c V ^ / THE BUILDER'S PRACTICAL DIRECTOR mwfT. 7 -Sv ~f™^" .1 . 1 niRErro!! ;r fr V r-^-' m ikj] ' f f BUILDINGS FOR ALL CLASSES Ki__j COTTACES,VILLAS.FARM BUILDINGS, DISPENSARIES, PUBLIC SCHOOLS*? NUMEROUS PLATES AND DIAGRAMS. ^^^ LEIPZIG AND DRESDEN A H PAYNE. , LONDON J HACOtR,67 P A T ER N O ST ER ' R OW >- Uhh(<< t I ; V INTRODUCTION. The purport of this work is to place before its readers in a plain, simple and per- fectly intelligible manner the Avliole art of Building, fi-om the cottage of the laboui-er to the residence of the Esquire, to instruct those by whom it may be required in the art of admeasurement and all the necessary details of building and fonnation. The great importance of the very numerovLS Building Societies now in existence, and the larger niunber still that we may reasonably infer will be formed, renders a more familiar and descriptive work upon linilding necessary, and to till up that void is one main purpose of this work. The grand work of the improvement of the \N'orking Classes and their com- forts, so nobly taken up by the Nobility and Gentry of this countiy, and so ably carried forward, js wortliy of all praise, and to forward these benevolent views this work will devote considerable attention. An elementary introduction to Geometry so far as regards admeasm-ements of Supei-iicies and Solids will be inti-oduced as a necessary adjunct. The site for Buildings will be described, pointing out the best method of drainage and can-ying oft" and rendering innociu)us the deleterious gases generated therein. The sinking of wells and the best methods of preserving the water from any iin])urities from drainage will be treated as a matter of serious consideration. The adaptation of timber and the readiest way of rendernig the same (be it taper or crooked) available without waste, Avill be clearly demonstrated. The laying out of Lands to be divided into allotments, the best system of drainage and the formation of the pathways and roads will be ftdly explained, and plans, specifications and estimates in detail clearly to be luiderstood by the Million will be exhibited. ':>00G557 IV INTKODUCTION. The plans, sections and elevation of a labourer's cottage consisting of 4 rooms Avitli wasliliouse aiul iixtiu-es every way complete witli detailed estimate will be given, that may be erected for eighty pounds. This with 20 poles of Land would pay the Land-owner fairly at £4„5„0 per annum. And as the ministering hand of charity is never idle in this happy countiy, where even our Noble Ladies combme for the purpose of alleviathig the pains of illness, gi\ang com- fort to the aged and education to the young, Plans for Public Schools and Medical dispensaries will be introduced. Fann Houses and Farm Buildings will form a most iiuportant feature, and the most improved method of retaining licpud ]\Ianures without injurious effect chemically explained. The work will be so arranged that with its assistance any one may to a great extent become his own Sm-veyor and Builder; upwards of forty years continued experience in practical Building enabling the writer to place before the reader many tables and rules for ascertaining quantities and weights not generally known. Li a woi-d it is intended to lay before our readers a Handbook of Building, a reference to which will be of use to the initiated as well as to those about to purchase plots of ground or to build houses. ELEMENTAKY INTRODUCTION. Although it may be reasonably supposed that every reader of this work is fully acquainted with the ai-ithmetical rules of admeasiu'ement , lineal, superficial and solid, still there is no doubt they will be found not only useful but essential in this place. The two -foot ride or 24 inch guage is what is always used by Joiners, Carpenters and Bricklayers; it consists of 24 inches, each inch divided into Eighths and Sixteenths. LINEAJ> MEASURE. Two sixteenths of an inch j-^ Two eighths Fovu- quarters, f or } | Twelve inches Three feet Five and one half yards Fom- poles, or 100 links, 66 feet Forty poles or 10 Chains Eight furlongs or 1760 j-ards Eighty Chains or 8000 Hnks The Chain consists of 100 links — each link bemg 7.92 inches, making sixty-six feet. To reduce links to feet, nudtiply the nimiber of links by 66, cut off two figiu-es to the right, the remainder will be feet; and to reduce feet to links, add 00 to the niunber of feet and divide by 66: Thus: 100 links 66 one Eighth one Quarter one Inch one Foot one Yard one Rod or pole one Chain one Furlong one Mile one Mile i 1- I'ft. pi 1 R" Ch. Furl. Mile 600 600 66,00 feet Again: 66,00 feet divide by 66 | 66,00 | 100 links. 66 ELEMENTARY INTRODUCTION. SQUARE OR SUPERFICIAL MEASURE. = 1 Square foot. = 1 Square yard. =r 1 Square. = 1 Square pole or rod. = 1 Rood. = 1 Acre. = 1 Square mile. 144 Square inches 9 Square feet 100 Superficial feet 30.| Square yai-ds 40 Square poles 4 Roods 640 Acres CUBIC OR SOLID MEASURE. 1728 Solid inches 1 Cubic foot 27 SoHd feet 1 Cubic yard V + Square. Cube. SIGNS AND MARKS N-ECESSARY TO BE REMEMBERED. Signifies Plus or more : The sign of addition : as 8 + 6 = 14 — meaning that 8 added to 6 is equal to foiu'teen: Minus or less: The sign of subtraction: as .30 — 6:^^24. Meaning that six taken from 30, is equal to 24, or thirty less 6, equal to 24. Multiply by; The sign of Multiplication: as 9X6 = 54. Meaning that 9 multiplied by six, is equal to 54. Divide by: The sign of division: as 20 H- 5 = 4. Meaning that 20 divided by 5, is equal to 4. Thus add - 6 8 14 30 less — - 6 24 9 IMiiltiply by 6 54 )ivided by 5 1 20 — Equal to: The sign of equality: as 144 Superficial inches = one square foot. II Proportion: The sign of proportion: as 4 : 8 :: 9 : 18 meaning that as 4 is to 8, 9 to 18. 27 80 IS ij Fraction, meaning fifteen parts of 27. 1/ Square root. 1/ Cube root. KLliMKNlAUV INTUOIU'CIM )N. OrRCUMFEKEXCE AND PERIMETER ()E EKilRES. It being a couiiiion iiiattci- of fact that to build a House, Cottage or otlier erection, it is of the utmost importance to first obtain the bind on which to erect it, therefore a knowledge of the shape or form of such land, which will be most beneticiai, is of consequence, and verj' few are aware of the very great difference that exists, in the areas of many figui-es that have the same perimeter, or measure the same distance. The Circle contains more than any other figiu-e known, and if we describe a square (see plate 1, fig. 1) wliich is 12 feet on each side, it will contain 144 superficial feet, and will be 48 ft. romid. Now a Cii'cle whose circumference shall be the same, viz 48 ft. will contain much more (see plate 1, fig. 2). Example. To find the diameter of a Circle, the circumference being given. multii)ly the Circumference bv 7, divide bv 22: Thus: 48 7 22 I 336 I 15\« 22 IIG 110 . .0 therefore 1,')^ is tlie diameter of a Circle whose Circumference is 48 ft. Rule. • To find the area of a Circle, the diameter being given, square the diameter and mul- tiply by .7854, a decimal; the product after cutting off 4 figm-es to the right gives the area. Example. Take in round numbers, without the fraction, 15 as the diameter of a Cii-cle 48 in Circmnference : 15 15 75 15 225 = Square of diameter. 7854 = Decimal. 90U 1125 1800 1575 Area of Circle 170,7150 feet. Take another form, that of a Parallellogram, whose longest sides shall be 14 feet, and its shortest 10 ft. (see plate 1, fig. 3); tlie perimeter of this figm-e will be found the same, \-iz 48 feet — but the area will only contain 140 superficial feet, thus: 14 longest side, multiplied by shortest side 10 140 feet, being 4 feet less in contents than a square. PRACTICAL GEOMETRY. Now proceed and lengthen the side to Ui feet, and the shortest to 8 (see plate 1, fig. 4) this has the same perimeter, but its contents are only 128 superficial feet. Agam lengthen the longest side to 18 feet, and the shortest to G feet, (see plate 1, fig. 5); tliis is the same round, viz 48 feet; but its contents are oiily 108 superficial feet, diminishing most materially. One more example will suffice. If we produce the parallellogram (plate 1. fig. 6) 20 ft. on its longest sides and fom- feet in the shortest, tliis will also be 48 in perimeter, for twice 20 are 40, and twice 4 are eight — but the area of this will only contain 80 superficial feet being, 8 ft. less then one half of the area of a Circle of the same cii-cumference ; this may still further be illustrated by taking the figure of a rhombus (see plate 1, fig. 7 to 12) containing 12(;» superficial feet; by bringing the two sides A C nearer and nearer to each other, the area will be reduced until the four sides merge into one straight line and the area is lost. Tliis is an important consideration, particularly as regards the walls of Buildings; for this clearly demonstrates that it requires the same amount of brickwork or inclosure wall for a Building erected in the form of fig. 6 containing only 80 superficial feet in area, as it does for one containing 144 feet. Diagram shewing the difi'erence in the areas or superficial contents of a — - Circle 48 feet in circumference, and of a square twelve feet on each / side, making the perimeter the same as the Circle, viz, 48 feet. ( The proportion of the areas of the different figiu'es although they each \ measure 48 ft. around them stands thus — Plate 1. Figure 1 area in Superficial feet 144 2 ditto . 176 3 ditto . ' 140 4 ditto 128 f) ditto 104 (i ditto 80 PRACTICAL GEOMETRY. Geometry is that science that teaches how to define and determine the shape and quantity of all supei-ficial as well as solid bodies, and is a science of the most early antiquity. It is supposed to have been originated by the Egyptians, to define the boundaries of their lands after tlie periodical overflowing of the river Nile, which at those periods obliterated all traces of the previous demarkations. Thus tliis invention wliich originally was used only for the pur- pose of measuring out Lands to their proper owners from the various forms and schemes which it was then necessary to make for the allotments to be again marked out, led to the discovery of the valuable properties of the various figures, which continually improved and have advanced to the present time. There cannot be a doubt but that the great I'vi\uiiid ui' Kgypt is a (jeometi-ical monumenl of more significance than is at jn-eseiit understood, Ijul which )iiay ultimately be explained by the intelligence and enlightenment of mankind, which progresses with such rapid strides and be- neficial effect. SUPEf^rtCIES I'Idl, / no- X J — Fiq. t u * -- ' , e - s 1 . -' . 1 1 f'n ■'» f\i ' WO > " e •e 1 Fiff* IKO- Fig .i no- r tig. ff Fig. 7 Fiff S t',g. 9 It/) u n. F,g. II I'lq n OardnsT- fi-Son PRACTICAL OKOMKTHV. DKFIXI TIOXS. Geometry passed from Egypt into Greece, as we read of the estimation in which it wa^ held there in the time of Plato, who flourished tlu-ee centiiries before the Christian Era. Geometry enables us to ascertain Truth, to argue trftly and faii-ly, to understand the arts and sciences of Life, and to ascertain the shape and quantity and the admeasurement of all things measurable on, or in the Earth. DEFINITIOlfS. Definition describes shortly the several properties of Bodies and Things. A Point or Atom is the first of magnitude, and we consider it not to have any parts, nz neither Length, Breadth or Thickness. A line is produced by a point moving lhi:s)ugh space: is has length, but is not supposed to have breadth or thickness. If a line be perfectly straight it is called a right line as AD. .1 '- B If a line be bent in any direction from a straight line in a circular direction it is called a curve line as C D. \Mieii a line bends or curves backwards and forwards in a circu- / lar direction it pi'oduces a serpentine line as E F. ^ When two right lines are projected to any length at equal distances from each other they are called parrallel lines, see „ A B, C D. ' ^^lien two right lines incline towards each other at either end they will ultimately meet, and the point where they intersect is called an angle, as A, this angle is called acute, being less than 90 degrees. When a right or straight line falls vertically and perpendicular on to another sti-aight line which is horizontal, the angle made at their point of intersection is called a right angle as B. Tliis angle also forms a quadrant, or angle of 90 degrees. If the lines fall from each other, the angle formed is greater than a right angle being more than 9(^ degrees, it is then called an obtuse angle, as C. -B -D a right angle 90' B / ctfuse-AB^b/ /: A line passing from one corner of a figure to another is called a diagonal line D E. When a line ciu-ves round regularly and returns into itself, it is a Periphery or Circumference, the enclosed space is called the Circle, and the point in the middle, the centre A. If a line passes across a circle from one point of the circumference to another, intersecting the centre, it is called the diameter, as B C. Diagonal line. (3 . PRAOTICAI. GEOMETRY. GEOMETRICAL PROBLEMS. A right line drawn through any part of a Circle not in- t terseeting the Centre, divides it into two unequal parts wliieh / are segments of" a Cii-cle; the Hne is the Chord A B, and the smaller part of the Circle the arch. \ A right line passing from the centre of a circle to any \ part of the periphery is called the radius as, C D. A line that bends or coils round like a watch spring or coil of rope, is called an Helix or spiral line E. This figure is of great use in Building, by it the volutes of columns, em-- tail steps, and hand rails of staii'cases are set out. Wlien a right line falls perpendicularly upon the end of the diameter of a Circle, so as just to touch the arch, it is called a Tangent, as A B. A right line drawn from the Centre of the circle to the end of the Tangent B C, is called the secant of the arch, a right line falluig perpen- dicular from any part of the arch upon the diameter within the secant, is called a sine, as I) E, and that part of the diameter that is intersected between the sine and Tangent is called the versed sine F. AXIOMS. The following Geometrical Axioms, are prepositions containing self e^ndent Trtiths which hold good, not onlv in numbers, but in lines, supei-tices and solids. AXIOM I. The whole is greater than any of its parts. AXIOM 2. All the parts of any matter or thing taken together are equal to the whole. AXIOM 3. Things which are double to one and the same thing, are equal between thoin^elves. AXIOM 4. If two equal tilings are equally increased or diminished, they still continue equal. AXIOM 5. If two equal things be increased or diminished unequally, they will continue unequal. AXIOM 6. From nothing nothing can arise; it has no value, propei-ties, or I'diui, nov any dimensious, either of length, breadth, or thickness. AXIO.M I. Two right lines do not contain a space. GEOMETRTCVL PROBLEMS. Problems are prepositions in practical (jlcouietry, to denionstraic huw certain uperalious or construction that may be required can be carried into effect by operations based upon tmi- versal truths. J I (I I r ./ Ilfivk bottom, oj' A'eiufi- "V'T t-^ Fkj J 0/)fiiin(f f ^ .. . .^i-.. Kmim^.; flciituh. Bond tlcf 6 UoUoin flldl.s Bi'irh on /< /.• |.::'vo i -'^"" v>;-.->j>\^;Kv-k ^n-^^^'; 'v-; xc.\-->.x;--:. ^^■.;^v ^'^ T' 1 - - -> p ~ 1 1 i t ^ - — — 1 •— ^-J- — ■ i i 1 hq J I uj 6 PRACTICAL GEOMETRY. GEOIMETRICAL PROBLEMS. PROBLEM 1 . Divide a right line A B, into two equal parts. Example. Open your compasses to more tlian one half of the given line, and setting one foot in A, describe the dotted line or arch b b, then place the foot of the compasses in B, and describe the arch c c, lastly through the points of intersection of the arches, draw the straight line C D, which will divide the line A B, into two equal parts. PROBLEM 2. Erect a peq^eudicular upon a given point in a right line, let the point be C, in the right line A B. Construction. Open yom- compasses to any convenient width, and placing one foot in C, make the marks a a, then open them to the width of a a, setting one foot on a to the right, describe the arch bb, now set the foot on a to the left, ^^ describe the arch c c, a line let fall from the intersection is the perpendicular required. PROBLEM 3. ( ' '^ -T I ^• .«'^ Erect a pei'pendicular on the end of a right line. Let A B be the right line, and B the end on which the perpendicular is to be erected. Construction. Open your compasses some convenient short ^^ distance, place the foot in B, and describe the dotted arch a a, with the same opening of the compasses place one foot on a and make the mark b, \vith the same openmg from b make the mark c, then from b and c describe the arches d and e, from theii- intersection drop the hne to B, wliich is the perpendicidai- required. PROBLEM 4. • Let fall a perpendicular upon a right line given from a point ^ any distance above it. Let A B he the right line, and C the point from which the perpendicular is to fall. Construction. Open yom- compasses to a distance more than the length of the perpendicular reqmred, set one foot on C, and describe the dotted line a a, from its intersection with the line A B describe the arches b and <•;, from their intersection draw the line from C, which is the perpendicular recpiired. PROBLEM 5. To di-aw a line which shall be at an equal distance and par- rallel to another line at any distance. Let the right line given be A B, and the distance of the parallel be equal to the hue C. To project this line open yom- compasses to the length of the line C, place one foot near the end of the line at A, and describe the arch a a, do the same near B, and describe the arch b b, a. line di-awn on the crown of the arches, will be parrallel to the line A B. PROBLEM 6. To lay down or form an angle of any number of degrees. i .>k. ^1— 8 PRACTICAL GEOMETRY. GEOMETRICAL PROBLEMS. -^ Construction. Draw a Cii-cle and divide the circiuuference into 360 parts; from the dia- meter thereof, prick off the number of degrees reqmred, draw a line from thence to the Centre, it will form the angle requii-ed. NB. As no instruments are without the protractor, from wliicli angles are most readily laid down, no diagram of it here is necessary. PROBLEM 7. Divide an angle into two equal parts. A B C is the given angle to be di^'ided into two equal parts. Construction. Open yom- compasses to any convenient length within the angle, place one foot in A and describe the arch n b, with the same ^^ opening place one foot in a and describe the arch c, do the same in / b and describe the arch d, a line drawn thi-ough their intersection through the point A, divides the angle as required. PROBLEM 8. To lay do'Aii an angle equal to an angle given, let A B C be the given angle. Construction. Open yom- compasses to a width about one half of the leg of the angle, place one foot in A, and describe the arch a h, draw the Hue D E, and with the same opening of the compasses and the foot on the point D, describe the arch c d, take the line a h in the compasses and placing one foot in c, set off the same on the arch c d, & line drawn through that point to the point D is the angle required. PROBLEM 9. Construct a triangle which shall be on each of its sides equal to the line A B. Construction. Draw the line C D something longer than the line A B, open yom* compasses to the line A B, place one foot in D, and describe the arch « a, at the same time make the mark E, with the same opening place one foot in E, and dcsei-ibe the arch b b, lines drawn from the intersection to D and E, will form the triangle reqiured. PROBLEM 10. Di\'ide a given right line into any number of equal parts. Suppose vl 5 to be the given line which it is proposed to divide into six equal parts. Construction. From the point D, project the line B C, at any acute angle, from A project the line A D, parrallel <^^. ^ to li C, (see problem 5 or problem 8), open your compasses to any small distance and with one foot in li, set off 5 di- visions in the line li 6"; with the same opening place one foot in A, and sett off 5 divisions on the line D, di'aw lines from one to five, two to four, through the whole nmnber of figures they will equally divide the line required. PROBLEM 11. Lay down a Triangle whose sides shall be equal to three lines given to be longer than the third. two of the lines Fl.att J'i ADAPTATION or TIMBLR //// J Fig-:, Fig. 3 Fiq 4 Fig 6 Fig 6 Fiq 7 ■i CealSliool B Ai4 E Mj E: Nj T P t. A, N;., >— ■ — ■- I . I I I I I I -r-: * Y*fl n pr ft?. Son JL ■tpfccf SCALE or riCT rRAC'TK AI, rJEOMKTUY. OEOMETRICAL PROBLKMS. 9 Take A Ji C to be the given lines. Construction. Draw tlie line D E, longer tlian the line A, — open your compasses to the length of the line A, set one foot in D, and make tlie mark F, — then take the line li in the compasses, set one loot in 1), describe the arch a a -with the compasses ad- justed to the line C, set one foot in /•', and describe ''*'^ the arch b h, lines drawn from their intersection to D and F gives the required triangle. PROBI.KJt VI. It is proposed to form a perfect square, each of the sides to be equal to the given lino A B. Let the line A B be given, and its length to be 15 ft. Construction. Draw the Line C D longer than A B, erect a perpen- dicular (see problem 3) upon the point G, and set otf the line A B upon it to E and F with the compasses; at the same opening place one foot in E, and describe the arch a a; with one foot in F describe the arch b b, lines drawn from their intersection to E and F will form the square required. This problem having been solved, and the iigure being superficial, let it be measured. Eule. Multiply the length of one of its sides by another the product is the superficial contents. 15' 0" A B x- * c' J ; o -0 Example. Side or line A B, Midtiply by same 15' 15 0" 75 „0 15. Superficial contents in feet 225 Problem i;}. It is required to form a long square called a parallellogram from two given lines, so that its length and Ijreadth be equal to the two right lines given. Let the given right lines be ./, and n, 17 ft. long. 9' „ 0" Its superficial contents also to be given. Construction. Draw the line C D longer than /, take tlic line / in the compasses and set if off fr, witli that opening of the compasses and tlie foot in a describe the arch // c, place them with the foot in h, open the other to c, and continue that line, and continue the lines by alternating the centres a h, and extending the compasses to meet the spiral line. Problem 17. Find tlif centre of a circle wliicli shall pass tiirougli three points given; they not being in a straight line, let a h r, be the points given. Constnicfion. Open the compasses to a b, and describe the arches shewn in tlie doited line by alternating from b to n; do the same with the distance from /j to c, llicn draw straiglit lines througji their intersections; and where these lines me(?t or cut each other, as at A, tliat point is the centre of a circle the circumference of which will pass through liio il.ree jtoints given. J> - ■ <^ » T-Jr.i.-fr I m o ? <; £ ■ it ti.::L; . :^^--=-=5^=- ^J m^ "^ ■ ^ ■ j; /:-. -z. r- -1;::::^^ — : — d a" A A7n g ; ><^ f-"^—- _ -*«EiWlil-^^*--- o o z < ^- ) 00 < <' z O l- o iii-m O o t- ^1 practical geometry. geometrical problems. 1 1 Problem 18. Describe a Geometrical oval upon any given lino, say A B, whose transverse diameter is 21 ft., and the conjugate diameter 13 ft. Construction. Divide the given line into three equal parts, open the com- "^ passes to any one of these parts, with one foot in c describe a circle, with / the same opening and foot in d describe another, cutting each other at tiie points e f, take the diameter of one of the circles in the compasses, place one foot in /' and couiplete the upper ciu-ve g h, with the same opening and the point of the compasses in the intersecticm e describe the curve i k, which completes the oval desired. This is a most useful problem in all works of formation, and is to be found that is, one half thereof, or its section, ornamenting with its beautiful curve the entrance passage of the smallest dwelling, as well as exciting our wonder, when, spanning the impetuous tide, it presents its noble proportion, as the sustainmg arches of tiie bridge. It very often happens that the geometrical oval, or ellipsis, will rise too high, and it will be required to obtain a curve much flatter or lower on the crown. Cm-ves of this shape may be obtained by means of a trammel, which is an instrament well known, possessing one fixed and t\vo moving points by adjusting the two outer points to one half of the longest or transverse diameter, and the third between them to the conjugate or shortest diameter, and fixing two laths or fillets per- fectly square, by passing the two moveable points along the i-ight angle the cm-ve will be formed by the fixed or end point. Suppose the distance A C to Trammel. be one half of the opening or curve to be marked out, and B C s » the height; if you pass the point of the trammel c down the ver- C'=v tical fillet, the point ,4 will follow and gradually rise and form the dotted curve line; when B arrives at C, one half the curve is ^..— "" ^ ^ struck; reverse your fillets, and the same operation -ndll complete ^ a q the cm"ve. Joiners and carpenters have a ready way of striking Filhfs. flat elliptic ciu-ves with a chalk line, thus, within a very short distance of the extent of the opening desired insert two bradawls, put a string encompassing them but loose enough when stretched out in the middle as to extend to the height of the cm-ve or arch required A, tie the string and pass a pencil or point along the string, keeping, it stretched, it wiU trace the elliptic curve desired. To find the area of an oval. Midtiply the length of the Trans- ^ ^__jk^ verse or longest diameter by the length of the conjugate or short- est diameter, and that sum by 7854 decimal. Example. Transverse diameter 21 Conjugate diameter 13 63 21 273 7854 dechnal. 1092 1305 2184 1911 Area in feet 214,4142 2* 12 FOUNDATIONS, BUILDING SITE. SITUATION AND ASPECT. ---"r^ While treating upon tliese figiu-es and ciu-ves, mention may be here made of tiie parabola, one of the conic sections which is useful when it is requii-ed to find a cm-ve for the Tudor arch; thus if a Tudor curve be required 12 ft. Avide to rise 2 feet, one leg of the parabola lA-ill give one half the curve. A more ready way to form the Tudor cm-ve is by the catenary or chain; project a level line upon any face wall, from the centre of which drop a perpendicuhu-, drive two nails into the wall each at a distance from the centre or perpendicular, equal to the height of the arch as A B, upon the perpendicular make a mark C to be one half of the proposed opening of the arch, place one end of a strong Jack-chain upon one nail, and di-op the chain over the other until it touches the mark C, this -mil, as before, give the cm-ve required. ^Tienever it be fomid necessary to place any pedestal, or ornament, at a certain height upon a building, which it is de- sirable should appear to the eye of the same height or size as if it stood upon the natural ground, the following will give the height required: — Exmnj^le. Let A B he -a pedestal and vase, and C be the point or distance for it to be seen from, and that it is wished it should appear of the same size &5 A B when placed upon the wall or column at D, forty feet above it, the point C being sixty feet from the pedestal. Constrnction. Draw the line G B, then open your com- passes to any convenient distance, place one point in C and describe the arch ab o d, then draw the dotted lines C A — CD. Now as all objects appear viewed under a certain angle, in proportion to their distance from the point of sight, and whenever those angles appear equal, the objects, however placed, must appear so too, take that part of the arch c d in the conqjasscs and set the distance otf from b to a, through that point draw the dotted line C E, and where that line cuts the perpendicular, that intersection will be the required height of the pedestal and vase, viz. from K to D. Figures, cornices, letters, or inscriptions, to appear of a certain size at a certain hefght, are ascertained by this method. \ .M FOUNDATION AND BUn.DING SITE. SITUATION AND ASPECT. In the erection of small cottages, or houses, there very rarely happens any chaiuc for choice of situation; but where a residence has to be erected encompassed by grounds, due care shoulil be taken to secure the most congenial aspect Ijoth as regards prosj)oct, light, and warmth. All these depend upon locality, and tin; aspect of the building in one situation may be both light and genial, while in another spot the very reverse may be the cast;. A scnithern aspect is generally approved anrl adopted here, or the south and south-east, this still being guided by pi'oM])(-ct or protection; the south and north-east winds are in this country piercing cold, and not at all conducive to health, and wiiei-ever shelter by highiaucl, or forest trees, can he obtained, the building shotdd be erected under such protection; a rising spot ofground is advisable, should there be any, it is to be preferred; but should that not be attainable, the Vh,u J'/ SeCTfONS AND PARTrriONS FOURTH RATE W0U5E AND ADDITIONS S'tirfncr a/%; Gro u-rvd.- t - • J « J \ j: \'^ .* : '3' 3 -1 J -i^ - t- J ....r A'hAed J'artittDn.s ir/mrrn Parlor nnti Jifftroorn ftnfi S'tnumse SECTION AT A.B. SCALE »f I''i'<-1 for Scrtioris *>.» *7fiJ>C*« / O ' ' ; ' ' ' ', '- so, SCALE of Feet for Pai-f i t i o iis • '•>'rtr/afx_jo£\ \ Gr-oirn,( f ?' .Jl ' IT" i . J. /\ ' « 1 t / ^ ^ \ ' ■' — "7 ^i^^ .- ^W-*— 1 1^1 h iJii Parlor.s and Bedrooms SECTION AT C.B. 'j-aTO.Tier a ^oii AH Payrie sc FOUNDATIONS, IHII.DINO SITK. SITIAI ION ANh ASrECT. 13 excavation, from tlic Ijusomcnts and foundatiou, will form an easy and dcsii-abie slope from the level to the {"roniid- floor entrance. In excavating, care should be taken to preserve the upper mould or surface; the whole space should bo carefully uusoiled to the full depth of the mould and vegetable earth, and wheeled to some convenient distance, so that it may not be injured by workmen and moving of the materials employed in the erection; all sand or good grit that may be found should also be kept separate and used for mortar, and the gravel, if any, at once tmce screened, the coarse to be used for metalling the roads, the hoggen or fiiu^ preserved to surface the foot-paths, and the fine grit used with the mortar, should the substratum be clay, unless it be worth while to burn it for roads, or if in quantity manu- factm-e it into bricks or tiles; it woidd no doubt be advisable otherwise to get rid of it in the best manner possible, which is this. — Ascertain the quantity of cubic yards of the clay or substance not available, and then find how far it will extend around the building, to form an easy slope up to the entrance or rising towards the ground-tioor, remend)ering that one cubic yard will give a slope nine feet long with a rise of two feet from nothing and three feet ■wide. This calculation readily gives the distance the clay will extend, to form the slopes; when ascertained, take off the mould from all that sm-face, i-emove it as before, and throw out the clay, and roughly form the slope upon the uusoiled space, which leave to receive the rubbish that may accumulate during the erection; and when the whole is finished the rich top dressing of the mould may be readily restored, and the slopes di'essed with it to aa ecpial depth all over. The basements or trenches excavated for the fomidations of the walls should be properly and carefully levelled and dressed fair, and the level should be carried out fi'om the lowest spot, so that wdien finished quite level, the whole space or bottoms shall be lui- distui'bed groimd; all parts thereof where the walls are to stand shoidd be then sounded by being heavily struck with the pointed end of a stout crow-bar, and if any defective places be found they nuist be excavated down to the solid firm substratum, the parts thus excava- ted below the general level to be filled up to the proper height witii concrete, or brickwork as may be approved. Should the excavation for the basements or trenches for the fomi- dations of the walls prove to be sand, however useful it may be when mixed with lime to build with, it is very unsafe to biuld upon, and much difficulty is ver}"- often found to secure a foundation thereon; and in all cases very great care naist betaken, although sand Avhen confined is as firm and secm-e as gravel, still any excavation near any water drift that may by possibility occur, at once renders it insecure. The best way in a difilcidty of this kind occm-ring is to produce the widest base or footing that can be most readily laid, because in any attempt to lay bricks on a footing of sand, it will often happen, particularly in di-ift sand that one brick will be out of sight before another can be laid; but when embedded it is tUffi- cult to withdraw them. In the sand-di-ifts of the London sewers, which frecjuently occui-, the usual practice to get in the centre courses of the circular bottom of the sewer, is to ce- ment together in a wood mould three or four courses of bricks in width by four course or tliree feet in length (see Plate 9 fig. 1), and canfidly drop them into the intended position: but very great care must be taken in their proper adjusInuMit, aiul the cementation of the heading joints, where each length interlocks with the other; if not, a sinking of only one from or below its proper level will cause a water-drift into the sand from the passage of the sewer water, and cause a failm-e of the whole structure if not attended to in time, of a considerable length. To drive piles into sand is folly, because they are useless when there; and the diffi- culty of drawing them is as much or more than their worth. Should a solid bottom be found at a certain depth under the sand, then piles are. of use; but a careful calculation of the weight to be supported must be made, that a suftlciency of piles be driven to bear the weight to be placed upon them; in such cases the i)iles shoidd be green beech, round and taper as they grew, thus formuig a conical pillar inverted, which increases its lateral pressui-e as it is 14 FOUNDATIONS, BUILDING SITE. SITUATION AND ASPECT. driven down, and does not, like a square pile, depend upon its point and latci'al pressiu-e of one bulk only. Driven throughout, elm, red pine, good pitch-pine or memel sleepers, half timbers, should be tenoned or dowelled with charred dowels, down upon the heads of the piles, and the spaces between them tilled in flush with concrete, cross or transverse timbers of a smaller scantling, say 10 X 5, spiked well down to them, and the space between filled with concrete, or brickwork, as before. Quarry-faced York slab, varying in thickness in accoi'dance with the weight of the building, should be bedded in good mortar thereon; upon which the wall may begin to rise. Should no such substratum be found, get out the base for the walls of a sufficient \^-idth to admit quarry-faced York slabs nuich wider than the brick footings; or for a guide, say for a house of three storeys, let the quarry- faced slab be in width or length, that is to say transversely under the wall, of such dimensions as to extend on each side at least one foot beyond the width of the first course of brick footings, and three inches thick; and for an additional story in height, add 1 inch to the thickness of the quany -faced slab, and three inches on each side for the extension of the footings. Qreat care must also be taken in laying them do-v\'n, so that they meet the sm-face of the sand upon every part of their surface simultaneously. It is well known how much greater w'eight any yielding material will bear in proportion to the extent of surface placed upon it. A schoolboy who imfortunately in throwing his ball finds it arrested in its progress by the thick mud on the bank of a pond or river, cautiously with one foot tries how far he can trust himself upon the treacherous deposit; but the small surface of his foot is buried instanter, and if he unfoi'tunately happens to lean slightly too forward, his leg is immersed in the yielding mass up to his knee, and great difficulty is found in withdrawing it. This little instinctive Philosopher will seek a tile, a piece of wood, a good tuft of straw or grass, or any matter possessing surface, and, placing it on the yielding deposit, and his foot upon that, he is supported ^athout danger. Any person walk- ing upon ice, and finding it to have a tendency to crack or peld, by lying down upon it, is perfectly safe. A man weighing twelve stone, or one hundred and sixty eight pounds, when standing upright, is supported on a surface of about 77 supei'ficial inches; but lying down, the supporting surface is immensely increased, and will be found to be something near 120U superficial inches, or upwards of fifteen times the area of an upright position, the only inconvenience to be expe- rienced is, that instead of walking to the shore, the experimenter would have to roll the distance. From the philosophy of such little matters immense results arise, and very accurate data demonstrated, as to the bearing surfiice of various substances forming a substratum for ■works about to be erected; and from the various practical experiments that have been made and calculated by scientific men, the following rules may be safely taken with respect to the bearing of piles, when a pile be driven to a state approacliing inertion, that is, when the ram merely drives the pile regularly about one quarter or half of an inch. Note. The nundjcr of times that the distance driven is contained in the distance of the fall of the ram, divided by eight, is the number. of times the weight of the ram that the pile will bear. Example. A ram of six hundred weight falling twenty feet drives a pile one lialf inch Twenty feet ^ 480 half inches cwt. Ton«. 480 -f- 8 = (J() X 6 = 360 = 18 A ram of eight hundred-weight falling twelve feet drives a pile one half inch. Now twelve feet the fall contains two hundred and eighty-eight half inches which, divided by eight, gives thirty-six hundred weight, equal to fourteen tons and eight hundred -weight, being the weight the jiile is equal to Ijear: thus 12 feet = 288 half inches (;„t. tou». cwt. 288 _i- 8 = ;5(; X 8 == 288 = 14 8 One of the most essential things to be considerc'd before a building be erected, is first the supply of water for the use of the domestic appliances, whether by supply from water-works I'hiu- )l TRAPPING OF CLOSETS AND DRAJNS Leoel ojf" f4-^.te.r- in trap Surfacr. o/" Ground, .i.. B Sv r ^/'/OHI I.IHf^ y&« Cisterrv fu m/j\ H ^ £= ss Gardner a 'Jon AH. Payne sc FOUNDATIONS, BUILDING SITE. SITUATION AND ASPECT. 15 from rivulet, or from wolls; iuiotlicr iiuitei'ial matter to be fully understood is, in what way and best manner the drainage is to bo carried oft'. If a well has to be sunk, let a convenient spot be selected, as near as can be to the point where the pump is intended to be placed; and in sinking the well, if it be a very dry season, care should be taken to ascertain the height the surface springs will rise to, when at their lowest, by sinking the well four feet below such level: so that when four feet of water will be in the well at the lowest springs, it will be found to afford a suff'icient supply. Should the ground be very sandy, a wooden cui'b made of two rings of elm in two thicknesses, 4 inches wide, and l)oardod on the sides vnth boards close jointed, forming a cjdinder about four feet high and of the size of the diameter of the well, is to be sunk and then filled in with bricks; and as the same lowers by the ex- cavation below, the brick steining should be continued upon the top of the curb until the same rises within three feet of the ground; from that pomt spring a dome, and carry that over until it closes in the mouth of the well, leaving an aperture about eighteen or twenty inches in diameter, which cover over with a piece of York stone. At the farthest point pos- sible from the pump-well, begin your drainage; and should a cesspool be necessary, let it be sunk at the greatest possible distance from the pump-well that you can obtain, to secm-e a fall for the di-ainage water. The drains should be of glazed stone-ware pipes, very care- fully clayed together at the joints of intersection, so that no escape of the impure water passing through them be possible; the size of the pipes to be such as to carry away the waste readily: for common purposes a foiu'-inch pipe is amply sufficient. Wherever the pre- mises are situated in a piece of garden, or have a moderate piece of ground attached suffi- cient to use the sewage, the cesspool should be square, or, if round, part of the top thereof should open, and all the waste cindei-, ashes, and other r.cfuse, thro^ai therein; it acts as a deo- doriser, and will form sufficient manm-e for the garden, being partially emptied whenever any groimd be turned up. In other cases, when it be closed in, let there be a small outlet pipe pro- ceeding from the side of the cesspool at a level with the di-ain-pipes, and lead away to some distant part open to the atmosphere. Should no such low ground be approachable, let the pipe rise to the surface in some secluded or out-of-the-way spot (see A, plate 11), tig. 1 remembering that the open or top part of the outlet pipe be some few inches in level lower than the syphon or trap of the upper part of the drain pipe next to the dwelling; and in cases where it is practicable, it is wise to have an outlet pipe from the tb-ain pipe outside the house, (see B. fig. 1. plate 11), such outlet pipe, that is, the orifice thereof, to be below the level of the water in the syphon trap of the pan (see C, fig. 1 plate 11). It is the usual practice to keep our outside water-closets low, indeed even ^A-ifh the floor level, or only the thickness of the sill of the door case above the siu-face; the floor should rise at least one step; the higher the seat, the better the fall, and, as a matter of course, more advantageous for the drainage. In the case of water-closets in upper floors, they are most readily kept free from noxious vapom- by ha^^ng a gas outlet pipe passing from the soil pipe through the wall of the house, some distance below the trap valve, or syphon of the pan, (see A, fig. 2 plate 11). The philosophy of the gas-escape pipes yvill now be explained. The noxious exhalation thatproceeds from the sewage matter of cb-ains and sewers, is principally and generally the gas called suljihurettod hydrogen, and is a compound heavier than atmospheric air, and therefore it falls like water over the brim of any overfilled vessel; whenever it can rise above the space in which it is generated or confined , during the decomposition of the various animal and vegetable matters carried into the cesspools, the gas is generated more or less in immense rpiantity; and if there be not any outlet for its escape, it becomes compressed, and, in warm or sultry weather, is generated so rapidly as to become compressed into considerable less than its ordinary volume, and conse- quently highly elastic; in such case the whole of the upper j)art of the cesspool, the sewers or pipe drain, and every part thereof, is fUlcd to pressure ^^•ith the noxious effluvium, even to pressing 16 ri>AN, ELEVATION, AKD SECTIONS OF A LABOITRER'S COTTAOE. with soiuo eoiisiderable force under the valve or trap, or against the water in the syphon. Therefore, the instant the valve of a closet be opened, the gas rushes out in its compressed state and expands into a vohune of ffptid vapovir, of some cuhic feet. In lig. 2 plato 11, the gas, however rapidly it may be generated, cannot rise higher in the soil pipe than B, because it is running out at A, and is rapidly taken itp by the atmosphere without inconvenience, and the space from B to the syphon is free; at all events that space is without pressure, there not being any tendency for the gas to rise above that point. It may not be considered out of place to insert here a very ready method of decomposing this gas, and in the case of cleansing cesspools or drains where it may exist in quantify suffi- cient to be offensive, place about one ounce of powdered nitre into a shallow saucer, and pour about an ounce, or little more, of sulphuric acid upon the nitre; stir with a piece of stick: the sulphui-etted hydrogen is decomposed, and nitric acid is set free. Thus: — and consists of • -T. . , ,.1 Nitric acid • set free Isitre IS I ot / , Sulphuric acid combines with the Potash, and forms sulphate of potash, and sets the nitric acid free. Cleanliness in all cases is conducive to health, and wherever the syphon pan closets are used, — and their cheapness and convenience must bring them into general use, — all water that may be useless should be emptied down them, in small cottages or houses not supplied with a cistern. Should a pump be near, a ready supply of water may be obtained from it (see plate 11, fig. 3). Place a small wood cistern A in any convenient place between the pump and the closet, let the top of the cistern be level with the top of the cistern head of the barrel of the pump, let a V4 inch lead pipe B be inserted into the lead cistern, immediately luider the level of the orifice of tlie pump nozzle, and run at a level from there into the cistern A, from the bottom of the cistern A, continue another % pipe, ■\'\nth a common cock inserted at any con- venient part thereof at D, and insert tlie other end of the pipe into the neck of the pan at C, it is evident that the cistern A will always be supplied when the pump is used, the small pipe being inserted below the orifice of the nozzle, the cistern must be filled before any wa- ter can pass tiirnugh the nozzle. However plentiful tlie supply of water may be, it slioidd not be used unnecessarily, and wlien the sujiply i)roceeds from a butt, tank, or cistern, tliey should be properly cleaned out at short periods; and if supplied from a well, let not any hole, drain or even surface-water lay, or be permitted to remain in its vicinity. All water pereolatrs thr()\igli the strata of the earth; and the stagnant water of a cesspool, in a few years, has been known to destroy a well of fine spring water at a distance of upwards of 40 ft. PLAX, ELEVATION, AND SECTIONS OF A LABOURER'S COTTAGE. (Ske Peate 32.) Consisting of live rooms. To be hollow brick or rubble walls. AVith slated roof. I'.rick-nog partitions — the whole fitted with stoves, copper, and stone smk, and containing — A Living room 12 ft. by 11 ft. and 8 ft. higli. jOoG Cube ft. A Family Bedroom 11 ft. by 10 ft. ditto. S,SO ditto. A Female Hcdi-oom 10 ft. by It ft. ditto. 720 ditto. A Boys' Bedroom il ft. by (i ft. ditto. 432 ditto. A Wasliliouse !) ft. by (I ft. ditto. 4.32 dilto. lUnU /fi ALLOTMENTS OF r^EEMOLD LAND TERRIER of I'luls of l..iii(i for SEMI-DETACHED COTTAGES 1 rtonia{> Il-pih X? A W US zo B 2* ISZ-tOftrat^ 20 C iS no to D 2& as. « E zn ISi 19 F 10 no aurrc n 20 no is H 2.i no 27 a UP' aus Jtzej 12 Total m/ , PUBLIC ROAD fo l.ortfinn Gar drier P, Son A.H.Payne so. SPECIFICATION, ETC. 17 The oven to be ei-ectcd in the centre of the four corner chimney-breasts, the shutters to be tlush ledged and hung with hooks and eyes, (not butts), and to have iron legs to drop and form an ironing boai'd when required, the two legs to fall into two hooks screwed to the casement frames and thus become the fastenings when the shutters are closed. This comfortable, convenient, and snug little residence, with the addition of about 30 poles of land, may be built to pay six per cent, upon the outlay, including rent of the land, by letting it at a rent of only two shillings per week. SPECIFICATION OF WORKS TO BE DONE IN THE EXCAVATION OF FOUNDATIONS, AREA, AND DRAINS, AND ERECTION, OF ONE LABURERS COTTAGE OF FIVE ROOMS, UPON THE GROUND-FLOOR. (See Plate 32.) Excavator. Excavate the whole of the ground to be covered by the building to the depth of 9 inches at the least, and ram the same where the walls are to stand; dig trenches for drain-pipes as directed, and form and sink, in such situation as may be pointed out, a cess- pool not less than six feet deep. Bkicklayer. Provide and lay with clay joints forty feet of 4-inch drain-pipes, including syphon; carry up the walls hollow 9" in. thick, and the brick partitions with proper footings as shewn in plan; provide and work in six iron air bricks where directed; the brickwork to be carried up with kiln bm-nt hard, clay, or other hard, smooth-faced bricks, laid in grey stone lime, and sharp sand mortar; the outside of the brickwork to have a neat plain joint, and the inside of walls and both sides of partitions to be worked fail-, flush, and face pointed, and rubbed to receive colom-, stein the cesspool, work in all the doors and sash frames, and make good to them; bed all sills and fi-ames, core the flues, and fix compo or other chimney-pots thereon; erect oven in middle of flues (as shewn in plan), set the galvanized iron pot and stoves, fix sink, pave the living room and washhouse with sound hard bricks laid on lime core, black ash, and sand concrete herruig bone courses; project brick neatly cut corbels to receive stone mantelshelves, and finish brick opening for chimneys with flat arris very neatly; and do all brickwork requii'ed to finish the building, as per di'awing. Carpenter. Prepare solid door and bevelled mullion window frames for sashes, or case- ment lights, as may be dii-ected, ready to be worked into the brickwork and properly secm-ed; the door frames to have York quarry faced sills mortised for posts, and the inner frames to form part and parcel of the 4^ inch brick nog partitions, the entireties of which are to be moi'tised and pinned into the door frame about middle rail high, and the head to be run all tlu-ough from chimney to walls; put wood bricks where required, lay ground floor joists with sleepers upon dry bricks, all 4j" X 2}/', the partition the same, framc^d to doorways, but no bottom plate, except the stone sills of doors, the ceiling joists to run through 4"Xi},", plates 4"X2V', rafters 4"Xi;|", the purlins 4X4, to be strutted to the heads of partitions and properly secured thereto, and the ceiling joists; the hips to be 9 X 1]; lay ;[ inch eaves boards, and | slating battens; erect privy over cesspool of light quarters, and feather edge boards inch-elm seat and riser and floor, with I ledge door hung and fastening; lay the floors of bed-rooms with 2 cut spruce battens prepared and laid folding; prepare and hang inch ledge doors to all the doorways; provide and put on proper fastemngs; fit flush ledge shutters to the windows hung to sill to form dressei's, or tables if required; fix all stops and linings, and complete all carpenters' and joiners' work required; the timber to be sound Baltic, or other approved resinous wood. 3 18 ESTIMATE. BILL OF QUANTITIES. Slater. 8late the whole of the roof with Countess slates properly nailed mth metal nails, and put slate lillet ridges, laid iu putty; the under side of fillets to be painted on all the hips. Plasterer. Lath, lay and set all the ceilings, white stop and color all the walls and partitions, and run 4 in. cement skirting roimd four rooms. Plumber. Put lead fillets to bottom of all window sills 4 inches wide, to project 2 inches from wall, put 4 inch half-roimd iron gutters to eaves, and cistern heads, and pipes to convey water to butt: glaze all the sashes or casements; stain all the woodwork with oak stain, or other approved dye, and do all plumbers' and glaziers' work required. Smith. Provide and fix one galvanized iron 15 inch pot and ironwork, one 24 inch or Small cottage range, two small elliptic stoves, three stock locks, eight rod bolts, twelve pau-s 14 inch X garnets and screws, four ii-on legs for shutters, seven Norfolk latches, four chimney bars, etc. Mason. Provide and fix one 18 inch stone sink, three York rubbed mantels for chimneys, to be fixed on corbels, and 12 feet 2 inch quarry-faced York for front and back doors. ESTIMATE. BILL OF QUANTITIES. SEE PLATE 32. 'ards. 15 Feet. 3 27 40 50 139 11 150 8 50 8 5 2 82 96 96 2 90 80 50 108 COST OF ERECTION OF ONE FIA'E ROOMED LABOURERS COTTAGE Cube yards excavation Ad Rods reduced brickwork, part hollow — Lineal 3 inch drain pipes, one trap Sd Superficial yards lath lay set Is Sd One cesspool and digging — Superficial yards color to walls 2d Superficial brick paving flat Is 6(7 One stone sink and pipe — Lineal feet foiu' inch cement skirting Id Number .squares of Countess slating 22* Lineal feet slate fillets in putty 2d Number of squares of slating battens ........ 5a- 6(/ Number of stone cills Od Number of jaumbs and heads door cases fir wrought . . — Cube feet fir framed 2s 6d Lineal feet 3 in half round zinc gutter fixed -id Lineal feet 6 in eaves board 2d Number of squares flooring 25* Superficial feet ledge doors hung 8(f Superficial solid casement frames glazed Is Suporfici;il ^4 lodged shutters hung ^d Superficial feet featheredge and quarter erection of privy floor, seat and riser 2 stock locks V 7 bolts % o pairs 14 in, X Garnetts screws Enamelled iron pot 1.") incii, '^ stoves and fixing. Elm slab for oven mouth Contingencies paving etc L 32 10 1 2 3 4 1 £83 s 5 10 10 2 17 3 16 6 12 16 8 4 11 12 5 12 16 10 13 10 14 10 d 6 6 2 6 6 4 3 4 6 CONCRETE. 19 C O N C R E T E. Ill all works for foundations and footings wherever the ground is unsound, the use of con- crete for a substratum is of the most essential sen'ice, particularly in all soft and freacheroua or yielding soils; and there is no doubt but that it will eventually supersede every other me- thod, it being an available, economical, and substantial resoiu-ce in many difficult situations. Concrete is a coinpouud of stones or rubble and sand, with fresh burned stone hme ground to powder without slaking, in the proportion, as generally used about London, of 5 parts of gravel and sand, to one of stone lime measured diy. These component parts, say 5 bushels of gravel and sand and one of lime, should be well turned or shovelled together with a quantity of water added, only sutficient to slack the Uiiie into the state of very stiff mortar; after turning the compound over with the shovel once or twice, it should be thrown qiuckly into the foundations from a height of eight to ten feet, or more. As it sets quickly, the mix- ture ought to be made close at hand, and as near to the spot from where it is to fall as possible ; and being immediately spread and levelled, or slightly rammed, it should not again be touched, care being taken in all cases that the trench be filled close up to the sides in eveiy part. Concrete may be formed of clumps of stone mixed with sharp sand, particularly of Kentish rag, broken as for the making of roads, and the small chips left therein, coupled as before mth good coarse sharp sand. This mixture condenses in formation, but expands con- siderably in settuig, in most cases as much both vertically as laterally as \ of an mch to the foot, which insensibly increases for some continuous time after it has hardened and be- come firm, which renders it of much value by its lateral pressiu-e on the side of the trench. The closer the bidk of the materials can be packed into a given space the less the quantity of lime required to bind them together. The concrete used near Loudon is composed of Thames' ballast, which contains about two of stones to one of sand, which proportion is found to be the most efficient and economical, wherever available, as the size of all the stones are nearly equal, being about the- size of a 2 in. mesh; all that are larger than that dimension should be broken. The lime should be hot from the Idlii, or as fresh as possible, made from grey stone, and of the best quality^, thoroughly bm-nt and ground, and should be, in quantity, proportionate to about one half of the sand only. Thus we suppose the ballast to be two of gravel to one of sand; then two bushels of gravel, one bushel of sand, and half a bushel of lime, is the proper proportion, and will be found, when propei-Iy applied as before directed, perfectly sa- tisfactory, where the Thames or other river ballast cannot be obtained. The sm-veyor or builder must make use of his own judgment to apportion the quantities according to the qualities appertaining to the material to be obtained, and the quality and strength of the lime, so that the same satisfactory residts may be obtained. This material may be used under water after it be set, and in tide ways. Wlien the stream is not very rapid, there is time, by working half tides, sufficient for its setting hard enough to resist any injury from the washing off the lime. Wherever the concrete is required to be jiarticidarly solid, or where works of consequence ai"e in coiu-se of construction, and where the foundations require the formation of a solid and compact mass, broken fhnts are recommended, as well as gravel; but in all cases where it is necessary to form the concrete impact, all round stones in the gravel or ballast should be broken ; the greater the number of angles to the particles of matter to be mixed together for the formation of the concrete, so much moi-e will the mass increase in solidity and transverse strain. It is quite clear that no one would rely upon a concrete made of round stones like marbles, however good the lime and sand might be ; therefore the more angidar the large substance, the more 3- 20 CONCRETE. secure and solid vdU the mass become. Concrete does not possess gi-eat sti-ength when exposed to transverse strain. Upon that subject we call attention to some interesting experi- ments from the Papers of the Royal Engineers by Lieut. Denison: — The first experiment was made with the view of ascertaining whether a mass of concrete made with Aberthaw lime would resist the chemical action of water ; for this purpose a small block , which had been prepared for nearly two years, was immersed for some time in distilled water, and upon apply- ing the proper tests to the water it was found to have combined with a portion of the lime in the block. Having mentioned this circumstance to Sir M. Faraday, he suggested it was probable the block contained a quantity of lime in an uncombined state, and recommended that it should be placed in a running stream for some time, in order to wash it thoroughly; this was accordingly done, by suspending the block for two months under a hulk in the river ; after which, having again soaked it in distilled water for a week, hardly any trace of the lime could be detected in the water by the application of the most delicate tests. This experiment, then, appears to prove that concrete composed of proper materials, hydraulic lime and gravel, does not suffer by the chemical action of water. Experiment No. 2 was made in order to ascertain the strength of a block of concrete 2 ft. 6 in. long and 1 foot broad, and 1 foot U inches deep, which had been made for 2 j'ears, and would have been used as a stretcher in the river wall at Woolwich. A shackle was placed round the centre of the block, and two others at the extremities, at a distance of ll'j in. each from the centre; a force being applied to the two ends and shackles by means of the hydraulic press, the block broke in the centre tinder a pressure of 4 tons 11 cwt. I did not prosecute the experiment upon the strength of this material any further, having sent down some blocks to Col. Pasley, R. E. who was investigating the same subject, and the results of whose experiments are as follow: Three stones, each 3 ft. long and 18 in. wide and 15 in. deep, were supported upon props 27 in. apart; weight being then applied to the centre of each, the first broke with 6,285 lbs., the second with 5,141 lbs., and the third with 2,930 lbs. This last had probably some flaw in it ; taking therefore the mean of the two first only, the result will be 5,713 lbs. A piece of York paving 7'/j in. deep, 13 in. wide, and 27 in. between the supports, broke with the weight of 13,512 lbs. By these results it is found that con- crete, to bear a transverse strain, as compared with Yoi-k stoue of the same area of section, is about in the proportion of one to thirteen. At Woolwich the river wall is for the most part founded upon piles ; its height above the piles is about 24 ft., thickness at bottom 9 ft., at top 5 ft., with a slope or batter in front of 3 ft. in 22; the face of this wall is composed of the above-mentioned blocks, which are laid in cement in courses 1 ft. (! in height, the headers and stretchers in the course being each 2 ft. 6 long, the former having a bed of 2 ft., while the latter have only 1 ft. behind the facing ; the rough concrete is thrown in to complete the thickness of the wall and counter forts. IJotli the blocks and the rough concrete are composed of lime and gravel in the proportion of lto7, and brought to the proper consistence with boiling water ; but the blocks are, or ought to be, made with Aberthaw lime, while Dorking lime is used for the rest of the work. The blocks are cast in moulds, and are submitted to pressure whilst setting; a coating of finer stuff is given to the face for sake of appearance. The whole of the wall is built by tide work ; and in the lower part, therefore, the backing of rough concrete lias hardly time to set before it is covered by the tide; the water, liowevcr, in this instance appears to affect tlio surface of the mass only, the interior at the depth of a few inches being, generally speaking, dry, and of a moderate degree of hardness when examined after the retirement of the tide. During the summer the action of the water from day to day upon the facing of the river wall was not perceivable; the surface still remained moderately hard; occasionally portions of the fine facing se- parated from the rest of the block, owing, it was said, sometimes to want of care in the original con- struction, sometimes to injuries by boats or vesselsstriking the wall. In these cases, however, a new facing of cement was applied, and before the winter tlie general appearance of the wall was, to a certain extent, satisfactory. During the hard frost, however, evidences of f.-iilure began to show themselves; and as soon as the thaw allowed a thorough insjjcction of tlie face of the wall to be made, it was found that hardly a single block had escaped without some damage. In many instances the whole face had ](eelcd off to the depth of half an inch, and at one spot where a drain discharged itself into the river from a height of about six or eight feet, the back action of the water after its fall had worn away the lower course to the depth of some inches; these were the evidences of the action of frost and water combined upon the best constructed wall at Woolwich. At Chatham they were of the same character; but the damage done to the wall was much greater. The portion of the river wall at Woolwich, which was built with rough concrete, had been severely injured by the common action of the water before the frost; and the latter has only caused the destruction of the face to proceed with greater rapidity. Since the frost, 1 have Aa LABOURERS COTTAGE LUut igiL^y^^rjj^M i © ^i e K E IL EVA T I O N SECTION AT A.B. ^::_J ^O^ SECTION AT CD. PLAN, ELEVATION, AND SECTIONS, ETC. SPECIFICATION ETC. 21 examined the walls of a school DcarBlackliouth, whicji was built with concrete some years ago: 1 found that at the ground line where the drip of the water had acted, the concrete was soft, and yielded easily to any force applied, while the walls above were very fairly hard, and seemed to have stood very well. These then are the facts I have to make known, and 1 think they afford sufficient grounds for assert- ing, that in climates like ours, in situations exposed to the alternate action of water and air, concrete cannot be advantageously used as a building material, the apparent economy, caused by the cheapness of Iho material employed being more than compensated for bj' the frequency of repairs. From the circum- stance that at Chatham some of the blocks remain apparently uninjured, whilst others, close to them, and exposed to exactly the same action, are completely decomposed, one would be tempted to infer that proper caution had not been used in the selection of the lime of which the latter were composed, and that, had Aberthaw lime been used throughout, the damage would not have been near so great ; but even in this case, though the frost might not have produced so much effect upon the work, and should concrete be considered perfectly impervious to chemical action, yet the want of tenacity or of power to resist a very trifling force renders it peculiarly inapplicable to situations where as in wharf walls, it will be exposed to the danger of the collision of vessels and floating bodies, in addition to the constant mechanical action of the water. Where, however, it is protected from these causes of destruction, as in foundations, ils value is unquestionable , and even in the backing of retaining walls, revetements, etc., it may , in many cases , be advantageously applied, taking care to allow it time to set before any great pressure is thrown upon the wall. The specific gravity of concrete is from 120 to 130, about the same as that of brick-work. PLAN, ELEVATION, AND SECTIONS OF ONE FOURTH -RATE HOUSE AND ADDITIONAL BUILDINGS THERETO. (See Plates 33 and 34.) Containing One Cellar . . . . 22' 8" by 15' 0" and 6 ft. high 2040 Cube ft. One best Parlour . 15' 0" by 12' 0" 9 ft. high 1620 ditto. One Front Parloui- . 11' 2" by 9' 8" ditto 1 g_^ ^.^^ with folding doors | Lobby or Hall . . 13' 0" ft. by 3' 6" ditto 364 ditto. Staircase and Passage 11' 2" by 5' 0" 17' 8" high 986 ditto. Kitchen 15' 6" by 12' 0" 9' It. high • 1674 ditto. Scvdlery 12' 0" by 8' 0" ditto 864 ditto. Closet 4' 6" by 3' 0" 7 ft. high 94 ditto. Front Bed room . . 12' 0" by 12' 0" 8 ft. high 1152 ditto. ditto ditto ... 12' 0" by 11' 2" ditto 1072 ditto. Back ditto ... 15' 0" by 12' 0" ditto 1440 ditto. ditto ditto ... 11' 2" by 9' 8" ditto " 864 ditto. This convenient dwelling has been erected and finished complete in a workmanlike manner and good material, very lately, for the sum of three hundred pounds. SPECIFICATION OF WORKS PROPOSED TO BE DONE IN THE ERECTION OF ONE FOURTH- RATE HOUSE AND ADDITIOX^VL BUILDINGS THERETO. Bricklayer. Dig out the foundations for all the walls and cellar, remove all rubbish not required, and carry up the walls, chimneys, etc., etc., with proper footings in good sound stock brickwork externally, and sound bricks within, with stone lime and sand of good quality, flushed in every com-se, turn internal arches over all lintels, dig to a proper depth, stein, and 22 SPECIFICATION, ETC. dome in pump well and cesspools, provide curb for well if required, provide and lay in all drain pipes of 4 in, dia. glazed -with all proper bends and connexions, lay brick footings for sleepers of ground joists, turn all trimmers, set all tlie stoves, range, and copper, build up washhouse and pri^•y, entrance passage and ball, and carry all necessai-y pipe drains to and from them; carry up the brick wall for iron palisade; fence with piers; put in coal shoot; core all the chiiinieys ; provide and fix compo chimney-pots of approved pattern to all the flues, make good all putlog holes, bed and set all frames and sills, rim all fillets in compo where requu-ed, point the whole of the fronts, and returns, in wliite stuck pointing, pave the cellar washhouse, and yard; slate the whole of tlie roofs with small dutchess slates, with proper paint- ed fillets laid in putty, and metal nails; brick-nog all the partitions, and do all other work necessary to the completion of the whole of the buildings required hereto. Carpenter. Put in proper bond, wood bricks, and lintels, to the whole of the buildings where requu-ed, also to the washhouse, and privy; lay the ground-floor joists with proper sleep- ers, and scantlings 4X3; the floor joists to be 7X2 herring bone strutted, the ceiling joists 4" X 1^" and part5"Xl.V" the plates, bond etc. 4" X3" the rafters 4" X 1^" frame all the floors and roof with hips, if required, and the additional buildings with proper purlins; carry the rafters over the eaves to receive the zinc gutters; project the ridge of height suft'icient to receive the slate fillets; put eave boards, and batten the whole of the roofs for slating, and lay tlie gutters behind all the chimneys; frame all the quarter partitions and truss heads o\er the folding doors with scantling 4" X 3" the heads 4X4, lay all the floors with 2 cut white spruce battens prepared and laid folding. Skirt all the upper floors with -^ square batten, the lower floors and hall with 12" moulded skirting, the kitchen with 9 in. -J plain; board over the ceihng joists in roof with half inch boards prepared; make trap door and step ladder to ditto from staircase, and trap door and frame to roof; prepare and fix the whole of the deal cased sash-frames with oak sunk, sills and l.J in. ovolo sashes double hung, with lines, weights, and proper fastenings; prepare and fix the whole of the doors throughout the buildings, the upper floor and closets of 1^ in. deal four pannel square, and the lower floor of six pannel 11 ditto moulded on both sides, the back doors and outer doors of 4 pannel bead butt; the front door 2 in. moulded door with fan light, as per drawing; the folding and parlom- doors . of 2 in. 6 pannel moulded on both sides, and hung with rising butts to lift; the others all to be fitted and hung with 3 in. butts and screws, and the whole with proper rebated jaumbs, grounds, linings, and architraves moulded and properly fixed; prepare and fix proper solid re- bated frames with oak sills to all the outer doors, washhouses, and privy'; the back and front doors to be sashed, and with shutters; prepare and fix the jjroper staircase with mahogany hand rails, 1| treads inch risers moulded, and retm-ued, and housed into 1\ sti'ing boards, with proper carriages, and moulded spandril, with door and frame hung to cellar with flight of stairs housed into 1^ strings to the same; prepare and fix proper moulded sash shutters hung, with backs, linings, and architraves to the parlour windows, all properly hung with patent lines and weights, and bead butt shutters properly hung to the kitchen windows and washhouse; pre- pare and fix proper framed closet fronts with doors and shelves, pegs, etc., to the bed rooms. No. 4. linings and arcliitraves where necessary; fix a proper 5 feet dresser with shelves, pot- board, and two drawers, in kitchen; floor and skirt pri\'y, and fix proper seat and riser, with flap hung, and box line the pipes; prepare and fix an inch deal cistern of size shewn in draw- ing over the privy, and of approved depth; fix a strong pump frame prepared of 3 in. yellow deal and small inch deal cistern complete, put wood cover and cowl to copper; and spout to ditto from the pump, make good all linings re 4 " 4 2 )> 7 Head and sill of partition next stairs, ground-floor. 4 <( () 4 „ 3 3 » Main posts. 5 9 4 » 2 2 )! 6 Quarters to ditto. 1 () 4 „ '^ — 7? 6 Door head and muntcns. 2 11 9 4 „4 2 77 8 Head and sill of upper ditto. 4 8 6 4 „3 2 77 10 Main posts of ditto. 5 8 6 4 „ 2 2 77 4 Quarters ditto. 1 f) 4 »3 — 77 () Door head and muntcns. 2 15 6 4 »4 3 77 5 Head and sill cross partition. f) 9 4 „ 3 4 77 6 Main posts. 2 9 4 „ 2 1 77 Quarters. 5 1 9 4 „2 — 77 6 Mimtens over folding doors. 1 () 4 „ 4 — 77 8 jHead truss. 1 7 4 » 3 — 77 7 ITrusses to ditto. 1 10 4 „3 — 77 10 Door head and muntens. 2 15 6 4 „4 3 77 5 Head and sill upper parti- tions. 5 8 G 4 „ 3 3 77 7 Main posts. 8 8 (i 4 „ 2 3 77 9 Quarters. 2 8 4 „3 1 77 4 Braces. 1 10 4 ,/3 — 7> 10 Door head and munten. 2 12 8 4 „3 2 77 2 Head and sill kitchen par- tition. 1) 1) *T ?) 4 „2.i 6 77 3 Quarters and jiosts to ditto, including door head. HALL. 4 13 'J (» (1 ?J 7 — » 2 5 77 1 Joists in hall. -1 13 ij JJ 4 — „ li 2 77 5 Ceiling joists to hall. 2 13 ■' J} 4 „3 2 77 2 Roof plates. 294 77 3 Carried forwar d. Is m 4 m §L o S il trih n 3 •3 i Jkr~* CO ■3 QUANTITIES OK A FOUR' Til liATI' : iiousii : AND ADDITIONAL , lUII.DI.NCS rilKKKl'O. 27 Brought f orwarJ 294 ;; 3 No. ft. in. ft. ill. ft. in. 2 4 ;, 4 „ 3 4 » 8 1 Flanks to ditto. 20 15 „ « » 5 „ U 13 >} Front ceiling joists. 20 12 „ 3 Gutter boards. 24 24 „ }J 2 o„ 4 - 6 !> 8 - Slating battens. 379 » 4 1 16 „ u » 7 „ 2 deduct 1 }} 7 377 „ 9 Cube ft. 1 23 „ G 15 „ Sup. 2 23 „ G 15 „ 23 „ G 12 „ 1 15 „ 3 12 „ 1 12 „ 6 3 „ 6 1 4 „ G 2 „ 9 Deductions. 2 3 „ G 5 „ Sup. 7 4 „ G „ 9 do. 2 G „ 9 5 „ G Sup. 1 4 „ G 3 ,, do. 4 23 „ G „ 7 Lineal 4 15 „ „ 7 do. 4 12 „ „ 7 do. 352 705 282 JOESTER. G 83 „ 43 „ 9 12 ,. 5 Wrought floor cock loft. 2 Cut batten floors of front buildings. Ditto upper floor of back buildings. Ground floor of kitchen. Entrance hall. Ditto of privies. 1578 ') 8 58 J} 8 1520 i» 15 Square 20 feet 35 n Stau's. 23 f> 8 Chimney -bre iasts. 58 „ 8 SASH SHUTTERS. 74 „ 3 13 „ G SKIRTING. 94 „ 60 „ 48 „ Sash shutters moulded and hung, including boxing linings and architraves. Bead butt shutters hung. Square Ditto, Ditto. e skirting top floor. 202 „ Carried forward. 2S QUANTITIES OF A FOL'KTH-RATE HOUSE AND ADDITIONAL BUILDINGS THERETO. Brought forward 202 „ No. 2 2 2 1 ft. ill. ft. in. 7 „ G „ 7 15 „ 3 „ 9 12 „ „ 9 9 „ „ 4 Deductions. 12 „ „ 7 14 „ „ 7 Lmeal do. do. do. Lineal do. 15 „ 30 „ 25 „ 9„ G 257 „ G Lineal Stairs. Kitchen. Ditto. Privy. 281 „ 26 „ 6 1 1 12 „ 14 „ Upper doorways. Upper chimneys, 26 „ MOULDED SIURTING. 2 23 „ 6 1 „ Lineal 70 „ 6 4 15 „ 1 „ do. 60 „ 2 12 „ 6 1 „ do. 25 „ 155 „ 6 Deductions. 41 „ 1 27 „ 1 „ Lineal 27 „ 1 14 „ i) 1 „ do. 14 „ 114 ,, G liineal Ground-floor. Ditto. Hall. Lower floor doors and fold- ing ditto. Chimneys. 41 „ 1 Twelve step Ladder 12* SASHES AND FRAMES. 2 2 5„ 4„ 9 9 3 3 G G Sup. do. 40 „ 33 „ ^1 31 •j Front sashes and frames. 3 4„ G 3 » do. 4(J ,, 6 Back windows. 1 7 » 2 }} G do. 17 » 6 31 ,, G Sup Staircase. 1 FRAMED DOORS. 8 G„ 3 2 )) G Sup. 125 „ Ij S({uare. 4 « „ 8 3 )) do. 80 „ lij double nidulded. 2 6 „ 3 2 yt (') do. 31 „ 3 1', Bead butt. 1 6 „ 8 3 >> do. 20 „ 2 in front double moulded 1 6 „ G ?? 8 do. 40 „ 2 in folding ditto. 1 Solid rebated framej £ s d and F an 1 light) 1 19 6 GROrXDS .lAiins AND AKt'TIITRAVES. 8 15 „ U )) G Lineal 12(J „ () Upper floor doors. 4 16 „ 6 ?f 6 do. 66 „ Ground ditto. 1 19 „ !t 6 do. 19 „ Folding doors. 205 „ ft. Lineal. ^ I Y>k ~'.^rm^»xi^tf^f'^ iMl'>^^Wi^ ^ S4 z < 3 o o nr :rf!l QUANTITIES OF A FOURTH-RATE HOUSE AND ADDITIONAL BUILDINGS THERETO. 29 No. ft. in. ft. in. 1 7 „ 6 3 „ Sup. 1 .5 „ 6 3 „ do. 1 9 „ 3 „ do. 1 24 „0 1 „ do. 1 7„ 6 2„6 do. 1 5„0 3„6 do. 1 7 ,, 6 "2 „ 6 do. 2 Tui-ned Newels 12 ft. Mahogany handi-ail 10 ft. 2 Caps 2 ramps. 10 ft. Capping to strings. 20 — 1 — I balusters. STAIRCASE. 22 „ 6 IG „ G 27 „ 24 „ 18 „ 9 17 „ G 18 9 145 „ Treads inch deal returned nosings. Ditto. Inch risers. 1^ housed strings. IL Cellar door and frame. 1^ framed and moulded span- dril. 1 in. housed cellar stairs. PLASTERER. CEMENT. 1 24 „o 1 „ Sup. 24 „ 1 24 „ 1 „ do. 24 „ 28 „ 1 „ do. 28 „ 18 .0 1 „ do. 18 „ 4 „Q 1 „ G do. 7 „ 4 101 „ 4 LATH PLASTER. 2 27 „ 23 „ Sup. 1242 „ 2 17 „ 22 „ do. 748 „ 1 12 »o 3„0 do. 36 „ 2 17 „ 15 „ do. 510 „ 4 „ G 3 „ do. 13 „ G 2549 „ 6 132 „ 10 241G „ 8 268+ Sup. yards DEDUCTIONS. 4 3 „o 7 „0 84 „ 1 G „ 8 7 „4 48 „ 10 132 „ 10 RENDER AND SET. 4 27 „ 17 „ Sup. 183G „ Run cornice in cement. J Ai'chitraves and reveals to \ top windows. I Ditto with lable heads and I 4 console trusses. Plain face comno to entrance. 1. Cornice to ditto. Lath render set ceilings. Back partitions ditto. Porch ditto. Front partition. Privy ditto. Doors in lath lay and set. Folding doors. Render and set to front wall and back. 183G „ 3(1 QUANTITIES OF A FOURTH-KATE HOUSE AND ADDITIONAL BUILDINGS THERETO. Brought forward 1836 „ Xo. ft. ill. ft. ill. 4 23 77 17 7' U Sup. 1564 „ Do flank wall. — 30 77 !) 77 do. 270 „ Do porch. 1 12 77 7 77 do. 84 „ Privy. 3754 „ - 383 „ =374 I Sup.y 3371 „ = ards. DEDUCTIONS. 7 5 77 4 77 Sup. 140 „ Windows render and set 9 7 77 3 77 (J do. 189 „ Doors ditto. G 3 77 3 77 do. . 54 „ Sup. feet. Chimneys ditto. 383 „ 4 17 12 77 77 Lineal 1 „ 68 L ine al fe et. Angle staff in cement. 2 24 „ Cornice. 2 15 77 30 „ Ditto. 2 11 77 22 „ Ditto. 2 10 77 20 „ Ditto. 2 12 77 6 25 „ Ditto hall. 2 4 77 8 Ditto ditto. Extra Mitres No. 8. 2 24 „ U 27 „ Sup. 2 22 „ 6 6 „ do. 2 15 „ 6 „ U do. 1 30 „ „ 8 do. 2 Console Trusses 129 „ = 129 „ Sup.l . feet gii'th.f WHITEN. 1296 270 180 20 1766=1961 Sup. yards. 12*. Whitewashing ceilings. Lime white. Ditto. Cornice to hall. M A S N. 20 Run nibbed york tliroated sills. 18 „ Tooled ditto. 6 „ Super 3 inch paving. 30 „ Run canted curb with holes cut 6 X 4. 2 Stone corbels. 2 Block stones. 12 Ft. super York paving in gate stone. 2 — 4 In. saddle backed caps for piers 1' „ 6" X ]' „ 6". 2 Box marble chimney pieces cost price 50/ ea. 2 Box stone ditto. 2 Plain ditto. 1 Set 9 in. kitchen ditto with inner and outer heartlis to the whole. natt 20 LA&OyRER'S COTTAGE ndapUd tor n narrotn sH/) of land. a Fig. J. Ik SECTjIQN; AT C D, tos ate i * St r o M I I I I I I M I 30 fee ( se*it or rtET QUANTI ES OF A FOXJRTH-RATE HOUSE AND ADDITIONAT. BUILDINGS THERETO. 31 1 — 30 in. York sink. 2 — 5 Hole sink stones. 18 Ft. Siipl. 2 in. York paving. B I, A K S M I 30 Ft. cast iron palisade f'en(;e with gates fixed. 4 Chimney bars. 28 pounds of hoop iron for bond. 2 — 36 in. register stoves. 2 — 30 in. register ditto. 2 — 24 Ditto ditto. 1 ■ — 18 in. copper and ironwork. I' L 11 M R V. R. 1 ft. iper. 32 Ft. super zinc lining to cistern 18 oz. \ 39 Ft. ditto ditto in gutter ditto. ( 20 Ft. of I lead pipe. 1 Brass cock. Fix a siphon closet complete. 54 Ft. of 6 in. O G zinc gutter. 24 Ft. of ditto half round ditto. 10 Ft. of 2 in. stack pipe with head and shoe. ^ Cwt. lead for front fence. 2^ in. barrel lead pump complete. 1 Cistern head pipe and cock to water closet. P A I N T r, R. 168 Yards painting 4 coats in oil. 8 Doz. sashes. 9 Frames. 12 Yards super cement patent paint. 56 Y'^ards super of grain and varnish. 36 Pieces of paper at 2s per piece hung. ^tf Note. Include the glazing in sashes and frames. M I S G K L I, A N K U S. 34 Ft. supl. inch deal. 5 Niunber of 1 Number of 9 Ft. supl. inch deal 6 Ft. 4^ in. arris gutter 1 Number of 16 „ 6 Ft. sup. inch deal 4 = 6 In. iron rimmed locks 4 = 4 In. closet ditto. 3 = 6 In. mortice ditto with porcelain fui'niture. 8 = Finger plates. 3 = 8 In. draw back locks. Pump cistern. Proper solid door frames oak sills. Proper piunp frame. Ser^^ce cistern. Arris gutter to copper. Proper 5 ft. dresser, drawers, pot board, and shelves. Seat and riser, floor, closet and lining to pipes. 32 SUJIMARY OF QUANTITIES ETC. 6 = 8 In. rough rod bolts. 1 = Rapper. 2 =: Scrapers. 8 = Compo chimney pots, No. 3. 1 — Copper lid and stick. 80 Ft. 4 inch glazed drain pipe. 1 Siphon bend and one quadrant ditto. SUMMARY OF QUANTITIES FOR A FOURTH-RATE HOUSE AND ADDITIONAL BUILDINOS THERETO. (See Plates 33 and 34.) yard. ft. in. 145 17 10 62 377 9 15 20 — 74 3 13 6 257 6 114 8 y> 131 6 125 — 80 31 3 20 40 205 . 145 6 » 7) 10 10 26 101 4 268 4 374 5 68 129 196 Cube yards excavation eai-th woik Rods brickwork reduced Cubic feet fir framed Square 2 cut batten flooring Supl. sash shutters moulded one side and hung, including boxing lines, stiles, and arcliitraves Supl. li bead butt shutters hung Lineal -J square batten skirting Supl. mcyilded skirting double face One 12 step ladder Supl. ovolo sashes and frames Supl. \\ square doors 4 panel Supl. 1| double moulded Ditto IL bead butt Ditto 2 in. front door moiddcd and flush Ditto 2 in. double moidded folding One solid rebated frame and fan liaht Feet lineal grounds, jambs, and architraves Supl. \\ and inch proper staircase Two turned newels Ft. lineal mahogany handi-ails Two caps, two ramps Lineal capping to strings Number of IJJ balusters Supl. cement cornice and dressings Sujil. yards latli, plaster, and set Supl. yards render and set Lineal angle staff in cement Ditto feet cornice Eight extra mitres Supl. whiten — 2 console trusses Vhiir a BRICKWORK FOOTINGS ■ ■ ■ L... ■ ! , l i : : ' ! I %^. %. / ! • , 1 ■-■ : ■- - ■ . /■'uj. .i. FigA. SUMMAHY OF QUANTITIES, ETC. 33 yards. 196 1 1 168 8 9 12 56 oG 2 20 18 6 30 12 18 30 28 32 39 20 54 24 10 34 0| 0( Brouglit forward Wliiteii coilinji's and cDniiccs Lineal rubbed York throated sills Ditto tooled Supl. 3 inch pavinj;' Lineal canted curb witli holes cut 6X4 Two stone corbels Two block stones vSupl. York paN'ing- in gate stone Two 4 in. saddle backed caps for piers 1 — 6x1 — 6 Two box marble chinniey pieces cost price 50/ ca. Two box stone ditto Two plain ditto One set 9 in. kitchen ditto with inner and outer hearths to the whole One 30 in. l^ork sink Two 5 hole sink stones Supl. 2 in. York pa\'ing Lineal iron palisade fence with gates fixed 4 chimney bars Pounds of hoop iron for bond Two 36 in. register stoves Two 30 in. ditto Two 24 in. ditto One 18 in. copper and ii'onwork Supl. zinc lining to cistern 18 oz. Ditto in gutter ditto Lineal | lead pipe One brass cock. Fix a syphon closet complete Lineal 6 in. O (i zmc gutter fixed Ditto feet of ditto half round ditto Ditto feet of 2 in. stack pipes witli head and shoe Cwt. lead for front fence 2.1 in. barrel lead pump complete Cistern head pipe and cock to water-closet Supl. yards 4 coats oil Dozens of sash squares Number of sash frames ])ainted Supl. cement patent paint Ditto yards grain and varnish Number of pieces of paper at '2s 6r/ hung ^If Note. Include the glazing in sashes and frames. iMISCELLA*-:OUS. Supl. feet inch deal cisterns Number of proper solid door frames oak sills Carried forward i 34 BRICKWORK. yariis. 9 6 16 80 Brought forward One piuiip frame Supl. inch deal Lineal ft. 4.J arris g-utter One proper 5 ft. dresser drawers and shelves Supl. ft. inch deal seat, riser, etc. Foxu- 6 in. iron rim locks Fom- 4 in. closet ditto Three (i in. mortice ditto porcelain furnitm-e Eight porcelain linger plates Three 8 in. di-aw-baek locks Six 8 in. rough rod bolts One rapper Two scrapers Eight compo chimney-pots One copper lid and stick Lineal feet 4 in. stone drain pipes One syphon bend, one quadi'ant ditto, one junction. No estimate is intended to these quantities; the amount it costs in erection is stated in the description — any person can till in according to the price of material in the locality — ■ to put a sum would perhaps mislead, the quantities are the essentia] knowledge required — prices alter very materially. BRICKWORK. In the formation of brickwork, particular care should be taken to insist upon the joints being invariably broken, that is, that every brick should lie over the joints or intersections of the lirieks in llie course immediately below the one in course of erection, so tlial no part of the wall can separate from the other; this is called bond or bonding many small pieces together, to make one integral wiiolc. Again, in footings where the bottom courses project to obtain a larger surface or base for tlie support of the superincumbent weight of the walls purj)osed to be carried up, no stretcher should be laid in any outer course where it can be avoided, for in such case the one half of the stretcher only can assist in bearing the weight, althoufih the oiji.i- li.ilf assists so far as the transverse tension of the briek to add to th(! su]iport of the u])per weight; but if all headers be laid, three-fourths of the brick is under the actual pri'ssure of the u))per work. Plate I), tig. 1 gives a footing of four bricks wid(' luid witii all headers: tlii' dotted lines (leserihc the next ascending course of three and one half hrieks, liut laid with one stretcher altei-nate with every two headers but the stretclwrs inside, and shewing that every intersection of the lower course is covered by the one above it; ami tlius an c(|ual and coittimious bearing extends throughout. Plate (5, Kg. 2, sliews the dotted course of Kg. 1 plal(' (i, of three and one half bricks laid down, and the doited lines upon that indicate the u])per course of three bricks, all headers overlaying, as before, every intersection of tlie courso innnediately underneath them, and given, as before, the set off on each side of 2', inches; Kg. ;i, plate li. describes the last course Plo/c t = f R OIM T E,L E VA,T1 ON F, inches more than the opening re(|uircd, take a jiiece of stitf iron hoop the exact length that the pier is wide, bed the w^ood bond across the opening, resting nine inches on the pier on each side of the opening, then nail or screw the in.n Imop on to the nuie inches of the bond in thi> wall: thus they bec(nne stifHy coimected. and when the work is finished and the bond cut from the openings it will leave the iron bond in the brickwork attached to a wood brick on each side of the opening thus W/miv 4 In plate 8 is the plan, elevation, and section of a wing 1>«"^I j-***^! retaining or wharf wall to support any heavy pressure 36 BRICKWORK. from bcliind. Tlie various sets off at the back form counterforts, wliich, by the downright pressm-e of the superiiiciuubent earth upon them, overcome, in a great degree, the great lateral pressure; even in raising a nine inch wall some two feet or more for footway cm-bs, a course of headers in the back, projecting half brick from the work, will take off much of the lateral pressure thus: — The pockets of all eliimney- breasts at the set oft' of the fluos should be filled in sciiid and grouted, and care taken tiiat the in- ^^^i-iojocting course temal sides of the tlues be carefully pargetted and iinished very *''"' smooth: the parge is made by mixing soft cow-dung with mortar to a proper consistence, and forms, when diy, a very tough cement ; in finishing the tops of chimneys, the upper courses should be laid in cement closely jointed. BRICKWORK. USEFUL MEMORANDUMS. 272 300 4500 18 384 14' 1 1 :>•> .•52 I t in 72 32 h) 12 Feet superficial, 1 rod of brickwork at l.J brick or ]3.| inches thick, which is considered the standard thickness, and to wliich all brickwork is reduced. Cube feet, 1 rod of reduced brickwork, being the cube quantity produced Ijy nudti- plying 272 feet by 13.} inches, or i\ brick the standard thickness of all brickwork. Bricks, allowing for waste, will build 1 rod of reduced brickwork. Bricks to each reduced foot of brickwork. A rod of Brickwork contains ll^y cube yards, or eleven cube yards anil nine cube feet. Bricks to 1 foot superficial nf marl facing laid {''leinish bond. Bricks to 1 foot superficial of guaged arclies. To reduce cube feet of brickwork to the standard tiiickuess of 1^ brick, nmltiply by 8 and divide by 9, the standard thickness of 1^ brick, or 13^ inches, being |^ of a foot. A stock brick is 8^ inches long, -t^ indies widi', and -'^ inches thick; cacli l)rick weighs about 4 lb. l.'J oz. Bricks to one cubic yard. Bricks to one cubic foot. Ft. of brickwork laid close weighs alxml 1 > \vt. Hod of Itrickwork weighs aliout tliirteen tons. Stock bricks laid edgeways will pavi- one snpcrliiia! \;ird. Ditto laid fiat will pave a yard su]ji. 'i'cn inch tiles will pave one yard supl. I'"oot tiles will |iave one yard supl. Pax-ing bricks laid on edge will pave one yard supl. l>itto laid flat will pave one yard su|ji. The jjaving brick is U inches long, -1^ in. wido, and 1^ in. thick. In. tile is 0^ inches square and 1} in. thick. In. ditto is 11^ inches square and I', in. thick. Sritioii oF Frmit Jt'nN shfioi ntj K'lrLcLows oocf Fvre, Plaxf^ MORTAKS. 37 JJriik iia\ ing i.s very often laid diagonally, and is called herring-bone paviuf;- (see diagram). In plate 10 the various thickness of walls are given accord- ing to the INfotropolitan P.uihling Act, and nuist be carried out in all buildings erected within the disti-icts. Fig. 1. The party and external walls for a fourth - rate house, which nnist only luive an area of 4 squares. 2. The party and external walls for a thin! -rate, which must have IX brickwork tliiMuuIiout, and only cover an area of six squares. 3. The party and external x\alls I'or a second-rate, the area of which nuist not ex- ceed ten squares. 4. The party and external walls fcjr a first-rate, and in area must not exceed fourteen squares. Very neat walls can he erected hollow in 9 inch work, with brick pn edge, alternatelv a header and a stretcher; it requii-es some care, but is very strong, and may be recommended for small tenements; to prevent damp, the hricks should be very hard and square, and all Avhole bricks must be used, and the very best stone lime mortar, mtli flush joints close and neatly pointed (see Plate 9, Figs. 5 and 6). MORTARS, &c. By mortar is meant a mixture of lime and sharp sand ndxe(l with water to a proper consistence, and thoroughly beaten up, chai'ed, or ])ounded, so as to be completely and intimately amalgamated together. The component parts being usually three or ."xl cube yards of good sharp sand to one cube yard of grej^ stone lime; or two yards or 2^ yards of sand to one of chalk lime; sharp road scrapings is used in great quantities instead of sand; and where it is taken from roads that are kept in order with flint, or gravel, forms a very good mortar: but it should lie heaped up in quantities for a considerable time before use, to allow for the decay of any annual or vegetable matter that it may contain. In describing the various kinds of lime and mortar, the introduction of a most clever extract from a work uj)on hydraulic and common mortars, by General Treussart, taken from the "Civil Engineer and Ai'chitects' Journal," is here given in full : — "Lime has been employed time immemorial; mixed witli sandor certain other substance, it forms mortar. Although the solidity and durability oi' masonry depends on the goodness of mortar, still few experiments have been made with lime; and the manner of making mortar has almost always been given up to the workman. It is only within about 50 years that a few scientifle men have attended to tliis important subject. Comparing the mortars of the .jVncients, and especially of the Romans, with those of modern tinu'S, it was perceived that the old mortars were better than ours, and the means have conseqiu=:ntly been sought of imitating them. Several constructors have thouglit they had discovered the secret of making Roman mortars; others, on the contrary, have thoughl tli.it tlie Romans had no particular process, but that of all then- constructions those oidy that were made of good lime had survived to our day. We shall see that my experiments tend to conrinn this latter opinion. "Lime used in buildings is obtained by the calcination of calcareous stones, which oecm* abundantly on the surface of the globe. ]\Lu'ble, certain building stones, chalks, calcareous ala- 38 MORTARS. baster, and shells are employed in making lime. Tlio effect of calcinalion is to drive off the water and the cai'bonic acid which are combined with the lime. The water and the first por- tions of carbonic acid pass off easily, but it recjuires an intense and long -continued heat to dispel the remainder of the acid. Lime as used in constructions contains almost always a considerable quantity of carbonic acid. "^Tien the stone submitted to calcination is white marble, pure lime is obtained, provided the calcination be carried far enough. According to an aualj-sis which I made of white marble this substance contained in 100 parts as follows: lime, (J4; carbonic acid, 33; water, 3. Lime obtained by calcination possesses the following properties : it has great avidity for water, imbibes it from air, and has its bulk enlarged thereby. If a certain quantity of water be thrown on lime recently calcined, it heats highly, breaks with a noise, and a part of the water is evaporated by the heat produced. The disengaged vapour carries off some particles of lime. Water dissolves about one four-hundredth of its weight of lime, forming Avhat is called liiue-water. Lime is a caustic, and tm-ns the syrup of violets green; its specific gravity, accord- ing to Kirwan, is 2.3; it attracts carbonic acid from the air, and finally retm-ns to the state of carbonate of lime. To preserve it, it is necessary to keep it in very tight vessels. " Lime was formerly ranked among the alkalis, and it is only lately that its true nature was known. Davy, the English chemist, in 1807, succeeded in decomposing, by means of Volta's pile, the sulphate and the carbonate of lime, or more properly, lime derived from these substances, obtaining a brilliant substance ha^•iug so strong an attraction for oxygen, that it immediately absorbs it from air, and from water, which it decomposes; the brilliant substance derived from lime is regarded as a metal, and has received the name of calcium. Accordingly, lime is only a metallic oxyde. It is rarely that lime derived from white marble is used in the arts; that which is commonly used, and which is derived from ordinary limestone, almost always con- tains oxyde of ii'on, and sometimes a certain quantity of sand, alumine, magnesia, oxj-de of manganese, etc. Some of these substances combine with the lime by calcination, and the lime thus acquires properties which it had not before, and of which I shall speak in the sequel. " If we take lime derived from white marble, or from common limestone, and reduce it as it comes from the kiln to a paste A\dth water, and if we place this paste in water or in hu- mid earth, it will remain soft for ever. The same result will be obtained if lime be mixed with sand and the resulting mortar be placed in a similar situation. " It is a common practice to deluge lime fresh from the the kilu with water, and run it into basins where it is allowed to renuiin in the condition of soft paste. Alberto says he has seen lime in an old ditch that had been abandoned about 500 years, as was conjectured by very manifest indications, which was still so moist, well ItMupered, and ripe, that iu> honey or the maiTow of animals could be more so. "There is another kind of linu', which possesses a singular property: if it be slaked jis i1 comes from the kiln, as above, and then placed in the state of paste in water or in moist earth, it will harden more or loss promptly according (o the substance it contains. The same result is obtained if the linu', Ix'ing mixed with sand, is made into mortai- and |ilnred in a similar situation. If the lime be slaked ,Mnd run into vats, as is done with coniumii lime, it will become hard after a little time, and it will he impossible to make use of it. " On slaking lime fresh from the kiln with enough water to reduce it to paste it is found to augment considerably in bulk; Ihis augmenlation is such that one volume of quick lime will sometimes yield iiimr tli.m lhi-ee v(dumcs, measured in the condition of thick paste. When the lime which has the jjroperty of hardi^ning in water is slaked in the same manmr. it affords a nnieh smaller volume than common lime. Sometimes one vohnne of this lime measured when slaking will give, when slaked to a thick paste, scarcely an equal bulk. For a long time these limes which had the property of iiai-ileniiig in water were called meagre /'/<7 ; I'h'U' .;; riRST FLOOR PLAN SCALE to Fig / » ftet Fty V -M-^- Pi AIM ©>p R©©p PfkAPf ©r ROOIVIS /N ROOT ^fect Ijardnpr a .J . S C A L E «o /'io V AND pi AN or Rnnr MORTARS. 39 limes, and those wliicli had not iliis ]irn|icrty wore caHed fat liinr. These denominations were j;;iven, because the fii'st increased hut litile in hulk wImm \[\:idr iulci paste, while the ntljci- g-ave a considerable augmentation of volume, and because fat limes formed with the same quantity of sand a much fatter or more unctuous mortar than meagre lime. But the denomi- nation meagre lime is altogether impreper to indicate limes which enjoy the property of hardening in water, because there are limes which augment tiieir volume very little on being made into paste, and at the same time possess n<) hydraulic property. Belidor gave the name of 'beton' to linui which had the (juality of hardening in water; but many en- gineers continued to call it meagre lime. The denomination of beton is not suitable, and in this sense is not now in use. The i'ollowing are the terms now employed: — " In England the name of aquatic lime has been given to the lime which indurates in water; in Germany it is called lime for the water. M. Vieat, engineer of roads and bridges, has pro- posed the name of hydraulic lime; and this denomination, which is a very good one, has been generally adopted. I shall therefore call that lime which swells considerably in slaking, 'fat lime;' that which swells but little and docs not harden in water, meagre lime; and that which has the property of hardening in water, 'hydraulic lime.' Fat lime is often called 'connuon lime;' also the term 'quick lime' is applied to all unslaked limes, whether fat lime, meagre lime, or hydraulic lime. Although meagre lime and hydravdic lime may have been calcined exactly to the proper degree, still they are slower to slake, and give out a less degree of heat, than fat lime. When fat lime has been too much biu-ned it becomes slow to slake, while, if pro- perly bm-ned, it begins to slake the instant water is thrown tipon it. Experiments, to be given in the sequel, will show that iron in the state of red oxyde causes fat lime to slake slowly. " Some of the ablest chemists have at different times sought to detect the substance which imparts to lime the property of indm-ating under water. " Bergman, a Swedish chemist, was, I think, the tirst who gave an analysis of a hydraulic limestone. That from Lena in Sweden he found to contain in 100 parts the following sub- stances: lime 1)0, oxyde of manganese 6, clay 4. Bergman seems to have attributed the peculiar property of hydi-aulic lime to the oxyde of manganese, and this opinion prevailed for a long time; on the other hand, we find in the 'Bibliotheque Britannique' of 177(5, vol iii, page 202, that Smeaton, the English engineer, who built the Eddystone Lighthouse in 1757, attributed this property to clay; for he says, it is a curious question, wluch he will leave chemists and phi- losophers to decide, why the presence of clay in the tissue of calcareous stone should give it the property of hardening in water, while clay added to connnon lime produces no such effect? "Guyton de Morveau announced, in a memoir published in ISOS), that he had detected the presence of oxyde of manganese in all the limestones afforded by hydraulic limes; he announ- ced fm-ther, that in calcimng together DO parts of common limestone pulverized, 4 parts of clay, and ti parts of black oxyde of manganese, an excellent artificial meagre lime woidd be obtained. It was stated above, that at that time the name meagre lime was given to lime that would set under water; the French chemist was the first, therefore, to make artiticiiU hydraulic lime; but he, as well as Bergnum, was mistaken in supposing that the presence of the oxyde of manganese was necesstvry to the residt. He would have obtained his result by burning the pidverized limestone with clay alone. "il. Saussm-e says, the property possessed by certain limes of hardening in water is due solely to silex and aluniinc, that is to say, clay combined in certain proportions. " M. Vitalis, chemist of Rouen, made, in 1807, the analysis of the limestones of Scnonchcs and St. Catherines near Rouen: the analysis is contained in the memou- on the Scliists of Cherbourg, published, in bS()7, by M. Gratien, senior engineer of roads and bridges. This limestone contains, according to M. Vitalis, in 100 i)arts the following substances: water 12, 40 MORTARS. carbonate of lime 68, aliimine 12, sand 6, oxyde of iron, 2. In addi-essing these residts to M. Gratien senior, M. Vitalis expresses himself thus: 'It follows from the analysis that the limestones of Senonches and St. Catherines are two calcareous marles, in which the chalk predominates, it is ti-ue, but wherein the clay performs an important part. It is this portion of clay which, in my opinion, makes the lime in these two limestones meagre; whence it follows that the presence of oxyde of manganese is not indispensable to the constitution of such limes, since the analysis proves that the limestone in question contains no oxyde of manganese, as it woiUd, if present, have colored the glass violet.' I noticed above that these hydraulic limes were then meagre limes. We see that the analysis of these stones confirms the opinion of M. Saussiu-e, who had attributed to the clay alone tiic power of hardening in water. Thomson, an English chemist, is of the same opinion. " M. DescotUs, engineer of mines, also made an analysis of the limestone of Senonches, which analysis may be foimd in the 'Journal des Mines' of 1813, page 3(l8. According to this trial the Senonches limestone contains a quarter part of silex disseminated in very small particles, and only so small a quantity of iron and aluraine that these subjects can have no influence on the lime; whence this engineer concludes that the hydraidic property of this limestone is owing to the silex. We have, however, seen above, that, according to M. Vitalis, it contains twice as much alumine as silex. M. Berthier also inserted in the 'Journal of Mines" an ana- lysis of the Senonches limestone, which will be given further on, and according to which the stone contains very little alumine. This contradiction has not yet been explained. Perhaps the quarries at that place afford stones of different kind. If so it woidd be important to ascertain what is the composition of the best. " The analj'sis of the Senonches limestone afforded M. Descotils occasion to make an im- portant remark on the silex contained in limestones, viz. tliat the sUex found in these stones does not dissolve in acid before calcination, but does dissolve after calcination. This fact proves that the properties of silex are clianged by calcination with lime, and that it com- bines in a dry way with tins substance. "M. Vicat, engineer of roads and bridges, published in 1818 a very important memoir on hydraulic mortars. This engineer sets out with tlie opinion generally entertained at that time, that it was the clay that gave to lime tlie singular proj)erty of hardening in water. He, in conseiiuence, took fat lime, which lie mixed with various proportions of clay, according to the (ollowing process: — 'The operation, we are about to descril)e,' says M. Vicat, 'is a true synthesis, reuniting in an intimate manner, by the actimi nf iiri\ (he essential principles which are separated from Jiydraulic lime Ijy analysis. It consists in allowing tlie lime which is to be improved to fall spontaneously to powder in a dry covered place, aiterwards to mix it, by tlic hi'l|i of a littli' water, with a certain (piantity of grey or brown clay, or simply with brick earth, and to make balls of this clay, which, after drying, are to be burned to a proper degree.' "Being master of the proportions we may conceive that the factitious lime may receive any degree of energy required equal to or surpassing at pleasure the best natural lime. "Very fat connnon lime will bear'().2. < 'r it may he furnicil of two Bushels of Fresh slonc lime, thrcH^ Bushels of wood ashes, mixed the same as lime and sand, but let lir until cold, and beat lliMi-nugiily ilircc or four times before using. No. 4. 4 parts of l)lu<' lias lime, (i parts of river sand, 1 jiart of puzzolana, 1 part of calcined iron stone. This cement was used for setting the outside facing of the brick walls of the London Docks. PAIR OF SEMI ■ DETACHED SEVEN-ROOMED HOUSES AND OFFICES „.._p.....^.. ILtVATlQP ^ ^ ^ so frtf SCALL OF FEET GROUND PLAN Gardner & Son A H Piyne WATEK PROOF MASTIC CKMENT. 43 WATER PROOF MASTIC CEMENT. No. 1. 50 parts of sharp sand, 50 parts of stone lime ground, 10 parts of red lead in powder to be mixed with boiled oil. No. 2. 100 parts of sharp sand, 50 parts of whiting in powder, 10 parts of red lead ditto, mixed with boiled oil. No. 3. loo parts of sharp saud, 25 parts of plaster of Paris, 10 parts of red lead, 5 parts of yellow ochre, all in powder and mixed with boiled oil. MORTAK. No. 1. 1 cubic yard of Dorking or grey stone lime, 3 to 3A yards of sharp river sand. No. 2. Coarse mortar. 1 cubic yard of stone lime, 4 cubic yards of coarse gravelly sand. No. 3. 1 cubic yard of stone lime, 4 cubic yards of coarse yellow gravelly sand, which contains oxyde of iron. No. 4. 1 part of lime, 2 parts of sliai-p sand, 1 part of blacksmith's ashes — black oxyde of iron. No. 5. 1 part of lime, 2 parts of sand, 1 part of coarse gromid coke. There are many other compositions of mortar and cement in use, but the before mentioned have been tested for years. Localities will occasi 8 T) „ 1 „ 8 20 per cent profit . . . 1 „ „ 4 £ 6 „ 2 „ per load. Nine hundred feet of fir 4" X 2". 4"X2"— 8 inches — 8 farthings = 2*/. 900 2 12 I 1800 ^ |_l50_shimngs 20 I 15,0 ^ ^"^^'^ *■*• .r7„10„0 deduct four times I i u n 5 per cent upon pounds / " " Value £0 „ 2 „ per load. Example 5. Timber per load . . 5 „ „ Carting 5 „ Sawing 15 ,, Waste one sixth . . 16 „ 8 20 per cent profit . 1 „ 7 „ 4 £8 ,, 4 „ J__ m III — 1 i "■ !1i c^; z < o — LJ #s^ / .^ f arpkntkr's wokk. 47 900 ft. lir 4" X 2" = 8 inches = IS farthings = 2d. '2 12 I 1800 20 I 15,0 7„10„0 add twice 5 per Ct. on pounds 14 „ ^ 8 „ 4 „ CARPENTER'S WORK. In fixing quarter partitions, tlicy never should rest or bear upon the floor joists, because when the joists shrink, which is invariably the case, the partition that stands upon them \vi)l give way, and a crack will appear in the plaster cornice, which, however small, is very' un- sightly and cannot easily be repaired, because, the line being broken, a break or jump will be formed which mil readily be detected; to avoid this, place upright puncheons between or by the side of every joist, standing on tiie top plate or lower partition head, for the bottom plate of the upper partition to stand upon. In this case, when the joists shrink, a small opening is left between the bottom edge of the skirting and the floor, leaving the partition plaster and cornice uninjured, see plate 14, fig. 1. Wherever folding doors are introduced, the upper part of the partition must be trussed, see plate 14, fig. 2: and, M'here much weight is to be carried, the strength of the truss sliould be much increased by the addition of four half- inch iron screw bolts, introduced as shewn in the plan. The floor joists should be carefully strutted with small scantling, say 2" by 1}/', or any small ends of stuff" about that size, and cross braced or herring bone strutted in rows not more than four feet asunder, or two rows to a common sized room, see plate 14, fig. 3. Should the outside joist not be close to the wall, a block shoidd be placed between the side of tlie joists and the wall to form an abutment. Plate 14, fig. 4, is the plan of a naked framed floor, shewing the method of trimming for the chimney breasts, and i'or the well of tlie stairs. A, trinmiing joists 7^"X 2^". B, trinnner and the bridging joists 7.^"X2". Plate 14, fig. 5. shews the method of notclung the joists down upon the plates, and care should be taken, to h'vel the plates properly upon the walls, both ways, that they may Ije perfectly out of winding with each other, before bedding them; so that any little deviation from the level, may be adjusted by proportioning the thickness of the mortar bed. When notched down and tried by a straight edge to ascertain that the joists exactly range on their top edges they shoidd be seciu-ely nailed down to the plate. Plate 14, fig. G & 7. shews the proper me- thod of cutting the tenon and lap, at the end of the trinuners passing through the trimming joists and secured by a wedge pin: the short trinmiers .should be cut in the same way, but merely go through; or a small mortice and ship lap may be used for the short trunmers or filling in joists, see fig. 8 & 9, plate 14. Wherever a gutter plate is used, it should be framed of two flitches 10" by 2.J", and the gutter laid witliin it, see plate 15 fig. 1. The two sides should be framed together with short puncheons, about 2 ft. apart, leaving a space of nine inches between them for the gutter boards, and framed to seciu-e a proper drip and good fall. Every other puncheon should have a long tenon, (plate 15, fig. 2), morticed through, and pin wedged the same as for the trimmers of floors. When the gutter is fixed, it should be kept up one quarter of mi inch in the middle on the partition head. The rafters 48 carpenter's work. should be cut with a Bird's mouth, and the heel of each notched into the side of the gutter plate, (see plate 15, fig. o.) A fillet should be well nailed on each side of the gutter plate to notch the ccihng joists to, should they run that way; but as the gutter plate generally rims from front to back, the ceiling joists, particuhu-ly if they are cut from the floor joists, will lay the same way as the gutter, in that case the fillets will not be required. In small roofs no other framing may be necessary; but should the rafters extend to nine or ten feet in length, a pm'lin should be fixed about the middle of them supported by struts from the set off, or a corbel cut into the wall. Where there is more than one floor, or where there are in any bmlding upper rooms and a staircase, a trap door should be left in the roof, at the most convenient place in the ceiling of one of the bed rooms, but never over the staircase: it should be so arranged as to open without the least diffleulty, and the step ladder' to reach it, shoidd always be there. The framing of principals for roofs of any ex- tent, requires great care and attention in the setting out of the work, so that every junction in the framing, should fit and butt together perfectly square and close in every part; no precaution should be spared to secure so important a consideration. There are many ways of trussing the tie beams and principals for roofs, depending upon the size of the building, and the distance that the walls or supports are from one another; where height of ceiling is required and the beiu-ing points not too distant, a collar truss (see plate 15, fig. 4), may be used, but it is not to be recommended, because there is a tendency to give where the collar bites the rafter at the dovetail, whii'h shoidd not cut into the side of the rafter more than one half- inch. The collars in scantling should be 9 inches by 2; the i-afters 6 m. by 3 in. at the foot and 4^ in. by 3 in. at the top : the ridge boai-d 7 in. by 2 in. ; pm-lins 6" X 4", plates 4" X 3". In a roof framed in tliis manner to obtain height, the principal rafters should not be more than 4 ft. 10 in. apart, or the space of four common rafters at 12 inches distance: the common rafters being 4. J in. by 2^ in., all resting upon the wall plates. The tops of the principals shoidd be framed open to receive the ridge, but secm-ed together by a strong elm elect, and the middle of the collar stregthened by suspending pieces (see plate 15, tig. 5,) 4" X 1|", clipping it on each side and pinned securely there, the flat side at tlie other end to be nailed to the ridge. DESCRIPTION. A Collar beam. B B Rafters. C G Purlins. I) Suspending pieces. E Ridge boai-d. F Elm elect. G G Wall plates. // // Iron straps twisted at the bend so as to He flat and bolted to the rafter foot and the collar. Plate 15, fig. {), is the drawing of a king post truss, and pair of principal rafters, for a roof of forty feet span in the clear. TIk; scantling of the beam sliould be 14 in. X 7 in., the king post, 14 in. X 7 in. at the top and bottom, and 8 in. X 7 in. in the centre, the ])nneipal rafters 8 in. X 7 in. at the foot, .'ind 7 in. X 7 in. at the top, tl\e j)urlins (> in. X •> in., the braces 7 in. X *> iu., tin; wall j)iati!s 4 in. X -1 in., the pole plates 4 in. X 4 in., the ridge boards 7 in. X 2 in., the common rafters 4.J in. X 3 in. Should hips be required to tlie roof, their scantling will n'C|uirc 10 in. by 2.| in. The centre of the beam should Im' pro- perly secured to the king post, tlie rafterH feet to the beam, and the heads of the rafters to the king post, by iron bands and plates. (See plate 5, figs. 1, 2, 3, 4). DESCRIPTION. A Tie beam. B King post. C Braces. D D Principal rafters. E E Purlins. F F Common rafters. G Ridge piece. 7/ Pole plate. I Wail plate. Fig. 7, plate 1.5 is the drawing for a queen post truss, and is often used in large roofs to obtain room. In tins roof the upper part is intended for a lead flat, and the space between 1^ m. sr J \- — i'^ 1 1 1 1 1 1 z < ■^ M P: //. Ji Z o V 7^ / '^ LABOUREKS COTTAGES. 49 tlie queen posts permits the construction of a bech'ooni 13 ft. (i in. .square and seven feet in height, it is intended foi- a buikling with a clear span of forty feet within the walls; the principal rafters abutting against the heads of the queen po.sts , whicli arc suiqjortcd by the collar beam, overcome all tendency of the tie beam to deflect; the binders from principal to principal must be the same scantling as the collar beam. The scantling should be as follows: tie beam 14 in. by G in., queen posts 12 in. by 6 in.; braces (5 in. X <> in.: ])rinei|ial rafters S in. X t> in. at the foot, and 7 in. X •> in. at the; head; collar beam 12 in. X in. X 'i in.; common rafters 4.J in. X 3 in.; the pole plates 4in. X4in.; the wall plates 4 in. X 4 in.; the joists to receive boarding for lead flat 8 in. by IJ in.; the whole of the intersecting parts of the framing to be secured with iron work, as before described. DESCRIPTION. A Tie beam. B B Queen posts. C Braces. D D Principal rafters. E E Purlins. F F Common rafters. G Collar beam. // Joists. / Pole plate. K Wall plate. LABOURERS' COTTAGES. It frequently occm-s that a slip of land abutting for some distance on the side of a road may be made available for the erection of labourers' cottages: many such slips of an iiTegida form are to be found in the country: suppose one of considerable length, say 300 feet, and only one rod or 16', feet wide, and that two comfortable and convenient four-roomed labourers' cottages are to be erected thereon. For the method in which it is proposed to obtain con- venient space, see plate 20. Fig. 1 represents the elevation carried up in brick, with the quoins and the reveals of the windows and doorways faced with irregularl}- coursed stone; the eaves and the roof project over the front wall and are finished witii a verge or barge-board. The elevation is di'awu with solid casement frames and casements ; but sashes and frames may be substitute if desu-ed; the washhousc and closet are^thrown back; the front door opens into a small passage, (see plate 20 fig. 2*): the stairs are behind the front door: and on the left is the entrance to the living room, which is 15 feet by 12 It. and S ft. high: immediately in front is the entrance to the kitchen by a descent of two steps, which is 10 ft. by 10 ft. and 8 ft. high, with fireplace and window looking down the whole length of the garden; this opens to a washhouse 10 ft. by 7 ft. with copper immediately behind the chinmey, and a pump and sink; beyond the washhouse is the water-closet, the pipe drains from which must be led some distance away; under the stairs is a roomy place for coals or fuel; up- stairs, (see plate 20, fig. 3*), there is a bed room l.> ft. X 12 ft. a smaller one 10 ft. X 1" ft-, and space for a closet of good size in the corner by the window of the staircase. Fig. 4, plate 20, shews the transverse section of the building at A B on the plan: and fig. o, plate 20, the section through the whole of the building, sX G D on the plan. The estimated cost of the erection of a paii- of cottages according to this design is about one hundred and seventy pounds. DKTAILS. Passage and staircase 10 feet by o feet and 15 feet high = 750 Cub. feet. Living room . . . 15 feet by 12 feet - 8 feet cbtto =1440 ditto. Kitchen .... K) feet by 10 feet - 8 feet ditto = 800 ditto. * Fig. 2 represents the gi-ouiid plan (if the right liiuul eotta-e , and Fii;. :t the boil room Moor of the left hand cottage; consetiuently the arrangement of the rooms is reversed. 50 PLAN AND ELEVATION, ETC. Washhousu . . . lU feet by 7 feet and 7 feet high = 490 Cub. feet. Bed room .... 15 feet by 12 feet - 8 feet ditto = 1440 ditto. Ditto 10 feet bv 10 feet - 7 feet 4" ditto = 733 ditto. PLAN AND ELEVATION OF TWO FOURTH -KATE HOUSES, ADAPTED TO FREEHOLD ALLOTMENTS. In phite 21, will be found the plans, elevation and section of two f oxu-th - rate houses, of a suitable size and fit for the accouiodation of foremen, or managers of factories, mills, or other works, clerks, etc., and suitable for erection either upon two thirty feet, or two twenty-five feet allotments of Freehold Land. Eacli house contains a small entrance, 4 ft. by 3 ft.; front parlor 14' .. li" X 12' „ 0"; back parlor, 11' „ 0" X 9' „ 0"; passage and stairs, 11' „ 0" by 5'„0"; from which a door under the stairs leads to a pantry, 8'„0" X4'„0"; a coal- cellar under tlie stairs; a kitchen, 10' „ 0" X 7' „ (>" ; a scullery 7' „ G" X rv „0", and water- closet; on the upper floor there are three roomy bed-rooms; viz. a front room 14'„G"X 12' „0" a back room ll'„0" X9„0", and one over the kitchen, wliich is entered from the landing of stairs, 10' „0" by 7',, 6": a small ornamental -n-indow, if necessary, maybe in- troduced in the back wall over the roof of the kitchen to give light to the staircase. DETAILS of plans, elevation, and sections of tMO fourth-rate houses suitable for freehold allotments. PLATE 21. <;oiitf*nts in Cubic feet. Entrance Hall 4 feet by 3 feet U ft. high = 108 Staircase and passage . . 11 feet by 5 feet 18 ft. ditto. == !>!)0 Back parlor. . . . 11 feet by !» feet Oft. ditto. = 81)1 Front ditto .... 14' „ (i" by 12 feet 9 ft. ditto. = InGI) Kitchen 10' ,, 0" by 7' „ i>" 8 ft. ditto. = 600 Washhouse .... 7' „ 0" by iV ,, 0" 8 ft. ditto. = 300 Water-closet ... 4' „ 0" by 3' „ 0" 7 ft. ditto. = 84 Bed room .... 10' „ 0" by 7' „ i\" 8 ft. ditto. = G37 Ditto 11' ,. 0" by 9' „ 0" 8 ft. (■) ditto. = 841 Ditto 14' „ 0" by 12' „ 0" 8 ft. (i ditto. = 1479 Platk 21. Figiu-e 1. Elevation. 2. Ground ])iaii. 3. Upstairs Ijcdroom jilan. 4. Section of building at vl/>' on ground plan, f). I'lan of roof. The cost of tlu! erection of oni: of tiicsi- houses would be about two hundred and twenty pounds. FREEHOLD LAND SOCIETIES. The great increase of Freehold land societies, and the importance to tiic connnunity at large of dividing the fee of the freehold land amongst the greatest number of holders, so that, instead of th(^ i'<;\v, the many may have an interest in the soil of the land of tiieir fathers. I'l„tr ELEVATION r OR A GENTLEMAN'S VILLA Gardner & Son FREEHOLD LAND SOCIETIES. 81 are facts which admit of no dispute. In proportion as the people of tliis country continue to become separate owners of parts of the soil, will the bond of unity ainonj^ us be .strongtliened, and (lur power to repel the agj^rcssions of foreign foes increased. Every Englishman delights in the land of his birth, and will, in case of need, defend it; but how much is this feeling increased when a portion of the land tliat he defends is his own — the habitation of the l)elf)ved mother of his children and the birtli-place of his children themselves! Freehold land societies place it in the power of persons in almost every gi-ade of life, small ti-adesmen, mechanics, even laboiu-ers, to become eventually freeliolders. By combining capital they are enabled to purchase land at a cheap rate; and to divide it into allotments (^ach of sutticient size for the erection of a neat cottage, or small house, with land for a garden of sufficient size to secure to the owner his francliise as a freeholder in his native Land, without any dispute as to its aimual value. An allotment with a frontage of tweuty-tive feet, and a depth of one hundred and nine feet, contains ten poles of land, being one - sixteenth pai-t of an acre. In the neigh- bourhood of almost every large town, and many small ones, a piece of ground of that size and trontage, with good roads made, and the di-ainage or sewers laid do\ra, will not be worth less than two shillings per foot frontage, or two pounds ten shiUings per annum. It is advi- sable to provide a sufficient guarantee, by covenant in the deed of conveyance, that no con- tinuous rows of houses be erected; none but detached or semi-detached erections should be permitted. By this precaution a pretty and pleasing little village may be formed, no matter what the shape or position of the ground. It should also be a condition to be insisted upon, that no building be erected immediately opposite to another, but that it face the opening between the houses. An allotment of twenty-five feet, supposmg two semi-detached houses to be erected on two adjoining allotments will allow a side roadway of good width. The roadway or side entrance of the adjoining allotment ha%ang the same space, the opposite house shoidd front this opening between the two erections; by altei'uating the divisions of the allot- ments on each side of a road so that the left hand party fence immediately face the centre of the opposite allotment, (see plate 23), this desideratmn wiU be provided for; and it is also desirable, should a single cottage be erected on one allotment, to leave a roadA\ay or space through from the front to the back garden; two allotments adjoining and belonging to the same proprietor will afford room for a good house, and in all cases, at the corners of roads the allotments shoidd be larger, giving opportunities for the erection of buildings for the purpose of trade. Plate 22, gives the plan of eight small closes of m(^adow-lau One ditto, marked i^ on plan, adjoining to -1, and called the middle fiu'long; contents () „ 3 ,, 6 One close of arable land, marked (' on plan, adjoining, and called the home furlong; contents 2 ., (> „ li One ditto, marked D on the plan, adjoining and called the long furlong: contents 2 „ ,, 9 One close of meadow land, marked E, in the plan, adjoining, and called the close croft; contents O ., H ,, 8 One ditto, marked F on the plan, adjoining to E, and called the river croft: contents <»..•_>.. 30 Carried forw;u-d 9 ft. contain . . 1 „ „ 19 70 allotments, with 25 feet frontage by an average de|ith ol' lO'.l feet, contain 4 „ 1 „ 16 8 large allotments contain 1 ,, 1 ,, 24 Tlir' roads cover a space of 1 ,, „ 20 • 'no half brook, and excess in some allotnieni- „ 1 „ 4 8 „ 1 „ 3 I'h'tr PLAN FOR A FARM-HOUSE OR PARSONACL' E,|LE VATI O N Fid i irfisir>i!,;iiio 30 f'rr/ SCALE TO SECTION 10 9 !i t K S ^t 3 i t O io fcrt scale: to elevation and plan m-^'^^^-^^^^ ^ mmm^^ -^ ^\'\ ^ - BCD noo i^^^±^3^m BCD ROOM ff.6 6- I; azzS, t C D ROOM miit\"'ii"- — -\ Lxn en ^C to set —1 T orawinc Roor 16 r, . rt J-^ _ 3' "^ ''^■'^^■^- SED ROOW rtooR SECTION of GRANARY over OFFICES SI'Kf'IFirATlON KOU KOKMAIION OV KOADS ANI> KKAINS. 63 Sixteen allotments, at .• ;};") each, will iirodiuc f 560 70 ditto at mo each, „ „ .{2100 8 (littt) at .f 40 each, „ „ f 320 Total i)roduct~T2980 Cost of |)ni>'liaso, layinf>' in drains, and niakin<; the roads 2118 • iS62 Thus a Ijalance of profit arises, to work out th(^ purposed plan, and to meet and cover all incidental expenses, of the sum of eight hundred and sixty-two pounds, or more than forty per cent. Plate K), contains a plan and terrier, for laying out an irregular [)iece of ground in allot- ments, for the piu-poses of a freehold land society. SPECIFICATION FOR FORMATION OF ROADS AND DRAINS. Specification of works proposed to be done in laying in the pipe sewers and forming and metalling the intended new roads and footpaths to an estate situate at and near to in the County of F(n' the Freehold Land Society. The whole of the closes of land have a gradual fall to the high road and thence to the brook at the bridge, where the back -road crosses it; but with several slight undulations both in the arable and meadow- lands. All the roads are to be marked out, and where any cuttings are to be made in the meadow land the turf is to be cut and stripped, in as great lengths as possible and preserved; the soil from the cuttings is to be removed to the parts requiring tilling up, properly spread and well rammed. The construction of the roads is to be everywhere as shewii on the sectional plan: (see plate 22). The corners of the lots at the intersections of the roads are to be rounded off and staked to a radii of 5 feet. In executing the works specified, those centres are to be pre- served, and from them the curvatures at the outer edge of the footpaths, at the same comers, are to be described. Where the roads are to be sunk from the existing sm-face, the groimd is to be excavated to the depth requisite for receiving the thickness of the road materials; where they are to be raised to a height exceeding the thickness of the road materials, the difference is to consist of the earth from the cuttings, laid on and made solid to the range of the formation level. In intermediate situations where the line of the intended tinished surface is not as much above the existing surface as the intended thickness of the road materials, the difference is to be excavated in order to make room for them; so that the finished surface shall be everywhere in accordance with the ranging inclination and the sectional line of formation. All the trees that stand upon the ground, where the roadways have to be formed, are to be grubbed up, and the holes filled in and rammed; all the present hedges that cross, or in any way intersect the lines of road are to be grubbed up, the ditches filled in, and the banks levelled and nuide solid. The timber grubbed up is to bo the property of the contractor. The whole of the road materials must' be laid on oveiywhere of the luiiform thickness specified. The formation surface is to be made solid and even, and true to the section: and the edges of the footpaths to be trimmed into shape, and rendered as straight as possible. 54 SPECU'ICATION FOR FOUMATION OK ROADS AND DRAINS. In fonniiig the embanked portion of the roads, the inferior or subsoil stiifi' from the cuttings is to be first used, in order that the surphis, if any, shall consist of the vegetable soil. The futui'e growth of grass tkrough the materials forming the path, is to be prevented by fii-st paring off the tm-f and the under surface to a depth of four inches, thus remoNang 6 in. of the original soil below the jiroposed finished surface. When the roads are brought, by cutting or embanking, to the formation levels and pro- perly levelled, bench marks are to be placed at convenient distances, to indicate the fall for the drainage; the centre or crown of the road is to be excavated to a proper depth, and nine inch, glazed stone drain pipes, with 6 inch, angle junction, and (5 in. pipes carried to every allotment, of length sufficient to clear the road and footpath; and nine inch, junction pipes with syphon traps, to every grating for surface water, are to be properly laid to a point in- dicated, within 250 feet of the outlet; from which point the drain is to be continued to the outlet with 12 in. pipes and six in. junctions, and the joints all well stopped with clay. A self-acting sluice pipe is to be placed at the outlet, protected by brick wing wall and brick on edge coping biult in cement. Brick cesspools of approved depth, one brick tliick, are to be siuik imder each grating. Strong cast-iron gratings are to be placed resting upon the upper com-ses of the brick cesspools; the last three courses of brickwork to be laid in cement. When the whole of the main pipes are laid, and the collateral junctions to each allotment, the whole of the excavation is to be filled in and well punned; any surplus soil is to be removed, and notice must be given to the surveyor before any of the hard materials are placed thereon. The baidvs uf the brook and the ditches, where they may be broken and falling in, are to be thoroughly repaii-ed in the following manner: tm-f walling, formed with turfs from the unsoilmg cut, 1 foot broad 2 in. thick, and in long lengths from the lines of road, is to be laid evenly and firndy to a proper batter, and filled in solidly behind with earth up to the general height, keeping, as before described, the vegetable mould upwards, and edged wth straight tm-fing at top, with the grass side uppermost. ^\nK'n the roads are completed to tlii' formation surface and approved by the sm-veyor, they are to be covered with a layer of chalk, burnt clay, brick-field waste, or other approved core, free from any vegetable or animal matter whatsoever, to a depth of 8 in., and well beaten down and consolidated in accordance A\ath the transverse section. Over this is to be spread a layer, (J in. thick, consisting of siftc^d gravel, or broken granite, or other hard material of the neighljom-hood, of approved proportions, every stone capable of being passed through a 2i in. screen; this stratum also is to be beaten or rolled to render it com]jact. At the juiicticnis of tiie new roads with the existing roads, care nuist bc^ taken U< effect a proper gi'adual imion, one with another, of their respective materials, allowing in the new an adequate excess' of thickness to allow for tiieir setting to the level of the old. Upon the formation of the whole length and breadth of the footpaths, a bed of fine gravel hoggen, or other hard approved material, is to be laid and rolled down solid with a heavy roller, leaving a finished thickness of ii inches of tlu^ covering material. Wiiei-ever the "finished footpaths ai-<' ti> be lowir nr iiiglier than tlii' existing surface of the ground of the lots abutting on them, the ground, at tiic road boundaries of the lots, is to be neatly sloped back from the inner edge of tho ludtpatiis, with a uniform batter of 1^- to 1. The whole of tii(! works specified are to be tcndci-eil for in two sinus; one for the for- mation and metalling of the roads, and the oilier lor the excavation, drainage, and pipes in- cluding brickwork ami iron gratings: and the time is to be stated in the latter tender within which the coiitractoi' undertakes to complete the whole fonnation, ready for drainage and metalling fi-oni thi! date of signing the contract. ASPECT AXI» I'ROSPECT. 55 The gruisa sum iiaiuril in the cDUtrat't is to he iiiidci'stDDil tu incliidc all iiiati'rials, labor, carriage, cartage, planks, barrows, carts, antl every requisite that may lie incidental to the coniph^te pert'onnanee of the works, as set forth in tlir/ V F p p^-pps / / /■' /^/y ^- / / A / A A AH Tavne / 4 8 of ail inch tliick weighs per ft supl, • H lbs. of an inch ditto ditto 5 ditto, of an inch ditto ditto ditto, of an inch ditto ditto 7i ditto. of an inch ditto ditto 10 ditto. of an inch ditto ditto 12 ditto. of an inch ditto ditto Ui ditto. of an inch ditto ditto 19| ditto. of an inch ditto ditto 29A ditto. of an inch ditto ditto ^i ditto. incli f)!) ditto, 58 TILING, SLATING, KOOF COVERING, ETC. LEAD. Lead jV" I -I 1 lO J, J. 6 1 .■» J 4 1 I 5 3 one There is another very new and efficient roof covering, which is the tubular tiles, patented by Norton and Borie; they consist of a plain tile perforated longitudinally by torn- tubular openings: the tiles are lipped on each edge reversedly (see plate 24, fig. 1), so that the edges cb^ into one another and are perfectly water tight. Fig. 2, plate 24, is a di-awing of the same tUes with the ends of the tubes closed ; these tiles are fifteen inches long and 7 J inches wide, so that with a guage of one foot there is a lap of tlu-ee inches; therefore one hundred and sixty' of them will cover one square; they weigh about 4J j)0unds each; making the weight per square 680 lbs. The advantages arising from a covering for roofs of tliis for- mation will be apparent to every reflective mind, and lengthened observations will not be requu'ed here to prove then* great usefulness; it \\'ill only be necessary to expomid briefly then- leading claims to universal adoption. Being nonconductors, the sun's rays on a roof of these tiles have little or no power beyond the outer surface, the heat being cut off by the presence of air in the tubes running all through the tile. .The various practices so frequently adopted ^dth a view to keep doi\ii the tempera- ture of the uppermost rooms in large buildings, factories, workshops, store rooms, farm buildings, dwelling houses, etc., are now no longer necessary, these tiles being sufficient for that purj)ose. Those with the tubes left open are efficient ventilators the air- being admitted in the safest manner that is to say running upwards in the same dii-ectiim as the roof. It is also obvious that they are not liable to leakage, for should tlic ouUr plate get fractured tlu^ rain would be carried off by the chamber below. The upright partitions give great strength, and they are lighter (for the same covering surface) than any other tile yet in use. In appearance they are more sightly, and are to be obtained at prices not above the ordinary makes. Theii' strength has been proved by the following test: — A tile weighing 4^ lbs, 15 inches long, and 7.J inches wide was placed witli its ends resting upon two bricks, ^^■ith a bearing at each end of 1 inch, leaving a clear bearing of 13 inches; tliis was loaded at its centre, when the breaking weight was found to be 4 cwt. 3 qs. 5 lbs, (« 530 lbs. Plate 24, fig. 3, represents one of Norton and Borie's quadruple s(juai(-liiilo lioljuw-groovcd bricks. Plate 24, fig. 4, represents tubular brick walls. Plate 24, fig. 5, represents the disposition of tubular or hollow bricks forming a vcu-y light and strong wall with large spaces inside. Plate 24, fig. 0, represents the position of tht^ bricks at the angles of a wall built of double size tubular bricks. ELiVAiriQNl rpR F"OUR FOURTH-RATE HOUSES ANjP AD.C)!TIQNS f'/r Lorigitu,dinftl Srr/ion S'ertioti ithfioirifj S'rrtjnTi vlietniTtf/ Barh ll'nU of Pri ri ri/trr/ Ihiilrl r/ tj Pariifions hrtmeen \_hl'(irl(>r.s angJied liopnts TILINi;, SI-ATINO, ROOK COVKRINO, ETC. 59 Plate 24, fig. 7, is tlie section ul' ;i ten -inch IuiINjw or tubular brick wall with an im- proved coping tile. Plate 24, Hg. 8, is the section of a 15 inch hollow or tubular V>riclv wall coped by three coping tiles, two from the same mould, and one ilifforently moulded. The strength of these bricks has been tested by the following satisfactory experiment, made upon four of the metroixilifan or hollow bricks of tlie ordinary size, viz: 9" by 4.J" and2J", made out of the usual London clay. Planks were tirst laid for foundations, on which were laid four bricks bedded in cement, at a distance from each other of 10 feet and 7 feet. Two wood beams IG feet long, 14 inches wide, and 7 inches thick, wore placed edgeways upon the bricks, leaving at each end 1 inch of the bricks uncovered by the beams, and sufficient planks laid acmss these main beams. Bricks were piled up weighing ;56 tons, until the foun- dation planks, yielding to the pressm-e, prevented laying more on, without the slightest injury tt> the bricks. They were left piled up for several weeks. Thus, an ordinary size brick perforated longitudinally will sustain, without danger, a column of any height that in building practice may Ije retpiired. If a roof be covered with common plain tiles they shcnild be all well pinned and laid with moss, or hay bands; in most cases they are laid with lime and hair, but the other method is preferable. They form a very dry but heavy covering, and require a very steep pitch. Slating is laid cither upon battens or close boarding and forms an excellent roof covering. The dutchess slate will cover to a guage of eleven inches with a weather la]) of two inclies. These dutchess slates, which measure 24 inches long by 12 inches wide, should be trimmed, and the holes punched at 13.J inches from the bottom edge or tail of the slate; if battened, the battens should not be less than o inches in wdth, and at least ^" thick; this will be the form of the slate when laid. The first course or eaves must be laid lo inches wide; these are called doubles, and are iirst laid before the outer courses begin: see Figs. 1 and 2: — Fig. 1. hatf^a Stale ■^ iialteii-' "^Sl^^ijliineu i. i yaJffU ^ \ 5« \ < yj?" -- / The eaves board or tilting piece should be feather- edge and batten wide, 1^ inch thick at the lower edge, and I" thick at the upper; this cants the tirst row or eaves, leaving all the overlays without riding where nailed, which prevents the slate from gaping at the bottom edge, and letting the wind underneath: when this is the case the slate will chatter and ultimately get loose. The art of slate laying to perfection is, that the bottom edge of every slate should tit as close as pos- sible to the backs of the two innnediately underneath it lig. ;]. Fig. 3. / 60 TILING, SLATING, ROOF COVERING, ETC. .^ Where slates are cut up to party or parapet walls, a small feather edge fillet, about A an iiieh Fiq. 4. thick and 2 inches in width, shoixld be nailed upon the battens all up the wall, to throw the outside edge of the slates up, in order that the water should incline from A the wall, and every wall slate should be cut angle-ways from the wall, see: fig. 4. The dotted lines shew the dii-ectiou the water will take from the wall to the tail of the slate. The battens for dutchess slating must be nailed dowu firmly to the rafters /I . e at a STuaffe of eleven inches from centre to centre of the battens. One Inuidi-ed and thii-ty two of these slates will cover one square. In measuring slating, one foot extra is allowed for all eaves, and six inches for all cutting to lups, valleys, or walls; should smaller slates be used, one half of the width of tlie slate should be allowed for cutting. The hips and ridges of slated roofs are generally covered with lead; but a veiy neat and economical finish can be made with slate fillets two inches wide, or of sufficient width to cover the ridge board or hips, which should be kept down so that the heads of the finishing coiu-se of slates should first rest upon them ; the ridge board and hips, as well as the heads of the slates and nails, to be painted, and flat fillets of slate bedded in putty upon them, and the putty cut close; the finish looks very neat. A large roof finished in this manner with black putty, twenty seven years ago, is as perfect now as when it was done: each fillet shoidd have two nail-holes at equal distance from the ends, and overlay each other, so that one nail secures the ends of two fillets. (See diagi-ams fig. 1,2,3.) Fig. 1. I- Fr//^ FryY -I ^'fl'^ Fig. 2. Ci, ^~r ^ 'V—' ■ ■ 1 I Fig^. -fUlttlf Fig. 1 shews the fillets about two feet in length, and of width sufficient to coA'er the nails of the lieading or finisli- ing coui-su of slates. Fig. 2 represents them bedded in putty and nailed down to the ridge or iiip, each nail securing two ends. Fig. 3 represents a section of tiie rafter, battens, slate and ridge, -w-ith the fillet also nailed do^\'n. Another method of finishing lii|>s and ridges, is by nailing on sloping fillets of slate, meeting together over tiie ridge; but tliis mctliod docs not keep the roof dry, althougli tlio wet that enters between the joints may be but trilling. In tliis method of finisliing, the ridge board must be kejjt \\\) liigher tlian the heading slates, to allow the edges t(j be bevelled oft" to form a bed for the slate fillet: see diagram fig. 4. There are various ornamental tile and slate ridges to be obtained, suit- able for every description nf jjuildlng; these are of various patterns, from the light jiiiniade ridge of uncjuestionable beauty, to the common ridge tile paintetl with hsad-color paint. Fig. 4. to riUgo board. S/tr/eJ vs. o 4 z O O 0^ Q u m K^rt o < ^ > u a u I'LAN AND i:i.K\ATI()N OV A SIX-ROOMEI) HmTSK. Gl I'LAN AND ELEVATION OF A SIX-ROOMED HOUSE. Pl-ATK 25. Fij;-. 1. Elevation. Fi spandrel of the tirst flight of stairs will be found sufficient space for the housemaid's brooms, brushes, and dry ware. From the kitchen, dropping four steps, is a passage sixty feet long by three feet wide, leading to the following offices (see plate 47): — A store room, eleven feet, by seven feet. A larder, the same size. A scullery or back kitchen, ten feet by eleven feet. A brewhouse or laimdry, eleven feet by ten feet. A dairy, the same size. A ceflar, seven feet by eleven feet. A coal-house, and wood ditto, eleven feet by six feet. At the end of this passage a door in front leads to a small inclosivre with a water-closet, and, on the left, another door opens into the yard. The joists of this range of buildings arc to be 8 inches by 2 inches, one foot apart, and to project one foot six inches beyond the outside of the walls on each side, to support a pole plate notched upon them four inches from their ends, upon which the rafters are to stand, (see plate 46, fig. ;-5.); and each rafter is to be conn(!cted to the joists by Queen struts, leaving a space of three feet clear. The whole is to bo floored with rough two-cut white spruce battens, well seasoned, with their edges shot straight. The sides and under part of rafters to be boarded with half-inch matcli boarding, forming a loft or granary sixty- three feet long, twelve feet wide, and eiglit feet six inchc^s high in the centnr, with an en- trance over the; brewhouse from the paved yard. Light is obtained from a window opposite to the entrance, and the ornamental window at each end. Another entrance may be made to the granary loft from the stack yard, opposite to the one before described. A clock may be fixed in tlio pediment over the entrance from the paved yard, and a weathercock and vane over tli(; intersection of the ridge, being a posi- tion conspicuous from the principal, inhabited, and business ])art of the yiremises. Passing from the left hand back-door, a range of buildings eonnncnri's: lirst, a chaise house and stable, a loose box, a five-stall stable, a four-stall cowhouse, a large barn, with roof brought down to form cart sheds, fodder houses, poultry house, and pig-sties. The stables, cowhouses, and pig-sties open to the farmyard out of sight of liie house; and at the most convenient corner the liquid manure tank must l)e sunk, and an iron pump fixed therein of sufficient height to fill carts. Tlu^ manure tank nuist be so situated as to receive conveniently the whole of the drains from the residence, water-closet, and offices, stables, cow-sheds, and pig-sties, as well as the drainage from the straw and dung yards. The taidv should be soundly laid with brick in cement, on a thick clay bottom well puddled, and then arched over, and have a small deep tank within it, two feet lowxn* than the bottom, to receive the heel of the iron pump. The dung or straw yard, should incline each CARPENTRY ^ Tig.i Fiq.Z Firfy/ Fiq. S ""5^ Fiq. 7 60 £t Fig.S < Fi(f. 11 .?(■> ^ , u Fi^.fZ W. Gardii.er. A-H/Payne sc KLKVATION OK A I'AKM HOUSE AND OFFICES. 63 \v;iy towards the inidillc, tn drain Id the })!})(■ ilniins leading to tlie tank, and sliDuld be formed -with a sound bottom of broken clialk, well rammed and punned down, at least twelve inches in thickness when tinisluid, so that all rain that falls therein will drain to the centre, and carry with it into the sewage tank all the constituent particles of the dung, which may be taken up bv the water. MANURE S. The importance of a chemical knowledge of the constituent particl(!s of manures, and their effect in the production of the vegetable kingdom is of the utmost consequenci;.* " The well-being and happiness of animal life, according to the ordinations of the Almighty, presupposes the necessity of vegetable existence. The first requirement for an animal is food. That food must be obtained dii-ectly or indirectly from the vegetable world. We can well understand how closely linked are the sympathies of the one in connection with the other. As in the whole universe, so do we find it here, that the great scheme of created intelli- gence and wisdom is one of mutual dependence, — man upon the lower orders of creation, — plants upon the mineral world: one cannot possibly exist without the other; hence the un- fruitfulness or paucity of the one is immediately felt and experienced by the other. We dismiss, with ihese remarks the consideration of the all-important supply of gaseous food both to plants and animals, merely wishing to point out the precise relations of their co-existence. "Man is dependant entu-ely, either du-ectly or indirectly, upon vegetable substance. Thus, directly, on the plants and fruits of the vegetable tribe; and indirectly, by means of the carnivorous and graminivorous animals, — these mediums being, as it were, steps in the pre- paration and elaboration of his food to that point which is most correspondent to the wants of the hunian frame and their immediate supply. In the graminivorous animals, the step is but one from the vegetable; in the carnivorous, the distance is more removed. "Plants, then, we may justly conclude, are the sovxrce of food for all animals, and the fruitful state of vegetable existence an enquiry well fitting all mankind; the support of these kingdoms, as provided for man, is arranged in a most exemj)larv manner, and is explica- tive of the foresight and intelligence of an all-\vise Creator; Init man cannot rest in the normal state, nor can his wants be met by the vegetable world in its normal condition. Primitively, plants foimd the whole of their subsistence from the natiu-al sources presented to them in the soil; when, however, the productiveness of tJie jdant is increased, and we develope by high cultivation the various parts of the vegetable system (more especially those containing nitrogenous principles) to an abnormal extent, then it is found necessaiy to supply the waste which takes place continually in the soil, in order to render that soil once more productive. This is carried out in the j)rinciple of manuring. "A maniu-e, then, is some substance presented to land to make that ^and more productive. " If we consider the constituents of plants and soils, we shall find that manures, in gene- ral, need only be of one or two characters; and in particular, that a manm-e cannot become a s(iecific, although it may be so varied as to suit the wants of any crop upon any land. People siiuiethnes imagine that because a substance is a manure, that alone is quite suifi- cient to fm-ther the productiveness of any cr(q) and upon any land. In consequeiu'C of this, we are sometimes annoyed at the pertinacity of a gentleman who declares, beyond all rea- soning, that a manure must necessarily be bad because it failed, in his hands, in a particu- lar experiment. I have known Guano — certainly the best fertilizer, if good and not debased * Our readers are indebted to E. V. Gardner, Aii:il_\tical Chemist, London, for this valuable info:mation. 64 MA>JURES. bv uianufactiire, — to act in a manner positively injiu'ious in smno situations , and to have been in some measiu'e despised; and why? not because of tlie imperfection of the manure, but because of the ignorance of the party who happened to enii)loy it upon an unsuitable or mi- seasonable position. Each plant is made up of certain constituents. To live and tln-ive, the plant must exist in a soil containing such constituents. It is not sufficient that one or other be present, it is necessary that all should be there to supply the wants of the plant dm'ing growth. "In the same manner, with regard to oiu-selves, we require elements of nutrition, and ele- ments of respiration: we cannot do with one without the other: each is vitally important; nor can either be dispensed with. So, likewise, is it with, the \-egetable ^\■(:)rld, for tiiey recpiire different elements to fulfil different functions: the lack of one of them immediately breaks the harmony of the whole. Plants are principally composed of carbon, oxygen, hych-ogen, and niti-ogen, — with the exception of a few grains per cent., entirely so, — and none of them are obtained from the soil, the office of the latter being to afford a supply of the in- orf^anic constituents, the few grains per cent, to which we have alluded. Whence is derived the principal elements of plants"? From the atmosphere alone. Curious, nay, start- ling as it may appear, tliis fact is evidenced, not only by scientific experiment, but by direct observation. The forest, with its huge mtmsters of a hundred years' tenancy, does not decrease in verdiu-e. The soil does not diminish, but, on the contrary, is increased j^ear by year by the decaying leaves and branches. Were the materials of which these leaves and branches are composed, taken originally from the soil, we should find that soil, sliewing by its sterility and diminution, evidence of the fact. Tliis is not the ease, as we stated, the soil becomes increased, and that increase was originally obtained from gases existing in the air. The matters taken from the soil are of so small an amomit, that, in comparison, they would appear unimportant. We are taught by natvu-e that however insignificant the quantity, the supplv is vitally important, and must exist. It is the prox-ince of the soil to yield these m- organic elements according to the requirements of the plant. Wlien by high cultivation we increase the growth of a crop beyond the means supplied by nature in the production of food, then it is we must make up the deficiency; and this is effected by manures. " The remaining constituents of plants ccnuprise sand, oxydf^ of iron, oxyde of manganese, potash, soda, lime, magnesia, phosphoric and sulphuric acids, chlorine and, perhaps one or two others, depending upon local causes. Of these the most important (if we can apply the term to some elements of a plant above others), or rather the most universal, ai-e potash and phosphoric acid: these two are always present in plants; if we look for the supply, we find it in the primitive rocks througliout the world; with these are generally found the oxydes of iron and manganese. The calcarious rocks, with the connnon salt deposits, funiisji us witli the remaining ))ortion of a plant's constituents. "For the supply of these constituents Nature has abundantly provided; in her great labora- tory, the force of wind and water, the eruptions of Volcanos, the heaving fracture or dis- location of the solid strata of the earth, are all agents in mixing up these ingredients one with another, and producing what we term soils. One plant re([uin's one series of elements, another requires elements quite distinct. The primitive conditicju of a pro(hu'tiv(! soil is fitted for one und all alike. If, however, we remove by constant ci-opiiing with the same jjlant, par- ticular elements from the soil, the soil becomes weakened and can no longer atfonl nourish- ment for that crop, the elements of which have l)een so far consumed from out of the soil as to leave others in great pro])ortion; the latter not being thosi' recpiired for the plant, change the crop, plant in the same soil a vegetable of different constitution, and it will thrive most vigourously, because that soil then contains a redundancy of its particular fo Then the larger gu-th 144 inches will square to 3G inches, less one inch for bark will be equal to 35 inches The middle girth of 96 inches will sqnar(! to 24 inches, less one mch for bark as before will be 23 ditto. The smaller end 72 inches will square to 18 inches less one inch as before for bark will be 17 ditto. divide by 3 | 75 25 — 25' „ 0" being considered to be the length of one side of the square of the timber multiply the area of the square thus found by the length of the timber, the product will be the cubic contents of the log: thus — 25" D 25" 12o 4' jj 4" j^ 1'" mean area 50 40' „ 0" „ 0'" length of log 1 2 I 625 173' „ 7" „ 4'" cub. ft. contents 12 1 52 „ 1 4' A" 1'" 9* 68 REMARKS CONCERNING THE NATURE OF JIORTARS AND CEMENTS. Athougli tliis is the customary method of measm-ing round timber; it is very far from the truth; for the before described log if measui-ed as a frustrum of a cone, and by the mean area, will be found to contain much more. It is this discrepancy in the two admeasurements, tliat causes a load of round timber, to be considered to contain forty cubic feet, whereas a load of square timber, really contains fifty cubic feet. Much judgment is required in tak- V.^oi.tuso-^ _^^ ^^ _ _ >>''<''''.'?". . . . 30 f,. 'A Girth 17' ing the girths of irregularly grown timber, as the quantities dilfer ma- terially according to the tapering of the tree. ^ ''" "' This diagram exhibits a timber tree 50' feet in length, having at the butt a quarter girth of 30 inches; about the middle a ^ girth of 25 inches; and at the upper end a quarter gii-th of 17 inches. Suppose it to be measured by tlie middle quarter girth, as the mean. Then 2' „ 1" X 2' „ 1" = 4' „ 4" „ 1'" X 50' = 217' cubic feet. If measured by one tliird of the thi'ee quarter girths added together, thus 30" 4- 25" + 17" = 72" -^ 3 == 24" the mean Then 2' ., 0" X 2' „ 0" == 4' ,, 0" X 50" = 200' cubic feet. If measured by taking the one half of the two end quarter girths, thus 30" + 17" = 47" ~ 2' „ = 23.^" = 1' ,, 11" „ G'" Then . r „ 11" „ C" X 1' „ H" „ G'" = 3' 10" „ 0'" X 50 = 191/, cubic feet. If measm-ed in two parts, the butt piece 20 feet long will give tliis result 30" + 25" = 55" -^ 2 = 27.^" = 2' „ 3" „ 6'" then 2' „ 3" „ G'" X 2' „ 3" „ G'" X 20 = 105 cubic feet. The upper piece 25" + 17" = 42" -f- 2 = 21" = 1' „ 9" then 1" „ 9" X 1" „ 9" = 3' „ 0" „ 9'" X 30' = 9 1 |g' + 105' = 19614 Cub. ft. These various ways of measm-ing this one tree, exhibit the following results, viz When measui-ed in two lengths, the contents are 19G{§ Cub. ft. When measured by the middle i girth as a mean, 217 ditto When measvired by one third of the three \ girths, 200 ditto When measured by one half tlie two end i girths, 191ti ^^^'^ REMARKS CONCERNING THE NATURE OF MORTARS AND CEMENTS. BY E. V. GARDNER JVS. ESQR. , ANALYTICAL AND CONSULTING CHEMIST, LONDON. Cementing materials have been known and employed from the earliest date, and we may readily form an idea how soon the constructive faculties of man would lead him, by expe- rience and circumstances, to expand the means of habitation and safety, which nature had placed at his disposal, in the nide caverns and recesses of the eai-th. The Babylonians used moistened clay and bitumen, which theu" country largely furnished; the same materials were employed by the Assyrians. -rp^; REMARKS CONCEKNINa THE NATURES OF MOKTAKS AND CEMENTS. 69 The pjTamicls bear evidence of the ciii])loynieiit of lime as a iitortar by the Egyptians: it is probable that gypsum was employed for a like purpose in the earliest tunes. The Etruscans seem to have been the first in Italy to employ lime as a morta», the true origin is, however, involved in uncertainty. The Romans derived their knowledge of it from them; since that time little of impor- tance has been learned concerning the true nature of cement, even to the present day. The subject may be properly considered in two distinct parts — mortal's and cement. The term mortar is especially applied to lime in combination with sand, or to a me- chanical admixture of lime and sand; cements involve the necessity of other matters being present. The term cement is here improperly employed, in as much as the word comprehends a variety of substances, each used for a particular pm-pose. The more proper term woiJd be hydraulic mortar. Lime exists largely thi-oughout natiu-e in the shape of carbonate of lime; in this condition, however, it is useless as an ingredient for mortal-, possessing no binding qualities whatever. It is true that the immense rocks of calcareous matter, spread thi-oughout the earth, are, in many instances, possessed of a hardness equal to that of stone itself; as also are those beautiful productions in nature termed stalactites, which are also carbonates of lime. The hardness possessed by them is acquired by exceedingly slow degrees, and in a manner beautiful, sunple, and easily to be understood; but one wliich is beyond the power of man to imitate to any considerable degree. In the state of carbonate lime may be considered useless for buUdiug purposes. When carbonate of lime is burnt we jjroduce a new substance, an oxyde of a metal termed calcium. This oxyde of calcium has a powerful aftinity for water; which is beautifully exemplitied in the process of slaking lime. Wlien slaked to a certain degree, the lime passes into the condition of a hydrate. Dry lime would be useless to form mortar: lime mixed with sand in a dry state has no effect. The chemical affinities are not within range. When combined with water, as a hydi-ate, the lime is at once ready and able to combine with sand, and form a new substance, a silicate. Tliis lime is insoluble in water; its insolubility is owing to its forming a carbonate. The theory of hardening with regard to lime in the shape of mortar is the absorption of carbonic acid. The use of sand is principally to form nuclei around which the crystals of carbonate of lime, and the small portions of silicate formed, may attach themselves. Hence the rottenness of mortar when dirty sand is employed, or where any friable substance is used. The sand or substance used must be cleansed fi'om any chemical salt rendering Lime soluble, and must be infriable. Sea sand, until washed, is next to useless for mortar, from the above causes. The formation of silicate in simple mortar is exceedingly small. These silicates are insoluble in Avater, but because of theii- absence, simple mortar never sets under water. Cai-bonate of lime is insoluble in water; the time requii-ed for the mortar to absorb car- bonic acid throughout its constitution is, however, so great, that it is considered at one hundred years old to be in perfect infancy. This is another special cause for its want of hyckaulicity. The greater portion of simple mortar is therefore soluble, and, when fully exposed to the action of water, is carried away in solution by it. For this reason rich lime mortars are not hydi-aulic. 70 REMARKS CONCERNING THE NATURE OF MORTARS AND CEMENTS. Hydraulic limes always contain some foreign ingredients, and invariably the oxyde of iron and alumina. These are the principal ingredients of clay. Clay mi!*:ed vfith lime will not form a cement setting under water. Simple clay is insuffi- cient as an addition, mitil kilned. Brickdust is also useless. The lavas and volcanic matter generally, such as trass, puzzolana, and scorise, seem to possess a pecidiar power of rendering limes hydraulic as do also the upland nodules. This is, however, only the case in a certain degree, for no mgredient will render a rich lime capable of resisting the action of an* and running water; although it might have that effect in still water. Where exposed to humidity alone, this quality may be given to lime, but when air also is allowed to come in contact, even the moderately hydraulic lime cannot be rendered ca- pable of resistance. This is the result of long experience of engineers and scientific men. Latterly I have been called upon to experiment upon the subject; of one thing I am certain, that no good artifi- cial hydraulic lime can be produced without the aid of fire. The substances must be bm-nt. The limestone employed was from the neighbourhood of HalHng, it contained from 75 to 80 per cent, of carbonate of lime and might be designated rich limestone. Of the numer- ous trials made some only were at all successful. Thus: — When mixed with sulphide of iron, the mixture possessed hydraulicity. When mixed with one particular slag, or scoria-, from an iron ore smelting fiu'nace, the result was good. The best results were obtamed by 2 Lime. No. L < h Slag. 1 Stone. 6 Sand. 4 Lime. ^^ 2 2 Coke. ' 1 Ij L'on protoxyde 8 Sand. No. 1. Set immediately, and might be considered a good hydraulic lime. No. 2 did not set for 10 or 20 days, but at the expiration of that time, it became exceed- ingly hard, and had resisted the action of water; it also withstood the combined action of air and still water for some months, until broken for further investigation. I have selected these two experiments, out of a host of others before me, ds perhaps some- what useful, but I am convinced that, wilii regard to rich limes, they cannot be rendered hydraulic by mere admixture. With blue lias and similar strong hydraulic limes there is no difficulty in forming, artifi- cially, a good water cement. I am convinced, therefore, that the mere presence of clay or its constituents, is not suffi- cient to confer hydraulicity. Some engineers and chemists have ascribed this property to one ingredient, and some to another; one considers oxyde of manganese an essential, others oxyde of iron, magnesia, alumina, silica, and so on; but it will be found fliat not one of these, individually, is capable of affording hydraulicity; nor even when mixed. To what, then, may we attribute this peculiar property? I' la I, I LL ILW TIMBER FRAMI NC ill I' of rartition ti yiJiiiJ' neiKh of Pnrttfion % (' Hull - REMARKS CONCERNING THE NATURE OF MORTARS AND CEMENTS. 71 It is possessed by certain substances already mentioned, septaria, etc. etc. But only token they have been burnt. In what condition is the product rcsultinj; from the burning? Always in a state of che- mical combination; to a considerable extent we invariably lind present silicate of lime and alumina. These silicates are insoluble in water. But tliosc silicates independently, are found inca- pable of giving- a hydraulic morlar. \\'hat, then, nuist be considered to be the necessary constituents of water cement, and what are its properties? Silica, silicate of iron, alumina, lime, a small })art of carbonate of lime, and sometimes some others depending upon locahty. The action is double, chemical and physical. The lime is the binding substance, holding together the other materials: it gives (if not di'owned) by its property of absorbing water and crystalizing, the setting character to limes in a good cement; this lime, as hydrate, is intermixed and siuTounded by the particles of insoluble silicates, and thus preserved from the solvent property of water in contact; it still, however, continues absorbing any carbonic acid with which it may come in contact, and eventually becomes itself converted into carbonate and silicate. For the want of this protecting coat, the artiiicial hych-aulic limes failed; the water by its peculiar powers dissolving the whole of the lime, or hycb-ate of luue, and thus disintegrat- ing the compoimd. For the same reason it is necessary to allow hydraulic substances to become in a manner set; for if thro'\\Ti into running water, in a liquid or creamy state, the Hme woidd be dissol- ved and removed, and the constitutional properties of the substance lost. I have frequently been consulted upon the cause of failiu-e in the manufacturing of cements. A man having removed from one place to another, or changed his form of manufactm-e, may pursue the same course precisely as before his removal, in regard to quantities, mode, etc., but foil because brought in contact with materials of a different composition; in several instances this occurred: in one especially, with regard to a man leaving this coun- try, and proceeding to Ireland to manufacture. I was consulted by this party: he had some hrmdi-eds of barrels, and large quantities kilned, but upon trial it was found to split and rend asunder, and was considered useless, not from contraction, but rather from expan- sion; in this case, I found the cement contained a great excess of lime in a caustic state, which caused this expansion, and the want of resistance. I concluded that by rendering this insoluble, the evil would be remedied: I instructed him to do so, and with every favom'able result. The analysis of the material detected the error, which was in the quantities employed: by arranging the quantities according to the analysis, a proper result was obtained, and hy- draulic mortar produced as good as any in the country. The quantities of the constituents contained in a good cement, are by examination found to be as follows: — 1. Silica or sand partly in combination . . • 260 | 2. Oxyde of iron and ahmiina in combination . 146 > in 1000 parts. 3. Lime, caustic, carbonate and in combination 491 I The cement to which we have alluded previously, contained too great a quantity of sand. In another case of a cement found upon using and after a few days to shrink and get rotten, the analysis was as follows' of the before named ingredients — No. 1 . . . 29'/. I - 2 . . . 28 V2 ■ i" 1'"* P"'"'^ - 3 ... 40 I 72 REMARKS CONCERNING THE NATURE OF MORTARS AND CEMENTS. and the latter not in a state of silicate; doubtless the admixture of sand to such a com- pound as the above, destroyed its useful properties and rendered it too weak to stand. The evil was corrected by increasing the qiiantity of chalk employed in its manufacture; for it must be borne in mind that a good cement may be so in itself, but become too weak, when it has to carry its ustial quantity of sand; to bear which an excess of caustic liuie is al- ways necessary. Here again was an error, resulting from the manufactvu-er's ignorance of the materials ho was using. An idea may be formed of the necessity of knowing the consti- tuents of materials from the analysis of a few now employed. LIMESTONE. Slieppey. Harwich. Aberthaw. Carbonate of Lime 66 49 86.2 Silica 1 Oxyde of iron . . 1 32 47 11.2 Remaining . . . 2 100 4 2.6 100 100.0 Considering these variations in the chymical composition of the materials, how is it pos- sible, when only one manufactm-ing process is practised to produce cements uniformly good in their character? The cause of the want of perfection in the hydraulic mortars of the present day is, that not only the limestones but the clays employed differ in their consti- tuents, yet one plan is usually followed with all; that is to say about five parts of chalk are mixed with one of clay. The natiu-e of the substances used is not consulted, which certainly is one of the most necessary, and should be the first step in the operation. The following are the component parts of various species of clay. Clay from Aberthaw in Scotland. Silica or sand 76 . 28 Oxide of iron and Alumina 12 . 45 Chalk 2 . 75 Moistui-e and loss ... 8 . 52 100 . 00 Clay from Bayswater, Middlesex, taken from the Hippodrome and near the water-works. Sihca or sand 73 Oxide of iron and alumina . . 6 Chalk 1 6 Moistiu-e 24 8 100 . The following Analyses ai-e those of three clays, the pits or localities of which are within one mile of each other Silica or sand Oxide of iron and Alumina Chalk Other constituents Moisture Nr. 1 Nr. 2 Nr. 3 51 . 20 32 2 47 . 70 20 . 94 7 1 4 . 64 10 . 1)1) 2 . 56 S . ().") 1 . 80 'J . 81 58 . 6 46 . 30 100 . 00 100 . 100 , GO I'hll, FARM-H0U5E and STEADING- FODDER HOUSE! GUANO f // lO I CAT EWAY . J I POULTRY i ' \ o r [j &- > o DUNG y A R O BARN 6fl -W WMMS. KITCH EN OAROE COW HOU S t CART HORSES /j' • JO \ \ t — i r— ~ PAVED YAR D FLOWER BED SHRUBBERY BAILirr'S COTTAGE W.WAV ■ardner 2c Son ^B^oyiDe Pi^Ni SCALE OF FEET y ■y — ^ iprctt A H Pavr SCARPING AND JOININO TIMBERS. 73 Tlio comparison of tlicgc shows at once the alisurdity of employing tlic same manufachuing process with every material. No 1 containing nearly double the quantity of the necessary solid compoimd of either of the other two. How then would it ho possible without a knowU'dgo of tlio composition of these difl'crcnt sorts of clay, to succeed in manufacturing fntiii tliciu articles of e((ual (lualities? It must always be borne in mind that silicates ai'e essential and nmst bo present to give hydraulieity, and that these silicates are formed dm-ing calcination. In the proper propor- tion of these and the lime in a caustic state, must be attributed the hydraulic character of the substance usually termed cement. SCAEFING AND JOINING TBIBERS. • (See Plate 3.) PLATE 3, EXHIBITS SEVERAL METHODS OF SCARFING AND LENGTHENING. Fig. 1. Is the plan of a lapped scarf which is drawn tight up to its abutments by hard wood wedges, and then bolted secm-ely together. Fig. 2. Is the plan of another method, with the addition of a small tenon lipped into each abutment. Fig. 3. Is the plan of a plain scarf. Fig. 4. Is the plan of a parallel scarf wedged and bolted. Fig. n. Supposing a tie beam be required forty feet in length, to bo made from twenty feet planks, take six planks that will fit together close and even, l(!t two bo cut in halves, and two small thi-ee quarter inch joggles and tenons cut to each end, where the intersections meet or abut; place them together, having first traversed any irregularities away, so that they may be close to each other and also that the heading joints may break and they will form when bolted together a strong beam forty feet long, by eleven inches'by nine. The abutting ends must be driven up close before the bolt holes are bored, and all the bolt holes should be pax'ed square with a mitre tool; the iron bolts must-also be square except where tapped for the nut, so that there will be a square abutment between the iron and the wood, at every junction. (Fig. 6.) Another method is explained in Fig. 7. A Beam is required sixty feet long to be made from twenty feet planks twelve inches by three inches. This will rcquii-e twelve planks. Cut one plank into two parts exactly in the middle, forming two planks ten feet long, twelve inches by three. Cut two planks into two pieces, each at five feet from theii' ends fonning four pieces, or planks, two fifteen feet long, twelve inches by three inches, and two iive feet long, twelve inches, by three; the abutting ends to be be joggled together by three <|uarter mortices and tenons, as before described. The formation or plan will be as shewn in Fig. 7. The first flitch will be 5 feet, 20 feet, 20 feet, 15 feet. 20 „ 20 „ 20 20 „ 20 „ 10' 20 „ 20 „ 5 The second The third 10 )! The fourth 15 ); cet. d. = 60 feet. » <: == GO „ />. == 60 „ }> a. = 60 „ 10 74 FOUR POITRTH-RATE HOUSES. Thus the joints are broken so that no two come in contact. The sides must be traversed straight and planed so that the whole may be close, and meet iu every part; and if marine glue be applied to every joint before it is bolted, a beam of very great strength will be obtained. Fig. 8 shews the heading joints of the flitch a Fig. 9 ditto ditto of the flitch b Fig. 10 gives the heading joints of the flitch c Fig. 11 ditto ditto same of the flitch d Fig. 12 Is the plan of the beam, shewing the ii-on bolts. This and the foregoing scarfed beams must bo fixed with the heading joints in a vertical position; all the bolts to be of half-inch square iron, and the bolt holes pai-ed square after boring. Timber. ribs of different thicknesses have been more or less extensively used as ribs for arches since the time of Philibert de Lorme , a French architect; and we may hereafter take occasion fm-ther to enlarge on the subject. PLATE 26. EXHIBITS THE PLANS AND ELEVATION OF FOUR FOURTH - RATE HOUSES. Each house comprises the following accommodation: A Front Parlour 12' „ 0" X H' A Back ditto 11' „ 0" X 9' These two rooms communicate by means of folduig doors : A Kitchen 12' „ 0" X 8' A AVashhouse 8' „ 0" X ^5' Water closet and place for ashes. There is to be a coal cellar under the staircase: The upper floor consists of, A large front bedroom 12' „ 9" X 9' Childrcns room adjoining 9' ,, 0" X •">' A Back bedi-oom il' ;> 0" X 8' Ditto over the Idtchen 12' „ 0" X 8' „ 0" 6" 6" 0" G" G" 0" U" These houses if built of stock bricks with cement dressings, fir limber and slated roofs, may be erected and fini.shed fit for habitation for ilhO. A single house built independently of the others could be executed in a similar manner for under .|2l)0. The internal fittings to be kept, rif course perfectly plain, and the Kitchen and Wash-house to be paved, the former with ij" York, the lattoj* with stock bi-icks laid flat on sand and jointed in mortar. TWO SEMI-DETACHED FAMILY RESIDENCES. I' I, ATI-; 27. Represents the plans and Elevation of two semi-detached family cottage residences; they are also well ada])ted for small genteel farm houses, by taking either plan from Ihe party- wall, and the flank wall would form part of any farm or other erection that might be r((iui- red, without any interference with the internal arrangement. Vji.«.«k t^lKteilDX N IC z « . '^: Elevation P U A N iC>61tS*3l[t TWO SEVEN- ROOM HOUSES. 75 These cottages are proposed to be l)uilt of l)rick, -witli stone - facings and quoins, or witli cement dressings, or bricks of two colors; tlie roofs to be slate. The larger cottage contains an entrance - hall and passage, -with a celhu" under the stairs A living room 16' „ 6" X 13' „ 0" A parlor 1.3' „ 0" X H' „ 0" A bedroom or additional Parlor 12' „ (>" X i*' „ 6" A Kitchen IG' „ (!" X 10' „ 0" A scidlery 16' „ (5" X 8' „ 0" Larder, coal cellar, and water-closet. The height of this floor to be nine feet. The upper floor contains live bed-rooms, very roomy; these are ten feet six inches in height, but are partly formed in the roof. The smaller cottage contains An entrance -hall and passage, with a cellar under the stairs: A living room 15' „ 0" X U' „ 0" A parlor 1.5' „ 0" X 14' „ 6" A kitchen 14' „ 6" X 10' „ 0" A scullery 15' „ 0" X 10' „ 6" Larder, coal cellar, and water-closet. The height of this floor is nine feet. The upper floor contains foiu- large bed-rooms with large closets; and the height of the ceiling of the bed-rooms is ten feet six inches, but, as before they are partly formed in the roof. In this last-described cottage the kitchen is lighted by a large window under the fii"c-j)lace. If this is deemed objectionable, the fire-place can be in the angle of the room and the win- dow on one side. These very roomy, and convenient dwellings are well adapted for families ; and arc suitable for two or more adjoining freehold allotments. They may be erected of stock In-icks with cement di'essings kn- about i800. TWO SEVEN-ROOM HOUSES. PLATE 28, Is the plan and elevation of two seven-room houses, adapted for two or more ad ji lining freehold allotments. They recpiii-e a frontage of thirty feet each; the frontage being 22 feet, with a pathway or chaise- entrance 8 feet wide on either side. These cottages may be built single by making the party-wall a flank wall. They each contain an entrance-hall and passage . 21' „ 0" X 5' „ 0" Front parlor 15' „ d" X 13' „ 0" Back parlor 14' „ 0" X 12' „ 0" Water-closet, larder and cellar. Kitchen 12' „ 0" X 10' „ U" Wash-house 10' „ U" X 'J' „ 0" The upper-floor consists of A front bedi'oom 14' „ 0" X 13' „ U" A back bedi-oom 14' „ 0" X 12' „ 0" A small room over the passage 8' „ 0" X 6' „ 0" A bedroom over the kitchen . b)' ,, 0" X 10' ., 0" These two convenient cottage residences may be erected I'or tiie sum of £560. 10* 7(i STAIRCASES AND TKAP-DOOKS. STAIRCASES AND TRAP -DOORS. In the erection of dwelling Houses of every class, one most important consideration is to provide the best, most ready, and safest mode of escape in case of Fia-e. One of the most ordinary methods consists in the formation of a small opening in the ceiling joists, to which is fitted a flap which, when removed, admits a passage to a trap-door opening on to the roof. This is called a trap door; it is so, in fact, being generally placed in the worst possible situation for communication with the roof, at the top of the staii'case, and has consequently been the cause of a vast destruction of human life. In the event of fire the stau'case generally becomes a chinnioy-vent, increasing the drauglit, and, from its attractive power, quickly filling with smoke and flame. To add also to the evil, the bolts of the trap-door are often difficidt to be withdi'awn, and, under such circiunstances, its utility is lost. To avoid as much as j^ossible these difficulties, particularly when life, or death, is depen- dent on prompt action dm-ing a few moments, put the trap-door in the attic, which can be easily cut off from the staircase by closing the door; and, the draught from below, not having so immediate an action, the vundence of the fire and the ascent of the smoke Avill be considerably duuiuished.* The escape too woidd b(! much easier, for the inmates of the house are generally stifled with smoke before they can reach the place of exit; and if they are not stifled, they are so bewildered in one Avay or another, that they have little chance of sa^dng their lives. The approach to the trap -door, is usually by a moveable step-ladder, which when wanted, may possibly be in the cellai', or elsewhere: the fastenings or hinges twisted and stub- bornly fast, pi'esent obstacles in many cases fatal. All these possibilities shoidd be provided against, and a ready means of escape aft'orded, by one simple and simidtaneous movement of the whole. This may Ijc accomplished (Fig. 1) by framing the ceiling joists of the most convenient attic-openmg fi-om the top-lauding of the staircase, mth two stout joists 10" by 3" to an opening mne feet long, and two feet wide, or of such length as may be requii-ed; this opening is to admit a step-ladder , hung by strong liinges, plates and bolts, to the joist at a a, but working quite free, the other cud at 3, is secured in its place by a rope j)assing over a sheave, or large deep-grooved pidiey in the roof, and fastened to a belaying pin, firmly fixed, within easy reacli, to the wall or partition of the room below. The back of tlic step-ladder may be covei'ed witli a thin sheet of zinc, and, when drawn to its place and fastened, the zinc will be flush with and form part of the ceiling. Two iron plates, witli studs, are to be screwed upon tiie upper edge of the sides of the step-ladder, about IH inches from the top cud or lianging part, to receive tlie eyes of the iron bar struts, which fasten the trap door. This will be better imdcrstood by the f(dlowing diagrams. * These imjirovemcnts were submitted to the Board of Health and llicir adoption almost imiiiedialely recommended to tlie public. Fig. 1. *\ ^ - J f r PLAN AND ELEVATION FOR A PA IR OF ORNAMENTAL VILLAS /'. ;fefc;l-|;i':t;::j^^F^£A !k--l!i'^t/cL^fc''fl^aiE'!l^:!ls^ P Pi Ij N C I P A L E L E V AT I O N STAIRCASES AND TRAP - DOORS. 77 Fig. 2. Represents a trap -door closed, and secured by two iron bars, with loops and staples having free play at tlie top; the other end of the bars dropped on to the studs, screwed on each side of the steps, which are here re- pr(!Sonted as drawn up and flush with tlic ceiling; A istlie belaying pin, around which the cord Ji is coiled, C is the pully, screwed to a rafter, or otherwise secured in the roof. D is the step-ladder, E the iron stud plate, F ii'on rod bars, G the staples and eyes, to have free play, Jl the trap door, / the door frame, ^ the hinge bar and staples, L enlarged section of the pulley and screw frame. It is e^ddent, that, when the rope is loosened, the step-ladder will begin to fall, and, in so doing, the connection of the iron rods vdW gradually open the top end of the trap -door, see Fig. 3. B. until the ladder be about half-way down; at this point the ii-on rods will come in contact with the edge of the trimmer, of the ceiling joists, see Fig. 3.^, which will tilt them oft" from the studs, and ' let the bars free. The trap -door will instantly fall by its own gra- vitation, and form a platform or floor, over which the person escaping may pass out to the I'oof. This is so siniidtaneous an action , that the trap - door and the step-ladder, touch their extreme points of extent for service at the same moment, and the whole operation does not occupy more than a few seconds. The diagrams Fig. 3. 4. shew the whole ready for use, the trap- door open and down, the step-ladder in position, and the ii-on bars hanging loose. Great care must be taken in fixing this apparatus, that every part thereof should act together, and all work perfectly free; there must not be even the possibihty of any catch or liitch in any one part. Another method of seciu-ing stab-cases from destruction by fire is to carry up the well throughout with nine-inch walls, and to have the several doors opening into the well made doidjle with tiiin sheet iron, with one and a lialf-inch air space between each sheet, and the whole representing a foiu* or six-panel ordinary door. These drjors must be closed every night, so that in whatever apartment the fire may chance to originate, the door woidd effectually confine it from the staircase, which in alnmst all cases becomes a stimulant to its ravages. 78 PROFILES OP MOULDINGS. The stairs may also bo carried ^up so as to be fii-e- proof, if erected with the hollow steps,lately introduced, made from clay, and burnt in the usual manner. See diagram Fig. 5. They are light, strong, sightly, and very econo- mical, and being non-conductors of heat, and indestnictible by fire, give greater chances of escape than the usual wood stau'cases. Constructed in this manner and vnih. these simple and really economical precautions, the stair- case may be kept almost intaet from the ravages of the fire, while the combustible portion of the house is in danger of being dcstroj'ed. Under these circumstances, a means for the prevention of loss of life and pro- perty is preserved, which may be profitably turned to account. PROFILES OF MOULDINGS FOR ARCHITRAVES, PANELS, etc. The foUo'U'ing fidl-size diagrams will be found exceedingly useful to those who are not versed in practical details, as enabling them to choose for themselves the stjde of decoration they prefer for doors, windows etc. The scale of prices will, of com-se, vary with the means at the command of the builder employed. The smaller moiddings vary from \i, to oS, per foot nm, and the larger from 1 to G shillings per foot super. The planing machines of the present day afford a vast variety of patterns of moiddings, but, should any new design be inti'oduced, care must be taken that there is wo undercutting on the face of the moiUdiug, otherwise it must be worked by hand, which materially incearses tlic expense. DESCRIPTION OF THE DIAGRAMS. Exliibits a fillet, cove, qiurk ogee and rctm'ncd bead; it is adapted for a small architrave; or as a protecting moidding for outside doors panels. If used as an architrave, the side must be square. No. 2. Exhibits, an ovolo and bead , a cuvc. ludf round and back ogee, square fillet; and I'h PLA^NJ ®f Bgp RO@Mj rik@@Ft PLAN of ATTIC FLOOR PROFILES OF MOULDINGS. 79 returned bead. It is adapted for an architrave, separated at tlie dotted line; tin; largei- part forms a bald protecting moulding for largo inside doors or gates; the smaller portion may be used for inside doors. No. ;5. Represents a quii'k ogee, astragal and hollow; and is a- dapted for either an architrave or base moulding. No. 4. Is the Grecian ogee, and is likewise adapted for either architrave, or base. No. 5. No. 6. No. 7. No. 8. y No. 0. Nos. .5 to 9. Are various mouldings for idling in the panels of internal doors. ID. Represents a quirk ogee, fillet, and cove; this is also adapted for either arcliitrave, or base. No. 11. Exliibits a cove, quirk ogee, and astragal; and forms a very sightly architrave. No. 12. Exhibits the Grecian ogee, with ovolo finished witli the common ogee; this will also form an architrave or base. 80 STEENGTH OP MATERIALS. No. 13. Exhibits an architrave formed by the cock bead, and ogee and bead. STRENGTH OF MATERIALS. The following tables of the transverse sti-ength of various materials or their resistance to pressiu'c were determined by experiments on the various materials by Mr. Barlow. Elastic strength of lbs. Good English malleable iron 2050 Cast li-on 2548 Teak 820 English oak 400 Best Canadian oak ^8 Ash (375 Pitch pine 544 Red pine 447 Riga fir 37G Larch , 280 It must be observed that the extreme strength is indicated by the above numbers. In practice not more than one-third or one-half of these weights must be ajjplicd. To find the depth of an uniform lieam the width, length of bearing, and weight to be supported, being given. Rule. — Midtiply the length, bt-tween tlie bearing in feet, by tlie breadth in inches. Divide the fii-st product by the latter, and the square root of the quotient, will give the depth in inches. Example. Let it be required to find the depth of an iniiform Ijeam of oak to sustain a weight of 12,000 lbs. in the centi-e ; the distance between the supports being 20 feet, the width of the beam to be nine inches. The strain to be one-lialf. One -half tabular value 200 Width of beam 9 1800 133 indies gives a square root of llVi inches, the depth of the beam. 12.000 weiglit in lbs 20 distance in feet (133 240000 1800 : . . 0000 . 5400 . , (JOOO 5400 GOO /•lair ,S/ W.C. J P v^-. ^ LJI IeI- I m I -_r BED ROOM PASSAGE ^ SITTING ROOM ii m ^ ANTI-ROOM in- COMMITTEE ROOM mw^^. . ^ ^ "A PLAN OF FIRST FLOOR PLAN OF SECOND FLOOR STRENGTH OF MATERIALS. 81 To find the breadth of a beam, the depth, length of bearing, and weight to be supported being given. Rule. — JVIuhiply the kuigtli in feet, by tlic weight in pounds; divide the produet by tiic tabidar niunber multiplied by the S(juare of the depth, and the quotient will be the width or breadth. Example. Let it be required to find tlio breadth of a beam of oak to sustain 12,000 lbs; the distanee between the supports being 20 feet, and the depth of the beam 11 Va inches. The strain to be one-half. ' Squai'e of depth 133 12,000 weight in lbs, one-half Tab. value 200 20 distance in feet, 26,600 : 240,000 (9 inches the breadth. 239,400 ...600 Therefore a beam of oak, 20 feet between its supports, IIV2" X 9" will bear a weight of 12,000 lbs on its centre, ealcidatcd upon one-half its tabular value. When the load is distributed over the whole length of the beam, it will bear double the assumed load. When a beam is fixed at one end only, and the weight is placed upon the other end as in the projection of balcony cantilevers, take only one-foiu'th of the tabular niunber for a divisor. Example. Required the depth for the cantilevers of a balcony of cast iron to project foui- feet, and to be placed 5 feet apart; the weight of the stone part 1,000 lbs, the breadth of the cantilever 2 niches , and the greatest load to be placed upon 5 feet of the balcony 2,200 lbs. Onc-fom-th of 3,200 lbs weight, 4 feet length of cantilever, Tabl niuuber 037 : 12,800 (20- square root of wliich is 4. f) inches 12,740 or 4V2", the depth reqiured. ...60 Cast iron beams are sometimes introduced, and the following diagram, is the section of one of the strongest forms yet obtained. « It is the result of recent experiments for obtaining the strongest form of CT^Zl section for beams by Mv. Ilodgkinsou is 3" X 1"; the bottom flange I), is the ujiper flange; the depth of the is twenty feet: the following is also Jlr. , the ultimate strentrth of beams of cast of Manchester. The top flange a. 12" X I'/a" 01' si^ times the area of beam is 10 inches, and the bearing Hodgkinson's rule for ascertaming 1 ii'on of the preceding section and ~ ^ proportion. h ]\Iultiply the sectional area of the bottom flange in inches by the depth of the beam in inches, and divide the product by the distance between the supports, also in inches, and 514 times the quotient will give the breaking weight in cwts. Sectional area of bottom flange ISO Depth of beam 10 Length of beam in inches 240 : 1,800 (TVa 1,680 120 DESIGN FOR A COTTAGE RESIDENCE. 514 3598 257 3855 Cwts. To find the weight of cast iron beams or any quantity of cast iron, reduec the whole bulk int(3 cubic iuclies, multiply the prcnluct by 27, cut off two iigures to the right, the remainder is lbs. If wrought iron let the multipUer be 28. In listing heavy weights care should be laken that the tackle is of sufficient power: the following rule for ascertaining the strength of ropes is very useful. Kulc. Square the girth, and divide the product by 5, the quotient gives the weight in tons that will break the rope. DESIGN FOR A COTTAGE RESIDENCE. The plates numbered 29 and 30. contain plans, elevations and sections of a Cottage Re- sidence. The style adapted is that termed the "Old English", which was developed and prevailed in England diu'ing jjart of the fifteenth and sixteenth ceutiu-ies. It is the mode of building which followed the old feudal castles, when the objects to be attained were comfort and ele- gance, instead of strength and power for defence. The larger edifices, formerly called castles, were then denominated halls, and were characterized by many of the features introduced in our small example. Hargravc Hall, Suffolk, and Iladdon Hall, Derbyshire, are specimens on a large scale to which we may refer the reader. The timber construction- illustrated was very common during the sixteenth century. Ornamental external plastermg or "pargetting" was also much used. "Some men wyll haue their wallys plastered, some pergetted, and whytlymed, some roughecaste, some pricked, some wrought with playster of Paris", is a quaint contemporaneous record. There are fine examples of inns at Glastonbury and Grantham, which are certainly more characteristic than the ordinary common - place and unpictin-csque style now generally adopted for these houses. The ornamental ehinnicy shafts, constructed of brickwork, were also very effective features. The bai'geboards, first iised in the fom-teenth century, with the finials and jjcndants, produce a pleasing effect; and the bay-windows are as effective external as they arc convenient internal features. These latter were retained until the reign of Elizabeth, whose nane is given to a style whiili links th(! Old English with Italian architectm-e. The Old English style is peculiarly suited to the class of domestic houses erected in the country. The broken lines ef the roofs and gables, the varied projections of llic different rooms, the rich chiimujy shafts and barge boards, the picturesque bays and ])orehos, the rustic covered spaces for shady seats, and the opportmiitics afforded for the introduction of various colours, by the use of brick, stone and wood, all tend to produce a structm-e finely harmoni- zing with the sm-rounding scenery. Wiien the roofs are sharply pointed, tlic chinmeys lofty and effective, the windows varied, and the woodbine and other flowers are trained over the fronts, a most charming picture of rural comfort and elegance is produced. The building looks what it is, a cottage residence; and character and sini])licity shoidd always be aimed at. The design given is proposed to be isolated; as, if built in the country, it is ))robable it ELEVATION AND PLANS FOR A PAIR I'lafr 2 SEMI-DETACHED FAMILY COTTAGE RESIDENCES ELEVaTf IJ©N m/y//ifs^^i^s— ^///m'//m. y ay -^.M/M mm DESIGN FOR A COTTAGE RESIDENCE. 83 WDuIJ l>c required in nccdrdance witii tlu> (|n;unt advice of Dr. Fuller, nn old |irel)cndary of Saruiu: — "Cnuntry liouses must be substantial, able to stand of themselves, not like city buildings, supported and llauked by those of their neighbours on each side". In towiis, houses of this description arc generally made semi-detached. The design will admit of this with a little modification; — the W. C. being placed under the staircase, the coal-cellar in its place and the window lighting the hall shifted over the first landing of the staircase. The two houses will then range conveniently side by side, the porches being contiguous. DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS. The building consist of two floors, and comprises the following amoimt of accomodation. On the ground floor, a porch, well-lighted hall and staircase, with store closet beneath the latter; two large parlors coimnunlcating by means of folding doors, and, with the windows commanding front and side views, forming cheerful and commodious apartments. A door opening out of the hall excludes the steam etc. from the kitchen, which damages fiu"nitiu'e, and, rising to the bed-rooms, damps and injm'cs the linen. There is a large kitchen, with boi- ler, sink and other requisites. The larder, coal-cellar and W. C. are all sufficiently separated and conveniently accessible. The covered space between the two latter will Ijc found useful for many purposes ; and under the similarly covered space at the side and in the porch, seats may be placed. There are throe large bed-rooms on the upper floor, together with a small dressing room, the comfort of which renders it almost an indispensable adjunct to the principal bed-room. The back bed-room may be dixHIded into Uxo rooms in the manner indicated on the plan. Two closets are provided for linen and tor s. SPECIFICATION of the materials to be used in ■ li. co istruction, and description of the man- ner of finishing and fitting up the house. EXCAVATOR. •Dig out the ground to the depth and ^^^dth necessary for the walls, drains etc. and fill in, level and well ram the same as the work is brought up. The concrete (if requii-ed) is to be composed of gravel and lime, in the propoi-tion of one of lime to six of gravel. It is to be twice the width of the lowest coiu'se of footings, and averaging one foot in tliickness. BRICKLAYER AND TILER. The walls are to be built of stock bricks, the whole of the facing to be of red bricks; no facing header to be cut in two, but the whole to be soiuidly bonded together, -with as close beds and joints as possible. The bricks to be chamfered wh(>re shown, and neatly cut to stone quoins and the quartering on the face. The chimney shafts to be as iuilicated; those of or- namental brickwork may be procui'ed ready manufactured of various heights and sizes. The whole of the facing is to be finished wth a neat close flat joint. The flues to be 14" X ^", thoroughly pargetted and cored; in the ornamental shaft they are to be cu'cular. Neatly cut slanting walls to take timbers of roof; bed all wall plates and lintels and point the door and window frames; tm-n 9" arches over all opening, except where otherwise shown, and care- fiUly cut the skewbacks. Leave small openings for air and ventilation where ilirected, and fill in the same with cast ii-on aii- bricks. Set a copper in kitchen and build 4^/., walls to carry sink. Sleeper and fender walls on ground floor, and '/a brick trimmers to fire-places on cham- ber level. Pave the coal cellar with stock bricks, bedded on dry ashes or rubbish, and pointed in mortar. A layer of gas -tar, mixed with sand, is to be laid over the sm-facc of the walls a few inches above the ground level, to prevent damp rising. The mortal- is to be com- posed of stone hme, mixed with clean sand, in the proportion of one of lime to three of sand. 84 DESIGN FOR A COTTAGE RESIDENCE. _J Stoneware tubular drains, jointed wth well tempered clay, 4 ins. diameter tothc W. C. and 3 ins. in all otlier cases; those to the sink and privy to be effectually ti-apped. The fall to be not less than 1 inch in 10 feet. If there is no sewer, a cesspool must be dug and steined in half-brick 4 feet cleai- diameter, and 10 feet deep, paved with half-brick, with 9" dome over; an opening to be left in the same with stone cover and ring. Construct also a tank, G feet by 4 feet, and 5 feet deep, with 9 inch invert bottom and domed top; man-hole 2' 3" diameter with stone cover and flush ring; the whole to be built in cement, and the sides and bottom rendered ■i^'ith cement 1 " tliick to render it perfectly water tight : the rain water pipes to be conducted into this. Sink a well 3 feet diameter, with half-brick steining and stone cover. Cover the roof with Staffordshu-e plain tiling of two colours, as shown, laid in patterns, and well tor- ched with lime and hair, on double fir laths. Blue valley tiles bedded in lime and hair; ridge tiles moidded as shown, dowelled with stone at the joints, and with all requisite junctions and inter- sections at ridges, hips, etc. M AS N. The quoins and dressing to the windows to be of lime stone, laid on its natural bed, neatly tooled and squared ; the com-ses to be of in-egular height and length, but to bond evenly with the brickwork. The heading and sill to the bay window and the plinth run- ning round the building to be as shown in the margin. The steps to front entrance to be of Portland stone 11" X 14"; the landing to be 3" thick; the whole pro- perly rubbed on the face, back jointed and set. The step to back entrance, W. C. and coal cellar to be of tooled York 13" X 7", 12" longer than opening, back rebated and mortised for door post. Pave the kitchen, passage and pantiy with 2V2" rubbed York, jointed in mor- tar, and laid on a bed of concrete ashes, and 5" deep, perforated and rebated for The sills to the whidows to be splayed and pro- perly rubbed. 2 inch rulibed J'ortlaiid slabs to the fireplaces, and tooled York inner hearths ; the slab to the kilchen to be of rubbed York; and all to be 1 foot longer than opening and 1' 0" wide. The chinmey pieces to parlors will be selected; that to tlie kitchen to be of rubbed Ym-k, and the remainder of ruljbed Portland, chamfered as shown. CAUrKNTKU AND JOINEK. Tin; Yellow ]''ir to be of tint i)cst description ofI\[emel; the oak of English growth, and the deals Archangel or Petersburgh, all jicifectly sound and well seasoned. The cari)cnter is to assist the bricklayer in fixing the timber IVaining in the walls, it being previously worked fair on the lace. The whole of llie timbers arc to be of the scantlings, and put logelhei- in llie iiiamier shown on the drawings and herein dt^scribed. The (juarters, joists and rafters to be not more than 14" from centre to centre; lintels 18" longer than tlu^ openings and A^l^" deep; >N\NDD>H .HERO — \^.:;,.:y^ PLINTH uY dry rubljish, well rannned. Sink-stone 7' 4" bell fra]i, and set in morfar on the walls. thieh ' w fi K jvi i s~ Raft(!rs to dormers G" X ^'/l," The lean-to roofs over Bay W. C. coal cellar and covered space, to have rafters 5" X 2 V2" Ridge plates secured to the wall by iron brackets . 5" X 2V2" "" Lower plates 4" X 3" The Barge-boards are to stand out from the wall one foot, and to be firmly seciu'cd to the projecting ridge and plate at top and bottom; they are to be of the section shown in the margin, 2 inches in thickness: inch wrought boarding is to cover the projecting space, and the cnj)ping should be of oak, weathered and throated. Fix at apex an ornamental finial and pendant, of the profile indicated: the finials and barge-boards to dormer windows are to be of the same profile and section, but smaller. FLOORS. The joists on ground floor are to be 5" X 2V2" with oak plates 4" X •>' a"- Those on chamber floor, to be 10" X2V2"; trimmers and trimming, joists 10" X 3"; the joists to passage 7" X 2"2"; plates 4" X '^"^ The parlors and hall to be covered wdth inch Yellow deal sti'aight joint flooring, with splayed heading joints, and mitred bordei's to slabs; the kitchen, passage, larder and W. C. to have inch Yellow deal folding floors; ami the bed-room floor to be laid with inch Yellow deal straight, joint floors, with mitred borders to slabs. SKIRTINGS. Lich sunk and moidded skii'ting 13" mde to parlors; inch chamfered skirting 10 wide to hall, and inch square skii'ting to kitchen and offices G" high. The two principal bed- rooms and the di-essing room and landing to have sldi-ting as in hall; the remainder to be square G" high. • THE STAIRCASE. To have inch V4 Yellow deal treads, and quarter spaces with moiddcd and retiu-ned nosings, gluetl, blocked, tongucd and bracketted for plastering, on strong fii- carriages. Inch V4 moidded string, ramped and kneed, so as to be one uniform height above the nosings, and into which the st(>ps are to be housed and well wedged up in glue; inch V4 cut, sunk and beaded string boards, and % beaded linings to landing; inch torus skii-ting, ^\'ith narrow grounds, on quarter spaces. The hand-rail to be of Ilondm-as mahogany 4" X 3", wi-eathed, ramped and moulded, with mitred and turned caps to .">" turned newels. Inch Wiiinscot, dovetailed square bar balusters two to each step; six to be of ■\\TOuglit iron, with plates at top and bottom, to seciu-e them to handrail and steps. Inch ',., S(piare partition under stau-s. 86 DESIGN FOR A COTTAGE RESIDENCE. DOORS. The front entrance door to be 21/2'' c ommited on clianiljcr lloor and to hall window; the windows, being finishiil witli %" roun- ded window boards, linings and solfits. The remaining small windows are to have V/,^" chamfered casement sashes hung on 2" butts to frames similar to the others, 4" X 3", willi oak sills &c as before, and fastened with small bolts; %" rounded window boards, linings and soffits. 1>K8I(IN FOU A COTTAOK RESIDKNCK. 87 P li C II. The timber work to tlio porch is to Ije framed and put togetlicr ill tlie manner indicated. Wrouglit and stop eiiam- fered posts 12" square, let into stone plinth, the upper parts securely framed into it, and all iirmly put togctlier. The panelling at top and sides to be out of 2" stuff, chamfered, and let into groves formed in posts and cross-pieces; the side to be framed in two divisions , with arched heads a;id quartre-foils over, as in front. The covered space at side to be as indicated, with posts 6" square, head 9" X S'/a"; head carrying rafters of the same scantling as described over out-building. THE WATER-CLOSET is to have V/^" deal beaded frames, mortised and clamped flap, himg with 2^/.," butts on fii- proper framed bearers and groimds; ^4" small skirting roimd three sides of seat. A cistern 4' 0" X 2' 6" X 2' 0" deep is to be fitted up over W. C. cai'ried on proper bearers; 2" tongucd bottom and V/./' sides, with Va inch ii-on bolt, mxts and screws complete. A dresser is to be fitted up complete, with di-awers shelves etc., of the size shown; and shelves to be also fixed in the Lnrder, as desii-ed; an inch beaded bell board 11" vnde in passage adjoining kitchen; beaded rails for dish covers, a phito rack, cover for copper, and all other incidental fittings. PLASTEREE. The plastering to be executed with well burnt chalk lime, incorporated with clean shar]) sand and strong hair, every care being taken to prevent bhstering and otlier defects; the laths to be strong hdh and half laths. The internal walls and partitions to be rendered, (the parti- tions lathed), floated and set for paper and the ceilings wliited: the kitchen, larder and coal cellar to be twice limewhited. Angle staves to all projecting angles. 9" Cornices to parlors and hall. PAINTER. The whole of the external wood and ironwork to be painted 4 times, and finished with good common colours: the exterior woodwork finished dark oak; and that to hall and parlors grained wainscot and t^Aice varnished in best copal; the hautb-ail and newels to be French polished. PLUMBER. The water being pi'esmned not to be laid on, a 3" brass force pump is to be fixed in the kitchen, with inch Va suction pipe from the well. The water is to be forced to the cistern over W. C. through an inch V4 pipe, and from the top of the cistern an Va" notice pipe is to be brought back to sink: line the cistern with 7 W lead, nailed over the edges. Inch ^^ waste pipe, Y^ service, and 4" lead soil pipe delivering into drain. 2^/^" waste pipe from sink, and 4" brass grate and bell trap. The W. C. to be fitted with white ware basin, and best made closet apparatus, with every requisite complete. A 2^./' cast u'on pump must be fixed where convenient, with P/4" suction pipe from rain water tank. S M I T II. 4Y2" Moulded eavc gutters, properly secm'cd, and 3" rain water pipes; with heads of a Gothic pattern; the ends of the pipes to be connected with the drains. Wrought iron chunncy 88 workmen's cottages. bars 2Vo" X Va" ^^"> longer than openings, turned up into brickwork. Provide stove to copper: the remainder to be chosen. GLAZIER. The A\dndows to be glazed with the best double crown glass; those to the kitclien offices and the small windows to have second crown glass. The sash door to have 21 oz. sheet glass, iixed with a bead. PAPER HANGER. Tlie papers will be chosen, and a price to be then named for hanging them. BELL HANGER. Each of the parlors to have two siuik pulls, and two of the bed-rooms one each, to cor- respond with the furnitm-e of the doors. The wires are to be conveyed down to the flooring in zinc tubmg, and conducted to the Idtchen passage; each bell to have a small neat brass pendidiun. COST OF CONSTRUCTION. It is always difficult to give an accurate estimate of the cost of buildings. The prices of materials and the value of labor are continually fluctuating, and works arc executed at very different rates in various parts of the coimtry; the prices also greatly depend on the facilities Ijixilders have at their command, some being enabled to execute commissions much cheaper than others. Although we have specified certain materials, these will be vai-ied ac- cording to the ease or difficulty of procuring them; that wliich is most expensive in one place being cheapest in another; and we shall therefore vary the specifications of oiu" designs. If carried out in accordance with the description above given, the house may be erected in the home counties for about £480. Of covu'se, if the amoimt of exterior decoration is reduced, the figiu'cs will stand proportionately lower; and if cottages are built in pairs, a still fm'ther reduction may be made, on account of one party wall serving for the two, thus allowing of a deduc- tion to the extent of one divisional wall. If let at i'dO per annum, a retmni of 6 per cent will be obtained on the siun expended. Against this -must be set the gi'ound reut, (if any), taxes, and the contingencies ai'ising from loss of tenants, repau-s etc. WORiaiEN'S COTTAGES. (See Plate 31.) Tliis plate comprises an elevation, section, ground and upper-floor plans for a pair of workmen's cottages; also an elevation for a Row of (Cottages of similar construction. The cottages are proposed U> hv Imih in iiats. A passage dividers llie two cottages on the ground floors, and, by means of two porches and two stone or wood staircases, affords soj)a- rate entrances to the above dwellings. Thus all the comforts of separate residences are secured to the inmates, at a considerable less cost of constniction than if the residences were completely separated; the same roof and foundation serving for all. The grf)unil floors arc entered through porches on each side of the entrance -passage by doors opening in each cottage into a living room, communicating with a bed-room; a < © t; a o < < IH 2 kj' Q K L- < < i£ OL o ik. u. ^ Q LJ a t- 0. CO < H-i Q < Q c- as © o I ~ M 1- h h h- ^ 1- £ v> < a: £ o L. z u z (/I < < a. ul LJ ui < h u o: Cfl % < UJ Crt -1 I (C h 1- LI <» u. o t 1- O z O C/1 i u. Q o < D. (S Z h cc 1- kl o 3 o < o & & 4 woricmen's cottages. 89 scullery is fitted with wash-house, copper and sink, and a pantry adjoining. At the end of the passage, on each side, are placed the water-closets appropriated to the ground flats. The ascent to the upper flats is by stone or wood stairs at the end of the central passage. On the landing are placed tlie upper water-closets, and opposite to them are glass doors opening into and lighting the upper sculleries; these may be further lighted by other half glass doors, communicating with the living rooms. The upper principal bed-rooms are placed over the lower ones, and arc of the same size. The upper living rooms also communicate each vnth a child's bed-room in the front of the cottages : these may be used for pantries if preferred. It is evident that these dwellings are intended only for very small families, and such resi- dences are required iu all large manufacturing towns. The pair of Cottages will cost in the erection about £300 or *^nO according to the price of materials and labour in the neighboiu-hood; and at 3s per week for each flat they would pro- duce i 31 „ 4s per annum. DIMENSIONS OF THE GROUND FLATS. Passage 23' X 3' 6" Porch .5' X 3', 6" Living-room . . . . 11' X H' — Bed-room 11' X 9' — Scullery 7' X Ty — Pantry 5' X 3' (3" Water-closet .... 4' X 2' 8" UPPER FLATS. Water-closets 4' 6" X 2' 6" . Living-room 11' — X! H' — Bed-room 11' — X 9' — Scullery 7' — X *9' — Child's bed-room 7' — X 7' — These cottages may be constructed of red bricks with wliite brick or compo dressings: or they may be built of rubble stone work, free-stone dressings, and internal brick partitions. The upper, floors may be rendered fire-proof by laying them upon brick arches turned between iron gu-ders, as shown in the annexed Z^^!ZZir:::^^Z^^~Z^^^r'^i^;7i^ diagram. ITT^^^^^ -i,..7r(4.,/.>*-- ^' _ ^ Girder. Girder. Girder. In the elevation for the row, the small wndows lighting the porches have been omitted. This will be optional with the builder, as light will always be afl'orded by the open entrance passage. The roofs willbe constructed of ceiling joists tying the rafters, parlins and sti-uts, or collar beams, ridge and valley pieces. * ARCHES. An arch is an aiTangement of bricks, stones or other materials in a curved form. The M-edge-shaped stones used for this pm-pose are called voussoirs; and the centre stone a key stone; the upper surface or edge of the voussoirs or bricks, forms what is called the cxtrados of the arch, and the lower edge the intrados or soffite. In a well - formed arcli the mutual pressm'c of the stones or bricks of which it is composed, enables it to support sujicrincmubent weights; and for this reason it is essential that arches should be introduced over all openings, * For deserijitiori of Plate 32. see page IG; and for Plates 33. 34. see page 21. 12 90 WORKMEN S COTTAGES. Fig. 1. both in stone and brick walls, internally as well as externally. For the construction of inter- nal counter or discharging arches see Fig. 2, Plate 9. Inverted arches are placed under wide openings to equalize the weight; see Fig. 3, Plate 9. The portion of the wall on which the springing of the arch rests is called the ^z'er or abutment. The pressiu-e on the bricks or stones of which the arch is composed, increases from the cro-mi or uppermost part of the arch to the springing or extremities, resting on the pier or abut- ment on which the weight is discharged. Arches receive their names from the natui-e of the cm-ves of then- intrados or inner edge; as circular, elliptic, parabolic etc. Sometimes they are named after the style of Architectiire; as Gothic, Roman etc. There are also what are termed, by an abuse of names, flat-arches. The use of the camber slip however shows that this mode of construction partakes but slightly of the form of the arch. The camber slip is a piece of wood with at least one cm-ved edge, rising 1 inch in 6 feet, for drawing the soffit lines of camber or straight arches. The other edge is sometimes cm-ved about half an inch in 6 feet, for the purpose of di'awing the upper side of the arch, so as to prevent it from becoming hollow by the settling of the bricks. Th% U2:)per edge of the arch is not always cambered but is some- times left straight. When the bricklayer has drawn his arch he gives the camber- slip, which is sufficiently long to answer many difi'crent widths, to the carpenter to form the centering used to support the arch dm-ing construction. An egregious fault in the construction of flat arches is not giving them a sufficient skew-back. The proper proportion of a skew-back is one thii-d more than the height of the arch; thus a nine inch arch requii'cs twelve inches skew-back; a twelve inch arch, sixteen; and a fifteen arch, twenty inches. The centre of skewing for camber arches may be thus found. On the set line A B, in the annexed figm-e, describe an equi- lateral triangle A B C. Prolong A, and B, to D, and E, which gives the skew-backs A D, ?ind B E; which in this instance will be 16 inches each, the height of the arch being 12 inches. All the other joints may be drawn by prolonging them to the point C. The arch should consist of an odd number of bricks, that it may have a proper bond, and the key stone be placed in the middle of tTie arch. It is evident that the proper constniction of these arches requu'cs that the bricks bo care- fully guaged. This is performed by rubbing tliom to a proper shape, so that, when laid, the joints may be perfectly even and close in every part. Bricklayers often save themselves the trouble of rubbing the bricks, and form an imperfect skew-back by laying the bricks willi flie joints open at the upper end. In this case the whole strength of the arch depends on the adhesive quality of the mortar. The best mortar for turning arches is that made from the blue Lias lime stone, or some other moderately hydraulic stone. Cement sets too quickly, and does not allow the arch time to adjust itself to its burden. But perhaps the most faulty method of constructing straight arches is that exhibited in the accompanying diagram Fig. 1, in which the bricks have their longer sides parallel and the arrangement of the bi'icks exhibiting none of the properties of an arch. Yet this malformation is constantly practised at the present day, when the defects of the brickwork are destined to be covered by an cxtei-nal coat of cement, and it is the fruitful cause of the fractm-es which abound in Elevations that are thus covered. These arches arc called French arches. PLAN AND ELEVATION OF TWO 3"? RATE SEMI-DETACHED SEVEN ROOMED COTTAGES ADAPTED FOR TWO OR MORE SMALL A^LUOTMENTS ELEVATION CRQUNO PLA^NJ " > sn } 6 3 t ax 1 o ^S- BED RO OM PLAN Of) *p jSp/'ert \V0I;KMEN S COTTAfJKS. 'Jl Fig. 2. Straiglit arclies, if properly constructed, aiiswei' the }mrposo very well of covering narrow openings in brickwork, where the superincumbent weight is not very great; but in large buildings, and especially in the lower stories, it is advisable to Fig. 1. introduce segmental, semi-elliptic, or semi-cLrcular arches. A segmental, or scheme arch, is contained between two con- centre cii'cles and the springing lines, which are portions of the radii of those cii'cles, thus: see figure 1. A semi-circular arch is formed in a similar manner, see figure 2. The method of describing semi-eliptic arches is as follows. Let AB he the span of the arch, and CD its height, from the middle of AB, and perpendicular thereto, di'aw AX, and D X, respec- tively parallel to CD, and A C, and divide A X, and A C, each into tlu-ee equal parts, by the two iutermediato points 1 , 2. Make CZ, equal to CD, and from the points 1, 2, in AX, draw straight lines to the point D, intersecting straight lines tU-awn from the points 1, 2, in AC, to the points y and n. Make the angle Dnk equal to the angle nDC, and prolong D C to meet « h in h. Join »/ n, or suppose i/ n to be joined, and bisect >/ n by a perpendicular meeting nh in i. Join yi, intersecting ^4 5 in k, and let m Winter- 92 ARCHES sect AB in I. In C B, make C r equal to C I, and from h, through r, draw /; v. In h r, make h q equal to h i, and in C B, make G s equal to C h. Join q s, and prolong q s io t. From the centre h, with the radius A D, describe the arc n u, and from the centres i and q, describe the arcs n y and u t, and from the centres h and s describe the arcs y A and tB. Then will Ay n D u t B be the intrados of the arch. Prolong the lines iy and in; qu and q t, as also G A, G B, to E, o, p, w, v, F, and make D G, equal to the breadth of the arch ; then by the same centi'es, h, i, q, h, s describe the extrados E o p, G w v F, which will complete the right section of the arch. The joints of the bricks are dra-\vn through the same centres, observing that the extrados must be divided into parts, each equal to the thickness of a brick. GOTHIC ARCHES. Let A G in the following figiu-e be the span of the arch, and D C the perpendicular height from D, and let G B be a tangent to the arch at the summit G, and A B perpendicidar to A G, a tangent at the springing point A. To describe a Gothic arch by finding any number of points in the curve: — Prolong GD to f, and in Df make DE equal to the difference between the two perpendicidars, A B and D G. Join A E and divide A E and A B each into the same number of equal parts. In this example each of tliese Unes is divided into six equal parts. Tlu-ough the points, 1, 2, 3, etc. in A B, draw straight lines to the point G, and from the point f, through the points 1, 2, 3 etc. in yl E, di-aw right lines, to intersect the former right lines, in the points a, b, c, etc. Through these points draw the curve A a b c d. e G, which will form one half of the section of the intrados of the arch. In the same manner the other half of the intrados may be constructed. The extrados lines, JIJ and IJ, are found by drawing them at an equal distance from the intrados lines A G and G C. To describe a Gothic arch by centres. See Fig. 2. Draw Cm perpendicular to GB, and in the s]pixiaAG, make Ak equal to AB. In Cm, make C / equal A k. or AB, and join hi. Bisect h I by a perpendicular, meeting Cm in m, and join mlc. Prolong mk to n. From the point m, as a centre, with the distance m C, as a radius, describe the arc C n, and from the centre h with the distance h n, describe the arc I n A. Then A n C will be half of the ciu"ve of the sec- tion of the intrados. Prolong A G, to 11 and /, and prolong /.; n to o. Make A H equal to the brcadtli of tiie course which forms the head of the arch; tiicn again from the centre k with the radius k H describe the arc H o and from the centre m, with the radius in o, describe the arc o J, mcf^ting the summit in tlie point J. In the same manner may be found the extrados of the other half of the right section of the arch. SIDE ELEVATION ARCHES. 93 But the centres may be more readily tbimd by the following- construction, by observing that the centres must be in a symmetrical position on each side of the rij^'ht line CI), which divides the right . section into two symmetrical parts. Make Dp equal to l)h, and prolong C D to q. Draw m r parallel to G A, intersecting G D prolonged m apprehended from damp and an insecure foundation. A bottom of solid rock is as troublesome to deal with as it may be secui-e; sand forms an excellent foundation, if it can be kept from escaping, which is very rarely the case; but clays must be carefidly guarded against, as however hard at iirst — and blue "shale sometimes requires to be blasted with gunpowder — they are ex- - PRINCIPAL-FRONT _-^o^■o_ 96 DESINGS FOR A PAIR OP MODEL COTTAGES. tremely liable to nm into sludge. It is, however, necessary for the agricixltural labourer that the soU should be adapted for spade husbandly. The. foundation is of the highest impor- tance, as on it the building entirely depends, and the greatest care should be devoted to its se- curity. If the ground is at all doubtful, concrete ought to be used. It is composed of one proportion of lime, mixed with six of gravel and broken stones, passed thi'ough a sieve of an inch mesh, all well worked up together, and tipped over from a barrow at the lowest pos- sible level. Its cost may generally be set down at from G to 8 shillings per yard cube. Care shoiild be taken to keep the trenches no more than of the exact width required that there may be a firm abutment on each side of them, which cannot be the case when eai'th is cast loosely in, through carelessness in excavating too much. As concrete is an excellent preventive of damp, it would be as well, if the expense allowed of it, to spread a layer, 6 inches in thickness, all over the surface of the ground to be built upon. Under the walls, it may be a foot in thickness, and twice the mdth of the lowest covu'se of footings. These latter must be very carefidly built; if of stone, ^vith the largest blocks; if of brickwork, with the hardest and best burnt stocks, none of them broken, always breaking joint, no one com'se to project more than 3 inches beyond another, and the bottom covu'ses invariably double. The evil effects of damp rising in a dwelling can hardly be exaggerated; imdermining as it does the health of the inmates, and gradually spreading decay amidst all the constructive parts of the house, as well as the furnitiu-e and fittings, the clothes, the linen and all, else there is in it. We have already mentioned the expedient of spreading a layer of concrete over the whole sm-face occupied; but this is costly, and, generally speaking, it will be found sufficient to spread over the sui-face of the walls, 9 inches or a foot above the ground level, a layer of asphalte %" of ^^ "''ch tliick: of cement %", or 1" tluck, or gas-tar, mixed with sand: a layer of rough slate slabs, bedded in cement, or any other material which may be cheap and at hand in the district and fitted for the jiurpose. DRAINAGE AND SUPPLY OF WATER. In planning labourer's cottages, these are points second to none other in importance. The cottage should be elevated at least 2 or 3 feet above the road, with a gentle fall all round to facilitate the drainage and escape of water after hea^'y rains. It is not necessary for us here to enlarge on the importance of retaining tlie licjuid-manure, even every washing and soap-sud in a tank as far as possible from the cottage, and at a distance from the water-tank and well, so that nothing may be lost and all the refuse may be available for enricliing tlie ' land: 5 or 10 shillings per acre may thus be added to its value. A coat of ashes from the fii'eplace, or a thin lay(?r of mould daily added will in- crease its value as a manure, and tend to retain the noxious carbonate of ammonia rising from it. Drains should communicate witli the manure tank from the water-closet, sink and shed for pigs. Sir. Loudon, in his work on cottage architectm-e, mentions a method of separating the liquid manui-e from the soilage, vhich should always be jjut in practice. It consists in inser- ting a grating (which is best of galvanized iron), at the bottom of the soilage tank, through which the liquid passes into a well, out of which it can be pmnjjcd or removed with a pail when required. We give a modified form in the margin. Brick drains are now being superseded by those of earthenware, which are cheaper and more efficient, on accoimt of the narroi^Tiess of sui-- face over wliich the liquid flows. -:^& sojtACr. PI, SlCTiOK C.0. tlBt, ELEVATION DESIGNS FOR A PAIR OF MODKL COTTAGES. 97 Tlipy arc mamifactured in various parts of the country in two feet lengths, with liouds and junctions; tliey are less likely to get out of order than lirick drains, can 1)C more readily examined and repaired ; arc rapidly laid down, and are not liahlc to be infested with vermin. When alazod, tlic water flows through them with perfect facility, . ami ihr joints may he made good with |iunncd clay or cement. An \\ K excellent water-closet hasin, ready trapped, may Le procured for Ts.Od. vJ -- ^J% The drains should be laid to a fall of V4" to a foot. The greatest care should be bestowed on properly trapping them; as, unless this is efficiently dime at the water-clos(^t and sink, it will be imposible to keep the air in a dwellhig house pure. The convenience of having a water-closet in the house is obvious; and, if properly trapped and the refuse is carried immediately off, it may be made as healthy as any other room. Privies shoidd be invariably tliscarded, and as much in the poor as in the rich man's house: the mere pits muler them, generally without enclosing brickw^ork, allow the contents to permeate the soil, and they are thus often found to drain themselves, the noxious gases escaping to the surface of the ground and contamina- ting the atmosphere around. The supply of water will of course depend on the locality. That collected on the roof shoidd be conveyed to a rain water -tank, and a well he sunk for hard water: in both cases the water may be either drawn up when required; or, what is better, a pump with a length of piping supplied, and placed, one out of doors and the other by the sink. Where there is a row of cottages, it is often found convenient to arrange one or more pumps to be used in common. It will be best to supply the cistern over the w-ater-closet by means of the pump, as the water from the roof may not be always sufficient for the purpose, and the necessary flushing of the drain is thus neglected. The mode of fitting it up will be described in the specification. Filters, attached to tanks, are expensive and often useless: every cottager should be supplied ■\\-ith a small filter for di-inldng water, and its cheapne.'js will always allow of. its adoption. VENTILATION AND WAEMING. "It is well observed by Mr Tondinson, in his excellent work on Warming and Ventilation, that, as no person woiUd consent habitually to swallow a small portion of lirpiid poison, know- ing it to be such, though diluted with a very large portion of pure water, so it is equally unwise to consent habitually to inhale a small portion of gaseous poison, knowing it to be such, though diluted with a very large portion of pure air; and yet this is what the majority . of persons actually do who occupy apartments unprovided with proper ventilating apparatus." The poor man requires fresh air as nmch as the rich, and we shall therefore make a few remarks on the subject. Every room in his hundde dwelling should be furnished with a distinct means of ventilation, and this should be considered an absolute necessity by all who wish to provide him a healthy home. It has been asserted that a sufficiency of fresh air always enters a i-oom through chinks in the doors and windows, but such is by no means always the case. Means should be supplied — (and this may be done very cheaply) — of admitting fresh air at a low level by cast iron air bricks and perforations in the skirtings covered with zinc (60 apertures to the squai'C inch to prevent draught), with other openings at or near the level of the ceiling, to allow of the escape of the vitiated ah" these latter may be covere'd with thin pieces of wood, bored with hides, or simple zinc valves, opening out- wards only: the inlets to be larger or more numerous than the exits, thus breaking up currents and draughts. It is of little use admitting fresh air through one opening, if there 98 DESIGNS FOR A PAIR OF MODEL COTTAGES. be not another for it to escape out of -when vitiated, and vice versa. When there is a fire in the room, the best exit is by means of a simple valve, or one of Dr. Arnott's ventilators leading into the flue a little below the ceiling level ; the valve, opening only into the chimney, allows the foul air to escape into the rapid draught, caused by the fii-e, and precludes the possibility of smoke entering the room. Dr. Ai-nott's contrivance may be purchased of plain iron for six shillings. In bed-rooms, a wood ventilator, as before described, is best placed flush with the ceiling, thus communicating direct into the roof space, which shoidd have a flow of ah- through it promoted by means of two or more air bricks, placed in the outer walls. Similar contrivances shoiUd be adopted at each floor; and the air, circulating below the ground floor joists, will tend materially to keep the buildiag diy. It may be laid down as a principle, to keep all fii'e-places and flues in interior walls, as then the heat is much more readily retained in the house, and the fuel economised. The open fire-place is so essential a comfort in the eyes of Englishmen, that Ave repudiate entirely any idea of recommending close stoves, as giving a higher degree of warmth, and being more economical in the working; and there is no occasion to urge the many objections against their use. The very sight of a cheerful fii-e and its enlivening light, casting antic shadows about the room, is, in itself, sufficient to revive the drooping spirits of the labom-er, just retiu'- ned, wet and wearied, from a hard and cold day's exertion. There are several varieties of ranges; the Derby range and that registered by Mr Nicholson of Newark are well known. We recommend a range with a small oven and boiler, as most convenient, and the price will allow of its introduction. The cooking range should be fixed in the scullery, as it is desirable to keep the living-room as clean and neat as possible; and in summer, the heat and steam arising from cooking operations is far from healthy or desu-able. Two, at least, of the thi-ee bed-rooms should be supplied with small stoves; and, when the arrangement of the rooms will allow of it, the method of heating two rooms by one fii'c, described by Savot and shown in the margm, may be applied. A is a plate of iron between the two, and if the flue in the room without a fire is closed, the fire in the opposite room will be fomid to heat the other tolerably well. Iron moveable fenders should be discarded, as liable to get out of place and be knocked about and damaged, and the hearth be siu-rounodcd with a fixed stone fender, which, witli the rounded breastwork and contracted opening, to faci- litate the ascent of the smoke, are also illustrated. ^ i 1 i CONSTRUCTION AND MATERIALS. The materials to be used in the construction will vary according to the part of tlie country in which the cottages are to be erected, as a long cartage will add materially to their cost. In some districts, stone will be found the cheapest, as well as the best material; and all we need liere remark is, to be careful so to place it after quarrying as to know wliich is the natural bed, and that it be placed upon it on the walls. Bricks arc of various kinds; stocks, place, first and second malms, red, white, etc. In the west of England roh wails are nnu'h used, and building en jnsf. may be adopted in most parts of the country. Building walls with timber is obviously undesirable on account of its liability to destruction by fii'c and damp; yet many old houses built with it, plastered over, have lasted for centuries: they shoidd be always raised on footings of brick or stone. The timber used will probably be that wliich is nearest at hand. It is recommended however not to cut .it before the tree has arrived at maturity, and, as soon as felled, it shoidd be laid up in some dry airy place, and as long a I'lcft PMW OF LAWiD ner 8 3c:n A. H P; DKSKINS FOR A V\\\l Ol' MODKL COTTAOES. 99 period as possililo ho allowed to elapse Lefore it is worked; as, if not properly seasoned, the efi'ects will be speedily visible after it is iixed: washing it with charcoal and water is a cheap mode of seasoning. Baltic, Scotch or American fir timber are generally used; that from Riga is decidedly the best imported; and the deals from Norway are most to be de- pended upon. Larch is excellent for building purposes; the Swiss cover their cottages with shingles made of it. If possible, the joists and plates next the ground should be of oak, as also the wood sills. WALL S. Mr. Loudon has fixed on 18 inches as the niininiuin thickness for external walls in this country, and they should certainly not be less than 1-i inches. If possible, they should be built with a hollow space of 2 or 3 inches in the centre, by wliich means a more equitable tem- perature is preserved in the cottage, and damp is avoided. A cheap y//p^y^ p^W /y^ „io(le of doing this was proposed by Mr. Loudon, and is illustrated v^ in the margin. He remarks, that "walls built in this way are hand- some on the fair side; at least equally strong as sohd walls; al- ways dry, and less easily penetrated by cold in wdnter, or heat in summer. The inner sur- face, being uneven, is peculiarly favourable for receiving, and retaining the plaster." Hollow bricks were employed in the erection of Prince Albert's Model Cottages, now in Kensington Park. These bricks assist ventilation, scciu-e warmth and dryness, prevent the passage of sound, are usually better dried and bm-nt than the ordinary stocks, and may be so laid, with glazed facing, as to obviate the necessity for plaster inside the house. In the description of Prince Albert's Houses, it is stated that, where "hollow bricks are obtainable at a fair price their use ouqJd to effect a reduction of about 25 per cent on the cost of the brickwork." We leave it to our readers to endeavom- to obtain them at this "fair" price. These bricks or ordinary bricks, bricknogged, arc best for internal walls. Rubble stone walling will be preferred in some districts; but the use of lie^vn stone out- side and rubble within shoidd be avoided, on account of then- diverse settlement. An excellent and economical wall may be formed of a rubble or concrete, composed of broken flint, stones and gravel, picked up in the fields, passed through a sieve of an inch mesh, and worked up about 12" in thickness with good grey lime. Flint walls are very durable; they are built up in frames on foundations of brick or stone work. Cob walls are made of moistened clay, mixed with water, and formed in frames in com-ses of about a foot in height; one course being allowed to dry and set before the next is laid on it. Mud walls are formed with clay, movdded in blocks, dried in the sun, and laid with mortar. Walls constructed en pt'sd are far more lasting than the two preceding, and they are built without mortar. In the environs of Lyons, this mode of building has long been practised, and it is described by Pliny, in his Natm-al History, as in use among the Romans. Strong earths, with a mixtiu-e of gravel, are most suitable to the purpose. The footmgs are formed of bricks or stones, and frames and planks are so fixed as to admit of the earth being thrown in and well ranmied for solidity and to force out the supei-fluous water; after which the planks are raised and another com-se formed; each being about 2 or 3 feet in height; the exterior may be either plastered or rough cast. These walls will be found astonishingly dm-able; they dry rapidly, can be executed in a short space of time; and the houses may be occupied almost unmediately after they are finished. F L It S. Boarded floors are decidedly the most comfortable and agreeable. Bricks, laid flat on diy rubbish and jointed in mortar arc cheap. In the midland counties, lime-ash floors are much 13* 100 DESIGNS FOR A PAIR OF MODEL COTTAGES. used. Lime ashes and sand, in tlie proportion of 1 to 3 are laid (if on joists, on reeds or laths,) about IV'2 or 2" thick and well-beaten and trowelled to a smooth sm-face: the mider- side may be plastered and whited, thus obviating the necessity for an additional lathed cei- ling. Stone floors — of ,Yorkshire stone for instance — will be found cheapest in some districts. A layer of concrete, G inches thick, tiled or cemented on the sm-face, forms a tii'st rate floor, uupervious by damp. Asphalte has been used, but it is not advisable on account of the effect of warmth upon it. Bi-icks laid thus, and tiled over, tend ^.^.^.^^ ^,„^,,.,,,^^^,,^ to prevent moisture rising. Three com-ses of tiles in cement, breaking ,,__^,^__^^,,^__^^ joints, may be used without joists for small bearings; and two courses ^5- r^f^sr-^-^^^^^ similarly laid on joists 2' 0" or 2' G" from centre to centre. When it is desu-able to have the upper part of a cottage fire-proof, arches rising 9 inches, and V.^ brick thick (best of hollow bricks) may be turned on small cast iron gu-ders about 5 feet apart, tied in with wrought iron rods, connected with cast iron springers; the underside may be plastered to form ceiUng and the floors boarded, cemented or tiled. Floors ought always to be laid with a sHght slope, to facilitate cleaning operations; and those next the ground elevated 9 inches or 1 foot above it. Skirtings should be invariably used. ROOFS. The roofs should be framed in the most simple and inexpensive manner; they ought to project from the walls as much as possible; and valleys, which retain decaying vegetable matter, are to be avoided. As much height as is convenient, should also be given to them, that the snow may be speedily dislodged, and the descent of the water, after heavy rains, facilitated. With reference to the coverings of roofs, the advantages of thatch are its cheap- ness and warmth , and it is , perhaps, of all coatings , that which is least liable to admit changes of temperatm-e. The disadvantages are its liability to take fii-e and rapidly consume, and also to become a harbour for insects and vermin; and it is not foiuid, in the end, to be economical: soaking it in alum water and size lessens its lia- bility to combustion. The diagram illustrates its apphcation, with wood gutters, wliich latter must be well painted. Slates form one of the best and, in the long run, cheapest coverings of roofs. They shoidd be nailed on fir laths, or Petersbm-gh red wood laths IV2' X V2" oi" %"• Tiling will be preferred in some districts, with either plain or pan-tiles. The latter, sometimes called Flemish tiles, have no holes for pegs, and are not suitable for very high pitched roofs; they are also very weighty and requii-e the supporting timbers to be of proportionate scantlmgs. Plain tiles have two holes in each tile, and are fastened by means of oak pegs or nails ; they are however heavy, but theii* appeai'ance is exceedingly pleasing, especially when laid in ornamental patterns ; and they form a durable and excellent covering. Ridge and hip tiles are generally 13 inches long and 16 girt: the valleys may be formed with circular valley tiles, whatever the covering material. An orna- mental tile cresting to the ridges is productive of a most pleasing effect, and adds but a trifling sum to the outlay. Zinc is a comparivcly new material for roofs in this country ; and, owing to its having generally been applied of insufficient thicloiess by incompetent workmen, it has been objected to by man}'. When, however, it is projjcrly fixed, of sufficient guage, it forms a durable and most economical external coating, and its lightness involves a considerable reduction in the cost of the timber framework: it may also be applied without any wood- work. A square of 100 feet of zinc, at 22 oz to the foot, (No. 14 guage) weighs 150 Wa; the same surface in Bangor Queen slates weighs 830 its; and, in plain tiles Pla PUBLIC DISPENSARY PLAN OF GROUND FLOOR DESIGNS VOll A I'AIK OF IMODKl, COTTAOKS. lOl 1900 "tts. Zinc is consequently o'/j times lighter than slates, and nearly 14 times lighter than tiles, in adtlition to the saving- by the lightness of the timbers and the supporting walls. As compared with lead, a sheet of zinc, of equal thickness to one of lead, is only two-tliirds the weight; its strength, or sustaining power, is four times that of lead, and the cost of tlie two materials, applied of the necessary comparitive weights, would b a saucepan to fit the cii-culai- top. Either coal or wood can be used. Another convenient, but more expensive cottage stove has been registered by Messrs Huxhams and Brown, of Exeter. The scidlery should also be provided wth a towel roller and an ironing board or table, hung on hinges, supported by iron or wooden legs, made to fold or remove^ and this may sometimes be so arranged as to lift up and form the shutter to -w-indow; the ii-on or wood leg serving as the shutter bar-. A pantry is an absolute requisite never to be omitted, or the food will be scattered about, become dii-ty and contaminate the au- of the rooms: the pantry shoidd not open out of the living-room or scidlery, but, if possible, from a passage separated from them. A cellar for wood and coals is necessary, and the water-closet should be attached to the house; as the inconvenience of 104 DESIGNS FOE A PAIR OF MODEL COTTAGES. its beiiio- fai- distant must be evident in cases of sickness, inclement weather, &c. A cistern must be provided over it, and supplied with water cither from the roof, or, what is better, by means of a pump. If a privy is substituted, it must bo placed at a distance from the house; and the receptacle for dust should be out of doors and kept covered. The living-room may be fitted with an ordinary firoplaoe; two, at least, of the three bed-rooms must have stoves; and one or more closets for clothes and linen shoidd be placed on the ujipcr floor. 8hutters are not absolute necessities, but may bo easily and economically fitted up; they certainly add to the warmth of rooms during the long winter evenings. The height of the floors shoidd be, at least, from 8 to 9 feet ; as low rooms are as unhealthy, as they are inconvenient and disagreeable. Two Designs are submitted, and on referring to them, they will be found in themselves sufficiently explanatory. It has been endeavom-ed to combine in the most convenient man- ner, without loss of space, all the accomodation above described. They are laid before the subscribers as most commodious and economical cottages of their class; and they may be erected either singly or in pairs. The various materials which can be used have been already described, and the locality will determine their appHcation. If erected in accordance with the following Specification, it is estimated that the pair can be built in the home counties for 1 220. If let at the rate of three shillings per week each, a retiuni of seven per cent will be obtained on the immediate outlay. Of course, if the proprietor makes his own bricks, cuts the timber on the estate, or the carriage of materials is but trifling, a deduction of 10 or 20 per cent may be made. SPECIFICATION. EXCAVATOR, BRICKLAYER, AND PLASTERER. Excavate the groimd to the requisite depth; level and well ram the same as the works are brought up. All the bricks to be the best, hard, wellburnt stocks, laid Flemish bond, the most uniform in color to be selected for the external facings, and the hardest and best bm-nt for the footings. The mortar to be composed of grey lime, mixed with clean, sharp river sand in the proportion of 1 to 3. Throughly bond together the brickwork; no fom* courses to exced one foot in height; bed and point all door and window frames; tm-n arches over all openings with carefully cut skewbacks ; and keep the external pointing neat, close and pai'allel ; 'build fonder walls, half brick trimmers, and dust places; and brick- nog partitions on upper and gromid floors; carefully form flues 14" X9", and core and parget the same; bed all wall ])lates and lintels; build ovens and coppers with hard picked bricks; the former to have V2 bricks arch over; case the inside with fire bricks, and provide them also to copper, where exposed to the action of the fu-e; also provide rounded bricks to both. Fix 12 cast iron air bricks to each cottage where directed. Lay over the whole surface of the walls, 6 inches above the ground level, a layer of gas tar, mixed with sand to prevent damp rising. Pave the scullery, coal cellar and W. C. with stock bricks, laid in mortar, on a layer of dry, well rammed rubbish. The eaves and gables to be finished with rounded bricks, as in the margm; and insert chamfer bricks to doors and windows, and finish chim- neys as shown. Stoneware tubular drains, 4 and 5 inches di'ameter, properly trapped; and with a fall of V4" to a foot, to lead from sinks and W. C. to manm-e tanks, constructed, as shown in the diagram before given, of brickwork and Yorkshii-e stone; and the size of which is to depend on whether or not the same tank is to serve tor both cottages. A rain water-tank and a well are also to be formed, the size of the former to depend on the same contingency. The water-tank is to be executed in 9 inch work in cement, and x.o>:^ ?Y< ria/e 2.y FREE HO t@ AlilLQTWENTS SECTION or ROADS =7^ L e n cZ DESIGNS FOR A PAIR OF J[ODEL COTTAOES. 105 the interior rendered with piu-c Roman cement IV4" thick; !t" insert bottom and domed top, and I York cover-stone to manliole 2' ,, 3" diameter, witli Awought iron flush ring, screw and tlusln-ing complete: conduct the water in 4" stoneware drains. Tlio well is to be steined in Yj bi-ick, with covering similar to tank: it may be four feet in diameter. The quoins and dressings are to be executed in Rmnan cement to a floated face, V2 cement and '/a sand, and to be not less tlian %" in tliickness. Elxecute the internal ))lastcring with well burnt chalk lime, clean sand and strong haii-; the laths to be lath and half laths, nailed at both ends with cast iron nails. Render and set for paper the internal walls, and white ceilings of living rooms, pantries and chamber floors: the remainder are not to be lathed; but the joists and boards limewhited; also the underside of stairs. Limewhite twice the sculleries, coal cellars, pantries and W. C. Put cement skirtmgs 4" wide to sctUleries, and W. C. MASON. The door steps to be of tooled York stone 14" X<>", and (3" longer than the respective openings, morticed for door posts. The landing at front entrance to be 4" thick, of the size shown , pinned into wall , with chamfered corner. The sills to windows to be of Tooled York 2 V2 thick, laid with a slope under oak sill, and to be 4" wider than openings. The chinuiey, pieces to be all of Wilkinson's artificial stone; those to the bed rooms, G shillings each; the remainder 10 shillings each. The hearths to be of York stone, 1 foot longer than openings, and eighteen inches wide, with fixed stone chamfered fenders around, 4 '4" high and 3" thick (see diagram ante). Sink stones of the size shown, 7" thick and 4" deep, perforated and rebated for 4" bell travis. SLATER. Cover the roofs witli Bangor Coimtess slating, on %" battens, IVa wide, nailed with com- position nails, with 2'4 lap: cement filleting next chimneys and walls. Cover the ridge hips, and valleys with ridge, hip and valley tiles jointed in cement. CARPENTER AXD JOINER. ' " ■ ' The oak to be English; the Fir, Memel, and the deals Christiana; all of good hearty qua- lity. Get out the timbers of the scantlings, and frame and put them together in the manner showTi and described. Lintels over all doors and endows, 4^^" ^^eep and 18" longer than openings. Provide all necessary fir bricks, battening for slates, fillets, etc. and no joists and rafters to exceed 12" apart. The roofs to have rafters and ties 4^^" X 3", halved and pinned together, ridge valley and hip pieces 7" „ X I'a", and plates 4" X 3'4"- The roofs over entrance to be framed as shown , with rafters 4" X 2 V2", upper plate secured to wall 5" X 2V2", lower plate 9 X 3"; the supporting brackets housed into walls. Inch Yellow deal gutters, edges shot, on proper bearers, laid to a fall, and 9" wide at the narrow- est part. The joists on groitnd floor to be 4'//' X2V4"; on chamber floor 7" X 2',4" with trimmers and trimming joists V2" thicker; plates 4" X 3". The flooring to be inch Yellow deal straight joint; that over sculleries and offices to be inch V4- ploughed and tongued with hoop ii-on. The skirtings to li^-ing rooms, lobbies, pantries and bed rooms to be ^ 4" Yellow deal 41/2" wide. The staircases to have 1" treads, ^i" risers, 1" string boai-ds, firmly bracketted, glued and blocked; deal turned newel and handrail 2'/2"X2", with inch square balusters, where requisite; %" lining round trimmer. The closet shown, to be inclosed -rtdth IV2" deal, square framed, wdth similar door, hung on 2'4" butts, with n-on tm-nbuckle: two steps of 74" deal where indicated. The W. C. to have inch deal scat and riser, on beai-ers, with holes cut for handles, and 2V2" narrow skirtings round seats, with detd cover. The dwarf closets in li^nng rooms to have IV4" square framed doors, hung on 2" butts, with a small lock: fix witliin a shelf of inch deal, and two narrow shelves above for books. The 106 DESIGN FOR A PAIR OF MODEL COTTAGES. SILL. bed-room closets to be similar, himg on 2Va" butts, with iron tiu-nbuckles. The cisterns to be the size of the W. C. and 2' „ 0" deep, of V/^ in, deal, wrought, ploughed, tongued and dovetailed; each to have one '/a" wrought u-on bolt; fix strong bearers. Provide di-essers to li^dng -rooms with shelves, pot boards and drawers; fix inch V4 shelves in pantries; inch Va clamped u-oning boai'ds and frames, made to let down, covers to coppers, and lodged covers huno' on cross gai'net hinges to dust bins, and all incidental fittings. Seats fitted by the front entrance. The front and back entrance doors to be IV2" thick, framed, cross -braced and himg with wrought u'on sti'ap hinges to rebated frames 4V2" X 3"; stock locks, 9" bolts and good thumb - latches. The door frames to W. C. to be similar, with transom 41/2" X ^Va'S and additional doors above to get at cisterns, which doors and those below are to be %"> rebated and beaded, himg with 18" cross-garnets, and to have latch fastenings, with small bolts to W. C: cut holes in doors for ventilation. The remaining doors to be IV4" fom-- panel, square framed, himg on 3" butts to IV4" rebated and double rounded linings; each door to have a latch and the pantry doors to have 6 inch iron rim locks. The whole of the windows to have solid fii* framed, rebated, chamfered and beaded frames 4V2" X 3 Va"? with inch V4 sashes and zinc divi- sions, hvmg on 2V2" butts, with proper stay hooks and hook and eye fastenings: The sills to be of oak4V2X4", properly weathered, with galvanized iron water bars. One half of the pantry window is to be filled in with perforated zinc. Attach, flush ^vith the ceiling of each bed- room, a wood ventilator, one foot square, pierced with holes. Dr. Arnott's chimney valves of plain iron, to be fixed in living rooms and sculleries. Commvmicatiug mth each air brick, either in the skirtings or elsewhere, a piece of perforated zinc (GO apertures to the square inch) is to admit the fresh ail-. PLUMBER. A pump, with inch Va suction pipe from well, is to be placed where convenient, if one will suffice. A force pump to be fixed in each scullery by the side of sink, with a length of inch Va pipe from tank: the water is to be forced to the cisterns through an inch pipe, with an Va" notice pipe brought back to sinlvs : line the cisterns with 6 W lead. Supply W. C. by V4" sei-vice, with brass cocks, and fit them with stoneware closet pans, with white internal glaze, and properly trapped. The sinks to have 4" brass grate and bell traps and 2V2" waste pipes delivering into di-ains. The gutters to be laid with 6 W lead, vdih a proper fall, and 4 stocket pipes into heads of rain water pipes. SMITH. The stoves to be all selected (see ante). Provide coppers in sculleries with proper fittings to these and ovens, and 12 air bricks to each cottage. 4" eaves gutters and six 3" down pipes, with heads of a gothic pattern; properly connect the ends with the drains. Fix- u-on gratings to windows of coal cellars. PAINTER, GLAZIER AND PAPER-HANGER. Paint the whole of the woodwork and ironwork where seen, exce})ting only imdersides of ceilings, foiu- times in good oil colors; tlie woodwork being pre\iously thoroughly stopped and knotted, and the rust on ironwork cleaned off. Glaze the windows with Crown glass, well puttied and left perfect. Paper the whole of the internal walls, except those of the scullery and offices, with good common paper of two coloiu-s; the colours to be well toned down, and the p.attei-ns simple, and without pretension; all representations of natm-al objects to be avoided. Edward L. Tarbuck. S)£iJ^!RlS /S>fi A f AJfi ®? Hvy£)2L 5.fi)T-J'A©X5, Pio/^ 3.i. rOR l*BOURERS. MECHANICS B-c f IR< © Ni T EI L E Y A T 1. © N! Scale of Fei DESIGN FOR A GENTLEMAN'S VILLA. 107 PLATE 37. Plate 37, is a design for a Gentleman's Villa, containing 14 large and convenient rooms, ■with the requisite offices. The ground floor is to be raised 2' „ G" above the ground level, and a course of Va" slate slabs, 1 foot above the ground, will effectually prevent damp rising. The remaining eleva- tions are to be decorated in a similar manner to the principal front. The roof over the tower is to be covered with Vj inch slate slabs, and the other roofs with zinc, with rolls, as indicated. The roof beliind the ballustrade may be constructed as a flat; the door opening on to it to be over the end of the passage space on ground plan. If a sloping roof be adopted, cover it with Countess slating; if a flat, it may be covered mth zinc or lead. The fire-places in Drawing and Dining rooms may be easily sliifted, and foldmg doors in- troduced. The offices may also be placed behind the Scidlery, and their place occupied by a Breakfast-parlor. A small stau'case, or step-ladder with handi-ail, leads to the upper part of tower, which may, if preferable, be glazed in, and thus form, in winter as well as in summer, an agreeable prospect-room. The groiind and fii-st floor to be 11 feet in height; the second floor to be 10' „ 6". The house is to be erected of stock bricks; the dressings to the windows, quoins etc. to be run and moulded in Roman or other cement. Fir timber and Chi-istiana deals are recom- mended, and the joists and plates next the ground should be of British oak. The principal windows to be glazed with plate glass, and the remainder with sheet or Crown glass. The offices to be twice limewhited; the Hall and Passage to be finished with trowelled stucco, flat- ted drab or grey, and the remaining rooms to be papered. Cornices to the principal rooms. The cost of this house, if erected and finished in the manner above indicated, the fittings, mouldings and finisliiugs being kept moderately plain, ^vill be mader i 1500. The amoimt for wlfich it woixld let will of com-se be entirely dependent on the locality. TWO SEMI-DETACHED SEVEN -ROOJIED HOUSES. PLATK 38. Is the Plan and Elevation, of two semi-detached seven-roomed houses. The elevations may be carried up in brickwork, wath Bath or Caen stone di-essings to the doors and win- dows; or the dressings and all the ornamental work may be finished in Portland cement. The roofs are to be slated; the valleys to be laid with 5 W lead, and all the ridges to have saddle-ridge ornamental tiles. The accommodation afforded is as follows: — On the ground floor An entrance porch b' „ o" X o' „ b" Passage , and staircase ^''' ?> ' X o' „ b A coal cellar under the stairs. A front parlor - 15' „ 0" X 14' „ 0" ' AT- 1^' fi" >4^ 14' 0" A drawing room lo „ u .?^ xt „ u These two rooms are connected by means of folding doors. A store room b' „ X 4 „ b A kitchen 14' „ 0" X 10' „ 6" Pantry 6' „ 0" X 5' „ 6" A water closet. The upper or bed -room floor, comprises. A front bed-room 15' „ 0" X 14' „ 0" u» 108 DESIGN FOR VILLA RESIDENCES. A back bed-room 15' „ 6" X 14' „ 0" A bed-room over the kitchen 10' „ 6" X 10' „ 0" Ditto. Ditto _ 10' „ 6" X 10' „ 0" A linen room over the porch. The height of the ground floor is ten feet in the clear; that of the bed-room floor ten feet six inches, but ciu'ved all round cii'cular, and bracketted out to cover the rake of the rafters. The rafters must have strong collar beams 7 inches by 2Va"j well-secured to the rafters at each end; and to the rafter, the bi-ackets of the cove of the arc to ceilings are to be firmly nailed. The scanthngs of the timbers for this erection may be as foUows. Floor joists on ground floor 4" X 3"; bond timber and wood bricks 4" X S'/Vi — plates 4" X 3" : lintels 9" X 3" — ; upper floor joists 8" X 2" ; roof plates 4" X 4" ; collars or ceil- ing joists 7" X IV4; rafters 4" X 2"; valley boards 9" X 2"; ridge boards 7" by V/^." The doors to be panelled; the windows to be French Casements and glazed with the best sheet or crown glass; and the whole of the work may be finished, and the two Houses completed for habitation for the smn of i 700. DESIGN FOR VILLA RESIDENCES. PLATE 39. Plate 39 contains plans and an elevation of two semi-detached nine-roomed villa residences with conservatories. They may be erected of Bricks, or stone; of bricks %vith stone facings; or of bricks with the quoins, facings, cornices, and all the ornamental works finished in either Roman or Portland cement. Each house has the following accommodation. On the Basement, — A coal cellar 8' „ 0" X 4' ., 6" A wine cellar 9' „ 0" X 4' „ 6" A beer cellar 9' „ 0" X 4' „ 0" A passage to area, and kitchen, entrance 15' „ 0" X 3' ,, 0" A pantiy 8' „ 0" X 6' „ 0" A kitchen 15' „ 0" X 15' „ 0" A breakfast room 15' „ 0" X 14' „ 0" The height of the basement, is nine feet. There is a roomy closet mider the stairs; also a water clo- set, outside the main building. On the ground Floor, — A spacious entrance hall, and stakcase, and water closet. A dining room 15' „ 0" X 15' „ 0" A drawing room (clear of the bay window) 18' „ 0" X 15' „ 0" and which opens by means of glass doors, on each side of the fii-e place, into a conservatory 17' „ 0" X 9' „ 0" The di-awing, and dining rooms, communicate by means of folding doors, and the glass doors •of the Conservatory being hung by lifting hinges, when they are removed and the folding doors thrown open, a very commodious suite of rooms is obtained. This story is ten feet, six inches in heiglit. The principal bed-room floor, comprises tlu-ec large bed- rooms ten feet liigh, and the roof will admit of three very roomy attic bed-rooms. The probable cost of the pair of houses, if erected of stock bricks with Roman cement dressings will be £ 1800. The consen'atory could be erected and fitted complete for about t 150. additional. It is to bu glazed with sheet glass. flale .iO pigods^ B^sKA^iDTm©! Kiga[B)[iM(gg Ij © g = i;L,lVA,TI| SteTtON C. D 10 S . o Scale of Fee 109 THE CAUSES AND REMEDIES OF SMOKY CHIMNEYS. It is hai-dly possible to overrate, the inconvenience, annoyance and luihealtliiness caused by the smoke of chimneys entering and filling an apai'tment, instead of passing up the flue. There is hardly one practical jom-nal circulating in the land which does not contain, frequent applications from its subscribers, complaiiiing of the nuisance, and asking what is likely to be the most effectual remedy. And it is equally true that cures out of number are suggested, applied and set on one side as ineffectual, one after the other, until despair is the result of the expense and trouble incurred. One great cause of disappointment may be set down to the cii-cumstance that one remedy is presumed to be appropriate to all in- stances, whereas, in fact, in the pathology of smoky chimneys, as in medicine, there are rarely two cases which admit of precisely the same mode of cui'e. We see advertised, almost as often as pills and nostrmus for all human disorders, notices of chimney - cappings, cowls, patented inventions &c. &c. for the tops of flues wdth the consoling and hopeful heading, — "no more smoky chimneys", as if these were invariable remedies and were not, in fact, limited to a few predisposing causes. The belief in then- universality is a gi-eat mistake, and, as a general rule, it is better to commence operations at the fireplace, where the smoke is formed, rather than chmb to the roof and begin thirty or fortj- feet from the starting point of the annoyance. A chimney may be briefly defined as a passage for carrying off into the external atmo- sphere the smoke from a fire in a room or elsewhere. TheLr extensive application is of modern date. They do not appear to have been common in Egypt, Greece and Rome, and the warmth of the climate would, to a certain extent, obviate their absolute necessity. Pal- ladio mentions two; one at Baia, and another near Civita Vecchia, standing in the middle of the rooms , the smoke being conveyed off by means of funnels ; and Scamozzi cites three different kinds. The Italians have laid claun to the invention of chimneys, and it is certain they were in use at Padua before 1308; for Francisco da Carrara, the celebrated and courageous lord of Padua, on arriving in Rome in that year, and finding no chimneys in the inn, had two constructed, and which are supposed to be the first ever seen in the eternal city. Venice is remarkable to this day for the pictu- resque forms of its chimneys; we insert some examples sketched on the spot: an inscription over the gate of the school of Santa Maria della Carita, states that in 1347, a great many were thrown down by the shock of an earth- quake. In England there are earlier instances. Rochester castle, probably Corbyl, cii'ca 1130, contains flues which in the walls, with exits at the back as years after, flues were carried up above .CH\MNtY5 + VENICE. the work of W. go a few feet up indicated. Some the roofs, as in Sherborne castle and the keep at Newcastle. In the fifteenth century, the shafts were clustered, thus; but cliimneys cannot be considered as having been generally used in this country until the carUer portion of the sixteenth cen- tury; the smoke from fii-es pre\dously escaping through louvres or other openings. "One chjnnley of stone, and for the tryng no abowte the seyde, cliymley" is found iu an old account of Dm-hara castle, 1544. In Tudor' architectui-e , chimney shafts are most beautiful features; and in Queen Elizabeth's days, it was usual to apologize to visitors, expecially ladies, if there were no chimneys provided to their rooms. It thus appears they were not then generally applied to private houses, although used for many trade pm-poses. The principle, on which the effective action of a chimney depends is, that the air within being heated and rarified, its specific gravity is lessened and the weight, of the column within the flue being less than that without, the heated air ascends in proportion as this is the case, and is replaced by the colder air rushing in from the fire-place opening to supply its place, carrying up with it the smoke, or particles of culm, resulting from combustion. Now, in illustration of that law in physics, that the air and all gases increase in bulk in proportion to the rise of temperature, Gay Sussac found that 1000 cubic inches of ah- at 32^ increases to 1375, or Vs oi the original bulk, at 272'\ the temperature of boihng water; which will be found to be 20V6 parts in 10,000 for 1". To ascertain the rate of ascent in flues, we first obtain the temperatm-e of the cohuun of air within, or rather the mean of the heat at the top and bottom, and then apply Jlontgolfier's formula: — "ascertain the difference in height between two equal columns of an- when one is heated to a certain temperature, the other being the temperature of the external air, and the force of the draught, or the rate of efflux, is equal to the velocity that a heavy body would acquire by falling freely through this difference of height." This is prociU'ed by multiplying the fall in feet by 64, and taking the square root of the product. An allowance being made for friction, iu pro- portion as it exists. The above is the rationale of the action of chimneys. Dr. Franklm observes in his celebrated letter to Dr. John Ingenhouss of Vienna, that some think smoke is lighter than air, and others that there is a power in chimneys to draw up smoke, when, in fact it is the superior weight of the sm-rounding atmosphere that presses to enter the funnel below, and so drives up the smoke. That smoke is not lighter than air may be easily proved: light a pipe of tobacco, put a cloth over the bowl and plunge the stem into a basin of water, then make the smoke descend in the stem of the pipe by blowing through it; it wiU rise in bubbles through the water and being cooled will spread itself and rest on the surface of the water, instead of rising. Its specific gi-avity is therefore greater than that of air, and it is only when rarified that it becomes lighter. The object of the chimney being to ccmvey the smoke from the fire, the first requisite is that the draught of the air should be from the bottom to the top, and this is to be obtained by properly constructing the channel and tlie openings above and below, and supplying a sufficiency of fresh air at the base of the structure. Where wood is bm-nt, the great size of the fireplace and flue, interfere but slightly in a large room with the ascent of the smoke, but when coal is introduced the cu'cumstancos are different. The smoke from coals was deemed an intolerable nuisance when the material was first introduced. In ISOli, a petition was presented to the king of England, to prohibit its use in the city of London; a measure was shortly afterwards passed making the burning of it within the city a cajiital ofi"ence; and, iu the reign of Edward I, a man was actually executed for thus oft'endiug, to the horror of coal merchants at least. Ladies woidd not eat meat cooked by coal fires; they thought, and are now sometunes justly of opinion, that it injured their complexions. In Queen Elizabeth's Parliament, a motion was made. — ■ "Tliat many dyers, brewers, smiths, and other artificers of London, had of late, taken to the use of pit -coal for then* fires in- stead of wo(jd, which filled the air with noxiovis vapours and smoke, very prejudicial to the health, particularly of poisons coming out of the country," and moving. "That a law be passed to prohibit the use of such fuel (at least during the session of Pai-fiameut) hy these artificers." "Rare Ben Jonson," in his kindness of heart abstained from the use of coal ^ ©©OKlTiRY IHl@ySlE /'/ L©NiefiTy©iNiAL Section. Chamse^. Flam 'U ' S 7 ff i * 3 X / p J^ Jg= 30 Ill while entertaining friends as carefully as we now consider a good lire an indispensable mark of attention to tlieni in cold weather. Fireplaces are generally made from 2' or 2" „ (5" to 3' or 4' in width, and 2' „ 6" or 3'„0" in height. If these dimensions are not sufticiently large, it is better to have two fireplaces, as well to secure the ascent of the smoke as from the furnace -Hke appearance of one, 5 or G feet broad; and two iireplaces will warm a large room better than one. Dr. Franklin truly observes, that "architects in general, have no other ideas of proportion in the opening of a chimney than what relaces to symmetry and beauty respecting the dimensions of the room; whilst its true proportion, respecting its function and utility, depends on quite other principles; and they might as properly proportion tlie step in a stau-case, to the story, instead of the natural elevation of mens legs in mounting." He goes on to remark on the prejudice still existing in favor of lai-ge chimney openings, and ventm-es to hope that "in time, perhaps, that which is lifted to the nature of things, may come to be thought hand- somest. And there are some I know so bigoted to the fancy of a large noble opening, that, rather than change it , thay would submit to have damaged fm-niture, sore eyes , and skins almost smoked to bacon.' The flue must taper backwards from the fireplace in a conical and gradually ciuwed form without projections, and bends in the passage will prevent the wind blowing the smoke directly do\^ni. Tlie smaller to some extent the flue and the greater its heiglit, that the column of heated air may be lengthened and the influence of the wind extend a proportionately shorter distance, the more rapid will be the draught, pro\'ided a sufficiency of cold air is supplied at the bottom. Flues are generally made too large, 14" X 9" being the regular routine size, without the slightest reference to the extent of the fii'cplace and the apartment; the dimensions being adhered to mechanically, because it is customary, not on accoimt of any scientific principle. But, on the other hand, if the fiuinel is too narrow to allow an easy passage to the top, the smoke will naturally escape into the room. The flues may generally be made about 12" square above tlie throat of the chimney; or the ai-ea of the horizontal section of the flue should be equal to the horizontal section of the fti-e, and this is larger than is needful if the flues are circular and quite smooth. Mr. Tredgold gives this rule for calculating the size of the aperture of the chimney: — "Multiply by 17 the length of the fireplace, in inches, and dix'ide by the square root of the height of the chimney (above the grate) in feet; and the quotient is the area in inches for the aperture of the chimney" All horizontal channels, by allowing the cold air to hang about, tend to cool the flue and lessen the draught, and it is thus easily driven back by gusts of wind. Tliis is, of all kinds of smokiness, that which is most teazing, as every little puff of wind sends a corresponding pufl^ of smoke into the room when least expected. The ail- should, if possible, pass through the fin-e, or very near the fuel, so as to lift the smoke directly up; and we thus ' perceive the evil of a very high opening, by which the air enters the flue, without reference to the fire, entangles the warm air in the channel and prevents it becoming sufficiently heated. The fireplace opening must not, therefore, be much higher than the grate, and all mixture of the warm aii- above the fii-e, and about the throat of the chimney will necessarily cause sluggislmess in the ascent. Having made these general ramarks on the subject, we will next proceed to state in a little order the causes and remedies of smoky chimneys, and the fallacy of one single specific prescription for the very many causes of the disease, M'ill be sufficiently evident. Before doing so, we have only to state that when we say a chimney smokes, we mean that it smokes m the wrong direction and that ■s\hen it draws, it draws in the ricjht direction. 1. One of the most ordinary predisposing occasions of smoke entering a room instead of passing up the chimney is a deficiency of fresh air* from the direction of the 112 apartment, to supply the iire aud aid the draught. The consequence is, that the requisite air comes dotim instead of going nj} the flue , bringing the smoke with it and reversing its proper direction. The largeness of a room is no argument whatever to show there is a sufficiency of an* for the fire, as it cannot spare a chimney full of it ■\\'ithout causing a vacuum. Fireplaces most usually smoke in the wrong direction in new huilt houses, m which the wainscotting, the joints of the flooring and the doors and windows all fit with accuracy, perfectly true and tight, and the walls, not being dry, preserve a dampness which swells wood-work and keeps it close. And as, according to the present scientific method of building, means are rarely provided for ventilation, the chimney is actually the sole means of suppying air to the apartment; and so fully are many aware of this fact that they will not sleep in a room miprovided with a fireplace. Or, in old houses, tho doors and windows are listed, a mat covers the bottom of the door, sandbags keep out the enemy at the windows, and even the keyhole is stopped. The term "aerophobia" was well applied by Franklin to this dread of fresh air. And is it sm'prising, that, under such cir- cumstances, the fire should discharge its smoke into the room; is it consistent A'V'ith science that it shoidd not do so? The room may, in fact, be compared to the exhausted receiver of an air pmup, and from whatever direction an opening is made, the vacuxmi will be speedily filled. The first questin is to ascertain the quantity of air requisite to admit into the room to make the fire smoke in the proper direction. This may be obtained, when the fire is burning well, by opening the door more or less so as to admit the necessary supply and observing the width of the aperture. If this is half an inch in a door 8 feet high, it will be equal to an opening 8" X ^"- Di'- Frankhn observes that a hole G" square is a good medium size for most fireplaces. The next difficidty is where to place tliis opening. M. Gauger proposed to admit the fresh air above the chimney opening, first warmed by circiUatiug round the back of the stove; and there can be no doubt of the value of tliis recommendation. If the aperture is placed in the door, the privacy of the room is interfered with ; if over the window, cold air is liable to fall on the heads of all near. It may however be placed over the door or windo-w, or in the skirting, aud covered with perforated zinc of ornamental design, which, if it has about 70 apertures to the square inch, Mall eflfectually prevent fh-aught. If t^^■(>, three, or mon! openings are made, the currents will l)e cut up and divided, and draught entu-ely obviated. As to the objection of fresh an- coohng the room, it has been seen that it must be admitted somewhere, and, as before , described , it can be introduced in a heated state. The rush of air towards fireplaces was objected to on the first introduction of chimneys. "Nw we have many cliimnyes, yet our tenderlyngs complain of rheums, catarrhs, and poses, then had we nothing but reredosses (open hearths) and yet our heads never did ache." *) A plan which obviates entirely any draught is to have an air duct appropriated to the fire alone and immediately under alid in front of it, thus supplying it independently of the air in the room. This may be done in the manner illustrated in the margin : A is a cast u"on box, with openings at the side, for the admission of air, and with a close iron grating at the top for its escape in the direction of the fire. This grating is made to remove so as to allow of cleaning out of the box; the grating should be too close to allow any lighted fragments to pass it, and the openings at the side of the box, should for the same reason, be small perforations ; but the strong rush of au- in the direction of the fire would prevent any sparks falling in. The air is to be conducted to this box either i:)7o. -^SJJS^SSS^^^^'-^^ *) Holinshed's Chronicle, vol. I. Fiatt y BRICKWORK FOOTINGS Jig 5. 1 — 1 — L_. — 1 1 i t: 1 ; Fig ; I 1 1 1 i 1 Mg.y. Fig.S. Fig. 9 Tig. JO. 1 1 . \ ii II 1 \ ) i 1 1 'I 1 1 ! 1 II 11 ii 1 1 ; 1 1 / THE CAUSr.S AND liKMEDIES OF SMOKY CHISINEVS. 113 in inctal tubing ov between tlic jiiistn of (he tltioring, one or more east ii'on air bricks being inserted in 'the outer wall. The ailvantage of this expedient will be at oni'e pcrecived. TJiere is no demand made on the air in the apai'tment, the fire is fully and independently supjilicd, and the rush of air will be found so great that it will be perfectly impossible for the smoke to resist it and pass into the room. All openings at the back of the fireplace, and in the flues have usually precisely the contrary effect to that intended, and register stoves should be built, close behind, not leaving the smallest crevice for the air to escape upv/ards without pa.ssing through the fire. 2. A second cause of smoky chimneys arises from the funnel licing loo short, the ascending current not having then sufficient power to force the smoke up. ^Vttic chimneys and those to low kitchen buildings are peculiarly liable to smoke into the rooms. When the air rushes up a long fine, it gains such a I'orce that it requires a proportionately greater one to drive it back; but in the cases above mentioned this force can seldom be obtained, and if the flue be built high above the roofs, it will in all probability be blown down, unless firmly steadied by iron rods. In low buil- dings Dr. Franklin recommends, ''the building two or more funnels joining to the first, and having three moderate openings, one to each funnel, instead of one large one. When there is occasion to use but one, the other two may be shut by sliding plates."' The more usual remedy is to con- tract the lower opening and lower the breast, so as to oblige the entering air to pass through the fii-e, by which means it will be very highly rarefied, cause a strong draught and thus make up for the shortness of the fine. There are two modes of contracting the lower chimney opening, viz. by lessening that he/ore the fire, and the one above the fire. If the former is done, the draught will be moi-e powerfid, and a greater amount of coals wiU be consumed; and if the latter, it vfiH be the reverse; for less air passes through the fire; the same as if we lessen both openings, if the upper one is contracted most in proportion. If also a garret chimney is a little turned and the flue made smaller instead, as is usually the case, of the same size as the others, it will be found --i|— ij i , .. . , to be nearly as efficient as the larger flues. An earthenware or metal chimney ^M0'\ %^^ cajiping may be added at the top. The spiral tube invented by Mr. Fenners and shown in the margin, will be found eftectual in many cases. A flue may be decreased in size, see diagram, and the heated air in the outer chamber will also assist the draught. Flues already built, may be easily lessened by passing up them earthenware socket jointed piphig, or metal tubing, if it is expedient to go to the rc(|uisi(e expense. The practice of turning one flue into another from a lower level, is nmch to bo deprecated, as the length of the shorter one can only be reckoned from the place whore it enters the longer, and the latter is also shortened by the diftcrcnco l)ctwccn the point of junction and the top: either afresh portion of flue nnist be constructed, or the junction closed; which latter will prevent the return of the smoke into the higher room, when driven back by a gust of wind. The flue may also be in the contrary extreme, too long, and the heat of the ascending cun-ent being too distributed the whole will cool down; but this circumstance rarely occurs, and the plain remedy is to shorten the funnel, or lessen its horizontal section. '?,. A third cause of smokinoss in rooms is, when the tops of the flues arc commanded by higher buildings or by an eminence or hill, so that the wind blowing o\or thorn falls suddenly down, like water over a dam, — sometimes almost per[)endicularly on the io|is of rlio chinmeys, boating down the smoke as fast as it rises. 'J"he first remedy is to raise the funnels ai)ove these 15 1 I 4 THE LA1.1.SE8 AND KEMEDIES OF SJIOKY CHIMNEYS. eminences ; but as this canudt always be done, on account of tlicir great lieight, a turneuj) of zinc, iron or \nother invention of cipial merit, is a chimney cap oi' metal externally grooved in a scries of spiral curves up the pipe, which end in a kind of mout!i-i)icce from whence the smoke issues. The winil, \vlnii impelled against this ai)paratus, is supposed to take somewhat of the direction of the spiral grooves, and thus to i'orm an upward current to assist in the emis- sion of liie smoke. In casting one's eye down the long streets of a smoky city, in taking a sm-vey oi' the roof!- und their toniK^ntcd cliiiimeys, the infinity oi' other contrivances is so great, that it is .scarceiv a ])oetical hyperbole to say our pen starts back from it. Here is i)atent upon patent, sdieme ai'tcr scheme, each doing its best, no doubt, to ol)tain the mastery over that simple thhig, smoke; and cacii witli a degree of success of a very liopclcss amount. 'I'licic ;ip|)ears to me something intensely hulicrous in tiiesc struggles against what seems to be an absurd, but an invincible ioc; the very element of whose success hes in our not strangling him at iiis birth. Many obstacles are in tiie way no douI)t: tliiie arc obstacles in the way of every good; luit I have little doubt, that hiid the ]ierverted ingeniiity wliicli has mis-spent itscli' upon the cliimiicy-pots been directed to the fireplace, we might now have had a diirciciit tale to tell. The smoke miisance is laughed at as a minor evil, by a great practical pcopii' like oiiiscKcs, who herocially make up otir minds to jnu up with it; but when it is considered as an item in the coiiii'ort, cleanliness, and health oi' a whole nation, it assinnes, or should ass c, a diU'crcnt [lositioii." EJESU^IKl FOR ^ (iJlii) XlTiSili/li. WiQlilii/liJ'J >i>i jPlaU i F^i @ lf~VV\.V Chamber, Flan •the causes and i;i;mi;i)Ies of smoky chimneys. 115 4. The form of tlie top of the (liiiiiiuy iu:iy, ioiirtlily, 1)C nicntioncd as greatly infliienciiifr tlie passage of smoke. If liiglily (Hiiainciited, as in instanees of some Italian, and more so in Tudor shafts clustered togctlier, (he ornaments ser\e as points of resistanee and to retleet the wind down tlie flue; tlie wind also beating against them and stopped in its progress, rises up and passes over the openings, so that tlie smoke is unahle to get out. In calm weather, we •see the smoke rising in a coiunm slowly curling round, hut if a violent hlast passes over the top of the flue, the ascentional force oi' the smoke is .suddenly suspended, and some of the wind will ini]>ress on part of the side of the flue, and thus i-endcr inipossilile its free discharge. In Venice, the chinmey tops are the most remarkable and striking in the world, and many ol' them arc I'ounded in the true form of a funnel, the opening being somewhat of an inverted cone. The reader is referred to the diagrams before given; the example covered over is suitable for a situation commanded by higher buildings. !"). A room with no fire in it will sometimes he suddenly filled with smoke from another chim- ney in use. To understand this phenomenon, it must be remembered that currents of air in flues are often produced indejicndcntly of the influence and action of fires. The air in a flue, being enclosed and shut up as it were, is not instantly affected by any sudden alteration in the tempe- rature of the atmosphere without. The brickwork is a very bad conductor of heat; and thus, as the weight of the air witiiin the channel is more or less than that without, an ascending or descending current will be formed. If the outward air is rapidly cooled, as in the evening, the air in the warm empty fimnels will gradually l)cgin to draw upwards, and this will continue till some e((ual)ility is maintained. And on tlic other hand, if the air outside is suddenly increased in temperature, as in the heat of the da_y, the operation is reversed, anneys in apartments where there are no fires, and perhaps its own smoke may thus be drawn down another flue and actually returned into the room by this reciprocal action. Dr. Franklin proposed to remedy the evil by bringing down the breast of the chinmey, contracting the opening, and jjlacing an iron frame across the breast, with a plate made to slide and close up the opening, and to open more or less when a fire is rc(piired in the room. The same object is obtained by means of a register stove, or an iron conical funnel about 1' „ t>" or 2',, 6" high [jlaccdover the fire, and removable at pleasure. The following remarks by the ingenious doctor will still further exi)lain and complete our illustration of the subject. "In the summer time, when no fire is made in the chimneys, there is, nevertheless, a strong draught of air through them, continually passing u})wards from about five, or six o'clock in the afternoon, till eight or nine o'clock next morning, when the eunent berrins to slacken and hesitate a little for about half an hour, and then sets as stronglv down a^ain, which it continues to do till towards five in the afternoon, then slackens and hesitates as before, going sometimes a little up, then a little down, till, in abo\it half an hour, it gets into a steady upward current for the night, which continues till eight or nine the next day: the hours varying a little as the days lengthen and shorten, and sometimes varying IVotu sudden changes in the weather; as, if after being long warm, it sluudd li(-gin to grow cold alioiu noon, wiiih' iJie an' r Mi^, 15' lie THE CAUSES AND REMEDIES OF SMOKY CHIMNEYS. was coming down tlic chimney, the current will then change earlier than the usnnl honr, etc. This property in chimneys, I imagine, we wight turn to some account, and render improper for the future the old saying. 'As useless as a chimney in summer'." A mode of converting the chinmev into a cool larder during the summer season is next described, and the doctor then enters into an explanation of the cause of the currents. "In summer time there is generally a great difference in the warmth of the air at mid-day and midnight, and, of coui-se, a ilifference of specific gra\ity in the air, as, the more it is warmed, the more it is rarefied. The funnel of a chimney, being for the most part surrounded by the house, is protected, in a great measure, from the direct action of the sun's rays, and also from the coldness of the night air. It thence preserves a middle temperature from the heat of the day and the coldness of the niglit. This middle temperature it communicates to the air contained in it. If the state of the outward air be cooler than that in the funnel of the chimney, it will, by being heavier, force it to rise, and go out at the top. What supplies its place from below, being warmed in its turn by the warmer funnel, is likewise forced up by the colder and weightier air below; and so the current is continued till the next day, when the sun gradually changes the state of the outward air, makes it first as warm as the funnel of the chimney can make it, (when the current begins to hesitate,) and afterwards, warmer. Then, the funnel, being cooler than the air that comes into it, cools that air, makes it heavier than the outward air, — of course, it descends; and what succeeds it from above, being cooled in its turn, the descending current continues till towards the evening, when it again hesi- tates, and changes its course, from the change of warmth in the outward air, and the nearly remaining same middle temperature in the funnel. ^ .;g ^ If that part of the funnel of a chimney which appears above the roof of a house, be pretty long, and have three of its sides exposed to the heat of the sun successively — \iz., when he is in the east, in the south, and in the west, while the north side is sheltered by the building from the cool northerly winds, such a chimney will be often so heated by the sun, as to continue the draft strongly upwards through the whole twentj'-i'our hours, and often for many days together. If the outside of such a chinmev be painted black, the effect will bo still greater, and the cm-rent stronger." (i. Fires often oveqiower one another, and thus cause chimneys to smoke. If then' be two fireplaces in one room, and neither is properly supplied with the air recjuisite for combustion, the strongest fire will draw its re(|uisite air down the flue of the weakei-, thus bringing the external cold air, loaded with black smoke, int(» the apartment. And if, instead of being in the same, the fires are in sepai'ate rooms, one of the two will be filled with smoke drawn from the weaker Hue whenever the doors communicating between the two are opened. A strong kitchen fiie is thus often found to overpower every other in the house, and fill the whole jjImcc with smoke, sometimes even increased by the smoke drawn down from the chimnev tops of other houses. 'I'lie case of the new house erected by a nobleman in AW'stminster, mentioned by Franklin, and which required £ 300. to be exjiendcd after its completion in remedying the above evil, is but a soli- tary example of the annoyance, trouble and expense incurred from a want of consideration of the very simple laws \vhich regulate the scientific arrangement of chiumeys. Fires in the lower portion of a house will draw air even from tiie attics, and these attics often supply the defi- ciency by drawing smoke mixed with air from an adjoining iiouse. The remedy for this branch of the smoke nuisance is to take care that every fire is sufficiently and independently supplied with fresh air, to as to obviate the necessity of borrowing it from other rooms. This may be done by openings before and under the fireplace, or in the side walls, as previously described- 7. 'J he relati\ e situations of the doors and fii-eplaces will often occasion the smoke to enter rooms instead of passing off by its proper vent. The case of a chimney giying out a i)uff of smoke A (& (S u i'i r m In] © ELi:¥AT!l©N QjRoyNi® Plai /O S 1 /O0SycJ-^3Ji/i J£^ THE CAUSES AND REMEDIES OF SMOKY CHIMNEYS. into tlie aiiariincnt overv time a door is opened is not at all unusual, and it arises from a dcliciency ol' proper ventilation. It occurs most frc()iiontly wiien the door and iireiilace are on the same side of the room, and tiie door shuts towards the fireplace. It thns pulls out suddenly air which cannot be afforded to be withdrawn; or it destroys the regular current or equilibrium, and down the smoke comes. When again the door is opened, the air rushes in, and, pas- sing across the fireplace opeiiing whisks the smoke out. It is however more often the case, when the door is shut, on account of the extra force of the cur- rent; and persons who are seated near the fire feel all the inconvenience of the smoke and the draught caused. The door, being generally in the angle of the room and opening against the wall from the fire, one remedy is to shift the hinges so as to open it, the other way: another is to supply the fire directly with air, so that there may be a strong tbaught up the tiuc, sufficient to neu- traUze that caused bv opening or closing doors. Contracting the mouth of the chimney and hcishtenino- the stack, so that there shall be such an ascensional force as is less llkelv to be (hstm-bed is also a good plan. An intervening screen will also be found useful; but altering the situation of the door will go nearer to the root of the disorder. 8. The form of the fine itself will materially affect tlie ease with whirh smoke can be made to pass through it. We have not much to add to wha( has already been said on tliis subject. The flue shoidd be first carried uj) some distance in a perpendicular ihrection, l)y which means force is gained in the primary vertical ascent of the smoke, and it will thus be more likely to overcome any future obstacles which may be presented. There sliould be at least one liend before the top is reached, and attic chimneys ought to have two bends: these break the force of descending blasts of wind; and it must be evident that if the flue is perpendi- cular from top to bottom, no obstacle will intenene to prevent the sudden descent of the smoke; and the further down towards the fireplace the wind gets, the greater will be the difficult}' in overcoming its descentional power. The bend must, therefore, be at some height abo^■e the fire, or every particle of smoke in the flue will be poured into the room by the pertinacious continuance of a gust of wind for several minutes. Again, during a storm ofhail, rain and snow, unless there are bends in the chimney, the drops will come down, peii3endicidarly into the fireplace, bringing down, in addition to the smoke, all the acomnulated soot. Chimneys are best Imilt in stacks, on account of the warmtli generally dil- fused through the flues; and, for nnich the same reason, those enclosed in the body of a house draw better than otiiers in external walls; and those towards the south more freely than others in the direction of the north, on account of the cooling efl'ect of cold winds, and the liai)llity thus induced to draw downwards, in tlio manner previously explained. •'rA \ 'ZaMv^:}::/,:. 9. The construction of the fireplace, and the form of the grate, or stove, with which it is fitted, have great influence on the free passing away of the smoke; and setting a sto-\e more or less l)ack- Mards, or l)ringing it forwards, will often be found of utility. For moderate sized rooms Dr. Franklin recommended that the fireplace openings in the lower ones should be 'M\ inches square, and IS inches deep; and in upper rooms 18 inches square, and not quite so deep; and those inter- mediate in j)roportion: in ])ractice, however, they are now generally made much larger. I^ouis Savot, the Cardinal Polignac and Count- Kinnford liave made nianv improvements in ilie seientific 118 THE CAUSES AND REMEDIES OF SMOKY CHIMNEYS. ~l„ '''wm/ymMM^i^/^// construction of fireplaces. The woodcut sliows Count RumforcVs method of constructing tlie throat of a chimney. .1 coidd be removed when the chimney required cleaning, and be easily replaced. He thsapjiroved of the circular sidecoverings, now seen in many register stoves, considering them liable to produce eddies and currents, tending to hinder the ascent oi' the smoke, and he recommended tlie sides to be constructed of non- conducting substances, not of iron, at an angle of 135" with the back, or 45* -with the front line of the fireplace. Mr. Hood, in his valuable treatise on warming buildings, remarks: "Although the best form for register stoves has now for several years past been adopted, the desire , for novelty has caused the true jirinciples of construction to be frequently departed from; and we accordinglj' find, in the most modern stoves, con- siderable deviations from these principles. The figure in the margin is a section of a register stove, constructed on tlie best possible plan for diffusing heat into the room. The sides are a right angle of 90", ^1. J5. C, and the bars, (/. ('., describe a (juadrant of a circle, whose radius is just half the Icngtii of tiie side A.B. If we now wish to follow Eumford's rule of making the back one-third I' T; the Midth of the front, we obtain this by taking one- third of the length ^1. B., which ■^^■ill give B. /.; and then if we draw the line, /. r/., we shall obtain exactly the required dimensions. By this arrangement it will be perceived, that the sides of the stove form an angle of 135*' with the back; and all the rays of heat which fall u])on these sloping sides, will therefore be reflected into the room, directly in front of the stoves in slight lines. The falling cover, or register-top, should also form an angle of 135" Avith the bade, by which a large portion of heat will be radiated downwards into the room. These proportions, however, cannot well be adopted in stoves of a very large size, as they will be found to throw the stove, rather too far back: but for all moderate sized stoves, no form can be adopted which will ]irodu(C so good an effect.'' The construction of the sides of fireplaces and the angles at which thev shoidd be jdaccd is of very paramount importance, and the Cardinal Polignac, well remarks that, "it seems that those who have hitherto built or caused ciiiumeys to be erected, have only taken care to conti'i\o in the chaudjcrs certain places whci'C winid may lie burnt, witli- f)Ut making a due reflection that tlie wood in burning ought to warm those ciiambcrs, and the persons wiio are in them; at least, it is certain that but a very little is felt of the fire made in the ordinary chimneys, and that they might be ordered so as to send first a great deal more, only by changing the dis]iiisition of their jaiubs and wings."' He rccomniended parabolic jambs, on the grotuicl that all radiuses wliicli set out from the forms of a parabola and fall upon its sides, arc reflected l)aclc parallel to its axis"; while, if tlic sides are s(|uare, xcry few of the side rays from the fire are reHcctecl into tiie room, in accordance witli tlie law of the angle of incidence being ef|ual to that of retiection. .1 sDntflcl, i. e. an aperture under the lire to sujiply it inde|)endently with air, was pro\i T tS v\ 'ii) iri ^ r J irt IJ* U'J u <» TlIK CAUSKS ANK IJl.MKDIKS (iK SMoKV CIII.MNKY.S. I I'.) %y^M'., 1 ■\ "t ) < — ■ r" K .. c > m^. ■ tliod oi' licatinj;- two roonif* liy oiio fire, and tlie diagram tlicn given illiis(ra(c« tlii.s and tlic niodo <>!' preventing a return of sni(ii<14'„ 3" A Tap Koom 14' ., 3" X 10' „ O" A Bar Parlor (with store closets) 15' „ 0"X14' „ 3" A Kitchen (exclusive of recess) . 15' „ ()"Xl4' „ 3" A Scullery Id' „ S" x' 0' „ fi" A Bar centrally situated, with doors leading to Bar Parlor and Kitchen; an opening towards the Staircase, proper fittings, and Public, Private and Side Bars, for the casual customers, orders, and the regular frequenters of the House. A Pantry and Larder, and closets for cleaning glasses etc., are also provided. Behind the building are private and public yards, separated from one another, and connnodiously placed for access, with a door conununicating between the two: water closets and urinals are arranged with a covei-ed way leading to them. The Staircase is spacious, well lit, and so placed as to present itself at once to the eye; but before proceeding upstairs, we will offer a few obsei-vations on the fittings of. the rooms above named. The situation of the Bar is of the highest importance, and one of the first matters for con- sideration. It nuist present itself at once to the eye of the customers on entering the house, for all enf[uiries are addressed here; and it must command, pn all sides, by means of openings, or sliding sashes, the external door; so that it may not be possible for any person to enter or leave the house wthout observation. Looking glasses properly disposed, will assist towards enabling the Bar maid to see every thing passing around her. The Bar should also com- municate immediately with the Bar Parlor, and be near to the Kitchen, that the Landlord or Tavemer, mav readily step into it, and all orders for refreshments, connected with the Kitchen de]iartnient, be at once delivered to its inmates. It is desirable that small openings .should be so placed fronting the Staircase, and all other sources of orders, that it may not be necessary for the waiter to go to the front of the V>av. distui'bing those who happen (o lie standing there. Arransements of this descriiition will tend iireatlv to facilitate that order and despatch so tlesirable to be maintained. The manufacture and supply of Bar re(iiusitcs is a distinct trade, and the expence, wliicji is sometimes incurred in pi-oviding Bars with elaborate fittings, rich veined mahogany eai-ving, brass and pewter work, and decorative painting and gilding, is very great: ^ 2UiH) and upwards are sometimes spent in this manner. A Mahogany stand for glasses often costs J'SO or ^^Klll and ^3 „ 111 ., is an onlinary cost for eai'ii pull on the Counter. Pewter is a very dear article and the brass work is also exjiensive. A force ])ump is re(|uisite to force the liquors from the Cellars, but the Casks may be supplied either from above (u- below, as most convenient. The Cellar is however unquestionalily tiic ni(is( M[ipro|)riatc place for the stores. The ])i|ies arc connected with the Casks by means of union joints, generally of brass, Ijut pewter cocks are i)referable, as less liable to corrode. A small stove for the supply of hot water, together with a filterer, ought always to be jilaccd in the Bar, thus saving the trouble of going backwards and forwards to the Kiteiicn or parlor. The Counter -should be always covered with pewter, as most cleanly and best adapted, of all materials, for the ref|nired purpose. The front of the counter may be made ornamental. 'i"he inner side to have an open space for glasses, a small sink etc. Tills se])arated for gold, silver and copper, are to lie ai-ranged so as to be most readily accessible, with the least jjossible trouble and waste of time. Circular counters arc necessarily considerably more expensi\c than those which arc straight, but they are often the more convenient of the two. A snllicient s]>ac(^ should be left l)eliind the counter to allow of the free motion of the liar maid, without running any risk of sweeping down bottles and glasses. There j^hould be several modes of access to the bar; one for ©IE§11®-B3 iroK. J5\ ;311^-lfi®®lB!IE® IKlOdJSEo PlnleSi.J DOOR AT C XT OESinaBLC ?Pi@yiNJB PlL.A\N ■ Chi^vMSER FlADsIi HOUSES ON THlS PLAN MAY B C CONVENICNTLY ERECTED IN PAiRS 'E=t= 1>I',SI(,N im; A KIKST CLASS TAVKHN. ]2'.\ the reglllai' iiailm- m' coffee rodlii ru>liiiiicrs: anutlier tnw :ir(l,-i the |MiMic' hai-, wiili :i> |:ii-l;c a ,-|iarc as may lie (IcmaiKlcil for the ca.^iial I'reijiieiiters of the house to remain at iheii- leisure, and a fixed f)eneh |ini\idcd, and one or more private divisions for orders ete., separated i)v a sli'dit screen fnmi \\ir |inlilic liar: a ddur |ilaced in tliis posilid]] will lacililale <'(innniinirali nd rta|)s on tlie <'oiiiilt'r, liniii;' on hini;('s should also he |irovi or t> feet in heiiiht. The fire [)lacc is to be fitted f(U- eookin"- apparatus, with an oven, gridimn, and boiler. The ta[i room should be as separate as ])iissil)le from the rest of the house, that the noise and confusion which sometimes jircvail in it uiav not disturb the other customers; but it should not be j)0ssiblc for any jterson to enter or leave the Tap room without passing within \icw of the bar, and, if possible a sejiarate entrance is preferable. The Ta]) room is, by no means, a necessary adjunct to a Tavern: in the design given, it may be omitrfcd and its place occupied with another Parlor, or it may be placed in the yard; a little modifieation of the arrangements in the latter being; then essential. The Kitchen offices are to be kejit as distinct as possible from the public ])art of the hi)u.>c, and to be so placed as to be conveniently accessible to the proprietor: in the design submitted, a door by the staircase effectually separates them, the Ivitehen conununicates with the Scullery; which latter leads into the, yard. The fittings will be of the ordinary description, the Larder or Pantry and the closet for glasses etc., adjoin the kitchen and bar, and the glasses may be thus readily transferred to the latter. There should be two yards; one private attached to the Ivitchen offices with a water-closet; the other for the public, with a covered way leading to two or more water closets and urinals: the latter arc best of slate. A door should couununieate between the two yards that it may not be necessary to go rotmd the house to get from one to the other; and the entrance to the pulilic yard should be so placed that those who are unaccustomed to the house may have no difficidty in finding their way out; but there should be no external entrance — at least if tliere is one, it ought to be kept locked — otherwise it would be possible for any one to enter or leave the house without the knowledge of the Landlord. The Staircase leading to the upper rooms presents itself readily to view, and is well lighted and easily accessible; and all this should be more particularly the case when the upjier apaiinient- are destined for public purposes. The first floor plan comprises A Club Koom or apartment for Public Meetings . 11',, ll";^<'21' „ 0" A Coffee Koom 1 f „:!":-< Id' „ ti" A Billiard IJoom \:y „ i)" ^i. W „ ■^" A Closet for stores or for waiter, and A\'ater Closet. A large room for public meetings, and to be used also as a Club room, Ibr dinners, su]i])crs etc. is an absolute rerpiisitc in a first class Tavern. It may also be used as a dining room if the business of providing dinners, a la carte, at all hours during the day is combined with the main purpose of the estalilishmcnt. This apartment will be decorated in a manner commensurate with the importance of the house. The Club rocjm in oiu- design is a fine apartment, well pro])ortioned, and amply lighted, and connnanding, from its windows, \iews at the front and side. The A\ alls mav be stuccoed and painted, in party colors: a hamlsome cornice, with enrichments, run round the ceiling which is divided into ]ianels in the centres of which patent are to be placed and It.* 124 DESKiX FOi; A Fli;ST CI.ASS TAYKKX. chandelior.s sur*pen(lc(l from tlie middle. A dado .■iiirnnindf! tlie room; and on this and the Wood- work to the windows and doors arc to be grained some liglit woods; handsome niarhle chimney pieces to be provided. A Coffee Boom for the better class of cnstomers is necessary; and tliis is often apportioned by means of slight screens, into divisions, with fixed tables and seats: if this is done the size of the room must be proportionately increased. The aspect of the Billiard Kooui is of no great consequence, those in it being presumed to be engaged in the game; Imt the light is of importance. A water closet is desirable on this floor; and the waiters closet is conveniently placed with respect to the Club and Coffee rooms. On tlie second floor are — A private Sitting Room . . . 15' „ 0" ><15' ., 0" A Bed Eoom ." . . . . . . 14' „ (i",x 10' „ (i" A Dressing Koom U)'.. 6":>< 6' „ 0" A Bed Room (with large closet) 15' „ ()"><14' „ 0" Ditto Ditto. . . 17' „ (5"><15' „ 0" Ditto Ditto . . . 15' „ 0"X14' „ W" Ditto Ditto . . . 10' „ 0";^ 7' „ H" A Linen closet and water closet. It is always desirable, to provide a Sitting Room for the proprietor and his family, in addition to the Bar Parlor, the latter being apjjropriated to business purposes. This Sitting Room is best placed ujistairs, beyond the reach of the frefjuenters of the house; this is done in our design: and the room is a vcrv cheerful one commanding views in two directions. The number of Bed rooms will necessarily l>e limited by the size of the family; and the circumstance of whether or not any of them are liroi^osed to be occupied by Travellers is also to be taken into consideration. If this is [iroposed another story may be added to the design submitted with the ^•rcatest facility, without at all interfering \\ith the an-angcments already described and the character of the elevations; the topmost story being an exact repetition of the present upper one: the cornice, of course, raised; or attic' windows may lie placed behind the curnice and attic. One of the Bed Rooms has a Dressing Room adjoining: a water closet is necessary on this floor; and it is jirovidcd, lighted and ventilated al)o^•e, together with a closet for linen or other purposes. .\m|)le additional closets, always convenient accessaries are also gi\en. A proi)er arrangement of bells, all conducted to the passage adjoining the Kitchen and Bar, is an important consideration. Inns or Taverns of recreation incluile gardens, with siiuimer fountains e(c., ol'len laid out witli nuich taste. Swings, skittle grounds and bowling greens, arc commonly ])rovidcd. 'Hic skittle o-roiuids shoidd be bard, smooth and perfectly level; this desideratum, may be obtained by means of a composition, of i|Mick lime, sharp sand and smithy ashes, spread in-er a layer of small stones, or course gravel. The bowling green should be well drained, with gratings communicating with underground drains running along the sides. The surface oC the groimd nmst be rcduceil to a perfect lc\cl, and raiumed (o a nniform degree of solidity; alter which it is to be covered wiili liirf, well watered and rolled; the grass kept neatly cut, --o as to jire.sent a surface of peil'cet evenness. A gutter one fool broad and about I inches dee|>, i.- lo run all round the margin: this communicates at intervals with the drains. .\ good bowling green should thus present a dry surface almost immcdititely sifter showers. Taverns :ind Inns should alwiiys be constructed fire proof; the necessity for their being so is obxious. All the |)iirtilions should be of brickwcnk, and the Staircases of stone. The floors may be fm-med of brick arches turned I' .," to U" thi<'k from cast iron girders 5 or relati\e costs estimated by the Patentees. IVr S(niiiri". Connnon (Inihcr tloor . . . if' 5 „ (i ., (I Superior Ditto . . . . s^7 „ 2 „ Fox and llanctts Fire -proof Cement surface ^5 „ 11) „ Inch boards £1 „ 2 ., d Inch »:, £1 „ '.» „ l> It is hardly needful, to insist on the necessity of an efficient system of ^•entilation, in Taverns, especially in rooms where smokinjj is permitted. There should be always two sets of openings, one for the admission of fresii air; another for the csca])C of that which is vitiated; in the article on ^'entilatio^ full particulars will be found. The Design given can i)e erected oi' stock I)riclvs with I\(muin cement dressing, and fir timber, for ^"2,800 exclusive of the Bar fittings; these nuiy be set down at J' loll or ^2(10 of a handsome character, £ ;!,0(llt may therefore be calculated upon as the sum recjuisite to completely fit up the F>sial)lish]nciit. DESIGN FOK A SIMALL VILLA. PLATES 43. 44. This N'illa is adapted for a frontage of :W feet, and wouhl lie coineiiicntly placed at the angle of a road, which position is always preferable on account of its more conunanding ]iosition, the extra light and prosjjcet gained on one side, and the means afforded of communication at the back of the house. The Inmse is suitable for a small family, <'omprising as it does the following amount of accomodation. On the (iround Floor an Entrance Passage, leading into a well-lighted Hall, with Staircase rising out of it to the ujipcr Hoors: a door conununicates with a pa.-sagc leading to the Kitchen Offices and to the (iardcn, and a IT. C and also a stove-closet, arc placed under the staircase. The rooms on this floor are, - A Drawing Ko(mi 1 I' „ i>" ■ \{y .. i\" A Dining Room I 1' .. o" > Id' .. (>" A Kitchen 1"' „ fi" Hi' .. i\(' of recess. Kitchen, Closet, Coal Cellar, and Pantry On the First Floor are, — Two Front Red Ko<,ms, each . . . II'.. l>" - 10' ., d" . A Dressing Poom ....... Id' ., d" - .-.• „ I!" A Back Bed P. M,m Id' „ H" -C (!'.,(;" W. C. and Linen Closets. On the .\tt"ic Floor arc P>ed-rooms similar lo llios<' on the Fir>l Floor, (<,geilicr with two Closets. 'The (Jround Floor is elevated 2',, '.V above the ground le\cl, and i.- Id' ., l'>" in li(igfit, the First Flocn- is 9' „ 0" high, and the Attic Floor, 7' ., d" high. The elevations are of an Palian character, and the dormer window- lighting ihe Attics are con\crled iiUo oiaiamental features giving a pictures(|uc ellect to the roof The materials proposed to be used in die constrnclion, are fully described in the following 12(3 SPECIFICATION OF THE CUNSTKUCTKIN AN!) FFI TINGS. Specification. — Tlicy ^\ilI be fdiind generally aii]ilicalilc in niot^t dit-trictiS in the United KinLjdoni, but can of course, be altered according to the |ieeuliar prodiirts of the locality in which it may be projio.-ied to erect the liiiii.. The concrete under the walls is to be 1 foot deep, and t\vice the width of the lowest course of footings. It i.s to be com- posed of four measures of brcjkcn stones, two of sand, and one of lime; the latter is to be slached upon and in iuunediate contract with the stones and sand, and to be tii)[ied over from the barrow at the lowest possible level. BIUCIvLAYER. The BiucKs used arc to be sound, hard, -well burnt stock bricks of a regular size and shape; those used externally to be selected of the most uniform colour. The mortar is to be composed of twt) parts of the best, and sharpest sand to be procured in the neighbourhood, one j)art of good stone lime, the whole thoroughly mixed and incorporated together. — The drains are to be of glazed stoneware (Mil- lichamps, as in margin): to bo. laid to a 'fall of 1 inch in 10 feet, with all rc(|uisitc l)cnds, junctions, cti'. and to be iiroperly connected with sewer; that from the sink, to be 4 inches diameter, and from, W. C. 5 inches; they are to lie jointed in cement. The -walls ai-e be carried up of the dimensions and in the manner indicated on the engravings. They arc to be built in regular courses, Eiir/li.s/i bond, 4352 bricks to a rod, or four courses kept one foot high. The walls to be neatly cut to take timbers of roofs as Avell as to all skew backs. Build fender and sleeper walls and all trinnners and footings very care- fully: the bottom courses of the latter to be invariably doid)lc. Build up the colimms carefully in cement of roUnded bricks; turn arches, 9 inches thick in double rings, bonded with a whole brick', where the joints meet, to be semi-circular and otherwise as shown; a semi-elliptical arch o\cr opening into hall; turn also 4' .," arches over fireplace openings, and 9 inch arches over all other openings. The flues to be 14" X 9", well cored and j)argetted. Pave the coal cellar with hard stocks laid on ed^c in sand and grounded on 'a bed of hard drv rubbish and lime. 'J'hc copper is to be neatly set in brickwork; the sink let into it at one end, and a 1' ._," ^^all carried u|) to suj)])ort the other extremity. The whole of the internal partitions are to lie biick- noggcd. The' exterioi- pointing to be executed with a neat, close, flat joint. Bed and |)iiint all do(U' and window fi-ames; carry out all corbelling conrses: fill in putlog holes with matched bricks; bcil all wall plates and lintels; cut all rc(|uisiic chases; use whole bricks only in foot- ings, and not less than half bricks anywhere; provide Hi air biicks to be used where pointed out; and lay a coat of Clai'idge's Seyssel asphalt, ■' s" thick- over the surface of the walls, 1*5 inches above the ground level, to j)revcnt damp rising. S)s3a©ija© yoB A IPzaaaos' HSIodsl ©O'tpt^^es. Tlate/J FOR LABOURERS, MECHANICS ftc. S' !i © E E L, 1 ¥ A T I © IN) Se^T (D !» A\ nj ® i; ^. Plan p. T. T A rl^ ir nlc ir ■ ' ■ ' Scale of Teei A.H Pa-^rxie SIM.i iriCATlOX ()!•• TlIK CONSTRUCTK iN AND I ITI fXOS. 1 2" MASON. The step^ at front entrance to be of Portland Stone, moulded on the face a.s shown: the Iiottoni one to be soHd, and the others to rest on the side walls; they are all to he hack rebated. — The landinfj to lie 4" Portland stone landing moulded and rubbed; it is to l)e cut and piiincd iiuo side walls. The step to l)aek entrance to be of \ orksliii'c ston<', tooled (in the face, il inches wider than openinif, ]iinne(l into walls, and with roiuided ends. I'roxide all re(|uisite cores to cor- nices, etc. Rubbed Portland slab.s 2 inches thick, and Is inches wider than openino-s, and tooled York inner hearths 2" thick to fireplaces; the outer slabs to kitchen, and attic bed rooms, to be of rubited York. The chimney ]iicees to sittinii" rooms to be of niai'ble, of the P. C. value of sS A „ (I „ (I each: those to bed rooms, first floor, bf)xcd an" wide. The sink to be of \'ork stone, (i inches thick, and '.\ inches deep, of the size and shape shown, pei-foratcd f(jr 4 inch bell traj). CARPENTER AND JOINER. The Oak is to be of Enirlish growth; the yellow fir to be the best Dantzic, Riga, fir Menul. Xo American, Swedish, or Scotch fir to be introduced. The floors and joiner's work are to be of the best Christiana deals. The timbers and deals are to be of the first qualitv, entirelv free from sap wood, cut square, and with no shakes, large knots, and other defects. If anv parts shrink, and Hv within eiirhtecn months of the fixina', the contractor is to take down and make good the same, at his own expense. The joists, quarters, and rai'ters, are not to exceed 14 inches from centre to centre, excepting the rafters to principle roof. — The contractor is to iirovide, fix, ease, and strike, all centerino- and turniiiLi' iiicces tor arches, trimmers, and other works, to fix all necessary templates, linings, blocks, casings, beads, fillets, angle-staves, grounds, backings, iiurings, cappings and all other finishings, incident to carpenters and joiner's works, too-other with nil necessary groovinff, rebatinff, tono-uinff, franiin";, housini!", beadini;:, mitring etc. necessary for properly finishing the works. AVood bricks are to be provifled and fixed: also all lintels of the width oi' the brickwork, 4 inches deep and IS inches wider than the openings. Herring bone strutting ,'?"X 1' .1" between joists on first and second floors wherever the bearing exceeds 8 feet. The roof is to be framed together in the manner indicated on the section. 'I'he hips and ridges are to be 10" X 2", rounded for zinc; the main rafters 6"X2'/2", 2 feet from centre, to centre; smaller rafters to dormers 4" X 2"; collars, well spiked with oak and lapped on to raf- ters, continuing to form ridges to doi-niers, 6" X 2' .3"; a piece of timber resting on walls and carrying ridge 0" x; 4"; and another at head of jjartition of the same scantling, carrying rafter and su|i|iorting collar on one side; plates 4" X^ 4" lapped and sjiiked with oak at the angles. Wood l)locks of the profile given in the mtirgin, ;ire to be firmly fixed to carry projecting eaves, formed with inch yellow deal, wnuighi, ])louglied, tongued, and grooved fascia 9" wide and soffitc projecting 2 feet from the face of wall. — The lean-to roof to have rafters i"x2": plates 4"x;3": the upper one secured to wall by iron brackets; and inch yellow deal lioar(liiig, close-jointed, and nailed with eighi- ])cnny nails. — The joists on ground floor to be of oak B'V' X 2' ._,". with oak plates ',V 2" X 3". Those on first and second floors to be of yellow fir 8" X^ 2' .," with lir plates 1" y< 3'/o". The floors to sitting rooms, hall, and entrance passage to be inch ' ., yellow deal, batten floors, straight joint, edges nailed, splayed headings, and mitred bor(' er> to )s; those to kitchen, passage, pantry. and closet, to be of inch ' ^ yellow deal, wrought :ind laid folding: that on first floor to be inch ' ) vclluw deal, straight joint, and s|ilayed headings: and on attic floor, inch white deal, w fought 128 Sl'F.CIFICATinX OF THE COXSTUrCTKIX AXO FITTlXfiS. .jM,jii,i,^j^j,j,,'^^^^ -c^ [^ z. X and laid foldinji-. — Tlie dours to Drawing- and Dininy Kooms to he 2 inches tliiok, niotddcd and hiinii on 3' o" hrasshutts to I ' (" douhle rehated and douhle rounded linings; inch framed grounds 6 inches wide and moulded architrave 4 inches girt. Tlie hall door and that to W. C'. to be similar hut 1 ' ._," thick, moulded and stjuare, witli architrave and grounds on one side only. — The remaining internal doors to lie I' .i" square, iuuig on 4" wrought iron hutts to inch ' j single rebated and doui)lc roiuided linings. The front entrance door to be 2' o" thick, bolcction, moul- ded on one side and bead Hush the other hung on 4' o" wrougiit iron l)Utts to wrougjit, Iramed, rejjated, jjloughed, and twice beaded door frame 4' .," square, fixed to floor with wrought iron dowels, and to have transom 4' j" X '.V double rebated, four times beaded and framed into posts, a continuous head is to be fixed o\cr, as indicated beaded and rebated to correspond, and filled in with 2" ])eadcd sash hung on brass sasli centres and fastened with a small l)rass button: ' ," tongued lining, rounded at outer edge inside; oak rounded step and riser. The back entrance door to be 2 inch bead, butt both sides hung on 4" wrought butts to wrought, rebated and beaded frame, 4' o" X ^"\ tvansom, douljle, rebated and beailcd 1' o" x; :«", and sash on centres 1 "j" thick; oak rounded ste}) and riser. The doors on first floor to be 1' .j" moiddod, hung on :}' o" butts to incli ' , single rebated linings; inch framed grounds 4' .{' wide, and ogee, moulding rini round. These latter omitted to inner side of Knen closet door, the inner panels of which arc also to be sijuare. The doors on second or attic floor, to be 1' .," square doors, lumg on ."!" butts to inch, single, rebated, and double roinidcd linings. The windows (exce]tting tliose to dormers) to have all lifting oxoio sashes of Incli ' ., deal, with circular heads where shown. Deal cased frames (as in ^largin) oak smik sills, :' y outside and inside linings, inch wainscot pulley pieces, and |iaiting l)eads, inch oltites ' .i" inside linings, sasji lines and every re([uisite conqilcte. Tiie dining, and drawing i-oom, windows to have inch ' ., 4 |)anel, bead Inui and square I'ronI shutters, on splay, and s(|u:n'e liaek Haps; llie IVont .-liultei-> to be hung on :'." brass butts, tlie back on 2" fla]i hinges, ineh one panel bead buti back lininn's tongued to frame; inch ' ^ jiroper boxings, moulded ai'rIiilraAcs to correspond with lliose to and ' .j" naii'ow return beade(l linings. Inch ' ., -I panel plain backs and elbows, beaded I'rqiplngs and elbow cap- bead bull and sijuaro shutters and rule joint hanging stiles hung on '.\" l)utts and strong rule joint hinges, and with a wood latch shultci' bar. Inch tonii'ued and rounded linings on splay, and inch , ' i I'oundcd window board. The remain- ing windows arc to be finished with siniilarlinings andljoards on splay where so shown; bui ib< .-mall windows arc to ha\e inch chamfered sashes hung cm centres with cut beads and fasiencd with small bolls; beaded Irames 4" X 4-"; no linings to those in 11" walls but tongued beads at liollom inside. 'I he doi'iner windows are to have chamfered cascnieut .sa.shcs Inuig on ;ii .^" wrought butts, with tiunbuckles, water-bars ami stay hooks. These dormers are to be framed together with inch ' ., deal, cut and moulded in the manner indicated; the sill pieces to be of oak, and the moulded capping to he securely fixed. Tni: sTAiiicAsK is to be constructed with strong carriage, inch ' , yellow deal steps and i-isei's tongued together. Inch ' , mouldo ITITlNliS. 29 both ranijiod and kneed so as to lie (uic unii'unu height, ;d)i)\c tlio steps; •' j" headed apron lining, curtail end to starting stcjis, all Hrnily bracketted, glued and blocked, with every requi- site complete. — Honduras maliogany nididded handrail, -I" X 'i pi'o])erly ramped and kneed, with scroll and twist at Ixittom; turned newel 2' >" diameter, and deal s(|uare, bar balusters, dovetailed; every sixtli and seventh to be ol' winuglu iron, prci|Hily secured above and below. The water closet to ha\e I' /■ deal seat and riser, clamped tlaji hung, on 2" brass butts, beaded frame, square narrow skirting and all recjuisite bearers, [)ipc casing etc. — The cistern above upper closet to be of its full internal size, framed of inch ' ., deal dovetailed, with wivnight iron bolt complete: a door nuist be fixed above to get at the cistern, to be finished externally similar to the one below, and hung on 2" butts, with small Hush bolt fastening. The cistern to closet on ground floor, to be fixed so as to allow access to it from Iielow, and to be similar to the other: strong bearers to carry both. The dwarf- closets in Dining room to be ol' inch deal, moulded in front, with .-ipiare skirting at tops the doors hung with 2' /' brass butts and to have tundilcr locks. The closets in bed room to be similar, with closet locks. The Sitting rooms. Hall and Entrance passage, to have moulded and sunk skirtings 12 inches high; the kitchen, offices, ^^' (', and passage, square skirtings 6 inches high, together with the attic floor; the first floor rooms to have moulded skirting, 9 inches high, and the closets square skirtings (i inches high. Provide and fix a dresser, fitted complete in kitchen, shelves in pantry, cover to copper, and all other incidental fittings. .SMITH AND IRONMONGEli, "Wrought iron chimney bars 2' ./' wide and ' i" thick to chimney openings. ' ., Inch wi-ought iron bolts, with nuts, washers and screws to cistern. •' j Inch wrought iron balusters to staircase properly livetted and fixed. 16 Cast iron air bricks. In addition to the ironmongery already described, provide to entrance door 9 inch drawback, brass-mounted lock, with iron chain, and Inincl, and two 8 inch bright rod bolts. The back door to have a (> incH iron-rim, two bolts, knob lock, and two S inch rough rod bolts. The sitting room doors and those to bed and dressing rooms on first floor are to lune 7" mortice locks; the sitting rooms to have a mortice set of white china furniture, and the rooms on first floor ebony furniture; the closets on the latter, and W. C. below, together with hall door, to have finger plates only on one side, and the W. Cs. to have brass W. C. latches. The remaining doors to have fi inch iron rim two bolt knob locks. The lifting sashes to have brass cased pullies, cast iron weights and brass sash fastenings. The bell handles and shutter knobs to correspend with the furniture of the rooms; each window in sitting rooms to have an iron spring bow shutter bar. Iron bars are to be securely fixed outside hall window. Provide register stoves to sitting and bed rooms oil first floor, ordinary grates to attics, grate to copper and l)iiillc\'s (Northampton) cooking stove In kitchen. Put also in hall, one oi' C'arinans smokeless stoves which may be procured for the sum ol' I 2 shillings. 130 SPECIFICATION OF THE CONSTRUCTION AND FITTINGS. ZI^'C \vukki;k. Cover the iiiiiiii ruoi' with it;ihiin formed Zinc, pniperly rcveted and hiid in the manner ilhistrated in mari>;in. No. 15 of the Viciile iNIontaijnc Zinc to be used; no otlier is to be depended u]ion. Ogee {^utters of No. 14 Zinc, and 4 inch down [jijies of the same niiini)cr. Properly dress zinc, and Hash round chimneys and sides and sills of dormers. PLUMBER. Line the cisterns with lead, 7 lbs. to the bottoms and 6 to the sides. The iij)per one is to be supplied by 1' 4" rising main, and an inch service i«pe is to convey the water to the lower cistern, and from this, another inch supply ])ipe is to bo led to the sink. Tlie lower cistern to be provided with inch brass cock and copper ball, and inch % waste pipe delivering into trap of W. C. Each closet to have 3 4 service pipe and 4" lead soil ^jipe delivering into drain. Landiert's (Lambeth) cooii action closet apparatus of enam- elled iron (an ingenious contrivance) to be provided and fi.xed. The sink to have inch square way cock, 4" brass grate and bell trap, and 2' o" waste pipe delivering into drain. PLASTERER. Render, float and set, for i>ai)er the whole of the infernal walls, excepting those to the Kitchen offices, which arc to be limcwhitcd twice, and lath, j)laster, float and set the ceilings; those in sitting rooms to be distemj)cred by the painter, and the remainder wliitcd; the underside of lean- to roof to be twice limewhited. Cornices 9 inches girt to be run on chamber floor, excepting only the closet and the Hall and Entrance passage. To Drawing and Dining rooms, run cornices 10 inches girt- with one enrichment 4" girt in papier inaclu'; also a centre flower 2' 6" diameter to each room, also in juijiu'r uuiflw secured to the ceiling. The exterior to be stuccoed in the best manner with Portland ccmcnl, .'{ parts sand to 1 cement, jointed to imitate masonry, and to be coloured witii weather proof colouring, fixed with tallow, beergrounds, tar, an=i JNU U >i ISi «> U Lk:' ^^t JNJ '^ £= «/ » FRONT ELEV AT I N„ C^ROUND PLAN. CHAMBER PLAN, E L.Tar-lMniV ■(■* Sc >LE >^r' f I ' I I t I ! I I °- riKsKix Ki)i: A I'Aii; i>\- sninuiAX hksidences. I,!! oenicnt to lie iormrd witli nulls t1' the (iroiind and Chamber Floors and the Front Elevation of a Pair of Suburban Residences. Although these houses are proposed to be erected in pairs, it will not be difficult to continue them to form a row of anj' length; the windows lighting pantries and bed rooms being placed in the front instead of the side, and the projecting brickwork to the fireplaces brought in. They will be found convenient dwelhngs for a small family, each comprising the following amount of accomodation. On the Ground Floor: A Drawing Room .... ITy „ n" X 12' ., 0" .\ Dining Room 12' „ 6" X 10' „ ti" A Kitchen 16' „ 0" X 1(»' „ (3" A Scullery S' „ 6"X 8' „ 0" Entrance Lobby, Hall, Closet for House-maid, Pantry, AV. C. and Coal Cellar, with Dust- bin outside the house. On the Chamber Floor: A Front Bed Room . . . . 15' „ ()"x; 12' „ d" A Dressing Room S'„()"x; 5' „ It" A Side Bed Room . . . . 1()'„6"X S' .. d" A Back Bed Room . .■ . . 12' „ 6"X 10' „ (J" A Bed Room over Kitchen . 11' „ 0"X 10' „ (>" Another Bed Room may, if desired, be conveniently placed over the Scullery; the access to it being from the landing of the Staircase; a closet and "W. C. being also situated in the passage leadino- to it. The house would then contain ten rooms in ad(Vition to the various closets, etc. The elevation is not expensive, although eftective: it is an illustration of what may be done by the judicious balancing of plain surfaces; moulded work, always costly, being very slightly introduced. Stock bricks are proposed to be used; their price is now about five and twenty shillinos per thousand; place bricks may be used for the partitions; these are only sixteen shillings per thousand, and consequently a great saving will l)e thus cfteetcd. — Kentish red bricks have certainly a very gay and cbeeri'ul eflPect, and they ei\cn to the n])artments. Houses with low rooms are always unhealthy, more esj)ecially when unpro^ided with any ventilating ;i])])aratus. Why ventilators are not more extensively used lias l)een always a puzzle to us. It cannot be on the groimd of their expense; Sheringham's, shown in the margin, can be procured of plain iron for 6.s„(v/, and bronzed for S.v „()(/. — Hart's ventilators are yet cheajter, and may be had foi- three or four shillings. They arc always as well (dinbined with one of Mooi-'s mo\eable glass ventilators jilaccd in the window pane, as il- lustrated. This will serve the jmr- pose of admitting fresh air while ilie other ventilators allow of its escape. These glass ventilators are also so far a remedy for smoky chimneys as they admit air, when the smokiness arises from an insufficient su|)])ly, to the apartment. Dr. .Vrnott's circular vahes for chinnieys may be made rather ornamental in appearance; \\e exhibit one form which may be had, eight inches in dianictcr for (iv (ii/. Considering the cheapness of this very simjilc and effective contrivance; c(insi(hii]i|iort is requisite, but it is desirable to have a wood roll where the sheets join. Zinc .shoidd always be laid on the system of free dilitatlon, with deal rolls and zinc covering caps, in the manner illustrated, which is especially suitable for any Hat roof. The roof over the. Scullery is projiosed to be covered with Rangor Countess slating. The total cost of the two houses will he about ^S(((l. ^^'e shall put together in a general way, under the heads of those designs Ibr which we do not give detailed Specifications, stub ueneral remarks on the fittings, ajipurtenances and the planning arrangements and economy of domestic habitations as will be ioiind \i>efiil, and wc jiroposc now to make a few observations on these subjects. Tlie living apartments for the imnily should be kept as distinct as possible irom the kitchen offices, andln most of the designs we have given, they are separated by a door.— The advantage of this arrangement must be very obvious; all noises and disngrccable odour arc cut otl, and the comfort of both the familv and the servants is increased; draughts are lessened and wanntli is inore readilv retained. Where a d.ior cannot, irom peculiarities of plan, be conveniently u.-cd. it will be ns'well to establish a current of air ventilating the kitchen from the main portion of the house, an.l thus rendering it impossible ior the smell arising from co,.king and cleaning operations to enter the sitting and bed r.ioms. -• The damp caused by^ the washing and drying <.i' clothes m the kitchen or laundry, shoidd not be allowed^ to rise uj) and enter the bedrooms or Its mju- rious eflfects on the linen will sooner or later lie visible. The kitchen ^^^^^s^p should be fitted wit a dresser, (descrip- tions r)f these will be found in the Speci- fications), and an ironing boartl, fi.xed to the wall, bung oir hinges, wiili supports turning on [)ivots 134 DESIGN FOR A PAIR OF SUIUIRBAX RESIDENCES. somewhat in the manner ilhistrated in the margin. — Of kitelicn ranges tlierc are an immense variety. That .sliown in tlie margin i.* registered by tiie Messrs. Nicolis of Dundee and is very convenient. The fire grate A, is fitted underneath witli an ash j)an B, below which is a heated chamber C, to I)e used for warming dishes, or keeping cooked meats hot. The upper oven J>, which has a ventilator E, may be used for baking meat and tlie lower one F, may be similarly employed for pastry; on the opposite side of the fireplace is a boiler (t, running behind the grate for supplying hot water for baths and ordinary kitchen purposes. The ovens, heated chamber and boiler are heated by the several flues II, running entirely round them, and serA'ing^as well to heat the plates T, which are serviceable where slow boiling is recpiired. The arrangements altogether are of the most compact which v/e have seen. The scullery should be fitted with a sink, with plate rack above, a copper, and an oven for baking bread will be found useful; the construction of the latter is described in the SiJecification to the Model Cottages. The Scidlery is best paved, eitlier with bricks, flat or on edge, or with Yorkshire stone; brick flat paving is generally tlie cheapest; of course if the bricks are laid on edge, the jjaving is more expensive, but decidedly better; there shovdd be a fall in the paving that the Avater used while scrubliing it may run in one direction, whence it shovild be drained off. The kitchen is prefei'able boarded, from considerations of personal comfort. A back door ought always to be provided from the scullery; and the dust-l)in should be kept covered over; a wood cover hung on hinges is desirable, with an opening at the bottom of the bin closed by a door. The pantrv must be well ventilated; the air being admitted below by means of cast iron air bricks, and a portion of the window fitted with perforated zinc. The air Ijricks may be made ornamental on the exterior face. Two small windows to the pantry are preferable, that a cur- rent may be i)ronioted. The shelves may be of wood, or of slate slabs rubbed, and the door panels be partly filled in with perforated zinc. The coal cellar is best paved; I)rick pacing is suitable. The Water Closet must be well ventilated, and their fittings are described in the spe- cifications. If a vase is placed in tlie Water Closet, filled with concentrated muriatic acid, so that its surface is in free couummication with the vapours issuing from below, the carbonate of ammonia combining with the muriatic acid, ail unj)leasantness is obviated, and the closet rendered as healthy as any other room. The fittings to tlie Drawing and Dining Kooms will be varied according to the tastes of the occupants; and oi' Bed rooms we need only observe that they should be lofty and well ventilated, as the number of hours for which they are kept closed, while in occupation, renders tlicir airiness a matter for consideration. Bed room doors sliouhl not, where it can be avf)ided, be placed opposite to one another, as if one is left unclosed on opening another, a sudden View is obtained of its inmates. But in sitting rooms, the doors are preferable opening opjiositc one another, this gi\ing a view throughout, and more or l(*;s the character, oi' a suite of apartments. With regard to aspeet«it is needless to repeat here the obsers-ations which will be found in several previous jiortions of the work. The kitchen offices should be sheltered from the rays of the sun; and if this camiot be done by means (tf trees, a \eran(lah can always be fixed. Hadleys (Clielsea) blinds may be used for the Sitting and Bed rooms, if it is considered desirable to have any. We should advise that all E. S. and W, windows should have outside deal \'enetian shutters; the outside frames 3"Xl"2" beaded; bottom rails 4' .," wide; louvres ^/g" thick; the blinds liung with 4" wrovight iron butts and all necessary bolts and i'astenings; they may also be made to slide. The subject of the internal finishings of the walls of domestic habitations is of considerable importance; although very little attention is paistanccs not of the most cleanly nature until the wall be again thoroughly dry. Besides a pajjcrcd wall is liable to be injured past remedy by so common a casuality as the starting of a bottle of tal)le beer, cham- pa'^ne, or soda water. Lobbies and staircases arc sometimes pa])ere(l, although tbe jiractice is not very connnon in Scotland. Tbis is very objectionable, as the condensation of the atmosplicre which alwavs takes place on tbe walls of such ai»artments on a change of temperatiu-c from colj)enings they should be as few in number as possible; for a number of little ojDenings will often be found to admit less liaht and weaken a buildina' more than a sinji'le moderate sized one. The windows should be spaced uniformly in a room with as equal intervals between them and the side walls as possible, not one window close to the wall and another in the centre of the room. In carrying them up thcv should be ])laced abo\e one another, solid over solid, otherwise the balance and construction of the wall will be found very defective. Sir William Chambers says that ' ^ ps'i't "f 'he height and depth of the rooms added to- gether will give the width of the window. In Italian architecture the height of the windows on the principal floor may be 2' g to 2' ;, their width: on the ground floor twice, on the second floor 1' o to M/5 their width. The distance between windows may be 1' .1 to 2\.i times the width of their apertures, and at the outer angle the solid space should be rather more than that between the windows. These proportions will bo found to apply both with reference to sound construction and harmonious proportion. Shutters will probably be consi- dered an absolute requisite on the ground floor, and they cer- tainly contribute nuich to\\'ards the warmth of rooms in the evenings, and, when partially closed, to their coolness in suiu- mer. Kespecting their adding to the security of a dwelling we have very great doubts and certainlv, if about to erect a house for oursehxs, we should not dream of such ex- pensive and cumbersome additions, always in the way and consider- ably detracting from the internal appearance of an ajiartment. As, howe^•er, they are as carefully clos- ed at night in this peaceful city as 11' a liombardmcnt were expected, we prcsiunc that the ])opular be- lief in their infallibility will not be easily shaken. Thev arc iisiiallv liiing as lifting shutters or folding, ill neither <'ase vvvy securelv. Sometimes tliey are hung outside the windoM and can of coui-se be mv ingenious gentleman. To those who ■'^eclioii '!.•< tipph'cd III till- \\'hnh>ins of I'rifiitc Ifmtsi carried away by Phni I'f Slnilli'i- ii.-i u/jorc. really wi.sh to render their iiouses secure, as well from a storming party as less noisy invaders, I L L y S T R AT t O N S Q F ^'f Xg>XK^?^^ [■ -41 ./'''•^ ?;•. .-1* - ■'-^ l'^' _ \/: __ 1 r- = ^ L_., 1 .^ "n _>. _ 1 1 1 i -^ M- 1 - -^ 1 b- ? 1*' i 1 #r-'J £..—' ■- /^.A K?.^. %.J. %4. f^.5. Kg. 6. 19= %.7. %.lars. They may be raised and lowered with [lerfcct ease and without exertion, and tlie price Is we believe about 6 shillings per loot super. 'J'hc form adapted to private houses is illustrated in the mari;ln, which shows also the sj)ace likely to be occupied, and that the intei-ior of tlic window is not cut up and iis lianiioiiy destroyed l>v tlie ugly i)rojectlons, re- cessed spaces, cords, and apparatus wliicli characterize internal sjuitters. The sluitter too is, as it ought to be, outside. Instead of within the glass, and thus protects that from injurv. Their external appearance is most comjiact and satisiiictorv. Bunnett ii Co. also nianufactiu-e and fix wood revolving shuttei-s on a similar plan to those of iron. 'I'hcir cost is of course less; about 4 shillings per i'oot super. ^\'inllows arc generally preferred in England with lifting sashes; but on the continent case- ments, called here French Casement Sashes, arc used. AVe annex sections of parts of one sketched at an hotel at Antwerp. "Wc shall continue from time to time in the descriptions ofdomestic houses the above general observations on their fittings and accessoj-ies. 18 13S THE TIMBER TREES USED IN BUILDING OPERATIONS. Trees arc tlic grnndcst ol)jccts in tlie or_f;anic wurld, anil tlieir imjinrtanoe io man ran scarcely be overrated. Not only have they enaljled liim to transport liimscli' to distant climes over the miohty deep, but, on the land, few substances come more generally into use than the woody fibre, or timber of trees; and the carpenter who has made the nature of his material his study lias a va.st; superiority over one who lias neglected this essential knowledge. The practical builder requires timber to be sound and durable: and these quahties depend on the absence of those natural juices which luidcrgo fermentation, and on the wood being properly seasoned. The term timber, is limited to those woods which are, or may Ite, adapted to Iniilding purposes. Oak and fir are chicflv used in this country; the first being most durable, whether exposed to air, water, or buried in the earth, and it is, perhaps, the strongest of all timbers: the lightness, stiffness, and durability of fir render it also admirable for construction. Resides these, however, a great num- ber of other woods arc used. Trees may be generally classed under these heads, — 1st, those which produce strait timber, long plates, masts, etc.; as the pine; "ind, those which yield crooked or bent timber, for knees in ships, etc.; as the oak, chesnut and elm; :!rd, trees with tough wood; as vew, holly, ash, maple etc. 4th, trees with iTard wood, as oak, beech, plane, box, holly, yew and walnut; 'ith, soft wooded trees; as horse-chesnut, poplar, etc. fitli, woods cultivated for spray and flexible suckers for hoops, baskets, poles, etc. 7th, woods with l)eautiful grains, for decorative • purposes. There is a certain analogy between the organic functions of trees and tiiosc of animals. When cut horizontally, the former appear composed of fibres, but, in reality, their substance consist.'* of vessels and tubes through which the sap flows, as the blood of animals through their veins: In a square inch of wood, upwards of seven millions of these vessels have been counted. The vessels extend from the root to the leaves; and the former terminates in spongy threads, adapted to absorl) moisture from the earth, whence it ascends to the trunk, in technical language named the bole. Th^ figiu'C in the margin is the section of a tree seven years old. In the centre is the pith, consisting wholly of ccUitlar tltisue; loose in texture, as in the alder, or compart, as at the knot of the ash, — A great proportion of it, as in the elder, renders the wood com])aratively valueless; it is sometimes called the heart oi' tlic tree. Its place is first occujjicd with a watery fluid, and next with air, and this becomes dry i)efore the first layer of wood is perfected. The form of the cells is ordiniu'ily hexagonal, but these undergo certain changes as the age of the tree advances. The wood is foimd next, which, in plants of more than two years growth, consists of separate layers, or rings, one being formed every year during the life of the tree; the thickness of these layers depending on the aspect of the tree, the situation of the root, and tlie degree of vegetation which has taken place. The heart, or ])itli of a ti-cc, is never exactly in the centre of the trunk, imt always near- est the noi-tli .-idc. The wood is found to lie stronger in the middle of the triuik tlian at the s]iringiiig of the Kranches, or at the root; and the wood of the branches is weaker than . tiiat of the trindi; and that towards the south stronger than tlic northern parts. The layers above mentioned arc not separable from one another; they consist of cellular tissue on the side next the centre of the tree, and externally of woody fibre; and the outermost layer is l[gg5D©Ba lf®lS SlSKBO - ilPlSViafSM ETo) IfaiKB ILV IP^ li S U US 1^ KKl- E a . Pi^i rROWT BLEVAtU^lflJ Tiir, TiMr.F.r. theks i-skd ix niTLnixr, opkraioxs. 139 v«ponpy, and less durable tlian the inner. Mcihillary rai/x (from viednlla, marrow, so railed because tiiey were erroneously supposed to be a continuation of tlie ]iitli) traverse the wood; and the woody layers are formed from a secretion called cuiuliivni, deposited by the succulent vessels of the bark and the rays between the wood and the bark; wliicli scciction, ri-iiiii,- in one form from tlic root, is prepared by the leaves: the result of this i;eiatinous liuid is tran.-- I'ormed, by a process of nature, into the cells, or layers; the diverninir as well as concentric being produced simultaneously; and tliese vessels form altogether wliai is tciincd the iimiii of wood. The outside layers are termed the (illiuniinn, or sap-wood; the harder iimer matter the t/iiriiiiii'ii or lieartwood. The new layer, formed every year, is also termed the /i/icr; on this substance the ancients wrote, and its well-known name was given to a book. There are also divisions like rays, sjireading from tiic pith to the bark, like the sjjokes of a wlieel, and termed /cssit traimrerne sepia, and otiiers of a light silver colour, called ''i/rer f/rain, or larricr ircuiscersc fiepto. They are produced by tiie mcduliauy rays, and consist of compressed cellu- lar tissue, binding together tlic layers of the stem, and keeping open the coinnumication be- tween the bark and i)ith, which the formation of the wood would have otherwise destroyed; they give the glossy, silky appearance to plane, satin-wood etc. By a process not yet under- stood, the crude, or connnon sap, consisting of water nearly pure, witli nuicilage and sugar apparently acquired in the plant, rises from the root of the tree to the leaves, where it under- goes pecidiar chemical changes, and portions of the watery part being evaporated, it is prepared into a juice of a more nutrieious character, and is returned along the lower set of vessels of the leaf back into the stem, passing through the liln'r and to the centre of tlic tree by means of the medullary rays, down towards the root, to supply nutriment to the various organs. This returning fluid is termed the proper ■^: we may thus ascertain the proportionate amount of saj) in timbers. The following problem teaching the mode of cutting the strongest possible beam out of the trunk of a tree will be found usefid: -1. B. C. D. being the section, draw the diameter C. B. and divide it into three equal parts, c. F. and from V, draw F, A. perpendicular to the diameter; draw A. B. and J. ('. C. IK and B. I).\ then .4. B. C. D. is the piece re- (|uircd. It is thus evident that the strongest piece does not contain the greatest amount of timber; for the largest rectangle wliich can be inscribed in a circle is a square /. /.-. fj. h, as in- dicated by the dotted lines, which is by no means stronger relatively with .1. B. C. IK It is a common practice to lay timber in yards on rotten and decayed pieces of wood: nothing is more to be reprehended, as the bad will infect the sound and hasten its decomposition. The more gradual the diying operation the better; and two years after felling is the least period that should be allowed to elapse previous to using any wood. Depriving trees of their bark before they arc cut, so as to allow the juices to escaj)e is thus recommended by Vitru\-ius, — "when a ti'ee has an incision made through the sap-wood at its trunk it soon dies, and no further change takes place; and the barking of trees, when in fidl growth and vigour, and letting them stand a twelvemonth after the operation, is ad- mitted not only to improve the cpiality, but to increase the rpiantity, at the same time that it seasons the wood; time however, is the best seasoner, and no artificial method can equal the natural process, which is that of getting rid of all the juices in so regular a manner, that dissipating them does not too rapidly shriidi and crack the timber. Trees may be suifered to stand too long before they are ctu down, lnu this is not a usual faidt; for often when they can measure to a load, which in half a century is sometimes the case, they arc marked for felling, the heartwood not having either accpiired its hardness or its full quantity." We cannot better conclude our observations on the felling of timber dinn iiy placing before the reader some valuable practical remarks by -lohti Evelyn in his now standard work, "Sylva, or a Discourse of Forest Trees.'' Although published Ui64, it is i'ar more worthy of consultation th^n many works of our own day, and it considerably stinudated laiulowners to form planta- 142 THE TDIBER TREES l"5ED IX Bl'ILDlXG OPERATIONS. tions. We have before quoted Vitnunus, the only chissic architect whot^e literary works have reached modern times, and whose books prove that to many practical matters the ancients gave as much careful consideration as fhey did to the still unsurpassed beauty of their architectural designs. Besides, although tastes may change, the laws of nature are ever the same, and with respect to her, "industrious observations, grounded conclusions and profitable in\entions and dis- coveries'" ever retain their true utility, uncUsturbed by the fluctuations of fashions and the waverings of a capricious popularity. "Lav up vour timbers vcrv drv, in an airy place, yet out of the winds or sun. and not stand- ing verv upriffht, but lying along, one piece upon another, interposing some short lilocks between them to prcsene tliem from a certain moiddiness which they usually contract while they sweat, and which frequently produces a kind of fungus, especially if there be any sappy ])arts remaining. Some tliere are vet who keep their timber as moist as they can by submerging it in water, which tliey let it imbibe, to hinder the clea\ing, and this is good in fir, both for the better stripp- ing and seasonins; vea. not onlv in fir, but other timber. Lav therefore vour boards a fortniaht in the water (if running tlic better, as at some mill-pond head): and then, setting them upright in the stm and wind, so as it may freely pass through them (esi)eci:dly during the heats of sum- mer, which is the time of finisliing buildings); turn them daily and tinis treated even newly sawn boards will floor nuich better than many years dry seasoning, as they call it. But to prevent all possible accidents when you lay your floors, let the joints be shot, fitted, and. tacked down only for the first year, nailing them for good and all the next; and by tliis means, they will lay staunch, close and without shrinldng in tlie least, as if they were all one piece. And upon this .occasion I am to add an obsenation, which may prove of no small use to builders, that if one take up deal boards that may have laid in the floor a hundred years, and slioot them again, thev will certainly shrink without tiie former method. xVmongst wheelwrights, the water sea- soning is of especial regard, and in such esteem amongst some, that 1 am assured the Venetians, for their prorision in tiie arsenal, lay their oak some years in the water before they employ it. Indeed, the Turks not only fell at all times of the year, without any regard to the season, but employ their timber green and unseasoned; so that though they have excellent oak, it decays in a short time only liy this neglect. Elm felled ever so green, fur sudden use, if plunged four or five days in water (especially salt water) obtains an admirable seasoning, and may immediately be used, I tlie oftener insist on this water seasoning not only as a remedy against the worm, but for its efficacy against warping and distortions of timber, whether used within or exjjoscd to the air. Some, again, commend buiying in the earth; others in wheat; and there be seasonings of the fire, as for the scorching and hardening of ])iles, which are to stand either in the wafer or in the earth. AVhen wood is charred, it becomes incorruptible; for wiiich reason, when we wish to preserve piles from decay, they should be charred on their outside. Oak posts, used in enclosiu-es, always decav about two inches above and below the surface. Chan-ing that part would probably add several years to the duration of the wood, for that to most timber it contiibutes its duration. Thus do all the elements contribute to the art of tlic seasoning. Tinil)er wliich is clcit is nothing so obnoxious to reft and cleave as what is hewn; nor that wiiich is squared as what is round: and tiicreiore where use is to be made of huge and massy cohnnns, let tiiem be bored through from end to end. It is an excellent presenative from splitting, and not unphiiosoiiJiical: though to cure the accident painter's putty is recommended; also the rubbing them over with a wax cloth is good. Wc spoke before of scjuaring; and I would now recommend tlic (|uartering of such trees as will allow useful and competent scantlings to be of mucli more durablencss and eflfect for strength, than where (as custom is and for want of observation) whole beams and timbers o\ SCULLERV 10^ ff X /0,0 h r T C H E N O R E: S S E R a I O C e O A R ( -o ^ C A R D C N V E R A N OA H ■ DININO ROOM 1 « H in HALL r © DRAWING ROOM " IS. O .-- /J . 1 1 ^ ^ k^^^^H i i ^H ^ ^^ ki^^^^l 0, Pi © w INI a P LA INJ THE SECOND AND THIRD TLOORS TO BE SiMilAR TO THE FIRST FLOOR TIIF, TIMBKU THKl'.S rSF.D TX nrTLDTXr, OPKRATIOXS. ll!i are applied in ships or iiouses, willi slal) and all alioiil ihcni, iipDii false siipjiositioiis of strciiLCtli beyond tlicse (juarters. For all uses, that timber is esteemed the best, \vlii<'li is the most ponderous, and which, lyinjj; long, makes the deepest imjjression in the earth, or in the water beiny- floated; also wliiu is without knots, yet firm and free from sap which is that fatty, winter, and softer part called by the aneients o/lniiiu'ii, which you are dilif;ently to /ii'w avray. My I^ord Bacon (Ivxperiment (i.^S) recom- mends for trial oi' a scinnd or knotty piece of timber, to cause one to speak at one of the extremes to his companion listening at the other; for if it be knotty the sound, says be, will come aljrupt." Some trees attain a great size and age. A cypress at Alcxo in ^lexico, is 711 feet in girth; another at Santa INIaria del Tuli is 118 feet. A yew in Ibabourn church-yard, Kent, is consi- dered to be n,()00 years old; that at Iledsor, in Buckinghamshiic, 3,2 IK ycais; it measures 27 feet in diameter. I'liny I'ound Xumidian cedar 12(10 years old, in good preservation, in the temple of Apollo at Utica. A pile of the bridge at Trajan over the Danube was ii)un(l, when taken up, perforated '.j of an inch, but the remainder was in good condition, although upwards of sixteen centuries have ]iassed away. The timber forming the dome of St. Mark in Venice, is more than 800 years old and is in excellent preservation; and that of the roof of the basilica of St. Paul in Rome, framed A. D. 816 is still in a sound state. We shall now ])lace before the reader a few observations on the nature of the several kinds of timber; being indebted for them to several practical works: OAK {Qnereus Rohur). This tree is the most valuable of all those grown in England for the many important useful purposes to which its durable timber and astringent bark are applied. The Quereus Kobur, or common English Oak, the finest specimens of which are said to be grown in Sussex, is considered the best; the leaves have irregular sinuosities and short footstalks, and the acorns long ones. It is found in most temperate jiarts of Euro]ic. It attains a great size, is straight grained and fairly clear of knots. The grain is fine and of a red tinge. Wherever stiflFness is an object, this wood is excellent, for girders, joists, roofs, stairs etc., and it cleaves easily into pales, and laths for plasterers and slaters. In many respects it is similar to the German wainscot. The Qnereus Sc.isi/ljloni or Sessile fruited oak, is said to be the old Druidi- eal English or naval oak, although the Robur is more frequently met with in old forests. The acorns of the Sessile are set close to the branches, and the leaves have long footstalks with more regular sinuosities, and it is altogether not so elegant a tree as the Robur. In conse- quence of the elastic quality of the timber of the Sessile, it is considered admirable for ship building: it is rather liable to war]) and split, but its toughness and hardness are very great. It is not adapted, like the Robur, for laths, but what distinctions there are, ai-e perhaps more owing to differences of soil than to any specific distinctions between the varieties; and Sir PI. Davy observed they are nmch more likely to decay if grown on a moist than on a dry soil. The wood of the Sessile is darker in colour than the Robur; the grain is not so fine, and is often mistaken for Chesnut, but they nuiy l)e respectively known from the circumstance of the ches- nut not having the large transverse septa observable in oak, and the jjores of the alburnum are nmch smaller and more thinly set in the former. Besides these two species which arc indigenous in England, there are thirteen exotics. The Ksciihm, or holme oak, described by Vitruvius as ha\nng its "elements composed of emili. air, lire, idt that its quality is nnich deteriorated. .Norway export.- MO trees under Is im-lie- in diameter. Masts come froni liiga, is lo ■>.") inches in dia- meter and 70 or SI) feet long, and af^^o spars, which are less than IS iniiies in diameter. From the small size of those I'rom Norway, there is nmch sap in them, but the heart wood is stronger FJaUJ 6% tLU3TRATIONS ©F STREET ARCHITECTURE, ESDOM ir@IK Ih TQ'J^M InleySE euevATiiON' ^sifl |Bi^ HORIZONTAL SECTION THROUGH GROUND FLOOR WINDOWS to i Scale: or I i i i i I i i i i I »0 J Feet. TIIK TIMI'.Ki; riM.KS I'SKl) IX lilll.DIXC OTKHATIONS. 145 nnd mrire durable tlian tliat iVdiii otlicr trees. Fir is also inij)i>rteil li-din se\eral parts in the form of deals and planks. In Scotland this species attains, on good soils, a great size; one at Dunmore contained 300 cubic feet. The appearance of fir timber varies very considerably: it is generally of a red colour of different gradations of brightness; its concentric i-ings are rarely so much as i/io of an inch in thickness. The section exhibits hard and soft alternate layers, one light, the other dark coloured; and the annular rings are much thinner in those of the best kinds, and they do not cut so as to leave a rough or woolly surface: it has no larger transvei'se septa! when s]3ongy it is bad, but it works easily if it has not too much resin. If tiic saw is choked with a soft clammy resinous matter, this is a proof of the inferiority of the wood; and much from Sweden presents this defect, although the timber from thence is generally the toughest. The durability of fir is very great. ]\Ir. Brindley "thought the red Eiga deal, or pine wood, would endure as long as oak in all situations." There is an instance cited of its having been observed in the roof of a castle, three hundred years after it was placed there, as full of sap and as resinous as if just imjiorted. Its stiffness and superior lightness render it admirable for girders, joists, rafters, framing etc. and for all kinds of joinery. When protected it is almost as durable as oak, and it has the advantage of cheapness; for masts it is in constant requisition, as well as for other parts of vessels. None of it, however, is capable of liearing much strain, excepting in the direction of the length of its fibres. A cubic foot weighs, wlien dry, from HO to 40 lbs. That from Memcl is found to be the most suitable for size IIS inches scfuare being considered convenient; Eiga is the most esteemed for quality, and it may be used almost any- wlierc; it is also preferred for masts for the navy. Swedisli timber is the tougliest, and Dantzic the strongest. Evelyn says of fir timbers, — "They make our best masts, sheathing, etc., there- fore the whole vessel. It is pretty, says Pliny, to consider that those trees which are so nuich sought after for shipping should most dcliglit in the highest of mountains, as if tlicy fled from the sea on purpose, and were afraid to descend into the waters. With fir we likewise make wainscot, floors, laths, boxes, and wiicrever we use the deal; nor does there any wood so well agree with the glue as it, or so easy to be wrought. It is also excellent for beams, and other timber work in houses, being both light and exceedingly strong, where it may lie dry everlasting, and an extraordinary saver of oak, when it may be had at reasonable piice." In selecting it, sponginess and porousness in the grain should be avoided, as also all dead knots, and the bright- est in colour are the best specimens. ^A'lIlTE FIE {Pinus Ahie.'<). This is a genus of the Conifera% that from Norway being best known; it attains a great height with little bulk and furnishes the white deal or spars, commonly called the spntcc of Norway. Considerable quantities are imported from Christiana in deals 3 inches thick and nine inches broad; when these are cut into two, they are called whole deals; when into four split deals; and when cut into five, Jive cut stuff. They ai-c sold in this country by the 100 of 120. The colour is a yellow or brownish wliite; the knots are rather tough, and, in seasoning, deals shrink about a 70th or 90th part. A cubic foot of white fir weighs 34 lbs. It is more used than yellow fir for internal and ornamental work, cornices, panels, chimney pieces etc.; it also luiites with glue better than the yellow, and is durable in a dry state; but all fir should be well seasoned, for no wocjd is more apt to shrink and fly. ^Ir. Laxton saj-s that, "for framing, the best deals to be depended upon are the Norway, particularly the Christiana battens, and for panelling the Christiana whites; yellow Christiana deals cause much waste; being generally sappy; the best floors are Dram and Christiana whites; Stockholm and Gefle yellows for ground floors; Archangel and Onega planks for warehouse floors and staircases; Petersburg, Onega and Christiana battens for best floors. Swedish deals are not to be depended upon for framing; if tied up square at night they will be crooked in the morning." ^\ e should mention that battens are 7 inches wide; deals 9 inches, and planks 1 1 inches. AMEEICAN PINE {Pinus strolnis). This, which is called the Weymouth or white pine is a I'.t NO THE TniBl'.R TRF.KS I'SKO TN BrTLDTXC, OrKKATIOXS. ' innjestie tree, which has been known to tower to the height of 250 feet; it is imported from Canada and other parts of North America in logs about 30 feet long and 2 feet square. It is much vised for masts, has a clean strait grain, is light and soft, and very useful consequently in joinery; it also stands the weather tolerably. The colour is a brownish yellow, and the textm-e uniform; but it is not very durable and is very subject to the dry rot. The weight of a cubic foot is 29 lbs. THE YELLOAV PINE {Pinus mitis) is called in this country the New York, and having a great proportion ol' turpentine, it is often found very durable as well as strong. There are many other varieties of trees more or less used. The Quebec yellow pine may be used in dry work, but the lower port timber is not to be depended vipon. Tlie Silver Fir, called also the Pitch Fir; and the Chester Pine (pinaster) may also be mentioned as cultivated in the British plantations; they are both of fair quality. ELM (UhyiiiK.) This is a lofty and valuable tree of a very ornamental appearance. It is very probably an exotic, for the seeds never ripen in this country. The Ulinu/f cmnpeiitris is that chiefly used for coffins, and it is the hardest and most durable of the English species. The i'lmii.'! .iiiheroxa is very connnon in Sussex, and is not so valuable. The- Montana, or broad-leaved, is that most commonly ]iroduccd in Europe. The qlahra, or wych elm, is common in Essex, and is used by wheel wriglits: tlie ^fajor, or Dutch elm, is very inferior in quality- The colour of the heart-wood is of a reddish brown, and it is darker than that of oalc, and'the sap-wood is of a brownish-white coloiu-. The weight of a cubic foot is about 48 lbs. Elm has no large septa; it has a jteculiar smell, is ]50rous. cross grained, warps greatly in drying, and diminishes considerably in Ixitli lengtli and breaddi, and it is very difficult to \\ork. It is very d\irablc in situations where it is constantly wet, and it was used for the ])iles of old London Piridge; we have ourselves a specimen as firm as ever; it is also durable in a dry state. It will not however bear alternate wet and dryness, and it is consequently, of little value for the general purposes of the liuilder. For ])iles, ]ium])s, keels of ships, etc. it is admirable; and, as it is very cross- grained and not liable to split, it bears well the drift of bolts and nails, and it is much in use for drc-sers, chopping boards, etc. BEECH (Fapiia Si//ratini). This fine, loftv, stately tree is commonly found on the chalky and limestone districts. Pliny describes it as one of the thirteen species of trees bearing masts or acorns. The wood is smooth, hard and close, its transverse fibres very ob^dous and the grain dry and even. It is very subject to the worm, and the seasoning should therefore be very carefully attended to. Beech is easy to work, the white being the hardest, the black, according to Evelyn more durable; it is also tougher. In a dry state it is very liable to crack and split; under water it is very lasting, and is much used for piles and planking; but from the injurious effects of the least dam])ncss at the ends, it is very little used in building. It is in great vogue for tools, its hardness and uniform texture being peculiarly desirable; it is also in demand for I'urniture. WALNUT (Jnrilann retfia). Although ciiiefly regarded as a fruit tree, the lightness and durabil- ity of its timber and the- facility with which it may be worked render it very useful. Evelyn re- marks, — "What universal use the French make of the timber of this tree foiS^lomestic aflairs may be seen in every room, both of poor and sick: it is of singular account with the joiner for the best grained and coloured wainscot, etc." It was also jjraised by the Greek authors for furniture. Excepting cedar, walnut is less liable than any otiier wood to be infected by worms: the texture is very cross grained, and it has a beautiful vein; it will neither war]) nor crack, and its rich brown colour is preferred to mahogany by many persons for furniture. It was greatly used by the ancients for building, and would probably be so now, were it not for its scarcity. Ii is however too flexible for beams; rooms wainscoted with it have a good effect, and although it does not work so easily as mahogany, it may be brought to a smoother surface. It is in considerable re(iuisition for cabinet-work, gun stoiks, screws of presses, etc. ESII©M F@K L. ATE LLi FRONT ELEVATION GROUND PLAN 10 J Scale of I--^ ^ i i ' ' i —t- THE Tnimn; ii^kks tsed tx r.i'ir.DTxr; opErjAiKiNS. 147 ^IAIKXtAXY {Swieiania M a great height, with a diameter of almut o feet. It makes excellent floors, roofs, joists etc., but the expense has limited its application in tliis country to doors, handrails of stairs, wndows, etc. Mahogany is also used in ])arts of machiiierv, and," from its taking a high polish, it is admirable for furniture and wherever ornamental effect is studied. The wood is very hard, is held firmly with glue, and from the circumstance of its not splintering when struck by shots, it is very applicable for ships of war. Some idea may be formed of the value of the best Spanish Mahogany from the fact that the ilessrs. Broadwood gave £ 3,000, for three logs, each 38 inches square, and 15 feet long. l{atteen, a common species, is nmch used for shop fronts. A cubic foot of mahogany weighs from about 35 to 54 lbs. MAPLE is not subject to warp and twist and is very light. The Ijird's eye majjle has beautiful shades to its spots, and is highly prized as an ornamental wood. It Avas used by the Komans for oi'uamental tables. CEDAE [Ci.'ilrns pinus) This tree grows to an immense size, its colour is a rich yellow brown, and the annual rings consists of two layers, one three or foiu- times the thickness and softer than the other. It is not subject to worms, and it works easily. "\^'e have before quoted the instance mentioned by Pliny of its durability; it was used by Solomon in his temple, and Vitru^^us says that the timber work of the temples of anticpiity were of this wood. The trunk grows some- times 50 feet high, and the mean weight per cubic foot is about 10 lbs. The white and red cedar is adapted for joiners work and furniture; and the latter, used for lead pencils, comes from the West India islands, Xorth America and Japan. Bridges constructed of the East Indian Cedar have stood the torrent for 500 years. LARCH {Pi)nis /orLr). This tree is of a most beautiful figure, \\ith an elegant stem, tapering to a point, with pendiUous branches. In many parts of the country it is gradually superseding the common fir, although it is only of late years that it has been greatly cultivated in Kngland as a timber tree. Bv the ancients this wood was highly prized. Vitruvius regretted the diftu-idty of transporting it to Pome; it was procm-ed from Phetia and Switzerland. Scamozzi thought larch the most useful of all woods for construction. ^^ iebekiiig jneferred it to jiinc, pinaster and fir for timber bridges. It is of a redcUsh brown colour, and more difflcidt to work than ^lemel timber, though, not being so knotty, it is first-rate for carpenter's work, and is well ada])ted from its strength for girders, beams, joists etc. It is however \(iy liable to warp aud twist, l)ut, if properly seasoned, will stand well. It is much used for water pijies iii France and Switzerland, and the Swiss cover their houses with larch shingles, and finish also the interior with this wood; for which latter purpose its power of taking a high polish after planing renders it jjeculiarly suitable. Larch is very durable in most situations, failing generally only when other woods would do so: it is good for flooring, boards, and stairs where there is a great amount of wear, 10* 148 THE TIMBKU TREES USED IN lilTLDlNtJ Ol'EKATIOXS. and it i:r excellent for posts, pales, and situations where exposed to weather. A cubic foot weighs about 30 lbs. POPLAR (Popu/u^). This tree grows rapidly to a great height, and there are 6ve species culti- ^ated in England. The colour is a bro^^Tiish white and the annual rings are uniform in texture. \'itrivius reconuncnds poplar where great strength is not required. It is used for flooring boards, does not easily split by nails, and E\elyn remarks that it "l)urns untowardly." For any pur- poses when there is not a great amount of wear poplar may be used. ALDER (,l/;(((.-). This tree florlshes on a damp bog-earth soil, and is very valuable for piles and water pii)es. It works verv easily and is good for models, for casting. Vitru\-ius says the buildings of Ra\enna, stand on piles of this wood, and Evelyn asserts that the celebrated bridge of the Rialto, in \'enice, is similarly .-upported. It weighs when dry 48 or 50 lbs. per cubic foot. Birch is a species of alder. ASH (Ra.riiiu.'i e.rrelsior). This is a very valuble hard-wooded tree, and it is common in Eiu'ope and the nothern parts of Asia: it grows with a straight trunk to a great size; the young- wood is more \alual)le tiian that which is old, but the character of the soil considerably modifies it. ^Mien the wood is young it is easy to work, but, after seasoning it becomes tough and hard. The texture is porous and compact, and of a brownish colour; that of young trees being white, with a greenish hue. The weight of a cubic foot is when dry about 50 lbs. ■ If subjected to alternate dryness and moisture the timber of this tree is not durable, but it is so if protected from the weather. It is much used for many rural purposes, independantly of its deficiency in durability, but it is much superior, according to Tredgold, to any other wood for its toughness and elasticitv; and it is nuich used where sudden shocks arc to be sustained, as ])Osfs of imple- ments and machines. SYCAMORE, OR GREAT MAPLE {Acer p.'^emh-plofaimx). This is a hardy, native tree ^^hi(•ll grows more i-apidly than most other hard woods. Tlie colour is a yellowish Ijrown, when old, and white and silky, when young, and it is sometimes variegated: the annular rings are indistinct and the textm'C uniform, compact and fine grained, it is diu'able in a dry state, but is very subject to the attacks of the woiun. Sycamore is much employed for hoiischold utensils and objects in turnery, and in furnishing the wooden platters used in the olden days in England together with other liouschold utensils. Ware remarks that it was formerly used in England for floors in houses wainscoted with poplar. BOX (Bii.rus xciiipi'i-rirciis). This is generally grown as an evergreen shrulj but sometimes attains a height ol' lio I'ect. Its timber is imported from Turkey: when an exceedingly fine cross- grain is required this is softer, more curly and p;dcr than the European. Box is a valualile wood of a warm yellow colour and very hca\ y and durable. For the wood engraver it is in almost exclusive use; it takes a fine j)olish and is nuich cnqiloyed by turners, also by mathemati- cal instrument makers for rules and scales. I'laiud, its siu'facc is as smooth as polished metal. WIIjLOW {Sali.i-). This is a very extensi\ e gcntis, iiicliidiiig those shi'ubby sjjecies, the osiers, used for basket making. It is both soft and light, if kept i'rom wet, and is excellent for rafters and light timbers: the Homtms used it for .-hidds. PLANE {I'hitdiiitu orii'iilalin). This tree grows \ery lofty and straight: Pliny mentions one at Lycia SI feet in circumference. The wood resembles beech in some respects: it works easily, is used lor furniliire, ;in(l is alsn apjilicd b\' the jiiiiicr and caiiiiict maker. The North Aiiicric;iii ])lane is used in the construction of (piays, and is very durable immersed in water. ACACI.V {I'olihiiu jisciKhi-drnria). This is a highlv ornamental and also a ^;duablc timlHT tree. Ill ^'il■ginia It is called the focust tree. It is \ery (linalilc for ((mstructivi' purposes, and it is more heavy, harder and tougher than oak, more elastic, and its lateral strength is also siqierior. It is used by Mill-w rights for cogs etc., and it is tidiiiirable for posts placed in the groimd, fences, pales, etc. and lor most jiurpuscs to which oak is applied. E,TAILS TO N»5, ^^ ^ — Hf=# ENTRANCE SHOP ■ D£TA( US TO N?4. Scale of FtET A.H.PajT>.e sc Tiir. rriMnKU ti;kes used in liriLorNi; operations. 149 CYPRESS is very diiialilc and has been supposed to lip the (lophi'r used in the ark. In Egy])t, it was used I'or tiio nninnny cases and constantly by the ancients for statutes etc. This wood is harder than j)ino. is of a fine grain, of a yellowish red colour. IIORNBEAIM is an inferior timber tree. It is a hard tenacious wood in\ahiable to the ])lough and cart-wright and ibr cogs of wheels, etc. IKJLIjY seldom reaches a great size and the veins are scarcely perce|)tible. Its timber is white and hard, and is valuable for veneering and also to the joiner, engineer and cabinet maker. LDIE is nnicli used for ornamental carxing and cabinet work, for which its creamy, whiter colour, its softness, lightness and the firmness of its grain render it admirable: it is of a pale yellow colour, easy to Avork and adapted for carriage panels, sounding boards etc., the white ])ortions of the Tunbridge-ware patterns arc mostlj^ formed of it, and the ancients used it for sculi)ture. LIGNUM VIT^E is a hard wood much used by millwrights and others. OI.1IVE was greatly used by the ancients to tie their walls together, and also in roofs. It is sirited for the purposes of the carpenter and joiner, and, when covered, is very lasting. TURTOSx^, OR AFRICAN TEAK is usefrd for the same purposes as oak; and the finlini, oak or teak is used oir alirrost every occasioir in India. LABURNUjM is a hard and compact wood and very durable when exposed to the weather: it is much used liy turners. IRON BARK is from New South A^'^ales: it is a valuable wood, admitted only since the period of the Great Exhibition among the eiglit adopted as first-rate in the Enghsh Dock yards for ship buikhng, and consequently proved applicable to very many purposes on land. It resembles pale Itrown Siianish Mahagony, and appears to be the most solid and heavy of all woods. Its strerrgth is l.").")7 (that of oak being 1000), and the density is 1.42G. JlIE I'OLi.invisa IS a Iamle or the ilMBEHS USED FOR VAlaoU: < rri U'OSES. General rnnstruffiini. Jjuiiili/i in ]\\t Works. lllirillilr ill Kri, ir,.,7,.s. Oak Oak Oak Poplar Fir Elm Deal Alder Pine Beech Poplar Ash Chesnut Alder Chesnut Svcamore Elm White Cedar Cedar AViUow Beech Plane Teak Plane Teak Teak Olive Acacia Walnut Larch Pines Cypress jNIahogany Plane (N. Americ an) A^'alnut Hornbeam Cedar Acacia Mahogany IIollv Larch Iron Bark Maple Olive Poplar Cedar Iron-bark Aeaeia Larch Spruce fir (scaftbld ladders etc.) For I\f/ff rii.s for iron Works. l/,n,l,st lui.jlisli Wo, nts. Deal Box m .Mder Pine Mahogany Elm Beech Oak Walnut 150 TllK TI.MI5ER TREES USED IX BUILDIXC Ol'EKATUlNS Tlie fullowinu- useful Tabic is cnin]iile(l from Crcsy's Encycloiianlia of Civil Engiiieering and Gwilt's tran.slation from a ^synopsis in Kondelet's work. The ]irimitive horizontal strength of Oak is considered as liliio, and its vertical strength at S07. Jli'iUi l)ci''lit of Trunk Acacia 12.79 Aider 44.77 Ash 38.37 Beech 44.77 Birch 47.97 Box 15.99 Cedar m.k; Chesnut 44.77 Ebony 19.18 Elm 44.77 Fir ,57.56 Larch Lime Oak 44.77 Pine 47.97 Plane 44.77 Poplar 47.97 Sycamore -31.98 Walnut 47.97 Yew 15.99 ifii." (Jravity Primitive IIiirizont;il Primitive \'ertFcal .Stronntli 8treni;tlt 789 780 1228 655 644 780 789 1(172 1112 72(» 1032 986 7(12 853 861 919 110(1 1444 6(t3 627 720 720 957 950 1054 1155 1(162 738 1077 1075 542 918 851 843 902 750 717 905 1000 807 612 882 804 622 728 830 415 586 680 645 900 968 680 900 733 77S 1(137 1375 From this it is seen that the trunk of Cedar attains the greatest altitude 51.16 feet, and that of Acacia the least, 12.79 feet; that Ebony has the utmost specific gra\ity 1,((54, and Poplar the lowest; that Box wood is the most distinguished for primitive horizontal strength, and Poplar least so; and that it is also thus with reference to the primitive vertical strength of the timber in the list. On referring to Iron-bark it will be seen, however, from the figures given, that its strensth is suT)erior, 1,557. A\'e conclude our notice with a table which will give our readers an idea oi' the relative amount of timber imported into this country in 1849, and of the ijuarters from whence it came. Timlier L()iii(> Deals Teat Staves Lash wood Brit. North Aiiicriea 578.71>> 168.572 9 45,614 14.813 Prussia 117.470 35.0(16 19.213 6.169 Piissia 41.110 173.586 325 15.539 Sweden 2S.()79 70.S43 1.50 1.119 Norway 28.930 50.^05 95 103 United States 13.832 839 13.309 Hanse To\vn8 2.441 68 1.(112 Tuscany 2.299 9 I'apal-Territories 2.1(16 3 Britinh (iuinea 4 10 4 • 1 03 Australia 077 540 1 1 I'lriti.'-Ii IihIIii 1 2 17.459 56 A\'('stern Africa 1 (1 9, .596 Miscllaiicous 1.(102 I'.ll 633 36 79.917 57 Total loads 817.909 809.783 27 .702 37.800 [C;[g§]©li!0 l;'©!^ 2) S Df/1 - |iy [£ j-/fttt3!iaiLY swr. < : 'c;i?;;3. r r gllPE ELEVATHOI] flLAIHj OF rjRST FLOOR 151 TIIK PKKSEllVA'nOX OF TLMBKK AND THE P15RVENTI0X UF DFCAY. The various modes of seasoning and preserving Timber are of (lie first iniportanee to tlie Practical Builder. The object to be attained in seasoning is to remove the sap, or the watery parts of the allnirnum, in the recently formed layers of wood. In the proportion that moisture and warmth exist, the more rapid is the decay of timber used in construction. Timber constantly dry will last an indefinite period, and some constantly wet will endure a long time; but few woods can long resist alternations of dryness and moisture. Those whicii do so best are fully described in a former section. The natural juices must be got rid of by seasoning, that tlic w(iod may become hard, dry, and fit for use. For this reason timber imported is generally formed into floats on the Thames and elsewhere, as the running water dilutes and washes out the juices in penetrating' all the jjores. As the water also does rrrr :iT\^ii~ ~1JZZ znz F~7) fH^ ^ -t L -r ]''frious methods of stacl'itig timher. 152 THE Pnr.SKKVATIOX fiF TniRF.R AXn TITK PREVKNTIOX OF DECAY. not contain any quality to produce fermentation and is easily evaporated, the timber is greatly improved for building purposes. It should be thoroughly dried before being taken to the pit to be sawn. We have already mentioned how it should be stacked in the yard; and if cut into boards, these should be piled or put in a triangular form in such a manner that the air may circulate freely around. A few modes of stacking timber are illustrated on page 151. Of course the larger the pieces, the longer time \vH\ elapse before perfect seasoning. Salt M'ater is preferred for shijj timber, but it requires more time tiian fresh water to evaporate from the wood. Gradual drying is always preferable; the more gradual the better. It is of the utmost impor- tance that timber should be thoroughly dried before it is cut into small scantlings, or a consi- derable amount of shrinkage will be the consequence, and it will also be much more liable to warp and twist. In water seasoning about a fortnight is sufficient time for the wood to be submerged. For the steaming and boiling process about four hours is the usual time for the continuance of tlie operation. ^Ir. Partington obsen'es, — "If a piece of wood be boiled in water for a certain time, then taken out and immediately bent into any particular form, and it be retained in that form imtil it be dry, a permanent change takes place in the mechanical re- lations of its parts; so that, when relieved though it will spring back a little, yet it will not return to its natural form. The same effect may be produced by steaming wood; but though both these methods have been long practised to a considerable extent in the art of ship-building, we are not aware that any general princijjles have been discovered cither by experiment or other- wse that will enable us to apply it to an art like joinery where so nnich precision is rc(juired. We are aware that it has ])een tried; but before it can be rendered extensively uscfid the relation between the curvature to which it is bent and tliat which it assumes when relieved should be de- termined and also the degree of curvature which nia}^ be given to a piece of a stated thickness. For the joiner's purposes we imagine that the process might lie greatly improved l)y saturating the convex side of each piece with a strong solution of glue immediately after bending it. By filling in this manner the extended ]>ores and allowing the glue to harden thoroughly before re- lic\ing the jiieccs they would retain their shape better." Smoke-ch-ying, scorching, and chai'ring, are also processes applied to season wood, and -when posts and piles are to be driven into the earth, charring is excellent: but to use it to green timber is very bad, confining as the oiieration does the juices whicb should be allowed to exude. The same excellent authority (juoted above remarks. "The seasoning of timber by fire is the best way of all for piles and other pieces that are to stand under the earth or in water. The Venetians first found out this method, and the way by which they do it is this; they put the pieces to be seasoned in a strong and violent flame; in this they continually turn it round by means of an engine and take it out when it is even- way covered with a thick coaly crust; by this means the internal part of the wood is so hardened that neither earth nor water can damage it for a lonl;r.VF.NTION OF DF.CAV. 155 ■//'/" '//, all round the huiliHiiLi: will ^o l';ir tnwiirds rt'iiicdvinn' this latter e\il, for it will ])revent the earth resiiiii; against the walls. \ (lamp course ahove this i'oruied with eeiueut, slates, asplialte, jr-is tar, lead, or otliei- ai)j)rojiriate materials, will aid the purpose in view; tlic'damp course at least should never l>e neg'leetcd where the least suspicion of moisture exists. The siink stories of houses iiuist invarialily lie sui'rounded liy open areas of the whole lenn'tli of the part oxea^•ated and as wide and open as possible; if the ijrouiul is sloped towards them, a free current of air would he promoted. The carcase of the house, as soon as roofed over, should he left as long as possible to drv bef(U'e the finishings are added, so as to allow the timbers to get settled to their proper bearings and avoid undue sinkings, cracks in plastering etc.: this foi-ms what is termed a second seasoning. Evelyn says, — "Timber that you have occasion to lav in mortar, or which is in any part contiguous to lime, as doors, window cases, ground sills, the extremities of lieams etc. have sometimes been capped with molten pitch as a marvellous preserver of it from the burning and destructive effects of the lime; but it has since been found rather to lieat and decay them, by harilcniug the transudation which those parts require; better sujjplied with loam or strewings of brick dust or pieces of boards; some leave a small hole for the air. But though lime be so destructive, whilst timber thus Ijes dry, it seems thcj- mingle it with hair to keep the worm out of ships, which they sheathe for southern voyages, though it is held much to retard their coin-sc". It is an excellent practice to rest the ends of beams usually built up and surrounded with lime in the wall, in the manner sliown; by this means there is a i'ree circulation oi' air around, tending much to prevent that too common decay conunencing at the ends of timbers, and all danger of settlement arising front the pressure of the superincumbent materials on the compressible and decaving wood is in a great measure nullified. In reference also to the injurious effects of lime Tredgold observes, — "Quicklime, assisted by moisture, has a powerful effect in hastening the decomposition of wood, in consequence of its abstracting carbon. jNIild lime (carbonate of lime) has not this effect. But mortar requires a considerable time to bring it to the state of mild lime; therefore bedding tii^ber in mortar, or building it in walls, where it will long remain in a damp state in contact with mortar, is very injurious, and often the cause of rapid decay. — A\ ood in a perfectly dry state docs not appear to Ijc injured by dry lime; of this we have examples in plastering laths which arc generally found sound and good in places where they have been dry, Lime also protects wood from worms. Volatile and fixed tills, resin, and wax, are equally susce]itible of decay as woody fibres under the same circumstances; hence, we see the improjiricty of attempting to protect wood in any situation where the coat of paint etc. cannot be renewed from time to time, and also that woods abounding in resinous matters cannot be more duralile than odiers." If pitch, tar, or paint is applied before the wood is seasoned, decay nuist ensue from the forcible confinement of the juices which ought to have been previously allowed to evaporate; and, for the same reason, painted floor cloths which ]ire\cnt the access of atmospheric air, are similarly iiijiu-ious; carjjcts however necessary, arc detrimental if placed over boards insufficiently seasoned. Timber not painted will be often found to last longer than that so covered; and this has been observed in many instances when the iiaiuted portion was rotten sooner than the exposed part. The carpenters in the JMiddlc Ages generally repudiated paint, preferring the , natural appearance of the wood used to any ;utificial imitations, conveying to the mind a false idea of the nature of it. They were more truthful than wc are; and in many old baronial halls and in many a (juict sequestered village church their handiwork still endures, and the havoc and wear of five centuries have made comparatively little im-oad on the durability of the wood framings. The undressed elm weather- boarding (jf old English barns has a hard external surface acquired in the course of time, and to which it owes its duration; it is apparently a coating of silica, impervious to moisture; and so hard that it resists the edge of a sharj) tool. Mr. Cresy 2,j« 156 THE PRESEKVATION OF TIMI'.EU AND THE PliEVENTION OF DEL'AV. exjn-esses his opinion, that tliis "sihca may be derived from tlie deconij)osition of wlieat straw with wliich tiic hams are usually tliatdied." Tiie Duteh preserve their gates and draw-bridges by coating them with a mixture of pitch and tar, witli jiounded shells, sand and ashes strewed ujion it. Semple says, in his treatise on Building in AVater, — "after your work is tied up, or even put together, lay it on the groimd, with stones or bricks under it to about a foot high, and burn wood (which is the best firing for the purpose) under it, till you thoroughly heat and even scorch it all over; then, whilst the wood is hot, rub it over ])lentifuily with linseed oil and tar, in equal parts, and well boiled together, and let it be kept boiling while you are using it; and this will imme- diately strike and sink (if the wood be tolerably seasoned) one inch or more into the wood, close all (he pores and make it become exceedingly hard and durable cither under or over water." Sanding painting is a most excellent practice: a coating composed of a mixture of sul) - sulphate of iron ground in oil and made fluid mth coal-tar mixed with jiitch is recommended by Chapman. We coidd wish to add more on this interesting and usefid subject did our limits allow us to do so. We think, however, we have sketched t)Ut all the iiiorejirominent iniormation with which it is absolutely requisite that the Builder shoidd be familiar; and those who desire to go further into the matter are referred to the several authors whose valuable works have been quoted. DESIGN FOR A DETACHED TOWN HOUSE. Plates 50. 51.* The accomodation provided in this design comprises an Entrance Hall, and Hall, open Stair- case with Stairs to Basement, all well lighted and roomy. A door opens' into a lobby leading to W. C. and covered Vei'andah, with steps to the Garden. A China Closet is ])laccd five steps up the stairs. The rooms on the Ground Floor consist of A Drawing Room with three windows . . , . 20' „ (>" X 12' „ 0" A Dining Room, communicating by means of folding doors with the Drawing Room . . I 4' „ 0" X 10' „ Ci" A Library, or Bi-eakfast Parlour 12' „ 0" X 7' „ 0" A Conservatory, communicating with the Ijilu'ary and Dining Room Kr „ 9" X S' „ 0" The ground is not to be excavated under the Library :uid Conser\atory except for the luat- ing ap])aratus (if rc(|Hisite). The Basement is to have a Kitchen, Scullery, I>arder, I'antrv, A\'. C. Closets, Area at liack, with steps up to Garden. The door to the heating apparatus will be in the Scullery, ami the ( '(lals, la'pt tbei-e. ■ The first Floor contains A Front Bed Room . . . 1 4' „ (I" X 12' ,, d" A Dressing Room . . . . 12' „ 0" X 5' .. d" A P.ack Bed Room . . . 10' „ 9" X 10' „ 9" A Front Bed Wooin . . . 9 „ 0" x: S' „ 0" A Xui-scry, or Dressing Kooiii 12' „ G" x; 7' „ O" 'W. C. and Closets. The Attic Floor contains four good secondary Bed Booms and two large (^losels, but this floor may be divided and aiiprojjiialcd as coUMiiicnt. The roof slopes into the rooms and thcv are lighted by small dormer windows. The (iiound h'loor is rai.-cd !! (c( t abo\c ihc KncI of the ground, and is II' „ !{ ' in height: the Basement is 9 fut-liigli, the I'"irst Floor lO' „ (i" and the Attic Floor 7' „ li" in the clear. l"or description of I'lutu Hi. 47. 4>5. .see I'nge (il and for description of plate 49 sec Pugc (10. V/tTH A FRONTAGE OF 4 FEET. PI»J,y 50. ,£31, FSlOllinr ELEVATIieiN KITCHEN OFFICES BE LOW DKSICN FOr. A DF.TACIir.D ToWX IIOUSK. ]!'}'! The Elexatioiis (li'ix'iid i'or tlu'li- ctt'ect on tlie contrastccl use of red and yellow brinks, stone and cement work being a\(iided. It is always desirable to use real material instead of counter- feits. Of these latter cement is one we can never look at witii satisfaction, it is \crv rarely so executed as to realFy look like that which it would npiicar, \'y/.: stone, and the colour is usually so intensely disagreeable, and the material itself so Himsy in effect, and so suggestive of a false and patching economy, of an aim after finery, when beauty cannot be attained, that wc would, if we were able, altogether abolish its use. Another objection to cement is, that it is usu;d!v a coating to the most inferior work and bricks so crundiling and unsightly that, if tlicv were to appear, they could not be employed. Now an infinitely better and more pleasing effect than that of cement, one which we venture to say will more readily please in nine instances out of ten, consists in the proper contrasting of bricks of various colours. This is at once productive of a cheerful effect, is economical, tends to prevent the introduction oC bad bricks, and is in- finitely more trutlifnl, and therefore more in accordance with the rules of good taste tiian any ridiculous imitations and counterfeits of stone work. Hut it may be said on the other hand, that brick is a common material. Nations, however far su|)crior to us, did not think so, but, on the contrary, saw that brickwork was preferable for exterior use to any species of plastering. ]Mr. Ilojie remarks in his Historical Essay on Architecture that "the ancient l\o- nians, whenever thev found clay more abundant or easier to work than stone, used it plentiiuliy both in regular layers throughout the luidy of walls, as we do, and as an external reticulated coating is from the fineness of its texture and the firmness of its joints, as durable as stone itself. Indeed, far from considering brick only as a material fit for the coarsest and indispensable ground work of architecture, they regarded it as eijually fit for all the elegancies of ornamental form, all the details of rich architraves, capitals, frcizcs, cornices and other embellishments. Some- times it owed to the mould its ^•arious forms, and at others, as at the Amphitheatre Castrense and the temple of the God R'uHruhis to the Chisel." In Pavia in the North of Italy we see bricks used in all the delicate tracery of the j\Iiddle Ages, and at Milan for the arabesijues and scroll-work of the cinque-cento style. In the South of France, more especially at Toulouse, remarkable instances of ornamental brickworks exist: and along the Rhone carved tiles are formed into very elegant cornices and balustrades. In Englanil however cement is apparently considered extremely beautiful, and the elegant moulded and carved brickwork, would p)robal)ly be thought excessively vulgar. We content ourselves however with just indicating our ideas on the subject, and we have no douljt the few hints we have given, will be sufficient to disabuse the minds of many of our readers of the prejudice existing in favoiu' of the combined beauty and utility of cement. The walls of the Elevations given, may be of (jrdinary stock bricks (25 shillings pel- thousand) or faced with Yellow ilalms (£ 2 „ 5 „ per thousand) or of white Suffolk Bricks {£ 1 „ 15 „ per thousand) all neatly ])ointcd with a neat fiat parallel ruled joint. The Ked Bricks may be Kentish Ked bricks (£ 2,. 5„ per thousand). The arches to be all turned in half brick rings, bonded through with a wIkjIc brick, where the joints meet; the skewbacks to be accurately cut and all axed and tuck-printed or gauged rubbed and set in putty or cement. The cornices are to be Ibrmcd in brickwork, cut and moulded, with blocks, as shewn, and neatly pointed. The cost of the house, if built of stock and Kentish red bricks, will be within £ SOd. We shall here resume our miscellaneous remarks on the arrangenunits and fittings of do- mestic habitations, and we cannot do so better than by a ([notation from a quaint old author before cited, Dr. Fuller, prebcndaiy of Sarinn. "First, let not the conunon rooms be several nor the several rooms common; that the conunon rooms tihould not be jn-ivate or retired as the hall, galleries etc. which are to be open; and the chambers closets etc. retired and private, provided die whole house be not spent in paths. Light (Ciod's eldest Daughter) is a principal beamy in a Inii/diiifi; yet it shines not alike from all parts of the heavens. \n cast window gives the in- fant beams oi' the sun before thev are of strength to do harm, a:ul is offensive to none but a 158 DKSKiN I'OR A DETACllLl) TOWN HOUSE. sluffo-ard. A south window in summer is a cliimnev with a fire in it, and stands in need to he DC sci-eened hv a curtain (or outside hhnd, our autlior siioidd Iiave said). In a west window the sun oTows low, and over f'amihar towards nigiit in summer time, and with more hght tiian delight. \ north window is hest i'or hiuteries and cellars, where the Ijeer will he sour, hecause the sun smiles upon it. Thrar larger; the door however must be obvious and easy to be found. The second opening is that of tlii' windows, tlirougli which the stairs arc lighted; tlic\' .-Iionid be in llic iniddic and large cnougji t', A C, it will, if there is no counterhalaminir force, be urircd in the direction of the diagonal or equivalent .1 />: and a single force pressing in this direction would produce the same eftc'ct as the other two forces. A s(iuarc C is iierccived to be the result of tiie develojiemcnt of tliese forces. ©ESiK&iras ?®R wrrrrrf irrrrrf -^YowiHi ^BSooEtraesaj See'TllOINl CM THE LtNie A.e. DETAILS OF DORMERS SCALE TO S E C T r O N I I ' ' I ' ' ' ' ' ' rrr' SCALE TO DETAILS. rilK .-MlCCilANHAI. IMIINCUM.I.S OF fAUl'KN lUV. |l'>l liiiilv .1, arc 111' uii((|iial inirn.-ity, tin; lurce prcssiiifr ill ilic (lircctioii A, II, Kcliiij,' iw'nc ilie iiiteii.-ai-allel<)j;raiii, the Icnjitli of its lines exhibiting comparatively the I'orces, wlun \vc draw all the Hues connected with the c.\i)eriineut. The two forces acting in the direction .1 />', .1 (\ are called components, and ilic single force .1 I >, lln' rcsullant. The process of lindiii^' this sinp;lc force is termed the roniposition of forn'x, and tliat of finding- two forces ccpial to a single one is Cidlcd i\u' /rsn/n/iiui of forrcx; or, in other words, (lie /r.v(>/c//K/ ol' the force .1 I K'nwo A ii, .\ C. We will now illiis(ratc tliis simple matter and apply it to carpentry hy stating the mode of resolving fiirccs, or finding whether two given forces, or pressures, are sufficiently strong to answer their ohject- that is, to act together as one force would in the direction of their diagonal. Let .1 /.', (see ])late II. tig. 1.) he the king post of a roof, and .1 (', -I l>, the rafters, and we wish to ascertain whether they are sufficiently strong to carry the weight imposed upon them. Draw the dotted central Une J />', representing in length the integer, or numher of pounds resting, or pressing, at .1; draw also the dotted lines A C,A 1>, parallel to the respective rafters, and simi- larly connect B C, B D; the ixiints of intersection at (' and V. determine the weight resting on eacii rafter; for if .1 B, represents the number of pressing pounds at A, the result of tiie combination of rafters is that the dotted line AD, represents in jjroportion to .1 B, the nund)er of pounds resting on the one rafter and .1 C, the weight by -which the other is strained. The fact of one rafter being lonn-er than the other does not at all affect the relative distribution of the weight, but the effects of the strain are of course modified by the length of the piece on which it is e.xerted. The compression must be taken into consi- deration, and a rafter double the length of another will be compressed twice as much; therefore the scantling must be increased in ])roi)or- tion. If the angle of the rafter is varied (as in fig. 2.) the pressure will be difl'crently distributed from that in fig. 1. as will be perceived by drawing the dotted lines in the manner described. In fact the moi-e obtuse the angle of the rafters, the greater is the strain exerted upon them: a very obtuse angle sustains an 'enormous proportionate amount of pressure, and a compara- tively slight alteration will make a considerable difference in the strength of the combination. Of coiu-se, if the slopes are ci|ual on bdih sides, the straining force is equally distributed, and roofs are usually eonstrueted thus: if the timbers are inverted and each beam is pulled in the opposiif direction, the iirojiortionate strains are just as described, and the .same formula applies. If the form of the framing is changed as in Fig. !!. nuieli the same result is the conscciuenee, but the strains are increased or diminished in pro])ortion to the character of the angle; if it is as in the margin, an enormous strain is the result: and, as above remarked, the more obtuse or open the angle .1 against which the fone presses, the greater arc the strains exerted on the tindjcrs forming the sides of the angle. "All calculations about the strength of carpentry are reduced to this ease: for when more ties or braces meet in a point (a thing that rarely happens) we reduce them to three by subsiitming for any two the force which resuhs from their coniliinaiion. and then enmbinim;- this with another, and so on." It is of the highest ini- '.'1 102 THE M1■:C11A^■K■AL IT.INClI'Lr.S tiF CAia'EMRY. nortance uot to mistake the eliurack'i- of the tlcscription of strain, wliidi is exerted on any piece of timber and the followinij rule is given by Dr. Tlionias Young for distinguishing between a strut and a tie. "Take notice of the direction, in whidi tlie piece acts, from which the strain j)rocecds. Draw a hue in tliat (hrection from the [loint on wliich (lie strain is e.xcrted, and let its length (measured on some scale of e, are to be estimated in the direction of the points F, and G, from the strained point .1. In general, if the straining piece is within the angle formed l)y the pieces which are strained, the strains which they sustain are of the opposite kind to that which it exerts. If it be ])ushing, they are drawing; but if it l)c within the angle formed l;)y their directions produced, the strains which liicy sus- tain, are of the same kind. All the three arc cither drawing or pressing. If the straining piece lie within the angle fornie(l by one piece and the jnoduced direction of the other, its own strain, whether compression or extension, is of the same kind with that of the most remote of the other two, and ojiposite to that of the nearest." A triangle, we may observe, is the sole figure the form of which cannot be changed witliout altering the })roportion of the sides, and which cannot therefore yield without separating its angles, or tearing asunder its sides; all frame work should be constructed on a system of triangles, or be dixided by them into tics, and struts. The triangular form is given to the frame- work supporting the parts of a wooden bridge, or a roof of wide sjian, by combining two or more polygons of beams, as in the principal in the margin. By infinitely increasing the number of these polygons and keeping Va the dimensions of the sides of each very small, the frame will become a continuous wooden arch, formed of small timbers bolted together with joints across: and this species of timber arch has been fre([uent1y used, as in that of the Riding House in Moscow, 235 feet span, and a bridge near I'orlsmoulli, U. S. 270 feet span and 27 feet high. A tniHs is a -system of framing cnij)loyed to increase the strength of a single beam, which is then said to be trussed; or, as it has been defined, any arrangement of timbers to sup])()r( a weight by their direct or lengthways strength; that is by compression and tension, witliout lial)ility to tlexiu-c: and this is the only scientific mode of combining fibrous materials to sup- port roofs, bridges etc. The comparative strength of any form of framework, or truss, wliicli can be easily secured by increasing the scantlings of its jiarts is of less imjiorlancc than its siiffiiesii, or resistance to any <'hange of form; but it is an uni\eisal axiom tliat tiie strength of "every system of framing nuist be estimated no higher than that of its weakest ])art. These remarks would lead us to the construction of roofs, but we |)ref'er to otter a few obser- vations on them imder anodier heading. 'I'imliers being eni[iloyed to resist very considcral)lc strains and to cari'v great weights, it becomes iiiipditani to ascertain the laws which irgulate their power of resistance to tension and ])rcssiirc, iiiidci- dillercnt circiunstances; as uidess these laws are carefully studied, it will be iui|iossiblc lin' the pi-aciica! builder to dclcrniiue ijie i'chili\i' scantlings of the timbers used in constnicling Iimisscs and otlier comliinations. TIk^ sliijl ol' tlic carpenter is shown in selecting timbers of sullicient size safely to l)ear the weight imposed, with- iESfl©IM r®« Am DTALIAIM VILLA ADAPTED FOR A FRONTAGE OF 70 FEET. PRINCIPAL ELEVATION, SCAUC OP ' I -^ • f . • • .< EL. Tarbuck. in.v. A H Payne ac TIIK MECHANICAL PniNCIPI.KS OP CATirKXTHY. \c,:\ ijiii ciiiiildyiini- pieces eitluT Km l.ii'ue i"" ton insuffieienf iur ilie iiiii-|i(i>(' rrc|uii-eil. 'I'lie \alue of wood lor eonstriietive [lurposes e;iii liartlly l>e overrated, -and its |)rcreral)k-iiess to iron and sione arises Croin its slreni;tli united with extraordinary liiilitness. Tims, deal is oidy one fifteentli the wfiglil ol' east ii'on, wliile it has niiieh iimre than one half llu' tenaeity; and the weight of six- teen slips oi' it would only he e(|ual to one.ol' the same tlinieusions ol' wi-ouglit iron, alt]ii)Ui;h, toiiether, their united strenjith would he C(iual to three of the latter. The liahility of wood to eond)usiiou has of late vcars eauscd iron to he e\iensi\ely suhstituted for it; hut timher eon- struetions will always he preferahlc in many- situations, as well lor reasons ol' eonvcnicnec and economy, as that its tension and durabiliiy are sueh that very eonsiderahlc weight may safely he trusted to it. The strength of wood is proportioned to its weight and density, the heaviest hcing usually the strongest; and after it has lost about one sixth of its weight when felled, it is considered fit for building purposes. Now the strength of tindjer is considered both nlixo/iitc/'/ and relii- ttrt'hi. The ahMihilr strength of timlier is measured liy the degree of exertion that is necessary to ])ull it asunder lengthways, in the direition of its fibres; while the rc/dlirc strength of a beam dciiends, as the term imi>lics, on the position in which it is jilaced with reference to other limbers. Thus, if a i)iece of wood is placed upright, it is more difficult to break than if a weight were suspended u]ion it laid horizontally with the two ends supported; and still less so if one end is fixed and the other imsupported. \\'itli respect to the absolute strength of timber we need say little here. It is not often that its consideration becomes of very gi-cat importance, iron tie rods beino- substituted for timber whenever there is a considerable liability in tics to be stretched in the direction of their lengths. ;\Ir. Harlow ascertained that the force necessary to separate the parts of a j)icce of deal l>y causing them to slide one upon another in the direction of the fibre to be about o cwt. to the square inch, and for oak aliont S2' ., cwt. 'When however, the force was applied perpendicular to the direction of the filjre, 20' ^ cwt. per square inch was rei|uisite to destrov the cohesive power ol' oak, IT) cwt. for pojilar, and S' ., to 15',., cwt. for larch. 888 i;..ndelct found that the absolute strength of oak was 1 10 lbs. for every r^^^ "f :i" ""''i '""c:!: anil the following table from Mr. (iwilt's Encyclopajdia is all that im"> 7^ "'•^- ■• 1 Another specimen ^'" lit " " The mean weight therefore was in round numbers 11 •> A rod of the .same wood as the former 0.177 ineh .si|iiare and 2.1 I long broke with a weight of b'*^' j Another specimen " ^ » » Another specimen bil ^ „ „ The mean weight therefore was r>f) lbs. for an area ^-^^ in. The result of till (experiments w:is as before indicated. 21 ' 104 THE MF.CIIANICAI, PniXCIPI.KS OF CARrEXTIiY. M'\t]\ rep-ard to timber jilared liorizontally and tlicir power to re.*i.«t a transverse strain, it is observed, that, if supported at the ends, tlie lial)ihty to fracture docs not decrease strictly in the inverse ratio of the length, when the thicknesses are equal; or, in other words, the strength docs not diniinisli exactly in proportion to the distance of the bearings between the points of supi)ort. Button's experiments prove that a beam twice as Iwig as another, the scantlings being the same, will not bear half the weight carried by the latter; or a piece 1 foot square and 10 feet long, jdaced in a horizontal position and carried at both ends, will bear more than double- the weight of another of the same section and 2cllidor, in his "Science des Ingenieurs" asserts that a beam firmly fixed at both ends is not twice the strength, as when sinq)lv lying on its suppoi-ts; luit although I'itot agreed with him. Dr. Young is of a diHcient opinion, considering that licllidor's ex])eri- ments are too inq)ei-fcctly described to be of murh ^aluc. The stifthcss of a beam, is the ])ro- portion between its defiexion, or sagging, and its length: and tlii> curvature shmild nevci' bo allowed to exist to a greater degree than , , of the leniith or 7- inch to a loot. The mode of ° " lb(t '^ 40 finding how nuieh a beam of fir will deflect il' it is pressed in the middle, is to nuihiply the cube of the length in inches by the given weight in |iounds, and di\ide by the cube of the de])th and by ten million times the breadth; but it is iii-ol);d)le that, from the want of uniformity in the texture of the wood, the bending will be lound practically to be more than this result: a beam of oak also sinks somewhat more than one of fir of the same weight. The neutral axis or point in a beam, is that part wlurc, in fracture, the extension terminates and com- pressiim begins, as shown in the diagram; it is there seen that the particles in the convex side arc stretched and tluise in the concave l)rought closer together, imiil the former pass beyond tlicii- attractive or cohesive dis- tance, and separate at ilu' pari which is most strctch(>d. 'i'lie IVacture is really one of Iciifioii; and, as throughout the nculr;d axis, there is' neither extension nor ciMnpres.sion, its cohesive 2)ower is not affected, :ind the beam woidd be just as effective if a bole were bored through this axis. It must be evident, that when we speak of the strength of :i be:nn, wc mean only its resistance to compression on one side and to e.\- Itt L.-irrh .... l,S9(i Lmi-<1i, very yomn;- '.ICC, Maliou'. Spiinlsli . \:>i:> MmIkih. I liindiiras 1,01 1 Oak ..... l,(.72 Oak, Canadian . KTdC. Oak, Dantzie 1,157 Pine, pitcli . . i,i;;!-2 Pino, ird . . . i,:;ii I'.iplar .... usi Plane .... ],s21 •Sycamore . . . 1,(')(IS Teak .... 2, 1 .-) 1 TiiK. MKciiAxif'Ar. niiN'cn'r.i's ov cAiu'F.xTin-. 1 Of) tension on tlic otiier; and these will depend on l/if ca/ir.^irr paircr o/' /Ac iroo(/, its s/iii/h; ilir in-i,ilil lllijKisrtl, (mil till' i(iisiipi>or1i'ed pm-posc.-:. 'liie rods were one inch square exjiosod to a, transverse strain. Al(hT .... 1,.")90 Ash 2,835 Acacia .... 1,800 lieecli .... l,r..'.(') (iiesnut . . . l,;!.")!! Ehn 1,(12(1 Fir, Riga . . . l..^il() Fir, ]\Iemel . . 1, (>:!.") Fir, Norway . . 2,)!7G Fir, Scotch . . 1,74() Fir,XewEnghind 1,102 Fir, Spruce . . \,'.V.)'-i In the articK^ on Timber used in Biiihling Ojierations. we gave a diagram ilhistrative of the mode of cutting tlie strongest piece of wood from a tree. It is easy also to cut !i beam one half through without any diminution of its strength, but rather adding to it; this was first done by Du Ilamel. The resistance of the compressed side of a Ijeam to compression is not at all altered by cutting it througli, if it is cut only so far as tlie compression reaches; and Dii llanirl found that so i'ar from its strengtii being impaired by cutting it three tjuarters tiu'ough on its compressed side, and filling up tiie saw cut witii a harder wood, its resistance to a strain was materially increased. The compressed jiortion of a beam extends to about five eighths its depth, and to this extent it may be cut without alteration of its strength. Wood, unlike metal, requires less force to crush it than what is demanded to tear it asunder. Kespecting the shape of timber, Mr. Cresy remarks, "Rectangular pieces of timber have their centres of gravity in the centre oi' their dimensions; a jiiccc of timber 12 incites by 12 contains 144 square inches, and its centre of gravity will be six inches from each side; if the piece be lu'oken by any loatl its fracture will terminate at the uj>per surface, or (J inches abo\e the centre of gravity. The area 11 1, multiplied by (i, gives 8G4 as the lateral strength, whirh may be a])plied in comi)arison with any «Jther scantling of ditlerent dimensions on wood of ilie same (|uality: saw this ]>iece oi' timber down the middle; the centre of gravity i-emains the same, if the sides are in the sani(> vertical position, the area of the section of eacii is 72, and this nmltiplied by ti, the distance oi' the centre of gravity from the upper surface nudvcs half the product obtained before the timber was sawn; it is apparent then, that, the dejjth remaining the same, the strength varies as the thickness; should the position of these latter timbers be reversed, that is placed Hat, instead of on edge, the centre of gravity then is only three inches below the upper siiriacc: the area of the end 72 being nudtiplied by I!, we obtain onlv 21 G as the product, which is only hali' the strength it liad, placed edgeways. The scantling, which has the greatest strengtii is not all square, but that with the same area, which has its centre of gravity farthest from the toj); a \nccc of timber 14 X 10 inches, S(|uares to 140 inches, and contains less than a piece of 12 X 12 r edge, the product is 50; tiie same piece placed flatwise must only be multiplied liy ' ., incli, the product then is only 5, consequently the plank, when placed on edge, is ten times stronger than when placed flatwise."" Of the length of beams aitd thr mauiu'r in which their strength pidporliouately diminishes, wc have before spoken; it now only remains to give the rule to find the weight, which, placed on the centre, will fracture a piece of timber supported at both ends. The reader will refer to the table given of the cohesive strength of different woods, and nuilti]ily the breadth of the beam by the scjuare of the depth, and again by four times the constant \ahic; the jirodnet, if di^ ided by the length in inches, will gh-e the required weight. The strain on a piece of timber fixed at one end and loaded at the other, is four times greater than when the same weight is placed on the middle of the beam; and the strain occasioned at any section between the points of weight and sui)port is proportional to the product of the mim- ber of jxiunds or hun(h-eds, and the number effect and inches etc. between the i)ariicnlar section and the weight. \\h\\ regard to the ,-irciigth of struts and braces, if a vertical piece of timber .1 7>, be gra- dually inclined, its strength, when thus, is exactly proportionate to its degree of in', a vertical line be drop])ed till it touches at / one drawn ho^ rizontally from the base J>, of the upright, the strength of the strut will diminish in proportion as the length /> /' increases. Thus it re- sidts, that the strength of a [)iece of vertical timber is to that of an indiiu^d ]iicce. of the same scantling, as the lengtli of the former A I >, is to the liurizoiii:i| line /' /: or as the radius is to the sine of the inclination of the stnU. The stiffness of timber, or its resistance to any niodificatiitn of shape, is of far more importance th;m its coni|)arative strength; and we nnist, as before ol)served, always base our estimates on the consideration of the irrakext j)art ol' any description of framework. It is the flexiliility of timber, which renders it diingerous; and it is ipe of iron.'" If a piece of timber is placeil U])right, it would a])])ear at first as if it would carry any weight, but experience teaclies that when ii pfist is more than seven or eight limes the section of its base in altitude, it bends before crushing: aiiresstu'e at all in an upright position. The strength therefore diminishes in pr(i|)ortion (o its secticm and height. To crush ;i post of fir which is too short to bend, ;'>('). If) jiounds are sss rei|uii(d, and tor o;dv I'.i.T'i lbs. lot- mcry ~r~~ area of an inch at the base. The relati\e pro- |iorlioii of height and strength is however very dii'lieiilt to determine with acctifiicv. l'"fom the first moment that tiinlier- begins to bend it decreases in strength. l'"rom mtinv experimeius l\on- delet deduced a rule, als(t adopted by M. M. I'erronel, Lamblardie and (iirard, which is, wc believe, liie only one in jiractice. His <>bser\alions were on ciiIhs of oak and fir, and he deduced that assuming '1 1 pound- jier sijuare line as the h'ad, wiiicli is csseiuial to crush a cub<> of oak, and 52 lbs. to a cube of deal, the weights necessary to bend and break jkjsIs of any delerminale s(|uar(^ section and which :iie in length successively I'i, 21. 'M, IS, (id and 72 times the side of their 1L®®©E§ @K |[Bl)M(L,t COTTT^^ES l-'Jotx, 5',- PRINCIPAL ELEVATIOn ©ROyiNlB PLAN SCALE or ' I I ' ' I FSI NCI PAIL E.!lE:VATI1©M -i. L.Tarbiiok inv PLAN Till, Mil IIANU Al, riilN(jl'l,l',t> (iK t'AKI-K.NTIl V. I(>7 jIffKS sculitiii ill liciglii, arc i-(j.~i)crii\cly ■' ,-, ' .> ' ^j '/,; ' |o jind 'ii '»! >'it' lone iiuct;.<»:iry lo nmiji, a cubical i)icc'c of flic coliiiim. Koiidclct also coiicliicltil llial a ,s((iuirc column of oak or deal hi'fltm to yield by bciidiiii;- wluii ils lK■i^■lll was Icii liiiu'.s ilic side of it.-- flection. The weii^lit and measures (hat Mere used by him, were lbs. |ier I.OGt) line.-; wiicn the hciglit is fifteen times the area of the base I lbs.; and when twenty times, not above '■> lbs. flic bases of posts shoulil be extended in accordance wiili tiic aiiKiimt uf wciglii to be carried anagrange, considering it an ernn- to sujiposc that columns arc to be considered as r/itxtic licains bent by a longitudinal force. Dr. Young states that, in reality, a stone colunni is never so slender as to be l>ent by a force which it can bear without being crushed; and even for such columns as are capable of being lient by a longitudinal force he believes M. Lagrange's determinations to be often inad- missible; but w'ere we to enter fully into all these dilferenccs of opinion we should inner arri\c at the end of our article. Eesistanco to compression is as great as that power which would tear timber asunder. When the weight begins to overpower cohesion,, the centre libres swell out; and the resistance to such an effect depends of course, on the lateral adhesion of the fibi'es, which may be comjiared to a bundle of rods which yield just in ilu' proporiion in which they arc tied firmly together. Timber with cross-grained filires offers least resistance, and iluis it is (if JMuschenbroeck's expeniments an; to lie relied upon) that fir is so much su[)eiior lo oak as a pillar, for it will carry three times the weight, although oak is far preferalde as a tie. V,'c may from this perceive how a veiy considerable degree of strength may be given in the building up of a beam by making the part stretched of oak and the other jiortion of fir. Wc shall close our observations on timbers placed vertically with some remarks from the Encyclopedia Bri- laiiiiica. "When a column is crushed, its resistance to compression seems to depend in a great measure on the force of lateral adhesion, assisted by a kind lA' internal friction, dcjiendant on the magnitude of the ])ressure: and it commonly gi\cs way by ihe separation of a wedge in an oblii|iic direction. If the adhesion were simply pidpoillonal lo the section, it may be shewn that a sipiare column would be most easily crushed when the angle of a wedge is e(|ual to half of a right angle; but if the adhesion is increased by prc:sure, this angle will be (hmlnlshed iy half ihc angle of rcjtose appropriate lo ilie siiiisiaiue. The magnitude of the lateral adhesion is measured by twice the height of the wedge, whatever its angle may lie. It is obvious that cxperimenls on the strcnglli of a substance in rcsisiing compression oiighi to be tried on pieces rather longer than cubes, since a cube would iioi allow of the free se|iaralIon of a single wedge IfiS THK MKni.lNU'AL PniNCiri.KS OF CAKPKNTKV. ." :^ 12' „ 6" Beer, Wine, and Coal Cellars and "\V. C On the Ground Floor are, A Dininjj Koom 18' „ 0" X 16' „ 0" ' A Breakfast Eoom 18' „ ()" X 13' „ 0" A Library 13' „ 0" x: 13' „ 0" Lobby Hall and A\'. C. On the Chamber Floor are A Drawing Koom 26' „ 0" X; 16' „ o" A Bed Room IS' „ 0" x: 13' „ d" A Bed Room 13' „ d" x 13' „ ()" China Closet, and smaller Closets. The princijial front and ^ides are proposed to be cemented on the basements and faced with second malm stocks above, the dressings being of cement ; the brackets mider the caves arc to be of wood and the roof is to be slated. Tlie cost of construction, the internal fittings and the ma- terials generally being of good quality, will be under ^20(MI for the pair. DESIGNS FOR TWO LODGES OR SMALL COTTAGES. Pl.\tk 54. This Plate ct)ntains two designs which arc about equally adapted for lodges at the entrance into the grounds of a mansion, or as cottages for labourers: if a])|iro|)riatcd lor the latter purpose, the amount of exterior effect will prubaMv lie reduced. ( >nc of the designs contains iwd tlmirs, and in the other the accomodation is comprised on one level. The former has on the (in)und Floor, a I'orcli, an Entrance Passage and Staircase with a Closet beneath the latter i'or tools etc. A Living Koom IJI' „ 0" x Id' .. (»" A Scidlery I(»' ., d" X 7' ., (I" Tiardcr, Coal and W'cmmI Cellar, Imili (if ample size. ,V covered space eorresjinnd,- with the Porcli (ui the (ip|)osite side, Iieiieath which a scat is placed; and a duor at the back lead- inln the garden iir \ard. On the Chamlier Fluor arc A Froiu Bed K n 13' .. •»" >< HI' ., 3" A 15ed Room for Children leading out of the former 1 I' ,, ('" x 5' „ -1" A Back Bed Room it)' „ 1(1 x: 7 ., i" ■>•> 170 DESIGNS FOi; TWO LODGES Oil SMALL COTTAGES. Two closet.'^ arc provided and fire ^llacct^ to two of tlic Ifcd Ivoouis. The stvle wlilrli lia,-- been adapted in the treatment of the elevation of tlii.s cottape is of tliat hilc Gotliic cliaracter u.-erce])tion of beauty, used brickwork very extensively in the works they erected in this country; but somehow the art appears to have been lost until the latter part of the K>"' ccntuiy: and Ijittlc A\'cidiani Hall in Suffolk, erected about ri(i((, is the earliest building in England with bricks similar to those now in use. After the time of liichard II, bricks moulded into various i'orms were often used for the janiljs of doors and windows in districts in which stmie was not easily to be had: and it was in this reign that we learn irom Leiand of the first instance of a very large application of brickwork since the days of the lioiuans. "Michael dc la Pole niarchant of Hull came into such high favour with King Iviehard 11, that he got many pri\ilegcs for the towne. And in his tyme the towne was wondcrfidly augmented yn building and was cnelo.syd with ditches and the waul begun: and in continuation cndid, and made all of brickc as most part of the houses at that time was." M. de la Pole, we also find, "builded a goodlic house of bricke against the west end of St. Marye's church, like a palace, with goodly orchardc and garden at large, also the houses besides, every one of which hath a tower of bricke"'. The contrast in the design given between the red brickwcn'k and the wood and stonework, will be i'ound jiro- ductlvc of a very pleasing effect; and the varied outlines, the breaks and covered recesscss, together with the lofty i)itehcd rtx^l', covered ^vith tiles, the dormer and the soaring chiumcy shaft, arc all l'e:iturc.s which render this cottage suitable for a spot surrounded by trees and as the entrance gate to the grounds of a mansion in the Old English style. The expense of its erection will average about ,£ '2i)0. The design below, containing the rooms all im one fioor, comprises; — A Living Koom II' „ d" X 12' „ 0" A Seidlery S' „ O" x 7' „ d" A Bed lioom ill' „ 0" X 7',,'.)" Entrance Passage, Larder and Cellar i'or Coals and A\'ood. Tlii.^ Collage, although smaller than the other, is of more i)retension and more exiiensivc in the details of its elevation. The style is the late Peri)endicular ov Tudor, the last developemcnt of Gotbir Airbil( liiiic, which prevailed in England during the filtecnth and early portion of the sixtecnlii ccniiiry. A leading characteristic is the s(|uare arrangement of the mouldings o\(r the heads of d(jors and windows, and the manner in which the mullions of the latter are carried up perpcndicnhn-/;/ instead of being bent aside in geometrical curves as in the earlier phases of (iothic architecture. Transoms, crossing the mullions and dividing the windows in their height is another peculiar feature of Perpendicular work; bay-windows also were first used in it, and arches with four centres, very mm h ilattened, towards the end of the style are conunon; and the chimney shafts ^vould appear to ]\:\\c almost exhausted invintion in their diapered twisted forms anil ])ccidiar heads and lia.-es. The design given illustrates these observations. The large bay- window is an cll'ective external Icaiiu-e, and is, at thi' same tinn^, a matciial addition to tlic li\iiig PLiU. lESKSM ir@K API BTALJAIN VOILILA ADAPTED FOR A FRONTAGE OF 70 FEET. SIDE ELEVATION dCALC or ' ' ' ' I ' I . d 1 A u n DF.SIGXR Iiii; rWn I-dOCKS Oi; SMAI.I. fOTTAOKS. rcHim iiiid a uroiU oonvouionre so far as ('onimaiiiliiiL;' viows in llircc diicctidns in faso the cottanje is a|)|ir(j|)riale(l as a lodijc. Details ol' sdiiio ol' tiio iiKHildintis are liivcii on (lie ])lat('. Tlie main walls ai'P ]iri>posp(l to he liuilt of liniosldiK^ laid in narrow courses indisciiniinately, tliat is two or more courses to each (|iii)in, axc(l or Jiaiiuncr dressed cxternailv and ncallv puintcd in ci>:d-a-li mortar, 'i'nni arclies over the hack an. We made in an oai'licr portion of the work a oonneotcd series oi' obseivations in describing our Model Cottages on points of importance relating to the erection of dwellings i'oi- tlio labouring classes; we shall set down under the present heading some i'lu'thcr romai'ks on the subject; and Me cannot do better tlian conuiicnce with the I'ollowing observations I'rom ^Ir. Loudon's writings. "The Cottage should be ]ilaced alongside a public road, as being more cheerful than a soli- tary situation, and in order that the cottager may enjoy tlie aj)plause ol' the j)ublic when lie has lii.s garden in good order and keeping. Every oottage ought to liave the floor elevated that it may be dry, the walls double, or hollow, or battened, or not less than eighteen inches thick, that they may retain heat; with a course of slate or flagstone, or tiles bedded in cement six inches above the surface, to prevent the rising of damp; the roof thick or double for the sake of warmth: and projecting eighteen inches or two feet at the caves, in order to keep the walls dry, and to check the radiation of heat from their exterior siu'facc. Every cottage, including its garden, yard etc. ought to occupv not less than one sixth of an acre; and the garden ought to surround the oottage, or, at all events, to extend both before and behind. In general there ought to be a front garden and a back yard, the latter being entered from the back kitchen iind containing a pri\y, li(|uid maniue tank, jilace for dust and ashes, and jilace for fuel. Wlien there is a supjily of clear water from a spring adjoining the cottage, or from some other efficient source, then there ought to be a veil or tank, |)artlv under the floor of the back kitchen for drawing it up for use. The advantages of ha\ing the tank or well under the back kitehen are that it will be secure from frost and that the labour of carrying water will be avoided. The privy should always be separate from the dwelling, luiless it is a ])roi)cr wtitcr-oloset. with a soil ])il)e connuiuiicating with a distant liijiiid mainire tank or cessjiool. When detached, the jirivy shoidd be over or adjoining a liquid manure tnuU, in which a straigiit tube from the bottom of the l)ason ought to terminate; bv which means the soil bason may always be kept clean by pouring (h)wn the conauon sloj)s of tlie house, no surface being left i'rom which smells can ari.se except that of the area of the pipe. Tlie situation of the liijuid manure tank should be as far as possible from that of the filtered water tank, or clear water well. It shoidd be covered b\' an air-light cover of flagstone, and have a narrow well adjoining, iiUo which the li()uid should filler through a grating, so as to be liumped uj) or taken away withoiu grosser impurities, and in this stute ajiplied to soil about growing crops. In geiu'ral the proprietors might not to trust the erection oi labourer's cottages on their estate to the i'armcrs. at it i> chietly owing to this |)ra<'iice that so nuuiy wretched hovels exist in the best cultivated di-lricis of .Scoil.-uid and in .Northumberland. \o landeil proprietor, as we ihiidc. ought to charge more for the land on which cottages are built than he would receive i'or it from a i'armer, if let as part oi' a i'arm; and no ntore rent ought til be charged, for the cost of building the cottage and enclosing the garden than the same smu would yield if iincsieil in land, or at all e\cnts, not more than can be obtained bv govern- nicnt sccuriiie-. SCALES ONE QUARTER «p FULL SIZE. ria ES PA O N O LETTE DESir.XS FOK TWO LOnCF.S Oi; S]\[AI,L COTTAGES. 173 Tlie above ob.scrvatioiis merit flie attention of all iiitercf^fcd in tlic crcetion of eofta^es; fliey arc extracts from a "Keport to lier Majesty's J'rinei|ial Secretary of State from tlie I'oor Law Commissioners on an En(iiiirv into the Sanitary Condition of the Laliourinij; IVjpulation ol' (ireal Britain." As before remarked tliey were eontribntcd by Mr. I^ondon. The tjeneral eanses of unhealthy cottages may be briefly sunnued up as the open pri\ y or badlv trapped ^^'. C., the open cesspool and l)adly ventilated drains, accumulated uncovered dust, an impure su|)ply of water, deficient ventilation and warmth, and damp risinji throuiih the walls. ^\'ith respect to drainaoe, if it is not always posssible to do as we ])lcase in cities, in the country it is unpardonable to neglect it. Drains sliould always be laid with an ample fall, be flushed as frequently as possible, in order that whatever may gradually accumulate and block them up and all noxious gases may be carried off. The ventilation of sewers should be secured by causing fresh air to enter them at a low level, and allowing the vitiated air to escape at a high level. Particular care should be devoted to the trai)ping of soilage drains, and they should be made thoroughly water tight, so that the liquid portion cannot esca])C and leave the solid matter alone in the drain. 'Sly. Iloskivia's proposition oi' ventilating each linusc drain by forming a conununication from it into a chinmcy flue is ingenious and wf)uld be found very effectual, as the air of the drains is from thirty to fifty })er cent lighter than the external atmosphere. The stoneware drains will be found the cheai>est and best, and Doulton's sinks, closet basins and urinals of the same material are adapted for cottage purposes. The supply of good and pure water is of the highest consequence: the theory of wells should lie uuterstood by all, and we extract from Mr. Cresy's Encyclopanlia of Civil Engineering a few remarks which will render the matter perfectly clear. "In most parts of England water is obtained Ironi wells, some of whicii are Artesian. Of the quantity of rain which descends in our latitude one third has been estimated as passing off by evaporation, the remaining two thirds being required for the suppoi't of animal and vege- life and to supply the subterranean springs. Ixain water cither runs off upon the surface or percolates the strata, being received into the fissures or vaults of the earth, where it forms subterranean reservoirs. Where beds of gravel rest upon a substratum of clay, the lower [lortions contain water: if the clay is thin and has fissures or openings in it, the water passes through and continues to descend till" it meets some other layer which will retain it. Some wells are supjilied by water descending in the strata, others by its ascent from bi'low by means of hydrostatic pressure, which is the case with Artesian wells or perpetually (lowing sjirings; these are numerous in the neighbour- hood of London where they are formed by penetrating the chalk or the plastic clay formation. At Sheerness the sandy strata of the plastic clay formation was reached after boring through the London clay 330 feet, and in many districts the chalk has l)cen pierced to a considerable depth beneath the clay and abundance of water ol)tained, which is generally jierfcctly clear and bright, for by its passage through the various strata it is deprived of all that it held mechanically as well as other impurities whicli are taken up by one earth or the other. The district called the London Basin may be considered as a continuous seam of chalk, vary- ino- in thickness and sometimes covered with sand and gravel, alternately with iilastic clay, over which is a thick stratum of London clay. Under the chalk basin is a substratum of clay through which water will not pass and conse- quently a large supply is always to lie found in it. The surface of the water in this subterranean reservoir does not stand at one uniform level but rises in a distance of 14 miles, as between ^Vatford and the highest spring in the chalk hills, as much as 300 feet." The rain water should be collected from the roofs of cottages and should be carefully pre- taijle 174 i)]:sir,xs Fur. two i.oogi'.s or. sjrAi.i. 1 1 utaoks. seiTed as the purest of all water. Tlie average quantity ol' wa(cr which falls in England per _year is about 120 gallons to every s(|uare yard of surl'ace; so that if a l)uilding has a roof sur- face of 100 .square yard.s, 12,000 gallons oi' water will i'all on it during the year. Kain water tanks are sometimes constructed with filters attached to them, ^^'e think, how- ever, that most cottagers would j)refer a filter in the house and we do not believe in the invariable efficacy of the subterranean combination of tank and filter. Portalde filters are cheap and absolutely requisite articles, and, of late years, Jhat clean and beautiful material slate has been extensively employed for them. We annex a section of a very conve- nient and efficacious filter manufactured by^Icssrs. I>raby and Son Bangor wharf, Lambeth. The dotted line indicates the course of the water, which passes through successive la3'ers of coarse sand, char- coal aiul fine sand, co^•cred over with a thin ])iecc of slate, j)ierced with small boles. The ordinary filters with filter stones are objectionable, being very liable to be- come soon blocked up, tiic stone being impregnated with matter and then quite useless. A sufficient and equitaldc temperature and ec(jnomy of fuel arc very important matters for consideration, and we shall add liere a few remarks on those formerly made on cottage stoves. One of the mo.'-t economical cottage stoves is that in use in the cottages about Hruges in Fxl- gium and is illustrated in the margin. It contains two ovens, and tlius a loaf may be baking in one and meat in another, while at the same time boiling and stewing may be going on at the to]). The sto\-c will also ciinsimic an in- ferior desci'i|)ti(iii of fuel and will |)roduce an in- tense heat fi-oiu what will scarcclv burn in an ordi- nary fire])lace. . I, is the firciilace closed at the top by tlu' lid /: 11. is the Hue: C, is the oven; T>, is a square o])ening admitting the smol;c into the Hue, the tiame ])assing along the channel to it and heating the oven ;ind the top of the stove: /,', is a uratiiii;- rcmo\alilc at pleasure to increase tlic -izc nC ijic fire, and /"', is a smullcr grMliiio- iiir llic same object; (1, is a fixc(l grating, and //, is a box for cinders which draws out iin- the piir|iose of removing them; /• ;inil / arc lids opening into the smoke Hue. 'I'liesc stoves arc thus \vr\ comph'tc, and may either stand mii in the I'ddiii, in wiiiili rase of edur-e mure beat is radiated, or be |ilaeed in the usual recess. W a believe tiiey may be procured leady iiKimifacliired in liondcm, luil [ire unable to state where. ©HAMBER, PLAN to S Scale of I 1 I I I I I I I L- A U D. DESKIN.'S 1-Ull TWU LODUKS OK SMALL COTTAGES. 175 In (lie iirlirlr on tlic Mmlrl Cdltugcs \vu alluilud to .Savot's inctliod of licating two room.s by means of one fire. W'c now place Iicfore tlie reader a (liau;rani of a cottager's grate (pahiiicd Iiy Mr. Picirc of -Jcriiiyn Street) for tlie .^anie piir- ])o. The last stove we shall mention as adapted to cottages is one suggested by Mr. Willliam Cuillin in the Practical INIechanie's Journal. The tliagram represents an elevation and section. The stove is fitted with an oven and hot closet, an ojicn fireplace with a draw shelf at the bottom of the grate, a droj) shelf at tlie top which, when raised, forms a blower, a p!^- •> _ V ■ — - hot plate forming an ironing stove, an open- |\, ■ \ — -■. y ^ I IfSflflP** 1^ 'fl ing at the top for the emission of warm air, a boiler and a damiter and sweep door. In the fiange of the oven and hot closet, are slide doors for the purpose of admitting a brush when swce[iing is necessary. As the oven is jirincipally heated by hot air, or carried heat, while it has a iliie all round it, it heats on all sides alike, and without scm-ching or burning, and the betit being contincd by dampers it requires less fuel for cooking than the ordinary ranges. A\'hcn the cooking is over a fire made uji of small coal, cinders and ashes, well saturated w iih watci-, ^\ill la^t several hours. The room is kei)t tigreably warm by means of a supply of pure warm air drawn in from without, through a drain or pipe to the hot air chambers at the back and side of the fireplace and emitted at the top of the stove. AVe ha\e not many observations to add on the .--idiiect of danq). AVe have before spoken of damp courses and their necessity as well as the desirability of concrete and the efficacy of a continuous arched space rumiing round a house for the purpose of ])revcnting the earth resting against the walls. Ibillnw bricks ha\e been nnicli praised a.^ a remed\'; their general advan- tages arc thus staled by Mr. Chadwiek who considers them .--iqierior to common brick and stone; — In preventing the passage of humidity and being drier. In iireventing the passage of heat, and being warmer in winter and cooler in >ummer. In being a security against lire. In preventing the passage of sound. In having less unnecessary material and being lighter. 176 DESIGNS FOK TWO LODC.ES OK SMALL COTTAGES. In Ijciii"' better dried, and burnt liardcr and stronwr. In being more cleanly. In being cheaper. AYe can but add that if one half uf this furinidablc lijt of advantages really appertains to them we heartily recommend their more universal introduction. AA'e conclude our observations on Cottages and their fittings by stating a mode of preventing damp suggested by a correspondent of the Gardener's Chronicle. "I ha^•e just constructed a "■arden wall of stone on which I intend to stretch a wire trellis, like the invisible wire fence, to save defacing the walls, and to prevent the fruit being eaten up by wood-lice etc. I have cut off the capillary attraction of the wall by boiling gas-tar and lime together and spreading it on the stone about (i inches from the earth. This has answered the purpose, wears very well, the stone beneath the tar being dark and wet, all above being white and perfectly dry — the whole expense of a wall for iialf an acre of garden being only a few shillings. The composition must be laid on boiling and afterwards more lime sprinkled over to dry it. This would do for any wall and the expense not to be comjiared with slate and cement." THE PRACTICE OF CARPENTRY. Having considered the theory or mechanical i)riiiciplcs of Carpentry, we will next proceed to treat on tliat jiart uf tlie practice relating to the various methods oi' joining timber. These are divided umlcr throe lieadings; first, joints for lengthening timber; second, mortice and tenon joints; third, the various methods tti,0 \ z\ T\ -#-l \ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ J LANDING 1 DR ES 3 1 N O _ HOO M 1 r^j'x ff^o PLAN @f pa AL CE ULA H FRONT AREA >eR STREET ^LANl Tlir. I'lIACTIlK OK rAUrENTKV. the ]inr(s will he split Msiindcf :)ml the senilis widen. Ti>c two diagrams illustrate a mode of laiildiiiL:' up ;i lieaiii for ii uii'dcr hy jdo-ohnL;- and senrfintr. The lowermost will he prefcrrcil SST^^^-ikSSS^^^^SiESS hv iiKinv, as tliev will aro'iic tliat the upper piece grasps the lower, liut the joggieil heain is easier executed and will be Ibund the strongest. Figs 4 and 5, Plate '2, represent two oi' the simplest forms of scarfing consisting of lapping or haKing, sometimes called ship-lapping: ('(inal i|uantitics of each piece are cut away, and the pieces arc then united iiy Ixilts: tliis method is oiten ajiplicd to ])lates and bond timber. For girders and posts the cutting Fig. 1. is applicable. The key in the margin is not absolutely essential, and the two pieces might meet; but "^ the key has its use in forcing the partj. ■together with great tightness; it nuist not however be too large or be over-driven and thus produce a strain on the internal parts. Keys should be of some hardwood having a curled grain whicli resists the insertion of the fibres o]ii)osed to it. The upper- most diagram above has but one half tlie strength of an entire piece and Fig. 4, Plate o. and the adjoining scarf in tlu^ margin ha\c proliablv not abo\c a tliird: lnu il' iron ])lates are placed at the top and liottom, the bolts arc prevented bending by the violent strain and the .strength of the combination is greatly increased. Figs. 0. 7. S. 9. Plate 2. arc all good forms of scarfing; fi<>-. 10. is rather eomi)licatcd being what the French call "traits de Jupiter"' from its fancied re- semblance to a flash .of lightning. Bolts may be often dispensed with Imt they decidedly always add greatly to the strength of a scarf Fig. 11. Plate 2. is an excellent scarf adapted for carry- ing a great weiglit and illustrating the nse of bolts and straps. If a transverse and down- ^vard strain is to be resisted, it will be an improvement to terminate the upper and right hand end of the scarf by a plain butt end of half tiie depth oi' the timber, omit the indents on each side ol'the centre and applv a kcv or folding wedges to the middle indent making a half dove-tail to the lower and left hand enil of the scarf The reason of this will be obvious if the reader recalls 23 ITS TIIF. l'i;A("TItl. OK CAKl'KNTRY. wliat is .-tatod in tlic inlirlr on tlic Mi'clianical l'ri]ifi|il('s ol' ( 'ai'iicntrx , wlieix' it apiioar,- lliat in transverse strain- im Ijt'anis, tlio upinr surface is cuni[iresscd ami tlir iowor extcndctl, as shown in the diagram. The strap or .-tirriii) irons hold the tindiers in their places, and the holts pre- vent their l)eing drawn asunder. Fig. 12. is a common and good form, and fig. 13. eonii)letcs the illustrations there given. Acute angles in scarfs, we siiould mention, ha\e Keen ohjected to on the •rroundthat they cause the two j)ieccs to tear each other uj) and, as a general rule', the ahutnients should he perpendicular to the direction of the j)ressure. The scarf in tlic margin is had, for it begins to vield where the wood ' ■ ' is sjilintered or crippled and easily ic^'ars up. AVe will dose our re- marks on scarliiig with the tollow- ing iisefid sunnnarv of practice from Tredgold's C'ari)entry, edited l)y Barlow. "The length of tlie scarf sliould be, if holts are not used; — In oak, ash or elm, six times the depth of the licani. In fir, twelve times the dejjth of the beam. If l)olts and indents arc comi)ined, the length of the scarf should he; — In oak, ash, or elm, twice the deptii of the lieani. In fir, foiu- times the dei)th. In scarfing beams to resist traiis\erse strains, strajis driven on tight arc bettor than bolts. The sum of the areas of the bolts should not l)e less tlian one fifth the area of the beams when a longitudinal strain is to be borne. No joint should be used in which shrinkage or expansion can tear the timbers. No joint can be made so strong as the timber itself." AVe shall not luic make any rcmarlvs on the building up of masts; a subject which appertains more to ship-liuiiding ami which is somewhat foreign to the diaracter of our observations, it beint^ liroliaMe that iew of our readers will re(|uire to know niiieh about it. Fig. 2"), Plate 2. shows what will perhaps lie more useful, a nujde of Ibrming a longitudinal joint, in upright timbers wlici'c a \ertical [)rcssin'e onlv is to lie borne. It is a species of \ertical scarfing on the lirincTpIc of mortise and tenon. Tlic joints are kei)t short, as the main object is to preserve the two pieces in the same line. Mdi-tiyr mill Ti'iniii. A .Mortise is defined liv (iwilt as, "in car]icnti'\- and joincrv a recessed cutting wiiliin tlic surface of a ]iie<-c of timlicr to recei\c a projecting piece called a tcunn left on the end of another piece of tinibci-, in order to fix the two together at a gi\cn angle The si(l<>s oi' the mortise are gcncrallv lour planes at right angles to each other and to the surface whence the excavation is nuide." Fiirs. 11. 1"). I(i. 17. Plate 2. are \arious forms. Fii;-. 2 1. is called a shili-iniini and is tiscd at the I'eel of uprights in partitions etc.; it is Aery slmri, and tenons are generallv made one-third the thickness ol' the timiier they are cut from. King and (^neen posts of roofs are usiiallv tenoned into the tic-lxanis; if the piece passes entirt'ly through the laltci', :i sawcut mav lie previously niaile at the liottoiii ami a [licce of wood aftei-wards dri^'cn into this, so as to wedjic J . . . '^-^ it in: a strap or bolt is however mijre secure. Wrilijiiiij may generally l)e defined as eon- .sisting in the insertion of triangular pieces into or by the end of a tenon, to fill up the mortise more comjiletely. That which is called /().(• Iiiil irciliiiiiij is ilhislrafed in the margin: small wi'dgcs of hard wnod are Y I )[g§D©IKl 7®n A Sliai:a[LIL ^OILIL^ — THE ROOMS ALL ON ONE LEVEL. Oau / . FRONT ELEVATION PLAN SCALE or i ' I I I I I I I I I Tartuck inv. A H.Payne se. TiiK im;a('TI('E of ('ai;pf,\ti;v. ill let in, wliicli, (il niiii't^c, :is ilic l<'ni)ii is |iiis1h>(1 to its ulaco, nro di'Ivcn in :mil fiuise tlie lower pnrt oi' it to px|i:in(l, so ns to fit into tli(> slo|iiiii;' inortisu wliicli should he eiiiiirged in proportion as this is to tid^e phiee. The wood jjirders of floors fre<|iiently rpr|uirc to he mortised in order to receive flic hinding- joists. The form in the marpjin is excellently adapted for this piir])08e. The mortise in the pjirder should be as near as possible to the upjier side, for the simple reason that the f^irder becomes concave on that side fi-om the strain; Init as the tenon of the bindinfj joist is thus exposed to the risk of beinij toi-n off, it is necessary to mortise a little down. The sloi)ino' part o. h. gives a very firm sup])ort in ad- dition to the l)earing r. . ^u. •^)S. This is a design for a detached residence suitable for a family. It is ]inipiiscd to be erected of bricks with cement dressings for the fronts-, the roof is to be slated. The acconnuodatidn con- sists on the Basement floor of a Kitchen 2(1' ,. 0" X l.'v „ d" Scidleiy I.",' „ (>" X 1.*}' „ (»" Servants Hall IT.' ., 0" X 15' ., 0" Butlers Ko(nn 15' „ 0" X 10' ., d" Larder and Pantry 15' „ 0" X 12' „ d" Store Room . .' 10' „ 0" X 0' .,0" Coal Wood and Wine Cellars, W. C. and Vault. On the Ground Floor are, - Drawing and Dining Rooms, each 13' „ 0" x; 15' „ 0" Library and Breakfast Rooms.cach 15' „ 0" X 15' „ 0" Lobby! Hall and W. C. The First Floor contains, — Five Bed Rooms 15' „ 0" X 15' „ 0" Bed Room with Linen Closet . 15' „ 0" X 10' „ b" Bath Koom 11' .. 0" x: Hi' „ ((" Two small Rooms are provided in the roof. The Front Elevation, a Section and Plan of finished Roof are given, together wiih a plate of Details, containing- a plan of the Flooring joists, a Trnsscd Partition and an ilhi.^tralion (Fio-s. 3. 4. 5.) of a method of forming a tie or other beam with small sawn scantlings, if a piece of timber sufficiently large is not easily jirocurable. The a\erage expense of erection will be about £ 2600. 182 BRIDGE ON THE MOHAWK RIVER NEAR ROME U. S. Plates 59. OO. We are indebted for these two Plates to tlie kindness of ]\Ir. ^Vcalo, tlie eminent arcliitectural and engineering publislicr, who has pernnttcd ns to reproduce them from his vahiable work on Bridges. TJicy are illustrations of a timber bridge of 100 feet span. It is a somewhat com- plicated stnicture, altogether of great strength, in fact rather in excess than otherwise. The scantlings of the timbers are figured. The framing is somewhat on the princi])Ie of a queen- post roof; the great feature is the arch, which is strengthened and steadied by an abundance of posts and struts. It will be perceived that the framing may be easily adapted to other purposes besides that of a bridge, and this circumstance will add to the value of the engravings to our readers. Plate 59 contains a Front Elevation of the Bridge with details of the Coping I'lank. Plate GO. shows the Isometrical Projection, together with the Section and Plan. Timber bridges are of great antiquity, and are very general in many districts where the mate- rial abounds. They are of course less durable than those of brick or stone, but may, if properly protected, be made to last a long time. Timber for bridges must be considered somewhat diffe- rently from that u.sed in the erection of houses, on account of the peculiar vibration from the transit of foot passengers and carriages, which causes it to bend, and its elasticity, or power of returning to its original form of course gradually decreases. On accoimt of their constant ex- posure to the alternations of dryness and moisture and the vai'iablc loads to which they are subjected, timber bridges should always be constructed stronger than may be considered as ab- solutely necessary to enable them to withstand a given jn-cssure; for a certain diminution of strength may be certainly set down for every year in which they are in use. We stated in the article on the Mechanical Principles of Carpentry sufficient to enable the reader to comprehend those principles of framing timber which regulate as nuich the erection of bridges as otiier timber structures. One of the first considerations in framing them is the manner in which repaii-s may lie easily and ra])idly eftected without disturl)ing the traffic. With respect to the M-idtli of road and foot ways, Smeaton said, — "it is found bv experience that IS feet clear wiiltli admits of car- riages ])assing with ease freedom and safety. Tredgold remarked, — "in my o])inl(jn 9 feet is the proj)er widtli for a carriage, and 2 feet for a foot passengei'; hence the carriage way should be 9. IS. 27. ;5(). etc., and each footway 2. 4. (i. S. etc. in width; wiiere the increase is not made in this manner tlic advantaLfc oi' it will be very triflin"'." The floors of wood bridges were formerly formed of a pavement laid on a bed of sand, but the great weight and damp necessarily |)roduced renders a false flooi- preferable, which protects liie framework ancad and Coppci' lia\c been suggtsicd as a covering to tlie ])lanks of llu' ro;id\\ay, and we Iiclicxc lii;it the diiialion promcjtcd will be found to coni|H ii>atc for the extra cxijense. 1 { FRONTA&E TO FEET E.L.Tarbuck inv A.H,Pa/ns 183 DESIGN FOK A COTTAGE PLATE 61. This ornamental Cottage is approached throuLjli the side Porch, G feet, by 5 feet, which i.< raised three steps above tiic surface level and is open on three sides. Tlic entrance doer open- into a Hall 14' X &', communicating on the left hand with a Parlor 17' X 11', having a bay- window on tlic side opposite the door, which forms a prominent anil urnamcntal feature in the front elevation. On the right hand is a Kitchen 11' X 8', communicating with a Scullery 11' by 5'. 9", from which a door opj)osile to the kitchen door opens into a i)assagc with a back entrance on the right hand side, a larder 6' X 4'. G" opposite a water closet 7' X 3'. 9" and a China pantry 6' X 4'. 9", both on the left hand. The flooring of the Larder, AVater Closet, China-pantry and passage is placed 7 inciies lower than the rest of the rooms on the ground Hoor. The height of the ceilings of the Parlor, Kitchen, Scullery and Hall is 9'. 6" in the clear; that of the Larder, Water Closet, China pantry, and passage 8' 0. On the second quarter sj)ace is a door communicating with a bed room 12' X 10'. Opposite the stairs on the upper landing is a Bath room 8' by 5'; on the right hand is a bed room 14' X 14', and on the left liand is another bed room 14' X 11'. All these arc partly constructed in the roof. Porch . . . . 6' feet by 5' feet and 8 feet high. Hall 14' ?> x: 8' „ „ 9 feet G high, Parlor . . . . 17' jj X 14' )j V ?j Kitchen . . . . 11' j> x: S' !) » » Scullery . . . , Larder . . . . , ir G' x: X 5' „ 9" 4' „ 6" „ ,, 8 fee^ high. Passage . . . . 7' >? X ;V „ (J" G' ' part 8 feet high. "Water Closet . . 7' X :}' „ '.»'■ ' and S feet liigli. China Pantry . . . 6' x; 4' „ -.1" 11 Stairs and Upper L;i inding : 9' x; 8' 9 feet high at the centre Bath room . . . . S' x: 5' )5 Front Bed room . 1 1' '--^ 14' ») Back ditto . . . . 14' X li' 1» Side ditto . . . 12' X 10' tion of this Cottage ; may be carried out 1 or aliout ■£ IlO. THE GENERAL CONDFTIONS ATTACHED TO SPECIFICATIONS. The importance of a clearly defined body of General Conditions attached to Specifications is such that this Work would not be complete did we omit to lay them before our reailers. A Speeification, however full and however accui'ately the several wmks may be defined, Avould often be next to useless without those general provisions which provide ahke for any short- comings, as well as settle the manner in which the works are to be executed, define the time to 184 THE (iKNKRAI, COXDITIOXS ATTACITI'.I) Tl > srECiriCATIOXS. be occupied in tlicir coiniilctloii, pnividc for any disputes and Cdiitingencies wliich may arise, ;ilniations, additions, and deductions wliich may 1)C deemed advisable previous to the completion of the contract, secure alilce the interests of the employer and the employed, explain many things unstated in the Specification, and settle the mode in which the payments are to be made. The following is a vcrv complete liody of General Conditions whieh may be, either wholly or in l>art, attached to the Specifications. THE GENERAL CONDITIONS OF THE CONTRACT. The whole of the "Works described in this Sjiccification and shown on the several Drawings, numbered from 1 to 10 inclusive, with the explanations thereon, are to be executed in the soundest, most substantial and workmanlike manner, and the whole of the materials are to be the best in (jualitv of their respective kinds, well seasoned, soimd and in e\ery respect com- plete and perfect. The Contractor is to erect all necessary enclosm-cs, shoring, strutting, planking etc., and to iirovide all scaftbhhng, hoisting, tackle, ro])es, ladders, wheeling, planks, toLjcthcr with all rc([uircd carriage and labour, and whatever else may be needful for the due and efficient performance of the works. Figured dimensions are to be followed where given in preference to the sizes indicated on the drawings by the scale; and smaller drawings are to be set on one side in hnnur oi' the large details provided. The Clerk of the ^\'orks is to be considered as the i-eprcsentative of the -Vrchiteet, and all liis directions arc in the absence of the Architect to be followed, and he is to have full power to decide on the cpialily of the materials, the mode of workmanshij) etc. The Contractor is to provide a competent Foreman to each trade. The Architect is to be at full liberty to require the dismissal from the premises of any man or men for incompetency or misconduct, and the Contractor is not to replace him or them without the full approbation and entire concurrence of the Architect. Jn ease anv unfit material or materials not the best of their respeeti\e kinds, or not eorrcs- poiiiliiig with iht_' Drawings and Specification shall at any time be brought lo llie intendeil works and used in them, it shall be lawful for the Architect to re(|uire the Contraelor to remow ai his own expense such imjiroper matci'ials from thel'remiscs and to proceed with the intended \\'orks with sound, )iroper and well seasoned materials to the satisfaction ol' the Arehiieet. The whole of the bricks, lime, cement, stone, timber, slate, lead, iron and other mateiials .-pecified are to be delivered on the premises and examined by the Architect, or the Clerk of the Works, previous to their being worked and used in the new erection. In llie event of anv |)ortion of llie \\'orks not being exceiucd in regard to ^\'orkmanship according to the Specifieatioii and 1 )rawings, luit is of inl'crior (|uaiity, and if tlaws in the Joints, cracks in the ])anels, shrinkings ol' timber, or other defects occur, or if any poi-iion is executed eontrar\- to the in-iructions ol' the Architect or his represeatati\e, it shall be lawful for tiic Archilei't to re(iuire the Contractor, to ri'inove, take down or demolish such i>ortion of the said work .-o objected to and reinstate and completely make good (he same in a sound sub- .stantial and wdiknianlikc manner. And if alter |S hours notice to the Conti'actoi- or his Foreman of (he NN'orks such improper workmanship or unsound or luiseasoned materials shall not be removed, it shall lie lawi'id for the architect to cause (he same to be e, he shall be at fidl liberty to do so, and no extra charge shall lie made ou this accoimt by the Contractor. From the connncncement of the works to the final crks, notwithstanding any impediment that might arise, could lia\e been jjerformed and completed had reasonable exertion been used by the Contrac- tor, his atrents and workmen. The Building will be considered as conwnenced on the third day from the signing of the Contract, and the \vliole of the Works are to be com|)lcfed, with the exception oi' the painting and papering on or bcibi'C — — , and these laiier works finished and ibc ^^!lolc building com- jilcted and left fit I'or habitation on or bcl'orc The Money on account of the ^^'orks to be performed is to be paid as follows on the Certificate of the Architect; — One Fifth \\hcn the joists of the One I'air Floor are laid. One Fifth when the Gutters are laid and the Ivoof covered in. One Fifth when the First Coat of Plastering is finished. The lialancc when the ^^ nrks are ccrtificed by the iVrchitect as in every respect complete and j)erfect. In the event of diflx;rences and disputes arising during the [irogress oi' the A\'orks or at their completion, such diflt'rences and disputes shall be rci'erred to .Vrbilrators, oni; to be chosen by each of the Contracting Parties, with full power to the said Arbitrators to nominate a third, and the decision of any two of tlic said Ai'bitrators, is to be final and binding upon all parties. 'Ihe A\ Orks are (o be executed imder the superintendance and to the entire satisl'action of (77«? Arrliitcrt icill lure he iicnncil, or if l/ic riiiji/oi/cr t-iipniiili mis l/ic opcvalions of the Buihlcr, /lix name will be xnhstilnli'd llinuujIinHl far tliul of Ihv Aniiilii-I.) ©E§Q©IK1 l?®K ^ P^IIR - ^ rctT 181 DESKiN FOR A I'Ali; OF OlINAMIOXTAL VILLAS. Platks (12. (i:!. Tills Is a (IcsIljh for two scnii-ilei ached \'ilins, wliicli may, linwovcr, witii a liiilc iiKulKifatlon he erected continuously. Tlie siyle of ilic i'ront is of a (iotliic ciiaracter, Imt llie Houses may, of course he erected either iierl'eetly |ilaiii, or the decorations treated in another manner: and this obser- vation natin-ally ajiplies to the wlmle of the otliei- jilans given in the eotn-se (jf the work; tiie ornamentiuion on the elevations, allowing- of either total or partial omission, or modification. The design under description may he erected of either hrick or stone, or of brick with cement dressings; ornamental Gothic chimney shafts may be ]irociu-ed maiuifaetured of various sizes and designs. The roofs are shown slated, with cresting along the top, and parapets lising above the guttei's. Tlie fittings may be as described in former Specifieatious. The accomodation comjirises, on the (iroimd Plan: — A Dining Kooni I">' „ ••" < ir>' „ G" A Drawing Room . . . . IS' „ d" < K!' „ ii" A Library 1 4' „ (I" < 12' „ d" xV Kitchen 12' „ 0" . < 12' „ (I" A Scullery Id' „ < Id' „ d" Hall, Passage, W. ('., A\ iue and Coal Cellars, Store Closet, I'antry and Receptacle for Allies. On the Bed Room Floor: — . ' Bed Room IS' „ d" :>< RV „ (i" do 15' „ G" ;>< 15' „ 0" : 12' „ d" Prosjiect Room 6' „ G" < (V „ (I" p:ight Closets. The Koof slopes into these Rooms, and they are lighted by Dormer U'iiidows. The cost of construction will ^aly according to the part ol' the coiniiry in which the houses are erected, and the many other circumstances on which wc ha\c repeatedly conniiented. If thev arc erected of stock bricks with second malm lacings on the IVim ipal linnt and ileeora- tions in cement as shown, the outlay for the two dwellings will not be less than £ llddd. The omission of the cement work will in\nl\e a consiilcralile tlcdmiinn. 24' 188 DESIGN FOR A UETACIIEI) VILLA. DESIGN FOR A DETACHED VILLA. I' I, \Tr,S (i4. (la. (ii;. Are designs for a detached Italian Villa, adapted for a frontage of 40 feet. The treatment adopted is astj'lar (that in which the etfects are obtained cliicfly by means of flat surfaces, cohunns, ahvavs ex])cnsive features, being; avoided); and if tl>e site be elevated and pertVctly isolated, the varied elevations, with their picturesque breaks and recesses, would appear to the greatest advantage. A tower, if not an indispensable feature in this class of habita- tions, must, at least, be allowed very considerably to enhance the general effect; and the manner in which it is in this instance obtained, by means of a single break on the ground level, and the utilization of its space, reduces the consideration of the trifling extra cost of carrying it up to the desirability of the ujjper apartment, which may be used either as a sitting or a smoking room, according to the taste of the proprieter, the windows commanding a full view of the country around. The residence is suitable for a gentleman of moderate income, with a small family and two or three servants. The kitchen department is kept perfectly separate and distinct; and, on closing the door communicating with the hall, all unpleasant odour, arising from cooking or other causes, is completely shut out. There is a siile entrance for tradesmen, and an appropriate and convenient arrangement of the servants' offices; a point, the importance of which, as conducing much to the comfort and well-ordering of a household, is too frequently overlooked. A basement, with coal and wine cellars, is placed beneath the kitchen. The materials to be used in the construction will, of course, entirely depend on the part of tJK^ coiuitry in which thi' house is erected, stone being in some districts cheaper than bricks, and, of these latter, the prices of red, white and yellow similarly varying. Since the alteration in the duties, moulded bricks have been more generally brought into i'c(|uisition, and, if brickwork alone is used, the plain surfaces may be of yellow, and the di-essings to the windows &c. of red bricks, with tiled roofs, and these would ])roduce a very pleasing result. Stone is the nujst durable and satisfactory material; the description used will depend en what quarries are near. Next to its external use, we should recommend the walls to be faced with second nndm stock bricks, the dressings to be of rubbed Portland, Bath, or other stone, as most convenient. For the latter ccnu'iit may be substituted. I'ortland is preferable; but Roman or other cement, if of good quality, will be found of a lasting character, which may be still further increased by painting, after it has become thorcnighly set and ilried. I'^'ir timber is the best. Riga costs most, Imt lasts longest, ileniel, Dantzic, or Sw<'ilish may he substituted for it. Red Pine is very durable, but the Yellow is not to lie ih ])eii(leil upon. The Joiner's work should be of deals from NiH'way, Sweden, m- Russia. iVIueli depends on tlie selection of the tind^er, and some experienced jierson shoidd always be con- siUteil. The joists and plates next the ground, and the uppei- sills ef the windows ought to be of oak. None other than I'nglish oak shouhl lie used: lliat grown in Sussex is the best. If the soil is gi-avelly, no concrete will ijc re(|uii'e(l in tlie roundations: if of elay, or at all doubtful, it is reconnnemled of about twice the widili of the focjtings and averaging 1 foot in dejith. Ilr'avr'! is not atfected.by the action of the ainiospliere, but many clays which at first a])peai- liiin will, afiei- a short exposure, run into sludge. The concrete should not be thrown, as is usu;d , li-oin a I'aised stage. Tins ti'inls to scjierate its eoniponent parts, the y y u @L DKSUiN FOR A DETACIIKO VI I. LA. 189 i||.|,.jui|i|i] . '-myiU-U-crjri l.eavier reaching the groim.l firsf ; an.) it should therefore be tipped over from the lowest possible level. The footings shouhl 1„. ..uviully constructed, as ,m then. th,. ^vllole weight of the building rests. The bottom courses ought invariably to be double, and the projection of one beyond the otlier not more than 3 inches, otherwise the consefjucnces shown in the margin will probably occur, and a seftlcment take place. In houses of this dcscnption in which lh.' hving apartments arc next to the ground level, the prevention ,,l' damp becomes a very serious consideration. ■ The most effectual mode of prevention is one that is somewhat expen- sive, but when the great inconvenience resulting from damp is considered, as well as its effects on the health of the inmates of the house, the steady destruction caused by it to the timber, and the deterioration of the furniture and fittings, per- haps no means, however costly, should be deem- ed other-nase than of absolute necessity for the avoidance of so great an c\il. The method we reconmiend is to turn an half- brick arch, in the manner illustrated in the diagi-am, all round the COUfiSK. building. As damp almost always rises through the walls, if there is concrete below the footings, it will be perceived that no ground rests against the main brickwoi'k; and the prevention of the annoyance is completed by laying, a few inches above the ground level, throughout the thickness of the walls, either a layer of Claridge's Seyssel asphalte, say Vs inch thick; a layer of course slate slabs bedded in ',4 inch cement with an ' o inch course over; or a layer of cement alone one inch in thickness. Lead is the liest, but at the same time the most expensive material. In the present instance, the level of the principal iloor is raised 2' ,, (>" above the surface of the ground, and, if the site is not very damp indeed, cither of the layers above mentioned will be found, of themselves, sufliciently eil'ectual. Dry rubbish, mixed with lime, should be strewed over the surface of the ground within the walls. The locality in which an edifice is built will, as a matter of necessity, very considerably modify the cost of its construction. The prices of materials and the rates of labour are also continually undergoing changes, which render an estimate applicable only to the time and ])lace for which it is made. The design given, if erected in the subm-bs of London, or in the liome counties, in accordance with the subjoined specification, of stock bricks and cement dressings, wimld cost about •: 900. If the external surface of the walls is cemented, or if second malm stocks with red brick di-essings are adopted, the average addition would be .; 28 or i 30. Stone dressings would increase the exi)ensc from .£ 100 to [ InO. The house would probably let, in the environs of London, in a tolerable situation, for .£ GO or i 65 per annum, and a return of about 7 per cent may thus be calculated on the immediate outlay. In distant parts of the country the figui'es will stand very diffci-ent; and sufficient is here given to enable any builder to furnish an accurate estimatt^ of the cost of construction. 190 DESKiN FOR A nKTAOHEl^ VILLA. SPFX'IFICATIOX AND OEXERAL DESCUirTIOX OF THE DliAWIKOS for .miiulry works to be contracted fur ia erecting and completely tinishinp; a Villa Residence, with all the fittings appertaining thereto, according to the several plans, elevations and sections accompanying this Specification and numbered G4. 65. GCi. EXCAVATOK. Dig ont the ground to the depth and width necessary for the several walls, drains, &c. and till in, level, and well ram the same as the works are brought uji, carting away all superfluous earth, and depositing it on sutii part of the premises as may be required. The best of the ground is to be selected from the excavations and wheeled and spread to an uniforndy level surface in the garden where directed. Wherever springs, streams or soaks of water appear and issue from the sides of the exca- vations, the eontractl' lime, and ihe whole well chafed together. The linie is to be kept dry, screened with the sand, and no okm-i' nun'tar is to be made at one time than is sufficient for the day's consunqjtion. The walls art' to be built in rei;nilar courses, Flemish bond, no 4 coin'ses to tiveraji'e more than 1 foot in height, and no une part of the prinei)ial Imilding In be carried up more than ?>' „ it" above auy other pai-t during ihe progress of llie works, liul to l)e buih up uuif irnilv. No toothing is to be lefl lo uiiile • pari el' tin' wail In another: Ihe walls nnist be racked back wherp left off, and the whnie regularly and veil b led, willi as clese beds and joints as possible, and all the return .mil i-luse joints In be Hushed up lull with mortar every course. The hardest and best bin'nt bricks lo he invaiiabK .-(lecteil I'm- the lenliurs: the Imttom courses to lie ilniilili', with un back-joints bi'Vnud the lace of uppei' woik, e\ee|il in duuble coiu'ses. The bricks useil in lie sninnl, hard, i\i II biinil. grey stock bi'icks, of a regular size and shape, without any admixlnre of soft, place, or oilier bricks ol' inferior i|ualilv. The most unifoi-ni in ci.lnur to be sch;cted for the facings, wliiili .are In be linlsheil with ;i neat, close, flat joint. '.) Inch .arches over all linlels, doni-s i^ Avindows; to be lurneil in halt' luick I'iiigs, bi-eaking joint, anil linnilcij with a whole brick wlieie the joints nu'ct; linn o\ er wine .^ cnal cellars li.'df- bricks arches, the spandrils lilled in. JJed and point all door .•md wimlnw frames; cut .ill necessary sjilays, and carefully form chamfers where shown of ll |e\alinns. The slanliug walls lobe ne.-itly cut lo take limbers of roofs: p.articni.'ii- care In be l:il- tlieni of one xmiform size, 14 X '.• inches. Small oj)enings for air and ventilation to be left in llir walls, where pointed out, and tn Ik; tilled in with cast iron air bricks. Set in scullery a copper and furnace complete, with hard, square, ]iicked bricks, including tire-bricks; the external face colored and tuek-pointed. Provide also tire-lump backs to sitting room lire-j)laces and lire- brick l)acks to the remainder. Cover roof over porch with Italian i'ni'incd tiles. ))nipirly tixed. jiointed with lime and hair, and linished complete. l*rovid<' and lay from watercloscts 5 inch i ai'tliiiiwarc socket pipes, in two feet lengths, jointed with wt'U tempered clay and laid willi a pi'upei- fall towards sewer, and the junction securely formed. The rcnniining pipes to be ',) inches in diameter, glazed: all to have sypluni traps, with all necessary bends, junctions, and every re4 „ Plates . . 4 X4 Ridge. . . 8 Xl'4 „ with rounded roll l",.^ X 2 inches. Roof over Tower. Rafters . ... . 4 X 2',4 inches Collars .... 4 X 2'/.j ,, Plates .... 4X3 Angle pieces . . 7 X I'i. „ Tilting fillets, feather -edged, to the gables, and wherever necessary. The roofs to be all covered with ',4 inch battens, 2\'^ inches wide, laid for countess slating. The gutter to be laid to a fall of 2 inches in 10 feet. Inch Yellow deal gutter boards, edges shot, with fair surfaces, and '.I inches in width; projicr bearers fixed to the rafters. S C A X T I, I X G S (_) F F L < ) G U 1 N (i A N I) C K II. 1 N G J ( ) I S T 8. Ground Hoor. Oak joists . . 4X3 inches ,, Plates ..4X4,,^ Over cellars, fir joists 7"X2'.y', with yl\U-i l" X 3". (' h a m b e r f 1 o o r.. I\Iain building. Joists II X 2' '., inches. Trimming joists .-uul trimmers '.' X •"> inches. Plates 4 X "> inches. Tower. Joists f) X 2' \, inches. Trinnning joists and trimmers ."> X 3 inches. I'lates 4 X 3 inches. Closets. Joists f) X 2' ., inches. Plates ;i X •■'> „ 25 104 DESIGN FOR A DETACHED VILLA. Thf floors 1o flrawing, dininji; and hrraklast rooms to bo Incli ' ., Yellow, straifilit joint, batten floors, with sijlaycd heading joints and mitred borders to slabs. To hall and passages Inch \., Yellow deal straight joint floors. The floors to kitelicii, larder and elosets to be Inch '., Yellow deal laid folding. Those to Chanilier floors to be Ineli ' \^ Yellow deal straight joint, with mitred borders to slabs. The ceiling joists throughout to be 3' ., X -' 4 inches, with bearers, where essential, 7x2'., inches, properly secured to the wall. SKIHTIXGS. The Skirtings to drawing, dining and breakfast rooms to bp Inch ',4 moulded and sunk, 13 inches girt. That to entrance passage and hall to be 9 inches high, with moulding 3 inches girt. The Kitchen, scullery, back passage, larder ami W. (". to have square skirting, 7 inches high. Put torus moulded skirting, !^ inches high, to rooms and landing on first floor; that to closet to be square, and the same to the rooms on the upper floor. The skirtings to be fixed with narrow grounds, and the mitres properly formed. PARTITIONS. The partitions on the chamber floors are to be framed, braced and securely put together with heads and sills 4" X 3", posts 4" X 4", braces 4" X 3", and (juarters 4" X 2", 14 inches from centre to centre. STAIRCA.SES. Inch '4 Yellow deal treads and risers, with moulded and returned nosings. Strong flr carriages, glued, blocked, tongued and bracketted for plastering. Inch 7+ moulded wall string, ramped and kneed, so as to be one uniform height above the nosings, and into which the steps are to be housed and well wedged up in glue. Inch '^4 sunk, cut and beaded apron linings. Inch moiddcd skirting and narrow grotmds on quarter spaces, and curtail end to bottom steps. Oood bright Honduras mahogany handrail 4" X 2", ramped, writhed and moulded, with square bar balusters, U\» to each step, every fourth one to be of wrought iron, with plates at top and bottom to secure it to handrail and steps, with counter — sunk holes and screws. The handrail and newels to be French polished in the best manner. The staircase to upper apartment in tower to have Inch Yellow deal rounded steps, risers and winders, on strong flr carriages, flrndy bracketted, and properly glued and blocked. Inch square wrought deal string boards, into which the steps are to be housed and all made comjdetc and perfect. Deal rounded handrail on one side against the partition, secured with iron bi'.irkets. 1) K S. The principal entrance door to be ^'/.^ inch, 4 panel, bolection mouhled one side and bead flush the other, fir ])roper door-case 4VV X 4" exteiuliiig round fanlight, and with ogee l>e;id architrave ail round. Transdiii I" X •"'", 'louiilr rcli;iteii .hmiI beaded holji edges, with moulded iuqiost, and L' ineli moulded frame for fanliglit. 'i'lie door to be hung on 2—1 inch wrought ii-on" butts, and to ha\c ii good solid- wariled 12 inch draw-back lock, with brass knobs and large size bronze knockei-. Iiicli ' ., oak steps and iueh riser. The back entrance door to be of 2 inch deal, beail butt both sides, hung to solid, rebated and bea'led frame 4" X 4". A beaded and rebated transom is to be fixed (i' ^\" above the stejis, with iiieli fan-light, willi ccirds to o])en and shut the same. The upper panels (if the dodi- are to be sashes, with inch bead butt lifting shutters, with proper stub -places and thumb screws for securing the same. 10 inch drawback lock with brass knobs and 2— S iueh barrel bolts, iueh ' ., roumled oa]< step ami risi'1% and ogee beail arehlti';ive round inside (if (hiorwav. /%/y^ /O CONTAINING 13 BOOMS. i 11 riR@IMT glLIEVATO* & fi O U IM IS — P L.^U ALE or I I I I' I I I I I I DKSKJX |-(IK A I)i:iA(IIi;i> VII. I.A. lilf) Tlic I'Xtcnial (1 • "f sfiillrry to In- of lurli ' ^ deal scjiiari' (raini-d , Iniii';- with :)'/.. incli butts to tir j)i-(>iHi- (IiMir case 4" X •>' -i", and to lia\C' an iron rim t\\ii-li(dt knoli lock, an inch lirass hutts to ineh '\ douhlc rehated and headed lininj;s. Ineli framed j^rounds 4' ., inejies wide aiul inoidded areliitravcs (01 hdth sides 7 inelie.s f;-irt. Kaeli inch brass butts to Inch ■ /j single rebated and beaded linint;-, with i;rounds and architrave towards hall, to corresjKmd with the dooi-s above described. (! inch nnjrtise lock,, with ebony furniture aiul knob bolt on side of hall. The door into W. C to be Inch '4 niouldcd and square, similarly hung and finished as the above, with brass W. C latch, round knolj and secret bolt. The remaining doors on ground floor to be of inch ',.j deal, square franu-d, Ining with iV .," butts to inch '(j rebated and rouiuled linings, and provided with (i inch iron rim, 2 bolt knob locks; that to closet for brushes and brooms to have oidy a brass turnbuckle. The door into wine cellar in basement to be an Inch ^ ., framed, ledged and braced door, tilled in with •• ^ battens, and hung to wrought and rebated frame 4X4 with 4" wrou"-ht iron butts. It is to have a good lit" stock and plate wine lock, copjier wards and pipe kev. The door into principal bed rooms and dressing rooms, on first and second floors, to be Inch ^ ., moidded both siib's doors, hung with wrought iron hinges to 1',^ double rebated and rounded linings. Inch framed grr)unds 4'.^ inches wide, with moulded architraves 7 in- ches girt on both sides. They are all to have (i ineh mortise locks with brass handles. The door into W. C to correspond externally with the others, and to be otherwise similar to the one below. The doors to rooms and closets in tower to be Inch ' ., sipiare framed (hxtrs, hung with i>y., inch wrought butts to Inch ' ^ single rebated and double rounded linings. They are all to have (J inch iron rim, 2-bolt, knob locks. The entrance to the stairs leading to the upper apartment of the tower is not to have any dotn-. WINDOWS. All the windows so shown to have circular heads. The windows in drawing, dining ami breakfast rooms to have Inch Vi ovolo sashes, double hung with white lines, iron weights, brass cased pullies and sash fastenings. Deal eased frames, oak sunk sills, I" deal outside and inside linings, with 1' 4" wainscot pulley-pieces and parting beads, and '/»" inside beads, retm-ned on sill, and Hxed with gilt headed screws. Inch '4 — 4 panel moulded and bead l>utt shutters, on splay, and inch bead butt and square back flaps. The front shutters to be hung with ."> inch brass butts, and the back flaps with 2 inch flap hinges. Inch 2-]panel liead butt back linings, tongiied to frame. Inch ' [^ proper boxings, & molded architraves 7 inches girt, with ineh ' /^ one panel moulded sotiites. Inch ',4 moulded window backs, with tongued and beaded cappings continued over ineh jamb linings on splay. Each window to have an iron spring bow shutter bar, with two ebony shutter knobs. The skirting to continue round windows. The windows in kitchen and scullery to have deal cased frames, ami inch ' ., ovolo sashes, double hung, with iron weights, sash fastenings and j)ullies. Inch tongued and rounded linings and rounded cappings. Inch ',4 two, and one panel, bead butt and square shutters, hung on 3 inch wrought butts, and having a wood latch shutter bar. 25* 19(1 DESIGN FOR A DKTACIII.K VII. I.A. Tlic windows to larder and W. C. to have fir proper frames 4' ." :,< 3", wlili Inch ' 4 oxoh) sashes hung on centres witli cut beads and fostcned hy flusli bohs. ^ ^ inch rounded linhigs and sol'fites. and incli rounded wuidow boaVds. Tlie sills to he of oak. sunk. The staircase windows to have solid frames 4" X 4", with inch 1 .. fixed ovolo sashes, and Hnings, soffite, and window boards as above. The two windows lighting basement to have oak solid frames, and oak chamfered sashes, mch ' ., thick, one of them to be fixed, the other to be hung on pivots, so as to remove and i'orni coal shoots: an iron bolt to be fixed within. Or iron gratings, one hung on hinges, may be substituted. The bed room windows to be similar to those in sitting rooms. The shutters are to be omitted, and the jamb linings and soffites finished with a large bead at the angle. The win(U)Ws to Bed rooms in tower will have no window backs, but inch rounded linings, soffites and window b" and 2' „ 3' deep. Inch '-2 wrought, ]iloughed, tongued and dovetailed lining, witii fir wrought bearers, and one wrouidit iron bolt, ' ., inch in diameter, witli nut and screw complete. Binders below cistern 10" X 1". A step ladder is to be provided to get at the <'istcrn. and a small opening formed in the ceiling, with ledgcd fiajt, hung on cross-garnet iiinges, with a small Iiolt. A cistern :VX0"X"2'„<>" X r„(j" is to l)e similarly fitted up over A\'. C. on ground floor, witli flaj) in ceiling to get at it. l'ro\ide and fix in kitchen a di'csser, •) feet long ;>< '2' „ (1", fitted up with di-awci-s, ^ll(•l\cs Mud e\erv rei|uisitc ((iniplctc. I'rovide also a strong jdate rack, ^ feet long, over sink; " s" double beaded rails ;{' ., wide and G feet long for di.-li-co\crs: a ledged eo\er to co]i|)cr: inch ' j clamped ironing Ixiard and li-Mine hung on hinges undei' windows, witli ii-mi legs; and ' j beadeil bell lioanl II inches wide, Fix on apex ni tower a im-nid oniaiiiental finial. S M I T II. I' ., iiicli moulded eaves gutters screwed to deal fascia, and to be east and fixed so as to secure a fall. ;{'.> Inch Iron rain water ])ipes, with cistern heads, and properly connected with drains. Fix (if ref|uired) to .-mall windows on ground floor ' ^ inch bolts of wrougiit iron, .^ inches a])art, pni|]eil\ secured. W3^y P 1 F ^ DKSIGK Fun A HI, lAi lilD VII.I.A. lit" 'llir liolls ^^^^^. to i-oot's ;UT (U'scrilji'd in the cMriicntcr's (Icscriptiim. ^\'nlUu;■llt iriiii cliiiimcy li;irs 2' .j" < ' .," Id all lli'rplac-i's lo lie Is inrlirs lui!'.'!'!- lliaii (ilK>iiiiiu-s, and tunu'd ii|i into lirickwork. 'I'lic t^tovos to be .st'lecfc'd, and a priec named tin- sotting'. !■ L A S T K I! 1-, I!. The internal plasterinj;' to lie executed with well Imrnt chalk lime, of nof)d (|iialit\-. well ineorporated with elean, sharp, drift sand and sironn- hair. The laths to be stronji' lath and half laths, nailed at both rnds with cast inm nails. Lath the partitions and eeilinu's, render the walls, and tloat, set and finish for papci-, and while the eeilings. Twice limewhile the walls of t'ellars and stairs leading to them; also tin' kitchen scuUerv, pantry and closet for brooms. Kun corniee.s to drawing, dining and breakfast rooms 12 inches girt, with one enrichment to each 2' ^ inches girt; the cornice to principal entrance and hall to be 9 inches girt; and to the landing and three bed rooms and dressing room on first floor, put cornices 7 inches girt. The external dressing are to be run, moulded and finished in Portland cement of the best (luality. in the jiroportion of one of cement to 'A of clean sharp sand. Provide and fix ap[iroved vases for fiowers to principal entrance and perforated ornament to balconies. 1" A I X T E i;. The white and red lead, oil and turpentine to be of the best quality. The graining to be of sujjcrior quality, and the varnish to be the best hard drying copal. All exterior wood and iron work to be painted four times in oil colors; as also all interior wood work whei'c seen, finished some common color to match the papers, except where otherwise described. The principal entrance, hall and staircase to be grained wainscot and twice varnished. The drawing room to be grained satin wood, and the dining and breakfast rooms grained niajile, and twice varnished. The stone ehimnev pieces are to be painted 4 times in oil, and. in |iriuiipal bed rooms, grainc(l in imitation of dove, or other marble, and twice varnished in copal. The external face of principal entrance door, is to be grained extra daik oak and twice \ai'nished. P T. r M ?. r, li. The lead to be all milled and of the best (piality. The hips and ridges to he covered with f> lb. lead 13 Inches wide. Flashings of 5 II). lead round chimney shafts and to valleys (\ inches wide, and step flashings up gables laying 2 inches into joints of brickwork and showing I inches on the face. The gutter to be laid with 7 Hi. lead, falling 2 inches in Id iW;. with cesspool 4 inches deep. The Cistern is to be lined at the bottom with 7 lb. lead ami the sides with (i lb., turning over the top edges 1' ^ inches, and sujiplied by inch ' o rising main; to have a tnnupet uioiithcd standing waste ]ii})e 2 inches diameter, and 2 inch brass washer and waste, with 2 inch waste j)ipe into trap of upper W. C. The water to be conducted to this by ■* \" service pii>e, with inch service ])ipe to smaller cistern over ^\. C. on ground level, which cistern is be fitted n\t on a similar manner to the one above described. Provide and fix also from upper cistern an inch sup])ly pipe to the sink on scullerv with brass cock, 4" lirass grate and bell-trap and 2' o waste pipe. 198 DESIGX I'OR A DF.TACIir.D VII. r.A. TIk' \v;itcr olosct:? arc to be fitlcil up wiili strtinti' I'lin f'losct a])|i:iratiis, wliitc basins, stninii" ]> trails, cranijis, levers, and every rcijuisitc complete. 4 Inch lead soil pipes delivering into drains and jiroperly trappjed. G L A Z I K i;. The drawing, dining and breakfast room windows to be glazed witli patent ])late or sheet glass, 21 oz. to the loot sujier, as also the sash entrance do(ir. The remaining windows to be glazed with the best double crown glass: the basement windows to have thirds crown. All the glass to be well bedded and puttied and thoroughly cleaned off. SLA T E I!. Cover the roof's with Ixuigor countess slating, nailed with zinc nails (ii-on being liable to rust and copjicr, the best, arc expensive), two to each slate: the eaves to be dijul)le. 1' A P K It II A N G E U. The ]irincipal entrance, hall and staircase to be liimg with ginid Sienna marble pajicr, twice sized anil varnished in the best manner. The remaining papers will be chosen and a [iricc is tn be nanu'd for hanging them comi)lete. V, E L L II A N G E U. The .'sitting rooms to have two sunk lever pidls and flic Ti principal bed rooms one each, to correspond with the furniture of the respective rooms. The back entrance is also to have a sunk pull. The wires are to be conducted to the bell-board in the passage; they should be of copper and each bell is to have a small neat brass pciidnhim. l'i-o\ide also metal liibing from the ]iulls down to the floor. No enclosing walls or ladings are inchidid in the estimate gi\cn. Tin ir nccessitv and extent will entirely dciii'iid on circumstances of whirli it is impossible i'oi- us to take coiJiiizance. ©isgD©'^ ¥®(n ih ¥oiLL/a CONTAINING 13 ROOMS "3-: • ^ - . ^^ ■- /" // TRANSVERSE SECTION CHAMBER PLAN THE CONSTRUCTION OK I.'OOFS, FLOORS A"NI) I'Aini TK )NS. Few lualtiTs ;irr el' iiin|-c iin])oil;Hi<'c tii tlic I '|-arliciil Uiiildir tlinii llic rmi,-truili(iM nl' K'm.ff!, wliirli not (iiily vt,\vv ami [irolect huildiiiii's hut also hind tliciii firmly tno;,;tiigi-. 'I'lir |ii iiici |iies involved in the fonihination dl' llicir parts have hecn generally -laidl in the article im TIjc Me- chanical rrineiples of C'ar|ienlry. Rafters placed, a« in the i.iitline in the margin, without the <■()//./;• i)i- //,■, would naturally tend to thru>l out thr walh, and if the ,'-|iaii is ahout l{(l feet, the next eoiuhination should In- ad(i|ited. The fendeney of the tie-bcain to heiid or sag in the middle is ^lrc^•ented hy llie Kiiiff-posl in the centre; auIHce for the priucijial. 'ihe com- bination altogether is termed a V/v(.«.v. "In general the car- pcnli'r ,-hould avoid as nuicli as possible the etleet all cross strains, or those which arc trans\(rse, and in the arrangement of the timhcrs of a roof, he slioidd iie\cr employ a very open angle at a jioint where a load is to he supporteil, the oMi- quity of the two jiicces forming the angle reijuiring them to exert a great force, in order to oppose a much smaller one."' The various inclinations given to roofs is dependent on the climate in which they arc erected. In the countries of the East, in Egypt and some j)arts of Italy they are constructed flat; as well for the C(jnveniciue of enjoying the air as from the circumstance that there are not such vicissitudes of weather as in Northern climes. In proportion to the prevalence of rain and snow, the pitch of a roof is made more acute, graduathig to a more obtuse angle as these diminish, in high pitched roofs the wind does not so readily obtain access between the slates or interstices of the lead and i> thus not so likely to strip them and introduce rain between tiie timbers. Where however there are para- pets, a high roof is attended Avith n)any disadvantages; the snow slides down, and stops the gutters, and in ^ery heavy rains the water falls with such velocity that tlu^ pipes cannot carry it off sufficiently rajtidlv. The materials with which roofs are co\ered uni>t alM) he taken into consideration in deciding on the slope, which in this country is rarely ahoxc one third of the span or less than one sixth. Pan tiles do not require so much inclination as flat-iiles or slates, as the hollows are so many separate channels and facilitate the escape of water. \Vhen the incli- nation is trifling slates will be found almost as wet up a certain portion of their under |iart as above, as the water flows up by capillary attraction, and it is also thu^ when >uo\\ i> gradually melting. Roofs in the South of F^-ance, covered with hollow tiles, ba\e a wry slight slope which is invariably made greater when slates or ]ilain tiles are em|)loyed. 'fhe oidiuary pitch for slates in this Country is when the height of the roof is one f'ourlh ol' the s|iau or al an angle of 2(5' o degrees. W we take this as a standard the f'ollowiiiu talile will ui\e the dcLtrec of iMcliuation for other nnitcrials. Kiml of Covering Lead oi- Coppei- riaiu /files Pan Tiles The Shipc of the roof of the I'artheiion at Athens is Hi"; that of the temple of Septiniius Severus ill Rome, T.i"; and wcobser\e that in lOngland the slope usually given is 27" for pan tiles, 2.'t" for liicliiiatioil llcigl, ill liarls ( r si an \W'i,i;lit per S«|Uaro :?". :>!)' •l8 ) Lead . . . 7(Hi i Cojiiwr . Iiio. 211. II' !' I(i2l. 21. ((' '1 sio. 2(l0 THE CONSTKUCTION OF KOOFS, FI.dORS AND PAimTIONS. jilain tile.-, iuiil Xi" i'ur folates. A'itnniii8 tells us that the ruul's uf the ancients were sometinies covered Avith rccds, and occasionally with clay mixed with straw, and Pliny remarks that the shells of tortoif^es were sometimes used. In Germany and Switzerland shingles of oak and Hr are in constant recjuisition. In practice roofs are generally made too heavy. A\'arc remarks in his "Complete body of xVr- chitecture"; — "There is no article in the whole compass of the Architect's employment that is more important or more worthy of a distinct consideration than the roof. The great caution is that the roof be neither too massy nor too slight. Both extremes are to be avoided, for in archi- teetm-e every extreme is to be shunned, but, of the two, the overweight of roof is more to be regarded than too much slightness. This part is intended not only to cover the building, but to press upon the walls, and by that bearing to unite and hold all together. This it avIII not be massy enough to perform if too little timber be employed, so that the extreme is to be shunned. But in ])ractice the great and common error is on the other side; and he will do the most ac- ceptable service to his profession who shall show how to retrench and execiue the same roof with a smaller quantity of timber; he will by this means take of an unnecessary load from the walls, and a large and useless expense to the owner." Nearly all old roofs are too heavily constructed. In those in Sussex and Kent, the carpenter seems to have coalesced with the mason, for manv of the forms are clearly derived from works executed in stone. ' "\Ve observe in Gothic roofs the rafters placed flatwise, instead of with the depth the other way, as in all scientific constructions; and this fault is copied by many architects of the-pi-esent day, who permit a blind love of mcdiievalism to stand in the place of the teaching of science, forgetting that nothing can be beautiful which is scientifically incorrect. The timber houses and roofs of Switzerland though sometimes too heavy, are generally admirable and cheap construc- tions, deserving of attentive study. In many old buildings of Brittany the roofs are very simple, in the form of a pointed arch, and in Germany fir planks are often united in this shape and on which structure the rafters and purlins rest. In Holland souictliing of the same system is fre- (piently adopted, the princi[)als being framed of solid tindjers arranged about 12 feet apart. ^Ve shall now con>ider the forms of roofs most generally employed and conse(juently of the greatest importance to our leaders. The simplest form is that termed a shed, or lean-to, in which one side of a building being higher than another, rafters are laid across in the form of an in- clined plane: this is of course only suitable for narrow spans. Kectangular buildings are therefore usually covered by roofs in the form of a prism, on the height or ])itch of which we have before reniailicd. ^\'hcii the sides of these roofs are not carried up till they meet, but are finished in a plane jiarallcl lo the horjzon, they are termed Irininilnl. If a roof is not terminated at the ends by gables, but .-ilopes off, the intersection oi' the slojies is called a lap, the raft(-i-s at the angles are called hip raftevK, and the short ones at the side jacL- lui /'/<■/■.■<: the central lung (inc being also a /lip mfli'i: The Mansard, or Cui-b roof (vide outline), is fre(|uently used for the ])in'- ])Ose of kee|iing down the height of the walls of a building and, at the same time, obtaining sleeping or nlhcr apartnicnls in tlic yinA\ the ])riiicii)als must be carefully sccure 13 2' 2 i:? :i TIIK COXSTKUCTIONS Ol' KOOI'S. l'I.f)iii;S AND rAKTITIOXS. 201 'i'lic (ii'diiKiry liiriii is tlic .y'/uTtca/; tlic |il;iin Ih'Iiil:- ;i rircK' ami llic M'ctinu a sfginciit - in two oi' more thicknesses which are cut to the curve in lengths, not so great as to weaken the timher, and securing these well together, i)V holts or kcvs, and ol)scr\ing es|)ecially to /urn/: the joints of the several thicknesses. This method was adopted in liic Jaige /A'/A- ini.r fi/r.s at Paris, wliiili was many years since destroyed hv fire, and which has been rcjilaced hy an iron rililicd donic. This scantling of the rihs, a.-i given liy Delornic. are as under. For domes of 2 1 icet diaiiidcr, the rilis (o lie S inches dcrp and 1 imh iliick. 3(i fill „ ,y HIS ; „ There iwe no horizontal cros.s-lics, and the springing of cat ii rili must he well secured at the foot." It docs not come within the scope of this work to make many oliservations on the high pitched roofs common in liic Middle ages and now i-cprodiiced in ('Imri'li ai-chiiccinrc. They were often defective as specimens of construction, in causing a great thrirt on ilir walls, usually counteracted hv means of liiittresses, instead of hy a tie-heam, the use of wliiili would not lia\e harmonised with tJic soaring clfcrl aimed at hy the mcdi:c\al aichiicrt.-: alilioiigli in a certain period of (iotliic ^Vrchitectnre ilat-roofs, almost rcsemlirmg tlonrs, and hy no incan< ri.-ing to the rank of trusses, were in constant rci|uisitii>n. la the Hftccnili and .-ixicenth centuries sumc \iTy elaliorati' ami magniticent roofs were con- structed, and that more especially over A\'e>tiiiin-tcr Hall dcstrves the attentive study of the carpenter. Oak and ( Ik ,-nut-timl'cr.-, pinned and morticed, were in use lor these roofs; tir being too jialile to split to be of miii'ii iitilitv where strajis and bolts were rc|indialed. Trussed roots which do not exert a side thrust on the walls are prefered at the present day, and these are mostly modi- tications of the principles stated and the wood cuts given at the conunenrement of this article. The king or (|ueen post roof is so admirable and is capable of so many variations to suit di\erse purposes that it will probably ever continue to be adopted. In these roofs (sec ]ilates 15 and 17) the horizoiUal timbers which extend from wall to wall, are lermcd tii--l>caiiif, and they rest at the ends on »ieces cut lengthways in their grain Ijy a saw to within two feet of one end; then placed in a steam kiln and boiled till they will bend freely, when they are fixed in a mould and left to cool, after which a few pins of wood are diiAcn through them to keep the pieces from flying 0[)en. The lower end of each arch is inserted in the beam of the floor, and they arc both firmly pinned together at the top where they cross one another, and each butts against the opposite rafter: they are further secured by iron straps at^lto short pieces B. Fig. 5. is a ciu'ved roof adapted for the top of a turret or other situation. Fig. 7. is a simple form of roof suitable for ordinary dwelling houses, where there are no attics, and the ceiling joists are notched on to the tie beam. As King and Queen post roofs arc those most generally used, wc shall gi\e some rules from ^Ir. Cresy's Encyckip;edia lor determining the scantlings of the diflx;- rent timbers. The scantling of the King post is found by multiplying the length of the jiost in feet by the span in feet, and again this pnjduct by 0. 12. for fir, and I). \'.\ for oak, which latter product will be the sectional area of the King post in inches; by dividing this area liy the breadth, or by the thickness, cither may be obtained: the area divided by the breadth gives the thickness, and di\iilcd by tlie thickness gives the breadtii. For the scantling of the principal rafters when the King post is in the middle, multiply the s(|uarc y mul- tiiilviiig the cube of their length in feet by the length of bearing in i'cet, the fourth root of the product will be the dei)tli in inches for fir; or iiiultiplyiiig by 1.(14 will give the de|)th for oak; this multiplied by ().(> will give the breadth. In (^ueen-post roofs the mode of finding the scantling of one of the suspending pieces is to multiply its length in feet by the length of the tie-beam in feet, and then multiply the product liy t'.7 for fir, or i^A'2, for oak to obtain the sectional area in inches of the post: if we divide this area by the thickness in inches, the breadth will lie obtained. In order that the strength of the straining piece between the heads of (jueen-posts may be as great as possible, its de])tli should be to its thickness as 10 to 7: by multiplying the square root of the sjian in feet by the length )IESI&N FOR A PaOIR Of MOGtiL COTTACES rOR LABOURERS, MECHANICS &C. PUjUH. FRONT ELEVATION s c A L c or 'E.I.TaTtuck inv. Ar. A-H.Fajn Tlir. rONSTIMi TKiN* <>V UiKil'S. IT.OOnS ANT) I'MITITK iNS. 20n of ilio ,ly llu' (lc|itli l.y (1.7. Swell arc llie nilo,-; gonorally adopted for tiiidinu- tlie .■^eantlinjis of roof tinilter.-. 'I'lic followiiiir i.< the summary of practice adojifed by (iwilt, and will lie i'oiind extremely u.-^efiil in saving the lahoiir of calculation. As \vc do not jiroposc to dilate on iron roofs it will complete the ohsen-ations , we deem need- ful, in addition to those ])revioiisly uiade, on the construction of the framed covcrinjrs of build- injxs. "We need only remark, that as oak is more coliesi\e than fir, htit fir is less compressive than oak hy forces acting- in the direction of its fibres, oak is therefore hcst for ties and Kings and (iucens, and fir for struts and straining pieces. For roofs whose spans are Ijetwccn 2(1 and 3(1 feet, no more tiian a trus- with a K'iiig post and struts will be necessary, in which case the scantHngs hereunder given will be sufficient. For a span of 2(» feet, the tie beam to be 9 in. by 11 in.; the King-post 4 in. by 1 in.: [irinci- pal rafter 4 in. by 4 in.: struts 4 in. l)y 3 in. For a span of 25 feet, the tie beam to be Id in. by 5 in.; the king post o in. by .". in.: prin- cij)al rafter 5 in. 1)}' 4 in.; struts 5 in. by 3 in. For a span of 30 feet the tie beam to be 1 1 in. by (1 in.; the king posts G in. by C, in.: jirin- cij)al rafter G in. by 4 in.; struts 6 in. by 3 in. For roofs whose spans are between 3(1 and lo feet, a truss witii two queen-posts and struts will be reciuired, and a straining piece between the queen-posts. Thus — For a span of 35 feet, the tic beam to be 1 1 in. by 4 in.: queen posts 4 in. by 4 in: principals 5 in. by 4 in.; straining piece 7 in. by 4 in.; strius 4 in. liy 2 in. For a span of 45 feet, the tie-beam to be 13 in. by G in; queen-posts G in. by (5 in.; principals G in. by 5 in.; straining piece 7 in. by 6 in.; struts 5 in. by 3 in. For roofs whose spans are between 45 and 60 feet two queen-posts arc required, and a strain- ing piece between them, struts from the larger to the smaller ([ueen-iiosts, and struts again from the latter. For a span of 5(1 feet tie-l)cam 13 in. by S in.: (piccn-posts S in. by S in.; small (|ueens S in. by 4 in.; principals S in. by G in.; straining piece 9 in. by G in.; struts 5 in. liy 3 in. For a span of 55 feet, tie-beam 14 in. by 9 in.; queen-posts 9 in. by S in.; small (|uccns 9 in. by 4 in.; iirineipals S in. by 7 in. Straining piece 10 in. by G in.: struts 5' ., by 3 in. For a span of GO feet, tie-beam 15 in. by Id in.; (jueen-posts Hi in. by ^ in.: small queens 10 in. b}' 4 in; principals S in. by S in.; straining piece 11 in. by G in.; struts G in. by 3 in. The scantlings of purlins are regulated principally by their bearings, and though wo have subjoined scantlings of bearings for 12 feet, .such should be avoided iiy not allowing the distance between the trusses to exceed 10 feet. For a bearing of G feet, the scantling of the purlin should be G" X 4". S „ „ 7" X 5". 10 „ „ S"X6". 12 „ .. 9" X 7". For common rafters, the scantlings arc as follow; 12 feet should be the maximum of the bearing. For a bearing of S feet, the .scantling of the rafter shotild be 1" X 2' ..". • „ Id ,. ., G" x: 2' ./'. 12 .. „ G" X 2' ./'. Plates may be 4, 5, or G inches square according to the size of the roof. ( )n the outward casings of roofs we have previously made some casual oliservatioiis in various parts of tlieA\drk. Slates form one of the best and most economical coverings; and the cheapest nr 204 THE CONSTRUCTIONS OF ROOFS, FI.00H6 AND PARTITIONS. in. wide; Iiofirdinu' licinL;; of course mode of hivinii' tlicni, is on l)attens ^ , in. thick and 2 or 2' niiicli more ex])ensivc. Plain (Hat) and jiantiles (curved witli la]) ai'o lica\v altliouu'li duraliie coverino-s. Plain tiles are nianuf'actiired with two holes t!iroiii;h wiiich oak |>ins arc inserted to hant; on oak or fir laths. Pantiles ai'C hiinii' to the laths hv a knot formed in makino- them on the underside nearest the rid"'e; the surface is both convex and concave. Slabs of stone, naturally very heavy, are used in sonic jiarts of the country — jiarticularly in the Weak! of Sussex; and oak shiiifih'x are occa- sionally adopted. Of metals, copper is one (jf the earliest ever used for covering roofs, and its elasticitv, hardness, niallealiility and tenacity arc very great. Its lightness is a recommen- ewt. and of zinc only I cwt., some idea may be formed of the saving of tindjer by the introduction of this material. 15y the electro- process zinc is applied to cast and wrought iron and also to copper. FLO O 1! I N G. Xideil floor'uKj is the term used to designate the collection of timbers for the support of the flooring boards and ceilings of rooms. Siiialc liooriiia, i/oiihle Jfoorini/, and douhlc fniiiinl flooi-'uict, are the three several kinds in oidinary practice. ^ In aiiia/r ffooriiiti there are but one series of joists, as in the W ( margin, and this, iril/i tin' xanu' i/unii/i/i/ of fhtdn'r, is found "^ • iiracticallv to be stronaer than ciilur doiilile flooring or double framed flooring, but where the bearing is great and it is desirable to keep the surface of the ceiling fair and free from cracks, doidilc Ho | c'ut. Such a llooris Iml a Irille deeper than the cdmnuni firm iiid, in addilinn to the ceiling being better, the jiassagc of Miiiiid i.- much impeded. Willi re-peii 111 the -c.'intliii'i-^ of joisl.-, those the widlli ofwliicji i^ jc-s lliaii liaH'tlieir \ei'tic:d o"irrr IN THE OLD ENGLISH STVLE DETAIL OF BAY SIDE ELEVATION SECTION =^ ^nTT ^ m^ DETAIL OF FINIAL 'Jzz:. DETAIL OF CIRCULAR WINDOW E. L.Tai-iiicTc i nv SCALE or A O D _ TllK CONSl'KrcTIii.NS (iK IKIDKS, I'l.OdUS AMI r.\l;l I IK iNS. 205 E thicknos.s uvv ;i]it tn licud anil twist if iIlc stnitliiiii- ali()\f dc-iTiljcd is not ii.-fd; for this roason sijuared timber was very generally employed l>y the architefts of tlio middle ages. 2 or 2' jinehcs is the least width that should be given to joists, or they will be apt to split when the nails of tiie flooring boards arc driven in. The rule generally adopted for finding tlic depth of a joist when the length of bearing and breadth are given is to divide the square of the length in feet between the supports by the breadth of the joist in inches, and the (■\\\io root of the (|Uoticnt, luultiplicd by 2. "2 for fir and '!.'■) for oak, will give the rei(uircd result. The joists slmidd not exceed 14 inches from centre to centre. In douhh' jloorinc] there are three series of timbers called /n'mliiuf, hridijing. and rriliiifi joistx^ F- ■■ ' ■ — — r - put together as shown in the diagram. The binders are the ^ — FT E^^i — '^ main timbers, I'lmning from wall (o wall, niid cai-ryiug ibf others. The iiridging joists arc best notched on to the binders, although they arc sometimes framed between with r/nisnl mor- iiccs. The ceilinij joists are also best notched on to the imdcrside of the binders and nailed, which is iireferabic to mortising, weakening as this does the binder, and being also more troidilc- some than notching. I'lillrii inor/isimi the ceiling joists consists in cutting a chase into the liindcr long enough to allow the introduction of the tenons of the ceiling joists obli(|uely. and tiny are then driven uj). The scantling of the bridging joists is to be calculated by the same ibnnula given for single fiooring; and the ceiling joists need not be of greater thickness than is necessary to nail the laths securely to them. They should not thus be less than 2 inches thick, and more than 12 inches apart. The binding joists must not exceed feet apart, and slioidd ha\c a bearing ol' 6 inches on the walls. The rule for finding the depth of a binding joist, the breadth and the length of bearing bein"- known, is to divide the square of the length in feet by the breadth in inches, and the cube root of the quotient, multiplied by '^A2. for fir, and Ij. ■'):?. for oak, will give the depth in inches. A\nien the breadth of a bindmg joist is desired, the depth and the length of bearing being given, di\ide the square of the length in feet by the cube ol' the depth in incbe-, ami rnulliply the (pio- tient by 4(1 for fir and 44 for oak.. In double framed fioinvs there ure, in addition to the timbers described in ikiuble floors, Girders into wliicli the binders are framed. These girders are placed aliout 10 feet apart and should bear on the walls 9 or 12 inches. The passage ofVdund is eficctually b: "^^ prevented in these floors, and from their firnmess and solidity the ccil- f — n irf ll jj] n— ^ iiiss are excellent. nd We need not here repeat what wc have jireviously ex] illustrated respecting the best method of framing the Binders into the girders. The diagram in the margin illustrates an or- dinary method of trussing girders when, as is often the case, when the bear- ing exceeds 25 feet, tim- ^ .^ . ber cannot lie inncureil of sidficient de]itli to ans- wer the re(|nired purpose: the truss posts and abutment pieces ought to be of wrought iron, and the struts of oak, or anv wood slifl'er than the girder il-elf. In ibis way ilie liending or sagging of the girder, so apt to push out the wall, is greatly countcracled, and this practii'c of sawing girders down the micUlle, reversing them and bolting the two togelhcr has furihcr advantages in allowln"' a freer ])assage of air around and peruiitling an examination into the heart of ihe wikhI, whelher it is firm and well seasoned or decayed. The method of iiiiding the de|ilh of a girilei'. 200 THE CONSTRUf'TIONS OF ItOOFS. Fr.OOr.S AXn FAKTTTIONS. when the length of bearing and the breadth are given, is to s([nare the Icngtli in feet and divide the product by tlie breadth in inclics, and the cube root of the quotient nndtiplicd 1)y -1.2 lor fir or 4.;54 for oak will give the depth in inches. • To ascertain the breadth, when the deptli and length are gi\en, divide the .square of the length in feet by the cube of the depth in inches; the ((uotient multiplied by 74 for fir and S2 for oak gives the breadth in inches. The weight of a square of doid)lc framed flooring varies from 2(1 to ;ir> cwt. Snlijoincd are the scantlings of flooring timbers rcconnncndcd by Trcdgold GIRDERS Bearing Wiiltli Du]itli 10 0" 7" 12 1 1 10" 11" 8" 9" Ki 12" 10" 18 12" 11" 20 i:i" 11" 22 14" 12" 24 15" 12" 2() 16" 12" 28 10" 13" 30 10" 14" BINDERS Bearing Wi.ltli Depth 6 6" 4" 8 1" 4'," 10 8" 5" 12 0" 5' V' 14 1(1" f." IG 11" (ii," 18 12" 1" 20 i:{" ''2" ' JOISTS Bojring (> Wi.lili 2" Deiitli 0" S 2' .," 7" 10 2' V' 71 .," 12 2' .," S" 14 2' ," 0" 18 V .," 12" 20 3" 12" CEILI\(i JOITS BtMving Wi.ltli Depth 31," 2" 8 4" 2' ," 10 :," 2';V' 12 C." 2',.," 10 feet ;i]iart, to 12 inches bearing on the wall. 4 to () feet a})art; 4 to (3 inches bearing on the walls. Add ' k" lor each joist supported to tiiickiiess of Trim- mer :ind Tiimmiiig joists. Stiiittiiig if l)('aring exceeds S feet, and an additional row I'or e\ery 4 feet. Bearing on walls about 1 indies or more. iSotched on to liindei's and nailed. I'loors have often been succes.sl'idly constructed in novt4 and extraordinary iniumcrs. Rondelet d(stTil)es one at Amsterdam to a room 0(1 feet square, consisting only of three thicknesses of inch and a half boards, ])louglied ami tonguetl, with two layers laid in ojiposite directions diagonally Ji'llSIK&V!! DIQICS A IfllHSIT ^ILMiSlg U P W ll'J ITiM i!^ V'J JS) 1 'C III . TlaZt/ m Cqrhice ano Attic. SECTION or IONIC ENTABIATUHE SECTION or BASEMENT. E.L.Tariuck lav. IONIC PILASTERS. V 2. ■-- b THE CONMIlLt IK'NS (i| KonlS. M.ODliS ANIi I'M: IITIONS. 207 111 llic ,--i(lcs 1)1' till' riiiiiii :niil ilic lljinl |Kir;illcl to llic lallc r, all liniiK iiailn! inMrilici' :ii|i| ;il.-^0 to sti'oiii; wall plates, tlii' aiiiilc.^ nf whiili arc sc(iiivi(r openings and chimneys, the latter whereof must al\\a\s he attended to. Thirdly, xvall plates a^id templets must he |iro])ortionately larger as llieir length ;ind tiie weight of the iloor incretises. Their scantlings will, in this respect, vary i'rom 1' ., hy '.\ inches up to 7' ., hy •'> inches. Fourthly, the timhers should alwiiys be kept rather higher, say half to three (juarters of an inch higher in the middle than at the sides of a room, when first framed, so tliat the natural shriidcing and the settlements which oeeiirs in all huililings may not nltiinatelv aj)pear after tlu; hiiililing is finished. Lastly, when the ends of joists or girders are supported hy external walls, whose height is great, the middles of such timhers ought not at first to rest iijum :iny partition wall that docs not rise higlur than the floor, hut a space should, says Mtruvius (lih. 7. C. I.), he rather less hetween them, though, when till has settled, they may he hronglil to a iK'aiing upon it. Neglect of this precaution will induce iilie(|ual settlements, and, hesides, causing the Hoor to lie thrown out of a le\cl, will mo>t |u-o- htdily i'rticture the corners of the rooms lu'low." PARTITIONS. v_ . I Partitions in cai-pentry. arc a species of timber wall, fm-metl with uprights, jtosts or quartcr-s, framed and braced together at the top and bottom on heads and sills. When the space between the (|iiarters is filled with brickwork, the partition is termed, hrirkiioiiijcil; if constructed of wood only, a inches, and the weight from 1.") to 2ll cwt. When the bearing is not above 20 feet, 4"x;!" will be a sufticient scantling for the posts and, 4"X2' j" for (|uarters. If the bearing is 40 feet the jiosts may be G" X 4", and the quarters 4" X 2' ./'; the heads, sills and struts in proportion to the charaet6r of the partition and the strains to which tlicy are subjected. Iron tie-rods, heads and shoes are now very generally used in partitions of great size or exposed to much pressure. It is of the first importance to guard against the shrinkage of timbers in partitions, as, in such instances, the walls and ceiHngs will be cracked from the settlements which must necessarily take place-. pariition> ,-lioiild therefore be allowed souu- time to settle before being lathed for plastering. 280 DESIGNS FOR TOWN RESIDENCES. Plates ()7. (iS. GO. 70. These ]>lntcs contain (lcsin;ns for ;i row of Town Iiouses of the ordinary (le.-^crijition jj;cncrally in demand in London and other cities and towns. Tlie Elevation forms our first ilhistration of a continuous connected row of houses, and is designed in the style which appeal's, judging from what we sec around us, to lie most popular. The difficulties in planninii; residences of this de- scription arc often great when light cannot be procured at the sides, and almost as nuich accomo- dation is demanded as in country houses where the site is more ample and light can be intro- duced in every direction. Often, indeed, in London the Kitchen offices in larije buildini^s are placed at the rear in a low structure sometimes only connected by means of a passage with the house, and there is this advantage' in such an arrangement that all noise and unpleasant odour arising from the kitchen department are efl^cctually cut off. The usual plan adoptod in smaller dwell- ings is to have a kitchen in a basement, partly sunk below the level of the ground, a scullery behind this and ^■aril)us useful closets at the side and under the staii'case. An area, approached by steps from the street, is the means of allowing the entrance of a sufficient amount of air and light, and, conununicating with this area, vaults under the streets afl< 12' „ 0" I'l.rtico, L,,hl,ics. Hall, and W. C. On the lirst Floor: Drawing IJi i Iti' , 0" < IG' „ 0" Secondary 1 )iMx\ing or Bedluioni IG' „ 4" X 12' „ 4" Ante IJiKini 7' „ :}" > -: G' „ 0" Lobby ami W. C, FOR LABOURERS MECHANICS «, . //^z/, FROMT ELEVATION OROUND PLAN SCALE o r ^- DKSKiNS 1(JU TOWN KKSIDKNCKS. 2", :ui(l tlio Attic 7' „ 0" Tlie eonstniction will he as slmwn on tlic scciioii, [ihiie Ci'.', which (■(nitnins al-o clciiiils of the dormer windows. The elevation, ])late OS, is |ii(i|ioscd to he i'accd with second inahn stocks and cement, and the roof covered with zinc. Details are p;ivcn on jilaic 7tl of the ground and first floor windows. The e.xjicnsc of a row of six of these houses wonld he alimit £ r).')0(l. A\'e will resume our general remarks on the fittings of domestic iiahitations with a few ohser- vations of chimneys and cliimney pieces, sup|ilcmentary to the lengihcncd examination into wliich we entered on the causes and remedies of smoky chimneys. A\'e gather from an old work, Skarfe's Ihiivcrsal British liuildcr, the following tal)l<' |ii-o|ioriioiiiiig the size of chinmcy open- ings to that of the apartments in which they are placed. The consideration, however, of the height of the Hue shoidd modify the size of the fire ])lacc, which imist he jjroportionatcly smaller as the flue dimiifishes in length. There arc other circiim.--tances, too, wliicii will modify tin- di- mensions given, hut these will readily occur to the readers ol' the article alluded to. Siilo of Itiioius Rroncllli lUi-lit 1 1( plli 6 feet 1 „ C. -A ,. (» I ., 1. 9 ,. 2 ., It :! .,1 1 „ :s. 12 ., 2 ., c. :? ., :! 1 ., :>. 15 „ ;; „ I) :\ „ i i „ 7. 18 „ :! .. (1 :•- .. t; i ., '.i. 21 „ 1 „ ;! ., 7 I „ ill. 24 „ I ., li :; ., '.I 1 ., II. In Morris's lectm-cs 05b ''u,r -^T-^ 1 z o u _1 UJ D I- < > y _i tij I- z o DKSIGNS FOU TOWN RESIDEXCF.S. L' I I proper manao-emcnt of tliese two registers. Willi ni^anl id \\li:ii arc liilicd sinnh-jridx, Vv\\\\\\i. contains two Sections illustrating the construction. The [irdbable cost ol' this House if erected in the enxirons of Ldudoii.oi' bricks and cement with slated rdofs and ordinarv cxienial finishincs, will he 4- 2200. 212 DESIGNS FOi; SHOP FRONTS. Plati-.s 74. Tf). 7G. 77. From llic mnny communications witli wliicli wc have been lionourcd, wo l)clieve that the scries di' designs ior shiip i'roiits witii wliich \vc now jiropose to furnish the suhscriljcrs will he deemed an acceptahle addition to our prograiiniic. That tiiere is \cyy great scope for improvement in tliis department of architecture few will deny. It is impossible to pace any of our great and fashionable thoroughfares, without remark- ing the xamenexs of the fronts which meet the eye. The same cornices, pilasters, and consoles are incessantly repeated, and, generally speaking, having seen one, we have seen all. There is certainly a very evident relationship, and it would almost appear as if design were exhausted, or that one projirietor believed it to be almost a heresy to differ from his neighbours. Tlie tradesman who aims to attract special attention can hardly but lie aware of the advan- tage ot iiurniduality. His sho]) woiild tiieii be at once siiigle should in general lie axoided, as a couiparativcly slight lalei'al force is sullicient to fractiu'c or imsettlc them; and they are geiu^i'ally used of such slight diameters, that we tremble sometimes when we sec them. A\'hile, therefore, gi\ing the largest ])os.sible amount oi' window s]iace, we shall cndea\(iur to a\iiiil thei'' introdiiction, ;uid, while pre- serving lliat lightnc.-s of effect which is so desirable, wc shall adhere to what is still more essen- tial, sufficient solidity t than (■ar\(d decorations, and distiniruishint;', because brilliant coloiu's more readily catch the eye and jiroduce a more striking cU'ecl than anv amount of varied sm'face. "We may take occasion to give a few of ilir uMirc simple rides of liaiinonious colom-ing, Avhich will enable the eiu]iloyer to judge for himself ol' the best means of obtaining the effect he desires, and to avoid that Mdgarity too often eonseijuent on trusting to the taste of any jiainter he may employ. '{'he ventilation of shops is too often entirely neglected. ( )f riiitchers shops we caimot complain; these are gcnerallv c|uiie open in I'ront, aii U u I- z o a: a si ^ J < > _l Ll u Q M ,0 H DESIGNS KOi; SIlOl" FRONTS. 213 however arc in one extreme, and tliey should be contrived so as to admit of being closed more or less. An efilirt is o-oncrally made to ventilate bakers sli()])S, but seldom on any seientifip principle. The upper part of tlic window is perforated for tlic ostensible ])iirposc of allo^in;;; the ioiil air to escape; liiit tlic Liciicral cllcct is, that the vitiated air, wliii li naturally rises, is driven down to be atjain breathed, caiisiiij;- besides, a stronji' draught on the heads of those nearest the opciiint;s. With these exceptions, i'cw shop-keepers troul)lc themselves abotit the matter, liiit we ap])rchciid that, ill these days, the majority will i)c it'lad of a lew suggestions on the subject with the \ie\\ of icndcriiiL;- the tipartmcnt in which so large a portion of their lives is sj)ent as healthy and as comfortable as possible. We shall give a variety of designs, some plain, others decorated, so that from the estimates and the ample desciijitions given a selection may be easily made. I) I-: S 1 G N No. 1. This and No. 2. are adtipted for pui'poses in which much show space is not reipiired, but the shoj) windows may be lengthened by adding more bays or divisions. A ]irivate entrance is pre- sumed to be essential, 'flie details given and the following desciiptious will be found quite sufficient to eiiabh' anv builder to give accurate estimates of the cost, and to construct the fronts. A\'e shall ourselves gi\e approximate estimates at the end (jf each description. Localities, the ever varving prices of mtiterials and labour, and the eircumslance of whether the shop only is to be built, or the house wiih ii, all iiiipress upon us the iluty of apprising the reader that eouiplele accuracy in this respect is totally out of the (iucsti N. The two trusses and the caps to the two half eolumus to be of good sound C'ticu or other a]i- proved stone, free from cracks and vents, :ind to be ear\ed in a good and artistic maiiiier. ^lodels to be first submitted to the employer. The sill under shop sashes to be also of Caen stone, weathered, moulded and rubbed, 'fhe core to the cornice to be 2' ^ inch self-faced York stone, both edges coped parallel, and the joints squared and set in cement. The entrances to have Portland steps 12" X 4' o", with rubbed tops and faces, and back-jointed: the ends cut and pinned into the brickwork. Fix a Portland curb to the opening under shop front ll" X (>", tooled on two faces, the joints put together with lead plugs. Let in the ironwork, run the holes with lead, and cut and pin the ends into the brickwork. c A K 1' K N 'r ]•: u. Fix over the ojicnings lintels 14" X G", laying on the wall 9 inches at each end. 'I'he timber to lie sound Memel or Dantzic, free from large kiuits, shakes, or sap. .1 o 1 N K Iv. The tVame> to the shop-iVoiits to l)c deal, wrought, framed and rebati'il, G" X I", framed into an o;ik framed, rebated and weathered sill G' x; 4". The circular heads to be jnit together with ^ 2 I 4 DESIGNS FOR SHOP FRONTS. wainscot liammer keys, and to he G" X G". The half pilasters to lie also deal, the size .shown, and to be fixed to the frames with coach screws, 4 inch long. The bases to be turned out of deal, fixed into the oak sill and into the ends of the pilasters with \\Tought iron dowels. The caps to be of papier-mache. The sashes to be 2 inches thick, faced with moidded brass of an approved pattern, securely screwed to the wood frame, with beads bradded round the inside, and a circular mouldinij round the outside of heads. The sjtandrils to be formed by an extra head 6" X 3" framed into the circular heads, and a 2 inch back let into a rebate. The ornament to lie of Papier-mache. Fix a show-bonnl of inch deal on ]iroper bearers, and bulk head under- neath shop sash, and ^4 inch sloping boarding. The entrance N^^%^^^ door to shop to be 2' o", bolection mnulded and bcadflush, the ujijier panels open for glass, with beads screwed round the glass and made to remove. The door to be linnif with I' ., pair 5 inch brass butts, and fastened with 6 inch brass latih, with ebony furniture and 2 — 12 inch bright rod bolts. The door frame to be 4' o" X 4' .,", wrought, framed, rebated and three times beaded; fixed into floor with wrought iron dowels. Transom 4' o" X 4''o", wrought, framed, rebated and four times beaded, and framed through door posts. Over the transom hang a 2 inch beaded sash, hung on brass sash centres and fastened by brass button. The door to private entrance to be similar, but without open panels and to have a good 12 inch draw back lock and handsome knocker. Each door to have a scraper of good design. The shutters to be inch ' o deal, bead-flush and square, the heads cut to fit the circular heads of frames. Each shutter to have stout iron shoes and iron lifts, stubbs, and jilatcs. The whole to be fastened with wrought iron jointed bars 2'/2" X ' -2" chamfered at the edges and strong thumli-screws. The shutters to doors to be inch ' .2 bead flush, and s(|uarc, with proper jilates, shoes, and ihunib-screws. The floor to entrances to be inch ' .2 yellow deal boards, laid on juists, and the steps up to have 2 inch oak rounded nosings and inch tongued risers. s M I T II. I'ill in the si)ace frontino- kitchen window with a handsome cast-iron scroll, us (hawiuir, se- curely fixed into the brickwork and stone curb. P L .\ S T K 11 I', IJ. Tlie cdrnice and panelling, cohunns, piers and arched 0])ening imdcr stall-board to be executed in the best I'orlland cement brought up to a good face, all the arrises accurately cut and the cornice to be run from moulds to be submitted to and ap]U'oved by the employer. The modil- lions and enrichments to be cast, jiropcrly cleaned ofl^ and firmly fixed with spikes. Render, float and set to piers for j)aper, ami white the ceiling in show-space, wrought, rcbalcil and beaded angle staves at angles. i; I, A /. I K li. (ilaze the sashes and panels oi' .-li(jp ddor with best Ihiiisli plate glass ■' n," thick, securely sprigged niul |iiitticcl into I'imiiics; (lie glass to (hior tii be bcdtlcd in wash leatlii'r. 1- A I N T 1; \i. Paint or grain the whole of the woodwork, and varnish with two coats of the best copal var- nish. The iron work to Ik; painted green and bronzed. As before said, only ap|)roxiniate estimates can be given. The average cost of No. I. will be about ^ I'Ml. If the sashes are brass an addilinnal cxjiciU'c nf almut £ G intiy be calculated. Plawt DESIGNS FOU SHOP FRONTS. •215 SPE(1I>MCA riOX TO No. 2. iM A S () N. Lav over brcst.-iumnicr a course of .3 inch toolcil York .stone. The stejjs to be of Portland 12", X.")", nihlicd and moulded on the front-edi^e and li:irk jciintcd. Put also to .■slii)|) (iiirnncc a I'mtland stone landiny A" (hick, rubhed, cut aud pinned into wall with tiles and I'cnieut. '^Ork stone (cuiplates, 14" X 14" and '\" thick, at each <'iid of and .-uj)- portiuLT brestsunnncr. C A R P K N T I-: i;. Form a brestsuinmer over shop, 1 l"~-< 1 1", of sound Menicl, sawn, reversed and bolted together i wrought iron bolts witii heads, nuts, and wasliers coni[)lete; and between the two pieces of timber, fix a cuibcd Hitfli of wrought iron, (J" X ■' i", forged in the sha[>e of an arch; the whole bolted together with 6 — 'V wrought iron bolts. .1 (I I N !•: R. The shop sash lo lie ^i inch Clark's ]iatcnt bars, with wrought iron cure and hard wood moulding screwed on ihc inside, a bead bradded round inside, and a small r(iundc plate 1 X^ ',V' let in flusii and screwed; the holes for screws countersunk. S'- Jl Inch deal wrought show board im proper bearers. On the inside of show lioard fix inch ',2 deal o^ olo moidded slitling cashes with frame as shown, with all necessary fillets, beads, etc. The shop diior to be a 2 inch door, bolection moulded raised one side, bead flush the other; the upper panels open for glass, with moulding screwed round to secure it. This door to have 1' o i)air 4" wrought iron butts, a brass latch with cut glass handle, and two bright rod bolts. This door to be hung to a wrought, framed, rebated, beaded and staff Ijcaded frame, 6" X 6", grooved for plaster and lining. A wrought, framed, double rebated, double beaded and double staff beaded transom, filled in above with 2" moidded light with quadrant corners, hung on brass sash-centres and fastened with brass button. The entrance door to be of similar character, but without cipen panels and having 12 inch draw-back, brass-mounted lock, liarrel chain, and liand- some knocker. Scrapers to each entrance of good design. The shutters to be similar to (]u)>e described t(j No. 1, modified to suit this front. Fill in under stall board with inch ' , framing, moukU'd and tongued int( moulded plinth. Similaily fill in uuilcr return at shop entrance. Form the entablature of deal moulding, as drawing, juit together in the most sece.re manner, with tongues, blocks and screws, and •'' j co\er-boanl on proper bearers. Inch Honduras freeze, fixed on strong framed cradling, with archiiraxe moulding, the wlmlc housed into wood consoles. The soffite, inside shop and in cr entrance, to be inch ' , deal, mnuldiil and tongued at both edges; fix at angle a •' ^ upright lining, grooved for panelled lining. The consoles to be of wood, cut to shape and wrought; the cnrii-hnicnts, both to these .-uid to entablature, to be in paj)ier-mache fixed with brads in the securest pussibh' manner. The lining inside entrance to sbo])s to be of a similar character to the soflitc. The pilasters to be formed with inch ' j moulded panelling and returns, with rebated and mitred angles. Inch moulded plintlis and inoulilril caps, mitred roiuid, the whole securely fixed to strong skeleton framing. P I, f M R K R. Lay the gutter over cornice with ."i lb. lead, overlapi)ing the to|i mcn\ber of cornice one inch, with flashing tucked into wall 1 inch and pointed with cement. At one end of gutter, solder an inch |iipe to jiass through console about stall board, with inch 2 inches, and bent down. 216 DESIGNS FOR SlIOl" FKOKTS. G L A Z I E I!. The .-ihop sashes to be ghizcil as described (o No. 1 : the sHding sashes to be gkized with slicct- ghiss, 21 oz to tiie foot su|icr, well puttied and back puttied. 1' A 1 N T E It. I'Minl or grain ;ill the ^\u^(l wcirk of an a[)proved cohnir; if grained to lia\e two coats of cupal \arni,-h. ^Ml the woflv to be thofougldy knotted and j)rinied previous to painting. riie expense of No. 2. will be about £ Sll, anil brass saslies f 10 extra. The lottd sum \\ ill include a brass moulded plate to stall board. SPECIilCATiON No. 3. B E I C K L A Y E K. Build tiie j)iers a.-- shown witli stocl; bricks in cement. M A S () N. Lay over the giivler '■> inch tooled Yt)rk paving. The recess for shop door to be paved with a 4 inch Porlhind landing, backjointcd, rubljcd on to]) and laid slo[iing, so as to obviate the ne- ccssitv of a step. C A I! 1' V. X T K I!. The brestsummcr to be of lir, 12" X 1-1", sawn and rc^■ersed, with iron Hitch as described to No. 2. Tiie iinier brcstsummer to be similar, 12" :>< 12". Bolt on lir llitch to tiie njipcr girder, 12" X 11", and also ]i]ate below to take ceiling joists, 4" X 3' o"- .7 I N E R. Tlie lower sashes of shop to l)e foi'med of brass, with ornamental caps and bases, arclicd heads and scroll spandrils. The bars to have wrought iron cores and hard wood beads, screwed to the inside. Deal, w rnught, moulded stall-hoard, U" X 1", and inch wrought show-board on stout Ijcarcrs. Fill in under -tall board with inch ' i wrought and cross-tongued deal, fixed to stout backings and -^ ( si|uare plinth. 'i'he door to be 2' .,", moulded and beadflush, the upper panels open for glass with (piadrant corners, lieads mitred :ind bradded rotmd glass and made to shift, to be hung with 1' .> pair of 4" brass butts, and D" mortice latch, wilh ornamenttil furniture ami 9 inch rod bolts. The frame to be of deal, wrought, framed, splayed, rebated and double stafl-beadcd and grooved for sash biirs. ^^'rf)IIght, framed, double rebated and doulilc staff-beaded transom, with fixed light tn'cr, of bars of a similar character to sho[i front. The soffitc of shoj) and entrance to be inc'h ' ., deal, panelled and moulded staff beaded on edge. The inner brcstsununer to be lined with inch wrought, cross-tongued and tongiicd deal, the soffitc and lining to be fixed to strong backings, framed to brestsunnner and joists of gallery. l>ine the inside and retiu'us of piers with ■' ," wrought, matched and luadcd boaiMling on strong backings, iihiirired to wall; one boarti to be hniiL;' on hinn-es and fastened wilh brass button, so as to wt :it shutter a])]>ar;itus. 'flic np|icr sashes to be forme(l as shown, with inch inside ami outside linings and hirge bead on the outside nttn-ned aboxc. '1 he innei' liiiinii' double stall-beaded. Sill h" X 3", wi-ouiiht and splayed, head and side liifings 1' .,' •) =S-f J- in ^Z 1 men nioidded sashes, with bead screwed round to sclrong backings. U'he entablatures to have strong moulded cornices put together with glued blocking- and screws, ■' , cover boarils and blockings, inch Honduras Maho- U lb 111 kUf <;J U \ri if*i U U ^i£f U^U V *W IT gTii\OK©/a§E§ DESIGNS I-Oi; SIIOI- FUONTS. 217 C'anv friezes with areliitrave moultlinrass the difference in expense will be hut slight, the labour being much about the same. SPECIFICATION No. 4. B R I C K L A y F. R. Build the piers in cement and cut the bricks to form the half cohuuns; the core of truss also to be built in cement, cut to the form indicated. M A S N. Lay over girders a course of 3 inch tooled York paving; and put to door Portland rubbed and moulded step 12" X 6." CARPENTER AND JOINER. The shop front to he constructed with fir framed posts 6" X 3" — I! inch sash, faced with moulded brass, and to have circular corners according to the drawing. Mitre round the inside a head 1" X ^4", and on the outside a rounded fillet 2" X ^jn", with ornamental spandrel and eyelet. Fix on the outside of posts, half shafts, turned out of deal, with turned and moulded bases and papier-mache caps and ornaments; above each colunm fix a cut bracket as drawing; and lietwecn the shafts and wall, tongue a piece of narrow inch lining. Form the rctinn with sash similar to. front, with inch staff-headed and tongued linings. The inner sash to be inch ' ., ovolo moulded, made to slide in inch ' j frame, with all necessary beads, etc., the frame tongued into inch ' , beaded linings. The stall boards to be 9" X 4" moulded and Tireaking round to fin-m cap.s to pedestals. F'ill in beneath inch * j wrought and cross-tongued deal, beaded round openings, bulk heads o-se^- windows and ^ 4" wrought sloping boarding. The pedestals to be inch ' .3 deal, with raised panels and inch moulded plinths. The door to he 2' .>" moulded and bead flusli with arched heads and beads to form shafts, returned, and j)apier-mache caps, to i)C himg with 1' ., |)air ?>" brass butts to linings, with a brass latch, ornamental knob, a good lock, brass mounted, and two 10 inch bright barrel bolts. F'rame a double beaded transom, sunk with pajiier-mache ornaments, and over transom hang Inch ' ., moulded sash with arched heads, similar to door, hut with no caps, and hung on brass sash centres, with brass button. 28 218 DESIGNS FOR SHOP FRONTS. The shutters to lie iucli ' j fraiueil, «ltli .stuii-rlimiiibi-ed jianel.'', and to lie lastened aud fitted. T!ie sot'fite under entrance and inside t^lioji to lie inrli ' o moulded, the sides to have ^,V' niatelied and licadcil luiardini;- on strouL;- fir hackinii-s. The floor to entrance to he inch ' o yellow deal on stronn' joists. The entahlaturc to he formed widi stroULC nioiddcd cornice ]iiit toLiether with hlocks and screws, the dentils screwed in. Tlie frieze to l)e inch '/j soiuid Ihmduras, framed in three panels and fixed to stroni;' cradling. Let .architrave mouklings and narrow slip of deal in, and house the ends into consoles. S M I T II. Girder as before described. Cast iron rails securely fixed under stall board. The ptntiiln'r.-', plank'ra's and (jlnzici's work to be as previously described. The plate glass ^ to shop sashes to be in two s(]uarcs with ground edges. No. 1. will cost on the average £ 90 or SS 05. Brass bars will cost about £ 7 additional. The extra expense of decorating Nos. '5 and \ in party colours 'will not exceed £ 10 and £ 6 over couunon painting. DESIGN FOR THREE SHOP FRONTS TO BE ERECTED ON THREE 20 FT.* ALLOTMENT. Plate 7S. The Design comjirises an elevation for three sho[)s, each standing on an allotment of "20 ft. frontairc with the ground and first floor plans for one Shoj). The second floor plan will he the same as that for the first Hoor, omitting the small bed room. The kitchen, scullery, pantry, cellars etc., with entrance into the hack yard or garden will form the Basement. The ground plan comprises: ,\. Shop 17 It. ^ in ii\- ill ft. ;! in., connuvmicating with a pailnui- Kl ft. by II ft. ft. '.I in., leading to a warehouse or \Mirkshop l<) ft. by HI it. len- der the ground floor staircase are the stairs to tlic ISascment. The first floor ])lan contains: — A Drawing rndm 17 ft. S in. by 1^ It., n IkmI rocim |() ft. by II It. li. in., and a scrNant's or bac liiiilicrs, which come rough from the saw; wliik' ilic joiners work re<]uires superior lini>li, minli more accuracy, anil is Usually brought to a s di surfaci; by means of /i/niics. Carpenter'.- work again is Dm^m Piss ih paoa ®p se'vesi s®©c]eid ^ctiii^o I '[.ATI-. 1 FRONT ELEVATION. C POUND PLAN. K.I. Tax- li lick inv A H F'avn? so .KiINKKY. 210 toss fop II II II II — r- rirdinnrily moasiii-fd hy tlio oiil)if foot and joiner's hy (lie i'oot super. 'IMio joiiTipr ro(|iiircs imu-li skill ill that pai'l of L^'ooniotrical science wliicli treats of ])rojeetioii, or tlie ineiliinl of iiidicaiiiiLT hy /////',v llie woi'k tii he [n'oduced, and lie sliuuld also lia\c a tlioronu'li Unowled^^'C of tlii' ciiai'ac- teristics of tlie materials in use. Cahinel niakini;- is that department of joinery which is apjilied to the maniifaetnre of articles of houseliold furniture, and it oilers o-rcaf o]i|ioi-tunities in the ai-ranncment (if coloured woods and in llie selection ol :ippi-ii|iriatc and (asteful forms. ^^'c have before dcscrihcd ilic dillereni kinds of wood. Yellow and \\ liite Deal, U'ainscot, Oak and IMahotiany are cIiieHy adopted hy the doiner. Wainscot shoidd be free from white streaks, which are called "douahty" parts, and indicate decay. If cut in the same direction as the l^caf of tiie wood, tlie boards will be ^•arie^;•atcd and haye a handsome appearance, if cut contrary to the beat, it will be uniform. The first method will thcrci'orc be best for panels, and the last for stiles and frames, which latter will then be less liable to split, and mortise better. Deals are imported in lengths of I'rom (> to 14 feet; leng-ths of 12 I'ect will i;-eneraliy be found most conyenient. Deals, we may also mention, are 9 inches wide, planks I 1 inches, and battens 7 inches. For further informati on materials, the reader is referred to the article on "The Timbers used in Building Operations." We do not deem it essential in this work to make any- remarks on the tools used by the Joiner, our objeet beinp; merely to lay before the reader such general nbscr\ations as, without going deeply into the subject, may be found practically useful. DOOK.S. Of these there is a very great yariety; the most common are ledged doors, connected l>y transverse pieces called /edges, sometimes further strengthened by traces. The boards are generally' beaded, and either rehafed or p/ov/y/ie/l and toiiiiKi'd togetlier. The stiiff, as the material is termed, is from ' .> to li inches thick. Framed doors are constructed with pane/s framed into side and centre vertical ])ieces termed side and nieethifi stUes,a.vn\ horizontal pieces called liIied by making it as in the niartrin, the bead beini; continued round tiie door and a com- mon but hinge used. 1 lu' nuilKid of finding the projier bevel for the edge of the door, and also for that of a sasli, is, hy drawing a line from the centre of action A to /', the inner angle of ihc rebate, and then drawing l>, e, jierpendicidar to the niir 1 1 220 JOINERY. line just obtained, which gives the level. Hinges, generallj', should be always so placed that tlicir axes may be in the same straight line, as any defect thus will produce a great strain on tiie hinges every tirade the hang- ing part is moved. To hang a door, such as those to pews, so that it shall stand when opened some distance from the jamb, the liinge must project one half the distance required, and the door will describe on opening a part of a circle, the centre of which is the knuckle of the hinge. — The diagram shows how to construct the joints of door stiles and jambs, so that, when hung together and the door opens at a right angle, a bead shows corresponding with the knuckle of the ^^^^ ^^^^^^^ hinge. The next figure indicates the formation of beads opposite one ^'^ anotiier and of the same size; only ordinary hinges are required. The clearing of the carpet is a very essential requisite, for the attainment of wliicli the following rules are perhaps the best that can be given "First, let tlie Hoor be raised under tlie door according to the intended thickness of the carpet; secondly, let the knuckles of the top and bottom hinges be so placed that the top hinge hang or project about one eighth of an inch over the lower; that is, if the hinge be let equally into the door and into the jamb, project a little beyond the surface of the door; but if the centre lie in the surface of the door, it must be placed at the very to]i, which is sel- dom done, except when the door is hung with centres. Thirdly, let the jamb on which the door hangs, be fixed about one eighth of an inch out of the perpendicular, the upper part inclining towards the opposite jamb; and fourthly, let the inclination of the rebate be such that the door shall, Avhen shut, project at the bottom towards the room about one eighth, of an inch." Rising hinges are, we may add, well adapted for the above pur])ose; those of brass with concealed joints and moulded, burnished knuckles, are excellent, but expensive. Doors, especially folding entrance doors, are often hung on centres, fixed at the top and bottom; by reason of the slight degree of friction, these doors often move too easily so as to fall too and vibrate with great force, a defect which may l)e obviated by the use of a small spring. On the subject of Hinges in general, Nichelson remarks, — "The placing of hinges (U'pends entirely on the form of the joint, and as the motion of the door or enclosure is angular, and j)crformed round a fixed line as an axis, the hinge nuist be so fixed that the motion be not interrupted; llius, if the joint contain the surface of two cylinders, the con- vex one in motion upon the edges of the closure and sliding upon the concave one, which is at rest ujjon the fixed body, the motion of the closure must be performed on the axis of the cylinder, which axis nmst be the centre of the hinges. In this case, whether the aperture be shut or open, the joint will be close; but il' the joint be a plane surface, it is necessary to consider upon what side of the, aperture the motion is to be performed, as the hinge must be ])laccd on the side of the closure where it revolves. The hinge is made in two ])arts, moveable in any angular direction, the one upon the other. The knuckle of the hinge is a portion contained undei- a cylindric surface, and is conunon both to the moving part, and the part which is at rest; the cylinders arc indented into each other, and are made hollow to receive a concentric cylindric l)in which pasties through them, and connects the nioving j)arts together. The axis of the cy- lindrical pin is called the axis of the hinge. When two or more hinges are placed upon a closure, the axis of the hinges must be in the same straight line. The straight line, in which the axis of the hinges is placed, is called the ////<■ <>/ the hinges." '■N:5-^,x'-.\nS;^\^" p^ ESISSSJI r©lH A iTAllFi Of s^UiSUKSAN n@U&£&. /•//■/A FRONT ELEVATION OROUND PLAN SCALE or I I I I H ^ I I I I JOIXERY. 221 WINDO^VS AND STTTTTTERS. In Plates 1 and 5, Details of Sash and Casement Win- dows with Littinij; and Folding Shutters arc given. Plate 4 contains plans, elevations and sections, and Plate 5 details, some of them fnll size. They are examples excellently s\iiied for dwelling iiouscs. To windows of sucli as No. 1, the following description will gene- rally applj'. Solid fir frames, glued up out of deals 0" X AK2", framed, rebated, and headed. 2'/2" deal astragal hollow French casement sashes, with meeting rails and moidding, as shown, hung folding with .'J' .," brass butts, the beads to be arched with sunk siiandrils; cspanioletle bolt fiistenings the whole height of casement. Oak sill 5' ," X 'V', wrought and grooved, and this, as well as lower rail of sash, to have patent water-bar, fixed with countersunk screws. Inch ' .^ deal moulded, one panel raised window backs, with tongued and beaded capping, and inch ' o moulded jamb linings on s])lay and raised marginal panels to soffites. Inch ' /, ])roper boxings, 0" wide, and moulded architrave 10" girt with moulded and sjdayed phnth, 1(»" high. The front shutters may be inch ' j two panel moulded, with raised movddings on splay prepared to cuf : inch bead butt back flaps; the irimt shutters hung with 3" butts, and the flaps with 2" flap hinges. Inch two panel, bead butt back linings tongued to frame. Iron spring bow shutter bar, and gilt knobs. — No. 2. may have Inch • o Ovolo lifting sashes, double hung, with brass axle pidlies, ])atenf lines, iron weights and brass sash fastenings. Inch deal outside and inside linings; inch ' ., wainscot pulley pieces and parting beads, and 7,8" inside beads, returned on oak double sunk sill, 3" thick; side beads rebated on to pulley stiles. The shutters to be Inch ' ._, thick, in two heights, moulded and square, and fixed in similar casing as above, with lines, weights, lifts and fastening. Inch V4 nioidded window back, torns moulded plinth, 7" high, and moulded arcliitravc 8." girt; ^1^ rounded flap over shutters, hung on 2" brass butts, mth flush ring. These descrip- tions admit of course of numerous variations. Mahogany sashes, whether Honduras, or Spanish, are far preferable to those of deal, they are all moulded in great variety; thus, there are ovolo, lamhs-iongue, astragal and JioUoiv, and other forms in common use,- besides new varieties daily designed; the thickness of sashes varies from 1, or I'/a, to 2'/o inches. TKe mode in which lifting sashes meet is shown in the margin. In casements, the difficulty is to keep out the wet, wliich is done most eff'ectually by means of an iron water bar; the method often -,, 'Vrovemcnts introduced in joinery; the fixing of the aroinKlx requires the utmost care and accuracy. FLOORS. A few remarks on Floors will be found at Page 135; we shall here briefly state the several kinds. Slralqlit juiiit are those which are so laid that flic edges of tlie lioards lie in a continuous line throughout their length; each board is laid down and nailed in succession, being ])revioiisly forced against the last one with what is called a jiaoriiKt cravip. Foltlinii jloorx are formed by fixing every fifth board rather closer than the space occupied by the remaining four, and these, naturally rising like an arch, are forced dctwn by the workmen jumping ii]jon them, and they are then fixed with brads. The boai-ils are thus never exactly accurately laid and soundly fixed to the joists and this mode should only be adopted with defecti\e and unseasoned stutfi which may be expected to shnnk or warj). Rattens, .'">" wide, form the best floors, although deals fully 0" wide are comnionh' used; \\hen nf this laltci- brcachli, the joists are very liable to open, as, of course, the narrower the stuff the greater is the distribution of the shrinkage. The headings to the boards are square, .tp/ayed, plouf/Iti'd, (uid loiKjiictt, rnhh('teh(iuld not be mure than 1.") inches wide and I feet long, an\idtli of framing is usually ' 3rd the width of the panels; the latter shoidd fit the groove without rattling, and yet be allowed 224 joiNEra'. /\/^"V\ to shrink without tlie chance of spHtting *tc. Panels may be ',3rd tlic thickness of tlie style and "•roovcs across the grain, ^ ^th or ' ,;th the thickness of the stuff; otherwise they should not ex- ceed ' 3, often ^\ is sufficient. — A form of rno}iifiiri'tiii7iii(f is indenting boards togetlier in the manner shown in the margin: the second cut shows a mode ;iilo|ited lor drawer fronts; the thii'd is termed .secret dovetailing. Concealed dovetailing is useful when the: faces two pieces, one across each end Pig§ii©.iKi iF®K ^ § y IS y iRi © ,^ iFa ¥oiLo,/ft rA/i£'^ GROUND PLAN JOINKIiT. 225 of tlie bonrds form a tJalienl anirlo; wlicu the faces form a rc-cnlrant anirle, eommon dovetailinir is l^est. Lap (lovetailiilg conceals tlie doxctail, Imt shows (h(^ thickness of tin; hiji on tlie return siik^. Mitre dovetailing conceals ilie doxclail and shows (inly a mitre on the ('dire of tlie planes at the surface of the concourse. Of niouhlinirs used in joinerx' there are a vi'r\' L^'i'cai \ai'ietv. Thns the edi;;c ol a hoard may he siiiiji/i/ roiiiidtil, or a sini;le oi' ed Rooms and Water Closet on the Chandler Plan. The School room is to lune an open trussed rooi' with a belfry above it; it will be heated by means of stoVes, or firci)huccs if preferable. The building alllogcther, if erected of stock bricks with cement dressings Avill cost £ lOl). The internal walls of the School room may be rendered, set, and finished with sharp sand to resendile trowelled stucco, coloured stone colour ^vhen diy. DESIGN FOR A TOWN HOUSE. Pi.ATKs SI. 82. S3. Thi.s Design forms one of our scries of Illustrations of Street .\rchitcciure. 'i'he Elevation is of some j)retension, and is of a Venetian character. The three orders, Doric. Ionic and Co- rinthian, one above the other, are combined to form a cenlrc, and ihe side windows are groupid togj^ther in the manner observable at Venice. The front may be executed in cement or stone work, and the roof covered either with Italian formed zinc or slate slabs, with rounded rolls. The accomodation comprises on the Ground. 226 DESIGN FOl! A TnWN HOUSE. Floor, Hall, DiiiiiiL;', ami Drawini;' luioiiit^, KitcliL'ii, SculkTy, lianlcr, \\ . C. and '■lo,-cl.-: in tlie Uasi'iiiciit, the Cellars are pjat'ttl. On eaeli of tlie tlnec C'iianilicr Hoois arc three rooms apj)ro- jiriated as l>ed and Dressinii' riKmis. W. C. and convenient closets. If tiic i'ront is executed ■with second malm (acini;- and cement, the roof covered witli zinc, and the various lifting's of ii ii'ood and snlistantial description, the cost of construi-tion will averau'c d> 1500. A\'c^ shall con<'lu(!e oiir l;( neial oliservalions on the Knishint^s of Domestic i lahitalions with .some lirief general remarks on the Plasterers, I'ainters and Phnnlier's avocations. To tlic labours of the I'lasterci'. our dwellings owe nuich oi' their finisli and comfort; he smooths tiie walls, lays the ceilings, and ivuders thcni sightly and agreeable. Sii//ihoti' of Lime or Gi/psuni is the basis of all plaster, and oi' these plasia- of /'oris, particularly that from Montmartre, is ge- nerally cousidea-ed the best. The fossil stone called gypsum is calcined to a powder and burnt in kilns and afterwards ])ounded. AVhen used, it is diluted with water, so as to reduce it to a tliin paste, and it sets rajndly with a considerable increase of- bulk. AVhen jilaster of Paris is too cx]icnsivc, a combination of chalk lime with other ingredients is adopted. This is comjioscd of chalk lime, prepared as common mortar, but slacked with a great deal of water, afterwards evaporated. It is mixed with sand of different degrees of fineness, coarse for the first coats, and finer for the finishing, and bullocks, cows, or calves' hair procured from the tanners; the hair is worked in with a rake, after the sand has been mixed. Batty Langlcy remarked a prevalent practice in his time with reference to bullocks hair, which may be useful still as a hint to some. "This kind of hair is sold wet by the tanners, at one shilling per bushel heaped, which the crafty workman, after he has dried and threshed it, and thereby caused every bushel to measure full two bushels, retails it at Is Id per bushel and thereby gets Is 8d in every bushel, which is lOti per cent profit." The lime and coarse sand, with the addition of liair, as above described, is called (■oar!n layini; or rendering, or the third coat upon floating, laid on when the latter is lialf dry. /.nl/i, /loaf mid si'/, or lath and plustn- mir nml, float and act has ilie fnst coat prlcl-ed vp to receive tiie set: Floating is siliiply reducing the sur- face to a level plane, and is executed by either the /land //an/ for one man, the (/)///■/• float for angles, or the Dcrh;/ for two men. It rerpiires great care and may be applied either to ceilings or walls. In the set to floated work, about one sixth of plaster of Paris is used to five a close appearance, more rapid set, and render it more ada])ted to recei\(' the eoloiu- or nhitcwash. The pricking up coat for floated stucco work cannot be too dry, but if the floating he so Ijcfore the setting coat is laid, there will probably be cracks oi- peeling off: it is therefore of the utmost consequence that the undercoats should always have sufficient time to dry thoroimldv. The best setting for ceilings is composed of plaster and jiutty with a small portion of white hair, called finafii'; common ceilings have plaster without hair, as to walls set for ])apcr. "We may lirieflv jiul what we have said as follows. One coat work is yeiidi'rimi on briekworlc, and laying on laths. Two coat work h render set or /at/i loij and set. Three coat work is render, float, and net or lath. lai/.r!oaf and set. "Walls for paper are set with fine stuff and sand; ceilings with fine stiill and white hair. Plasterers putty is prepared from imslaekcd lime. We may here mention roiiii/i eastinp as a siiecies of plastering much used as an exterior finishing to cottages and country houses. The wall is first prieked iij) with a coat of common lime and hair, and a similar coating is laid upon it, when the first is dry, as smoothly as possible. The rough cast is composed of fine gravel and lime, and is bespattered with a wooden float over the last coat of plaster, directly it is laid and while yet wet. ruggiiicf, is \ei-y coarse plaster, mixed with chopped hay, between floors to jirevent the passage of sound; it is good 1' o inches thick on sound boarding. Plaster floors formed with coar.se plaster, like that of which Dutch terras is made, arc used in some parts of the country. The stone becomes white after burning and is reduced to a fine powder when cold. It is put in a receptacle, water is applied, and it iJ then stirred and used immediately. Siiteeo, as a covering to external walls, has excited a great deal of scientific attention and va- rious very excellent compositions have been invented of late years. It is usually composed of calcareous powder, chalk and plaster, so amalgamated as to obtain a smcKJth surface, capable of receiving paint, etc. liastard or rough stiieeo, has more sand and is mueii coarser than trowelled stiicco, and it is not smoothed but is left rough from the hnnd float , a piece of felt being placed on the latter to raise the grit of the sand. A good rough stucco may be made from fine stuff, or chalk lime and clear white sand, in the proportion of 1 to 3 of sand. ^luch used aboin T^ondon consists of washed Thames sand and ground Dorking lime, :{ to I, mixed dry and thoroughly incorporated. The walls are pre))ared by raking the mortar out of the joints and ])rieking up the surface, the dust brushed oil' and the wall well washed. The first coat is roiigliinq in or renderiiia. the siccond floating, the third has a small ipiantity of hair, but, as before observed, is not hand floated and the trowelling bin slightly done. Tvoirelh'd xliieeo, is worked on a floated sin-facc, whieii must be perlcetlv dry i)eforc the stucco is laid on. The wooden tool, called the tioat, is uscfl, and the stucco is well l)eaten and mixed with clear water.. The ground having been prepared and made as level as possible, the stucco is spread in squares of about five feet, sprinkled with water and well ridibed till the surface is 20* ■ 228 PLASTERING. fine and even, and tliorouiildy hardened. 'I'lie paint or other finishing is laid after the stucco is quite dry. Tliere are a great many artificial j)histers to which the name of "'cements'' hsw, curiously enough, been given. Of these we may instance the Parian, and Keens, Martins, and Johns "cements.'" Pai'ian cannot easily he distinguished from Parian marble, so beautiful is the finish given to it. 4 bushels uf this cement, mixed with an C(|ual ([uantity of sand, will cover 10 yard.s su])er ' .i inch thick. Portland cement sjiould be used as a rendering coat to Keen's; it can be painted within a few davs of its a]i])liration. ^lartin and .iolm's cements arc also very good: the former dries in about 24 hours. These cemeiUs have all plaster bases ])repared in a variety of ways, Keens being soaked in ahun water, I'arian, gypsum mixed with borax etc. etc. The cement for which ^Ir. Parker obtained a ]iatent iu IT'.Kl under the name of IJonian cement (tlie latter word being rightly used) is perhaps as well known as any. It is composed of the sc])taria nodules of the Ijondon clay found iu the Isle ()f'.Shei>py, and sets, if jiure, in five mi- nutes, and under water in one hour. AVhcu mixed with sand in the j)r(iportions of one half, the setting, averages between one and two hours, rortlnnd cement is composed of the clay of the ^Icdwav. mix(>d with chalk and ground, desiccated and then burnt. It will admit more sand than Konian cement, becomes harder and resists the weather nuich better. Most of tiie artificial ce- ments owe their [)ower of setting under wafer to the pressure of a certain juoportion of elay, and often pure silex; they are generally jiroduced by over calcining the hydraulic lime-stone, or mixing clays with trass, rich limes puzzolana etc. .^(■aciJiolit is a distinct species of ])laster, invented in Italy and first introduced into England by Holland the architect. It is composed of different earthy colours mixed with Plaster of Paris in a trough in a moist state until a particular effect is ])roduced. A plaster ground is prepared and it is laid on this and smoothed and polished until it resembles marble. Wc have next tri make a few remarks on cornices. Tliep should be made as light as possil)le, and if they project moie than 7 or ^ inches, brackets nuist be fixed at distances of II (u- 12. inches and laths nailed to them. The moidds for running the cornices are formed of beech wood, xibout ' i inch thicjj, with tlic quirks and edges of bi'ass or co]iper. (rtmi/fd stuj}' is generally used, coni])osed of fine stufl', putty and Plaster of Paris. The composition is sprinkled frequently with water, as tlic Plastei- of Paris causes the ]>utty to set i-apidly, and it is thus best to endcavoiu' to finish the lengths at one time. The mitn's, breaks and rettu'ns are worked by the hand. I'.n- rii'ldiiPiilx arc cast, and fixed either with j)laster, or sei-ewed to their recesses. Their material is very various; i-arm's fomjio. a mixture of glue, resin, and whiting; ji(i/ilii--iiiiirli(', which has, when .-har]i im]ir as lho>c of ]i]aster of Paris, are so ligjil and can be so securely li.\ed with screws, as to render them \ciy desirablr. The xiiiiiclri'iiiii of |)]astei- is a very connnou occurrence. New walls are apt to generate nitr;ite fif jioiash which efHoresces at the surface. It is termed by workmen the .■ni/pi-lrr rot. and consists of salipeli-c, uitrate of soda, and chloride of potassiu)n. The use of sea sand is very likely (o cause it, but the subject does not ap]pcar to be xciy clearlv understood. A\'ith all our scientific knowledge, ^'itl•ll\ius, the Koman author, is still as high an tiuthiniiv as any modern author on the subject of ](laster and cements, and we almost despair seeing I lie art of plastering such as to cnaiplc us to execute works whicji may bid fair to endure as long as tiiose which still excite wonder in the e(erual city. The |ilastering there is .still often as free from cracks and defects and as polished as when first apj)lieassed away since the artilicer.s (inished the work; while ours is oftentimes salpetred, cracked, decayed, or (alien down within a few weeks of its execution. -L'Lr^iGW ran a fAvn &r o£y EM-iFssDMEiDViLLAi, ^ a IFF W B tm t^^ f f m E r SIDE ELEVAT I O N CHAMBER PLAN 220 DESIGNS FOR SKMI-DF/PACIIED FAMILY HESIDENCES. Plates SI. S5. Eacli lioiiso Ims on tlic (ircuuid I'Iihh-, Drawiui;' :iiiil Diniiii;' K'niiins, Kilrlicn, Sl•ullrl■^•. W. C'. Coal Collar and Ij;irdcr etc., and cmiIi (d die two n[)])(r lioors (our rooms ol' a fonvenient size. The J'lk'vations have a moderate aninunl (d dcnuation and arc ])ro])(>scd to lie faced with rcfl hrioks and cement. The windows in ilic |iriii(i|iMl iront arc i;rou|)ed in tlu'cc (li\isions, producing a pleasing ccnti-al effect. The cosi (or the pair will be about £ l.TlHI. DESIGN FOR A PUBLIC DISPENSARY. Plates 86. 87~. The first plate containing the Elevation to this design lias inifortunatcly been omitted to be luniibcred. Tlie accomodation comprises Dispensary, ^Vaiting, Consulting and (dnunittee Rooms, with Residence comprising c^erv acconKidation. The waiting room for women may be easily separated from that of the men, bv making the entrance lor the former where the Hall now is, shifting the partition wall ol the extra i-oom a lilile to the right, and placing a private entrance for the surgeon at the side. Stock bricks and cement dressings being iLsed, the expense of erec- tion may be set down at £ 1,50(1. DESIGN FOR A PAIR OF MODEL COTTAGES. Plate 88. In this design the rooms are all on one level as tliev will occasioiuallv be preferred by manv. In our Essay on the subject of cottages for the labouring classes in a previous portion oi' the Work, wc have explained the advantages and disadvantages of this arrangement, and nothing further need therefore be here said u|)on it. Each cottage contains what we have urged as the minimiun accomodation, viz, a Living room. Scullery and throe Bed rooms, besides Coal Cellar. W. C, Larder and Closets. In the roof a loft or store room may be placed, as there is ample space for it, as well as for a cistern, to supply W. .C. A Gothic character is given to the Ele- vation; stone will be preferable, but the two cottages may be erected of bricks for about ^ 'i.^O aeeordinfj to the locality. 230 DESKiN FOi; A COUXTKY IIOI'SK. Platrs S9. 90. Oil ilio (ji'diind level nrc Drnwinn- room, Piirlonr, Kitchen SruUeiy, Dairy, I'niitry and \V. C;. anil on ihe iijtpcr llooi- Icmr lieil rnouis, Datli room anil W. C. all ol' a good and ronvenient .size. It' llie walls arc Imilt of liannncrcd Kentish rag stones in irregular courses, and the (|Uoins of tooled freestone, with the roofs tiled as shown, the cost will not he under £ 1,(100. I>ESIGN FOR A PAIR OF VILLA RESIDENCES. Plate 91. These residences are of considerahje ])retension witli respect to accomodation and architectural effect. The kitchen offices arc jilaccd on the Basement. On the (i round Floor arc the entrance Halls, Saloons, Drawing and Dining Rooms, Libraries etc.; on ilie ujipci- floors are tlie Ped and other rooms. The two houses arc vaiied in plan, but form one composition in the Elevation. The front can be executed in either stone or cement; if the latter be adopted, the walls are to be comi)letcly covered with it, and coursed, to imitate masonry.. The expense lor IJie ]iair will vary according to the character of the internal fittings and tha locality. If cement is used as a fficing, the cost will not be less than £ (),000. i)i:si(i\' I'oi; AN isoLATF.n villa. Plates 92. 91!. This will be found a Very comjiact little family residcJicc with an effective inex]iensivc front, for the general idea of the principal elevation, we arc indebted to a design by Mr. I^amb, or, |)erha]is, more properly speaking, the garden front of Sir Charles Barry's Traveller's Club House. On the Ground floor arc Drawing, Dining and Breakfast rooms, Kitchen, Scullery, and convenient offices. The First Floor Plan contains four Bed rooms, Nursery and Closets; and Attic rooms are jilaced aliove. Red bricks and cement dressings arc proposed af' a total expense of £ 850. Wc will here continue our general observation?; with some remarks on Painting. 'I'liis consists in the ajiplication on the surface of buililing materials of a coniposiiidii capaMc of preserving them from decay, jireventing the absorption of moisture and pi-oduiing a linished and pleasing effect. White lead and linseed oil arc chieily used, together with colouring matters, or sliiiiicrs and ilfi/rm. A\'liile lead is carbonate of lead; linseed oil and lurpx, or spirits of tur- ]>cntine, arc enij)loycd to dilulo the jiigments used as staincrs, such as ochre, lamp black, ^'l•nctian red, umber, red lead, chroini', etc. etc.; sugar of lead ground in oil, litharge, yellow, while \ilroil, etc. DE§a&IM F©IH A Row OIF" 1^1 B W ie-IR@OTOlE© HOOSES c- C LOBBY LOBBY CLOSET - J c c BEDHOOM ^ r ■ * /«•, J -V IZ ,3 P E| LA N D 1 N O BED ROOM /f . J X ft , 3 LANDING DRAWINO ROOM BED ROOM rr o ^ fs , o /e „ o X /I , n PLAN OF S e: C O N D ^ r LO O R . LOBBY I*. C ] 1 A.. - o 1- ^ 1 H A L L l^AINTINi;. :{| are used as dryciv. Painters puHj- is coinposcd oi' linseed oil and wliitinjf well beaten toifetlicr. Various faney eolours arc used, sucli as dralis, lilae, French greys, hhies, vennilion etc. (innnudj is the imitation of wood, and cupal \arnish is cuininonly adopted. In (Jidiiiaiy ]iainting, the siu- face Ls prepared l)y sand paper or pmniec stone, filling up ine([nalitiis with putty etc. The knots which contain turiientine, arc killed or hnrnt out with fresh slacked lime laid on with a stopping knife. It is scraped off after twenty four hours and ])ainted over with size knotting, consisting of red and white lead, with double glue size, and gone over a second time with red and white lead and linseed oil. It is then rubbed smooth with a pumice stone. The priming colour is of white and red lead diluted thin with linseed oil. The first coat after the priming consists of lin- seed oil and a small proportion of tiu-j)entine. The work having dried, the second coat is laid, consisting of linseed oil and turjientinc in equal quantities. The knots arc covered with silver leaf, laid on with japanned gold size; if they show through the second coat and if the work is not intended to be finished white, the second coat nuist ajjproach the real colour. Before laying the third coat, the work should be sto])j)cd with putty where essential, and rubbed down with sand paper. The third coat consists of a base of white lead, mixed with the colour and linseed oil and turpentine in about equal ])roportions. This is sometimes the last colour; if there are four, the last should be of old white lead, thinned with bleached linseed oil and spirits of turpentine. For a dead white finish, the best old lead is thliuied wholly with spirits of tiu-pentine. The work as above is knotted, jiritncdj atid puiuti-d four oils. To paint stucco properly, often five coats are necessary, but if the ])laster be not very absorlient, four will be sufficient. The last coat is mixed with turpentine only, and is called fdttimf, the surface lx;ing without gloss; if the work be not flatted, the finishing coat has of two parts turpentine to one of oil. The priming coat is boiled linseed oil, then three coats of white lead and oil before flatting. The colour is used some shades darker than the finishing coiit; the dryer is sugar of lead. The surface of the plaster must be j)erfectly dry, otherwise distemper colouring is best as a temporary covering, and is nuich used for ceilings. Two coats of paint arc applied and then the distemper, whiting being the basis in a liquid medium of size. Sometimes white lead, ground in water and diluted with parings of white leather and parchment, is adopted. Clear coling, is often used for repainting old work, from the ease with ^^■hich a good face can be obtained. In it, size is substituted for oil in the i)riming coat of white lead ground with water. It has no body, scales off', and the colour changes in damp situations. It should never be employed except when the \\(irk is greasy. Freaco, is painting on walls while the plaster is still wet, and requires great rapidity of execution and considerable care, as the work cannot be altered. In graining, there is considerable scope for skill and taste; in Paris it is much more conunon than here, and the dead white of our houses is comparatively uidaiown there. Four or fi\e coats having been laid, the last is composed of equal i)arts of oil and turpentine, and the shades and grain of the wood is jjroduced by means of thin glazings of Terra de Sienna, Vandyke In-own or ainlier. It is afterwards varnished with copal. LeHeruifi is practised as a distinct trade. The wonls are sketched in pencil and the out- line corrected in colour. If gilt, they are covered with leaf gold while the paint is yet wet, a sponge clears away the superfluous gold, ami the whole is varnished. Letter writing is charged by the inch. For repainting old work, white lead, mixed with a small portion of reii leail and equal parts of oil and turjientine, is called ureoitd roloiirliiti old work. A mixtiu'e of old white lead and blue black in a medium of half bleached oil and half turpentine is adopted for finishing. For outside work, turpentine, as more susceiitilile of water than oil, should not be used. J'uttying is best after the first coat of paint, on account of its then adhering firmer. In varnishing, currents of cold or damp air must l)e avoided, by reason of their injurious ellect. To iron work, the priming coat should be always of oil, the rust and corrision being carefully cleaned ofll Two coats in red 232 PAINTING. lead paint are good. If tlic juimina to paper and canvass i.-^ of oil, they will rot: it should be ahvay.* of size. On the important necessity of cleanliness to the painter we hardly need insist. His occupatian, consisting in the constant use of white lead, is essentially unhealthy. Paralysis, painters eholic and a slow course of poisoning is, with little exaggeration, the painter's unhappy fate. Of late year the use of the oxide of zinc as a substitute for white lead has been extensively introduced in this country by the Viclle Alontagnc Zinc Company. The Prench Goyernment has enforced its use in all public wtirks. The smell of the ttu'pentinc is the only inconyenience that is felt, and even hospital wards may be painted with it without prejudice to the health of the inmates. It takes a longer time to harden than white lead paint; the patent ili-i/ers are objectionable as containing lead, and the zinc will not comljine with oil to form a plaster, as th ; oxide of lead. Xotwithstantling all this and that the covering properties have been ((uestioncd. white zinc paint presents so many great' advantages, that we cannot doubt its extensive adcDtirm, and an in- feriority of ultimate cost ol' about 10 per cent may be calculated. DESIGN FOl! AN ITALI.\N VILLA. Pi-.ni-.s . Tiic lobby under the stairs will be fomid con\'enient to the- ser^■ants going from the Kitchen \n tiio Dining Koom. The Kitchen is spacious and well lighted and connnunicates with a Scullery beyond it. Larder, Stun-. IbmscinaidV and two Water Closets arc proxidcd. A Stair- case leads from the Kitchen passage tii the (eliaragc. The First Floor has alsd a Terrace opening out of the capacious landing of llic S|;iircasc. The suite id' I'cd and Dressing Koimis, r>oudoir and ^^'. ( '. Mp|iriipriatcd to llic |ii(jprit't(ir and his lad\-, aic ,sc|iMi-atcd by a door, leadiu". im •vvWVA.v^-\v,v ..v.. \x.:;-.^:-v>^-^-^N-- ,„^ ,],^ outside. No fastening is essential, the sheets being merely well hanmiercd together. Semis are dcfecti\e substitute for rolls; the edges of the sheets being bent ui) over airainst one another and dressed down throuu'hmit their lenirth close to the flat. Solder is sometimes apjdied to these, but its use is e.xtremely objectionable, inasmuch as one of the first principles in laying lead is that it should be left perfectly free to expand or eon- tract, otherwise damage will sooner or later occur in the shape of cracks, delapidation and leaks. The general rules with respect to solder are that it shoidd always be easier of fusion than the metal to be soldered and of the same culoiu-. The suft solilcr (that most used) is composed of tin and lead in equal parts and melts very easily; it is sold by the pound. The current or fa/I of flats should be about 3 inches to 1(1 feet, to gutters 2 inches; the iln'p.'! 2 inches deep and 10 feet apart; and the lead is dressed up the brickwork at the sides about (> inches, and let 2 inches into it. For jliisliiiKis milled lead should be emplovcd, about 5 lbs. to the foot and S or il inches wide. They are placed as in the margin, the mortar being raked out of the U; joint; sometimes they are fastened with wall hooks and the lower edges dressed down, and sometimes pointed in cement. For drips the lead is dressed in a somewhat similar manner to that of the rolls. •^'(7) jhisliiiiii is often used to gables; the lead is cut so as to form as it were a scries of steps instead of being continuous, (i lbs. lead may be used for flats; 7 lbs. I'or gutters, and .") lbs. milled lead for flash- ings, hips and ridges; 1" socket pipes out of 1(1 lbs. lead arc used to lead from cesspools, (i" deep, into the heads of the rain water pipes. Hemispherical rc.vrx, ti" diameter, pierced with holes out of 10 lbs. lead are also used, and sometimes iron or zinc gratings. 3 feet is a good length for sheets, to allow 30 ^^^ '^yy^///?Z/^- 234 i'i.r:\iiiF.[:Y. a sufficient JiImv (d flic nic;;il. Wc in;iy Iicrc caution our readers ajjainst a certain practice of sonic ])lunil)irs, \iz, tiiat of charging for sheet lead and labour at so nuich j)er cwt, lor piping at so nuicli per foot, for the joints in pij)ing and labour and solder used in making them, and then iriuiliiKi lip the nccoiiiit with a sejiaratc charge for solder and labour, a|)pcaring to the un- Miitiated very I'air, but in point of fact, charging twice over. As "the custoiu of the trade," and a very disrespectable custom to them it is, these charges have actually been sanctioned by learned judges. AVe mention the matter, but, as is remarked in the Encyclopa'dia liritannlca, "the now prevalent custom of artificer's work being done by general builders by tender and contract has considerably lessened the injury to the public from this abuse and proved it to be really so by the moderate profits the same men will content themselves with, if they make a tender, who would persist in charging at the old rate if they were instructed to do the work without being bound by contract." Lead jiipes were formerly made of sheet lead, wrapped round an iron or wood cylinder, of the length rc(piircd, and then soldering the edges. Casting them was next adopted in iron moulds in two halves i'orming, ^yhen together, a cylinder the size of the pipes. The method now' in general use is to cast the pipes first, and the lead, being in short lengths lirec or four times the thickness of the intended pijies, is next ilnncii through holes in pieces of steel, as in wire drawing, till the Jiiping is of the I'cquired thickness and length. There arc many variations of the details of the ojicration, but we have not space to enter into them, and content ourselves « ilh presenting the following table of the weight of lead piping. or yard li) lbs. »> 12 J> ?» 16 » )) 18 »» *5 21 )) 21 1 Pipes have various names according to the uses, to whirh they arc appropriated, thus there are sercici' or ■•^nji/i/;/, (h'ip or .^v//, uxnuj, main, traniliu/, iraslr ]ii])cs vie. and there are an infinite variety of joints, fittings, ferrules, bosses, >vashcrs, cocks etc., an inspection in a plumber's shop conveying a i'ar miu'c intelligible idea of them than any dcscri[ition. ^^'alcr cK)sets are filtcd up by the phiml>er. A great number of fittings have at diilerent times been patented for them, the general ])iiiici])le consisting in the ]ilacing of a cistern over-head, which, by means of a lever attached to a \al\e in the cistern, allows a portion of the water to descend, wash the basin and clear the soil jiipe and drain, the actions biing almost simultaneous. The conirivance is one peculiar to modern times, and a most admirable sanitary arrangement it is. The cost of the closet ai)])ai'atus \aries irom .^ 1 to ^ -1, according to the com|)lctciicss ni' chai'ncici- and the materials of the whole. The cisterns arc lined with lead, 7 or S lbs. to the bottom and (i lbs. to the sides turning oyer the top edges 1 ' .j inch and nailed. Tliey are su]i]died by iiuiin .siTcice pipc.t, the tbiw oi' water being regulated by a /xi// cue/,', open and shui by a lc\cr, with a copper ball at tl.e end, llnating on the surtiice of the water. As the cistern fills, the ball of course rises, and when the lever is horizontal, the cock is (piite closed mill |iieycnfs more w'ater entering the cistern. A ir /lijic of sulficicnt diameter to draw oft' rapidly the water is inserted in the botlnm of ihe cistern; a standing waste pipe is screwed on to this the junclioii consisting of a brass plug and washer, and rises to \cry near the top of the cistern, with a /nniiprl iiiinil/i, so as to carry oil the water, when, owing to the ball-cock being out of order, it continues flowing. The pipes, conveying the water to dilfcrrnt jiarts of the house, arc ])laccd about o ie:s 1 !(5 P g 3 © 3- 1 ri) M@y§E?^,. /'/a/C' FRONT ELEVATION. . n.l MltKKY. 2!{r) an iiicli from tlie bottom of tlie cistern, oIjovi' ihc .':edinii>ii/, willi ulint is termed a ro.v' over tliem, to prevent the entnmec of tlie hitter. When cisterns arc snpplieil from immps, an ' ^ ''"-'h icarn- 1111/ ]>i/ii' is led h:ick to llic iiuinp to indiciili' wlicii tlic ilslcrn is liHcil: the slamliii^ waste shouhl he still retained. It will he jierecived from the aho\c description, that a cistern is a vcrv com- plicated apparatus, oxtremelv liahle to i;ct out of order, oeeii]iyinu' mnch .space, eostin"' much money, giving great tronhle, and altogether a great nuisance. So long however as water is sup- ]>lied on an ahsnrd intermittent instead of a constant .system, cistern.s, with all their ])araphenalia of liijies, cocks and scruhhings, will still continue to cause vexation, 'i'he superiority of the con- stant .system of water supply over the intermittent cannot admit of a doidit. Witii respect to economy alone, Mr. Dcmj)scy states, — "It is found at Xotlinghain, that one experienced man and one lad are .sufficient to manage the distribution of the supply to about SOOO tenements, and keep all the distribiitory works, including cock.s, main, and sei'\ice jiipes, etc., in perfect repair. Under the intermittent supply system, a nmnerous staff of assistants would be rcf|uired to discharge similar duties.'" ]?y the con.«:taiit service principle, the cost and exj)ense of the cisterns i.s saved, the sizes of the main anlumber, but we need not here enter into their construction and several kinds. A conunon house pump may be procured for 30 shillings; a brass barrel lift ])ump for J" 3; Hy- draulic pumps from about £ 5; and puni)) rods in about 10 feet lengths, with joints and braso couplings at .^ 1 per foot. THE STONES USED IN BUILDING OPERATIONS. Hardness, tenacity and compactness, and a power to resist the decomposition caused by water and the atmosphere, are the chief requisite (|Ualitics in stone used for building. It is melancholy to observe in our cities the little judgment that has been displayed in the choice of this material; many slonc strutlures beginning to decay within a short period of their erection. Vi"n\\ all our boasted science the people of antiipfity disjilayed far more knowledge in this respect, as is suffi- ciently evinced by the present condition of their structures. Alterations of temperature, the smoke of cities, rain, and moisture, the action of wind constantly blowing dust on a building, are all operations tending gradually to wear away stonework. It has been truly remarked, that "in mo- dern Eiu'oj)e and particularly in (ireat lirilain, there is scarcely a public building of recent date, 30* 236 THE STONES USED IN Kl'ir.DING OPERATIONS. wliicli will 1)0 in existence :i tli(iu>i;m(l yciir* hence. ^I;niy of the most splendid works of modern architecture are hasteninirto decay in what may he justly called the very infancy of their existence, if compared witli the date of pulilic liuildin^.'. that remain in Italy, (ireece, Eiivpt and the East." Disinte'Tation and decomjiosition are the two main jirocesses of decay. Disintegration is a me- chanical operation; water accunudatcs in the minute pores of the stone, freezes and lirusts it, or separates small portions, according as the structure is irregularly granulated, slaty etc. The south sides of buildings are in this country, peculiaily liahle to fail, hecause tlic surface, thawed and covered with wet in the day, when the sun is upon it, is Irozen again at night. A\'atcr again softens the clayey portions of those stones which are thus cemented tcjgether. Jn all temperate clinuites where there are great irregularities in the weather, stones aj-e sorely tried. A torrent of rain will carry down a building all the dust which has been blown airainst it, and thus slowly and in the course of years wear it away. Decom[)osiiion again effects a chemical change, con- si-^iing in the tendency of the stone to absorb oxygen and carbonic acid from the atmosphere, and he by that union dissolved into an earthy powder. Thus in granite, the hardest of all rocks, one of its components, felspar, containing saline matter, is suliject to decay in proportion as the solulile salt exists. Eain water always holds in solution carbonic acid, and the power of this in dissolving carbonate ol' lime is very great, more particularly in the cn\ irons of populous cities, where there is a larger jjroportion of the ingredient; and thus stone l)uildings in the country are more durable than in towns. The iron, copper, lead and other metals used in stone work are likewise all liable to the oxidiating effects of the watei-, causing them to enter into new combi- nations and hasten the decomposition oi' the stone around. Sir Hiunjihrey Davy observed: "Amongst the substances emphivcd in buildings, wood, iron, tin and lead, are most liable to decay from the operation of water, than marble when exposed to its influence in the fluid i'orm; brass, co]i])cr, granite, sienite, and porphvrv are all more durable. But in stones much depends on the jieculiar nature of their constituent parts. \\'hen the felspar of the granite rocks contain liitli' alkali, or calcareous earth, it is a very ])ermancnt stone; but when in granite, i>orphyry or sienite, cither the i'elspar contains much alkaline matter, or the mica, schorl, or hornblende nmch jirotoxide of iron, the action of water containing oxygen and carbonic acid, on the ferruginous elements tends to produce the disintegration of the stone." The stone which is nearest at hand will be generally used on account of the cost of conveyance. We do not propose to enter into the details of quarrying and will merely remark that the chief points to be observed are the position and quantity of the stone, its hardness, heaviness and general nature, remembering that the deepest is as a general rule more durable than that near the surface, on account of the superincundjent pressure and the conse(juent density and hardness in proportion as this exists. In selecting stone, its mineral character, chemical C()mj)osilion, cohesion, weight, hardness, brittleness and absorbent power have all to be taken into consideration, and determined in comparison \\ith a settled standard. In order to i'orm a judgment of any build- ing stone which has not had the test of experience, it is desirable to examine it in its native bed, particularly those j)arts of the bed, which ha\e been long exposed to air. AVhen the examination cannot be made, all stones that are not calcareous may be in some degree proved, by observing what cflcct is prodiK'cd upon them by inunersing them in water for a given time, by ex])osing them to a red heal, and to I'rost, or by covering them with dilule acid for several days. Those stones, which absorb the smallest (|uanlily of water, and which are least changed by the action of heat, frosts, (tr acids may be fairly considered as most callable of resisting the dcconqiosing or disintegrating effects of moisture and change of temperature. It has recently been the jiractice to rub the calcareous sand-stones with oil, which thus nuist to a certain degree resist the absorption of watei', and contribute to the durability of the stoiU'. Two methods of testing building stone are in general use, one determining the cohesive, the other the absorbent power — the latter a species of imitation of the effects of the weather and extremely valuable. ? H U m a s < K e z > J y TiiK SToxKs rsKu IN liiii.Di.NL; (iim:i:ations. 237 'I'lio resistanoc of stone to :i crnsliing wei^rlii, is ;ni iin])()rt;nit matter, to wliieli too little attention is iri\en. The mcdianal aiTliite<'ts seem to Iimnc aitcndcd to it iiioi'e than the anficnt, if we may inf'ci' from the superior lightnoss of their striiciiires, they had arri\cd at ilic cdiK liL-iuii iliat greater wci^Iits might lie safely entrusted to a less amount lA' masonry, 'i'lu! eelel)rated dis- cussion on the safely of the dome of the Pantheon in Paris is, we I)elievo, the first recorded instance of tiie instituiion nf a series of e.\|iei'iincnls on tjie crusliinn- \\cii;'lits of sicnics. TJie iiHide now usually ;>do|)ted is to suhmit small cuhes to the ])ressure of a IJramah press, ohservin" the weijiht at which it first cracks and then crushes. Of coin-se it will he inii>ossilile to net all the stones e(|iial to the one cxpci-imciitecl iipdu, and allowanre must tin'rcforc he made for those of inferior (|uahly, bad, weak, or cracked; and as a n"cncr:\l rule it is hest not to entrust stones with the support of a ijrcater weiii'ht than ' i<|th of that, which will crush them. The followincr table is i;iven by Gwilt as the result of c.xjii'rimeiits to ascertain ilic crii-hiiii;' force. Pounds Portland stone, 2 inches Ioiil;-, 1 inch hinh . . S(i,") Statuary marble, 1 inch cube Li210 (,'ragleilh stone do. S688 Chalk, cube of I' ^ inch 1127 Koe stone Gloucestershire, cul)c of 1' o incli . . 1 1-19 Red briek do is! 7 Portland, called pallors do ll),2Sl Yorkshire pavinp; do 12,856 White statuary marble do i;!,()32 Cornish granite do 14,:!(t2 Dundee sandstone do 1-1,918 Portland, a 2 inch cube 14,918 Compact limestone 17,3.54 Portcrhcad granite 18,f).Tf) Purbcck 20,(110 Freestone, very hard , . . . . 21,2.'>4 Aberdeen granite, blue kind 24, .').")() The thickness of walls and piers nuist be proportioned more with reference to their height than to the weight they are to carry; the crushing of stone by superincumbent ])rcssufe bcini'' a very rare occurence in buildings; the action of the weather should lie cliicHv taken into conside- ration. The determination of the absorbent ]iower becomes therefore an imj)ortant matter for experiment. Brard's method, trc<(ucntlv adopted, is a chemical ])rocess for imitating the disinte- grating effects of the weather, and is pcrha|)s the best of any. IJeforc proceeding to describe the ])articular kinds of stone in use, we will close our general remarks with a valuable extract from the Report of the Commissioners selected to rcjiort on the stones of Great Britain, on the occasion of building the New Houses of Parliament, and which presents on able summary of the various causes operating to cause decay. "As regards the sandstones that arc usually em- ployed for building puri)oses, and which are generally composed of either quartz, or silicious grains, cemented by silicious, argillaceous, calcareous or other matter, their decomposition is effected according to the natiu-e of the cementing substance, the grains being coniparativelv in- distruetible. With respect to limestones, composed of carlionatc of lime, or the carbonate of lime and magnesia, cither nearly pure or mixed with variable proportions of foi-cign matter, their decomposition depends luider similar circumstances, upon the mode, in which their com])o- nent (larts are aggregated, those, which are most crystalline, being ibuiul to be the most durable, while those which partake least of that character suHcr most from exposure to atnio- 238 THE STONES USED IX BUILDIXG OPEKATIONS. splieric influences. Tlie varieties of limestones termed Oolites (or Koestones) being composed of oviform Iiodies, ecmented by cnlccroiis matter of varied character, will of necessity snft'cr unequal decomposition unless such oviform bodies and the cement be equally coherent, and oi' the same chemical composition. The limestones, which are usually termed nhelhi, from their being formed of liroken or perfect fossil shells, cemented by calcarous matter, suffer decomposition in an un- equal manner, in consequence of the shells, which, being for the most part crystalline, offer the "■reatest amount of resistance to the decomposing effects of the atmosphere. Sandstones, from the mode of their formation, are very frequently laminated, more especially when micaceous, the idates of mica being generally deposited in planes parallel to their beds. Hence if such stone be placed in buildings with the planes of lamination in a vertical position, it will decompose in flakes according to the thickness of the lamina?; whereas if it be placed so that the planes of lamination be horizontal, that is, most commonly on its natural bed, the amount of decomposition will be comparatively immaterial. Limestones, such at least as arc usually employed for build- inof purposes, are not liable to the kinds of lamination observable in sandstone, nevertheless varieties exist, especially those commonly called sJiel/i/, which have a coarse laminated structure, "■enerally parallel to the planes of their beds, and therefore the same jjrecautions in placing such stone in buildings, so that the planes of lamination be horizontal, is as necessary as with sand- stones above noticed. The chemical action of the atmosphere produces a change in the entire matter of the limestones, and in the cementing substance of the sandstones according to the amount of surface exposed to it. The chemical action due to atmospheric causes occations either a removal or disruption of the exposed particles, the former by means of jiowcrful winds and driving rains, and the latter by the congelation of water, forced into or absorbed by the externa portions of the stone. These effects are recipi-ocal, chemical action rendering the stone liable to be more easily affected l)y mechanical action, which latter, by constantly presenting new surfaces, accelerates the disintegrating effects of the former. I'uildings in this climate, are generally found to suffer the greatest amount of decomposition on their southern, south-western, and western fronts, arising doul)tless from the ])rcvalence of winds and rains from these quarters; hence it is desirable that stones of great durability should at least be employed in fronts with such aspects. Buildings situated in the country appear to possess a great advantage over those in poi)ulous and smoky towns, owing to lichens, with which they almost invariably liccoinc covered in such situations, and which, when firndy established over their entire surface, seem to exercise a ])ro- fcctive influence against the ordinary causes of the decomposition of the stone u])on which they grow." This latter circumstance is doubtful in our opinion: for the licin'ns, insinuating tlieir roots, form a vegetable mould retaining damp, and which can do no ])articular good, iiut rather evil. We will now state very briefly the various liinds of stones and their properties, coniincncing with a (hiss in general use y'v/.. LIMESTONES {ra/rarrou.':). These arc a sj)ecies of freestone, a name applied gciuTally to stont's, whidi can be cm with the saw, or wrought with the mallet and chisel. Limestones arc composed of the carbonate of lime, or the carbonates of lime and magnesia, cither mixed with various projiortions of foreign matter or really ])ure. Those called ooViti-f!, or rorstoxex are composed of oviform bodies cemented with calcareous matter; the x/ir/h/, of fossil shells, cemented also by calccrous matter. Indeed, ralrarcinin is the general term applied to limestones, including marbles; all limestones which admit of a good ])olish being called marbles. 'Jhcir hardness and admission of polish is owing to the simple alteration of the carbiniferous limestones by metamorphic action. Ma(inesiau lune- nlones consist of almost equal jjarts (if carbonate of magnesia, and carbonate of lime, of crystalline 4'3 W 8? © 3 o I- z < f Q z O (E O 3 O I to 'a. < Tin; STONES isF.i) IN m:iLDiN(; operations. 230 texture ;ui(l in a state of j)erfect coniliination, witli a pleaf^ing colour ami ]pcai]y lustre. 'Jlie oolites, an early geologieal I'onnaticui, are tlie limestones cliielly adopted in building. Limestones ha\e I'lin used fVoiii time iinmcmoriai. Tiic I'vraiiiids of Egvj)t arc ereeteil of a u'reyi-li white ealeareous slone; the (ireeks used various inari)les; at C'onstantino[ile a fine grained limestone, now used for litliograpliy, is adopted; the whitish, j)orons limestone, called tran'rtino, is the ma- terial of liie Coloscuni, St. l\'ter's, and other edifices in Rome, also of the temples at Paestiun; the ediliecs of Paris ;ire of limestone, and our own St. I'auls is of oolite. Portland is very com- monly used in London. Its hardness gives it many re((uisites to jiroditce very fine masoin-y; it is strong and heav_y and of a whitish hrown and greyish white colour; it also work.s easily. That for St. Pauls was brought from the island of Portland; the \\'aycroft (piarry at the north cast part of the island is a brownish Portland of excellent (juality; the AW'stcliff and IVill (juarries arc also good. Ketton resembles but is better than Bath stone; Barnack is not so durable and is shelly in composition. Portland stone is stated to consist of 9."). 2 per cent of carl)onatc of lime, 1. 2. carbonate of magnesia and weighs H.') pounds per cubic foot. It cracks under a pressure of 2(100 pounds and crushes under 4000. Purbeek, from the island of that name, is used for pacing and ste[is and also for fronting buildings; that from Swanage is of good repute. The c|narries of Parleigh, Coombe, Down, Box and Corsham produce the stone called Bnth, in such very general use. The Chajiel of Henry VII. in A\'estminstcr Abbey is faced with this stone, which is rapidly decaying, although so recently re-executed. Bath is tnuch cheaper than I'ortland stone, but not so durable. It is soft when first rpiarried, but hardens on exposure; the grain is fine and the colour iisiiallv a warm cream. It absorbs moisture very (juickly, and this conse(|Ucntlv is one cause of its frequent failure. The weight is about ll<) pounds per foot cube, the composition about 91' ., \wy cent carbonate of lime, 2' ^ carbonate of magnesia, and these will absorb one third their bulk of water. I'ath cracks under a pressure of 12j0 and crushes under j,")00 pounds per si]uareinch. The stone is cheap enough, but cannot be strongly recommended when durability is desired. Besides the above, there are other oolites more in local recpiisition. Those j'rom Northamptonshire are sujierior to Bath and not so expensive as the Portland. Ancaster, a Lincolnshire oolite, is generidly used in the neighbourhood of the quarries. The Oxfordshire limestones are not very durable; Ketton and Barnack, of which we have before spoken, are su- 2)erior. Among secondary limestones, there are some containing a great deal of magnesia, more especially those in the counties of Nottingham, Durham and York. Magncsian limestones, which are suitable for building, consist of equal jtroportions of carbonate of magnesia and carbomite of lime in a perfect state of combination; their texture is crystalline, and the colour an agreeable yellow. They crack under a ])ressure of 5000 and crush under SOOO iiounds to the s(juare inch. The magnesian limestone of Bolsover Moor was selected by the Commissioners appointed as the most durable stone for fticing the new Palace at AVestminster. It was found to be the strongest and heaviest of all the s[>ecimens examined and absorbed lea.-t water, 'i'lic comi)ositioii is .")0 per cent carbonate of lime, 40 carbonate of magnesia, the remaining 10 silicia aiul aliunina. The limestone from C'acn in Normandy, particularly that from the quarries of AUemange, is re- markably good, and is used at the works at AVestminster, aiul \ c ly generally in our churches and otiier buildings. Its grain is even, and the cohuir a beautiful cream. For internal use it is peculiarly suitable. For slabs, some limestones, which split easily, are ((uarried in Northamp- tonshire, Oxfordshire and thereabouts. The Stonesfield and Colley A\'eston slates arc species of limestone. Chalk has ever been enqiloveil for repairing the cloisters of A^'estnlinstcr Abbey on account of "the cheapness of the cutting," i)ut howcxer deci) the beds may be, the material should never be adopted. — A\'c shall make under this the most appropriate heading, a few remarks on oi-uaniental stones and niarliles before pniceeding to the consideration of Sandstones. Alulxixirr, or gy[)sum, is often emploved in ornamental architecture. The best or pme white variety is from Italy. 1' ranee and Derbyshire and other midland counties in England produce it. 2 4(1 THE STONES USED IN rU'ILDING OPERATIONS. Ovicntdl (i/a/idsifr. a .species of limestone of ;i wnnn yolldw transparent appearanee is <[uarrieil in lar^e blocks in Kgvpt. Alabaster must never be exposed to tlic action of water. SiTjieiilinc, a silicate of lime and magnesia, is superior to most marbles lor many purposes. It is brougbt chiefly from the Lizard Point, Cornwall. Spars, particularly Fluor sjmr (Huate of lime) are of a blue colour and much transjtarency. Derbj^shirc pi"oduces admirable spars for ornamental purposes. JNIalachite is an ore of copper of a beautiful green colour, it is from Kussia and Australia. Of marbles generally "the external characters are as follows; colours white, grey, red, yellow and green. It is generally but one colour, although it is often spotted, dotted, striped and veined. Fracture foliated, but oftentimes inclining to sjtliutery. ]\Iore or less trausluent, brittle and easily frangible. All the varieties n)ay be burnt into (|uickliine. True marble consists of crystalline carbonate of lime, either almost pure, in which case the colour is white, m- coloured \^ith oxide of iron, and other impurities comnumicating coloiu\" ( >f the ancient marbles we may mention rirro untico (I)lack) roso uiilico (red) f/i'i//o unlii-o (vel- low) and rcrilc nntiro (green). AV'e have not any now equal to the red and green, but the Sienna and Derbyshire arc e(iual to the yellow black and red. The Parthenon was liuilt of Pentelic marble (vcllowish white), AN Inch is not e'«i«^jii£iiU'U'iJ' vy ii^ ii n vtj 'w m* "u ^ pBJ5«JieiPA\lL ELi:Y'ATIl©!NJ. DESIGN KOIt A I'AI!: iure mortar, and oonoroto full of earthy ])articles, :ti • 244 DESIGN FOi; A SMALL VILLA. liave all a tendency to absorb moisture, wliicli, if once received by such materials, ascends or creeps vp, as it is technically called by builders, and thus affects the whole building. The action of damp entirely destroys a slate course, and the sand mixed witli cement renders it in some degree porous. A course of well burnt bricks set in asphalt A\ould probably effectually prevent the absorption of water." Paving bricks or tiles are also olijected to for floors in the same Report "as each of these tiles or bricks will absorb half a pint of water so do they become the means by which vapour is generated. The cleanly housewife, who prides herself on the neat and fresh a])pearance of her cottage, pours several ))ails of water upon the floor, and when she has completed her task with the besom, she proceeds to remove with a moj) or flannel so much of the water as the bricks have not absorbed. After having cleansed the cottage, the fire is usually made up to prepare the evening meal, and \apoiu- is created by the evajjoration of the lieat upon the saturated floor." The ](rcsent design contains on the Ground Floor, Entrance Passage with "\^'. C and Closet under the Staircase. Parlour, with bay window. Kitchen, Scullery, Coal Cellar and Larder. On the Upper Floor are three Bed liooms, together witla a large Closet. Plate 101 contains the Ground Plan and Front Elevation; Plate 102 the Chamber Plan and Section. There is we believe little thfferencc in the cost of Kentish Kag in its neigh- bourhood and stock Ijrickwork, and the expense of the two houses if erected of it with tooled dressings will average about £ 50(1. DESIGN OF A SMALL VILLA. Plate lo:?. This little \'illa, or "eoltdjn' oriir", will not of course be suitable for a situation in which ground is partictdarly \ aluablc, but without a design of such a character in a work embracing so great a variety our series of domestic habitations woidd hardly be complete. AA'c hii-\e heai-d many remark that if they erected a house it should have no staircase, and certainly when, as in Paris, houses arc of great altitude the labour of asccndintr and descending is very great. The ancients scarcely ever used them, :ind where they ai-e found in domestic habitations, they are usually for the purpose of access to the rooms of the -slares, as for instance as Pompeii. In houses with rooms all on the ground level, or but little elevated above it, the chief inconvenience is to be appi'chcnded from damp, but this will Ijc entirely obviated by a layer of concrete, G inches in thickness, laid over the whole .surface to I)e built upon, rather deeper under the walls. ^Micre two houses of this description are surrounded with trees and gardens, as would probably be the case with the present example, the flies coming in at the windows are a great annoyance. The Italian mode of excluding them, which is as old as the days of Herodotus, is peculiarly effectual. Small nails are driven in on the outside of the window frame about an inch ajjart, and small white or light coloured threads are stretched across both horizontally and vcrticidly; or a network may be hung from the to]) of the window and fastened at the bottom tuiil at intervals at the sides, the meshes not being above an inch s(juare. Nothing will induce the Hies to pass through this into the darkness; but if there is a through light from a side or opposite window, the con- trivance will ni>t be ellcetiial. The present design will be louiid lidth looniy and convenient, with a certain picftnesqueness of external cfl'eel. There are altogether nine rooms in addition to the closets. 'I'liere is a small covered j'oreli and Hall, the space of a Staircase being eco- nomized. The Drawing, Dining, and Breakfast Kooms open out of the Ilall (in which arc two y^/a/e, //ath rooms, together with Closets and W . C. On the Second and Third Floors altogether twelve rooms, for Bed, Dressing rooms. Boudoir etc., with Closets. There are two Staircases, a principal and one for servants. The wln)le arrangement will be found convenient and appropriate, and the rooms arc large, lofty and well lighted. Tlic frontage of the House is 44 i'cet, taking the full s[iace of the side walls. The front elevation is of a highly ornate cha- racter in Italian architecture. The chimneys arc treated as ornamental accessories adding to the altitude and dignity of the elcvati(Ui. The front may be executed in either stone or cement; if the latter be ado}ited and the internal fittings are in accordance with the luxurious character of the mansion, the cost will average £ l),GOO. DESHiN FOR A VILLA. Platks lOS. 109. This House i.- adapted ioi- an open spot, allliougli willi a liitlc niodiliciuion, others might be creeled conlinuoush-. 'I'lirre is no Basement, the Kilclicn ( )|fices being on ihi' (iround Moor, which is raised two feet ab(i\e the le\ el of the (iroimd, and contains Drawing' R(]om, with folding 246 DESIGN FOR A MODEL COTTAGE. doors cominuiiicuting with jMorning or Breakfast Kooiii, Dining Room, Kltclicn, Scullery, with the requisite Closets, etc. A Staircase is shoAvn to lead to Cellars if desired. On the ujiper floor, there being only two, are eight ajjartments appropriated as Bed and Dressing Rooms, besides Closets. The simply oblong form of the house, without breaks and recesses has many advantages. It is always the most economical, and allows of the simplest possible kind of roof. Where also there are many angles to a building, damp is more likely to lie retained, as tlie sun cannot shine so equally on the walls, and the angles are apt to retain moisture. They are here shown ce- mented as certainly tending to preserve dryness. The Elevation lias a breadth and simplicity of effect which will be found eminently pleasing; the roof is shown \vith rolls and may be ex- ecuted in zinc or galvanized iron, the latter most exi)ensive. Faced with Kentish rod bricks or second malms with cement dressings, the cost will average £ 1,300. DESIGN FOR A MODEL COTTAGE. Plates 110. 111. This Design completes our scries of Model Cottages for Labourers, Mechanics etc. The first is for a Pair, with tw'o floors, the second for four, the third for one, with the rooms all on one level, and the last, that under description, for a detached cottage with rooms on two levels. There is thus a variety suitable for various circumstances, from which a selection may be easily made. The present example has an Entrance Lobby, Living Room, Seidlery, Avith oven, copper, etc. etc.. Larder, Coal Cellar, Closet for Tools and W. C, all on the Ground Floor. The Cham- ber Floor contains three Bed Rooms and a Closet. The arrangement is compact with no loss of space and economical. For the general requisites and tlic paiticulars of construction in diffe- rent parts of the country, tlie reader is referred to the lengthened remarks at page 94, where will be found a Specification applicalile to this pxam[)le. \sq. therefore only need add licrc that, if the cottage is built of stock bricks and fii- liiiilicr, with a slated roof, the expense will Ije about £ 1^0. A section showing tiie construction is mven. DESIGN FOR A SEMI-DP^TACIIEl) TOWN HOUSE. Plates 112. I I H. These arc convenient residences, oadi loiilaining eight rooms widi (wo small Dressing rooms. On the Basement are Kitchen, Scullery, Larder, Store ;ind otlur Closets, \\ith Cellarage under the street conmnuiicating with tiie front area. The (iround I'lan contains Kntrance Hall and Hall, Drawing and Dining K'ooms, (•oMunnnir;iting liy me.ans of folding doors, hack Lobby and \\ . C. The First ami Second Floors have each two Bed and Dressing rooms and Closets. The Houses are ])lanncd so that they may be erected either semi-dctaclicd or in a continuous row. The Elevation is of ;in l!:ili;ni ly large Ivitchcn, a .Scullery and Larder, China Clo.set, Coal Cellar, and W. C. The two latter are placed so as to be accessible without entering the Kitchen department. The lower ])art of the China Closet will probably be aj)propriatcd for wine. Tiic First Flour has three Bed Kooms, besides W. C. and Closets. The second Floor has a similar nuiubcr of Bed K'oonis and Closets, and another Bed or Smoking Rooiu may be placed at the summit of the tower; abo\c it the cistern. There is a side entrance for ti'adesmen, and a verandah may be placed at the back of the Dining Room, a lobby leading out to it i'rom the main corridor. This will altogether be found a convenient family residence and may be erected of stock bricks and cement fur the sum of £ 1 :)()((. M A S O N E Y. We propose in two articles to sum up a biief view of the practical details of the ^Jason's art, without entering into its history and the complex theory of tlie jirincijilcs of strength and stabi- lity, both of which subjects would necessarily occupy too much space to be at all satisfactorily considered. The characteristics of the several materials have been already tnuUed, and sufficient has been stated to enable the reader to form a correct idea of the crushing weight or resistance of stone walls, on which their stability greatly depends. We shall not also, for the reason above stated, make any remarks on the pressure of earth and fluids again.st retaining and bre!\st walls and tjic resistance of isolated walls to forces which tend to overtiu-n them, 'i'bc theory (jf the equilibrium of arches would also require great space, but some observations on this important subject \\ill be found in an early part of the work. The tools used by the Mason arc varied ac- cording to the peculiarities of materials, and an inspection of them will convey a far more accurate idea than any written description. The different dcscrijitions of Walling will first en- gage our attention. The footings must be consti-ucted with stones as large as i)ossible, of equal thickness in the .same coiu-sc and with the I)roadest part at the base. Kectangular forms arc preferable; if not square, they nuist be hammer-dressed into shape, the longest sin-faees being laid horizipntally; stones which taper downwards and rest on angular ridges will lie verv apt to give way. It is of course preferable to have stones reaching entirely acro.ss the foimdations, Ijut in \cry thick walls when stones cannot be procured of sufficient size, every second stone may be a wlmlc stone in breadth, each interval consisting of two stones of ci|ual lireadili; that is, placing header and stretcher alternately. If these stones are not at hand, a header and stretcher may be laid alternately from one side of the wall, and on the other, a series in the same manner, in order tjiat the lireadtli of each stretcher may bo cmc tjiird of IJic lirradlli of ihc wall, tlic length of each header tw\) thirds, and the back of each of tjic lallcr I'onic in contact wiiii tlic back of an 248 MASONRY. opposite stretcher, and tlie siilc ol' tlic header with the .--idc of that adjoiiun;^; the stretcher. \\ hen stones cannot be procured of lengths equal to two-thirds the i)readth oi' tlie foundation, the stones are to be laid so that the vertical joints of the coui-ses may lie in the centre of tlie ]en;;ths of the stones in the course beneath, and the back of each stone fall in the solid of the stones below. The setts-off should not exceed 3 or 4 inches, and the number ol' footings is regulated by the height and j)ressure (jf tlie wall. Walls may be generally di\ ided into anlihir, consisting of hewn or squared stones, in distinction to those formed of unhewn or rough as it comes from the quarry, and termed rnbhli' ir<(/ls iiit- voursed or coursed in various manners. "Walls are also often faced with ashlar work, tlie backing being of nibble or bricks. Bag work is a species of flat bedded rubble; in herring-bone work the stones are laid aslant. AVe will first consider ashlar, hewn, or squared work. The stones maj' lie of any suitable size; cubes are the strongest, but their stability and boml is not C(|ual to those whose length is greater than the lieiglit. Stones are very often used too thin, and fracture from not resting e(|ually on their surfaces. In practice the blocks may be safely made from twice to three times their iicight; and if the stone is moderately hard, the width may be once or twice the licight. Very hard stones may lie two or three times their height in width, and four or five times in length. Crossing the joints efHciently is a better mode of bonding than using very large stones unless very strong: and if they are aliout three times their thickness in length, they arc extemcly lial)le to break from the unecpial pressure, the fracture taking place opposite a joint. It is preferalile so to sort the stones that in each alter- nate course they may extend further into the wall than those of the courses above and below and to make the thicker and thinner courses in height follow one another. >VI1 stratified stones also are far more durable when laid in the same direction they occiqiied in the quarries; and as they split more easily in a direction parallel with the surface of the strain tliey will consequently bear less pressure iir this direction than in one perpendicular to it. The mortar used is of the highest importance; that adopted in the ancient structures is so fine as to fill only the inequalities of the stone, without ])re\enting the courses bearing fully upon another. A medium should be ob- served in this respect; for if the mortar be thicker than necessary, the work takes a long time to settle and is rarely perfectly stable; if the layer is too thin, the bed, K being the respective lengths of the walls. \\\\\\ respect to Staircases we have explain- ed at page 158 the several kinds. The nioilc of carrying them up is very simple. Wc have to consider tlie form of the steps anil that of the Innoii, uv strin". The ends are either terminated in a solid newel, or tailed into a wall surrounding an open newel. If the newel is not made more than 2' (>", a solid pillar may be adopted; if the newel is larger, a thin wall is cheaper; steps are sometimes supported by a dwarf wall. In geometrical staii'cases, the end of each step being fixed in the wall, it is carried by the step below as shown in P'ig. 2, Plate 19. A joggled joint, with an uniform surface, termi- nated at one side by a notch or rebate, is the form adopted in practice. The FS^ ,/ R C U K outward end is shown in the margin; a h is made about an inch, and h r ])cr]icndicular to the soffite of the stairs, and the dcjitli is regulated by the cliaractcr of the stone; tluis it is evident, that no step can descend in tlic inclined direction of the plane or in a vertical direction; the sally of every joint forms an exterior ob- tuse angle which, on the lower i>art of the upper step is termed a hark relate, and on the upper part of the lower step, an inte- rior rebate, the joint of these sallies being a jogale. The steps are to be pinned eight or nine inches into the wall, more or less according to the length of the steps; they are thus altogether sustained without the aid of a string. For a step 4 feet in length the thickness of every step at its thinnest part need not be above 2 inches, measuring from the internal angle perpendicular to the rake. The length of the steps must be considered, and it is a safe rule to make the least thickness of steps as the inner angle equal to half the number of inches of the height of the step in feet. The landinr/fi, half-pare^ and quarter pacea of stone stairs may be connected with the steps in the manner above described. If they are formed of more than one stone, the first is connected in the above manner with the step below, and tailed into the wall, the next stone being rebated or joggled into it and so on. "The principle ujjon which stone geometrical staircases are constructed is, that every body nmst be supported at three points placed out of a straight line; and therefore, if two edges of a body in different directions be secured to another body, the two bodies will be immoveable in respect to each other. This last case occurs in the geometrical staircase, one end of each stair being tailed into the wall so as to be incapable of tilting, and another edge resting either on the ground itself, or on tlie edge of the preeeeding stair stone or platform, as the case may be. The stones which form a l)latform are generally of the same thickness as those forming the steps." It is of the utmost inqiortanee that landings, balconies and stejjs should rest as firndy and as evenly as possible on their supports. The diagram shows a step or landing fixed in a wall; it is evident that the weight of the proicctiuLT part will tend to lift up, that fixed at A and lower it at C. As a less 252 GLAZING. force is required to sustain tiic step at -I, tlian between A and B, the effectual resistance should be on the ujijjcr side at .1 and on the lower at C, close to the face of the wall. On Plate 19 some illustrations of staircases are given. Figs 3, 4 and 5 are ordinary plans in connnon use, to which the preceeding remarks especially ap})ly. Figs 6, 7 and 8 are extraordinary' plans; Fig. 6, and particvdarly 7, showing somewhat remark- able dispositions of the steps. (To be continued.) DESIGN FOR A PAIR OF SEVEN ROOMED VILLAS. PlatesT 110. 117. On the Ground Floor are Hall, Drawing and Dining Rooms, Kitchen, Closets and steps to Cellars in Basement. On the Chamber Floor, Three Bed Rooms, Dressing Room and Closet are placed. The breaks and projecting chinmcys produce a varied effect in the Elevations, and the cost of the Pair, if erected with stock bricks with cement dressings, will be £ 600. GLAZING AND PAPER HANGING. We have only to make a few observations on Glazing and Paper- Hanging to complete our ge- neral observations on tiie Fittintrs and FinL-hiniis of Domestic Habitations. Fixintr class in lead work or cames, strengthened by saddle /nirs, is the oldest description of glazing, and is still used for cottages and churches; that in nanJics being now more generally adopted. Crown glass is blown in circular flat disccs or tahlvs, 52 inches in diameter. 5 measures of sand, 2 of uround chalk and 1 of carbonate of soda, are the usual proportions of the ingredients. It differs from /////^ glass in not containing lead, or metallic o,\ide, except manganese and sometimes oxide of cobalt. There were formerly two kinds manufactured in i^ondon ; the Ratcliffe, the cheapest and the best, and the Lambeth, darker and greener. Owing to the expense of fuel there are now, we believe, no glass houses in London; the manufacture is carried on chicHy at Newcastle and Bristol. Crown glass is sold in crates which contain 12 tables, if of the best quality, 15 of the second, and 18 of the third. Squares may be easily jjrocured 33 by 25 inches. Bests, seconds, thirds and fiivrtlis may be had; the two last are of a greenish hue. The glass of stables is always liable to decomj)osition and to show the prismatic colours, which is owing to the ammonia constantly disengaged and afl'ecting the silieia of the glass. 1"he nuinufacturc of Ci/linder or sheet glass originated in (iermany and is sometimes called German ])late glas.s. The English have of late years considerably im])roved in the manufacttn-e of it, and the terms Britisli sheet, patent j)late polished, broad, spread, and inferior window glass are names ajiplied to it. It is now inferior to the best crown in lustre only. I)L LUST W ATI] 0!MS 0F3TWC:eT APi.C H! « TE C T U B C Diifl©.M if"@iR A FaiasT Class T©ww Mawisk Plate 106: PRINCIPAL ELEVATION se:ctio(s throuc-h orouno floor windows. Scale or i 30 E LTaituci iiiv. i^T-e so. rAiT.n HANGING; 253 Plate glass is cast iu lai\i;c sheets or plates and is composed of wliite .sand ]iuiific(l, and ])earl ashes and horax. Ai)sley Pelhitt mentions 100 ll)s. of I^ynn sand, washed ann:itc sentences and mottoes is an old custom deserving revival. Pa])ers of a large pattern tend to reduce the appearance and size of a room and the height is also affected, especially by those of flowing patterns; but if perpendicular lines predominate, the height is not so much lessened. Papering the ceiling makes it seem lower. Kooms with a northern aspect should be papered with warm colours, those towards the sijuth with cold tints. As it is the same expense to cut a good as a bad block, there can be no excuse for bad designs, and paper of even two blocks or colours may be made exceedingly simple and effective, while the variety of the miserable patterns we see, walls of strawberries and roses, ships floating on each others masts, happy cottages in the most unhappy and unseemly of . positions, arc all (juite astounding. Diaper j>atterns in self-tints are safest, and the colours must be so intermixed and toned as to present a neutralized bloom at a distance. Stencilling was the earliest method of manufacturing jtaper hangings. Printing patterns from wood blocks of pear tree, or sycamore, with as many blocks as there are shades and colours was next adopted. In machine printing an endless roll of paper is printed in diflcrcnt colours, but it is not so well or so chea])ly done as that by hand , and does not succeed with satin and glazed grounds. DESIGN FOR A W^AREHOUSE OR FACTORY. Plates 118. The internal dimensions of this Warehouse arc 62 by 54 feet. There are three Floors and a Basement; on the (Jround Hcior, a shop and Clerk's Private Office are shown. The height of the Basement is 12 feet; that of the Ground and First Floor 14 feet; and the Second Floor 12 feet. Cast iron columns, carrying girders, are shown, preserving an open space within; and an iron circidar staircase is jjlaced in the centre of the building. We have avoided in the ele- vation that absurd practice of introducing a number of small separate windows giving a dwelling house appearance to Factories and Warehouses, and conveying the idea that the interior is divi- ded into a number of separate apartments. We have also endeavoured to |)reserve more cluirncter than has lately been given in London to these structures. AVith a cemented front the expense will be about ^' :i, 1(1(1. DESIGN FOR A PAIR OF SLTHURBAN RESIDENCES. Platks 119. VH\. Each house has a Kllciien, Scullery, Servants' Itoom , Pantry, Clii,--ets, ^V. C. and (Vllar on the Hasemcnt; Drawing and Dining and Extra Room, W. C'. and Hall on the (iround Floor; and three lied Rooms, Dressing Room, W. C. anil Closets on the Chamber I'lan. Cement and aE816N FOB A riKST CI.A.> TOWry M AN S low . PLAN or BASEMENT /'/,,/r PLAN OF GROUND FLOOR MASONRY. 255 red l)nok.'< are proposed to 1)C einijloycd in tlie fronts witli Italian formed zinc roof. Krccted thus witli ordinary stocks and fir tinilier, tlic internal finishings of fair (|uality, tlie expense of the pair of houses will be £ 1,'2.")(). MASONRY. (continuation.) We shall now make a few observations on the methods of joinintj; stones. The scieiitilic opera- tions of stone cuttincr are founded on geometrical principles and great skill is requisite to form and put tt)gether the complex vaults, domes, tracery and other works in the highest departments of the art. A\'it]iin our limits it is impossible for us to treat on these. We may state generally tiiat the method adopted in stone cutting is to form such plane surfaces as are necessary, so that these may include the ultimate form with the least possible waste, or in a shape most convenient to apply the moulds. The mctiiod of obtaining a plane surface is shown on Fig. 14, Plate IS. Wliat are called chisel drmightu are first made by knocking off the superfluous stone until it coincides with a straiy-ht edirc, and the rest of the stone is next cleared off until the whole surface is uniform. Fig. 15 shows a moulded surface. Two parallel draughts are made at each end of the block coinciding with a mould, and that left between is afterw ards cleared of!', the weing oidy hammer- dres.sed; in aMnr '■nmeirni/ they are jointed and fittefl, about S to 1^ inches long, o to 7 wide, and 12 deep. Stables may be pave< fi" tooled rebated and rounded on the corners, incliiilinii- lellinji' in and rinniiuf;- witii lead to tlanii-es of liiilgcs; tlic lork or latch stones to be also r2"X0">C'>", tooled, rebated and i-cjinidccl three comers, including letting in and running \\itli lead to sta]iles. Where iron qivdom arc used, pieces of granite street curb are to be iilaeed under the ends, lender columns of iron, put I" \ ork landing about "2 to ',\ feet si|uare, and bed thereon a granite base, IS" sijuaie bv l.")"liigli, willi stub hole sunk on the to]) lor cohmiii. A\'lierc r/iimiiri/fi project, stone corbels are somelinu's used, and they must be described ol' a siifficienl size safelv to carrv the weight. 2' j* tooled '^ ork, the edges stjiiared, with •)" cramps run with cement will lie a good hotnl for asblav facing. Copprr cJiiiin bars, cast with projections or stiilis on the underside, so that two mav let info every stone, are sometiiues used to strengthen architraves, being let flush into them. Copiiiffs are from 2 to '.] inches thick, of various wiilth, weathered and (juarryworkeil, or tooled and throated both edges, and set in mortar or c(>ment. The joints are best joggled with slate or hard stone. Coping for gables may be II" thick, with splaved tops and rebated joints, chamfered or moulded one or both edges, or slmjilv throated. I''ix solid saddle stone on apex and knee stones at end.-;, tied in with iron cramps, 1' ," X '' g, turned uj) and df! arc of varied sizes, roundiil or square on top edge, and tooled or rubbed. The joints are jihigged or joggled with slate, stone, or iron, and run with lead or set in cement. Holes are cut lor rails, or rebates arc made for iron gratings, as the ease mav be. T stones for stay bars are to bo provided. Sills must not be less than 2' ^ X "i inches. Tliey are tooled or rubbed, and are weathered and throated, and should lie 1 inches longer than the openings and ])roject at least 1' o" iievond the face of wall. The sills, heads, and stone jambs to doopft of sfroiir/ room.'! should be of tooled York, at least 9 inches thick-, projierly i-ebated, with toothings, mortices etc. Siiiln are usually from ."> to S inches thick, tooled or rubbed, dished out, mitred, perforated and rebated fin- grating, run with lead. The corners are rounded, and the sink usually cut and pinned into the wall. A sink" 7 inches thick' mav be sunk 1' ^ inches. S/alif; mill hark /ii'iirl/m are from 1" to 2' .j" thick; liaek hearths are to be of York, tooled or rubbed and the slabs in front of the innner hearths of Portland or marble, IS to 211 inches wide. C/iiiiiiii'i/ Pii'ci'f:. The commonest arc plain ^'ork, rubbed, cramped ami set with tooled slabs and rough back hearths. 'I'he most ordinary Portland have inch jambs, mantles and slabs. ndilicd, with the necessary York bond stones, linings and blockings: then the boxed and moidded more expensive. One inch is the best.tliickness Ibr the stones, and (i inches the narrowest width that should be deserilied. Statuary tmd veined marble chinuiey jiieces liav'e usually a price specified, including slal)s, carriage and fixing, varying from £'1 upwards. Batlift are sometimes oi' veined marble, rendered water jiroof by setting in Dutch terras, plugged and cramped with copper at the joints, with marble step round two sides and holes cut for laying on the water. Slate is of course a cheaper material, and, if enamelled, very appropriate. 33 258 DESIGN FOR A PAIR OF EIGHT ROOMED HOUSES. Plates 121. 122. The afoommodation in these houses consists on the Basement of a Kitchen, Scullery, Coal Cellar and Wine Cellar, W. C, Pantry, T^arder, Store and Housemaid's Closet, with stairs in urea for Tradesmen and to Garden at hack; on the Ground Plan, Entrance Hall, Hall, Drawing and Dining Rooms and W. C. ; and the Chanilicr Plans have each two Bed and two Dressing or other Rooms, A\'. C. and Closets. Tiie dimensions arc all given and admit of course, in all designs, of heing increased uv diminished according to different tastes and demands. If the jirincipal fronts are faced with second malms and cement, the cost of the two houses will averaii'e £ 1 SOO. DESIGNS FOR SCHOOLS AND RESIDENCES. Platks r2;i. 124. 12:). This Design comjiriscs two spacious, well-lighted Scliool Rooms for Boys and Girls, each 50 by 20 feet, and separate residences for the Master and Mistress. There is an Entrance Porch to each School Room, and Play Yards, ^V. C. and Urinals are attached to them. The School Rooms will prohahly he warmed hy means of stoves, and ventilated from the roof, wliich is of open timber construction, as best adapted to the purpose, and securing the greatest possible amount of heiglit. The Residences have each a Parlour, Kitchen, Pantry, Coal Cellar, "\V. C. and Du.-t place; and on the Chamljcr Floor three Bed Rooms. The style is a modified species of Ikiimanes(|uc, chosen as more expressive of the jjurport of the buildings than- perhaps others are. Rcil bricks with some black hoarders and a few dressings of Bath stone arc proposed for the Elc\ations. The open roofs are to be of fir, stained light oak colour, which may be done very cheaply. Erected thus the cost of the buildings will probably be ^2100. DESIGN FOR A ROW OF NINE ROOMED HOUSES. Plates 12(3. 127. Plate 127, forms our last Illustration of continuous Street .\rchitcctiu-e of which we have given several examples; cement and second malms are projio^'d as the facing materials. On the P.asement are Kitchen and Scidlery, with ample dnmcsii,' (ilHicis. The Ground Floor has pining and Breakfast Rooms, with stc|)s leading to the garden, AV. C. etc. On the first Floor is the Drawing Room and a 15cd Ko<,m; and on the Sec(md Floor Two Bed Rooms and one Dressing Room. The estimated cost for two of these houses is ^1450. > hi < O 259 DESKiN FOK A SHOP FRONT. ri.ATE 12b. Tliis front is to be executed witli hriok piers iuid a wood luciistsiimiiier, tlic whole covered on the exterior with Portland cement, '^ sand to 2 cement. Tlic enrichments are to be in cement and the figm-es in the panels painted. Counters and cases are shown on the plan. The plate glass may be in two or thrc'c ])ieces. Erected thus, the cost of the front will average £ 1130. DESIGN FOR A DETACHED VH.LA. Plates 129. KiO. _ This Villa has on tiic Piascmcut, Kitclien, Scullery, Servants' Hall, Footman's Room, Stores, Pantry, ^Vine Celhir, Housemaid's closet, with Area at the back communicating with Cellars for cleaning knives, l)0ots etc., for hecr, coals, and a Vs'. C. On the (iround lc\cl arc Drawing and Secondary Drawing Rooms, Dining ;.',nd ^lorning Rooms, Entrance Passage, Hall and A\'. C. On the First Floor arc four Red Rooms, one Dressing Room and AV. C; and on the Second Floor three small Bed Room-. The effect of the Elevation is considerably increased by the difference of levels, and the cost of this house, if erected of stock bricks with secoml malm and cement facings will not exceed 6^1100. DESIGN FOR A DETACTIED TOWN HOUSE. Platks 1:'.I. 132. There is no Basement to this residence. The Groimd Floor contains Drawing, Dining and Breidifast Rooms, -Kitehen, Scullery, W. C. Pantry and Coal Cellar. The First Floor has fi\c Bed and two dressing Rooms, Closet and ^\'. C., and the Second Floor five Bed Rooms and one Dressing Room. Both this and the previously described design will be found most convenient residences for large families with also some pretension to architectural ett'ect. The cost of this Town house will be £ 1 2.50, faced witli cement and red bricks. 33* GLOSSAKY OF IKOllMCAL TKKMS USKl) IN BUIJ.DLNG. Tlic Ciplldwiiii;- (!liis,-i;iry contuin- niily tliOM' (rrlinical Icruis which llic iX'adcT will most |iro- li;ilily rtMiuirc lo ]i;im' r\[iliniicil. Siirh winds as Arch, ('ar|iciit ry, Joinery, Masoniy I'lc. arc oniittwl, ii.s whole aniclcs ha\e licoii ilc\()(c(l to tiicir chiciilatioa; ami when a word in coimnon use is lelt out, it will he loiinil to lia\e hecii |)revioLisly ileliiied under its ajipropriate licailing; such as Floor, liooi', Paililion. (iirder, 'ric-heaui, ete. AI'ACrs. Tlic ti))iino.-l mciulirr of the cn|iil:il uf :i cu- l\iiiin, noHiiinu' Imlli ilic c;L|iili\l ;iiiil (■(iliiiiiii. AI'.LT'I'INC; .IDINT. Tli:il juiiiliiiv (if Iwo |iictc.-i ot' wooil ill wjiicli llu'lilircs of one ]iiucc :iic. |ici-|ien(!icul;ii-, ' or ncMilv .<(). M llic joint, :uiil iIio.m' of tlip oilier jiieee |i:ii:illel 10 it; as tlic loot of a laller al.ulliiii;' on a lie-lieain. i ANCIIDK and CuLLAi;, or GATi: lllNGKS arc as ^liowii. Ill a reee: s iIk BACK - "1 FACt ■^c,t ANOLE, or STAFF liKAD. A l.eail willi a .-eetion of aliout tlirec-i|narlers of a circle with a |jidjection on one siilc l»y which it is fastcncil. It is iircil to prolcct ]ila>tereil aii;;!cs in rooms, hnl in sn|pcrior fi- nisliiii};, the ]ilastcr >hoiil(l he well ^'iia^'eil iinil hronyht to a ('//M fi"« iirri.s. AN(JI,K HUACKS, OR TIES. I'ieccs of tiniher used to streiij^lhen llie aii);le formed at the extreniilies of two |iieecs of tiinher, as wall plates, well-holes of stairs, etc. They arc iniieli used at the an;,dcs of the wall | laics of roofs; tile (TOSS jiiccc lain;; the iiinjh- l!r, and that from the an^rlc incetin;.' this, the ilriiiinii-iiirri . Al'liOS, or I'lTCllINi; I'lKlK. In i'liinihciy, the llash- liiK- 111 sliiircatcs, the horizontal jiiecc of tiniher, carry- ui;; the caiTia;;c ]iieees, or rou;,'h strin^rs, iiiid also the ends of the joists I'orinin;; the half )iaees, hiiidin^js etc. : it in firmly wedged into the walls. The iijiiiin llnim/' is the I'aein;^ lo il, .\l!l 'lllTliAVK. 'I'he wdod finishing,' round doors aiidwiii- (hin„. The lowest of the three divisions of an eiilahlaliire. Al;( lini >I,T. 'I'he inonldinp^ on the face of an arch. AlllilS. 'llic anf;lc of jniiclioii of two snrl'aecs. An (ini.s Jillrl is a lriaii;;iilar sli|) of wood used lo raise slittes next cUlmncy, etc.: when at the caves, il is called mrcs / 'Hint or fitf/i. ANIII.AIiINt;. ljpii(j;lil i|naiterinK in pirrcis, hctwccn the rallers and lloor. Ashlur, in iiiasonrv, is hewn in coii- Iradistiiictioii lo nnhewn or riililih- work. ASTK.MiAL. \ seiiiicirenhir inoiildiiif;. ATTIC. The topinust slory or roinn. liAl'K. Ill a rcce:s the hm I . fmr ami tlhoirs arc lliii- ; the hacks and cl- ■ hows of windows hciiif^theinncriairls hclow the sill. The npper jiart of lin- '"* hers and handrails is the }iiirk, and the lower the breast. The i(i»7. of a slnne is the inner ]ian ojipositc the face. JJdrLliii/ a rafter or rih is niakin;j; its upper burfaec ]ia- ulUI wilh llii- otliiT-. The liiirl,iiii/ of (T iciill is the lilliiiL: ill of it as opposeil lo the facia;;-. IJAM'.rnoN or liOI.KCTION MOl LDINliS project lic\oiiil the .surface of the frainin;;. IJAKUK I'.OAKDS arc those on the outer face of ^^ahlcs, hidin;; ihc horizontal liinhers and rtiflcrs. ]>AT. A term apidicd to imrtions less lliaii one half of a hriek. IJATTKNINC;. ■•^Iiiff (usually '^''X'' V) li^cd lo walls and raftcr.s to receive laths. To walls they are fastened lo cijuidistant />"»tiiiji/liii/, iVom \'l io 1 I inches from centre to centre in the lcii;;lh of the hattens. (limildiiiij.s arc snhstitutcd for hallens in yreat irre;iu- larilies in rooms. HA'ITKI!. .\ linn used to express the Ic.iniii;; in from a vertical position of a retainiu;;' uy lircast wall, citiicr slrai;;lit or curved; if it leans forward it iirt rtidni/s. I'KAI) lU.'TT is when the panels of doors have vertical heads without olhcr monlilin^s; Jiciiil jliisli is when the heads continue all round the jiancl. allhonvh in hotli eases they are Hush, or even witirihc fare ol iln >iiifacc. Quirks to heads arc sinkinfrs thus, , either siiii/le or itmilili. /inul Imll aitft si/itfiri' or iHouldiit is apidicd ^ lo the liru sides of IVamin;.', Mhiih may also he //((((/ Imll or ')(•(((/ ihis/i hoth sides. IJlOl) of a slate, llie underside. 'I'he lower suilace id n stone is called its uiiilirlnil, and the upper its ii/i/}i'rlH'il. UKVKl,. A sloped ' surface, which if applied to (.pcniii;;s for the purpose of ciilar;;in;,' them is lernied a x/iliiif. I 'mil and rliiiiiifir are also words applied to the euttin;; olV of all arris or an^;le; in the latter the an^le is usu- ally taken oil' eiiually on hoih sides. Sjihiy is the more appropriate name for lar;;e hevcis, cants or chamfers. I!II!|).S AII)1;TII or .SAM.V. An interior aiijile at the end of a piece of tiniher to' foini a rcstiu;: surface; al.^o angles in hriekwork, clc. E g 5 n iM '5 - F © R - S M @ P F R '0 W T S - 1J° 4. L..Tariu.ck m-v A H Pa-vn e s( GLOSSAUY (JK TI'CIlNICAr. TKHIMS I'SKP IN lini.IJlNG. 2(; BLOCKED mid GLl.'KIJ in u iiKidf of scc-iiiin;; nii;;li;s nf woochvDik, !is ill the ilia- ),'r;iiii. The slorex of wood cohiiiins ai'c fjliied uj) siic- I'c.ssivuly Willi lilockings; :ilsi) llie ti'uads and risers of stairs, etc.. I!(».\i;i). A jiicec of liiiiher imt aliove 2'j iiudios tliirk, liiit more than 4 liroad. I'hiils exceed I'j inches in tliickness and it in widtli; tliev arc •;cnerally 1 1 X :! incdies. Dtiik are '>" X ^i"; i\1icn sawn in two thicknesses thcj are u'hnlc Jmh, or I' ," thick ^'cncrally; tliose ' 2" thick arc silt deiilx; when divided in five, Jive rut stuff. Bnltrnx arc 7 inches wide; those 5 inches arc hcst for lloorinf:, etc. Loir hoards are used in f;iittcrs to pre- vent tlic lead work siiikini; hetween the rafters: vulUij boards arc tliosc fixed for tlic same reason on valleys of roofs. Biiurd <'//////// A. — ijMA i niid brace fram- 'T^//^/v^ Yt^ — K/'', ing is thus. \//.////////\ B0.\.ST1XG. Working stones with a hroad chisel not in uniform lines. Tlic roa^'hinj; out of a carvinj;. BOXU. The mode of laying', or lie uf Iiricks and stones; also ajiplicd to tiniher and iron Imilt into walls to slrcii;;thcn them. Chain bond expresses the tiers of tiinher for this purpose and to attach the finishings. i;()NI''dNC!. Judging of the cuntinnity of ^ullaccs or lines hy the eye; also ascertaining whether work is out of ivlndltiij hv straight odgcs. BOULDKK WALLS of rounded flints and pcl.l.les in mortar; paving the same. BDXING.S of w'indows are the rasr.s into wliich the sliut- ters are folded. BKACKKTING. The vertical rihs fixed to ceilings and wtdls to carry cornices. They save plaslcr in nionl- cliiigs and are used, cut roiiglily to the pnd'ilc of the eornicc, ahont 12 inches aimrl and at the angles; laths ■ arc nailed to tlicni. I'ltK.MslXU JOINT is conisiiig hrieks or stones so that the joints may fall over solids. HKKA.ST. See Bark. The projecting facing jiart of a chimney towards a room is the hreast, over the I'roiit of the llreplaec. The brca!-W.\LLS formed of mud and straw; many in Somer- setshire are (discrved to have lasted a snrprising time. ClIMl'AS.S BRICK.S are circular, for siclnhig wells, cte. COl'lNG. The covering of a wall. Feather edged is splayed to throw off the water; saildle liacked is tjiickcst in the middle. CORDON. The cilgc of a stone outside a building. CORE. The inner part of any body. col NTICI! G.\U(iE. The transferring of a measure; as that of a mortise to a tenon. COl'NTERSI'NK is a cavity sunk to receive a pro- jection. COUSIN ET or CUSHION. The impost stone for recei- ving the first stone of an arch; its bed is level below and the upper bed inclined. CR.VDLING. Centering for culverts, etc.; also the timber rilis for the plastering of ceilings and those for shoii cntablalurcs. 262 GLOSSARY OF TECHNICAL TERMS USED LN DUILDINC. CHEASIXG. Tiles iindtr the topmost comse of ii brick wall, iprnjccting about an inch on each side to throw oft" the rain. CROSS - GRAINT.D STUFF. Wood with fibres twisted find. consci|nenily. difficult to plane. CULVEUT. A sewer under a road with an iiisislitty arch above and an infertcd one below, as in the margin. CURB. An edging of brick, stone or wood used for the jnirpose of protecting or confining something. CrsHIOX or AUXILLIARY RAFTERS are placed be- neath and parallel to the jirincijuih for the purpose of- increased strength. DADO. The wood lining, about tlnec feet high, to rooms. DOG-LEGGED STAIRS have no well-hole. DORMER (n- ATTIC. A window in and pcipcndicnlar to the roof. DOVETAIL. So called from its spreading like a dove's tail; the strongest connecting Ibrni of joint (fiee.dia- r/riiiiis. All. .JniiHii/) used by Joiners and Masons. DliAGiiN-l'IECE. Sec Anf/lo Biyn-is. DRK.'^.^lNt;.^. Ornamental mouldings, etc. DL'HUING-OrT is the Ininging out fair an uneven sur- face tor jdastering. KLBO\\S. See Barks. ENGLISH I50ND. In Brickwork where the courses are nlternatelv all lieailer.': or ulnlrln i:t; in Flemish bond, headrr.s and .stretrhfrs alternate in each course. The first is the strongest, the second lieing considered the neatest in a]ipearance. FALLING MOULDS arc the two moulds applied to the vertical sides of handrails of stairs, one to the convex, the other to the concave, to finish the s(|uaring and fonn the liack and under )iart of the rail. FEATIIER-EIXiINt; is thinning one edge of a material. FIR IN BOND, or uu labour, denotes timber without framing, as bond, lintels, etc.; Jir-fiamfd is unplaned, rough framing, as rafters, joists, etc.; Jir-wroughl . that which is ]daned; /•'//■ rehnlfd, liiiidi:d, etc. includes the several operations as technically phrased. FLASHINGS. The metal laps and coverings to ridges, hi]is and the edges of work rising above roofs. FL.\TT1NG. I'aiuling to interior work finished without clo.s.s. (.SVc All. I'liiiiliiiij.) FLO.\TIN(;. The smuolbirig coal of )ila.-teriug. ( Sie Arl. I^hislfriliif.) FLU.'^III.^■(;. The splintciiug or llakeing of the edges of stones fnnn uneiiual settlement. Clearing drains withwater. FR.ANKING. The notching of a sash bar to niitrc witli the transverse bar. FRro- |)riately called a joijijh'-pn.'oiuted hannncr. NOGCJING. Quartering inserted in brickwork. .Yo'/r/i'jir/- pieccs are the horizontal boards about 2 feet apart worked in to strengthen the brickwork. Xoi/s, or imod hricks are used to attach the tinishiugs. NOSIN(i of a step is the projecting part, generally rounded. NOTClli;i) I!(I.U;l) is one grooved or iiolchcd to receive the ends of >teps. OBLIQUE or SKEW ARCH. One In which tlie arch is formed aslant or at an angle to the aliutments. PAXTON GUTTERS. An ingenious species of eondjineil snspcnrled itorly of a vault. Pen- the timlier work for supporting the One reaching entirely through the loose soils to carry a sujicr- PENDENTIVE. Th dentirc Cradlinij i lath and iilastcrini. PERPEND STONE. thickness of a wall. PILES. Timber dri\cu structure. PIN is a cylinder used for purjjoses of connection. PINNING UP is driving wedges in the upper work in uiidrr/nnnini/ to bring it to bear on that below. PISK WALLING of stilf clay carried n|, in moulds or framework. PITCHlNt; PIECE. See Apron Piece. PLACE BIMCKS. .See Malms. PLANK. .See Board. PLATE. The horizontal piece of tindicr carr_\ing frame- work. PLOTTING. Delineating on ]iapcr the lines and angles of plots, or |)ieccs of land. PLUG or DOWEL. A description of vertical cramp for joining stones together. Also a piece of wood driven into a wall with the end sawn oil'; it is used lo attacli the finithings. PLOUGHED AND TONGUED. See Grooved and Toncjued. POINTING. The jointings of the external foce of walls. Flat joint poinlinij is simply marking the courses with the edge of the trowel; t>tck pointin;/ is the introduction of fine plaster, pared to a neat jiarallcl edge. PRICK POST is an intermediate one between two j.rin- cipal posts to paling. PRIMING. The first coat of painter's work Painfiiiff.) PRINCH'.VLS. The nuiiu lowermost rafters distinction to the common rafters above. PUGCHNG. Coarse ]ilaster laid on sound hoarding to prevent the passage of noise ; jiatent felt laid beneath floor boards is sometimes substituteil for it. PULLEY MORTISE or CHASE MORTISE. A mortise cut lengthwise 'w/////m\ '" -■' ''■"■'^ "'" (Sec Art. of roof in timber to receive tenon in an- scd ^^ Zl '< /"^ C "P other. It is used ^ I V ■ ^- I \^ to connect cei- supporl am! gutter, with an inner <'hanncl to receive condensed moisture, invented by Sir Joseph Paxton and suitable for conservatories. These gutter jjlates, as they are, must be adequately supported. ling joists with liindcrs. PLNCHIONS. Upright pieces of timber in wood partitions, called also stutls and i/uarters. Pl'TLO(;.'<. The horizontal jiicccs of tiudier in scalVold- ing. at right angles to the walls. let into holes in ibeui. called pulloif /lo/is. t^l ARTEKINti. ^\'ooll jKirtitions, Inning principal or douhic i/uarlers next doors, and, if trussed, forming the truss tiudiers. with common, or single quarters, or puncliions between, together with struts etc.; they arc lathed and ]dastcred or boarded. QUOINS, .\ngle stones, whether external or internal. RAKING. An incline to the horizon. RAMP. Sec Knrc. KAMPjVNT AIUTI. One whose springings are on difl'e- rcnt levels. REBATE. A notch or rectangular sinking on the edge of a piece of wood to receive another, a bead being fre(|Ucntlv run to hide it. REINS OF A VAULT. The side walls sustaining it. RESOLUTION OF FORCICS. (See ArL Mechanical Principles of (_\irpcntri/.) REVEALS. The vertical sides of window and door aper- tures between the face of the outer wall aiul the frames; the inner sides between the face of the wall and the frames being the jambs. ROLLS. Pieces of wood placed to turn over sheets of covering metal where tliey join. 264 glossai:y nK recnxicAi. tf.I!MS usf.d in nuii.Dixc. UOUr.II CAST. (Sfc All. Plnshrin-/.) l;l"STIC WOUK. The facp ol' masomy Icl'l n>ni;li iii- steiid of bc'lnj; uToii^'lit sninolli. SAGlilNCJ. Tlic liciulin;; ilownwanls hv its own woi<;ht of tiinltcr sup]iorte(l at the oinl.s. A cftmhcr, or rise in tlic niiiMk', will allow for this. SAKLY. A iirojection p;enenill_v. The vnds of a rafler, etc. cnt wilh an inlprior an^'lc. SASH FRAME is tliat in which sashes are fitted. SCANTLING. In caipcntrv a dimension in lireadth and thiekncs.s; in ma.sonry length, lireadth and tliiekne-s, A jiieo" of wood nnder .") inches si]narc. KCAl'l'LINU is redncing stone to a surface wiilmnl wtu'Uin;; it smooth. SCAUFING. Joining two |iicces of timlier endwise, so that they a])i>car but one. KClilBlNG. Fitting a piece of wood edgewise to an irregidar surface. * SF7rr OFF. An horizontal break, caused !>y a decrease in thickness. SIIIXGLKS. Small oak boanls for covering roofs. .SHOK. The incline at the bottom of a j)ipc fen- turning the course of the water. .SHOIil".. A prop or obliciuo tindier used to su.stain a building. A tlt'ntl sliorc is a vertical piece carrying a superstructure during repair.s. SIK)(>'I'1XG. I'laueing straight of winding. SIIOILDEI! OF A TENON is rises or projects. SKl'-.WBACK. The obliipie line at arch: it must be accurately cut, abuts njiou it. SKII'TLTNG. The process of knocking away the rough ]irojections of Kentish Rag stone at the time of i|uarry- ing: l:iinljl:lhii/ has a similar meaning as aiijilicd to other .stones. SOLDICR. A composition used to join metals. Sf)l'Nl) BOARDING. Short boards fixed horizontally between joists on fillets for suii])orling the piii/i/iiii/ to prevent the ])as.sagc of sound. Narrow boarils are used with fillets three iiuartcrs of an inch thick by one inch wide, nailed at intervals of .about a foot. SI'ANDREE. The triangular space between tlie spring- ing and top of an arch. SPARS; a 'name given to common rafters. SPLAY. .SVc Beril. F/iiiiii/ is used in the same sense. StJI'ARE STAI'T is an au-le bcid to nnikc a goorl finish for pa)M'ring. SQUARING. Trying work by the xi/uiirc; — of a hand- rail is cutting a plank to the fVn-m of the rail so that llic vertical sections mav be right angles. ST.\I-F' Bl'.AI). .sVc Anrjlf Bpi;I. STANDARDS. The ujir'iglit timbers in scaflolding. Up- right plecc! to can'y shelves. et<'. :hc edge of a board out the plane from which it he sjiringing of an s the arch rests or STAPLI^. A Inn]! to receive l>olts. bars, etc. STEINING. Brickw.ak laid drv to wells, etc. STILTED ARCH. One of which the lines of the spring- ing arc coutiuued vertically to the imiiost. STORY I'O.STS. Vertical tindicrs carrying a wall above, with a beam over them STORY' ROD. One used f(n .setting the Iiciglits of steps. STRAINING PIECES are jilaeed between two iippn«iie beams to ju'cvcnt their a])proach. STRIKING CENTERING is rcnu)ving it. STRINt! BOARDS are those ncNt the well bole of >talrs receiving tlie ends of the steps. \Vlicn cnr\i'd it is either got out ii{ the suliil or glueil togctbci in ibii-k- n esses. STRUT OR BRACE is an inclined piece of tindier stif- fening framing. TAILlNCi. The letting in of .a bearing iiiece; lioiisiiu/ is when the cavitv is (|nite filled. TEMPLET or TEMPLATE. A moidd f..r the purp.,.c of setting out work. A supporting ideee. TENON. See Mm-lh.^ TONGUE. 'Set' O'l-noretl tiiiil 7'titif/Uffl. T( lUCIl-STONIv .\ name given to com]inct dark coloureil marbles. TRAMMEL. An instniment for drawing an ellipse. TRIMMING. F'itting one piece of wood between two others; as a trimmer between two trimmiiig joixis to fire-places, stairs, etc. TRUSS. A framework. TURNING PIECE. A board with one circular edge for titruiiif/ small fiat arches. TUSK. A hcvcl shoulder above a tenon to strengthen it where let into the gir der. UNDERPINNING. The bringing up of solid work under walls while they arc supported by shores. VALLEY. The junction of two inclined sides of a roof: the vnlhi/ pi'ere or rn/'ter supports the eiil/it/ luturd. W-v the lead." VENI'^ER. Thin sliiis of snpcricu- wood on infcricu'. A term .iiiplicd to a sinr:d or winding VICE (u- VISE. staircase. VOUSSOIRS arc WASHER. A |)asses ; being the wedge shaped stones of an arch, lat piece of iron through which a lii>lt between tlic limiicr and the nut, it lu'cvcnts the eom]iression inwards of the nut. Al to a sink. WICKET. A small door in a lar WITIIE. .Sec Cl,im,ir,/. f Ibc wood by the dragging the rcnioveablc metal plate I'.iulcd lly J. P. Ki:;fi.-r ill I.i liiyitr C £ S H A M A N ij J O IM /'////' .(/Z F I R EPLACC AT A I r D igso'&ira f®K ^ ©igT^e^i© ¥oiLL mui PLAN or rrRST floor. Pesd&iri ^©n h i i tt ^ © m e © Towns IHl@!y)§E Tla/^i?Z. SECOND FLOOR PLAN INDEX OF GENERAL SUBJECTS TREATED. Arches Aspect, tSituatiuii, I'rcjspect Brickwork tlo. Jlcmoniml:! I'agc. . 89 12. 55 . :m C'arpeiitry-Mci'h.iniciil -I'rinoiplcs of 16(1 do. Privctico of 4". 73. ITti Cement 4ii. i>8 Concrete 19 Drains .' . . . 53 Figures-Circuniferonce and Perimeter of Floor.s 3 204 Page. Mortar 37. 6S do Hydraulic 42 Monl. lings ." 78 Painling 230 Paper lian-inj,' 253 Partnions 207 Plastering . . , -226 Plumbery . . ' 233 Quantities-Rills of 18. 24 Roads 53 Roofs 199 Roof Coverings _ , . 56 Shop Fronts ■ . . 212 Slating 56 Smoky Chimneys ; . . 109 Specifications 17. 21. 5.3. 83. 101. 120. 190. 212. 256 do. -General Conditions of 183 Staircases-Trap Doors to 76 Stones used in Ruilding 235 Tiling 56 Timlier-Adaptation of 43 do. Measuring 67 do. -Preservation of 151 do. Trees used in Building 133 Foundation and Site . Freclnilil Land Societies Geometry-Practical Geometrical Proldems Glazing . . 12 . . 50 . . 4 . . . . 252 Ilahitations-Gcneral Kennuks on the Fittings of Do- mestic 94. 133. 157. 172. 209 Introduction-Klementary 1 Joinery . . 218 Labourer's Cottages-Essays on 94. 172 Manures 63 Masonry 247 Materials-Strength of 80 INDEX OF DESCRIPTIONS TO PLATES. Plate. Pnge. Plnle. Page. Plate. Page. 1 ' 3 45 131 89 230 2 Kil. 177 40 01 90 — :< 73. 177 47 — 91 — 4 221 48 61—66 92 _ 5 _ 49 66 93 () 34 50 156 94 232 • 7 35 51 — 95 8 — 52 169 96 - 9 13. 35 53 97 242 t 10 37 54 98 — 11 15 55 iSl 99 — 12 44 56 — 100 — 13 — 57 101 — 14 ■47 58 — 102 — ^ 15 — 59 182 103 244 ir, 53 60 . 104 245 17 202 61 183 105 — 18 249. 2.50. 255 62 187 106 f9 223. 252 63 107 20 49 64 188 108 — 21 50 65 ^ 109 22 51 66 110 246 23 — 67 208 111 24 58 68 112 25 61 69 ii:t 26 74 70 . 114 247 27 — 71 211 115 2? 75 72 116 252 . 29 82 73 117 30 — 74 212 118 254 31 88 75 119 32 16 76 120 . 33 21 77 121 258 34 — 78 218 122 — 35 94 79 225 123 36 - 80 124 37 107 81 » 125 38 — 82 126 39 108 83 •127 . 40 121 84 229 128 259 41 — 85 129 42 — 86 130 43 125 87 131 44 — 88 — 132 — THE BUILDER'S PRACTICAL DIRECTOK. SUPPLEMENTARY SERIES. )Esi©iMs row -snop nrriNsiS. TRANSvtRSt Section. SCALE OF K++i Ext t R I OR El e vation 1* U E F A C E. The BuilderV Practical Director was intciuled to comprise within its limits such a comprehen- sive view of the details of Uuildiiin; Operations as would be of the greatest utility, not only to those personally engaged in them, but also to that extensive class desirous of gaining such an insight into the sul)jcct, as would enable them to superintend the progress of their works. It has been found impossible to coni[)risc within the Ihnits originally projiosed, and to wiiich the publi- shers desired to keep much necessary matter alluded to in early numbers, as well as subjects of practical importance Avhich several sul)scril»crs cxi)crieneed in building have kindly suggested as constantly recurring wants , and evidently extremely useful to those who are not versed in the details of Construction. The Art of Warming and Ventilating rooms with economy, the Supply of Water; the best methods of Drainage, brief Statements of the Laws affecting Landlords and 'JVnants, Dilapidations and Buildings generally, many valuable Suggestions respecting the diil'crcnt Building Trades, Tables of Scantlings and Quantities of Timber, Deals etc., Brickwork, Plastering and Painting, as well a's Kemarks on Estimating, Measuring and Valuing, arc some of the subjects necessarily omitted for want of space and now projjosed to be treated in a Supjili'inentari/ Series^ consisting of a limited number of Parts, and comprising with the original Work, a complete Body of Information on the subjects to which it relates. The Designs accompanying the Text will be of an entirely novel description, of c(pial utility and importance to those given. They are introduced, as well because pcculiariy in demand at the present moment, as to complete in this Supplement the whole of the subjects which the Sub- scribers will be most likely to rc(iuire, and thus render the Work of an Universal, instead of, as hitherto, a limited character, ■\^'e arc not aware of any book which places within the reach of the Million the class of Designs now projioscd to be given, and certainly there is not one, accom- 1 panied as this will be, with Detailed Working Drawings, Specifications and Estimates, present- ing facilities practically to superintend and carry out Buildings. The great demand which a late Act of Parliament has caused for Cemetery Chapels will render these, with their Lodges and Entrances, an important feature, and Designs will also be given for Tablets and Memorial Slabs. Chapels, in Gothic, Italian and other architecture. Schools, Conservatories, Clock Turrets, and other useful subjects will be included, as well as Details of the Internal and External, Finish- ings of Shops and Warehouses. Working Drawings of Plasterei-'s work. Ceilings and Cornices, Ironwork, Chimney Pieces, and other Internal Fittings of Domestic Habitations, will also be occasionally interspersed. M m o _ \- « o < O u ^ -i\f (, ■ \ % THE METROrOLITAN BUILDING ACT, 1S55. The object of this Abstract is to - ^W^, -\J- ITD ff o z 5 fr < Q to ^ W- ^ Y-,. Tiir :\iF,Tnni'ni.TT.\\ r.rTi.Dixo act, 1S55. FIRST SCHEDULE. P I{ !■: L I M I N A K V. ri Every Ikiilding is to be enclosed with hrieic, stone, or other incombustible substances, the stmcturi; foundation resting on tlie solid ground or concrete. "J'he walls as above to be properly i)ondcd and solidly put together with mortar or cement, w.iiu no part overhanging the part below, and the return walls to be bonded together. Every stone wall in which the beds of masonry are not laid horizontally is to be one third more in thickness than hei'cafter prescribed; and the thickness named is to be in all cases the mininuun thickness. The height of every topmost story is to be measured from the level of its lloor i\\) to the under ii.iiriitof story, side of the tie of the roof, or up to half the vertical height of the rafters, when the roof has no fie; and the height of every other story is the clear height of such story c.ri'lii. „ 13 Length up Two Stories Two Stories Two Stories Remainder to SO Feet. 26 Inches, 21' 2 „ H'/a „ 13 Length One Story Two Stories Two Stories Two Stories Remainder unlimited. 30 Inches, 26 21 '4 „ 17 '/a „ 13 Height up to 90 Feet. Length up Two Stories Two Stories Remainder to 45 Feet. 21*2 Inches, ll'o „ 13 Length up One Story Two Stories Two Stories Remainder to 70 Feet. 2H Inches, 21 '4 „ H's „ 13 Length One Story Two Stories One Story Two Stories Remainder unlimited. 30 Inches. 26 21'.. „ 1T>., „ 13 Height u}) to SO Feet. Length up One Stoiy Two Stories Remainder to 40 Feet. 21' ., Inches, H'/o „ 13 Length uji Two Stories Two Stories Remainder to 60 Feet. 21' 2 Inches, n'/'2 -. 13 Length One Story Two Stories Two Stories Remainder unlimited. 26 Inches, 21 ',2 „ 17'.. ., 13 Height uj) to 70 Feet. Length up Two Stories Remainder to 40 Feet. n ' .> Inclics, 13 Length up One Story Two Stories Remainder to 55 Feet. 21'/.. Inches, it;. „ 13 Length One Story Two Stories One Story Remainder unlimited. 26 Inches, -* , 2 ?> 17'.. „ 13 Height up to liO Feet. Length up One Story Remainder to 30 Feet. IT' ., Inches, 13 Length up Two Stories Remainder to 50 Feet. 1 7 ' '.. Inches, 13 ■ Length One Story Two Stories Remainder unlimited. 21'., Inches, 17'., ., 13 Height up to 5u Feet. Length uj) to 30 Feet. Wall below tho Topmost Story 1 3 Inches, Topnjobt Story S' ., „ Remainder S' .. Length up to 45 Feet. One Story 1 7 ' .> Inches, Rest of Wall below Topmost Story 13 „ Topmnsi Story 8' .j Rcmnindcr S'/j „ Length unlimited. One Story One Story Remainder 2 1 ' 2 Inches, 13 Height up to 40 Feet. Length up to 35 Feet. Wall below Two Topmost Stories 13 Ins., Two Topmost Stories 8 Va „ Remainder S'/, „ One .Siorv . . . Rest of Wall below Topmost .Story Topmost .Story Remainder Length unlimited. 17'.. Inches, 13 8V2 Height up to - 30 Feet. Length up to 35 Feet. Wall below Two Tojimost Stories |y Ins., TwoTopmostStorics 8' ., „ Remainder 8' ., „ Length unlimited. Wall below Topmo.* Topmost .Story Rcniainder t Story 13 ... S' .. . . . s'; Inehc Height up to 25 Feet. Length up to 30 Feet. From Base to Top of Willi 8' ., Inches. Length unlimited. Wall below Topmost Story 13 Inches. Topmost Story .... 8' ^ Remainder 8' 'a ,, Ik < > m s»= y > y tj^ < I IT y Tlir. Ml.TUOPOUTAN liKILDlNG ACT, 1855. Ill usinu the Table the lieinht of the WaW is to be rcfkoned on the first vertical (■dlumii on Exiiinnation of . . , , Tabic. the left liand of tlie Tal)lc, and the length of the wall on the corresponding horizontal column. The thickness of the wall on each stoiy is given in inches and begins with the wall from the base upwards. If any external or party wall, measured from centre to centre, is not more than twenty-five Qimiimniion in feet distant from any other external or party wall to which it is tied by the beams of any floors, " w.iii.s. other than the ground floor or the floor of any story formed in the roof, the length f)f such wall is not to be taken into consideration, and the thickness of the wall will be luutid in the sccdnd vertical column in the above table. If anv story exceeds in height sixteen times the thickness prescribed for the walls of such siotics exec cd- 11. t /^i 11 111 1 1 1111* 1 '"" ■'' ct-itain story, the thickness of each external and party wall throughout such story shall l)C increased to luit-iit. one sixteenth part of the height of the story; but any such additional thickness may be confined to piers properly distributed of which the collective widths amount to one-fourth part of the length of the wall. No Story enclosed with walls less than thirteen inches thick shall be more than ten feet Rcsirirtio , c;tse of re in lieight. The thickness of any walls of a dwelling house, if built of materials other than the bricks Timknessof aforesaid, shall be deemed to be sufficient if of the thickness required in the Table, or of such othenvise than less thickness as may be approved by the Metropolitan Board; but no diminution in thickness will be allowed for walls in which the beds of the masonry are not laid horizontally. (The thickness of these latter is prescribed at the commencement of this Schedule to Ix; one-third greater than that given in the Table.) All Buildings, cxcciitinir public buildings and such buildings as ai-e hereinafter described as of Buildings not ■ n 1 ^^■ ^ 1 1 il • i Ijclongingtothe the warehouse class, are subject to the rules oiven lor dwelling houses as regards the thicUness puhiicorWare- ' ■' ° " lioiisc Classes. of their walls. tion III ■ certain Stories. PAUT n. RULES FOR THE WALLS OF BUILDINGS OF THE WAREHOUSE CLASS. Defiiiitioii of M'arehoiiseCIas^ The Warehouse Class comprises all Warehouses, IVIanufactories, Breweries and Distilleries The external and partv walls are to be made at the base of the thickness shown in the fol- Thickness of -I'll 1 I- 1 "li. pWalis at Base lowing table, calculated for walls up to one hundred feet in height, and supposed to be Dvult ot bricks, not less than eight and' a half inches and not more than nine and a half inches in length. I. 2. ■ ^. '■ Height up to 60 Ffet. Height up to 50 Feet. Height up to 40 Ftel. Height up to 30 Feet. Height up to 25 Feet. Height up to 100 Feet. Length up to 55 Feet. Base 2G Indies. Lenqth up to 7(1 Fiil. B.ise 30 Inelies. Lenqth unliniiled. Base 34 Indies. Height up to 90 Feet. Length up to (HI Fei t. Ba.^o 2li Indies. Lenqth up to 70 Fr,l. iJase 30 Inelies. L^enqth unhniiteicl. Base 34 Inelies. Height up to SO Feet. Lenqth up to 45 l'\el. Base •l\\.j Inelies. J^eiiqlh up In (id Feel. 1 Length unliiiiited. ijase 2l.i Inelies. , Base 30 Indies. T7- ■ 1 . -n r^ , Leiiqth III) to 3(1 Fell. Height up to ,0 Feet. j^,^[^ ,'-,;_ j,^^,,^^ Length up to 45 Fei 1. Base 21' ■> Inelies. Length unhnnled. Base 26 Inelies. L^ength up to 35 Feel. Base 17' , Inches. Leuqili up to 50 Ftel. Base 21',., Indies. L.enqth uiihnilteJ. Base 20 Indies. L^ength up to 40 Feet. Base 17' o Inelies. Length up to 70 Feit. Base 2! ' n Inelies. Length unlimitetl. Base 20 Inches. L.englh up to 30 Feet. Base 13 Inches. Length up to 00 Fet Base 17 ',2 Indies. Length unlimiteil. Base 21 ' 2 Inches, Length up to 45 Feet. Base 13 Inches. Length unliiniteij. Base 17' J Inches Length unlimited. Base 13 Inches. 10 THE METROPOLITAN BUILDING ACT, 1S55. Expinnsii.m of Tlic abovc Table is to be used in the same mannci' as that previously given, and is subject '"''"' to the same qualifications and conditions respecting walls not more than twenty-five feet distant from each other. Tiiickncs'ottop The thickness of the Walls of buildings of the Warehouse Class at the top and for sixteen through Inter- feet below the top, is to be thirteen inches; and the intermediate parts of the wall between the pnoc j^^^^ ^^^^^ ^^^^j^ sixteen feet below the top, is to be built solid throughout the space between straight lines drawn on each side of the w^all, and joining the thickness at the base to the thickness of sixteen feet below the top; nevertheless in walls not exceeding thirty feet in height, the walls of the topmost story may be eiglit and a half inches thick. Storifs bIiovc II If in any story of a Building of the Warehouse Class the thickness of the wall as determined in the Table is less than one-fourteenth part of the height of such story, the thickness of the wall is to be increased to one-fourteenth part of the height of the story; but such additional thickness may be confined to piers properly distributed, of which the collective widths amount to one-fourth ])art of the length of the wall. Tiiickr.ess or The thickness of any wall of a building of the Warehouse Class, if built of materials other mntcrinis°hn'n than the bricks as aforesaid, will be deemed sufficient if made of the thickness required in the Table, or of a less thickness, if approved by the Metropolitan Board: but no diminution will be allowed in walls of stone in which the beds are not horizontal. (Tiiese are prescribed one-third thicker.) MISCELLANEOUS, Note. The following applies to Buildings of all Classes. Crosi Walls. The thickness of a cross wall must be two thirds of the thickness required in the Tables for an external or part}' wall of the same dimensions, and belonging to the same class of buildings, but never less than eight and a half inches; and no wall subdividing any builtling shall be deemed to be a cross wall unless it is carried up to two-thirds of the height of the external or party walls, and unless the recesses and openings therein do not exceed one-half of the vertical section of the wail in each story. Every stone wall in which the beds of masonry are not laid horizontally nnist be one-third thicker than prescribed in the Table. Buildings to Buildings to which the preceeding rules arc inaiiiilicablc require the special sanction of the which the riik< - , V Ti 1 r. i,r I iircinappiicnbic Aletropolitan Board ot \> ork'^. KECESSES AND OPENINGS. RcMMejanii 13. Rcccsses aud Openings mav be made in external wails iii'ovided that tiie backs of such Openlnp*. , . recesses are not less than eight and a half inches thick, and that the area of such recesses and openings do not altogether exceed one-half of the total area of the wall in which they are made. Recesses may be made in Party Walls, provided that the backs of such recesses are not less than thirteen inches thick, that their area does not altogether exceed one-half of the whole area of the story in which they are made, and that such recesses do not come within one foot of the inner face of the external walls, but no opening must be made in any party wall contrary to the rules of the act. The word area, as used in this section, means the vertical area. IZ^^Sb p THE METKOPOLITAN BUILDING ACT, 1855. 11 MISCELLANEOUS, Loophole frames may be fixed within one inch and a half of tlie face of any external wall ; Timbtr in ex- but all other woodwork in external walls, except bressummers and story posts, frames of doors and windows of shops on ground stones, must be set back at least four inches from the external face of the wall. throuu T7- > y\ / ^^ ^r / / ■/ 71 ^ // ^. '-.— \s^ %: % 15. Every Bressununer must luive a bearing in the Bio^smnmcro. direction of its length of four inches at the least, at each end, upon a sufficient pier of brick, or stone, or upon a timber or iron story post,' fixed on a solid foundation, in addition to its bearing upon any party wall; and the ends of such bressummer must not be placed nearer to the centre line of the f)arty wall than four and a half inches. No bond timber or wood plate is to be built into any party wall; tlie ends of any beam or joist bearing on such walls must be at least four and a half inches from the centre line. Every bressummer, bearing upon a party wall, must be borne by a templet or corbel of stone or iron, tailed t least half the thickness of such wall; and of the full breadth of the bressununer. 16. If anv o-utter, formed in i)art or whole of incombustible materials, Pmopets to ex- adjoins an external wall, then such wall must be carried up so as to form a parapet one foot at least above the highest part of such gutter; and the thick- ness of the parapet so carried up must be at least eight and a half inches, reckoned from the level of the underside of the gutter i)late. > 17. Every Party ^Vall nuist be carried up above the roof, flat or gutter of the highest building Height of^Partj- adjoining thereto to such height as will give a distance of fifteen inches, measured at right R«°f- angles to the slope of the roof, or fifteen inches above the highest part of any flat or gutter as the case may be; and every party wall nuist be carried up above any turret, dormer, lantern light, or other erection of incombustible materials fixed upon the roof of any building within four feet from such party wall, and is to ex- tend at least twelve inches higher and wider on each side than such erection; and every party wall is to be carried up above any part of any roof opposite thereto and within four feet from such party wall. 18. No chase may be made in a party wall wider than fourteen inches, nor more than four chascs^in^Pariy and a half inches deep from the face of the wall, nor so as to leave less than eight and a half inches in thickness at the back ; and no chase is to be made within seven i'eet of any other chase on the same side of the wall. 19. The flat, gutter and roof of every building, or any crectinn placed upim it, nuist be co- vered with slates, tiles, metal, or other incombustible materials, except the doors, door frames, windows and window frames of the erections upon it. 2* Koufs. 12 THE METROPOLITAN BUILDING ACT, 1^55. Chimneys and Finos. Hlnhs nnd Ikarlhs. The plane of the surface of the roof of a wareliouse or other building, used either wholly or partially for pur- poses of trade or manufacture, must not incline from the external or party walls upwards at a greater angle than forty-seven degrees. (The scope of this last paragraph, applying at it does to all buildings used even partially for purposes of trade, is exceedingly wide, and we do not gather from other parts of the act any limitation of it.) 20. Chimneys, built on corbels of brick, stone or other incombustible material, may be introduced above the level of the ceiling of the ground story, but the work so corbelled out must not project more than the thickness ■= of the wall; all other chimneys must be built on solid foundations, with footings similar to the footings of the walls. Chimneys and flues, having proper doors of not less than six inches square, may be constructed at any angle, but in every other chimney or flue the angles must be formed of an obtuseness of not less tlian one hundred and thirty degrees and be properly rounded. (See woodcut above.) An arch of brick or stone, or a bar of wrought iron, must be built over the opening of every chimney to suppoi-t the breast thereof; and if the breast projects more than four inches and a half from the face of the wall and the jamb on either side is of less width than seventeen and a half inches, the abutments must be tied in at least eight and a half inches on either side. The inside of every flue and the back or outside, unless forming part of the outer face of an external wall, must be rendered, pargeted, or lined with fire proof piping. The jambs of every chimney must be at least eight and a half inches wide on each side of the opening thereof The breast of every chimney and the front, with the partition and back of eveiy flue, must be at least fuiu- inches thick. The back of every chimney opening, from the hearth up to the height of twelve inches above the mantel, must be at least eight and a half inches thick if in a party wall, or foiu- and a half inches if otherwise. The thickness of the upper side of every flue, when it is at an angle of less than I'orty five degrees, must be at least eight and a half inches. Every chinmcy shaft nuist he can-icfl up in i)rick or stone work all round, at least four inches thick, t-nionts by by the owners of premises. The owner immediately entitled in possession, or the occupier, is in the first instance to pay the expenses, with the jn-ovision that no occupier is liable to pav anv sum exceeding that rent hereafter accruing to him during his occupancy. Every owner is liable to contribute in proportion to his interest in the premises; and if any difference arises, it is to be decided by arbitration in conformity with the Companies Clauses Consolidation Act. If some owners cannot be found, the deficiency is to be divided among those that can be found. Any occupier may deduct the amount paid from rent payable by him: and any owner who has paid more than his proportion may deduct the difference from rent ])ayable by bini to any other owner of the same premises. If any default is made by owners or occupiers, then, in addition to the other remedies provided, such monies may be recovered as a debt in due course of law. 9S. In cases not provided for, the following rules are to be observed in the case of notices and Senico or summons. A notice summons or order, may be served pcrsonallv on anv builder, owner, or 20 THr. METUOruI.ITAN I.OC.U, MAXAGKJIEXT ACT. occupiov oil Ic;ning the same or addressing it in a registered letter to liis last known residence, or posting the sanio on a consj)ioiioiis j)art of the [iromiscs if no other course is open, and if the name of tlic parly is not known, it is not necessary to insert it. luuniy c.jiivii. !t!). KiS. These Sections relate to the forms of proceedings in County and other Courts, re- covery of penalties, notices oi' action against District .Surveyors etc. TAUT V. REPEAL OF FORMER ACTS AND TEMPORARY PROVISIONS. lupeiii ufA.is 1(19. The Act S, and 9, Victoria, c. S4is repealed, except sections .")4, to 63, (relating to dangerous and noxious businesses), and also the Act 9, and Ifl, c. 5, suhject to certain provisions stated. The Act 14, George IIII. c. 7S, sections 74, to 86, (relating to fire engines etc.) continues in force. (The Sections of the Conipanies Clauses Consolidation Act applying to the present Building Act, are 4. '>. 1'2S. 129. VM). \:M. 1.'$:1 KM.) Contrncis i.io- 110. Contracts made i)revious to the ijassin"; of the Act are to he carried out as if the Act vinns to Act. . . . . , were in force at the time, and disputes are to he decided by the County Court. i.i.ii.iiites i.c- ' 111. Nothing in the Act is to affect the riorhts and liabilities between Tjandlnrd and Tenant in twcen I.aiiill.iril , ° mid Tenant, any Contract between them. iron liini.iiniis. Iron buildings in progress before passing of Act may have the attention of the Commissioners of Works drawn to thcni by any jierson interested, and they will signil'y their a]i]ii(ival ii])on being satisfied of the stability of such building. Corapeinntiun to [\'.i, 114. Relate to the compensation of the Officers under the old Act. THE :\117fi;()r()LlTAN LOCAL IMANAGEMENT ACT. We append an abstrail nf a lew sections of this Act, whicli are of cijiial iiii|)iiri ance to builders to any of those of the Hiiilding Act. iirHin. 7;!. '1 |,is -.fdidii pnjNidcs that if any house buiil before or after the cunuiicnceiiiciit (if the Act, situate williin any of the district suiijcci to i(, be not sufliciently drained, and a sewer oi' sufliiient size is williin (Hie lumdred feel of it, it is lawful for the vestry or local board to re(|uirc the exccutiiiii iif iliaiii> ami every requisite, and mi neglect, to execute the same and reeoxcr the cx- j)enses ii-oni liie owner. 71. If a group (d Iiiiildings can he drained more eeiinomically and Md\ .intagediisly in eombi- naiiiiii tli:iii M |i:n:ilily :ind a sewer exists within one hundred feel of .-iicji houses, whether contiguous, (h'laehed or seiiii-dctachcd, the lioard may urdn- ihciii t.i be (Iriniicd bv a eoinhincd Operation. .Notice to be ■ 76. Before beginniii'^ to <\\'j: thr rnniMlalions of a house, l In,- [I'wiw tip the lioanl : ami ihi- fonmlaliiins must lie laid at lESlCNS FOR 'bEMETERy '>bHAPELS. Mason's Dttails. window cpiscopal chapel. Exterior i Interior. i I Elevations. '''//////A Plan. TIIK MKTKdl'OI.ITAN T.OCAI, iMAXAGKMKNT ACT. 21 siicli a level as to iierniit the draiiuige ami all the works romiected with them, as tlie lioard shall direct; llicsc orders will he notified by the hoard within se\(n days of the receipt of the notice: and if, in default of such notice, the works are executed and the water sii])])ly hcLjini, the hoard will cause tiie same to be demolished, the works to be executed, and recover the expenses from the owner. ' 77. .Vny person constructinir drains not in accordance with the directions of the hoard, is subject Penalty to :i penalty of fifty pounds. 7S. 79. The lioard may make house drains at the expense of owners on agreement witii ihcin. uniins. SI. It is not lawful to erect any house witliout a proper water closet (or ))ri\y, if there are no Wuur ciosets. sewers) and ash pit, under a penalty of twenty pounds. A penalty of ten pounds is consequent on improperly making, stopping up, or injuring drains, Pcnniiy. sewers, water closets, cesspools, water supplies etc. The board may demolish, alter, and reinstate improper works and charge the expenses. 101. Xo vaults, cellars and arches may be made under any street without the consent of the vmiiis .in.i board; and if not repaired on requisition, the board may repair and charge the expenses. 103. Underground rooms, occupied separately as dwellings at or before the passing of the Act, tmi<'i?rounii may continue to be so , if there be an area of not less than three feet wide in every part, from six inches below the floor of such room or cellar to the surface or level_ of the ground adjoining to the front, back, or external side thereof, and extending the full length of such side; if such area, to the extent of at least five feet long and two feet six inches wide, be in front of the window of such room or cellar and be open or covered only with open iron gratings; if there be in every such room a'n open fire place and flue; and if there be a window opening of at least nine feet super glazed, with at least half made to open. No such room unoccupied at the passing of the Act shall be occupied unless it is in every part seven feet in height; unless it is at least one foot high above the footing of the adjoining street; unless there extends along the entire frontage of the room, from six inches below the level of the floor up to the surface of the foot- ing, an open area at least three feet wide in every [)art ; miless the same be eflfectually drained and secured from the rise of effluvia; unless there he ajipurtcnant the use of a wafer closet, privy and ash pit; with proper coverings etc., unless there be a fire place, flue and windows as above described. There may he jilaccd steps necessary for access to such rooms, and also for access to the building above, provided such stcjis be not over or acix)ss the window. Every room in which a person passes the night is deemed to be inhabited, and the penalty for violating the above rules is not to exceed twenty shillings for every day during which it is occupied. 121. 122. 12;!. rcrmission must be obtained to erect hoards and enclosures. Whenever the "'""■'^* footwav is obstructed, proper jiathways with rails arc to be formed, maintained and be well lighted if necessary; the penally for not doing so is five poiuids for eac-h offence, ami forty shillings during its contiiuiance for every day. If a hoard is erected witliout a license, continued beyond the time stated, or not kipt in rejiau-, a penalty of five pounds, and forty shillings for every day during the continuance of the offence is the consequence: the hoard may be j)ullcd down by the board and all expenses recovered. 14:3. Kelates to the illegality of erecting buildings beyond the line of streets without permission. 204. Relates to the illegality of erecting buildings over sewers without permission. ""sewfr"'" 211. Ixelates to the power of apjical to AFctropoliiaii I'.oaid of Works against acts of local Appeal boards. 217. 21S. 219. Relate to the pavment of costs whirh the owner of any |ircmises may be liable *^»*'*- to pay from anv person who oceujiies them; the occupier to deduct all sums which he pays from the rent, but without aftectinir any contract Ijeiween the owner and occujiicr. DESIGNS FOR CEINIETERY CHAPELS. The widelj' extended demand caused by a late Act of Parliament for Cemetery Buildings and the fact that there is not, so far as we are aware, a work on the subject, and certainly not one comprising working details specifications and estimates, render it obvious that the introduction of tliem in this Serial will be of peculiar value to many connected with building operations. We have taken great pains to arrive at the usual rccjuiremcnts and to obtain correct information to render the designs given of really practical value. Thoy are also submitted as ornamental erections with that characteristic decoration which is usually required. As will be at once per- ceived, the working details are applicable to a wide range of purposes, in addition to thf)se by which they have been more immediately suggested; and, from the scale to which they are drawn, will, we trust, be found of universal utility to the practical operative, who will of course vary them more or less in their adaptation to different requirements. The specification for the designs under description will be fidly sufficient to carry out the works and is as ample as would be given for their erection. Correct estimates are obviously extremely difficult to obtain, owing to ever varying j)rices of labour and materials, the facility with which they can be obtained, and the impossibility of naming a sum which shall applj- with perfect correctness to all parts of the country. Those given will be found as near the average as possible, taking all circumstances info consideration. In this instance, from so many details being given, in addition to the speci- fication, any builder will be enabled to furnish an accurate estimate; and if several tender for a building, it is well known how widely divergent the totals very commonly are found. The archi- tectin-e of Cemetery Chapels is recommended by the go\ermnent to be of an ecclesiastical cha- racter, distinctive of the object of the buildings, and the internal walls and flooring to be of im- pervious materials, admitting of being easily washed and cleansed; glazed encaustic tiles being suggested as cheap, and ornamental. The ventilation and lighting too is of great importance, and particulars of the former will be found in the article under that heading. Cemeteries, we may here remark, shoidd not be j)laced where buildings are likely to rise, or near wells and sources of water, and there must be a natural fall in the ground to .secure drainage and dryness of soil to the depth of at least seven or eight feet. Dry, sandy soils and gravels are the best, and dense clays, bog earth and stony ground the worst. Particidars of drainage will be found in the article treating on drainage generally. Great attention should be ])ai(l to the formation of roads and pathway.s, and there should be a proper surface drainage of them by means of gutters and trapjied gully shoots, connected with the di'ains below. The surface covering will be regu- lated by the district and ought tlc course, and the two above single courses, the projections on each side not being more or less than a quarter brit'k. Build on two sides of Chapels and Kobing Rooms I' .," sleeper walls and !l" sleepers down the centres of chapels, to steps at east ends, to carry framework of catafahjues, and to li replaces in Robing Rooms; all to have a double course of lootings. The brickwork is to be laid in English bond, whole bricks only to the footings, and nothing less than half bricks anywhere. The Archway, Entrance Porches and Belfry are to be vaidtetl in brickwork, and the Bricklayer is to co-operate with the ^lason in fixing stone ribs, 9" in thickness to the Archway and 6" to the Porches. 24 SPECIFICATION. The vaulting to the Porches anil Belfry is to be in -1' 2" work and that to the archway 9 inches; the sjjandrils of the latter arc to he filled up with brickwork so as to form a level surface at the top. The mortar is to be composed of three measures of grey stone lime and one of river sand, both entirely free from impurities. The lime is to be reduced to a paste before being mixed with the sand, and no more water is to be used than is necessary to cause it to fall into a powder. The sand for the rag stone walls is to be coarse unscreened, and tliey are to be pointed on the outside with blue lias lime and sand in the above proportions. The mortar for Bath stone work is to have sand of a fine (jualily. The lime is to lie kept dry, and no more mortar is to be made at one time than can be used during the day. Tlie drains arc to be Ti inch stoneware tubular drains, in two feet lengths, jointed with well tenijiercd claj', properly trapped, and witii all necessary elbows, junctions etc. The C'ontVactor is to state a sum jier foot for \\ hich lie will pro\ide and lay tbcni; and is also to i'orni a tank and cesspool, if rccjuircd, at a [)nce to be determined. The scveial kinds of stone required are to be eacli the most diu-ablc and the l)Cst quahty of their several kinds, and perfectly free from vents, sand liolcs, salts and other defects- The sizes of the stones are shown on the drawings, and where they are not indicated, are to be got out as shall be directed; all the stones are to lay on the bed in whicii they are i'ound in the fjuarry and are to be marked for that purpose; and all the beds, joints, arch and water joints, iiiouldinus, sinkinjrs, throatintis, ioii";les, etc., are to be executed in the soundest and most work- manlike manner and put together with all necessary bond stones, cramps, plugs and joggles, whether shown and desci-ibed in individual instances or not, so as to leave the works complete and jterfect. The main walls a}e to be of Kentish Eag or other sandstone, coursed indiscriminately, that is, with two or more courses to every quoin, and constructed with blocks of the greatest possible length and depth. The top and bottom surfaces are to be scappled tolerably ]iarallcl; the sides need not be so, but all sharp angles arc to be knocked away. Each course is to ( (insist of stones of the same height, for \vhich purpose they are to be guagcd and dressed with the ham- mer and assorted in heajis. Tiie faces are to be axed or hammer dressed. Discharging arches are to be turned wherever needful and there is space o\cr tiic iloors and windows, with stones not less than 12 inches in height; each arch having proper arched joints well bcildcd' in mortar. The quoins, jambs, iieads and sills to windows, door jambs, and arches, strings, copings, ribs to vaulting and the carving and dressings generally, arc to be executed in Bath or other limestone determined ujion. The (|Uoins at (he angles of the chapel and to their buttresses are to be finished with a neatly picked face and drafted angle, the rest of the Bath stone work being worked fair and carefully rubbed. The sills of windows are to be in as large stones as can be procured, properly weathered, the joints made thorouglily water light, and Imlcs drilled for the escape of the condcn.sed moisture from the glass. The mullions are to be grooved for the in- sertion of lead lights, and saddle bars to be let in for securing them, after which they are to be carefully pointed, together wiili llic lead lights, with white lead and oil; liicy are to lie ' ,"s([uare, 1' .," longer than ojienings, and of tlic distance apart shown; tlic lead ligiits are to be secured to them with co))]icr wire, 'i'iic tracery tatli stone dressinj^s, splayed io|i, wiili opening on one side only from roof. The eo])inu; to gahlcs is to be .")" tliick, as on I'kxte 5, moulded, tiiroated and joiiirlcd togetlicr, with carved knee stones at iiids of eopini^-, tied in \\itli gal\ani/ed iron cramps, 1 ' j" X •''«", tm-ncd up ami down at ends. Solid sadiUc stones arc to be fixed at tlie tup oi gal)lcs, with cross, 7" tliich, over west end of Episcopal cha])cl, in accordance with tlie detail drawing on Plate 9. Tlie Belfry tm-rct is to be executed with great \\t all necessary cramps at the angles, not less than •'' «" X •'' x" and if wrought iron galvanized. Imli ' ., i;;d\ani/.cd oits, care, as shown on I'lalc ^, wiili al f)" long, and dowels 3"X nuts, screws, and washers where shown, with cross pieces as indicated, 1' ^''X^'' i", turned down at ends to tie in stonework. The sloping side may be jointed in either nu)de shown, and the car\cd iinial and mouldings are to be in accordance with the ciilai'gcd details. Particular care is to be paid to the formation of neat, close, workmanlike joints, which are to be filled in witli fine mortar." (iroo\es are to be cut and the mason is to fix sawn slate louvres, 1' , inch thick, of the size and in the manner indicated. Plates 5, and 7, contain details of tiie windows and arcade; the large windows to Dissenters' Chapel to have jambs precisely similar to tiiat on Plate 7, the tracery only being varied. Plate 10, has details of the doors to Belfry and Kobin"- Koonis, also the outer door to chajicls; the jambs of the inner door to chapels are to be similar to tiie outer only rather smaller. The doors marked T'. It. are to have simply spla\t;d jambs on liie face with lintels as shown. Thirty openings are to be left in the walls, eighteen inches above the ground le\cl where will I)e pointed out, and these are to be filled in with galvanized iron gratings, 0"x;S", of a pattern to be chosen of the P. C. value of six pence each; these openings must be left jierfectly clear and free from rubbish. The Entrance Porches, W. C, and rooms marked I!. I!, are to be paved with .'{" rubbed York paving in parallel coiu-scs, laid on the concrete and bedded and pointed in mortar. Put also York ste]>s to outer entrances to Poi'ciics W" longer liian tlic optnings, of llieir lull depth and .")" high, and similar steps are to lie provideil to the two oilier doors imder areiiway all back rebate. Tlie room is to l)c floored and to have a ledged door with locii and fastenings complete. The materials of this building are to remain the property of the contractor, and are to he removed hy him on the completion of the chapels. . The whole of the timbers arc to be got out to the scantlings and ]mt together in the manner shown on the drawings and described herein. No joists or rafters to be more than 12 inches apart; and no tindicr is to be notched, cogged down, mortised or cut otherwise than is directed, or placed witliin 9 inches of the flues, and fir bricks or plugs are to be provided and built or fixed into the walls to attach the skirting. The carpenter is to provide and fix all centring and cradling to arches and vaults, with proi)er ribs, battening, wedges, beams, struts etc. and they Jire not to be eased or struck until directed by the ai-chitect. The flooring joists to the Chapels are to be oi' oak, 6"X3", resting on t)ak plates 4"X3". The Kobing Rooms and Belfry are to have oak joists 4"X.3" and plates 3" X.3". The flooring is to be all inch '4 3ellow deal, laid straight joint >vith edges nailed; it is to be raised in two steps at the east end of chapels, with rel)ated risers and grooved and rounded nosings. Put all round walls, wherever boarded floors occiu', inch chamferctl skirting 9 inches high, securely fixed to the walls, and with the top rebated to receive plaster and the bottom also to a groove in boarding. The roofs are to be framed and put togclhor in the manner shown, the purlins, i)latcs and rafters to be in as long lengths as can be obtained, and the ends and joinings of all plates to be well laj)ped and s])iked, or pinned and wedged together with oak or elm wedges. The curved libs mav be jiut together in thicknesses, well l)olted; and the rafters to roofs ovci- Chapels arc to have rafter feet as slmwii on Plate ',1. Tiie plates arc to lie bedded in mortar c\cn and solid on the walls. All the roof timbers are to be jack planed f)n the imder sides, worked neat wherever visible, and the under arrises stop chamfered. The roof over Episcopal Chapel is shown in detail on Plate U. The scantlings of the timbers are to be as follow; — • Arclied ribs 7" XT' I'rincipals 7 X 7 Collars 7 x7 King posts 7 X 7 Arched struts 6 X5 Rafters 41/2X2V2 Purlins 8x;5 Ridge ])icce 10 X 5 Cprigiits to Principals 5 X;4'/2 I'latis moulded, framed and lapped f) X^ -^ I'pright Inch ' .^ boarding is to be scribed and lilted where shown between rafters, with spaces 9"Xli" cut through where will be pfiinled out. The spaces for ventilation l)oth above and below are to be covcrcil with pcif'oralcd zinc. Three modes of framing the libs and collar togctlicr are shown, any of which may be adopted. The straj) is to be of wi-ouglit iron 2" X '/j", with ' .j" bolts. If the collar is secured as at ('., a screw bolt •' ," diameter is to lie introdiu'cd. All imh lioji I,-, to p;i>s lliriiiigli, I'cet of ribs, priiiripid and upright where indicated, anil all llie bolts are t(j lia\c proper serews, nuts and washers complete. The battening is to be as described under Slater. The roof over Dissenters' Chapel is to have plates, purlins, u[)rights at feet of |priiii'ipals, with .screw bolts and ridge jiicce, rafter^ and boarding, similar to the roof above described; in other respects it Is to be fiamed as shown on the Longitudinal Section, with Principals, Collars, and King Posts 8"X0'', arched Struts C''x:4" tenoned into King and Principal. Connect King y (- z o SPECIFK'ATIOX. 27 post, l(noii('il into Cull.-ir wiili llic laltrr li\- uipmiis til' ;i \Vl■(ill^■llt ii'< ' .2", ^vitli ' .," screw holts; and lialve tlie Collar willi I'liucipals, connect nii;' tlicm willi a ,-iinilar liolt. Tlie.roof over llio wings, Ix'twecn Ai-clnvny and Chaiiels, is to have plates 4"x:!'', rafters 4"X2' ./', ridiic 7"Xl'.>", and gutter hearers :V'Xl'o", as sliown on Plate 5. Inch yellow deal gutter hoards, edges shot and laid with a ikir surface to a fall of '2" in 10 feet, 2" drips, and cesspools, ,'j" deep and 12" in width and th. The flat over archway is to have inch hoarding, edges shot, laid to a fall of ^" in 1(1 fcvt, on joists 4" x; 2' 2", resting on plates at each end and down the centre, 'l"X',\"; rounded rolls are to he fixed not more than 2' „ 6" apart, and the gutter is to be as that described. All necessary tilting fillets, furrings etc. are fo be provided for the roofs so as to leave them in every respect perfect at their comj)letion. The doors opening from Archway into Poi'ches are to he hung folding with rebated meeting stiles. They are to be as shown on Plate 10, with side and frieze rails and braces?" x; 2", and bottom and lock rails 9" X! 2", all stop chamfered and covered on the outside with ^/j" ploughed, tongued and beaded boarding, G" wide. They are to be hung ■ on strong ornamental hinges with bolts through stiles and hexagonal headed nuts on both sides; these hinges arc to be hung on hooks corked down into the stone and securely fixed. One of each folding door is to have ornamental square bolts, fifteen inches long, at top and bottom, and the other an oak stock, brass bolt, copper warded lock, bound in ornamental ironwork, with ad- ditional escutcheon to outer key bole, two keys and ornamental latch, escutcheon, and twisted ring drt)]) handle. The prime cost of the furniture is to be three guuieas for each ])air of doors, and the patterns are to be ajiproved l)y the architect. The inner doors to chapels are to be 2' 2" thick, framed with drapery panels and rebated meeting stiles as shown. They are to be hung iolding, with similar furniture, omitting the lock, as described for the outer doors above, of the value <>l' thirty-five shillings P. C. The doors leading to Eobing Rooms, Belfiv and A\'. ('. to be Inch '/^ jianellcd doors, cham- fered on both sides shown on detail one eighth real size. They are to be hung on ornamental strap hinges, similar to those above described, and are to have ornamental latches and escutcheons, with an addition bolt of plain pattern within each W. C. The value of the fittings to each door is to l)e twelve shillings P. C. The doors leading into rooms marked E. R. to be 1 ' o" framed, ledged and braced, filled in with 3 ," |iloughed and tongued boards, with bevelled vertical joints, hung as the above are de- scribed with plain strap hinges fifteen inches long, with plain good stock locks and small key escutelieon on the outside of each door. . The Water Closets are to be fitted with Inch '/i "leal seats and risers on fir proper framed bearers and grounds, fixed with screws so as to get at the apjiaratus. Iiicli ' , deal beaded frames and mortised and clamped flaps, hung with 2^.," bi-ass butts; ■' ," header skirtings, 4" wide, round three sides of seats, and holes cut in seats and for handles. The benches, with the stands in front for books, are to be as shown on the detail Plate II, and are to be wrought, framed, rebated, chamfered, stop chamfered, mortised, ploughed and grooved, tongued, moulded and fixed together in a secure, neat and workmanlike manner. The sills arc to be of wainscot, chamfered both sides, 4' ./' squiu-e. nuirtised for ui)rights and grooved for boarding, with cut and moulded buttresses. The boarding of standards is to be of Inch •,,, deal, G" wide, ploughed and tongued together (not beaded) and also to ujirights on the outside; ' '.," bookljoards, rebated into groove in boarding, with rounded ledge, similarly re- bated into bookboards, and cut hi'ackets. 2 inch ends to benches, cut as shown, with sunk quartre foils outside. Indi ' ^ seats an" X 3". Tlie joists being not more than eighteen inches from centre to centre. The staircase is to have inch rounded stejts and risers on strong fir carriages, firmly brackctted and ]iro|ierly glued and blocked. The strings are to be of Inch '/i deal, with sunk lace and bead on the lower edge; the space beneath tlie staircase, is to be enclosed with ^/.j matched and beaded boarding with square narrow skirting, all jirojierly fixed to quartering behind at least -l"X2". The hand rail is to be 3' .>"x;5", rounded, with turned newels and dovetailed square bar balusters two to each step, all of wainscot. The clerk's ]iulj)it is to be raised only two steps above the level of the ground, which steps are to be similar to the others. The contractor is to state the additional sum for which he will undertake to execute the benches, standards, reading desks, and pul|iils, excluding the internal IVaming of the latter, in right Dutch wain!?cot, well seasoned, free from every defect and proved to be German or Kiga oak. Small cisterns on proper bearers, with 2" tongued bottoms uid '.j" dovetailed sides, are to be provided and fixed over the W. C. in the manner directed. The catafalques, or stands for coffins, are to.be of the size shown and four feet high, and will rest on nine inch sleeper walls. They are to be framed, braced and jiut together with sills, heads, and ujn-ights, not less than 7"x;5'/o", in a manner to be approved by the architect, and are to be covered at the top and sides with Inch '/^ matched and I)eaded Ixiarding. PLASTLI{I"J{. The lime is to be from mcII burnt elialk limestone, free from cores and un- burnt stones, mixed with sharji drift, thoroughly fre(' from saline and other imiiuriiics. Every care is to be taken to prevent cracks, blistering and other defects. The laths are to be of pine, rent straight and free from saji shakes and knots, nailed at each end with cast iron nails, one inch long, and no fil]r. MASONS DETAILS. fJjaor^ \ (. ^ I D ETA CROSS. FRONT. SECTION KNEESTON FRONT. DETAIL OF UPPER PART OF ARCHWAY. ■SPr.cirioATioN. 29 and tlie nrri.-ios are to l>c sliarply Kept ami carcfiilly (oniieil. IJiin iiuli rement skirtings similar to tiiose of wood, above all stone floors. Before tlio slates are laid on the roofs over (liapels, and tiiai part (d tlie i-oofs over wing liilildinu's wliieli eovers W . V. and rooms \\. ]{. the spaies lietween tiie hattens are to he filled in witli doidilc' fir laths, and the whole covered with lime and hair plaster flush with the to|) sin-- face of the hattens; after the plaster is di-y the under siirfaee of the laihs is to he covered with lime and hair ])laster helween the rafters, well gauged and finished with trowel and of the least thickness of ' ., inch. The lime, hair and sand are to he of the hest description, ])roi)erly tem- pered and laid liy for use six months Iieforc wanted. The plastering is to lie twice coloured dark hrown to matcli with the timhers when it is (piiic dr\ . flic ceilings of the IJohing Rooms are to he lathed, [)lastercd. floated, set and whited. PAINTEK. The white and red lead, oil and tnr|icniinc lo he of llie hest qiialiis : ihc graining to he of superior fjnaliiy. and all the varnish to he the hest hard drying copal. .Ml woodwork to he effectually knotted, riihhed down and thorouglilv sto]i)ied , and the rust and corrosion of ironwork to he cleaned and filed off |)revious to painting. The doors are to be jiainted four oils, grained oak and twice varnished. The trntters and rain Avater pipes arc to have four coats of jiaint, finished hiack: the jtriming coat to he of oil as well as the others. The skirtings are to have four coats ni' paint, finished stone colour to match walls, and the woodwork of W . ( '. the same, finished some cdmnion coldin-. The henches, standards, desks and ])ulpits are to he knotted and stained with an oak stain, to he approved, and twice varnished with tlie hest copal. ]f of wainscot, tlicv are to he sized, and twice varnished: the visible ]iortions of the i-odfs are lo be stained dark oak but not \ai-nishcd. PLUMBEK. The milled lead to be o lbs. to the foot: the cast 7 lbs. Pnnide all necessary lead headed nails: solder, dots and wall hooks, and lay the lead in gutters and flats perfectly loose and free lo expand and coiuract, and never in greater lengths than ;! feet. The ridges to be covered with milled lead, IS inches wide. Ste|) flashings of milled lead are to be fixed where walls and flues rise above roots, laying 4" on roofs, rising 2", dressed into stonework 1", and pointed in cemeui. The gutters and flats to have cast lead; it is to turn up against the stonework- (i", passing at the rolls and drips at least S", with milled flashings (i wide, dressed into stonework 1" and pointed in cement, or fastened with wall honks. 1" socket ])ipes to lead into rain water pij)es. Tiie Water Closets are to be fitted with the best description of closet apparatus, with white basins, strong ]> traps, lead service box, ball levers, copper wires, air pipes, and every requisite complete. The cisterns to be lined with 7 lb. lead to the bottom and " down pipes with (iothic heads of plain character to be approved, pi-ojierlv connected with drains, but only at the outer sides of chajiels, the remaining water being conducted bj' similar pipes so as to lead into cisterns of W. ( '. AVroughl iron chimnev bars 2"X''k" to fireplace.*, turned up into stonework. Provide plain gotliic grates to these fireplaces. nit THE VENTILATION OF BUILDINGS. SLATER. Tlie slates are to be tlie best Countess, of a greenisli tinge and uniform in colour, each slate nailed with two lialvanizcd iron nails on fir battens 2' ^"X ' "i bedded in mortar, cut close and even and all left clean and perfect. For a body of (reneral Conditioiix suitable to accompany the above Specification the reader is referred to Page 1 S.*}, of the Builders' Practical Director. The total cost of the two Chapels, if erected in accordance witli (lie foregoing Specification, will average*^ 2,;{(l(>, according to localit}-. THE VENTILATION OF BUILDINGS. It is one of the most remarkable peculiarities of our dometic habitations, that, although the importance of an amjile supply of pure air and the necessity of allowing that which is vitiated at once to pass aAvay, are fully acknowledged, and although it is well known that when the above conditions are not fulfilled, diseases slowly and insidiously breaking the constitution or rapidly destroying life, according to the degree of the existent evil and the l)odily vigour of those sub- jected to if, are occasioned, still, the adoption of means of ventilation is the exception instead of the rule. The same man who would turn with horror from food diluted in ever so small a degree with ]ioisoiious matter, carelessly continues to breathe an atmosj)herc ]iolluted with poisonous exhalations until headache, lassitude, or fainting compels him to remove from it. So extraordi- n;iry a neglect of the laws of self ])rescrvation as that which now exists in our houses will render desirable a few words on the importance of an immediate remedy, prior to our practical observations on the best method of combining the warmth and ventilation so necessary to attain. "If," says ^Ir. Ilood, "the contaminations and impm-ities that are frequently contained in the air which forms the pabulum vita of human beings could be seen by the eye, in the same way as contaminations or imiiurity in ordinarv alimentary food, the Q\\\ would not be endured i'or even the smallest period of time"; and "ague and fever", remarks Dr. dames Johnson, "two of the most prominent features of the malarious influence, are as a drop of water in the ocean, when compared with the other less obtrusive but more dangerous maladies that silently disor- ganize the vital structure of the human fabric under the influence of these deleterious and invisible j)ois(ms." And yet habitations are rarely provided with means of ventilation, which are reserved for jjlaces of ])ublic resort, but are by no means invariably found even there. From the genei-al smallness of our domestic apartments and the lowncss of their ceilings, a scientific \entilating apparatus is often more necessary in them than in the church and the theatre. Dr. Londjard of (ieneva observed that, in a total of I,:!()0 deaths from consumption of the lungs among workmen carrying on their occupations in the open air and in workshops, the pro]iortion of deaths was dotdile among tl*c latter, and that it increased as the apartments were close, narrow and imperfectly ventilated. Crowded workshops indeed, such as some we have seen, appear to be devised for the express jiurpose of slowly destroying the health of the men employed in them ; and it is surprising that some of the great employers of lahoin- have not perceived that, from the lassitude and general feeling of inanity induced in such places, it is impossible for tiiat ainoimt of work to be got through, which would be cheerfully done imdcr the bracing inHiiciice of a due and constant su])piy of fresh air. Not only is the vitiated air breathed again in close imventilated rooms but also the deleteri(tus vajicmr with other offensive effiuvia thrown off frnm the skin and lungs. 'i'lie watery vapour .-done is estimated as on the average as seventeen ounces in "21 hours for each iiidi\i(lual. Professoi- I''araday remarks, — "^Mr feels impleasant in the breathing cavities, including the mouth ;ind nostrils, not merely from the absence of oxvgen, the jjresence of car- bonic acid, or ihc elc\:itiiin of llie tcmpcr:iturc, but from other causes dc]iending on matters Plate/ S. E) usa © w©n Cemetery €BmAir>i^iLS MASONS DETAILS T U R R E T A ^^ t# (ic^', ■^!t:^ j-r1 ^^-Cl DETAIL OF FINIAL MOULDINO B PLAN AT A A \ ELEVATI O N TIIIC VKNTII.A IliiN OF Uril.DIMI.S. , 31 Avhich are communicattMl to it liy tlic IminMU being. W'licii I miii diio of ;i liiigc nuriiber of persons, 1 feel an o]i]iiTs.sive .sen,«alion of eio^encss, not \\illist;iii(lini;' tlic leiu[)('nitiire may be al)<>ut (50" or 05", ubi<-li I do not I'eel in a small company at the sanie temperatnre, and \vliieli 1 cannot rel'cr altogether to the absorption of oxygen, or the cMiiniion of carbonic acid, and pro- b:d)lv depends on the efHmia I'rom tlu; many present." In living apailmi-nts, the fire in winter time, drawing as it must a certain amount of air to support combustion, is a certain aid to ven- tilation; but where the doors arc listed, sand bags carefully [)l;ued at the windows, the keyhole often stoj)ped, and every ])ossible means industriously taken to keep out the jjure air, who can wonder at tlie exhaustion, lassitude and uneasiness, the peevishness of the young and the irrita- bility of the old, the sensation of an apjiarent band round the forehead, beconiing tighter and tighter, and the head ache, langour and unanimous ill-tem[)cr with which a parly of six or eight — after the temjwrary excitement of supper and the influx of i'resh air from then opening the door — having been coojied up for five or six hours in a small a]»artment rendered as air tight as uilsplaccd ingenuity can make it, go one after the other to bed; wondering at the oppression upon them, thinking ol' sending for the family doctor the next day, and repeating night after night, till at last fairly beatep, the course which is so steadily and so quietly destroying their constitutions. In sunnncr the ojjposite extreme is adopted and the windows are thrown wide oj)en during a great part of the day, thus jirodui'ing draughts inducing severe colds; the air falling downwards from the upper part of the windows like a cascade on the heads and heated bodies of those below, besides liringing in dust which is necessarily breathed with it. Were a ])ro[>cr mode of venti- lation adopted, quite independant, as it ought always to be, of opening the windows, or were a pane of the glass to be removed and filled with perforated zinc (200 apertures to the square inch) the evils would be obviated and the windows might be kept closed. The experience of many with respect to open windows is foreii)ly against them, surt'ering as they do more from colds, tooth and face aches, during the hot season of the year than in the cold; a circumstance to be attributed to the draughts necessarily caused. We have sjtokcn of living apartmeius, but our bed rooms are bad enough, although with but one occu])ant. Every body knows the state of one of these unventilated apartments in the morning. If the windows and doors arc put together in a work- manlike manner, well fitted and tightly closed, if there is no chimney vent, and those absurd con- trivances of a' sickly luxury enclose the foul air in the bed, the state of the atmosphere, unchanged for eight or nine hours, is vitiated in the extreme by even a single pair of lungs, and the com- plaint of want of sleep is by no means surprising. The relief of escape into the fresh air of early morning is instantly felt. To this is mainly owing the cheerfulness of a breakfast party; and a feeling almost of disgust is the conseijuence of returning to the bed room if the window has been omitted to be opened, as the sole means which exists of getting rid of the noxious exha- lations. Turning from domestic habitations to jjublic buildings, how ol'ten do we see the lamen- table effects of inattention to the simplest principles of ventilation. "In almost every large town," 8a;ys Dr. Coombe, "we have instances of large public rooms capable of holding from SOO to lOOt) [jcrsons, built within these lew years, without any means of adc(piatc ventilation and apparently without the sulijeet having ever cost the architect a thought, ^^'hen these rooms are crowded and the meeting lasts for some hours, especially if it be in winter, the consequences are sufficiently marked. Either such a nudtitude must be subjected to all the evils of a contaminated and un- wholesome atmosphere, or they must be partially relieved by opening the windows, and allowing a continual stream of cold air to pour down u]ion the heated bodies of those who are near them, till they are thoroughly chilled and jierhaps latal illness induced; even at such a price the relief is only [)arlial, for the windows being often all on one side of a room and not extending up to the ceiling, complete ventilation is impracticable. This result is glaringly the result of ignorance, and could never have happened had either the architects or their em[>loyers known the laws of 32 ' THE VKNTII.ATION HI' lUULniNGS. tlio luiiniui constitiiiinii." Wc «c at a ohuice tlic con8C(iiiciiws of tlic want of ventilation on the cro\ventilated rooms is sufficient in itself to cause instant death. Gas contains a small portion of suli)huretted hydrogen which often escapes with the gas itself producing the most deadly effects. Air mixed with 15(»(l parts of this gas kills a bird and (h)uble the quantity a dog. "A single gas burner will consume more oxygen and produce more carbonic acid to deteriorate the atmosphere of a room than six or ciglit candles. If, therefore, where several burners are used no provision be made for the escape of the corrupted and the intro(hietion of pure air from without, the liealth will necessarily suffer. A vcniilatiir [ilared o\er the burners like an inverted funnel and opening into the chimney is an eflicient and easy remedy for the evil; and a small tube forming a comnnmication between the external air and the room would supply fresh air where necessary." The deleterious gases disengaged li\- oil, tallow and smoky lamps are productive of constant head-aches, and their intensity may be Judged of from the disagreeable and wide spread odour ])roduecd from the Avick of an ordinary candle which has been blown out. The amount of general diseases, tvpluis fever, scrofula etc., jiroduced in this country and the consum[)iive disoi'dcrs traceable to the deficiency of pro[ier ventilation are something appalling, about 2S per cent of the total deaths being attributed to it. Many indeed are ignorant of this, imagining that the tcmporaiv feeling of uneasiness is all the mischief caused by a want of fresh ail'. Such a ileling arises only \vhen the ventilation is exceedingly bad; for a steady continuous injuiy may be done to the constituiion without the sufl'erer being aware of it and only fijiding it out when perha|is too hile to be remedied. The constituents of the atmosphere were first made known by I'riestly, Schecle and La\oisier, but long before their time Hippocrates had insisted on the iiaramount iin|iortanee of breathing it in a pure state, and rules were laidclown by him on the subject. Dr. Coombe was, we believe, one of the first who succeeded in reaching the ear of the gener.'d public and impressing them in some degree, through the medium of his admirabk' and clearly written works, ^^itll the general principles on which health depends, and the impor- tant influence on the liealili, cheerfulness, elasticity of feeling and ecnnfort of a due supph' ' simuhancous. The deleterious character of foul air is shoANTi by a very simple experiment by Dr. Franklin: he breathed gently through a tube into a deep glass mug so as to impregnate all the air witiiin it, and a lighted taper being then introduced was instantly extinguished, and, on repeating the operation, burnt gradually brighter as the foul air became dissipated. The air reijuired for the combustion of the taper is precisely tliat neces- sary to carry on a process of combustion in the human body, by which the fond we take is con- verted into nutriment calculated to support the vital frame. The expired or vitiated air naturally rises, from its specific gravity being less tiian tiiat of tlie atmosphere around. Openings must therefore be placed in the upper part of a room to allow of its escape, and similar openings below for tlie fresh air to enter, be breathed, supply the fire, liglits, etc., and ultimately escape into tlie general atsmosphere, where it is spread in sufficient space to neutralize its evil effects. The lower openings for the admission of fresh air must be large in proportion to the upper ones for the escape of the vitiated, in order thus to create a current and render the y reason of the suction or approach to a vacuum made at liie open top of any tube across which the wind blows directly; and secondly, because the Hue is usually occujiicd, even wlien there is no fire, by :iir somewhat warmer than the external air, and has, therefore, even in a calm day, what is called a chinmey draught proportioned to the difference. In England therefore, of old. when the chimney breast was always made higher than the heads of ])crsons sitting or sleeping in the rooms, a room with an ojjcu chiumcy was tolerably well ventilated in the lower parts where the inmates breathed. The modern fashion however of very low grates and low chimney openings has clianged the case comijletely, for such openings can draw air only from the bottom of the rooms, wlierc generally the coolest and last entered, and therefore the piu-est, air is found, while the hotter air of the breath, of lights, of warm food, and often of subterranean drains, etc. rises and stagnates near the ceilings and griidiially corrupts there. Such heated, iniiuire air no PUuc^ /! ©ESOO-SaS fOK ©eMETTEKY L®IE)©-E, SIDE ELEVATION SIDE ELEVATION 5 C A L t or ] ■ I I I I I I I I M -^ TIIK VENTILATION (IK lillLDINCS. 35 more tends dowiiwartl aj^aiii to esoiipo or dive under tlic chiniiicy piece, than oil in an inverted bottle immersed in water, will dive down tlii-onuli the water to escape at the hottlci's mouth; and such a bottle or other vessel containing oil, and so placed in water with its mouth downwards, even if left in a running stream, would retain the oil for any length of time. If however an ope- ning be made into a chimnc)' flue through the wall near the ceiling of the room, then will all the hot impure air of the room as certainly pass away by that opening as oil from the inverted bottle would instantly all escape upwards through a small opening made near the elevated bottom of the bottle. A top window sash lowered a little, instead of serving as many jicoplc believe it docs like such an opening into the chimney flue, becomes genei'ally, in oliedience to the chimney draught, merely an inlet of cold air, which first falls as a cascade to the floor, and then glides towards the chimney and gradually passes by this, leaving the hotter, impure air of the room nearly untouched. For j-cars past I have recommended the adoption of such ventilating chimney ojicnings as above dcscribcil, and 1 devised a lialanced metallic valve to prevent during the use oi' fires the escape of smoke to the rooms. The advantages of these openings and valves were soon so manifest that the referees appointed under the I'uilding Act added a clause to their bill allowing the introduction of the valves, directing how they were to be placed, and they are now in very extensive use." All that is requisite is, to remove a brick in the wall near the ceiling, so as to communicate with the tliie, and insert the ventilating valve, which may be procured from six shillings upwards, according to its ornateness oi' character. In room witliout fireplaces, apertures mav be made in the ceilings, which ajicrtures may be efltectnally concealed, if desirable, by plaster decorations, either a centre Howcr being introduced or perforated cornices. In a ceiling with cofi'crs without perforation llie foul air accumulates, cools and descends, and a flat ceiling is not desirable. ,_ The best form is a cove with an opening in the centre, as in the dia- gram, with a register ])ullcy and cord and zinc tubing to carry off the air. A \ariety of modes will immediately suggest themselves to the reader, by which these exits can lie modified to suit diverse circnmstanccs, and each instance will probably recpiire individualities of treatment. Of course the exits must not ojjen at once into the external atmosphere, as through the wall, but be led by as circuitous a route as possible to it; the object being for them to pass through air of a higher temperature within the house to that without. It is of little use having exits for foul air if there be not inlets provided for the entrance of that which is fresh. These may be contrived in a variety of ways. Openings in the skirtings of rooms, communicating with an iron air brick or "-ratino- are common; and there should be several of these openings so as to avoid direct currents and draughts which will often arise from one alone, and they should be covered with perforated zinc (8(1 or 100 perforations to the square inch) further preventing draught and kcejiing out dust. By making a winding passage round the back and sides of the fireplace with one opening from the outside and another into the room, the air is heated in its entrance. They may also often be in the floor; and it is recommended that they should be about double in area, those of the exits. From the loose manner in which doors, windows and skirtings are often fitted, a quantity of air rushes in between the interstices, jjroducing unpleasant draughts, but there is rarely sufficient admitted in this maimer, and the draughts would of course be neutral- ized if projierly protected ojienings were provided, the want of which and the necessary demand for air, especially if there be a fire, is the course of the naturally strong currents. AVe sometimes see, in kitchens especially, an iip]i(r jiaiie of glass removed and a revolving fan, with radii somcsvliat similar to those of a windmill, substituted. These are turned by the wind and a current one way or the other jiroduced. The object is to cause the vitiated air to escape: a great mistake, since, in nine instances out of ten, the cold air rushes in and ilii\rs down the foul to be again breathed. The same remark applies to the louvre-like slips of glass for panes now being exten- 36 THE VENTILATION OF BUILDINGS. sivelv advertised; and we cannot too often repeat that the openings for admitting fresh air must be at the lowest level and not placed foolishly on high. The glass bells suspended over the gas- burners in shops are a great absurdity, merely preventing the blackening of the ceiling, and not carrying oft' but rather retaining that deleterious air of which we before spoke of the poisonous eftects. If, indeed, it be of more importance to please the eye than to ruin the constitution, the use of these ingenious means of effecting the latter is extremely valuable. Tlie introduction of a tube from above each burner into the open air would not only carry off" all deleterious matter from the burner but, from the heated state of the air around, would cause such a current as to powerfully ventilate the whole shop. If there be a fire place, one of Arnott's ventilators should be inserted; if not, openings can be made in the ceiling. A Hue conducted into the kitchen chim- ney, nearly always active, \vill keep up a constant draught. Openings for the admission of fresh air may be contrived with the utmost facility in the fittings of the front and those in the shop, under the counters, etc., and zinc tubing may be advantageously employed. The fresh air is also heated if it comes in flues parallel to those by which the vitiated passes away. In factories, having steam engines, the plan of ventilation by chimney draught is preferable, as flues may be conducted into the ever- active chimney and a powerfid current thus constantly kept up at virtu- ally no cost. The lassitude, weariness, and inattention in schools and churches is often owing to deficient ventilation. The windows and doors are kept closed for several hours and the at- mosphere becomes gradually vitiated in the extreme. Openings may be made in the floors, as shown in the diagram, and the air brought from an elevation, which is better than that close to the ground or confined, through flues. Openings for its escape may be made in the roofs, whence it will ultimately reach the open air through a turret or lantei-n with louvres. The openings in tlie floors will be covered with gratings, also the openings, both inner and outer of the inlet flues; the inner openings of the latter might also be con- trived out of sight in the fittings of the pews, or the desks, etc., of schools. Theatres and places of public amusement are generally admirably ventila- ted: the proprietors advertise the fact, and are fully aware that the success of their efforts is greatly dependant on the state of coiufort in which the audience is placed. Where seats rise above one another, as in theatres, lecture rooms, etc., a simple cutting of the riser, under the nosing of the successive steps or platforms, will secure a constant supply of fresh air, rising and taking up that which is vitiated as soon as breathed. AVe have before spoken of the powerfid ujiward current caused by the large gas chandelier in conjunction Avith the opening above it placed in the central hi'dicst part of a theatre. The vitiated air with the products of combustion are carried up a tube'terminating in a cowl on the roof. The woodcut shows a mode of creating a current to assist ventilation; A, being the ventilating aperture, B, a furnace, and C, an iron tube passing through it, thus rariiying the air within as to cause a strong rush of cold to supply its place. Hospitals are very efficiently ventilated by a system of fire draught, devised by a surgeon, Mr. Fleming, in 1833. A system of tubes from the wards, one being connected with each bed, j)arfially enclosed, leads to a fire, supported solely by air from these tubes, so that the infection arising from each bed is carried off witliouf a fleeting those near. This system is of course applicable generally to most buildings. Mechanical means, such as the use of a fan, pump, or bellows, which answer the same purpose, are often adopted in artificial ventilation. Cotton mills are thus ventilated, and the Reform Club house is annother instance of the adoption of a fan worked by steam power. In the latter eleven thousand cubic feet of air are drawn in every minute, and the steam of con- deubution from the engine iieats tlie building, the air being of course drawn into the basement, i r mason's details chimnly pieces — PloJle^Zt \ I N° 1 ^^^^m=dbdbd^b^^ SI? N?2 DETAIL A V DETAIL B PLAN D N? a THE VENTILATION OF BUILDINGS. 37 whence it rises upwards. Some fiinuers aro worked by hand and used only occasionally; they have suction and blowing pipes, the former attached to .the space containing vitiated air and the latter Avith the external air. An apparatus of this description formerly appertained to the House of Commons, and the wheel was turned by a man during the sitting of the members. It could be made to draw out the fold and to introduce fresh air. Dr. Ure calculated that a steam engine of one horse power would drive a fan which has ecjual effect with a draught produced by fuel equal to twenty horse j)ower; that is, the econoniy of this s])ecies of ventilation is to that by chimney draught as 3S to 1. Dr. Arnott preferred to the fan a valved piston moving like that in a pump, "which answers not only for extracting fold air, but also for forcing in j)ure air when wanted. It may be fixed in position, or may be a moveable piece of furniture, to be used, for instance to draw out air from the top of a Avindow opened on a ball night , or from an opening in the wall concealed from ^dew by a picture frame. By such a pump air of perfect purity and in any quantity may easily be sent from any neighbouring situation, as from the top of a lofty tower to supply a dwelling where unwholesome exhalations might ender by the doors and windows.'' Ventilation on a large scale is often accomplished with a system of heating by hot water or steam. The library of the British iluseum is heated by the air passing over pipes and thence rising through a grating in the floor down the centre of the rooms; and the combination of war- ming and ventilation by means of hot water pipes is, in our opinion, one of the very best methods that can be generally adopted in public buildings. We conclude our notice of Ventilation with a brief sketch of the mode adopted for warming and ventilating the House of Commons. The diagram will render it clear. There are two floors to the House, and the air is admitted from the exterior into the space B through openings covered ^-ith coarse gauze at A to stop the soot and dust. In the vaiUts it is washed by means of a number of jets of water rising from j)ipes, laid longitudinally and transversely, filling the space with an intense spray and rendering the air fresh and pleasant. If reriuii-ed to be heated, «. it passes through another vaidted chamber where it _ comes in contact with pipes of hot water, and the temperature is regulated by allowing the air to come more or less in contact with the pipes by opening certain doors. In summer when the air is required to be cooled, it is effected by its pas- sing over wet surfaces in another room, and thus cooling it by evaporation, or ice is suspended in netting. An arrangement is made for jndling down a thermometer with a string for ascertai- ning the temperature of the House. The air enters through openings in the floor C, about one sixth of an inch in diameter, 300,000 in number, and opening wider downwards to prevent stop- page by dust. The air also rises by the side walls to similar flooring in the galleries; and all the' floors are covered with horse hair matting, the feet of the members being cleansed by the peciUiarly contrived matting in their progress to the House, so as for them to bring in the least possible quantity of dust. About thirty six thousand cubic feet of air are thus supplied per mi- nute, and seventy gallons of water were once sent in as moist air in a few hours. The vitiated air escapes into the roof space, D, and down the channel E into F, a damper in E regulating the supply according as the House is more or less filled. The current is set in motion by a fire at G, trimmed at the small door on the outside, usually kept shut, and producing a inost power- ful drauffht. Tlie shaft //, rises to a considerable altitude and forms a prominent feature in the exterior view of the buildings. In the article on the Causes and Remedies of Smoky Chimnics, will be found much information on Ventilation as applied tu the consideration of that subject; and, scattered throughout the book, are numerous illustrations of patent ventilators which have been thought worthy of mention. 38 THE WARJNIING OF BUILDINGS. In tlic article on tlie Causes and Remedies of Smoky Chimnies and throughout the work will be found numerous observations and diagrams relating to Warming, so that it now only remains to o-ive a brief connected account of the different methods adopted. We have before spoken of Ventilation, which is a comparatively easy process, but to warm and ventilate at the same time, an end to be kept steadily in view, is often a matter of exceeding difficulty, because the intro- duction of fresh air, unless, it be previously heated, always tends to cool an apartment. Heat, we would first mention, is diffused by conduction, radiation and a princijde of convection in fluids Radiant heat consists of rays diverging in straight lines, subject to the laws of reflection and refraction, from a fire and the sim, and affecting objects at some distance, its power decreasing as the square of that distance. Brilliant metallic surfaces reflect back heat, and rough and painted surfaces absorb it. Conduction is the passage of heat from one body to another in contact with it. Metals are excellent conductors, stones and bricks are bad, and porous substances, fur and clothing generally, still more so. The principle of convection as applied to heated fluids is very simple. AYater is so bad a conductor of heat that it may boil at the top of the vessel while scarcely heated below. If, however, the heat is applied at the lowest part, the cold water above descends by reason of its specific gravity being greater than the heated expanded water below, and thus a free and constant circulation of water and heat is kept up, as in the instance of the pi])cs of a hot water apparatus. There are two broad divisions of the modes of heating rooms now in use; heating by open fires, and by heated surfaces warming the air, sometimes by a small surface very warndy heated, as hot plates of iron and stoves, and otherwise by large surfaces moderately heated, as steam and hot water in tubes. The open fireplace is the fiivourite mode of heating domestic apartments in England, although on the continent it by no means so extensively prevails. When speaking ol Smoky Chimnies we gave several diagrams of open fire-places and in the Articles on Labourers' Cottages will be found one showing a method of heating two rooms by one fire. We here give another examjile of so valuable and economical a contrivance. "In Paris" says Dr. Franklin "I saw a fii-eplace so ingeniously contrived as to serve conve- niently two rooms, a bed chamber and a study. The funnel was round, the firejjlace was of cast iron having an ui)right back .1, and two horizontal semi-circular plates B,C, the whole so ordered as to turn on the pivots V, A'. The plate B, al- ways stojipcd that part of the round funnel which was next to the room without a fire, while the other half of the funnel over the fire was always o|)en. By this means a servant in the morning could make a fire on the hearth C, then in the study, without disturbing the master by going into his chamber; and the master when he rose could, with a touch of his foot, turn the chinmcy on its pivots and bring the fire into his chamber, keep it there as long as he wanted it, and tuiii it again wIkmi he went out into his study. The room which had no fire in it was also warmed by the heat coming through the back |)latc and spreading in the room, as it could not go u]i the ihinmey." \\ v .idd liic liic])lacc .which Dr. Franklin invented and called the I'ciinsylvaiiian stove, in which are a descending flue, through which the smoke passes before ascending, and caliducts, or ptissages at the back of the fire for warming air admitted through them into the apartinent. Count Riimf'nrd and Drs. l"'ranklin and Ariiott were among the first to ETAiLS or Gates T( Cemetery - D E TAi L or HINGE AT A (twice the SCALE) L Plan of h i nge at ^/ /, Detail oe bottom centre , shewing WROUGHT IRON SHOE AND STE EL PIVOT Elevation • ^ a ^ -' t ^7 % / . ■• . ■■I Plan \ Plan at /- // WMM I TIIK WAli.MIXCi OK IJUILDIXGS. 39 point out the manifest defects of the open fireplace. Even tlio.^e persons seated nearest to an open tire liave one side only of tlie body heated, the air riishiiiff in effectually cooling the other. Rumford estimated the loss of heat at fourteen — fifteenths; (Jie smoke takes away one half, and the hack, jambs and hearth of the fireplace reflect very little of the heat thrown upon them, being generally porous, dark and unpolished. ^Ve will give Dr. Arnott's own words. "Of the whole heat produced from the fuel used, about seven eights ascend the chimney and are absolutely wasted. Secondly, that carried off by the current of the warmed air of the n)f)m which is constantly entering the chimney between the fire and the mantel piece and mi.\ing with the smoke. Thirdly, it is a fact that the black or visible part of the smoke of a common fire is really a precious part of the Coal or wood escaping uidjurncd. If then more than half of the heat produced be in the smoke and nearly a fourth part of it in the warm air from the room which escapes with the smoke, and if about an eighth of the combustible pass away unburned, there is a loss of at least seven eights of the whole." Altogether the objections to oj)en fires were summed up under eleven heads. (1) Waste of fuel, (2) unequal heating at different distances from the fire, (;{) cold draughts, (4) cold foot bath, (5) bad ventilation, (6) smoke and dust, (7) loss of time in lighting, (8) danger to property, (9) danger to person, ( Id) expense of attendance, (II) necessity of sleeping boys, now however obviated. These formidable objections led to the gradual introduction of stoves, in many instances sub- stituting greater evils for those sought to be ob^■iated. One of the earliest and conmionest is that called the Dutch stove shown in the margin. It is a cylindrical case of cast iron, with a grating for the fire, an ash j>it below it, and three openings to the inner part; one to the ash pit, one to introduce the fuel above, and another leading to the flue. The stove gives heat chiefly by conduction, and it is found more equalized than that obtained from the open fire, with greater economy of fuel and absence of smoke. There are however many objections, of which the least is that the fire not beinrr seen, it often goes down, the room becomes cold, and afterwards, a great deal of fuel being put on, the room is too hot. Dr. Arnott remarked, that "the air ac- quires a Imrnt and often suphureous smell, in ]iart, no doubt, because dust, which it often carries, is burned, and, in part, because there is a peculiar action of the iron upon the air. It becomes very dry too, like that of an African simoon, sliri\elling everything which it touches, and it acquires probably some new electrical properties. These changes combined make it so offensive that Englishmen unaccustomed to it cannot bear it. The persons breathing this air are often affected by headaches, giddiness, stupor, loss of appetite, ophthalmia, etc. A north east wind which distresses many people, bringing asthmas, croups etc. and which withers vegetation is pe- culiar chiefly in l)cing dry." In stoves generally, the waste of warm air which jiasses between the mantle and fire of the oi)cn fireplace is obviated, and by making the flue of the stove as long as possible in the room a great heat is obtained. r>ut it is the heated surface of the iron which injures the atmosphere, a result sought to be obviated by ])lacing an open basin of water on the stove, or what is better, hanging a wet cloth near it. Some contrivance of this description is requisite in methods of heating by metallic surfaces tending to desiccate the air. The Russian stoves are of earthenware and In-ickwork, retaining the heat longer than metal and diminishing its intensity near the stove. Wood is the fuel used; it is turned o^er until all is fiurnt, the stove is closed, and, in six hours, it is at its utmost heat and requires no further attention for twenty four. The air in the apartment is not allowed to escape, as the fresh air would (luickly cool the room, and that stagnant and unchanged becomes intensely disagreeable and unhealthy. The porcelain stoves of the Germans are fitted together by means of close joints and grooves, sprinkled with powdered chalk so as to prevent the smoke and carbonic acid vapour entering the room. We have before alluded to the method of ventilating theatres by means of the gas chandelier. Several very admirable rides have been laid down by Count Rumford for kitchen stoves, and he 40 THK WARlVrTNG OF BUILDINGS. remarked that more fuel is frequently consumed in a kitchen range to boil a teakettle than, M-ith proper management, would be sufficient to cook a good dinner for fifty men. "In lai'ge kitchens with open fireplaces, the kitchen range being wide and very roomy, an enormous quantity of fuel is swallowed up by it, even when only a very small quantity of food is provided; but this unnecessary waste is completely prevented by cooking in boilers and stew jians, properly fitted into sej)arate closed fireplaces.'" The many objections to stoves — the stagnation of the air, the often slow combustion of fuel, whereby carbonic acid gas is generated and escapes into an apartment from there not being suf- ficient draught in the flue to carry it off, the occasional formation also of carburretted hydrogen, and other objections have combined to produce a very general feeling against close stoves. The stoves for burning charcoal are liable to the same objections, in addition to that to the carbonic acid generated by this fuel. Warming by hot air, as it is called, that is raising plates of iron to a high temperature and conducting air which has passed over them into apartments, is similar in principle to heating by stoves, and the air is desiccated in the same manner as by them and often burnt. In the Custom House some years ago the air passed over red hot plates, and charged with the sulphurous fumes of the iron, it entered the rooms at a temperature of about 1 70* so aflTecting the health of the inmates that the system was at length given up. The more or less injurious effects on the atmosphere of small metallic surfaces highly heated by the direct action of fire, led ultimately, first to the use of steam in pipes, and secondly to that of hot water, either below or above 212"' in temperature, but so confined as to be prevented escap- ing into steam, and in all of which systems, instead of a small surface very highly heated there is one more extensive and moderate in temperature. The air, according to Dr. Arnott, is not vitiated by iron heated by hot water as it is when the same water is heated directly by the action of fire. Heating by steam now so general in the factories of Lancashire, Yoi'lcshire, etc., from the fa- cility of applying it in connexion with the boilers of steam engines was suggested nearly a cen- turj' back in the "Philosophical Transactions." James Watt first practically appHed it in his Study in 1784. It was afterwards adopted in hot houses, not circulating in pipes but free in the house, heating and moistening the air in a manner peculiarly favourable to the development of the plants. The economy of heating by steam circulating in pipes is undoubted. Dr. Arnott says, "it is found that if a boiler for heating a house bv steam be carefully set, like that of a steam engine, on a close furnace or firejilncc, which admits no more air than is retpiired to sup- port the combustion, and keeps the hot air in contact with the sides of the boiler until as much as may be of the heat is taken from it, by such a boiler nearly a half of the heat produced in the combustion is applied to use, instead of the one eighth of the open fire. There is a saving therefore of three eighths of the fuel used as compared with open fires." Where there is a steam engine and it is desired to heat a room by steam pipes, they may be sup])lied from (he boiler, enlarging it one foot cube for every 20t) feet to be warmed to the temperature of aliout 7(1'\ and a boiler for an engine of one horse power will heat to the above temperature 50,000 cubic feet. "In a winter day, with the external tenqierature at lOo below freezing, to maintain in an ordinary apartment the agrecaldc and healthrul temperature of t)(l", there nnist be of surface of steam pipe, or other steam vessel heated to 2iiu" (which is aI)out the average .surface temperature of vessels filled with steam of 212"), about one foot square for every six feet of single glass window of usual thickness; as nmch for every 120 feet of the wall, roof and ceiling of ordinary material and thickness; and as much for every six cubic feet of hot air escaping per minute as ventilation and replaced by cold air. A window, with the usual accuracy of fitting, is held to allow about eigiu feet of air to j)a8s by it in a minute, and there should be for ventilation at least three feet of aii- a minute for each person in the room." \\'!irniing by hot water is now far more generally approved than thnt by steam. Wa liave ©5 d h h I ^ « m h < g ^ ^ X UJ O z cr o X O cr z u. O < h u N < < X riii'. \VAi;\ii\i; (iK nrii.DiNfiS. 41 l)pl'orc rx|il;iiiic(l tlu> ]irinrij)lo mi wliicli ilic lio;it('(l wntci' is circulated to he one of rouvpction; ili;it it (loos nut liccoiiic lidt Iiy <'niiiliiipe being coiled in the furnace, and filled with hot water above the boiling point and sometimes beyoml ;i.">(i" in tem- perature. The piping is of wrought ii'on, * .i inch internal diameter and 1 inch on tlie exterior, one sixth of its length being coiled in the fiu-nace. The pipes are proved at a prcssm-c of ;)(l(l() lbs. per si|uare inch, but even supposing the [lipe to biu'st at any point there would be no danger, for the jet would be converted into steam, which would not scald, and the real damage woidd be of trifling amoimt, consisting in the repair of the apparatus and the injury from the jet of hot water. Dr. Arnoti objects to the system from the great strength required lor the pipes, the ti-ouble of the safetv valves, the liability to bursting, 42 DESIGNS FOR SHOP FITTINGS. and, IVoin ilio liigli trmporatiire of tlie pipes, a disagreeable smell being often given to tlie air, showing it is injured. Mr. Hood objects to the ooil cooling so rapidly when the fire slackens; and, altogether, for permanence of temperafnre, cconouiy, freedom from danger and compara- tivelv slight trouble, we ourselves strongly incline to the beliei' tiiat the imt water apparatus with large jtipcs filled with water under '2\'2", is the best system which has yet been devised. DESIGNS FOR SHOP FITTINGS. Plates 12. 13. 14. 15. Ifi. The.se plates contain a scries of designs for the external and internal fittings of a shop, 32' „ 0" X 2()' ,, 0", with a clear height inside of 12 feet; the frontage is 31' 0" and the height of the frontage 14' ., II". Plates 12, and 13, show the plan and the external and internal arran- gements. The piers at the sides of the front are to be built in brickwork set in Portland cement with the face of pilasters accurately cut. The central pilasters are to be formed of inch ' ., yellow fir, mitred at angles, glued and blocked capitals and bases, with grooves for brass bar.s and also fitted lor iron shutters. The bars are to be 3 inch Clark's patent bars, with wrought iron core and hard wood moulding screwed on the inside to secure the glass; arched heads and capitals and bases as shown. The arched heads of the brass .sashes are to be filled in with ^i deal in grooves, witli papier-iiKichr ornaments on the exterior. The entrance doors may be 2' o" bolection moulded and raised marginal lowci' panels, the upper open fir glass, moulded on one side and with beads screwed on with countersunk brass screws on the other. They are to be hung on liedmund's patent swing centres, or on brass swing hinges (one hinge and a pivot); and are to have also two Itrass flush bolts at top and bottom and one in the middle, together with finger plates, etc. Wrought, framed, single rebated, double beaded and double staft' beaded transom, with 2" circular fanlight, hung on brass centres and fastened with brass flush bolt. Inch ' o moulded soffitc, tongued and securely fixed. Provide Portland stone landing, moulded on the front edge, rubbed and back rebated to the boarding, which latter may be 1' j" laid folding on joists 14" from centre to centre, and 1()"X2' ., if they are carried at the centre or their length. Very strong fir framed cradling is to be fixed in the manner shown on Plate 14 to carry entablature, soffitcs at entrance and show spaces. The frcizc is to be of Inch ' ., Hon- duras mahogany, firmly secured to cradling, and the mouldings are to be of deal, fixed together in the most secure manner, with tongues, blocks, screws, etc.; inch cover board on proper bearers, the dentils being .screwed in: the breaks over pilasters are to be carefully mitred at the angles together with the mouldings, etc., the arrises being ke])t quite sharp. The enrichments of the front may be in papiev-macJii! with a i)riming of whiting and glue over it; or can-erg compo, a mixture of glue, resin and whiting, may be ado])ted. The last is not brittle and ornaments can be more easily bent and adjusted than if they arc in other materials. Cavton-pifrre is a light material; the enrichments arc to be fixed with screws. Wc have shown a girder carrying the wall above the siiop, but of course the mode in which this is done will depend always on cir- cumstances; whether the house is built with the shop, or the sho]) after the house is erected; in which latter case the old bressummer, iron girder, or other mode of carrying the superincumbent weight would probably be retained. The formation of new shop fronts to did Ikiuscs is oftentimes a rather difficult task, calling for the utmost amount of care and circumspection to prevent the least damage to the super- blriic'lion in the .-hajio of scttlemonts, etc., as well as injury often caused to the adjoining pre- PUjXcZ. ID IS § © M S TSK Sm@^ fD'Tf'If'DSa©^ EXTERIOR ELEVATION TRANSVERSE SECTION 6CAUE or Loil \ 1 1 L DE.SICNS I'di; Sllnl' FITTINGS. 43 niiscfi. Tlic wall ahovc slioiild Ijc carcliilly and most securely .shored iqi, and fully supported hy upright pieces of tiiiibcr which caniuit jiossiljly settle or oth framings are rebated at bottom to the skirtings and base mouldings, which skirting in the shop is to be rebated into a groove in the flooring, the whole being secured to the framed bearers shown: the stall Ijuard and mouldings are to be as indicated. The sliding sashes are to be inch ' j ovolo motdded. with frame and all necessary beads, fillets etc. The soffite is rebated into inch ' j upright stuff which takes up with cornice. The sashes at the sides of entrance are to be similar to the others but fixed with small beads. These sashes and frames, together w ith the doors, may be of yellow deal or Honduras or Spanish ^Mahogany. If of deal they will be grained as may be preferred, and twice varnished in copal. The ends of show spaces are to be lined with ' j matched and beaded boarding. Bunaett's i)ateut revolving iron shutters are proposed. Their cost is from 44 DESIGNS FOK SHOP FITTINGS. o or tj to S shilliiii;;; per foot super. Tliey arc al.-io maiuif'actiirefl, tinder Clarke's patent, of wood for about 3 or 1 shillings per foot super. Clarke's iron shutters are also extensively used. Some ■wood rc^■oh^ng shutters are patented by Snoxell, and there are others with laths shod with iron. These gentlemen are we belic\e the only patentees of revolving shutters. Their utility is unrpiestionable. and their strength and security infinitely superior to the ordinary wood shutters, indcpendentlv of the great dii'nunition of trouble they occasion and the inconvenience saved to passengers in the streets; as it is a perfect nuisance and often dangerous to walk by shops when they arc being closed on the old method, shutters being often suddenly thrown up irom below against casual passengers. M'e wish to be perfectly inii)artial with respect to the relative method of the different patents anutty and pla.ster of Paris, may be used. The cnrichinents are cast and fixed with plaster or screwed on; their material we have already mentioned: brackets 12 inches apart with laths nailed to them'are requisite. Plate 11 shows the sliding sashes and the cb-awers between the pilasters at the sides of the shops. These recesses are to be arched over with nine inch arches in half brick rings, breaking joint, and the circular sjtace below is to be filled in with inch '.o moulded framing, the mirror secyred with a bead fixed with bras-s countersunk screws; or this part may lie m.-idc to turn on centres, thu.s rendering a^•ailai)le the space bchiiuj. The sliding sashes are to be fixed as indicated with all recjuisitc beads and fittings. There is to bo an inch ' ^ top rebated into groove in inch upright framing, and inch ' , bottom. Dovetailed drawers, with •' ," beaded fronts and bottoms, '., sides and inch divisions. The fastenings will be as preferred. The mouldings aliove sliding sashes are to be in deal, uniform and continuous w itii those in plaster. Inch shelves with proper bearers arc to be fixed within cases. Inch skirtings uniform with those in plaster, and all necessary intemal framing and blocking arc to be provided. .Ml this woodwork will be executed in either m;diogany or deal according to considerations of expense. The ])rimc cost of Wainscot or IIoni' colours, so as to obtain a pleasing and tasteful result and to avoid that vul- garity which is consecpient on want of information respecting a few simple rides. The internal stucco work will recpiirc five coats of [)aint if the [daster is very absorbent. The last is to lie mixed with turpentiuc to obtain the effect termed flatting, one without gloss. If however the work is not fiatted, the finishing coat is to have one })art of oil to two of tur])entine. Boiled linseed oil to the priming coat, then three coats of white lead and oil and afterwards the fiatting coat. Care must be taken that the plaster be quite fh-y; if it is not so, distemper colom'ing is pre- ferable as a temporary matter. The ceiling is to be lathed, plastered, floated, set and vvhited. The cost of the siiop front, if executed as described with Portland cement, ])latc glass, yellow deal, brass sashes, and painted four coats in party colours will average £ ISlt. The interior, stuccoed and Hatted, with deal fittings grained maple, plate glass, marble chimncv piece, etc., will come to about £ 1^50. AVe think that the above general remarks will be found more useful in this instance than a simple detailed Specification, as it is difficult to give general designs for shop fittings which can be executed exactly as delineated. At jiage 2 Hi of the Builder's Practical Director will be found foin* complete specifications of the exterior finishings of shops, the details of which arc also supplied. 46 DESIGNS FOR CEM1<:TERY ENTRANCES AND LODGES. rLATE.S 17. IS. 19. 20. 21. It will Ix- )icrcci\oMJ— = ^vill be Ibund exceedingly effective in execution: a residt which can l)c often obtained without much ornamentation and at a small cost. The lioii-e for the Cemetery keeper is arranged with tJiat amount of accomodation \\hieh is generally re(|uircd. It will also lie found applicahle to many other puri)oses, being a compact and convenient little residenec comprising the following accomodation: — Parlour 16' ,, 0" X Ifi' „ o" do 15' „ 0" X 15' „ (t" Office 16' „ (I" X l(i' ., (I" Kitclien 15' „ 0" X 10' „ ()" Scullery 10' ,, 6" X 10' „ 6" Entrance Hall, \V. C, Pantry and Coal Cellar. Two Chambers each . . . 10' „ :{" x: 16' „ 0" One „ 15' „ :i" X 15' „ 0" One ., 15' ,, 0" x: 10' „ '.)" Closet 11',, 0" X 5' „ 6" The height of Ground Floor is . 11',, .'!" Do, Chamber „ . . 10' ., 6" z o h o UJ z o I- < > u _1 u DESIGNS FOR CEMr.TF.HY KXTUANCFS AND LODGES. 4 I Tlie entrance is so arrun^eil that [lerson^ goino- to the (iflice do not enter the jirixate ])ortion of tlie liouse, a point of some importance. I'late 17 shows the Ground Phm and Front Klevation together witii enhirjred details of the window liead.s to be executed in .stone. On Plate IS are the side Klevations, and Plate 10 contains the Chamber plan and a Section exhibiting the construction. This latter it will be perceived is extremely siin|)K' and economical. There is a cof/ar roof of .slijrht span, and the rafters and collars need not be more than .")"X2' o". The joists of the floors may be 9"X2' 2". The walls are to be similar to those described in the Sjiccificatioii of the Cemetery Chapels; the dressings need not be rubbed but only tooled fair. The roofs are to be slated, and are to have Williams's patent slate ridge and hips, with circular roll and flat sides \A" girt, and costing, set in cement, one sliilling per foot run. The valleys must hafe 5 lb. lead. The windows are to be I inch ' ., chamfered casements as in the margin, lumg on 2' o" butts x^'.j to fir solid, reliatcd, chamfered and beaded frames 4" X 4", weathered M ^ ( ''^ iinf^ gi-ooved sills, with iron water bar, proper stay hooks ami iron - %jiJ^'' '' ' — — ~ - ' ' ^ .l y ' b? crank fastening, all galvanized. In two light windows one of these casements is to be fixed. The entrance lol)liy to office is to be paved with encaustic tile paving, figured red and buff, and costing glazed two shillings per foot super. The remaining rooms are to be l)oarded w'ith inch ' j yellow deals on the ground flo(n' and white deals on the chamber floor, all laid folding: but the scullery aiul offices connected with it are to be paved with 2V'.2 tooled Yorkshire stone. The office and loltby walls are to be finished with ti'owelled stucco painted, and the remaining rooms with ordinary j)laster papoied. excepting the Kitchen offices which are to be twice limewhited. •Plate 21 contains designs for the chimney pieces of a character to accord with the style of the house. No. 1 is for the bed rooms, 2 for the |iarloms, 3 for the office, and the details of the mouldings are given on the same plate one (|uartcr real size. These chinmey pieces may be of Bath or Caen stone. The e.stimated cost of this residence together with the iion and wood gates and the walls forming the entrance to the grounds is £ \?,^{). DESIGN FOR A GREENHOUSE. Plates 22. 23. 24. These plates contain jilan, elevation, section, and details for a small Greenhouse, 23 feet by 14, of a substantial and convenient description, with a slight amount of decoration on the exterior. It may be erected in the most economical manner against a house already built; otherwi.se the wall at the back, a serious item in the expense, will have to be carried up exclusively for it. The mode of erecting and finishing conservatories and greenhouses is so various and so dependant on peculiarities of taste that we shall make some remarks on tlie subject, which will perhaps be more useful than a detailed specification of the present design. Wood is the ordinary material fin- the frames and sashes of greenhouses, the fn-mer resting on Inick walls. It is of great importance to interrupt the rays of the sun as little as possible, and iron and zinc are in this i-espect preferable to wood frames, which are necessarily of greater breadth. Whatever the material, a .slope of 34" is foimd to be the best for the roof to admit the rays of the sun with the greatest advantage to the plants. Sometimes malleable iron sash bars bent to a cm-ve are used for the roof. 48 DESIGN FOR A GREENIIOUSF.. The cast iron riilge b:ir into which they are leaded shuidd liave cast inin jiockets and be screwed at the Ikj.-^c to the gutters, also ol' cast iron. On the top a cast iron ridge will form an approjiiiatc ornamental finishing. The diagram in the margin sliows how it may l)C fixed. Zinc is a much cheaper material tiian iron for green- houses. Casements will add to the expense, hut the fixed sashwdrk may lie put up at the cost of one shilling per foot super, iucluding the neces- sary woodwork. In tlie design given the framing Is whollv of wood and mav lie put together hy any carpenter, altluuigh many tradesmen who devote tliemselves solely to the erection of green- houses try to make out that there is something peculiar hi them which is not understood hy the ordinary i)iiikler: and for the extra skill which is supposed to he rcipiired they charge accordingly. The general form in our design is as cheap as anv, domes and circular forms causing irregular cutting of the glass, adding greatly to the expense. A Writer in the llorticultm-al ^lagazine gi\es the following estimate of the clicaj)est posfsihle descrijition of greenhouse. " There are to he had many carpenters who are clever at sucji wcirk, and who will execute the woodwork of any of these huildings at one shilling ]ier foot. Suppose therefore wc calculate that a lean-to greenhouse has three feet oi' woodwork upright in front ahove the hnv hrick wall and two six feet lights from hack to fir)nt, and three feet .«ix inche.s wide, and that there are ten of these lights side hy side to make the length of the house, vvhich would then he tlurty-seven feet. Suppose the tops are sloped .so a.s to give us ten feet for the de])th of the house, there would then be three times thirty-seven feet (111) for the upright fr(jnt, and twelve times thirty-seven feet (444) for the roof, and say sixty feet for each end (120); the doors will add about 20 feet. We now get at the total number of feet, which is 69.'), which number of shillings, thirty foiu' ])ounds fifteen shillings, gives us the caqienter's work. We will reckon the glazing of the ro.of, or 444 feet, at 4';V', eight i)ounds three shillings and two pence, and the rest of the glass, 231, at 8(/, seven pounds fourteen shillings. There would be wanting the price of the bricklayer's work only to comjilete the building, this depending a little on the price of the materiid in the locality, for sometinu's the distance the bricks have to be drawn makes a good deal oi' ditference: liiil tlie height of the brickwork, say eighteen inches in the grotuid and two feet six out of the groimd, together foiu' feel, with the cuds, fifty-seven feet in length. This shoidd be nine inch work; say it will cost ten pounds, making sixty ]ioinids and uudei' sixty-one. Tlie heating of a house like lliis woidd r<'ipiire a eonicid lioiler, sa\' three jiounds; :inidi' of the last." Fo|- the sum named ilie win'k will, oi' course, be ol' a \cvy common description, and an addition oi' ^ 10 should be maile lo the estimate if it is desired to lia\e ti substantial erection. On Plate 21, will l)e foiuid enlarged (lel;iils ol' tlie sashes and frames of a greeidiouse. The wall below is I'ourteeu inches thick on three courses oi' lootings, the lower double, and the iiiee above the ground cemented. There should be a stone sill to carry the framework. The rooi' is to be formed with wrought, framed, rebated and eliaml'ered bcums, with wealhering as shown, nailed ;it lop aiul abutting below on a solid, strong, contimious heavith long handles and proper pin.s and plates; or, as we have shown them, he made to slide ojien more or less liy mcan.s of a pidley and cord attached to the enrh and the U|)per frame of the sash. Sometimes each light is spe- cified to have four strong hip rollers in jilates. with strong lines, large pnllies and iron weights of the P. C. value of ahout fifteen shillings. The upper sashes of greeidmu.-es may he from 2 to 2' .1 inches thick, with cross hars i'or the lights and wide framing to jirotect the lower part. The lower horizontal sashes are sometimes hung with strong hutts to the head ahove and provided with staying hars to keep them open more or less. ^A^e have shown lifting sashes, every alter- nate one being fixed either ahove or below. The sills should he of oak, 3 inches thick, sunk to 2 inches, and framed and pinned together at the angles. Deal cased I'rames with the necessary beads to fix the inch ' ^ ovolo sashes; brass cased pullies, patent lines, cast iron weights and S])ring sash fastenings. These details ai"e shown one-fifth I'cal size and therefore need no further description. On Plate 23, is a side elevation and transvei'se section. The sashes above are to be fixed. The door may be inch and a half sash door with moulded panels and haunched lock rail, hung on 3" butts, with 7" mortise lock and brass handles. Fix proper rebated and double beaded door case 4" X 2' .i", transom 3" X 2' .,", double rebated and beaded three edges; inch beaded fan light, with bead cut for it, hung on centres and fastened with small bolt. The arrangement of the stands for flowers inside greenhouses and conservatories is very various according to differences of taste, and depends also on the open space it may be deemed desirable to preserve. We have sliown on the plan and section on one side, a series of stands in the form of steps of diflferent widths one above another supported on framing, and on the other a continuous table on strong framed legs and bearers, about 3 feet high and 2 wide, it being the arrangement generally adopted in greenhouses of this description. The tops may be covered as shown on the detail with yellow deals, 5 inches wide, placed half an inch apart. Greenhouses should have stone paving laid to a proper fall, so as to carry ofl^ the water flowing over from watering the plants. 2^/2 Tooled or rubbed Yorkshire stone, 2 inch rubbed Portland, or any stone that is at hand suitable to the purpose, may be used. Where there is no basement, a bed of concrete, 6 inches in thickness, the sm-face being made perfectly level, will be the best substratum, and the slabs of stone shoidd be joined in cement. 4 inch glazed stone- wai'e tubular drains, with ])roper bends and junctions and Haywood's trajis, are to be laid with a good fall to carry off the water, as well from the roof as from within the greenhouse. The water from the roof will however be prolmlilv collected in a tank in the building. Slate is the best material: inch ' .j bottom and inch sides, grooved and tongued together with white lead and bolted with ^j" rod bolts, with nuts and screws complete. The gutters may be of iron of the form shown on Plate 24, costing aljout ten pence per yard run, and a 3 inch down pipe, costing about one shilling per yai'd. If the gutters and pipes are galvanized they will cost about once and a half the above prices. Lead flashings out of 5 lb. lead are to be fixed as sho\\'n at the top of the roof. The whole of the wood and iron work should be painted four times in good oil colour inside and out. 21 oz sheet glass may be used for the roof, the joints overlapping '4" and well stopped with good oil putty. Hooks of lead are often used, especially in ciu-ved roofs, to support the lower edge of every pane from the ujjper one of that below. Horticidtm-al glass may be procured in lights 12 inches long and ten inches wide, and also 40 inches long and 3 feet super; it weighs per foot super. 13. IC. and 21 oz. Hartley's rough opaque glass is excellent for the roofs of greenhouses, as it prevents the scorching of the plants by the excessive 50 DF.SIGX FOn A GUEENHOfSE. lie;it of tlio Sim; it iiiav lie ' 4 imli tliifk; and it has the further advantage that it is not easily hrokon. Coloured glass is sonietinies used in conservatories, but its ado})tion is not to he reeoni- niended, altering as it does the natural beautiful appearance of the plants and giving them all manner of inappropriate hues. t'onser\atories are generally heated by a hot water a])pai'atus, and on this subject the reader will find ini'onnation, as well as particulars of the length of piping re(|uired to maintain a given heat, in tlie article on the ^\'arming of Buildings. A porch is desirable to a conservatory in order not to admit too suddeidy the cold external air; it being necessary to maintain an e(|uable heat, the average of that of the country where the plants are indigenous. Openings for admitting the rerpiisite cool air should be formed on tlie shady side of the house; and it is not desirable to brintr this fresh air from the immediate level of the ground but rather from a hiuher reo-ion down passages formed in the wall of tlie building. A very small boiler will sui'fice to heat a very large conservatory. The diagram in the margin shows an ordinary form, like two flower pots in\erted, the fire being in the middle and the water around it. The fuel is introduced at the top which is then closed and speedily generates a great heat. Tiie water begins innuediatcly to circulate on the jirineiple of coiirecfioii explained; and, witli res])ect to the pipes, all tliat need be attended to is, that, as the heated jiartides of the water rise, the supply pipe shall go out of the boiler at a higher le\el than the return pipe, which brings back water cooled, to be again heated, rise and circulate through the supply pipe. M'lien the fire is thoroughly lighted, the aperture may be filled and covered, the regulator of the flue being closed in that degree to allow of a steady slow combustion. The ))ipes are sometimes sent through shallow tanks oi' water covered with tan or soil, in which pots are bedded or plants grown, thus conununicating a great degree of heat. The hot water may be carried l)y the pi|)es thi-ougli the taidv or Ik' discharged into the tank at one end, circulate and be cai'ried onward by a i-ctiu'n pipe at the other. In the design given we have not shown any heating a]iparatus: but if it is desii'cd, the Hocjr of the stove may he two or tiu"ee steps below that of the grccnliousc. Hollow walls are \( ry eflcctive in retaining the heat. The cost of this greenhouse, ii' erected and finished in the best manner, in accordance with the general description given, will average £ 0(1, exclusive oi' the cost of a heating apparatus. As the words Greenhouse and Conservatory are often confounded we will close this article by defining them. A Greenhouse is used for sheltering plants in pots which are too delicate to bear the o]ien air in this changeable climate in cold and inclement weatiier. The ])ots are ])laced upon stages, while, in a Conser\atoiT they are planted in beds of earth, or free soil. An Orangery has a closed, ceiled roof, thus differing from Conservatories and (ireenhouses, the roofs of which are glazed. Plants pioilucing flowei's and shoots in the open air during tlicsunnner arc preserved in Orangeries dining the winter, or in Conservatories. A Greenhouse, (iwilt remarks, "should not be far away from the dwelling house, that the greatest enjoyment may be had from it. At the same time, it shouhl, if jxissible, be near the flovvcr garden, as l)eing of similar character in use. Tlie lengtli and breadth can otdy l)e determincil by the wealth and objects of the |)roprietor. The best aHpects arc south and south-east, bul any aspicl may, in ca.-c of necessity, be taken, if tiie roof lie entirely of glass, and plenty of artificial iicat be supplied, in those greenhouses, however, which face the north, the tender jdauts do not in winter .-uccceil so well, and a greater fpian- tity of artificial heat nuisl then be supplied, and the plants should, in sucii case, be chiefly ever- greens, and others that come into flower in the summer-season, and grow and flower but little during the winter. The plaiits in grceidiouses arc kept in ]iots or boxes on stages or shelves, so '^^ CO O i>Ksi(;\ I'di; simr i-iiiin(;s. 51 as t(i l)c near ami t'ollciw tlir sl(i|ic u{' ilic i-dnl', and tliu.^ iiiadu more r^usceptililc ul llic aitiuii ol the film's rays iiiiiiKMliatcly on passing ilirouuli ilic glass. A Conservatory should be more s|)a- cioiis, loftier, and ho finished in a sn|)(>ri(ir style to a (irccnhousc. It shotdd he seated on a drv spot, so as to reecive (hu-ing .the day as nuieh of the sun's heat as possible. It is to be provided with Hues, or boiling water pipes, to raise the temperature when necessary: there nuist also be contrivances for introducing the trcsh air when required. In sununcr time the glass roofs are taken off, and the plants exposed to the open air: but these arc restored always, if taken oft", on the slightest indication of frost." DESIGN FOK SHOP FITTINGS. Plates 25. 26. 27. 2S. 2il. Tiic decorations and dcscripti\c details of this series of designs for shop- fittings will be observed to be of a totally different character from those before given. In this instance also the whole of tlic internal finishings are of wood, excepting the cornice, while in the last series the decorative details were shown to be executed in stucco on brickwork. On the exterior also, instead of girders to carry liic wall above with wood facings, the |ircferable ]ilan of turnintr arches has been adopted. Plates 25, and 2(>, show flic general arrangements and the external and internal effect. Plate 27, is an enlarged detail of the shop front. Brick, stone (either Portland, Bath or Caen), and Port- land cement are projtosed to be used. The sashes are to be of brass, with iron revolving shutters, on the advantages of which we have already spoken. The woodwork of the doorwav, etc., will be preferable if of maliogany. The projecting consoles at the ends of the shop front should be of stone, and indeed the central part over the doorway will be best constructed of it; otherwise brickwork with cement ■' j" thick may be used; the utmost care must be taken in tiu-ning the arches, which are to be in half brieic rings. The extra expense of using stone entirely would not be much; and if the material be well chosen, its durability and superior efl'eet are ample compensation for the increased investment in a front where there is much decoration, and the labour in producing a satisfactory effect in cement is gi-eat. Plate 28, show in detail tlie cases at each side of the shop. The pillars are to be of Mahogany with carved capitals and the doors to the cases also of the same wood, Spanish being of course much more expensive than Honduras. The rest of the framing may be of deals. The mouldings are to be secm'ely fixed and neatly finished, and the whole is to be wrought, framed, rebated, stop-chamfered and put together in the manner shown on the plan and section. The closets below are also to be as indicated, with inch ' ., stop-chamfered panelled doors, hung folding on brass butts (as are also to be the doors to cases), with brass tumbler locks •,uid ebony handles. The backs of these closets and cases are to have •' ," matched aiul beaded Ijoarding. Plate glass, fixed with a bead, is to be used to the cases. The ])rofile of tiie cornice is shown and bracketting is to be provided. The framing above to take this and the formation of the compartments of the ceiling shown on the Longitudinal and Transverse Sections will depend on the nature of the original works existing above, of which it is im])ossii)le for us to take cognizance. If the house is built with the shop the construction will be arranged accordingly. The enclosed show j)lace in front of the shop is to have sliding sashes as shown on Plate 26, and to which the details of sliding sashes before given will apjtly. These sashes may be of deal or mahogany. Mahogany veneered doors, we may mention, are nuieh used. The prime cost of veneers to panels is 6(/, 52 DESIGN FOR SHOP FITTIXGS. and to franiiiifr 1'/. Sometimes the panels only arc veneered, the mouldings being of Spanish mahoo-anv and the framing Ildiidiiras; Init often the whole faces and edges of the floors are veneered. The stall board, shutters, and sashes are shown on Plate 27. Stall boards and sash bars with brass or zinc fitces may be procured in great variety, ready manufactured in single leno-ths of upwards of 30 feet. Brass and zinc sash bars of various design cost from eighteen pence- (^4 inch sectional length) to ten shillings (5 inch sectional length with hard wood core. iron tongue, and mouldings of hard wood to fix glass) per foot run. Angle bars cost one-half more, and half bars one-third less than whole bars. Plate 29, contains design for chinmey piece: the mouldings are given at large. The mirror above is to he fixed in the manner shown; the mouldino-s are to be of mahogany and the enrichment papier mache; the linings may be of deal. The mahoo-any is to be French polished, the rest of the woodwork being grained maple, satin wood, or as may be preferred: the pedestals and front of closets, round lower part of shop should be "rained some dark coloured wood; and the columns being of Mahogany will stand well out if the part behind them is grained some light coloiu-ed wood, or finished white or any deli- cate colour. The doors at the end of the shop nuist be finished to harmonize with the colour around, but on the subject of decoration we shall hereafter make a few remarks. The approximate cost of this shop front and the interior decorations and finishings as shown on the drawings, cement and stone being used for the facing of the front, plate glass (British) throughout, Honduras mahogany as mentioned and deal grained, exclusive of the side and end walls and the joistin'g above the shop, but including the flooring to it, will be £ 600. A reduction of betwen one and two hundred pounds may be eflTected by slightly reducing the decoration of the front, using throughout brickwork and cement, and within substituting yellow fir for mahoganv, crown instead of plate glass and modifying some of the decoration. The expense would certaiidv not exceed the sum named, but sufficient details are given to enable any builder to "'nc an accurate estimate after examination of the premises on whicli the works may be pro- posed to be executed, so modified to suit the site; as it is impossible to give designs of this descrijttion which, from peculiarities of location, can be carried out without some alterations with re.-ipect to the space to be occupied. The value of such designs consists in their being suggestive of modes of construction and decorations, rather than being suited as a whole to a jjarticular house, a circumstance which can seldom occur. A shop can therefore be erected and fitted up in the style of the design given, although the dimensions may not be precisely adhered to in all respects. DKAINAGE OF LAND AND BUILDINGS. Drainage is the art of carrying oft' all the refuse, (k'com|iosing matters and water accunui- lating on land :uid in buildings. It also includes irrigation and the supply of water as a jiowerfid means in all clean.-ing operations. One branch of the science considers the means (jf collecting the refuse matters and rendering them productive in the shape of nianureK. This is a subject whieh has only lately received that consideration, which has demonstrated the folly of throwing away in rivers what is so \aiualije in itself, independently of liie e\il of pollnting the water and the atmosphere around. Of the paianiount iiii|iorlaiiee of drainage o]ieration8 there can lie no iloiibt. By its means fens and swamps are con\(rte(l into fertih; agricultural land, or fitted for building ])urposes; fevers, malaria, and agues, befori' prevalent on them, are diminished or totally cease; health ki as 1:9 €1 DRAINAGE OF LAN!) AND lUII.DINOS. 53 and clonnlincss are ])romofe(l; and tliat rontamiiiatipii, arisiiitj from tlio open diteh or newer, or from tlu" cesspool, allnwiiiir decaved matter to peiietiMte the soil and i-ise in ;;aseoiis exlialations, is ohviated. \\ here water is allow (h1 to eollcet, manures , to the working of a large scoop wheel for draining a fen near El)' is one of the most valuable advances in mechanical draining. In England a vast quantity of fenny and marshy land has been reclaimed and rendered available for agricultural puriioscs. A company thus rendered ]iroductive the district known as the Bedford level, beiorc comparatively useless. In Switzerland many marshes and even lakes have liecn made dry by means of tunnels cut through the solid rock and thus effectually draining them. The Romans, wlien in this island, reclaimed the Romsej' marshes; and we find in the ordinances of Henry III. "that all the lands in the said marsh be kept and retained against the violence of the sea, and the fioods of the fresh waters, with banks and sewers." A modern successfid work is the drainage of the Lake of Haarlem in Holland, by which SO(»,0()0,Oll(> tons of water in a space of l.'),2;i(l acres of an average dejith of 14 feet are pumped out by means of steam power. Below a rich alluvial soil, admirably fitted for agricul- tural piu'poses, was found. A superabundance of water msiy often be got rid of by the process of tapping, and thus commimicating with a lower permeable stratmn, the openings being termed ilrain U'ells. The general process adopted in instances of land l)elow the level of adjoining waters is, first to cut channels at intervals to collect the water and conduct it to a main drain ])arallel ti> the adjoining waters, the passage into them being regidated by sluices, or the water is raised by pumj)s. The earth removed from the drains is cast up at the sides, thus increasing their depth and forming roads on either side. ^^^lere land is flooded by springs, the first proceeding is to discover the readiest channels by wliich the water can be carried oft'. One drain properly contrived may thus be made to dispose of the water before it inimdates the land; for it is useless to cut passages through the fields, allowing all the water to soak into the soil. If the water is s])read all over the soil, small drains are cftectivc running into main drains; but when a lai-ge drain will serve the purpose, it is pre- ferable to smaller ones, as these latter do not last so long and are less easily kejit efficient. The system of drainage introduced by jNIr. Elkington in 1704, was a great advance over what had before been done. His method was, "Ist, finding out the iiidiii itprin will cause water either to rise up and he thus carried off, or to sink through them accordinjj; to the situation of the porous stratmn. Watt r. lyiui;' on flat imperious soils and in too j^'rcat (piantity to !»■ cai-i'icd of hy eva](oration, often necessitates \ cry laljorious and expensive operations for its removal, owing to the lunne- rous drains which are re(|uisite. ^^'e have first to consider the nature of the soil, second the arrangement of the drains, and tiuid tiicir cly be fixed at some multiple (d' the length or brea drain tlie substratum, they shciuld be covered in; or, by reason i)f' their sloping sides, they will (leciipy l<"' niucii space. They are also constantly exposed to injury from the destruction of tiieir baidis; an UJ Q DKAINAill, (IF LAND AND III III )|\(;,S. 57 the 8emi-iMr<'iil;ir iii|i I'nim iiidcMtin^- ilic ,-ciil, ;niil i;iic iiui.-i lie lakrii nni in lot the joints cor- respond. The ordinary draining tile, wliicli i;* merely a flat tile l)ent in the form of a semi- eyhnder by a maehine, is good for swi-faee ih-ainage. However ingenious tlie above eontrivanees, tlicre ean be no doubt that, for pennanenee, eom])letene8.s and ceonomy, tile piping i.s liy far the ]ireferable mode of draining. It is not liable to injury from vermin, i.s laid with great rapidity aiul rctain.s permanently its position in the soil. Of eoin-sc trees and vegetation will disturb and interfere with its aetion, and care must therefore be taken not to lay drains where their effieieney is likely to be destroyed. Their depth and distance apart will be regulated by the nature of the soil and its position, but depths of two to three feet, and distances of eighteen to twenty-four are about the general dimensions. The utmost care nnist be taken to prevent the pijies slipping apart and accurately to fit them together. AVe may mention that for drain tiles of an inner diameter of '.] or 1 inches the breadth of the Hat tile or sole is about 7 inches, the length varying from 12 to I.t inches. The soles cost about Id shillings jicr thousand and the tiles twice as nuich. riiiing two inches diameter and fifteen inches long may be had for aliout Iti shillings per thousand; and the fol- lowing statement of the comparative cost of drains per acre is given by ]\Ir. Ste])liens, the drains being considered to be 'M) inches deep and If) feet apart. Loose stone di'ains i^ 8 „ 1 I „ t). Sole and tile drains 7 „ 10 „ 8. Pipe tiles drains 5 „ S „ 9. We conclude our ol)scrvations on the drainage of land with a talile compiled l)y Mr. Dempsey and given in his able and interesting treatise on di-ainage. DESCRIPTION OF SOILS. Oni'i'n'pip^'s c.st ..r .iiain tiics C' . f c ■/ I>i>tan(C (if Mcpth of Cost of culling and \'l in. Ion;.' tor -Arvt^, at .'lO^ Oliqiurt Of /IC'iir)/ ■^0I(,<. Umins apart. Drains. filling per acre. per acri'. per 1,000. Total cost per acre. Comi)act, tenacious, gra- Feet. Feet. in. £ s d £ s d £ s d velly clay .... 15 2 „ 6 ;^ „ 13 „ 1 29(1.') 4 „ 7 ., 2 8 „ d „ (i Stifl\idhesive clay . . 16» o 2„6 3„ 3„1 2t;i4(i ;? „ 19 „ 2 7„ 2„ 6 Friable clay .... IS 2„9 2„15„1'., 2!2(i ;! „ 12 „ 7 G„ 7„ 8 Free soft clay ... 21 2„9 2„ 2 ,, () 2(l7() 3„ 2„3" 5„ 4„ 3 Medium Soils. Clayey loam .... 22 3 „ 2 „ Id „ d 19Sd 2 „ 19 „ o 5 „ 9„ 5 :\Iarly loam .... 24 3 „ d 2„ 1„3 1 814 2„l4„5'o 4 „ 15 „ 8 (iravelly loam ... 27 3„3 2„I7„2 UJI3 2„ S ., 4' o 5„ 5„ (P., Friable loam .... 30 3„3 2„ 4„0 1152 2„ 3 „ (5' o 4„ 7„ (i' ^ Po7vw^ or light Soils. l^ight gravelly loam . 33 3 „ 6 2 „ 1(3 „ 8 132d 1 „ 19 „ 7 4 „ l(j „ 3 Light marly loam . . 36 3„9 2„ 9 ., 4 1 2dd 1 „ 1(3 „ 3 4„ 5„ 7 Sandy loam .... 39 4„0 1 „ 19 ., 8 1117 1 „ 13 „ (i 3„ 3„ 2 Soft light loam ... 42 1 „ d 1 ., Hi .. 9 !d37 1 ., 1 1 „ 1 ' ., 3 „ 7 „ Id' ^ Sandy soil 45 4 „ d 1 „ 1 I „ 5 974 1 „ 9 „ 2' ^ 3 „ 3 „ 7' , Light gravelly sand . 49' ^ 4 „ 3 2 „ 5 „ d 8Sd 1 .. 7 „ 4> a 3 „ 12 „ Id Deep do. do. . 55 4 ., 3 1 ., 1(3 ,. d 792 1 „ 3 ., 2 ., 19 ., 9 Caarse do. do. . (3d 4 ., (3 2 ., I ., d 720 1 „ 1 „ 9 3 „ 5 „ 9 Loose do. do. . 6(3 4„6 I ., 13 „ I (36d 19 „ 9' 2 2 „ 13 „ 1' . IIa\in"- inxcii an niitliiu' of llie mode ol' drainiiiir districts and land, we shall next imiceed to the consideration of that of towns and buildings. Tiie old idea tliat a river adjoining a town should be converted into its main sewer is being gradually given U[), owing to the experience of s 58 DRAINAGE OF LAND AND BUILDINGS. the contamination of the water and tlie atmosphere tlms caused, and the deterioration of the health of those wlio reside near the banks, as well as tlie discovery of tlie folly of throwing away that refuse matter which can be made so productive in the shape of manure. Drainage matter carried into a river not only pollutes the water and renders it unfit for use, hut being often spread over the banks and Ijrought back again by the tide after being carried oft", the air around is thoroughly deteriorated. The water too, entering the sewers, stops their action and drives back the decaying matters. If the ch-ains to the houses are inefficiently trapped, the consequence is that the am- monia in the substances and fluids which should have been at once cai-ried off' is disengaged and mixes with the air in the form of carbonate of ammonia, rising and spreading thi'ough dwellings and producing very hurtful effects. It is also well understood that this disengagement lessens the value of the sewage as maniu'e and tends to cause decay in buildings. The subject is of such paramount importance that we shall give Liebig's statement of the means which may be taken to obviate the consequences named. ''Gypsum, cliloride of calcimn, sulphuric and mm-iatic acids and sujjcrphosphate of lime are substances of very low price, and if they were added to m'ine until the latter lost its alkalinity, the ammonia would be converted into salts, which would have no further tendency to volatilize. When a basin, filled with concentrated muriatic acid, is placed in a common necessary, so that its surface is in free communication with the vapours issuing from below, it becomes filled after a few days with crystals of muriate of ammonia. The anunonia, the presence of which the organs of smell amply testify, combines with the nuu-iatic acid, looses entirely its volatility, and thick clouds or fumes of the salt newly formed hang over the basin. In stables the same may be seen. The ammonia, escaping in this manner, is not only lost, as far as our vegetation is concerned, but it works also a slow though not less certain destruction of the walls of the building. For when in contact with the lime of the mortar, it is converted into nitric acid, w-hich gradually dissolves the lime. The injury thus done to a building by the formation of soluble nitrates has received in Germany a special name — salpeterfmtss (production of soluble nitrate of lime). The ammonia emitted from stables and necessaries is always in combination with carbonic acid. Carbonate of ammonia and sulphate of lime fgypsum) cannot be brought together at common temperatures without mutual decomposi- tion. The ammonia enters into combination with the sulphuric acid, and the carbonic acid with the lime, forming compounds destitute of volatility, and consequently of smell. Now if we strew the floors of our stables from time to time with connuon gypsum, they will loose all their ott'en- sivc smell and none of the ammonia can be lost, but will be retained in a condition serviceable as manure." The general plan of the drainage of towns will of coiu'se be varied according to the situations and the surrounding features. In towns lying low, tlie drainage may be brought to two or more situations according to its (piantity and be then carted away. Towns lying high may have their sewage carried off at nucc to some distance. As above shown, the collection of refuse matter in rece])taclcs and the carting of it off may be effected without tlie least injury to the health of those residing near, iiesidcs jireserving tliose (|ualities which render it valuable as a manure. The street debris should be swept into and carried off" by the sewers, notwithstanding this has been objected to as deteriorating from the value of mamux', its jiroportion being usually too small to effect it: and the disgusting process of carrying it off' above groinid is sufficient to recommend the use of the sewer. The size of main sewers is settled according to the quantity of sewage and the fall that can be obtained. They arc conunouly made too large. The Fleet sewer in London is IS ft. in. by 12 ft. at the mouth. Tlie Westminster sewers are of the form shown on jiagc 262. in the Glossary of The Builder's Practical Director; the largest are 5 ft. f) in. higli and U i't. wide. The Holborn and Finsbury C'oniuiission rccpiired that "every sewer wliich may receive the sewage from streets and places containing more than two hundred houses shall be of an oval form, five feet in height and three feet in w iilth in the clear, the invert thereof ©Eia&iKi y®n a ©M^iPigiL. Piatt, J/ TRANSVERSE SLCTION DRAINAGE OF LAND AND BUILDINGS. 59 to be worked one brick in substance, and tlie sprinpinj)' walls thereof to be worked one lirick and a half in substance and l)onded, and the crown thereof one brick in sul)stance in two sei)arate half bricks." Branch sewers receiving sewage from less than two hundred houses were required to be 4 ft. G in. high, by 2 ft. in. wide. In the City the smallest size in a large street is 4 ft. 6 in. by 2 ft. 6 in. We may get a nmgh idea of the proper size of a sewer by considering each house as containing on the average five persons, and that the waste matter from ejich indi- vidual to be disposed of is twenty gallons. The rain fall may be taken at two inches per diem; and, as the drainage is not uniform, ])rovision should be made for carrying it off in two hours, tiuis allowing for the effects of storms. Allowint!; also for the increase of the ncifjliliouriKiod, if we divide the aggregate sum, reduced into cul)ic feet, by 120, for the quantity ])er minute, we can then projiortion the size of the ])ipes to it by simply ascertaining the diameter rcf(uisite for the (hschargc of the water. The size of the sewer need not be uniform tlu-oughout, iiut be diminished gradually from the mouth to where it is least filled. The advantage of having a sewer of small dimensions is the decrease of friction owing to the concentration of the water, and any substance getting into a small sewer will probal)ly, by blocking it up cause such an accumulation of water that the pressure at length forces it on with great rajjidity; while in a large sewer, the object will be left stationary, owing to the water having plenty of space to pass, and thus an accumulation of matter gradually takes place. With respect to the form of sewers, the elliptic is the strongest; as in a sewer the vertical pressure is the gi-eatcst, the top and the sides nuist be of great strength, the latter being also dependent on the characteristics of the soil. The bottom of the sewer, must be firm enough to react against the sides and to withstand the resistance of the soil beneath to the weight of the sewer. An elliptical form, with its greatest length in a vertical direction, is thus found to be the most preferable shape. The figure in the margin is that reconmiended by Mr. Denipsey, and the reduced radius of the curved bottom prevents as much as possible retardation from friction. The diameter of the lower circle equals 1 , that of the upjier 2, the height of the sewer 3, and the radius of the side arcs the same. The second diagram ex- hibits the form adopted in the Holborn District. The Metropolitan Boards have decided that a fall of half nn inch in 10 feet, or 1 in 240, is sufficient. The llolborn andFinsbury regulations required that "the inclination be not less tliaii ' ^ inch to every 10 feet in Icngtii, and as niucli more as circum- stances will, admit in those portions that are in a straight line, and doul)lc that fall in ]iortions that are curved." Curves considerably modify tlii' rapidity of tiic jiassage of sewage. An equal quatity of water running along equal lengths of sewers with similar falls are found by ^fr. Roe to be discharged as follows; — Along a straight line 90 seconds. With a true curve 100 With a turn at right angles ... 140 „ A greater fall shoidd be given to the curved than to the straight ])arts of the sewers; and Mr. Roe recommends that the curves be of not less radius than twenty feet. The construction of sewers will be generally modified by the character of the soil in which they are placed; many which might be safely built in4'i2 in. work in some .soils requiring in others considerably greater strength. The form of sewer reconuuended by ^Ir. Dem]>sey, built in half brick work at a depth of about 10 feet, is estimated by him to cost as follows; 8* OU DRAINAGE OF LAND AND HUILDINGS. ..' „ 3(/, and 20 X 12 inches 3.« „ ()(/ per foot I'un. Mr. Dcmpsey states the following as the a\erage cost of supplviiig and laying l)ipo sewers in fvonddii: 4 inch . . . i» 12 „ ... 15 „ . . . 18 „ . . . The bfittom of the trenches should be moulded to the shape of the sewers and holes cut for the sockets. If day abounds, an impervious coating 0" thick may I)C i'ormed round the sewers. Means of access are requisite to large sewers for cleansing and otiier purposes. This is now ob- taineil by the substitution of side entrances for the manholes i'ormerly used, thus avoiding the oiijectionable breaking ii|i of the streets. A s(piare well is constructed in brickwork down to about two feet fidin the ImituMi of the sewer. A hinged cover, or tra]) door with a lock, set in Hagstonc, opeii.> limii liic street into the well, and iiandirons are provided to get down. The cover is ke])t open wlicii i-c(|uireil by a sell-acting catch, and an iron grating, which admits light and air, rises to its |)lace and pre\<'nts people, ialling in. One side entrance is generally provided to every six hundn-d feet of sewer. (iully traps with- sluxit.s are jirovideil to conduct the surface drainage of streets into sewers. Tiie diagram show.t the form onlinarily ad» " »» 3 „ 10 « »» ») „ 11 11 11 a: o o Q O z < i o o z z < a. < I- nUAINAC.F. OF I.AXn AND Tini.niNOS. UKiiitlily, or as often as rcf|ui.sitc, and tlio curtain wall, or (lipping valve, prevents tlie esca))c from the sewers of the prases ;ni(l putrid smells arising f'nini tlio icrincnt;i(iiiu and doeay of tiie refuse matters. Tlic watci' sometimes becomes evaporated, but this can easily be reme- died. The second diagram shows a section of a gully traj) manufactured by .Ml-. Ddultdu. .V stoneware oi' iinn gi-atiug may be placed at the top and the cost, according to size, is from If „ 6(1 to IS shillings. The ventilation of sewers is a matter of considerable difficulty. An ex))l()sive mi.\tnre is fcne- rated in them rendering it dangerous to enter with lamps. Some Commissioners have forbidden the trapping of gully holes and require them to be kept open. Near such a gully hole fever will be found very liable to occur, and a butcher's shop could not be kept there. The Metropolis Local Miinagement Act rc(iuires al/ gidly holes to be trapped. Mr. Fuller proposed t(( Inn e a furnace with a lofty chimney erected near the highest part of every main sewer, and so arran"-ed that the fire could be supplied with the air essential for combustion from the sewer unlv. The fires of manufactories might thus be made to aid ventilation. Flushing is a mode of cleansing sewers by retaining water by flusliing gates and tiun jk r- mitting it suddenly to rush through the sewer, sweeping everytbing before it. One evil however of it is that it th-ives up the gases so violently tiiat, unless the gully holes and drains leading into dwellings are very carefully trapped, they escape and cause discomfort and illness. Wo may here mention that to present a rising tide entering a sewer delivering into a river, valves or heavy Haps arc used, and men, called finp-keepeys, are employed to open the flaps at low water to allow the sewage to escape. We come next to the drainage of the refuse matter from houses which is led into the sewers. First with respect to the levels, the lowest floors of houses should be at least four feet above the level of the commencement of the invert of the sewer. If they are otherwise, the houses will be constantly liable to be flooded when the sewers are unusually filled through heavy rain.s, or when Hushing operations are going on. The Westminster Commissioners requii'cd the bottoms of drains, at their junction with the sewer, to be twelve inches abo\c the bottt)m of it, and that they should have a fall of at least one quarter inch to the i'oot. This is fifteen inches in a length of si.\ty feet; adding thirteen inches for the height of the drain and brick arch over it, eight inches for the depth of the ground and paving over the upper end of the drain, and twelve inches between its lower end and the bottom of the sewer, we have the fall oi' fom* feet. The Holborn and Finsbury Com- mission required a height of two feet between the bottom of the sewer and that of the drain. The junctions, and about three feet of the drain, were made by the Commissioners to prevent injury to the sewers. The New Act for the Local Management of the Metropolis contains a section tiie object of which is to compel owners of houses, whether built before or after the passing of the Act, to construct (b-ains into the sower (if one exists within 100 feet). ))roperly sy|)]ioncd, together with all other re 1 '- ■'" ■■ ■ ■ '•• ^A-- . — ^_ '^ — _ ■^rnmr-rr ^ X' DRAINAGE OF LAND AND HT'ILDINGS. 63 termed a wnter-lnte, and a va. inch briikwork. paved Avith half-brick, and domed over in U ineli work, all in mortar, and to liave a circular manhole carefullv formed, 2 feet in diameter, with 4 inch York stone tooled cover anil strong wrought iron flush ring, bolt and screw nut, let tlirough stone and run with lead. Cesspools to feet of water pipes 14 inches stpiare and 2 feet dee]); to gratings o\er '.I inch drains 14 inches square; and to 14 inch drains is, inches si)uare: al the bottom of drains, and lined with juire Koman cement ' ./' thick. to be 1 foot deeper than 64 DRAINAGE OF LAND AND BUILDINGS. Cesspools to stables 9 inchc.-; si|uare liiieil with cement; properly connect 4 inch drains with them: form rounded gutter with bricks on edge, falling towards gratings above cesspools: and cover each cessi)ool with 2 inch York cover stone, 1 foot square, rebated for cast iron grating, 6 inches square. 'J'aiil: Construct a tank to receive water through the drains from the roof. It may be cir- cular or square, say 9 feet square and deep, to be built in 9 inch work, with 9 inch invert and dome, all to be executed in cement, and the sides and bottom rendered with [lure cement l'/4 inch thick. Provide 4 inch tooled York cover to opening, 2 feet G in. diameter, with flush ring comi)lete. Glazed Drain Pipe.t. Glazed stoneware tubtdar di-ains, with socket joints and ])roi)er bends, junctions, double junctions, elbow.? and traps, to be 2 feet lengths and T) inches diameter in the clear within, laid to a iall of 2 inches in 10 feet. The sockets to be at least ;i inches in depth to take smaller ends; and the piping generally to be well biu-nt, sound, free from cracks and defects and perfectly concentric in section. Joint tlie pijtes with cement or well tempered clay. Provide projjcr glazed stoneware AV. C. i)ans, syphon trap in stoneware to sink, and similar yard gully and trap, or yard gidly with funnel top and trap. Properly connect down pipes from roof with drains and provide syphon tra2>s. Lowe's patent stench trap, 9" X 5' 2", may be sid)stituted for those in the yards, properly connected with the drains. Haywood's traps and grates are good, fixed in dished stones for surface water. Drains to be laid towards sewer with a curve of a radius of 8 or 10 feet. Brick funnels may be used at the feet of rain water pipes. Plain earthenware pipes may be used for the soil and glazed for the water. Glazed .Honeware Main Sewer of socket jointed, egg shaped pipes of the diameter of 15 inches inside, with proper connecting sockets for drains, and all necessary bends, junctions etc.; the joints to be well stopped with the best Portland cement. Stoneware gidly traps 15 inches dia- meter, costing 15 shillings each. DESIGN" FOR A CHAPEL. Plates 30. to 37. Before describing this design we sbiill make a few observations on the jiointsto be attended to ill description ol' buildings. It is Imt too common to overcrowd congregations, instead of accomodating them, in churclics :iii O @ o 55) z = < S® -1 DESIGN I'OU A CIlAriCI.. 05 Tilt' (lo>cii|)tii)n nf tlir ;i(li;if'i'iit liiiililiiiiis is iilsu to lie iii(|iiirp(l iiif(i: :is liictories and otlier structures in wlilrli ilurc may lie a i^Toal noise (lin-iiin; ihc weili woiilil tend to distmli eonifre- gations wiio niuy meet on other days tlian Snndays. Nuisances ai'O caused hv tlie eaiTvin"' on of some trades, all of wliieli eireimistane(>s slionld receive due consideration ]iri(ji to tlie selection of ii site. Places of worslii]) also nuist not lie |ilaced in localities too i'enio\lcte brickwork as shown. 1 he mortar to be eon1|)os^•d .of fresh burnt lime and clean ])urc sand in the ]iro])ortion of I to 3, ^ ^ ® < > u -I. u u Q Z ' O u u < z Q h <:> z o DESKiN I'OK A CllAI'Kl.. V)', \\ r H iiiixod to^vtlicr iiiul cliiircd in a [)u_n-inill. 'Ilic ilraiiis to be 4 inch tart; cesspools 12 inches wide and 3 inche= deep, with proper stout framed beai-ers. The flat over entrance vestibule to be similar, or joints 0" X 2i,.,". All the ironwork to be as shown and to be ])rovided by the Founder. Tlic bolts to lune proper screws, with good clean thread of coarseness proportioned to their diameter. The nuts must fit accurately without the least shake or play and be at least equal to twice the diameter of the bolt; proper washers are to be provided. The dovetailed formed heads, or sockets, and those at the feet of Queen bolts, together with the abutment plates and .shoes for purlins, are sufficiently explained on the plate. The joists to flooring of pews and also those to the C'omnuuiion space and ^'cstry floors are to be of oak, 4'/-2" X 3", and are to rest on, or to be tcmmcd into, })lates of the same scantling; but those to the Vestries are to be .3" X ',i". Wrought strutting is to be provided, and no joists are to exceed 12 inches apart. The Galleries are to be framed and supported in the manner .shown on Plate 35. Bressmnmers 14" X 6", bolted to iron plate with •'4" bolts in the manner indicated. Binders, framed into or resting on bressununers, 12" X 0", and further secured with ^^/V plate and bolts. The prin- cipals and straining pieces shown on the left hand side detail are to be ^^" X 5", with dove- tail-formed iron head.s, inch bolts and '/j" bolts at feet of principils. The joists resting on truss are to be 8" X 3", as also the upper ones to passage; the smaller joists are to be 4" x; 2'/o". the joists in the right hand side detail arc to be elongated as ,late 3(>, to details of a plain example likely to lie practicallv nsefid. For car^ cd work ircncrallv, oak unpainted is luidonbtedly preferable to fir. Yellow deal is ])roposcd in the cxiun|)ic now gi\en. The panels should not exceed eleven inches in widtli; seven is desirable. Inch ' ., beaded enclosing partitions, one jjanel high (two are common), inch ' ., bolection moulded and bead fiiish doors, with bottom rails 6 inches wide, and stiles, top rails and n)nnnions 1 inches wide, hung on 'A inch brass butts with projecting knuckles, and provided with brass knoli [)ulpit latches. Details of panel and meeting stiles of doors are given half full size. Wainscot capping, as detail, half real size, moulded and grooved to tongue in partitioning. This capping is to cover all the enclosure, as well as the doors. The upright framing is to be secured to the i\uiiv and steadied by means of angle irons and screws, j)laced where most out of sight. The fi'aming of the tiead below is to be tenoned into the riser, but this and the flooring has licen before de- scribed. Inch i/.( scats, rounded on the outer edge. Hi inches wide, ciu\cd towards door as shown. Inch ';., cut brackets to support scats, from 2' „ 6" to '.i' ,, 0" apart, with chamfered bearers at ends against sides of ]iews. The flap scats are tf) lia\-c strong joints and are to be liimg with butts or stra[i liingcs. ^/, inch liodk boarils, G inches wide, with ' ., inch rcmnclcd ca])ping, ton- ;ued into groove in book board, and ' ^ '"^'i '^''•'^ brackets about the same distance jipart as those to the seats. The ends of book boards are to be rounded as indicated next to the jiew doors to give space on entering. The children's seats and those round galleries are to be as shown on Plate Iff), II inches wide, roiuided on fi-ont edge, with no backs; the cut brackets to be of tiie distance apart above described, and all to be out of inch ' , ,-tntf. Free seats (if any are intro- duced! arc not to be inclosed. Thcv are to be out of inch ' ., (lc:d. with slciping backs, framed with stop-chanifcred stiles, nunuiious and rails, 1 inches wide, with similar standards, ends and chamfered bearers. The seats and brackets may be as described for the pews. The organ is to be inclosed with framing and door similar to that described for the pews. For the organ itself we need give no description; it should of coin-sc correspond in tlic style of its decoration with that of the general design of the chapel. The pulpit given on I'late 37, is to be of inch '^j, or two inch deal, framed and put tugcthcr as shown, with bold beads at angles, and bolection moulded and bead flush framing, the inner beads licing omittec of iron, with cure, jilate and .-crews. The seat within pidpit is to be of inch ' j deal rounded, with proper bearers and cut bracket. t^ 70 DESIGN FOR A CHAPEL. The book lioanl is to hv of iucli ' ., deal witli ^ |" louiided caiiping, rt'liated into groove in hoard; it is to be supported by the cut brackets and bearer in tlic manner delineated. The Clerk's desk is to Jiave similar framing to the pidpit, returned at both ends, witli torns skirting, secured to floor witli angle irons. This rt groove in boarding and ploughed for tongue of part above. The seat is to be of inch • .> stuflT, with rouiided edge and snp[)ortcd on chamfered hearers, or grooved into elbows. The Conununion rail and the seats etc. will be as preferred; the rail may be oi' ii-on or wood; but we do not specify the fittings to this part, as they depend on the ai)propriation of the chapel. The cast iron for the columns, etc., is to be of the best soft grey metal, mixed ii' needfid with a small portion of hard metal to stiffen it. Tlie columns are shown in detail on Plate ;{5, together with the plates, bolts and mode of fixing. They are to be provided by the Founder, together with the other ironwork shown on the Plate, and that to the roof on Plate 315. .3' o inch cast iron down pipes are also to be provided to the roofs, and they should be always outside the walls. AYrought iron, or wainscot rails to tlie stone staircases and upright bu-s 3 feet high, or ol' an ornamental pattern as may be preferred. The lead to the flats to be 7 lbs. to the foot super and 6 lbs. tu the gutters, liips and ridges; 4" socket pipes from cesspools into heads of rain water ])ipes. The lead is to be laid loose, free to ex])and and contract. The W. C. apj)aratus is to be of the ordinary descri]ition. The woodwork where seen is to have -three coats of jjaint, and the jiewe, pulpit, gallery front, woodwork of conununion space, wall lining, skirtings, where not inclosed, inside woodwork of windows, outer ])art of entrance doors and organ, are to be grained w ainscot in addition and twice varnished in copal. Thi^ remaining woodwork usually painted, together with the ironwork and the ornamental cement work at back of conununion sjjace, are to be finished stone or some other connnon colour. If the pewng, etc., is of wainscot, it is to be sized and twice varnished. If of deal it may be stained witli some of the common stains, whicli may be ])rocured for about 6 shillings j)cr gallon. The windows are to be glazed with Hartley's rough plate glass, ■' ^ imh thick in squares of the sizes shown, and by using which the necessity for blinds will be o])viate(l. The (,'ommissio- ners for the erection of clun-ches require two casements to be placed in each alternate window of churches, one to ventilate the space al)ove the galleries am! the otlicr tliat below when, as is too often the case, the galleries cut the windows in two, ])roducing an ett'ect in the highest degree unsatisfactory. As will have been perceived in our artich; on Ventilation, the adoption of tiie system recommended l)y the Commissioners is fraught with the gi-eatest evil in chnrches con- taining heated congregations. The cold air, rushing in, falls like a cascade on the heads of those below, and a temporary cold is the least evil to l)e anticipated from the sudden chill. The roof may b(' covered with Countess slating, laid on '," battens 2^!^" wide and nailed with copper nails, or zinc (cheaper), two to each slate, every third slate to overlaj) th(' first 2 inches. \\ r shall not her<' enter into the sidijcct oi' warming and ventilating jdaces of worship, as two article's are divoied i,, the consideration generally of those subjects. A^'llate\(■r the system adop(.('d, it should be determined before the edifice is connnenccd, as subse(pient alterations involve increased ex]ien(litnre. and no sy.stem can be carried out so satisfactorily after tlw com- phiiou of the uorks as (luring ilnir progress. All requisite fines should lie pidvidcd. and care must be taken not to builil any combustible materials into or close to them. Iron pipes are ex- ccedmgly dangerous. The fad has never been clearly exidained, but it is nevertheless true, that tiierc is a dicmical a.iinn beiween hot iion and timber, the tendency of which is to generate Ignition at a less temperature than is ordinarily necessary. This is true of hot water pipes; and _3 !\. A I :a CQ < h U < u Q z -<" Q. DF.Sir.X FOR A rilAPF.T,. 71 tho conrcnluicnt of tlicni often )nTvents tlio discovery in time of llic iiiiiifiidin^ danger. All pipes for licafing should therefore he ko])t as distant as possible lidui tiniher, and a easinnj of woodwork is a species of incendiarism, if we may use the term. Tlie spaces beneath boarded floors sliouhl lie ani))ly ventilated, and the water on tho windows resnltintj from condensation, shoidd he conducted by means of small channels outsi(l<' ilic biiildinj.''. .V cliurcli or chaj)el can iiardly he very Jiealthy when a number of bodies are decayinfr i" the \aiilts beneath. "I could wish," remarked Sir Christopher Wren, "that all burials in climches were disallowed; it con- tinually disturbs the pavement and is l)esidcs unwholesome. I could also desire to see the burial ground ai a distance from the chiu'ch: cemeteries niiti'bt be formed in the outskirts of London, of two acres extent, havino- one walk all round, and two cross walks, planted with yew trees. These four dIvision> would serve foiu' parishes. Tiiere beautiful luonuments might be erected, but the dimensions should all lie determined, else the rich, «ith their large marble tombs, would shoulder (Hit the poor." This system is now being carried out; but while others obtain credit for it, few are aware of its ha\ing been so long ago suggested by one whose views were in this respect as much in adxancc of his time as his hiuuanity contrasts strongly with the jirejudices of those who think they can never rest quietly unless in the family vaidt, with the organ loudly pealing as the voices of the living rise uji in a prayer above. In erecting cluu'chcs and cha|)els it .tcd. A town close to a river is. however, l)est situated for a supply of water, us mic on a liittv site is drained with more facility, there being no expense in raising refuse matters for manuring purposes, although it is difficult to procure sufficient surface water to flusji the sewers without resource to an artificial sujjply. In Egypt, water from the Nile is collected in large reservoirs hy means of leathern buckets, and a plug being removed from the bottom of the cistern the water is convevcd through rills and made to irrigate the land. In Bengal wells are dug, and the water is raised and carried througii channels over the land. In China and Soutlicrn Africa the rivers and l)roolvs are availed of and ]iassages are I'ormed with great labour to obtain that su])ply of water without wliich the groimd would remain a sterile waste. "The irrigation by sul)mersion is in Lombardy limited to rice fields. Elsewliere, as for instance in Tuscany, it is employed to improve tlie s(jil by the deposit of earthy matter ii-om tlie water, whilst in France and (iermanv it is cniplovcd both for arable lands and meadows, leaving them under water till a scum ajipears whicli indicates that tiie crust of the soil begins to decay. The irrigation adopted in l^ombardy for arable and ])asturc lands, as well as for meadows, is by filtration; for one could scarcely call submersion tliat very thin veil of moving water so skilfully spread over the land by the irrigators, who in this jioint are the best agriculturists in the world. The irrigation by regurgitation (more jiroperly subterranean irrigation) is not in use in Lombardy; but in Switzerland, in the neighlxiurhood of Berne, and especially at Ilofwyl, a considerable extent of laiul is irrisrated in this manner with great success. The famous Fellenberii' reclaimed the l)ogs of his Hofwyl estate by the application of subterraneous drains, so contrived that by stopping their mouths when the sm-fice of the soil is too dry. he compels tiie water to swell back to the roots of the grass. This mode of irrigation is not only adopted to grassy lands after they have been drained, but to every other description of light soil, especially in hot climates, li was common in Persia long ago." A(pieducts, so nuich employed liy the Komans, are still occasionally used lor the conveyance of water, ami arc in some instances foiuid to be cheaper than pipes. The city of New York is sup])lied with water from tiie river ('roton by an aqueduct thirty-eight miles in length. The chief arcade consists of fifteen arches, eight of which are 80 feet span, and seven fiity. (he greatest height being 150 leet from the foundation. The work cost three millions Stirling, and it is capable of discharging sixty million gallons of water in twenty-four boiu-s. The distributing reservoir contains 21,000,000 gallons and the receiving reservoir 150,000.000. C'ast iron pipes are found to lie admirably adapted to convey water, and they are put togethci- with socket ends. AVater was formerly supplied in elm pipes, (i or 7 inches diameter, with service pipes 3 inches. The iron mains are li-om 12 to 'M) inches, the sub-mains G or 7 inches, and the service pipes •t inches in diameter. A ])reparation ol' lime water in (he interior tends to prevent corrosion. Wit!) reference to the expense of conveyance, one of (he highest authorities, Mr. IIawke.sley says that, "the cost of transmitting water to a distance ol' live miles, and to a height of 200 feet, including wear and tear of ]iumping machinery, luel, labour, interest of capital invested in pipes, reservoirs, engines, etc., amoimts to alioiit 2' .^r/ per ton." Kain water, from its softness, is exeeedinijiv \ahiablc. I!2 inches, or according' to Dalton. 'i\.'.i is the mean deptii laHiiig annually in England. It is • not however erpially distiibvited. Ju ( uiiilieilaiid, at KeswieK, ilie average ileptli in seven years was found to be 07 inches; at I'lynioulli \:> inches; and in the west part of S<()tland 'M\ to lb") inches. All the water falling on the roofs of liouses should he |(reser\ed. ii' not \\m'(\ for (he purpose of clearing the drains. A i-oof containing 100 s<|iuire leet, or 20 ieet s(|uare, receives annually isdd gallons. This is a large (piantity, and. il in ii huge town, a filtering tank will render it extremely valuable for liou.Heliold use. ,trt/ill: o O a: < h ui o THE MKASrKKME.NT AND VAIA'ATION or AKTri-ICKKs' WOKK. 81 considcrod as hvo-tliirdK of a In-ick tliick, ami (lie hackiiii;- Inickwork iiiav thus be deducted to tliis extent. Pointing is measured supcrficiiilly. Arches are measured Sand, oiu} sixth of two shillings . . . „ „ I Straw for hacks (I ., ., U Barrows, moulds, planks, etc I) „ „ li Fuel, 9 cwt „ 10 „ (1 Fur lUdii biieks 1 „ 5 „ i 11 S2 Tin: :\Ii;.VSUKEMENT and VAU'ATION OF ARTIFICERS WORK. Till' qiiantitv of clay ret^iiircd lor Kioii luickti is about 54 cubic feet, allowing 5 feet for slirinkaire. To ascertain tlic cost of brickwoik ]icr yoi\, allowing a j)rofit of 15 per cent, a Kini])le rule is to multiply tlic iiriuic cost of tlic liricks, including cartage, by 5, and add to this product the price ol' hdiour and mortar. The valuation of a rod tif brickwork may be estimated as follows; — 4533 stocks, at per thousand \\ V 1 Cubic Yard of stone lime, at per yard SV'a single loads, or yards, tff sand at per load .... 3 n Day labourer to slack, etc., mortar Five daj-s bricklayer and labourer at per diem 1 Per cent for Scaftolding 15 .. „ Profit on prime cost . . • If cement is used, take 36 bushels of cement and also 36 of pure sharp screened sand: l',2 cubic yards of f/io//: lime may lie taken to 3 single loads of drift. The valuation of a scpiare of Pantiles laid to a 10 inch gauge may be put thus; ISO Pantiles, at per thousand P. C 1 Bundle of laths 1 ' , Cwt ()'/ nails Labour Profit A\'c do not aflix the prices on account of their continual \ariatioii. MEMOHANDA. With liic a>sistance of a labom-er, a biicklaver will lay 1500 ]ilace or 1000 stock liricks (aliont two cubic yards) in a day, or 500 malms in i'ronts, an aihancing degree of care and nicety being reipiisite. The two men as above will complete a rod of brickwork in four days and a half; but if there should be many apertures, or the work presents any difliculty in execution, a longer time should lie allowed. 4352 stock bricks are recpiired to IJie rod if the lour courses are I foot high, and 45:):'. if they measure 11 'o inches, (ienerally speaking 4500 bricks are, allowing for waste, set down to the rod, which will weigh from 13 to 15 tims, containing 11',, cubic yards, or :>0('» cubic I'eet. I'.IOO stocks ai'c allowed for the rod in circulai' ci^sspools and wells. The I'ollowing tables will be liiund useful, assuming the iilier ol'lii'ieks to the rod as given. Ali'iU'it I'firl.-i of ;i Uoil ol' I'hu/e ISricks. Aliiiiiut I'lirts of ;i KcmI uf (irev Stocks. I Kod 4500 Bricks. | K'„d pjoo Pricks. ^i 3375 „ > , ;{(;75 '. ^2^<' » 'o „ 2450 • „ '* " "■^•'' " \i „ 1225 „ Vh ^''2'.. „ ';» „ til2',o „ jlr. „ *-'* ( 10 " 1 " ' lu » 306'/4 n ' .,., 1 10-' K „ I ,, \K-\tl IJ " I0.:).8 „ 1(1 P.ricks go to a foot super, of reduced |]ri(4 < > "^ Id 6> »> TiiF. ;\ii:Asri;i;MF.NT and VAi.rATiDX «v Ai;Tirin.i;s' \V(ii;k. *s3 For tlio mortar to a rod ol' I)ri(k\vork P ., cwt. or culiic yanl of dialk lime to li sinj^le yards or loads of sand or drift; or if stone liiiic is used, I cidiii- yard will lio rcwjiiisite to '.i^ ^ sinj^k; loads oi' sand. For cement •iCi bnsliels of it must lie mixeil with tlic same (|uantity of sand. 1 Load of sand and 9 htishels of lime arc required for a (■ni)ie yard of niortar, and tliey Ioho one-third of their bulk ■when made up, as do also san of sand, each c(jual I ton. The number of bricks rc(iuired to the yard in pa\in;i" is as follow.*; — Paving bricks, laid fiat . 36. Size of each ',)" X 1' .," X T' iMVeigbt 4 lb.s. Do. on edge . S2. Stock bricks, laid fiat . 36. „ S^," x: 4',V'X;2'.," „ T) lbs. Do. on edge . r)2. „ Dutch clinkers . \ . 14 1. „ !'■' i" X 3" X 1 1 ./' „ 1 ' ,, lbs. 1(1 Inch Paving Tiles . V.l „ <:)■'. t" X ^i-W" X [" „ S lb>. 9 oz. 12 „ „' „ . 1). „ ll'i"X 1P',"X 1'.." „ 13 lbs. In Plaintiling there are required to the .«([uarc GOO to an S inch gauge (each tile showing 4 inches on the face), 700 to an 7 inch gauge (.showing 3' 2 inches), and SOU to a 6 inch gauge (showing 3 inches). The tiles are lO'/j" X O'm" X! 'Vs'S each weighing 2 lbs. 5 oz., a square of 7(10 weighing about I I' .j cwt. For the square it is requisite to have 1 bundle of laths, 2 bushels of lime, 1 of sand (or 3 hods of mortar) and a peck of tile pins. iOd ]>laiii tile laths .'i feet long, 12.') 1 feet do., or 167 — 3 feet do., go to the bundle. For a bundli' oi' .'» feet laths oOO nails .ouffice. Thirty bundles of laths to the load. A sfiuarc of Pantiling will require l.")d to a 12 inch gauge, 164 to a 11 inch gauge, and ISO to a Id inch gauge: 1' 1 hundred of 6/ irorl bi-icks are charged by the thousand, but kiln and lire burnt bricks and red rul>bers arc often chargcil by the hundred. Tiles are charged by the thousand; the laths by the load or bundle, and hip-hooks and T nails by the piece. Mortar is charged by the load and hod, and cenieiit by the barrel m- bushel. A bushel striked is, in ])ropretended that the system is unvaried, the fact being that scarcely two builders' accomits are entirely identic:il in .system: all that we )irofess to do in this article is to indicate the general mode oi' ]iroce(hu-c in the measin-eiiicnt and \aluation of artificers" work. 'I'o give every particular ami \ariation would far exceed the space at oiu' disposal. 84 THE MEASUREMENT AND VALUATION OF ARTIFICERS WORK. The foUoAvinii table indicates tlic niimlier of liricks necessary for a given snperfical amount o \vallin000 27573 .55147 82720 1 1 0294 , 137867 (;ooo 330S8 06176 99204 1 32352 105441 7000 3S()02 77205 1 1 5S03 15141! 193014 bOOO 44117 SS235 i:!2352 170170 220588 •JOOO 49032 99264 1 lSb96 I9S529 248101 10000 .551 17 110291 165441 2205SS 275735 r)Oooo 275735 551 170 827205 1102940 I37S675 ttoooo 490323 992016 1 10S909 19S.">292 2481615 ^ TIIK MKASritl-.MKXT AXn VAl.rATIOX OF AltTirifEIIS WoIiK. sn In tlio t:il)lo lu'low the ;irc;i ';2 1-:, > '2 l^3 2 15 14 13 3' 3 3 2^'3 3 22',, 21 Hi'/o 5 4'/2 4 4 30 28 26 6^3 6 5'/3 • 5 37'/., 35 32' 8\':, 7"2 62;3 (5 45 ' 42 39 10 9 s 7 52 '/o 49 45 '/o 112/3 10 '/2 9'/3 S 60 56 53 1:^'/:, 12 102/3 9 67 '/a 64 58' ., 15 13'/.2 12 10 75 70 65 16^^ 3 15 , 13V3 20 150 140 130 33' 3 30 262// 30 225 210 195 50 45 40 40 300 2S0 260 662'., 60 53'/3 . r,o 375 350 325 S3"3 75 66^/3 (50 450 420 390 1 00 90 80 70 525 490 455 1162'., 105 93 SO 600 560 520 133',, 120 IO62/3 90 (')75 630 585 150 135 120 100 750 700 650 1662'., 150 133<3 200 1500 1400 1300 333' 3 30O 2662/3 300 2250 2100 1950 500 450 400 400 3000 2S0(» 2600 6662 ., 600 533' 3 500 3750 350(t 3250 833 750 6662/s 600 4500 4200 3900 1 000 900 800 700 5250 4900 4550 11662/3 1050 933 '/3 800 6000 5600 5200 1333' 3 1200 io(;(i2 3 900 6750 (;3oo 5S50 1500 1350 1200 Khhi 7500 7000 6500 1 6662 3 1500 1333' 3 2000 1 5000 1 iooo l.'iOOO 3333' 3 3000 266(i2;3 ;{ooo 22500 21000 19500 5000 1500 4000 4000 30000 28000 26000 666(>2 3 (iooo 5333'/3 50(10 37500 35(K)0 :{25oo 8333' 3 75(tO (;()()62;3 CiOIIO 45000 42000 39000 10000 9000 8000 70(10 52500 I'.IOdO 45500 1 1 6662 3 10500 9333' 3 sooo 60000 56(1(10 52000 13333' 3 12000 I06()6' 3 9000 67500 6:tooo 5S500 1 5000 13500 12000 10000 75000 700(10 65000 166662,3 15000 13333'/3 I h X O u < 3 «9 «« U h Tlir, MKASI'RI'.MF.NT AM) \AI.I AlliiX ill AIM ll'irT.KS WORK. 87 Tlie following labli' indicates tlii' valnc oi' a roil oi' rrdncctl lirickwork, liHcks being taken at jiricos rann'ing from ;!(> to (lO sliillings [)('r tliousaial, allowing for scaftoldiug, labour and mortar from 0') lo W) tiliillings jiir rod, and 4r)0(l bricks to it. LAliUUU AND MUlilAK. Bricks per lOOfl. ■^ 3 ., 5 ])cr Kod. £ :?.. Ill KdiI. £ :t,. 15 l^ii;!' Rod. £ 1 - It KckI. ^ 1 . .5 |icr Rod. £ 1, 10 r Rod. £ .s' ./ £ .s ./ £ X 1 1 .'■ N .1 £ .v fl £ .V (/ £ .S' '/ 1 .. lit ., 11 10 , „ 10 „ 5 „ 10 ,. 10 ., 10 ., 15 „ It 11., ., 1 1 . .', ., 1 „ 12 „ (1 III , '.1 .. 10 „ 11 „ 10 „ I'.l „ 1 1 ., 1 ., It 1 1 .. „ 11 . 1 1 ,. 1 „ 1 1 ,. <• 10 , IS „ 1) 11 V 3 „ 1 1 „ S „ 11 M 13 „ It 11.. 18 „ 12 , 3 „ (t 1 .. Ui „ II , 7 „ 11 . 12 „ 11 „ 17 ,. It 12 „ ■> — „ " 12 ., 7 ., 12 . 12 ., 1) 1 „ IS „ 11 . Hi ., (1 12 „ 1 „ 12 „ () „ It 12 „ 1 1 .. It 12 ., Hi „ II 13 , 1 ,. II 2 „ (1 „ (» 12 5 „ I) 12 „ 10 .. 12 ., 15 „ 13 „ „ 13 „ 5 „ () 13 , HI „ 2 „ 2 „ 12 . 1 1 „ It 12 ,. nt „ i:; „ 1 ., 13 „ it „ i:: ., 11 „ H! . I'.t ., 2 „ -1 „ (» i:; •. '-> ^1 '* 13 „ S „ 13 „ 13 „ 13 „ is „ (1 14 „ 3„ 1 1 . ^ ., 2 „ (i „ K! . 12 „ It 13 „ 17 „ 11 „ 2 „ (t 11 ., 7 ,, II 11 „ 12 „ 11 . IT 11 2 „ 8 „ 1 1 . 1 „ It 1 1 .. (i ., (1 1 1 „ 1 1 ., It 11 „ u; „ 15 „ 1 „ 15 . (■) „ n 2 „ lit ,. 1 1 , lit „ It 11 V 15 „ IT) „ „ (1 ir.„ 5 „ II 15 „ HI „ 15 , 1 .) ., 1 1 2 „ 12 ,. (1 1 1 , I'.l .. It 15 „ 4 „ 15 „ 9 „ 15 „ 11 ,. 15 „ 10 „ H), 1 ., It 2 „ 1-1 „ 15 , 8 ., 15 ., 13 „ (1 15., IS., KJ „ 3 „ Hi „ 8 „ Hi , 13 „ 2 .. IG „ ir. , 1" ., (t 1 <■) „ 2 , K) „ 7 „ Hi „ 1 2 „ H) „ 17 „ 17 . 2 „ II 2 ., IS „ Hi , (i „ U) „ 1 1 „ U) „ 10 „ 17 „ 1 .,0 17 „ „ 17 . 1 1 ., 3 „ „ 1(5 , 15 „ 17 ,. It „ It 17 „ 5 „ 17 „ 10„.O 17 „ 15 „ 18, It .. liril-k: HI .- II 12 115 Hi 17 IS HI 20 ■il "22 2:j 24 25 2li 27 28 2it TABLE OF COST OF I5RICKW(M!K. ].<■!■ M. Lalioiir. Co.^t ]>cr I!< lilling.^* ^ 2 „ s „ (I £ \ ., \:\ ., 4 „ 17 5„ 2 5 „ li 5 ,. 1 1 5 „ I 5 (i „ G „ 1 G„ 9 6 „ Hi () ., 7 ., 7 „ 7 ., 7 ,. 8„ 8 ,. S,. 8 ,. 8 ., Vt .. '■I ., 1 I .. is .. 88 THE MEASUIIEJLENT AND VALUATION OV AKTIFICEKS WORK. SLATEK. MKASURE:MENT. The measurement and valuation of Slater's work is extremely simple. It is taken suiierficially and valued by the siiuare of 100 feet. When the caves are double, allow six inches extra for tlicni, and 9 inches if imperials or rags arc used. Take the length of hips and vallevs liv 12 inches, ;ind all cutting to chimneys, etc., by 6 inches for cutting and waste, liun cement filleting. !Slate ridges and hips are also taken at per foot run. Slate slabs are ]iriced according to thickness and as they arc self faced, planed one or both sides, rubbed, and h;ivc filed and rubbed edges, rounded nosings, grooves, etc., which latter arc run. Sanding and snakinu:, or polishing, are of course extra. Cisterns and sinks may be taken at per foot super, or priced according to description. Steps and sills arc usually taken at ])er foot run. Clangers are ])riced according to size and workmanship, as well as a great variety of other articles, including chinmey pieces, etc., now maiudactnred of slate. Abstract and bill out, first, the superficial dinu^nsions, next the runs, and lastly the articles numbered. Describe to roofing gauge, nails used, and number to each slate. ^'ALUATI()N. The day-work prices for a journeyman slater vary from 5.y 6l;K. 89 is laid !>n(l tlie platifcr'mgj executed. llic ,-(;mtlini;s are taken to tlic ends of the tiinhers, the lull lenjjths of flie tenons and laps, and no allowanee is to he made in ((Uantity for small or dii'fieult work, wliieli is to lii' ]irieed aeeordiniily and dissected as much as possiMc In Joiners work the superfieial dimensions only are taken, the tenons, etc., heinjj; considered in the price It is usual to commence with (lie roof, next takinii- hond and jilatcs, partitions, floors and other Carpenters, work in the manner we shall now indicate. In measuring roofs, commence at the highest ]ioint and work downwards. The timhers are taken by the cubic foot and classed according to the amount of lal)oin- and waste. The trusses are taken as framed tiud)er in trusses, including hinders and ties, .\feasure length of kings and tjueensby scantling of shouhkrs, hut deduct pieces cut out tor abutment of rafter.s ii' above 2' „ (')" long by 2' o inches thicli: dcMluct (i inches in the length for waste. Connnon rafters should he priced at less value than piu-lius on account of the extra labour of fitting the latter. WwW and templates, as well as pole|iiatcs. and lintels, are taken as lir -in bond, (hitter plates, diagonals, rafters, j)urlins, braces and struts, are taken as fir fi-amed. .Mlow for cutting and waste to hips, deduct half the length of bond rniming through openings, and allow for length of dovetails and scarfs; and allow generally the bearings one way only in nicasiuing for laliour anil nails. Ironwork is charged extra. Boarding to roof's is estimated by the s(|uare, according to the (piality and workmanship, as is also battening for slating and to walls, (hitters and bearers are taken at per foot sujier, cesspools and (lri[is arc numbered, and roils run. VoY fhiiir>', girders, bindei's, joists and trinuners are taken as fir framed, and the ]ilatcs and wood bricks as fir in bond. I'ricc trimmers and trinnning joists to include the mortices and tenons. Allow an extra price for sawing, reversing and l)olting girders, and alss, but circular heads are often measured square. The fastenings, etc., arc numbered. Note if sashes arc cii-cular on plan. The frames are taken at per foot super; for sashes hiuig on hinges, take the frames the same as do(n-cases. ^louldings up centre of French sashes are run. The grounds and architraves are taken as before directed, as also the elbows, backs, soffits, etc. For boxing .triiig. if treads are glued and blocked, and if feather tongued. iNleasuie curtail step separately, and describe if quarter round or iiroiicr curtail step. To measure winders, take s(|uaie of space occupied by treads and then 12' 92 THE MEASUREMENT AND VALUATION OF AKTIFKUCRS WORK. collect riscrt;, which vary accordiiiii; to rake of step; keep whidert- separate because of price for additional labour. Xiimbcr houisings for .^teps and risers and separately for winders. Measure strings by the foot super, taking extreme length, including housings, by width. It will lie found correct enough to take length of string board at one foot for each step, to which add length or space, where winders occur, by average width of 12 inches; describe if plain or moulded. Take wreath part separately and describe girt. Describe thickness of strings, and if framed, rebated, beaded, sunk, moulded, and cut to risers. If part is circular describe it. Kamps are taken by the foot run or numbered: tlic rail by the foot run, taking length on centre; keep separately the straight, ramped, level, circular, wreath, twist, and scroll. Number turned and mitred caps, and nut and screw joints. I\un labour on iron core and sinking to rail. Take extreme length of newel, including tenon in floor. Number iron l)alusters, and run wood balusters. J'ilnxters and coIkiiiiis are taken at per foot super. Take the girt by the height, measure in tlie plinth and take the impost and otiier mouldings as a super, or a run, and ninnbcr mitres; rim fluting, and ])rice carved capitals. Carvers take 4 times the upper diameter of the shaft of a column for the circumference. Sk-i/lig/t(.''. Kun bars and eiu'bs and descrilie tlicm; or take some skylights at per foot super. Water Closets arc measured at per foot super; run nosings, and number holes cut in seat, describing the thickness of stuff and the workmanship. For Shops, measure the parts already described as directed. Take the cradling and frieze at per foot super. Describe if with ploughed and tongucd blockings, and frieze is keyed, with feather tongued joints, and rebated or tongucd to soffite. Measure superficially deal enclosures and the outside shutters; keep separate circular heads, charge 3 times the price of square, and note if circular on plan, * ;,"' extra over straight being charged for every '/4 inch rise. Run grooves and describe ironworic. Kun laboiu- to edges of stall boards and enter mrt of moulding. Measure counters superficially, number flaps Inmg, and note curves on plan. Circular fronts may be charged nearly double the straight. Board'uiff to wa//s and cci/uir/s is charged by the s(juarc; note if plugged to walls, and charge extra backings and holdfasts. Framed j-iai-lilioiis are taken per foot su}ier. For circular work charge about '/j"' over straight for every '/g"' inch rise. Note plinth and fascias. Wainsrot'uiri is also taken at the superficial foot; run beaded or moulded ca])ping, and enter in all cases thickness of material and pai-ficidars oi' workmanshi]>, with description of fascia and skirting. W\\h respect to various fj'aiidiii/n, /iiiiiiffs ami deal in l/u'A-itesses, etc., they are measiu-cd by the foot super. The value depends on the thickness of the stuff, and whether, if tlicre are mouldings, these are struck on tiic solid or fixed on. (iwilt remarks of linings, tiiat "the diffe- rence of labour between s(juare framed door linings, backs, elbows, soffits, or wainscotings, and door square on both sides, where the panels and tliickucsses arc alike, arises only from planing the panels and tlic framing on tiic olbcr side of the d ■. if the difference, therefore, per foot, on the rate of a door scptarc on both sides and one square on one side, with any extra work on the other side, be added to the rate of door linings, backs, elbows, soffits, or wainscoting framed scjiiare, we shall have the i-atc per foot f'oi- <•//.•.■, I\itiiti<-rs and S/ii/i'r.--, deal WaliT-tninhs and t/iilfcrs by the lineal foo*; while a variety o/ls hy the inch or the piece, and /oris and bdehes also by the piece; lun-s with tiro Ititches at per incli in length, and loekiiKj bars liy the piece; lead sash iceii/lifs by the pound, and lines by the yard; espaiiiolettr bolts by the foot: and sash fastrnings, and a great variety of other articles, by the piece. The Bellhanger, we may here mention, is allowed Is, (jd, per diem and assistant is. De.scribe bells, copjier and zinc tubing, cupper wire, levers, cranks, etc. Church bells are chaigcd bv tiie pound. Charge furniture to pulls in addition per piece. • The general remarks before made on Abstractiiaj and Billing out apply particularlv to the Car[)enter's and Joiner's work. First cubes, then sufjcrs, runs and numbers. Abstract the C'ar- l)enter's work in somewhat of the following order. Fir no Labour, Fir in I'ond, Fir Framed, Fir Framed in Trusses, Fir Framed and Wrought, Fir Proper Door and A\'indow Cases, all cubes. Then the supers. Battening, Boarding, Bracketting, etc.. Centring, Turning Pieces, etc.. Then the runs. Strutting, Rolls, Bearers, Fillets, etc. Then numbers, "Wood Blocks and Bricks. The mode of abstracting Joiner's work is very various; the i)artieular works may be in the following order; — Cube Proper Door Case (if not in Carpenter), Floors, Skirtings, Dados, Jambs and Linings, Doors, Sashes and Frames, Window Finishings, Shutters. Staircases, Pilaster?, Partitions, Wainscoting, Deal in Thicknesses: next the runs of Mouldings, Beads, Fillets, Ca[)- pings, I'alusters, etc.: lastly the numbers of Housings, Standards, Turned I'ins, Holes Cut, Newels, etc. The Deals are often kejit quite separate; and the Ironmongery can be put on another sheet. Work so [)riced is to be reduced to the scpiare on the .\bstraet before l)illing it. VALUATION. 20 per cent profit is allowed to Carpenters and Jnjners, who charge on wages of men 2'/^(^ in the shilling. The London rate of wages is .'id shillings per week, a little more or less. Ascertain the value of a cubic foot of fir in the following maimer. Prime Cost per Load at yard . . . Cartage Sawinff into Scantling's One Tenth for Waste Profit, 20 per cent We do not affix the figures for the reason previously mentioned. As Gwilt remarks; — "It is out of the (juestion to give a notion of" any fixed \ alue, because it must necessarily vary, as do materials and labour; hence, no tables or price' books are ever to be depended ujjon; they gull the unwary, and mislead the amateur who consults them."' The same author observes; - - "Where the measurement is for labour and materials, the best way is, first to find the cubical contents of a [liecc of car})entry, and \aliu' it by the cubic foot, including the prime cost, carting, sawing, waste, and carpenter's profit, and then add the price of the labour, properly measured, as if the journeyman were to be ])aid." 94 THE MEASUREMENT AND VALUATION OF AKTIFICEKS WOKK. To ascertain the value of Deals or Battens wlien the prime cost is known, put the particulars as follows; — Prime Cost per C Cartajre >/ift'" for Waste 20 Per Cent Pr..fit The price of deals per foot super will he increased, or lowered, 1(/ per inch in thickness for every rise or fiill of if 9 per C. The table below, from Gwilt's Encyclopffidia, shows the prices of deals at £ 30 per C. Price per llniiihed. Thickness. 10 It. long each. 12 ft. long each. 14 ft. long each. Per foot nm. Per foot super. In il if wrought iind laid I'dldiiio-. I-'"' 2 - if hiid straigiit ynwt. 1 ' V » and ploiigiit' the trouble of wiiich would be endless ^nd without any ad- vantage; indeed, it would come to the same thing, viz, making the necessary allowances for waste, according to the form of the stone. Bevelled or arched stones should be taken about one-sixth above the mean dimension, to allow for waste." In Scotland and many parts of England, when the measiu-ement is for labom- only, the girt of the exterior of the house is taken for the length of the work, and the height for the width. Of yO THE JIEASUREMKNT AN'li VAI.UATIdN OF AKTIFICEKS WORK. coursp, il' the \\n\U are of different tliicknesses, they must be ineasurcd sei)arately. If tliere are plintlis, strings, cornices, pilasters and breaks, the tape is made to girt them in taking the large dimensions, but the system is evidently exceedingly unscientific, leading to vague and imcertain results. The ]iracticc of measuring rough stouework by the perch of IS feet super, is usual in the West of EnoJand. The walls are reduced to the thickness of two feet, by mtdtiplying the superficial contents by the number of inches in thickness, and dividing by 24. Sometimes the work is valued' at the solid percli of ;{G feet cube. Thy walling should be measured and an addition made for any extra laliour, although it is common to girt the quoins and projections lor tiiis: small apertures are not usually deducted. To value the work properly, calculate the i)rime cost of the stone, carriage, hoisting and labour, together with the cost of the lime, etc., delivered. Elsani f;ives in his "Builder's Assistant" the following method of finding the muuber of perches in nntoJi indliiKi. "If the wall be of the standard thickness, that is, twelve inches high, ciuhten iiiciies thick, and twenty one feet long, divide tlic area by "21 and the quotient, if anv, is iict. If the wall be more or less than eighteen inches thick, nudtiply the area of the wall by the number of inches i]i thickness, which j)ro(luct, divided by 18, and that quotient ])y 21, will give the ])erches contained. Kramp/r. A piece of stoneware is forty feet long, twenty feet higli, and twenty foiu' Inches thick, how many perches are contained in It? 40 length 20 height SOO 24 3200 1600 21) r. F. T. 18) 19200 /10(^)(; (.-)() .. 1(3 „ 8 /ni()(. VKir, 120 16 108 120 108 12 = 8 Inches. For Faeiiiri, or Aslilcring, measure ])lain work to the face, joint, and bed, and one vertical face and the bod to bonders. If the facings are abo\e three inches tiiick, the stone is taken cubically as above, but, if less, as a sujier, or slab, and one joint and bed is taken as plain work; sunk work is taken to rustles; and to windows with semicircular heads, siuik woriv to the arch joints, plain work circular to the soflits, and plain work to re\ cals. ^ote dovetails', plugs, lead, etc. \\ e shall next indicate generally the moile of measuring vai-ious details of masonry. Colinnns. After the cuiiic (pi:inlily is ascei'tained. all c\ lindrical work is girt and considered e(|Ual to plain work twice taken. Keid says; "first take the quantity of the stone, then take two sides of the solid stones, and to the columns tlieii- beds for jijaiii work; the height and circumference slimild then be taken as circular sunk \voi-ic, wilii tiieii- scxcral plain faces or beds; having finisiied tlii' shafts of the columns, then proceed to measure the bases ami capitals, first taking the solid stones, anil snbsei|uently the jjlain, sunk and nundded works, I)Ut if the capitals should i)e Ionic, C'oi'inliiian or Composite, then take as nearly as possible the presumed solid contents of the stone, and ascei'tain tiu' quantmn of time consumed in carving, which, being added to the worth of the stitnc, with suitable pmllts on the workmanship, will constitute liie value, in which shoui/«/< -#c: Stassle Fittings. Stable, with two stalls, loose-box, coach-house, harness, bed room and loft. X-AIR BRICKS 6 INS ABOVE FLOOR LEVEL O. D? 5 „ BELOW CEILING 0? THE DOTTED LINES INDICATE DBAINACE. Scale of Teet. THE MrASrUKMIAT AND VALIATmN oK AIITIFK V.lis" \V(il!K. 97 For An-Jdt fares, t;il ami joiiii, liall jilaiii (ac(^ lo liaek, ,-unk work to jogy'les, run grooves, and n'irl moulded work. No lied to lie taken ii cornice i.s on brickwork. For •^/ri>i(iroiirs-i:i. eulie tin' stone, plain wcirk to lied and joint, sunk work' where it cxi.«i(s, run tliroatinu'. and take nionldinus. il'any. For I'liiitlis, enlie the stone, and take |ilain wm-k to the sides and top. wiili inonldcd uurk, if any. For Copinq, culie the stone, take plain wdrk to the top, edL;cs, and undersides which -how, al.so to one joint in every 3 feet, .^unk work to top, if so, and run oi' throatini;-. For Ctii-hs, cuhe the stone, take plain work on all sich's which show and to one end in e\ery 3 feet. If tlie to[i is cm'xcd take circular plain wdi-lc; no lied to lie taktai. For Si lift, cube tiie stone, plain work to parts whicii sjiow. sunk work to top, and run tbroatiiiti. Cliimiiri/ Picn'.'' arc nsnallv priced at so nmcli each, but the wurk may be taken a- it may inip|)cn to lie; take the labour on ihi' edLCes at pi'r ibot rim, or add an inch to thi' dimensions for extra lahonr to Portland stone, and •' j inch m marble. Slnlrcii--ii'.'<. Take tlie fivers, where s|ilaved on the lia(d<, the fidl li'nji'th and width by three- fifths tlie depth of tlie riser, allowing' for \\aste in a'cftiiiii- two step's from one block of stone. If the extreme lensjth of winder.s is taken, ineludinu' the h'ttiiiL;- into wall b\- the mean wiilth, this multiplied by the clear height will gi\-e the cubical content. T^axton says, --- "^Measure s|)andril ste|is the extreme width ti-om the nose of the tread to tjie a \ahied by the -npia'ticial loot and hassock per foot cube. i:t 98 TIIK. MF.ASl'REMENT AND VAIATATIOX OF AKTIFICEKS \\ORK. Movblf is .-did liv tlic loot cube and in slabs lor cliiiuneys, etc., at the foot super. Gi-aiiili- is taken at the foot cube, Delahole slate, CaithneKn FIag», Firestone, Castle Hill and Piirheel; at the foot su])er; ciii-hs of various stones arc often run. Abstract and bill out the cubes fii-st, then the superficies, running measures and numbers. T'lace first Kouuh Stone Walling. Next Cube Portland. Then the labour on it, Plain Face, Sunk, Moulded Works, etc. Then the Slabs. Afterwards the Yorkshire Stone. Keep separate the Marble: ;iiid also under each heading of different stone, the running dimensions and numbers. NAI.l'A riOX AND MEMORANDA. AVe have sufficiently indicated above the principles of \ahiatioii, viz., by first taking the cid)ic (niantity of stone and adding the cartage, hoisting and labour. The wages luay be taken, Mason (>«, Ijabourer .*]■« ()* 1 » ■IS ,, »i »i 1'4 )) 5'4 »* ?» »i IV2 n 7 „ *• »* 13, 7-1 »i ' \ <» »* M 2 »i 9'/, »♦ »» >» 2S »i 11 M »i M 3 44 IS' a „ »» >» / \, ]- • 1 V. ^ ^ y □ □ M UR AL FOR M ON U M ENXS Cemexer IES. TIIK ME.\SUKEMKNT AND VALUATION dl' AIMllKKKs' WORK. 'J'J Tlic next TiiMc shows the conipiU'Mtixc weights of IcmiI jkt toot super. .11) Inch (lii(l< ((luals hM) ll)s per liiot super. .11 ., ,. H. IS „ ., .12 ., „ 7.07 „ „ .13 „ „ 7.66 „ „ „ .14 .. „ 8.2.^ • 1 5 J, „ 8.84 „ „ „ .16,, „ 9.43 „ „ „ .17 „ „ 10.03 „ „ .18 „ ., KMil „ „ ,19 „ „ 11.20 „ ,' 1 1 1 70 I r> ?> n 11.1./,, „ ,, COPPERSMITH. MEASURE^IENT. The work of tlic Cojiper Smith in coverinf-- roofs, domes, etc., is to he measm-etl and valued on a similar system to that of the Plumber. The material is fdiind too expensive for general use in rooting, although it was one of the first metals employed in ancient times. It is estimated by the foot super, according to the number of ounces. It is very light; for flats and gutters 12 to 18 oz. copper is employed, and sometimes 20 oz. to flats and domes. Copper gutters and pipes are run, their diameter and weight should be noted, and if, as they are sometimes, tinned. Cistern heads, spikes and screws, with copper ties, coppers for wasliing, etc., are numbered. Copper cramps, dowels, bolts, etc., of coiu-se come under this heading, as well as copper wire work, estimated at per foot super. Copper wire is charged by the lb.' ZINC AVORKEPv. MEASUREjMEXT. The two above trades have experienced a considerable shock from the introduction of sheet zinc into this country by the Vieille-^Iontagne Company, and the material has, to a certain extent, from its exceeding cheapness and lightness, superseded b(jth lead aiul copper. The Plumbers formerly supplied zinc articles and laid the material on roofs and flats, but the increasing demand lias gl\en rise to a distinct business, specially devoted to the manu- facture of tlie metal into a vast variety of articles. Zinc slieets are 1' ., 0" :>< 1' .. 2", 7' ,. (>" X 2' „ S", and 7' „ 0" X 3' „ 0"; and the gauges are No 10 weighing 1 I oz. to the superficial foot, 11 weighing 16 oz., 12 weighing IS oz., Ki weigliing 21 oz., 14 weighing 24 oz., I."> weighing 27 oz., and Hi weighing 30 oz. Zinc 21 or 24 oz. to the foot is adapted i'nv gutters, and 27 oz. for flats. The mode of measurement, abstracting and billing is similar in pi-inci|ilc to that of Plumber's wnrJv ah-eady described, (iirt the Hat, mof, etc., and note weight of zinc and cJiaracler of work- manship; take super, of skylights and fanlights; or for skylights measure once ami a half the superficial area on [)lan for the (piantity; take as sipiare circular lights. Kunibcr lights to ojien and ventilators, with |iullcys, lines and weights. Pipes and gutters are run, remarking the diameter and gauge and numbering brackets; No's KJ and 14 are good gauges for pipes and gutters. Chinmey pipes are also taken at tlie lineal foot. Zinc nails for 13* lUO TllK MKASlKr.MKNT AM) VAUATIdN ',)(/ per Diem, Lahourer o.s 11,/. The I'olliiwing is a Talile of Zinc Wire Gauges with the weights per s(piare loot. Ills. oz. ;i „ II AVeight per Sijuare Foot. Liauge 1(1 . . . ;i ., II „' 12 . . . . ;j „ s. i:i . . , . 3 „ 5 11.. . '■] „ () 1.') . , 2 „ 11 Hi . . 1 7 . . 2 .. 1 3 1 \ ^,^ It.. IS . . 1 ,. . . 1 „ U) I'.l . . . . 1 ., 8 20 . , , . 1 ., G 21 . , . . 1 „ 1 22 . , . . 1 „ 1 2M . . ., 1.-. 21 . . . . ., i:; 2o . . . . ., 1 1 It may he useful to ohserxe th.al a sheet of zinc I It. X I it. 2 ins. covens 4-/3 square i'eet; one 7 I'l. X 2 I't. S ins. IS- ., s(piare ieet; and one 7 It. X o ft. 21 s(piare feet. 10(1 square feet of No I.") gauge, 21 oz. to the foot, >veighs l,')(l lbs. The tenacity is KJ'J.S to lead 27.7; and the dilatihility ' d,, to lead ' -mu and iron ' sin- PLASTKKKK. MK.VSlTvl^M l"y\T. ]\Ie;isurc ]ilastering on hrickwork from upper edge of grounds to two thirds oi' the height of the cornice, and similarly for on lath: for stucco take one thir(l (he height of coi-nicc. In taking ceilings, dcihicl one projection of the <'ornice on two sides of the rdom; hut ii' there are brackets to the cMrat(' tlic [)lastcriii^-, .-tiicco, and ceiiiciit work, externally ami inter- nally. Fir.st put the Sii|K'rfieia] Yards, lieninniiiL;' witli the least e.\|iensi\-e work, tiien the Super- iieial Fei't. Next tjie Whitini;' and ( 'ulouriiiL;-. Ai'terwards the HiiiniiiiL:' fiinjeiisions. and lastly the Xumliers. I'ill mit in a s(iiiie\\hat siiuilai- (ir(lei-. \ALrAT!()N AM) MHMOKAXDA. I'lastenr per Diem 5.s '.hi, LalMnircr '.is 'J, I, 15oy 1 .•-■ ll(/, Alii liars, doors and Irames, sewer grates, lamp [losts, railing bars, plates for floors, wi'ought bars, hoop and t^heet iron, and generallv the more hea\'y description of woi'k, are charged hv ihc ton or cwt. Patterns, moulds and lixing are extra. Ties, straps, bolts, ties, shoes, etc., to floors and i-cmiI's, wrought iron chiniury liars, lialuster.s and hand-rails, area gratings, hook and eye strap hinges, chains ior [)osts, fancy-rails, casements, brackets, shoes to piles, cradle bars, iron chain bars, drawn balusters, gates, ehcvaux-de-fi-ize, guard bars, sash bar, bars for shop shutters, etc., wrought hurdles, wrought and east iron fur- nace work, .wrought iron doors, etc., arc charged by the pound. Cast iron doors, rcyolvins: shutters, wrouirht fanliuhts, fly wii'c, etc., are charijed per foot suiier. Paleonies, railings, copings, iron bar, skylight bars, etc., ari' charged by the lineal loot, and pipes and guttering by the yard run. Ca.st iron steps and risers are charged, according to the diameter and character, hv tlu- step, and by the foot perjiendicular. Cantilevers, brackets, aii- ti'aps and bricks, pumps, AW C. trajis, coppei- hob' iloors and frames, soot doors, iron mangers, racks, posts, saildle brackets, gutters, etc., for stables, smoke jacks, (^owls, coal ])lates, scrajicrs, etc., are charged singly. Iron roofing and enclosures are taken at the square of 100 feet. It will thus be percci\ed that many articles arc taken in various ways. .Vbstract and bill out items on the principles before named, placing hrsl the hea^v and simplest woi'ks, and next sujiers, ri^ns ami nunilu'rs. bul the orilci' is oiten susceplible of ad- vantageous \ aria t ions. MKMC )K.\M).\. The wages of the Smilh per (liem may be set down at lix, ami the Labourer at \s. 'l"o ascertain the weight of a girder, liiid llic mimlici- of superlicial feet and >el llicm down at their respective thicknesses; reduce them to inch thicknesses, and multiply the total by 10 lbs, (the weight of a superlicial foot (me inch thick), which, divided by I 12 will gi\e the an eight in cwts. 102 THE MKASl'REMENT AXD VALUATION OF ARTIFICERS WORK. To ascertain tlie weiijlit of wrought iron, take it at 5 lbs per foot super, one eighth of an inch thick, A cubic foot of cast iron weighs about 450 Do. wrought „ „ 480 Do, closely hninmered „ 490 TABLE OF WEIGHT.S OF BAR IRON. Side of Square. Light Hammered. Close Hammered. Ins. Eights. ll>s. oz. lbs. oz. ., 4 .. 13 - „ 13 „ .5 1 „ 4 I „ SV'u „ 6 1 „ 13 1 „ 15 ., 7 2 „ 8 2 „ 10 1 ., 3 „ 5 3 „ 7 1 ., 1 4 „ 3 -. . . . . 4 „ 51/2 1 „ 2 5 „ 3 5 „ 6 1 „ 3 (5 „ 4 6 „ S'/a 1 .,4 7 „ S 7 „ llVi 1 „ 5 8 „ 12 9 „ 1 1 „ (J 10 „ 2 10 „ S'/a 1 „ 7 11 „ 9 12 „ 11/2 2 „ 13 „ 4 13 „ 12 2 „ 1 14 „ 15 15 „ S 2„ 2 1(3 „ 12 17 „ 6 2 „ 3 18 „ 10 19 „ 6 2 „ 5 22 „ 12 23 „ 10 2 „ ti 24 „ 15 26 „ OVi 2 „ 7 27 „ 4 28 „ S',^ 3 „ 29 „ 11 30 „ 16 3 „ 1 32 „ 4 33 „ 9 3 „ 2 3 1 „ 1 4 36 „ 4 • 3 „ 3 37 „ 111 39 „ 5'/2 3 „ 4 ^tl „ 8 42 „ 2 G L A Z I F R. MI-.\.SL KhMENT. Mcasui-e the glass between the rebates; all irregular jiancs are to be taken .Mpiare, the extreme length.s. Allow a sum for scaffolding if rc(piirc. A Crate of Crown Glass contains; 12 Tables (if tlie lirsl (juali'v 15 „ „ second „ 18 „ „ tliird ., 18 „ „ i'diii-tli „ 10 Feet super may be estimated as tiie a\erage (piaiitity of glass tiiat can be made available from each table. TAIN T E R. MEASURE:\IEXT. it is very general in estimating the work of the Painter to take the quantities as measured for the Joiner's work, so far as the painting relates to his department, and add about a sixth of the total quantity for the moiddings and edges. To arrive exactly at the value of painters work, it is necessary to make minute in(piiries respecting the precise quantities of turpentine, oil and white lead really reipiisite, to cover with so many coats a certain numlicr of yards, the character and tlie age of the material luniiig also to be taken into areouut. Unless the mixtures are properly graduated and jiroportioned, tiie conse(piences will soon lie visible, and the work be again required to be performed within the period, for which it should have endured. Many -woods last longest without paint. Of course, if it is applied to unseasoned timber, its dccav is hastened from the confining process, the wiry, frizly fibres ol oak and fir being often found more cftectual than paint in warding off the heat of the sun and the pene- tration of rain. Painters's work, we may remark generally, is taken at the superficial foot, adding all edges, sinkings, projections, girts, etc. Skirtings, cornices, and all works cut in on both edges, arc run; other work is taken supei-ficially, and the measurement is to be made wherever the brush goes. Kailings and balusters are measured on both sides as flat work", to allow for trouble of painting round bars, etc.; but if there is much ornament, take once and a half or twice for each side; reduce it to yards square. If on a groimd there are moulds cut in differently, take a run of them in addition. Handrails are measured with the balusters and run in addition for graining. Take all ornamental work as common, and add to this the su])erficial or running dimensions of ornament. In measuring doorf, add 2 inches for iianels, and 2 ineiies for girt of architrave, and then take lininiXf^, allo\vino' for rebates. In takino- tcinihnr.'i, allow similarlv for architrave, mouldings, etc.; take the shutters, addmg for edges and movddings; and frames and s(|iiares are priced at so much each. The common colours are stone, lead, black, white, and chocolate; an extra price is to bo allowed for other colours, as for imitations and varnishing. The following articles are taken at per fool run; Cornices, skirtings, and strings not more than 12 ins wide, handrails and newels, reveals, gutters, water-trunks, bars and frames to skylights and hothouses, rails, sides and steps to ladders, stair margins, moiddings cut in. Number frames, chimney pieces, plain and boxed, scrapers, and jirice squares per dozen. Letters arc measured in height and charged per iiuh run. Abstract tlie supers in the first place under the head of the number of oils; then tlic extra colours, imitations, varnishing, etc.; then the runs; lastly the numbers. Carved work may be kept by itself, or put down under the headings at so many coats. Bill in a similar rotation. 104 THE MF.ASrnKMENT AND VAI.rATION OF ARTIFICERS WOKK. VALUATION AND :\lEMOUAM)A. (i.v per diem may be set down ior tlie painter, ('(iloiir and puttv arc sold by the pound; brushes, tools and pots at so nuieli each. 20 per cent ])rofit is allowed on materials. ^[r. l)ol)son savs tliat 4r> yards of work, first coat, including knotting, stoii[)ing', and every ])rciiaration re(|uisite for the second coat, will require 5 11)S white lead, T) lbs putty and litharge, I (piarl nil: second and following coats 5 lbs white lead, 1 quart oil. Partington gives the ex- jicnse of stone colour and tlic quantities of materials as follows. £ ^ d Lime water, 4 gallons „ „ 4 AVliiting, 112 poiuids (I „ 2 ,. 1 White "lead, gvound, 2S lbs at ()r diem, and gold leaf about 2.v per book. PAPER HANGER AND DECORATOl!. MKASURE^IEN'1\ Paper is charged by the piece, the price varying, according to the number of blocks used in ]irinting it, the ipiality, and the colours. Hanging is (4iaigcd from aiiout ^(/ to I v per piece, liordcrs arc charged by the dozen yards, and banging them the same. I'lnniring, sizing and prrpai'ing walls, canxass lining, sizing and \arnisliing, .arc all chai'gcd by the jiiece. India rnbbei- jiaper foi' damp walls costs aiiout half a crown per piece. C'rimson flock, satin and gold, panelled decorations, embossed pa])ers, etc., cost proportionately more than common ])apcrs, as their (pialily and the tronble of banging is increased. Pun nidulilings, etc. Abstract |iaper according to its (pialily, jilacliig first siijjcrs, then runs and numbers, and simi- larly bill 3 superficial feet or 7 yards. Allow for waste 1 piece in 7. 'M) feel rim, or 12 yards, Cfpial a dozen borders. A French ])iecc of pa|)cr contains 1 yards sipiare. I)i\iding any number of siiperllrial feet by .'» will give the number of yards of paper requisite to cover the walls of a room: by dixiding fliis by 12 we have (he number of jiieees. Odd yards are charged as a ]nece. Take THntemper'nig by tlie yard, note if dime once or twice, if with one coat oT colour in turps or oil, and give descri])tion. Pun lines and mouldings to jianel.s, ceilings, etc.; but take cornices (listeinpered at ])er foot super. Niiinber ornaments, honeysuckles, etc., at angles. Wi- have now fnmpleicd our slight slicicb of the meaMinanent and valiialinn oT .Artificers' Work. Til cnlcr iimre iMiniilily intii llie .-.iibiccl. Id cfliiic tjic niimiTniis xarialidiis in iiraetice. u _l m < t- X o :3 o a: 3: z O I- u u DKSIGN FOU A CUKfcKUVATUliV. 105 and to give full i)avticulars of valuation would require a volume instead of a single article and ])riee!<, as bei'ore ohserved, are so niodilicd hy a variety of circiniistanee.s tliat, if wc jjavo more, lliov would oiih' lend to mislead. Sulfieienl lias lict'u iiidiraird to nialijc llic student, to i'onn elear general ideas of the system of measurement and \alualion, to Ik; delined, matured and applied hy praetieal o[)erations. DESIGN FOR A COXSKin-ATOnv. Plates -1(5. -17. The remarks wliit'li we made at Page -17, in speaking of Greenhouses, jireeluiles the neeessily of a lengthy description of this design. Plate 4(5, contains the ground and basement plans of a Conservatory, 50 feet long by 30 feet broad inside, with a pmiji at one end and a j)rojcetion corresponding to it at the other. The advantage of a [)orch, whii li sjiould be; always attached to a conservatory, is that the cold external air is prevented too (piiekly entering the building, and tlius disturbing the equality of tem|)eraturc \vhieh it is re(pusite to preserve, 'flic plan is so arranged that on opening the inner door a \ie\v is obtained down the whole lengtii of the conservatory, thus at once giving an idea of the full extent, and, in taei, il' the central parts are planted with high shrubs or trees, causing it to ajipear larger than it really is, on ai'count of the extra length gained by the recess. The two beds in tiie centre are to be fdled with fine com- posts, or maiuu'es; and the borders are to be of rubljed Portland stone, with rounded tops, on brick piers. Around the conservatory is a raised table for plants in i)ots, and under this the pipes for hot water are to run. It is to be stijiported, as shown, by brick piers, with '.)" arches turned between them, and -I' .," ai'clies to wail, canwing 2' o" rulibed I'drtJaud u\- \nvk slabs. In the former exanq)le the stands were wholly of woodwork; those in tiie recess nl' tiiis exanq)le niav be similar. Pa^e the conservatory with 2" I'ubbed Portland or York. Tiie Basement plan shows the space for heating apparatus, a cellar for coals, and another Ibr pots, tools, etc. The ste])s down may be of tooled York, and the paving stock bricks on edg<'. The line is not shown on the drawing; if the conservatory is near the house, the flue may lie carried undergrouud and up one of the stacks of ehinmies. Tlie drains to be I inch stoneware. The elevations on Plate 17, are nf an oiiiate eliaraeter, and the half section indicates the construction. The ironwork may be iuirodueed or omitteil as preferred; if omitted, an jron tie rod, with strap, bolts, etc., to principals, and suspension rod from apex, connected with tie, will be re(piisite. It \vill be as well also to introduce continuous iron rods extending the whole length of building on each side, pas.sing through j)rinci|)als at about their middle, and thus steadying them. Fig. I, Plate 17, shows the arrangement of sliding roof sashes on jirincipals, and Fig. 2, a plan of the angle showing casements, each alternate one of these is to be made to open and to be ]irovided with stay hooks. The post is shown rather smaller than on tho elevations. The face of the brick wall under woodwork is to be cemented. The glass, painting, etc., may be as described to (ircenhouse; and I lie total cost set down at £ 1(H(. 11 lOG STABLE FITTINGS. Plates 48. 49. We have not liithcrto, in tlic course of this work, spoken of Stabhng, Init now propose to make some remarks on the subject. Plate 48. contains plans for a two-stall stable, with loose box, coach house, harness room, loft, and bed room for groom. The arrangement is compact and decidedly the most economical that can be adopted; and on Plate 49, is a section, showing the exceedingly simple character of the construction. The elevations are necessarily so desti- tute of ornamentation, and at the same time so illustrated by the plans and section and thus readily comprehended, that we have not deemed it essential to give them. On Plate 49, are also on the right hand side two details, modified from a foreign work, showing the mode of constructing tlic fittings of Stables very usual in France. It is of the utmost importance to keep stables dry and airy, and their situation should there- fore be chosen with especial attention to these requisites, as dampness will be certain to give rise to disease in the horses. If there is any suspicion of it, or the foundations are bad, con- crete should be used: a layer G inches thick jjcing spread over tiie whole surface of the ground, and the walls ])eing erected on it, twice the width of the lowest course of footings, and one to two feet deep. The paving will depend on the locality. Stone pebbles laid in sand and gravel, with channels for drains formed in the same with bricks on edge lined witli cement, arc cheap enough. Punned clav is connnon for coach houses. The surface of yards may l)e formed to ciu'rents, and coated witii one layer of coarse and one layer of fine gravel, well l:)eatcn to a hard consistence. Grey stocks on edge in mortar cost about 3 shillings per square yard, and Dutcli clinivcr paving, which is extremely durable, lOx (h/. In the south of England Moore stone is used and found to be excellent. Chalk puddle primed in, faced Hints, clay and smith's ashes, and slate cuttings set edgeways in cement, arc all good. Wood blocks are too absorbent. Kamptulicon is nnicli used by the go\ernment in cavalry stables. Stoneware pipes, gullys and traps arc good for drainage. Tlie iron stable guttering, traps and pots oi' Cottam and Hallen, are great iv „ , improvements: they are shown in the )Hm margin, the guttering costing 2.s- G^^?r'^Jit?^^5 ^ 1"'^' '"'•' I'll"' ="i'^ i' i)ieces 3« 6(/. The ^^^^^^^^^^^^Ut^^^f^^m^^^B'S^^^^^mif' paving, we should mention, ought to be as level as ])ossible, consistent with the fall for drainage, or the liorsc will be injin'cd iVoni tlio sti'ain ou tlic tendons oi' tlic liiiiil legs. l>ri(k pa\ing is pre- feral)le foi- the space lichind tiic stalls. - 1^ If there is a donlilc row of stalls op|io,-itc one aiiothei-, tlic space between in the middle should not be less tlian eight ur ten feet, but, from the irregularities of temperature, those stal)lc.s are the most healthy which do nt)t contain more tlian six or eight horses. From .")' .J to {') feet should be allowed for tlic width of stalls, and the sides should be lined with i)lane(l wood. KJ feet is a minimum width for a stable, allowinii" 7 or bl I'cet for the horse. Tile gratings at the back and between stalls, should be about a foot sipuire, with cess- jpools 2 feet dcC]), lined with cement, and eoniinunicatlng with the liquid manure tank. The )E§llS.li!!l (r©R A 6@IKlgEKV^T®RY. EN D -E L E VATI ON . TRANSVERSE SECTION S I DE— E LEVAT ION SCALE OF I I I I I I M I -I FEET 1/. th STAi!i,i: irniNGS. 107 door, ii' it c';in lie iuciidcd, miiilit iku in lie ci]i|)()sitc' :i stall; it iiiiiy Ij^ I, 1' ^, nr .") Icct wide, :ui(l 7 or S icot liii^li. SiK'alJiiu of ihiiu-horsc .^tables, Mr. Andrews says; — "12 feet in iieifrlit, and 1() i'oi't in width are tlie niininniiu dinicnsion.-*. Tliis 10 feet width slioiild lie aiipnipriatfd in the folldwinii' manner; — 2 ft. lor tiic manger, 7 ft. for Icngtli oi' stall. 1 ft. ior tiie drain, 4 it. for a clear gangway behind the hoi-ses, to facilitate the removal of iiiaiitirc, and the otiicr bu.sines.s of the stable, and 2 ft. for the ])rojcction of the liariiess, etc., hanging on the tack.s behind each liorse. Separate stalls sJiould be provided for each animal by a partition called a iravi.<. On no accoimt shonld a swinging bar be used, bad accidents often oocuring from tlii.s ill-advised economy. Tlie travis should be five feet high at the tail post, and rise to seven at the head. Tlie ])osts for supporting it . „ to £ 4. Fittings complete of a similar description for loose boxes range from £ 2 „ 10 „ <• to J" 3 „ IS „ 0. Halter guides and collar reins are attached to .a ring in the manger, not tied, but dropping down with a plummet at the end, leaving the animal full liberty to lie down: a shorter lialter may be used in the day time to prevent backing into tlie passaye behind. Harness and saddle brackets and pins should be provided in the harness room, together with slielves and closets, or recesses for brushes, combs, etc. There should lie proper receptacles for straw and hay. Keep in one cliest with divisions, f)r in separate chests, the peas, l)cans, oats, ])ran, etc. Tiie corn chest should be provided with lock and key and not be kept in the stable. If the coach house is not paved, thei-e should be wheel boards 9 inclies wide for the wheels to rest on. Cart horse stable doors are often made in two halves, so as to be enabled to look in by opening tlic one above. The lower door is bolted, and a lock and thumb latch jn-ovided to the upper one. Iron and wood sashes are used to the windows; skvlights are advantageous, as they can be opened to aid ventilation. It is an erroneous and very . ffcneral notion that a stable should not be well ligiitcd. "A horse," says jNIr. Stewart, "was never known to thrive better for being kept in a dark stable. The dealer may hide the horse in darkness, and j)erliaps he may believe that they fatten sooner there than in the light of day. When a horse is brought from a dark stable to the open air, he sees very indistinctly, he stares about him, and carries his head high, and he steps high. Dark stables may thus suit the purposes of dealers, but they are certainly not the most suitable for horses. They are said to injure the eyes. There is not perhajis an animal so liable to blindness as the horse. It cannot be said that darkness is the cause, but it is well known that the eyes suffer most frequently where there is no light. Whether a dark stable be pernicious to the eyes or not, it is ahvays a bad stable. It has too many invisible corners about it ever to be thoroughly cleaned. All these things con- sidered, it is evident tliat the stable ought to be well lighted." It ought also to be well venti- lated, this indeed being a point of very considerable importance. In our article on Ventilation, the general principles and their apj)lication are fully stated, and we need add but little here. The cleaner the stable is kept, the better will it be ventilated. It shoidd be swept and cleaned out every morning, and not a ])article of rei'use left unremoved to the dung pit. Annnouia, as we once before remarked, rising from decaying matter, destroys the walls of a building, by its Conversion into nitric acid, dissolving the lime of mortar. The injury thus caused by the for- mation of soluble nitrates is called in (iermany Salpetci'/rass. If sulphate ol' lime, in other words gypsum, is spread lightly over the floors of stables, the ammonia is fixed, loses its smell, but is, at t4ie same time, just a.s valuable as a manure. Leading a tube from the ceiling of a stable into a flue is a good mode of ventilation. Sometimes a channel is constructed over the centre of each stall about 18 inches wide and 9 inches deep, connnunicating with the flue and having a fla)) to open or shut at pleasmv. The introduction of air bricks is cheap. If there are eight horses, construct a regular ventilator on roof, witii louvre boards and jierforated zinc at the bottom, and pulley and cord to regiJate opening. About 2 air bricks for entrance and exit of air to each horse will suffice. Mr. Shepherd justly remarks that; — "It is distressing to the feelings to inhale the air in some farm staliles at night; particularly in old steadings, econo- mically fitted up. It is nut only warm from confinement, moist from evaporation of perspira- tion, and stifling from su(h)rific odours, liut cutting to the breath and pungent to tlic eyes, from the decompostion of dimg and urine by the heat. The windows are seldom opened, and many can scarcely be opened from disuse; the roof in fact is suspended, like nn cxtinguislicr, over the half stifled horses, liut the evil is still farllur aggravated by a bay loft, the floor of which is extended over and within a foot or le.fs of the horses heads. IJesidcs the horses being thus inconvenienced by the buy loft, the hay in it, through this nightly wasting and fmnigation, soon l)ecomes brittle and ((.nlracls a disagreeable oilour." Tliere is a smell resemblinsr hartshorn ^ ^ •NOIXOag 3Sd3ASNVH2 bl o h «e S d < «s ki z Q < lUXNl^l CO z O o UJ CO _j < z Q h o Z o I- y o < o 0} •N0I-L03S 3SU3ASNVaj^ ^ (- z O DESCUHTIOX (IF I'l.ATES. 109 wliicli arises from |vart of the dei'omj losing matter eontaiiiiiii;' it in iai'jfe (|nantity, and it is not wontlerliii tliat distemper, farey and <;landers slionld attaek liorses eontini'ii in .-iidi places. Tlio fittings ol' the design given are plain and ( noniiial, and the cost will axcrage i^ 250. DESCRII'TION OK PLATES. Tlates 5(1. lo (JO. Plate 50, contains details of desk and seats connected, the latter without backs, hut another detail of disconnected seats with hacks is given below; they are adajited to schools and also Other purposes; and the mode of workmanship is sufficiently indicated from the size of the scale. Plate 51, is a design for the elevation of a Warehouse or Factory. The windows are con- nected so as to give the idea of one oj)en space within, which is often required, instead of numerous separate apartments; and it is because of its simplicity that we have not given a plan, as well as from the varying requirements. Stone facing is proposed for the front, and slate slabs or Italian formed zinc to the roof. It is obviously unnecessary to give the cost in this instance. Plates 52. 53. contain Illustrations of Iron Construction, Fircjiroof and otherwise. On Plate 52, Figs. 1 , and 2, show Fireproof Construction with wrought and cast iron girders, brick arches, boarded floors and lathed ceiling. In Fig. '.^, a large cast iron girder is substituted for that of wrought iron in the former example. Fig. 4, has cast iron girders carrying Ijindcrs of wood, the floor not being fireproof. Figs. 5, and 6, indicate methods of connecting plates and joists with iron girders. On Plate 53, Figs. 7, and 8, show sections of iron columns and the method of connecting girders with them. Figs. 'J, are details of columns for balconies. Figs. 10. 11. 12, are various I'orms of shoes. Figs. 13. 14, arc continuous sections of construction, fireproof and otherwise, in which iron girders are introduced. W'c shall add a few remarks on fireproof construction, iiut our space is now so limited, that we can only give a fragment of what we intended to lay before our readers. In ease of fire, iron colunms become so heated that they first crumble and then melt rapidly, or they are split by the water from tlie engines; and good solid timber posts can be more reckoned on for their time of duration, greater confidence bemg thus felt on entering a burning edifice, iron colunms giving way suddenly, the water accelerating their destruction as well as that of stone columns, but doing good to those of wood: brick pu'rs are most i)referable. Again, where arches are turned from girder to girder, if one of the latter is fractured, or an arch settles, the building will often fall, from each arch being greatly dci)endant on the reaction of the adjoining ones for support, ^\'ood floors are also objectionaiile, from the facility fire has in travelling between them, and the draught of air allowed. The system of fireproof construction now being, by the Kuiperors wish, extensively adopt, d at Paris, "consists of 1 shaped iron girders, irom t) to 8 inches deep and 2 feet apart, kept together by saddle linrs. Boards are placed between the girders, and the space is filled in with pieces of stone and the excellent plaster of Paris. This concrete sets in a very few hours, and the boards are removed, the mortar being sufficiently tenacious to hold the niass together. There are long diagonal tie bars at the angles of the walls to keep the whole construction compactly together." The fitUowing rule for calculating the dimensions of I shaped east iron girders will be lound useful. The weight on one superficial foot of flooring being found, multiply it by the number no DESCKIPXrOX OF PLATES. of superficial feet, thus ascertaining- tiic wliole weight resting- on tiic girder; one lialf tiiis, or lialf tiie weiglit distributed, gives tiie -sveiglit bearing on the centre of the girder. Hide. ^lul- tijiiy the weiglit on the centre by tlic lengtli of the girder, and divide the product by ti?.') (the constant number) nudtii)lied by the width of tlic bottom tiange, tlic square root of which gives tiie wliolc deptii of tlic girder; nudtiply this last by .7 for the depth of the middle part; and for flic breadlli of the middle part, multiply the width of the bottom flange by .4. Set down the weight of timber flooring at 40 lbs, and the loading at 12(1 l))s per foot super; the brickwork ma-^- be taken at 10(1 lbs per cubic foot. For floors not fireju'cof, take from ISO to 200 His for tlic weight of timber, flooring, plastering, etc.. per foot super. To ascertain the weight of a cast iron girder, find the number of superficial i'eet and set them down at their respective thicknesses; reduce them to inch thicknesses, and multiply the total by 40 lbs (the weight of one foot super of inch iron) which will give the whole weight. Cast iron girders are usually connected with 5 , ini'li iiolts, i)assiiig through ferrules or sockets. The subject of wrought iron girders is not so well luiderstood as that of cast iron. Mr. Fairbairn, one of the highest authorities, prefers the plati' beam, represented in the margin, to the box beam, as, although inferior in strength, it is simpler in construction, less expensive, more durable, resists better atmospheric changes, and admits of easy access. Beams with cellular tops present also many advantages. Tiic superiority of wrought to east iron in case of fire cannot admit of doubt; and we shall take the liberty of giving a few of ilr. Fairbairn's remarks on their relative strength and cost. Speaking of bearings of ;{() feet, and of wrought iron plate beams of the above section, he remarks that they "may be composed of plates 22 inches deep ^/ig" thick, rivetted on both sides, as shown in the section. The breaking weight of this beam, taking the constant at 75, woidd be as follows; — Let W represent tiic breaking- weight in tons, a the area of the bottom flange, f. -iJ U ^fe4^*?jLv .Vi:.^a:i».^feg^<3»ftf>t:c:"-.>::/<^^v^^ autliority, "as being practically tlie hc! in a length of 20 feet; and the economy of the system is imdoubtcd. The joists, of wrought iron, are rolled into a strong, light and economical form, and tested to bear Aveights of from 120 to 150 lbs per square foot, the test being, in the case of cast iron, ^ 3''' of the breaking weight, and for wrought or rolled iron, within the elastic limit of the metal; but the strength and test are increased to meet all re(iuircments. Rooms 24 feet in width have been constructed with single joists; but in spans much exceeding 20 feet, it will be advisable to have wrought iron girders, and in spans of 60 feet to have colunms 20 feet apart. The thickness of the floor rarely exceeds 12 inches; and the system has been extensi\cly adopted all over the kingdom: at Guy's Hospital the reader may observe its practical success. Plate 54, contains details of iron rails for Staircases. Figs. 1, are iron sashes and frames suitable lor Warehouses, Conservatories, etc. Figs. 2, and 3, sufficiently explain themselves. Plates 55. 56, contain plans and details of two Ceilings. Plate 57, includes a variety of designs for Clock and Bell Turrets, wliirli may be executed to various scales. Plates 5S. 59. 60, present a series of Headstones, Altar Tombs, and Mural Monuments, of Gothic and Classic character, for Cemetery Chapels and Grounds. 112 THE VALUATION OF HOUSES AND ESTATES. Having' treatcii in ;i iprcvioiis uilicle of the nu'asui-cmciit aud valuation of arliliccis' work wc have now to con- i-i(ii;r the mode of lixin;,' the vahie of hvnd and houses, whether frcclioKl or leasehold, and lliis is jiropcrly as- certained l>y proeecdiiig on scientific aud dciinite methods, certain tables being used to save time and facilitate cal- culation. The first preliminarv is to ascertain the clear annual value of the property, after deducting all outlays; taxes, encumbrances, and outgoings generally falling on the landlord. The use of the tables is to find the value, or number of years purchase, which any iiro])crty is worth at the rate of interest reijuired, for a iierpetuity, a definite time, or for a period depending on the life of one or more individuals, according as the property is to be held. Tlic interest in the tables is compound, being a return of tlic principal as well as the interest on it; — that is, in valuing a property, it is considered worth so many years purchase, as will return the money given for it in the time, and also interest equal to what can be obtained by investing the capital elsewhere; to do this it must be at least one per cent above the ordiiuiry interest. The present system of calculation is of comparatively modern date. In 1S02 some tallies for the purchasing and renewing of leases were published by Francis Baily of tlic Stock Ivxchange, and many of the authors, who have since written on the subject have derived from this work great assistance, which, indeed, has often not been at all acknow- ledged. Wc shall avail ourselves of some of Baily's lucid explanations; for he gives a very clear statement of his subject, and states in his preface that, when his work was written, the only publication in use was a little book entitled "Tables for the Renewing and Purchasing of the Leases of Cathedral Chinches and Colleges," tirst i)ublishcd about 1()S5. The work was anonymous, but had on the title page a recommendatory Latin note by Sir Isaac Newton. After the death of this great man the publisher artfully jircfixcd to the book, in large letters, "Sir Isaac Newton's Tables,'' under wliich name it has since gone. It was long out of print when Baily published his tables; and he was the first to apply to them decimal fractions, then bill little used, to facilitate calculations. Wc Nhall consider in the following article, first, I'rcehohl properly and then Leaseholds for terms certain, giving the iiiinjile rules for a.sccrtaining the value of each dc- scri]>lion, and then treat, iiuilcr their projjcr headings, on Rcvc^^io^» of Freeholds and Leaseholds after certain termi", Ucncwals of Leaseholds for certain terms, Purchase of Lca.tcholds for Lives, Kevcrsiuns of Freeholds, or Leaseholds after Lives, and Ucncwals of Leases for Lives, concluding with some useful Memoranda. 'A lease is, properly, a conveyance of any lands or tenements, usually in considcrnliun of rent, or other an- nual recompense, made for life, for years, or at will." The t«o first items only ha\c here to be considered. In granting a lease for a term of years the Lessor generally demands of the Lessee jiaymcnt of an annual sum equal to the rack rent of the estate, to continue during the term; aud the value of tlio estate is deter- mined by tlie rent it will produce. If the lease is disposed of for one jircscnt payment, this sum will be contingent on the length of the term and the interest wliich the jiurchascr can make of his money during tlic said term. If the rate of interest is low, the sum to be paid for the lease will be ]iro[ior- tionately high, and vifc vnsn. "The money given for the purchase of a lease may be considered as a sum, which, put out to interest, will enable the lessor, by taking annually from the principal, to repay himself the annual rent of the estate during the given term; therefore, no more money should he demanded by the lessor for the grant of the lease, than will enable him to do this at a given rate of interest." We have therefore to settle the jircsent \alue of the grant of a lease, in lieu of spreading the money over the term of years proposed in the shape of rent. The rack rent of an estate is to be treated in the light of an annuity, as jireciscly the same system is adopted in determining the value of one as of the other. Consider the lessee as the lender of the money paid for the loan of the property, and the lessor as the borrower of the cash paid down at once for the annual rents, other- wise spread over the term. Thus, if the landlonl, or borrower, allow's the tenant, or leiidir, to make "J per cent interest of his money, the landlord borrows the sum at the same high rate. The sum paid by the lessee to the lessor may bu considered as money advanced, wliich enables the latter, by putting it out to interest at the rate determined upon, to get back the rent of the pro- perty during the term; and we have therefore to ascertain the^sum, which, invested at the proposed rate, will do this, ^uch a sum in short must be received yearly, equal to the interest the capital will elsewhere command, and the overplus return the principal in the course of the term, or a sum which will meet the fine for a renewal of the lease. The author of "An Answer to A Pamphlet entitled Sir Isaac Newton's Tables," published in 1731, thus ex- jilains this matter of lending. "I know it has been a common notion , that the letting leases is selling the estates for a time, and the jiiirchasers, or lessees do com- monly consider the taking these leases as purchases, by which they are often led into mistaken notions ol llic nature of their estates, and of their right and iiilcrcsl in them, anil, consequently, in their computation of tlicir true values. The selling of an estate must, in common understanding, signify the transfering to the purchaser an absolute jirojicrly in the estate, sold cither in fee simple, or for some limited time; for if the estate sold is not to remain an alisolutc pro])crty in the purcliascr, luit is laid JUlbiA=^ UVI E^ U lb ITO 1/ %^>« r« «^ Ih^ 1'^ Ik;/ «0 ■ / \, ^ THE VALUATION OF HOUSES AND ICSTATES. 113 under any restraints, comlitions, or reservations, il will not come under the denomination of a sale, but must be either in the nature of a lease or a mortgage." It is essential clearly to conijjrchend that the system is simiily one of lending a sum for a given time. If one man lends another * 500 at 5 per cent, on say the security of another man, he has his interest and (if he can get it) the principal returned at the end of the period for which it was lent. The acquisition of leaseholds is similarly considered, with the advantage that there is posses-sion of the property, while, in the former case, the money lent may never be returned. In the latter there is a sub- stantial, material, tangible bond, in fact the money ad- vanced is virtually retained; for although, in the case of a leasehold, the sum lent upon it is never retunied, it can be made out of the jiroperty, together with the in- terest, if the value of the purchase is properly calculated: — that is, if, as the rents come in, the owner puts the money out to interest at the same rate at which the valuation was based. The number of years purchase is regidrtted , not only by the interest which may be made on money, but also by the time a property may lie safely calculated upon not to be affected by extraneous circum- stances in its ability to make the return. So it may be said, that in the public funds consols are at 90, 95, etc., according to the number of years people will risk their money on the durability of public credit. At the rate determined on, transfers are made of stock from one indi- vidual to another, which presents the same advantage as if the government returned on demand the moneys lent. The first table at the end of this article facilitates the calculation of the sum to be given for leases, etc., sup- posing a certain rate of interest and tei-m of years. The yearly net rent, or annuity, being supposed to be one pound, the figures nnder the rates per cent denote the number of years purchase to be given for the property, according to the interest proposed, and the years for which it is to be held, as in the first column. The clear yearly rent, or annuity, being multiplied by the value of one pound, at the rate of interest at the top and according to the time at the side of the table, gives the present sum to be paid as the fair value under the proposed circumstances. It must be obvious that the value of an estate, depending not only on the term for which it is held and the rate of interest proposed on the investment, but also chiefly on the net rental available after all deductions from the rack rent, it is of the utmost importance to ascertain what is the clear, surplus, annual rental liefore applying the t.able given, want of accuracy in this resjiect quite falsifying the expectations that may be formed. The taxes and general rental in the neighbourhood are easily ascer- tained, but, of course, the value of a property is dependant on contingent and varying circumstances, and two houses, costing the same sum to erect, will wonderfully differ in value according to the fluctuations that may occur in the locality in which each is jilaced. All this must be kept in view by the shrewd valuator of properly; and although there is much that ho cannot possibly foresee, there are always many circumstances tending to aflect more or less the future value of property which should not escape liis consideration. On this, however, wc do not jiroposc now to enter, but merely give the rules for ascertaining the value of leases, etc. when the rack and net rent for the term is ascertained and the rate of interest dctemiined. Some usual deductions may however be mentioned. Keducc the rent always to a clear annuity, deducting a sum for insurance, chief or quit-rent and fee-farm being also allowed. Deduct generally such taxes as fall on the land- lord, including any in arrear which cannot be obtained from the last tenant, and which of course the future one cannot be expected to pay, only being called upon to discharge tenant's rates and taxes; but .ilihough Queen's taxes may be, parochial and local rates and taxes in arrear cannot be recovered from a new person coming into possession. The property tax is not to be deducted, as the owner will have to pay this, or income tax, on any description of property, whether real or personal; but all deductions are to be made of sums which the owner of an absolute annuity is free from, the object being to reduce the rent to such clear annuity. The ground rent is to be deducted; and the land tax is fixed by law on the landlord, although often paid by the tenant and the receipt tendered as so much towards the rent: on the subject of taxes, however, we shall speak more at length in another article. Fixtures are usually valued; and the sum to be expended on repairs or alterations must be fixed, as well as the requisite annual cost, during and at the end of term, of requisite repairs, painting, etc., which no one but a practical surveyor or builder can accurately estimate: substantial repairs often fall on the landlord in the case of a lease, but the document must be carefully perused. Contingencies, arising from loss of tenants, etc., are to be set down ; and there is often much dispute about the correct fixing of these matters, the object of the lessor's surveyor being to raise the value of the property as high as lie can, while the lessee's representative seeks to dimi- nish it, much art and sharp practice continually occurring. Reserved rents and fines considerably modify the aspect of an investment; and the general deduction by the author of "Church and College Leases" of 30 per cent for taxes, repairs, etc., is vague and usually too much. Coming to the same amount of deduction, another author has calcu- lated it as follows ; — . Land Tax . . . . £ U) per cent. Repairs .... 10 Casualties, etc. . 10 , £ 30 The surveyor for the lessee will be generally safe in allowing for these jiarticulars; — Ground Kent, Keservcd Rent (if any), Fine (if any). Land Tax, Taxes in ar- rcai and such Rates and Taxes as fall on 'the Landlord, Insurance, Collecting, Legal and other expenses of Trans- fer, and every cx])ense incurred previous to possession. Value of Fixtures, Re|iairs and Alterations, .\nnual Kojiairs, Dilapidations at end of term, Contingencies arising from loss of tenants, Deterioration in the value of the property, etc. 15 114 THE VALUATION OF HOUSES AND ESTATES. VALUATION' OF FREEUOLDS. Wc shall now proceed to give the ordinary forms of calciilalion, taking first the Punhnse nf Fieelivlds. In caiies of mixed freohoUl jiropcrtv, consisting' of land and Imildini^s, the valuation should be divided into two parts; first, that of the land, whieh is indestruetible, and second llial of the building, which will decay and become useless. Althoiigli the value of land, particularly that appropriated for buililing purposes, fluctuates considerably, the valuator has nuiinly to do with its present value; and, if there is a building, the time this may fairly I'c cakiilated upon to endure and return the rent must Ijc talien into con- tiideration, which can only be estimated by a surveyor or builder. Instancing the case of a proi)erty, consisting of house and land producing a clear rental of « 30 per annum, we arrive at the purchase value of the fee-simple in this manner. Take the house and consider the cost of erection and 7 per cent, or about 14 years purchase, n-s the jiropcr rate of interest, since casualties in letting, loss of tenants, etc., may occur to diniinisli the interest of the ca)>ital invested. Supposing it l.'iUU is the sum delcnninedupon, the building rent of ihc house at the rale of " per cent will be it 105, which, deducted from the full rent of £ i:!0, leaves £ 25 as the rent of tlic hind, or groimd rent. I Per cent, or 2.5 years purchase, is an usual price for the latter, which gives the value of it (i^ 2J per annum) at * (125 for the fee-simple. TIic house, however, may only bring in tlie contemplate Ihc number of years purchase: thus dividing I Oil by 5 per cent. ii-. ihc rat.- .,|" interest, gives 20 years purrhiue. £ 60 Rent. 20 Years Purchase, or 5 Per Cent. £ 1200 Value. Or, multiply tlic annual rent by 100, and divide the produce by the proposed rate of interest. £ liO Kent. 100 Rate of Interest 5) tiOOO 1200 Value. Tile lirst is the most rapid process when tlie number of years purchase is an even quantil\, anil the latter when it is fractional, or not precisely known. The ligures in the table give, of course, the number of years purchase, or value of * 1, and we have cousecpiently only to mul- ti]dy as at lirst by the nivmber of pounds annual value. Tu Jlnd the clear Anntuil ReiU to be charged on a Freehold in order to return a certain rate of Interest, multiply llie tntal sum .expended by the desired rate of interest, and divide the product by 1 11(1. £ I2IJU Sum cxpedeil. 5 Per cent Interest. 100) 6000 £ 60 Rent. Tv jiiitl till lliite uf Interest resulting from a given rent for a sum jiaiil, multiply the clear rental by 100 and divide the product h\ (he sum paid. £ 60 Kent. 100 Suiii Paid 1200) 6000 To find Ih. //■lid for II Friiliidd, — Multiply the rtmr annual rent, after making all projier dcdtirtioni), by ihc number of years purcliasc according to the desired rate of iotercat. 5 Per Cent. These simple rules liave long been clearly understood. We are, however, unable to trace the statement of them further back than 16S5, in the reign of James II., when the author of "Church and College leases" observed; — "Divide 100 by the purchase of the fee-.simple, the quo- tient .shows the rate of interest; as, if the fee-simple be 20 years iiurchase, then 100 divided by 20 the (|uotient is * 5, for the rate of interest. Or, if you divide 100 by the rale of iulcrest whieh you desire to have in buying anything, the iiuolicnt shows how many years purchase ^'ou nmy give for it; llius, if v'U desire to have 8 per cent profit, then divide 100 by s, the quotient is 12'/.2, that is Iwrlvc years and a half's purchase; and so many years iiureliase may you give, and make 8 per cent profit." VALUATION OF LEASES FOR CERTAIN TERMS. In valuing leases we have nothing to do with the land, only so far as deducting the ground rent to be paid in seeking the clear anincd value. Iftfore gniug llie rules a]iplieahjc to leaselinbls \\Q should remark tliiit the values in llie lalile arc ealeubvted on the presumption that Ibc rents arc |iaid yearly; of course if the money comes in lialf-ycarly or quarterly .and is put immediately out al interct^, the gain is propor- tionately higher. "The value of a lease, the rent of which *<^ ■5 @ @ M ■^ @ lb. z o < > TIIF. VALUATION OF HOrsKS AND KSTATKS. is payalile lialf-ycarly, is equal to Imlf llic value of the same lease jisiyablc yearly, calculated at half the fciven rate of interest, and to continue doulile the numlicr of years; and the value of a lease, the rent of which is payable quarterly, is opial to one (piartcr the value of the same lease payable yearly, calenlated at one quarter the given rate of interest, and to continue four times the nuuilier of years. As the present value of an annuity (or lease) has been defined to be such a sum as, ]iut out to interest at a given rate rcijuircd, will jirovide for the several jiayments of the annuity as they became due, consequently the more frecpient the payment of interest on such sum, the less will he the present value of the given annuity; because a smaller sum, put out to interest in this way, will, cateris ptinhux, as cfl'cctually ] vovidc for the several i>ayments of the annuity as u corrcsjionding larger sum, where the payment of interest is not so frequent: and, on the contrary, the less frequent the payment of interest on such sum, the f/reater will be, caieris paribus, the present value of the given annuity." The first table shows the number of years purchase to be given for the grant of a lease for any number of years up to 100. At the top of the respective columns are the several rates of interest that may be proposed, and in the first side column the term for which the lease is to continue. To Jind tht; sum to he ijivfn for a Lease of a given term in . order to make a ]}roposed interest on the invest- ment. Term supposed 21 years, vlear annual rent « 50, and 7 per cent interest required. Look to the talde under the rate of interest, and against tlje number of years the lease is to nin for the nimilier of years purchase it is thus worth, multiplying the clear annual rent by it. £ 50 Net Rent after deductions. 10^/, Years Purchase at 7 per cent for 21 years. 500 37 £ 537 Present Value. The deductions can be made as so much per cent olV the present value (»• set down accurately and nuule from the annual rent before applying the rule. The correctness of the rule is evident; as the values in the tables denote the sum to be given for one pound ]ier annum, so mul- tiplying by the number of poimds rent gives the ])rcsent value of a lease, aimuity, etc. Taking another example, suppose a lease is to lie valued for :iO years and the net rent is « 50 per annum, out of which the tenant has to pay a rent charge of £ 20 for 15 years, what sum may be paid to clear 7 per cent, there being no other deductions, these having been al- ready allowed. £ 50 Rent. 1-2',. J Years Purcliase for 110 years, at 7 Per Cent. GOO i 25 ~625 ISO Deduction. ■J45 Present Value. * 20 Rent charged. 9 Years Purchase for I .'i years, iP \cn at 7 Per Cent. In a similar manner we can ascertain the value in one present ]iaymcnt, or gross sum, of groimd rents, quit rent.s and annuities, with which leases are often encumbered, and which are often sold separately, ground rents and annuities being continually disposed of for terms of years. In the case of a lease charged as above, the ])rcsent value is first ascertained and the deduction made from it. To Jiiiil the clear Annual Rental corresponding, to the sum paid down for a Lease, divide the total sum (aihling all expenses) paid for the lease by the number of years purchase found in the table against the given term under the proposed rate of interest; the quotient is the rent. Supposing £ 500 has been given for a 00 years lease, what is the equivalent annual rent to allow the purchaser 7 per cent. Sum P.aid. Years Purc-Iiasc. *>0 ycnrs .it 71't'rCcnt. Rftnt. £ 500 divided by ..II.. equals * 35 ,. 14. It is thus evident that the £ 500 given for the lease would ]irc)duce an anniuil income of * ',','> ,, I I. for 00 years, at 7 per cent, and the jierson who advances the money for the lesise may be considered as ])aying an annual rent of £ 35 ,, M. To ascertain the number of years Purchase in any sum ]iaid for a lease, divide the sum paiil by the clear annual rent, the quotient being the number of years purchase. Rent £ 100) £ 1000 sum paid 10 years ]»urchase. The rate of interest allowed the imrchaser and the term of the lease are immaterial in applying this rule, as the result is not touched by them. Tv find the Rale of Interest aUiaced , look al ihc table against the term of years for which the lease is lo run. and see if one of the values corresponds nearly to the number of years imrchase, ascertained by the ])rcceding rule, which will be the rate of interest allowed the pur- chaser. Thus £ tiOO being given for a lease of 21 years of a clear rental of £ 50, by the rule before mentioned 12 is found to be the number of years purchase, ami looking in the table against 21 years wo find the interest to be between 5 and per cent, the nearest value being II. 7li under the ])cr cent column. Baily gives the following rule as apiiroximating more exactly to the true rate of interest. Divide the diffennn- between the nmnbcr of years ]iurchase, as ascertained by the last rule but one, and the next highest value found against the given term in the table, by the difference between the next highest and the next lowest value found against the same term; .and the quotient thence arising, being added to the rate of interest marked over the highest valnc thus found, will give nearly the rate of interest required, if there is one per cent dillerenee between the two columns; but if there is only half ]ier cent ditl'crcncc betwccu them, then lialf the quotient being adiled will give nearly the rate required. We have now stated the more sinqjle ndes relating to the valuation of Freeholds and Leaseholds and those which are most generally rcciuired, but, before proceeding to glance at other nspect-s of the subject, we may be per- mitted to dvnw tlic rcailcr's altcntiou to a matter which 15* 116 TIIK VALl'ATION OF HOUSES AND ESTATES. cannot lie cxjilaincd clearer than in the l;m{;"!iKe "f the nulliur whom we last qiioted. He refers to the tirst tiilile given. 'In lookinp: over this table no doubt many have been struck by the little dift'ercnee which seems to exist, jiartioidarly in the higher rates of interest, between the value of lonj; and short leases: thus in the column marked 10 per cent, the value of a lease for 24 years is 8.98 years ]iurchase; and the value of a lease for (iH years is 9.9S years purcliase; so that there is a difl'ereuce of one years purchase only in these two leases, the one of which is to last 44 years loufjer than the other, or nearly three times the length. A^ain, the value of a lease for 100 years is 9. 'lit years purchase, so that it requires only one thousandth )>art of a year's purchase to make this lease ci|ual to a jierpetuity, to which the period of one hundred years bears no more jjroportioji than the millionth part of a drop of water to a million times the whole ocean. But we should recollect that the purchase money paid for a lease is a sum only tent for the given term; for that the suqtius annual income, or interest, over and above that whirl) is expressed by the table, being put out to interest, would, at the end of the term, amount to the whole jiurchasc money i)aid for the lease; which money might be laid out in another similar lease, and, after that, in another, and so on eonlinually, making the whole ei|ual 10 a perpetuity. It must be obvious to everyone, that the shorter the lease is, the greater ought to be the Kurplus income laid by for the redemption of the pur- chase money: and, on the contrary, the longer the lease, llic less ought to be such sur])lus income which is laid by, for the t/renler sum will amount to the same at the end of the shorter jicriod , as a corresponding less sum, at the end of the Inni/er jieriod. The little ditl'erenee which exists between the value of long and short leases is founded on reason .and truth, and, according to the principlci on which the table is calculated, the sum which i» given for n lease may be considered as the value of the pcrjietuity of that rate of interest denoted in the table; anil that all money laiil out in this way is money ailvanccd and Imt only, not moncv annihilated and sunk." HKVKItSIOXS OK KHKKIKH.I).-; AND LKASK.S AKTKK CKKTAIN TKUM.S. The )>oste»i>ioti of Freehold and Leiuschold estates is often not entered upon imtil the cxjiiry of a term of yciini, or tlic death of one or more persons; the former we have now to ronnidcr. The same rules will ajiply to both KrocholdK and Leaseholds. Deduct the value of the •hort lon»c from that of the long leiuie, or, in the case of u frccholil. from the per)>etuity, and the dift'crcnee is the value of the long lease, or the frcehohl, as the case may be. Wc may proceed in two ways, cither taking the monrjr rnluet, or the values in i/enrs purrhiisr. and •M-rrtnining the difference. f'l'I'l'O'c the coie of a freehold bringing in a clear sum of * ISO per annum, what i> the value of the reversion after 30 ycari, (1 per cent being the rate of interest propoicd. £ 1.50 Kent. K{^ 1 Years Purchase for £ 150 Rent. Hi' 1 Years Purch.ise for 450 :(Oyears.-iti;P.C. 900 Freehold at 6 F 150 150 112 .. 10 112 „ 10 £ 20(;2 ., 10 Present Value 2512 „ 10 of Lease. 20(i2 „ 10 Deduction. 450 Present Value of Reversion. Or the valuation may be put as follows; — Purchase of Freehold at 6 per cent — 16' , Years Purchase. Do. Leasehold £ 150 Rent. 3 do. 13V4 3 - Do. * 450 Value of Reversion. Take another example of a lease for "0 years worth £ 100 per annum, but underlet for 30 years at £ 85 rental, the whole tei-m of 70 years being in the market. Su]i]iosing 7 per cent to be the interest which the pur- chaser desires to make, wJiat sum may be advanced. £ 15 Difference in Rent i^ 100 Full Rental for 70 years, for 30 years. 14 Veara Purchase at 7 p. c. 12"a Year Purchase at 41)0 1^0 at 7 Per Cent. \^)^) 7 , H) 1S7 10 Value of Dif- ference. 1400 IS" „ 10 Deduction. 1212 10 Present Value. The next example in which we give the briefest mode of calculation is more strictly a question of reversion than the last. Value the reversion of a lease for 40 years after the next ten years; rent £ 50, rate nf interest 10 jier cent. 4(( vears at sP. ('. 1 1 Years Purchase. 10 U»^ 4'/4 £ 50 Rent. 4V4 Years Pnr- 2()Q chase. 12 „ 10 £ 212 .. Value 10 Present of Reversion. That is, «fc 212 „ 10 is the sum wliicli, \m\ uul to in- terest at the rate of N per rent, will provide for the iluo jiayment of * 5(1 per .inuum Un- the rest of the term of 40 years (ifler the ten first years; or, in other words, for 30 years after the next 10, meeting thus the interest of the lessor if he can afford to allow the lessee the high rate of interest. RF.NiaVALS OF LEASES FOR CERTAIN TERMS. Two modes of leasing property jirevail: the one at the rack, (u' fidl rent, or compouiuling for the same by the payment of a gross sum, the calculations for which have been already considered; and the other by paying a quit- rent less than the rc.il value of the property, ami e(jn- tinuing the same on the renewal of the lease, the hiiul- SCALE TO STAIRCASE I f* s , /pc j» a' ^ r SCALE OF TlIK VALUATION OF IliHISKS AND ESTATES. 117 loiil's interest being met 1)}' the imynient of wimt is termed a Jlne by the tcniint. There is often mueli dispute about the amount of tlic fine, il de|icndinyliolds for lives arc simi- larly belli of churches and colleges, and the fine is more arbitrary than in leaseholds. Mr. Scriitcbley, who has written very ably on the subject, remarks; — "'When the ]ieriod of renewal arrives, three ponits are to be considered: viz, the annual value of the property, the rate of interest to be allowed to the lessee, and the term for which the lease is to be renewed; all of which might proceed npon certain fixed principles; for instance, it is well known that the estimated value of an interest in reversion depends in a great degree u]>on the rate of interest which is assumed as the basis of the cal- culation. If a high rate of interest be taken, the result will be that the fine to be demanded of the lessee upon renewal will be proi)ortionately smaller that it would have been if calculsted on the lower rate. In septennial re- newals, the fine, if calculated at; — h per cent is 2.i)2259\ 6 „ - 2. 4(i91 ( 8 „ 2 U9UI .. 1. 7726,' Years Value. On renewals of leases for lives, the amount of the fine, If properly calculated, will of course vary according to the ages of the existing lives, as well as the rate of in- terest allowed ; and tables have been constructed for the purpose of showing the proper amount of the fine in the case of lives of difl'erent ages, at five per cent interest, G per cent, and so on." To ascertain the fine, or sum to be paid for the re- newal of 10 years expired in a 21 years lease, allowing the tenant 6 per cent interest, multiply the clear annual rent, that is the net value, after deducting <|uit rent and other charges, by the value opposite the given term under the ])roposed rate in the second table. £ m Clear Rent. 3^1 Years I'lu'chase for lU years at Per Cent. 180 45 £ 22', Fine. It is often covenanted to renew every seven years on the ]iayment of a fine ci|ualling one year's ])urehase of the estate; in this case the fine to be paid for renewing 10 years of the lease is settleil by simply multiplying 1.72, the value opposite ten years in the last column, by the rent, £ dO = £ 103 „ 11 for the amount of fine. The rules before given apply equally to Renewals in the cal- culation of the Rent, Number of Years Purchase and Rate of Interest, and it is not essential to repeat them here; but we may as well give a nde for ascertaining the fine to be paid for any term other than 10, 20, 21 and 40 years, for which tables are usually available, as it is im- possible to obtain them for all imaginable periods. The rule applies to terms not exceeding 100 years. Refer to the first table at the end of the article and subtract the years purchase of the term held, or unexpired term of the old lease, from that of the whole term to be added, or for which the new lease is to continue, and the remainder will be the years value of renewal; or subtract the value in mniiei/ of the term held from that of the whole tenn to be added. 30 Years, the whole term proposed at 7 Per Cent ■= 12' j Years Purchase. if 40 Rent. 1 1 Years, unex- 5 red .at -Per Cen t = 7'/., , ,^2(10 Fine. Years Purchase of Fine 5 „ Value of 1 1 years at 7 i>cr cent £ 10 Rent. 7' J Years Purchase. 280 20 £ 300 Value of 30 year-: at 7 |ier ccnti^ 40 Rent. 12' .i Years Purchase. 4sil if 500 20 300 500 £ 200 Fine. The renewal is in fact a new advance and to be treated as such; the new lease is usually made for a period in- cluding the unexpired years with the additional term pro- (loscd to be renewed; and the ditVcrencc between the lis TirE VALUATION OF HOUSES AND ESTATES. value of the lease for tlie whole temi and the value of ihe nncxpircil part is the amount of (inc. Thus, if there is possession of the unexpired term of a lease for fifty Tears and it is desired to add twenty to it, or, in other vvonls, to have a fresh lease for the term of seventy years, the fine due for such renewal is equal to the difl^erenee heliveen the value of a lease for the whole period of seventy years and that of the unexpired term of fifty years: or it is eipial to the rerersion of a le;ise of seventy years after the present fifty. PURCHASE OF LEASES OR ESTATES FOR LIVES. Leases, etc., dependant on .1 life or lives are often granted for a definite tenu, suliject, however, to termi- nation if the life or lives expire within the, term, which is usually longer than it is prohahle it or they will con- tinue. The chiinces of life have been tahulated by various person, and the prob.ibilities dift"er according to localities. "E>tatcs for lives .are of various kinds, some are granted for a single life, of which kind nuiy be considered church livings, tenancies by courtesy, in dower, etc.; and, in fact, all estates which terminate on tlic extinction of the given life: others are gianted for two lives, such as joint te- nancies, ami joint tenancies with benefit of survivorship, tJic foniier signifying such estates as terminate on the death of cither of the parties, and the latter signifying such aj terminate on the death of both of the parties, that is, .iftcr both lives are extinct: others .are granted for three lives, which, like the last, m.iy be divided into Buch a-s depend on the longest of all the lives; the fonner »ignifying such as tenninate on the death of any one of the parties, and the latter sueh .is terminate on the death of Ihe last existing one of the three lives. A tenant for life can make no leases to continue longer than his own life; for his leases are absolutely void at his deatli. When a person holds an estate for the term of anotlier's life, he if calleil tenant /ler auler vie; and leases made by him of course determine on Ihe death of llic cestui r/ue vie, or person during whose life he holds, but not on his own deutli." To determine the value of a lease held on a single life, bring the rent into a clear annuity, and, rcfen-ing to the appropriate table, multiply it by the number of years purcbu*c the life on wliieli the lease is held is worth, according to the rate of interest deteiinincd up thus determined. By the Ubic for the purchase of leases, annuities, etc., held on a single life, '.I' , is the number of years piir- chafc; — * 50 Clear rent. 9V. 4.'>o II" Jf 4'»7 , ID Present Value. This is the sum wbich. put out to interest at 7 per cent, will provide for the ]iayment of ■* .lO per annum dnring the life of a person 40 years of age, deduction being made from each year's rent to provide for the probal)ility of the life becoming extinct. Tlie value of estates detci-niining on the death of two or more persons, or on the joint continuiince of lives, is similarly calculated by reference to the necessary taldes. REVERSIONS OF FREEHOLDS AND LEASEHOLDS AFTER ANY GIVEN LIFE OR LIVES. To calculate the present value of the reversion of a Freehold or Leasehold after any given life or lives; — ' deduct the value in money of the given life or lives from that of the le.ise or freehold ; or deduct the value in years purchase, against the given temi in the table under the inoposed rate of interest, of the life or lives from the purcbasc value of the lease or freehold, the remainder in the first case being the money value, and in the second the number of years purchase. Value the reversions of a freehold bringing in a clear rental of * 100 per annum on the death of a jjcrson aged 40, interest at 5 per cent. Value of Freehold at 5 Per Cent is 20 Years Purchase. Value of Life at 40 do. IP,, do. Present Value 9'/, £ 100 Rent. 9'4 do. 900 25 ie 925 Value of Reversioi £ 100 Rent. 20 Years Purchase. £ 100 Rent. IP, J Years Purcliase. 2000 1175 1100 75 £ 925 Present Value of ^1175 Reversions. Value the revi:rsion of a freehold after the longest of two lives, 30 and 40, of a clear rental of «^ 150, at 5 jjcr cent. Value of frcehulil iil 5 Per Cent is 20 Years d'urcbase. Value of lungot of two lives do. I5Y4 do. 4^ £ 150 H 4»A ■nt. 600 112 , 10 £ 712 „ 10 Value of R ■vcr fl years at 7 Per Cent is 14', ■, Years I'ureliasc. \'aliie of life at liO „ „ 7'/.i „ Present Value 7 „ * 50 Rent. 7 ie lloO Value of Heversion. Caleulale on a similar prineiple in tlie ease of llie longest, or joint eontinuanee of, two or more lives. RENEWALS OF LEASES AND ESTATES FOR LIVES. Renewals of leases on lives oecur in cases when they are granted for lives anil, one of these hecoming cxtinet, the tenant desires to put in one of the best lives he can find, if possible under twenty, in order that the estate may eontinuo to be held on the same number of lives, and his interest be lengthened as much as ]iossible. If the property has improved, the landlord will refjuire a pro- portionate sum of money, and this is also regulateil by the age of the proposed life, the rate of interest to be made, and the age of the remaining life or lives with whieli the new one is associated. Two lives sometimes expire before the lease is renewed, and often the right of putting in the first vacancy is purchased. To settle the correct sums to be jiaid in the way of fines appropriate tables are used. Suppose an estate held 8.30 7.88 7.49 7.13 6.80 6.49 12 '.l.'.l.T !t.3S S.86 8.38 7.94 7.53 7.16 6.81 Ui lii.(;:t '.l.!ts (1.39 8.85 8.35 7.90 7.48 7.10 u ll.2'.i ltl.5(i 9.S'.) 9.29 8.74 8.24 7.78 7.36 If) 11. TO 11.11 1(1. 3S 9.71 9.10 8 55 8.06 7.60 ir, 1 2..M1 ll.lio 1(I.S3 lU 10 9.44 8.85 8.31 7.82 17 n.ir, 12.111 11.27 10.47 9.76 9.12 8.54 8.02 is i:t.7.5 1 2.(15 11.(1!) 10.S2 10.05 9.37 8.75 8.20 I'l 14.:(2 13.13 12.0S 11.15 10.33 9.60 8.95 8.36 2(1 14.S7 13.59 12.46 11. 47 10.59 9.81 9.12 8.51 21 l.i.ii 14.02 12.S2 11.76 10.83 10.01 9.29 8.64 22 1.5.!i:4 14.45 13.16 12.04 1 1.06 10.20 9.44 8.77 2:i 111.44 14 S5 13.4S 12.30 11.27 10.37 9.58 8.88 24 n;.!i:( 15.24 13.7!) 12.55 1 1.46 10.52 9.70 8.98 2"> 17.41 15.(12 14.(1!) 12.78 11.65 10.67 9.82 !).07 2li 17. S7 I5.!IS 14.37 13.00 11.82 lO.sl 9.92 9.16 27 ls:t2 1(1.33 14.(14 13.21 U.iis 10.!)3 10.02 9.23 2s |s.7i; 1(1.11(1 1 l.S!) 13.40 12.13 11.05 10.11 9.30 2'.i I'.'.IS 1(1. !IS 1.5.14 13.59 12.27 11.15 10.19 9.37 :i(i I'.I.IIO 17.2!l 15.37 13.7(1 12.40 11.25 10.27 9.42 31 20.0I( 17.5S 15.5!) 13.92 12.53 11.35 10.34 !).47 :i2 20.3S I7.S7 15.S0 14.08 12.64 11.43 10.40 !).52 :t:t 20.7() IS.ll 1(1.00 14.23 12.75 11.51 10.46 9.56 :ii 2l.l.t 1S.41 16.19 14.3(1 12.85 11.58 10.51 9.60 35 2I.4S is.dd 16.37 14.19 12.94 11.65 10.5(1 9.6 1 3(i 21. S3 Is. (10 16.54 11.(12 13.03 11.71 10.61 9.67 37 22. IC, ni.ii 1)1.71 14.73 13.11 11.77 10.65 9.70 3S 22.4!) 1 '.1.311 Ul.Sd I4.S4 13.19 11.82 10.69 9.73 30 22.SO l!t.5S 17. ni 14.94 13.2(1 11.87 10.72 9.75 •10 23.11 l!l.7!l 17.15 15.111 13.33 11.92 10.75 9.77 11 23.41 lO-'.l!* 17.29 15.13 13.3!) 11.96 10.78 9,79 12 23.711 2(1. 1 s 17.42 1.5.22 13.45 12.00 10.81 9.81 y.\ 23:!)'« 20.37 17.54 1.5.30 13.50 12.01 10.83 9.83 u 21.2:. 2(1-5 1 17.66 15.38 13.55 1 2.07 10.86 9.84 1.') 21.51 2072 17.77 15.45 13.00 12.10 lo.ss 9.S6 to 21.77 2II.SS 17.SS 15.52 13.65 12.13 10.!)0 9.87 47 25.02 21.01 17.9S 15.58 13.(i9 12.16 10.91 9.S8 i^ 252ti 2l.l'.i |s.(i7 15.(15 13.73 12 IS 10.93 9.89 4'.t 25..50 21.31 1 s. 1 11 15.70 13.76 12.21 10.91 !).!)0 :m 25.73 21. IS ls,25 15.76 I3.S(| 12.23 1 ().!)(! !).91 hh 2r..77 22.10 is.(i:i I5.;i'.) I3.!ll 12.31 11.01 !).94 r,(\ 27.f.7 22 (12 ls.!)2 16.1(1 1 1.(13 12.37 11.04 9.!)6 (■i;i 2S.45 23.01 l!).l(l II1.2S 11.11 12.41 11.07 9.!)8 70 2it.12 23.:i;i I!1.31 1(1.3S 11.16 12.44 11.08 9.!)8 7.1 2(1.70 23.(1S 1I).4S 16.15 1 1.1!) 12.46 1 1 .09 9.99 so 30.20 23.01 1!).59 16.50 1 1.22 12 47 11.10 9.!)9 sr> 30(13 21.10 19.6S 16.51 1 1 21 1 2. 18 11.10 !).!)!) uo 31.00 21.2(1 19.75 16.57 1 1.25 12 18 II. Ill !).!)9 '.t.S 31.32 21 3!1 r.i.so 16.60 1 1.2(1 12.19 1 1.10 9.99 ton 3I..5'.( 21.50 I9.S4 16.61 1 1.2(1 12.49 II. Ill !).!)9 Krccholitn. 1 IV-TT. j .13.33 25.00 20.(10 16.6(1 11.28 12 00 11.11 10.00 So that 20 =. '/i; 25 = ',,; 50 = ' ,; un•) mi;mrovided that they arc not illegal; but the right to enter for for- feiture i» limited to a pcrioil of twenty years. Distraining for, or acceptance of, rent ojierales as a waiver against forfeiture, the fonncr being an acknowledgement of te- nancy. A leniiiil cannot forfeit a lease of his own will : Ihc landlord must proceed. Teaanry for I.if,. We have remarked on this sulyc.t in a former article. .Sneh a lenam-y may exist lor the period of a man's own life, .ir thai of one or more other pcr»on». Liiles.H the tenani has a special p.\rations. A lease is forfeited if repairs are not executed after notice, within the given time; and, although a notice to repair is not essential to sustain an action for repairs unperformed after the expiry of a lease, it is necessary during its continuance. With respect to the value of repairs, cases seldom occur in which the demand of more than three-fourths of the value of new work could he maintained, and few, where one quarter could not he properly demanded. Tlie condition of premises worse than they ought to he has to be con- sidered, and the repairs nssessed ; thus, for broken pla- stering and glass, if ^ 1 is the i'uU cost, assess it at 16 shillings. The appraisement and valuation of estates and effects must be stamped, and the expense is generally borne by the landlord. Dilapidated houses are often let on building and repairing leases at less than the actual value, on the condition of being left in a good state of repair at the expiry of the term; in such cases the rcjiairs are to he valued in full, instead of being assessed. Thd subject of ililapidations is altogether not so clearly ex- plained as a proposition in Euclid, and many writers have contributed greatly to increase the confusion of the law, which will not, we hope, be said of ourselves. JienI and Taxes. Rent is not due until miilnight of the day on which it is reserved, altliough the demand, or tender, should be made before sunset according to law. Security, in the shape of a bond, bill, etc., does not in- validate the landlord's right to take proceedings in the case of rent in arrear. Nothing is due till the end of the year, if no mention is made of quarterly or ball yearly payments. Proceedings for non-payment, when the tenant remains on the premises, cannot be taken till the day after rent is due; and nothing can e.\cusc non-payment, not even the fact of the house being blown (U' burnt down, unless the landlord has agreed to the contrary. If, as is usual in annual tenancies, the landlord agrees to keep the premises in repair, and they become so dilapidated as to be unfit for occupation, the tenant is justified in leaving, on giving a written notice, without liability for the last qmirter's rent. If such repairs are essential for safety, and the landlord will not execute them, the tenant may, and tender the amount so paid as towards the rent. Money lost by forwarding it by post at the landlord's desire, cannot be recovered from the tenant. An agent employed by a landlord to collect rent must be authorised by letter or power of attorney. Receipts for taxes, payable by the landlord, may be tendered as towards the rent. A reccii)t for the last quarter's rent covers former arrears. The landlord pays ground rent and property tax; if the tenant agrees to p.ay the hatter, it is void and illegal. Land tax and sewers rate, together with ground rent, are payable on the premises, but are to be deducted from the rent, unless otherwi.se stijmhilod for with resi)ect to one or the other; the law fixes all on the landlord. The tenant must claim his deductions at the peiiod for paymSnt of rent, and cannot do so afterwards: obtain from landlord clearance of all rates and taxes in arrear up to connnenceincnt of tenancy. The taxes and rates payable on the premises, and not yet mentioned, arc House Tax, Church Rate, Water Uatu. I'oor Rate, Police Rate (the latter sometimes included with County Rate under the head of Poor Rate) and Cleansing, Paving, and Lighting, often included with (^ounty Rate under heading of Con- joint Rate. Arrears of parochial and local rates and taxes cannot be recovered from a new tenant, but it is other- wise with ])arliamentary taxes, which are payable on the prendses; and, in fact, the arrangement with the landlord cannot be too clear on these subjects. The land tax, we may remark, is a perpetual one of four shillings in the pound, as assessed on estates in the reign of William III., and it can be redeemed under certain conditions. The house tax is levied on houses of the rent of « 20, and upwards, HJ in the jiound on ju'ivate houses, and fi'^ on business premises. The poor rate is charged on the profit of possession of the occupier, the landlord not being liable on his rent. The sewers rate is charged on all who derive benefit from them, although it may not be immediate; the commissioners assess at discretion. County rates are levied for county purposes, bridges, gaols, etc.; and highway rates go to form and maintain them. The owners of houses, not exceeding « 1(1 annual value are liable for water rates, in lieu of the occni)ants. Water sujiplied to a receptacle 6 ft. G ins. above the pavement in front of a house is high service. Distress. Ejectment. To enlarge on these subjects would occupy too nuich sjiace. J-tisfrcss is the seizure of personal chattels for rent in arrear: it cannot be made after tender of the rent; and the landlord cannot sell before the ex- piry of five clear days, exclusive of the days of distraint and sale. Distraint cannot be made imder an agreement for a lease, or unless there he an actual demise at a fixed rent. A landlord is liable for the conduct of his .agent; hut if the distress is legal, the agent answers for irregu- larities. Things sent to remain in a place can be dis- trained, but not those sent to be wrought upon by a tradesman; and the tools for trades, the books of a scho- lar, apparel worn, and fixtures to the freehold, are exempt, if there is in the two former eases, anything else for sufficient distress. Except in the case of goods fraudu- lently obtained, the outer door of the premises can in no case he broken ojieii to nnike distress. Kjeciment is simply the process of recovering possession from persons illegally holding beyond their terms, or in cases of desertion. Aijents. An agent may be commissioned verbally, but requires authority in writing to grant leases, and a deed to make a deed; the adoption of the act of an agent by his employer relieves the former; and tacit acquiescence in the employer will he taken for concurrence. The principal is liable if his haililT or agent seizes goods priviledgcd from distress. Stumps. Agreement, not under seal, m;iy be itamped •>('> MEMORANDA OF THE LAWS KKLATING TO HOUSES, ETC. witliiii fourloeii ilays of si;^naturc, lait, in (itliev instances, the imper cir parchment must be previously stamped. Mis- takes as to the proper amount of stamps will not avail, but, on the payment of 10 shillings, the Commissioner of .Stamps gives an opinion, which cannot be set on one side. Ai)pniisements, or valuations of estates and eflccts, dila- piilatinns and re])airs, must all be stamped, and ajijjraiscrs must be licensed, and return valuations or .ippraiscments to their employers within fourteen days; only one .stam]i is reipiisitc where the total amount is set down, allhough there may be several sheets of paper. With respect to the valuation and api)raisement of estates, houses, etc., the Stamp Acts do not .ipply to appraise- nicnls made for private infurniatiuu only, but to .snch, as are intended to be binding between the respective ])arties. J'uiiils ill Ilouxes. Look round neighbourhood , and see to its char.icter, and if there are ntiisanccs and annoying trades, etc.; consider site, if high or low, soil and sub- soil, aspect and prospect, distance from shops, railways, conveyances, post office, schools, chnrcli, medical advice; note state of roads, pavemenls, lij;luing, sewage, supiily of water; observe build of honsc, as well as accomo- dation, and how long erected ; .examine sashes, shutters, doors, .and closets, with their fastenings and freedom of action, whether chimneys smoke (look to ceiling), the walls are damp (see to looseness of wall paper, etc.), if the roof is sound (note ceilings under it and go outsiile), and detect any un))leasant smells indicating defective tr.tp- ping to drains; remark character of fixtures and their viiluc; calculate cost of additions, alterations and repairs, or get landlords undertaking to do certain rejiairs, painting, papering, reinstating, broken glass, etc., by .1 definite time, examine stabling, conservatory, land and pleasuie grounds attached, if adjoining ground can be had for additions, and on what terms: on the tenure, rent and taxes the prior remarks will aid decision ; and it now only remains to ex- press our acknowledgements to Woodfall's "Law of Land- lord and Tenant," from which we have quoted, as per- haps the clearest work on the subject.s treated. .C. /.. Tmhurl: THE END. rjlntcd l.\ .1. !■', Klobcr, Leipzij; INDEX OF (;ENE1IAL SUBJECTS TREATED. Pnge. Ccmt'tcrv CliapcliS and Giuinuls 22 „ Entrance Gales ami Lodges 4(1 Chajjcls and Churches — General lieniaiks un (il. 7fl Conservatories 50. I U.i Drainage of Land o2 „ Towns and Biiihiings 57 Firepioof Construetion lO'J Greenhouses . ." 47 Laws relating to Houses, etc 121 „ Building Act 4 „ Metropolitan Local Management Act .... 2(1 Measurement of Artificers" Work, with Taldc.^^, etc. 77tolU5 „ ,. Kxcavator . . 7S „ „ Bricklayer and Tiler SO Slater S8 „ „ Carpenter, Joiner ami Ironmonger ... 88 „ „ Mason 05 number . . . . ns „ „ Copper-Sniith ... 00 Page Mca-vurcmcnt of Artincers' Work, Ziuc-Wurker . . . Oj) IMaslcrcr . . . . HlO „ Smith and Founder . 101 Glazier 102 „ Painter 103 „ „ Paper-Hanger and Decorator . .104 Shop Fittings 42. 51 Specification for Cemetery Chapels 23 „ Chapels and Churches *>•> „ Drainage Works 63 Greenhouses 48 Shop Fittings 42. 51 Stable i'ittings '•"' Valuatiim of Artificers' Work, with Tables, etc. 77 to 105 Houses and Estates 112 Ventilation of Buildings ■'0 Warming of Buildings 38 Water Supply ' ' Well Sinking "^ INDEX OF DESCRIPTIONS TO PLATES. PlalP. Page. I to I I 22 to 30 12 .. Ml 42 „ 45 17 .. 21 4C. ., 47 22 ., 24 47 „ 51 25 .. 2'.t . . 51 „ 52 :i(i .. :i7 fifi „ 70 :is 70 „ 7" ■M) .. i:> "6 IC, 47 105 48. 4!) 1(10 „ KIS 50 , 53 10!) 54 „ 60 Ill UCSOUTHEH!.-'' - 000 265 170 l_