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AN ELEMENTARY 
 HISTORY OF ART 
 

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: 1 ;: :.. :i "' 
 
 SCULPTTTRE IX THE ClIANCEL AlSLE— CHARTUES CATHEDRAL. 
 
 FiJUenih Century, 
 
AN ELEMENTARY 
 
 H I STORY OF ART 
 
 ARCHITECTURE-SCULPTURE-PAINTING 
 
 N. D'ANVERS 
 
 AUTHOR OF "LIFE OF RAPHAEL D'URBINO," ETC. 
 
 SECOND EDITION 
 
 WITH INTRODUCTION BY PROFESSOR ROGER SMITH 
 
 LONDON 
 SAMPSON LOW, MARSTON, SEARLE, & RIVINGTON 
 
 CROWN BUILDINGS, FLEET STREET 
 1882 
 
B4 
 
 (All rights reserved.) 
 
 London: R. Clay, Sons, and Taylor. 
 
 BREAD STREET HILL, E.C. 
 
TO 
 
 MY DEAR FATHER 
 
 I DEDICATE 
 
 THIS THE SECOND EDITION 
 
 OF 
 
 MY FIKST BOOK, 
 
 N. D'ANVERS. 
 
 Belsize Park Gardens, HampStcad, 
 December, 1881. 
 

 PREFACE. 
 
 THE framework and many of the illustrations of 
 this book have been borrowed, with the per- 
 mission of the publishers, from a small ' Guide to 
 the History of Art' which has long been in use in 
 German schools ; but this framework has been filled in 
 by reference to standard English, German, and French 
 authorities, and each division of the book has been 
 supplemented by a chapter on Art in England. 
 
 If the ' Elementary History ' awake an interest in Art, 
 and teach students to recognise and appreciate beauty 
 under whatever form it is presented to the senses, the aim 
 of the writer will have been fulfilled. 
 
 N. D'Anvers. 
 
 PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION. 
 
 PREVENTED by illness from any personal super- 
 intendence of this second edition, I have only to 
 thank the Editor for his careful revision of my original 
 text, and his many additions to the history of the Schools 
 of Painting, especially those of France and Spain. To the 
 publishers I am indebted for the very valuable assistance 
 of no less than 76 new engravings which tend so much to 
 illustrate the distinctive peculiarities of the various epochs 
 
 in the history of art. 
 
 N. D'Anvers. 
 
 EHA l> 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 THE fine arts once played a very important part in 
 the refined and intellectual life of this country ; 
 but since the close of the middle ages they have been 
 undervalued and neglected among us. Happily at the 
 present day many signs of a revival are presenting them- 
 selves, and art is now in much greater danger of being 
 misunderstood than forgotten. Classical languages are no 
 longer the only instruments of culture, and literary attain- 
 ments have now ceased, to be considered — as they for long 
 were — the sole objects of a cultivated man's ambition ; 
 for causes of an almost opposite nature have largely 
 directed attention to science and to the arts. The 
 marvellous advances, brilliant discoveries, and splendid 
 attainments of our foremost natural philosophers have 
 been among the most powerful of the influences which 
 have secured for scientific research so large a share of 
 public attention. In other words, we have cared for 
 science because it is living and growing under our eyes. 
 
 With art the case is different. It is a revival and 
 not a fresh growth which we are witnessing. Without 
 
INTRODUCTION. xi 
 
 disparaging the artists of the present century, it is 
 indisputable that, with the exception to some extent 
 of landscape, they have in no case carried the arts 
 so far as they had already advanced at earlier periods 
 of their history. The arts have revived because a time 
 of prolonged peace and the accumulation of great wealth 
 have given to many of the rich the leisure and means to 
 surround themselves with objects of refinement and luxury; 
 while the marvellous spread of illustrated publications 
 and the increased facilities for travelling and observing 
 the buildings and pictures with which the older countries 
 of Europe teem, have tended to rouse among all ranks 
 of the community an interest in works of art. The 
 present movement is essentially a popular one. It is not 
 headed, like the scientific movement, by the foremost men 
 of the day with all their acuteness and knowledge stimu- 
 lated to the full. It has rather taken its rise among 
 those who, with certain brilliant exceptions, are but ill- 
 informed on artistic subjects, and therefore stand peculiarly 
 in need of guidance and instruction. Nothing could con- 
 sequently be more appropriate to the wants of the day 
 than the publication of works on the fine arts calculated 
 to give sound information in a popular form. The present 
 sketch of the History of Art, elementary as it is, may, 
 therefore, be held to be an attempt in the right direction. 
 It is not within the power of this or of any book to 
 give an intimate knowledge and keen appreciation of 
 art. That can only be attained by the zealous study of 
 works of art themselves; and it is difficult to gain a 
 sufficiently intimate acquaintance with such works for 
 
Xll INTRODUCTION. 
 
 this purpose, except after going through some portion at 
 least of the training of a practical artist. Few, if any, 
 can thoroughly appreciate an artistic rendering of outline, 
 of colour, or of form, without some skill in drawing, colour- 
 ing, or modelling. A great deal, however, remains to be 
 known about works of art which can be learned from 
 books, which those who cannot draw a line may most 
 usefully learn, and of which even those who practise 
 some branch of the fine arts with great success are often 
 ignorant. It is the object of this little volume to convey 
 an outline of so much of this knowledge as can be com- 
 prised under the form of a History. Perhaps the best 
 starting-point for the study of all, or any of the fine arts, 
 is their history. In the case of each country where art 
 has been cultivated, we have a simple commencement, a 
 gradual growth, a culminating point, and a decline ; and 
 it is while endeavouring to understand the course which 
 was run by any one art, or any one school of artists, that 
 we can best acquire a knowledge of the principles as well 
 as the practice of the art or school in question. 
 
 Such a knowledge also enables the student to appreciate 
 at their due value the works of any individual artist which 
 may meet, and to assign to them their true position. 
 
 At a time, then, when some knowledge of pictures 
 and architecture, of statues and of music, is becoming 
 indispensable to those who desire to share in the culture 
 of the day — when the architecture of public and private 
 buildings is constantly attracting attention — when the 
 galleries of this country are being thrown open to the 
 public — and when many thousands of our countrymen 
 
INTRODUCTION. Xlll 
 
 and countrywomen visit the Continent each year — the 
 History of Art has a great claim to be studied. It is 
 quite true, as has been pointed out, that a knowledge of 
 the history does not necessarily convey the power to per- 
 ceive the beauty of works of art. It is also true that 
 this knowledge may exist without a keen perception of 
 the theoretical principles of art, or of the critical rules 
 by which the productions of artists should be judged. 
 It however lies at the root of both these acquirements, 
 and the best way of cultivating an appreciation of works 
 of art, and of training the judgment to form sound opinions 
 of their merits and defects, will be to begin by becoming 
 familiar with their history through all time, and then to 
 seek an intimate acquaintance with such of the best 
 examples of each art as may be accessible. 
 
 For students who desire thus to train their own minds, 
 for those who wish to prepare themselves for Continental 
 travel, and above all, for pupils in schools of a high class, 
 no handbook of Art History could well be more suitable 
 than the little volume now published. Its arrangement 
 adheres pretty closely to that of the well-known German 
 manual on which it is based ; but having had an oppor- 
 tunity of comparing the two closely, I find this work to 
 be so much varied and enlarged as to be virtually a 
 new book. 
 
 As far as regards architecture, the only art upon which 
 I can venture to speak with the confidence which grows 
 out of some degree of personal experience, I have no 
 hesitation in saying that though the notices of the styles 
 of various countries are necessarily so very brief as to 
 
XIV 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 omit much which in a larger volume ought to find a 
 place, the 'Elementary History' contains sufficient in- 
 formation to be of real service to the art-student or the 
 traveller. The history of architecture is so intimately 
 allied to the theory and the artistic motives of the archi- 
 tect, that it is hopeless to attempt to appreciate any 
 important building or group of buildings without some 
 knowledge of their place in the development or decadence 
 of the art. What is true of architecture in this respect 
 is also true of the sister arts ; and the information which 
 this volume contains will suffice, if thoroughly understood 
 and borne in mind, to act as a key to much which without 
 it must remain closed, even to persons naturally possessing 
 artistic instincts and gifted with artistic skill.' 
 
 T. Roger Smith. 
 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 Part I. ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Introduction : 
 
 Definition of Architecture ; Materials and Methods of 
 
 Building 1 
 
 CHAP. 
 
 I. Indian Architecture 5 
 
 II. Egyptian Architecture 10 
 
 III. Assyrian Architecture : Babylon and Nineveh . . 17 
 
 IV. Medo-Persian Architecture 20 
 
 V. Architecture of Asia Minor 23 
 
 VIAEarly American Architecture . . . . .26 
 VII. Ijreek Architecture : 
 
 Doric ; Ionic ; Corinthian 30 
 
 VIII. Etruscan Architecture 45 
 
 IXVsEtoMAN Architecture 47 
 
 SJEarly Christian Architecture 57 
 
 Byzantine Architecture 62 
 
 aT$. Romanesque Architecture 67 
 
 XIII. Moorish Architecture 81 
 
 XIV.^ioTHTn Architecture 86 
 
 / XV^ Renaissance Architecture : 
 
 Early Renaissance ; Advanced Renaissance ; Baroque 
 
 Style 98 
 
 XVI. Architecture in the Nineteenth Century . . .110 
 
XVI CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAP. I 
 
 XVII. Architecture in Great Britain: 
 
 1. Anglo-Saxon Architecture ; 2. Norman Style ; 3. 
 Gothic Architecture in England : (a) Early English 
 Architecture — (6) The Decorated Style— (c) The Perpen- 
 dicular Style ; 4. The Transitional Style; 5. Architec- 
 ture in Great Britain in the eighteenth century ; 6. Archi- 
 tecture in Great Britain' in the nineteenth century . .116 
 
 Part II. SCULPTURE. 
 Introduction : 
 
 Materials used in Sculpture ; Processes used in Sculpture 162 
 I. Oriental Sculpture : 
 
 1. India and the Neighbouring Countries ; 2. Egypt ; 
 
 3. Babylon and Nineveh ; 4. Persia ; 5. Asia Minor and 
 Syria ; 6. China and Japan ; 7. Peru and Mexico . 169 
 
 II. Greek Sculpture : 
 
 1. First Period ; 2. Second Period ; 3. Third Period ; 
 
 4. Fourth Period 184 
 
 III. Etruscan Sculpture 205 
 
 IV. Roman Sculpture : 
 
 1. First Period ; 2. Second Period ; 3. Third Period . 208 
 
 nV. Early Christian Sculpture. First to Tenth Century 220 
 
 ^VI. Sculpture of the Romanesque Period: 
 
 1. Tenth and eleventh centuries ; 2. From 1100 to 
 1400 a.d 225 
 
 VII. Sculpture in the Gothic Period (from 1225 to 1400 a.d.) 234 
 
 VIII. Sculpture in the Renaissance Period: 
 
 1. Sculpture in Italy in the fifteenth and sixteenth 
 centuries ; 2. Sculpture of the Renaissance Period in 
 France and the rest of Europe 243 
 
 IX. Sculpture in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Cen- 
 turies '. 267 
 
 X. Sculpture in the Nineteenth Century . . . 273 
 
 XI. British Sculpture 281 
 
 XII. American Sculpture 294 
 
5 
 
 r* 
 
 CONTENTS. XV11 
 
 Part III. PAINTING. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Introduction : 
 
 Means and Methods of Painting : 1. Form ; 2. Colour ; 
 
 3. Composition ; 4. Materials ; 5. Subjects . . - 299 
 
 CHAP. 
 
 I. Painting in the Classic Period : 
 
 1. Egyptian Paintingr2. Greek Painting; 3. Etruscan 
 v Painting ; 4. Ionian Painting 314 
 
 Nil. Painting in the Early Christian, Byzantine, and 
 Middle Ages : 
 
 1. Early Christian Painting, or the Late Roman School ; 
 
 2. The Byzantine School ; 3. Painting in the Middle 
 Ages — (a) In Italy — (b) In France and Germany — 
 
 . (c) Decorative Painting 328 
 
 III. Renaissance Painting in Italy: 
 
 1. Painting in Italy in the fifteenth century — (a) The 
 Florentine School — (b) The Paduan School— (c) The 
 Venetian School — (d) Other Schools of Upper Italy — 
 (e) The Umbrian School — (/) The later Florentine 
 School. 
 
 2. Painting in Italy in the sixteenth century — {a, 
 Leonardo da Vinci and his School— (b) Michelangelo 
 and his School— (c) The Florentine School of the sixteenth ►• 
 century— (d) Raphael and his School — (e) The Ferrarese : 
 School— (f) The Lombardic School — (g) The Venetian 
 School 349 
 
 IV. Renaissance Painting in the Netherlands and Germany : 
 
 1. The Early Flemish and Dutch Schools -(a) The 
 School of Bruges— (b) The Early Dutch School- (c) The 
 Antwerp School— (d) The Italianized Flemings — (e) The 
 Dutch School of the late sixteenth century. 
 
 2. The German School— (a) The Swabian School— 
 (b) The Augsburg School — (c) The Franconian School- 
 id) The School of Saxony — [e) Decline of art in Germany 421 
 
 V. Painting in Italy in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth 
 Centuries : 
 1. The Eclectic School of Bologna ; 2. The Naturalistic 
 School ; 3. The Later Venetian School . . , .457 
 
XV111 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAP. PAGE 
 
 VI. Painting in Spain: 
 
 1. The Valencian School ; 2. The Andalucian School ; 
 3. The Castilian School ; 4. The Italian- Spanish Painters 
 of Madrid ; 5. Velazquez and his followers . . .465 
 
 VII. Painting in the Netherlands in the Seventeenth and 
 Eighteenth Centuries : 
 
 1. The Antwerp School — [a) Rubens and his Cotem- 
 pora?-ies—(b) The Pupils of Rubens— (c) The later Ant- 
 werp School— (d) Franco-Flemish Painters— (e) The 
 Modern Belgian School. 
 
 2. The Dutch School — (a) Rembrandt arid his pupils — 
 (b) The later Dutch Painters of domestic life — (c) Dutch 
 Painters of Landscapes and Battle Scenes — (d) Dutch 
 Marine Painters— (e) Dutch Painters of Architecture, 
 Poultry, Still-life, and Flowers 498 
 
 VIII. Painting in Germany in the Nineteenth Century : 
 
 1. Overbeck and his School ; 2. The School of Munich ; 
 
 3. Genre Painters in Germany 550 
 
 IX. Painting in France : 
 
 1. In the fifteenth, sixteenth, and seventeenth centuries ; 
 
 2. In the eighteenth century; 3. In the nineteenth 
 century 560 
 
 X. Painting in England : 
 
 1 . Foreign Artists in England ; 2. The first English 
 Artists : other Foreigners ; 3. English Painters of the 
 eighteenth century; 4. Early English Water-Colour 
 Painters ; 5. English Painters of the nineteenth century ; 
 6. Later English Water-colour Painters . . . 596 
 
 XI. Painting in America 647 
 
 List of the principal Gods and Goddesses of Greece 
 
 and Rome 661 
 
 Index . . 662 
 
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 AECHITECTUEE. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Chartres Cathedral. Interior of Choir (Frontispiece). 
 Miserere Seat. From Wells Cathedral (on title-page). 
 
 1. Tope of Ceylon 6 
 
 2. Cave of Elephanta 7 
 
 3. Pillar in Hindu Temple 8 
 
 4. Hindu Temple. Gopura, or Gate Pyramid .... 9 
 
 5. Pylon (Entrance-gate) of an Egyptian Temple . . . .12 
 
 6. Egyptian Columns . . 13 
 
 7. Capital of an Egyptian Column. Palm Ornament . . .13 
 
 8. Egyptian Pillar and Beam 14 
 
 9. Rock-cut Temple at Ipsambul, on the Nile . . . .15 
 9a. Egyptian Sphinx 16 
 
 10. Winged Bulls of the gateway at Khorsabad . . . .18 
 
 11. Pavement Slab from the Palace of Koyunjik . . . .19 
 
 12. Part of the Rock-cut Facade of the Tomb of Darius . .21 
 
 13. Column with Spiral Ornament ....«•• 22 
 
 14. Rock-cut front of a grave at Doganlu. The so-called Grave of 
 
 .'Midas 23 
 
 15. Rock-cut Tomb at Myra in Lycia . . . . . .25 
 
 16. Palace of Zayi 27 
 
 17. Casa de las Monjas at Uxmal 28 
 
 17a. Ground-plan of the Temple of Neptune at Psestum . . .30 
 
 18. Doric Order ; from the Temple of Theseus at Athens . . .34 
 
 19. Ionic Order ; from the Temple of Athena at Priene . . .36 
 
 20. Corinthian Order ; from the Monument of Lysicrates at Athens . 38 
 
 21. The Temple of Theseus at Athens 40 
 
 22. Acropolis at Athens, Propyhea and Parthenon (restored) . • 41 
 
XX 
 
 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 at Hil 
 
 FIG. 
 
 23. Caryatid Porch of the Erechtheum 
 23a. Facade of Tomb at Castellaccio 
 
 24. Roman- Corinthian Capital 
 
 25. Composite Capital . 
 
 26. Section of the Pantheon . 
 
 27. The Arch of Constantine . 
 
 28. Trajan's Column 
 
 29. Interior of a Pompeian Basilica {restored) . 
 
 30. Ground-plan of the old Basilica of S. Peter's, Rome . 
 
 31. Interior of the Basilica of S. Paul, Rome . 
 
 32. Ground-plan of S. Sophia at Constantinople . 
 
 33. S. Mark's, Venice. Part of the Front . 
 
 34. Ground-plan of a Romanesque Basilica. S. Godehard 
 
 desheim 
 
 35. Basket-capital, from the Cathedral of Gurk 
 
 36. Romanesque Arcaded Cornice. From a church at Vienna 
 
 37. Gateway of the Transition Period. Church of S. Jak, Hungary 
 
 38. Church of Swartz Rheindorf on the Rhine 
 
 39. Exterior of S. Stephen's, Caen (Abbaye aux Homines) 
 
 40. Romanesque Arches .... 
 40a. Doorway in the Alhambra 
 
 41. Arabian Gateway at Iconium . 
 41a. Moorish Pavilion near Granada 
 
 42. Interior of a Gothic Cathedral. Beauvais 
 
 43. Plan of a Gothic Cathedral. Ameins 
 
 44. "West Front of Rheims Cathedral 
 
 45. The Church of S. Catherine at Oppenheim 
 
 46. The Ca d'Oro, Venice .... 
 
 47. The Cathedral at Florence, with Giotto's Campanile 
 
 48. Palazzo Vendramin Calergi, Venice ... 
 
 49. Court of the Cancellaria Palace at Rome . 
 
 50. S. Peter's, Rome 
 
 51 . Chateau of Chenonceaux, on the Loire 
 
 52. Tower of Earl's Barton Church, Northamptonshire 
 
 53. Doorway of Barfreston Church, Kent 
 
 54. Late Norman Shafts, Capitals, and Arches 
 
 55. Ground-plan of Peterborough Cathedral . 
 
 56. Nave of Peterborough Cathedral 
 
 57. Norwich Castle ; the Keep .... 
 
 58. Clustered Pillar in the Nave of "Wells Cathedral 
 
 PAGE 
 
 43 
 
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 XXI 
 
 FIG. 
 
 59. 
 60. 
 61. 
 62. 
 
 East End and Transept 
 
 Ground-plan of Salisbury Cathedral 
 From the Nave of Wells Cathedral . 
 From the Choir of Worcester Cathedral . 
 York Minster ; West Front .... 
 
 63. Part of Roof of Henry VII. 's Chapel, Westminster 
 
 64. Wolsey's Great Hall, Hampton Court 
 
 65. Banqueting Hall, Whitehall .... 
 
 66. St. Paul's Cathedral, London .... 
 Q7. Bridgewater House . . . v . 
 
 PAGE 
 
 133 
 135 
 135 
 139 
 143 
 145 
 148 
 149 
 155 
 
 SCULPTURE. 
 
 70. Egyptian Statue in Black Granite 
 
 71. Egyptian Bas-relief. Rameses III. between Thoth and Horus 
 
 72. Assyrian Bas-relief on a Wall ..... 
 
 73. Assyrian Bas-relief. Part of a Lion-hunt, from Nimrud 
 
 74. Statue of a Priest 
 
 75. Persian Bas-relief, from Persepolis .... 
 
 76. Sculpture on the Lion Gate at Mycense . 
 
 77. From the Harpy Tomb in the British Museum . 
 
 78. Discobolus, after Myron ...... 
 
 79. Head of Juno, after Polycletus .... 
 
 80. Group from the Eastern Frieze of the Parthenon 
 
 81. Bas-relief from the Parthenon Frieze 
 
 82. One of the Metopes of the Parthenon 
 
 83. Statue of Sophocles ....... 
 
 84. The Laocoon . 
 
 85. The Dying Gladiator 
 
 86. Relief from an Etruscan Tomb .... 
 
 87. The Apollo Belvedere. In the Vatican . 
 
 88. Diana with the Stag ...... 
 
 89. Venus de' Medici . 
 
 90. Marble Statue of Augustus. In the Vatican . 
 
 91. The Nile. From the colossal marble in the Vatican 
 
 92. Relief from the Trajan Column .... 
 
 93. Terra-cotta Vase ....... 
 
 94. Sarcophagus of Junius Bassus. In St. Peter's, Rome 
 
 95. Diptych of Otto II. Hotel de Cluny, Paris . 
 
 96. Abel offering his Lamb. From the Pulpit of Wechselburg 
 
 171 
 173 
 176 
 177 
 178 
 179 
 186 
 189 
 191 
 194 
 195 
 196 
 198 
 201 
 203 
 204 
 206 
 208 
 209 
 210 
 212 
 215 
 216 
 219 
 223 
 226 
 229 
 
XX11 
 
 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 FIG. ' PAGE 
 
 97. Angel Gabriel and the Virgin. Amiens Cathedral . . . 231 
 
 98. Figure of Christ. From the Cathedral of Amiens . . .235 
 
 99. Virtues and Vices. From the Cathedral of Strasburg . . 237 
 
 100. Adoration of the Kings, from the pulpit in the Baptistery of 
 
 Pisa 239 
 
 101. The Salutation. By Andrea Pisano 241 
 
 102. Relief from the Baptistery at Florence. By Lorenzo Ghiberti . 245 
 
 103. The Madonna adoring the Infant - Saviour. By Luca della 
 
 Robbia 247 
 
 104. Statue of Bartolommeo Coleoni. By Andrea Verrocchio . . 248 
 
 105. The Baptism of Christ. By Andrea Sansovino . . . 251 
 
 106. Statue of Moses. By Michelangelo 253 
 
 107. The Entombment of Christ. By Jacopo Tatti . . . .255 
 
 108. Perseus with the Head of Medusa ...... 257 
 
 109. Monument of Admiral Chabot 261 
 
 110. Relief. By Adam Krafft 265 
 
 111. Bronze Shrine of St. Sebald, Nuremberg. By Peter Vischer . 266 
 
 112. Theseus and the Centaur. By Canova 270 
 
 113. Equestrian Statue of the Elector of Saxony. By Schliiter . 272 
 
 114. The Marseillaise. By Francois Rude 278 
 
 PAINTING. 
 
 115. The Sons of Rameses II. Temple of Ipsambul . . . 315 
 
 116. Hunters bringing home Game. Egyptian .... 316 
 
 117. From a Greek Vase in the Museum at Naples . . . .317 
 
 118. Painting of Still Life. Pompeii 321 
 
 119. The Parting of Achilles and Briseis 325 
 
 120. Battle of Issus 327 
 
 Fresco from the Catacombs of S. Calixtus .... 329 
 
 Christ Adored by Justinian. S. Sophia, Constantinople . . 333 
 
 Obedience. By Giotto ........ 338 
 
 Fragment of the Fresco formerly attributed to Simone Memmi . 342 
 
 346 
 351 
 354 
 356 
 359 
 362 
 
 121. 
 122. 
 123. 
 124. 
 
 125. The Imhoff Altar-piece at Nuremberg .... 
 
 126. The Expulsion from Paradise. By Masaccio 
 
 127. S. Lawrence giving Alms. By Fra Angelico . 
 
 128. S. John taking leave of his Parents. By Fra Filippo Lippi 
 
 129. Zacharias writing the name of John. By Ghirlandajo 
 
 130. Judith with the Head of Holofernes. By Mantegna 
 
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 XX111 
 
 FIG. 
 
 131. Pieta. By Perugino ... 
 
 132. Madonna and Child with a Bird. By Francia 
 
 133. Salvator Mundi. By Fra Bartolommeo . 
 
 134. The Last Supper. By Leonardo da Vinci 
 
 135. The Prophet Isaiah. By Michelangelo . 
 
 136. The Holy Family. By Michelangelo 
 
 137. The Marriage of the Virgin. By Raphael 
 
 138. Elymas struck with Blindness. From Raphael 
 
 139. La Belle Jardiniere. By Raphael . • . 
 110. Madonna della Sedia. By Raphael 
 
 141. Amorini. By Correggio .... 
 
 142. Madonna della Scodella. By Correggio . 
 
 143. S. Peter Martyr. By Titian . 
 
 144. La Donna (Duchess of Urbino ?). By Titian 
 
 145. Doge Pascale Ciconia. From an etching by Tintoretto 
 
 146. Decoration of the Farnesina Palace. After Raphael's Des 
 
 147. Pilgrims. By Jan van Eyck 
 
 148. Group from the Reliquary of S. Ursula . 
 
 149. Portrait of Abraham Grapheus. By Cornells de Vos 
 
 150. River Scene. By Jan Brueghel .... 
 
 151. The Crucifixion. By Martin Schongauer 
 
 152. Hubert Morett. By Holbein 
 
 153. The Pedlar. By Holbein 
 
 154. The Meyer Madonna. By Hans Holbein. 
 
 155. Christ taking leave of His Mother. By Diirer 
 
 156. The Knight, Death, and the Devil. By Diirer 
 
 157. Joseph sold by his Brethren. By Georg Pencz 
 
 158. Princess Sibylla of Saxony. By Cranach 
 
 159. The Three Maries. By Annibale Carracci 
 
 160. The Magdalen. Ry Guido Reni .... 
 
 161. The Deposition from the Cross. By Ribera 
 
 162. S. John the Baptist. By Murillo .... 
 
 163. The Surrender of Breda. By Velazquez . 
 
 164. Archbishop Ambrose and the Emperor Theodosius 
 
 165. Children of Charles I. "By Van Dyck 
 
 166. The Knife-Grin der. By feniers 
 
 167. Oliver Cromwell. By Lely .... 
 
 168. Raising of Lazarus. By Rembrandt 
 
 169. The Lute-Player. By Terborch 
 
 170. Christ blessing little Children. By Overbeck . 
 
 gfi 
 
 By Rubens 
 
 PAGE 
 
 367 
 369 
 372 
 377 
 383 
 384 
 391 
 394 
 397 
 399 
 403 
 405 
 411 
 413 
 416 
 419 
 425 
 428 
 433 
 434 
 438 
 440 
 441 
 443 
 447 
 449 
 451 
 453 
 458 
 460 
 469 
 480 
 493 
 502 
 506 
 513 
 515 
 526 
 530 
 552 
 
XXIV 
 
 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 FIG. 
 
 171. Shepherds of Arcadia. By Poussin 
 
 172. Crossing the Brook. By Claude . 
 
 173. Manhood. By Lancret . 
 
 174. Sleeping Girl. By Greuze 
 
 175. The Sabine Women. By David 
 
 176. Divine Justice. By Prud'hon 
 
 177. Raft of the Medusa. By Gericault 
 
 178. Stratonice. By Ingres . 
 
 179. Marriage a la Mode. By Hogarth 
 
 180. Age of Innocence. By Reynolds . 
 
 181. The Brook. By Gainsborough 
 
 182. Lake Avernus. By Turner . 
 
 183. Village Politicians. By Wilkie 
 
 PAGE 
 
 566 
 
 568 
 576 
 580 
 582 
 585 
 586 
 588 
 606 
 612 
 615 
 626 
 634 
 
ELEMENTARY 
 HISTORY OE ART 
 
 PAET I. 
 ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 Inteoductiots t . 
 
 ARCHITECTURE takes rank among the fine arts 
 only when it combines beauty and grace together 
 with utility. Thus we find that a merely utilitarian 
 building does not come within the realm of art. It is 
 only when something more has been done than the carry- 
 ing out of the mechanical principles of construction, that 
 a building can be called a work of art. It is principally 
 in temples, monuments, and other public buildings that 
 we see both the artistic and scientific principles of archi- 
 tecture applied. But a private residence may be raised 
 to a work of art by a proper arrangement of the ground- 
 plan, by judicious treatment of materials, and a careful 
 attention to the laws of beauty. 
 
 EHA B 
 
2 Introduction. 
 
 A building may be said to have character when its form 
 and proportions express the purpose for which it is 
 intended. The effect may be improved by well-designed 
 ornamentation. Its form and style depend in a great 
 measure upon the mode of covering openings, such as 
 doors and windows, and forming roofs ; and the building 
 is of course much affected by the nature of the material 
 which is chosen. Rock-hewn caves, such as those of the 
 Hindus, Egyptians, Etruscans, and other ancient peoples, 
 are monoliths (of one stone), even when the cave is 
 large and divided into different parts by props of stone 
 left standing. 
 
 When an important building is to be erected, the first 
 course is to define its form by walls, or sometimes by 
 pillars, which last may consist either of a succession of 
 stones of similar size, or of a single mass. The openings 
 between the pillars and the doorways and the other 
 openings in the walls are then spanned by horizontal 
 stones (lintels). This was the plan adopted by the 
 Egyptians and Greeks. Wooden lintels were sometimes 
 employed instead of stone. 
 
 The nature of the material necessarily restricts, within 
 certain limits, the dimensions of the openings or spaces 
 which are to be covered with lintels. Wider openings 
 can be covered if the stone lintel is replaced by the arch, 
 which is formed of stones cut wedge-shaped (voussoirs) 
 and cemented together with mortar. The arch, of whatever 
 kind — semicircular, pointed, or horseshoe — supplanted 
 stone lintels, and the vault took the place of the flat roof. 
 These were the methods of roofing adopted by the Romans, 
 and by different nations in the early Christian and middle 
 ages, and at the time of the Renaissance. 
 
 
Materials and Methods of Building. 3 
 
 From the artistic working out of these various systems 
 of construction, the different styles of architecture were 
 developed. 
 
 Materials and Methods of Building. 
 
 The materials used for a building are of the greatest 
 importance in determining the nature of the whole 
 structure. The following are employed : — 
 
 1. Natural Stone — such as granite, sandstone, or lime- 
 stone — is the best substance that can be used : it is gener- 
 ally hewn and dressed in regular blocks. In very early 
 times, for building massive piles without any elaboration 
 of plan — such as still remain in India — large, undressed 
 stones were used in the irregular forms in which they came 
 from the quarry. The interstices between these large 
 polygons (many-cornered) were filled up with rubble, or 
 stone broken into small pieces. This mode of building, 
 which was chiefly prevalent in the earliest ages in Asia 
 Minor, Greece, and Italy, is known as the Cyclopean style. 
 This term originated in Greece, from the tradition that 
 structures of this description were the work of the Cyclopes, 
 a Thracian tribe. Of all the ancient buildings constructed 
 of hewn stone, the Greek temples, mostly built of white 
 marble, were the finest. To increase the appearance of 
 solidity, the surface of the stone is sometimes left rough. 
 This is the case in certain varieties of the masonry called 
 rustic, the name given to the kind of work in which the 
 joints of the stones are marked by grooves or channels. 
 
 2. Brick structures mark a certain step in the develop- 
 ment of the building art, as it is necessary in the first 
 place to form the material for them of the soft earth or 
 clay provided by nature ; moreover, other artificial sub- 
 
 B 2 
 
4 Materials and Methods of Building. 
 
 stances are often required in addition to the actual bricks, 
 — such as terra-cotta and plaster. Bricks were employed 
 in the erection of simple, massive structures in the earliest 
 times, in Persia, Babylon, and Assyria. In our own day 
 plain brick building, without stucco, has been brought to 
 great perfection. Concrete, a mixture of mortar with 
 gravel, is also used where great strength is required. 
 
 3. Wood. Timber was employed in the erection of log- 
 huts in the earliest times, strong beams being usually 
 piled up horizontally, and ingeniously joined at the corners. 
 In the middle ages a wooden architecture prevailed, having 
 a framing of timbers, the spaces between them being 
 filled in with stone, clay, or bricks (half-timbered con- 
 structions). The beams and posts were often elaborately 
 carved, as we see in many buildings which have been 
 preserved from that time. 
 
 The wooden architecture of Russia is rough, consisting 
 merely of trunks of trees piled up horizontally, but is often 
 ornamented with carved barge-boards and window dress- 
 ings and pierced panels. The well-known chalet of Swit- 
 zerland is characteristic and pleasing. An extremely artistic 
 style of wooden architecture prevailed in Norway in the 
 early part of the middle ages. Many churches of that style 
 are still extant ; the largest is that of Hitterdal, the ap- 
 pearance of which is very remarkable. 
 
 4. Iron is a material employed chiefly as an important 
 auxiliary, either for the making of ties and beams, or, in 
 combination with glass, for the construction of large roofs, 
 such as we see in railway stations, markets, and exhibition 
 buildings. In America, buildings are frequently constructed 
 entirely of iron, in imitation of stone. 
 
I. — Indian Architecture. 
 
 It is to Asia, the cradle of the human race, that we 
 naturally turn to find the earliest germs of art, and to 
 trace their development. But if we expect to find the 
 most ancient remains of architectural art in India, China, 
 or any other country of the remote East, we shall be 
 disappointed. The history of Indian art appears to com- 
 mence with the rise into power of Asoka [b.c. 272 — 236], 
 who forsook the religion of his fathers and adopted 
 Buddhism. 
 
 In the very first period of its development Indian 
 architecture attained to a distinctive style, which was 
 employed in religious monuments. This style was subse- 
 quently adopted by the Hindu or Brahminical sects, who 
 completely transformed it by the use of profuse ornament- 
 ation. The Hindu people retained their national religion 
 and peculiar style of architecture, even in the political 
 apathy into which they subsequently sank ; and there 
 exist many comparatively modern buildings in which the 
 original forms can still be recognised. 
 
 The various districts of the vast territory of India are 
 strewn with an extraordinary number of monuments of 
 an exclusively religious character, erected by the professors 
 of one or the other of the two great religious systems of 
 India ; and resembling each other in general style, in spite 
 of a vast diversity of form. The earliest works of which 
 we have any knowledge are : — 
 
 1. Topes (from the Sanscrit stupha, a mound), simple 
 funeral monuments for the preservation of relics of Buddha 
 and of his chief disciples. — These erections are also called 
 dagobas, and are often of considerable size, — the two topes 
 
Indian Architecture. 
 
 of Sanchi, # for instance, the largest of which is 120 feet in 
 diameter and 50 feet in height. The topes of Ceylon are 
 even larger : the Abayagiri (b.c. 88) was 1100 feet in cir- 
 cumference, and 244 feet in height : the Ruanwelle was 270 
 feet high. The Thuparamaya dagoba, near Anuradhapoora, 
 the ancient capital of Ceylon, is smaller, but it stands on 
 a platform nine feet high, and is surrounded by rows of 
 pillars (Fig. 1). 
 
 Fig. 1.— Tope of Ceylon. 
 
 2. Rock-cut Caves. — Originally intended as residences 
 or monasteries for the followers of Buddha ; these were 
 subsequently converted into temples. Such are the cave- 
 temples of Ellora, Ajunta, Kannari, etc. These buildings 
 were closely followed by the early Christian churches 
 in their internal arrangements : rows of pillars separate 
 
 * A cast of the gateway of one of these topes is in the Indian 
 section of the South Kensington Museum. 
 
Indian Architecture. 7 
 
 the nave from the aisles ; and in Buddhist temples a small 
 dagoba, or shrine, containing a seated image of Buddha, 
 rises at the end of the cave, in much the same place as 
 the altar in Christian churches. Buddhist caves are of 
 simple construction, with plain piers and unpretending 
 ornamentation ; the Brahminical, or Hindu, on the other 
 hand, are often intricate structures, with every part pro- 
 fusely decorated with sculptures. 
 
 Fig. 2. — Cave of Elephanta. 
 
 There are no less than thirty-six caves of this description 
 scattered through the Western Ghauts and in the island 
 of Elephanta in the harbour of Bombay. The illustration 
 (Fig. 2) is of one of these. The cave of Karli, on the road 
 between Bombay and Poonah, is the largest, most perfect, 
 and most beautiful. 
 
 On the Coromandel coast, near the village of Sadras, are 
 the cave-temples of Mahavellipore, which are probably the 
 
8 
 
 Indian Architecture. 
 
 remains of a once important royal city. They are hewn 
 from rocks above ground. 
 
 3. Pagodas. — Hindu places of worship, consisting of 
 "■ •■■-■■; ■■■■ »'"■;; detached buildings above ground. A 
 
 pagoda consists of a group of structures 
 sacred to the god, surrounded by seve- 
 ral series of walls forming an enclosure. 
 The central building is of pyramidal 
 form, and is covered all over with pro- 
 fuse ornamentation — sometimes even 
 overlaid with strips of copper. The 
 walls are generally of hewn stones of 
 colossal size, and the gateways are ela- 
 borate pyramidal structures of several 
 stories. The pagodas of Mahavellipore 
 and Jaggernaut are fine specimens of 
 this style of building. 
 
 A system of civilisation so vigorous 
 
 Pillar in Hindu J . 
 
 Temple. and advanced as that of the Hindus 
 
 could not fail to exercise a lasting influence on surrounding 
 nations ; and we find their religion and their style of art 
 widely adopted in the large island groups, and the neigh- 
 bouring continents. 
 
 4. Mosques. — But the most remarkable of all Indian 
 buildings are those erected by the Mahomedan conquerors, 
 who brought their own style with them, and combined 
 it with the system of ornament prevalent amongst the 
 natives. The city of Ahmedabad, the Moslem capital of 
 Guzerat, is especially rich in mosques of surprising beauty. 
 In front of them is usually a court-yard, surrounded on three 
 sides by open colonnades, the mosque itself filling up the 
 fourth side. Three large doors give access to the mosque, 
 
Indian Architecture. 
 
 9 
 
 which is surmounted by three or more large domes. The 
 interiors of the mosques are richly ornamented, as are also 
 the bold external minarets on either side of the principal 
 entrance. The tomb of Mahomet, at Beejapore, is one of 
 the largest domical stone structures known to exist in any 
 country. Internally, it measures 135 feet each way. At the 
 
 Fig. 4. — Hindu Temple. Gopura, or Gate Pyramid. 
 
 height of 57 feet from the floor the wall begins to assume 
 the form of the dome by a series of pendentives (i. e. the 
 portions of vaults placed in the angles of rectangular com- 
 partments, to reduce them to a round or other suitable 
 form to receive the dome) of great beauty and ingenuity. 
 The mosque of Beejapore is little inferior to the tomb. 
 
II. — Egyptian Architecture. 
 
 It is on the banks of the Nile that we meet with the 
 earliest examples of architecture which have come down to 
 us. The history of Egyptian architecture is divided into 
 two great periods : the first is that of the Pyramids, the prin- 
 cipal of which are near Memphis, once the capital of Lower 
 Egypt ; and the second is that of the Temples erected by 
 the kings of the Theban dynasty, whose royal city was 
 Thebes. 
 
 The Pyramids are the oldest monuments of the world, 
 and date from about 3000 B.C. They consist of masses 
 of masonry, each raised over a small tomb which con- 
 tained the sarcophagus of the monarch ; their mode o 
 construction was as follows : A shaft of the size of the 
 sarcophagus was first sunk in the rock, and a suitable 
 chamber for it hollowed out when the right depth was 
 reached ; above this chamber a step - formed, gradually 
 tapering mound was erected, and blocks of masonry were 
 then laid on each layer of the steps, enlarging the size of 
 the pyramid till the intended dimensions were reached, the 
 whole being subsequently cut to an evenly sloping surface. 
 The outer masonry or coating has in most cases been par- 
 tially removed. These huge buildings are constructed in 
 most cases of blocks of stone; bricks were occasionally 
 employed. 
 
 The three great pyramids are at Gizeh, a village near 
 Cairo ; and according to the inscriptions the first was erected 
 by Cheops, the second by Kephren or Suphis II., and the 
 third by Menkara or Mycerinus. The height of the oldest, 
 or Great, Pyramid, was 480 ft. 9 ins., and its base was 764 ft. 
 
 : 
 
Egyptian Architecture. 11 
 
 square ; the second was 450 ft. high, with a base 707 ft. 
 square ; and the third was much smaller, being only 218 ft. 
 high by 354 ft. square. The workmanship of the masonry 
 in the Great Pyramid and the great skill with which the 
 chambers and galleries that it contains were constructed, 
 have excited the admiration and wonder of all skilled 
 observers. Extensive private sepulchres, more or less 
 deeply excavated in the rock, are connected with the 
 pyramids. 
 
 The fine obelisk of Osortasen I. at Heliopolis is a 
 monument of the second golden age of the old empire, 
 which commenced rather more than two thousand years 
 before the Christian era. It is a simple memorial column, 
 cut with geometrical precision from a single stone, with 
 a square base, gradually tapering sides, and a pyramidal 
 or pointed top. To the same period is also ascribed the 
 formation of the rock-cut tombs at Beni-hassan, in Middle 
 Egypt, remarkable for their pillars which closely resemble 
 Greek Doric columns. 
 
 About 2000 b.c. Egypt was invaded by an Asiatic people 
 called the Shepherd-Kings, who drove the rulers of the 
 land into Upper Egypt, and reduced the people to sub- 
 jection. It was not until 1400 B.C. that the intruders 
 were expelled, after which commenced the era of the " New 
 Empire," with Thebes for its capital. 
 
 In the period included between 1600 b.c. and 1300 
 B.C., Egypt reached the zenith of her greatness, and 
 Egyptian architecture its fullest development. It was 
 the golden age of art — the age of the construction of the 
 great temples. 
 
 The Egyptian temples, like the Indian, consist of a 
 cluster of different parts enclosing a small sacred centre or 
 
12 
 
 Egyptian Architecture. 
 
 shrine. Towering pyramidal facades, called pylons, with 
 their mighty cornices (Fig. 5), give an imposing appearance 
 to the entrance ; but with this exception the temples were 
 designed almost entirely for internal effect. They were shut 
 in by enclosing walls, and the severe and heavy architecture 
 can have been seen only by those admitted within the 
 
 IM I I 
 
 Fig. 5. — Pylon (Entrance-gate) of an Egyptian Temple. 
 
 sacred precinct. Here no window -openings, no fanciful 
 grouping of columns, break the monotony of the desolate 
 courts, which are covered, as with a tapestry, with mystic 
 many-coloured hieroglyphics (sacred sculptures) and repre- 
 sentations of gods and rulers. A double row of sphinxes, 
 or of ram-headed colossi, often leads up to the entrance, 
 
Egyptian Architecture. 
 
 13 
 
 which is flanked on each side with a pyramidal pylon, and 
 in front of which usually stood two obelisks. The doorway 
 between these pylons leads into a square vestibule open to 
 the sky, with porticoes on two, sometimes on three, sides. 
 The vestibule gives access to a large inner court, with a 
 massive roof supported on columns. Beyond this are several 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 L 
 
 JL 
 
 
 In 
 
 
 "" 
 
 
 
 • 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 J; 
 
 |j|ii 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ■ : j'(iSB!Sr 
 
 i 
 
 II 
 
 H 
 
 Fig. 7. — Capital of a Column. 
 Palm ornament. 
 
 Fig. 6. — Egyptian Columns. 
 
 smaller apartments of varying size, enclosing within them 
 the kernel of the whole — the low, narrow, mysterious, 
 dimly-lighted cella — the shrine in which is enthroned in 
 mystic gloom the image of the god. In several instances 
 it is clear that these great temples have been extended by 
 the addition of a court-yard and an entrance in front of the 
 
14 
 
 Egyptian Architecture. 
 
 original one, and in some cases this seems to have been 
 done more than once. In almost every instance the in- 
 ternal walls, the ceilings, the pillars, as well as the outside 
 of the building, are all profusely decorated with coloured 
 symbolic carvings, which add greatly to the majestic ap- 
 pearance of the structure. 
 
 The ruins of Thebes, the " City of a Hundred Gates," 
 grand and imposing even in its decay, are the most extensive 
 in Egypt, and are scattered on both sides of the Nile, which 
 — runs through the ancient town. Those 
 
 yQ of the Temple of Karnac are the largest 
 "^^ and most remarkable. The Sanctu- 
 ary of Karnac was built by Osortasen 
 I., and the rest of the building 
 was added by later monarchs. The 
 great hypostyle * hall covers more than 
 88,000 square feet, and contains a 
 central avenue of twelve columns, 60 
 feet high and 12 feet in diameter, and 
 122 of lesser dimensions. Nearly all 
 the larger Egyptian temples contain 
 hypostyle halls, which derive their 
 name from their having an upper row 
 of columns, through which the li^ht 
 was admitted to the central hall. The temple of Luxor, 
 on the same side of the Nile as that of Karnac, was 
 connected with the latter by an avenue of sphinxes. 
 
 Columns are largely employed in the architecture of 
 Egyptian temples. They are of various forms. One of the 
 oldest is represented in Fig. 6. The shaft, supported on 
 a round base, somewhat resembles a bundle of reed-stems, 
 
 * The literal meaning of the word hypostyle is "raised on columns." 
 
 
 Fig. 8. — Egyptian Pillar 
 and Beam. 
 
Egyptian Architecture. 
 
 15 
 
 and its capital {top), springing from the necking of the 
 shaft and banded together with it, is supposed to resemble 
 a lotus bud : above the capital is laid the abacus (a level 
 tablet or shallow block), supporting the entablature (the 
 horizontal beams and cornice). Many columns have capitals 
 representing fully-opened flowers and palm leaves (Fig. 7), 
 
 Fig-. 9. — Rock-cut Temple at Ipsambul, on the Nile. 
 
 and in later temples we meet with pillars in which heads 
 of the goddess Hathor and other deities are used as the 
 ornaments of capitals. We must not close this notice of 
 Egyptian pillars without a word on the so-called caryatid 
 columns, which are square piers with colossi placed in front 
 of them. Although not strictly architectural objects, as 
 
16 
 
 Egyptian Architecture. 
 
 they do not support the entablature, they greatly add t( 
 the architectural effect of Egyptian temples. 
 
 The royal Theban tombs of the eighteenth and following 
 dynasties, excavated from the living rock in the westei 
 plain of the Nile, are no less worthy of study than th( 
 temples. A labyrinth of winding passages, alternating with 
 halls, of which the roof is supported by, pillars left in the 
 live rock, leads from a vestibule to the sarcophagus chamber 
 itself. The walls of these tombs are covered with paintings 
 relating to the life of the ruler, and the sarcophagus stands 
 in the test chamber. There are many distinct groups 
 of tombs in the plain of the Nile, of which the most 
 remarkable are the Tombs of the Queens, the Tombs of 
 the Kings, and the Cemeteries of the Sacred Apis. Othei 
 important Egyptian monuments are met with elsewhere, 
 especially in Nubia — such as the temple on the small 
 island of Elephantine, and the two rock-cut caves at Ip- 
 sambul (Fig. 9), the larger of which has an external facade 
 100 feet in height, adorned with a statue, 65 feet high, of 
 Rhamses the Great (the Sesostris of the Greeks). 
 
 Egyptian architecture entered its final stage in the 
 Ptolemaic age (b.c. 300). The picturesque temple on the 
 island of Philse is a monument of that epoch. 
 
 Egyptian Sphjn: 
 
III. — Assyrian Architecture. 
 Babylon and Nineveh. 
 
 The inhabitants of the great region watered by the 
 Euphrates and Tigris, extending from the Armenian moun- 
 tains to the Persian Gulf, attained at a very remote age to 
 a high degree of civilisation. The temple of Baal, or Belus, 
 of eight stories, or terraces, each less than the one below it, 
 must have rivalled the pyramids of Egypt. Not less famous 
 are the hanging gardens of Semiramis, which were con- 
 nected with the palaces of the Assyrian rulers. Of all 
 these works nothing now remains but the mounds near the 
 town of Hillah, built on the ruins of the ancient Babylon, 
 and beneath which the old temple of Belus,* and the palace 
 of Nebuchadnezzar (600 B.C.), are by some supposed to 
 have been recognised. Many of these buildings were 
 evidently destroyed by fire, the ruins consisting in a great 
 measure of vitrified masses ; but in some cases their rapid 
 decay was the result of their having been built of sun-burnt 
 bricks, which gradually crumbled away by exposure to the 
 atmosphere. 
 
 Important discoveries of ruins, extending over some ten 
 miles, have been made in recent excavations at Mosul, on 
 
 * The distinction of being the ruins of the Tower of Babel is 
 claimed for no less than three different masses : Nimrud's Tower 
 at Akkerkuf ; the Miijellibe, east of the Euphrates and five miles 
 from Plillah ; and the Birs Nimrud, west of the Euphrates and six 
 miles north-west of Hillah ; but there is no sufficient evidence for 
 identification. 
 
 EHA C 
 
18 
 
 Assyrian Architecture. 
 
 the right bank of the Tigris. The palaces and buildings 
 brought to light have been named after the villages of 
 Nimrad, Khorsabad, and Koyunjik, near which they were 
 found, and are most probably the ruins of ancient Nineveh. 
 They are intricate buildings, erected on terraces of brick, 
 and consist of a number of narrow apartments and long 
 galleries, grouped about a central court. No very distinct- 
 ive architectural forms have as yet been discovered — such 
 as columns of a characteristic style ; but this is in a great 
 measure atoned for by the richness of the decorative 
 
 Fig. 10. — "Winged Bulls of the gateway at Khorsabad. 
 
 details. The bas-reliefs, sculptured on tablets or alabaster 
 slabs and covering the lower part of the walls, are very beau- 
 tifully carved. They commemorated the chief events in 
 the lives of the Assyrian rulers. Many of them have been 
 removed to the British Museum ; of these the "Lion Hunt," 
 from the palace of Nimrud, the " Siege of a Town," and 
 the " Erection of a Colossal Bull," are among the most 
 remarkable. The ornaments of the variegated glazed slabs 
 of the pavements and the upper parts of the walls are in 
 many cases excellent. The beauty of the drawing and the 
 
Assyrian Architecture. 
 
 19 
 
 frequent use of the honeysuckle and allied types of decor- 
 ation remind us of Greek workmanship. 
 
 The entrance gateways of these singular palaces were 
 generally flanked by pairs of colossal winged bulls, with 
 human faces and elaborately curled hair and beards, wear- 
 ing a high tiara surmounted by feathers (Fig. 10). Arched 
 gateways faced with glazed bricks of various colours have 
 
 Fig. 11. — Pavement slab from the palace of Koyunjik. ' 
 
 also been dug out. Galleries, raised on columns, forming 
 a kind of upper story to the building, admitted air and 
 light freely. All the Assyrian buildings were erected on 
 terraces, to which flights of steps gave access, and it is 
 probable that they were several stories high. 
 
 Fig. 11 represents one of the pavement slabs of the 
 palace of Esarhaddon at Koyunjik. 
 
 c 2 
 
IV. — Architecture op the Medes and Persians. 
 
 Under the rule of Cyrus the Great (559—529 B.C.) the 
 Persians obtained ascendancy over the Medes, and extended 
 their dominions on all sides. For upwards of two centuries 
 they were a great nation, and many important remains of 
 their architecture may be seen to this day. 
 
 The art of these nations is a late offshoot of that of 
 Assyria. The Medes and Persians adopted the terraced 
 platforms and the brick walls faced with costly materials 
 characteristic of the ruins of Babylon and Nineveh. This 
 style of ornamenting walls, which was common throughout 
 the whole of Central Asia and in ancient Egypt, may 
 perhaps have sprung from the designs of the exquisite 
 textile fabrics, in the manufacture of which the people 
 of the East excelled in very early times. 
 
 The royal palace of Ecbatana, the capital of Media, 
 was seven stories high, built in the terraced style, with 
 coloured walls in some parts glowing with gold and silver. 
 These walls bear a striking affinity to those faced with 
 coloured glazed bricks, which were used in the palaces of 
 Nineveh. The columns and ceiling-beams of the halls 
 were made of cedar and cypress wood, and covered with 
 gold and silver plates. 
 
 Intercourse with the Greeks of Asia Minor greatly 
 influenced Persian architecture, and led to the extensive 
 employment of marble, and the adoption of many Greek 
 ornaments. On the site of the ancient Pasargadae, near 
 the modern Murghab, the ruins of a large structural tomb 
 have been discovered, supposed to be that of Cyrus. It 
 
 
Medo-Persian Architecture. 
 
 21 
 
 consists of a small temple-like chamber with a gable 
 roof, its form betraying Greek influence, erected on a 
 pyramid of seven steps. It was formerly surrounded 
 by a well-kept park, and encircled by a cloister of marble 
 columns at some little distance from it. It is constructed 
 entirely of white marble, and once gloried in costly carpets, 
 and vessels and ornaments of gold. 
 
 The famous palaces of Persepolis were erected under 
 Kings Darius and Xerxes, famous for their fruitless 
 
 ~ fo. J> iW^^'iW'ivA ^-^ 
 
 Y*Vj DiA^^Miii^ 
 
 Fig. 12. — Part of the rock-cut facade of the tomh'of Darius. 
 
 struggles with the Greeks. The ruins of these fine build- 
 ings are to be seen on the plain of Merdusht. It was in 
 one of these that Alexander the Great flung down the 
 burning torch. Massive double flights of steps lead to a 
 platform strewn with ruins, from which still tower some 
 forty colossal marble pillars. These steps, together with 
 the artificial terraces so favourable to their introduction, 
 are a principal feature of all the ancient palaces of this 
 
22 
 
 Medo-Persian Architecture. 
 
 Fig. 13. — Column with 
 spiral ornament. 
 
 neighbourhood. Here also occur 
 the tombs of the Persian monarchs, 
 excavated from the rock and adorned 
 with high sculptured facades cut 
 from the same material. The tomb 
 of Darius at Naksh-i-Rustam (Fig. 
 12) is remarkable for having on 
 the facade beneath the sarcophagus 
 a representation of the Palace of 
 Persepolis as it was in the days of 
 the Great King, by means of which 
 the parts missing in the ruins can 
 be supplied. In all these facades 
 we recognise an imitation of the 
 Persian columns, which are remark- 
 able for the carved bulls' and 
 unicorns' heads which form the 
 capitals, and for the spiral orna- 
 ment which reappeared at a later 
 date as the characteristic feature of 
 Greek Ionic architecture. 
 
 The ruins of the Hall of Xerxes, 
 the Chehil Minar, show that it must 
 have been one of the largest build- 
 ings in this part of the world. The 
 bases of no less than seventy-two 
 columns still remain to mark the 
 enormous size of this grand temple, 
 which must have occupied more 
 ground than most of the cathedrals 
 of the present day. 
 
V.— Architecture of Asia Minor. 
 
 The most important of the native races who inhabited 
 that part of Asia which lies between the Black Sea and 
 the Mediterranean were the Lydians, the Phrygians, and 
 
 Fig/14. — Rock-cut front of the so-called Grave of Midas at Doganlu 
 
 the Lycians. Of these the Lydians were probably, in the 
 reign of their King Gyges (about 700 B.C.), the most valiant. 
 But about 550 B.C. Cyrus took their splendid city Sardis 
 and joined their country to the great Persian Empire. 
 
24 Architecture of Asia Minor. 
 
 These various races are famous for the strangle tombs 
 they erected, — each people having adopted a different 
 form of sepulchral monument. The most ancient appear 
 to be those of Lydia, which are of the primitive tumulus 
 form, and often of colossal proportions. The largest of 
 all is the tumulus of Tantalus, 200 feet in diameter, situ- 
 ated on the northern shore of the Gulf of Smyrna. Similar 
 tumuli are to be seen in the neighbourhood of the old 
 royal city of Sardis, and are supposed to be the tombs 
 of the ancient rulers of the land. 
 
 The sepulchral monuments of Phrygia are of a different 
 character. It was customary with some ancient peoples 
 to raise mounds over the resting-places of their leaders, 
 but with others to use the natural rock for the structure 
 of a tomb. The Phrygians followed the latter custom; 
 they excavated their tombs in the living rock, and adorned 
 them with skilfully-sculptured facades. These facades 
 were entirely covered with linear patterns painted in 
 various colours, and preserving the peculiar style probably 
 suggested by the Eastern textile fabrics, to which we have 
 already alluded. The so-called grave of Midas, at Doganlu 
 (Fig. 14), is a remarkable specimen of this class. It is 40 
 feet high, cut from the living rock, and terminates in a 
 pediment with two scrolls. 
 
 The Lycian monuments are of a form totally distinct 
 from those of Lydia and Phrygia. The inhabitants of the 
 romantic mountain districts of Asia Minor adopted two 
 different descriptions of sepulchre, — one being structural 
 or detached, the other cut in the rock ; but both were 
 imitations of the wooden houses everywhere common 
 amongst mountaineers, with sometimes the addition of 
 some features which recall the construction of a ship. The 
 
Architecture or Asia Minor. 
 
 25 
 
 detached tombs are perfectly constructed monolithic tombs, 
 consisting of a double pedestal supporting a sarcophagus, 
 which is surmounted by a curvilinear roof, evidently bor- 
 rowed from a wooden form, apparently that of a boat turned 
 upside down. The second class — those cut in the rock — 
 have either sculptured facades, or a kind of framing stand- 
 ing out from the rock (Fig. 15), closely resembling the 
 fronts of primitive log huts. At a later date, imitations of 
 porticoes on columns, betraying the influence of the Greeks, 
 supplanted these carpentry forms. 
 
 Fig. 15. — Rock-cut Tomb at Myra in Lycia. 
 
VI. — Early Ameri 
 
 .RCHITECTURE. 
 
 Before commencing our review of architecture in th( 
 different countries of Europe, we must turn for a moment 
 to the New World, and inquire what monuments have 
 come down to us of the civilisation of the early inhabit- 
 ants of the two great American continents. 
 
 1. North America. — The architectural remains of North 
 America scarcely come within the scope of our subject, 
 as they are all of the rudest description : mere mounds, 
 varying from five to thirty feet in height, enclosed within 
 colossal walls of earth and stone. Their origin, and the 
 purpose for which they were erected, are alike involved in 
 obscurity. 
 
 2. South America. — The principal architectural remains, 
 sculptures, etc., in South America, are in Peru, and the 
 most remarkable of them appear to date from pre-Incarial 
 times, and to have formed part of buildings erected by the 
 predecessors of the ancient Peruvians — a race whose very 
 name is unknown. 
 
 The ruins of Tita-Huanca, on the shores of Lake Titi- 
 caca, are of this class, and consist of monolithic doorways, 
 one of which is 10 feet high by 13 wide ; of pillars 21 feet 
 high, and of immense cyclopean masses of masonry. 
 
 The monuments of the times of the Incas are inferior 
 in every respect to those of the earlier inhabitants of 
 Peru. The ancient Peruvians appear to have constructed 
 their earliest buildings of mud, which was supplanted by 
 
 
Early American Architecture. 
 
 27 
 
 a kind of concrete, and that again by cyclopean blocks. 
 The ruins of Cuzco, the old capital of the kingdom, are 
 the finest specimens of Peruvian masonry still extant. 
 They are composed of huge polygonal limestone blocks, 
 fitted together with the greatest precision, and piled up in 
 three terraces. 
 
 3. Central America. — The principal architectural re- 
 mains of Central America are in Mexico, Yucatan, and 
 
 mn i ii iiju ij j jju jjm i iMiiiiijuj L tijttiiAi i Bjj i j r 
 
 Fig. 1G.— Palace of Zayi. 
 
 Guatemala. They are all supposed to have been the 
 creations of the Toltecs, a race who probably dwelt in 
 these provinces at the most remote ages, and attained 
 to a higher decree of civilisation than their successors, the 
 Aztecs of Mexico, and the mixed races of the neighbouring 
 districts. The buildings most deserving of notice in Cen- 
 tral America are the Teocallis, or Houses of God, and the 
 palaces of the kings. The former consist of four-sided 
 
28 
 
 Early American Architecture. 
 
 pyramids — generally divided into two, three, or more ter- 
 races — and the temple itself, which rises from a platform 
 on the summit. The pyramid of Cholula, near Mexico, is 
 alike the largest and most celebrated of the Teocallis of 
 Mexico : but it has been much defaced, and the original 
 temple has been replaced by a modern church dedicated 
 to the Virgin. This pyramid originally measured 1400 
 
 \jr~ 
 
 Fig. 17. — Casa de las Monjas at Uxnial. 
 
 feet each way, and was 177 feet high. The Teocallis of 
 Yucatan are in much better preservation. They are not 
 built on terraces, but are approached by an unbroken 
 flight of steps. The pyramid of Palenque is 60 feet high, 
 and the temple on the summit is adorned with bas-relief 
 and hieroglyphical tablets. The roof is formed by courses 
 
Early American Architecture. 29 
 
 of stone approaching each other, and meeting at the sum- 
 mit, with external projections resembling dormer windows. 
 The palaces differ but little from the Teocallis. The 
 pyramids supporting them are generally lower and of an 
 oblong form, and the upper buildings contain a larger 
 number of apartments. The residence itself consists 
 almost universally of a stone basement, with square 
 doorways, but no windows, surmounted by a superstruc- 
 ture often elaborately carved, and evidently borrowed from 
 a wooden form. The palace of Zayi, and the Casa de las 
 Monjas (the House of the Nuns) at Uxmal, are, perhaps, 
 the finest buildings of this description in Central America. 
 Many suppose them to be temples and palaces standing 
 together, or groups of different palaces, which belonged to 
 temporal officers of high rank. 
 
 The palace of Zayi (Fig. 16) rises on a pyramid of three 
 terraces, with architectural facades, and consists of tiers 
 of buildings adorned with grotesque carvings. 
 
 The Casa de las Monjas at Uxmal (Fig. 17) is raised 
 on three low terraces, each about 20 feet high, one of 
 which — that facing south — is pierced with a gateway 
 leading into a court-yard, surrounded by buildings one 
 story high, remarkable for the profusion of their decor- 
 ations. 
 
VII. — Geeek Aechitectube. 
 
 Geeek architecture reached its fullest development in 
 the building of temples. A Greek temple rises from a 
 platform of many steps within the walls of a sacred enclo- 
 sure. Every part of the building is accurately propor- 
 tioned, and every detail is as carefully finished as a work 
 of sculpture. The Egyptians strove to give expression to 
 their dim yearning for the sublime in the overwhelming 
 extent and massiveness of their buildings, but the Greek* 
 
 Fig-. 17a— Ground-plan of the Temple of Neptune at Psestum. 
 
 produced an impression of beauty and solemn grandeur 
 by perfection of proportion and purity of outline. The 
 Egyptian temple, moreover, was always designed for inter- 
 nal effect; the Greek temple, on the contrary, appealed 
 far more strongly to the admiration of the bystander than 
 to that of the worshipper who prayed within its portals. 
 
 The ground-plan of a Greek temple is a parallelogram 
 (Fig. 17 a), either with columns at each end only, supporting 
 the sloping pediments (i. e. gables), or continued all round. 
 The naos or cclla — the temple itself — is always small, even 
 
Geeek Architecture. 31 
 
 when the surrounding enclosure is large. The earliest 
 Greek temples are supposed to have consisted of a naos 
 only, and were astylar buildings (*. e. without columns) 
 except in front, where a porch was produced by continuing 
 the side walls and placing columns between them in antis, 
 as it was called, or between the two antce (i. e. pilasters) 
 forming the ends of the walls. The next step was to 
 advance the porch before the building, converting it into 
 a prostyle {i. e. projecting line of columns). If the other 
 end of the building were treated in a similar manner, it 
 became amphvprostyle (i, e. prostyle at both ends), the sides 
 being still astylar (i. e. without columns). The next stage 
 was the continuation of the columns all round, enclosing 
 the cella with colonnades on every side. This treatment 
 is called peristylar or peripteral {i. e. having columns all 
 round). There are two kinds of peristylar temples, — those 
 with a single row of columns on each side, and those which 
 have two, which latter are called dipteral (i. e. having two 
 wings or aisles on each side). 
 
 The internal arrangement of all the Greek temples 
 was very simple. From the pronaos (i. e. porch) we enter 
 the cella, beyond which is the posticum (i. e. back space), 
 leading in some cases to the opisthodom.as (back temple). 
 In large buildings the interior has a double row of columns, 
 one over the other, the light being, it is supposed, admitted 
 through the upper row of columns. 
 
 There are three Greek orders, the special characteristics 
 of each of which we shall presently describe. The term 
 Order refers to the system of columniation adopted by 
 the Greeks and Romans, and denotes the columns and 
 entablature together, — that is to say, the supporting 
 columns and the horizontal beams and roof supported by 
 
32 
 
 Greek Architecture. 
 
 them; and to the system of decoration which was employed 
 in the whole building. The capital of the column was, if 
 the phrase may be permitted, the badge by which the 
 whole can be recognised. 
 
 In all early Greek temple architecture we meet with 
 substantially the same ground-plan treated in two widely 
 different styles. This is accounted for by the fact that 
 Greece was inhabited by two separate races, distinguished 
 as the Doric and the Ionic, who have given their names 
 to the two chief Greek orders of architecture. The third 
 order is called the Corinthian, — why, has not yet been 
 determined, as no examples of it have been found at 
 Corinth. 
 
 To avoid confusion, it will be well to make ourselves 
 acquainted with the different parts of the column and 
 its superstructure or entablature in every order before 
 describing the different treatment of those parts in the 
 Doric, Ionic and Corinthian styles. 
 
 A column consists of the base, the shaft, and the capital. 
 The entablature, that part of the building which surmounts 
 the columns and rests upon their capitals, consists also of 
 three parts, — the architrave, the frieze, and the cornice 
 (Fig. 20). The architrave is the horizontal portion rest- 
 ing on the abacus (a flat tablet placed upon the capital), 
 and is sometimes ornamented by mouldings with flat 
 spaces between them. The upper moulding .projects 
 beyond the other, to throw off the rain. The frieze, the 
 middle portion of the entablature, between the architrave 
 and cornice, is generally ornamented with sculptures. The 
 cornice forms the upper portion of the entablature, and 
 is divided into three parts ; namely, the supporting part, 
 the projecting part, and the crowning part. The lower 
 
Greek Architecture. $3 
 
 mouldings form the supporting part; they are called bed- 
 mouldings; the projecting part is the corona (crown), but 
 the true crowning point is the moulding surmounting the 
 so-called corona, and forming the highest member of the 
 cornice. The triangular space over the portico, enclosed 
 within the horizontal cornice and two raking (i. e. sloping) 
 cornices, wdiich follow the slope of the roof, is called the 
 tympanum, and is generally filled with sculptures, as in 
 the Parthenon at Athens. The whole of the triangular 
 end, which answers to the gable in Gothic buildings, is the 
 pediment. The roof was most frequently covered with tiles 
 of marble. 
 
 The Doric Order. 
 
 The Doric order is remarkable for solidity and sim- 
 plicity, combined with elegance and beauty of proportion 
 (Fig. 18). The Dorians had no base to their columns ; 
 or rather they made the upper step of the platform serve 
 as a common base for the whole row of columns. Doric 
 columns are massive, and have an entasis or convex 
 profile. They are generally fluted — that is, cut into a 
 series of channels touching each other, of which the normal 
 number is twenty. Several rings, called annulets, deeply 
 cut on the shaft, connect it with the capital, and throw 
 into relief the echinus, a convex moulding forming the 
 lower and principal part of a Doric capital. The Doric 
 entablature is distinguished by the ornamentation of the 
 frieze or central portion with triglyphs, i. e. three slight 
 projections, divided by channels or flutes. The spaces 
 between the trighjphs are called metopes. They are 
 square, and were, it has been conjectured, originally 
 left open to serve as windows, but they are in all known 
 
 EHA d 
 
u 
 
 Gkeek Architecture. 
 
 Cornice. 
 
 Frieze, with 
 triglyphs and 
 metopes. 
 
 Architrave. 
 Capital. 
 
 examples filled in with stone tablets, adorned with 
 
 sculptures in relief. 
 
 Above the triglyphs and metopes forming the frieze 
 
 rises the third and last 
 division of the entab- 
 lature, — the cornice. 
 Thin plates, called 
 mutules, placed over 
 each triglyph and each 
 metope, connect them 
 with the cornice. The 
 soffits (under surfaces) 
 of the mutules are 
 worked into three rows 
 of guttce (i. e. drops). 
 
 The Greek Doric 
 order in many of the 
 features of its entabla- 
 ture bears a resem- 
 blance to the forms 
 natural to timber 
 structures; not perhaps 
 so close as that exhi- 
 bited by the Lycian 
 tombs (see Fig. 15), but 
 still too marked to be 
 readily accounted for 
 
 Shaft. 
 
 Fig. 18. —Doric Order. From the 
 Temple of Theseus at Athens. 
 
 on any other supposition than that timber buildings must 
 have been the originals. This is especially the case with 
 the triglyphs, the guttse, and the mutules. 
 
 The pediment, although not forming part of the order 
 
Greek Architecture. 35 
 
 — which is complete without it — is too constant a feature 
 of Grecian buildings to be left unmentioned. We have 
 already described its position. 
 
 Doric temples are now known to have been painted 
 both externally and internally, and the colouring must 
 have greatly increased the beauty of the general effect. 
 
 The Ionic Order. 
 
 The Ionic order (Fig. 19) is of quite a different character 
 to the Doric. Instead of stern simplicity, we have graceful 
 and pleasing, but often conventional, forms. The capital 
 of the column is the distinctive mark of the order, but the 
 column itself varies greatly from the Doric. Instead of 
 rising abruptly from the platform of the building, it has a 
 base consisting of a series of mouldings at the bottom of 
 the shaft. The shaft itself is taller and more slender, the 
 channels or flutes are more numerous, more deeply cut, and 
 have spaces left between them called fillets. A necking is 
 generally introduced in Ionic columns between the shaft 
 and the capital. The latter, the distinguishing mark of 
 the order, has an echinus like the Doric, but instead of a 
 simple flat abacus two volutes (i. e. spiral mouldings) pro- 
 jecting considerably beyond the echinus on either side. 
 The upper part of the Ionic capital is a thin, square, 
 moulded abacus, adorned with leaf patterns. 
 
 In the other portions of Ionic buildings we notice the 
 same increase of richness and variety of form as in the 
 columns. The frieze, instead of being divided into triglyjohs 
 and metopes, consists of one unbroken series of perpen- 
 dicular slabs, generally adorned with figures in bas-relief 
 
 D2 
 
36 
 
 Greek Architecture. 
 
 or other sculptures. This frieze is called the zooplioros 
 (figure-bearer). 
 
 Cornice. 
 
 Frieze. 
 
 Architrave. 
 Abacus. 
 Capital. 
 Shaft. 
 
 Shaft. 
 
 Fig, 19.— Ionic Order. From the Temple of Athena (Minerva), at Priene. 
 
 In Attica, Doric influence produced a modification of 
 the Ionic style, which has appropriately been entitled 
 Attic. 
 
Geeek Aechitecture. 37 
 
 We have next to notice the Corinthian order (Fig. 20), 
 which is in fact but a late variety of the already described 
 Ionic, from which it is distinguished more by its deep and 
 foliaged capital than by its proportions. The base and 
 shaft of the Corinthian column are borrowed from the 
 Ionic, but the capital is a new and distinctive form, 
 representing flower calices and leaves pointing upwards, 
 and curving gracefully like natural plants. On account of 
 its beautiful shape, the deeply-indented acanthus leaf was 
 most frequently adopted. 
 
 The history of the gradual development of the Greek 
 system of architecture from the first crude rudimentary 
 forms to the perfection in which we see it in the monu- 
 ments which have come down to us, will never be fully 
 known ; but a careful examination of all existing buildings 
 reveals certain differences in the treatment of their several 
 parts, which may be taken as indications of the various 
 stages of development. 
 
 The first period (b.c. 740 — 600) may be said to be included 
 between the age of Solon and the Persian War. The 
 existing monuments of this period are not very numerous, 
 and are all of a massive and heavy type, with an appear- 
 ance of great antiquity. There are extensive ruins of Doric 
 buildings in Sicily : Selinus has six temples, Agrigentum 
 three, Syracuse one, and iEgesta one ; the last-named is 
 in a very perfect state. At Paestum, in Southern Italy 
 (the ancient Magna Grsecia), is an extremely fine group of 
 temples, of which one — that of Poseidon (Neptune) — is 
 among the most perfect and best preserved of all existing 
 relics of antiquity. The ruins of the Doric temple of 
 Corinth are perhaps the only remains of early Greek 
 architecture on the soil of Greece itself. It is one 
 
Cornice. 
 
 Frieze. 
 
 Architrave. 
 
 Abacus. 
 
 Capital. 
 
 Shaft. 
 
 Shaft. 
 
 Base. 
 
 Fig. 20. — Corinthian Order. From the Monument of Lysicrates, at Athens. 
 
Greek Architecture. 39 
 
 of the most massive specimens of architecture now 
 existing. 
 
 The second period (b.c. 470 — 338) is included between the 
 Persian war and the Macedonian supremacy. In the 
 Temple of iEgina, erected to the honour of Athena 
 (Minerva), we can see the commencement of the transition 
 from the severe archaic style to the graceful ornate archi- 
 tecture of the later Greek temples. Its sculptures are 
 of Parian marble, and are executed with the greatest care 
 and delicacy, even the wrinkles of the nude figures being 
 rendered. The Temple of Theseus, at Athens, is one of 
 the noblest works of the school of Attica, in which we see 
 the stern Doric style of the earlier times softened and 
 rendered pleasing and harmonious. Its proportions are 
 more slender, its ornamentation more delicate, and its 
 whole quality more refined (Fig. 21). It is of more costly 
 materials than that of iEgina, being built of white marble. 
 
 It was when Pericles held the reins of government in 
 Athens that the finest monuments were erected. In his 
 age the dignity of the archaic style was combined with 
 the science and grace of the mature epoch, and there was 
 as yet no hint of approaching decadence. The Parthenon, 
 or Temple of Athena, erected on the Acropolis (the highest 
 point of the city), had been destroyed, with many other 
 fine buildings, by the Persians under Xerxes. When Athens 
 once more rose to the first position amongst the states of 
 Greece, Pericles rebuilt the Parthenon (about 440 B.C.). 
 He retained the original site of the old temple, but the 
 form of the new building was different. It was of the 
 peripteral style, and was of considerable dimensions for 
 temples of that time : 227 feet long by 101 broad. 
 The restoration occupied six years, and the buildings 
 
40 
 
 Greek Architecture. 
 
 remained almost intact for many centuries, until they were 
 destroyed by the Venetians in 1G87 : two mutilated ruins 
 are all that now remain of this magnificent structure. 
 Ictinus and Callicrates were the architects, and Pheidias and 
 his pupils are supposed to have executed the sculptures, 
 many of which have been removed to the British Museum. 
 Although they are so broken as to be little better than 
 
 Fig. 21. — The Temple of Theseus at Athens. 
 
 relics, they are universally acknowledged to be among 
 the most beautiful works of sculpture ever produced. 
 
 Not less famous than the Parthenon itself is that 
 magnificent Porch, the Propylsea, built of white marble, 
 which formed the entrance to the temple on the western 
 side of the Acropolis. It belongs to the same age as the 
 
Greek Architecture. 
 
 41 
 
 Parthenon, having been erected by the architect Mnesicles, 
 under Pericles (about 430 B.C.). This building is remark- 
 able for perfection of proportion and grace of detail, and 
 is a fine specimen of the harmonious combination of the 
 Doric and Ionic styles. 
 
 The temples named above belong to the Doric order ; 
 
 Erechtheum. 
 
 Athena. 
 
 PROPYLiEA 
 
 Fiff. 22. 
 
 pak.thenon. 
 Nike Apteros. 
 
 The Acropolis at Athens (restored). 
 
 for early examples of Ionic we must go to Asia Minor. 
 At Ephesus the remains of the famous marble temple of 
 Artemis (Diana), which was one of the Seven Wonders of 
 the World, have been explored within our own day; and 
 portions of the sculptured shafts have been brought to 
 the British Museum by Mr. Wood. 
 
42 
 
 Greek Architecture. 
 
 We can likewise see the result of an Attic modification 
 of the Ionic style in two works of extremely modest 
 proportions, of about the same date as the Temple of 
 Theseus : the ruined temple on the Ilissus, and the 
 Temple of Nike Apteros (Wingless Victory) at the entrance 
 to the Acropolis of Athens. 
 
 But it is in the third building of the Acropolis — the 
 Erechtheum — that we see the fullest development of the 
 graceful Attic-Ionic style. The original Erechtheum was 
 named after Erechtheus, an Attic hero, and contained his 
 tomb, but it was destroyed by the Persians ; and the 
 second building bearing the same name, which rose on its 
 ruins, was a splendid compound structure, with several 
 chambers and three porticoes, containing not only the 
 sacred image of Athena and the tombs of some of the 
 old heroes of the land, but also many highly-venerated 
 religious relics. It was not until after the death of Pericles 
 that the Erechtheum was rebuilt. The outside of the 
 noble structure of this second building, although much 
 mutilated, is still in a fair state of preservation. On the 
 southern side a small vestibule remains, the entablature 
 of which is supported by six beautiful female statues, or 
 caryatides, instead of columns (Fig. 23). 
 
 Buildings similar in the development of their architec- 
 ture to those described above were erected in other places, 
 — such as the temple of the goddess Demeter (Ceres) at 
 Eleusis ; the temple of Zeus at Olympia ; and the temple 
 of Apollo Epicurius at Phigalia, in Arcadia. 
 
 The third period commenced when the power of the 
 republics began to wane, and lasted until the final over- 
 throw of Greek freedom. The buildings erected in this 
 age were fine and numerous, but wanting in the simple, 
 
Greek Architecture. 
 
 43 
 
 massive grandeur of earlier works. Oriental voluptuous- 
 ness and sensuality gradually acquired an influence over 
 the manly and highly-cultivated Hellenes, and the effect 
 on their architecture was the substitution of profuse 
 ornamentation for severity and purity of structure. Hand- 
 some private residences, palaces and theatres were built 
 
 Fig. 23.— Caryatid Porch of the Erechtheum. 
 
 instead of temples, and the ornate Corinthian style may be 
 looked upon as the offspring of the age. 
 
 The transition from the Ionic to the Corinthian style 
 can be seen in the temple of Athena Alea, at Tegea, 
 erected by Scopas, th*e celebrated architect and sculptor, in 
 350 B.C. The Corinthian monuments in Athens itself are 
 small ; the most characteristic is the choragic monument 
 
44 
 
 Greek Architecture. 
 
 of Lysicrates, in which we see the Egyptian and Asiatic 
 features combined with the Ionic. This monument was 
 erected in 334 B.C. (Fig. 20.) 
 
 Fragments have lately been found of the colossal mauso- 
 leum at Halicarnassus, erected to Mausolus, king of Caria, 
 by his widow Artemisia, in 353 B.C. It was one of the 
 Seven Wonders of the World, and we must consider it to 
 have been the finest structure of the kind ever discovered. 
 Some marble pilasters with richly inlaid panels, a statue 
 of the king in several pieces (now joined together, and at 
 the British Museum), and part of the quadriga (i. e. four- 
 horse chariot) which crowned the monument, were amongst 
 the ornaments excavated. 
 
 Asia Minor also contains a good many remains of fine 
 buildings of the Corinthian style belonging to this age. 
 Such are the temple of Athena at Priene, dedicated 
 to the patroness of the arts by Alexander the Great, and 
 the famous temple of Apollo at Miletus — a huge dipteral 
 building, 303 ft. long by 164 wide. 
 
 
VIII. — Etruscan Architecture. 
 
 Of the origin of the Etruscans nothing definite is 
 known, but they are supposed to have been an Asiatic 
 people who took refuge in the north of Italy about thir- 
 teen centuries before the Christian era. The Etruscans 
 never became assimilated with the Italians, and their art 
 was never blended with that of the people in the surround- 
 ing districts. When Etruria was subjugated, it soon be- 
 came extinct as an independent state, and all that remains 
 to testify to the high degree of civilisation which it had 
 attained before the very name of Rome had been heard in 
 the land, are the works of masonry and ceramic art which 
 have come down to us. They are sufficient to prove that 
 the Etruscans were skilful architects. The fortifications of 
 their cities were walls of immense strength, frequently of 
 polygonal stones, but sometimes of squared masonry, and 
 in the gates of some of these we see the first introduction 
 of the arch, which was subsequently so widely adopted by 
 the Romans, built of wedge-shaped blocks of stone fixed 
 without cement. Such a gate is that called L'Arco, at 
 Volterra. The famous Cloaca Maxima at Rome, one of 
 the finest and most solid, as well as one of the oldest 
 structures of the kind has been attributed to Etruscan 
 builders ; it was a subterranean tunnel of vast extent, 
 covered by three large arches one within the other. 
 
 The tombs are among the most interesting of Etruscan 
 antiquities. They are hewn in rocks, and consist of several 
 chambers, the roofs of which are supported on columns. 
 Paintings run round the walls, representing incidents in 
 the every-day life of the people, the worship of the dead, 
 
46 
 
 Etruscan Architecture. 
 
 
 and the condition of the soul in the other world, etc. The 
 facades of the tombs have every appearance of great 
 antiquity, and slightly resemble in outline the fronts of 
 Egyptian temples (Fig. 23a). The finest of these tombs 
 are at Corneto, Vulci, Chiusi, Castellaccio, and Norchia, a 
 group of cities to be found in Central Italy. Objects of 
 ornament or use of a great variety were found in the 
 tombs, — many of them carved and polished. The most 
 
 Fig. 23a.— Facade of Tomb at Castellaccio. 
 
 interesting are the painted vases, a number of which are 
 to be seen at the British Museum ; but many of them 
 formerly called Etruscan are now proved to be of Greek 
 origin. That the Etruscans had a distinctive style of 
 architecture we only know from written records ; no re- 
 mains of religious buildings have been discovered. The 
 Etruscan language has never yet been fully deciphered, 
 and until this is achieved we must remain ignorant of 
 much that existing inscriptions might reveal. 
 
IX. — Roman Architecture. 
 
 The geographical situation of Italy much resembles that 
 of Greece; but owing to greater proximity to the East 
 — the original home of the arts — it was through Greece 
 chiefly that the diffusion of culture amongst the various 
 races of the continent was effected. We find flourishing 
 Greek colonies in the south of Italy at a very early date. 
 The Roman s yprp dpfim'pnt, j n imaginative geni us, -andr-we 
 see few o riginal forms of t heir own creation in t heiiLarchi^ 
 tecture^ Their early works were copied from Etruscan 
 buildings, and in their later style they borrowed largely 
 from the Greeks. Two peculiarities of Etruscan architec- 
 ture, however, were always retained by the, Romans, and 
 carried by them to great perfection, namely, the arch and 
 the vaulted roof. At first these were only employed in such 
 structures as bridges and aqueducts, but gradually they 
 were introduced into buildings of every kind — basilicas, 
 amphitheatres, and baths. The simplest kind of vault 
 used by the Romans is the plain waggon ™* ^ n -fTfJ vg - 1l1+ - 
 which is a semicircular arch thrown across from one wall 
 to another, or from one end to another of a longitudinal 
 apartment. A second and more elaborate form of vault is 
 the groined (i. e. intersecting) vault, in which two tunnel 
 vaults of equal height cross each other at right angles 
 over a square space. A third form is the dome v ault, 
 which was subsequently combined with the semi-dome, 
 over the semicircular recesses called apses. 
 
 These three systems of vaulting enabled the Romans to 
 cover spaces of every size ; and the arch was freely used 
 to adorn the outer and inner walls of Roman buildings. 
 
48 Eoman Architecture. 
 
 While making the fullest use of a constructional expedient 
 which the Greeks had never employed, the Romans, who 
 were always better engineers than architects, were content 
 to borrow an artistic element from another source. This 
 was the columniation of the Greeks, which they copied in 
 a comparatively coarse and tasteless way, and employed 
 not only in the entrances to their temples, basilicas, 
 theatres, amphitheatres, palaces, and baths, but also in the 
 richly-decorated courts of their private houses. The three 
 Greek orders were often introduced into a single building, 
 but the favourite order was the richly-decorated Corinthian, 
 the beauty of which the Romans strove to increase by 
 adding to it the fulness and strength which the Greeks 
 had never succeeded in giving it (Fig. 24). The Com- 
 posite or Roman Order was the outcome of the attempt to 
 improve the Corinthian, of which it was in fact a somewhat 
 free version (Fig. 25), while what is known as the Tuscan 
 order was, on the other hand, an impoverished version of 
 the Doric. The distinctive feature of Roman architecture 
 is the combination of the Etruscan circular arch with the 
 Grecian system of columniation. The Romans seldom 
 invented a new form, they never worked out a style dis- 
 tinct from that of their predecessors or complete in itself; 
 and the interest of Roman architecture, apart from the 
 wonderful extent of the structures and the skill with which 
 they were erected, consists entirely in the fact that it is a 
 transition style, a combination of all ancient styles, and 
 the starting-point of early Christian architecture. An 
 examination of Roman buildings, as we shall presently 
 see, enables us to understand much that must otherwise 
 have remained inexplicable in the arts of the Gothic age. 
 Roman architecture of the earliest period was of an 
 
Roman Architecture. 
 
 49 
 
 entirely Etruscan type. To Lucumo Tarquinius Priscus — 
 one of those early monarchs of Rome, round whose name 
 so many legends have gathered — is ascribed the building 
 of the Capitoline temple. 
 
 The buildings erected in the earlier portion of the 
 republic were of an exclusively utilitarian class. The Via 
 Appia (Appian Way) and the long line of aqueducts of 
 the Campagna are memorials -of this age (312 B.C.). In 
 the latter days of the republic, however, Greek influence 
 began to be felt, especially after the subjugation of Greece 
 
 nnn 
 
 p 
 
 n 
 1 
 
 -^ r 
 
 ] 
 
 Fig:. 24.— Roman- Corinthian Capital. 
 
 Fig;. 25. — Composite Capital. 
 
 by the Romans (about 150 B.C.). The first fine temples 
 of the Greek style and the earliest basilicas were built 
 by Metellus, out of the booty "acqmred-'in the Macedo- 
 nian wars. The basilicas were not only courts of justice, 
 but market - places and exchanges. They consisted of 
 a quadrangular hall; and the earliest specimens were 
 quite open to the air. Later, an external wall took the 
 place of the colonnade which surrounded the original 
 basilica. The space required by the praetor for his court 
 
 EHA . in. 
 
50 
 
 Roman Architecture. 
 
 was railed off from the other portion of the building, in 
 which markets were held and business was transacted, and 
 consisted of a semicircular apse with a raised platform, 
 projecting from the back of the hall. 
 
 Towards the termination of the republic, when Rome 
 was convulsed with civil war, and the revolts of the slaves 
 threatened to overturn the whole system of government, 
 
 Fig. 26.— Section of the Pantheon. 
 
 the republican simplicity of earlier buildings was changed 
 for a princely magnificence of style. The theatre, built 
 by Marcus Scaurus, in 58 B.C., which was capable of hold- 
 ing 80,000 spectators, contained handsome marble columns 
 and fine statues, and was richly decorated with such'costly 
 materials as gold, silver, and ivory. Three years later, 
 Pompey erected the first stone theatre in Rome; it held 
 
Roman Architecture. 51 
 
 40,000 spectators. Csesar enlarged and beautified the 
 Circus Maximus, built by Tarquin the elder, of which but 
 a few ruins remain. 
 
 These, and many other buildings, were, however, only 
 steps in the advance towards that golden age of Rome, 
 when Roman architects so entirely freed themselves from 
 their old trammels as almost to have created a national 
 style of architecture. The finest monument of this time 
 is the Pantheon of Rome (Fig. 26), built by Agrippa 
 (a.d. 13), which is one of the grandest buildings of the 
 ancient world.- It is even now in a sufficiently good state 
 of preservation for us to be able to judge of what it was. 
 Its plan and the section of its dome exhibit the circular 
 form of which the people of ancient Italy were so enam- 
 oured. Externally the effect is rather spoilt by the com- 
 bination of the rectangular temple and the rotunda, but 
 the interior is extremely beautiful, although it has been 
 much spoilt by inappropriate alterations of a date later 
 than the original building. The costly columns of yellow 
 marble, with capitals and bases of white marble, and the 
 marble slabs of the lower walls, however, still serve to 
 give some idea of its pristine splendour. 
 
 We must also mention the theatre of Marcellus, much 
 of which still remains in the present Orsini palace, and the 
 ruins of the handsome tomb of Augustus, — the enclosure 
 walls of which have alone been preserved, — as monuments 
 of this age and that immediately succeeding it. After the 
 death of the Emperor Augustus — whose boast it was that 
 he had converted a brick into a marble city — the zeal for 
 building seems to have cooled, and not to have been again 
 revived for a considerable time. With the Flavii (a.d. 69) 
 a second golden age of Roman architecture commenced. 
 
 E 2 
 
52 Roman Aechitectuee. 
 
 In the foremost rank is the Flavian amphitheatre, known as 
 the Colosseum, which was begun by Vespasian and finished 
 by Titus. It was the largest structure of its kind, and is 
 fairly well preserved. It covers about five acres of ground, 
 and could contain 87,000 persons. It is 620 feet long by 
 513 broad. The exterior is about 160 feet in height, and 
 consists of three orders of columns — Doric, Ionic, and 
 
 27 —The Arch of Constantino. 
 
 Corinthian — with a story of Corinthian pilasters above 
 them all. There are arches between the columns, forming 
 open galleries throughout the building. Four tiers of 
 seats inside correspond with the four outside stories. The 
 building was covered in by a temporary roof or awning, 
 called the velarium. The Triumphal Arch of Titus, at 
 Rome (a.d. 70), is well preserved, and is remarkable for 
 
Roman Architecture. 53 
 
 beauty of detail, and for the fact that it commemorates 
 the conquest of Jerusalem. The vast arch of Constantine 
 (Fig. 27) owes much of its interest to its sculptures having 
 been borrowed from a Trajan monument of earlier date. 
 The tomb of Hadrian, which still exists under the name 
 of the Mole of Hadrian, or the Castle of St. Angelo, 
 surpasses all the sepulchral monuments of the time. Its 
 basement was a square of about 340 feet, and 75 feet high, 
 above which rose a round tower 235 feet in diameter 
 and 140 feet in height, the whole being crowned by a 
 dome, the central ornament of which was a quadriga. It 
 was faced with Parian marble, and contained two sepul- 
 chral chambers, one above the other. 
 
 The basilica of Constantine, begun by Maxentius, belongs 
 to the latest period of ancient art. Fragments of the 
 broken roof are strewn like masses of rock upon the ground, 
 but three barrel vaults, which have remained standing, 
 still rise from the ruins, together with the apse subsequently 
 built on to the side-aisle ; and, with the Colosseum, they 
 overlook the desolate scene so suggestive of fallen greatness, 
 and form a striking feature of the landscape for miles 
 round. 
 
 Of the various fora (open spaces where markets and 
 courts of justice were held) the largest and most celebrated 
 was the Forum Romanorum. It stretched from the foot 
 of the Capitoline Hill to the temple of the Dioscuri, and 
 was surrounded by temples and houses. The boundary on 
 the east and north was the Via Sacra (Sacred Way) ; on 
 the other sides were corridors and halls (for the bankers, 
 money-changers, etc.), many of them of great beauty. The 
 Forum Trajanum, erected by the architect Apollodorus, is 
 remarkable for its great circumference, and for its simple 
 
iig. 28. — Trajan's Column. 
 
Roman Architecture. 55 
 
 dignity and beauty. In the centre was a statue of the 
 emperor on a triumphal column,* covered with sculpture 
 from the pedestal to the capital (Fig. 28). 
 
 Of all the monuments of departed greatness to be found 
 in Rome, the remains of the the mire (public baths) are 
 the most remarkable for extent. They were not only fitted 
 for bathing, but for gymnastic exercises, and as places of 
 public resort. The Baths of Caracalla (a.d. 217) were 
 gigantic halls, in which there were marble seats for sixteen 
 hundred bathers ; splendid columns and magnificent sculp- 
 ture adorned this immense building : it was amid its ruins 
 that the " Farnese Bull " and the " Farnese Hercules " 
 were found in later years. The Baths of Diocletian (a.d. 
 303) were larger still, and had seats for two thousand four 
 hundred bathers. The walls are still standing, and show 
 the prodigious size of these grand public baths. 
 
 In each of these establishments, the central building, 
 which is the type of almost all the greatest public halls 
 that have been erected since, was a group of vast halls of 
 varied shapes and magnificent size. 
 
 The monuments of Pompeii deserve a word of special 
 notice, as in them we can trace the transition from Greek 
 to Roman forms. In the triumphal arches, baths, city 
 walls and gates, temples (Fig. 29) and palaces of Pompeii, 
 we have a Rome in miniature. The private residences — 
 the house of Sallust, for instance — show us that the people 
 of this buried city enjoyed all the appliances of comfort 
 and luxury known to the ancients. 
 
 * A cast is in the South Kensington Museum. 
 
Fig. 29. — Interior of a Pompeian. Basilica {restored). 
 
X. Early Christian Architecture. 
 
 To find the first traces of Christian architecture we 
 must turn to the Catacombs — the narrow, winding, gloomy 
 network of passages, hollowed out of the soft and easily- 
 worked rock in the vicinity of Rome, in which the early 
 Christians met for worship and buried their dead. These 
 Catacombs are also called crypts, or cemeteries, and consist 
 of long, low galleries, much resembling mines. The graves 
 are hollowed out of tire sides of the galleries, and are so 
 low and small as to look scarcely capable of holding a body. 
 The entrance to the grave is built up with stones, on which 
 are often inscribed the letters D.M. (Deo Maximo), or XP, 
 the first two letters of the Greek name of Christ (Xpioros). 
 For a saint, or a martyr, a larger tomb would be hollowed 
 out, the walls of which were adorned with unpretending 
 frescoes. Here and there the galleries expand into 
 spacious and lofty vaulted chambers, containing several 
 niches, the walls and ceilings being adorned with painting. 
 These chambers were evidently intended for the service 
 of the Church, and in some respects still resemble sacred 
 Christian buildings. The Catacombs of the Via Appia, 
 near Rome, are the most celebrated of any which have 
 yet been discovered. 
 
 These crude and inartistic attempts at architecture date 
 from the first century of our era. It was not until the 
 time of Constantine that the persecuted and scattered 
 Christians abandoned these gloomy refuges, and found 
 themselves in a position to erect places of worship worthy 
 of the creed they professed. Under Constantine the power 
 of Paganism waned, and Christianity received recognition 
 
58 
 
 Early Christian Architecture. 
 
 ~ •? t 
 
 from the state. Heathen temples were little suited for 
 Christian worship, and we find that they were seldom 
 employed for that purpose ; but it was impossible to create 
 a new form of building for the emergency, and the Roman 
 basilicas of various kinds, which had been in use under 
 the heathen empire, were found to be admirably adapted 
 to the requirements of the Christian worship. The long 
 quadrangular building, divided into three or five aisles by 
 
 rows of pillars, accommodated 
 the congregation, and the semi- 
 circular apse — generally elevated, 
 and railed off from the rest of the 
 building — was exactly the right 
 place for the altar. The bishop 
 naturally took the seat formerly 
 occupied by the praetor or 
 quaestor, and the priests or pres- 
 byters those of the assessors. 
 This, then, was the origin of the 
 early Christian basilicas. This 
 semicircle was sometimes separ- 
 ated from the remaining building 
 
 Fig.so.-Ground-pianoftheoid by a transverse passage running 
 Basilica of St. Peter's, Rome. across the entrance to the apse, 
 thus converting the form of the building into. that of a 
 large cross. These passages, which run at right-angles to 
 the church, directly opposite to each other, cut it across, 
 and were therefore called transepts. At the point where 
 the arms or transepts intersect the body of the cross formed 
 by the central aisle, the altar was placed, and above it rose 
 a triumphal arch, often supported on two extremely massive 
 pillars. The portion of the central aisle which runs west- 
 
 I- T 
 
 V -I 
 
Early Christian Architecture. 59 
 
 ward from this central point to the chief entrance is called 
 the nave (from navis, a ship) ; and the portion which runs 
 eastward is the choir. The columns of the aisles were 
 joined together by means of arches, or by a horizontal 
 architrave, and the central aisle or nave was higher and 
 wider than the side-aisles. 
 
 In many cases, numbers of windows with semicircular 
 arches were let into the walls of the nave above the columns, 
 through which a flood of light was admitted to the body of 
 the church. In the low walls running round the side-aisles 
 windows were also sometimes introduced ; but the apsis 
 or choir was generally left unlighted, in a kind of mystic 
 twilight, produced by the reflection of the light in the rest 
 of the building on the glimmering gold mosaics with which 
 it was adorned. There was a separate entrance to each 
 aisle, and in large churches the nave had three entrances. 
 An atrium or enclosed court-yard generally existed at the 
 entrance to the basilica; it was usually surrounded by 
 columns, and formed an essential feature of most early 
 churches. The earliest Christian basilicas are also most 
 beautiful, as the costly materials of the ruins of fine antique 
 buildings were employed in their construction. 
 
 The church of St. Paul at Rome (Fig. 31), destroyed by 
 fire in 1822, was one of the finest and most interesting 
 of the basilicas of that city. It was built by Theodosius' 
 and Honorius, about 386. Unfortunately it has been 
 restored in modern style, and little remains of its original 
 beauty. 
 
 The old basilica of St. Peter, replaced in the fifteenth 
 century by the great temple bearing the same name, was 
 erected in the reign of Constantine, and was a magnificent 
 structure, with a noble atrium or entrance-court, and a 
 
60 
 
 Early Christian Architecture. 
 
 nave eighty feet across, but with a very small apsis or choir. 
 The two small basilicas of Santa Agnese and San Lorenzo, 
 at the grates of Rome, were erected in the end of the sixth 
 and the beginning of the seventh centuries, and remain, 
 comparatively speaking, little altered. They have their 
 side-aisles in two stories. 
 
 4<^ Mm*2i 
 
 Fig. 31. — Interior of the Basilica of St. Paul, Rome. 
 
 The church of St. Apollinare in Classe, at the old port 
 of Ravenna, about three miles from the city, is a fine 
 basilica of the first class, erected between 538 and 540. 
 The internal details are extremely beautiful, but the 
 outside is painfully plain and unembellished, as is the 
 
Early Christian Architecture. 61 
 
 case with almost all buildings erected by the early 
 Christians. 
 
 According to German chronicles, most of the buildings 
 erected by the Germanic races at this period (sixth century) 
 folloAved the plan of the Roman basilica. 
 
 The complete plan of a church and monastery intended 
 to be erected at St. Gall has been preserved. The name 
 of the author is unknown, but he is supposed to have been 
 an architect at the court of Louis the Pious (Ludwig der 
 Fromme). However that may be, the plan evidently 
 belongs to the early part of the ninth century, and was 
 sent to Abbot Gospertus when he was rebuilding the 
 monastery of St. Gall. It is interesting and valuable, as 
 proving that many additions supposed to be the invention 
 of later ages were known to architects as early as the 
 ninth century. Two apses, a crypt, a sacristy, a library, 
 etc., are included in the principal group of buildings. 
 
 The church of the Nativity, at Bethlehem, is one of 
 the very few early Christian basilicas remaining in the 
 East. Its chief peculiarity consists in its having three 
 apses, which add much to the beauty and dignity of the 
 inside of the building. 
 
 Of the various basilicas we have described above, some 
 of the more modern have vaulted roofs, but the earlier 
 have all flat ceilings over the central enclosure. 
 
XI. — Byzantine Architecture. 
 
 The Byzantine style of architecture is that adopted by 
 the Slavonic races of Europe, as distinct from the Teutonic, 
 and was generally employed in all those countries where 
 the Greek form of Christianity was professed. Simul- 
 taneously with the transformation in the West of the 
 Roman basilicas into places of Christian worship, a new 
 style began to develop itself in the East, likewise founded 
 on Roman models. Constantinople or Byzantium was to 
 Eastern Europe what Rome was to Western. It was in 
 Byzantium that ancient art was saved from total oblivion, 
 in the dark period of the middle ages. There was pre- 
 served the remembrance of the ideal forms of antique 
 beauty, together with the technical knowledge necessary 
 for their embodiment anew. Byzantine architecture was 
 not, like the Roman, a mere combination of antique styles 
 without individuality or originality : by its artistic recog- 
 nition of all that distinguished Christianity from paganism, 
 and by its bold and original development of those principles 
 of plan, construction and decoration which it adopted, it 
 gained for itself a position as an original school of art. 
 
 The chief peculiarity, or rather the fundamental principle, 
 of the construction of Byzantine churches is the employ- 
 ment of the cupola or dome covering in the central part of 
 the church, and the substitution of an almost square plan 
 for the long aisles of the Roman churches. Instead of the 
 rows of columns of the basilicas, strong and lofty piers 
 connected by arches supported the cupola. To the central 
 space, covered by the cupola, were joined half-domes of less 
 magnitude. Small columns were only used for supporting 
 galleries and, so to speak, railing off the central portion of 
 
Byzantine Architecture. 
 
 63 
 
 the building from the surrounding parts. The apse, or 
 choir, containing the altar was an invariable feature of 
 Byzantine churches; and, in common with the early 
 basilicas, they displayed the narthex, divided off from the 
 rest of the building, to which catechumens and penitents 
 were admitted. Every portion of the building was richly 
 decorated : the pillars were of marbles of various colours, 
 which were also used to line the lower parts of the walls, 
 
 Fig. 32.— Ground-plan of St. Sophia, at Constantinople. 
 
 and the domes and subsidiary domes and pendentives were 
 covered with mosaics of great beauty. The bases and 
 capitals of the columns, the cornices, the friezes, and the 
 railings of the galleries were all of marble and ornamented 
 with great profusion. 
 
 The church of St. Vitale at Ravenna, built at the time 
 of the supremacy of the Eastern Goths, is a fine specimen 
 
64 Byzantine Architecture. 
 
 of Byzantine architecture. But the best example of any is 
 the church of St. Sophia, which is now the great mosque 
 of Constantinople (Fig. 32). It was commenced by 
 Justinian in 532, and completed in 537, but was much 
 injured by an earthquake twenty years later. It is of no 
 great beauty externally, but its internal arrangements are 
 of a surpassing grandeur. The narthex consists of two 
 fine halls, one over the other, and the church itself is 
 almost a square, being 229 ft. north and south by 243 ft. 
 from east to west, surmounted in the centre by a vast dome, 
 107 ft. in diameter, and rising to a height of 182 ft. from 
 the floor of the church. East and west of this are two 
 semi-domes of the same diameter, which are cut into by 
 three smaller half-domes, supported on two tiers of columns. 
 On the lower range of these columns stands a gallery, 
 running all round the church except at the apse. North 
 and south the galleries are surmounted by a wall instead 
 of the semi-domes, and these walls are pierced with twelve 
 small windows. The double narthex, galleries, and apse 
 are lighted by two rows of windows, which extend all round 
 the church. The central nave is lighted by one great 
 western window and a number of smaller openings pierced 
 in all the domes just above the springing. 
 
 Another church at Constantinople, in which later 
 Byzantine architecture can be studied in its completeness, 
 is that called Theotocos (Mother of God). It was probably 
 erected about the end of the tenth or beginning of the 
 eleventh century. 
 
 In other parts of the ancient Greek empire many ex- 
 amples of Byzantine architecture still exist. At Salonica 
 there are the remains of many churches. In Athens there 
 is a small cathedral decorated internally with mural paint- 
 
Fig. 33.- 
 
 EHA 
 
 -Saint Mark's, Venice. Begun a.d. 
 Part of the front. 
 
 977. 
 
66 Byzantine Architecture. 
 
 ings, and externally with sculpture ; and at Misitra (the 
 ancient Sparta) the church of the Virgin is still preserved. 
 
 How widely Byzantine influence was felt in Western 
 Europe is proved by the existence of such buildings as the 
 magnificent cathedral of St. Mark at Venice (Fig. 33), 
 be^un A.D. 977, which still exists in much of its original 
 grandeur, and the cathedral of Aix-la-Chapelle, both of 
 which are of a purely Byzantine type. Saint Mark's has 
 five equal-sized domes arranged in the form of a cross ; 
 and at the great front five large porches, which are sup- 
 ported by hundreds of marble columns. Over the middle 
 porch stand the four celebrated horses which once adorned 
 the arch of Trajan at Rome. The Emperor Constantine 
 took them to Constantinople, whence they were brought to 
 Venice by Doge Dandolo in 1204. The interior of St. 
 Mark's is covered with a profusion of glittering mosaics, 
 which render it one of the most remarkable buildings in 
 the world. 
 
 The cathedral of Aix-la-Chapelle, supposed to have 
 been built by Charlemagne between A.D. 796 and 804, is 
 one of the oldest and finest of the circular buildings of 
 Northern Europe. 
 
XIT. EOMANESQUE ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 Although we have turned aside for a time to notice 
 the Byzantine style, which developed itself in the East, 
 the present chapter must be looked upon as a continuation 
 of that on Early Christian Architecture. 
 
 The form assumed by Christian architecture in the 
 Western Empire, after it freed itself from pagan influ- 
 ence, was that known as the Romanesque, or debased 
 Roman. This was to be met with in almost, if not 
 quite, every country of Europe, and may be considered 
 as a transition style leading up to the great Gothic 
 development of Christian architecture, which we shall 
 shortly reach. In this respect Western art differed 
 from Byzantine, which has perpetuated the same forms 
 almost to our own day without passing into any new 
 phase. 
 
 To render the basilica more suitable for Christian 
 worship, when the early republican form of religion was 
 replaced by the division of the priests and laity into totally 
 distinct classes, the apse was first appropriated to the use 
 of the clergy, and then the whole dais, or raised part in 
 front of the apse, on which the altar stood, was separated 
 for them by railings called cancelli, — hence the modern 
 term chancel. A further change was the introduction of 
 a choir or enclosed space, attached to the presbytery or 
 apse, outside which the congregation assembled to hear 
 the gospel and epistle read from a kind of pulpit called an 
 ambo. Another feature early introduced was the bury- 
 ing of the body of the saint to whom the building was 
 
 F 2 
 
68 
 
 BoMANESQUE AeCHITECTURE. 
 
 dedicated in the basilica itself, in a crypt or vaulted sanc- 
 tuary constructed to receive it beneath the choir. 
 
 To make room for the whole congregation, the nave and 
 side-aisles were lengthened, and the atrium or court-yard 
 in front of the principal entrance was converted into a 
 simple porch (Fig. 34). The principal western entrance 
 was generally flanked by two towers, which subsequently 
 became an almost invariable feature of northern buildings. 
 The flat roof was replaced by the vault — generally the 
 groined vault, more rarely, as in France, by the tunnel- 
 
 Fig. 34.— Ground-plan of a Romanesque Basilica. 
 St. Godehard at Hildesheim. 
 
 vault or a series of cupolas. The plainness of the walls, 
 above the pillars of the nave, was relieved by the intro- 
 duction of a cornice, above which were rows of windows 
 usually of a smaller size than those of the early Christian 
 basilicas. Windows of a similar description, but even 
 smaller, were introduced in the walls running round the 
 side-aisles and in the apses. The semicircular arch, usually 
 without mouldings, was always employed. Circular or 
 wheel windows were widely adopted, being introduced 
 
Romanesque Architecture. 
 
 GO 
 
 above the principal entrance, as well as in the building 
 itself. Piers and columns were used for a great variety 
 of purposes, and were of very varied forms. The antique 
 orders were replaced by columns with basket capitals (Fig. 
 35), or capitals representing flowers of different kinds. 
 Later, every variety of form was introduced into capitals : 
 flowers, leaves, human heads, and those of animals beinsr 
 treated with the greatest boldness and freedom. 
 
 The arcaded cornice to the walls of the nave was a 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 mm 
 
 
 
 m\mA 
 
 WLnrru- 
 
 
 ._ ^ 
 
 
 V --l^ ^i^^^mm^Bm^mmmmm^g^^m^m^k 
 
 w 
 
 o -Vj 
 
 "?V^^ 
 
 ipital. From the Cathedral of Gurk. 
 . # 
 
 characteristic feature of many Romanesque buildings ; 
 but perhaps the profuse ornamentation of the west fronts 
 is what principally marks the cathedrals of this early 
 age. The chief entrance was the part most sumptuously 
 decorated ; but every portion of the front was often richly 
 carved with devices of marvellous variety. Flowers and 
 leaves alternate with scroll-work and tracery ; human 
 figures with grotesque animal forms — some of deep 
 
70 
 
 Romanesque Architecture. 
 
 symbolic meaning, others the mere creations of the archi- 
 tect's fancy. 
 
 The period included between 1175 and 1220 is known 
 as the Transition Period. In it Romanesque architecture 
 reached its fullest development; many churches of great 
 beauty were erected, retaining all the peculiarities of the 
 true Romanesque style, — imbued, however, with a slight 
 Gothic feeling, premonitory of the coming change. The 
 restless spirit of the age, ever longing for and reaching 
 after change, was reflected in its architecture, in the 
 constant adoption of new forms and new combinations of 
 
 iiiit 44 4 4 if 4 
 
 *=zz — sfiroa 
 
 Fig. 36. — Romanesque Arcaded Cornice. From a Church at Vienna. 
 
 familiar details. The transitional style was the result of 
 the ever-increasing demand for finer and more costly places 
 of worship. The Crusades unlocked to the people of the 
 West the treasures of Eastern art ; and Eastern forms were 
 widely adopted by the Western nations, alike in architec- 
 ture, sculpture, and painting. Something of the grand 
 severity and purity of form of earlier works was lost, 
 never to be regained. Pointed and foiled arches replaced 
 the circular Roman arch ; the shafts of the columns were 
 more richly clustered, the capitals more elegantly carved. 
 But in nothing was the change so marked as in the door- 
 
EOMANESQUE ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 71 
 
 ways, which were more richly carved and more profusely 
 adorned with sculptures than ever (Fig. 37). The large 
 circular wheel or rose window was also more generally 
 introduced, especially in France, where the narrow lancet 
 windows, so general in England, were never adopted. 
 
 Fig. 37.— Gateway of the Church of St. Jak, Hungary. (Transition Period.) 
 
 This circular window was a very great ornament as long 
 as it retained its simple form, like that in the west front 
 of the cathedral of Chartres. 
 
 Saxony is especially rich in Romanesque basilicas of the 
 
72 Romanesque Architecture. 
 
 earlier period, with flat ceilings, such as the Schlosskirche 
 (Church of the Castle) at Quedlinburg. But we meet with 
 them also in other provinces of Germany ; such was the 
 convent church at Paulinzelle, now a fine ruin in the 
 Thuringian forest. 
 
 The cathedral of Hildesheim, built at the beginning of 
 the eleventh century, is of a later date, when the style 
 was more fully developed. It has bronze gates, 1 6 ft. high, 
 adorned with very fine bas-reliefs. The convent church at 
 Limburg on the Haardt (1035) is one of the largest of 
 the German basilicas. It is now in ruins, but it is easy 
 to see what it was before its decay. It has a square choir 
 instead of the usual semicircular apse. The cathedral of 
 Treves (Trier) may be considered a typical mediaeval 
 church. The original building was erected by the empress 
 Helena, and consisted of a circular baptistery and a rec- 
 tangular basilica, but the former was taken down in the 
 thirteenth century to make way for the present church of 
 St. Mary. The basilica was strengthened and completed 
 as a place of Christian worship by Archbishop Poppo in 
 the beginning of the eleventh century. He converted the 
 original Roman columns into piers,* by casing them in 
 masonry, covered in the atrium, and added an apse at 
 the western entrance. In the twelfth century Bishop 
 Hillin took up Archbishop Poppo' s unfinished task, and 
 commenced rebuilding the choir, or eastern apse, which 
 was completed by Bishop John at the beginning of the 
 thirteenth century. These two apses — one built when 
 the Romanesque style was in its infancy, the other when 
 
 * The difference between a column and a pier is that the former 
 is always round, and the latter may be of almost any shape. 
 
 
EoMANESQUE ARCHITECTURE. 73 
 
 it had reached its culminating point — are admirable 
 illustrations of its development. 
 
 Three great German buildings of this epoch, in which 
 we see the flat roof superseded by the vault, are the 
 cathedrals of Mainz, Worms, and Spires. The first was 
 begun in the tenth, and finished in the eleventh century. 
 Little of the original building remains except the eastern 
 apse, with its two round towers. The second — that of 
 Worms — was begun in 996, and finished in 1015, but 
 part of it fell down in 1018, and as it is known to 
 have been subsequently reconsecrated (1110), it is sup- 
 posed that it was entirely rebuilt. The eastern end is all 
 that remains of the building consecrated in 1110. Its 
 chief peculiarity is that the apse is circular inside and 
 square out. The third cathedral — that of Spires — is 
 the largest and finest of the three great rivals. It is 
 a solid, massive building, of a simple grandeur unknown 
 to later times. It has a narthex, or porch — a feature 
 seldom met with in Germany; the nave is 45 feet wide 
 between the piers, and 105 feet high to the centre of the 
 dome. The outside is remarkable for its simple beauty ; 
 it has no ornament but the small windows, and an arcade 
 running under the roofs ; but its massive square towers and 
 rounded dome harmonise admirably together, and present 
 an imposing appearance, rising as they do far above the 
 groups of insignificant houses which form the town. 
 
 The church of Swartz Rheindorf (Fig. 38), opposite 
 Bonn, on the Rhine, — erected by an Archbishop of Cologne 
 in 1151, — is an excellent example of the style of church 
 building of this time. 
 
 The church of Limburg, on the Lahn, belongs to 
 the early part of the thirteenth century, and that at 
 
74 ROMANESQUE ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 Gelnhausen is supposed to have been commenced some- 
 what later. They are fine specimens of the transition style ; 
 as are also the cathedrals of Naumberg and Bamberg, the 
 latter of which is very handsome. St. Stephen's at Vienna, 
 with its beautiful spire, marking the transition from the 
 square tower to the tapering pinnacle, is one of the largest 
 of German churches of the pointed style. 
 
 In North Germany, where it was difficult to obtain 
 stone, buildings similar to those mentioned above were 
 constructed of brick. The Romanesque style was adopted 
 in the early part of the twelfth century — the flat roofs and 
 columns of the basilicas being quickly superseded by piers 
 and vaults. 
 
 The Romanesque buildings of Italy of the eleventh and 
 twelfth centuries differ greatly from those of Germany. 
 In many of them we see a combination of the early 
 Christian basilica with a simple system of vaulting. One 
 of the best specimens is the basilica of San Miniato, near 
 Florence, begun in 1013. It has three aisles, but no tran- 
 septs, and is divided into three longitudinal portions by 
 clustered piers,* supporting two large arches, which span 
 the nave and aisles. These arches may be looked upon as 
 a crude effort at vaulting the central portion of the church, 
 and the clustered piers show the working of the influence 
 to which later on the Gothic system of arches receding 
 behind one another was due. 
 
 The cathedral of Pisa, commenced fifty years after the 
 church of San Miniato, is considered as typical of the Italian 
 transitional Romanesque style. It has more Gothic 
 
 * A clustered pier is one in which several small columns are 
 joined together, each with a base, shaft, and capital. 
 
Fig. 38.— Church of Swartz Rheindorf on the Rhine, a.d. 1151. 
 
76 Romanesque Architecture. 
 
 peculiarities than the earlier building ; the form of the cross 
 is fully developed by the extension of the transepts on 
 either side of the choir, but it has the flat wooden roof of 
 an early basilica. The church of San Michele at Lucca is 
 of the same style as the cathedral of Pisa; it is remark- 
 able for the profusion of columns and arches characteristic 
 of the later Romanesque style. 
 
 Lombard architecture early freed itself from Roman 
 influence, and in the buildings of the eleventh century we 
 can trace the growth of its peculiar style. The church of 
 San' Antonio at Piacenza was built in the early part of the 
 eleventh century ; the plan is Romanesque, but even that 
 differs considerably from the ordinary type, the transepts 
 being at the west end, and the tower, which rises from the 
 point where the nave and transepts meet, is supported 
 on eight pillars and four piers. The whole building is 
 roofed with intersecting vaults, and outside we see the 
 buttresses which afterwards became so important a feature 
 of Gothic architecture. 
 
 In the cathedral of Novara a further development of 
 the Lombard style is noticeable. It too belongs to the 
 early part of the eleventh century, and retains the atrium, 
 the baptistery and the basilica. One chief characteristic 
 of this and other buildings of the age was the introduction 
 of open arcades immediately under the eaves of the roofs, 
 through which light and air were admitted. The church 
 of San Michele of Pavia is one of the most perfect of 
 Italian buildings of this age. In it we see the style almost 
 developed into the true Gothic — the only subsequent 
 inventions being the pointed arch and window-tracery. 
 The cathedral of Modena is another example of this style. 
 In the Cappella Palatina in the palace at Palermo we have 
 
Fig. 39.— St. Stephen's, Caen (Abbaye aux Hommee). 
 
78 Romanesque Architecture. 
 
 a specimen of the mixed Romanesque and Moorish 
 styles, remarkable for exuberance of colour and richness of 
 detail. 
 
 It would be impossible even to name the numerous 
 churches of France belonging to this period (eleventh and 
 twelfth centuries). One of the most interesting is that of 
 M aguellonne, which has a remarkable doorway, in which 
 the Classical, Moorish and Gothic styles are combined. 
 A typical example of French Romanesque architecture is 
 the church of St. Saturnin or St. Sernin at Toulouse. 
 It has a nave and side-aisles, with an arcade above 
 the latter. The choir, however, is of a form essen- 
 tially French : instead of the simple semicircular apse 
 of the Roman basilica, which was universally adopted in 
 Germany and Lombardy, the French invented a chevet, 
 which is an apse round which are clustered a group 
 of chapels in place of a simple aisle. Canterbury and 
 Westminster may be cited as English specimens of the 
 chevet. 
 
 Normandy is rich in churches of this age. One of the 
 finest is St. Stephen's at Caen (Fig. 39), erected by 
 William the Conqueror, in 1066, to celebrate his conquest 
 of England. It is now 364 feet long, the original apse 
 having been converted into a chevet a century later. The 
 western entrance is flanked by two towers, which subse- 
 quently became a distinctive and almost invariable feature 
 of French churches. 
 
 Little is known of the history of mediaeval architecture 
 in Spain. A peculiarity of the Spanish churches consists 
 in the fact that the building is often entered from the 
 transepts instead of from the western end opposite to the 
 choir, and the apse is not large enough to contain more 
 
BoHANESQUE ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 79 
 
 than the high altar, with a screen on each side, the stalls 
 of the clergy and choir being on the west of the point of 
 intersection of the nave and transepts. The cathedral of 
 Santiago, although modernised, belongs to the twelfth 
 century, and retains the massiveness characteristic of that 
 
 "111 
 
 [Vi'VI 1 - j 
 
 Jiliiuiiiiliiw^- ''iLliili:!i!U 
 
 ^■iiiir 
 
 
 
 ■ ~ ■ ' f — 
 
 -*•• ^^ — 
 
 
 
 
 Fiy. 40. — Kounmesque Arches. 
 
 a«-e. The cathedrals of Tarragona and Barcelona show 
 Moorish influence rather than Gothic, and the cathedral 
 and Madeleine church of Zamorra are of a similar class — 
 round arches being mixed with Saracenic forms. 
 
 The English buildings belonging to this age will be 
 noticed in the chapter on English architecture. 
 
Fig. 40a. — A Doorway in the Alhambra (a.d. 1248). 
 
XIII. — Moorish Architecture. 
 
 To avoid confusion of dates, we will here insert a brief 
 notice of Moorish or Saracenic architecture, before continu- 
 ing our review of the Christian styles which subsequently 
 developed themselves. 
 
 Almost every new style of architecture is the result of 
 the requirements of a new religion, and the Mohammedan 
 mosques are a striking instance of this fact. The followers 
 of the Prophet found Christian places of worship well 
 suited to their own rites, and the earliest mosques were 
 built by Christian architects from Constantinople, and 
 much resembled Byzantine buildings. Gradually, however, 
 the new style of decoration known as Arabesque was 
 introduced, in which all representation of animals was 
 eschewed, but a profuse and brilliant decorative effect was 
 obtained, vegetable forms, geometrical figures and letters 
 being interwoven into an endless diversity of patterns (Fig. 
 41). To Moorish architects we possibly owe the pointed 
 arch itself, as well as the various forms of the foiled arches 
 which have been so widely adopted in Christian buildings. 
 They also originated the horse-shoe arch, which remains 
 the most distinctive and original feature of Mohammedan 
 architecture, and has very rarely been imitated. 
 
 The internal arrangements of a mosque are not unlike 
 those of a Christian church. The mosque almost invariably 
 consists of porticoes surrounding an open square, in the 
 centre of which is a tank or fountain for ablutions ; some T 
 times, however, the central portion is circular, as in 
 Byzantine buildings. In the south-east of the mosque is 
 a pulpit, and in the direction in which Mecca lies is a 
 
 EHA G 
 
82 
 
 Moorish Architecture. 
 
 sacred niche (Mlhrab), towards which the faithful are 
 bound to look when in prayer. Opposite the pulpit there 
 is generally a desk for the Koran, on a platform surrounded 
 by a parapet. The simplicity of the original mosques was 
 gradually replaced by an infinite variety of arcaded courts, 
 gateways, domes, and minarets, and frequently by the 
 
 Fig. 41. — Ai'abian Gateway at Iconium. 
 
 addition of a tomb sacred to some person of renown, the 
 dome being in most cases the leading feature, although 
 occasionally the wooden ceiling of the early Christian 
 basilicas was adopted in its place. The Moors, however, 
 introduced a ceiling, known as the stalactite, which is 
 almost as distinctive a feature of their architecture as the 
 
Moorish Architecture. 83 
 
 horse-shoe arch. The minarets alluded to above are tall 
 turrets divided into several stories, from which the Mueddin 
 (Muezzin) calls the faithful to prayer, and nothing can 
 exceed the elegance of design displayed by many of them. 
 
 The outsides of many mosques are entirely without 
 ornamentation, and this peculiarity renders the richness of 
 the internal decoration the more striking. The flat surfaces 
 of the walls are everywhere covered as with a carpet with 
 many-coloured patterns, recalling the textile fabrics of 
 the East. 
 
 In the early monuments of Saracenic architecture which 
 have been preserved in Arabia, Palestine, and Syria we 
 see the crude beginnings of a style struggling into life. 
 Such are the Kaabah at Mecca, the famous mosque of 
 Omar at Jerusalem, and that of Caliph Walid at Damascus. 
 
 It was in Egypt that Arabian art first acquired a distinc- 
 tive character and a settled style. Side by side with the 
 mighty monuments of the ancient Egyptians rise many 
 handsome mosques. 
 
 In Spain, Saracenic art may be said to have attained to 
 its greatest beauty. The Moors obtained a footing in that 
 country in 711, and their subsequent intercourse with the 
 knights of western Christendom exercised a great influence 
 on all their arts, especially on their architecture, — although 
 it always retained the exuberance of colouring and richness 
 of decoration characteristic of their buildings in every 
 country. 
 
 The celebrated mosque of Cordova, commenced by 
 Caliph Abd el Rahman in 786, and completed by his 
 son, was the first and most important building erected by 
 the Moors after their conquest of Spain. It was enlarged 
 and ornamented by successive rulers, and is therefore 
 
 Q 2 
 
84 
 
 Moorish Architecture. 
 
 interesting as containing specimens of the different styles 
 adopted in Spain from the first arrival of the Moors until 
 Moorish architecture reached its fullest development in the 
 Alhambra. 
 
 After he was driven from Seville (1248), Mahomed ben 
 Alhamar commenced building the citadel of the Alhambra, 
 
 Fig. 41#. — Moorish Pavilion near Granada. 
 
 upon a rocky, height overlooking the city of Granada. 
 The other buildings connected with this citadel appear 
 to have r been added gradually, and not to have been 
 completed until the end of the fourteenth century. The 
 portions of the original Alhambra, which are still standing, 
 
Moorish Architecture. 85 
 
 are ranged round two long courts — one called the " Court 
 of the Fishpond," the other the " Court of the Lions." 
 They consist of porticoes, pillared halls (Fig. 40&), arcaded 
 chambers, exquisitely paved with mosaics, etc. They may 
 be studied in miniature in the " Alhambra Court" at the 
 Crystal Palace. No building of any importance was 
 erected by the Moors, after the Alhambra, before their 
 final expulsion from Spain in 1492. 
 
 At the very time when the power of the kings of 
 Granada was rapidly declining, a new province was being 
 added to those already occupied by the followers of the 
 Prophet, by the conquest of Constantinople by the Turks 
 (1453). The new rulers of the Eastern Empire effected a 
 great change in the architecture of the subjugated country, 
 and introduced a style of mosque which differed not only 
 from the sacred buildings of the East, of the time of which 
 we are treating, but also from anything previously pro- 
 duced by the Mohammedans. They took Santa Sophia 
 for their model, and all their buildings are reproductions 
 more or less perfect of that great work of Justinian. The 
 mosque of Soliman II., at Adrianople, is an exact copy of 
 Santa Sophia in plan and form, but differs from it in detail. 
 It was completed in 1556. The finest mosque built by the 
 Turks at Constantinople is that of Soliman the Magnificent 
 (1530—1555). 
 
XIV. — Gothic Architecture. 
 
 Gothic architecture is sometimes termed Pointed archi- 
 tecture — from the almost invariable occurrence of the 
 pointed arch in buildings — and sometimes, but less accu- 
 rately, Christian architecture. Gothic was the style adopted 
 in Europe from the middle of the twelfth century to the 
 classical revival of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. 
 The round-arched Gothic style is a term applied by many 
 writers to the transitional style between Romanesque and 
 Pointed. 
 
 The word Gothic was first used in derision by the artists 
 of the Renaissance, to characterise this art as quaint and 
 antiquated. But this, the original meaning of the word, 
 is now quite lost, and the term has come to be generally 
 accepted, in the way we have described. 
 
 The chief peculiarities of a Gothic building are the disuse 
 of horizontal cornices and of such gables as have a very 
 moderate slope; and the introduction of vertical or very 
 sharply-pointed features, such as gables, spires, buttresses, 
 high-pitched roofs (often open and made ornamental), pointed 
 arches, and pointed instead of waggon-headed vaults ; the 
 substitution of mouldings cut into the stone for projecting 
 mouldings ; and the use of window tracery. In late work 
 we meet with piers formed of clustered pillars in the nave 
 arcades, and with flying buttresses. It is, of course, not to 
 be expected that all these peculiarities will occur in every 
 building, or that they are all equally to be met with 
 in every development of the style; but they are all 
 characteristic of it. They were all the result of structural 
 necessities, and have a meaning and purpose of their own. 
 
 
Gothic Architecture. 
 
 87 
 
 We have already described the Roman basilicas and the 
 early Christian churches built on their models ; we have, 
 therefore, only to explain the origin of the distinctive 
 
 Fig. 42. — Interior of a Gothic Cathedral. Beauvais. 
 
 features of Gothic buildings, which were all developed out 
 of existing styles. 
 
Gothic Architecture. 
 
 The early semicircular or barrel vaults were found to 
 require extremely massive walls to resist their thrust ; and 
 the first modification was the introduction of transverse 
 arches, thrown across here and there beneath the barrel 
 vaults, to concentrate the chief thrust on certain points, 
 opposite to which buttresses were placed. In the side- 
 aisles, the spaces to be covered being small, the Roman 
 
 intersecting vaults were used ; 
 but as barrel vaults were ne- 
 cessarily dark and gloomy, it 
 became desirable to introduce 
 l ofty windows t() light tho 
 vaulting, especially of the 
 nave. This could only be pro- 
 vided for by the introduction 
 of cross-vaults, piercing the 
 principal one. It was in 
 struggling with the difficul- 
 ties which attended the use 
 of such cross-vaults on a large 
 scale that the pointed arch 
 was first introduced. Pointed 
 arches are capable of being 
 applied to vaulting bays of 
 any size or shape, as they can 
 be made of equal height what- 
 ever their span. The groins 
 (i. e. intersecting lines of the 
 vaults) were strengthened 
 with ribs, and these ribs and their mouldings became more 
 and more numerous, as the Gothic style developed itself, 
 until the whole vault was covered with them, finally pro- 
 
 Fig. 43.— Plan of a Gothic 
 Cathedral. Amiens. 
 
Gothic Architecture. 89 
 
 during in England the beautiful fan-tracery, with which 
 we are familiar in King's College Chapel, Cambridge, 
 Henry the Seventh's Chapel, Westminster, etc. ; and in 
 France and Germany in many other forms of complicated 
 elaboration. 
 
 The general vertical tendency of Gothic work — the steep 
 roofs, the buttresses, vertical breaks (i, e. projections of 
 any part within or beyond the general face of the work), 
 etc. — are largely traceable to the desire to obtain effects 
 of shadow from a low sun. The horizontal cornices of 
 classic architecture lose most of their natural effect in 
 countries where the sun for much of the year is low in 
 the heavens, and light is diffused and comparatively faint. 
 In the Gothic buildings of the south of Europe (Spain 
 and Italy) this vertical tendency was less completely 
 developed. 
 
 Window tr acery — a peculiarity of Gothic architecture 
 which has no parallel in any other western style — was 
 developed gradually from a d esire to group several windows 
 together under one arch ; and a complete series of forms 
 can readily be made out, beginning with two lancet lights 
 (long narrow windows, with the head shaped like the point 
 of a lancet) and the enclosing arch, leading up to such 
 elaborate compositions as the great windows in the flam- 
 boyant buildings of France. 
 
 The external buttresses were props or piers added outside 
 the building, opposite to the point of pressure of the groins, 
 to strengthen the walls ; and sometimes a further support 
 was added in the shape of an arch thrown across be- 
 tween the wall and the upper part of the buttress, so as 
 to help support the nave roof. This was called a flying 
 buttress. 
 
90 
 
 Gothic Architecture. 
 
 The clustered piers were a device for carrying the leading 
 ribs of a groined roof, or the leading lines of a moulded 
 
 Fig. 44. — West Front of liheims Cathedral. 
 
 arch, down to the ground. They are piers subdivided into 
 different shafts, each with a cap (i. e. capital) of its own, 
 
Gothic Architecture. 91 
 
 bearing a separate portion of the vaulting or arcading. 
 They were of less value structurally than optically. 
 
 Gothic buildings are developed in a series as regular as 
 Gothic tracery — commencing with the bold and simple 
 structures of the transitional Romanesque, and going up to 
 the utmost complexity. It would carry us beyond the 
 limits of a hand-book to enter upon an analysis of mould- 
 ings and tracery; but those who wish to study Gothic 
 architecture scientifically must make themselves thoroughly 
 acquainted with both ere they can be said to have mastered 
 the subject. The character of the decorative sculpture is 
 also thoroughly typical of the style, and varied with every 
 changing phase which it went through : it should conse- 
 quently receive the student's attention. 
 
 In Gothic, as in Romanesque buildings, the vaults of 
 the nave were carried high enough above the side-aisles 
 to admit windows under the roof to light the nave ; and 
 these windows in Gothic churches form what is called the 
 clerestory (i. e. clear storey). The gallery, or open arcade, 
 which occurs in large churches below the clerestory windows 
 and above the great arches that separate the nave, or 
 central avenue, from the aisles, or side avenues, is called 
 the triforium. 
 
 Nothing can exceed the beauty of the general view of a 
 Gothic cathedral, with its endless variety of intersecting 
 lines of arches, meeting overhead, its grouped shafts and 
 delicate ribs, its long perspective of aisles, and its rows of 
 stained-glass windows, from which is poured a flood of 
 light, tinting the stone-work with every variety of hue. 
 
 The outside of a Gothic cathedral is as remarkable as 
 the interior for boldness of design and easy grace of orna- 
 ment. The projecting buttresses, often crowned by acutely 
 

 92 Gothic Architecture. 
 
 pointed pinnacles, the slender spires tapering heavenwards, 
 produce an indescribable effect of lightness and complexity. 
 They are, so to speak, the staccato notes of that " frozen 
 music " to which a great German writer (Schlegel) has 
 likened architecture. 
 
 In mediaeval times symbolism entered largely into all 
 the arts ; and Gothic cathedrals owe much of their strange 
 unearthly beauty to the weird, fantastic sculptures with 
 which every part — even the crypt, but especially the west 
 fronts, the portals, and the sacr avium, or sanctuary con- 
 taining the high altar — was decorated. 
 
 The full development of this love of mystic ornament 
 led to the church becoming, so to speak, a universe in 
 miniature. Everywhere we see hovering angels or mystic 
 emblems of Christian virtues ; trailing vines and lions, 
 symbols of faith ; roses and pelicans, of Divine love and 
 mercy; ivy and dogs, of truth; lambs, of submission, etc., 
 etc. ; whilst the walls and altars glow with sacred pictures, 
 and the holy shrines, containing the relics of the saints, 
 sparkle with jewels. 
 
 The round-arched, or transitional Gothic style, origin- 
 ated in Italy and the south of France, where it lingered 
 long, and developed itself naturally from the Romanesque, 
 introduced by the Lombards and other Italians. The 
 pointed Gothic, with which we have principally to deal, 
 was worked out first in Northern France ; and the earliest 
 example of its full development was the cathedral of St. 
 Denis, near Paris, founded in 1144. The cathedral of Notre 
 Dame, in Paris, is a somewhat later building ; and almost 
 simultaneously with it began the fine cathedrals of Chartres, 
 Beauvais (Fig. 42), Rheims (Fig. 44), Bourges, etc. It was 
 not until a century later (1220) that the Germans adopted 
 
Gothic Architecture. 93 
 
 the pointed arch, and even then it had to struggle long with 
 the semicircular before it finally triumphed. The Gothic 
 style may be said to have passed through three periods : the 
 earlier severe style, of the thirteenth century ; the middle 
 or perfected Gothic, in the fourteenth century ; and the 
 decadence, in the fifteenth century; these dates being, 
 however, only approximate, as the rate of progress varied 
 in different countries. 
 
 In France, the cradle of the pointed Gothic style, the 
 typical buildings are the cathedrals of Paris, Chartres, 
 Rheims, and Amiens. That of Paris is the oldest, and was 
 built before the full development of the style ; that of 
 Chartres, of somewhat later date, marks a step in advance ; 
 that of Rheims (Fig. 44), completed in 1241, greatly sur- 
 passes either of its predecessors ; and that of Amiens (Fig. 
 43), completed in 1272 — the model in rivalry with which 
 Cologne cathedral was built — is equal to that of Rheims, 
 if it does not excel it. The cathedral of Beauvais much 
 resembles that of Amiens, but is incomplete. It was com- 
 menced five years later, and consecrated in 1272. The 
 church of St. Maclou, at Rouen (1432 — 1500), is a speci- 
 men of the later French style, called flamboyant, as is 
 also the Palace of Justice in the same town. 
 
 In the Netherlands the chief Gothic buildings are the 
 great halls of the towns. The cloth hall at Ypres is one 
 of the earliest and handsomest ; the town hall at Bruges 
 (commenced 1377) is a small and elegant building; that 
 of Brussels (1401 — 1435) is famous for its open-work spire ; 
 that of Louvain (1448 — 1463) is elaborately decorated; 
 that of Ghent (1481) marks the commencement of the 
 decadence, when beauty of design was replaced by extrava- 
 gance of ornament; and the Exchange of Antwerp (1515), 
 
94 
 
 Gothic Architecture. 
 
 in spite of the fineness of some of the internal details, is a 
 specimen of the debased Gothic, when the true character- 
 istics of the style were forgotten. 
 
 Fig. 45.— The Church of St. Catherine at,0ppenheim. 
 
 The following cathedrals of Germany are of the pointed 
 Gothic style, and are monuments of the time when the 
 German nation was united in M one faith, one hope, one 
 
Gothic Architecture. 95 
 
 baptism ":— The cathedral of Magdeburg, 1208—1363; 
 the minster of Freiburg, in the Breisgau, thirteenth 
 century ; the church of St. Elizabeth, at Marburg, 1 235 — 
 1283; the Liebfrauen-Kirche, at Treves, 1227—1244; the 
 handsome church at Oppenheim (Fig. 45) ; the cathedral 
 of Strasburg, the eastern part of which belongs to a basilica 
 of the eleventh century, the present nave having been 
 commenced in the early part of the thirteenth century. 
 The west front of this great cathedral, which is second in 
 importance to that of Cologne alone, was begun by the 
 celebrated Erwin of Steinbach, and proceeded with by his 
 sons on his death (1318). 
 
 The cathedral of Cologne, the finest of all German 
 buildings in the pointed Gothic style, was, until lately, 
 supposed to be the building begun by Conrad de Hoch- 
 steden in 1248; but it is now ascertained that he only 
 rebuilt the old cathedral of the ninth century. Nothing 
 is known of the architect of the present edifice, which 
 was commenced about 1275, and consecrated in 1322. The 
 nave and spires have, after many years of work, now been 
 finished according to the original design. 
 
 St. Stephen's, of Vienna, belongs to the 14th century, as 
 does also the Maria Kirche, at Lubeck. Many fine civic 
 buildings in the pointed Gothic style were also erected in 
 different parts of Germany : such are the Rathhaus (town 
 hall) at Brunswick, and that at Munster; the Junkers' 
 hof (merchants' court), at Dantzig, etc. 
 
 In Italy the characteristics of Gothic architecture were, 
 as has already been hinted, largely influenced by the 
 climate. The use of marble as the chief building material, 
 and a strong infusion of what may be called classical taste, 
 also contributed to mould the peculiarities of Italian Gothic. 
 Here the horizontal cornice is often retained, low-pitched 
 

 98 Gothic Architecture. 
 
 roofs are common, spires are comparatively rarely met 
 with ; the elaborate groined vaulting of Northern Europe, 
 with its attendant external buttresses, are almost unknown, 
 and window tracery is of a very inferior character. The 
 church of St. Francis at Assisi (1238 — 1253), famous for 
 its beautiful fresco paintings rather than for its architectural 
 design; the cathedral of Florence (Fig. 47), one of the 
 largest churches of the middle ages, commenced 1294 or 
 1 298, and completed early in the fourteenth century, remark- 
 able alike for the grandeur of its plan — larger, and better 
 conceived, than that of the great cathedral of Cologne — 
 and for the inappropriateness of its details ; the cathedral 
 of Milan (1385 — 1418), one of the largest of the mediaeval 
 cathedrals, built of white marble and sumptuously decor^ 
 ated, spoilt by an attempt to combine Eenaissance with 
 Gothic features ; and the cathedrals of Siena and Orvieto 
 (the former commenced 1243, the latter 1290), — are among 
 the best known specimens of Italian pointed Gothic. The 
 civic buildings of Venice are many of them fine specimens 
 of the same style ; of these, one of the richest is the palace 
 called the Ca d'Oro (Fig. 46) ; but the noblest and most 
 renowned, as well as largest, is the Doge's Palace. 
 
 In Spain the pointed Gothic buildings are fine and 
 numerous. The best are the cathedrals of Burgos, Toledo, 
 Seville, Tarragona, Barcelona, and Leon. Little is accu- 
 rately known of their dates. 
 
 We reserve our notice of the English pointed Gothic 
 buildings for the chapter on English architecture, in which 
 will be found a continuous description of the development 
 of the style in this country. 
 
 We must not quit the architecture of the middle ages 
 without calling attention to the institution of freemasonry, 
 
Gothic Architecture. 
 
 which in the middle of the twelfth and the beginning of 
 the thirteenth centuries exercised a considerable influence 
 upon art. The freemasons were a body of men skilled in 
 masonry of every kind, and competent to carry out any 
 work they undertook in the best scientific manner. At the 
 time of their organisation writing was unknown to the 
 majority of the laity, and a system of secret signs Was 
 
 
 Fig 46.— The Ca d'Oro, Venice. 
 
 invented, by which masons could recognise each other. 
 The houses of meeting were called lodges, and the principal 
 were at Strasbursf, Vienna, and Zurich. The vast cathe- 
 drals of Germany are believed to owe much of their beauty 
 to the harmonious co-operation of the freemasons of the 
 different states. 
 
 EHA 
 
XV. — Renaissance Architecture. 
 
 First Period: Early Renaissance, 1420 — 1500. 
 
 The Renaissance (i. e. revival) is the name given to that 
 style which succeeded the Gothic. It took its rise in Italy, 
 and was in fact a revival of ancient Roman architecture. 
 Gothic although introduced into Italy, and adopted, as we 
 have seen above, to a certain extent, never really nourished 
 there, nor supplanted entirely the classical style ; and when 
 Petrarch revived the study of classic literature, that revival 
 was the signal for a return to the ancient models in all the 
 arts ; first in Italy, and later on in the rest of Europe. 
 
 The fifteenth century was the transition time, when an 
 attempt was made to combine existing styles with those of 
 ancient Greece and Rome. In churches and cathedrals 
 belonging to this period, the groined ceiling of the Gothic 
 styles alternates with the Roman intersecting vault, and 
 the civic buildings are a transition from the feudal fortresses 
 of the middle ages to the palaces of a later date. We can 
 trace in them a change somewhat similar to that which 
 came over the lives of the old feudal barons — warlike sim- 
 plicity giving place to princely elegance and luxury. The 
 palaces were still distinguished for their ornamented fronts, 
 as in the previous centuries, but pilasters and arcades were 
 largely introduced. A principal and distinctive feature of 
 Italian public buildings and palaces of this time* is the 
 cortile (/. e. court-yard), surrounded by open arcades, over 
 which the upper apartments were carried in the manner 
 seen in our illustration (Fig, 49). Although it is impossible 
 to deny that from a strictly architectural point of view 
 
H 2 
 
100 ... .Renaissance Architecture. 
 
 there is much in the buildings of this era that is open 
 to the criticism of those who insist on architectural correct- 
 ness, there is nevertheless a grace and delicacy in the orna- 
 mentation, and a freshness and simplicity in the details, 
 which render them superior to the buildings which were 
 at the same time being carried out in the later Gothic 
 styles. The Italians, especially in Lombardy, were very 
 successful in moulding bricks for ornamental purposes, and 
 employed them largely in their civic buildings, and some- 
 times also in their churches : they executed the details of 
 the cornices and the moulded arcades and window-openings, 
 either by moulding the bricks, or by the use of bricks of 
 different designs arranged in patterns. The Ospedale at 
 Milan is a well-known example of Italian ornamental 
 brickwork. 
 
 Italian Renaissance architecture may be divided into 
 three schools : the Florentine, Roman, and Venetian. 
 
 Florence, long the cradle of art, was also the cradle of 
 the Renaissance ; and it is to her great master, Brunelleschi 
 (1377 — 1446), that she owes her pre-eminence in the 
 revival of classic architecture. He completed the dome of 
 the cathedral, and built the Pitti palace. In the latter 
 work he first managed to give artistic importance to a 
 "rusticated" structure. The Strozzi, Gondi, Riccardi, and 
 Rucellai palaces are other fine Florentine buildings of the 
 early Renaissance age. 
 
 In Roman buildings of the same period we find a closer 
 imitation of classic models, and a freer use of pilasters and 
 arcades, than in the Florentine palaces. Sometimes two 
 or more storys are included in one order of columns with 
 their entablature surmounted by an attic (i. e. low story). 
 The two. so-called Venetian palaces in Rome are good 
 
Renaissance- Architecture. 
 
 101 
 
 specimens of Roman Renaissance domestic architecture, 
 and the large unfinished hostile of the former is the first 
 example of a building constructed on the model of the 
 Colosseum, with its tiers of columns and series of arches. 
 
 The Venetian is the most ornate of the three schools. 
 Each story of the chief buildings of Venice possesses a 
 
 Fig. 48. — Palazzo Vendramin Calergi, Venice.' 
 
 separate tier of columns and an entablature. The arched 
 windows are ornamented with columns, and the spandrels 
 are frequently filled with figures. The fronts are many of 
 them of marble. Of the palaces of the early Renaissance, 
 the Palazzo Vendramin Calergi (Fig. 48) and the Palazzo 
 Giovanelli deserve mention. 
 
102 
 
 Renaissance Architecture. 
 
 Second Period : Advanced Renaissance, 1500 — 1580. 
 
 As long as Florence was the home of the new style, it 
 retained its transitional character, the result of the com- 
 bination of mediaeval and antique forms ; but in 1500 the 
 
 Fig. 49.— Court of the Canee'laria Palace at Rome. 
 
 scene and destiny of the Renaissance alike underwent a 
 change. 
 
 Julius II., an enthusiastic lover of art, attracted the 
 greatest masters of the day to his court, and Rome became 
 the centre of the art world, as it had long been of the 
 religious. For a period of twenty years the classic sculpture 
 of the age of Pericles and the best monuments of Roman 
 

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104 Renaissance Architecture. 
 
 art were diligently studied ; and once more painters, 
 sculptors and architects worked together in harmonious 
 combination, producing masterpieces of undying beauty. 
 In this age the Romans delighted more than ever in vast 
 and noble masses of well-ordered forms, and their finest 
 works were now, as before, their civic buildings. 
 
 Bramante of Urbino* (ab. 1444 — 1514) was the founder 
 of the Roman school of architecture. In the palaces he 
 erected he adhered strictly to antique details, treating 
 them, however, with a grace of his own. The Cancellaria 
 (Fig. 49) and Giraud (now Torlonia) palaces are amongst 
 his chief works. One of the masters who approached most 
 nearly to him was Baldassare Peruzzi (1481 — 1537), who 
 built the Farnesina palace, so famous for Raphael's frescoes. 
 To Raphael himself we owe a noble work of architecture — 
 the Palazzo Pandolfini at Florence. A fragment of a palace 
 in Rome itself (Palazzo Yidoni) is also said to have been 
 built from his designs. 
 
 Michelangelo Buonarroti (1474 — 1564), the mighty 
 genius who excelled alike in the three sister arts of archi- 
 tecture, sculpture and painting, left the impress of his 
 vigour and power on architecture. To him we owe the 
 design of the present Capitol, with its picturesque group 
 of buildings, the Porta Pia, and the completion of the 
 cupola of St. Peter's (Fig. 50;, the great cathedral of 
 Christendom, built on the site of the old basilica of Con- 
 stantine. The foundation-stone of the new building had 
 been laid in 1406, and the work was proceeded with after 
 designs by Bramante, until his death and that of the Pope. 
 Raphael and Peruzzi took up his unfinished task, and were 
 in their turn succeeded by Michelangelo in 1546, when he 
 * His real name was Donato Lazzari. 
 
Renaissance Akchjtecture. 105 
 
 had already reached his seventy-second year. He designed 
 the dome, and at the age of ninety saw the greater part of 
 his task fulfilled. When he died, he left models for the 
 completion of the church ; but his successors, Vignola and 
 Giacomo della Porta, altered his plan by prolonging the 
 nave westward beyond the length which would have har- 
 monised with the dome. The church of St. Peter became 
 the model of the most ambitious of the later churches of 
 the Renaissance style. 
 
 In North Italy the school of Venice alone attained to 
 any importance during this, the golden age, of Roman art. 
 For this she was indebted to the great master, Jacopo 
 Tatti, called Sansovino (1479 — 1570;, who built the library 
 of St. Mark's (1536), which is considered his masterpiece, 
 and sculptured the magnificent gate of the sacristy of the 
 church of the same name. 
 
 In Vicenza, in the sixteenth century, a group of build- 
 ings was erected by Palladio (1518 — 1580;, remarkable not 
 only on their own account, but because they became the 
 models upon which a very large proportion of the Renais- 
 sance work in our own country was based ; the manner of 
 Palladio having become the fashion in England, while that 
 of Vignola (1507 — 1573) was more followed in France. 
 
 Third Period : Baroque (quaint) style, 1600 — 1800. 
 
 The simple beauty which distinguished the works of art 
 of the fifteenth century, and the richness and dignity which 
 they displayed in the sixteenth, were succeeded in the seven- 
 teenth by a style in which were exaggerated all the defects 
 of the Renaissance, and from which almost all its merits 
 were left out, and which reflected the unbridled licence 
 and effeminate luxury of the age. It was neither classical 
 
106 Renaissance Architecture. 
 
 nor Gothic. Giovanni Lorenzo Bernini (1598 — 1680) was 
 the chief master of this style, and the extent to which 
 unmeaning and capricious decoration was indulged in is 
 seen in his bronze baldacchino (i. e. canopy) covering the 
 high altar of St. Peter's. His greatest architectural work 
 is the colossal colonnade in front of St. Peter's (Fig. 50). 
 Bernini was also famous as a sculptor. One of his best 
 works is a group of Apollo and Daphne, finished in his 
 eighteenth year. His rival, Francesco Borromini (1599 — 
 1667), endeavoured to outdo him by even greater exagger- 
 ation of ornament. From his buildings rectilinear forms 
 disappear almost entirely, — even the gables of the windows, 
 the cornices, and the entablatures are broken and con- 
 torted, so that all regularity of design is lost, and an effect 
 produced of painful confusion and instability. 
 
 In the eighteenth century architecture recovered, espe- 
 cially in France, from the exaggeration of the previous 
 period, and a simpler and more dignified style prevailed, in 
 which an attempt was made to return to classical forms ; 
 but the many important buildings erected were, though 
 correct, deficient in interest as works of art ; for the creative 
 power which had given character to the productions of 
 the great Roman school, founded by Michelangelo, was 
 wanting ; and, in spite of their vast size and the richness 
 and luxuriance of their decorations, they remained cold, 
 unmeaning structures. 
 
 Whilst the style of the Renaissance rapidly made its 
 way in Italy, to the almost total exclusion of any other, 
 the other countries of Europe still remained true to Gothic 
 traditions, and it was not until the sixteenth century was 
 considerably advanced that the classic revival spread to 
 France, England, etc. 
 
Renaissance Architecture. 
 
 107 
 
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 3 
 
 bo 
 
108 Renaissance Architecture. 
 
 At first many of the old Gothic forms were retained, 
 combined with Italian features. This is the case in the 
 palaces of Chambord and Chenonceaux (Fig. 51) on the 
 Loire, in the palace of Fontainebleau, and many other fine 
 buildings. The two first-named palaces, part of the Chateau 
 of Blois, and many other chateaux in the valley of the 
 Loire, belong to the period of Francis I. — a time when the 
 architecture of France, in its passage from Gothic to 
 Renaissance, displayed a grace, a piquancy, and a refine- 
 ment rarely equalled, coupled with the most exuberant use 
 of delicate surface ornament. It was in the seventeenth 
 century that the Italian style was universally adopted ; but 
 it was unfortunately the debased and exaggerated style of 
 the late Renaissance, not that of the golden age. Italian 
 architects were largely employed, and their directions were 
 considered binding in every country. 
 
 The west front of the Louvre, erected by Pierre Lescot, 
 1541, is one of the finest buildings of early Renaissance in 
 France. The old portion of the Tuileries, built by Phili- 
 bert de Lorme, 1564, shows more of the defects of the style. 
 In the next century, when the classic element again began 
 to prevail in Italy, the effect was felt in France, and the 
 result was the erection of the handsome buildings of the 
 Invalides and the Pantheon, etc. 
 
 To the last form assumed by this period of the Re- 
 naissance style the term Rococco is often applied. Ex- 
 travagant and meaningless ornaments profusely applied 
 characterise it. 
 
 In Spain we may instance the monastery of the Escurial 
 (1563 — 1584) as the chief work of this style. In the 
 Netherlands the church of St. James at Antwerp, built by 
 
Renaissance Architecture. 
 
 109 
 
 Rubens, and containing the monument of his familv, is in 
 the style of the late Renaissance. 
 
 The Gothic style prevailed in Germany until the com- 
 mencement of the sixteenth century. The noble hall 
 known as the Belvedere, in the Hradschin Square at 
 Prague, and the Castle of Heidelberg, now in ruins, are 
 examples of early Renaissance in Germany. T 
 
 ;:: ; ■: y 
 
XVI. — Architecture in the Nineteenth Century. 
 
 The researches made in Greece in the eighteenth cen- 
 tury, and the accurate representations produced of the 
 monuments discovered in that country, were of vital im- 
 portance to architecture, and coDstituted an event in its 
 history. Hitherto the Roman form of the antique style had 
 alone been known and imitated : but at the beginning of 
 the present century an attempt was made in England, 
 Germany, Italy, and France to revive Greek architecture. 
 Nowhere was this movement more strongly developed than 
 in Great Britain ; but, as a separate chapter is devoted to a 
 complete view of our own architecture, in which the Greek 
 phase will receive notice, we pass at once to France and 
 Germany, the two continental countries where Greek art 
 was most studied and followed by architects. 
 
 In Germany, Schinkel (1781 — 1841), a man of powerful 
 and original genius, was one of the first architects to grasp 
 the new ideas and embody them in forms of beauty 
 borrowed from the Greeks, but with a vital character of 
 their own. His principal works are the Royal Guard- 
 house, the new theatre, the artillery and engineers' school, 
 and the building school at Berlin, the casino at Potsdam, 
 etc. He also designed many churches, castles, and country 
 houses. All his productions are remarkable for unity of 
 design and vigour and harmony of detail. 
 
Architecture in the Nineteenth Century. Ill 
 
 August Stiiler (1800 — 1 865), another German architect, 
 built the Friedens-kirche at Potsdam, and the new Museum 
 at Berlin, which is of no special external beauty, but 
 praiseworthy for the harmony and appropriateness of 
 its internal arrangements; and for its great staircase, 
 one of the finest in Europe. 
 
 Munich is especially rich in buildings erected in the 
 present century. Leo von Klenze and Gartner are the 
 architects of the greater number. The gbjptothek (i. e. 
 sculpture gallery) and the pinacotheh (i. e. picture-gallery) 
 by Von Klenze, are in the classic style ; the former is not 
 altogether a copy of a Greek work, but has something of 
 original feeling : the cornice above the portico is finely 
 decorated, and the pediment is enriched with sculptures 
 by Wagner, Schwanthaler, and others. The picture-gallery 
 is by some considered a finer work than the glyptothek. 
 It fully expresses the purpose for which it was erected ; 
 the galleries for large pictures, and cabinets for smaller 
 ones, are extremely effective. The materials are brick, 
 with stone dressings. 
 
 These buildings, and many others in different parts of 
 Bavaria, — the Walhalla of Regensburg, by Von Klenze, the 
 Ludwigs-kirche and Triumphal Arch in the same town by 
 Gartner, for instance, — were all built at the expense of 
 Ludwig I. of Bavaria, an enthusiastic lover of art. Gartner 
 adopted a revived Romanesque, whilst Von Klenze adhered 
 to the Greek. 
 
 Other German architects, who have aided in the classic 
 revival of the present century, are Gottfried Semper, builder 
 of the theatre, lately destroyed by fire, and of the museum 
 of Dresden, and Theophil Hansen, to whom Vienna owes 
 many handsome buildings. 
 
112 Architecture in th# Nineteenth Century, 
 
 France, as well as England and Germany, has had a 
 classic revival ; and the most powerful architectural school 
 in the present century was that body of French architects 
 whose style is called the neo-Grec (•/. c. revived Greek), and 
 to whom we owe the fine buildings of the reign of Napoleon 
 III. ; these are all strongly marked by features derived 
 from the study of Greek art engrafted upon the framework 
 which the gradual development of the Renaissance had 
 supplied. The Church of St. Vincent de Paid, erected by 
 Hittorf, and the Ecole des Beaux Arts, by Duban, both in 
 Paris, are early specimens of this style ; the Opera-house^ 
 by Gamier, is the most important, but by no means the 
 most artistic, example of its latest form. We must not 
 omit to notice the great group of palaces formed by the 
 Louvre and the Tuileries :.* the difference in the styles 
 and want of conformity in alignment of the two palaces 
 long formed an insuperable difficulty to giving unity to 
 the appearance of the whole ; and it was reserved for the 
 late M. Visconti to arrange the new portions in such a 
 manner as to tone down the disparities, and produce a 
 pleasing harmony in the various parts. Some large central 
 feature is still considered necessary by Fergusson and other 
 authorities; but even without it, the Louvre, as it now 
 stands, is one of the finest palaces of the day. 
 
 The Hotel de Ville, originally built in the Renaissance 
 style in 1628, and afterwards much enlarged until it 
 became one of the most magnificent structures in Paris, 
 was burned by the Communists in 1871. It has since 
 been restored in the same style. 
 
 The new Custom-houses, Prefectures, Hotels de Villo, 
 
 * Part of the Tuileries was burnt by the Communists in 1871. 
 
Architecture in the Nineteenth Century. 113 
 
 and similar public buildings in such cities as Bordeaux, 
 Lyons, Rouen, and Marseilles may be cited as good 
 examples of the style when employed for edifices of a 
 secondary class. 
 
 The street architecture of Paris was largely improved 
 under the Second Empire. The modern houses of Paris 
 are especially remarkable for the happy arrangement of 
 the windows, and for the general appropriateness of all the 
 details, though wearisome in the monotony of their endless 
 repetition. Our limits will not permit us to do more than 
 make a brief allusion to the trophies of Paris, which, how- 
 ever, deserve separate study, alike for their historical and 
 artistic value. The Arc de Triomphe de l'Etoile, built 
 after the design of Chalgrin, and decorated with grand 
 groups of sculpture by Rude and many other artists, — 
 commemorating the triumphs of the first Napoleon, — is 
 the finest triumphal arch of Modern Europe. The Colonne 
 Vendome, the Colonne de Juillet, the Fontaine St. Michel, 
 and the Palais du Trocadero, are among the other con- 
 spicuous public works of the present century. 
 
 In Italy the classic revival was carried out with much 
 purity of taste and refinement of detail, but nothing has 
 been produced of sufficient novelty to call for special 
 remark, with the exception perhaps of the Arco della 
 Pace ("arch of peace") at Milan, commenced by Napoleon 
 I., and finished by the Emperor of Austria. 
 
 Russia has of late years shown considerable architectural 
 
 activity. Many handsome marble palaces have been 
 
 erected in St. Petersburg — all of them, however, from 
 
 designs by foreign artists. The palace of the Archduke 
 
 eha i 
 
114 Architecture in the Nineteenth Century. 
 
 Michael, after the design of Rossian Stalian, is the finest 
 structure of the class. The new museum of St. Peters- 
 burg, by Leo von Klenze, is a building of considerable 
 merit. The church of St. Isaac, after a design by a 
 French architect, De Montferrand, is the best ecclesiastical 
 edifice of St. Petersburg. 
 
 Within the last forty or fifty years a reaction against the 
 rigid copying of classic forms has sprung up, and a revival 
 of mediaeval architecture has supplanted the Greek, if not 
 the Renaissance, style, especially in ecclesiastical buildings. 
 Two great English architects, Sir Charles Barry and 
 Augustus Pugin, were among- the first to depart from the 
 fashion which had so long prevailed, of introducing Greek 
 and Roman forms into every building of importance : the 
 most conspicuous of the early examples of the revived 
 Gothic style in Europe is the new Westminster Palace, or 
 Houses of Parliament, after the design by Barry, and with 
 details largely furnished by Pugin. A great many churches 
 and other public buildings have of late years been erected 
 in various parts of England and some on the Continent in 
 the Gothic style — buttresses and pinnacles once more 
 taking the place of the columns and entablatures of Greek 
 temples. The new Courts of Justice in the Strand, 
 designed by Mr. Street, are certainly the finest examples 
 of this style to be met with in England. The South front 
 is remarkable for its grandeur and fine effect. 
 
 The Germans adhered longer than the English to the 
 classic style, which they had been originally slow to take 
 up ; and in France the reaction against all antique forms 
 has not been so strong as in England, though very dis- 
 tinctly noticeable. The recent works of Gothic character 
 
Architecture in the Nineteenth Century. 115 
 
 done in France have, indeed, been chiefly restorations of 
 the decaying cathedrals and chateaux ; and for new struc- 
 tures, even for churches, the neo-Grec has been largely 
 preferred. 
 
 All this cannot be called living art ; something more is 
 wanted for the creation of a new school of architecture than 
 even a successful revival of a beautiful style like the Gothic, 
 or a resurrection of antique forms, which must ever retain 
 about them something of the savour of the tomb. Within 
 the last few years, however, there have been indications of 
 a possible fusion of certain forms of Gothic and classic 
 architecture. Efforts have been made to combine Gothic 
 details with the regular arrangement of masses and the 
 bold semicircular arches of the Renaissance, and to engraft 
 on old forms novel features suitable to the requirements of 
 the day. 
 
 Of the late revival in England of the style of architec- 
 ture prevalent in the reign of Queen Anne we shall speak 
 more fully in a succeeding chapter. 
 
 I 2 
 
XVII. — Architecture in Great Britain. 
 
 All that we have said in preceding chapters on the 
 architecture of the Continent will, we trust, be found 
 useful in enabling the reader to understand our own, and 
 to recognise the chief characteristics which distinguish 
 English from contemporary art on the continent of Europe. 
 Architecture, like language, is the expression of national 
 ideas and national peculiarities ; and the study of English 
 history might be to no inconsiderable extent illustrated by 
 an examination of the buildings belonging to each period 
 under consideration. Each race which became dominant 
 in Britain left its impress on the architecture of the time, 
 and the gradual advance in civilisation was marked by a 
 corresponding advance in the science of building. 
 
 When Julius Caesar invaded Britain, in 55 B.C., the 
 dwellings of the inhabitants were of the simplest descrip- 
 tion : caves, mud huts, or circular houses of stone or wood 
 with tapering roofs, through an aperture in the summit of 
 which light was admitted and smoke emitted. It is there- 
 fore at least possible that the remarkable collection of 
 monolithic masses on Salisbury Plain, called Stonehenge 
 (i. e. hanging or uplifted stones), with the appearance of 
 which every child is familiar, may not have been erected 
 by the same race of men as those who inhabited these 
 dwellings. Stonehenge shows great experience in the 
 handling of enormous masses of stone, and practice in the 
 art of the mason. Many other " rude stone monuments," 
 though none so advanced as works of art, exist in various 
 parts of Britain ; but the date when they were raised and 
 the history of their builders still remain obscure. 
 
Aechitecture in Great Britain. 117 
 
 The arrival of the Romans was an event of great im- 
 portance for British architecture. They converted London 
 from an enclosed fort into a city, and taught the natives 
 the principles of construction. Agricola (a.d. 80) especially 
 did all in his power to wean the Britons from their 
 wandering life, and to encourage them to practise the arts 
 of peace. He was successful, and under his rule cities 
 rose surrounded by massive walls, and adorned by temples, 
 basilicas, and palaces. The remains of Uriconium (Wroxeter) 
 and Silchester may be cited as examples of this advanced 
 civilisation. In the third century, British architects 
 became famous for their skill; and when the father of 
 Constantine the Great built the city of Autun (a.d. 290), 
 many of the workmen employed were sent from Britain. 
 
 At the end of the third century, architecture began to 
 decline in Britain, as elsewhere in Western Europe. This 
 was caused by the drawing off of the best artists to Byzan- 
 tium (Constantinople), to aid in the great works undertaken 
 by the Emperor Constantine. 
 
 When the Romans left Britain, the natives allowed their 
 buildings to fall into decay for want of repair, or to be 
 seized and destroyed by invaders ; and therefore but few 
 relics of Roman structures remain in England. Of their 
 domestic architecture, the foundations of a villa at Wood- 
 chester in Gloucestershire, and of another villa (recently 
 discovered) at Brading in the Isle of Wight, are the most 
 important. 
 
 The following are the styles into which we may con- 
 veniently divide English architecture since the Roman 
 occupation : Anglo-Saxon, from the end of the seventh 
 century to the Norman Conquest, 1066 ; Norman, from 
 
118 Architecture in Great Britain. 
 
 1066 to nearly 1200; Gothic, from 1190 to 1546; Trans- 
 itional, from 1546 to 1619; Renaissance, introduced about 
 1619 to the present day. 
 
 Gothic architecture is commonly divided into three 
 periods, to which different names are assigned by different 
 authorities ; those introduced by Hickman, and still usually 
 accepted, are: Early English, 1189-1272; Decorated, 1272- 
 1377; Perpendicular, 1377—1546 — the later Perpendicular 
 being also called Tudor. The transitional period is com- 
 monly divided into Elizabethan and Jacobean ; and a third 
 phase of it, to some extent contemporaneous with complete 
 Renaissance, is now known as the Queen Anne style. 
 
 1. — Anglo-Saxon Architecture. 
 
 On the arrival of the Saxons (a.d. 449), the little that 
 remained of true artistic feeling in the natives of Britain 
 was quickly crushed. Like the rest of the Germans at 
 this date, the Saxons knew nothing of art, and did not 
 employ stone in any of their buildings : even their 
 cathedrals were of wood. The original church of York 
 was of timber, covered with reeds. It was not until the 
 seventh century that architecture revived, thanks to the 
 earnest efforts of Wilfrid, bishop of York, and Benedict, 
 founder of the Abbey of Wearmouth (Sunderland). Their 
 exertions began in the style called Anglo-Saxon, which 
 prevailed in England until the Norman Conquest in 1066. 
 This and the Norman style which succeeded it, were, how- 
 ever, in reality, nothing more than the most western form 
 of the Romanesque or Byzantine style, to which two 
 chapters have already been devoted. Bishop Wilfrid 
 erected handsome buildings at York, Ripon, and Hexham; 
 and to Benedict we owe the first introduction of glass in 
 
Anglo-Saxon Style. 
 
 119 
 
 churches. He invited glass manufacturers from France, 
 who taught their art to the natives of Britain. 
 
 The total destruction of all the wooden cathedrals, etc. 
 erected before and during the reign of Alfred, renders it 
 impossible to describe their style or appearance. Of the 
 stone churches of later date but very few remain; and 
 
 ttraiJuTlnt 
 
 Fig. 52.— Tower of Earl's Barton Church, Northamptonshire. 
 
 these only in part. The following are the principal : the 
 tower of Earl's Barton in Northamptonshire (Fig. 52), 
 Stukely in Buckinghamshire, the doorway of Barfreston 
 in Kent (Fig. 53), Avington in Berkshire, and Worth in 
 
 Sussex. 
 
120 
 
 Architecture in Great Britain. 
 
 The original stone edifice of Westminster Abbey was 
 built by Edward the Confessor, 'between 1055 and 1065. 
 All that now remains of it is the Pyx* House — a low, 
 narrow room, with a vaulted roof, divided down the centre 
 by a row of seven plain pillars with simple capitals. 
 
 Fig. 53. — Doorway of Barfreston Church, Kent. 
 
 The principal characteristics of Saxon work are plain 
 semicircular arches, short columns, with rude capitals 
 decorated with indentions of various lengths, or a rough 
 
 * The Pyx is the sacred vessel used in Roman Catholic churcl.es 
 to contain the Eucharistic elements. 
 
Norman Style. 121 
 
 copy of some Grecian order ; windows with a semicircular 
 head, often very narrow compared to their length, and 
 sometimes divided by short balusters, used like small 
 columns; very thick walls without external buttresses, 
 and what are known as " long and short " quoins, at the 
 angles of the building. Ornamentation, except in the 
 capitals of columns, is sparingly used. The plan of Saxon 
 churches is generally a rectangle, divided into a body and 
 chancel, and separated by an ornamented arch, the chancel 
 terminating in a semicircular apse. Transepts did not 
 appear until towards the end of the Saxon period. About 
 the same time bells were first used in churches, and towers 
 were erected at the west front. 
 
 2. — Norman Style. 
 
 The Norman style is that which prevailed from 1066 to 
 about 1200, including the reigns of William I., William 
 II., Henry I., Stephen, Henry II., and Richard I. The 
 Normans did not introduce many new features, but they 
 improved the existing style by bringing to this country 
 men who had carried it to a far higher pitch than it had 
 reached here, and who possessed a greater experience in 
 the erection of large buildings, and were accustomed to a 
 richer treatment of details. The following are the chief 
 characteristics of the Norman style. Semicircular arches, 
 such as those of the nave of Gloucester Cathedral, with 
 larger openings than the Saxon, and almost invariably 
 with mouldings and enrichments. The entrance-arches of 
 churches were profusely decorated — as, for example, at Ely 
 — with mouldings, wreaths, masks, human figures in relief, 
 etc. Towards the close of the period pointed arches were 
 
122 
 
 Architecture in Great Britain. 
 
 occasionally introduced in the upper storeys of a building, 
 whilst those in the lower remained circular. We even 
 see them alternating here and there with the old form. 
 Norman columns, though higher than the Saxon, are of 
 immense diameter as compared with their height and the 
 distances between them. They have circular, hexagonal, 
 or octagonal shafts, with fluted, reticulated (i. e. like the 
 meshes of a net), or lozenged mouldings (Fig. 54). Their 
 
 Fig. 54. — Late Norman shafts, capitals, and arches. 
 
 capitals are of a well-marked type, and either plain or 
 decorated with a kind of volute (i e. spiral enrichment), 
 or with plants, shells, animals, etc., etc. Norman windows 
 are narrow and semicircular-headed like the Saxon, but 
 they are larger, and are often grouped together in twos or 
 threes. The ceilings are generally flat and of timber, 
 except in crypts, which are vaulted with stone, the groins 
 being plain, or if decorated, only on the edge. Norman 
 
Norman Style. 123 
 
 walls are extremely massive, with no buttresses, but in 
 their place plain shallow piers are used. For decoration, 
 rows of arcades with nothing to support are of frequent 
 occurrence; the chief mouldings are the chevron (i. e. zigzag 
 moulding), the fret (i. e. ornament with one or more fillets 
 — narrow bands or rings — meeting in vertical or horizontal 
 directions), nail-head, billet (i. e. cylindrical pieces two or 
 three inches long in hollow mouldings), cable, lozenge, 
 wave, etc. The large semicircular (torus) and the hollow 
 (cavetto) mouldings occur in bases, and elsewhere. In our 
 Norman buildings the masonry is usually beautifully 
 executed — far more perfectly, indeed, than was the custom 
 in some subsequent periods. 
 
 In Norman churches transepts are of frequent occur- 
 rence ; the tower, rising from the point of intersection 
 between them and the nave, being loftier than in Saxon 
 buildings. The chief distinction between the two styles 
 is increase of size and richness. The great length of the 
 nave in Norman churches, unbroken by any rood-screen,* 
 gives a sense of vastness to the whole building. We may 
 here remark that the eastern limb of A.nglo-Norman 
 churches was generally square ended, whilst that of conti- 
 nental buildings belonging to the same age was apsidal, 
 that is to say, semicircular, or more rarely polygonal. 
 
 The earliest specimens of the Anglo-Norman style 
 
 * The screen at the entrance of the chancel, so called from its 
 having been surmounted by a large figure of Christ on the cross. 
 The Anglo-Saxon word rod signifies a cross, and the word rood, 
 derived from it, was applied to the cross on which our Lord was 
 put to death. It also signifies all the relics of the true cross. 
 The word " holy " is generally prefixed in speaking of them, and 
 the Scotch abbey of Holyrood (Holy Rood) received its name from 
 the holy cross or rood in honour of which it was dedicated. 
 
124 Architectuee in Great Britain. 
 
 closely resemble the continental Norman. The cathe- 
 dral of Canterbury, founded by St. Augustine about the 
 middle of the sixth century, and rebuilt by degrees by 
 Archbishops Odo (940), Lanfranc (1070), and Anselm 
 (1093), supplies us, in the portions still remaining of the 
 Norman building, with illustrations of the characteristics 
 of this style ; and side by side with them can be seen 
 specimens of the most refined English work previous to 
 the Conquest. 
 
 The cathedral of Rochester is another building in which 
 the Norman style may be studied. It was commenced 
 about 1077, and the nave is but little altered from its 
 original appearance. Its internal details are plainer than 
 those in contemporary French churches ; but its western 
 doorway, which is uninjured, is a good specimen of the rich 
 external ornamentation of the age. The choir and crypt 
 were rebuilt early in the thirteenth century. 
 
 The ground-plan of Winchester Cathedral is Norman, 
 but the building was overlaid with Perpendicular work 
 by William of Wykeham. 
 
 Chichester Cathedral was commenced in 1082, and the 
 nave, which has remained unaltered, was completed thirty- 
 six years later. The building was extended eastward, 
 like most English churches, in the early part of the 
 thirteenth century ; and this portion is a good specimen 
 of the completed transition from the short to the elon- 
 gated choir, which came into general use in the thirteenth 
 century. 
 
 The cathedral of Norwich retains its original Norman 
 form with less alteration than any other in England. It 
 was founded in 1094, by Bishop Losinga; it is 411 ft. 
 long by 191 ft. broad at the transepts, with a spire 315 ft. 
 
Norman Style. 
 
 125 
 
 high. It has the French chevet * termination instead of 
 the English square choir, but in nothing else does it 
 resemble the continental cathedrals of the age. Its vast 
 
 Fig. 55.— Ground -pi an of 
 Peterborough Cathedral. 
 
 Fig. 56. — Nave of Peterhorough 
 Cathedral. 
 
 length as compared with its breadth, and the bold pro- 
 jection of the transepts, are distinctively English fea- 
 tures. 
 
 * Described in the chapter on Romanes {ue Architecture. 
 
126 Architecture in Great Britain. 
 
 The ground-plan and nave of Peterborough Cathedral 
 (Figs. 56 and 57) are Norman. The nave retains its 
 original appearance, except for the substitution of white- 
 wash for the colours with which it was painted. The 
 side-aisles are vaulted, whilst the nave retains the flat 
 roof of the earliest basilicas. A great part of St. Alban's 
 Abbey, as it now exists, is Norman. The nave, one of 
 the longest in England, consisting of no less than thir- 
 teen bays, was extended by Paul, the first Norman abbot, 
 during the latter years of the eleventh and the beginning 
 of the twelfth century. This Abbey has been recently 
 restored. 
 
 By the beginning of the twelfth century the Norman 
 style had become generally adopted in England, and had 
 assumed an entirely national character. Durham Cathedral 
 is a fine example of this, as it differs entirely from any- 
 thing on the Continent. It is, moreover, one of the finest 
 ecclesiastical buildings in England. The galilee, or chapel, 
 is an extremely elegant and characteristic example of 
 Anglo-Norman work. Durham Cathedral was commenced 
 by Bishop William de Carilepho, about 1093, in the form 
 of a Latin cross, and additions were gradually made till 
 about 1500 ; so that the changes of style which took place 
 between these dates can be well studied in it. Amongst 
 other ancient monuments, it contains the tomb of the 
 " Venerable Bede," who died a.d. 735. 
 
 It is impossible, in a work like the present, to enumerate 
 all the cathedrals of England containing Norman features ; 
 but enough has, we trust, been said to enable students to 
 recognise them for themselves ; and we would urge them 
 to take every opportunity of visiting and studying the 
 abbeys, cathedrals, and parochial churches scattered over 
 
Noeman Style. 127 
 
 the length and breadth of England, especially in the 
 southern counties. 
 
 Our review of Norman architecture will not be complete 
 without a brief notice of the castles with which every 
 eminence of any importance was crowned in the time of 
 William the Conqueror and his successors. The keep, or 
 main tower, was the part first built ; in some instances it 
 stood alone ; in not a few, thanks to its great solidity, it 
 still stands, though all subsequent additions have disap- 
 peared. One of these castles, when fully completed by the 
 additions of subsequent generations, was often of vast 
 extent, and usually of irregular form, as the shape of the 
 ground indicated. The exterior line of defence (or outer 
 bailey) was surrounded by a deep ditch called & fosse or 
 moat, protected by an outwork called a barbican, consisting 
 of a strong wall, with turrets, for the defence of the great 
 gate and drawbridge. The external wall enclosing this 
 outer bailey was placed within the ditch, and was 8 to 
 10 ft. thick by 20 to 30 ft. high, with a parapet (i. e. a wall 
 breast-high) and embrasures (i. e. openings in a wall or 
 parapet). Square towers were raised here and there 
 above the walls, and contained lodgings for the officers 
 engaged in the defence of the castle, etc. The tops of the 
 turrets and of the wall were flat, and the defenders of the 
 castle stood on them to hurl down missiles upon their 
 assailants. The great gate was flanked by a tower on 
 each side, with rooms over the entrance, which was closed 
 with a massive folding door of oak, and provided with a 
 portcullis (i. e. a falling gate, consisting of a strong grating 
 of timber, with pointed spikes, for striking in the ground 
 on which it was thrown, made to slide up and down in a 
 groove of stone- work, inside the entrance arch). Within 
 
128 
 
 Architectuee in Great Britain. 
 
 the outer walls of the castle was an open space ; and 
 another ditch, with a wall, gate, and towers complete, 
 enclosed an inner court (inner bailey), from which rose the 
 keep (t. e. the large central tower already referred to), also 
 called the donjon (i. e. dungeon). In the keep was often 
 the great hall for the entertainment of guests and retainers, 
 
 I 
 
 iffe 
 
 *1L 
 
 Fig. 57.— Norwich Castle— The Keep. 
 
 with the raised dais (i. e. platform) at one end, where stood 
 the table for persons of high rank. 
 
 The principal castles of England occupied at the present 
 day are those of Dover, Windsor, Warwick, Alnwick, 
 Norwich (Fig. 57), and the Tower of London ; those of 
 Kenilworth, Arundel, and others may have equalled them 
 before they fell into the decay in which we see them at the 
 present day. 
 
Early English Style. 129 
 
 The Tower of London contains a fine specimen of a 
 Norman keep, known as the White Tower. The walls 
 of the keep, or donjon, are in parts 16 ft. thick, and of 
 extremely solid masonry; and the chapel in the White 
 Tower is one of the best preserved and most interesting- 
 works of its age extant. The whole enclosure occupies a 
 space of 12 or 13 acres, and most of it is very much 
 modernised. Rochester Castle is a good specimen of a 
 Norman keep, though much dilapidated. 
 
 3. — Gothic Architecture in England. 
 
 First Period. — Early English Architecture. — The period 
 generally known as "Early English," or less commonly as 
 " Early Pointed," lasted from about 1189 — the date of the 
 accession of Richard I. — to 1307 — the date of the death of 
 Henry III. The crusades of the eleventh century, com- 
 bined with other influences, led to a revolution in European 
 architecture, and, in fact, in all the arts. The styles which 
 then sprang up received the comprehensive name of Gothic. 
 England was almost a century behind some of the countries 
 of the continent in adopting the Pointed style, and our 
 earliest examples of it retain much of the massiveness and 
 strength of the Norman. The chief points which distin- 
 guish Early English architecture from the buildings of the 
 preceding age may be briefly enumerated as follows. In 
 large arches the archiuolt (i. e. the arched portion as dis- 
 tinguished from the jambs or sides from which it springs) 
 is heavily moulded, exhibiting a succession of round 
 mouldings alternating with deep hollows ; and the plain 
 faces which were conspicuous in the archivolts of the 
 Norman style have wholly disappeared. The small arches 
 
 EHA K 
 
130 
 
 Architecture in Great Britain. 
 
 are slight, lofty, and acutely pointed ; the piers generally 
 consist of a central shaft surrounded by several smaller 
 ones, with a clustered base and foliaged capital (Fig. 58). 
 The triforium, or gallery over the aisles, the clerestory, or 
 row of nave windows above the triforium, the high pointed 
 roofs and vaulted ceilings, exhibit a degree of lightness 
 combined with solidity which removes all appearance of 
 ponderous weight. The line along the apex (i. e. summit) 
 of the vault is generally decorated with raised mouldings. 
 There are not any existing specimens of roofs of this era, 
 
 Fig. 68. — Clustered pillar in the nave of Wells Cathedral. 
 
 with the open carved timber-work described by various 
 writers ; but in the church of Warmington, in Northamp- 
 tonshire, there is a groined roof in which the ribs (i. e. 
 bands running along the groins or intersecting lines) are 
 of wood, and the cells (i. e. surfaces) of the vaulting are 
 covered with boards. The general roofing of this period 
 is groined vaulting, of which the roofs of Salisbury Cathe- 
 dral, and of the choir and transepts of Westminster Abbey, 
 are fine specimens. In Wells Cathedral and the Temple 
 
Early English Style. 131 
 
 Church of London, examples of Early English vaulting 
 may also be seen. 
 
 Windows are the features in which the gradual progress 
 of the Gothic style may always most readily be studied. 
 In the Early English they are long, narrow, and lancet- 
 headed (*. e. with an acute angle at the head). Sometimes 
 one window like this is seen alone, but more usually three, 
 five, or seven are grouped together. The necessity for 
 filling up the vacant spaces between the heads of the 
 several windows so grouped led to their perforation with 
 ornamental forms. This was the origin of the tracery and 
 foliation so largely employed in later styles. The smaller 
 windows, when thus combined, are called licjhts. The great 
 window at Lincoln Cathedral, consisting of eight windows 
 or lights combined together, is a good example. The ca- 
 thedrals of Salisbury, Chichester, Lincoln, York, Beverley, 
 and Westminster, contain specimens of Early English 
 windows. York Minster possesses an Early English win- 
 dow, called the Five Sisters, which, although it consists 
 merely of long, simple, undivided openings, is almost un- 
 rivalled for effect and dignity. The walls of Early English 
 buildings are often less massive than the Norman, and are 
 strengthened with external buttresses, which at this period 
 were always set square to the line of the walls. 
 
 The larger west fronts generally include a pointed 
 central gable, with a tower on each side rising above the 
 gable ; and were enriched by one to four rows of niches, 
 windows, and arches over the doorways. The west front of 
 Lincoln Cathedral contains a good deal of Early English 
 work grouped round a Norman doorway ; that of Peter- 
 borough consists of three large arches, adorned with clus- 
 tered piers, architraves, and a large number of mouldings. 
 
 k 2 
 
132 Aechitecture in Great Britain. 
 
 The west front of Salisbury Cathedral is considered the 
 richest facade we have in this style. 
 
 Early English doorways are often very beautiful ; the 
 mouldings forming the head are bold, deeply recessed, 
 and often elaborately carved. The west doors of Wells 
 and Salisbury Cathedrals, the door of Salisbury Chapter 
 House, the west doorways of Ely and Chichester Cathe- 
 drals, etc., are fine examples. The porches of English 
 cathedrals are sometimes more than mere doorways. Some- 
 times they are compartments of considerable size, called 
 galilees, answering to those rooms which were used in the 
 early days of the Christian Church for the reception of 
 penitents, etc., and known by the name of narthexes. 
 
 The steeple was greatly developed during this age. In 
 Anglo-Norman churches a low square tower was used, 
 sometimes with no visible roof, sometimes terminated by 
 a low pyramid, very occasionally gabled. This, in the style 
 under consideration, was heightened and developed into 
 a spire. Towards the end of the period turrets and pin- 
 nacles began to be largely employed, the buttresses became 
 more slender and tapering, and " flying buttresses " were 
 introduced (see Glossary). The ornaments of the Early 
 English style are more numerous than the Norman. The 
 most distinctive enrichment is a small perforated pyramid, 
 called dog-tooth, or tooth ornament. 
 
 In the time of the Crusades the building of churches and 
 monasteries was considered the best way of propitiating 
 Heaven ; and the greater number of our cathedrals and 
 abbey churches were founded at this time. 
 
 The first great cathedral built entirely in the new style 
 was that of Salisbury (Fig. 59), commenced in 1220 and 
 finished in 1258. It is built in the form of a double cross, 
 
Early English Style. 
 
 133 
 
 having two transepts, one between the nave and choir, and 
 one nearer the east end. It is 480 ft. long by 232 ft. wide. 
 The west front is flanked by two massive square towers 
 surmounted by spires and pinnacles ; and over the central 
 
 Fig. 59. — Ground-plan of east end and transept of Salisbury Cathedral. 
 ( Without the west transept and nave.) 
 
 entrance runs an arcade, above which is the great western 
 window. The galilee or porch is as wide and lofty as one 
 division of the north aisle. The steeple, which is of rather 
 later date than the rest of the church, rises from the 
 
134 Architecture in Great Britain. 
 
 intersection of the nave and larger transept, and is 400 ft. 
 high. The interior has been injured by injudicious re- 
 storation ; the stained glass with which the rows of cleres- 
 tory windows were once filled, and the colouring which 
 formerly adorned the walls, are wanting ; but, in spite of 
 all these drawbacks, Salisbury Cathedral remains a master- 
 piece of art. 
 
 The choir and transepts of Westminster Abbey, erected 
 by Henry III., belong to this style. The four eastern bays 
 of the nave belong to the transition between this and the 
 Decorated style ; they are the work of Edward III., who 
 also built a chapel dedicated to the Virgin, which was re- 
 moved to make way for Henry VII.'s chapel. 
 
 The nave and the very elaborate west front of Wells 
 Cathedral, in the Early English style, were commenced in 
 1214 by Bishop Joceline. The most remarkable feature 
 of this celebrated structure is the variety of sculptured 
 figures in the niches of the gallery. They have been 
 noticed by our great English sculptor Flaxman as marking 
 the state of art at the period of their execution. They 
 consist of figures " in the round " (i. e. fully detached), and 
 others in high relief. Those on the southern portion of the 
 front represent the Creation, the Deluge, and other Old 
 Testament incidents ; those on the northern, events in the 
 life of our Saviour.* Above these are two rows of statues 
 larger than life ; and near the gable is a high relief of 
 M Christ come to Judgment," attended by His angels and 
 the twelve apostles, — the upper arches on either side being 
 filled with figures starting from their graves, their faces 
 and attitudes admirably expressing hope, fear, grief, and 
 
 * See 'Iconography of the West Front of Wells Cathedral,' hy 
 C. R. Cockerell, R.A. 
 
Early English Style. 
 
 135 
 
 every other emotion. Another effective and characteristic 
 feature is the use of light projecting buttresses, which pro- 
 duce by their bold projection a most striking effect of light 
 and shade. The general aspect of the nave may be inferred 
 from the illustration of one bay (Fig. 60). 
 
 Fig. 60.— Nave of Wells 
 Cathedral. 
 
 H«iil 
 
 HUfil 
 
 Fig. 61. — Choir of "Worcester 
 Cathedral. 
 
 By its side we give a bay of an almost contempora- 
 neous work — the choir of Worcester Cathedral, a.d. 1203— 
 1218 (Fig. 61). 
 
 The choir and transepts of Lincoln Cathedral, with the 
 
136 Architecture in Great Britain. 
 
 exception of the presbytery added at a somewhat later 
 date, are in the Early English style ; and most of the 
 ecclesiastical buildings of England received additions at 
 this period. 
 
 Some of the finest buildings of Scotland belong to this 
 age — the choir of Glasgow Cathedral, for instance ; but 
 their architecture is of a more massive character than any 
 of the English edifices noticed above. 
 
 The crosses of Queen Eleanor belong to the end of this 
 period. Those at Waltham and Northampton are the 
 finest, and in the best preservation. A good reproduction 
 by the late Edward M. Barry, R. A., of the ancient Charing 
 Cross may be seen in front of the Railway Station in the 
 Strand. 
 
 Second Period of English Gothic Architecture : the Deco- 
 rated Style. — The style which succeeded the Early English, 
 and which was the second stage in the development of 
 Gothic architecture in England, is known as the Decorated, 
 or sometimes as Middle Pointed. 
 
 It is generally dated from 1307 — the date of the accession 
 of Edward II. — to 1377 — the date of the death of Edward 
 III. The Decorated style, however, grew so gradually from 
 its predecessor that the dates given above can only be 
 looked upon as approximate. The following are the differ- 
 ences which distinguish Decorated from Early English 
 architecture. The arches are generally not quite so acute, 
 and the mouldings are sometimes carried down to the 
 base of the pier or jamb without being interrupted by a 
 capital. The mouldings are less boldly undercut, and of 
 more regular section than in the preceding style, and are 
 rarely used so as to produce the same striking effects of 
 
Decoeated Style. 137 
 
 intricacy and richness. The piers or clustered pillars are 
 grouped in a slightly different manner from the Early 
 English, the shafts being joined together instead of de- 
 tached ; the carving of the capitals, which has a conspicuous 
 peculiarity of character, is more delicate, and is carried 
 round the bell or body of the capital in a wreath instead of 
 springing stiffly from the neck-moulding. The vaults of 
 the Decorated style differ from those which preceded them 
 in being divided into a greater number of compartments, and 
 in the multiplication of the ribs. At the point of intersection 
 of the groins, bosses (i. e. small masses of carving) were con- 
 stantly introduced. Open wooden roofs were common at 
 this period ; but as they were very subject to decay or to 
 destruction by fire, few remain. The roofs of the nave of 
 High am Ferrars Church, in Northamptonshire, of the 
 corporation chancel of St. Mary's, Leicester, and of the 
 nave of Ely Cathedral, are of the class referred to. The 
 roof of Eltham Palace is also a good example. The windows 
 are the most beautiful feature of the Decorated style. They 
 are larger than the Early English, and are divided into a 
 greater number of lights — the heads being filled with the 
 tracery, which is sometimes of strictly geometrical forms, 
 sometimes of a flowing outline, corresponding to some 
 extent with the French Flamboyant. Some of the most 
 beautiful windows of England are constructed with these 
 graceful flowing lines. York Minster, the Minster and St. 
 Mary's at Beverley, and many other churches contain ex- 
 amples. The great west window at York is an extremely 
 fine specimen, but even it is surpassed by that of Carlisle 
 Cathedral. In the best windows of this style, the mould- 
 ings of the mullions and tracery are simple in section, the 
 principal mullion having sometimes a capital and base. 
 
138 Architecture in Great Britain. 
 
 Circular windows were sometimes used : as in Exeter, 
 Chichester, and Lincoln Cathedrals, for instance. 
 
 Fronts of buildings in the Decorated style differ little 
 from those of the Early English ; more complicated forms 
 were resorted to for effect, and some of the beautiful and 
 effective simplicity of earlier buildings was lost. One of the 
 finest west fronts in this style is that of York Minster (Fig, 
 62), the nave of which also belongs to the Edwardian age. 
 Spires were so much admired at this time that they were 
 added to towers complete without them. The buttresses 
 were now carried higher than before, and surmounted by 
 pinnacles. They were more richly decorated than ever, 
 and were not now invariably planted at right-angles with 
 the walls they supported; and, as the name of the style 
 implies, a corresponding exuberance of ornamentation pre- 
 vailed in every detail of construction. The ball-flower (i. e. 
 a small round bud of three or four leaves) is the character- 
 istic enrichment of the Decorative style, as the dog-tooth 
 is of the Early English and the cheoron or zigzag of the 
 Norman. 
 
 One of the most beautiful specimens of Decorated archi- 
 tecture in England is the octagonal tower of Ely Cathedral, 
 built by Alan de Walsingham, to supply the place of the old 
 Norman tower which had fallen down. The Lady Chapel 
 of Ely Cathedral also belongs to this age. 
 
 The royal chapel of St. Stephen's at Westminster, al- 
 though small, must have been an extremely fine edifice. 
 It was built during the reigns of the three first Edwards, 
 and therefore belonged to the ripe age of English archi- 
 tecture. The greater part has been removed, but the 
 crypt, carefully restored, is still to be seen, and serves as 
 the chapel of the Houses of Parliament. Among other 
 
wc ■/.'.. ;:n's a.a.tvi., 
 
 Fig. 62.— York Minster; west front. 
 
140 Architecture in Great Britain. 
 
 examples we may name Lichfield Cathedral, the Abbey 
 Church of Bristol, the nave of York Cathedral, the nave 
 of Exeter Cathedral, Battle Abbey, and Tintern Abbey. 
 Many churches were enlarged and enriched by the addition 
 of such chapels during the prevalence of this style. Excel- 
 lent examples of its mouldings and ornamentations are 
 to be found in the many fourteenth century tombs and 
 monuments in our cathedrals and churches. 
 
 A great improvement took place in domestic architec- 
 ture in England in the reign of Edward III., especially in 
 the halls of castles and palaces. The Round Tower of 
 Windsor was built by him for the table of the Knights of 
 the Order of the Garter, founded in his reign. As examples 
 still remaining, we have the hall of the Bishop's Palace, 
 Wells, and the gatehouse there ; one of the gatehouses at 
 Bury St. Edmunds, the hall at Penshurst, the earlier parts 
 of Haddon Hall, and the noted Edwardian castles of Wales 
 — such as Conway, Caernarvon, and Chepstow. 
 
 Third Period of Gothic Architecture in England: the 
 Perpendicular Style, sometimes called " Third Pointed." 
 — The style which succeeded the Decorated in England is 
 known as the Perpendicular. It is generally considered 
 to have prevailed from 1377 — the date of the accession of 
 Richard II. — to 1546 — the date of the death of Henry 
 VIII.,— and in the phase called Tudor until 1630-40- It 
 was contemporary with the Flamboyant style in France. 
 Its chief characteristics are the rectilinear lines which 
 replaced the flowing tracery of the windows of the Decorated 
 period. The same feeling, however, pervaded the other 
 features of Perpendicular buildings, — the buttresses, 
 towers, and piers being all slight, and continuous vertical 
 
Perpendicular Style. 141 
 
 lines being used whenever possible. All this offers a 
 strong contrast to the dark shadows and raised mouldings 
 of the preceding period. The stone roofs of this style are 
 more elaborate than those of any other, and display that 
 peculiarly English feature, fan-tracery — a development of 
 vaulting admitting the highest ingenuity and skill. The 
 four-centred arch, sometimes called the Tudor arch, belongs 
 to the latter part of this age. 
 
 The fronts of buildings of the Perpendicular period are 
 often very fine. Those of Beverley Minster and King's 
 College Chapel, Cambridge, are considered the best 
 examples; and those of the Cathedrals of Winchester, 
 Gloucester, Chester, of the Abbey Church of Bath, and St. 
 George's Chapel, Windsor, are also good. The mouldings 
 of this style are more regular and more shallow than in 
 the two which preceded it. Sculptured animals are 
 frequently introduced as ornaments, often producing a 
 grotesque effect. 
 
 The three typical specimens of English edifices in this 
 style are Henry VII.' s Chapel, at the east end of West- 
 minster Abbey, St. George's Chapel, Windsor, in the 
 precincts of the Castle, and King's College, Cambridge. 
 Henry VII. 's Chapel (Fig. 63) is a prolongation of the 
 eastern limb of the Abbey, and is in fact the Lady Chapel, 
 as well as the sepulchral chapel of the king whose name 
 it bears. It consists of a nave, two aisles, and five small 
 chapels, and can only be entered from the Abbey itself. 
 The exterior is richly decorated ; the buttress turrets are 
 especially beautiful, rising to a considerable height above 
 the parapet, and ending in jinials (i. e. the tops of buttresses 
 and pinnacles in Gothic buildings), richly ornamented. 
 The flying buttresses are also extremely ornate, covered 
 
142 Architecture in Great Britain. 
 
 with lions, dragons, and other symbolic creatures. The 
 chief beauty of the whole is, however, universally admitted 
 to be the groined ceiling of the interior, which is the 
 most exquisite specimen of fan-tracery in existence, the 
 whole surface being spread with a network of lace-like 
 ribbing. 
 
 The Chapel of King's College, Cambridge, is not so 
 richly ornamented as Henry VII. 's, but is remarkable for 
 being one of the very few large Gothic churches without 
 side-aisles, the absence of which gives an almost over- 
 whelming sense of space. Its vault of fan-tracery yields 
 to none except that of Henry VI I. 's Chapel, and for 
 vigorous mastery of the style it is absolutely unequalled 
 by any other building. 
 
 St. George's Chapel, Windsor, has a fine groined fan- 
 tracery roof, which entitles it to rank with the other two. 
 
 The Cloisters and Lady Chapel of Gloucester Cathedral, 
 the central tower, Lady Chapel, nave, and western transepts 
 of York Cathedral, and an immense number of parochial 
 churches — especially in Somersetshire, Gloucestershire, 
 Norfolk, and Suffolk — may be instanced as further 
 examples of the style. 
 
 The Scotch chapels of Roslyn and Holyrood belong to 
 this age, and combine the elegance characteristic of it with 
 northern massiveness and simplicity. 
 
 The Tudor, or Florid English style, is the term some- 
 times applied to the Late Perpendicular, when the Pointed 
 style was beginning to decline in England, — which it did 
 not do until some years later than in the rest of Europe. 
 
 The Tudor style was remarkable for redundancy of 
 ornament, in which a constant repetition of the same 
 forms took the place of the exquisitely-carved foliage and 
 
Fig. 63.— Roof of Henry VII.'s Chapel, Westminster. 
 
144 Architecture in Great Britain. 
 
 sculpture of the earlier part of the period. The more 
 extensive use of panelling was another characteristic, the 
 walls of Tudor chapels being almost entirely covered with 
 it. Fan- tracery vaulting was extensively employed, and 
 in many cases clusters of pendent ornaments resembling 
 stalactites mark the intersections of the ribbing. The 
 doorways are extremely elaborate, and often form the 
 finest portion of the work. That of King's College Chapel, 
 Cambridge, is an excellent example. 
 
 The ecclesiastical edifices of this age are not numerous, 
 and it is in the domestic buildings, such as palaces and 
 castles, that the style can be best studied. Large sums 
 were expended by the nobility on their private residences. 
 Henry VII. built a handsome palace at Shene, in Surrey, 
 to which he gave the name of Richmond, retained by the 
 town which grew up round it, although not a trace of the 
 building itself remains. It was in this palace that the bay 
 window (i. e. a projecting window rising from the ground) 
 was first extensively used. In the time of Henry VIII., 
 before the close of the style and the commencement of 
 the Renaissance, the greater number of Tudor palaces 
 were erected. One of the finest existing examples is 
 Hampton Court Palace, built by Cardinal Wolsey. It 
 consists of three quadrangles, and has a square tower at 
 the entrance, flanked by an octagonal turret at each angle. 
 The gateway is pierced through this tower, and is 
 formed by an obtuse arch with oriel windows {%. e. win- 
 dows projecting beyond the front of a building and 
 supported by a corbel from the masonry of the wall). 
 A battlement of open tracery crowns the wall. The 
 buildings on the right and left of the tower have been 
 modernized, but at each end is one of the original gables, 
 
Perpendicular Style. 
 
 145 
 
 with its sloping sides adorned with griffins. The timber 
 roof of the Great Hall (Fig. 64), built in the early part of 
 
 Fig. 64. — Wolsey's Great Hall —Hampton Court. 
 
 the sixteenth century, is one of the best existing specimens 
 of carved roofs of this age. The finest in England, or 
 eha l 
 
146 Architecture in Great Britain. 
 
 indeed in Europe, is the roof over Westminster Hall. Both 
 these are technically called hammer-beam roofs. The roof 
 over Crosby Hall, London, is another good example. The 
 fire-places and chimneys of Tudor buildings were often en- 
 riched with beautiful carving and sculpture. The chimneys 
 towered to a considerable height above the roofs, and were 
 grouped in such a manner as to form an important and 
 picturesque feature of Tudor mansions. 
 
 Foreign artists were constantly employed during the 
 reign of Henry VIII., and to their influence is due the 
 introduction of many Italian decorative details in domestic 
 architecture. Girolamo da Treviso and Holbein were the 
 most celebrated. They largely employed the moulded 
 brickwork and terra cotta, at that time in vogue on the 
 Continent. 
 
 4. — The Transitional Style. 
 
 The period of the transition from Gothic to Renaissance 
 is commonly divided into the Elizabethan and Jacobean 
 styles. It began in the latter part of the reign of Henry 
 VIII., and lasted under various phases until the reign of 
 Queen Anne, in the early part of the eighteenth century. 
 
 A few years before the death of Henry VIII., John of 
 Padua, an Italian architect of note, arrived in England. 
 His appointment to the office of " Deviser of His Majesty's 
 buildings," in 1544, was the immediate occasion of the 
 introduction of the Italian Renaissance style into England. 
 
 With the name of John of Padua must be associated 
 that of Theodore Kave or Kavenius of Cleves. The chief 
 work of John of Padua was the Palace of Longleat in 
 Wiltshire, built between 1567 and 1579; and that of 
 Theodore Kave, Caius College, Cambridge, erected between 
 
Transitional Style. 147 
 
 1565 and 1574. Longleat is considered one of the finest 
 English palaces of this period. It consists of three stories, 
 each with an order of its own, and it possesses the essenti- 
 ally English feature of the principal windows being directed 
 outwards, and the only internal quadrangle being a back- 
 court instead of the Italian cortile (i. e. central court-yard). 
 Caius College, Cambridge, is one of the most complete 
 specimens of the Early Renaissance style in England. The 
 buildings are half Gothic, and the gateways are richly 
 adorned with Italian details. The Gate of Honour (1574) 
 is the finest. 
 
 The chief English architects of the reign of Elizabeth 
 were Thomas Holt, Smithson, and John Thorpe. The 
 first built the public schools of Oxford, the gateway of 
 which (1612) is a good example of the early Renaissance ; 
 the rest of the buildings are, however, of the debased 
 Elizabethan Gothic. Holt was, it is said, the first English 
 architect to introduce all the orders into a single front. 
 Smithson, aided by Thorpe, erected Wallaton Hall in 
 Nottinghamshire (1580-90), the general design of which 
 resembles that of Longleat, but is pervaded by Gothic 
 rather than Italian feeling. The following buildings also 
 belong to the Transition period: Hatfield House, 1611 ; 
 Holland House, 1607 ; Charlton in Wiltshire, Burleigh, 
 1577; Westwood, 1590; Bolsover, 1613. They are all 
 characterised by a lack of simplicity and elegance, being 
 wanting alike in the distinctive beauties of the Gothic 
 and Italian styles ; yet they possess a charm of their own 
 which is almost superior to anything of which more regular 
 works can boast. 
 
 The first and most accomplished architect of the Re- 
 naissance in England was Inigo Jones, who studied the 
 
 L 2 
 
148 
 
 Architecture in Great Britain. 
 
 
 principles of architecture in Italy at the expense of the 
 Earl of Pembroke. His fame rests chiefly on his design for 
 Whitehall Palace, planned by command of James I. : the 
 present Banqueting House in Whitehall (Fig. 65) was a 
 single feature of that great project, and the only part of it 
 actually carried into execution. Many other buildings in 
 London and different parts of England were designed by 
 
 Fig. 65.— The Banqueting- Hall, Whitehall (by Inigo Jones). 
 
 Inigo Jones. Of these, St. Paul's, Covent Garden, was 
 perhaps the most successful. It has a recessed portico in 
 antis, with very simple pillars, which gives an extremely 
 dignified appearance to the outside of the building. The 
 inside is somewhat spoiled by the building up of the 
 central door in order to allow the altar to be placed at 
 the east end, which takes away the meaning of the 
 portico. 
 
 We now come to Sir Christopher Wren, who was born 
 
150 Architecture in Great Britain. 
 
 about 1632, when Jones's reputation was at its height. 
 Wren was early distinguished for his mathematical and 
 scientific acquirements. The Great Fire of 1666 opened 
 for him a splendid field as an architect, and to this circum- 
 stance we are indebted for the finest buildings of the 
 metropolis. Within three days of this disastrous confla- 
 gration Wren presented a plan to the king for the rebuild- 
 ing of the whole city. This it was not found practicable 
 to carry out ; but the restoration of St. Paul's Cathedral 
 and of some fifty other churches was entrusted to him. 
 The present cathedral was commenced nine years after the 
 Fire. It is the largest and finest Protestant Cathedral of 
 the world, and thirty-five years were spent in its con- 
 struction. The ground-plan is a Latin cross, with nave, 
 choir, and transepts. It is 500 ft. long from east to west, 
 by about 250 ft. wide at the transepts. The outside of 
 St. Paul's consists of two superposed orders — i. e. one over 
 the other. The western entrance has a portico of twelve 
 Corinthian columns supporting an entablature, from which 
 rise eight Composite columns supporting a second entab- 
 lature, surmounted by a pediment enriched with sculpture. 
 The western towers are about 250 ft. high, decorated with 
 Corinthian columns. The dome is a triple structure. The 
 part seen from the outside springs from a base 250 ft. 
 from the pavement, and the summit is 404 ft. high. 
 Though open to criticism in many of its minor details 
 and arrangements, St. Paul's (Fig. 66) is allowed to stand 
 foremost among buildings of its class in Europe, St. Peter's 
 at Rome alone excepted. Its interior lacks decoration, 
 but its exterior is undoubtedly the most harmonious and 
 imposing composition which Renaissance architecture has 
 yet produced. 
 
In the Eighteenth Century. 151 
 
 Greenwich Hospital, the steeple of Bow Church, and 
 the interior of St. Stephen's, Walbrook, are considered the 
 best of Wren's other works. The western towers of West- 
 minster Abbey were added after his design. 
 
 5. — Architecture in England in the Eighteenth Century. 
 
 On Sir Christopher Wrens death, in 1723, his pupil 
 Hawksmoor, and Vanbrugh were the most promising 
 architects of the day ; but neither of them produced any- 
 thing denoting high original genius. The principal works 
 of Hawksmoor were St. George's, Bloomsbury, St. Mary's 
 Woolnoth, in Lombard Street, and St. George's in the 
 East; and of Sir John Vanbrugh, Castle Howard and 
 Blenheim Palace. 
 
 James Gibbs, an architect who rose into some eminence 
 in the middle of the last century, built St. Martin' s-in-the- 
 Fields, one of the handsomest churches of the day. The 
 octastyle (eight-columned) portico of Corinthian columns 
 is specially fine if considered merely as an accurate copy 
 of a classic design ; but, of course, all originality of treat- 
 ment is wanting. The Radcliffe Library at Oxford, also 
 by Gibbs, is one of the best classical buildings in that 
 city. 
 
 Sir William Chambers and Sir Robert Taylor were the 
 most celebrated architects of the reign of George III. 
 They carried the imitation of classic and modern Italian 
 buildings to the greatest extreme, displaying much erudi- 
 tion and intimate acquaintance with the buildings of 
 antiquity, but less of that imaginative genius which alone 
 can give originality to a building. Sir William Chambers 
 designed Somerset House and a great many other buildings 
 
152 Architecture in Great Britain. 
 
 of the day, adhering in them to the Italian style ; but 
 shortly after his death, the publication of the various 
 plates and descriptions of the ruins discovered in Greece 
 led to a rage for Greek in preference to Roman forms. 
 The brothers Adam endeavoured, with but small success, 
 to imitate Greek forms in the Adelphi Terrace, the screen 
 of the Admiralty, and other buildings in London ; much of 
 the detail of their work, however, especially of its internal 
 finishing, was very graceful and well-designed. They were 
 more successful in producing an effective exterior in the 
 college at Edinburgh, with its fine monolithic pillars. It 
 is difficult to understand to what Sir Robert Taylor owes 
 his reputation. His buildings connected with the Bank 
 of England are certainly inferior to the prison of Newgate, 
 designed by Dance, which is, in its way, a masterpiece 
 of appropriate and original architectural expressions of 
 character. 
 
 6. — Architecture in England in the Nineteenth Century. 
 
 The Classical Revival of the present century, inaugurated 
 by Sir William Chambers in the latter part of the eigh- 
 teenth century, was at first marked by Italian features. 
 The publication of Dawkin's and Wood's " Illustrations of 
 Palmyra and Baalbec," in 1750, first directed English 
 attention to the beauties of Roman buildings, and this 
 interest was sustained by Adam's " Spalatro," brought out 
 ten years later. It was the series of works on Greece and 
 Greek antiquities, commenced by Stuart in 1762 and 
 completed by Cockerell in 1861, which led to the pre- 
 ference of Greek to Roman forms. The Greek Doric 
 became the favourite order, and soon not a building, how- 
 
In the Nineteenth Century. 153 
 
 ever humble, was considered complete without a classic 
 portico. 
 
 This rage for the imitation of classic forms was destined 
 to give way before a passion for the revival of our national 
 style of architecture, which led many, whose sympathies 
 were with mediaeval rather than with antique thought, to 
 reproduce the exquisite Gothic work of the middle ages, 
 which had been so admirably suited to the ornate ritual of 
 the Roman Catholic religion ; and with this desire was 
 associated a reaction against the coldness of Protestant 
 worship and the simplicity of Protestant churches. Once 
 more symbolic painting and sculpture, and the varied 
 accessories of a ritual form of worship, were introduced in 
 Protestant churches, and felt to be in their place ; once 
 more the screen separated the body of the congregation 
 from the clergy, whilst the choir containing the altar was 
 enriched with sculptures of mystic meaning, and glowed 
 with many-coloured sacred pictures. Gothic spires and 
 pinnacles became as common as Greek and Roman pedi- 
 ments had been : but both the resuscitated styles, beautiful 
 and appropriate as they had been as the spontaneous 
 expression of national thought, were too often spiritless, 
 cold, and wanting in vitality, when they were copied to 
 order. 
 
 To avoid confusion, we propose to notice the chief, first 
 of the Classical, and then of the Gothic buildings of the 
 19th century. The new church of St. Pancras, built by 
 Inwood between 1819 and 1822, almost immediately after 
 the purchase of the Elgin marbles for the British Museum 
 (1816), is a typical example of revived Greek. The Ionic 
 order employed in it is a copy of the Erechtheum at 
 Athens, also called the temple of Minerva Polias, and a 
 
154 Architecture in Great Britain. 
 
 small " Temple of the Winds," in imitation of that at 
 Athens, forms the steeple. To make it more complete, 
 porches with caryatid columns have been added on the 
 north and south sides, like those attached to the Athenian 
 Temple. The University Club House in Pall Mall East, 
 the portico of the Post-Office, and the front of the British 
 Museum, are other examples in which the same order is 
 employed. 
 
 Sir John Soane was perhaps the most successful of the 
 architects of the early classical revival. He rebuilt the 
 Bank of England, the order of which, as it now stands, is 
 an exact copy of that of the circular temple of the Sibyl at 
 Tivoli. 
 
 Holland, Burton, and Nash were three architects who 
 erected many important classic buildings. In the portico 
 of Carlton House, built by Holland, the most ornate form 
 of the Corinthian column was employed. The columns 
 were subsequently used for the portico of the National 
 Gallery, where they may still be seen. 
 
 Wilkins, another celebrated architect of the early part 
 of this century, worked both in the classic and Gothic 
 styles. His masterpiece is the portico of University 
 College, Gower Street. He also designed the National 
 Gallery, which failed mainly from want of adaptation to a 
 site which required a much more lofty building of bolder 
 character. 
 
 Sir Robert Smirke, architect of the British Museum, and 
 Hardwick, architect of Goldsmiths' Hall, should also be 
 mentioned. 
 
 The chief and most original of all the buildings of the 
 classic revival was St. George's Hall, Liverpool, by Elmes, 
 completed after his death by Cockerell. It is 250 ft. long 
 
In the Nineteenth Century. 
 
 155 
 
 by 140 ft. wide, and the order by which it is ornamented 
 is 58 ft. high. One grand hall occupies the centre, with 
 wide recesses on either side. This fine building is adapted, 
 not copied, from the great halls of the Thermae (baths) of 
 Rome. The chief front has a portico with sixteen Cor- 
 inthian columns, each 46 ft high ; and although its general 
 idea is Roman, it is carried out with Greek details. 
 
 In Edinburgh and Glasgow there are many successful 
 
 Fig. 67. — Bridgewater House. 
 
 buildings in the classic styles. The High School of Edin- 
 burgh, by Hamilton, is perhaps the best. 
 
 Sir Charles Barry was the first to realise how ill-adapted 
 all this copying was to the requirements of our climate and 
 our time ; and he reverted, with much success, to the types 
 furnished by the best palatial buildings of the Italian 
 Renaissance. He designed the Travellers' Club, the Reform 
 Club, and Bridgewater House (Fig. 67), introducing in the 
 two latter buildings the Italian cortile in a slightly altered 
 
156 Architecture in Great Britain. 
 
 form with great success. The Halifax Town Hall, his 
 latest work, deserves special notice as a free adaptation of 
 Renaissance architecture. The detail of this building is 
 excellent, and its composition spirited ; it is crowned by 
 high-pitched roofs, and possesses a species of spire as 
 original as it is happily conceived. 
 
 As distinguished examples of modern Renaissance we 
 may name the Leeds Town Hall, by Broderick ; the 
 Carlton Club, by Smirke ; Holford House, Park Lane, by 
 Vulliamy ; the Liverpool Exchange, by T. H. Wyatt ; and 
 the interior of the India House, by Sir Digby Wyatt. As 
 a specimen of a still more recent date we may take 
 the Royal Albert Hall ; no building of the day has more 
 successfully combined the skilful arrangement of plan and 
 the bold treatment characteristic of early Roman buildings 
 with the constructive dexterity of our day; though it is 
 inferior in refinement of detail and in architectural merit 
 to many of the buildings just enumerated. The Albert 
 Hall is in the form of a Roman amphitheatre, with a 
 velarium (i. e. awning) overhead ; the corridors, staircases, 
 and sloping rows of seats are all borrowed from the 
 Roman type, but the huge roof of iron and glass, the 
 external terra-cotta decoration, and the mosaic frieze are 
 modern features. The original design was by Captain 
 Fowke, but the actual construction and the working; 
 designs are due to General Scott, C.B. 
 
 Horace Walpole (1753—1770) was one of the earliest 
 to attempt to revive mediaeval architecture ; but the first 
 great impulse was given by the erection of Fonthill Abbey, 
 a vast private residence in which Mr. Beckford attempted 
 to reproduce an old Gothic Abbey. It was completed in 
 1822, and caused a great sensation. 
 
In the Nineteenth Century. 157 
 
 One of those who did most to promote this movement 
 was John Britton, who brought out a series of fine works 
 on the architectural antiquities of Great Britain, which 
 were followed by the publications of Pugin — a man of 
 real genius and rare energy. Hickman did more, how- 
 ever, than these two to systematise for men of taste and 
 intelligence the study of architecture as an art, and he it 
 was who introduced the nomenclature generally employed 
 by all writers on Gothic architecture. 
 
 Typical buildings in revived Gothic are Windsor Castle, 
 the Houses of Parliament, the New Museum of Oxford, 
 and the Albert Memorial. The first was almost entirely 
 rebuilt under the direction of Sir Jeffrey Wyatville (1826), 
 who gave it the appearance of an old castle adapted to 
 the requirements of a modern monarch ; and it may be 
 taken as a specimen of such Gothic as was designed before 
 Pugin' s day. It is not without effectiveness on a general 
 view, but its details are lamentably inappropriate. 
 
 The second, built by Sir Charles Barry, is in the Gothic 
 of the Tudor age, and owes its beauty of detail to Pugin' s 
 own superintendence. Though fashion has now preferred 
 other styles, and it is customary to run down this building, 
 it is probably the finest effort of the Gothic revival, not in 
 England only, but in all Europe. In its plan, its detail, 
 and the beauty of its sky-line, it is especially successful. 
 
 The New Museum of Oxford, from the designs of Mr. 
 Woodward, may be fairly said to represent the results of Mr. 
 Ruskin's teaching. It was begun in 1855, and is a good 
 example of all that was then considered most advanced. 
 
 The Albert Memorial, by Sir Gilbert Scott, the most 
 recent and the most ornate effort of revived Gothic, though 
 far from popular among architectural critics, must be taken 
 
158 Architecture in Great Britain. 
 
 as representing fairly well the point which the art has 
 reached. 
 
 Other examples of note, which our space only permits us 
 to name, are the — 
 
 Martyrs' Memorial, Oxford, Scott (1848). 
 
 Lincoln's Inn Hall, London, Hardwich (1843). 
 
 St. George's Church, Southwark, Pugin (1845). 
 
 St. Giles' Church, Cheadle, Pugin (1849). 
 
 Holy Trinity Church, Westminster, Pearson (1849). 
 
 All Saints' Church, Butterfield (1849). 
 
 Irvingite Church, Gordon Square, London, Brandon (1851). 
 
 Exeter College Chapel, Oxford, Scott (1858). 
 
 Manchester Assize Courts, Waterhouse (1859). 
 
 St. James's Church, Garden St., Westminster, Street (1860). 
 
 Northampton Town Hall, Godwin (1861). 
 
 Preston Town Hall, Scott (1862). 
 
 Aberystwyth College, Seddon (1864). 
 
 Cork Cathedral, Surges (1865). 
 
 Glasgow University, Scott (1866). 
 
 St. Pancras (Midland Railway) Terminus. London, Scott (1873). 
 
 Keble College, Oxford, Butterjield (1867). 
 
 Balliol College, Oxford, Waterhouse (1867). 
 
 Cardiff Castle restorations, Burges (1868). 
 
 Manchester Town Hall, Waterhouse (1869). 
 
 New Law Courts, London, Street (1881). 
 
 Natural History Museum, London, Waterhouse (1881). 
 
 It is difficult to define the present position of architec- 
 tural art in England. Our architects can no longer be 
 divided into classes, one practising revived Gothic, the 
 other revived Classic. The truth appears to be that 
 revived Greek is falling into disuse, whilst Renaissance is 
 regaining favour, and the transitional architecture bearing 
 Queen Anne's name is, strange to say, being brought for- 
 
In the Nineteenth Century. 159 
 
 ward by men who till lately have been chiefly known as 
 supporters of revived Gothic. As examples of this, the 
 very latest fashion in the art, we may name New Zealand 
 Chambers, in Fenchurch Street, and many other buildings, 
 by Mr. Norman Shaw, and the New School Board Offices, 
 on the Thames Embankment, by Mr. Bodley. 
 
 During the last few years many of the principal artists 
 have built houses for their own use. Sir Frederick 
 Leighton, President of the Royal Academy, Mr. Millais, 
 Mr. Frederick Goodall, Mr. Pettie, Mr. Val Prinsep, Mr. 
 S. Luke Fildes, Mr. Frank Holl, Mr. Seymour Lucas, Mr. 
 Colin Hunter, have all erected mansions which have 
 greatly added to the importance of architecture in Eng- 
 land. Most of them have adopted some modified form of 
 the style of Queen Anne, and have treated it picturesquely. 
 
SCULPTURE 
 
 EHA 
 
SCULPTURE. 
 
 Introduction. 
 
 IN its true sense, Sculpture is the art of cutting or 
 graving hard materials; but it has come to mean 
 all representation of organic life in relief, whether in 
 The round, i.e. fully detached. 
 
 Alto-relievo or high relief, i.e. nearly detached from the 
 surface. 
 
 Mezzo-relievo or semi-relief, i.e. fully rounded, but still 
 attached to the surface. 
 
 Basso-relievo or low relief, i.e. slightly raised from the 
 
 surface. 
 
 Intaglio or cavo-relievo, i.e. hollowed out. 
 
 The Egyptians used a kind of relief peculiar to them- 
 selves, a very low relief sunk below the surface, and 
 therefore combining basso-relievo and intaglio. It is called 
 by the French bas-relief en creux. 
 
 We propose to interpret sculpture in its widest sense, 
 which includes : the chiselling of perfect figures and groups 
 in any hard substance ; the carving of high or low reliefs, 
 whether in marble, ivory, wood, or any other material; 
 the moulding of statues or groups of a plain material 
 
Materials. 163 
 
 enclosed within a coating of more noble material — such as 
 the chryselephantine (i.e. gold and ivory) statues of the 
 Greeks, in which the nude portions were of ivory and the 
 clothing and weapons of gold ; bronze and metal statues, 
 whether cast in a mould or beaten into shape ; terra-cotta 
 statues and architectural ornaments; plaster statues and 
 bas-reliefs ; wax or clay models ; engraved gems, whether 
 intaglios or cameos ; and medals or coins, whether stamped 
 or cast. 
 
 Materials used in Sculpture. 
 
 Marble. — For statues and groups marble is the favourite 
 substance, on account of its crystalline texture and of its 
 gleaming surface, which admits of a high polish and absorbs 
 the light equally. The most famous marbles used by the 
 ancients were the Parian, from the island of Paros, and the 
 Pentelic, from the mountain of Pentelicus, near Athens, 
 both of which were white. Black and coloured marbles 
 were also used. The Egyptians employed substances even 
 harder than marble, such as porphyry, basalt, and granite. 
 Modern sculptors generally prefer the white fine-grained 
 Carrara marble. 
 
 Bronze is the principal metal used in sculpture. It 
 consists of a mixture of copper and tin, the quality varying 
 according to the proportions of the ingredients. Gold, 
 silver, copper, lead, and even pewter, which is a mixture of 
 lead and tin, have occasionally been employed. 
 
 Terra-cotta, baked clay, was much used by the ancients 
 for small statuettes and ornaments. In Italy in the fifteenth 
 and sixteenth centuries it was revived, and used for busts 
 and architectural decoration. In the latter century it was 
 introduced into France and England. Excellent examples 
 
 M 2 
 
1 64 Sculpture. 
 
 may be seen in the old gateways of Hampton Court. 
 At the present day it is very frequently employed in the 
 ornamentation of important buildings. 
 
 Plaster of Paris, gypsum, when burned and reduced to 
 powder, forms a paste which immediately sets, or becomes 
 firm, on being mixed with its own bulk of water ; for this 
 reason it is much used in making casts and architectural 
 decorations. 
 
 Alabaster, a kind of gypsum found in Tuscany and also 
 in Derbyshire, was at one time much used for vases and 
 statuettes. 
 
 Limestone and Sandstone, softer and less durable ma- 
 terials than marble, are largely employed for architectural 
 ornaments. 
 
 Wood. — The principal woods employed for carving are, 
 that of the lime, which though soft is tough and durable, 
 the oak, and the cedar. 
 
 Ivory. — The carving of ivory was practised by the 
 Romans. It was carried to great perfection in the early 
 days of the Christian Church, when it was used for 
 statuettes, tablets, and other ornaments, many of which 
 may be seen in the South Kensington Museum. The ivory 
 chair of St. Maximian, made in the sixth century, is still 
 preserved in the Cathedral at Ravenna. In the year 803 
 two beautifully -carved ivory chairs were presented to 
 Charlemagne. 
 
 
 Gems. — The principal gems used by ancient engravers 
 were : carnelians, chalcedony, onyx, sardonyx, agates, jaspers, 
 garnets, beryls, amethysts, sapphires, rubies, topazes, tur- 
 quoises, etc. For cameos, the onyx was preferred above 
 any other stone. 
 
Processes. 1 65 
 
 Coins and Medals. — Gold, silver, copper, bronze, and oc- 
 casionally other metals or combinations of metals are used. 
 
 We may now briefly describe the various Processes 
 employed in the different kinds of sculpture. 
 
 For Statues, Groups, and high or low Reliefs in 
 marble, the sculptor first " sketches " his design on a small 
 scale in clay or wax. He next makes a model of the re- 
 quired size, having the object to be represented before 
 him. The clay is kept moist whilst it is being worked, 
 and when the model is completed is allowed to harden. 
 A cast is then taken of the model by throwing over it a 
 mixture of liquefied plaster of Paris. When the plaster- 
 mould so obtained is hardened, the clay inside is picked 
 out, and an exact impression of the model remains. This 
 mould is then brushed over with some kind of varnish 
 and filled with fresh plaster, and as soon as it is set the 
 mould is removed with chisels, and a complete fac simile 
 of the model is produced. With this before him the artist 
 begins to work in the marble. The cast and the marble 
 are placed on two blocks, called scale-stools, exactly alike ; 
 a vertical rod with a sliding needle attached — so adapted 
 by a movable joint as to be set at any angle and then 
 fastened — is then fixed to the block on which the cast 
 stands, and the needle is adjusted until it touches a certain 
 point of the cast. The rod is then removed to the block 
 on which the rough marble stands, and the marble is cut 
 away until the needle touches it as it did the model. A 
 mark is made on the two corresponding points of the 
 model and block. This operation, which is called pointing, 
 is repeated until all the different surfaces of the future 
 work from the outside of the marble are ascertained, when 
 
166 Sculpture. 
 
 workmen rough-out the figure or group, the artist himself 
 adding the finishing touches. It is said that Michelangelo 
 worked out some of his statues from the marble without 
 any previous model or design. 
 
 In making Bronze Statues similar preliminary steps 
 are taken. Instead of plaster of Paris, loam or sand is 
 used for making the mould, and molten metal is poured 
 into it. To prevent a too great weight of metal, the interior 
 of the mould is usually partly filled with cores of sand, 
 which leave room for only a thin coating of the metal. 
 When the cast is cold, the surface is perfected by means 
 of a graving tool. Sometimes a bas-relief is beaten out 
 without previous casting : in that case the form is obtained 
 simply by beating or hammering until the proper form is 
 required : iron and bronze are sometimes beaten when 
 hot ; silver and gold when cold. The art of carving figures 
 in relief on metal is called chasing : the term toreutic 
 (from a Greek word signifying to carve) has been applied 
 to all kinds of metal work. 
 
 In modern times zinc, iron, and even tin, have been 
 used for statues ; but they require a coating of some other 
 substance to protect them from the action of the weather. 
 For this purpose a thin layer of bronze has a good effect, 
 and can easily be applied by the process of electro-plating. 
 
 Wood, Stone, and Ivory Carving are performed by 
 hand without the aid of any previous process. 
 
 For Gem-engraving, splintered diamonds, fixed into 
 iron instruments, are used ; the work is executed by the 
 hand. A drill is employed for cutting out the larger and 
 deeper portions of the work, which, when finished, is 
 polished with emery powder. Gems cut in relief are 
 
 
Subjects. 167 
 
 called cameos; those which are hollowed out intaglios. 
 The term cameo is, however, especially used to denote the 
 very small pieces of sculpture in stones having two layers 
 of different colours ; the upper colour being used for the 
 object to be represented, the under serving as background. 
 
 Die-sinking is the art of engraving the die or stamp 
 used for coining, and for stamping thin plates of metal 
 with designs of various kinds. The blank die is engraved 
 in intaglio with the device required, by the aid of small 
 steel tools. The face of the die is then hardened by heat, 
 after which it is ready for use. 
 
 The subjects suitable for representation in sculpture are 
 necessarily limited. Except as an accessory, vegetable life 
 is almost excluded from its sphere. The infinite variety 
 and richness of the details of foliage, fruit, and flowers, 
 and the way in which, when grouped together, they inter- 
 twine and hide one another, render it impossible that 
 they should be accurately represented in an art to which 
 exact imitation is forbidden. It is only plants with 
 prominent characteristics that can be used as architectural 
 accessories. Such was the deeply-indented acanthus leaf 
 so largely employed by the Greeks and Romans. 
 
 The noblest study of the sculptor is man, "the human 
 form divine/ ' and to produce a perfect statue is his 
 highest task. The human figure is made up of an infinite 
 variety of curves and sinuous lines, and the sculptor can 
 find nothing more perfect to imitate than fine types of 
 humanity, in the prime of youth and vigour ; but he must 
 not be content with mere copying, — he must aspire to the 
 embodiment of ideal conceptions. Beauty of form is plastic 
 — that is to say, it may be represented by modelling in an 
 
168 Sculpture. 
 
 infinity of form. Freely drawn curves, and the oval, are 
 the materials for all fine outline, and one of the most 
 beautiful forms in which such outline is to be found is 
 the human body. The nude figure is the most suitable 
 for sculpture ; where drapery is employed, it should follow 
 the lines of the body, and indicate, not conceal, its contour. 
 
 Next to man, the most highly organized animals, such 
 as the horse and the dog, are the finest subjects for the 
 sculptor. 
 
 Groups, in which the figures do not stand out separately, 
 but partly hide each other, afford scope for the highest 
 artistic genius, and should form a rhythmic whole, with 
 all the parts well balanced — producing a pleasing effect of 
 variety in unity. 
 
 As sculpture deals with plastic form alone, it has 
 generally been supposed to disdain the aid of colour ; yet 
 the Egyptians, and probably also the Assyrians, invariably 
 coloured their sculpture, except perhaps those statues 
 which were of hard basalt or highly-polished granite. It 
 is known that the Greeks also coloured their sculpture, 
 but it is difficult to ascertain how far they carried it 
 in imitation of nature. 
 
 In our own day, the celebrated sculptor John Gibson 
 tinted parts of several of his statues. 
 
I. ORIENTAL SCULPTURE. 
 
 India and the neighbouring Countries. 
 
 SCULPTURE in India is chiefly accessory to archi- 
 tecture, and the subjects represented are almost 
 exclusively religious. 
 
 The earliest monuments of sculpture, as of architecture, 
 in India, date from the rise into power of Asoka, about 
 250 B.C. They consist principally of reliefs on the 
 outsides of pagodas, rock temples, and topes ; groups or 
 figures in the round being almost unknown. 
 
 In the ruined city of Mahabalipooram, near Madras, 
 there still stand ancient Hindoo temples on which are 
 fine groups of Indian Gods and Goddesses carved out of 
 the living rock in high and low relief. 
 
 On the walls of a pagoda at Perwuttum there are some 
 remarkable bas-reliefs representing a tiger-hunt, in which 
 mounted horsemen are charging at full gallop. The reliefs 
 on the entrance of the great Dagoba or Tope of Sanchi 
 are animated battle -scenes, in which armed men are 
 seen on foot, or riding on elephants or horses. A cast 
 of this gateway is in the India section of the South 
 Kensington Museum, together with a small model of the 
 Dagoba itself. 
 
 Huge images of Buddha, and of Hindoo divinities, 
 abound in every part of India and the neighbouring 
 islands. In Bamiyan, in the west, is a statue 120 ft. 
 high, and in Ceylon there are several 90 ft. high. In the 
 
170 Egyptian Sculpture. 
 
 
 temple of Boro-Buddor, in Java, there are no less than 
 400 small images of Buddha in the external niches. All 
 are alike remarkable for repose of attitude, and dreamy 
 passiveness of expression. Representations of life in action, 
 such as the bas-reliefs mentioned above, are rare. Siva, 
 the Destroyer, whose work forbids repose, is, however, 
 generally depicted with his six arms in violent agitation. 
 
 In many of the sculptured female figures of India we 
 see evidence of the want of energy and character which is 
 the result of the systematic oppression of the women of the 
 East. Symmetry of form is replaced by a soft voluptuous- 
 ness, and the only expression is a graceful simper, or a 
 vague, dreamy smile. The goddess of Beauty, in the 
 Pagoda of Bangalore, and the female divinity seated on 
 an elephant in the cave-temple of Ellora are instances 
 ol this. 
 
 Egypt. 
 
 Egyptian sculpture may be divided into three periods : 
 The Old Empire, or Memphian Egypt, 3645-2668 B.C., the 
 New Empire, to 524 B.C., and the Ptolemean Empire, to 
 30 B.C. 
 
 Sculpture in Egypt, as in India, is principally of a 
 religious character, and the mythology of the country 
 should be studied in connection with it. The chief char- 
 acteristics of Egyptian art of every kind are massive 
 grandeur and solidity; the constant struggles with the 
 power of nature in which the inhabitants of the banks of 
 the Nile were engaged precluded dreamy contemplation, 
 and engendered an energy and self-reliance which were 
 reflected in the monuments erected. 
 
Fig. 70. —Egyptian Statue in black granite. 
 In the British Museum. 
 
172 Egyptian Sculpture. 
 
 The earliest works of Egyptian sculpture (Fig. 70) are 
 remarkable for a freedom from restraint and a power of 
 idealizing nature which is wanting in later productions; 
 for they were executed before the hierarchy gained the 
 upper hand in Egypt, and arrested all progress in art by 
 condemning it to unchangeable laws, and by imposing 
 models which artists were condemned to reproduce in 
 monotonous repetition. The result of this was a same- 
 ness in the works produced which would have rendered 
 it extremely difficult to fix their dates, if it were not 
 that the name of the reigning sovereign is constantly 
 introduced. 
 
 A striking proof of the superiority of early Egyptian 
 sculpture was afforded in the Paris Exhibition of 1867. A 
 wooden statue was there exhibited — lent by the late M. 
 Mariette and now in the Museum at Boulac, near Cairo — 
 of a certain Ra-em-Ke. Although much injured, this 
 statue is even now a fine work of art : the body is well 
 modelled, and the head lifelike and natural ; the lips are 
 parted by a slight smile, and expression is given to the 
 eyes by the insertion of rounded bits of rock-crystal to 
 represent pupils, in eye-balls of quartz shaded by bronze 
 lids. A bright nail beneath each crystal marks the visual 
 point. 
 
 The bas-reliefs of the tombs of Memphis, some of which 
 are in the Berlin Museum, are among the earliest of 
 Egyptian works of sculpture (Fig. 71). The figures are 
 but slightly raised from the surface ; they still retain the 
 vivid colours with which they were painted. The ignorance 
 of the laws of perspective, which were unknown till the 
 fifteenth century, betrayed in these groups, somewhat mars 
 their beauty ; but they are finely carved, and have a great 
 
Egyptian Sculpture. 
 
 173 
 
 historical value, as they are pictorial annals of the lives of 
 the deceased, in which figures of the presiding deities are 
 introduced. A very accurate notion of the appearance of 
 these bas-reliefs may be obtained from the admirable 
 reproductions in the Egyptian court at the Crystal Palace, 
 executed by a band of trained mechanics under the 
 direction of Bonomi, who studied in the best schools of 
 
 ssgggggl 
 
 71. — Egyptian bas-relief. Kameses III. between Tboth and Horus. 
 
 Egyptian art — the temples and the tombs. These bas- 
 reliefs occupy an intermediate position between the art of 
 the old Empire and that of the Ptolemean period. 
 
 The great Sphinx of Memphis is a remarkable work, 
 dating from the earliest times ; it is hewn from a spur of 
 the living rock. It is 172 ft. long by 56 ft. high. 
 
174 Egyptian Sculpture. 
 
 Considerable portions of the avenues of colossal granite 
 sphinxes leading up to the temples are still to be seen at 
 Karnak and elsewhere; the grand seated figures of the 
 Pharaohs guarding the entrances at Karnak, Ipsambul, 
 etc., are in good preservation. The pair of colossal seated 
 figures (70 feet high) erected by Amunothph III., at 
 Medinet-Abou, one of which is the world-famed statue of 
 Memnon; the still larger statue of Ramses II. — which 
 was broken by Cambyses — the fragments of which remain 
 in the court of the temple at Medinet-Abou ; and the four 
 gigantic figures (65 feet high) of the same king carved out 
 of the rock at Ipsambul (Fig. 9) are the most gigantic speci- 
 mens of sculpture that were, ever executed.* 
 
 It would be impossible in a work like the present 
 merely to enumerate the various Egyptian antiquities 
 contained in the British Museum, the Louvre, and the 
 Berlin Museum. The principal are colossal statues, in 
 which the arms are generally fixed to the chest and the 
 legs connected together ; smaller statues of kings, divinities, 
 and priests; bas-reliefs either from tombs or temples; 
 stelce or tablets engraved with historical inscriptions either 
 in relief or in intaglio ; sarcophagi, boxes of granite, basalt, 
 or stone, constructed to contain mummies, and covered 
 with hieroglyphics; pottery f of different kinds, such as 
 
 * Reproductions on a small scale of many of these works may be 
 studied at the Crystal Palace. 
 
 t Baked earthenware {terra cotta) vases were in use in Egypt in the 
 most remote ages. The Egyptians manufactured a red ware, a pale red 
 or yellow ware, and a shining or polished red ware. The finest Egyptian 
 pottery was, however, the porcelain, made of a very fine sand, loosely 
 fused, and covered with a thick silicious glaze of various colours. A beau- 
 tiful blue tint was sometimes given to this ware by the use of oxide of 
 copper. 
 
Egyptian Sculpture. 175 
 
 amphorce (wine- vessels), canopi (funereal vases), delicately- 
 carved, etc. We may add that the most valuable relic of 
 Egyptian colossal sculpture known to exist is the head of 
 the young Memnon, taken from the Temple of Memnon, 
 and now in the British Museum. 
 
 In the Berlin Museum,, in addition to the bas-reliefs 
 already mentioned, the chief Egyptian object is a tomb,* 
 discovered in 1823 in the necropolis of Thebes, and re- 
 moved exactly as it was found. A quadrangular tomb 
 rises in the centre, covered with hieroglyphics, round 
 which are grouped boats, containing figures representing 
 the mummy's escort to Hades, amphorae, etc. 
 
 In 1881, Herr Emil Brugsch discovered a cave near the 
 temple of Deir-el-Bahari, about four miles from Thebes, in 
 which the mummies of several of the most celebrated of 
 the Theban sovereigns were found — including King Amen- 
 hotep, 1666 B.C. ; Thotmes I., II., and III. ; and Rameses 
 I. and II. (the Great). There were also found in the same 
 cave several illuminated papyri, and numerous mortuary 
 statues. 
 
 Bronze Statues, with a leaden or other core, are 
 supposed to have been first cast in Egypt ; and it was 
 from the Egyptians that the Greeks learnt the art. Speci- 
 mens may be seen in the various collections of Egyptian 
 antiquities. 
 
 Babylon and Nineveh. 
 
 In the chapter on Assyrian architecture we have already 
 alluded to the important discoveries of ruins at Mosul, on 
 the right bank of the Tigris, with which the names of the 
 
 * The most perfect specimen of Egyptian Art I remember to have 
 seen. — Owen Jones. 
 
176 
 
 Assyrian Sculpture. 
 
 French consuls, MM. Botta and Place, and the English 
 traveller, Sir H. Layard, are inseparably connected. These 
 bas-reliefs resemble those of Egypt in many respects ; but 
 they have an even greater historical value, for they are 
 
 
 Fig. 72. — Assyrian bas-relief on a wall. 
 
 more varied and lifelike, and less loaded with figures of 
 the deities. The same ignorance of perspective is betrayed 
 in them as in the reliefs of Memphis : fishes and boats are 
 seen piled one above the other, and human figures in 
 
Assyrian Sculpture. 
 
 177 
 
 profile, with both eyes and shoulders visible. But for this 
 flaw, the Assyrian bas-reliefs would be fine works of art. 
 They are in very low relief, and are well carved and 
 finely polished. The subjects are very varied. Battles, 
 sieges, and hunting incidents abound. Our illustration 
 (Fig. 73) is part of a lion-hunt — now in the British 
 Museum — from the north-west palace of Nimrud. In 
 
 Fig. 73. — Assyrian bas-relief. Part of a Lion-hunt, from Ninirud. 
 
 every scene the king is the principal figure. He is always 
 followed by an umbrella-bearer and a fly-flapper, or 
 by musicians, and above his head hovers the Ferouher, 
 the winged symbol of divinity. Among the monarchs 
 who figure in the various bas-reliefs are Shalmaneser, 
 Sennacherib, and Nebuchadnezzar. 
 
 Single statues are rare ; there is a statue of a priest 
 larger than life (Fig. 74) in the British Museum ; but the 
 nude human figure does not appear to have been studied 
 in the East to any extent ; although many different animals 
 are rendered with surprising fidelity. 
 
 In addition to numerous sculptured Assyrian slabs and 
 tablets, the British Museum possesses a small four-sided 
 
 eha n 
 
178 
 
 Assyrian Sculpture. 
 
 obelisk of marble about six feet high — engraved with ten 
 lines of the cuneiform character, and sculptured with 
 twenty bas-reliefs, representing the offering of tribute to 
 the king by conquered races — which 
 was discovered near Kalah-Shergat. It 
 is hoped that this obelisk may aid 
 in the thorough deciphering of the 
 cuneiform* character, as the Rosetta 
 stone, also preserved in the British 
 Museum, did of the hieroglyphic. 
 
 The Louvre contains many extremely 
 fine specimens of Assyrian sculpture, 
 the principal being the four colossal 
 winged bulls at the entrance of the 
 palace of Khorsabad, already described 
 (Fig. 10). The Assyrian man-bull, like 
 the Egyptian sphinx, was the symbol of 
 wisdom and strength combined. 
 
 Assyrian gems, many of which may 
 be seen at the British Museum, are 
 of great value. The earliest are of 
 serpentine, and are of a cylindrical 
 shape ; those of later date are of agate, 
 jasper, quartz, or syenite, either cylin- 
 drical in form or oval; they are engraved 
 with figures of the gods and the 
 names of the owner in the cuneiform character. 
 
 * There are three kinds of cuneiform writing : the Persian, the Median, 
 and the Assyrian. The letters are shaped like arrows, wedges, or nails. 
 The meaning of many of the signs has been discovered by Niebuhr, 
 Grotefend, Rask, Lassen, Burnouf, Rawlinson, Hincks, Oppert, Menaut, 
 and others ; but much still remains to be done before the numerous in- 
 scriptions in the cuneiform character can be fully deciphered. 
 
 Fig. 74.— Statue of a 
 Priest. 
 In the British Museum. 
 
Persian Sculpture. 
 
 179 
 
 Persia. 
 
 There are bat few remains of Persian sculpture extant, 
 and these few consist almost entirely of bas-reliefs on the 
 walls of the palaces and the fronts of the rock-cut tombs. 
 The principal, from the royal palace of Persepolis (Fig. 75), 
 date from about 521-467 B.C., the golden age of the 
 
 Persian monarchy. In these bas-reliefs 
 
 the working 
 
 of 
 
 Fig. 75. — Persian bas-relief, from Persepolis. 
 
 Assyrian and Egyptian influence can be distinctly traced, 
 combined with a character peculiarly their own. In 
 Persian works, historical events are frequently represented ; 
 but scenes of the chase or of war, so common amongst 
 the Assyrians and Egyptians, are almost entirely unknown. 
 Everywhere we see the king in an attitude of dignified 
 
 N 2 
 
180 Persian Sculpture. 
 
 repose, attended by his court and receiving the homage of 
 ambassadors, bringing tribute in the form of horses, camels, 
 or costly raiment and vessels. These groups are probably 
 faithful representations of actual scenes in the time of 
 Darius or Xerxes. They are remarkable for the lifelike 
 rendering of the animals and the graceful flowing drapery 
 with which the human figures are clothed, suggesting 
 Greek influence, and contrasting favourably with the close 
 and heavy Egyptian and Assyrian garments. 
 
 A noteworthy exception to what we have said of the 
 repose of Persian bas-reliefs, is a large group, hewn out 
 of a steep and lofty rock at Behistan in Kurdistan, which 
 represents a Persian king placing his foot on a prostrate 
 enemy, with one hand holding a bow and the other raised 
 as if about to strike. Nine prisoners bound together await 
 their doom at a little distance from the victorious monarch, 
 who is supposed to be Darius Hystaspes, after he had quelled 
 the Babylonian rebellion in 516 B.C. 
 
 Human-headed and winged bulls and unicorns are of 
 frequent occurrence in Persian sculptures. The king is 
 sometimes seen contending with some huge symbolic 
 creature ; but even in the thick of the struggle he retains 
 his calm self-possession and dignified expression of unruffled 
 serenity. 
 
 On the facades of the rock-cut tombs, the king is 
 generally represented worshipping Ormuzd, the god of 
 light, the Ferouher or protecting spirit hovering above 
 his head in the form of a man with the wings and tail of 
 a bird. 
 
 The Persians greatly improved the art of gem-cutting. 
 They adopted the cylindrical form of the Assyrians, but 
 quickly abandoned it for the conical, employing chalcedony, 
 
 
Syrian Sculpture. 181 
 
 which they engraved with figures of their gods, etc. The 
 cylinder signet of Darius I. has been preserved. It repre- 
 sents two warriors in a chariot, one directing the steed, the 
 other standing behind the driver drawing a bow. A lion 
 reared on its hind-legs appears calmly to await the dis- 
 charge of the arrow, and above the group hovers the 
 Ferouher. 
 
 Asia Minor and Syria. 
 
 The sculptures of Asia Minor and Syria betray the 
 influence of all the neighbouring nations, and cannot be 
 said to have any distinctive character of their own. 
 
 The most ancient monuments of Asia Minor are the 
 rock-cut bas-reliefs at the town of Bogas Koei, in Galatia. 
 They consist of two processions; and the general style 
 of the grouping and costumes is a combination of the 
 Babylonian and Persian. We see the working of Assyrian 
 influence in a marble chair, discovered in the same place, 
 which has lions chiselled in relief upon it much resembling 
 those of the portals of Nimrud. At the village of Nymphi, 
 near Smyrna, there is a colossal bas-relief figure of a king, 
 cut in a wall of rock, wearing the Egyptian pschent (a 
 conical cap or crown with a spiral ornament in front). 
 
 In Syria there are also many relics of Egyptian and 
 Assyrian art : on a wall of rock, north of Beyrout, there are 
 bas-reliefs in honour of the victory of Barneses the Great, 
 side by side with others commemorating Assyrian triumphs. 
 
 The Hebrews no doubt employed some sculpture — for 
 we read of Jacob erecting a pillar over the grave of Bachel 
 
182 Chinese and Japanese Sculpture. 
 
 — but it was principally in engraving and cutting gems 
 and precious metals that the chosen people excelled. The 
 golden Calf, the brazen serpent, the plate of gold for the 
 high-priest's mitre, the engraved stones of the breastplate, 
 etc., the cherubim and ornaments for the tabernacle, were 
 works of this class. 
 
 The Phoenicians appear to have excelled in all the 
 mechanical arts. Homer alludes to a chased silver goblet 
 of exquisite workmanship, made by a native of Sidon ; 
 and Solomon invited workmen from Tyre when engaged 
 upon the temple of Jerusalem. We read that the king of 
 Tyre sent him a workman " skilful to work in gold, silver, 
 brass, etc. . . also to grave any manner of graving" (2 
 Chron. ii. 14), "who made an altar of brass, and a molten 
 sea supported by twelve cast oxen," etc. (2 Chron. iv. 
 1-22.) 
 
 In the ruins of Carthage, which was a colony of Phoenicia, 
 Phoenician coins and medals have been frequently found. 
 
 China and Japan. 
 
 We cannot leave the East without a few words on the 
 art of the Chinese and Japanese, although they never 
 produced either statues or groups in stone or marble of 
 any important size. There are many colossal bronzes of 
 Buddha in Japan. There is one now at the South Kensing- 
 ton Museum, where may also be seen a fine Eagle with 
 outspread wings, of Japanese workmanship, in hammered 
 iron. Both nations have always been proficient in carv- 
 ing wood, ivory, tortoiseshell, etc. : they are wanting in 
 imagination, but their power of imitation and proficiency 
 in colouring are alike marvellous. 
 
Peruvian and Mexican Sculpture. 183 
 
 Peru and Mexico. 
 
 Of the sculptured figures and groups of the early races 
 of the New World there is little to be said; they are 
 remarkable rather for size than beauty, and consist of rude 
 idols or coarse bas-reliefs on the temples and palaces. The 
 pottery is of a different character ; some of the Mexican 
 and Peruvian ware which has been preserved is well 
 modelled and coloured, and ornamented with peculiar taste. 
 The oldest Peruvian terra-cotta objects are indeed equal 
 to anything of the same age produced in Europe; but 
 glazing was never attempted. 
 
 Mr. Stephens, the celebrated American traveller, dis- 
 covered a number of vases of various shapes, carved or 
 indented with curious patterns, in the " Tombs of the 
 Incas" in Peru. 
 
II. GREEK SCULPTURE. 
 
 IT was in Greece that sculpture first became an ideal 
 art. Oriental arts were fettered by dogmatic rules. 
 The chief aim of sculpture and painting in Assyria was the 
 glorification of the reigning monarch; and in Egypt, 
 sculpture, though religious as well as monumental, did not 
 advance beyond conventional types. It was far otherwise 
 with the Greeks, who early threw off the yoke of the old 
 monarchies, and broke loose from the trammels of routine. 
 It is true that they owed much to the Egyptians and 
 Assyrians, but they borrowed chiefly the technical and 
 mechanical rules of art, and, emancipating themselves 
 from the old narrow traditions, rapidly worked out an 
 independent style which was purely their own. 
 
 In, Greece, as elsewhere, sculpture was connected with 
 the religion of the country ; the mythology of the Greeks, 
 rightly understood, is an exquisite poem, and Greek art 
 is a translation of that poem into visible forms of beauty. 
 The imagination of the free-born Greek was unfettered by 
 priestly dogma, and he peopled his land with deities, 
 embodying the elements in ideal human forms instinct 
 with life and intellect. The Greek realized with exceptional 
 intensity the beauty of nature ; he saw his gods in the 
 
Greek Sculpture. 185 
 
 earth, the sea and sky, and, ascribing to them all that was 
 best and highest in the noblest human types with which 
 he was familiar, he strove to give expression to his ideal 
 conceptions in ideal impersonations of human attributes. 
 Thus Zeus, the lord of heaven, became the embodiment 
 of strength of will; Athena, the protective goddess of 
 wisdom and strength combined; Aphrodite, born of the 
 waves, the goddess of female love and beauty. 
 
 In studying the sculpture of Greece, this double im- 
 personation of the powers of nature and of human 
 attributes must never be lost sight of, and we would urge 
 those of our readers who are unfamiliar with Greek 
 mythology, to acquaint themselves with the meaning of 
 the principal legends of gods and heroes, upon which a 
 flood of light has been poured by the researches of modern 
 philologists, who have taught us to read the inward 
 thought of infant races in the outward forms assumed by 
 their language and their art.* 
 
 The relics of Greek sculpture which have been preserved 
 are far too numerous for detailed description. A summary 
 of the principal schools of sculpture, with a brief notice of 
 the greatest masters and their most famous works, is all 
 we can attempt. 
 
 Greek sculpture may be divided into four periods. The 
 first, to which the general name of archaic has been given, 
 lasted until the Persian wars; the second, from the 
 Persian wars, about 490 B.C., to 400 B.C., during which 
 time Athens was the leading power in Greece ; the third, 
 
 * Two small volumes, by the Rev. W. Cox — ' Tales of the Gods and 
 Heroes/ and ' Tales of Thebes and Argos,' — will be found useful as an 
 introduction to the study of the more advanced works of Max Miiller, 
 Grote, and others. 
 
186 
 
 Greek Sculpture. 
 
 from 400 B.C. to the death of Alexander the Great, in 323 
 B.C., in which period Sparta became the ruling city; and 
 the fourth, from the death of Alexander to the conquest 
 of Greece by the Romans, 146 B.C. 
 
 1. First Period. 
 
 The earliest sculptures of Greece known to us date 
 from the eighth century B.C. They are a colossal statue 
 of Niobe on Mount Sipylus, mentioned in the Iliad, and 
 
 Fig. 76. — Sculpture on the Lion gate at Mycenae. 
 
 the famous Lion gate of Mycenae (Fig. 76), supposed to be 
 still older : in the reliefs of this gate Assyrian influence 
 can be distinctly traced. The carved chest of Cypselus — a 
 work dating from 650 B.C. made at Corinth — had reliefs 
 partly cut in cedar-wood, and partly laid on in gold and 
 ivory, representing heroic myths. It was noticeable as 
 being probably the earliest attempt to give visible form 
 to the word-pictures of Homer and Hesiod. Pausanias 
 {about A.D. 176) saw this chest and describes it. 
 
 The earliest names of artists which have come down to 
 
Geeek Sculpture. 187 
 
 us are those of a Samian family : Rhcecus, his son Telecles, 
 and his grandson Theodorus, to whom the invention of the 
 arts of modelling clay, engraving on metals, and gem- 
 cutting has been attributed. Glaucus of Chios, who is 
 said to have invented the art of smelting iron, was a 
 famous bronze caster of the beginning of the seventh 
 century B.C. 
 
 Dipcenus and Scyllis (about 580 B.C.) of Crete were 
 more famous than any of their predecessors. They 
 worked at Sicyon, and their school spread throughout 
 Greece, and even to Italy (Magna Grsecia). Many statues 
 of gods found in the Peloponnesus and elsewhere have 
 been attributed to it. A group discovered in the temple 
 of the Dioscuri (Castor and Pollux) at Argos is remarkable 
 as showing the transition from wood to more costly 
 materials. It represented the Dioscuri on horseback, 
 and was carved in ebony, inlaid with ivory. 
 
 Spartan artists took up the work begun by these 
 Cretans, and developed the wood and ivory work into the 
 chryselephantine (i. e. gold and ivory) statuary which sub- 
 sequently became so famous. A group in cedar wood by 
 the Spartan artists Hecyles and Theocles, representing the 
 adventure of Hercules with the Hesperides (the guardians 
 of the golden apples), was found in the treasure-house of 
 the Epidamnians at Olympia. 
 
 To Canachus of Sicyon, who flourished about 500 B.C., 
 is attributed the celebrated colossal statue of Apollo, made 
 for the sanctuary of Didyma near Miletus, which was 
 carried away by the fugitive Xerxes. 
 
 Ageladas of Argos was famous for his statues of athletes ; 
 one of Cleosthenes of Epidamnus, on a chariot with four 
 horses, was the admiration of all Greece. 
 
188 Greek Sculpture. 
 
 Calamis, Pythagoras, and Myron, the immediate fore- 
 runners of Pheidias, may be looked upon as artists of a 
 transition period. Calamis represented a greater diversity 
 of subjects than any previous sculptor ; his horses were 
 especially lifelike, but his human figures were not so good. 
 A marble copy of one of his works — Mercury carrying a Ram 
 — is in the collection of Lord Pembroke, at Wilton House. 
 
 Pythagoras was truer to nature than Calamis ; his works 
 were remarkable for delicacy of execution ; his statue of 
 the lame Philoctetes at Syracuse, a statue of an athlete at 
 Delphi, and his group of Europa on a Bull at Tarentum, 
 were especially admired. 
 
 Myron, the third and greatest of this group of artists, 
 was (with Pheidias and Polycletus) a pupil of Ageladas. 
 He generally employed bronze for his works, which com- 
 prised a vast variety of subjects, although he especially 
 delighted in representing athletes in vigorous action. His 
 Marsyas in the Lateran at Rome, and his Discobolus (disc 
 thrower) in the Vatican (Fig. 78), are among his most 
 successful statues. They are full of life and animation, 
 and give proof of consummate knowledge of anatomy. 
 The famous Cow of Myron, which formerly stood on the 
 Acropolis of Athens, must also be mentioned. 
 
 Of the now- existing monuments belonging to the first 
 period of Greek sculpture, we must name the sculptures 
 from the temple at Assos, now in the Louvre ; the metopes 
 from the temples of Selinus in Sicily, now in the museum 
 at Palermo ; the Harpy, Chimsera, and Lion tombs, from 
 Xanthus in Asia Minor, large portions of which are in the 
 British Museum ; and above all, the sculptures from the 
 Temple of iEgina. 
 
Greek Sculpture. 
 
 189 
 
 The remains of six temples were discovered in Selinus 
 in 1823. They consist principally of metopes * of lime- 
 stone, adorned with sculptures in very high relief, one of 
 which represented a struggle between an Amazon or a 
 goddess, and a warrior, and another a dying warrior with a 
 female figure placing her foot on his prostrate body. They 
 are all lifelike, and full of promise, and their chief interest 
 consists in their being among the earliest works in which 
 an attempt was made to shake off the influence of Eastern 
 
 Fig. 77. — From the Harpy tomb in the British Museum. 
 
 art, and to produce freely-arranged groups and ideal forms. 
 We may add that they have much colour remaining, and 
 are supposed to date from about 650 B.C. Casts may be 
 seen in the British Museum. 
 
 The most remarkable of the monuments from Xanthus 
 is the famous Harpy tomb (Fig. 77), in the Lycian room 
 
 * A metope, it will be remembered, is the square space between two 
 trigylphs in the entablature of a Doric temple. 
 
190 Gbeek Sculpture. 
 
 of the British Museum, discovered with many other relics 
 by Sir Charles Fellowes a few years ago. It is supposed 
 to date from the sixth or seventh century B.C., and alike 
 in arrangement aud execution it is purely Greek, repre- 
 senting in an artistic form the myth of the carrying off of 
 children by Harpies, who appear as winged female figures. 
 
 The sculptures of the Temple of iEgina were discovered 
 in the year 1811. They are at least a century later than 
 those of Selinus or Xanthus, above mentioned. Amongst 
 heaps of broken fragments seventeen nearly perfect statues 
 were dug out, which belonged to the eastern and western 
 pediments of the Temple of iEgina, dedicated to Athena. 
 The original statues, which were carefully restored by 
 Thorwaldsen, are now in the Glyptothek at Munich. Com- 
 plete casts of them, properly arranged, are to be seen 
 in the Phigaleian saloon of the British Museum. The 
 meaning of the sculptures has been very differently inter- 
 preted ; they are, however, evidently memorials of victories. 
 They are of Parian marble, and are so carefully executed, 
 that even the wrinkles of the nude portions are rendered. 
 The limbs are delicately moulded, and full of energy ; the 
 attitudes graceful and expressive ; but the heads are of the 
 Eastern rather than the Greek type ; the oblique eyes and 
 sharp chins reminding us of Assyrian bas-reliefs. 
 
 In archaic sculpture the arrangement of the draperies 
 and hair is eminently conventional and artificial; the pose 
 of the figures is often stiff and constrained, and a foolish 
 smile is not unfrequently to be found on the faces. As art 
 made progress, its gradual emancipation from the trammels 
 of conventionalism may be traced; and the best works 
 executed towards the close of the period we have been 
 reviewing, retain no more of the artificial in pose and the 
 
Geeek Sculpture. 
 
 191 
 
 conventional in treatment, than serves to give increased 
 value to the sense of beauty which breathes through 
 the whole — struggling, so to speak, to find a means of 
 expression. 
 
 Before closing our review of the first period of Greek 
 
 Fig. 78. — The Discobolus, after Myron. 
 
 sculpture, we must name two fine statues of Apollo, found 
 one at Tenea (between Corinth and Argos), the other in 
 the island of Thera. The former is in the Glyptothek of 
 
192 Geeek Sculpture. 
 
 Munich ; the latter in the Temple of Theseus at Athens. 
 Both are supposed to date from a very early age. 
 
 2. Second Period, 490-400 B.C. 
 
 We now come to the age of the final development of 
 Greek art, with which the name of Pheidias is inseparably 
 connected. The Persian wars destroyed the last remnants 
 of Oriental despotism, and ushered in, alike in politics, 
 literature and art, the golden age of Greece. The great 
 statesmen Cimon and Pericles encouraged genius of every 
 kind ; the tragic poets iEschylus and Sophocles refined the 
 public taste, and inspired sculptors and architects with 
 their glowing fancies ; and for a time Greece, with Athens 
 for its capital, became the leading country of the world. 
 
 Pheidias, the master-artist of this golden age, was 
 born about 500 B.C. He learnt the rudiments of his 
 favourite art of Hegesias of Athens, and completed his 
 studies under Ageladas. When Pericles assumed the 
 reins of government Pheidias was about thirty-seven 
 years old, in the prime of his genius, and he became the 
 chief co-operator of that great statesman in his restora- 
 tion of Athens. Under Cimon, the predecessor of Pericles, 
 Pheidias sculptured the colossal bronze statue of Athena 
 Promachus (the defender), which stood on the most 
 prominent part of the Acropolis (Fig. 22). As superin- 
 tendent of public works in Athens, Pheidias had under 
 him a whole army of architects, sculptors, workers in 
 bronze, stone-cutters, gold and ivory beaters, and other 
 artists, and although he may not have had any per- 
 sonal share in sculpturing the famous marbles of the 
 Parthenon, he probably designed many of them, and it 
 
Greek Sculpture. 193 
 
 cannot be doubted that he exercised control over them. 
 The chryselephantine statue of Athena, within the temple, 
 which must have been a magnificent work of art, was 
 certainly from his own hand. This, and the colossal 
 chryselephantine statue of Zeus for the Temple of Olympia, 
 were his most famous works : the former was an ideal im- 
 personation of calmness and wisdom — of which the colossal 
 marble figure of the Pallas of Velletri, in the Louvre, is 
 supposed to be a late Roman copy, — and the latter, now 
 only known to us from copies on coins, was a realization 
 of Homer's description of Zeus, " shaking his ambrosial 
 locks, and making Olympus tremble at his nod" — and 
 an embodiment of the national idea of the supreme God, 
 instinct with power tempered by mercy, — a human form 
 divine of such surpassing beauty, that it became henceforth 
 the type of masculine perfection. 
 
 The principal pupils of Pheidias were Alcamenes, Agora- 
 critus, and Colotes. They first executed a group of statues 
 for the western pediment of the Temple of Zeus at Olympia, 
 and many statues of gods. That of Hephaestus at Athens 
 was especially admired, because the lameness characteristic 
 of the god was indicated without loss of dignity to the 
 figure. The famous Venus of Melos, in the Louvre, found 
 in 1820 in the island of Melos, is thought to be a copy after 
 Alcamenes. In this exquisite female figure, human maturity 
 and beauty are combined with divine majesty and self- 
 sufficiency. The most famous work of Agoracritus was 
 his marble statue of Nemesis at Rhamnus ; and that of 
 Colotes, a statue of Athena at Elis. 
 
 At Argos, in the Peloponnesus, a school arose, second 
 only in importance to that of Athens, the ruling spirit of 
 which was Polycletus of Sicyon, a fellow-pupil of Pheidias 
 
 EHA O 
 
194 Geeek Sculpture. 
 
 in the workshop of Ageladas. His principal works were 
 statues of athletes ; his celebrated Doryphoros (standard- 
 bearer), of which the museum of Naples contains a sup- 
 posed copy, was called the canon of Polycletus, and served 
 as a model of the beautiful proportions of the human body. 
 
 Fig. 79.— Head of Juno, after Polycletus. Marble. 
 In the Villa Ludovist, Rome. 
 
 The colossal chryselephantine image of Juno, for her 
 temple at Argos, by Polycletus — a marble copy of the head 
 of which is in the Villa Ludovisi at Rome (Fig. 79) — was 
 considered his finest work. 
 
Greek Sculpture. 
 
 195 
 
 Our limits will admit of only a few words on the 
 numerous monuments of Greece belonging to this age. 
 
 The sculptures of friezes and metopes of the Theseium, 
 or Temple of Theseus at Athens, represent incidents in the 
 life of Theseus, treated with the greatest boldness and 
 freedom. Closely resembling them are the friezes of the 
 Ionic temple of Nike Apteros (Victory, wingless), on the 
 Acropolis, the first reliefs executed in the white marble of 
 Pentelicus. Portions of them are in the British Museum, 
 
 Fig. 80. — Group from the Eastern frieze of the Parthenon. 
 
 and casts of them, and of an exquisite figure of Winged 
 Victory, which adorned a parapet between the little temple 
 of Nike Apteros and the ascent to the Propylsea, are in the 
 Crystal Palace collection. 
 
 The sculptures of the Parthenon, which were brought to 
 England by Lord Elgin in the year 1816, are preserved in 
 the room bearing his name in the British Museum, where 
 may also be seen two small models of the temple, one in 
 its present condition, and one as it was in the time of 
 Pericles. The bas-reliefs sculptured on the frieze of the 
 Parthenon are among the very grandest works of ancient 
 
 o 2 
 
196 
 
 Greek Sculpture. 
 
 
 art ; they represent the procession at the Panathenaic 
 festival which was held at Athens in honour of Athena 
 every fifth year; and more especially that portion of it 
 which consisted in the presentation of a veil, or peplos, 
 to the goddess, and the sacrifice of animals at her shrine. 
 
 The frieze occupies the four sides of the entablature of 
 the outer walls of the cella, and is viewed from below by 
 the light which comes between the fifty columns which 
 
 Fig. 81. — Bas-relief from the Parthenon Frieze. 
 
 form the peristyle or outer colonnade. On the eastern 
 frieze is represented the delivery of the peplos in the 
 presence of twelve deities (Fig. 80). Towards this point 
 two processions converge. Both start from the western 
 end — one goes along the northern side, the other along 
 the southern, and they meet at the eastern end over the 
 entrance. The procession includes chariots, horses and 
 
Greek Sculpture. 197 
 
 riders, foot-soldiers, grave citizens bearing olive-branches, 
 flute-players, and young and lovely maidens carrying 
 graceful jars with infinite beauty of action. 
 
 The groups on the northern are disposed with greater 
 freedom than the corresponding groups on the southern 
 side, and in the wonderful grace and power with which 
 they move onward with rythmic motion there is the very 
 epitome of " order in disorder." Among all the hundred 
 and twenty-five mounted figures (Fig. 81) who are con- 
 trolling their steeds in every variety of action, although 
 there is an intentional sense of crowding — hurrying 
 onward — yet there is no confusion, and each detail is 
 distinct and clear. 
 
 The groups on the southern side represent the more 
 formal and regular part of the procession which was charged 
 with the office of conveying the sacrificial victims, attended 
 and preceded by horsemen who, from their ordered progress, 
 are supposed to represent the trained cavalry of Athens. 
 
 On the eastern pediment of the temple was a magnificent 
 group representing the Birth of Athena, and on the western 
 pediment, the contest between Poseidon and Athena for 
 the city of Athens. These are both in ruins. 
 
 The bas-reliefs of the Metopes, on the exterior of the 
 temple, represent conflicts of the Centaurs and the Lapithse 
 (Fig. 82). Of the ninety-two original sculptures, sixteen 
 are in the British Museum, and casts of many others. 
 
 Alcamenes is said to have been the author of many 
 of the finest of these groups, which should be carefully 
 studied in the original sculpture* and the casts in the 
 British Museum, for they belong to the culminating time 
 of the greatest age of Greece, when the purity of the 
 earlier period was combined with the science, grace, and 
 
198 
 
 Geeek Sculptuee. 
 
 vigour of a maturer epoch, without any admixture of the 
 faults of the rapidly approaching decadence. 
 
 The beautiful statues of antiquity now remaining, which 
 are generally supposed to date from the golden age of 
 Greece, cannot be ascribed with certainty to any of the 
 masters above-mentioned. Foremost of all, ranks the 
 Venus found in the Island of Melos, now in the Louvre.* 
 
 Fig. 82. — One of the Metopes of the Parthenon. 
 
 The Venus of Dione in the British Museum, the Venus of 
 Falerone in the Louvre, and the Mars or Achilles of the 
 Uffizi Gallery, Florence, are also believed to be of this date. 
 It is not easy in a few words to sum up the peculiarities 
 of this the best age of Greek Sculpture : to do so would 
 be to epitomise all excellences of sculpture. We may, 
 however, point out the high degree of vitality and energy 
 thrown into such sculptures as those of the Parthenon 
 * There is an excellent cast in the Crystal Palace. 
 
Greek Sculpture. 199 
 
 without in the smallest degree sacrificing dignity or 
 anatomical correctness or beauty of arrangement. 
 
 The artistic perfection in balance and grouping evinced, 
 in the highest degree, the union of genius and skill. The 
 draperies, which are most carefully studied, fall in a mul- 
 titude of crisp folds. The faces are idealised, and share 
 but slightly the passion often expressed by the actions of 
 the figures. The execution of the work is extremely bold, 
 combining a disregard of the most formidable technical 
 difficulties with perfect mastery over effects of light and 
 shade, modelling and composition. 
 
 Next to the sculptures of the Parthenon we must name 
 those of the. Propylaea ; the reliefs of the parapet of the 
 Temple of Nike ; the frieze of the Erechtheium j and the 
 frieze of the Temple of Apollo at Bassse, near Phigalia 
 in Arcadia; this was discovered in 1812 by a party of 
 English and German travellers, and is now in the British 
 Museum ; it represents the battles of the Greeks, aided by 
 Apollo and Artemis, with the Centaurs and Amazons ; 
 these figures are remarkable for their life and energy, but 
 are wanting in the technical finish and correctness charac- 
 teristic of the marbles of the Parthenon. 
 
 3. Third Period, 400—323 B.C. 
 
 The first important artist who appeared after the time 
 of Pheidias was Cephisodotus (the son of Praxiteles, and 
 the pupil of Alcamenes), who represents the transition 
 between the grand and simple style of Pheidias and the 
 passionate vigour of Scopas and Praxiteles. His group of 
 Irene with the boy Plutus — a marble copy of which is 
 in the Glyptothek of Munich — is a typical work, in which 
 we see a touch of human weakness modifying the stern 
 
200 Greek Sculpture. 
 
 grandeur of the goddess. The Wrestlers,* in the Uffizi 
 Gallery at Florence, has been ascribed to Cephisodotus. 
 
 One of the principal masters of the later Attic school 
 was Scopas of Paros, who built the Temple of Athena 
 in Tegea, and sculptured for the pediments the marble 
 groups representing the combat of Achilles with Telephus, 
 and the pursuit of the Calydonian boar. Scopas also 
 designed, if he did not execute, the reliefs for the eastern 
 side of the Mausoleum of Halicarnassus : the group of 
 Niobe and her Children,* in the Uffizi Gallery at Florence, 
 has been ascribed both to him and to Praxiteles. It has 
 been said that the central figure of this group — the 
 bereaved mother gazing up to Heaven with eyes full 
 of reproachful appeal — expresses mental agony better than 
 any other work of art ever produced. Timotheus, Bryaxis, 
 and Leochares, were the chief colleagues of Scopas. 
 
 The second great master of sculpture of this period was 
 Praxiteles, who flourished at Athens about the year 
 364 B.C. His most famous works were the nude Venus 
 of Cnidus, which was visited by his admirers from all 
 parts of Greece (it is said that the Cnidians valued it 
 more highly than the discharge of their public debt, 
 which Nicomedes offered in exchange for this statue) ; the 
 Apollo Saurocteinus or Lizard Slayer; the Faun of the 
 Museum of the Uffizi ; the Venus of Capua, and the 
 Venus Callipyge, both at Naples. 
 
 In the Peloponnesus, Lysippus was the founder of a 
 school. He was especially successful with iconic (i. e. 
 portrait) statues ; and, adopting the canon of Polycletus, 
 he introduced a new mode of treating the human figure, 
 representing men rather as they ought to appear than as 
 
 * The Crystal Palace contains fine casts of nearly all these. 
 
Greek Sculpture. 
 
 201 
 
 they were. His most famous works were a statue of the 
 Apoxyomenus, an athlete scraping his arm with a strigil, a 
 
 Fig. 83.— Statue of Sophocles. In the Later an, Rome. 
 
 copy of which is in the Vatican, and his Sophocles (Fig. 
 83), of which the Lateran possesses a fine marble copy. 
 
 Chares was the most famous master of the school of 
 Lysippus ; and Aristodemus and Boethus must be named 
 
202 Greek Sculpture. 
 
 as late artists of the same epoch. The famous Drunken 
 Faun at Munich, and the Thorn Extractor of the Capitol 
 at Rome, evidently date from this time.* 
 
 In the works of this third period, art is seen running 
 its usual course. The self-restraint of the best time is 
 visibly thrown off, and a corresponding loss of dignity and 
 ideal beauty follows. More that is individual, less that 
 is divine, appears in the statues ; the faces are less con- 
 ventional, the draperies less beautiful, and the whole art, 
 while retaining an astonishing degree of technical excel- 
 lence, has left behind it the lofty aims and the perfect 
 attainment of such aims which it possessed in the time 
 of Pheidias. 
 
 4. Fourth Period, 323—146 B.C. 
 The school of Rhodes occupies the first position in this 
 epoch. Agesander, Athenodorus, and Polydorus, a group 
 of Rhodian masters, produced the Laocoon (Fig. 84) of 
 the Vatican, which is said to express physical pain and 
 passion better than any other existing group of statuary. 
 The Laocoon t was said by Pliny to be one block of 
 marble ; if so, we have not the original, as the Laocoon 
 of the Vatican is hewn out of three pieces. The Far- 
 nese Bull, or Toro Farnese, in the Museum at Naples, is 
 another famous work of this period, by Apollonius and 
 Tauriscus, of Tralles in Caria, foreign artists who worked 
 at Rhodes. The subject is the punishment of Dirce, wife 
 of Lycus king of Thebes, by the sons of Antiope for her 
 
 * Casts of them are in the Crystal Palace. 
 
 f Laocoon, a priest in a temple of Apollo, while sacrificing a 
 bullock, saw two enormous serpents coiling themselves round his 
 two sons. He rushed to their assistance, became entangled in the 
 folds of the serpents, and all there died. 
 
Greek Sculpture. 203 
 
 cruelty to their mother. Like the Laocoon, it is full of 
 dramatic life and pathos. 
 
 The famous head of the dying Alexander in the Uffizi 
 at Florence is supposed to be the work of Rhodian artists, 
 and The Wrestlers mentioned above in connection with 
 Cephisodotus is often attributed to a similar source.* 
 
 Fig. 84. — The Laocoon. In the Vatican. 
 
 The school of Pergamus produced many great artists, 
 of whom Isigonus, Pyromachus, Stratonicus, and Anti- 
 gonus were the chief. 
 
 The great General Attalus celebrated his victory over 
 the Gauls (239 B.C.) by presenting groups of sculpture to 
 * Casts of these works are in the Crystal Palace. 
 
204 
 
 Gkeek Sculpture. 
 
 Athens, Pergamus, and other cities, many of which have 
 been preserved. The most famous is that called the Dying 
 Gladiator (Fig. 85), in the Capitol at Rome, which is evi- 
 dently an original work by an artist of Pergamus. It 
 represents a Gaul at the point of death ; his head sinks 
 forward, his eye is dim with pain, his lips are half parted 
 by a sigh, and the shadow of death clouds his brow. 
 
 In this period the art of sculpture is still pursuing a 
 downward course ; difficulties are courted for the sake of 
 showing with what ease they can be overcome, and un- 
 rivalled technical skill is the highest and most self-evident 
 merit, in place of being one of the last qualities to force 
 itself on our attention. Many of the works of this age, 
 like the Dirce already quoted, manifestly overstep the 
 proper bounds of the art of sculpture, and represent scenes 
 of a complexity and extent which can only be properly 
 rendered by the art of the painter. 
 
 OUARTLE* 
 
 Fig. 85. — The Dying Gladiator. 
 Tit the Capitol, at Rome. 
 
III. Etruscan Sculpture. 
 
 As we have seen in speaking of their architecture, the 
 Etruscans were an Asiatic race who settled in Italy at a 
 very early date, but never became assimilated with their 
 neighbours. They excelled in all the mechanical arts — 
 such as the chasing of gold and silver, the casting of 
 bronze statues, the manufacture of armour, altars, tripods, 
 etc., for which great industry and power of imitation alone 
 were required ; but they were wanting in the imagination 
 and force of character indispensable to the working out of 
 a national style. 
 
 The earliest Etruscan works of sculpture which have 
 come down to us are the stone reliefs of tombstones 
 (Fig. 86), in which the figures are treated in the realistic 
 manner characteristic of Assyrian art. In many cases the 
 upper part of the body is seen in full, whilst the head and 
 legs are represented in profile. The low receding fore- 
 heads, flat skulls, and projecting chins, are of an essentially 
 Eastern type. In somewhat later works we see the same 
 archaic style combined with greater animation and more 
 lifelike expression. This is the case with a figure of a 
 bearded warrior in low relief, from a tombstone, now in 
 the Volterra Museum. 
 
 The strange black vases of unburnt clay, found in the 
 tombs at Chiusi (the Clusium of the Romans), must also 
 be reckoned amongst the earliest Etruscan sculptures. 
 The lids of many of them represent human heads of an 
 Egyptian type, and some have grotesque figures on the 
 sides and handles. The Campana collection, in the 
 
206 Etruscan Sculpture. 
 
 Louvre, and that of the Uffizi Gallery, Florence, contain 
 many curious specimens. 
 
 Terra-cotta objects are also very numerous. Perhaps 
 the most interesting is that called the Lydian Tomb, found 
 at Caere (the modern Cervetri, a corruption of Caere Vetere), 
 and now in the Louvre. It represents a married couple 
 in a semi-recumbent position upon an Assyrian couch. 
 The attitudes are stiff, the treatment of the figures betrays 
 
 Fig. 86. — Relief from an Etruscan tomb. 
 
 ignorance of anatomy, and the drapery is wanting in 
 grace ; but with all these faults the group is pleasing 
 and characteristic. The pediments of Etruscan temples 
 appear to have been adorned with terra-cotta reliefs, and 
 the images of the gods were often of the same material. 
 
 In Rome, before Greek influence became predominant, 
 Etruscan terra-cotta was largely employed. The pediment 
 of the temple of Jupiter on the Capitol was adorned with 
 
Etruscan Sculpture. 207 
 
 a group in terra-cotta, and surmounted by a quadriga (a 
 chariot with four horses) of the same material. 
 
 Many of the Etruscan bronze works still existing are 
 very ancient. Amongst them, the famous Chimsera at 
 Florence, and the She-Wolf in the Capitoline Museum, 
 Rome,* are probably the earliest. The finest examples 
 of large bronze statues are the Orator in the Uffizi Gallery, 
 Florence, the Boy with the Goose in the Museum of 
 Leyden, and the statue of the Young Warrior, erroneously 
 called Mars, found at Todi, and now in the Museum of 
 the Vatican. The Museum of Florence also contains 
 several small bronze Etruscan works of great value ; of 
 these the Idolino, probably a Mercury, and a group of 
 two warriors carrying a wounded comrade, are the chief. 
 
 Many sarcophagi and urns, in alabaster, terra-cotta, or 
 stone, belonging to a later period when Greek influence 
 was sensibly felt in every part of Italy, are preserved in 
 different museums. Figures of the deceased repose upon 
 the lids, and the sides are adorned with high reliefs, 
 representing the fate of the soul in the other world, or the 
 festive scenes in which the departed figured in life. Some 
 of these groups are of real artistic beauty, and may almost 
 be called ideal conceptions. 
 
 The exquisite symmetry of the shape of the Etruscan 
 vetri antichi (antique glass objects) entitles them to notice. 
 They consist of vases of every description — amphorae, 
 flagons, goblets, chased and enamelled glasses, etc.f 
 
 * A cast is in the South Kensington Museum. 
 
 f Most of these glasses, having been buried for centuries, are 
 stained with a thin film, the result of partial mineral decomposition 
 of the surf ace, which produces the most beautiful variegated colours. 
 The Italians call this coating patina. 
 
IV. Roman Sculpture. 
 
 The Romans were not, strictly speaking, an artistic 
 people — that is to say, they created no ideal or original 
 forms in art ; but they were well able to appreciate the 
 
 Fig. 87. — The Apollo Belvedere. In the Vatican. 
 
 beauty of the works of others, and to their liberal patron- 
 age we owe many fine works by Greek artists produced 
 after the subjugation of Greece by the Romans, and second 
 only in beauty to those which came from the hand of 
 
Roman Sculpture. 
 
 209 
 
 Pheidias, Scopas, or Praxiteles. The most important of 
 these works are reproductions of the great masterpieces of 
 the golden age of Greece ; of which we must name the 
 
 famous Apollo of the Belvedere in the Vatican (Fig. 8?) — 
 found early in the sixteenth century at Porto d'Anzo, and 
 supposed to be a copy after Alcamenes ; a model of manly, 
 as the Venus de' Medici is of womanly, beauty; Diana the 
 eha p 
 
Fig. 89. — Venus de' Medici. In the Ujfizi Gallery, Florence. 
 
Roman Sculpture. 211 
 
 Huntress, or Diana with the Stag (Fig. 88), in the Louvre, 
 the best existing representation of the fair-limbed goddess ; 
 and above all, the Torso of the Belvedere in the Vatican, 
 the remains of a white 1 marble statue of Hercules in 
 repose, so remarkable for its combination of energy, grace, 
 strength, and pliability, that it is" said to have been studied 
 from by Michelangelo. 
 
 The Venus de' Medici (Fig. 83) in the Uffizi Gallery, 
 Florence, — found in the sixteenth century in the villa of 
 Hadrian, near Tivoli, and bearing on its base the name of 
 Cleomenes son of Apollodorus of Athens, — is supposed 
 to be an original work of the late Attic school. 
 
 Roman sculpture, properly so called, may be divided 
 into three periods : from the conquest of Greece to the 
 time of Augustus (146 B.C. to 14 a.d.) ; from Augustus to 
 Hadrian (14 — 138 a.d.) ; from Hadrian to the decline of 
 the Roman Empire. 
 
 First Period, 146 B.c. to 14 a.d. 
 
 Following the brilliant Attic school mentioned above, a 
 Roman school rose into importance, the productions of 
 which were chiefly iconic or portrait statues, and reliefs 
 representing historical events. These iconic statues are 
 many of them spirited and masterly likenesses, in which 
 the personal appearance and dress of the person depicted 
 are most faithfully rendered. A second class of statues, 
 called Achillean statues, aimed at combining in one form 
 the characteristics of an emperor and a god. Of these 
 statues, one of Pompey in the Spada Palace, Rome ; one 
 of Csesar, wearing the toga, in the Berlin Museum ; and 
 
 p 2 
 
212 
 
 Roman Sculpture. 
 
 one of Augustus in the Vatican (Fig. 90), are considered 
 the finest. The Lateran also contains a series of fine 
 
 Fig. 90.— Marble statue of Augustus. In the Vatican. 
 
 colossal statues found at Cervetri — portraits of Germanicus, 
 
.Roman Sculpt&ee. 213 
 
 Agrippina, Drusus, Tiberius, Caligula, Claudius, Livia, and 
 Augustus. 
 
 To the same period belong two marble reliefs found in 
 S. Vitale, Ravenna, one of which represented a bull being 
 led to sacrifice by six men wearing garlands; and the 
 other figures of Augustus, Livia, and Tiberius. 
 
 To the custom which prevailed in Rome of erecting 
 monuments in memory of victories we owe many very 
 beautiful statues and bas-reliefs. Of this class were the 
 fourteen statues of subject tribes, by the Roman sculptor 
 Coponius, in the portico of Pompey's theatre, which were 
 life-like portraits of barbarians, accurately rendering their 
 strongly-marked features, and the tragic sadness of their 
 expressions. The altar erected in honour of Augustus at 
 Lyons was adorned with sixty figures of Gauls. 
 
 Second Period, A.D. 14 to a.d. 138. 
 
 The emperors who succeeded Augustus did much to 
 encourage the new Roman school of sculpture. Under 
 their rule sculpture was largely employed as an accessory 
 to architecture in the magnificent buildings everywhere 
 erected, and the art of portraiture was carried to the 
 greatest perfection. The most finished technical skill was 
 displayed in the cutting of marble and precious stones, 
 and the working of all kinds of metal, but this mechanical 
 proficiency very inadequately atoned for the simultaneous 
 decline of the Greek school — the school of ideal concep- 
 tions and unfettered freedom of imagination. 
 
 After a long period, during which nothing of any great 
 artistic value was produced, a partially successful attempt 
 was made by Hadrian to revive Greek art ; but the cold 
 
214 Roman Sculpture. 
 
 imitations produced of the masterpieces of antiquity served 
 but to prove the futility of any attempt to revive a school 
 after the spirit which animated it is extinct. 
 
 Among the number of works belonging to this age are 
 the monuments found at Herculaneum and Pompeii. Of 
 these the fine bronze statues of Hermes, the Sleeping 
 Faun, and the Dancing Girls, all in the Museum of Naples, 
 are considered the best. The famous Centaurs in black 
 marble found in the villa of Hadrian, and now in the 
 Capitoline Museum, are evidently copies of Greek originals. 
 Some of the iconic statues excavated are also very fine and 
 of great historic value. 
 
 The Vatican contains an extremely fine statue, worthy 
 of being called an ideal work, of Antinous (the favourite 
 of Hadrian), who was drowned in the Nile, and enrolled 
 by his regretful master amongst the gods. 
 
 The museums of Europe contain many fine groups 
 supposed to date from this time of exceptional artistic 
 activity. Of these we must name the colossal marble 
 Tiber and Nile — the former in the Louvre, the latter in 
 the Vatican (Fig. 91) — in which the rivers are represented 
 by two old men with flowing beards resting on the urns 
 from which their waters flow, and surrounded by emblems 
 and small symbolic figures : and the marble group of 
 Cupid and Psyche in the Vatican. 
 
 It was, however, in the monuments erected in honour 
 of the emperors during the period under discussion that 
 Roman sculpture attained to its highest excellence. We 
 have spoken of the triumphal arches as works of architec- 
 ture, and must now say a few words on the distinctive cha- 
 racter of the reliefs with which they were covered. These 
 were partly historical and partly symbolical, representing 
 
216 
 
 Roman Sculpture. 
 
 actual victories side by side with allegorical groups, and 
 combined the realism of Oriental pictorial annals with 
 something of the ideal beauty of Greek works of a similar 
 class — differing, however, in one essential particular from 
 anything previously produced. The plan hitherto adopted 
 of giving each figure a clear outline on a flat surface was 
 abandoned, and an attempt was made to introduce a 
 greater variety by means of a graduated background, the 
 
 Fig. 92.— Relief from the Trajan Column. 
 
 figures in the foreground being almost or entirely detached, 
 with figures in lower relief behind them. The result was 
 a crowded effect never met with in Greek works. 
 
 The Arch of Titus, erected in memory of the conquest 
 of Jerusalem, is especially interesting. On one side is a 
 representation of a procession carrying away the spoils of 
 the Temple, amongst which figure the Ark and the seven- 
 
Roman Sculpture. 217 
 
 branched candlestick ; and on the other the Emperor is 
 seen in his triumphal car, drawn by four horses, and 
 surrounded by Roman warriors. The Trajan column — a 
 cast of which is now in the South Kensington Museum — 
 erected before the time of Hadrian, stands on a pedestal 
 covered with bas-reliefs of weapons, etc., and the pillar 
 itself is enclosed in a spiral of bas-reliefs forming a con- 
 tinuous representation of the triumphs of the Emperor, 
 beginning with the passage of the Danube, and going 
 through all the events of the Dacian war. The column 
 was originally surmounted by a colossal statue of Trajan 
 (replaced in the seventh century by one of St. Peter), and 
 contains no less than 2500 human figures and a great 
 number of horses (Fig. 28 and 92). 
 
 Third Period. From the time of Hadrian (A.D. 138) to 
 the Decline of the Roman Empire. 
 
 After the time of Hadrian, very few fine sculptures of 
 any kind were produced. With the decline of the empire 
 a corresponding decline in all the arts was inevitable. 
 Strange to say, there was for a time an inclination to go 
 back to Eastern types in statuary. Once more the Egyptian 
 Serapis appeared in monuments, whilst the worship of 
 Isis led to the production of numerous statues of that 
 goddess. The liberal patronage of Marcus Aurelius was 
 the cause of a brief revival, when the fine equestrian statue 
 of that emperor on the Capitol was executed,, but it was 
 only a late effort of an art doomed to speedy destruction. 
 Before its final decay, however, Roman sculpture produced 
 some fine bas-reliefs on sarcophagi, remarkable for artistic 
 
218 Roman Sculpture. 
 
 conception and fine execution. These bas-reliefs represent 
 scenes in the actual life of the deceased, allegories re- 
 lating to the future state, or mythological groups. The 
 Vatican and the Doge's Palace at Venice contain many 
 fine specimens. 
 
 Our limits forbid us to attempt even a passing allusion 
 to the countless minor antique art objects in the numerous 
 public and private collections of Europe ; but we must not 
 close our notice of the sculpture of the heathen world 
 without a word on the famous Portland Vase in the British 
 Museum, and the great cameos of antiquity. 
 
 The Portland, or Barberini Vase was found in a sarco- 
 phagus, in the sixteenth century, in the monument called 
 the Monte del Grano, about two miles from Rome. It 
 was placed in the British Museum by the Duke of Port- 
 land, and we mention it here on account of the beautiful 
 white bas-relief figures with which it is adorned.* 
 
 The art of cameo-cutting was carried to the greatest 
 perfection by the Greeks and Romans. The finest existing 
 specimen is thought to be the Gonzaga cameo, now at St. 
 Petersburg, which represents the heads of some royal per- 
 sonage and his wife, and is six inches long by four broad. 
 The Cabinet of Antiquities at Vienna contains a cameo of 
 almost equal merit, and we must also mention one in the 
 Louvre, which is thirteen inches long by eleven broad, 
 and that called Cupid and Psyche in the Marlborough col- 
 
 * The Portland Vase was wantonly broken by a visitor to the 
 British Museum, in 1845, but has been so ingeniously joined together, 
 that the fractures are scarcely visible. A small number of copies 
 were made by Mr. Wedgwood, and are now very valuable. 
 
Eoman Sculpture. 
 
 219 
 
 lection, by Tryphon, a cameo-cutter of celebrity who lived 
 somewhat later than Alexander. There is now in the 
 British Museum a fine collection of engraved gems, which 
 is as yet comparatively little known. The stones on which 
 these cameos are cut are of very great beauty ; they were 
 probably obtained from the East. 
 
 Fig. 93. — Terra-cotta Vase. 
 
V. Early Christian Sculpture. 
 
 (First to Tenth Century.) 
 
 Christianity in its earliest form was antagonistic to 
 imitative art. The horror of image- worship, and the 
 detestation of the superstitious observances interwoven 
 with the domestic life of every class in the heathen world, 
 led to the discouragement of all attempts at visible repre- 
 sentations of Christ, or of His apostles. Moreover, it must 
 be remembered that the first Christians were brought into 
 immediate contact with the unholy rites of Isis and of 
 Pan, and the graceful worship of Venus and Apollo ; and 
 with heathen temples on every side peopled with ideal 
 forms of beauty representing gods and goddesses, it would 
 have been impossible for Christian artists to clothe Christ 
 in any human form not already appropriated to some 
 ancient idol. Whilst the Greeks and Romans cultivated 
 physical beauty, looking upon a perfect body as the only 
 fitting garment of a perfect soul, the stern believers in a 
 spiritual God to be worshipped in spirit and in truth 
 endeavoured in every way to mortify the flesh, regarding it 
 as an encumbrance to be laid aside without a murmur — a 
 prison-house checking the growth of the immortal soul. 
 This was, however, but the natural reaction from the 
 sensuality into which the antique world had fallen ; and 
 with the decline of paganism the abhorrence of pictures or 
 images of Christ became less intense, the natural yearning 
 of believers for some visible representations of the Object 
 of their love and reverence gradually asserted itself more 
 and more, and Christian art, which reached its highest 
 
Early Christian Sculpture. 221 
 
 development in the time of Raphael and Michelangelo, 
 made its first feeble efforts to give a suitable form to the 
 ideal which had so long been latent in the minds of men. 
 
 The date of the origin of Christian sculpture cannot be 
 fixed with any certainty. The first traces of it are to 
 be found in the catacombs. The sarcophagi of martyrs, 
 confessors, bishops, etc., were carved or painted with the 
 symbols of Christianity — such as the cross, the monogram 
 of Christ, the lamb, the peacock (emblem of immortality), 
 the dove (emblem of the Spirit), etc. Sometimes Christ 
 Himself figures on these tombs, but as yet only in the 
 symbolic form of the Good Shepherd surrounded by 
 his flock, or seeking the lost sheep, or as the heathen 
 Orpheus taming the wild beasts by the music of his lyre. 
 
 In the time of Constantine (third century) we first meet 
 with historical representations of Christ, and find Him on 
 the sarcophagi in the midst of His disciples, teaching or 
 working miracles. Even at so late a date, however, the 
 antique type of youthful manhood is retained, and only in 
 the fourth century was that peculiar form of countenance 
 adopted which has been retained with certain modifications 
 until the present day. 
 
 Single statues w T ere extremely rare in the first four 
 centuries of our era. The Emperor Alexander Severus 
 (230 a.d.) is said to have had an image of Christ in 
 his possession, and occasional mention is made of statues 
 erected to Christ by those whom He had cured, but 
 nothing definite is known of any of them. The only really 
 important existing Christian statue of this period is a 
 large seated bronze figure of St. Peter in St. Peter's, 
 Home, which represents the apostle in antique drapery, 
 clasping a huge key in one hand, and raising the other as 
 
Ill Early Christian Sculpture. 
 
 if in solemn admonition. The Museum of Christian 
 Antiquities in the Lateran contains a marble statue of St. 
 Hippolytus, the lower half of which belongs to the earliest 
 period of Christian art. 
 
 The Museum of the Lateran also possesses a number of 
 early Christian sarcophagi ; others exist in the crypt of 
 St. Peter's, Rome, at Ravenna, and elsewhere. That of 
 Junius Bassus (Fig. 94), in the vaults of St. Peter's at 
 Rome, dating from 359 A.D., is one of the best and purest 
 of these works. The reliefs on this sarcophagus represent 
 the gathering in of the grape-harvest by symbolical figures, 
 and a number of historical scenes from the Old and New 
 Testaments. The porphyry sarcophagus of Constantia, 
 the daughter of Constantine, and that of Helena, mother 
 of the same emperor, may be seen in the Vatican : the 
 latter is a work of powerful conception and brilliant 
 execution. 
 
 Sarcophagi belonging to a much later date (sixth to 
 eighth century; are to be found in the churches of S. 
 Appollinare in Classe, and San Vitale at Ravenna; in 
 the Franciscan church at Spalato in Dalmatia, in the 
 crypt of the cathedral of Ancona, and other towns. At 
 the time of their production, the influence of Byzantine 
 art, which discouraged the use of sculpture for sacred 
 subjects, was widely felt, and an inclination was manifested 
 once more to prefer symbolic to historical representations. 
 The result of this tendency was a decline in the art of 
 statuary ; and these later works are inferior in style and 
 execution to those of the fourth century. 
 
 After what we have said in speaking of Byzantine 
 architecture of the great services rendered to the cause of 
 art by Byzantine artists, it will be necessary to explain 
 
Early Christian Sculpture. 223 
 
 why their influence was the reverse of beneficial at the 
 
 period under review. Constant intercourse with the East 
 imbued Byzantine Christianity with a spirit of theological 
 
224 Early Christian Sculpture. 
 
 subtlety, combined with an aversion to change in all 
 matters connected with religion, and consequently in 
 religious sculpture, which was necessarily fatal to pro- 
 gress ; and although, under the earliest Eastern emperors, 
 an attempt was made to adorn the new capital with the 
 sculptures carried away from Rome by Constantine, and 
 statues of Constantine himself and, later, of Justinian 
 were erected, it was not until long afterwards, when the 
 freedom-loving Teutonic races had gained an ascendancy 
 in Europe, that sculpture, once more breaking loose from 
 the trammels of Eastern conventionalism, became again 
 an ideal art capable of producing works which might justly 
 be styled high art. 
 
 In minor works of sculpture, however, such as the 
 carving of ivory, the casting of bronze vessels, etc., Byzan- 
 tine artists always excelled. The principal ivory work 
 belonging to this period which has been preserved is the 
 episcopal chair of Maximianus (A.D. 546 — 552), now in 
 the Cathedral of Ravenna. It consists entirely of plates 
 of ivory covered with exquisitely-carved arabesques and 
 figures of men and animals in low relief. 
 
 The early Christians adopted the use of the ivory 
 consular diptychs (i. e. double folding tablets), the outsides 
 of which were covered with low-reliefs. Many fine speci- 
 mens of Christian and Roman works of the kind may be 
 seen in the South Kensington Museum and elsewhere. 
 
 As a characteristic work of the ninth century we must 
 name the high altar of St. Ambrogio in Milan, which is 
 covered with plates of gold or silver gilt, adorned with 
 embossed reliefs representing scenes from the life of 
 Christ. 
 
VI. Sculpture of the Romanesque Period. 
 
 1. Tenth and Eleventh Centuries. 
 
 In the dark ages which succeeded the fall of the Roman 
 Empire, the greater number of the beautiful art works of 
 antiquity, which had hitherto been preserved as things 
 sacred, were wantonly destroyed or injured. 
 
 Upon the removal of the empire to Byzantium, the 
 production of statuary of any excellence entirely ceased ; 
 the few bas-reliefs executed were altogether wanting in 
 original power or true artistic beauty, and it was not until 
 the beginning of the tenth century that the first faint 
 glimmering of that light which subsequently illumin- 
 ated all Europe appeared on the horizon. The art of 
 painting, which was more suitable than that of sculpture 
 for the decoration of the flat surfaces of the walls of the 
 basilicas and early Romanesque churches, was the first to 
 revive : the works of sculpture produced during the tenth 
 and eleventh centuries were entirely of a secondary class, 
 such as altars, diptychs, reliquaries, and. drinking-horns. 
 Of these Ave need only name the most remarkable. In 
 the so-called reliquary of Henry I. in the Castle Church of 
 Quedlinburg, on which the three Marys are represented at 
 the feet of Christ, we see the coarse style of the early part 
 of the tenth century unredeemed by any technical excel- 
 lence ; in an ivory diptych, dating from A.D. 972, in the 
 Hotel de Cluny, Paris (Fig. 95), representing Christ bless- 
 ing Otto II. and his Greek wife the Princess Theophane, 
 we trace Byzantine influence in the careful finish of the 
 
 EHA. Q 
 
226 
 
 Sculpture of the Romanesque Period. 
 
 
 execution and a certain grandeur in the face and figure of 
 the Saviour. 
 
 Many really fine works of this description, however, date 
 
 Fig. 95. — Diptych of Otto II. Hotel de Cluny, Faris. 
 
 from the eleventh century. Amongst them we must men- 
 tion a book cover, belonging to an evangelarium, now in 
 the Library of Munich, and an ivory tablet in the Bodleian 
 
Sculpture op the Romanesque Period. 227 
 
 Library, Oxford, in which Christ appears as Ruler of the 
 earth and sea, with the antique figures of Gaea (the earth) 
 and Oceanus (the sea) serving Him as a footstool. In 
 these and other productions of the kind we discover indi- 
 cations of the future excellence to be attained by Teutonic 
 artists : the attitudes of the figures are life-like, and the 
 faces well express passion, energy, and other emotions. 
 In the two centuries under notice some advance was 
 also made in the art of metal casting. The efforts of 
 the enlightened Bishop Bernward of Hildesheim were 
 greatly instrumental in this advance, and to him we are 
 indebted for the large bronze doors of Hildesheim Cathe- 
 dral, completed in a.d. 1015,* representing sixteen scenes 
 of sacred history, from the Creation to the Passion of our 
 Lord — in which the figures, though still rude, are full of 
 life and character, and for the bronze column in the 
 cathedral square of the same town, executed in a.d. 
 1022, adorned with a series of spiral bas-reliefs. 
 
 2. From a.d. 1100 to the beginning of the Thirteenth 
 
 Century. 
 
 In the twelfth century, at which' period the Romanesque 
 style reached its fullest development, sculpture began once 
 more to take a high position as an accessory to architecture. 
 The Christian sculptors of this period rapidly freed them- 
 selves from Greek and Latin traditions, and working under 
 the direction of the clergy, they illustrated the precepts of 
 religion by the noble productions of their chisel, enriching 
 both the outside and inside of the cathedrals and churches 
 with symbolic or historical sculptures. It is not, of course, 
 * Casts are in the South Kensington Museum. 
 
 Q 2 
 
228 Sculpture of the Romanesque Period. 
 
 to be supposed that the art of statuary sprang at once 
 into the important position it occupied in the completed 
 Romanesque and Gothic styles : the artists of the early 
 middle ages had much both to learn and to unlearn, but 
 the renewal of its natural connection with architecture 
 was a step in the right direction, and in every branch of 
 plastic art a great improvement was noticeable alike in 
 the treatment of figures, drapery, or foliage. At first 
 there was a certain want of harmony between the buildings 
 and their decorative sculptures, but as time went on, and 
 the sister arts became more fully assimilated, their com- 
 bination produced an impression of rhythmical beauty such 
 as neither could have acquired without the other. 
 
 We find Germany taking the lead in this onward move- 
 ment. To the early part of the twelfth century belongs 
 the famous relief on the Extern Stone, at Horn, in West- 
 phalia, which is a remarkable work representing the 
 Descent from the Cross. The composition is full of 
 energy : the attitude of the Virgin supporting the droop- 
 ing head of her dead Son well expresses mental agony, 
 and the figure of St. John, though stiff, harmonizes well 
 with the rest of the group. 
 
 Saxony is rich in architectural sculptures of this period ; 
 the best are perhaps the figures on the northern portal of 
 the church of St. Godehard at Hildesheim, belonging to 
 the middle of the twelfth century, and the figures of Christ 
 and the Virgin in the choir of the church of St. Michael's, 
 also at Hildesheim. 
 
 In Bavaria the huge columns in the crypt of Freising 
 Cathedral must be noticed as a specimen of the fancy 
 which prevailed in that district for weird combinations 
 of men and animals. It is covered with reliefs by a 
 
 
Sculpture of the Eomanesque Period. 229 
 
 certain Master Luitfrecht, which have been variously 
 interpreted. 
 
 To the middle of the thirteenth century belong many 
 of the finest portals of the cathedrals of Germany. The 
 golden gate of the Cathedral of Freiburg in the Erzge- 
 birge deserves special mention, as it is an instance of 
 
 Fig. 96. — Abel offering his Lamb. From the pulpit of Wechselburg Church. 
 
 the faithfulness with which German artists clung to 
 Romanesque forms after they had been laid aside for 
 Gothic in France and other countries. Scenes from the 
 Old and New Testament, set in. frameworks of symbolic 
 figures, such as lions and sirens, are depicted in a life-like 
 manner ; and the treatment of the nude portions of the 
 human body show great knowledge alike of anatomy and 
 of antique models. 
 
230 SCULPTURE OF THE ROMANESQUE PERIOD. 
 
 The stone reliefs on the pulpit and high altar of the 
 church of Wechselburg are equally truthful and vigorous ; 
 our illustration (Fig. 96) is from one of the compartments 
 of the pulpit, and represents Abel offering his Lamb. 
 
 Bronze casting also greatly improved in Germany at 
 this period. The school of Dinant acquired considerable 
 fame in the early part of the thirteenth century, and 
 many important works were executed by its masters for 
 the various cathedrals of the Rhine provinces. The font 
 of St. Barthelemy, at Liege, is one of the most remarkable. 
 The basin, like the molten sea in Solomon's temple, rests 
 on twelve brazen oxen. 
 
 From Germany we turn to France, and find a corre- 
 sponding advance in architectural sculpture. To the early 
 part of the twelfth century belongs the west front of St. 
 Gilles, near Aries in Provence, in which antique marble 
 columns are introduced, supporting an entablature the 
 frieze of which is adorned with reliefs representing scenes 
 from the life of Christ. 
 
 The ecclesiastical buildings of Burgundy are especially 
 rich in architectural sculpture. The pediment of the 
 principal entrance of the cathedral of Autun is filled with 
 a representation of the Last Judgment, which has a weird 
 and striking effect. Devils are seen tearing the con- 
 demned, and St. Michael is introduced protecting a re- 
 deemed soul from their fury. The name of the artist of 
 this remarkable group was Gislebertus. 
 
 The west front of the cathedral of Chartres is one of the 
 most important works of the late Romanesque school of 
 Central France. In its three portals the architecture and 
 sculpture harmonise with and supplement each other ; the 
 
 
Fig. 97. —The Angel Gabriel and the Virgin. 
 Thirteenth Century. 
 
 Amiens Cathedral. 
 
232 Sculpture op the Romanesque Period. 
 
 figures, it is true, retain the formal pose of the Byzantine 
 style, but we recognise a new spirit in the heads, which 
 are of the Teutonic type, and full of life and energy. The 
 southern entrance of the cathedral of Le Mans marks yet 
 another step in advance in the same direction ; the orna- 
 ments are copied from antique models, but the heads of 
 the figures are life-like and natural, and that of Christ is 
 full of more than human beauty. The southern entrance 
 of the cathedral of Bourges, which belongs to the close of 
 the twelfth century, is an equally characteristic work ; and 
 the west front of Notre Dame at Paris, executed about 
 A.D. 1215, is a specimen of the transition from the late 
 Romanesque to the early Gothic style. 
 
 The sculptures which so profusely adorn the cathedral 
 of Amiens are of a rather later date. Among them the 
 statues of the angel Gabriel and the Holy Virgin (Fig. 97) 
 are of the most interest. 
 
 The architectural sculptures of Italy, belonging to the 
 early Romanesque period, are inferior to those of France 
 and Germany. The sculptures of the west front of St. 
 Zeno at Verona (about 1139), representing the creation of 
 the world, give promise of future excellence, and are in- 
 teresting as specimens of the love of symbols characteristic 
 of the age. They have been ascribed to two German 
 masters, Nicolaus and Wilhelm by name. Towards the 
 close of the twelfth century Benedetto Antelami, of Parma, 
 produced a number of works of considerable excellence, of 
 which the decorations of the baptistery of Parma were the 
 principal. The sculptures on the pulpit of St. Ambrogio, 
 in Milan, are good specimens of the rude but life-like 
 symbolic creations of the period. 
 
 
Sculpture of the Romanesque Period. 233 
 
 Towards the close of the twelfth century considerable 
 artistic activity was displayed in Pisa. The earliest of 
 the famous series of gates of the Baptistery, begun in 
 1153, contain a series of sculptures representing scenes 
 from the life of Christ, etc., in which the perfected 
 Romanesque style, freed from Byzantine influence, may 
 be studied ; and the first indications may be recognised of 
 the grace and elegance combined with technical skill, for 
 which the Pisani, who were the first to direct attention to 
 the remains of ancient art in Italy, became so famous in 
 the thirteenth century. 
 
 A great advance was made in the art of bronze casting 
 in Italy in the early part of the twelfth century. The 
 bronze gate of the southern transept of Pisa Cathedral 
 belongs to this period, and that of the Abbey of Bene- 
 ventum, by Barisanus, the chief master of bronze casting 
 in Italy, to a somewhat later date. 
 
 The mediaeval sculpture of England will be noticed in 
 the chapter on English sculpture. 
 
VII. Sculpture in the Gothic Period. 
 
 From about a.d. 1225 to a.d. 1400. 
 
 At the end of the twelfth century a marked change was 
 already noticeable in the art of the whole of Western 
 Europe. The Crusades were drawing to a close ; the 
 working of the new ideas and modes of thought intro- 
 duced by them was seen on every side ; and with the 
 beginning of the thirteenth century a new style sprang 
 up, which was a kind of reflection of the new spirit of 
 freedom with which European society was imbued. In 
 this movement France took the lead. The sculptures 
 of the west front of the cathedral of Amiens (Fig. 98), 
 executed about 1240, retain something of the early severe 
 Gothic style, which, as we have seen, prevailed from about 
 1225-75 ; the transept pediment of Chartres Cathedral is 
 a specimen of the transition to greater freedom, and the 
 statues of La Sainte Chapelle at Paris (1245 — 1248) are the 
 first instances of the completed Gothic, in which all trace 
 of the rude earlier style has disappeared, and grace and 
 dignity are admirably blended. It is in the west front of 
 Rheims Cathedral, however, that the full development of 
 Gothic sculpture in France may best be studied. The 
 grandeur of the arrangement and the beauty of the details 
 of the various groups are alike unrivalled, the attitudes of 
 the figures are dignified and graceful, the drapery is simple 
 and natural, and many of the heads are full of individual 
 character. The cathedrals of Bourges, Beauvais, and Blois, 
 also contain fine specimens of Gothic sculpture, and the 
 
Sculpture in the Gothic Peeiod. 
 
 235 
 
 choir screen* of Notre Dame at Paris is an important 
 
 work of the late Gothic period. 
 
 The efforts of Philip the Bold 
 did much to promote the cause of 
 art at Dijon, the home of the dukes 
 of Burgundy. He invited the ablest 
 artists of the day to aid in the 
 decoration of the Carthusian mo- 
 nastery. Amongst those who re- 
 sponded to his call was a Dutch- 
 man named Claes Sluter, a great 
 master, who founded an important 
 school. His principal works were 
 the monument to Philip the Bold, 
 now in the Museum at Dijon, the 
 sculptures of the portal of the 
 chapel, and the Moses fountain in 
 the courtyard of the Carthusian 
 monastery (1390 — 1404) ; they 
 are all well executed, and full of 
 character. 
 
 The monumental sculpture of 
 France of the Gothic period is 
 worthy of deep study; the most 
 important works of the period are 
 perhaps the series of reliefs on the 
 monuments in the Church of St. 
 Denis. 
 
 Fig. 98.— Figure of Christ, 
 from Amiens Cathedral. 
 
 In Germany the Gothic style 
 was not adopted until considerably 
 
 * A cast of part of this interesting screen can be seen at the 
 Crystal Palace. 
 
236 Sculpture in the Gothic Period. 
 
 later than in France. The Liebfrauen Kirche at Treves 
 (1237 — 1243) is one of the earliest Gothic buildings in 
 Germany, and its sculptures are good specimens of the 
 transitional style. The Cathedral of Bamberg, of some- 
 what later date, is enriched with a series of fine sculptures 
 in the later Gothic style. In the south-west provinces, 
 owing probably to their near neighbourhood to France, the 
 true home of the Gothic style, there are many extensive 
 works of great beauty ; of these we must name the sculp- 
 tures of Strasburg Cathedral (Fig. 99), the fine tomb of 
 Count Ulrich and his wife (about 1265), in the abbey 
 church at Stuttgart, and the sculptures of Freiburg 
 Cathedral. The cathedrals of Bamberg and Nuremberg 
 must also be mentioned : the former, in addition to much 
 architectural sculpture, contains several fine monuments, 
 remarkable for the almost ideal beauty of the heads of 
 some of the figures. The polychrome statues of Christ, 
 Mary, and the Apostles, in the choir of Cologne Cathedral, 
 must take high rank amongst the isolated works of the 
 perfected Gothic style. 
 
 In the middle of the fourteenth century flourished the 
 sculptor Sebald Schonhofer of Nuremberg, to whom is 
 ascribed the so-called Beautiful Fountain of Nuremberg, 
 the sculptures of the Frauen Kirche, and other works. 
 The sculptures of the southern portal of the Cathedral of 
 Mayence belong to the fourteenth century, when the 
 decadence had already commenced. 
 
 Of the bronze works of Germany belonging to the 
 Gothic period we must name the equestrian statue of St. 
 George in the Hradschin Square at Prague, and the tomb 
 of Archbishop Conrad of Hochstaden, in the cathedral of 
 Cologne. 
 
 
Sculpture in the Gothic Period. 
 
 237 
 
 Many fine reliques and shrines in precious metals, 
 adorned with embossed reliefs, were produced in Germany 
 in the period under discussion, and the arts of wood and 
 
 Fig-. 99.— Figures of Virtues and Vices, from the Cathedral of Strasburg. 
 
 ivory carving were carried to great perfection. Specimens 
 of both may be seen in the South Kensington Museum. 
 
238 Sculpture in the Gothic Period. 
 
 The names of Hans Bruggemann and Veit Stoss must be 
 mentioned as master carvers of Germany. To the former 
 is attributed a carved altar in the cathedral of Schleswig, 
 and many similar works of the kind. In mediasval times 
 it was customary both to paint and gild the wood carvings 
 in ecclesiastical buildings. 
 
 In the Netherlands considerable advance was made in 
 the arts of sculpture and painting in the thirteenth and 
 fourteenth centuries. The school of Dinant was succeeded 
 by that of Tournay. The various sculptures in the porch 
 of Tournay Cathedral are good specimens of Gothic sculp- 
 ture in Belgium ; and many funeral monuments in differ- 
 ent towns bear witness to the skill and art-feeling of 
 Belgian sculptors and workers in bronze of this period. 
 
 At the beginning of the thirteenth century a revival of 
 all the arts commenced in Italy, and a school of sculpture 
 arose, the artists of which pursued methods very different 
 from those of their contemporaries in other countries, and 
 worked out a purely individual national style. The leader 
 of this movement was Niccolb of Pisa, or Niccolb Pisano, 
 who early excelled all his contemporaries. Like most of 
 the artists of his time, Niccolb combined the professions of 
 the architect, the sculptor, and the painter. But he was 
 the first to give to sculpture the prominent position to 
 which it was entitled ; and, aided by his son Giovanni, he 
 enriched the cathedrals of Pisa, Orvieto, Pistoja, Siena, 
 and Bologna with statuary, in which grace and true art 
 feeling were combined with truth to nature and simplicity 
 of arrangement. These two artists, zealous converts of the 
 ascetic Franciscan and Dominican form of the Roman 
 Catholic religion, may be said to have translated into stone 
 
Sculpture in the Gothic Period. 
 
 239 
 
 and marble the spiritual conceptions of Giotto, the great 
 master of sacred painting. Inspired by religious fervour, 
 and with a vivid sense of the realities of the spiritual 
 world, they produced figures of good and evil spirits, and 
 idealised human forms full of terrible beauty or suffering. 
 The Descent from the Cross, in the cathedral of Lucca, is 
 
 Fig. 100.- The Adoration of the Kings. From the pulpit in the Baptistery 
 at Pisa. By Niccolb Pisa no. 
 
 one of Niccolb's earliest works, and gives promise of the 
 great original power subsequently displayed in his famous 
 marble pulpit* in the Baptistery of Pisa. It was executed w 
 in 1260, and is covered with reliefs (Fig. 100), representing 
 
 • A fine cast may be studied in the South Kensington Museum 
 
240 Sculpture in the Gothic Period. 
 
 Biblical scenes, in which the figures are treated with the 
 freedom, the ease, the vitality, so to speak, which we 
 noticed as a special characteristic of the works of the 
 best age of Greek art. The cathedral of Siena possesses a 
 marble pulpit from the same masterly hand, commenced 
 six years later than that of Pisa. The reliefs are instinct 
 with passionate religious fervour. 
 
 The immediate successors of Niccolb of Pisa were his 
 son Giovanni, his pupil Arnolfo, the brothers Agostino 
 and Agnolo of Siena, Andrea of Pisa, and Andrea Orcagna. 
 
 Giovanni Pisano introduced a new style in sculpture 
 which may be char acterised as realisti c ; the first employ- 
 ment of it was in the sculptures oFThe west front of 
 Orvieto Cathedral, on which all the chief artists of 
 Tuscany were employed. One of Giovanni's most famous 
 isolated works is the Madonna del Fiore of Florence 
 Cathedral : the figure of the holy mother is grand and 
 dignified, and her face full of earnest thought rather than 
 passionate feeling. Giovanni especially excelled in the 
 allegorical sculpture which the writings of Dante did so 
 much to encourage. A symbolical statue of Pisa, in the 
 Campo Santo at Pisa, is a fine work of the kind. The 
 high altar of the cathedral of Arezzo is an extremely 
 spirited composition by the same master. The chief work 
 of Andrea Pisano is the southern bronze gate of the Bap- 
 tistery of Florence (Fig. 100) ; that of Orcagnathe magnifi- 
 cent baldacchino of the high altar of Or San Michele at 
 Florence, which is, perhaps, the finest piece of decorative 
 sculpture in the world. Venice, Naples, and Pome are 
 rich in monumental sculpture by the various artists men- 
 tioned above ; and the tombs of the Scaligers at Verona 
 are remarkable works, in which we see the first introduc- 
 
Sculpture in the Gothic Period. 
 
 241 
 
 tion of secular subjects in ecclesiastical, art. Nothing 
 positive is known of the artists employed on them. 
 
 At the close of the fourteenth century many of the 
 greatest artists of the Renaissance were rising into 
 
 &^JL=^JBf / 
 
 V 
 
 Fig-. 101. — The Salutation. By Andrea Pisano. From the South 
 Gate of the Baptistery at Florence. 
 
 notice ; and the new interest in art, awakened by the 
 works of their predecessors, was spreading from end to end 
 of Europe. 
 
 EHA R 
 
242 
 
 Sculpture in the Gothic Period. 
 
 We must say one word, before we close our review of 
 mediaeval sculpture, on the enamels of which every 
 museum and private collection of Europe contains speci- 
 mens. Enamelling, or the art of producing vitrified or 
 smelted glass ornaments of various colours on a metal 
 ground, occupied a kind of intermediate position between 
 sculpture and painting. It was largely employed through- 
 out the whole of the middle ages for the manufacture of 
 shrines, reliquaries, diptychs, and other church utensils. 
 
 The South Kensington Museum contains many speci- 
 mens of different dates, of which a large Byzantine Shrine 
 or Reliquary of the twelfth century, in the form of a 
 Byzantine church with a dome, is the most valuable. 
 
 The English sculptures of the Gothic period will be 
 noticed in the chapter on sculpture in Great Britain. 
 
VIII. — Sculpture in the Renaissance Period. 
 
 1. Sculpture in Italy in the Fifteenth and Sixteenth 
 Centuries. 
 
 The fifteenth century — the transition time from Gothic 
 to Renaissance architecture, when an attempt was made 
 to combine existing styles with those of ancient Greece 
 and Rome — also witnessed corresponding advances in Italy 
 in the art of sculpture. The movement begun by Andrea 
 Orcagna, in the fourteenth century, was carried on by 
 Ghiberti, Delia Robbia, and Donatello, who were the fore- 
 runners of Michelangelo and his school. The fifteenth 
 century was the golden age of sculpture, as the sixteenth 
 was of painting. The chief characteristics which distin- 
 guished the statues of this age from those which preceded 
 it were a truer knowledge of the human frame — alike of 
 its anatomy, its motions, and its expressions, — a more 
 thorough grasp of the laws of composition and perspec- 
 tive, and a greater power of accurately imitating antique 
 models. 
 
 In the early part of the fifteenth century, a preference 
 was manifested for nature, in the latter part for antique 
 models. In this new movement Tuscany took the lead ; 
 and the first artist to combine something of the easy grace 
 of the best age of Roman sculpture with close imitation of 
 nature, was Jacopo della Quercia of Siena (1371 — 1438). 
 His earliest works are marked by a struggle to combine 
 the mediaeval style with a more life-like representation of 
 nature. The tomb of Ilaria del Carretto,* in the cathedral 
 * Casts may be seen in the Crystal Palace. 
 
 K 2 
 
244 Sculpture in the Renaissance Period. 
 
 of Lucca, is an example of this struggle ; his fountain in 
 the great square of Siena, which is considered his finest 
 work, is a typical specimen of the result of his earnest 
 study of nature. Jacopo was, however, surpassed by his 
 contemporary. 
 
 Lorenzo Ghiberti (1378 — 1455), who was successful in 
 the competition, in which the greatest artists of the day 
 took part, for the designs of the bronze gates for the 
 northern side of the Baptistery at Florence. These gates 
 were subsequently followed by the great western or central 
 gates, which are considered Ghiberti's finest work.* The 
 reliefs represent scenes in Old Testament history ; and, 
 although the subjects are too complicated for sculpture, 
 the fertility of imagination displayed, the sense of beauty, 
 the easy execution, and the life of the whole, entitle them 
 to the high praise bestowed on them by Vasari, the great 
 art-critic of the sixteenth century, and justify the enthusi- 
 astic exclamation of Michelangelo, that they were worthy 
 to be called the Gates of Paradise. Our illustration (Fig. 
 102) gives one of the compartments of this remarkable 
 composition, in which is epitomised the story of Isaac, 
 Jacob, and Esau. 
 
 Of Ghiberti's isolated works, we must name the bronze 
 statues of St. John the Baptist, St. Matthew, and St. 
 Stephen, in the church of Or San Michele at Florence. 
 St. Matthew is considered the finest ; the face and pose 
 of the figure admirably express the character of the great 
 Christian preacher. 
 
 Brunelleschi (1377 — 1446), the great Florentine Renais- 
 sance architect, also produced several fine works of sculp- 
 
 * A cast of the gates and doorway is in the Crystal Palace col- 
 lection. 
 
 
In Italy. 
 
 245 
 
 ture. Of these the best is the bronze relief of the Sacrifice 
 of Isaac, in the Bargello Museum, at Florence. 
 
 Donatello, or Donato (1386 — 1466), was famous for his 
 success in low-relief ; he strongly cultivated naturalism, in 
 contrast alike to the antique and to the traditions of the 
 
 i'ig. 102. — .Relief from the Western Gate of the Baptistery of Florence. 
 By Lorenzo Ghiberti. 
 
 preceding age. Amongst his best works are his Head of 
 St. John the Baptist, a wonderful representation of the 
 great forerunner of Christ, emaciated by fasting, but in- 
 spired with holy zeal ; the statue of St. George from the 
 church of Or San Michele, Florence, a fine embodiment of 
 
546 Sculpture in the Renaissance Period. 
 
 the ideal Christian warrior, ready calmly to face suffering 
 and death. Better known than any of these, however, is 
 his statue of Gattamelata at Padua, and the so-called 
 Zuccone (bald-head), a portrait of Fra Barduccio Cheri- 
 chini, in one of the niches of the Campanile, Florence. 
 Three beautiful original carvings in marble, in very low 
 relief, by Donatello, of Christ in the Sepulchre, supported 
 by Angels, the Delivering of the Keys to St. Peter, and 
 the Shrine of a female Saint, as well as a cast of the St. 
 George, are in the South Kensington Museum. 
 
 Luea della Robbia, another great Florentine sculptor 
 (1400 — 1482), who is supposed to have invented the process 
 of enamelling terra-cotta, nourished at this period. He is 
 principally known for his works in terra-cotta, in high or low 
 relief — many specimens of which are to be studied in the 
 South Kensington Museum, — and for the groups of Singers 
 in marble, executed for the cathedral of Florence, and now 
 in the Royal Gallery of that city. Part of the frieze of the 
 interior of the Renaissance Court at the Crystal Palace is 
 a cast of this famous work. Both Delia Robbia and 
 Ghiberti adhered to some extent to the mediaeval style ; 
 but they combined it with a simplicity of feeling, a dignity 
 of execution, and a truth of conception peculiarly their 
 own. The illustration (Fig. 103) is from a medallion by 
 Luca della Robbia, representing the Virgin worshipping 
 her Divine Son. 
 
 Of Donatello' s numerous followers, Andrea Verrocchio 
 (1432 — 1488) was the chief. His most famous work is 
 the bronze equestrian statue of Bartolommeo Coleoni 
 (Fig. 104), in the piazza of the church of SS. Giovanni e 
 Paolo at Venice. 
 
 At the close of the fifteenth century ornamental sculp- 
 
In Italy. 
 
 247 
 
 ture was carried to great perfection in Tuscany ; and many 
 beautiful monuments were erected in the churches of 
 Florence and other towns, by Mino da Fiesole, Benedetto 
 da Maiano, and Bernardo Rossellino. The first-named 
 introduced the Florentine Renaissance style into Rome. 
 His principal works are the monuments of Bernardo Giugni 
 
 Fi£. 103. — The Madonna worshipping the Infant Saviour. Bas-relief. 
 By Luca della Roblia. 
 
 (1466), in the church of the Badia, Florence, and the 
 monument of Pope Paul II. (1471), in the crypt of St. 
 Peter's ; the second, who excelled alike in wood, stone, and 
 marble carving, executed the pulpit and the reliefs of the 
 sacristy of Santa Croce, Florence ; and the third, equally 
 
IJffiljTOi/^tei 
 
 Fig. 104.— Statue of Bartolommeo Coleoni. By Andrea Ferrocchio. 
 At Venice. 
 
In Italy. 249 
 
 skilful in every branch of sculpture, produced the splendid 
 monument of the Cardinal of Portugal, in San Miniato, 
 Florence. 
 
 The only Italian school of the fifteenth century which 
 approached at all in importance to that of Florence, was 
 the Venetian. Bartolommeo Buono paved the way for the 
 family of the Lombard i * and Alessandro Leopard o, to whom 
 Venice owes her finest monuments. The principal works 
 of all these artists are the monuments of the Doo-es of 
 Venice, in the church of San Giovanni e Paolo. That of 
 Doge Pietro Mocenigo, by the Lombardi, is a splendid 
 composition — completed in 1488 — surpassed, however, in 
 grandeur of conception and delicacy of execution, by that 
 of the Doge Andrea Vendramin in the same church, by 
 Leopardo (1480 — 1540), in which sculptures in the round 
 and reliefs are admirably combined. 
 
 The school of Milan attained to a distinctive position in 
 Italy, in consequence of the activity promoted by the 
 works of the Duomo, and the Certosa or Carthusian 
 monastery, near Pavia. The most celebrated sculptors 
 employed were Fusina, Solari, Amadeo, Sacchi, and great- 
 est of all, Agostino Busti, better known as Bambaja 
 (1480—1550). 
 
 The decoration of the marble facade of the Certosa f was 
 commenced about 1473. The architectural sculptures of 
 the principal portal have been ascribed to Busti. They 
 are remarkable for the great technical skill displayed, and 
 for the absence of the realism characteristic of most of the 
 works of this period. The decorative sculpture of the 
 
 * Pietro Lombardo and his sons Tullio and Antonio, 
 f A reproduction of one of the large windows of the Certosa is in 
 the South Kensington Museum. 
 
250 Sculpture in the Renaissance Period. 
 
 interior of the monastery is even more worthy of study 
 than that of the exterior. The pieta * of the high altar, 
 ascribed to Sofari, is especially beautiful : the agony of the 
 Virgin is expressed in every line of her face and figure, 
 contrasting admirably with the peaceful repose in death 
 of her Divine Son, and the confident hope in the uplifted 
 eyes of the angels. 
 
 Rome can scarcely be said to have possessed a Renais- 
 sance school of sculpture, although the liberal patronage 
 of the popes and princes frequently attracted the greatest 
 masters to their capital. 
 
 The only Neapolitan sculptor of eminence in the fifteenth 
 century was Angelo Aniello Fiore, who executed several 
 fine monuments in the church of San Domenico Maggiore 
 at Naples. 
 
 In the sixteenth century we find Florence still taking 
 the lead in all the arts, and it was to her sons, Leonardo da 
 Vinci and Michelangelo Buonarroti, that she owe this great 
 pre-eminence. Unfortunately the colossal bronze equestrian 
 statue of Francesco Sforza which Da Vinci undertook to 
 execute for Milan was never cast, and even the clay model 
 was destroyed by the Gascon archers, who used it as a 
 target when Milan was occupied by the French in 1499. 
 
 Andrea Sansovino (1460 — 1529) attained great eminence 
 in the early part of the sixteenth century. His marble 
 group of the Baptism of Christ (Fig. 105) for the eastern 
 gate of the Baptistery of Florence is considered his finest 
 work, and his group of the Holy Family in S. Agostino at 
 Rome is but little inferior to it. 
 
 * A Pitta is the name given to representations of the Virgin 
 embracing her dead Son. 
 
In Italy. 
 
 251 
 
 Michelangelo Buonarroti was born at Caprese near 
 Florence in the year 1475, died at Rome in 1564, and was 
 buried in the church of Santa Croce in Florence, after a 
 long and active life, during which he produced the finest 
 masterpieces of modern sculpture and greatly influenced 
 
 Fig. 105. — The Baptism of Christ. Belief from the Baptistery of Florence. 
 By Andrea Sansovino. 
 
 all the arts. His paintings, which will be spoken of in the 
 next division of our work, are no less remarkable than the 
 productions of his chisel. The chief characteristics of 
 Michelangelo were his intimate knowledge of the anatomy 
 
SCULPTURE IN THE RENAISSANCE PERIOD. 
 
 of the human form, and the power and fire which he was 
 able to throw into his works. The great sculptor was one 
 of the first to be admitted into the Academy of Art 
 founded at Florence by Lorenzo de' Medici. The mask of 
 a Faun's head hewn in marble when Buonarroti was quite 
 a child is still preserved in the Uffizi Gallery, Florence. 
 The work which first made his name known beyond his 
 native town was a statue of Cupid : his fame soon spread 
 to Rome, to which city he was invited by one of the cardi- 
 nals. His Pieta, in St. Peter's, was produced soon after 
 his arrival, and is by many critics considered his finest 
 work. A kneeling figure of Cupid, now at South Kensing- 
 ton, and a group of the Madonna and the Holy Child, now 
 in the church of Notre Dame at Bruges, were among his 
 next works. In 1504 he undertook iiis celebrated statue 
 of David, which formerly stood in the Piazza del Gran' 
 Duca at Florence, but is now removed to one of the courts 
 of the Accademia. Yet more famous is the colossal figure 
 of Moses (Fig. 106) in the old basilica of San Pietro in 
 Vincoli, outside the gates of Rome. Sir Richard West- 
 macott has characterised this figure as one of the grandest 
 efforts of genius, as original in conception as it is masterly 
 in execution. This colossal Moses is seated, holding in one 
 hand the tables of the law, and with the other playing 
 with his long beard. From his clustering curls spring the 
 horns ascribed to him by tradition, typical of power and 
 light ; his brow and eyes are full of power and majesty, 
 his whole pose expresses the strength of will and severity 
 of the stern lawgiver of Israel. This marvellous figure 
 was to have formed part of a huge monument to Julius II., 
 the design for which, by Michelangelo, is still preserved. 
 It was to have consisted of a vast quadrangle, with niches 
 
Fig. 106.— Statue of Moses. In the Church of San Pietro in Vincoli, Rome. 
 By Michelangelo. 
 
254 Sculpture in the Renaissance Period. 
 
 in ttie sides, adorned with figures of Victory supporting a 
 massive block surrounded by colossal statues of prophets 
 and sibyls, from which a pyramid covered with bronze 
 figures should have sprung. All that was executed was 
 the Victory, now at Florence, the two Captives, now in the 
 Louvre, and the Moses.* 
 
 The Medici chapel, in the church of San Lorenzo at 
 Florence, built by order of Clement VII. , w r as decorated 
 almost entirely by Buonarroti. In front of the altar is a 
 group of the Virgin and the Holy Child ; on one side of it 
 is the tomb of Giuliano de' Medici, in which the statue of 
 the Duke is placed over allegorical figures of Day and 
 Night ; on the other the tomb of Lorenzo de' Medici, with 
 whose statue are figures of the Dawn and Evening. The 
 statue of Lorenzo, known as II Pemieroso, is remarkable 
 for the expression of intense melancholy which pervades it. 
 Of the allegorical figures — all alike full of gloomy grandeur 
 — that of Night has been the most admired. 
 
 In the National Museum, Florence, is an Ivy-crowned 
 Bacchus, full of tender grace and beauty, and admirably 
 expressive of the lassitude peculiar to the self-indulgent 
 god. Among his important works we must not forget to 
 mention a bronze figure of Pope Julius II., which was 
 executed for the Cathedral of Bologna, but destroyed in 
 a revolt and converted into cannon. 
 
 Whilst Michelangelo was working at Rome, Jacopo Tatti 
 (1479 — 1570), surnamed Sansovino, after the great master 
 with whom he studied, was founding a school in Venice, in 
 which the influence of Buonarroti was clearly perceptible ; 
 but much of the stern realism of the master was laid aside 
 
 * Casts of the Moses, the two Slaves, the David, and the Madonna 
 of Bruges are in the South Kensington Museum. 
 
In Italy. 
 
 255 
 
 and replaced by a striving after the picturesque which 
 sometimes produced pleasing effects, as in the bas-relief 
 of the Entombment of Christ (Fig. 107), considered one 
 
 
 Fig. 107. — The Entombment of Christ. By Jacopo Tatti. From the 
 Sacristy of St. Mark. 
 
 of Tatti' s best works, on the bronze gate of the sacristy 
 of St. Mark at Venice.* 
 
 To Raphael of Urbino (1483—1520) one or two works 
 of sculpture have been attributed. A marble statue of 
 * A cast of this gate is in the Crystal Palace. 
 
256 Sculpture in the Renaissance Period. 
 
 Jonah in the Cappella Chigi, in S. Maria del Popolo, Rome, 
 is certainly from the great painter's own hand ; and the 
 Elijah in the same place is said to be after his design by 
 the Florentine Lorenzetto. 
 
 Benvenuto Cellini (1500 — 1571), a native of Florence, 
 was one of the most celebrated workers in metal the world 
 has ever known. Among his patrons were the Pope 
 Clement VII. , Cardinal de' Medici, the Grand Duke Cosmo 
 of Florence, and Francis I., King of France. He lived at 
 various times at Florence, Siena, Rome, Milan, Naples, 
 Padua, Ferrara, and Paris. He enriched the Louvre with 
 many fine works, of which the most remarkable is the 
 high-relief figure of Diana, called the Nymph of Fontaine- 
 bleau.* It represents a colossal nude female figure in a 
 semi-recumbent attitude of careless grace, with one arm 
 flung round the neck of a stag, and is a good specimen of 
 the long-drawn proportions of the human form, in which 
 Cellini delighted. But his most celebrated work is his 
 statue of Perseus with the head of Medusa, in the Piazzo 
 del Granduca, Florence (Fig. 108). Cellini principally 
 excelled, however, in minor works, such as chased vases, 
 etc. A celebrated salt-cellar now in the Schatzkamner 
 at Vienna, in embossed gold enriched with enamels and 
 adorned with high-relief figures of Neptune and Cybele, 
 and a frieze of symbolic figures of the Hours and the 
 Winds, is really a masterpiece in its way : there is also a 
 magnificent shield in Windsor Castle, said to be by the 
 same artist, f 
 
 * Casts are in the South Kensington Museum and the Crystal 
 Palace. 
 
 f A translation of Benvenuto's celebrated autobiography is pub- 
 lished in Bonn's Library. 
 
 
Fig. 108.— Perseus with the bead of Medusa. By Benvenuto Cellh 
 At Florence. 
 EHA a 
 
258 Sculpture in the Renaissance Period. 
 
 After Michelangelo's death, in 1564, not a single sculp- 
 tor arose in Italy who attained to an individual style. His 
 immediate successors were little more than imitators of 
 his manner ; and among his later followers, Giovanni da 
 Bologna, known as John of Bologna, (1524 — 1608), and 
 Stefano Maderno (1571 — 1636), are the only sculptors 
 whose works entitle them to special notice. 
 
 John of Bologna's masterpiece is the bronze Mercury 
 floating on the Wind, in the Uffizi Gallery, a miracle 
 of airy lightness. The messenger of the gods rests one 
 foot on the breath of a bronze zephyr, and is about to 
 launch himself into the air. A fine bronze group of the 
 Rape of the Sabines, in the Palazzo Vecchio, Venice, is 
 scarcely less celebrated : his fountain at Bologna is con- 
 sidered one of his happiest compositions. 
 
 Stefano Maderno' s chief work is the statue of St. 
 Cecilia in the convent of that saint in Rome, which is 
 remarkable for a simplicity and dignity wanting to his 
 other productions. Both these artists, and still more their 
 followers and imitators, lost sight of the true aims of 
 sculpture and of the distinction which exists between the 
 provinces of painting and statuary. It will be remembered 
 that we had to notice this error in speaking of the decline 
 of Greek art ; and the history of Italian sculpture, from 
 the time of Michelangelo to that of Canova, is a history of 
 a similar decadence of the Renaissance style. 
 
 2. Sculpture of the Renaissance Period in France and 
 the rest of Europe. 
 
 The development of the French Renaissance style of 
 sculpture may be well studied in the Louvre, which con- 
 tains a series of monuments belonging to the fifteenth and 
 
 
In France. 259 
 
 sixteenth centuries. The fine marble statues of Peter 
 d'Evreux Navarra and his wife Catherine d'Alencon, from 
 the Carthusian church in Paris, date from the close of the 
 fifteenth century. It was not until the beginning of the 
 sixteenth, however, that any great artist arose capable of 
 giving an essentially French character to the Renaissance 
 sculpture of the country. The chief French sculptors of 
 the early part of the sixteenth century were Michael 
 Colombe (1431 — 1514), Jean Juste, and Jean Texier. The 
 Louvre contains an extremely fine bas-relief of the Struggle 
 between St. George and the Dragon, attributed to Co- 
 lombe, remarkable for delicacy of execution and boldness 
 of conception, produced about the time that Jean Juste 
 was at work on his celebrated tomb of Louis XII. and 
 his wife, Anne of Bretagne, in the church of St. Denis, 
 and Jean Texier was engaged on the forty-one groups and 
 bas-reliefs of the cathedral of Chartres, by which he is 
 principally known. 
 
 We now come to a trio of great artists who have been 
 justly called the restorers of French sculpture. These were 
 Jean Goujon, Jean Cousin, and Germain Pilon. 
 
 Jean Goujon (1530 — 1572) was engaged from 1555 to 
 1562 in the decoration of the Louvre, portions of which 
 still remain as specimens of his easy, graceful style. He 
 adopted the tall slim proportions of the human frame, so 
 much favoured by Cellini in sculpture and Primaticcio in 
 painting. The Louvre contains a few choice works of Jean 
 Goujon. The largest and most famous is the marble group 
 of Diana, in which the goddess of hunting reclines on a 
 pedestal adorned with bas-reliefs representing marine ani- 
 mals, with one arm round the neck of a stag. Another 
 
 s 2 
 
260 Sculpture in the Renaissance Period. 
 
 work in full relief is a bust-portrait of Henri II. : and o 
 the bas-reliefs we must name the Descent from the Cross, 
 two recumbent Nymphs of the Seine, with unnaturally long, 
 supple figures, and a fine group of Tritons and Nereids. 
 The Fontaine des Innocents, in the Vegetable Market, is 
 considered Goujon's masterpiece.* The doorways from St. 
 Maclou, at Rouen, are good specimens of his bold treat- 
 ment of projections and delicate execution in low relief. 
 Goujon was killed in the massacre of St. Bartholomew i 
 1572. 
 
 Jean Cousin, the exact date of whose birth is unknow 
 is supposed to have died about 1589. The handsome torn 
 of Pierre de Breze, at Rouen, is attributed to him, as is 
 also ' the mausoleum of Philippe de Chabot, now in the 
 Louvre (Fig. 109), which has been praised as the master- 
 piece of French sculpture of the sixteenth century. 
 
 Germain Pilon (about 1550 — 1590) was an industrious 
 and able sculptor, many of whose finest works were monu- 
 ments of kings and dignitaries in the cathedral of St. 
 Denis. Of these we must name the tomb of Henri II. f 
 They bear witness to great vigour and knowledge of 
 anatomy, and the female figures are full of grace and ele- 
 gance. The Louvre contains the double tomb by Pilon, of 
 Rene Birague and his wife, justly celebrated for the beauty 
 of the bas-reliefs — a group of three female figures support- 
 ing a gilt vase, bust-portraits of several monarchs, and a 
 stone bas-relief of the Sermon of St. Paul at Athens. 
 
 * His manner may be studied in the casts of various pieces of his 
 decorative sculpture in the Renaissance Court of the Crystal Palace. 
 
 f Casts of the upper range of the sculptures are in the Crystal 
 Palace. 
 
 md of 
 
Fig. 109.— Monument of Admiral Chabot By Jean Cousin. 
 In the Louvre. 
 
262 Sculpture in the Renaissance Period. 
 
 In the Netherlands but few works of importance were 
 produced in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. The 
 famous chimneypiece of carved wood, in the Palais de 
 Justice at Bruges,* designed by Lancelot Blondeel and 
 Guy de Beaugrant, dating from the year 1529, is an 
 extremely fine specimen of the completed Renaissance 
 style of decorative sculpture ; but there are no isolated 
 statues or bas-reliefs in marble to be enumerated. 
 
 In Spain, Alonzo Berruguete (1480 — 1561) and Jaspar 
 Becerra (1520 — 1570) were the only sculptors of eminence 
 in the Renaissance period. To the former is attributed 
 the marble group of the Transfiguration in the cathedral 
 of Toledo, and to the latter a very beautiful statue of Our 
 Lady of Solitude, in the chapel of a Franciscan convent 
 at Madrid. 
 
 In Germany the principal works produced in the fifteenth 
 and sixteenth centuries were wood-carvings in cathedrals 
 and other ecclesiastical buildings. The stern realism 
 which distinguished Italian work of the fifteenth century 
 is equally noticeable in the productions of German artists. 
 The Swabian school was the first to adopt the new style, 
 and in the work of its masters accurate imitation of nature 
 was combined with a genuine feeling for beauty. Jorg 
 Syrlin of Ulm (1469 — 1474) was the greatest wood-carver 
 of Swabia. He disdained the aid of painting, and raised 
 his art to an independent position. Ulm Cathedral con- 
 tains many fine specimens of his skill ; of these the 
 choir-stalls, superior to everything of the kind previously 
 produced, deserve special mention. The carved figures 
 representing heroes of the heathen world, of Judaea, and of 
 
 * A cnst is in the South Kensington Museum. 
 
 
In Germany. 263 
 
 Christendom, are graceful, dignified, and lifelike ; the 
 lower ones are finished with the greatest care, and display 
 thorough knowledge of anatomy. The stone fountain in 
 the market-place at Ulm, which was enriched with colour, 
 is the only work by this great master in any other material 
 than wood. Jorg Syrlin the younger, trained in his 
 father's school, appears to have been a worthy successor. 
 
 It would require a volume merely to enumerate the fine 
 carvings in the various churches and cathedrals of Germany 
 belonging to the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. We 
 must only pause to notice a few works of the kind by the 
 great Albrecht Diirer (1471 — 1528), such as the carved 
 altar-shrine (1511) in the Landauer Monastery, which is 
 in the Renaissance style, and represents Christ as the 
 Judge of the world, with Mary and St. John in earnest 
 supplication at His feet. The Gotha collection of art- 
 objects contains several statuettes in wood by Albrecht 
 Diirer ; in the museum at Carlsruhe there is an exquisite 
 little group in ivory, in high relief, of three nude female 
 figures from the same great hand ; and in the print-room 
 of the British Museum there is a remarkable carving, in 
 hone-stone, of the Naming of St. John the Baptist. 
 
 The greatest German sculptor in stone of the Renaissance 
 period was Adam Krafft of Nuremberg (about 1430 — 
 1507). His works, although somewhat overloaded, are 
 remarkable for thrilling power of expression. The Seven 
 Stations, on the the road to the cemetery of St. John at 
 Nuremberg, are among his most famous compositions. The 
 tradition of our Saviour having fallen several times on his 
 way to death will be remembered. In the first station we 
 see Him sinking beneath the cross, as He is met by his 
 mother ; in the second, He is dragged up by the rude 
 
264 Sculpture in the Kenaissance Period. 
 
 soldiers ; in the third, He turns to pronounce his warning 
 words to the weeping women ; in the fourth, his meeting 
 with St. Veronica is depicted ; in the fifth, He is urged on 
 by his persecutors ; in the sixth, He has sunk beneath 
 his burden ; in the seventh, He has fallen for the last time. 
 His body rests upon his mother's knees, and she presses 
 a last kiss upon his unconscious face, whilst Mary, the 
 mother of James, passionately clasps his lifeless hand. 
 
 Although the artist has not adhered strictly to the tradi- 
 tion, he has given us a powerful and most touching realisa- 
 tion of the great closing drama of our Saviour's life. His 
 Golgotha is scarcely less beautiful. There is no attempt 
 to produce effect by artificial means; the head of the 
 Saviour droops with human exhaustion; the thieves are 
 natural and lifelike. The reliefs of the Schreyer monu- 
 ment * and the " Passion Scene " above the altar in St. 
 Sebald's Church, Nuremberg, well merit study ; and the 
 streets and houses of Nuremberg are enriched with many 
 beautiful reliefs by this great master, in some of which 
 there is an amusing touch of humour. Our illustration 
 (Fig. 110) is one of the latter class, and is taken from 
 above the doorway of the Public Scales of Nuremberg. 
 
 At Nuremberg alone was the art of bronze casting prac- 
 tised to any extent in Germany in the Renaissance period ; 
 and the only great master in this branch of statuary was 
 Peter Vischer (died 1529). His principal work is the tomb 
 of St. Sebald at Nuremberg (Fig. Ill) — enriched with a 
 great number of figures of saints, apostles, and angels, 
 amongst which the artist has introduced his own portrait. 
 Some of the scenes are representations of marvellous 
 miracles, — a few bold touches suffice to tell the tale; 
 
 * Casts are in the South Kensington Museum. 
 
In Germany. 
 
 265 
 
 for example, we see St. Sebald warming himself at a 
 fire of icicles, and almost fancy we can feel the chilling 
 
 tl/Hlrti f(.' irtj. //si. 7^ 
 
 Fig. 110.— Relief. Above the door of the Public Scales, Nuremberg. 
 By Adam Kraft. 
 
 breath of the white flames. The canopy of the monument 
 combines the rich decoration of the Romanesque with the 
 pointed arches of the Gothic style. 
 
266 Sculpture in the Renaissance Period. 
 
 The only marble work of importance of the German 
 
 !i!illini!irmt, 
 
 iwiiJ)lii[iiiiii»)iiliiiliiiiii[iili1]||iiiiiiill]||l iilil1llll>tllillilllll!iil)li)il«iff 
 
 Fig. 111. — Bronze Shrine of St. Sebald. Nuremberg. 
 By Peter Viseher. 
 
 Renaissance period is the monument of Frederick III., in 
 the cathedral of St. Stephen at Vienna. 
 

 ix. sculptuee in the seventeenth and 
 Eighteenth Centuries. 
 
 As we have seen, Italian sculpture rapidly declined from 
 the time of Michelangelo. At the beginning of the seven- 
 teenth century a new school arose, founded by Bernini 
 (1598 — 1680), who has been proudly called the second 
 Michelangelo. The faults to which we alluded in speaking 
 of the Italian artists of the decadence were shared by this 
 master, whose works have been too much vaunted. In 
 the works of Bernini, and in those of his followers, every- 
 thing is sacrificed to effect ; and, as in the graceful produc- 
 tions of the successors of Pheidias, difficulties were courted 
 for the sake of displaying skill in overcoming them. 
 Bernini's famous group of Apollo and Daphne, in the Villa 
 Borghese, executed when he was only eighteen years old, 
 is a marvel of dexterous execution, — but that is all. In 
 his Rape of Proserpine, a much later work in the same 
 gallery, we see all the faults of his style exaggerated : 
 truth is sacrificed to theatrical passion ; whilst the great- 
 est ignorance of anatomy and of the true limits of sculp- 
 ture is manifested. His Pieta, in the basilica of San 
 Giovanni Laterano, at Home,* is one of the best examples 
 of his style. 
 
 Italian sculpture did not again attain to the position 
 of a great art until the time of Antonio Canova (1757 — 
 1822), the contemporary of the great Englishman Flax- 
 man, — whose works stand out in striking contrast to those 
 of his predecessors. 
 
 * A cast is in the Crystal Palace. 
 
268 Sculpture in the Seventeenth 
 
 Canova was born of peasant parents at Possagno ; near 
 Venice, and is said to have revealed his vocation by a 
 model of a cow in butter which he made for the table 
 of Count Faliero, who sent him to the Academy of Venice. 
 In a few years he gained the first prize for sculpture, and 
 in 1774 was sent to Rome with a pension of 300 ducats. 
 In 1802 he visited Paris, and in 1815 he travelled 
 through France on a mission from the Pope, and came 
 to England, where he executed several fine works, and 
 confirmed the opinion of Flaxman and others as to the 
 great value of the Elgin marbles. On his return to Italy 
 he became a convert to the advanced religious views of 
 the day, and spent much time and money on the erec- 
 tion and decoration of a church in his native village ; 
 and was made Marquis of Ischia by the Pope. He after- 
 wards executed a colossal statue of Religion for St. Peter's 
 at Rome, but the cardinals objected to its being placed 
 there, and the sculptor in high wrath left the Papal 
 States for Venice, where he died in 1822. 
 
 Canova' s works are remarkable for the purity and 
 beauty of the figures, the simplicity of the composition, 
 and the finished execution of every detail. To him and 
 to Flaxman — full details of whose life and works will be 
 given in a future chapter — is due the honour of raising 
 the public taste, and teaching it what to admire. No 
 other sculptors of the day so fully entered into the spirit 
 of antique art, or realised the beauty of the simplicity and 
 truth to nature of the best artists of the Renaissance. 
 
 It is impossible to enumerate Canova' s numerous works. 
 Casts of many of them may be studied at the Crystal 
 Palace : amongst others, of the Three Graces, in the pos- 
 session of the Duke of Bedford ; the Endymion, in the 
 
and Eighteenth Centuries. 269 
 
 possession of the Duke of Devonshire, at Chatsworth ; 
 the statue of Paris, at Munich; Venus leaving the Bath, 
 in the Pitti Palace ; Hebe, one of Canova's most beautiful 
 works, in the possession of the Albrizzi family of Venice ; 
 Psyche, another very favourite work, in the possession 
 of Mr. Blundell ; Mars and Venus, in Buckingham Palace ; 
 the Magdalene, one of Canova's most admired works, full 
 of pathetic beauty, the property of Count Somariva ; the 
 famous Perseus, conqueror of the Gorgon, in the Vatican ; 
 the head of the colossal statue of Pope Clement XIII. 
 in St. Peter's, Rome, an extremely good portrait, finely 
 executed ; and lastly, the Sleeping Lion from the tomb 
 of the same pope, considered the grandest work ever 
 produced by Canova. 
 
 Of the groups, etc., of which we have no casts, we must 
 name the Daedalus and Icarus at Venice, one of Canova's 
 earliest works ; the tomb of Maria Christina of Austria, at 
 Vienna, a very beautiful composition, in which the figures 
 are admirably grouped : the Theseus, conqueror of the 
 Centaur (Fig. 112;, in the Volks-garten at Vienna, in which 
 the most thorough knowledge of anatomy is displayed, and 
 strength in action admirably rendered ; and the Zephyrus 
 carrying away Psyche, in the Louvre. Several of his best 
 works, including a colossal bust of Napoleon, are at 
 Chatsworth. 
 
 In France, in the middle of the seventeenth century, we 
 find a remarkable artist rising into notice. Pierre Puget 
 (1622 — 1694), who was a proficient alike in architecture, 
 painting, and sculpture, has been called the Rubens of 
 sculpture, and the French Michelangelo. Unfortunately, 
 however, his education was deficient, and his works, though 
 
270 
 
 Sculpture in the Seventeenth 
 
 full of power and promise, are wanting in refinement and 
 finish. As instances of this we may name the groups of 
 Milo of Crotona and the Lion,* Perseus delivering Andro- 
 meda, and the Hercules in Repose, — all in the Louvre. In 
 the first-named, the agony of the victim in the claws of the 
 
 Fig. 112. — Theseus and the Centaur. By Canova. 
 In the Volks-garten, Vienna. 
 
 lion is almost too vividly expressed ; and although the 
 action of the muscles is admirably rendered the effect of 
 the whole is too painfully real. 
 
 Other celebrated French sculptors of the seventeenth 
 and eighteenth centuries were Antoine Coysevox (1640 — 
 1720), author of the Mausoleum of Cardinal Mazarinin the 
 Louvre : — Francois Girardon (1630 — 1715), author of the 
 colossal groups of Pluto carrying away Proserpine and 
 * A cast is in the Crystal Palace. 
 
and Eighteenth Centuries. 271 
 
 Apollo coming down to Thetis, in the gardens of Versailles : 
 — Nicolas Coustou (1658 — 1733), author of the group of 
 the Junction of the Seine and Marne, in the Garden of the 
 Tuileries : — Guillaume Coustou (1678 — 1746), author of 
 the famous Ecuyers, or Chevaux de Marly in the Champs 
 Elysees, Paris. 
 
 Edme Bouchardon (1698 — 1762), author of the charming 
 group of Psyche and Cupid in the Louvre, and fine statues 
 of Christ, Mary, and the Apostles, in the church of St. 
 Sulpice, Paris : — Jean-Antoine Houdon (1740 — 1828), 
 author of the Flayed Man, in the Louvre (well known 
 in Schools of Art), the statue of St. Bruno in the Certosa 
 at Rome, and the portrait statues of Rousseau in the 
 Louvre, of Moliere in the Theatre Francais, Paris ; and of 
 Washington at Philadelphia, in which the ideal and real 
 are well combined. 
 
 In Germany, in the seventeenth century, a marked 
 decline took place in sculpture. The Thirty Years' War, 
 which lasted Irom 1618 to 1648, checked all artistic effort; 
 and it was not until the close of the century that any 
 great German master arose, although several fine monu- 
 ments — such as those of the Emperor Maximilian at Inns- 
 pruck, and the Elector Moritz at Freiburg — were erected 
 by Dutch artists. 
 
 Andreas Schliiter (1664 — 1714) was the first to give to 
 Berlin the artistic position it still occupies. His principal 
 work is the bronze equestrian statue of the great Elector 
 of Saxony at Berlin (Fig. 113), justly considered a master- 
 piece of art. 
 
 At the beginning of the eighteenth century came Georg 
 Raphael Donner (1695 — 1741), a master famous for his 
 true sense of the beautiful, and power of conception. His 
 
272 Sculpture is the Seventeenth Century. 
 
 principal works are the figures of Providence, and of the 
 Four Chief Rivers of Austria, on the fountain in the 
 market-plape of Vienna. 
 
 In Spain, in the seventeenth century, the celebrated 
 
 
 Fig. 113.— Equestrian Statue of the Elector of Saxony. By Scldiiter. 
 
 painter Alonzo Cano of Granada (1601 — 1667) gained 
 considerable celebrity by his beautiful altar for the Church 
 of Lebrija which he designed and carved himself. It is 
 considered one of the finest existing works of the kind : 
 the Virgin holding the Infant Jesus, in the centre of the 
 reredos, is especially well executed. 
 
X. Sculpture in the Nineteenth Century.* 
 
 The influence of Canova was felt throughout the length 
 and breadth of Europe. He and Flaxman revived the art 
 of sculpture at the time of its deepest humiliation ; and 
 their lessons, combined with the liberal encouragement 
 they were ever ready to give to true genius, had most 
 important results. Foremost amongst the immediate 
 followers of Canova we must name the celebrated Dane, 
 
 Bertel Thorwaldsen (1770 — 1844), who produced many 
 beautiful statues and bas-reliefs. His talent received early 
 recognition from Canova, who was at the zenith of his 
 reputation when Thorwaldsen came to Rome an unknown 
 man. Thorwaldsen s first work of importance was a statue 
 of Jason, which excited universal admiration. He appears 
 to have had a special predilection for mythological subjects, 
 as is proved by his groups of Achilles and Briseis, Ganymede 
 carried away by the Eagle, etc. ; but that he was also able 
 to do justice to the ideals of Christianity, is seen in his 
 great works in the cathedral of Copenhagen, — Christ and 
 the Twelve Apostles, St. John preaching in the Wilderness, 
 The Procession to Golgotha, etc. The series of bas-reliefs 
 representing the Triumphal entrance of Alexander into 
 Babylon, in the villa of Count Somariva on the lake of 
 Como (repeated for the Christianburg Palace at Copen- 
 hagen), is considered one of his finest works, in which 
 he combined the severe simplicity and strict beauty of 
 form of the Greek style with an easy grace of execution 
 peculiarly his own. Of his monuments, we must mention 
 
 * Casts of nearly 300 modern statues, and an excellent Handbook 
 by Mrs. Jameson, may be consulted in the Crystal Palace. 
 
 EHA T 
 
274 Sculpture in the Nineteenth Century. 
 
 that at Lucerne (1821), with the famous Dying Lion, the 
 symbol of fidelity in death ; the bronze equestrian statue 
 of Maximilian I. at Munich, and the Schiller monument 
 at Stuttgart. 
 
 Johann Heinrich von Dannecker (1758 — 1841), of Stutt- 
 gart, another great sculptor, excelled in portrait-statues, 
 and was also very successful in his treatment of female 
 figures. His busts of Schiller, Lavater, Gluck, and Kings 
 Frederick and William of Wurtemberg, are very valuable 
 likenesses. His group, Ariadne on the Panther, in a 
 private collection at Frankfort — copies of which abound 
 everywhere — is his most famous work. Towards the close 
 of his life he produced many fine ideal statues, of which 
 his Christ, John the Baptist, and Faith, are the best. 
 
 Gottfried Schadow (1764 — 1850), of Berlin, was one of 
 the first to return to the realistic style which prevailed in 
 the best period of the Renaissance. His monuments of 
 Count von der Mark, in the Dorotheakirche, at Berlin, 
 and his statue of Frederick the Great, at Stettin, are 
 among his best works. His sons Rudolph (1786—1822) 
 and Wilhelm (1789 — 1862) were also sculptors of note. 
 
 Christian Rauch, also of Berlin (1777 — 1857), who 
 founded an important school, was one of Schadow' s 
 greatest followers. He adopted the realistic style com- 
 bined with the antique, in the manner of the best masters 
 of the Renaissance. In his portrait-statues the happy 
 working of this double influence is especially noticeable ; 
 we have a faithful but idealised likeness, in which all 
 the best characteristics of the subject are brought out. 
 His statues of Biilow and Scharnhorst, of Luther, Albrecht 
 Diirer, Schiller, Goethe, Schleiermacher, Queen Louisa, 
 etc., erected in various towns of Germany, are instances of 
 
In Germany. 275 
 
 his faithful portraiture ; and numerous monuments attest 
 his skill in more complicated works. The greatest of 
 these is without doubt that of Frederick the Great in 
 Berlin, a small model of which is in the Crystal Palace. 
 
 Friedrich Drake, born in 1805, is another famous master 
 of the Berlin school. His principal works are a Madonna 
 with her Infant Son, belonging to the Empress of Russia ; 
 the eight colossal allegorical figures of the provinces of 
 Prussia, in the Royal Palace of Berlin ; the marble group 
 on the Palace bridge at Berlin, of a Warrior crowned by 
 Victory, considered one of the masterpieces of Prussian 
 sculpture; the monument to Frederick William III., in 
 the Thiergarten at Berlin, the reliefs of which are power- 
 fully conceived ; and above all, the statues of Schinkel, 
 the Humboldts, Rauch, Moser, and other celebrities, all 
 alike full of nervous life and energy. 
 
 Ernst Rietschel, of Dresden (1804 — 1861), was a 
 sculptor of great power, who closely followed the ex- 
 ample of Rauch. He studied sculpture under him at 
 Munich, and was remarkable for his vivid imagination 
 and refined feeling for beauty. His best works are his 
 double monument to Schiller and Goethe at Weimar ; his 
 statue of Lessing at Brunswick, in which the influence of 
 his great master may be distinctly traced ; his Pieta at 
 Sans Souci, in which ideal beauty and pathetic feeling are 
 combined ; his sculptures for the pediments of the Opera- 
 house at Berlin, and the Theatre and Museum of Munich. 
 
 Ludwig Schwanthaler (1802 — 1848) was a sculptor of 
 great original power, who treated the worn-out subjects 
 of Greek mythology and of Christian legend in a fresh 
 and truly poetical spirit. He imbued everything he 
 undertook with something of his own energy, but he was 
 
 T 2 
 
276 Sculpture in the Nineteenth Century. 
 
 unfortunately careless about finished execution, and his 
 works have all a certain appearance of incompleteness. 
 His principal productions are the sculptures of the pedi- 
 ments of the Walhalla, Munich ; a colossal ideal figure 
 of Bavaria ; and the statues of Tilly and Wrede in the 
 Generals' Hall, Munich. 
 
 August Kiss (1 802 — 1865) made a world-wide reputation 
 by his Amazon on Horseback attacked by a Lion, exhibited 
 at the Great Exhibition of 1851, in Hyde Park, and now 
 in front of the Museum of Berlin. 
 
 Ernst von Bandel (1800 — 1876) is famous for his gigantic 
 hammered copper figure, 45ft. high, of Arminius, which 
 stands on a pedestal of sandstone 90ft. in height, on the 
 top of the Grotenberg, near Detmold, where it was erected 
 in 1875. 
 
 Foremost among living German sculptors are Johann 
 Schilling, Albert Wolff, Emil Wolff, Hugo Schaper, Karl 
 Steinhauser, and Reinhold Begas. 
 
 In France towards the close of the 18th century a new 
 impulse was given to sculpture by Antoine Chaudet (1763 
 — 1810), who followed the classical style, and produced 
 several fine works, such as his group of the Shepherd 
 Phorbas carrying away the young (Edipus. His principal 
 followers were Francois Bosio (1769 — 1845), who executed 
 the reliefs for the famous Vendome Column, and designed 
 the quadriga of the Triumphal Arch of the Place Carrousel : 
 —Pierre Cortot (1787—1843), author of the group of 
 Marie Antoinette supported by Religion, in the " Chapelle 
 Expiatoire," Paris, of the group in the pediment of the • 
 Palais de Justice, and the reliefs on the Arc de l'Etoile, 
 representing Napoleon crowned by Victory. 
 
In France. 277 
 
 Pradier, of Geneva (1792 — 1852), was especially success- 
 ful in the treatment of the female figure, particularly in his 
 Phryne (exhibited in the Great Exhibition of 1851), and 
 his Psyche, Atalanta, and Niobe group in the Louvre. 
 His power of representing force as well as beauty is 
 well illustrated by his Prometheus Chained. Among the 
 few who have been able, whilst retaining the correctness 
 of the classical style, to combine it with boldness and 
 freedom, 
 
 Francois Rude, of Dijon (1 784 — 1855), is one of the fore- 
 most. His bronze Mercury, in the Louvre, is full of energy 
 and spirit, as are also his Young Fisherman playing with 
 a Tortoise, in the same gallery, and the group in high 
 relief of the Arc de Triomphe de l'fitoile, known as the 
 Marseillaise, or the Departure (Fig. 114). Another great 
 master of the same school is F. Duret (1804 — 1865), 
 author of the Young Neapolitan Dancer, and the 
 Neapolitan Improvisatore, both in the Louvre. 
 
 As an upholder of the realistic style when most of his 
 contemporaries had abandoned it, we must name 
 
 Pierre Jean David, of Angers (1789 — 1856), author of 
 the fine groups on the pediment of the Pantheon of Paris, 
 which offer a remarkable contrast to the French sculp- 
 ture of his day. General Buonaparte and the stern heroes 
 of the Republic are represented in a natural and life- 
 like manner on either side of a solemn ideal figure of 
 their native land. David was especially successful with 
 portrait-statues ; the most famous are perhaps those of 
 Philopcemen in the Tuileries, of Conde at Versailles, of 
 Corneille at Rouen, and of La Fayette at Washington. 
 
 Our limits forbid us to do more than name Jouffroy, 
 Charles Simart, Foyatier (author of the celebrated Spartacus 
 
Fig. 114. — The Marseillaise. Group by Francois Rude. 
 On the Arc de VEtoile, Pans. 
 
In Feance. 279 
 
 of the Tuileries), Ottin, and Cavelier, who have all pro- 
 duced fine ideal works of sculpture in the last few years. 
 
 Antoine Barye (1795 — 1875), who revived the art of 
 bronze casting from a single mould in the early part of 
 this century, was especially skilful in rendering animals. 
 The gardens and museums of Paris contain many fine 
 groups by him. 
 
 In the year 1873 two great sculptors passed away : , 
 Amedee Durand, author of the figure of Religion on the 
 tomb of the Duke d'Enghien, at Vincennes, etc., and 
 Johann Peter Molin, a native of Sweden, well known 
 for his powerful group of The Grapplers, exhibited at the 
 International Exhibition of 1862. 
 
 At the recent Paris Exhibitions MM. Eugene Guillaume, 
 Perraud, Carpeaux, Crauk, Etex, Falguiere, Gumery, Aime 
 Millet, Thomas, Paul Dubois, Allar, Chapu, Barrias, Cain, 
 and J. L. Gerome, the painter, exhibited fine works, the 
 chief characteristics of which were freedom from all the old 
 traditions and daring originality, often verging on extrava- 
 gance. MM. Clesinger and Gruyere have been amongst 
 the few French contributors to the London Exhibitions. 
 
 Next to French sculptors of the present day rank. those 
 of Italy : Vela's Dying Napoleon, and Pietro Magni's 
 Reading Girls, are still fresh in the memory of all who 
 were fortunate enough to see them at the Paris and 
 Florentine Exhibitions. The schools founded by Tenerani 
 (1789—1869), and Bartolini (1777—1850), have produced 
 many able sculptors. Amongst the Italians who have con- 
 tributed to the London Exhibitions we must name Monti, 
 Finelli, Caroni, Salvini, Barzaghi, Fantacchiotti, Fontana, 
 Lazzarini, and Torelli, whose statuary is all notable for 
 
280 Sculpture in the Nineteenth Century. 
 
 the thorough knowledge displayed of form, or, as it is 
 technically called, " drawing," and for skilful execution, 
 though it rarely rises to the highest rank in conception. 
 
 The chief living Belgian sculptors are Geefs, Fraikin, 
 and Simonis. 
 
 The Roman school founded by Canova and Thorwaldsen 
 produced many sculptors of different nationalities, of 
 whom our own countryman Gibson, the Germans Wagner 
 and Steinhauser, and the Dutchman Kessel, are amongst 
 the chief. We must also mention a female sculptor who 
 died a short time ago : Maria, Duchess of Wurtemberg, 
 nee Princess of Orleans, who executed the statue of Joan 
 of Arc at Versailles, and the group of a Peri bringing the 
 Tears of a True Penitent to the Throne of Grace, which 
 now adorns her grave : and Karl Voss and Jerichau, 
 who contributed to the Exhibition of 1871. 
 
 Of the future of Continental sculpture it is difficult to 
 predict anything with certainty. Modern sculptors have 
 to contend with difficulties unknown to the ancients. 
 Greek sculpture appealed at every turn to religious associ- 
 ations ; it spoke in a language intelligible to all ; whereas 
 in our own day the subjects traditionally considered the 
 most suitable for representation in sculpture are incompre- 
 hensible to any but the educated few, and even those few 
 can only enter into the spirit of symbolic or mythologic 
 art with something of an effort. A wide field lies open 
 for a true artist who will throw aside convention and treat 
 the subjects of the present day nobly and honestly ; but 
 modern costume presents great obstacles to success in such 
 an effort. Still the podium round the Albert Memorial 
 may be pointed to as a triumphant answer to those who 
 plead that such obstacles are insuperable. 
 
 
XI. British Sculpture. 
 
 Two heads of bronze statues — a Minerva and a Diana — 
 found at Bath, are among the very few known examples 
 of British sculpture in the round, in the Roman period. 
 A cast of the head of Diana is in the Soane Museum in 
 Lincoln's Inn Fields. The few Roman altars and sepulchral 
 tablets found in Britain, carved in native stone, are very- 
 rough, and only of value for their great antiquity. 
 
 Amongst the earliest sculptures of Great Britain must 
 be mentioned the strangely carved stones which abound in 
 the Isle of Man, Wales, Ireland, and Scotland. They date 
 from the first centuries of Christianity, and on some of 
 them pagan and Christian symbols are combined. The 
 most interesting specimens are in Strathmore ; on some 
 of those of a comparatively late date, centaurs, lions, 
 leopards, deer, and other animals, with processions of men 
 and oxen, etc., are carved in a spirited style, and afford 
 valuable information on the manners and costumes of the 
 period of their erection. 
 
 But few specimens of Anglo-Saxon sculpture have been 
 preserved. The shrine of St. Amphibalus, lately found at 
 St. Alban's Abbey, is among the most remarkable. It is 
 finely conceived, and very beautifully carved. 
 
 No sepulchral statue has been found in England older 
 than the time of William the Conqueror ; two nearly 
 destroyed effigies, in the cloisters of Westminster Abbey — 
 one of Vitalis (died 1087), the other of Crispinus (died 
 1117) — and those of St. Oswald (of uncertain date) and 
 Bishop Wolstan (about the end of the eleventh century), 
 
282 British Sculpture. 
 
 in Worcester Cathedral, are among the earliest existing 
 relics of monumental art. 
 
 English sculpture, properly so-called, may be divided 
 into two distinct periods : the mediaeval, dating from the 
 early part of the thirteenth century to the Reformation; 
 and the modern, dating from the close of the eighteenth 
 century. 
 
 It was at the end of the Crusades, when acquaintance 
 had been made with the masterpieces of Continental art, 
 that English architects were first fired with the ambition 
 of adorning their buildings with sculptured foliage and 
 figures. In the thirteenth century, when Gothic archi- 
 tecture was at the zenith of its beauty in England, many 
 of our finest cathedrals were built or improved, and our 
 best mediaeval architectural and monumental sculpture 
 was produced. From this period dates Wells Cathedral, 
 the noble sculptures of the west front of which have 
 already been described. In judging of the execution we 
 must consider that they were produced at a time when no 
 school of sculpture existed, and before the laws of optics, 
 perspective, or anatomy had been discovered, — so that the 
 artist had nothing to trust to but his own powers of 
 observation. Wells Cathedral was finished at the time 
 when Niccolo Pisano was reviving the art of sculpture in 
 Italy, before the completion of the cathedrals of Chartres, 
 Amiens, Beauvais, and has, therefore, the merit of being 
 the very earliest specimen of religious sculpture with a 
 consecutive design. 
 
 The earliest specimens of English bronze statues are the 
 recumbent effigies of Henry III. and of Eleanor, wife of 
 Edward I., on their respective tombs in Westminster 
 Abbey. The figure of Eleanor, which is very beautiful, 
 
Fifteenth Century. 283 
 
 and full of simple dignity, was the work of William 
 Torel (or Torelli) a goldsmith, who died about the year 
 1300. 
 
 The sculptures of Lincoln Cathedral, of a somewhat 
 later date than those of Wells, are thought to mark a 
 considerable advance in the art of sculpture. They are, 
 unfortunately, much injured. 
 
 When the Decorated style of architecture prevailed in 
 England, statues were introduced in buildings wherever it 
 was possible. In a window in Dorchester Church near 
 Oxford, for instance, there are twenty-eight small figures 
 of our Saviour's ancestors ; and the keystones of the Lady 
 Chapel in Norwich Cathedral are all beautifully carved in 
 high-relief with scenes from the life of the Virgin. Some 
 of the finest sepulchral monuments of England date from 
 this period ; that of Aymer de Valence in Westminster 
 Abbey, and that of the Black Prince in Canterbury 
 Cathedral,* are amongst the best. 
 
 No works of English mediaeval sculpture excel those 
 remaining in the Chapter House of Westminster Abbey. 
 The small figures carved in the jambs of the entrance door- 
 way, and the statues above the same door, are remarkable, 
 — the former for spirit and the latter for beauty and 
 grace ; whilst each is perfectly well suited to its position 
 in the architecture. 
 
 Three works have been selected by Flaxman as illus- 
 trative of the state of the art of English sculpture in the 
 reign of Edward IV. : the sculptures of the door of All 
 Souls' College, Oxford : those of the arch in Westminster 
 Abbey which passes from the back of Henry V.'s tomb 
 over the steps of Henry VII.'s Chapel ; and the monument 
 
 * Casts are in the Crystal Palace. 
 
281 British Sculpture. 
 
 to the Earl of Warwick (1464), in St. Mary's Church, 
 Warwick. William Austen is the name of the sculptor 
 of the last-named work, which Flaxman considers in no 
 respect inferior to the productions of his Italian con- 
 temporaries. 
 
 The greatest works of English sculpture produced 
 during the reign of Henry VII. were the statues in the 
 Lady Chapel of Westminster, the original number of 
 which is said to have been 3000 : very few now remain, 
 but those few suffice to give an idea of the great talent 
 and fertility of invention of the artists employed. 
 
 In the reign of Henry VIII., when the iconoclastic 
 spirit of the Reformation prevailed, many of the finest 
 works of English sculpture were destroyed ; but before his 
 death, the arrival of the Italian Pietro Torriggiano (1470 — 
 1522) the contemporary of Michelangelo, gave a new and 
 a different impulse to the art; and to him we owe the 
 sculptures of the tomb of Henry VII., which, though 
 superior in execution and accuracy of proportion to those 
 of the chapel itself, are certainly inferior to them in vigour 
 and truth to life. No English sculptor of eminence arose, 
 after the storm of the Reformation, before the Restoration, 
 although a few isolated works were produced which prove 
 that the artist spirit of England was not dead but sleeping, 
 and with a little encouragement would have revived. The 
 tomb of Sir Francis de Vere, in Westminster Abbey, and the 
 figures on the monument of Sir George Hollis, also in the 
 Abbey, by Nicholas Stone (1586 — 1647), a sculptor who 
 would have become famous under more favourable circum- 
 stances, are proofs of the latent power which might have 
 been trained to excellence. The bronze equestrian statue 
 of Charles I., now at Charing Cross, is by a foreigner 
 
Seventeenth Century. 285 
 
 named Hubert le Sceur, a pupil of Giovanni da Bologna. 
 The effigy of Cecil Lord Burghiey, on his tomb at 
 Stamford, may be taken as a good specimen of the monu- 
 mental sculpture of the Elizabethan period — stiff and 
 quaint to a degree, but often, as in this instance, showing 
 great mastery in portraiture. 
 
 We now come to the men who laid the foundations of 
 our present school of sculpture. The earliest was Grinling 
 Gibbons (1648 — 1721), a sculptor of considerable merit of 
 the reign of Charles II., who especially excelled in wood- 
 carving. Fine specimens of his work are preserved in 
 Windsor Castle, at Burleigh, Chatsworth, Petworth, and 
 other residences of the nobility, and in the Choir, Library, 
 and other parts of St. Paul's Cathedral. 
 
 Cajus Gabriel Cibber (1630—1700), a Dane, was the 
 author of the bas-reliefs on the Monument near London 
 Bridge, and two fine allegorical figures of Frenzy and 
 Melancholy designed for the entrance-hall of the Beth- 
 lehem Hospital for Lunatics, which are truly terrible 
 embodiments of a poetical conception of fearful madness. 
 
 Few works of any importance were produced in 
 England during the reigns of James II., William and 
 Mary, Anne, and George I. John Bushnell executed the 
 statues at Temple Bar, now removed, and Francis Bird 
 the monuments of Dr. Busby and others in Westminster 
 Abbey, and the figures in the pediment of St. Paul's; 
 but they are none of them worthy of special notice. 
 
 In the reign of George II., however, great activity was 
 displayed by three foreigners who had settled in London : 
 Roubiliac, a Frenchman, and Scheemakers and Ruysbrack, 
 natives of Holland. 
 
 Roubiliac (1695 — 1762) was by far the greatest artist 
 
286 British Sculpture. 
 
 of the three. He studied under Bernini, and appears in 
 many respects to have excelled his master. His master- 
 piece is the statue of Sir Isaac Newton with the prism in 
 his hand, in the library of Cambridge, which is remarkable 
 for life and vigour, but more so for a nobility of pose and 
 dignity of bearing rarely equalled by the best works of a 
 better age. Another famous work of his is Eloquence, 
 one of the figures in the monument of John, Duke of 
 Argyle, at Westminster Abbey. The Nightingale monu- 
 ment in the same place has been much criticised ; its idea 
 is in keeping with the conceits of the time. The design 
 is Death kept away by a human arm ; and the execution 
 of the skeleton and of the drapery in which it is wrapped 
 are very fine. Roubiliac's title to one of the highest 
 positions among the sculptors of Britain is gained, in spite 
 of such works as this tour de force just alluded to. His 
 modelling of head and hands, his perfect mastery over his 
 material, and his power of throwing life into all that he 
 touched, are his great characteristics. In no works can 
 these qualities be better traced than in his statue of 
 Shakespeare, now in the vestibule of the British Museum. 
 
 Ruysbrack's and Scheemakers' principal works include 
 busts, statues, and monumental figures, but hardly call 
 for detailed description. 
 
 Somewhat later than this famous trio, an Englishman, 
 Joseph Wilton, acquired celebrity by his monument of 
 General Wolfe in Westminster Abbey, and many similar 
 works, in which he displayed much skill and talent, but 
 ignorance of the true limits of his art. The monument to 
 Wolfe, for instance, is crowded with figures and symbols 
 mixed together in hopeless confusion. In 1790 he was 
 made Keeper of the Royal Academy. 
 
Eighteenth Century. 287 
 
 Thomas Banks (1735 — 1805), was the first Englishman 
 who succeeded with ideal or poetic sculpture. He was 
 far in advance of his age, and had he lived later, would 
 perhaps have taken rank amongst the master spirits of 
 Europe. His models exhibited on the foundation of 
 the Royal Academy, attracted the notice of Sir Joshua 
 Reynolds. One of his first groups, a bas-relief of Carac- 
 tacus and his Family in the Presence of Claudius, is very 
 grand. In this, and in his Psyche seizing the Golden 
 Flame, and Love catching a Butterfly, all alike remark- 
 able for symmetry of form and correctness of outline, 
 Banks displayed intimate knowledge of the antique, and 
 appreciation of the true excellence of Greek statuary ; 
 but he met with no encouragement in England, and 
 accepted an invitation to Russia, where he remained for 
 two years. On his return home he produced his cele- 
 brated group of Achilles bewailing the loss of Briseis, 
 considered one of the finest heroic statues of modern 
 times, which established his fame and brought him full 
 employment. Unfortunately, his commissions were con- 
 fined to sepulchral monuments, in which he did not 
 escape the prevailing error of his time — striving to 
 combine allegory and portraiture, and to introduce a 
 greater variety of subject than is admissible in statuary. 
 
 Joseph Nollekens (1737 — 1823), a contemporary of 
 Banks, although inferior to him in every other respect, 
 excelled him in portrait-statues and busts, for which 
 there was an extraordinary demand. 
 
 John Bacon (1740 — 1799), was an industrious and 
 successful sculptor of the same time, who supplied the 
 Court with the porcelain shepherds and shepherdesses so 
 much admired in his day, and executed several fine 
 
288 British Sculpture. 
 
 portrait-statues, of which those of John Howard and Dr. 
 Johnson, in St. Paul's Cathedral, and the monument to 
 Chatham, in Westminster Abbey, are considered the best. 
 The original model for Dr. Johnson is in the Crystal 
 Palace. None of these men — except, perhaps, Banks — 
 are, however, worthy to rank with Flaxman, the restorer 
 of English classical sculpture, who excelled even Canova 
 in the boldness of his conceptions and the beauty of his 
 execution. 
 
 John Flaxman was the son of a modeller and dealer in 
 plaster figures. He was born at York, July 6th, 1755. 
 He commenced studying at the Royal Academy when only 
 fifteen, but never received regular lessons from any master. 
 In 1782 he married Miss Denham, a lady whose genuine 
 love of art was of the greatest service to him. In 1787 
 Flaxman went to Italy, and soon after his return to Eng- 
 land, in 1797, he was elected an associate of the Royal 
 Academy. In 1800 he became an Academician, in 1810 
 was appointed Professor of Sculpture to the Academy, and 
 from that time till his death in 1826 his labours in every 
 branch of his art were unceasing. Flaxman has justly been 
 called the author of modern bas-relief : even Ghiberti's and 
 Canova' s reliefs were too much like raised paintings ; but 
 the English master fully recognised the true limits of his 
 art. The study of the relics of antiquity discovered in 
 Italy at the beginning of the present century brought the 
 contrast between the severe simplicity of Greek reliefs and 
 the affected mannerism of those of his predecessors vividly 
 before him. He was also one of the first to appreciate at 
 their true value the sculptures of Wells, Lincoln, and 
 other cathedrals ; and his Lectures on Sculpture are still 
 the best in the English language. Of his sculptures, the 
 
Nineteenth Century. 289 
 
 bas-relief monument to Collins at Chichester, the monu- 
 ment to Lord Mansfield, and that of the Barings, in 
 Micheldever Church, Hampshire, a group of the Archangel 
 Michael vanquishing Satan, a figure of Psyche, one of 
 Apollo, statues of Raphael, Michelangelo, Sir Joshua 
 Reynolds, William Pitt, etc., etc., and his model of the 
 shield of Achilles, are anions the most original and valu- 
 able. The last-named, taken from the description of the 
 shield of Achilles in the 18th book of the Iliad (by some 
 supposed to have been a real shield, by others an ideal 
 founded on various pieces of antique work combined into 
 one united whole by the genius of the poet), is universally 
 allowed to be a magnificent work of art, full of poetic feel- 
 ing and imagination. Flaxman was scarcely les's famous 
 for his designs of various kinds than for his sculptures ; a 
 fine collection of both are preserved in the Hall of the 
 University College, London. He supplied Wedgwood, the 
 restorer of English pottery to the rank of an art, with 
 many groups, medallions, and bas-reliefs. 
 
 Sir Francis Chantrey (1788 — 1841) was eminently suc- 
 cessful in historical and portrait statuary. His works pre- 
 sent a striking contrast to those of Flaxman, and resemble 
 in many respects those of Nollekens, to whom Sir Francis 
 is said to have been indebted for assistance and encourage- 
 ment at the beginning of his career. The group of the 
 Sleeping Children, in Lichfield Cathedral (1818), is con- 
 sidered Chantrey' s finest composition. Marble and bronze 
 portraits of Pitt, Canning, George Washington, and Bishop 
 Heber, are among his well-known works. 
 
 Edward Bailey (1788 — 1867) studied under Flaxman, 
 and acquired much of his great master's manner. He is 
 best known by his group of Eve at the Fountain, in the 
 
 eha u 
 
290 British Sculpture. 
 
 Philosophic Institute at Bristol, in which he showed 
 considerable poetic feeling. In his public monuments 
 and architectural sculptures Bailey was not so success- 
 ful. We may instance his Nelson on the column in 
 Trafalgar Square and the pediments of Buckingham 
 Palace as proofs. 
 
 John Gibson (1791 — 1866), an English sculptor of great 
 genius, who spent the greater part of his life at Rome, is 
 famous for his introduction of colour in statuary — his 
 tinted Venus, which was shown in London at the Exhibi- 
 tion of 1862, having excited a warm controversy on the 
 subject of the introduction of colour into sculpture. Gibson 
 studied for three years with Canova, but in many respects 
 he surpassed his master, rising to an ideal purity and grace 
 unexcelled by any other modern master. His first work of 
 importance was a Nymph unfastening her sandal, followed 
 by a group of Psyche borne by the Zephyr, Aurora rising 
 from the Waves, the Wounded Amazon, the Hunter and 
 his Dog, all full of severe and dignified beauty. Of his 
 portrait-statues, those of Huskisson, Peel, George Stephen- 
 son, and Queen Victoria are the best. On his death, Gibson 
 bequeathed a fine collection of his sculptures and models 
 to the British nation : they are now in a suite of galleries 
 in Burlington House, 
 
 Richard James Wyatt (1795 — 1850) was an industrious 
 sculptor who worked principally at Rome, where he died. 
 His Penelope, at Windsor Castle, executed for the Queen 
 when he was on a visit to England, and his Nymph taking 
 a Thorn from the Foot of her Hound, also in the possession 
 of Her Majesty, are among his finest works. 
 
 Sir Richard Westmacott (1799 — 1856) was a sculptor of 
 great eminence who studied under Canova at about the 
 
PAINTING. 
 
PAINTING 
 
 Introduction : Means and Methods op Painting. 
 
 PAINTING is the art of representing on a flat surface, 
 by means of lines and colour, objects as they appear 
 in nature — that is to say, in such a manner that the picture 
 produced shall, within certain limits, affect the eye in the 
 same way as do the objects themselves. To be able to do 
 this, thorough education of the mind, the eye and the hand 
 is required. The mind must learn the nature of the objects 
 depicted, the eye how they appear, and the hand how to 
 imitate them. 
 
 I. Form. 
 
 In the first place, the painter must study the laws of 
 form, and learn accurately to represent the bulk and figure 
 of objects of every variety, whether organic or inorganic, at 
 rest or in motion ; secondly, he must acquire a knowledge 
 of that portion of the science of optics which embraces the 
 laws of colour, light, and vision, including — 
 
 Linear 'perspective — i. e. the effect produced upon the 
 apparent form and grouping of objects by the position and 
 
300 Painting. 
 
 
 distance of the observer : and aerial perspective — i. e. the 
 effect produced on the brightness and colour of objects by 
 the various differences in the temperature, atmosphere, 
 light, etc. Thirdly, the painter must master the laws of 
 light and shade, the right treatment of which is a most 
 important element in painting. 
 
 The term chiaroscuro — from two Italian words, signify- 
 ing light and shadow — has been given to the art of repre- 
 senting light and shadow, together with the effect of light 
 and shadow on colour, and it is, in fact, the expression in 
 painting, drawing, or engraving of the infinite variety of 
 effects of brightness and shade in nature, — the faithful 
 rendering of the sharp contrasts, the subtle combinations 
 and rapid changes which nature exhibits in her ever-vary- 
 ing moods. The greatest masters of chiaroscuro were 
 Titian, Correggio, Rubens, and Rembrandt; and, in our 
 own day, Turner. 
 
 II. Colour. 
 
 Lastly, and perhaps chiefly, the painter must know the 
 laws of colour; he must train his eye to recognise the 
 most subtle gradations of tint, as well as the most vividly 
 contrasted colours in nature, and learn not only what will 
 be the result of the use of separate colours, but also the 
 infinitely varied effects of harmony or contrast which may 
 be obtained by their combinations. 
 
 The three primary colours are red, yellow, and blue, 
 which are the constituents of white light. Every variety 
 of tint produced is a combination of two or more of these 
 three. The secondary colours are mixtures of any two of 
 the primary : thus red and yellow produce orange ; yellow 
 
Nineteenth Century. 291 
 
 same time as Gibson. He succeeded Flaxman as Professor 
 of Sculpture at the Royal Academy in 1827. The works 
 by which he is best known are his monumental statues, 
 such as those of Pitt, Perceval, Fox, etc., in Westminster 
 Abbey, and of Sir Ralph Abercrombie and Lord Colling- 
 wood in St. Paul's Cathedral. The sculptures of the 
 pediment of the British Museum, the equestrian statue of 
 George III. at Windsor, that of Fox in Bloomsbury Square, 
 of Canning in Palace Yard, and the Duke of York on the 
 York column, are by the same artist. The fame of Sir 
 Richard Westinacott rests principally on his having broken 
 through the fatal habit so long prevalent in England of 
 combining allegory with portraiture in monumental art. 
 In the monument to Sir Ralph Abercrombie, for example, 
 the dying hero is supported by a Highlander instead of a 
 symbolic figure. All Sir Richard's works display good 
 taste and finished execution. 
 
 Patrick Macdowell (1799 — 1870) was an Irishman of 
 considerable talent, whose Reading Girl, exhibited at the 
 Great Exhibition of 1862, was universally admired. He 
 was the sculptor of "Europe" for the Albert Memorial. 
 
 Samuel Joseph (1800 — 1850) was the author of the 
 fine statue of Wilberforce in Westminster Abbey, and that 
 of Wilkie in the National Gallery. He found his chief 
 employment as a modeller of busts. 
 
 Musgrave Watson (about 1802—1847), a sculptor of 
 great promise, was the author of the seated statue of Flax- 
 man in the London University ; of a fine group of Lords 
 Eldon and Stowell, at the University College, Oxford ; and 
 of a bas-relief to Dr. Cameron which was destroyed in the 
 fire at the Chapel Royal, Savoy, in 1864. 
 
 Baron Marochetti (1805 — 1867) was an Italian sculptor 
 
 u 2 
 
292 Beitish Sculpture. 
 
 of merit who settled in England early in his career. His 
 colossal figure of Richard Cceur de Lion, in Old Palace 
 Yard, Westminster, is one of his best works in England. 
 His equestrian statue of Emmanuel Philibert, at Turin, the 
 tomb of Bellini in the cemetery of Pere Lachaise, the grand 
 altar of the Madeleine, Paris, and statues of the Emperor 
 and the Duke of Orleans, are also very fine. 
 
 John Thomas (1813 — 1862), who is chiefly known as 
 superintendent of the masons and carvers employed on the 
 ornamentation of the New Houses of Parliament, produced 
 some few independent works, of which the marble group 
 of the Queen of the Britons rousing her Subjects to 
 revenge is the principal. 
 
 John Thomas will always be remembered as the head of 
 that large school of carvers in stone and wood which he 
 helped to form, and in the ranks of which many men of 
 talent and some of genius have appeared. Hardly a church 
 or a mansion has been built since the " Gothic Revival," 
 without more or less architectural carving being introduced ; 
 and in important works — such, for example, as the Palace 
 of Westminster — the decorations have included statues, 
 many of them of no small merit. He deserves special 
 recognition both for the work that he did and the influ- 
 ence which he exercised over this branch of art. 
 
 William Behnes, who died in 1864, was very successful 
 with portrait-statues : that of Sir Robert Peel in the City, 
 and of George IV. in Dublin, are from his hand. 
 
 Alfred G. Stevens (1817 — 1875) was the sculptor of 
 the monument to the Duke of Wellington in St. Paul's 
 Cathedral; one of the grandest efforts of genius of modern 
 times. Some of his studies for this work are in the South 
 Kensington Museum, 
 
Nineteenth Century. 293 
 
 John Henry Foley (1818—1874), a native of Dublin, was 
 one of the most successful of modern sculptors of poetic 
 feeling. His Ino and Bacchus, and Youth at the Stream 
 are among his best works. He also executed the equestrian 
 statues of Lord Hardinge and Sir James Outram for 
 India; and the group of " Asia" for the Albert Memorial. 
 
 Benjamin Spence (1822 — 1866) was an artist of consider- 
 able imaginative power. His Highland Mary, Lady of the 
 Lake, Lavinia, Pharaoh's Daughter, and Angel's Whisper, 
 are among his best works. 
 
 Munro Macdonald, Lough, Noble, Theed and Philip, all 
 attained to fame in recent years, but our limits will not 
 allow us to do more than mention their names. 
 
 Of living English sculptors, whose works we do not pro- 
 pose here to criticise, we must name H. H. Armstead, R.A. ; 
 Calder Marshall, R.A. ; Thomas Woolner, RA. ; C. B. 
 Birch, A.RA. ; J. E. Boehm, A. R.A. ; E. B. Stephens, 
 A.RA. ; Hamo Thorny croft, A. R.A. ; Adams Acton; and 
 John Bell. 
 
 In the Albert Memorial we have specimens of the best 
 works of several of our greatest living sculptors, and we 
 may fairly point to the high general standard of excellence 
 obtained there as establishing a good position for English 
 sculpture at the present day. 
 
 Of the future of sculpture in England it is not easy to 
 speak. Its best chance appears to be in its combination 
 with architecture, the growing recognition of its true 
 limits, and the increasing refinement of the public taste. 
 
XII. American Sculpture. 
 
 Our limits forbid us to devote more than a short space 
 to the rising school of American sculptors, whose works 
 have been exhibited from time to time at Paris, South 
 Kensington, and elsewhere. American art sustained a 
 severe loss in the early death of 
 
 Thomas Crawford (1813 — 1857), a sculptor of high 
 aspirations and great promise, who had for many years 
 resided at Rome. His chief work was a monument to 
 Washington, in course of erection at Richmond, much 
 resembling in design Rauch's well-known monument to 
 Frederick the Great. Of this important composition the 
 central equestrian figure, with the statues of Jefferson, 
 Lee, and Patrick Kerry, had been completed and cast in 
 bronze at Munich at the time of the artist's death. The 
 completion of the work was entrusted to Randolph Rogers, 
 an American sculptor of considerable eminence. 
 
 Hiram Powers (1805 — 1873), who lived many years in 
 Florence, was well-known in England ; his Greek Slave 
 was much admired in the Great Exhibition of 1851. His 
 Eve after the Fall, and his portrait-statues of Benjamin 
 Franklin, Webster, Washington, and others are amongst 
 his best works. 
 
 Horatio Greenough (1805 — 1852) is best known by the 
 monument on Bunker's Hill, the elaborate group on the 
 portico of the Capitol, and the colossal statue of Washing- 
 ton. He lived for many years in Florence, and executed 
 a number of ideal works. 
 
Colour. 301 
 
 and blue, green; red and blue, violet or indigo, according 
 to the quantities of each ingredient. The tertiary colours 
 are those fine shades obtained by mingling two or more of 
 the secondary ones. The complementary colour of any 
 given shade or tint is that which will have to be added to 
 it to produce white. 
 
 The ancients added black, or total absence of light, white, 
 or fulness of light, and half-tints to the three primary colours. 
 
 Contrast of colour is of great importance in heightening 
 in a picture the force of the colours contrasted ; any two of 
 the primary colours are good contrasts to each other. 
 
 Harmony of colour is the preservation of the same 
 character of colouring in the whole of a picture : to retain 
 it, without producing monotony, requires the greatest skill. 
 The greatest colourists N were Titian, Tintoretto, Giorgione, 
 Correggio, Paolo Veronese, Rubens, and Van Dyck. 
 
 The tone of a picture is the general quality of shadow, 
 of light, or of colour prevailing throughout an entire pic- 
 ture. The phrase a " high " or a " low " tone are used to 
 express either a forcible or a subdued rendering of these 
 qualities. 
 
 III. Composition. 
 
 Composition is the assembling together of the different 
 objects to be represented in the picture in such a manner 
 that they shall combine to produce a harmonious impression 
 on the eye as a whole, and shall each engage a suitable 
 share of attention. 
 
 The terms foregro un d, middle distance, and background 
 have been given, the first to the portion of a picture nearest 
 to the spectator, the second to that somewhat removed from 
 him, and the third to that farthest off. 
 
302 Painting. 
 
 IV. Materials. 
 
 Having thus given a slight outline of the leading prin- 
 ciples of the theory of painting, we will briefly enumerate 
 the materials and processes employed in its practice. 
 
 In speaking of the materials we must distinguish between 
 those painted on, and those painted with. 
 
 For drawing, crayons of different kinds are used; for 
 painting, a brush to hold the colour. 
 
 1. For drawing on paper, parchment, ivory, or other 
 similar substances — pencils, chalks, charcoal, and water 
 colours are used. 
 
 2. For painting on wood and canvas — tempera or dis- 
 temper, and oil colours. 
 
 3. For painting on wall surfaces, dry colours, tempera, 
 wax colours, and fresco colours. 
 
 The so-called lead-pencils employed in drawing do not 
 contain any lead ; but are made of graphite or plumbago, 
 an opaque greyish-black mineral with a metallic lustre, 
 somewhat greasy to the touch, which produces a clear 
 stroke of any thickness required, and peculiarly suitable 
 for rapid sketching on account of the ease with which it 
 may be effaced. 
 
 Blade chalk is a bluish or greyish-black material, used 
 both for drawing and as a colour in painting; but it is 
 neither easy to work with nor pleasant to handle, and 
 charcoal is preferred to it for all but small sketches. 
 
 The scarcity of coloured chalks has led to the use of 
 pastel, or chalk mixed with various colours and made into 
 crayons, but it is not very durable, and if pictures in it 
 are washed with gum to preserve them, they lose the soft, 
 warm appearance which is their chief charm. 
 
Materials. 303 
 
 Charcoal is well suited for sketching the outlines of 
 large works. It produces a broad stroke adhering so 
 slightly to the ground that it may be blown away without 
 leaving a trace. If, however, the ground be washed with 
 lime-water and allowed to dry before the sketch is made, 
 the charcoal will set. Nearly all large cartoons (i. e. 
 designs on strong paper or paste-board of the full size 
 of the work to be executed) of modern times are drawn 
 in charcoal, although Kaulbach, the great German fresco 
 painter, sometimes used chalk. Cartoons drawn in charcoal 
 have played an important part in the history of art ever 
 since Michelangelo's cartoons for his frescoes were exhibited 
 at Florence in 1504; and some of considerable value have 
 been produced in our own day. In working both with 
 chalks and charcoal, the stump, a bluntly-pointed implement 
 made of leather, is largely used in working the shadows. 
 
 In figure painting, the artist uses a living model for the 
 study of the formation of the body and the surface of the 
 flesh, and a lay -figure on which to arrange the drapery. 
 The lay-figure was, it is said, invented by Fra Bartolommeo. 
 
 In water-colour painting, prepared colours, consisting of 
 colouring matter mixed with honey or gum-arabic, are 
 used. Two courses are open to the artist. He may either 
 merely wash-in a drawing in sepia or Indian ink, or he 
 may fully colour it. In both processes, however, the 
 shading would be done with a brush. Painting in water- 
 colours is carried to greater perfection in England than 
 in any other country. But the works contributed by 
 modern Dutch water-colour artists to the exhibition at 
 Grosvenor Gallery in the winter of 1879-80 proved that 
 they are by no means backward in the art. 
 
304 Painting. 
 
 In drawings of the quality known by the French as 
 gouache, opaque colours are thickly spread over the draw- 
 ing. They look heavy and massive, but present a favour- 
 able opportunity for the development of pure effects of 
 colouring. By this method, which is extensively practised 
 at Naples and elsewhere on the Continent, though little 
 known in England, glowing effects of colour can be 
 represented with truth and force.. 
 
 The modern water-colour artists have, many of them, 
 now adopted a slightly altered mode of painting, depending 
 largely upon the employment of opaque colours for its effects. 
 This borders closely on oil painting, and seems wanting in 
 the peculiar softness and transparent depth of colour which 
 are the distinctive property of true water colours. 
 
 In the middle ages, wood was principally employed as 
 the ground for movable pictures; but, as it was liable 
 to rot and to destruction by worms, it was supplanted in 
 the fifteenth century by canvas, which was first used, it is 
 said, by Rogier van der Weyden, and which is now almost 
 universally preferred. Copper has been not unfrequently 
 used as a ground by painters, and a few pictures have 
 been executed on marble, and even on silver. 
 
 Before oil painting was adopted, other materials were 
 in use, to which the name of tempera or distemper colours 
 has been given. In tempera-painting the colour is mixed 
 with white of egg, glue or size. 
 
 A painter's colours are called pigments ; those employed 
 by the ancients appear to have been earths or oxides, 
 mixed with gum or glue instead of oils. Unfortunately, 
 however, colours so obtained are wanting in freshness and 
 soon peel off. They are now only used for scene-painting 
 
American Sculpture. 295 
 
 Edward Sheffield Bartholomew (1822—1858) began life 
 as a painter, but finding that he was colour-blind, turned 
 his attention to sculpture. He went to Rome, where his 
 model of Blind Homer made him celebrated. His Eve 
 Repentant is his best work. He lived most of his life in 
 Italy, where he died young. 
 
 Benjamin Akers (1825 — 1861) lived chiefly in Rome, 
 where he executed many ideal works of much beauty. 
 The Lost Pearl Diver and Saint Elizabeth of Hungary 
 are among his most celebrated works. 
 
 Of living American sculptors, whom we shall abstain 
 from criticising, we may first name W. W. Story, the 
 sculptor of Cleopatra, the Sibyl, the statue of Peabody, 
 near the Royal Exchange, London, and many other cele- 
 brated works — and Randolph Rogers, the author of the 
 bronze doors of the Capitol at Washington, Rinehart, 
 Meade, Gould, Thompson, and Harriet Hosmer, all of whom 
 generally reside in Rome or Florence ; and O' Donovan, 
 Hartley, St. Gaudens, Ward, and Palmer. 
 
Materials. 305 
 
 and staining wall-papers, although the old masters often 
 executed portions of their pictures in distemper, and oiled 
 them afterwards. Towards the close of the middle ages, 
 the Italians discovered that by using albumen, or white 
 of egg, instead of size, as a means of union between the 
 particles of colouring matter, they obtained a better 
 substance for tempera painting and one less liable to be 
 affected by damp than materials dissolved in water. 
 Paintings in this medium, however, dry too quickly for 
 any elaborate working-up, and require some kind of 
 varnish to protect them. 
 
 Painting in Oils. — As early as A.D. 1000, linseed-oil 
 was used in painting in Italy, and there are records which 
 prove that oil was used as a medium in painting in 
 Germany, in France, and even in England before the time 
 of the Van Eycks ; but it was not until the fifteenth 
 century that the best method of mixing colours with oil 
 was discovered by the brothers Van Eyck, who quickly 
 attained to a skill in colouring perhaps never surpassed. 
 The old method practised by the Italians did not allow of 
 one colour being laid on until the previous coat had 
 dried ; and it was this inconvenience that caused Jan van 
 Eyck to make experiments which resulted in the discovery 
 of a better kind of oil painting, a kind which has practi- 
 cally prevailed until the present day. This new process 
 was first adopted in Italy by Antonello da Messina and 
 the painters of Naples. How or by whom it was intro- 
 duced to North Italy is not certain. 
 
 The implements required by a painter in oils are 
 charcoal, chalk, or pencils for drawing his sketch; hair- 
 pencils or brushes; a knife to mix, and a palette to 
 
 eha x 
 
306 Painting. 
 
 hold his colours ; an easel on which to rest his canvas, 
 and a rod called a maulstick to steady his hand. His 
 colours are mostly mineral earths and oxides, such as 
 ochres; or organic substances, such as cochineal, mixed 
 with white-lead and worked up with it and oil into a 
 kind of paste, and subsequently diluted in using with 
 what is technically called a medium, consisting generally 
 of a compound of mastic-varnish and boiled linseed-oil, 
 called mag Up. Large oil paintings are generally executed 
 on canvas stretched on a frame and coated with paint. 
 The colour of the ground-coating varies according to the 
 taste of the artist, — in England light grounds are preferred, 
 — and every artist has his own peculiar methods alike of 
 working and mixing his colours. 
 
 The ordinary mode of procedure is to sketch the outline 
 on the canvas with charcoal or pencil, and then either the 
 colour which each portion is to exhibit is at once em- 
 ployed and gradually worked-up to a sufficient finish ; or, 
 as is more frequently the case, the entire effect of light 
 and shadow is painted in first in monochrome (one colour), 
 and then the colours are added in a series of transparent 
 coats, technically called glazes, the highest lights being 
 indicated last of all in opaque colour. 
 
 Oil painting, from the great range and scope which it 
 affords the painter, and the infinite variety of effects he 
 is able to produce by the means at his command, has for 
 long been the favourite manner of almost all artists, and 
 by far the largest number of important paintings which 
 have been executed since the discovery of this method 
 have been carried out in it ; yet there are certain qualities 
 in which water-colours, on the one hand, and fresco, on 
 the other, surpass it. 
 
Materials. 307 
 
 Easel pictures, as they are called (i. e. movable oil 
 paintings), occupy a kind of intermediate position between 
 perishable paper drawings and mural paintings. 
 
 Fresco-painting. — The ancients were acquainted with 
 several modes of painting on wall surfaces, and discovered 
 at a very remote age that any colouring substance mixed 
 with plaster when wet would remain in it when dry. 
 
 The term fresco — an Italian word, signifying fresh — has 
 been given to paintings made upon plaster still wet or 
 fresh. In fresco painting a design is first sketched the 
 full size of the subject to be represented, and a careful 
 study in colour is made on a small scale. The pigments 
 are generally earths or minerals, as other substances would 
 be injured by the action of time. The ground painted on 
 is the last coating of plaster, which is laid on just before 
 the artist begins his work. He first transfers the exact 
 outlines of his composition to the wet smooth surface by 
 pricking them through transfer-paper with some sharp 
 instrument. The actual painting has to be done very 
 rapidly, and the greatest skill and decision are necessary, 
 as no subsequent alteration can be made. Any portions 
 of plaster unpainted on when the day's work is done are 
 cut away. The process just described is called fresco 
 buono, to distinguish it from an inferior kind of mural 
 painting paradoxically known as fresco secco, in which the 
 colours mixed with water are laid on to the dry plaster. 
 Pictures in fresco secco are in every respect inferior to 
 those in fresco buono. A few years ago great importance 
 was attached to the discovery by Dr. Fuchs of a substance 
 called water-glass (soluble alkaline silicate), which appeared 
 to possess the property of giving brightness and durability 
 
 X 2 
 
308 Painting. 
 
 to fresco-secco painting. Colours mixed with water-glass 
 are called stereo-chromatic (?'. e. strong coloured) : many 
 important works were executed in them, e. g. Maclise's 
 Waterloo, and Trafalgar, in the Houses of Parliament, and 
 Kaulbach's mural paintings of the new Berlin Museum, 
 but the two former already show signs of decay. 
 
 The true fresco is distinguished by a singularly luminous 
 quality of colour ; and the best Italian frescoes exhibit a 
 breadth of effect and simplicity of execution which impart 
 to them a dignity unapproached (perhaps unapproachable) 
 in oil. Hardly any specimens exist in this country ; but 
 the same qualities of dignity, simplicity, and breadth, 
 though not the same brilliancy, may be seen in Raphael's 
 cartoons in the South Kensington Museum, which so 
 closely resemble fresco painting that they will serve better 
 than any other accessible examples to give the English 
 art -student a fair idea of this mode of painting as practised 
 by the great Italian masters. Examples, by Pinturicchio 
 and Signorelli, of fresco-painting transferred to canvas, and 
 by Domenico Veneziano of fresco in its original state, may 
 be seen in the National Gallery, where is also a specimen 
 of secco fresco, by Giotto — Two Apostles, part of a work 
 originally in S. MariaTclel Carmine, Florence : other por- 
 tions are in the Liverpool Institution. 
 
 Another process employed by the ancients for mural 
 painting was that called encaustic, in which wax melted 
 by heat appears to have been the chief ingredient for 
 fixing and melting the colours. Paul Delaroche's large 
 work of the Hemicycle in the Palais des Beaux Arts, Paris, 
 is an important example of modern times. And lastly there 
 is spirit- fresco, invented by Mr. Gambier Parry, who used 
 it in paintings in Highnam Church, and in St. Andrew's 
 
Materials. 309 
 
 Chapel in Gloucester Cathedral ; it was also employed by 
 Sir Frederick Leighton in his mural painting of the Art* 
 of War in the South Kensington Museum, which was 
 completed early in 1880, and by Mr. Madox Brown in his 
 decoration of the Town-hall of Manchester with scenes 
 from the history of that city. The frescoes which he has 
 already executed are : The Romans building a fort at 
 Mancenion ; The Baptism in York of Edivin, King of 
 Northnmbria and Deira ; The Expulsion of the Danes from, 
 Manchester. ' 
 
 As this spirit-fresco process is comparatively a modern 
 invention, it may not be uninteresting to give it a few 
 moments' consideration. The following short description 
 is taken from an account of it written by the inventor 
 himself. The advantages claimed for it are five-fold — 
 durability, power to resist external damp and changes of 
 temperature, luminous effect, a dead surface, and freedom 
 from all chemical action on colours. It will also stand 
 being washed with soap and water, as Mr. Madox Brown, 
 it is said, proved by so cleaning a trial picture which he 
 painted before beginning his work in the Manchester 
 Town-hall. The surface to be painted on should be 
 perfectly dry and porous, e. g. a good common stucco. 
 The medium is composed of Elemi resin, pure white 
 wax, oil of spike lavender, and the finest preparation of 
 artist's copal ; and with these, when incorporated by heat, 
 must be mixed the colours in dry powder. If mixed on a 
 slab, as for oil colours, and placed in tubes, they will last 
 for years. The surface to be painted on is prepared with 
 two washes of the medium diluted with one and a half its 
 bulk of turpentine, and finally with two coats of a solution 
 composed of equal quantities of pure white-lead and of 
 
310 Painting. 
 
 gilder's whitening in the medium slightly diluted with 
 turpentine. This, when dry, produces a perfect surface — 
 " so white that colours upon it have all the internal light 
 of Buon Fresco, and the transparency of pure water- 
 colours." This can be easily observed in the Arts of 
 War. If in painting the work, any part from having 
 been left becomes quite hard, that part can be softened 
 with a wash of pure spike-oil, but a too frequent use of 
 this is to be avoided. " The rationale of the painting," 
 says Mr. Parry, " is this, that the colours in powder being 
 incorporated with material identical with that which has 
 already sunk deep into the pores of the wall surface, and 
 has hardened by the evaporation of the turpentine vehicle, 
 may be regarded as belonging to the mass of the wall 
 itself, and not as mere superficial applications." The 
 medium is formed slightly differently when, as in the 
 works in Ely Cathedral, it is for use on panel, instead of 
 stucco and similar surfaces. 
 
 Mosaic painting is the art of producing designs with 
 small square pieces of stone or glass of various colours in 
 such a manner as to give the effect of painting. It was 
 largely employed by the ancient Romans for pavements, 
 and by the early Christians for the ornamentation of 
 churches. The mosaics in the Cathedral of Ravenna are 
 world-famous. At the present day it is chiefly an Italian 
 art; but Russian and British artists have of late years 
 produced some successful specimens of mosaic work. The 
 pieces of glass which go to make up the design are techni- 
 cally called smalts and tesserae, and are set in cement in 
 the same way as tiles in pavement. The Italians practise 
 two kinds of mosaic work — the Florentine, in which small 
 pieces of stone or shell of their natural colours are used ; 
 
Materials. 311 
 
 and the Roman ; in which smalts of every variety of shade 
 are employed. Many of the greatest paintings of the old 
 masters have been admirably reproduced in the latter 
 kind of mosaic. 
 
 Another kind of mosaic work has been lately introduced 
 in the decoration of the South Kensington Museum, in 
 which Keramic tesserae are used. And the figures in the 
 south court of eminent men connected with the Arts are 
 executed in mosaic, both Vitreous and Keramic, from 
 designs by Sir F. Leigh ton, P.R.A., E. J. Poynter, R.A., 
 and other well-known artists. 
 
 Painting on porcelain holds a high position as a fine 
 art, and has been carried to great perfection in France 
 and England of late years. The processes employed in 
 painting on porcelain, enamelling, and glass-staining, are 
 very similar. The colours used are principally oxides or 
 salts of metals ground down to impalpable dust, and mixed 
 with borax or some fusing substance ; the mediums used 
 for making them liquid are turpentine, oil of turpentine, 
 or spike oil : formerly each artist mixed his own colours, 
 but now they are most frequently obtained ready prepared 
 in tubes and in fine powder : they are laid on with hair- 
 brushes like oil colours, either on the glazed clay or pre- 
 pared metal, as the case may be, and fixed by exposure 
 to heat in an enamel kiln. In another method of painting 
 on china, called " under glaze," the colours are laid on to 
 the unglazed surface of the china : in firing they become 
 embodied in the ground on which they are laid, and the 
 glaze is poured over them. A third kind, known as 
 "Majolica painting," is "done with coloured glazes all 
 made to fuse together at a special heat." In appearance 
 it somewhat resembles Italian lustre ware. 
 
312 Painting. 
 
 V. Subjects. 
 
 The subjects which a painter may represent are only 
 limited by his powers of vision. Even the so-called genre 
 painter has a vast field of selection open to him, and may 
 either degrade his art by recording trivial events or actions 
 better forgotten, or ennoble it by immortalising scenes 
 which will bring the thoughts and feelings of other times 
 and other classes vividly before the mind of the spectator. 
 A painter may be a landscape, a historic, a portrait, or 
 what is called a genre painter. The term genre compre- 
 hends all pictures with figures which are not historic, 
 especially those in which the figures are smaller than life ; 
 and also architectural, flower, and fruit pieces, and repre- 
 sentations of what is called still life (i. e. dead game, fruit, 
 flowers, etc.). And in any or all of these branches of his 
 art two courses are open to the artist. He may adopt 
 what is known as the grand or ideal style and attempt to 
 express the highest idea conceivable of natural perfection, 
 or he may choose the realistic or naturalistic style and 
 exhibit things exactly as they are, without alteration or 
 improvement. 
 
 In landscape painting, the two phases open to the artist 
 are the epic, when nature is seen in her highest moods, 
 whether of action or repose, such as in the works of Turner 
 and Claude Lorrain ; and the idyllic, when she appears in 
 her simple every-day beauty, as depicted by Constable and 
 Gainsborough. 
 
 In historic and portrait painting we may perhaps recog- 
 nise an ideal and a realistic school. For historic painting 
 the suitable subjects are sacred, historic events, or dramatic 
 scenes of stirring interest, in which the noblest human 
 
Subjects. 313 
 
 passions are brought into play, and the sight of which 
 will awake noble emotions in the spectator. Greek and 
 Roman Mythology have afforded countless subjects for the 
 painter. 
 
 The chief masters of the Dutch school, such as Gerard 
 Dou, Cuyp, Metsu, Hobbema, etc., may be taken as repre- 
 sentative men who adopted the realistic style ; and the 
 three great Italian masters of the golden age of painting — 
 Michelangelo, Raphael, and Leonardo da Vinci — and 
 Murillo, in Spain, were the chief apostles of the ideal 
 style. The name of Eclectics has been given to those 
 artists who strove to combine the excellences of both 
 idealism and realism : of these the Carracci family were 
 the most eminent. 
 
 We must say one word, before turning to the history 
 of painting, on the symbolic art, to which Ruskin has 
 given the name of Grotesque (see ' Modern Painters,' vol. 
 III. chap, viii.), and which, rightly used, exercises a wide 
 influence for good. True grotesque art is the represent- 
 ation, by symbols easily intelligible to all, of truths which 
 could not readily be otherwise expressed. All allegoric 
 pictures are in this sense grotesque. Holbein's Dance of 
 Death, and Albrecht Diirer's Melencolia and his Knight, 
 Death and the Devil, are fine instances of the power with 
 which symbolic representations may bring great truths 
 and their inevitable consequences vividly before the minds 
 of the multitude. Coarse caricature of every variety may 
 be characterised as false grotesque, totally unworthy of 
 cultivation by any true artist. 
 
I. Painting in the Classic Period. 
 
 1. Egyptian Painting. 
 
 Although it was in Greece that painting as an inde- 
 pendent fine art must really be said to Lave had its rise, 
 yet we must not pass over without mention the work of 
 the Egyptian painter. 
 
 Though intimately connected with sculpture, and also 
 entirely subservient to architecture, painting was largely 
 employed by the Egyptians. The commonest form is the 
 colouring of those sculptures which are carved in sand- 
 stone in relief, but sunk beneath the surface. The face of 
 these sculptures was covered with a fine stucco to receive 
 the colours, which are usually flat tints on a white or 
 yellowish ground. The subject is almost always the 
 glorification of the reigning monarch, who is invariably 
 represented much larger than his followers. He is either 
 represented hunting, or driving in war-chariots, or cutting 
 off the heads of his enemies, each head being symbolic of 
 some race which he has conquered (see Fig. 5). Fig. 115 
 represents the sons of King Rameses II. following their 
 father, who is storming a mountain fortress. 
 
 Egyptian painting displays an entire absence of per- 
 spective, but the treatment of the subject is systematic. 
 It is, in fact, a combination of ground plan and elevation. 
 The background, whether land or water, is shown as it 
 would appear on a map, but the buildings and figures are 
 
Painting in Egypt. 
 
 315 
 
 in elevation. Though the face is always in profile, yet 
 the eye is represented in full. 
 
 In the tombs, the paintings, which were executed on 
 dry plaster, represent what might be called genre subjects — 
 subjects relating to the life of the deceased, which thus 
 give us a full insight into the habits and customs of the 
 
 -^ J - 
 
 **!!-* 
 
 
 Tig-. 115. — The Sons of Barneses II. In the temple of Ipsambool. 
 Time of the nineteenth century. 
 
 Egyptians. It is thought by those who have most studied 
 the subject that it was not alack of power which prevented 
 the Egyptians from making greater improvement in paint- 
 ing, but that they were held back by " the determination 
 of the sacerdotal class to restrain their artists within the 
 limits of strictly recording art, from which it might easily 
 
316 
 
 Painting in Egypt. 
 
 wander if they became too enamoured of it for its own 
 sake." Fixed rules were laid down for them : the glory 
 of the reigning monarch had to be perpetuated, and it was 
 done in the same way generation after generation. What 
 the Egyptian artist had to do he did well, and we can not 
 but admire the ingenuity with which he showed as much as 
 possible in one picture, and, although trammelled by ab- 
 surd conventional rules, made a really picturesque effect. 
 Egyptian paintings must, in fact, be looked upon as picture- 
 
 Tjt 
 
 Fig. 116. — Hunters bringing home Game. Egyptian Painting. 
 
 writing, and the pictures are nothing more than enlarged 
 hieroglyphics. 
 
 2. Oreeh Painting. 
 
 It was in Greece that painting first became an inde- 
 pendent art : although practised in Assyria at a very 
 early date, it was there purely accessory to architecture, 
 and occupied only a subordinate position. Although we 
 are unfortunately unable to refer to any existing specimens, 
 

 o 
 
 ho 
 
318 Painting 
 
 it is evident from the accounts of various ancient writers 
 that paintings of great excellence were executed in Greece 
 at a very remote age. In the early Greek vases we are 
 able to recognise the individual character of the painter, 
 as distinct from the sculptor and architect. The most 
 ancient specimens which have come down to us, and which 
 are preserved in the various museums of Europe, display 
 considerable knowledge of the true proportions of the 
 human figure, and of right balance in action and in 
 repose, combined with a genuine feeling for beauty and 
 grace ; but we find no attempt at subtle combinations or 
 gradations of colour, for the practice of the painter was 
 limited to the use of white, red, yellow, and black ; nor 
 are there any such indications of knowledge of chiaroscuro 
 as is displayed in contemporary bas-reliefs, — and, above 
 all, we find no trace of appreciation of linear or aerial 
 perspective. Nothing, on the other hand, can be more 
 beautiful than the system of ornamentation of early Greek 
 vases, in which different surfaces are admirably contrasted 
 with each other ; or more spirited or graceful than the 
 figures represented, in spite of their strictly conventional 
 treatment. Different vases in the British Museum furnish 
 us with illustrations of these remarks : the Meidias vase 
 with the subject of the Rape of the Leucippides, and the 
 Apuleian amphora with the Frenzy of Lycurgus, may be 
 cited as characteristic examples. (See Figs. 93 and 117.) 
 Authentic descriptions of the works of the Greek masters 
 prove that easel or movable pictures of great size, repre- 
 senting complicated subjects, were painted for the temples 
 and public buildings of Greece, and were very highly prized. 
 The mural paintings appear to have been executed in 
 fresco, and the movable pictures in tempera on wood, the 
 
In Greece. 319 
 
 process known as encaustic not having been in use until 
 the golden age of Greek art. 
 
 The earliest artist of whom we are able to give any 
 detailed account is Polygnotus (living at Athens about 450 
 b.c), whose principal paintings were in the celebrated 
 portico at Athens called the Pcecile, and the Lesche, or 
 council chamber, of the temple of Apollo at Delphi. In 
 the former he represented the Greek princes assembled in 
 council after the taking of Troy, and in the latter a series 
 of scenes from the wars of Troy, and the visit of Ulysses to 
 Hades. Ancient writers agree in ascribing to Polygnotus 
 great command of colouring, and power of depicting mul- 
 titudes in a spirited and lifelike manner ; but he does not 
 seem to have attempted any but profile figures, or to have 
 painted shadows in anything but a purely rudimentary 
 manner ; and in the paintings at Delphi the figures were 
 apparently arranged in zones and groups one above 
 another, with no assistance from either linear or aerial 
 perspective. 
 
 The next great name connected with Greek painting 
 is that of Apollodorus of Athens, who flourished towards 
 the close of the fifth century b.c, and was the first to 
 combine correctness of drawing with a right distribution of 
 
 CD O 
 
 light and shade. Certain of his predecessors — Dionysius 
 of Colophon, for example — attained to some excellence in 
 this respect, but Apollodorus was the first who thoroughly 
 mastered the gradations alike of tints and shadows. He 
 was, however, eclipsed by his pupil Zeuxis of Heracleia,* 
 
 * It has never been definitely decided which of the several towns 
 bearing this name was his birth-place, although it was most probably 
 the Pontic Heracleia on the Black Sea. 
 
320 Painting 
 
 who lived in the latter part of the fourth century B.C. 
 (about 450 — 400), and who was one of the first artists to 
 paint movable pictures. His distinctive characteristics 
 were grandeur of form and finish of execution : that he also 
 attained to marvellous power of imitation is proved by the 
 various tales which have been preserved of the rivalry 
 between him and his cotemporary Parrhasius, a native of 
 Ephesus, who flourished about 400 b.c. It is related, 
 amongst other anecdotes, that at a trial of skill between 
 Zeuxis and Parrhasius, when the former painted a bunch 
 of grapes so exactly like the original that on its exhibi- 
 tion the birds came to peck at it, and the latter a picture 
 covered with a fine curtain, Zeuxis exclaimed, " Remove 
 your curtain, and let us see this masterpiece." The curtain 
 was the picture I 
 
 Among Zeuxis's most celebrated paintings were his 
 Helen, in the temple of Hera, at Croton, painted from the 
 five most beautiful maidens he could find ; his Infant 
 Hercules strangling Serpents, and his Zeus and Marsyas 
 bound. 
 
 In the time of Alexander, some such transition took 
 place in Greek painting as we shall have occasion to notice 
 in speaking of the Italian painters of the seventeenth 
 century, when imitative dexterity and high finish was 
 more highly thought of than inventive power. The chief 
 painters of this period — known as the " period of refine- 
 ment " — were Pamphilus of Amphipolis, and his pupils 
 Apelles, Pausias of Sicyon, Protogenes of Camirus, who, 
 however, painted at Rhodes, and who is said to have 
 devoted seven years to the production of his Iahjsus ; 
 Nicomachus and his pupil and brother Aristeides of 
 Thebes, for one of whose pictures no less than £25,000 is 
 
In Greece. 321 
 
 said to have been given by Attalus of Pergamus ; Nicias 
 of Athens, who generally painted in encaustic, and who was 
 celebrated for his female figures ; Euphranor the Isthmian ; 
 and lastly, Theon of Samos, who was one of the first to 
 give impetus to the decline of Greek art. 
 
 It was, however, in the person of Apelles, who flourished 
 between 350 and 300 B.C., that Greek painting reached its 
 fullest development. He was, it is supposed, a native of 
 Colophon : he studied first at Ephesus, and afterwards at 
 Amphipolis under Pamphilus. His chief characteristics 
 
 y ■=*- 
 
 Fig. 118. — Painting- of still life. Rhoj>ography . 
 On a wall of a house at Pompeii. 
 
 were his feeling for grace and beauty of form, his skill in 
 portraiture, and the chaste simplicity of his colouring. 
 His masterpieces were his Venus Anadyomene — in which 
 the goddess was seen rising from the waves wringing the 
 water from her hair, the falling drops forming a shimmer- 
 ing veil about her figure, — Calumny, and his portrait of 
 Alexander the Great grasping the thunderbolt of Zeus. 
 
 After the death of Alexander, painting in Greece sen- 
 sibly declined. The grand style was still cultivated for 
 several centuries ; but a marked preference was shown for 
 a realistic manner, and for paintings of a secondary class, 
 known as rhopography, such as would now be called 
 
 eha Y 
 
322 Painting 
 
 genre pictures. The most celebrated Greek genre painter 
 was Pyreicus, who painted shops and still life of every 
 description. Caricature was also in great favour in this 
 degenerate age. 
 
 (a) Greek Mosaics and Wall Decorations. 
 
 Although there are no existing remains of Greek 
 mosaics, the art appears to have been known amongst the 
 Greeks, and to have been employed for pavements and 
 the linings of walls. 
 
 From the slight traces which remain of purely decora- 
 tive Greek painting — on the ceiling of the Propylsea, for 
 instance — it is evident that the Greeks were thoroughly 
 skilled in the true principles of ornamental art. Much 
 discussion has arisen as to the original appearance of this 
 famous ceiling, which is, however, generally believed to 
 have been painted in such a manner as to imitate orna- 
 ments in relief. At the Crystal Palace, Owen Jones 
 endeavoured to carry out the principles supposed by him 
 to have been in favour amongst the Greeks, and certainly 
 obtained a very beautiful result, although its value as a 
 reproduction has been much questioned. In the same 
 collection an opportunity is afforded of studying coloured 
 and uncoloured Greek architectural sculpture side by 
 
 side. 
 
 3. Etruscan Painting. 
 
 The enthusiasm with which the Etruscans cultivated 
 the art of painting is manifested in the numerous tomb- 
 paintings which have been discovered in the cemeteries 
 of Tarquinii, Clusium, etc., in which the gradual develop- 
 ment from the conventional Egyptian style to the perfected 
 Greek may be traced. In the earlier specimens we see 
 
In Rome. 323 
 
 the straight lines, oblong faces, stiff limbs, and parallel 
 folds of drapery, with which we have become familiar in 
 our study of Eastern sculpture ; and in the later, the easy 
 grace of Greek art. The Etruscan language not having 
 yet been fully deciphered, these paintings have a great 
 historical value, representing, as they do, incidents from 
 the daily life of the deceased from the cradle to the 
 grave, including dancing, feasting, racing, wrestling, and, 
 in one instance — in a tomb at Corneto — a death-bed 
 scene. They are mostly sketches vividly coloured, and 
 their generally festive character, especially noticeable in 
 the more modern examples, betrays the conversion of the 
 Etruscans from the gloomy Egyptian creed to the Greek 
 belief in a joyful future for the soul. 
 
 The vases and urns found in Etruscan tombs are now 
 generally admitted to be of Greek design and workman- 
 ship, and do not therefore call for separate notice here. 
 
 4. Roman Painting. 
 
 No great national school of painting ever flourished in 
 classic Rome ; the works produced were principally by 
 Greek artists, or reproductions of Greek masterpieces. 
 Three periods are to be distinguished in the history of 
 painting in Rome : the Grseco-Roman, dating from the 
 conquest of Greece to the time of Augustus ; the second, 
 from Augustus to Diocletian ; the third, from the birth 
 of Christ to the end of the third century. The pictures 
 found at Pompeii and Herculaneum, and those in the 
 baths of Titus and in the numerous subterranean tombs 
 near Rome, are painted in distemper (or in water colours 
 mixed with egg, gum, or glue), — no true fresco picture 
 having yet been discovered, although some of the plain 
 
 Y 2 
 
324 Painting 
 
 walls are coloured in fresco. The best and most important 
 of the mural paintings of Pompeii (supposed to date 
 from the first period of Roman painting) are collected in 
 the museum of Naples, and have many of them been 
 admirably reproduced in the Crystal Palace. 
 
 The house known as that of the Tragic Poet (described 
 in Bulwer's 'Last Days of Pompeii'), discovered in 
 1824-6, was especially remarkable for the grace and dig- 
 nified style of its paintings, most of which represented 
 Homeric subjects : amongst others, the Marriage of Peleus 
 and Thetis, the Parting of Achilles and Briseis (Fig. 119), 
 the Departure of Chryseis, the Fall of Icarus, etc. The 
 frieze of the atrium (i. e. court) of the Pompeian Court at 
 the Crystal Palace is copied from a cubiculum (i. e. a small 
 room opening from the atrium) of this house : it represents 
 a Battle of the Amazons. The Sacrifice of Iphigenia, the 
 Deserted Ariadne, Leda presenting her first-born child to 
 her husband Tyndareus, and other paintings, adorned the 
 less important rooms of this celebrated residence. The 
 mural decorations of the " house of the Dioscuri " are even 
 more remarkable than those enumerated above : the figures 
 of the twin sons of Leda reining-in their horses, on one of 
 the walls, are especially fine ; and the groups of Perseus 
 and Andromeda, and Medea and her Children, found on 
 the piers of the great central peristyle, are scarcely less 
 beautiful. The " house of the Female Dancer " must also 
 be mentioned, on account of the elegance and grandeur of 
 its decorative paintings, several of which are copied in the 
 Pompeian Court of the Crystal Palace. And recent ex- 
 cavations have brought to light a large house with wall 
 decorations of singular beauty — foliage, flowers, birds, 
 animals, fishes ; many of which are represented in violent 
 
In Pompeil 
 
 325 
 
 action. One duck flies into the water with a splash : an 
 octopus has caught a lamprey : a lion is attacking a bull : 
 
 
 Fig. 119. — The Parting of Achilles and Briseis. 
 
 From the House of the Tragic Poet, at Pompeii. 
 
 (Supposed to be from a Greek Painting.) 
 
 and a horse is struggling with a leopard. The leading 
 peculiarity of all these paintings is the intensity of their 
 colouring, accounted for by the well-known custom in Italy 
 
Painting 
 
 of darkening rooms in the day-time ; the lower portions of 
 the walls are always painted in the strongest colours, and 
 the upper in white or very faint tints, thus affording a 
 sense of repose to the eye which can be better felt than 
 described. Attempts have lately been made to carry out 
 this principle in the wall-papers of modern residences. 
 The paintings discovered in the Baths of Titus are, how- 
 ever, considered to surpass even those of Pompeii; they 
 represent scenes from the life of Adonis, and are character- 
 ised by severe simplicity and grandeur of composition. 
 These Baths also contain the arabesques from which 
 Raphael took many of his ideas for the decoration of the 
 Vatican; they are remarkable for imagination, variety 
 and harmony of colouring. 
 
 Roman painting, properly so-called, was chiefly por- 
 traiture, in which considerable excellence appears to have 
 been obtained. Marcus Ludius was a celebrated portrait 
 and landscape painter and decorator in the time of 
 Augustus, and appears to have combined beauty of com- 
 position with truth of character ; but Roman artists never 
 got beyond the simplest effects of light and shade, or the 
 most rudimentary knowledge of perspective. 
 
 (b) Roman Mosaics. 
 
 Very numerous specimens of Roman mosaic work have 
 come down to us. Almost every house in Pompeii or 
 Herculaneum contains mosaic pavements or wall-linings. 
 Of these the mosaic of the so-called "Casa del Fauno" 
 (House of the Faun), found in J 831, and supposed to repre- 
 sent one of Alexander's battles (Fig. 120), and the circular 
 mosaic of the Lion crowned ivith Garlands by young 
 Cupids, found in 1828-29, in the " house of the Dioscuri," 
 
In Eome. 
 
 327 
 
 are among the most interesting. The former displays 
 thorough command of foreshortening and perspective, and 
 is thought to be a copy of some famous ancient work. 
 
 Fine specimens of Roman mosaics have also been exca- 
 vated in Africa, France, Spain and England. Those found 
 
 mi iiiiiMim tmiii iimw^iiijim 
 
 1 IJ 1 1 1 1 1 1 l!l 1.1 1 1 1 1.1 1 1 1.IJ 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 i:iil1j;iJ:I.IJJJXLUIlillllBlllllllUIUilll 
 
 lli Li ii] i n m ini 
 
 Fig. 120.— The Battle of Issus. 
 
 A mosaic discovered at Pompeii in the House of the Faun. 
 
 {Supposed to be a copy of an old Greek Painting.) 
 
 in London and elsewhere in Great Britain, though inferior 
 in execution, are equal in beauty of composition and power 
 of design to those of any other country. They were pro- 
 bably executed by native Britons under Roman superintend- 
 ence. The remains of a Roman villa with fine mosaic work 
 were discovered in 1880 near Brading, in the Isle of Wight. 
 
II. Painting in the Early Christian, Byzantine, 
 and Middle Ages. 
 
 1. Early Christian Painting, or the Late Roman School. 
 
 The first examples of early Christian painting are to be 
 found in the Catacombs, the walls, recesses, and ceilings of 
 which were decorated with simple Jrescoes. In the first 
 two centuries, owing to the hatred of everything which 
 could recall the old idolatry (see p. 220), symbols alone 
 were employed, and even these were limited to forms not 
 appropriated to heathen deities. As the power of the 
 Roman Empire declined, and with it its monopoly of art- 
 forms, the love of art — innate in every native of Greece 
 and Italy— once more asserted its sway ; and in the third 
 and fourth centuries, although still to a certain extent 
 hampered by the dread of reviving idolatry, the early 
 Christians were permitted to adorn the catacombs with 
 something more than formal signs. We now find Christ 
 represented as the " Good Shepherd," or as " Orpheus 
 taming the Beasts with his Lyre," etc. The illustration 
 (Fig. 121) affords an exainple of this second class of fresco ; 
 it is taken from the catacombs of S. Calixtus, on the Via 
 Appia, Rome, beneath the church of S. Sebastiano. This 
 church also contains one of the first portraits of Christ, 
 supposed to have been executed at a somewhat later date 
 than the mural frescoes, exhibiting as it does a freedom 
 from restraint and a boldness in exact imitation not 
 indulged in until the establishment of Christianity. In the 
 paintings of the Pontian Catacombs on the Via Portuensis, 
 dating from the fifth century, we note a further advance — 
 
In the Catacombs. 
 
 329 
 
 the portrait of Christ especially differs essentially from the 
 old Greek idea, and is of a purely Christian type. The 
 chief characteristics of early Christian painting as exhibited 
 
 Fig. 121. —Fresco from the Catacombs of S. Calixtus. 
 
 in the Catacombs are a simple earnestness and majesty, 
 and a grandeur of composition, but little inferior to the 
 frescoes of the best age of the old Empire, combined with 
 
330 Painting 
 
 what we may call a " spirituality " peculiarly their own. 
 The Christian artists had to express their belief in the 
 immortal soul animating even the poorest and most dis- 
 torted human forms, and it is their spiritual significance 
 which gives importance to these early paintings, in spite 
 of their technical inferiority both to antique and Renais- 
 sance works. Copies in water-colours and photographs of 
 many of the Catacomb paintings may be seen in the South 
 Kensington Museum. 
 
 On the recognition of Christianity as the religion of 
 the State in the time of Constantine, Christian painting, 
 no longer condemned to a subterranean life, was called 
 upon to decorate the vast basilicas and churches appro- 
 priated to the new worship. At first tempera and en- 
 caustic colours were exclusively employed by the artists, 
 but they were soon supplanted by mosaics. The only 
 existing Christian mosaics attributed to the fourth century 
 are those on the ceiling of S. Constanza, near Rome, which 
 are of a purely decorative character. In the fifth and suc- 
 ceeding centuries attempts were made to produce important 
 historical pictures in mosaics ; but the intractability of the 
 material led to a general preference for the simplest sub- 
 jects. As we advance further and further from the times 
 of persecution, we note an ever- widening difference between 
 the paintings of the catacombs and the church mosaics. 
 This difference is well illustrated by the mosaics on the 
 Triumphal Arch of the church of S. Paolo fuori le Mura, 
 at Rome, dating from the second half of the fifth cen- 
 tury, for in them the antique spirit which had unconsciously 
 influenced the artist of the sepulchres is almost extinct : 
 the old Christian symbolism is gone ; and, instead of scenes 
 of suffering and death above which Faith rises triumphant, 
 
In Rome. 331 
 
 we have representations of the Saviour enthroned in 
 glory, surrounded by the redeemed. The Virgin does not 
 appear to have been represented until the latter part of 
 the fifth century. 
 
 In the sixth century were produced the mosaics of SS. 
 Cosmo e Damiano, considered the best in Rome, and 
 deserving special mention as being amongst the last in 
 which the figure of Christ retains the quiet majesty charac- 
 teristic of the catacomb portraits, and in which the saints 
 appear in natural groups and attitudes, instead of the stiff 
 parallel rows subsequently adopted. 
 
 An unbroken series of illuminated manuscripts have 
 come down to us from early Christian times, many of 
 which give proof of considerable imaginative power and 
 true feeling for all that is best in antique art. To this 
 class belong the Book of Joshua in the Vatican, a parch- 
 ment-roll more than thirty feet long, dating from the 
 seventh or eighth century, but supposed to be a copy of an 
 early Christian work of the period we have been reviewing ; 
 and the celebrated Virgil of the Vatican, an original work 
 of the fourth or fifth century. 
 
 The time of Charlemagne was the great period for manu- 
 script illuminations, and many fine specimens are preserved 
 in the Library of Treves. 
 
 The mosaics of the tribune of S. Agnese in Rome (625 
 — 638) are good specimens of the transition period, the 
 heads of the Saviour, the Virgin, etc., being purely conven- 
 tional, whilst some of the figures are dignified, graceful, 
 and free from Byzantine stiffness. Those in the basilicas 
 of S. Apollinare Nuovo, and S. Vitale, at Ravenna, are of 
 special importance now that the church of S. Paolo at 
 
332 Painting 
 
 Rome is destroyed, as they are the only existing speci- 
 mens which give a just idea of the way in which every 
 available space was covered with these brilliant decorations, 
 in the centuries under notice. To the ninth century belong 
 the mosaics of S. Prassede, on the Esquiline Hill, and those 
 above the tribune of the church of S. Maria della Navicella, 
 on the Cselian Hill. 
 
 2. The Byzantine School. 
 
 Soon after the conquest of Italy by the Longobards, 
 Christian art branched off into two schools, to which the 
 names of the Late Roman and the Byzantine have been 
 given. The foundations of the latter are supposed to 
 have been laid early at Byzantium (Constantinople), the 
 seat of the Eastern Empire ; but it did not attain to 
 importance until the s ixth centu ry. Its predominance 
 marks the period of the deepest decline of Italian art — ■ 
 which, however, still retained, though latent, the vital 
 spark which was to be again fanned into flame in the 
 thirteenth century. The leading characteristics of Byzan- 
 tine painting, which, with Oriental tenacity, it has retained 
 unchanged to the present day, are the use of flat gold 
 grounds instead of the blue hitherto preferred, a stiffness in 
 the treatment of the human figure, — rigid conventional 
 forms utterly devoid of beauty replacing the majestic types 
 of the Late Roman school — -artificially-arranged draperies 
 in long straight folds, and a great neatness and carefulness 
 of execution. 
 
 The hot controversy as to the personal appearance of 
 Christ, — the Romans maintaining Him to have been the 
 " fairest of the children of men," and the Byzantine Greeks 
 
In the Byzantine School. 
 
 333 
 
 that He had no beauty of person, — exercised a most 
 important influence on the art both of the East and the 
 West, and accounts in a great measure for the difference 
 in the treatment of sacred subjects by the artists of the 
 two schools. 
 
 Our limits forbid us to do more than name the most 
 important mosaics of the Byzantine school. Those of 
 S. Sophia at Constantinople, although many have been 
 
 \ 
 
 \ 
 
 Fig. 122.— Christ adored by Justinian. 
 Mosaic from the Porch of S. Sophia, Constantinople. 
 
 destroyed, still retain much of their original splendour : 
 our illustration (Fig. 122) is from the porch, and represents 
 the Emperor Justinian doing homage, with truly Oriental 
 servility, to the enthroned Redeemer. 
 
 Until the thirteenth century Venice was little more 
 than a Byzantine colony, and in the mosaics of Saint 
 Mark's we have an opportunity of studying the Byzan- 
 tine style in all its purity. Other Western Byzantine 
 mosaics, dating from the time of the Normans, may be 
 
334 Painting 
 
 studied in the cathedral of Monreale, near Palermo ; in 
 the Capella Reale in that city ; and in various buildings 
 of Southern Italy and Sicily. The Monreale mosaics have 
 been admirably illustrated, and deserve study as showing 
 how great a mastery of dramatic power could be attained 
 by artists who yet were fettered by many conventional 
 rules, and whose power of representing the human figure 
 was very rude. As specimens of colouring they are 
 magnificent. 
 
 The manuscript illuminations of the Byzantine school 
 are principally copies of Roman works, and do not call 
 for any special notice. 
 
 In their purely decorative painting Byzantine artists at- 
 tained to considerable proficiency; their geometrical mosaics 
 are very ingenious in pattern and always good in colour. 
 
 From the thirteenth century Byzantine art gradually 
 declined in technical and inventive power. The monastery 
 of Mount Athos, in which the old conventional types are 
 reproduced in wearisome monotony, is now the leading 
 school of Greek art. 
 
 3. Painting in the Middle Ages. 
 (a) In Italy. 
 In the tenth and eleventh centuries Italian society was 
 still utterly disorganised, and the practice of decorative 
 art was almost entirely discontinued. The few pictures 
 produced were either in the worst form of the Byzantine 
 style, or the rudest reproductions of antique types. As 
 early as the beginning of the twelfth century, however, 
 the Republics of Upper and Lower Italy gained strength 
 and stability, whilst a new and independent style of art 
 gradually developed itself, displacing alike the Byzantine 
 
 
In the Middle Ages. .335 
 
 and the Late Roman, — a style which may be called purely 
 Christian, and which owes its rapid growth mainly to the 
 patronage of the Church. In the mosaics of S. Maria in 
 Trastevere at Rome (1139 — 1153), and of the basilica 
 of S. Clemente, also at Rome, a marked improvement is 
 noticeable ; but the art apparently did not advance further 
 until the commencement of the thirteenth century, when 
 the fusion of the two conquering races of Sicily — the 
 Normans, and their predecessors the Arabs — had become 
 complete, and the conquest of Constantinople by the 
 Latins in 1204 had led to the immigration into Italy of 
 artists well acquainted with all the technical processes 
 of painting, although unable to turn them to truly artistic 
 account. 
 
 Henceforth the history of painting is the history of 
 individual men, — a fact significant alike of the new position 
 to which art was promoted and of the new political 
 freedom enjoyed in the Republics. We have already 
 alluded to the important part taken in the revival of 
 sculpture by Niccolo Pisano (see p. 238), and there can 
 be no doubt that he greatly influenced his cotemporaries 
 in every branch of art. The distinctive feature of this 
 revival, in which Tuscany took the lead, was — as remarked 
 by Mrs. Jameson in her ' Lives of the Early Italian 
 Painters' — "that art became imitative as well as repre- 
 sentative, although in the first two centuries the imitation 
 was as much imaginary as real ; the art of looking at 
 nature had to be learnt before the imitating her could be 
 acquired." 
 
 The first Italian painters to take part in the new move- 
 ment were Giunta of Pisa, Guido of Siena, Buonaventura 
 Berlingieri of Lucca, Margaritone of Arezzo (a work by 
 
336 Paintjnq 
 
 whom is in the National Gallery), Maestro Bartolommeo 
 of Florence, and Andrea Tafi (the greatest mosaic-worker 
 of the thirteenth century), all of whom followed the 
 Byzantine style, with certain modifications significant of 
 the stirring of the new life in art. 
 
 In the works of Giovanni Cimabue (1240 — 1312) of 
 Florence, who has been called — not altogether with justice — 
 the founder of modern Italian painting, we recognise a very 
 decided advance in representing form and in the expression 
 of action, although his figures are stilly of the long-drawn 
 Byzantine type. Of his existing paintings the principal 
 are a colossal Madonna in the Rucellai chapel of S. Maria 
 Novella, Florence, of which a fine water-colour copy may 
 be studied in the Crystal Palace ; a Madonna, and Child 
 in the Academy of the same town; and the frescoes on 
 the vaulted ceiling and above the walls of the nave of the 
 upper church of S. Francesco at Assisi, of which the best 
 are the Kiss of Judas, the Marriage at Cana, the Depo- 
 sition from the Cross, and Joseph *and his Brothers. A 
 Holy Family by Cimabue is in the National Gallery. 
 
 As cotemporaries of Cimabue who were influenced by 
 his work, we must name Jacobus Toriti (flour, ab. 1290), 
 author of some fine mosaics in the tribunes of S. Giovanni 
 in Laterano and S Maria Maojsdore at Rome ; Giovanni 
 Cosmato (fl. ab. 1300), author of mosaics in the latter 
 church and in that of S. Maria sopra Minerva, Rome ; 
 Gaddo Gaddi (1239 — 1312), the painter of an Ascension of 
 the Virgin in the cathedral of Pisa, a Coronation of the 
 Virgin in the cathedral at Florence, etc. ; and, above all, 
 Duccio di Buoninsegna of Siena (ab. 1260 — after 1320), 
 the chief painter of the Sienese school of this period, who 
 executed a famous series of paintings, representing scenes 
 
In Floeence. 337 
 
 from the Passion of Christ, the Entry into Jerusalem, 
 etc., in the cathedral of Siena, and other minor works, in 
 which he perhaps displayed greater feeling for beauty and 
 knowledge of form than Cimabue himself. The National 
 Gallery contains a Madonna and Child by Duccio. 
 
 We have now reached the second stage of the develop- 
 ment of the Italian school of painting, and shall have to 
 distinguish between two styles into which it branched off 
 in the time of Giotto. We still find Tuscany taking the 
 lead, but Tuscan artists are no longer of one mind. The 
 head-quarters of one school was Florence — of the other, 
 Siena : the Florentines and their followers, who derived 
 their practice to a certain extent from the early Sienese 
 masters, were distinguished for vigour of conception and 
 richness of composition ; the Sienese, for warmth of feeling 
 and grace in the treatment of single figures. At the head 
 of the new Florentine school stands 
 
 Ambrogiotto Bondone, known as Giotto (1266 — 1337) 
 who was the first Italian painter to free himself entirely 
 from Byzantine traditions, and who exercised a lasting 
 influence on art in every part of Italy. According to 
 an old tradition, now exploded, Giotto began life as a 
 shepherd-boy on the mountains near Vespignano, his 
 native place, and his artistic genius was first discovered by 
 Cimabue, who surprised him, when a child of some ten or 
 twelve years old, drawing one of his sheep on a piece 
 of smooth slate with a sharply-pointed stone. Cimabue at 
 once took him to his own home in Florence, and taught 
 him the rudiments of his art. It was not long before 
 Giotto surpassed his master ; and his earnest study of 
 nature, and steadfast resistance to all that was false or 
 
 EHA Z 
 
338 
 
 Painting 
 
 unnatural in art, effected a reformation in painting the 
 value of which it is impossible to over-estimate. In know- 
 ledge of form, of chiaroscuro and of perspective, he is 
 generally allowed to have been deficient ; but his force of 
 conception, his power of preserving right balance in com- 
 plicated groups, of expressing natural character, and his 
 
 Fi£. 123.— Obedience. By Giotto. 
 In the Church of S. Francesco at Jssisi. 
 
 feeling for grace of action and harmony of colour, justly 
 entitle him to the high position assigned to him as the 
 founder of the true ideal style of Christian art, and the 
 restorer of portraiture. The cotemporary and friend of 
 Dante, he stands at the head of the school of allegoric 
 painting, as the latter of that of poetry. 
 
In Florence. 339 
 
 The following may be taken as typical works by this 
 great master : — the historical paintings representing thirty- 
 eight scenes from the lives of the Virgin and Christ in 
 the chapel of the Madonna dell' Arena at Padua ; the 
 frescoes in the lower church of S. Francesco at Assisi, over 
 the tomb of the saint, representing scenes from the life of 
 that saint, of which one of the best is the Marriage of S. 
 Francis to Poverty; the celebrated mosaic, known as the 
 Navicella, in the old basilica of S. Peter, Rome, repre- 
 senting a ship on a stormy sea containing the disciples, 
 with Christ walking on the waves (still preserved, much 
 restored, in the vestibule of the present S. Peter's) ; the 
 Seven Sacraments, in the church of the Incoronata at 
 Naples, in which Giotto departed from his usual symbolic 
 style and painted actual scenes of human life; and a 
 series of small paintings on wood in the Florence Academy. 
 A fine Portrait of Dante, by Giotto, was discovered in 1840 
 on a wall in the palace of the Podesta at Florence. Several 
 of the works of Giotto, and many of those by Italian artists 
 who flourished at or near the time to which we are refer- 
 ring, have been reproduced in chromo-lithography by the 
 Arundel Society. The general characteristics of the early 
 Italian painters may be well studied at the National 
 Gallery, which is tolerably rich in specimens of the various 
 early schools of Italy and Germany. Two Apostles, by 
 Giotto, and a Coronation of the Virgin, by a disciple of 
 his school, are of the class to which we allude. Two 
 works by Giotto are in the Liverpool Institution : they 
 are the Presentation of S. John the Baptist to Zacharias, 
 and Salome with the head of the Baptist, both from Santa 
 Maria del Carmine at Florence ; they were exhibited at 
 the Old Masters Exhibition in 1881. In Giotto's paintings 
 
310 Painting 
 
 the colours are lighter and of a more roseate hue than 
 those of his predecessors ; they were mixed with a thinner 
 medium, and are very well preserved. Not only in paint- 
 ing, but also in sculpture and architecture, was Giotto 
 famous. The Campanile at Florence was built from his 
 designs, and some of the sculptures which adorn the base 
 are said to be by his hand. 
 
 Taddeo Gaddi (ab. 1300 — 1367) was the chief of 
 Giotto's scholars, and his works are considered the most 
 important produced in the fourteenth century. He was 
 especially successful in historic subjects, in which he 
 displayed great feeling for truth and beauty, and a more 
 thorough knowledge of colouring and chiaroscuro than 
 Giotto. The fresco in the Cappella de' Spagnuoli in 
 the cloister of S. Maria Novella at Florence, known as 
 the Arts and Sciences, was formerly ascribed to him; 
 but several authors consider that it is by some painter 
 of Siena. Three pictures of his school are in the National 
 Gallery. 
 
 Andrea di Cione— called Orcagna (1308 ?— 1368 ?), the 
 shortened form of his sobriquet ' L'Arcagnuolo ' — although 
 he did not study under Giotto, was greatly influenced by 
 his paintings : his works are remarkable for their grace, 
 energy, and imaginative power. His principal painting 
 is the Heaven and Hell, in the Cappella Strozzi, in S. 
 Maria Novella at Florence. The works in the Campo 
 Santo at Pisa, which for many years rendered Orcagna' s 
 name famous, are now given to other painters. The 
 National Gallery contains a large altar-piece in twelve 
 pieces by Orcagna, representing in the centre, in three 
 divisions, the Coronation of the Virgin, with nine other 
 scenes connected with the life of Christ, which were 
 
In Siena. 341 
 
 formerly placed over them. It was originally painted for 
 S. Pietro Maggiore, Florence. 
 
 Another famous follower of Giotto was Giottino, so 
 called from his success in imitating his master. He took 
 some share in the paintings of the church of S. Francesco 
 at Assisi. Stefano Florentino must also be mentioned, 
 on account of the great improvement he effected in the 
 imitation of form, although no existing work can be 
 ascribed to him. Other painters influenced by Giotto 
 are Giovanni da Milano, a fellow-worker with Taddeo 
 Gaddi; Jacopo di Casentino (1310 — ab. 1390); and his 
 pupil Spinello Aretino of Arezzo, the author of several 
 of the frescoes in the Campo Santo at Pisa ; and lastly, 
 Giovanni and Agnolo Gaddi, sons of Taddeo. 
 
 Of the Sienese school, the members of which aimed 
 rather at spiritual expression than an exact imitation of 
 corporeal form, Simone di Martino, known as Simone 
 Memmi (ab. 1284 — 1344), a cotemporary of Giotto and 
 the friend of Petrarch, was the chief. Very few of his 
 works now remain : a fresco in the Cappella de' Spagnuoii 
 in S. Maria Novella, representing the Church Militant, and 
 containing portraits of Cimabue and Petrarch, formerly 
 thought to be Simone's chief work, is now ascribed to 
 Andrea di Firenze, who is thought to have belonged to the 
 Sienese school. 
 
 Ambrogio Lorenzetti (the dates of whose birth and 
 death are unknown) was the most famous of a family of 
 artists. His principal works is a series of allegorical 
 frescoes, representing the Results of Good Government 
 and the Results of Bad Government, painted in 1337-39, 
 in the Palazzo Pubblico at Siena; and to him and his 
 brother are now given the frescoes in the Campo Santo 
 
Painting in Italy. 343 
 
 at Pisa, formerly, on the testimony of Vasari, ascribed to 
 Orcagna. 
 
 Whilst the art of painting was making rapid strides 
 towards perfection in Tuscany, a simultaneous advance 
 was taking place in Umbria, Rome, Venice, and other 
 parts of Italy. The early Florentine and Umbrian Schools 
 were not sufficiently distinct for it to be necessary to 
 particularise the peculiarities of the latter ; and the early 
 masters of the Roman school were greatly influenced by 
 Giotto. Of these, Pietro Cavallini (1259—1344) was the 
 most remarkable ; the Crucifixion in the church of Assisi, 
 formerly considered his best existing work, is now thought 
 to be by Pietro Lorenzetti. 
 
 Towards the close of the fourteenth century great progress 
 was made in Rome, and many artists rose into fame. Of 
 these, Gentile da Fabriano (ab. 1370 — ab. 1450) was the 
 chief. His picture of the Adoration of the Kings, in the 
 academy of Florence, is one of the finest existing speci- 
 mens of the early schools. He was a good colourist. and 
 excelled Giotto in knowledge of form. 
 
 In Venice, the struggle between the Byzantine style and 
 the new tendencies in painting lasted long, and it was not 
 until the latter half of the fourteenth century that the yoke 
 of tradition was finally broken. Lorenzo Veneziano, and 
 Paolo and Niccolo Semitecolo, all of the fourteenth century, 
 were the first Venetians to attempt the new method. 
 
 (b) In France and Germany. 
 
 Before we enter on the history of Italian painting in 
 the fifteenth century, we must cross the Alps, and trace the 
 development of the new movement in the rest of Europe. 
 
 Mural painting was practised with great success in 
 
344 Painting 
 
 Germany and France in the Romanesque period (tenth, 
 eleventh, and twelfth centuries), and even the most insig- 
 nificant village churches were adorned with frescoes. The 
 principal works of this description in Germany dating 
 from these centuries are those on the ceiling of S. Michael's 
 at Hildesheim ; and those in the choir and left aisle of 
 the cathedral at Brunswick, supposed to have been executed 
 before 1250; in the Nicolas Chapel at Soest; and in the 
 church of Schwarz Rheindorf. 
 
 There are the remains of a mosaic in the cupola of 
 the cathedral of Aix-la-Chapelle : it represents Christ 
 with twenty- four elders. We know too, from miniatures 
 of them, that the castle of Upper Ingelheim on the Rhine 
 was adorned with frescoes of historical subjects, which 
 bore strong traces of Byzantine influence. 
 
 In France, the frescoes in the churches at S. Savin and 
 Tournus are among the most remarkable. All these works 
 follow the antique rather than the Byzantine style, and 
 are distinguished by a simple earnestness and dignity in 
 the figures, by their powerful colouring, and appropriate- 
 ness as architectural decorations. 
 
 The industry of the monks, — especially of those of the 
 monastery of St. Gall in Switzerland, of which Tutilo 
 (or Tuotilo) and Notker were the most celebrated, — 
 carried the art of manuscript painting to the greatest 
 perfection in the middle ages. In the same period it 
 became the fashion to paint movable or easel pictures. 
 
 The rise of the pure Gothic style — which, it will be re- 
 membered, underwent large modifications when practised 
 in Italy — was unfavourable to the progress of painting in 
 the north of Europe. Frescoes were no longer required 
 to decorate the flat walls, for the walls were reduced to 
 
 
In France and Germany. 345 
 
 narrow piers ; but trie decline of mural painting was in 
 a great measure atoned for by the growth of the art of 
 glass-staining, which was carried to perfection in the 
 Gothic period : the finest painted windows of France and 
 Germany — such, for example, as those of the cathedrals of 
 Bourges, Chartres, Eheims, and the Sainte Chapelle of 
 Paris, in France, and those of the cathedrals of Strasburg, 
 Cologne, and Ratisbon, in Germany — are all the work of 
 the best Gothic period, and essentially integral parts of 
 the buildings to which they belong. 
 
 The miniature painting of the Gothic period in the 
 north of Europe consisted principally of illustrations of 
 the ballads of the troubadours ; and the first evidence of 
 what can be strictly called a school of German painting is 
 in the "Parcival" of Wolfram von Eschenbach, a poet 
 of the thirteenth century, who speaks of the painters of 
 Cologne and Maestricht in highly commendatory terms. 
 
 The earliest school of art in Germany is that of Bohemia, 
 which, under the patronage of the Emperor Charles IV., 
 flourished for a short time only at Karlstein, near Prague, 
 in the fourteenth century. Its principal artists were Theo- 
 dorich of Prague, Nicolaus Wurmser, and Kunz, who were 
 employed to decorate the walls of the castle and church of 
 Karlstein. The Italian Tommaso da Modena also worked 
 at Karlstein for Charles IV. 
 
 The school of Nuremberg also attained to a high position 
 in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. Our illustration 
 (Fig. 125) is the centre-piece of an altar-piece by one of its 
 unknown masters. It was probably executed about 1420, 
 although it is usually assigned to the close of the four- 
 teenth century. In the Berlin Museum are four wings of 
 an altar-piece of the Virgin and Saints, which are said to 
 
346 Painting 
 
 have been painted for the Deichsler family at Nuremberg 
 in 1400. 
 
 Wilhelm of Herle, commonly called Meister Wilhelm 
 
 Fig. 125.— The Imhof Altar-piece at Nuremberg. 
 
 (fl. ab. 1358—1378) of Cologne, is, however, the earliest 
 German painter whose name has come down to us. To 
 
In Germany. 347 
 
 him are ascribed — several fine pictures in the Pinakothek 
 of Munich ; a large altar-piece, his principal work, represent- 
 ing the Life of Christ, in the Johannis Kapelle in Cologne 
 cathedral ; and several easel pictures, the single figures in 
 which are full of life and character, in the various galleries 
 of Germany. The National Gallery contains a 8. Veronica 
 by Wilhelm of Cologne. Stephan Lochner (died 1451), or 
 Meister Stephan, as he is called, said, but perhaps errone- 
 ously, to have been the pupil of Wilhelm, was another and 
 greater master of the same school : by him is the famous 
 altar-piece in the cathedral of Cologne, formerly ascribed 
 to Meister Wilhelm ; it represents the Adoration of the 
 Magi, with 8. Gereon and his Knights and 8. Ursula and 
 her Virgins on the wings, and the Annunciation on the 
 exterior. Israel von Meckenen, who nourished at the 
 end of the century — if all that is said of him be true 
 — must have excelled all his predecessors, some of the best 
 pictures of this time in the Munich Gallery being attributed 
 to him. The Master of the Lijversburg Passion (fl. ab. 
 1463 — 1480), so-called from a series of eight subjects from 
 the Life of Christ formerly in the possession of Herr Lyvers- 
 berg in Cologne, is represented in our National Gallery by 
 a Presentation in the Temple : this painter has been con- 
 fused with Israel von Meckenen. The Master of Leisborn 
 is also represented in the National Gallery, where are two 
 pieces, figures of Saints, from the high altar-piece which 
 was executed in the Abbey of Liesborn about the middle 
 of the fifteenth century. 
 
 The works of the early German schools are mostly 
 painted on panel, with gold grounds, and are distinguished 
 for depth of colouring and careful execution of details. 
 Their chief fault is want of accuracy in design ; but this 
 
348 Painting in Geemany. 
 
 is to some extent atoned for by the nobility of the ex- 
 pression of many of the heads. We may add that in 
 technical dexterity in the use of tempera or water colours 
 they excelled all their cotemporaries and predecessors, their 
 works having as fine an effect as oil-paintings. 
 
 (c) Decorative Painting. 
 
 The decorative painting of the middle ages would repay 
 separate study ; but our limits only permit us to point out 
 that, at first purely geometrical, the designs were gradu- 
 ally complicated by the introduction of animals' or birds* 
 heads, finally leading to the profuse use of the grotesque 
 element, which formed so distinctive a feature of Gothic 
 art. The pointed or Gothic style of ornament was a re- 
 production in decorative painting of the peculiarities of 
 Gothic architecture and architectural sculpture. Flowers 
 and foliage, human or animals' heads, the wings of insects 
 or of butterflies, with an endless variety of zigzags, frets, 
 and other ornaments, were grouped together in such a 
 manner as to harmonise alike with the lines of the 
 building and its decorative sculpture. 
 

 fWAXti-^i 
 
 III. Renaissance Painting in Italy. 
 
 A kem ark able difference exists between the history 
 of painting and that of sculpture and architecture at the 
 Renaissance period. Of the two latter arts the Romans 
 had left so many remains that, when the revival of letters 
 altered the current of men's thoughts, it was natural to 
 revert to the actual models existing abundantly in Italy ; 
 and, as we have seen, this was done. In painting the 
 case was different : the art was in a constant state of 
 development, which was influenced but not interrupted by 
 the classic revival. We may, if we please, consider the 
 fifteenth century as a trajisitioju period, and the sixteenth 
 as the Renaissance period; but the terms must not be 
 under^oOd^'lTr-crhliracterise a revival of classical modes at 
 all so complete as that which occurred in the sister arts. 
 By many_writers it is consid ered that the Renaissance of 
 painting in Italy began early in the fifteenth century, or 
 even witlf Giotto at the commencement of the fourteenth 
 century. 
 
 1. Painting in Italy in the Fifteenth Century. 
 
 The fifteenth century was a time of exceptional intellec- 
 tual activity, and the progress made in scientific discovery 
 was of great importance to the arts of painting and sculp- 
 ture. As we have seen, a considerable advance had been 
 made in expression and imitation in the thirteenth and 
 fourteenth centuries ; but oil-painting was still unpractised, 
 portraiture was little cultivated, linear perspective was 
 very imperfectly understood, and landscape painting, as 
 an independent branch of art, was not even attempted. 
 At the beginning of the fifteenth century, however, the 
 
350 Painting 
 
 introduction of oil colours, the scientific study of perspective, 
 form, and colour, and the constant demand for frescoes on 
 an extensive scale led to a progressive movement in Italy 
 which culminated in the sixteenth century; and during 
 this development schools arose on every side, characterised 
 by excellence in one or another element of art. Until 
 about 1450 we find Florence still taking the lead ; but 
 from that date the Neapolitan, Umbrian, Bolognese, 
 Venetian, and Paduan Schools rose into almost equal 
 importance. 
 
 (a) The Florentine School. 
 
 The artist who contributed most to the pre-eminence 
 of Florence in the early part of the fifteenth century 
 was, without doubt, the sculptor Lorenzo Ghiberti (see 
 p. 244), in whose school the leading painters of the day 
 were formed. He perfected the imitation of nature which 
 Giotto had introduced, applying the sciences of anatomy, 
 mathematics, and geometry to the art of design. Of his 
 pupils we can only name the principal : Paolo Uccelli 
 (1397 — 1475), who directed his attention almost exclu- 
 sively to the study of perspective, the great value of which 
 he illustrated in his frescoes in the monastery of S. Maria 
 Novella at Florence — of which the Drunkenness of Noah 
 is especially remarkable — and in several easel pictures, 
 one of which, the Battle of S. Egidio, is in the National 
 Gallery; two others are in the UfTizi and the Louvre. 
 Piero de' Franceschi, commonly called Piero dellaJjcaEr 
 cesca (ab. 1415 — 1492), did much to systematise the study 
 of perspective ; Masolino da Panicale (1382 — 1447), who 
 excelled in colouring, but who rather sacrificed compo- 
 sition to detail of form, executed several fine works in the 
 
In Florence. 
 
 351 
 
 church and baptistery of Castiglione di Olona, and in the 
 Brancacci Chapel in the church of the Carmine at Florence. 
 
 Chief among these painters 
 was To mmaso Gu idi, com- 
 monly called Mgsaccio; he 
 was the pupil of Masolino, 
 and might, with better just- 
 ice than Cimabue, be styled 
 the father of modern Italian 
 painting ; he excelled all his 
 predecessors in knowledge 
 of form, perspective and 
 chiaroscuro. 
 
 Masaccio (1401 — 1428) 
 was born at Castel S. Gio- 
 vanni, in the Val d'Arno, 
 and when quite a boy worked 
 under Masolino at the fres- 
 coes in the Brancacci Chapel, 
 in the church of the Car- 
 mine, Florence.* In his 
 frescoes Masaccio gave proof 
 of remarkable powers, and 
 the influence of Ghiberti is 
 very distinctly traceable. 
 Their chief excellences are 
 the admirable treatment of the nude human figure — the 
 judicious foreshortening of the extremities, the happy 
 
 Fig. 126. — The Expulsion from 
 
 Paradise. By Masaccio. 
 
 In the Brancacci Chapel, Florence. 
 
 * It has commonly been said that Masaccio finished these frescoes 
 after Masolino's death ; but inasmuch as the latter survived the 
 former by nineteen years, this is impossible. It may be serviceable 
 
352 Painting 
 
 rendering of the flesh-tints, the animation and varied 
 character of the heads, and the skilful grouping and com- 
 position of the whole. The National Gallery possesses a 
 so-called portrait of this great master from his own hand, 
 but some writers doubt its authenticity. 
 
 Two of Masaccio's greatest cotemporaries (both monks) 
 
 to give here a list of the frescoes as they have been assigned to their 
 various authors by the latest authorities. 
 
 By Masaccio. 
 
 (i.) The Expulsion from Paradise. 
 
 (ii.) The Tribute- Money. 
 
 (iii.) The Resuscitation of the Kings Son. (Finished by Filippino 
 
 Lippi.) 
 
 (iv.) S. Peter in Cathedrd. 
 
 (v.) The Infirm healed by the shadow of SS. Peter and John. 
 
 (vi.) S. Peter Baptizing. 
 
 (vii.) S. Peter distributing alms to the Poor. 
 
 By Masolino. 
 
 (viii.) The Preaching of S. Peter. 
 
 (ix.) The Healing of the Lame Man at the Beautiful Gate. 
 
 (x. ) The Resuscitation of Petronilla. (Also called The Raising 
 
 of Jairuss Daughter. ) 
 (xi.) Adam and Eve beneath the Tree of Knowledge. 
 
 By Filippino Lippi. 
 
 xii.) S. Peter in Prison visited by $. Paid. 
 
 xiii.) S. Peter freed from Prison. 
 
 xiv.) SS. Peter and Paul before the Proconsul. 
 
 xv.) Crucifixion of S. Peter. 
 
 xvi.) Resuscitation of the King 's Son. (Begun by Masaccio.) 
 
In Florence. 353 
 
 were Guido di Pietro, of Fiesole, commonly called Fra 
 Angelico (1387 — 1455) and Filippo Lippi (ab. 1412 — 
 1469), who may be taken as the representatives of the two 
 great classes into which the painters of the Renaissance 
 became divided, and to which the name of the Mystics or 
 Idealists, and Naturalists, have been given — names still 
 retained by their followers and imitators : the former being 
 those who cultivated beauty as a means to an end, and 
 studied nature only for the sake of furthering that end — 
 the expression of all that is highest and best in the 
 material and spiritual world ; and the latter, those who 
 aimed at the exact imitation of beauty for its own sake, 
 and earnestly studied everything connected w T ith the theory 
 and practice of their art. 
 
 Fra Angelico da Fiesole, called from the holiness of his 
 life II Beato (the Blessed), entered the order of the Predi- 
 cants at Fiesole at the age of twenty, taking the name of 
 Giovanni, and devoted a long and peaceful life to the 
 cultivation of religious art, never painting any but sacred 
 subjerrt^TanaStev^r accepting payment for anything he did. 
 His principal works are frescoes in the convent of S. Marco, 
 and the church of S. Maria Novella at Florence, and in the 
 chapel of Nicholas V. in the Vatican (Fig. 127); an easel 
 picture, the Coronation of the Virgin, now in the Louvre ; 
 the Adoration of the Magi, and Christ in Glory surrounded 
 by Angels (which once formed the predella of an altar-piece 
 in S. Domenico at Fiesole), both in the National Gallery. 
 Many good works by him are in the Florentine Academy 
 of Fine Arts. They are all alike remarkable for their 
 elevated religious sentiment, the grandeur and ideal beauty 
 of the figures, and the loving finish of every detail. Fra 
 Angelico' s works were the outpourings of his own devout 
 
 EHA A A 
 
304 
 
 Painting 
 
 spirit, the expression of his passionate love of spiritual 
 beauty ; and, although not characterised by the powerful 
 drawing and exact imitation of nature of cotemporary 
 
 Fig. 127.— S. Lawrence giving alms. By Fra Angelico. 
 In the Chapel of Nicholas V. in the Vatican. 
 
 masters, they have a charm and pathos of their own, and 
 combine in the highest degree the two great requisites of 
 ideal art — expression and pictorial power. 
 
In Florence. 355 
 
 Fra Filippo Lippi presents both in his life and works a 
 striking contrast to Fra Angelico. He was received into 
 the convent of the Carmelites as a boy when Masaccio was 
 at work on his frescoes, and, if he did not actually receive 
 lessons from that master, he certainly followed his style. 
 According to a popular tradition, which recently discovered 
 documents have shown to be erroneous, Lippi' s life was 
 one long romance. Becoming weary of convent life, it is 
 said, he ran away to Ancona, was taken captive by African 
 pirates, and sold as a slave in Barbary. After eighteen 
 months' captivity he won his master's favour by drawing 
 his portrait with a piece of charcoal, and, as a reward, 
 received his liberty. His life was divided between the 
 pursuit of pleasure and of art. He was one of the first 
 Italian masters to paint in oils, and to cultivate the 
 sensuous side of art. His principal merits were his mastery 
 of chiaroscuro, the breadth and grandeur of his figures, and 
 his easy grace in grouping. He was also amongst the first 
 to introduce genuine landscape backgrounds, and he often 
 displayed considerable knowledge of nature ; but many of 
 his works were spoiled by a certain want of calmness and 
 dignity in his sacred personages. The academy of Florence 
 contains many of his finest easel pictures, painted for the 
 churches and convents of that city ; and in the National 
 Gallery there are five sacred subjects ascribed to him : the 
 Vision of 8. Bernard ; a Madorina and Child ; the Virgin 
 seated, with an Angel presenting to her the Holy Child ; an 
 Annunciation; and a group of S. John the Baptist and 
 six Saints. Crowe and Cavalcaselle doubt the authenticity 
 of the second and third of these ; but, on the other hand, 
 give to Filippo Lippi the Adoration of the Magi, which is 
 in the catalogue ascribed to Filippino Lippi. Of Lippi' s 
 
 A A 2 
 
356 
 
 Painting 
 
 numerous frescoes, those in the cathedral of Prato, repre- 
 senting scenes from the lives of S. John the Baptist and 
 S. Stephen — a group from which we engrave (Fig. 128, — 
 
 Fig. 128.— S. John the Baptist taking leave of his Parents. 
 By Fra Filippo Lippi. In the Cathedral of Prato. 
 
 are considered the best ; the Lamentation over the death 
 of S. Stephen is especially fine : those in the cathedral 
 of Spoleto are also much admired. Filippo Lippi was the 
 greatest colourist of his age : he was also a great reformer 
 
In Florence. 357 
 
 in art, or rather a degenerator, for it was he who, by giving 
 an undue prominence to drapery which it had never before 
 received, and similar alterations, started the decline in 
 sacred historic painting. 
 
 Antonello da Messina (ab. 1414 — ab. 1496)— although 
 he belongs, strictly speaking, to the Venetian school — must 
 be mentioned here on account of his introduction of the 
 improved method of mixing oil colours, which he learnt in 
 Flanders. The National Gallery possesses a work by him, 
 a Salvator Mundi; and three important pictures are 
 preserved in the Berlin Museum, of these the Head of S, 
 Sebastian and a Madonna and Child are considered the 
 best. 
 
 As great Florentine painters of the fifteenth century, we 
 must also name — 
 
 Lippi's adopted son, Filippino Lippi (1460 — 1504), who 
 copied his style and excelled him in his peculiar merits ; 
 he was the author of SS. Peter and Paul before the Pro- 
 consul, and other fine frescoes in the Brancacci Chapel, so 
 often referred to (see p. 351). He also painted important 
 works in the Strozzi chapel in S. Maria Novella, Florence, 
 and in Rome and Prato. There are three works by him in 
 the National Gallery. 
 
 Benozzo Gozzoli (1420 — 1498), the pupil of Fra Angel- 
 ico, but inferior to him, whose best works are twenty-four 
 frescoes in the Campo Santo at Pisa, and whose style may be 
 studied in two easel pictures in the National Gallery. He 
 was very lavish with elaborate accessories. 
 
 Andrea del Castagno (1390 — 1457), who until quite 
 recently has been considered the murderer of Domenico 
 Veneziano (ab. 1420 — 1461), who survived him four years, 
 and from whom he is said to have obtained the secret of the 
 
358 Painting 
 
 method of mixing oil colours. It is usually asserted that 
 Domenico learned the secret from Antonello da Messina 
 in Venice, and then carried it to Florence. This is now 
 disbelieved; and it seems very doubtful if Domenico 
 Veneziano used oil at all in a different manner from his 
 predecessors. In the cathedral of Florence is an eques- 
 trian portrait of Niccolo Tolentino painted by him in 
 imitation of statuary : it forms a companion to a similar 
 picture of Hawhwood by Uccelli. 
 
 Alessandro Filipepi (1446 — 1510), commonly called from 
 the name of the goldsmith with whom he studied, Botti- 
 celli, was the pupil of Filippo Lippi ; he is famed for the 
 introduction of ancient mythology into sacred subjects, 
 and for being the first of the great series of painters 
 in the famous Sistine Chapel of the Vatican. Six of his 
 works are in the National Gallery. 
 
 Domenico Bigordi, called from his skill in making 
 garlands Ghirlandajo (1419 — 1494), is remarkable for his 
 skill in portraiture, his command of all the technical 
 processes of painting, and for the brilliancy of the colour- 
 ing of his frescoes ; he may be said to have carried on 
 and advanced the movement begun by Masaccio : his 
 most famous works are a series of frescoes in the Sassetti 
 Chapel in the church of the S. Trinita at Florence — of 
 which the Funeral of S. Francis is considered the finest — 
 and the frescoes representing scenes from the Life of the 
 Virgin and the Life of S. John the Baptist (Fig. 129) in the 
 choir of S. Maria Novella. The Florence galleries and 
 churches, the Berlin Museum, and the Louvre, contain 
 specimens of his pictures. 
 
 Luca Signorelli (1441 — 1523) was one of those who did 
 most to promote the development of the great Florentine 
 
 
In Florence. 
 
 359 
 
 School of painting of the sixteenth century, by his earnest 
 study of the human form, of which he acquired thorough 
 anatomical knowledge, combined with absolute command 
 of expressing that knowledge in painting : he has been 
 justly called the forerunner of Michelangelo. He was 
 a pupil of Piero della Francesca. His most famous works 
 
 Fig-. 129. — Zacharias writing- the name of John. By Ghirlandajo. 
 In S. Maria Novella, Florence. 
 
 are the frescoes in the Chapel of the Virgin in the cathedral 
 of Orvieto, representing the Last Judgment — of which the 
 best part is the Wicked cast out of Heaven, in which the 
 foreshortening is most daring and hitherto unapproached : 
 they were completed in 1503, shortly before the exhibition 
 at Florence of Michelangelo's celebrated Cartoon of Pisa, 
 to which we shall presently refer. He was one of the 
 artists called to Rome by Sixtus IV. to decorate the Sistine 
 
360 Painting 
 
 Chapel. His work there is second only to that of Ghirlan- 
 dajo. Other paintings by him are the Life of 8. Benedict, 
 in the convent of Monte Oliveto, near Siena ; and frescoes 
 in the church of Loreto and the duomo of Cortona. 
 
 Antonio del Pollaiuolo (1429?— 1498), one of Ghiberti's 
 assistants in the ornamentation of the second bronze gate, 
 produced several fine paintings in the latter part of his 
 life — four of which, a Martyrdom of S. Sebastian, and the 
 Angel Raphael with Tobias, and two others, are in the 
 National Gallery ; he with his brother Piero del Pollaiuolo 
 (1441 — 1489) is said to have been the first to study dead 
 subjects for artistic purposes. They were also celebrated 
 as sculptors. The tomb of Sixtus IV. in the Cappella del 
 Sacramento and that of Innocent VIII. in the Cappella 
 della Concezione, Rome, were their most celebrated works. 
 
 We must also mention — 
 
 Andrea del Verrocchio (1435 — 1488), sculptor, wood- 
 carver and painter, celebrated as the master of Leonardo 
 da Vinci and of Perugino. He is said to have been the 
 first artist who took plaster-casts from life as an aid in the 
 study of form. 
 
 Cosimo •Eosselli (1439 — 1507), a follower of Masaccio, 
 who in later years spoiled his art by over-gilding, and his 
 pupil who was named after him, and who assisted him in 
 the Sistine Chapel, Piero di Cosimo (1462 — 1521), who is 
 to be noticed for the landscapes in the background of his 
 pictures. 
 
 A S. Jerome by Rosselli, and a Death of Procris by Piero 
 di Cosimo, are in the National Gallery. 
 
 When in 1474 Sixtus IV. had completed the erection of 
 the chapel called after him, he sent to Florence for artists 
 
In Florence. 361 
 
 to decorate it for him. Those that answered the call were 
 Botticelli, Ghirlandajo, Rosselli, and Signorelli ; and, under 
 the direction of the first-named, they executed frescoes 
 which to this day testify to the excellence of Florentine 
 art at the close of the fifteenth century. Our space will 
 only permit us to give a list of these works. Beginning at 
 the altar are — 
 
 On the Left Wall. 
 
 (i.) Journey of Moses and Zipporah. (Perugino.) 
 
 (ii.) Moses s Miracles in Egypt. (Botticelli.) 
 
 (iii.) Drowning of Pharaoh. (Rosselli.) 
 
 (iv.) Moses Reading the Law: Adoration, and Destruction of 
 
 the Calf (Rosselli.) 
 (v.) Fall of Korah and his Followers. (Botticelli.) 
 (vi.) Publication of the Ten Commandments, and Death of 
 
 Moses. (Signorelli.) 
 
 On the Right Wall. 
 
 (i.) Baptism of Christ. (Perugino.) 
 
 (ii.) Temptation of Christ. (Botticelli.) 
 
 (iii.) Calling of Peter and Andrew. (Ghirlandajo.) 
 
 (iv.) Sermon on the Mount. (Rosselli.) 
 
 (v.) Investiture of ' S. Peter. (Perugino.) 
 
 (vi.) Last Supper. (Rosselli.) 
 
 (b) The Paduan School. 
 
 The founder of the Paduan school was Francesco Squar- 
 cione (1394 — 1474), to whom is due the merit of reviving 
 the study of the masterpieces of antique sculpture. The 
 peculiarity of the Paduan school was a sculpturesque 
 rather than pictorial treatment of form, the compositions 
 of its masters resembling bas-reliefs rather than paintings. 
 
362 
 
 Painting 
 
 
 Squarcione was more a teacher than a painter; and only 
 one picture by him, a group of a S. Jerome and other S< tints, 
 at Padua, has been preserved. His fame rests principally 
 on his having been the master of Mantegna. Marco Zoppo 
 
 Fig. 130.— Judith with the head of Holofernes. 
 From the drawing by Mantegna in the Uffizi. 
 
 (14^5 — 1498), a native of Bologna, also aided in the 
 development of Paduan art. 
 
 .Andrea Mantegna (1431 — 1506) was the greatest painter 
 of the north of Italy in the fifteenth century, and the first 
 
In Padua. 363 
 
 to engrave his own designs. The most remarkable of his 
 works are a series of nine cartoons executed in tempera 
 in nine divisions, of the Triumphs of Julius Caesar after 
 the Conquest of Gaul, painted for the Duke of Mantua — 
 now at Hampton Court ; and the frescoes in the Chapel of 
 S. Christopher in the church of the Eremitani, at Padua, 
 representing scenes ill the lives of 8. Christopher and S. 
 James. Of his altar-pieces, we may name that of the high 
 altar of S. Zeno at Verona ; and the Madonna of Victory, in 
 the Louvre. The National Gallery contains by Mantegna 
 a Holy Family, and the Triumph of Scipio. The latter, 
 executed in tempera on canvas, is especially valuable, as 
 being one of the latest, if not the last, picture he ever 
 painted. In all these works Mantegna displayed a com- 
 plete acquaintance with ancient Roman art, a richness of 
 imagination, a power of design, and a knowledge of form, 
 chiaroscuro, and perspective, which entitle him to the high 
 rank universally assigned to him, and account for the wide 
 influence he exercised over his cotemporaries. 
 
 None of Mantegna's numerous pupils attained to remark- 
 able eminence; but we must mention Bono di Ferrara 
 (fl. ab. 1461) and Francesco Bonsignori (1455 — 1519), the 
 former of whom was a pupil, and the latter an imitator, of 
 Mantegna. By Bono, the National Gallery possesses a 
 8. Jerome in the Desert, and by Bonsignori a Portrait of a 
 Venetian Senator. 
 
 Various Venetian, Veronese, Ferrarese, Milanese, and 
 other masters copied Mantegna's peculiarities with more 
 or less success. He was the son-in-law of Jacopo. and the 
 brother-in-law of Giovanni and Gentile Bellini, and through 
 them had great influence on the school of Venice. 
 
384 Painting 
 
 (c) The Venetian School. 
 
 We have now to turn to Venice, where we find an 
 important school arising, founded by the brothers Bellini, 
 in which brilliancy and harmony of colouring reached their 
 fullest development. 
 
 Before these in point of time, however, were Antonello 
 da Messina (ab. 1440 — ab. 1493), who introduced into 
 Italy the oil-painting practised by the Van Eycks, and the 
 Vivarini, of whom the principal was Bartolommeo (fl. ab. 
 1450 — 1499), who executed the first oil-painting exhibited 
 in Venice. Carlo Crivelli must also be noticed here, 
 though he adhered to the old method of tempera painting. 
 The -National Gallery possesses a Salcator MiuuU by Anto- 
 nello da Messina; a Virgin and Child by Bartolommeo 
 Vivarini, and figures of SS. Peter and, Jerome by his 
 brother Antonio Vivarini (fl. 1440 — 1464), and no less 
 than eight works by Carlo Crivelli. 
 
 Giovanni Bellini (fl. 1464 — 1516) was the greater of the 
 two brothers. Giovanni's best pictures were painted in 
 oils (Antonello da Messina having, as we have seen, intro- 
 duced the new medium to the Venetians in the latter part 
 of the fifteenth century), and are characterised by a spiritual 
 beauty of expression, combined with truth to nature and a 
 brilliancy and transparency of colouring, hitherto never 
 attained. Most of Giovanni Bellini's pictures are in the 
 galleries and churches of Venice : they consist principally 
 of portraits and Madonnas, of which we must name an 
 altar-piece in the sacristy of S. Maria de' Frari, a 
 Madonna in the Academy, and a Madonna, and Saints in 
 S. Zaccaria ; his large altar-piece in SS. Giovanni e Paolo 
 perished in the same fire which destroyed Titian's Peter 
 
In Venice. 365 
 
 Martyr in 1867. Another extremely fine work is a 
 picture in S. Salvatore, Christ at Emmaus. The National 
 Gallery contains several fine specimens of Bellini's style : 
 a bust portrait of the Doge Leonardo Loredano, a Madonna 
 and Child, a S. Peter Martyr, and Christ's Agony in the 
 Garden. 
 
 Gentile Bellini's (ab. 1427 — 1507) works are of inferior 
 importance to his younger brother Giovanni's; they are 
 characterised by greater softness and less individuality of 
 style. The best are S. Mark preaching at Alexandria, 
 now in the Brera at Milan ; and a Miracle of the Cross, 
 in the Academy of Venice. The brothers worked together 
 for some time in the Council Hall of the Ducal Palace of 
 Venice, at a series of pictures illustrative of the Venetian 
 wars in 1177, which were unfortunately destroyed by fire 
 in 1577. They were replaced by works by the great 
 painters of Venice of a later period. 
 
 Giovanni had many celebrated scholars, of whom Gior- 
 gione and Titian, to be presently noticed, were the chief. 
 We must also name Cima da Conegliano, Girolamo Mocetto, 
 Martino da Udine, Vittore Carpaccio, Lazzaro Bastiani, 
 Giovanni Mansueti, Marco Marziale, Catena, Previtali, 
 Bissolo, and Marco Basaiti, — all Venetian artists who were 
 influenced by the Paduan school, and combined something 
 of its severity of form, with Venetian softness of colouring. 
 Many of these artists may be studied in the National 
 Gallery. 
 
 (d) Other Schools of Upper Italy. 
 
 Before touching on the Umbrian school we must notice 
 several towns which, beside Venice, played a part in the 
 history of painting at this time. Bartolommeo Montagna 
 
366 Painting 
 
 (fl. ab. 1470 — 1523), a Brescian by birth, though resident 
 in Vicenza, where his best works are to be found, was a 
 painter whose style was formed on a judicious blending 
 of those of Mantegna and the cotemporary Venetians. 
 Vittore Pisano, called Pisanello, and better known as a 
 medallist than a painter, who painted in the early half of 
 the fifteenth century; Liberale (1451 — 1536), Girolamo 
 dai Libri (1474 — 1556), and Paolo Morando all flourished 
 at Verona, where their works are still preserved : except 
 Liberale, they may be studied in the National Gallery, where 
 are also pictures by Ambrogio di Stefano, called Borgog- 
 none, a native of Piedmont, who worked at Pavia from 
 about 1475 to 1493. His paintings, which are either in 
 tempera or fresco, are best seen in the Milanese. 
 
 The Ferrarese school was upheld by Cosimo Tura (ab. 
 1418 — aft. 1494), Lorenzo Casta, and Ercole Grande, who 2 
 however, both also painted in Bologna. All three may be 
 studied in the National Gallery. 
 
 (e) The Umbrian School. 
 
 The mountainous district of upper Italy, now known as 
 the Duchy of Spoleto (the favourite resort of S. Francis 
 of Assisi and other religious devotees), was the home of a 
 school of painters who cared rather for spiritual beauty 
 than external perfection of form. The peculiar style of 
 this school is the reflection of the mode of thought of its 
 members, coloured by influences from various external 
 sources. In the works of the early Umbrian masters, we 
 are reminded alike of Giotto, Uccelli, Masaccio, and Luca 
 Signorelli. To Niccolb di Liberatore (known as Niccolo 
 Alunno) is due the merit of giving to the Umbrian school 
 
In Umbria. 
 
 367 
 
 its distinguishing characteristic of spiritual expression — a 
 characteristic more fully displayed in the works of his 
 reputed pupil, Pietro Vannucci (commonly called, from his 
 
 -'#'■• 
 
 :cs = «. „_ v.. 
 
 S** 
 
 
 Fig. 131.— Pieta. By Perugino. 
 In the Academy at Florence. 
 
 long residence in Perugia, Perugino), the famous master of 
 Raphael. 
 
 Perugino (ab. 1446 — 1524) was principally famous for 
 his purity of colouring and knowledge of perspective. He 
 several times changed his style, the result probably of a 
 constant wandering from one studio to another. He at 
 
368 Painting in Umbria. 
 
 
 one time studied under Verrocchio at Florence. Among 
 his earlier works we must notice the frescoes in the Sistine 
 Chapel (1480), representing the Journey of Moses and Zip- 
 porah, the Baptism of Christ, and the Investiture of S. Peter 
 (see p. 361). To his best manner belong the Madonna with 
 four Saints, in the Vatican ; a Descent from the Cross, in the 
 Pitti Palace ; an Ascension in the museum of Lyons, and 
 the frescoes in the Cambio at Perugia. Our National 
 Gallery possesses three paintings by Perugino — a Madonna 
 and Child, a Madonna adoring the Infant Christy with 
 the Archangels Michael and Raphael, and a Madonna and 
 Child with SS. Francis and Jerome. Perugino's best 
 works are remarkable for an enthusiastic earnestness of 
 expression and a grace and softness of colouring seldom 
 surpassed ; they are, however, somewhat wanting in energy 
 of composition and variety. Our illustration (Fig. 131) 
 may serve to give some idea of his peculiarities. 
 
 Perugino's greatest pupil was Raphael, of whom we 
 shall presently speak. We must here name Bernardino di 
 Biagio, called Pinturicchio (1454 — 1513), who was a pupil 
 of Perugino, and who probably assisted his master in the 
 Sistine Chapel, and executed some fine frescoes in the 
 cathedral of Spello, and in the Libreria of the cathedral of 
 Siena, — his masterpiece, scenes from the Life ofEnea Silvio 
 Piccolomini, — besides several easel pictures — of which the 
 best, the Virgin between SS. Jerome and Augustine, is in the 
 Academy at Perugia — and four good specimens (one, the 
 Story of Griselda, is in three parts) in the National Gallery ; 
 we must also notice the Spaniard, Giovanni di Pietro (called 
 Lo Spagno), who died about 1530. An Ecce Homo by him 
 is in the National Gallery. The Glorification of the Virgin, 
 there, is doubted by some writers, who ascribed to him the 
 
Fig. 132. — Madonna and Child with a Bird. By Francia. 
 Ej_j A In the Dresden Gallery. 
 
 JJ li 
 
370 Painting 
 
 Agony in the Garden, catalogued as of the Umbrian 
 School. 
 
 Greater than either of these, however, and equal, if 
 not superior, to Perugino, was Francesco Raibolini, of 
 Bologna (1450 — 1517) — known as Francia, the sobriquet 
 of his first master, a goldsmith — whose chief characteristic 
 was his fervent piety. Originally a goldsmith, Francia 
 did not turn his attention to painting until late in life. 
 His earliest pictures are in oils, but he also executed 
 many frescoes. His style is distinguished for richness 
 of colouring and earnestness of expression. His works, 
 principally painted for the churches of Lombardy, are 
 now scattered throughout Europe. Our own National 
 Gallery possesses three, two of which are a beautiful altar- 
 piece representing the Virgin and S. Anne, with other 
 Saints, with a lunette, containing a Pieta, in which the 
 grief and despair of the mourners are admirably expressed. 
 Our space forbids us to attempt an enumeration of 
 Francia's various works, but we may add that the frescoes 
 in S. Cecilia, at Bologna, are considered the best. 
 
 The Sienese school of this period produced, by means of 
 such artists as Matteo da Siena (1435 — ab. 1500), numerous 
 works which are best studied in Siena ; they show grace 
 and feeling, but a lack of any forward movement. 
 
 In the fifteenth century the school of Naples rose into 
 considerable importance. Its distinctive peculiarity was 
 the blending of Flemish and Umbrian features, — the 
 details, accessories, and landscape backgrounds reminding 
 us of the works of the Van Eycks, and the figures of those 
 by Umbrian masters. The chief painters of this school — 
 to which we may perhaps apply the term " Eclectic " — 
 were Antonio Solario (ab. 1382 — 1455), surnamed Lo 
 
In Flokence. 371 
 
 Zingaro (the Gipsy), whose principal work is a series of 
 frescoes illustrating the Life of 8. Benedict, in S. Severino 
 at Naples; Silvestro de' Buoni, and his pupil, Amato 
 d' Antonio. 
 
 (/) The later Florentine School. 
 
 One other great Italian master of the latter part of the 
 fifteenth century remains to be noticed before we enter the 
 golden age of painting. Bartolommeo di Pagholo, com- 
 monly known as Fra Bartolommeo (1475 — 1517) — also 
 called Baccio della Porta and II Frate — the pupil of Cosimo 
 Rosselli, although the cotemporary of Raphael, Leonardo 
 da Vinci, and Michelangelo, belongs in feeling to the Early 
 Florentine school, and deserves special recognition for his 
 earnest opposition to the licentiousness and irreverence 
 which were associated in his day with the revival of 
 classical art and literature. The friend and admirer of 
 Savonarola, the great Florentine Reformer, he shared his 
 enthusiasm for a pure and holy life, — an enthusiasm 
 sincere enough to lead him to sacrifice to the flames many 
 of his early works, and all his books relating to antique 
 art. On the violent death of Savonarola, Baccio took the 
 vows of a monk, and not until four years afterwards did he 
 return to his true vocation, aroused to a sense of his mis- 
 taken self-denial by the exhortations of Raphael, then a 
 young man of one-and-twenty. To the mutual influence 
 of these two master-minds, we owe many of the greatest 
 excellences of both. Raphael taught the friar the value 
 of perspective, and Fra Bartolommeo initiated Raphael 
 into many secrets of colouring. The distinctive character- 
 istics of Fra Bartolommeo' s works are the holiness of the 
 
 BB 2 
 
Fig. 133. — Salvator Mundi. By Fra Bartolommeo. 
 In the Pitti Palace. Florence. 
 
Painting in Florence. 373 
 
 heads, — especially those of the Madonnas and Child-angels, 
 — the grandeur and grace of the drapery,* and the beauty 
 of the architectural backgrounds. As three typical works, 
 we may name the Madonna della Misericordia at Lucca ; 
 the S. Mark, in the Pitti Palace, Florence ; and the 
 Presentation in the Temple, in the Belvedere at Vienna. 
 The Grosvenor House Gallery contains a small but very 
 interesting Holy Family from the same great hand. 
 
 Intimately connected with the life of Fra Bartolommeo 
 is that of Mariotto Albertinelli (1474 — 1515), his fellow 
 student in the bottega of Cosimo Rosselli. In 1509 they 
 entered into partnership, and conjointly executed many 
 works. Albertinelli was very similar in his style to his 
 more famous friend. 
 
 A nun, Suor Plautilla Nelli, successfully imitated Fra 
 Bartolommeo' s style in many works. 
 
 To sum up the progress made since the opening of the 
 fifteenth century — we find imitation of nature no longer 
 imaginary but real : the laws of perspective had been 
 fathomed and turned to practical account by Paolo Uccelli, 
 Piero de' Francesci, Luca Signorelli, and their followers; 
 great improvements had been effected in types of form, 
 anatomical correctness, and physical beauty, by Masaccio, 
 and his followers, at Florence; Squarcione at Padua, 
 and Mantegna at Mantua; love for spiritual beauty 
 had been embodied in the works of Fra Angelico at 
 Florence, Perugino at Pome, Francia at Bologna, and Fja 
 Bartolommeo at Florence; whilst the true principles of 
 
 * Fra Bartolommeo invented the jointed wooden figures (lay- 
 figures) which have been so useful in promoting the better study of 
 the fall of drapery. 
 
374 
 
 Painting is Florence. 
 
 
 colouring were carried out in Venice by the Bellini, 
 Vivarini, and others. In a word, the way had been paved 
 for the advent of the great Cinque-cento masters, in whose 
 works were to be combined all the excellences divided 
 amongst their predecessors. 
 
 The names Pre-Raphaelites and Quattrocento Masters 
 have been given to the painters of the fifteenth century. 
 
2. Painting in Italy in the Sixteenth Century. 
 
 The early part of the sixteenth century was for painting 
 what the age of Pericles had been for sculpture. As we 
 have seen, much had been done to prepare the way by 
 many earnest workers in the fifteenth century ; but the 
 men we have now to consider were so original, so indi- 
 vidual, in their genius that the connection between them 
 and their predecessors is liable to be lost sight of. The 
 appearance of any one of them would have been enough to 
 raise the painting of the period to the very highest rank : 
 but, instead of some single master-spirit, we have a group 
 of original geniuses, each pursuing some great aim ; each 
 inspired with the same divine love of ideal beauty and 
 endowed with the same power of embodying that ideal in 
 masterpieces of undying perfection. We have traced the 
 gradual casting off of the trammels of tradition, the slow 
 and laborious working-out of individuality of form, the 
 painful winning of the secrets of science, and their appli- 
 cation to arts of design, and we have seen the various 
 elements of excellence in painting, forming each the dis- 
 tinctive characteristic of some one school ; but we have 
 now to examine these elements as they appear when 
 blended into one harmonious whole in the works of the 
 five greatest masters of Italy — Leonardo da Vinci, Michel- 
 angelo, Raphael, Titian, Correggio — and their followers, 
 each of whom united command over every art-element with 
 special excellence in some one particular. 
 
•376 Painting in Italy. 
 
 (a) Leonardo da Vinci and his School. 
 
 Leonardo da Vinci (1452 — 1519), the pupil of Andrea 
 Verrocchio, was the head of the great Milanese school. 
 He appears to have been a universal genius, and to have 
 been endowed with exceptional beauty of person. His 
 versatility and energy were alike unparalleled ; he was 
 a sculptor, painter, musician, poet, and had a thorough 
 practical knowledge of architecture, mechanics, anatomy, 
 botany, and kindred sciences. 
 
 The son of a notary, Leonardo was born at Vinci, near 
 Florence, and spent the early part of his life in indefatig- 
 able study. His first painting seems to have been a 
 Chimcera, executed on a piece of wood for a peasant on 
 his father's estate. While with Verrocchio he completed 
 a picture which that master had begun — a Baptism of 
 Christ, now in the Academy at Florence. At the age 
 of thirty the future master was invited to the court of 
 Lodovico Sforza, then Regent, afterwards Duke of Milan, 
 and was entrusted by him with the foundation of an 
 Academy of Art at Milan, which was established in 1485. 
 His Last Supper, of which we give the greater part (Fig. 
 134), painted in oils on a wall in the refectory of the 
 Convent of S. Maria delle Grazie at Milan, now nearly 
 perished by decay, and almost entirely re-painted, was 
 executed soon after his arrival. This world-famous picture 
 combined all the best characteristics of Da Vinci's style, 
 and must have been one of the grandest works that Chris- 
 tian art ever produced. Fortunately the original cartoons 
 of many of the heads, and several fine copies executed 
 under the master's own direction (one of the best of which, 
 
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378 Painting 
 
 done by Marco d'Oggione in 1510, is in the Royal Academy), 
 have been preserved, enabling us to form some idea of the 
 impressive solemnity and beauty of the original. The 
 painter has chosen to represent the moment when, at 
 the words " One of you shall betray Me," a thrill of 
 horror ran through the assembled disciples. The head of 
 the Redeemer, full of Divine majesty and courage to 
 endure, yet expresses human sorrow, with human weak- 
 ness and shrinking from pain ; whilst the groups on 
 either sides are rendered with a force of character and 
 dramatic power perhaps never equalled, certainly never 
 surpassed. The accusation affects each disciple in a dif- 
 ferent manner, and a glance is enough for the recognition 
 of the gentle John, the impetuous Peter, or the dark and 
 gloomy Judas. In this great work we see how Leonardo, 
 whilst adopting the traditional style of treatment of sacred 
 subjects and the traditional type of the Saviour's face, 
 has given to the whole a dignity of expression and an 
 elevation of sentiment hitherto unattained — the result of 
 his complete mastery of all the elements of perfect art. 
 This picture also serves to illustrate Leonardo's great 
 defect — a poverty of line, which presents a striking contrast 
 to the wonderful play and power of outline possessed by 
 his great rival Raphael. While at Milan, he executed a 
 famous equestrian statue of Lodovico Sforza, which dis- 
 appeared a few years after its completion, and is now only 
 known by sketches for it left by Leonardo. 
 
 In 1499 Leonardo returned to Florence and executed 
 many important works; of these a cartoon of the Holy 
 Family, called the Cartoon of St. Anna, in the Royal 
 Academy, is one of the most celebrated. A second, now 
 lost, supposed to have been one of the masterpieces of 
 
 
In Italy. 379 
 
 modern art, was a cartoon, composed in competition with 
 Michelangelo's Cartoon of Pisa, known as the Battle of 
 the Standard, and representing the Victory of the Floren- 
 tines over the Duke of Milan in 1440. Both these great 
 works are unfortunately lost ; but a copy by Rubens of a 
 group of four horsemen from Leonardo's is preserved in 
 the Louvre ; and an engraving by Edelinck is also in 
 existence. In 1514 he paid a short visit to Rome; but 
 the last years of his life were spent in France, whither 
 he accompanied Francis I. in 1516, and where he died. 
 Of the various works now in the Louvre attributed to him, 
 many were in reality from the hands of his pupils ; he 
 himself worked very slowly, and often left pictures un- 
 finished, but he was so full of grand conceptions, and sup- 
 plied those studying with him with so many great designs, 
 that a whole school of workers would not have sufficed to 
 carry them out. 
 
 Although the name of Leonardo not unfrequently occurs 
 in the catalogues of public galleries, the undoubted works 
 of his hand are few indeed. Dr. Richter, who has given 
 many years to the close study of his doubted and un- 
 doubted pictures, and to the numerous drawings, sketches, 
 and manuscripts which he has left, admits only the follow- 
 ing works to be undoubtedly by the hand of the great 
 master : 
 
 Adoration of the Kings. In the Uffizi, Florence. 
 
 S. Jerome. In the Vatican, Rome (in mono- 
 
 chrome). 
 
 Last Supper. In S. Maria delle Grazie, Milan 
 
 (wall-painting). 
 
 Mona Lisa. In the Louvre, Paris. 
 
 Madonna amid the Rocks. In the National Gallery. 
 
380 Painting 
 
 Vierge aux Rochers. In the Louvre, Paris (similar to 
 
 the National Gallery picture). 
 Holy Family with S. Anne. In the Louvre, Paris. 
 S. John the Baptist. In the Louvre, Paris. 
 
 Among the doubtful pieces most generally accepted, are — 
 
 La Monica. In the Pitti Palace, Florence. 
 
 Head of Medusa. In the Uffizi, Florence. 
 
 Portrait of Himself. In the Uffizi, Florence. 
 
 Vierge aux bas-relief. . In the possession of Lord Warwick. 
 
 La belle Feronniere. In the Louvre, Paris. 
 
 The National Gallery contains a very beautiful compo- 
 sition of Leonardo's, probably executed by Bernardino 
 Luini, of Christ Disputing with the Doctors. Leonardo 
 was the author of several learned treatises ; his book on 
 the Art of Painting still remains a valuable aid to the 
 student of his art. 
 
 The chief characteristics of Leonardo's works are truth 
 of tone, mastery of chiaroscuro, grandeur of design, and 
 — as we have hinted in speaking of the Last Supper — 
 elevation of sentiment and dignity of expression ; whilst 
 those of his pupils are distinguished for what may be called 
 a reflection of his spirit, especially in the transparency of 
 their lights and shadows and the sweetness of the expression 
 of the heads of their figures. 
 
 Of these pupils Bernardino Luini (ab. 1470 — aft. 1530) 
 was the chief : his pictures illustrate well the qualities so 
 much developed by Leonardo. The Dispute of Christ with 
 the Doctors, alluded to above, is one of his best works. His 
 frescoes in the Brera Gallery at Milan, collected from various 
 churches, are likewise very fine ; but he painted, compara- 
 tively speaking, so few easel pictures that it is by his 
 frescoes alone he can be properly appreciated. We must 
 
In Italy. 381 
 
 also notice Andrea Solari, Marco d'Oggione, Andrea Salaino, 
 Francisco Melzi, Giovanni Antonio BeltrafTlo, a nobleman 
 who painted for pleasure, and Cesare da Sesto. 
 
 Gaudenzio Ferrari (1484 — 1549), although not a pupil 
 of Leonardo, was greatly influenced by him. He belongs 
 rather to the old than the new Milanese school. His 
 Last Supper in the refectory of S. Paolo at Vercelli, and 
 his frescoes in the churches of Saronno and Varallo are 
 among his best works. 
 
 The celebrated Giovanni Antonio Bazzi, surnamed II 
 Sodoma (1473 ? — 1549), must be named as one of Leonardo's 
 cotemporaries who caught much of his peculiar manner. 
 He worked chiefly at Siena, where are still to be seen 
 his Deposition from the Cross in the Academy ; several 
 scenes from the Life of S. Catharine in the chapel of S. 
 Catharine of Siena, in S. Domenico ; and other works in 
 the galleries and churches. In the Villa Farnesina, 
 Rome, two fine frescoes from his hand are preserved 
 — the Marriage of Alexander vrith Ttoxana, and The Wife 
 of Darius pleading for mercy with the victorious Alexander. 
 His 8. Sebastian, probably the finest of all Sebastians 
 that exist, painted on canvas in 1515, and now in the 
 Uffizi, Florence, ranks amongst the best productions of 
 his day, on account of its touching beauty and the 
 expression of intense mental agony given to the head 
 of the youthful martyr. 
 
 (b) Michelangelo and, Ids School, 
 
 We have already spoken of the great Florentine, Michel- 
 agniolo Buonarroti (1475 — 1564), both as an architect and 
 sculptor : we have now to consider him as a painter, and we 
 
382 Painting 
 
 find him taking rank amongst the first and greatest of his 
 cotemporaries, and, in the force and grandeur of his con- 
 ceptions, his anatomical knowledge and power of drawing, 
 excelling both them and all his predecessors. Michelangelo 
 — unlike Leonardo, who gave his chief attention to light and, 
 shade and colour — devoted his life to the study of form and 
 the expression of energy in action. His figures are stamped 
 with the impress of his bold, profound, and original genius, 
 and have a mysterious and awful grandeur all their own. 
 His mighty spirit found its best expression in sculpture. 
 He despised easel pictures as unworthy of a great man ; and 
 his large fresco paintings, — the greatest works of the kind 
 ever produced, — which he executed without assistance of 
 any kind, are instinct with the same fire and energy as we 
 have seen to characterize his statues and bas-reliefs. 
 
 Michelangelo's first work of importance in the branch 
 of art now under consideration was the Cartoon of Pisa, 
 already alluded to. It is unfortunately lost — having, it is 
 said, been destroyed by Baccio Bandinelli, one of the great 
 painter's rivals ; but the Earl of Leicester possesses, at his 
 seat at Holkham, a copy of the principal portions which has 
 been very well engraved. It represented a group of Floren- 
 tine soldiers bathing in the Arno unexpectedly called to 
 battle, and is remarkable for the extraordinary knowledge 
 displayed of the human form in every variety of attitude. 
 A few years after the completion of this cartoon, Michel- 
 angelo commenced, in 1507, the decoration of the vaulted 
 ceiling of the Sistine Chapel, Rome, by command of Pope 
 Julius II. , finishing it in 1512. This stupendous under- 
 taking, which is considered Buonarroti's masterpiece and 
 the most powerful piece of painting in existence, contains 
 more than two hundred figures nearly all larger than life. 
 
In Italy. 
 
 383 
 
 The flat central portion of the ceiling is divided into four 
 large and five small compartments, the former containing 
 representations of the Creation of the Sun and Moon, 
 the Creation of Adam, the Fall and its immediate con- 
 
 Fig 135 —The Prophet Isaiah. By Michelangelo. 
 In the Sitting Chapel. 
 
 sequences, and the Deluge; the latter, scenes from Genesis 
 of minor importance. The triangular divisions at the 
 springing of the vaults are occupied by grand seated figures 
 of the prophets and sibyls who foretold the advent of Christ, 
 of which we give a single specimen (Fig. 135). In the 
 
Fig. 136.— The Holy Family. By Michelangelo. 
 In the Uffizi, Florence. 
 
Painting in Italy. 385 
 
 small recesses between these compartments and above the 
 windows are groups of the Ancestors of Christ, awaiting 
 in calm expectation the Coming of the Lord ; and in the 
 four corners of the ceiling are scenes from the various 
 deliverances of the people of Israel, — viz., Holof ernes and 
 Judith, David and Goliath, the Brazen Serpent, and 
 Haman's Death. The various portions of the work are 
 united by architectural designs enclosing numerous figures 
 of a grey, bronze, or bright colour, according to the position 
 they occupy, which admirably serve to throw the groups 
 into the necessary relief without in the least obtruding 
 themselves upon the attention. The combined genius of 
 an architect, sculptor and painter was required to produce 
 a result so admirable. The figures of the prophets and 
 sibyls are allowed to be the finest forms ever produced by 
 the painter's brush — they are all alike grand, dignified, 
 and full of individual character ; whilst those in the minor 
 groups display a feeling for beauty and a tenderness of 
 sentiment rarely met with in the works of the stern and 
 rugged author of Moses and the Last Judgment. 
 
 Between the years 1534 and 1541 Michelangelo executed 
 his Last Judgment as an altar-piece for the same chapel, 
 in obedience to the command of Pope Paul III. In this 
 composition the Judge is represented at the moment of 
 saying, " Depart from Me, ye cursed, into everlasting fire ! " 
 In the upper part of the picture we see the redeemed in 
 every variety of attitude anxiously awaiting the sentence of 
 mercy ; and in the lower the condemned, writhing in anguish 
 and convulsively struggling with evil demons. The whole 
 scene is pervaded by horror : there is no joy in the coun- 
 tenances even of the blessed ; and the Virgin, standing 
 beside her Son, turns away her head with an expression of 
 eha c c 
 
386 Painting 
 
 sorrowful dismay. Universally allowed to be a marvellous 
 effort of human skill, the Last Judgment is inferior in 
 beauty, if not in power, to the paintings of the vault. In 
 it the great master has broken completely loose from all 
 the traditions of Christian art, and his chief aim appears 
 to have been to prove his knowledge of muscular develop- 
 ment at every stage of human life, and his power of 
 expressing all the most terrible of human emotions. 
 Powerless rage, terror, doubt, and the struggle between 
 fear and hope, are alike admirably rendered in this awful 
 scene. Several engravings of the Last Judgment are in 
 the British Museum. 
 
 Michelangelo's only other paintings of importance were 
 two frescoes in the Pauline Chapel, Rome, of the Cruci- 
 fixion of 8. Peter and the Conversion of 8. Paul. They 
 are now nearly destroyed ; but the British Museum con- 
 tains some old engravings after them. 
 
 The National Gallery has an unfinished picture of the 
 Entombment of Christ, said to be by Michelangelo, though 
 various critics will not admit its authenticity. The 
 National Gallery also contains his design of a Dream of 
 Human Life and that of the Raising of Lazarus, both 
 supposed to have been executed by Sebastian del Piombo, 
 his best pupil. In the latter there are some figures 
 probably from the great master's own hand. His most 
 important easel picture is the Holy Family of the year 
 1504, in the Uffizi, Florence (Fig. 136). 
 
 Of Michelangelo's pupils the best were Marcello Venusti, 
 Sebastiano Luciani, called del Piombo — three of whose 
 pictures are in the National Gallery — and Daniele Ric- 
 ciarelli, called da Volterra, who worked out something of 
 an independent style of his own. His finest work, the 
 
In Italy. 387 
 
 Descent from the Cross, is in the church of the Trinita de' 
 Monti, at Rome. 
 
 (c) The Florentine School of the 16th Century. 
 
 We may conveniently here mention a few painters 
 who upheld Florentine art during part of the sixteenth 
 century. Andrea d'Agnolo, commonly called del Sarto 
 (1487 — 1531), a cotemporary of Michelangelo, attained to 
 considerable excellence as a colourist, and enriched Florence 
 with many fine original frescoes and altar-pieces, of which 
 the History of 8. John in the Scalzo, and the Life of S. 
 Filippo Benizzi in the church of the Servi (which contains 
 his famous Madonna del Sacco) are among the best. The 
 National Gallery contains a portrait of himself and a Holy 
 Family. He was first apprenticed to a goldsmith ; and 
 then studied painting under Piero di Cosimo. His style, 
 however, was formed more from a study of the great works 
 of Ghirlandaio and Masaccio, of Michelangelo and Leonardo, 
 than from any instruction received from Piero. 
 
 Francesco Bigi, commonly known as Franciabigio (1482 
 — 1525), first studied in the Brancacci Chapel, and then 
 under Albertinelli. He was a friend of Andrea del Sarto, 
 and was influenced by him. A Portrait of a Youth, by 
 him, is in the National Gallery. 
 
 Jacopo Carucci, called da Puntormo (1494 — 1556), was 
 a pupil of Leonardo, of Piero di Cosimo, and of Andrea del 
 Sarto : he is famous for his portraits ; an example is in 
 the National Gallery, where his pupil, Angiolo Allori, called 
 Bronzino (1502 — 1572), may also be studied. He was 
 greatly influenced in his painting by Michelangelo, and 
 was moreover the friend of the famous Florentine painter 
 
 c c 2 
 
388 Painting 
 
 and chronicler, Giorgio Vasari (bef. 1512 — 1574), whose 
 ' Lives of the most excellent Painters, Sculptors, and 
 Architects ! has gone through many editions, and is world- 
 known. 
 
 (d) Raphael and his School. 
 
 RafFaello Sanzio, usually called Kaphael (1483 — 1520), 
 is generally considered to be the greatest of all painters. 
 He was born at Urbino : his father, Giovanni Santi (ab. 
 1440 — 1494), was an Umbrian painter of some note, whose 
 title to fame has been eclipsed by that of his famous son ; 
 and the young painter's earliest works were exponents of 
 the peculiar style of the Umbrian School in its highest 
 development. The pupih of Perugino, he was at first 
 greatly influenced by that master ; and in speaking of his 
 works we shall have to distinguish between three distinct 
 styles — known as the Perugino manner, the Florentine 
 and the Roman — adopted at the three different periods of 
 his life. Raphael, like the other master-spirits of his age, 
 was a universal genius ; he excelled alike in architecture, 
 sculpture and painting, and was endowed with every 
 quality which could endear him to his associates. No 
 man inspired such universal confidence and affection, and 
 no artist has exercised so wide and lasting an influence 
 upon art as Raphael, by whose spirit we are even now met 
 at every turn in every branch of art. What strikes us 
 principally in our study of his character is the combination 
 of the highest qualities of the mind and heart — a combina- 
 tion rarely met with even in the greatest men, and perhaps 
 never to so full an extent as in him and in the great 
 musician Mozart, who may well be called a kindred spirit, 
 though working in a different sphere. In the works of 
 
In Italy. 389 
 
 others, even of the most gifted masters, we find the 
 influence of the intellect or of the affections predominating, 
 whilst in those of Raphael they are inseparably blended ; 
 and it is this union of the highest faculties which produces 
 that beautiful and unrivalled harmony which pervades 
 everything from his hand. He exhibited in the highest 
 degree the combination of the powers of invention with 
 those of representation, sometimes known as the formative 
 and imitative qualities. In invention, composition, moral 
 force, fidelity of portraiture, and feeling for spiritual beauty, 
 he is surpassed by none ; in grandeur of design by Michel- 
 angelo alone ; whilst in fulness of chiaroscuro and richness 
 of colouring he is only excelled by the best masters of the 
 Venetian School. 
 
 It will be impossible, having regard to our limited space, 
 to do more than allude in the most cursory manner to the 
 chief of Raphael's numerous works. Although he died at 
 the early age of thirty-seven, he executed no less than 287 
 pictures and 576 drawings and studies, in addition to the 
 series of frescoes in the Vatican and elsewhere. 
 
 Of the paintings executed under Perugino, the principal 
 are a Coronation of the Virgin, in the Vatican, two studies 
 for which are in the Oxford Collection ; and the Vision 
 of a Knight, in the National Gallery. The earliest inde- 
 pendent works are said to have been a Church-banner in 
 S. Trinita at Citta da Castello ; and a Crucifixion, in the 
 possession of Lord Dudley, which was exhibited at the 
 "Old Masters" Exhibition at the Royal Academy in 
 1872. 
 
 On leaving Perugino's school in 1504, at the age of 
 twenty-one, Raphael, eager to improve himself by the 
 study of greater works than his master's, repaired to 
 
390 Painting in Italy. 
 
 Florence, and found all that he required in the cartoons of 
 Leonardo da Vinci and Michelangelo, which excited his 
 enthusiastic admiration. Peculiarly susceptible to the 
 influences alike of the old and new Florentine schools, 
 Raphael's transcendent genius manifested itself perhaps in 
 nothing so much as in his marvellous power of assimilating 
 and fusing, so to speak, with his own peculiar gifts all that 
 was best and highest in the works of others, building up 
 therefrom a lofty and independent style essentially his own. 
 
 Of the works of the first period of Raphael's life, a 
 Madonna with SS. Jerome and Francis, in the Berlin 
 Museum, and the Marriage of the Virgin (known as the 
 Sposalizio), in the Brera, Milan, are among the most 
 esteemed. In the last-named (Fig. 137) we see the Virgin 
 attended by five maidens and S. Joseph by five youths, 
 Mary's former suitors, whose disappointment is symbolized 
 by the flowerless reeds they hold. 
 
 Of the paintings executed at Florence, in the master's 
 second manner, we must name, as especially celebrated, 
 the Madonna del CardeUino (with the Goldfinch), in 
 the Uffizi, Florence ; the Madonna of the Tempi Family, 
 in the Pinakothek, Munich ; the famous Madonna in 
 the Louvre, known as La Belle Jardiniere (Fig. 139) ; 
 Lord Cowper's Madonna — known as The Little Pan- 
 shanger Raphael (of about the year 1505), to distinguish it 
 from the more famous painting by that artist in the same 
 collection — at Panshanger; 8. Catherine, in the National 
 Gallery; the Entombment, an altar-piece, now in the 
 Borghese Palace, Rome ; and the Madonna del Baldacchino 
 (of the Canopy), in the Pitti Palace, Florence, which belongs 
 to the close of the second period. 
 
 Here we must mention the other and more famous 
 
( |-f — 1 J r!'i < 1 I I I 
 
 I 
 
 Fig. 137.— The Marriage of the Virgin. By Raphael. 
 In the firera, Milan. 
 
392 Patnting 
 
 Panshanger Raphael, the Madonna della Casa Niccolini, 
 which bears the date 1508. Both Panshanger pictures 
 were exhibited at the " Old Masters " in 1881 ; as they 
 were hung in close proximity, their differences could 
 readily be noticed. 
 
 In the middle of the year 1508 Raphael was called to 
 Rome by Pope Julius II. to aid in the adornment of the 
 magnificent suite of apartments in the Vatican, which 
 were to commemorate the temporal and spiritual power of 
 the Papacy. The walls of three stanze (i. e. rooms), and 
 of the gallery or corridor leading to them from the stair- 
 case, and consisting of thirteen compartments, or loggie, 
 with small cupolas, were covered with frescoes by the 
 great master himself, and by his pupils after his designs. 
 
 In the first room, the Stanza della Segnatura, Raphael 
 represented in symbolic scenes on the walls the four great 
 intellectual pursuits — Theology (1509), Poetry, Philosophy, 
 and Jurisprudence, — and adorned the ceiling with four 
 allegorical figures of the same, with appropriate symbols. 
 The fresco of Theology (also called the Dispute of the Holy 
 Sacrament) is divided into two portions ; the upper con- 
 taining the Holy Trinity with the heavenly host, and the 
 lower the Eucharist on an altar surrounded by forty-three 
 figures, many of them portraits : the fresco of Poetry 
 represents Parnassus, with Apollo attended by the Muses 
 and the chief of the poets : that of Philosophy (or the 
 School of Athens), in which Plato and Aristotle occupy 
 the centre, with Zeno, Diogenes, Aristippus, Epicurius, 
 and other well-known Greeks, with their pupils, amongst 
 whom many portraits are introduced : and that of Juris- 
 prudence, Gregory IX. giving out the Decretals ; Justinian 
 giving the famous Pandects (*. e. the Roman Laws, made 
 
In Italy. 393 
 
 by order of Justinian from the writings of Roman jurists) ; 
 and three allegorical figures of Prudence, Fortitude and 
 Temperance. This chamber was completed in 1511. 
 
 In the next, the Stanza dell' Eliodoro, the frescoes are 
 more strictly historic. We see the Expulsion of Helio- 
 dorus from the Temple (1512), in which Pope Julius II. is 
 introduced as a spectator; the Miracle of Bolsena (1512), 
 representing the Mass at which the miracle of the bleeding 
 of the Host is said to have taken place ; the Discomfiture 
 of the hordes of Attila (1513), and the Deliverance of 8. 
 Peter (1514) — in all of which the power of the Papacy is 
 directly or indirectly shadowed forth. 
 
 In the third chamber, the Stanza dell' Incendio, we 
 have the Fire in the Borgo Vecchio — a marvellous work, 
 full of the highest dramatic power, in which Raphael dis- 
 played consummate knowledge of anatomy in the groups 
 of terrified naked figures ; the Coronation of Charlemagne, 
 the Oath of Leo III., and the Victory over the Saracens 
 in the time of Leo IV. 
 
 The frescoes in a fourth room, known as the Sala di 
 Costantino, are from designs by Raphael, executed after 
 his death by his pupils. 
 
 In the cupolas of the loggie there are no less than 
 fifty-two subjects, which are called " Raphael's Bible," 
 remarkable alike for dramatic interest, beauty of design, 
 and majesty of execution. Viewed as the production of a 
 single mind, they stand alone as a proof of Raphael's 
 unrivalled versatility and creative genius. The decorative 
 paintings and ornamental plaster-work in which these 
 pictures are framed remain unequalled of their kind. 
 
 Other famous works of the Roman period of the great 
 master's life are the Cartoons (seven still exist of an 
 
394 
 
 Painting 
 
 original ten), which were designed by Raphael and exe- 
 cuted by himself, assisted by pupils, and which are so well 
 known to English students and visitors to the South 
 Kensington Museum : they were originally designed for 
 
 tapestries for the Sistine Chapel, by order of Leo X. 
 (Fig. 138). The tapestries were woven, under the super- 
 intendence of Michiel van Coxcien, at Arras, in Flanders, 
 
In Italy. 395 
 
 and are now in the Vatican ; reproductions of them are 
 also preserved in the Berlin and Dresden Galleries. 
 
 Seven of the original designs, and copies after them, are 
 so accessible that we need only add that they represent 
 the following scenes from the Lives of the Apostles, 
 treated with great dramatic power : 
 
 The Miraculous Draught of Fishes {greater part by Raphael). 
 Christ's Charge to Peter {the figure of Christ only by Raphael). 
 S. Peter and S. John healing the Lame Man {greater part by 
 
 Giulio Romano). 
 The Death of Ananias {most of the heads by Raphael). 
 Elymas the Sorcerer struck with blindness {part by Raphael). 
 Paul and Barnabas at Lystra {executed by Penni). 
 Paul preaching at Athens {most by Raphael). 
 
 These seven cartoons were bought by Charles I., at the 
 suggestion of Rubens, and have remained in England ever 
 since. The three missing cartoons had for subjects — 
 
 The Martyrdom of S. Stephen. 
 The Conversion of S. Paul. 
 S. Paul in Prison. 
 
 A second series, with subjects from the Life of Christ, 
 was commenced shortly before Raphael's death. 
 
 During his residence in Rome, Raphael also painted 
 the famous frescoes of the Farnesina Palace, in which he 
 gave proof of the love of antique subjects which character- 
 ized his later years, by choosing for representation the 
 Triumph of Galatea (in which he was greatly assisted by 
 Giulio Romano), and the History of G lipid and Psyche, by 
 many critics supposed to have been executed entirely by 
 his pupils, after his designs. 
 
396 Painting in Italy. 
 
 Besides these vast mural paintings, his architectural 
 works — already alluded to — and the diligent share he 
 took in the researches then going on amongst the ruins 
 of ancient Rome, Raphael found time to produce a 
 magnificent series of easel pictures, altar-pieces, and por- 
 traits (including several of himself), of which we can only 
 name the most important, taking first the Holy Families 
 and Madonnas, of which there are no less than fifty, and 
 into which Raphael threw all the religious fervour for 
 which he was distinguished ; viz. — 
 
 The Virgin with the Diadem. In the Bridgwater Gallery {re- 
 plica in the Louvre). 
 
 The Virgin and Child. (La In the Louvre. 
 
 Silence.) 
 
 Madonna di Foligno. In the Vatican. 
 
 The Virgin with the Fish. In the Madrid Museum. 
 
 The Holy Family of Naples. In the Naples Gallery. 
 
 Madonna with the Palm-tree. In the Bridgwater Gallery. 
 
 Madonna of the Bridgwater In the Bridgwater Gallery. 
 
 Gallery. 
 
 Madonna della Sedia. In the Pitti Palace, Florence. 
 
 The Holy Family (La Perla). In the Madrid Museum. 
 
 The Garvagh Madonna. In the National Gallery. 
 
 Madonna di San Sisto. In the Dresden Gallery. 
 
 The last named is now the greatest treasure of the Dresden 
 Gallery, and is evidently entirely from the master's own 
 hand. It is, perhaps, the most famous painting in the 
 world — of all ages and of all countries. Of his altar- 
 pieces the most famous are Christ bearing His Cross, — 
 (known as-Lo Spasimo di Cecilia) having once belonged to 
 the Church of S. Maria del Spasimo, at Palermo, — now at 
 Madrid, which is in every respect a masterpiece ; and the 
 Transfiguration, his last and best oil painting, which 
 
Fig. 139. — La Belle Jardiniere. By Raphael. 
 In the Louvre. 
 
398 Painting 
 
 was left unfinished at his death, and carried at his funeral 
 with the colours still wet : it is now the most valued 
 possession of the Vatican. Of his smaller paintings we 
 must name — 
 
 S. Cecilia. In the Bologna Gallery. 
 
 Vision of Ezekiel. In the Pitti Palace, Florence. 
 
 Visitation. In the Madrid Gallery. 
 
 Archangel Michael. In the Louvre. 
 
 S. Margaret. In the Louvre {replica in the 
 
 Belvedere, Vienna). 
 
 S. Catharine of Alexandria. In the National Gallery. 
 
 And of his portraits, that of himself, in the Louvre ; the 
 Fomarina, in the Barberini Gallery, Rome ; and those 
 of Bindo Altoviti, in the Munich Gallery; of a beautiful 
 Roman Maiden, and of Julius II. (a copy of which is in 
 the National Gallery), and Leo X., with two Cardinals, all 
 in the Pitti Palace, Florence. 
 
 On the death of Raphael at the age of thirty-seven all 
 Europe was thrown into mourning, and for a time the 
 inspiration of painters was gone. Never did one man's 
 death create so vast a void — never was memory more 
 fondly cherished. In the words of Kugler, " His works 
 were regarded with religious veneration, as if God had 
 revealed Himself through Raphael as, in former days, 
 through the prophets." 
 
 Raphael's pupils and followers were extremely numerous, 
 and many of his excellences were successfully imitated. 
 His most celebrated scholar was Giulio de' Giannuzzi, 
 called Giulio Romano (1498-1546), well represented in our 
 National Gallery by his Mary Magdalen, Capture of 
 Carthageua, etc., who took a share in the execution of 
 
In Italy. 
 
 399 
 
 many of his master's greatest works, and inherited his 
 feeling for classic beauty and his powerful drawing, but 
 not his grace of design or purity of colouring. A re- 
 markable series of paintings by Romano decorate the 
 Palazzo del Te, at Mantua, which was also built from his 
 designs. 
 
 Fig. 140. — Madonna della Sedia. By Raphael. In the Pitti Palace, Florence. 
 
 Giulio Romano had for pupils Francesco Primaticcio 
 (1490-1570), who first worked under him at Mantua, but 
 afterwards became famous for his scenes from the Odyssey 
 (now destroyed), which he executed in the Palace of 
 Foirtainebleau, whither he was invited by Francis I. in 
 15.31; and Giulio Clovio (1498-1578), who is more 
 celebrated for his illuminations than his paintings. 
 
400 Painting 
 
 We must also name, as followers of Raphael, Gianfrancesco 
 Penni (1448-1528), called II Fattore, in whose works we 
 recognise excellences similar to those of Romano ; Timoteo 
 Viti (or della Vite), (1467-1523), who shared Raphael's 
 power of expressing religious fervour ; Pierino Buonaccorsi, 
 called del Vaga (1500-1547), who painted much at Genoa; 
 Giovanni Nanni, da Udine (1487-1564), who carried out 
 his decorative designs and caught much of his spirit ; 
 Innocenzio Francucci da Imola (1494-1549), and Barto- 
 lommeo Ramenghi, called da Bagnacavallo (1484-1542), 
 who adopted his soft and beautiful style of modelling. 
 
 We may here notice a few artists who, amongst others, 
 formed 
 
 (e) The Ferrarese School. 
 
 Benvenuto Tisio, usually called Garofalo (1481 — 1559), 
 painted at Ferrara, Cremona, Rome and Mantua, under 
 various masters, but ultimately became an assistant of 
 Raphael, in the Vatican, in 1515. The latter part of 
 his life was spent in Ferrara, and for the last nine years 
 he suffered total blindness. His best work is the Appari- 
 tion of the Virgin to 8. Bruno, in the Dresden Gallery. 
 The National Gallery contains four of his pictures : the 
 principal is a Madonna and Child enthroned, originally an 
 altar-piece in S. Guglielmo at Ferrara. 
 
 Giovanni, commonly called Dosso, Dossi (1479 ? — 1542), 
 and his younger brother Battista Dossi (ab. 1480 — 1548), 
 were first pupils of Lorenzo Costa; and then studied at Rome 
 and Venice. Returning to Ferrara, they executed, amongst 
 other works, frescoes in the Ducal Palace — Dosso doing 
 the figures and Battista the backgrounds. An Adoration 
 of the Magi, by Dosso, is in the National Gallery, where 
 
In Lombard y. 401 
 
 also the style of Lodovico Mazzolini (1478 — 1528?) — a 
 fellow-pupil under Costa, and a subsequent rival of 
 Garofalo, and second only to him in Ferrara — may be 
 studied. 
 
 The National Gallery, too, contains the masterpiece of 
 Giovanni Battista Benvenuti, called dell' Ortolano (ab. 
 1490 — aft. 1524), whose manner was formed on a study 
 of Raphael and Bagnacavallo. 
 
 (/) The Lombardic School. 
 
 Antonio Allegri, called from his birth-place Correggio 
 (1494 ? — 1534), introduced a totally new manner in the 
 art of painting, and excelled all his predecessors and 
 cotemporaries in his chiaroscuro, and in the grace and 
 softness of effect of his pictures. He was the founder of 
 what is known as the School of Lombardy or Parma. In 
 the early part of his career he was greatly influenced by 
 Leonardo da Vinci; but he soon displayed all those 
 distinctive peculiarities which raised him at once to the 
 highest rank. Whilst the masters of Rome and Florence 
 almost exclusively cultivated form and expression, Correggio 
 directed his attention to the harmonious play of light and 
 shade, and to subtle combinations of colour. In the words 
 of Sir Joshua Reynolds, " His manner, design, and execu- 
 tion are all very great, without' correctness. He had a 
 most free and delightful pencil, and it is to be acknowledged 
 that he painted with a strength, relief, sweetness, and 
 vivacity of colouring which nothing ever exceeded. He 
 understood how to distribute his lights in such a manner 
 as was wholly peculiar to himself, which gave great force 
 and great roundness to his figures." He filled up all that 
 
 EHA D D 
 
402 Painting 
 
 was yet wanting in the masterpieces of his cotemporaries, 
 which appeared hard and dry compared with the soft 
 melting lines, the gliding outlines, and transparent 
 shadows of his graceful conceptions. He delighted in 
 depicting the pleasurable emotions; and all his figures 
 express heavenly rapture or earthly bliss : they are bathed, 
 so to speak, in the joy of existence, and even in suffering 
 have an expression of gentle melancholy rather than of 
 woe. All is life, movement, and variety ; but it must be 
 owned that, in his love of expressing the passions, he 
 sometimes degenerated into affectation. 
 
 Of Correggio's early life little is known. He neither 
 belonged to the noble family De Allegris, nor was 
 he brought up in poverty ; both of which have been 
 recorded of him. His early teachers in art were men 
 of no note, but in 1511 he visited Mantua, and was 
 much influenced by the works of Mantegna. His 
 genius ripened early, and on his return to Correggio 
 in 1514, at about the age of twenty, he executed for the 
 Franciscan Convent at Carpi, a large altar-piece known 
 as the Madonna di S. Francesco, now in the Dresden 
 Gallery, and a few years later a series of frescoes in the 
 convent of S. Paolo, at Parma, in which the influence 
 of Da Vinci is very noticeable. In 1520 Correggio was 
 commissioned to paint the cupola and choir of S. Giovanni, 
 at Parma, which town he had previously visited in 1515. 
 For the former he chose as a subject the Ascension of 
 Christ. The pictures, though some are removed and 
 others much damaged, exhibit considerable grandeur of 
 design, and are remarkable for the extensive use of fore- 
 shortening which the study of perspective had introduced ; 
 and for the latter the Coronation of the Virgin, now in 
 
In Lombardy. 
 
 40^ 
 
 the Biblioteca ; it is represented in S. Giovanni by a copy. 
 These works were finished in 1524. 
 
 Later in his career the great master displayed consider- 
 
 Fig. 141. — Amorini. By Correggio. 
 From the frescoes in S. Paolo, Parma. 
 
 able love of the antique, and in 1525 he painted for the 
 Duke of Mantua the Education of Cupid (now in the 
 National Gallery), considered one of his masterpieces. 
 
 D D 2 
 
404 Painting 
 
 Other works of a similar character are his Leda with the 
 Swan and Io and Jupiter, both in the Berlin Museum ; and 
 his Danae in the Borghese Palace, Rome. To this period 
 of his life belong many fine altar-pieces, Holy Families, and 
 sacred pictures. The Dresden Gallery is especially rich in 
 works by Correggio — containing, amongst others, the famous 
 Nativity, called the La Notte (or "Night"), because it is 
 lighted entirely by the nimbus round the head of the 
 Holy Child; and the yet better-known Reading Magdalen. 
 The Parma Gallery contains the famous Madonna delta 
 Scodella (Fig. 142), and the Madonna and 8. Jerome, 
 representing the Saint offering his translation of the Bible 
 to the Madonna and Child, — also called II Giorno, or 
 " Day," on account of the fulness and radiancy of the light 
 diffused over the whole scene. In the Louvre are the 
 Marriage of 8. Catharine, and the Antiope ; in the Naples 
 Gallery the Madonna known as "La Zingarella," from the 
 peculiar head-dress of the Virgin; and in the National 
 Gallery the famous Ecce Homo, representing Christ pre- 
 sented by Pilate to the people, a Holy Family (known 
 as La Vierge an Panier), remarkable for the knowledge 
 displayed in it of aerial perspective, and Christ* s Agony in 
 the Garden, in which the master's peculiar command of 
 light and shade is well illustrated — the Saviour being 
 illuminated from Heaven, and the attendant angel by light 
 reflected from the person of the Lord. 
 
 During the years 1526 to 1530, Correggio was engaged 
 on a most important work — the Assumption of the Virgin 
 on the dome of the cathedral at Parma. It is a masterly 
 piece of vigorous design and foreshortening, but is wanting 
 in correctness of drawing, and exhibits a confusion of limbs 
 which gained for it the title of a " hash of frogs." 
 
In Lombardy. 
 
 405 
 
 The School of Parma may almost be said to begin and 
 end with Correggio. He had no pupils who attained to 
 any eminence ; but he had many imitators, of whom 
 Francesco Mazzuoli (1504—1540), known by the name of 
 
 Fig. 142. — Madonna della Scodella. By Correggio. 
 In the Parma Gallery. 
 
 Parmigiano, was the chief, and indeed the only one of 
 importance. His style resembles that of Correggio in 
 many particulars; but he also combines something of 
 
406 Painting 
 
 the peculiarities of Michelangelo and Raphael. Had he 
 lived at any other period he would probably have risen 
 to the highest rank as a painter; for, although inferior 
 to the five great men we have named as the master- 
 spirits of the age, he greatly surpassed most of his 
 other cotemporaries. He excelled in invention and de- 
 sign ; and his later works are characterized by a correct- 
 ness of drawing and grandeur of conception sometimes 
 wanting in those of Correggio. His Vision of 8. Jerome, 
 in the National Gallery, is one of his earlier productions. 
 In 1531 he commenced the frescoes of the choir of S. Maria 
 della Steccata at Parma, in which occurs the world-famous 
 figure of Moses breaking the Tables of the Law, which Sir 
 Joshua Reynolds chose as a typical specimen of the cor- 
 rectness of drawing and grandeur of conception acquired 
 by Mazzuoli through his study of the works of Michel- 
 angelo, contrasting it with his earliest work, 8. Eustachius, 
 in the church of S. Petronio at Bologna, in which the 
 future master aimed "at grace and grandeur before he 
 had learnt to draw correctly." Of his easel pictures, Cupid 
 malting his Bow, in the Belvedere at Vienna, is con- 
 sidered the most remarkable ; and of his altar-pieces, 
 S. Margaret, in the Bologna Academy. 
 
 (g) The Venetian School. 
 
 Comparatively free from the constant action of those 
 external influences which were brought to bear on the 
 artists of Upper Italy, the Venetians steadily pursued the 
 course commenced by the Bellini, and finally evinced a 
 consummate mastery of colouring, which, as we have seen, 
 was the predominant characteristic of the Early Venetian 
 
In Venice. 407 
 
 School. Seeking beauty for its own sake, they found it, 
 so to speak, by transfiguring common nature, — by treating 
 the events and objects of familiar life in a grand and lofty 
 manner, which was the fitting expression of the love of 
 splendour characteristic of the proud citizens of the Mistress 
 of the Sea. The masterpieces of Giorgione, Titian, and 
 others are a reflexion of the magnificence of Venice at this 
 time ; but a reflexion idealized and stamped with the 
 impress of eternal beauty. The Venetian painters culti- 
 vated the sensuous rather than the intellectual side of 
 human nature ; and in their works faithfulness of pictorial 
 representation is ever of greater moment that the moral 
 lesson to be conveyed; with wonderful mastery over all 
 the technical processes of their art, they rendered ac- 
 curately the warm colouring of flesh — one of the painter's 
 most difficult tasks — and the effects of light on different 
 materials, in a manner never surpassed. 
 
 Giorgio Barbarelli, called Giorgione (ab. 1476 — 1511), 
 was the first to break free from the trammels of the Early 
 Venetian School. The fellow-pupil of Titian, in the school 
 of the Bellini, he soon proved his superiority to his masters, 
 his paintings being distinguished for a luminous glow, a 
 depth of colouring, and a purity of outline never before 
 attained. He was one of the first of the Venetians to give 
 prominence to landscape, and he was also famous for his 
 portraits. Many celebrated personages sat to him. He 
 worked much in fresco — but there is but little left to 
 show us what we have lost by the destruction of his 
 works. Few of his easel-pictures now remain ; and many 
 works commonly ascribed to him are said by competent 
 critics to be by Sebastiano del Piombo, Palma, Pellegrino 
 Lotto, Romanino, Moretto, and others. 
 
408 Painting 
 
 The easel-pictures universally agreed to be by him aie — 
 
 The Virgin and Child with ) r , n/ 7 . n . 7 , 
 o^,- jct-u t r In the Church of Castelfranco. 
 S. Francis and S. Liberale. J 
 
 A Concert. In the Pitti Palace, Florence. 
 
 The Judgment of Solomon. In the Uffizi, Florence. 
 
 The Miracle of the little Moses. In the Uffizi, Florence. 
 
 The Judgment of Solomon. At Kingston-Lacy, near Wim- 
 
 borne. 
 
 Adoration of the Kings. At Leigh Court, near Bristol. 
 
 A Knight in Armour. In the National Gallery. 
 
 Christ bearing his Cross. In the Casa Loschi, Vicenza. 
 
 Three Astrologers. In the Belvedere, Vienna. 
 
 A Death of Peter Martyr, in the National Gallery, and 
 the famous Concert in the Louvre, are among a numerous 
 class of works commonly ascribed to him, but doubted by 
 various critics. 
 
 Sebastiano Luciani, called del Piombo (1485 — 1547), if 
 not actually the pupil of Giorgione, was much influenced 
 by his style, and attained to considerable fame as a colourist 
 and portrait painter. His Raising of Lazarus, in the 
 National Gallery, is generally considered his master- 
 piece : the group of Lazarus and the figures near him was 
 designed by Michelangelo, under whom he worked for 
 some time. 
 
 The greatest Venetian painter of the sixteenth century 
 was, however, Tiziano Vecellio, commonly known as Titian 
 (1477 — 1576), who first studied with a painter named 
 Zuccato, then with Gentile Bellini, and subsequently with 
 Giovanni, in whose studio he laboured side by side with 
 Giorgione. Titian's first patron was Alfonso I., Duke of 
 Ferrara, for whom he executed several of his masterpieces. 
 
In Venice. 409 
 
 He was employed by the Senate to complete the work, 
 left unfinished by Giovanni Bellini, in the Sala del gran 
 Consiglio, Venice : this he did to the great approval of 
 the authorities, and was rewarded with the office of La 
 Sanseria — i. e. that of painter-in-chief to the Doges of 
 Venice. In 1532 he went to Bologna at the invitation of 
 Charles V., but did not (as has been commonly asserted) 
 accompany that monarch to Spain. He was much patron- 
 ized by the Duke Federigo Gonzaga, by Paul III. at Rome, 
 and by other persons of note. 
 
 The great Venetian colourist lived to the age of ninety- 
 nine, and was in the full possession of all his faculties, 
 when he was carried off by the plague, in 1576. He was 
 buried in the church of S. Maria de' Frari, Venice. 
 
 Titian's works combine the distinctive excellences of 
 Giorgione and Correggio, with a lofty original character of 
 their own. In colouring Titian stands pre-eminent; his 
 rendering of flesh-tints has never been surpassed, and in 
 his landscapes and groups his treatment of local colouring 
 and chiaroscuro has seldom been equalled. He is con- 
 sidered the finest portrait painter of any age ; his figures 
 live on canvas ; they are real beings, whom we seem to 
 know as we look into their calm and dignified faces, and 
 they are as perfectly finished as the best works of the 
 Dutch School. Aiming only at truth, Titian excelled all 
 the other Italian painters in realistic imitation of nature ; 
 and, although this very faithfulness precluded the develop- 
 ment of ideal beauty, his works are all characterized by 
 a calm nobility of figure and expression; his creations 
 are as full of serene and conscious enjoyment of existence 
 as those of Giorgione are of stern and active energy ; and 
 in his long life of ninety-nine years he produced a series of 
 
410 Painting in Venice. 
 
 masterpieces which raised him to the head of the new 
 Venetian School. 
 
 It would be impossible in a work like the present to 
 give anything like a full account of the numerous works 
 of Titian, which enrich all the great cities of Europe. In 
 his early paintings he followed the style of Bellini, im- 
 pressing it, however, with a power of his own. Of these 
 the Resurrection, above the high altar of S. Nazzaro, in 
 Brescia, is among the most important. More famous is 
 his Christ and the Tribute Money, in the Dresden Gallery, 
 of a somewhat later date, in which the Head of Christ is 
 especially beautiful. Of the large sacred works in the 
 master's completed manner, the Entombment (ab. 1523), in 
 the Louvre, in which the most exquisite truth and beauty 
 of form are combined with dignity of expression and depth 
 of feeling ; the Presentation (ab. 1539), and the Assumption 
 of the Virgin (1516), both in the Academy at Venice; and 
 the Supper at Emmaus, in the Studj Gallery at Naples ; 
 the Christ at Emmaus (ab. 1546), in the Louvre, — are 
 among the principal. Equally famous is the picture of 
 Christ appearing to Mary Magdalen after His Resurrection 
 (known as Noli Me tang ere), in the National Gallery, which 
 also possesses two fine Holy Families. Titian's most 
 celebrated historical works are his Death of 8. Peter 
 Martyr (1528) (Fig. 143), which was formerly the altar- 
 piece in SS. Giovanni e Paolo at Venice, and was destroyed 
 by fire in 1867 ; and the Martyrdom of S. Lawrence, now 
 much injured, in the Jesuits' Church, Venice. The former 
 was especially noted for the beauty of the landscape, in 
 which the most delicate aerial effects of bright twilight 
 were faithfully rendered ; and the latter, for the peculiar 
 results obtained by the meeting of the light from heaven 
 
Fig. 143.— S. Peter Martyr. By Titian. 
 Burned. Formerly in the Church of SS. Giovanni e Paolo, Venice. 
 
412 Painting in Venice. 
 
 and the flames of the burning pitch. In both we see faith 
 and mental fortitude triumphant over physical agony. 
 
 The representation of suffering was not, however, at all 
 congenial to the great lover of sensual beauty, whose 
 peculiar excellences found fuller scope in the lighter and 
 more cheerful subjects of heathen mythology, or of alle- 
 gory ; and the original genius he brought to bear upon the 
 worn-out fables of antiquity is well illustrated in his Diana 
 and Callisto, so often repeated, and in the celebrated 
 Venus of the Uffizi, Florence ; the Bacchus and Ariadne 
 and Venus and Adonis, both in the National Gallery ; the 
 Dande at Naples, the famous Venus del Prado in the 
 Louvre, and many other similar works. Of his allegorical 
 pictures, the most famous are the Three Ages, represent- 
 ing a young shepherd and a beautiful maiden seated on 
 the grass, with three winged children on one side, and an 
 old man in the distance on the other; and Sacred arid 
 Profane Love, symbolized by two beautiful women seated 
 on the rim of a fountain, now in the Borghese Palace, 
 Rome. 
 
 Titian's portraits are very numerous. Many of the 
 finest are in England : one, for instance, in the Hamp- 
 ton Court Palace, of a dark man, with a face full of 
 eloquence and feeling; another in the National Gallery; 
 and two at Windsor Castle — one of a certain Andrea 
 Franchesini, and one of Titian himself. More famous 
 than either of these, however, are the portrait of a lady 
 in the Sciarra Palace, Rome, known as Titian's Bella 
 Donna ; that of his daughter, in the Berlin Museum ; 
 and that of Paul III. (1545), in the Naples Museum. 
 A list of Titian's portraits would include all the celebrities 
 of his time. 
 
Fig. 144.— La Donna (Duchess of Urbino ?). By Titian. 
 In the Pitti Palace, Florence. 
 
414 Painting 
 
 The Madrid Museum contains forty fine easel pictures 
 by Titian, the Vienna Gallery thirty-four authentic works, 
 and the Louvre eighteen, but he is best studied in the 
 churches and galleries of Venice. 
 
 Of his cotemporaries, and we may also say his rivals 
 in the early part of his career, we must name 
 
 Jacopo Palma, surnamed il V t ecchio (old) (1480 — 1528), 
 whose masterpiece is S. Barbara, in the church of S. Maria 
 Formosa, Venice ; 
 
 Paris Bordone (1500 — 1571), — as much a follower of 
 Giorgione as of Titian, — whose most celebrated work is 
 his Fisherman presenting the ring of S. Mark to the Doge, 
 in the Academy of Venice. The National Gallery pos- 
 sesses a beautiful Portrait of a Lady by him. A very 
 important work by him was the decoration, with scenes 
 from the Life of Christ, of the dome of S. Vicenzo at 
 Treviso. 
 
 Giovanni Antonio Licinio (1483 — 1539), commonly called 
 Pordenone, one of the most distinguished masters of the 
 Venetian School, who rivalled even Titian in his flesh - 
 tints, and whose works are rarely met with out of Italy ; 
 he is represented in the National Gallery by an Apostle ; 
 
 Alessandro Bonvicino (1498 — ab. 1555), commonly called 
 II Moretto da Brescia, who left many fine altar-pieces to 
 his native city, and several good easel pictures, three of 
 which, two Portraits of Noblemen and a group of S. 
 Bernardino of Siena and other Saints, are in the National 
 Gallery. 
 
 Giovanni Battista Moroni (ab. 1510 — 1578), who was a 
 pupil of Bonvicino, painted a few historic subjects, but 
 his chief title to fame lies in his portraits, which yield 
 
In Venice. 415 
 
 little if anything to those of Titian. In life-like repre- 
 sentation and masterly treatment they have been equalled 
 by few portraits ever executed. A splendid example may 
 be seen in the National Gallery in the Portrait of a 
 Tailor : the Lawyer in the same collection, which contains 
 three other works by him, is but little inferior ; and that 
 of Ercole Tasso, at Stafford House, disputes with the Tailor 
 the claim of being his masterpiece. 
 
 Here, too, we must mention Girolamo Romani (1484- 
 87 — 1566), called II Romanino of Brescia, who was a 
 successful imitator of Titian and Giorgione, and a rival of 
 Bonvicino. The Nativity in the National Gallery is one 
 of his best works. 
 
 Bonifazio Veronese (died 1540), the most important of 
 the three artists of this name, was a follower, if not a 
 pupil, of Palma Vecchio : his style was also based on that 
 of Titian and Giorgione, and several of his works have 
 passed under the names of those masters. The second, 
 Bonifazio Veneziano (died 1553), was a pupil of the first. 
 All three are best studied in Venice. 
 
 Greater than any of these, were two masters who 
 nourished towards the end of the sixteenth century, and 
 kept alive the vitality of the Venetian School by the pro- 
 duction of works of original genius and individuality long 
 after the art of painting in the rest of Italy had fallen into 
 the hands of mere mannerists and imitators. We allude to 
 
 Jacopo Robusti (1518 — 1594), known as Tintoretto, 
 and Paolo Caliari (1528 — 1588), called Paolo Veronese. 
 The former studied for a very short time under Titian, 
 and aspired to combine his excellence of colouring with 
 Michelangelo's correctness and grandeur of form. In some 
 few of his works he gave proof of considerable power : his 
 
.PASCHALIS. 
 .CICONIA* 
 
 .DVX- 
 VENETIAN 
 
 Fig. 145. — Doge Pascale Ciconia. 
 From an etching by Tintoretto. 
 
Painting in Venice. 417 
 
 Miracle of S. Marie, in the Academy of Venice, for 
 instance, is finely conceived and forcibly executed ; but 
 he painted too rapidly to achieve the highest results, and 
 his works are remarkable for their gigantic size rather 
 than for their artistic qualities. His chief works were 
 those he executed for the. Scuola di S. Marco, of which 
 the Miracle is one, and those for the Scuola di S. Rocco, 
 Venice. The S. George destroying the Dragon is the only 
 work by Tintoretto in the National Gallery ; but two may 
 be seen in Hampton Court Palace — his Esther before 
 Ahasuerus, and the Nine Muses. 
 
 In the works of Paolo Veronese, the distinctive principles 
 of the Venetian School are far more successfully fulfilled 
 than in those of Tintoretto. They rival in magnificence 
 those of Titian himself, whilst his delicacy of chiaroscuro, 
 the sincerity with which he brought out the true relations 
 of objects to each other in air and light, his genuine 
 feeling for physical beauty, the softness and freedom of 
 his pencilling, his mastery of true symbolism, and his 
 power of catching the essential characteristics both of men 
 and animals, give him a high position as an independent 
 master. The Marriage at Cana, now in the Louvre, is 
 considered his finest work. It contains 120 figures or 
 heads, including portraits of many of the greatest celebrities 
 of his day, and is full of life and action. Scarcely less 
 famous are his Feast of Levi, in the Academy of Venice ; 
 his Feast in the house of Simon the Pharisee, in the 
 Louvre; and another of the same subject in the Turin 
 Gallery (these four feasts were painted for the refectories 
 of four Venetian convents) ; the Family of Darius, in the 
 National Gallery, which also contains one of his Adora- 
 tions ; his Consecration of S. Nicholas, Bishop of Myra, 
 
 EHA E E 
 
418 Painting in Venice. 
 
 and a finished study for the Rape of JZuropa, in the 
 Belvedere, Vienna. 
 
 We have still to name Jacopo da Ponte, called II 
 Bassano (1510 — 1592), the chief member of a family of 
 artists, and the founder of the Italian School of genre 
 painting, whose works are remarkable for Venetian force 
 of colouring and chiaroscuro. He excelled in painting 
 landscapes, animals, and objects of still life. He is well 
 represented in the National Gallery, which contains a 
 Portrait of a Gentleman ; Christ and the Money-changers ; 
 and the Good Samaritan. The Nativity, in S. Giuseppe, 
 and the Baptism of S. Lucella, in S. Maria delle Grazie, 
 both in Bassano, are considered his master-pieces. 
 
 The great Italian masters of the Renaissance devoted no 
 inconsiderable portion of their energies to decorative paint- 
 ing — that is to say, to paintings so arranged as to form a 
 part of the ornament of rooms and churches : in their 
 hands this art attained to a perfection never before 
 realized, except perhaps in the best days of Rome. The 
 designs with which the Vatican and other important 
 buildings were adorned comprised human figures, animals, 
 flowers, and endless geometrical combinations. The early 
 part of the fifteenth century was marked by a kind of 
 transition from Gothic ornamentation, in which the 
 grotesque element predominated, to that of the completed 
 Renaissance, which was in effect a revival of the antique 
 style of decorative painting, discovered in such buildings 
 as the Baths of Titus and the mural decorations of Pompeii, 
 stamped with the impress of the original genius of Raphael, 
 who did more than any other master to define the true 
 limits and the true capabilities of purely decorative art. 
 
Fig. 146. — Decoration of the Farnesina Palace. 
 After Raphael's Benign. 
 
420 Painting in Venice. 
 
 In the sixteenth century a want was felt of some greater 
 variety of design than had hitherto been deemed admissible. 
 As the century advanced the love of variety increased, and 
 ideas were borrowed from every side, especially from the 
 East, as is proved by the term " arabesque " having been 
 applied to the decorative designs of Raphael. 
 
 We have now completed our account — necessarily in- 
 complete — of the great Italian Cinque-cento masters ; and, 
 looking back upon the results obtained, before tracing the 
 progress of the new movement in the rest of Europe, we 
 find a simultaneous fulfilment of all the great principles of 
 painting : form, design, and expression had been perfected 
 in the Roman and Florentine Schools by Michelangelo, 
 Leonardo da Vinci and Raphael ; and colouring and 
 chiaroscuro in the Schools of Venice and Parma by 
 Correggio, Titian and Paolo Veronese ; spiritual beauty 
 had found its noblest exponent in Raphael, and corporeal 
 in Titian ; the art of portraiture had attained to its highest 
 development; landscape painting, properly so-called, though 
 not much practised, had been greatly improved, and genre 
 painting had been introduced ; the religious subjects almost 
 exclusively favoured in the fifteenth century had given 
 place to some extent to those of antique mythology and 
 history; and a general love of art pervaded all classes. 
 Unfortunately, the high position painting had thus gloriously 
 won was not maintained, and even at the close of the 
 sixteenth century there were signs of its approaching 
 decadence. 
 
IV. — Renaissance Painting in the Netherlands, 
 and Germany. 
 
 In the North of Europe, as in Italy, we find painting 
 attaining to a position of the first importance in the 
 fifteenth and sixteenth centuries; but, as we have seen 
 in our account of architecture and sculpture, the art of 
 the North of Europe differed in many essential particulars 
 from that of the South. The Teutonic masters were 
 uninfluenced by the models of antiquity which so strongly 
 biassed Italian taste ; and, unfettered by the trammels of 
 old and sacred traditions, they went straight to nature 
 for their models, and endeavoured to express their spiritual 
 conceptions in familiar forms and homely scenes of every- 
 day life, attaining thereby a truth to nature never sur- 
 passed. It cannot, of course, be denied that the men we 
 have now to consider never attained to the exceptional 
 excellence of Da Vinci, Michelangelo, or Raphael; but 
 their inferiority was, in a great measure, due to accidental 
 and peculiar circumstances. The development of the 
 Gothic style of architecture, and the preference in the 
 Renaissance period for wood-carvings rather than paintings 
 as altar-pieces, limited the northern painters in the exer- 
 cise of their art to the narrow field of manuscript illumin- 
 ations and easel pictures. Moreover, in the countries 
 under notice, there were no enthusiastic patrons of art 
 ready to recognise and encourage genius : artists were 
 compelled to work their way up to eminence through dif- 
 ficulties of every kind — difficulties in which they often 
 wasted their strength and the best years of their life ; 
 and, above all, the Reformation was occupying the thoughts 
 
422 Painting 
 
 of all earnest men, and throwing every other interest into 
 the background. We maintain, however, that, with all 
 these disadvantages, the simple' truthfulness of Teutonic 
 painting, its faithful rendering of individual character, its 
 purity and distinctness of expression, and, above all, its 
 thorough originality, gave it a charm and value of its own. 
 To sum up, in one word, the vital difference between the 
 painting of the South and that of the North of Europe, 
 we may say that the former is aristocratic and the latter 
 democratic. 
 
 1. The Early Flemish and Butch Schools. 
 
 Even less is known of the Early Flemish than of the 
 German School. The total destruction by iconoclasts in 
 the sixteenth century of the works of the predecessors of 
 the Van Eycks renders it impossible to trace the develop- 
 ment of the great realistic Flemish School, of which 
 Huibrecht van Eyck was so distinguished a member ; yet 
 many of the miniatures of the fourteenth century give a 
 high idea of the capabilities of their artists. One by a 
 certain John of Bruges, for instance, bearing date 1371, 
 now at the Hague, displays great feeling for truth of form 
 and expression, and we think we may fairly conclude this 
 artist to be one of many who paved the way for the 
 great masters of the fifteenth century. We read too of 
 several men who held the post of " painter and varlet " to 
 the Dukes of Burgundy and the Counts of Flanders, of 
 these the chief were Jean van der Asselt (fl. ab. 1364 — 
 1380) of Ghent, and Melchior Broederlam (fl. ab. 1382— 
 1400) of Ypres. Fragments of paintings by Broederlam 
 are preserved in the Museum at Dijon. 
 
In Bruges. 423 
 
 (a) The School of Bruges. 
 
 Huibrecht van Eyck (ab. 1366 — 1426) is generally styled 
 the father of modern painting in the North of Europe, 
 and there occupies a position somewhat similar to that 
 of Masaccio and Mantegna in Italy. His chief claim to 
 distinction rests not, as was long believed, on the invention 
 of oil colours, but on the removal of the obstacles to their 
 employment for important works, and on the wonderful 
 power, transparency, depth and harmony of colouring he 
 acquired by their use. Until the time of Huibrecht van 
 Eyck, oil colours were practically useless for any but minor 
 purposes, as, in order to quicken the drying of the colours, 
 a varnish of oil and resin was employed, which fatally 
 injured their brightness. Huibrecht, by using a colourless 
 varnish, obviated this difficulty, and, by judicious under- 
 painting, attained an admirable balance in his tones and 
 shadows. His manner combined the most profound and 
 genuine realism with something of the idealism and 
 symbolism of the Middle Ages, and he painted his sacred 
 figures in a portrait-like manner, giving to all his works a 
 dramatic and picturesque cheerfulness certainly never sur- 
 passed in freshness and simplicity by any Italian master. 
 He did not, however, escape the stiffness of design and 
 hardness of outline generally characteristic of the Teutonic 
 work of the Middle Ages and Early Renaissance. 
 
 The master-piece of the Van Eycks is the polyptych, 
 begun by Huibrecht, as an altar-piece for the chapel 
 of one Judocus Vydt in the cathedral of S. Bavon at 
 Ghent. It is formed of two rows of panels — seven at 
 the top and five at the bottom. The top row — consisting 
 of God the Father, with the Virgin, a choir of Angels and 
 
42 4 Painting 
 
 Adam on his right hand, and S. John the Baptist, S. 
 Cecilia and Eve on his left — is all probably by the hand of 
 Huibrecht. The bottom row represents in the centre The 
 Adoration of the Lamb (which gives its name to the entire 
 altar-piece), and on the wings groups of Hermits, Crusaders, 
 Judges, journeying towards the centre ; it was completed 
 by Jan after Huibrecht's death, but was not finished, how- 
 ever, till 1432. Fig. 147 represents the Pilgrims (the 
 right-hand wing nearest the centre-piece). The exterior 
 wings are, as was the custom, in monochrome. A predella, 
 representing Hell, has been lost. The centre portion of 
 this grand work is still in S. Bavon at Ghent : The Adam 
 and Eve are in the Brussels Gallery, and the rest of the 
 wings are in the Berlin Museum. 
 
 Until quite recently the fame of Jan van Eyck (ab. 
 1390 — 1440) entirely eclipsed that of Huibrecht, and the 
 latter' s important services to the art of painting in oils 
 were attributed to him. It is now known, however, that 
 Jan was indebted to his brother for instruction for many 
 years, and that he formed his style from his works. In 
 colouring, especially in his flesh-tints, he was pre-eminently 
 successful, and his landscapes and portraits are remarkably 
 true to life ; but he was wanting in feeling for spiritual 
 beauty, and many of his saints are positively ugly. After 
 the Agnus Dei, the Triumph of the Catholic Church, in 
 the S. Trinita Museum at Madrid, and the Pala Madonna 
 at Bruges, are his best works. The National Gallery 
 contains three extremely fine portraits from his hand, one 
 of which, Portraits of Jean Arnolfini and his wife, worthy 
 of the highest praise, is a wonderful piece of execution, 
 every detail being exquisitely finished, and the colouring 
 and chiaroscuro equal, if not superior, to anything produced 
 
In Beuges. 
 
 425 
 
 at this early period of the fifteenth century. The Louvre, 
 the Belvedere, Vienna, the Berlin Museum, the Academy 
 
 Fig. 147. — Pilgrims. By Jan van Eyck. 
 From the Altar-piece of the Adoration of the Lamb, in S. Bavon at Ghent. 
 
426 Painting 
 
 of Bruges, and the Dresden Gallery contain masterly 
 portraits from the same hand. 
 
 The Van Eycks appear to have been an artist family. 
 We hear of a sister Margareta, and a brother Lambert, who 
 were skilful painters ; but no work can, with any certainty, 
 be assigned to either of them. 
 
 The original and realistic mode of treatment introduced 
 by the Van Eycks, and the new method of using oils, were 
 eagerly adopted throughout Europe, and many great 
 artists arose in the Netherlands, of whom 
 
 Rogier van der Weyden (1399 ? — 1464), known as Roger 
 of Bruges, was the most celebrated. He was the rival and 
 not, as formerly thought, the pupil of Jan van Eyck ; he, 
 however, imbibed much of his manner, whilst in his re- 
 ligious enthusiasm he rather resembled Huibrecht. His 
 colouring is powerful, but not equal to that of the founders 
 of the school ; and, unfortunately, his love of truth some- 
 times led him to cultivate ugliness. Of his numerous 
 works we can only name the principal : the Last Judg- 
 ment (his master-piece), 1443, in the Hospital at Beaune ; 
 an altar-piece representing the Adoration of the Kings; 
 S. Luke painting the Virgin (long attributed to Jan van 
 Eyck), both in the Pinakothek, Munich ; scenes from the 
 Life of S. John the Baptist, in the Berlin Museum ; and 
 an Entombment of Christ, in the National Gallery. 
 
 To Rogier van der Weyden is said to be due the inven- 
 tion of painting on fixed canvas instead of on panel. 
 He, too, was one of the first of the Early Flemings to visit 
 Italy in search of art. On him it had no deteriorative 
 effect ; but to his successors the course proved fatal in the 
 interests of true art. 
 
In Bruges. 427 
 
 Rogier van der Weyden exercised an even greater influ- 
 ence over his cotemporaries than the Van Eycks had 
 done. In his school were formed both Hans Memling, 
 the greatest Flemish painter of his time, and Martin 
 Schongauer, the best German master of the fifteenth 
 century. 
 
 Before coming to Memling, we must notice a few men 
 who followed in the footsteps of the Van Eycks, and 
 helped to make the School of Bruges famous. Petrus 
 Christus (fl. ab. 1444 — 1471), who is best studied in the 
 galleries of Frankfort and Berlin ; Hugo van der Goes 
 (died 1482), whose sole remaining work is the Nativity 
 in S. Maria Nuova, in Florence ; and Justus van Ghent 
 (fl. ab. 1470), who painted for many years in Italy. 
 
 Hans Memling (1430 — 1495) was one of the most gifted 
 and favourite masters of his day. In him the school 
 of the Van Eycks reached its fullest development ; his 
 works excelled in delicacy of execution, softness of out- 
 line, and feeling for grace and beauty, those of any of his 
 predecessors. He also effected considerable improvements 
 in colouring, chiaroscuro and aerial perspective ; but was 
 not so successful as Van der Weyden in the finishing of 
 details. The National Gallery contains a Madonna and 
 Child enthroned, from his hand. Of his numerous works 
 scattered throughout Europe, the principal are the Last 
 Judgment, painted about 1470, in the church of S. Mary 
 at Dantzic; the Marriage of S. Catharine in the Hospital 
 of S. John at Bruges, and the exquisite Beliquary of S. 
 Ursula (in the same hospital, which contains several other 
 fine works by his hand), a shrine in the Gothic style, on 
 which the history of the martyred princess is represented 
 
428 Painting 
 
 in a series of paintings in miniature (Fig. 148), full of the 
 
 Fig. 148.— Group from the Reliquary of S. Ursula. By Mending. 
 In the Hospital of S. John at Bruges. 
 
 tenderest feelings for beauty ; and the Seven Joys of the 
 Virgin, in the Pinakothek at Munich. 
 
In Holland. 429 
 
 Dieric Bouts (1391 ? — 1475), though a Dutchman by 
 birth, belongs to the school of the Van Eycks. He worked 
 chiefly at Louvain, which still preserves in its town hall 
 his masterpiece, the Triumph of Justice. Rogier van der 
 Weyden, the younger (ab. 1450 — 1529), was the pupil of 
 his father. 
 
 Gheerardt David (died 1523), a native of Oudewater, 
 spent the best years of his life at Bruges. A Canon of S. 
 Donatian with his patron Saints, by him, in the National 
 Gallery, is a fine work. 
 
 In the same collection are a few works ascribed to the 
 masters mentioned above, and to painters of the same 
 school. 
 
 (b) The Early Dutch School. 
 
 In the fifteenth century, the Dutch School was little 
 more than an offshoot of that of Bruges. Its chief repre- 
 sentatives were Albert van Ouwater, of Haarlem, who may 
 be considered its founder, the cotemporary of Rogier van 
 der Weyden, and one of the earliest painters of Holland to 
 represent landscape ; Geertgen van Sint Jans (or Gerard of 
 Haarlem), a pupil of Van Ouwater ; Hieronymus van Aeken, 
 commonly called Jerom Bosch ; Cornells Engelbrechtsen 
 (1468 — 1533), probably the first artist in Leyden who 
 painted in oil, and by whom there is a Mother and Child in 
 the National Gallery — all preceded the more famous Lucas 
 Jacobsz van Leyden (1494 — 1533), who adopted and ex- 
 aggerated the realistic style, and excelled rather as an 
 engraver than a painter ; one of his most important works 
 is a Last Judgment, in the Town Hall at Leyden; an 
 Adoration of the Magi by him is at Buckingham Palace. 
 
430 Painting 
 
 (c) The Antwerp School. 
 
 Towards the close of the fifteenth century, Antwerp 
 became the commercial capital of Belgium, and at the 
 same time the head-quarters of the school of painting. 
 Here arose Quinten Matsys (ab. 1466 — 1531 ?), the 
 greatest Flemish painter of his day, whose works are 
 remarkable for beauty of form, delicacy of finish, solemn- 
 ity of feeling, and softness and transparency of colouring. 
 His draperies have an easy grace, rare in the pictures of 
 his school, and his sacred figures are grand and dignified. 
 On the other hand, the minor personages in his groups 
 are often not only coarse but vulgar. 
 
 His greatest work is an altar-piece in the Antwerp 
 Museum, consisting of a centre-piece and two wings, on 
 which is represented the Deposition from the Gross, with 
 Herodias's Daughter presenting the Head of John the Bap- 
 tist to Herod on one side, and the Martyrdom of 8. John 
 the Evangelist on the other. It is a noble composition, full 
 of character and energy. 
 
 A very celebrated picture by Matsys of Two Misers is in 
 the Royal collection at Windsor : the Banker and his wife 
 in the Louvre is also well known. The Misers in the 
 National Gallery, formerly ascribed to him, is now given to 
 Marinus de Seeuw (fl. ab. 1521 — 1541) : but that collection 
 possesses, in a diptych of the heads of Christ and the 
 Virgin, a genuine work of Matsys. 
 
 As masters of the Early Flemish School we must also 
 name Joachim de Patinir (fl. ab. 1520), of Dinant, a painter 
 both of historic subjects and landscape, four of whose 
 works are in the National Gallery, which also possesses a 
 
In Antwerp. 431 
 
 Crucifixion and Mary Magdalen, by his disciple Herri Bles 
 (1480— aft. 1521). 
 
 All these men were more or less intimately connected 
 with the school of the Van Eycks, whilst certain peculi- 
 arities in their treatment of the nude and of life in action 
 give them a resemblance to the masters of the sixteenth 
 century, whom we have now to consider. We may, in fact, 
 look upon the latter part of the fifteenth and the whole of 
 the sixteenth century as a transition time — Flemish and 
 Dutch art not having reached their highest development 
 until the seventeenth century. 
 
 (d) The Italianized Flemings. 
 
 The sixteenth century was marked by an unfortunate 
 attempt to combine the peculiar excellences of the school 
 of the Van Eycks with those of the Italian Cinque-cento 
 masters. In his later works Mabuse was guilty of this 
 mistake. 
 
 Jan Gossart (ab. 1470 — 1532), commonly called Mabuse, 
 a native of Maubeuge, went to Antwerp, entered the Guild, 
 and bid fair to rival the works of Matsys ; but unfortun- 
 ately for the truth of his art, he went to Italy, and there 
 lost his best qualities in attempting to emulate the works 
 of the great Italian masters. He is well represented in 
 England : for we have two of his masterpieces, an Ador- 
 ation of the Magi at Castle Howard ; and the Children 
 of Christian II. at Hampton Court. He was followed by 
 
 Barend van Orley (1488-90 — 1542), a Magdalen by 
 whom is in the National Gallery. 
 
 Jan van Schoreel (1495 — 1562), who first introduced 
 the Italian style into Holland, and is represented in the 
 
432 Painting 
 
 National Gallery by a Repose in Egypt : his works bear 
 evidence of the influence of Diirer. 
 
 Michiel van Coxcien (1499 — 1592), who, as we have 
 seen, superintended at Arras the manufacture of the 
 tapestries from Raphael's designs. 
 
 Lambert Lombard (1506 — 1566), a native of Liege, who 
 introduced this Italian-Flemish style into his native city, 
 and thus materially aided in the decline of art in the Low 
 Countries. 
 
 Frans Floris (died 1570), a pupil of Lombard, who from 
 a sculptor became a painter, and is famous for having 
 formed in Antwerp a school which was numerously 
 attended. 
 
 Pieter Brueghel (ab. 1520 — 1569), commonly called 
 from the subjects of his paintings " Peasant Brueghel," and 
 his son Pieter, or " Hell," Brueghel (1564 — 1637), were 
 amongst the best painters of their time in Antwerp. 
 
 At this period, a foremost place amongst portrait-painters 
 was held by Sir Antonis Mor (1512—1576-78), a Dutch- 
 man by birth, but a Fleming in art. He visited Italy, 
 but on his return was influenced by the works of Holbein. 
 He was court painter to Queen Mary of England, and was 
 also patronized by Philip II. of Spain; and many good 
 works by him are still preserved in the Museum at Madrid. 
 
 Of the portrait painters who imitated Matsys's pecu- 
 liarly pronounced realistic manner, we must name Marc 
 Garrard (1561 — 1635), a native of Antwerp, who was one 
 of the principal portrait painters at the court of Queen 
 Elizabeth; Paul van Somer (1576 — 1621), whose best 
 years were spent in this country. His finest works are in 
 England, e. g. a portrait of Lord Verulam at Panshanger, 
 
In Antwerp. 
 
 433 
 
 and those of the Earl and Countess of Arundel at Arundel 
 Castle. 
 
 Cornelis de Vos (1585 ?— 1651), the elder, shows, in his 
 portraits, the influence of Rubens. His portrait of Abraham 
 
 Fig. 149.— Portrait of Abraham Grapheus. By Cornelis de Vot. 
 In the Antwerp Gallery. 
 
 Grapheus, a servant of the Guild of S. Luke in Antwerp, 
 with the Guild plate, is in the Antwerp Gallery (Fig. 149)! 
 
 A great impulse was given to the art of landscape 
 painting, at the close of the sixteenth century, by the 
 eha p 
 
434 
 
 Painting 
 
 brothers Bril of Antwerp, Matthys Bril (1550 — ab. 1580), 
 and the more celebrated Pauwel Bril (1556 — 1626). The 
 latter was one of the first to obtain harmony of light in 
 landscape/ and he greatly influenced for good the future 
 masters, Rubens and Claude Lorrain. His Tower of Babel, 
 in the Berlin Museum, is considered one of his best works. 
 As early landscape . painters, we must also name Jan 
 
 Fig. 150. — River Scene. By Jan Brueghel. 
 
 Brueghel (ab. 1589 — ab. 1642), who painted landscape 
 backgrounds in paintings by Rubens and other celebrated 
 masters. He was son of the elder and brother of the 
 younger Brueghel already mentioned. 
 
 (e) Tlte Dutch School of the late Sixteenth Century. 
 
 Towards the close of the sixteenth century, numerous 
 Dutch historical painters arose, who paved the way for a 
 
In Antwerp. 435 
 
 higher and more independent style of art. Of these we 
 must name 
 
 Otto van Veen (1558 — 16*29), whose numerous works — 
 of which the principal are in the Antwerp Museum — 
 display great truth to nature and force of character ; 
 
 Cornelis Cornelisz, van Haarlem (1562 — 1638), whose 
 masterpiece is JBathsheba bathing, in the Berlin Museum, 
 distinguished by careful drawing and fulness of colouring ; 
 
 Abraham Bloemart (ab. 1564 — ab. 1658), whose best 
 work, Joseph's second Dream, is in the Berlin Museum, 
 was influenced by Floris, and who is chiefly famed for the 
 harmony of tone, good taste, and right balance of his 
 paintings ; and 
 
 Adriaan van der Venne (1589 — 1662), of Delft, who ex- 
 celled in portraits, landscapes, and genre paintings, and 
 combined the realistic manner of his countrymen with 
 something of classic feeling. One of his most remarkable 
 compositions is that representing the Festival in honour 
 of the Truce between the Archduke Albert and the Dutch 
 Provinces in 1609, now in the Louvre; it is dated 1616. 
 
 Of Dutch portrait painters of this time we may note 
 
 Michiel Jansz Mierevelt (1567 — 1641), who especially 
 excelled in transparency of colouring, and whose Portrait 
 of Hugo Grotius in the town hall at Delft is considered 
 his best work ; 
 
 Jan van Ravestyn (born 1572 ?), who executed several 
 Corporation pieces ; and 
 
 Cornelis Janssens, van Keulen (died 1665), said to have 
 been born in England, whose best works, which display 
 great feeling for truth and refinement of taste, are dispersed 
 in various private English collections. 
 
 r l 2 
 

 436 Painting 
 
 Among the first . Dutch marine painters, Hendrik 
 Cornelisz Vroom (1566 — 1640), and who executed a sketch 
 of the Defeat of the Spanish Armada for the Lord High 
 Admiral of England ; Adam Willaarts (1577— aft. 1666) ; 
 and Jan Peeters (1624 — 1677), whose picture of a Storm in 
 the Pinakothek, Munich, is valuable, as an early specimen 
 of the art in which the Dutch subsequently attained to 
 such exceptionable excellence. 
 
 2. The German School. 
 
 In a previous chapter we have spoken of the early 
 masters of the School of Cologne, who were, if we may 
 so express it, strictly orthodox painters, expressing in their 
 works unwavering devotion to the Church of Pome, and 
 unfaltering allegiance to the traditional mode of treating 
 sacred subjects. 
 
 We have now to examine the productions of men im- 
 bued with the spirit of the Reformation. These men, 
 whilst stretching forward to that freedom of conscience in 
 art which, as in religion, was finally attained at so terrible 
 a cost, clung with truly Teutonic steadfastness to the 
 weird symbolism inherited from the old Norse sea-kings ; 
 they pressed it, so to speak, into the service of the new 
 doctrine, and hinted in their sacred pictures at a real and 
 personal conflict between spiritual and material .agencies, 
 by the constant introduction of some weird fantastic 
 monster, treated with a force and life which speak volumes 
 for that deeply-rooted faith in the supernatural so start- 
 ling in men of the strength of character of Diirer, Luther, 
 and the great reformers of the day. This faith, more than 
 any other peculiarity, separates the art of Germany from 
 both that of Italy, with its beautiful idealisation even of 
 
In Swabia. 437 
 
 the powers of evil, and that of Flanders, with its stern 
 repudiation of all not actually manifest to the senses. 
 
 (a) The Swabian School. 
 
 The first great German master in whom we see the 
 working of this double spirit — alike conservative and 
 reformative — was Martin Schongauer (ab. 1450 — 1488), of 
 Colmar, commonly called Martin Schon, who began life 
 as an engraver, and did not devote himself to painting 
 until after a visit to Flanders, where he is supposed to 
 have studied under Rogier van der Weyden. He adopted 
 something of his master's realistic manner, whilst retaining 
 the feeling for spiritual beauty characteristic of his German 
 predecessors, Meister Wilhelm, Meister Stephan, and the 
 Master of the Ly versberg Passion — combined, however, with 
 a weird delight in physical distortion which is always 
 painful and sometimes positively revolting. As an instance 
 of this, we may cite his print of S. Anthony tormented by 
 Demons, in the British Museum. Anything more grotesque 
 and fantastic than the horrible forms wreaking their spite 
 upon the unhappy saint it would be difficult to conceive ; 
 yet the whole is redeemed from caricature by the nobility 
 of the martyr's head, which admirably expresses calm 
 superiority to bodily torture, and almost absolute mastery 
 of mind over matter. The British Museum contains many 
 other fine engravings from the same hand, of which we 
 must name Christ bearing His Gross, and the Foolish 
 Virgins. Schongauer' s paintings are extremely rare ; an 
 altar-piece of a Madonna and the Infant Saviour, in the 
 church of S. Martin at Colmar, is the chief, and is remark- 
 able for purity of colouring and delicacy of finish. A small 
 work, the Death of the Virgin, in the National Gallery, is 
 
 
438 
 
 Painting 
 
 attributed to him, but doubts have been lately thrown 
 upon its authenticity. In our illustration (Fig. 151) we give 
 an example of this master's style of engraving. 
 
 Bartholomews Zeitblom (fl. ab. 1484 — 1516), of TJlm, 
 was, like Schongauer, a Swabian master of the early 
 
 Fig. 151. — The Crucifixion. Engraving by Schongauer. 
 
 Reformation period, and appears to have excelled him 
 in sublimity of design and delicacy of colouring, but to 
 have been inferior in power of drawing. His works are 
 essentially German, and are amongst the most important 
 examples of Teutonic painting in the fifteenth century. 
 
In Augsburg. 439 
 
 His Veronica, in the British Museum, and the wings of an 
 altar-piece, with figures of the Virgin, Mary Magdalen 
 and other saints, in the Stuttgart Gallery, are among the 
 principal. Martin Schaffner (fl. ab. 1499 — 1535) was also 
 one of the painters of Ulm of this period. 
 
 (b) The Augsburg School. 
 
 We have now . to turn to Augsburg, where we find a 
 school arising, characterized by a more decidedly realistic 
 tendency than that of Ulm. At the head of this school 
 stands Hans Holbein the elder (ab. 1460 — 1524), father 
 of the Holbein who did so much for English art in the 
 reign of Henry VIII. In the works of the founder of 
 the great Augsburg School the influence of the Van 
 Eycks and of Rogier van der Weyden is far more notice- 
 able than in those of the masters of Ulm. The elder 
 Holbein's S. Sebastian with the Annunciation, and SS. 
 Elizabeth and Barbara, on the wings in the Pinakothek, 
 Munich, is considered his principal work. 
 
 Hans Holbein the younger (1497 — 1543), son of the 
 painter named above, was not only the greatest German 
 exponent of the realistic school, but one of the first por- 
 trait painters of any age ; and, moreover, one to whom the 
 British School of painting owes more than to any other 
 master. Inferior in grandeur of style and fertility of 
 imagination to his great cotemporary Diirer, he excelled 
 him in truth to nature, in feeling for physical beauty, and 
 in command over all the technical processes of his art. 
 Born of an artist family, and surrounded from babyhood by 
 artistic associations, Hans Holbein early acquired a mastery 
 over all the elements of desigu, as is proved by the remains 
 of a series of frescoes executed for the Town Hall of Basle 
 
440 Painting 
 
 at the age of sixteen, and by eight scenes from the Passion 
 
 Fig. 152.— Hubert Morett. By Holbein. 
 In the Dresden Gallery. 
 
 preserved in the Basle Museum ; and there can be no 
 doubt that he might have rivalled even Raphael in his- 
 
In Augsburg. 
 
 441 
 
 torical painting had he devoted his attention to that branch 
 of art. He was the one German master, not excepting 
 even Diirer, who freed himself entirely from the insipid con- 
 ventionalism in the treatment of the human form which had 
 so long prevailed, and his portraits have an individuality 
 of character and clearness of colouring superior to anything 
 of the kind ever produced in Germany. His Last Supper, 
 in the Basle Gallery, the so-called Meyer Madonna, in 
 the Darmstadt Gallery, of 
 which a replica exists in 
 the Dresden Gallery (Fig. 
 154), and the series of 
 wood-cuts known as the 
 Dance of Death (Fig. 153), 
 — skilful reproductions of 
 which may be seen in al- 
 n x »st every public library, 
 — are among his best 
 known and most spirited 
 compositions. The last- 
 named is a noble work 
 full of humour and po- 
 etry, and has been chosen 
 by Mr. Ruskin as a speci- 
 men of the true use of 
 the grotesque in art. 
 
 As is well known, Holbein spent a great portion of his 
 life in England, and our royal and private collections 
 contain many authentic works from his hand. Of these 
 we must name, as among the most remarkable, a portrait 
 of Erasmus, and the so-called Ambassadors, both in the 
 gallery of Longford Castle ; a series of eighteen portraits 
 
 Fig. 153.— The Pedlar. By Holbein. 
 From the ' Dance of Death.' 
 
442 Painting in Augsburg. 
 
 of Members of the Barber-Surgeons Guild, in the Barber- 
 Surgeons' Hall, London ; a portrait of Lady Vaux at 
 Hampton Court ; that of a Young Man wearing a black 
 dress and cap, at Windsor Castle ; and last, but not least, 
 the portrait of the Duchess of Milan, painted by command 
 of Henry VIII., and now the property of the Duke of 
 Norfolk. It is at present (1881) on loan in the National 
 Gallery. The master's style may also be studied in the 
 fine collection of drawings and engravings in the British 
 Museum and the magnificent collection of portrait studies 
 in red chalk at Windsor Castle. 
 
 Holbein's symbolic scenes are especially remarkable for 
 their keen irony, and their bitter satire on the follies of 
 his age ; they express a sad and mournful realization of 
 the power of evil, with a steadfast faith in the final 
 triumph of good which redeems them from coarseness, 
 and stamps them with the religious significance wanting 
 to the works of the inferior men who copied his manner 
 without catching his spirit. 
 
 We must here name as artists of the Swabian school in 
 the sixteenth century, Sigismund Holbein (ab. 1465 — 1540), 
 uncle of the master noticed above, to whom is ascribed a 
 Portrait of a Lady, in our National Gallery ; Christoph 
 Amberger (ab. 1490 — 1563); Nicolaus Manuel, called 
 Deutsch (ab. 1484 — 1530); Martin Schaffner (fl. ab. 
 1499 — 1535); and, above all, Hans Burckmair (1473 — 
 1531), a master of considerable genius and varied power, 
 whose best works are in the Augsburg Gallery, but whose 
 peculiar characteristics may be studied in an Adoration 
 of the Shepherds in the Royal collection, Windsor. 
 
y ^^£^C^TC ^?x^^ h 
 
 Fig. 154. — The Meyer Madonna. By Hans Holbein. 
 In the Dresden Gallery. 
 
444 Painting 
 
 (c) The Franconian School. 
 
 In the School of Franconia, with Nuremberg for its 
 head-quarters, the realistic style of the Netherlands was 
 adopted and perhaps sometimes exaggerated. We find 
 the same tolerance of ugliness, the same sharpness of 
 outline, as in the works of the early Dutch and Flemish 
 masters, combined with an intensity of expression and a 
 delight in the weird and fantastic even greater than in the 
 productions of Swabian painters. 
 
 The master in whom all these peculiarities were most 
 strikingly manifested was Michael Wolgemut (1434 — 
 1519), who did much to aid the development of German 
 painting, and was the immediate predecessor of Albrecht 
 Durer. His best works are at Nuremberg; but the 
 Liverpool Institution contains two fine compositions from 
 his hand — Pilate ivashing his Hands, and the Descent 
 from the Cross. His pictures have all considerable force 
 and transparency of colouring, but are wanting in harmony 
 of composition and general equality of tone. 
 
 Albrecht Durer (1471 — 1528) was the father of German 
 painting, and has been proudly called by his country- 
 men the "prince of artists." A native of Nuremberg, 
 of Hungarian descent, he was intended by his father, 
 a goldsmith, to follow his profession. But his love of 
 drawing prevailed, and in 1486 he was apprenticed 
 to Wolgemut. The years 1490 — 1494 were spent in 
 travel : how and where, we have no record. In 1494 he 
 returned to Nuremberg, and married Agnes Frey. In 
 1505 he visited Italy : at Venice he became acquainted 
 with Giovanni Bellini and enjoyed much popularity. 
 
In Franc onia. 445 
 
 Refusing, however, a liberal offer from the Venetian 
 government, who wished him to remain in their city, he 
 returned to his native Nuremberg, and in the following 
 years produced many of his masterpieces in painting and 
 engraving. In 1520 he started on a tour through the 
 Netherlands, and visited amongst other cities, Antwerp, 
 Brussels, Cologne, Bruges and Ghent : refusing in Antwerp, 
 as he had previously done in Venice, an offer to stay in that 
 city, he returned home in the following year ; he died in 
 Nuremberg in 1528. 
 
 Diirer was, without doubt, a master-spirit, and had he 
 met with the same recognition in his native land which 
 he would have received had he been born in Italy, he 
 would probably have taken rank with the men we have 
 named as the greatest painters of any age ; but, whilst 
 gaining yet another finished master, we might perhaps 
 have lost a teacher of spiritual truth whose works are, 
 in their way, unique. Albrecht Diirer was among the 
 first to bring the laws of science to bear upon art, and 
 to demonstrate the practical value of perspective. He 
 was a man of rare energy, versatility, and power of work ; 
 he excelled alike in painting, engraving, sculpture and 
 wood-carving ; and in the latter part of his life published 
 works on perspective, fortification, and other abstruse 
 subjects. The chief characteristics of his painting are 
 forcible drawing, breadth of colouring, individuality of 
 character, vitality of expression and highness of finish — 
 combined, unfortunately, with a certain harshness of out- 
 line, an occasional stiffness in the treatment of drapery, 
 and a want of feeling for physical grace and beauty. His 
 works bear the impress of his own earnest yet mystic 
 spirit, and are moreover a fitting expression of the complex 
 
446 Painting in Feanconia. 
 
 German character, with its practical steadfastness of 
 purpose, its restless intellectual cravings, never-satisfied 
 aspirations after spiritual truth, and vivid force of imagina- 
 tion. Ever haunted by solemn questions relating to Death 
 and the Life to come, Diirer feared not to look the most 
 awful possibilities full in the face ; and in his works we 
 may — if we will throw ourselves into the experience of 
 their author — trace the gradual winning of certainty out 
 of doubt — the gradual solving of the problem of the 
 meaning of existence. Unable to free himself entirely 
 from the fantastic element, apparently inherent in the 
 very nature of German art, Diirer touched it with his 
 own refinement : his quaint, unearthly figures are never 
 vulgar — his most terrible forms are never coarse. 
 
 Albrecht Diirer's earliest known portrait is that of Jiis 
 father, bearing date 1497, in the possession of the Duke 
 of Northumberland at Sion House. Similar pictures are 
 in the Uffizi, Florence, the Pinakothek, Munich, and the 
 Stadel, Frankfort. Passavant considers the last-named to 
 be the original : Mrs. Heaton is in favour of that of Sion 
 House. To the first part of his career, belong also a 
 masterly series of woodcuts illustrative of the Apocalypse 
 (the first edition of which appeared in 1498), in which 
 great power of conception and force of design are dis- 
 played, the fantastic element being kept in due subjection ; 
 the Portrait of Himself (1498) ; and an Adoration of 
 the Kings (1504), both in the Uffizi, Florence; and an 
 extremely fine portrait of an unknown man in the Duke 
 of Rutland's collection at Belvoir Castle. 
 
 Although Diirer visited Italy and spent some time in 
 Venice, he apparently lost nothing of his own individuality 
 of style. His famous Virgin luith the Rose-garlands, now 
 
Fig'. L3.3. — Christ taking- leave of His Mother. By 
 From the wood engraving in ' The Life of the Vm 
 
448 Painting 
 
 in the abbey of Strahow near Prague, was painted at this 
 time for the Fondaco de' Tedeschi, at Venice, and is dis- 
 tinguished for all the master's peculiar excellences. It is 
 unfortunately much injured ; the museum of- Lyons pos- 
 sesses a fine copy. To the year 1507 belong a very excel- 
 lent Portrait of a Young Man in the Belvedere Vienna, 
 and the single figures of Adam and Eve, now in the 
 Madrid Gallery. 
 
 From the few years succeeding his visit to Venice date 
 many of Diirer's finest works, such as the two series of 
 woodcuts known as the Little Passion (1511), and the 
 Great Passion (published first in book shape in 1511), — the 
 former consisting of scenes from the ministry of our Lord, 
 and the latter of scenes from the actual Passion, Death, 
 and Burial of the Redeemer, — in all of which the central 
 figure is majestic and dignified, and the solemn subjects 
 are treated with genuine reverence and poetic feeling. 
 Even more famous are the Adoration of the Trinity (1511), 
 — now in the Belvedere, Vienna, considered Diirer's finest 
 painting — and the well-known engravings of the Knight, 
 Death, and the Devil (1513), and Melencolia (1514) : the 
 former of which (Fig. 156), , remarkable as it is for 
 masterly drawing and powerful conception, is yet more 
 valuable as an earnest of victory won, and a great problem 
 solved. It is an expression of the artist's conviction of 
 the final triumph of humanity over Death, the Devil and 
 all evil suggestions. Equally expressive of the subtle 
 conflict in this world between joy and sorrow, good and 
 evil, is the awful print of Melencolia, in which we see the 
 great Genius of the toil and knowledge of the world, 
 wearing a laurel wreath upon her brow and with the 
 instruments of science strewn around her, gazing with 
 
In Franconia. 
 
 449 
 
 intense and melancholy foreboding into the dim future ; 
 but, above the comet of evil omen and the winged bat 
 
 Fig. 156.—' The Knight, Death, and the Devil.* By Diirer. 
 Engraving on copper. 
 EHA GG 
 
450 Painting 
 
 bearing a, scroll inscribed " Melencolia," rises the rainbow 
 of Hope, and the light of future joy is beginning to gleam 
 in the tearful eyes of the winged spirit ; whilst the little 
 child beside her, with his tablet and pencil, ready to carry 
 on the work she may not finish, is a symbol of the ever- 
 new vitality of the human race. In S. Jerome in his 
 Study, produced about the same time as the Melencolia, the 
 answer to the great question is more assured and definite ; 
 the saint has acquired so thorough a mastery over the 
 spirit-world that nothing can ruffle his holy serenity. 
 
 Of Diirer's large oil paintings we must name the apos- 
 tles Philip and James (1516), in the Uffizi, Florence ; the 
 portrait of the Emperor Maximilian I. (1519), in the Belve- 
 dere, Vienna ; the half-length figures of SS. Joseph and 
 Joachim and SS. Simeon arid Lazarus, in the Pinakothek, 
 Munich, the interior wings of an altar-piece produced in 
 1523, after a visit to the Netherlands, which sensibly 
 affected the great master's style ; and two companion 
 pictures — one of the Apostles John and Peter, the other 
 of Mark and Paid — also in the Munich Gallery, remark- 
 able works, full of dignity and individuality of character, 
 supposed to represent the four temperaments ; the melan- 
 choly being embodied in the face and figure of S. John, 
 the phlegmatic in that of S. Peter, the sanguine in that 
 of S. Mark, and the choleric in that of S. Paul. 
 
 England, we believe, contains but two paintings by 
 Albrecht Diirer — the Portrait of Himself already noticed ; 
 and a bust portrait of a Senator, in the National Gallery. 
 
 Of Diirer's later portraits the most remarkable are 
 those engraved on copper of Cardinal Albert of Branden- 
 burg, the Elector Frederick, Pirkheimer, Melanchthon, 
 Erasmus, and other celebrated men of his day; and two 
 
In Franconia. 
 
 451 
 
 portraits in oil — one in the Belvedere, Vienna, of a certain 
 Johann Kleberger ; one in the Germanic Museum at 
 Nuremberg, of Hieronymus Holzscliuher. Other important 
 
 Fig. 157.— Joseph sold by bis Brethren. By Georg Pencz. 
 
 engravings by him are the Copper Passion (1507 — 1513) ; 
 the Great Horse (1505); the Little Horse (1505); & 
 Eustaehius, frequently called 8. Hubert; and 8. Anthony 
 
 G G 2 
 
452 Painting in Saxony. 
 
 (1519) : and of his wood-cuts the series of the Life of the 
 Virgin (1511) ; of the Triumphal Arch of Maximilian (1512 
 — 1515), and the Triumphal Car of Maximilian (1523). 
 
 Amongst the most important of the disciples of Diirer 
 were Hans Burckmair (1473 — 1531), who painted his- 
 toric subjects and portraits, and is famous for a wonderful 
 series of wood-cuts called the Triumph of Maximilian ; and 
 Hans Fuss, commonly called Hans von Kulmbach (died 
 ab. 1522) ; and Hans Leonhardt Schaufelin (1490 — 1540), 
 Diirer' s favourite pupil. 
 
 Diirer exercised a powerful influence throughout the 
 whole of Europe, and had many followers and imitators, 
 to whom the general name of the "Little Masters" has 
 been given, on account of the smallness of their works. 
 They were, however, rather engravers than painters, and 
 on that account we shall content ourselves with merely 
 enumerating the principal: Heinrich Aldegrever (1502 — 
 1558); Barthel Beham (1502, ab. 1540); Hans Sebald 
 Beham (1500—1550) ; Albrecht Altdorfer (bef. 1480— 
 1538), one of the greatest of Diirer' s pupils, and a very 
 successful colourist, his masterpiece is the Victory of Alex- 
 ander over Darius, in the Munich Gallery ; Georg Pencz 
 (ab. 1500 — 1550), a man of considerable original genius and 
 feeling for beauty; and Jakob Bink (ab. 1500 — 1568-69). 
 
 Amongst those followers of Diirer who were only en- 
 gravers were Hans Brosamer, Virgilius Solis, Jost Amman, 
 and Theodor de Bry. 
 
 (d) The School of Saxony. 
 
 Cotemporary with Diirer, we find a great master 
 arising in Saxony, imbued with the same earnestness 
 
Fig. 158.— Princess Sibylla of Saxony. By Cranach. 
 Formerly in the Suermondt Collection. 
 
454 Painting 
 
 and the same love of the fantastic and grotesque. We 
 allude to Lucas Cranach (1472 — 1553), a native of 
 Kronach in Franconia, whose style in its general 
 characteristics resembles that of Matthius Griinewald, 
 mentioned above, with whom he studied for some time. 
 He was court-painter to three Electors successively, and 
 spent a most prosperous life. Cranach was inferior to 
 Diirer in drawing, in imaginative force, and feeling for truth 
 of expression ; but his large sacred pictures are remarkable 
 for dignity and grace, whilst some of his minor works are 
 full of pleasant humour. Of the former, the Woman 
 taken in Adultery, in the Pinakothek at Munich, and the 
 altar-piece at Weimar, representing the Crucifixion — in 
 which fine portraits of Luther and of the artist himself 
 are introduced — may be cited as good examples ; and the 
 Fountain of Youth, in the Berlin Museum, as an instance 
 of the latter. Cranach' s chief strength was, however, in 
 portraiture, and in subjects suitable for purely realistic 
 treatment. The National Gallery contains a very fine 
 Portrait of a Young Girl, from his hand, and portraits of 
 the celebrities of his day are plentiful in the various 
 Continental collections (Fig. 158). 
 
 Lucas Cranach, the younger (1515 — 1586), followed 
 successfully in his father's footsteps, and painted many 
 pictures which have doubtless passed as the work of his 
 father. The Cranachs left no disciples : the School of 
 Saxony began with the father and ended with the son. 
 
 (e) Decline of Art in Germany. 
 
 After Cranach, Diirer and Holbein had passed away, 
 painting rapidly declined in Germany, as in Italy ; but, 
 before we speak of the artists of the next two centuries, 
 
In Germany. 455 
 
 we may add that the art of glass-painting was carried to 
 the greatest perfection in the fifteenth and sixteenth 
 centuries by the Germans and Flemings, and that they 
 maintained their superiority in this respect over the 
 other Continental states until the close of the seventeenth 
 century. 
 
 The seventeenth century was marked by a few feeble 
 unsuccessful attempts to imitate the great Italian masters 
 of the Renaissance ; and it was not until the beginning 
 of the eighteenth century, when Germany was to some 
 extent recovering from the effects of the Thirty Years' 
 War, that any artists arose of sufficient individuality to 
 merit special notice, and to aid in the transition to bet- 
 ter things. Of these we may name as among the more 
 remarkable : Johann Rottenhammer (1564 — 1623), who 
 strove to emulate Tintoretto : a Pan and Syrinx by him is 
 in the National Gallery; Adam Elshaimer (1574 — 1620), 
 famous for his landscapes, many of which are in private 
 galleries in England : Joachim van Sandrart (1606 — 1688), 
 who painted allegoric and historic pieces, but is more 
 famous as the author of the ' Teutsche Academie,' a history 
 of German art : Balthasar Denner (1685 — 1747), a success- 
 ful portrait painter, famed for the minute finish of his 
 works ; of which examples may be seen at Hampton Court : 
 Anton Raphael Mengs (1728—1779), one of the first to 
 attempt to revive the rigid correctness of classical painting, 
 who failed, however, to catch the spirit of antique art : 
 Christian Wilhelm Ernst Dietrich (1712—1774), who 
 worked chiefly at Dresden, and was, perhaps, the most 
 successful copyist that ever lived. Italian, French, 
 German, Flemish, Dutch — all styles came equally familiar 
 
456 Painting in Germany. 
 
 to his facile pencil. Angelica Kauffman (1742 — 1807), 
 whose romantic life is well-known, already alluded to as a 
 sculptor, many of whose paintings are in England, — a 
 portrait of the Duchess of Brunswick is at Hampton Court ; 
 and Daniel Nicolaus Chodowiecky (1726 — 1801), famous 
 for his miniature painting and his etchings. 
 
 On the borderland between these masters and the revival 
 of German art by Overbeck, stands Asmus Jacob Carstehs 
 (1754 — 1798), who first practised portrait-painting as a 
 means of gaining a livelihood, but afterwards became suc- 
 cessful in historic painting. He worked at various times 
 at Copenhagen, Mantua, where he studied Giulio Romano, 
 Lubeck, Berlin and Rome, where he formed his style on 
 the works of Michelangelo and Raphael. His principal 
 paintings are scenes from the history of the Argonautic 
 expedition. 
 
 Carstens's works display a profound study of the pro- 
 ductions of Raphael and Michelangelo, and are remarkable 
 more for their depth of thought and careful execution, 
 than for originality, either of design or treatment. 
 
V. Painting in Italy in the Seventeenth 
 and Eighteenth Centuries. 
 
 In a previous chapter we alluded to the decline of 
 painting in Italy on the death of the great masters of 
 the Renaissance — a decline marked by the same pecu- 
 liarities as that which succeeded the golden age of 
 sculpture ; technical dexterity ranked higher than artistic 
 genius, and the minor peculiarities of celebrated men 
 were servilely imitated, without any endeavour to catch 
 their spirit or grasp the meaning of their grand con- 
 ceptions. 
 
 As early as the close of the sixteenth century an at- 
 tempt was made to revive the art of painting in Italy, and 
 two distinct classes of artists arose to whom the general 
 names of Eclectics and Naturalists have been given : the 
 former endeavoured to combine the best qualities of all 
 the great Cinque-cento masters with the imitation of 
 nature ; the latter professed to study nature exclusively, 
 and to imitate faithfully and boldly every detail of ordinary 
 life. These two schools exercised great influence, alike on 
 each other and on their cotemporaries in other countries. 
 
 1. The Eclectic School of Bologna. 
 
 The leading Eclectic School of Italy — that of Bologna — 
 was founded by Lodovico Carracci (1555 — 1619), in con- 
 junction with his two cousins, Agostino Carracci (1557 — 
 1602) and Annibale Carracci (1560 — 1609). Lodovico 
 appears to have been rather a teacher than an original 
 painter. His principal works are at Bologna : the En- 
 throned Madonna ivith SS. Francis and Jerome, a 
 
458 Painting 
 
 Transfiguration, and a Nativity of S. John the Baptist, are 
 considered the finest. He is represented in our National 
 Gallery by a group of Susannah and the Elders. His 
 principal characteristics are easy grace of execution, power 
 of expressing sorrow, and skilful imitation of the chiar- 
 oscuro of Correggio. 
 
 Agostino Carracci is better known as an engraver than 
 
 Fig. 15y. — The Three Maries. By Annibale Carracci. 
 In the Castle Howard Gallery. 
 
 a painter; but he produced several fine easel pictures 
 noticeable for delicacy of execution, of which two — 
 Gephalus and Aurora, and the Triumph of Galatea — are 
 in the National Gallery. 
 
 Annibale Carracci greatly excelled both Lodovico and 
 Agostino, and, had he not been fettered by his mistaken 
 desire to combine naturalism with imitation of the great 
 
In Bologna. 459 
 
 masters, he would probably have worked out an original 
 and superior style. As it is, his works have about them 
 something of Correggio, Paolo Veronese, Michelangelo and 
 Raphael, without any distinctive character of their own ; 
 the artist's feeling for truth to nature and his vigour of 
 conception only now and then shine through the mannerism 
 with which they are overladen. 
 
 Many of Annibale's works are in England — the Three 
 Maries, at Castle Howard, for instance (Fig. 159) ; and the 
 eight subjects at the National Gallery — Christ appearing 
 to Simon Peter after His 'Resurrection ; S. John in the 
 Wilderness, two Landscapes with figures, Erminia taking 
 refuge with the Shepherds ; Silemis gathering Grapes; Pan 
 and Apollo, and the Temptation of S. Anthony. His 
 most celebrated work was the decoration of the Farnese 
 Palace, Rome, in which he was at first assisted by his 
 elder brother Agostino. 
 
 Of the numerous pupils of the Carracci, Domenico 
 Zampieri (1581 — 1641), commonly called Domenichino, 
 and Guido Reni, were the chief. The former was a 
 successful imitator of Raphael's manner, and also caught 
 much of the style of Agostino Carracci ; giving proof, 
 however, of considerable individual power in the heads, 
 and indeed in the general treatment of many of his groups. 
 His Last Communion of S. Jerome, now in the Vatican ; 
 his Four Evangelists, in the cupola of the church of S. 
 Andrea delle Valle at Rome ; and his frescoes of incidents 
 in the Life and Martyrdom of S. Cecilia, in S. Luigi, 
 Rome, are among his most famous compositions ; the 
 National Gallery contains two landscapes with figures ; 
 a 8. Jerome with the Angel ; and a powerful group of the 
 Stoning of S. Stephen. 
 
460 
 
 Painting 
 
 Guido Reni (1575 — 1642) was an artist with consider- 
 able feeling for beauty of form, and great skill in execution, 
 especially in colouring ; but he was wanting in force of 
 expression, and his conceptions seldom rise to the rank of 
 the ideal. His Madonna della Pieta and the Massacre of 
 the Innocents at Bologna, his S. Paul and S. Anthony in 
 
 Fig. 160.— The Magdalen. By Guido Reni. 
 In the C'olonna Palace, Rome. 
 
 the Berlin Museum, the unfinished Nativity in the church 
 of S. Martino at Naples, and above all the fresco of 
 Aurora and Phoebus on the ceiling of a pavilion in the 
 garden of the Rospigliosi Palace at Rome, are among his 
 most famous works; he is represented in our National 
 
In Bologna. 461 
 
 Gallery by his well-known Ecce Homo ; a Coronation of the 
 Virgin; a Magdalen; The Youthful Christ embracing S. 
 John ; S. Jerome ; Lot and his Daughters ; and Susannah 
 and the Elders. Our illustration (Fig. 160) will serve to 
 give some idea of his peculiar style. 
 
 Francesco Albani (1578 — 1660), a friend and fellow- 
 pupil of Guido in the school of the Carracci, is remem- 
 bered chiefly for his frescoes of classic scenes in the 
 Verospi Palace, Rome. 
 
 We must also name as distinguished members of the 
 Eclectic Schools of Italy, 
 
 Giovanni Francesco Barbieri (1591 — 1666), called Guer- 
 cino, who excelled in brilliancy of colouring, depth of 
 chiaroscuro, and power of expression, as instanced in 
 Dido's Last Moments, in the Spada Gallery, Home, and 
 the group of Angels weeping over the Dead Christ, in the 
 National Gallery ; 
 
 Giovanni Battista Salvi (1605 — 1685), surnamed Sasso- 
 ferrato, a tolerably successful imitator of Raphael, and 
 somewhat brilliant colourist, represented in the National 
 Gallery by two Madonnas ; and 
 
 Carlo Dolci (1616 — 1686), who painted Madonnas and 
 Saints with considerable grace and spirit, and is best 
 known by his S. Cecilia in the Dresden Gallery, and 
 S. Andrew immediately before his Execution, in the Pitti 
 Palace, Florence. 
 
 2. The Naturalistic School. 
 
 The Naturalists did not found so important a school 
 as the Eclectics. Their determination to imitate nature 
 exactly as she appeared to them led them into many 
 extravagances, and altogether defeated their own object. 
 
462 Painting 
 
 Anxious not to shrink from the representation of anything 
 real, however terrible, they lost sight of that hidden 
 meaning which so often removes the horror of the most 
 awful scenes, giving to them a spiritual beauty which 
 physical distortion cannot destroy ; and their works are 
 pervaded by a tragic pathos, a passionate misery, inex- 
 pressibly painful. 
 
 At the head of the Naturalistic School stands Michel - 
 angiolo Amerigi, da Caravaggio (1569 — 1609); his works 
 have some affinity with those of the great artist whose 
 name he bore, and in spite of many shortcomings, give 
 proof of much original power and poetry of feeling. His 
 Entombment of Christ, in the Vatican, is his most famous 
 work : the figure of the Virgin admirably expresses aban- 
 doned sorrow, and that of Christ is full of grandeur and 
 dignity, though wanting in divinity. The Beheading of 
 8. John, in the Cathedral of Malta, and a portrait in the 
 Louvre of the Grand Master of Malta, are also very fine ; 
 and we may name the Card-players — several times re- 
 peated, the best example being in the Sciarra Palace, 
 Rome — as a spirited composition of the genre class. 
 
 Jose de Ribera, called from the country of his birth 
 Lo Spagnoletto (1588 — 1656), spent most of his time in 
 Naples. He was first influenced by the Carracci, but 
 afterwards took Caravaggio for his model. Many of his 
 works are in the galleries of Naples and Madrid. We 
 shall shortly come across him again when we read of 
 Spanish art. 
 
 Salvator Rosa (1615—1673) was a naturalistic master 
 of secondary importance to Caravaggio, who painted land- 
 scapes, historic subjects and genre pictures, excelling 
 principally in portraits, — a likeness of a man, in the Pitti 
 
In Venice. 463 
 
 Palace, Florence, being said by Kugler to be " almost com- 
 parable to Rembrandt." In landscapes, Rosa worked out 
 something of an original style, and many of his wild 
 mountain-scenes are full of pathetic beauty. A Sea-piece 
 in the Berlin Gallery, of a vessel being driven on rocks in 
 a storm, is a wonderfully forcible rendering of a terrible 
 convulsion of nature. 
 
 At the close of the seventeenth century Pietro Berrettini, 
 da Cortona (1596 — 1669), in spite of the great original 
 talent which he possessed, exercised a most pernicious 
 influence on Italian art by the introduction in his works 
 of startling effects of colour and chiaroscuro, which were 
 eagerly studied and imitated by many scholars ; thus finally 
 sealing the fate of Italian painting, which has never again 
 rallied from the insipid mannerism into which it sank at 
 the beginning of the eighteenth century. 
 
 3. The Later Venetian School. 
 
 Before closing the history of painting in Italy, we must 
 mention one who has made Venetian painting of the 
 eighteenth century famous. Antonio Canal, commonly 
 called Canaletto (1697 — 1768), devoted many years of 
 his life to depicting architectural scenes in Venice. His 
 paintings, executed with great truth to nature and a 
 freedom of touch, are especially to be admired for their 
 correctness of perspective ; they are a lasting memorial of 
 what Venice was in his day. Canaletto spent the years 
 1746 — 1748 in England, and has left us several valuable 
 records of his visit. This country also possesses in the 
 National Gallery (which has no less than ten works by 
 him) and in private collections many of his Italian views. 
 
 His nephew Bernardo Bellotto (1720 — 1780), who is also 
 
464 Painting in Italy. 
 
 sometimes called Canaletto, successfully imitated his style. 
 So also did Francesco Guardi (1712 — 1793), and Giovanni 
 Battista Tiepolo (1693—1770), who frequently painted the 
 figures in Canaletto' s views. 
 
 The influence of Winckelmann, the great German writer 
 on antique art, who spent some time in Italy, led to a 
 partial attempt to revive the classical style, but without 
 producing any permanent result ; and at the present day, 
 although taking part to some extent in the artistic activity 
 which has marked the whole course of the nineteenth 
 century, Italy remains far behind the other countries of 
 Europe : the works exhibited from time to time by Italian 
 artists betray French influence, and altogether lack the 
 originality and deep religious feeling which so long charac- 
 terized Italian art. 
 

 VI. Painting in Spain. 
 
 Not until the sixteenth century do we meet with what 
 may be called a school of painting in Spain. The prevalence 
 of Mahometanism was antagonistic to the development of 
 pictorial art ; and when the Moors were finally overthrown 
 the Roman Catholic religion brought with it the para- 
 lysing influence of the Inquisition, beneath which it was 
 impossible for art to progress. The first formation of the 
 Spanish School appears to have been due to the settle- 
 ment in Spain of Flemish artists ; but in its perfected 
 character it showed considerable affinity with Italian art, 
 especially with that of Naples and Venice — stamped, how- 
 ever, with a gloomy asceticism peculiarly its own, from which 
 even the best works of its greatest masters are not free. 
 Faithful representations of Spanish life in the cloister, the 
 palace, or the streets are plentiful ; and in this peculiarity 
 we notice a resemblance to the English School, of which 
 the Spanish has been designated as an anticipation. 
 
 Juan Sanchez de Castro, about the middle of the fifteenth 
 century founded the early school of Seville, which was 
 afterwards to become so famous. His pictures have nearly 
 all disappeared. 
 
 The first distinguished Spanish painter was Antonio del 
 Rincon (ab. 1446 — 1500). Of his few remaining works, 
 the principal is his Life of the Virgin, in the church of 
 Robledo, near Madrid : he appears to have had considerable 
 power of design. Records exist of other early artists. 
 
 " But these attempts only became an art when commerce 
 and war had opened constant communications between 
 
 EHA H H 
 
466 Painting 
 
 Italy and Spain. When Charles V. united the two penin- 
 sulas under the same government, and founded the vast 
 empire which extended from Naples to Antwerp, Italy- 
 had just attained the zenith of her glory and splendour. 
 Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, Raphael, Titian, and 
 Correggio had produced their incomparable masterpieces. 
 On the other hand, the capture of Granada, the discovery 
 of America, and the enterprises of Charles V. had just 
 aroused in Spain that intellectual movement which follows 
 great commotions, and impels a nation into a career of 
 conquests of every kind. At the first news of the treasures 
 to be found in Italy — in the churches, in the studios of 
 the artists, and in the palaces of the nobles — all the 
 Spaniards interested in art, either as their profession or 
 from love of it for its own sake, flocked to the country of 
 so many marvels, richer in their eyes than Peru or Mexico, 
 where numbers of adventures Were then hastening, eager 
 to acquire more material riches. 
 
 " Only choosing the most illustrious, and those 
 merely who distinguished themselves in painting, we find 
 among those who left Castile for Italy, Alonso Berruguete, 
 Gaspar Becerra, Navarrete (el Mudo) ; from Valencia, 
 Juan de Joanes and Francisco de Bibalta; from Seville, 
 Luis de Vargas; from Cordova, the learned Pablo de 
 Cespedes. All these eminent men brought back to their 
 own country the taste for art and the knowledge which 
 they had studied under Italian masters. At the same 
 time, foreign artists, attracted to Spain by the bounty of 
 its kings, prelates, and nobles, came to complete, the work 
 begun by the Spaniards who had studied abroad. 
 
 " Four principal schools were formed in Spain, not suc- 
 cessively, as those in Italy, but almost simultaneously. 
 
 
In Valencia. 467 
 
 These were the schools of Valencia, Toledo, Seville and 
 Madrid. But the two first were soon merged into the 
 others. The school of Valencia, which had been founded 
 by Juan de Joanes, and rendered famous by Ribera and 
 the Ribaltas, was united like the smaller schools of Cordova, 
 Granada and Murcia, to the parent school of Seville (or 
 Andalucian) ; whilst that of Toledo, as well as the local 
 schools of Badajoz, Saragossa and Valladolid were merged 
 in the school of Madrid (or Castile), when that country- 
 town had become the capital of the monarchy through the 
 will of Philip II., and had carried off all supremacy from 
 the ancient capital of the Goth." 
 
 1. The Valencian School. 
 
 It is only right that this school should be mentioned 
 before those of Andalucia and Castile, for it was especially 
 through it that the lessons of Italy came to Spain. 
 
 Of this generation of Spanish artists, formed by contact 
 with the Italians, the first is Vicente Juan Macip (1505-7 
 — 1579), called Juan de Joanes. of Fuente la Higuera. 
 Notwithstanding his importance as the leader of this school, 
 and his merit as an artist, he is still almost unknown out 
 of Spain, and is not very popular even there. His works 
 are everywhere rare, except in Madrid. 
 
 Francisco de Ribalta (1550-60 — 1628) learned his art 
 first at Valencia, but subsequently perfected his style by 
 studying the great masterpieces in Italy, especially Raphael 
 and the Carracci. On his return to Spain, Ribalta was 
 much honoured and patronized, and his works have since 
 been highly praised. His pictures are chiefly to be seen 
 in Valencia, and rarely to be met with out of Spain. His 
 son, Juan de Ribalta (1597 — 1628), if he had lived to 
 
 H H 2 
 
468 
 
 Painting in Valencia. 
 
 maturity would have been an excellent artist. A picture 
 of Christ bearing the Cross in Magdalene College, Oxford, 
 formerly attributed to Morales, is said to be by one of the 
 Ribaltas. Their styles were exactly similar. 
 
 Jose de Ribera (1588 — 1G56), when quite young, was 
 the pupil of Francisco de Ribalta and a fellow-student with 
 Juan. He afterwards studied in Italy (where he was called 
 Lo Spagnoletto) — at Rome, where he studied the works 
 of Caravaggio ; at Parma, where he was influenced by 
 Correggio ; and at Naples, where he spent the best years 
 of his life, and where he achieved immense success. 
 
 Although he painted all his pictures in Italy, Ribera is 
 thoroughly Spanish ; he never forgot his birth, and, indeed, 
 showed himself so proud of it, that in signing his best 
 pictures he always added the word " Espanol." 
 
 The paintings of Ribera, like those of the Italian artists, 
 are scattered throughout the whole of Europe : but Naples 
 has retained some of his principal works. It was for 
 the Carthusian convent of S. Martino, that he painted 
 his great work, the Communion of the Apostles ; twelve 
 Prophets on the windows of the different chapels ; and, 
 lastly, the Descent from the Cross, which is almost unani- 
 mously said to be his masterpiece (Fig. 161). Here we 
 may find, beside the qualities enumerated above, much 
 pathos and expression, and a power of feeling which is not 
 usually met with in his works ; so that this picture seems 
 to unite to the fiery energy of Caravaggio not only the grace 
 of Correggio, but the religious fervour of Fra Angelico. 
 
 In the Louvre there is only one of Ribera' s works, an 
 Adoration of the Shepherds, but in the Museum at Madrid 
 is a great number of his works, in all his styles. His 
 Jacob* s Ladder recalls Correggio. Of his later style, when 
 
Fig. 161. — The Deposition from the Cross. By Kibeii 
 In the Carthusian Convent, Naples. 
 
470 
 
 Painting 
 
 he returned to the natural bent of his genius, we find 
 Twelve Apostles; a striking Mary the Egyptian; a S. 
 James and S. Roch, magnificent pendants brought from 
 the Escorial ; and lastly, a Martyrdom of S. Bartholomew, 
 the most celebrated of his paintings of this terrible subject. 
 Here he has shown as much talent in composition and power 
 of expression, in the union of grief and beatitude, as incom- 
 parable force in the execution. The National Gallery pos- 
 sesses two works by him, a Pieta and a Shepherd with a lamb : 
 and a Locksmith in the Dulwich College Gallery (formerly 
 given to Caravaggio) is now catalogued as a Bibera. 
 
 Jacinto Jeronimo de Espinosa (1600 — 1680) worked 
 under Francisco de Ribalta, whose style he successfully 
 acquired. He is reported also to have gone to Italy to 
 study the works of the great masters. 
 
 Pedro Orrente (died 1644) is said to have visited Italy 
 and studied under Jacopo Bassano. It is doubtful 
 whether he was the pupil of that artist, but he certainly 
 imitated his style. Orrente was much patronized by the 
 Duke of Olivarez, for whom he executed some works in 
 the Palace of the Buen Retire 
 
 His pupil, Esteban March (died 1660), distinguished 
 himself principally in painting battle-scenes. 
 
 
 2. The Andalucian School. 
 
 Two local schools, as we have already said, arose about 
 the same time as that of Seville, one at Cordova, the other 
 at Granada. Let us choose the most illustrious masters 
 from each. 
 
 Luis de Vargas (1502 — 1568) was first a pupil of Diego 
 de la Barrera, and afterwards of Perino del Vaga, in Italy, 
 and had the distinguished honour of being the first to 
 
In Andalucia. 471 
 
 introduce and teach in his country the true method of oil 
 and fresco painting. It was he who substituted the 
 Renaissance art for the Gothic. 
 
 Vargas passed twenty-eight years in Italy, but event- 
 ually died at his native Seville. Amongst other celebrated 
 pictures by him, there was La Calle de la Amargura (Way 
 of Bitterness), of the year 1563, which has since disap- 
 peared, owing to the injuries it received from time and 
 unskilful restorations. The Temporal Generation of Christ, 
 in the chapel of the Conception in the cathedral of Seville. 
 His works are remarkable for brilliant colouring, character 
 and expression, but are wanting in harmony of tone. 
 
 Pablo de Cespedes (1536 — 1608) achieved success alike 
 in science, literature, and the fine arts. After a visit to 
 Rome, where he was much impressed by the works of 
 Michelangelo, he received a canonry in the chapter of 
 Cordova, and gave up his time peacefully to the different 
 studies to which his taste and knowledge led him. The 
 best literary work of Cespedes is the one he wrote in 1604, 
 the title of which is, ' Parallel between Ancient and 
 Modern Painting and Sculpture/ His most famous pic- 
 ture is an enormous Last Supper placed over the altar in 
 one of the chapels of the cathedral of Cordova. Almost 
 all his other works, the names of which are preserved, 
 have entirely disappeared, without our even knowing 
 where to look for them. 
 
 Alonso Vazquez (died 1649), a pupil of Arfian, at 
 Seville, and was chiefly famous for his historic subjects. 
 
 Juan de las Roelas (1558-60 — 1625) was brought up 
 for the profession of a doctor, and graduated at the College 
 of Seville, whence he is often called " el licenciado Juan." 
 He is supposed to have studied art at Venice. He lived, 
 
472 Painting 
 
 latterly, chiefly at Madrid and Seville- One of the best 
 painters of the Andalucian school, he brought, to his 
 fellow-countrymen from Italy, the gift of Venetian colour- 
 ing, which he had studied under the pupils of Titian and 
 Tintoretto. Among his best works are in the cathedral, 
 Santiago Mata-Moros assisting the Spaniards at the Battle 
 of Clavijo ; at the church of the Cardinal's hospice, the 
 Death of S. Hermenegildo ; in the church S. Lucia, the 
 Martyrdom of the patron saint; and, lastly, in S. Isidor, 
 the Death of the Archhishoy) of Seville, in a very imperfect 
 state. Poelas was the instructor of Zurbaran. 
 
 Francisco Pacheco (1571 — 1654) is famous for the 
 academy which he opened for imparting instruction to 
 young artists, and in which, if report be true, he improved 
 his own style. Among his pupils in this school were his 
 son-in-law, Velazquez, and Alonso Cano. In 1618 the 
 Inquisition appointed him one of the guardians of the 
 public morals, in which capacity he was responsible for the 
 sale of any picture in which the human figure was repre- 
 sented naked. As an artist, he succeeded best in por- 
 trait painting ; and Cean Bermudez tells us that he was 
 the first man in Seville who properly gilded and painted 
 statues. He was also the first to paint the backgrounds 
 and figures of basreliefs. Pacheco was rather a man of 
 letters than a painter ; he wrote a treatise on the ' Arte 
 de la Pintura ; ' as a painter, he cannot take high rank, 
 and, as a writer on art, he exercised a detrimental influ- 
 ence upon its development in Spain. 
 
 Francisco de Herrera (1576 — 1656), commonly called 
 " el Viejo " (the Elder) to distinguish him from his son, 
 who bore the same Christian name. He studied painting 
 under Luis Fernandez, and soon became one of the most 
 
In Andalucia. 473 
 
 original artists of his time in Spain. He lived most of 
 his life in Seville, but in 1650 he removed to Madrid, 
 in which city he died. He was so gloomy and violent 
 that he passed nearly his whole life in solitude, and was 
 abandoned by all his pupils — amongst whom was the 
 celebrated Velazquez, — and even by his own children. He 
 painted his pictures, as he did everything else, in a sort 
 of frenzy. He used reeds to draw with, and large brushes 
 to paint with. Armed in this manner, he executed im- 
 portant works with incredible dexterity and promptitude. 
 The enormous Last Judgment which he painted for the 
 church of S. Bernardo, at Seville, where it still hangs, 
 proves that Herrera was a painter of no mean abilities. 
 His frescoes, too, on the cupola of S. Buena Ventura at 
 Seville are worthy of great praise : of these pictures Herrera 
 made various etchings. 
 
 Juan del Castillo (1584 — 1640), the younger brother of 
 Augustin del Castillo, was a painter of no great note. He 
 studied art under Luis Fernandez, and soon became famous 
 as a historic painter. He is more renowned as a teacher 
 of painters than as an artist. He can boast of having 
 imparted instruction to Pedro de Moya, to Alonso Cano, 
 and even to the great Murillo. 
 
 Francisco de Zurbaran (1598 — 1662?) belongs to the 
 Andalucian school, because he studied under Roelas at 
 Seville, and passed the greater part of his life there. 
 
 In 1630, he was invited to Madrid, and was soon after- 
 wards appointed painter to Philip IV. In 1650, the 
 monarch employed him to paint the Labours of Hercules 
 in the palace of Buen Retiro. 
 
 It is universally acknowledged that the best of Zurbaran' s 
 compositions, that in which all his good points are united 
 
474 Painting 
 
 and where there is greatest display of talent, is the S. 
 Thomas Aquinas, painted about 1625 for the church of 
 the College of that Saint, now in the Museum of Seville, 
 which possesses the finest collection of his works. In the 
 Pardo at Madrid there are fourteen pictures attributed to 
 Zurbaran. In England, the National Gallery, in which 
 the artists of Spain are very poorly represented,* has but 
 one picture by this artist. It is a vividly natural portrait 
 of a Franciscan Monk. In the Duke of Sutherland's 
 collection at Stafford House, there is a fine specimen 
 
 * If we class Ribera with the Neapolitan School, there are but 
 three Spanish artists represented in the National Gallery — Zurbaran 
 by one work, Murillo by three, and Velazquez by four : the Dulwich 
 College Gallery is slightly richer ; it has in all 16 Spanish works — 
 4 by Murillo, 6 by his school, 1 by Velazquez, 1 after him, and 4 by 
 unknown masters. Taking the exhibitions of "Old Masters" at 
 Burlington House as an index to the contents of the private col- 
 lections of England, we find that in 1881, of a gross total of 234 
 paintings exhibited, there were 73 English, 66 Italian, 55 Dutch, 
 23 Flemish, 6 German, 4 French, 4 Spanish, and 2 unknown. In 
 1880, of a total of 254 paintings, there were 68 English, 52 Italian, 
 45 German, 37 Dutch, 22 Flemish, 12 French, 11 Spanish, and 
 7 unknown. 
 
 In making comparisons, it must be borne in mind that different 
 exhibitions have been especially rich in a particular school or artist : 
 thus that of 1881 will be remembered for its many examples of 
 Dutch art from Deepdene and other galleries ; and that of 1880 for 
 its 36 works by Holbein, and 4 of " his school," which went very 
 far to make up the 45 total of the German works. Of the 11 Spanish, 
 too, in that year, no less than 8 were recent importations from Spain, 
 by Mr. J. C. Robinson. The figures given above, will, however, 
 tend to show how very poorly Spanish art is represented in England. 
 And it would be, perhaps, within the mark to say that fully two- 
 thirds of the Spanish pictures in this country are attributed either to 
 Murillo or Velazquez. These figures also show that after Italian, 
 Dutch art is most popular in England ; that French is, perhaps, after 
 Spanish, the least appreciated. 
 
In Andalucia. 475 
 
 of Zurbaran, a Madonna and Child with the Infant 
 S. John. 
 
 Zurbaran was one of the first Spanish painters in whom 
 we recognise an independent and national style. In his 
 works the strength and weakness of his school are alike 
 strongly brought out ; the heads are powerful and lifelike, 
 admirably expressing religious fervour, mental agony, or 
 triumphant faith. The colouring and chiaroscuro are 
 remarkable for depth and breadth ; but the design of large 
 groups is wanting in harmony, and there is no attempt to 
 idealise or tone down the expression of suffering. 
 
 Alonso Cano (1601 — 1667) has been termed the 
 " Spanish Michelangelo," merely because he was a painter, 
 sculptor, and architect. Like Michelangelo, he was a better 
 sculptor than painter, but his only works in architecture 
 were those heavy church decorations called " retablos" 
 (church screens), which he not only designed, but for 
 which he himself made all the ornaments, either statues 
 or pictures. Alonso Cano lived for some time at Seville, 
 afterwards at Madrid, and towards the close of his life at 
 Granada, his birthplace ; and, provided with a rich bene- 
 fice, tranquilly passed the last years of a life which had 
 been agitated by travels/passions and adventures. He left 
 seven of his works to the Museum of Madrid. Amongst 
 these are a S. John writing the Apocalypse ; the Dead 
 Christ mourned by an Angel, and a line Portrait. 
 
 Antonio del Castillo y Saavedra (1603 — 1667), the son 
 of Augustin del Castillo, and the nephew of Juan del 
 Castillo, studied first under his father, and, after his father's 
 death, with Francisco Zurbaran. He painted chiefly at 
 Cordova, which city possesses many of his works. 
 
 Francisco Varela (died 1656) was one of the best of 
 
476 Painting 
 
 Roelas's pupils. He executed chiefly historic subjects. 
 Bermudez praises the correctness of his drawing and his 
 Venetian-like colouring. 
 
 Pedro de Moya (1610 — 1666), who was at first a pupil 
 of Juan del Castillo, enlisted in the Flemish army, but still 
 continued to practise art. Having seen and admired the 
 works of Van Dyck in the Low Countries, Moya, in 1641, 
 went to London in order to study under the great artist, 
 who unfortunately died a few months after his arrival. 
 He then returned to Granada, where he executed several 
 works of merit. The Louvre possesses an Adoration of the 
 Shepherds by him. 
 
 Bartolome Esteban Murillo, the most renowned painter 
 of the Spanish school, was born at Seville, and baptized 
 on the 1st of January, 1618. He passed a melancholy 
 youth in ignorance and neglect. Juan del Castillo, a 
 distant relation, gave him, out of charity, his first lessons 
 in an art, in which he was to find fortune and renown. 
 But Murillo soon lost his teacher, who went to live in 
 Cadiz, and for a long time he had no master but himself. 
 Deprived of an intelligent guide and of all regular study, 
 obliged to live by his pencil before he had learned to use 
 it, he was compelled to paint hastily-executed works, 
 either for sale in the weekly fair, or for exportation to 
 America. 
 
 Murillo was already twenty-four years old when the 
 painter Pedro de Moya passed through Seville on his 
 return from London to Granada, bringing copies of Van 
 Dyck, of whom he had received a few lessons. At the 
 sight of the works of Moya, Murillo was in ecstasies, and 
 felt his true vocation. With a few reales in his pocket, 
 acquired by much labour, and without asking advice or 
 
In Andalucia. 477 
 
 taking leave of any one, he set out on foot for Madrid. 
 On his arrival at the capital, he went at once to present 
 himself to his fellow-countryman Velazquez, who was 
 twenty years older than himself, and then in the height of 
 his glory. The king's painter received the young traveller 
 with kindness ; he encouraged him, brought him forward, 
 procured him useful work, an entrance to the royal 
 palaces and the Escorial, besides admitting him to his own 
 studio, and giving him advice and lessons. 
 
 After two years of study in Madrid, Murillo returned to 
 Seville, where his first works were for the convent of S. 
 Francisco. In 1660 he established the Academy of Seville, 
 but he held the presidentship for one year only. He had 
 returned to Seville in 1645, and, until his death, which 
 occurred at that city on the 3rd of April in 1682, — in 
 consequence of a fall from a scaffold while engaged on 
 painting an altar-piece of S. Catherine for the church of 
 the Capuchins at Cadiz — he scarcely left his native town ; 
 and it was during these thirty-seven years that his 
 numerous paintings were executed. 
 
 Murillo had three styles, which are termed by the 
 Spaniards, frio, cdlido and vaporoso (cold, warm, and 
 aerial). 
 
 Seville at first was filled to overflowing with Murillo's 
 works; and it has retained a large number of the best. 
 In one of the chapels of its cathedral may be seen the 
 largest painting by Murillo, the Ecstasy of S. Antony of 
 Padua. In the gallery of pictures formed in an old 
 convent are the Miracle of the Loaves and Fishes, Moses 
 striking the Rock ; and other works in the Provincial 
 Museum are S. Felix of Cantalisi; the Madonna de la 
 Servilleta; 8. Thomas of Villanueva distributing alms to 
 
478 Painting 
 
 the poor — the painting which Murillo himself preferred of 
 all his works — lastly, the one of his numerous Conceptions 
 which is called the Perla de las Concepciones. This is a 
 symbolical representation of the favourite doctrine of the 
 Spaniards, which has become the dogma of the Immaculate 
 Conception. It is, in reality, an apotheosis of the Virgin. 
 
 Forty-seven pictures by Murillo are collected in the 
 National Museum at Madrid. From this number we must 
 choose a few for special mention. Of the cold style we 
 prefer a Holy Family, usually termed with the little dog ; 
 the Martyrdom of 8. Andrew; and the smallest of his 
 Annunciations. 
 
 The warm style was that which Murillo himself seems 
 to have preferred. All his Ecstasies of Saints, and the 
 number of these is great, were treated in this manner. 
 The Museum at Madrid possesses a fine example, 8. 
 Ildefonso. The Virgin appears to the Saint and presents 
 him with a chasuble for his new dignity of archbishop. 
 
 It is in these scenes of supernatural poetry that the 
 pencil of Murillo, like the wand of an enchanter, produces 
 marvels. It might be said of the two great Spanish 
 masters that Velazquez is the painter of the earth, and 
 Murillo of heaven. 
 
 Although the Academy of S. Fernando at Madrid can 
 only show four pictures by Murillo, yet these are master- 
 pieces, the Resurrection, the 8. Elizabeth of Hungary, 
 sometimes called el Tinoso, and the two vast pendents, 
 usually called los Medios juntos, relating the legend of 
 8. Maria in Neve. 
 
 Murillo, having been far more fertile than Velazquez, is 
 much better known out of Spain. The Hermitage of S. 
 Petersburg has twenty pictures by him in its catalogue. 
 
In Andalucia. 479 
 
 Without accepting all of these, we may, at least, mention 
 a Conception, beautiful even among so many others; 
 a Nativity which, in its arrangement, reminds us of 
 Correggio's Notte. At Berlin there is an Ecstasy of S. 
 Antony of Padua, which, without equalling the brilliant 
 masterpiece that Murillo left as a last gift to the 
 cathedral of his native city, yet, at all events, recalls the 
 highest qualities of the painter of Seville. It is in his 
 tender passionate style. Munich is still richer in possess- 
 ing excellent works in different styles : S. Francis de 
 Paula curing a Paralytic at the door of a church, and five 
 of the best of his beggar subjects. 
 
 A large picture, formerly an heirloom of the Marquises 
 of Pedroso, at Cadiz, was in 1837 bought by the National 
 Gallery in London for about four thousand guineas. It is 
 a Holy Family. In this picture, between His mother and 
 Joseph, who are worshipping on their knees, the Child 
 Jesus stands on the broken shaft of a column, gazing 
 towards heaven as if wishing to leave earth, and united in 
 thought to the two other persons of the Trinity — the Holy 
 Spirit, who in the form of a dove, is hovering over his 
 head, and the Father, who is above, amidst a choir of 
 seraphim. The National Gallery also possesses two other 
 pictures by Murillo, a Spanish peasant Boy, doubted by 
 some critics, and a S. John and the Lamb. In the Duke 
 of Sutherland's gallery the places of honour are justly 
 occupied by two large pictures by Murillo, brought from 
 Seville to London through the collection of Marshal Soult 
 — Abraham receiving the three Angels, and the Return of 
 the Prodigal Son. They have been provided with magni- 
 ficent frames, in which are the verses of Scripture which 
 explain the subject, and surmounted by gilded busts of the 
 
480 
 
 Painting 
 
 painter whose life was so simple and devoid of pomp. The 
 Prodigal Son is, however, far superior to the Abraham. 
 The oroup of the wretched and repentant son kneeling at 
 the feet of his noble and affectionate father ; the group of 
 
 Fig. 162,— S. John the Baptist. By Murillo. 
 In the Prado Museum, Madrid. 
 
 the servants hastening to bring food and clothes ; even to 
 the little dog of the family, who has come to recognize and 
 caress the fugitive, and the fat calf which is to be killed 
 
In Andalucia. 481 
 
 for the rejoicings; — all is great and wonderful in com- 
 position, expression and incomparable colouring. This 
 Prodigal S<m deserves, perhaps, to be called the greatest 
 work of Murillo out of Spain. The private galleries of 
 England are tolerably rich in works by and attributed to 
 Murillo. 
 
 Of his ten works in the Louvre the most famous are the 
 Immaculate Conception, for which the enormous sum of 
 615,300 francs was paid, and the Beggar Boy, who is 
 crouching on the stone floor of a prison or a garret, with a 
 pitcher by his side. 
 
 Ignacio Iriarte (1620 — 1685) was famous as a landscape 
 painter. Murillo frequently painted figures in his land- 
 scapes, but this partnership — which was beneficial to both 
 — was unfortunately dissolved by a quarrel as to who 
 should paint first and who last on the Life of David 
 which had been ordered by the Marquis of Villamanrique. 
 Murillo finally changed the subject to the Life of Jacob, 
 and executed the whole work himself. It is now in the 
 Grosvenor House Gallery. Madrid possesses several of 
 Iriarte' s best pictures. The Louvre has a Jacob's Bream. 
 
 Francisco de Herrera (1622—1685) is called "el Mozo" 
 (the younger) to distinguish him from his father " el 
 Viejo." After studying for some time with his father, he 
 left him on account of his violence, and went to Rome and 
 then improved his style by close attention to the works of 
 the great Italian painters. Besides historic pictures, he 
 excelled in painting flowers and still life, and especially 
 fish, whence he was called by the Italians " lo Spagnuolo 
 degli Pesci." 
 
 Sebastian Gomez (1646 — 1690 ?), commonly called the 
 " Mulatto of Murillo," was in a great measure self-taught. 
 
 EHA I I 
 
482 Painting 
 
 As Pareja learned his art by secretly studying the works of 
 Velazquez, so did Gomez, by attention to the productions 
 of Murillo. After years of careful study, Gomez ventured 
 to complete an unfinished sketch of the Virgin's Head by 
 his master. Murillo was pleased with the attempt, and 
 encouraged Gomez to go on with his adopted profession. 
 His paintings are defective in drawing and composition, 
 but in colour they imitate successfully the great Murillo. 
 
 Juan de Valdes Leal (1630 — 1691), the sculptor, archi- 
 tect and painter, studied in the school of Antonio del 
 Castillo, and was subsequently one of the most famous 
 painters in Seville : indeed, after the death of Murillo in 
 1682, he was second to none. He was one of the founders 
 of the Academy of Seville. His works are to be seen in 
 churches of Seville and Cordova. 
 
 Pedro Nunez de Villavicencio (1635 — 1700), of a noble 
 family, studied art for amusement under Murillo as Bel- 
 traffio did under Leonardo da Vinci. Burmudez tells us 
 that he painted children, especially of the poorer class, in 
 a manner little inferior to that of Murillo. He was one 
 of his master's executors. 
 
 Acisclo Antonio Palomino y Velasco (1653 — 1725), the 
 Vasari of Spain, was first destined for the Church, but 
 soon gave proofs of his love of art. Palomino subsequently 
 painted at Madrid, where he became quite a famous artist, 
 in the Alcazar, the Escorial, at Salamanca and at Granada. 
 Though a very fair artist, he is much more famous as the 
 historian of the artists of Spain. Scarcely resembling 
 Vasari in his pleasing style of narrative, he is unfortunately 
 like him in being, as regards dates, open to criticism — not 
 to say untrustworthy. 
 
 Alonso Miguel de Tobar (1678 — 1758), though scarcely 
 
In Castile. 483 
 
 worthy of much praise as an artist, is noticeable for the 
 exactitude with which he succeeded in imitating the works 
 of the great Murillo. A copy by him of Murillo's portrait 
 of himself, now at Al thorp, is in the Madrid Gallery. Of 
 his original works, we may notice an Enthroned Madonna 
 in the cathedral of Seville. Of his copies of Murillo's 
 works, we may mention a Holy Family, painted for the 
 church of Maria la Blanca de Seville, which was at the 
 time thought to be the original ; and a S. John and the 
 Lamb after the picture now in the National Gallery. It 
 is probable that many pictures, commonly called replicas 
 by Murillo, are copies by Tobar. 
 
 Francisco Meneses Osorio (fl. ab. 1700) is also chiefly 
 famous for his exact copies of Murillo's works ; he excelled 
 especially in representing beggar boys and similar subjects. 
 He is said to have partly finished the S. Catherine which 
 Murillo's death caused him to leave uncompleted. Seville 
 possesses the greater part of Osorio' s works. 
 
 3. The Castilian School. 
 
 This can not be called the school of Madrid, for, during 
 the lifetime of the painters who founded it, Madrid did 
 not as yet exist, at least, not as the capital of the 
 Spanish monarchy. But after the caprice of Philip II. 
 had raised Madrid to the rank of a metropolis, all the 
 dispersed elements of the Castilian school soon assembled 
 in that city. It was at Valladolid that Alonso Berruguete 
 lived ; at Badajoz, Luis de Morales ; at Logrono, in the 
 Rioja, Juan Fernandez Navarrete; at Toledo, Domenico 
 Theotocopuli. But we must not pass by these earlier 
 masters without a short mention of 
 
 Alonso Berruguete, painter, sculptor, and architect 
 
 112 
 
481 Painting 
 
 (1480 — 1561), who took lessons at first from his father 
 Pedro, and in the year 1503 went to Florence and studied 
 under Michelangelo, whose famous cartoon of the Pisan 
 war he copied. He then went to Rome, where he assisted 
 his master in the great works at the Vatican, ordered by 
 Julius II. On his return to Spain in 1520 — though he 
 found himself famous and was appointed sculptor and 
 painter to Charles V., as he had been to Philip I., before 
 he quitted his native country — he scarcely painted any- 
 thing but altar-screens for churches, which required a 
 union of the three arts which he cultivated — painting, 
 sculpture, and architecture. 
 
 Luis de Morales, called el Divino (1509 ? — 1586), is a 
 painter of whose life very little is known. About 1564 
 he was summoned to Madrid by Philip II., but he soon 
 returned to Badajoz. When Philip II. visited that city in 
 1581, and found the artist in poverty, he gave him a yearly 
 pension of three hundred ducats. 
 
 His pictures, frequently painted on copper or wood, are 
 as a rule very small and simple ; the most complicated are 
 those representing the Madonna supporting a Bead Christ. 
 There are some works, however, of Morales in which there 
 are whole-length figures, such as the six large paintings of 
 the Passion, which decorate the church of a small town 
 in Estremadura, Higuera de la Serena. Madrid has only 
 succeeded in collecting in its museum five works by his 
 hand, which proves that they are rare, when authentic. 
 The Circumcision is the largest, and seems to be the 
 best of the five. Genuine works by Morales are rarely 
 to be seen out of Spain. His efforts were cramped 
 by the narrowing thraldom of the rules with which 
 Spanish painters in his time were compelled to comply, 
 
In Castile. 485 
 
 and most of his heads express agonised despair or hope- 
 less resignation. 
 
 Alonso Sanchez Coello (ab. 1515 — 1590) was not only 
 the pintor de cdmara to the son of Charles V., but also 
 one of his intimate courtiers (el privado del rey). He 
 painted several pictures on sacred history for different 
 altars in the Escorial ; and also the portrait of the 
 celebrated founder of the Order of the Jesuits, Ignatius 
 Loyola. 
 
 Juan Fernandez Navarrete (1526 — 1579) — called on 
 account of his being deaf and dumb, el Mudo — after having 
 received instruction in the elements of painting from a 
 monk, Fray Vicente, of the convent of La Estrella, was 
 taken by his family to Italy, where he stayed for about 
 twenty years. 
 
 He visited Rome, Naples, Florence and Venice, and 
 settled down near Titian, whose disciple he became. 
 It was at the Escorial that el Mudo completed his prin- 
 cipal work, — a series of eight large^pictures, some of which 
 have since perished in a fire. Amongst those which were 
 preserved may be mentioned, a Nativity, in which el Mudo 
 undertook to vanquish a considerable difficulty : he in- 
 troduced three different lights into picture; one which 
 proceeds from the Holy Child, another which descends 
 from the Glory and extends over the whole picture, and a 
 third from a torch held by S. Joseph. He has been called 
 the "Spanish Titian." 
 
 Domenico Theotocopuli (ab. 1548 — 1625), known in 
 Spain as "el Greco," a Greek by parentage and perhaps 
 by birth, was a painter, sculptor and architect, and the 
 founder of the school of Toledo. He studied under Titian 
 at Venice, and then settled at Toledo about 1577. He 
 
486 Painting 
 
 became known there by a large picture of the Parting of 
 Christ's raiment, quite Venetian in its character. Soon 
 after, changing his style, he adopted a pale greyish colour- 
 ing, which makes all the figures appear like so many 
 o-hosts and shadows. He was a better instructor than 
 painter. 
 
 Juan Pantoja de la Cruz (1551 — 1609), the pupil of 
 Sanchez Coello, has left a gallery of portraits, even in his 
 historic pictures. There are twelve historic portraits by 
 him in the Madrid Gallery. 
 
 Pedro de las Cuevas (1568 — 1635) is scarcely worthy of 
 mention as an artist, but he sent forth from his academy 
 some of the best artists of that time. Amongst these were 
 
 Antonio Arias Fernandez (died 1684), who was at the 
 early age of twenty-four considered one of the best painters 
 in Spain. In the convent of San Felipe are eleven scenes 
 from the Passion of our Lord. 
 
 Juan Carrefio de Miranda (1614 — 1685), who also 
 studied under Bartolome Roman, a pupil of Velazquez. 
 At Madrid, Carrefio painted for the convents and churches 
 many pictures which gained him great fame. Besides his 
 works at Madrid, he painted at Toledo, Alcala de Henares, 
 Segovia, and at Pamplona. 
 
 Felipe de Liafio (died 1625), who studied art under 
 Alonso Sanchez Coello, excelled in portraiture — especially 
 in his small pictures, which are noticeable for the beauty 
 of their colour, whence he has been called "el pequefi 
 Tiziano." 
 
 Luis Tristan (1586 ? — 1640) studied under Theotocopuli, 
 whom he surpassed in design if not in execution, but who 
 nevertheless was always ready to recognise his pupil's 
 merit. Tristan's masterwork was a series of pictures in 
 
In Castile. 487 
 
 the church of Yepes, a small town near Toledo, which with 
 Madrid, can boast of possessing the greater part of his works. 
 
 4. The Italian- Spanish Painters of Madrid. 
 
 It w T as at this period that three families of artists, all 
 natives of Tuscany, came to settle at Madrid. These were 
 the Carducci, the Cajesi and the Ricci, which names were, 
 by the Spaniards, turned into Carducho, Caxes and Rizi. 
 We must grant a separate mention to the most famous of 
 each family. 
 
 Bartolommeo Carducci (1560 — 1608) studied art under 
 Federigo Zuccaro, whom he accompanied to Spain towards 
 the end of the sixteenth century. He painted, in con- 
 junction with Pellegrino Tibaldi, the ceiling of the library 
 in the Escorial, where he also executed various frescoes. 
 The Descent from the Cross, which he painted in the church 
 of S. Felipe el Real at Madrid, increased his fame — already 
 considerable. 
 
 Vincenzio Carducci (1585 — 1638) was a pupil of his 
 elder brother Bartolommeo, and was by him taken to 
 Spain, where he afterwards resided — in fact he was wont 
 to consider himself a Spaniard rather than an Italian. He 
 died while painting a S. Jerome, which bears the inscrip- 
 tion, "Vincensius Carducho hie vitam non opus finiit 
 1638." He has left ' Dialogues on Painting ' (' Dialogos de 
 las Excelencias de la Pintura'), published at Madrid in 
 1633, which has been much esteemed. 
 
 The Museo Nacional. Madrid, still retains the greater 
 number of the works which Carducho executed for one of 
 the largest orders recorded in the history of art. The Car- 
 thusian convent of el Paular intrusted him with the entire 
 decoration of its great cloister. He was to represent the 
 
-188 Painting 
 
 Life of S. Bruno, the founder of the order, and the Mar- 
 tyrdoms and Miracles of the Carthusians. By a contract of 
 August 26th, 1626, between the prior and the painter, it 
 was agreed that the latter should deliver fifty-five pictures 
 in the space of four years, all of them to be painted entirely 
 by himself, and the price to be fixed by competent judges. 
 This singular contract was punctually executed. 
 
 Patricio Cajesi (died 1612) was invited to Madrid by 
 Philip II., who employed him in the palaces of that city. 
 He was also commissioned to decorate the Queen's Gallery 
 in the Prado. The paintings which he executed there 
 perished in the great fire in that palace. 
 
 His son and pupil, Eugenio Caxes (1577 — 1642), a native 
 of Madrid, was also a painter. He assisted his father in 
 the works which he executed for Philip III., who appointed 
 him his painter, on the death of old Patricio in 1612. 
 Eugenio painted many works in the churches and convents 
 of Madrid, but many of them have perished by fire, as have 
 also the frescoes which he executed in conjunction with 
 Vincenzio Carducci in the Prado. In the Gallery at Madrid 
 there is the Landing of the English at Cadiz under Lord 
 Wimbledon in 1625, by this artist. 
 
 Fray Juan Rizi (1595 — 1675) and his brother Francisco 
 Rizi (1608 — 1685), sons of Antonio Ricci of Bologna, were 
 both born at Madrid. The former studied under Magno, 
 took the cowl and painted chiefly for religious houses, and 
 the latter received instruction from Vincenzio Carducci, 
 was appointed painter to the cathedral of Toledo and to 
 Philip IV., and subsequently to Charles II. 
 
 Many of Francisco Rizi's works are in the churches and 
 convents of Madrid, but the Gallery can boast of only one 
 work, a Portrait of an unknown knight. 
 
In Castile. 439 
 
 Returning to real Spanish artists, we now come to 
 Spain's greatest painter. 
 
 5. Velazquez and his Followers. 
 
 Diego Rodriguez de Silva y Velazquez, who, according 
 to the custom of his country, retained his mother's name, 
 was born at Seville, and baptized there June 6, 1599. 
 His two masters were Herrera el Yiejo and Francisco 
 Pacheco. 
 
 Velazquez must have seen, even at Seville, several 
 paintings from Italy and Flanders ; he also saw there the 
 works of Luis Tristan, of Toledo, whose taste he admired. 
 It was then that he felt the necessity of going to Madrid 
 to study the works of the masters of his art. Pacheco had 
 then just given him the hand of his daughter, Dona Juana. 
 He started for Madrid in the spring of 1622, when twenty- 
 three years of age, and there studied hard in the rich col- 
 lections of the palaces of Madrid and the Escorial. The 
 next year he returned to that city. Pacheco accompanied 
 his son-in-law in this second journey, feeling sure that 
 glory and fortune awaited him at court. And, indeed,, 
 his first pictures showed what he could do. Philip IV. 
 ordered a portrait of himself, with which he was so 
 delighted, that he immediately collected and caused to be 
 destroyed all the portraits that had yet been taken of him, 
 and he named Velazquez his private painter (jpintor de 
 cdmara). To this title was added later those of usher of 
 the chamber (ujier de cdmara) and of aposentador mayor. 
 Besides this, Velazquez was admitted to intimacy with the 
 king, and was counted all the remainder of his life among 
 those courtiers who were called privados del rey. 
 
 The following year Velazquez set out for Venice,, where 
 
490 Painting 
 
 he studied Titian, Tintoretto and Paolo Veronese; t 
 he went to Rome, where he copied a large part of the 
 Last Judgment by Michelangelo, the School of Athens by 
 Raphael, and other works of these two great rivals in fame. 
 After more than a year occupied with these labours done 
 in retirement, and after having visited Naples and his 
 fellow-countryman Ribera, Velazquez returned to Madrid 
 in 1631, with his talent ripened and matured. The artist 
 received a splendid welcome at the court, and Velazquez 
 from that time occupied without dispute the first rank 
 among the painters of his country. A commission given 
 him by this prince for the purchase of some works of art 
 caused him to return to Italy in 1648. He could then 
 visit Florence, Bologna and Parma, whither he was at- 
 tracted by the works of Correggio. On his return to 
 Madrid, Velazquez continued his labours peacefully until 
 his death. 
 
 We now pass to the consideration of his works. Sixty- 
 nine paintings by him are now collected in the Museum at 
 Madrid, and in this number are included all his principal 
 pictures ; that is to say, except a very few carried out of 
 Spain either as royal gifts or as the spoils of war, the whole 
 works of Velazquez are in this museum. 
 
 He tried every style, and succeeded in all ; he painted 
 with equal success history (profane, at least), portraits, 
 both on foot and on horseback, men and women, children 
 and old men, historic landscapes, animals, interiors, flowers 
 and fruits. We will neither notice his small dining-room 
 pictures (bodegones) nor his little domestic scenes in the 
 Flemish style. The most celebrated of his landscapes, at 
 all events at Madrid, are a View of Aranjuez and a View 
 of the Prado. 
 
In Castile. 491 
 
 Amongst his historic landscapes we must especially 
 mention the Visit of S. Antony to S. Paul the Hermit. 
 
 In portrait-painting Velazquez shares the glory of Titian, 
 Van Dyck and Rembrandt. He has surpassed all his 
 fellow-countrymen, and is scarcely equalled by his great 
 rivals in other schools. Nothing can surpass his skill in 
 depicting the human form, or his boldness in seizing it 
 under its most difficult aspects : for example, the eques- 
 trian portrait of his royal friend, Philip IV., the queen 
 Elizabeth of France, and Marian of Austria, the young 
 Infanta Margaret, and the Infante Don Balthazar, some- 
 times proudly handling an arquebus of his own height, or 
 else galloping on a spirited Andalusian pony. The Count- 
 duke of Olivarez, another protector of the artist, is repre- 
 sented on horseback and clothed in armour; and in this 
 picture, besides an equal amount of resemblance and life, 
 there is also an energy and commanding grandeur which 
 the painter could not give to the indolent monarch. 
 
 Unlike the Italians and all his fellow-countrymen, 
 Velazquez did not like to treat sacred subjects. He has 
 consequently left scarcely any picture of that subject. 
 
 As for the profane pictures, genre paintings in their 
 subjects, but historic by their dimensions and style, they 
 are sufficiently numerous to satisfy the eager curiosity 
 of the admirers of Velazquez. There are five principal 
 ones in the museum at Madrid. That which is called Las 
 Hilanderas (the tapestry weavers) shows the interior of a 
 manufactory. In an immense room, only dimly lighted 
 in the hottest time of the day, workwomen are occupied 
 with the different employments of their trade, whilst some 
 ladies are being shown some of the completed work. 
 Velazquez, who usually placed his model in the open air 
 
492 Painting in Castile. 
 
 and sunshine, has here braved the contrary difficulty. His 
 whole picture is in a half-light, and, playing with such a 
 difficulty, he has succeeded in producing the most wonder- 
 ful effects of light and perspective. The exclusive lovers 
 of colour place Las Hilanderas as the first of his works. 
 
 La Fraga de Vulcano (the Forge of Vulcan) is also 
 reckoned among his masterpieces. 
 
 The Surrender of Breda, which is usually called in 
 Spain las Lanzas (the Lances), is still a better work 
 (Fig. 163). The subject of it is very simple. The 
 Dutch governor is presenting Spinola, the general of 
 the Spanish forces, with the keys of the surrendered 
 town. But of this Velazquez has made a great com- 
 position. On the left there is a part of the escort of the 
 governor; his soldiers still retain their arms, arquebuses, 
 and halberts. On the right, before a troop, whose raised 
 lances have given the picture the name it bears, is the 
 staff of the Spanish general. Velazquez has concealed his 
 own noble and earnest face under the plumed hat of the 
 officer who occupies the farthest corner of the picture. 
 Every point in this immense picture is worthy of praise. 
 As a whole it is grand, and the details are thoroughly 
 artistic and full of truth. 
 
 To pass from the Surrender of Breda to the Drinkers 
 (Los Borrachos), is to pass from an epic poem to a drinking 
 song, and yet, instead of being inferior to the other, it is 
 perhaps even greater. It is merely a comic scene, and yet 
 it is one of those pictures of the beauty of which no 
 description can give an idea. It is said that Sir David 
 Wilkie went to Madrid expressly to study Velazquez, and 
 that, still further simplifying the object of his journey, he 
 only studied this one picture. 
 
494 
 
 Painting. 
 
 
 We know only one other picture which, as an imitation 
 of nature, equals or perhaps even surpasses that of the 
 Drinkers; and this other is also by Velazquez. This 
 picture, which is usually called Las Meninas (the maids of 
 honour), represents Velazquez painting the portrait of the 
 Infanta Margaret, who is surrounded by her maids of 
 honour. The Belvedere, Vienna, possesses an interesting 
 painting from the hand of Velazquez — one showing the 
 portraits of his own family. In the National Gallery are 
 a Boar-hunt at Aranjuez, a Nativity, and a Portrait of 
 Philip IV. of Spain ; also a Dead Warrior — known as el 
 Orlando Muerto. The Water-carrier (Aguador) at Apsley 
 House is his most celebrated picture in England; it is 
 well known from engravings. 
 
 Everywhere else, at S. Petersburg, Munich and Dresden, 
 we merely find simple portraits as specimens of Velazquez, 
 and some of these are rather by his copyists than by 
 himself. His compositions give us a vivid insight into 
 the national life of his day; the figures are evidently 
 studied from the life, and the most humble scenes, whilst 
 faithfully rendered, are never vulgar under his treatment. 
 With a keen sense of humour, and a wide sympathy with 
 human nature, under whatever rough disguise, he gave to 
 his rustic groups a life and character scarcely inferior to 
 that with which we are familiar in Hogarth's marvellous 
 satires. 
 
 Juan Pareja (1610 — 1670). a mulatto, the slave and 
 valet of Velazquez, whose business it was to pound the 
 colours, clean the brushes, and put the colours on the 
 palette, conceived a great desire to be an artist. 
 During the day he watched his master paint, and listened 
 to the lessons he gave to his pupils; then, during the 
 
In Castile. 495 
 
 night, he practised the lesson with pencil and brush. Not 
 till he was forty -five years old, did he think himself 
 sufficiently skilful to reveal the secret so long kept. He 
 then placed a picture which he had done amongst those of 
 Velazquez, which he knew Philip IV. would look out, and 
 thereby gained his freedom. 
 
 Juan Bautista Martinez del Mazo (1620 ?— 1687), the 
 son-in-law of Velazquez, was one of his most skilful pupils. 
 He was especially celebrated for his power of imitation : 
 Palomino relates that copies of Titian, Tintoretto and 
 Paolo Veronese, which Mazo made in his youth, were 
 sent into Italy, where they were, doubtless, admitted for 
 originals. Mazo succeeded especially in copying the works 
 of his master. 
 
 Claudio Coello (ab. 1635 — 1693) was in the Castilian 
 school what Carlo Maratti had been in the Roman, " the 
 last of the old masters." His father, a sculptor in bronze, 
 intended his son for the same profession, but Coello 
 developed a decided talent for painting ; he improved his 
 style by studying the works of Titian, Rubens and other 
 great masters in the royal galleries. His masterpiece, 
 which occupied him more than two years, is still in the 
 Escorial : it represents the Collocation of the Hod (el 
 Cuadro de la Forma), and contains the portraits of Charles 
 II. and many of his courtiers. 
 
 Juan de Alfaro y Gamez (1640 — 1680) studied first 
 under Antonio del Castillo, but subsequently with Velaz- 
 quez, in whose school he greatly improved his colouring. 
 Alfaro is said to have been absurdly vain. It is related of 
 him by Palomino, that being employed to paint scenes 
 from the Life of S. Francis for the cloister of the con- 
 vent to that saint, he copied his subjects from prints and 
 
496 Painting 
 
 then signed each picture, " Alfaro pinxit ; " the historian 
 further tells us, that Alfaro's old master Castillo, in order 
 to rebuke him, obtained leave to execute one, and then 
 signed it, " Non pinxit Alfaro," which henceforth became 
 a proverb. The masterpiece of Alfaro is his Guardian 
 Angel, in the church of the Imperial College at Madrid. 
 
 
 
 After the death of Coello, the kings of Spain had, for 
 many years, none but foreign painters. Charles II. sent 
 for Luca Giordano (1632 — 1705), by whom there are no 
 less than sixty-five works in the Madrid Gallery ; Philip V. 
 to France for Jean Ranc (1674 — 1735) and Michel Ange 
 Houasse (1675—1730) ; and Charles III. to Italy for the 
 German, Raphael Mengs. 
 
 To come down nearer to the present time, we have but 
 to mention a few names. 
 
 Francisco Goya y Lucientes (1746 — 1825) was his own 
 instructor, and took lessons only of the old masters. From 
 this singular education his talent took a peculiar bent — 
 inaccurate, wild and without method or style, but full of 
 nerve, boldness and originality. Goya is the last heir, in 
 a very distant degree, of the great Velazquez. His is the 
 same manner, but looser and more fiery. In this genre 
 he is full of wit, and his execution is always superior to 
 the subjects. But, like Velazquez, Goya founds his best 
 title to celebrity on his portraits. His equestrian portraits 
 of Charles IV. and Maria Louisa are in the Madrid 
 Gallery. He is best known for his etchings, which are 
 very good. Eighty of these have been collected into 
 a volume, which is called the ' Works of Goya.' These 
 are witty allegories on the persons and things of his own 
 time, and remind us of Rembrandt in their vigour and 
 
In Castile. 
 
 497 
 
 pointedness, of Callot in their invention, and of Hogarth 
 in their humour. 
 
 After Goya there was a complete gap in Spanish art, 
 but at the time of the Universal Exhibition at Paris in 
 1867 it was found to be reviving. Spain maintained her 
 position honourably amongst the assembled nations. She 
 was also again well represented at Paris in 1878. Within 
 the last few years several painters have risen up, and 
 become celebrated ; and of two of these we must give a 
 brief record. 
 
 Mariano Fortuny y Carbo (ab. 1838 — 1874) received his 
 first instruction in art from a pupil of the great German 
 master, Overbeck. He afterwards went to Madrid to study 
 the works of Velazquez and Goya ; but although he care- 
 fully examined the paintings of these masters, Fortuny 
 never servilely copied them. In fact, his chief claim to 
 renown as a painter is based on his originality. He 
 painted in Madrid, Paris and Rome. 
 
 Eduardo Zamacois (1842 — 1871) studied painting under 
 M. Meissonier. Many of his best pictures have been 
 exhibited in the Paris Salon ; two are especially worthy of 
 mention, Buff on au 16 e Steele, exhibited in 1867, in which 
 year he gained the medal of the society, and L' education 
 oVun Prince in 1870. 
 
 Modern Spanish art is characterised by force and warmth 
 of colouring. 
 
 EIU 
 
 K K 
 
VII. Painting in the Netherlands in the 
 
 SEVENTEENTH AND EIGHTEENTH CENTURIES. 
 
 In a previous chapter we spoke of the decline of Flemish 
 and Dutch art in the sixteenth century, in consequence of 
 a mistaken attempt to imitate the great masters of Italy. 
 It is now necessary to notice a revival of painting in the 
 seventeenth century, both in Flanders and Holland, cha- 
 racterized by a return to the realism of the Van Eycks, 
 combined with something of Venetian breadth, great har- 
 mony of colouring, and general balance of tone. 
 
 1. The Antwerp School, 
 (a) Rubens and his Cotemporaries. 
 
 In Flanders, the leader of the new movement was Peter 
 Paul Rubens (1577 — 1640), a native of Siegen in West- 
 phalia, who brought about a complete reform in Flemish 
 painting. Gifted with a powerful original genius, Rubens 
 threw into his works something of the fire and energy 
 we have noticed in those of Michelangelo : his mastery of 
 colouring, his brilliant execution, fertility of imagination, 
 and vitality of expression, are acknowledged by all — 
 although it is impossible to deny that his figures are some- 
 times coarse, and that he betrayed a want of feeling for 
 spiritual beauty, especially noticeable in his sacred subjects. 
 
 He first studied under one Tobias Verhaeght and Adam 
 von Noort; he then, in 1596, entered the atelier of Othon 
 van Veen, with whom he remained four years. 
 
 In 1597 he entered the Guild of Painters of Antwerp; 
 
Painting in Antwerp. 499 
 
 and on leaving Van Veen, in 1600, lie paid a visit to Italy. 
 He resided at Venice, where he studied the works of 
 Titian and Paolo Veronese, and was much patronized by 
 the Duke of Milan. In 1605 he went on a diplomatic 
 visit to Philip III. of Spain. There he executed portraits 
 of eminent personages of the Court. On his return to 
 Italy, Rubens went again to Rome, then through Milan to 
 Genoa, where he painted many pictures for the palaces of 
 the Genoese nobles. In 1608, on hearing that his mother 
 was dangerously ill, Rubens quitted Genoa in haste, but 
 unfortunately arrived at Antwerp too late to see his parent 
 alive. He had intended to return to Mantua, but the 
 Archduke Albert persuaded him, much against his inclina- 
 tion, to remain in the Netherlands, and in 1609 appointed 
 him court-painter to himself and his Duchess Isabella. 
 He consented, on the understanding that he might reside 
 in Antwerp. There he married his first wife, Isabella 
 Brandt ; and in the following year he erected a magnificent 
 mansion for himself, and became the head of an illustrious 
 school of painters. 
 
 In 1621 — 25 Rubens was at work, in Paris and in 
 Antwerp, on the series of paintings to illustrate the Life of 
 Marie de Medicis, for the decoration of the Luxembourg : 
 the series is now in the Louvre. 
 
 Soon after his return to Antwerp from Paris, Rubens 
 started in 1626 on a tour through Holland, and during his 
 journey visited many Dutch painters of importance. In 
 this year his wife Isabella died, leaving him two sons, 
 whose well-known portraits are in the Liechtenstein Gallery 
 in Vienna. In 1627 he was employed in diplomatic 
 service at the Hague, and in the following year he was 
 sent by the widow of the Archduke Albert, the Infanta 
 
 K K 2 
 
500 Painting 
 
 Isabella, as ambassador to Philip IV. of Spain. In the 
 following year the Infanta sent him, in the same capacity, 
 to Charles I. of England. Rubens was kindly and 
 graciously received by Charles I., who conferred on him 
 the honour of knighthood, at the same time presenting 
 him with his own sword, and throwing round his neck a 
 costly chain, which the painter ever afterwards wore in 
 remembrance of the monarch. He was in the same year 
 knighted by Philip IV. of Spain. 
 
 Rubens, while in England, made the designs for the 
 great ceiling-piece for Whitehall ; the work was completed 
 afterwards on his return to Antwerp. He is said to have 
 received as much as £3000 for it. He returned to Antwerp 
 in 1630, and in the following year married his second 
 wife, Helena Fourment, when she was but sixteen years 
 of age. By this marriage he had five children, all of whom 
 survived him. 
 
 On the 30th of May, 1640, this great painter, the pro- 
 tector of artists, and friend of kings and nobles, died, 
 possessed of great wealth, celebrated, and much honoured, 
 at Antwerp, where he was buried with great pomp in the 
 church of S. Jacques. 
 
 It would be utterly impossible here even to name a tenth 
 part of Rubens' s works, for his love of work was so constant, 
 and his fertility so wonderful, that there are nearly fifteen 
 hundred of his pictures which have been engraved, and 
 this enormous number is scarcely half his productions. 
 At the same time it must be remembered that many works 
 attributed to him were executed from his designs by his 
 pupils. 
 
 The celebrated Descent from the Cross, which is unani- 
 mously considered the finest of all his works, is in the 
 
In Antwerp. 501 
 
 Cathedral of Antwerp. It is needless to describe the 
 subject. It is a large scene of high character, in which we 
 find a nobler conception and more finished execution than 
 usual, besides calmness in the midst of energetic move- 
 ment, and also, in this instance, no less grandeur than fire 
 and energy. The merits of the work are much increased 
 by its perfect unity. On the wings are the Visitation and 
 S. Simon. 
 
 Of the other pictures by Rubens at Antwerp we must 
 mention the Raising of the Cross, the pendent of the Descent; 
 a vast Assumption of the Virgin, placed over the high altar 
 in the same cathedral, the colouring of which is magnifi- 
 cent ; besides the eighteen pictures in the Museum, amongst 
 which may be found a Last Communion of S. Francis, 
 unsurpassed, perhaps, by any other work of Rubens. In 
 the Pinakothek at Munich are nearly a hundred pictures 
 by him : of these the principal are a Last Judgment ; 
 the Battle of the Amazons ; Castor and Pollux carrying off 
 the daughters of Leucippus ; Children carrying flowers ; and 
 several portraits of himself and his two wives. 
 
 The Belvedere, Vienna, possesses a Portrait of Helena 
 Fourment ; a Festival of Venus ; an Assumption ; Ignatius 
 Loyola curing a demoniac; and its companion, Francisco 
 Xavier preaching to the Indians ; the Four Quarters of the 
 Globe ; S. Ambrose refusing to alloiv the Emperor Theodosius 
 to enter the Cathedral of Milan (of which a copy by Van 
 Dyck is in the National Gallery) (Fig. 164) ; and one of his 
 best pictures, the Appearance of the Virgin to S. Ildefonso. 
 In the Liechtenstein Gallery at Vienna are the well-known 
 pictures of his Two Sons, and a series illustrating the 
 History of Decius. 
 
 There are forty-three of Rubens's paintings in the Louvre : 
 
Painting in Antweep. 503 
 
 the highest number by any single master to be found in 
 the whole catalogue. The greater part of this number, 
 and certainly the most important, forms a series, and may 
 be considered as a single work. This is called the History 
 of Marie de Medicis. It was intended merely as the 
 decoration of a palace ; it is now in the Louvre, and will 
 be henceforth the chief ornament of that museum, as it is 
 one of the finest works of the master. There are two 
 Landscapes, one of which is lighted up by a rainbow; a 
 large Kermesse or Fair, which is no less gay and animated 
 than if it were by Jan Steen. 
 
 In the Hermitage at S. Petersburg is the Feast in the 
 House of Simon the Pharisee, and many other works. 
 
 At Blenheim, the seat of the Duke of Marlborough, are, 
 among other of his works, the Rape of Proserpine; a 
 portrait of his second wife, Helena Fourment ; and portraits 
 of Himself, his wife Helena, and a Child, in one picture. 
 In the National Gallery there are fourteen works by 
 Rubens. Of these we must notice the Peace and War ; 
 the Abduction of the Sabine Women ; the Horrors of War ; 
 the famous Chapeau de Poil (Het Spaansch Hoedje) ; the 
 Triumph of Julius Ccesar (after a part of that of Man- 
 tegna in the gallery at Hampton Court) ; and two fine 
 Landscapes. At Grosvenor House, the Duke of West- 
 minster possesses a fine work, the History of Lxion and the 
 Cloud, and at Hampton Court is a fine work of Diana 
 and her Nymphs. Good examples of Rubens are also to 
 be found at Buckingham Palace, Leigh Court, Longford 
 and Warwick Castle. 
 
 We have now to mention of a few Flemish painters who 
 were cotemporary with Rubens. 
 
504 Painting 
 
 Abraham Janssens, van Nuyssen (1567 — 1632) visited 
 Italy, but his pictures, frequently showing the effect of 
 torchlight, are more after the style of Rubens than of the 
 transalpine masters. Though sometimes a better draughts- 
 man than Rubens, Janssens is far inferior to him in colour. 
 
 Martin Pepyn (1575 — 1643) is a painter who maintains 
 a half-way position between the first decline of Flemish 
 art and its revival under Rubens. He went when young 
 to Italy, where he resided for some time and executed 
 several important works. 
 
 Frans Snyders (1579 — 1657) — who, among the Flemish 
 animal painters of the time, was second only to Rubens — 
 studied art under " Hell " Brueghel, and also, it is said, 
 under Hendrik van Balen, from whom he acquired the 
 art of flower and fruit painting. Snyders subsequently 
 changed his subject to wild animals, in the representation 
 of which, in their untamed and savage natures, he specially 
 excels. He is said to have studied for some time in Italy 
 — chiefly at Rome. He was invited to Brussels by the 
 Archduke Albert, Governor of the Netherlands, for whom 
 he executed numerous works. He was also employed by 
 Philip III. of Spain. He often worked in conjunction 
 with Rubens and Jordaens. His works are common on 
 the Continent, but are only seen in private collections 
 in England. The National Gallery does not possess a 
 specimen of this master. A Bear-hunt by him is in 
 the possession of the Duke of Westminster at Grosvenor 
 House. 
 
 Kasper de Crayer (1582 — 1669) studied at Brussels 
 under Raphael van Coxcien (the son of Michiel van 
 Coxcien). His most famous pictures were those he exe- 
 cuted for the Abbey of Afneghem : of these, the Centurion 
 
In Antwerp. 505 
 
 before Christ is the principal. The Ghent Museum pos- 
 sesses the Coronation of 8. Rosalia and the Martyrdom 
 of S. Blaize. 
 
 Jan Wildens (1580 — 1653) and Lucas van Uden (1595 
 — 1672) were celebrated for their landscapes. They fre- 
 quently painted backgrounds to the pictures of Rubens 
 and other figure painters. Van Uden may be well studied 
 in the Dresden Gallery. 
 
 Gerard Zegers (1591 — 1651), a pupil of Van Balen 
 and Abraham Janssens, painted in Italy and Spain. The 
 Antwerp Museum possesses his masterpiece, the Marriage 
 of the Virgin. 
 
 Joost Suttermans (1597 — 1681), though a Fleming by 
 birth, really belongs to the Florentine School. He went 
 to Italy in early life, and was chiefly employed by the 
 Grand Dukes of Tuscany. 
 
 Theodoor Rombouts (1597 — 1637) painted in early life 
 in Italy, but returned to Antwerp, and became famous for 
 his sacred pictures. His masterpiece is the Deposition 
 from the Cross, in the Cathedral at Ghent. 
 
 (b) The Pupils of Rubens. 
 
 Of Rubens' s numerous pupils the chief was Antoon van 
 Dyck, whose works are as well known in England as those 
 of any other master. Inferior to Rubens in imagination 
 and energy of character, he excelled him in feeling for 
 spiritual beauty, in elevation of sentiment, and refinement 
 of execution. Van Dyck was pre-eminently a portrait 
 painter, and as such is admitted to rank with Titian ; but 
 he also attained to high excellence in the treatment of 
 sacred subjects. 
 
 Antoon van Dyck (1599 — 1641), of Antwerp, originally 
 
506 
 
 Painting 
 
 studied under Van Balen, and was, then, first pupil and 
 subsequently assistant of Rubens. In 1621 he paid a 
 short visit to England, and two years later set out for 
 Italy, and chiefly resided at Genoa. He returned to 
 Antwerp in 1626, and in 1630 went by way of the Hague 
 
 Fig. 163.— The Children of Charles I. By Van Dyck. 
 In the Dresden Gallery. 
 
 to London ; he did not stay here long, as he did not receive 
 the patronage he had been led to expect. However, 
 shortly after his return to Flanders, Charles I. sent for 
 him (in 1632), and gave him apartments at Blackfriars, 
 granted him a pension, appointed him court painter, and 
 
In Antwerp. 507 
 
 conferred on him the honour of knighthood ; and for several 
 years he enjoyed great popularity. 
 
 Although his life was far shorter than that of Rubens, 
 Van Dyck executed a very large number of paintings. 
 Of his sacred subjects we may name the Crucifixion, in the 
 cathedral of Mechlin, a fine example of this class ; a Pieta 
 and a Crucifixion, both in the Pinakothek, Munich ; a small 
 Entombment, in the Antwerp Cathedral; and the Virgin 
 and Child enthroned with SS. Peter and Paul, and the 
 Vision of Hermann Joseph, both in the Belvedere, Vienna ; 
 the Betrayal of Christ, in the Madrid Gallery ; the Martyr- 
 dom of S. Peter, in the Brussels Gallery; the Madonna 
 with the Partridges, in the Hermitage, S. Petersburg ; and 
 a Pieta, in the Louvre. 
 
 In portraiture Van Dyck rises to the greatest height, 
 and fears no rival but Titian, Holbein, Velazquez and 
 Rembrandt. We have merely time to take a rapid survey 
 of the most celebrated of his portraits, which have been 
 dispersed over Europe. Italy — where Van Dyck remained 
 for five years in order to complete before the works of 
 Titian the lessons of Rubens — has retained several of his 
 portraits. 
 
 In England, the National Gallery shows with pride one 
 of the greatest works of Van Dyck. This is the bust of 
 an old man of a grave and noble countenance, who is said 
 to be the learned Gevartius (Gevaerts, historiographer of 
 Antwerp), but who is rather, according to the engraving 
 by P. Pontius, Cornelis van der Geest, artis pictorial amator. 
 The National Gallery also contains a Portrait of Rubens ; a 
 Study of Horses ; His own Portrait ; and copies of two of 
 Rubens' s pictures — The Emperor Theodosius refused admis- 
 sion into the church by St. Ambrose (see Fig. 164), and the 
 
508 Painting 
 
 Miraculous Draught of Fishes. At Windsor, among many 
 other of his works, there is the portrait of a Mrs. Mar- 
 garet Lemon, which is beautiful, both from nature and art, 
 and Charles I on horseback, of which a replica is at Hamp- 
 ton Court. It would be useless to attempt to mention the 
 works by Van Dyck in private collections in England. 
 They abound in all the great houses of the nobility. In 
 the National Portrait Exhibition of 1866 no less than 
 seventy-two of his pictures were shown, and they fre- 
 quently appear in the yearly exhibitions of works by the 
 "Old Masters" at Burlington House, e.g. in 1881 of a 
 total of twenty-three Flemish pictures, eight were by his 
 hand. 
 
 In the Pinakothek, Munich, the finest portraits are 
 pendents, representing a Burgomaster of Antwerp and His 
 Wife, both clothed in rich black robes. The pride of the 
 Liechtenstein Gallery at Vienna are a Princess of Thurn- 
 and- Taxis, and a Head of a Warrior, full of energy 
 and power, said to be the famous Wallenstein, Duke of 
 Friedland, the adversary of Gustavus Adolphus, and one 
 of the most prominent chieftains in the Thirty Years' War. 
 
 The Hermitage also possesses a fine collection of por- 
 traits by Van Dyck : one of Charles I. of England, at 
 twenty-five years of age, and Henrietta Maria of France, 
 at twenty-six; the former in armour and the latter in 
 court dress ; and others. 
 
 The Louvre is not less rich. It possesses a Portrait of 
 Charles I, life-size, in the elegant costume of the cavaliers, 
 and the Three children of Charles and Henrietta Maria, 
 all celebrated, all crowned after their exile — Charles II., 
 James II, and Mary, wife of William of Orange, whose 
 son became William III. of England. There are, besides, 
 
In Antwerp. 509 
 
 the portraits of two other brothers ; these are Ludivig L, 
 Duke of Bavaria, and his younger brother, known as Prince 
 Rupert ; Don Francisco de Moncada, on horseback and in 
 armour, perhaps the finest of the rare equestrian portraits 
 by Van Dyck. 
 
 Jacob Jordaens (1593 — 1678), a pupil of Van Noort, 
 was Rubens' s most intimate friend and collaborates, but, 
 though he is not inferior to the great master in colour, yet 
 he frequently degenerates into coarseness and vulgarity. 
 
 His pictures abound in the Netherlands, in churches, 
 public buildings, and private galleries. His Triumphal 
 Entry of the Prince of Nassau, executed in fresco, in the 
 House in the Wood, near the Hague, is usually considered 
 his masterpiece. Another fine work by Jordaens is a 
 Young Satyr in the Amsterdam Gallery. An Adoration 
 of the Shepherds, and a Last Supper in the Antwerp Gallery, 
 also a Crucifixion in the church of S. Paul in the same city, 
 only show how ill-adapted his style is for sacred subjects. 
 His favourite subject was the old Flemish proverb, "Zo 
 de Ouden zongen, zo pypen de Jongen." Examples are 
 in several galleries. 
 
 The Miracle of S. Martin, who is healing a demoniac 
 before the pro-consul, and an allegory of the occupations 
 and gifts of the Autumn, of much more sober colouring, 
 though it loses nothing of its brilliancy, both in the 
 Brussels Gallery, are two of his best works. 
 
 Abraham van Diepenbeeck (1607 — 1675) first studied 
 art as a painter on glass, but afterwards gave himself up to 
 acquiring, as far as possible, the style of his great master, 
 Rubens. He painted in Italy and in Antwerp. He stayed 
 in England for several years during the reign of Charles I., 
 and was much patronized by the Duke of Newcastle. 
 
510 Painting 
 
 His so-called chef-d' oeuvre, an altar-piece in the 
 of Deurne, near Antwerp, was long ascribed to Rubens. 
 Sandrart and Houbraken consider him the best painter on 
 glass of his time. He is also famous for his designs for 
 book illustrations. 
 
 Theodoor van Tulden (1607 ?— 1676 ?), painter and en- 
 graver, was one of Rubens's favourite pupils ; he helped 
 him in his design for the triumphal arches erected on the 
 occasion of the entry of Ferdinand into Antwerp, and also 
 assisted in his Apotheosis of Marie de Medicis. 
 
 Erasmus Quellinus (1607 — 1678), under Rubens's able 
 tuition, became a tolerably good painter. He aimed 
 higher than his master's style, but did reach his mark. 
 The museum and churches of Antwerp possess good speci- 
 mens of this master. 
 
 His son, Jan Erasmus Quellinus (1634 — 1715), also a 
 painter, visited Italy in 1640, and there studied the works 
 of Paolo Veronese. His works are usually large and by 
 no means good, and in them, more especially as regards 
 colour, one sees signs of the decline of Flemish art. His 
 chief claim to fame is based on his composition, which is 
 generally very fair. The museum and churches of Antwerp 
 contain several of his works. 
 
 Other disciples of Rubens, who are not worthy of separate 
 notice, were Deodaat del Mont, Cornells Schut, Frans 
 Wouters, Willem van Herp, and Pieter van Mol. 
 
 (c) The later Antwerp School. 
 
 We must now return to the painters of Flanders, who 
 were not pupils of Rubens, though a few of them w T ere 
 imitators of his style. 
 
 David Teniers, called "the elder " (1582—1640) to 
 
In Antwerp. 511 
 
 distinguish him from his more illustrious son, learned first 
 from his father Julian Teniers, and is also said to have 
 studied under Rubens. After a lengthened residence at 
 Rome, where he received instruction from Elshaimer, 
 Teniers returned to Antwerp, where he painted until his 
 death. The Dresden Gallery contains seven works by 
 him, all landscapes, or genre pictures, his favourite sub- 
 jects. The National Gallery possesses three of these 
 Landscapes with figures. 
 
 Daniel Zegers (1590—1661), the "Jesuit of Antwerp," 
 studied under Jan Brueghel at the time when that artist 
 was a flower-painter. Of his pictures the Dresden Gallery 
 contains six, and numerous specimens are in most of the 
 public galleries of the Continent. He was, without ex- 
 ception, the best flower-painter of his time. 
 
 Jan Fyt (1609 — 1661) is without exception, next to 
 Snyders, the finest of the Flemish animal painters. He 
 especially excelled in painting the fur of animals and the 
 plumage of birds. 
 
 Of the numerous genre painters of Belgium of the 
 period under review, 
 
 David Teniers (1610 — 1690) holds the very highest rank. 
 He was the son of the artist of the same name, of consider- 
 able power, and is indeed said to have been the founder of 
 the great Flemish School of genre painting; he enjoyed 
 the instruction both of his father and of Rubens, without 
 however, being sufficiently influenced by either of them to 
 lose anything of his own distinctive character. He was 
 not only the best delineator of his day of the manners 
 and customs of his cotemporaries in every rank, but 
 the greatest genre painter of any period. The leading 
 characteristics of his style are force, combined with lightness 
 
512 Painting 
 
 
 of touch — every dash of his brush being full of meaning 
 and character, harmonious balance of grouping, delicacy of 
 execution of details, arid spirited arrangement of figures ; 
 and a keen and irrepressible spirit of humour breaking 
 out at every turn. No rank, however elevated, was safe 
 from his satire : the guard-house and castle, the philoso- 
 pher's study, the cell of the saint, were all vividly por- 
 trayed ; and it cannot be denied that the master's intense 
 love of truth at all costs led him sometimes into coarseness 
 and vulgarity, and that he evidently revelled in the repre- 
 sentation of physical misery and discomfort. 
 
 Teniers is well represented in the National Gallery, 
 which contains, amongst fifteen works, the well-known 
 Players at Tric-trac or Backgammon, Boors regaling, an Old 
 Woman Peeling a Pear, his own Chateau at Perch, and the 
 Fete aux Chaudrons, with several other genre pictures and 
 landscapes. Of his works on the Continent, the following 
 are among the most remarkable : — a Guard Room, with 
 Peter denying Christ in the background, in the Louvre ; a 
 Peasant Wedding, in the Belvedere, Vienna ; the Tempta- 
 tion of S. Anthony, in the Berlin Museum ; the great 
 Italian Fair, measuring three yards by four, a Drinking 
 Party, and a Monkey-and-Cat Concert, all in the Pina- 
 kothek, Munich ; the Sacrifice of Isaac, in the Belvedere. 
 Vienna; the magnificent Fete de Sablons, in the gallery 
 of the Archduke Leopold ; and in the Buda-Pesth Gallery 
 the Seven Works of Mercy, three Temptations, and the King 
 drinking, a charming table scene; and several Festivals, 
 amongst which there is one dated 1637, of extraordinary 
 size and wonderful -colouring ; and the twelve pictures of 
 the same size illustrating the story of Rinaldo and Armida, 
 all in the Madrid Gallery. 
 
In Antwerp. 
 
 513 
 
 At the Hermitage, S. Petersburg, there is a Kitchen, 
 full of game, fish, vegetables and fruit, in which Teniers 
 has painted his father as an old blind fisherman, and him- 
 self as a falconer ; and a beautiful and curious View of the 
 Chateau of de Drij Toren ; and lastly, the great picture , 
 four feet high by seven or eight wide, which was painted 
 
 Fig 166. — The Knife-grinder. By Teniers. 
 
 in 1643 for the Guild of Archers, and which is called the 
 Archers of Antwerp. 
 
 Teniers had numerous pupils, who, though they suc- 
 ceeded to some extent in imitating his work, are far 
 inferior to him in real life. 
 
 EHA L L 
 
514 Painting in Flanders. 
 
 Gonzales Coques (1614 — 1684), the pupil of Pieter 
 Brueghel and Ryckaert the younger, has been called " the 
 little Van Dyck," because of his partiality for the style of 
 that artist, and the smallness of his works. Coques's pic- 
 tures are not commonly seen in the continental galleries. 
 His best works are in England. The National Gallery has 
 a Portrait of a Lady, and a fine Family Portrait, a group 
 of eight figures ; a subject in which Coques excelled rather 
 than in single figures. In the Bridgwater House Gallecy 
 there are two full-length portraits of Charles I. and 
 Henrietta Maria. 
 
 Wallerant Vaillant (1623—1677) studied at Antwerp 
 under Erasmus Quellinus ; and became one of the best 
 portrait-painters of the time, both in Flanders and at the 
 French Court. He executed, besides portraits, numerous 
 genre and historic pictures; he was also an engraver in 
 the newly-discovered process of mezzotint — invented by 
 Ludwig von Siegen (1609 — 1678-80 ?) — the secret of 
 which he was shown by Prince Rupert himself, who has 
 frequently been credited with the invention. 
 
 Pieter van der Faes (1618 — 1680), known to us as Sir 
 Peter Lely, studied for two years under Pieter de Grebber 
 at Haarlem, and, after the death of Van Dyck in 1641, 
 went to England, where he became the best portrait- 
 painter of the time. 
 
 Lely managed always to keep in favour with the ruling 
 power ; he painted first for Charles I., then for Crom- 
 well (Fig. 167), and then again for the monarchy under 
 Charles II., by whom he was knighted. His best works 
 are the Beauties of the Court of Charles II., which 
 are hung together at Hampton Court. They display 
 great technical abilities, but an unpleasant sameness in 
 
 
">.MErr/us.\ 
 
 z.crf/iroA/. 
 
 Fig. 167.— Oliver Cromwell. By Lely. 
 
 L L 2 
 
516 Painting 
 
 treatment. In the National Gallery, he is only represented 
 by a Portrait of a Girl. 
 
 Pieter van Bloemen (1649 ? — 1719) went when still 
 young to Pome, where he remained some considerable 
 time — sufficient to become imbued with an entirely Italian 
 style of painting. His pictures frequently represent skir- 
 mishes of cavalry — whence his name of Standaart — and 
 landscapes ornamented with figures and architecture. 
 
 (d) Franco-Flemish Painters. 
 
 We may here mention a few artists who all copied the 
 French style of painting of the period — more especially in 
 regard to landscape. Several of them became disciples of 
 Gaspard Poussin, at Rome. They stand in a half-way 
 position between the painters of the Flemish revival under 
 Rubens and the new school which has lately arisen in 
 Belgium. 
 
 Philippe de Champagne (1602 — 1674) spent the greater 
 part of his life in Paris. In the Louvre there are the 
 Legend of S. Gervasius and S. Protasius ; a Last Stepper, 
 a cold imitation of the celebrated one by Leonardo da 
 Vinci ; a Dead Christ, lying on a winding-sheet ; and also 
 the Education of Achilles, shooting with a bow and in 
 chariot races. 
 
 De Champagne, as a portrait painter, is greater than as 
 a historic painter. His faults are less sensible, his good 
 qualities more prominent. In the National Gallery are 
 his Three Portraits of Cardinal de Richelieu — a full face 
 and two profiles, in one frame — painted for the Roman 
 sculptor, Mocchi, to make a bust from. 
 
 Jacobus van Artois, frequently called Jacques d'Arthois 
 
In Flanders. 517 
 
 (1613 — 1684), was a popular landscape painter of this 
 period. He frequently worked in conjunction with well- 
 known figure-painters. 
 
 Bertholet Flemalle (1614—1675), of Liege, first turned 
 his attention towards music, which he soon abandoned in 
 favour of painting; he was accordingly apprenticed to 
 Gerard Douffet, an artist of second-rate ability. He painted 
 at Italy and at Paris, but principally in his native Liege. 
 Flemalle's pictures present a mixture of the Roman and 
 the French classic school ; his historic pieces are especially 
 in the style of the latter. His native city possesses several 
 of his best works. 
 
 Anton Frans van der Meulen (1634 — 1690) was ap- 
 pointed by Louis XIV. court-painter, with a salary and 
 apartments at the Gobelins ; and he became one of the 
 greatest historiographers of that monarch. His pictures 
 are veritable annals, as interesting as those of S. Simon. 
 It will suffice to mention among the twenty-three pictures 
 in the Louvre, the Taking of Dinan, on the Meuse, and the 
 magnificent Entrance of Louis XIV. and Marie Therese 
 into Arras, in August, 1667. 
 
 Gerard de Lairesse (1641 — 1711), the "Poussin of Bel- 
 gium," painted for some time at Utrecht, and then re- 
 moved to Amsterdam, where he became very famous. In 
 1690 he unfortunately lost his sight, which he never re- 
 covered. Lairesse' s works are executed in a classic style, 
 with much ability. 
 
 Cornelis Huysmans (1648 — 1727) was a good landscape 
 painter. The forest of Soignes, near Brussels, was his 
 favourite resort for study. He occasionally introduced 
 cattle in his works, which are noticeable for their powerful 
 drawing and good colour. 
 
518 Painting 
 
 Jean Francois Millet (1642 — 1680), and his pupil Pieter 
 Eysbraek (1657 — 1729 ?), were both imitators of the style 
 of Gaspard Poussin, whom we shall come across when we 
 read of the French School. 
 
 Jan Frans van Bloemen (1662 — 1740), brother of Piete 
 van Bloemen, was called, from the beauty of the distances 
 in his landscapes, Orizonte. After he had received an 
 elementary education in art in his native city, he went to 
 Rome, where he studied the works of Gaspard Poussin. 
 
 (e) The Modern Belgian School. 
 
 After the close of the seventeenth century, Flemish art 
 was for a time forgotten ; nor did it revive until the time 
 of the French painter David, and his school, who, to some 
 extent, reanimated it. For many years there were no 
 artists of great original power, until, in the present century, 
 a new master arose, who returned to the traditions of the 
 early Flemish masters, and created a new school which 
 seems destined to be lasting and of much importance. 
 
 Jean Auguste Henri Leys (1815 — 1869) was intended 
 for the church, and received an education befitting that 
 profession. But his early-pronounced love of art prevailed, 
 and in 1830 he entered the studio of his brother-in-law, 
 Ferdinandus de Braekeleer (1792 — 1839). Three years 
 later, Leys produced a picture of a Cornhat between a 
 Grenadier and a Cossack, which was exhibited at Antwerp ; 
 and, at Brussels, La Furie Espagnole, a work which excited 
 much criticism. Henceforth a brilliant career was open to 
 him. Commission followed commission, and honour fol- 
 lowed upon honour. To the Paris Exhibition of 1855, he 
 sent Les trentaines de Bertel de Haze, La Promenade hors 
 
 
 II 
 
In Belgium. 519 
 
 des murs, and Lc nouvel An en Flandre — for which works 
 he received a medal of honour. In the London Exhibition 
 of 1862, appeared, among others of his works, parts of the 
 series of pictures executed for the town hall of Antwerp, 
 illustrating the Freedom of Belgium — a work which is well 
 known in England, as the greater part has been exhibited 
 in the French Gallery, Pall Mall. The manners and 
 customs and life of his own city in the Middle Ages live 
 again on his canvas, treated with a hard distinctness that 
 recalls mediaeval paintings. Learning, power, and skill, 
 are so combined by him with genius, that his quaint 
 original work took a high place during his life, and seems 
 destined to exercise a lasting influence. 
 
 Gustavus Wappers (1803 — 1874) was influenced, first 
 by the works of Rubens and Van Dyck, and subsequently 
 by the Romantic School of Paris. His picture of The 
 Self-devotion of the Burgomaster of Leyden, exhibited in 
 1830, made for him a reputation which his subsequent 
 works amply justified. 
 
 Eugene Joseph Verboeckhoven (1799 — 1881), the animal 
 painter, is as popular in Belgium as Sir Edwin Landseer 
 is in England. His works, executed with great truth to 
 nature, frequently represent sheep : examples have been 
 exhibited in England from time to time. 
 
2. The Butch School. 
 
 Turning now to Holland, we find the Dutch School — 
 no longer an offshoot of that of Flanders — occupying 
 the middle of the seventeenth century an important 
 independent position, its masters painting chiefly familiar 
 subjects of every-day life, landscapes, sea-pieces and battle- 
 scenes — large historic and allegoric compositions being 
 seldom attempted. 
 
 Before we come to the great Dutch Revival un 
 Rembrandt, we must notice one master who, when 
 regarded historically, stands almost alone. 
 
 Frans Hals (1584 — 1666), the celebrated portrait- 
 painter, is supposed to have studied under Carel van 
 Mander, the painter and historian. In 1611, he was in 
 Haarlem : and in that town he passed a not too reputable 
 life, and there his best works are still to be found. 
 
 Whatever Hals's private life may have been, few painters 
 have equalled him in his branch of art. He stands pre- 
 eminent among the Dutch portrait-painters. Among the 
 best of his paintings we may mention the Portrait of him- 
 self and his wife Lysbeth, in the Amsterdam Museum ; a 
 Young man with a flat cap, and Two Boys singing, both in 
 the Cassel Gallery ; the Banquet of the Officers of the Civic 
 Guard, and the Regents and Begentes of the hospital, in 
 which he died, painted when he was eighty years of age, 
 all in the Haarlem Museum ; a Portrait of Hille Bobbe, of 
 Haarlem, in the Berlin Museum; and lastly, three por- 
 traits in the Dresden Gallery. Numerous good pictures by 
 
 
Painting in Holland. 521 
 
 Hals are in private galleries in England. Sir Richard 
 Wallace has, among others, a fine Portrait of a Cavalier : 
 a Portrait of a Woman by him is in the National Gallery. 
 Frans Hals had five sons, all of whom were painters, 
 but none of them rank above mediocrity. We must, how- 
 ever, mention his brother Dirk Hals (1589 — 1657), who 
 studied under Bloemart, and painted in early life animals 
 and hunting scenes ; subsequently he changed his style 
 for genre subjects. A Convivial Party by him is in the 
 National Gallery. 
 
 (a) Rembrandt and his Pupils. 
 
 The tendency of the Dutch School had always been 
 realistic, and in the period under review this tendency 
 found its highest development, and was carried up to quite 
 a noble range of art by Rembrandt van Ryn, a master 
 who changed the school, and raised it to the high position 
 it so long held. 
 
 Rembrandt Harmenszoon van Ryn was born at Leyden, 
 in 1607. He was first a pupil of an unimportant artist, 
 Jacob van Swanenburch, with whom he remained three 
 years; he then studied under Lastman at Amsterdam, 
 and Jacob Pynas at Haarlem. In 1630, the year in which 
 he painted his earliest-known oil-picture — the Portrait 
 of an old Man, now in the Cassel Gallery — he was so 
 far advanced in art that he left Leyden, where he had 
 been living since the completion of his education, and 
 established himself as a painter at Amsterdam, in which 
 city he thenceforth resided. He gave himself up, like 
 Teniers, to the instruction of his pupils, rather than 
 become a friend of princes and nobles, like Rubens or Van 
 Dyck. In 1632 he produced the celebrated Lesson in 
 
522 Painting 
 
 Anatomy ; and two years later he married Saskia, the 
 daughter of Rombertus Ulenburch, burgomaster of Leeu- 
 warden. Saskia was the wife whose portrait he loved to 
 paint, though not to the same extent as he did his old 
 mother. The Dresden Gallery has the beautiful and justly- 
 famous picture of Rembrandt with his Wife on his knee ; and 
 in the Cassel Gallery is one of Saskia alone. Saskia died in 
 1642, and Rembrandt married again, about 1653, to Hen- 
 dricktie Stoffels. Catharina van Wyck is usually said to 
 have been his third wife. This has recently been shown 
 to be an error, arising from a mis-reading of the marriage 
 register, and Rembrandt, therefore, so far as we know, 
 was married but twice. He continued to paint at 
 Amsterdam till his death in 1669. 
 
 Rembrandt excelled alike in every style, and treated, with 
 equal felicity, the noblest subjects — such as Christ healing 
 the Sick — and the most homely scenes, such as a cook 
 tossing her cakes in a pan. His works are principally 
 remarkable for perfect command of chiaroscuro, picturesque 
 effect, and truth to nature. He combined the greatest 
 freedom and grace of execution with thorough knowledge 
 of all the technical processes alike of painting, engraving, 
 and etching. The effects of light and shade in his etchings 
 have never been surpassed ; and he has been justly called 
 the Dutch Correggio. His landscapes and sea-pieces are 
 vividly faithful representations of the inhospitable North, 
 with its dull level stretch of ocean and dreary shores ; 
 whilst his interiors give us lifelike glimpses of the domestic 
 life of the home-loving Dutch people. The want of feeling 
 for refined physical beauty with which he, in common with 
 all his countrymen, has been charged, is perhaps to some 
 extent to be accounted for by his intense sympathy with 
 
In Holland. 523 
 
 the people with whom he was brought in contact — a sym- 
 pathy which enabled him to catch and fix a likeness on 
 canvas or on copper with the fidelity of photography with- 
 out its coldness. That he was not without the power of 
 appreciating spiritual elevation of sentiment is proved by 
 the pathos of some of the heads in his Descent from the 
 Cross, in the Pinakothek, Munich, and in a similar subject 
 in our National Gallery. 
 
 Of his numerous works we can only name a few of 
 the most celebrated. The Lesson in Anatomy, in the 
 gallery of the Hague — representing the dissection of a 
 corpse by a celebrated surgeon of the time, the professor 
 Tulp, before seven other doctors — is universally considered 
 the most excellent work of the master's earlier period. 
 
 In the Museum of Amsterdam is the celebrated Sortie 
 of the Frans Banning Cock Company. This famous pic- 
 ture, which contains twenty-three persons of life-size, 
 represents a platoon of the civic guard — officers, soldiers, 
 standard-bearer and drummer — starting to patrol the 
 streets of Amsterdam. It is usually called, in error, 
 the Night Watch ; the scene is in daylight. But the 
 popular misnomer arises from the luminous and trans- 
 parent tints, the great effects of light and shade, which 
 seem produced by an artificial light rather than by the sun. 
 
 Another picture by Rembrandt in the Amsterdam Gal- 
 lery, the Syndics of the Staalhof (the Clothweavers' Hall), 
 although only a simple collection of portraits, shares the 
 renown of the Night Watch. 
 
 In Italy there are only a few portraits dispersed in 
 Florence, Naples and Turin. In the rich museum of 
 Madrid there is only one Portrait of a Lady, the date of 
 which shows it to be one of his earliest works. Of the 
 
524 Painting 
 
 
 eight paintings by his hand, in the Louvre, there are only 
 three which deserve a high place among his works — the 
 Angel Raphael leaving the family of Tobit ; the Disciples 
 going to Emmam ; and the Good Samaritan. There are, 
 however, some very small pictures, almost miniatures in 
 oil, in which Rembrandt rises to the greatest height. 
 
 Two analogous pictures are in the National Gallery. 
 Although also very small, the Woman taken in Adultery, 
 and the Adoration of the Shepherds, must take the name 
 and rank of historic pictures. The National Gallery has, 
 amongst others, two Portraits of the painter himself, one 
 at the age of about thirty-two — signed "Rembrandt, f. 
 1640," and the other when quite an old man. Well 
 worthy of notice is a Christ blessing little children, men- 
 tioned by " Burger," among the four best pictures of Rem- 
 brandt. The finest of Rembrandt's portraits in England 
 are in private collections, especially at Buckingham Palace 
 and Grosvenor House. 
 
 Germany and Russia are almost as rich as Holland 
 Various other historic pictures, also of small dimensions, 
 but as great in arrangement and touch, are collected at 
 the Pinakothek at Munich — a Crucifixion, in dark, stormy 
 weather ; an Entombment, in the obscurity of a deep vault ; 
 a Nativity, illumined by the pale rays of a lamp; an 
 Ascension, where Christ lights up the whole scene with 
 the brilliancy emanating from himself; and lastly, a 
 Descent from the Cross, which is known everywhere by the 
 celebrated etching Rembrandt himself made of it. 
 
 Vienna has, preserved in its Belvedere, eight or ten por- 
 traits by Rembrandt, amongst which are one of his Mother, 
 very old and very much adorned, and two of Himself at 
 different ages, first young and elegant, then old and care- 
 
 " 
 
In Holland. 525 
 
 worn. At Cassel, are the Blessing of Jacob, which contains 
 five or six figures ; his first wife, Saslda Ulenburch, whose 
 portrait he painted with as much love as did Rubens that 
 of his beautiful Helena Fourment. Near her are different 
 friends of the painter, the poet Croll ; the burgomaster 
 Six ; the writing master Koppenol; and Rembrandt himself, 
 in a black cap and brown cloak. 
 
 At Dresden may be seen the Rape of Ganymede ; his old 
 Mother weighing golden pieces; Rembrandt and his young 
 wife, who is seated on his knees; and still more a Young 
 Girl (perhaps Saskia herself) holding a pink in her hand ; 
 and two old Grey -bearded Men, with black caps on, clothed 
 in rich dark stuffs. 
 
 The Hermitage, S. Petersburg, contains forty-one of his 
 works. In landscape we find a View of Judea. In marine 
 pictures — still more rare — we find a Coast of Holland, of a 
 warm, golden tint, in which the sky and water seem to 
 melt into each other in the distant horizon. 
 
 Rembrandt's etchings are as celebrated as his paint- 
 ings : there are nearly four hundred of them — scriptural 
 subjects, portraits and landscapes, dated from 1628 to 1661 
 — to be found in various collections. The Print-room in 
 the British Museum has a magnificent series. An early 
 proof-impression of Christ healing the sick (known as 
 the Hundred Guilder Print) was sold by auction in 1867 
 for £1180. 
 
 It is, of course, beyond the scope of the present work to 
 enumerate even the principal of the etchings by which 
 Rembrandt is so well known ; but the example which we 
 give (Fig. 168) may serve to afford some very faint notion 
 of the marvellous effects of light and shade he obtained 
 with the simple means at his disposal. 
 
526 
 
 Painting 
 
 The pupils of Rembrandt — those, at least, who remained 
 faithful to him— only attained an excellence which makes 
 
 Fig. 168.— The Eaising of Lazarus. 
 From an etching by Rembrandt. 
 
 them approach in some degree to their master in portrait 
 painting. 
 
In Holland. 527 
 
 Ferdinand Bol (1611 — 1681) painted several historic 
 works without much success, but excelled in portraiture. 
 Of his works, his masterpiece is the Four Regents of the 
 Hospital in the town-hall at Amsterdam. In England we 
 find, in the National Gallery, a Portrait of an Astronomer. 
 Several good pictures by him are in private collections. 
 He was also an engraver. 
 
 Jacob Backer (1608 — 1651) adhered in early life to the 
 style of his great master, Rembrandt. He is chiefly famous 
 for his portraits, but occasionally executed historic pieces. 
 
 Philips de Koninck (1619 — 1689) made for himself a 
 distinct branch in landscape painting. The endless depths 
 of a smooth plain, intersected by alternate shadow and 
 light, was his usual and favourite subject. He appears to 
 have endeavoured to give an idea of infinite distance. 
 The National Gallery has a Landscape, and Grosvenor 
 House has fine examples of this master. Lingelbach 
 frequently painted figures in his landscapes. 
 
 Govaert Flinck (1615 — 1660), one of Rembrandt's best 
 pupils, painted historic and genre subjects, and portraits. 
 His best works are an Isaac blessing Jacob, in the Six 
 Gallery at Amsterdam ; a replica is in the Museum. 
 
 Gerbrandt van der Eeckhout (1621 — 1674) so far suc- 
 ceeded in imitating Rembrandt's style, that his works have 
 often been mistaken for those of his master. 
 
 Jan Victors (fl. ab. 1635 — 1662), of whose life little is 
 known, painted sacred history and genre subjects. Most 
 of the Dutch galleries contain examples of his art. An 
 Isaac blessing Jacob, in the Dulwich College Gallery, 
 formerly ascribed to Rembrandt, is now catalogued as a 
 work by Victors. 
 
 Karel Fabritius (ab. 1624 — 1654) would doubtless have 
 
528 Painting 
 
 become more famous had he lived longer. He left very few 
 pictures, and his name is consequently little known. His 
 fine Head of a Man, in the Rotterdam Museum, was long 
 ascribed to Rembrandt. 
 
 Samuel van Hoogstraeten (1627? — 1678) painted por- 
 traits, landscapes and still life. Houbraken tells us that 
 he visited England and Italy. 
 
 Nicolaas Maes (1632 — 1693) first painted genre sub- 
 jects, but on settling at Amsterdam in 1678 gave himself 
 up to portraiture, in which branch of art he was very 
 successful. The Amsterdam Gallery has an Old Woman 
 Spinning, and a Girl at a Window, noteworthy for the 
 beauty of their colouring. In England, the National Gal- 
 lery has three good examples — The Cradle ; the Butch 
 Housewife, and the Idle Servant, one of Maes's master- 
 pieces. Many private galleries in England possess ex- 
 amples of this master. 
 
 From the immediate pupils of Rembrandt we now 
 turn to those artists who were only his followers or imi- 
 tators. We may conveniently divide these masters into 
 four classes — those who painted (i) conversation-pieces, 
 domestic life, interiors and portraits; (ii) landscapes and 
 battle-scenes ; (iii) marine subjects ; and (iv) still-life, 
 game and architecture. 
 
 (b) The later Dutch Painters of domestic life. 
 
 Jan Lievens (1607 — 1663), who studied at the same 
 time as Rembrandt, under Lastman, went to England in 
 1630, and painted the portraits of Charles I., his family, 
 and his court. On quitting England he settled at Antwerp, 
 
In Holland. 529 
 
 and gave himself up to painting biblical subjects, which he 
 executed in a very realistic manner. 
 
 Adriaen Brouwer (ab. 1605 — 1638), as an artist, was 
 much admired by Rubens, who, it is said, rescued him from 
 a prison, into which his own imprudence had caused him to 
 be thrown. Of his works the most noteworthy are, Players 
 disputing over their cards and a Surgeon removing a plaster, 
 both in the Pinakothek, Munich. Brouwer' s works are 
 rarely seen in England, and, in fact, they are scarce every- 
 where, even in his own country. 
 
 Gerard Terborch (1608 — 1681), the painter par excel- 
 lence of white satin, learned the rudiments of his art from 
 his father, an otherwise unknown painter. Some time 
 after the completion of his studies, Terborch paid a visit 
 to Italy, which had not, however, the slightest effect on his 
 style. From Italy he went to France, and thence returned 
 to Holland, where he became much honoured and patron- 
 ized. In 1648, he went to Miinster, while the plenipo- 
 tentiaries of Philip IV. of Spain and the delegates of the 
 Dutch United Provinces were assembled in the Rathhaus 
 for the purpose of ratifying the treaty between the two 
 countries. He then painted his justly celebrated Peace 
 of Miinster, now in the National Gallery, which contains 
 portraits of the personages present at that occasion. 
 The National Gallery also possesses one other work by 
 this master, the Guitar Lesson. Terborch may be well 
 studied and appreciated at the Louvre ; his Concert, his 
 Music Lesson, and, especially, his Officier Galant, are very 
 fine works, showing the ingenious arrangement, and soft, 
 but firm touch, which distinguish him amongst the crowd 
 of lesser Dutch painters. Other good works by him 
 are The Letter of the Hermitage, S. Petersburg; the 
 
 EHA M M 
 
Fig. 169.— The Lute Player. By Terborck. 
 In the Cassel Gallery. 
 
Painting in Holland. 531 
 
 Young Lady with the ewer, and the Lady in the satin 
 gown, both in the Dresden Gallery ; Paternal Advice (Con- 
 seil Paternel) of the Amsterdam Museum, of which replicas 
 are in the Berlin Museum and at Bridgwater House. 
 
 Adriaan Jansz, van Ostade (1610 — 1685), studied under 
 Frans Hals, and formed a friendship with Adriaen Brouwer. 
 Like the latter, he chose his subjects from low life, but he 
 was more laborious and less dissipated, and has accordingly 
 left us more works. 
 
 Although Van Ostade's usual subjects are similar to 
 those treated by Teniers, he yet differs from Teniers as 
 Rembrandt differs from Rubens. Teniers treats light in 
 the same manner as Rubens, lavishing it everywhere ; 
 Ostade concentrates it, in the style of Rembrandt. His 
 works are chiefly homely scenes from his native country, 
 full of life, spirit, and individuality of character. At 
 Madrid there is a Rural Concert. At S. Petersburg there 
 are about twenty of his pictures, amongst which are three 
 of the valuable series of the Five Senses ; at Dresden 
 among others, two excellent works, a Smoking Scene and a 
 Painter's Studio in a garret, his own, probably ; at Munich, 
 another superior work, a Dutch Alehouse, with peasants 
 fighting, and their wives endeavouring to separate and 
 pacify them ; at Rotterdam, an Old Man in his Study ; at 
 Amsterdam, a Village Assembly ; and lastly, at the Hague, 
 two wonderful pendents, the Interior and Exterior of a 
 rustic house. The Louvre has also a good share of the 
 works of Adriaan van Ostade. The National Gallery 
 has but one picture by him — an Alchymist. The Dulwich 
 College Gallery possesses four of his works. 
 
 Bartholomeus van der Heist (1613 ?— 1670) lived chiefly 
 at Amsterdam. His chef-d'oeuvre, the Banquet of the Civic 
 
 M M 2 
 
532 Painting 
 
 Guard (de Schutters-maaltijd), in the Museum of Amster- 
 dam, has been placed opposite Rembrandt's Night Watch. 
 Van der Heist here shows himself the master of genre 
 painting, which consists in perpetuating the memory of 
 an action and its actors. The National Gallery in London 
 possesses a portrait of a Lady standing, half length ; but 
 all his best works are in his native country. 
 
 Gerard Dou (1613 — 1675) of Leyden, a pupil of Rem- 
 brandt, but of too original a genius to permit of his being 
 classed amongst mere imitators, was at first a portrait- 
 painter; but afterwards, adopting the anecdotal style, he 
 began by treating small subjects with great breadth before 
 he ascended, or descended, according to the taste of the 
 critic, to extreme and minute delicacy. 
 
 The patient and laborious artist, who made his own 
 brushes, pounded his own colours, and prepared his own 
 varnish, panels, or canvas, worked, in order to avoid dust, 
 in a studio opening on to a wet ditch. 
 
 The best work of Gerard Dou is the Woman sick of the 
 Dropsy, in the Louvre. The Empiric, in the Hermitage at 
 S. Petersburg ; the Charlatan on his Stage, in the Pina- 
 kothek, Munich, or an almost identical subject in the 
 gallery at Buckingham Palace ; the Evening School, in the 
 Museum of Amsterdam — are among his chief productions. 
 He frequently painted his own portrait. At Paris there 
 is a Portrait with his palette and pencils; at Dresden 
 another, playing on the violin, and one writing in a book ; 
 at Brussels, he is very young, drawing a statue of Love by 
 the light of a lamp; in the National Gallery he holds 
 a pipe in his hand : in the Amsterdam Gallery there is 
 yet another. Many works by Dou are in the private 
 galleries of Holland and England, and when sold fetch 
 
In Holland. 533 
 
 enormous prices. The Poulterer s Shop, in the National 
 Gallery, is well worthy of mention, both for composition 
 and execution. The same Gallery also has a Portrait of 
 Doits Wife. 
 
 Gabriel Metsu (1630— aft. 1667), although imitating 
 both Gerard Dou and Terborch, yet succeeded in marking 
 out a new route for himself, and in making himself original 
 by the frankness of his touch, as well as the power, richness, 
 and harmony of his colouring. The Chemist, the Officer and 
 the Young Lady, and still more the Vegetable Market of 
 Amsterdam, represent him worthily in the Louvre ; the 
 two Poulterers, and the celebrated Lace-Maker, are in the 
 Museum of Dresden; and another Poulterer is in the 
 Museum of Gassel. The National Gallery has three 
 works by Metsu, a Duet, a Music Lesson, and The Drowsy 
 Landlady. 
 
 Isack Jansz, van Ostade, (1621 — 1649 ?) the younger 
 brother and pupil of the more celebrated Adriaan, is equal 
 to his brother in a different line ; and it is only in his genre 
 that he remains his inferior. Adriaan doubtless is superior 
 in the painting of little domestic or popular dramas, where 
 the human being holds the first place ; but Isack makes 
 up for this by the representation of the natural scenes of 
 these dramas; he is more of a landscape painter. He made 
 for himself a speciality of those winter landscapes, as Van 
 der Neer did of moonlight. He was, and still is, the first 
 master in this peculiar walk of art. Two good Frost scenes 
 by Isack van Ostade are in the National Gallery, where 
 is also a Village Scene by him ; his works are seen in 
 various private galleries in this country, but they are 
 rare on the Continent. 
 
 Hendrik Martenz Rokes (1621—1682), is called Sorgh, 
 
534 Painting 
 
 after his father, who is supposed to have obtained tha 
 sobriquet from the care with which he conveyed the 
 passengers on the passage-boat between Rotterdam and 
 Dordrecht. Young Sorgh is said to have studied under 
 Teniers the younger at Antwerp, but his style is more 
 akin to that of Adriaen Brouwer. His pictures represent 
 the usual Dutch interiors and exteriors of this period. He 
 may be studied in the National Gallery. 
 
 Jan Steen (1626 — 1679;, of Leyden, first studied under 
 Nicolas Knupfer at Utrecht, and subsequently under Van 
 Goyen, whose daughter he married. At the Belvedere, 
 Vienna, is a Village Wedding, and at Berlin a Garden 
 of an Ale-house, which are excellent scenes of burlesque 
 comedy ; at the Hermitage, the Game of Backgammon, 
 where Steen has painted himself in conversation with his 
 wife, and an Ahasuerus touching Esther with his golden 
 sceptre. In England, in the National Gallery, is the Music 
 Master, and at Buckingham Palace, The Toilet, and a large 
 number in private collections ; at Rotterdam the Malade 
 Imaginaire, and Tobit curing his Father ; at the Hague, 
 the celebrated Picture of Human Life, a large collection 
 of about twenty persons executed in the finest manner of 
 this irregular master, and the Family of Jan Steen, another 
 collection of a dozen life-like figures, lighted up as Pieter 
 de Hooch would have done ; in it we notice particularly 
 the charming group of a very aged grandfather and a 
 little urchin — the two childhoods of life ; lastly, at Amster- 
 dam, a very celebrated scene, called the Feast of S. Nicholas. 
 There is also the excellent portrait that the painter has 
 left of Himself Steen delighted in scenes of mirth and 
 revelry ; his works are characterized by broad humour and 
 great technical abilities. 
 
In Holland. 535 
 
 Jan ver Meer, a native of Delft (1632—1696 ?), is usually 
 called ' Ver Meer of Delft," to distinguish him from Van 
 der Meer of Haarlem, and Van der Meer of Utrecht, both 
 somewhat unimportant artists of whom little is known 
 w T ith certainty. Burger has done much to restore a place 
 in the history of art for this distinguished painter, whose 
 principal works have probably received the name of De 
 Hooch since that painter has been restored to honour. 
 Although the View of Delft — purchased for 5000 florins — 
 now in the Museum of the Hague, is a landscape treated 
 in the manner of Philips de Koninck, Ver Meer adhered 
 rather to Pieter de Hooch in the usual choice of his sub- 
 jects and his use of effects. Two good works by Ver Meer 
 are in the Six Collection at Amsterdam ; the one is a View^ 
 of a Street, probably in Delft, and the other a Milk-woman.., 
 Pictures by this artist are highly prized. Her Majesty 
 the Queen possesses a fine work, by him, entitled the 
 Music Lesson. 
 
 Frans van Mieris (1635 — 1681) entered the studio of 
 Gerard Dou at Leyden, who was so pleased with his paint- 
 ing that he named him "the prince of his pupils." 
 
 As his masterpieces we should mention the Shop-woman 
 at her counter, in the Belvedere at Vienna ; and a Lady 
 fainting in presence of her doctor, in the Pinakothek, 
 Munich. The National Gallery has but one work of Mieris 
 — a Lady in a crimson jacket ; repetitions of it are in the 
 Munich Gallery and in the collection of Her Majesty the 
 Queen. The Amsterdam Gallery has a Lady playing on a 
 flute by Van Mieris, of great merit; and we must not 
 forget to mention his works in the Ufifizi at Florence, 
 among others, the portraits of Mieris and his family. 
 
 We may here notice his son and pupil, Willem van 
 
536 Patnting 
 
 Mieris (1662 — 1747), who imitated his father with great 
 success. A Fish and Poultry Shop by him is in the 
 National Gallery. 
 
 Kaspar Netscher (1639 — 1684), though a German by 
 birth, belongs to the Dutch school of art. He was a 
 pupil of Terborch, and painted chiefly at the Hague. 
 His pictures are frequently met with in Continental 
 Galleries. The National Gallery has three pictures by 
 this artist ; Blowing Bubbles, Maternal Instruction, and a 
 Lady seated at a spinning wheel. 
 
 He had two sons— Theodorus Netscher (1661—1732), 
 who painted for some years in England, and was cele- 
 brated for his portraits and also for his flower-pieces ; and 
 Konstantin Netscher (1670 — 1722), who painted portraits 
 and interiors at the Hague. 
 
 Pieter van Slingeland (1640 — 1691) was a pupil of 
 Gerard Dou, buc was far inferior to Van Mieris. His 
 pictures are most minutely finished. He took, it is said, 
 three years to cover a piece of canvas one foot square, and 
 a whole month to paint a lace band. One of the most 
 important is in the Louvre, the Dutch Family (the Meer- 
 man family). 
 
 Godfried Schalken (1643—1706) is celebrated for his 
 candle-light effects. He visited England during the reign 
 of William III. The National Gallery in London has one 
 picture by this painter — Lesbia vmghing jewels against her 
 sparrow. Of his portraits, we may notice one of King 
 William III. by candle-light, in the Amsterdam Gallery. 
 
 Eglon van der Neer (1643 — 1703), the son of Aart van 
 der Neer, painted conversation pieces, after the manner 
 of Terborch and Mieris. His works are very scarce, both 
 in England and on the Continent. 
 
In Holland. 587 
 
 Pieter de Hooch (ab. 1632 — aft. 1681), the great colourist, 
 was so long and so completely unknown, that his name 
 has been frequently effaced from pictures in order to sub- 
 stitute that of some other painter better known. In the 
 science of light and shadow, Rembrandt himself has not 
 surpassed him, and no one else has produced equally well 
 the effect of a ray of sunlight crossing shadow in a room. 
 Among his best works are the Return from Market, at the 
 Hermitage, the Dutch Cabin, at Munich ; and the Interior, 
 in the Amsterdam Gallery. 
 
 De Hooch is better represented in the Dutch private 
 collections than in public galleries. The Steengracht 
 Collection has a Musical party ; the Van der Hoop Col- 
 lection, besides a Musical couple, has three Interiors. A 
 Garden scene is in the Van Loon Collection. In England, 
 he is well represented in private collections. The National 
 Gallery has two Courtyards of Dutch houses, and one 
 Interior, all good examples of the master. A Card party, 
 in Buckingham Palace, has great merit. 
 
 Adriaan van der WerfF (1659 — 1722) painted historic 
 and mythologic subjects. The Pinakothek, Munich, con- 
 tains all the best pictures which Van der Werff painted 
 for the Elector Palatine. The artist is seen in almost 
 every continental gallery, but his works are not popular 
 in England. 
 
 Comelis Dusart (1660 — 1704) imitated with much suc- 
 cess the style of Adriaan van Ostade. Though the National 
 Gallery has no work by him, his pictures are seen in 
 many private collections in England. The Amsterdam 
 Gallery has the best of Dusart' s works ; a Kermesse, a 
 Fish market, and especially the Village Inn, all works ot 
 great merit. 
 
538 Painting 
 
 
 (c) Butch Painters of Landscapes and Battle Scenes, 
 
 Jan van Goyen (1596 — 1656), a disciple of Esais van der 
 Velde, was one of the best landscape painters of his time in 
 Holland. Among other works by him, the Amsterdam 
 Gallery contains a View on the Meitse, and the old Castle of 
 Valkenhof. /, 
 
 Jan Wynants (painting till 1679) commences the cycle 
 of real Dutch landscape painters. He is both popular and 
 well represented in England, in the National Gallery — 
 which has five works by him — and in private collections. 
 He excelled in the treatment of delicate aerial effects and 
 details of foliage. Figures and animals were frequently 
 painted in Wynants's landscapes by other artists. 
 
 Aelbert Cuyp (1605—1691), who is principally known 
 for his pictures of animals, painted portraits with success, 
 and also fruit, flowers, still-life, landscapes and sea pieces. 
 His best works are in England. In the National Gallery 
 there are no less than eight pictures by him ; of these the 
 Landscape with Cattle and figures [No. 53] is the principal. 
 English private galleries are rich in his productions : 
 amongst others, the Duke of Westminster, Lord Ellesmere, 
 and Mrs. Hope of Deepdene, possess good works. Cuyp's 
 pictures frequently represent the banks of a river with a 
 herdsman tending cattle, and they are bathed in the warm 
 golden light of the setting sun. It is chiefly for their 
 splendid realization of light that his works are so highly 
 prized. 
 
 Cornells Decker (1643 — 1678) is a master whose works 
 long passed as the production of Ruysdael. Adriaan van 
 Ostade rendered him the same service that Adriaan van 
 

 In Holland. 539 
 
 de Velde gave to Wynants, that of painting the figures of 
 men and animals in his pictures. 
 
 Jan Both (ab. 1610— aft. 1662), who first studied in 
 Holland under Bloemart, and subsequently visited Italy, 
 and was impressed by the works of Claude Lorrain ; and 
 his brother, Andries Both (ab. 1609 — bef. 1644), produced 
 conjointly many landscapes with figures — the former doing 
 the landscape and the latter adding the figures — in which 
 Italian influence is visible. 
 
 Pieter van Laar (1613 — 1674), called Bamboccio, also 
 painted Italian scenes. 
 
 Salomon van Ruysdael (ab. 1606 — 1670) was a pupil of 
 Van Goyen, and the instructor of his famous nephew 
 Jacob van Ruysdael. He painted views on the banks of 
 the rivers and canals of his native country. 
 
 Aart van der Neer (1619? — 1683?), more even than 
 Gerard van Honthorst, was the poet of the night. Of his 
 works we may especially notice, in the National Gallery, a 
 Landscape, with figures and cattle by Cuyp, who has signed 
 his name on a pail ; also a River Scene and a Canal Scene ; 
 and in the Berlin Museum one of his many pictures repre- 
 senting a Moonlight Scene. He is well represented in the 
 private galleries of England and on the Continent. 
 
 Philips Wouwerman (1619 — 1668) painted an almost 
 incredible number of works; but it is probable, however, 
 that he did not execute all the pictures attributed to him. 
 There is ascribed to him, sixty-six in the Dresden Museum, 
 fifty in the Hermitage, seventeen at Munich, thirteen at 
 the Louvre, ten in Buckingham Palace, eight in the 
 National Gallery, nine in the Dulwich Gallery ; and there 
 are, besides, innumerable works dispersed through the gal- 
 leries and cabinets of the whole world. Wouwerman is the 
 
540 Painting 
 
 elegant painter of the life of gentlemen, of war, of hunting, 
 of all the sports in which man has his dog and horse for 
 companions. He is celebrated for the beauty of the land- 
 scapes in his pictures, and yet, unlike most other landscape 
 artists, he was independent of the figure painter, for he 
 painted both men and horses for himself. 
 
 Jan Baptist Weenix, the elder (1621 — ab. 1665), painted 
 historic pictures, landscapes, and sea pieces. 
 
 Aldert van Everdingen (1621 — 1675) is celebrated for 
 his views in Norway. He was also an engraver. 
 
 Nicolaas (or Claas, the shortened form) Pietersz, com- 
 monly called Berchem (1624 — 1683), studied under various 
 Dutch masters, but, it is presumed from his works, formed 
 his style in Italy. He can be studied in the National 
 Gallery, and in the Dulwich College Gallery. Berchem is 
 inferior to Potter in his treatment of animals, but is, per- 
 haps, superior to him in mastery of aerial perspective ; his 
 rendering of the play of light and shade upon foliage, 
 whether at rest or stirred by the breeze, has seldom been 
 excelled. 
 
 Paulus Potter (1625 — 1654) is generally considered the 
 best animal painter of all time. In the Gallery of the 
 Hague is a work by him which may be said to be unique 
 in its kind ; it is a landscape in which are assembled a 
 young brown bull, a cow, three sheep, and their shepherd, 
 all of life-size. This picture, which he painted at the age 
 of twenty-two, is known by the name of the Young Bull 
 of Paul Potter. In England, the National Gallery has 
 one Landscape by Potter ; and the Duke of Westminster 
 has a fine picture of Cows and Sheep of the year 1647. 
 But he is better represented in the Hermitage, S. Peters- 
 burg, than either in England or in his own country. The 
 
In Holland. 541 
 
 principal work there is the Trial of Man by the Animals, 
 a singular composition of fourteen compartments, the two 
 largest of which are surrounded by the twelve smaller. 
 Potter did not paint all these chapters himself : the his- 
 tory of Actceon is by Poelenborch; that of flf. Hubert, 
 perhaps, by Teniers; but the central panel belongs to 
 Potter himself; it represents the Condemnation of Man 
 by the Tribunal of Animals. A large Landscape, dated 
 1650, and another dated 1649, are more important pictures, 
 and are entirely by Potter. 
 
 Karel du Jardin (ab. 1625 — 1678), like Berchem, went 
 to Italy for the completion of his studies, and, like him, 
 he was imbued with something of the Italian spirit. 
 The Amsterdam Museum has, among other works by him, 
 a good Mounted Trumpeter and a Farmyard. In the 
 Louvre is a Calvary, and the Italian Charlatans. The 
 National Gallery has four works by this artist. 
 
 Jacob van Ruysdael (ab. 1625 — 1682), the prince of 
 Dutch landscape painters, was originally intended for the 
 study of medicine, and received an education fitting the 
 profession, which he is supposed to have practised for a short 
 time. But his love of art prevailed, and he abandoned the 
 pharmacopoeia in favour of the brush. His first instructor 
 in art was his uncle, Salomon van Ruysdael. He is sup- 
 posed to have afterwards studied under Berchem, with 
 whom he was on intimate te^ms of friendship. If we seek 
 in Ruysdael merely the imitation, the portraiture of nature, 
 he is equalled, and, perhaps, even surpassed, in some tech- 
 nical points, by Hobbema, Decker and a few others ; but 
 it is the inner sentiment, the poetry of solitude, of silence, 
 of mystery, which place him in the front rank alone. In 
 the Museum of Amsterdam, are a Waterfall and a View 
 
542 Painting 
 
 of Bentheim Castle. Rotterdam possesses another View 
 of Bentheim Castle, which he painted so many times and 
 under such different aspects ; yet always with the greatest 
 care and finish. In England, Ruysdael is especially to be 
 found in private collections ; and the National Gallery 
 has as many as twelve Landscapes by him. In the 
 Hermitage, S. Petersburg, there are no less than fifteen 
 pictures by him. In the Pinakothek, Munich, there are 
 nine Landscapes, all as beautiful as can be desired. In the 
 largest there is a Cascade foaming down over masses of 
 rocks. This picture is valuable as well for its great per- 
 fection as from its unusual size. At Dresden there are 
 thirteen of his paintings. Among these, several are justly 
 celebrated One of them is known by the name of Ruys- 
 dael' 8 Chase. It is a forest of beech-trees, broken only by 
 some sheets of water reflecting' the clouds in the sky. 
 Under these great trees, Adriaan van de Velde has painted 
 a stag hunt, from which the name of the picture has been 
 taken. This is one of the largest as well as most mag- 
 nificent to be found among all his works, and perhaps, only 
 to be equalled by the Forest in the Belvedere, Vienna. 
 
 Frederic de Moucheron (1633— ab. 1713?) painted for 
 several years in Paris, but eventually settled at Amster- 
 dam, where most of his best landscapes were produced. 
 The figures in them are usually by Adriaan van de Velde 
 or Lingelbach. A Garden Scene by him, with figures by 
 Adriaan van de Velde, is in the National Gallery. 
 
 Jan van der Hagen (1635 — ab. 1662) was a successful 
 imitator of the style of Ruysdael and Hobbema. 
 
 Meindert Hobbema (1638—1709) is supposed to have 
 studied under Ruysdael, but, unlike his master, he only 
 painted smiling and serene nature. His name was long 
 
In Holland. 543 
 
 forgotten ; and his signature was effaced from his works, in 
 order to substitute the name or monogram of Ruysdael : 
 his works are, however, now estimated at their just value. 
 Two Landscapes in the possession of the Duke of West- 
 minster, in Grosvenor House, the Dutch Cabin in the 
 Pinakothek at Munich, and the Oak Forest in the Berlin 
 Museum, are among his best works. The National Gallery 
 has six Landscapes by Hobbema. 
 
 Adriaan van de Yelde (1629 — 1672), the illustrious dis- 
 ciple of Wynants, may claim one important title to supe- 
 riority. In his calm, smiling, peaceful views of nature, 
 he was able himself to paint the human figures and the 
 animals, almost as well as painters of those branches of art 
 could have done for him ; and, in fact, he often painted 
 figures in the landscapes of other artists. His pictures are 
 somewhat common, both abroad and in England, in public 
 galleries and private collections. Six works by him are in 
 the National Gallery. 
 
 Jan van Huchtenburg (1646 ? — 1733) painted battle- 
 scenes, much in the same style as Wouwerman. Works 
 by him are in many of the Continental Collections. The 
 National Gallery has one, a Battle-scene. He was also an 
 engraver. 
 
 Jan van der Meer (1658 — 1705), of Haarlem, called 
 " de Jonge " (the younger), to distinguish him from an 
 old painter of the same name, studied under Berchem, 
 in whose style he painted pastoral pictures with much 
 success. 
 
 (d) Dutch Marine Painters. 
 
 Simon de Vlieger (ab. 1600 — aft. 1656) sought to intro- 
 duce the manner of Cuyp into the subjects of Van de Velde. 
 
544 Painting 
 
 He painted landscapes and sea-pieces. His drawing is 
 masterly, but his colouring is often unpleasing. 
 
 Ludolf Bakhuisen (1631 — 1708), who studied under 
 Van Everdingen, is said to have given lessons in marine 
 drawing to Peter the Great, when he was studying naval 
 art at Saardam. He was patronized by monarchs and 
 nobles. So earnest was this painter in his study of the 
 sea that he used to prevail on boatmen to put out in the 
 roughest weather, when scarcely any one else would ven- 
 ture, in order that he might study the foam and the billows. 
 The following are his principal productions : the Return 
 of William of Orange, in the Hague Gallery ; the Embark- 
 ation of Jan de Witt, in the Amsterdam Gallery ; a Vieiv 
 of the Port of Amsterdam, in the Belvedere, Vienna ; and 
 a Butch Squadron, in the Louvre. The National Gallery 
 has five works by Bakhuisen, who is also well represented 
 in private collections in England. 
 
 Willem van de Velde, the younger (1633—1707), re- 
 ceived instruction from his father, a marine painter, Willem 
 van de Velde, the elder (1610 — 1693), and also from De 
 Vlieger. On the completion of his studies, young Willem 
 came to England, where his father was already engaged in 
 the service of Charles II. In 1676 they each received a 
 salary of £100 per annum from the king — the elder "for 
 taking and making draughts of sea-fights," and the younger 
 " for putting the said draughts into colours." After the 
 death of Charles II. in 1685, the pension was continued 
 by James II. The Van de Veldes, while in England, 
 lived at Greenwich. Willem the younger, the worthy 
 brother of Adriaan, is, indeed, the uncontested master in 
 this genre. His finest works are in England (the country 
 of his adoption), and especially in his own country, where, 
 
In Holland. 545 
 
 amongst others, may be found the great View of Amster- 
 dam, taken at the Y, and the two celebrated pendents in 
 commemoration of the naval Battle of Four Bays, the suc- 
 cess of which was at first doubtful, but in which the English 
 finally gained an advantage over De Ruyter in 1666. To 
 enable him to render the combat with greater fidelity, the 
 painter was present on one of the vessels of the Dutch 
 squadron, making his plans and sketches in the midst of 
 the firing. The National Gallery contains no less than 
 fourteen pictures by this artist — all good examples of his 
 style. Of the private collections in England, which are 
 rich in Van de Yelde's works, Bridgwater House contains 
 the best — two Naval Battles; a View on the Texel ; a 
 Calm ; the Entrance to the Bril ; and lastly, the well- 
 known Rising of the Gale. 
 
 Jan van de Capelle (fl. ab. 1675) in style much resembles 
 De Ylieger. He is well represented in England both in 
 private galleries and in the National Gallery, which 
 contains five works by him. 
 
 (e) Dutch Painters of Architecture, Poultry, Still-life, and 
 Flowers. 
 
 Dirk van Delen (1607 ?— 1673), seized with the desire 
 for painting architecture, then so prevalent in Holland, 
 turned his attention to that branch of art, in which he 
 afterwards became very successful. He frequently painted 
 in conjunction with other artists, as in the Meeting of the 
 United Provinces at the Hague — in the gallery of that city 
 — in which the figures are by Palamedes. In the National 
 Gallery is a Renaissance Palace, noteworthy for correct 
 perspective and clearness of colour. The Entrance of a 
 
 EHA N N 
 
546 Painting 
 
 Palace, of the year 1654, is in the Dulwich College 
 Gallery. 
 
 Emanuel de Witte (1607—1692), one of the best Dutch 
 painters of architecture, at first attempted portraiture, but 
 did not succeed in that branch of art. His favourite sub- 
 jects are the interiors of churches, the windows of which 
 admit floods of sunlight, which he finely contrasts with the 
 dark shadows. An Interior of a Church, by him, is in the 
 National Gallery. 
 
 Johann Lingelbach (1622 — 1687), though a German 
 by birth, must be considered a Dutch painter, for after a 
 visit to Paris and a lengthened stay in Italy, he settled at 
 Amsterdam, and there executed most of his important 
 works. His subjects are usually views of Sea Ports ; the 
 Hay Harvest by him is in the National Gallery. He fre- 
 quently also painted figures for the pictures of other artists. 
 
 Jan van der Heyden (1637—1712), called the "Gerard 
 Dou of architectural painters," is supposed to have come 
 to England at some period of his life. His works are 
 to be noticed for a most minute finish combined with 
 great breadth of treatment. The View of a Public Square, 
 surrounded by trees, in the Pinakothek, Munich; the 
 Convent Garden, at Grosvenor House, London ; the View 
 of a Dutch Town, in the Amsterdam Museum; and 
 the View of the Town Hall of Amsterdam, in the Louvre ; 
 in which the figures are painted by Adriaan van de Velde 
 (who also painted the figures in Van der Heyden' s picture 
 in the Dulwich College Gallery), are some of the highest 
 works of this special genre, in which Van der Heyden, 
 who had scarcely a predecessor, has remained without a 
 rival and without an imitator. A Street in Cologne, is in 
 the National Gallery. 
 
In Holland. 547 
 
 Job Berck-Heyde (1630 — 1693) was a painter of archi- 
 tectural subjects, in which he executed the figures, of 
 landscapes, and even of portraits. Works by him are in 
 most continental galleries. 
 
 His younger brother, Gerrit Berck-Heyde (1638 — 1698), 
 was, after Emanuel de Witte and Van der Heyden, one of 
 the best architectural painters of Holland. He sometimes 
 painted the figures in his own pictures, but he was fre- 
 quently indebted for them to his brother Job, who excelled 
 him in figure painting. 
 
 Melchior d'Hondecoeter (1636—1695), of Utrecht, was 
 one of the best of the painters of poultry-yards. There 
 are Swans and Peacocks by him, in the Louvre ; the Fight 
 between a , Cock and a Turkey, at the Hermitage ; the 
 Menagerie of Birds, at the Hague; the Floating Feather 
 at Amsterdam ; and Domestic Poultry, and Geese and Bucks, 
 in the National Gallery. 
 
 Jan Weenix (1640 — 1719), called "the younger," to dis- 
 tinguish him from his father, whose style he greatly 
 acquired. For his subjects Weenix chose small game — 
 hares, pheasants, snipe, ducks, birds of all sorts — of the 
 finest forms and colours, which he grouped with hunting 
 weapons, or under the charge of a dog. Many of his best 
 pictures are in England ; the National Gallery has but one, 
 Dead Game and a Dog ; his masterpiece, The Pheasant, is 
 in the Hague Gallery. 
 
 Willem Kalf (1630—1693) is celebrated for his pictures 
 of inanimate nature, vegetables, pots and pans, which he 
 arranges, and lights up at his pleasure. 
 
 Jan Davidsz de Heem (1600 — 1647), a painter of fruit 
 
 N N 2 
 
548 Painting 
 
 and flowers, lived chiefly at Antwerp, where his works were 
 highly prized, and even in his own time fetched very high 
 sums, so true to nature was his representation of fruit and 
 flowers. Good works by him are in the galleries of Vienna, 
 Berlin, Amsterdam and the Hague. His son Cornelis de 
 Heem followed in his father's footsteps with success. 
 
 Jan van Huysum (1682 — 1749) among the painters of 
 flowers stands pre-eminent. The smiling Vases of Flowers, 
 far preferable to the dark Bouquets of Baptiste Monnoyer 
 — who was brought forward as a rival to Van Huysum in 
 the time of Madame de Pompadour — are varied and im- 
 proved by agreeable accessories, such as the vases them- 
 selves elaborately carved, the marble stands, and brilliant 
 insects, the flowers of animal life. Two flowers-pieces by 
 Van Huysum are in the National Gallery. He is also 
 well represented in the Dulwich Gallery, and in many 
 private collections in England. His works abound on the 
 Continent. 
 
 Rachel Ruysch (1664 — 1750) is still considered the 
 rival of Van Huysum. Of her works the Rotterdam 
 Museum possesses a -Flower-piece; the gallery at the 
 Hague, two more ; and the Six Collection, another pair 
 of Flower-pieces. 
 
 The end of the seventeenth and the whole of the 
 eighteenth century were marked by a rapid decline in the 
 art of painting, both in Holland and Belgium ; and not 
 until the present century was considerably advanced was 
 there any definite or important revival. Until about 1830, 
 the classic style of David was copied in Belgium ; and in 
 Holland the traditions of the old Dutch School were faith- 
 fully followed ; scenes of everyday life, landscapes, cattle, 
 
In Holland. 549 
 
 and inanimate nature being reproduced in somewhat 
 wearisome monotony. At the present day, however, we 
 note a change in the works exhibited by Dutch artists — 
 the general treatment betraying French influence, and 
 some of the delicate finish of execution so long character- 
 istic of the Dutch School being lost. 
 
VHI. Painting in Germany in the Nineteenth 
 •Century. 
 
 We have seen that, soon after the death of Albrecht 
 Diirer, painting in Germany rapidly declined ; the artists 
 who immediately succeeded him endeavoured to combine 
 national with Italian peculiarities, without attaining any 
 definite or satisfactory result. The eighteenth century 
 was marked by a tendency to copy French rather than 
 Italian work; but one artist, Asmus Carstens, attempted 
 to check the rage for lifeless imitation, and to inaugurate 
 a nobler style by the study of nature and of antique 
 models. It was not until within quite recent days that 
 a practical attempt was made to revive the greatness of 
 the German School, although complete theories of art 
 were thought out and enunciated by some of the intel- 
 lectual and enthusiastic members of the Romantic School 
 of literature. Lessing, Goethe, Schiller and Richter all 
 contributed more or less to define the abstract principles 
 of painting ; and the revival of the present century, instead 
 of being characterized, as we should have expected, by 
 freedom and independence of style, is marked by patient 
 submission to abstract laws. Everywhere the student of 
 German painting is met by proofs of high and noble 
 endeavour and steadfast faithfulness to a preconceived and 
 complete theory of art. The old wild symbolism and 
 mysticism is kept in check ; and the grand scheme of a 
 complete national school, which originated in the enthu- 
 siasm of Overbeck, Schadow and Cornelius at the be- 
 ginning of the present century, is rapidly finding its 
 fulfilment. 
 
Painting in Germany. 551 
 
 1. Overbeds and his School. 
 
 Friedrich Overbeck (1789—1869) stands at the head of 
 the new movement, and may justly be said to have 
 restored the ideal style in sacred subjects, and to have 
 revived the early Italian style as exemplified in the works 
 of Fra Angelico. He first studied art in Vienna, but 
 subsequently, followed by a small band of fellow- thinkers 
 in art, he went to Rome and there founded the School 
 which led to the renaissance of art in German. His 
 chief frescoes are the Miracle of the Roses of S. Francis 
 in S. Maria degli Angioli, at Assisi ; and five scenes from 
 Tasso's ' Jerusalem Delivered/ in the Villa Massimo, Rome. 
 Of his oil-paintings the principal are the Influence of 
 Religion on Art, in the Stadel Institute at Frankfort; 
 the Entrance of Christ into Jerusalem, painted in 1816 for 
 the Marien Kirche at Liibeck ; and Christ on the Mount 
 of Olives, at Hamburg. 
 
 Of the immediate disciples of Overbeck the most famous 
 were — - 
 
 Philipp Veit (1793—1877), who studied for some time 
 under Mathai at Dresden, then under his step-father, a 
 painter named Friedrich Schlegel, and subsequently joined 
 the school of Overbeck at Rome, and became one of the 
 most severe in style. He painted there, in fresco, in the 
 Villa Bartholdy the Seven years of Plenty. He afterwards 
 resided at Frankfort-on-Main, where he painted a Good 
 Samaritan for the Cathedral, and at Sachsenhausen. 
 
 Joseph Fiihrich (1800—1876) first studied at Prague, 
 then in Vienna, and in 1829 went to Rome, where he 
 painted in the Villa Massimo, three scenes from Tasso's 
 ' Jerusalem Delivered.' He afterwards gave himself up to 
 
% 
 
 n 
 
 
 
 mm- 
 
 
Painting in Germany. 553 
 
 painting sacred historic subjects for the decoration of 
 churches. His works bear an evident trace of the influence 
 of Overbeck. He has himself engraved several, some of 
 which are scenes from the history of his native country 
 Bohemia. 
 
 2. The School of Munich. 
 
 Peter von Cornelius (1784 — 1867) was the restorer of 
 the long-disused art of fresco-painting on a large scale, and 
 the founder of the Munich School. At the early age of 
 nineteen he gave proof of considerable genius in the 
 frescoes he painted for the cupola of the old church of 
 Neuss, and four years later he produced a marvellous series 
 of illustrations of Goethe's ' Faust ' and of the ' Nibelungens- 
 lied,' full of bold invention, but perhaps inferior in colour- 
 ing and expression. In 1811 he went to Rome, where he 
 remained for eight years diligently studying the works of 
 the old masters ; and on his return to Germany, at the 
 invitation of Ludwig I. of Bavaria, he embodied the results 
 of his new experience in the great frescoes, by which he 
 is chiefly known, which adorn the Glyptothek and the 
 Ludwig Kirche at Munich — those in the former represent- 
 ing scenes from heathen mythology, in the latter a series 
 of events from the New Testament. 
 
 Of Cornelius's numerous pupils, his favourite — 
 Wilhelm von Kaulbach (1805 — 1874) was the only one 
 who attained to anything of an independent style in the 
 treatment of large compositions. The Battle of the Huns, 
 in the Berlin Museum ; Apollo and the Muses, in the Odeon 
 at Munich, and the wall-painting in Berlin of Homer in 
 Griechenland, are his principal works. He is well-known, 
 too, by his book-illustrations, e. g. those of Goethe's 
 ' Faust ' and of ' Reynard the Fox.' 
 
554 Painting 
 
 Other prominent members of the Munich School are — 
 
 Julius Schnorr von Carolsfeld (1794—1872), who first 
 studied in the Academy at Vienna, and then went to 
 Rome, where he found the newly-established school of 
 Overbeck. His principal works there were the Marriage 
 at Cana, and scenes from ' Orlando Furioso,' in the Villa 
 Massimo. Called to Munich by King Ludwig, he exe- 
 cuted for him the celebrated frescoes of scenes from the 
 1 Nibelungenslied ; ' and the histories of Charlemagne, 
 Frederic Barbarossa, and Rudolf of Hapsburg, in encaustic. 
 In England he is chiefly known by his widely-circulated 
 Bible illustrations. He was a Professor in the Aca- 
 demy, and Director of the Royal Museum, at Dresden, 
 and there founded a school which produced many good 
 painters. 
 
 Friedrich Wilhelm Schadow (1788—1862), a pupil of 
 Cornelius, was for some time Director of the Academy at 
 Diisseldorf, and is more famous as an instructor than as a 
 painter. He numbers amongst his pupils Hildebrandt, 
 Sohn and Lessing. In the Stadel Institute, Frankfort, is 
 The Wise and Foolish Virgins, by him. His pupil — 
 
 Karl Friedrich Lessing (1808 — 1880) accompanied his 
 master in 1827 to Diisseldorf, where he soon became 
 known by his historic pictures and his landscapes. Most 
 of the painters of the revival of art in Germany were 
 Roman Catholic. The works of Lessing, on the other 
 hand, evince a strong Protestant feeling. His best historic 
 pictures are scenes from the History of Huss. His Oaks 
 of a Thousand Years is well-known in Germany. 
 
 Peter von Hess (1792 — 1871), who is chiefly famous for 
 his battle-pieces, of which the best are the Entrance of 
 King Otho into Nawplin ; the Battle of Arcis-sur-Aube ; and 
 
In Germany. 555 
 
 the Crossing of the Beresina : he also painted genre 
 subjects. 
 
 His brother, Heinrich von Hess (1798—1863), first 
 brought himself into notice by his Sepulchre of Christ, and 
 a Holy Family. After some years spent in Italy, he was 
 made Professor of the Academy at Munich, and later 
 Director of the Royal Collection. His picture of Christmas, 
 painted for Queen Caroline, who was a liberal patron to 
 him, is considered one of his best works. 
 
 Johann Schraudolph (1808 — 1879), who studied under 
 Cornelius in the Munich Academy, assisted in the pro- 
 duction of the frescoes in the Glyptothek, and the History 
 of Moses, from the designs of Hess, in the Allerheiligen- 
 kirche. After a visit to Rome, he was employed by King 
 Lud wig to decorate the cathedral of Spires ; the paintings 
 which he there executed gained him great fame. 
 
 Johann Bonaventura Genelli (1800 — 1868) studied first 
 in Berlin, and then under Cornelius and Overbeck in 
 Rome. After painting in Leipsic, he settled in 1836 at 
 Munich, and became noted for his numerous compositions 
 of mythologic and sacred history. 
 
 Christian Ruben (1805 — 1875) studied originally under 
 Cornelius at Diisseldorf. He then painted at Munich, 
 Prague, and at Vienna, where he was made Director of the 
 Academy of Arts. He painted sacred subjects and scenes 
 from the history of Bohemia. 
 
 3. Genre Painters in Germany. 
 
 In addition to the two great schools founded by Over- 
 beck and Cornelius, many good German painters of scenes 
 of common life have arisen of late years. The principal of 
 these were : — 
 
556 Painting 
 
 
 Hermann Stilke (1803—1860) first studied at Berlin, 
 and then with Cornelius at Munich and Diisseldorf. He 
 painted frescoes in the arcades of the Hofgarten at Munich ; 
 and after a visit to Italy joined Schadow at Diisseldorf. 
 His works are taken chiefly from romances, and sacred and 
 mythologic history. 
 
 Ferdinand Theodor Hildebrandt (1804—1874) studied 
 at Berlin under Schadow, whom he accompanied in 1826 
 to Diisseldorf, where he settled. He sometimes painted 
 portraits and genre subjects, but his principal works illus- 
 trate historic scenes, drawn from Shakespeare, Goethe and 
 other poets. He is noted for his colouring ; and his fame 
 has reached far beyond his native country. 
 
 Karl Ferdinand Sohn (1805—1867) followed Schadow 
 to Diisseldorf in 1826. He afterwards visited Italy, France, 
 Belgium and Holland. Appointed Professor in the Diissel- 
 dorf Academy, he gave instruction to many celebrated 
 painters. His own works are of a variety of subjects, por- 
 traits and genre, but chiefly historic. One of the most 
 famous is Diana at the Bath. 
 
 Of Emanuel Leutze we shall speak when we come to 
 the American School. 
 
 Jakob Becker (1810 — 1872) studied at Diisseldorf under 
 Schirmer : he painted first landscapes, then romantic pieces, 
 and, finally, genre subjects, in which he excelled. In 1840 
 he was appointed Professor at the Stadel Institute at 
 Frankfort. 
 
 Karl Wilhelm Hiibner (1814—1879) went to Diisseldorf 
 in 1837, and studied under Karl Sohn and Schadow. His 
 pictures are drawn, chiefly, from modern social life, and 
 frequently display a dramatic element. His masterpiece, 
 in 1853, is Saved from the fire. His Poachers Death (Das 
 
In Germany. 557 
 
 Jagdrecht) created a great sensation at the time of its pro- 
 duction; but, perhaps, more from the nature of its subject 
 than its intrinsic merits. 
 
 Adolf Schrodter (1805 — 1875), and Johann Peter Hasen- 
 clever (1810 — 1853), pupils of the Diisseldorf School, 
 painted genre subjects with much success. 
 
 Joseph Anton Koch (1768 — 1839), who has been called 
 the restorer of landscape painting in Germany, is well repre- 
 sented in the galleries of his native country. Lessing, too, 
 whom we have already noticed, was a good landscape painter. 
 
 Every large town in Germany became a centre of 
 painting. 
 
 Karl Wilhelm Kolbe, the younger (1781—1853), August 
 Karl Friedrich von Klober (1793 — 1864), whose style was 
 influenced by a study of Rubens and Correggio ; Karl 
 Begas (1794—1854); Franz Kriiger (1797—1857), cele- 
 brated for his paintings of horses — all of whom devoted 
 themselves to romantic and historic compositions ; and 
 Eduard Magnus (1799 — 1872), known for his genre subjects 
 and portraits : — these are a few prominent names among 
 those artists who have made Berlin famous in art during 
 the greater part of the nineteenth century. 
 
 In Vienna, Johann Peter Krafft (1780—1856), Georg 
 Ferdinand Waldmiiller (1793—1865), and Joseph Dan- 
 hauser (1805 — 1845), practised genre and portrait painting 
 with great success. 
 
 Alfred Rethel (1816—1859), a native of Aix-la-Chapelle, 
 a student in the Diisseldorf Academy, painted much at 
 Frankfort and at Aix. His works are taken from sacred 
 and national history, and also include portraits. 
 
558 Painting 
 
 Karl Rahl (1812—1865), of Vienna, studied in the 
 Academy of his native city, and there opened a studio, 
 which was most numerously attended, and sent forth many 
 excellent artists. 
 
 Feodor Dietz (1813—1870) studied in Carlsruhe, and 
 painted in Munich and at Paris ; his works, which chiefly 
 depict scenes on the battle-field, are unfortunately some- 
 times almost theatrical in effect. 
 
 On the whole the present position of painting in 
 Germany is eminently satisfactory, and there is every 
 reason to hope for continued success in the future. 
 
 There are but few works by the great German masters 
 in the National Gallery, and the Revival under Overbeck 
 and his followers is totally unrepresented in our National 
 Collection. 
 
 Of those living artists who have made and are still 
 making German art famous, not only in their own country, 
 but also in England, we do not propose to speak; but 
 before closing this brief notice of nineteenth century art, 
 we must mention two painters whose works are somewhat 
 in sympathy with it. 
 
 Adolph Tidemand (1814 — 1876), a native of Mandal in 
 Norway, studied first at Copenhagen, and then at Diissel- 
 dorf under Hildebrandt and Schadow. His pictures are 
 chiefly landscapes and genre subjects. They became 
 familiar to the English public at the Exhibition held in 
 London in 1862, to which he sent no less than ten. The 
 Assembly of the Haugians in the Dusseldorf Academy, and 
 the Catechising are among the principal. Tidemand was 
 a member of most foreign academies. 
 
 Anna Maria Elisabeth Jerichau-Baumann (1819—1881) 
 
In Geemany. 
 
 559 
 
 was born, near Warsaw, of German parents : after a course 
 of study in the Diisseldorf School, she then went to Rome, 
 where she met and married Adolf Jerichau the sculptor, 
 with whom she returned to Copenhagen ; and thenceforth 
 became famous as a painter of portraits and historic and 
 genre pieces. 
 
IX. Painting in France. 
 
 A HISTORY of the French school of painting can be 
 traced almost as far back as the history of France itself. 
 Even in the time of Charlemagne it was the custom to 
 cover the walls of churches with paintings " in order to 
 instruct the people, and to decorate the buildings." 
 Painting on glass for cathedral windows was likewise 
 invented or perfected : and many French prelates and 
 abbots ornamented their churches and monasteries with 
 paintings of all kinds. 
 
 But the real history of French art, the pupil of Italy, 
 can only be said to have commenced after the slow 
 and laborious development of the Middle Ages; when 
 all the knowledge possessed by antiquity re-appeared at one 
 time, and produced the revival known by the name of the 
 Renaissance. In Italy, this began as early as the middle 
 of the fifteenth century, but it was nearly a hundred 
 years later before the French school felt its influence. 
 
 1. In the Fifteenth, Sixteenth, and Seventeenth Centuries. 
 
 Rene of Anjou, Count of Provence, — the prince who 
 was successively despoiled of Naples, Lorraine and Anjou, 
 and who consoled himself for his political disgraces by 
 cultivating poetry, music, and painting,— was born about 
 1408, and learnt painting in Italy, either under II Zingaro 
 at Naples, when he was disputing the crown of the Two 
 Sicilies with the kings of Aragon, or under Bartolom- 
 meo della Gatta at Florence when forming an alliance 
 with the Duke of Milan against the Venetians. "He 
 composed," says the chronicler Nostradamus, " several 
 
Painting in France. 561 
 
 beautiful and elegant romances, such as La Conqueste de 
 la Doulce Merci, and the Mortifiement de Vaine Plaisance, 
 but he loved painting in particular with a passionate love, 
 and was gifted by nature with such an uncommon aptitude 
 for this noble profession that he was famous among the 
 most excellent painters and illuminators of his time, 
 which may be perceived by several masterpieces accom- 
 plished by his divine and royal hand." In the Cluny 
 Museum there is a picture by Rene which, although not 
 worthy of being called a " divine masterpiece " of the 
 period that had produced Fra Angelico and Masaccio, is 
 yet valuable and remarkable. The subject is the Preaching 
 of the Magdalen at Marseilles, where tradition asserts that 
 she was the first to proclaim the gospel. He died in 1480. 
 
 Jehan Fouquet (1415 — 1483), born at Tours, painted the 
 portrait of Pope Eugenius IV. at Rome, and studied the 
 Italian artists of the time of Masaccio. His works, or 
 at least those of them which remain, are to be found at 
 Munich, Frankfort, and in the large library at Paris ; they 
 consist only of manuscript ornamentation. 
 
 Jean Clouet, the younger, sometimes called Janet (in 
 cotemporary records he is called Jehan, Jehannot and 
 Jehannet), was a Fleming who settled in France and was 
 made painter and varlet-de-ehambre to Francis I., in or 
 before 1518. He died in 1541. 
 
 Francois Clouet (ab. 1500 — 15 71-74), usually called Janet, 
 — a cotemporary of those who studied art in Italy, but 
 himself a distant disciple of Van Eyck, through the lessons 
 of his father, — was born at Tours. He was court painter 
 to Francis L, Henri II., Francis II. and Charles IX. His 
 pictures in the Louvre are portraits of Charles IX. and 
 his wife Elizabeth of Austria, which are truthful and of 
 
 eha o o 
 
562 Painting 
 
 wonderful delicacy. Besides the portraits of Henri II., of 
 Henri IV. as a child, of the Duke of Guise, le Balafre, of 
 the wise chancellor Michel de VHopital, all of his school, 
 there are two small compositions formed by several por- 
 traits in a group ; one is of the Marriage of Margaret of 
 Lorraine, sister of the Guises, with Duke Anne of Joyeuse ; 
 the other is a Court Ball, at which Henri III., then king, 
 his mother, Catherine de Medicis, young Henry of Navarre, 
 and other personages of the time, are present. These 
 pictutes'^hich are as valuable to the history of France 
 as the chronicles of Monstrelet or the journals of L'Estoile, 
 'are no less precious to the history of painting as the 
 memorials of an art of which they were the earliest expres- 
 sion. In Hampton Court there are portraits by Clouet 
 of Mary Queen of Scots and Francis II. of France, as 
 Dauphin ; and at Castle Howard, there is a fine painting 
 by him, of the Family of Henri II., giving life-size 
 portraits of Catherine de Medicis and her children, and a 
 collection of nearly three hundred portraits — drawings in 
 black and white with flesh tints — of kings and queens and 
 important personages of the French Court. A Mans por- 
 trait by him is in the National Gallery, and examples of 
 his art are in the galleries of Hertford House, and Althorp. 
 Jean Cousin (1501 — 1589) was born at Soucy, near 
 Sens. Unfortunately, he was more occupied with painting 
 church windows than with his easel ; and, as he devoted a 
 part of his time to engraving, sculpture and literature, he 
 has left but a small number of pictures. His principal 
 work is a Last Judgment, and it is doubtless the similarity 
 of subject rather than of style which has given its author 
 the name of the " French Michelangelo." Although it was 
 the first picture by a French artist which had the honour 
 
In Fkance. 563 
 
 of being engraved, this masterpiece of Jean Cousin lay 
 for a long time forgotten in the Sacristy of Minimes at 
 Vincennes. It has now found a place in the Louvre. 
 
 Martin Freminet (1567 — 1619), the son of a painter, 
 was born at Paris. After a long sojourn in Italy, he 
 brought with him the taste which prevailed there at the 
 close of the great age, a little before the foundation of the 
 Carracci school. Leaving the calm and simple beauty which 
 Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael and Correggio had taught, he 
 adopted, like the mistaken imitators of Michelangelo, an 
 ostentatious display of the science of anatomy, and a 
 mania for foreshortening. At the same time his great 
 pictures in the Louvre — both the Venus waiting for Mars, 
 and JEneas abandoning Dido — are remarkable because he 
 painted his figures the size of life. After a long series 
 of sacred subjects, he produced mythologic scenes. Henri 
 IV. appointed Freminet painter to the court, and com- 
 missioned him to decorate the ceiling of the chapel at 
 Fontainebleau. 
 
 Simon Vouet (1590 — 1649), also the son of a painter, had 
 been from his earliest youth remarkable for his precocious 
 talents ; and after fourteen years' residence at Rome car- 
 ried the lessons of the Carracci school back with him to 
 Paris. In his great composition, the Presentation in the 
 Temple — in the Entombment, the Madonna, the Roman 
 Charity (a young woman feeding an old man), we trace 
 clearly the influence of the Bolognese school, although 
 Vouet possesses neither the profound expression of 
 Domenichino, the elegance of Guido, nor the powerful 
 chiaroscuro of Guercino. We must do him the justice 
 to add that it was his lessons which taught Eustache 
 le Sueur, Charles le Brun, and Pierre Mignard ; and that 
 
 2 
 
564 Painting 
 
 thus, like the Carracci, he was greater through his pupils 
 than through his own works. 
 
 Jacques Callot (1594 — 1635) was of a noble family 
 of Nancy in Lorraine. He was an enemy to all discipline, 
 and, in order to give free course to his fancy, fled from his 
 father's house. in the train of a troop of mountebanks. 
 Occupied with etching by a process of his own invention, 
 his Beggars, Gipsies, Nobles, Devils and scenes descriptive 
 of the Miseries of War, for which he is most celebrated, — 
 he left us but a small number of paintings. 
 
 Nicolas Poussin (1594 — 1665), the prince of the French 
 school, was born at Andelys. He was descended from a 
 noble family of Soissons who had lost their property in 
 the civil wars : his father served under Henri IV. Brav- 
 ing poverty, Poussin set out for Rome, on foot and almost 
 destitute. There his talent was first developed before the 
 masterpieces of past ages ; and although at a subsequent 
 period the king called him to Paris, in order to add the 
 lustre of a great artist to his own fame, Poussin soon 
 tired of the annoyances caused by the court painters, and 
 went back to Rome, which he did not again leave. There, 
 in solitary study, and always avoiding, with a force of 
 judgment in which he is scarcely equalled, the bad taste 
 of his country and his time, he progressed step by step 
 towards perfection. 
 
 Two of Poussin' s best pictures are in the National Gal- 
 lery, which contains seven works by him. One is a forcible 
 painting simply called a Bacchanalian Dance, but varied 
 and full of pleasant incident. The other, a Bacchanalian 
 Festival, although less finished in execution, is one of his 
 most important works. 
 
 In the Louvre there are some immense pictures by 
 
In Fkance. 565 
 
 Poussin, with full-length figures : the Last Supper, Francis 
 Xavier in India, and the Virgin appearing to S. John. 
 His only painting of this size out of France is the Martyr- 
 dom of S. Erasmus, the pendent, in S. Peter's at Rome, 
 to the Martyrdom of S. Processo, by his friend Valentin. 
 Among his religious compositions are the charming group 
 of Rebecca at the Well, when Eliezer recognizes her among 
 her companions, and offers her the ring ; Moses exposed on 
 the Nile by his mother and sister ; Moses saved from the 
 Water by the daughter of Pharaoh; the Manna in the 
 Desert, a scene admirable in the grandeur of the whole, 
 and the interest of the details; and the Judgment of 
 Solomon. 
 
 We must also class amongst the Old Testament subjects 
 the four celebrated pendents named Spring, Summer, 
 Autumn, and Winter, far better known by the names of 
 their subjects. Spring is typified by Adam and Eve in 
 Paradise, before their fall ; Summer, by Ruth gleaning in 
 the field of Boaz ; Autumn, by the Return of the Spies from 
 the Promised Land, bringing back the wonderful bunch of 
 grapes, which two men can scarcely carry ; Winter, by the 
 Deluge. There is no need of any word of explanation or 
 praise for this picture ; it was Poussin' s last work ; he was 
 seventy-one years of age when he painted it, and he died 
 soon afterwards at Rome. Amongst the subjects taken 
 from the Gospels and from the Acts of the Apostles, we 
 must call attention to the Adoration of the Magi, the 
 Repose in Egypt, the Blind Men of Jericho, the Woman 
 taken in Adultery, the Death of Sapphira, and S. Paul 
 caught up into the Seventh Heaven. 
 
 But Poussin did not confine himself to biblical subjects; 
 he also, like all the great masters, treated subjects from 
 
566 
 
 Painting 
 
 profane history, as the Will of Eudamidas (in England), 
 and the Rape of the Sabines : and entered the regions of 
 pure mythology, as may be seen by the Death of Eurydice 
 ,and the Triumph of Flora, at Paris : he also treated some- 
 times of allegory, for instance the Triumph of Truth ; but 
 
 
 Fig, 171.— The Shepherds of Arcadia. 
 In the Louvre. 
 
 By Nicolas Poussin. 
 
 whatever he undertook, or from whatever source his 
 subjects were taken, he was always an historic painter. 
 
 Gaspard Dughet (1613—1675), called Gaspard Poussin, 
 was born of French parents in Rome. Nicolas Poussin 
 married his sister, and under the instructions of his brother- 
 
In France. 567 
 
 in-law Dugliet became an excellent landscape painter. His 
 subjects were usually taken from picturesque scenes in the 
 neighbourhood of Rome. His works abound in private 
 galleries in England. Six of his paintings are in the 
 National Gallery. 
 
 Claude Gellee, of Lorraine (1600—1682), called Claude 
 Lorrain, or more generally merely Claude, was born of very 
 poor parents at Chamagne, a little village in the Vosges # 
 When quite a lad he was apprenticed to a baker and pastry- 
 cook, and before he was twenty years of age accompanied 
 some fellow- work men to Rome and became the servant of 
 Agostino Tassi, a landscape painter of eminence. It is said 
 that young Claude prepared his master's dinner and ground 
 his colours; at all events, from Tassi he acquired that 
 love of art which has rendered his name so famous. He 
 received lessons also from Sandrart, who was at Rome 
 at the same time. His pictures and etchings bear dates 
 varying from 1630 to 1670. 
 
 Although he did not approach Poussin in learning, as 
 he scarcely knew how to read or sign his name, Claude 
 resembled him in his power of application, and his correct- 
 ness of observation. 
 
 In the Louvre, there are two small pictures, a calm 
 Landscape and a Marine piece, glittering with the rays of 
 the noonday sun, which Claude alone, like the eagle, then 
 dared to face ; an interesting view of the Campo Vaccino 
 at Rome (the ancient forum), now used as a cattle market ; 
 two pendents, also a Marine piece and a Landscape ; then 
 two other larger pendents — Marine pieces — warm and 
 golden in the setting sun. The figures they contain, by 
 the pencil of some of his usual assistants, are intended to 
 show, in one, the Landing of Cleopatra at Tarsus, where 
 
568 
 
 Painting 
 
 she had been summoned by Mark Antony ; in the other, 
 Ulysses restoring Chryseis to her Father. These two marine 
 pieces are in the style of which Claude was especially fond ; 
 the sea in the distance, enclosed in the foreground by two 
 rows of palaces and gardens, which form a port in per- 
 
 Fig. 172. — Crossing the Ford. By Claude Lorrain. 
 In the Louvre. 
 
 spective, and the sun beyond, low on the horizon, illumin- 
 ating the surface of the waves which are agitated by the 
 breeze. 
 
 In the National Gallery, besides the Embarkation of the 
 Queen of Sheba (known as the "Bouillon Claude"), there is 
 
In France. 569 
 
 the Embarkation of S. Ursula, and another marine piece, a 
 Seaport at Sunset, with palaces in the foreground, a wonder- 
 ful masterpiece ; and eight landscapes with figures, repre- 
 senting Hagar in the Desert ; David in the Cave of Adullam ; 
 the Death of Procris ; Narcissus falling in love with his own 
 image — an exquisite work — and four others. 
 
 Many of Claude's pictures are in private cabinets, 
 especially in England, where the great landscape painter 
 was at one time much admired. The Duke of Westminster 
 possesses as many as the museums of France or Madrid. 
 Two pendents in this collection are the largest pictures 
 known by Claude. The subject of one is the Worship of 
 the Golden Calf, that of the other, the Sermon on the Mount. 
 Both have all the luxury and splendour of Italian scenery ; 
 — no language can describe the brilliancy of the sky, the 
 beauty of the earth, the scientific aerial perspective, the 
 happy contrast of light and shadow, the majesty of the 
 whole, in short, everything that can delight the eye. 
 " Claude Lorrain," wrote Goethe, "knew the material 
 world thoroughly, even to the slightest detail, and he used 
 it as a means of expressing the world in his own soul." 
 
 A series of sketches which Claude made for his pictures 
 are preserved in a book which he called Lilro di Verita ; 
 these are now in the possession of the Duke of Devonshire. 
 They were engraved by Earlom. 
 
 Valentin [miscalled Mo'ise Valentin, a misreading of Mosu, 
 *. e. Monsieur] (1600 — 1634) was born at Coulommiers en 
 Brie. He attended the school of Simon Vouet for some 
 years, and then went to Italy, where he was a friend 
 of Poussin and Claude. A rival of Bibera in the imita- 
 tion of the turbulent Caravaggio, Valentin deserted entirely 
 the traditions of French art, and only belongs to the French 
 
570 Painting 
 
 school from the circumstance of his birth. To judge 
 him justly, and to appreciate the loss art sustained in 
 his early death, occasioned by the excesses of a fiery 
 temperament, we must be acquainted with his better and 
 nobler works, which show thought and reflection ; the 
 Martyrdom of S. Lawrence in the Museum of Madrid, and 
 the Martyrdom of S. Processo, in the Vatican. 
 
 Sebastien Bourdon (1616 — 1671?), another of the 
 French disciples of Italy, was born at Montpellier, and 
 received his first education from his father, who was a 
 painter on glass ; and when still a boy was taken by his 
 uncle to Paris, where he studied art for some years. At 
 eighteen years of age he went to Italy, and worked both 
 at Rome and Venice. He afterwards returned to Paris, 
 and painted his celebrated picture of the Crucifixion of S. 
 Peter. In 1652 he was prevailed upon to visit Sweden, 
 and there he executed several important works for Queen 
 Christina. He again returned to Paris, where he died. 
 
 Eustache le Sueur (1617 — 1655), the son of an artisan, 
 studied under Vouet, and became famous ; but driven from 
 the court by Le Brun, he entered the convent of the Car- 
 thusians, and there produced his best works, which are all 
 in Paris. Though he lived but few years, he displayed 
 brilliant qualities, grandeur, power of expression, depth of 
 thought, and a touching sensibility and tenderness which 
 sometimes raise him to the sublime. The Louvre has 
 fifty of his finest paintings. There he may be seen from 
 his austere and studious youth to his early death ; from 
 the dark and fantastic History of S. Bruno to the gay and 
 laughing History of Love, which was his last work. 
 
 But between the two extremes required by the subjects 
 of a series of pictures for a Carthusian convent, and for the 
 

 In France. 571 
 
 sumptuous mansion of the president Lambert de Tho- 
 rigny, Le Sueur painted many compositions of varied style, 
 although they were all on religious subjects. Of these 
 are — the Descent from the Cross, the Mass of S. Martin, the 
 brother martyrs S. Gervasius and S. Protasius refusing to 
 worship false gods. The last picture, which was painted 
 as a pendent to the two works of Philippe de Champagne 
 on the same legend, is as large as the largest works of Le 
 Brun or Jouvenet. The Preaching of S. Paul at Ephesus, 
 painted in 1649, and offered to Notre Dame of Paris by the 
 guild of goldsmiths, has been rightly placed in the salle 
 des chefs-d'oeuvre, for it is the masterpiece of Le Sueur. 
 
 Charles le Brun (1619 — 1690) was the son of a sculptor 
 of Paris. As he showed a decided talent for drawing, he 
 was placed under Simon Vouet, with whom he remained 
 for some years. He then went to Italy, and under the 
 tuition of Poussin studied the works of the great masters. 
 Shortly after his return to Paris, Le Brun received the 
 patronage of Louis XIV., who made him , painter to the 
 court, and director of the Gobelins manufactory, and 
 decorated him with the order of S. Michael. 
 
 In the Louvre there are twenty-two of his pictures, at 
 the head of which stands the History of Alexander. This 
 famous series, which was ordered by Louis XIV. in 1660, 
 and which was completed in 1668, is no less important 
 among his works than the History of S. Bruno among 
 those of Le Sueur — to make known and to popularize 
 this great poem in five cantos — the Passage of the 
 Granicus, the Battle of Arbela, the Family of Darius 
 made captive, the Defeat of Pones, and the Triumph of 
 Alexander at Babylon — an evident allegorical flattery of 
 the early triumphs of the great Louis. The painter had 
 
572 Painting 
 
 the good fortune to have it engraved by Edelinck and 
 Audran. The other great paintings of Le Brun are the Day 
 of Pentecost (where he has introduced himself in the figure 
 of the disciple standing on the left); the Christ with Angels* 
 painted to immortalize a dream of the queen mother ; and 
 the Repentant Magdalen, which every one calls Mademois- 
 elle de la Valliere. He is more natural and true in the 
 Stoning of S. Stephen, as well as in the small pictures on 
 profane history, Cato and Mutius Sccevola, works of his 
 youth, which were once attributed to the great Poussin. 
 
 Bon Boulogne, the elder (1649 — 1717), the son of an 
 historic painter, Louis de Boulogne, was much patronized 
 by Louis XIV., who sent him to Borne to study the old 
 masters. He painted many of the decorations of Versailles. 
 
 Jean Jouvenet (1644 — 1717), the son of a painter, was 
 born at Rouen. At seventeen years of age he went to 
 Paris, where he quickly rose to fame. He was a pupil 
 and assistant of Le Brun, and followed his style. In old 
 age he lost the use of his right hand by palsy, and, 
 to the astonishment of his brother artists, painted with 
 his left hand the Magnificat, now in Notre Dame. Nearly 
 all his pictures were of sacred subjects. Jouvenet' s art 
 is theatrical, carried almost to the style of scene-painting. 
 By what other name could we call the enormous sheets 
 of canvas on which the Miraculous Draught of Fishes, 
 the Christ driving the Money-Changers out of the Temple, 
 and even the famous Raising of Lazarus, are painted ? His 
 less ambitious compositions, such as the Descent from the 
 Cross, which he painted for the convent of the Capucines, 
 and an Ascension for the church of S. Paul, are calmer 
 in style, besides being better in every other respect. 
 
 Jean Baptiste Santerre (1650 — 1717), who was born at 
 
In France. 573 
 
 Magny, near Pontoise, went early in life to Paris, where 
 he studied under Boulogne. His pictures are carefully 
 composed and harmoniously coloured. At the time that, 
 in order to flatter the pompous taste of Louis XIV., 
 Jouvenet was exaggerating the exaggerations of Le Brun, 
 there was one artist who religiously observed the worship 
 of the beautiful. This was Jean Baptiste Santerre. Like 
 Le Sueur before him, and Prud'hon after him, he escaped 
 from academic tyranny, as well as from the slavery of the 
 court. He sought for real greatness more than for fame 
 or fortune, and found it, far from theatrical effect, in 
 delicacy and grace. Santerre, in a tolerably long life, 
 completed but few works, and the Louvre has only suc- 
 ceeded in obtaining two, Susannah at the Bath, and a 
 Female portrait, which seem to make the link in the chain 
 uniting Correggio to Prud'hon. 
 
 To bring into one group the best portrait painters of 
 the age to which Louis XIV. has given his name, we must 
 go back a few years, and commence with 
 
 Pierre Mignard (1610 — 1695), who, although born at 
 Troyes in Champagne, was called the " Roman," because 
 after having studied under Simon Vouet, he passed twenty- 
 two years at Rome. Mignard was not merely a portrait 
 painter ; he also painted historic pictures, and in the 
 dome of Val-de-Grace frescoes larger in size than that of 
 Correggio in the duomo of Parma. He succeeded Le Brun 
 in the office of king's painter; and was made a Chevalier 
 de Saint-Michel, and chancellor of the Academy. He 
 entered into direct rivalry with Le Brun in a Family of 
 Darius at the feet of Alexander, now in the Hermitage ; 
 and in the Louvre we may see the charming Madonna 
 with the Grapes, brought from Italy, in which he imitated 
 
574 Painting 
 
 the style of Annibale Carracci, whilst exaggerating the 
 studied grace of Albani; and a number of historic por- 
 traits, the Grand Dauphin, the Duke of Burgundy, the 
 Duke of Anjou, Madame de Maintenon, and Mignard him- 
 self. In all his works — sacred and historic paintings as 
 well as portraits — he displays the same cold correctness, 
 the same skilfulness in the art of flattery, the same care in 
 minute details carried to the extreme which has made his 
 name a proverb in France ; but they also show a lightness 
 of touch and vivacity of colouring which easily rendered 
 him the first colourist among the court painters of France. 
 
 Claude Lefebvre (1633 — 1675), who was born at Fon- 
 tainebleau, was a pupil of Le Sueur and Le Brun, and 
 painted portraits which remind us of Philippe de Cham- 
 pagne. He visited England in the reign of Charles II., 
 and it is believed that he died in London. 
 
 Nicolas Largilliere (1656 — 1746), though born at Paris, 
 received his early education in art at Antwerp, where his 
 father settled as a merchant. He visited England, and 
 painted portraits of Charles II., James II., and many 
 noblemen. Louis XIV. also sat to him. A portrait of 
 Le Brun by Largilliere is in the Louvre. 
 
 Hyacinthe Rigaud (1659 — 1743), the son of an artist, of 
 Perpignan, has been called the French Van Dyck. Amongst 
 his pictures in the Louvre, Louis XI V. figures in the front 
 rank ; and Bossuet, who seems to be holding a court in his 
 bishop's robes as the chief of the church and the king 
 of eloquence. Thanks to engravings, these pictures are 
 known everywhere. 
 
 Antoine Coypel (1661—1722), the son of Noel Coypel, 
 an artist of some celebrity, accompanied his father to 
 Rome, and studied the style of Bernini. On his return to 
 
In Feance. 575 
 
 Paris, he became a very popular artist, and was much 
 employed in painting royal palaces. He treated history 
 in a theatrical manner, and clothed the ancient Greeks in 
 silk breeches. 
 
 2. In the Eighteenth Century. 
 
 Antoine Watteau (1684 — 1721), the son of a poor 
 thatcher of Valenciennes, was placed with an obscure 
 artist, in his native city, and for a long time painted 
 pictures of & Nicholas for three francs a week and his 
 soup. In 1702, he went to Paris — where the scene- 
 painter, Claude Gillot, introduced him to the green-room 
 of the opera — and there he founded a school of painting. 
 In the hands of his plagiarists, Van Loo, Pater, Lancret, 
 Boucher, and a long train of their followers, art was more 
 and more degraded and dishonoured in ridiculous and 
 licentious paintings of sheepfolds decorated with satin 
 ribbons ; and pictures were merely used as ornaments for 
 boudoirs. 
 
 Watteau attempted only very small genre subjects ; but 
 he has imparted such elevation and grandeur to them that 
 he will always be considered far above a mere decorator. 
 In the works of this painter of Fetes Galantes, besides the 
 exquisite colouring taken from Rubens, we shall always 
 have to admire his invention, fun, wit and even propriety ; 
 for we feel that he was, as his biographer Gersaint says, a 
 " libertine in mind, though of good morality." 
 
 Nicolas Lancret (1690 — 1743), a painter of Fetes Galantes, 
 who was born in Paris, took Watteau as his model, and 
 became an ignoble disciple of that master, though in his 
 own time his works were very popular. 
 
 In the National Gallery is a series of four of his best 
 
Patnting in France. 577 
 
 paintings. They are the four ages of man — Infancy, 
 Youth, Manhood (Fig. 173), and Age. 
 
 Jean Baptiste Joseph Pater (1696 — 1736), who was 
 born at Valenciennes, went, when still young, to Paris, 
 and entered the studio of Watteau, whom he copied both 
 in subject and, as far as possible, in style. His works 
 are somewhat scarce. 
 
 Francois Boucher (1704 — 1770) was one of the most 
 popular artists of his time, was appointed painter to the 
 king, and acquired a great reputation, which did not long 
 survive him. Boucher was called the "Painter of the 
 Graces/' because, in the midst of landscapes as weak and 
 false as the scenes at the opera, he introduced, as the 
 shepherdesses of his be-ribboned sheep, veritable dolls, 
 without modesty, and only fresh-looking from the vermilion 
 of their toilette, and because they are reposing in the style 
 of goddesses on clouds of cotton ! A Pan and Syrinx by 
 him is in the National Gallery. 
 
 Francois Desportes (1661 — 1743) was the first in France 
 to make a special domain for himself by imitating Snyders, 
 and he became the historiographer of the hunts of Louis 
 XIV. It is said that he visited England, and painted 
 sporting scenes there. 
 
 Jean Baptiste van Loo (1684 — 1745), the grandson of 
 an artist, was born at Aix in Provence. He painted in 
 public buildings at Toulon, Turin and Borne, and was 
 made a member of the Academy at Paris. In 1737 he 
 paid a visit to England, and was patronized by Sir Robert 
 Walpole, and painted many portraits of the nobility. 
 In 1742, he returned to his native land, and there 
 he died. 
 
 Jean Baptiste Ouclry (1686 — 1755), whose genre was 
 
 eha p p 
 
578 Painting 
 
 the same as that of Desportes, became in his turn the his- 
 torian of the hunts of Louis XV. His works, which are 
 very numerous in the Louvre — Hunts of stags, wolves, 
 boars, pheasants and partridges — show that he had neither 
 the invention nor the movement of Snyders, nor the 
 exquisite skill and touch of Fyt or Weenix. 
 
 Jean Baptiste Simeon Chardin (1699 — 1779), the rival 
 of Willem Kalf, the painter of kitchens, was a powerful 
 colourist, who emulated the Dutch school in the vigour of 
 his tints, until then unknown in the French school. " Oh, 
 Chardin !" said Diderot, "it is not colours alone that you 
 mix on your palette; it is the very substance of the 
 objects, it is the air and the light with which you paint." 
 
 Charles Andre, called C&rle, van Loo (1705 — 1765), the 
 younger brother of Jean Baptiste, although the best of the 
 four painters in his family, showed to what a depth of decay 
 an artist, endowed by nature with good qualities, may be 
 led by the bad taste of his age. He attempted history 
 and sacred subjects, and failed utterly. 
 
 Claude Joseph Yernet (1714—1789), the celebrated 
 marine painter, was born at Avignon. A whole room in 
 the Louvre is devoted to his works, which are ranged on 
 the walls round his bust in marble. These are, in the 
 first place, Views of the principal French Seaports, painted 
 in 1754 to 1765, by order of Louis XV. ; an ungrateful 
 task, which would have required a mind inexhaustible 
 in its resources. Then, a large number of Marine Pieces 
 properly so called, in which he has represented the sea in 
 all its aspects, in the south and the north, in the morning 
 and in the evening, with the sun and the moon, in rain 
 and in fine weather, in calm and tempest, but they do not 
 possess the intoxicating poetry of Claude. He may be 
 
In France. 579 
 
 studied in the National Gallery in a view of the Castle of 
 S. Angelo, Borne, and a Landscape. He had a son, Antoine 
 Charles Horace, called Carle, Vernet (1758 — 1835), who 
 painted battle-pieces ; and who was the father of the cele- 
 brated Horace Vernet, of whom we shall speak hereafter. 
 
 Jean Baptiste Greuze (1725 — 1805) was born at Tournus, 
 near Macon, and received his early education in art at 
 Lyons. He was one of the first French painters to go to 
 Nature for his subjects by taking his figures from rural 
 life, and representing simple and touching village scenes. 
 
 Some of these contain merely a comic incident, such as 
 the Broken Bitcher ; others rise to pathetic drama, like the 
 Father's Curse. The Village Bride is of intermediate 
 style, more simple and graceful, and may be considered 
 as the masterpiece of his transition style. These choice 
 works, with five others, are in the Louvre. The gallery of 
 Sir Richard Wallace contains twenty-two paintings by 
 Greuze, several of which have been engraved ; and there 
 are three heads of girls in the National Gallery. His 
 paintings, which at the present day command fabulous 
 prices, were not appreciated in his own time, and the 
 unhappy painter passed his old age in extreme poverty. 
 
 Joseph Marie Vien (1716 — 1809) was born at Mont- 
 pellier. He studied first in Paris, and from 1775 to 1781 
 directed the French school at Rome. In studying the 
 works of the earlier ages, he learned to understand the 
 greatness of the art which had almost perished, and 
 endeavoured to return to the style of the great masters. 
 To Vien belongs the honour of having been the first to 
 attempt the part of the reformation in art which was 
 accomplished by his pupil Louis David. This may be 
 seen, in his fine composition, S. Germain of Auxerre and 
 
 P P 2 
 
Fig. 174.— The Sleeping Girl. By Greuze. 
 
Painting in Fkance. 581 
 
 S. Vincent of Saragossa receiving martyrs' crowns from an 
 angel ; and for chastened and powerful execution, in the 
 Hermit asleep. Vien said, " I have only half opened the 
 door ; it is M. David who will throw it wide." 
 
 Jacques Louis David (1748—1825), a relative of 
 Francois Boucher, was born at Paris, accompanied Vien 
 to Rome, and with him studied the works of the great 
 masters. In order to paint Roman subjects and Roman 
 manners, he sought his models in the ruins of ancient 
 Rome; he studied the statues and the bas-reliefs, and 
 read Tacitus and Plutarch. 
 
 By the severity of his taste, by the admiration of noble 
 thoughts and fine actions, he brought back art to dignity 
 and true grandeur. He lived in Paris, and took part in 
 the great Revolution, and passed many months in prison. 
 But when the Empire had overthrown the Republic, 
 David became painter to the emperor, and prefect of the 
 department of the Fine Arts. After the fall of Napoleon, 
 David took refuge in Brussels, where he continued to 
 paint for many years. 
 
 His best works are to be found in the Louvre. The 
 Oath of the Horatii was painted at Rome in 1784. Its 
 appearance caused such sensation in the Parisian salons, 
 that from this time we may date the commencement of 
 the fashion for Roman forms in garments, hangings and 
 furniture. The second Republican picture was Marcus 
 Brutus, to whom the lictors are bringing the corpses of 
 his two sons, whom he had condemned to death. It is 
 dated 1789. He painted in 1799 the Sabine Women 
 (Fig. 175) throwing themselves into the midst of the con- 
 flict between the Romans and the Sabines ; and the Death 
 of Marat, struck by Charlotte Corday : then, the Leonidas 
 
Painting in France. 583 
 
 at Thermopylae. Although between this picture and the 
 Sdbines the whole interval of the Empire intervenes, we 
 may yet call them twin pictures. 
 
 These works of David show all his good qualities and 
 defects in the clearest light. On one hand, the fine 
 subjects, noble sentiments, correct drawing, and chastened 
 painting ; on the other, an academic stiffness, making the 
 living beings look as if cut out in marble ; and in the 
 execution a sad and monotonous colouring. 
 
 Guillaume Guillon Lethiere (1760 — 1832), one of David's 
 pupils, is represented in the Louvre by those enormous 
 pictures, the Death of Virginia and Death of the Sons of 
 Brutus. These paintings were exhibited in London in 
 1816 and received with much applause. 
 
 Anne Louis Girodet de Roucy Trioson (1767 — 1824) 
 gained the grand prix, and went to Rome. His most 
 important works may be found in the Louvre — the 
 Sleep of Endymion ; the Interment of Atala, describing 
 a scene from Chateaubriand ; a Scene from the Deluge. 
 
 Francois Gerard (1770 — 1837) was born at Rome. His 
 celebrated group of Cupid and Psyche, and his Entrance 
 of Henri IV. into Paris are in the Louvre. Baron Gerard, 
 to whom many of the most illustrious characters of Europe 
 sat for their likeness, was rather a portrait than an his- 
 toric painter, and an intellectual man more than an artist 
 of genius. 
 
 Antoine Jean Gros (1771 — 1835) suddenly quitted the 
 usual track, to open a fresh career for himself. He formed 
 his style on his own country and time, and painted the 
 men and the things before his eyes ; and introduced two 
 fresh elements, too much neglected by the old school — 
 colour and movement. The style of Baron Gros was an 
 
584 Painting 
 
 undoubted progress. The proof of this is to be found in 
 some fine works in the Louvre, such as the Jaffa plague 
 stricken, and especially the Battle-field of Eylau, a great 
 work as well as an instructive lesson, a most heart-rending 
 image of the desolation caused by war. 
 
 Pierre Narcisse Guerin (1774 — 1833), the pupil of 
 Jean Baptiste Regnauld, followed the track thrown 
 open by David. His Marcus Sextus returning from 
 exile, in the Louvre, is his principal work. His later 
 pictures are too theatrical. Many of his works have been 
 engraved. 
 
 Pierre Prud'hon (1758 — 1823) was the son of a mason 
 of Burgundy. In early life he went to Pome, and formed 
 acquaintance with Canova. In 1799 he returned to France, 
 and he was already forty-nine when the prefect of th 
 Seine ordered a picture of him — his first composition 
 high art — the celebrated allegory of Divine Justice a 
 Vengeance pursuing Crime: this picture attracted great 
 notice. The Louvre has acquired this work, and it has 
 also his Christ on Calvary. In both these paintings there 
 is the same melancholy and solemn majesty. 
 
 We must seek in private collections for other works — 
 such as Zephyr rocked on the Waters, the Rape of Psyche 
 by the Zephyrs, or the Desolate Family, to show how he 
 treated the antique, and how he could impart as much 
 poetry to cotemporary sufferings as to the fictions of 
 mythology. 
 
 Francois Marius Granet (1775 — 1849), another mason's 
 son, born at Aix-en-Provence, is celebrated for his Interiors, 
 two of which may be seen in the Louvre, the Cloister of 
 the Church of Assisi, and the Fathers of Mercy redeeming 
 captives. He animated his views of buildings by scenes 
 
In France. 
 
 585 
 
 from human life, and like Pieter de Hooch raised his less 
 familiar subjects to the rank of historic pictures. 
 
 Jean Louis Andre Theodore Gericault (1791 — 1824) 
 was a pupil of Carle Vernet and Pierre Guerin. As he 
 died very young, it is difficult to understand how it hap- 
 
 Fig. 176. — Divine Justice and Vengeance pursuing Crime. By Prud'hon. 
 In the Louvre. 
 
 pened that he played so important a part in French art, 
 and exerted such influence on the whole school. 
 
 His works in the Louvre, the Chasseur de la Garde im- 
 perialc and the Cuirassier hlesse, belong to the period when, 
 
Painting in Feance. 587 
 
 following Carle Vernet, he was simply a painter of horses. 
 It was not till towards the close of his life that Gericault 
 executed the only great work of his life, the Baft of the 
 Medusa (Fig. 177). This picture was at first received with 
 a storm of reproaches, but when exhibited in London it 
 won much praise, and is now one of the treasures of the 
 Louvre. 
 
 Jean Auguste Dominique Ingres (1780 — 1867), at the 
 age of sixteen, chose art as his profession, and entered 
 the studio of the stern classic master David, where he re- 
 mained four years. In 1800 he won the second, and in 1801 
 the first Academic prize, and received a pension of one 
 thousand francs. In 1802 he painted his first important 
 work, Bonaparte passing the Bridge of Kehl, and in 1806 
 went to Rome, where he remained until 1820, when he 
 removed to Florence, where he resided four years, painting 
 the Entry of Charles V. into Baris, and the Vow of Louis 
 XIII. now in a church at Montauban. In 1824 he returned 
 to Paris, to find the school of David supplanted by that of 
 Delacroix. He then painted his Apotheosis of Homer, on 
 a ceiling in the Louvre; in 1829 was elected Professor of 
 Painting in the Ecole des Beaux-Arts; and in 1834 Di- 
 rector of the French Academy in Rome. This appointment 
 enabled him to return to the city of his affections, where, 
 however, he painted but few pictures. He returned to 
 France in 1841 ; in 1845 was nominated Commander, and 
 in 1855 Grand Officer of the Legion of Honour. 
 
 Ingres left behind him, in addition to the masterpieces 
 we have mentioned, several great works, including the 
 Odalesque, which appeared in 1819 ; the Martyrdom of S. 
 Symphorien, in the cathedral of Autun; Boger rescuing 
 Angelique ; Stratonice (Fig. 178) ; Christ delivering the 
 
Painting in Fkance. 589 
 
 keys to S. Peter; (Edipus explaining the riddle of the 
 Sphinx; La Source, the picture which attracted such 
 universal admiration in the London Exhibition of 1862 ; 
 and La Baigneuse. The four last are all in the Louvre. 
 
 fimile Jean Horace Vernet (1789—1863), the son of 
 Carle Vernet, was born in the Louvre, where his father 
 had apartments. In 1806 and the following years he 
 exhibited his famous Barriere de Clichy ; the Capture of the 
 Redoubt ; the Entrance of the French army into Breslan ; the 
 Defence of Paris, and the Massacre of the Mamelukes. In 
 1826 he was made a member of the Institute, and two 
 years later he was elected Director of the French Academy 
 in Rome. At Versailles, one whole gallery — the Constan- 
 tine — was devoted to his works illustrative of the victories 
 achieved by the French armies in Algeria. Of this series 
 the most noteworthy for its merit, as well as for its size, is 
 the Capture of the Smala of Abd-el-Kader. 
 
 Claude Marie Dubufe (1789 — 1864) was born in Paris, 
 and took his first lessons in art in the studio of the great 
 classic master David. His earliest works were historic, 
 and included the well-known Roman family dying of 
 famine, and Achilles taking Iphigenia under his protection. 
 They were succeeded by Christ stilling the Tempest ; Apollo 
 and Cyparissus ; the Birth of the Duke of Bordeaux ; Christ 
 walking on the Sea of Galilee ; and the Deliverance of S. 
 Peter. In 1827 he changed his style and class of subjects ; 
 his Remembrances, Regrets, the Slave Merchant, taking high 
 rank as genre pictures. Of this class is his Surprise in the 
 National Gallery. His portraits, especially those of the 
 Queen of the Belgians and the Duchess of Istria, are also 
 greatly admired. 
 
 Louis Leopold Robert (1794 — 1835) was at first an 
 
590 Painting 
 
 engraver, then a pupil of David at Paris. He went very 
 late to Italy, where he painted subjects of history mixed 
 with the scenes of nature. Three of his most important 
 works are in the Louvre — the Italian Improvisatore, the 
 Feast of the Madonna di Pie-di-grotta, and the Harvest 
 Feast in the Roman Campagna. In 1835 he painted the 
 Departure of Fishing Boats in the Adriatic, in which he 
 seems to foretell a departure without a return, and which 
 he completed at Venice just before he ended his own life. 
 
 Ary Scheffer (1795 — 1858), who was born at Dordrecht 
 of French parents, had the misfortune when quite young 
 to lose his father. His mother took him in 1811 to Paris, 
 and apprenticed him to Pierre Guerin, from whom he 
 learned his art, though he acquired but little of that 
 master's style. His best works are the Francesco, di 
 Rimini ; his Gaston de Foix found dead — now in the Gallery 
 at Versailles — and the four subjects taken from Goethe's 
 Faust; and his religious subjects — Christ the Comforter; 
 S. Monica, and the Temptation of Christ. 
 
 Jean Baptiste Camille Corot (1796 — 1875), one of the 
 best of modern French landscape painters, was apprenticed 
 to a draper, but determined to be a painter, and entered in 
 1822 the studio of Michallon. He afterwards went to 
 Italy, where he applied himself diligently to study land- 
 scape painting from nature. In 1827 appeared his first 
 works, a View of Narni, and the Campagna of Borne ; in 
 the Paris Exhibition of 1855 he exhibited Morning Effect 
 and Evening, and in the same year received a first-class 
 medal. These were followed by a succession of pictures 
 which won him immense fame. " Corot was a poet, and 
 his canvases are the expression of ideas, refined almost to 
 sentimentality, full of fancy and imagination." 
 
In Feance. 591 
 
 Paul Delaroche (1797—1856), the celebrated painter of 
 historic scenes, was born in Paris. He studied art under 
 Gros, and exhibited his first picture in 1819; but it was 
 not till 1824 that he produced three paintings which 
 earned him his celebrity — these were Vincent de Paul 
 preaching ; Joan of Arc examined in Prison; and a S. 
 Sebastian. In succeeding years he painted his well-known 
 Death of Queen Elizabeth, and the Children of Edward 
 IV., both in the Louvre ; the Death of the Due de Guise, 
 and many other equally celebrated pictures. His chief 
 work, however, was the decoration, in encaustic, of the 
 Amphitheatre of the Palais des Beaux-Arts — to which he 
 devoted four years. In this stupendous work, known as 
 the Hemicycle, Delaroche introduced seventy-five full-length 
 portraits of the most eminent painters, sculptors, architects 
 and engravers. 
 
 Ferdinand Victor Eugene Delacroix (1799 — 1863) was 
 born at Charenton Saint-Maurice, near Paris. When 
 eighteen years of age he entered the studio of Guerin; 
 but, dissatisfied with that master's art, struck out a new 
 path for himself and became the leader of the so-called 
 " Romantic School." In 1830 he visited Spain, Algiers, 
 and Morocco, and on his return was much patronized by 
 M. Thiers, who procured for him the commission to paint 
 numerous works in the Palais Bourbon, the Hotel de 
 Ville, the Luxembourg, the Louvre, and other public 
 buildings as well as churches in Paris. 
 
 Eugene Delacroix is well represented by four works in 
 the Louvre : Dante and Virgil painted in 1822, the 
 Massacre of Scio in 1823, the Algerian Women in 1834, 
 and the Jewish marriage in Morocco. These works were 
 succeeded by the Bridge of Taillebourg, a Medea, the 
 
592 Painting 
 
 Shipwrecked Mariners, the Entrance of Baldwin into Con- 
 stantinople, and many others. 
 
 Joseph Louis Hippolyte Bellange (1800 — 1866) was 
 born in Paris and took his earliest lessons in art from 
 Gros. In 1824 he won a second-class medal for an 
 historic picture ; in 1834 he was made a member of the 
 Legion of Honour ; in 1855 he obtained one of the prizes 
 of the French International Exhibition ; and in 1861 was 
 created an officer of the Legion of Honour. He is chiefly 
 known in England by two pictures sent to the Exhibition 
 of 1862 : the Two Friends, a small but highly finished work, 
 and A Square of Republican Infantry repulsing Austrian 
 Dragoons. His most important pictures, however, are to 
 be seen at Versailles and the Luxembourg, and include his 
 Battle of the Alma, Painful Adieux, the Departure from 
 the Cantonment, the Cuirassiers at Waterloo, the Battle of 
 Fleurus, the Return from Elba, the Morning after the 
 Battle of Jemappes, the Defile after the Victory. 
 
 Alexandre Gabriel Decamps (1803 — 1860), a pupil of 
 Abel de Pujol, is chiefly celebrated for the pictures of 
 Eastern subjects which he introduced to the Parisian 
 public. The gallery of Sir Richard Wallace contains more 
 than thirty paintings by this artist — many of which are 
 Scriptural subjects. His Turkish School, the History of 
 Samson, and the Defeat of the Cimbri, are among his most 
 celebrated works. 
 
 Narcisse Virgile Diaz de la Pefla (1809 — 1876), the son 
 of Spanish parents, was born at Bordeaux, where, at ten 
 years of age, he was left an orphan. During many years 
 of poverty he learned to paint, and in 1844 gained his first 
 medal at the Salon. After that time he was immensely 
 successful. Diaz ridiculed the realistic school, and made 
 
In Feance. 593 
 
 colour his principal charm, but he painted only a few figure 
 pieces. His landscapes, full of the brightest autumnal 
 tints, and lighted by golden sunshine, are his best works. 
 His Forest of Fontainebleau sold in 1873 for £1028. 
 
 Charles Gabriel Gleyre (1807 — 1874) was born in Swit- 
 zerland. After studying in Paris, he went, in 1828, 
 to Italy, and copied the works of the old masters. In 
 1840 he exhibited his first picture in the Salon, and for 
 many years continued to paint sacred and classic subjects. 
 His Hercules at the feet of Omphale ; Fentheus pursued 
 hy the Mcenades ; and The Charmer, are among his best 
 works. 
 
 Jean Hippolyte Flandrin (1809 — 1864), born at Lyons, 
 went to Paris to enter the school of the Beaux-Arts in 
 1829, where he carried off the grand prize for his picture 
 of Theseus recognizing his Father at a Banquet. In 1832 
 he went to Rome and became a student in the French 
 school, then presided over by Horace Vernet. The chief 
 works produced by the young artist at this time were a 
 scene from the " Inferno " ; Euripides uniting his Tragedies 
 in a Cavern near Salamis ; and S. Clair first Bishop of 
 Nantes healing the Blind. About 1839 he returned to 
 Paris, and the next few years of his life were devoted to the 
 decoration of churches. 
 
 Constant Troyon (1810 — 1865) began life as a painter 
 on porcelain. He soon, however, sought a wider field, and 
 in 1833 began to exhibit in the Salon. His Fete at Sevres, 
 and A Corner of the Park at S. Cloud, revealed his peculiar 
 excellences as a landscape painter, but they were surpassed 
 in 1841 by his View in Brittany, and somewhat later by 
 his Going to MarJcet, a small work of the very highest 
 quality. Illustrating his careful study of nature, we may 
 
 EHA Q Q 
 
594 Painting 
 
 also name a Sedgy River with cattle grazing, Evening in 
 the Meadows, and a Ferry Boat. 
 
 Jean Francois Millet (1815 — 1875) was born at Greville, 
 near Cherbourg, the son of peasants who were quite unable 
 to afford to give their son an art education. In early life 
 he displayed so much talent that the authorities of 
 Cherbourg furnished him with the means of going to Paris 
 and entering the studio of Paul Delaroche. But he showed 
 no taste for historic painting, and after a short sojourn with 
 Delaroche, he left that master and sought instruction from 
 nature alone. He married, and settled at Barbizon near 
 the Forest of Fontainebleau, and there, from the fields and 
 woods, and from the peasants, he took the subjects of his 
 works. His first exhibited picture, the Milkivoman, ap- 
 peared at the Salon in 1844; this was followed by the 
 Reapers, Sheep-shearers, Peasant grafting a Tree, and many 
 other similar subjects. His Angelus du Soir and Death 
 and the Wood-cutter are well known from engravings and 
 etchings. His pictures now fetch fabulous prices. 
 
 Gustave Courbet (1819 — 1877) sent his first picture to 
 the "Salon in 1844. He affected realism, and chose his 
 models from the coarsest types. His landscapes with deer 
 are among his best pictures. He joined the Communists 
 in 1871, was imprisoned for his share in the destruction 
 of the Column Vendome, and when liberated went to live 
 in Switzerland, where he died. 
 
 Thomas Couture (1815 — 1879), a native of Senlis, was a 
 pupil of Gros and Delaroche. His most famous painting, 
 The Romans in the Decadence of the Empire, appeared in 
 1847 ; it is at present in the Luxembourg. His works are 
 mostly of an historic character. 
 
 Jean Louis Hamon (1821 — 1874) was educated for the 
 
In Fkance. 595 
 
 priesthood, but his love of art led him to renounce the 
 sacred profession; and having obtained a grant of five 
 hundred francs from his native place, he went to Paris, and 
 began to study under Delaroche and Gleyre. In 1848 
 appeared his first pictures, one a genre subject called Le 
 Dessus de Parle, and the other a sacred work, Christ's Tomb, 
 succeeded a little later by a Roman Placard, and the Seraglio. 
 Hamon now for a time gave up easel painting, and accepted 
 employment in the Sevres manufactory. In 1852 he pro- 
 duced his Comedie Humaine, which made his reputation. 
 The most noteworthy of his later works are Ma soeur n'y 
 est pas ; Ce nest pas moi ; Les Orphelins ; L } amour de son 
 Troupeau. In 1856 he went to the East, and most of the 
 pictures subsequently painted are on Oriental subjects. 
 
 Alexandre Georges Henri Regnault (1843 — 1871) was 
 the pupil of Lamothe and Cabanel. In 1866 he won the 
 grand prize of Rome, and in 1869 a gold medal. In the 
 succeeding years he attracted much notice by his Still 
 Life, his portrait of General Prim, An Execution at the 
 Alhambra, and Salome la danseuse, exhibited in the Paris 
 Salon of 1870, and took high rank amongst cotemporary 
 painters ; but the terrible war of 1870—1, which cut short 
 so many careers, broke out just as Regnault was attaining 
 to celebrity. He took service as a national guard, and was 
 killed in the sortie from Paris. 
 
 The French school of painters never stood higher than 
 at the present day. To write of them and their works 
 would occupy a volume : we must therefore refrain from 
 mentioning the names of living men as being beyond our 
 province. 
 
 Q Q 2 
 
X. Painting in England. 
 
 In England, as in the other countries of Europe, the 
 Middle Ages naturally produced artists of every kind, from 
 architects to goldsmiths, as well as painters ; painters of 
 the walls of churches, or of altar-panels, painters for glass 
 and tapestry, painters of portraits for cabinets for public 
 buildings and castles, painters who illustrated missals and 
 manuscripts. Few remains of these curiosities have been 
 preserved ; wars and conflagrations, the Reformation and 
 Puritanism having in their turn destroyed the relics of 
 former times. There scarcely exist more than a few 
 traces of wall-painting in the churches and other public 
 buildings ; and a few books ornamented with miniatures. 
 
 Up to the end of the fifteenth century, the history of 
 art in England is shrouded in obscurity. It is only from 
 about the time of Henry VIII. that an historic sketch of 
 painting can be commenced. But even then it is not of 
 a native school — the English school did not have its origin 
 until the eighteenth century with Hogarth and Reynolds 
 — but of a succession of foreign painters, who worked 
 during more than two centuries for the court and the 
 aristocracy. 
 
 1. Foreign Artists in England. 
 
 Early in the sixteenth century, in the reign of Henry 
 VIII., Hans Holbein, of Augsburg (1497-1543), came over 
 to England on a visit to Sir Thomas More. The king 
 made him painter to the court, and gave him a small 
 salary. Holbein, who stayed twenty-eight years in 
 
Painting in England. 597 
 
 England — with the exception of a few short journeys on 
 the Continent — has left many portraits in the Royal 
 palaces and private galleries of this country. The Man- 
 chester Exhibition included about twenty of these master- 
 pieces ; quite as many were shown in the National Portrait 
 Exhibition of 1866; and thirty-six in the Exhibition of 
 works by the Old Masters in 1880. 
 
 During the same reign there also came to England a 
 Fleming, Geraert Lucas Horebout, or Horneband (1475 — 
 1558) of Ghent, who painted portraits for the king. His 
 daughter Susanna also painted miniatures in England : 
 and about the time of Holbein's death, another great 
 artist came to London : 
 
 Sir Anthony More (called in his own country Antonis 
 Mor) was, like his master Jan van Schoorl, a citizen of 
 the world ; born at Utrecht, in Holland, he worked in 
 Italy, Spain, Portugal and England, and subsequently 
 died at Antwerp. He had a rival at the court of Queen 
 Mary, a Fleming, Joost van Cleef, or Cleve (born ab. 1500) 
 of Antwerp, a portrait painter of considerable talent. An- 
 other Fleming, Lucas de Heere (1534? — 1584), of Ghent, 
 also painted for Queen Mary, and continued to be employed 
 during the next reign. 
 
 Queen Elizabeth was not in want of artists — foreigners 
 for the most part; a native of Gouda, Cornelis Ketel, 
 arrived in 1573, and lived in London for eight years; an 
 Italian, Federigo Zuccaro (1543 — 1609), arrived in 1574 ; 
 and a Fleming, Marc Garrard, stayed many years in 
 England, where he died in 1635. Nevertheless the 
 influence of Holbein produced a few followers among 
 Englishmen, especially in miniature painting. 
 
598 Painting 
 
 2. The first English Artists. Other Foreigners. 
 
 Nicholas Hilliard (1547 — 1619) has left some good 
 miniatures, as well as life-sized portraits, without taking 
 into account that he was a goldsmith and jeweller. 
 Isaac Oliver (1556 — 1617), the pupil of Hilliard and Zuc- 
 caro, painted miniatures equally well ; his son Peter Oliver 
 (1601 — 1660) and himself often signed " Oliver." Perhaps 
 Hilliard and these Olivers were of French descent. 
 
 In the reign of James I., there was a new generation of 
 foreign painters : Paul van Somer of Antwerp (1576 — 
 1621) came to London about 1606 and painted portraits 
 of the Court and the nobility. 
 
 Cornells Janssens, van Keulen, born at Amsterdam, 
 arrived in 1618, painted many excellent portraits, and re- 
 turned to die at Amsterdam. Daniel Mytens (1590 — aft. 
 1658) came a little after, without doubt, for the first date 
 which we find on the portraits painted by him in England 
 is 1623. Both Mytens and Janssens became court painters 
 to Charles I., of whom they have left excellent portraits, 
 as well as of the royal family and the English aristocracy. 
 
 The reign of Charles I. is a bright period in the history 
 of art in England — thanks to foreigners. In 1629, Rubens 
 came and sojourned a year ; and in 1632 Van Dyck took 
 up his abode in London. The designs painted by Rubens 
 for the ceiling at Whitehall, illustrating the History of 
 Achilles, intended for reproduction in tapestry at the 
 manufactory at Mortlake, are preserved in English gal- 
 leries, as well as the portraits, many times repeated, of 
 the Earl of Arundel and of the Duke of Buckingham. It 
 does not appear that Rubens produced any other great 
 works in England beyond the S. George now at Buckingham 
 
In England. 599 
 
 Palace, the Assumption of the Virgin, painted for the. Earl 
 of Arundel, and perhaps the allegory, Peace and War, 
 now in the National Gallery. This painter has always 
 been a favourite in England ; there were more than forty 
 of his works at the Exhibitions at Manchester and at 
 South Kensington. English painters have good grounds 
 for considering Van Dyck as one of their own school. Van 
 Dyck, a native of Antwerp, is as truly English as Claude 
 Lorrain is Italian. Naturally endowed with elegance, of 
 that type at once haughty and frank, he excelled as a 
 portrayer of the English nobility; and his genius well 
 suited the times of Charles I., who made him painter to 
 the Court, and knighted him. All the foreigners before 
 him had passed away without leaving a mark in the art 
 of the country. Van Dyck succeeded almost during his 
 lifetime, and it may be said, that he was the progenitor 
 of Reynolds and of Gainsborough, of Lawrence and of all 
 the English portrait painters up to the present day. 
 
 Sir Balthazar Gerbier (1591 — 1667) practised success- 
 fully as a portrait painter, chiefly in miniature, in the 
 reigns of Charles I. and Charles II. He was also an 
 architect, and succeeded Inigo Jones as surveyor of the 
 Royal Palaces. 
 
 Around Van Dyck were grouped a band of Flemings 
 and natives of Holland, his assistants, his pupils, or his 
 imitators, but we have not room to mention them. 
 
 George Jamesone (1586 — 1644), of Aberdeen, was a good 
 painter ; we have excellent portraits by him in the style of 
 both Van Dyck and Rubens ; for Jameson had worked in 
 the studio of Rubens at Antwerp, and he there met the 
 young Van Dyck. Many of his works may still be seen at 
 Aberdeen and in various residences of the nobility. He 
 
600 Painting 
 
 left several pupils, and amongst others Michael Wright 
 (d. 1700), who attained some celebrity as a portrait painter. 
 
 John Hoskins (d. 1664), a clever miniature painter, has 
 left excellent portraits of Charles I. and his Queen and 
 many of the nobility. His nephew and pupil, Samuel 
 Cooper (1609 — 1672), was likewise a good miniaturist. 
 He painted excellent portraits of Oliver Cromwell and 
 Charles II. and his Court ; he was on intimate terms 
 with Pepys, by whom he is mentioned with praise. 
 
 James Gandy (1619 — 1689), a good painter, lived nearly 
 always in Ireland, in the service of the Duke of Ormond. 
 His son, William Gandy, who settled at Exeter, is also 
 considered as an artist of repute. 
 
 In London, one of the three sons of Nicholas Stone, 
 the celebrated sculptor, — Henry Stone, called " Old Stone " 
 (d. 1653) to distinguish him from his brothers, also painted 
 in the style of Van Dyck. In the National Portrait 
 Gallery there is a portrait by him of Inigo Jones, copied 
 from Van Dyck. But the greatest Englishman who 
 followed Van Dyck was — 
 
 William Dobson (1610 — 1646), a true artist, whose 
 portraits are worth little less than those of his master. 
 He studied under Francis Cleyn (d. 1658), and it is related 
 that Van Dyck having seen in a shop window a picture by 
 Dobson, took him into his studio and introduced him to 
 Charles I. After the death of Van Dyck, Dobson held the 
 posts of serjeant painter, and of groom of the privy cham- 
 ber, and in this office he accompanied the Court to Oxford, 
 where he painted the Portrait of the King. Dobson's 
 works are found in many of the l^est galleries of the 
 English nobility. 
 
 Robert Walker painted portraits of Cromwell, Sir 
 
In England. 601 
 
 Thomas Fairfax, Ireton, Fleetwood, and many of the men 
 connected with the Commonwealth. He died about 1660. 
 
 Robert Streater (1624 — 1680) painted many portraits, 
 altar-pieces, and ceilings. John Riley (1646 — 1691) was 
 also a portrait painter of repute. There are three of his 
 works in the National Portrait Gallery. 
 
 To name all the foreign artists who worked in England 
 during the first half of the seventeenth century is nearly 
 impossible. The most celebrated were Gerard Honthorst, 
 the two Netschers, Dirk Stoop (ab. 1612—1686 ?), and the 
 two Van de Veldes. Many of the works of these Dutchmen 
 are preserved in English galleries. 
 
 Peter Lely (1617 — 1680) appeared soon after the death 
 of Van Dyck. He had the same success; he painted 
 Charles I. and his Court ; then Cromwell and his soldiers ; 
 then Charles II. and all the beauties of his Court. His 
 genius suited admirably the witty and elegant ladies, and 
 the thoughtless cavaliers, who drowned in luxury and 
 pleasure the still recent recollection of Cromwell and the 
 Commonwealth. Lely painted them by hundreds. Many 
 of his portraits were at the Exhibitions at Manchester and 
 South Kensington. At Hampton Court there is a Gallery 
 full of them. Charles . II. made him a baronet. As soon 
 as Lely was dead, another famous painter succeeded him 
 at the Court, and soon monopolised the public taste : 
 
 Godfrey Kneller (1648 — 1723), who was born at Liibeck, 
 arrived at London in 1674, painted during the reigns of 
 Charles II., James IL, William III., Queen Anne, and of 
 George I., by whom he was created a baronet. 
 
 Kneller painted the greater part of the sovereigns 
 and princes of his time, including Louis XIV. and the 
 Czar Peter of Russia. He painted the great Duke of 
 
602 Painting 
 
 Marlborough ; Newton and Locke ; Sir Christopher Wren ; 
 Pope, Addison, Steele, Congreve, and other members of 
 the celebrated Kit Cat Club. About thirty of his portraits 
 were included in the Exhibitions at Manchester and at 
 South Kensington. At Hampton Court may be seen eight 
 (there were originally twelve) of the Series of " Hampton 
 Court Beauties," painted by Kneller for Queen Mary, in 
 rivalry with the more celebrated " Windsor Beauties " of 
 Lely, which now hang in a neighbouring room. By the 
 side of the German Kneller, were other foreigners : 
 
 Michael Dahl (1656 — 1743), a native of Stockholm, was 
 patronized by Queen Anne, and was popular as a portrait 
 painter. 
 
 Antonio Verrio (1634 — 1707), born in the Neapolitan 
 States, charmed England by his architectural paintings. 
 From 1676, he was in the pay of Charles II., and in a 
 few years cost the king nearly 10,000 guineas for the 
 decoration of Windsor Castle. In 1683, he was joined 
 by a Frenchman, Louis Laguerre. His father was a 
 Catalan, and held the post of keeper to the menagerie 
 at Versailles. When Verrio died at Hampton Court, 
 Laguerre continued the work until he himself died in 
 1721. The number of decorative works these two men 
 painted in England is truly wonderful, not only in public 
 buildings, at Windsor Castle, at Hampton Court, at the 
 Hospitals of Christ Church and St. Bartholomew, but 
 also in the town and country residences of the nobility. 
 Towards the close of his career, Laguerre had as an 
 assistant an Englishman ; 
 
 James Thornhill (1676—1734), who was born at Mel- 
 combe Regis. In his youth he visited France, and appears 
 to have there formed his style, especially on that of Le 
 
In England. 603 
 
 Bran. His principal works are in the cupola of St. Paul's, 
 London, the great hall of Greenwich Hospital, an apart- 
 ment at Hampton Court, a saloon of Blenheim Palace, 
 ceilings, and altar-pieces in the churches at Oxford. George 
 I. knighted him ; nevertheless, Sir James Thornhill, the 
 first English painter who received the honour of knight- 
 hood, would now perhaps have been forgotten, if he had not 
 been — in spite of himself — the father-in-law of Hogarth. 
 
 In the first half of the eighteenth century, Art, through- 
 out Europe, was in a state of entire decadence. The 
 brilliant schools which had flourished in the seventeenth 
 century in Flanders, Holland and Spain, had no successors 
 in their own countries. Italian art had sunk into the 
 grave with the last of the Bolognese school. Only France 
 at that time possessed a few original artists, who never- 
 theless held but an inferior position. 
 
 The painters, who appeared at the end of the seven- 
 teenth century, and at the beginning of the eighteenth, 
 and who were destined to be eclipsed by the true English 
 school, are, amongst others : Jonathan Bichardson (1665 — 
 1745), pupil and nephew, by marriage, of John Riley, and 
 author, in conjunction with his son, of several works on 
 art; Charles Jervas (1675 — 1739), an Irishman whose style 
 was formed under Kneller, and whom his friend Pope did 
 not hesitate to compare with Zeuxis ; Thomas Hudson 
 (1701 — 1779), the pupil of Bichardson, whose daughter he 
 married, and the master of Beynolds; Francis Hayman 
 (1708 — 1776), the master of Gainsborough; and some 
 others. 
 
 The National Portrait Gallery includes portraits by 
 many of these painters. 
 
604 Painting 
 
 3. English Painters of the Eighteenth Century. 
 
 William Hogarth, the founder of the English school of 
 painting, was born in London in 1697. In early life he 
 was, by his own wish, apprenticed to a silver-plate en- 
 graver. He had naturally a good eye and a fondness for 
 drawing, and soon found engraving shields and crests, to 
 be too limited an employment. His dislike of academic 
 instruction, and his natural and proper notion of seeing 
 art through stirring life are very visible in all he says 
 or writes. His first attempt at satire, of any merit, was 
 the Taste of the Town, engraved in 1724, which sharply 
 lashed the reigning follies of the day ; this was followed by 
 his Hudibras, published in the year 1726, the illustrations 
 of which were the first that marked him as a man above 
 the common rank. 
 
 In 1730, Hogarth married Jane, the only daughter of 
 Sir James Thornhill, the sergeant-painter and history- 
 painter to the king, without the consent of her father. 
 He then commenced portrait painting; "the most ill- 
 suited employment," says Walpole, " to a man whose turn 
 was certainly not flattery. " Yet his facility in catching 
 a likeness drew him a prodigious business for some time. 
 Amongst his best portraits are Captain Coram, the pro- 
 jector of the Foundling Hospital, David Garrick as 
 Richard III. starting from a couch in terror, and the 
 demagogue John Wilkes, and several portraits of Himself 
 all of which are very like. 
 
 He next turned his thoughts to painting and engraving 
 subjects of a modern* kind and moral nature; a field, he 
 says, not broken up in any country or any age. The first 
 of these compositions of which he speaks, and which have 
 
In England. 605 
 
 rendered his name immortal, was the Harlot's Progress. 
 It appeared in a series of six plates in 1734, and was 
 received with general approbation. The next to follow 
 was the Unices Progress, in a series of eight scenes, each 
 complete in itself, and all uniting in relating a domestic 
 history in a way at once natural, comic, satiric and serious. 
 The folly of man, however, was not so warmly welcomed 
 by the public as that of the woman had been. 
 
 The fame of Hogarth was now so well established, that 
 the popularity of his works excited printsellers to pirate 
 his works, so much so that Hogarth applied to Parliament, 
 and in 1735 obtained an Act for recognizing a legal 
 copyright in engravings. 
 
 In 1736 several more satires on the follies of London 
 appeared. The Sleeping Congregation, in which a heavy 
 parson is promoting, with all the alacrity of dulness, the 
 slumber of his flock, was followed by the Distressed Poet, 
 and Modern Midnight Conversation ; this last-named, in 
 which most of the figures are portraits, carried the name 
 of Hogarth into foreign lands, and is considered in France 
 and Germany to be the best of his single works. The 
 next print published was the Enraged Musician. It seems 
 impossible to increase the annoyance of this sensitive mortal, 
 who by the frogs on his coat appears to be a Frenchman, 
 by the addition of any other din. * " This strange scene/' 
 said a wit of the day, " deafens one to look at it." 
 
 The next production, the Strolling Actresses, was, says 
 Allan Cunningham, "one of the most imaginative and 
 amusing of all the works of Hogarth." It is now lost. 
 
 It is only possible to mention the next composition 
 pieces, the six scenes of Marriage-a-la-Mode — representing 
 profligacy in high life— which are in the National Gallery ; 
 
Painting in England. 607 
 
 and the four different stages of the Election of a Member 
 of Parliament ; as the dramatic story in the one, and the 
 varied scenes of an electioneering contest in the other, 
 would each require a volume to describe. In 1750 
 appeared the celebrated March of the Guards to Finchley, 
 which is full of humour, and strewn over with absurd- 
 ities. The original painting, on publication of the print, 
 was disposed of by a lottery. Hogarth presented some 
 tickets to the Foundling Hospital, and the winning card 
 was drawn by that fortunate institution. 
 
 The last work of Hogarth, worthy of his genius, and 
 known by the title of Credulity, Superstition, and Fana- 
 ticism, was issued early in 1764. Shortly afterwards, his 
 health began to decline. He was aware of this, and 
 purchased a small house at Chiswick, to which he retired 
 during the summer, amusing himself by making slight 
 sketches, and retouching his plates. He left Chiswick in 
 October of the same year, and returned to his residence in 
 Leicester Square. On the very next day he was seized 
 with a sudden illness, and, after two hours of suffering, 
 expired. Hogarth was buried without any ostentation in 
 the churchyard at Chiswick ; where a monument was 
 erected to his memory. 
 
 Richard Wilson (1714—1782) was the third son of a 
 clergyman at Pinegas in Montgomeryshire. Owing to the 
 influence of his uncle, Sir George Wynn, who took him to 
 London when quite young, he received a certain amount 
 of tuition in art from a painter of little note, named 
 Wright. In 1749 the young artist was considered worthy 
 to paint portraits of the Prince of Wales and the Duke of 
 York. At the age of thirty-six, he had managed to save 
 sufficient money to enable him to go to Italy, and it was 
 
608 Painting 
 
 there that, by a happy accident, be became acquainted 
 with the Italian artist Zuccarelli, who advised him to 
 study landscape painting. In this he was very successful, 
 as far as art was concerned, but as the taste for nature was 
 at that time but slowly growing, he did not find it a 
 lucrative employment for a man of his limited means. 
 His chief works are full of classic feeling ; among them 
 may be named the Death of Niobe's children (in the 
 National Gallery) ; Morning ; View of Rome ; Phaeton ; 
 Celadon and Amelia; the Tiber, near Rome; Adrian's 
 Villa, ; the Temple of Venus at Baice ; and Nymphs 
 Bathing ; from which it is easy to see that he did not 
 care to paint a scene simply for its own loveliness, but 
 only when it was invested with historic or mythologic 
 interest. Many of these works were engraved by the 
 celebrated William Woollett. 
 
 A pupil of Wilson, Sir George Howland Beaumont 
 (1753 — 1827), an amateur landscape painter, is better 
 known for his patronage of the fine arts than for his 
 work. He was one of the principal promoters of the 
 National Gallery. 
 
 Allan Ramsay (1713 — 1784), one of the best portrait- 
 painters of the period, was born at Edinburgh. After 
 receiving education in art in London, he went to Italy, 
 and on his return to London, established himself as a 
 painter. Ramsay subsequently paid three more visits to 
 Italy, and in 1767 was appointed painter to George III., 
 whose portrait he frequently took. He died at Dover, 
 where he had landed on his return from his last journey. 
 His portraits are noteworthy for truth to nature. Besides 
 being a painter, he was a man of great attainments. 
 
 George Smith (1714 — 1776), who was born at Chichester, 
 
In England. 609 
 
 is called " Smith of Chichester," to distinguish him from 
 the painter of the same name, of Derby. George Smith, 
 together with his two brothers, William and John, opened 
 a private academy, wherein they worked without instruc- 
 tion, except from nature and the old masters. George 
 Smith became famous as a landscape painter, and was so 
 far successful as to gain a premium from the Society 
 of Arts. 
 
 Joshua Reynolds, the son of a clergyman, was born at 
 Plympton, in Devonshire, in 1723, three months before the 
 death of Sir Godfrey Kneller. The boy's inclination to 
 drawing began to appear at an early date, and he eagerly 
 copied such prints as he found amongst his father's books. 
 He was sent to London in 1741, and was placed under 
 the care of Hudson, the most distinguished portrait-painter 
 at that time. After continuing for two years in his 
 employment, a disagreement took place between them, 
 and Reynolds returned to Devonshire, where he remained 
 for three years. When twenty-two years of age he took 
 a house at Plymouth Dock, where he resided about a year, 
 and then returned to London. 
 
 Rome, which is in reality to painters what Parnassus is 
 in imagination to poets, was frequently present to the fancy 
 of Reynolds ; and he longed to see with his own eyes the 
 glories in art, of which he heard so much. In the year 
 1749 his desire was realised. Captain Keppel, with whom 
 he had formed a friendship, was appointed Commodore in 
 the Mediterranean station, for the purpose of protecting the 
 British merchants from the insults of the Algerines, and 
 he invited Reynolds to accompany him. After paying 
 short visits to Gibraltar and Algiers, and a rather prolonged 
 stay at Minorca, Reynolds at length reached Rome. There 
 
 eha R R 
 
610 Painting 
 
 he seems to have employed his time chiefly in studying all 
 the varieties of excellence, and in acquiring that knowledge 
 of effect which he was so soon to display. The dignity of 
 Michelangelo or the beauty of Raphael he had no chance 
 of attaining, for he wanted loftiness of imagination, without 
 which no grand work can ever be achieved ; but he 
 had a deep sense of character, great skill in light and 
 shade, and an alluring sweetness, such as none has 
 surpassed. From the works of Leonardo da Vinci, Fra 
 Bartolommeo, Titian, and Velazquez, he acquired know- 
 ledge, which placed fortune and fame within his reach ; 
 yet of these artists he says little, though he acknowledged 
 the Portrait of Innocent X. by Velazquez to be the 
 finest in the world. From Rome, Reynolds travelled to 
 Florence, where he remained two months ; and thence to 
 Venice. He returned to London in October, 1752 ; and, 
 after visiting Devonshire for a few weeks, established 
 himself as a professional man in St. Martin's Lane, London, 
 where he rapidly rose to fame ; he soon changed his 
 residence for a handsome house in Great Newport Street, 
 and shortly afterwards commenced a friendship with 
 Samuel Johnson, which was continued to old age without 
 interruption. 
 
 In the year 1761, accumulating wealth began to have a 
 visible effect on Reynolds's establishment. He quitted 
 Great Newport Street, purchased a fine house in Leicester 
 Square, furnished it with much taste, and added a splendid 
 gallery for the exhibition of his works. 
 
 The Royal Academy was planned and proposed in 1768 
 by Chambers, West, Cotes and Moser; the caution or 
 timidity of Reynolds kept him for some time from assisting. 
 A list of thirty members was made out; and West, a 
 
In England. 611 
 
 prudent and amiable man, called on Reynolds, and, in a 
 conference of two hours' continuance, succeeded in per- 
 suading him to join them. He ordered his coach, and, 
 accompanied by West, entered the room where his brother 
 artists were assembled. They rose up to a man, and 
 saluted him "President." He was affected by the com- 
 pliment, but declined the honour till he had talked with 
 Johnson and Burke ; he went, consulted his friends, and 
 having considered the consequences carefully, then con- 
 sented. The King, to give dignity to the Royal Academy 
 of Great Britain, bestowed the honour of knighthood on 
 the first President ; and seldom has any such distinction 
 been bestowed amidst more universal approbation. John- 
 son was so elated with the honour conferred on his friend, 
 that he drank wine in its celebration, though he had 
 abstained from it for several years. 
 
 About the close of the summer of 1773 Sir Joshua 
 visited his native place, and was elected Mayor of Plympton, 
 a distinction so much to his liking that he assured the 
 King — whom on his return he accidentally encountered, 
 in one of the walks at Hampton Court — that it gave him 
 more pleasure than any other he had ever received, 
 " excepting (he added, recollecting himself), excepting that 
 which your Majesty so graciously conferred on me — the 
 honour of knighthood." 
 
 In this year he exhibited the Strawberry Girl at the 
 Academy. This work Sir Joshua always maintained was 
 one of * the half-dozen original things " which he declared 
 no man ever exceeded in his life's work. He repeated the 
 picture several times ; the original is now in the possession 
 of Sir Richard Wallace. Sir Joshua distinguished himsel 
 above all his brother artists by his Fortune- Teller, his 
 
 R r 2 
 
Fig. 180.— The Age of Innocence. By Reynolds. 
 In the National Gallery. 
 
Painting in England. 613 
 
 portraits of Miss Kemble, and of Mrs. Siddons as the 
 Tragic Muse, in the Grosvenor Gallery — replicas of which 
 are at Langley Park, Stowe, and in the Dulwich College 
 Gallery — all very noble compositions. 
 
 Sir Joshua had now reached his sixty-sixth year ; the 
 boldness and happy freedom of his productions were 
 undiminished; and the celerity of his execution, and the 
 glowing richness of his colouring, were rather on the 
 increase than the wane. His life had been uniformly 
 virtuous and temperate ; and his looks, notwithstanding 
 the paralytic stroke he had lately received, promised 
 health and long life. He was happy in his fame and 
 fortune, and in the society of numerous and eminent 
 friends ; and he saw himself in his old age without a 
 rival. But the hour of sorrow was at hand. One day, 
 while finishing a portrait, he felt a sudden decay of sight 
 in his left eye. He laid down the pencil ; sat a little 
 while in mute consideration, and never lifted it more. 
 His sight gradually darkened, and within ten weeks of 
 the first attack his left eye was wholly blind. 
 
 The last time that Reynolds made his appearance in the 
 Academy was in the year 1790 ; he addressed a speech 
 to the students on the delivery of the medals, and con- 
 cluded by expatiating upon the genius of his favourite 
 master, adding — "I should desire that the last words 
 which I should pronounce in this Academy, and from 
 this place, might be the name of Michelangelo." 
 
 On the 23rd of February, 1792, Sir Joshua expired, 
 without any visible symptoms of pain, in the sixty-ninth 
 year of his age. He was buried in one of the crypts of 
 St. Paul's cathedral, accompanied to the grave by many of 
 the most illustrious men of the land. He lies by the side 
 
614 Painting in England. 
 
 of Sir Christopher Wren. A statue to his memory by 
 Flaxman was afterwards placed in the cathedral. 
 
 Of historic and poetic subjects Reynolds painted upwards 
 of one hundred and thirty, of which the principal are the 
 Holy Family, the Snake in the Grass, the Age of Innocence 
 (Fig. 180), and Bobinetta, all in the National Gallery ; 
 Garrick between Tragedy and Comedy, Mrs. Siddons as 
 the Tragic Muse, Macbeth and the Witches, and Hercules 
 strangling the Serpents ; the last-named was painted for 
 the Empress Catherine of Russia, and for it she paid Sir 
 Joshua fifteen hundred guineas and added a gift of a gold 
 box, bearing her portrait set in diamonds. It is impossible 
 to state the exact number of portraits by Sir Joshua, as he 
 executed them in such vast numbers that he was obliged 
 to employ artists to paint the draperies and backgrounds. 
 No less than fourteen are in the National Gallery, and ten 
 are in the National Portrait Gallery. Of the Portraits of 
 the men who still occupy their station in history may be 
 mentioned Samuel Johnson, Oliver Goldsmith, Horace 
 Walpole, Laurence Sterne, Edmund Burke, Lord Heath- 
 field, Admiral Keppel, and Warren Hastings. Of the 
 ladies it is sufficient to say that there was scarcely one at 
 that time celebrated for her rank, accomplishments, or 
 beauty, who did not sit to Reynolds. There are more 
 than 700 engraved portraits now existing. 
 
 Thomas Gainsborough, who was born in the spring of 
 1727, at Sudbury, in Suffolk, where his father was a 
 clothier, showed signs of talent at a very early age : he 
 made a number of sketches of the scenery around his 
 native place, and local tradition still loves to point out his 
 favourite views. It is believed, on very authentic grounds, 
 that he went to London, for the education necessary to 
 
616 Patnting 
 
 cultivate his genius, when only fourteen years of age. He 
 there studied under Hayman, one of the founders of the 
 Royal Academy. Gainsborough remained in London four 
 years, during which time he very rapidly mastered the 
 secrets of his art. He then returned to Sudbury, where 
 he married, and then removed to Ipswich. Soon after- 
 wards he made the acquaintance of Philip Thicknesse, the 
 governor of Landguard Fort, near Harwich, who for many 
 years was his chief patron. In 1760 Gainsborough left 
 Ipswich and settled at Bath, where he made a great reput- 
 ation as a portrait painter. Sir Joshua Reynolds, when 
 delivering one of his lectures to the students of the Royal 
 Academy on the 'Character of Gainsborough,' said of 
 that artist " whether he most excelled in portraits, land- 
 scapes, or fancy pictures, it is difficult to determine." 
 When the Royal Academy was founded in 1768, he was 
 elected one of the original members. In 1774 he went to 
 London and rented part of Schomberg House, Pall Mall. 
 He died in 1788, and was buried in Kew churchyard. 
 
 Gainsborough was passionately fond of music ; was ex- 
 tremely kind and thoughtful in all his dealings with his 
 friends, and generous to his relations. His pictures are 
 very numerous; among them we may draw attention to 
 the Blue Boy, belonging to the Duke of Westminster, the 
 Cottage Door, a Cottnge Girl with a dog and pitcher, the 
 Young Lavinia, the Duchess of Devonshire, the Portrait of 
 Mrs. Siddons in the National Gallery, and the Boy at the 
 Stile, presented to Colonel Hamilton in exchange for a 
 violin. His portrait of the celebrated Duchess of Devon- 
 shire was recently sold for upwards of £10,000. There 
 are twelve pictures by him in the National Gallery, and 
 three in the National Portrait Gallery. 
 
 
In England. 617 
 
 As cotemporaries of Reynolds and Gainsborough, we 
 may name George Stubbs (1724 — 1806), one of the best 
 animal painters in England, and Sawrey Gilpin (1733 — 
 1807), both painters of horses; George Barret (1728 — 
 1784), and Julius Caesar Ibbetson (1759—1817), both 
 landscape painters ; and as foreign artists who worked in 
 England in the eighteenth century, and to some extent 
 influenced the English style — Giovanni B. Cipriani (1727 
 — 1785), Angelica Kauffman (1740 — 1807), already men- 
 tioned in speaking of the foreign schools ; Francesco 
 Znccarelli (1702 — 1788), to whose advice the adoption of 
 landscape painting by Wilson was mainly due ; and Philip 
 James de Loutherbourg (1740 — 1812), a celebrated scene 
 painter. 
 
 Benjamin West (1738 — 1820) was born in America, and 
 is said to have obtained his first colours, made of the juice 
 of leaves and berries, from the Bed Indians. He was self- 
 taught, and brought with him to his adopted country all 
 the American independence of spirit in which he had been 
 bred. His determination to avoid imitation, and to work 
 out an original manner for himself, are perhaps to be 
 deprecated, as he had scarcely sufficient genius for the 
 task ; but his works were a great advance on the conven- 
 tional mode of treatment of historic subjects, and the intro- 
 duction in his important compositions of cotemporaneous 
 costumes, although much blamed at the time, was instru- 
 mental in breaking down some of the trammels by which 
 historic painters and sculptors were bound. His colouring 
 is feeble, and his figures are wanting in life and character ; 
 but in some of his best works — such as Christ healing the 
 Sick in the Temple, in the National Gallery; Christ Re- 
 jected ; Death on the Pale Horse ; and the Death of General 
 
'AINTING 
 
 Wolfe, in the possession of the Duke of Westminster, a 
 replica of which is at Hampton Court — he displayed con- 
 siderable technical skill and refinement of feeling. West, 
 who was much patronized by the King (George III.), was 
 one of the first members of the Royal Academy, and 
 succeeded Sir Joshua Reynolds as president of that 
 institution in 1792. 
 
 James Barry (1741 — 1806), a native of Cork, en- 
 deavoured, like West, to paint historic subjects in the 
 grand style. His works are characterized by force of con- 
 ception rather than power of execution ; he was deficient 
 in knowledge of form and in feeling for truth of colouring ; 
 but the energetic perseverance with which he worked on 
 against every disadvantage is worthy of high respect. His 
 best designs are the series of allegoric pictures painted 
 gratuitously for the Society of Arts, on the walls of their 
 room in the Adelphi, at a time when he had to work 
 at night for the booksellers to gain a scanty subsistence. 
 
 John Singleton Copley (1737 — 1815) was born in 
 America, of Irish parents. He was less ambitious than 
 West or Barry, and succeeded more fully in reaching his 
 aims. Some of his historic compositions show great 
 dramatic power and truth to nature — as, for example, the 
 Death of Chatham and the Death of Major Peirson, both 
 in the National Gallery. The former is grandly conceived, 
 well executed, and valuable as containing a group of 
 faithful portraits of great men of the time ; and the latter 
 is full of the deepest pathos, and is moreover set in the 
 actual scene in which the tragic incident took place — viz., 
 the market-place of S. Heliers, Jersey, taken by the 
 French in 1781. Other great historic pictures by Copley 
 are Charles I. ordering the arrest of five Members of the 
 
In England. 619 
 
 House of Commons ; the Assassination of Buckingham, 
 and King Charles signing Strafford's death warrant. 
 
 Of the numerous artists who endeavoured with greater 
 or less success to follow the leaders whom we have just 
 named, the principal were : — 
 
 George Romney (1734 — 1802), who executed several 
 portraits and simple groups characterized by dignified 
 refinement, truth of form, and individuality of character. 
 Of his portraits those of Lady Hamilton and The Parsons 
 Daughter in the National Gallery, and of his groups 
 Newton showing the effects of the Prism; Milton dictating 
 to his Daughters ; and the Infant Shakespeare surrounded 
 by the Passions, are among the most esteemed. In his 
 best paintings, Romney was considered equal to Reynolds 
 and Gainsborough. 
 
 Joseph Wright (1734 — 1797), of Derby, a historic painter 
 whose finest work, an Experiment with the Air-pump, is 
 in the National Gallery, was celebrated for his fire-light 
 subjects. 
 
 Heinrich Fuessly, known in England as Henry Fuseli 
 (1741 — 1825), a native of Zurich, was an artist of great 
 power, often, however, tending to extravagance ; he is well 
 known by his illustrations of the English poets. As pro- 
 fessor of painting at the Royal Academy, he fostered the 
 genius of many of the rising men of his day. He attained 
 in his own works as near to the grandeur of Michelangelo 
 as any British painter. 
 
 James Northcote (1746 — 1831) painted several import- 
 ant historic pictures in a bold and forcible manner, one 
 of which — the Presentation of British Officers to Pope 
 Pius VI. — is in the South Kensington Museum. He 
 made many designs for Boydell's ' Shakespeare.' 
 
620 Painting 
 
 John Hoppner (1758 — 1810) was at one time a fashion- 
 able portrait painter and a rival of Sir Thomas Lawrence. 
 Three of his portraits are in the National Gallery. 
 
 Sir William Beechy (1753 — 1839) was very celebrated 
 in his time as a portrait-painter. His picture of George 
 III. at a Review, now at Hampton Court, gained him the 
 honour of knighthood and the Royal Academicianship. 
 
 William Blake (1757 — 1827), a painter, poet and en- 
 graver, became a visionary enthusiast, and charmed many 
 of his admirers with his wild imagination. 
 
 John Opie (1761 — 1807), successful both with por- 
 traits and historic subjects, is chiefly known by his Assas- 
 sination of David Rizzio — a powerful conception, full of 
 dramatic energy, but somewhat carelessly executed — and 
 by his William Siddons in the National Gallery. 
 
 George Morland (1763 — 1804) was a landscape and 
 animal painter of great merit, whose works are faithful and 
 happy renderings of simple English country scenes, such 
 as the well-known Reckoning in the South Kensington 
 Museum. Morland deserves special recognition as one of 
 the first English painters to do for English peasants what 
 was so ably done by the great Dutch masters for the 
 lower classes of Holland ; but his hasty and often careless 
 execution does not bear comparison with the careful finish 
 of the masters of the Dutch school. His masterpiece, 
 Inside of a Stable, is in the National Gallery. He was a 
 dissipated man, and died in misery. 
 
 Abraham Cooper (1787 — 1868) was one of the most 
 successful animal painters of his day. 
 
In England. 621 
 
 4. Early English Water-colour Painters. 
 
 At the close of the eighteenth century the art of Water- 
 colour Painting, properly so called (now carried to such 
 great perfection by British artists), was first practised in 
 England. Water colours had long been employed by 
 miniature painters and illuminators; but their use for 
 large and important works was mainly due to the efforts 
 of the book illustrators, who worked for the enthusiastic 
 antiquaries of the close of the eighteenth and beginning 
 of the nineteenth centuries, and strove to give, with 
 such means as they had at their disposal, faithful deline- 
 ations of the scenes described in their patrons' works. 
 
 To John Robert Cozens (1752 — 1799) is due the honour 
 of first raising landscape painting in water colours to the 
 position of an independent art. Redgrave says in his 
 ■ Century of Painters,' " his works go little beyond light 
 and shade and suggestion of colour, but they are full of 
 poetry. There is a solemn grandeur in his Alpine views ; 
 a sense of vastness and a tender tranquillity in his pictures 
 that stamp him as a true artist ; a master of atmospheric 
 effects, he seems fully to have appreciated the value of 
 mystery." The fine collection of English water-colour 
 drawings at the South Kensington Museum contains three 
 works by Cozens. 
 
 A great cotemporary of him, Paul Sandby (1725 — 1809), 
 who painted in solid opaque tempera colours as well as in 
 water colours, is well represented there by four character- 
 istic works, which very distinctly betray the influence of 
 Cozens. 
 
 Others who contributed to lay the foundations of our 
 great school of water-colour painting were William Payne 
 
622 Painting 
 
 (the exact date of whose birth and death is unknown, 
 but who was cotemporary with Cozens) ; John Smith 
 (1749—1831) of Warwick; and, above all, Thomas Girtin 
 (1773—1802), and the great Joseph Mallord William 
 Turner, all of whom are well represented in the South 
 Kensington Museum. 
 
 Thomas Girtin, the cotemporary and rival of Turner, 
 was, like him, London bred, and a faithful interpreter of 
 the atmospheric effects peculiar to the smoke-laden city 
 and its environs. To the delicate execution and poetic 
 feeling of Cozens, he added a force and clearness of 
 colouring, with a general balance and harmony of tone 
 such as had never before been attained in water-colour 
 painting ; whilst Turner, by his perfect combination of all 
 the great qualities of his cotemporaries, combined with 
 that peculiar delicacy of execution and mastery of aerial 
 effects of every variety in which he has never been 
 surpassed, may be said to have completed the develop- 
 ment of the art. 
 
 George Barret (died 1842), John Varley (1778—1842), 
 William Henry Pyne (1769—1843), John Glover (1767— 
 1849), William Delamotte (1775—1863), William Havell 
 (1782—1857), and J. Cristall (1767—1847), who with 
 several others were the true founders of the Water-colour 
 Society, were members of the same school, and are all 
 represented by their works at the South Kensington 
 Museum. 
 
 5. English Painters of the Nineteenth Century. 
 
 The first great name which meets the student of paint- 
 ing in England in the nineteenth century is that of Sir 
 Thomas Lawrence (1769 — 1830), a portrait painter, whose 
 
In England. 623 
 
 works, chiefly in oils, are characterized by great delicacy 
 of feeling, but are slight in execution, wanting in force 
 and individuality of character. His numerous likenesses 
 of the celebrities of his day have great historic value, 
 although they scarcely take rank as portraits of the 
 highest excellence. The Waterloo Gallery at Windsor 
 Castle contains a fine collection of Lawrence's works : the 
 portraits of the Emperor Francis, of Pius VII., and 
 Cardinal Gonsalvi, are especially famous. The National 
 Gallery possesses nine examples of his best works. 
 
 Sir Henry Raeburn (1756 — 1823) was one of the chief 
 cotemporaries of Lawrence, and carried the art of por- 
 trait painting in oils to great perfection. He began life 
 as a miniature painter, and was extremely successful in 
 catching likenesses. He is said to have modelled his 
 style on that of Reynolds, and to have acquired much 
 of his manner of treating chiaroscuro and masses of 
 colour. Four portraits by him are in the National Portrait 
 Gallery; the greater number is in the Edinburgh Aca- 
 demy, of which he was president — but we may add that 
 his portraits include those of Sir Walter Scott, Sir David 
 Baird, Dugald Stewart, Francis Jeffrey, and many other 
 great men who have passed away. 
 
 William Owen (1769—1825), Sir Martin Archer Shee 
 (1769 — 1850), Thomas Phillips (1770 — 1845), George 
 Henry Harlow (1787 — 1819), and Sir John Watson Gordon 
 (1790 — 1864), must be named as portrait painters in oils, 
 cotemporary with Lawrence and Raeburn. 
 
 Thomas Stothard (1755 — 1834), one of the first and 
 best of English book illustrators, painted several important 
 paintings remarkable for richness of colouring and force 
 of invention. The allegoric composition of Intemperance 
 
624 Painting 
 
 on a staircase at Burleigh House, and the Canterbury 
 Pilgrims, are among the best known and most popular 
 of Stothard's independent pictures. His illustrations to 
 'Rogers's Poems' are exquisite little gems. 
 
 Joseph Mallord William Turner (1775 — 1851) was 
 not only the greatest English landscape painter, but the 
 greatest interpreter of nature of any time or country. 
 No landscapes convey so natural and complete a sense of 
 light and shadow and atmosphere, or so entire a mastery 
 of colour as his. His great success was only obtained by 
 laborious study, which he pursued with unwearied assiduity, 
 winning secret after secret in years of patient toil, until at 
 last he attained to the zenith of a landscape painter's 
 ambition — the power of rendering sunlight in something 
 of its truth and fulness, a task which had baffled all his 
 predecessors, and still baffles his followers and imitators. 
 
 Turner's special characteristics have been rendered 
 familiar to us all by the admirable engravings of John Pye, 
 Robert Wallis, and others. Every one has felt the subtle 
 charm of his atmospheric effects, and marvelled at the 
 vivid truth of his rendering of water in every form. The 
 tempest-tossed ocean, the desolate wastes of the sea in 
 repose, the jagged rain-cloud, the drifting shower, the 
 lowering fog, the distant river — all live again on his 
 canvas. But perhaps not every one has fully realized 
 the moral meaning of his works — the pathetic contrasts 
 they so often present between the self - sufficiency of 
 nature, even when most deeply troubled or wildly agitated, 
 and the dependence of man upon human sympathy for 
 solace and support. In such works as Ulysses deriding 
 Polyphemus, the Fire at Sea, and the Shipwreck (all in 
 the National Gallery), the solemn irresponsiveness of the 
 
In England. 625 
 
 elements whilst the children of the earth are fighting 
 out their terrible battle strikes us with a feeling akin to 
 pain, whilst suggestions of human suffering and failure 
 add a pathetic sadness to many a scene of lonely beauty. 
 
 Turner painted both in oils and water colours, and there 
 is no doubt that much of the transparent brightness of his 
 pictures in oils is the result of his application to them of 
 the principles generally confined to water colours. In 
 the words of Redgrave (' Century of Painters '), " It is 
 this water-colour tendency of art, and this constant re- 
 currence to nature, that gives the interpreting key to all 
 his after practice." 
 
 It would delay us too long to attempt to trace the 
 gradual development of Turner's peculiar style as illus- 
 trated in the fine collections of his works in the national 
 galleries ; we can only name a few typical examples from 
 the long lists given in Ru skin's ' Modern Painters ' and 
 Redgrave's ' Century of Painters ' : — The Beach at 
 Hastings, the property of Sir A. A. Hood ; Line Fishing 
 off Hastings, in the South Kensington Museum; and 
 JEneas with the Sibyl, in the National Gallery, are among 
 his earlier works, produced at a time when his practice 
 was largely based upon the manner of the best Dutch 
 landscape painters and that of Claude Lorrain; and when 
 he was far from having attained that mastery of light which 
 distinguished his best time. The Calais Pier and Ulysses 
 deriding Polyphemus belong to the middle of his career. 
 Childe Harold's Pilgrimage ; the Temeraire ; Venice, from 
 the canal of the Guidecca ; and the Approach to Venice (well 
 known from the engraving after it by Robert Wallis), are 
 amongst his finest pictures, and were produced late in life, 
 but before any diminution of his powers was noticeable. 
 
 eha s s 
 
Painting in England. 627 
 
 In these works daring composition and brilliant effect are 
 carried to their utmost pitch. In the pictures of his last 
 years, the artist, either through a failure of his eyesight or 
 from some other cause, devoted himself to attempts to 
 depict effects of extreme light, such as the means at a 
 painter's command are quite unable to imitate; and his 
 latest works are from this cause by no means his finest. 
 In addition to two hundred and seventy-five large pictures, 
 he published numerous and important series of landscapes 
 and designs as illustrations of books, which were repro- 
 duced by the best engravers of the day. His Liber 
 Studiorum, or book of landscape studies, produced in rivalry 
 of the Liber Veritatis of Claude, would alone have made 
 the reputation of any other artist : it was followed by the 
 series of Southern Coast Scenery, the Rivers of England, 
 the Rivers of France, etc. 
 
 Turner's influence is very distinctly noticeable in the 
 works of Callcott, Collins, Creswick, Roberts, and other 
 distinguished landscape painters, whilst many of his 
 immediate successors may be said to have formed their 
 style on his. At the head of these stands 
 
 John Crome (1768 — 1821), an oil painter who founded 
 an important school at Norwich, and was chiefly remark- 
 able for grand effects produced by simple means — a clump 
 of trees or a bit of heath becoming full of poetry in his 
 hands. As typical examples of his manner we may name 
 Household Heath , and Chapel Field, Norwich, in the 
 National Gallery. A fine collection of his works was 
 shown at the Exhibition of " Old Masters " in 1878. His 
 son John Bernay Crome (1793 — 1842) was also a painter. 
 
 Other prominent members of the Norwich School of 
 landscape painters were — 
 
 S S 2 
 
628 Painting 
 
 James Stark (1794 — 1859), who was an able follower 
 of Crome, and sent pictures to many of the London 
 Exhibitions. His views of the " scenery of the Yare and 
 Waveney " were engraved by Goodall, Cookes and others. 
 
 George Vincent (fl. ab. 1811 — 1862), famous for his sun- 
 light effects, and John Sell Cotman (1782 — 1842), known 
 for his landscapes and sea-pieces, and his engravings of 
 architectural views. None of these artists are represented 
 in the National Gallery : but works by them were shown 
 at the "Old Masters" in 1878. 
 
 John Constable (1776 — 1837) was pre-eminently an 
 English painter ; a most faithful exponent of English 
 cultivated scenery — a branch of landscape neglected even 
 by Turner. Like Crome, Constable required but few 
 materials for the production of his finest works; his 
 Hampstead Heath (No. 36 in the South Kensington 
 Museum, — which contains a good collection of his land- 
 scapes) is merely a country view, with two donkeys in the 
 foreground, but it is instinct with thought and feeling, and 
 betrays the most earnest study of nature. Constable 
 delighted in painting the sun high in the heavens, and 
 his works are mostly pervaded by a luminous glow of 
 light, and are, moreover, remarkable for brilliancy of 
 colouring, truth and harmony of tone, and thorough 
 mastery of the infinite variety of misty atmospheric 
 effects peculiar to the showery English climate. The 
 influence of Constable is very marked in the works of 
 Leslie and others of his English cotemporaries ; and the 
 exhibition of his Ray -wain at Paris in 1824 is thought to 
 have had much influence on the French school of landscape 
 painting, which has now risen into such great importance. 
 There are four of his best pictures, including the Cornfield 
 
In England. 629 
 
 and the Valley Farm, in the National Gallery. He is one 
 of the few English artists represented in the Louvre, which 
 has five landscapes by him. 
 
 Sir Augustus Wall Callcott (1779—1844), the brother 
 of the celebrated Dr. Callcott, the musical , composer, 
 began life as a portrait painter in oils, but early directed 
 his attention to landscapes, and quickly attained to high 
 rank as a renderer of Italian, Dutch and English scenery. 
 His smaller works, many of which are in the national col- 
 lections, are considered his best, and are chiefly remarkable 
 for breadth and purity of colouring. Towards the close 
 of his career Callcott produced several sacred and historic 
 pictures, of which the Raphael and Fornarina and Milton 
 and his Daughters are the principal. Although showing 
 good taste and feeling for beauty, they are generally 
 speaking inferior to his landscapes. The National Gallery 
 has nine of his works. 
 
 William Collins (1788 — 1847) was an excellent painter 
 of English rural and seaside scenery, in which the figures 
 and incidents introduced were treated in an extremely 
 lifelike and effective manner. He studied under Mor- 
 land, and spent some time in Italy, producing several 
 fine Italian landscapes, such as the Caves of Ulysses at 
 Sorrento, and the Bay of Naples in the South Kensington 
 Museum ; but his true sphere was English out-door life, 
 and his Happy as a King, the Prawn Catchers, Rustic 
 Civility — all in the national collections — and Sunday 
 Morning, the Sale of the Pet Lamb, Fishermen on the 
 Look-out, and many similar works in private possession, 
 are simple and lifelike renderings of incidents with which 
 every Englishman is familiar. 
 
 Clarkson Stanfield (1794—1867), who began his artist 
 
630 Painting 
 
 life as a scene-painter, stands at the head of the English 
 realistic school of landscape painting. His works are 
 chiefly characterised by the entire absence of any attempt 
 to produce effect by artificial means; they are simple, 
 faithful renderings of actual scenes, and if sometimes 
 wanting in vitality, they are, many of them, valuable 
 as exact copies of foreign localities and buildings of note. 
 Of this class are the Castello oVIschia from the Mole ; the 
 Isold Bella, Lago Maggiore ; Mount S. Michael, Cornwall, 
 in the South Kensington Museum, and many other similar 
 works. Stanfield took especial pleasure in painting the 
 open sea when unruffled by storms, and has admirably 
 rendered it in all its moods of calm. His sea-pieces with 
 shipping are too numerous to be mentioned here, but we 
 may add that the Entrance to the Zuyder Zee — Texel 
 Island, and the Lake of Como, the Canal of the Giudecca 
 with the Church of the Jesuits, all in the National Gallery, 
 are fine examples of his manner ; and that works such as 
 The Day after the Wreck, and A Butch East Indiaman 
 on Shore in the Scheldt prove that he was not unable 
 to do justice to scenes of a less peaceful character. 
 
 John Martin (1789 — 1854) was in every respect a 
 contrast to Stanfield ; he adopted the grand style, both in 
 landscape and architecture, and idealised all he touched. 
 His works exhibit great dramatic power, and in the words 
 of Wilkie, " his great element seems to be the geometrical 
 properties of space, magnitude, and number — in the use of 
 which he may be said to be boundless." The Belshazzar's 
 Feast and the Fall of Nineveh are considered his best 
 works, but some idea of his peculiarities may be gathered 
 from his Destruction of Pompeii and Herculaneum in the 
 National Gallery. Martin's large subjects are painted in oils, 
 
In England. 631 
 
 but he also produced many beautiful and poetic sketches 
 of English scenery in water-colours, one of which — a view 
 from Richmond Park — is in the South Kensington Museum. 
 Francis Danby (1793 — 1861), a man gifted with a vivid 
 sense of the pathos of human life and the touching sadness 
 of natural scenery in its lonely beauty, painted alike in 
 oils and water-colours. Amongst his most striking pictures 
 we may name the Upas or Poison tree of Java (now in the 
 South Kensington Museum), which exercises a peculiar 
 fascination on the spectator : Disappointed Love, also in 
 the same museum, is remarkable for the manner in which 
 the gloom of the stagnant waters harmonises with the 
 dejection of the young girl beside them. The Sunshine 
 after a Shower, the Sunset at Sea after a Storm, and the 
 Overthrow of Pharaoh and his Host in the Red Sea, are 
 all in private possession. Effects of gloom, and the glow of 
 sunset or sunrise, were the peculiar province of this artist. 
 David Roberts (1796—1864), like Stanfield, began life 
 as a scene-painter in a theatre, and in his oil paint- 
 ings and water-colour drawings retained much of the 
 rapidity of execution and mechanical dexterity which he 
 had acquired in the early portion of his career. His works 
 are characterised by picturesque grouping of figures and 
 truthful rendering of architecture. He is most popularly 
 known by a series of studies in Egypt and the Holy Land, 
 published in lithography from his sketches. These show 
 his power and accuracy as a draughtsman. His oil-paint- 
 ings, which include representations of most of the famous 
 buildings of the world, evince, in addition to a masterly 
 though often careless power of drawing, a profound know- 
 ledge of effect, and a keen eye for the picturesque— with, 
 however, but indifferent feeling for colour. Among his 
 
632 Painting 
 
 best works may be named his pictures of the exterior and 
 interior of S. Stephen's, Vienna. The national collections 
 at South Kensington and Trafalgar Square are rich in 
 characteristic oil-paintings by Roberts; and the former 
 also contains two water-colours from his hand. 
 
 Richard Parkes Bonington (1801—1828), an English- 
 man by birth, was educated in France, and had acquired 
 considerable reputation in that country before he became 
 known in England. He painted both in oils and water- 
 colours; and in the words of Redgrave ('Century of 
 Painters'), "his works were marked by their originality. 
 He was a master of the figure, which he painted with 
 much grace. He succeeded equally well in his marine 
 and coast scenes and in his picturesque architecture of 
 the Italian cities. His works differed from those of his 
 countrymen mostly in the simple breadth of the masses 
 both of light and of shadow, and in his appreciation of 
 the change which shadow induced on the local colour." 
 Like Constable, Bonington exercised a great influence 
 both on English and French painting, especially on those 
 artists who employed water-colours. Owing to his long 
 residence abroad, he is very inadequately represented in 
 our national collections, but an exceedingly valuable 
 series of his works is in the possession of Sir Richard 
 Wallace : the most famous of these is his Henri IV. and 
 the Spanish Ambassador. In the Louvre is his Francis I. 
 and the Duehesse d'Etampes. 
 
 Patrick Nasmyth (1787 — 1831) has been likened to 
 the Dutch Hobbema, on account of the simple homely 
 beauty of his landscapes and his vividly truthful ren- 
 dering of rustic life. He was essentially a realistic 
 painter, and as such is held in high esteem at the 
 
In England. 633 
 
 present day. Three small landscapes are the only works 
 by Nasmyth in the national galleries of London, but they 
 are good examples of his peculiar excellences, which may 
 be summed up as truthful detail, forcible effect, and 
 modest but harmonious colouring, rather inclined to be 
 heavy and dark. He rarely ventured on a large or com- 
 plicated composition. 
 
 At the head of the genre painters of England stands 
 Sir David Wilkie (1785 — 1841), a Scotchman, with whose 
 vivid renderings of homely Scotch life we are all familiar ; 
 but Edward Bird (1772— 1819)— well represented in the 
 National Gallery by his Baffle for the Watch — deserves 
 recognition as having been to some extent the fore- 
 runner of Wilkie, and the first to introduce the humorous 
 element which is so important a feature of British genre 
 painting. 
 
 Wilkie in some respects resembled his great prede- 
 cessor Hogarth, but in the works of the latter the moral 
 to be conveyed is always the first thing to strike the 
 observer, whilst in those of the former kindly humour 
 rather than satire is the predominant feature. Until 
 1825 Wilkie painted genre pictures exclusively, winning 
 a reputation never surpassed, by his Village Politicians 
 (Fig. 183), Blind Fiddler, the Bent Day, the Village Festi- 
 val, the Letter of Introduction, Duncan Gray, Distraining 
 for Bent (many of them in the national collections at South 
 Kensington and Trafalgar Square), the Penny Wedding, 
 and the Chelsea Pensioners, in the possession of the Duke 
 of Wellington, and many other similar works. These early 
 compositions are mostly of cabinet size, and are all alike 
 characterized by simple and effective treatment of familiar 
 incident. Many of them are crowded with figures ; they 
 
Painting in England. 635 
 
 are painted in a pure and transparent colour which cannot 
 be called either rich or brilliant, but which admirably 
 fulfils all the requirements of the subject chosen. In the 
 year 1825 Wilkie went to Italy, and on his return to Eng- 
 land completely changed his style and mode of execution. 
 His later works — such as the Maid of Saragossa, and his 
 John Knox Preaching, in the National Gallery — although 
 they have a charm of their own, and display considerable 
 dramatic force and power of picturesque grouping, are 
 wanting in the vitality of those enumerated above. In an 
 attempt to imitate the broad, rich colouring of Titian and 
 Velazquez, Wilkie lost the quiet harmony and balance 
 of tone by which he had been distinguished. But for 
 his early death, however, he would probably have con- 
 quered these deficiencies, and have risen to a high position 
 as an historic painter in the grand style. Wilkie painted 
 chiefly in oils, but the South Kensington Museum contains 
 some interesting water-colour sketches by him. 
 
 William Mulready (1786—1863), born at Ennis in 
 Ireland, ranks second only to Wilkie in his masterly 
 treatment of familiar incident, and is by some critics 
 thought to approach Turner in the finish and brilliant 
 colouring of his landscapes. His genre pictures exhibit 
 less dramatic power and less humour than those of Wilkie, 
 but in truth of drawing and sweetness and depth of 
 colouring they are inferior to none. Mulready' s easel 
 pictures are in oils ; but the South Kensington Museum 
 contains a fine collection of life-studies in chalk which 
 afford valuable specimens of careful drawing. Of his oil- 
 paintings the following (all of which are in the National 
 Gallery or the South Kensington Museum) are among the 
 most remarkable : The Last In, Crossing the Ford, the 
 
636 Painting 
 
 Fight Interrupted, Giving a Bite, First Love, the Toy 
 Seller , Choosing the Wedding Gown (his most popular work), 
 and the Seven Ages of Man. 
 
 Charles Robert Leslie (1794 — 1859), a distinguished 
 artist of American birth, practised genre painting of the 
 highest class. The leading characteristics of his works 
 are force of expression, refinement, and feeling for female 
 beauty. His subjects are principally illustrations of 
 popular authors, of which the Merry Wives of Windsor, 
 in the South Kensington Museum ; Sancho Panza, and 
 Uncle Toby and the Widow W adman, both in the National 
 Gallery, are among the most noteworthy. In all these 
 works the figures are wonderfully lifelike and natural — 
 the heroines especially being admirable renderings of 
 ideal creations. 
 
 But two other men who adopted similar subjects to the 
 three painters noticed above, remain to be mentioned. 
 We allude to Gilbert Stuart Newton (1795—1835) and 
 Augustus Leopold Egg (1816 — 1863). Newton, a native 
 of Nova Scotia, displayed considerable feeling for colour 
 and expression, but was wanting in knowledge of drawing. 
 His Portia and Bassano in the South Kensington Museum, 
 considered one of his best works, is a fine example of his 
 manner. Egg, whose untimely death was severely felt, 
 excelled Newton in drawing, but was inferior to him in 
 colouring. His works are characterized by pathetic beauty, 
 and are mostly pervaded by a subtle sadness. A scene 
 from Le Diable Boiteux, in the National Gallery, is con- 
 sidered one of his finest compositions, but we may also 
 mention the Life and Death of Buckingham, Past and 
 Present, the Night before Naseby, and Catherine and 
 Petruchio. 
 
In England. 637 
 
 Whilst landscape and genre painting were thus earnestly 
 practised by so many men of genius, and patronised by 
 the picture-buying public, a group of artists arose who 
 endeavoured, with more or less success, to perfect the 
 grand style in English historic painting. Of these, Henry 
 Howard, Benjamin Robert Haydon, William Hilton, 
 William Etty, and more recently, Sir Charles Eastlake and 
 Daniel Maclise were the chief. 
 
 Henry Howard (1769—1847), an oil-painter of great 
 industry and perseverance, cannot take high rank amongst 
 the artists of the present century ; his works are pretty 
 and pleasing, but never grand. A Flower-girl by him is 
 in the National Gallery. 
 
 William Hilton (1786 — 1839), a man of greater power 
 than Howard, produced many fine works ; some of them 
 — such as Christ crowned with thorns ; the Angel releasing 
 S. Peter; Edith and the Monks discovering the body of 
 Harold and Serena rescued by the Red Cross Knight, both 
 in the National Gallery — are characterized by ideal beauty 
 of design ; but unfortunately, owing to the undue use of 
 asphaltum, it is now difficult to fully realize their original 
 condition, and there appears to be no hope of their 
 preservation. 
 
 Benjamin Robert Haydon (1786 — 1846), whose life was 
 one long struggle with pecuniary difficulties, painted many 
 large historic and sacred works — of which Xenophon's First 
 Sight of the Sea, Christ's Entry into Jerusalem, and the 
 Raising of Lazarus (in the National Gallery), were among 
 the best. His power was unfortunately not equal to his 
 will ; and although the general effect of some of his com- 
 positions is good, a close examination betrays gross errors 
 of drawing and carelessness of execution. He was a vain 
 
638 Painting 
 
 and very ambitious man, and his want of success led to 
 his melancholy end. 
 
 Amongst painters of fruit and flowers in England, 
 George Lance (1802 — 1864) ranks with Van Huysum in 
 Holland. He was a pupil of Haydon. 
 
 "William Etty (1787 — 1849), a man of great industry, 
 stands alone as the English artist who has gone nearest 
 to a mastery of the difficulties of the nude human figure, 
 and has approached to the brilliant transparency of the 
 old Venetians in his flesh-tints. The early part of his 
 career was beset with difficulties of every kind : his merits 
 were unappreciated, his faults exaggerated, the technical 
 excellences of his work were not understood ; and as a 
 rule, the subjects he chose did not appeal with any force 
 to the popular sympathies. Yet, in spite of all these 
 discouragements, he worked out for himself an original 
 style, and won a place amongst the very first British 
 artists. To quote his own words, Etty's aim in all his 
 important pictures was " to paint some great moral on the 
 heart." The Combat, or Woman Pleading for Mercy; 
 Benaiah, David's Chief Captain ; Ulysses and the Syrens, 
 three pictures of Joan of Arc, and three of Judith, now in 
 the Royal Scottish Academy, are named by the artist 
 himself as his best works ; but we must also mention 
 Youth on the Prow and Pleasure at the Helm, the Bather, 
 and the Wife of Candaules, king of Lydia, in the National 
 Gallery ; and Venus Descending ; and Cupid sheltering 
 Psyche, in the South Kensington Museum, as extremely 
 fine examples of the beauty of form and truth of flesh- 
 tints characteristic of everything produced by Etty. 
 
 Sir Charles Eastlake (1793—1865), a man of high 
 scholarship and varied accomplishments, exercised an 
 
In England. 639 
 
 important influence on English painting of the present 
 day, both by his pictures and writings on art. His oil- 
 paintings, which are not numerous, are characterized by 
 delicate grace of execution, feeling for spiritual beauty, 
 and effective simplicity of grouping. Christ Lamenting 
 over Jerusalem, in the National Gallery, is considered his 
 masterpiece ; other examples are — Greek Fugitives in the 
 hands of Banditti ; Hagar and Ishmael, and several inci- 
 dents from Italian life. He was for many years President 
 of the Royal Academy, and also Director of the National 
 Gallery, of which for a few years he had been keeper. 
 
 Daniel Maclise (1811 — 1870), an Irishman by birth, 
 was a man of considerable original genius, with great 
 power of design and feeling for colour. He produced 
 numerous important works in oil-colours, of which the 
 Play scene in Hamlet, in the National Gallery; Sabrina 
 releasing the Lady from the Enchanted Chair, the Banquet 
 Scene in Macbeth, the Ordeal by Touch, and Robin Hood 
 and Richard Camr de Lion, were among the principal. 
 The latter years of Maclise's life were occupied in execut- 
 ing mural pictures (they cannot be called fresco pictures 
 in the strict sense of the word) for the decoration 
 of the Houses of Parliament, — of which the Meeting of 
 Wellington and Blucher and the Death of Nelson were 
 the chief. The cartoon for the former is in the possession 
 of the Royal Academy. Maclise's manner underwent a 
 great change after the commencement of the pre-Raphaelite 
 movement, and an almost painful attention to detail 
 encumbered his later works. The Eve of S. Agnes, one of 
 his latest exhibited easel pictures, may be referred to as a 
 typical example of his power and his high finish. 
 
 Edward Matthew Ward (1816—1879), one of the few 
 
<0 Painting 
 
 painters of historic subjects in England, formed his style 
 from a three years' study in the galleries of Rome. The 
 three pictures in the National Gallery, the Disgrace of Lord 
 Clarendon ; the South Sea Bubble ; and James II receiving 
 the news of the landing of the Prince of Orange, are sufficient 
 to show the character of his work. He was a most indus- 
 trious artist, and has left many paintings, several of which 
 have been engraved. 
 
 As portrait painters of the British school who attained 
 to eminence in the present century, we may name John 
 Jackson (1778—1831), John Watson Gordon (1790—1864), 
 Sir William Allan (1782 — 1850), all of whom are repre- 
 sented in the National Gallery, and the late President 
 of the Royal Academy, Sir Francis Grant (1803—1878), 
 who painted many excellent portraits of the nobility. 
 
 James Ward (1769 — 1859) was a very successful animal 
 painter, well known by his Council of Horses and Gordale 
 Scar, both in the National Gallery, and numerous fine 
 groups of animals, in the South Kensington Museum and 
 elsewhere. The fame of Ward, however, has been entirely 
 eclipsed by that of 
 
 Sir Edwin Landseer (1802 — 1873), who was so long at 
 the head of the animal painters of this country. He 
 stands alone as an interpreter of the thoughts and feelings 
 of the dumb creatures, and his compositions are chiefly 
 characterized by masterly drawing, delicacy of execution, 
 poetic feeling, and dramatic force. He had a rare power 
 of rendering textures ; his subtle and rapid execution 
 seemed equal to depicting with perfect ease and perfect 
 fidelity, fur, feathers, hair, horn — in short, perhaps every 
 texture, except human flesh. In the expression of animal 
 life he was absolutely unrivalled, though he did not 
 
 
In England. 641 
 
 attempt any of those furious hunting combats, for which 
 Snyders obtained such renown. His colouring is cold, 
 and the human figures in his groups are often wanting in 
 character and inferior in handling to the animals ; but, in 
 spite of these drawbacks, his paintings will always appeal 
 powerfully to the sympathies of educated and uneducated 
 alike. 
 
 Of Sir E. Landseer's oil-paintings, the following are 
 among the most celebrated: — Bolton Abbey; Hawking; 
 There's Life in the Old Dog yet; The Otter Speared; the 
 Sanctuary ; Coming Events cast their Shadows before; 
 the Stag at Bay, — all in private possession : and High 
 Life and Low Life ; Shoeing the Bay Mare ; Dignity and 
 Impudence; Peace; War; a, Dialogue at Waterloo; Alex- 
 ander and Diogenes ; and the Maid and the Magpie, — all 
 in the National Gallery; and A Jack in Office, and the 
 Shepherd's Chief Mourner, in the South Kensington 
 Museum. His drawings and sketches in pen and ink and 
 in water-colours are many of them scarcely less effective 
 than his completed pictures. 
 
 His elder brother Charles Landseer (1799 — 1879) was 
 a good painter of subject pieces. His most popular works 
 were the Sacking of Basing House and Nell Qwynne. 
 
 Thomas Creswick (1811 — 1869) made for himself an 
 undying fame as a painter of landscapes. His works are 
 thoroughly English in sentiment and execution. Several 
 well-known artists have collaborated with Creswick. 
 
 John Phillip (1817 — 1867) deserves notice on account 
 of the rare merit of his pictures, especially in point of 
 colour. He visited Seville twice and painted Spanish 
 scenes with success ; and a few of his latest pictures, such 
 as La Gloria (a Spanish wake) and the Prison Window, 
 
 eha t T 
 
'AINTING 
 
 are of the highest value as compositions, and have a 
 touching interest of genuine power. 
 
 John Frederick Lewis (1805 — 1876) succeeded equal! 
 in water-colours and in oil : in 1857 he was elected Presi- 
 dent of the Society of Painters in Water-Colours, and later 
 became a Royal Academician. His pictures are views, 
 with figures, in Spain, Italy and the East. His Interior o 
 a Harem gained him great reputation 
 
 William Edward Frost (1810 — 1877) painted pictures 
 very similar in subject to those of Etty : his female figures 
 are graceful, but he lacks the powerful colouring of his 
 rival. 
 
 Edward William Cooke (1811—1880) was one of the 
 best English marine painters of the present century. His 
 works may be seen both in the National Gallery and at 
 the South Kensington Museum. 
 
 Alfred Elmore (1815 — 1881) earned much renown as a 
 subject painter. 
 
 George Hemming Mason (1818 — 1872), who produced 
 many fine works of landscape and figure, painted both in 
 Italy and England : they are noteworthy for their fine 
 colouring. 
 
 6. Later English Water-colour Painters. 
 
 Before we close our notice of the British schools of 
 painting, it is our pleasant task to speak of a group of 
 men who are allowed, even by foreign critics, to be un- 
 rivalled in their peculiar line by any of their European 
 cotemporaries. We refer to the distinguished painters 
 in water-colours, who carried on the work inaugurated 
 by Cozens, Girtin and Turner. 
 
 John J. Chalon (1778—1854) and Thomas Heaphy 
 
 I 
 
In England. 643 
 
 (1775 — 1853) attained to considerable eminence as water- 
 colour artists in the early part of the present century ; but 
 were both far surpassed by 
 
 David Cox (1783 — 1859), who may be said, indeed, to 
 rank second only to Turner in fertility of imagination, 
 feeling for the poetry of nature, and power of rendering 
 the characteristic beauties of English landscapes. His 
 works are truly ideal productions, in which the leading 
 features are breadth and transparency of colour, truth of 
 foliage, whether at rest or in motion, and life-like play of 
 light and shade. Of Cox, Redgrave says, " No painter 
 has given us more truely the moist brilliancy of early 
 summer time, ere the sun has dried the spring bloom from 
 the lately-opened leaf. The sparkle and shimmer of 
 foliage and weedage in the fitful breeze that rolls away 
 the clouds from the watery sun, when the shower and 
 sunshine chase each other over the land, have never been 
 given with greater truth than by David Cox." A Welsh 
 Funeral is cited by the same author as a typical example 
 of his peculiar excellences; the series of landscapes 
 in the South Kensington Museum are eminently charac- 
 teristic. 
 
 Peter de Wint (1784 — 1849) worked out an original 
 style of his own, giving faithful and effective renderings 
 of the general aspects of nature and of vast expanses 
 of country, without any attempt at the finishing of details, 
 cultivating tone and colour rather than form. 
 
 Anthony Vandyke Copley Fielding (1787 — 1855), one 
 of the first English painters of the Sussex Downs, and of 
 marine effects, did much as President of the Water-Colour 
 Society to improve the position of the professors of his 
 own branch of art. 
 
 t T 2 
 
644 Painting 
 
 - George Fennel Robson (1790 — 1833) was an admirable 
 interpreter of the lake and mountain scenery of England. 
 
 Samuel Prout (1783 — 1852) excelled in drawing archi- 
 tecture, and has never been surpassed in rendering the 
 features of buildings. He was very chary of his work — a 
 little drawing was made by him to go a long way; but 
 then every line represented firmly and accurately as much 
 as it was intended to show. He had a keen sense of the 
 picturesque, his points of sight were well chosen, and his 
 grouping was always happy. As a colourist he was not 
 very successful. The South Kensington Museum contains 
 several valuable water-colour drawings by Prout. 
 
 Our limits forbid us to attempt any detailed account of 
 the many men who contributed to the development of the 
 present British School of water-colour painting, — such as 
 William Hunt (1790 — 1864), who is amongst the best 
 English colourists of the present century. Hunt's subjects 
 were usually either rustic scenes or fruit and flowers, and 
 his textures were marvellously rendered. His colouring 
 was that of Nature herself, and his finish has never been 
 excelled, if equalled. George Cattermole (1800 — 1868) 
 is chiefly distinguished for his lifelike figure painting. 
 
 Samuel Palmer (1805 — 1881), who owed much to the 
 teaching of his father-in-law, Mr. John Linnell, and to 
 Blake, whose works produced much impression on his 
 mind, was a landscape painter of no common order. His 
 works, especially his sun-sets, are characterized by an almost 
 too great brilliancy of colouring. He worked both in oil 
 and water-colour ; and is also celebrated for his etchings. 
 
 Francis William Topham (1808 — 1877) was a very suc- 
 cessful water-colour artist. His subjects are frequently 
 drawn from Italy, Spain, and from Scotland and Ireland. 
 
In England. 645 
 
 Frederick Walker (1840—1875), in his all too short 
 career, made himself justly famous for his pictures of 
 landscapes with figures : he was the only Englishman 
 who received a medal for water-colour painting at the 
 International Exhibition in Paris in 1867. 
 
 Looking round upon the general position of painting in 
 England at the present time, we find careful reference to 
 nature and independence of style the leading characteristics 
 of the professors of every branch of art. The movement 
 commenced in 1850 by a body of young artists, headed by 
 men still living, exercised a remarkable influence at the 
 time. Under the title of pre-Raphaelites, the members 
 of this school professed to repudiate all imitation of the 
 works of other men, and to ignore entirely all that was 
 done by Raphael and his school, taking the direct study 
 of nature as their chief inspiration. The leaders of this 
 school have, some of them, forsaken its principles; and 
 the movement may perhaps be said to be dying out, 
 having, however, no doubt served to stimulate an atten- 
 tion to detail and the study of nature. 
 
 Side by side with the pre-Raphaelites we find a few 
 
646 
 
 Painting in England. 
 
 
 able artists, endeavouring by their advocacy and example 
 to revive the true ideal style ; whilst others are per- 
 petuating the excellences of Wilkie in their treatment of 
 familiar incident. 
 
 In portraiture, in landscape painting, with or without 
 figures, and also in marine pictures, many artists maintain 
 the high reputation of the British school. 
 
XL Painting in America. 
 
 The last School of Painting which claims our atten- 
 tion, both from its merit and its promise of future ex- 
 cellence is that which, during the last hundred years, 
 has sprung up in America. Beginning, as in England, 
 with portraiture, this school has progressed until it now 
 numbers in its ranks many very excellent figure and 
 landscape painters. Indeed, if American Art can be said 
 to have a bias in favour of one branch of subjects rather 
 than the others, it must be said to be of landscape painting. 
 American works are constantly brought to Europe to be 
 exhibited, and are received with the greatest admiration. 
 
 In an article on American Art, Mr. S. G. W. Benjamin 
 (to whose writings we are indebted for much information 
 contained in the following short notice) says — ''There 
 is one fact connected with the early growth of our art 
 which is entirely contrary to the laws which have else- 
 where governed the progress of art, and is undoubtedly 
 due to the new and anomalous features of our social 
 economy. Elsewhere the art feeling has undeviatingly 
 sought expression first with earthenware or plastic art, 
 then with architecture and sculpture, and finally with 
 painting. We have entirely reversed this order. The 
 unsettled character of the population, especially at the 
 time when emigration from the Eastern to the Western 
 States caused a general movement from State to State, 
 together with the abundance of lumber at that time, 
 evidently offered no opportunity or demand for any but 
 the rudest and most rapidly constructed buildings, and 
 
648 Painting 
 
 anything like architecture and decorative work was natur- 
 ally relegated to a later period ; and foi the same reason, 
 apparently, the art of sculpture showed no sign of demand- 
 ing expression here until after the art of painting had 
 already formulated itself into societies and clubs, and been 
 represented by numerous artists of respectable abilities." 
 
 We here give a short account of those painters who 
 have, hitherto, been most distinguished ; regretting that 
 the plan of our book does not permit us to include the 
 names of living artists. 
 
 In spite of the stern Puritan feeling of the early settlers 
 in America which was most unfavourable to the culture 
 of the Fine Arts — there existed, as works still remaining 
 testify, portrait painters in America at a very early period : 
 but they were principally foreigners, and those of them who 
 were natives were influenced in a great measure by such 
 works of Van Dyck, Lely or Kneller, as the settlers in 
 the New World had taken out with them. John Watson 
 (1685 — 1768), a native of Scotland, who emigrated to 
 America in 1715, and painted portraits in Philadelphia; 
 and John Smybert (died 1751), who left England and 
 settled in Boston about ten years later, are but two of 
 the most prominent of a crowd of foreigners of more or 
 less merit, who earned a living by painting portraits in 
 America in the early years of the eighteenth century. 
 Smybert took with him to America a copy, done by himself, 
 of a work by Van Dyck, and this picture is said to have 
 produced great impression on the minds of Trumbull, 
 Allston and other famous painters. Robert Feke, of 
 Newport — a town which produced several early American 
 painters of note — who acquired a little knowledge of art in 
 
In America. 649 
 
 Spain, and Matthew Pratt of Philadelphia, who went to 
 England in 1764, and studied under West, are two of the 
 first American artists worthy of record. 
 
 But the true foundation of American Art was laid by 
 Copley and West, who were almost cotemporaneous. 
 
 John Singleton Copley (1737 — 1815), the historic 
 painter, was born of Irish parents at Boston, United 
 States — then a British colony. After painting for several 
 years in his native city, he — forced, like many another 
 American artist after him, by lack of material for study in 
 his native country, to seek instruction in art in foreign 
 countries — started in 1774 for England, where, after a tour 
 on the Continent, he finally settled and died. 
 
 Benjamin West (1738 — 1820), who was born at Spring- 
 field, Pennsylvania, went to England in 1763, and rapidly 
 rose in public favour, until he reached the height of his 
 ambition in 1792, by becoming President of the Royal 
 Academy. Of these two artists, we have already given a 
 fuller notice among the British School. 
 
 Charles Wilson Peale (1741 — 1826), who was born at 
 Chesterton, Maryland, was not only a painter, but a 
 worker in wood, metal and leather. Besides his oil- 
 paintings, he executed numerous miniatures, for which 
 he "sawed his own ivory, moulded the glasses, and 
 made the shagreen cases." He also served in the 
 American army, where he rose to the rank of Colonel. 
 He studied under various masters — in Philadelphia under 
 a German, in Boston with Copley, and in London with 
 West. 
 
 Peale, though lacking the highest qualities of an artist, 
 was one of the most popular portrait-painters of his time, 
 and was especially remarkable from the fact that he 
 
650 Painting 
 
 painted the earliest authentic likenesses of Washington, 
 who subsequently appears to have obligingly sat to a 
 number of artists. 
 
 His son, Rembrandt Peale (1787—1860), after a short 
 career as a portrait painter in Charlestown, South Carolina, 
 went to London and studied under West. He also resided 
 for some time in Paris, where he painted, among other 
 pictures, portraits for his father's museum. His Por- 
 trait of Washington was purchased by Congress for 2000 
 dollars. 
 
 Gilbert Charles Stuart (1756—1828), one of the best 
 portrait painters of America, was born at Narragansett, in 
 Rhode Island, of Scotch and Welsh descent. He received 
 his instruction in art at Newport from Cosmo Alexander, 
 who took him to Scotland with him, but Stuart returned 
 to America soon afterwards. In 1781 he went again to 
 Great Britain, studied under West, and established himself 
 as a portrait painter in London, where he enjoyed the 
 friendship and society of some of the famous men of the 
 day. It was during this visit that he painted the fine por- 
 trait of Mr. Grant skating, exhibited at the Exhibition of 
 Works by the Old Masters in 1875. In 1793 he returned 
 to America, and after residing in New York, Washington 
 and Philadelphia, he re-established himself finally, in 
 1806, at Boston, where he continued to paint with 
 uninterrupted success until his death. His works are 
 commonly seen both in the public and private galleries 
 in America. His chef-d'oeuvre is his Portrait of Wash- 
 ington. His pupil, James Frothingham, also acquired fame 
 as a portrait painter. 
 
 John Trumbull (1756 — 1843), the historic painter, born 
 at Lebanon, Connecticut, was one of the best of the early 
 
In America. 651 
 
 American artists. He combined the professions of a 
 soldier and a painter, and thus had the means of being 
 an eye-witness of scenes — such as the storming of the 
 works of Burgoyne at Saratoga — which suggested the 
 subjects of many of the works which have made his name 
 famous. He graduated at Harvard, entered the army, and 
 was made aide-de-camp to Washington. In 1780 he went 
 to London, where he studied under his fellow-countryman, 
 West. Arrested as a spy, he was obliged to return to 
 America, but on the cessation of hostilities, he went again 
 to England, and resumed his studies under West. After 
 a visit of nineteen years (1796 — 1815), seven of which 
 were spent in diplomatic service, he lived constantly in 
 America. He died in New York, at the advanced age of 
 eighty-seven, and was buried in Yale College. His four 
 great works executed in the rotunda of the Capitol at 
 Washington — the Declaration of Independence ; the Sur- 
 render of Burgoyne; the Surrender of Comwallis ; and 
 the Resignation of Washington at Annapolis — have since 
 been moved to the Art Gallery in Yale College. 
 
 Of other works we may notice — in the City Hall, New 
 York, portraits of Governors Lewis and Clinton ; at New 
 Haven the Death of General Montgomery, " one of the 
 most spirited battle-pieces ever painted," the Battle of 
 Bunker s Hill, and a full-length Portrait of Washington. 
 His works were unequal in merit ; his male portraits were 
 far more successful than his female. He was one of the 
 founders, and the first President, of the American Academy 
 of Fine Arts. 
 
 John Wesley Jarvis and Thomas Sully (1783—1872), 
 natives of England, were also successful as portrait-painters. 
 Sully's female portraits possess great sweetness, but his 
 
652 Painting 
 
 likenesses of men are lacking in power. His pupil, John 
 Neagle (1799 — 1865), of Philadelphia, also produced por- 
 traits which were not without merit. 
 
 Edward G. Malbone (1777—1807), a native of Newport, 
 in his short career of thirty years executed some charming 
 works in miniature painting. The Hours by him, now in 
 the Athenaeum at Providence, is full of grace and poetry. 
 
 John Vanderlyn (1776 — 1852), who was born at King- 
 ston, New York, went in 1803 to Europe, and was in Paris 
 and at Rome (where he lived in the house formerly owned 
 by Salvator Rosa), the friend and companion of Allston. 
 In Rome he painted, in 1807, his famous Marius sitting on 
 the ruins of Carthage, to which Napoleon personally 
 awarded the prize medal in the Salon of 1808. His next 
 best picture was a Sleeping Ariadne, in the Philadelphia 
 Academy of Fine Arts; and he also executed numerous 
 portraits. 
 
 Washington Allston (1779 — 1843), who is generally 
 considered the chief painter of the American School, was 
 a native of Waccamaw in South Carolina. After the 
 completion of his university career at Harvard, he went to 
 London in 1801, and at once entered the Royal Academy 
 schools, where he became acquainted with his fellow- 
 countryman West, who was then president. In 1804, 
 Allston went with Vanderlyn to Paris, and thence to 
 Rome, where in the following year he painted his Joseph's 
 Dream. At Rome, Allston commenced with Washington 
 Irving a friendship which lasted for life. He also became 
 acquainted with Coleridge, and the Danish sculptor, Thor- 
 waldsen. In 1809, he returned to America, married a 
 sister of Dr. Channing, and then went again to London, 
 where he produced his Dead Man revived by the bones of 
 
In America. 653 
 
 Elisha, which gained a prize of two hundred guineas from 
 the British Institution. It is now in the Pennsylvania 
 Academy of Fine Arts, Philadelphia. Then followed the 
 Liberation of S. Peter by the Angel, now in the Worcester 
 Lunatic Hospital ; Uriel in the Sun, in possession of the 
 Duke of Sutherland ; and Jacob's Dream, in the Petworth 
 Gallery. In 1818, Allston returned to America, and 
 settled at Boston, with his health weakened by sorrow for 
 his wife, lately deceased, and by over-work. In the same 
 year he was elected an Associate of the Royal Academy. 
 Of the works which he executed in the following years, 
 we may notice, the Prophet Jeremiah, now in Yale 
 College ; Saul and the Witch of Endor ; Miriam's Song 
 and Dante s Beatrice. In 1830, he married again, and 
 settled at Cambridge, Mass., where he spent the rest of 
 his life. His Spalatrds vision of the bloody hand, from the 
 1 Italian ' by Mrs. RadclifFe, was formerly in the Taylor 
 Johnson Collection in New York. 
 
 The works of Allston, the "American Titian," are 
 especially remarkable for the beauty and power of colour. 
 In his subjects, he was fond of the terrible, especially 
 noticeable in Spalatro's Vision, Saul and the Witch of 
 Endor, and in his unfinished Belshazzars Feast. He 
 painted many excellent portraits. That of Coleridge, by 
 him, is in the National Portrait Gallery. 
 
 Samuel F. B. Morse (1791—1872), of telegraphic fame, 
 practised for some years as a painter. He was a pupil 
 of Allston, and one of the founders in 1826, and second 
 president of the National Academy of Design. He aban- 
 doned art as a profession in 1839. 
 
 John James Audubon (1782 — 1851) was born in Louis- 
 iana, and studied in Paris under David. On his return 
 
>4 Painting 
 
 to America in 1826 he devoted himself to portraying birds, 
 just in the same manner as Catlin gave himself up to the 
 painting of American Indians. He published, in Edinburgh, 
 a book containing more than one thousand birds' portraits, 
 the originals of which are now in the possession of the New 
 York Historical Society. Having exhausted the feathered 
 tribe, Audubon was engaged on a work on the quadrupeds 
 of America, when he died. 
 
 Chester Harding (1792 — 1866) began his career in 
 painting as a sign-painter, at Pittsburgh, but subsequently 
 turned his attention to portraiture, in which he afterwards 
 became successful. From Pittsburgh he went to Phila- 
 delphia, thence to S. Louis, and then to Boston, where he 
 became the fashionable portrait-painter of the day. In 
 1823, Harding paid a visit to England, where he received 
 much patronage from the nobility. He afterwards revisited 
 England, but died at Boston, U. S. Of his portraits, that 
 of Daniel Webster, in the possession of the Bar Association, 
 New York, is the most famous. 
 
 George Catlin (1796 — 1872), the painter of the abo- 
 riginal Indians, was originally intended for the law, but 
 abandoned that profession in favour of painting, and 
 established himself in Philadelphia. In 1832 he started 
 on a journey among the tribes of American Indians, 
 and made the acquaintance of no less than forty-eight 
 of them. On his return to civilization in 1839, he pub- 
 lished the result of his journey in the form of a book with 
 illustrations by his own hand. He resided for eight years 
 in Europe. Many of his Indian sketches were exhibited 
 at Philadelphia in 1876. 
 
 Robert Charles Leslie (1794 — 1859), who was born of 
 American parents in Clerkenwell, was taken when quite a 
 
In America. 655 
 
 child to the United States : in 1811 he went to England, 
 and, with the exception of a short visit to America in 1833, 
 resided there for the rest of his life. 
 
 Henry Peters Gray (1819 — 1877), a pupil of Huntington, 
 was President of the National Academy from 1869 to 1871, 
 when he went to Florence. He painted chiefly genre 
 subjects until his later years. Amongst his best paint- 
 ings are Wages of War, sold for 5000 dollars, and now 
 in the Metropolitan Museum, New York, and The Ajiple 
 of Discord, which was highly commended by the judges at 
 Philadelphia in 1876. He was also famous for his female 
 portraits. 
 
 Gilbert Stuart Newton (1795 — 1835), who was born at 
 Halifax, Nova Scotia, in America, studied under his uncle, 
 Gilbert Stuart, went to Europe in 1817, and paid but one 
 short visit to America in 1832, and died in London; he 
 belongs to the English School. 
 
 On the other hand, Thomas Cole (1801— 1848)— who 
 was born at Bolton-le-Moor, Lancashire, of American an- 
 cestry, and went when eighteen years of age to Stubenville, 
 Ohio — belongs to America. After travelling about the 
 country for some time, he visited New York, where he 
 was patronized by Trumbull and other artists. Cole made 
 two journeys to Europe, and stayed chiefly in Italy and 
 England, the scenery of which countries furnished him 
 with subjects for many of his best works. He died among 
 his " own dear Catskills," as he calls them ; for with all 
 the magnificent scenery of the Alps and elsewhere in 
 Europe, and the works of Claude Lorrain, Salvator Rosa, 
 and Turner and Constable, which he saw in England, he 
 remained true to his first love. Of Cole's works we may 
 notice, in the possession of the New York Historical 
 
656 Painting 
 
 Society, the Course of Empire — five landscape scenes, his 
 master-piece ; his famous series of Voyage of Life, formerly 
 in the Taylor Johnston Collection of New York ; and the 
 Mountain Ford, and Kenilworth Castle, both of which 
 were shown at Philadelphia in 1876. Many of his works, 
 frequently views of the Catskills, are in the private and 
 public galleries of America. He may be considered the 
 father of American Landscape Art. 
 
 Side by side with Cole, must be mentioned Thomas 
 Doughty (1793 — 1856), who did much for the furtherance 
 of landscape art. He did not commence painting until 
 he was twenty-eight years old, and he was entirely self- 
 taught. Of the next generation of landscapists, a foremost 
 man was — 
 
 John F. Kensett (1818—1873), who began life as an 
 engraver, studied painting for seven years in Europe — 
 visiting Italy, Switzerland and the Rhine; he then set- 
 tled in America and rose to fame as a landscape painter. 
 " Kensett' s best pictures," says Tucker man, " exhibit a rare 
 purity of feeling, an accuracy and delicacy, and especially 
 a harmonious treatment, perfectly adapted to the subject." 
 
 Sandford R. GifFord (died 1880), a good painter of 
 landscapes and sea pieces, excelled in the representation 
 of the effect of sunlight. 
 
 Henry Inman (1802 — 1846) studied for some time in 
 New York under Jarvis, a good artist of the period. 
 After several years spent in New York, he settled at 
 Philadelphia, where he became famous as a painter of 
 portraits, and occasionally of landscapes and genre pictures. 
 In 1843, he went to England, where he remained for 
 two years; and painted among other portraits those of 
 Wordsworth and Macaulay. 
 
In America. 657 
 
 The works of this artist are commonly seen in the public 
 and private galleries of America. The City Hall, New 
 York, has some good portraits by him ; noteworthy among 
 these is that of Governor Van Buren : others are in the 
 Boston Athenaeum. His landscapes and genre pictures 
 are best seen in private galleries. 
 
 William Sidney Mount (1806—1868), who has been 
 called " the American Wilkie," was one of the first in that 
 country to practise genre painting successfully. His works, 
 such as The Long Story and Bargaining for a horse, display 
 great sense of humour. 
 
 Emmanuel Leutze (1816 — 1868), a native of Emingen 
 in Wiirtemberg, went, when still young, with his father to 
 America. He at first maintained himself by portrait paint- 
 ing, but his favourite subjects were of an historic nature. 
 His earliest work of note is an Indian gazing on the setting 
 sun. In 1841 he determined to visit Europe. He arrived 
 at Amsterdam early in the year, and thence went to 
 Diisseldorf, where he studied under Lessing. His Columbus 
 before the Council of Salamanca was purchased by the Art 
 Union of that city. From Diisseldorf, Leutze went to 
 Munich, and became the disciple of Cornelius and Kaul- 
 bach. After his Wanderjahre through Italy and Switzer- 
 land, he returned to America in 1859 and became justly 
 famed as a painter of historic subjects. A picture of 
 Western Emigration by him is in the Capitol at Washing- 
 ton. Other good works by him are Washington crossing 
 the Delaware and the Iconoclast. Shortly after Leutze had 
 died, a letter came announcing his election to the president- 
 ship of the Diisseldorf Academy, rendered vacant by the 
 death of Lessing. 
 
 Charles Loring Elliott (1812—1868) was a pupil of 
 
 EHA U U 
 
658 Painting 
 
 Trumbull, in New York. On the completion of his studies, 
 he established himself as a painter in that city, where, 
 with the exception of several years spent in the Western 
 part of the State, he chiefly resided. He is said to have 
 executed nearly seven hundred portraits, many of which 
 are highly praised for their representation of individual 
 character. Of these the acknowledged masterpiece is 
 that of Fletcher Harper, which was selected to represent 
 American portraiture in the Paris Exhibition. 
 
 George A. Baker (1821 — 1880) is known for the beauty 
 of his female portraits. 
 
 Louis Remy Mignot (1831 — 1871), the landscape painter, 
 lived some part of his life in New York ; he then removed 
 to South Carolina, and subsequently, at the outbreak of 
 the Civil War, took up his residence in England, though 
 he paid visits to his native land. He exhibited in the 
 Royal Academy from time to time, and many of his works 
 are in England. One of his best pictures is Snow in 
 Hyde Park. 
 
 Two foreigners, who settled in America, executed many 
 landscapes and sea-pieces of considerable merit — 
 
 M. F. H. de Haas (1832—1880), a native of Rotterdam, 
 where he had been appointed painter to the Dutch Navy ; 
 and Johann Erik Christian Petersen (1839 — 1874), a 
 native of Copenhagen, where he first studied art, who 
 settled in America in 1865 — worked, the former in New 
 York, the latter in Boston. 
 
 J. B. Irving (1826 — 1877), a pupil of Leutze, painted 
 genre subjects in a French manner. One of his best works 
 is The End of the Game. 
 
 William Henry Furness (1827 — 1867), of Philadel- 
 phia, was one of the most successful portrait painters 
 
In America. 659 
 
 of his time- He was especially noted for his crayon 
 drawings. 
 
 William Morris Hunt (1824 — 1879), a man of versatile 
 talents, but a better draughtsman than colourist, was a 
 native of Brattleborough, Vermont. He first studied sculp- 
 ture at Diisseldorf, and then entered the studio of Couture 
 in Paris, but soon became much impressed by the work of 
 Jean Francois Millet, whose pictures he bought and whose 
 subjects and style he appreciated. In 1855 Hunt returned 
 to America, and after a stay at Newport, settled at Boston, 
 where he afterwards resided and became celebrated for his 
 genre subjects, but more especially for his landscapes and 
 his portraits, and where he had great influence on the 
 rising artists of the day. In 1878 he began and completed 
 the decoration of two great walls in the Senate-Chamber 
 of the new Capitol at Albany. Among his best works are 
 the Prodigal Son, the Fortune- Teller, the Violet Girl, and 
 the Flight of Night, his master-piece. He occasionally 
 lithographed from his own designs. 
 
 In 1865 a collection of English water-colour paintings, 
 which was taken to New York and there exhibited, aroused 
 a strong feeling in favour of that medium in America. A 
 Water-Colour Society was soon started, and that branch 
 of art now holds a permanent and important position 
 among the painters of the New World. While the 
 exhibition of the recently-formed Society of Painter- 
 Etchers in London proved that the American artists are 
 likely to become formidable rivals of their European 
 brethren in the use of the etching needle. 
 
 In conclusion, we may briefly point out that Art in 
 
 u u 2 
 
660 Painting in America. 
 
 
 America, beginning with portraiture, which has, perhaps, 
 failed to realize its early promise — is now most strongly 
 represented in landscape and marine subjects; that true 
 historic painting is at a somewhat low ebb ; that, with a few 
 noteworthy exceptions, the natural history painters are of 
 no high order of merit ; but that painters of genre subjects 
 and still-life are asserting themselves with a vigour and a 
 display of talent that argue well for the future. 
 
 A notice of American Art which does not deal with 
 living men must necessarily be very incomplete, and to 
 a certain extent misleading ; for several men who are yet 
 working, made for themselves a name as early as many 
 who now rank in the history of the past : and it is to the 
 present and the future rather than to the past, that the 
 history of American Art belongs. 
 
THE PEINCIPAL 
 
 GODS AND GODDESSES 
 
 OF GREECE AND ROME. 
 
 Zevc, 
 
 Zeus; 
 
 the Latin Jupiter. 
 
 Yloatiddiiv, 
 
 Poseidon ; 
 
 55 
 
 , Neptunus. 
 
 'AirokXojv, 
 
 Apollo ; 
 
 55 J 
 
 , Apollo. 
 
 "H(f)CH(TTOQ, 
 
 Hephaestus ; 
 
 55 5 
 
 , Vulcanus. 
 
 "Apqc, 
 
 Ares; 
 
 55 
 
 , Mars. 
 
 'Epnijg, 
 
 Hermes ; 
 
 5J ) 
 
 , Mercurius. 
 
 "Hpa, 
 
 Hera ; 
 
 55 5 
 
 , Juno. 
 
 Adrfvr], 
 
 Athena ; 
 
 55 5 
 
 , ' Minerva. 
 
 "ApTEfJllQ, 
 
 Artemis ; 
 
 55 » 
 
 , Diana. 
 
 'AtypodiTrj, 
 
 Aphrodite ; 
 
 55 5 
 
 , Venus. 
 
 'Ear/a, 
 
 Hestia; 
 
 55 5 
 
 , Vesta. 
 
 ArjfirJTrip, 
 
 Demeter ; 
 
 55 5 
 
 , Ceres. 
 
 AiuwaoQ, 
 
 Dionysus ; 
 
 55 5 
 
 , Bacchus. 
 
 Tlepaetyoi'r], 
 
 Persephone ; 
 
 1> 5 
 
 , Proserpina 
 
 AiSric, 
 
 Hades ; 
 
 55 5 
 
 Pluto. 
 
 Kpopog, 
 
 Cronus ; 
 
 55 5 
 
 , Saturnus. 
 
 'Pea, 
 
 Rhea ; 
 
 55 J 
 
 Cybele. 
 
 At)TU), 
 
 Leto ; 
 
 55 5 
 
 , Latona. 
 
 Na- 7 , 
 
 Nike; 
 
 55 5 
 
 , Victoria. 
 
 "Epioe, 
 
 Eros ; 
 
 55 5 
 
 , Cupido. 
 
INDEX 
 
 OF NAMES OF ARTISTS.* 
 
 
 
 Page 
 
 
 Page 
 
 Acton, Adams 
 
 . 293 
 
 Artois, Jacobus van 
 
 . 516 
 
 Adam, The Brothers 
 
 . 152 
 
 Asoka . 
 
 . 5 
 
 Agelades of Argos . 
 
 . 187 
 
 Asselt, Jean van der 
 
 . 422 
 
 Agesander 
 
 . 202 
 
 Athenodorus . 
 
 . 202 
 
 Agnolo of Siena 
 
 . 240 
 
 Audubon 
 
 . 653 
 
 Agoracritus 
 
 . 193 
 
 Austen, William . . 
 
 . 284 
 
 Agostino of Siena . 
 
 . 240 
 
 
 
 Akers, Benjamin . 
 
 . 295 
 
 Backer . 
 
 . 527 
 
 Alan de Walsingham 
 
 . 138' 
 
 Bacon, John . 
 
 . 287 
 
 Albani, Francesco . 
 
 . 461 
 
 Bagnacavallo . 
 
 . 400 
 
 Albertinelli, Mariotto 
 
 . 371 
 
 Bailey, Edward 
 
 . 289 
 
 Alcamenes 
 
 . 193, 209 
 
 Baker, George A. . 
 
 . 658 
 
 Aldegrever 
 
 . 452 
 
 Bakhuisen 
 
 . 544 
 
 Alexander 
 
 . 650 
 
 Bandel, Ernst von . 
 
 . 276 
 
 Alfaro y Gamez 
 
 . 495 
 
 Banks, Thomas 
 
 . 287 
 
 Allan . 
 
 . 640 
 
 Barret, George 
 
 . 617 
 
 Allar . . 
 
 . 279 
 
 Barret, George 
 
 . 622 
 
 Allston . 
 
 . 652 
 
 Barrias . 
 
 . 279 
 
 Altdorfer 
 
 . 452 
 
 Barry, Sir Charles . 
 
 114, 155 
 
 Amato d' Antonio . 
 
 . 371 
 
 Barry, Edward 
 
 . 136 
 
 Amberger 
 
 . 442 
 
 Barry, James . 
 
 . 618 
 
 Amman, Jost . 
 
 . 452 
 
 Bartholomew . 
 
 . 295 
 
 Angelico, Fra . 
 
 . 353 
 
 Bartolini 
 
 . 279 
 
 Anselm, Archbishop 
 
 . 124 
 
 Bartolommeo of Florence 
 
 5 . 336 
 
 Antigonus 
 
 . 203 
 
 Bartolommeo, Fra . 
 
 . 371 
 
 Antonello da Messina 
 
 357, 364 
 
 Barye, Antoine 
 
 . 279 
 
 Apelles . 
 
 . 320 
 
 Barzaghi 
 
 . 279 
 
 Apollodoras . 
 
 53, 319 
 
 Basaiti, Marco 
 
 . 365 
 
 Aretino, Spinello . 
 
 . 341 
 
 Bassano . 
 
 . 418 
 
 Aristeides. 
 
 . 320 
 
 Bastiani, Lazzaro . 
 
 . 365 
 
 Aristodemus . 
 
 . 201 
 
 Bazzi . 
 
 . 381 
 
 Arm stead. 
 
 . 293 
 
 Beaugrant, Guy de . 
 
 . 262 
 
 Arnolfo . 
 
 . 240 
 
 Beaumont 
 
 . 608 
 
 * The artists are indexed under their popular names ; no notice has been taken of 
 prefixes. 
 
Index. 
 
 663 
 
 
 Page 
 
 
 Page 
 
 Becerra, Jaspar 
 
 . 262 
 
 Bouchardon . 
 
 . 271 
 
 Becker . 
 
 . 556 
 
 Boucher . 
 
 . 577 
 
 Beckford^ 
 
 . 156 
 
 Boulogne, Bon 
 
 . 572 
 
 Beechy . 
 
 . 620 
 
 Boulogne, Louis de. 
 
 . 572 
 
 Begas, Karl . 
 
 557 
 
 Bourdon 
 
 . 570 
 
 Begas, Reinhold 
 
 . 276 
 
 Bouts, Dieric . 
 
 . 429 
 
 Beham, Bartel 
 
 . 452 
 
 Braekeleer, F. de . 
 
 . 518 
 
 Beham, Hans Sebald 
 
 . 452 
 
 Bramante 
 
 . 104 
 
 Behnes, William . 
 
 . 292 
 
 Bril, Matthys 
 
 . 434 
 
 Bell, John . 
 
 . 293 
 
 Bril| Pauwel . 
 
 . 434 
 
 Bellange 
 
 . 592 
 
 Britton 
 
 . 157 
 
 Bellini, Gentile 
 
 . 365 
 
 Broderick 
 
 . 156 
 
 Bellini, Giovanni . 
 
 . 364 
 
 Broederlam 
 
 . 422 
 
 Bellotto . 
 
 . 463 
 
 Bronzino 
 
 . 387 
 
 Beltraffio 
 
 . 381 
 
 Brosamer 
 
 . 452 
 
 Benedict of Wearmouth 
 
 . 118 
 
 Brouwer 
 
 . 529 
 
 Berchem 
 
 . 540 
 
 Brown, Madox 
 
 . 309 
 
 Berck-Heyde, Gerrit 
 
 . 547 
 
 Brueghel, Jan 
 
 . 434 
 
 Berck-Heyde, Job . 
 
 . 547 
 
 Brueghel, Pieter 
 
 . 432 
 
 Bernini . 
 
 . 106 
 
 Brueghel, Pieter ("Hell 
 
 ') . 432 
 
 Bernward, Bishop . 
 
 . 227 
 
 Bruges, John of 
 
 . 422 
 
 Berruguete, Alonso 
 
 262, 483 
 
 Bruggemann, Hans. 
 
 . 238 
 
 Bink, Jakob . 
 
 . 452 
 
 Brun, Charles le 
 
 . 571 
 
 Birch . 
 
 . 293 
 
 Brunelleschi, F. 
 
 . 100, 244 
 
 Bird, Edward. 
 
 . 633 
 
 Bry, Theodor de 
 
 . 452 
 
 Bird, Francis . 
 
 . 285 
 
 Bryaxis . 
 
 . 200 
 
 Bissolo . 
 
 . 365 
 
 Buonaventura Berlinghie 
 
 ri . 335 
 
 Blake . 
 
 . 620 
 
 Buoni, Silvestro de'. 
 
 . 371 
 
 Bles, Herri . 
 
 . 431 
 
 Buono, Bartolorameo 
 
 . 249 
 
 Bloemart 
 
 . 435 
 
 Burckmair 
 
 442, 452 
 
 Bloemen, Jan Frans van 
 
 . 518 
 
 Burton . 
 
 . 154 
 
 Bloemen, Pieter van 
 
 . 516 
 
 Bushnell, John 
 
 . 285 
 
 Blondeel, Lancelot . 
 
 . 262 
 
 Busti, Agostino 
 
 . 249 
 
 Boehm . 
 
 . 293 
 
 
 
 Boethus . 
 
 . 201 
 
 Cabanel 
 
 . 595 
 
 Bol ... 
 
 . 527 
 
 Cain 
 
 . 279 
 
 Bonifazio, Veneziano 
 
 . 415 
 
 Cajesi, Patricio 
 
 . 488 
 
 Bonifazio, Veronese 
 
 . 415 
 
 Calamis . 
 
 . 188 
 
 Bonington 
 
 . 632 
 
 Callcott . 
 
 . 629 
 
 Bono di Ferrara 
 
 . 363 
 
 Callicrates 
 
 . 40 
 
 Bonsignori, Francesco 
 
 . 363 
 
 Callot, Jacques 
 
 . 563 
 
 Bonvicino 
 
 . 414 
 
 Canachus of Sicyon . 
 
 . 187 
 
 Bordone, Paris 
 
 . 414 
 
 Canaletto 
 
 . 463 
 
 Borgognone . 
 
 . 366 
 
 Cano, Alonso . 
 
 272, 475 
 
 Borroraini, Francesco 
 
 . 106 
 
 Canova, Antonio 
 
 . 267 
 
 Bosch, Jerom 
 
 . 429 
 
 Capelle, Jan van de 
 
 . 545 
 
 Bosio, Francois 
 
 . 276 
 
 Caravaggio 
 
 . 462 
 
 Both, Andries 
 
 . 539 
 
 Carducci, Bartolommeo . 
 
 . 487 
 
 Both, Jan 
 
 . 539 
 
 Curducci, Vincenzio 
 
 . 487 
 
 Botticelli 
 
 . 358 
 
 Caroni . 
 
 . 279 
 
664 
 
 Index. 
 
 
 Page 
 
 
 Page 
 
 Carpaccio, Vittore . 
 
 . 365 
 
 Cooke, Edward, W. 
 
 . 642 
 
 Cavpeaux 
 
 . 279 
 
 Cooper, Abraham . 
 
 . 620 
 
 Carracci, Agostino . 
 
 . 457 
 
 Cooper, Samuel 
 
 . 600 
 
 Carracci, Annibale . 
 
 . 457 
 
 Copley . 
 
 . 618, 649 
 
 Carracci, Lodovico . 
 
 . 457 
 
 Coques . 
 
 . 514 
 
 Carreno de Miranda 
 
 . 486 
 
 Cornel isz 
 
 . 435 
 
 Carstens . 
 
 . 456 
 
 Cornelius 
 
 . 553 
 
 Casentino, Jacopi di 
 
 . 341 
 
 Corot 
 
 . 590 
 
 Castagno, Andrea de 
 
 I . .357 
 
 Correggio 
 
 . 401—404 
 
 Castillo, Augustin dt 
 
 1 . .473 
 
 Cortona, Pietro da 
 
 . 463 
 
 Castillo, Juan del . 
 
 . 473 
 
 Cortot, Pierre 
 
 . 276 
 
 Castillo y Saavedra, 
 
 A. del . 475 
 
 Cosimo, Piero di 
 
 . 360 
 
 Catena 
 
 . 365 
 
 Cosmato, Giovanni 
 
 . 336 
 
 Catlin 
 
 . 654 
 
 Costa, Lorenzo 
 
 . 366, 400 
 
 Cattermole 
 
 . 644 
 
 Cotman . 
 
 . 628 
 
 Cavallini, Pietro 
 
 . 343 
 
 Courbet . 
 
 . 594 
 
 Cavelier . 
 
 . 279 
 
 Cousin, Jean . 
 
 . 260, 562 
 
 Caxes, Eugenio 
 
 . 488 
 
 Couston, Guillaume 
 
 . 271 
 
 Cellini, Benvenuto . 
 
 . 256 
 
 Couston, Nicolas 
 
 . 271 
 
 Cephisodotus . 
 
 . 199 
 
 Couture . 
 
 . 594 
 
 Cespedes, Pablo de . 
 
 . 471 
 
 Cox, David 
 
 . 643 
 
 Chalon . 
 
 . 642 
 
 Coxcien, Michiel va 
 
 n . 394, 432 
 
 Chambers, Sir Willi 
 
 im . .151 
 
 Coxcien, Raphael v 
 
 an . . 504 
 
 Champagne, Philipp 
 
 e de. . 516 
 
 Coypel, Antoine 
 
 . 574 
 
 Chantrey, Sir Franc 
 
 s . .289 
 
 Coypel, Noel . 
 
 . 574 
 
 Chapu . 
 
 . 279 
 
 Coysevox, Antoine 
 
 . 270 
 
 Chardin . 
 
 . 578 
 
 Cozens . 
 
 . 621 
 
 Chares . 
 
 . 201 
 
 Cranach, the elder 
 
 . 454 
 
 Chaudet, Antoine . 
 
 . 276 
 
 Cranach, the youn^ 
 
 ;er . .454 
 
 Chodowiecky . 
 
 . 456 
 
 Crank 
 
 . 279 
 
 Cliristus, Petrus 
 
 . 427 
 
 Crawford, Thomas 
 
 . 294 
 
 Cibber, Cajus Gabri( 
 
 il . . 285 
 
 Crayer, Kasper de 
 
 . 504 
 
 Cima da Conegliano 
 
 . 365 
 
 Creswick, Thomas 
 
 . 641 
 
 Cimabue. 
 
 . 336 
 
 Cristall . 
 
 . 622 
 
 Cipriani . 
 
 . 617 
 
 Crivelli, Carlo 
 
 . 364 
 
 Claude Lorrain 
 
 . 567 
 
 Crome, John . 
 
 . 627 
 
 Cleef, Joost van 
 
 . 597 
 
 Crome, John Berna 
 
 y . .627 
 
 Cleomenes 
 
 . 211 
 
 Cuevas, Pedro de h 
 
 is . . 486 
 
 Clesinger 
 
 . 279 
 
 Cuyp . 
 
 . 538 
 
 Clouet, Francois 
 
 . 561 
 
 
 
 Clouet, Jean . 
 
 . 561 
 
 Dahl 
 
 . .602 
 
 Clovio, Giulio. 
 
 . 399 
 
 Danby . 
 
 . 631 
 
 Cockerell 
 
 . 154 
 
 Dance, George 
 
 . 152 
 
 Coello, Claudio 
 
 . 495 
 
 Danhauser 
 
 . 557 
 
 Cole, Thomas . 
 
 . 655 
 
 Dannecker 
 
 . 274 
 
 Collins . 
 
 . 629 
 
 David, Gheerardt 
 
 . 429 
 
 Colombo, Michael 
 
 . 259 
 
 David, Jacques Lo 
 
 lis . . 581 
 
 Colotes . 
 
 . 193 
 
 Decamps 
 
 . 592 
 
 Conrad de Hochstec 
 
 len . . 95 
 
 Decker . 
 
 . 538 
 
 Constable 
 
 . 628 
 
 Delacroix 
 
 . 591 
 
Index. 
 
 665 
 
 Delamotte 
 
 Delaroche 
 
 Delen, Dirk van 
 
 Denner, Balthasar 
 
 Desportes 
 
 De Wint 
 
 Diaz de la Pena 
 
 Diepenbeck 
 
 Dietrich . 
 
 Dietz 
 
 Dionysius of Colopl 
 
 Dipcenus 
 
 Dobson . 
 
 Dolci, Carlo . 
 
 Domenichino . 
 
 Donatello 
 
 Donner . 
 
 Dossi, Battista 
 
 Dossi, Dosso . 
 
 Dou, Gerard . 
 
 Doughty 
 
 Drake, Friedrich 
 
 Duban . 
 
 Dubois, Paul . 
 
 Dubufe . 
 
 Duccio di Buoninse 
 
 Diirer, Albrecht 
 
 Durand, Ainedee 
 
 Duret 
 
 Dusart . 
 
 Dyck, Antoon van 
 
 Eastlake 
 
 Eeckhout, G. van der 
 
 Egg 
 
 Elliott . 
 
 Elmes, James . 
 
 Elmore, Alfred 
 
 Elshaimer 
 
 Erwin of Steinbach , 
 
 Espinosa 
 
 Etex 
 
 Etty 
 
 Euphranor 
 
 Everdingen 
 
 Eyck, Huibrecht van 
 
 Eyck, Jan van 
 
 Eyck, Lambert van 
 
 Eyck, Margareta van 
 
 Fabriano, Gentile da 
 
 (ma 
 263 
 
 505- 
 
 . 622 
 . 591 
 . 545 
 . 455 
 . 577 
 . 643 
 . 592 
 . 509 
 . 455 
 . 558 
 . 319 
 . 187 
 . 600 
 . 461 
 . 459 
 .-245 
 . 271 
 . 400 
 . 400 
 . 532 
 . 656 
 . 275 
 . 112 
 . 279 
 . 589 
 . 336 
 
 444—452 
 . 279 
 . 277 
 . 537 
 
 -509, 598 
 
 . 638 
 
 . 527 
 
 . 636 
 
 . 657 
 
 . 154 
 
 . 642 
 
 . 455 
 
 . 95 
 
 . 470 
 
 . 279 
 
 . 638 
 
 . 321 
 
 . 540 
 
 . 423 
 
 . 424 
 
 . 426 
 
 . 426 
 
 . 343 
 
 Fabritius 
 
 . 527 
 
 Falguiere 
 
 . 279 
 
 Fantacchiotti . 
 
 . 279 
 
 Feke 
 
 . 648 
 
 Fernandez, Antonio Aria 
 
 s . 486 
 
 Ferrari, Gaudenzio . 
 
 . 381 
 
 Fielding, A. V. Copley 
 
 . 643 
 
 Finelli . 
 
 . 279 
 
 Fiore, Angelo Aniello 
 
 . 250 
 
 Firenze, Andrea di . 
 
 . 341 
 
 Flandrin 
 
 . 593 
 
 Flaxman, John 
 
 . 288 
 
 Flemalle . 
 
 . 517 
 
 Flink . 
 
 . 527 
 
 Floris, Frans . 
 
 . 432 
 
 Foley, John Henry . 
 
 . 293 
 
 Fontana . 
 
 . 279 
 
 Fortuny y Carbo 
 
 . 497 
 
 Fouquet . 
 
 . 561 
 
 Fowke, Captain 
 
 . 156 
 
 Foyatier . 
 
 . 277 
 
 Fraikin . 
 
 . 280 
 
 Francia . 
 
 . 370 
 
 Franciabigio . 
 
 . 387 
 
 Freminet 
 
 . 563 
 
 Frost . 
 
 . 642 
 
 Frothingham . 
 
 . 650 
 
 Fuhrich . 
 
 . 551 
 
 Furness . 
 
 . 658 
 
 Fuseli 
 
 . 619 
 
 Fyt 
 
 . 511 
 
 Gaddi, Agnolo 
 
 . 341 
 
 Gaddi, Gaddo 
 
 .336 
 
 Gaddi, Giovanni 
 
 . 341 
 
 Gaddi, Taddeo 
 
 . 340 
 
 Gartner . 
 
 . Ill 
 
 Gainsborough 
 
 614—616 
 
 Gandy, James 
 
 . 600 
 
 Gandy, William 
 
 . 600 
 
 Gamier . . 
 
 . 112 
 
 Garofalo . 
 
 . 400 
 
 Garrard, Marc 
 
 432, 597 
 
 Gatta, Bartolommeo delh 
 
 i . 560 
 
 Geefs 
 
 . 280 
 
 Genelli . 
 
 . 555 
 
 Gerbier, Sir Balthazar 
 
 . 599 
 
 Gerard . 
 
 . 583 
 
 Gericault 
 
 . 585 
 
 Gerome . 
 
 . 279 
 
666 
 
 Index. 
 
 
 Page 
 
 
 Pago 
 
 Ghiberti, Lorenzo . 
 
 244, 350 
 
 Hals, Dirk . 
 
 . 521 
 
 Ghirlandajo . 
 
 . 358 
 
 Hals, Frans . 
 
 . 520 
 
 Ghent, Justus van . 
 
 . 427 
 
 Hamilton, David . 
 
 . 155 
 
 Giacomo della Porta 
 
 . 105 
 
 Ham on . 
 
 . 594 
 
 Gibbons, Grinling . 
 
 . 285 
 
 Hansen, Theophil . 
 
 . Ill 
 
 Gibbs, James . 
 
 . 151 
 
 Harding, Chester . 
 
 . 654 
 
 Gibson, John . 
 
 . 290 
 
 Harlow . 
 
 . 623 
 
 Gilford . 
 
 . 656 
 
 Hartley . 
 
 . 295 
 
 Gilpin . 
 
 . 617 
 
 Hasenclever . 
 
 . 557 
 
 Giordano, Luca 
 
 . 496 
 
 Havell . 
 
 . 622 
 
 Giorgione 
 
 . 407 
 
 Hawksmoor, Nicholas 
 
 . 151 
 
 Giottino . . . 
 
 . 341 
 
 Haydon . 
 
 . 637 
 
 Giotto . 
 
 . 337 
 
 Hayman . 
 
 . 603 
 
 Giovanni da Bologna 
 
 . 258 
 
 Hecyles . 
 
 . 187 
 
 Giovanni di Pietro . 
 
 . 368 
 
 Heem, Jan de . 
 
 . 547 
 
 Girardon, Francois . 
 
 . 270 
 
 Heere, Lucas de 
 
 . 597 
 
 Girodet de Roucy Triosor 
 
 t . 583 
 
 Heist, B. van der . 
 
 . 531 
 
 Girolamo da Treviso 
 
 . 146 
 
 Herp 
 
 . 510 
 
 Girtin . 
 
 . 622 
 
 Herrara, el Viejo . 
 
 . 472 
 
 Giunta of Pisa 
 
 . 335 
 
 Herrera, el Mozo 
 
 . 481 
 
 Glaucus of Chios . 
 
 . 187 
 
 Hess, Heinrich von 
 
 . 555 
 
 Gleyre . 
 
 . 593 
 
 Hess, Peter von 
 
 . 554 
 
 Glover . 
 
 . 622 
 
 Heyden, Jan van der 
 
 . 546 
 
 Goes, Hugo van der 
 
 . 427 
 
 Hildebrandt . 
 
 . 556 
 
 Gomes . 
 
 . 481 
 
 Hilliard . 
 
 . 598 
 
 Goodall . 
 
 . 159 
 
 Hillin, Bishop 
 
 . 72 
 
 Gordon . 
 
 623, 640 
 
 Hilton . 
 
 . 637 
 
 Goujon, Jean . 
 
 . 259 
 
 Hittorff . . . 
 
 . 112 
 
 Gould . 
 
 . 295 
 
 Hobbema 
 
 . 542 
 
 Goya y Lucientes . 
 
 . 496 
 
 Hogarth . 
 
 604—607 
 
 Goyen, Jan van 
 
 . 538 
 
 Holbein, Hans — the elde 
 
 p . 439 
 
 Gozzoli, Benozzo 
 
 . 357 
 
 Holbein, Hans — the youi 
 
 lger 
 
 Grande, Ercole 
 
 . 366 
 
 146, 439 
 
 —442, 596 
 
 Granet . 
 
 . 584 
 
 Holbein, Sigismund 
 
 . 442 
 
 Grant 
 
 . 640 
 
 Holland, Henry 
 
 . 154 
 
 Gray • . 
 
 . 655 
 
 Holt, Thomas. 
 
 . 147 
 
 Grebber, Pieter de . 
 
 . 514 
 
 Hondecoeter, Melchior d 
 
 . 547 
 
 Greenough, Horatio 
 
 . 294 
 
 Honthorst 
 
 . 601 
 
 Greuze . 
 
 . 580 
 
 Hooch, Pieter de . 
 
 . 537 
 
 Gros 
 
 . 583 
 
 Hoogstraeten . 
 
 . 528 
 
 Gruyere . 
 
 . 279 
 
 Hoppner. 
 
 . 620 
 
 Guardi . 
 
 . 464 
 
 Horebout 
 
 . 597 
 
 Guercino 
 
 . 461 
 
 Hoskins . 
 
 . 600 
 
 Guerin . 
 
 . 584 
 
 Hosmer, Harriet 
 
 . 295 
 
 Guido of Siena- 
 
 . 335 
 
 Houasse, Michel Ange 
 
 . 496 
 
 Guillaume, Eugene. 
 
 . 279 
 
 Houdon, Jean Antoine 
 
 . 271 
 
 Gumery . 
 
 . 279 
 
 Howard . 
 
 . 637 
 
 
 
 Huchtenburg . 
 
 . 543 
 
 Haas, de 
 
 . 658 
 
 Hudson . 
 
 . 603 
 
 Hagen, Jan van der 
 
 . 542 
 
 Hubner . 
 
 . 556 
 
Index. 
 
 667 
 
 Page 
 Hunt, William . . .644 
 Hunt, William Morris . . 659 
 Huysmans, Cornells . .517 
 Huysum . . . . 548 
 
 Ibbetson . . . .617 
 
 Ictinus 40 
 
 Imola, Innocenzio Francucci da 400 
 
 Ingres 587 
 
 Inman, Henry . . . 656 
 In wood, H. W. , . . .153 
 Iriarte ..... 481 
 
 Irving 658 
 
 lsigonus . . . . 203 
 
 Jackson 
 Jamesone 
 
 Janssens, Cornells . 
 Janssens van Nuyssen 
 Jardin, Karel du 
 Jarvis 
 Jerichau 
 
 Jerichau-Baumann . 
 Jervas, Charles 
 Joanes, Juan de 
 Joceline, Bishop 
 John, Bishop . 
 John of Padua 
 Jones, Inigo . 
 Jones, Owen . 
 Jordaens 
 Joseph, Samuel 
 Jouifroy . 
 Jouvenet 
 Juste, Jean 
 
 Kalf 
 
 Kauffman, Angelica 
 
 Kaulbach 
 
 Kave, Theodore 
 
 Kensett, John F. . 
 
 Ketel, Cornells 
 
 Kiss, August . 
 
 Klenze, Leo von 
 
 Klober . 
 
 Kneller . 
 
 Koch 
 
 Kolbe . 
 
 Koninck 
 
 Krafft, Adam . 
 
 . 640 
 . 599 
 435, 598 
 . 504 
 . 541 
 . 651 
 . 280 
 . 558 
 . 603 
 . 467 
 . 134 
 . 72 
 . 146 
 . 147 
 . 322 
 . 509 
 . 291 
 . 277 
 . 572 
 . 259 
 
 . 547 
 456, 617 
 . 553 
 . 146 
 . 656 
 . 597 
 . 276 
 . Ill 
 . 557 
 . 601 
 . 557 
 . 557 
 . 527 
 . 263 
 
 Krafft, Johann Peter 
 Kriiger . 
 
 Kulmbach, Hans von 
 Kunz 
 
 Laar, Pieter van . 
 
 Laguerre 
 
 Lairesse, Gerard de 
 
 Lam o the 
 
 Lance 
 
 Lancret . 
 
 Landseer, Charles . 
 
 Landseer, Sir Edwin 
 
 Lanfranc, Archbishop 
 
 Largilliere 
 
 Lawrence 
 
 Lazzarini 
 
 Lefebvre, Claude 
 
 Leighton, Sir Frederick 
 
 Lely . . . 
 
 Leochares 
 
 Leonardo da Vinci . 250 
 
 Lescot, Pierre 
 
 Leslie, Robert Charles 
 
 Lessing . 
 
 Lethiere 
 
 Leutze . 
 
 Lewis, J. F. . 
 
 Leyden, Lucas van . 
 
 Leys 
 
 Liano, Felipe de 
 
 Liberale . 
 
 Libera tore, Niccolo di 
 
 Libri, Girolamo dai 
 
 Liesborn, Master of 
 
 Lievens . 
 
 Lingelbach 
 
 Lippi, Filippino 
 
 Lippi, Filippo 
 
 Lochner, Stephan . 
 
 Loo, Carle van 
 
 Loo, J. B. van 
 
 Lombard, Lambert 
 
 Lombardi, Family of the 
 
 Lorenzetti, Ambrogio 
 
 Lorenzetti, Pietro . 
 
 Lorrain, Claude 
 
 Losinga, Bishop 
 
 Lotto 
 
 Lough, J. G. . 
 
 Page 
 . 557 
 . 557 
 . 452 
 . 345 
 
 . 539 
 . 602 
 . 517 
 . 595 
 . 638 
 . 575 
 . 641 
 . 640 
 .. 124 
 . 574 
 . 622 
 . 279 
 . 574 
 . 300 
 
 514, 601 
 
 . 200 
 
 376—380 
 
 . 108 
 
 636, 654 
 . 554 
 . 583 
 
 556, 657 
 . 642 
 . 429 
 . 518 
 . 486 
 . 366 
 . 366 
 . 366 
 . 347 
 . 528 
 . 546 
 . 357 
 
 353, 355 
 . 347 
 . 578 
 . 577 
 . 432 
 . 249 
 . 341 
 . 343 
 . 567 
 . 124 
 . 407 
 . 293 
 
668 
 
 Index. 
 
 
 
 Page 
 
 
 Page 
 
 Loutherbourg 
 
 . 617 
 
 Millet, Airne . 
 
 . 279 
 
 Luini, Bernardino . 
 
 . 380 
 
 Millet, Jean Francois 
 
 518, 594 
 
 Lnitfrecht, Master . 
 
 . 229 
 
 Mnesicles 
 
 . 41 
 
 Lysippns 
 
 . 200 
 
 Mocetto, Girolamo . 
 
 . 365 
 
 Lyversburg Passion, Master of 347 
 
 Modena, Tommaso da 
 
 . 345 
 
 
 
 Mol 
 
 . 510 
 
 Mabuse 
 
 . 431 
 
 Molin, Johann Peter 
 
 . 279 
 
 Macdonald 
 
 . 293 
 
 Mont, Deodat del . 
 
 . 510 
 
 Macdowell, Patrick 
 
 . 291 
 
 Montagna, Bartolommeo 
 
 . 365 
 
 Maclise . 
 
 . 639 
 
 Montferrand, A. R. de 
 
 . 114 
 
 Maderno, Stefano . 
 
 . 258 
 
 Monti . 
 
 . 279 
 
 Magni, Pietro 
 
 . 279 
 
 Mor ... 
 
 432, 597 
 
 Magnus . 
 
 , 557 
 
 Morales, Luis de 
 
 . 484 
 
 Mahomed ben Alhamar 
 
 . 84 
 
 Morando, Paolo 
 
 . 366 
 
 Malbone, Edward G. 
 
 . 652 
 
 Moretto . 
 
 407, 414 
 
 Mansueti, Giovanni 
 
 . 365 
 
 Morland . 
 
 . 620 
 
 Mantegna 
 
 . 362 
 
 Moroni . 
 
 . 414 
 
 March . 
 
 . 470 
 
 Morse 
 
 . 653 
 
 Margaritone . 
 
 . 335 
 
 Moucheron 
 
 . 542 
 
 Maria, Duchess of Wurte 
 
 mberg 280 
 
 Mount, William Sidney 
 
 . 657 
 
 Marochetti, Baron . 
 
 . 291 
 
 Moya, Pedro de 
 
 . 476 
 
 Marshall, Calder . 
 
 . 293 
 
 Mulready 
 
 . 635 
 
 Martin . 
 
 . 630 
 
 Munro . 
 
 . 293 
 
 Marziale, Marco 
 
 . 365 
 
 Murillo . 
 
 476—481 
 
 Masaccio 
 
 . 351 
 
 Myron . 
 
 . 188 
 
 Masolino da Panicale 
 
 . 350 
 
 Mytens . 
 
 . 598 
 
 Mason, G. H. 
 
 . 642 
 
 
 
 Maes 
 
 . 528 
 
 Nash 
 
 . 154 
 
 Mathai . 
 
 . 551 
 
 Nasmyth 
 
 . 632 
 
 Matsys, Quinten . 
 
 . 430 
 
 Navarrete 
 
 . 485 
 
 Matteo da Siena 
 
 . 370 
 
 N eagle . 
 
 . 652 
 
 Mazo, J. B. Martinez de 
 
 L . 495 
 
 Neer, Aart van der . 
 
 . 539 
 
 Mazzolini, Lodovico 
 
 . 401 
 
 Neer, Eglon van der 
 
 . 536 
 
 Meade . . 
 
 . 295 
 
 Nelli, Suor Plautilla 
 
 . 373 
 
 Meckenen, Israel von 
 
 . 347 
 
 Netscher, Kaspar . 
 
 536, 601 
 
 Meer, Jan ver 
 
 . 535 
 
 Netscher, Konstantin 
 
 . 536 
 
 Meer, Jan van der . 
 
 . 543 
 
 Netscher, Theodoras 
 
 . 536 
 
 Melzi, Francesco 
 
 . 381 
 
 Newton, Gilbert Stuart . 
 
 636, 655 
 
 Memling 
 
 . 427 
 
 Nicias 
 
 . 321 
 
 Memmi, Simone 
 
 . 341 
 
 Nicomachus . 
 
 . 320 
 
 Mengs . 
 
 . 455, 496 
 
 Noble . 
 
 . 293 
 
 Metsu 
 
 . 533 
 
 Nollekens, Joseph . 
 
 . 287 
 
 Meulen, A. F. van der 
 
 . 517 
 
 Noort, Adam van . 
 
 . 498 
 
 Michelangelo . 104, 251 
 
 , 381--386 
 
 Northcote 
 
 . 619 
 
 Mierevelt 
 
 . 435 
 
 Notker . 
 
 . 344 
 
 Mieris, Frans van . 
 
 . 535 
 
 
 
 Mieris, Willem van 
 
 . 535, 536 
 
 Odo, Archbishop . 
 
 . 124 
 
 Mignard 
 
 . 573 
 
 O' Donovan 
 
 . 295 
 
 Mignot . 
 
 Milano, Giovanni da 
 
 '. 658 
 
 Oggione, Marco d' . 
 
 . 381 
 
 . 341 
 
 Oliver, Isaac . 
 
 . 598 
 
Index. 
 
 669 
 
 
 Page 
 
 
 Page 
 
 Oliver, Peter . 
 
 . 598 
 
 Pisano, Niccolo 
 
 238, 335 
 
 Opie 
 
 . 620 
 
 Pollaiuolo, Antonio del 
 
 . 360 
 
 Orcagna, Andrea 
 
 240, 340 
 
 Pollaiuolo, Piero del 
 
 . 360 
 
 Orley, Barend van . 
 
 . 431 
 
 Polycletus of Sicyon 
 
 . 193 
 
 Orrente . 
 
 . 470 
 
 Polydorus 
 
 . 202 
 
 Ortolano, G. B. Benvenut 
 
 i dell' 401 
 
 Polygnotus 
 
 . 319 
 
 Osorio . 
 
 . 483 
 
 Poppo, Archbishop . 
 
 . 72 
 
 Ostade, Adriaan van 
 
 . 531 
 
 Pordenone 
 
 . 414 
 
 Ostade, Isack van . 
 
 . 533 
 
 Potter . 
 
 . 540 
 
 Ottin 
 
 . 279 
 
 Poussin, Gaspard . 
 
 . 565 
 
 Oudry . 
 
 . 577 
 
 Poussin, Nicolas 
 
 . 563 
 
 On water, Albert van 
 
 . 429 
 
 Powers, Hiram 
 
 . 294 
 
 Overbeck 
 
 . 551 
 
 Pradier . 
 
 . 277 
 
 Owen 
 
 . 623 
 
 Pratt, Matthew 
 
 . 649 
 
 
 
 Praxiteles 
 
 199, 209 
 
 Pacheco 
 
 . 472 
 
 Previtali 
 
 . 365 
 
 Palladio, Andrea . 
 
 . 105 
 
 Primaticcio 
 
 . 399 
 
 Palma Vecchio 
 
 . 407, 414 
 
 Protogenes 
 
 . 320 
 
 Palmer, Samuel 
 
 . 644 
 
 Prout, Samuel 
 
 . 644 
 
 Palomino y Velasco 
 
 . 482 
 
 Prud'hon 
 
 . 584 
 
 Pamphilus 
 
 . 320 
 
 Puget, Pierre . 
 
 . 269 
 
 Pantoja de la Cruz . 
 
 . 486 
 
 Pugin, Augustus . 
 
 . 114 
 
 Pareja 
 
 . 494 
 
 Puntormo, Jacopo da 
 
 . 387 
 
 Pannigiano 
 
 . 405 
 
 Pyne 
 
 . 622 
 
 Parry, Gambier 
 
 . 308 
 
 Pyreicus . 
 
 . 322 
 
 Pater . 
 
 . 577 
 
 Pyromachus . 
 
 . 203 
 
 Patinir, Joachim de 
 
 . 430 
 
 Pythagoras 
 
 . 188 
 
 Paul, Abbot of St. Alban 
 
 s . 126 
 
 
 
 Pausias . 
 
 . 320 
 
 Quellinus, Erasmus 
 
 . 510 
 
 Payne 
 
 . 621 
 
 Quellinus, Jan Erasmus 
 
 . 510 
 
 Peale, Charles Wilson 
 
 . 649 
 
 Quercia, Jacopo della 
 
 . 242 
 
 Peale, Rembrandt . 
 
 . 650 
 
 
 
 Peeters . 
 
 . 436 
 
 Raeburn 
 
 . 623 
 
 Pellegrino 
 
 . 407 
 
 Rahl . 
 
 . 558 
 
 Pencz 
 
 . 452 
 
 Ramsay . 
 
 . 608 
 
 Penni 
 
 . 400 
 
 Ranc, Jean 
 
 . 496 
 
 Pepyn . 
 
 . 504 
 
 Raphael . 104, 255, 368 
 
 388—398 
 
 Perraud . 
 
 . 279 
 
 Rauch, Christian . 
 
 . 274 
 
 Perugino 
 
 . 367 
 
 Ravestyn 
 
 . 435 
 
 Peruzzi . 
 
 . 104 
 
 Regnauld 
 
 . 584 
 
 Pheidias . . 4( 
 
 ), 192, 209 
 
 Regnault 
 
 . 595 
 
 Philip ... 
 
 . 293 
 
 Rembrandt 
 
 521—526 
 
 Phillip, John . 
 
 . .641 
 
 Rene of Anjou 
 
 . 560 
 
 Phillips . 
 
 . 623 
 
 Reni, Guido . 
 
 . 460 
 
 Piero de' Franceschi 
 
 . 350 
 
 Rethel . 
 
 . 557 
 
 Pilon, Germain 
 
 . 266 
 
 Reynolds 
 
 609—614 
 
 Pinturicchio . 
 
 . 368 
 
 Rhcecus . 
 
 . 187 
 
 Pisanello 
 
 . 366 
 
 Ribalta, Francisco de 
 
 . 467 
 
 Pisano, Andrea 
 
 . ' .240 
 
 Ribalta, Juan de 
 
 . 467 
 
 Pisano, Giovanni . 
 
 . 240 
 
 Ribera . 
 
 . 462, 468 
 
670 
 
 Index. 
 
 
 Page 
 
 Ricci, Antonio 
 
 . 488 
 
 Richardson, Jonathan 
 
 . 603 
 
 Rickman, Thomas . 
 
 . 157 
 
 Rietschel, Ernst 
 
 . 275 
 
 Rigaud 
 
 . 574 
 
 Riley, John . 
 
 . 601 
 
 Rincon, Antonio del 
 
 . 465 
 
 Rinehart 
 
 . 295 
 
 Rizi, Francisco 
 
 . 488 
 
 Rizi, Fray Juan 
 
 . 488 
 
 Robert . 
 
 . 589 
 
 Roberts . 
 
 . 631 
 
 Robson . 
 
 . 644 
 
 Roelas, Juan de las 
 
 . 471 
 
 Rogers . 
 
 . 295 
 
 Roman, Bartolome . 
 
 . 486 
 
 Romanino 
 
 . 407, 414 
 
 Romano, Giulio 
 
 . 398 
 
 Rombouts 
 
 . 505 
 
 Romney . 
 
 . 619 
 
 Rosa, Salvator 
 
 . 462 
 
 Rosselli, Cosimo 
 
 . 360 
 
 Rottenhammer 
 
 . 455 
 
 Roubiliac 
 
 . 285 
 
 Ruben, Christian . 
 
 . 555 
 
 Rubens . . .498 
 
 -503, 598 
 
 Rude, Francois 
 
 . 277 
 
 Rupert, Prince 
 
 . 514 
 
 Ruysbrack 
 
 . 286 
 
 Ruysch . 
 
 . 548 
 
 Ruysdael, Jacob van 
 
 . 541 
 
 Ruysdael, Salomon van 
 
 . 539 
 
 Rysbraek 
 
 . 518 
 
 St. Gatjdens . 
 
 . 295 
 
 Salaino, Andrea 
 
 . 381 
 
 Salvini . 
 
 . 279 
 
 Sanchez Coello, Alonso 
 
 . 485 
 
 Sanchez de Castro . 
 
 . 465 
 
 Sandby . 
 
 . 621 
 
 Sandrart, Joachim van 
 
 . 455 
 
 Sansovino, Jacopo . 
 
 105, 250 
 
 Santerre . 
 
 . 572 
 
 Sarto, Andrea del . 
 
 . 387 
 
 Sassoferrato . 
 
 . 461 
 
 Schadow, Gottfried 
 
 274, 554 
 
 Schaffner 
 
 439, 442 
 
 Schalken 
 
 . 536 
 
 Schaper, Hugo 
 
 . 276 
 
 Schiiufelin 
 
 . 452 
 
 Scheemakers . 
 
 . 286 
 
 Scheffer . 
 
 . 590 
 
 Schilling, Johann . 
 
 . 276 
 
 Schinkel, C. F. 
 
 . 110 
 
 Schliiter, Andreas . 
 
 . 271 
 
 Schnorr von Carolsfeld 
 
 . 554 
 
 Schongauer 
 
 . 437 
 
 Schonhofer, Sebald . 
 
 . 236 
 
 Schoreel, Jan van . 
 
 . 431 
 
 Schraudolph . 
 
 . 555 
 
 Schrodter 
 
 . 557 
 
 Schut . 
 
 . 510 
 
 Schwanthaler, Ludwig 
 
 . 275 
 
 Scopas ... 4! 
 
 5, 200, 209 
 
 Scott, General 
 
 . 156 
 
 Scott, Sir Gilbert . 
 
 . 157 
 
 Scyllis . . ^ . 
 
 . 187 
 
 Sebastiano del Piombo . 
 
 386, 407 
 
 Seeuw, Marinus de 
 
 . 430 
 
 Semitecolo, Niccolo 
 
 . 343 
 
 Semitecolo, Paolo f. 
 
 . 343 
 
 Semper, Gottfried . 
 
 . Ill 
 
 Sesto, Cesare da 
 
 . 381 
 
 Shee . 
 
 . 623 
 
 Siegen, Ludwig von 
 
 . 514 
 
 Signorelli 
 
 . 358 
 
 Simart, Charles 
 
 . 277 
 
 Simonis . 
 
 . 280 
 
 Sint Jans, Geertgen van . 
 
 . 429 
 
 Slingeland 
 
 . 536 
 
 Sluter, Claes . 
 
 . 235 
 
 Smirke, Sir Robert . 
 
 . 154 
 
 Smith, George 
 
 . 608 
 
 Smith, John . 
 
 . 622 
 
 Smithson 
 
 . 147 
 
 Smybert, John 
 
 . 648 
 
 Snyders . . . . 
 
 . 504 
 
 Soane, Sir John 
 
 . 154 
 
 Sceur, Herbert le . 
 
 . 285 
 
 Sohn . 
 
 . 556 
 
 Solari, Andrea 
 
 . 381 
 
 Solario, Antonio 
 
 . 370 
 
 Solis, Virgilius 
 
 . 452 
 
 Somer, Paul van 
 
 . 432 
 
 Sorgh . . . . 
 
 . 533 
 
 Spagno, Lo . 
 
 . 368 
 
 Spence, Benjamin . 
 
 . 293 
 
 Squarcione 
 
 . 361 
 
 Stanfield 
 
 . 629 
 
 Stark . 
 
 . 628 
 
Index. 
 
 671 
 
 
 Page 
 
 
 
 Page 
 
 Steen \ 
 
 . 534 
 
 Tintoretto 
 
 . 415- 
 
 -417 
 
 Stefano Fiorentino . 
 
 . 341 
 
 Titian . 
 
 408- 
 
 -414 
 
 Steinhaiiser, Karl . 
 
 . 276 
 
 Tobar, Alonso Miguel de 
 
 
 483 
 
 Stephan, Meister . 
 
 . 347 
 
 Topham, F. W. 
 
 
 644 
 
 Stephens, E. B. 
 
 . 293 
 
 Toriti, Jacobus 
 
 
 336 
 
 Stevens, Alfred G. . 
 
 . 292 
 
 Torriggiano, Pietro. 
 
 
 284 
 
 Stilke . 
 
 . 556 
 
 Tristan, Luis . 
 
 
 486 
 
 Stone, Henry . 
 
 . 600 
 
 Troyon . 
 
 
 593 
 
 Stone, Nicholas . 
 
 . 284 
 
 Trumbull, J. . 
 
 
 650 
 
 Stoop . 
 
 . 601 
 
 Tryphon 
 Tulden . 
 
 
 219 
 
 Story, W. W. 
 
 . 295 
 
 
 510 
 
 Stoss . 
 
 . 238 
 
 Tura, Cosimo . 
 
 
 366 
 
 Stothard 
 
 . 623 
 
 Turner . . .622 
 
 624- 
 
 -627 
 
 Stratonicus 
 
 . 203 
 
 Tutilo . 
 
 
 344 
 
 Streater . 
 
 . 601 
 
 
 
 
 Street, George Edmund 
 
 . 114 
 
 Uccelli, Paolo 
 
 
 350 
 
 Stuart, G. C. . 
 
 . 650 
 
 Uden, Lucas van . 
 
 
 505 
 
 Stubbs . 
 
 . 617 
 
 Udine, Giovanni da 
 
 
 400 
 
 Stiiler, August 
 
 . Ill 
 
 Udine, Martino da . 
 
 
 365 
 
 Sueur, Eustache le . 
 
 . 570 
 
 
 
 
 Sully . 
 
 . 651 
 
 Vaga, Pierino del . 
 
 
 400 
 
 Suttermans 
 
 . 505 
 
 Vaillant . 
 
 
 514 
 
 Syrlin, Jorg . 
 
 . 262 
 
 Valdes Leal, Juan de 
 Valentin 
 
 
 482 
 569 
 
 Tafi, Andrea 
 
 . 336 
 
 Vanbrugh, Sir John 
 
 
 151 
 
 Tassi, Agostino 
 
 . 567 
 
 Vanderlyn 
 
 
 652 
 
 Taylor, Sir Robert . 
 
 Teleeles . 
 
 . 151 
 
 Vandyck . .505 
 
 -509 
 
 598 
 
 . 187 
 
 Varela . 
 
 
 475 
 
 Tenerani 
 
 . 279 
 
 Vargas, Luis de 
 
 
 470 
 
 Teniers, the elder . 
 
 . 510 
 
 Varley . 
 
 
 622 
 
 Teniers, the younger 
 
 511—513 
 
 Vasari, Giorgio 
 
 
 388 
 
 Terborch 
 
 . 529 
 
 Vazquez . 
 
 
 471 
 
 Texier, Jean . 
 
 . 259 
 
 Veen, Otto van 
 
 435 
 
 498 
 
 Theed . 
 
 . 293 
 
 Veit . . 
 
 
 551 
 
 Theocles 
 
 . 187 
 
 Vela . 
 
 
 279 
 
 Theodorich of Prague 
 
 . 345 
 
 Velazquez, D. R. de Silv. 
 
 l y 
 
 
 Theodorus 
 
 . 187 
 
 
 489- 
 
 -494 
 
 Theon . 
 
 . 321 
 
 Velde, Adriaan van de 
 
 
 543 
 
 Theotocopuli . 
 
 . 485 
 
 Velde, "W. van de, the el< 
 
 ler 
 
 
 Thomas . 
 
 . 279 
 
 
 544 
 
 601 
 
 Thomas, John 
 
 . 292 
 
 Velde, W. van de, the yo 
 
 unger 
 
 
 Thompson 
 
 . 295 
 
 
 544 
 
 , 601 
 
 Thornhill 
 
 . 602 
 
 Veneziano, Domenico 
 
 , 
 
 357 
 
 Thornycroft, Hamo 
 
 . 293 
 
 Veneziano, Lorenzo 
 
 
 343 
 
 Thorpe, John . 
 
 . 147 
 
 Venne, Adriaan van der 
 
 
 435 
 
 Thorwaldsen, Bertel 
 
 . 273 
 
 Venusti, Marcello . 
 
 
 386 
 
 Tibaldi, Pellegrino . 
 
 . 487 
 
 Verboeckhoven 
 
 
 519 
 
 Tidemand 
 
 . 558 
 
 Verhaeght, Tobias . 
 
 
 498 
 
 Tiepolo . 
 
 . 464 
 
 Vernet, Carle . 
 
 
 579 
 
 Timotheus 
 
 . 200 
 
 Vernet, Claude Joseph 
 
 • 
 
 578 
 
672 
 
 Index. 
 
 
 Page 
 
 
 
 Page 
 
 Vernet, Horace 
 
 . 589 
 
 Wildens . 
 
 . 505 
 
 Veronese, Paolo 
 
 . 415—417 
 
 Wilfrid, Bishop of York 
 
 . 118 
 
 Verrio . 
 
 . 602 
 
 Wilhelm, Meister . 
 
 . 346 
 
 Verrocchio, Andrea 
 
 . 246, 360 
 
 Wilkie . 
 
 . 633 
 
 Victors . 
 
 . 527 
 
 Wilkins 
 
 . 154 
 
 Vien 
 
 . 580 
 
 Willaarts 
 
 . 436 
 
 Vignola . 
 
 . 105 
 
 William de Carilepho 
 
 . 126 
 
 Villavicencio . 
 
 . 482 
 
 William of Wykeham 
 
 . 124 
 
 Vincent . 
 
 . 628 
 
 Wilson, Richard 
 
 . 607 
 
 Vischer, Peter 
 
 . 264 
 
 Wilton, Joseph 
 
 . 286 
 
 Visconti 
 
 . 112 
 
 Wint, Peter de 
 
 . 643 
 
 Viti, Timoteo 
 
 . 400 
 
 Witte, Emanuel de. 
 
 . 546 
 
 Vivarini, Antonio . 
 
 . 364 
 
 Wolff, Albert and Emil 
 
 . 276 
 
 Vivarini, Bartolommeo 
 
 . 364 
 
 Wolgemut 
 
 . 444 
 
 Vlieger, Simon de . 
 
 . 543 
 
 Wolsey, Cardinal . 
 
 . 144 
 
 Volterra, Daniele da 
 
 . 386 
 
 Woodward 
 
 . 157 
 
 Vos, Cornelis de 
 
 . 433 
 
 Woolner, Thomas . 
 
 . 293 
 
 Voss, Karl 
 
 . 280 
 
 Wouters . 
 
 . 510 
 
 Vouet ... 
 
 . 563 
 
 Wouwerman . 
 
 . 539 
 
 Vroom . 
 
 . 436 
 
 Wren, Sir Christopher 
 
 . 148 
 
 Vulliamy, Louis 
 
 . 156 
 
 Wright, Joseph 
 
 . 619 
 
 
 
 Wright, Michael 
 
 . 600 
 
 Waldmuller 
 
 . 557 
 
 Wurmser, Nicolaus . 
 
 . 345 
 
 "Walker, Frederick . 
 
 . 645 
 
 Wyatt, Sir Digby . 
 
 . 156 
 
 Walker, Kobert 
 
 . 600 
 
 Wyatt, Richard James 
 
 . 290 
 
 Walpole, Horace . 
 
 . 156 
 
 Wyatt, T. H. . 
 
 . 156 
 
 Wappers 
 
 . 519 
 
 Wyatville, Sir Jeffrey 
 
 . 157 
 
 Ward, Edward Matthew . 
 
 . 639 
 
 Wynants 
 
 . 538 
 
 Ward, James . 
 
 . 640 
 
 
 
 Watson, John 
 
 . 648 
 
 
 
 Watson, Musgrave . 
 
 . 291 
 
 Zamacois 
 
 . 497 
 
 Watteau. 
 
 . 575 
 
 Zegers, Daniel 
 
 
 . 511 
 
 Weenix, the elder . 
 
 . 540 
 
 Zegers, Gerard 
 
 
 . 505 
 
 Weenix, the younger 
 
 . 547 
 
 Zeitblom 
 
 
 . 438 
 
 Werff, Adriaan van der . 
 
 . 537 
 
 Zeuxis . 
 
 
 . 319 
 
 West, Benjamin 
 
 617, 649 
 
 Zoppo, Mareo . 
 
 
 . 362 
 
 Westmacott, Sir Richard 
 
 . 290 
 
 Zuccarelli 
 
 
 . 617 
 
 Weyden, R. van der, the ( 
 
 dder. 426 
 
 Znccaro, Federigo 
 
 
 . 597 
 
 Weyden, R. van der, the yc 
 
 dinger 429 
 
 Zurbaran 
 
 
 . 473 
 
 BUNGAY : CLAY AND TAYLOR, PRINTERS. 
 
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