!:- UC-NRLF $B ET4 366 5i^^^^'^!^:^^^;^i^;^^;^feWit^ ^ # M IBalbone Wl. ©raham fc Date.. Vol.... n How acquired Price, y PLEASE READ, REMEMBER AND RETURN. \l^ M GIFT or MANUAL OF CHRISTIAN EVIDENCES PROFESSOR GEORGE P. FISHER'S WORKS, '^'Topics of profound interest to the studious inquirer after truth are discussed by the author with his characteristic breadth of view, catholicity of judgment, affluence of learning, felicity of illustration, and force of reasoning. . . . His singular candor disarms the prepossessions of his opponents. ... In these days of pretentious, shallow, and garrulous scholarship, his learning is as noticeable for its solidity as for its compass." — N. Y. Tribune. History or xh3 Christian Church. 8vo, with Maps, .... $3.50 Supernatural Origin of Christianity. New Edition, Crown 8vo, - 2.50 The Reformation. New Edition, Crown 8yo, - ... - 2.50 The Beginnings of Christianity. New Edition, Crown Hvo, • - 2.50 Grounds of Theistic and Ciiristian Belief. Crown Svo, - • . 2.50 Discussions in History and Theology. Svo, - - . - . 3,00 Faith and Rationalism. New Edition, 12mo, - « • • - .75 Tiie Christian Religion. New Edition, 16mo, • • . - .50 Manual of Christian Evidences. 16mo, ..•••• .75 The Nature and Method of Revelation. 12mo, . - - - 1.25 Manual of Natural Theology. 16mo, ---,.- ,75 MANUAL OF CHRISTIAN EVIDENCES BY GEORGE PARK FISHER, D.D., LL.D. 1/ TITUS STREET PROFESSOR OF ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY IN YALE UNIVERSITY NEW YORK CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS 1894 en/oi COPYKIGHT, 1888, BT CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS TROW DtRECTORr WrtMTING AND BOOKBINDING COMPANY HEW YORK PREFACE. The half-formed intention to write a short manual of Christian Evidences, which I had for some time en- tertained, took a definite form on account of requests coming to me from persons entitled to respect, some of whom were engaged in the practical work of teach- ing. It appeared to me that a brief book, confining itself to the Evidences of Eevealed Religion, and set- ting forth in a connected form the principal topics of definition and proof, would be useful to readers and to pupils who have not time for the study of more extended treatises.^ Paley's Evidences, which was so long the standard text-book on the subject, notwithstanding the signal merits which characterize it, has one striking fault. To the internal evidence a very subordinate place is assigned. The argument for miracles is deprived of * In "The Grounds of Theistic and Christian Belief "(Charles Scribner's Sons, 1883), I have handled the main topics of Natural Theology, and have presented more in detail the proofs of Revelation. In that work, controverted points are discussed more at length. 371503 VI PREFACE. the legitimate, if not indispensable, advantage which is gained by a preliminary view of the need and the intrinsic excellence of the Christian Kevelation. More- over, the aspects of skepticism and disbelief have some- what changed since Paley's time. Books like Strauss's ''Life of Jesus" had not then been written. Patristic- study has also made advances. The proofs from this source require some revision. Besides, Paley's work is too long for the demands of those for whom the present manual is designed. G. P. P. New Haven, May 16, 1888. CO^TEI^TS. CHAPTER I. PAGE What is to be Proved and the Nature op the Evi- dence, 1 CHAPTER II. What is Meant by Miracles ? The Possibility of Them, and the Possibility of Proving Them, . CHAPTER III. How THE Antecedent Presumption against the Oc- currence OF Miracles is Set Aside, , . .21 CHAPTER IV. Admitted Facts Respecting Christianity, . . 28 CHAPTER V. Proof op the Supernatural Origin op Christian- ity FROM the Portraiture op the Character OF Jesus in the Evangelists, . . . .32 VllJ CONTENTS. CHAPTER VI. PAGH Proof of the Miracles from Peculiar Features OF THE Gospel Narratives, ..... 37 CHAPTER VII. Proof of the Resurrection of Jesus from State- ments BY the Apostle Paul, .... 41 CHAPTER VIII. The Genuineness of the Gospels, . ... 47 CHAPTER IX. Trustworthiness of the Testimony of the Apos- tles, 71 CHAPTER X. The Proof of the Resurrection of Jesus from the Evangelists, 82 CHAPTER XI. Alleged Errors of the Apostles in Matters of Opinion, 86 CHAPTER XII. Alleged Difficulties in the Connection of Christ- ianity WITH THE Old Testament Religion, . 91 CHAPTER XIII. Proof of Christianity from Prophecy, . . .95 CONTENTS. IX CHAPTER XIV. PAGE Argument for Christianity from the Conversion AND the Career of the Apostle Paul, • . 99 CHAPTER XV. Proof of the Divine Origin of Christianity from the Intrinsic Excellence of the Christian System, 103 CHAPTER XVI. Proof Afforded by the Contrast of Christianity with other religions and with philosophical Systems, 107 CHAPTER XVII. Corroborative Proof op the Truth of Christian- ity from its Utility, 114 CHAPTER XVIII. Corroborative Proof of Christianity from its Rapid Spread in the First Centuries, . . 117 Index, .121 CHRISTIAN EVIDENCES. CHAPTEE I. WHAT IS TO BE PROVED AND THE NATURE OP THE EVIDENCE. The design of this book is to prove that the nar- ratives of the life of Jesus which are contained in the New Testament are true, and that Christianity has a supernatural, divine orip'in and sanc- The question. -K /-n ^ r i tion. Did Christ speak from himself, or was his doctrine " of God " in a sense not to be affirmed of any system of which man alone is the author ? ^ Is Christianity, in distinction from other religions, stamped with an authoritative character, as being a revelation from God ? If the history of Jesus as it is recorded in the Gospels, and of the planting of the Church as it is described in the Acts and the Epistles, is worthy of belief, these ques- tions must have an affirmative answer. The subject of the present inquiry should be kept distinctly in view. The purpose is not to prove the 1 — "whether it be of God, or whether I speak from myself," John vii. 17 (Revised Version). 1 2 €II2iISTIA.\ E VIDENCES. truths of natural religion. The existence of God and the fact of his government of the world are taken for granted. It is true that, through the What it is not . . ^ * ^ r>^^ » , * * , i designed to imprcssion which Christianity makes, one may have his doubts on these funda- mental points removed. Christianity, even prior to the examination of its external proofs, may awaken a more clear perception of the being of God, and a more firm and vivid conviction of the free and responsible nature of man, and of the reality of a future life. But great as the quicken- ing and enlightening influence of Revelation may be in this direction, it is the function of Natural Theology to set forth the grounds of theism and what reasons exist for believing man to be im- mortal. Nor is it our purpose to take up the ques- tion of the insjpiration of the Scriptures — the ques- tion whether, and to what extent, the authors of the books of the Bible were aided by the Spirit of God in the composition of them. This is an im- portant topic of theology, but it is not involved in our present undertaking. Nor, once more, is it necessary to inquire whether or not the Gospel narratives are free from discrepancies and like im- perfections, such as pertain in some degree to the most trustworthy historical writings. The sub- stantial verity of the New Testament histories is the only point that we are at present called upon to establish. We may illustrate these distinctionB, WHAT IS TO BE PIIOVED. 3 John Marshall wrote the Life of Washington. He had personally known Washington and, besides, re- sorted to authentic documents and to otlier sources of information. Marshall was an intelligent and upright man. Hence the biography which he com- posed is substantially accurate. It is conceivable, however, that Washington should have himself read the proof-sheets, and (supposing his own mem- ory to be perfect) have removed all errors, even the most minute, or even that he should have dictated the entire biography, with the exception of the ac- count of his own death. But the author, whether he wrote with these special advantages or not, was so placed as to be qualified to produce a narrative which should be in all its material features correct. Meaning of ^^ ^'^^ Evidcnccs of Christianity are ne^^"a^ndof includcd the proofs of the genuineness ••Credibility." ^^^^ ^j ^^^^ cTedihility of the Ncw Testa- ment writings. A writing is genuine if it was writ- ten by the author to whom it is ascribed. But it is well to remark that a narrative may be credible^ or authentic^ even if the ordinary view taken of its authorship is mistaken. If Julius Caesar's Com- mentaries, in which he speaks of himself in the third person, were to be found to have been writ- ten, not by him, but by an intelligent and truth- ful Roman oflBcer who was with him through the Gallic wars, or even by some competent person to whom Caesar had related the facts, that work, 4 CHRISTIAN EVIDENCES. although not genuine^ would still be authentic. Ee. specting the New Testament histories, the main point to be first established is that they present fair- ly the testimony of the Apostles, the immediate com- panions of Jesus. The question of the authorship of these books is important, but that of their date and of other circumstances relating to their origin and early reception, are of more vital consequence. The proofs of the truth of the Gospel histories are of the same kind as those on which our be- lief in other historical works is founded. What is hifl" -r-r toricaievi- Wc rcquiro as the warrant for believing in such narratives that they shall rest upon credible testimony of witnesses or well-in- formed contemporaries. A certain value belongs to tradition — a value varying with the degree of near- ness of the events, and in some measure with other circumstances. Moreover, a great many things may serve to corroborate — or else to disprove — historical statements. Occurrences, if they are of a very im- portant character, produce effects upon society in a great many different ways. These effects remain as monuments of the events in which they had their origin. Thus, the great fact of the War of the American devolution is attested by the existence of the Republic of the United States, and by the character of its institutions, not to dwell on minor consequences, such as the public observances which commemorate the birth of the nation. NATURE OF THE EVIDENCE, 5 The evidences of Christianitj, like historical proofs generally, are jprobable^ as distinguished from demonstrative. In the case of de- probabieevi- inonstrativo proof, the opposite of the thing asserted is not only false ; it is in- conceivable. This is not true of anything depend- ing on probable or moral evidence. There are de- grees of probability. Thus we say of one thing that it is '' slightly probable ; " of another, that it is " very probable ; " and of a third, that it is '' ex- tremely," or " in the highest degree " probable. It should be observed, however, that in numberless cases where the evidence is of the kind termed " probable,'' we are absolutely free from doubt. We may never have seen London, but we have not a whit more doubt that London exists than we have that the sum of the three angles of a triangle is equal to two right angles. We never saw Napo- leon the First, but we are not less certain that Na- poleon lived than we are that two parallel lines, however prolonged, will never meet. To entertain a doubt on the one proposition would be as deci- sive a proof of insanity as to entertain a doubt on the other. The proofs of Christianity are cumulative. This is a circumstance which inquirers and disputants The evidence ^ro Very apt to overlook.^ In regard to cumulative. ^]i \]^q main propositious involved in the case, the evidence is made up of many particulars, 6 CHRISTIAN E VIDENCES. all together pointing to the same conclusion. Un« der this head there are two mistakes to be avoided. One consists in demanding a demonstration for each item in the evidence, where, in the nature of things, no demonstration is possible. The other mistake, w^hich is hardly less grave, is in isolating each particular of proof, as if it stood by itself. It is the old error of assuming that because a single rod may perchance be broken, the w^hole bundle is equally fragile. The proofs of Christianity are either internal^ or external. The external evidence is the testimony, "External" simply cousidcred, to the facts wdiich are imr'Ell^''' related in the Gospels. The internal donee. evidence includes everything in the sys- tem of Christianity itself which is adapted to in- spire faith in its truth and divine origin. '' Chris- tianity is founded upon certain great primary wants and affections of the human soul, which it meets, to which it corresponds, and of which it furnislies the proper objects and satisfactions. There is the feeling after a God ; there is the instinct of prayer ; there is conscience and the sense of sin ; there is the longing for and dim expectation of immortality. Christianity supplies the counterpart of these affec- tions and wants of the soul, and it is as supplying this counterpart that it recommends itself in the first instance to us ; it appeals to our belief upon the strength of its own characteristics, at the same NATVUE OF THE EVIDENCE. 7 time that it comes before us as a subject of exter- nal evidence. The nature of Christianity, and its correspondence to our own nature, has a legitimate influence upon our minds, before any other con- sideration; it is one part of the whole Christian evidence, and a valid and necessary part, without which the other, or the historical proof, is reason- ably and logically deficient." * It will be generally acknowledged that for the due appreciation of the evidences of Revelation, earnest attention and a candid temper are req- The affections ., _. _ r/. as a source of uisitc. it must be added that the aiiec- proof. . « T . T . . tions form one element m determinmg the judgment. On other subjects it is true that the data for a judgment must be drawn in part from other sources than the understanding. It is plain that in deciding questions in the fine arts — such as the genuineness of a painting or the merit of a piece of music — a sympathetic tact, native or acquired, is demanded. The like is true respecting questions where the moral excellence, whether of teaching or of personal character, is involved. The evidence is made up in part of impressions, and these depend on the inward state of the person who is to pass judgment. " We cannot possibly enter deeply into character without affections ; we cannot estimate or comprehend truly, we cannot embrace keenly and with a living force, what is beautiful, * J. B. Mozley's Lectures and other Theological Papers, p. 3. 8 CHRTSTTAN FVTDENCE8. profound, and touching in the mind and disposition of any person of extraordinary goodness, unless there are affections in us which enable us to seize hold of their moral traits, and inspire us with a vivid admiration and appreciation of them."' In all such cases, when one is confronted with moral evidence, there is a probation of character. ilbid., page 8. CHAPTER IL WHAT IS MEANT BY MIRACLES? THE POSSIBILITY OF THEM, AND THE POSSIBILITY OF PROVING THEM. The most common objection both to the genuine- ness and the credibility of the New Testament his- tories is from the accounts of miracles, which they contain. It is expedient, at the outset, to consider what weight belongs to this objection, and also to de- termine what place should be assigned to miracles among the proofs of revelation. What is a miracle ? A miracle is an event which Definition of ^^^^ f orccs of nature — including the nat- a miracle. ^^^j powcrs of man — cauuot of themselves produce, and which must, therefore, be referred to a supernatural agency. Or, in the briefer phrase of Pascal, a miracle is an event exceeding the natural power of the means employed. If the event is of such a character, or takes place under such circum- stances, as to exclude the supposition of a superhu- man created agent as its cause, then it must be in- ferred that God is its author. It should be added, to complete the idea of a miracle, that it is something manifest — something that can be known and appre- 10 CHRISTIAN EVIDENCES, bended by men. Tbere is a course of nature — a natural order — the same antecedents being followed by the same consequents. This order of succession we call the uniformity of nature. It enables us, on the ground of previous observation, to predict what will occur. In an atmosphere of 32° Fahrenheit water will freeze. In a warmer atmosphere it will remain fluid. A body of less specific gravity than the air will rise ; a body of greater specific grav- ity than the air will fall. A deviation in any in- stance from this order of sequences is what is meant by a miracle. But to fill out the ordinary signification of the word, the fact must occur in con- nection with religious teaching, or as a verification of the claim of a religious teacher to a divine com- New Testa- Hiissiou. lu the N"ew Testament, three ment terms, tcrms are uscd to denote miracles. They are called "wonders," primarily in reference to the astonishment which they produce; "powers,'' as related to the divine energy to which they are due ; and " signs," or tokens of God's presence and of the sanction thus afforded to the teacher or to what is taught.* It is contended by some that a miracle is impos- sible ; by others that, even if it be not impossible, it can never be proved. J For example: "Signs and wonders '* (John iv. 48); "powers" (Matt. xi. 20, Revised Version, in the margin). The rendering of the original word (found in Matt. xi. 20, etc.) is usually "mighty works.'* POSSIBILITY OF MIRACLES. 11 1. It is said that an event not produced by nat- ural laws would be an event without a cause. But what is natural law ? By natural law is Not an event . i n /» i » c without a simply meant the method or the action or cause. natural forces. Laws are another name for the established sequences— that is, the custom- ary succession — of natural phenomena. When a miracle occurs^ a new cause intervenes — viz., a spe- cial exertion of divine power, the power of the Creator and Upholder of nature. There is not even a violation of natural laws, in the proper sense of the phrase ; for every statement of natural law, and every prediction of what is to occur un- der it, are made with the proviso^ or on the tacit supposition, that there is to be no intervention of a supernatural agent. A miracle nowise contradicts the axiom that in nature the same causes, under the same circumstances, are followed by the same ef- fects. In the case of a miracle, the effect is differ- ent because the causes are not the same. The va- riation in the effect is what must take place, sup- posing such an alteration of the antecedents. If a new cause comes in, it is irrational to look for the same effect as before. As we pass from one kingdom of nature to an- other, we find that higher forces control the action of lower, so that new effects are produced which could not otherwise occur. Inorganic nature in this way is subject to vital forces. The force of 12 CHRISTIAN EVIDENCES. gravitation, for example, gives way under the ac- tion of a superior agency of another kind. Out of the seed rises the stalk of the plant. Forces over- t r ^ i i it r come by forces If WO had uo knowled2:e of orp:anic nat- iu nature. ^ ^ ure, we might be led to deny the pos- sibility of such a fact as the movement upward of a growing tree, despite the force of gravita- tion. The human will affords the most striking illus- tration of the possibility of a miracle. The will, as „ ^ related to material forces, is a distinct and The human ^ ^ will, super- hiorher power, and as thus related is super- natural, or ... , natural. It initiates movements in the realm of nature. It produces results — countless in number and variety — which would not have come into being independently of its action. When a boy throws a ball into the air, gravitation is overcome by forces set in motion by a human volition. "Who- ever bakes a loaf of bread brings into being a thing which the bare forces of nature, not controlled and assisted by man's will, could not have produced. In this way human will-power creates all that goes under the comprehensive name of art From the least motion of a finger, in obedience to volition, to the most complex contrivances of mechanical genius, from the building of a wigwam to the erection of a Gothic cathedral, from the management of a vil- lage-school to the leading of armies and the govern- ment of nations — in a word, wherever the effects of POSSIBILITY OF MIRACLES. 13 human will appear, there are beheld phenomena whicli the laws of natm-e — apart from the guidance, combination, and control of them by man's will — could never have brought into being. A miracle, where there is an interposition of the divine will, is not anti-natural, but super-natural. 2. But it is objected that the invariability of nat- ure — when the human will with its range of activ- The uniform- ^^^^^ ^^ iucludcd — is a trutli wliich it is ity of nature, absurd to Call in question. This objec- tion assumes that the uniformity of nature is in- tuitively know^n, is a necessary truth, and stands thus on a level with mathematical axioms. Ko sound philosopher will make such an assertion. Our belief that the course of things is uniform is based on observation and experience, coupled with an instinctive confidence in the indications — indicia — of nature, like the trust which w^e put in the signs of thought when we are in communication with human beings. A child who has once burned his finger in the flame, knows that if he makes a second experiment of the same sort, the same result will occur. We naturally assume that nature is an or- derly system, that it is conformed to a plan, and is not made to deceive us. Our belief in the uni- formity of nature justifies a presumption that there will be (and has been) no departure from it. This presumption, however, may be overruled and set aside, wherever reasons exist which would make it 14 CHRISTIAN EVIDENCES. wise in the Author and Euler of Nature to inter« vene. 3. It is objected that a miracle would be a con- travention by God of the laws of nature which He Miracle and ^^^® liimself established. Even were it natural law. g^^ ^j^g j^^^g ^-f jj^turo arc uot inoTol laws. An interference with them would not involve in itself any moral wrong. The foregoing remarks show how one class of natural forces may counter- act and govern the action of another, or the results to be produced by that action. Moreover, Natural Theology teaches that natural laws do not exist for their own sake. The end of material nature is not in itself. A "law" is merely a name for the way in which things ordinarily occur. On the supposi- tion that a higher good is to be secured by a devi- ation from the course of nature, there is no moral objection to such an act on the part of God. If this objection had any weight, it would tend to prove not the natural^ but only the moral impossibility of miracles. But the objection is stripped of its plau- sibility the moment one admits that there is a moral government of the world as well as an administering of physical laws. Nature is not a thing by itself. It is only one province in the whole divine system. The motives that dictate the establishment and maintenance of the course of nature may require that it should not be absolutely without interrup- tion. MIRACLES CAPABLE OF PROOF. 15 4. Hume made a celebrated argument against the possibility of proving miracles by testimony, Hume's argu- altliougli the samc argument had long be- ment. j^^^ bccu statcd and answered in one of South's sermons/ Our belief in the uniformity of nature, Hume said, rests on experience. Our belief in testimony has the same foundation. But the ex- perience of the uniformity of nature is without any exception ; whereas, we have had experience of the error of human testimony. Hence he concluded that no amount of testimony could prove a mir- acle ; for, if we suppose the amount of evidence of this sort to be never so great, still the supposi- tion of its falsehood would imply at most nothing greater than a miracle, and so we should have a miracle to balance a miracle. Hume's argument involves several mistakes and fallacies. Our belief in testimony does not grow out of experience, althouo-h as the result Its f aUacies. . ^ . / ^ ° _ „ . 01 experience it is regulated. JNor does our belief in the uniformity of nature spring exclu- sively or ultimately from this source. On Hume's philosophy no reason can be assigned for expecting the course of nature to remain unaltered. Why should the future be, and the past have been, con- formed to what we observe at present ? We grant, however, that there is a rational presumption in iJavor of the uniformity of nature, and against the * South's Sermon on The Certainty of our Saviour's Resurrection. 16 CHRISTIAN liVIDENCES. occurrence of a miracle. The very word " miracle," pointing to the wonder excited by such an event, implies a counter-expectation. But when Hume assumes that experience is uniform against the oc- currence of miracles, he begs the question. The evidence for the unbroken uniformity of nature, as J. S. Mill has correctly stated, is diminished in force by whatever weight belongs to the evidence that certain miracles have taken place. ^ Hume separates a miracle from every conceivable object. He looks at it as a perfectly isolated occurrence — a bare marvel. His fundamental error consists in arguing the question on the tacit assumption of atheism. He ignores the existence of a cause ade- quate to work miracles, and, of course, the exist- ence of any motive or occasion for them to be wrought. If the righteous God, whose existence and attributes are verified in Natural Theology, could be deemed as likely to subvert the laws which justify belief in human testimony, as — for example — to heal a man born blind, in order to furnish a sign and proof that salvation has been provided from spiritual darkness and sin, Hume's reasoning would be more plausible. In other words, he virt- ually takes it for granted that one miracle — a mir- acle for a purpose of deception — is as much to be expected as another miracle, wrought for a worthy and merciful end. All that Hume has made out, * Mill's System of Logic, vol. ii., p. 185. MIRACLES CAPABLE OF PROOF, 37 as Mill explains, is that no evidence can prove a miracle to an atheist, or to a deist who supposes himself able to prove that God would not Hume'8 argu- interfere to produce the miraculous event in question. Mill adds truly " that nat- ural religion is the necessary basis of revealed ; that the proofs of Christianity presuppose the being and moral attributes of God ; that it is the conformity of a religion to those attributes which determines whether credence ought be given to its external evidences." * Professor Huxley, in his comments on Hume, objects to Hume's definition of a miracle as a vio- „ , , lation of the laws of nature, " because all Huxley's po- ' Bition. ^Q know of the order of nature is derived from an observation of the course of events of which the so-called miracle is a part." '^ He ad- mits that an event of this character is capable of being proved by testimony ; but he appears to think that, if thus established, it would be an occurrence under the laws of nature, and would be referable to natural causes. This explanation, however, in many conceivable cases, would be irrational. If a man is known to be dead and is awakened to life at the command of another, the effect could not be re- ferred to natural causes. If it could, a superhuman knowledge of natural causes would have to be as* » Miirs System of Logic, vol. ii, p. 186. « Huxley's Hume, p. 131. 2 18 CHRISTIAN EVIDENCES. cribed to him who gave the command, and this would involve miracle. The coincidence of the oc- Miracie cniTcnce witli the word or act of a person proves design, a pj.^ygg (Jesign in the marvel, and makes it a miracle ; and if that person professes to reporti^ a message or revelation from heaven, the coinci- dence again of the miracle with the professed mes- sage of God proves design on the part of God to warrant and authorize the message." That is to say, the occurrence of the marvel at the moment when the man is bidden to arise cannot be a Tnere coincidence. 5. The question is sometimes asked. How can we be certain that an effect which exceeds the power of natural causes, does not sprint: from the Can evil spir- -i i • q Its work mir- agcucj 01 a superhumau evil beings There are certain miracles, such, in par- ticular, as imply the exertion of creative power, which it appears unreasonable to attribute to any created being. But, apart from this consideration, there may be collateral proof — moral evidence — • that shows the miracle to be the work of no evil being, and of no other being than God. It is to such evidence that, according to the Gospel narra- tive, Jesus appeals in answer to the allegation that his miracles were wrought by the help of evU spirits.* » Matt. xu. 25, 26 ; Mark xiii. 23, 24 ; Luke xL 17, 18. FUNCTION OF MIRACLES. 19 What is the distinctive office and place of mir- acles among the evidences of Kevelation ? In the first place, it is plain that Revelation, as distin- guished from the manifestation of God in miracles and tlic coursc of naturo and the ordinary do- f rom doctrine. . , . , , ings of Providence, is in its very idea mi- raculous. It is a more direct disclosure of God tlian is elsewhere afforded. This fact of the presence and more immediate agency of God in connection with religious doctrine is signified to the senses by works of supernatural power. These works corroborate the evidence furnished by the doctrine itself, and by all the proofs of a moral nature that attend the promulgation of it. Miracles are aids to faith. They come in with decisive effect to convince those who are impressed by the moral evidence that they are not deceived, and that God is in reality speak- ing through men. According to the New Testa- ment histories it was in this light that miracles were regarded by Jesus. Where there w^as no spir- itual preparation, no dawning faith, he refused to perform miracles. He set the highest value upon the moral proofs.* Yet he considered the miracles to be of use in proving himself to be the messenger of God and to have power committed to him to forgive sin.' > John xiv. 11. • Matt. ix. 6; Mark u, 10; Luke Ix. 31 20 CHRISTIAN EVIDENCES. Thus it appears that while the doctrine proved the miracles the miracles prove the doctrine. They Mutual sup. ^^^ *^^ mutually supporting species of toe^and^mir- P^^of. Tlicy are both parts of one mani- acies. festation of God, neither of which is to be relied upon to the exclusion of the other, as if the other were of no value. CHAPTER m. HOW THE ANTECEDENT PRESUMPTION AGAINST THE OCCUE- KENCE OF MIRACLES IS SET ASIDE, By a presumption is meant such a previous like- lihood that a given statement is true or false as iustly predisposes one to believe or to re* Meaning of . . ^ i 'Ipresump- ject it. Oil tlio ground of some prin- ciple, or prior conviction, v^hich is based on evidence, we bring to the consideration of a ques- tion a favorable or an adverse pre-judgment. This may have different degrees of strength, varying with the character of the evidence on which it rests. If we hear that one known to be a miser has made a large gift to the poor, or that one known to be a generous philanthropist has refused to relieve a worthy person who was in distress, there is a pre sumption in each case that the report is false. AVhat gives rise to the presumption against the truth of the proposition that a miracle has occurred is the known fact of the uniformity of nature and the obvious benefit of such an arrangement. On the ground of this faith in an established course of nature, we feel justified in passing over, without credence, and even 22 CHRISTIAN EVIDENCES. without inquiry, stories of miracles which are met with in historians whose records of ordinary occur- rences we have no hesitation in believing. We give credit to what Tacitus relates about the wars of Yespasian, but when he tells the story of the heal- ing of a blind man by that Emperor, we smile at the tale, or at most try to conjecture in what way the erroneous report had arisen. To set aside this presumption against the miraculous, it is requisite that we should discern the need of a Revelation and appreciate in some degree the intrinsic excellence of the Christian system. Then the way will be open to examine the evidence which shows that the miracles recorded in the New Testament were actu- ally wrought. "I deem it unnecessary to prove," says Paley, ^^ that mankind stood in need of a revelation, be- cause I have met with no serious person probability of ^ho tliiuks that, eveu under the Chris- revelation. ^ ^ ' tian revelation, we have too much light, or any degree of persuasion which is superfluous." The anterior probability that a revelation will be given lies in the necessitous condition of man and the benevolent character of God. There is no interest of man so important as re- ligion. It is vitally connected with his obligations and his destiny. In relation to this subject there are four principal sources of anxiety and distress. The first is the vagueness and uncertainty^ of man's TEE NEED OF REVELATION, 2S knowledge, under the light of nature, of God and divine things. The question is not what is theoret- ically vossihle to be ascertained on these The need of , , , r i revelation. tlieuies, or wliat tlio oxtout 01 the native Four pointP : ' , 1. The need power of reasou IS, but rather what man, of knowledge. *■ , in his present condition and character, act- ually does discover or can be expected to discover. We find that there is neither absolute ignorance and a satisfied state of ignorance, nor is there such a vividness and certainty of conviction as give rest to the mind and furnish an adequate incentive to right conduct. Man ^' feels after God," gropes in the dark as for an object of which he knows some- thing, but which he cannot find and grasp. We perceive that men oscillate between gross super- stition and a dismal unbelief. On the question of the immortality of the soul there is a like uncer- tainty, a mixture of hope and doubt. This was the position of a man so virtuous and elevated as Socrates. There is, besides, a sense of unworthiness which haunts the mind and often becomes an oppressive J?. The gum burden. There is a sense of guilt which reveals itself in the rites of the religions of the heathen nations. It is the consciousness of be- ing unreconciled to the Power on whom we depend and to whom a more or less distinct feeling of re- sponsibility prevails among mankind. Moreover, there is a feeling of discontent and 24 CHRIS TIAK EVIDENCES. helplessness under the dominion which evil has ac« quired in the heart. There is a bondage of habit 8 Thobond- wliicli ofton gives rise to an ineffectual age of sin. struggle and to a craving for supernatural help. A heathen poet expresses the sense of this slavery, when he says : " I see and approve what is good ; I do what is evil." " Video meliora proboqne ; Deteriora sequor." — Ovn). Even Byron speaks of " This uneradicable taint of sin, This boundless upas, this all-blasting tree — " In addition to these necessities of the soul, there is the need, under the sufferings of life, of sources of strenp-th, such as the lisiht of nature 4. The burden rr ^ ^ nn of pain and doos uot afford. Eolief under afflictions, Borrow. , . « peace m sorrow, salvation from despond- ency, are wants wliicli are deeply felt. We cannot dwell on these great facts respecting mankind. IS^o one who interrogates his own con- science, and looks abroad on the world and over the field of history, can fail to be impressed by them. While there is a great need of man to be sup- plied, a need which experience proves that he Thebenevo- canuot himsclf supply through his own lenceofGod. -ui^aided powers, there are, likewise, in- dications in nature of the benevolence of God. WHAT CHRISTIANITY DOES. 25 This character is brought to light in the teach- ings of T^atural Theology. Even heathen writers — for example, Plutarch — have written on the De- lay of God in pnnishing the wicked, and have in* ferred His compassion and desire to save the nn^ worthy. The way in which Christianity meets the deep wants of human nature which have been briefly de- scribed, is one strong proof of its divine Christianity , ^ ^ \ meets the oriorm. It forms an important portion needs of man, «•,. -, , ^ r ^ i r of the internal evidence of the truth oi the Gospel, and of its being a revelation from God. But in this place, where we are only considering whether there is a probability that miracles will occur — such a probability as sets aside the contrary presumption — we can only call attention to features of the Christian system w^hich everybody must ac- knowledge to exist. 1. Christianity sets forth the main truths of nat- ural religion in a clear and vivid form. The being It sets forth ^^ GoAj hls moral and providential gov- naturafre-"^^ emmeut, mau's accountableness, the fut- ligion. ^^.Q 2j£g^ ^^.Q taught, and are taught so impressively that, as a matter of fact, multitudes of men have been persuaded of their truth, and have been moved to cast aside heathen superstitions, as well as skepticism and disbelief. 2. Christianity does not hide or extenuate the evil which has been depicted above. It brings out 26 CHRISTIAN EVIDENCES. with emphasis the sin and guilt of men, and vihuU ever is distressing in their lot, including their mer- it recognizes tality. In short, Christianity recognizes the malady, ^hc full extent of the malady and pra fesses to grapple with it. 3. Christianity makes definite provisions to meet the great wants which have been specified, viz., the Remediespro- vaguencss of our knowledge of God, the vided. stings of conscicnco, the need of fresh incentives, and of spiritual aid from without, for the confiict with evil habit within the soul, and to lighten the burdens of sorrow and afiliction. ,Not only does Christianity undertake thus to bring men to a true knowledge of God and fellow- ship with Him, but history shows that, in innumer- able instances, this result has been effected. Strength to bear the heaviest troubles has been gained, to- gether with peace and the light of hope in the pres- ence of death. The moral precepts of Christianity are conformed to the dictates of conscience. These precepts, as The ethics of ^^^ ^^ ^^^^J relate to our relations to one Christianity, auothcr, may be comprised under the heads of veracity, purity, kindness. Sincerity in speech and conduct, chastity in thought and be- havior, benevolence, sympathy, charitableness in judgment and action, are the leading injunctions of the Gospel. The history of Christianity proves that the prae- WITAT CHRISTIANITY DOES. 27 tice of these virtues is facilitated, and the conquest over the opposite vices is achieved, by means of the faith and liope of the Gospel. In other words, the reli2:ion of the Gospel, enterins: into Connection of ^ . . ^ ' . r i faith and mor- tlic couvictious and experience of the als. •*■ soul, is a most effective instrument of moral refoi-m. The legitimate result of Chris- tianity, it is not too much to say, is " a new crea- tion " of spiritual and ethical character. These considerations are sufficient to neutralize the presumption against miracles in connection with Christianity and to place them on the same level, as regards proof, with matters of fact where no miracle is involved. For, if the miracles were subtracted, its distinctive character as a direct ap- proach of God to man would be lost, an essential side of the evidence of its truth would vanish, and its practical efficacy would be to a great extent par- alyzed. In judging of Christianity, it is desirable to remember, as Paley observes, that " the question lies between this religion and none ; for, if the Christian religion be not credible, no one with whom we have to do will support the pretensions of any other" — certainly not the pretensions of any other to a supernatural origin and a miraculous at- testation. CHAPTER IV. ADMITTED FACTS RESPECTING CHMSTIANITT. ' ^ Before proceeding further, it is well to remind the reader how much there is in Christianity that is not a subject of dispute. Let us glance at some of the admitted facts. Christianity originated in the short ministry of Jesus of I^azareth. This ministry was preceded by the preaching of John the Baptist, to whose preaching and the effect of it the Jewish historian, Josephus, refers.^ Jesus se- lected and trained a small company of the life of je- disciplcs, who, like himself, were of a humble rank in life. He taught not longer than about three years, from place to place, in Palestine. He was condemned by the Jewish Sanhedrim, and was put to death under Pontius Pilate, the Eoman Procurator in Judea. The re- ligion of the Jews, among whom he was born and 2:rew up, was a pure form of monotheism. The Jewish o r ' 1 religion. Jn it was involvcd an expectation of a universal divine kingdom, of which the " Messiah" was to be the head. Jesus professed to be the ex^* 'Antiq.^ xviii v. 2. ADMITTED FACTS. 29 pected Messiah, and on this account he was put to death. His teachings and his life had made a powerful impression. Soon after his death his His alleged choscu followcps testified that he had resurrection. y\^qt\j and manifested himself to them. This alleged fact they proclaimed, and submitted, to great sufferings, and some of them to a cruel death, on account of their faith and of the testi- mony which they gave respecting Jesus. A few Theconver- J^^rs after the death of Jesus, Saul of sionofPaui. Xarsus, wlio had been active in persecut- ing his followers, was converted to the Christian faith, and became an untiring and zealous preacher of it. In the face of persecution from Jews and heathen, and without the advantage of support from the learned, the rich, or any other of the influential Rapid Bpread classes, the uow religion rapidly spread in of the Gospel, ^.j^g ^i^ics of the Eomau Empire. The Roman historian, Tacitus, informs us that in the time of Nero, the Christians who were tortured and killed by that tyrant formed '^ a great multi- tude.'' * This was in 64 a.d. The younger Pliny, Propraetor in Pontus and Bithynia, under Trajan, re- ports to the Emperor, in 111 a.d., that the number of Christians in that region was so large that the heathen altars had been well-nigh deserted, and there had been no market for the sale of animals for sacrifice.^ The Gospel continued to make » Annal, cv. 44. • PKn., Ep. 97. 30 CHRISTIAN EVIDENCm. progress, in spite of legal measures of persecution and the violence of mobs, and notwithstanding that more than one able Emperor engaged with energy in systematic efforts to exterminate its disciples. At length the Emperor himself, Constantino, became a convert, and (a.d. 313) proclaimed toleration. The old heathen religion of the Grseco-Eoman world disappeared. The new barbarian nations which subverted Rome embraced Christianity. It is the religion of the most powerful nations, whom it did so much to train and civilize. It is now pro- fessed by nearly a third of the world's population. Christians were united together from the begin- ning in forms of organization. The Church grew The Church ^^P^ ^^^5 "^^cr Varying forms of polity and its rites. ^^^ modcs of worsliip, lias perpetuated itself until the present day. Certain rites, such as Baptism, the Lord's Supper, and the observance of Sunday, have been continued since the days of the Apostles. Numberless productions — theological, devotional, or otherwise practical — have emanated from Christian teachers, or from other Christian disciples in successive ages. It is allowed that the influence of Christianity has not been superficial, but of a profound, ti-ans- forming character upon the individual The inflnence ^ , TiinrvT of Christian- and upou socicty. It has deeply anected art, literature, and laws, the sentiments and conduct of mankind. Whatever evil has been ADMITTED FACTS, 31 done in the name of the Christian religion, is due, as is generally conceded, not to that religion itself, but to the perversion and corruption of it. With the possible exception of a few eccentric individ- uals, it is universally judged that the influence of Christianity upon human nature and upon civiliza- tion is altogether elevating and wholesome. These bare outlines may serve to remind the reader how grand a phenomenon Christianity is in the history of the world. The question which we have to consider is whether the JN^ew Testament The question ^istorics givc the true account of its ori- mustbemet. ^^^^ J|. ^^r\\\ ^of do tO dispOSO of this question by vague remarks on human credulity and the possibilities of self-deception and imposture. " To put aside the question of its origin " — of the origin of the Christian religion — " by telling us that mankind are easily deceived, is much the same as it would be to put aside the question about the origin of the Gulf Stream by telling us that water is an element very easily moved in different directions."* 1 Hopkins's Lectures on the Evidences of Christianity. CHAPTER V. PEOOF OF THE SUPEENATURAL ORIGIN OF CHRISTIANITY FROM THE PORTRAITURE OF THE CHARACTER OF JESUS IN THB EVANGELISTS. The character of Jesus as it is depicted in the Evangelists is one of unequalled excellence. This is universally admitted. It is not a character made up of negative virtues alone, M^here the sole merit Combination ^® ^^^® abscuce of culpablc traits. It has of virtues. positivc, strouglj marked features. It combines piety, an absorbing love and loyalty to God, with philanthropy — a love to men without any alloy of selfishness, and too strong to be conquered by their injustice and ingratitude. It unites thus, in perfect harmony, the qualities of the saint and of the philanthropist. It blends holiness with compassion and gentleness. There is no compromise with evil, no consent to the least wrong-doing, even in a friend or follower. But with this purity there is a deep well of tenderness, a spirit of forgiveness which never fails. With the active virtues, with an in- trepidity that quails before none, however high in station and public esteem, there are connected the THE CHARACTER OF JESUS, 83 passive virtues of patience, forbearance, meekness. The world beholds in Jesus its ideal of goodness.' Now, there are conclusive reasons for affirming that this character is not the product of the imag- ination of the Evangelists.. It is an original charac- ter, and one which those who describe it ure of Jesus couM ucvcr liavc iuveuted. In the first not contrived. _ , _ •iitt/» i« place, it stands out m bold reJiei and m obvious contrast with the imperfections of those to whom we owe the portrait of it. With no model in actual life to follow, how could the fishermen of Galilee put on the canvas this figure — the cen- tral figure in the world's history ? In the second place, it is not a character which is formally delin- eated. It is not set forth in a string of epithets, or abstract statements, or by vague, indiscriminate laudation. The impression whicli we gain of the character of Jesus is from a large collection of in- cidents and of sayings recorded in the Gospels. Our idea of him is the effect of a great variety of 1 Speculative opinions not accordant with the faith of the Church have not availed to prevent candid minds from clearly discerning this fact. "It was reserved for Christianity to present to the world an ideal character, which through all the changes of eighteen centuries has inspired the hearts of men with an impassioned love, has shown itself capable of acting on all nations, ages, temperaments, and condi- tions, has been not only the highest pattern of virtue but the strong- est incentive to its practice, and has exercised so deep an influenc© that it may be truly said that the simple record of three short years of active life has done more to regenerate and soften mankind than all the disquisitions of philosophers and all the exhortations of moral- ists." — Lecky's History of European Morals, vol. ii., p. 9. 3 34r CHRISTIAN E VIDENCES. facts. To the production of such an effect by such means, the writers, had they drawn upon their own imagination, or that of others, w^ould have been manifestly incompetent. Finally, the character of Jesus, as portrayed in the Gospels, has an unmis- takable air of reality. We may go forward with safety a step farther. Jesus, as we become acquainted with him in the Gospel narratives, which are to this ex- Perfectionof i/> .«. ,. -.^ .i the character tout sejf-verifymg, was literally a smless person. We have here a character of immaculate purity. This, to be sure, is a point which cannot be demonstrated^ since no one can discern the motives of action ; but it can be estab- lished beyond reasonable doubt. In all that is re- corded of him, there is no evidence of moral fault. There is nothing that he did or said which can justly be made a ground of reproach. It is incred- ible that the Evangelists, even on the supposition of a plan on their part to make him out to be better than he was, could have selected their materials — putting in this, and leaving out that — in such a way as to accomplish the purpose. The task would have been too great for their powers. It would imply not only a perfect ideal in their minds, but, also, an impossible skill in realizing it in a narrative form. No self-re- Morcovcr, while Jesus was obviously holy proach. beyond all example, and had the clearest, most penetrating discernment of moral evil, and THE SmZESSNUSS OF JESUS. 36 while he condemned even the least wrong in the inmost thoughts and intents of the sonl, there is not a trace of self-reproach on his part. Had he anywhere, even in his prayers to God, implied that he was guilty of fault, some record of his self- accusation would have been left. It would have found its way into the traditions concerning him. When his cause was prostrate, and nothing but an ignominious death awaited him, in the hours of anguish some expression implying penitence would have escaped him. Not only is there no trace of such a feeling on his part, but it will scarcely be denied that he made on his followers, who were in- timately associated with him, the impression that he was absolutely free from moral fault. Those who are convinced that Jesus was without sin may find in the fact a cogent argument for the The erfec- supcmatural origin of Christianity. In tion of Jesus ^^q gj-gt placc, there is no reason to think a miraculous ^^ ' fact. that any other faultless and perfect char- acter has ever existed among men. Jesus is thus an exception to a universal fact respecting the race. To account for this exception, to explain this one instance of spotless purity, it is reasonable to assume an extraordinary relation to God on his part — to assume something that is equivalent to a miracle. In the second place, his sinlessness gives credibility to his testimony respecting himself. That he claimed to be the Son of God, the Messiah, 36 CHRISTIAN EVIDENCES, is beyond all dispute. On this charge he was cru« cified. It will not be questioned that the position which he claimed, and persisted in claim- The safeguard . - i.- i -i i^ i against self- mg, was 01 an exceptional and exalted deception. i.tt 'n i kind, it will not be questioned that he considered himself the spiritual guide and deliv- erer of mankind. To acquit him of an unheard- of arrogance and self-deception we must give credit to his judgment and testimony concerning him- self. If we discredit this judgment and testimony we must conclude that perfect moral purity, and humility withal, are consistent with a self -exaltation alike baseless and really without a parallel in the extent to which it was carried. We must ascribe to him an enormous self-delusion. We must con- clude of the only pure and perfect one that the light that was in him was " darkness." CHAPTER VL PKOOF 02? THE MIRACLES FROM PECULIAR FEATURES OF THfl GOSPEL NARRATIVES. No one doubts that the Gospels contain a great deal that is true about the life and teaching of Christ. These books are the almost exclusive source from which the world derives its knowledge of what he did and suffered and of what he said. Such writers as Strauss and Renan, who disbelieve in the miracles, construct biographies of Jesus out of the materials furnished them in the Gospels. Now, before inquiring into the date and author- ship of these four histories, we can find in what all candid students must concede to be historically true in them, convincing proof that miracles were wrought by Jesus. 1. On different occasions Jesus is said to have told those whom he miraculously healed The prohibi- _ , i t i i i -tt tions to report uot to make it puoliclv kuowu. He miracles. •it * i ^ t • i Wished to avoid a public excitement hav- ing little or no kinship watli moral and spiritual » Matt. ix. 30, xil 16, xvii. 9; Mark iu. 13, v. 43 ; Luke v. 14, viii 56, etc. 38 CHRISTIAN EVIDENCES, feeling. Sometimes he had to retire to solitary places to avoid the multitude. No one can reason* ably question that these injunctions not to report miracles were uttered by him. There is no motive that could account for the invention oJ them, espe- cially since it is added that they were disregarded. 2. Cautions, which are plainly authentic, against an excessive esteem of miracles, are said to have ^,. , ^ been uttered by Jesus.* No one who Miracles not •/ overvalued, niadc up storics of miracles would con- nect with his accounts a disparagement of them, or anything that looked like it. The imaginative, wonder-loving spirit, which prompts to the invention of fictitious miracles, always magnifies their impor- tance. The disciples, when they rejoiced that they bad been able to deliver demoniacs, were told not to rejoice that the spirits were subject to them, but rather to rejoice that they could look forward to an abode in heaven.'' 3. There are sayings of Christ which are evidently genuine, but which are inseparable from the mira- Teaching ^Ics with wliich tlicy are connected in the unte'S'tT^"' record. Thus, John the Baptist, when he gether. ^^g '^ prisou, scut two of liis disciplcs to Jesus to inquire if he were in truth the Messiah or only a forerunner.^ This inquiry implies a momen- tary doubt in the mind of John, owing, it is to bo ' Jolm iv. 48, xiv. 11 ; Matt. xvi. 3 ; Luke x. 17. « Lu^q x. 2a "Matt. xi. 4; Luke xvii. 23. INCIDENTAL PROOF OF MIRACLES. 39 presumed, to the fact that no grand demonstration of the power of Christ had been made, no visible establishment of a kingdom. Pei'haps the gloom of a prison may have had its influence in exciting this transient doubt. But such a doubt in the mind of the prophet, of him whose testimony to Jesus was counted of so much value, no disciple of Jesus would have wished to occur. No one would think of falsely attributing it to John. The messengers were directed to go back to John and to tell him what they had seen and heard : " The blind receive their sight, and the lame walk ; the lepers are cleansed, and the deaf hear ; the dead are raised up, and the poor have the Gospel preached to them." This answer of Jesus is part and parcel of the incident. It is inseparable from the question. And the incident proves that Jesus was engaged in working the miracles of which mention is made. Among the controversies of Jesus with over-rig^d observers of the sabbath, there is one in which he is said to have put the question : "Which of you shall have an ass or an ox fallen into a pit, and will not straightway pull him out on the sabbath day ? " ' These words are in a style characteristic of Jesus. Few, if any, doubt that he uttered them. Now, Luke says that the occasion of the question was a reproach from the Pharisees for healing a man of the dropsy. The words obviously imply that it was a case where > Luke ziv. 5. 40 CHRISTIAN EVIDENCES, some one who was in extreme danger had been res* cued. How can it be doubted that Jesus had really, as the Evangelist relates, healed a man of a danger- ous disease on the sabbath day ? Other similar instances might be adduced. One who studies the Gospels will see that the teachings of Jesus presuppose the miracles which are recorded in conjunction with his reported words having refer- ence to them. The Evangelists ascribe to Jesus no miracles prior to his baptism. This is one striking difference be- No miracles twocn tlicm and the apocryphal Gospels, bapusmo^/ If the record of miracles by the Evangelists Jesus. jg ^^^ true, if they are creations of fancy or invention, why do they not commence earlier ? Why are not miracles ascribed to Jesus before he reached the age of thirty ? Why is this long period left a blank ? Moreover, no miracles are attributed to John the Baptist, notwithstanding that so much value is at- tached in the Gospels to his testimony to No miracles -rr i ini t •• ascribed to Jesus. If there had been a disposition the Baptist. . p . i i t - i to make up stories of miracles that did not occur, why is not John credited with works of a like nature ? CHAPTER Vn. PROOF OF THE RESURRECTION OF JESUS FROM STATEMENTS BY THE APOSTLE PAUL. There are four Epistles which no competent scholar doubts that the Apostle Paul wrote. The most noted schools of modern skeptics have with one ac- cord accepted them as genuine. They are the two Epistles to the Corinthians, and the Epistles to the Romans and Galatians. In his first Epistle to the Corinthians, Paul refers to the proofs of the res- urrection of Jesus. In this important passage we are told what he had learned from the other Apostles on this subject. In the Epistle to the Galatians he speaks of his intercourse with them The acquaint- ^^ different occasions. Three years after w"th the^other ^^^ conversiou, he had spent a fortnight Apostles. ^i^i^ p^^g^, ^^ Jerusalem (Gal. i. 18). At that time he had met James, the Lord's brother. Later (a.d. 52), he met Peter, James, and John, and conferred with them on the Gospel (Gal. ii. 1-10) He had enjoyed ample opportunities to ascertain what the Apostles had to say about the resuiTec- tion of Jesus ; that he would avail himself of these 42 chuistian evidences, opportunities we might be certain beforehand ; but that he did so, what he tells ns on the subject proves. Writino: to the Corinthians, he sets down What he had _ . . ^ . , _ _ ' . _ _ learned from distinctlv wJiat ho had previouslv de- them. *^ r J clared to them respecting the Saviour's reappearance from the dead/ On the third day after his burial, Jesus appeared to Peter. After- wards he appeared to the twelve ; then to above five hundred brethren assembled together; then to James; then to all the Apostles. Last of all, he had manifested himself alive to Paul himself at the time of his conversion ; for to this event he undoubtedly refers. Even without the records of the Evangelists, it is safe to conclude, from these statements in the Epistle to the Corinthians, that the Apostles, from the third day after the death of Jesus, testified, substantially as related by Paul, to his resurrection. "We have, therefore, the testi- mony of the Apostles to this cardinal fact in the Gospel history, and that testimony is entitled to credit. It is said, by way of objection, that the alleged manifestation of Jesus to Paul was in a vision, and Paul saw ^^^^^ ^^^^^ ^^^y have been unreal. But, Jesus. first, Paul distinguishes the first revelation of Jesus to him, when he saw Jesus, from subse- quent visions and revelations (2 Cor. xii. 1 ; 1 Cor. ii. 10). " Last of all^^^ he says, enumerating the 1 1 Cor. XV. i-a WITNESS OF PAUL TO THE RESUURECTION. 43 appearances of the risen Jesus, '^ he appeared to me also." Whether by " all " is here meant all inter- views with the risen Jesus, or all of the Apostles, the inference following from the statement is the same. Paul's sight of Jesus at his conversion was the last of the series of his bodily manifestations, as distinguished from apocalyptic visions. Secondly, even if there were any reason to regard these last as unreal, his first perception of Christ could not be accounted for in this way. We shall show hereafter that Paul's mind was not in such a state as to per- mit us to ascribe that first revelation to him to the effect of hallucination. We shall find him assur- ing us that he had not felt the least doubt as to the rectitude of the course that he w^as pursuing in his warfare on the disciples. He had not the slightest misgivings on the subject. The expres- sion: "It is hard for thee to kick against the pricks," is a proverb denoting the futility of the at- tempt to withstand the progress of Christ's cause. It has no reference to inward feelings of Paul, as if he were disturbed by doubt and a divided mind. He verily thought that he was doing God service. Whatever the nature of the alleged manifestation of Jesus to Paul was, there is no reason to inter- pret him as saying that the appearances of Jesus to the other Apostles were of the same kind as to him. If we turn to the Gospels, we find accounts of inter- 44 CHRISTIAN EVIDENCES. views of the risen Jesus with his followers, which, to say the least, are the earliest and the only tradi- tions that were handed down in the early Church. This can be safely affirmed before we examine the question of the authorship of the Gospels. There is certainly, even at this stage of our discussion, no reason to doubt that these accounts in the Gospels embody the statements which the Apostles made to their converts. At all events, Paul's letter to the Corinthians establishes the point that they testified to the interviews which he there enumerates. Were the Apostles deceived ? Were these mani* testations to them (and to the five hundred) a delu- The haiiuci- siou of tlicir owu miuds ? Hallucination nation theory. -^ ^ disorder of the scuscs, or of the brain, which leads one to see or to hear what has no reality outside of the nervous organism. This explanatior of the appearances of Jesus to the Dis- ciples after his death, is excluded for several rea- sons that are decisive. There is no probability that they were looking for any such reappearance of Christ. There is no reason to distrust, but good reasons for believing, the statements of the Evan- gelists that the disciples, although they did not disperse, or forsake Jerusalem, were affected with sorrow and fear. This would be natural on finding themselves bereaved of their Master, and their hopes connected with him crushed by an event so appalling as his crucifixion. There was, then, no WITNESS OF PAUL TO THE RESURRECTION. 45 preparation of mind for such a delusion as the hal- lucination theorj implies. Then, the fact that so many persons, in companies, on different occasions, were persuaded, without a shadow of doubt, that Christ was with them, and that they saw him, ren- ders such an hypothesis the more improbable. When the authenticity of the Gospels shall have been established, the circumstances related by them — ^for example, the doubts of Thomas and the way they were overcome — will be seen absolutely to pre- clude the theory in question. But, besides these considerations, the idea of hallucination is shut out by one remarkable peculiarity of the alleged mani- festations of the risen Jesus. They took place, as Paul's testimony shows, at intervals, and in a definite number. They began at a certain time — on the third day ; and they ended after a brief period. Had the followers of Jesus been in that state of mind out of which the illusions of hallucination might arise, and if this had been the source of what they thought to be actual reappearances of Jesus, these manifesta- tions would have been much more numerous. They would not have begun and ended at these definite points. They would not have suddenly ceased. They would have continued and multiplied as time went on, and as the courage and enthusiasm of the flock increased. This would surely have been the case, according to the ordinary law of the working of this sort of mental delusion. 46 CHRISTIAN EVIDENCES. The conclusion is justified that the testimony of the Apostles, to which they adhered at the cost of every earthly comfort and of life itself — for there is no doubt that they steadfastly endured thesQ penalties — ought to be believed. CHAPTER Vm THE GENUINENESS OF THE GOSPELS. The evidence of the genuineness of the Gospels is the same in kind as the evidence which satisfies Nature of the ^^^ of the gcnuincness of the History of proofs. ^}^3 Jews (ascribed to Josephus), of Livy's History of Korne, and of other writings, whether ancient or modern. The early reception of writings as genuine by those who had the means of knowing, early traditions respecting them which are not justly liable to suspicion, references to them, or quotations from them, at a time when, if they were spurious, this fact could not have been concealed, internal marks in the works themselves indicative of their authorship or date of composition — these are among the proofs on which we rely in determining the question of the origin of literary works. , In glancing at the evidence on this subject, in the present case, we will first take our stand in the clos- ing part of the second century. It is allowed on all hands that the four Gospels of the canon were at that time the sole and universally recognized author- ities concerning the life of Jesus, in all the churches 48 CHRISTIAN EVIDENCES. in the different regions of the Eoman Empire. From this starting-point we will travel backward to the immediate neighborhood of the Apostolic age. One of the most famous and influential men in the Church in the last quarter of the second century was Irenseus, who became bishop of Ly- ons, in Gaul, a.d. 177. Not far from a.d. 180 he wrote an elaborate work against the heresies which had sprung up in that century. In the course of this w^ork he has occasion to speak of th^ Four Gospels as received by all the churches, and received exclusively. He does not speak of this fact as anything new, or as if he had ever heard of anything different, or as if there could be any rea- sonable doubt that this exclusive rank belonged to the Four. According to Irenseus, one might as well think of more or less than four quarters of the earth, of more or less than the four winds. He tells us, moreover, in detail,' that Matthew pub- lished "a written Gospel among the Hebrews in their own language," that after the death of Peter and Paul, " Mark, Peter's disciple and interpreter, did himself also publish unto us in writing the things which were preached by Peter "; that " Luke, too, the attendant of Paul, set down in a book the 'Gospel preached by him " ; that " afterwards John, the disciple of the Lord, who also leaned on his breast — he again put forth his Gospel while he abode » Adv. Haer., III., i., 1. THE GENUINENESS OF THE GOSPELS. 49 in Ephesus in Asia." Elsewliere/ Irenseus informs us that John lived to an advanced age, and did not die until after the accession of Trajan (a.d. 98). Of the integrity of Irenseus theie is no question. "We have only to ascertain what means he had of acquainting: himself with the past. He Value of the ^ ? *^ testimony^of was Dom lu Asia Miuor, and spent the Irenaeus. ... early part of his life in the East. He well remembered Polycarp, the martyr, Bishop of Smyrna, who was an acquaintance and disciple of the Apostle John himself.'* Polycarp M^as put to death A.D. 155. How long it was before his death that Irenaeus had intercourse with him we are not told, but it was when Irenaeus himself was young. He was probably born between a.d. 120 and a.d. 130. Besides the memorable fact of his acquaintance with Polycarp, Irenaeus was familiar with many Christian disciples who were old when he was a youth. Pothinus, whose colleague he was for a while at Lyons, before he succeeded him as bishop, lived to the age of ninety years. He died a.d. 177. Irenaeus had conferred with "elders" — that is, ven- erated leaders in the Church of an earlier time, who had been pupils of men whom the Apostles had in- structed, and some of whom had sat at the feet of the Apostles themselves.^ ' Adv. Haer., II., xxii., 5. « Adv. Haer., HI., iii., 4; Epist. ad Flor. 8 Adv. Haer., II., xxil, 5; III, i., 1 ; III., iii., 4; V., xxx., 1; IV., ii., 1 ; cf. Eusebius, Hist. EccL, III., 23; IV., 14; V., 8. 4 50 CHRISTIAN EVIDENCES, A like testimony to the universal exclusive re* ception of the Four Gospels^ as tlie authorities handed down in the churches, is given by other distinguished church teachers, contemporaries of Irenseus. We hear substantially the same thing Clement, from Clement, a renowned theological Tertuiuan. ^.^acher at Alexandria, and from Tertul-* lian, who was a leading presbyter in North Africa. Clement was born not later than a.d. 160. Referring to a statement in an apocryphal Gospel, he remarks that it is not found "in the four Gospels w^hich have been handed down to us." ^ Clement was a man of learning who had, moreover, travelled extensively. The four Gospels, Tertullian asserts, have existed from " the very beginning," and "are coeval with the churches themselves."'' His appeal is to the testimony of churches which the Apostles them- selves founded. We now go back to the generation prior to Ire- nseus. Here we have the testimony of Justin Mar- justinMar- ^J^* J^stiu was put to death for being *y^- a Christian, under Marcus Aurelius, prob- ably A.D. 166. At the time of the Jewish rebel- lion of Bar-cochba (a.d. 134-136), he had already pursued extensive studies in various schools of phi- losophy, and had been converted to the Christian faith. He was born, it is believed, at the close of the first century. His birthplace was the Eoman » Strom., III., 553 (ed. Potter). « Adv. Marcion, IV., 5. Til 11 (r'l'LYiriNEN'JtJSS OF THE GOSPELS. 51 colony of Flavia Neapolis, near the ancient Sichem, in Samaria ; but liis family was Greek. He so- journed for a time at Ephesus. He had a wide acquaintance with Christians, and with their churches in many places. Thrfee of his writings are extant — two " Apologies,'^ or Defences of Christianity, and the Dialogue with Trypho, a Jew. The first of his Apologies was addressed to Antoninus Pius, about 148 ; the second fol- lowed not long after the first. The sources from which Justin draws his accounts of the life and teachings of Jesus he styles Memoirs^ or Me- moirs of the Apostles. Writing for disbelievers outside of the Church, he has no occasion to refer to the authors of them by name. But he describes them as written by Apostles and their companions. This he does in connection with a passage that is found in Luke.' This description answers to the Four, two of whom bear the names of Apostles, and the other two were ascribed to attendants of Apostles. In one place he refers to an incident re- specting Peter, which he professes to derive from " his Gospel." ^ The incident is found in Mark, which, as we know from other sources, was not un- frequently called Peter's Gospel. Another reading of the text in Justin, however, would make the ref- erence to be, as in other places, to the Memoirs of *^th^ Apostles." He calls the Memoirs, in one »Dial. c. 103. 2 Dial., c. 108. 62 CHRISTIAN EVIDENCES. place, '' Gospels." ^ Twice he refers to ''the Gos- pel," ^ a title given in other authors to the Four collectively. Justin says that the Memoirs were in public use. They were read on Sunday in the re- ligious services of Christians, '' in city and coun- try." ^ What were these '' Memoirs " ? They must have been the same as those described by Irenseus. If not, it must be assumed that after Irenseus had grown up to manhood, the authoritative Gospels in use in the Churches were superseded by others, or else that new Gospels, not previously acknowledged^ took their place by the side of such as had pre< viously been accepted. But how could so impor- tant changes take place^ and Irenseus know nothing of them ? But the references to the contents of the Me moirs in Justin are very numerous. When thej are brought together they make up a enceofthe protty f ull account of the events in the quotations to -..p % t i £ i • • rpi theGospeisof Me OX Josus, and or Ins saymo!;s. Ihey the Canon. ^ ' . o ^ correspond to the statements or the ca- nonical Evangelists. A large part of the matter accords with what we find in Matthew and Luke ; a small portion of it is found in Mark alone ; and there are not wanting striking correspondences to passages occurring exclusively in John. It is true that the quotations are not verbally accurate. For Justin's purpose there was no occasion that they 1 Apol. , I. , c. ea « Dial. , cc, 10, 100. « ApoL , I. 6Z> THE GENUINENESS OF THE GOSPELS, 53 should be. But his quotations from tlie Gospels are not more free, as to their form, than are his ref- erences to Old Testament passages. He does not even think it necessary to cite a passage the second time in the same words. His verbal inaccuracy in quoting John (John iii. 3-5) was a natural one, and has been shown to be just tlie same as in a citation of the passage in so late a w^riter as the celebrated English divine, Jeremy Taylor.^ Justin's references to events or sayings in the Gospel history, which have not substantial parallels in the Gospels of the Canon, are few and insignificant, and can be ac- counted for without supposing them to have been derived from other written sources. They embrace not more than two sayings of Jesus, both of W'hich are found in other wndters who yet own no author- itative Gospels but the four of the Canon. An additional proof that Justin's Gospels were the four of the Canon is the fact that Tatian, who Tatian's ^^^ ^ pupil of Justiu, combincd these harmony. f^^-^j. |^-j r^ simple uarrativc, called Diates- saron^ or the Gospel of the Four. It began with the opening passage of John's Gospel. ^ Justin's words are : ''For, indeed, Christ also said ' except ye be born again, ye shall not enter into the kingdom of heaven.' And that it is impossible for those who are once born to enter into their mothers' womb is plain to all." Not alone by the correspondence of passages in Justin with particular verses in John, is his use of this Gospel made evident. His teaching in respect to the Logos or Word must have been derived from a source recognized as authoritative ; and no such source is known, unless it wg.s the Fourth Gospel. 54 CimiSTIAN EVIDEJS^CES. The Christian literature prior to the middle of the second centurj is scanty in amount, and frag- mentary. It consists for the most part Character of „ , . „ n n the earliest of Icttcrs, writtcu for Durposes of edmca- literature. , . . | tion. Statements comcident with pas- sages in the Gospels occur, but tliey are usually inter- woven in the text, either without any express notice that they are quoted, or with an indefinite mention of them as being a part of authoritative Christian teaching. It is not always possible to tell with cer- tainty whether such passages were taken from the oral tradition at the basis of the first three Gospels, or from these writings themselves. But we meet in the Apostolic Fathers, the writers of the sub-apos- tolic age, numerous echoes of the narratives wliich make up the contents of the four canonical Gospels. A few instances may be given of this Polycarp. _ -n» i • i • t^ • i character, rolycarp, m his Jipistle to the Philippians,^ has the words : '' According as the Lord said, ' the spirit indeed is willing, but the fiesh is weak.' " The quotation corresponds exactly to Matt. vi. 13, and was probably derived from this Gospel. In the same chapter, Polycarp says : " For every one who shall not confess that Jesus Christ is come in the fiesh, is antichrist." This statement was taken from 1 John iv. 2-4, unless indeed it was re- membered by Polycarp as having been uttered by his apostolic teacher. Without doubt, the Gospel 1 C. vii. THE OENUIJSrENESS OF THE GOSPELS. 55 of John and the first Epistle are from the same hand. Tlie Epistle erroneously ascribed to Barna- E istie of ^^^ ^^^ written not later than a.d. 120. It Barnabas. contains several passages which it is most natural to refer to the Gospel of Matthew as their source. This appears almost certain respecting the passage, "He came not to call the righteous but sinners.'"" In another place it is said: "Let us take heed lest so be that we be found, as it is writ- ten, * Many called, but few chosen.""* The words quoted are identical with Matt. xx. 16, or xxii. 14. The preface — "it is written" — was the common pre- fix to citations from sacred Scripture. If it have this meaning here, the Gospel is placed on a level with the books of the Old Testament. A very ancient document, called "The Teaching of the Twelve Apostles," was first published in 1883, a few years after its discovery in a library Teaohin^of . ^ . , t - i t i i the XII. Apos- m (Jonstantinople. It is held by some ties. ^ ^ scholars to be older than the Epistle of Barnabas (a.d. 120), and even to be as early as the last years of the first century. If not so old as Bar- nabas, we are forbidden by internal marks from placing it later than a.d. 140. It is a kind of Churdi manual of instruction, characterized by a strong infusion of Jewish Christian peculiarities. This book contains passages which imply a use of the Gospels of Matthew and of Luke. In one place' it » C. V. 9 ; cf . Matt. ix. 13. » C. iv. 9. s c. xv. 56 CHRISTIAN EVIDENCES. says: "Bat your prayers and your alms and all your deeds so do ye, as ye have it in tlie Gospel of our Lord." The same word — the Greek for " Gos- pel " — occurs in three other places in the book. It is probable that the term denotes a written record. It is the name given in Origen and other early writ- ers to the Four Gospels, taken collectively, or re- garded as one body. As used in the Teaching, it may have the same meaning ; or it may possibly designate a combination, or harmony, of Matthew and Luke, which was in the author's hands. The writings which are thus tacitly recognized in the Teaching must have been received as authorities in the churches for which it was written, and in which it was used. Besides the distinct traces of the use of these Gospels, the three Eucharistic prayers ' con- tain words and phrases peculiar to John's Gospel, f 'rom this source it is natural to conclude that they ^were drawn. The antiquity of the Gospels is proved* by the ancient versions that were made. The Peshito, The ancient tiio Biblo of tlio Syrian churches, origina- versions. ^^^^ -^^ ^lj probability within the limits of the second century. Its origin is placed by the most competent scholars in the first half of that century. The Old Latin version was in current use when Ter- tullian wrote. It must have been made earlier than A.D. 170 ; bow much earlier we cannot determine. * Cc. ix. and x. THE GEKUINENEkSS OF THE GOSPELS. 57 From a contemporary of Justin, but older than he — Papias, Bishop of llierapolis, in Phrygia — we Testimony of havo definite accounts relative to the Papias. composition of the Gospels of Matthew and Mark. Papias was a contemporary of Poly- carp (who was born a. d. 69 and died, as we have said, in 155). Papias was diligent in gathering information fi'om those who had been conversant with the Apostles, and he appears to have con- ferred personally with two of the immediate dis- ciples of Jesus, John, the Elder (as he is called), and Aristion. He was thought by Irenseus to have been acquainted with John, the Apostle, but this is doubted by the ancient church historian, Eusebius. Papias wrote a book entitled, "Exposition of the Oracles of the Lord." In this work, he says of John, the Elder, or Presbyter, in a passage quoted by Eusebius : *'And the Elder said this: "Mark, having become the in- terpreter of Peter, wrote down accurately what lie remembered, not, however, -recording in order what was either said or dono by Christ. For neither did he hear the Lord nor follow him, but afterwards, as I have said, attended Peter," etc. '' Such," adds Eusebius, " is the relation in Papias concernino; Mark. But concernino- Matthew this is said : ' So then Matthew wrote the oracles in the Hebrew language, and everyone interpreted them as he was able.' " ^ 1 Euseb., Hist. Eccl., iv., 30. 58 CHRISTIAN EVIDENCES. The language of Papias implies that the neoessity of translating the Hebrew or Aramaic original of Matthew no longer existed. That is to say, Mat- thew in the Greek was in his hands. Some schol- ars are of opinion that the word for '* oracles " in the foregoing extracts from Papias, should be ren- dered " discourses " or '^ sayings," and that the work which Matthew wrote in Aramaic consisted mostly of discourses of Jesus. To these, it is supposed, the narrative parts of the book were added, in connec- tion with its translation into Greek. Whatever ex- pansion the writing of Matthew may have received after it was first composed, the work w^as so far recognized as his production that it continued to bear his name. That it existed in its present form as early as the capture of Jerusalem by Titus (a. d. 70) will be proved hereafter from internal evidence. If any portion of the book had another author than Matthew, that author was a contemporary disciple of sufficient authority to secure an undisputed acceptance of what was thus connected with the Apostle's composition. This editor of Matthew would stand thus on a level with Mark and Luke. A striking proof of the genuineness of the canon- ical Gospels is the use made of them by heretical leaders, by whom they are dealt with as Marcion. , . . having authority in the churches. From these Gospels they endeavor to draw support for their eccentric opinions. In behalf of the third THE GENUINENESS OF THE GOSPELS. 59 Gospel there is evidence of a peculiar character from the treatment of it by Marcion, the founder of a sect bearing his name. Marcion was an active and formidable heresiarcli when Justin wrote hvi first Apology (a.d. 148). He was born in Pontus, in Asia Minor ; he knew Poljcarp ; and he was in Kome as early as about a.d. 140. Owing to his one-sided zeal for Paul's doctrine, as he incorrectly understood it, he refused to acknowledge the other Apostles as authorized guides, and made up a Canon, or collection of Scriptures, out of Paul's Epistles, and the Gospel of Luke — striking out of Luke, however, passages which recognized the authority of the Old Testament law. The Gospel used by Marcion is demonstrated, and is now gen- erally conceded, to have been a mutilated Luke. This mutilation of the third Gospel, in order to promote a sectarian purpose, and the whole pro* eeeding of Marcion in the matter, make it clear that Luke's Gospel, as we have it, was at the time gen- erally received in the churches. Marcion selected this Gospel for the reason that Luke was acknowl- edged to have been a disciple of Paul. It is a just inference that the canonical Gospel was an authori- tative document in the churches when a consider- able number of the younger contemporaries of the Apostles were still living. Within the first three Gospels themselves there are distinct evidences of their early date, and what- 60 CmUSTIAK MVIBENCES, ever proves their early date, proves likewise their genuineness ; since, in the lifetime of the Apostles, Internal proof ^^^^d ^^^^^1' t'^^"* ^7^^, forged COHipOsi- dlte^Vt^'i'iirBttic^ns, had anybody wished or dared to three Gospels, fp^me thom, coiild not havo secured accepl:- ance among those whom the Apostles guided and taught. The most convincing of these internal proofs is in the predictive passages respecting the destruction of Jerusalem and the Parousia, or Sec- ond Advent, of Christ. The first impression made by these passages in Matthew is that there was no time to intervene between the two events, and the impression made by the corresponding passages in Mark and in Luke is that the interval is to be brief. It is not requisite here to attempt to ex- plain the passages in question, or to account for the peculiarity to which we allude. Whatever expla- nation is adopted, it remains evident that, had the Gospels been written at a later day, the association of the destruction of Jerusalem with the last Judg- ment, in the manner and form in which they ap- pear to be connected by the Evangelists, especially in Matthew, would not exist. There would surely have been some explanation, some caution against so natural an inference, some indication that tho two events were not to stand in so close juxtaposi- tion. Whoever will candidly examine the passages referred to, will be persuaded that the first three Gospels were written before the generation thai THE GENUINENESS OF THE GOSPELS, 61 listened to Jesns had passed off the stage. Mat- thew was composed before Jerusalem w^as taken by Titus. In any revision of this Gospel later than this catastrophe, these perplexing passages would not have been left unexplained. Mark must like- wise have preceded the capture of the city and the destruction of the temple ; and Luke must have been written, if not before, within a short time after these momentous occurrences. The first three Gospels — and the same will be found to be true of the fourth — abound in allusions Local refer- to placcs, local custouis, characteristic eaces. idcas and feelings, such as no counter- feiter, writing at a later day, could have wrought into the narratives. They are introduced without design. They are such as only contemporaries fa- miliar w^ith Palestine and the ways of the people could have been conversant with. Yery rarely there may occur a reference of this sort which it is diffi- cult to verify ; but this is true of the best accredited ancient writers who have left us accounts of their own times. The atmosphere of the Gospels is that of Galilee and Judea in the days of the Apostles. The third Gospel and the book of Acts were as- , , , , cribed without dispute, in the ancient Internal proof ^ ^ , r -r* i of the genu- Qhurch, to Lukc, a companion of Paul ineness of ? ^ i Luke. — the same Luke who is referred to by the Apostle/ Both works are undeniably by the same »CoL iv. 16; 2 Tim. iv. 11. 62 CHRISTIAJSr EVIDENCES, author. This is manifest from the style. The book of Acts refers to " the former treatise," which was also addressed to the same Theophihis to whom the Acts is inscribed/ The author of the third Gospel professes to have derived his information from care- ful inquiries made of immediate witnesses and par- ticipants in the events related.^ He had learned the facts orally, or, it might be, in part from writ- ings. His avowed purpose was to present an accu- rate, consecutive narrative. There is no reason for questioning the fact that this statement was made by the author of the Gospel, or for doubting its truth. That the author was really at times Its author an . p -r^ i • i i • i t i attendant of a compauiou 01 l^au] IS estabushed by a peculiar, convmcmg piece or evidence. The narrative in Acts moves on as we should expect of a historian who has gathered his information from others, until he arrives at Troas.' Then there is a sudden transition to the first person plural — "immediately we endeavored to go into Macedonia." The use of the pronoun, implying the author's per- sonal association with Paul, goes on until the Apostle reaches Philippi. Then it is dropped during the rest of the Apostle's second missionary journey. But he joins Paul again, it would appear, at Philippi,^ and continues in his company all the way to Rome. The graphic description of the voyage and shipwreck J Acts i. 1 ; Luke i. 4. « Luke i. 3. « Acts xvi. 10. * Acts XX. 5. THE GENUINENESS OF THE GOSPELS. 63 makes it almost impossible to doubt that it was written by one who saw what he relates. Tliere is no reasonable explanation of this use of the pronoun " we •' in these parts of the book except that the author of the Acts (and thus the author of the third Gospel) accompanied Paul for a time on his jour- ney. The style of the " we " passages is in com- plete accord with that of the rest of the book. This of itself excludes the idea that they are quoted from a document not written by the author. We cannot attribute to him a purpose to deceive the reader on this point. Had he been capable of such a fraudu- lent intent he would have taken pains to make his pretended relation to Paul more conspicuous. He would not have left it to be detected and inferred by none but observing readers. This is not at all the manner of the framers of pseudonymous writings. It has been alleged that the representation of the relation of Paul to the other leading Apostles, which Agreement of IS givcu iu tlio Acts, and of Paul's tcacli- ^ateraeSs^of i^g to theirs, is not consistent with what ^^'^^^ we learn from his Epistles. This charge applies especially to Acts xv., and to the account there of the conference at Jerusalem. The allegation is that tliere was hostility to Paul and his doctrine, on the part of Peter. This objection would imply that the author of the Acts, whoever he may have been, was a later writer and a deliberate deceiver. It is overthrown completely by Paul's own un- 6^ CHRISTIAN' EVIDENCES. e(^aivocal statement that the other Apostles — Peter, James, and John — ''added nothing" to him; that is, had nothing to add, by way of amendment, to his doctrine — and by Iiis distinct assertion that they gave to him "the right hand of fellowship."* This disproves the notion that Peter was a judaizer. That there was a public conference is not excluded, but rather implied in Paul's language.^ That the results of it were substantially as related in the Acts, ad- mits of no reasonable doubt. James, and those of like mind with him, would not have been content with a less measure of accommodation to Jewish feeling, from the side of the Gentile converts. That they we7'e content is established by Paul's testimony in the Galatians. The fourth Gospel is distinguished by marked characteristics from the other three. It has a more full account of the labors of Jesus in Judea. pei^nd the Accordiug to the fourth Gospel his min- istry extended over more than three years ; whereas from the first three — looked at apart from the light thrown on them by the fourth — we should infer that it was limited to about one year. The style of the discourses in John differs from that of most of the sayings of Jesus recorded in the other Evangelists. But these differences do not amount to an inconsistency. As to the labors of Jesus in Judea, and the duration of his ministry, we find in 1 Gal. ii. 6, 9, » Qal. ii. 3. THE GENUINENESS OF THE GOSPELS, C5 the other Gospels incidental corroboration of the Statements in John/ We find in them, also, occa- sional utterances of Jesns in the same vein as that of the discourses in the fourth Gospel.'' The lan- guage ascribed to Jesus, as far as it is like that of the Evangelist himself, and of other persons who appear in his narrative, may be accounted for natu- rally, if we suppose that John had assimilated the thoughts of his master, and presents them, in part, in a condensed form and in language of his own. Peculiarities of These peculiarities of the fourth Gospel pd prove^u^'"' ^^'^ really an argument for its genuine- genuineness. nggg^ fQj. ^hcy are sucli as no forger, no one falsely assuming to be an Apostle, would have ventured to impart to his composition. He would rather have sought to imitate, as far as he could, the earlier, acknowledged, and well-known Gospels. Having these striking peculiarities, it w^ould have been suspected and rejected on the ground of them, had not the churches and church teachers had good evidence that an Apostle wrote it. Bnt we dis- cover that the fourth Gospel was received in the second century without question or con- TheAlogi. . •; ^ . . , tradiction. Ihe only exception is the op- position to it of a handful of so-called *'Alogi," at Thyatira, about a.d. 170, who disliked it primarily on doctrinal grounds. But even this handful of see- ' For example, in Matt, xxiii. 87. 2 For example, Matt. xi. 27 (Liike x. 22). 5 66 CUlilSTIAN EVIDENCES. taries, by ascribing it to Cerinthiis, a contemporary of John, the Apostle, at Ephesus, and an opponent, refuted themselves, since their assertion implied its early date, and since the acceptance by the church of Ephesus, and by the other churches in Asia Mi- nor and elsewhere, of a Gospel which was the work of a notorious heretic, is incredible. To the testi- mony of Irenseus, and to the decisive character of it, in view of his relations to Polycarp and to others in that very region, we liave already adverted/ The fourth Gospel was written by a Palestinian Jew. This is shown, among other proofs, by pecu- Locai ref- liaritics of language. Moreover, the Gos- erences. p^| ^g gt^ewu witli refcrenccs to local peculiarities which prove the author to have been well acquainted with the scenes of the narrative. This characteristic has been admitted by prominent critics of the skeptical schools. Kenan says of the account of the healing of the nobleman's son in the fifth chapter, that it was written by one who had himself made the journey from Cana to Caper- naum. Irenseus could not have been deceived in his recollections of what he had heard from Poly- carp, a disciple of John, nor could he have been mistaken as to the person to whom Polycarp re- ferred, and reminiscences of whom he was fond of relating. In the circle in the midst of which Poly- carp was held in honor, and of which Irenseus, m » Page 48, seqo THE GENUINENESS OF THE GOSPELS. 67 his youth, was a member, there was no doubt or dis- pute respecting the authorship and date of the fourth Gospel. The manner in which the authorship of the fourtli Gospel is disclosed in the work itself con- tains a strong proof of its genuineness. The author of ,^. .,., n ^ * ^c ^ ^ i the fourth Ihis disclosuro ot himseit by the author Gospel — his , , disclosure of stauds lu conuectiou with an attestation himself. i i i t appended to the book at the close, in the course of the narrative, a disciple is referred to repeatedly, but with an avoidance of the mention of his name. There leaned on the bosom of Jesus at the Last Supper " one of his disciples whom Jesus loved." ' There went with Peter to the tomb of Jesus " the other diseiple, whom Jesus loved." * He is spoken of as " another disciple," and " that other disciple." It will not be doubted that he was the "one of the two " who with Andrew followed Jesus to his abode. ^ It is said that on the second day after a certain occurrence he and Andrew were standing with John the Baptist, whose dis- ciples they were. They heard what John said of Jesus as he walked by, and followed him. Jesus turned, and asked them what they were seeking. They inquired where his abode was. He invited them to come and see. It was four o'clock, we are told, when they joined him, and they spent with him the remainder of the afternoon. That this anony* Ixiii. 23. axx.2. «i. 39. 68 CHRISTIAN EVIDENCES, moiis disciple was John, or that he is the person designated in these expressions, is not questioned. The "otlier disciple" was not Peter, for Peter is mentioned as an associate. No one has imagined it to be James, tlie brother of John, who died early in the Apostolic age. ^ Of the three who are known to have been most intimate with Jesns, only John is left. Now this covert method of revealing the author could only spring from a certain delicacy of feeling on his part, which prevented him from giv- ing his own name, especially since he was led to speak of himself as standing in so tender a relation to Jesus. A forger, a writer pretending to be John, would never have resorted to this peculiar mode of indicating who he was, or professed to be. It is utterly contrary to the style characteristic of spuri- ous writings. At the end of the Gospel there is an attestation which has been connected with it, in all probability, since its first publication. It reads as fol- Testimony of ,;, -..^ i»ii i John's dis- lows : " ihis IS the disciple which bearetn ciolss* witness of these things, and wrote these things ; and we know that his witness is true." "^ According to the ancient tradition, the Gospel was published by the disciples of John at Ephesus, after his death. This, then, is the indorsement which comes from those into whose custody it was given. If any should imagine that the Gospel was com^ ^ Acts xii. 2. 2 John xxi. 24 (Revised Version). THE OENUINEI^ESS OF THE GOSPELS. 69 posed by these pupils of John, on the basis of what they had learned from him, the objections to this hypothesis are condnsive. First, it is contrary to the certification just quoted- Secondly, it is con- Hated by the manner in which the author modestly veils his own personality, instead of directly declar- ing himself. The style of the first of the Epistles ascribed to John makes it evident that it was written by the same author as the fourth Gospel. In this Epistle we have an unequivocal declaration that the author of it was with Jesus and an eye-witness of what he did/ That the author was personally conversant with Jesus is distinctly implied in his use of the first person plural of the pronoun : ^ " We beheld his glory," etc. He plainly asserts that he saw water and blood flowino; from the side of Jesus as he huns: on the cross.^ If it was not so, we are obliged to im- pute to the author, whoever he was, wilful deception. The fourth Gospel is a sort of autobiography, or personal confession of the faith of the writer in Jesus, and of how it grew up in his soul. timacyim- It is stecpcd iu pcrsoual affection, and pervaded by the atmosphere of personal loyalty and devotion. All this involves the fact of personal intimacy and discipleship. It has been shown that the four Gospels were » 1 John i. t a John i. 14, s xix. 31 70 CHRISTIAN EVIDENCES, written by Apostles and well-informed contempo- raries. Even if their anthorship and date could not be definitely ascertained, there is s:ood Only one tra- »/ ? o dition. reason to believe that in their contents the story which the Apostles told of Jesus, his teaching and works, is fairly embodied. From Jus- tin Martyr and other writers of the second century it is made plain that this and no other tradition ex- isted on the subject. The opponents of Christianity knew of no other. One of the most acute of these was Celsus, who is supposed to have com- posed his attack about a.d. 180. From Origen's reply we can gather up a great portion of what Celsus wrote. Thus it is ascertained that the history of Jesus, which is the object of his adverse criticism, corresponds with what is narrated in the Gospels. Celsus knew of no other conception of Christ, and of his words and deeds. CHAPTEE IX. TRUSTWORTHINESS OF THE TESTIMONY OF THE APOSTLES. We have before tis in the Gospels the testimony of the Apostles. We have -the substance of what they declared to be the truth respecting the career of Jesus. The question now to be considered is whether the Apostles are entitled to credit. They are worthy of belief unless it can be shown either Theaiterna- ^'^^^ ^^^^J intended to dcceivo, or were *^^'®- themselves mistaken. Were they impos- tors ? Or, if not impostors, were they enthusiasts, incapable of discriminating between actual occur- rences and their own imaginings? Were they knaves, or were they simpletons ? The Apostles understood that their office was that of witnesses. They were selected by Jesus to be with him, to hear what he said and to see what Conscions of . -, , , f. being wit- ho did. lu a passao-c, the authenticity or which is not open to question,^ Peter re- quires that one should be chosen to take the place of Judas, who had been with them and with Christ. ' Acts i. 21-25. The prominence here given to Peter by the author, a Pauline Christian, prevents* even skeptical critics from calling in question the truth of the historical statement. 72 CHRISTIAN EVIDENCES. He must be qualified to bear witness to the resur- rection of Jesus — a fact singled out as the most im- portant in the Apostles' testimony. The Apostles never ceased to feel that thej were disciples. They stood in tlie position, not of origi- Aiways nators, but of learners. Something tin- disciples. speakably precious had been communi- cated to them to be delivered to others. All their own hopes rested on the facts which they had noth- ing to do in originating. They tell their tale in the dispassionate tone that belongs to truthful witnesses. They are content to let the simple facts speak for them- Theirtone. ^ ^ selves. For example, there are no in- vectives against Judas. They go no further than just to relate what he did. The candor of the Apostles, and of the Evangel- ists who were not of their number, is evident. A sino-le instance will suffice as an example.. Their candor. f -r^ i * i Luke relates how raul was set upon by a furious mob of Jews.^ They shouted that he had brought Greeks into the temple, and had defiled that "holy place." The historian takes pains to state immediately a fact — one that he might have suppressed — which was of the nature of an excuse for their violence. They had seen, he tells us, one Trophimus, an Ephesian, with Paul, and had heard that he had taken him into the temple. 1 Acts xxi. 27 Beq. CREDIBILITY OF THE APOSTLES. 73 Tliey show their honesty in relating things dis- creditable to themselves. Peter told the story of his denials of the Master, for it is related Relate things ,-.^1 nii i-n to their own bv Mark as well as by the other iivano;el- discredit. *^ ./ o ists. The reproofs of Jesus are faithfully set down. The Apostles speak of their ambition and contentious rivalry, and of the way in which they were rebuked by Christ.' They relate how they failed to understand Jesus in cases where it seemed obtuse in them not to take in his mean- ing.* What better proof can there be of candor ? They even tell how they all forsook liim.^ It is evi- dent that the Apostles had no thought of themselves, so absorbing was the interest which they felt in the scenes which they had beheld, and in which they had taken part, and in him to whom they looked up as to their lord and master. All personal consid- erations were lost in the magnitude of the events which had passed before their eyes. The sincerity of the Apostles is proved by what they were willing to endure in consequence of the Their sincer- tcstimouy wliicli they gave. The Apostle tifei?'siSer^^ Paul spcaks of the Apostles collectively ^°^'* as" the cff-scouring of all things."* They had no selfish advantage to gain. On the contrary, the hatred of their friends, exile, personal indigni- ties hard to bear, even torture and death, were the » Mark ix. 34 ; Luke ix. 46 « Matt. xv. 16, xvL 6, 7, ete. » Matt, xxvi 56 ; Mark xiv. 60. * 1 Cor. iv. 13. 74 CUnlSTIAN EVIDENCES. reward which they had to expect for testifying to what they professed to have seen and heard. The truth of the Gospel narratives is shown by a thousand incidental (and, therefore, undesigned) illusions to allusions to the topography, customs, and lucai customs, ^i^nners of the country— to peculiarities of time and place. These things, w^hich prove their early date, confirm, also, their credibility. That the Gospel narratives spring out of inten- tional deceit will not be seriously alleged. To ac~ The mythi- couut for them as far as they relate rair- cai theory. aclcs, tlic '^ mytliical theory" was pro- posed by Strauss. This theory w^as that groups of early believers in Jesus, brooding over Old Testament predictions of the Messiah and accounts of miracles wrought by the prophets, imagined that Jesus healed the sick, raised the dead, etc. These stories were an unconscious growth of fancy in se- cluded communities of Galilean followers of Jesus. This theory is untenable. Where were the com- munities of Christians who were so far removed Objections ^^^ ^^^^ ovorsight ^ of the Apostles ? ^ ^*- How could that childlike, unreflecting mood of feeling, required for the unconscious ac- tion of mythopoeic fancy, arise or abide when the faith of Christian disciples w^as challenged at every turn, and- when they were called upon to de- fend it against hostile criticism ? How could those who thought that the Messiah must work miracles CREDIBILITY OF THE APOSTLES. 75 have been moved to believe in Jesus unless he actu- ally met this indispensable condition? They felt that miracles there must be, we are told, and hence invented or dreamed out fictitious tales to fill the gap ; and yet the lack of them had not stood in the way of their faith in the messianic claim of Jesus ! The time between the death of Jesus and the com- position of the Gospels was too short to admit of the rise of a body of myths, a spontaneous growth in the circles of believers. Moreover, the Gospels came not from secluded disciples, such as are imag- ined to have given birth to mythical tales. They came from the Apostles and those under their instruc- tion and care. These considerations are conclusive ; but, apart from them, the miracles, as we have seen, are so inseparably connected with the teaching of Jesus that neither ingredient of the Gospel narra- tives can be discarded while the other is saved. We cannot reject the accounts of miracles without, also, disbelieving the record of sayings of Christ, which are obviously and undeniably authentic. An objection is made to the credibility of the Gospels on the ground of alleged discrepancies. Alleged dis- The first thing to be said in answer to crepancies. ^j^.^ Q|3Je(3f;jQj^ jg that whether these be real or only apparent, they prove that there was no collusion, no conspiracy, between the Evangelists or the informants from whom they, or any of them, derived their matter. The second remark is that 76 CHRISTIAN EVIDENCES. discrepancies and inaccuracies belong to human testimony generally. On the principle that a wit- ness or an author is to be discredited if he fails of accuracy in all particulars, it would be impossible to believe anybody. Courts of law would have to be shut up, for the most veracious witnesses seldom agree in all the minutise which enter into their testi- mony. All books of history would have to be cast aside, including narratives written from personal observation. Paley says justly: ^'I know not a more rash or unphilosophical conduct of the under- standing than to reject the substance of a story by reason of some diversity in the circumstances with which it is related. The usual character of human testimony is substantial truth under circum- stantial variety. This is what the daily experience of courts of justice teaches. "When accounts of a transaction come from the mouths of different wit- nesses, it is seldom that it is not possible to pick out apparent or real inconsistencies between them. These inconsistencies are studiously displayed by an adverse pleader, but often with little impression upon the minds of the judges." Where variations occur in testimony, or inaccuracies in any single wit- ness or reporter, the only question is whether they are of such a number and character as to destroy the general trustworthiness of the narrators, and to east doubts on the substantial contents of their tale. In the third place, whatever may be thought CREDIBILITY OF THE AP0ST7ES. 77 of minor points of variation from one another, the Gospels can be proved to contain no such instances of diversity in the narration as suffice to weaiven their general credibility. It must be remembered that these books are not formal histories. They are memoirs. There is no aim at completeness. They are not put together by expert writers. Cir* cumstances, even very important facts, may be left out of one and recorded by another. In narratives of this character there is often an appearance of contradiction where some additional circumstance, not introduced, would at once dispel this appear- ance. It is sometimes made an objection to believing in the ]^ew Testament miracles that a great number of miraculous stories have been set afloat ecclesiastical wliicli are generally admitted to be fabu- lous. This objection overlooks the fact that the same thing is true of numberless narratives in which nothing miraculous is involved. Because there are so many instances of mistake or imposi- tion, in what we read or hear, we do not disbelieve in everything that is related. The objection has no force unless it can be shown that the accounts of miracles which w^e feel justified in at once rejecting, are as well attested as are the miracles recorded in the Gospels. But this cannot be shown. It must be remembered that the cir- cumstances under which testimony is given, as well 78 CHRISTIAN EVIDENCES. as the temper and character of the witness, must be taken into view. The weight of proof is measured by the strength of both of these factors combined. 1. The Gospel miracles are expressly to verify re- ^ velation. It was, for the most part, only at marked ' epochs in the progress of divine revelation that, ac- cording to the Scriptures, miracles were wrought. On the contrary, alleged miracles outside of the Script- ures are frequently naked marvels, deriving no sup- port from any high, distinctive purpose which they are to subserve. 2. The Gospel miracles were not wrought in co- incidence with a prevailing system of belief, and for the furtherance of it. On the other hand, they were performed in behalf of teaching and of claims which were hostile to established prepossessions. The miracles of Jesus were a part of the means by which faith in him was created and built up. Mir- acles related by the ancient fathers, or in the medi- aeval legends, were in harmony with religious beliefs already deeply rooted. They were directly in the line of popular expectations. This is a difference of very great importance. 3. The disposition to deny the reality of the mir- acles wrought by Christ, or to explain them away, had to be confronted by the Apostolic witnesses. It has been said truly Jliat " exorcism, which is the contemporary Jewish miracle referred to in the Gospels, is evidently, if it stands by itself, and is CREDIBILITY OF THE APOSTLES, 79 not confirmed by other and more decided marks of divine power, a miracle of a most doubtful and am- biguous character." To whatever cause the disorder is referred, " a sudden, strong impression," rousing the energy of the patient, might, in less aggravated cases, effect a cure. But, even as to exorcism, the Jews recognized the difference in the cures effected by Jesus from anything familiar in their experience, and were driven to ascribe them to aid afforded by Beelzebub. In general, the miracles of Jesus were such as the people considered in the highest degree unlikely to occur. The statement, which is often made, that there was no idea of natural law, and, therefore, that there was an uninquiring credulity, is contrary to the truth. The idea of the stability of nature is constantly implied in the Gospel narra- tives. Galilee was a populous district, studded with cities and villages. The minds of the people were sliarpened by trade and commerce. They w^ere not illiterate barbarians. They were the countrymen of Josephus. There were superstitions then, as in every age since. But the difference between a nat- ural event and a miracle was understood and felt. The common feeling is expressed in the words, " Since the world began was it not heard that any man opened the eyes of one that was born blind."* Nicodemus said : '' No man can do these miracles that thou doest, except God be with hira."^ The > John ix. 33. > John iii. 2. 80 CHRISTIAl^ EVIDENCES. Pharisees and priests said : " Eemember that that deceiver said, while he was yet alive, 'After three days, I will rise again.' " ^ Such a claim, they as- sumed, was characteristic of a deceive}'. It was in the midst of such a community, in the face of all this disbelief, that the Apostles told their story. 4. They were subjected to the severe test of per- secution and suffering. Was it facts that they af- firmed ? This was the question. Had there been a doubt in their minds, they must have given way under the pressure, not only of authority — the au- thority of the religious rulers and guides of the peo. pie — but, also, of the perils and sufferings which their testimony brought upon them. 5. The habit of mind of the Apostolic witnesses is essentially different from that of the narratives of heathen and ecclesiastical miracles, and of won- ders elsewhere reported. Two things vitiate most of the testimony to events of this sort. The first is the lack of a clear perception of facts as they actu- ally occur. The second is an appetite for the mar- vellous. This last feeling not only obscures the mental vision and is one cause of the fault just mentioned ; it also begets a credulity which is fatal to the exercise of judgment respecting the statements of others. Both these defects, which are closely connected together, may coexist with many good traits, including piety. Now, in the > Matt. xxTU. 63. CREDIBILITY OF THE APOSTLES. 81 case of the Apostolic witnesses, what is remarkable is the sobriety of mind, which leaves the perceptions clear, and with it that conscientious regard for truth which insures strictly veracious testimony. The dignity and simplicity of the miracles re- corded in the New Testament are, as a rule, in strong contrast with those found in legendary tales. The miracles in the apocryphal Gospels are, as a class, grotesque, fantastic, or otherwise offensive. This is the prevailing character, for example, of the miracles described in the Gospel of the In- fancy. The same character, although not always in so excessive a degree, belongs to heathen and mediaeval legends. Exceptions occur, but they are exceptions — not numerous enough to efface the con- trast between pagan and ecclesiastical miracles in general, and the miracles ascribed to Jesus in the Evangelists. Finally, we revert to the character of Christ, which is too unique to be the product either of imagination or of conscious invention. When that character, in its immaculate purity, is contemplated, in connection with the declared purpose of his life and mission, '• to bear witness to the truth," and " to seek and to save " the lost, supernatural mani- festations of power appear to be a suitable accom- paniment of his work in the world. Why not the power, as well as the holiness and love of God ? The antecedent improbability of miracle vanishes. CHAPTER X. THE PROOF OF THE RESURRECTION OF JESTJS FROM THE EVANGELISTS. Now that the trustworthiness of the Gospel nar- ratives has been established, we can appeal to the testimony to the resurrection of Jesus, which they present. We can reinforce the argument founded on the affirmations of the Apostle Paul, which was presented in a former chapter;* although Paul's testimony, even when considered by itself, warrants the conclusion that was drawn from it. To the transcendent importance of this fact of the resurrection of Jesus, the Apostles were fully Importance of ^1^^®' ^hoy Staked upou it their verac- the fact. i|-y^ j£ j^g j^g^(j j^q^ riscu, they were will- ing to be considered false witnesses.^ The Lord's resurrection was inseparably connected with the whole doctrine of redemption. It was involved in all their hopes of salvation from sin, and*of future blessedness." They went out to proclaim "Jesus and the resurrection." ^ The estimate which they put upon this central fact is adapted to inspire con- 1 Ch. VIL 2 1 Cor. XV. 15. a 1 Cor. xv. 14. * Acts xvii. 1& THE GOSPELS AND THE RESURRECTION. 83 fidence in the witness which they gave concerning it. They would take every precaution against mis- take respecting a truth on which they were con- scious that everything depended. That Jesus really died is a proposition which it is no longer requisite to defend. If it were possi- ble for him to survive the crucifixion, its prolonged torture, and the wound in the side, and if what appeared to be death could be supposed to have been only a swoon from which he awoke, how could his life in a mortal body have been continued ? Where did he go ? When did he really die ? Such a continuation of his earthly life, if all other.difficulties in the supposition were re- moved, could only have taken place through a consum- mate effort of deceit at which he himself connived. It is impossible to account for the alleged inter- views of the Apostles with the risen Jesus, by the No hauaciua- suppositiou that they were imaginary and tion. grew out of an idea that, being the Mes- siah, he must rise from the tomb and appear in bodily form. There was not time for such a pro- cess of reasoning to take place in the minds of the Disciples, and for a series of visions, having no basis in reality, to spring out of it. It was on the morn- ing of the third day that, as they aflBrmed, he ap- peared to them.* Nor can it be reasonably thought that real, miraculous visions of Jesus, parted from * 1 Cor. XV. 4 ; Mark xvi. 3, etc. 84 CHIilSTIAN' E VIDE NOES. the body and entered on the heavenly life, were granted to them. This explanation is prechided by the fact, that it was in his bodily form that they be- held him. It is absolntely excluded by the circum- stances that attended his manifestations to them. The empty "^^^^ tomb, it must bo remembered, was tomb. found empty, with the linen clothes left there, and the napkin folded and lying by itself.* The body could not have been carried off by the enemies of Christ. They would have produced it to confute the assertion that he had risen. It could not have been carried away and hidden by his friends, without a fraudulent intent on their part, which none at the present day would impute to them. But the final, unanswerable proof of the The inter- rcsurrcction is in the character of the in- views. terviews of Jesus with his followers. On the first Sunday there were five of these meetings with him. They were inci*edulous, but he over- came their incredulity. He spoke to them and they with him. He walked with them. He partook of food with them. They touched him. One of them put his finger upon the print of the nails. '^ The reality of his bodily presence was attested by what Luke justly calls " infallible proofs," ' appeals to the senses — appeals of such number and variety as rendered the idea of an illusion absurd. • John XX. 2 seq.; Luke xxvi. 3, etc. * John xx. 25 se^ «Actai3. TUE GOSPELS AND THE RESUIiRECTION, 85 Add to these considerations a fact before ad- verted to. The manifestations of Jesus to the disciples were limited to a certain number of in- The limit of stances. The principal of these Paul re- time. £gj,g ^^^ ^ -fg^y others are related in the Gospels. All these interviews ceased after a lim- ited, not very long time. Had they been the prod- uct of imagination and enthusiasm, they would have continued, increasing constantly the emotional excitement out of which they sprung. The ablest representative of the skeptical schools of criticism confesses that no explanation can be given of the undoubting and immovable faith of the Apostles in the resurrection of Jesus.' There is only one reasonable explanation — namely, that the fact oc- curred. 1 F. C. Baur : History of the First Three Centuries, p. 39. H© even calls the resurrection a " wunder " (miracle). CHAPTEE XL AliLEGED ERROBS OF THE APOSTLES IN MATTERS OF OPINION. In answer to the objection that the Apostles held to erroneous opinions on certain subjects, it is to be Limits of their ^aid, in the first place, that no authority knowledge, jg claimed for the Apostles, and no supe- riority of knowledge, except on matters involved in their mission, or in the work specially assigned to them by Jesus. They did not themselves pretend that their knowledge of astronomy, or of other sci- ences, was beyond that of their Jewish contempora- ries. In these particulars they may have been greatly excelled by many at that day. The objection has no force unless it refers to al- leged errors in religious opinion. But even on this subject the objection is irrelevant unless it can be shown that the errors in question would invalidate their testimony to the facts which the Gospels record. If the question before us concerned the nature and limits of the inspiration of the Apostles, it would be necessary to consider it, but not where the inquiry is respecting the credibility of their testimony. It may be well, however, to refer to some points ALLEGED ERRORS OF THE APOSTLES. 87 having a close relation to religion, and in regard to which it is said that the Apostles were in error. One of these is the expectation of the Expectation , r /-ni • t • of the second sDcedy sccond commo* or Christ. Let it advent. / ^ i ro be observed that they expressly affirin that the time of his second coming is not revealed. "Of that day and hour knoweth no man, not even the angels of heaven, neither the Son, but the Father only." ^ After the resurrection of Christ, when they asked him if he would then " restore the kingdom to Israel," he gave this comprehensive answer : " It is not for you to know times or seasons which the Father hath set within his own authority." ^ The decision of all these questions was reserved by the Father, and was not disclosed to man. We read in John's Gospel that Jesus, speaking of John, said to Peter : " If I will that he tarry till I come, what is that to thee ? " ^ This occasioned a report "among the brethren" that John "should not die." But this misconstruction of what Jesus had said is corrected."* " Suppose," says Paley, " that this re- port had come down to us among the prevailing opinions of the early Christians, and that the par- ticular circumstance from which the mistake sprang had been lost (which, humanly speaking, was most likely to have been the case), some at this day would have been ready to regard and quote the error as an 1 Matt. xxiv. 36. a Acts i. 7 (Revised Version). « John xxi 23. * Verse 23. 88 CHRISTIAN EVIDENCES. impeachment of the whole Christian system." "To those who think tliat the Scriptures lead us to be- lieve that the early Christians, and even the Apos- tles, expected the approach of the day of judgment in their own times, the same reflection will occur as that which we have made with respect to the more partial, perhaps, and temporary, but still no less an- cient error, concerning the duration of St. John's life. It was an error, it may be likewise said, which would effectually hinder those who entertained it from acting the part of impostors." Those who think that the Apostles expected that Christ was to come soon, should not be surprised to find traces of this personal expectation in their writings. Nor ought they to be surprised if the influence of this idea is found to tinge the abbreviated reports of the predictive utterances of Christ which are presented in the Gospels. Another difiiculty in the New Testament narra- tives relates to what is said of demoniacs. It is represented that the souls of men were Demoniacs. , ,, ., ... , ♦ i3« . j possessed by evil spirits, who inHictea on them physical distempers — epilepsy, lunacy, etc. The opinion has been adopted by not a few Chris- tian scholars that the language of Christ on this subject was uttered simply by way of accommoda- tion to a prevalent belief, and in order to effect the cure of those who were under the influence of it. In other words, he entered into the idea of the aijLEged errors of the apostles. 89 persons thus afflicted with disease — humored the deUision, as it were — as a means of causing their recover}^, and of assuring them of it. Their mis- taken belief was harmless, from a religious point of view, and Christ was under no obligation to dis- abuse them of it, any more than to instruct them on the causes of disease in genei-al, and to clear their minds of other medical delusions. Christian scholars, to whom this solution is not satisfactory, are content to accept as real the fact of demoniacal possession at that epoch when the minds of men were oppressed and distracted by the inward conflict with evil. It was an extraordinary crisis in the spiritual life of individuals and of society. Too little is known of the supernatural w^orld to warrant a dogmatic denial of the possibil- ity of such an influence exercised by evil spii-its. On either of the views just stated, it remains true that the facts concerning the cure of the so- called demoniacs, of their actual deliv- Testimony to _ the facts not eraucc from aoforravated disorders, are au- weakened. , ^ ^ • mi thenticated by the testimony. The ac- counts in the Gospels of the healing of persons of this class are among the most graphic passages in these writings. They contain internal evidence of their verity. Of such a character is the narrative of the madman of Gadara, who cut himself with stones, and made his abode among the tombs. Conversa- tions of Jesus, in connection with miracles of this 90 CHRISTIAN EVIDENCES, kind, conversations of unquestionable authenticity, prove the reality of the principal facts with which they are associated. Difficulties are sometimes raised in reference to occasional interpretations of Old Testament pas- inter retation ^agcs, whicli the Apostles introduce, or and reasoning, ^q certain argumcuts which they employ. Such difficulties, supposing them to be well- founded, do not affect the value of their testi- mony to facts. Some would contend that these difficulties have no ground to rest upon. Others would allow with Paley that we must " distin- guish between their [the Apostles'] doctrines and their arguments. Their doctrines came to them by revelation, properly so called ; yet in propound- ing these doctrines in their writings or discourses, they were wont to illustrate, support, and enforce them by such analogies, arguments, and considera- tions, as their own thoughts suggested." Paley quotes from Bishop Burnet this remark: "When divine writers argue upon any point, we are always bound to believe the conclusions their reasonings end in ; but we are. not bound to be able to make out, or even to assent to, all the premises made use of by them, in their whole extent, unless it appears plainly that they affirm the premises as expressly as they do the conclusions proved by them.' " » Paley's Evidences, P. III. ch. II. Burnet's Exposition of the Articles, Art. 6. CHAPTER Xn. ALLEGED DIFFICULTIES IN THE CONNECTION OF CHRISTIANITY WITH THE OLD TESTAMENT RELIGIOUS SYSTEM. Objections are frequently made to Christianity on the ground of difficulties connected with the Old Testament, and with references to the Old Tes- tament books in the 'New Testament. That the religion of the Old Testament is rec- ognized in the New as from God, and as having a divine sanction, distinguishing it from the religions Genetic reia- ^^ ^he Gcntlles, is obvious. That Chris- tiaSitf to^ju-' tianity has a genetic connection with the daism. religion of the Jews, is a plain matter of history. And the contrast between the religion of the Jews and the religious systems of other nations, including those of the same stock — as the Babylo- nians — is an impressive proof that the sanction given to it by Jesus is well founded. The pure mono- theism, the character ascribed to God, the teaching as to his moral and providential government, the spirit of devotion and of worship inspired by this system of faith, bear witness to its unique, super- natural source. 92 CBRISTIAN EVIDENCES, Jesus appealed to prophetical passages in the Old Testament, as pointing to the kingdom which he was to establish, and to the Messiah, its Recognition of , , -tt t t ,i • the Old Testa- head. He disavowed, moreover, the in- tention to cast discredit on the prior revelations of law and duty, made in times of old, to Moses and the prophets. All this a Christian accepts both on the authority of Jesus as a teacher, and on account of its inherent reasonableness. But neither Christ nor the Apostles took up ques- tions respecting the authorship and date of Old Testament writings — such questions as teaching of beloug to historfcal and scholarly inquiry. Christ refused to act as an umpire in a dispute about an inheritance, saying : " Who made me a judge or divider over you?"* This shows how resolved he was to keep within the limits of his own distinctive calling, and not to step aside to perform ofSees, which, even if they were not unim- portant, did not pertain to it. We have a right as Christians to rest on the declarations of Christ on questions respecting which he has pronounced judg- ment — questions on which he professed to speak " as one having authority." But we go too far when we stake the truth of Christianity on the cor- rectness of opinions concerning which no verdict was intended to be pronounced by Christ or his Apostles. > Lake xii. li. RELATION OF THE NEW TESTAMENT TO THE OLD. 93 But Christ did teach emphatically the gradual- ness of divine revelation, and the consequent im- perfection of religious knowledge, and of nesaof divine the knovi^ledgo of dutv under the old dis- revelation. , ^ ^^ , _ pensation. ihere was a Mosaic law re- specting divorce, which fell short of the Christian ideal. It w^as given, Christ taught, on account of the hardness of heart of the people, who were pre- pared for nothing better/ He substituted for it another, more stringent enactment. John the Bap- tist, he said, was inferior to no prophet ; yet the least Christian disciple was greater than he — was pos- sessed of more light, and stood on a higher plane as regards the perception of God's plans and ways.^ The recollection of the gradualness of the revela- tion of God and of religious truth sets aside at once numerous difficulties which have been alleged re- specting the teaching of the Old Testament Script- ures, as well as concerning the lives and the charac- ter of persons described and commended in them. In truth, the connection of the faith of Israel with Christianity most impressively indicates the The plan of ^iviuo oHgiu of tlio religlou of Jesus. history. ^Q behold the long course of this his- torical movement — starting in the remote past, flowing onward, like a river, through all the cen- turies before Christ, until there it widens into a sea that spreads more and more, as the ages succeed ' Matt. xix. 8 ; Mark x. 5. » Matt. xi. 11 ; Luke vii Sd 94 CHRISTIAN EVIDENCES. one another, over the surface of the globe. As the birth of Christ divides history into two parts, so his coming furnishes the clue to the understanding of it. His offices of love and mercy to the race unveil the purpose of God, the interpretation of his plan, as regards mankind, including Jew and Gentile, both before and since the Saviour of the world appeared. To each branch of the human race, to each of the nations of the earth, Providence assigned the place and the period of its existence, guiding and training all, to the end that they might seek after God, and fulfil, each its allotted part, in the world-wide kingdom which Christ was sent to es- tablish. CHAPTER Xni. PROOF OF CHBISTIANITY FROM PROPHECT. Prophecy is a species of miracle. There are limits to the power of human foresight. The field beyond Nature of the ^^ opcn to conjcctiire, but is excluded from argument. triistwortliy prediction. Prophecy which is fulfilled under circumstances that forbid the sup- position of mere coincidence or accident, and the supposition that it causes its own fulfilment through some influence exerted by it, necessarily involves supernatural agency. Nothing else can account for the conformity of the event with the prediction. If it could be shown respecting one who utters predic- tions that in some instances they fail of accomplish- ment, even then the cases in which they are veri- fied, provided they cannot be resolved into fortunate guesses, prove that at certain times, or to a certain degree, he is gifted with superhuman foresight. The Old Testament contains a large predictive ele- ment. It might be said with truth that a stream of Prophecy per- P^'^pli^cy ruus through the Old Testament o*d Teita*^^ Scriptures. The religious guides of the ment. Hcbrew people ever looked forward to a grand future for which the present was only a prepa- 96 CHRISTIAN EVIDENCES. ration. There are three striking particulars in which this prophetic character of Old Testament teaching, and of the devotional utterances connected with it, appears. First, there is to be a great improve- ment in the ]'eligion itself. It is to take on a purer, more spiritual form.^ Secondly, it is to have ji world-wide predominance.'' The heathen nations are to embrace it, or to be brought under its sway. The whole earth is to acknowledge Jehovah. Thirdly, this spread and domination of the Old Testament religion is to be secured by the Messiah. A great leader, guide, prince is to appear, under w^hom the kingdom of God is to become universal. Righteousness and blessing are to attend its prog- ress. The prophetic pictures vary in form. Ele- ments derived from the kingdom of the Jews and from their religion in its then existing form natur- ally colored the anticipations and mingled in the visions of the seer and the saint. But these sub- ordinate features, in which propliecy varies from actual experience or accurately written history, do not lessen the profound impression which these pre- dictive declarations of the Old Testament, viewed in connection with what we know of Christ and of Christianity, are adapted to make. The insight of the prophets into the plan of God has been verified in the events of subsequent ages, down to the pre* ent time. » Jeremiah xxxi. 31-35. * Is. ii. 2, eta PROOF OF CHRISTIANITY FROM FIWrilEGY, 97 There was a class of prophets among the He- brews. To foretell future events was OT\\y an inci- The class of dental, it was not the principal, function of propheta". ^j^^-^. ^'^^^^ r^^iey prof csscd to bc Called of God to instruct, to encourage, and to warn the people. They spoke with an eloqnence which made men feel that they were animated by an influence from above, and that God spoke through them. This was true, for example, of the Prophet Isaiah. A part of their predictions cover the points referred to in the pre- ceding remarks. The coming perfection and glory of the kingdom, and of the Messiah its head, was their theme. But, besides these prophecies of a more general nature, there were uttered, in special Particular exigcncics, prcdictious of particular events predictions, j^^ ^^iQ near or more distant future. They were prophecies which did not spring from any statesmanlike sagacity or power of forecast. The prophets might be called from humble vocations in life. Amos was a herdsman. The prophetic insight, or foresight, went beyond the possible reach of hu- man calculation. An instance of prophecy of the kind here referred to is the predictions of Isaiah respecting the rapidly approaching downfall of the kingdoms of Israel and Syria, which had concluded an alliance with each other, and of the failure of their project against Judah.' Another instance is Isaiah's prophecy of the failure of the powerful ^ Isaiah vii 9S CHRISTIAN EVIDENGl'lS. army oi: the Assyrian king, Sennacherib, in his siege of Jerusalem.^ Among the prophecies respect- ing the Messiah and his work, the passage in Isaiah concerning the servant of God is remarkable.'* It contains verses which cannot refer to the people as a body, or to the pious kernel of the nation. Of such a character is verse 6 : " All w^e have gone astray ; we have turned every one to his own w^ay ; and the 7jord hath laid on him the iniquity of us all." The prophecy has reference to one individual, and its correspondence to the experience of Christ is close. That Jesus himself foretold the coming destruction of Jerusalem is proved by the testimony of the first three Evangelists. More impressive than the pre- diction of any single event is the foreknowledge he had of the spread of the Gospel and of the victory of his kingdom. It was to grow like the mustard- seed, and to spread its influence like the hidden leaven. 1 Isaiah xxjvii. 21 neq. " Isaiah lii 13-liv, CHAPTEK XIV. ARGUMENT FOR CHRISTIANITY FROM THE CONVERSION AND THE CAREER OF THE APOSTLE PAUL. About four years after the crucifixion, Saul of Tarsus, a man of great ability and sincerity, who belonged to the sect of the Pharisees, was trained in a rabbinical school at Jerusalem, and was zealous in persecuting Christian disciples, was converted, and became the principal agent in planting the Gospel in the cities of the Koman Empire. His conversion was sudden. " It pleased God," he says, " to reveal his Son in me, that I might preach him among the heathen." ' The particulars of his conversion, when he was on the road to Damascus, on an errand of persecution, are related by Luke in the Acts. Miraculous circumstances attended it.'* It is impossible to account for this event by merely natural causes. The only theory of this nature which His state of ^^^® ^^^^ advauccd is the one to which we ^^^^' have adverted on a preceding page^ — the theory of hallucination. But, as we have said, his was not the state of mind out of which an illusion of this sort could be engendered. He expressly states » Gal. i. 16. a Acts ix. 2 seq. , xxii. 5 seq. « Page 88. 100 CHRISTIAN EVIDENCES, that lie had no misgivings in regard to the rectitude of the course he was pursuing. '^ I verily thought with myself that I ought to do many things contrary to the name of Jesus of Nazareth." ^ He had been a persecutor, he tells us, but found mercy because he "did it ignorantly, in unbelief."^ He was, to be sure, engaged in a hard, wearisome struggle to live up to his idea of legal righteousness. The yoke of the law pressed heavily upon him. This was a silent, un- conscious preparation for the relief which the Gospel was to afford ; but the immediate effect of this con- scientious legalism was not to excite in him the least favor to the Christian cause, the least inclination to regard Jesus as the Messiah. The effect, on the con- trary, was to increase his zeal in putting down what he considered a wicked and baneful heresy. As we have remarked, the expression, " It is hard for thee to kick against the pricks," does not imply, or re- motely suggest, the presence in his mind of com- punction or inward opposition to the work in which he was engaged. It was a proverbial expression, sig- nifying that he was embarked in a futile enterprise — one that would not avail to crush the cause of Christ, but would, the longer he persevered in it, harm himself the more. The metaphor was taken from the conflict of oxen with the driver behind them, and their vain attempt to resist him by kicking against the goad. » Acts xxvi. 9, a 1 Tim. i. 13, PROOF FROM TjIE CdNVEIxriO]'! OF Ji U>. 101 To say that the occurrence which turned Paul from an ardent enemy to a devoted friend of the Was it a cause of the Gospel was only " a vision " ♦* vision"? explains nothing. If it were only a vis- ion it would be necessary to show how a vision of that character could take place, save by supernatural agency. But it has been explained how the Apostle distinctly implies that the perception which he had of Christ at his conversion was of an entirely dif- ferent character from the disclosures which he sub- sequently had in apocalyptic visions.^ Besides the miracle involved, the conversion of Paul was a wonderful transformation of character. Change of His wliolo aim in life was changed, character. ^]ong with this rcvolutiou of purpose there arose within him new tempers of heart — the spirit of humility and love, of patience and forgive- ness ; in a word, the spirit of Christ. The result of that incident on the road to Damas- cus was the marvellous career of Paul as a preacher of Christianity, and a most remarkable and success- ful propagator of the faith which he had been tram- pling under foot. How different would the history of Europe have been, how different the history of mankind, had the labors of Paul as an apostle of the Cross never been performed ! It is important to add that the Apostle Paul him- self wrought miracles. We have his word for it, 1 1 Cor. XV. 8. 102 ' cmtisniN FjVidences, and no one doubts his truthfulness. In the Epistle to the Eomans, he explicitly refers to " the mighty siOTS and wonders" which Christ had Miracles. wrought by him/ So he reminds the Corinthians, in his Second Epistle to them, of " the signs and wonders and mighty deeds " which had been wrought by him before their eyes.^ They were " signs " of '' the Apostle ; " that is, of the Apostolic office. Now we find that the direction to work miracles was in the commission given by Christ to the Apostles.' It cannot reasonably be doubted that the miracles of Paul and of the other Apostles were consciously done in pursuance of this commission. It is safe to conclude that Jesus himself professed to work miracles, and that the Apostles, in this par- ticular, had not only his precept, but his example before them. 1 Rom. XV. 19. a 3 Cor. xii 13. s Matt. X. 1, 8 ; Mark iii 15, etc. CHAPTER XV. PROOF OF THE DIVINE ORIGIN OF CHRISTIANITY FROM THE INTRINSIC EXCELLENCE OF THE CHRISTIAN SYSTEM. In paving the way for the consideration of the evidence for miracles, prominent peculiarities of Christianity, including the character of Jesus, were touched upon. Brief additional observations will here be made on leading features of the Gospel. The Christian conception of God represents him as a being who unites with infinite power and wis- dom the moral attributes of holiness and love. He does not, as in the creed of Deism, stand apart from the world, nor is he, as in the creed of Pantheism, identified with it. He is immanent in the world, present with his all-pervad- ing energy, " not far from any one of us," yet per- sonal, acquainted with all our thoughts, and hearing prayer. Man is declared to be made in the image of God, and qualified, there- fore, for conscious intercourse and fellowship with him. Moral evil is not confounded with physical evil, or made its product, but is traced back to the voluntary separation of man- kind from God, and to the consequent rule in their 104 CBRISTIAN EVIDENCES, nature of propensities which ought to be kept sub- ordinate. In the recovery of mankind, " the axe is laid at the root of the tree." In the Re- storer, Jesus Christ, God is manifested, and, at the same time, the ideal of human perfec- tion is realized. God is re-connected with mankind. Eeconciliation is effected in a way that brings no cloud upon the holiness of the divine character and government. In Christ, the life of communion with the divine Father, and of peace in that re- The Chris- . . . . , , t ^. . , tian'a inward latiou, IS maintained m the connict with life. ' temptation, in the face of the world's hatred, and on the cross. That inward life is com- municated to all who are attracted to him as dis- ciples and followers. It is nourished within them by the invisible Spirit, replacing his visible pres- ence. In the new relation to Christ, and through him to the Father, they detach themselves from every earthly object regarded as an idol, or an in- dispensable good, and thus gain strength to endure " the loss of all things." They form a community of the children of God, drawing within itself all who aspire after the life of sonship and of oneness with the Father. Life on the earth becomes a school for the training of the soul for a higher state of existence in the future. To them, all suffering is the chastisement of a Father, and death is a door of access to a heavenly abode. The entire course of events, including the most minute, is ordered of PROOF FROM THE CHRISTIAN SYSTEM. 105 God, 60 that all things work together for good to them that love him. To use the world, and not abuse it, to enjoy the world without being a slave to it, is the Christian's The Gospel privilege. An excessive value is to be not ascetic, attached to no form of earthly happiness ; but, on the other hand, asceticism, together with a cynical contempt for human relations and pleasures, is equally precluded. Christianity is a religion of principles, not of rules. In the room of specific and minute pre- cepts, it sets forth the great ends with religion of reference to which conduct is to be shaped. principles. ._ - ^ > i i i •t.t-i i3ut withm these bounds the individual is left, for the most part, to be guided by his own intelligence and moral sense. The aim is to mould aright the leading motives of action, so that a man shall be a law to himself, and spontaneity shall take the place of legal restraint. The supreme law is affirmed to be love, than which no higher or more comprehensive principle of action can be imagined. Discipleship is not a literal imitation of Christ, a copying of his particular actions, but rather the liv- ing appropriation of his spirit. No type of goodness more worthy can be conceived of than the one pre- sented in the actual life of Jesus. Christianity is adapted to be the religion of the world. It has all the requisites of a universal re- ligion. It teaches the equality of the race before 106 CHRISTIAN EVIDENCES. God, the brotherhood of mankind, the common d^ pravity of men, and the consequent common need of foimveness and of deliverance from Christianity . ^ . . t i . , ^ adapted to sm. Ihc salvation providcd m the Gos- mankind. *- ^ pel IS suited, not to any single nation or to any branch of the human family exclusively, but equally to every member of the race. In the com- munity of Christ there is neither Greek nor Jew, bond nor free, male nor female/ The "good news" of the love of God to the ill-deserving is to be car- ried to "every creature." With the proclamation of human guilt and sin, there are carried the tidings of an atonement, of pardon, of the means of puri- fication. Can a religion having this lofty character and this adaptation to the world be attributed to the Galilean laborers who were concerned in the first teaching of it? Can it be considered as the off- spring of merely human purity and wisdom ? 1 GaL iii S8 ; Col. iii. 11, CHAPTER XVI. PROOF AFFORDED BY THE CONTRAST OF CHRISTIANITY WITS OTHER RELIGIONS AND WITH PHILOSOPHICAL SYSTEMS. Christianity, when it is compared with the other religions of the world, is seen to be the one true, or absolute religion. It is free from the defects that belong to them. It supplies the elements which are missing in them. It fills out what is wanting in an inchoate system, true in its foundations, but incom- plete, as was the religion of the Old Testament. The religion of the ancient Persians, the worship- pers of light, who professed to derive their faith Thezoroas- from Zoroastcr, divided the empire of the trian religion, ^^^j.j^j betwoou two antagonistic deities. The creed was dualism, a theory that also mingles itself in the Pantheistic religions of India. Con' fucius, the sa2:e of China, was a moral- Confuoius. , _: ^ 1 r 1 . 1 i ist. He was the author oi ethical and political precepts not without value, but he made no claim to reveal things invisible. It is often said that the golden rule is found in Confucius. But in Originality of him, and in every other ethnic writer to the Gospel. ^j^Qm it is ascribod, it occurs either in a negative form, or merely in some particular rela- 108 CHRISTIAN EVIDENCES. tion — for example, as defining the duty of the parent to the child. The same thing is true of the golden rule as it is found in the Kabbis. Two or three sen- tences of the Lord's Prayer appear to have existed in earlier Jewish forms of devotion. The originality of Jesus is seen in the addition of these to the other petitions, and the union of all in a living whole ; just as the golden rule acquires a deeper meaning when it is coupled with his teaching on what man ought to desire for himself and to count as the true good. But the originality of the Gospel lies especial- ly in the relation of its moral procepts to religions doctrine, and to the new life which is implanted through the connection of the believer with Christ. The only two religions, besides the religion of Christ, which can pretend to the character of univer- Mohamme- sality, are Mohammedanism and Buddh- damsm. j^^^ Mohammcdanism derived its mate- rials from Kabbinical sources, and thus, indirectly, from the Old Testament revelation. In its ear- nest faith in the unity of God, and in its protest against idolatry, it was in sympathy with the teach- ing of the Bible. In these doctrines, heartily em- braced, lay the secret of the power of Islam, as far as that power was legitimate. But there w^ere two grand defects in its theology. There was no snch exaltation of the love of God, the highest attribute of his character, as the Bible contains ; and there was no room for the unfolding of a grander future. CHRISTIANITY AND OTHER SYSTEMS. 109 feuch as the Messianic hope of the Old Testament involved. The moral code of Islam includes a sanc- tion of polygamy and slavery. The desire of sensual gratification enters into the hope of paradise, and this reward is held out as one motive to the be- liever. Under Mohammedanism, woman can never rise above a degraded condition, or approach that equality with man which Christianity has secured for her. Mohammedanism is a religion to be propa- gated by force, the employment of which for the overcoming of error Christianity forbids. It is, moreover, the religion of the letter. The disciple is forever bound to observe all the special precepts of the Koran. There is only a nominal and igno- rant recognition of Christ. The elevating and con- soling influences which, to the Christian mind, con- nect themselves with the name of Jesus, are want- ing in the creed of the Mohammedan devotee. Owing to these characteristics of Islam it is not capable of advancing the nations that embrace it beyond a certain stage of progress. There civiliza- tion, all that pertains to the higher life of man, is petrified in immovable forms, or gives way to de- crepitude and decay. Buddhism inculcated certain virtues. It enjoined self-conquest and universal kindness. It laid down a number of special precepts which resem- ble injunctions of the New Testament But these moral rules are linked in Buddhism with no CHRISTIAN EVIDENCES, a system of Pantheism and with the exhortation to renounce the desire of a future life. The doctrine of "Karma" involves no such thing as continued personal identity and immortality. Nirvana, the state of bliss, is tranquillity here, and extinction, as far as identity of consciousness is concerned, here- after. Buddhism promised a release from the bur- dens of caste and the dread of transmigration. This negative good was the boon which it offered, and accounts for its progress in the land of its origin. But the Buddhistic religion brought in an ascetic, a monkish system hardly less fruitful of misery than the two-fold curse which it aimed to displace. " In it we have an ethical system but no lawgiver, a world without a creator, a salvation without eternal life, and a sense of evil but no conception of par- don, atonement, reconciliation, or redemption." ^ In ancient times there were systems of philos- ophy which sought to afford light and solace to the minds of men. Socrates, the best of the heathen teachers, although he believed in a supreme Deity, still held also to " lords many and £i:ods many " and mino-led with the hope Socrates. ^_ . \,r -i • r- i i of another life an admixture oi doubt. He felt the need of some sure "word of God" to guide us in the right way.* Plato taught that virtue is likeness to God according to the measure of human power ; but his concep- 1 T. W. Rhys Davids, in Non-Christian Religions, p. 131. « Apol. 21 CHRISTIANITY AND OTHER SYSTEMS. lU tion of God, both as to his natural and moral at- tributes, fell decidedly below that of Christian the- ism. Moreover, to the question how to attain to such a resemblance to God, how to conquer the evil within us, he could give no satisfactory answer. lie mistook the source of moral evil, which he made to be chiefly ignorance ; and philosophy, which he con- ceived of as the proper remedy for such a malady, he held that only a few were competent to under- stand. The two systems most in vogue when the Gospel was first preached in the Eoman Empire were Epicureanism and Stoicism. It was Epicure- ans and Stoics who encountered the Apostle Paul The Epicure- ^^ Atlicns,^ Tlio Epicurcaus disconnected ^^^' the gods from all concern with the af- fairs of men. They were practically atheists. They made the sum of human virtue to be a self-regard- ins: prudence. Stoicism was a nobler sys- The stoics. * ^ _ . . _ , _ "^ tem. It enjomed, as the source of peace, resignation to the divine will ; but that divine will was indistinguishable from fate, and the repose of mind of the Stoic sage was gained at the cost of quelling and chilling the natural emotions. In the room of fellowship with Zeus, the Supreme One, the thing aimed at was an independence of Zeus, a proud self-reliance. Suicide was held to be lawful, and might be expedient ; for notwithstanding all that was said of the wise order of the world, there » Acts xvii. 18. 112 CHRISTIAN' EVIDENCES. were situations, it was thought, when a man was bound by self-respect to put an end to his own life. In the Stoic system, there was no rational motive for the existence of the world. There was no good to be attained by the divine Providence of which the Stoic spoke ; for all things were to issue in a universal conflagration. In contrast with all the ancient systems of phi- losophy, Christianity brought forward such a con- ception of God that the precept to be andphuos- like liim was intelligible and could be profitably obeyed. It brought forward the truth of a Providence of God, extending over all persons and events, a universal care compre- hending the least of God's creatures, and causing all things to conspire to promote the well-being of his children. Natural sensibility is not petrified. Natural emotions and affections are left in healthy activity, but trust in the fatherly love and wisdom of God enables the afiiicted to be at peace. More- over, in distinction from all other religions and phi- losophies, Christianity provides redemption. That is to say, while it holds up the ideal of perfection, the law of righteousness, it provides, at the same time, effectual means of attaining, through Jesus Christ, to the partial, and ultimately to the com- plete, realization of it. "When the incomparable superiority of the Chris- tian system over the other religions of the world CHRISTTANITY AND OTHER SYSTEMS. 113 and over the highest achievements of philosophy is duly appreciated, it appears unreasonable to think that Christianity sprang from the unaided intel- ligence of the humble, unlettered Hebrews who were the instruments of publishing its truths to the world. CHAPTER XVn. CORROBOBAITVE PEOOF OF THE TRUTH OF OHEISTIANITl FEOM ITS UTILITY. As pernicious tendencies and consequences would prove that a religion is false, so a demonstrated beneficence is evidence, not without weight, that the system of religion having this tendency and ef- fect is true. It is said of certain heathen religions and of Mohammedanism that they are productive of good. This is conceded up to a certain degree. This result may be attributed to elements of truth which they contain. But Christianity differs in be- ing useful without any drawback, and to an extent wholly without parallel. Christ styled his followers " the light of the world" and "the salt of the earth." This they Light and proved themselves to be. They failed ^^*^* then, as afterwards, to live up to the standard of Christian character and conduct. Never- theless, Christianity illuminated the world, pouring a flood of light on man and his relations to God, on human duties, and the design and issues of our life on earth. And Christianity powerfully and effectu- THE UTILITY OF CURISTIAXITY, 115 ally connteracted the tendencies to demoralization and ruin. It rescued society from the decay and moral putrefaction into which it was rapidly sink- ing. In the midst of a falling world, it planted the seeds of a better civilization. Christianity asserted the incalculable worth of every human soul. It declared that no individual Effects of is made to be the m.ere instrument of Christianity, ^notlier's gratification. The welfare of every individual is an end in itself. Hence the Gospel insisted on the equality of all men before God. At the same time, self-sacrifice was made the supreme duty and was declared to be the source of the highest blessedness to him w^ho practises it. These principles were the foundation of liberty and the fountain of beneficence. Not only was the ideal of virtue set forth; new, inspiring motives to the practice of it were presented in the mission and ex- ample of Jesus. The result of the influence of Chris- tianity was the purification of domestic life. The rigor of paternal authority was softened. The wife and mother was elevated to her true place. Chris- tianity has raised woman from degradation. It has improved, in a corresponding measure, the lot of children. It has immeasurably improved the con- dition of the laboring classes, by insisting that they shall have their just dues. The poor and unfortu- nate became objects of compassion and recipients of practical aid in multiform ways. Christianity pro- 116 CHRISTIAN EVIDENCES. moted civil liberty. It inculcated loyalty, but pnt an end to the nnqnalified domination of the State. While the magistrate was to be obeyed as the minis- ter of God, he was to be disobeyed if he enjoined anything against the divine law. The process began of conforming civil law to the requirements of jus- tice. " Stranger " was no longer the synonym of "enemy." International law lias taken on a new character under the influence of the Christian re- ligion, in which are recognized the rights of nations, even the weakest. The spirit of charity, no longer confined by the bounds of nation and kindred, em- braces all mankind. Such were the inherent ten- dencies, and such has been the actual power of Christianity, that its effect on the individual was properly styled "a new creation."^ One looking at the influence of Christianity in the first centuries after it appeared, and in the ages following to the present time, sees the result of that revolution in personal character, of which the Apostle said : "The old things are passed away; behold, they are be- come new." The transforming effect of Christianity is the miracle of history. A religion adequate to the pro- duction of such beneficent results must have God for its author. * 2 Cor. V. 17 (Revised Version). CHAPTEK XVm. CORROBORATIVE PROOF OF CHRISTIANITY FROM ITS RAPID SPREAD IN THE FIRST CENTURIES. The rapid progress of a religion may be owing to the indulgence granted by it to immoral prac- tices, or to the use of force in the dissemination of it. In this way the victories of Islam are partly to be accounted for. Or the spread of a religion may be caused by the hope inspii-ed of a deliverance from grievous burdens imposed by a religious system pre- viously dominant, even although the new faith is not, on the whole, of an ennobling character. This explains the progress of Buddhism in India ; while the ready junction or identification of Buddhism with the existing religions of China and Japan gave it a free course in those countries. " To neither of these causes was the surprising con- quest of the Koman Empire by the Christian faith Self denial duc. It was at variaucc with the selfish, required. national aiubitiou of the Jews, with their tenacious clinging to their ritual, and with their bigoted assumption of superiority over every other people. The Gospel demanded of the heathen the 118 CHRISTIAN EVIDENCES. renunciation of all their objects of worship, of all the employments and amusements that involved partici- pation in the ancestral and legal forms of devotion. More than this, it required inexorably the forsaking of every species of immorality, and the subjugation of every desire for forbidden pleasures. It was sup- ported by no influential class — not by the rich, or learned, or those holding high social or oflicial sta- tions. By these generally, it was regarded with dis- dain. Christians were objects of popular contempt. Soon severe laws were enforced against them, and tliey became victims both of legal and of mob vio- lence. To become a Christian was to expose one's self to the " loss of all things." Yet notwithstand- ing all these requirements and all these exposures, Christianity continued to make converts rapidly, until it became clear that Roman imperial authority was not strong enough to extirpate the new faith or to stay its advance. At length, in the space of a few centuries, the altars of heathenism were de- serted, and the last vestiges of heathen worship passed away. The proximate causes of this rapid progress. Gib- bon makes to be five : The zeal of the early Chris- Gibbonon tiaus, whicli lio represents to have been of cKSn- derived from the Jews, but to have beei\ ity. purged of Jewish narrowness ; the doc- trine of a future life of rewards and punishments ; the power of w^orking miracles, ascribed to the THE RAPID SPREAD OF CJIRISTIANITY. 119 primitive Church ; the pure and austere morals of the Christians, and the union and discipline of the Christian ]-epublic — the ecclesiastical community. But these causes are distinct from one another. How, it has been pertinently asked, did they come to be combined in the same persons ? How shall we account for this coincidence ? How, for exam- ple, did zeal come to be cleared of narrowness ? and how happened this ardor, mixed with liberality, to be associated with the Christian doctrine respecting the future life ? Then it is obvious that these causes are, one and all, the effect of Christianity — ingredi- ents of the Gospel or its natural consequences. The solution, therefore, amounts to this, that the cause of the rapid diffusion of Christianity was Christian- ity itself, or qualities inhering in it. This is in effect the solution of a more recent writer who has undertaken to make clear the causes of the conversion of Rome.* It was not the alleged miracles ; it was not, in any considerable degree, the reasoning from prophecy, which achieved the great conquest.^ It was "the elements of power and at- traction" which the new religion combined. These w^ere its freedom from " local ties ; " its strong ap- peal to the affections ; its " pure and noble system of ethics ; " its doctrine of the brotherhood of man, and of " the supreme sanctity of love." To the * Lecky : History of European Morals from Augustus to Charle* magne, vol i., p. 409 seq. a P. 409. 120 CHRISTIAN EVIDENCES. philosopher it was at once ^^ the echo of tlie highest ethics of the later Stoics, and the expansion of the best teaching of the school of Plato." To a world weary of lower ideals, Christianity presented "an ideal of compassion and love — an ideal destined for centuries to draw around it all that was greatest, as well as all that was noblest upon earth — a Teacher who conld weep by the sepulchre of his friend, who was touched with the feeling of our infirmities."* "The chief cause of its success w^as the congruity of its teaching with the spiritual nature of man- kind." " It planted its roots so deeply in the hearts of men," " because it corresponded with their relig- ious w^ants, aims, and emotions, because the w^hole spiritual being could then expand and expatiate under its influence." The author who has thus traced the early triumph of Christianity mainly to its own inherent, exalted characteristics, leaves un- solved the problem of the origin of a system whose power sprang from its transcendent worth. Those who believe, with a living faith, in a personal God will not find it unreasonable to accept the explana- tion which the IS^ew Testament presents, and refer this world-transforming Gospel to divine revela- tion. > P. 412. IN^DEX. Acts, genuineness of the, 62 Alogi, 64 Apostles, the, not victims of hal- lucination, 44 ; their trust- worthiness, 70 seq. ; their can- dor, 71 seq. ; their sobriety, 79 ; tested by sufferings, 79 ; their alleged errors in doctrine, 86 seq. ; their views on the Second Advent, 85 ; their interpreta- tions and reasonings, 90 Barnabas, the Epistle of, its quotations from Matthew, 55 Baur, F. C, 85 Buddhism, 109 Burnet, Bishop, 90 Byron, 24 Celsus, 69 Christ, his character, 32, 81 ; his perfection, 35; not self -de- ceived, 36 ; his sanction of the Old Testament religion, 92; limits of his teaching, 92. See "Resurrection " Christianity, the needs met by it, 25 seq. ; admitted facts of, 28 ; its rapid spread, 29 ; its influ- ence, 30; its divine origin shown by the character of Christ, 32 ; its leading features, 103 seq. ; a religion of princi- ples, 105 ; a religion for the world, 106 ; contrasted with other systems, 107 seq. ; proof from its utility, 114 seq. ; proof from its rapid spread, 117 seq. Church, the Christian, its rise, 30 Demoniacs, 86 Epicureanism, 111 Evidence, historical, its nat'ire, 4 ; probable and demonstrative, 5 ; cumulative, 5 ; internal and external, 6 ; the affections, a source of, 7 Genuineness of a book, it^ meaning, 3 Gibbon, on the spread of Chris- tianity, 118 God, his benevolence, 24 Gospels, their genuineness, 47 seq. ; Irenaeus respecting the, 122 INDEX. 48 seq. ; Justin Martyr's use of them, 50 seq. ; Tatian's use of them, 53 ; references to them in Polycarp, 54 ; in " The Teach- ing," etc., 55 ; the witness of the ancient versions to the, 56 ; internal evidence for the, 60 seq. ; local references in the, 61 ; mystical theory respecting the, 73 ; alleged discrepancies in the, 74 ; their testimony to the resurrection of Christ, 83 seq. See the Gospels severally Horace, 24 Hume, his argument against mir- acles, 15 seq. Huxley, on Hume's argument, 17 Inspiration, what is it ? 2 Irenaeus, his witness to the Gos- pels, 48 seq. ; his relation to Polycarp, 49, 65 Jews, their religion, 28 John the Baptist, 28 ; performed no miracles, 40 John, the Gospel of, used by Jus- tin, 53 ; its relation to the first three Gospels, 63 ; local refer- ences in, 65 ; the author's way of disclosing himself, 66 ; at- testation at the end of, 67 ; not written oy disciples of John, 68; a kind of autobiography, 68. See ''Gospels " Josephus, 28 Justin Martyr, his witness to the Gospels, 50 seq. ; to John's Gos- pel, 53 Lecky, on the early progress o\ Christianity, 119 Luke, an attendant of Paul, 61 Luke, the writings of, 61. See '' Gospels " and " Acts " Mark, the Gospel of, Papias on, 57. See ''Gospels" Matthew, the Gospel of, quoted in Barnabas, 55 ; Papias on 57. See ' ' Gospels " Mill, J. S. , his comment on Hume's argument, 16 Miracles, definition of, 9; tern:s for, in the New Testament, 10; not without a cause, 11 ; Hume's argument against, 15; prove design, 18 ; can evil spirits per- form them ? 18 ; their relation, as proofs, to doctrine, 18; the sinlessness of Jesus, one of them, 35; presupposed in the teaching of Christ, 37 seq. ; hea- then and ecclesiastical, 76 seq.; wrought by Paul, 101 Mohammedanism, 108 Mythical theory, 73 Old Testament system, its re- lation to Christianity, 91 ; its prophetic character, 95 seq. Paley, 75, 90 ; on the need of Revelation, 22 Papias, his account of Mark and Matthew, 57 Paul, his witness to the resurrec- tion of Jesus, 41 seq.; his con- version, miraculous, 42 seq., 99 seq. ; wrought miracles, 101 Plato, 110 INDEX. 123 Polycarp, his relation to Irenasus, 49, 65 ; quotes from Matthew and John, 54 Presumption, logical, its meaning, 21 Prophecy, proof from, 95 seq. Renan, 37, 65 Resurrection of Jesus, testimony of Paul respecting it, 41 seq.; proved from the Evangelists, 82 seq. Revelation, antecedent probability of, 22 ; the need of, 23 seq.; the need of, met by Christianity, 25 1 Zoroastek, 107 Socrates, 110 Stoicism, 111 Strauss, D. F., 37, 73 Tat IAN, his "Diatessaron," 53 "Teaching of the XII Apostles,'^ as a witness to the Gospels, 55 Uniformity of nature, 13 Versions, the ancient, their wit" ness to the Gospels, 56 CHRISTIAN EVIDENCES AND HOMILETICS. MANUAL OF CHRISTIAN EVIDENCES. By Prof. GEORGE PARK FISHER, D.D., LL.D., Professor of Ecclesiastical History in Yale College. 16mo, 75 cents. The aim of the book is to present the Evidences of Christianity in a concise, lucid form, for the benefit of those who have not the leisure to study extended treatises on the subject. It is intended both for private reading and for the use of classes in public institutions. Al- though brief, it includes a distinct statement of both the internal and external proofs. The arguments are shaped to meet objections and difficulties which are felt at the present time, and the historic evidence is carefully confined to the present state of scholarship and learning. THE EXAMINER.— "It is worth Its weight in gold. It Is by all odds tlie best treatise on the Evidences of Ciiristlanity for general use that we know. It is sound, judicious, clear, and scholarly." THE N, Y. SUN.— "Compact, thorough, and learned. Its simplicity of style and brevity ought to commend it to a wide circle of readers." THE GROUNDS OF THEISTIC AND CHRISTIAN BELIEF. By Prof. GEORGE P. FISHER, D.D., LL.D. Crown 8vo, $2.50. FROM THE PREFACE.—" This volume embraces a discussion of the evidences of both natural and revealed religion. Prominence is given to topics having special interest at present from their connection with modern theories and diffi- culties. 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THE INDEPENDENT.— "It is rare that a worK, which is of necessity, so severely metaphysical in both topics and treatment, ia so enlivened by the varied contributions of a widely cultivated mind from a liberal course of reading. His passionate and candid argument cannot fail to command the respect of any antagonist of the Atheistic or Agnostic schools, who will take the pains to read his criticisms or to review his argument. In respect to coolness and dignity and self-possession, his work Is an excellent model for scientists, metaphysicians, and theologians of every complexion." THE HARTFORD COUR A NT.— "Professor Harris* horizon-lines are uncon- tracted. His survey of the entire realm he traverses is accurate, patient, and considerate. No objections are evaded. No conclusions are reached by saltatory movements. The utmost fairness and candor characterize his discussions. No more thoroughly scientific work in plan or method or spirit has been done In our time. 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The succeeding chapters take up The Cosmological Argument of the Being of God, The Argument of Design, The Moral Argument, The Intuition of the Infinite and Absolute, Anti-Theistic Theories, The Future Life of the Soul ; and there is a note upon the Ontological Argument. The division into chapters, with minor subjects indicated by side-headings, makes the volume very convenient for class-room use. BISHOP VINCENT.— "It Is literally multum in parvo. It is a good pocket- bool^ for the old student and a good text-book for the young." THE EXAMINER.— "It would be difficult to find in anything like the same space so complete an outline of the subject. As a text-book in schools and col- leges it has merits so obvious and surpassing that it will surely displace other manuals of the kind." 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With the same end in view as Jevons and others, ' ' to direct the student in practical reasoning* and correct thinking in professional vocations," Professor Hyslop has made deviations, additions, and im- provements, intended to serve that end more completdy. The full treatment of all subjects is designed to afford students a better guide than Jevons can possibly be. The stress laid upon the Nature of Con- ceptions, Propositions, and that troublesome subject, the Classification of Fallacies, renders work easier in important departments of logic. New distinctions, with appropriate terminology, are presented be- tween *' General Terms.*' The ordinary treatment of Induction has been modified by distinctions between ' • Inference, ' '^ Inductive Meth- od," and " Scientific Method." Irrelevant matter and peculiar theoretical discussions give place to questions actually met in study and in the class-room. Diagrams are given and abundant examples. 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While as a whole, it is admirably adapted for higher classes, judicious omissions will suit it to those not so far advanced. I shall use the book in our next winter term, and at that time you will receive an order." LOGIC. The Laws of Discursive Thought. Being a Text-Book of Formal Logic. By JAMES McCOSH, D.D., LL.D., Ex- Presldent of the Princeton College. 12mo, $1.50. Dr. McCosh thinks that more error arises from confusion in the Notion than from Judgment or Reasoning. So he treats fully of the Notion, with the Form and Relation of Thought to Language, and thinks that we have thus the means of settling the question at present discussed in regard to the Analytic of Thought. SGRTBNER'S TEXTBOOK CATALOGUE. PSYCHOLOGY: Descriptive and Explanatory. A Treatise of the Phenomena, Laws, and Development of Human Mental Life. By GEORGE TRUMBULL LADD, Professor of Phil- osophy in Yale University. 8vo, $4.50. This latest work of Professor Ladd is designed to cover the entire ground of descriptive and explanatory psychology in a summary way, reserving speculative discussion and the philosophy of mind for another volume. It is carefully adapted to the needs of pupils and teachers, while not exclusively prepared for them. PROF. B. P. BOWNE, Boston Universtty.—''! know of no other work that gives so good a critical survey of the whole field as this." PROF. G. H. PALMER, Harvara University.— '' Anj writing of his is a matter to be grateful for. This book will largely increase our debt." PROF. J. H. HYSLOP, Columbia College,— ''I shall take pleasure in recom- mending Professor Ladd's new book on psychology to my classes as a most thorough and exhaustive treatment of the subject." PROF. H. N. GARDNER, Smith College.— It is a distinct honor to American scholarship to have produced it." • PROF. J. W. 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Its subject-mat- ter broad as human life ; its object, to bring all the materials of life under the supreme formative principle, "According to Christ." This work differs from scientific ethics by searching for its prem- ises and finding its laws in the observed facts of the Christian moral consciousness and its historical development. To understand in its principles, relations, and activities, the Christian moral consciousness of life is the purpose of this inquiry. Christian Ethics thus become a science not only of the Biblical morality, but also of the whole moral development and aim of humanity according to Christ ; of the moral contents, progress, and ends of human life under the formative Christian Ideal. A comprehefisive survey, from the moral point of view, of the founding, upbuilding, and promised completion of the kingdom of God on earth. After an introduction on the nature of Christian Ethics, with its relation to other subjects, the work falls under two grand divisions, as follows : Part I The Chkistian Ideal. Revelation of- Contents of — Realization of — Forms to be Realized — Methods of the Realization — Spheres in which it is to be Realized. Part II. Christian Duties. Conscience — Duties toward Self — Toward Others — The Social Prob- lem — Duties toward God— Tlie Christian Moral Motive Power. ELEMENTS OF PHYSIOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY. By GEORGE T. LADD, D.D., Professor of Mental and Moral Philosophy in Yale University. With nunnerous illustrations 8yo, $4.50. PROF. WILLIAM JAMES, in TTw Nation.— "ma erudition and his broad- mindedness are on a par with each other ; and his volume will probably for many years to come be the standard work of reference on the subject." 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Being a Treatise of Applied Logic. By JAMES McCOSH, D.D., LL.D., ex- President of Princeton University. 12mo, $1.00. THl£ ELEMENTS OF ETHICS. By JOHN H. MUIRHEAD, Batliol College, Oxford. 12mo, SI. 00 net. Outline of Contents : Book I, The Science of Ethics : The Problem of — Can there be a Science of — Scope of. Book II, Moral Judgment : The Object of — The Standard of. Book III, Theories of the Knd : As Pleasure — As Self-sacrifice — Evolutionary Hedon- ism. Book IV, The End as Good : As Common Good — Forms of. Book V, Moral Progress : The Standard as Belative — As Progressive — As Ideal. REV. PROF. GEORGE S. FULLERTON[, Unimrsltij of rcnn.~" I Una the book very clear, simple, and forcible, and I shall take pleasure in recommending it to my students." THE ACADEIVIY.— "Letit at once be said, then, that the want, which all the teachers of moral philosophy have long deplored, of some book which they can place in the hands of beginners, now no longer can be alleged. Mr. Muirhead has supplied that want. . . . In the first place the work 13 conceived, and, throughout, is written in an eminently philosophical spirit ; next, whether the views set forth, be right or wrong, they are views with which the student must be made acquainted if he is to have any critical knowledge of ethical science ; and, finally, the book covers exactly the right ground, and directs at- tention to the really important points." AN OUTLINE STUDY OF MAN; or, the Body and Mind in On© System. With illustrative diagrams. Revised edition. By MARK HOPKINS, D.D., LL.D., late President of Williams College. 12mo, $1.75. This is a model of the developing method as applied to intellectual science. The work is on an entirely new plan. It presents man in his unity, and his several faculties and their relations are so presented to the eye in illustrative diagrams as to be readily apprehended. The work has come into very general use in this country as a manr ual for instruction, and the demand for it is incroasing every year. MENTAL AND MORAL SCIENCE. GENERAL S. C. ARMSTRONG, Princival Of Hampton Institute.— "lam glad of the opportunity to express my hlgli apprcciatloD of Dr. Hopkins' Outline Study of Man. It has done more for me personally tlian any book besides tlio Bible. More than any other it teaches the greatest of lessons, Tcnow thyself. For over ten years, I have made it a text book in the Senior Class of this school. It is, I think, the greatest and most useful of the books of the greatest of our Am- erican educators. Rev. Dr. Hopkins, and is destined to do a great work in forming not only the ideas but the character of youth in America and in other parts of the world." PROF. ADDISON BALLARD, Of Lafayette College.— "I have for years used Dr. Hopkins' Outline StuCy of Man, in connection with his Law of Love, as a text book for our Senior Classes. I have done this with unfailing success and with Increasing satisfaction. It Is of Incalculable advantage to the student to come under the influence, through his books, of this great master of thought and of style. I cannot speak of Outline Study in terms of too hearty commendation." THE LAW OF LOVE, AND LOVE AS A LAW; or, Christian Ethics. By MARK HOPKINS, D.D., LL.D., late President of Williams College. 12mo, $1.75. This work is designed to follow the author's Outline Study of Man, As its title indicates it is entirely an exposition of the cardinal precept of Christian philosophy in harmony with nature and on the basis of reason. Like the treatise on mental philosophy it is adapted with unusual skill to educational uses. It appears in a new edition, which has been in part re-written in order to bring it into closer relation to his Outline Study of Man, of which work it is really a continuation. More prominence has been given to the idea of Rights, but the fundamental doctrines of the treatise have not been changed. FINAL CAUSES. By PAUL JANET, Membor of the French Acadenny. With a Preface by Robert Flint, D.D., LL.D, From second French edition. 8vo, 02.50. PROF. FRANCIS L. PATTON, of Princeton T7ieological Seminary.— "I re- gard Janet's • Final Causes ' as incomparably tlie best thing in literature on the subject of wlilch it treats, and that it ought to be in the hands of every man who has any interest in the present phases of the theistio problem. I have recom- mended i:; to my classes in the seminary, and make constant use cf it in my in- Btructions." NOAH PORTER, D.D., LL.D., late President Of Yale CoZZer/e.—" I am delighted that you have published Janet's ' Final Causes ' in an Improved form and at a price which brings it within the reach of many who desire to possess it. It is, in my opinion, the most suggestive treatise on this important topic which is access- ible in our language." SCBIBNEB'S TEXT-BOOK CATALOGUE. THE HUMAN INTELLECT. By NOAH PORTER, D.D.. LL.D., late President of Yale College. With an Introduction upon Psychology and the Human Soul. 8yo, $5.00. The author has not only designed to furnish a text book which shall be sufficiently comprehensive and scientific to satisfy the wants of the many students of psychology and speculative i)hilosophy who are found in our higher institutions of learning, but also to prepare a volume which may guide the advanced student to a clear understanding and a just estimate of the questions which have perpetually appeared and reappeared in the history of philosophy. THE BRITISH QUARTERLY REVIEW.— " President Porter's work, the result of thirty years' professional labor, is not only the most Important philosophical work that has appeared in our language since Sir William Hamilton's, but its form as a manual makes It invaluable to students." THE PRINCETON REVIEW.— "After a careful examination of this truly great work, we are ready to pronounce it the most complete and exhaustive exhibition of the cognitive faculties of the human soul to be found in our language, and, so far as we know, in any language. The work is a monument of the author's in- clght, industry, learning, and judgment ; one of the great productions of our time ; an honor to our country, and a fresh proof that genuine philosophy has not died out among us." ELEMENTS OF INTELLECTUAL SCIENCE. A Manual for Schools and Colleges. By NOAH PORTER, D.D., LL.D., late President of Yale College. 8vo, $3.00n This is an abridgment of the a .thor's " Human Intellect," contain- ing all the matter necessary for use in the class-room, and has been in- troduced as a text-book in Yale, Dartmouth, Bowdoin, Oberlin, Bates, Hamilton, Vassar, and Smith Colleges ; Wesleyan, Ohio, Lehigh, and Wooster Universities, and many other colleges, academies, normal and high schools. THE NEW YORK WORLD.— "The abridgment is very well done, the state- ments being terse and perspicuous." THE NEW YORK TRIBUNE.— " Presents the leading facts of intellectual Bclence, from the author's point of view, with clearness and vigor." ELEMENTS OF MORAL SCIENCE, Theoretical and Practical. By NOAH PORTER, D.D., LL.D., late President of Yale College. 8vo, $3.00. GEORGE S. MORRIS, Professor of Ethics, University of MlcMgan.^'' I have read the work with great Interest, and parts of it with enthusiasm. It is a vast Improvement on any of the current text ^ooks of ethics. It is tolerant and catholic in tone ; not superficially, but soundly, inductive in method and ten- dency, and rich in practical suggestion." JULIUS H. SEELYE, President Amherst College.~"lt is copious and clear, with ample scholarship and remarkable Insight, and I am sure that all teachers of Moral Science wiU find it a valuable aid in their iustructioua." MENTAL AND MORAL SCIENCE. OUTLINES OF MORAL SCIENCE. By ARCHIBALD ALEX- ANDER, D.D., LL.D. 12mo, $1.50. This book is elementary in its character, and is marked by great clearness and simplicity of style. It is intended to lay the foundations and elucidate the principles of the Philosophy of Morals. It is widely used in colleges and other institutions of learning, and is specially adapted for students whose age, or the time at whose disposal, does not permit the use of the more extended and abstruse works on ethics. THE THEORY OF MORALS. By PAUL JANET, Member of the French Academy. Translated under the supervision of President Noah Porter. 8vo, $2.50. Prof. Janet in this book gives us not only a clear and concise exam- ination of the whole study of moral science, but he has introduced into the discussion many elements which have hitherto been too mnch neglected. The first principles of moral science and the fundamental idea of morals the author describes with much precision, and presents an interesting and systematic exposition of them. SCIENCE.—" Tlie book has lucidity and Is full of learning. It is hardly extrav- agant to say that so clear and picturesque a treatise, in the hands of an alert teacher, might save the study of ethics from its almost inevitable fate of being very dull." A THEORY OF CONDUCT. By ARCHIBALD ALEXANDER. 12mo, $1.00. Contents : The Theory of Right— The Theory of Duty— The Nature of Character — The Motive to Morality. Professor Alexander's book is an essay in that department of metaphysics in which of recent years perhaps the most interest has been awakened. Rarely has the essence of so vast a problem been stated in such succint form. The work contains a very complete and searching examination of the various ethical theories and systems, together with the positive statement of the author's own doctrine, which finds the ethical impulse essentially religious. BASAL CONCEPTS IN PHILOSOPHY. By Prof. A. T. OR- MOND, of Princeton. 12mo, $1.50. An important work in which an attempt is made to reconsider and restate the fundamental ideas of philosophy, in view of the vital issues of the present state of culture, with the purpose of unifying the conflicting elements of life, and of supplying to knowledge and belief an immutable ground. The character of the discussions is sweeping, for they touch vitally every fundamental issue in the thinking and spiritual life of the time. BIBLICAL STUDY. INTERNATIONAL THEOLOGICAL LIBRARY. Edited by Prof. CHARLES A. BRIGGS, D.D., of Union Theological Semi- nary, New York, and Prof. S. D. F. SALMOND, D.D., of Aber- deen, Scotland. This library, undertaken by Messrs. Charles Scribner's Sons in connection with Messrs. T. & T. Clark, of Edinburgh, is designed to cover the whole field of Christian Theology, each volume being- com- plete in itself and yet part of an organic whole. It is to be a series of text-books for students of Theology, and yet a systematic exposition of the several departments of theological science for all intelligent persons The library is international, interconfessional, catholic, and scientific. The authors have been chosen for their eminent ability in the departments assigned to them. The volumes following are in preparation : THE LITERATURE OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. By Prof. S. R. DRIVER, D.D., Canon of Christ Church, Oxford. 600 pages, crown 8vo,S2, 50 net. Second editron. An account of the contents and structure of the several books, with some indication of their general character and aim. The origin of the books and the growth of the Canon, according to the Jews, are discussed in an Introduction. Analysis of the Hexateuch (Gene- sis-Joshua) furnishes the student systematic views of the theme and plan of each book, after which the character and date of the Prophetic and the Priestly narratives are discussed, and a synopsis given of the priest's code. The whole Old Testament is similarly analyzed. Leg- islative, prophetic, and poetical books are described somewhat the more fully. THE ACADEMY.— "The present instalment augurs well for • The Interna- tional Theological Library,' and if the forthcoming volumes attain anything like the same degree of excellence, they will form a valuable and much needed addition to the theological literature of the English-spcaliing nations. Professor Driver's excellent volume contains a vast amount of valuable and trustworthy Information, compendiously but clearly conveyed in language of almost conversational ease and familiarity." PROF. A. B. DAVIDSON.— "The author's plan is excellent. It is executed with much learning, great candor, every consideration for the opinions of others, but firm assertion of his own right to judge." PROF. WILLIS J. BEECHER, AUBURN THEOLOGICAL SEMINARY.— " While my opinions differ widely from his, I am delighted with the book. It is a full and compact presentation of the views now held by many able scholars. Alike for them and for their opponents it is desirable to have just such a clear presenta- tion of the matter placed within reach." BIBLICAL STUDY. CHRISTIAN ETHICS. By NEWMAN SMITH, D.D., New Haven. Crown 8vo, $2.50 net. See page 55. * ' The science of living according to Christianity ; a comprehen- sive survey, from the moral point of view, of the founding, up-build- ing, and promised completion of the kingdom of God on earth." After an introduction on the Nature of Christian Ethics, with its relation to other subjects, the work falls under two grand divisions, as follows : Part I. The Christian Ideal. Revelation of— Con- tents of — Realization of — Forms to be Realized — Methods of the Realiza- tion — Spheres in which it is to be Realized. Part II. Christian Duties. Conscience — Duties towards Self — Towards Others — The Social Problem — Duties towards God — The Christian Moral Motive Power, APOLOGETICS; Or, Christianity Defensively Stated. By ALEX- ANDER BALMAIN BRUCE, D.D., Professor of Apologetics and New Testament Exegesis, Free Church College, Glas- gow. $2.50 net. Professor Bruce's work is not an abstract treatise on Apologetics, but an apologetic presentation of the Christian faith, with reference to whatever in our intellectual environment makes faith difficult at the present time. It addresses itself to men whose sympathies are with Christianity, and discusses the topics of pressing concern, the burning questions of the time, and is offered as an aid to faith rather than a buttress of received belief and an armory of weapons for the orthodox defender of the faith. IN PREPARATION. HISTORY OF DOCTRINE. By Prof. G. P. Fisher, D.D., LL.D., Yale University. SYMBOLICS. By Prof. Philip Sch aff, D.D. , LL. D. , Union Theological Seminary. COMPARATIVE RELIGION. By Prin. A. B. . Fairbairn, D.D., Mansfield Col- lege, Oxford. THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. By Prof. A. B. Davidson, D.D., Free College, Edinburgli. CHRISTIAN INSTITUTIONS. By Prof. A. B. G. Allen, D.D., Episcopal Divin- ity School, Cambridge, Mass, THE PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION. By Prof. Robert Flint, D.D., LL.D., Uni- versity of Edinburgli. THE CONTEMPORARY HISTORY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. By Prof. Francis Brown, D.D., Union Theological Seminary. THE LITERATURE OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. By Prof..S. D. F. Salmond, D.D., Free College, Aberdeen. GREEK, HEBREW, AND SEMITIC TEXT-BOOKS. ELEMENTS OF HEBREW. By WILLIAM R. HARPER, Ph.D. Eighth edition. Revised and Indexed. 8vo, $2.00 net. An Elementary Grammar of the Hebrew Language, by an Induc- tive Method. Comprising systematic statements of the principles of Hebrew Orthography and Etymology, according to the latest and most scientific authorities, deduced from examples quoted in the work ; with a practically exhaustive discussion and classification of the Hebrew Yowel-sounds. INTRODUCTORY HEBREW METHOD AND MANUAL. By WILLIAM R. HARPER, Ph.D. Fourth edition. 12mo, $2.00 net. A Text-Book for Beginners in Hebrew, by an Inductive Method. Centaining the Text of Genesis I. — VIII. ; with notes, referring to the author's "Elements of Hebrew," Exercises for Translation, Grammar Lessons covering the Principles of Orthography and Etymology, and Lists of the most frequently occurring Hebrew words. PROF. R. V. FOSTER, Cumberland University, Lebanon, Tenn.—"A.n ex- pression of the latest Hebrew scliolarslilp, and the work of a practical teacher, who imows the wants of beginners." ELEMENTS OF HEBREW SYNTAX. By WM. R. HARPER, Ph.D. 8vo, $2.00 net. A presentation of the principles of Hebrew Syntax, by an inductive method. The method of presentation includes (1) a citation and translation |f examples teaching a given principle ; (2) a statement of the prin- ciple ; (3) the addition of details and exceptions in smaller type ; (4) a list of references (in the order of the Hebrew Bible) for further study. The ground covered includes (1) TJie Nouns^ viz., gender, number, determination, annexion, pronouns, numerals, etc.; (2) Use of tlie Tenses and Moods, viz. , the perfect of past, present, and future action, the unperfect, the perfect, and imperfect with waw consecutive, with waw conjunctive, the jussive and cohortative, participle, infinitive ab- solute, iriinitive construct ; (3) Verbal Government and Apposition, viz., the accusative, double accusative, cognate accusatiTC, adverbial ac- cusative, prepositions, verbal apposition ; (4) The Sentence and kind of {Sentences, viz. , subject and predicate, arrangement of words, emphasis, agreement, negative, interrogative, opative, copulative, conditional, circumstantial, etc. ; (5) Rehrew Poetry^ viz. , various kinds of parai^ leliam, measure, strophic arrangement. SCBIBNEE'S TEXT-BOOK CATALOGUE. AM INTRODUCTORY NEW TESTAMENT GREEK METHOD. 3y WILLIAM R. HARPER, Ph.D., and REVERE F. WEID- NER, D.D. 8VO5 $2.50 net. Many who have not studied Classical Greek desire to know New Testament Greek. For these as well as for those who, having studied Classical Greek, desire to review more particularly the principles of New Testament Greek this book is intended. The order of work pre- scribed is : Mrsty to gain an accurate and thorough knowledge of some of the "facts" of the language; secondly^ to learn from these " facts" the principles which they illustrate and by which they are regulated ; thirdly, to apply these principles in the further progress of the work. Contents : — I. Fifty Inductive Lessons based on the Gospel of St. John.— II. 1. A Critical Text of the Gospel of St. John.— 3. A Literal Translation of John 1.-4. — 3. A Vocabulary of the Gospel and Epistles of St. John. — 4. Lists of words occurring most frequently. — III. Elements of New Testament Greek Grammar. PROF. J. H. THAYER, Harvard University.—"! thorouglily believe in the inductive method which has shaped the work and anticipate lor It large useful- ness and success. It is carefully edited and printed, and supplies an evident lack among the rudimentary text liooks for the study of the Greek Testament." PROF. SAMUEL R. WINANS, Princeton, K J.-" A book likely to be widely popular with those who desire to know Greek enough to read the New Testament and would come directly at it. The method has two notable features which all teachers of the classics— and of languages generally— would do^tvell to mark ; the mastering of word-lists which comprise the ordinary vocabulary, and the memoip- Izing of passages of the original text." ^ GREEK, LEXICON. Prof. SOPHOCLES. See page 15. BIBLICO-THEOLOGICAL LEXICON of N. T. GREEK. CREMER. See page 80. WILSON, ROBERT DICK, Ph.D. Professor of Old Testament Languages and History in the Western Theological Semi- nary. ELEMENTS OF SYEIAC GKAMMAR, by an Inductive Method. 8vo, net, $2.50. INTRODUCTORY SYRIAC METHOD AND MANUAL. 8vo, net, $2.50. To Syriac what Professor Harper's text-books are to Hebrew, following their order and arrangement as closely as practicable. Thus in the " Method and Manual " the first four chapters of Genesis are chosen because they afford the best means of comparison with the Hebrew. Graded selections follow, leading up to the Peshito. Notes and observations contain the main principles of Syriac grammar with explanations of its orthography, etymology, and syntax as these are fully presented in the *' Elements." In the syntax of this other volume examples are given both from the Peshito and from native classical sources, a feature which both delights the student and furthers progress. CHURCH HISTORY. DERNARD OF CLAIRVAUX: The Times, the Man, and his Worl<. An Historical Study in Eight Lectures. By RICHARD S. STORRS. 8vo, $2.50. THE BEGINNINGS OF CHRISTIANITY. With a View of th« State of the Roman World at the Birth of Christ. Bj GEORGE P. FISHER, D.D., LL.D., Professor of Church History in Yale College. 8yo, $2.50. THE BOSTON ADVERTISER.— "Prof. Fisher has displayed in this, as in hla previous published writings, that catholicity and that calm judicial quality oJ mind which are so indispensable to a true historical critic." THE EXAMINER.— "The volume is not a dry repetition of well-known facts. It bears the marks of original research. Every page glows with freshness ol material and choiceness of diction." THE EVANGELIST.—" The volume contains an amount of information that makes it one of the most useful of treatises for a student in philosophy and theology, and must secure for it a place in his library as a standard authority." HISTORY OF THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH. By GEORGE P. FISHER, D.D., LL.D., Professor of Ecclesiastical History in Yale University. 8vo, with numerous maps, $3.50. This work is in several respects notable. It gives an able presenta- tion of the subject in a single volume, thus supplying the need of a complete and at the same time condensed survey of Church History. It will also be found much broader and more comprehensive than other books of the kind. HON. GEORGE BANCROFT.— "I have to tell you of the pride and deUght with which I have examined your rich and most instructive volume. As an American, let me thank you for producing a work so honorable to the country." REV. R. S. STORRS, D.D.— "I am surprised that the author has been able to put such multitudes of facts, with analysis of opinions, definitions of tendencies, 1 and concise personal sketches, into a narrative at once so graceful, graphic, and compact." PROF. ALEXANDER V. G. ALLEN, Episcopal Divinity School, CamDridge, Mass.—" It has the merit of being eminently readable, its conclusions rest on the widest research and the latest and best scholarship, it keeps a just sense of pro- portion in the treatment of topics, it is written in the interest of Christianity as a whole and not of any sect or church, it is so entirely impartial that it is not easy to discern the author's sympathies or his denominational attitude, and it has the great advantage of dwelling at due length upon English and American Church history. In short, it is a work which no one but a long and successful teacher o'l Church History could have produced." SGRIBNER'S TEXT-BOOK CATALOGUE. THE LIFE OF OUR LORD UPON THE EARTH. By Rev. SAM- UEL J. ANDREWS, Considered in its Historical, Chrono- logical, and Geographical Relations. New and revised edition from new plates, with maps and plans. Crown 8vo, $2.50. The continued demand for this book shows that it meets a want not otherwise adequately met. While it deals with the life of the Lord on earth in its chronological, topographical, and historical relations especially, the work offers far more than a harmony of the Gospels, valuable as that is, since here the skeleton harmony is filled out with all the life and logic of daily walk and. conversation. The elements of time and place are discussed as important toward convincing men of Christ's earthly existence and giving a distinct picture of His labors, His outward circumstances. His relations to those about Him. In the matter of chronology, this work is unquestionably of the first and highest authority, and this revised edition presents the results of the latest investigation and discovery. THE CHURCHMAN.— "There Will not soon be any wWcli can take its place." THE SUNDAY SCHOOL TIMES.— " Indispensable to the ever-growing class of real students.'' EVANGELIST.—" Should be in every minister's library." CHRISTIAN ETHICS. By NEWMAN SMYTH, D.D., New Haven. [See MENTAL and MORAL SCIENCE.] HISTORY OF THE JEWISH PEOPLE IN THE TIME OF OUR LORD. By Dr. EMIL SCHURER, Professor of Theology In ihe University of Giessen. Translated from the second edition (revised throughout and greatly enlarged) of History of the New Testament Time. Heretofore issued in parts, but now complete in a form conven- ient for general readers. First division. 2 vols. Political History of Palestine from B.C. 175, to A.D. 135. Second division. 3 vols. Internal Condition of Palestine, and of the Jewish People in the time of Christ. With Index to the entire work, in all 5 vols., 8vo , net, $8. 00. Single volumes supplied only in the English edition at $3. 00 per volume and $1.50 additional for the Index. Examines into and describes that realm of thought and history in which the universal religion of Christ grew up. The surroundings, pre- valent tendencies of thought, spiritual and intellectual life, and the ex- tensive, varied literature of the time, are among the treasures set forth. ENGLISH CHURCHMAN.— "Under Professor Schurer's guidance, we are enabled to a large extent to construct a social and political frame-work for the Gospel History, and to set it in such a light as to see new evidences of the truth- fulness of that history and of its contemporaneousness. . . . The length of our notice shows our estimate of the value of his work." BRITISH QUARTERLY REVIEW.— "As a hand-book for the study of the New Testament, the work is invaluable and unique." CHURCH HISTORY. HISTORY OF THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH. By PHILIP SCHAFF, D.D. New Edition, re-written and enlarged. Vol. I.— Apos- , tolic Christianity, A.D. 1-100. Vol. Il.-Ante-Nicene Chris- tianity, A.D. 100—325. Vol. III.— Nicene and Post-Nicene Christianity, A.D. 311-600. Vol. IV.— Mediseval Christianity, A.D. 590-1073. Vol. VI.— Modern Christianity. The German Reformation, A.D. 1517-1530. Vol. Vll.-The Period of the Swiss Reformation. 8vo, price per vol., $4.00. This work is extremely comprehensive. All subjects that properly belong to a complete sketch are treated, including the history of Chris- tian art, hymnology, accounts of the lives and chief works of the Fathers of the Church, etc. The great theological, christological, and anthropological controversies of the period are duly sketched ; and in all the details of history the organizing hand of a master is distinctly seen, shaping the mass of materials into order and system. PROF. GEO. P. FISHER, Of Tale College.— ''Br. Schaff has thorouglily and Buccessfully accomplislied his task. The volumes are replete with evidences of a careful study of the orlgliaal scurces and of an extraordinary and, we might say, unsurpassed acquaintance with the modern literature— German, French, and English— in the department of ecclesiastical history. They are equally marked by a fair-minded, conscientious spirit, as well as by a lucid, animated mode of presentation." PROF. ROSWELL D. HITCHCOCK, D.D.— "In no other single work of /ts kind with which I am acquainted will students and general readers find so much to instruct and interest them." DR. JUL. MULLER, of Halle.— "It is the only history of the first six cen- turies which truly satisfies the wants of the present age. It is rich in results of original investigation." HISTORY OF THE CHURCH OF CHRIST, IN CHRONOLOGI- CAL TABLES. A Synchronistic View of the Events, Charac- teristics, and Culture of each period, including the History of Polity, Worship, Literature, and Doctrines, together with two Supplementary Tables upon the Church in America; and an Appendix, containing the series of Councils, Popes, Patri- archs, and other Bishops, and a full Index. By the late HENRY B. SMITH, D.D., Professor in the Union Theologi- cal Seminary of the City of New York. Folio, $5.00. REV. DR. W. G. T. SHEDD.— "Prof. Smith's Historical Tables are the best that I know of in any language. In preparing such a work, with so much care and research, Prof. Smith has famished ^ the student an apparatus that will be of life-long service to him" REV. DR. WILLIAM ADAMS.— "The labor expended upon such a work ia immense, and its accuracy and completeness do honor to the reoearch aiKj BCholarship of its author, and are an Invaluable acquisition to our literature." SGRIBNER'S TEXT-BOOK CATALOGUE. LECTURES ON THE HISTORY OF THE JEWISH CHURCH. By ARTHUR PENRHYN STANLEY, D.D. With Maps and Plans. New Edition from New Plates, with the author's latest revis* ion. Part L— From Abraham to Samuel. Part II.— From Samuel to the Captivity. Part III.— From the Captivity to the Christian Era. Three vols., 12mo (sold separately), each $2.00. The same— Westminster Edition, Three vols., 8vo (sold in sets only), per set, $9.00. LECTURES ON THE HISTORY OF THE EASTERN CHURCH. With an introduction on the Study of Ecclesiastical History. By ARTHUR PENRHYN STANLEY, D.D. New Edition from New Plates. 12mo, $2.00. LECTURES ON THE HISTORY OF THE CHURCH OF SCOT- LAND. By ARTHUR PENRHYN STANLEY, D.D. 8vo, $1.50. In all that concerns the external characteristics of the scenes and persons described, Dr. Stanley is entirely at home. His books are not dry records of historic events, but animated pictures of historic scenes and of the actors in them, while the human motives and aspects of events are brought out in bold and full relief. THE LONDON CRITIC— "Earnest, eloquent, learned, with a style that Is never monotonous, but luring through its eloquence, the lectures will maintain his fame as author, scholar, and divine. We could point out many passages that glow with a true poetic fire, but there are hundreds pictorially rich and poetically true. The reader experiences no weariness, for in every page and paragraph there is something to engage the mind and refresh the soul." THE NEW ENGLANDER.—" We have first to express our admiration of the grace and graphic beauty of his style. The felicitous discrimination in the use of language which appears on every page is especially required on these topics, where the aut'nor's position might so easily be mistaken through an unguarded statement. Dr. Stanley is possessed of the prime quality of an historical student and writer— namely, the historical feeling, or sense, by which conditions of life and types of character, remote from our present experience, are vividly con- ceived of and truly appreciated." THE N. Y. TIMES.— "The Old Testament History is here presented as it never was presented before ; with so much clearness, elegance of style, and "" Is- toric and literary illustration, not to speak of learning and calmness of jutigment, that not theologians alone, but also cultivated readers generally, are drawn to lt3 pages. In point of style it takes rank with Macaulay'a History and the best chapters of Froude." CHURCH HISTORY. LECTURES ON MEDIEVAL CHURCH HISTORY. By RICHARD C. TRENCH, D.D., Archbishop of Dublin. 8vo, $3.00. In this work the author discusses the more important epochs of Church History, tracing the origin and growth of various sects and sketching the careers of the great Schoolmen and Reformers. Intro- ducing his subject with a general consideration of the study of Church History, he devotes his early chapters to the beginning of the Middle Ages, the Holy Roman Empire, the conversion of England and Ger- many, Monasticism and the Crusades, with accounts of the Mendicant Orders and the Waldenses, His later chapters tisat of the great coun- cils of the West, Wiclif, Hus, and their followers, with a view of Christian art, life, and work down to the eve of the Reformation. THE CONFLICT OF CHRISTIANITY WITH HEATHENISM. By Dr. GERHARD UHLHORN. Translatedby Prof. Egbert C. Smyth and Rev. C. J. H. Ropes. Crown 8vo, $2.50. This volume describes with extraordinary vividness and spirit the religious and moral condition of the Pagan world, the rise and spread of Christianity, its conflict with heathenism, and its final victory. THE BOSTON ADVERTISER.—" It is easy to see why this volume is so highly esteemed. It is systematic, thorough, and concise. But its power is in the wide mental vision and well-balanced imagination of the author, which enable him to re-constract the scenes of ancient history. An exceptional clearness and force mark his style." THE SUNDAY-SCHOOL TIMES.— "One might read many books without obtaining more than a fraction of the profitable information here conveyed, and he might search a long time before finding one which would so thoroughly fix his attention and command his interest " A HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN DOCTRINE. By W. G. T. SHEDD, Professor of Systematic Theology in Union Theological Seminary. 2 vols., 8vo, $5.00. The work is divided into seven books : 1. — The Influence of Philo- sophical Systems ; 2. — History of Apologies ; 3. — History of Theology; 4. — History of Anthropology ; 5. — Of ISoteriology ; 6. — Of Eschatol- ogy ; 7. — Of Symbols. The style is lucid and penetrating, the dis- cussions move onward according to the law of the subjects themselves, as evoked in history ; and new light is thrown on past thought by pertinent illustration from subsequent times. THE NORTH AMERICAN REVIEW.— "Dr. Shedd has furnished an important v^ontribution to the study of Church history. It is eminently a readable book, and will, no doubt, be extensively read beyond the circle of his own profession by Intelligent laymen in all walks of life." THE N. Y. EVENING POST.—" A body of theological history which is in form as perfect as it is in substance excellent." ^1 B' 371503 -2 < UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY m