WRITTEN ENGLISH WRITTEN ENGLISH A Guide to the Rules of Composition BY JOHN ERSKINE, Ph. D. Associate Professor of English in Columbia University AND HELEN ERSKINE, A. M. NEW YORK THE CENTURY CO. 1911 Copyright, 1910, by The Century Co. Published, October, CONTENTS PAGE I. SPELLING 3 Syllabification ...... 6 Capitals . 7 Abbreviations 9 II. DICTION 11 General Offences against Good Usage 12 Special Questions of Good Usage . 13 Figures of Speech . . . . . 14 III. GRAMMATICAL TERMS . . . . . 15 IV. THE SENTENCE 26 Matters of Punctuation ... 26 The Arrangement of the Thought . 27 Matters of Grammar .... 29 V. PUNCTUATION 32 VI. THE PARAGRAPH 37 VII. ARRANGEMENT AND CORRECTION OF MANUSCRIPT 41 Proof-readers' Signs . . . .41 Theme-readers' Signs . . . . 43 VIII. LETTERS 44 Business and Friendly Letters . . 44 Formal Invitations and Replies . . 48 IX. PROSODY 60 X. COMMON ERRORS ...... 55 INDEX . 67 266953 PREFACE THIS little book pretends to be in no sense a text- book of grammar or rhetoric. It tries to give as briefly as possible such hints and reminders as all but the most experienced writers are sometimes glad to have. We have sought, not to treat the subject exhaustively, but on the contrary to omit all but the matters that in practice prove trouble- some. A certain mass of errors, due to carelessness as much as anything else, appear in the writing of every Freshman class; and we have assumed that those same errors probably trouble the aver- age graduate of the High Schools, whether he is a college student or not. We hope to give here the rules that cover these errors, and such other hints as may smooth the path of the average writer. For a complete study of rhetorical principles we refer the student to any of the innumerable stand- ard text-books, of which Professor J. F. Genung's " Working Principles of Rhetoric " is perhaps the most exhaustive, and Professor G. R. Carpenter's " English Composition " and Professor C. S. Bald- win's " Composition, Oral and Written " are the most directly practical. For a most sensible account of English grammar we refer the student to Profes- sor George P. Krapp's " An Elementary English Grammar." For the proof-readers' signs, and for much besides, we are indebted to Theodore L. De Vinne's "The Practice of Typography, Correct Composition." J. E. H. E. WRITTEN ENGLISH WRITTEN ENGLISH A Guide to the Rules of Composition SPELLING THE principles of English spelling are so complicated and so unrelated to each other, that they are hardly to be considered principles in a scientific sense. It is still de- sirable that writers should learn to spell by sheer dint of memory. A few rules of thumb, however, are helpful in the correction of ordinary errors. 1. Final e, called the silent e, is often used after a single consonant to show that a preceding vowel should be pro- nounced long. In cane, the final e gives the pronunciation which distinguishes the word from can. This rule applies only to words in which the final syllable has the accent. In such words, if there is no final e, a single vowel before a final consonant is usually pronounced short. sin, sine mat, mate tun, tune transfer, interfere 2. In order to preserve the vowel sound, final e is usually retained before suffixes beginning with a consonant; it is dropped, as unnecessary, before suffixes beginning with a vowel. tune, tuneful, tuning lie, lying ripe, ripeness When the e is omitted from lie, we have li-ing. In all such cases the first i is changed to y- 3 WRITTEN ENGLISH 3. A single vowel before a double consonant remains short, no matter what suffix is added. pull, pulling press, pressing 4. When a final consonant is preceded by a single vowel, in a final syllable which has the accent, the final consonant is doubled before a suffix beginning with a vowel; otherwise the vowel of the final syllable would be lengthened by the suffix. run, running wag, wagged sad, sadder, saddest prefer, preferring 5. In some languages, notably Italian, c and g are pronounced soft before e or i; otherwise they are pro- nounced hard. Though there is no such rule in English as begin shows yet there is a tendency in that direction, which often accounts for a silent e which indicates no lengthened vowel. practice practicable notice noticeable privilege religious 6. The diphthongs ie and ei are very troublesome, in all such words as believe and receive. The best rule of thumb is the old one, that of the two vowels the one follows the consonant which is nearest to that consonant in the alphabet, counting either way. / is nearer to I than e is; therefore believe. E is nearer to c than i is; therefore receive. Exceptions are field, seize, neither, leisure, weird, financier. 7. Practically all suffixes, like ness and ly, are added to words without any change in the original spelling. Some writers have a tendency to economize a final con- sonant, when it is repeated in the suffix. greenness, not greeness meanness, not meaness beautifully, not WRITTEN ENGLISH 8. Practically all prefixes, like mis or dis, are placed before words without any change in the original spelling. dissatisfaction, not disatis faction mistake, not misstake 9. Final y, preceded by a consonant, is changed to i before a suffix ; in the plural of nouns or the present singu- lar of verbs, it is changed to ies. mercy, merciful lady, ladies steady, steadied hurry, hurries There are some exceptions, as shy, shyness; sly, slyness. 10. Final y, preceded by a vowel, remains unchanged. play, playing ; valley, valleys 11. A few nouns in o form their plural by adding es. echoes negroes cargoes tomatoes embargoes mosquitoes potatoes heroes volcanoes buffaloes 12. Many nouns ending in / or fe change / to v before adding the endings es or s to form their plurals. wife, wives; knife, knives; loaf, loaves. 13. A few nouns forming their plural irregularly add en to the singular. ox, oxen; brother, brethren (or brothers) ; child, children. 14- A few nouns form their plural not by adding a ter- mination, but by a change of vowel in the word. man, men; woman, women; foot, feet; tooth, teeth; mouse, mice; goose, geese. WRITTEN ENGLISH SYLLABIFICATION. There are several reputable methods of dividing words at the end of a line. When the writer is in doubt about a particular word, he should consult a dictionary though the dictionaries disagree in syllabification as well as in spelling. The accepted rules of syllabification are: 15. Words are divided between syllables. aoun-dance; depen-dent. 16. Monosyllabic words are never divided. through, not throu-gh. 17. Some words of two syllables, pronounced almost as one, are not divided. power; heaven; given; soften. 18. The participle endings, -ed and -ing t may be sepa- rated from the rest of the verb. Good printers, however, avoid this division. 19. Unpronounceable divisions are always wrong. dis-charge } not disc-harge. ex-change, not exch-ange. 20- Words may usually be divided after a prefix or before a suffix. mis-taken; sweet-ness. 21. Where a letter has been doubled, the word may usually be divided. stop-ping ; ac-cident. 22. No division is permissible that ends or begins a line with a syllable of one letter. emerge, not c-merge. very, not ver-y. WRITTEN ENGLISH CAPITALS. 23. The first word of a sentence, of a line of poetry, or of a direct quotation, requires a capital letter. 24. Proper nouns and adjectives, or abbreviations of either, begin with a capital letter. This includes names of streets, days, months, holidays, races, sects, political parties, nations, sections of the country, and great histori- cal events; negro and gipsy are exceptions to this rule. 25- The names of the seasons do not begin with capi- tals unless they are personified, but it should be noted that there is a growing tendency in favor of always writing these words with capitals. It was a beautiful spring day. " Come, gentle Spring ! ethereal Mildness ! come." 26. Personified nouns require capitals. " Pair Science frowned not on his humble birth, And Melancholy marked him for her own." 27. The names of the points of the compass when used to specify direction only are not capitalized, but when they designate geographical sections, as the South, the West, they should begin with a capital. There is a strong tendency, however, as with the names of the seasons, to capitalize all uses of these names. 28. Names and titles of the Deity, and personal pro- nouns referring to Him, begin with capitals. 29. The pronoun / and the interjection are always capitalized. 30. A personal title which immediately precedes the name of a person begins with a capital. General U. S. Grant. President McKinley. 8 WRITTEN ENGLISH 31. When the title of an official follows his name, the first word of that title is not necessarily capitalized. Elihu Root, senator from New York. Theodore Roosevelt, ex-president of the United States. 32. When only the title is used, preceded by the, de- noting only one person, or when the title is used as the synonym of one person, this title should be capitalized. He had an interview with the President. How are you, Colonel t 33. In compound titles, only the first word need be written with a capital. Vice-president Sherman. Chief-justice Fuller. 34. Abbreviated titles of honor or respect which im- mediately follow a name should have capitals. George Brown, Esq. Frederick Houghton, LL. D. 35. The titles of books, magazines, newspapers, plays, etc., should always begin with a capital letter, and every important word of the title is usually capitalized. Introduction to the Study of Economics. Sweet's Primer of Spoken English. 36. Recently some writers have adopted the method of using capital letters only for the first word and for proper nouns and adjectives in the title. Lives of the hunted. Taylor's Classical heritage of the Middle Ages. 37. It should be noted that when the title of a book is given exactly in the text, the definite article the at the beginning must be capitalized. This is a new edition of The Works of Chaucer. 3a In citing the name of a newspaper or periodical in the text, however, the article the should not have a capital. This poem was published in the Century. WRITTEN ENGLISH ABBREVIATIONS. 39. Care should be taken to avoid the abuse of abbre- viations, which is usually considered an indication of carelessness, or lack of training in the writer. It is gen- erally preferable to write out in full a word or phrase, but there are some words or phrases which are custom- arily abbreviated. A partial list of these is given below, but the more ordinary English abbreviations, like Mr., Mrs., Dr., have been omitted. A. D. (Latin, anno domini), in the year of our Lord. aet. (Latin, aetatis), of age, aged. a.m. (Latin, ante meridiem), before noon. B. C., before Christ. cf. (Latin, confer), compare. D. V. (Latin, deo volente), God willing. e.g. (Latin, exempli gratia), for example. etc. (Latin, et cetera), and so forth. ib. or ibid. (Latin, ibidem), in the same place; a term used in footnotes to refer to a book or article just mentioned. i.e. (Latin, id est), that is. inst. (Latin, instante mense), the present month. M. (Latin, meridies), noon. Mgr. (French, Monseigneur), an ecclesiastical title. MS., manuscript. MSS., manuscripts. N. B. (Latin, nota bene), mark well, p.m. (Latin, post meridiem), after noon. P. P. C. (French, pour prendre conge), to take leave, pro tern. (Latin, pro tempore), for the time being, prox. (Latin, proximo mense), next month. Q. E. D. (Latin, quod erat demonstrandum), which was to be proved. q. v. (Latin, quod vide), which see; that is, refer to that, ult. (Latin, ultimo mense), last month, vid. (Latin, vide), see. viz. (Latin, videlicet), to wit, namely. 40. An abbreviation must always be followed by a period. 10 WRITTEN ENGLISH 41. The double letter shows that the word is in the plural, as MS., MSS. 42. The abbreviation Co., as in The Century Co., when it is the company's approved form of imprint and signature, must not be written Company. II DICTION THE choice of words depends somewhat upon the cir- cumstances in which they are to be used. In familiar speech our verbal deportment is often careless, and even when we rise to the best manner we are capable of, our spoken word is almost never so dignified nor so accurate as our written speech. And for different occasions of spoken or written speech, we instinctively use a different part of our vocabulary. 43. Good usage is the choice and use of words accord- ing to the best authorities that is, according to the habit of a majority of the best speakers and writers of any language. The readiest way to find out whether a word is in good usage is to look it up in a reputable dictionary, where usage is recorded, not made. The dictionaries are of course not infallible, nor do they always agree, nor are they ever quite up to date; but for practical purposes the average writer can keep his diction in good order by con- stant reference to The Century Dictionary, The Standard Dictionary, Webster's Dictionary, or for English as opposed to American usage Stormonth's. 44. Colloquial usage the use of words or meanings that have a vulgar currency in speech, but are not recog- nized by the more dignified standards of written compo- sition is the most frequent departure from good usage and the hardest to correct ; for the frequency with which we hear colloquial words and phrases blunts our sense of their vulgarity, and they slip into our speech unnoticed. All expressions which have a local, or provincial, or vulgar, or generally untidy air, may be safely avoided. 11 12 WRITTEN ENGLISH 45. Slang is that kind of colloquial usage which crys- tallizes into formulas, often imaginative and vigorous, always vulgar. The word or phrase itself may have been or may be in good usage, just as a word once slang may be rescued to better things; but while it is a vulgar for- mula, an habitual substitute for exact expression, the effect of its monotony is to dull the mind of him who uses and him who hears it. The surface objection to slang is the vulgarity it suggests. The deeper objection is that the speaker is too lazy or too stupid to find the exact word for his idea; therefore he uses a formula which is a substi- tute for thought. When a boy says of a girl, " She's a peach/' he is using a perfectly good word; and if we had not heard the formula before, we should think it original and striking, if a bit cannibalistic. But when we know that the same word may be diverted to the praise of a cigar or a hair cut, we understand that the boy has ex- pressed himself, more than he has expressed his thought. GENERAL OFFENCES AGAINST GOOD USAGE. 46. A Barbarism is the use of an expression which is foreign to a language. Some authorities use the term only of errors in inflection, as hisn or hern for his or hers. In a wider sense, any mixture of foreign words or phrases is a barbarism ; the common habit of injecting into con- versation French words, such as menage, eclat, is to be regarded as a barbarism. 47. An Impropriety is the use of a proper word in an incorrect sense. Among the most frequent improprieties are : lay, for lie (see ^f 320). exceptionable, for exceptional (see ^[300). apt, for likely or liable (see ^f 321). WRITTEN ENGLISH 13 48. A Solecism is the use of a proper expression in an incorrect grammatical construction. / done it, for / did it. He spoke to you and she, for He spoke to you and her (see ^[ 359). SPECIAL QUESTIONS OF GOOD USAGE. 49. Trite expressions should be avoided. If the reader or hearer can anticipate your words, you cannot hold his attention. Therefore, avoid all phrases that have become formulas, such as : the surrounding country, last but not least, along these lines, method in his madness, doomed to disappointment. Although trite expressions are not necessarily vulgar, they are open, like slang, to the objection that the use of formulas stultifies the brain. 50. The pronoun they should not be used indefinitely. The English idiom for general statements is you; some people consider it a special sign of refinement to use one, following the French idiom. Either expression is correct. " Than are dreamt of in your philosophy." You never see that kind of man in these days. One never sees that kind of man in these days. 51. Of those who prefer to use one, some writers make a point of repeating the word, instead of referring to it by he or she; their theory is that one should not seem to indicate gender. They would say: One can always succeed, if one (not he) tries hard enough. 14 WRITTEN ENGLISH FIGURES OF SPEECH. Only two figures of speech are in common use, Simile and Metaphor. 52. Simile. That figure by which one thing is said to be like another. " Thou art as long, and lank, and brown As is the ribbed sea-sand." " Every soul it passed me by Like the whizz of my cross-bow." 53. Metaphor. That figure by which one thing is identified with another. " Our birth is but a sleep and a forgetting: The Soul that rises in us, our life's Star, Hath had elseiohere its setting, And cometh from afar." 54. In some uses of metaphor the identification is not stated, but assumed, and the consequences of the identi- fication are expressed. " I looked to heaven, and tried to pray ; But or ever a prayer had gusht, A wicked whisper came, and made My heart as dry as dust." In this example the assumed metaphor is that the Mari- ner's heart is a channel, through which prayers flow. 55. Mixed Metaphor, as the term implies, is an in- congruous mixture of images. The great masters have sometimes given us unforgetable mixed metaphors, like Shakspere's " To take arms against a sea of troubles "; but the effect of mixed metaphor is usually ludicrous, and it should be carefully avoided. m GRAMMATICAL TERMS 56. Accusative with the infinitive. After verbs of wishing, believing, and the like, the infinitive may be used with a subject in the objective (accusative) case, I wished him to be my friend. 57. Adjective. A word which limits or modifies a noun or pronoun. " Small service is true service while it lasts." 58. Adjective clause. A clause used as an adjective to modify a noun or pronoun. "Those deep dark eyes where pride demurs." 59. Adverb. A word which limits or modifies a verb, an adjective, or another adverb. A very good man. 60- Adverbial clause. A clause used as an adverb to modify a verb, an adjective, or an adverb. " Poor, who had plenty once, When gifts fell thick as rain." 61. Apposition. When a noun or its equivalent is placed next to another noun in order to explain it, the two nouns are said to be in apposition. " Sweetest Shakespeare, Fancy's child." 62. Article. A kind of limiting adjective. The is called the definite article ; a or cm, the indefinite article, 16 16 WRITTEN ENGLISH 63. Auxiliary verbs. Be, have, do, shall, will, may, can, must, and ought, with their inflectional forms, when used with the infinitives and participles of other verbs, are called auxiliary verbs. " In the golden lightning Of the sunken sun, O'er which clouds are brightening Thou dost float and run." 64. Case. The inflectional form of a noun or pro- noun. There are three cases, nominative, possessive, and objective. The subject of a verb or the predicate of the verb to be is put in the nominative case. The object of a verb, the object of a preposition, or the subject of an infinitive is put in the objective case. A noun or pronoun denoting possession is put in the possessive case. Noininative : He spoke to me. Objective : I ' saw him. I spoke to him. Possessive : I did not like his words. 65. The possessive case, singular, of nouns is formed by adding 's to the nominative singular. Girl, girl's. 66. The possessive plural is formed by adding 's to the nominative plural, when the nominative plural does not end in s. Children, children's. 67. If the nominative plural ends in s, the possessive is formed by adding only the apostrophe. Horses, horses'. 68. Nouns ending in s or with an s sound, as Hughes, conscience, may form their possessive singular in the regular way by adding 's, or they omit the s and retain the apos- trophe to indicate that this is the possessive case. Usage WRITTEN ENGLISH 17 differs greatly on this point, but the best writers seem to agree on the following : 69. Nouns of one syllable ending in s, and nouns of two or more syllables, ending in s, accented on the last syllable, form their possessive singular in the usual way, by adding 's. Keats' s poems, Jones's book, the defense's argument. 70. Nouns of two or more syllables, not accented on the last, may either form their possessive singular in the usual way, by adding 's, or may omit any special ending, except an apostrophe to indicate the possessive case. Dickens's novels, or Dickens' novels. For conscience's sake, or for conscience' sake. 71. In compound nouns, in groups of words, or when a title is added to another noun, only the last noun is given the sign ('s) of the possessive case. His son-in-law's house. The Czar of Russia's palace. Mr. Brown, the lawyer's, horse. 72. Clause. A group of words forming part of a sen- tence, and containing a subject and a predicate. When a clause taken by itself makes a complete statement, it is called an independent clause. If I were you, / should stay. 73. When a clause depends for its complete sense on some other clause, it is called a dependent or subordinate clause. If I were you, I should stay. 74. When two or more independent clauses are in the same sentence, they are said to be co-ordinate clauses. I wished to stay, but / had another engagement. 18 WRITTEN ENGLISH 75. Comparison. When an adjective, or an adverb, simply attributes a quality or manner, it is in the positive degree. When an adjective or an adverb attributes a quality or manner with reference to some standard, it is in the comparative degree. When an adjective or an adverb attributes a quality in the highest degree, it is in the superlative degree. See Inflection. Positive : The early bird catches the worm. Comparative : The later worms fare better. Superlative : Whether you should get up first or last depends upon your biological status in society. 76. Complex sentence. One which contains a sub- ordinate clause. (See example, If 73.) "If Winter comes, can Spring be far behind?" 77. Compound sentence. One which contains two or more independent clauses, with no subordinate clause. " Noon descends, and after noon Autumn's evening meets me soon." 78. Conjunction. A word which connects words, phrases, clauses, or sentences. " He went like one that hath been stunned, And is of sense forlorn ; A sadder and a wiser man." 79. Co-ordinate. Words, phrases, and clauses in the same construction in any sentence are co-ordinate. 1 80. Copula. A verb which expresses relation between the subject and the predicate, usually the verb to be or any of its forms. " The World is too much with us.*' 81. Correlative conjunctions. Certain conjunctions used in pairs to connect correlated words, phrases, or clauses. not only . . . but also either ... or both . . . and neither . . . nor whether , . . or WRITTEN ENGLISH 19 82. Both conjunctions in any pair must be followed by the same part of speech. I spoke to both Smith and Jones (not, both to Smith and Jones). 83. Demonstrative adjectives. This, these, that, those. Give me that book. The same words used as pronouns are called demonstrative pronouns. Don't say that again. 84. Gender. Distinction according to sex. There are three genders, masculine, feminine, and neuter. 85. Nouns or pronouns naming or denoting male beings are of the masculine gender. Han,, boy, 'butler, father, he, his. 86- Nouns or pronouns naming or denoting female beings are of the feminine gender. Woman, mother, hostess, nun, Tier, hers. 87. Nouns or pronouns naming or denoting objects or ideas without sex are of the neuter gender. Town, day, table, book, it, its. 88. Nouns which may be either masculine or feminine are sometimes considered of common gender. Friend, doctor, companion, child. 89. English nouns are not inflected to show gender, but a pronoun must be of the same gender as the noun for which it stands or to which it refers. 90. Gerund. A verb-form in ing having some of the quality of an infinitive, and like an infinitive, treated as a verbal noun. Good for eating. 20 WRITTEN ENGLISH 91. Indefinite pronouns. The most important of these are ally another, any, anybody, anything, aught, both, each, either, everybody, everything, few, many, most, naught, neither, nobody , none, nothing, one, other, some, somebody, something, somewhat, such. 92. Infinitive. That form of the verb which expresses action or state without regard to person or number. It is commonly preceded by the preposition to, which in this use is called the Sign of the Infinitive. This is omitted after auxiliary verbs, and is used optionally after certain verbs like dare, help, need, please, and go. The gerund (If 90) is sometimes regarded as an infinitive. I shall go. I wish to go. I need to go; you need not go. 93. When a modifying adverb is inserted between the Infinitive Sign and the rest of the infinitive, the resulting phrase is called a Split Infinitive. Conservative authori- ties object to this usage. To answer immediately (not to immediately answer) is impossible. 94. Inflection. The change in the form of a word to show a difference in its meaning. The inflection of nouns and pronouns is called declension; the inflection of adjectives and adverbs, comparison; the inflection of verbs, conjugation. 95. Interjection. A word thrown in to express emo- tion; an exclamation. Hark! now I hear them. Ding, dong, bell. 96. Interrogative pronouns. Those pronouns, like who, which, what, when used to ask a question, are inter- rogative pronouns. WRITTEN ENGLISH 21 97. Mood. The way in which a verb makes an asser- tion. The indicative mood makes the assertion as a fact; the subjunctive mood makes the assertion conditionally; and the imperative mood expresses a command or entreaty. Indicative : I came yesterday. Subjunctive : If I were there, I should help you. Imperative ; Go at once. 98. In careless speech the subjunctive is not distin- guished from the indicative. Some scholarly writers even claim that it is pedantic to use the subjunctive at all. But it expresses what cannot be expressed in another way. Its fthigj IISR is in thft expression of present condition contrary to fact. If Brown were there, he would etc., but he is not there. The indicative in such a place would give another meaning. If Brown was there, he must have etc. Here the question is raised whether Brown was there, with no implication as to whether he was or not. 99. Nominative absolute. When a noun or pronoun in the nominative case is followed by a participle in agree- ment with it, and is the subject of no other verb, the construction is called the nominative absolute. The doctor being out, the servant went in search of other assistance. 10Q. Noun. The name of a person, place, or thing. A proper noun is a name of an individual person, place, or thing, as distinguished from others of the same class. George "Washington, Boston, England. 101. A common noun is the name of any one of a class. Horse, wagon. 102. A collective noun is the name of a class or group. The poor, the rich. 22 WRITTEN ENGLISH 103. Number. That inflectional form of nouns, and pronouns, and verbs which indicates whether one person or thing is designated, or more than one. Singular : He runs. House. Plural : They run. Houses. For irregular formation of plural of nouns, see If 11-14. 104. Object. The noun, pronoun, or phrase denoting the object directly affected by the action of the verb is called the direct object. I saw him. 105. The noun, pronoun, or phrase denoting an object less affected by the action of the verb than the direct object, is called the indirect object. The indirect object is often indicated by to or for. You gave me this book. I will return it to you. 106. Part of speech. One of the eight classes into which words are divided: noun, pronoun, verb, adjective, adverb, conjunction, preposition, and interjection. 107. Participle. The verb-form in ing or ed when used as an adjective. These two forms are called respectively the present and past participle. Laughing in spite of himself, he replied. At that minute he had entered the room. I 108. Personal pronouns. When a speaker or writer speaks of himself, he uses the pronouns of the first person. SINGULAR. PLURAL. Nominative : / we Possessive : my, mine our, ours Objective : me us WRITTEN ENGLISH 23 109. When the speaker addresses another person directly, he uses the pronouns of the second person. SINGULAR. PLURAL. Nominative : you, thou you, ye Possessive : your, yours, thy, thine your, yours Objective : you, thee you, ye. Thou, ye, thy, thine, and thee are poetical forms. 110. Wlien the speaker refers to a person or thing not directly addressed, he uses the pronouns of the third person. SINGULAR. PLURAL. Nominative : he, she, it they Possessive : his, her, hers, its their, theirs Objective : him, her, it them 111. Phrase. A group of words which are part of a sentence, but which do not contain a subject or a predi- cate. 112. A verb formed with the help of one or more auxil- iaries is called a verb-phrase. I was going. 113. A phrase used as a preposition is called a prepo- sition phrase. In consideration of your injuries, willingness, etc. 114. A phrase consisting of a preposition and its ob- ject is called a prepositional phrase. I fell on my knees. 115. A phrase used as a noun, adjective, or adverb is known as a noun phrase, adjective phrase, or adverb phrase. The very thought is pleasant. The hat on the table is mine. I struck with all my might. 24 WRITTEN ENGLISH 116. Predicate. What is said of the subject. A simple predicate is the verb ; a complete predicate is the verb with its dependent words. Simple predicate : I told him the news. Complete predicate : I told Mm the news. 117. Preposition. A word placed before a noun or pronoun to show its relation to other words in the sen- tence. The noun or pronoun before which a preposition is placed is called its object. Explain this to me. 118. Principal parts of a verb are the infinitive, first person singular of the preterite, and the past participle. Run, ran, run. Walk, walked, walked. 119. Pronoun is a word which stands for a noun. I met Smith and told Mm. 120. Relative. Referring or relating to a preceding word. 121. The relatives which, what, whichever, whatever, when they have the force of adjectives are called relative 122. When a relative has the force of an adverb, it is called a relative adverb. The most important are: after, as, before, how, since, till, until, when, whenever, whence, where, wherever, while, whither, and why. 123. The words that, who, what, which, whoever, what- ever, whichever are relative pronouns when they join a dependent clause to a main clause by referring to a noun or pronoun in the main clause. The word referred to is called the antecedent. She asked her sister f who could not tell her. WRITTEN ENGLISH 25 124. Sentence. A group of words expressing one complete idea. When a sentence contains one subject and one predicate, it is called a simple sentence. See also under Compound sentence (1f 77), and Complex sentence (^ 76). 125. Subject. The person, place, or thing of which the predicate is expressed. He came to the door. 126. Tense. Forms of the verb which indicate the time of the action. Present tense. I laugh. Past tense. I laughed. Future tense. I shall laugh. Present perfect. I have laughed. Past perfect. I had laughed. Future perfect. I shall have laughed. 127. Transitive. A verb which can take a direct object is called a transitive verb; a verb which cannot take a direct object is called an intransitive verb. Transitive : ' I drew a long breath. Intransitive : I breathed with difficulty. 128. Verb. A word used to express action or state of being. I am tired. I ran all the way. 129. Voice. That form of the verb which shows whether the subject acts or is acted upon. A verb is in the active voice when it represents its subject as acting, and in the passive voice when the subject is acted upon. Active : I have answered you. Passive : Are you answered? IV THE SENTENCE MATTERS OF PUNCTUATION. MANY of the common faults in sentence structure are faults of punctuation. For the rules of punctuation, see p. 32. 130. Some writers, for special purposes, punctuate subordinate clauses as though they were sentences. I took him for a clever person. Which he most certainly was not. The average writer, however, will have no excuse for such a practice, and it is to be carefully avoided. 131. Some adverbs, like then, so, also, are frequently misused as conjunctions in compound sentences. In such cases insert the conjunction before the adverb, or separate the clauses by a semicolon. Wrong : I put on my clothes as quickly as possible, then I followed him out of the door. Right : I put on my clothes as quickly as possible, and then I followed him out of the door. Or : I put on my clothes as quickly as possible ; then I followed him out of the door. 132. A relative pronoun can be preceded by a con- junction, as in and which or but which, only when the rela- tive pronoun has already been expressed. Wrong: Mr. Roberts, the president of the company, and who is my best friend. Right: Mr. Roberts, ivho is the president of the com- pany, and who is my best friend. Or: Mr. Roberts, my best friend, who is the president of the company. 26 WRITTEN ENGLISH 27 THE ARRANGEMENT OF THE THOUGHT. A writer is sometimes doubtful whether to punctuate two related statements as separate sentences, or to co- ordinate them in a compound sentence (see If 77). 133. If two or more independent clauses comple- ment each other, so that together they state one com- plete idea, they should be co-ordinated in a compound sentence. Wrong : I spoke to him. But he would not answer. Right : I spoke to him, but he would not answer. 134. If one clause in a compound sentence expresses a thought logically subordinate to the thought of the rest of the sentence, the sentence should be made complex (see ^[ 76), so that the subordinate thought will be in a subordinate clause. Wrong : To please his father he studied law, and he did not wish to practise that profession. Right : To please his father he studied law, although he did not, etc. 135. In complex sentences the most important state- ment should be in the principal clause; the secondary, qualifying statements should be in the subordinate clause or clauses. Wrong: She lingered all the winter; when she died, the spring came. Right : She lingered all the winter ; when the spring came, she died. 136. In a periodic sentence the idea is not completely expressed until the period is reached. The purpose, of this kind of sentence is to hold the reader's attention. Periodic sentences are either simple or complex. In spite of his long experience, in spite of warning^ innumerable, he chose the only course that was sure to make him miserable. 28 WRITTEN ENGLISH 137. In a loose sentence the idea might be considered complete at one or more points before the period is reached. The purpose of this kind of sentence is to give the ordinary unpremeditated sequence of conversation. Loose sen- tences are either simple or compound. I joined them at the ferry, and we went to the dock, but the steamer had not arrived. 13a When emphasis is desired at the end of a sentence, the final word should be important in meaning, and should preferably end in an accented syllable. '* But of Andromachus, the founder of the well built and fairly adorned Greek city that then rose, we hear no more a hero, I think, one of the true breed of the founders of states." 139. A sentence ending in an unaccented word, as a pronoun or a preposition, will have a comparatively weak effect, though not necessarily an undesirable effect. " She attended Laura with a watchfulness of affection which never left her." 140. The rule, often prescribed, that no sentence should end in a preposition, is a pedantic exaggeration of the normal preference for strong endings. " The madness wherein now he raves, And all we wail for." "And makes us rather bear those ills we have, Than fly to others that we know not of." 141. A participle at the beginning of a sentence, unless it is in the nominative absolute construction (see ^f 99), agrees with the subject of the sentence. Filled with enthusiasm, the crowd cheered. 142. If the writer does not intend that the participle shall agree with the subject, he should recast the sen- WRITTEN ENGLISH 29 tence; otherwise he will perpetrate an absurdity known as the dangling participle. Wrong : Turning the corner, a house stood opposite me. Right : Turning the corner, I saw a house opposite. MATTERS OF GRAMMAR. 143. A relative pronoun is parsed with the verb of the relative clause. If it is the subject of that verb, it must be in the nominative case; if it is the object, it must be in the objective case. The case of the relative pronoun is not affected by the verb of the principal clause, nor by the verb of any parenthetical clause. You who (not whom) I thought were true. Tell it to whoever (not whomever) seems interested. In this latter example the preposition to governs, not the relative pronoun, but the antecedent him understood. 144. In the accusative with the infinitive construction (see ^[ 56), a noun or pronoun following the infinitive is, like the subject of the infinitive, in the objective case. They proved him to be a rascal. She imagined her to be me. 145. The present participle expresses action or being contemporary with the action or being of the principal verb. f I say, etc. Shaking him by the hand, ) I shall say, etc. / I said, etc. 146. The past participle expresses action or being earlier in time than the action or being of the principal verb. ( I went out. Having finished my work, J I go out. ( I shall go out. 30 WRITTEN ENGLISH 147. The present infinitive expresses action or being contemporary with the action or being of the verb on which it depends. I intended to write (not to have written) you. 148. The past infinitive expresses action or being earlier in time than the action or being of the verb on which it depends. I am sorry to have missed you. 149. The past infinitive also expresses action or being completed before some time denoted otherwise than by the tense of the principal verb. I hope' ta have finished this before he comes. 150. Verbs like to seem, to look, to feel, to sound, when used as copulas (see If 80), are not modified by adverbs. They are followed by adjectives, which attribute some quality to the subject of the verb. You look well or lovely (not splendidly or handsomely). The picture seems pretty. The organ sounds magnificent (not magnificently). The misuse of adverbs in this construction leads to much unconscious humor in the average person's conversation. If you say that you " feel badly, " your words mean that your sense of touch is out of order. If you say that your friend " looks nicely/' your words mean that she uses her eyes with fastidious discrimination (see 1f 281). 151. When the present participle is used as a noun (see gerund ^[90) the noun or pronoun governing it is in the possessive case. I was pleased by their (not them) coming. I told him of John's (not John) seeing you. WRITTEN ENGLISH 31 152. Demonstrative pronouns, and other words of reference, should refer to some antecedent definitely expressed, not to a general idea. Wrong : He wasted his afternoon in the Park. That is something I detest. Right : I detest such waste of time ; or, I detest that way of spending an afternoon ; or, I detest the Park. 153. The same pronoun should not be repeated to refer to different nouns. Either the nouns themselves should be used, or one noun should be put in a different number from the others. Wrong : When an Englishman meets an American, he notices first the points in which he differs from him. Correct but awkward : When an Englishman meets an American, the Englishman notices first the points in which he differs from the American. Preferable : When an Englishman meets Americans, he notices first the points in which he differs from them. 154. In general, avoid the passive voice, unless you cannot say what you mean in the active voice. Undesirable : The handsomest building seen by me in that city. Preferable : The handsomest building I saw in that city. PUNCTUATION 155. The Period is used: (a) To mark the end of a completed sentence. (b) After an abbreviation, as Mr., Dr., St. 156. The Comma is the sign of separation; it marks a gap, or division of grammatical structure. It is used chiefly : J 157. Before conjunctions between the clauses of com- pound sentences. My place is very small, but there are many trees and thickets. The crickets have come, and are cheerful enough in their monotonous way. 158. It is the mistaken practice of some writers never to put a comma before and. When that conjunction connects anything less important than a clause, the comma may be omitted; but between clauses and must be pre- ceded by a comma. 159. The comma is used also between the clauses of complex sentences. I will send you the book we talked of, if you have not a copy already. 160. In very short complex sentences the comma is usually omitted, especially if the dependent clause follow the main clause. I will come if I can. 161. The comma is used also between a long subject and its verb. The winding lanes that break up the island into in- describable geometric figures, are its chief charm. 32 WRITTEN ENGLISH 33 162. Before and after words or phrases in apposition. Ralph Jones, the youngest scholar, was the cleverest. 163. Before and after all words used parenthetically, or words of address. His attempts, therefore, were not successful. Robert, will you go? 164. To show that a word is omitted. Admission, ten cents (Admission is ten cents). A bright, clear day (A bright and clear day). v 165. Between words and phrases in a series, even when a conjunction is not omitted. Tom, Dick, and Harry. He studied Latin, Greek, English, and Composition. It would be logical to omit the comma before and in these examples, but most writers feel it necessary to show that the last two terms in a series are not to be considered a unit. 166. Before and after participial phrases. Entering the room, I spoke to them. 167. Instead of the exclamation point. Alas, I cannot. 168. To prevent mistaken combinations of words in a sentence. Years after, I met him. Over the window, curtains were hung. Although the comma gives clearness on the page, the pos- sibility of a double meaning remains when such sentences are read aloud. Every sentence of this kind should be remodeled. 169. Before short direct quotations. He said, " Your meaning is clear." 170. Before a non-restrictive relative clause. Relative clauses are roughly divided into restrictive and non- 34 WRITTEN ENGLISH restrictive relative clauses. A non-restrictive clause merely describes or gives information about its antecedent. Mr. Brown, who was late, had to stand up. 171. A restrictive relative clause limits and narrows the meaning of its antecedent. The person who told me is an authority. 172. A non-restrictive clause can usually be omitted without affecting the thought of the main clause, but a restrictive clause can not generally be omitted without changing its antecedent. 173. No comma is used before a restrictive relative clause. 174. The Semicolon is in effect a conjunction; it marks not a separation but an addition. It is used chiefly: 175. To join clauses of a compound sentence where there is no other conjunction. He watched the child without a word ; none of us doubted what he might have said, had he chosen. 176. To join clauses of a compound sentence where the ordinary conjunction has been used between words or phrases, and thereby the clause di vision *has become ambiguous. Instead of following his thoughts, I listened to the sound of his voice, to its music, its variety, and its ampli- tude ; and I understood at last the secret of his charm. 177. The Colon is the mark of anticipation. It intro- duces long quotations and passages, and is practically equivalent to as follows: Daniel Webster rose in his place, and said: (quotation following). " He had only one rule of warfare : to strike harder than the enemy and to strike first." Ladies and Gentlemen : WRITTEN ENGLISH 35 l?a The Dash is the sign of explanation. It marks the insertion of a word or group of words more important than the rest of the sentence. In this respect it differs from 179. The Parenthesis, which marks a word or group of words less important than the rest of the sentence. In oral reading, the voice is raised for emphasis on the words preceded by a dash; it is lowered on the words included in parenthesis. 180. Brackets are generally used only to enclose ex- planations or corrections, inserted by the author or editor into the statement of some one else. ' The Hyphen is used as follows: 181. To join compound words. Ex-president, twenty-five. 182. To mark the separation of a word at the end of a line. 183. To separate two vowels which are not pro- nounced together. The diaeresis is frequently used for the same purpose. Co-ordinate or coordinate. \/ 184. The Question Mark and the Exclamatioh Mark indicate inflection of the voice rather than a break or connection in grammatical structure. They may take the place of the period at the end of the sentence, but they may also stand anywhere in the sentence, to indicate the vocal inflection of the preceding word or phrase. A half-crown, think yef a half-crown? My dear Colonel, how hot we are! how angry you In- dian gentlemen become! 36 WRITTEN ENGLISH 185. Quotation Marks are used to separate a quotation from the rest of the text. If a quotation includes another quotation, the inner quotation is set off by single quotation marks. "1 told him not to do it," explained the Captain. " ' You'll be sorry as long as you live/ I said to him." 186. If the quotation includes several continuous sentences all in the same paragraph, it is set off at the beginning of the first and at the end of the last sentence. 187. If the quotation includes several paragraphs, it is set off at the beginning of all the paragraphs, and at the end of the last paragraph. 188. Double quotation marks are used to indicate the titles of books, plays, magazines, etc. These marks are not used, however, if the titles are written in italics. The Apostrophe is used as follows: * 189. To form the pdssessive case, singular and plural. Boy's, boys'. J 190. To mark the omission of a letter or letters. Don't, I'll, 'tis, 'way. 191. To make a plural for letters and figures. Cross your t's and dot your i's. Your S's and 3's are not distinct. 192. Italics. A special kind of type used in printing. Ordinary type is called " roman." One line drawn under- neath a written word is understood to be the equivalent of italics. Italics are used for: 193. Words to be especially emphasized. 194. Words from a foreign language which have not been incorporated into the English language. 195. Sometimes for the names of books, newspapers, plays, etc., in place of quotation marks. VI THE PARAGRAPH 196. All paragraphs must begin on a new line, and must be indented about half an inch to the right of the margin. 197. As a sentence expresses one idea, so a paragraph expresses and develops one topic. All ideas directly pertaining to one topic should be included in the same paragraph. 198. A careful writer thinks out the topics of his sub- ject in advance, and often notes them down for his own guidance. With the various steps of his thought thus clearly in mind, he will find it easy to state in a single sentence the topic of each paragraph as he comes to it. This sentence, which states the topic, usually near the beginning of the paragraph, is called the topic sentence, and in correct writing the topic sentences, taken by them- selves, give an adequate outline of the whole composition. The other sentences simply develop the topic of the para- graph to which they belong. 199. The topic is sometimes stated near the end of the paragraph. In that case the topic sentence is called a summary sentence. Paragraphs in which the topic is so stated have the effect of a periodic climax, and are analogous to periodic sentences. 200. Topic sentences and summary sentences are used in all careful expository writing, less frequently in narratives and descriptions. In description the details usually follow each other in order of space ; in narration, in order of time. 37 38 WRITTEN ENGLISH 201. Short articles, editorials or reviews, may be written in only one paragraph, but if the subject is ex- tensive, each phase of it must be developed in a separate paragraph. 202. Paragraphs, like sentences, must be connected, either by conjunctions or by some words of reference, or by some phrases expressing a transition. The connectives between paragraphs should be more elaborate than those between sentences; for that reason ordinary conjunc- tions, and, so, but, are inadequate between paragraphs. 203. Paragraphs can sometimes be connected by the repetition of an idea, or of a phrase, when the first sen- tence of the second paragraph echoes a sentence near the end of the preceding paragraph. 204. The connection is more frequently made by the use of such words and phrases as: however, moreover, therefore, yet, notwithstanding, in the meanwhile, on the one hand, on the other hand. 205. A transition paragraph, consisting of very few sentences often only one sentence may be used to connect two larger paragraphs whose topics do not form a natural sequence. The transition paragraph is found most frequently in stories. 206. In narratives it is customary to write each speech, however short, as a separate paragraph. In the following paragraphs the topic sentences are printed in italics; the connecting words, in heavy type. " / purpose to write the history of England from the acces- sion of King James the Second down to a time which is within the memory of men still living. I shall recount the errors which, in a few months, alienated a loyal gentry and priesthood from the House of Stuart. I shall trace the course of that revolution which terminated the long struggle between WRITTEN ENGLISH 39 our sovereigns and their parliaments, and bound up together the rights of the people and the title of the reigning dynasty. I shall relate how the new settlement was, during many troubled years, successfully defended against foreign and domes- tic enemies ; how, under that settlement, the authority of law and the security of property were found to be compatible with a liberty of discussion and of individual action never before known ; how, from the auspicious union of order and freedom, sprang a prosperity of which the annals of human affairs had furnished no example ; how our country, from a state of igno- minious vassalage, rapidly rose to the place of empire among European powers ; how her opulence and her martial glory grew together ; how, by wise and resolute good faith, was gradually established a public credit fruitful of marvels which to the statesmen of any former age would have seemed in- credible ; how a gigantic commerce gave birth to a maritime power, compared with which every other maritime power, ancient or modern, sinks into insignificance ; how Scotland, after ages of enmity, was at length united to England, not merely by legal bonds, but by indissoluble ties of interest and affection ; how, in America, the British colonies rapidly be- came far mightier and wealthier than the realms which Cortes and Pizarro had added to the dominions of Charles the Fifth ; how in Asia, British adventurers founded an empire not less splendid and more durable than that of Alexander. "Nor will it be less my duty faithfully to record disasters mingled with triumphs^ and great national crimes and follies far more humiliating than any disaster. It will be seen that even what we justly account our chief blessings were not with- out alloy. It will be seen that the system which effectually secured our liberties against the encroachments of kingly power gave birth to a new class of abuses from which absolute monarchies are exempt. It will be seen that, in consequence partly of unwise interference, and partly of unwise neglect, the increase of wealth and the extension of trade produced, to- gether with immense good, some evils from which poor and rude societies are free. It will be seen how, in two important dependencies of the crown, wrong was followed by just retribu- tion ; how imprudence and obstinacy broke the ties which bound the North American colonies to the parent state : how Ireland, cursed by the domination of race over race, and of religion over religion, remained indeed a member of the empire, but a withered and distorted member, adding no strength to 40 WRITTEN ENGLISH the body politic, and reproachfully pointed at by all who feared or envied the greatness of England. "Yet unless I greatly deceive myself, the general effect of this chequered narrative will be to excite thankfulness in all religious minds, and hope in the breasts of all patriots. For the history of our country during the last hundred and sixty years is eminently the history of physical, of moral, and of intellectual improvement. Those who compare the age on which their lot has fallen with a golden age which exists only in their imagination may talk of degeneracy and decay : but no man who is correctly informed as to the past will be dis- posed to take a morose or desponding view of the present." MACAULAY'S HISTORY OP ENGLAND, Chap. I. VII ARRANGEMENT AND CORRECTION OF MANUSCRIPT 207. The final copy of any literary composition, whether intended for publication or for the class room, should be written in ink on only one side of the page. 208. Manuscript intended for publication should be typewritten. 209. The most convenient size of paper is the page ordinarily used for college themes and for typewriting purposes, about eight by ten inches. 210. A margin of at least one inch should be left at the right as well as the left side of the page, and the pages should be numbered. 211. The following signs are used as directions to the printer for correcting errors in manuscript or proof: No new paragraph. *& MI, Let there be na break in the readily. ^7 Make a new paragraph. VVV Correct uneven spacing of words. Oi Strike out the marked type, word, or sentence. Reverse this type. # More space where caret /^ is marked. 41 42 WRITTEN ENGLISH , : T., " ~ v^ Contract the spacing. Ci Take-out all spacing. f Move this to the left. "I Move this to the right. 1 I Raise this line or letter. i I Depre3s this line or letter. // Make paraDel at the side with other line*. Q Indent line an em. \L, Push down a space that blackens the proof. X Change this braised type. uc & Change this faulty type of a wrong font i/t4 Transpose words or letters underlined. Jt& Cs Put in lower case, or small letters, $, Q Put in small capitals. CaftAs put in capitals. ^/ Insert apostrophe. Superior characters are put over an inverted caret, as ^ ^ V/ ty etc. ; for inferior charac- ters the caret is put in its usual position, as in fy , Myy& Change from italic to roman. jfc/h Change from roman to italic. Q, Insert period. ^/ Insert comma. Insert semicolon. / Insert colon. = / Insert hyphen. . I / / One-em dash. / i / Two-em dash. / ^-J c Take out cancelled character and close up. PL*< ^v ? Is this right! See to it. WRITTEN ENGLISH 43 A Insert letter or word marked in margin. //// Hair-space letters as marked, Sttt Restore crossed out word or letter. , . Dots pot below the crossed word mean : Cancel the correc- tion first made, and let the types stand as they were. ^~> Over two or three letters. Change for the diphthong or for a logotype, as a, ffi. ~ Straighten lines. Diagonal lines crossing the test indicate that the composi- tion is oat of square. Here is an omission; see copy. The following underscorings are used by editors as di- rections for italic, small capitals, and capitals. italic. -' , capitals. i small capitals. T 1 italic capitals. 212. In the criticism of college themes the following signs are often used to indicate necessary changes: ;? Means what ? ? Query as to fact. Sp. Bad spelling, p. Punctuation wrong. H. High flown or inflated. V. Vague. K. Awkward, ugly. B. Deficient in emphasis. C. Lacking in coherence. Con. Faulty construction. S. Faulty sentence structure. U. Lacking in unity. S. U. Sentence lacks unity. ^ U. Paragraph lacks unity. R. Avoid repetition. ^f Begin new paragraph. No ^f No new paragraph. W. Wordy. MS. Bad manuscript. VIII LETTERS BUSINESS AND FRIENDLY. 213. The Heading contains the writer's address and the date. 214. In business letters the address should be written above the date, and the entire heading should be placed at the beginning of the letter, near the top of the right side of the first page. 215. When the address is given in the heading of any letter, it should not be repeated at the close. 216. In writing an address, either in a letter or on an envelope, do not put No. or jf before the number of the house. 217. The British always put a comma after the num- ber of the house, as 23, Fifth Avenue. This is proper, but it is not the American usage. 218. In less formal or friendly letters, the heading may be placed as in business letters, or it is permissible to write the address and date at the end, below the sig- nature and at the left. The address is sometimes written at the top of the first page and in the centre, and the date is written below the signature, at the left side. In either case when the date is placed at the end, the day of the month is often written out in full. 219. When the day of the month is written in numer- als, place a comma after the numerals, and do not use st, nd, rd, d, or th. 44 WRITTEN ENGLISH 45 220. In business letters, the date is frequently written entirely in numbers, as, 7/16/10, but this is not con- sidered the best usage even in business letters, and is never permissible in friendly letters or notes. 221. The Salutation appropriate in business letters is any one of the following: Dear Sir My dear Sir Dear Madam My dear Madam Dear Sirs Gentlemen 222. Madam is used to address either married or unmarried women. 223. The abbreviation Messrs, should never be used as a salutation. 224. In friendly letters the following salutations are proper : Dear Mr. Adams My dear Mrs. Wells Dear Miss Harrison My dear Mr. Brown 225. All salutations preceded by My are more formal than those without the pronoun. My dear Sir is more formal than Dear Sir, and My dear Mrs. Fitch than Dear Mrs. Fitch. When the salutation begins with My, the word dear should not be written with a capital. 226. The salutation may be followed by a comma, by a comma and a dash, by a colon, or by a colon and a dash. The least formal is the comma; and the colon, with or without the dash, is generally used in business letters, especially after Gentlemen. 227. In business letters, the name and address of the recipient are usually inserted before the salutation, as, Mr. Henry Price, 546 Fifth Avenue, New York City. My dear Sir: 46 WRITTEN ENGLISH In these addresses within the letter, a period is placed at the end of the last line, and a comma at the end of each preceding line. 228. If the letter is addressed to a man, the title Esq. may be written after the name instead of Mr. before it, as, Henry Price, Esq. 229. In more familiar letters, when the salutation is less formal such as, Dear Mr. Price the name and address of the recipient are often written below the signature and at the left of the page ; but in friendly letters, they are most frequently omitted altogether. 230. Some people have an unreasonable prejudice against beginning a letter with /. This form of beginning, however, is often the most natural; you would begin a conversation in this way; but the writer should avoid making himself unduly prominent throughout the letter. It is a mistake to believe that this can be accomplished merely by dropping the pronoun /. This omission results in a " telegraphic style," which is awkward and unpleasing and not permissible in any form of good writing, as " Re- ceived your letter. Glad to hear from you and shall expect you Friday. Hope you are well. " 231. The Formal Closing is usually in business letters Yours truly or Very truly yours; but in writing to a dig- nitary to whom great respect is due, Respectfully yours is sometimes the formal closing; in ordinary letters, however, it is not used. 232. In friendly letters the formal closing varies according to the relation between the writer and the recipient, as, Sincerely yours, Cordially yours, Yours faithfully, Yours affectionately, etc. WRITTEN ENGLISH 47 233. The Signature, except in very informal letters, should be the name of the writer in the form which he uses in signing documents. When the writer f a business letter is a woman, she should indicate whether she is to be addressed as Miss or Mrs. If she is unmarried, she may do this by putting Miss in parentheses before her signature, as, Very truly yours, (Miss) Margaret W. Eliot. 234. If she is married, however, it is best to place below the signature and at the left her married name by which letters to her should be addressed, as, Yours truly, Edith F. Taylor. Mrs. George Taylor. 235. Margin. All letters, whether formal or in- formal, should have a blank margin at least half an inch wide at the left side of each page. Some writers preserve a margin at the right side also. 236. Abbreviations of the names of titles, months, towns, states, etc., are sometimes used in business letters for the sake of brevity, but they are not usually permis- sible in friendly or informal letters. Mr., Mrs., Dr., Esq., and initial titles suffixed, like Ph.D., are among the excep- tions to this rule. 237. It should be. noted that Miss is not an abbrevia- tion, and therefore should not be followed by a period. 238. The word Messrs, should never be used except in business letters. 239. The Envelope. The name and full address of the recipient should be written as legibly as possible to insure the safe delivery of the letter. One may omit 48 WRITTEN ENGLISH all marks of punctuation at the end of the lines, or may place a period at the end of the last line and a comma at the end of each preceding line (see also U 227). FORMAL INVITATIONS AND REPLIES. 240. Formal invitations and replies are written in the third person, which must be kept consistently through- out. They have no heading at the beginning, no salu- tation, no formal closing, and no signature. 241. The address of the writer and the date may be written below and at the left. The day of the month should be written out in full wherever a date occurs, and the year is usually omitted. It is customary to date formal replies, but not the invitations. 242. No abbreviations, except Mr., Mrs., and Dr., should be used. 243. Formal invitations and replies are usually ar- ranged in lines of different lengths, so that the names of the sender and of the recipient are each on a separate line. This is always the custom when the invitation is engraved. 244. In accepting an invitation, the writer should repeat the day and hour mentioned, in order to prevent a mistake; but in declining an invitation, it is neces- sary to mention only the day. 245. Formal invitation. Mrs. William Atterbury requests the pleasure of Miss Martha Brown's company at dinner on Wednesday, the sixth of March, at half after seven o'clock. 16 East 57th Street. WRITTEN ENGLISH 49 246. Formal reply, accepting. Miss Martha Brown accepts with pleasure the kind invitation of Mrs. William Atterbury to dinner on Wednesday evening, the sixth of March, at half after seven o'clock 520 Madison Avenue , February twenty-third. 247. Formal reply, declining. Miss Martha Brown regrets that a previous engagement makes it impossible for her to accept the kind invitation of Mrs. William Atterbury to dinner on Wednesday evening, the sixth of March. 520 Madison Avenue, February twenty-third. 248. The mistake is frequently made in replying to formal invitations of putting the verbs of acceptance or declining in the future tense. The accepting or re- gretting an invitation is an action of the present, not of the future, and the phrases should not read, will be de- lighted to accept, or regrets that he will be unable to accept, but should be is delighted to accept or accepts, and regrets that he is unable to accept. IX PROSODY THE rhythm of English verse is determined by the number and position of the accents. It is convenient, however, to think of the line as made up of certain feet or measures, following chiefly four types : 249. The Trochee, consisting of one accented sylla- ble and one unaccented - . ^ J- uljL ^ - W ' vj Once ijpon a midmgnt dreary. 250. The Iamb, consisting of one unaccented sylla- ble and one accented ^ < w jLl ^ X/v/ J~ Iv *L fv -L ! The curfew tolls the knell of parting day/ 251. The Anapest, consisting of two unaccented syl- lables and one accented syllable c/ w ^. +s - I _/ \j J-t \s \^f -~ f\j u -L+ J O, young Lochinvarhas come ouu of the West. 252. The Dactyl, consisting of one accented syllable and two unaccented syllables -^ ^ o -^ ^ *** J '- v/ u/ JL^ *s I jL \* I J~ s \s / This is the forest primeval; ther murmuring pines and the' hemlocks/ 253. As soon as the rhythm of the line is well estab- lished in the reader's ear, variations of the feet may 60 WRITTEN ENGLISH 51 occur in later lines. The first line should give the rhythm ; after that any variations are possible which fit in with the rhythm. w - A* -^- A/ -^- / \s Outside'of alrthe worlds and There whereM;he f OOF is as/the sage'is^ There where the slayer is clear of blood. VERSE DECORATION. 254. Rhyme, identity of sound at the end of the lines, reckoning from the last accent. " The rest to some faint meaning make presence, But Shadwell never deviates into sewse." . 255. The rhyme of one accented syllable is called the masculine rhyme. 11 Sate like a blooming Eastern bride, In flower of youth and beauty's pride." 256. The rhyme of one accented and one unaccented syllable (trochee) is called the feminine rhyme. " Softly sweet, in Lydian measures,, Soon he soothed his soul to pleasures." 257. Assonance, identity of vowel sound with differ- ence of consonant sound at the end of lines, reckoning from the last accent. t "War, our consumption, was their gainful trade; We inward bled, whilst they prolonged our pain." 258. Alliteration, identity of consonant sound at the beginning of words. M For who would read thy life that reads thy rhymes?" 52 WRITTEN ENGLISH STANZA FORMS. 259. The stanza is to verse what the sentence or the paragraph is to prose. 260. In most poems the stanza form is regular, that is, each stanza matches the others in rhyme order and line length. In some poems, however, the stanzas vary with the changing moods and emotions, as in Wordsworth's " Ode on the Intimations of Immortal- ity." For this free stanza there are no rules, and none but experienced poets should attempt it. Of regular stanza forms there is an infinite variety. The most familiar are : 261. The Heroic Couplet, two consecutive iambic lines, rhyming, with five accents to the line. " Great wits are sure to madness near allied, And thin partitions do their bounds divide." 262. The Elegiac Stanza, four iambic lines, of five accents to the line, rhyming alternately. " The curfew tolls the knell of parting day ; The lowing herd winds slowly o'er the lea ; The plowman homeward plods his weary way, And leaves the world to darkness and to me." 263. The Italian Sonnet, of fourteen iambic lines, five accents to the line. The first eight lines, called the octave, are made on two rhymes, in the order abbaabba. The remaining six lines, called the sextet, are made on two or three rhymes, in practically any order the poet chooses, most frequently, however, in the order cdcdcd, orcdecde. In the octave the subject is introduced, frequently by a simile; in the sextet the application of the simile is WRITTEN ENGLISH 53 _ _ ____________ ____ _ ^_ _ _^_ made, or the subject is so developed that the thought of the sonnet rises like a wave to a climax in the eighth line and recedes to the last line. " As a fond mother, when the day is o'er, Leads by the hand her little child to bed, Half willing, half reluctant to be led, And leave his broken playthings on the floor, Still gazing at them through the open door, Nor wholly reassured and comforted By promises of others in their stead, Which, though more splendid, may not please him more ; So Nature deals with us, and takes away Our playthings one by one, and by the hand Leads us to rest so gently, that we go Scarce knowing if we wish to go or stay, Being too full of sleep to understand How far the unknown transcends the what we know." LONGFELLOW. 264. The English Sonnet, three elegiac stanzas fol- lowed by a heroic couplet. " When, in disgrace with fortune and men's eyes, I all alone beweep my outcast state, And trouble deaf heaven with my bootless cries, And look upon myself, and curse my fate, Wishing me like to one more rich in hope, Featured like him, like him with friends possess'd, Desiring this man's art and that man's scope, With what I most enjoy contented least ; Yet in these thoughts myself almost despising, Haply I think on thee, and then my state, Like to the lark at break of day arising From sullen earth, sings hymns at heaven's gate ; For thy sweet love remember'd such wealth brings That then I scorn to change my state with kings." SHAKSPERE. 265. The Ballad Stanza, four lines of four and three accents alternately, rhyming at the end of the second and fourth lines, or rhyming alternately in the order a b a b. 54 WRITTEN ENGLISH " I saw the new moon late yestreen Wi' the auld moon in her arm, And if we gang to sea, master, I fear we'll suffer harm." OLD BALLAD. " That is the land of lost content, I see it shining plain, The happy highways where I went And cannot come again." A SHROPSHIRE LAD. 266. Blank verse, unrhymed iambic lines, five accents to the line, arranged in paragraphs of unrestricted length. " Of Man's first disobedience, and the fruit Of that forbidden tree whose mortal taste Brought death into the World, and all our woe, With loss of Eden, till one greater Man Restore us, and regain the blissful Seat, Sing, Heavenly Muse, that, on the secret top Of Oreb, or of Sinai, didst inspire That Shepherd who first taught the chosen seed In the beginning how the heavens and earth Rose out of Chaos : or, if Sion hill Delight thee more, and Siloa's brook that flowed Fast by the oracle of God, I thence Invoke thy aid to my adventrous song, That with no middle flight intends to soar Above the Aonian mount, while it pursues Things unattempted yet in prose or rhyme. And chiefly Thou, O Spirit, that dost prefer Before all temples the upright heart and pure, Instruct me, for Thou know'st ; Thou from the first Wast present, and, with mighty wings outspread, Dove-like sat'st brooding on the vast Abyss, And mad'st it pregnant : what in me is dark Illumine, what is low raise and support ; That, to the highth of this great argument, I may assert Eternal Providence, And justify the ways of God to men. MILTON. COMMON ERRORS 267. Accept. Sometimes confused with except. To accept means to take when offered ; to except, to leave out, to exclude. We accept your gift. We except you from criticism. 268. Affect. Often confused with effect. To affect, to influence, to act upon; to effect, to accomplish. The hot sun affects some people. We effected our purpose. 269. The noun effect means result. The warning had the desired effect. 270. Aggravate. Means to increase in severity or in- tensity. Not to be used in the sense of provoke, exas- perate. 271. Allude. Not to be used in the sense of mention. Allude means to refer indirectly or by suggestion; men- tion, to name without describing. T Te did not mention the general in his speech, but every- one understood that he was alluding to him in his remarks on the war. 272. Alright. A common monstrosity for all right Formed by analogy with already. Illiteracy has few more legible autographs. 273. Anxious. Often incorrectly used for eager. Anxious means troubled or distressed in mind about something uncertain; intent on, with the idea of uneasi- 65 5G WRITTEN ENGLISH ness. Eager means impatient or ardently desiring to obtain or accomplish some end; intent on, with the idea of pleasure. I am eager to see her, for I am very fond of her, and I have been anxious about her health. 274. Anybody else's. Possessive of anybody else. Some writers use the form anybody's else, but anybody else's is generally preferred, since the tendency in English is to form the possessive of a group of words by adding the sign of possession to the last word of the group, as, The King of England's throne. 275. As as, so as. The distinction usually made be- tween these correlative adverbs is that as as is used in affirmative statements; so as, in negative ones. He is as tall as his brother. He is not so tall as his father. 276. Assist at. Not to be used in the sense of were present. Many friends were present (not assisted at) the wedding. 277. Avocation. Often confused with vocation. Vo- cation means a man's calling or profession; avocation, his amusement or diversion from that vocation. 278. Awful. Not to be used in the slang sense of very t exceedingly. 279. Back of. Inelegant in the sense of behind or at the back of. The garage is behind, or at the back of (not back of) the house. 280. Bad, badly. After verbs of incomplete predica- tion, the adjective should be used instead of the adverb. It tastes sweet (not sweetly). WRITTEN ENGLISH 57 281. After feel and look, it is permissible to use either bad or badly, but persons with a sense of humor may find reasons for avoiding both expressions (see ^f 150). 282. Calculate. Not to be used in the colloquial sense of intend or think. 283. Can, may. Often confused. Can denotes ability; may, possibility or permission. 284. Combine. Not to be used in the sense of com- bination. An important combination (not combine) of railroads. 285. Complected. Vulgar use in the sense of com- plexion. She has a light complexion, not She is light complected. 286. Continual. Often confused with continuous. Con- tinual means occurring in close succession, in regular and frequent repetition; continuous, without cessation or in- terruption. To Thee Cherubim and Seraphim continually do cry Holy, Holy, Holy. The continuous path of the stars. 287. Deadly. Often confused with deathly. 288. Demean. Means to behave or conduct (oneself). Incorrectly used for debase, disgrace, or degrade. 289. Differ from. Should be distinguished from differ with. Differ from means to be unlike, dissimilar; differ with, to disagree in opinion, to dissent. 290. Different than. Common error for different from. It is different from (not than) the one I last used. 291. Different to. Commonly used in England for different from. Not accepted in the United States. 58 WRITTEN ENGLISH ________ 292. Don't. Contraction for do not. Should not be used for does not. 293. Each, every. Should not be used with the plural of pronouns or verbs. Each of the boys has his own book (not have their own books). 294. Either, neither. Denote one of two, not one of three or more. One of three or more is denoted by any one or none. I saw James, and Tom, and George, and any one of them (not either) is willing to help. Here are the three pencils, but none (not neither) of them will write. 295. Either or, neither nor. When these cor- relative conjunctions are used with a singular noun or pronoun, they should be followed by a singular verb form which agrees with the nearest noun or pronoun. Either he or she is going. Either he or I am going. Either he or you are going. 296. Elegant. Not to be used to denote every form of approval. 297. Else. Should be followed by than, not but. It is nothing else than (not but) vanity. 298. Emigrant. Frequently confused with immigrant. When a person migrates from a country, he is an emi- grant ; when to a country, he is an immigrant. 299. Enthuse. Colloquial verb formation from en- thusiasm. To be avoided. 300. Exceptional. Often confused with exceptionable. Exceptional means contrary to the rule, unusual, uncom- mon; exceptionable, open to exception, objectionable. WRITTEN ENGLISH 59 301. Expect. Not to be used for think, believe, or suppose. 302. Farther. Not to be confused with further. Farther is the comparative form of far, and is applied to distance ; further means additional. I will go that far and no farther (not further). He gave the matter further consideration. 303. Firstly. As first is an adverb as well as an ad- jective, it does not need the suffix ly. First is the correct form. 304. Fix. Means to fasten, make secure, establish. Not to be used loosely in the sense of repair, arrange, or prepare. 305. Flee, fly, flow. Frequently confused. Principal parts : Flee, fled, fled. Fly, flew,, flown. Flow, flowed, flowed. 306. Gentleman, lady. Not to be used merely to distinguish sex. Saleswoman (not saleslady), business men (not gentle- men). 307. Some people who would not use these particular Tords are guilty of the following: In this country gentlemen vote ; whether or not ladies will is a question." 308. Got. Means to acquire, gain possession of. Not to be used to denote mere possession. There is an un- reasonable prejudice against the form got; it is perfectly correct. Principal parts: Get, got, got or gotten. 60 WRITTEN ENGLISH 309. Guess. Not to be used colloquially in the sense of think, expect, intend. 310. Handfuls. Correct plural of handful. 311. Hear to it. Not to be used in the colloquial sense of consent to it, or allow it. 312. Hung. The verb hang is peculiar in that it has two separate forms for its preterite and past participle to express two special meanings. The forms hang, hung, hung, express the usual meaning of suspension from some- thing, but hang, hanged, hanged denote an execution. The clothes were hung in the closet. The murderer was hanged. 313. I. Purists insist on It is I, but It is me is now generally accepted in speech and in informal writing. It is him or It is her, however, is not permissible. 314. In. Often incorrectly used for into. Into de- notes motion toward, or tendency; in, position or state. He is in his house. They went into (not in) his house. 315. Individual. Means a single person or thing as a unit. The individual has to be considered as well as the cor- poration. 316. Not to be used to denote one person merely. He is a queer man (not individual). 317. Invite. Vulgarism for invitation. 318. It's. Contraction for it is. Not to be confused with its, the possessive pronoun. Note that the posses- sive case of pronouns is not formed with an apostrophe. Ours, yours, hers, his, its, theirs. WRITTEN ENGLISH 61 319. Kind of a, sort of a. Vulgar error for kind of, sort of. He is the right sort of (not sort of a) person. What kind of (not kind of a) fish have you this morning? I like this kind of (not kind of a) music. 320. Lay, lie. As the present tense of lay and the preterite of lie are the same, these verbs are often con- fused. Principal parts: Lay (to put down), laid, laid. Lie (to rest), lay, lain. 321. Liable, likely, and apt. Liable implies that what may happen will be unfortunate or unpleasant. That sail boat is liable to upset, 322. Likely implies strong probability, and usually has a favorable meaning. An industrious man is likely to succeed. 323. Apt implies a natural fitness or tendency. A good-natured person is apt to make friends easily. 324. Like. Often incorrectly used for as. Like has the force of a preposition, and is properly used only with nouns or their equivalents. She thinks as I do. He looks like his father. 325. Loan, lend. Loan is the noun; lend, the verb. Many writers, however, use loan as well as lend as a verb, reserving loan for large values, and lend for insignificant things. He loaned him a thousand dollars. Lend me a pin. 326. Loose. Frequently misspelled for lose. The sound of the vowel in lose probably suggests the double oo. 62 WRITTEN ENGLISH 327. Lot, lots. Not to be used colloquially for a great many. 328. Nice. Implies discrimination. He has a nice taste in dress. 329. Not to be used colloquially to express every kind of approval. It is a pleasant (not nice) day. She is a charming (not nice) girl. 330. Nothing like. Not to be used adverbially for not nearly. Those buildings are not nearly (not nothing like) so tall as those we saw in New York. 331. Only. Should be placed carefully in the sentence to prevent ambiguity. Note the difference in meaning of the following sentences. Only I saw him to-day ; the others could not meet him. I only saw him to-day ; I had no opportunity to speak to him. I saw only him to-day, as his brother was ill. I saw him only to-day ; I could hot make an appoint- ment yesterday. 332. Party. Not to be used vulgarly in the sense of a man or person. He is a cheerful man (not party). 333. Plenty. Not to be used colloquially for enough. I have enough (not plenty) to do. 334. Posted. Not to be used colloquially for in- formed. He is very well informed (not posted) about politics. 335. Practical. Often confused with practicable. Practical means pertaining to actual use; practicable, possible of execution. WRITTEN ENGLISH 63 336. Presume. Not to be confused with expect. Pre- sume means to assume as true without direct knowl- edge, to take as probable; expect, to look forward to as certain or probable, to anticipate in thought. 337. Principle. Frequently confused with principal. Principle is a noun, meaning a general truth or proposi- tion, or a fundamental cause. Principal is a noun or adjective; as a noun, it means one who takes a leading part, or one who is at the head of a school ; as an adjective, it means first, or highest in rank or importance. 338. Propose. Means to offer. Should not be used for purpose or intend. I don't intend (not propose) to be imposed on. 339. Raise. Not to be used colloquially as a noun meaning increase. He has had an increase of (not raise in) salary. 340. Real. Not to be used in the sense of very. It's a very (not real) cold day. 341. Reckon. Not to be used in the colloquial sense of think j believe. 342. Recollect of, remember of. The use of the prep- osition of after the verbs recollect and remember is con- sidered a vulgarism, but this use is sometimes found in good writers. 343. Sang, sung. Principal parts: King, sang or sung, sung. 344. The form sang is preferable as the preterite. He sang well preferable to He sung well. 345. It is wrong, however, to say, He has sang. 64 WRITTEN ENGLISH 346. Shall, will. Even the educated commonly fail to distinguish between these words. The future tenses of all verbs use shall in the first person, will in the second and the third. This denotes merely a future state or action. 347. To express determination, will is used in the first person ; shall, in the second and the third. 348. In questions the form is used which is expected in the reply. " Will you promise?" "I will." " Shall you be at home this evening?" "I shall be." 349. Should, would. In general, the uses of should and would are parallel to those of shall and will. Should is also used to express obligation or duty. I should (or ought to) go. 350. Sit, set. Verbs frequently confused. Principal parts : Sit, sat, sat (intransitive verb). Set, set, set (transitive verb). 351. Splendid. Not to be used indiscriminately for everything admired. 352. Spoonfuls. Correct plural of spoonful. 353. Stop. Not to be used in the sense of stay. Stop is to cease moving, the opposite of start; stay, to continue in a place. The train stopped at New Haven. I am staying (not stopping) in Boston. 354. Team. Two or more beasts of burden harnessed together to draw some one or something. Improperly used for one horse and wagon. . W KITTEN ENGLISH 65 355. These kind, these sort. Vulgar error for this kind, this sort. 356. Very. Not generally used alone before past participles. I am very much disappointed (not very disappointed). 357. Ways. Not to be used colloquially for way. The church is a long way (not ways) from here. 358. Worse. Not to be used for more. I dislike tea more (not worse) than coffee. 359. You and I, you and me. When used as the joint object of a preposition, or the joint subject or object of a verb, these pronouns should be carefully declined as though they were used singly. He spoke to you and me (not you and I). They are more clever than you and I (not you and me). To avoid this last error, complete the sentence by adding mentally the verb which is understood. They are more clever than you and I [are]. INDEX The numbers refer to paragraphs. I. SUBJECTS TREATED. Abbreviations, 39, 42. Accusative with the infinitive, 56, 144. Active voice, 129. Adjective, 57 ; demonstrative, 83 ; relative, 121 ; clause, 38 ; phrase, 115. Adverb, 59 ; relative, 122 ; clause, 60 ; phrase, 115. Alliteration, 258. Anapest, 251. Antecedent, 152. Apostrophe, 189 sq. Apposition, 61. Arrangement of manuscript, 207 sq. Article, 62. Assonance, 257. Auxiliary verbs, 63. Ballad stanza, 265. Barbarism, 46. Blank verse, 266. Brackets, 180. Case, 64 ; nominative, 64 ; ob- jective, 64, 144 ; possessive, 65 sq. Capitals, use of, 23 sq. Clause, 72 ; adjective, 38 ; ad- verbial, 60 : co-ordinate, 74 ; independent, 72 ; subordi- nate, 73. Collective noun, 102. Colloquial usage, 44. Colon, 177. - Comma, 156 sq. Common errors, 267 sq. Common noun, 88. Comparison, 75. Complex sentence, 76. Compound sentence, 77. 67 Conjugation, 94. Conjunction, 78 ; correlative, 81. Co-ordinate, 74, 79. Copula, 80 ; verbs used as, 150. Correction of manuscript, 211. 212. Correlative conjunction, 81. Dactyl, 252. Dangling participle, 142. Dash, 178. Declension, 94. Demonstrative adjective, 83 ; pronoun, 152. Dependent clause, 73. Diction, 43 sq. Direct object, 104. Elegiac stanza, 262. Emphasis in sentence, 138. Exclamation mark, 184. Figures of speech, 52 SQ ; simile, 52 ; metaphor, 53 ; mixed metaphor, 55. Gender, 84 sq. Gerund, 90 ; possessive case with, 151. Good usage, 43 ; general of- fences against, 46 sq. Grammatical terms, 56 sq. Heroic couplet, 261. Hyphen, 181 sq. Iamb, 250. Imperative mood, 97. Impropriety, 47. Indefinite pronoun, 91. Independent clause, 72. 68 INDEX Indicative mood, 97. Indirect object, 105. Infinitive, 92 ; present, 147 ; past, 148 ; split, 93 ; sub- ject of, 144 ; accusative with, 56, 144. Inflection, 94. Interjection, 95. Interrogative pronoun, 96. Intransitive verb, 127. Italics, 192. Letters, business and friendly, 213 sq.; formal invitations and replies, 240 sq. Loose sentence, 137. Metaphor, 53, 54. Mixed metaphor, 55. Mood, 97 ; imperative, 97 ; in- dicative, 97 ; subjunctive, 98. Nominative absolute, 99, 141. Nominative case, 64. Noun, 100 ; collective, 102 ; common, 101 ; proper, 100 ; phrase, 115. Number, 103 ; irregular plu- rals, 11 sq. Object, 104 ; direct, 104 ; in- direct, 105 ; object of prepo- sition, 64 ; object of verb, 64. Objective case, 64, 144 ; with preposition, 64 ; with verb, 64 ; subject of infinitive, 56, 144. Paragraph, 196 sq. ; transi- tion, 205. Parenthesis, 179. Part of speech, 106. Participle, 107 ; dangling, 142 ; present, 145 ; past, 146. Passive voice, 154. Period, 155. Periodic sentence, 136. Personal pronoun, 108. Phrase, 111 ; adjective, 115 ; adverb, 115 ; noun, 115 ; preposition, 113 ; preposi- tional, 114 ; verb, 112. Plurals, irregular, 11 sq. Possessive case, 65 sq. ; with gerund, 151 ; of pronouns, Predicate, 116 ; complete, 116 ; simple, 116. Preposition, 117 ; phrase, 113 ; ending sentence with, 140. Prepositional phrase, 114. Principal parts of a verb, 118. Pronoun, 119, 153 ; demonstra- tive, 152 ; indefinite, 91 ; interrogative, 96 ; personal, 108 ; relative, 123, 143. Proof-readers' signs, 211. Proper noun, 100. Prosody, 249 sq. ; verse deco- ration, 254 sq.; stanza forms, 259 sq. Punctuation, 130 sq., 155 sq. Question mark, 184. Quotation marks, 185 sq. Relative, 120 ; adjective, 121 ; adverb, 122 ; pronoun, 123 ; restrictive, 171 ; non-re- strictive, 172. Rhyme, 254 ; masculine, 255 ; feminine, 256. Semicolon, 174. Sentence, 124 ; simple, 124 ; complex, 76, 134, 135 ; com- pound, 77, 133 ; periodic, 136 ; loose, 137 ; matters of punctuation in, 130 sq. ; arrangement of thought in, 133 sq.; emphasis in, 138; matters of grammar in, 143 sq. ; summary, 199 ; topic, 198. Simile, 52. Slang, 45. Solecism, 48. Sonnet, Italian, 263 ; English, 264. Spelling, 3 sq. Split infinitive, 93. Stanza forms, 259 sq. Subject, 125. Subjunctive mood, 98. Subordinate clause, 73. Summary sentence, 199. Syllabification, 15 sq. INDEX 69 Tense, 126. Theme readers' signs, 212. Topic sentence, 198. Transition paragraph, 205. Transitive verb, 127. Trite expressions, 49. Trochee, 249. Usage, good, 43 ; general of- fences against, 46 sq.; col- loquial, 44. Verb, 128 ; principal parts of, 118. Verb phrase, 112. Verse decoration, 254 sq. Voice, active, 129 ; passive, 129. II. WORDS SPECIALLY COMMENTED ON Accept, 267. Enthuse, 299. Affect, 268. Every, 293. Except, 267. Exceptional, 300. Exceptionable, 300. Expect, 301, 336. , . Aggravate, 270. Allude, 271. Alright, 272. Anxious, 273. Anybody else's, 274. Anyone, 294. Apt, 321, 323. As as, 275. Assist at, 276. Avocation, 277. Awful, 278. Back of, 279. Bad, badly, 150, 280. Calculate, 282. Can, 283. Combine, 284. Complected, 285. Continual, 286. Continuous, 286. Deadly, 287. Deathly, 287. Demean, 288. Differ from, 289. Differ with, 289. Different than, 290. Different to, 291. Don't, 292. Each, 293. Eager, 273. Eclat, 46. Effect, 268, 269. Either, 294. Either or, 295. Elegant, 296. Else, 297. Emigrant, 298. Farther, 302. Feel, 150, 281. Firstly, 303. Fix, 304. Flee, 305. Fly, 305. Flow, 305. Further, 302. Gentleman, 306. Got, 308. Guess, 309. Handfuls, 310. Hear to it, 311. Her'n, 46. His'n, 46. Hung, 312. I, 313. Immigrant, 298. In, 314. Individual, 315. Invite, 317. It's, 318. Kind of a, 319. Lady, 306. Lay, 320. Lend, 325. Liable, 321. Lie, 320. Like, 324. Likely, 322. Loan, 325. Look, 281. 70 INDEX Loose, 326. Lot, lots, 327. May, 283. Menage, 46. Mention, 271. Neither, 294. Neither nor, 295. Nice, 328. None, 294. Nothing like, 330. One, 50. Only, 331. Propose, 338. Party, 332. Plenty, 333. Posted, 334. Practical, 335. Practicable, 335. Presume, 336. Principal, 337. Principle, 337. Purpose, 338. Raise, 339. Real, 340. Reckon, 341. Recollect of, 342. Remember of, 342. Rise, 339. Sang, Sung, 343. Seem, 150. Set, 350. Shall, 346. Should, 349. Sit, 350. So as, 275. Sort of a, 319. Sound, 150. Splendid, 351. Spoonfuls, 352. Stop, 353. Team, 354. These kind, these sort, 355. Very, 356. Vocation, 277. Ways, 357. Will, 346. Worse, 358. Would, 349. You and I, you and me, 359. STAMPED BELOW AN INITIAL FINE OF 25 CENTS WILL BE ASSESSED FOR FAILURE TO RETURN THIS BOOK ON THE DATE DUE. THE PENALTY WILL INCREASE TO SO CENTS ON THE FOURTH DAY AND TO $1.OO ON THE SEVENTH DAY OVERDUE. 8] :; MAY 17 JUL SO 1935 FEB 26 1936 1 Feb'SOAP 30Apr'58LA 934 LD 21-50m-8,-32 YB 02806