THE SOCIETY OF APOTHCCARIES 
 OF LONDON. 
 
 DESCIUPTIVE CATALOGUE 
 
 THE PREPARATIONS 
 
 MUSEUM OF ST. THOMAS'S HOSPITAL.
 
 Vv 
 V. I
 
 THE SOCIETY CFAP0THLCARIE8 
 OF LONDON. 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUE 
 
 PREPAEATIONS IN THE MUSEUM 
 
 ST. THOMAS'S HOSPITAL. 
 
 PRINTED BY ORDER OF THE GOVERNORS. 
 
 VOLUME I. 
 
 iMlNUTE AND DESCRIPTIVE ANATOMY. 
 WAX MODELS AND CASTS. 
 COMPARATIVE ANATOMY. 
 
 LONDON: 
 HENRY REN SHAW, 356, STRAND. 
 
 1847.
 
 
 LONDON : 
 
 RICHARD BARRETT, PRINTER, 
 
 MARK LANE.
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 On presenting to the Governors of St. Thomas's Hospital the 
 Descriptive Catalogue of the Preparations in their Museum, it 
 will probably be considered not unsuitable, to give a brief account 
 of the Medical and Surgical School, which has been there esta- 
 blished for more than one hundred and fifty years in connexion 
 with the Institution. 
 
 The Corporation of Barbers and Surgeons, united in 1541, by 
 the Act of the 32nd year of King Henry the Eighth, 
 taught Anatomy at their Hall, till their separation in 1 745, by 
 the Act of the 18th year of King George the Second. 
 For this purpose they were allowed a certain number of the 
 bodies of executed malefactors annually, and they appointed 
 a Readership of Anatomy, which was generally if not uni- 
 versally held by a physician chosen by the Company, who in 
 some, if not all cases, became one of the brotherhood. Their 
 " Lawes, Actes and Ordinances," as appears from their Minute 
 Books, were " enacted, constytuted and orda}Tied''' in 1566, 
 during the Mastership of Thomas Ballthropp, Serjeant- Surgeon 
 to Queen Elizabeth ; and among other regulations, it was 
 ordered, that public Demonstrations and Dissections should be 
 held in the Hall of the Company. The fii-st recorded Reader in 
 Anatomy, was Dr. Paddy, appointed in 1596 ; at which time, " It 
 was also ordayned that private Anathomys and other Anathomys 
 by any of the said Mysterye shall not be made." This enact- 
 ment seems to have been enforced for many years, but towards 
 the end of the seventeenth century, attempts were made to
 
 VI PREFACE. 
 
 teach in some of the London Hospitals, independent of tlie 
 Corporation, as appears from a complaint made to that Body of 
 the infringement of the Ordinances by the Surgeons of St. 
 Thomas's Hospital, and a correspondence in 16.98, relating 
 thereto, between the Corporation and the Governors of the 
 Hospital, as shown by the Minutes of both Corporations. 
 
 The efforts of the Barbers and Suro;eons, to restrict the teach- 
 ing of Anatomy to their own Hall, do not, however, appear to 
 have been successful, for the celebrated William Cheselden, 
 who had been educated under the able Anatomist, Cowper, and 
 Mr. Ferne, one of the Surgeons of St. Thomas's Hospital, was 
 lecturing on Anatomy, at the age of twenty-three, as shown by 
 his Syllabus of Anatomy, 8vo, published in 1711 ; at which 
 time he must have attained high character, as he was in that 
 year elected a Fellow of the Eoyal Society; and in 1713 he 
 published the First Edition of his Anatomy of the Humane 
 Body, 8vo. Cheselden's reputation and the interference of his 
 Lectures with those of the Hall, at last excited the anger of the 
 Court of Assistants of the Barbers and Surgeons ; and in the 
 spring of 1714, he was summoned before them, on the charge of 
 having " frequently procured the dead bodies of malefactors from 
 the place of execution, and dissecting the same at his own house, 
 as well during the Company's publick Lectures as at other times, 
 without the leave of the Governors, and contrary to the Com- 
 pany's By-law in that behalf, &c. The said Mr. Ciieselden 
 was thereupon called in, but ha"\dng submitted himself to the 
 pleasure of the Court, with a promise never to dissect at the 
 same time as the Company had their Lectures at the Hall, nor 
 without leave of the Governors (of the Corporation) for the time 
 being, the said Mr. Ciieselden was excused for what had passed, 
 with a reproof for the same, pronounced by the blaster, at the 
 desire of the Court." Minute 25th March, 171i.
 
 PREFACE. Vll 
 
 It is pretty clear that this reproof did not, in the estimation of 
 the public, damage Ciieselden, for at thirty years of age, in 
 
 1718, he was elected by the Governors of St. Thomas's Hospital 
 their Assistant Surgeon, and on the death of Mr. Dickenson in 
 
 1719, he was appointed Surgeon to the Hospital. 
 
 Whether Cheselden continued to lecture at home, or within 
 the walls of the Hospital, either before his election, or during his 
 Surgeoncy, which he resigned in 1 7o8 ; or whether he was ap- 
 pointed Lecturer on Anatomy at any time during his connexion 
 with that establishment, by the Governors, cannot be ascertained. 
 But it is probable that he was engaged in the anatomical teach- 
 ing, which was doubtless then going on, as in the Minutes of 
 the General Court of 8th May, 1730, there is a report of the 
 dissecting and cutting rooms being ruinous, and a recommenda- 
 tion of the Grand Committee, " That proper rooms be built for 
 dissecting, cutting for the stone, and for a Surgeon," wliicli was 
 carried into eflfect. 
 
 It may also be not unfairly assumed, that he laid the founda- 
 tion of the ]\Iuseum, as the engravings of diseased bones in 
 his magnificent Osteographia, and of other specimens in his 
 Humane Anatomy, would be presumptive of his having a col- 
 lection of Pathological specimens, and probably preserved at the 
 Hospital. -f- 
 
 The first positive proof, however, of the foundation of a Medical 
 School, and with it almost necessarily, that of a Museum, if not 
 previously existing, appears from the following : — 
 
 Minute of the Grand Committee, 26th September, \~6d- 
 
 " That it is the opinion of this Committee, that it will be for 
 the advantage of the Hospital at this juncture to have an 
 
 + Cheseldkn died in 1752, aged G4 years.
 
 VUl PUEFACE. 
 
 additional Surgeon,-f* who should read lectures to the pupils, 
 and that it be recommended to tlie General Court to elect 
 such Surgeon accordingly." 
 This proposal having been assented to by the General Court of 
 Governors, Mr. Joseph Else was elected to this appointment on 
 12th of October of the same year, and probably at once com- 
 menced teaching Anatomy and Surgery in the Hospital. 
 
 After Mr. Else's death in 1780, Henry Clike, then in his 
 thirty-second year, and who had been apprentice to Mr. Thomas 
 Smith, one of the Surgeons to the Hospital, was chosen Lecturer 
 on Anatomy and Surgery, probationally, as appears by the fol- 
 lowing : — 
 
 Minute of the Grand Committee, [2th September, 1780. 
 " That Mr. Cline be appointed to read the Lectures on Ana- 
 tomy and Surgery at St. Thomas's Hospital for twelve 
 months.^' 
 Minute of the Annual General Court, 8th August, 1781. 
 " We have appointed Mr. Cline to read the Lectures on Ana- 
 tomy and Surgery at this Hospital for twelve months from 
 the time of his appointment, and Mr. Martin to be joined 
 with him in the reading of the Chirurgical Lectures during 
 the above time." 
 But very shortly after, Mr. Cline was appointed permanently 
 and alone, as Lecturer, by the following : — 
 
 Minute of the Grand Committee, 26th September, 1781. 
 " That Mr. Cline be continued in his appointment of Lec- 
 turer on Anatomy and Surgery, at this Hospital, during the 
 pleasure of this Committee." 
 
 + The Surgeons of the Hospital at this period were, — 
 Mr. Tlionias Baker, elected in 17;J9 
 Mr Benjamin Cowcll, „ ITli) 
 -Mr. Thouuis Smitli, „ 17tj0
 
 PREFACE. IX 
 
 Minute of the Annual General Court, 31st Jidy, 1782. 
 
 " We have ordered that Mr. Clixe be continued in his ap- 
 pointment of Lecturer on Anatomy and Surgery, at this 
 Hospital, during the pleasure of the Committee." 
 
 In the year 1784, Mr. Cline was appointed Surgeon to the 
 Hospital on the death of Mr. Thomas Smith. 
 
 Mr. Cline continued teaching alone till 1791, and during this 
 period, a large portion of the preparations in the Museum, illus- 
 trative of Descriptive Anatomy were made, together with many 
 valuable ones of Pathological Anatomy, and especially some of 
 the best specimens of Hernia in the collection. But in 1791, 
 Mr. Cline 's increasing professional engagements rendering it 
 necessary that he should have assistance, Astley Cooper, who 
 had been his apprentice, was associated with him, as Joint 
 Lecturer on Anatomy and Sui'gery. Thus aided, Mr. Cline 
 continued to lecture till June 1812, when he resigned both 
 Lectureship and Surgeoncy, and was succeeded by his only son 
 Henry, having held the former appointment thirty-two years, 
 and the latter twenty- eight years ; how advantageously to the 
 School and honourably to himself, the large number of his Class, 
 and the reverential remembrance in which he is held by many 
 of its still surviving members fully testify. 
 
 On his retirement, a subscription was entered into by his 
 Pupils, for a commemorative Bust of Mr. Cline,*!* by Chantrey, 
 which is now one of the most valued treasures of the Museum, he 
 so largely assisted to form. 
 
 In the same year (1791) in which Mr. Astley Cooper 
 became Joint Lecturer, he, with Mr. Cline's sanction and 
 encouragement, commenced a special Course of Lectures on 
 Surgery at St. Thomas's Hospital, which, in a few years' time, 
 
 t He died in 1826, iced 7 6 vcara.
 
 X PREFACE. 
 
 by his untiring industry and great ability, was attended by the 
 largest class which has ever been instructed by any Teacher in 
 London. By Mr. Astley Coopkr's special exertions a very 
 large collection of Preparations of Surgical Pathology was made, 
 and, in accordance with his agreement with Mr. Cline, that 
 neither of them should have any private museum, it was brought 
 to St. Thomas's, and added to the Collection already there, 
 when the Governors, in 1814, had munificently erected the pre- 
 sent Museum, Theatre, and other buildings requisite for the 
 accommodation of the Students. But the Collection of Prepara- 
 tions continued, as they had previously been, the private property 
 of the Teachers of Anatomy and Surgery, and was kept up at 
 their sole expense. 
 
 Mr. Henry Cline, whose early death, in 1820, is deeply 
 regretted by all who had the opportunity of enjoying his instruc- 
 tion, also made at this time large additions to the Museum ; and 
 a great number of the old preparations were put up afresh, and 
 the whole collection re-arranged under his direction. 
 
 Astley Cooper, who was created a Baronet in 1821, con- 
 tinued to lecture on both Anatomy and Surgery in St. Thomas's 
 Hospital, till the conclusion of the Courses in the spring of 
 1825, having had associated with him in both Courses, during 
 the four or five previous years, Mr. Green, who had been 
 appointed Surgeon to the Hospital in 1820, on the death of 
 his cousin Mr. Henry Cline. 
 
 The Collection has also been enriched by a small, though 
 valuable addition, principally relating to the Pathology of the 
 Intestinal Canal, the Urinary Organs, and the Arteries, presented 
 to the ]\Iuseum by Mr. Travers, formerly Senior Surgeon of 
 this Hospital. 
 
 The specimens of Comparative Anatomy are principally those 
 made by Sir Astley Cooper to illustrate his Lectures, when
 
 PREFACE. XI 
 
 Professor of Comparative Anatomy to the Royal College of 
 Surgeons, in the years 1814 and 1815. 
 
 The Collection, consisting of specimens of Healthy, Patholo- 
 gical and Comparative Anatomy, of which the Pathological form 
 the most considerable and valuable portion, has been accumu- 
 lating till the present time, and is still receiving additions. 
 
 In 1827, two years after the establishment of a complete 
 Medical School at St. Thomas's Hospital, the Museum, which 
 had become the sole property of Mr. Green, was purchased by 
 the Governors. 
 
 The Microscopical Subjects were purchased by the Governors 
 in 1842, and large additions have been made to them by ]\Ir. 
 Rainey, the present Demonstrator of Anatomy. 
 
 In the course of last summer also, a large collection of Wax 
 Models has been added to the Collection by the Governors. 
 
 In Autumn, 1846, the Teachers of the School proposed that a 
 Committee should be formed, to consist of 
 
 Dr. Barkee. My. John F. South. 
 
 Dr. Leeson. Mr. Grainger. 
 
 Dr. Bennett. Mr. Le Gros Clark. 
 
 Mr. Green. Mr. James Dixon. 
 
 for the purpose of making a Descriptive Catalogue of the 
 INIuseum, and that Mr. William Adams the Curator, and 
 ^Ir. Rainey the Demonstrator of Anatomy in the School, 
 should give their assistance to the same object. This proposal 
 was laid before the Governors, and their assent thereto having 
 been given, the Museum Committee, thus sanctioned, decided 
 that certain portions of the Collection should be assigned to and 
 described by each member, and that such several parts of the 
 Catalogue should be subscribed by the person who furnished it ; 
 and that the general supervision of the printing of the Cata- 
 loo-ue should be entrusted to Mr. John F. South.
 
 XU PREFACE. 
 
 Previous to 1814, there was only a List of the Preparations at 
 the Hospital, in a book, written by Mr. Astley Cooper, but at 
 what time is unknown. After that part of the collection specially 
 made by Mr. Cooper, had been incorporated with that already at 
 the Hospital in 1814, the whole of the Healthy and Patholo- 
 gical Anatomy was carefully looked over by him, and by Mr. 
 Henry Cline, and from their dictation, another list in a book 
 was written by Mr. John F. South, to which from time to time 
 additions were made by him, by Dr. Nathaniel Lister, and by 
 Dr. Barker, who have severally held the office of Curator. Such 
 records of cases as could be readily obtained from the Surgical 
 Lectures of Sir Astley Cooper, or from other sources, were com- 
 menced in another book by Dr. N. Lister, and by Mr. John 
 F. South, and these from time to time have been increased 
 by histories from the Case Books of some of the Medical Officers 
 of the Hospital. Of late years, a more careful record has been 
 preserved of the new preparations added to the Collection. That 
 the histories of very many of the more valuable old preparations 
 have been preserved in the medical publications of the time is 
 beyond doubt ; and careful search having been made, an abstract 
 from them, and reference to the sources from whence obtained, 
 will be given. 
 
 John F. Soriii.
 
 CONTENTS OF VOLUME T. 
 
 FIRST SECTION. 
 
 MINUTE AXATOMY. 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 A. Epithelium and Cells. 1 
 
 B. Adipose and Fibrous Tissues 2 
 
 C. Organs of Digestion 5 
 
 a. Teeth ib. 
 
 h. Pharynx 7 
 
 c. Stomach . . . , 8 
 
 d. Intestine 11 
 
 e. Liver, (fee. 17 
 
 D. Organs of Respiration .19 
 
 E. — Urine 32 
 
 F= Circulation 35 
 
 G. Generation . . 36 
 
 H. Cartilage 38 
 
 J. Bone 4(» 
 
 K. Muscle 44 
 
 L. Brain 47 
 
 M. Nerves 49 
 
 N. Organ of Vision ib. 
 
 0. Skin 52 
 
 P. Shells 59 
 
 Q. Insects 63 
 
 R. Vegetable Structures 67
 
 XtV CONTENTS. 
 
 SECOND SECTION. 
 
 l>EaCRIPTIVE ANATOMY. 
 
 Organs of Locomotion. 
 
 PAOE. 
 
 A. IJones 71 
 
 a. Vertebrae ......... ib. 
 
 b. Sternum 72 
 
 c. Ribs ib. 
 
 d. Os Hyoides 73 
 
 e. Bones of the Skull and Face ib. 
 
 f. Lower Jawbones 75 
 
 g. Skulls, mostly Caucasian, but of remarkable conformation 76 
 h. Ethnological Section . . . . .77 
 
 i. Bones of the Upper Extremity 81 
 
 k. Pelvis and Lower Extremity ... 82 
 
 B. Construction of Joints 85 
 
 a. Of the Head and Trunk ....... ib. 
 
 b. Upper Extremity 86 
 
 c. Lower Extremity 88 
 
 C. Muscles and Tendons 89 
 
 Organs of Sense. 
 
 A. Nose 90 
 
 B. Eye ib. 
 
 a. Appendages ib. 
 
 b. Globe of the Eye 91 
 
 C. Ear 93 
 
 a. External Ear ib. 
 
 b. Middle division of the Ear ib. 
 
 c. Internal Ear 95 
 
 d. Nerves of the Ear 96 
 
 D. Tongue ib. 
 
 E. Common Integuments and Teguraentary Appendages . . 97 
 
 a. Skin • . ib. 
 
 b. Hair 99 
 
 c. Nails ib. 
 
 d. Areolar Tissue ib. 
 
 e. Fat ib.
 
 CONTKNTS. XV 
 
 Xrrraii.s Si/xtfiii. 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 A. Spinal Cord 100 
 
 B. Brain il'- 
 
 C. Nerves 1"! 
 
 Digestive Apparatus. 
 
 a. Organs of Mastication 103 
 
 b. Salivation and Deglutition 106 
 
 c. Stomach and Intestines 108 
 
 d. Liver 110 
 
 e. Pancreas Ill 
 
 f. Spleen ib. 
 
 liespirafort/ Appaj-afiis. 
 
 a. Larynx and Trachea . . , ^ 112 
 
 Urinnrji Appo ra tns. 
 
 a. Kidney 114 
 
 b. Bladder 115 
 
 Heart and Vascular or Circulatory System. 
 
 a. Heart ........... 116 
 
 b. Arteries 117 
 
 c. Veins 123 
 
 d. Absorbent Vessels and Glands 125 
 
 Organs of Reproduction. 
 
 A. ]Male Organs 128 
 
 Testicle 130 
 
 B. Female Organs 134 
 
 Breast 136 
 
 Utero-gestation 137 
 
 THIRD SECTION. 
 
 Wax Models and Casts, illustrating Healthy Organs . . 157
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 FOURTU SECTION. 
 
 COMPARATIVE ANATOMV. 
 
 PACE- 
 
 I. Parts concerned in Digestion . • • • 1^3 
 
 Teeth 180 
 
 II. Parts concerned in Respiration 1^8 
 
 III. Secretion and Excretion .... 191 
 
 IV. the Circulation of the Blood and Chyle 194 
 
 V. Generation and Developement . . .198 
 
 VI. Motion, or in affording Support . 211 
 
 VII. producing Voice 233 
 
 VIII. Organs of the Senses and of Innervation 234
 
 Fllt.ST SECTION. 
 
 M 1 iN U T E ANATOMY. 
 
 A. — Epithelium and Cells. 
 
 1. Epidermis from the web of a Frog's foot, showing the 
 
 tessolatc form of epithelium. In this preparation, several 
 layers of epithelium are visible. In the deeper ones the 
 spherical form of tlie epithelial cells, with their nuclei, is 
 distinctly seen ; in the more superficial, the cells have 
 become, from compression, polygonal ; and in the most sujjcr- 
 ficial layer they are reduced to mere scales, the nuclei iiaving 
 disappeared, their situation only being indicated by an oval 
 depression in the centre of each scale. 
 
 2. Epithelium from the web of a Frog's foot. 
 
 3. Epithelium from the mucous membrane of the stomach, show- 
 
 ing the cylinder epithelium. The cells in this kind of epi- 
 thelium arc seen to have a prismatic figure, with their apices 
 attached to the basement membrane. 
 
 4. Epidermic scales from the skin of the Human Subject. 
 
 5 Pigment cells deprived of their pigment matter, from the choroid 
 of a Sheep. These cells, from their mutual compression 
 one against another, become polygonal, and present the ap- 
 VOL. I. ^
 
 2 MINUTK ANATOMY. 
 
 pearancc of tcssolatts c])itlii'liiiin. 'J'lic cell niciiibranc a])i)carf< 
 very granular, a circunistancc wliicli rciulors the situation of 
 llic inulrus ratlicr indistinct. 
 
 (5. Piffinont colls with their pigment, from the eye of a Sheep. 
 This matter is in the form of dark brown molecules, covering 
 every part of each cell, excepting near its nucleus, which pre- 
 sents the appearance of a bright central point. 
 
 7. ]\rucus from the mucous membrane of tlie urinary passages, 
 showing mucous cells with their nuclei, in various stages of 
 development. 
 
 t8. Pus, shewing pus cells with their nuclei. 
 
 to. Pigment matter from a jMelanotic tumour. The pigment is in 
 the form of dark brown molecules, contained in oval cells of 
 various sizes, which, unlike the cells of the choroid membrane, 
 are equally filled with the pigment, and therefore do not pre- 
 sent, like the former, the bright central point. 
 
 1 10. Melanotic matter, with portions of the cellular nidus in wliicli 
 the dark corpiiscles were contained. 
 
 1 1 . Pigment membrane from the eye of a Rabbit, totally deprived 
 
 of its colouring matter. 
 
 12. Tessclate epithelium from the i)osterior surface of the anterior 
 
 layer of the capsule of th(> lens. 
 
 B. — Adipose and Fibrous Ti.ssues. 
 
 13. Lobules of adipose vesicles from the interior of the abdomen 
 
 of a Frog, injected, showing the blood vessels passing around 
 and between the individual cells of which each lobule is made 
 np, but without entering the cell walls. 
 
 14. Lobules of adipose vessels from a Kitten, tliree days old,
 
 ADIPOSE AND FIBROUS TISSUES. *> 
 
 injected. In tliis pr('))arati(jn tho areolar spaces fonnecl by 
 tlie anastomoses of the capillaries will be seen to be smaller 
 than in the same strnctni'o in the adnlt animal, and hence this 
 tissnc is mncli more vascular in the former than in the latter. 
 
 1'). Lobules of adipos(! vesicles from the omentum of a Kitten, three 
 days old. 
 
 10. Three sections of the skin, and subc\itancous cellular membrane 
 of a finger injected, showing the vasculjirity of the fat vesicles, 
 and some sudoriferous glands. 
 
 17. Adipose vesicles from a Frog injected. 
 
 18. Adipose vesicles from the abdomen of an Eel, injected. Hei'e 
 
 the individual fat cells are seen to be large and spherical, 
 and each surrounded by a circle of capillaries. 
 
 19. A<li])oso membrane from a Frog. 
 
 20. Tendon of a Rabbit, two days old, injected, showing two sets of 
 
 vessels ; one in the form of a rich plexus upon its surface, the 
 other consisting of vessels running longitudinally between the 
 fasciculi of tendinous fibres. 
 
 21. Tendon of the same muscle of the opposite side, from the same 
 
 Rabbit, dried and preserved in balsam. By this mode of 
 preparation, mxicli of the tissue between the vessels is dried 
 up and rendered transparent, causing several planes of vessels 
 to be brought xipon the same level, and thus the part is made 
 to present a much greater degree of vascularity than in its 
 natural state it really possesses. 
 
 22. Tendon of a flexor digitorum, injected, from an adult, show- 
 
 ing a much less degree of vascularity than in the young 
 subject. The vessels on the surface are seen to be com- 
 paratively few and large, forming terminal loopings towards 
 the edge of the tendon ; scarcely any longitudinal vessels 
 exist in the substance of the tendon. 
 
 B 2
 
 4 MINUTM ANATOMY. 
 
 23. Synovial fringe in tlio tlicc-a of a U-ndon of tlic flexor digi- 
 
 tornni, injected, allowing the disposition of its vessels, and the 
 opitlieliuni investing them. 
 
 24. Transverse section of a tendon of an Ostrich. 
 
 25. A portion of tendon from a Frog, showing the wavy fihres 
 
 of which it is made up. Tlicse fihres, having little lateral 
 adhesion, can be easily separated into others of smaller size, 
 and the separation can be continued indefinitely, so that 
 tendon appears not to have any ultimate fibre. 
 
 2t). Another portion of tendon. 
 
 27. Fil)rous membrane covering muscle. The fibres of this mem- 
 
 brane have the same appearance and disposition as those of 
 tendon. 
 
 28. A portion of tendon from a very young Rabbit. 
 
 29. Synovial membrane from a joint of a finger, showing its 
 
 vascularity. 
 
 30. An injected tendon divided longitudinally into two parts, 
 
 showing how few vessels are situated in its substance, as well 
 as on its surface, excepting where it is covered by the mem- 
 brane which secretes the synovia. 
 
 31. Synovial membrane from a finger joint, injected, showing its 
 
 vascularity, antl the terminal loopings of the vessels upon the 
 edge of the articular cartilage. 
 
 32. Injected synovial membrane covering tendon, from a young Ass. 
 
 33. A synovial fringe projecting into the cavity of one of the 
 
 joints of a finger, injected. The vessels of those frinores 
 are seen to proceed from the adjoining trunks, and to become 
 very much twisted and convoluted, each convolution having 
 an epithelial investment. The epithelium, besides investing
 
 ORGANS OF DIGESTION. 5 
 
 tlic separate convolutions, and tints producing the ap])earancc 
 of villi, sends out tubular j^roccsscs of various forms and 
 sizes, some apjiearing like vegetations, and others hanging 
 by very long and slender peduncles. These secondary sacculi 
 do not contain any blood vessels. The epithelium con- 
 sists of a thin basement membrane studded with oval cells, 
 about the size of blood corpuscles, but not containing any 
 regidar nuclei. 
 
 34. Some of the convohitions of the vessels taken from one of the 
 vascular fringes contained in the theca of a flexor digitorum 
 sublimis, injected. 
 
 3.">. Injected vascular fringe from the theca of a tendon, taken froni 
 a young Ass. 
 
 3(5. S}'novial fringes from a bursa communicating with one of the 
 joints of a finger, injected. 
 
 t37. Granulations injected, presenting an arrangement of vessels in 
 some respects similar to those of fat vesicles, excepting that 
 the capillaries appear to have a very variable diameter. 
 
 t38. Granulations injected. 
 
 t39. A portion of injected false membrane covering the cartilage of 
 a diseased joint. 
 
 t40. Injected granulations from a diseased bone. 
 
 C. — OuGANS OP Digestion. 
 a. Teeth. 
 41. Vertical section of a human cuspid tooth, to show the three 
 dental substances, the enamel, dentine, and cement. In the 
 enamel the fibres composing it are seen ; they are solid hexa- 
 gonal prisms, about 4^Vo ^^ '^^ '"^'^ '" diameter, and ])laeed 
 perpendicularly on the dentine ; like the tubuli of the latter, 
 they usually run in a somewhat wavy manner, a disposi-
 
 (J MLNUTE ANATOMY. 
 
 tion seen very distinctly in some ]):irts of the section. Each 
 ])risni is observed to be marked by delieate transverse lines, 
 ))ro(hKiii;^f an appearance characteristio of the enamel. The 
 ilcnthw or ivory eontains a vast number of wavy tubuli which 
 are very eonspienous ; tliey originate from the surface of the 
 pulp cavity, then pass ontwards fonning several curves 
 (" primary curvatures," Owen) ; towards the point of the fang, 
 with a sufficient power, many of these tubuli may be seen cut 
 across, some directly in the transverse direction, and others 
 obliquely. They divide and subdivide sometimes dichoto- 
 mously, at other times irregularly. In some places, faint 
 curved lines may be seen crossing tlic course of the tubuli ; 
 these are the " secondary curvatures " of Professor Owen. 
 The largest of the dentinal tubuli have only a diameter of 
 T(75oo *^^ ^^ inch, so that it is impossible for blood vessels to 
 enter them, but they can and do receive the plasma of the 
 blood. Tlie iutertubular matter forming the substance of the 
 dentine has in tlie section a granular appearance. The 
 cement, coating the exterior of the fang is best examined 
 towards the extremity : it presents the character of tiiie bone, 
 and is especially distinguished by the lacunae and canaliculi ; 
 but no Haversian canals exist in the cement of human teeth, 
 although they are found in that of some other animals. 
 The general position and extent of the three component struc- 
 tures are best understood by examining the section with the 
 naked eye. 
 
 42. Transverse section of a human molar tooth, showing the fibres 
 of the enamel and its junction with the dentine. In the 
 centre of the tooth the tubuli of the ivory are very distinctly 
 seen, divided transversely ; their proper walls, and their 
 relation to the iutertubular substance arc also here well 
 shown ; proceeding outwardly from the centre, tlie tubuli are 
 cut more and more obliquely, an appearance best observed 
 by altering the focus ; and wliere a]iproaching the enamel, 
 the tubes have been divided horizontally. 
 
 •1,1. Vertical section of a jjortion of Elephant's tooth, showing the 
 position and structure of the enamel, dentine, and cement.
 
 ORGANS OF DIGESTION. 7 
 
 44. Transverse section of a portion of the same tootli, cxliibiting 
 tlie same substances, and their structure. 
 
 44a. Transverse section of whalebone. This substance is a tegu- 
 mentary appendage, belonging to the same class as the 
 teeth, horn, nails, hairs, &c. Two different textures are seen 
 having the same relative situation as the cement and dentine 
 of the teeth. The internal or central part pi-esents a number 
 of canals, circular in form, of unequal size, averaging about 
 -j-j^^ inch in diameter. These passages originally lodged 
 vascular pajjilltie, derived from what Hunter calls the nidus of 
 the whalebone : they are not dispersed equally, but are in 
 some parts more close together than in others. Each canal is 
 surrounded by a great number of minute specks disposed in 
 concentric circles, and containing black pigment ; these par- 
 ticles are most numerous around the border of the openino-, 
 and gradually diminisli in number. It is seen that around 
 some few canals the pigment corpuscles are entirely wanting : 
 tliese are probably newly formed parts, the pigment being, as 
 elsewhere, subsequently deposited ; other canals are surrounded 
 by a small number of black corpuscles. The solid matter 
 around the passages is arranged in concentric lamella?, a dispo- 
 sition which is most distinctly seen where tlie pioment is 
 deficient. The substance lodged in tlie intervals left between 
 the vascular canals, presents at first sight a finely granular 
 appearance ; but a more careful examination, especially at tlie 
 margin of the section, indicates the existence of minute fibres 
 running parallel to each other. The cortical substance has no 
 vascular canals ; it resembles in appearance the intervascular 
 tissue just described, and like that, it is made up of very fine 
 fibres ; the pigment is, however, in smaller quantity and of a 
 lighter colour. 
 
 b. P/tari/nx. 
 
 4.5. Pharynx and superior part of the stomach of an Eel, injetted : 
 the disposition of the vessels of the pharynx is seen to re- 
 semble very much tliat of the vessels of the stomacli.
 
 8 MINUTE ANATOMY. 
 
 4(). Palnto of a Frog, injected. TIic capillaries of the membrane 
 of the palate, as far as the opening into the larynx, and also 
 those of the pharynx as far as the stomach, have in the Frog 
 a peculiar beaded appearance. This, by a high magnifying 
 power and reflected light, is seen to arise from a series 
 of projections extending from the side of each capillary, and 
 not from a mere dilatation of their calibre. These projecting 
 vessels are of various lengths, and probably are a very simple 
 form of vessel supplying the tactile organs of these parts. This 
 form of vessel has never yet been described. 
 
 47. Vessels from the palate of a Frog, injected, showing very well 
 
 the characters of the vessels described in Xo. 46. 
 
 48. Submaxillary gland of a Rabbit, two days old, injected. The 
 
 capillaries in this preparation are seen to enclose small areolar 
 spaces pretty nearly of the same size, filled with rounded cor- 
 puscles. 
 
 49. Vascular folds situated beneath the tongue of a Toad, occupy- 
 
 ing the situation of the sublingual gland, injected. 
 
 50. The mucous membrane at the entrance of the lar}Tix of a 
 
 Frog, injected, showing the plicated disposition of the mem- 
 brane around this aperture, and the character of the vessels 
 which the folds enclose. 
 
 .^)1. Pharynx of a Frog, injected, showing the vessels above 
 described. 
 
 c. Stomach. 
 
 52. Stomach of an Eel. In this preparation the mucous membrane 
 is arranged in longitudinal folds, and, at irregidar intervals, 
 appears to be disposed so as to form funnel-like cavities. 
 The capillaries of the mucous membrane of the stomach of the 
 Eel, and the areolar spaces which they enclose are remarkably 
 minute, mucli more s<» than in re'jtiles, or in mammals.
 
 ORGANS OF DIGESTION. 9 
 
 53. The whole of the stomacli, with a part of the pharynx, and 
 small Intestine of a Frog, injected. This preparation exhibits 
 the different arrangement of the vessels in these several parts 
 of the intestinal canal, with their relative degrees of vascn- 
 larity. The pharjiix is distinguishable from the stomach by its 
 numerous follicles, and by the beaded character of the vessels 
 already described in No. 46. 
 
 .'54. Stomach of a Frog, injected, with a portion of the epithelium 
 
 remaininof. 
 
 55. Stomach, pancreas, and duodenum of a Frog, injected, show- 
 
 ing the appearances described in No. 53. 
 
 56. Stomach of a Frog, showing the same disposition of the 
 
 capillaries as in the Eel, excepting that the areoUe are larger. 
 
 57. Stomacli of a Toad, injected. The size and arrangement of 
 
 the vessels in the stomach of the Toad resemble those in the 
 Frog. 
 
 58. Stomach of a Tortoise, injected, presenting the same appear- 
 
 ances as those described in No. 67. In the stomach of the 
 Tortoise, the capillaries and the areolae are large ; also the 
 openings of the tubular glands are distinct. 
 
 59. Small villi from the proventriculus of a Heron. These villi 
 
 are very simple and uniform in their size, and have no resem- 
 blance whatever to those in the intestinal canal. Each 
 consists of a simple vascular loop, enclosed in a very fine 
 membrane, resembling, precisely, that form of loop which 
 exists in the more simple papillae of the skin of the finger. 
 
 60. Crop of a Fowl injected, showing the plicated forui of its 
 
 mucous lining, which is studded with numerous follicles, lined 
 by mucous membrane, and sufficiently large to be discerned 
 without the microscope. 
 
 61. Crop of a Fowl injected, exhibiting the a])])earancos above 
 
 described.
 
 10 MINUTE ANATOMY. 
 
 ()2. rroventriciilar glands uf a I'igcon. Tlicsc ghmils arc of 
 globular form, with a perforation at tlie centre. They con- 
 sist of a pale membrane enclosing a rich and dense plexus of 
 capillaries. 
 
 (Jli. Longitudinal section of the proventricular glands of a Pigeon, 
 showing tlie great vascularity (»f each gland. 
 
 (H. Longitudinal section of the proventriculus of a Rook. 
 
 (jo. Vertical section of the stomach of a Porpoise, to shew the 
 tubular gastric glands. 
 
 66. Stomach of a Rabbit, two days old, injected, showing the 
 
 extreme vascidarity of its mucous membrane. 
 
 67. Stomach of a Dog, injected, showing the areolar spaces formed 
 
 by the anastomoses of the capillaries, and the openings of the 
 tubular cjastric wlands wMthiu them. 
 
 68. Stomach of a Dog, injected. 
 
 69. Vertical section of the stomach of a Dog, injected, showing 
 
 the tubular gastric glands, and the vessels running between 
 them. These vessels proceed from trunks situated in the sub- 
 mucous cellular tissue, and pass between the glands, dividing 
 and subdividing as they approach the internal surface of the 
 mucous membrane, where they enclose irregularly square or 
 hexagonal spaces. The tubular gastric glands appear to 
 make up the greater part of the substance of the mucous 
 membrane, their closed extremities rest against the submucous 
 cellular tissue, and their open ones are seen in the areolar 
 spaces formed by the anastomoses of the capillaries. 
 
 70. Vertical section of the stomach of a Dog, showing the same 
 
 ]>arts as those described in No. 69. 
 
 71. Stomach of a jMonkey, injected, showing the arrangement of 
 
 the ea])illarles, and the funnel-like dei)ressions of the mucous 
 
 UKMiibraue before- mentioned.
 
 ORGANS OF DIGESTION. 11 
 
 d. Intestine. 
 
 72. Internal surface of the small intestine adjoining the stomach of 
 
 an Eel, injected. This preparation exliibits a mimber of villi 
 of different shapes and sizes, projecting into the cavity of the 
 intestine. 
 
 73. Internal surface of the small intestine more remote from the 
 
 stomach of an Eel, injected. In this part of the intestine, 
 the mucous mcmhrane appears to tlie naked eye to be disposed 
 in longitudinal folds placed near together ; with the microscope, 
 these folds are seen to be made up of villi of different sizes 
 and forms, although many of them have some resemblance 
 to those in the human intestine. Each of these villi consists 
 of a fold of the lining of the intestine, enclosing a rich and 
 beautiful plexus of capillaries, rather smaller than the capil- 
 laries in the villi of the mammal. The fuiTOWs between the 
 longitudinal folds are filled up with square cavities, bounded 
 by duplicatures of the mucous membrane, enclosing likewise 
 plexuses, though less dense than those of the villi. As the 
 small intestine approaches its termination in the large one, the 
 villi gradually diminish both in number and size, whilst the 
 cavities just described keep increasing. 
 
 74. Internal surface of the small intestine of a Frog, injected. In 
 
 this preparation the mucous membrane is seen disposed in 
 transverse and longitudinal folds, of which tlie transverse 
 arc the broader. The folds, by intersecting one another, 
 divide the sui-face of the intestine into a number of square 
 cavities, and like those of the Eel, enclose each a rich plexus 
 of capillaries, though less dense than in the FaA, or in the 
 Human Subject. 
 
 75. Another portion of injected intestine from a Frog, exhibiting 
 
 the same appearances as those just described. 
 
 7oa. Another portion of the small intestine of a Frog, injected. 
 
 70. A portion of the small intestine of a Frog, injected. In tliis
 
 12 MINUTE ANATOMY. 
 
 preparation the intcstiiio in cut o])cn, and tlic cut part turacd 
 back, so as to exhibit at the .same time, its serous, mucous, 
 and muscular coats. The latter coat is seen covered by a 
 plexus of capillaries, somewhat resembling those of voluntary 
 muscles, but rather less dense, and tlie capillaries are larger. 
 The peritonaem also is seen to have its proper vessels, which 
 are in the form of a plexus, consisting of fine cajjillaries with 
 large areolae. 
 
 77. Small intestine of a Frog, injected, exhibiting the folds of 
 
 lining membrane with the capillary plexuses between them. 
 This preparation shows beautifully the capillaries of the 
 mucous lining of the intestines as seen in reptiles. 
 
 78. Portion of the small intestine of a Toad, injected. The 
 
 mucous membrane is disposed similarly to that of the Frog, 
 although the capillary plexuses are neither so regular nor so 
 rich as in that reptile. 
 
 70. Small intestine of a Toad, injected. The folds of the mucous 
 membrane ai-e, in this preparation, in form of conoidal villi, 
 each enclosing a rich plexus of capillaries. 
 
 80. Portion of the small intestine of a Snake, injected. The 
 
 folds of mucous membrane are less regular than in the Toad, 
 and begin to assume the form and character of villi. 
 
 81. Small intestine of a Boa Constrictor, injected, exhibiting dis- 
 
 tinct villi of a conical figure. In these villi, vessels are seen 
 running from their base to their apex, and dividing and sub- 
 dividing into branches, to form a rich and dense plexus of 
 capillaries. 
 
 82. Villi detached from the intestine of a Snake, injected. These 
 
 villi are very long and slender, and the capillary plexuses 
 which they enclose, are less dense than in birds or mammals, 
 unless, in the latter, at a very early age, when their villi 
 resemble, very strikingly, those of the Snake.
 
 ORGANS OF DIGESTION. 13 
 
 83. Small intestine adjoining the stomach of a Tortoise, injected. 
 
 Here the mucous membrane is disposed, chiefly in longitudinal 
 folds, enclosing very dense capillary plexuses. 
 
 84. Another portion of small intestine from a Tortoise, injected. 
 
 85. Small intestine remote from the stomach of a Tortoise, in- 
 
 jected. This preparation exhibits the same appearances as 
 those observed in No. 83. In the Tortoise, the capillaries of 
 the intestines arc larger than in the Frog, and much more so 
 than in mammals. 
 
 86. Small intestine of a Pigeon, injected, exhibiting the villi pro- 
 
 jecting from its internal surface. These villi are short, rather 
 conical, and terminated by rounded extremities. Each of them 
 contains an extremely dense capillary plexus, the vessels of 
 ■Nvhicli do not appear to be derived from the divisions and sub- 
 divisions of trunks running from the base to the apex, but 
 from the plexuses on the membrane from which the villi 
 project. 
 
 87. Duodenum of a Pigeon, injected, exhibiting villi. These villi 
 
 are much longer, and rather more slender than those of the 
 jejunum, some of them may even be considered as filiform. 
 The capillaries are disposed as in the latter intestine, 
 excepting, that they appear to be derived more from tlie 
 ramifications of trunks passing from their base to their free 
 extremity, than in the villi of the jejunum. 
 
 88. Jejunum of a Pigeon, injected, exhibiting the ajipearances 
 
 described in Xo. 86. 
 
 89. Another preparation of the small intestine of a Pigeon, in- 
 
 jected, exhibiting villi. Witli a high magnifying power, and 
 transmitted light, the vascular plexuses of the villi are seen 
 covered by a very delicate, almost transparent, and more 
 or less granular-looking membrane, continuous with the other 
 parts of the lining membrane of the intestine.
 
 14 MINUTK ANATOMY. 
 
 IK). Small intoptinc of a Fowl, injected, exhibiting villi. In this 
 ]trei)aratiuii the villi are much broadei* than those of the 
 IMgcon. Two or three vascular trunks arc seen passing from 
 the attached, to the free extremity of each villus, dividing 
 and subdividing into minute branches, which, by their anas- 
 tomoses, form a rich plexus. The branches from these plexuses 
 uniting form one or two trunks, which, descending on the 
 opposite side of the villus, terminate in the vessels situated 
 in the submucous cellular tissu(\ One set of these vessels 
 consists doubtless of arteries, and the other of veins, which 
 communicate through the medium of the intervening capillary 
 plexuses. 
 
 91. Duodenum of a Rabbit, two days old, injected. In this pre- 
 pai'ation the villi are seen to be long and slender. 
 
 92. Jejunum of a Rabbit, two days old, injected. In this prepa- 
 
 ration the villi are longer, more slender, and the capillary 
 plexuses less dense than in those of the dundenmn. 
 
 93. Small intestine of a young Ass, injected, showing the orifices 
 
 of the aggregate mucous glands. 
 
 94. Another portion of the mucous membrane of the small intestine, 
 
 injected, exhibiting the same appearances as in the preceding 
 preparation. 
 
 95. Small intestine of a young Ass, injected, showing the villi, 
 
 and a number of small globular bodies aggregated together, the 
 aggregate mucous glands. The villi are filifonn, and less 
 liberally supplied with capillaries, tlian those of an adult 
 animal. 
 
 96. Small intestine of a Dog, injected. In this intestine the villi 
 
 arc long and slender, such as are called filiform. 
 
 97. A similar preparation, showing the villi in tlio small intestine 
 
 of a Dosr.
 
 ORGANS OF DIGESTION. l/i 
 
 5)8. A portion of small intestine from a Kitten, injected, showing 
 tlie terniination of the ilenm in tlie coecum. 
 
 !)i). Dnodenum of a Monkey, injected, sliowing the villi pro- 
 jecting from its internal surface of a conical figure. Each 
 villus has a large vessel passing from its base to its free ex- 
 tremity, where it sends off a very rich and beautiful plexus 
 of capillaries. These capillaries descend along the side of the 
 villus from its apex to its base, where they terminate by 
 anastomosing with the vessels of that part of the mucous 
 membrane from wliidi the villus projects. The capillaries 
 take chiefly a longitudinal course with respect to the axis 
 of a Aallus ; and, being connected only by but few transverse 
 branches, the areolae which they enclose, are, for the most part, 
 very long and narrow. 
 
 100. Small intestine of a JNIonkey, injected. This preparation has 
 the same kind of villi as those seen in the duodenum. 
 
 101. Large intestine of a Monkey, injected. The surface of the 
 intestine is covered by a dense plexus of capillaries, enclosing 
 irregularly hexagonal areolae, so as to present a honey-comb 
 appearance. Within each of these areolar spaces a minute 
 pore can be seen, as observed in No. 113. Besides the hexa- 
 gonal areolas formed by the anastomoses of the capillaries, 
 others much more minute are situated more deeply in the 
 substance of the membrane, and iij^on planes at right angles 
 with the surface. 
 
 102. Small intestine of the Human Subject, injected. In this pre- 
 paration, portions of valvula:- conniventes are seen covered 
 with villi. These villi very much resemble those of the 
 Monkey. In Man, the large trunks traversing the villi arc 
 however, generally more distinct than in the Monkey, and in 
 the former also the capillary plexuses are more dense, and 
 the areolfE more square. 
 
 103. Small intestine of a Human Subject, injected. The villi 
 are more separated in this than in the preceding preparation.
 
 16 MINUTE ANATOMY. 
 
 to show luoro ooinj)k'tfly the iii<livi(hial villi, ainl the follicles 
 of Lifbt'rkiihn butwecn them. These follicles appear like 
 small perforations of the mucous coat surrounded by a circle 
 of capillaries, and situated between the bases of the villi. 
 
 104. Termination of the small in the large intestine of a Toad, 
 injected. In the small intestine, the living membrane is 
 seen arranged in longitudinal folds, and enclosing a plexus 
 of capillaries. At the commencement of the large intes- 
 tine, these folds terminate rather abruptly in a plexus of 
 capillaries somewhat larger and much closer together than 
 those of the small intestine. The part of the large intestine 
 more remote from the entrance of the small one, is divided 
 by small duplicatures of lining membrane, enclosing rich 
 plexuses, into shallow depressions. 
 
 105. Large intestine of a Toad, injected. 
 
 106. Extremity of the large intestine of a Toad, showing the abrupt 
 
 termination of the mucous membrane in a number of large 
 longitudinal folds of skin, in which the capillary plexuses are 
 incomparably less dense than in the mucous membrane ; they 
 are also obscured by a thin covering of epidermis. 
 
 107. Large intestine of a Toad, injected. 
 
 108. Large intestine of a Frog, injected. The mucous membrane 
 
 is seen less folded, and the capillary plexuses less dense, than 
 in the small intestine of the same animal. 
 
 109. Large intestine of a Boa Constrictor, injected. The mucous 
 
 membrane is disposed only in transverse folds, which are very 
 close together, and enclose an extremely dense plexus of 
 capillaries. 
 
 110. Large intestine of a Tortoise, injected. The surface of the 
 intestine is covered by a dense plexus of large capillaries of an 
 xmiform size. 
 
 111. Large intestine of a Pigeon injected.
 
 ORGANS OF DIGESTION. 17 
 
 112. Folds from the cloaca of a Fowl, injected. These folds, some- 
 times called, but imi)roperly, villi, are much larger than the 
 true villi seen in the small intestines, which they resemble but 
 very little, being rather irregular folds than villi. The capillary 
 plexuses are also different from those of the villi, in being 
 less confined to the same plane, and in the trunks, by the 
 subdivision and anastomoses of which they are formed, being 
 nmcli less regular. 
 
 113. Large intestine of a Badger, injected. This preparation shows 
 the mucous membrane studded with minute pores, resembling, 
 in appearance, the follicles of Lieberkiihn. Each of these 
 pores is seen having its orifice surrounded by capillary vessels 
 enclosing areolae of different sizes. 
 
 d. Li per. 
 
 114. External surface of the liver of an Eel, injected. This pre- 
 
 paration shows the stellate arrangement of the vessels of the 
 liver, and the plexuses formed by tlie anastomoses of their 
 capillaries, the areolae of which are filled up with the hepatic 
 corpuscles. 
 
 115. Gall bladder of an Eel, injected, showing a very intricate inter- 
 
 lacement of minute vessels, situated upon different planes, but 
 having neither characteristic arrangement nor regularity in 
 size, nor in the kind of capillary plexus which they form. 
 
 116. Liver of a Frog, injected. 
 
 117. Liver of a Frog, injected, showing the division and sub- 
 
 division of the vessels into their ultimate branches, and the 
 capillary plexuses which they form. In the Frog, these capil- 
 laries are larger than in the Eel, and not disposed in the same 
 stellate manner. 
 
 118. Liver of a Toad, injected, showing the same arrangement of 
 
 vessels as those of the Frog. 
 
 VOL. 1. o
 
 18 MIXIITE ANATOMY. 
 
 111). Anotlicr ])rcj)aration oi' the liver of a Toad, injected, ^liow- 
 iiio, very distinctly, the division and subdivision of tlie 
 hepatic vessels, and tlieir termination in the capillary plexuses. 
 
 120. Liver of a Hedgehog, injected. 
 
 121. Human gall bladder, showing its internal surface, injected. 
 
 The honeycomb appearance, which the internal surface of the 
 gall bladder presents to the naked eye, is shown, by this pre- 
 paration, to depend on small cavities of an irregular shape, 
 situated between duplicatures of mucous membrane which 
 occupy the whole of this surface. The capillary plexuses, 
 enclosed by these folds of membrane, resemble those of the 
 mucous membrane of the large intestine. 
 
 122. Pancreas of a Guinea-pig, injected. 
 
 123. Pancreas of a Kitten, three days old, injected, showing its 
 
 division and sub-division into lobes and lobules. The latter 
 are of various sizes, and made up of rounded corpuscles, en- 
 closed by the areolar spaces, formed by the anastomoses of the 
 capillaries into which the vessels supplying the gland divide. 
 
 124. Pancreas of a Toad, injected, showing the vessels. In this 
 
 preparation the stomach and duodenum are left, so that the 
 pancreas is seen in its natural situation. The pancreas is 
 divided by very deep fissures into large lobes, consisting of 
 epithelial cells and plexuses of vessels pi'oceeding from the anas- 
 tomoses of the branches of trunks ramifying on their surface. 
 In the plexuses, which are alone shown, the capillaries and 
 the areolae which they enclose are large, so that their ultimate 
 arrangement can easil}' be made out. The duodenum being 
 cut open, its internal surface is observed covered by large 
 conical villi, which diminish in size both towards the stomach 
 and towards the jejunum. Between the pancreas and sto- 
 mach is a dense plexus of knotted, tortuous and twisted 
 vessels, resembling absorbents, mixed with bodies made up of 
 convolutions of the same vessels and of the form of Ivmphatic 
 glands. They are connected by a large trunk or two to the
 
 ORGANS OF RESriRATION. 19 
 
 pancreas, and appear to be lymphatics into which tlic injection 
 lias escaped from the vessels. 
 
 r^."). Thyroid gland of a Rabbit, two days old, injected. By com- 
 paring this preparation with the preceding one, their general 
 characters are seen to have considerable resemblance ; although 
 in the pancreas, tiie vessels are much more distinct, there 
 being less granixlar matter ; the areolae between the capillaries 
 are also smaller than in tlie th\Toid. In this preparation, 
 trunks of vessels can be distinguisslied passing between the 
 lobes and lobules of the gland ; and after subdividing into 
 their ultimate branches, they anastomose with the subdivisions 
 of the adjoining trunks to form capillary plexuses. 
 
 126. Thymus gland, injected, taken from the same Rabbit. The 
 
 capillaries in this gland arc disposed in a similar manner 
 to those of the thyroid, excepting, that in the former, the 
 spaces between the anastomoses of the capillaries are both 
 smaller and much less defined than in the latter. 
 
 127. Another portion of the thyroid gland of a young Rabbit. 
 
 D. — Organs op Respiration. 
 
 128. — Branchial laminae of an Eel, injected. In this preparation, 
 each lamina appears made up of a series of semi-elliptical 
 folds arranged in pairs, with their contiguous borders attached, 
 and their remote ones, free, convex, and overlapping one 
 another. A large vessel runs along both sides of each lamina, 
 from one extremity to the other, from whicli the branches 
 supplying the individual folds are derived. From these 
 vessels, branches are sent off which occupy the whole of the 
 folds and form an extremely dense plexus of capillaries, the 
 areolae of which are very minute, even more so than in the 
 lung of mammals. These spaces appear like minute points, 
 nearly of an equal size, and disposed in curved lines running 
 parallel with the free border of the fold. 
 
 c2
 
 20 MINUTE ANATOMY. 
 
 129. Dctaclieil brancliiiil laiiiinti,' of an Eel, injected. 
 
 ]'M). nraiicliial laniinjr! of a Salmon. These exliihit a same micro- 
 scopic character as those of the Eel. 
 
 131. Air Madder of an Eel, injected. The internal snrfaco 
 
 of this organ is lined by rich plexuses of vessels, presenting 
 diflPerent characters in diflPerent parts. The large trunks 
 are enclosed in cylinders of elastic matter, covered by a 
 plexus of vessels as in the lung of the Frog. These trunks 
 divide the surface into separate compartments, corresponding 
 to the sacculi of the lung of reptiles, in which are situated 
 the ultimate ramification of tlie vessels — the capillaries. These 
 vessels appear to he enclosed, more or less, in folds of the 
 lining membrane like villi. Their calibre is very unequal, 
 and they present but few of those regiilar areolar spaces 
 which characterize the capillaries in the folds of the branchial 
 laminae and of the lungs. The most remarkable part of this 
 organ is the so-called air-gland^ a small oval body made up 
 of long, straight, equal, and for the most part, parallel 
 vessels, which commence from the ramifications of vessels 
 situated at one of its extremities, and terminate in similar 
 ramifications going off from its opposite extremity. This 
 body is situated underneath the lining membrane, which in 
 this preparation is removed on one side to show the disposi- 
 tion of the vessels. 
 
 132. Liuig of a Frog, cut open to show its internal surface. This 
 preparation exhibits the projections of the elastic cylinders 
 which contain the larger vessels and their ramifications, 
 covered by a rich plexus of vessels. The cylinders divide 
 the surface into large compartments, within which are the 
 pulmonary sacculi separated from one another l)v a fold of 
 membrane. The plexuses lining the sacculi are more dense, 
 than those situated u])on the cylinders, the capillaries of the 
 former being larger and their areolar spaces smaller than in 
 the latter. This latter plexus is in some parts of tliis jirepa- 
 ration obscured by portions of epithelium. In the living Fro*, 
 the ciliary action can be seen only upon the e]>itheliimi cover- 
 ing these projections, this ciliated kind of epithelium probably
 
 ORGANS OF llESPIRATION. 21 
 
 not lining the sacculi. The fold of membrane between every 
 two sacculi is covered on eacli side by a plexus of capillaries, 
 contiinied into one another, at the free margin of the fold, 
 so that two layers of vessels intervene between every two 
 cells, a character by which the lung of reptiles is distin- 
 guished from that of mammals. 
 
 133. The lung of a Frog, injected. This preparation exhibits the 
 
 whole of the internal surface of one lung. The plexus of 
 capillaries situated upon the cylinders containing the larger 
 ramifications of the vessels, is much less regular, and the ca})il- 
 laries forming it larger than in No. 132. 
 
 134. External surface of the lung of a Frog, injected, showing the 
 sacculi and the capillary plexuses as above described. 
 
 13'). Portion of the lung of a Toad, injected. This resembles 
 very much the lung of the Frog, excepting that tlic plexus of 
 capillaries situated upon the cylinders, containing the large 
 trunks, difiers less from that lining the sacculi. 
 
 130. External surface of the lung of a Toad, injected. 
 
 137. Portion of the trachea of a Common Snake, injected, showing 
 the vascularity of the spaces between the rings. 
 
 138. A portion of the lung of a Snake, injected. Tlie inner sur- 
 face of the lung of the Snake is seen, by comparing this 
 preparation with that of tlie lung of the Frog or Toad, to be 
 more complex than in these reptiles. Each lateral sacculus 
 in the Snake is subdivided into other smaller sacculi. Between 
 the internal and external surface of the lung of the Snake, there 
 is a depth of three or four sub-sacculi. In tlie character of 
 the capillary plexuses, and in the circumstance of the septa 
 between the sacculi, consisting each of two layers of vessels, 
 the luu"; of the Snake resembles that of the Froo; and Toad. 
 
 139. Lung of a Boa Constrictor, injected. This resembles the lung 
 
 of the Common Snake.
 
 22 MINUTE ANATOMY. 
 
 140. Idling of a Tortoise, injected, exliil)iting the same appearances 
 as those just described. Tliis preparation shows a remarkable 
 difference in the degree of density of the })lexuses in different 
 parts of the same lung. 
 
 141. Lung of a Tortoise, injected. 
 
 142. Lung of an Alligator, injected, showing the sacculated form of 
 
 the lung in this genus of animals. 
 
 143. Lung of an Alligator, injected. 
 
 144. Lung of a Pigeon, injected. In this preparation, the small 
 bronchial jiassages are seen more regidar, both in their form 
 and situation, than in mammals ; and the air cells with 
 their capillaries are much more minute ; so that this genus of 
 animals possesses a more complex respiratory organ than any 
 other. 
 
 1 145. Lung of a Porpoise, injected, affected with scirrhous tumour. 
 This preparation shows the tortuous and unequally dilated 
 state of the vessels in the vicinity of the disease. 
 
 146. Internal surface of the lung of a Kanguroo. This resembles 
 the lung of the Rabbit, in all its anatomical characters. 
 
 147. External surface of the lung of a Kanguroo. 
 
 148. External surface of the lung of a Kanguroo. One part of 
 this preparation shows a portion of tlie external surface of the 
 lung removed, and a vessel, coming up from the interior, di- 
 viding into two branches, which, on arriving at the surface, 
 subdivide, and ultimately terminate in a rich plexus of capil- 
 laries which anastomose with the capillaries formed by the 
 subdivisions of tlie adjacent trunks. 
 
 149. The teiTiiination of a lobe of the lung of a Kanguroo, injected. 
 
 This preparation shows the gradually decreasing density of the 
 capillary plexuses, in proportion as they advance towards the
 
 ORGANS OF RESPIRATION. 23 
 
 periphery of the lobe ; the capiUaries being rather smaller, and 
 the areolar spaces being much wider in the latter situation, 
 than nearer the body of the lobe. 
 
 IJO. Two i^ortions of the lung of a Kanguroo, injected, taken 
 from different parts of the same lobe, showing their different 
 degrees of vascularity in these different situations. 
 
 1;")!. The mucous lining of the trachea of a young liabbit, injected, 
 showing its vascularity. The capillaries of this membrane 
 are not so uniform in their size, nor the spaces enclosed by 
 their anastomoses near so minute as in the branchial laminae, 
 or in the lungs. This preparation also exhibits a portion of 
 the thyroid gland, injected. 
 
 152. Lung of a Rabbit two days old, injected, showing the ex- 
 treme vascularity of the lung at this age, and the perfect 
 development of the air-cells. 
 
 lo3. Lung of an adult Rabbit, injected, showing the disposition 
 of the capillaries upon its external surface, and also in its 
 interior. 
 
 1 154. Lung of a Rabbit, injected, in which the lungs, liver, kidney, 
 and other parts were affected with scrofulous disease. In 
 this preparation, a vessel going to the tubercular part is seen 
 to be completely filled with tubercular matter. 
 
 tl55 .Interior of the lung of a Rabbit affected with scrofula, injected. 
 In this preparation, the vessels going to, and those situated in 
 the tubercular mass, are seen to be completely filled with 
 scrofulous matter. Portions of this matter can be distin- 
 guished In some of the vessels mixed with the injection. 
 
 tl5G. A portion of lung from a Rabbit affected with general tuber- 
 cular disease, Injected. In this lung about one-third of a lobe 
 appeared very much like a lung which had never respired, 
 whilst other parts were studded with white masses of dif- 
 ferent sizes. In the foi'mer, tlie air-cells contained air, but
 
 24 MINUTE ANATOMY. 
 
 the capillary vessels situated between tlicni, were entirely 
 filled with tubercular matter, as wen; also the trunks leading 
 to these parts. In the latter, the air-cells as well as the vessels 
 are completely filled with this matter. — See j\lr. Rainey's 
 paper On the Strttcture of the Lungs ; in Medico -Chxrurgvcal 
 Transactions, vol. xxviii. 
 
 +157. A small portion of lung containing scrofulous tubercular 
 matter, to be viewed by transmitted light. 
 
 1 158. Tubercular lung of a Rabbit, injected. 
 
 159. Mucous membrane lining a large bronchial tube, taken from 
 the lung of a Hare, injected. The capillaries of this mem- 
 brane are chiefly distinguished by the inequality of their 
 calibre, and by enclosing comparatively large quadrilateral 
 areolar spaces. Small tiibes are scon proceeding from the 
 large one, at the entrance of which the capillary plexuses are 
 more dense than in the large tube. 
 
 160. External surface of the lung of a Hare, injected, showing 
 the ramification of the vessels, and their ultimate subdivisions 
 in the capillary plexuses, or " rete mirabile." 
 
 161. Lung of a Hare, injected. 
 
 162. Lung of a Hare ; the vessels are injected witli red and 
 
 yellow injection. Those vessels which contain the red injec- 
 tion were filled from the pulmonary artery, and those which 
 contain the yellow from a pulmonary vein. 
 
 163. External surface of the lung of a Hare ; the vessels are filled 
 
 with red and yellow injection. 
 
 164. External surface of the lung of a Hare. 
 
 165. External surface of the lung of a Rat, injected, showing 
 the cajiillary plexuses to be more dense than in the larger 
 numnnals.
 
 ORGANS OF IIKSPIRATION. 25 
 
 1(j6. a portion of tlie lung of a Kat, injcctcil, inchuling a portion 
 of the body of a lobe, with its margin. In this pr('])aration, 
 the air-cells, nearest to the free border of the lobe, are seen 
 to be larger, and the intercellular passages more numerous 
 than those nearer to the centre of the lung. 
 
 1G7. A portion of the lung of a Sheep, injected. In this preparation, 
 the surface of the lung is seen more divided than in the Dog 
 or Ilai'e by inter-lobular fissures, which extend to the sur- 
 face. The capillaries are very minute, and the air-cells small. 
 
 168. External surface of the lung of a foetal Lamb, injected, show- 
 
 ing the same disposition of the capillaries as that which exists 
 in the lung after birth. The existence of air-cells, at this 
 period, is also distinctly shown in this preparation, thus dis- 
 proving the theory, that the air-cells are formed after birth, 
 by the pressure of the inspired air. 
 
 169. A portion of the lung of a foetal Lamb, showing the air-cells. 
 
 The object of this preparation, like that of No. 168, is to show 
 that the air-cells do actually exist in the lung before birth. 
 
 170. Lung of a foetal Lamb, injected, showing the parts described 
 in No. 168. 
 
 171. Lung of a fa?tal Calf, injected, showing the presence of air- 
 cells. 
 
 172. JNIucous membrane lining a small bronchial tube, taken from 
 the lung of an Ox. This preparation exhibits a disposition 
 of capillaries somewhat different to that of the Hare. Here 
 the capillaries are smaller, and the spaces enclosed by their 
 anastomoses are circular and more minute than in the Hare. 
 The membrane is disposed in longitudinal folds, separated by 
 grooves, in which are mmierous large round openings, pro- 
 bably mucous follicles. 
 
 173. Interior of the lung of an Ox, showing tliat the air cells are 
 
 very sm.all compared with the size of the animal.
 
 21) MINUTE ANATu.MY. 
 
 174. External surface of tlic lung of an Ux, showing an arrange- 
 ment of vessels similar to that of the Hare and llie Kabhit ; 
 the caj)illaric.s, areolae, and air-celLs, being about the same size 
 as in those animals. 
 
 l?;"). External surface of the lung of a Cat, injected, showing tlie 
 capillary plexuses. In this lung the cajiillaries are larger, 
 and the areolar sj)aces wider, than in the lungs of the Ilare, 
 Rabbit, or Ox. 
 
 1 70. Interior of the lung of a Cat, injected. In this preparation, 
 the arteries are filled with red, and the trunks of the veins 
 with yellow injection. 
 
 177. Portion of the interior of the lung of a Kitten, three days 
 old, injected, to show the vascularity and development of the 
 air-cells at this age. 
 
 178. Lung of a Kitten, three days old, injected, showing its great 
 vascularity. 
 
 179. Two portions of the lung of a Dog, injected. Both these 
 
 portions were taken from the same lobe, one from the surface 
 nearest to the parietes of the chest, the otlier from the 
 surface adjacent to the lobe lying beneath it. The former 
 of these portions, is distinguishable from the latter, by the 
 capillary plexuses being less dense, and also by the vascular 
 tninks, with the areolar spaces enclosed by their ramifica- 
 tions, being rather smaller. This preparation exhibits most 
 beautifidly, the net-work of vessels formed by tlie ultimate 
 ramifications of the pulmonary arteries and veins, called, by 
 the older anatomists, the " rete mirabile." 
 
 180. Two portions of the lung of a Dog, injected. This prepara- 
 
 tion shows the same disposition of the capillaries as that just 
 described, No. 179, being intended to illustrate the same fact. 
 
 181. Interior of tlie lung of a Dog, injected, showing bronchial 
 tubes and bronchial intercellular passages.
 
 OIWANS OF llESriRATION. 27 
 
 182. A section of tlic lung of a Dog, injected, showing the larger 
 
 size of the air-cells at the free margin of the lobe. 
 
 183. A section of the lung of a Dog, injected, showing the ramifica- 
 
 tions and terminations of the bronchial intercellular passages 
 at the surface of a lobe, as described in No. 197. 
 
 184. External surface of the lung of a Dog, injected. In this pre- 
 paration, the air-cells are filled with black injection. 
 
 185. A section of the injected lung of a Dog, with the bronchial 
 passages and air-cells also filled with black injection. This 
 preparation shows the communications of one cell with an- 
 other ; also those between the air-cells and the intercellular 
 passages. 
 
 186. Lung of a Dog, injected. 
 
 tl87.Limgof a Dog, injected, showing deposits of white matter 
 resembling miliary tubercle. 
 
 1 188. Section of the lung of a Dog, injected, showing deposit of 
 white matter in some of the air-cells. 
 
 tl 89. Lung of a Dog, injected, having deposits in the air-cells. 
 
 tl90. Lungof a Dog, injected, in which some of the cells appear 
 to be filled with a deposit of fibrin. 
 
 tl91.Lung of a Dog, injected, in which fibrinous deposits fill the 
 air-cells. The external surface of the lung contiguous to these 
 cells presents the appearance of vessels going to an inflamed 
 part, being unequally dilated, and more tortuous than in their 
 natural state, or than in vessels going to cells containing tuber- 
 cular matter, as w'ill be seen by comparing this preparation 
 with No. 187. 
 
 192. Tubercular lung of a ]\Ionkey, showing tubercular matter 
 within the air-cells.
 
 2& MINUTE ANATOMY. 
 
 1 193, Tubercular lung of a Monkey, injected. 
 
 tU)4. Tubercular cavity in the lung of a Monkey, injected. 
 
 tl95.A small portion of the tubercular lung of a Monkey, show- 
 ing the remains of the pulmonary inenil^rane in the tubercle. 
 
 196. JMucous membrane, lining a small bronchial tube, taken from 
 the human lung. In this preparation, the aj)pearances are 
 similar to those described in the bronchial tubes of mammals. 
 
 197. Two sections of human lung, injected. In this preparation, 
 the air-cells can be seen separated one from another by a. septum, 
 consisting of a dense single plexus of capillaries enclosed 
 in a duplicature of pulmonary membrane, whicli latter being 
 nearly transparent, can only be seen by transmitted light. 
 The air-cells are of various sizes and shapes, and communicate 
 one with another by large circular openings tlirough the 
 intervening septa. The terminations of the bronchial tubes are 
 likewise seen : these are mere passages running between the 
 air-cells, which alone form their parictes ; the walls of these 
 cells themselves having on one side a passage, and on the 
 other, an air-cell. The terminal bronchial intercellular passages 
 are at first of circular form, and, like the smaller bronchial 
 tubes, do not communicate with many air-cells ; but as they 
 approach the surface of a lobule the oi)enings of the cells con- 
 tinue increasing in number, and at length these openings of 
 communication are so numerous, and so near together, that 
 the intercellular jjassage loses altogether its circular figure, and 
 becomes reduced to an irregularly-shaped passage, running 
 between the air-cells, and conimxinicating with them in all 
 directions ; and, lastly, having arrived very near to tlie surface 
 of a lobule, it terminates by becoming itself an air-cell. The 
 intercellular passages can be seen to communicate one with 
 another, especially near the surface of a lobule, through the 
 medium of the intervening air-cells. 
 
 198. Human lung, injected, showing the termination of bronchial 
 tubes in broncliial intercellular passages ; also the anasto- 
 
 I
 
 ORGANS OF llESnilATION. 29 
 
 moses of the vessels supplying the Inoiitliial membrane with 
 those forming the plexuses between the air-eells. 
 
 11)'.). Human lung, injected, showing the aii'-cells. 
 
 200. A very thin section of human lung, injected, showing, if 
 viewed by transmitted light, that the capillary pulmonary 
 plexuses are situated in a duplicature of the pulmonary mem- 
 brane. In this preparation, the septa between the air-cells are 
 seen to consist of a single layer of ca])illarics, enclosed in the 
 above membrane. This membrane, at the circular opening of 
 communication between one cell and another, or between a 
 cell and a bronchial intercellular passage, projects beyond tlie 
 circle of anastomoses, wliicli, in the injected preparations, 
 when examined by reflected light, appears to limit the extent 
 of these openings ; thus the pulmonary membrane forms their 
 immediate boundary. This membrane is very thin and 
 fibrous, especially at its free margin, these fibres serving pro- 
 bably to keep the openings into the air-cells patulous. 
 
 201. Sections of human lung, injected, showing the termination of 
 
 the bronchial tubes in bronchial intercellular passages. In 
 this preparation, two sections are horizontal, and one longitu- 
 dinal, with respect to the axis of the tubes. The former show 
 that the bronchial tubes have a very distinct mucous lining, 
 whilst the bronchial intercellular passages have none, being 
 bounded only by the pi-opcr membrane of the air-cells (pulmo- 
 nary membrane) which surrounds them, the external wall of 
 each of these air-cells having on one side a passage, and on the 
 other an air-cell. The latter exhibits a longitudinal section of 
 a bronchial tube at its termination in an intercellular passage. 
 The membrane lining tlie broncliial tube will be best seen by 
 bringing into focus the cut edge of the tube, when the mem- 
 brane can be traced to its termination which is somewhat 
 abrupt ; afterwards, the passage may be distinguished by its 
 having only the walls of the contiguous air-cells with their 
 membrane for its boundary. Some air-cells and small inter- 
 cellular passages are seen to open into this bronchial tube, in 
 which case the bronchial membrane is not continued into
 
 30 MINUTE ANATOMY. 
 
 tlicni, l)nt on the contrary, tlieir vessels come to the surface of 
 tills membrane, and ajipear in the bronchial tube. 
 
 202. A section of the human lung, showing bronchial intercellular 
 
 passages, with air-cells opening into them ; also black pul- 
 monary matter situated upon the coat of the larger vessels. 
 
 203. Section of the human lung, injected, showing that part of its 
 surface which bounds an inter-lobular fissure. 
 
 204. A longitudinal section of a bronchial tube from the human 
 lung, with air-cells terminating in it. 
 
 205. Interior of the human lung, showing the air-cells and inter- 
 cellular passages. 
 
 206. A thin section of the human lung, injected, showing the 
 pulmonary membrane investing the capillary plexuses, and the 
 character and richness of these plexuses. 
 
 207. A section of the lung of a Negi-o, showing the air-cells with 
 
 the plexuses situated between them. 
 
 208. Poi-tion of the human lung, injected, showing a bronchial 
 tube giving off one bronchial intercellular passage, and ter- 
 minating in another. In this preparation, the character of 
 the plexixses formed by the subdivision of the arteries of the 
 bronchial membrane is distinctly seen ; also their dissimilarity 
 to those of the air-cells. 
 
 209. A very thin section of hmnan lung, showing the ramifi- 
 
 cations of the vessels in the capillary plexuses, between the 
 air-cells, and by transmitted light the membrane by which 
 they are enveloped. 
 
 t2 10. Tubercular lung, showing the manner in which tlie plexuses 
 between the air-cells, must become comjire^setl by the tuber- 
 cular matter deposited in the air-cells on each side of them ; 
 also the situation of the black pulmonary matter in the
 
 ORCtANS of RESriKATION. 31 
 
 inter lobular cellular tissue, as well as around the larger 
 vessels. 
 
 t21 1 . Two very thin sections of tuberciilar human lung, injected, 
 showing the situation of the tubercular deposit in the air-cells. 
 The intention of this preparation is to allow of the examina- 
 tion of tubercular lung by a high magnifying power and trans- 
 mitted light. 
 
 t212. A portion of tubercular lung, injected, showing the pro- 
 gressive destniction of the ca]iillary plexuses situated between 
 the air-cells, by the accumulation of tubercular matter in those 
 cells between which they arc placed. In this preparation, the 
 red colour of the injection in the capillaries of the walls of the 
 cells, so strikingly contrasts with tlie pale colour of tuber- 
 culous matter, that there is no difficulty in determining its 
 precise situation in relation to the air-cells and inter-cellular 
 passages. Between those air-cells which arc not completely 
 filled with the tubercular deposit, the intervening plexuses arc 
 seen to remain entire ; whilst between those more distended, 
 only remnants of the plexuses can be observed ; and in 
 the parts of a tubercle nearer to its centre, no vestige of the 
 plexuses is discernible. 
 At the conflex of three intei-lobular spaces an accumulation of 
 black pulmonary matter may be observed so completely filling 
 up the space between the lobes as to have a triangular form. 
 
 +213. Tubercular lung, showing very distinctly tubercular matter 
 infiltrated into the air-cells. 
 
 t21 4. Tubercular human lung, injected, showing tubercular matter 
 in the air-cells near to the tubercle, also the remains of plexuses 
 in its interior. 
 
 +215. Human lung, injected, with tubercular deposits in tlie air- 
 cells. 
 
 +216. Human lung, injected, showing tubercular matter deposited 
 in the air-cells.
 
 82 MINUTE ANATOMY. 
 
 t217. Tubercular matter taken from the interior of a tubercle to show 
 the remains of the ])ulmonary membrane. 
 
 t218.numan lung, with tubercular deposits in the air-cells. 
 
 t21 9. Interior of a tubercular lung from a man, injected, showing 
 the vascular plexuses between the air-cells near to a tuliercle 
 ■ to be partly obliterated, the cells being filled with tubercular 
 matter ; whilst in others, where is only a small quantity of 
 the deposit, the capillaries are seen to preserve perfectly their 
 natural character, so as not to be distinguishable from those 
 remote from the disease, or from those of a healthy lung. 
 
 t220. Portion of lung from a Negi'o who died of phthisis in St. 
 Thomas's Hospital. 
 
 f 221. Another portion of lung from the same person. Some parts 
 of this preparation show very well the density and richness of 
 the plexuses situated between the air-cells. 
 
 1 222. Human lung, injected, showing tubercular infiltration into the 
 air-cells. 
 
 t223. Lung of a child, seven years of age, affected with tubercle. 
 
 t224. Expectorated matter taken from the trachea of a man who 
 died of phthisis, containing in it the remains of air-cells. 
 
 E. — Urinary Organs. 
 
 225. Kidneys of a Frog, injected. In this preparation, the ante- 
 rior surface only is shown. Near to the convex border are the 
 Malpighian bodies, which, in the Frog and Toad, are situated 
 on the very surface of the organ. They are large, and appear 
 to be lodged in cavities ada])tcd for their rceeption, which are 
 surroimded by a plexus of vessels formed chiefly by the rami- 
 fications of branches coming from the renal artery, but partly 
 by branches of the reno-portal, or afferent vein.
 
 URINARY ORGANS. 33 
 
 22(i. Kidney of a Frog, injected, divided into two halves, one 
 showing its anterior, the otlier its posterior surface. The 
 former, exhibits the Malpighian bodies, with their afferent and 
 efferent vessels. The latter, shows nothing but the ramifica- 
 tions of the renal vessels, and the capillary plexuses formed by 
 the anastomoses of their ultimate subdivisions. 
 
 227. Kidney of a Toad, injected, showing only its jjosterior sur- 
 
 face, with the ramifications of the renal vessels, and the cajnl- 
 lary plexuses formed by the anastomoses of their ultimate 
 subdivision, as in the Frog. 
 
 228. Anterior surface of the kidney of a Toad, injected. This 
 presents the same ])arts as tliose mentioned in the description 
 of the kidneys of tlie Frog. Clusters of adipose vesicles, 
 covered by a rich plexus of capillaries, are seen on this surface 
 of the kidney of the Toad, having the same form, and the 
 position, with respect to tlio other parts, as in the Frocr. 
 
 229. Kidney of a Snake, injected, showing the ^ralpighian bodies, 
 with their afferent and efferent vessels, also the tubuli uriniferi. 
 
 230. Kidney of a Boa Constrictor with arteries, injected. 
 
 231. Kidney of a Boa Constrictor, injected, with three different 
 
 kinds of injection, the arteries witli red, the veins with vcllow, 
 and the tubuli uriniferi with white. The Malpighian bodies in 
 this preparation appear to be of a very simple character, l)eing 
 little more than a single vessel, larger than the other capillarits 
 and more or less convoluted. 
 
 232. Kidney of an Alligator, injected. Two portions are exhibited 
 in this preparation, one showing its surface, the other its 
 interior. In this animal, there is a very peculiar arran<roment 
 of the tubuli, whicli present a parallel disj)ositii)n, and end, 
 after sending off lateral ctca, in a bifurcated extremity ; each 
 of these extremities swells out into a globular enlargement. 
 Tlie preparation shows these dilatations, which are ])laced in a 
 
 VOL. I. n
 
 34 MINUTE ANATOMY. 
 
 row, and being fillctl witli red injection (from extravasation), 
 at first sight resemble Malpighian bodies. 
 
 233. Kidney of a Pigeon, injected, showing the Malpigliian bodies 
 
 to be of small size. 
 
 234. Kidney of a Pigeon, injected, and preserved in Canada 
 balsam. 
 
 235. Two renules of the kidney of a Porpoise, injected. 
 
 230. Horizontal section of the kidney of a Kangaroo, injected, 
 showing the Malpighian bodies, with their afferent and 
 efferent vessels ; also the tubuli uriniferi. 
 
 237. Longitudinal section of the kidney of a Kanguroo, injected, 
 
 showing all the parts mentioned in Nos. 241 and 242, which 
 differ, in no striking degree, from the same parts in the Dog. 
 
 238. External surface of the kidney of a Kanguroo, injected, show- 
 ing the plexus formed by the anastomoses of the ultimate 
 subdivisions of the renal vessels. The areolae of this plexus 
 are filled up by the flexions and convolutions of the urini- 
 ferous tubes. ^ 
 
 239. Kidney of a Hedgehog, injected. 
 
 240. Auother portion of the kidney of a Hedgehog, injected. 
 
 241. A very thin transverse section of the kidney of a Dog, 
 
 showing Malpighian bodies, with their afferent and efferent 
 vessels ; also the uriniferous tubes, more or less filled with 
 epithelium. 
 
 242. Longitudinal section of the kiilucy of a Dog, injected, show- 
 
 ing the same parts as No. 241, with the addition of the 
 large, straight, efferent vessels, which run in bundles with the 
 uriniferous tubes towards the extremity of the mammillary 
 processes.
 
 ORGANS OF CIRCULATION. 35 
 
 243. A very thin longitudinal section of the kidney of a Dog, 
 injected, showing all the parts mentioned in No. 241. 
 
 244. Urinary bladder of a Frog, injected, showing its extreme 
 
 vascularity. 
 
 245. Urinary bladder of a Frog, injected, and preserved in balsam. 
 24(). Urinary bladder of a Toad, injected. 
 
 F. — Organs of Circulation. 
 
 247. Epithelium from the inner surface of an artery. The characters 
 
 of this epithelium are very ill-detiiied, even when takeu from 
 the recent subject, and it can be very rarely seen at all, 
 especially in .the larger trunks. 
 
 248. Internal coat of an artery. 
 
 249. Internal coat of an artery. 
 
 250. 3Iiddle coat of an artery, showing elastic tissue mixed with 
 some granular matter. The elastic fibre is much less regular 
 in the middle coat of an artery than in the ligamentum 
 nuchae. 
 
 251. External coat of an artery, which is seen to be merely fibro- 
 cellular tissue. 
 
 252. A portion of an aortic semilunar valve, showing its fibrous 
 structure. 
 
 253. An ulnar artery, injected. In this preparation, portions of 
 the inner and middle coats have been removed, to show more 
 distinctly the situation of the vasa vasorum, which arc clearly 
 seen to be situated between the middle and external coats, 
 forming rather a dense plexosi. 
 
 D 2
 
 36 MINUTE ANATOMY. 
 
 2r)3a. Extornal tunic of a vein, sliowing its fibrous stnictuiv. 
 
 2.')ni). Tntornal tunic of a vein, folded so as to form valves. 
 
 253c. Capillaries from the retina. In this preparation all the nen'ous 
 matter is removed, and the capillary vessels thereby rendered 
 distinct. They are seen to consist of very thin, almost trans- 
 parent, and structureless membrane, studded with numerous 
 oval nuclei placed at irregular distances; they preserve nearly 
 the same calibre during the whole of their course, and form 
 frequent anastomoses. 
 
 254. A lymphatic vessel from the Human Subject, showing its 
 transverse and longitudinal fibres. 
 
 255. A portion of the thoracic duct, showing the same kind and 
 the same arrangement of its fibres. 
 
 256. Three, of the so called, lymphatic glands from the Human Sub- 
 ject, injected, to show their vascularity. 
 
 G. — Organs of Generation. 
 
 257. Ovisac of a Frog, injected, and preserved in balsam, showing 
 very distinctly the plexus of vessels by which it is lined. 
 
 258. Ovisac of a Frog, injected, with the termination of the 
 oviduct. 
 
 259. A portion of the oviduct of a Frog, injected, showing that 
 the extremity most remote from the ovisac, is by far the most 
 vascular, and that it is covered by a plexus of vessels which 
 does not appear to exist upon the other parts. 
 
 200. Ova from a Toad, injected. This preparation shows ova in 
 various stages of their development ; amongst them is a 
 cluster of undeveloped ones, incomparably more vascular than 
 the rest.
 
 OllUANS OF OENJiEATlON. 37 
 
 2(il. \ sunilar preparation from another Toad, showing the same 
 kind of cluster of ova, as those mentioned in No. 200. 
 
 2(J2. Two ova frona a Sheep. 
 
 2(i3. An ovum from a Sheep, with a portion of the granular eon- 
 tents of tiie (jraafian vesicle. The zona pellucida is remark- 
 ably distinct, surrounding the yolk, which is filled with finely 
 granular matter. 
 
 2tl4. A portion of the cotyledon of a Cow, injected. 
 
 2()4a. Tufts and villi of the chorion, taken from an ovum of the third 
 week, showing their subdivisions and ramifications, previously 
 to their reception of the umbilical blood vessels. The 
 external membrane is seen to be composed of minute irregu- 
 larly disposed fibres, connected by thin membrane, and en- 
 closing nucleated cells mixed with granular matter. 
 
 2()4b. A portion of the human placenta of tlie full period, injected, 
 showing the entire thickness of the organ from its foetal to its 
 uterine surface. The umbilical aileries after dividing and 
 subdividing on tlie foetal surface of the placenta, beneath the 
 amnion, are seen dipping at various parts into its substance 
 where they very minutely ramify; and, at length terminate 
 by becoming continuous with the minute radicles of the 
 umbilical vein, forming an immense number of terminal and 
 highly convoluted capillary loops, adapted to, and lodged 
 within the tubular sheaths of the chorion. The great peculi- 
 arities recognisable in these vessels, are tw^o ; first, the striking 
 predominance of the capillary branches over the trunks from 
 whicii they spring, and second, their extreme tortuosity, cir- 
 cumstances which must very much retard the velocity of the 
 circulation. 
 
 2()4c. A portion of the same placenta, in wliich the tufts have been 
 separated by merely moving the part briskly in water, show- 
 ing very clearly the demlritic procesiics of the chorion, and the 
 extremely tortuous vessels which the)' euolosc.
 
 38 MINUTE ANATOiMY. 
 
 264(1. Separated tufts of tlic same jjlacenta, with the vessels and ulti- 
 mate divisions of tlie chorion unravelled, to show the exact 
 mode of termination of tlie capillaries, and the nucleated 
 character of the membrane enclosing them. In this specimen 
 the nuclei are however very few and scarcely apparent. 
 
 264e. Some placental tufts very fully injected, others uninjected ; 
 the same arrangement of the capillaries and of their investing 
 processes of chorion as above described, is seen. This 
 preparation is put up in a very shallow cell, so as to admit of 
 being examined by high magnifying power. 
 
 264f. Detached villi of the placenta, injected, dried, and preserved in 
 Canada balsam, showing the terminal loopings and 'convolu- 
 tions of the umbilical capillaries, and their disproportionate 
 number to the trunks from which they proceed. In several 
 places, the trunks are well seen, each stem of the vein being 
 accompanied by rather smaller stems of the arteries. 
 
 264g. Piece of the human placenta, showing its uterine surface, 
 injected. This surface is slightly nodulated, and covered by 
 portions of membrane of very different degrees of thickness. 
 In some parts, especially over the noduli, the membrane is so 
 thin and soft as to allow of it being removed from the tufts 
 of vessels beneath it, by simple ablution with cold water ; in 
 other parts it is thick and flocculent. 
 
 2()4h. A piece of the same placenta taken from near its uterine sur- 
 face, showing membranous bands and portions of membrane 
 dipping between and separating the adjacent lobes. 
 
 H. — Cartilage. 
 
 205. Cartilage, and fibro-cartilagc, from a Shaik. 
 
 266. Another section of the same, thinner than the former, showing 
 in the cartilage the usual cartilage cells, with their nuclei ; 
 and in the fibro- cartilage, these cells, though }>erhaps of less 
 regular kind, internii.xcd with fibrous tist-ue.
 
 CAllTILAGE. 3» 
 
 207. Cartilage from a Sturgeon, showing very distinctly the 
 cartilage cells with their nuclei, also the great pro])ortion of 
 inter-ccllular or hyaline matter, which exists in the transpa- 
 rent cartilages of fish. 
 
 268. Vessels going to articular cartilage, injected, and forming 
 their terminal loopings, from a young Rahlnt. 
 
 2G9. Cartilage in progress of ossification, showing the cartilage 
 corpuscles in the vicinity of the bone, arranged in lines, with 
 the bone sending out spicula between them. In that j>art of 
 the cartilage, a little removed from where the ossification is 
 going on, the cartilage corpuscles are very numerous, but 
 without any definite arrangement. 
 
 270. Cartilage from a Human foetus, injected. 
 
 271. A piece of articular cartilage from the finger of an adult, 
 exhibiting its interior, with a small portion of its free surface. 
 The cartilage cells are seen extending completely to the 
 surface, without having any visible covering of synovial 
 membrane. 
 
 27 '2. Cartilage from a finger, injected and dried, showing beautifully 
 the terminal loopings of the vessels upon the margin of the 
 cartilage, as described and depicted by ftlr. Toynbee. 
 
 273. Fibro-cartilage from the ear of a Cat, presenting an appear- 
 ance very much like vegetable areolar tissue. 
 
 t274. Diseased bone and cartilage, imperfectly injected, showing 
 the vascularity of that part of the bune which is in contact 
 with the cartilage. 
 
 1275. Two portions of cartilage, affected with fatty degeneration ; one 
 of whicli has been put into ather to remove the oily matter. 
 
 t27 6. Cartilage in different stages of fatty degeneration.
 
 40 MLNL'TE AN ATOM V. 
 
 t277.Tlirco portions of Cartilage afFected with latty degeneration, 
 removed from a patient aftected with scrofuh)us disease of the 
 ankle joint. If these preparations, Xus. 27<) fvnd 277, be 
 examined very minutely, the following will be seen to be the 
 progress of the fatty degeneration. First, the nucleus of the 
 cartilage cell becomes more finely granular than natural, then, 
 these granules take on the appearance of minute si)herules of 
 oil, afterwards they run together, forming globules of diflfercnt 
 sizes, with which the cells become distended, and their walls 
 being no longer distinguishable, they appear like irregularly 
 shapen excavations filled with particles of oil. The hyaline 
 or intercellular matter, now undergoes the same change. 
 This, as in the case of the nuclei of the cells, becomes con- 
 verted into minute particles of oil, which coalescing, form 
 globules of various sizes. These particles arc either arranged 
 linearly, presenting a number of very irregular grooves of 
 various breadths running in different directions filled with 
 spherules of oil ; or the spherules of oil into which the inter- 
 cellular matter is converted, arc without any particular dispo- 
 sition beinfr conixremited together in irre<iular masses, resem- 
 bling those which had been accumulated in the cartilage cells ; 
 and thus, the whole of the material of which the cartilage 
 was composed, is converted into oil. 
 
 This degeneration commences at the free sui-face of the car- 
 tilage, and gradually proceeds to that attached to the bone, 
 so that a vertical section through the diseased cartilage into 
 the bone, will show one part of the cartilage almost in its 
 natural state, whilst the others are affected in a degree pro- 
 portioned to their proximity to the surface. 
 
 J. — Bone. 
 
 278. Transverse section of bone, showing the canals of Havers sur- 
 rounded by concentric lamella). In these lamellie the bone 
 corpuscles are seen sending out in all directions fine radiating 
 can.ils, which are the can<d\cid'i chalicojiJivri oi' ^liiller. 
 
 270. An obliipie section of a bone, showing the s^anie jarlb ii& those
 
 BONE. 41 
 
 just mcutioncd. Sonio of tlio Haversian canals jiass in the 
 direction of the axis of the bone ; others horizontally, and 
 connecting the former ones in the form of anastomosing canals. 
 
 280. A longitudinal section of bone, exhibiting the canals of 
 Havers cut in various directions with respect to their axis, 
 also the lamella? and the bone corpuscles, with their canaliculi 
 as in the transverse section. 
 
 281. A transverse section of one of the Human cranial bones. 
 The Haversian canals, owing to the great freedom of their 
 commimicatious, are very well seen, the section having ex- 
 posed them running in various directions. In some parts 
 where these passages run obliquely, their limiting walls are 
 distinctly displayed. 
 
 282. A vertical section of the same bone. The inosculations of 
 the Haversian canals are well shown. 
 
 283. A portion of a cranial bone of a Human foetus. This prepa- 
 
 ration illustrates the process of " intra-membranous ossifica- 
 tion," as described by Dr. Sharpey. Viewed with a low 
 magnifying power, the osseous fibres are seen running for the 
 mbst part in a longitudinal direction, and united by numerous 
 transverse bars, so as to produce an areolar texture. ^Vheu 
 examined with a higher power, (230 linear), by selecting a 
 favourable position, it will be observed, especially in the 
 margins of the areolae and in the cross bars uniting the longi- 
 tudinal fibres or spicula, that the processes already convcited 
 into bone, and distinguished by their dark and opaque appear- 
 ance, are prolonged into a lighter coloured substance ; this 
 ensists of delicate fibres united together, so as to constitute a 
 reticular tissue, in the areolae of which corpuscles or true cells 
 are lodged, though not well shown in this specimen : the 
 fibrous and areolar tissue may, however, by care, be traced 
 in many parts of the section. The fibres have the characters 
 of the white fibrous tissue, and, becoming charged with the 
 earthv salts, are thus converted into true osseous fibres. In 
 the dark and opaque ])arts of the section, a great number of
 
 42 MINUTE ANATOMY. 
 
 black corpuscles are seen, each consisting of a dark circumfer- 
 ence, of variable thickness, and a l»right coloured centre; 
 these dark objects a])pcar to be the original cells of the animal 
 tissue or matrix, converted like the fibres into bone by the 
 calcifying process. It will bo remarked that the Haversian 
 canals, the proper bone cells, and their canaliculi are entirely 
 absent in this section. 
 
 284. Transverse section of a Human fa>tal femur at the fourth month. 
 
 This and the two following sections, show the progress of ossi- 
 fication in the os femoris. The more minute structures con- 
 nected with the ossific process, cannot, however, be seen in these 
 specimens. In this preparation, it will be perceived that the 
 Haversian canals are much more numerous, and more irregu- 
 larly disposed than in the completely formed bone. Owing 
 to the number and free inosculations of the contained blood- 
 vessels, these passages are seen to have very numerous com- 
 munications, and to form an irregular network. Several of 
 the canals evidently lead towards the external circumference 
 of the bone, indicating the mode of their primary development 
 around vascular processes, reflected from the periosteum into 
 the interior of the growing bone. 
 
 285. Transverse section of Human femur, at the seventh month. 
 
 Wliere the external circumference is preserved intact, tlie 
 canaliculi of the outer range of the lacunae are seen terminating 
 on the exterior : a similar disposition is observed at the sur- 
 face of the great medullary cavity. 
 
 286. Transverse section of the Human foetus, at the ninth month. 
 
 The enlargement of the great medullary cavity and the de- 
 creased thickness of the walls of the bone become obvious 
 when contrasted with the preceding specimen. This prepara- 
 tion shows the system of the Haversian canals, the lacunae 
 and the disposition of their canaliculi. The vascular canals of 
 Havers are still very numerous, when compared with those of 
 the adult bone. 
 
 287. Transverse section of earthy matter of Human bone. The
 
 BONE. 43 
 
 general aspect of the osseous tissue is retained, but the ulti- 
 mate structure is much altered. The circumference of most 
 of the Haversian canals is irregular, probably owing to the 
 brittle bone crumbling down under the saw. The concentric 
 lamellae around the canals are very distinctly seen, though 
 deviating somewhat from the normal texture. The lacunae, 
 or bone cells, have to a great extent disappeared, though 
 traces of them may be very generally recognized on a close 
 inspection. 
 
 288. Longitudinal section of earthy matter of Human bone. In 
 this preparation, the normal structure is moi'e lost : the canals 
 of Havers are seen running longitudinally, but the lacunae 
 and canaliculi have disap])eared, the osseous substance 
 being reduced to a fine granular matter. Minute fissures 
 are seen, indicating the places where the fragile bone has 
 cracked. 
 
 1 289. Transverse section of a fractured bone. This specimen offers a 
 striking difference when contrasted with a similar section of 
 healthy bone. The arrangement of the Haversian canals is 
 very irregular, both as regards number and disposition ; in- 
 stead of the definite circular arcae, which these passages pre- 
 sent in the normal structure, canals are observed nmning in 
 various directions. In the apparently new bone, are numerous 
 corpuscles of various sizes, the more perfect of which are 
 evidently rounded bone cells in an imperfect condition ; others 
 are merely dark spots, without canaliculi ; in other parts of 
 the section, the general form and disposition correspond with 
 the healthy structure. 
 
 t290. Vertical section of the same bone. In this section, the struc- 
 ture approaches more to the healthy standard, the canals and 
 lacunae being more regularly disposed. This preparation 
 shows in some parts very distinctly the inosculations of the 
 Haversian canals. 
 
 291. Transverse section of a Stag's horn. This organ belongs to the 
 osseous system, and the structure is the same as that of bone.
 
 44 MINUTE ANATOiMY. 
 
 The Haversian canals, the lacuujc, and canalicnli arc seen as 
 in ordinary bono ; the inosculations of the vascular passages 
 are well sei-n ; the cori)uscles resemble those of the bones of 
 the animal. 
 
 t292. Section taken from a malignant tumour, removed by Mr. 
 Mackmurdo, from a man, named John Flynu, containing 
 a large quantity of osseous matter. This section consists 
 of imperfectly developed osseous matter. The canals ot 
 Havers run in- an irregular manner. The bone cells or 
 lacunae are for the most part imperfectly formed, and parti- 
 culai-ly are characterised by the absence of their canaliculi ; 
 tlicy are of irregular figures and vary in size. In some 
 places, the bone cells are properly developed, as to form, 
 and present also their canaliculi, but their disposition as 
 regards the Haversian canals is abnormal, the cells being 
 irregularly scattered about : in a few situations the cells have 
 the normal arrangement. This specimen shows in an inter- 
 esting manner the successive perfectioning of the bone cells 
 or canaliculi. 
 
 t292a. A section of a portion of bone, taken after death from the 
 centre of a medullary fungoid tumour attached to the tendon of 
 the middle head of the triceps extensor cubiti, and totally 
 unconnected with the periosteum or the bone. The develop- 
 ment of this tumour succeeded the removal of the osseous 
 tumour from which the section No. t2S)2 was taken. 
 
 This section exhibits the ordinary characters of normal 
 bone ; many of the corpuscles, however, appear imperfectly 
 formed, and without canaliculi, whilst in others the canaliculi 
 are perfectly distinct; the Haversian canals are imperfect, one 
 side being much more distinct than the other ; on the more 
 perfect side are traces of the osseous lamellee. 
 
 K. — Muscle. 
 
 21)3. Muscular fibre of a Cuttle-Hsli. The muscular fibre, in 
 tliis order of animals, seems to be of the most simple kind.
 
 MUSCLE. 45 
 
 It is composed of long, yellowish, and bright fibres, indefi- 
 nitely divisible into fine threads. There are no regnlar nuclei 
 in tliese fibres as in the organic muscular fibre of mammals, 
 nor transverse marking, as in voluntary muscles. 
 
 294. IMuscular fibre from a Common Fly, showing the extreme 
 distinctness of its transverse marking, and exact resemljlance 
 to that of the Crab. 
 
 29'). Muscular fibres from a Beetle. 
 
 296 Muscular fibre from a Spider. 
 
 297. Muscular fibre from a Spider, showing the same kind of 
 marking as in tlic Fly. In fishes and insects the lines crossing 
 the ultimate fasciculi, appear more definite and uniform than in 
 mammals. 
 
 298. Muscixlar fibres from a Julus terrestris. 
 
 299. Muscular fibre from a Crab. 
 
 300. Muscular fibre from a Crab. These specimens show, very 
 
 distinctly, the transverse marking of voluntary muscle. 
 
 301. Muscular fibre from the auricle of a Lophius piscatorius. 
 
 302. Another portion of muscular fibre from the same fish. The 
 striped character of muscular fibre is not distinct in either of 
 these specimens. 
 
 303. Muscular fibre from a voluntary muscle of a fish, showing 
 
 its very coarsely striated character. 
 
 304. A primary fasciculus from a Frog, broken up into its fibrillae. 
 
 305. A primary fasciculus, showing the sarco-lemma. 
 
 300. A primary fasciculus, divided into its ultimate fibrillar.
 
 46 MINUTE ANATOMY. 
 
 307. A primary fasciculus of muscular fibre, from a Frog, showing 
 very distinctly the sarco-lemma. In this preparation, the 
 fasciculi are extended, and fixed by their extremities to the 
 aides of the cell, separations of the sarcous elements, having 
 in this manner been produced, without lacerating the sarco- 
 lemma investing them, the latter is rendered very distinct at the 
 intervals between the separated portions of muscular substance. 
 
 308. i\Iuscular fibre from a Frog, showing its ultimate structure. 
 
 In this preparation, a primary fasciculus has been separated 
 into its component fibrillie, merely by pressure. No two of 
 the fibrilla3 are seen having the same diameter, and their size 
 being extremely unequal, there seems to be no reason why 
 any one should be selected as the ultimate fibrilla in prefer- 
 ence to another. It may be observed also that however minute 
 these fibrillae are, they still retain the dotted character of the 
 larger fibrillae. 
 
 309. Mylo-hyoid muscles of a Frog, injected, showing distinctly 
 the capillaries running between the primary fasciculi of fibres, 
 and, at the tendon connecting the two muscles, turning back 
 upon themselves to form arches, but without sending any 
 branches into the tendon. 
 
 310. Mylo-hyoid muscles of a Frog, injected, and preserved in 
 
 Canada balsam, showing beautifully the vascularity of muscle ; 
 also the absence of vessels in the tendon connecting them. 
 
 311. Muscle from the leg of a Frog, injected. 
 
 312. Muscular fibres from a young Rabbit, two days old. 
 
 313. Muscular fibres from the bladder of a Rabbit, resembling those 
 from the muscular coat of the intestine. 
 
 314. Transverse section of the tongue of a Sheep, showing the pri- 
 mary fasciculi of musciUar fibres running in different directions. 
 
 315. A primary fasciculus of muscular fibres from a Pig.
 
 BRAIN. 47 
 
 31(3. Muscular fibre from the heart of a Cat, injected. 
 
 317. A primary fasciculus broken up into its ultimate fibrils. 
 
 318. A primary fasciculus of muscular fibrillae, broken up into its 
 ultimate fibrillae, exhibiting the same appearance as in 
 No. 15. 
 
 319. Muscular fibre from the Human subject. 
 
 320. Muscular fibres from the ventricle of the Human heart, show- 
 ing the striped character of the fibre. 
 
 321. Muscular fibre from the auricle of the Human heart, showing 
 the striped fibre. 
 
 322. Muscular fibre from the Human intestine, showing nuclei in 
 
 many of the fibres. 
 
 L. — Brain. 
 
 323. Internal layer of dura mater, sliowing its fibrous structure. 
 
 324. Dura mater, with the internal layer raised. 
 
 325. Arachnoid membrane from the medulla oblongata, showing 
 
 the ramifications of some of the fibres which connect its cerebral 
 surface with the vessels of the pia mater, and called by Ma- 
 gendie, " Tissu cellulo-vasculaire sub-arachnoide." 
 
 326. Arachnoid membrane from the base of the brain, showing the 
 
 " Tissu cellulo-vasculaire," also some well defined roundish 
 corpuscles, having in their centre agranular nucleus surrounded 
 by fibrous tissue. One of these is seen at the conflux of three 
 cords which seem to split sending their fibres around it, and 
 then meeting on the opposite side. 
 
 327. A piece of the arachnoid from the base of the brain, with 
 
 bres resembling bundles of cerebro-spiual nerve tubules.
 
 48 MINUTE ANATOMY. 
 
 328. A picco of araclinoi J having concentrically laminated coq-tuBcles. 
 
 320. Subarachnoid cellular tissue. 
 
 330. Cerebral surface of the arachnoid, showing it covered with 
 
 small corpuscles, which in some ])arts are collected together 
 in circular patches. 
 
 331. Arachnoid from the base of the brain, showing the great dis- 
 similarity of its structure in different parts ; also the corpiiscles 
 and fibrc^s above described, and on its opposite, two large con- 
 centrically laminated corpuscles, one circular and the other oval. 
 
 332. Arachnoid membrane from the cauda equina, showing the bul- 
 bous termination of one of the cords of the subarachnoid tissue. 
 
 333. A fibre of subarachnoid tissue separated into two parts, one 
 
 consisting of a fibre more or less granular, the other of wavy 
 fibre like fibro-cellular tissue. 
 
 334. A portion of arachnoid, showing the ramifications of the fibres 
 of subarachnoid tissue in the arachnoid membrane. 
 
 335. A piece of arachnoid from the base of the brain, showing a 
 
 great number of the concentric corpuscles. 
 
 33G. A large piece of arachnoid from the medulla oblongata, show- 
 ing the attachment of a vessel by one of the arachnoid 
 cords to the cerebral surface of the arachnoid membrane ; also 
 some corpuscles on its opposite surface resembling somewhat 
 the corpuscles of Pacini. 
 
 337. The head of a Frog, injected, and cut open to show the vessels 
 of the brain. 
 
 338. Vessels of the pia mater of a Kitten, one day old, injected. 
 
 339. A portion of one of the internal Pacchionian glands, exhibiting 
 the same kind of fibre as that composing the denser parts of 
 the arachnoid ; also several concentric corpuscles.
 
 ORGAN OF VISION. 4!) 
 
 M.— Nruvrs. 
 
 340. Two nerves from a Fro^;, one of motion, the otlior of sensa - 
 
 tion. The former shows much more distinctly the individual 
 nerve tubules than th(> latter. 
 
 341 . A nerve with its neurolemma, enclosing a bundle of nerve tubules. 
 
 342. Another nerve contained in its neurolemma. 
 
 343. Portion of the nervus vagus, showing its nerve tubules filled 
 
 with coagulated nervous matter. 
 
 344. A portion of the lingual, and another of the gustatory nerve. 
 
 34.'). A portion of the ulnar nerve going to a muscle, showing the 
 individual nerve tubules filled with granular matter ; also the 
 fact that nerves after the coagulation of their tubular contents, 
 cease to exhibit a double contour. 
 
 346. A portion of sympathetic nerve from the mesenteric plexus, 
 showing its great resemblance to fibro-cellular tissue ; it is 
 made up of bundles of wavy fibres. 
 
 347. Sympathetic nerve from a Snake, showing the same kind of 
 structure as in No. 34(i. 
 
 N. — Organ op Vision. 
 
 348. Iris and choroid coat of a Frog, injected. 
 
 349. Choroid coat of a Frog, injected. 
 
 350. Another preparation of the choroid coat of a Frog, injected. 
 
 [[The three preceding preparations show that the vascularity of 
 the choroid membrane is much less than in mammals or in 
 birds,] 
 
 VOL. I. E
 
 50 MINUTE ANATOMY. 
 
 :i")l. C'lioroiil coat aii<l iris of a Pigeon, injocted, showing the difte- 
 irnrc in tlic degree of vascularity, and the arrangement of the 
 vessels at the anterior and posterior parts of the choroid coat. 
 
 352. Choroid coat of the eye of a Pigeon, injected, showing also a 
 number of vascular folds at its posterior part close to the 
 entrance of the optic nerve, constituting the " marsupium." 
 The ciliary processes are very small and little vascular com- 
 ]>ared with those of mammals. A circle of whitish tissue, 
 containing vascular loops is seen on the anterior surface of the 
 iris, surrounding the pupillary opening. 
 
 3')3. Iris of a young Rabbit, injected, showing a circle of large 
 vessels, situated near to its external l)order, and formed by the 
 anastomoses of the long ciliary arteries, from which rather 
 large branches proceed, running in front of the anterior surface 
 of the iris, into the membrana ]iupillaris. 
 
 354. Anterior layer of the capsule of the lens, injected, from a 
 
 young Rabbit. The disposition of the vessels is described in 
 Nos. 3fi3, and 364. 
 
 355. (yiliarv processes, (choroid and iris from a Calf. 
 
 356. Another preparation of the choroid, ciliary processes, and iris 
 
 of a Calf. 
 
 357. External surface of the choroid and iris of a Calf, showing 
 
 the much larger size, and straighter course of the vessels on 
 the external, than on the internal surface of the choroid. 
 
 358. Ciliary processes and iris of a young Kitten, injected, also a 
 portion of the membrana pupillaris. 
 
 350. The posterior surface of the iris and ciliary processes of a 
 Kitten, two days old, injected, showing very well their extrenie 
 vascularity. 
 
 3<i0. Ciliary jirocesscs of a Cat's eye, injected. In this prepara-
 
 ORGAN OF VISION. -.1 
 
 tion, those processes are seen of a triangular figure, with 
 their broad jiart ]ilaced anteriorly, and gradually becoming 
 narrower as t]>ey proceed backwards, to be lost on the 
 choroid coat. Each process consists of an extremely ridi but 
 single plexus of vessels connected together l\v a transparent 
 membrane having no definite structure. 
 
 3(>1 . Mcmbrana pupillaris and ciliary processes of a Kitten, injected. 
 
 362. The anterior and posterior layers of the capsule of the lens 
 
 of a foetal Rabbit, injected. In this preparation, nimierous 
 straight vessels can be seen passing from the posterior layer of 
 the capsule of the lens over its margin, into the anterior layer 
 of the capsule. jNlany of these straight Aessels originate in the 
 posterior plexus by a single trunk, which soon ilividcs into two 
 branches, one anastomoses with the vessels of the anterior 
 plexus, and the other seems to pass superficial to the margin 
 of the lens to anastomose, doubtless, with the vessels of the iris. 
 QThe preparations, Nos. 353, 354, and 362, show that the 
 anterior layer of the capsule of the lens and the membrana 
 pupillaris, are in i-eality one and the same structure. This 
 membrane receives its vessels from two sources, one set pro- 
 ceeds from the posterior layer of the capsiile, as seen in 
 No. 362, and the other from the anterior surface of the 
 iris, as seen in Nos. 353 and 354, and whether the membrana 
 pupillaris remain with the iris or with the lens, after the 
 latter has been removed from the eye, depends upon which of 
 these sets of vessels are ruptured in its removal.] 
 
 363. Posterior laver of the capsule of tlie lens of a fcetal Kitten, 
 injected, showing this plexus to proceed from one large trunk 
 which divides first into two branches, and then these divide 
 each into numerous others which radiate from two points, and 
 form, by their subdivisions and anastomoses, a rich plexus. 
 
 364. Capsule of the lens of a Kitten, injected. 
 
 365. Portion of the lens of a Rabbit. This preparation shows 
 the mode of union of the fibres of the Lens by their toothed 
 margins, of which its laminae are made up.
 
 52 MTNUTR ANATOMY. 
 
 3()r». Mnnl>rane of the vitreous liuinonr from a Sliocp. sliowing 
 iiuniproiis corpuscles u]>on it. 
 
 3G7. Vessels of the retina of a Cat, injected. 
 
 0.— Skin. 
 3C8. Skin of a Frog, injected. 
 
 369. Skin of a Frog, injected, showing that its capillaries are merely 
 
 in the form of a plexus, and without any of those vascular 
 loops which exist in the skin of animals having a higher state 
 of sensihility. 
 
 370. Entire foot of a Frog, injected, and preserved in Canada 
 ba'sam, showing very distinctly all the vessels injected. 
 
 371. Skin of a Frog, injected. 
 
 372. Tongue of a Frog, injected, showing cup-like papillae pro- 
 jecting from the surface of the tongue, and connected with it 
 by an artery and a vein. Also a very rich plexus of beaded 
 vessels, arranged in folds, situated at the inferior and lateral 
 parts of the mouth. 
 
 373. Skin of a Porpoise. 
 
 374. A vei'tical section of the skin of an Ass, parallel with the 
 
 roots of the hairs. This preparation shows distinctly the 
 vascular sacs in which the bulbs of the hairs are contained ; 
 also the sheaths in which the hairs are situated in their pas- 
 sage to the surface. The epidermis contains an abundance of 
 black )>igment in small irregular cells. 
 
 375. Vertical sections of a com of an Ass, injected, showing the 
 
 vessels passing through a thick layer of indurated cuticle. 
 
 37<5. Horizontal section <»f the skin of an Ass. injected.
 
 SKIN. 53 
 
 377. Vertical sections of the skin of an Ass, injected, showing the 
 bulbs of the hairs. 
 
 378. A similar section. 
 
 379. A thin vertical section of the skin of an Ass, injected, show- 
 ing funnel-like inversions of the cuticle to form sheaths for the 
 liairs. 
 
 380. The part beneath the indurated skin on the leg of an Ass ; the 
 
 corn injected, showing very distinct conical papilhe, each of 
 which consists of a thin transparent membranous sheath, en- 
 closing a loop of capillaries more or less twisted and convoluted. 
 
 381. Another portion of the same skin, with a part of the cuticle 
 partially detached, showing the conical cavities in the cuticle, 
 with the papillae lodged within them. 
 
 382. The frog of an Ass's foot, injected. The horny part having been 
 removed, an abundance of very long conical papillae are seen, 
 each containing a rich plexus of vessels, invested by a mem- 
 brane, and very much resembling the injected intestinal villi 
 of a young animal. 
 
 383. Another preparation from the same part. 
 
 384. Section of skin of the lip of a Cat, 
 
 385. Mucous membrane, from the turbinated bones of a Cat, 
 injected, showing its very rich vascular plexuses. 
 
 386. Mucous membrane from the septum narium of a Cat. 
 
 387. Skin from the palmar surface of the end of a finger, injected, 
 showing the concentric oval lines in which the cutaneous papillae 
 are in this situation arranged. Each line is seen to i^onsist of a 
 double row of papillae which incline towards each other, and 
 rest with their contiguous sides in close apposition, but which 
 are separated from the adjoining lines, by grooves, tnoie
 
 54 JIINUTE ANATOMY. 
 
 or less dt'eji. A papilla lonsists of a vury line meiubrane, 
 enclosing either a single loop of capillaries, twisted several 
 times rounil itself, or a convolution of such capillaries. 
 Nothing having the appearance of nerve can be recognised in 
 these pa])illaD, when their vessels are either injected, or unin- 
 jected, so that it must be concluded, either that they are not 
 nervous at all, or that if they contain the sentient extremity 
 of a nerve, it differs so much in appearance from nerve, as 
 ordinarily shown by the microscope, as not to be recognizable. 
 In this respect the skin agrees with the retina, and it seems 
 less probable that there slioidd be exceptions to a general fact, 
 than it does, tliat nerves, in these instances, an<l, perhaps, in 
 every other, should undergo, at their ultimate terminations, 
 such change in their physical characters as not to be distin- 
 guishable by any of those appearances which they exhibit, 
 either at their origin, from the brain, or in the trunk of a 
 nerve. 
 
 388. Skin from the dorsum of a finger, injected, showing that 
 the terminal loops, in the papillae, are of a more simple kind 
 than on the palmar aspect. 
 
 381). iSkin from the dorsum of a finger, where it overhangs the 
 nail, exhibiting a row of entire papillae which project beyond 
 the edge of the skin, and arc so situated, as to admit of being 
 examined by transmitted light, with a high magnifying 
 power. The membranous investments of the vascular loops 
 arc distinctly seen in this preparation, but no appearance what- 
 ever of nerve tubules. 
 
 390. tSkin from the dorsum of a hand, injected. 
 
 391. Skin from the dorsum of a finger, injected, showing the per- 
 forations of the hairs, and some of the hairs receiving a tubular 
 process of cuticle. 
 
 39^. ."^kin from the extremity of the plantar surface of a toe, 
 injected. Here the vascular loops are smaller and less com- 
 jilex, than on the corrcsi)onding part of the linger.
 
 SKIN. 56 
 
 393. A vertical st'«;tiou of the skin, injected, showing a canal, 
 containing a hair cut open, and the bulb of the hair lodged in 
 the subcutaneous cellular tissue. 
 
 394. A portion of cuticle from a finger, showing the perforations 
 
 of the sudoriparous ducts. 
 
 395. A portion of cuticle, showing its structure. 
 
 396. A portion of cuticle, showing sudoriparous ducts. 
 
 397. A portion of cuticle, with sudoriparous ducts, and the bulbs 
 of the hairs contained in an investment derived from the 
 cuticle. 
 
 398. Skin from the end of a finger, showing the rows of terminal 
 loops of vessels. 
 
 399. Another preparation, showing the same. 
 
 400. A vertical section of the skin of a hand, showing the sudo- 
 riparous ducts. In this preparation, the course of the ducts 
 traced from the surface, through the cuticle is seen to be 
 spiral ; but after having passed through the true skin, they 
 may be observed taking a straight course along the subcu- 
 taneous cellular membrane, for a considerable distance, and 
 terminating in a convoluted tube. 
 
 401. A similar section, showing the same organs. 
 
 402. Cuticle of a Xcgro, showing minute cells filled with dark 
 pigment matter. 
 
 403. »Skiu from the side of a finger, injected. 
 
 404. JSkiu from the palmar surface of a finger, part only of which 
 
 has been injected. This preparation shows the impossibility of 
 judging correctly by the microscope, of the amount of the 
 vascularitv of structures whose vessels have not been injected.
 
 66 MINUTE ANATOMY. 
 
 •lO.V A i)urti()U of cuticle from the luuiKin foetus of six mouths, 
 showing that the sudoriparous ducts are very much more 
 numerous in the foetus than in the adult. 
 
 4(>(i. A jiiecc of injected skin from a finger, preserved in balsam. 
 
 407. Skin of a finger which covers the root of the nail, injected, 
 showing distinctly the two layers of vessels described in 
 No. 408. 
 
 408. The vascular surface under the thumb nail, injected, with the 
 
 portion of integument covering the root of the nail, turned 
 back to show its inferior surface. On this surface, a very rich 
 network of vessels is seen, consisting of two plexuses, the 
 vessels of which are of two very different sizes. The plexus 
 of small capillaries is situated nearest to the nail, that of the 
 large ones immediately above it. The papillae near to the 
 free extremity of this portion of integument, derive their 
 vessels from both of these plexuses. The plexus of small 
 capillaries sends a branch along one side of each papilla as far 
 as its extremity, it then turns round, becoming suddenly 
 larger, and passes on its opposite side, and afterwards ter- 
 minates in the plexus of large capillaries. It is most probable 
 that the small capillary is an artery, and the large one a vein. 
 See No. 407. The vessels beneath the nail have a different 
 disposition and character at different parts. Those near to 
 its root are in irregular loops more or less twisted and con- 
 voluted, they are situated beneath the ])art of the nail called 
 " lunula ;" those coming next, pass in straight lines from 
 behind to before, and are very tortuous. Near these vessels, 
 the surface begins to be raised into lamina?, passing forwards, 
 and increasing in depth as they approach the free extremity 
 of the nail. These lamina? consist, each of a fold of membrane, 
 enclosing a series of simple loops of vessels, which become 
 large, and more like the loops under the cuticle, in pro- 
 portion as they approach the end of the finger. Near the 
 part whore the lamina? commence, are some very distinct 
 roundish openings, which pass for some depth beyond the 
 ?inface, appearing like follicles or lacuuye. As these are
 
 SKIN. 67 
 
 generally more or less closoil by the apposition of the adjucent 
 laniinie, they are not distinct, unless some of the material of 
 which the nail is formed, has remained within them after the 
 nail has been taken oft'; then the orifices of some of them 
 from which it had recently been removed, and globular por- 
 tions of this matter still filling up others, make them perfectly 
 clear, and render their existence as distinct structures unques- 
 tionable. See Nos. 41tj and 417. 
 
 409. The matrix of the nail of a great toe, injected. 
 
 410. The matrix of the nail of a little toe, injected, showing the 
 laminae with the vascular loops, also those of the skin, which 
 here are very simple. 
 
 411. The part (matrix) from which a finger nail has been removed, 
 
 injected, with the skin which had covered the root of the nail 
 turned back. This preparation shows very distinctly most of 
 the parts described in No. 408. 
 
 412. A finger nail and the cuticle connected with it, to show tlie 
 part of the nail which in the living subject is concealed. 
 
 •113. A vertical section of the end of a finger, injected, to show 
 the groove in which was lodged the root of the nail. 
 
 414. A vertical section of the part beneath tlie nail, showing the 
 
 vertical folds of the membrane, between wliicli the vascular 
 loops described in No. 408 are situated. 
 
 415. The part situated beneath the nail, injected, showing tlie open- 
 ings described in No. 408. 
 
 416. The vessels which secrete the finger nail, injected, showing 
 
 very distinctly the lacuna? described in No. 408, some of which 
 are open, and others filled with well-defined globular masses 
 of a whitish coloured substance. 
 
 117. A vertical section of the finger nail, made transversely througli
 
 98 MINUTE ANATOMY. 
 
 tlif part which lorreisponds to the himihi, showing that tlie 
 horny suhstance secretefl by tlie vascular convolutions of this 
 part of the matrix, is connected directly with the substance of 
 the nail, and that the lines before described commence from 
 tlie layer of matter covering these vessels. 
 
 418. A transverse section of the finger nail, a little above its free 
 edge, showing the cells of cuticle connected with this part of 
 its palmar surface. These cells are arranged in arches corre- 
 sponding to the loops of vessels contained in the longitudinal 
 folds of the matrix. In this section, the lines indicating the 
 cut edges of the horny lamiute are seen terminating at the 
 arches of cells, upon which they appear to rest. 
 
 419. A vertical s^ection made lengthways through a finger nail, 
 from its root to its free edge. In this section, the external 
 or dorsal surface of that portion of the nail which was 
 lodged in the groove, between the matrix and the semi- 
 lunar fold of skin projecting from the dorsum of the finger is 
 seen, covered by a thin layer of cuticle, which extends back- 
 wards almost as far as the base of the lunula, and is then 
 continued onwards upon the dorsal surface of the nail, where 
 it is gi-adually lost ; the palmar surface, near to its free 
 border, is also seen covered by cuticle, which in like manner 
 divides into two pai*ts, one becoming continuous with the 
 cuticle covering the end of the finger ; the other, passing 
 backwards along the palmar surface of the nail, as far as the 
 part called lunula, where it tenniuates. Between these layers 
 of cuticle, the jjroper or horny matter of the nail can be dis- 
 tinguished, presenting fine, nearly parallel, semi-elliptical lines, 
 with their concavity towards the free extremity ; and also a 
 multitude of darkish looking corpuscles of various forms. 
 These compose the substance of the horn of the nail, and 
 the lines are the cut edges of the laminixj of which it is 
 made up. 
 
 420. Vertical section of the hoof of a Horse. This sectiou shows 
 very <listinctly the canals which lodge the sebaceous ducts, 
 traversing the hoof, and at length opening on the bearing
 
 SHELLS. 59 
 
 edge : in several placcb the spiral disposition of these ducts is 
 observed. A vast number of lines, which are the edges of 
 the divided horny laniiniv, are exposed. The pigment matter 
 is small in quantity or entirely absent on the two edges of 
 the specimen ; but there is a central band in which graniUcs, 
 patches and cells exist. 
 
 421. Transverse section of the hoof of a Horse, at the coronet. A 
 
 considerable number of circular and oval canals are observed cut 
 across. Between these canals, and forming the substance of 
 the hoof, a multitude of lines are seen, which are the cut 
 edges of the lamiuce. I'igment matter is deposited in an irre- 
 gular manner, and for the most pait, as fine granules ; in 
 some places, howevei', where a number of longitudinal bands 
 exist, larger masses are seen of a more definite character : 
 these are pigment cells with branching processes. 
 
 422. Transverse section of the horn of a Rhinoceros. This organ 
 belongs to the cutaneous appendages, and has some resem- 
 blance in textm'e to the internal part of whalebone. No. 44a. 
 A number of passages, for the most part circular in form, 
 are seen, filled with a delicate membranous matter. These 
 passages are probably of the same class as those contained in 
 whalebone, tlie tip of the horn of the Ox, the hoof of the 
 Horse, &c., but their borders are not well defined. Around 
 the canals are numerous oval and colourless cells ; more out- 
 wardly are cells filled with a minutely granular matter. 
 
 423. Vertical section of the horn of a Rhinoceros. The canals 
 
 are more distinctly seen than in the preceding section ; tiny 
 pass longitudinally, and are evidently filled with some pecu- 
 liar matter disposed in irregular masses. The pigment cells 
 are well seen. 
 
 P. SUELLS. 
 
 424. Pinna nigrina ; two sections, one parallel witli the surface, 
 showing the ends of prismatic cells : the other at right angles 
 with the surface, showing the same cells cut longitudinally.
 
 60 MINUTE ANATOilY. 
 
 425. Section of decalcified ineiii])rane of Pinna nigrina, cut parallel 
 
 with the surface, showing the nienibrauous partitions between 
 the cellt*. 
 
 426. Section of Pinna ingens, cut parallel to the surface, showing 
 
 occasional black cells, an appearance best seen on the under 
 surface of the section. The cause of this appearance has not 
 yet been satisfactorily determined. 
 
 427. A section of the decalcified membrane of the same shell peq)en- 
 dicular to the surface, showing membranous partitions between 
 the cells, on which are transverse stria", indicating the lines of 
 junction between the flattened cells, of which a numl^er appear 
 to have coalesced to form the individual long prismatic cell. 
 
 428. Prisms of Pinna, separated from one another, in consequence of 
 the disintegration of the cell membrane. These exhibit trans- 
 verse striae con-esponding to those on the membrane of the 
 cells in which they were formed, and from which they have 
 been removed. 
 
 429. Section of Avicula parallel to the surface, showing the same 
 appearances as those just described. 
 
 430. A section of Crenatula parallel to the surface, showing the 
 
 same appearance as in the preceding specimens. 
 
 431. A section of Perna e])liippium, parallel to the surface, and 
 
 showing some of tlie black cells mentioned in No. 420. 
 
 432. Section uf ^Malleus albus, in which the cells are very large. 
 
 433. Section of A'ulsella in wliicli the cells are seen to be very 
 
 minute. 
 
 All the above belong to the natural family ^largaritaceae. 
 
 43 1. !^ection of the tliiu layer between the epidermis and nacrous 
 interior of L'nio oceideus, parallel to the surface, showing pris- 
 matic cellular structure.
 
 SHELLS. 61 
 
 435. Sections of Pantlora rostrata, showing the nacrous lining and 
 the lavtT of pri^*niatic cclhilar structure on its exterior. 
 
 436. Section of Anatina olen, showing the nacrous internal layer 
 
 with portions of the cellular external layer. 
 
 437. Sections of Thracia convexa parallel to the surface, showing 
 the cellular exterior layer. 
 
 438. Section of Thracia convexa parallel to the surface, traversing 
 
 both the outer and inner layers ; the outer layer resembling 
 that of the last section ; the inner one is composed of smaller 
 cells, each containing one or more dark spots. 
 
 439. Sections of ]Myodora striata parallel to the surface of the 
 internal nacrous layer, and also of the outer indefinitely 
 cellular layer. 
 
 440. Section of Mya arenaria parallel to the surface, showing in 
 
 some parts indistinct indications of a cellular structure. 
 
 441 . Section of Mya arenaria, showing the same appearances as in 
 the preceding specimen. These, in respect to their structure, 
 appear to be the link between the shells having a distinct 
 cellular structure, and those in which their substance is homo- 
 geneous. 
 
 [Nos. 435, 436, 437, 438, 439, 440, and 441, are shells 
 belonging to the natural family ]Myid?p, in which the mem- 
 branous element of the shell, after its decalcification by muri- 
 atic acid, does not present a decidedly cellular structure.] 
 
 442. Epidermic layer of ^fytilus edulis ; the outer surface showing 
 
 a structureless epidermis with a layer of cells immediately 
 beneath it. In the thick parts of this section the cells present 
 a black appearance. 
 
 443. Section of Terebratula inconstans parallel to the surface. 
 
 Fossil, plicated, not perforated.
 
 B2 MINUTE ANATOMY. 
 
 444. Section f»r Tcroliratula (»l)(>vata jiarallcl with tlic surface. 
 J'^'ossil perforated. 
 
 [^Tlio Ten-bratiilfE are described by Dr. Carpenter, in his 
 ]ia}H'r On (he Minute Si rupture of the Skeletons of MoUusca^ in 
 the Annnls of Natural Historif^ for December, 1843.] 
 
 44.'). Section of Terebratiila australis, recent. 
 
 446. Section of Tercbratula (Atrypa) psittacea, recent. 
 
 447. Anoniia ephippinni (slireds of nacre) showing tubular channels. 
 
 448. Section of Lima scabra parallel to the surface, showing 
 tubular structure. 
 
 449. Sections of a Patella parallel to the surface. 
 
 4ii0. Sections of Spondylus parallel to the surface. 
 
 4.')1. A section of Septaria gigantea parallel to the axis of the tube, 
 showing a structure indistinctly cellular. 
 
 4.52. A section of Septaria gigantea transverse to the axis of the 
 tube, showing the same structure cut in a different direction. 
 
 4r)3. Sections of Ilippuritc Fossil. The large piece is parallel, 
 and the small one transverse to the axis of the cone. Both 
 show a cancellated structure, with the cancelli filled u]) by 
 a crystalline infiltration of carbonate of lime. 
 
 4.')4. Exterior of a Crab shell from the under surface of the body, 
 showing the cellular layer beneatl) the e))idermis. 
 
 4.")5. Exterior of a Cr.ib shell from the upper surface, showing the 
 coloured cellular layer filling up the spaces between the papilla? 
 of the subjacent white layer. 
 
 456. Vertical sections of the interior white layer of a Crab shell, 
 showing a tubular structure siinilai- ti> tliat of dentine.
 
 INSECTS. 63 
 
 457. Spine of Echinus ; transverse section showing reticulated 
 
 structure. 
 
 458. Transverse section of the spine of Echinus. 
 
 459. Transverse section of the spine of Echinus near the base of 
 
 the spine, showing numerous hiyers of reticular structure. 
 
 460. Transverse section of the same spine, near to the apex of tlie 
 
 spine, showing fewer layers of reticular structure than the 
 preceding specimen. 
 
 461 . Section of a Spatangus shell parallel to the surface, showing the 
 reticulated structure peculiar to all the echinodermata. The 
 calcareous matter is in the shells of this class of animals nearly 
 devoid of animal basis. 
 
 Q. — Insects. 
 
 462. Mouth of Musca vomitoria. This specimen show? only a 
 part of the suctorial mouth of the diptera, more especially the 
 well-known complex organ, vaguely called the tongue and 
 proboscis. This is composed partly of the ligula^ but according 
 to Newport, the two dilated discs or fleshy lips by which it 
 is terminated are the analogue of the parts called paraglosscc . 
 These discs present a very beautiful structure, consisting of a 
 modification of the trachaBa? : on the inner margin of each 
 is seen a large trachaeal trunk, and another runs along the 
 posterior border ; from these, as also from between them, 
 proceed a great number of canals, surrounded by pecu- 
 liarly constructed imperfect rings, and ending at the circum- 
 ference of the discs in pointed csecal extremities. Towards 
 the outer border, several rows of sharply pointed minute 
 hairs or bristles are implanted. The mentum to which the 
 tongue or ligula is articulated, is seen ; but all the other oral 
 parts are wanting. 
 
 46.3. Proboscis and lancets of a Fly (Rhingia). This preparation
 
 64 MINUTE ANATOMY. 
 
 shows tlio various parts of tin- suctorial mouth in diptcra. The 
 mandibles and inaxilUe (the rultelli and gralpellee of Kirby and 
 Spcnre), arc seen. The two maxillary j)alpi, attached on 
 either side to a somewhat irregular piece, (iHtljnfet\ orsqname 
 ])alpifere, Straus), and ending in a kind of nob covered with 
 minute bristles, are observed. The proboscis consists of the 
 distinct horny slieath, and is formed of that part of the labium, 
 called nientum. The tongue (Jiijida) ends in two discs, pre- 
 senting another very complex variety of the spiral vessels or 
 tracheae : upon it numerous minute bristles or hairs are im- 
 planted. 
 
 4f)4. Proboscis and lancets of Musca vomitoria. The parts shown 
 are the mandibulae ; the maxilla?, shorter than the preceding, 
 and having sharp cutting edges, together with their feelers 
 (palpi maxillares) ; the proboscis or sheath and the ligula 
 with its two discs. The latter offer a most beautiful and 
 complicated structure, consisting of spiral or trachfeal vessels, 
 and of a series of bent tubes proceeding from them ; minute 
 bristles are as usual implanted on the tongue. 
 
 465. Proboscis of a Fly. Shows a structure very similar to the 
 
 preceding : the disposition of the tubes in the discs of the 
 tongue is very well seen. 
 
 466. Foot of a Fly. The five joints of the tarsus or foot are seen 
 covered with large spines and also with minute hairs. The 
 terminal joint has two curved and moveabte hooks (u»</uiculi), 
 which in this instance are of equal size. By means of these 
 hooks insects are enabled to creep on smooth and perpendi- 
 cular surfaces. Two discs or suckers for adhering to smoother 
 surfaces are likewise seen. 
 
 467. Proboscis of a IMoth. This is an interesting form of the 
 suctorial mouth, the long extensile portion or jn'oboscis, 
 consists of the terminal segment of the maxilla (lacinia, 
 Newport). The preparation shows one of these elongated 
 maxillai, with its various parts and appendages. The 
 organ is made u]t of a vast number of transverse muscular
 
 INSECTS. 65 
 
 rings which are very distinct towards the distal end. 
 Two rather dark coloured lines run throughout the pro- 
 boscis : the larger and central one, commonly said to be a 
 true tube, is a large trachaeal vessel ; the smaller consists 
 also of a trachaea and a nerve (Newport). There are 
 two kinds of peculiar apjiendages ; the first consists of a great 
 number of the barrel-shaped projecting bodies called papillae ; 
 these extend for about ^th of the length of the proboscis 
 occupying the distal extremity, and are probably organs of 
 taste. The second set of appendages comprises a multitude of 
 minute hooks, which, placed along tlie inner margin of the 
 maxilla, and acting somewhat like the barbules of a feather, 
 are for the purpose of uniting them together, and thus of 
 fonuing by their approximation, the central and tnie sucking 
 tube. In the present specimen, these hooks are seen in some 
 places forming a kind of fringe, and having, which is not un- 
 usual, somewhat the appearance of cilia. 
 
 468. Proboscis of a Butterfly, showing, the same parts as in the last 
 
 specimen. 
 
 469. Skin of a Caterpillar. Tlie preparation consists of the last 
 thoracic and tlie nine abdominal segments. The last true 
 (thoracic) leg is seen on one side, and when magnified about 
 100 linear, the joints ot" which it is composed, namely, the 
 hip (cojca), trochanter (trochanter), thigh (femur), shank 
 (tibia), and foot (tarsus), are perceived, each enclosed in a 
 dark corneous cylinder : the tarsus ends in a pair of claws. 
 All the pro-legs (pecks spur'u) consisting of four ventral, 
 attached to the third, fourth, fifth, and sixth ventral seg- 
 ments, and one anal, attached to the terminal or anal segment, 
 are seen. Each pro-leg is expanded at the extremity into 
 a sole (planta), seen to be provided with a double series of 
 curved hooks or claws, which being opposed to each other, 
 enable the lai-va to take a firm hold in climbing on plants, 
 &c. The surface of the skin is provided with a number 
 of spines, of which there are two classes, simple, consisting 
 of isolated and sharply pointed bristles; and compound, com- 
 posed of a large central stem, from which proceed lateral and 
 
 F
 
 66 MINUTE ANATOMY. 
 
 terminal spines, very sharply pointed, and fomied of a dark 
 horny snljstancc. On each ventral segment, excepting the 
 last, is seen a spiracle (spiracuhim, stir/ma), oval in figure, 
 suiTounded by a margin of horn, and having the opening of 
 the air passage guarded by a beautiful a])i)aratus of bars deli- 
 cately fringed, in order to prevent tlie entrance of foreign 
 particles. 
 
 170. Trachaeae of the larva of Dyticus marginalis. This preparation 
 shows the beautiful spiral structure, which in insects forms the 
 second or middle layer of their air-tubes. This layer consists 
 of a single tense and elastic thread disposed in a true spiral, so 
 as to keep the tube open. AVlierc the branches go off from 
 the main trunk, a special arrangement is seen : the fila- 
 ment of the trimk, without breaking off, makes a peculiar 
 turn, leaving a space, occupied by the mouth of the branch, 
 and after being thus disposed, continues its ordinary course. 
 The branch is formed of its own proper filament, which at its 
 commencement has a special development, evidently for the 
 purpose of maintaining the mouth in an open state, a disposi- 
 tion recalling that of the branches of the bronchial tubes as 
 they go off from their trimks. The structure just described 
 runs through all the ramifications of the trachaese, the only 
 modification being that the tubes become smaller and smaller, 
 and the filament more and more delicate : it is well seen in 
 the section where the stem bifurcates into two terminal 
 branches. 
 
 471. Compound eye of a Beetle. The facettes of the cornea, (cor- 
 neules), hexagonal in form, are well seen. In one place, 
 where a portion of the dark coloured choroid coat and sur- 
 rounding skin of the head remains, a few of the corneules are 
 seen in their whole extent, in the form of elongated cylinders ; 
 to observe these, the prei)aration should be reversed.
 
 VEGETABLE STRUCTURES. 67 
 
 R. — Vegetable Structures. 
 
 472. Cellular membrane with the cells detached from one another 
 
 by the action of hot acetic acid. The separated cells in tliis 
 preparation are seen to consist of vesicles filled with minute 
 granules of a greenish matter, and surrounded by an exceed- 
 ingly fine structureless membrane. The quantity of the latter 
 in relation to the size and number of cells, varies in different 
 parts of the same plant, as well as in different classes of vege- 
 tables. In submerged plants, between the cells of the cotyle- 
 dons, and between those of the pith, this tissue is almost absent. 
 When the cellular membrane is in its entire state, this struc- 
 tureless membrane fills up the spaces between the vesicles or 
 true cells in form of an intercellular tissue. 
 
 473. A transverse section of Valeriana officinalis, which had vege- 
 tated for some time in a solution of the bichloride of mercury, 
 and was afterwards exposed to hydro-sulphuric acid, show- 
 ing the tissue situated between the cells, and between the 
 vessels, filled with the black bisulphuret of mercury. 
 
 474. A transverse section of a Vine, similarly treated, and pre- 
 
 senting tlie same appearance as the above. 
 
 475. A transverse section of Pinus sylvestris, similarly treated, 
 
 exhibiting also the black bisulphuret of mercury occupying 
 the tissue between the cells, as shown in Xos. 473 and 
 474. 
 
 476. Longitudinal sections of Valerian, Vine, and Pinus, which 
 had vegetated in a solution of the bichloride of mercury, and 
 afterwards were acted on by hydro-sulphuric acid, shoAving 
 the intercellular tissue loaded with the black bisulphuret of 
 mercury. 
 
 477. A transverse section of the pith of Elder, in its natural state, 
 
 showing the cells. 
 
 F 2
 
 68 MINUTE ANATOMY. 
 
 478. A vortical section of Pinus sylvestris, in its natural state, 
 showing the oval glands peculiar to the coniferae. 
 
 471). Ducts, or sap vessels from Momordica elateriuni. In this 
 prc])aration some of the ducts are seen to be of the aniuilar, 
 and others of the reticulated kind ; distinct openings of com- 
 munication may be observed between the latter. 
 
 480. Spiral vessels from Elaterium ; some of the spirals are seen 
 to have distinct, and well defined openings of communication 
 between them as in the ducts. These openings sometimes 
 exist at the extremities of the separate joints composing a 
 spiral vessel, at others they are at a sliort distance from 
 them, and in the latter case, these extremities are conical, lie 
 one against another and have their opening of communication 
 at some distance from tlieir pointed ends. 
 
 481. Spiral vessels in the petal of Digitalis in their natural 
 
 situation, prepared in the following manner. A thin leaf or 
 petal is placed upon a microscopical slide, with a piece of 
 thin glass over it ; some pure acetic acid is introduced between 
 them, sufficient in quantity entirely to cover the portion of 
 plant, and the preparation tlien being held over the flame of 
 a candle, is gently boiled until the plant becomes transparent. 
 If this should not be effected by one introduction of the acid, 
 it must be introduced a second, or a third time, and the 
 boiling repeated as often. By this mode of preparation, 
 the spiral vessels are brought out most distinctly, and 
 their connexions and exact mode of termination determined, 
 in a manner which could not otherwise have been accom- 
 ]>lished. 
 
 482. Two transverse sections, one of an exogenous, and the other of 
 
 an endogenous plant. 
 
 483. Two longitudinal sections of tlie same plants. 
 
 484. Cutis frouj the under surfaie of a jdant, showing the stoniata.
 
 VEGETABLE STRUCTURES. 69 
 
 48;'>. A vertical section of the same plant, showing the stomata cut 
 vertically. 
 
 486. A section of tlie cotyledon of a Common Bean, showing starch 
 cells filled with starch vesicles ; also some spiral vessels. 
 
 487. Lymphatic hairs from Tradescantia. 
 
 488. Glandular hairs from a Common Nettle. These hairs, of 
 rather prickles, somewhat resemble in structure the poison- 
 ftxngs of a serpent, being tubular, and perforated a little below 
 the sharp point ; while at the lower end they are dilated 
 into a conical chamber, containing a more or less venomous 
 fluid. TN^hen touched liv the hand the prickle readily pene- 
 trates the skin, and the compression of the cavity forces the 
 poison through the tube into the wound. 
 
 R. D. GRAINGER. 
 G. RAINEY.
 
 » 
 
 SECOND SECTION. 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE ANATOMY. 
 
 ORGANS OF LOCOMOTION. 
 A. — Bones. 
 
 a. Vertebrce. 
 
 489. A vertebral column, articulated, including the cervical, dorsal 
 
 and lumbar vei'tebrae, the sacrum, and the coccyx. 
 
 490. Vertical section of a vertebral column, articulated. 
 
 491. A first vertebra, or atlas. 
 
 492. A second vertebra, or axis. 
 
 493. The five inferior cei'vical vertebrae. 
 
 494. The twelve dorsal vertebrae. 
 
 495. The five lumbar vertebrae. 
 
 496. A sacrum. 
 
 497. A coccyx, in two pieces.
 
 72 DESCRIPTIVE ANATOMY. 
 
 498. The spinal colinmi of a foetus, in spirit. 
 
 491). Vertical section of the spinal colunm of a foetus, in spirit. 
 
 h. Sternum. 
 
 500. A sternum, with its component pieces anchylosed. 
 
 501. A sternum, with its component pieces connected by cartilage. 
 
 502. A foetal sternum, and ribs, injected, showing their cartilages 
 and commencing ossification. 
 
 503. A sternum, with the cartilages of the ribs, attached, showing 
 the points of ossification. P'rom a foetus of nine months. 
 
 c. Rihs. 
 
 504. A rib softened by immersion in acid. 
 
 505. A first rib of the right side. 
 
 506. A second rib of the right side. 
 
 507. A third rib of the right side. 
 
 508. A fourth rib of the right side. 
 
 509. A fifth rib of the right side. 
 
 510. A sixth rib of the right side. 
 
 511. A seventh rib of the right side. 
 
 512. An eighth rib of the right side. 
 
 513. A ninth rib of the right side. 
 
 514. A tenth rib of the right side.
 
 ORGANS OF LOCOMOTION.— ^OiV^^. 73 
 
 /ili"). An eleventh rib of the right side. 
 
 516. A twelfth rib of the right side. 
 
 d. Os Hyoides. 
 
 517. An OS hyoides, 
 
 e. Bones of the Skull and Face. 
 
 518. A skull, with the lower jaw. 
 
 519. An occipital bone. 
 
 520. A right temporal bone, 
 
 521. A left temporal bone. 
 
 522. The small bones of the tympanum, or ossicula auditus. 
 
 523. A right parietal bone. 
 
 524. A left parietal bone. 
 
 525. A frontal bone. 
 
 526. A sphenoid bone. 
 
 527. An ethmoid bone. 
 
 528. A right superior maxillary bone. 
 
 529. A left superior maxillary bone. 
 
 530. A right palate bone. 
 
 531. A left palate bone. 
 
 532. A right malar bone.
 
 74 DKRCRIPTIVK ANATOMY. 
 
 ."»,*{;{. A left malar lionc. 
 
 r)34. A ri^lit nasal hone. 
 
 ')'.\'}. A left nasal bone. 
 
 iiSC). A right lachrymal bono. 
 
 .')37. A left lachrymal hone. 
 
 '}38. A vomer. 
 
 r)39. A right inferior turbinated bone. 
 
 o40. A left inferior turbinated liono. 
 
 541. A lower jaw-bone. 
 
 542. The skeleton of a nine months foetus. 
 
 543. A similar specimen. 
 
 544. The skull-cap of a Child, showing the anterior fontanelle. 
 
 545. A similar specimen. 
 
 54(i. The skull-cap of a Child, showing the posterior fontanelle. 
 
 547. Membrane of the skull, showing incipient ossification. 
 
 548. A similar specimen, injected. 
 
 549. A similar specimen, in a more advanced stage. 
 
 550. A similar specimen, in a still more advanced stage. 
 
 551. A similar specimen, in which ossification is complcto. 
 
 552. A parietal bone, with the vessels of the pericranium and dura 
 mater, injected.
 
 ORGANS OF LOCOMOTION.— BONES. 75 
 
 f. Lotcer Jaw-honest. 
 
 553. The lower jaw-bone of an Infant. 
 
 554. The lower jaw-bone of an older Chilil. 
 
 555. The lower jaw-bone of a Child, still older. 
 
 ii^Q. The lower jaw-bone of a Child, still oMcr tlian the preceding. 
 
 557. The lower jaw-bone of an Adnlt, remarkable for its strength ; 
 
 the rami constitute a right angle at their union, and the chin 
 is remarkably receding. 
 
 558. The lower jaw-bone of an Adult : the ascending ramus is very 
 
 broad, the angle is slightly obtuse, and the chin prominent. 
 
 559. A lower jaw-bone, the angle of which is more obtuse than 
 that of the preceding, and the chin more prominent. 
 
 500. A lower jaw-bone, the angle of which is remarkably obtuse, and 
 the chin prominent ; the lower margin of the horizontal 
 rami is everted. 
 
 561. A lower jaw-bone, in advanced age, wanting many of the 
 teeth. 
 
 5(52. A lower jaAV-bone, more nearly toothless than the preceding ; 
 the angle is more obtuse. 
 
 5()3. A lower jaw-bone, wanting all the teeth, and presenting pai-tial 
 absorption of the alveoli. 
 
 564. A lower jaw-bone, in which absorption of the alveoli is further 
 advanced. 
 
 565. A lower jaw-bone, in which absorption is still more advanced. 
 
 566. A lower jaw-bone, in which absorption of the alveolar processes
 
 76 DRSCRIPTIVK ANATOMY. 
 
 is complete : the angle is very obtuse, an<l the coronoid pro- 
 cesses are much attenuated. 
 
 r)()7. A lower jaw-bono, in which there is attenuation by partial 
 absorption of the coronoid, and condyloid processes, and of 
 the body of the bone. The amount of absorption is shown 
 by the portion of the mental foramen. 
 
 568. Skull, with lower jaw attached ; perfectly toothless. 
 
 Presented hy B. Travers^ Esq. 
 
 569. Base of the skull (external). 
 
 570. Base of the skull (internal). 
 
 571. Vertical section of the head. 
 
 572. Vertical section of the face. 
 
 573. Bones of the head and face, separated from, but artificially 
 
 connected with each other, so as to show their several rela- 
 tions, which may be varied by moveable joints. The distribu- 
 tion of the arteries and nerves to the teeth is also shown. 
 
 g. Skulls, mostly Caucasian, hut of remarkable conformation. 
 
 574. A skull remarkable for its rotundity. 
 
 575. A similar specimen. 
 
 576. A similar specimen. 
 
 577. A similar specimen. 
 
 578. A similar specimen. 
 
 570. A similar specimen, dug up at Hastings. 
 
 From Mr. Naamyth's Collection.
 
 ORGANS OF LOCOMOTION.— iiC.V'iv'i'. 77 
 
 580. A skull ruiuiirkablc for its length. 
 
 581. A similar specimen. 
 
 582. A similar specimen. 
 
 583. A similar specimen. 
 
 584. A similar specimen. 
 
 585. A similar specimen. 
 
 586. A similar specimen. 
 
 587. A skull remarkable for the flatness of the vertex. 
 
 588. A similar specimen. 
 
 589. A similar specimen. 
 
 590. A similar specimen. 
 
 591. A skull well proportioneil and developed. 
 
 592. A skull with large frontal sinuses. 
 
 593. A skull with largely developed frontal sinui^es, and a con- 
 
 siderable depression just above them. 
 
 594. A skull from Waterloo. 
 
 Presented hy J. F. South. 
 
 h. Ethnological Section. 
 
 595. Cast of a skull, marked with the phrenological divisions of 
 
 Dr. Gall. 
 
 590. Cast of the skull of a mummy. Caucasian variety. 
 
 Presented hy J. F. v^onth.
 
 78 DESCRIPTIVE ANATOMY. 
 
 51)7. Cast of tlif skull of a Tartar. Mongolian variety. 
 
 Presented by J. F. South. 
 
 ;")!)8. Skull, sujjposc'J to bo that of a Lascar, exhibiting considerable 
 obliquity of the external base from the occipital foramen 
 backwards, as in many of the .South Sea Islanders. 
 
 5!)l). Skull, supposed to be that of a Lascar. 
 
 600. Skull of a Chinese. 
 
 ()0L Cast of the skull of an Esquimaux. Mongolian variety. 
 
 Presented hj J. F. South. 
 
 002. Cast of a skull, from Nootka Sound. The original is in the 
 museinn of Christ's Church, Oxford. 
 
 Presented hy Dr. K'ldd. 
 
 603. Cast of another skull of the same character. 
 
 Presented ly Dr. Kidd. 
 
 604. Skull of a Knistenaux, or Southward Indian, from Hudson's 
 
 Bay. 
 
 605. Cast of the skull of an American Indian. 
 
 Presented ly J. F. South. 
 
 606. A similar specimen. 
 
 Presented ly J. F. South. 
 
 (507. Skull of an Inca of Peru, from Illo. 
 
 608. A skull, probably that of a Peruvian. 
 
 609. Cast of a skull, supposed to be that of a Peruvian. 
 
 610. Cast of a skulk supposed to be that of a Peruvian. 
 
 611. Skull of a Carib Chief, from St. Vincent. The frontal and
 
 OllGANS OF LOCOMOTION.— iJO^VAX 79 
 
 occipital regions arc artificially compressed, lie was known 
 to l)e a good botanist. 
 
 (512. A skull, probably that of a South Sea Islander. 
 
 (513. A skull, probably belonging to an individual of the same race. 
 
 (514. Skull of a Malay, sent from Java. 
 
 Presented ly W. P. Monk, Esq. 
 
 (515. Cast of the skull of a New Zealander. Malayan variety. 
 
 Presented hy J. F. South. 
 
 (516. Cast of the skull of a New Hollander. Malayan variety. 
 
 Presented hy J. F. South. 
 
 (517. Skull of a New Hollander ; one of the incisive teeth is absent, 
 having probably been knocked out at puberty, according to 
 their custom. From Botany Bay. 
 
 Presented hy — Hall, Esq. 
 
 (518. Skull of a New IloUander. 
 
 From Mr. Nasmyth's Collection. 
 
 (519. A skull, apparently belonging to the same race. 
 
 G20. Skull of a native of Johana, an island near Madagascar. 
 
 Female, aged 7o. 
 
 (521. Cast of the skull of a Mozambique Negro. 
 
 (322. A skull, resembling that of a ^Mozambique Negro. 
 
 623. Cast of the skull of a Caffrc. 
 
 Presented by J. F. South. 
 
 (524. Cabt of the bkuU of a Buthmau. 
 
 Presented hy J. F South.
 
 80 DESCRIPTIVE ANATOMY. 
 
 625. Cast of the skull of a Hottentot. 
 
 Presented hy J. F. South. 
 
 020. Skull of an Ebo Negro ; the incisive teeth are filed in front, 
 and partially decayed from loss of the enamel ; the right 
 zygomatic arch is depressed, probably the consequence of frac- 
 ture. 
 
 627. Skull of an Ebo Negro ; the incisive teeth are filed to points, 
 and at their base is a considerable alveolar abscess. 
 
 628. Skull of an Ebo Negro ; the incisive teeth are filed to jioints. 
 
 629. Cast of the skull of a Negro of inferior cast. Ethiopian 
 variety. 
 
 Presented hy J. F. South. 
 
 630. Cast of the skull of a Negro of superior cast. Ethiopian 
 variety. 
 
 Presented hy J. F. South. 
 
 631. Skull of an African Negro. 
 
 Presented hy W. T. Monk, Esq. 
 
 632. Sknll of a Negro. 
 
 633. Skull of an Asliantee Soldier, procured from Java. 
 
 Presented hy W. T. Monk., Esq. 
 
 634. Skull resembling that of a Negro. 
 
 035. SkuU of a Javanese. 
 
 Presented hy W. T. Monk, Esq. 
 
 636. Cast of a skull, probably that of a West Indian Negro. 
 
 Presented hy J. F. South. 
 
 637. A skull, suppposed to be that of a West Indian Negro. 
 
 Presented hy J. F. South.
 
 ORGANS OF LOCO^OTlOl^.— BONES. 81 
 
 i. Bones of tfie Upper Extremity. 
 
 638. Scapula, clavicle and upper extremity, of the riglit side ; 
 
 articulated. 
 
 639. A left scapula. 
 
 640. A scapula deprived of its earthy constituents, by immersion in 
 
 acid. 
 
 641. A left clavicle. 
 
 642. A left humerus. 
 
 643. A left radius. 
 
 644. A left ulna. 
 
 64.5. A poition of the ulna, injected and dried. 
 
 646. Tlie bones of the carpus of the left side. 
 
 647. The metacarpal bones of the left side. 
 
 648. The phalanges of the left side. 
 
 649. The scapula and os luimeri of a Child. A longitudinal section 
 of the body and superior epiphysis of the os humeri has been 
 made, exhibiting the medullary artery, and the deposition of 
 ossific matter in the cartilage. 
 
 650. Scapula, clavicle and upper extremity of a foetus, at the full 
 period. 
 
 651. Section of the bones of the arm and fore-arm, injected and 
 
 dried. 
 
 652. Longitudinal section of a finger, to show the epiphyses.
 
 82 DESCRiniVE ANATOMY. 
 
 k. Bones of the Pelcis and Loxcer E.vtremity. 
 653. i\Ialc pelvis, articulated. 
 
 f);")4. Female pelvis, articulated. 
 
 ().')"). Another specimen, together with the upper part of the thigh 
 bones ; taken from a woman who died of puerperal fever, 
 after being delivered of twins. 
 
 CiiiQ. A right os innominatum, and lower extremity articulated. 
 
 Co7. A left OS innominatum. 
 
 058. A left femur. 
 
 659. Horizontal section of a femur, showing the cancclli. 
 
 660. Horizontal section of the base of a tibia, injected and dried. 
 
 661. A left patella. 
 
 662. A left tibia. 
 
 663. The base of a tibia, injected and dried. 
 
 664. Section of a tibia, to show the medullary membrane and 
 
 cancelli. 
 
 665. A left fibula. 
 
 6QQ. Portion of a fibula, with its periosteum, injected. 
 
 667. Half of a fibula, softened and injected. 
 
 668. Tibia and fibula of a young subject, injected, and immersed 
 in spirits of turpentine. The earthy matter partially removed. 
 
 669. The bones of the tarsus of the left side.
 
 ORGANS OF LOCOMOTION.- /JOiV^.S. 83 
 
 070. TIic metatarsal bones of the left side. 
 
 671. The phalanges of the left side. 
 
 672. The right OS innominatuni, and lower extremity of a frotus, 
 
 at the full period. 
 
 673. A pelvis, with three lumbar vertebrfe attached, from a foetus of 
 nine months, showing the cartilaginous epiphyses of the bones, 
 and the progress of ossification. 
 
 674. Os inriominatum of an Infant, the component parts of which 
 are united by cartilage. 
 
 675. Os innominatum of a young subject. 
 
 676. Section of the thigh-bone of a foetus, previous to ossification, 
 injected. 
 
 677. Section of the superior epiphysis of a humerus, showing inci- 
 
 pient ossification. 
 
 678. Transverse section of the extremity of the thigh-bone of a 
 foetus, exhibiting the commencement of ossification. 
 
 679. Longitudinal section of the extremity of the thigh-bone of a 
 
 Child, exhibiting the deposition of bone in the cartilage of the 
 epiphysis, injected. 
 
 680. Another specimen, in which ossification is further advanced. 
 
 681. Another specimen, still further advanced. 
 
 682. Section of the lower epiphysis of the thigh-bone, exhibiting 
 
 the deposition of bone in the cartilage. 
 
 683. Os femoris of an Infant, cut to show the injected medullary 
 
 artery. 
 
 0.2
 
 M DRRCRirTIVE ANATOMY. 
 
 084. A Jiimilar specimen. 
 
 08'). A .similar s])Ociincn. 
 
 080. Os fLiiioris of an Infant, oxhil)iting tlie periosteum. 
 
 087. Periosteum, injected. 
 
 088. Anotlier specimen. 
 
 089. Patella of a young Child, showing incipient ossification. 
 
 090. Another specimen, in a more advanced stage. 
 
 091. Anotlior specimen, in a still further advanced stage. 
 
 092. Section of the knee-joint of an Infant, injected. 
 
 093. Section of the tibia and filmla of an Infant, injected. 
 
 094. Section of the injected foot of an Infant, showing the bones 
 
 partially ossified. 
 
 095. Portions of bone which have been partially digested, by in- 
 
 troduction into the stomach of a living Dog for nine hours : the 
 more prominent parts were protected by a covering of wax. 
 
 090. A fragment of a cylindrical bone, which had been long exposed 
 to the action of water, showing the osseous laminae. 
 
 097. An adiilt male skeleton, articulated. 
 
 098. An adult male skeleton, articulated. A native of Xew Zealand. 
 
 099. A fine adult male skeleton, articulated. Native of some part 
 
 of Germany. 
 
 700. An adult female skeleton, articulated.
 
 ORGANS OF LOCOMOTION,- yoAVr.^'. 85 
 
 701. An adult female skeleton, articulated. A native of Bavaria. 
 
 This skeleton possesses a supernumerary dorsal vertebra and 
 pair of rudimentary floating ribs : of the latter, the left is 
 rather the longer. 
 
 702. Natural skeleton of a Child, aged about six years. 
 702a. Natural skeleton of a young Infant. 
 
 702b. Natural skeleton of a foetus, of nine months. 
 
 702c. Natural skeleton of a foetus, of about seven months. 
 
 702d. Natural skeleton of a foetus, of about six months. 
 
 702e. Skeleton of a young Infant ; the bones separate. 
 
 702f. Skeleton of a foetus of nine months ; the bones separate. 
 
 702g. Skeleton of a foetus, about seven months; the bones separate. 
 
 702h. Skeleton of a foetus about live mouths ; the bones separate. 
 
 B. CoNSTUUCTlON OK JoiNTS. 
 
 a. Of the Head and Trunk. 
 
 703. The bodies of four lumbar vertebrae, exhibiting the common 
 anterior and posteiior ligaments of the spine. 
 
 704. Two dorsal, and three lumbar vertebrae, exhibiting the liga- 
 menta sub flava, the supra-spinous, and the inter-spinous 
 ligaments. 
 
 705. An atlas and axis, with a portion of an occipital bone, exhi- 
 biting the occipito-axoidean ligament. 
 
 706. A similar specimen, exhibiting the transverse ligament of the
 
 86 DESCRIPTIVE ANATOMY. 
 
 atlas, the odontoid ligaments, and the anterior atlo-axoid 
 ligament. 
 
 707. Six dorsal vertebrae, with parts of the ribs attached, exhi- 
 
 biting the anterior and posterior common ligaments, the 
 anterior costo-vertebral or stellate ligaments, the anterior 
 and posterior costo-transverse ligament;?, the articulating 
 facettes, on the bodies of two adjoining vertebrae, serving for 
 the articulation of the head of a single rib, and the interarti- 
 cular ligaments dividing the articulation into two parts. 
 
 708. Sections of vertebrre, to show the intervertebral fibro-cartilage. 
 
 709. Part of an occipital bone, with the seven cervical and first 
 
 dorsal vertebra?, showing the ligamentum nuchte. 
 
 710. Sternum, with part of the ribs and clavicles attached, showing 
 the anterior and posterior costo-sternal ligaments, the anterior 
 and posterior sterno- clavicular ligaments, and interarticular 
 cartilage, and the interclavicular ligaments. 
 
 711. Sternum and cartilages of the ribs of a foetus, injected. 
 
 712. Sternum, with the cartilages and sternal ends of the ribs, 
 
 injected and dried ; the points of commencing ossification in 
 the sternum are also seen. 
 
 713. Connexion of a I'ib, with its cartilage. 
 
 b. Of the Upper Extremity. 
 
 714. Shoulder-joint laid open, exhibiting the attachment of the 
 capsular ligament, the reflexion of the synovial membrane, the 
 origin of the tendon of the long head of the biceps muscle, 
 and its passage through the joint, and the glenoid ligament. 
 The synovial membrane lining the bicipital groove is laid open 
 to show its reflexion round the tendon. The scapulo-cla\ icular 
 articulation is also exhibited.
 
 ORGANS OF LOCOMOTION.— /0/iV^r^. 87 
 
 715. Shoulder-joint laid open, to show the attachment of the cap- 
 sular ligament, and the reflexion of the synovial membrane. 
 The coraco-acromial ligament and tendon of the long head of 
 the biceps muscle, are also seen. 
 
 716. Shoulder-joint, exhibiting the capsular ligament entire, together 
 with the coraco-humeral, coraco-acromial, conoid, trapezoid, 
 and transverse ligaments. 
 
 717. Elbow-joint laid oj^en, exhibiting the humeral attachment of 
 the anterior and posterior ligaments, with the reflexion of 
 the synovial membrane, the external and internal lateral liga- 
 ments, and the annular ligament of the radius. 
 
 718. Elbow-joint, exhibiting the anterior ligament, the external and 
 
 internal lateral, the annular, and the oblique ligaments. The 
 tendinous insertions of the biceps, brachialis anticus, and 
 triceps muscles are also seen. 
 
 719. Wrist-joint, exhibiting the anterior and posterior ligaments of 
 the inferior radio-ulnar articulation, the anterior, posterior, in- 
 tei'ual and external lateral ligaments of the wrist-joint, and the 
 ligament between the pisiform and unciform bones ; also the 
 dorsal and palmar carpo-metacarpal ligaments, and the trans- 
 verse ligamentous bands connecting the several carpal bones, 
 and the bases of the metacarpal bones. 
 
 720. Nearly the same as the preceding, showing also the capsule 
 
 of the carpo-metacarpal articulation of the thumb. 
 
 721. Three phalanges, with the heads of the metacarpal bones, 
 exhibiting the lateral ligaments of a metacarpo-phalangeal 
 articulation, wliich is laid open to show its synovial mem- 
 brane ; the transverse bands connecting the heads of the meta- 
 carpal bones, and the lateral ligaments of the plialangeal 
 articulations are also seen. 
 
 722. A hand, with part of the radius and ulna, showing the relative
 
 88 DESCRIPTIVE ANATOMY. 
 
 position of tliu tciitlous, &c., around the wrist-joint, anil their 
 distribution ; also the anterior annular ligament of the carpus, 
 and the nuiscles of the hand. 
 
 723. A hand, showing the palmar fascia, and the insertion of the 
 superficial and deep flexor tendons. 
 
 c. Of the Lower Extremity. 
 
 724. Hip-joint laid open, showing the cotyloid, round, and trans- 
 
 verse ligaments. 
 
 725. Hip-joint, showing the capsular ligament, the synovnial mem- 
 
 brane, and the round ligament. 
 
 726. A section of the acetabulum and of the head of the femur, show- 
 
 ing the relative thickness of the cartilage on each surface of the 
 articulation. The cotyloid, transverse, and round ligaments 
 are also shown. 
 
 727. Ilip-joint, showing the capsular ligament. 
 
 728. Knee-joint laid open, showing the crucial ligaments and semi- 
 lunar cartilages, the external and internal lateral ligaments, 
 and the ligamentum patellte. The superior tibio-fibular arti- 
 culation is also laid open. 
 
 729. A similar preparation, injected, sho^ving the crucial, external 
 
 and internal lateral ligaments. 
 
 730. Knee-joint, injected, showing the synovial membrane, the alar 
 ligaments, and the, so called, ligamentum mucosum. 
 
 731. A similar preparation. 
 
 732. Knee-joint, showing the posterior ligament, or ligament of 
 Winslow, and the tendon of the sscmimembranosus muscle ; the 
 external and internal lateral ligaments ; the anterior and pos-
 
 ORGANS OF LOCOMOTION.— J/ r^'t'ZA'.S AXD TENDOXS. 89 
 
 terior ligaments of tlie superior tibio-fibular ai'ticulation, and 
 the ligamentum patellae. 
 
 733. The ligamentum patellae and its attachments. 
 
 734. The ligamentum patelUe unravelled. 
 
 735. A similar preparation. 
 
 730. The semilunar cartilages of the knee-joint. 
 
 737. A section of the semilunar cartilages of the knee-joint. 
 
 738. Ankle-joint, with the tarsal and part of the metatarsal bones 
 attached, showing the anterior and posterior ligaments of the 
 peroneo -tibial articulation, the external and internal lateral 
 ligaments of the ankle-joint, the dorsal ligament of the foot, 
 the dorsal and plantar, tarso- metatarsal, and metatarsal liga- 
 ments, the calcaneo-scaphoid, and calcaneo-cuboid ligaments. 
 
 739. Foot and ankle, showing the plantar fascia, the anterior and 
 
 posterior ligaments of the ankle-joint, and the arrangement of 
 the tendons inserted into the foot. 
 
 C. IMUSCLES AND TeXDOXS. 
 
 740. The gastrocnemius muscle, with its tendon, injected. 
 
 741. A muscle and tendon, the former partly injected. 
 
 742. A muscle and tendon, injected and dried. 
 
 743. A similar preparation. 
 
 744. A similar preparation. 
 74.5. A similar preparation.
 
 90 DESCRIPTIVE ANATOMY. 
 
 ORGANS OF SENSE. 
 
 A. — Nose. 
 
 74(5. Transverse section of the face, showing the subdivision of tlic 
 nasal fossa into chambers, by the turbinated bones. 
 
 747 Section, to show the septum narium, injected. From a foetus. 
 
 748. Section of the bones of the face, showing the bony part of tlie 
 
 septum narium, and the left nasal fossa and sjdienoidal sinus. 
 
 749. Section of the face, exhibiting the septum narium turned back, 
 
 and the raucous surface of the cliambers on the right side 
 of the nose minutely injected, and the opening of the Eustachian 
 tube. From a foetus. 
 
 750. Section exhibiting the outer wall of the left nasal fossa, the 
 
 interior of the frontal sinus, and the rim of the orbit. 
 
 751. Section to show the frontal sinuses, which are unusually 
 
 capacious. 
 
 752. Section shovdng the outer wall of the right nasal fossa, the 
 
 frontal, splienoidal, and maxillary sinuses, and the ethmoidal 
 cells. 
 
 753. A similar preparation. 
 
 754. Preparation exhibiting the distribution of the olfactory nerves 
 beneath the mucous membrane of the left side of the nose. 
 
 B.5-ETE. 
 
 a. Appendages. 
 
 755. The eyelids and eyelashes, with the openings of the Meibomian
 
 ORGANS OF SENSE.— £1'^'. 91 
 
 follicles on the margins of the tarsal cartilages ; also the 
 puncta lachrymal ia, into each of which a bristle is passed. 
 
 756. An eye, with the lachrymal gland attached. Bristles arc 
 passed into the orifices of some of the ducts of the glan<l on 
 the surface of the conjunctiva. 
 
 757. Section of the fiice of a young Child, exhibiting the rim of the 
 orbit, the tarsal cartilages, lachrymal sac and duct. Bristles 
 are passed into the puncta ; the sac and duct are distended 
 with mercury, and the termination of the duct, in the inferior 
 chamber of the nose, is seen. 
 
 758. The lachrjinal sac and nasal duct laid open from without, 
 
 showing its calibre and position. 
 
 759. The lachrymal and nasal duct, injected and laid open. 
 
 760. The floor of the nostrils removed, exhibiting the termination 
 
 of the nasal duct on either side. 
 
 761. Preparation showing the muscles of the eye, dried. 
 
 762. Preparation exhibiting the ophthalmic ganglion and the ciliary 
 nerves. 
 
 b. Globe of the Eye. 
 
 763. The sclerotic and cornea distended and dried, to show the size 
 
 and form of the globe. 
 
 764. The conjunctive, separated from the globe and eyelids, injected, 
 dried, and immersed in turpentine. Bristles are passed into 
 the puncta lacluymalia. 
 
 765. The conjunctive, injected. 
 
 766. Section of the eye, showing tlie choroid coat, injected.
 
 92 DESCRIPTIVE ANATOMY. 
 
 707. The sclerotic coat, injected. 
 
 768. Section of the sclerotic, showing its relative thickness at diffe- 
 
 rent parts, and its connexion with the cornea. The choroid is 
 also exhibited, together w^ith the ciliary ligament and iris. 
 
 769. Part of the sclerotic, raised to show the choroid, ciliary liga- 
 ment and iris. 
 
 770. Vertical section of the sclerotic and choroid, exhibiting the 
 
 vessels of the latter from within, injected, dried, and immersed 
 in turpentine. 
 
 771. A similar preparation. 
 
 772. The choroid coat, injected, and exhibited by removal of the 
 
 sclerotic. 
 
 773. The vasa vorticosa of the choroid filled with white injection. 
 
 774. Section of the sclerotic, exhibiting the interior of the choroid 
 and the ciliary processes, injected. 
 
 775. A similar specimen. 
 
 776. Preparation exhibiting the retina. 
 
 777. Cornea removed, showing the iris injected. 
 
 778. Two irides injected. 
 
 779. Membrana pupillaris, with a portion of the choroid, injected, 
 
 and seen from behind. 
 
 780. A similar specimen. 
 
 781. The ehrystalline lens of a foetus. 
 
 782. The ehrystalline lens of a foetus, with the ciliary processes.
 
 ORGANS OF SENSE.— 7?.17J. 93 
 
 783. 'I'bo chrystalHnc Ions of a frptiis, showing the vascularity of its 
 capsule. 
 
 C— Ear. 
 a. External Ear including the Auricle and external Auditory Canal. 
 
 784. The auriele and external canal, the cuticle partially removed. 
 
 785. Two auricles, the cuticle removed. 
 
 786. The auricle, injected and immersed in turpentine. 
 
 787. A similar specimen. 
 
 788. The fibro-cartilaginous portion of the auricle, and external 
 auditory canal. 
 
 789. Temporal bone wnth the auricle attached ; the auditory canal 
 is laid open throughout its length ; and the tympamun, with 
 its membrane, and some of its 0})enings are exhibited. 
 
 b. Middle division of the Ear, consisting of the Membrana tt/mpani, 
 the Oss'icula auditus, with their ligaments and muscles, the Mastoid 
 cells, and the Eustachian tube. 
 
 790. The membrana tympani with the handle of the malleus 
 
 attached to it. 
 
 791. A similar specimen, dried, injected, and immerseil in tur- 
 
 pentine. 
 
 792. A similar specimen. 
 
 793. The membrana tympani removed, exposing the inner wall of 
 
 the cavity of the tympanum, with the ossicula in situ ; also 
 the semicircular canals and mastoid cells, injected, dried, and 
 immersed in turpentine.
 
 94 DESCRIPTIVE ANATOMY. 
 
 794. Two sections of tcmi)oral bones, witli the cavity of the tym- 
 
 jtanum laid open, showing the inner wall of the cavity, with 
 the ossicula in situ, and the commencement of the Eustachian 
 tube, injected, dried, and immersed in turpentine. 
 
 795. Right temporal bone, with the cavity of the tympanum ex- 
 posed from above, the ossicula in situ ; the vestibule, cochlea, 
 and part of the semicircular canals are also shown. 
 
 Presented hy A . Najyjjer, Esq. 
 
 796. Right temporal bono of an Infant ; the cavities of the tym- 
 panum and vestibule are exposed below, the ossicula remaining 
 in situ. 
 
 797. The inner wall of the tympanum removed, showing the mem- 
 
 brana tympani and the ossicula in situ. 
 
 798. The ossicula auditus removed from the tympanum, and placed 
 
 in relation with each other. 
 
 799. The external ear, the membrana tympani, and the bony ring 
 by which it is surrounded in the foetus, with the ossicula 
 attached, and the Eustachian tube. 
 
 800. Section of the right temporal bone, showing the tensor tym- 
 
 pani and stapedius muscles, the vestibule, semicircular canals, 
 cochlea, and mastoid cells. 
 
 Presented by A . Napper^ Esq. 
 
 801. Section of the right temporal bone, showing the ossicula in 
 situ, together wnth the cochlea, vestibule, and auditory pas- 
 sages. 
 
 Presented by A. Napper, Esq. 
 
 802. Section of the temporal bone of a foetus, showing the muscles 
 of the ossicula, painted red. 
 
 803. External ear and part of a temporal bone, of whicli a section 
 has been made to show the extent of the mastoid cells.
 
 ORGANS OF SENSE.— £.li?. 96 
 
 804. Section of the right temporal bone, showing the communication 
 of the mastoid cells with the tympanum . 
 
 805. Section of the left temporal bone, exhibiting the cavity of the 
 tympanum, the mastoid cells, and the eustachian tube. 
 
 c. Internal Ear, including the Lahyrintk and the Aqueducts. 
 
 806. Right temporal bone, with the cavities of the tympanum, 
 vestibule, mastoid cells, and semicircular canals laid open ; 
 part of the cochlea is also shown. 
 
 Presented by A. Najyper, Esq. 
 
 807. Right temporal bone of an Infant, exhibiting the auditory 
 passages, tympanum, semicii'cular canals, and vestibule. A 
 bristle is passed through the Fallopian canal. 
 
 808. Vestibule, semicircular canals, and cochlea of the right side 
 
 detached, the cavities not laid open. 
 
 809. Vestibule, semicircular canals, and cochlea of the left side, 
 
 detached and laid open. 
 
 810. Left temporal bone with the semicircular canals and cochlea 
 laid open. 
 
 Presented by A. Napper, Esq. 
 
 811. Part of the right temporal bone of a fcetus, or Infant ; the 
 cochlea is laid open to exhibit the bony part of the lamina 
 spiralis. Tlie semicircular canals and cavity of the tympanum 
 with the ossicula, and the external ear, are also shown. 
 
 812. The labyrinth with the external and internal auditory canals, 
 
 detached from the right temporal bone ; in the cochlea the 
 bony and membranous portions of the lamina spiralis are 
 shown. 
 
 Presented by A . Napper, Esq. 
 
 813. Vestibule, semicircular canals and cochlea detached, with
 
 96 DKSCUIPTIVK ANATOMY. 
 
 their cavities laiil open, allowing the lining membranes, 
 injected. 
 
 814. A cast in lead of the cavities of the mastoid cells, the tym- 
 panum and the labyrinth, from the left side. 
 
 815. A cast in lead of the labyrinth of the right ear. 
 
 d. Nerves of the Ear. 
 81(3. Preparation, showing the distribution of the auditory nerve. 
 
 817. Passage of the chorda tympani, across the cavity of the tym- 
 panum, and between the processes of the malleus and incus. 
 
 818. The entire course of the chorda tympani and its exit from 
 the tpiipanum by the Glasserian fissure ; also its junction 
 with the lingual-gustatory nerve. 
 
 D. — Tongue. 
 
 819. A tongue injected, exhibiting its vascularity and the pajiillce 
 
 on its surface. 
 
 820. A similar preparation. 
 
 821. A similar preparation. 
 
 822. A similar preparation. 
 
 823. A tongue, partly injected from one lingual artery only, 
 
 824. A similar preparation. 
 
 825. Mucous follicles at the base of the tongue, into which bristles 
 are introduced. 
 
 826. Terminal branches of the glosso-pharyngeal nerve ; a bristle is 
 passed beneath them.
 
 ORGANS OF SENSE.— iSK/y, dc. yT 
 
 E. — Common Integuments and Tegumentary Appendages. 
 
 a. Skin. 
 
 827. Cuticle of the hand and fingers, with the nails attached. 
 
 828. Poi-ticn of cuticle from the palm of the hand. 
 
 829. Portion of a foetus, with the cuticle partly separated by de- 
 
 composition. 
 
 830. Portion of cuticle from the heel and sole of the foot. 
 
 831. Hand, with thickened cuticle, of which the fingers are partly 
 
 denuded. 
 
 832. Thickened cuticle, partly detached from the injected cutis. 
 83.3. The cutis of the foot injected, and the cuticle removed. 
 
 834. A similar specimen. 
 
 835. The cutis of the thumb injected, and the cuticle removed. 
 
 836. A portion of cutis, injected, dried and immersed in turpentine. 
 
 837. A similar specimen. 
 
 838. The skin injected from the veins. 
 
 839. A similar specimen. 
 
 840. A similar specimen. 
 
 841. Cutis, with the cuticle detached, originally destined to show 
 the rete mucosum, as a distinct membrane. 
 
 842. A similar specimen.
 
 98 DESCRIPTIVE ANATOMY. 
 
 843. A similar sjicciinon. 
 
 844. A similar specimen. 
 
 84;"). A similar specimen from a Negro. 
 84G. A specimen similar to the last. 
 
 847. A portion of skin, injected, showing the epidermis turned 
 
 down, and the papilla? enlarged. 
 
 848. A similar specimen. 
 
 849. Another specimen also showing the epidermis separated. 
 
 850. A section through the substance of the cutis vera, showing 
 
 the interstices of its fibrous structure which receive processes 
 of the subcutaneous areolar tissue. 
 
 851. A similar sj^ecimen. 
 
 852. A specimen of injected skin. 
 
 853. A similar preparation. 
 
 854. A portion of skin, injected, dried, and immersed in spirit of 
 
 turjientine. 
 
 855. A similar specimen. 
 S.^6. Section of a foetal thigh. 
 
 857. Specimen of tattooed skin. 
 
 858. A similar specimen, dried and varnished. 
 
 859. A similar specimen, in spirit. 
 
 860. A similar specimen.
 
 ORGANS OF SENSE.— .s/r/X ,fr. 99 
 
 h. Hair. 
 
 8G1. Preparation sli^hviiifj the mode in whicli tlie hair penetrates 
 the cuticle. 
 
 862. A similar specimen. 
 
 863. Portion of the scalp of a Negro, with the hair attached. 
 
 864. A similar specimen : belonging to 
 
 c. Nails. 
 
 86.5. Preparation showing the cuticle of a finger, with the nail 
 attached. 
 
 866. Section of a great toe, showing the manner in which the nail 
 
 is inserted into the cuticle. 
 
 d. Areolar Tissue. 
 
 867. Areolar tissue of the scrotum. 
 
 868. Areolar tissue, injected. 
 
 e. Fat. 
 
 869. Adipose tissue, with part of the fat picked out. 
 
 870. A section exhibiting the relation of the skin and subcuta- 
 neous fat. 
 
 871. A section of adipose matter, four inches in thickness, from the 
 
 surface of the abdomen. 
 
 h2
 
 100 UKSCUIPTIVK ANATOMY. 
 
 NERVOUS SYSTEM. 
 
 A. — Spinal Cord. 
 
 872. The vertebral canals of two young subjects laid open ; one 
 
 showing the coverings of the cord, and the other the form 
 of the vertebral canal and the posterior common ligament. 
 
 873. The lower extremity of the spinal cord, with the cauda equina 
 
 attached. 
 
 874. Spinal column of a young Child ; the coverings of the cord are 
 laid open, exhibiting the anterior spinal artery injected. 
 
 87o. Part of the medulla spinalis, showing the course and termi- 
 nation of the anterior spinal artery, and the posterior spinal 
 arteries, all of which are injected. 
 
 876. The lower extremity of the spinal cord and cauda equina, with 
 
 the arteries injected. 
 
 877. A similar specimen. 
 
 878. Part of the medulla spinalis, showing its membranous cover- 
 
 ings, and the origin of the nerves. 
 
 879. Preparation showing the roots and ganglia of the spinal nen'es. 
 
 Presented by W. Treic. 
 
 B. Brain. 
 
 880. Dissectionof a brain, showing in the medulla oblongata the decus- 
 sation of the motor track which forms tlie corjiora pyramidalia. 
 On the right side, the continuation of these fibres through the 
 pons varolii is exposed by the division of that commissure, 
 and the same fibres are seen forming the under part of 
 the cms cerebri, and then passing the corpus striatimi, from
 
 NERVOUS SYSTEM. 101 
 
 which they diverge in all directions towards the circumference 
 of the hemisphere. On the left side, the superficial portion of 
 the pons varolii or transverse commissure of the cerehellum 
 has been loft, and the connexion of its fibres with the sub- 
 stance of the latter is exposed. The position and connexions 
 of the anterior commissure are also displayed. At the supe- 
 rior part, the great transverse commissure of the cerebrum, or 
 corpus callosum, is dissected, so as to exhibit its connexion 
 with the hemisphere on tlie left side. 
 
 Presented hy S. SoUy. 
 
 881. A portion of the encephalon, exhibiting the cerebellum, pons 
 varolii, and medulla oblongata, the thalami, optic tubercles 
 and tracks, with the commissure of the optic nerves, and their 
 several relations and connexions with each other. 
 
 882. Portion of the pia mater, with its arteries and veins injected. 
 
 The processes of the membrane intervening between the con- 
 volutions of the cerebrum are exhibited. 
 
 883. The dura mater, with its large arteries, injected. 
 
 884. A similar preparation, distended and dried. From a Child. 
 
 885. A similar preparation. 
 
 886. A similar preparation. From an Adult. 
 
 C. — Nerves. 
 
 887. Portion of the sciatic nerve, unravelled to exhibit its bundles 
 
 of fibrillae. 
 
 888. Portion of a nerve injected, and unravelled. 
 
 889. Portion of a nerve, exhibiting its appearance just prior and 
 
 subsequent to its escape from the sacral canal.
 
 102 DESCRIPTIVE ANATuMY. 
 
 800. A similar siieciinen. 
 
 891. Section of a liea<l, showing the coniniunications between the 
 
 infra-orbitar branches of the fifth and the facial nerves. The 
 three divisions of the inferior maxillary nerve are also 
 shown. 
 
 892. Vertical section of an adult head, exhibiting the facial nerve 
 througliout its course and distribution ; also the tcmporo-auri- 
 cular branch of the third division of tlie fifth, tlie posterior 
 branch of the second cervical nerve, and the facial branches 
 of the trigeminal nerve. The nerves of the orbit, the Cas- 
 serian and Meckel's ganglia, and the distribution of the lingual- 
 gustatory nerve are likewise displayed. 
 
 893. The axillary plexus of nerves. 
 
 894. Preparation showing the thoracic ganglia of the s}'Tnpathetic 
 
 nerve and their branches of communication with the inter- 
 costal nerves, from a young subject. 
 
 895. The superior, middle and inferior cervical ganglia of the sym- 
 
 pathetic nerve, isolated. 
 
 896. The semilunar ganglia and solar plexus, with a portion of the 
 
 aorta and the oriirin of the caeliac axis.
 
 103 
 
 DIGESTIVE APPARATUS. 
 
 a. Organs of Mastication. 
 
 897. The mouth with part of tlie cheeks, chin, and lips injected. 
 
 898 Section of the upper jaw, showing the mucous membrane of 
 tlic palate and giuns, injected. 
 
 899. The lower jaw of a foetus, showing the alveolar cavities with 
 their membranous lining, and the incipient ossification of the 
 teeth. 
 
 900. Part of the inferior maxilla of a Child, showing the same as 
 
 the above, at a more advanced period, and previous to the pas- 
 sage of the teeth through the gums. 
 
 901. Membranous sac of a tooth, injected. 
 
 902. Inferior maxilla of a Child ; the alveolar cavities are opened 
 so as to expose the lining membrane and teeth. 
 
 903. Inferior maxilla of a Child, showing the position of the per- 
 manent teeth, previous to their iri'uptiou. 
 
 904. Superior maxilla of a Child ; the incisive teeth have pierced the 
 
 gvun, and the position of the other teeth, constituting the re- 
 mainder of the first set, is shown previous to their irruption ; 
 the gums are injected. 
 
 905. Maxillae of a Child, exhibiting the arrangement of the first and 
 
 second set of teeth. 
 
 906. Vertical sections of adult teeth. 
 
 907. Horizontal sections of the crowns of adult teeth, showing the 
 
 relation of the enamel to the bonv structure.
 
 104 DESCRIPTIVE ANATOMY. 
 
 908. Connexion of tlie fangs of the molar teeth, witli tlie wall of the 
 
 antrum. 
 
 909. Right superior maxilla of a Child, about nine months old, ex- 
 
 hibiting the milk teeth in the alveolar cavities. 
 This and the following twenty preparations were presented hy 
 E. Saunders. 
 
 910. Left superior maxilla from the same subject. 
 
 911. Right inferior maxilla, apparently from the same subject, ex- 
 
 hibiting the milk teeth in the alveolar cavities. 
 
 912. Left inferior maxiUa from the same subject. 
 
 913. A complete set of the temporary or milk teeth. From a 
 Child of about four years of age. 
 
 914. A preparation illustrating the progressive development of the 
 teeth. In the upper two rows, are sixteen teeth of the first 
 set, apparently from a Child about fourteen months old. In 
 the third row, are the four incisive and two cuspid teeth of 
 the upper jaw, apparently from a Child about eight years 
 of age. In the fourth row, are the four incisive, two cuspid, 
 and the front bicuspid teeth. From the upper jaw of a Child 
 about fourteen years of a^e. 
 
 915. The superior and inferior maxillary bones of a Child, about 
 six years of age, exhibiting a complete set of the milk teeth. 
 The position of the permanent teeth is also shown by the 
 removal of the front of the alveolar processes. The first per- 
 manent molar teeth, in either jaw, have passed through the 
 gums, but the second permanent molar teeth are still within 
 the alveolar cavities. 
 
 916. Lower jaw of a Child, about five years of age, showing the ten 
 milk teeth. The first permanent molar tooth on cither side, 
 is exhibited within its socket ; and the socket of the second 
 permanent molar tooth is also shown.
 
 DIGESTIVE APPARATUS.— OiJC^.V^ OF MASTICATION. 105 
 
 •917. Lower jaw of a Child, probably between five and six years of 
 age. The inner wall of the bone has been partially removed, to 
 exhibit the position of the pcnnanent teeth ; three of those re- 
 main, but the others have been removed, probably, since death. 
 
 918. A molar tooth, of the first set, from the upper jaw of a Child 
 about four years old. The fangs have been partially absorbed 
 by the pressure of the crown of a permanent tooth in its pro- 
 gress towards the surface. 
 
 919. A complete set of the permanent teeth. 
 
 920. A permanent molar tooth, from the lower jaw of a young Adult. 
 
 921. Sections of the incisive, cuspid, bicuspid, and molar teeth, ex- 
 
 hibiting the relative size of their cavities, and the relation of 
 the enamel to the bony structure. 
 
 922. A vertical section of the lower jaw, and of the anterior teeth 
 
 of a young Adult, exhibiting the relative size of the dental cavi- 
 ties, which have been painted red, and the form and position 
 of the fangs. 
 
 923. The horizontal portion of the lower jaw of a young Adult, 
 
 hibiting all the permanent teeth with the exception of the last 
 molar or wisdom teeth, which have not yet appeared. 
 
 924. The horizontal portion of the lower jaw of a young Adult, 
 exhibiting the forms and directions of the sockets of the 
 permanent teeth. The latter have been removed, with the 
 exception of the last molar on the left side. 
 
 925. Portion of a lower jaw, the anterior part of which has been 
 removed to exhibit the arrangement of the alveolar cavities. 
 
 926. Portion of the skull of an Adult, exhibiting a wcU-fornied 
 upper jaw and palate, the wisdom teeth are absent, but all the 
 rest are perfect and symmetrically arranged.
 
 106 DESCRIPTIVE ANATOMY. 
 
 1)27. The uj)j)or jaw of an Adult, of which tlio alveolar processes 
 have been ])artially removed from the external surface of one 
 lialf, and the internal surface of tlie other, to exhibit tlie form 
 and position of the fangs of the permanent teeth : the wisdom 
 teetli are absent. 
 
 J)28. The upper jaw of au Adult, from which the teeth have been 
 removed, to exhibit the arrangement of the alveolar cavities. 
 
 929. The anterior half of the skull of an Adult, exhibiting a complete 
 and well formed set of teeth. 
 
 930. The skull of an Adult. The anterior portions of the alveolar 
 processes have been removed, to exhibit the form and direction 
 of the fangs of the teeth. 
 
 931. The skull of a Child about six years old, exhibiting a perfect 
 
 set of milk teeth. 
 
 932. A similar specimen, with a portion of the bone removed, to 
 
 exhibit the position of the permanent teeth. 
 
 933. A lateral section of a skull, exhibiting the course and distri- 
 bution of the dental arteries. 
 
 Presented hy E. Saunders. 
 
 934. A similar section, exhibiting the course and distribution of the 
 
 dental nerves. 
 
 Presented hy E. Saunders. 
 
 935. Internal lamina of part of the inferior maxilla removed, and a 
 section of the teeth made so as to show the distribution of 
 nerves to the latter. 
 
 h. Organs of Salivation and Deglutition. 
 
 93(J. Parotid gland, with its duct, injected with quicksilver and 
 dried.
 
 DIGESTIVE APPARATUS.— oy;^M.V.i> OF .^ALIVATWy, ijc, 107 
 1)37. A similar preparation. 
 
 938. A similar preparation. 
 
 939. Submaxillary gland and duct, injected with quicksilver and 
 
 dried. 
 
 940. Openings of the submaxillary ducts \mder the tongue, shown 
 by the insertion of bristles. 
 
 941. The pharynx opened from behind, exhibiting the relation of 
 the openings from the mouth into the pharynx and larjTix, 
 and also the relation of the oesophagus and trachea. The 
 heart and lungs in situ, injected. 
 
 942. The pharynx opened from behind, and showing the arches of the 
 
 palate, the tonsils, and the opening into the larynx, injected. 
 
 943. A similar preparation. 
 
 944. A similar preparation. 
 
 945. Vertical section of tlie head and face injected, and showing the 
 relations of the pharynx, larynx, nasal cavity and chambers, 
 as well as their connnunication with each other, and with the 
 mouth. 
 
 940. A similar pi-eparution. 
 
 947. The muscles of mastication and deglutition displayed. 
 
 Presented by F. Le Gros Clark. 
 
 948. Section of the oesophagus, showing its cuticular coat. 
 
 949. Section of the oesophagus, showing its rugae. 
 
 950. Section of the oesophagus, showing its muscular coat, con- 
 
 tracted.
 
 108 DESCRIPTIVE ANATOMY. 
 
 c. Stomach and Intestines. 
 
 0')1. The cardiae glands displayed by the removal of their cuticular 
 covering. 
 
 i)52. The stomach of a foetus, minutely injected and inverted, to 
 show the villi and rugae. 
 
 953. Foetal stomach, injected, to show its villous coat. 
 
 954. A similar preparation. 
 
 955. A similar preparation. 
 
 956. Stomach and intestines of a foetus, inflated and dried. 
 
 957. Section of a stomach, injected and dried, to show its arteries. 
 
 958. Stomach, duodenum, and omentum of a Child, injected. 
 
 959. Section of the stomach of an executed person, showing the 
 contracted state of its muscular coat, and the resulting plicated 
 condition of its mucous membrane. 
 
 960. Section of the stomach and duodenum, showing the pylorus. 
 
 961. A similar preparation. 
 
 962. A similar preparation, dried. 
 
 963. Part of the stomach and duodenum laid open, a bristle is 
 passed beneath the nniscular structure of the pylorus ; and 
 others are introduced into the termination of the biliary and 
 pancreatic ducts. 
 
 964. Duodenum laid open to show the termination of tlie biliary 
 
 and ])ancreatic ducts. 
 
 965. A similar preparation, dried, and showing the biliary and
 
 DlfiESTIVK APPARATUS.— /.vr^.sT/.V^.s-. 109 
 
 ]>aiuTeatic- ducts at tlieir termination, injected. 'I'vvo pan- 
 creatic ducts are seen. 
 
 966. The upper portion of the small intestine, laid open, to show the 
 valvulae conniventes. 
 
 967. A similar specimen, the intestine being everted. 
 
 968. A similar preparation, the vessels being injected, and the in- 
 testine everted. 
 
 969. A preparation similar to the last. 
 
 970. Lower portion of the ileum, showing the diminished number 
 and size of the yalvula; conniventes. 
 
 971. Portion of small intestine, injected and everted. 
 
 972. Portion of ileum, minutely injected and dried. 
 
 973. Portions of small intestine, injected and dried, showing the 
 
 arrangement of the arteries towards their termination. 
 
 974. A similar specimen. 
 
 975. Portions of jejunum, partially injected and everted. 
 
 976. A similar preparation. 
 
 977. Portion of small intestine, laid open and spread upon paper, 
 the peritoncBal and muscular coats arc sejiarated from each 
 other. 
 
 978. Portion of small intestine, injected and opened, exhibiting 
 
 patches of the glandulaa aggregatte. 
 
 979. A similar preparation, the intestine being everted. 
 
 980. Portions of intestine, minutely injected, and opened, exhibiting 
 
 the villi and glands.
 
 110 DESCIUrTIVE ANATOMY. 
 
 U8J. A similar si)ocimcn. 
 
 982. Termination of tlie ileum in the coocum, drie<.l, and laid open 
 to show the ileo-coocal valve. 
 
 J)83. A similar specimen, injected. 
 
 984. Portion of the coocum, with the appendix vermiformis laid open. 
 
 985. Portion of the colon, the peritonseum is partially removed so 
 as to show the longitudinal bands of muscular fibres. 
 
 986. A similar preparation, also exhibiting the sacculi. 
 
 987. A similar specimen, the intestine is laid open and contracted. 
 
 988. Portion of colon, opened to show the circular muscular fibres. 
 
 989. A similar specimen, everted and partially injected. 
 
 990. Lower part of the rectum, minutely injected and laid open, 
 
 showing the villi. 
 
 991. Portion of the peritonseum, injected, 
 
 992. A similar preparation. 
 
 d. Liver. 
 
 993. Portions of liver, injected. 
 
 994. A similar preparation. 
 
 995. Portion of liver injected, and corroded to exhibit the vessels. 
 
 990. Gall bladder with the cystic and ho|)atic ducts, fdleil with 
 wax to show their form. 
 
 997. A gall bladder, injected antl dried.
 
 DIGESTIVE AVVKRkTUS.—PAN^CREAS AXD SPLEEX. Ill 
 
 998. A gall hladdor, everted, exlul)iting the reticular arrangement 
 of its mucous membrane. 
 
 999. Portion of the same, injected. 
 
 1000. A similar preparation. 
 
 1001. A gall bladder, with its duct, inflated and dried, showing the 
 tortuous course of the latter. 
 
 e. Pancreas. 
 
 1002. Structure of the pancreas, unravelled to exhibit the arrange- 
 ment of its lobules. 
 
 1003. A similar preparation, injected. 
 
 1004. A pancreas, injected and dried. 
 
 1005. A similar specimen, likewise showing the pancreatic duct. 
 
 f. Spleen. 
 
 1006. Fcetal spleen, injected. 
 
 1007. A spleen, injected and cut open. 
 
 1008. Appendages sometimes found attached to the spleen. 
 
 1009. The chest and abdomen of a male infant, of which the anterior 
 parietes have been removed, to show the viscera in situ. 
 
 1010. A similar preparation, from a female. 
 
 1011. Cavity of the chest and abdomen, opened from behind, to 
 show the viscera in sitn. 
 
 1012. A preparation exhibiting complete transposition of all the 
 viscera of the chest and abdomen, in a Child, aged six years, 
 who died of pleuritis. 
 
 Presented by Dr. Hodgkin.
 
 112 DESURIPTIVK ANATOMY. 
 
 RESPIRATORY APPARATUS. 
 
 a. Larynx and Trachea. 
 
 1013. The cartilages of the larynx, and the os hyoides, dissected 
 and separated. 
 
 1014. The ventricles of the larynx, shown by opening the larynx 
 from behind. 
 
 1015. Larynx laid open, and the thyro-arytaenoid ligaments, or 
 chordae vocales dissected. 
 
 1016. The mucous membrane of the larynx, injected. From a 
 foetus. 
 
 1017. The larynx and upper rings of the trachea, with the thyroid 
 body in situ. The thyroid arteries are injected with wax. 
 From an Adult. 
 
 1018. A similar preparation taken from a Child. 
 
 1019. Section of the trachea; the anterior part of its rings has 
 been removed, and the mucous membrane with its follicles is 
 exposed beneath. 
 
 1020. A similar preparation, including the lower extremity of the 
 trachea and the commencement of the bronchi. 
 
 1021. A similar section, injected. 
 
 1022. A similar section of the termination of the trachea and com- 
 mencement of the bronchi. 
 
 1023. A similar preparation. 
 
 1024. The ramifications of the bronchi through the lungs, ex- 
 hibited by the removal of the surroxmding parenchymatous 
 structure.
 
 RESPIRATORY APPARATUS.— it/'iVG'^. 113 
 
 1025. A siinilai' prepartitioii. 
 
 102(5. A similar preparation. 
 
 1027. The lungs and heart in situ and injected. From a young 
 Child. 
 
 1028. The lungs and heart, injected, and dried. 
 
 1029. The lungs and lieart, injected, dried, and corroded. 
 
 1030. Foetal lung, injected. 
 
 1031. The lohular structure of the lungs, exhibited by the removal 
 of the connecting areolar tissue, and by the separation of the 
 lobules from each other. 
 
 1032. The ramifications of the pulmonary artery and veins, exhibited 
 by the separation and removal of the other textures of the 
 lung. 
 
 1033. A portion of the costal pleura, injected. 
 
 1034. The thymus gland in a young Child, to show its form, 
 development, and relative position. 
 
 1035. A heart injected, with the ti'achoa in situ. 
 
 VOL. I.
 
 114 DKSCUirTIVE AiNATOMY. 
 
 URINARY APPARATUS. 
 
 a. Kidney. 
 1030. Kidneys and renal capsule of a fcetus in situ, showing the 
 lobulated character of the former. 
 
 1037. Kidney of a young Child, exhibiting its division into lobes. 
 
 1038. Section of a kidney, showing the relations of the cortical 
 and tubular structures. 
 
 1031>. A similar preparation. 
 
 1()4(). A similar preparation. 
 
 1041. A similar preparation. 
 
 1042. A similar preparation. 
 
 1043. A similar preparation. 
 
 1044. Thin section of a kidney, showing the cortical and tubular 
 portions, injected. 
 
 1045. A similar preparation. 
 
 1046. Section of a kidney, showing its mammillary processes ; cor- 
 tical portion injected. 
 
 1047. An injected mammillary process, isolated and removed from 
 the kidney. 
 
 1048. A similar preparation. 
 
 1049. Section of a kidney, showing the mammillary processes with 
 the calices laid open. 
 
 10")0. The membranous portion of a kidney, distended and dissected.
 
 URINARY APPARATUS -KIDXEY AXD BLADDER. 115 
 
 1051. A similar preparation. 
 
 1052. Corroded cast of the inumbranous portion of a kidney. 
 
 1053. Kidney, with its pelvis injected ; the fibrous tunic is partially 
 stripped off. 
 
 1054. Abdomen of a young CMiild laid open, to exhibit the kidneys 
 and suprarenal capsiUes in situ and injected. 
 
 1055. Renal capsule and kidney, injected, 
 1050. Ilorse-shoe kidney. 
 
 1057. A similar preparation. 
 
 1058. A bar kidney. 
 
 1059. Part of a young Child, having only one kidney. 
 
 1060. Section of a kidney, w^itli a double ureter. 
 
 1061. A kidney with two emulgent arteries. 
 
 b. BlaxMcr. 
 
 1062. A contracted bladder taken from a person who was executed. 
 
 1063. Section of a similar preparation. 
 
 1064. A bladder laid open to show the termination of the ureters. 
 
 1065. A female bladder, with the urethra attached ; bristles are 
 passed into the mucous lacunae. 
 
 1066. Section of a closely contracted female bladder. 
 
 1067. Foetal bladder, injected and everted. 
 
 For " Urethra," see '' Organs of Reproduction." *' Side views of 
 the male and female pelves," are appended to the same section.
 
 n« DK.SCRIPTIVE ANATOMY. 
 
 HEART, AND VASCULAR OR CIRCULATORY 
 SYSTEM. 
 a. Heart. 
 1()H8. The heart and large vessels, injected and dried, showing the 
 aorta, pulmonary artery, venae cavje, and termination of the 
 pulmonary veins. 
 
 1069. Heart injected, showing the origin and termination of the 
 great vessels and of the thoracic duct. 
 
 1070. Heart and large vessels injected, and showing the division 
 of the larger trunks of the i)ulmonary vessels. 
 
 1071. Corroded preparation, showing the form and extent of the 
 cavities of the heart, the right side being yellow, and the left 
 side red. 
 
 1072. Heart, dried and cut open, to show the form of its cavities, 
 their communications and valves. 
 
 1073. The tricuspid valve, with the tendinous cords and extremities 
 of the fleshy columns. 
 
 1074. Horizontal section of the heart, near the base of the ventricles, 
 showing the semilunar valves of the aorta and pulmonary 
 artery. 
 
 107o. The aorta at its commencement, laid open to show the semi- 
 lunar valves. 
 
 1076. A similar specimen. 
 
 1 077. Three casts of the semilunar valves. One is a remarkal)le 
 variety presenting four valves. 
 
 1078. Section of a heart, in which the aorta and jndmonary artery 
 have each only two scmihmar valves.
 
 VASCULAR SYSTEM.— //AM 72 y A^JJ ARTERIES. 117 
 
 1079. Another specimen, in which the aorta has only two semi- 
 lunar valves. 
 
 1080. Another specimen, in which the aorta has four semilunar 
 valves. 
 
 1081. Heart of a foetus, laid open to show the foramen ovale. 
 
 1082. Heart of a foetus, showing the foramen ovale, and canalis 
 arteriosus. 
 
 1083. Foetus at an early age ; the auricles of the heart are laid open 
 to show the Eustachian valve. 
 
 1084. Heart of a foetus, injected, and dried, showing the canalis 
 arteriosus. 
 
 1085. Heart of a foetus, injected, sliowing the canalis arteriosus. 
 
 1086. Corroded preparation of the heart, together with the vessels 
 of the lungs and the liver of a foetus. 
 
 1087. Injected heart and lungs of a foetus, showing the canalis 
 arteriosus. 
 
 1088. A similar preparation, showing the canalis arteriosus contracted. 
 
 1089. Preparation, illustrative of the peculiarities in the foetal cir- 
 culation. 
 
 1090. A similar preparation, dried. 
 
 1091. A similar specimen. 
 
 1092. A similar specimen. 
 
 b. Arteries. 
 
 1093. Portion of aorta laid open, and the coats dissected from each 
 other.
 
 118 DESCRIPTIVE ANATOMY. 
 
 1004. A similar preparation. 
 
 109'). An artery and a vein, showing the relative thickness of their 
 coats. 
 
 105)(). A similar preparation. 
 
 1097. Aorta, laid open to its bifurcation. 
 
 1 098. The vasa vasorum of an artery, injected. 
 
 1099. The anastomosing branches of the internal mammary and 
 epigastric arteries. 
 
 1100. A young subject, with the arteries injected, dissected and 
 di-icd, throughout the body : the terminations of the venae 
 cavae are also shown. 
 
 1101. A young Child, with the arteries injected and dissected, 
 and the large veins inflated and dried. 
 
 1102. The chest and upper extremities of a Child, with the heart in 
 situ, and the blood vessels injected, showing the position of 
 the heart, and the relations of the aorta, pidmonary artery, 
 venae cavae and pulmonary veins. 
 
 Presented hy F. Le Gros Clark. 
 
 1103. The origins of the vessels from the arch of the aorta, and the 
 branches of the subclavian artery. 
 
 1104. Head and neck, in which the common carotid arteries, the 
 branches of the external carotids and their anastomoses, with 
 those of the internal carotids, are exhibited. 
 
 1 105. Head, neck, and upper part of the chest of an Adult, with the 
 arteries and venous trunks, injected, the former with red, 
 and the latter with yellow, wax. 
 
 110(J. A similar prejiaration, with the arteries only injected.
 
 VASCULAR SYSTEM.— ARTERIES. 119 
 
 1107. Section of a head and part of a neck, showing the pro- 
 cesses of the dura mater, and thi' distribution of the external 
 carotid artery. 
 
 Presented hy F. Le Gros Clark. 
 
 1 108. Vertical section of a head and neck, showing the dibtril)\ition 
 of the facial, temporal, transverse facial, occipital, and pos- 
 terior aural arteries. 
 
 11 OS). Vertical section of a head and part of a neck, exhibiting the 
 course of the vertebral, occipital, internal maxillary and facial 
 arteries. 
 
 1110. Vertical section of a head, neck and chest, showing some 
 branches of the external carotid and subclavian arteries. 
 
 1111. Section of a head and part of a neck, showing the processes 
 I of the dura mater, and the course and relations of the verte- 
 bral, and both carotid arteries. 
 
 1112. Section of a face, showing some branches of the internal 
 maxillary artery. 
 
 1113. Head, neck, and part of a chest, showing the course and some 
 branches of the external and internal carotid and subclavian 
 arteries. 
 
 1114. Vertical section of a head and neck, showing the processes of 
 the dura mater, and the course of the internal carotid, verte- 
 bral and basilar arteries. 
 
 11 15. Part of a head and neck, showing the course of the internal 
 carotid artery. 
 
 1 1 16. Portion of a skull, with the orbit laid open, and the ophthal- 
 mic artery injected. This vessel arises from the middle menin- 
 geal artery and receives a small branch, before entering the 
 orbit, from the internal carotid. 
 
 Presented l>i/ F. Le Gros Clark-.
 
 120 DESCRIPTIVE ANATOMY. 
 
 ill?. Vertical section of the liead, neck ami tliorax, with the upper 
 extremity of a young subject. Tlie arteries are disssccted, and 
 the processes of the dura mater and the cerebral arteries 
 are shown. 
 
 1118. Preparation exhibiting an abnormal origin of the branches 
 from tlie aortic arch. The two carotids arise first by a short 
 common tnmk, then the left subclavian, and lastly the right 
 subclavian, which crosses between the vertebrae and oesopha- 
 gus to gain the right subclavian space. 
 
 Presented hy F. Le Gros Clark. 
 
 1119. Another specimen of a similar variety. 
 
 1 1 20. A similar specimen. 
 
 1121. A preparation, illustrating a variety allied to the last, 
 the only difference being tliat the two carotids arise sepa- 
 rately, but quite close together. 
 
 1122. Another specimen similar to the last. 
 
 1123. Preparation showing the left carotid arising from the root of 
 the arteria innominata. 
 
 1124. Preparation showing the left vertebral artery arising from 
 the aorta between the innominata and left subclavian, and the 
 left carotid arising from the innominata. 
 
 1125. Preparation exhibiting the left vertebral artery arising from 
 the aorta between the left carotid and subclavian. 
 
 1126. Upper extremity, with part of the chest, showing the course 
 and branches of the axillary, brachial, radial, and ulnar 
 arteries. 
 
 1127. Upper extremity and ])art of the chest of a Child, showing 
 the arteries.
 
 VASCULAR SYSTEM.- ARTERIES. 121 
 
 1128. Upper extremity, showing the axillary artery giving off au 
 axis, wliich divides into the circumflex, subscapular and deep 
 humeral arteries. 
 
 1 1 29. Upper extremity of a young subject, showing the arteries. 
 
 1130. Upper extremity and part of a tliorax ; the superior profimda 
 artery arises from the axillary and gives off some of its 
 branches. 
 
 1131. Upper extremity of a Child, exhibiting a high division of the 
 bracliial artery. 
 
 1132. A similar preparation. 
 
 1133. Preparation exhibiting the origin of the radial artery from the 
 axillary. 
 
 1134. Upper extremity and part of the clicst of a Cliild. The 
 radial artery arises from about the middle of tlie brachial 
 and the superior profunda arising from the subscapular, gives 
 off the inferior profunda. 
 
 1135. Upper extremity, in which tlie ulnar artery is given off from 
 axilhuy. 
 
 1 136. Upper extremity of a Child. The axillary artery divides 
 into two branches, which continue in company to the elbow- 
 joint, where the smaller one becomes the anterior interosseal 
 artery, having given off in its course the principal branches 
 usually derived from the brachial ; the other branch divides 
 as usual into radial and ulnar. 
 
 1137. Fore-arm and hand, showing the arteries injected. Tlie 
 nerves are also dissected. 
 
 1138. Arteries of the fore-arm and hand. 
 1 130. A similar specimen.
 
 122 DK.SCRIPTIVK ANATOMY. 
 
 1 110. Hand, .sh()wiii<^ the artfrios, iiijocted. 
 
 Presented hy F. Le Gros Clark. 
 
 1141. A similar preparation, 
 
 1142. Preparation showing the suprarenal arteries derived from 
 their three sources. 
 
 1143. Four kidneys, injected, corroded, and dried ; the two larger 
 have the pelvis and ureter distended and ])ainte<l green. 
 
 1144. Abnormal origin of the abdominal branches of the aorta. 
 No. 1, the splenic, gives off" No. 2, the coronary of the 
 stomach ; and No. 3, the superior mesenteric, gives oft' 
 No. 4, the hepatic ; Nos. 5 and 5 are the renal arteries. The 
 appearance of irregularity in the calibre of the vessels results 
 from their imperfect injection. 
 
 1145. The liver injected, corroded, and dried. The artery is red, 
 the vena portae green, and the vena cava yellow. 
 
 1146. Pelvis and lower extremity, with the arteries injected, and 
 the muscles preserved and dried. 
 
 1 147. A similar specimen, in which the large nerves are also pre- 
 served : from a young subject. 
 
 1148. Pelvis and lower extremity, with the arteries injected and 
 dried. 
 
 1149. Pelvis and thigh, with the arteries injected and dried. 
 11. 50. A similar specimen. 
 
 1151. Another specimen, similar to the last. From a young subject. 
 
 Presented hy F. Le Gros Clark. 
 
 1152. Pelvis and lower extremities of a foetus, injected, exhibiting 
 a bifurcation of the femoral artery on the right side, inime-
 
 VASCULAR SYSTEM.— r7;/i\^S'. 123 
 
 diatuly below the origin of tho profunda, and a reunion of the 
 two brandies just prior to entering the pojditeal space. 
 
 From Mr. Tyrrell s Collection. 
 
 1153. A knee-joint, with the arteries injected and dried. 
 
 1154. Leg from a young subject, showing the popliteal artery and 
 its branches. 
 
 1155. A similar preparation. 
 
 1156. A knee-joint, with the capsule partly distended and dried. 
 The popliteal artery and its branches, with the popliteal vein are 
 injected and dissected. The popliteal nerves are also present 
 
 1 157 A similar specimen, from a young subject, 
 
 1158. A knee-joint, with the popliteal artery an<l its articular 
 branches injected and dissected. 
 
 1159. A leg, with the arteries injected. 
 
 1160. A foot, w'ith the arteries injected. 
 
 Presented hy F. Le Gros Clark. 
 
 1161. A similar preparation. 
 
 1162. A similar preparation. 
 
 c. Veins. 
 
 1 163. A vein injected, allowing its vasa vasorinn. 
 
 1164. Portion of a vein laid open, to show its valves. 
 
 1165. The longitudal sinus laid open, to show the chorda^ Willisii. 
 1 1 iJiS. A similar specimen.
 
 ]-24 DESCRIPTIVE ANATOMY. 
 
 1167. A liaiul inji'ctcd with <|uickdilver, the veins being filled from 
 the arteries. 
 
 11(58. A similar specimen. 
 
 1169. A similar specimen. In s])irit of turpentine. 
 
 1 170. The veins of a hand injected, from the arteries, with tallow. 
 
 1171. An adult subject, in which the chest and abdomen are laid 
 open. The arteries and veins of the whole subject have been 
 injected and dissected. 
 
 1172. Upper half of an adult subject, with the arteries and veins 
 injected and dissected. The relative position of the heart and 
 large vessels is also showTi. 
 
 1173. Preparation showing the interior of the torcular Herophili 
 and the communication of other sinuses therewith. 
 
 Presented hy F. Le Gros Clarl\ 
 
 1174. Spinal column of a foetus, having the arches of the vertebras 
 removed, to show the great spinal veins injected. 
 
 1175. Arteries and veins of the upper extremity injected and 
 dissected. 
 
 1176. A similar specimen, 
 
 1177. Portion of a vertebral column and ribs, with the superior and 
 inferior vena cava, the vena azygos, thoracic duct, and aorta, 
 injected. A portion of the diaphragm is dried and left. 
 
 ] 178. Dried preparation of the heart and large vessels, showing two 
 venae cavae superiores. 
 
 1179. Portion of a vertebral column and rib;;, with the vena azygos 
 major and minor, injected and dissected. The receptaculum 
 cliyli (which is large and extends over the 10th, 11th, and
 
 VASCULAR SYSTRxM.-JA'.S'O/fA'AJA'y I'A'.S.SA'A.v. TJ5 
 
 12tli ilorsal vertebra*,) and the thoracic duct, arc likewise 
 exhibited. 
 
 1180. The veins about the neck of the bladder. 
 
 d. Absorbent Vessels and Glands. 
 
 1 181. Part of a vertebral column, with the aorta, vena azygos major 
 and minor, and the thoracic duct injected. 
 
 1182 Thoracic duct laid open to show its valves. 
 
 1183. The lymphatics on the surface of the lungs, injected with 
 quicksilver. 
 
 1184. Deep and superficial lymphatics entering the bronchial glands. 
 
 1185. Superficial l}Tnphatics of the upper extremity, terminating in 
 the axillary glands. 
 
 1186. Lymphatics of one of the fingers. 
 
 1187. Lymphatics of the liver, apparently of the upper surface. 
 
 1188. A similar specimen, 
 
 1189. A similar specimen. 
 
 1190. Lymphatics of the liver, apparently of its lower surface. 
 
 1191. Lymphatics of the stomach. 
 
 1192. A portion of intestine, laid open to show the lacteals filled 
 
 with chyle. 
 
 1 193. A similar specimen. 
 
 1 194. Part of the small intestine and mesentery, exhibiting the 
 absorbents, injected with (juicksilver. Those which nm
 
 126 DESCRIPTIVE ANATOMY. 
 
 longitudinally are seen beneath the peritonajl coat of the 
 bowel, 
 
 119.'). Absorbent glands of the niesjentery : a portion of the mesen- 
 tery is injected. 
 
 1190. Absorbent glands of the mesentery: lacteals injected with 
 quicksilver. 
 
 1197. A similar specimen. 
 
 1198. A similar specimen. 
 
 1199. A similar specimen. 
 
 1200. Lymphatics of the spermatic cord. 
 1201 Lymphatics of the testicle. 
 
 1202. A similar specimen. 
 
 1203. Lymphatics of the testicle, vas deferens and epididymis 
 injected with quicksilver. 
 
 1204. Lymphatics of the scrotum. 
 
 1205. A similar specimen, dried. 
 
 1206. Preparation showing the lymphatics derived from the jiclvic 
 viscera, and from the inguinal and other glands in the neigh- 
 bourhood of the iliac arteries. These vessels are crossed by 
 numerous lymphatic trunks ascending to the receptaculum 
 chyli, from wliich two thoracic ducts proceed through the 
 dorsal region, btit these subsequently unite into a single trunk. 
 
 1207. Absorbent vessels and glands, injected with (piicksilver, 
 
 1208. A similar specimen.
 
 VASCULAR SYSTEM.— J/>'.s'0i^/JA'.V2' \\t::S:S£LS. u: 
 
 1201). A similar spccimon. 
 
 1210. A similar si)ecimeii. 
 
 1211. A similar specimen. 
 
 1212. A similar specimen. 
 
 1213. liOwcr extremity, with part of a pelvis and vertebral column, 
 showing the superficial absorbents, the inguinal and iliac 
 glands, the receptaculum cliyli, and part of the thoracic duct. 
 
 1214. Lower extremity, showing the superficial absorbents and 
 inguinal glands. 
 
 1215. A similar specimen. 
 
 1216. A similar specimen. 
 
 1217. Preparation exhibiting the lymphatics of the great toe.
 
 128 DESCRIPTIVE ANATUMY, 
 
 ORGANS OF REPKODUCTIOX. < 
 A. — Male Organs. 
 
 1218. Vasa deferentia, vcsiculae seminales, and prostate gland, in 
 tlieir proi)er relations to each other. 
 
 1219. Termination of the vasa deferentia and of the ducts of the 
 prostate gland. Cowper's glands and the bulb of the urethra 
 are also shown. 
 
 1220. Cowper's glands, in connexion with the bulbous portion of 
 the urethra. 
 
 1221. A similar preparation. A bristle is passed into the duct of 
 one of the glands, and the prostatic portion of the urethra is 
 laid open. 
 
 1222. The vesiculce seminales injected with quicksilver, and dried. 
 
 1223. A similar preparation: the constituent ducts arc unfolded. 
 
 1224. A similar preparation. 
 
 1225. A similar preparation. 
 
 1226. A similar preparation. 
 
 1227. The prostate gland, with the vesiculce seminales, vasa defe- 
 rentia, and epididymis, injected with quicksilver. This 
 preparation shows the entire course of the vas deferens on 
 either side. 
 
 1228. Penis injected and dried: the cellular structure of the cor- 
 pora cavernosa, and of the corpus spongiosum is filled 
 with wax. 
 
 122y. An injected penis.
 
 ORGANS OF RKrUODUCTION.-J/.-lZ;^. 129 
 
 1 230. A sTmilar preparation. 
 
 1231. The cellular structure of the corpora cavernosa, and the 
 septum pectlnifornie. 
 
 1232. The corjiora cavernosa laid open, to show their arteries, 
 injected. 
 
 1233. The corpora cavernosa injected with wax and dried. The 
 vena dorsalis penis is injected with mercury. 
 
 1234. The fibrous portion of the penis. 
 
 1235. The septum pectiniforme of the penis. 
 
 1236. A similar preparation dried. 
 
 1237. Transverse section of the corpora cavernosa inflated and 
 dried. 
 
 1238. A similar preparation injected and dried. 
 
 1239. Glans and neighbouring portion of the penis injected with 
 quicksilver, and dried. 
 
 1240. A similar preparation. 
 
 1241. Penis of an infant in which the corpora cavernosa and corpus 
 spongiosum are distended with wax, and the vena dorsalis 
 penis is injected with quicksilver, 
 
 1242. Longitudinal section of the glaiis and corpora cavernosa penis. 
 
 1243. Penis injected, and exhibiting the termination of the pudic 
 nerves on the dorsum penis. 
 
 1244. Urethra terminating below the glans. (Hypospadia.) 
 
 1245. Urethra laid open tliroughout its course. 
 
 VOL. r. K '.
 
 130 DESCRIPTIVE ANATOMY. 
 
 124(j. Urctlira at the extrciuity ot the pciiis, injected, ami laid 
 oj)cn. 
 
 1 247. Preparation exhibiting the lacunae of the urethra. 
 
 1248. A siniihir preparation. 
 
 1241). Prei)aration cxhiljitiii*,' the lacuna magna, injected with 
 quicksilver. 
 
 1250. A similar preparation. 
 
 TESTICLE. 
 
 The foUoirAng preparations^ from Nos. 1251 to 125J) inchiaive, 
 illustrate the Descent of the Testicle from the abdomen into the 
 scrotum. 
 
 1 25 1 . The testes in the abdomen. The bladder is turned to the 
 left side ; a bristle is passed under the ureter and vessels of 
 the testis, a second under the vas deferens, a third under the 
 testis, and a fourth under the gubernaculum testis, all on the 
 side. On the left a single bristle is inserted beneath the 
 vessels of the testis. (Foetus, probably between the fourth 
 and fifth month.) 
 
 1252. The testes in the abdomen : the bladder is turned down. 
 (Foetus about the same age as the last.) 
 
 1253. A similar preparation. 
 
 1254. A similar preparation ; with tlic addition of the epididymis 
 and vas deferens, which arc also shown. 
 
 1255. The testes close to the internal ring. (In a foetus of about 
 six months.) 
 
 125(5. A similar preparation. The foetus apparently about seven 
 months old.
 
 ORGANS OP IlEPRODUCTION.— J/.4Zi^. 131 
 
 1257. Foetus at about seven months, sliowing the left testis already 
 in the scrotum, whilst the right remains in tlic abdomen. 
 
 1258. Foetus at about seven months, exhibiting the left testis, with 
 its vaginal tunic, in the scrotum ; the right is partially within 
 tlie inguinal canal. 
 
 1259. A similar preparation to the last ; the right testicle being in 
 the scrotum, the left at the inguinal canal. Foetus apparently 
 more advanced than the preceding. 
 
 12(J0. Lower part of the abdominal parictes witli the testes and 
 spermatic cord. The tunica vaginalis is laid open on the left 
 side, and the external abdominal ring is shown by bristles on 
 the right. 
 
 12(51. Both testes in the scrotum : the tvinica vaginalis of either side 
 is laid open, and a bristle is passed down each inguinal canal. 
 (Foetus at about the ninth month.) 
 
 12(52. Preparation exhibiting the testes in the scrotum, with either 
 tunica vaginalis laid open. A bristle is passed downwards 
 from the abdomen, sliowing the communication between the 
 pei'itoneum and serous sac of the testicle. 
 
 1263. Preparation exhibiting the tunica vaginalis of the left side 
 distended with injection. The testicle has but recently de- 
 scended. 
 
 12(54. One side of the scrotum, with the septum injected and dried; 
 the skin has been removed. 
 
 1265. Cavity of the tunica vaginalis laid open. 
 
 1266. Preparation exhibiting the septa of the tunica albuginea, 
 with the lobes constituted of the seminiferous tubes. 
 
 1267. A similar preparation. 
 
 K 2
 
 182 DESCRirTIVK ANATOMY. 
 
 12G8. Preparation sliowinj^ the septa of the tunica albuginea, and 
 their connexion with tlic mediastinum testis ; tlie vessels are 
 injected, and tlic tul)ular structure is removed. Tlie relation 
 of the epididymis to the body of the testis is also shown. 
 (From the right side.) 
 
 1269. Rctc testis injected, and tunica albuginea opened and dried. 
 The tubular structure is removed. 
 
 1270. Tubuli seminiferi partially unravelled. 
 
 1271. A similar preparation, 
 
 1272. Epididymis injected witli mercury and partially unravelled. 
 
 1273. Testicle and cord, with the spermatic artery, injected. 
 
 1274. Vas deferens and epididymis injected with quicksilver; the 
 spermatic arteries are injected with coloured sise ; the plexus 
 pampiniformis is inflated and dried, and the artery of the vas 
 deferens is also injected. 
 
 1275. A similar preparation. 
 
 1276. A similar preparation. 
 
 1277. A similar preparation. 
 
 1 278. A similar preparation. 
 
 1279. A similar preparation. 
 
 1280. A similar preparation. 
 
 1281. Epididymis and vas deferens injected with quicksilver. 
 
 1282. Vasa efferentia and epididymis, with part of the vas deferens, 
 injected with quicksilver and dried.
 
 ORGANS OF REPRODUCTION.— J/J j: A'. I33 
 
 1283. A similar preparation. 
 
 1284. A similar preparation. 
 
 1285. Epididymis, injected with quicksilver. 
 
 1286. Epididymis, injected with (piicksilver and partially un- 
 ravelled. 
 
 1287. Side view of the pelvic viscera in a small Child. 
 
 1288. Dissection showing the course of the incision, and the parts 
 divided in the lateral operation of lithotomy. 
 
 1289. Side view of the pelvic viscera; the membranous and part of 
 the spongy portion of the urethra laid open. 
 
 1290. Side view of the pelvic viscera, with the penis attached, 
 injected and dried. 
 
 1291. Front view of the pelvic viscera in a small Child.
 
 184 DESCRIPTIVE ANATOMY. 
 
 B. — Female Ohgans. 
 
 1292. Female organs of generation in a Cliild: tlie bladJer is 
 turneJ clown, exposing the titerus, Fallojjian tubes, and 
 ovaries : the ureter, spermatic vessels, and round ligament of 
 the uterus are shown by bristles passed between them. 
 
 1293. A healthy ovary laid open. 
 
 1294. An ovary, with the corresponding Fallopian tube : the fonncr 
 is laid open, and exhibits tlie vesicles of Dc Graaf. 
 
 1295. A similar preparation. 
 
 1296. A Fallopian tube laid open towards its fimbriated extremity, 
 and showing the folded arrangement of its lining mucous 
 membrane. 
 
 1297. Ovaria, Fallopian tubes, and uterus of a Child, injected. 
 The uterus is laid open. 
 
 1298. The vessels of the ovary and Fallopian tube injected, and 
 dried. Some large uterine vessels are exhibited between the 
 folds of the broad lirjament. 
 
 1299. A similar preparation. 
 
 1300. Uterus and appendages of a virgin, aged 19. The uterus is 
 laid oj)C'n, to show the folds of the lining membrane : the sur- 
 face of the ovaries is quite smooth. 
 
 1300a. A similar preparation. 
 
 1301. Uterus of a young female laid open, and exhibiting the folded 
 arrangement of the mucous membrane, commonly called 
 "arbor vita^." The ovaries arc also laid open, and Chaafian 
 vesicles luav be seen in them.
 
 ORGANS OF REPRODUCTION.— 2;'7?.1//l/.£;. 135 
 
 1302. An interesting specimen of a double utenis and vagina. 
 These organs are completely double, being divided by a 
 tolerably thick soi>ttun ; a Fallopian tube opens into each divi- 
 sion of the uterus ; there are two ora uteri, each presenting 
 the arbor vitae ; the septum between the two vagina) is con- 
 tinued down nearly as far as the orifice of the urethra. The 
 hymen, confined, in the ordinary formation, to the commence- 
 ment of the vagina, represents the se|)tum seen in tliis jux-pa- 
 ration. Tliis specimen should be compared with the prepara- 
 tions of the double uterus and vagina of the Kanguroo, and of 
 the Opossum, as illustrative of Professor Owen's views of 
 the formation of the uterus. The right uterus is laid open 
 throughout, in order to show the extent and completeness of 
 the septum, and also the existence of the arbor vita?. 
 
 1303. Tlie ligamentum rotundum, showing a fibrous structure 
 belonging to this cord. 
 
 1304. A cervix uteri. 
 
 1305. Portion of the vagina laid open, witli tlie os tincce. 
 
 1300. The vagina and uterus laid open, showing tlie arrangement of 
 their mucous lining. 
 
 1307. A similar preparation. 
 
 1308. A similar preparation : the bladder is attached and laid open. 
 
 1300. The external organs of generation in a Virgin. The hjnucn is 
 present, and the uterus and vagina are attached and laid open. 
 Two small polypi are seen attached to the cervix uteri. 
 
 1310. A similar preparation. 
 
 1311 A similar preparation : the internal organs are injected. 
 
 1312. The external organs of generation of a Virgin.
 
 136 DESCRirTIVE ANATOMY. 
 
 1313. A similar proparation, witli the addition of tlic internal 
 organs. 
 
 1314. The clitoris, with its crura, injected. 
 
 1315. A front and side view of the j)elvic viscera, and organs of 
 generation of a female Child. 
 
 1316. A similar preparation. 
 
 BREAST. 
 
 1317. A female breast, injected with quicksilver, showing the lacti- 
 ferous tubes. 
 
 1318. A similar preparation. 
 
 1319. Preparation, showing the termination of the lactiferous tubes 
 in the nipple. 
 
 1320. A similar preparation. 
 
 1321. Preparation, showing the areola (of which the colour is 
 somewhat faded) and the orifices of the lacteal ducts. 
 
 F. LE GROS CLARK.
 
 137 
 
 UTERO-GESTATION. 
 
 The measurement of tlie embryons, in this section, iip to tlio 
 eighth week, was taken along the dorsal convexity of the head and 
 trunk ; but after that time by extending the body and lower ex ■ 
 tremities. 
 
 1322. An ovary, longitudinally bisected, exhibiting numerous Graa- 
 fian vesicles. 
 
 1323. An ovary, longitudinally bisected, showing several enlarged 
 Graafian vesicles embedded in the stroma ovarii. The fimbri- 
 ated extremity of the Fallopian tube is also shown. 
 
 1324. An ovary, with the Fallopian tube and a portion of the uterus 
 attached. The ovary is laid open, and exhibits several Graa 
 fian vesicles. The Fallopian tube has been artificially distended 
 towards the fimbriated extremity, in order to show its 
 orifice. 
 
 1325. The right ovary, bisected, taken from a woman in the seventh 
 month of pregnancy, sections of whose uterus are preserved 
 in the preparations Nos. 381, 382. In the middle of the 
 ovary and towards its surface, is a large cyst, with dense, 
 white and membranous parietes ; it is formed by a distended 
 Graafian vesicle, and contained a clear straw-coloured fluid. 
 Immediately below is a corpus luteum, which, owing to the 
 pressure of the cyst just .described, is flattened, and thus 
 has a remarkable crescentic form. The central cavity is 
 distinctly seen, and also the thickened fleshy walls, which arc 
 separated from the stroma ovarii by a thin membrane. 
 Several Graafian vesicles, placed towards the surface, are seen. 
 
 132G. An ovary longitudinally bisected. At the lower part of tlie 
 section, and at the surface of the ovary, is an oval corpus 
 luteum, of small size. The central cavity may still be traced, 
 occupied by a whitish matter, thougli it is almost entirely 
 obliterated. Tlic tissue fonning the corpus lutcmn is ob-
 
 138 DESCRIPTIVE ANATOMY. 
 
 served of considcraMc thickness, and somewhat puckered : 
 the; outline indicating the junction of this hody witli tlie 
 stroma of tlic ovarium can be distinctly traced. 
 
 1327. An ovary longitudinally bisected, showing a corpus luteum 
 situated below the centre ; the walls are very thick, and 
 readily distinguishable from the stroma of the ovary ; the 
 inner surface presents a plicated aspect, and surrounds a small 
 central cavity. 
 
 1328. An ovary, longitudinally bisected, showing an enlarged 
 Graafian vesicle distended with coagulated blood. 
 
 1329. An ovary, longitudinally bisected, showing a cyst, probably 
 a distended Graafian vesicle with thickened walls. 
 
 1330. Uterus and appendages from a woman, aged 40, showing a cor- 
 rugated and fissured condition of the siuface of both ovaries ; 
 an appearance always observed to a greater or less extent 
 at that period of life, and in the present instance very 
 decided. 
 
 1331. A perfectly normal human ovum at the end of the third 
 week. The lady ceased to menstruate on January 12th, 
 1847 ; the miscarriage occurred on February 3rd, in conse- 
 quence of a severe concussion in an omnibus, and the ovum 
 was expelled on the following day. The embryo measures 
 1 -20 lines. The tufts of tlie cxo-chorion are particularly deve- 
 loped at that part of the ovum where subsequently the placenta 
 would have been formed ; the rest of the membrane jiresents 
 only a few scattered tufts. The sack of the exo-chorion is 
 laid open ; it was principally filled with a gelatinous matter, 
 (the corps reticule of Velpeau, the future tunica media of Bis- 
 chofF) ; a black bristle is placed beneath some of the threads of 
 this substance, to make them ai)parent. The minute embryo is 
 seen supported by this gelatinous mass, and proceeding from 
 it, are observed the umbilical vesicle in the form of a pyra- 
 midal bag, and also the sack of the allantois, which has just 
 reached the inner surface of tlie exo-chorion, where, by a close
 
 UTERO GESTATION. 139 
 
 examination, its cul dc sac can be perceived. In order to dis- 
 tinguish these two delicate vesicles, a black bristle has been 
 passed between their pedicles. The amnion could not be de- 
 tected. AVhen examined with a low magnifying power (one 
 inch objective) the anterior part of the abdomen presented 
 a narrow median cleft. At tlie upper part of this fissure a 
 small projection was observed on either side ; and at the 
 lower part, close to the attachment of the allantois, two 
 other minute, but distinct projections were seen : these emi- 
 nences are doubtless the rudiments of the upper and lower 
 extremities. 
 
 Presented hy M. L. 3Iason, Esq. 
 
 1332. An ovum at a very early period, but of which the embryo 
 has been lost. The tufts of the chorion occupy a large extent 
 of the periphery, and a small membranous bag, apparently the 
 umbilical vesicle, remains. 
 
 1333. An ovum of about the fifth week; the embyro is damaged. 
 A portion of the thickened dccidua serotina remains. The 
 tufts of the chorion are largely developed. A portion of the 
 amnion has been raised from the chorion, to which it was 
 loosely attached ; the umbilical vesicle or vitcUicle, nearly two 
 lines in diameter, is seen as an opaque yellow body, raised on 
 a piece of black paper introduced between the chorion and 
 amnion. Tlie umbilical cord is abnormally elongated, being 
 9"o0 lines of an inch in length ; it is also attenuated. The 
 sheath of the infundibular portion of this cord has been 
 opened, and a small loop of intestine raised over black paper 
 is shown entering it, and having attached to it the filamentous 
 remnant of the ductus vitello-intestinalis. 
 
 1334. An ovum of about the fifth week ; the length of tlie embryo is 
 7*()0 lines. The chorion is uniforndy covered with its tufts 
 and villi, which are well developed. The cavity of the amnion 
 is shown by a white bristle passed across it. The umbilical 
 vesicle is seen as a small membranous bag lying just on the 
 outside of the amnion, having a length of 2-25 lines ; a black 
 bristle is passed beneath it. A portion of the decidua rcflexa 
 remains on the exterior of the chorion.
 
 140 DESCRIPTIVE ANATOMY. 
 
 1335. An ovum of tlio fifth week ; the length of the embryo is 7-50 
 lines. This specimen shows the two deciduous membranes, 
 their junction, and a considerable portion of the space between 
 them or the perionic cavity, across which a piece of blue glass 
 is passed. The chorion and amnion are slightly separated, 
 and a black bristle passed between them. The umbilical 
 vesicle is observed as a small opa<pie white spot, a short 
 distance from the attachment of the cord to the chorion. The 
 heart is exposed, consisting on the exterior, of a single ven- 
 tricle ; on close inspection a single vessel, the bulbns aortae, 
 is observed, and proceeding from it the aortic arteries are 
 seen ; a small black bristle is passed beneath them on the 
 left side. 
 
 1336. An ovum of about the sixth week ; the embryo measures 
 8*30 lines. The exo-chorion presents tufts well developed, 
 where the placenta is forming, to which a small portion of the 
 dccidua serotina adheres ; each tuft consists of a stem with 
 numerous lateral off-shoots or branches. The tufted chorion 
 is laid open, and a considerable space, across which a white 
 bristle is passed, is still observed between this membrane 
 and the outer surface of the amnion, occupied by gelatinous 
 matter (tunica media or corps reticule). In the midst of this 
 latter substance, is seen the umbilical vesicle in form of an 
 oval sack 2-25 lines in length, and having thin membranous 
 parietes ; underneath it a small piece of black paper is placed. 
 Next to the embryo, but separated from it by a small space, are 
 the cut edges of the amnion. The upper and lower extremities 
 are observed, but the fingers and toes are not yet recognisable. 
 
 1337. An embryo of about the sixth week ; the body of this embryo 
 is damaged. The upper and lower extremities are seen, the 
 fingers are just beginning to appear. The sheath of the cord, 
 formed by the amnion, is continuous with the thin abdominal 
 parietes. Tlie liver is seen of very large size ; and bristles 
 have been passed beneath the umbilical vein going towards the 
 liver, and the two umbilical arteries running into the pelvis. 
 
 1338. An ovum of about the sixth week ; the length of the em-
 
 UTERO GESTATION. 141 
 
 bryo, measured along the convexity of the body, is 7-2.'> lines. 
 The larger portion of the membranes has been cut away. The 
 anterior and posterior extremities are seen ; but the fingers 
 and toes have not yet appeared. A portion of the dccidua 
 vera remains, and with it a considerable mass, apparently 
 consisting of the fibrin of a coagulum. 
 
 1339. An ovimi of about the sixth week ; the body of the embryo 
 is injured. The membranes arc more capacious than usual at 
 this age, A portion of the decidua vera, where it enters 
 into the formation of the placenta, and to which has been 
 applied the name of decidua serotina, remains attached to the 
 chorion. A few small patches only of the decidua rcflexa arc 
 left, and under one of these, a black bristle is passed. Some 
 well developed elongated tufts are observed on the part of the 
 chorion opposite to the commencing placenta ; they are, how- 
 ever, as usual in this place, scattered and few in number. 
 The amnion closely lines the chorion, but is still easily sepa- 
 rable from it : a bristle is placed between the two membranes. 
 The umbilical vesicle or vitcllicle, is seen at the distance of 
 6 lines from the insertion of the cord in the chorion ; it is nearly 
 2-25 lines in diameter, of a yellowish grey colour, and contains 
 a granulated substance. The abdominal walls have been cut 
 away, and the stomach and liver partially removed in order 
 to show the corpora Wolffiana, under the left of which a black 
 bristle is passed, 
 
 1340. An ovum of about the sixth week ; the body of the embryo 
 is torn. The commencement of the placenta is seen, a portion 
 of the decidua serotina being loft, and the tufts of the chorion. 
 The amnion is loosely attached by a delicate filamentous sub- 
 stance to the chorion. The umbilical vesicle is observed as a 
 small opaque, yellow body, under which a piece of black 
 paper is placed. 
 
 1341. An ovum of about the sixth week; the embryo is injured. 
 The amnion is attached to the chorion by filaments. The 
 umbilical vesicle is seen at the distance of 8*25 lines from the 
 attachment of the cord to the chorion ; it is raised on a piece
 
 142 DESCUIPTIVE ANATOMY. 
 
 of Idack ])apcr, and a bristle is passed beneath its pedicle, 
 which in this preparation is very distinctly seen running on 
 the exterior of the amnion to the umbilical cord. 
 
 l'M2. An ovum of about the sixth week ; the embryo measures 
 7"2r) lines. The sheath of the umbilical cord is well seen. The 
 umbilical vesicle is observed as an opaque, yellowish patch, 
 1-25 lines in diameter, and situated at the distance of 6 lines 
 from tlio attachment of the cord. The membranes are partly 
 cut away : a portion of the decidua remains, but on one side 
 it has tufts of the chorion. 
 
 1343. Twin embryons of about the sixth week. This preparation is 
 very much damaged, and was originally badly put up : both 
 embryons are injured ; the head of one is lost, and the cord 
 of the other having been ruptured, the embryo is suspended 
 by a thread. A considerable portion of the decidua serotina 
 thickened and compacted remains. There arc two distinct 
 amniotic sacs, although a considerable portion of one of them 
 is cut away; the part which remains belongs to that division 
 of the sac turned towards the opposite ovum. Each amnion 
 adheres rather closely to its respective chorion : a black 
 bristle is passed in each o\"um between these membranes. A 
 careful examination shows that where the two ova come into 
 contact, there is a double chorion, each membrane character- 
 ised by its tufts and villi, which are however comparatively 
 few in number. In order to show this fact, a black bristle is 
 passed beneath some of tlie villi of one chorion, and a white 
 bristle under those of the opposite membrane. The placenta 
 appears to be single as far as the decidua is concerned ; 
 but as the chorion is certainly double in this specimen, 
 the foetal portion of the placenta must essentially be double 
 likewise. 
 
 1344. An ovum of the seventh week ; the embryo measures 8"25 
 lines. The tufts and villi of the cxo-chorion arc of consider- 
 able size, and occupy a large part of the perij)hery of 
 the ovum. The anuiion forms a large sac, and is just 
 approaching the exo-chorion to which it is united by a few
 
 UTERO GESTATION. 143 
 
 filamentous i)rocosst'S, tho remains of tlic corps reticule : Mack 
 bristles are passed between the two membranes. The umbili- 
 cal vesicle is seen as a small, dense-looking, white patch, 
 placed at the distance of 2*25 lines from the attachment of the 
 umbilical cord, between the amnion and chorion. 
 
 1345. An ovum of about the seventh week : length of embryo 
 measured along the curve of the trunk 8*25 lines. The 
 amnion is still separated from the chorion by a small space 
 containing the remains of the gi'latinous substance, a few of 
 the filaments of which are raised upon a black bristle. The 
 fingers and thumb arc just appearing, but the pelvic ex- 
 tremity still ends in a blunt mitten-like pouch, the toes not 
 having yet made their appearance. This pre])aration is injured, 
 the umbilical cord having been lacerated ; the embryo is at- 
 tached to the membranes by a piece of thread. 
 
 1346. An ovum of about the seventh week : the embryo measures 
 8*50 lines. A considerable portion of the decidua vera, 
 entering into the formation of the placenta, remains ; also 
 several large tufts of the chorion. Some of the viUi of the 
 latter membrane are seen, at the upper part of the prepara- 
 tion, to be intimately attached to the decidua vera, from 
 which union the placenta results. The amnion, the cut edges 
 of which are seen, has reached the chorion, though still easily 
 separable fi-om it. The umbilical vesicle is observed as a 
 small opaque yellow spot, under which a piece of black 
 paper is passed. The fingers are distinguishable, but not 
 the toes. 
 
 1347. An embryo of about the seventh week, 9*75 lines in length. 
 The infundibular form of the umbilical cord is well seen. 
 The fingers are just appearing, but the toes are still concealed. 
 The eyes are well seen ; the ear is observed with a pocket 
 lens as a small fissure, dilated at its posterior extremity ; the 
 nares are just perceptible as two minute openings. The 
 tongue is very large and prominent. 
 
 The infundibular sheath of the umbilical cord is laid 
 open, ami a piece of black paper passed beneath it, showing
 
 144 DESCRirTIVE ANATOMY. 
 
 the loop of gmall intestine wliicli enters it, and receives the 
 attachment of the vitclhnc duct. 
 
 1348. Gravid uterus of about the eighth week. The anterior por- 
 tion has been removed to .show the foetus and membranes in 
 situ. The tunica decidua vera has been detached, as far as the 
 section extends, from the walls of the uterus, and thus, in this 
 preparation, fonns the most external membrane of the ovum. 
 At the fundus, the continuity of the decidua vera with the 
 lining membrane of the uterus is seen ; two black bristles 
 have been inserted at the point of jimction. In tlie region of 
 the cervix, the decidua vera has been divided vertically, and 
 the flap thus formed is turned back, in order to show the fact, 
 which was ascertained prior to the section being made, that 
 the decidua vera does not line the orifice of the uterus : in this 
 region, it forms an aperture with a well defined border. This 
 section has also exposed the perionic cavitt/, placed between 
 the decidua vera and the decidua reflexa, the outer surface of 
 which latter membrane, as far as it is exposed in the preparation, 
 is observed to be smooth, and destitute of those minute aper- 
 tures seen on the inner surface of the decidua vera : a piece of 
 blue glass is introduced into the cavity. On the right side, 
 the junction of the two tunica? decidual is seen. The flap of 
 the decidua vera presents on its inner aspect a number of 
 pores or minute apertures just visible to the naked eye, and 
 which are very distinct when examined by a pocket lens. 
 Thin vertical sections of this membrane presented, under the 
 microscope, a distinct appearance of grandular tubes, flask- 
 sliaped at their deep-seated extremities, and opening by the 
 orifices above described : the more minute structure could not 
 be detected, the specimen having been many years in spirit. 
 The decidua reflexa is of considerable thickness, and has been 
 slightly detached from the chorion on the left side. The 
 chorion is also shown on the left side ; and the amnion has 
 been raised on a piece of black paper. The plug of the os 
 uteri is almost entirely removed ; but on the left side a small 
 portion of it remains, which was rather firmly attached to the 
 neighbouring portion of the decidua vera : in order to distin- 
 guish this fragment, a black thread is passtd around it. The
 
 UTERO-GESTATION. 145 
 
 divided walls of tlic litems are very thick, and present, espe- 
 cially at the fundus, the large orifices of the divided uterine 
 veins. The arteries ai'C distinguished by their smaller area 
 and by their thicker walls ; into some of them red cat gut is 
 passed. The right ovary contains a corpus luteum, oval in 
 size, and measuring in its long axis 9 lines, and in its short 
 diameter 6 lines. Its walls are rather more than l-oO line 
 in thickness ; the circumference is readily distinguishable from 
 the stroma ovarii ; and a considerable cavity, which con- 
 tains a pulpy matter, occupies the centre. 
 
 1349. A female embryo of about the eleventh week. 
 
 ISfiO. A male embryo of about the eleventh week. 
 
 1351. A section of a gravid uterus of about the eleventh week; 
 the embryo measures 2^^^ inches. The uterus is vertically 
 divided to show the intimate blending together of the inner 
 wall of the uterus and placenta. The orifices of several of the 
 uterine veins are seen, and into a few of them, pieces of dark 
 glass have been introduced. The inner surface of the uterus 
 is seen covered by a pulpy matter, the decidua vera, a portion 
 of which having been detached and turned down, its inner 
 surface presents a great number of perforations, producing 
 the well-known cribriform aspect of this membrane. 
 
 A portion of this decidua, having been examined by the 
 microscope, was found to be of unequal thickness ; when 
 magnified with a power of 50 linear, it appeared that in the 
 thinnest parts of the membrane, the cribriform appearance 
 was produced by the orifices of numerous glands, simple 
 in their character, and forming the principal part of the sub- 
 stance of the decidua vera ; in the thicker portions, the 
 cribriform appearance was more evident, and in addition to 
 the simpler kind of glands first noticed, others of a more com- 
 plex character, branching towards their fundus, and extending 
 deeper, were observed ; these two forms of uterine glands 
 seem to correspond to the glandular structures described by 
 Professors Weber and Sharpey. The outer surface of the 
 chorion is covered by a second layer, the decidua refie^a, or 
 
 VOL. I. Ij
 
 146 DESCRirTIVR ANATOMY. 
 
 o\nilinc (locidna, wliicli is continuous witli tlic decidua vera, 
 round the margin of the plaecnta, and, like it, has a tliick 
 jMilpy ajjpcarancc, near to its angle of junction or reflexion, 
 wliicli is shown by tlie insei^tion of a piece of hlue glass be- 
 tween the two deciduEB. On the outer surface of the thick part 
 of this membrane, which extends, in a zonular form, for half 
 an inch from the angle of reflexion, mmierous minute aper- 
 tures, similar to those on the inner surface of the decidua vera, 
 are distinctly visible ; these, however, gradually decrease in 
 number, and are less distinct, as they become more distant 
 from the angle of reflexion. Beyond its thick portion the 
 decidua reflexa has a perfectly smooth surface in which no 
 orifices can be traced, and its substance is much thinner and 
 finncr. Between the decadua vera and the decidua I'cflexa 
 is the space, called the perionic catity, into which a piece of 
 glass is passed. A triangular portion of the posterior wall of 
 the \iterus has been removed, in order to expose the convex 
 surface of the placenta. 
 
 1352. The opposite section of the same uterus. The blending of 
 the placenta with the uterine walls, the decidua vera, the 
 decidua reflexa, and the chorion are well shown. The 
 perionic cavity, into which a piece of blue glass is passed, and 
 the line of junction of the two tunicoi dcciduap, are also well 
 displayed. The cervix uteri and arbor vita3 are shown. The 
 ovary, which has been much damaged in making the prepara- 
 tion, contains apparently a corpus luteum, into the cavity of 
 which a bristle has been passed. 
 
 1353. An ovum of the third month. The parts are preser\'ed in 
 the state in which they wore when the ovum was ex- 
 pelled. A considerable portion of the decidua vera remains, 
 and shows with unusual distinctness its cribriform character ; 
 a vast number of porous openings are readily observed 
 with the naked eye on the portion placed on talc. The 
 decidua reflexa is extensively lacerated and the chorion is 
 seen projecting through the aperture : the junction of the two 
 tunicffi deciduEB is distinctly shown, a piece of blue glass being 
 inserted between the two membranes across what was origi-
 
 UTERO-GESTATION. 117 
 
 nally tlic perionic cavity. At the lower part of the prepara- 
 tion is the placenta, on and around whicli are masses of 
 coagulated blood. 
 
 1354. A male foetus of rather more than three months. The length 
 of this foetus is 3^ inches. 
 
 1355. A male foetus of about three and a half months. 
 
 1356. A female foetus of about three and a half months. The 
 length of this foetus is rather more than 33 inches. 
 
 1357. A male foetus of three and a half months. The length of this 
 fietus is 4] inches. Decomposition liad taken place prior to 
 birth. 
 
 1358. A female foetus of about four months, with tlie membranes 
 attached. The length of this foetus is 4g inches. Some of the 
 placental lobes have been broken up to show the tufts of the 
 chorion. A portion of the decidua remains attached to the 
 placenta. 
 
 1359. A foetus of the fourth month, measuring 4| inches, de- 
 stroyed by the coiling of the umbilical cord around the neck. 
 The umbilicus is dragged very much up towards the neck. 
 The cord is of unusual lengtli, attenuated, and measures (5 
 inches from the placenta to the neck, around which it forms 
 five coils. The placenta contains coagula of blood. 
 
 1360. The ovaria. Fallopian tul)es and uterus, with the foetus and 
 its membranes of the beginning of the fifth month. The foetus 
 measures about 5 inches. The posterior wall of the uterus 
 has been removed to show the foetus in situ. Tlie decidua 
 vera has been somewhat extensively separated from tlio inner 
 wall of the uterus, and presents on its outer surface a rough 
 fispect. Throughout its whole extent, this membrane is united 
 to the decidua reflexa, with the excci)tion that in a few j)laces 
 portions of the original perionic cavity, indicated by black 
 bristles, still remain ; in these situations, the contiguous sur- 
 
 L 2
 
 148 DESCRIPTIVE ANATOMY. 
 
 faces of the tunicae deciduae arc perfectly smooth, A piece of 
 black paper is introduced towards tlic upper part of the pre- 
 paration between the decidua and the chorion, and on it are 
 seen a few of the tufts of the last named membrane. The 
 cervix uteri is divided, and the sides are everted to exhibit 
 the fibrinous plug closing this passage. A piece of blue glass 
 is passed through the aperture of the decidua vera. The left 
 ovary is bisected to display the corpus luteura, which is very 
 well seen. This body occupies two-thirds of the ovarium, is 
 of an oval figure, the long diameter being 7 '50 lines, and 
 the short diameter 4*50 lines. The walls, of a yellow colour, 
 vary in thickness from 1-50 to 2'25 lines. The cavity is alto- 
 gether obliterated, and its place is occupied by a firm white 
 matter surrounding a yellow nucleus. The right ovary con- 
 tains towards the inner side, a dense white body, of oval 
 size and with convoluted w'alls, apparently an old corpus 
 luteum : this ovary is diminished in size and deeply fissured 
 on its surface. Attached to the left broad ligament are two 
 small bodies having a common peduncle. 
 
 1361. A female foetus of the beginning of the fifth mouth. 
 
 1362. A female foetus of about five months. The length of this 
 foetus is 8 inches. The abdominal and thoracic cavities are 
 laid open to expose the viscera ; the umbilical vein and some 
 of its principal branches are also showTi. 
 
 1363. Uterus and membranes about the fifth month of pregnancy, 
 taken from a woman who had diseased ovaries. The child 
 was perfectly formed. A circular portion of the muscular 
 parietes of the uterus has been removed posteriorly, exposing 
 the uterine surface of the placenta covered by the decidua 
 except in a few places where the tufts and villi of the chorion 
 are seen. Anteriorly the decidua, formed of the decidua vera 
 and decidua reflexa, which at this period have become united, 
 has been detached from the uterus, and remains as the most 
 external of the membranes ; a portion has been separated from 
 the chorion at the upper part of the preparation, and raised 
 on a piece of black paper. Lower dov^Ti the chorion has been
 
 UTERO-GESTATION. 149 
 
 slightly dissected from the amnion, ;ind a piece of IjIuc paper 
 is passed between them. At the margin of the section, a very 
 intimate connexion is observed between the walls of the 
 uterus, and the tunica decidua. The gelatinous plug of the 
 OS uteri is seen projecting. 
 
 13G4. A male foetus of the beginning of the sixth month. The 
 length of this foetus is rather more than 8^ inches. 
 
 1365. A female foetus of the sixth month. The length of this foetus 
 is 9^ inches. 
 
 1366. A male foetus of about seven months. The length of this 
 foetus is 13 inches. 
 
 1367. A foetus of about the sixth month, suspended from the 
 placenta, in the amnion. The lobes of the placenta are very 
 distinctly seen on its convex surface ; and on the concave 
 surface the ramifications of the larger branches of the umbili- 
 cal blood-vessels, are perceived. A portion of the chorion, 
 distinguished by its villi, remains ; a part of the decidua is 
 also left. 
 
 1368. A gravid uterus of about the seventh month. The anterior 
 portion is removed to show the foetus in situ. The condition 
 of the cervix and os uteri at this epoch is well showTi. 
 
 1369. Foetus of the eighth month, contained within the amnion. 
 This ovum was expelled entire, and found in the bed ; there 
 were twins, but the other ovum was spoiled. The convex 
 surface of the placenta presents the usual lobulated character. 
 
 1370. Section of a gravid uterus, showing very distinctly tlic 
 muscular fibres. 
 
 1371. Section of a gravid uterus, showing the '■^inuscuhi^ orbicularis 
 Eiti/schii." A bristle is passed into the Fallopian tube ; and 
 several of the enlarged uterine veins are seen filled with yellow 
 wax.
 
 150 DESCRIPTIVE ANATOMY. 
 
 1372. St'ction of a gravid uterus, showing the niuseular fihres, and 
 the enlarged uterine veins as in the preceding specimen. 
 
 l.'{73. Section of an uterus three days after delivery, showing the 
 dihitcd condition of its vessels and its loose structure ; por- 
 tions of the decidua, partially injected, are also seen. 
 
 1374. The OS uteri, after delivery, partially injected; its internal 
 surface presents a well marked cribriform appearance, and 
 towards the orifice are numerous vesicles filled with clear 
 fluid. 
 
 1375. Section of an uterus about the sixth month of pregnancy, four 
 days after abortion, showing the great tliickness of the con- 
 tracted walls of the utei'us and the part of its fundus to which 
 the placenta was attached. The ovaries have been bisected 
 and a few Graafian vesiclc^s are seen : in the left ovary towards 
 the centre a dense white substance, oval in form, is observed, 
 probably the remains of the corpus luteum. 
 
 137(5. Section of an uterus, after delivery, injected, showing the place 
 where the placenta was attached ; some pieces of blue glass 
 have been passed beneath bauds of thin membi'anc, appa- 
 rently the remnants of lacerated uterine veins. The uterine 
 veins in the pariete.s arc shown by pieces of white glass, and 
 the arteries by black bristles. 
 
 1377. The left half of a gravid uterus of the eighth month. The 
 maternal blood vessels have been successfully injected with 
 sise and vermilion, and the fcetal blood vessels with sise, 
 coloured yellow. The great size of the uterine veins and their 
 free interconnnuuications are seen, especially in the neigh- 
 bourhood of the placenta, and into some of them, where they 
 peneti-ate the placenta, pieces of blue glass have been intro- 
 duced. White bristles have been passed into a few of the 
 uterine arteries. Tufts of the chorion, containing the umbili- 
 cal vessels, are seen projecting into some of the uterine veins 
 just as these arc entering the placenta. The thickness and 
 immense vascularity of the placenta are well shown. The
 
 UTERO-GESTATION. 161 
 
 walls of tlio utci'us arc lined by tlio tunica docidna, a portion 
 of which has been turned down and laid on black ])a])er. 
 Portions of the chorion and amnion also remain, together with 
 the umbilical cord. The cervix viteri is vertically divided, 
 and the walls separated to show the arbor vita?. The os uteri 
 remains entire : the gelatinous plug has been removed. The 
 ovary has been bisected, displaying the vascularity of its 
 stroma. 
 
 1 378. Section of the same gravid uterus, including the fundus and 
 a part of the body. The enlarged uterine veins, and their 
 free intercommunications are well displayed, and indicated by 
 black bristles. Some of the veins arc seen entering the pla- 
 centa, and into one of them has been introduced a piece of glass 
 to show the injected tufts of the chorion projecting into its 
 interior. This preparation shows very distinctly that the 
 foetal vessels, injected with a yellow coloured sise, reach quite 
 up to the surface of the uterus ; and also that the prolonga- 
 tions of the uterine veins, filled with a red coloured sise, ex- 
 tend as far as the foetal surface of the placenta. The amnion, 
 chorion and decidua are well seen. 
 
 1379. Section of a gravid uterus at the eighth month, with the 
 placenta attached ; from the same woman as No. 1377. In 
 order to show the mode and freedom of intercommmiicatiou of 
 the uterine veins, the walls of the uterus have been somewhat 
 extended by attaching them and the surface of the placenta to 
 a piece of talc. On looking into the wide, cut openings of the 
 veins, flat bands and folds are seen, under some of which blue 
 glass is passed, forming the valve-like apparatus which exists 
 where the veins communicate together. On the cut surface, 
 thin layers of the muscular substance of the uterus are ob- 
 served, interposed between, and surrounding the venous 
 canals, and evidently adapted for compressing them, and so 
 preventing hemorrhage on the separation of the placenta. The 
 lining membrane of the uterine veins is traced entering into 
 the placenta between its lobes ; and in one place, a piece of 
 white glass has been inserted, to show the tufts of the choi'iou 
 projecting into one of these veins. Black bristles have bi'cn
 
 162 DESCRIPTIVE ANATOMY. 
 
 pas3c<l into somo of the iitt rine arteries, one of which is thus 
 shown just where about entering the ])lacenta, and where it 
 forms one of the tortuous or curling arteries of Iluuter. 
 
 1380. A similar preparation from the same uterus as the preced- 
 ing specimen. 
 
 1381. A section of a gravid uterus and of the placenta at the 
 seventh month of gestation. The uterine veins and the foetal 
 vessels have been filled with sise and vermilion. Several of 
 the enlarged uterine veins have been traced from the outer 
 surface of the uterus, as far as the uterine surface of the pla- 
 centa, by cutting away the muscular coat ; the oblique and 
 valvular intercommunications of these veins are thus well 
 shown ; and where the latter reach the placenta, several tufts 
 of the chorion are seen projecting into them. On the cut 
 surface, the uterine veins are seen freely communicating, and 
 at certain places they are observed entering into the placenta. 
 
 1382. Section through the middle of the fundus of the same uterus, 
 showing the uterine veins and placenta ; a piece of blue glass 
 is passed, towards the upper part of tlie section, into one of 
 the veins as it is entering the placenta. The tufts and villi 
 of the chorion have been somewhat unravelled by macera- 
 tion. A portion of the umbilical cord remains attached to the 
 placenta. 
 
 1383. A placenta which has been detached from the foetus (No. 
 136(>) of the age of seven months. The umbilical vein is in- 
 jected with white paint ; and the umbilical arteries are very 
 imperfectly filled with sise and vermilion. 
 
 1384. A placenta of the full period, injected ; the cord is attached 
 towards the margin, constituting what is called the battledore 
 placenta. The umbilical vein is filled with sise of a yellow 
 colour, and tlie umbilical arteries with red coloured sise. The 
 trunks of these vessels are well seen, ramifying beneath the 
 amnion on the foetal surface of the placenta. On the convex 
 surface some large lobes are observed, and a section has been
 
 UTERO-QESTATION. 163 
 
 made into the substance of the pUicenta, to show its vas- 
 cularity and apparently spongy texture. 
 
 1385. A portion of a placenta which was centrally fixed over tlic us 
 uteri. This specimen shows extremely well the placental 
 tufts unravelled ; each consists of a trunk, primary branches, 
 and terminal villi ; and the latter are seen attached to the 
 sides of the white stem or trunk upon which each new villus 
 commences, in the first instance, as a small projection, having 
 a bulbous extremity. 
 
 138(). A portion of the placenta minutely injected, and unravelled, 
 showing its great vascularity. This preparation may be com- 
 pared with the former, as it shows the vascular or endo- 
 chorion, consisting of the ramifications of the umbilical blood 
 vessels. The disposition of these vessels in the sheaths 
 formed by the exo-chorion, can only be seen by the micro- 
 scope. 
 
 1387. A similar preparation, partially injected. A few stems of the 
 umbilical blood vessels are seen subdividing and ramifying 
 within the exo-chorion, which is partially removed, allowing 
 the vessels to be more plainly perceived. 
 
 1 388. Vessels of the placenta injected and macerated. 
 
 1 389. A similar preparation. 
 
 1390. A placenta of the full period, injected and dried; the two 
 umbilical arteries are filled with red, and the un)bilical vein 
 with yellow wax. The cord is attached towards the circum- 
 ference of the placenta, forming tlie battledore placenta. 
 
 1391. A similar specimen to the preceding, but the cord is attached 
 nearer to the centre. 
 
 1392. A double placenta. The posterior surface presents a vertical 
 fissure at the lower part, running as far as the centre of the 
 mass; at the upper part is another fissure which takes a cur\ed
 
 154 DESCRIPTIVE ANATOMY. 
 
 direction for ahout 2^ inches, and then seems, as it were, lost ; 
 but a careful examination shows it continued to tlie centre, 
 and tlicre hecoininff continuous with the vertical fissure, so that 
 the apparently single placental mass, is, in reality, composed 
 of two separate placenta?. By examination, it is further appa- 
 rent that the posterior fissure exactly corresponds to the part 
 where the two chorions come together. Each umbilical cord 
 is attached at about the up])er tliird of its corresponding pla- 
 centa. In order to dqmonstrato the existence of distinct mem- 
 branes in the two ova, each amnion has been separated from 
 its corresponding chorion, and raised on black paper, a piece 
 of blue card being also introduced between the two chorions. 
 A portion of each placenta has been cut away. 
 
 13i)3. Tlic placentae and membranes from a woman who was 
 delivered of four children at one birth. On examining care- 
 fully the outer surface of the great placental mass, a partial 
 division is observed marked out by fissures, one of which 
 is wide and distinct, into four portions : when these fissures 
 are compared with the limits of the placentae on the fore- 
 part of the preparation, it is evident there are, essentially, 
 four distinct placentae. Some of the lobes are partly lace- 
 rated, allowing the tufts of the chorion to be seen. The 
 front of this complex structure presents three distinct sacks, 
 one of which is about twice as large as either of the other 
 two. This great sack is formed internally of a single amnion, 
 in which is no trace of there having been a division ; on the 
 exterior, it is covered by a single exo-chorion. Within this 
 great single amniotic sack are two umbilical cords placed 
 towards the centre, and attached to their respective placentae 
 at a distance of | an inch from each other. Each of the 
 smaller sacks is formed within uf a distinct amnion, which 
 is covered externally by its separate exo-chorion ; so that in 
 this curious specimen the amnion is triple as is also the exo- 
 chorion. At the place where the bags come together, these 
 several membranes have been dissecteil from each other ; and 
 in order to show their distinct existence, black bristles are 
 passed between them : the amnion of each sack, however, 
 is raised on a piece of black paper. The decidua is very thin.
 
 UTERO-GESTATION. 155 
 
 apparently owing t(» its great distension : a small portion is 
 raised on black paper. 
 
 From a wom.an, aged 36, who had had eight children in seven confine- 
 ments (twins once) ; on the last occasion she considered herself within a 
 fortnight of the full period ; the labour came on rather rapidly ; three- 
 quarters of an hour intervened between the birth of the first and second 
 child, and the others followed quickly ; the prcsputations of the first and 
 third, female and male, were natural ; the second and fourth, male and female, 
 were footlings. All the children were rather attenuated and about the size 
 of a seven nionths' child ; they eacli measured 16 inches in length, and lived 
 between forty and sixty hours. The mother did perfectly well. 
 
 Presented by G. E. Newth^ Esq. 
 
 R. D. GUAINGEU.
 
 THIRD SECTION. 
 WAX MODELS AND CASTS, 
 
 ILLUSTRATING HEALTHY ORGANS. 
 
 1394. A wax model, exhibiting the external organs of generation in 
 a virgin ; the hymen and external orifice of the urethra arc 
 brought into view by a lateral separation of the labia. 
 
 1395. A wax model, exhibiting the relative position of the pelvic 
 viscera in tlie female. The bladder, uterus, and upper part 
 of the rectum, are in separate pieces and moveable ; sections 
 have been made through the bladder and uterus, exposing 
 their cavities. The left kidney, with the renal capsule and 
 ureter are also shown. A section has been made through the 
 kidney. 
 
 139C. A wax model, exhibiting the relative position of the pelvic 
 viscera in the female ; all the viscera, together with the left 
 labium are moveable in one piece, to allow of tbo following 
 nine preparations, illustrative of the progressive development 
 of the frotus at the nine monthly periods of utero-gestation, 
 being placed in the same pelvic cavity, to which they are 
 accurately adapted. 
 
 1397. A wax model, exhibiting the development of the embryo, at 
 the first month of utero-gestation. In this and the following 
 eight models, a transverse section of the uterus is represented,
 
 158 DESCRIPTIVE ANATOMY. 
 
 (the upper part l)iing iiioveaLle), and the foetus is seen through 
 a chlicate transparent material, representing the amnion. In 
 all of them, the relative position of the bladder and rectum 
 to the enlarged uterus is well shown ; the vagina is laid open 
 laterally, exhibiting the progressive increase of size of the os 
 uteri and its relative position ; and the left laliium is also 
 attached. Each model of this series is adapted to, and may 
 be placed in the pelvic cavity of No. 139G. 
 
 1398. A similar model at the second month. 
 
 1399. A similar model at the third month. 
 
 1400. A similar model at the fourth month. 
 
 1401. A similar model at the fifth month. 
 
 1402. A similar model at the sixth month. 
 
 1403. A similar model at the seventh month. 
 
 1404. A similar model at the eighth month. 
 
 1405. A similar model at the ninth month. The head of the foetus 
 is represented as presenting in the natural position, and partly 
 protruding through the dilated os uteri. 
 
 1406. A wax model of the uterus and its contents, at the third 
 month of utero-gestation ; a transverse section of the uterus is 
 represented, and the embryo exhibited in situ ; the umbilical 
 vesicle and its pedicle are especially shown. 
 
 1407. A similar model at the sixth month; the section is repre- 
 sented as through the aiiterior part of the uterus, and also 
 obliquely in the antero-posterior direction, exhibiting the 
 amnion, chorion, and a portion of the placenta. 
 
 1408. A similar model at the ninth month ; the anterior half of the 
 uterus removed, to exhibit the position of the fcxstus, enclosed
 
 WAX MODELS AND CARTS. 159 
 
 in tlic amnion, which is represented entire ])y a thin layer of 
 a delicate transparent material ; a portion of the chorion and 
 the placenta are also shown, and the lobulated character of 
 the latter especially, exhibited in the part detached froni tlie 
 uterus. 
 
 1 109. A wax model of the mammary gland. The layer representing 
 the skin and adipose tissue may be removed, exhibiting the 
 form and situation of the gland on the pectoral muscle ; the 
 vessels and lactiferous tubes are represented, and a section 
 through the gland has been made to show its lobulated cha- 
 racter. The gland, together with the pectoral muscde, may be 
 removed, to exhibit the intercostal muscles. 
 
 1410. A wax model of a part of the head and trunk, with portions 
 of the extremities of a male subject. The anterior part of the 
 thoracic and abdominal parietes has been removed to exhibit 
 the course and relative position of the nerves and of the arterial 
 trunks. The vertebral column is represented by a delicate 
 transparent material, through which the spinal cord and 
 nerves can be seen. The heart, and right kidney with the 
 renal cajisule, remain in situ, but the otlier viscera, with the 
 exception of the bladder, have been removed. The anterior 
 portion of the heart is represented as transparent, in order to 
 exhibit the relative size of its cavities, and the form and 
 situation of the valves. The anterior part of the kidney is 
 also represented as transparent. In the section through the 
 base of the skull and face, the course of the three divisions of 
 the fifth nerve, the nerves of the orbit and the ninth pair, and 
 the course of the internal carotid artery, are especially shown. 
 The ganglia of the sympathetic arc exhibited throughout the 
 model. The section of the brain has passed through tlie right 
 hemisphere, on a level with the corpus callosum, which has 
 been longitudinally divided, to- exhibit the corpus striatum 
 and optic thalamus ; the course of the falx major, and of the 
 superior and inferior longitudinal sinuses are well shown. 
 
 Presented hy H. B. Lecson^ M.D. 
 
 1411. A skull, from which several sections of bone have been re-
 
 160 DESCRIPTIVE ANATOMY. 
 
 moved, to exhibit, on tlic left si<le, tlie course of the nerves, 
 which are represented in wax, proceeding from the interior of 
 the skull, and passing through their appropriate foramina and 
 canals, towards the external surface. On the right side, the 
 course of the arteries and veins, which are also represented in 
 wax, is shown by similar means. On this side, a section of 
 the skull at the upper part, is attached by a hinge, and may 
 be raised to exhibit the dura mater, and the course of its 
 vessels. The eyes and their muscles are also shown. 
 
 1412. A wax model, representing on one side, the dura mater with 
 its vessels, and on the other, the layer of the arachnoid cover- 
 ing the brain, distended ; the latter is made of a delicate 
 transparent material. 
 
 1413. A wax model of the heart, with portions of the large vessels, 
 and a part of the trachea attached ; this model is made in 
 separate pieces, which may be raised or removed, to exhibit 
 the relative size of the cavities, and the form and situation of 
 the valves. 
 
 1414. A wax model of the head and upper part of the tnmk of a 
 male subject, with the superficial muscles, vessels, and nerves 
 dissected ; on the left side, the course and distribution of the 
 arteries and nerves are exhibited, and on the right the veins 
 arc shown. 
 
 1415. A wax model of the head and upper part of the trunk of a 
 female subject. The superficial muscles of the neck, on the 
 left side, are removed to exhibit the coiu'se and relative posi- 
 tion of the carotid and subclavian arteries, and the deep seated 
 nerves ; the superficial vessels and nerves on the left half of 
 the head and chest are also dissected, and a section througli 
 the mammary gland represented. 
 
 1416. A wax model of a portion of the temjioral bone, with the 
 external ear, Eustachian tube, Sic, attaclu'd. The external 
 auditory canal, the Eustachian tube, and the cavity of tlie 
 tympanum, are laid open ; in the latter the o>;sicula auditus
 
 WAX MODELS AND CASTS. 101 
 
 are shown in situ. Tlie seiiiifircular canals are dissected to 
 exhibit their form and direction, and a portion of the cuchlca 
 is exposed ; the nerves, vessels, and muscles are also exhi- 
 bited, and a portion of the internal carotid artery remains 
 in situ. 
 
 1417. A model in wood, made in sei)arate portions, which may be 
 detached, to exhibit the general form and arrangement of the 
 constituent parts of the ear. 
 
 1418. A wax model, exhibiting the form and relative position of 
 the vestibule, cochlea, and semicircular canals ; the laminae 
 cribrosa at the bottom of the internal auditory canal, for the 
 passage of the numerous filaments of the auditory nerve, is 
 especially shown. 
 
 1419. A similar model, with the nerves and accompanying vessels 
 represented in situ ; a portion of the bony parictcs of the 
 vestibule and semicircular canals has been removed to exhibit 
 the membranous labyrinth, on the surface of which may be 
 seen the minute ramifications of the auditory nerve. 
 
 1420. A similar model, exhibiting the form and relative position of 
 the vestibule, cochlea, and semicircular canals ; the aquae- 
 ductus Fallopii, the fenestra rotunda, and fenestra ovalis are 
 especially shown. 
 
 1421. A similar model, with the cavities of the vestibule, semi- 
 circular canals, and cochlea laid open. 
 
 1422. A similar model, exhibiting the membranous labjTinth, and 
 the lamina spiralis of the cochlea. 
 
 1423. A wax model of the base of the brain, exhibiting the relative 
 position of the nerves and vessels. 
 
 1 424. A wax model of a section of the brain, exhibiting the form 
 
 and contents of the lateral ventricles ; the third ventricle is 
 also laid open. 
 
 VOL. I. M
 
 162 DESCRIPTIVE ANATOMY. 
 
 1425. A i)lastor modul of the sphenoid bone on a large scale. 
 
 142G. A iiiodfl of the foot and part of the leg of a Cliincsc woman, 
 exhibiting tlie usual modification of form, resulting from 
 pressure api)lied to the foot at an early period, according to 
 the custom of the Chinese. An ornamented Chinese shoe is 
 fitted to the foot. 
 
 1427. A plaster cast of the entire human figure, with the integu- 
 ments removed, exhibiting the superficial muscles throughout 
 the body. 
 
 Presented hy John F. South. 
 
 1428. A cast of the head of a native of New Ireland, who died in 
 this Hospital, and whoso skeleton is])reserved in the museum. 
 No. 700, and also his scalp. No. 454a. 
 
 WILLIAM ADAMS.
 
 FOUHTH SECTION. 
 
 COMPARATIVE ANATOMY. 
 
 Parts concerned in Digestion. 
 
 1429. Sca-nettlc (Cyancea atirita.) The mouth, placed at the 
 centre of the ventral surface, is surrounded hy four tentacula, 
 and opens directly into the stomach. From this cavity 
 numerous canals are seen passing otF to the outer margin of 
 the animal, where they terminate in a circular tube having 
 eight outlets. Tlie four pouches in which bits of card have 
 been placed are the ovarian sacs. The oral tentacles have 
 been cut off close to their roots, to allow of these sacs being 
 seen. 
 
 1430. Sea -nettle. A vertical section of the animal, giving a side 
 view of the cavity of the stomach, and of two of the ovarian 
 sacs. 
 
 1431. Sea-anemone (Actinia). Two entire specimens. One ex- 
 hibits the central mouth, surrounded with tentacula : the 
 other has been partially everted, to show the digestive cavity. 
 
 1432. Sea-anemone. A vertical section. The clustered ova lie be- 
 tween the digestive cavity and the muscular substance of the 
 animal. 
 
 1433. Sea-anemone. A similar preparation to the foregoing. 
 
 1 434. Sea-anemone. A portion of the animal. The outer integu- 
 ment has been removed fi'oni the nuiscular coat. 
 
 m2
 
 164 COMPAUATIVE ANATOMY. 
 
 1435. Sea-ancinone. A similar preparation to the foregoing. 
 
 1436. Star-fisli (Asterias rubensj. On the under surface may be 
 seen the central o])ening, (wliich serves botli for mouth and 
 anus) and the numerous tubular feet along each ray. The 
 integument lias been dissected from the dorsal surface, to 
 show the stomach, with its sacculated coocal appendages, two 
 of which extend into every ray. One of these coeca haa 
 been turned out of the hollow of the ray, and hangs loosely 
 down. 
 
 1437. Sea-urchin (Echinus). The masticatory apparatus of this 
 animal consists of five strong teeth, supported on calcareous 
 
 ' jaws, which are moved one upon the otlicr ; and the whole 
 apparatus can be drawn back through the round aperture 
 of the shell, or i)rotruded from it, by a special set of muscles. 
 One of the jaws has been mounted separately. Its cutting 
 portion is narrow, slightly curved, and compressed on two 
 sides ; along the inner one a sharp ridge runs to within a 
 short distance of the point. This hard, cutting tooth is 
 supported on either side by an arch of softer material. 
 
 1438. Sea-mouse (Aphrodite aculeata). The crop has been dis- 
 tended with a black substance, and then opened, to show the 
 thickness and density of its walls. The true digestive tube 
 is thin and membranous, and has two rows of ccBca opening 
 into its cavity. These coeca were considered by Hunter as 
 analogous to a liver, and intended to furnish a biliary secre- 
 tion. Others have regarded them as mere diverticula of the 
 stomach. 
 
 1439. Sea-mouse, Two specimens. The cavity of the larger one 
 has been slit open, to show the viscera in situ. On the dor- 
 sal surface, the hair-like covering has been removed, and the 
 transverse septa are seen, wliich connect it with the mem- 
 brane enveloping the viscera. 
 
 1440. Sea-mouse, Another specimen. The digestive canal has been 
 slit oj)en, and a bristle passed into one of the coeca. The bril-
 
 DIGESTION. 185 
 
 liant hair-like covering has been removed from the back, to ex- 
 pose the tunic beneath. IJetween the bundles of bristles which 
 project from the sides of the animal, are openings, through 
 which the sea-water passes into the space between the outer 
 integument and the membrane enveloping the viscera. 
 
 1441. Cuttle-fish (Sepia officinalis.) The oesophagus, stomach, 
 with its spiral appendage, and intestinal canal. The beak of 
 the animal has been removed. The cerebral mass remains, 
 and the OBSopliagus is seen enclosed between its two latex'al 
 enlargements. The intestine is short and simple, and passes 
 directly from the stomach to the anus. 
 
 1442. Stag-beetle (Lucanus cercus). Oral appendages. 
 
 1443. ^\\tir^-hoTnQ^eQi\e(Geotrup6sstercorarius). The same. 
 
 1444. Great Water-beetle ('Z'y^ic?** m«/v/ma//s^. The same. 
 
 1445. Dung-beetle (Copris mo^ossusj. The same. 
 144(). Bloody nosed Beetle (Thnarcha tenebricosaj. The same. 
 
 1447. Carahas nwrhiUosiis. The same. 
 
 1448. Gomphocerus rufus. The same. 
 
 These seven preparations exhibit the various component parts of the 
 "mandibulate mouths" of coleopterous insects. 
 
 1449. Mole-cricket (Gryllotalpa cuhjaris). The head and fore- 
 part of the body. The crop, distended with food, forms a 
 large, dark-coloured mass. The alimentary tube is cut 
 through just below the gizzard, which is seen floating loosely. 
 
 1450. Mole-cricket. The head and entire alimentary canal. The 
 latter consists of an oesophagus ; a crop (appended to the side 
 of the oesophagus) ; a gizzard (which in this preparation is 
 slit open) ; a chylific stomach ; a small and a large intes- 
 tine ; and a cloaca.
 
 166 COMPARATIVE ANATOMY. 
 
 1451. Cock-roacli, ( Blalta Americana.) The head and alimen- 
 tary canal dissected out. The transition from oesopliagns to 
 crop is less abrupt than in the Mole-cricket, and the long 
 diameter of the croj) is parallel to the axis of the body. The 
 gizzard is small. Six coeca are appended to the upper, and a 
 bunch of bile-tul)es to the lower end of the chylific stomach. 
 The intestine suddenly expands before reaching the anus. 
 
 1452. Green Locust (Acruhi rirkliss'wui ) . The head and ali- 
 mentary canal dissected out. The oesophagus is shorter than 
 in the Mole-cricket, and the crop is not placed so much to 
 the side as in that insect. The thread-like tubules of the 
 liver are arranged in two bundles, and open at the lower eml 
 of the chylific stomach. The intestine is short, and of nearly 
 uniform diameter throughout. 
 
 1453. Common Wasp CVesj/a rul</arisj. The removal of the 
 dorsal parietes of the insect exposes the long oesophagus, ter- 
 minating in a rounded crop. The crop is succeeded by a 
 fusiform chylific stomach, marked with transverse wrinkles. 
 The difference in size of the small and large intestine is very 
 great, and the faeces can be retained in the latter for a consi- 
 derable time. A part of the double nervous cord, and two 
 of its ganglia, may, on close inspection, be traced along the 
 lower wall of the abdomen. 
 
 1454. Hornet (Vespa Crahro.) The upper wall of the abdomen 
 has been removed to show the digestive organs. The oeso- 
 phagus, on entering the abdomen, opens into a rounded crop. 
 To this succeed a small and a large intestine. The latter is 
 much dilated just before terminating at the anus. 
 
 1455. Ilumble-bec (Bomhus tcrrcstrisj. The abdomen is laid 
 open from below. The alimentary canal is very similar to 
 that of the Wasp, and consists of the same divisions. The 
 crop in this preparation is collapsed, and, therefore, not so 
 well seen as in No. 1453. 
 
 145G. Dragon-fly (LibeUula gaadrimaculata). Oral appendages.
 
 DIGESTION. 167 
 
 1457. Scorpion-fly (Panorpa communu). Oral appendages. 
 
 1458. Hornet, ( Vespa Crahro.) Head : front viow. 
 
 1459. Hornet. Oral appendages. 
 
 1400. Bomhiis lapidaria. The same. 
 
 These five preparations exhibit the composition of " mandibulate mouths." 
 
 1461. Field-bug (Pentatoma riifipos). Oral 
 
 appendages. 
 
 1402. Water-boatman C^oto««;^«^Za?«m^. Thesamc. 
 
 1403. ]\Iay-fly (Phri/rjanm). The same. 
 
 "Ilaustellate 
 mouths." 
 
 1464. Great Goat-moth, CCottsus lu/n!perrla). Larva. The lower 
 waU of the abdomen has been removed. The greater part of its 
 cavity is occupied by the stomach ; the convoluted white tubes, 
 forming loops on its surface, secrete the biliary fluid, which 
 is poured into the upper part of the short and wide intestine. 
 
 1405. Great Goat-moth. This preparation shows, in an interesting 
 manner, the way in which the digestive apparatus is modified 
 when the creature is about to undergo its transformation from 
 the larva to the chrysalis. The alimentary canal is here seen 
 diminished, so as to adapt itself to tlie changed habits of the 
 insect ; while the silk-tubes are enlarged and distended with 
 . their secretion, to aftbrd materials for the cocoon. 
 
 1400. Silk-worm, ( Bomhi/x mor'i). Larva. The integuments 
 have been divided along the back, and reflected, to expose the 
 alimentary canal. A short and wide oesophagus leads to a 
 long and capacious stomach, suited to the voracious habits of 
 the insect in the larval state. The surface of the stomach is 
 transversely wrinkled, and along its upper wall the dorsal 
 vessel may be traced. The intestine is short and simple. 
 
 1407. Silk- worm. Larva. The alimentary tube is slit open. Tlir
 
 168 COMPARATIVE ANATOMY. 
 
 inner surface of the stomach has transverse rugae like those on 
 the outside. Tlicy are most developed towards the lower cud 
 of the viscus, 
 
 1468. Silk- worm. A larva at the same period as the preceding. 
 The lower surface of the stomach is exposed, together with 
 the gangliated nervous chord which lies upon it. 
 
 14G9. Silk-worm. Pupa. The abdomen opened. The intestinal 
 canal is here seen shortened, as the insect had ceased to feed. 
 
 1470. Bombylim major. The oral appendages. 
 
 1471. Ox-^y (Tabaniis lovinus J. The oral appendages. 
 
 1472. Lobster (Astacus marinus). The gastric teeth ; consisting 
 of three tubercles attached to calcareous plates : the two 
 lateral tubercles are rubbed against the middle one, to bruise 
 the food as it is passing the pylorus. 
 
 1473. Craw-fish (Astaciis fiuviatilis). The calcareous integument 
 has been removed from the upper portion of the body, and the 
 greater part of the gills cut away. Just behind the head is 
 seen the stomach, whence a straight intestine runs directly to 
 the anus. Two large masses of muscle make up the bulk of 
 the animal's body. On the left side tlie muscles are seen which 
 move the front legs and gills. 
 
 1474. Cod (Gadus Morrhua). The stomach, coecal appendages, 
 and commencement of the intestine ; injected. In this fish, 
 the numerous pyloric coeca do not open separately, but unite 
 together, and form six ducts. 
 
 1475. Sturgeon (Acipenser Sturio). Part of the stomach and small 
 intestine. The stomach is bent at an angle, and again expands 
 before reaching the pylorus, the orifice of whicli is small. The 
 lining membrane of the stomach has a reticulated appearance, 
 and this is still more manifest in the intestine. A muscular 
 pillar runs down tlie centre of the intestinal cavity, and has
 
 DIGESTION. 169 
 
 a spiral valve of mucous membrane winding around it. By 
 this contrivance, a great extent of absorbing surface is obtained, 
 to compensate for the shortness of the canal. 
 
 1470. Common Skate (Raia BatisJ. The stomach and part of the 
 intestine. The inner coat of the former is thrown into strongly 
 marked ruga;. A great extent of absorbing surface is obtained 
 by the lining membrane being arranged in a spiral fold, 
 throuo-liout the whole length of the first intestine. 
 
 1477. Gray Shark (Sqnalm Galeus). Part of the stomach, with 
 the lobulatc'l spleen attached to it. The mucous membrane 
 of the cardiac portion, where digestion is chiefly performed, 
 is thrown into strongly marked ruga?. The pyloric portion 
 forms a narrow tube, and conveys the chyme into the duo- 
 denum, as seen in the following preparation. A slip of blue 
 glass, passing from one portion of the stomach to the other, 
 serves to point out the small opening by which they com- 
 municate. 
 
 1478. Gray Shark. The duodenum, with the rest of the small in- 
 testine, and a portion of the rectum. The tube at the upper 
 part of the prepai-ation, through which a slip of blue glass has 
 been passed, is a prolongation of the cardiac end of the stomach, 
 and conveys the food from that cavity into the intestines. 
 The duodenum is a large rounded pouch : the bile is poured 
 into it through a duct of considerable size, which passes some 
 distance between the coats of tlie intestine before opening into 
 its cavity. The irregularly triangular body, hanging down 
 from the duodenmn, is the pancreas. This organ in the 
 Sharks and Rays is not composed of separate ca?ca, but forms 
 a compact, lobulated gland. The lining membrane of the 
 small intestine presents a very remarkable contrivance for in- 
 creasing the absorbent surface, being thrown into a spiral fold 
 througliout the wliole length of the tube. In this specimen 
 the fold makes thirty-seven turns. As we trace them down- 
 wards we find them placed farther apart from each other, 
 becoming thinner, and presenting fewer villi.
 
 170 COMPARATIVE ANATOMY. 
 
 1471). Trout (Sulmo Fario) Gillaroo variety. The stomach of this 
 fish is much thickened towards the ])yloric end, so as to form 
 a muscular gizzard, for crusliing the shell-fish on which it 
 feeds. Some of these shell-fish are lying at the bottom of the 
 ])ottle. 
 
 1480. Lamprey {Pdromyzon marinus). The head, injected with 
 size. The teeth are arranged around the opening of the gullet : 
 they arc implanted in the fleshy lips, and moved to and fro 
 by the muscular contractions of those parts. A bristle is 
 passed into the opening at the top of the head, which commu- 
 nicates with the pharynx. 
 
 1 48 1 . Carp (Cyprinu^ Carpio). In this fish mastication is performed 
 by the pointed pharyngeal teeth, which are attached to the 
 inferior pharyngeal bones, and bruise the food against a flat 
 plate situated on the os hasilare. This preparation also shows 
 the hour-glass form of the air-bladder. From the front part 
 of its posterior division, a long and slender ductus pnerimatictis 
 passes forwards to open into the oesophagus. The thick erectile 
 tissue of the soft palate has liecome shrunk and wrinkled by 
 the preparation being kept in spirit. 
 
 1482. Skate [Raia Butts). The partially ossified lower jaw, with 
 the pointed teeth disposed in rows one behind the other. 
 
 1483. Skate. The jaws, with their pointed teeth ; dried. 
 
 1484. Tope {Galcus). The partially ossified jaws. The teeth of 
 sharks are not implanted in the jaws, but only attached to the 
 soft parts covering them. Those in front are erect, and serve 
 to seize the animal's prey : the others lie flat, and do not come 
 into use until, in process of gi-owth, they advance to supply 
 the place of front ones which have been shed. 
 
 1485. Tope. A similar preparation to the foregoing. 
 
 1486. Tope. A similar preparation to the foregoing.
 
 DIGESTION. 171 
 
 1487. Porbcaglo (Lamna). Tlie jaws, separated at tlicir symphyses. 
 WIktc they liavc I)con cut their structure id seen to consist of 
 cartilage, with a crust of bony matter. 
 
 1488. Shark {Carcharias). Tart of the jaws. The teeth differ in 
 form from tliose of the preceding specimens, but are similarly 
 arranged. 
 
 1480. Angler (Lophius piscntor'ms). The jaws. The teeth are 
 attaclicd to them by ligaments which allow the points of the 
 teeth to be pressed backwards when a large mass is to be 
 swallowed. 
 
 1400. Angler. The jaws, and the pharyngeal bones with their teeth. 
 
 1401. Frog (Rana temporaria). The intestinal tube displayed; 
 also the liver, heart, and ovaries. 
 
 1402. Frog. A similar preparation, showing the elongated form of 
 the stomach, and the sudden change of size in the alimentary 
 canal at tlie beginning of the large intestine. 
 
 1403. Turtle {ChcJonia vlridis). A portion of the oesophagus everted. 
 The lining membrane is beset throughout with conical, horny 
 spines, the points of which are directed towards the stomach. 
 
 1404. Turtle. A larger portion of the same, everted. The spines 
 are seen gradually ceasing at the commencement of the stomach. 
 
 1405. East Indian Tortoise (Testudo Indica). The stomach with 
 part of the oesophagus and duodenum, injected. The cavity 
 of the stomach is exposed, and its lining membrane is seen 
 arranged in a valvular form at the pyloric extremity of the 
 viscus. 
 
 1406. East Indian Tortoise. A portion of the lower part of the 
 small intestine, whore the rugae, which at ita up])er part are 
 arranged in a reticulate form, are assuming the longitudinal 
 direction which tlioy preserve throughout the remainder of 
 the small intestine.
 
 172 COMPARATIVE ANATOMY. 
 
 l-li)7. F.ast Indian Tortoise. Another portion of the same, injected. 
 There is a rudimentary ccocum at tlie commencement of the 
 large intestine ; the latter has hecn laid open, so that the form 
 of the aperture hy which the ileum communicates with it may 
 be seen. 
 
 111)8. East Indian Tortoise. Part of the genitourinary apparatus 
 of the female. Through an opening made in the hinder wall 
 of the cloaca is seen the fold of membrane which lies between 
 the cavity of the rectum and the genitourinary depression. 
 An opening has also been made in front of the bladder, to 
 exhibit the orifices of the oviducts and ureters ; the former 
 marked by slips of blue glass, the latter by bristles. 
 
 1499. East Indian Tortoise. A portion of intestine, everted. The 
 mucous membrane differs remarkably from that of mammalia, 
 being arranged in longitudinal instead of transverse folds. 
 
 1499a. Boa Constrictor {Python Boa). The oesophagus, inflated 
 and dried. 
 
 1500. Boa Constrictor. A portion of the oesophagus. The nerves 
 take a wavy course, to accommodate themselves to the occa- 
 sional enormous distension of the tube. 
 
 1501. Tiger Boa (^Python Ti(,ris). A portion of the stomach. 
 The inner coat is arranged in longitudinal folds, and the 
 injection shows it to be more vascular than the adjoining por- 
 tion of oesophagus. 
 
 1502. Great "Water-newt (Lacerta palustris). The thoracic and 
 abdominal viscera exposed. The elongated, bladder-like lungs 
 are seen extending behind the stomach, to the posterior part 
 of the abdomen. 
 
 1503. Anolis (^Anolitis.) The viscera of the thorax and abdomen, 
 displayed by the removal of the walls of those cavities. 
 
 1504. Gecko Lizard (ThecacliU'ti/lus laols.) The thoracic and abdo-
 
 DIGESTION. 173 
 
 miiial viscera exposed. The pulmonary artery is seen arising 
 ' from the ventricle of the heart, and bristles are placed behind 
 its two primary divisions. The lungs are reddened with ex- 
 travasated injection. The stomach has been exposed by turn- 
 ing aside the left lobe of the liver ; it is long and large, and, 
 like the intestines in this class of reptiles, of a thin and mem- 
 branous structure. Its cavity has been opened, to expose 
 some insects the animal had swallowed. 
 
 1505. Skink Lizard {Tiliqua). The thoracic and abdominal viscera, 
 exposed as in the preceding preparation. The distension of 
 the stomach exhibits its elongated form. Its coats, and those 
 of the intestines, are thin and delicate. 
 
 1506. Golden-breasted Trumpeter (Psoj}Ma crepitans). The sto- 
 mach, cut open. The oesophagus is very wide. The glands 
 of the proventriculus ai'e large and numerous. The coats of 
 the gizzard are thin. 
 
 1507. Gannct (Sula bassand). The oesophagus, stomach, and intes- 
 tines, dried. The oesophagus is veiy wide, as in all the fish- 
 eating birds, and serves to retain food in the same manner as 
 the crop does in those which feed on grain. 
 
 1 508. The proventriculus and gizzard of a bird. The former is very 
 capacious ; its walls are composed of strong circular fleshy 
 fibres externally, and a thick layer of glands within. A piece 
 of the proventriculus has been cut out and turned aside to ex- 
 hibit its structure. The cavity of the gizzard is very small. 
 
 1509. The oesophagus and stomach of a rapacious bird, probably 
 the Cormorant. The oesophagus in birds of this class is 
 of great width, and serves as a reservoir for food. It is 
 here of greater capacity than the gizzard, which is thin and 
 weak. The bulbous enlargement of tlic pylorus, and the small 
 size of the intestine, mark this preparation as belonging to a 
 fish-eating bird. 
 
 1510. The oesophagus and stomach of a rapacious bird. Portions
 
 174 COMPARATIVE ANATOMY. 
 
 of the provcntriculus ami of tlic gizzard have been cut through 
 and turned asi<lc, to show the largo size of the glands, and the 
 thickness of the walls of the gizzard, as compared with what 
 is usually found in birds of prey. 
 
 1511. 0\v\ {Strixflaminea?) The stomach and duodenum. The 
 greater part of the ojsophagiis has been cut away, but enough 
 remains to show that it was very wide, so as to supply the 
 want of a distinct crop. The walls of the stomach are thin as 
 compared with the gizzard of granivorous birds. 
 
 1512. Merlin (Faico ccsalon). The oesophagus and stomach. The 
 former is dilated into a large pouch ; it then contracts again, 
 and maintains an almost uniform width to the gizzard. The 
 zone of gastric glands is small and of granular aspect, as is 
 usually the case in birds of prey. The thinness and delicacy 
 of the walls of the gizzard are characteristic also of this class. 
 
 1513. Pigeon (Columha). The oesophagus is very wide, and ex- 
 pands into a large double crop, here laid open, to display the 
 two clusters of glands which, in both sexes, become much en- 
 larged during the breeding season, and furnish a milky fluid 
 for the nourishment of the young birds. Below the crop the 
 digestive tube is much contracted before it reaches the gizzard. 
 
 1514. Pigeon. A young bird. The crop is laid open, and a 
 quantity of the coagulated secretion furnished by the parent 
 birds is seen lying in it. 
 
 1515. The stomach of a wading bird. There is no separate crop, 
 and its absence is compensated by a wide and dilatable oeso- 
 phagus. The gizzard is laid open, and its lining membrane is 
 seen to be of a brown colour. 
 
 1516. Great Bustard {Otis tarda). The stomach, with part of the 
 cesophagus. The gastric glands are veiy large, and form a 
 compact layer around the entrance of the digestive cavity. 
 The gizzard is but slightly developed in comparison with other 
 birds of the same class.
 
 DIGESTION. 175 
 
 li)\7. Swan {Ci/(jmis olor). In this bird the gizzard is largely de- 
 veloped. A section of the fleshy masses shows them to be 
 composed of muscular and tendinous fibres in alternate layers. 
 The two convex grinding surfaces (here separated by a slip of 
 blue glass) are covered with a dense horny substance. A 
 strong middle tendon unites the two masses of the gizzard 
 together. 
 
 1517a. Common Gull (^Larus camis). The gizzard. This Gull 
 having been gradually brought to live on vegetable food, the 
 grinding movements of the stomach became more vigorous, 
 and the organ has gradually assumed the appearance of the 
 gizzard of a granivorous bird. 
 
 I0I8. Ostrich (Strut/iio catnelus). The crop and gizzard. The 
 lining membrane of the latter is naturally dense and homy, 
 but in this specimen it has become loose and pulpy by mace- 
 ration. Part of it has been removed to expose the tunic 
 beneath. Tlie pyloinis is guarded by a ribbed valve. The 
 duodemim is seen cut open, and the entry of the biliary duct 
 is marked by a slip of blue glass. 
 
 1519. A mass of pebbles, ii'on nails, muscle-shells, broken china, 
 and pieces of wood, taken from the gizzard of an Ostrich. 
 
 1520. Ostrich. Part of the proventriculus, showing the orifices of 
 the gastric glands. 
 
 1521. Ostrich. Similar glands to those in the foregoing prepara- 
 tion, dissected to exhibit their lobulatcd character : bristles 
 are placed in their ducts. 
 
 1522. Ostrich. The cccca, inflated and dried. These appendages 
 are of great size in the Ostrich ; wide at their commencement, 
 and gradually tapering oft' to a point. They are sacculated 
 throughout, and arc attached by folds of peritonaeum to the 
 small intestine. 
 
 1523. Ostrich. A piece of small intestine, injected and everted.
 
 176 COMPARATIVE ANATOMY. 
 
 Tl»c lining moinhrane does not i)rpsciit ruga) at tliis part of 
 its course. 
 
 lo24. Ostrich. The lower part of the intestinal tube, injected and 
 everted, showing the valvulae conniventes. 
 
 1525. Ostrich. A portion of the rectum, injected. The valvulae 
 conniventes of this part form only segments of circles, instead 
 of going all round the gut. 
 
 1526. Ostrich. Cloaca of the male. The large receptacle in which 
 both the urine and faeces are collected has been opened from the 
 front : at its upper part, the outlet of the rectum is seen ; below 
 are the genito-urinary depression, bounded by a circular pro- 
 jecting ridge, and containing the orifices of the ureters, (into 
 which bristles have been passed,) the commencement of the 
 penis, (the deep groove on the dorsum of which is here slightly 
 reddened with injection,) and, on either side of the ])enis, the 
 papilla by which the vas deferens terminates. In this prepa- 
 ration the left papilla only can be seen. 
 
 The genito-urinary canal communicates, by a narrow, cir- 
 cular aperture, with the praeputial or outer cavity, which is 
 dilated above into a pouch (here laid open from behind), and 
 contains the penis. The groove on the dorsum of this organ 
 represents the urethra of higher animals, and conveys the 
 semen during copulation. 
 
 Through an opening which has been made in the posterior 
 wall of the rectum, the last two crescent-shaped valves of the 
 intestine may be seen. Previous to its termination, the cavity 
 of the rectum expands into the rectal vestibule ; it then con- 
 tracts again, and ends in a spiral form. 
 
 1527. Common Fowl (Gallus Domesticus). The crop and gizzard 
 of this large Fowl, of the Spanish breed, afford a good illus- 
 tration of the digestive apparatus in a granivorous bird. A 
 bit of blue glass marks the pyloric opening. 
 
 1528. A portion of the small intestine of a bird, (probably a Goose,)
 
 DIGESTION. 177 
 
 everted to show the villi, which are largest iu the gramini- 
 vorous species. 
 
 1529. A similar preparation to the foregoing. 
 
 1530. Duck-mole ( Ornithorhynch us parad^.viisj. The stomach 
 and duodenum, with the gall-duct and part of the gall-bladder. 
 The stomach is very small, compared with the size of the 
 animal, and, on account of the nearness of the oesophageal and 
 pyloric openings, it somewhat resembles the crop of a bird. 
 A single duct from the liver unites with that of the gall- 
 bladder, and forms the ductus communis choledochus, which 
 is here seen entering the duodenum. 
 
 1531. Duck-mole. The straight and slender coecum is here seen 
 marking the separation between the large and small intestines. 
 This preparation and the foregoing have been dried, and im- 
 mersed in turpentine. 
 
 Presented hy J. Dixon. 
 
 1532. Red Dormouse (Miiscardinusavellanarius.) The oesophagus, 
 as soon as it has passed through the diaphragm, enters into a 
 round cavity, the walls of which are thick, and studded with 
 glands like those in the proventriculus of birds. This cavity 
 has been laid open, and a piece of bristle inserted to keep it 
 expanded. The stomach itself presents no peculiarity of 
 structure. 
 
 1533. Dog. The animal was starved : the rugse here seen in the 
 mucous coat of the stomach are the effect of the contraction of 
 the viscus. 
 
 1534. Dog. A portion of the stomach, injected. The rugas are the 
 effect of contraction of the muscular coat, caused by the 
 animal having been deprived of food. 
 
 1530. Cat The tongue: its papillae, covered with a horny sub- 
 stance, are used to scrape oft' the small fragments of flesh from 
 bones, 
 vol.. I. N
 
 178 COMrARATIVE ANATOMY. 
 
 1537. Porpoise ( Phoccena comnmnis.) The stomacli. This organ 
 consists of four cavities very different from eaeli other. The 
 first and largest is in tlie form of a cone, with the apex 
 directed downwards. At the upper part is the wide oesopha- 
 geal opening ; close to which, and on the right side, a small 
 orifice, (marked by a slip of glass), leads to the second cavity. 
 Around this orifice, the lining membrane, which is of cuticle, 
 prolonged from the oesophagus, is puckered up into a kind of 
 rosette : elsewhere it is nearly smooth, with only a few faint 
 rugae. The second cavity is much smaller than the first, to 
 the right of which it lies. It is lined wnth a mucous mem- 
 brane, arranged in thick, wa\'y, longitudinal folds, with lateral 
 indentations fitting into one another. A very narrow oblique 
 opening leads into the third cavity, which is nearly cylindri- 
 cal, and about an inch in diameter. The fourth cavity has 
 the appearance of an intestine, being of uniform calibre 
 throughout, bent upon itself, and lined evenly by a villous 
 mucous membrane. It lies behind the two large cavities 
 already described, and communicates by a small opening, like 
 that at its other end, with the duodenum. The latter is egg- 
 shaped, and its mucous membrane smooth, and without rugae. 
 It has been sometimes described as a fifth division of the 
 stomach, but as it receives the biliary and pancreatic secre- 
 tions, it must be regarded as the duodeuum. To this pouch 
 succeeds a very narrow intestinal tube, about three inches 
 of which have been here preserved. Its mucous membrane 
 is arranged in longitudinal folds. 
 
 1538. Brush-tailed Opossum (Phalangista vulp'ma). The ccBcnm, 
 with part of the ileum and of the colon. The large coecum of 
 this vegetable-feeder presents a marked contrast to that of 
 the carnivorous Didelphh. 
 
 1539. Virginian Opossum (Didelplm Virghi'mna). The stomach, 
 w-ith a portion of the oesophagus and of the duodenum, everted 
 and dried. This mode of preparation has destroyed the pecu- 
 liar valvular appearance of the lining membrane of the oeso- 
 phagus, which is arranged in circular folds like the mJrulcc con- 
 niventes of an intestine. The ncsophageal and pyloric ojien-
 
 DIGESTION. 179 
 
 ings are close together. Solitary glands arc seen scattered 
 over the surface of the stomach, and a ring of them surrounds 
 the commencement of the duodenum. 
 
 1540. Kanguroo (Macropus major). The stomach. The bent and 
 sacculated form of this organ gives it the appearance of a colon. 
 At the back part of the viscus the oesophagus may be seen 
 opening obliquely, as marked by the slip of blue glass. The 
 cardiac portion, which has been opened in front, is lined 
 with cuticle, except at the left extremity, where a large 
 patch of glands is situated. The line where the cuticle ter- 
 minates is reddened with injection. The right extremity of 
 the cardiac portion is thin, and without glands : it has been 
 cut open from behind. The middle portion of the stomach, 
 (also opened from behind), is the longest and widest. It 
 extends above the cardiac portion from right to left, then 
 turns abruptly towards the right again, describes a double 
 curve like the letter S, and terminates in the duodenum. Two 
 longitudinal bands run along the anterior and posterior faces of 
 the stomach, from the cardiac extremity to within a short dis- 
 tance of the pylorus. Between these bands the coats of the 
 stomach bulge out into a double row of pouches, like those of 
 the human colon : the partitions between them form broad 
 valves projecting into the cavity of the visciis. Along the 
 course of these bands patches of glands occur, and one of large 
 size may be seen about three inches from the pylorus. A 
 belt of them also encircles the commencement of the duodenum. 
 
 1541. Sheep. The lower part of the oesophagus, with portions 
 of the rumen (paimch), reticulum (honey-comb bag), and 
 omasum (many-plies;. The two ridges passing backwards 
 from the oesophagus form a groove, along which the food is 
 propelled from the omasum during rumination. The lining 
 membrane of this groove has been dissected away, to show 
 the transverse muscular fibres which draw the two ridges 
 together, and thus convert the groove into a complete tube. 
 
 1542. Sheep. A portion of the reticulum. 
 
 154.3. Ox. A piece of the reticulum, or second stomach. The 
 
 X 2
 
 180 COMPARATIVE ANATOMY. 
 
 cells which give this part its name of "honeycomb-bag," are 
 of irregular hexagonal figure ; the area of each being sub- 
 divided by smaller partitions. The brown epithelial coat 
 has been removed at the upper part of the preparation, and 
 the subjacent membrane exposed, 
 
 1544, Ox. A portion of the omasum, or " many-plies," The folds, 
 whence it derives the latter name, are beset with short pointed 
 pa])ill«, covered with the same sort of epithelium as the cells 
 of the rumen. 
 
 TEETH. 
 
 1545. Sperm-whale {Catodon macrocephalus ). The lower jaw of a 
 young specimen. The teeth are set in a wide groove in the 
 bone, without distinct alveoli, and are retained in their position 
 by a firm attachment to the gum, which closely invests them. 
 There are no teeth in the upper jaw of the Sperm-whale, 
 
 1546. Sperm-whale. A single tooth (from an older specimen than 
 No, 1545), with a portion of the gum adhering to it. (Inspirit.) 
 
 1547. Sperm-whale. A full-grown tooth. It has lost the curved 
 form which distinguishes the young tooth (see No, 1545), and 
 the outer surface resembles compact cement rather than enamel. 
 
 1548. Indian Elephant (Elephas Indicus). A molar tooth from 
 the upper jaw. It consists of thin, transverse plates of dentine, 
 disposed in pairs : they are coated with enamel, and imbedded 
 in cement. The plates are united to each other at the inner 
 and outer side of the tooth, so that their edges on the grinding 
 surface include narrow, elliptical spaces, which are filled up 
 with cement. As the latter substance wears away much 
 faster than the enamel, the grinding surface of the tooth is 
 always kept rough, 
 
 1549. Indian Elephant. A molar tooth in full wear. 
 
 1550. Indian Elephant. A molar tooth, of an earlier set than 
 No. 1549.
 
 mCrESTlO^.— TEETH. 181 
 
 1551. Indian Elephant. An upper molar tooth from the right side, 
 sawn through lengthways. It is just coming into wear. 
 
 1552. Indian Elephant. A right molar tooth, in full wear. 
 1552a. Indian Elephant. A left molar tooth, from the lower jaw. 
 
 1553. Indian Elephant. The half of a right upper tooth which 
 has been divided in the same manner as No. 1551, but with 
 its cut surface highly polished, so as to show more clearly the 
 arrangement of the long plates of dentine, coated on each side 
 ^^■^th enamel, and the cement filling up the interspaces. 
 
 1554. Indian Elephant. A section of a portion of a tooth which 
 had not pierced the gum. 
 
 1555. African Elephant (^Elephas Africanns). A right molar tooth 
 from the upper jaw ; of an earlier set than Nos. 1551, 1552, 
 and 1553. The plates of dentine covered with enamel are so 
 arranged in the cement, that, on the grinding surface, the rough 
 ridges of each pair form a lozenge, the lateral angles of which 
 look towards those of the adjacent pairs. 
 
 1557. African Elephant. Part of a molar tooth. 
 
 1558. African Elephant. Part of a molar tooth sawn through 
 vertically, between the two rows of enamelled plates, so that 
 the cut surfaces exhibit only dentine and cement. 
 
 1559. Beaver {Castor Jiher). The skull. As the cutting teeth of 
 Rodentia are constantly wearing away, the waste is sup- 
 plied by a large vascular pulp, which is always adding fresh 
 material. This pulp is enclosed in a long, hollow root, ex- 
 tending as far back, in the Beaver, as the coronoid process of 
 the lower jaw, beneath the molar teeth, in the substance of 
 the bone. The lower incisor is here exposed, throughout its 
 whole length, on the right side, and the bases of the aveoli of 
 the molar teeth liave been removed. On the left side the root 
 of the upper incisor is seen to extend no farther than the first 
 molar tooth.
 
 182 COMPARATIVE ANATOMY. 
 
 The anterior faces only of the incisors arc coated with 
 enamel ; and as this substance wears much more slowly than 
 the rest of the tootli, a sharp edge is always i)rescrved. The 
 brown colour of the enamel is not produced by any incrus- 
 tation from the food, for it may be seen in that portion of 
 the tooth still imbedded in the substance of the jaw. 
 
 1500. Rat (Mus decumanus.) This preparation shows the over- 
 growth of teeth when unchecked by attrition. An injury to 
 the animal's jaw had given the upper incisors an inclination 
 towards the left side, so that they no longer met the lower 
 ones. Fresh material being constantly added to their roots, 
 the teeth continued to grow, and the right upper incisor has 
 penetrated the hard palate. 
 
 loOl. Squirrel ( Sciuriis vulgaris) and ^Mouse {Miis musculus). 
 Two lower jaws, and a separate set of teeth, of the former, 
 and the lower jaw of the latter animal. 
 
 Presented by E. Saunders. 
 
 15G2. Dog. The lower jaw. The right half shows a vertical 
 section of the molar and canine teeth ; the left a transverse 
 section of the corresponding teeth, and of the incisors. 
 
 1563. Dog. The left half of the lower jaw : the teeth sawn through 
 transversely. 
 
 1563a. Hedgehog (Erinaceus EuropamsJ. The skull. The teeth of 
 
 the right side arc mounted separately. 
 
 1564. Common Seal (Phoca vitulina). The teeth of a young speci- 
 men. The front teeth are all conical, and the points of the 
 molars are also sharp. 
 
 1565. Horse. Five preparations. The crown of an immature 
 incisor tooth, transversely divided, shows the manner in which 
 the dentine composing it is folded upon itself. Longitudinal 
 sections of a fully-formed incisor display the enamel dipping 
 into the fissure — technically termed " the mark." — which exists
 
 DIGESTION.- y^^r//. 183 
 
 in the cutting edge of the newly-formed tooth. The transverse 
 sections of the first and second temporary molarcs cxliibit the 
 arrangement of the dentine, enamel, and cement. 
 
 1566. Horse. A permanent molar tooth at an early stage of 
 development, previons to the deposit of the cement. The 
 enamel is seen investing the delicate processes of dentine. 
 
 1567. Horse. A section of the anterior part of the upper jaw ; 
 the second dentition has not yet taken place. 
 
 1568. Horse. A section of part of the left upper jaw-bone; the 
 permanent molar teeth still in the alveolar cavities at an early 
 stage of development. Compare the immature teeth, consist- 
 ing merely of folded plates of dentine coated with enamel, and 
 those in the preparation No. 1566, where the interspaces are 
 filled up with cement, and the teeth thereby rendered solid. 
 
 1565 to 1568 presented hy E. Saunders. 
 
 The following fourteen preparations of the anterior part of the lower jaw, with the 
 teeth, illustrate the difference existing between the two sexes, and the eflfect of 
 attrition at various ages. 
 
 1569. jMare ; betweeii four and five years old. The permanent 
 incisors, two of w^hicli have just come through the gum. They 
 show the " mark" veiy distinctly. 
 
 1570. Horse; between four and five years old. The canine teeth, 
 termed " tushes," are much larger in the male than in the 
 female. They have a peculiar curled edge when recent, as is 
 well seen in this preparation. They have not yet reached 
 the level of the middle incisors : the " corner" teeth are also 
 immature. 
 
 1571. Horse; between four and five years old. The " corner" teeth 
 have not yet pierced the gum. 
 
 1572. Mare ; between five and six years old. The "mark" is best 
 seen in the " corner" teeth.
 
 184 COMPARATIVE ANATOMY, 
 
 1573. Horse ; between live and six years old. 
 
 1574. Horse ; between five and six years old. The teeth have all 
 reached the same level, and the " comer" ones are beginning 
 to be worn. 
 
 1575. Horse; between five and six years old. The tips of the 
 canine teeth, or " tushes," are beginning to be worn. 
 
 1576. Mare ; seven years old. The " mark" has disappeared from 
 the middle incisors, and is almost gone from the outer ones. 
 The canine teeth also, (which are very small in the female), 
 are beginning to be worn away at the tips. 
 
 1577. Horse ; between ten and twelve years old. The " mark" 
 has disappeared, even from the " comer" teeth, and the 
 " tushes" have lost the sharpness of their curled edges. 
 
 1578. Horse; between twelve and fourteen years old. AU the 
 teeth are more worn than in No. 1577, and the curled edges 
 of the " tushes" are ahnost gone. 
 
 1579. Horse ; between twelve and fourteen years old. The per- 
 fectly even and smooth surface of the incisors has been pro- 
 duced by filing them. 
 
 1580. Horse ; between fourteen and sixteen years old. The enamel 
 
 is worn off the tips of the " tushes." 
 
 1581. Mare; between eighteen and twenty years old. The incisors 
 have been filed, as in No. 1579, to show the arrangement of 
 the enamel and cement. Compare the small size of the " tush" 
 with that of the Horse, No. 1580. 
 
 1582. Mare ; twenty years old, or more. The incisors are worn 
 down very much : their surface has been filed. The small 
 " tushes" have been shed. 
 
 1583. Horse. Part of the left half of the lower jaw, with the s^ix
 
 mGESTlON.— TEETH. 185 
 
 permanent molar teeth : tlie inner table of the bone lias been 
 removed to show their mode of insertion. The cement com- 
 pletely covers the enamel of the crowns, except on their grind- 
 ing surface, where the enamel forms wavy, rough ridges. 
 
 1584. Horse. A similar preparation to the preceding. 
 
 1585. Horse. Part of the left half of the lower jaw, with the six 
 molares, which have been sawn through transversely. It will 
 be observed that the enamel nowhere appears on the outer 
 surface of the crowns. 
 
 1586. Horse. Part of the left half of the lower jaw, and five of 
 the molar teeth, which have been sawn through vertically. 
 
 1587. Ox. The front part of the lower jaw, with the six incisors : 
 young. 
 
 1588. Ox. Part of the lower jaw. The molar teeth sawn through 
 transversely. 
 
 1589. Ox. Part of the lower jaw. The inner table of the bone 
 has been removed, and the molar teeth are exposed in their 
 sockets. 
 
 1590. Ox. Part of the lower jaw, sawn through lengthways. Each 
 half exhibits vertical sections of the molar teeth, and shows 
 the arrangement of their enamel, dentine, and cement. 
 
 1591. Ox. A vertical section of a molar tooth, and of the portion 
 of the jaw which lodges it. 
 
 1592. Ox. A similar portion of bone to that in the foregoing speci- 
 men, with the tooth divided transversely. 
 
 1593. Ox. Four molar teeth divided vertically to exhibit their 
 structure. 
 
 1594. Ox. A section of an incisor tooth shows how much thicker 
 the anterior layer of enamel is than that on its posterior face.
 
 186 COJirARATIVK ANATOMY. 
 
 loOa, Ox. A vertical section tliruugli the middle of a molar tooth, 
 and through the alveolus whieli lodges it. 
 
 15{)6. Ox. A similar preparation to the foregoing. 
 
 1597. Ox. A large molar tooth divided vertically. In one half of 
 the tooth the cement has been picked away from the folded 
 plate of dentine. 
 
 1598. Ox. A section of two prae-molar teeth, and of the portion of 
 bone wdiich lodges them. They are almost wholly composed 
 of dentine and enamel. 
 
 1599. Ox. The lower jaw with the molar teeth. 
 
 1600. Sheep. The fore part of the lower jaw, with the temporary 
 incisors : one of them has been shed, and the permanent tooth 
 is seen advancing to supply its place. 
 
 1601. Sheep. Two molar teeth with a portion of the lower jaw. 
 The teeth have been divided vertically. There is no deposit 
 of cement on the crowns external to the layer of enamel, like 
 that which is seen in the Ox. 
 
 1602. Sheep. A molar tooth, with a portion of the lower jaw. 
 The tooth has been sawTi through transversely, to show the 
 arrangement of the enamel and cement. 
 
 1603. Babiinissa, (^Bahirussa alfurus). The whole skull. The 
 molar teeth on the left side have been sawn through vertically ; 
 those on the right transversely. The canine teeth are im- 
 mensely developed in these animals, and form tusks, which 
 take no part in mastication. The extent of their alveoli may 
 be seen from the section of the left half of this maxilla. 
 
 1604. Hog. The right half of the loAver jaw. One of the per- 
 manent molar teeth has replaced the temporary one : the others 
 are not so far advanced, and two of the tem})oi-ary molarcs are 
 still in the sockets. A permanent incisor and the tusk have 
 not yet emerged.
 
 DIGESTION.— TJ^^^T//. 187 
 
 1604a. Hippopotamus. A single tusk sawn through lengthways. 
 The dentine is very compact in its texture, resembling the 
 ivory of the Elephant. The enamel invests the dentine only 
 at the front part of the tooth. 
 
 Among the skulls, in the Sixth Division of this Catalogue, will be found specimens 
 of the Teeth of Sauria and Ophidia, and of Insectivorous, Quadrumanous, and 
 Carnivorous Mammalia.
 
 188 COMrARATIVE ANATOMY. 
 
 II.— PARTS CONCERNED IN RESPIRATION. 
 
 1605. Silk- wonn (^Bombi/j; niori). A full-grown Larva. The open- 
 ings of the air-tubes (stigmata), may he seen on the right side 
 of the body : bristles are plaecd in those of the left side. 
 
 1006. Craw-^sh {Astacus Jluviatilis). The gills have been exposed 
 on both sides, by removing the carapaee whieh covers and 
 protects them. They are connected to the bases of the legs, 
 and both parts move together. By their motion the water is 
 driven through the cleft in front of the carapace, and is re- 
 placed by fresh water entering from behind. 
 
 1607. Cod (Gadm Morrhua). The gills, injected with red size. 
 This preparation also shows the palate, with its teeth, and the 
 air-bladder. The latter organ in the Cod is firndy attached 
 to the spine. In front it gives off two slender convoluted caeca. 
 
 1608. Haddock (Gadus jS^glefinus). The gills, injected with red size. 
 
 1609. Haddock. The air-bladder, of a sacculated form, is firmly 
 attached to the vertebral column, as is the case in all fishes of 
 the genus Gadus. 
 
 1610. Eel {Anguilla vulgaris). The gills, and some of the digestive 
 organs, injected : the branchial vessels are seen passing to the 
 gills from the heart. The liver is notched, but not divided into 
 lobes. The csecal portion of the stomach is much elongated. 
 The kidneys are seen lying behind the peritonaeum on either 
 side of the descending aorta. 
 
 1611. Eel. The gills injected. 
 
 1612. Small-spotted Dog-fish (Sci/llium eankuh). On the left 
 side the branchial clefts are in thoir natural state : a sliji of blue 
 glsiss is passed into one of them from the mouth. On the right 
 side the integument has been removed, to expose the gills 
 injected with red si/c.
 
 RESriRATION. 189 
 
 Id 13. Small-spotted Dog-fish. The gills are here more completely 
 shown, and their arteries filled with wax injection. 
 
 1614. Axolotl. This animal presents the remarkable union of 
 branchiae and lungs in the same individual ; the circulation 
 resembling that in the larvae of Batrachia. The heart consists 
 of a single auricle and a single ventricle. From the latter, 
 branchial arteries pass to the branchial tufts, three of which 
 are placed on each side of the body ; and the branchial veins, 
 uniting together, form the descending aorta. In this specimen 
 the lungs have been inflated : they are two thin, elongated, 
 vesicular bags, on the inner surface of which blood-vessels 
 ramify. They communicate with a wide trachea, (without 
 any cartilaginous rings), and a small larynx. The stomach is 
 large and membranous : the liver is also of considerable size, 
 and has no gall-bladder. 
 
 1(315. Common Frog (Rana temporaria). The lungs, injected and 
 inflated, to exhibit their vesicular structure. The heart and 
 chylopoietic viscera are also displayed. 
 
 1(510. Turtle (Chelonia viridis). Section of a piece of lung, dried, 
 showing the cellular character of the organ. 
 
 1617. Turtle. A section of the lung. Several ramifications of the 
 bronchial tubes are here seen : their cartilaginous rings are 
 continued far into the body of the lung. The air-cells become 
 larger and less vascular as they approach the surface of the organ. 
 
 1618. Tortoise (Testudo Grceca). The heart, with the trachea and 
 lungs. The removal of a portion of the right lung allows its 
 cellular structure to be seen. 
 
 1619. Tiger-boa (Python Tigris). The lower part of the wind- 
 pipe, injected, 
 
 1 620. Tiger-boa. The lower part of the lung, which in the snakes 
 has few vessels, as compared with the upper part of the organ 
 where the aeration of the blood is carried on.
 
 190 COMrARATIVE ANATOMY. 
 
 1(52]. Tiger-boa. The lower end of the trachea and tlie greater 
 part of the hmgs, injected. This jjreparation IxjautifuUy ex- 
 hibits the arrangement of tlie breathing-organ of serpents. 
 The wind-pipe bifurcates, and each tube expands at once into 
 a bag, the nieml)ranous walls of which form cells, and on these 
 the pulmonary vessels divide until they become capillary. 
 
 1622. Wild Swan (Cyfjnus musicus). The trachea and sternum. 
 The right table of the keel has been removed, to expose the 
 convolutions of the air-tube and its communication with the 
 cells of the bone. It is remarkable that this winding of the 
 trachea docs not exist in the tame Swan, which, in the rest of 
 its anatomy, so closely resembles the wild one. 
 
 1622a. "Wild Swan. The trachea and sternum; the cells in the 
 bone communicate with the wind-pi})e, and are thus filled 
 with air, to increase the lightness of the animal. 
 
 1623. Ostvich. (Struthio Camelm). A portion of the trachea. 
 
 1624. Ostrich. Another portion of the trachea, cut open, to show 
 the thinness of the cartilaginous rings and the smoothness of 
 the lining membrane. 
 
 1625. Ostrich. The luug. The solid texture and flattened form 
 of this organ in Birds are here seen on a large scale. The 
 solidity is caused by the bronchial tubes being continued quite 
 to the surface of the lung, where they communicate with large 
 cells, as may be noticed on the outer side of this preparation. 
 Slips of blue glass are placed in tlie primary divisions of the 
 bronchus. 
 
 1626. Whale. Tlie lower part of the trachea, and its bifurcation 
 into bronchi. A portion of the lining membrane has been 
 detached and turned down. 
 
 1627. Ox. The traclica, dricil. Some of its cartilaginous rings have 
 been divided, to show the lining membrane, and part of this 
 membrane has been raised from the interior of the tulie.
 
 SECRETION AND EXCRETION. 191 
 
 TIL— r ARTS CONCERNED IN SECRETION AND 
 EXCRETION. 
 
 1(528. Bee. The sting with its poison-bag dissected out. Two 
 specimens. 
 
 1629. Bee. Tlie same organs as in the foregoing preparation. 
 
 1(330. JMolc-cricket (GryUotaJpa viihjaris). The head and ali- 
 mentary canal dissected out. The bunch of thread-like tubes 
 attached to the stomach is the liver of the insect. These tubes 
 (according to Dr. Kidd from 150 to 200 in imniber) unite to 
 form a common duct, which pours their secretion into the 
 lower end of the chylific stomach. 
 
 1031. Silk-worm ( Bomhyx inori). In addition to the ]>arts seen 
 in No. 14G(), the biliary appai*atus is here displayed. This 
 consists of tubes, forming loops upon the lower end of the 
 stomach, and emptying themselves into the commencement of 
 the intestine. 
 
 I(i32. Silk- worm. The head of the full-gi-owu larva, with the 
 distended silk- tubes dissected out of the body. 
 
 1633. Silk- worm. A larva in its cocoon (the product of the silk- 
 tubes) undergoing the change into a pupa. 
 
 1()34. '^iwvgQoxv ( Acipenser Sturio). The pyloric coeca terminate 
 in one duct, wliich enters the duodenum separately ; a form of 
 pancreas more nearly allied to that of Mammalia than the 
 ccEca of the Cod and other Fishes. (See No. 1474.) 
 
 1635. Common Frog (Rana tempo raria). The kidneys are flat- 
 tened bodies of considerable size, placed on either side of the 
 back-bone. The Idadder is very thin and delicate, and ex- 
 pands laterally into two large pouches. The ureters open 
 into the cloaca, and the urine is probably directed from it intu 
 the bladder by some special muscular contrivance.
 
 192 COMPARATIVE ANATOMY. 
 
 103(5. East Iiulian Tortoise (Testudo Ind'ica). The kidneys, 
 iiijccteil. They have the sliort, concentrated forni which 
 these glands always exhibit in the Chelonia, and are convo- 
 luted on their outer surface. 
 
 1637. Tiger-boa (Python T'vjrU). The kidney, injected ; the 
 arteries arc red, the veins yellow, and the urinary tubes white. 
 Tiie form of the gland is that common to all reptiles of the 
 snake tril)e. 
 
 1638. Common Goose (Anas AnserJ. The oil-bags on the rump ; 
 their secretion is used by the ])ird in dressing its feathers. 
 
 1639. PoTTpoise (P/iocana communis J. The lobulated kidney : the 
 arteries have been injected with red and the veins with yellow 
 size, and the cellular capsule enveloping the gland removed. 
 The vessels enter at its upper part, while the ureter passes 
 out below. A bristle has been introduced into the cut end of 
 the latter. 
 
 1640. Bear. The kidney, injected. The organ is sub-divided into 
 several distinct masses enclosed in a common capsule. The 
 capsule has here been partly removed, and sections have been 
 made of some of the lobes, to exhibit their cortical and tubular 
 portions. 
 
 1641. Bear. A preparation similar to the foregoing. 
 
 1642. Cat. An injected kidney cut in half. The arteries are red, 
 the veins blue. The ^lalpighian bodies are visible in many 
 parts of the preparation. 
 
 In animals of this genus the uriniferous tubes are collected 
 into one pyramid. 
 
 1643. Cat. Half of a kidney, injected like the foregoing. The 
 veins take their course on the outer surface of the gland in all 
 the Cat kind. 
 
 1644. Cat. The kidney, apparently injected from the ureter. 
 The empty veins are traceable on the outer surface.
 
 SECRETION AND EXCRETION. 19:? 
 
 1(J4;). Sheep. The pelvis and urinary tubes of tlie kiihiey, freed 
 from the vascular part of the gland by maceration. 
 
 l(J4(j. Elephant. Sections of tlie kidney, injected, and immersed 
 in turpentine. The ^lalpighian bodies, from their large size, 
 may be distinctly seen. 
 
 1G47. Duck-mole ( Ornithorhynchus paradoxus ) . Tlie entire right 
 crural gland, with its duct, and the strong, horny spur -which 
 is attached to the hind leg of the male : a canal, traversing 
 the spur and opening near its point, into which a bristle is 
 here inserted, serves to transmit the fluid of the gland. This 
 organ lias been termed by some " the poison-gland ;" but those 
 who have captured the animal have never observed it to make 
 xisc of the spur as a weapon, and it has been suggested that 
 it is employed by the male (who alone is provided with it) to 
 excite in some way the sexual feelings of his mate. 
 
 Presented hy J. D'xxon. 
 
 1648. Duck-mole. A section of the left crural glaml, with its duct 
 injected. 
 
 VOL. 1.
 
 194 COMPARATIVE ANATOMY. 
 
 IV.— PARTS COXCERNKT) IN THE CIRCULATION 
 OF THE JiLOOD AND CHYEE. 
 
 1()41). Ji]a,ck Shxg fLimax ater J. Tlic mantle has l)cen removed, 
 to show the position of the heart and pericardium. 
 
 1650. Eel (AnguiUa vulgaris). The gills, injected. The bran- 
 chial membrane, under which bristles have been passed, de- 
 fends the gills from the contact of substances entering the 
 mouth. 
 
 1651. Common Frog (Rana temporar'm). The two aortic vessels 
 are here seen uniting to form the descending aorta, which again 
 bifurcates to supply the lower extremities. A section of the 
 lungs exhibits their vesicular structure. A bristle is passed 
 into each bronchus. 
 
 1652. Turtle (CheJonia rlr'idis). A portion of tlie mesentery and 
 intestine, with the arteries and lactcals injected. Dry. 
 
 1653. Turtle. A similar preparation to the foregoing. 
 
 1654. Turtle. The heart and great vessels, injected and dried. 
 Tlie right auricle, vcnte cav^, and pulmonary artery are 
 yellow ; the ventricle, the two aortiE, the two pulmonary 
 veins, and left auricle are red. The heart is broadest from 
 side to side. The auricles are large and without any ap- 
 pendix : the right one, by a single opening at its upper part, 
 receives the blood from the body. The two pulmonary veins 
 unite, and enter the left auricle posteriorly. The two aortae 
 arise close together : (in Land-Tortoises they commence by a 
 single trunk). The pulmonary artery is given off from the 
 ventricle, to the left of the aort« and rather lower down : it 
 divides into two brandies, one for each lung, the right branch 
 passing under both aortas. The right aorta gives off, near 
 its origin, a short trunk, which immediately divides into two 
 branches, and each of these subdivides again into two ; the
 
 CIRCULATION. 1&5 
 
 iutcnial of tlicm is the common carotid, the external andlargi^r 
 tlie subclavian. The two aortae pass outwards and upwards, 
 then curve backwards, inclining toward each other, and are 
 connected by a short branch. Tlie left aorta .sup])lies the 
 abdominal viscera, and terminates by anastomosing with the 
 right aorta. Tlie trunk formed by their union passes along 
 the back -bone to the pelvis, and supplies the hinder extremities. 
 The lympliatics of the Turtle are of immense size, as may be 
 seen in this preparation where they have been filled with green 
 injection. Those from the mesentery form a plexus around 
 the right aorta, and, in front of the left one, a receptaeulum, 
 whence the thoracic duct takes its origin. The duct on the 
 right side subdivides as it ascends, is joined by the lymphatics 
 from the neck, and terminates in two trunks, one opening at 
 the junction of the subclavian and jugular veins, the other in 
 the jugidar itself. The duct on the left side forms a plexus 
 on the left aorta, and opens, by a single trunk, into the angle 
 formed by the subclavian and jugular veins. 
 
 ]G,')5. Tiger-boa {Python Tigrw). The heart and gi'cat vessels. 
 The auricles have thin walls, and are completely separated by 
 a membranous partition. The right auricle receives the blood 
 from the body by a single opening, and pours it into the pos- 
 terior chamber of the ventricle, through an aperture marked 
 by a slip of white glass. Into the left auricle the blood 
 from the lungs enters by a single trunk. This cavity 
 has been laid open from behind. The ventricle is of a 
 conical figure, but is made irregular by an appendix of the 
 same form, which projects beyond its base on the left side. 
 Internally the ventricle is divided, by a muscular septum, into 
 two cliambers, an anterior and a posterior, the latter extend- 
 \n<y into the appendix just mentioned. The septum has 
 several openings which allow the l)lood to pass througli them. 
 The pulmonary artery and left aorta arise close together from 
 the anterior chamber of the ventricle : the right aorta comes 
 ofi" from the posterior chamber. Both cavities have been laid 
 open. 
 
 The course of the blood from the lungs to the pulmonary 
 
 o2
 
 196 COMPARATIVE ANATOMY. 
 
 artery is shown l>y the bristle j)assiiig in at tlie pulmonary vein. 
 From tlio left aurirlo tlic blood cntcT.-5 the posterior chamber 
 of the ventricle, where it meets with that from the right 
 auricle which has already circulated through the body. This 
 mixed blood is impelled partly into the right aorta, and 
 partly, through the perforated septum, into the anterior 
 chamber of the ventricle, and thence into the left aorta and 
 into the pulmonary artery. The course of the last mentioned 
 current is indicated by the slip of blue glass. 
 
 The small, flattened, oval body, between the two carotid 
 arteries, is the thyroid gland. 
 
 1656. Ostrich (Struthio Cameliis). The heart. The right auri- 
 culo-ventricular opening is guarded by two valves : the 
 right one is much the larger, and both are muscular. A 
 single artery, the pulmonary, arises from the right ventricle : 
 its orifice is funiishcd with three semilunar valves, the an- 
 terior of which has been removed in this preparation, to expose 
 the cavity. The left auriculo-ventricular opening has two 
 valves, that on its right side being the larger. The muscular 
 walls of the ventricles are dense and compact ; those of the 
 left one are of considerable thickness. The inner surface of 
 the right one is remarkably smooth and even. 
 
 1657. Porpoise {Plioc(Bna communis). The upper portion of the 
 body, injected and dried, to show the arrangement, — rete 
 mirabile, — for retaining a supply of aerated blood during the 
 animal's submersion. 
 
 1G58. "Whale. The heart, stuffed and dried. The right auricle 
 and ventricle, and the pulmonary artery, are coloured black ; 
 the left auricle and ventricle, and the aorta, red. 
 
 1059. Seal {Phoca vHulina). A young female. The heart and 
 the principal arteries and A-eins of the body, together with 
 part of the alimentary canal, the bladder, and the uterus, 
 are injected. The lungs have been removed, and the trachea 
 turned toward the left side.
 
 CIRCULATION. 197 
 
 Tliree trunks arc given off from the arch of the aorta : the 
 first divides into right suhclavian and right carotid ; the 
 second is tlie left carotid, and the third the left subclavian. 
 The ductus arteriosus is still pervious. 
 
 1()60. Sheep. Half of the skull, Avith the intci'ual carotid arteries 
 and those of the pituitary membrane injected.
 
 198 COMPARATIVE ANATOMY. 
 
 v.— PARTS CONCERNED IN GENERATION AND 
 DEVELOPEMENT. 
 
 ICGl. Tape-worm (Tcenia goMum). Two portions of the animal, 
 injected and dried. In the larger preparation the nutrient 
 canals are filled with red size : the central, white ramifica- 
 tions, are the ovaries, which have become prominent by the 
 drying of the soft parts. In the smaller preparation the 
 generative organs have been injected. 
 
 Injected by G. HincUon. 
 
 1662. Tape- worm. In the larger piece, the nutrient canals are fillL-d 
 with red size ; there are no ova to be seen. In the smaller 
 piece, the ovaries are fully distended. 
 
 Injected hy G. Hindson. 
 
 1663. ^i^x-^sh (Asterias ruhens). Clusters of ova are seen lying in 
 the hollow of each ray. Some of the sacs and bulbs at the 
 roots of the feet may be traced, where the ovaries have been 
 turned aside. 
 
 1664. Calamary (Sepia LoUffo). The ovarium filled with ova : a 
 bristle is placed in its sliort and wide duct. On the reverse of 
 the preparation the same parts may be seen through the trans- 
 parent, horny " gladius." 
 
 1665. T)\\ng-heQi\e {C'opris molossus). Abdomen and oviduct. The 
 dorsum with spiracula. 
 
 1666. Locust (Decticus verriicivorus). Female. The viscera, seen 
 from above : the ovaries are filled with ova. The ovipositor 
 is remarkably long in Insects of this family. 
 
 1667. Locust (^Decticus rerruc'ivorus). Male. The oval-shaped 
 masses on either side of the abdomen are the testes. They 
 communicate with numerous cieca, which are here shown 
 filling up a large portion of the abdominal cavity. A pair of 
 daspers are seen in the position which the blades of the ovi- 
 positor occupy in the female insect.
 
 GENERATION AND DEVELOrEMENT. 199 
 
 1G68. Green Locust (^Acrida viridissima) . The crop, the gizzard 
 with its large caica, and the chylific stomach are exposed ; but 
 tlie intestines are hidden by the masses of matui'c ova, 
 
 1669. Wasp (^Vespa). Larva, pupa, and imago. 
 
 1670. Humble-bee (Boinhits). The removal of the abdominal walls 
 exposes OA'a ready for exclusion.' The two oviducts are seen 
 converging to their common outlet, situated behind the sting. 
 
 1671. Ilmnble-bce (Bomliis to'restris). The abdomen has been 
 cleared of its other contents to expose the ovaries. They may 
 be traced up from the genital outlet as two slender tubes, each 
 of which divides again into two. 
 
 1 672. Hornet ( Vespa Crahro). Larva, pupa, and imago. 
 
 1673. Ichneumon-fly. The eggs of this insect have been deposited 
 beneath the integument of a larval Tiger-moth (^Arctia cajd). 
 
 1674. Ichneumon-fly. Larvoo, in the caterpillar of the Tiger-moth. 
 These larvae subsist upon the fatty matter in the body of 
 the Caterpillar, which continues to feed, although much 
 impaired in vigour by the voracity of its lodgers, spins 
 its cocoon, and becomes a pupa : but by this time its vital 
 powers are exhausted, and it dies. The Ichneumon-flies, 
 having completed their transformation, then make their escape 
 from the cocoon. 
 
 1675. Sphinx. Integuments of a pupa. 
 
 1 676. ITawk-moth (Sesia). The same parts as in the foregoing No. 
 
 1677. Lasiocampa quercus. The Cocoon. 
 
 1678. Silk-worm (Bomhi/x iiwri). The abdomen opened to show 
 the ova. 
 
 1679. Ghost-moih (^IlcjnaJ us /i am nil). Imago. The same parts as 
 in the preceding specimen.
 
 200 COMPARATIVE ANATOMY. 
 
 1680. ^[olc-crickct {Gryllotalpa tulyaris). The distended crop oc- 
 cupies the greater part of the abdomen, and in front of it is -the 
 gizzard with its copcal ajJiK-ndagcs. On cither side of the body 
 are the ovaries, filled with iiiiniaturc ova. The two oviducts 
 may be traced downwards to their termination. 
 
 1681. ^lolc-cricket. Female. The abdomen is distended with 
 mature ova. The pear-shaped body close to the anus is the 
 " spermatheca." The gizzard is laid open, and on its internal 
 surface the horny apparatus for bruising the food is seen 
 arranged in vertical ridges. 
 
 1682. JNTolc-cricket. The ova are here less developed than in the 
 preceding preparation. The two oviducts are seen converging 
 to their common outlet : between them is a pear-shaped body, 
 the " spermatheca," whicli receives the semen of the male, 
 and ejects it upon the eggs as they are passing out of the 
 body. 
 
 1683. Silk-worm (Bomhi/.v mori). Ova, in some of -which the 
 young larvcB can be discerned through the transparent shell. 
 
 1684. Silk -worm. A pupa, near the time of transformation into an 
 imago. The antennae and other parts about the head, and also 
 the ova, may be seen through the thin integuments. 
 
 1685. Silk- worm. Pupa. 
 
 1686. Silk-W'Orm. Pupa. 
 
 1687. Silk-worm. Imago; the male insect, just emerged from the 
 cocoon, at tlie apertui-e of which is the shrivelled skin of the 
 pupa. 
 
 1688. Silk-wonn. Imago; male and female. 
 
 1689. Silk-worm. Imago, female ; the abdumeu is distended with 
 ova. 
 
 1690. l^ilk-worm. Imago, female; with tlie ova displayotl.
 
 GENERATION AND DEVELOPEMENT. 201 
 
 l(il)l. Craw -iiiih (Astacus^ueiatilis). i\Iale. The carapace lias been 
 removed to expose the testes and vasa deferentia. The latter 
 tubes arc much convohited : the right one is seen terminating 
 in front of the proximal joint of the last leg on that side. 
 
 l()i)2. Craw-fish. Female. The carapace has been removed to 
 exhibit the ovaries. On the right side the duct is seen pass- 
 ing downwards, to open by the side of the proximal joint 
 of the third leg. 
 
 1093. Lamprey (Petromi/zon marlnus). The ovary, which is 
 suspended to the vertebral column by a fold of i)eritona;um. 
 There being no oviducts in this Fish, the ova fall into the 
 cavity of the abdomen, and pass out through the i)eritona!al 
 apertures, in the same manner as in the Eel. 
 
 1094. ]\Iackarel ( Scomber Scomhrus ) . The ovaria, slit open length- 
 ways, to show the folds of membrane on which the ova are 
 developed. The ducts are short and wide, and are seen 
 Tuiiting to terminate in the cloaca. A brown bristle is placed 
 in the rectum, and a black one in the oviduct. 
 
 1695- Haddock (Gadiis ^glcjinus). The ovaria, distended with 
 ova, are seen opening into a common duct, which is wide 
 and of considerable length. 
 
 1096. Blenny (Zoarces vicipartts). The generative organs of the 
 female. The ovary in this Fish is single ; it is here seen 
 attached by its oviduct to the vent : behind is a short piece of 
 the rectum. Part of the left wall of the ovary has been 
 removed, to expose the young Blennies crowded together 
 within. They arc retained in this situation abont twelve 
 weeks after their separation from the chorion. 
 
 1097. Common Frog ('liana temporaria). Th.e thoracic and abdo- 
 minal cavities laid open. The ovaries are full of ova. The 
 lonof convoluted oviducts have become swollen and pulpy from 
 having been steeped in water : they are naturally white 
 and opaque.
 
 202 COMrARATIVE ANATOMY. 
 
 1G1)8. Common Frog. Male. The digestive organs have been 
 removed, to show the testes. The animal v^as killed during 
 the copulating season, when these glands increase in hulk. 
 The flattened bodies immediately behind the testes arc the 
 kidneys. 
 
 1699. Common Frog. Male and female m coiV?/. During the breed- 
 ing season a rough tubercle forms on the thumb of the male, 
 which enables him to retain his hold on the slippery skin of 
 the female throughout the long process of fecundating the ova. 
 After the breeding season this tubercle disappears. 
 
 1700. Toad (Bufo vulgaris). Female. The viscera of the thorax 
 and abdomen. The ova are just ready for exclusion, and 
 form an almost black mass, in consequence of the dcvelope- 
 ment of pigment ceUs on the surface of the yolks. 
 
 1701. Tortoise [Testudo Grceca). The generative organs of an 
 impregnated female. Immediately above the vent the ante- 
 rior wall of the cloaca has been cut into, to show the oviducts 
 and rectum terminating in it. The ovaries, with ova in 
 different stages of developement, hang loosely do'^NTi from the 
 oviducts, being attached to them by folds of peritonaeum. 
 The right kidney has been displaced from its connexions, but 
 left adhering to the ovary. The oviducts are long and wide ; 
 each contains two mature eggs, the earthy shells of which 
 may be seen on the right side, where the tube has been 
 torn to expose them. 
 
 1701a. An egg of a Common Tortoise, and one of a Fresh-water 
 
 Tortoise ; the latter may be distinguished by its more elon- 
 gated form. 
 
 1702. Black Adder (Vij)era herus). The generative organs of an 
 impregnated female. The ovarian capsules are thin and 
 transparent, and contain ova in different stages of maturity. 
 The two white, flattened tubes, passing downwards, are the 
 oviducts : the right one has been cut into at its lower end, 
 and stretched open with a bristle ; a piece of whalebone has
 
 GENERATION AND DEVELOPEMENT. 203 
 
 been passed into tlie left one. Another bristle points out the 
 situaticm of the rectum, and its termination in the cloaca. 
 External to the oviducts are the kidneys, composed of a series 
 of lobes placed one behind the other. 
 
 1703. Black Adder. The generative organs of the male. At the 
 upper part of the preparation, on either side of the median 
 plane, are the testes. The left one has been partly detached 
 and turned down. The vasa defcrentia may be traced along 
 the inner margin of the kidneys. The latter organs have the 
 form common to all the Snakes : the rectum lies between 
 them. The two penes are protruded from the sheath in 
 which, during their imexcited state, they lie concealed. Each 
 j)enis has a double glans, and is beset with several shaiii, 
 recurved spines. 
 
 1704 Tiger-Boa (Pi/f/wn Tigris). Three Eggs. The thickness of 
 their leathery walls is shown in the central one, a portion of 
 which has been cut away. 
 
 1705. Lizard ( ?) Ova, exposed by removing the walls of 
 
 the abdomen : they are large and of a roundish figure : some 
 of them are still enclosed in the delicate ovarian capsules. 
 
 1700. Great Garrial {Gavialis Gangeticus : Crocodilus longirostris). 
 A young animal, soon after its escape from the shell. The 
 yolk-bag (imibilical vesicle — vitellicle) is still of considerable 
 size, and has been injected from the intestine through the 
 " ductus vitello-intestinalis." This preparation also shows 
 part of the digestive apparatus ; the wide oesophagus, and 
 the large, rounded stomach. The trachea is seen lying in front 
 of the former. 
 
 1707. Common Fowl. A part of the ovarium, with several unde- 
 veloped ova of small size. One oviun is mature, and ready to 
 escape into the oviduct. It is invested by its ovisac, or calt/x, 
 the outer membrane of which contains many large blood- 
 vessels. The broad white band which, in this specimen, 
 extends over only a part of the ovisac, is the sti</)tia ; this,
 
 204 COMPARATIVE ANATOMY. 
 
 becoming thinned by absorption, at length gives way, and so 
 allows the vitellus to escape into the infundibular orifice of the 
 oviduct. 
 
 1708. A Chicken of about the twentieth day of incubation. The 
 vitcllicle (yolk-bag ; umbilical vesicle) is of large size, and, 
 in consequence of constriction at the umbilical aperture, the 
 whole mass has become partially divided into two lobes, the 
 smaller of which is situated within the abdomen. This 
 retraction of the vitcllicle into the abdominal cavity occurs 
 during the last three days of incubation. A large portion of 
 the allantois remains below the vitcllicle, together with some 
 branches of the umbilical blood-vessels, beneath one of which 
 a black bristle is passed. Part of the urachus has been left, 
 and is raised on a piece of white glass. Some fragments of 
 the amnion are displayed on black paper. 
 
 1709. A Chicken of about the twentieth day of incubation. The 
 anterior abdominal wall has been removed, in order to expose 
 the internal parts. The vitcllicle, (yolk-bag) is of large size, 
 and presents a constriction at its upper part, caused by the 
 pressure of the umbilicus : the smaller, upper, lobe, has been 
 drawn into the abdomen. A piece of blue paper is placed 
 between the omphalo-mcsentcric vessels, and the vitcllo-intes- 
 tinal duct : the former are seen passing on either side of the 
 small intestine, while the duct enters its cavity. A black 
 bristle has been placed xmder one set of the omphalo- mesenteric 
 vessels, to show the direction they are taking towards the 
 root of the mesentery. The sack of the allantois is entire, 
 and its blood-vessels have been partially injected with red 
 size : its pedicle passes deeply between two large lobes of the 
 yolk-bag. The urachus is raised on a black bristle. 
 
 1710. A Chicken near the time of hatcliing, when the vitcllicle is 
 being gradually drawn into tlic abdomen. This specimen shows 
 very well the position of the Chick hi oro, the head being 
 turned towards the breast, and lodcjed under the rio[ht winfj. 
 
 1711. A Chicken of about the second day after exclusion from the
 
 GENERATION AND DEVELOPEMENT. 205 
 
 egg. The vitellicle, (yolk-bag, umbilical vesicle) situated 
 Avithin the abdomen, has been exposed by cutting away the 
 anterior walls of that cavity : it is drawn together into several 
 sacculi, containing the remains of the yolk. There is a black 
 bristle under one of the omphalo-mesenteric blood-vessels : 
 this vessel is distinguishable by its whiteness, and may be 
 seen passing over the surface of the small intestine to enter the 
 mcsenteiy. The *•' ductus vitcUo-intestinalis" is exposed just 
 where it communicates with the intestine, and is raised over a 
 piece of white glass. 
 
 J 712. A young Duck near the time of hatching. The larger 
 portion of the vitellicle (yolk-bag) has disappeared within 
 the abdomen ; the part remaining without that cavity is 
 closely girt by the margin of the large umbilical aper- 
 ture. The natural position of the embryo in ovo has been 
 preserved. 
 
 1713. Drake (^Anas Boschas). Birds of the Duck kind copulate in 
 the water, and therefore a penis is necessary to ensure trans- 
 mission of the semen. In this ^preparation, the spiral gi-oove 
 along which the fluid is conveyed, may be traced throughout 
 the whole lengih of the organ. Bristles are passed through 
 the vasa deferentia into the cloaca, where the rectum is also 
 seen to terminate. 
 
 1714. Pigeon (Columba). The gcnito-urinary organs of the female. 
 On the median plane is the ovary, ■with ova in various stages 
 of developement : a bristle is passed into its duct. The kid- 
 neys are large, lobulated masses, lying on either side of the 
 ovary : bristles are placed behind the ureters. The cloaca is 
 laid open from befoi-e, and the rectum and oviduct are seen 
 terminating in it. About an inch from the anus the coecal 
 pi-occsses are appended to the intestine. They are remarkably 
 small and short in the Pigeon. 
 
 171 o. House-Sparrow (Passer domes/ icns). The testes are hex'o 
 seen of small size, the bird having been killed during the 
 winter.
 
 206 COMPARATIVE ANATOMY. 
 
 ITK). I louse- Sparrow. Tliis preparation shows the enlargement of 
 the testes during the breeding-season. 
 
 1717. Ducli-molo (^Ornithorhi/nchusjMradoxiis), The genito-urinary 
 organs of the male. The natural position of parts has been 
 disturbed for the sake of more clearly displajnng their form. 
 
 At the lower part of the preparation is the cloaca, laid open 
 from before, with the rectum terminating in it. At the upper 
 part of the preparation is the urinary bladder, on either side 
 of which is the kidney with its capsule : bristles indicate the 
 openings of the ureters into the semino-urinary canal, which 
 is slit open as far as its termination in the cloaca. The 
 testicles are seen to the extreme right and left ; their secretion 
 is poured through apertures, too small to admit the finest 
 bristle, situated about a line nearer to the bladder than those 
 of the ureters. The penis, wlien not erect, is enveloped by 
 its prepuce, and hidden in a pouch in the front wall of the 
 cloaca ; this poucli has here been divided, the muscles which 
 enveloped it are spread out on either side of the anus, and the 
 penis is turned over to the right side. Both prepuce and 
 penis are beset with small recurved spines. The proper 
 seminal canal of the penis has been slit up and a black thread 
 passed into it. The constricted communication of this canal 
 with the semino-urinary passage is marked by the free end of 
 the thread. The pear-shaped bodies below the testicles are 
 Cowper's glands : their secretion passes into the seminal canal 
 by two ducts, the orifices of which are marked by bristles. 
 Sacs, supposed to resemble the prostate gland in function, 
 communicate with the seminal canal close to tlie ducts of 
 Cowper's glands. The penis is forked near its extremity, and 
 each division has a glans, ending in five conical papillae. The 
 seminal canal also divides into five minute pores, which 
 traverse the conical papiUoe and open at their points. 
 
 Presented hy J. Duxon. 
 
 1718. Brush-tailed Opossum {Plialanghla tulpma). The female 
 organs of generation. The rectum has been detaclied from 
 the hinder wall of the urethro-sexual canal, and drawai back- 
 wards, and the uterine apparatus and bladder separated a
 
 GENERATION AND DEVELOPEMENT. 207 
 
 little from each other. The ovaries are Binall .and compressed. 
 The Fallopian tubes k\ad to a double uterus, which opens into 
 the urethro-sexual canal. The bladder is at once recognized 
 by its form, and the muscularity of its outer coat : the course 
 of the urine along the urethro-sexual canal is indicated by the 
 two bristles which are seen entering the ureters and coming 
 out at the cloaca. A quill is placed in the urethro-sexual 
 canal, and the cloaca stretched open with slips of blue glass. 
 At the back of the preparation are seen the two anal glands : 
 the left one remains in its natural situation, the right one is 
 hanging by the slender duct which pours the secretion of the 
 glaud into the cloaca. 
 
 Presented hy J. Dixon. 
 
 171 8a. Brush-tailed Opossum? The young animal witli the teat 
 of the mother in its mouth, showing the contrivance for 
 preventing the entry of milk into the wind-pipe. The 
 glottis is prolonged upwards, in a conical form, to the pos- 
 terior nares, and there enveloped by the muscles of the soft 
 palate : the milk of the mother then passes, on either side of 
 the glottis, down the gullet. 
 
 Presented by S. Solly. 
 
 1719. Kanguroo (3facropus major). The generative organs of a 
 young female. The parts are viewed from behind, the rectum 
 being turned away to the right side. The ovaries arc flat- 
 tened, and quite smooth on the surface — (compare these organs 
 in the Opossum, No. 1720) ; above them are seen the Fallo- 
 pian tubes, with their fimbriated extremities. The left tube 
 has been cut open behind, and a bristle placed in it. Passing 
 downwards from the junction of the Fallopian tubes, on the 
 median plane, is an elongated, blind pouch, which communi- 
 cates above with both uteri, and is attached below to the 
 urethro-sexual canal, but does not open into its cavity. The 
 walls of the uteri, near their lower end, are much thickened, 
 and their cavities proportionately narrowed. This may be 
 seen on the left side, where the uterus is laid open throughout 
 its whole length. A depression in the front wall of the 
 urethro-sexual canal (here stretched open with a piece of
 
 208 COMPARATIVE ANATOMY. 
 
 bristle) marks the orifice of the urethra, wliich is furnished 
 with a valvuhir pa])illa. A hristle has been passed into the 
 urinary bhuhler, and two otiicrs into the ureters. A grooved 
 and pointed clitoris is situated where tlie urethro-sexual canal 
 joins the cloaca. The rectum terminates within the cloacal 
 outlet, immediately behind the urethro-sexual canal. 
 
 1720. y irgmiiin 0\^ossnm (Dldelphis Vhyiniana,). The generative 
 organs of the female, seen from the right side, part of the 
 pelvis having been removed. The ovaries very much resemble 
 the ovary of a bird, the sacs composing them being of various 
 sizes, and partly detached from one another. The Fallopian 
 tubes have delicately fimbriated extremities, and each leads to 
 a separate uterus. The muscular urinary bladder is seen in 
 front of the uteri, and all three open into the urethro-sexual 
 canal, which passes between the os pubis and rectum to ter- 
 minate in the cloaca. Part of the right wall of the cloaca has 
 been cut away to exhibit the clitoris, a pointed and gi'ooved 
 papilla at the entrance of the urethro-sexual canal. Enough 
 of the skin has been preserved to show the external aperture 
 of the cloaca, as well as the marsupium and nipples. The right 
 marsupial bone is still attached to the body of the os pubis. 
 
 1721. Hedgehog (^Erinaceus Eiiropceits). The generative organs 
 and bladder of the male. The mass projecting from the 
 smaller end of each epidid}Tnis is part of the cremasteric 
 pouch, which becomes inverted when the testicles, at the end 
 of the breeding season, re-enter the abdomen. The vesicula3 
 seminales are of very large size. There are two large prostate 
 glands in the Hedgehog, but they have here been unfortu- 
 nately destroyed, together with Cowpcr's glands. The penis 
 is long : at its root are the cut ends of the crura, and along 
 its under surface the corpus spongiosum may be traced. A 
 small opening has been made in the bladder, to show the 
 thickness of its walls and the rugaD of its linlno; membrane. 
 
 1722. Cat. The general form and lobidated structure of the 
 " zonular" placenta are well seen in this preparation. The 
 umbilical l)lood-vcsscls have been injected, after tlie expulsion
 
 GENERATION AND DEVELOrEMENT. 209 
 
 of the placenta, the arteries with red, and the veins with 
 yellow size. One of the caecal extremities of the chorion is 
 still entire, and small branches of the umbilical vessels are 
 seen ramifying upon it. A portion of the amnion remains. 
 The preparation has been everted, so that the surface which 
 is now external formed originally the concavity of the hoop. 
 
 Presented hy G. JlincUon. 
 
 1723. Ewe. A portion of the uterus, with two of the maternal, or 
 uterine, cotyledons, and the two corresponding foetal cotyle- 
 dons, together with a part of the chorion. The maternal 
 cotyledons exhibit the numerous orifices of the uterine glands, 
 into which the villi of the foetal cotyledons enter. In one of 
 the latter the villi have been completely withdrawn from the 
 uterine sheaths. The delicate tufts of the other foetal cotyle- 
 don are only partially detached from the maternal one. 
 
 1724. Lamb. An injected foetal cotyledon. On the reverse are 
 seen the large umbilical vessels going to ramify in its tufts. 
 
 1725. A similar preparation to the foregoing. 
 
 1726. Foetal Calf, enclosed in the chorion, which corresponds in 
 form to the body and two cornua of the uterus of the Cow. 
 Numerous scattered foetal cotyledons are seen, tufted with 
 delicate viUi : vessels converge from these cotyledons towards 
 the umbilicus of the foetus. Within the chorion, the bag of 
 the amnion may be distinguished. 
 
 Presented by F. Le Gros Clark. 
 
 1727. Calf. An injected foetal cotyledon. 
 
 1728. Bull. The penis; dried. 
 
 1728a. Walrus {Trichecus rosmarus). The bone of the penis. 
 Sections of the large and of the small end have been made, 
 to show its loose, cancellated textiu'e in the former, and its 
 density in the latter part. 
 
 VOL. I. p
 
 210 fOMPARATlVE ANATOMY. 
 
 1729. Porpoise {Phocrma communis). The genital origans of a 
 young female. The body of the uterus is short ; ami from 
 each of its upper angles a curved comu passes off, with 
 the concavity directed downwards. The ovaries present the 
 flattened and elongated form which distinguishes these parts 
 in the Cetacea. The Fallopian tubes arc hardly distinguishable, 
 on account of the smallness of the specimen. In front of the 
 uterus is seen the urinary l)ladder, and posteriorly the rectum. 
 The \nilva is stretched open ■with a bit of blue glass, to expose 
 the minute orifice of the urethra, into which a fine bristle is 
 inserted. A rod of white glass is passed into the vagina, and 
 a large bristle into the anus, which is situated a short distance 
 behind. The two ni]i])les arc hidden in little fissures of the 
 skin, one on either side of the vulva. 
 
 IT-'^O. Bitch. The placenta and amnion. The former has the shape 
 of a broad hoop in all animals of this family. The uterine 
 arteries have been filled with injection before the placenta was 
 removed from the uterus, which accounts for the appearance 
 of red vessels in the preparation. The vessels of the umbilical 
 cord arc filled with white and black, and may be traced in 
 every part of the placenta. 
 
 1731. Bitch. A similar preparation to the foregoing.
 
 MOTION AND SUPPORT. 211 
 
 VI.— PARTS CONCERNED IN MOTION, OR IN 
 AFFORDING SUPPORT. 
 
 RADIATA. 
 
 1732. Star-fisli (Asterias ruhens). The ambulacra and foct. 
 
 1733. Star-fish. Two rays with the ambulacra and feet exposed. 
 
 MOLLUSC A. 
 
 1734. Octopus (Sepia octoj)odia). The suckers, and a section of 
 a foot, in which the course of its muscular fibres may be 
 traced. 
 
 1735. Cuttle-fish. (Sepia offichudis). The head, with its tcntacula 
 and beak. 
 
 INSECTS. 
 
 1736. Dung-beetle {Copris molossus). The wings, expanded for 
 flight, and the same parts folded up. 
 
 1737. Dung-beetle. Part of the ante-pectus. 
 
 1738. Dung-beetle. Thorax; upper and under view. 
 
 1739. Dung-beetle. Head ; upper and under surface. 
 
 1740. Dung-beetle. Elytra, or wing-covers. 
 
 1741. Dung-beetle. Medio-pectus, and post-pectus, with the cor- 
 responding second and third pairs of legs. 
 
 1 742. Dung-beetle. Post-pectus ; external and internal view. 
 
 1 743. Great Water-beetle (Dytiscits niargin.atus). Elytra, or wing • 
 covers. 
 
 1744. Great Water-beetle. Anterior tarsi of male and female. 
 
 1' 2
 
 212 COMPAKATIVK ANATOMY. 
 
 1745. Great Watcr-bectlc. The sternum. 
 
 1740. Great AVatcr-bcetle. The scutcUum. 
 
 cita \ 
 'us I] 
 
 1747. Di/tiscus 
 
 Grj/llus J^ Hinder legs. 
 Carabris 
 
 1748. Siag-heetle (LttcamisCervus). Elytra; wing folded, and wing 
 expanded. 
 
 1749. Kar-\\iir(^For/icuIaaurita). Elytrnm, and wing unfolded. 
 
 1750. Ilouse-crickct (Acheta domestica). Upper and lower wing. 
 
 1751. Conocephalus ciridis. Head and parts of mouth. 
 
 1752. Libcllula macuJata. Upper and lower wings. 
 
 1753. Water-boatman {Notonecta glauca). Upper and lower 
 wings. 
 
 1754. May-fly (PAry^awea). Upper and lower wings. 
 
 1755. Brimstone-butterfly {Gonepteryx rhamni). Upper and 
 lower wings. 
 
 1756. Ox-fly {Tahanus hovinus). Wing and balance (Jialterium). 
 
 CARTILAGINOUS FISHES. 
 
 1757. Lamprey {Petroinyzon marinus). A hinge-joint is formed 
 between the head and body of this fish, by the pointed sum- 
 mit of the cartilaginous spinal column being enclosed between 
 two processes of the skull. 
 
 1758. Lamprey. A portion of the spinal column, divided length- 
 ways. A cartilaginous cylinder, the chorda dorsalis, one half 
 of which is here seen, appears in the jiosition which in Osseous 
 Fishes is occupied by the bodies i>f the vertebra.'. The spinal 
 marrow has been removed.
 
 MOTION AND SUPPORT. 213 
 
 1759. Sturgeon (Acipmser Sturio). A portion of the vertebral 
 column with ribs attached. 
 
 ] 7(50. Sturgeon. A longitudinal section of the upper part of the 
 vertebral coliunn. 
 
 17(51. Sturgeon. A transverse section of the vertebral column, 
 whicli is composed of a gelatinous and membranous substance 
 enclosed in a fibrous cylinder, forming together the chorda 
 dorsalis. The vertebral I'ings, and transverse and spinous 
 processes, are cartilaginous and rudimentary. 
 
 1762. Sturgeon. The central cartilage, removed from the vertebral 
 column. 
 
 1763. Sturgeon. A portion of the chorda dorsalis : the cartilaginous 
 processes have been detached by maceration. 
 
 1764. Gray Shark (Squaltis Galeus). A longitudinal section of 
 part of the vertebral column. The conical excavation on the 
 anterior and the posterior face of each vertebra gives to the 
 intervertebral space, when the bones are joined together, the 
 form of two obtuse cones united by their bases. These spaces, 
 during life, are filled xip with a gelatinous fluid. 
 
 1765. Gray Shark. The corresponding section to the foregoing 
 preparation. The spinal marrow remains in situ. 
 
 1766. Gray Shark. A portion of the vertebral column, cut 
 through lengthways. The gelatinous fluid has been removed 
 from the intervertebral spaces. 
 
 1767. Gray Shark. At the upper part of the bottle is a single 
 vertebra : a delicate filament, attached to and traversing its 
 centre, is all that remains of the " chorda dorsalis." At the 
 lower part of the bottle, a transverse section of the vertebral 
 column shows the gelatinous contents of the intervertebral 
 space, and the central cavity.
 
 2U COMPAKATIVE ANATOMY. 
 
 OSSEOUS FISHES. 
 
 1768. Angler (^Lophius piscatorius). Part of the vurtubral column, 
 showing the fonn of the intervertebral spaces. 
 
 1 7(59. Angler. The opercular bones. 
 
 1770. Angler. The skull. 
 
 1771. Dorcc (Zetis Faber). The skeleton. 
 
 1772. Cod {Gadus Morrhua). The skeleton. 
 
 1773. Cod, Four sections of vertcbrie, to show the form of the 
 intervertebral spaces. 
 
 REPTILES. 
 
 1774. Tiger-boa {Python TUfris). The skeleton. 
 
 Presented hy R. D. Graiwjer. 
 
 1775. Frog {Bana temporaria). The skeleton. 
 
 Presented hy J. F. South. 
 
 177(5. Tree-frog {Hyla). The entire animal, in spirit : the disks 
 at the tips of the toes enable it to adliere to the smooth 
 surfaces of leaves, while watching for the insects on which it 
 feeds. 
 
 1777. Fresh- water Tortoise (^???^5 . .?) The skeleton. 
 
 Presented hy S. Solly. 
 
 1778. East Indian Tortoise (Testudu Iridica). The pelvis and 
 hind-legs : a section of the hip-joint shows that the liga- 
 mentuni teres is wanting in this animal, as in the other 
 Chelonia. In spirit. 
 
 1779. Turtle {Chelonia viridis). The skull.
 
 MOTION AND SUPPOliT. 215 
 
 1780. Turtle. The skull of a smaller specimen than the foregoing, 
 divided on the median plane, and with the cerebral cavity 
 marked in black. 
 
 1781. Turtle. The skeleton. 
 
 Presented hy S. SoUy. 
 
 1782. Pike-nosed Alligator (Crocodilus hicius). Natural skeleton 
 of a young animal. In spirit. 
 
 1 783. Pike-nosed Alligator The skull. 
 
 1783a. Pike-nosed Alligator. The skeleton. 
 
 Presented by S. Solly. 
 
 1784. Indian Crocodile (Crocodilus biporcatus). The skull. Both 
 articulations of the lower jaw have been cut away. 
 
 1785. Nilotic Crocodile {Crocodilus vxdgaris). The skull. 
 
 1786. Crocodile. Part of the vertebral column, with the ilia, of a 
 young animal. The body of each vertebra is concave in front 
 and convex behind. 
 
 1787. Crocodile. Part of the vertebral column, with the entire 
 pelvis : from a smaller animal than the foregoing. 
 
 1788. Crocodile. Several bones of a full-grown animal: — a cervical 
 vertebra ; seven ribs ; the left ilium and ischium, and the right 
 ischimn and os pubis ; both thigh-bones; the tibia, calcauciim, 
 astragalus, and a cuneiform bone, from the left side ; and cor- 
 responding tarsal bones, together with the fibula, from the 
 right : both scapulae, and the left clavicle ; the left humerus ; 
 and seven metatarsal bones. 
 
 The humerus is divided lengthways, to show its small 
 medullary cavity, and the density of the osseous structure. 
 The left thigh-bone and scapula have been extensively frac- 
 tured, and firmly re-united. There has also been a fracture 
 through the shaft of tlie fibula.
 
 216 COMPAUATIVE ANATOMY. 
 
 BIRDS.— Scansore$- 
 1789. Woodpecker (^Gecinus viridis). The skull. 
 
 1700. Toucan (Bhamp/iastos). The skull: divided on the iiu'dian 
 plane to show the light, cellular structure of the large beak . 
 
 1791. Parrot {Psittacm). The skull. 
 
 1792. Parrot. The skull. 
 
 1793. Parrot. The skeleton. 
 
 1794. Macaw (^Ara). The skull, sawn through on the median plane. 
 
 1795. Macaw. The sternum ; and the lower extremities. 
 
 Grallatores : 
 
 1796. Golden Flover (^Ckaradiitis pluvialis). The sternum. 
 
 1797. Bittern (Botau7tis stellaris). The sternum. 
 
 1798. Heron {Ardea cinerea). The skull. 
 
 1799. Heron (Ardeola). The skull. 
 
 1800. Heron (Ardetta). The skull. 
 
 1801. White Stork {Ciconia alba). Two sterna. 
 
 1802. White Stork. The skull. 
 
 1803. White Stork. The skeleton. 
 
 1804. Gigantic Crane (^Leptoptilos Argala). The skeleton. 
 
 Presented hy S. Solly. 
 
 1805. White Spoonbill (P/ato/^« Ze««»ro</ia). The skull and ster- 
 num.
 
 MOTION AND SUPPORT. 217 
 
 180G. Ibis. The skull. 
 
 1807. Curlew (Numenius arquatus). The skull, 
 
 1808. Knot Sandpiper {Tringa canutus). The sternum. 
 1801). Woodcock (^Scolopax rustkola). Two sterna. 
 
 1810. Woodcock. The skull and sternum. 
 
 1811. Snipe {Gallinago media ?) The skull. 
 
 Natatores : 
 
 1812. Swan {Cygnus Olor). The skeleton. 
 
 1813. Goom {Anas Anser). Two skulls. 
 
 1814. King Eider {Anas spectabilis). The skull. 
 
 1815. Duck {Anas Boschas). The skeleton. 
 
 181G. Carolina Duck {Anas Carolinensis). The skeleton. 
 
 1817. D'wcx {Colymhus). The skidl. 
 
 1818. Penguin {Aptenodytcs). The sternum and other bones of the 
 trunk. Compare the sternal apparatus and rudimentary wings 
 of this bird with the corresponding parts in the Albatross. 
 
 Presented by B. Travers, Jan. 
 
 1810. Foolish Guillemot {Uria troile). The skeleton. 
 
 1820. Guillemot (Z7Ha). The skull. 
 
 1821. Gull {Larus Canus). The skeleton. 
 
 1822. Stormy Petrel {Thalassidroma pelagka). The sternum, and 
 other bones of the trunk.
 
 218 COMPARATIVE ANATOMY. 
 
 1823. Puihn (FuJ/iJius). The sternum. 
 
 1824. Wandering Albatros3 {Dioirwjiea exulaiis). The skull. 
 
 1825. Wandering Albatross. The skull of a larger bird than 
 the foregoing. 
 
 1826. Wandering Albatross. The skeleton. 
 
 1827. Wandering Albatross. The skeleton of a younger bird than 
 the foregoing. 
 
 Presented by S. Solly. 
 
 1828. Yellow-nosed Albatross {Dioinedea chhrorhynchus). The 
 skull. 
 
 1829. Yellow-nosed Albatross. The skeleton. 
 
 1830. Pelecan {Pelecanus onocrotalus). The skull. 
 
 1831. Gannet {Sulahassana). The skull: the cerebral cavity 
 exposed. 
 
 1 832. Gannet. The cranium, detached from the upper mandible. 
 
 Cursored. 
 
 1833. Ostrich {Struthio Camelm). Three of the upper dorsal ver- 
 tebras divided vertically. The entire substance of these bones 
 is cellular, for the admission of air, which passes in at aper- 
 tures near the roots of the ti'ansverse processes. The bones 
 are united by hinge-joints surrounded with capsular ligaments. 
 The vertebral canal is enlarged opposite to the articulations, 
 to prevent pressure upon the spinal marrow during the motions 
 of the back-bone. Each rib is articulated, by means of distinct 
 capsular ligaments and sjTiovial membranes, to two different 
 points of tlio corresponding vertebra, namely, the front part of 
 its body, and the transverse process.
 
 MOTION AND SUPPORT. 219 
 
 1834. Ostrich. Two dorsal vcrte])rnD, with portions of ribs attached. 
 The apertures by which air enters both sets of bones may be 
 seen. 
 
 1835. Ostrich. Three inferior cervical vertebrae, with the clastic 
 ligaments connecting their spinous processes together. 
 
 1836. Ostrich. A single cerNacal vertebra, showing, by a section, 
 the attachment of two of the elastic ligaments to the root of 
 tlie spinous process. 
 
 1837. Ostrich. A portion of the sternum with ribs attached. Each 
 of the latter is united to the sternum at two points, by means 
 of distinct synovial membranes and capsular ligaments. Botli 
 the sternum and tlie ribs contain air. 
 
 1838. Ostrich. The central portion of the sternum, with its delicate 
 reticular structure for containing air. This bone in the Stru- 
 thious Birds is never provided with a crest, or " keel." 
 
 In this specimen, from a young bird, ossification is still 
 incomplete. 
 
 1839. Ostrich. A longitudinal section of the femur. The cavity 
 of the bone contains cells for air, but there are none for me- 
 dullary matter. The air is admitted by the aperture, near the 
 head of the bone, seen on the reverse of the preparation. 
 
 1840. Ostrich. The upper part of the femur. The form and situa- 
 tion of the aperture by which the air enters may be seen. 
 
 1841. Ostrich. A section of the lower end of the tibia. The 
 cellular structure is here more compact, and its cells arc filled 
 up with marrow. 
 
 1842. Ostrich. Two transverse sections of the tibia and one of the 
 femur, illustrating the same varieties of structure as Nos. 1840 
 and 1841. 
 
 1843. Ostrich. The knee-joint, laid open. The tendon of a power- 
 ful extensor muscle is seen attached to the outer condyle of the
 
 220 COMPARATIVE ANATOMY. 
 
 foinur, within tlio joint. The capsular li/ramcnt has bcea 
 removed from behind, to show the erueial ligaments and semi- 
 lunar cartilages : the outer cartilage is connected to the head 
 of the fibula. This bone in Birds enters into the composition 
 of the knee-joint. 
 
 1844. Ostrich. The tarsal joint with th« surrounding tendons. 
 
 1845. Ostrich. The bones of the foot, articulated. In this animal, 
 where the number of toes is reduced to two, the outer one 
 retains its five ])halangcs, while the inner has only four. The 
 reduction always takes place towards the inner side. 
 
 1846. Ostrich. A vertical section of the metatarsal bone and 
 phalanges of the great toe, with the flexor tendons. A liga- 
 mentous substance forms an elastic pad, to protect the plantar 
 aspect of the joints, and prevent too great concussion in the 
 movements of the animal. 
 
 1847. Ostrich. A portion of cuticle from the front of the tarsal 
 joint : the depressions on the internal surface correspond to 
 the external elevations. 
 
 1848. Ostrich. The true skin from the front of the tarsal joint. 
 The surfaces present elevations and depressions corresponding 
 to those of the foregoing preparation. 
 
 1 849. Ostrich. A piece of cuticle from the lower part of the thigh. 
 Where the feathers grew, the cuticle is thrown into irregular 
 wrinkles, but elsewhere it has a scale-like arrangement. 
 
 1850. Ostrich. A piece of skin from the under surface of the foot. 
 The cuticle has been partially reflected, to expose the projec- 
 tions of the cutis and the corresponding pits in the cuticle. 
 
 1851. Ostrich. A similar preparation to the foregoing, with the 
 cuticle entirely removed. In this young specimen, the pits in 
 the cuticle give it a honey-comb appearance. In old birds these 
 pits are oblitei'ated, and the cuticle is converted into a horny 
 mass towards the end of the toe, whore the pressure is greatest.
 
 MOTION AND SUPPORT. 221 
 
 1852. Ostricli. A piece of skin, covered with strong, horny scales, 
 from the dorsum of the foot. 
 
 1853. Ostrich. A piece of tendon from the leg. 
 
 1854. Ostrich. The skeleton. 
 
 Rasores : 
 
 1855. Common Fowl (G-W/«s <loniesticus : Spanish variety). The 
 skeleton. 
 
 Presented hy R. G. Whitfield. 
 
 1856. Pigeon (Columba). The skull. 
 
 Insessores : 
 
 1857. Kingfisher (Alcedo ispida). The sternum and other lionos of 
 the trunk. 
 
 1858. Kingfisher. The skull. 
 
 1859. Blackbird (Turdics merida). Tlic skull. 
 18(50. ^iarlmg {Sturnus vrdgaris). Two skull?. 
 1801. Magpie {Pica cmidata). The sk\dl. 
 
 1862. Rook (Corviisfruffikfftis). The skull. 
 
 1863. Lark (A lauda arvensis). Two skulls. 
 
 1864. Vi'rcn (Troglodytes Europeeus). The skull. 
 
 1865. Swallow {Hirundo). The skull. 
 
 1858 to 1865 Presented hy H. Cleaver. 
 
 Raptores : 
 18(56. Owl {Struvflammea ?). Tlic skull.
 
 222 (JOMPARATIVE ANATOMY. 
 
 18C7. Owl. Tho skull. 
 
 1868. Buzzard (Buteo vulgaris). The skeleton. 
 
 1869. Erne (Halicietus aJbecilh). The skeleton. There has been 
 extensive disease of the right humero-cubi^al joint, terminating 
 in ankylosis. 
 
 Presented hy S. Solly. 
 
 1870. Erne. The skull : the left half removed to show the cranial 
 cavity and cellular structures of the beak. 
 
 MAMMALIA .—Pinnala : 
 
 1871. Porpoise (Pkoccena communis). The skull; wanting the 
 lower jaw and several of the upper teeth. A vertical section, 
 to the left of the median plane, exposes the large cranial 
 cavity. 
 
 1872. Common Dolphin (Delpkinics Delphis). The skull. 
 
 1873. Common Dolphin. The skull : the ear-bones wanting. 
 
 Presented hy G. Trimmer. 
 
 1874. Common Dolphin. The skeleton. 
 
 Presented hy Dr. Mcryon. 
 
 1875. Bottle-nosed Dolphin (Delj)hinus Tursio). The skull. The 
 ear-bones and the teeth are wanting. 
 
 1876. Compressed-beaked Dolphin (jS^cho co;K/>r<iss«A«). The skull. 
 
 1877. Large-toothed Do\\)\\m {Steno frontatus). The skull. The 
 ear-bones are wanting. 
 
 1878. Whale (Balcena). Specimens of very young bones: the 
 bodies of four vertebra, separated from their processes by 
 maceration ; one has been sawn through vertically, another 
 transversely : a phalanx divided lengthways : an entire rib.
 
 MOTION AND SUPPORT. 223 
 
 The ntimcrous cells, which give such remarkable lightness to 
 the bones of the Whalo, arc during life filled with oil. 
 
 1879. Walrus {Trichecus rosmarus). The skull : the left tusk has 
 been sawn through lengthways. 
 
 1880. Common Seal {Phoca vitidina). The skull. 
 
 1881. Crested Seal (Ci/stophora crislata). The skull. 
 
 1882. Crested Seal. The skull : part of the occiput has been broken 
 away. 
 
 SoUpeda : 
 
 1883. Horse (Egutis cahallus). The bones of the foot, separated : 
 the metacarpal or " cannon " bone ; the first, second, and third 
 phalanges, — termed the " pastern," " coronet," and " coffin " 
 bones ; the two sesamoid bones from the back of the fetlock - 
 joint ; and the " shuttle-bone." 
 
 1884. Horse, A longitudinal section of the three phalanges, 
 " shuttle-bone," and hoof. The flexor and extensor tendons 
 have been preserved. 
 
 1885. Horse. The last phalanx and " shuttlc-bonc,*' with the 
 tendons of the Jlexor perforans and extensor pedis, and the 
 " frog." 
 
 1886. Horse. The last phalanx (coffin-bone), and the hoof, attached 
 to it. 
 
 1887. Horse. The last phalanx (coffin-bonc\ and the hoof, sa^vn 
 through from side to side in a vertical direction. 
 
 1888. Horse. Hoof, detached from the bones of the foot. 
 
 1889. Horse. Hoof, sawn through on its median plane. 
 
 1890. Horse. Hoof, with half of its wall removed, to show the 
 arrangement of the horny lamina: composing it.
 
 224 COMPARATIVE ANATOMY. 
 
 1891. llorsc. The foot : its arteries, veins, and nerves dissected. 
 
 1802. Horse. A similar preparation to the foregoing. 
 
 1893. Marc. The skuU. 
 
 1894. Horse. The skull. 
 
 1895. Horse. The skeleton. 
 
 1896. Horse. The skeleton. 
 
 Bisulca : 
 
 1897. Camel, The skeleton ; male. The animal was killed Ijy a 
 fall, which has broken the arches of the seventh cervical 
 vertebra. 
 
 1898. Ox (Bos Taurtis). A metacarpal bone, divided lengthways, 
 to show its thickness and solidity. 
 
 1899. Ox. The bones of the foot iti situ, with their ligaments and 
 tendons, and the two hoofs. 
 
 1900. Ox. The hoofs of a fore and of a hind foot, detached from 
 the bones. 
 
 1901. Ox. Tlie skull, with the horns: the lower jaw is wanting. 
 
 1902. Cow ("Aldemey" variety.) The skeleton; young. 
 
 Presented hy R. G. Wkitjield. 
 
 1903. Arnee Ox (Bos Arnee). The skull, with the horns. 
 
 1904. Zebu (^Bos Taurus ; variety). The skull ; young. 
 
 1905. Goat {Capra Hircus). The skull : lower jaw wanting. 
 
 1906. Goat. The skeleton. 
 
 Presented hi/ S. Solly.
 
 MOTION AND SUPPORT. 225 
 
 1907. Sheep (Ovis Aries). The two rows of plialangcs which form 
 the foot, with their flexor teiidouti. Ouo row of phalanges has 
 been divided lengthways. 
 
 1908. Sheep. The skull. 
 
 1909. Sheep. The skull. The molar teeth on the right side have 
 been sawn through vertically, those on the left, transversely. 
 
 1910. Sheep. The skull; very young. 
 
 1911. Sheep. The left half of the skull, showing the cranial cavity 
 and the chambers of the nose. Dentition is not quite com- 
 pleted. 
 
 1913. Ram ; horned variety. The skull. 
 
 1914. Ewe; horned variety. The skull : the lower jaw wanting. 
 
 1915. Stag (Cet'vus Elaj)h lis). The skeleton. 
 
 1916. Fallow-deer (Dama vulgaris). The skull of a male. A 
 longitudinal section has been made through the lower half of 
 the right antler. 
 
 1917. Fallow-deer. The skull of a male. 
 
 1918. ]Muntjac, or Barking Deer {Muntjacus vcujinalis). The skull 
 of a female. 
 
 Muliungulata : 
 
 1919. Pig {Sits Scnfa). The skull; the first dentition not yet 
 completed. 
 
 1920. Boar. The skull ; full-grown. 
 
 1921. Boar (Stis Scrofa ; wild variety). The skull, sawn through 
 on tlie median plane. The lower jaw and all the lower teeth, 
 except the tusks, .are wanting.
 
 226 COMrARATIVE ANATOMY. 
 
 1922. Babirussa {Ballnissa af/iiruis). TIic skull. 
 
 11)23. Babirussa. The skull. The socket of the riglit tusk in the 
 lower jaw has been laid open from the outside. 
 
 1924. Babirussa. The skull, with the skin of the face and snout 
 attached. 
 
 1925. Peccary (/Jicotyles Tajacu). The skeleton. 
 
 1926. Indian Elephant {Eleplias Indicus) ; young. The right half 
 of the skull. The section has been made through the right 
 nostril. The great bulk of the skull is made up of a mass 
 of cells between its two tables. The hinder of the two molar 
 teeth has been exposed by breaking away the alveolar process. 
 
 1927. Indian Elephant. The horny covering of the foot. 
 
 1928. Indian Elephant. The skeleton ; young. 
 
 1929. Hippopotamus. The skull. 
 
 1930. American Tapir {Tapirv^ terrestris). The skull: dentition 
 is not quite completed. 
 
 Saltigrada : 
 
 1931. Jlahhit (Lej) us cuniciclus J. The skull. 
 
 1932. Rabbit. The skull. 
 
 1933. Rabbit. ("Lop-eared" variety). The skeleton. 
 
 Presented by G. Himhon. 
 
 1934. Hare ( Lepm thnhlusj. The skull: the lower jaw wantintr. 
 
 1935. Hare. The skull, sawn through on the median plane. 
 
 1936. Hare. Tlie skeleton.
 
 MOTION AND SUPPOllT. 227 
 
 1037. Coyi>u (Myopotnmu)^ Coi/pasJ. The skull of a male. 
 
 Presented hy J. DLcon. 
 
 U)38. Guinea-pig (Cavia Cohaya). The skull. 
 
 1939. Squirrel (ScUirus vulyarlsj. The skull. 
 
 1940. Rat ("Mus decumamis). The skull. 
 
 1941. Mouse (3Ius musculus). The skull. 
 
 1938 to 1941 presented by H. Cleaver. 
 
 1942. Kanguroo-rat ( Hypsiprymnus minor). The skull : the lower 
 jaw is wanting, but the characteristic pr£e-uiolar teeth in the 
 upper jaw have been preserved. 
 
 1943. Kanguroo CMacroptis major). The skeleton of a female. 
 
 Cheiroptera : 
 
 1944. Pipisti'ellc Bat (Vespertilio pipistrelhis). The skeleton. 
 
 Presented by Dr. Bier yon. 
 
 1945. Pteropus (P. rt/«^'s?) The skull. Compare the flat-crowned 
 molars of this vegetable-feeding Bat with the pointed teeth of 
 the insectivorous kind, No. 1944. In this old skull the molars 
 are much worn. 
 
 Plantif/rada : 
 
 1946. Mole {Talpa Europaci). The skeleton. 
 
 1947. Hedgehog {Er'maceiis Europams). The skull. 
 
 Presented by H. Cleaver. 
 
 1948. Three-toed Sloth {Brady pus trklactylus ) . The skeleton. 
 
 1949. Coati (Nasua). The skeleton. 
 
 Q 2
 
 228 COMPARATIVE ANATOMY. 
 
 1950. Coati. The skull of a feinalc. 
 
 1951. Bi^iir (Ursus Arctus). Tlie skull. 
 
 1952. Bear (Ur,^us Arctos?) The skeleton of an old animal : tlic 
 teeth arc much woi-n and decayed, and there has been disease 
 of both jaw-bones. 
 
 1953. Spectacled Bear {Ursus ornatus). The skull ; adult. 
 
 1954. Jungle Bear (Ursus lahiatus). The skeleton. 
 
 1955. Polar Bear {Ursus maritimus). The skull. 
 1950. Polar Bear. The skull. 
 
 1957. Polar Bear. The skull. The occiput has been sawn away. 
 
 1958. Polar Bear. The skull, full-grown ; the facial sutures are 
 obliterated, which is not the case in the three preceding 
 specimens. 
 
 1959. Badger (3Ieles Ta.rus). The skull of a female ; young, but 
 "with all the permanent teeth. The facial sutures ai'c not yet 
 obliterated, and the condyles of the lower jaw may be removed 
 from the glenoid cavities, which cannot be done in old skulls. 
 
 1960. Badger. The skull, (female ?) The cranial ridges are more 
 developed than in the yoiniger specimen, No. 1959, but not so 
 strongly marked as in the two following skulls. 
 
 1961. Badger. The skull, full-grown : the cranial ridges are largely 
 developed. 
 
 1962. Badger. The skull of an old animal. In full-grown Badgers 
 the margins of the glenoid cavities become so much developed 
 that the condyles of the lower jaw arc comjiletely locked in, 
 and the bone is retained in its position after all the soft parts 
 have been removed.
 
 MOTION AND SUrPORT. 229 
 
 ]9C3. Badger. The skull, divided ou the median plane to show 
 the cranial cavity. 
 
 Digitigrada : 
 
 iyt)4. Cat {Felis doniesticiis). The skull ; young. The permanent 
 canine and molar teeth are replacing the temporary ones in 
 the upper jaw. 
 
 19()o. Cat. The right half of the skull ; adult. 
 
 11)G(). Cat. The skull ; adult. 
 
 19G7. Cat. The skull; adult. 
 
 19G8 Cat. The skull of an older animal than any of the fore- 
 going : some of the teeth have been shed. 
 
 19G9. Cat. (Wild variety?) A large adult skull. The right canine 
 tooth has been sawn through in the transverse and the kft 
 one in the vertical direction, to show their solid structure and 
 the small size of their cavity. 
 
 1970. Cat. The occipital portion removed from the rest of the 
 skull, to show the bony tentorium. 
 
 1971. Cat. The paw, with the clastic ligaments for keeping the 
 claw-joints off the ground during ])rogression, and the flexor 
 tendons which act when the animal seizes its prey. In spirit. 
 
 1972. Cat. The skeleton. 
 
 1973. Tiger {Tiyrh). The skull, divided on the median plane. 
 
 1974. Tiger. The skull. 
 
 1975. Lion {Leo). The skull. 
 197G. Lion. The skeleton.
 
 230 COMPARATIVE ANATOMY. 
 
 1977. Leopard {Lcopardns rar'uis). The skull : the right half of 
 the lower jaw is wanting. 
 
 1978. Common Otter (Lutra vulf/aru). Three skulls : the lower 
 jaws are wanting. 
 
 1979. Otter (Lutra ?) Tlie skull, dividctl on the median 
 
 j)lane. 
 
 1980. Polecat {Putorius pjetidus). The skull : the lower jaw want- 
 ing. 
 
 1981. Polecat. The skull. 
 
 1982. Polecat. The skull. 
 
 1983. Polecat. The skeleton of a male. 
 
 1983 A. Stoat (Mustela erminea). The skull. 
 
 Presented hy H. Clearer. 
 
 1984. Mink {Vison lutreola). The skull. 
 
 1985. Sable-Marten {Mustela zihelUna). The skull. 
 
 1984 and 1985, Presented hy J. Di.ron. 
 
 1986. "Woodshock, or Pckan (Mustela Canadensis). The skull : 
 the lower jaw wanting. 
 
 1987. IchnQumon (fferpestes Ichneumon). The skeleton : not arti- 
 culated. 
 
 1988. Ichneumon. The skeleton. 
 
 Presented hy S. Solly. 
 
 1989. Common Fox ( Vulpes vulgaris). The skull. 
 
 Presented hy H. Clearer. 
 
 19.10. Common Fox. The skull.
 
 MOTION AND SUrPORT. 281 
 
 191)1. Dog (Can is familiar is). The skull : tlcntition not yet com- 
 ]>letc<l. 
 
 1002. Dog. The skull. 
 
 1003. Dog. The skull. 
 
 1004. Dog. The skull. 
 
 100."). Dog. The skull. 
 
 lOOG. Dog. The skull ; old. The facial sutures are noarlv ohli- 
 teratcd, aud the teeth much worn. 
 
 1007. Dog. The skull, divided on the median plane. 
 
 1008. Dog. The skull, divided like the foregoing. 
 
 1099. Dog. Two transverse sections of the skull, showing the 
 cranial cavity and hony tentorium, tlie chambers of the nose 
 and the turbinated bones. 
 
 2000. Dog (" Bloodliound" variety). The skeleton. 
 
 Pedimana : 
 
 2001. Brush-tailed Opossum (Phalanrjlsta rulpina). The skeleton 
 of a female. 
 
 Presented hi/ J. D'uon. 
 
 Quadnimana : 
 
 2002. Ring-tailed Lemur (Lemttr catta). The skull. 
 
 2003. Monkey. The right upper extremity. 
 
 2004. \i\\c^\\& (Macacus Rhesus). The skeleton (male ?) 
 
 200.'). Rhesus. The skeleton (female ?) of apparently the same ao-e 
 as the foregoing, but with the canine teeth much less de- 
 veloped.
 
 232 COMPARATIVE ANATOMY. 
 
 2006. Mojikcy {Rhesus ?). The skeleton : dentition not yet coiii- 
 j)kted. 
 
 2007. Barbary Ape, or ]Magot (Macantx Inuus). Tlie skull; full- 
 grown. 
 
 Presented hy E. Saunders. 
 
 2008. Chimpanzee {Troglodytes niger). The skull: before the 
 second dentition.
 
 VOICE. 233 
 
 VII.— PARTS CONCERNED IN PRODUCING VOICE. 
 
 2009. Starling (Sturmis viih/nris.J A section of the trachea and 
 bronclii, to show the mcnihrana tyni])anif()rniis, and the trans- 
 verse bony bar which is found in the lower larynx of all sing- 
 ing birds. 
 
 200D A. Widgeon (Mareca Penelope). At the bifurcation of the 
 trachea is a smooth pouch, formed by the union of the lower- 
 most cartilaginous rings. This pouch is peculiar to the male 
 Ducks and Mergansers, and is not found in any of the Geeso 
 or Swans. 
 
 2009b. AVidgeon. The trachea of the female. 
 
 2010. Ostrich (Striithio Camdits). The lower part of the trachea 
 and the bronchi. The trachea, just at its bifurcation, bulges 
 outwards a little, so as to form a groove on the inside, and 
 this is filled up with an elastic tissue which projects into the 
 area of the tube and constitutes the entire vocal apparatus. 
 This specimen was prepared from a very young bird, and con- 
 sequently tlie parts are not fully developed. 
 
 2010a. Cat. The larynx. Close to the chordae vocales are two 
 small, thin membranes, the vibration of which produces the 
 purring sound of the animal. 
 
 2010b. Pig. In addition to long chord;e vocales, there is in this 
 animal an oblong sinus at tlie back part of the larynx, between 
 the lining membrane and the thyroid cartilage. 
 
 20 11 . The larynx of a small species of Monkey. The thyroid car- 
 tilage is expanded into a pouch, which communicates witli 
 the larynx by a small openmg below the epiglottis.
 
 284 COMPARATIVE ANATOMY. 
 
 VTTT.—ORGANS OF THE SEX8ES AXD OF 
 INNEJiVATlOX. 
 
 2012. Star-fisli (Astetnas rithens). The nervous ring, dissected from 
 below. From this ring, which surrounds tlie mouth, five 
 brauclies are given off, one to each ray. 
 
 2013. YMacV^Xng (JAmax ater). The ventral jjarietes have been 
 divided on the median plane, and the viscera left in their 
 natural situation. A short bristle is placed beneath the infra- 
 ojsophageal ganglion, whence small nerves go to the muscular 
 mass about the mouth, and two large and long trunks to the 
 mantle. 
 
 2014. Brown Slug (Limax fuscus). The same parts shown as in 
 the foregoing preparation. The two chords are here seen 
 which unite the supra-cesophageal and infra-oesophageal 
 ganglia. 
 
 2015. Octopus (Sepia octopodia). Part of a tentacle, opened to 
 show the nerve, which swells out a little opposite to each 
 pair of suckers, and gives oflF several fine branches to them. 
 
 201 G. Calamary (Sepia LoVujo). The oesophagus passes through a 
 nervous ring, as it does in all Invertebrata, but in the Cepha- 
 lopoda there is an approach towards a higher cerebral develope • 
 ment, and in this preparation the cartilaginous plates are seen 
 which form the rudiment of a skull. Each optic nerve, 
 before expanding into the retina, swells out into a large 
 gangliform mass. 
 
 2017. Cockroach {Blatta Americana). The infra-oesophageal 
 ganglion and the nervous chord, viewed from above. 
 
 2018. 'bliolG-cr'xckeiiGryllotalpavulijar'is). The nervous chord, seen 
 from below. The ganglia are largest where the motory nerves _ 
 are passing off to tlie limbs ; while those on the abdomen are 
 small, except the last, which supplies tlie parts of generation 
 and " posterior antenna;."
 
 SENSES AND INNERVATION. 235 
 
 2010. Green Locust {Acr'ula riridissimo). The alxloniinal portion 
 of tlie nervous cliortl, exposed from below. The lar^^est f;«'ing- 
 liou is that which gives nerves to the leaping legs. 
 
 2020. Earth-worju {Lumhricus terrestr'is). The nervous chord lias 
 a uniform thread-like appearance, without visible ganj^dionic 
 enlargements, except those above and below the oesophagus : 
 the Worm is therefore classed among Neinatoneura. 
 
 2021. Medicinal Leech (IJiriulo niedichia/h). The alimentary canal 
 has been filled with red size, and its sacculated form and deli- 
 cate membranous structure are well seen. The double ner- 
 vous chord lies between the alimentary tube and the skin of 
 the belly, and is remarkable for the blackness of its neurilemma. 
 The nervous substance, however, (as may be seen in this pre- 
 paration) has the same white appearance as in other animals. 
 The arrangement of the ganglia at regular intervals causes 
 the Leech to be classed among HomorjaunUata. 
 
 2022. Great Centipede {Scohpemlra monitans). The nervous sys- 
 tem, displayed by removing the horny integuments from the 
 under surface of the body and head. A strip of the integu- 
 ment has been left on the upper surface of the head, with the 
 antcnufB attached to it. Above the cesophagns is a two-lobed 
 ganglion, from which a pair of nerves pass to the antennae, 
 and two bundles to the clustered eyes. A chord extends from 
 each lobe of the ganglion to a larger mass beneath the oesoi^ha- 
 gus, and thus the oesophageal ring is completed. From the 
 infra-cesophageal ganglion are given off motory nerves to the 
 poAverful mandibles and other parts about the mouth, and 
 then two large chords, which nm side by side throughout the 
 entire length of the body. Ganglia, placed at regular inter- 
 vals along this double chord, distribute lateral branches to the 
 legs and other pai"ts. 
 
 The Centipede, like the Leech, is classed among the Homo- 
 gangliata. 
 
 Presented lij J Divov. 
 
 202.3. Lamprey (^Petromi/zon mannus). A portion of the cartila- 
 ginous spinal column, divided lengthways. The nervous chord
 
 236 COMPARATIVE ANATOMY. 
 
 is partly turii».-(l out of its canal, to exhibit its flattened, ribbon- 
 like form. 
 
 2024. Sturgeon (A cipenser Sill no). A portion of the sj)inal chord 
 and cartilaginous spinal column. 
 
 2025. Skate (Rata Batis). The brain, and the upper part of the 
 spinal chord, seen from above. The very large portion of the 
 cranial cavity unoccupied by the brain is filled up, during life, 
 with a loose areolar structure — the arachnoid. The great 
 mass ("prosencephalon," Ow^en), formed by the union of 
 the two anterior lobes of the brain, gives off two chords 
 ('• rhinencephalic crura"), each of which terminates in a 
 ganglion (" rhinencephalon "), and it is from th«se latter 
 bodies that the filaments which arc the true olfactory nerves 
 are distributed to the j)laited membrane of the nostrils. 
 
 Presented li/ J. Dixon. 
 
 2026. Skate. The brain, and the upper portion of the spinal chord, 
 seen from below. The optic nerves, in Fishes of this kind, 
 form a commissure, instead of crossing over one another as 
 they do in the Gadid<e j they are also of smaller size than in 
 the latter genus. 
 
 Presented hy J. Di.von. 
 
 2027. Gray Shark (Squalus Galeus). A longitudinal section of 
 part of the head, with the muscles of the eye-ball dissected. 
 In the Fishes of this genus the eye is supported on a cartila- 
 ginous stem, expanded at its apex. A piece of blue glass is 
 here inserted between this stem and the optic nerve. 
 
 2027a. Shark (Squalus). A section of the eyeball, exhibiting the 
 brilliant layer of the choroid termed memhrana argentea. 
 
 2028. Whiting (Gadus Merlam/us). The brain, exposed from 
 above. The optic nerves in the Gadidce do not meet at a 
 commissure and exchange fibres, but cross over one another, 
 the right nerve going to the left eye, and vice versa. The 
 brain is here turned over a little towards the left, in conse- 
 quence of the nerves on the right side having been divided.
 
 SENSES AND INNERVATION. 237 
 
 2021). Eel (Anguilla milgarU). The brain, exposed from above. 
 
 2030. Carp (Cyprinus Carpio). The brain, exposed from above. 
 
 2031. Cod (Gadus Morrhua). The brain and cerebral nerves, 
 seen from belovv^. Behind the point where the optic nerves 
 cross is the large hypophysis, or pituitary body, which is 
 present in all Fishes. Behind the hypophysis is a much 
 smaller mass, the hajmatosac, whicli, like the two oval bodies 
 on either side of it, the mammillary bodies (" hypoaria," 
 Owen), is peculiar to Fishes. The nerves may be traced 
 as far as their exit from the skull. 
 
 2032. WoWhni ( Hippo (jlossus ciik/aris). The Flat-fishes, as they are 
 called, have both eyes placed on the same side of the head (in 
 the Ilolibut they are on the right side) ; the position of the 
 skull is oblique, and the brain unsymmetrical. In this pre- 
 paration the dorsal coverings of the skull have been removed. 
 A slip of blue glass is placed between the " rhinencephalic 
 crura " and the optic nerves ; and, more anteriorly, the latter 
 nerves have a black bristle passed under them. 
 
 Nos. 2029 to 2032 Presented ly J. Dixon. 
 
 2033. Frog (^Eana temporaria). The brain and spinal chord, seen 
 from above. The chord does not reach to the end of the ver- 
 tebral canal, and the nerves passing to the hinder extremities 
 are consequently very long. 
 
 2034. Turtle {Chehnxa viridis). The brain exposed from above. 
 On the left side the horny epidermis has been turned down, 
 to show the convex membrana tympani ; and a slip of blue 
 glass is placed beneath the slender bone (" columella") which 
 corresponds to the stapes of Mammalia. 
 
 2035. Turtle. The organ of hearing. The membrana tjTnpani is 
 a thick cartilaginous plate, externally convex, and covered in 
 by one of the horny scales of the epidermis. The t}nnpanum 
 is expanded into a large cell elongated vertically. In place of 
 the ossicida auditus, which are found in Mammalia, a single
 
 238 COMPARATIVE ANATOMY. 
 
 slender bone, tlie " eoliunella," exists in the Clielonia ; it is 
 attaelied l)y one end to the niembrana tynipani, and by the 
 other to the fenestra ovalis : a Ijristle has been jjassed behind 
 it in this preparation. The bony structure also has been 
 removed from around the membranous semicircular canals, 
 and one of their ampulhc exposed. 
 
 2036. Turkey {Meleof/ris Gallopaco). The skull. The occi])ut has 
 been removed, and the semicircular canals exposed on both 
 sides. 
 
 2037. Short-cared Ov^l (0//<.y hrachyoti(s). There is in this species 
 an approach towards the formation of an external car. A cre- 
 scentic fold of skin is seen on the right side surrounding the 
 meatus. It is not, however, on this account that the bird has 
 obtained its name, 1)ut from the tufts of feathers which grow, 
 like ears, on the top of the head. 
 
 2038. A section of the eye of a Bird, showing the " pecten" or 
 " marsupium," a process of the choroid, which in some Birds 
 (as in the present instance) extends as far forwards as the 
 capsule of the lens. 
 
 2039. Gannet {Sala hcissana). The larynx and upper pai-t of the 
 trachea, w'ith the tongue. The latter organ is very small and 
 merely rudimentary in form. 
 
 2040. Pigeon (Columhd). The brain, removed from the skull. 
 
 2041. Pigeon. The brain and entire spinal chord. Compare this 
 with the following preparation. 
 
 2042. Ostrich (Struthio Camelm). The lower part of the s\nn:i\ 
 chord. In Birds of strong flight the spinal chord is much 
 enlarged where the nerves to the wings are given oft"; but in 
 the Ostrich the sacral swelling is the more considerable. It 
 contains a cavity, called " sinus rhomboidalis," which,''during 
 life, is filled with fluid. In this prejiaration tlic sinus has 
 been laid open from behind.
 
 SENSES AND INNERVATION. 239 
 
 2043. Common Fowl (dalJus dumcsticus). The brain, expojsed in 
 situ. 
 
 2044. Dnck {Anas Buschas). A similar preparation to the forc- 
 goin<r. 
 
 2045. AVhalc (Balana). The bony tympana. 
 
 204(). AVlialo. The tympana, and the other bony parts of the ears ; 
 from a yoimger animal than the foregoing. 
 
 2047. Cat. The four bones of the internal ear. 
 
 2048. Calf. The four bones of the internal car. 
 
 2049. Lamb. The four bones of the internal oar. 
 
 2050. Lamb. A vertical section of the eye-ball, exposing the lens 
 in its natural position, and the vessels which, in the young 
 animal, ramify on the posterior capsule of the lens. 
 
 205 L Sheep. A transverse section of the chambers of the nose, 
 to show the large extent of surface upon which the olfoctory 
 nerves are spread out. 
 
 2052. Sheep. The tongue. The papillae have been exposed by 
 removing the cuticle which enshcaths them. 
 
 2053. Calf. The Casserian ganglion, with the three divisions of the 
 fifth nerve ; and the otic ganglion, with its branches. 
 
 2054. Cat. The brain, removed from the skull. 
 
 2055. Kanguroo {Macropus niajor). The brain, removed from the 
 skull. 
 
 2056. Brush-tailed Opossum {Phalangista vtdpina). The tongiie. 
 Compare the long, soft papilla?, on the tongue and buccal 
 membrane of this animal, with the horny, tooth-like spines on 
 the tongue of the Cat, No. 1530.
 
 240 COMPARATIVE ANATOMY. 
 
 The following specimens have been ])laced in a separate Division, 
 so as not to interfere with the physiological arrangement adopted 
 throughout this Section of the Catalogue. The Rostrum of the 
 Saw-fish could not be included among the Organs of Digestion : and 
 Horns, wlicther appendages of the skin or bony growths, are neither 
 concerned in Motion nor in affording Support to other parts. 
 
 2057. Saw-fish (PrntisJ. The rostrum. 
 
 2058. Saw-fish. The rostrum ; larger than the foregoing. 
 
 2059. Saw-fish. The rostrum, larger than the preceding specimens. 
 
 2060. Two -horned Rhinoceros (RJnnoccros hicornis). The horns, 
 with part of the bony base of the anterior one. 
 
 Permanent Horns of Ruminants are appendages of the common integument of the 
 body, and consist of fibrous tissue, moulded upon a bony core which grows from 
 the frontal bone. 
 
 2061. Ox (Bos Taunts). The horns, with their cores, divided 
 lengthways. 
 
 2062. Ox. A similar preparation to the foregoing. 
 
 2063. Cape Buffalo (Buhalas differ). The horns, separate. 
 
 2064. Impoof (Boselaphus Oreas : improperly termed " Eland" or 
 Elk). The horns, separate. 
 
 2065. Gnu (Catohlepas Gnu). The horns, with their cores and 
 l)art of the frontal bone. 
 
 2066. Gemsbok (Oryx Gazella). The horns, with part of the 
 frontal bone. 
 
 2067. Chiru. (Antilope Hodgsoni)- A right horn. 
 
 2068. Chiru A left horn, larger than the foregoing, and with 
 more annulations.
 
 SENSES AND INNERVATION. 241 
 
 2069. Springbok (Guzella Etichore). The horns, with part of the 
 frontal bone. 
 
 The Horns of Deer are deciduous, and grow from the frontal bone itself, like exos- 
 toses. When the time for shedding thera arrives, absorption occurs at their base, 
 until they become loose and fall off. 
 
 2070. Fallow-deer (Dania vulgaris J. Part of the frontal bone 
 with the stumps of the horns, from one of which the skin has 
 been stripped, to show the line where absorption is taking 
 place. 
 
 2071. Fallow-deer. The horns, with the fore part of tlie skull. 
 
 2072. Fallow-deer. A similar preparation to the foregoing. 
 
 JAMES DIXOX.
 
 v
 
 ^ 1158 01128 4790