity to be purchased ; and while he may not be a judge of the nutritious character of the hay, he will, as all merchants are, be a good judge of a merchantable bale. So it is seen with all branches of business connected with farm- ing. A dairy that sends out nice yellow butter, will realize in the market, at all times, remunerative prices; while another, that puts on the market white puffy butter, will scarcely find a purchaser at a price great enough to save the producer from debt, although the cost of running the two dairies may be exactly equal. The merchant will be glad to sell for such a farmer, the hay will sell readily, and hence if there are profits he will be sure to realize them. Having already spoken of various shelters for the pro- tection of hay from weather, only one more will be mention- ed, and that is the "SHELTERED STACK POLE," which is made in the following manner, viz.: Set a pole six inches square on a cross of timbers about the same size, and brace it well from each beam of the cross. It can be put on either by a mortise and tennon or toe-nailed. Let the pole be about fifteen feet high, and have a series of 1J inch holes bored every 12 or 18 inches, for about half its upper length. Have also a good stout wooden or an iron pin to go into these holes. Then make a 286 MANAGEMENT OF MEADOWS. conical roof of some stout but very light material, cover it with half-inch sheeting, and let it be large enough to protect a space larger than the stack Frame it in such a manner that a square hole will be left in the top of the roof, through which the stack pole will pass. It will then slide to the bottom where it will rest, unless on hay. When it is wished to make the stack, raise the roof and confine it, by putting the pin through the pole underneath, and when the stack is completed let the roof drop on the top of the hay, and it will bid defiance to all manner of storms. Should it be necessary* to move it, it can be readily carried on a wagon to any part of the farm and set up. Should it be the wish of the farmer to allow the cattle to feed on the hay in the stack, provide four batoned sides, like a door, say five feet wide, and in length the square of the circle made by the hay stack, provide them with stout hooks to fasten the cor- ners. The stack is then protected to the height of five feet. In making the stack, lay rails or poles across the bottom on the cross timbers, and that will keep it off the ground. TROUBLESOME PLANTS TO MEADOWS. There are several plants exceedingly troublesome to the meadows in Tennessee. Among them is the White Top (Erigeron Philadephicuni), or Fleabane. This is a perennial, and sometimes infests meadows to such an extent as to ren- der them worthless. Meadows troubled with them should be mown several years in succession when the White Top begins to blossom. Broom Grass (Andropogon Scoparius) is also very pestiferous, destroying meadows after four or five years unless closely watched, and the broom grass cut up by the roots every spring. The Trumpet Creeper (Big- nonia radicans) infests meadows in rich bottom lands, and when cat off by the mower, iorms hard knots which will arrest the action of the sickle. This vine should be dug up " root and branch." White clover and blue grass are both MANAGEMENT OF MEADOWS. 287 great enemies to the meadow, and when they prevail to any extent it is best to use the meadow as a pasture, and sow another meadow somewhere else. A top dressing of superphosphate, or of stable manure every fall, after a crop of hay is taken off, will also do much to keep down noxious weeds and grasses. The farmer should always bear in mind that meadows require to be regularly fed. It is too much to expect that they will grow heavy crops of hay year after year, without exhausting the elements in the soil which go to make hay. These elements must be supplied. Restitution must be made if the farmer expects to have luxuriant and profitable mea- dows. The best rule to adopt is, never to take off a crop of hay without making a liberal application of manure. The following is the table referred to in this chapter. 288 MANAGEMENT OF MEADOWS. I pq a* 3s P998UT HBTU8 O:> &U JO 8 s I - p998 T T3 ~ s> o a ! t t m 9JOB9UOUT I rffjgg. ISgfj |ggS S^ BOT 9ApU)U^ jSr-io-. (N jW^,-j Jj !i i M < is a > <5 ^1! i I t ' i I ^5 s I MANAGEMENT OF MEADOWS. 289 290 A WOED ABOUT MANURES, CHAPTER XXI. A WOED ABOUT MANUEES. The people of the South have much to learn in regard to the successful management of meadow lands. Many farmers seem to think it is possible to take large crops of hay from the same land, year after year, without adding any fertilizers. This is a grand mistake. One had just as well expect to check on his bank account day after day, without making additions to his deposits, as to check on the soil for large crops without properly feeding the land which grows them. The question we ought to consider is, how to man- age meadows after they are properly sown, and a stand of grass secured, so as not only to keep up their fertility, but to increase their power of production. This question is so well understood by English farmers, that they seldom take a crop of hay from a piece of land without making a large and expensive application of ma- nure. If the fray is cut several times a year, it is a heavy draft upon the soil, and some restitution must be made to the soil or it will soon cease to meet the expectations of the husbandman. The English farmer, enlightened by exper- ience, in order to strengthen the land and stimulate the grass roots to renewed exertion, will draw out upon the mea- dow various kinds of manure to supply whatever wants he may deem the land requires. There are not many kinds of manure in reach of a Tennessee farmer, unless he takes the forethought to pro- vide them. But if he does take this in mind, and watches closely for every thing that will contribute to this end, he will be surprised, himself, at the result in a very short time. Besides those elements that are at the command of A WORD ABOUT MANURES. 291 every careful farmer, there is another class of manures call- ed "artificial," and these can be procured at any place by a sufficient outlay. But they are costly, and it requires a sci- entific acquaintance with their properties, before the ordina- ry farmer will have the courage to invest in them. In other words, he must be able to see why and how his money will be returned with interest. In order to properly understand the requirements of plants, it is essential the action of the different manures should be known, together with an approximate knowledge of the constituents of the soil. Soils are the result of the degradation, or breaking down, from various causes, of rocks. Through the great convulsions of nature, this tri- turated dust is mingled together, so that every species of rock formation is represented in every handful of clay. Were this not the case, we would have over limestone rocks a, great mass of unproductive pulverized carbonate of lime; or over granite, we would see nothing but the sparkling atoms of quartz and mica, and over each stratum there would be the constituents of that rock, and hence no vegetation would charm the eye or delight the heart, to say nothing of our digestive wants. Through the agency of perfectly natural causes, (water principally), the soils have been intimately mingled. By this wise provision vegetation, in every spot in the world, finds some elements necessary to its existence. But it sometimes happens, that there is a deficiency of some of the elements, and again that there is a surplus. In the great alluvial swamps decayed vegetable matters exist to such an extent that some cereals do not thrive well, and on the other hand, on the steep mountain sides, by the action of washing rains, this matter has been carried oft. Again, in many sections, the fertile matters have been ex- hausted, so nearly so, that the products of the soil cease to be remunerative. It is the province of scientific agricul- ture to point out these deficiencies and direct the remedy. The soil originally consisted simply of the debris of the 292 A WORD ABOUT MANCTKES. rocks or clay. It is composed of the elements of the rocks, together with an intimate admixture of some mineral substances. In limited patches the soil partakes of the character of the formations underneath. Thus, in iron districts, the soil in places shows the presence, in considera- ble quantities, of iron, making the earth red or brown. In sandstone countries the clay has a quantity of sand overly- ing it, and among the primitive rocks scales of mica glisten on every side. The weight of a cubic foot of thoroughly dried soil averages as follows : Siliceous sand 111.3 pounds. Calcareous sand 113.6 " Sandy clay 97.8 " Loamy clay 88.8 " Stiff clay 80.3 " Slaty marl 112. " Fertile mould 68.7 " Common arable soil 84.5 " Chemists, from the earliest times, have been struck with the great proportion of insoluble to soluble substances in the soil. These insoluble substances will resist the action of acid and alkali in any quantities short of destroying veg- etation. Analysts have strived by the aid of weak solutions of acids and alkilies to effect this, and though the science is by no means perfect, they have succeeded in rendering much inert matter, that has hitherto cumbered the land, into plant food. In an average of many kinds of soil the proportions are, of Insoluble matters, . 89.305; Soluble matters, 2.047; Phosphate, carbon and sulphate lime, .. 3.160, Thus it is seen that, of the great mass of soil, ranging from a few inches to many hundred feet thick, only a very small per cent, is available to vegetation. Further, chemi- cal analysis has also developed the fact that all animal tis- A WORD ABOUT MANURES. 293 sues are composed of these identical elements of the soil. Truly and literally, we are made of dust. But the animal kingdom does not derive its sustenance directly from the soil that would be impossible. Our digestive organs are not constructed for that purpose, and could not assimilate such food, though in the great famine of Germany, in the 18th century, the starving millions did essay it only to die in torture. Nature has provided an intermediate agent, vege- tation, whose organs are nicely adapted to this purpose. They send down into the soil their sensitive feelers, and pick up such stray bits of food as men or beasts require. They store it away in their granaries until it is called for, and these kind friends, are thus the purveyors to animal life. Not only is man thus directly fed by these natural agents, but, to keep up a constant unceasing supply, a large propor- tion is sent back to the soil, in a form to invigorate man's food. This refunded capital is variously called humin, ulmin, geine. Ulmin or ulmic acid, is the first formed; hu- min is formed from ulmin by the absorption of oxygen ; geine or geic acid from humin by the further absorption of oxygen. We will describe all these changes, however, under the gen- general term of geine. Under some form geine is essential to agriculture. It is the result of decaying vegetable matter, or in other words, it is the active principle of mould, and is the direct result of putrefaction. It is carbon, oxygen and hy- drogen. It has a powerful affinity for nitrogen, one of the constituents of the atmosphere, and whenever it comes in contact, the hydrogen of the geine unites with the nitrogen of the air, and ammonia is the result. It also absorbs water freely, and this is why bottom lands, full of geine, fail to suffer from drought. The geine attracts moisture from the air and keeps the plant alive. , These salts, humin, ulmin and geine, were formerly called extract of mould. They are, for the most part, soluble in water. For the sake of brevity, we will embrace all these salts as well as crenic and 294 A WOED ABOUT MANURES. and apocreic acids, convertible with the salts, under the general term mould* So far as nourishment is derived from the soil, this substance is the food- of plants. It has been deposited over the clay, by the gradual decay of vegetation, through many ages, and according to the amount deposited, depends the value of the land. Why it is that plants live and grow, or how they grow is a mystery no philosopher has ever been able to explain. God gives the vital principle, and so long as that continues the plant is able to resist an opposing power, which is chem- istry. When life ceases, chemistry then asserts its power and decay begins, which leads to fermentation, and after this process is ended, putrefaction takes charge, which soon resolves the body into its original elements; and they are then ready to aid in the construction of another living body. Thus nothing is ever lost. It may change its location ; the plant that grew at the head of a mountain torrent, may ul- timately enter into the composition of a sugar cane in the delta of the Mississippi, but it is still in the universe, silent- ly performing its duties. What particular duties are performed by this geine or mould? It has the property, as already stated, of com- bining with nitrogen and forming ammonia. Ammonia is a powerful solvent of the inorganic elements of the soil, and by this action, fertility is generated. Alumina, magnesia, and various oxides of iron and manganese, will also unite with this geine, and the combination is to some extent insol- uble, and thus stores of riches are, as it were, laid up for fu- ture use, and here it will remain an indefinite length of time. Under proper solvents or manures, they are again freed and ready for use. Suppose, however, none of these ele- ments are in reach of the mould? Then the mould, dis- solving in water in the form of a dark powder, filters down to the subsoil, where it lies until plowed up and brought into contact with air and water, when it regains its activity in dissolving, or rather uniting with the earth, and metallic A WOED ABOUT MANURES. 295 salts It is in this form known to chemists as vegetable mould. "We see, then, that the fertile elements do not consist en- tirely of mould, there must be some inorganic substances mixed with the mould to make a fertile soil. The inor- ganic substances, it may be proper to say, are the dust of rocks and metals. Fertile soil, then, is composed of a combination of or- ganic and inorganic matters. A clay bank, (inorganic mat- ter), will grow nothing. A pile of rotton wood, (organic matter), will grow mosses, but no higher plants. Combine the two, however, in suitable proportions, and any kind of plant will spring up luxuriantly. Spread a heavy coat of stable manure on land and everything burns up; this is from the presence of a powerful alkali, (ammonia), that destroys vegetation by its acrid quality. A neighbor thought he had a treasure house in a great heap of saw-dust left on' his land by a mill. He poured wagon load after wagon load of it on his garden. What was the result? Such a mass of mould extracted large amounts of oxygen from the air, and acids were formed freely, making the land sour. Nothing would grow, and he lost the use of his garden for three or" four years, and then it was good enough. Had he known it, lime spread over it would have sweetened the soil, and he would have had a garden, rich in vegetable mould, all the three or four years. So, it may be seen, the soil is a great laboratory, in which constant chemical changes are taking place. Will we aid in those changes and hasten the result to our ad- vantage, or wait the slow process of nature? I have already alluded to the great benefit resulting from a union of theoretic and practical farming. In no branch of agriculture are the good effects better seen than when we begin to analyze the soil, and supply whatever deficiencies may be required. It will be interesting to know how the ele- 296 A WORD ABOUT MANURES. ments of soil act on each other, so as to become soluble, and, therefore, convertible into fertilizers. The great component parts of soils are the silicates, (sands, quartz, etc.), salts, (as potash, soda, etc.), metallic oxides and vegetable mould. Silica exists in limestone rocks, in granite and in all sands. These silicates are slowly soluble, but elements of decay though slow are constant, and mountains have crumbled and been cast as huge, misshapened masses over the plains. By this action salts (soda, and potash) are freed and enter the soil, or are washed away into the ocean. It is in this manner that the ocean is made salty. But the sand is left, or rather the silex, and the soil is made more friable thereby. But sup- pose, instead of awaiting the action of nature, we intro- duce some of the earthy salts into the soil, lime, for in- stance. The lime acts directly on the silica, forming a silicate of lime that is soluble. Not only this, but the car- bonic acid that is in the silica is freed, and this acts on other silicates, freeing their salts, and thus alumina is set free, the soil is impregnated with soda and potash, and instead of sand altogether, clay is formed. In this manner sandy soils are greatly improved by the addition of limes, either quicklime slacked, or land plaster, which is the sulphate. Some think this will impoverish the soil. So it will, if crops are raised on it, and so will crops impoverish any soil, but this store of mineral and earthy matters is useless if allowed to remain so, and, in its improved condition,; nothing is taken out it is only made available as plant food. Besides the supply is well nigh inexhaustible when we consider that less than two per cent, has supplied all the fertility to vegetation in all the past ages. It is not to be supposed a few pounds of these applications will make the great mass of soil fertile. By no means, for it would re- quire well nigh the same amount of solvents as the matter to be dissolved. Still, it will enable the plants to get food where none existed before, that could be assimilated. A WORD ABOUT MANURES. 297 f These free alkalies produced, as has just been stated, not only benefit plants directly, but they also act upon the mould, and will cause its decay. Or, more properly speak- ing, these alkaline earths will act on vegetable fibre, and change it into geine, which is synonymous with vegetable mould. But one strange thing- is that this change in the soil is not apparent until a living body is applied. It is the great and mysterious effect of the vital principle, with- out which but few changes are noted. Were all the matters soluble, and constantly in a condi- tion to be washed out, the soil would soon, by the effects of water, be washed away and be deposited in the bed of the ocean. As it is, it is a great storehouse of food, that none unlock except those who have the " open sesame." It is on this principle that plaster acts on clover. The plaster is, or should be, scattered on the plant while wet with dews. It adheres to it and is quickly absorbed into its vessels and carried to the roots where it, in the remote pene- tration of the rootlets, comes in contact with the elements of the soil. Through the action of the plant, the sulphur is separated from the lime, and then both are prepared to act promptly. The result is a wonderful stimulation to the clover, for a great store of food is at once placed at its command. In the* same manner, common salt acts. There is certainly no manure in salt, no plant food, yet sprinkle a small quantity on plants, and by them it is decomposed, and thejnuriatic acid and soda act in dissociating other ele- ments, and the result is great benefit to the plant. If there were no salts nor mould in the soil, there would be no growth of plants. Mould is essential to plants, and without salts it is inert. So that when salts are active, mould is rendered active, and this will continue until one or the other is exhausted. Long before exhaustion takes' place, however, the plants will languish and fail, so that the intelligent farmer must add, here a salt, there mould, and then by prudent management forever keep up his 298 A WORD ABOUT MANURES. fields to a high state of productiveness. There are reasons for all these assumptions, but space forbids their mention. Many things contains salts available to the agricul- turist. Lime, ashes, plaster of Paris, (sulphate of lime), saltpetre, common salt, phosphate of lime, bone dust, coal ashes, hair, hoofs, horns, copperas and many others. Some of these substances have to be used sparingly, such as salt or copperas, but all are beneficial to growing plants. These substances act chemically, and free a great many inert matters. Growing plants absorb vast quantities of carbonic acid, through their leaves, and carrying it down, throw it into the soil, where it acts upon silica and allumi- na freeing salts for their growth. Wood and coal ashes are very rich in the salts, and furn- ish one of the cheapest and best additions that can be made to land. Coal ashes are not so rich in the various salts, but contain enough to merit a better fate than is generally awarded them. The composition of wood ashes is as follows : 200 parts of unleached wood ashes contain, Carbonic acid, 58.53 Sulphuric acid, 6.43 Phosph oric acid, 3.40 Muriatic acid, * 1.82 Lime, 50.35 Magnesia, 4.55 Potash and soda, 67.96 Silex, 5.22 Oxide iron, 50 Oxide Manganese, 1.10 Water, 14 200.00 Of this 27.14 parts are soluble at once in water, and leached ashes are deprived of it, and the balance, % 172. 86 parts are insoluble, but act slowly on the soil freeing various A WORD ABOUT MANURES. 299 substances in the process of time. Coal ashes contain these same ingredients in a much less degree, or if soil is entire- ly deprived of its vegetable mould, it is identical almost with coal ashes. Each hundred pounds contain eight pounds that are at once valuable to the farmer, and another portion has a prospective value. Coal ashes are worth a good deal, simply as a mechanical loosener of the soil. Mixed with it, in even small proportions, it renders the soil friable and easily worked. Having now explained that there is a principle called mould or geine, and that this principle is necessary to fertility, and also, that this principle to be in an available form, must be reacted on by salts, it remains to inquire the best form in which these elements are united. Practically, every farmer in the country will at once answer stable ma- nure. And, as is generally the case, practice has long found out what science seeks a reason for. A careful analysis of cow manure, which is generally accepted as the unit of val- ue, shows that cow dung consists, not to go into an ultimate analysis, of Water, 83.60 Salts, 0.95 Geine, \ 15.45 This seems to be a small proportion of valuable matter, only one-sixth of the whole amount. But let us see what a careful farmer can do by saving for a year. In an ex- periment, conducted carefully and published a few years ago, an average cow was selected, and everything she ate or drank was carefully weighed, as well as all the voidings of dung. This experiment lasted seven days, and from a calculation, this cow would have made in one year, 4,800 pounds geine, 71 pounds bone dust, 37 pounds plaster, 37 pounds lime, 25 pounds common salt, 15 pounds sulphate potash. V< : : This, carefully saved, furnishes salts of lime equal to four and a half bushels of corn daily, or 1,662J annually. Not 300 A WORD ABOUT MANURES. only is this amount saved, but in addition the nitrogen that is in it, by chemical affinity, creates a large amount of am- monia, that is fixed and amounts in a year to 677 pounds. To the nitrogen is due much of the excellence of this stim- ulant, and without the animal matter or nitrogen, it would be nothing more than decayed wood and salts. It is a com- mon idea that the activity of stable manure is due entirely to the animal excrements. It is due rather to the happy combination of ammonia, geine and salts, such as no chemist can manufacture from the food of the cow. Were this pos- sible, a pile of rotted hay and turnips would supply all these united elements. But effort has demonstrated that it cannot be done. Nor does the food of a cow affect, but little, the elements of dung. A cow fed on rich nitrogen- ous food, such as corn or oats, will give some more nitro- gen in the dung, and form more ammonia, but the salts and geine will be but little changed. Horse dung is much richer in manures than cow dung. But horse dung very quickly ferments, and, by fermenta- tion, it will lose one- third its value in one month. It is therefore very necessary to remove, as often as possible, the horse dung from the stable, and place it in the compost heap, with the cattle dung, or with alternate layers of soil and sprinkled with lime or plaster. These salts will catch and fix the escaping ammonia and prevent much loss. After horse dung has fermented, if alone, it is of far less value than cow dung, but before it ferments, it is much more valuable. When that process is completed fully, nine-tenths of its value, according to our. best writers, is lost. These are statements based on, not only experience and observation, but also on absolute chemical analysis. How much it stands the farmer in hand then to observe a systematic saving and storing of these treasures of agricultu- ral wealth ! A compost heap, under a good shelter, is to the uninformed, a heap, reeking with filth, repulsive to the eye and offensive to the olfactories. But, to the scientific far- A WORD ABOUT MANURES, 301 mer, it is a bed of power. In it are contained the yellow grain and the luscious fruit; over it hovers the spirit of the rose and the lily, and sweet odors are stored in it, to make the fragrant pink and the delicious heliotrope. Let every consideration of economy and enterprise, stimulate the far- mer, then, to save every waste of the farm. The Chinese are so sensible of the importance of manure, in a country teeming with an over-population, where the soil is tasked to its utmost to carry its population, they even save the parings of their finger and toe nails to add to its fertility. The farmer has a wonderful bank to draw upon for this purpose. Cattle and horse dung and urine, the scrapings of the barn-yard after every rain, straw, stalks, leaves of the forest, drifts on the banks of streams, all contrib- ute their share in the general enrichment of the farm. And any one would be surprised at the amount accumula- ted for the spring scattering, if systematically carried on for one year, It requires but a little time too, if a regular time be given to it. Regularity and system are the great watch wards of improvement. Millions of dollars are annually wasted, by burning ^traw and stalks, which, if carried to the stables and barn-yard, would act as solvents, to catch this daily waste. If the ashes, resulting from the burning straw, were as good ma- nure as the straw itself, then burning would not be waste- ful. But a large amount of valuable matter goes into the air as gases, besides much is blown away by the winds. A Mr. Lawes, of England, determined this matter of burning manure in an experiment, that was both fair and positive. He took 28 tons of yard manure and divided it; 14 tons were reduced by fire, leaving 32 cwt. of ashes. He then scattered the 14 tons of manure left, on one acre of land, and the 32 cwt. of ashes on another acre of land, and left another acre without any application. He cultivated them all well and alike. The manured acre made 22 bushels of wheat, the ashed i 302 A WOKD ABOUT MANUKES. acre, made 16. and the unmanured acre made 16 bushels. This proves that the more nitrogen manure contains in combination with the salts, the more value it has. Night soil, or the excrement of human beings, is next to chicken manure, the richest and most stimulating of all manures. Then come that of fattening hogs and sheep ( - horses and cows. But, as before stated, the disposition to waste is so great, that the "cold" manures, as that of cows, sheep and hogs, are more available to the farmer than the more active ones of man and horse. The analysis of the different manures are given in the table below. This table and the three following, are taken from American Ma- nures by Dr. Bruckner. Phosphoric Water. acid. Potash. Nitrogen. Ammonia. Pig Dung 840 Ibs. 8. Ibs 5. Ibs, 7. Ibs 8. 5 Ibs. Horse " 743 " 12.2 " 28.0 " 5.4 " 6.5 Cow " 864 " 5.2 " 10.7" 3.5" 4.2 Chicken " 850 " 15.2 " 5.5" 21.5 *< 26.1 Sheep " 670" 22.7" 7.0" 7.1" 8.5 Human ".. ..750" 3.3" 1.0" 15.0" 182 The following table shows about the amount produced annually by a single animal of the kind named, and its value, assuming the phosphoric acid to be soluble, and the nitrogen as actual ammonia. Phosphoric Amount. acid. Potash. Ammonia Value, pig 200 Ibs 1.6 Ibs. 1.0 Ibs. 1.7 Ibs. Horse 2,000 Cow 2,000 Chicken 5 Sheep 50 Human 100 24.4 10.4 0.076 1.27 0.33 56.0 " 13.0 9.94 21 " 8.5 " 5.15 0.03 " 0.13 " 04 0.35 ' 0.42 : .40 0.10 " 1.80 " .50 We,now give the value of the urine of different animals, as shown by the fertilizing salts contained in 1,000 pounds of each: A WOKD ABOUT MANURES. 303 Phosphoric Water. acid. Potash "Nitrogen. Ammonia. Pig Urine ..9.29 Ibs. trace 6.0 Ibs. 11.8 Ihs. 14.3 Ibs. Horse ".... ..9.40 k < trace. 2.8 " 15.4 " 18.7 lt Cow ".... ..0.23 ' trace, 45 ' 44 " 5.3 u Sheep " <> 65 " 1.3 Ibs. 7.2 13.1 ' 15.9 ** Human u ..9.57 " 4.0 " 2.0 ' 14.2 " 17.2 " The following table shows the amount produced annually by a single animal of the kind named, and its value as ma- nure, when fermented: Yearly Phosphoric amount. acid. Potash Ammonia. Value. Pig Urine ...... 1,000 Ibs. trace, 6.0 Ibs. 14.3 Ibs. $4.00 Horse * ...... 2000 " trace, 5.0 37.4 " 9.79 Cow ...... 2,000 " . trace, 9.0 ' 8.8 2.92 Sheep " ...... 500 u O.Gibs. 3.6 " 8.0 " 2.35 Human < ..... 750 " 3.0 " 1.5 ti} J3 DO "3 g "O i i* 5 6 1 Rice 14 6 84 9 5 7 5 76 5 9 5 Winter wheat 14 4 83 6 2 13 67 6 3 1 5 Wheat flour 12 6 86 7 0.7 11 8 74 1 0-7 1 2 Spelt 14 8 81 3 3 9 10 54 8 16 5 1 5 Winter rye 14 3 83 7 2 11 6Q ? 3 5 2 Rye flour ^ 14 84 4 1 6 10 5 72 5 1 5 1 6 Winter barley 14 3 83 4 2 3 9 65 9 8 5 2 5 Summer barley 14.3 83 8 2.6 9 5 66 6 7.0 2 5 Oats 14 3 82 7 3 12 60 9 10 3 6 Maize 14.4 83 5 2 1 10 68 5 5 7 A Millet 14 83 3 14 5 62 1 6 4 u 3 Buckwheat 14 83 6 2 4 9 59 6 15 2 5 Vetches 14.3 83 4 2 3 27.5 49 2 6.7 2 7 Peas 14 3 83 2 2 5 22 4 52 3 9 2 2 5 Beans (field)/ 14.5 82.0 3^5 25.5 45.5 11.5 29 336 CEREALS. DHOUBO COBN, DUBBA OB DOUBA, INDIAN MIL- LET (Sorghum vulgare). Steins pithy, about eight feet high, spikelets clustered, each with one ^ perfect and one neutral or staminate i flower ; no silky down ; glumes , russet brown, coriaceous ; leaves long, linear, and recurved as Indian { corn ; annual. Cultivated for its seed. In the West Indies, it is called Guinea Corn , in Arabia, Dhouro, in India, Jovaree, and in China, Nagara. In some countries it is cultivated as a lorage plant, the stems con- taining a large proportion of saccharine matter, and when dry affording a fine hay, though rough. The nutritive quality of the seeds nearly equals that of wheat. From its resemblance to Indian corn, in the south of Europe it is called Small Maize. * On rich land it grows -from eight to twelve feet high, and it produces more bushels of seed, than an other known cereal, to the acre. There are several varieties of this cereal, being sports from the original. Chocolate corn, Tennessee rice, Chicken corn, are some of its synonyms. It is a native of Central Asia, and is cultivated extensively in Asia, Africa, West Indies, Brazil, and in the southern parts of the United States. It will grow to perfection from Pennsylvania to Florida. There are two varieties usually cultivated, the "White" and the " Red," both good, but the red produces a great many more seeds some say as many as four times the quantity of the other. The red matures earlier, too ; the white, being in higher latitudes, is often caught by frosts. The Litter, however, is preferable when intended for food. A failure of this crop in Arabia and Africa, would be as great a calamity as that of corn in the United States. The meal is white and makes delicious breakfast cakes, and is said to be much better than corn meal. Its yield varies according to the soil on which it is sown. On rich sandy loam or alluvial bottoms, it will make from 100 to 150 bushels per acre, but unlike the other cereals, except buckwheat, it will grow well on soil however poor. DHOURA CORN. 337 On rocky, clayey land, that will scarcely sprout foxtail, I have seen the most luxuriant crops. It will continue to grow until frost, and after the first head matures it throws out suckers from other joints, and makes smaller heads. This is expedited by going over it and culling out as fast as it ripens. Stock of all kinds are fond of it, and will greedily eat it. It is almost equal to Indian corn as a fat- tening food for hogs. The ground is plowed as well as possible, and then thrown into low ridges, or even better no ridges at all ; the seeds are then drilled three feet apart, with a seed drill. If sown by hand, the rows are made with a bull-tongue plow and covered with a harrow. A peck of seeds is enough for an acre, unless they are weevil eaten, when more should be used. They should be covered very lightly, not more than an inch and a half deep. When they come up they should be thinned out by chopping across the row, leaving the plants eighteen inches apart, then one or two good plo wings are all the crop requires. There need be no fear of weeds or grass after it once starts out to grow, as its enormous foliage, and thickly clustering suckers choke out everything else on the ground. It grows very rapidly, and will soon be ready for harvesting. There are various ways for doing this, according to the fancy of the farmer. Some cut of the seed heads as they ripen, and turn stock on the stalks, which will eat them up quite clean. Others will cut the stalks just before frost, stacking them and feeding them as hay through the winter ; and these stalks will keep better than any other of the pithy grasses, not souring like Indian corn or sugar cane. Still others wait until the largest quantity of seeds is ripe, and then cut, and house seeds, stalks and all together, If the fodder is pulled it makes excellent feed, in fact every part of the' plant makes good feed for some animals. Care should be exercised to protect it from fowls, as they are so fond of the seeds that, frequently, whole fields are stripped. 22 338 CEREALS. It is often planted in the missing places of corn, and it does far better than a replant of corn, as one stalk will throw out numerous suckers, making several large heads and ripening with the corn. Drought has but little effect in retarding its growth. It retains its dark green color and luxuriant foliage when other plants are shrivelled up by the heat. In the south it is sown thickly in drills, and cut for soil- ing stock, and if not allowed to flower, it will bear cutting until frost comes. Many sow it broadcast for hay. Pre- pare the ground well and sow one bushel of seed to the acre, harrowing it in. It makes an enormous yield of hay, but, from the succulent character of the stalks, it is difficult to cure, unless a good "spell " can be caught. However, if the farmer has a drove of mules or steers to fatten, he can cut a load or two at a time, throwing it into a rack, which can be replenished as required, and the hay will remain green on the ground until frost, so that there is no danger of its being lost by becoming too ripe. In Germany the seeds are deprived of the chaff, and used as rice, and sells for the same price. In Asia and Africa it is made into a meal and eaten, either in gruel, cakes or bread. It can be sown at any time from the first of April, (a light frost not injuring it,) until the first of July. If fed on the ground the stalks will remain in the way of the planter for a year at least, but if plowed under in the fall, like broom corn, they will rot by spring, and if lime is sown on them before plowing under, it will greatly ex- pedite the process, and the soil will improve every year. Taking into consideration the fact, that it will yield more seed, fodder and stalks on a greater variety of soils, with less labor, in any kind of season, and return more litter to the land than any other cereal, and being a good food for man and beast, it may be jusfly considered one of the most valuable of the cereals. And with these facts it is most surprising that it is raised to the small extent it is. DHOTIRO CORN. 339 About twenty-five or thirty years ago, it could be seen on the plantation of almost every farmer in the State. It gave very general satisfaction, and yet it went out as sud- denly as it came into popularity. This was due to the cry that it impoverished the land. This verdict was accepted without question, and its culture abandoned ; but it is manifest, from subsequent experiments, that it detracts as little from the fertility of the soil as any other cereal, much less than some. If the stalks are left and only the grain and fodder removed, and the former fed on the field, and plowed in as before stated, the soil will not be greatly injured. It will not kill cattle like clover, and no care is necessary but to salt and water them. One would be surprised how quickly cattle will fatten on the bare stalks, and besides they will leave the ground covered ankle deep with manured stalks. With all these facts before us, and our own experience in its cultivation, we most heartily commend its use to the citizens of Tennessee. There is no character of soil, from the rich alluvial bottoms of the Mississippi to the sterile mountain lands of East Tennessee, but what will make good crops of Dhouro Corn, and we would like to see it on every farm, if for no other use than as feed for fowls. The following analysis of the green fodder and green clover will show their comparative values : 1 * S3 6? OS 4 3 eo S3 1 a 3 |2 S-S OP=H 1 Red Clover in blossom Dhouro . ... 78.0 77.3 20.3 21.4 1.7 1.1 3.7 2.9 8.6 11.9 8.0 6.7 0.8 1 4 It has more heating properties and more fat producing principles than red clover, but is not so rich in flesh formers. 340 CEREALS. CHAPTER XXIII. INDIAN CORN-(ea Mays.) Stem terminated by the clustered, slender spikes of staminate flowers (the tassel) in two-flowered spikelets; the pistillate flowers in a dense and many-rowed spike, borne on a short axillary branch; (the ear) two flowers within each pair of glumes, but the lower one neutral, the upper pistillate with an extremely long style, (the silk.) Stem strong, jointed, five to fifteen feet high, with large, alternate leaves starting from each joint, mo- noecious and annual. Each plant bears from one to six or eight ears which are cylindrical, and enclosed with a covering of leaves called shucks or husks. The centre of the ear is pithy called cob, and on the cob are arranged rows of grain, numbering from eight to thirty-six ; usually twelve to fourteen rows. The number of grains in a row is usually thirty to forty. These grains are rounded on the outer surface, flattened on the sides, and the germ is near the point, and from the germ a long, silk or style extends under the husk to the end where they all unite in a silky cluster. The pollen from the tassel falls upon these silks or flowers, thus fertilizing the grains. Without this pollen the seed would not ger- minate nor would the ear be completed, as may easily be tested by cutting off the tassel before the silk appears. On a bright day the pollen may be seen in the sunshine, rising INDIAN CORN. 341 in clouds, with every stirring breeze. The name given by the Indians to this cereal was Mondarnin, meaning life, and so the name given by botanists is in deference to the cog- nomen of the aborogines, Zea, meaning life in the Greek. HISTORY. It may be remarked that the early history of the bread plants is enveloped in obscurity, and come to us in the form of traditions, and myths, according to which the gods themselves descended to the earth to confer these great gifts on mankind, in India it was Brahma; in Egypt Isis; in Greece and Italy it was Ceres or Demeter, who not only brought them to the inhabitants, but taught them their uses. Maize being unquestionably of American origin, has its legend also of the birth of so noble a grain, and upon this allegory our Longfellow has founded his Indian Epic Hiawatha. The legend is given in Schoolcraft's history of the Indian tribes of North America, and is located among the Odjibwas. It is as follows: " A young man went out into the woods to fast, at that period of life when youth is being exchanged for manhood. He built a lodge of boughs in a secluded place, and painted his face a sombre hue. By day he amused himself in walk- ing about, looking at the shrubs and wild plants, and at night he lay down in his bower which, being open, allowed him to look up into the sky. He sought a gift from the Master of life and he hoped it would be something to ben- efit his race. On the third day he became too weak to leave his lodge, and as he lay gazing upwards he saw a spirit come down in the shape of a beautiful young man dressed in green, and having green plumes on his head, who told him to arise and wrestle with him, as this was the only way in which he could obtain his wishes. He did so, and found his strength renewed by the effort. This visit and the trial of wrestling were repeated for three days, the youth feeling, at each trial, that although his bodily 342 CEREALS. strength declined, a moral and a supernatural energy was imparted which promised him the final victory. On the third day the Celestial visitor spake to him : 'To-mor- row/ said he, 'will be the seventh day of your fast, and the last time I shall wrestle with you. You will triumph over me and gain your wishes. As soon as you have thrown me down strip off my clothes and bury me in the spot, in soft, fresh earth. When you have done this leave me, but come and keep the weeds from growing on the place. Once or twice, cover me up with fresh earth/ He then de- parted, but returned the next day, and, as predicted, was thrown down. The young man punctually obeyed his in- structions in every particular, and soon had the pleasure of seeing the green plumes of his sky-visitor shooting up through the ground. He carefully weeded the earth, and kept it soft and fresh , and in due time was gratified at be- holding the m atured plant, bending with its rich fruit, and waving its green leaves and yellow tassels, in the wind. He then invited his parents to the spot to behold the new plant. 'It is Mondamin' replied his father 'it is the spirit's grain/ They immediately prepared a feast and in- vited their friends to partake of it, and this is the origin of Indian corn." Among all the crops of the United States Indian corn takes precedence in the scale of crops, as it is best and most universally adapted to all conditions of climate and soil, and furnishes the largest amount of nutritive food. With proper attention to its cultivation, and the selection of best varieties, it may be accounted a sure crop, as well in the ice-bound regions of Canada as in the torrid sands of Cali- fornia, in fact its culture extends between the latitudes of 45 north, and the same in the soatheru hemisphere. Cotton has received the name of " King." But if in America any plant can be said to have dominion over all others, both on account of its universal use and its im- portance to mankind, both as human and animal food, INDIAN COEN. 343 that title is due to corn. Its cultivation is not like cotton, confined to one belt or to one soil, but it will grow on the sandy hills, or the alluvial bottoms, on the moist savan- nahs of the South, and upon the highest peaks of the Eastern States, it having been successfully grown on eleva- tions eight thousand feet above the sea. A.n expressive mode of representing the range of this staple is, by reference to extreme points on the several meridians of longitude, from the Atlantic coast westward; and though we have no abrupt limits at the South other than those of the continent itself, or none in climate at least, we shall find the measure of distance on these lines of longitude of some service, The bay of Fundy and the valleys of New Brunswick bring this cultivation up to the 46th parallel, at from 64 to 67 of west longitude. In the highlands of Maine it falls off to less than 45, and in New Hampshire to 44. But it then rises abruptly to 47Jat St. Anne's and at Quebec 72 west longitude. The moun- tainous parts of New York and some parts of Western Canada, between the Ottowa river and Lake Huron, permit no cultivation of this crop; but the river valleys and better portion of the country have some adaptation to it, to the 46 of latitude, as far west as Lake Huron at 82 of west longitude. The influence of the lakes and the elevation, reduce the summer temperature so much at this point, as to throw the limiting line southward to 45 of latitude, and this line continues west almost to the Mississippi. Passing this elevated district and approaching the warmer summer of the plains, it goes abruptly north to 50 of latitude, at Lake Winnepeg 97 west longitude. This is probably its highest point, and measured on this meridian we have 23 of latitude in the United States, and the whole amount of 35 for the American continent, as the range of a single cultivated staple, and everywhere on this line, it is at least equal to any other in value. Westward of this line the range becomes so irregular and exceptional between the ex- 344 CEREALS. treme points, that the comparison is not of the same value. Localities of the upper Missouri permit some amount of cultivation to the base of the Rocky Mountains, and to 47 J of latitude. On the west of these mountains it re-appears in the same latitude, and in the lower valleys of the north fork of the Columbia it goes to Fort Colville, near 49 of latitude This is another extreme point of range, and though much the larger portion of this great elevated in- terior, southward to New Mexico, admits but a partial and imperfect cultivation, the climatic range is interesting at least. At 120 of longitude, the growth ceases for all lati- tudes on this continent, but between 97 and 120, the whole continent is embraced south of the points just named, in its range of growth, except the Rocky Mountains and the plateau north of New Mexico. A brief reference to the European range will show the measure of contrast between the two continents in this re- spect. Africa is so entirely tropical that it has little place tor Indian corn, though it is cultivated to some extent near the Mediterranean. In Europe, Spain, a small part of the south of France, Italy, the valleys of Austria, Hungary and Turkey, with the islands of the Mediterranean, comprise its range. In almost all these districts it is also quite subordinate to other staples, though imperfect cultivation may be one reason of this inferiority. Over the more densely popu- lated and valuable portions of Europe, it scarcely grows at all; and the little grown in France, north of the mountains, and in Germany, Austria and Russia, scarcely gives it any importance. The single element of greater heat for one month of the summer is wanting ; and so pre- cise and imperative is the requirement, in this respect, that no skill seems likely to acclimatize Indian corn in the more important European countries just named, and in the British Islands. From a table of mean temperatures for the various stations named above, it appears that this cereal is suscep- INDIAN CORN. 345 tible of cultivation at any point where the mean tempera- ture of the month of July is not less than 64 Fah. The observations upon which the above facts are com- piled, were made principally by military commanders and missionaries, at the outposts of the North, during a period, ranging from one to twenty-one years. The corn plant or its grain formed the subject of very imposing ceremonies among the Indians, and the "corn dance," at the time it came into its roasting-ear state, was looked forward to by both young and old as the foreruner of fun and frolic, with the belles of the wood, the aged for its more solid uses, as it then formed the great and nearly only luxury of the Indian. Although much has been written to prove its Eastern origin, it did not grow in that part of Asia traversed by Alexander the Great, as Nearhus the commander of the fleet has left a work giving the names of all the productions of the country, and describing them. Corn is not of the number. Nor is there any account of it among the works of any of the ancient au- thors. In fact, until Columbus discovered America, it had never entered the annals of the historian. But in America it was not only found in cultivation, but it was subsequent- ly found growing wild all along the foot of the Rocky Mountain range, though here each grain was clothed in a separate husk which, however, it looses, in a few years, by cultivation. Nor was its cultivation confined by any means to North America, for La Vega tells us that one of the Incas of Peru had a miniature garden at his palace in which was maize of some size, and in quantity sufficient to represent a field made entirely of silver and gold, and that it had the grain, leaves, and even the tassels all complete, as in the natural state ; an ev- idence of the veneration of this people for this cereal. Among Europeans the " London Colonists," on James River, have the credit of its first cultivation in 1608. They were taught by the Indians, and with some improvement in 346 CEEEALS. implements this plan is still pursued by all the planters of the United States. The yield in the Virginia soil is said to have been im- mense more than a thousand fold, far more than is ever raised at this day. In 1609 the first regular field, consist- ing of forty acres, was planted by these colonists on James River, and these bold pioneers of -the new world first felt themselves secure from famine. In 1621 two Indian chiefs, Somoset and Squanto, visited the Pilgrims at Plymouth, and greatly to the dissatisfaction of the other Indians, taught them how to prepare the soil and plant the corn. They also planted peas and barley, the seed of which they had brought over with them. They placed in each hill of corn an alewife, a species of herring, as ma- nure. The corn did so well that samples of it were sent to England, but the barley and the peas failed. The same year Stephen Hopkins and Edward Winslow went to the the village of Namasket, situated where Middleborough now stands, and they were received with great hospitality by the Indians, who instituted feasts in their honor, the principal constituents of which was corn bread, which they called mazinne, whence the specific name maize, which with venison steaks and shad formed a very savory meal to the half starved emigrants. In 1629 the settlers raised, on the Maseachusetts Bay large crops, which yielded about five hundredfold. Thirteen gallons of seed planted yield- ed three hundred and sixty-four bushels in one field, which at the present rate of planting would give about fifty-six bushels of corn to the acre. This was a very fair crop, but not so good as that of the Virginia colonists, who more than doubled the amount. But in the early settlement of Il- linois, on the bottoms and rich prairie lands, the yield often equalled that of the London colonists. It may be interesting to know the value of this cereal in that early day, and from a price list before us we see that in 1630 corn sold in Massachusetts Bay at 10s. per bushel, INDIAN COKN. 347 ($2 50) ; in New Netherland in 1650, 10 to 15 stivers per skepel, (15 to 20 cts. per bushel); in Virginia in 1821, 2s. and 6d., (62 cts.) per bushel; in Rhode Island in 1670, 25 cts. per bushel, and on the Piscataqua 75 cents per bush- el. Taking the value of money at that early day, as com- pared with the present, these prices would be equal to about four times our currency. Since that day the price has fluc- tuated with the supply. There is always a demand for all that may be produced, but the seasons sometimes are so un- propitious that partial failures in sections create a brisk trade, and full prices in that section. Formerly these fail- ures entailed great distress on account of the difficulty of transportation, but the rail-roads have, to a great extent, ob- viated that difficulty. We all remember the drought of 1854, when nearly the whole crop, except on the river bot- toms, was a total failure, and then corn was in great de- mand, at from $1 50 to $2 00 per bushel. In 1874 anoth- er drought rendered it necessary for much of our supply to be brought from the Western States, but it was freely sold at $1 00 per bushel. A total failure of this important crop would entail a degree of distress on the United States incal- culable, but there is such a diversity of climate and soil, and its cultivation is so universal that a general drought will not in all probability ever take place, and the whole coun- try being intersected and threaded by rail-roads, the fa- cility of quickly supplying any deficiency at any point will always save, at least, a famine for man or beast. VARIETIES. When first discovered in America there was but one va- riety known. But since that time, its importance has stim- ulated experiments, with the view of improvement, and the result is that the species has been divided into innumerable varieties. These modifications are the result of differences in soil, cultivation, and climate, and subsequent hybridiz- ing. Many of these varieties are suitable to the section in 348 CEREALS. which they originated, and though making enormous yields there, carried to a warmer or colder climate, they do not fulfill the promise that seemed so fair. I have seen the finest, largest, premium corn brought from the prairies of Illi- nois, and planted in rich land in this State, with the expec- tation of good crops, yet the yield so far from being good, was astonishingly small. It may be set down as a rule that the best plan is to select the good corn of the State or coun- ty and improve on that by cultivation. For instance a farmer in Rutherford, many years ago, began with the white cob gourd seed corn, that had from twelve to fourteen rows of grains, and by prudent selections and close attention, in a few years he brought it up to 34 and 36 rows of grains to the ear, with a cob three inches in diameter, and this specimen will shell out a bushel of grain to fifty ears. As a general thing, the names of the different varieties are taken from the originator or some fancied resemblance, and so that in two sections the same corn will be known by different names. Some that have acquired a gen- eral reputation have a name common to the whole country, and to these we shall have to confine our remarks. The col- ors of corn are often taken as a distinction, and they depend on the epidermis generally, though sometimes on the oil of the grain, if, however, the epidermis be transparent the color will depend either upon the oil or the combined parti- cles of which the grain is composed. If the hull is opaque of course the color depends entirely on the epidermis. Some corn is rich in a yellow oil, and the hull being trans- parent, the grain takes the color from the oil. Others have a yellow hull or epidermis, and the grain is white within, yet it receives its color from the external coloring matter. It is thus with the Golden Sioux, which has a yellow oil all through the grain but a transparent hull, and the White Flint, each taking its color from its oil and starch. But there are others, red, yellow, blue, and white varieties, that are colored by the epidermis alone. As an explanation of INDIAN COEN. 349 these varying colors would no doubt interest the reader, if he will split a grain of corn longitudinally and let it drop into a solution of blue vitriol, (sulphate of copper), such as is used for soaking wheat, the germ will become green, because the phosphates only exist in the germ, and by the action of the agent on these phosphates, the copper unites with them, and phosphate of copper, which is green, is the result. Or, by dropping it into a solution of the sulphy- drate of ammonia, the green will turn a dark olive color, which arises from the change of the salts of iron into a sul- phuret of iron. Thus it is apparent that the color is modified by whatever constituents are iound in the soil, and these changes, by constant application, become permanent. Many theories have been evolved in regard to the importance of improv- ing the kinds, and in fact starting new varieties, by selec- tion of seed from the butts, tips and centres of the ear. In proof of the efficacy of this plan, many elaborate treatises have been written to prove the favorite spot from which to select seed, with, in ail cases, very startling results. But Prof. Daniells of the University farm of Wisconsin, an accepted authority on all agricultural subjects, instituted a series sf experiments conducted with great care, and long continued, and having grown corn from each end and the middle, came to the conclusion there was no practical difference. Among other authors, however, is Dr. Flint, who claims to have seen it tested at the Massachusetts State farm in 1858, with the following result, viz: Value of crop planted from seed at large end, same number of seed planted in each case, and receiving same treatment and on same soil, 738 pounds of sound corn at 1 cent, $7 38 77 pounds soft corn at J cent, , 39 1360 pounds fodder at |7 per ton, , 4 76 $12 53 350 CEREALS. Value of product of rows planted with corn taken from the middle of ear, 663 pounds sound corn, at 1 cent per Ib, 6 63 164 pounds soft corn; at J cent per Ib, 82 1200 pounds fodder; 4 51 96 Valtre of product of rows planted with grain from small end or tips of the ears, 747 pounds sound corn, $7 47 53 pounds soft corn, 27 1320 pounds fodder, 4 62 $12 36 He recommends a further trial, though the above was conducted on the fairest principles. However, it proves nothing, and we are inclined to accept the result of Prof. Daniells' experiments. One thing should be borne in mind in selecting seed, bv those wishing to start a new . variety. In the first place, select the seed that is best adapted to the land to be culti- vated. Actual experience can only give the true solution as to which is the best. Select in the fall, while the corn is yet on the stalks, large ears, from those stalks only which have two or more ears. Also notice the length of the butt of the shuck, and get ears with short stems. And lastly, get ears that grow low on the stalk. Do this for a few years judiciously, and every man can have a variety of his own. The varieties are innumerable from this very reason, and while it is impossible to collect all the names, it is equally unnecessary to do so. But there are some of national celebrity, chiefly made so through the dessemination of INDIAN CORN. 351 seeds by the Patent Office or Agricultural Bureau at Washington. Among these are, 1st, the "Wild Corn," of the Rocky Mountains, with husk to every grain ; 2d, "Early Canada ;" 3rd, "Improved King Philip or Brown Corn ;" 4th, "Golden Sioux;" 5th, "Tuscarora ;" 6th, "New Mexican or Black Corn ;" 6th, "Stowells Evergreen ;" 8th, "White Gourd Seed;" 9th, "Mexican White Flint;" 10th, "Yel- low Gourd Seed;" llth, "Shoepeg ;" 12th, "Eight-rowed Yellow;" 13th, "Twelve-rowed Button;" 14th, "Golden Flint;" 15th, "Sweet or Sugar Corn;" 16th, Adams' Early ;" 17th, Runners' White ;" 18th, "Cooley's White ;" 19th, "Kentucky Field;" 20th, "Wyandotte Gourd Seed ;" with many others, and last and least, but important, " Pop Corn" of which there are also several varieties, and the smallest and perhaps the best is Dixie Corn. Prof, A. E. Blount, of Cleveland, in this State, has by careful culture and selection, produced an exceedingly pro- lific variety which is highly commended. I learn from Prof. Blount that he produces over 100 bushels to the acre of this corn, sometimes as many as six and eight ears growing upon one stalk. In effect we have two general varieties, the ."White" and the "Yellow," and these are sub-divided into the "Flint" and "Gourd Seed." All the balance are modified forms of these. Of course this division excludes Pop corn, which is nothing more than the petit grandchild of the wild corn. Many of the above named varieties have been sent out by the "Agricultural Bureau," and their qualities have been tested all over the country, and the results, always enormous, given to the country in the "Reports." That these seeds have produced fine crops, is mainly due to the method of cultivation, being sent out in minute packages, they received extra attention. The practical conclusion of all these experiments is, that f we want good bread, we plant the "White Flint ;" if 352 CEREALS. good stock corn, the "White Gourd Seed ;" while for hogs, the favorite sorts are the "Yellow or Red corn." These kinds have proved themselves to be the corn for Tennessee, and whenever the Southern farmer sends north of the Ohio for corn seed, he will be ashamed of his corn field in summer. It will be seen from the analyses here appended, that there are material differences in the very constituents of these varieties of corn, calculated to adapt them for the very uses to which they are applied. The White corn abounds in starch; and is almost destitute of oil, and so is well suited for bread and hominy; while the yellow corn contains a large proportion of oil, which, as a fat producer, is adapted to the fattening process. Many per- sons lay great stress on the size and color of the cob, and not without reason. In Middle Tennessee, the "Little red cob," or Willis corn, is a favorite with almost everyone. As a rule this is a gourd seed and the ear is nearly all grain, as the cob is very small, while the grains are very long and have very fine tips, barely touching the cob and crowding outward. The white cob is generally a flint, and makes excellent bread, giving less bran than the gourd seed, but from the hardness of its grains is not so well suited for horses. One of these flint varieties is the "Hominy Corn," which, as its name implies, is used almost solely for the manufac- ture of hominy. The flints are much less apt to injure from exposure to the weather, the gourd seed being more pervious to moisture. The " Yellow" and " Red" are sup- posed to be more prolific, the ears being larger, the grain heavier, and the stalks more vigorous. The large crops of the country, to be hereafter noticed, are usually Yellow corn. The subjoined tables of analysis will give a good idea of the composition of the several sorts. The relative proportions of the constituents of each corn INDIAN COEN. 353 depend on the appropriating power of each species. For instance, the sweet corns take twice as much of the phos- phates from the soil as white flint. Yet, these two have been planted together, and grains of each found on the same ear. Let these grains that grow side by side on the same ear and stalk, that received the same nourishment, be split and immersed in a solution of sulphate of copper, and the green color given indicates more than double the amount of phosphate in the sweet than in the flint. Take specimens of grains split as before directed and immerse them in tincture of iodine, and the limits of starch and dextrine will be exactly defined, the iodine making an intense blue with the starch, and a port wine color with the dextrine or gum. The horny covering of the grain has so 'much oil combined with the gluten, its chief element, that it is protected from the action of the re-agents, though, if the oil be extracted by immersing in alcohol, the starch will be seen in this portion also. By these and the before- mentioned experiments, the precise amount of the phos- phates, oils, irons, dextrine and starch can be ascertained in each variety, and thus the farmers will be able to apply the precise elements requisite for the formation of the grain. Now, one of the practical results of the knowledge ob- tained is, that the more phosphates contained in corn, the more osseous or bony matter supplied to the animal fed with it ; hence old animals fed largely on corn are disposed to gout or stiffness, which is produced by the deposits of the superabundance of bony matter in the joints, forming small concretions of phosphate of lime. Every one has noticed about the knees of old horses these knots. With regard to the relative proportions of starch in the different varieties of corn, it has been observed that the white soft corns contain the most, but contain little or no oil or gluten. The Mexican Black is likewise chiefly com- posed of starch, while the Yellows have a large proportion 23 354 CEREALS. of oil. Pop corn has the least starch of any of the varie- ties and the most oil. It will be remarked there is a great difference in the dis- tribution of the oily and glutinous parts of corn. Many of our Southern kinds have it deposited on the sides, while the starch is in the centre and extends to the top of the grain bulging it up in a rounded form, and when the grain be- comes dry the starch cells retract, causing the top of the grain to be rough, having little dints or pits in it. The horny outer covering of the grain is composed largely of oil and gluten, with some starch interspersed. In the process of the fermentation of malt in distilling corn, this oil rises to the surface and is sometimes saved and used for illuminating purposes. As much as 11 per cent of oil is found in some varieties. On this oil depend its keeping qualities, as it retards decomposition. Thus corn, planted, is enabled to preserve, through its oily portions, a sufficient amount of pabulum to support the young plant, until it has time to throw out roots and get its support from the soil. Also meal made of the flinty corns will keep well, its oil preserving it ; while the soft corn meal, unless kiln- dried, will soon sour. The abundance of oil makes corn pop. The oil when heated to a certain point becomes Suddenly decomposed, and in such a violent manner the cells are ruptured by the sudden expansion of the carburetted hydrogen gas formed by the decomposed oil, and the whole grain is retrofexed on itself. The proportions of oil in corn varies with the variety, being as much as 11 per cent in some, and becoming less in others, down to none. One hundred bushels of ordinary flint corn will yield fifteen gallons of oil. If corn be placed in lye the oil next the hull forms with lye a soap, which causes the skin to slip off easily, and this is the manner in which lye hominy is made. The lye not only loosens the skin, but acting on the mucilage around the germ liberates that too. Flinty corn meal will not rise INDIAN CORN. 355 well on account of the oily portion preventing adhesion, and to make it rise there must be added rye, wheat, or bar- ley flour. It is the presence of this large proportion of oil that makes corn so useful in fattening stock and poultry, as the oil goes, almost without a change, as a deposit into the ani- mal tissues. The starch also, not only eontributes to the heat by its slow combustion, but is largely changed into fat, and into the substance of the living frame. Dextrine and sugar are also, by a slight change of composition, passed into the tissues to serve the purposes of heating and building up. The salts of iron are taken up by the blood and it tiien undergoes oxydation in its passage through the lungs, which continues through the arteries, veins, and their capillaries, thus carrying oxygen to every part of the body. The phosphates contribute to the brain and nerve tissue and to the bones, and more solid portions of the body. Thus, every part of corn has its duties to perform in the body, and it is one of the substances that contain all the elements of nutrition in itself. For analyses see next page. 356 CEREALS. ANALYSIS NO. 1. Pennsylvania Yellow Corn " Gourd Seed.' Moisture Oil Sugar Gum Zein Starch Albuminoids , Cellulose Ash., Uudried. | Dry. 8.87 5.17 1.10 L23 1.98 7066 7.94 1.72 1.33 5.67 1.21 1.35 2.17 177.54 8.71 1.89 i 1.46 ANALYSIS NO. 2. White Gourd Seed Corn from Maryland. Moisture Undried. 8 03 Dry. Oil 5.61 6.10 Sugar 2 45 2 t>6 Gum 0.97 1.06 Zein 1 45 1 58 Starch 70.36 76.50 Albuminoids 8 36 9 09 Callulose 1 53 1 66 Ash 1 24 1 35 It has always been a matter of woniler with the people North, why the people South live so much on corn bread. The truth is the bread-making qualities of Southern corn are greatly superior to that grown in the Northern States. It is far sweeter, and bread made of it has an entirely dif- ferent taste and flavor. In one pound of Northern corn there are only 21 grains of sugar, as shown by the sub- joined analysis while the sample analyzed of Southern INDIAN CORN. 357 corn shows 200 grains. But to compensate for this the Northern corn contains more fat b;it a smaller quantity of albuminoids. AVERAGE AMOUNT OF NUTRIMENT IN ONE POUND OF NORTHERN CORN. Water 2 oz. 105 grs. Gluten nitrate 1 " 402 " Starch) 9 " 262 " Sugar Vcarbonates " 21 u Fat j 1 " 101 " Woody fibre waste " 350 " Mineral matter phosphates " 70 '' i AVERAGE AMOUNT OF NUTRIMENT IN ONE POUND OF SOUTHERN CORN. Water 3 oz. grs. Gluten nitrate 4 " 215 " Starch) 3 " 218 " Sugar Vcarbonates " 200 " Fat j " 20 " Woody fibre waste 1 " 21 Gum waste " 200 " Mineral matter phosphates " 250 " Another comparative analysis of Northern and Southern corn with wheat gives the following result: Northern corn Southern corn Wheat.. 14:0 39.5 16.9 78.9 46.5 77.2 | & 1.2 4.7 1.9 5.9 9.3 4.0 358 CEREALS. It will be seen that Southern corn abounds in food for the muscle and brain, being much richer in the nitrates than wheat, but not having so many elements productive of heat. Considered as a food, corn is probably the cheapest in the world, except such as grows spontaneously. It is possible for an adult to subsist on a bushel of meal a month at a cost of fifty cents or even less, or say twelve bushels a year, costing six dollars. The amount of corn necessary to make this amount of meal can be grown on a fourth of an acre of land, or to put it in another way an average acre of tilla- ble land will grow corn enough to subsist four persons for twelve months, and they would feed as luxuriously as the rice-eating people of India. The capacity of the corn- growing belt of America to sustain a dense population, viewed in this light, is almost unlimited. A comparison of yellow and white corn shows: 2 e g E s 1 I rd 2 70% 1 09 471^ 14 68 !r 31 1853 68% 1 32 51V 19 62 Qix QQ 1854 82% 2 04 49 X 13 43 i!r 39 1855 1 01 2 57 55% 12 62 7 25V 1856 93 2 14 46 X 17 37 9 32 1857 73% 1 75 47 19 67 13 35 1858 61 1 37 42% 15 75 9 29V 1859 80% 1 40 50% 17 57 11 33 1860 1861 91% 73 1 45 1 44 46% 38 16 18 ' 16 12 11 12 39 32 1862.... 1863 67 75 1 38 1 53 40% 70% 12 25 14 43 37 66V 47 63% 1864 1 26 1 82% 89% 19 87 75 28V 1865 1 95 1 85 1 03 35 25 70 55 1866 95% 1 87V 1 20 29 12 51 V 70 1867 1 16% 3 00 80 19 12 29 60 1868 1 20 2 45 85 21 00 '16 48 1869 .. 90 1 70 75 28 OQ 26 57 1870 1 12 1 30 78 29 7 > OK3/ fil 1871 80 1 42 75 19 75 15V 40 1872 78 1 50 54 14 50 20 70 1873 66 1 67 68 13 25 20V 70 1874 84 1 65 77 16 50 !16V 55 1875 97 1 25 65 20 50 14V 56 1876 71 1 30 59 20 75 13V 49 1877 59 1 47 1 55 17 50 12% 48 396 CEREALS. CHAPTER XXIV. OATS, RICE, RYE. OATS Avena saliva. The oat grows in panicles, the calyx being two-seeded; seeds one bearded ; flowers and seeds alternate in each calyx conical in shape, the smaller awnless, the larger having a strong bent awn of two colors; the branches of the panicle are erect when green, but bend and droop with weight of seeds as they ripen. The glumes or chaff of seed are nerved, pointed at end, longer than flower, and unequal. The stem is hol- low, two to four feet high, and is an annual. The word oat is derived from the Saxon, and signifies eat. Avena is a Latin word, meaning desire, and re- fers to the fondness of stock for it. Sativa means sown, and is also a Latin word. The oat, like wheat and the other small grains, has an origin in antiqui- ty far beyond the ken of man. Pliny speaks of it as a diet for the sick, and in many of the profuse histories it is spoken of as a food for horses. So soon as the continent of America was settled the oat was cultivated, and sam- ples sent back to the old country as an evidence of the prosperity of the colon- ists. The Virginians did not cultivate it to the same ex- tent as the Pilgrims, nor has it ever reached that degree of OATS. 397 popularity in the South it has in the North. Nor has it ever been exported to the same extent as the other grains, the supply barely furnishing the home demand. In the early and middle ages it formed a chief constituent of the food of man, and even now, in several European countries, it is preferred by many people to any of the cereals. Oat- cake in Scotland is as common as "bakers' bread" with us. Those who eat it claim that it produces long-windedness, and the mountaineer, with his loaf of oat bread, will walk over the steep, broken country of the Highlands with as much facility as an American will over his broad prairies. It is found growing wild in California, and in several of the Pacific islands, but it may have been scattered there by some of the voyagers in their landings for water. This cereal forms one of the most important of the grains, and is, with the exception of wheat, more generally culti- vated than any other. In America it is only raised for stock. It contains more nitrogenous matter and more su- gar than corn, but less starch and fat, and where used for food for man it has maintained its popularity through all vicisitudes. There are numerous varieties of oats, some quite distinct and well marked, while others are nothing more than the ordinary changes produced by good cultivation and climatic influences. The common "black oat/ 7 the "white oat," the "Spanish oat," "Chenailles oat," "potato oat," "Hopetown oat," "black Prussian," "great flag," "Cumberland," "white Swedish," "yellow Lithuania," "white Tartarian," "black Tartarian," "black Poland," "late and early Angus," "Egyptian," "Barbary," and an endless list of local names that only result from some particular circumstance of soil or cultivation, are the most common varieties in use. A few years ago some man professed to have found in a package of seeds received from Norway a few grains of oats, and by manuring well they were grown into a monster oat that sold at fabulous prices, as a distinct variety. In 1788 398 CEREALS. a gentleman in Cumberland, England, discovered a stalk of oats coming up among some potatoes, and, carefully saving the seed, he originated probably the best variety of oats of that day, and it still maintains its popularity in the North as the Potato oat. Some gentleman visiting the deserted camp of the Choctaws, in Georgia, after their removal, found at their old stables, a few stalks of yellow or red oats. He gathered and sowed them, and gave it the name of "In- dian camp oat. This oat is now in the Southern States, and in portions of Tennessee the most popular variety grown, and will make from seventy-five to one hundred bushels per acre. It has such a coarse, strong straw that it will grow without any danger of lodging on the richest bottom lands. The husk is a reddish yellow, very much like the husk of the "golden chaff" wheat. This oat has not come into such general cultivation as it deserves, and it will, ultimately no doubt, attain a great popularity. Many farmers in the Eastern part of Williamson county, sow it regularly, hav- ing been introduced by a Mr. P. P. McArthur, a Georgia immigrant. The Potato oat above referred to is very pop- ular in England where it originated, and is almost the only variety grown in Scotland. It is large, plump, rather thick skinned, white grains, double and treble, long straw, and in England commands a higher price than any other. The "Hopetown" is another English variety, originating from one stalk growing among the potato oats in 1824. It was distributed by the Agricultural Bureau from Washington, in 1873. The yellow oat was also distributed at the same time, and is giving very good satisfaction. The two last are both im- ported from Scotland. But the most popular oat of Tennessee is the Black oat. There are, like the White oat, several varieties of this kind. The Prussian, Poland and Spanish, are the best known. The Egyptian oat, about twenty-five or thirty years ago, attained a great popularity, both from the height of the OATS. 399 straw, and the quantity of seed. It presented a peculiar appearance, from the fact the panicles all drooped to one side, looking like a plume. It was in its full tide of suc- cess when the rust made its appearance in Tennessee, com- plely destroying, for several years, oat culture, and many persons attributed the outbreak of the rust to this variety of oats, and it has not been grown to any extent since. It is a very valuable variety, and well deservers to be restored to popular favor. The many varieties of oats cultivated in the North, where oat culture is more popular than here, are but little known to Tennessee farmers. And, really, it is of but little conse- quence, since the modifications of soil, climate and cultiva- tion would soon obliterate any small difference. We have, it may be said, four varieties that answer all the requisites for successful farming. These are Black oat, White oat, Egyptian oat and Red or Yellow oat. Although the Black oat commands the higher price for seed, there are many who will only sow the White oat. The last two named are not sufficiently known to come in the market as favorites. Besides these, a variety of White Spanish oat has been sown to a very limited extent, as a winter oat. In the South, winter oats are more common than Spring. There is, however, no material difference between the winter and spring varieties, as any of the spring oats can be converted in a few years into winter oats. This is done by sowing any variety wished in the fall, and saving what comes to maturity, and resowing next fall. The first harvest but little will be secured, the next harvest possibly half, and the third or fourth year a full crop will be secured. It would be well to acclimatize several varieties to the winter, as the heads will be heavier, though there is less straw. Besides, they afford a good pasture during the winter. Although the commercial weight of a bushel of oats is 32 pounds, yet some varieties weigh as much as 40 to 45 pounds. It is claimed that the Potato oat is the heaviest 400 CEREALS. of any variety. A winter oat, sown for many years past by Mr. Tom Crutchfield, of Chattanooga, furnishes an immense amount of winter pasturage. When I visited his farm, in November, the earth was matted with the rich, rank, dark- green herbage, fifteen inches high, looking like a thrifty wheat field in early May. I am satisfied that the amount of grazing which this crop will furnish until the middle of March, will equal that furnished by the same number of acres of the very best clover. This oat is an annual, hardy as rye, springs up, after being cropped, with more ra- pidity, and furnishes a larger amount of grazing than wheat, rye, barley, or any other winter grazing grass. It matures earlier than the common oat by ten days, is not attacked by the fly,, and can be seeded at a time when farmers, outside of the tobacco growing districts, have most leisure. By its aid stock may be carried through the winter for one-half what they can be with regular winter feed. I am satisfied that the cost of keeping sheep through the winter, with this oat will not exceed twenty-cents per head, nor a cow more than two dollars. The yield is as various as the character of soils. Some thin lands will not make more than fifteen bushels per acre, while a good heavy, stiff loam will, with the some variety, yield seventy-five or eighty bushels per acre. The average may fairly be stated at thirty-five bushels o*h all sorts of lands. One gentleman sowed two acres of land as nearly sim- ilar as possible, and with the same cultivation. One acre he left in its natural state, while he sowed one hundred pounds of gypsum or land plaster on the other. On the first he got fifteen bushels of oats, while on the other he ob- tained sixty-three bushels, nearly fifty bushels the result of one hundred pounds of plaster. There is, probably, no other crop that responds more promptly to the application of manures, or that better repays good cultivation, while on poor ground, with slovenly culture, it does not yield enough to pay the expenses incurred. With these facts before us it OATS. 401 should be the aim of every farmer to emulate with each other in developing the capacity of the land, and thus will the result bring its own reward. TIME OF SOWING. There is no difference of opinion as to the time and manner of sowing. Every one knows that spring oats should be put in the ground -as soon as the frosts will per- mit. If the weather is favorable, in the latter part of January, or as soon thereafter as practicable the land should be prepared and the oats sown. The soil should be deeply broken and thoroughly pulverized and the oats sown broad- cast over the field, and then either harrowed in or plowed in with a cultivator. If the seeds are plowed in with a a turning plow many of them do not come up, or if they do come at all, they are too weak and feeble to grow off promptly. A bull-tongue is used by some, and while this is very good for the oats, it is bad for the farmer, as but little progress is made with so small an implement. A double shovel or a walking cultivator is the best plow, pro- vided the farmer wishes to get the seed in deeper than a harrow will do it. But a shovel- tooth harrow will do it quickly, and, I think, more effectively than any other im- plement The farmer who delays sowing his "oats until the latter part of March or in April, will fail to reap those ad- vantages due good labor Occasionally a farmer does sow late, and from favorable seasons makes a good crop, and this circumstance will injure succeeding crops for years, as dilatory men will refer to this success as a criterioti, aud thus excuse their habit of procrastination. Some may plead the effect of frost on an early crop. This is futile, for al- though the first blades may be destroyed by a freeze, it does not in the least injure the crop, as oats are the hardiest crop grown on our farms. While the general opinion is in favor of early sowing, there is not the same observance in the quantity of seed per 26 402 CEREALS. acre. And, right here, our Tennessee farmers differ so widely from the Northern farmer that it is difficult to de- termine a just means of observance. In all the Northern States from three to five bushels are sown to the acre, while in Tennessee two bushels and a half is the limit of quantity. The man in Tennessee who sows three bushels is considered extravagant. The agent of the State farm in Massachu- setts laid off four lots, consisting of one and a half acres each, to establish this fact of quantity of seed per acre. All lots were sown broadcast early in April, equivalent to our February. No. 1 received five bushels per acre; No. 2 had four bushels per acre; No. 3 had three bushels per acre, and No. 4 had two bushels per acre. They were manured with 100 pounds of plaster per acre, spread broadcast, except a strip of one acre running across all the lots, which received no plaster. The oats were cut in three months and threshed about two months afterwards. No. 1 yielded 42 bushels: No. 2, 35 bushels; No. 3, 40 bushels, and No. 4, 26J bushels. The acre that got no plaster yielded 20 J bushels. The crop was small, the land being unfavorable for oats, and the season bad. Although the experiment was unsat- isfactory, yet it will be seen that the lot sown with three bushels did nearly as well as that sown with five; while that receiving two bushels fell off very considerably. But in our quick, hearty soil, three bushels will probably be the best measure to sow, though a less quantity will often make a heavy yield, as many stalks often come from one seed. J. B. McEwen, Esq., of Williamson county, brought in one stool of oats this spring, (1878), that had from one single seed seventy-seven separate stems. This, of course, is un- usual, but it is no uncommon thing to see from fifteen to twenty culms from one seed. In the colder climates of the North, oats will mature much earlier than in Tennessee. This is due to the short summers, there vegetation seeming to be aware of the necessity of escaping the destructive effects of frost. Oats OATS. 403 there will be ready for the sickle generally in ninety days, while here it requires, if sown early, one hundred and twenty days. It is true, late sown oats will hurry up to escape the heat, as Northern oats do to escape the cold. Thus, oats sown in the middle or last of April, will be ready for the harvest as soon as those sown in February, but the early oats will weigh more to the bushel and will yield far more to the acre. Oats should be cut early or late, as the crop may be desired for food or seed. If for the latter, they should be allowed to fully ripen, but if it is the inten- tion to feed to stock, the oats should be cut as soon the stem begins to turn yellow just below the head, and while the foliage is yet green. At this time the grain is in the dough state, and the stalk and leaves are yet full of saccha- rine matters, and in "this condition the straw will make ex- cellent hay, far superior to corn fodder, and but little in- ferior to the best English hay, as will be seen by the analyses here appended. Another reason is that in harvest- ing, if the grain becomes fully matured, much of it will be lost by shattering in the many handlings it must receive before finally garnered. The manner of cutting is either by reapers or by cradles. This is a matter of taste or convenience to "the farmer, and is of little consequence. But it must be borne in mind that all the juices remaining in the stem are of a soluble nature, and the stem, after drying, is very porous, so that if al- lowed to get wet the nutritive qualities are washed out. So then, in view of this fact, great care must be observed in properly shocking. Some bundles are, of course, exposed to the weather, but let there be as few as possible. The best manner is to make hand stacks, sloping the bundles in such a manner as to shed the rain from the heads to the stubs. Each stack contains about one hundred bundles and tapers to a point, which is neatly capped, and the cap tied. In this way but a small proportion of the straw will get wet, and none of the grain heads. As soon as the oats 404 CEREALS. are properly cured, say in a week of sunny weather, they will be ready to house, and no delay should take place in this. But there are many small farmers and improvident ones who have no shelter, consequently they must resort to stacks. It is not every man who can stack oats so as to preserve them from the weather. If carelessly done the oats will be a total loss. If properly done they will keep an indefinite length of time. Attention to the following necessity is all that is required to make a good stack, viz: Keep the heads oj the bundles higher than the butts. This is easily done if the stacker will only bear it constantly in mind to elevate the heads. This can be easily done by oc- casionally laying a bundle under the upper head. At the same time be careful not to give it so much pitch that the superincumbent pressure will force out the bundles and let the stack tumble In the countries where oats form a large part of the regular crops, it is the universal practice to thresh the oats before feeding them, and then feed by measurement. In the South however we have adopted the very slovenly and wasteful habit of feeding in the bundles. It is true some are careful enough to pass the bundles through a straw cutter, but the largest number will simply throw a bundle loosely in the manger or rack. If the bundles are cut up finely they will be eaten, straw and all; and this is a good plan, for the seeds are in this way dispersed all through the straw, and the horse, in seeking the grain, is perforce obliged to take all. Our more careful neighbors however will cut the straw, mixed with a modicum of good hay or bran, and then pour the grain, either whole or crushed, over the mass and their horses are kept in the best order without the use of corn, or at least with a very small quantity of corn, beans or peas. Some farmers pass oats and barley through the thresher together, and the grain mixed is a very excellent stock OATS. 405 food. It brightens the hair, promotes digestion and gives a horse good health under heavy tasks. For many years it was the habit of farmers to only thresh out oats enough to serve as seed, and they looked at the resulting straw as waste, most of it going to the stables as bedding, or left to rot where threshed. We give below an analysis of the straw as well as of the grain to show the loss they have sustained. Oats, both green and matured, form a most excellent food for hogs. Nothing will start hogs to fatten more kindly than to be turned on an oat field when the oats are half grown. In a few days they will begin to look smooth, the hair gets sleek and by the time they have been on it two or three weeks they are almost fat. If a large apple or peach orchard is on the farm it will be a good plan to sow it in oats, and as the young apples or peaches begin to fall they, as well as the oats, are devoured by the swine, and thus, not only are the animals benefited but the eggs of insects that are in the fallen fruit are destroyed. In this way in a few years the curculio may be entirely eradicated from the orchards, as well as the borer and other insects injurious to the trees. We give, first, an analysis of the grain and then of the straw. Oats contain, starch, 60.54; gluten and other azotized matters, 14.39; dextrine, glucose, etc., 9.25; fatty matters, 5.50; cellulose, 7.06; mineral matters, 3.25: or, econom- ically, Flesh forming principles, 1 8.447 Heat producing principles, 73.376 Fat producing principles, 8.178 Wolff and Knopps analysis may be seen on page 336, (under buckwheat). According to the estimates of Meyer, based upon actual experiments in feeding, one hundred and fifty Ibs. of oat 406 CEREALS. straw are equivalent to 100 Ibs. of good English hay, or 65 Ibs. of the grain of barley, or 60 Ibs. oats, 58 Ibs. rye, or 55 Ibs. of wheat; and Thaer places the estimate still greater. Bouissingault gives, for the green oat straw, water, 82.0; starch, 5.0; woody fibre, 7.5; sugar, 3.5; albumen, 1.0; fatty matter, 0,5; and mineral matter, 0.5. It has been remarked before, that but little of this crop is ever exported. On the contrary, in the year 1851, 679J812 bushels of oats were imported, and also 302,400 bushels of oatmeal. In 1858, this amount had decreased to 115 bushels oats, and 106,288 bushels oatmeal. In the year 1875, there were exported 504,770 bushels oats; and in 1876, 1,466,228 bushels. This however forms but a small portion of the crop, for in 1876 there were raised in the United States, 320,884,000 bushels. In 1876, there were raised in the State of Tennessee, 5,400,000 hushels on 306,818 acres, averaging 17.6 bushels per acre, and the average price was 39 cents, making the value of the crop $2,106,000. I have not deemed it necessary to speak of the Barbary oat, which is a two awned oat, growing on the deserts of Asia and Africa. The long twisted awns or beards are so sensitive to moisture, that they will work like an insect under the influence of the weather, forming a poor hy- grometer. They were once sold as barometers all over the country, the awns being affixed to a index. i " RICE. (Oryza sativa.) This grass has a long panicle, resembling, when ripe oats, the seed growing from a short pedicel starting from a central stalk. Each ker- nal has an awn, glumes yellow. The stem is short, pointed, hollow and about three feet high. It is an annual. Rice is a native of Asia, but was brought from the Island of Madagascar to Charleston, South Carolina, and was first grown by Landgrave Smith in that city. The white RICE. 407 rice was first introduced, but afterwards the golden seed superseded it, and that is now universally grown both in the swamps and uplands of the South, and is the same as that grown in China and Asia. It is used as human food by more people than any other cereal, feeding it is said, to the exclusion of other cereals, over half the inhabitants. It is really a water plant, and thrives best when supplied with an abundance of it. In fact, to be grown in its best style it. is flooded the greater part of the time by means of banks, levees and flood-gates. It may be assumed than it has no place in a Tennessee work, but there are several varieties of rice, and we all remember, in the days of slavery, that many negroes owned little rice patches, where they were accustomed to grow rice and beat it out in a hominy mortar and hawk in the country. There is an upland or mountain rice which grows well on any rich soil, especially, however, if it is a marshy bot- tom. I once sowed rice in a seed millet patch, having only a few grains, and it grew very well and made a fair yield. I have seen it yield well in Stewart County. It was tor many years grown there by a South Carolinian. All the upland counties of North Alabama, Georgia and Mississippi raise enough for home consumption. It is raised in the germinating gardens in Washington for dis- tribution. Its method of culture is just as seed millet is raised. It matures about the same time, and should be cut with the sickle just as the millet is. Let it be bound in bundles and stacked. After a week or two it will go through the stack sweat and be ready for cleaning. The husk adheres very closely to the grain, is very tough and difficult to separate. On a regular rice plantation this :s done by large stones, but here, in small quantities, it must be done by using warm water and the hominy mortar. It is a tedious process, but like all other processes it can easily be learned by application. It would not pay to raise rice in large quanti- 408 CEREALS. ties, but nothing is like having a supply of all the good things of life on hand, raised on your own farm. We have become independent of the South, so far as molasses is concerned, let us now raise a home supply of rice, and then, with all the luxuries, as well as the necessities of life? the farmer can snap his fingers at dull care and hard times. From 25 to 40 bushels of rough rice can be raised on an acre, and this will shell out enough to last a long time. A comparative analysis with other grains will be found on page 336. It is by no means equal to wheat in its nu- tritive qualities, containing more starch but fewer nitrogen- ous substances. BYE (Secale cereak). Has long bearded ears, and a tall and very slender stem. The glumes are toothed on the edges, has a terminal spike, solitary, erect, from two to four inches long, with beards four or five times the length of glumes. Root fibrous, and annual. There are two varieties cultivated in Tennessee, besides many others with local names. These two are named from their habits, one being winter rye, the other spring rye, but the former is almost exclusively used. .Rye will grow in a colder climate than wheat or barley, and on poorer soil. On the poorest sandy soils in the State, it will do quite well. It will grow on the Cumber- land and Unaka mountains six to eight feet high. Sown in almost any month of the year it will make a crop. Its principal use in Tennessee is for pastures, though some use is made of the grain as meal, as well as for stock food. From the fact that the seeds are rarely saved, the price is? in Tennessee, quite high, as compared with that of other grains, the range of value for several years being as great as wheat. Among the cereals, rye is cultivated, in Tennessee, least ; but in some of the States, it is extensively raised as a distilling grain. It is extensively used in making beer? 409 and rye whiskey is famous as a beverage the world over. The famous "Hollands" (gin) is made from rye, flavored with juniper berries. Sown early in the fall, and even in August, it affords a fine nutritious pasturage through the next seven or eight months, or, until it begins to " spindle " up, when it becomes woody, loses its succulent character, and is not relished by stock. In some countries it is sown with wheat, and ground into a meal that is particularly 'fine and nourishing, and is called meslin. It is famous as a healthy bread, suitable for the sick. Rye meal makes break- fast cakes, equal to the best buckwheat, and not easily detected from it. It is used quite extensively among the poorer classes for making coffee, and by dealers as an adul- terant for ground coffee. During rainy wet seasons, a fungous growth makes its appearance in the grains, causing them to be elongated and twisted, forming "Spurred rye" or Ergot. Men or animals partaking ol this diseased grain become poisoned, and the most fatal symptoms ensue, the extremities becoming gan- grenous and, if continued in, will finally result in death. Still this ergot is one of our most precious medicines and would be badly missed. The yield of rye is seldom more than fifteen or twenty bushels to the acre, though, like all cereals, it is greatly benefited by manure. The best manure is bone dust or phosphate of lime, the phosphates entering largely into its composition. The quantity to be sown to the acre is a bushel or a bushel and a half, either for seed or pasturage. It is sown, as other cereals, on well prepared land, though if only wanted for pasture, it is a good plan to sow it broadcast over corn land just before the corn is laid by, and 410 CEREALS. then plowed in with the last plowing. By the time the corn is gathered, there will be as rich a pasture as may be desired. Rye has been exported but little, the home consumption being about equal to its production. It forms an important article of diet in Europe and Asia, being mixed with both wheat and barley to make cheap bread. It is supposed to be a native of Oandia, and some say of Sicily, as it grows wild on both of these islands. But it is more probable it hud its origin, with other cereals, on the slopes of the Himalaya mountains in Asia. It was introduced into Europe after the 15th century, and was brought to America at the 'same time with the other grains. Its straw is almost worthless as a fodder, stock not relishing it at all ; but it is exten- sively used in the manufactures, as hats, bonnets, mats, paper, slippers, and a great variety of other articles are made from it. In 1840, the product of the United States was 18,645,567 bushels, and in 1850, it was 14,188,813 bushels; in 1860, 21,101,380 bushels; in 1870, 16,918,795 bushels. In 1876, there were 355,000 bushels raised in Tennessee, on 39,444 acres of land, being an average of 9 bushels per acre, and the average price that year was 92 cents per bushel. In the United States the same year, there were 20,374,800 bushels, thus giving an increase, in thirty-six years, of less than two million bushels, although the culti- vated area of the United States has almost doubled, if not quite. This deficiency may be attributed to the falling off in the demand for distilling purposes. Although so little rye is exported, a considerable quantity of rye meal is taken to Europe. See comparative analysis, on page 336, (under Buck- wheat) . LEGUMINOUS PLANTS. 411 LEGUMINOUS PLANTS. VII. The introduced clovers, vetches and other vines of modern agriculture have already been fully considered, botanically and economically. The connection of this family of phoenogamous plants with the econ- omy of agricultural nations, is coeval with the culture of the cereals. Besides the frequent mention made of them in the remotest periods of Biblical literature, we also know from Papyrus rolls and stone engrav- ings of ancient Egypt, several facts relating to them. Lentils, (Ervum Lens,) has been there a favorite dish with the people, and remained so to the present day. On Sculptures servants are represented carrying bas- kets filled with Indigo, being either tribute or precious merchandise, which came from India. Carobs, or St. John's bread, furnished an im- portant food supply, not only in Egypt, but also in Syria and Palestine. The name Carat is derived from the Carob seeds, serving a standard weight, equal to about 20 grains of wheat, one grain of which was the gmallest standard weight then in use for weighing gold and precious stones. Carobs are the fruit of a tree (Ceratonia Siliqua,) much re- sembling our honey locust. Beans (Faba vulgaris) and the Chick pea (Cicer Arietinuin) were large- ly consumed by the lower classes. It is doubtful whether the avoidance of Beans, practiced by the priest^ and so strictly forbidden by Pythag- oras to his disciples, applies to the leguminous species or the seeds of Nelumbium speciosuni, the Water Lily, which then grew abundantly 412 LEGUMINOUS PLANTS. in the waters of the Nile. Nor could the Egyptian do without his hom- iny, using Lupines, (Lupinus Thermis) soaked in salt water, like we do Indian corn. The honey of Hymettus, famous for its flavor, owes its fame in part to the rich fields of clover, that abounded hi the pastures of ancient Hellas and brought from there to Italy, it found gradually its way across the Alps. Following the train of civilization it has long since departed from the parched shores of Salamis and the depauperated fields of Argos, once the feeder of horses All the cultivated species are indigenous to the Mediterranean region. The Peanut, however, (Arachis hypogcea), as palatable to our taste, as its herbage to cattle, is a denizen of two continents, for it is indigen- ous on the Senegal and in the West India islands. In the warmer climates, under favorable circumstances for ripening, like in India, this nut is very rich in a fine oil which is used there like olive oil, and is said to be even superior. It keeps a long time without becoming ran- cid. In its more Northern range it produces less oil. An occasion to say more about this curious plant will recur in the botanical description of the Leguminosae. A related genus, the Voandzeia subterranea, or Bambarra ground nut, of similar habits and like value with the former, is not known in the United States, a native of the Western coast of Africa, and its cul- tivation is confined to tropical countries. Very little knowledge of useful leguminous plants has descended to us from the native Indian. The scarcity of bread-giving cereals on one hand and the absence on the Northern continent of those larger animals which are fit for domestication, have rescinded his disposition to cling to a homestead as tiller of the soil ; nor could he follow his flocks as a wande-ing and peaceable nomade. The abundance of nutritious her- baceous food favoring the multiplication and variation of the less fero- cious herbivores, enabled man to gain ascendency and to initiate the most primitive government over submissive, social animals. For these rea- sons have the Mediterranean regions and Central Asia become the birth- place of civilization, while the North American continent continued to be the hunting domain of the roving Indian. The mild and benign manner of the sheperd and herdsman to notice the wants of the flocks^ to distinguish the kinds of food which they would prefer, and to lead LEGUMINOUS PLANTS. 413 them in regions of plenty, has no parallel in the atrocious character of the Indian, whose only interference with the state of nature consisted in setting fire to woods and prairies, to promote the growth of herbace- ous plants and thin the undergrowth to facilitate the chase. The deli- cious fruits of the warmer regions of the Eastern continent are not met with here, or represented by less palatable kinds and this defect may have produced the unrefined taste of the Indian. Capable of satiating his hunger with a mixture of clay and gum, like the Ottomaks of the Amazon or with tuckahoe, a species of ligneous fungus, resorted to in times of dearths by the Cherokeesand other nations, he remained content- ed vrith the natural and unimproved offerings of his native land, and attempted to cultivate but few kinds of those Indian corn beans and tobacco. These Indian beans are several species of phaseolus, growing spontaneously in all portions of the country. Prairie and forest sup- plied him with several other leguminous plants. The Screw bean, {Strombocarpus pubescens,} the dry and ripe fruit of which is considered a delicious nutriment by the Indians, grows along the Colorado river of Arizona, and the Utahs use it by mak- ing bread from the meal of the seeds. All kinds of animals are fond of the pods, and fatten rapidly upon them. Of no less importance are the fruits of the Mesquite (Algarobia glandulosa). The pods being 7-9 inches long, are not only nutritious, but also very agreeable, from the combination of a sweet and acid taste, and are a preventive of thirst. The Pommede prairie is the esculent root of the Proiralea esculenta, growing in the Northwestern territory, Iowa, Kansas and Nebraska. It is generally the size of a hen's egg, of regular ovoid shape, and the corti- cal part or skin separates as readily as in a turnip. It has a sweet and turnip-like taste. The Indians of these regions like it very much, and use it extensively in the ripe state. Sliced and dried they store it for winter use. A rare species of this genus, the Psoralea subacaulis, grows abund- antly upon the rocky hills and wastes around Nashville. Its short flow- er-stem terminates a few inches below the surface in a good sized tu- berous root, firmly imbedded between the densely packed gravel and rocks This tuber is soft and pleasantly sweet, although growing on the poorest ground, and retains those qualities to an advanced flowering LEGUMINOUS PLANTS. sta 1 e. This root has been probably never before observed, and should be tried under cultivation Farmers know very well that wild and uncultivated lands, mountains and river banks produce a variety of pea-vines which are especially sought after by stock, roaming through the thickets. It has also been very generally noticed, that with the clearing of the land, the multiplica- tion of cattle, and the spread of the root- destroying hog, the former abundance of this kind of forage, that formerly held out in many re- gions during the whole winter, has gradually grown less. Why this large increase of the herbiverous domestic animals exerts such a dele- terious influence upon their number and thins the rank of their species woefully, in locations much exposed to their invasions, is readily understood from an observation of their growth and structure. Shrubby and arborescent species, worthy of consideration in the pres- ent sense, occur only in the lower Sbnth and Southeast and all our val- uable kinds are herbaceous plants. Some being closely appressed to the soil, others creep over it in wide-spread tangles, some arc partly de- cumbent, few strictly erect, many are trailing and climbing Succulent herbs with a large surface from the development of numerous branches and copious foliage, they dislike exposure to the wind and prefer shel- tered situations in forest and thicket ; only the creeping varieties like full exposure on the open prairie. Stout stemmed and smooth Baptisias make an exception. The wiry and stringy rootlets of grasses are securely protected against the tread of heavy animals by an elastic cushion of tuft or sod, but the single and scattered growing pea vines and their congeners possess neither this benefit nor their slender form and elastic structure, and are under a still greater disadvantage from their cumbersome struc- ture, entangling the feet of the animals, and suffering more from tramping and crushing than browsing. Grasses generally live longer as the herbaceous leguminosse and grass seeds frequently escape destruction by digestion but not so the latter. The economical value of these herbs depends as much on their abun- ance as upon nutritions qualities, and it is evident that we ought to pre- vent their decrease, or even extinction, by trying their cultivation, in collecting their seeds and sowing them either separately or in mixture in LEGUMINOUS PLANTS. 415 well prepared land. Otherwise those weeds which everywhere follow in the footsteps of the settler, will soon take their place, multiplying with a prodigious rapidity. The Canada and Common thistle, Amar- anths, Door- weeds, Knot-grass, Rag and May weeds and Thorn apples threaten to become the victors in the battle for existence. List of leguminous plants known to grow spontaneously in Tentfessee : Crotalaria sagittalis. L. Rattlebox, annual July September. Lupinus perennis, L. Lupine, perennial. April, May. Mt'Mlotus alba, Lam. Sweet clover. Perennial. May, June. Trifolium pratense, L Red clover. Perennial. May. Trifolium arvense, L. Rabbit-foot clover. Annual. May. Trifolium refiexum, L Buffalo clover. Biennial. May. Trifolium repens, L. White clover. Perennial. May. Trifolium Carolinianum, Michx. Carolina clover. Perennial. Medicago lupulina, L. Black Medic. Annual. May. Psoralea mclilotoides, L. Psoralea, perennial. June. Psori 7 6i subaewili*, Torr & Gray. Perennial. April. Petalostemon foliosus, Gray. Leafy prairie clover. Perennial. May, June. Petalostemon decumbens, Gray. Low prairie clover. Perennial. May, June. Petalostemon corymbosus, Michx, Silky prairie clover. Perennial. June, July, Amorpha fruticosa, L. Lead plant. June Itobinia pseudacacia, L. Common locust. May. Robinia viscosa, Vent. Clammy locust, shrub. . May Robinia hispida, L. Rose acacea. Shrub May. Wistaria frutescens, D. C. Wistaria climbing shrub. May. Tephrosia spicata, Torr & Gray. June, July. Astragalus Tennexsiensis, Gray. Tennessee milk vetch. Peren- nial. April. Astragalus Canadensis, L. Canada milk vetch . Perennial June. Vicia m Grant ha, Nutt. Small flowered vetch. Biennial. March. ViOii Carolina, Walt. Carolina vetch. Biennial. April. Vicia Americana, Gray. American vetch Perennial. April. Stylosanthes elatior, Swartz. Pencil flower. Perennial. June, August. Lespedeza repent. Torr & Gray. Creeping bash clover. Peren- nial. June, September. Lespedeza violacea, Pers. Bush clover. Perennial. June, August, Lespedeza Stnvei, Nutt Downy bush clover. Perennial. August. 416 LEGUMINOUS PLANTS. Lespedeza hirta, Ell. Hairy bush clover. Perennial. August, September. Lespedeza eapitata, Micbx. Round beaded busb clover. Peren- nial. August, September. Desmodium pauciflorum, Nutt. Few-flowered tick-trefoil. Pe- rennial. July, September. Desmodium acuminatum, D. C. Pointed tick-trefoil. Perennial. July, September. Desmodium fiudiflorum, D. C. Crowded- leaved tick-trefoil. Pe- rennial. July. September. Desmodium euspidatum, Torr &, Gray. Sharp pointed tick-trefoil. July, September. Desmodium, rotundifolium, D. C. Round leaved tick-trefoil. Pe- rennial. July, September. Desmodium, Canadense, D. 0. Canadian tick-trefoil. Perennial. July, August. Desmodium Dillenii a Darl. Dillens tick-trefoil. Perennial. Sep- tember, October. Desmodium paniculatum, D. C. Smooth tick-trefoil. Perennial. September. Desmodium strictum, D. C. Stiff tick-trefoil. Apios tuberosa, Mrench. Ground nut. Perennial July, October. Phaseolus-perennis, Walt. Perennial. Kidney bean. July, Oc- tober. Phaseolus diver sifolius, Pers. Creeping kidney bean. Biennal. July. Phaseolus helvolus, L. Long-stalked kidney bean. Annual. June, September. Clitoria Mariana, L. Maryland butter fly pea. Perennial. June, October. Amphiearpcea monoica, Nutt. Hog-nut pea. Perennial. July, September. Galactia mollis, Michx. Milk pea. Perennial. July, August. Galactia glabella, Michx. Small milk pea. Perennial. Tune, September. Baptisia tinctoria, R Brown. Wild Indigo. Perennial. June, July. Baptisia alba, R. Brown. WMte flowered white indigo. Peren- nial. July. August. Baptisia leucantha Torr & Gray. Smooth wild indigo. Peren- nial. July, August. Baptisia australis, R. Brown Blue-flowered wild indigo. Peren- nial. July. LEGUMINOUS PLANTS. 417 Thermopsis mollis, R. Brown. Soft-leaved Thermopsis. Peren- nial. June, 'July. Cladrastis tinctoria, Raf. Yellow wood. Tree. May. Cercis Canadensis, L. Red-bud. Small tree. March. Cassia Marilandica, L. American senna. Annual. July. Cassia obtusifolia, wild senna. Annual. July. Cassia Chamcecrista, L. Partridge pea. Annual. July, August. Cassia nictitans, L. Sensitive plant. Annual. July, Angust. Gleditschia triacanthos, L. Honey-locust, tree. Gleditschia monospermm, Walt. Swamp honey-locust, small tree. May. Gymnocladus Canadensis, Lam. Kentucky Coffee tree. May. Acacia Julibrissim. Acacia, tree. May. Demanthus brachylobus, R. Brown. American Mimosa Peren- nial. June, July. Schrankia uncinata, Wild. Sensitive bria'-. Perennial. June, August. Schrankia angustata, Torr & Gray. Narrow leaved sensitive brier. Perennial. July. Continued botanical research will unquestionably add a good many more species to this, list. 27 418 LEGUMINOUS PLANTS. CHAPTER XXV. SHORT MENTION OF LEGUMINOUS PLANTS. The botanical wealth of this State, so far as we can presently form an opinion, is likely to be greater than that of the Atlantic States, notwithstanding the absence of the littoral flora. A. thorough search over the northwestern portions of the State, along the upper course of the Holston and French Broad rivers, would almost necessarily bring forth the whole array of forms peculiar to Western Virginia, Penn- sylvania and Eastern Kentucky, and the high summits of the Unaka Mountains, extending over 200 miles in length, are crowned with those alpine beauties, memorials of the glacial period whose aspect and pos- session is so enchanting to the. botanist. The depressed limestone area of Middle Tennessee is a well defined region in strikingly peculiar effect of landscape, from the conformation of surface and character of vegetation. Between undulating productive lands stretch, rugged cliffs, not cultivable glades, where the cavern- ous and much fissured rocks lies either bare, or meagerly soil -covered. The cedar, with its wide-spreading roots and time-demanding growth, is here at home, and largely in excess of all other timber growth. Pines are not found in those regions known as the cedar barrens, which har- bor a number of very rare plants The western part of the State again, is botanically nearly an unex- plored region. As it differs geologically and geographically from the rest of the State, eo may also a difference in its flora be looked for. Foremost exposed to the prevailing Avestern currents of the winds, fleeting seeds and germs, wafted over the great plains, arrive there in greatest abundance, and, should even conditions of soil and climate not favor their permanent establishment, they will readily be again replen- ished. The mighty Mississippi annually overflowing hundreds of square miles, deposits innumerable seeds, whose germs had been fertil- ized in the distant regions of the far West. The Leguminosse are a natural order of the dicotyledonous plants. Herbs, shrubs or trees, with papilionaceous, or sometimes regular flowers 10 (rarely 5, and sometimes many) monadelphous, diadelphous, or rarely distinct stamens, and a single, simple, free pistil becoming a LEGUMINOUS PLANTS. 419 legume in fruit. Seeds mostly without albumen. Leaves alternate, with stipules, usually compound. One of the sepals inferior, (i. e. next the bract,) one of the petals superior (i. e. next the axis of the in- florescence). This order is a large one, being composed of about 550 genera and 7,000 species. It contains a great many useful plants, sup- plying not only food, but timber, fibres, gums, dyes, and various eco- nomical substances. Among the few poisonous plants in their ranks may be mentioned: Two ornamental plants: Coronilla varia and Cytisus Laburnum of Europe. Gompholobium uncinatuni of Australia, and Physostygma venenosum, the ordeal bean of Calabar. Of our species the Baptisias are suspicious. The territory between the Missis- sippi and the Atlantic enumerates 55 genera with about 200 species. The order is divided in three sub-orders, the first sub-division repre- senting it principally in the temperate regions, the two other belong to warmer climates and tropics nearly exclusively. Sub-order 1. Papilionaccse. Proper pulse family. Calyx of five sepals, more or less united, often unequally so. Corolla perigynous (inserted into the base of the calyx) of five irregular petals (or very rarely fewer) imbricated in the bud, more or less distinctly papiliona- ceous i. e. with the upper odd petal, called the vexillum or standard, larger than the others, and enclosing them in the bud, usually turned backward or spreading ; the two lateral ones, called the wings, oblique and exterior to the lower petals, which last are convenient; and com- monly more or less coherent by their anterior edges, forming a body named the catina or keel, from its resemblance to the keel or prow of a boat, and which usually encloses the stamens and pistil. Stamens ten, rarely five, inserted with the corolla, nionadelphous, diadelphous, (mostly with stamen united in one set in a tube, which is cleft on the upper side, that is next the standard, and the tenth 'or upper one sepa- rate), or occasionally distinct. Ovary, one-celled, sometimes two- celled by an intrusion of one of the sutures, or transversely two many celled by cross division into joints; style simple, ovules amphitropous, rarely anatropous. Cotyledons large, thick or thickish; radicle in- curved. Leaves simple or simply compound, the earliest ones in- mination usually opposite, the rest alternate. Leaflets always quite entire. Flowers perfect, solitary or axillary, in spikes, racemes, or panicles. LUPINUS PEBENNIS, L (Common wild Lupine.} A genus largely .scattered over the West with over 50 species. Our species is blue flowered in a large receme with a palmately 5-15 leaved foliage. Not frequent. (Palmately means like the leaves of the buckeye). Eatable. Flowers April and May. Alleghany Mountains. 420 LEGUMINOUS PLANTS. I CROTALABIA SAGITTALIS, L. Rattlebox. Flowers in racemes, commonly yellow, stem erect, branching. Leave? oblong laneolate, stipules united and decurrent on the stem, legumes much inflated. Plant hairy. Valuable, g owing abuDdantly in the State in sandy soil. June and September. Good. MELILOTUS ALBA, Lam. ( White Melttote, not indigenous. Cultivated as forage. TBIFOLIUM PBATENSE, L. (Red clover already described.} TBIFOLIUM ABVENSE, l*-(Rabbtijoot clover.} Annual, silky, erect, heads cylindrical. No use. TRIFOLIUM BEFLEXUM, L (Buffalo clover.) Biennial; stems ascending, downy; leaflets obovate, oblong finely toothed. Stipules thin, ovate; pods 3-5, seeded. Valuable. Round Nashville. TBIFOLIUM BEPENS, L-( White clover.) Universally known. TBIFOLIUM CABOLINIANUM, Michx--(CWma clover. Small, procumbent, corolla purplish. Does not afford much forage. MEDICAGO LUPULINA, I*-(Black Medick.) Stem procumbent. Heads of flowers roundish, inch diameter, pal yellow. Abundant in dry pastures. Sheep feed on it. It is introduced from Europe and an annual. May and August. PSOBALEA MELILOTOIDES, Calyx 5, a cleft, persistent, the lower lobe longest. Pod strongly wrinkled; leaves pinnately 3-folialate stem erect, 2-3 feet high. Peren- nial. Very good for all stock. Common. PSOBALEA SUBACAULIS, Torr and Gray. Nearly stemless; leaves palmate, 7-folialate Root with a tuber. Flowers purple, in May. Cattle feed on it. Nashville, rare. PETALOSTEMON FOLIOSUS, Gray.-(Lea/y Prairie Clover}. Perennial. Flowers in a spike, rose-colored Stem erect, smooth ; LEGUMINOUS PLANTS. 421 leaves pinnate, with very numerous small leaflets ; whole plant glandu- lar dotted. Cedar barrens. June August. Very valuable plant. PETALOSTEMON DECUMBENS, Gray. Perennial. Decumbent. Leaflets very thin, narrowly linear, corolla rose-purple, with the former. PETALOSTEMON CANDIDUS, Michx. Leaflets 7-9, lanceolate or linear-oblong; corolla white Cumber- land Mountains. July August PETALOSTEMON CORYMBOSUS, Michx. Stems clustered, erect, very leafy. Leaflets 8-7 filiform ; teeth of the calyx setaceous, plumose ; vexillum oblong. June August. Dry cedar barrens. All Petalostemons are excellent herbage. AMOBPHA FRUTICOSA, "L.-(Lead Plant, or Fake Indigo). Shrubs with odd pinnate leaves ; flowers purple. A tall-growing shrub. Confined to creek and river banks. ROBINIA PSEUDO-ACACIA, L.--( Common Locust), ROBINIA VISCOSA, Vent -(Clammy Locust), ROBINIA HISPIDIA, L.--(Eose Acacia), Arc generally known. Planted in avenues the two latter in gardens for their gorgeous blossoms. WISTARIA FRUTESCENS, D. C. Woody twiner, climbing high, with minute stipules, and dense recemes of large and showy lilac-purple flo* ers. Often cultivated for ornament. TEPHROSIA VIRGINIANA, Pers.--(Goafc Rue). Calyx about equally 5- cleft. Standard roundish usually silky out- side turne,d back, scarcely longer than the coherent wings and keel. Silky, villous. Leaflets 7-29 linear, oblong. Flowers showy. Roots long, slender and very tough. Perennial. Worthless. , TEPHROSIA SPICATA, Torr & Gray. Similar to the foregoing, but the spikes loose, long, peduncled and few flowered Perennial. Not worth much. 422 LEGUMINOUS PLANTS. ASTRAGALUS TENNESSIENSIS, Gray.---- (Tennessee Milk Vetch). Calyx 5-toothed, corolla long and narrow ; standard narrow, equaling or exceeding the wings and blunt keel ; its sides refiexed or spreading. Pale yellow. Pod short and very thick appressed to the rocky soil in which it grows. May. Cedar barrens. Very valuable. ASTRAGALUS CANADENSIS, I*. (Canada Milk Vetch]. Tall, pubescent; leaflets 21-31. oblong, obtuse, stipules ovate, clasp- ing; peduncles as long as the leaves, closely many -flowered. Flowers | inch long, pale yellow. Nashville. Rocks and cliffs of Cumberland river. Good forage plant VICIA MICRANTHA, T$ntt.~(Small Flowered Vetch}. Calyx tubular, 5-cleft, style filiform, hairy at the apex. Smooth, leaflets 4-6 linear, obtuse ; peduncles 1 2 flowered. Flowers minute, pale blue ; legume sabre shaped, 4-10 seeded. Thickets. Common. April. Good. VICIA CAROLINIAN A, Walt.(OiroKna Vetch). Leaflets 8-24 oblong, obtuse, scarcely mucronate peduncles loosely flowered : calyx teeth very short. With the preceding. May. Very good. VICIA AMERICANA, Muhl. Leaflets 10-14 elliptical or ovate, oblong very obtuse many veined; peduncles 4-8-flowered. Flowers purplish, 8 lines long, showy. The Vicias are climbing, tendril bearing, and all equally valuable. The last deserves to be cultivated. STYLOSANTHES ELATIOR, S war tz.--( Pencil Flower). Yellow flowering, low ; perennial; branched from the base with wiry stems, pinnately 3-foliolate leaves, the small orange yellow flowers in few flowered clusters. June October. Cattle feed upon it. LESPEDEZA REPENS, Torr & Gray. (Creeping Bush Clover). Calyx 5-cleft ; the lobes nearly equal, slender, stamens diadelphous. Pods of a single, one-seeded joint, oval or roundish, flat, reticulated ; LEGUMINOUS PLANTS. 423 leaves pinnately 3 foliolate, smooth; prostrate, spreading, very slender. Dry, gravely localities. June September. LESPEDEZA VIOLACEA, Pers (Purple Bush Clover). Stems upright or spreading, branched ; leaflets varying from oval ob- long to linear, whitish, downy beneath with close-pressed pubescence ; peduncles or clusters few flowered ; pods ovate July September. Copses. Common, LESPEDEZA STUVEI, Nutt.~(Dowy Bush Clover). Stems upright, spreading, bushy, downy ; leaflets oval or roundish, longer than the petiole, silky or white wooly beneath, clusters many flowered. With the foregoing. July August. LESPEDEZA HIBTA, ^11. (Hairy Bush Clover.) Flowers in a cylindrical rather loose spike ; corolla whitish with a purple spot on the standard ; leaflets roundish or oval, hairy. Plant up- right, wand-like, 2-4 feet high. Dry hills and barrens. July. LESPEDEZA CAPITATA, Michx..- (Bound-headed Bush Clover). Similar to the foregoing, but the leaflets elliptical or oblong, thickish, reticulated and mostly smooth above, silky beneath, spikes or heads dense, nearly globular. With the former, July August. The four last described Lespedeazs are exceedingly valuable pasture plants. Lespedeza striata, the Japan clover, already described, is now quite common in many countries, but the American indigenous species would prove equally as valuable. DESMODITJM, D, C.(Tick Foil). Calyx more or less 2 -lipped. Standard obovate; wings adherent to the straight and usually truncate keel, by means of a little transverse appendage on each side of the latter. Stamens diadelphous 9 and 1, or monadelphous. Pod flat, deeply lobed on the lower margin, sepa- rating into few or many flat reticulated joints, (mostly roughened with minnte hooked hairs, by which they adhere to the fleece of animals or to the clothing). Perennial herbs with pinnately 3-foliolate (rarely 1-folioate) leaves, stipellate. This is a large genus with 23 species in the Atlantic part of the West- ern States, and most species are very common and abundant 424 LEGUMINOUS PLANTS. DESMODIUM PAUCIFLORUM, D. C.-($pandy-ftmoend Tick- Trefoil). Leaflets rhombic-ovate, bluntish, pale beneath ; raceme few flowered, terminal. Woods, common, June September. DESMODIUM ACUMINATUM, D. C.~(Sharp pointed Tick-Tre foil.) Leaves all crowded at the summit of the stem, from which arises the elongated naked raceme or panicle; leaflets round ovate, taper-pointed, green both sides. Woods, common. DESMODIUM NUDIFLORUM, D. C.--( White-fleered Tick-Tre- foil}. Leaves all crowded at the summit of sterile sterns^; leaflets broadly ovate, bluntish, whitish beneath ; raceme elongated on an ascending mostly leafless stalk or scape from the root, 2 feet long, Woods, com- mon. August September. DESMODIUM CUSPIDATUM, Torr & Gray. --(Cuspidate Tick- Trefoil}. Very smooth except the panicle ; stem straight ; leaflets lanceolate, ovate and taper-pointed, green both sides ; longer than the petiole 3-5 inches long, joints of the pod rhomboid, oblong, smoothish. Common. June September DESMODIUM ROTUNDIFOLIUM, D. C.-(Round Leafed Tick- Trefoil.) Soft, hairy all over, truly prostrate ; leaflets orbicular, or the odd one slightly rhomboid; pods almost equally sinuate on both edges, 3-5 joint- ed ; the joints rhomboid-oval. Common. June September. DESMODIUM CANADENSE, D. C. (Canadian Tick Trefoil). Stem hairy ; (3-6 feet high). Leaflets oblong, lanceolate or ovate, lanceolate, obtuse, with numerous straight veins, much longer than the petiole, (1^-3 inches long); flowers showy, larger than in any other species, 1-3 to 1-2 inch long. ' East Tennesseee August, September. DESMODIUM DILLENII, T>a,rl~(Dillens Tick Trefoil). Stem pubescent] leaflets oblong, or oblong-ovate, commonly bluntish, pale beneath softly and finely pubescent. Open woodlands; common. July, September. DESMODIUM PANICULATUM, D. ^.-(Smooth Tick Trefoil,} Nearly smooth throughout; stem slender, tall; leaflets oblong-lanceo- LEGUMINOUS PLANTS. 425 late, or narrowly lanceolate, tapering to a blunt point, thin, 3-5 inches long; racemes much panicled; June, September; common. DESMODIUM STRICTUM, D. C.--(Stiff Tick Trefoil). Stem very straight and slender, simple, 2-3 feet high, the upper part and narrow panicle rough, glandular; leaflets linear, blunt, strongly re- ticulated thickish, very smooth, 1-2 inches long, inch wide; joints of the pod 1-3 semi-obovate or very gibbous, only two lines long. Cedar barrens. The main bulk of the pea-vine food found in the forest and unculti- vated regions, consists of the various species of this genus, several of which would certainly do well in cultivation. Amongst those, D. pau- ciflorurn, and D. nudiflorum, cuspidatum and Canadense are best. APIOS TUBEROSA s Momch--(GnmwZ nut.) A twining and climbing vine; flowers in crowded oval racemes, fra- grant, of a dull purple, mixed with green; legume 3-5 inches long, 8-10 seeded; plant with some milky juice. August, September. The root bears tubers which are farinaceous and eatable. Hogs know how to find them. The plant ought to be tried under cultivation, as the size and quality of the tuber would perhaps become gradually improved. PHASEOLUS PERENNIS, Walt ( Wild Kidney Bean). Calyx 5-toothed, or 5-cleft, the two upper teeth higher united; keel of the corolla with the included stamens and style spirally coiled or curved into a ring; stamens diadelphous; climbing higher from a peren- nial root; leaflets roundish, ovate, short panicled; pods drooping, strongly cured, 4-5 seeded; flowers purple, handsome. Copses, common; valuable. July, September. PHASEOLUS DIVERSIFOLIUS, Pers--( Creeping Kidney Bean). Annual; stem prostrate, spreading, rough, hairy; leaflets ovate; 3- lobed, or angled towards the base, or some of them oblong, ovate and entire ; peduncles at length, twice the length of the leaves. Corolla greenish white, tinged with purple. Prairies and cedar glades; summer. Good. PHASEOLUS HELVOLUS, Ii.(L> 3g ^ 2 00 fl Flowers 17.15 11.72 12 16 Leaves 27 45 26 22 25 28 Stems . 55.40 61 62 6S Or putting in another form B , 8 s g ONE HUNDRED PARTS OF CLOVER HAT. 1 i 1 E 3 QQ Clover hay unmanured 17.15 27 45 55 40 11.72 26.22 61.62 Manured with sulphate of magnesia 12.16 25 28 63 EED CLOVER. 521 This shows that the action of the sulphates increased the woody fibre at the expense of the flowers and leaves. The relative proportion of flowers, leaves and stems was : g 02 o 02 o i 1 K H 02 Clover hay unmanured 100 160 323 11 manured with gypsum 100 216 507 * ' manured with sulphate of magnesia 100 216 538 The entire crop on each plat was as follows : Unmanur'd Pounds. Manured with gyp- sum. Pounds. Manured with sul. of magnesia. Pounds Leaves 592.9 773 7 849.5 Stems 1196 6 1927 8 1996 5 Flowers ..... 3VO 5 358.5 394.0 2110 Ibs. 8060 Ibs. 3240 Ibs The ash constituents were increased in the same propor- tion as the crop. Phosphoric and sulphuric acids were much increased in quantity above the other ash constituents. The ash of the air-dry clover hay was : Unmanned Manured with gyp- sum. Manured with sul of magnesia. Per cent 6.95 7.96 7.94 In the entire crop 150 Ibs 243 Ibs 257 Ibe Containing sulphuric acid 2 " 8 " 6 <; Containing phosphoric acid 11.95 ' 21 55 " 21 82 " From an inspection of these tables it will readily appear that the sulphates checked the development of the flowers and also of seed. A larger crop of leaves and stems may be secured by the application of gypsum, but not of seed, so that an application of gypsum is not favorable for the de- velopment of the seed crop, but well suited to increase the 522 THE GRASSES OF TENNESSEE. yield of hay. Here, as is often seen in the production of wheat, the abnormal development of straw is attended with a decrease in the yield of seed. These experiments demonstrate that the quantity of sul- phuric acid applied to the field, bears no proportion to the increase in the crop. Baron Liebig, after numerous exper- iments made with gypsum upon clover, comes to the con- clusion that the action of gypsum is very complex ; that it indeed promotes the distribution of both magnesia and pot- ash in the soil. He thinks that gypsum exercises a chemi- cal action upon the soil, which extends to any depth of it, and that in consequence of the chemical and mechanical modification of the earth, particles of certain nutritive ele- ments become accessible to and available for the clover plant, which were not so before. Though having my mind constantly directed to this point, I have rarely found an application of gypsum beneficial upon clayey loams, but its effects are very apparent on strong limestone soils, such as are found in the Central Basin. On the chocolate-colored soils of Warren, Mont- gomery, Stewart and Robertson, gypsum benefits clover very little. Upon the soils of the Unaka and Cumberland mountains, it is indispensable to secure a remunerative yield of foliage. Red Clover has two growing seasons. It makes its most vigorous growth from the first of April until the 15th of June, beginning to bloom usually in the central parts of the State about the 15th of May, and attaining it* full inflorescence about the 1st of June. After this, unless depastured by stock or cut for hay, the heads begin to dry up, and stems and leaves begin to fall, forming a mat upon the land. Sometimes this mat is so thick as to catch and concentrate the heats of summer to such a degree as to scald the roots and destroy the clover. Usually it is best after clover has attained its full bloom, either to cut it for hay or pasture with stock until about the first of July. When the stock is removed, or the clover hay cured and taken off, and BED CLOVEK. 523 there is rain enough, a second crop will spring up from the roots. This second crop is the most valuable for seed, the seed maturing about the last of August, and sooner, if there be copious rains. To make the most abundant yield of clo- ver for grazing, it should be allowed to grow all it will, but never let it make seed, always grazing it down when in full bloom. When grazed down, take off the stock until it blooms again. Several successive crops may thus be made during the summer. The crop of August is unfit for graz- ing, the large quantity of seed having the effect of salivat- ing stock to such a degree as to cause them to lose flesh. It is a fact, well attested by English writers, and by ob- servant farmers of this country, that when clover has been frequently sown upon the same land, it not only fails to produce a heavy crop, but fails to appear at all. The land is then said to be u clover sick." The remedy for this i by extending the number of crops in the scale of rotation, so that clover will not come so often upon the same land. By Liebig, clover- sick land is supposed to be caused by the roots of clover impoverishing the subsoil. Mr. Keene, of England, ascribes the failure of crimson clover in that country to the fact that only clean seed is sown. He thinks the seed should be sown in the pellicle, which acts as a protection to the young plant. The hint is worthy of a trial. Many farmers believe that fewer failures to get a catch occur when the seed is sown in the chaff. Clover has no superior as a grazing plant. When in full vigor and bloom, it will carry more cattle and sheep per acre than blue grass, herds grass or orchard grass. After it has been grazed to the earth, a few showery days with warm suns will cause it to spring up into renewed vitality? ready again to furnish its succulent herbage to domestic an- imals. Though very nutritious and highly relished by cattle, it often produces a dangerous swelling called hoven, from which many cows die. When first turned upon clover, cat- tle should only be allowed to graze for an hour or two, and. 524 THE GRASSES OF TENNESSEE. then be* driven off for the remainder of the day, gradually increasing the time of grazing, until they become less vora- cious in their appetites, never permitting them to run upon clover when wet. Clover made wet by a rain at mid- day is more likely to produce hoven than when wet by dew- This is because when wet by rain at midday or after the stalks and leaves are heated by the sun, when taken into the stomach of a cow, this heat generates fer- mentation much sooner than when the herbage is cool, though wet with the morning dew. Cattle are more easily affected by clover than horses, because being ruminants, they take in the clover rapidly, filling the stomach at once, without chewing. Digestion is for the time checked and a rapid fermentation sets in. The remedy found most effect- ive for hoven is to stick a sharp pointed knife about six inches in front of the hip, to the left side of the backbone, and far enough from it to miss the spinal protuberances, and in the thinnest part of the flank. A cow should never be run when affected with hoven, as this treatment only inten- sifies the pain without affording relief. Stock should never be turned upon clover until it blooms The practice of many of our farmers, to turn all the stock npon a clover field early in April, is very destructive. The crown of the clover is eaten out, causing it to perish. The tread of heavy cattle has the same effect. As a soiling crop Red Clover is excelled by no crop grown within the State. The practice of soiling in thickly set- tled communities is one much commended by agricultural writers. An half-acre of clover will supply one cow through- out the months of June, July and August, if cut off and fed in a stall, while twice the amount in pasture, according to some English experimenters, will barely subsist a cow during the same period, and this will depend, of course, upon the luxuriance of the growth. Soiling (that is cut- ting the grass and feeding it green) is a very desirable prac- tice, near small towns, where many persons own small RED CLOVER. 525 lots and desire to keep a milch cow. No other grass, per- haps, will produce a larger flow of milk. NUTRITIVE VALUE AND CONTITUENT ELEMENTS OF CLOVER. The nutritive value of clover was long known by feed- ers before chemical research demonstrated the same fact. It contains, when cut in bloom, nearly 4 per cent, more ni- trogenous food than timothy, and four and a half per cent, more than blue grass. According to Professors Wolff and Knop, in its green state it contains 800 parts in 1,000, of water ; about 100 parts more than timothy, and 37 parts in a 1,000 of albuminoids or flesh formers. When made into hay, cut when in bloom and well cured, Red Clover contains 134 parts in 1,000 of albuminoids, but cut when fully ripe only 94 parts. The albuminoids contain about 16 per cent, of nitrogen. Timothy hay has 9.7 per cent, of flesh-form- ing matter, and therefore contains less nitrogen, in the pro- portion of 15 to 21, than clover hay. Barley has 10 per cent, of albuminoids, Indian corn 10.7, rye 11, oats 12, clover 13.4 per cent., so that it appears clover hay will fur- nish more muscle-producing or nitrogenous food than either corn, rye, oats or timothy, which gives strength to the state- ments of many practical farmers, that a crop can be made by feeding clover hay alone to the working animals, and they will keep up under it. Prof. Way gives the following analysis of the Eed Clover when green : Water 81. Albuminoids 4.27 Fatty matter 69 Heat producing 8 45 Woody fibre ^ 3.76 Ash 182 One hundred pounds dried at 212 F;, gives the following: Albuminoids or flesh-formers 22. 55 Fatty matter 3.67 Heat-producers (starch, sugar, gum, etc.) 44.47 Woody fibre 19.75 Ash . 9.56 526 THE GRASSES OF TENNESSEE. The analysis of clover hay made by Dr. Pincns in the course of his experiments, though differing slightly in its results from the analyses made by Wolff and Knop and Dr. Anderson, is far more interesting, because it shows the rel- ative value in a nutritive point of view of the different parts of the plant. The analysis is given in the subjoined table : BED CLOVER. 527 O rH 10 ~ ^ 00 I O t- CO O I O CO rH 00 IO | rH rH rH 3 fe 1 O g cq QO t- os -^ | o rH O Th IO b- O IO 00 t- t- CO ^ lO OS CO ?D T*< 10 sraajg s CO 05 CO rH OS Jo --H co rH oq o IO IO IO O IO I O OS 00 09 t- 10 JO cq od o rH (N rH CO 1O CO (N O5 O CO CC IQ q 10 10 O 10 1O O 9 Robt C. Nail Tiptonville Lake ftq W H Nelson White Haven Shelby fid. J Alley Walnut Valley Sequatchie OK W P Small wood Paris Henry fifi J M Noblett Boonville Lincoln IT TT Gresrorv La Favette Macon o< (JO B F Cockrill Nashville Davidson HQ D R Hankins Lebanon Wilson TO J M Graham Pine-wood Hickman C A McDaniel Lincoln 79 .1 T TraDD . ... Smithville DeKalb 7q Thoq S Mvers McMinnville Warren T4. David M Scott Deoaturville Decatur *7K JA Green James lO 7ft Wm Owen Marion 77 Fayette t i 7ft R F McDonald Smith's X Roads . . . . Rhea 7Q Mn. fiholflton rriflrksvillp Montgomery IV OA Carter 01 Gallatin Sumner on L Howard Bell Howard Springs . . . Cumberland ftS H. B. Greenwood Sweetwater Monroe APPENDIX. 451 No. Names of Correspondents. Post Offices. Counties. 84- J. B. Fancher Fancher's Mills White 85 Joshua Good Black Wolf. . Scott 86 Hamilton Hord New Canton Hawkins 87 I. M Stublefield Shady Hill Henderson 88 W. C Trice Henderson Station . . . Henderson 89 Erby Boyd Benton Polk 90 Joshua Davis .... Sneedville Hancock 91 Louis Williams Newbern Dver 9 9 - John J Boon Jackson Madison 93 J E Washington Cedar Hill . . Robertson 94- L. Cooper Coal Field Morgan 95 J. S. Lindsay Jacksboro Campbell 96 H. H. Matlock Riceville McMinn 97 Thos W. Roane Covington Tipton 98 H. H. Ingersoll Greeneville . Greene 99 Elijah Dority Baker's Gap Johnson 100 H. M. Polk Bolivar Hardeman 101 Wm. Williams Edgefield Davidson 10?, David McCroskey Cleveland .... Bradley 108 James Lamon . Harrison James 104 W. G. Ewin Hurricane Mills. Humphreys 105 T. W. Edwards Linden Perry 106 R. A. Salsbury Stewart Houston 107 J. C. Murphy Sevierville Sevier 452 APPENDIX. QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS. What grasses are found most abundant in your ranges or highway pastures? If a variety, give the month in which each flourishes ? (Sedge grass, broom sedge and old field sedge are only names for the andropogons a true grass, not a sedge). \ Nimble will, crab grass, broom grass, and a sprinkle of blue grass. 2 The natural grasses; crab grass makes a good hay; wild pea vine. 3 Great variety; cannot answer definitely. 4 Blue grass in fall, winter and spring; fox tail and crab grass in summer. 5 Can't name any except nimble will a late grass 6 Blue grass is found everywhere it has a chance to grow. 7 Peas and some varieties of blue grass. 8 Nimble will and sedge grass, spring, wire grass and many wild grassep. 9 Sedge grass burnt off early, abundant in June. 10 Swamp grass in winter, the rye barren grass are the most prevalent. 11 Blue grass and white clover all the year. 12 Blue grass on high and nimble will on low; some cane and pea vine. 13 Sedge grass and blue grass are taking hold in some places. 14 Sedge grass and white clover, as also a small yellow clover plant. 15 We have no ranges or highway pastures. 16 The range here is excellent, with a great deal of wild grasses the year round. APPENDIX. 453 17 Blue grass and sedge the most common; grows early and late; sedge too common and ought to be killed out. 18 Not much of any; blue grass is inclined to grow spontaneously. 19 Blue grass flourishes best in early spring, summer and autumn. 20 Nimble will, summer, blue grass and white spring clover. 21 Nimble will most abundant and most nutritious in the fall when the seed ripens. 22 Sedge. 23 A variety of wild grasses, some blue grass. 24 Blue grass, crab grass, sedge grass. 25 None of any value. 26 Tie out growing grasses are most flourishing in May, Ju n e and July. 27 Nimble will is the best, puts up in the spring and lasts through the summer. 28 Along highways blue grass is common, nimble will in creek bottoms 29 Mountain grass, one variety, know no name for it. 30 Blue grass most abundant, flourishes all the year except when the ground is frozen 31 Something like the sedge; there are two or three kinds. 32 Cannot tell the names. 33 Nimble will in May. 34 Blue grass grows both along the highways and creek bottoms; white clover next. 35 White clover and blue grass, white clover, first July; blue' grass all the year except July and August. 36 Very little grass grows outside of enclosures. 37 Sedge grass has been, but is rather giving way to red clover, which lasts from May to October. 38 Blue grass, almost universally. 39 Nimble will, pea vine and swamp grass, that puts up early. 40 Nimble will and other coarse, useless grasses only good when young and tender. 41 Our wild grasses grow from April to October. 42 Nimble will, a very fine grass, nutrititious till frost. 43 Our ranges have a tough wire grass and pea vine, also broom sedge. 44 Our ranges are principally under brush, huckleberry auu wild grasses. 45 Blue grass in spring, and nimble will in summer 46 What is known here as yard or goose grass, nimble will on rich land. 47 Blue grass spring and fall. 48 Blue grass, white clover, nimble will and a tough grass that grows finely in the cedar-. 49 Barren grass, which affords an abundance grass from April to 15th of July. 454 APPENDIX. 50 Blue grass is becoming thick on our highways. 51 Sedge grass in April and May, if burnt early; blue grass. 52 Crab grass in June and July, sedge grass July and August. 53 Nimble will is a fine summer and early fall, grows on rich bottom lands. 54 Much the same as above. 55 Sedge grass, and what is called here, Japanese clover. 56 We have a variety of grasses on our mountains which flourish well all summer, 57 Nimble will, sedge grass and barren grass. 58 No grasses unless cultivated. f 59 But little range on our highways, 90 per cent, of the land enclosed. 60 All kinds there bein a: good grasses on the ranges throughout the year. 61 Grasses abundant on the mountains in May and June. , $2 Quite a variety, blue grass in April and May, nimble will in August and September. 63 No grasses of any value are found unenclosed except hi limited areais 64 Sedge grass flourishes all summer. 65 Nimble will grows along the creeks in summer and fall; do not know the names of the other. 66 Blue grass. 67 Sedge grass. 68 Blue grass; all enclosed, orchard in early spring, blue grass in the fall . 69 Blue grass; this grass has taken the place of all others. 70 Am not acquainted with the names; barren grasses in summer; beg- gar lice fall. 71 Nimble will, crab grass on lime soils, sedge on the ridge or barrens. 72 Crab grass, nimble will; blue grass flourishes in May. 73 Broom sedge, mountain sedge, rowine, nimble will in the coves of the mountains. 74 There are various wild grasses, but know no particular names. 75 Sedge grass, beggar lice; sedge fine from April to July. 76 Broom sedge from April till frost. 77 We have a variety of grasses which I cannot Lame; blue grass and white clover are among them. 8 I do not know any name except mountain grass which is most abun- dant from April 15, to frost. 79 Blue grass in some parts of the county, in other sections a grass re- sembling prairie grass. 80 Sedge grass 81 Blue grass has possession of the most of our highways; white clover in the spring and summer. APPENDIX. 455 82 About a dozen different kinds; cannot give their botanical names. 83 Old field sedge; no native grass; cattle on the highways feed upon leaves and buds. 84 Different kinds of sedge, principally brooni sedge, flourishes in June. 85 Pea vine in September and October. 86 Chiefly blue grass. 87 Sedge grass, barren grass and a few other wild grasses. 88 Sedge, and what we call nimble will; sedge best in early spring. 89 Sedge grass from April to October. 90 Blue grass from April to June; red top the same. 91 A coarse grass known as barren grass. 92 It is very difficult to answer this, as the wild grasses have no estab- lished names. 93 Broom sedge, June and July. 94 A grass much resembling sedge, with a broader blade, flourishes att the season. 95 Sedge grass best in spring and early summer; we have a kind of Savannah grass, that is very early. 96 Sedge. 97 Goose or yard grass from March to July, nimble will, a superior grass, very much like blue grass, lasts from April to frost. 98 Sedge grass, March to June; wild blue grass; perennial. 99 The mountains bordering our counties adjoining N. C. & Va. af- ford fine grazing; the bald places producing blue grass and white clover, and many kinds of valuable wild grasses, exceedingly nu- tritious, and flourishing all summer. 100 Crab grass from May to November, broom sedge and a variety un- known to me. Within the last few years blue grass has begun to make its appearance, and lespedeza stritata (worthless,) is cov- ering the unworked commons. 101 White clover and blue grass in early spring; crab grass and nimble will in summer. 102 Sedge grass, both in enclosed and timbered land is the prevailing grass. 103 Wire grass and sedge, these are invincible and answer for general use. ] 04 A weed grass, the name of which I do not know. 15 I am not familiar with the names of grasses, depends much on tke seasons. 106 Sedge grass, blue grass, white clover are coming up through the timber. 107 Clover and herds grass, or brown sedge burnt off in early spring. 456 APPENDIX. What grasses are sown for pastures, and which do you consider the best for that purpose ? 1 Blue, orchard, and other grasses. Blue grass first, orchard second. 2 Very few pastures sowed. Those that are, generally mixed grasses. 3 Red-top, clover and orchard grass. White clover grows sponta- neously. 4 Orchard grass, blue grass, herds grass and clover. Blue grass best. 5 Blue grass, orchard and herds grass. Blue grass best. 6 Blue grass, orchard and herds. Timothy and clover best. 7 Clover and herds grass. 8 Orchard for timbered land. Herds on marshy lands. Timothy on rich up lands. 9 Blue and orchard grass. Blue in the western part of the country, 10 Blue grass and red-top, orchard grass. 11 Clover, blue and orchard. Blue the best. All should be sown to- gether. 12 Clover is mostly used. I consider blue grass the best the season round. 13 Red-top, orchard and blue grass. The last two the best. 14 Clover, orchard, timothy, herds. Clover and orchard best, 15 Orchard, blue and clover. Orchard for open fields and wood land. 16 Clover. Clover the best. 17 Clover and blue grass. Cock's foot on uplands, Randall and red-top on wet lands. 18 For high land, timothy and clover, mixed. For bottoms, herds and clover. 19 Blue grass and orchard. The latter the best. -Also red-top and clover. 20 Blue grass, orchard, red-top and clover. 21 Clover, red-top and orchard. Each good in its season. 22 Clover, herds, blue and timothy. Orchard is coming into use, arid as far as tried, is thought best of all. 23 Orchard, clover and timothy. For permanent pasture, orchard the best. 24 Clover most. Lately, orchard grass is receiving much attention, it and late meadow oat grass mixed are superior to any others. 25 Blue grass and orchard grass. 26 Timothy and herds grass considered the best. 27 Timothy, herds grass, clover, millets, corn fodder, sheaf oats and and corn I prefer timothy for roughness. 28 Clover, herds and orchard grasses Clover and orchard best for grazing. APPENDIX. 457 29 Orchard, herds grass and clover. Orchard grass best. 30 Blue, herds and orchard grasses, clover. Blue grass much the best, though orchard does well on lands partly timbered. 81 Heel-top, clover, orchard. Clover mostly sown for orchards. 32 Red clover, orchard and red-top. Nos. 2 and 8 best. 33 Blue grass and orchard. 34 Clover, blue grass, herds grass and orchard. The best in the order named. 35 Blue grass, clover and orchard. Blue grass for winter, cloyer and orchard for summer 36 Red clover, orchard and timothy mixed 37 Clover, red-top and millet. Clover best for three months. Red- top preferable for the whole season. 38 Blue grass, orchard. Herds grass for permanent pastures. 39 Herds grass, clover, timothy. Herds grass and clover best. 40 Clover, herds and orchard grass. 41 Herds grass, orchard and timothy. All good. 42 Red clover, timothy, herds, blue grass. Clover and orchard best. 43 Orchard, Randall, blue grass, timothy, clover, herds grass. The first three the best. 44 Clover. 45 Clover, blue, orchard Think clover and orchard the best. 46 Orchard, herds, timothy and clover. I like a mixture of all the above. Alone, clover makes more feed while it lasts. 47 Blue and orchard grass and clover. 48 Blue and orchard the best. Herds makes a fine clover. 49 Clover and herds grass. I consider clover the best. 50 Clover, blue grass and some orchard. A liberal quantity of each, best for pastures. 51 Timothy, clover, orchard, Randall, blue and red-top perhaps the best. 52 We have three grasses that we use for pasture, clover, timothy and blue grass. Orchard is being introduced. 53 Orchard and red- top combined, is generally preferred. I prefer clover and timothy. 54 Clover, blue, orchard and red-top. Could not do without either. Blue grass probably the best. 55 Clover, orchard, blue grass and red-top. A mixture of all these I think best for pastures. 56 Clover, timothy, red-top, blue grass, orchard. Clover makes the best. 57 Clover and orchard grass. 58 Red-top, clover, orchard, and ever-green grasses. 458 APPENDIX. 59 Orchard grass and dog foot are preferable for grazing purposes. 60 Herds and orchard grasses and red-top. 61 Clover, timothy, orchard and blue grass. All good for pasture. 62 Clover, orchard and blue grass. Three or more mixed 63 Orchard, red-top for whiter. Rye, oats, crab-grass grazed in sum- mer. 64 Clover and orchard grass thought to be best. 65 Red clover, orchard and herds grasses. 66 Blue and orchard. 67 In the southern portion of the county blue grass, and upon the thinner soil, herds grass and sedge grass. 68 Orchard, blue and red-top grasses, on low lands, especially where damp. 69 Blue grass, orchard, clover and red-top. Best, blue grass; second, orchard; third, clover. 70 Red clover, white clover, orchard and blue grass. I prefer a mix- ture of all. 71 Blue grass and orchard for permanent pastures, and clover for summer. 72 Blue, herds and orchard grasses. Blue the best for pasture. 73 Herds grass and clover, also blue and orchard, The first two best for use. 74 Herds grass. 75 Clover, herds. Blue and orchard grasses are very good. 76 Orchard, clover and red-top. Orchard has no equal for pasture. 77 None except to a limited extent. Clover and red-top mixed does well, orchard better. 78 Timothy, herds grass, clover, orchard and blue grass. The best is a mixture of the three first. 79 Clover, red-top and orchard. Orchard grass the best. 80 Timothy and herds grass. The former is regarded best. 81 Blue grass, orchard and clover. Blue grass best. 82 Same as above, (red-top, timothy, clover) 83 Clover, red-top and orchard. 84 Clover, herds grass. Occasionally orchard. 85 All kinds of grass, except millet, Hungarian and clover. 86 Timothy, orchard, Randall and herds grass mixture of all. 87 Herds grass, orchard and clover. Clover and orchard best. 88 Herds grass, orchard and timothy. Best, herds grass; second, or- chard. 89 Red-top, clover, orchard grass. Orchard the best. 90 Blue grass or orchard and clover. 91 Red clover, herds grass, orchard, blue grass. Best, clover, mixed with red-top or orchard. APPENDIX. 459 92 Orchard and blue grass. 93 Blue grass, orchard, clover and red-top. Orchard the best pasture. 94 Clover and red-top are all that is used in this county. Clover the best, if it would last. 95 All the common grasses are used for grazing. Clover and orchard best. 96 Clover, red-top, orchard grass. Orchard best. 97 Herds grass, clover, timothy. The last two mixed with orchard. For permanence, herds, timothy, orchard. 98 Blue grass, orchard and herds grass. 99 Blue grass, red-top and red clover. All considered good. Blue grass best. 100 I consider the only way to have a good and permanent meadow or pasture, is to sow a mixture of grasses, the more the better, and a good sod will scarcely be formed under 10 or 15 years. 101 Blue and orchard grass and clover. 102 Orchard and herds grass. 103 Blue grass. 104 Orchard, timothy and herds. Orchard makes the best pasture. 105 Herds grass and orchard. The latter preferable. 106 Millet and Hungarian, blue grass and red-top. 107 Clover. Have just commenced with orchard, but believe it to be good. Please mention what character of soils these grasses flour- ish best upon ? .V-" 1 Blue grass on lime-stone soil, orchard on all our lands. 2 On creek alluvial bottoms, and red clay subsoil, uplands. 3 Loamy uplands or bottoms. 4 All the above grasses flourish best on creek bottom lands. Herds on wet land. 5 Blue grass requires lime-stone soil. Orchard shade. Herds any- where. 6 7 Millet and herds grass do well on best of mountain land. 8 9 Herds grass, clay soil. Orchard does well on the same. 10 Red-top on swampy land. Blue grass on rich loamy land. 11 Lime-stone land for blue grass; clover and orchard grass adapted for all soils. 12 On high lands Poplar and hickory growth for clover and blue grass; low lands for red-top and timothy. 460 APPENDIX. 13 Orchard and blue grass for shaded lands. Red-top for damp, cold lands. 14 The above grasses grow well on both bottom and uplands. 15 Clover on any of our soils. Millet and herds require a better soil than clover. 16 Red-top and Randall, wet or damp land. Clover, blue grass, dog- foot and timothy uplands and well drained land. 17 Black slate or lime-stone. Almost all the land of this ounty will do. 18 Limestone and the best character of clay soils. 19 Red-top on wet lands. Blue grass, clover and timothy on lime- stone. 20 21 Clay loam. 22 Timothy and herds grass on flat, wet lauds; other kinds, clay and alluvial soils 23 Bottom for timothy and red-top. Limestone land for orchard .and clover. 24 On compact clay soil. Mulatto, if not too low and porous. 25 Blue grass on limestone. Orchard on poplar land. 26 Good upland, but I think bottom land is better. 27 Timothy does best on rich uplands. Herds on bottom or flat land. 28 On any having red clay subsoil. 29 Orchard and clover on dry alluvial soil. Herds on low tight soil. 30 They do well on any soil not worn out though best on hill side. 31 Red-top does best on low swamp land. The others require better soil. 32 A porous sandy soil mixed with lime and underlaid with clay. 33 Limestone and poplar land. 34 Clover, blue grass and orchard on all lime soils. Herds on most bottom lands. 35 Limestone soil with red clay subsoil. 36 Rich clay soils. Timothy and herds grass do best on level land along water courses. 37 Clover does well on any good soil. Red-top does best on bottom land. 38 On any of our limestone soils not too much worn out. 39 Low lands are best for herds grass and timothy; uplands for millet and corn. 40 Rich bottom loam, but clover succeeds well on high land with good soil. 41 Herds grass on low, clover on high, timothy on both. 42 Clover and orchard best on biaci; loam. Herds on bottom lands. 43 The limit of this space will not admit. APPENDIX. 461 44 Any kind not too much exhausted. 45 Blue grass is best on north Jand, and orchard on south land. 46 We have no soil in our county that they do not do well upon, unless too poor or too wet. 47 Blue grass and clover do best on rich limestone soil. Orchard grass will flourish on any soil. 48 Clover, orchard, blue and herds grasses on upland ; timothy on flat or creek land. 49 A low wet soil suits herds grass, but it will flourish on any kind of soil. . ' 50 A good upland with clay subsoil. Blue grass loves plenty of lime v in the soil. 51 Randall and red-top on wet moist land. 52 Tight clay soil. The land that gets the muddiest in the winter is the best. 53 Our best uplands. Red-top will do well on lands subject to over- flow. 5 Our rolling limestone lands seem best. 55 What we term second bottoms, just above the overflow, best for herds grass. 56 Clay land and black stiff limestone. Red- top does well on low sandy soil. 57 For clover, good upland, well manured. For orchard, rich light soil, well cleaned. 58 Low or wet lands. If high lands, clay or limestone lands, best. 59 What we call dark mulatto uplands and creek bottoms. 60 Damp clay soil for herds ; clover grows well on any except x sandy soil. 61 Clover on black lime land. Timothy on gray alluvial soil. 62 Clover and blue grass on clay. Orchard on a mixed loam. 63 Orchard on our uplands, partially shaded. Marshy land for red. top. 64 Clay soil impregnated with lime. 65 Clay or stiff land. 66 Black land. (57 Blue grass and herds are best upon rich soil. Large grass best up- on poor soil. 68 Limestone with clay understrata for the three named above. 69 Bottom lands with the greatest quantity of lime in it, 70 Rich uplands or second bottoms. 71 Blue grass does best on stiff lime soils. Orchard on loose shaded soil. 72 Black low lands, but grows well on most lands in the county. 73 Limestone land for timothy and blue grass. Herds grows anywhere. 462 APPENDIX. 74 Herds grass grows well on rather wet lands, but will grow on up- lands. 75 Yellow dark uplands and bottom lands ; grows fine on our uplands. 76 On all limestone soils of the valley. 77 Most of the soil of this county is alluvial, resting on a good clay subsoil, and is well adapted to all the grasses. 78 Upon limestone land that is very close and gets hard. 79 Timothy does best on rich creek and river bottoms, intermixed with but little sand. 80 They grow well on all uplands. 81 Limestone with a good clay foundation. 82 Sandy loam. Clay loam. The first for clover only. 83 Red-top on low marshy; clover on tight clay subsoil, mulatto loam. 84 Herds grass on sand; clover on red clay lands ; orchard on corn land. 85 Low river bottom for millet, Hungarian and clover. 86 All alluvials not too sandy, and limestone clays. 87 Clay lands that are not much worn. 88 Herds grass on low damp. Orchard on tight loam. 89 Well drained rich clay lands. 90 On limestone or low land, when the soil is good 9 1 All of our soils are clay loam on which all the above grasses do well. 92 Dark soils with yellow clay subsoils, and rather moist. 93 The three first flourish on our lands generally, but red-top is the best for thin or worn land. 94 Clover on clay and mulatto land. Red-top on black sandy land 95 Limestone soil is best for timothy and clover. Herds grass does well on lighter soil and sandstone. 96 Red-top will grow anywhere. Orchard best on rich soil Clover almost anywhere by using plaster. 97 Alluvial and moist. Herds does well on old, worn, clay hill sides, if started by fertilizers 98 Tight close soils ; especially clay bottoms. 99 Limestone soils and all clay soils that are rich. None of our sand- stone ridges or soils are good for grasses. 100 In West Tennessee they flourish on lands with good clay founda- tions ; do badly on porous sandy soils, 101 Rich loam with clay underneath. i 102 Orchard grass best on mulatto land. Herds on low damp land. 103 They do very well on limestone, but better on alluvial soils. 104 Timothy and herds grass do best on low wet lands. Orchard does well anywhere. 105 Our best upland soils for orchard, and good bottom lands for herds. APPENDIX. 463 106 Seem to grow well upon most any soil. 107 A whitish clay, thin knob lands, that is, rough and slaty or close mulatto. What kinds of hay or feed, other than grasses, are used during the ploughing season, and which do you consider the best ? 1 Mostly corn blades. Some feed oats. No better feed for horses. 2 Fodder and corn, with clover and timothy for a change. Hay and oats best fodder. 3 Corn fodder, corn, red-top and millet hay. 4 Corn fodder, clover, herds grass and timothy Corn fodder best. 5 Corn fodder and timothy, or herds grass. Timothy and herds grass hay. 6 Grain and hay. A change of oats, wheat-bran best with plenty of hay. 7 Timothy hay. 8 Corn fodder and oats, timothy and red-top hay. Hay and oats preferable. 9 I consider well-cured fodder the best food for horses in warm weather. 10 Oats and corn fodder. Clover hay is the best food for all purposes. 11 Such hay as may be on hand. Nothing better than corn and clover hay. 12 Corn shucks and oat straw cut up and mixed with meal, is good. Oats the best. 13 All the different kinds of hay, corn and oats. None better than clover and orchard grass mixed. 14 Millet and ether hay with fodder and. oats. Red-top and timothy with fodder, best. 15 Oats and fodder are both used, but oats are the best. 16 Fodder. I prefer good clover and herds grass hay. 17 Mixed feed. Cut oats, hay and millet with some corn. Food not too much varied, best for health. 18 Corn fodder, wheat straw. 19 Corn, oats, blade fodder. Consider oats chopped, best. 20 Corn fodder, oats, Hungarian and German millet. 21 Corn blade fodder is principally used, and generally considered best. 22 All ordinary kinds of hay, corn and oats. Oats and clover hay best. 464 APPENDIX. 23 Clover and timothy is best. Corn fodder, shucks, straw and sheaf oats. 24 Corn fodder, millet, sheaf oats and meal together, too often corn alone. 25 Clover, oats and fodder. 26 Corn and corn fodder mostly used in the ploughing season. 27 Timothy, herds grass, clover, millet, corn fodder, sheaf oats. 28 Oats and fodder, millet, oats, best. Fodder from corn next in value. 29 Clover, herds grass, timothy, orchard. Clover and timothy. 30 Corn, clover, oats and ship-stuff. Corn and oats best. 31 Clover and millet, some red-top. Corn fodder. 32 Timothy, red-top and millet. Nos. 1 and 2 best 33 Oats and fodder. 34 Soiling with red clover and rye. Clover best. 35 Clover, timothy and millet and corn fodder while on hard work. 36 Chopped feed, mixed with rye or corn meal, with plenty of hay. 37 Corn fodder. 38 Very rare to find any one using anything but hay except a little fodder. 39 Fodder and oats. Consider oats best. 40 Clover hay, millet and Hungarian, herds grass. The first and last best. 41 Hay made of all the grasses, with corn fodder. Timothy best. 42 Timothy, clover, millet. Timothy considered best. 43 Timothy, herds grass and clover hay and fodder. Timothy and clover are the best. 44 Corn fodder. 45 Corn fodder and oats. I think timothy the best for anything. 46 Corn, oats, and occasionally bran and corn mixed. 47 Oats and corn fodder, with corn. Fodder considered best 48 Fodder, oats, German millet and Hungarian grass. Oats and Hungarian decidedly best. 49 Corn fodder and oats. I consider corn and oats best. 50 Clover hay, German millet, some timothy and herds grass and Hungarian. 51 Cut oats with wheat bran, corn, mixed feed best. 52 Chopped feed, straw or oats cut up with meal or bran. 53 Principally fodder. 54 Timothy, clover, German millet, Hungarian, red-top. I think clover best. 55 Corn fodder. I think that hay made from timothy and herds grass decidedly preferable. APPENDIX. 465 56 Oats and fodder are used aside from the grasses, and are, by some, considered the best feed. 57 Corn and fodder. Fodder regarded better than hay. 58 Millet, Hungarian and clover. 59 Oats, corn and millet. Principally oats and corn, with hay. 60 Sheaf oats, maize fodder. Either of which is good. 61 Timothy and clover I consider best. Oats, rye and wheat chop. 62 Corn fodder and sheaf oats cut oats. 63 Oats in sheaf, pulled fodder, cut corn fodder and stalks. 64 Corn fodder. German millet is used considerably. 65 Corn fodder. 66 Hungarian and timothy. 67 Oats, fodder and corn. Corn and oats considered best. fes Oats first cut in straw, fodder, Hungarian. Oats best by all means. 69 Oats and corn fodder. Also, timothy, orchard grass, clover, red- top. Oats best, second, clover. 70 Leaving out clover, we prefer corn, oats and corn fodder. 71 Millet and Hungarian and clover. Clover best, Hungarian second. 72 Corn fodder and clover hay. 73 Corn fodder is the equal of any feed, and much used hi ploughing time. 74 Fodder and oats. 75 Clover, millet, oats. We use various other kinds. 76 Clover, orchard grass, red-top, timothy, millet. The four first are all very good. 77 Corn fodder is our chief reliance. Rye in its green state, is con- venient and profitable. 78 Timothy, herds grass and clover, fodder and millet. Timothy beet. 79 Corn fodder and shucks. 80 Clover, oats and millet. Oats regarded as best. 81 Corn, oats, fodder, pea- vine. Corn with fodder, or oats alone. 82 Red-top hay, natural meadow hay, straw, millet, sheaf oats. I like red-top hay with corn. 83 Timothy, clover hay, some fodder. Timothy does not slobber or heat. 84 Herds grass, and other hays and corn fodder best. Herds at night, fodder, morning. 85 Corn, oats, fodder and rye. 86 Millet, fodder, sometimes shucks or straw. 87 Herds grass, fodder and millet. 88 Herds grass, millet, clover and fodder. Herds grass and clover. 89 Fodder, shucks, straw and hay. Timothy hay the be^t. 90 Clover hay. * Some are using millet. 91 Oats and corn fodder. Oats preferred. 30 466 APPENDIX. 92 Oats and corn fodder, commonly used. Oats cut up with the straw is best. 93 Oats and corn fodder. Oats is the best food next to hay. 94 Clover and blade fodder. Clover is reckoned the best, but red- top is as good. 95 Corn fodder and sheaf oats. Oats best. 96 Corn fodder. Nothing better than good hay. 97 Corn fodder, almost universally, shucks, oats, corn fodder. 98 Clover, millet, corn and oats. Clover the best forage. 99 Timothy, clover and red-top are considered best. Some grain is necessary to keep stock in good order. 100 Corn blades or fodder are almost universally used. Clover hay and herds grass are also used. 101 Fodder, oats hi the sheaf, rye in sheaf and cut. 102 Herds grass, cut corn, corn fodder, wheat straw cut and mixed with rye and ground corn. 103 Clover principally. 104 Clover hay, herds grass hay, pea-nut vine hay for cows and sheep. 105 Fodder and corn husks. The former, when properly cured, the best. 106 Mostly blades from the corn, 107 Corn fodder and shucks. What kind of hay are sheep and cattle fed upon in winter ? 1 Clover, Hungarian and millet. Many, but little or none, of either. 2 Generally a little millet, but mostly on shucks and nubbins of corn. 3 Red top, millet and clover. 4 Herds grass, timothy, clover and millet. 5 Sheep fed but little clover, timothy, herds grass, millet and hay. 6 Some feed clover (the best), others wheat straw, shucks and fod- der, the next thing to nothing. 7 Herds grass and clover. 8 Cotton seed and shucks, and rarely that. 9 German millet for cattle, herds grass for sheep, 10 Clover and red-top. 11 Cattle on straw and corn stalks, sometimes hay and corn. Sheep rarely fed at all. 12 Clover, timothy and millet. Millet considered by good farmers poor feed. 13 Wheat straw and all kinds of hay. APPENDIX. 467 14 Red top and timothy, Sheep relish the rag-weed well saved and stacked. 15 Timothy and red-top and clover hay, stalk fodder. 16 Clover and millet. IT Sheep mostly fed on fodder. Sometimes on hay. Many run in the woods and on the commons. 18 Corn fodder, generally. 19 Clover and timothy, and largely on fodder. 20 Promiscuously. 21 All the different kinds of hay grasses. 22 Mostly wheat straw for cattle. Sheep make their living where they can. 23 Fodder stalks, straw, clover and timothy. 24 When not given corn fodder, clover preferred for cattle. Sheep: other hay or sheaf oats. 25 All kinds, especially timothy. 26 Clover and timothy in winter. 27 Shucks and cotton seed. 28 Clover and timothy. 29 Cattle fed mostly on shucks. Sheep, herds grass and fodder. 30 Millet and clover, shucks, fodder, wheat and rye straw/ 31 All kinds. Wheat straw and chaff fed largely to sheep. 32 Clover ] red-top and millet. 33 Clover and timothy and some pea hay for sheep, shucks and cotton seed for cattle. 34 Clover hay and corn fodder. Corn fodder cheapest. 35 Corn fodder and clover. 36 Clover and other hays, straw and shucks. 37 Corn fodder, red top. 38 Little hay fed to cattle, sheep eat no hay except there is some snow on the ground. 39 Shucks, cotton seed and wheat straw. 40 Clover hay, herds grass and German millet. 41 All the different kinds of hay, fodder and straw. 42 Timothy, clover, herds grass, fodder and straw of different kinds. 44 Wheat straw and corn husks. 45 Sheep are mostly fed on corn blades, cattle on shucks. 46 Hungarian and German millet and occasionally clover 47 Cattle mostly on cut corn stalks, beef cattle and milch cows on millet and timothy. 48 Clover, timothy and corn shucks, which are feed to cattle. 49 Herds grass and clover and German millet, which yields quite a large crop 468 APPENDIX. 50 Clover hay, German millet and wheat straw. 51 Timothy, clover, fodder, straw; sheep do well on blue grass pasture 52 Cattle are fed on cut com and shucks, timothy hay. Sheep, fodder mostly. 53 Clover and timothy, recently the German millet is being sown, but I do not like it. 54 All mentioned, timothy, clover, millet, red top. 55 Principally corn fodder and shucks, as hay is not grown extensively enough to fed all stock. 56 Millet, clover and herds grass. 57 The above (millet, Hungarian and clover) are principally sown for winter feed and are the best. 58 Clover and corn fodder are considered the best. 59 Almost every kind, pea vines, wild grasses, corn husks, etc. 60 Tinythy, clover. The most of them are grazed when there is no snow. 61 Very little of any kind. 62 Clover, pea vines, cut corn stalks, but most persons do not feed them anything. 63 Mostly on red top and millet. 64 Clover, herds grass, shucks and wheat straw. 65 Those mentioned above (Hungarian and timothy). 66 Clover and millet. 67 Any of the kind mentioned, clover preferable for sheep and cattle, timothy for horses. 8 Clo^r, but a great many feed on corn stalks and fodder. 69 Not fed much at all, shucks, millet, wheat and rye straw, some- times clover and oats. 70 Cattle are fed on wheat straw, millet and clover, hay and blue grass. Sheep are kept on blue grass. In cold weather corn or oats. 71 Clover, German millet, Hungarian and herds grass. 72 Corn fodder is the equal of any feed, and much used in plow time. 73 Herds grass, clover and millet, but quite a number feed straw of wheat and corn shucks to cattle, oats to sheep. 74 Clover and herds grass. 75 Principally upon clover, herds grass and timothy. 76 Shucks and straw, generally 77 I regret to say none. We give them cotton seed ad libitum, and the run of corn stalk fields, some graze on wheat. 78 Cattle are fed on corn shucks, straw and cut cor a stalks, sheep graze on the grasses, wheat and oats. 79 Corn fodder, shucks and millet. APPENDIX. 469 80 Herds, clover and timothy. 81 Clover is used more than any other, cut fodder. 82 Common meadow hay, red top. 83 Cattle mostly on shucks and straw. Sheep, fodder and fine hay, such as red top. 84 As a general rule nothing, but perhaps a little corn to the poorest. 85 All kinds generally. 86 Clover, timothy, herds grass, fodder, chopped straw with corn meal 87 Herds grass, clover and fodder, corn shucks for cattle. 88 Clover and millet. 89 Wheat straw and chaff. 90 Red top mostly, sometimes timothy. 91 Clover, wheat straw, and meadow hay generally. 92 Corn fodder and shucks generally Other hay to some extent. 93 Not much of any kind. 94 Millet, red top, clover and blade fodder. 95 All kinds of grass above mentioned. 96 Clover and red top, but mostly on wheat straw. 97 Herds grass timothy, corn fodder, clean hay and shucks, but little of either fed to sheep. 98 All kinds. 99 Timothy, clover and red top are the kinds generally used. 100 Clover, herds grass, pea fodder, corn fodder, crab grass. They are fortunate to get any of these more frequently they live on wind and moonshine and die in March. 101 Clover, timothy, Hungarian and millet. 1 02 Cattle mostly on wheat straw and ehucks. Sheep on fodder and hay. 103 Clover generally. 104 Generally on pea nut and clover hay. 105 On whatever kind we have on hand. 106 Very little of any kind. Corn and shucks and corn fodder. 107 I think fodder the best of anything. Are highway or enclosed pastures most used in sum- mer? 1 Enclosed pastures by best farmers. 2 Entirely highway or wood pastures. No enclosed pastures. There is sufficient forage in the woods. 3 Highways mostly, though many have enclosed pastures. 4 Enclosed pastures. 5 Mostly enclosed. 6 Highway generally. Some farmers have enclosed pastures. 470 APPENDIX. 7 On the mountain, the "highway," 100 miles wide. 8 Highway almost exclusively. 9 Highway to a great extent 10 Highway mostly used in the central part of the county; enclosed ill the West. 11 Enclosed pastures. 12 A few years since highways were used, now enclosed a*e con- sidered most profitable and beet. 13 Highways, but our best farmers use enclosed pastures most. 14 By the masses, the highways. 15 Enclosed pastures; in my county all the lands are under fence. 16 Highways. 17 Much woods and commons. Not manj 7 fenced pastures. 18 Enclosed at present. This is a very thickly settled county. 19 By good farmers enclosed pastures, but ma ay cattle run at large. 20 Enclosed pastures. 21 Formerly the highway was most used, but latterly enclosed pas- tures are coming into use. 22 Enclosed pastures, excepting in the most broken sections. 23 Both are used. The greater number turn on the highways. 24 Enclosed, but much stock range out, especially along the moun- tains. 25 Enclosed. 26 Both. Highways most. 27 Highway. But few farmers keep up all their stock. 28 Enclosed pastures prevail. 29 Highway. 30 Highways mostly, though some farmers have fine pastures. 31 Enclosed mostly used here. Stock get along very well in some parts. 32 Highway or wild pastures through the timber. 33 Enclosed. 34 Enclosed except on the table-lands bordering on Lawrence county. 35 Stock farmers invariably enclose. General farmers use the high- ways 36 Enclosed pastures in the more fertile sections. In the hilly coun- try they use the woods. 37 Enclosed. 38 Enclosed pastures entirely, except a few renters. 39 Highway or woodland. 40 Those who pay no attention to the grasses depend entirety upon the highways, but I consider them worthless for profit only in June and July. APPENDIX. 471 41 Enclosed 42 Enclosed pastures for summer. Forests too dense to grow grasses. 43 Enclosed pastures. 44 Enclosed. 45 Enclosed pasture 46 Highway in the proportion of about seven to three. 47 Enclosed pastures. 48 Enclosed, though there are fine highway pastures in this county. 49 Highway. 50 Enclosed. Highway only used by tenants. 51 Enclosed. 52 Enclosed. 53 Highway. 54 Enclosed. This is a grazing county. 55 Highway, at least five to one. 56 Highway mostly used, some enclosed pastures 57 Highway. 58 Enclosed are entirely used. 59 Enclosed pastures. 60 Stock run upon ranges or pastures at all times. 61 Enclosed in my neighborhood. 62 Highway. 63 Highway. 64 Enclosed, though considerable stock run at large. 65 Enclosed pastures most used. 66 Enclosed. 67 Highway, except in the blue grass portion of the county. 68 Enclosed. Highways are relics of half civilization and indicate decay. 69 Enclosed pastures. 70 Highways. 71 Enclosed principally, except on the ridge. 72 Enclosed mostly, but highway pastures in some portions of the county. 73 Enclosed by good stock raisers, but many use the commons only. 74 Highways. 75 Highways. 76 Our mountain ranges are principally used. 77 Highways for the most part. 78 High way or monutain region for cattle and sheep. 79 On south highway, north enclosed 80 Enclosed pasture! generally. 81 Enclosed. But little highway pastures in this neighborhood. 472 APPENDIX. 82 Highways. 83 Enclosed. Our poor people let their stock run at large. 84 I suppose equally divided. The interest in enclosed pastures is growing. 85 Both are vtry generally used. 86 Enclosed. No good farmer would think of turning his stock out. 87 Highways mostly. Enclosed by our best farmers. 88 Both. Cattle and sheep run on highways. 89 Highway. 90 Clover and blue grass. 91 Enclosed, principally. 92 Comparatively few persons confine their stock hi summer. 93 Highways, except when a good chance offers to run stock on other people's enclosures. 94 Highways nearly altogether. 95 Highway. 96 Highway. 97 Highways almost entirely. 98 Enclosed pastures. 99 Enclosed pastures are generally used. 100 When you speak of [highway pastures I suppose you mean the bleak hills worn out by cotton. I am sorry to say here is where our cows get the wrinkles on their horns marks of years of suf- fering. 101 Enclosed. 102 Highway or timbered land south of Cleveland. 103 Mostly highways. 104 Usually highways, or the range, as it is called here. 105 Mostly highways. 106 Highways 107 Small herds on enclosed pastures. Large herds are summered on the mountains. Please mention the kinds of grasses, or forage plants, grown for hay in your county, and which are regarded as best. 1 Timothy, clover, herds grass. Preference given in the order named. 2 Clover and timothy with corn blades and goober pea hay, but mostly German millet. 3 Clover and red top, German millet; red top best. 4 Timothy, herds grass, clover, millet; clover the best. 5 Red clover, herds grass, timothy. APPENDIX. 473 6 Clover, timothy, herds grass. German millet best. Timothy for horses. 7. Millet and herds grass. 8. Timothy, herds grass, clover, millet. Timothy and clover liked best. 9 Clover, herds grass, timothy, German millet, Hungarian grass. 10 Clover, herds grass, red top. 11 Timothy, clover, millet, Hungarian; clover and timothy best. 12 Clover, timothy, red top. 1 3 Red top, timothy and orchard grass Red top for wet land^ timo- thy for dry. 14 Clover, timothy, herds grass, millet; clover and timothy preferred by some ; herds grass by others. 15 Timothy and red top; clover for meadows; timothy considered best. 16 Millet, herds grass and clover; herds grass preferred. 17 Clover, timothy and dog foot and Randall grass and the different millets, blue grass. 18 Timothy, herds grass and clover. 19 Timothy and red clover are considered the best; red top is also grown. 20 Clover, red top, timothy. 21 Red clover timothy, herds grass and millet ; clover and timothy best. 22 Clover, herds grass, orchard grass, German millet, timothy ; in the order named. 23 Red clover, timothy, red top, orchard grass; red top and timothy. 24 Timothy, clover often mixed; herds grass on low land; timothy and clover mixed, the best hay. 25 Best hi the order mentioned ; clover, timothy, herds grass, German millet. 26 Clover and timothy hay is the best used in our county. 27 Red clover, timothy, herds grass, Hungarian and German millet. 28 Clover, timothy, oats, millet; clover, timothy and orchard grass the best hay. 29 Clover, herds grass, orchard grass and millet; clover for home use, herds grass for shipment. 30 Millet, timothy, red top and red clover; the best ones, clover and red top. 31 Clover, red top, timothy, orchard, millet and peas make good hay; clover best. 32 Blue grass, red top, orchard, clover, timothy and millet. Nos. 3, 4 and 5 best 33 Clover, timothy, herds grass, Hungarian and millet. 474 APPENDIX. 34 Clover, herds grass 5 timothy and the millets, Missouri and German. 35 Clover, timothy, red top and millets, orchard; clover, red top and timothy mixed the best 86 Timothy herds grass, clover, orchard grass ; timothy and herds grass the best. 37 Clover, red top, millet. 38 Clover, herds grass, timothy, orchard grass, millet ; in the order named. 39 Herds grass, timothy, clover, peas, ncillet ; herds grass considered best, 40 Herds grass, clover, timothy, millet, Hungarian ; herds grass and clover last. 41 Timothy, herds grass, clover, millet; the first three the best. 42 Red clover, timothy, herds grass and millet; timothy and clover best. 43 Timothy, clover, herds grass; ciover the best; timothy next. 44 Red top, timothy and clover; the latter makes the best hay. 45 Timothy, red top, clover and the different millets; timothy and clover the best. 46 German and Hungarian millets, herds grass, timothy and clover. 47 Clover, timothy, herds grass, German and Hungarian millets; timo thy and clover the best. 48 Clover, red top, orchard and timothy; the first and last the best. 49 Clover, herds grass and timothy. I regard clover as being the best. 50 German millet and Hungarian grass, herds grass, timothy and clover. The last two combined the best. 51 Timothy best; clover net. 2 Clover, timothy and blue grass. 53 Clover, timothy and herds grass; orchard grass is becoming quite a favorite, especially for pasture. Clover and timothy combined the best. 54 Clover, timothy, herds grass, and to a small extent orchard grass. 55 German millet, clover, timothy, red top; timothy and red top mix- ed are the best. 56 Clover, timothy, red top and the millets; timothy best for hay ; all do well. 57 Timothy, herds grass, clover and German millet. 58 Red clover, timothy and herds grass. 59 Timothy, clover, red top, millet; 1st, 2nd and 4th preferred. 60 Herds grass, timothy, clover, millet; herds grass best. 61 Blue grass, timothy, clover, orchard grass; the three latter best for hay. 62 Clover, timothy, Hungarian and German millet, red top; clover and timothy best. APPENDIX. 475 63 Timothy, clover, pea vines, crab grass large, coarse swamp grass called wild millet; best in the order written. 64 Clover, red top, timothy, orchard grass; red top and clover best. 65 Red clover, herds grass, timothy. 66 Hungarian, timothy, herds grass, millet. 67 Hungarian, timothy, German millet, Missouri millet and clover ; clover best. 68 Timothy, red top, clover; regard clover and timothy the best. 69 Best, 1st, timothy; 2nd, clover; 3d, orchard grass; 4th, red top; last and least, Tennessee and Missouri millet. 70 Clover, red top, Missouri and German millet and corn fodder. 71 German and Missouri millet, Hungarian and clover; clover best, Hungarian next. 72 Herds grass, timothy, clover, German millet, Hungarian. 73 Herds, clover, timothy, orchard, blue grass and the various millets. 74 Herds grass and clover. 75 Herds grass and timothy. 76 Clover, red top, timothy, orchard and millet. Best in order named- 77 Clover, red top, German millet, crab grass and the pea. Clover and red top considered best. 78 Timothy, herds grass, clover; orchard and blue grass the best. 79 Mostly the millet family; timothy and herds grass to a limited extent. 80 Timothy and herds grass. The first regarded the best. 81 Timothy red top, orchard and clover. Blue grass best for perma- nent pastures. 82 Red top, timothy, clover; value in the order written. 83 Clover and timothy; timothy hay is best; clover yields most. 84 Herds grass, millet, timothy, clover. 85 Millet, Hungarian, red top, timothy and clover. 86 Clover, timothy, herds grass millet, corn fodder. 87 Clover, herds grass, millet; clover the best. 88 German millet, herds grass, timothy; clover and fodder best. 89 Millet, herds grass, timothy, clover; timothy best for hay. 90 Red top and timothy best for hay. 91 Timothy, clover, red top, millet, crab grass, Indian corn. Best, timothy, clover, corn fodder. 92 Red top, blue grass, orchard, two or three kinds of millet, Hunga- rian; red top most reliable. 93 Timothy, clover, red top, German millet, Hungarian grass.. 94 Clover, millet, red top ; clover wont last on our land; millet kills the land; red top very nearly a natural growth. 95 Timothy, orchard grass, red clover, herds grass; millet, timothy and clover best. 476 APPENDIX. 96 Clover, timothy, red top; timothy best where it can be grown. 97 Clover, herds grass; timothy, German millet preferred to Tennessee and Hungarian. 98 Clover, timothy, herds grass, orchard and blue grasses, millet. 99 Clover, timothy, red top and some millet; timothy considered best. 100 Clover, herds, orchard grasses, timothv, each grown and cut with clover; clover best; timothy dies out second year. 1 01 Timothy, herds and orchard grass, Hungarian and millet. 102 Herds grass, cut corn and corn fodder, some German millet. 103 Timothy and herds grass; blue grass is preferable to either. 104 Timothy, herds, orchard and clover German millet. 105 German millet and herds grass. The latter much the best. 106 Some clover, blue grass and red top. 107 Herds grass and clover. Am experimenting with timothy. THE GRASSES OF TENNESSEE. AN ESSAY BY B. F. COCKRILL, READ BEFORE THE TEN- NESSEE STOCK BREEDERS 7 CONVENTION AT ITS THIRD ANNUAL SESSION, FEBRUARY 19, 1878. The vast field of study which this heading indicates is by far too exten- sive to be treated of in a paper like this, except in a cursory manner. I, therefore, shall not attempt to go into detail only to the extent of enu- merating some of the more generally known varieties, and instituting a comparison of their relative merits as adapted to and intimately con- nected with the successful development of tint great industry to which our present organization relate^ The Belgian proverb, "No grass no cattle, no cattle no manure, uo ma- nure no crops," is not quite complete; it should continue, no crops no money, no money no intelligence, no intelligence no people for all peo- ple, of whatever nation or clime, possessing no intelligence, that occupy soil where the grasses will flourish, must eventually give way before that resistless march of high civilization that marks its path with the beautiful verdure of blooming fields. 477 Upon the adoption or rejection of this proverb depends the prosperity and success or downfall and decay of the important interests of our beau- tiful State. The fact that so small a portion of the arable lands of our State are de- voted to the cultivation of the grasses, is a lamentable one ; especially so, as grass is the most important factor in the production of all flesh, which constitutes about thirty per cent, of the human food of the entire world. Again, the importance of grass becomes a more potent factor in solving the great problem that is now awakening the best minds in existence, viz., the preservation of the soil, the foundation of all prosperity, either indi- vidual, State or national. The estimated value of the grass crop of the United States, for pasturage and hay together, is about $1,000,000,000, at the present time. Of this amount Tennessee is entitled to at least one-thirtieth, or thirty-three millions. Deprive us of this amount of property, and issue the decree that there should never be another acre within the limits of our State devoted to the cultivation of grass, and wnere would we be in ten years from to-day? occupying a howling wilderness of burned, scarred, gullied, worthless soil; living in huts in squallid ignorance and poverty, the des pised of all this great sisterhood of States. When we realize the great importance that the cultivation of the grasses bears to the successful prosecution of all the branches of rural husbandry, it becomes a cause of sincere regret that the intelligence oi our agricultu- ral classes has so seriously neglected to place this important element where it properly belong, and enable it to stand first in value in all future re- ports of the statistics of our State. I will now proceed to name some of the grasses, together with their characteristics, that are the most extensively adapted to and grown in Tennessee : First on the list, in consequence of its being more extensively cultivated and generally known, is blue grass, (poa pratensis.} This grass was intro- duced into this country by the early settlers of Virginia and the Carolinas, and has since been so extensively propagated from the lakes to the gulf as to deserve the title of the grass of America. To describe its specific char- acters is not pertinent to this occasion, and could only interest the student of botany. This is an early grass that will flourish almost anywhere when properly treated and cared for. It, of course, varies in size and somewhat in appearance, according to soil and latitude of the location. Many persons regard it as the most valuable of all our grasses. This title to first honor depends, in my opinion, upon the character of soil and cli- mate where grown, being a grass that spreads mainly by its creeping roots, and flourishes most luxuriantly upon a porous lime-stone soil where the underlying strata is a tenacious clay. It requires moisture to be always within reach of the roots to keep it green, this being the character of most of the soil in Kentucky, where it constitutes twenty-five per cent, of the 478 APPENDIX. entire wealth of many of the richest counties in that State. It is a grass relished by all cattle. I mean by this term all our domestic animals. It has, in that State and elsewhere, been used as hay, by cutting when in bloom, but I cannot recommend it as a hay grass, being too short and too light after being dried. In our climate it will endure the frosts of winter perhaps better than any other grass. It will not withstand our severe droughts, and consequently should not be grazed closely alter June, in order that it may accumulate sufficient growth to shade the roots during the hot months of July and August, during which time, if dry, it makes comparatively little growth unless an unusual amount of moisture is in the soil. To realize the full value of this grass as a pasture grass, it should never have its roots exposed to a broiling sun during summer, letting the fall growth remain untouched until about the first of Novem- ber, and then it may be grazed until the following June without injury. Upon a good sward, thus treated, all kinds of stock may be wintered with comparatively little cost. The preparation of the soil for seeding to blue grass is quite simple. If cleared land, plow well in fall and winter, in order that the freezes may comminute the soil thoroughly; harrow in February, sow one and a half bushels clean seed per acre, and follow the harrow with a light brush, as the seed will not germinate if covered deep by experience not over one inch deep. If woodland, clean the soil of leaves or trash, either by raking or burning, then sow and brush in. The first year the young grass should not be grazed at all, as it requires two or even three years to become well set and does not arrive at perfection until the sward is older than that. The soil should not be allowed to become too loose, which may be pre- vented by the tramping of stock in dry weather; nor should too much growth be allowed year after year, as it will become greatly injured by self-mulching. The proper time to pasture, after seeding, is after the seed ripens in June, the second year; care should be taken never to graze this too closely at any one time. The nutritive value of blue grass, according to some eminent chemists, is not equal to that of timothy) clover or orchard grass, either in flesh-forming principles or fatty matter. Among the eminent names whose analysis asserts this fact, I would mention Professor Horsford, formerly of Cambridge, Professors Way and Bous- ingault. Yet these gentlemen may not have had specimens of this grass in its greatest luxuriance; for all have acknowledged it here superior to that in its native country. Notwithstanding these experiments, its many good qualities recommend its general adoption, and whoever has lime- stone land has blue grass land^ whoever has blue grass land has the basis of agricultural prosperity; and that man, if he has not the highest type of domestic animals, has no one to blame but himself. I will next name orchard grass, (dactylis glomerata.) This plant is also A perennial, and in my estimation second to none. It is so well described by that eminent botanist and secretary to the Massachusetts Agricultural APPENDIX. 479 Society, Chas. L. Flint, in his treaties on grasses and forage plants, that I adopt his text in giving a description and its characteristics. He says : " This is one of the most valuable and widely known of all the pasture grasses. It is common to every country in Europe, to the north of Africa, and to Asia as well as to America." It was introduced into England from America, and forms one of the most common grasses of English natural pastures, on rich, deep, moist soils. Its rapidity of growth, the luxuriance of its aftermath, and its power of enduring the cropping of cattle, commend it highly to the far- mers' care, especially, as a pasture grass. As it blossoms earlier than timothy, and about the time of red clover, it makes an admirable mixture with that plant to cut in blossom and cure for hay. As a pasture grass it will bear feeding closer than blue grass, as it grows much more rapidly; and close grazing has much influence in preventing it from forming into tussocks. All kinds of stock eat it greedily when green. It is one of the most abiding grasses we have; it will grow well in either sunshine or shade; five or six days of growth will furnish a good bite for cattle; it will resist drouth when blue grass or timothy will parch and dry up; it will produce more pasturage than any other grass with which I am acquainted. Indeed, if I had my preference of all pastures for grazing stock, especially for preparing sheep or cattle for market, I would by all odds prefer an equal mixture of orchard grass and red clover. The preparation for seed- ing is about the same as blue grass, and may be sown any time during early spring, or even winter, many preferring to sow during snow, as it enables any one to make a more regular distribution of the seed; by all means avoid a windy day, as the seed are very light and will blow into bunches under the lightest breeze. This grass, like blue grass, should not be pastured the first year, but any time after a year old it may be pas- tured longer and closer than blue grass; but to derive its full value should not be pastured very close during the hot months.- Orchard grass does not stand frost quite so well as blue grass, but has so many superior quali- ties as to deserve general commendation, and especially that of flourishing upon a greater varieties of soils and in more different climates than almost any other variety of grass. I would recommend it to the cotton States with the full assurance that it, when fully introduced, will prove one of their greatest boons. Next in importance to Tennessee is red clover, (trifolium pratense.) In- deed it is hard to separate or distinguish between the relative values of the three above named grasses. Although red clover is not, properly speaking, a natural grass, it is so closely allied in value and general adoption, wherever successful agriculture prevails, to the natural grasses, that it deserves a place among them in general cultivation. Indeed I can scarcely imagine how successful agriculture can be conducted without it. The renovation of the older States and worn-out lands can scarcely be ac- complished without its agency. The successful rotation of crops depends 480 APPENDIX. almost wholly upon this useful forage plant. It is said by agricultural writers that the introduction of clover into England created an entire revolution in her agriculture, and when we consider the important part it plays in our own country, we can with difficulty imagine how our an- cestors could farm without it. It is very properly regarded as one of our greatest fertilizers, and certainly by far the cheapest. It loosens the Foil and admits the air, sends down its long roots to a great depth, thereby fixing the gasses necessary to enrich the earth, and when these roots decay they form humus, that most important element in the production of food, to the growing plants. Its luxuriant foliage and rapid growth also aid greatly in smothering out weeds and other noxious plants. As a hay plant it is unexcelled when properly cured and housed, its nutritive qualities exceeding that of most other plants, especially in its nitrogenous or flesh- forming principle, and therefore is the best hay for young and growing stock. As a grazing plant for rapid fattening, it is superior to either blue grass or orchard grass, if caution is exercised as to the time and manner of grazing. Nothing is more conducive to the rapid growth and thrift of young animals than a rich and luxuriant growth of clover when in bloom in the spring of the year. The risk of over-feeding by cattle is easily avoided if turned on after the dew is off, and not fed entirely upon it dur- ing rainy weather. So great a factor do I regard this valuable forage plant in producing a general improvement in the agriculture of our State that, were I a king, I would issue an edict that no man should be allowed to cultivate the soil who would not, at least once in every five years, sow clover upon the land he cultivates. The manner of seeding is simple and sure. Plow thoroughly and deep in the fall, in order that the frosts of winter may pulverize well. If your land is seeded to wheat, nothing else is necessary in February or March following, but to carefully distribute about one gallon of seed per acre over the ground. If you wish to seed after oats in spring, or with other grasses, be careful to work the ground to a tine tilth before sowing, which should be done early enough to give the young plants a start before the sun gets too hot in summer. Clover may be pas- tured lightly in the fall, after sowing, without injury, but is not very nu- tritious until at least a year old or older. I would here give my mode of curing, which has proved with me quite successful, were it not seemingly invidious, as any man worthy to be called a farmer can, by a little experi- ence, quickly learn to make good, sweet clover ; yet there is quite a diver- sity of opinion upon this subject. I will simply add that the very large per centum of water renders it quite liable to heat, and from which cause it easily becomes damaged. No clover hay can be kept sweet and fra- grant until the juices are sufficiently dried at least to become candied. The next upon the list in relation to its value and importance is timo- thy, (pMeum pratense.) I shall not class this grass among the grazing grasses, as I regard its merits in this respect so very far inferior to any APPENDIX. 481 one of the before mentioned three. Its very high rank as a meadow grass, alone, entitles it to a position among the most commendable grasses for Tennessee production. According to Boussinganlt, Liebig, Way and others, when cut in full bloom, or a little later, and properly cured, it possesses more flesh-forming, fat-forming, heat-producing properties than almost any other grass. Its yield per acre, when well set and properly treated, is a great point in its favor, also the ease of curing and the slight loss from handling are strong points in its favor. This, added to its gen- eral popularity, makes it a desirabla grass for general introduction where- ever the soil is adapted to its growth. It delights in a peaty, loamy soil of medium tenacity, and is not suited to light, sandy or gravelly soils. The generally adopted mode of seeding has materially changed within the last decade, when the generally adopted plan was to sow upon small grain, wheat, oats, rye or barley, in the spring of the year. The failure of late years to get a catch in this way, has introduced the now most gener- ally adopted plan to thoroughly prepare the land in summer and seed in early fall, by sowing about one-fourth bushel seed alone, and following with harrow, roller or brush. I prefer harrowing in, after harrowing the ground over thoroughly afier plowing, and then rolling the young grass in spring after freezes, to press back the crown into the ground. I think a young timothy meadow should never be cut the first year, unless from an exceedingly wet spring and summer there is a luxuriant growth, and then the mower should be run sufficiently high to leave quite an aftermath be- hind the machine. Timothy, being of slow growth, if cut too closely the hot sun of July and August certainly injures the roots unless protected especially the first year. The only pasturage that can be derived from a' timothy meadow is in the late fall, and then only at the risk of lessening the succeeding crop. I think the yield of hay per acre of a timothy meadow can always be increased by combining it with clover, herds grass or orchard grass, but they will lessen the market value of the hay. The lands of Tennessee well adapted to the growth of timothy are not very ex- tensive. Ked-top or herds grass, (agrostis vulgaris), until late years, numbered among the meadow grasses only, and limited in its cultivation to such localities as were too wet for the successful growth of any of the foregoing. It was supposed by most persons to succeed only on low, marshy, flat lands. .Recently, however, it is becoming a great favorite and more generally adopted. It is now being sown upon quite a variety of soils in different parts of the State, and I have recently ascertained that it is be- coming a spontaneous growth along many of the mountain ranges of East Tennessee. My experience with it is comparatively limited, and I will not venture to give any very decided opinions about it either ag a pasture grass or hay plant. It is highly recommended by such authori- ties as Flint, and other prominent agricultural writers of the country. My own opinion, from a limited experience, is that it is a very valuable ad- 31 482 APPENDIX. junct to our meadows in thoroughly covering the ground and thus shad- ing the ground, thereby enriching the soil by preserving its humidity dur- ing the summer. I have thus enumerated the more generally known and important grasses grown in Tennessee, and will now close with a short notice of a few others generally known as forage plants, that have played an impor- tant part in the production of animal food, and which hardly belong to the grass family. The millet family, (milium,) although they have here- tofore been useful as a hay-producer in the rotation of crops, being annu- als, and producing large yields per acre, a more general enlightenment and familiarity with agricultural science has numbered their days, and now only grown in cases where dire necessity compels a complete covering f the ground in order to kill out some noxious pest, or where the land is wned by a man that is " non compos mentis." This family comprise Hungarian grass, German or Missouri millet, the old Southern or Egypt- ian millet, Dhoura corn, broom corn orserghum sacharatum and Chinese sugar cane, all of which are great exhausters of soil, by far greater than the profits, possess but little merit as forage plants, and the cultivation of which should be universally condemned by all good agriculturists from the mountains in the east to the waters in the west. B. F. COCKRILL. Richland stock farm, Feb. 19, 1878* GRASSES IN BEDFORD COUNTY. SHELBYVILLE, TENNESSEE, BEDFOED COUNTY, January 15, 1878. J. B. Killebrew, Commissioner. DEAR SIR I have thought that a description of the grasses grown in this county (Bedford), and the large number of acres that are peculiarly adapted to their growth, would interest you. Soon after this became a county, blue grass was sown on one of the knolls of this county, and about that time it was found growing on a hill called Bald Knob (because it has no timber on it), near Wartrace depot, and on another aear Bellbuckle depot. On a farm then owned by Thos. A. Peacock, Esq., and now by the estate of the late Chancellor Steele, and a little later on the place occupied by our Agricultural Society, as a fair ground, blue grass was sown. From these points blue grass has spread very rapidly, and much has been sown in different parts of the county. APPENDIX. 483 At this time our pasture lands are green and bright, with a large number of stock grazing contentedly on them, in many instances fat and sleek as if it were May. Our farmers prize this grass very much, and I feel confident when it has been kept for a winter pasture that it (with the aid of some straw, corn husks, or hay for their stock when the snow lies deep on the ground), can graze about as many cattle or sheep in the winter as in the summer time ; this has been done by Kobert L. Rankin on his farm near Bellbuckle depot and by several others. There is scarcely an acre of our land that is not "glady" that will not produce blue grass, and fully one half of our land will produce this grass equal to any lands on this continent when it is properly cared for. In addition to blue grass for pasturage we have learned that herds grass (red top) makes a most excellent pasture, in fact it stands the hot sun and drought of our summers better than either blue grass or orchard grass ; it affords abundant grazing late in the fall and early winter and rery early in the spring, and all kinds of stock love to graze it. In addition to these two, many have been trying orchard grass for grazing purposes ; all like it and say that it is a very early grass and stands our mild winters well, and having a much larger and longer leaf than blue grass yields a very large amount of grazing. Some say it is earlier than blue grass, and many persons who have tried both grasses give it the preference, for in addition to its excellent grazing qualities it makes a first class hay, and when red clover is sown with it many persons regard it as the best meadow a farmer could have. The writer once owned a pasture of 15 acres on slightly undulating land, well set with blue grass, orchard grass and herds grass, that for fifteen years was one of the best pastures he ever saw, and there was 110 season of the year that cattle and sheep could not find good grazing there, and in the spring, summer and fall mouths it appeared to be almost inexhaustable. This county is one of the very best in the State for meadows mixed with timothy and herds grass. We have frequently seen in our mea- dows, timothy 4J and 5 ft. high, growing by the side of herds grass at least 3 ft. high and sometimes higher, standing very thick upon the ground and producing at least two tons of excellent hay to the acre, and this on land, never top-dressed with any fertilizer, the only manure ever placed upon them was done by the stock as they graze.d in fall aud whiter. A large amount of the acreage of this county makes the very best meadows, and there are lands where blue grass grows most luxuriantly; but we have from 75, 000 to 100,000 acres of land that is rery level, known as the "Flat Woods," on which meadows of the firrt quality abound. 484 APPENDIX. Our farmers are turning their attention each year more and more to grazing and meadows, and find that hay is the most remunerative crop that can be grown by them for the labor and expense required to pro- duce it. The grazing after the hay is removed from the meadows com- pensates the owner for the expense in harvesting his crop. In addition to these grasses, red clover is grown more or less by almost every farmer in the country, the most of which is kept for grazing; but many of our farmers save it for hay, which is easily cured and the yield per acre is very large. Those who grow clover for hay, as a rule prefer it for cattle, sheep, horses and mules, to an}^ other. White clover is a spontaneous growth in this county, and shows itself in fields not cultivated and in pasture land. It is good grazing for cattle and sheep at any time, and for horses and mules until the seed ripens. Long before the war we found that grasses and clover paid a better per cent than cotton, and its cultivation was almost entirely abandoned. The reeult was a large increase was seen in the number of cattle, sheep, horses, mules and hogs on our farms, and instead of our lands being ex- hausted by the cultivation of*cotton, their productiveness has been pre- served and to a large extent it has been increased; ^and will continue to do so as long as our present system of rotation in crops is preserved. This is one of the largest hog raising counties in the State, and this is attributable to the abundance of red clover grown, for from the 10th of April until late in the fall it affords excellent pasture for hogs, and many sell their hogs from these pastures for early fall shipping, after being fed but short time with corn. Our most successful hog raisers rely upon their clover for grazing their hogs, and com, which they grow in great abundance, to fatten them. It is a matter of constant surprise to those who do not understand the capacity of this county to produce grasses, clover and corn when they see, as we have done constantly through the past year, carload after carload of hogs driven to our town for shipment, where our packers, Barrett & Landis, could have found the fourteen or fifteen thousand hogs which they have packed during the past season, averaging over 260 Ibs., and at the same time that the county should be more than supplied with pork for this year's consump- tion. These facts are to be attributed to the great care our farmers give to their clover fields, and' the corn producing capacity of our lands, and we find that clover grows more luxuriantly as we increase the fer- tility of our soil by the growth of clover and other grasses. Saplin clover does well here, and we have seen it grow over 6 feet long, but the red clover is preferred for all purposes except to turn under as green sod. Two gentlemen this winter have informed me that they have each a field of clover upon which there is an excellent stand and growing APPENDIX. 485 finely, which were sown over ten years ago and that one crop of corn and two of wheat have been grown on these fields since they were sown. I might multiply instances of this kind, but I'deera it unnecessary to 5 ou who have seen in the past so much of this county and know its adaptability to the growth of grasses and all the cereals. Coupled with these advantages, we have a large amount of pure running water upon the surface of our lands, so it is not a matter of surprise that we should ship such large numbers of stock of every kind, and that we should claim this as one of the best stock-growing counties in the State. Our people are freer from debt than those of any county of our acquaintance, and the fact that lands where blue and orchard grasses grow have, in more than one instance, sold from $50 to $55 per acre, in payments, almost equal to cash, without scarcely a dwelling on them above a cabin, but having good barns, speaks well for our prosperity. As farmers, we have learned to feel that grass is our sheet anchor arid with it we will continue to sail on to greater prosperity each year. I have already made this letter too long, and will cease to write more for the present, hoping to see you with us soon, I remain your friend, THOMAS H. COLDWELL. GRASSES IN ROBERTSON COUNTS. CEDAR HILL, TENNESSEE, June 21st, 1878. J. B. Killebrew, Commissioner of Agriculture: DEAR SIR Your letter was received some time since asking me to give you a few items on the grasses and their adaptability to the soil of Rob- ertson county, and, although I entertain your doubts about the value of what I can say on the subject, ptill will try to give you the result of my observation and short experience. Owing to the nature of our soil, blue grass is not so spontaneous or lux- uriant in its growth as in the counties lying in the Central Limestone Basin of Tennessee, nevertheless, it flourishes in this county, and wherever the timber has been removed and the seed town on the virgin soil, this grass grows with great vigor. The leaves of our white oak timber are so abundant and decay so slowly that they will smother out all the grasse 486 APPENDIX. unless the trees are nearly all cut down ; but under the black walnut blur grass is invariably found, and always so luxuriant as to lead to the convic- tion that there is some strong affinity between them. Owing to the red clay and the layers of chert underlying our soil which enables it to withstand dry, hot weather without parching, blue grass i* more reliable in n season of drought, and much less frequently killed dur- ing summer in Eobertson than in Davidson and the contiguous counties- It is also a noticeable fact that in our old fields, which from one cause or another, have been abandoned and suffered to go for several years without cultivation, blue grass springs up spontaneously, and if the black berry briers and the broom'sedge, our greatest pests, are burned off a few times to give the grass a fair opportunity to take root and to spread, it soo forms a fine, rich pasture, fresh and green all the year round. Our red clay sub-soil is a great element of resuscitation, and when exposed to the disintegrating effects of thawing and freezing it soon begins to form a new soil on the galded spots so common on the hill sides of the country, and if a little brush cedar is the best or straw or litter which will catch and hold the particles of loose clay be thrown on these thin spots, and thenblut grass seed be freely sown among the brush, we can soon transform our red- fluted old fields and reproachful looking worn out spots into excellent pasture land. I have seen this so fully and sufficiently tried as to thor- oughly establish its success. Herds grass or red top will accomplish the same purpose, and will perhaps grow even more rapidly, though it will not afford so much grazing. The blue grass seems to flourish equally well on hills and bottom lands, but as^ unfortunately corn and tobacco almost exclusively occupy the attention of our farmers, we have in the county but a limited number of acres, which, beautiful in their perennial green coat of this king of grasses, delight the eye wearied with the sight of endless cultivation. Orchard grass grows well, and is especially fine for pasture, ranking in this particular both for winter and summer grazing, next to blue grass, and in many places is pronounced superior to it. It thrives on either high or low lands, but, of course, grows best on the richest soil, and if mix- ed about half and half with clover, will make excellent hay. If sown by itself, the heads being large, one, by using a hand stripper, can easily save his own seed and multiply his pastures indefinitely. It grows in tussockf, and if not sown thick enough at first, as is very apt to be the ease, by al- lowing it to go to seed and to iall down, it very rapidly thickens itself to almost a perfect sward. It may be sown either in the early fall or early spring. March I regard the best month, and the ground should be thor- oughly prepared. Herds grass is more extensively cultivated in Robertson than any other grass, and this fact would naturally lead to the belief that on our soil it is best suited for general purpose?, both of pasture and of meadow. While it does not afford the grazing of blue grass it makes a fair fall and winter APPENDIX. 487 pasture, and will yield a satisfactory crop of hay. It grows well on all the varieties of land and soil, and where the soil is thin and mixed with that whitish clay found in the poorer parts of the county, I think it is the only grass which will -give a paying crop of hay. I have no hesitancy in pronouncing it pre-eminently the grass for thin,wet or clayey lands. Timothy, with many of our farmers, is the crop most relied upon for hay, and on good land it is a highly remunerative crop. As but little hay is sold, and that never weighed, I cannot estimate the yield of this grawi per acre. A meadow under ordinary circumstances will not last longer than four years, by that time it is generally ruined by broom sedge. Our timothy meadows make good sheep pastures from November till April without sustaining any estimable damage. A smooth soil, loam and clay, and high lands are better suited for timothy than the siliceous and gravel- ly soils, and the stronger the land the better the meadow will be. Timothy should be sown here, unless the fall is very dry, in September, so as to al- low it to become well rooted before the freezes come, and it should be cov- ered with a roller. It is best to sow it by itself, in which case it will yield a fair crop of hay the next summer. It is more frequently, however, sown with wheat. This practice is unwise as only a small crop of wheat can be made, and that at the expense and injury of the meadow, which IB expected to last several years. Timothy sown in the spring does not do well, as it cannot get sufficient root to stand the heat of summer. Clover is more generally used for pasture than any other grass. Its popularity is due to the fact that it can be seeded at a small cost per acre, and that it affords good summer grazing, and if not used in this way, is a most valuable crop to turn under. Though, like blue grass, it does not flourish here as in the Limestone Basin, still clover grows luxuriantly in Robertson county. On fresh land which has been cultivated for a few years in tobacco and then sown in wheat and clover, I have seen clover that could not be surpassed any where. It is frequently cut for hay, and for hogs is the best pasture we can have, putting them in fine condition to fatten. It grows on all of our lands ; is fine to renovate tired and worn soil. But for hay should be sown on rich land whether hill or bottom. It is sown in the spring on the small grains, but it is best to sow it with oats, for thereby it gets the advantage of a good, loose seed bed, thoroughly prepared at the time of sowing. When a good stand of clover is once ob- tained, and the seeds have been allowed to ripen and to fall on the ground, it rarely becomes necessary to sow again. I know personally of hundreds of acres on which there is a splendid stand of clover, where there has not been a seed sown for over twenty years. During this time the fields allud- ed to have been cultivated every second or third year in corn or tobacco followed by the cereals, and as regularly as these crops have been taken off so they have been followed by a fine growth 'of clover. The theory prevails here that by cultivation the root of the clover is killed, but that quantities of seed which lie deep in the ground for years without sprout- 488 APPENDIX. ing or rotting are brought to the surface by that same cultivation, and they germinate and grow with the crop of wheat or oats. Owing to this fact clover possesses a value and property peculiar to itself, and at once become the cheapest grass we have. I have now given you as concisely as I could the perennial grasses grown in this country, the uses and adaptability of each to the various kinds of soil, and nothing remains but to add that fortunately the raising of annuals, such as millet and Hungarian grass for hay has been almost entirely abandoned, both on account of their inferiority as feed and the cost and labor of saving the crop. For the latter reason coupled with the fact that it has suffered terrible ravages from rust during the past few years, the oat crop has also greatly diminished. I hail with delight as foreshadowing greater prosperity and better cultivation with less labor, the seeding of meadows and the sowing of the perennial instead of the annual grasses. In this respect this county is far behind many others, and while I readily concede that for quickness and spontaneity of of growth many lands in the State are better suited for the pasture and meadow grasses than ours ; still when we consider our eminent superiority in a season of drought, or even in the ordinary heat of summer, I feel that old Kobertson can fairly hold her own in the sisterhood of counties "With great respect I am your obedient servant, JOSEPH E. WASHINGTON. CORN AND ITS CULTURE. The grass family (Qraininace) is extensive, and by far the most valu- able to man. Indian corn or maize (zea mays) is the largest of all grasses. It stands foremost in value as food for man and beast, and if properly cultivated, is the surest crop the farmer cau raise. No cereal is grown with less difficulty, nor is there one that pays so well. An ex- amination of the structure of the stalk in ear shows that it is composed of ten divisions, roots, stalk, sheathes, husks, stalks of ears, leaves, silk, tassel, cob and grain. The roots are divided into three classes, the main or primary, the secondary and the brace or aerial. The first of these disappear very soon after the secondary roots begin to perform their office, and the brace roots show themselves soon after the stalk APPENDIX. 489 begins to joint. Like many other plants, com is an inside grower, (en- dogenous,) consisting at first, of whorls or circles of leaves one within the other; over lapping each other on either hand until the entire stalk is grown. It is interesting to notice right here the difference between the grasses. Some are hollow while others have a pith. The leaves are the lungs of the plant. Their very important office is to take on or absorb carbonic acid gas from the atmosphere. Having received this the plant appropriates the carbon to its own use and at the same time throws off oxygen. This operation goes on only in the day time, the sun's light and heat being the great resolving agent. The sheathes do the same thing, and also serve as a protection and band to the tender shoot. The husk at first envelopes the cob and silks, afterwards the grain. It feeds both cob and corn with elements obtained from the at- mosphere. The cob is the axis on which the kernels are regularly set It is the direct feeder after the embryo grain is formed and fecundated by the pollen through the silk. The tassel (staminate) contains the male, and the silk (pistillate) the female part of the plant. The pollen from the tassel falls upon and fertilizes the silk and the silk the grain. If from weakness or other causes the silk fails to come out of Uie husk to be impregnated by the pollen the corn fails to appear or develop on the cob ; hence the vacant rows so frequently seen on the cob. A further examination of the stalk shows an ear, or the commence- ment of an ear on every joint that has a groove. Generally about two- thirds have it, and in every one is seen an embryo ear undeveloped. The question arises right here, why this incomplete development? I have contended for several years that every such organization would de- velop on every grooved joint were proper attention given to selecting and sowing seed, to proper culture and proper plant-food. Like all other cereals, corn has so deteriorated by bad treatment that it has not health enough to mature even one good ear to the stalk. With ordinary treatment all other grasses develop their heads or ears to some extent, and why should not corn do the same ? For several years I have been giving corn and wheat some attention. I find corn suscepti- ble of much greater improvement than most farmers are willing to admit. It is not hi the province of this article to give the results of experi- ments. I will, however, give one to prove that there is much room for improvement of corn. Several years ago I commenced selecting my seed corn in the field, taking only those stalks that ripened earliest and that had not less than two good ears. These were cut up as soon as the husk was brown and the ear well glazed, and shocked in the field to cure. After standing a month or more the top ears only were saved for seed. 490 APPENDIX. Great care should be taken in selecting not only those stalks that have the greatest number of ears, but those that look most like corn nice, trim, uniform, vigorous and healthy. Large over-grown stalks are too gross and too sterile they cannot be made prolific. The result of this method of saving seed, together with proper culture, has in- creased my yield on the same six acres, in six years, from 20 to 7- r > bushels per acre. Before treating of the soil, I will give an account of the actual loss most farmers sustain in ''pulling fodder," "cutting tops," and letting their corn dry up in the field before it is gathered. Fodder-pulling in- jures the grain nearly 13 per cent, cutting tops 9 per cent., and by letting the whole crop dry up in the field, it loses 20 per cent, of its ow weight. So you see by this slip-shod way of treating the best and surest crop we have we lose nearly 50 per cent, of it all. How shall we sa've it then? you ask. In a very simple way. When fodder- pulling time comes and the ears are well glazed, instead of taking tht blades off, cut the stalks up close to the ground, and shock immedi- ately in bunches the wind cannot twist or blow down. In this way the fodder is all saved, and the stalk too. The husk is much better and the corn loses nothing, but makes much better food, much better feed, much better seed and much more money. l 'But," you say, "it will shrivel and become loose on the cob." Not a bit of it! All the sub- stance of the stalk at the time of cutting is absorbed by the ear, and it is matured in the same way that wheat is when cut in the dough state. This method insures the full weight, and saves the 20 per cent, lost by the old plan. Another item. The stalk fodder and husk cured in this way are worth at least $3 per ton to any farmer; whereas, if left to die in the field, they will not amount from a hundred acres to a day's wages. Any soil can be made to produce corn, provided it is not too wet. Soils differ so materially even on the same farm, that the farmer, to produce good crops, has to make them a real study. Once knowing them, and what they need and demand, he very easily increases the yield. For corn, land should be plowed, turning the sod only as deep as the grass roots extend, at the same time subsoiled with a heavy subsoiler and a strong team. The best fertilizer a farmer of limited means can use for his corn crop, can be made behind his cows. Straw, chaff, leaves, muck, surface soil, barnyard scrapings, refuse of every description, well tempered with the droppings and manure water of the cow stalls make as good compost as the farmer needs. His compost heap must be kept under cover, and should be turned over at least once a month. The straw, chaff and leaves should never be thrown upon the heap until the cattle have well wet them. APPENDIX. 491 In conclusion, I must urge upon my brother farmers the importance of putting in less land and preparing it better. With good seed, one acre well cultivated will yield 50 bushels, which gives infinitely more satis- faction and is done with much less labor and expense than the skim- ming over of ten acres with the same result. Almost any of our up- land soils can be made to produce 50 bushels by a little scientific culture and saving of seed. A. E. BLUNT. Agricultural Station, Mouse Creek, East Tennessee. 492 SOEGHUM. The following article on Sorghum was, by accident, left out of its proper place, which should have been under cereals. SORGHO SUCRE. CHINESE SUGAR CORN (Sorghum nigrum.} Has an erect stem, six to twelve feet high, smooth ; leaves linear, flexons, curving, bending at the ends. Flowers in a panicle at the top, turning as it ripens from a green to a purplish color. In 1854, some insignifi- cant packages of seeds were sent from the, then, patent office, bearing this inscrip- tion : (Sorgho Sucre.} (Good for fodder, green or dry, and for making sugar. ") Who could have foreseen, from these few characters, that a plant was then being added to this country more important than any since the discovery of America and the discovery, to Europeans, of Indian corn? In the midst of the great success of the New World in agricultural products, the SORGHUM. 493 Old World sent this boon to her offspring as a token of good will ; and, in introducing it into notice, the agent, Dr. J. Browne, has done more real, solid good, than all the great conquerors of the nations. If the Agricultural Bureau of the United States had never done aught else, this one thing would more than have compensated for all the expense it has been to the Government. It has added the one thing needful to the farmer, it has made him independent and enabled him to raise his own supply of syrup, if not of sugar. But see how modest, u Good for fodder, green or dry, and for making sugar/' And thus this humble package went to the country, seeking some one to make it famous. Many, very many, threw it aside altogether. Some planted it, and gave it untried to their stock. The stock soon toUl its value as a forage, and some few squeezed a tumblerful of its juice and tested it with the saccharometer. They found about 16 or 17 per cent, of sugar. Some tasted it, and it tasted sweet. Two made a gill or two of syrup, and, not knowing how, did not report much success, but promised to try it next year. All concurred in one thing, it was a great accession to the forage crop of America. And yet this plant was destined at a very early day to supply the poor of the South with the great and almost the'only luxury of a long, tedious and bloody war. But the reports, meagre as they were, satisfied the De- partment: it was all that it had been represented. So the successful experiments were published and more seed was procured and broadly distributed over the land. The second year, a furor began. It jumped at once into popular favor and established itself, not/ only as a magnificent forage crop, but also as a syrup cane. Within a year or two "sugar has been made from it of good quality, and during a recent visit to the Agricultural Department at Washington, I saw specimens of sugar manufactured from a new variety as excellent in flavor and color as the best New Orleans 494 SORGHUM. sugar. I distributed some of the seeds of this new variety, and I confidently predict that Tennessee will, in ten years, make sugar enough for her own consumption at a cost less than five cents per pound. HISTORY. In the fall of 1853, Dr. Jay Browne was sent by the Department of Agriculture to Europe, to gather seeds for distribution from the office. He saw a small patch of sor- ghum at Verrieres, near Paris, and being struck with it? resemblance to corn thought it would be an accession to our forage crops, and possibly might be used as a sugar plant. Four years before, M. de Montigny had sent the seed from the North of China to the Geographical Society of Paris, in a package of many different kinds of seeds. They were planted, and but one single sorghum seed germ- inated. The product of this plant was distributed, and the next year, so great was the demand, a gardener of Paris sold his entire crop to Vilmoriu, Audrieux & Co., of Paris, for a franc a seed. Through them it was sent over the whole of Europe and America, for it was on their farm Mr. Browne saw it growing. In 1850, Mr. Leonard Wray, of the East Indies, a practical sugar planter, on a visit to Kaffir-land, found the imphee, another species of sugar cane, growing around the huts of the natives, which they cultivated for its chewing qualities. On examination, he discovered its rich saccha- rine character, and was satisfied of its value. He there- fore brought it with him to England and had it planted there, as well as in France and Belgium. He memorialized the French minister of war, and also Mr. Buchanan, who was minister in England at that time He afterwards cultivated it in the West Indies, Brazil, the Mauritius, Australia, Turkey, Egypt and in this country. The Kaffirs cultivated sixteen varieties, that differed i the amount of saccharine principle, as well as in the time SORGHUM. 495 required to mature. In 1856, Mr. Wray exhibited sugar, molasses, alcohol, plants and seeds of the imphee at the Paris Exposition, and not only obtained a silver medal, but a grant of twenty-five hundred acres of land in Algiers was made him by the French government, that he might prosecute his researches. During this same year, Orange Judd, of New York, distributed 25,000 packages of seed to his subscribers, speeding them throughout the country. In 1857, Mr. Wray brought to the United States the seeds of several varieties of Imphee. So then, when Mr. Browne obtained the seeds it was really in its initial state of cultiva- tion in France. It had been grown in China from time immemorial. But with the exclusiveness of that people, its very existence had been jealously guarded from the world. The same, or a similar plant, had been cultivated in Europe at different periods during the dark ages, but the want of intercourse, and the oppressive feudal system of that day had repressed any advancement in science and arts, as well as in agriculture. The elder Pliny, in the first century, describes a plant under the name of milium quod ex India in Italium inveetum nigro eolore, (a millet of dark color brought from India to Italy). Millium means thousands, and refers to the number of seeds on a plant. Fuchius describes, in 1542, a plant cultivated in Belgium, called Sorghi. In 1552, Fragus says, in a work on botany, a Panicum Plinii was cultivated in Germany, and accurately describes this plant. In 1591, Gomer names this same" plant Sorghum. In Italy, in 1595, in his commentaries on Dioscorides, Matthioli calls it, Indicum Milium, or Indian millet. Gerard, an English writer, in 1597, describes this and other varieties of Sor- ghum, as Dhouro corn, Broom corn and Chocolate corn. Thus it is seen, that this plant, however new to us, was cultivated in England, Belgium and Italy, in the 16th century, and that it was known to Pliny in the 1st century. 496 SOKGHUM. Its uses were described as so various, that it is supposed all the varieties of Sorghum were confounded by these differ- ent authors. It was recommended as fodder for stock, food for poultry and hogs, and for a syrup ; while the Italians called it melica from its resemblance to honey. It was described as having seeds, various in color, from rufous to black, from white to yellow and red, and they were said to make an excellent bread. The bread had a pinkish tinge, being colored by the husks, which could ot be entirely separated from the seed. Through the caravans of the Syrian desert, Sorghum was carried from Asia to Africa, and there, under the changes of climate, soil and moisture, new varieties originated, and we have the Imphee canes. Linnaeus calls it Holeus Saccharatum, and the Dhouro corn he calls Holeus Sorghum. But Persoon, and others since, have separated the two, and applied to the sugar cane the general name Sorghum, and its specific name Nigrum, from the color of its seeds. These plants are all called Sorghum in the East Indies. VARIETIES. There are many varieties of cane, and, while the descrip- tion at the head of the article will give the generic charac- ters, it will not the specific differences of the various kinds. But it is not necessary to give the botanic description of each variety. 1st Kace EUSORGHUM. True Chinese Sugar Cane, (already described). 2nd Kace IMPHEE. 1. Proscocia, (early Sorgo). 2. Ooui-se-a-na, (Otahei- tan). 3. White Imphee, (Nee-a-ga-na). 4. Black Imphee, Nigerrima). 5. Red Imphee, (Cerasiua, cherry red) Shla- goo-va. 6. Liberia, (Liberian). SORGHUM. 497 In Tennessee, the nomanclature is shortened by all being called " red," or " black," and "Chinese," or "African." Sorghum, submitted to a pressure of ten tons, will yield about 60 per cent, of juice, leaving 40 per cent, of woody fibre, gum, juices, etc. Of this 60 per cent., about 10 per cent, is sugar, both cane and grape, or, if not 'reduced to sugar, it will make about 25 per cenf. of syrup, or 15 per cent, of the expressed juice. However, in fact, this amount varies very much, accord- ing to the soil on which it is raised. On rich bottom land, where the cane grows to be very tall and large, there is more water and less sugar in the juice, while on poor, sandy, dry land the proportion is much greater. In some specimens of syrup, when boiled down thick and allowed to stand, crystals of sugar will form all through it. These crystals are in the form of a modified rhombic prism. But in the generality of specimens, from the presence of an acid, the cane sugar is converted into glucose and no manipula- tion is sufficient to cause it to crystallize. A few years ago, at one of the expositions held in the city of Nashville, ajar of this sugar was on exhibition, and there is a fair specimen now in the cabinet of this Bureau, and, as before stated, some excellent specimens at Washington. Should an early and cheap means be devised to secure rapid crystallization the result will be to bring down the price of sugar. Mo- lasses, which sold at one dollar per gallon, was brought, by the introduction of sorghum syrup, down to twenty-five and thirty cents. There is so little difference between this grape and cane sugar, that it is to be hoped some process may yet be invented by which the syrup can be crystalized at will. The constituents are the same, only having one equivalent more of hydrogen and oxygen than carbon. It is undoubt- edly due to the presence of some acid, as cane sugar can be converted into glucose, by the addition of acids, or by pass- ing a stream of air through the boiling syrup. In this in- ventive age the mind of man has only to be turned to this subject and it will be done. 32 498 SORGHUM. The Imphee cane, as a rule, produces more crystals in the syrup than the Chinese, consequently the latter is more universally cultivated, being better suited to making syrup. Besides, the African or Imphee cane grows much taller and is easily blown down by high winds, making a tangled mass in the field, very difficult to harvest. CULTIVATION AND HARVESTING}. Sorghum will grow and thrive, like Dhouro, on the poor- est soils. When the earth is parched up by drought it maintains its fresh, green color, and continues to grow. However, it will thrive better on rich land, and, though the juice may have more water, it will make far more syrup. The roots of sorghum penetrate the soil farther than any other cereal, and consequently deep plowing is absolutely re- quisite for a full crop. Not only should the plow, but the subsoiler should also be applied. On good land it grows to a bight of 15 to 18 feet, o'n poor, badly ; prepared land, it stops at five or six feet. Because it will grow on poorer land than other plants is no evidence that poor land is bet- ter for it. Therefore let the land be in good heat and the increased quantity of syrup will well repay the labor. On gravelly or sandy subsoils, the roots will go four or five feet deep, and on this kind of land, if rich, it will make far more syrup and of a better quality. It should be planted in drills three feet apart, and in four or five days the young tender stalks will come up, looking very much like grass. But it will soon begin to grow rap- idly, and outstrip grass or weeds. When three or four inches high, it should be chopped and thinned out, and but little more work need be done to it. Two plowings are all it should receive, as the roots penetrate the ground so thick- ly the plant would receive more injury than benefit if plow- ed after it is three or four feet high. Besides, by that time the ground is so shaded by lateral branches and suckers the weeds will effect no material injury. SORGHUM 499 Much difference of opinion existed at first, and still ex- ists, as to the best time of cutting. Some assert when the .seeds are in the milky state, others when they are fully ma- tured, is the most favorable time. A slight degree of frost does not injure it, and this opinion has caused the loss of many a crop, for, with our usual procrastination, this belief is allowed to influence many to let it stand until a severe frost comes, when the cane is rendered worthless. When- ever it freezes, fermentation ensues, and it will not make syrup at all, or if it does it is black and has a disagreeable odor. But repeated experiments have demonstrated the fact that early cut cane makes the best and cleanest molasses. Still if the farmer has a large crop, he will have an oppor- tunity of testing it in all stages, for it will take a long time to express the juice of a large crop and boil it down. When the seeds are in the milky state, let the stripping and boiling begin. It is not our purpose to go into .a lengthy detail of syrup making, it being rather our province to treat of sorghum as a cattle food, than otherwise, and we will only give a general description. Besides, since the in- vention of cane mills and evaporators, there is hardly a man in the State who is not thoroughly conversant with the process. One thing every one should bear in mind and that is, do not be too particular to press every particle of juice from the stalk. The first pressure well applied will get, generally speaking, all the saccharine principles, the second pressure only sending out gums, cellulose and some color- ing matters. The syrup would be clearer and sweeter if the outer rind of the stalk could be stripped off and only the pith submitted to pressure. Let the juice be strained in a blanket, and boiled as rapidly as possible in a shallow pan. This is all that is requisite. Some use the continuous, some the interrupted pans. The former are becoming more generally used, that is, pans that receive the raw juice at one side and discharge the molasses at the other. Some- times it happens that the syrup when boiled to a sufficient 500 SORGHUM. consistency does crystallize without any known cause. Wheii it is discovered to do so, the farmer might take advantage of this accident and very easily make his own sugar. And to test its capacity to form crystals a small quantity at va- rious times of evaporating might be boiled to a point lower and thicker than for syrup and set aside to stand two, three or four days. If crystals are thrown down in the vessel there is then reason to believe more of it will do so. He can, therefore, should he desire to make his own sugar, boil it to the proper consistency, or until the steam comes up through the syrup with a burst, and set it off in tubs to granulate. Sometimes, however, this does not take place for a few weeks, or even months. In order to expedite the process, it should be kept in a close, warm room, heated up to, at least, 90 degrees. This can be easily done by having the tubs or barrels of syrup in a room made tight, and heat- ed by a stove. With but little replenishing of wood the stove may be kept hot continuously. When the granula- tion has taken place fully let the whole mass, molasses and all, be put into stout cloth bags and hung up to drain. Or it can be put into conical tin moulds, shaped like a sugar loaf, with an opening at the bottom covered by a wire sieve such as is used for straining milk. The bags, however, are cheaper and equally as effective. Here let it remain for a sufficient number of days, to allow all the molasses to pass off. It can then be taken down and mixed with a very small quantity of water and redrained, and this application of water can be repeated until the sugar becomes as white as desired. The water can then be reduced by evaporation, to to the desired consistency of molasses. There are many other processes, and machines for making sugar, that have been invented, for^sale, but they all resolve themselves into the above at last, which process belongs to' any one who wishes to use it. In the manufacture of the Southern Cane sugar, lime water, (white wash) is used to clarify it. At first this was SORGHUM. 501 used in sorghum, but it was soon found that it blackened the syrup so much that no after treatment would restore its clear color. Besides, it gave it a very disagreeable al- kaline taste. Afterwards the white of eggs was used, which did very well, but further manufacture brought out the discovery that it contained so much gum it would coagulate and clarify itself better without the addition of anything with it. Skimming easily removes all impurities that arises upon the surface. The amount of syrup procured from an acre of ground is as various as are the methods of cultivation and characters of the soil. From forty to two hundred gallons may be considered the range, and when it is considered that a cul- tivator can take his choice between the two quantities, it may seem that there is cause for emulation. But it is rather as a forage crop that this plant properly belongs in this treatise. Its uses are almost as various as Indian corn itself. As has been already stated, it is greed- ily eaten in all stages by stock of every kind. The seeds are abundant, and one acre of good corn will make from forty to sixty bushels of seed. These can be cut from the corn and stored for use, taking care to spread the heads until they dry, when they make good food for cattle, horses, sheep, hogs and poultry. When ground into flour they make good bread. Both the seeds and the expressed juice have been extensively used in distillation, large quantities of alcohol and sorghum brandy being an- nually made from them. During the war it formed almost the only resource of the South for whiskey, all grains being in too much demand for distillers to use them. But probably it possesses more good qualities as a green soiling plant than any other one. Let it be sown either broadcast or thickly drilled with a seed drill very early in the spring, with about one bushel of seed to the acre, and there is no end to its feeding capacity. It will yield from 20 to 30 tons of green fodder to the acre, that, when dry, 502 SOKGHUM. will make three or four tons of the sweetest and best of hay. and stock, will eat up the last vestige of it. The proper time for cutting is when the heads begin to flower, when it can be cut and bundled as corn fodder, or left spread on the ground, if the weather is good, for several days, and it will dry enough to store bat not in too large a bulk. Its stems are so succulent that it will not cure quickly, the juices in it, how- ever, will sugar directly, and then it will keep as well as timothy. It possesses fattening qualities in an eminent degree, and nothing like it was ever used for improving a drove of mules. But if the farmer has a drove of mules or herd of cattle or milch cows, it can be fed to them from the the time it is two feet high, and they will eat it with avidity. By the time a field is gone over, it will be ready to cut again, as the root freely throws up new suckers, and will continue to do so until stopped by the frost. Thus, as many as three crops can be cut betore it is destroyed by the cold. Or, if it is not wanted as green forage, it can be cut at blossoming, at least twice, without resowing. And the second crop will be as good as the first. A mule raiser in Williamson county has several large racks, and as soon as the hay is in condition to cut, he draws a load to each rack daily, and the mules are allowed to go to Had libitum, so the farmer has only to give them grain to complete the process of fattening. With the introduction of sorghum into Tennessee agri- culture, it does seem that the last desideratum of the farmer is supplied. With a climate the most salubrious and equa- ble, a soil the most various and comprehensive, it sends into the market, annually, grain and hay of every descrip- tion. Her cattle and sheep are sent in large numbers into Northern cities, while her mules and horses supply the teams of the South. Fruits and vegetables anticipate the gardens of the North, and now she is able to draw a plant from Africa or Asia to supply her people with an ample quantity of home-made syrups and sugars. SORGHUM. 503 In 1870 the total production of sorgum molasses in the United States was 16,050,089 gallons against 6,749,123 gallons in 1860. Gallons. Indiana produced in 1870 2,026,212 Ohio " " 2,023,427 Illinois " " 1,960,478 Kentucky " " 1,740,453 Missouri " " 1,730,171 Tennessee " " 1,254,701 Iowa " " .. . - ... 1, 218, 635 INDEX PAGE. Agricultural system of England 6 France.. 6 " " Tennessee deprecated 7 Alfalfa 145 American Senna 428 Appendix 449 Acacia Julibrissim 428 Achilia millifolium 33 Agrostis Alba 207 like Panic grass 219 canina 70, 236 perennis 74, 237 scabra 70, 237 stolonifera 33, 70 vulgaris 33,70, 84 Aira flexuosa 74 Aira ceaspitosa 73, 225 " flexuosa 72, 197 Algarobia glandulosa 413 Alopecurus 29, 39, 70, 154 Aaiorpha Fruticosa 421 Amphicarpsea Monpica 426 Analysis of AnthyllisVulneraria 34 Anthyllis Culneraria 35 " Aftermath 36 Average of all the grasses 36 Analysis of blue grass 36, 178 Barley heading out 34, 35 Barley .34, 314 " Barley grass 36 Buckwheat 334 Beans .". 335 Beers 322 Clover, red 34, 35, 36, 37, 127, 129, 208 " Clover leaves, stalks and flowers 130 " Clover and grass hay compared 134 Clover Alsike 36, 144 " Clover, white... 35, 36, 37, 70, 208 Analys PAGE. of Clover, yellow 36 Clover, incarnate ... 36, 37 75, 145 Clover, red, before blossom 37 Clover, red, full blos- som 37 Clover, white, full blossom 37 Clover, Swedish 34, 35, 36 Clover, Swedish, ear- ly blossom 37 Crested dogs tail 36 Cereals, green, light.. 34 Cereals, green, heavy 34 Cereals 314,335 Corn, yellow Penn ... 356 Corn, Northern and Southern 357 Corn stalks, shucks and fodder 367 Corn before and after eusilage 386 Corn, green fodder and clover 339 Corn, white gourd seedMd 356 Cow manure 299 Dead ripe hay 34, 35 English rye grass 36 Esparsette 34, 37 Field sparry 36, 37 Green vetches 34, 35 Green pea in flower... 34 Green rape, young ... 34 Grass before blossom 37 Grass a f ter bl ossoin ... 37 Harter Schwingel 36 Hay 145 Hay, dead ripe 34 Hungarian millet..35, 37 Hungarian millet, gr'n 34 Hungarian millet in blossom 37 508 INDEX. Grasses pasture 151 " wild 214 " cultivated in England 151 " seeds, weight of 33 " soils adapted to each... 70 Green fox tail 218 Ground nut 425 Gymnocladus Canadensis 428 Gymnopogon brevifolium....70, 232 Gymnpstichum hystrix 72, 223 Gynerium argenteum 201 Halpense Ill Harding, Gen 80 Hansom. Timothy 76 Honey locust 427 Hay, total production in United States, 1870 6 Hay, swale 14 herds grass or red top 75, 212 hair grass 156 hairy musqnit 160 hidden {lowered panic... 220 hairy, slender p.'Sjnlum 223 hard' fescue 228, 255 horse shoe grass 233 hairy bush clover 423 hog pea nut 426 Hordium, zeocriton 313 " hexastichum 312 " pratense....29, 30, 35, 225 " ' pusillum 76. 196 " distichum ...72, 312 " vulgare... 72, 312 Holcus lanatus....29, 30, 31. 33, 194 u mollis 33 Imphee 496 Importance oi grasses 6 Indian drop seed grass 234 Indian reed 236 Italian rye grans 99, 225 Indian corn 340 " history of 341 " varieties of 347 " experiments with seeds 349, 350 Indian ci -rn, Northern 356, 357 Southern 356, 357 " comparisons of yel- low and white.. 358 Indian corn, cultivation of 359 Indian corn, Prof. Daniel's ex- peiiments 369, 370 Indian corn, cost of raising..370, 471 Indian corn, implements for raising. 374 Indian corn, uses of. 276 " experiments with by H. S. Clay 379 Indian corn, experiments with by Prof. Moses 379 Indian corn, as a hay and for- age crop 381 Indian crop, analysis of, before and after eusilage 386 Indian corn, statistics of 387 " table of export 388, 389 " tables orf the values of exported 390, 361, 392, 392 Indian corn, tables of the values of, raised in Tennessee 394 Indian corn, tables of average prices of, in New York city... 395 Jackson, Gen'l. W. H 83 Japan clover or king grass 209 Joint grass 223 Lands 18 : difference in value of 21 " value of before the war... 18 " value of in Europe 19 " value of in Kentucky and Missouri 19 Laws and Gilbert, experiments, 27 46 Lawson 257 Leersia 70,237, 238 Leguminous, Tennessee 415, 416, 417 Lentils 411 Leptochloa mucronata 71, 161 Lespedeza..? 209, 422, 423 List of true grasses 73 Locust 421 Lolium,..29, 30, 31, 33, 72, 98, 99 101 Lucerne 145, 255 Lupine 412, 419 Lotus.. .' 33 M Manures 27, 46,47, 290 INDEX. 509 PAGE t Marbury,P. H 87 Meadows, management of 40, 239 " time and manner of sowing 269 Meadows cutting, curing and storing... 269,274, 277, 283 Meadows, troublesome plant*... 286 Medicago 33, 145, 420 Militotus Alba 420 Mesquite bean 413 u grass 233 Mexican Muhlenbergia 155, 224 Millet T. 103, 255 Milk Pea 426 Melica mutica 71, 231 Millium 33, 73 Morgan, Sam'l D., letter from.... 202 Muhlenbergia,..70, 74, 155, 156, 233 .. 234 Nimble Will 155, 234 Nodding Fescue grass 228 Number of varieties of grass.... 10 Oats, description of. 396 " name.- of different varieties 397 " win;er 400 " time of sowing 401 " manner of cutting 403 Old Witch grass 220 Onobrychis saliva 33, 148 Orchard grass 89, 212', 255 Oryza eativa 406 Pale manna grass 231 Pampas grass 201 Panicum 214 ' Germanicum 39 78 crusgalli 74, 197, 221 sanguinale.. .71, 73,101 199 filiforme 73, 219 " glabrum 73, 218 " agrostoides 73, 219 anceps 73 " proliferum 73 " antumnale 73 " * amarum 73 " virgatum 73 " capillare 220 " latifolium 220 PAGE. Panicum clandestinum 220 miliaceum '..73, 108 ' pauciflorum 73, 219 ' dichotomum 73,221 ' virgatum 221 Italica 103 Paspalumlaeve..... 73, 162, 222 " distichuum 13, 223 digitaria 13, 223 racemulocum 152 undutalum 152 ciliatifolium 152, 220 fluitans 252 Petalostemen ioliosus 420 " decumbeus 421 " candidus 421 corynibosus 421 Perennial Rye grass 255 clover 255 Pencil flower 422 Pendb-ton/E. M 209 Peanuts 412, 420, 435 Pennsylvania Eatonia 230 Pea 437 Pea, milk 426 Phalaris canariensis 73, 206 Phaseolus perennis 425 " diversifolius 425 " helvotus 425 Phalaris arundinacea 33, 204 Phlenm pratense..30, 33, 39, 60, 70 ... 75 Pragmites communis 72, 188 Poa 229 " annua 30,31,39, 71, 161 " pratensis...30, 31, 33, 39, 62, 71 , 163 Poa nemoralis 33,71,94, 162 " compressa 39,94,152, 163 " alsodes 229 " sylvestris 229 " debilis 229 " serotina 152 " flexuosa 152 " brevifolia 152 Pommede prairie 413 Poverty grass 232 Prairie grass 156 Prolific panic 199 Purple bunch clover 423 Pungent eragrostis 230 Pisum sativum 437 Polygonum fagopyrum 330 Proralea esculenta 413 " subaculis 413, 420 " melilotoides 240 510 INDEX. PAGE. Pungent eragrostis 220 Polymorphous panic 221 Proliferous panic 220 Polk. Hon. M. T., remarks by.. 209 Polk, H. M., letter from 438 T Tables, Prof. Way 26, 29 Prof. Wolff 34, 35 " Wolff' and Knop 36, 37 of grasses 66,67, 68 list of true grasses 70, Tables, of seeds ior pasture 190 " of number of plants to foot 251 Tables, of depth that seeds will germinate 255 Tables of seeds to be sown to- gether 257, 158, 259, 260, 261 262, 263 Tables of comparative value of grasses ; 288, 289 Tables of composition of wood ashes 298 Table of ingredients of ma- nures 308 Table of elements of plant food.. 309 " of value of buckwheat hay 335 Table of nutriment in corn 357 ' of yellow and white corn compared 358 Table of the method of cultiva- ting corn 364 Ktecale cereale 72, 408 I Table of preparation of soil 365 Q Quaking grass 183 Questions and Answers 452 Ravenel,H. W 211 Kice, description of 406 " method of culture 407 Robinia pseudo acacia 421 " viscosa 421 hispidia 421 Robertson County, grasses in... 485 Bye, description oi 408 " time of sowing 409 " product in Uuited States... 410 " in Tennessee 410 Schrankia uncinata 429 " angustata 429 Selecting of seeds for meadows.. 247 Setaria verticillata 74, 218 " glauca , 74, 218 " viridis ...74, 218 of plant food removed 309, ; of export of corn 388, 3S& " of value of corn export- ed 390, 391, 392, 393 Table of value of crops in Ten- nessee.... Italica 74 Table of average price of grain Germanica 107 Sinclair, Geo. experiments by 26, 195 Sinclair and Way, what they accomplished 27 Sorghum, nigrum 492 Sorghum nutans 74 vulgare 74 " saccharatum 74, 322 Sporobulus junceus 70 serotinus 70 " indicus 152, 234 Stipa avenacea 70, 136, 232 Strombocarpus pubescens 413 Stylosanthes elatior 422 Stockbridge, Prof. Levi.... 129 Sour grasses 14 Soils... 29 394 395 in JSTer York Tennessee, position of as a bor- der State 8 Tennessee, as a grazing State.... 8 Tennessee, conversion from a cotton to a grazing State 9 Tennessee, a grass region 7 " milk vetch 422 Tick foil 424 " trefoil 424 Trifoliuin pratense....30, 33, 39, 115 420 Trifolium repens 30, 33, 39, 72 72, 207, 420 Trifolium arvense 420 reflexum 420 Trifolium carolinianum 420 Trifolium hybridura 142 " erectum , 144 INDEX. 511 PAGE. Trifoliam incarnatum 144 Trifolinm pratense perenne 3g Tricuspis seslerioides 71, 88 Trisetum flavescens 33 Triticum repens 72, 292, 226 caninum 72, 226 Tripsacum dactyloides...74, 107, 217 Tricuspis sesleroides 235 Tephrosia Virginiana 421 " spicata 421 Thermopgis Mollis 427 U Uniola gracilis 74, 226 " latifolia r. 72 Upright chess 227 Vicia Americana 149 " Micrantha... 422 " Americana 149, 422 Virginia Ly me grass 224 Voarideza subterrania 412 Voelcker. Prof., article on clo- 138 ver. W Wallace, J. K. P., letter from.. 135 Washington, J. E., on grasses... 485 Wolff and Knop 195 Wolff, Prof., tables by 34 Woburn, experiments 26 Yard grass 231 Yellow oat grass 255 Yellow wood 427 Z Value of lands before the war.. 18 Value of grass in agriculture... 6 ! Variable panic grass 220 j Vetch tares 149 j Velvet lawn grass 194 I Zizania aquatica 237 " analysis of 195 " milliacea 237 Vilt'a vagina flora ., 70, 236 I Zea mays , 340 THIS BOOK IS DUE ON THE LAST BATE STAMPED BELOW AN INITIAL FINE OF 25 CENTS WILL BE ASSESSED FOR FAILURE TO RETURN THIS BOOK ON THE DATE DUE. THE PENALTY WILL INCREASE TO SO CENTS ON THE FOURTH DAY AND TO 41.OO ON THE SEVENTH DAY OVERDUE. JAN 21 1933 P & Le*~e^ LD 21-50m-8,-32 DUOOO UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY 'A*C t l