UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA PUBLICATIONS COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION BERKELEY, CALIFORNIA THE RED OR ORANGE SCALE By H. J. QUAYLE BULLETIN No. 222 (Berkeley, Cal., July, 1911) W. YV. Shannon SACRAMENTO - - Superintendent of State Printing 1911 Benjamin Ide Wheeler, President of the University. EXPERIMENT STATION STAFF. E. J. Wickson, M.A., Director and Horticulturist. E. W. Hilgard, Ph.D., LL.D., Chemist (Emeritus). W. A. Setchell, Ph.D., Botanist. Leroy Anderson, Ph.D., Dairy Industry and Superintendent University Farm Schools M. E. Jaffa, M.S., Nutrition Expert. R. H. Loughridge, Ph.D., Soil Chemist and Physicist (Emeritus). C. W. Wood worth, M.S., Entomologist. Ralph E. Smith, B.S., Plant Pathologist and Superintendent of Southern California Pathological Laboratory and Experiment Station. G. W. Shaw, M.A., Ph.D., Experimental Agronomist and Agricultural Technologist, in charge of Cereal Stations. E. W. Major, B.Agr., Animal Industry. B. A. Etcheverry, B.S., Irrigation Expert. F. T. Bioletti, B.S., Viticulturist. W. T. Clarke, B.S., Assistant Horticulturist and Superintendent of University Exten- sion in Agriculture. John S. Burd, B.S., Chemist, in charge of Fertilizer Control. J. E. Coit, Ph.D., Assistant Pomologist, Plant Disease Laboratory, Whittier. George E. Colby, M.S., Chemist (Fruits, Waters, and Insecticides), in charge of Chemical Laboratory. H. J. Quayle, M.S., Assistant Entomologist, Plant Disease Laboratory, Whittier. H. M. Hall, Ph.D., Assistant Botanist. C. M. Haring, D.V.M., Assistant Veterinarian and Bacteriologist. E. B. Babcock, B.S., Assistant Agricultural Education. W. B. Herms, M.A., Assistant Entomologist. J. H. Norton, M.S., Assistant Chemist, in charge of Citrus Experiment Station, River- side. W. T. Horne, B.S., Assistant Plant Pathologist. C. B. Lipman, Ph.D., Soil Chemist and Bacteriologist. R. E. Mansell, Assistant Horticulturist, in charge of Central Station grounds. A. J. Gaumnitz, Assistant Agronomist, University Farm, Davis. N. D. Ingham, B.S., Assistant in Sylviculture, Santa Monica. T. F. Hunt, B.S., Assistant Plant Pathologist. P. L. McCreary, B.S., Chemist in Fertilizer Control. E. H. Hagemann, Assistant in Dairying, Davis. R. M. Roberts, Farm Manager, University Farm, Davis. B. S. Brown, B.S.A., Assistant Horticulturist, University Farm, Davis. J. I. Thompson, B.S., Assistant Animal Industry, Davis. Howard Phillips, B.S., Assistant Animal Industry, Davis. J. C. Bridwell, B.S., Assistant Entomologist. C. H. McCharles, M.S., Assistant Agricultural Chemical Laboratory. E. H. Smith, M.S., Assistant Plant Pathologist. C. O. Smith, M.S., Assistant Plant Pathologist, Plant Disease Laboratory, Whittier. F. E. Johnson, B.L., M.S., Assistant Soil Chemist. B. A. Madson, B.S.A., Assistant Experimental Agronomist. Walter E. Packard, M.S., Field Assistant Imperial Valley Investigation, El Centro. P. L. Hibbard, B.S., Assistant Fertilizer Control Laboratory. L. M. Davis, B.S., Assistant in Dairy Husbandry, University Farm, Davis. S. S. Rogers, B.S., Assistant Plant Pathologist, Plant Disease Laboratory, Whittier. L. Bonnet, Assistant Viticulturist. H. A. Ruehe, B.S.A., Assistant in Dairy Husbandry, University Farm, Davis. F. C. H. Flossfeder, Assistant in Viticulture, University Farm, Davis. S. D. Wilkins, Assistant in Poultry Husbandry, University Farm, Davis. C. L. Roadhouse, D.V.M., Assistant in Veterinary Science. F. M. Hayes, D.V.M., Assistant Veterinarian. F. L. Yeaw, B.S., Assistant Plant Pathologist, University Farm, Davis. M. E. Stover, B.S., Assistant in Agricultural Chemical Laboratory. W. H. Volck, Field Assistant in Entomology, Watsonville. E. L. Morris, Field Assistant in Entomology, San Jose. E. E. Thomas, B.S., Assistant Chemist, Plant Disease Laboratory, Whittier. A. B. Shaw, B.S., Assistant in Entomology. G. P. Gray, M.S., Chemist in Insecticides. H. D. Young, B.S., Assistant in Agricultural Chemistry, Plant Disease Laboratory, Whittier. A. R. Tylor, B.S., Assistant in Plant Pathology, Plant Disease Laboratory, Whittier. E. W. Rust, A.B., Assistant in Entomology, Plant Disease Laboratory, Whittier. L. T. Sharp, B.S., Assistant in Soils. W. W. Cruess, B.S., Assistant in Zymology. J. F. Mitchell, D.V.M., Assistant in Veterinary Laboratory. J. C. Roper, Patron, University Forestry Station, Chico. E. C. Miller, Foreman, Forestry Station, Chico. D. L. Bunnell, Secretary to Director. CONTENTS. Page:. HISTORICAL 99 DISTRIBUTION 101 ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE 102 FOOD PLANTS 1 105 DESCRIPTION OF THE STAGES 106 First Larvae Stage 100 Second Stage Female 106 The Adult Female 107 The Second Stage Male 107 The Male Propupa 108 The Male Pupa 108 The Adult Male 108 LIFE HISTORY AND HABITS 109 The Active Larva 109 Settling of the Larvae 110 Formation of the Scale Covering 111 The Fixed Young 114 Molting 114 The Adult Male 417 The Adult Female 118 Length of Adult Life 118 Age at Which Young are Produced 110 Aspidiotus aurantii — Development 120 Embryonic Development 121 Parthenogenesis , 121 Emergence of Young 121 Do the Insects Move After Becoming Fixed i 125 SEASONAL HISTORY 126 Annual Progeny 126 Mortality 127 LOCOMOTION AND SPREAD 127 Rate of Travel Over Smooth Surface 129 Rate of Travel Over Sand and Orchard Soil ' 130 The Wind 131 PARASITES 131 Aphelinus Diaspidis How. 131 Economic Value = 132 Description of the Stages 132 Life History and Habits 133 Key to the Species Recorded from C. aurantii 136 Prospaltella aurantii How. 136 COCCOPHAGUS LUNULATUS HOW. 136 Aspidiotiphagus citrinus Craw. 1* JT skinipiiora occidentalis how. 137 Aphycus immaculatus How. 138 Alaptus eriococci Girault 13s 1 V CONTENTS. Page. PREDATORY ENEMIES 138 Riiizobius lophantii^: Blaisd. 138 The Eggs .139 The Mature Larva 139 The Adult 140 Orcus ciialybeus Boisd. 141 Other Enemies 141 THE YELLOW SCALE (Crysomphalus aurantii var. citrinus Coq.) 141 Economic Importance 142 Difference Between the Red and Yellow Scales 144 Parasites 145 Aspidiotiphagus citrinus Craw. 145 The Egg 146 The Mature Larva 146 The Pupa 146 The Adult 146 SYSTEMATIC POSITION OF CHRYSOMPHALUS AURANTII Mask.___ 148 BIBLIOGRAPHY 149 THE RED OR ORANGE SCALE. Chrysomphalus aurantii Mask. By H. J. Quayle. HISTORICAL. Chrysomphalus aurantii was first described from New Zealand by W. M. Maskell in 1878. The specimens described were found infesting oranges and lemons imported into New Zealand from Sydney. Two years later Professor Comstock observed a scale infesting orange groves at San Gabriel and Los Angeles, California. At first these were described by Comstock as a new species, but after receiving copies of Maskell 's papers, giving the description of Chrysomphalus aurantif, and upon receiving specimens from New Zealand, he concluded that they were the same as those occurring there. Regarding the occurrence of the scale in this state in 1880 Comstock says, "I have observed this species in several groves at San Gabriel and Los Angeles. At the first named place, where it is very abundant, it is said to have first appeared on a budded orange tree which was purchased by Mr. L. J. Rose, at one of the hothouses in San Francisco. At Los Angeles it appears to have spread from six lemon trees which were brought from Australia by Don Mateo Keller. Thus the question as to the source from which we derived this pest is settled beyond a doubt." While it is undoubtedly true that this scale was imported into this state directly from Australia, its native home can apparently be traced further back than our acquaintance with it there. It is now supposed that China is the native home of the red scale, though this is not posi- tively established. The San Jose scale, Aspidiotus perniciosus was sup- posed for a long while to have had its origin in Chile or Australia, but later investigations showed that it had been introduced into both of these countries, and it was not until an exploration was made of the Orient that Marlatt 1 finally decided that China is its native habitat. So in the case of the red scale, it appears to have been introduced into Australia, and that it existed for centuries before in some of the Oriential coun- tries. That China is the native home of the San Jose scale is further borne out by its relationships and distribution as an insect of temperate regions. But in the case of the red, the relationships and distribution are that of a tropical or semi-tropical insect rather than one of tem- perate regions. Maskell N. Z. Trans. XI, p. 199 (1878). Can. Ent. XIII, p. 8 (1881). U. S. D. A. Rep., p. 294 (1880). iMarlatt Bulletin 62, Bur. Ent. U. S. D. A., p. 10 (1906). 100 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT STATION. Bulletin 222] THE RED OR ORANGE SCALE. 101 DISTRIBUTION. Over World. The red or orange scale is very widely distributed over the world, as shown by the accompanying map. It will be noticed that it is largely a tropical or semi-tropical insect. New Zealand represents the most southern location with a south latitude of 45° and New York the most northern point with a latitude of 45° north. But the red scale is not a pest in New York, and we are not sure but that this is simply a greenhouse or incidental locality. While it occurs in New Zealand at a latitude of 45° south there is here really a semi-tropical climate, for "j r i vi i i / \ i i . ; v^ f ■ ' j j C / _ .. J — , __.i — \ s*\ \ i \ u-.-t- y \ . )\ ) h V y^Z "i { {\:t&Si v — v h \\ ' • / \ V* -■ajni _ //""' F /' *-. \ M \v-SssiV] v / \ \ ^jt>v, -•' T , - ! X, r y ~ VJ \ VNV. i ' '' >S - ' V 'X ■v -^v, y ^ y ^jj- v- . \ '*■_ \.y >'' \ \ \ \. ) \ \/ _. ( s. \ \ N ■^. i T v , Vt '■ x ( \ L > 1_ ! \ ? i K Co* I \ ^"^"S.o* \ * ./' o* >^'^ ,. / /-— i i VJ~"i x°* Lo+ ; Fig. 2. — Map indicating distribution of Red and Yellow Scales in principal citrus fruit areas of California, o represents C. aurantii; x represents C. aurantii var. citrinus. citrus trees are grown. According to Dewar 1 , this scale is the most important citrus fruit pest in the Orange River Colony. In West Australia it is also considered the most serious scale of citrus trees. It also occurs as a citrus pest in Cape Colony and other localities where citrus fruits are grown. 'Ann. Rep. E!nt. Orange River Colony. 102 UNIVERSITY OP CALIFORNIA — EXPERIMENT STATION The following places are recorded as having the red scale : Mauritius, Ceylon, India, S. Europe, Syria, Natal, Cape Colony, China, Japan, Australia, New Zealand, Java, New Caledonia, Samoa, Fiji, West Indies, Greece, Turkey, Italy, Spain, Singapore, New York, Ohio, Florida, and California. In California. While the red scale is recorded from many other food plants than citrus trees, in this state it is limited as a pest entirely to the citrus, so that its distribution is governed largely by this host plant. In the citrus area south of the Tehachapi, this scale occurs in the following counties : Santa Barbara, Ventura, Orange, Los Angeles, Riverside, San 5 A N BERNARDINO **'*1fe«£i^- .^Corona r *y /jSarxfa.Ana gCf / RIVERSIDE SAN I EGO Fig. 3. — Map showing distribution of Red Scale over southern California citrus belt. Bernardino, and San Diego. In Tulare County it occurs on citrus trees in the city of Visalia, but has not yet reached the commercial citrus section of that county around Porterville, Lindsay, and Exeter. It has been noted in abundance on orange and ivy at Selma in the San Joaquin Valley. It does not occur, so far as known, in Butte County, the citrus section of the Sacramento Valley. Here its place is occupied by the variety citrinus. ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE. The red scale is the second most important insect enemy of citrus trees in California. In fact, a good deal of evidence may be submitted for its claim to first place. If the yellow is included, which is justifiable, Bulletin 222 J THE RED OR ORANGE SCALE. 103 since it is only a variety of the red, the total amount of control work directed against these would nearly, if not quite, equal that against its competitor for first place, the Mack scale. The black is more generally distributed, and has first place in most, if not all, of the coast counties. In the case of other scales occurring with the black, the black is usually considered as the least important when it comes to fumigating, since they are, if in the proper stage, more readily killed. For this reason the Fig. 4. — Tree partially killed by Red Scale. black is sunk into second place, whereas, if left untreated, would prob- ably cause more injury than the one which the treatment was especially directed against. The red scale ranks first as a citrus pest in Riverside and San Ber- nardino counties, two of the great citrus producing counties of the state. It also holds second place in Los Angeles and Orange counties, two other 104 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT STATION. counties where the citrus industry is of first importance. In San Ber- nardino County about $200,000 is spent annually for fumigation and $10,000 more for spraying to control citrus fruit pests. In Riverside County $75,000 is spent annually in fumigation and $8,000 in spraying for the same pests. While all of this is not directed against the red scale, the majority of it is, since in these two counties the red is the most injurious pest. Fig. 5. — 1 Red Scale on lemon. 2 Red Scale on nightshade. 3 Red Scale on twig of lemon. No citrus scale in California so quickly and so permanently injures the tree as the red scale. The black seldom, if ever, kills a tree, its chief injury being due to the sooty mold fungus on the fruit. The purple often kills but a few of the lower or interior branches. But practically the entire tree may be killed by the red, sometimes in one or two years ' infestation. It infests all parts of the tree, leaves, branches, fruit. It not only causes a dropping of the leaves, but actually kills large branches. Aside from this permanent and serious injury to the tree, the presence of the scale on the fruit renders it unmarketable. Trees that do not have a severe infestation of the scale, and where the tree itself is not seriously injured, may have its fruit badly infested by the scale. Bulletin 222] THE RED OR ORANGE SCzYLE. 105 No honey dew is given off by the red scale, so that the characteristic injury by the sooty mold fungus, as occurs with the unarmored scales, is not present in the case of the red. The injury is due directly to the feeding of the scales themselves, and, aside from their feeding, the fruit is marred simply by their presence. The injury by feeding is due to the loss of chlorophyl, toxic effect on the tissues of the plant, and interference with the functions of the stomata when the scale is abundant. Some scales have a much more virulent poisoning effect on the tissues than others. One of the most marked in this respect is the San Jose scale Aspidiotus pemiciosus Comst. On the fruit of apple or pear it causes a distinct reddening of the surface tissue. If the bark be cut off where this insect is present the deeper tissues will be seen to have a blackish red color. With such insects the presence of a few will noticeably injure the tree. In the case of others, such as the Greedy scale, Aspidiotus rapax Comst., the tree may be completely incrusted with them, yet the tree suffers no noticeable injury. It is only necessary to notice infestations of this scale on acacia, laurel and others to see how abundant they may become and still the tree appears normal. There is, to be sure, some injury done here, but it must be largely on account of loss of sap, and where the tree has plenty •of moisture it can withstand a considerable drain in this respect. If the same number of San Jose scales were to infest a tree as often occurs with the rapax on acacia, laurel and others, the tree would be entirely killed. So with the red on the orange, a heavy infestation on the twigs and branches, as well as on the leaves and fruit, means the destruction of the tree. FOOD PLANTS. While the list of food plants of the red or orange scale is large, it is restricted very largely as a pest, to citrus trees. It is recorded from a number of deciduous fruit trees, but is not a serious pest on those trees. Most of the other food plants are ornamental, and pests on such plants never rank in importance with those on commercial fruit trees. Here in California the red scale is practically unknown away from the orange or lemon. It does, of course, get on to several different kinds of plants, but from an economic standpoint it is of little consequence excepting on the citrus. It frequently happens that other trees, near by citrus trees badly infested with this scale, will be infested to a greater or less degree ; but it is not often that such trees or plants are permanently infested, and they seldom become serious enough to warrant treatment. The problem of controlling the red scale, then, is limited practically to citrus trees. In this respect the black scale presents a different situation. Outside the citrus groves, three very important host plants, olive, ole- 106 UNIVERSITY' OF CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT STATION. ander, and pepper occur abundantly and everywhere in southern California. One of the food plants, aside from the citrus, that is import- ant from a control standpoint is the nightshade Solarium douglassii. This weed occurs in waste places and also among the trees in the grove ; but the presence of this plant in a grove usually means neglect in cultivation or care of the trees. These plants, growing as they do under and among the trees, may be a source of reinfestation after fumigation. The castor bean is another common native plant attacked, but it is not generally in such close proximity to citrus trees. The complete list of food plants from which the red scale has been recorded is as follows : orange, lemon, cocoanut, fig, olive, agave, plum, lignum vita?, buxus, Euonymus, Pistacia, rose, pear, quince, apple, willow, oak, grape, acacia, tea plant, Podocarpus, wattle, Ligustrum r Artocarpus, sago palm, nightshade, English walnut, eucalyptus, cam- phor tree, Kennedya, passion flower, fuchsia, Bidens, Solidago, date palm, California palm. DESCRIPTION OF THE STAGES. First Larval Stage. Length .24 mm. Greatest width .15 mm. Color sulfur yellow. The pygidium has two central lobes well developed and conspicuous. Arising from each of these on the inner and dorsal sides is a spine .25 mm. long; also a small spine on outer basal margin. The median lobes are similar in shape to those of the adult female, that is, they are abruptly narrowed at about one half their length. There is but a slight indication of a second pair and the third is not present at all. There are two plates between the two median lobes and also two between the first and second. Be- yond the second lobe are from three to four short plates. The antennae consist of four indistinct segments of the following com- parative lengths 4 — 2 — 2 — 14. The fourth is conspicuously annulate. There are six spines arising from the sides of this segment and two at the extreme tip. The tarsi have a single claw, and there arises from the end of the tibia and extending to or beyond the tip of the claw three of four nobbed hairs. Second Stage Female. After the first molt the scale increases to about twice its original size, and now all the characters of the pygidium are distinct, but the legs and antennae are lost. There are three pairs Fig. 6. -Motile young of Red Scale. x!75. Bulletin 222] THE RED 0H orange SCALE. 107 of conspicuous lobes with a spine arising from the base of each. Between the two median lobes and between those and the second are two conspicuous plates and three between the second and third lobes. Beyond this are three additional plates. All the plates are deeply fringed. There are no spinnerets. The Adult Female. The average dimensions are about .78 mm. wide and 1 mm. long. The lateral margins of the body extend downward often as far as or beyond the tip of the pygidium. The pygidium presents the following characters : There are three pairs of conspicuous lobes, each notched at about one half their length, making the distal half narrower than the basal. On the dorsal surface there is a spine accompanying each lobe. Those of the first pair are long and ( slender and situated at the outer basal margin, so placed that they may move either to the ventral or dorsal side of the lobes. On the other lobes there is one shorter and more blunt spine arising from the middle of the base of the lobe. On the ventral sur- face the first pair of lobes have the fig. 7.— Ventral view of Red Scale. same spines, mentioned above in con- x50 ' nection with the dorsal surface. On the other lobes are each a single spine situated in the middle at the base of the lobe corresponding to those above. There are two plates between the first pair of lobes, two between the first and second, two between the second and third and three beyond the third lobe. The first plate beyond the second lobe and the three beyond the third are deeply bifurcated and fringed on the lateral margin. The dorsal surface of the pygidium shows a number of dorsal tubular spinnerets and several marginal spinnerets, as shown in the figure. It will be seen from this that they are not arranged uniformly on both sides of the median line. Near the upper margin are five curious shaped structures with a couple of blunt pointed prominences projecting anteriorly. On the ventral surface the vaginal cleft is shown, see figure, with its radiating lines. The tubular spinnerets may be faintly seen from this surface by focusing downward. The Second Stage Male. There are no distinguishable differences between the sexes until after the first molt. After the first molt the male becomes more elongate or pyriform, as indicated by the follow- ing measurements : average length .7 mm., average width .4 mm. The 108 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT STATION. pygidium characters are the same as in the second stage female. There are two pairs of conspicuous purple eyes, one pair on the lateral anterior margin, while the other pair is more dorsal and are nearer together. Small spines arise from around the lateral margin. The male propupa is orange yellow in color with the eyes very dark red or brown. Length .7 mm., greatest width .35 mm. Dorsal eyes are just posterior to antennal sheaths and in hollow formed by them. The ventral eyes are larger and closer together and a little more posterior than the dorsal. The sheaths of the antennas and wings are visible, and a faint indication of those of the legs. But they are all more rudi- mentary and lie closer to the body than is the case in the next stage. There is no style present, but in its place is a blunt protuberance from which arise two distinct spines. The truncate posterior end with the button at the tip is the most evident character distinguishing this stage from the true pupa. The male pupa is of the same general color as the propupa. Length exclusive of the style is .7 mm. The style is .1 mm. Greatest width .82 mm. The ventral eyes are large and almost touching each other. Fig. -Stages of the male of the Red Scale. 1 Second stage. x56. pupa. x70. 3 Pupa. x70. 2 Pro- They are situated a short distance from the anterior margin. The dorsal pair of eyes are wider apart and somewhat closer to the anterior margin. The sheaths of the antennas wings and legs are evident and ordinarily lie close to the body along the ventral margin. The adult male has a wing expanse of 1.5 mm. ; length exclusive of the style .6 ; style .22 ; color orange yellow ; antennas 10 jointed, the first two segments being- much shorter and thicker than the others. The com- Bulletin 222] THE RED OR ORANGE SCALE. WJ parative lengths beginning with the proximal one are as follows : 5 — 4— 17 20 — 20 — 20—18 — 15 — 13 — 17. Total length .5 mm. The antenna? are light colored with some yellow pigment. On all the joints excepting the first two are rather long hairs. The lateral pair of eyes are dark brown and situated just lat- eral of the antennae. The ventral pair of eyes are much larger and closer together and situated more posteriorly. The legs, excepting coxae which are yellow, are glassy white, and the tarsi light brown. The thoracic band is of a light brown color. The halteres are- club-shaped, with the slender hook arising from the tip of the club. Male of Red Scale. LIFE HISTORY AND HABITS. THE ACTIVE LARVA. The red scale is viviparous, hence the starting point in the life history is with the active larva, which are born alive. This means that what ordinarily corresponds with the egg hatches within the body of the parent, instead of the embryo developing and the eggs hatching outside the body of the parent. Very rarely there appears an object that looks very much like an egg. There are no free appendages or other char- acters common to the young insect. But if this is placed under a microscope or examined closely with a lens it will be seen that there is a perfectly developed young insect within which is surrounded by an enveloping membrane — the amnion. This encloses the developing larva, and ordinarily is cast off within the oviduct, but occasionally, as inti- mated, this is not cast off until it is outside the oviduct. The larva emerging from beneath the parent scale, where it may have remained for a day or two after birth, crawls about for a day or two longer before settling and becoming fixed. It is most usual to find them settling on the following day, but if, in the mean time, a suitable place for becoming stationary and obtaining food is not found, they may remain active for a day or two longer. They do not as a rule migrate very far from their parent scale. Several oranges, badly infested with red scale which were producing young, were each placed in a young orange tree that was entirely free from scale. Two or three weeks later those trees were examined to determine if any had settled on the tree. Hundreds of young scales with their white circular covering were found, and imme- 110 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT STATION. diately about the fruit for a few inches the branches and leaves were simply peppered with young scales. As the distance from the point of liberation increased the number of scales decreased, and the maximum distance they were found to travel and become fixed was 19 inches above on one tree and 21 inches below on another. The tree was succulent and thrifty and offered suitable ground for settling without much crawling about. In other cases they are, of course, likely to go farther, and, in addition to their own powers of traveling, they may be distributed about by other insects. A fuller discussion of the subject of locomotion is given under the head of "Locomotion and Spread." Temperature and humidity records covering period when most of the life history data on Chrysomphalus aurantii were secured. 1909— February March ___ April May June July August _. September October _ November December Humidity (means). Temper i Mean 7 A. M. 12 M. 5 P. M. minimum. 91 65 80 44 84.4 62 74.9 45.6 83.4 56 69 50.7 83 57.7 66.5 53 83.5 63.4 65.9 57.1 85.4 59.9 68 59 82.6 50.1 59.1 57.2 85.4 56.1 72.5 58.9 83.1 55.2 75.5 52.8 83.1 58 78 45.9 i 81.6 74.9 80.6 44 | Mean maximum. 73.2 76 80.1 81.3 84.2 87.1 93.1 90.8 84 75.8 73 SETTLING OF THE LARV2E. A few larvae will settle down on the same day of emergence, but the great majority will be found to settle on the following day. Daily records of emergence were made on about 1000 scales, and out of this number they would be occasionally found to settle before examination on the following day. Records kept on 884 young larvae liberated in leaf cages showed that about 95 per cent settled within one day. But here the larvae were picked from infested fruit as they were actively crawling about, so that some may have been emerged for some time. The proportion settling and becoming established in our cages was 41 per cent. These were liberated on leaves and had practically normal conditions. The fact that they were enclosed in cages and thus protected from enemies or becoming dislodged and falling to the ground, was really in favor of a greater number becoming fixed than would be the case were they out in the open. The insects were transferred by a small camel 's hair brush or a needle. Possibly some may have been injured in the transfer, but care was taken in this regard, and usually the count of the number liberated was made of those actually crawling about and unharmed in the cages. Bulletin 222] THE RED OR ORANGE SCALE. Ill The following table shows the number that settle, and, since these experiments were extended over several months of the year, there appears to be little effect due to season: 5-' 3 1908— September 21 September 23 September 23 September 23 November 24 1909— January 30 . June 19 June 19 July 2 July 2 July 2 July 3 July 21 July 24 August 12 ___ August 13 August 18 August ]8 ___. August IS August 21 ___. September 2 . September 2 . September 3 . September 3 . September 4 . September 4 . September 7 . September 7 . September September 22 September September September 1909— September 22 September 22 September 30 October 1 ___ October 1 October 4 ___ October 5 October 11 __. October 11 __. October 11 „ October 13 __. October 14 __ October 20 __. October 20 __. October 21 __. November 26 . 1910— May 31 May 31 May 31 June 3 June 6 June 6 June 17 June 17 June 20 June 20 June 20 June 20 June 20 Total Per cent settled, 41.06. 884 They may settle either on the leaves, branches or fruit. It seems to make no very great difference where they settle so long as it is con- venient. But the part of the tree that is more likely to be severely infested first is the branches, later the leaves, and finally the fruit. They will be found on both sides of the leaves, but the upper side, usually, has the greater numbers. In the case of the yellow it is more often the under side. The red will not settle readily on the older and larger corky branches, but prefer the younger succulent branches where not so much of the corky material has been deposited. FORMATION OF THE SCALE COVERING. When the active larva first settles the legs and antennae are withdrawn beneath the body and in an hour or two a cottony secretion appears from numerous pores over the body. In another hour a light flimsy covering of cottony threads envelops the entire scale and extends down over the sides of the insect to the surface on which it is resting. The 2— bul. 222 112 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT STATION. Fig. 10. — 1 Different stages in formation of scale covering. 2 The ventral scale formed beneath the insect. 3 Old and young red scales on orange. 4 Larva of parasite, Aphelinus diaspidis, feed- ing on Red Scale ; the scale shriveled from absorption of body contents. 5 Yellow scale containing pupa of parasite Aspid- iotiphagus citrinus. ' Bulletin 222] THE RED 0R RANGE SCALE. 113 covering is still transparent enough to see plainly the insect beneath. By this time the insect itself has shortened in length, while its width is increased, and it thus becomes almost circular. While this covering is being secreted the insect beneath revolves about for the purpose of molding the covering in the proper form. It is generally assumed that the insertion of the beak into the plant tissue is a necessary preliminary operation to the secretion of the cover- ing. On this point our observations, in general, seem to agree, but the actual operation of inserting the beak can not be seen readily. They have been seen to settle with the beak inserted and then withdrawn again before any covering is started. The withdrawal of the beak has been noted in a few instances, and the process is characterized by more distinct indications than is the case with the insertion. A considerable movement of the body occurs by turning partly around, and also a rapid movement of the legs and antennae. Certain cases have been observed where the young scales settled on top of an old one and secreted the preliminary covering, yet the depth of the old scale was too great to allow the young one above to reach the plant tissues. In such cases the covering is commenced before the beak is inserted or at least before any food is taken. It often happens, of course, that young settle on the outer margins of the old scales, but here there is no difficulty in reach- ing through to the plant substance beneath. The same insect may secrete a new covering for a few times if the old one is removed. A scale covering, one or two days old, was lifted from the insect and again replaced. It accepted the new covering, and four days later it was again lifted, and again replaced. This time the covering was not accepted, but a new covering was secreted. In the case of other insects the covering was permanently removed, and the maxi- mum number of new coverings formed was four. When the covering was removed three or four times or more the insect died. A couple of days after settling the covering is more compacted, especially on the sides near the surface upon which the insect is resting. The dorsal surface is still light and fluffy, but thick enough to entirely conceal the insect beneath. The form at this time is that of a cap with a flat dorsal surface and straight vertical sides. After a few days this sinks down immediately around the center leaving a small prominence forming the so-called nipple. As the scale covering increases in size, it spreads out with a thin edge forming the margin instead of the vertical wall as was the case earlier. In a week or two all the cottony effect is Jost, and the covering becomes a very compacted film. In eighteen to twenty days the cast skin of the insect may be seen incorporated into and forming the greater part of the covering. With the increased size of the insect after the molt it becomes necessary to enlarge the covering, 114 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT STATION. and this is extended beyond the cast skin, which soon comes to form but the center of the scale covering. A similar cast skin is incorporated into the covering after the second molt which is about twice the size of the first. Thus the two cast skins may be seen forming two nearly concentric circles. The covering is again extended, being secreted and added to the outer margin until the total width may be twice that of the second cast skin. During this formation of the scale the lobes and p]ates of the pygidium play an important part in molding it into the proper form. The insect during the process, must revolve around to reach the margin with the posterior tip of the body which is capable of being greatly extended or contracted as required. Fig. 11. — 1 Scale of male. 2 Scale of female, same magnification, male scale, showing winged insect beneath. 3 Inverted The above account has reference to the female scale only. The scale of the male is exactly the same until after the first molt, but from that stage on it takes on a very different form from that of the female. The male insect itself during the second stage becomes much more elongate and so the scale covering assumes a corresponding shape. After the first molt the male scale covering widens but little, but increases consider- ably in length, so that the mature scale is about twice as long as broad. But its extreme length is not as great as the diameter of the mature female scale. The average size of the mature female scale is about 1.5 mm. in diameter, while the mature male scale is about 1 mm. in length. THE FIXED YOUNG. Molting. After the insect has settled and the covering secreted it undergoes no change, except to increase in size, until after the first molt. This molt occurs in from fourteen to twenty days after settling. Prelim- inary to molting, the insect, which, up to this period is readily separated from the scale now becomes firmly attached to it. Previous to this time the bodv of the insect has a flexible, and somewhat tough covering, and is Bulletin 222 J THE RED OR ORANGE SCALE. 115 not much distended by the contents. But during the molting period, which lasts from three to five days, the body wall is hard and brittle and well distended. The body contents seem to be much more fluid and watery during this period. This change in the body wall and its con- tents is shown during the handling of the insect with a needle. Between the molts punctures are less likely to occur for the reason of the flexibility of the skin, while it is very readily punctured through the firm dis- tended skin during the molts. The skin is split around the lateral mar- gin, not only around the general body mar- gin, but often the mar- gin of the lobes and plates also. If the cast dorsal s'kin be treated in potash the lobes, plates and spines show nearly as clearly as in the insect itself in some of the specimens. If the very frail and almost invisible cast ventral skin be examined most of the pygidial characters will also be seen in some of the specimens. Some times greater detail of the pygidial structures is shown in the ventral and some times in the dorsal cast skin. The figures Nos. 12 and 13 indicate this. In the first ventral skin the legs, antenme and mouth parts are of course present. The molting of the male differs very strikingly from that of the female excepting the first molt which is the same in both cases. Instead of the skin splitting around the lateral margin as is the case with the female, the rent occurs near the anterior end, and the old skin is pushed backward and from under the scale. These cast skins may often be seen still attached to the posterior tip of the scale. Fig. 12. — a Dorsal view of pygidium of Red Scale, x200. b Ventral cast skin of Red Scale. Prom same in- sect as Fig. 13, 3, which is the dorsal cast skin. 116 UNIVERSITY OP CALIFORNIA — EXPERIMENT STATION. Fig. 13. — 1 A cast skin after first molt. 2 A ventral cast skin, second molt. 3 Dorsal cast skin, second molt, same insect as Fig. 12, b, which shows the ventral cast skin. 4 Characters of complete insect. x350. The second molt of the male insect occurs in about thirty days from birth which brings it to the pro- pupal stage. It re- mains in this stage about ten days when the third molt occurs after which it is in the true pupal stage. Ten or twelve days are spent as a true pupa when it trans- forms to the adult. The adult remains beneath the scale from three to five days be- Fig. 14.— Showing the mature Red Scale with its cast skins ^ ore emerging. The and the scale covering. 1 First cast skin. 2 Second cast QVinrfpct r>PT»inrl rp skin. 3 The insect itself. 4 The scale covering. x60. ouw-^&u penuu. ic- Bulletin 222] THE RED OR ORANGE SCALE. 117 quired for the development of the male was found to be 55 days. This was from June 20th to August 14th, which included the hottest weather of the season of 1910. The longest period determined for the develop- ment of the male was 112 days. This was from January 2 to May 1, 1909, which included the coldest weather of the season. THE ADULT MALE. The male pushes its way backward from beneath the scale and actively walks about immediately after emerging. Upon transforming to the adult it remains beneath the scale for a few days, so that the wings are thoroughly dried and expanded, and is at once strong enough to begin its short period of active life. It usually walks about on the leaf or fruit for a short time, and then flies away. This appears to be a provi- sion to insure the fertilization of females some little distance away, and thus prevent possible degeneration through in-breeding with the females of the same parent which usually settle down in the immediate vicinity. Copulation may occur within a half hour or hour after emergence. The adult life varies from one to five days. The male of this, like most other scale insects, is not a strong flier, but may be greatly aided in prolonged flights by the wind. They appear to be more abundant at certain seasons, and this is particularly true of the early spring. The following table gives the proportion of the sexes according to the time liberated which includes most of the months of the year. It will be seen from this that during the first half of the year the number of males was 74 while the number of females was 42. During the second half of the year the sexes were approximately equal, the table giving 34 for the males and 35 for the females : FIRST HALF-TEAR. SECOND HALF-YEAR. Young liberated. Number males. Number females. Young liberated. Number males. Number females. 7 6 7 22 5 3 7 5 2 2 2 2 2 4 3 1 4 8 3 3 4 3 1 3 4 1 3 1 2 2 February 24__ 2 1 May 12 September 3 _ __ __ 2 1 May 13__ _ September 7 1 1 June 3__ _ September 22 . 7 2 1 , 1 June 7 5 5 June 17 October 11 4 2 June 17 _ __ 1 October 13_. 3 June 17 _. October 14 2 1 June 18 _._ October 20__ _ _ 1 2 June 18_ November 10__ 2 4 June 19_ November 29 - - 3 June 19 Total __ __ _ July 24 Total 74 42 34 35 118 UNIVERSITY OP CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT STATION. THE ADULT FEMALE. The second molt of the female occurs from 40 to 50 days after birth, which brings it to the adult. It continues to secrete the scale covering after this molt to allow for its increased growth. From 10 to 20 days after the second molt it is fertilized by the male. This is on an average about 60 days from birth. The formation of the scale is entirely com- pleted before the production of young is commenced. During the period the insect is producing young it is similar to that of the molting periods. That is, the insect itself is inseparable from the scale, and the body is rigid and distended. LENGTH OF ADULT LIFE. The female scales begin to produce young in about ninety days, and this is continued from one to two months longer, making the total life of the adult from four to five months. In case the female is not fertilized the adult life may be extended much longer. Five females ; ''"l«.ir ii L ii(*-^^WPH /:■- :; ; : ^p;' BP i l^-^^mj ™ ~4t HBj£U ' thgfljfi^. Gftri w ■**' ^'**fE? : ^~ +Jk Fig. 15. — Red Scale, mature females and young. isolated in cages were perfectly healthy and vigorous and not yet having produced young after a period of five months and twenty-six days. This was during the warmest part of the season, from May 31st to November 25th, when cold was not a factor in retarding development. This fact was learned in connection with the experiments on partheno- genesis. When insects liberated at the same time were fertilized and had completed their production of young the leaves containing the unfertilized scales were unfortunately removed from the tree for exam- ination. This prevented us from obtaining the maximum life of the Bulletin 2221 THE RED OR ORANGE SCALE. 119 unfertilized female, and also from determining if they could, at that late date, be fertilized and still produce their quota of young-. This latter fact will very probably be true, but as yet the evidence of actual trial is not at hand. In case the female is not fertilized it thus appears that its development is practically at a standstill for at least three months, or it w T ill live for at least three months after reaching maturity without producing young. AGE AT WHICH YOUNG IS PRODUCED. The minimum period from birth to the appearance of young was found to be 73 days. This was from June 20th to September 1st, which included the warmest weather for the season of 1910. This was at Riverside, where the temperature is higher than that of Whittier, where the most of the work was done. Parallel experiments carried on during the same period showed the minimum period from birth to the produc- tion of young as 81 days at Whittier. The maximum period was from February 24th to June 30th, or four I • '"V«~A»* lit • * ''* ' /' *' I' VV7 jr A- ri^ '" fl Fig. 16. — Red Scale (Chrysomphalus aurantii Mask.) on grape fruit. months and ten days. Young born on January 2d did not produce adult males until May 1st. Allowing the usual thirty days from fertil- ization to the appearance of young would make a period of five months. 120 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT STATION. This represents the maximum for the coldest weather of the season. The age at which young is produced is also dependent upon the time of fertilization. Scales may live for four or five months during the warmest part of the year, and then after fertilization very probably produce young. ASPIDIOTUS AURANTII — DEVELOPMENT. Experi- ment number Date Settled. First molt. Second molt 2 Second molt o d Propupa $ Pupa. 6 Emerged O Dead. Young appeared. 14___ 9-23-08 9-24 11-25 12- 1 1- 2-09 33— 1- 2-09 1- 3 4-16 5- 1 5- 5 104... 2-24 2-25 3-16 4-20 3-30 4-16 5-11 5-15 6-30 102... 2-20 * 2-21 3-16 4-20 3-30 4- 8 1(XL__ 2-24 6-26 139... 5- 4 5- 6 6-28 8- 6 146— 5-12 5-13 7-14 149... 5- 9 5-10 7-3 7-18 7-22 8-10 150 5-19 5-21 6- 4 6-15 6-30 7-21 8-18 151... 5-19 5-20 6- 6 7-10 7- 2 7-21 161— 5-21 5-23 7-14 7-21 7-26 8- 7 148— 5-13 5-14 6-1 6-30 6-22 7-12 7-16 173— 6- 4 6- 5 9- 8 182— 6-17 7-12 7-21 183— 6-17 7-27 7-21 8-11 184___ 6-17 6-18 7-1 7-21 8-11 8-16 187— 6-18 7- 3 8-11 189— 6-18 7-28 7-21 8-11 8-15 190— 6-19 7- 3 9-10 191— 6-19 8- 1 7-14 8-14 192_._ 6-19 7- 5 7-17 9-10 193— 6-19 7-17 215___ 7- 2 7- 4 8-11 8-24 214... 7-2 7-17 7-28 8-11 217— 7- 3 8-11 8-24 9-10 9-14 256___ 7-21 7-23 8-5 8-16 260 7-24 9- 9 10- 6 279— 8-12 9-20 10-10 10-14 11-24 285__. 8-12 8-13 10-12 11-27 311_-_ 9- 2 9-18 10-15 10-20 10-29 11- 2 1-18-10 312_._ 9- 3 9-20 10-29 322... 9-22 12- 2 323— 9-22 10- 5 10-18 10-29 12- 2 12- 6 325... 9-22 9-23 10-29 11-30 326... 9-22 10-12 11- 6 12- 5 12- 8 327— 9-22 9-24 10-14 10-29 1- 2-10 335 10- 5 10-25 1-2 341— 10-11 1-11 342. __ 10-11 10-30 1-15 1-20 347... 10-14 1-27 3-25 559... 6-17-10 7-20 7-16 7-28 8-4 561... 6-17 7-3 7-21 563... 5-31 7-28 564... 5-31 6-1 8- 1 568. __ 6- 6 7-27 8- 4 569... 6-6 7-12 *570... 6-20 7- 4 8-14 9- 1 *571.._ 6-20 *572 6-20 7- 4 9- 2 *573— 6-20 8-14 9- 1 Summa ry av ... 24hrs. 16 days 46 days 30 days 38 days 48 days 60 days 65 days 90 days c At Riverside. Bulletin 222] THE RED OR ORANGE SCALE. 121 EMBRYONIC DEVELOPMENT. Since the female comes to maturity and is fertilized by the male about sixty days from birth, and the production of young begins on an average of ninety days, the time required for the development of the egg and the hatching of the larva therefrom within the body of the female, is about thirty days. Fig. 17. — Greedy Scale (Aspidiotus rapax Comst. ). mistaken for Red Scale. Sometimes PARTHENOGENESIS. Several individual female red scales were isolated as they approached maturity, and no males allowed to reach them. In every case no young appeared under such conditions. These lived for a period of more than six months, with no indication of young appearing. The insect remained in the condition it was after the second molt, that is, it was free from the scale covering and with a pliable body, as opposed to the gravid condition or molting periods, or young-producing periods, 'as already explained. EMERGENCE OF YOUNG. The emergence of young means practically the same as the birth of young, but since the actual birth records can not be obtained without destroying the parent, emergence is used in this discussion rather than birth. This makes no difference in the total number, or the length of the 122 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA — EXPERIMENT STATION. producing period, though it may make some difference in the rate from day to day. That is, when a sudden drop in the temperature occurs, for instance, the young already born may linger under the scale for a longer period than would otherwise be the case. But the records given show that there is little variation on this point. The maximum number emerged in a single day was found to be eight. But five or six may appear for three or four days in succession, showing that this number must actually be produced on those days. The records given in the table are for fourteen females, of which daily examination was made throughout the producing period. Many other » « v # - d . . £'t * • .- •■-•'. f ;-:;■■ v J UlKti^mmm ummmmg ^A Fig. 18. — Red Scale on orange leaf. records were less accurately made. The period during which young were produced varied from 16 to 63 days, with an average of about 23. The number of young per insect varied from 34 to 143, with an average of 55. The number of young appearing in a day was from to 8. The average number of young per day for the different scales ran from 1.65 to 3.07, with an average for the total number of scales of 2.33. These records on the production of young were made during the months of September and October mostly. September in southern California is a fairly warm month, and during October it seldom gets cool enough to have any marked effect on the activity of the scale. Records on the emergence' of young during June and July showed that it was prac- tically the same as that of September and October. Those given, there- fore, may be considered as a fair average for the active season from April to November. Bulletin 222] THE RED OR ORANGE SCALE. EMERGENCE OF YOUNG. 123 Date, 11)10. Date, 1910. Sept . Sept. Sept. Sept. Sept. Sept . Sept. Sept. Sept. Sept. Sept. Oct. Oct . Oct. Oct. Oct. Oct . Oct. Oct. Oct. Oct. Oct. Oct. Oct. Oct. Oct. Oct. Oct. Oct. Oct. Oct. Oct. Oct. Oct. Oct. Oct. Oct. Oct. Oct. Oct. Oct. Oct. Nov. Nov. Nov. Nov. Nov. Nov. Nov. Nov . Nov. Nov. Nov. Nov . Nov. Nov . Nov. Nov. Nov. Nov. Nov. Nov. Nov. 28. Total Day- Av. per day. Sept. Sept. Sept. Sept. Sept. Sept. Sept. Sept. Sept. Sept. Oct. Oct. Oct. Oct. Oct. Oct. Oct. Oct. Oct. Oct. 22 23 24 25 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 1. 2 3. 4. 5. 6. 8. lo. Total Days Av. per day. Sept. 24 Sept. 25 Sept. 20 Sept. 27 Sept. 28 Sept. 29 Sept. 30 Oct. 1 Oct. 2 Oct. 3 Oct. 4 Oct. 5 !Oct. Oct. Oct. Oct. Oct. Oct. Oct. Oct. Oct. Oct. Oct. Oct. Oct. Oct. 20 Total Days __. 1.65 J Av. per day. Sept. Sept. Sept. Sept. Sept. Sept. Oct. Oct. Oct. Oct. Oct. Oct. Oct . Oct. Oct. Oct. Oct. Oct. Oct. Oct. Oct. Oct. Oct. Oct. Oct. Total Days Av. per day. 25 3.56 Sept. 28 Sept. 29. Sept. 30. Oct. 1. Oct. 2 Oct. 3. Oct. 4. Oct. 5. Oct. 6. Oct. 7. Oct. 8. Oct. 9. Oct. 10. Oct. 11. Total Days Av. per day. 124 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT STATION. EMERGENCE OF YOUNG— Continued. Date, 1910. Sept. 28 Sept. 29 Sept. 30 Oct. 1 Oct. 2 Oct. 3 Oct. 4 Oct. 5 Oct. 6 Oct. 7 Oct. 8 Oct. 9 Oct. 10 Oct. 11 Oct. 12 Oct. 13 Oct. 14 Total Days Av. per day. Is Date, 1910. 8 Sept. 29. 3 Sept. 30. 1 Oct. 1. 4 Oct. 2. 2 Oct. 3. 3 Oct. 4. 5 Oct. 5. 6 Oct. 0. 6 Oct. 7. 8 Oct. 8. 4 Oct. 9. 3 Oct. 10. Oct. 11. O.Oct. 12. Oct. 13 3 Oct. 14 1 Oct. 15. Oct. 16 Oct. 17 Oct. 18 Oct . 19. Date, 1910. Sept. Sept. Oct. Oct. Oct. Oct. Oct. Oct. Oct. Oct. Oct. Oct. Oct. Oct. 2 ! Oct. 3 | Oct. 2 (Oct. 1 | Oct. 0|Oct. 11 j Oct. ] 57 Total 42 17 Days 21 35 Av. per day__ 2 Total Days Sept. Sept. Sept. Sept. Sept. Sept. Sept. Sept. Sept. Sept. Sept. Sept. Sept. ! Sept. Oct. S Oct. Oct. Oct. Oct. Oct. Oct. Oct. Oct. Oct. Oct. Oct. 20 Av. per day__ 3.05 Sept. 19_ 4 4 4 4 4 5 6 3 | Sept. 20 1 Sept. 21 Sept. 22 1 j Sept. 23 j Sept. 24 ; Sept. 25 2 | Sept. 26 Sept. 27 Sept. 28 2 SI Total Days Av. per day. 42 Date, 1910. Total Days „ Oct. 1. Oct. 2. Oct. 3. Oct. 4. Oct. 5. Oct. 6. Oct. 7. Oct. 8 Oct. 9. Oct. 10 Oct. 11. Oct. 12 Oct. 13 2 o 5 II Av. per day. 2.30 Bulletin 222] THE RED OR ORANGE SCALE. 125 EMERGENCE OF YOUNG— Continued. g M 2 2 V. « Fig. 26. — Aphelinus sp. Larva, pupa, adult. Reared from Aspidiotus hederae Vail. PREDATORY ENEMIES. Ehizooius lopanthce. Blaisd. This Coccinelid is probably the commonest and most abundant one feeding upon the red scale. While it is not restricted in its feeding to this scale exclusively it has been found more often associated with it than any of the other scales, unless it be the purple. It has been called the "Purple Scale Rhizobius," but this name is no more justifiable than Bulletin 222] THE RED OR ORANGE SCALE. 139 "Red Scale Rhizobius." In fact, the latter would be an appropriate common name just as the "Black Scale Rhizobius" would be similarly appropriate for Rhizobius ventralis. Where both the red and black scales occur in the same orchard, or even on the same tree, ventralis will be found with the black and lophanthce with the red. Fig. 27. — Prospaltella sp. Internal parasite from Aspidiotus hederae Vail. The eggs of B. lophanthce are often found beneath the red scale. Usually but one or two are found under the same scale. They are small oval shaped eggs white in color with a metallic iridescence. Upon hatching the larva makes its way from beneath the scale, consuming first the scale under which it is found, if it offers suitable food, and later attacks many different scales before reaching maturity. It eats out an irregular hole, rectangular usually, in the scale covering and most com- monly just beyond the insect which is lying beneath. — Rhizobius lopanthae Blaisd. and pupa, xlO ; and adult, x5. Larva The mature larva is 4 mm. in length and about 1 mm. wide. The general color is dark gray with a lighter rectangular area on dorsal line of first four abdominal segments. There is also a strip similar in color on either side of the dorsal line on the meso- and meta-thoracic segments, also two narrower strips more laterally on last four abdominal segments. 140 UNIVERSITY OP CALIFORNIA — EXPERIMENT STATION. There is a double row of conspicuous papillae from each of which arise two or three hairs, the central papilla and hairs being longest. The hairs are light colored. There is a row of very small inconspicuous hairs, two on each segment, on either side of the dorsal line. The adult is a small beetle, measuring 2 to 2-J mm. in length. The elytra are metallic black in color and covered with grayish or light brown hairs. The pro-thorax is brown with a faint darker band extend- ing horizontally across the middle. Eyes black. Ventral surface and legs brown. This is sometimes called the "little brown neck beetle" Fig. 29. — Some common ladybird beetles that feed on the Red Scale. 1. Scymnus marginicollis, Mann. 2. Rhizobius lophanthae, Blaisd. 3. Scymnus nebulosis, Lee. 4. Hippodamia convergens, Guer. 5. Coccinella californica, Mann. 6. Hippodamia ambigua, Lee. 7. Hippodamia ambigua, Lee. x5. Bulletin 222] TH E RED OR ORANGE SCALE. 141 because of the color of its pro-thorax, but others nearly similar in size and appearance might be confused with it. Besides the red scale, this beetle is known to attack the yellow (C. aurantii var. citrinus) the oleander (Aspidiotus hederce) the greedy (A. rapax) and the purple (L. beckii). It has been found commonly feeding on the purple scale, both in the vicinity of Los Angeles and San Diego. Its attacks on the purple appear to be limited more to the young or partly grown. The mature purple with its firm covering seems to be better protected from its attacks. THE STEEL-BLUE LADYBIRD BEETLE. Orchus chalybeus. Boisd. This beetle is most abundant in Santa Barbara County. It is found well distributed over the citrus section of that county, and often occurs in large numbers. It is said to feed especially on the red and yellow scales. But it is not limited to those scales, and where it was seen most abundantly in Santa Barbara County it was associated with the black scale. OTHER ENEMIES. There are many other Coccinellids which may feed on the red scale occasionally, but these are still more general in their feeding than the two mentioned. Our commonest native species including Hippodamia convergens, Coccinella calif ornica, Chilocorus livulnerus, and others are all very general feeders and no one of them is particularly effective as a check on the scale. Aside from the Coccinellidce, other enemies are certain species of the families Chrysopidce, HemeroliidcB, and Reduviidaz, and the predaceous mites. THE YELLOW SCALE. {Chrysomphalus aurantii var. citrinus Coq.) This scale is very similar to the red (C. aurantii), and is classified as a variety having the varietal name citrinus. It is widely distributed over the citrus belt of southern California, often associated more or less with aurantii. But in addition to its occurrence in the southern part of the state it is also found on the citrus trees of the Sacramento Valley. There it is the most important scale occurring on citrus trees. In the same section the typical aurantii is not known. Why it doesn't occur there is not satisfactorily accounted for. In the interchange of nursery stock aurantii has probably had abundant opportunity of becoming established in the section. In fact, it is more likely to have been intro- duced, because of its wider occurrence in the south than citrinus. But it is not altogether improbable that the variety has predominated and become established. Experiments are now under way with a view to determining the factors responsible for such a distribution. U2 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT STATION. In the citrus belt of the south the yellow occurs in various degrees of severity ranging from occasional scales scattered about on parts of the tree, to badly infested trees requiring treatment. In Santa Barbara County at the present time the yellow is more common than the red. In San Bernardino and Riverside counties the yellow ranks second in importance among the insects of citrus trees, the red holding first place. In Los Angeles, Orange and San Diego counties the yellow is not counted among the first three. In these counties, to be sure, its place may be pre-empted by the purple. In former years it is said to have occurred in great abundance in certain sections as San Gabriel in Los Angeles County. pimi ■■■- -•,•■"•• Fig. 30. — Yellow Scale, chrysomphalus aurantii var. citrinus, on orange. Economic importance. While the yellow scale may frequently become abundant to the extent of injuring the tree, it can not be counted as serious as the red. This is partly because of its well known habit of avoiding the twigs and branches, and infesting largely the fruit and foliage. The yellow is found on the branches to some extent, but usually only in severe infestations, and even then only scattering. Trees have been seen where the leaves and fruit were completely covered with yellow scale for two or three years in succession, yet the tree itself was not seriously damaged. Of course, with such an infestation the tree is injured because of the injury to the leaves, and the fruit is rendered unfit for market. But, if a similar infestation had occurred with the red, a large portion of the tree would have been killed outright. Another point that makes the yellow less to be feared in many sec- Bulletin 222] THE RED OR ORANGE SCALE. 143 Fig. 31. — Yellow Scale on orange leaf; upper surface. Fig. 32. — Yellow Scale on under side of same leaf as shown in Fig. 33. 4— bul. 222 144 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT STATION. tions is its apparent lack of vigor, either of breeding or of becoming established rapidly. Exceptions may occur to this statement, as they do in the north and also in cases in the south. But it is not uncommon to find scattering infestations of yellow in a grove for years without becoming abundant enough to attract attention or make it worth while inaugurating control measures. Here is the opportune point to give credit to the parasites. But in those cases under consideration there were less parasites than on the red, and this maximum was only 10 per cent. Differences between the red and yellow scales. Structurally there are do differences, thus far discovered in the insect itself, between the species aurantii and its variety cit- rinus. Exactly the same morpholog- ical characters occur in both, so that under the microscope it is not possible to be sure whether it is the red or yel- low that is being examined. But the difference in appearance as they are found on the tree is usually not diffi- cult to determine. The yellow is much lighter in color, is often less convex and often appears slightly larger in diameter. The additional fact that they are not found to any extent on the twigs, makes the field determina- tion easy enough. But if only a few specimens are seen on a leaf, and these fig. 33. — Yellow Scale showing exit are not typically red or yellow, the hole of Asiridiotiphagus citrinus. . Mouth parts of scale showing determination is difficult and often below in opening, xioo. impossible. This is particularly true of old, dead scales which in the case of the yellow become much darker in color and makes the similarity more complete. The difference in color is not due to the insect itself so much as in the scale covering. When the insects are free from the scale covering, as between the molts, it is often very difficult to distinguish the red from the yellow, though before the same scales were lifted, the difference may have been evident enough. But during the molting periods the red is much darker in color than the yellow. Since the dorsal half of the cast skin is incorporated into the scale this difference persists in the scale covering. The color of the insects is most usually a light yellow, both with the red and yellow. But there is considerable variation, and the red is often apt to be distinctly darker in color, this being most marked, as intimated during the molting period or during the produc- tion of young. Bulletin 222] THE RED OR ORANGE SCALE. 145 Aside from the difference in habits of the two scales in attacking the twigs, there are other differences in habits. Where there are but a few scattering scales the yellow will be most likely to occur on the lower side of the leaves and usually too on those leaves near the lower part of the tree. In severe infestations also the lower side of the leaves are likely to have the greatest number of scales. Of course the red will often be found on the under side of the leaves as well as the upper, but the habit the yellow has sometimes of settling entirely on the lower side is not so true. The red is not averse to getting into the light and more open parts of the tree, while in many cases the yellow has the opposite habit. Where the occurrence of the yellow is severe, all parts of the tree may be attacked. But it can not be said that the yellow doesn't like heat, for it is most important in the warmest part of the southern citrus belt, and occurs exclusively in the large interior valleys of the north, where the summers are hotter than any part of the southern belt. The life history of the yellow has been found to agree in all essential particulars with that of the red. The discussion of the seasonal history, locomotion, and spread also corresponds in both, so that these topics will not be again considered. PARASITES. Aspidiotiphagus citrinus Craw. While the same parasite is likely to attack either the red or yellow, it being unlikely that it is able to distinguish the varietal differences, yet our acquaintance thus far with the following parasite has been largely in connection with the yellow. This is Aspidiotiphagus cit- i rinus Craw, formerly known in this state as the "golden chalcid. " It has been met with most commonly in Santa Barbara County. That it oc- curs here on the yellow may be accounted for because of the fact that the yellow is the commonest of the two scales that county. However, in some red were obtained in one of the localities where the yel- low occurred, but we did not happen to secure any of the parasites from this material. This parasite was only rarely obtained during the past three years from either red or yellow scale material obtained from about Whittier, Los '"^VAA Fig 34. — Aspidiotiphagus citrinus. 1 Egg. xl75. 2 Larva. x30. 3 Yellow Scale harboring larva. 4 Pupa. x65. 146 UNIVERSITY OP CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT STATION. Angeles, Pomona, Redlands, Riverside, Santa Ana, and San Diego. It was found more abundantly at Marysville, Oroville, Chico, Sacramento and Santa Barbara. Indeed, in the Sacramento Valley section is where the heaviest parasitization has been noted. Counts on a large number of scales from that section showed the percentage of parasitization to run as high as 67. Aspidiotiphagus citrinus has been taken rather abundantly from purple scale in certain sections, especially where fumigation has not been regularly practiced. It, therefore, attacks the purple scale readily, and is not limited solely to the yellow as is supposed by some. The egg of A. citrinus is oval in general shape, but distinctly flattened on one side. There is a minute stalk at one end and the egg is slightly more tapering at this end ; color transparent, granular ; length .08 mm., width .007 mm. The egg is found within the body of the scale. The one described was deposited at 5 p. m. December 30, 1910, and was dissected from the scale and examined on January 3, 1911. The mature larva is glassy white in color; length .85 mm. long and .35 mm. broad at widest part, which is about the middle. It is thus much more elongate than that of diaspidis. The segments are very indistinct. While the middle is slightly widest, the head end is broad, but there is a gradual tapering to a narrow point at the posterior end. The mouth opening is in the center of the disc- shaped anterior segment. The mandibles are much nar- rower at the base than those of diaspidis. This character, together with the difference in the general shape, will readily distin- guish the two larvaa. The larva of Aspidiotiphagus citrinus lives strictly within the body of the insect itself. The pupa. Length .6 mm., width .28 mm. The general color upon first changing from the larva is white or whitish yellow, but it later turns very much darker. The head is light gray and thorax and abdo- men almost black, with the abdominal segments lighter in color at the margins, giving a horizontal striped effect. The eyes and ocelli are red or reddish brown. The adidt. General color yellowish black. Head dull yellow, ocelli red, eyes black. Thorax dark yellow, with darker areas about bases of wings. Abdomen black, lighter at tip. Legs pale colored. Antennae Fig. 35. — Aspidiotiphagus citrinus Craw. Parasite of Yellow and Red Scales. x40. "Bulletin 222] THE RED OR ORANGE SCALE. 147 Fig. 36. — Fruit showing cells for rearing parasites. Fig. 37. — Above, cages enclosing small orange trees for studying parasites. Below, method of keeping accu- rate records on life history of scales. 148 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT STATION. 8-jointed, comparative lengths as follows: 5, 25, 10, 8, 7, 10. 13. 18. Wings narrow, with a very long fringe ; basal half dusky. Life history work carried on with this parasite during the winter months indicates that 67 or 68 days are necessary for the complete life cycle. Adults placed in cells on fruit infested with scale were seen to oviposit in the scales on January 6th, and four adults issued on March 14th and 15th. This period being the coldest and wettest of the season must account for the slow development. During September the life cycle has been determined to occur in thirty days. The scales attacked, whether they be yellow or purple, are, with a few exceptions, always in the second stage, that is between the first and second molts. SYSTEMATIC POSITION OF CHRYSOMPHALUS AURANTII MASK. The family Coccidce, which includes the scale insects, is divided into six sub-families. The red scale belongs to the sub-family Diaspince, which includes all those scales having flattened chitinous lobes at the posterior end of the body forming the pygidium. The genus Chrysom- phalus is distinguished by having three distinct pairs of these lobes. There are in California but three species and one variety coming within this genus. The species aonidium is separated from the others by having four groups of spinnerets. The others have no groups of spinnerets. In the species tenebricosus the plates are scarcely branched, while in the species aurantii and the variety citrinns the plates are strongly branched. C. aonidum, formerly known as ficus, is known as the Florida red scale. It is not, however, as serious a pest there as our red scale here. It is especially likely to infest plants in conservatories or under glass. Its occurrence in this state is based on an infestation of palms in a o'reenhouse. Bulletin 222] THE RED 0R ORANGE SCALE. 149 BIBLIOGRAPHY. For the bibliography of Chrysomphalus aurantii up to 1903, the reader is referred to Mrs. Fernald's "Coccidee of the World." The following is the bibliography since 1903, which has been kindly fur- nished by Mr. E. R. Saccer of the Bureau of Entomology, Washington: Chrysomphalus aurantii Mask. Ehrhorn, E. M. : 1st Bien. Rept. Comm. of Hort. Sta. Cal. 1903-04, pp. 112-113. Sanders: Proc. Ohio Ac. Sci., iv (2). Sp. papers 8, p. 71 (1904). Figs. 15-16. Gives bibliography and description. Hempel: Bol. Agr. Sao Paulo, V, p. 322 (1904). Describes hosts, etc. Trabut, Dr.: Bull. Agr. de Alg. et del Tunisie, X, No. 23, p. 521 (1904). 'Au sujet d'un insecte destructeur de l'oranges." Theobald: 2d Rep. Ec. Ent. Br. Mus, p. 187 (1904). Record of 9 s only. Kirkaldy, G. W. : The Entomologist, Vol. XXXVII, Sept. 1904, p. 228. Cockerell, T. D. A. : Proc. Davenport Acad, of Sciences Vol. X, p. 134. 1905. Dickel, Dr. O. : Zeit. f. wiss. Inskt Heft II Bard I, Nov. 20, 1905, p. 447. Dewar. W. R. : 1st Ann. Rep. Gor. Entom., Orange River Colony (1905), p. 30. "This is at present the greatest insect enemy of citrus trees in the O. R. C." Orange River Colony. Leonardi, G. : Redia, iii, p. 1 (1906). Fig. Described as Aonidiella taxus, but appears to be a synonym of A. aurantii. Newstead, R. : The Inst, of Commercial Research in the Tropics. Liverpool Univ. Quarterly Jn. Vol. 1, No. 11, April, 1906, p. 69. Frequently received from Egypt. Craw, A. : Rep. Die. Entom., Hawaii Bd. Ag. & Forestry, Dec. 31, '06, pp. 143, 152. "Well established in the islands." Herrera, A. L. : Bol. d. 1. Com. de Parasitologia Agricola Tomo III, Num. I (1906). Ehrhorn, E. M. : 2d Bienl. Rep. Com. of Hort. Sta. of Cal., 1905-'06, pp. 23, 25, and 224. Green. E. E. : Trans. Linn. Soc. of London, Vol. XII, pt. 2, Dec. 1907, p. 203. Recorded from Mauritius, Ceylon, India, S. Europe, Syria, Natal, Cape Colony, China, Japan, Australia, New Zealand, Java, New Caledonia, Samoa, Fiji, Hawaiian Islands, W. I., U. S. A. Kuwana. S. I. : Bull. Imp. Cent. Agr. Exp. Sta., Japan, Oct. 1907, p. 196. Bibliography on Podocarpus chinensis, Acacia, orange and tea plants. Carnes. E. K. : 2d Bien. Rep. Com. Hort. Sta. Cal. 1905-06 (1907), pp. 214-210. Leonardi. G. : Estratto dal Boll, del Lab. di Zool. generale e agraria clella R. Scuola Sup. d'Agric. di Portici, 24 Mar. 1907. Europe (Greece, Turkey, Italy, Spain), Syria, Natal, Good Hope, Is. Maurizin e Ceylon, China, Japan, Australia, New Zealand, Samoa, Is. Fiji, Hawaii, West Indies (N. Y., Fla., Ohio, Cal.). Gives 15 figures and list of food plants. Fuller. C. : The Natal Ag. Jn. & Mining Record, vol. X, No. 9, Sept. 27, '07, p. 103G. The parasitic fungus Sphaerostilte coccophila is effective on the coast. Lindinger. L. : Der Pflanze Ratg. fur Tropical Landwirthschaft No. 23, Dec. 21, '07. Jahr III, p. 359. Draper, W. : Notes on the Injurious Scale Insects and Mealy Bugs of Egypt (Cairo), 1907. p. 8. Common throughout Egypt. Newman. L. .T. : Jn. Dep. Ag. of Western Australia, Vol. XV, pt. 12, Dec. '07, p. 915. "This is beyond question the most serious scale pest of the citrus trees in this state, and also of many other garden plants." Ehrhorn. E. M. : 2d Bien. Rep. Com. of Hort. Sta. of Cal. 1905-'06, p. 23. Lea, A.: Insect and Fungus Pests of Orchard and Farm (3d edition), Tasmania. p. 64 (1908). 150 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA — EXPERIMENT STATION. Froggatt, W. W. : The Ag. Gaz. of N. S. W., Sept. 1908, vol. XIX, part 9, p. 704. "Common all over Cyprus gardens," on roses and wattles. Froggatt, W. W. : The Jn. Dept. Ag. of So. Austr., Feb. 1909, vol. XII, No. 7. p. 620. Cook, A. J.: Off. Rep. 34th Fruit-Grow. Con. of Cal., p. 50, Sacramento (1908). Leonardi, G. : Cherm. Ital. Fasc. IV, Portici, 1908. Newman, L. J. : Jn. Dept. of Ag. W. Australia, Dec. 1908, vol. XVII, p. 912. Day, C. A.: Proc. of 33d Fruit-Grow. Con. of Cal., p. 163. Sacramento (1908). Ehrhorn, E. M. : Proc. of 33d Fruit-Grow. Con. of Cal., pp. 147-159. Sacramento (1908). Cook, A. J. : Pomona Jn. of Ent., vol. I, No. 1, March, 1909, pp. 14-21. figs. 11-15. Severin, H. C. and H. H. P.: Jn. Econ. Entom., vol. II, No. 4, p. 298. Aug. 1909. lvuwana, S. I.: Jn. N. Y. Ent. Soc. XVII, 4, p. 160 (Dec. 1909). On Ligustrum japonicum, Artocarpus integrifolia. Bonin Island, Japan. Carnes, E. K. : 3d Bien. Kept. Com. Hort. Cal., p. 25 (1909). Dean, Geo. A. : Trans. Kans. Acad, of Sciences, XXII, p. 274 (1909). Lefroy, H. Maxwell: Indian Insect Life, p. 761 (1909). Lefroy, H. Maxwell: Indian Insect Life, p. 756 (1909). Brick, C. : Sta. fur Pflanzenschutz zu Hamburg. X, p. 9 (1909). Only locality and food plants given. Brick, C. : Sta. fur Pflanzenschutz zu Hamburg. X, p. 10 (1909). "Auf Cycas circinalis aus Sanisbar, auf Palme aus Java auf Orchidee auc Singapore." Brick, C. Sta. fur Pflanzenschutz zu Hamburg. XI, p. 5 (1909). STATION PUBLICATIONS AVAILABLE FOR DISTRIBUTION. REPORTS. 1896. Report of the Viticultural Work during the seasons 1887-93, with data regard- ing the Vintages of 1894-95. 1897. Resistant Vines, their Selection, Adaptation, and Grafting. Appendix to Viti- cultural Report for 1896. 1902. Report of the Agricultural Experiment Station for 1898-1901. 1903. Report of the Agricultural Experiment Station for 1901-03. 1904. Twenty-second Report of the Agricultural Experiment Station for 1903-04. BULLETINS. Reprint. Endurance of Drought in Soils of the Arid Region. No. 128. Nature, Value, and Utilization of Alkali Lands, and Tolerance of Alkali. (Revised and Reprint, 1905.) 133. Tolerance of Alkali by Various Cultures. 147. Culture Work of the Sub-stations. 149. California Sugar Industry. 151. Arsenical Insecticides. 152. Fumigation Dosage. 153. Spraying with Distillates. 159. Contribution to the Study of Fermentation. 162. Commercial Fertilizers. (Dec. 1, 1904.) 165. Asparagus and Asparagus Rust in California. 167. Manufacture of Dry Wines in Hot Countries. 168. Observations on Some Vine Dis- eases in Sonoma County. 169. Tolerance of the Sugar Beet for Alkali. Studies in Grasshopper Control. Commercial Fertilizers. (June 30, 1905.) Further Experience in Asparagus Rust Control. A New Wine-cooling Machine. Sugar Beets in the San Joaquin Valley. A New Method of Making Dry Red Wine. Mosquito Control. Commercial Fertilizers. (June, 1906.) Resistant Vineyards. The Selection of Seed-Wheat. Analysis of Paris Green and Lead Arsenic. Proposed In- secticide Law. The California Tussock-moth. Report of the Plant Pathologist to July 1, 1906. Report of Progress in Cereal Investigations. The Oidium of the Vine. Commercial Fertilizers. (Janu- ary, 1907.) 88. Lining of Ditches and Reservoirs to Prevent Seepage and Losses. 5— BUL. 222 170. 171. 172. 174. 176. 177. 178. 179. 180. 181. 182. 183. 184. 185. 186. 187. No. 189. 190. 191. 192. 193. 194. 195. 197. 198. 199. 200. 201. 202. 203. 204. 205. 206. 207. 208. 209. 210. 211. 212. 213. 214. 215. 216. 217. 218. 219. 220. Commercial Fertilizers. (June, 1907.) The Brown Rot of the Lemon. California Peach Blight. Insects Injurious to the Vine in California. The Best Wine Grapes for Cali- fornia ; Pruning Young Vines ; Pruning the Sultanina. Commercial Fertilizers. (Dec, 1907.) The California Grape Root-worm. Grape Culture in California ; Im- proved Methods of Wine-mak- ing ; Yeast from California Grapes. The Grape Leaf-Hopper. Bovine Tuberculosis. Gum Diseases of Citrus Trees in California. Commercial Fertilizers. (June, 1908.) Commercial Fertilizers. (Decem- ber, 1908.) Report of the Plant Pathologist to July 1, 1909. The Dairy Cow's Record and the Stable. Commercial Fertilizers. (Decem- ber, 1909.) Commercial Fertilizers. (June, 1910.) The Control of the Argentine Ant. The Late Blight of Celery. The Cream Supply. Imperial Valley Settlers' Crop Manual. How to Increase the Yield of Wheat in California. California White Wheats. The Principles of Wine-Making. Citrus Fruit Insects. The House Fly in its Relation to Public Health. A Progress Report upon Soil and Climatic Factors Influencing the Composition of Wheat. Honey Plants of California. California Plant Diseases. Report of Live Stock Conditions in Imperial County, California. Fumigation Studies No. 5 ; Dos- age Tables. CIRCULARS. No. 30. 32. 3 3. 3 6. 39. 46. 48. 49. 50. Texas Fever. Contagious Abortion in Cows. Remedies for Insects. Asparagus Rust. Fumigation Practice. Silk Culture. Recent Problems in Agriculture. What a University Farm is For. Disinfection of Stables. Preliminary Announcement Con- cerning Instruction in Practical Agriculture upon the University Farm, Davis, Cal. White Fly in California. White Fly Eradication. Packing Prunes in Cans. Cane Sugar vs. Beet Sugar. Analyses of Fertilizers for Con- sumers. Instruction in Practical Agricul- ture at the University Farm. Suggestions for Garden Work in California Schools. Butter Scoring Contest, 1909. Insecticides. Fumigation Scheduling. No. 52. Information for Students Concern- ing the College of Agriculture. 54. Some Creamery Problems and Tests. 55. Farmers' Institutes and Univer- sity Extension in Agriculture. Experiments with Plants and Soils in Laboratory, Garden, and Field. Tree Growing in the Public Schools. 60. Butter Scoring Contest, 1910. 61. University Farm School. 62. The School Garden in the Course of Study. How to Make an Observation Hive. Announcement of Farmers' Short Courses for 1911. The California Insecticide Law. Insecticides and Insect Control. Development of Secondary School Agriculture in California. 68. The Prevention of Hog Cholera. 69. The Extermination of Morning- glory. 70. Observations on Status of Corn- growing in California. 58. 5 9. 63. 64. 65. 66. 67.