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EDUCATION DURING 
 ADOLESCENCE 
 
EDUCATION DURING 
 ADOLESCENCE 
 
 Based Partly on G. Stanley HalVs 
 Psychology of Adolescence 
 
 BY ^ 
 
 RANSOM A. IVUCKIE, M.A. 
 
 SOMETIME SCHOLAB AND JUNl' jTJLLOW IN CLARK UNIVEBSITT; 
 
 FORMERLY IN8TRUrT(Jl , STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, 
 
 FAIRMONT, WEST VIRGH^IA 
 
 With an Introduction by 
 G. STANLEY HALL 
 
 PRESIDENT OF CLARE UNIVBRSITT 
 
 NEW YORK 
 E. p. BUTTON & COMPANY 
 
 681 Fifth Avenue 
 
CJopyright, 1920, 
 By E. P. BUTTON & COMPANY 
 
 All Right* Reterved 
 
 .\::^: >••:.: ••:..:: 
 
 * « 
 
 €•••*•• • 
 
 « a • «, • • • 
 
 Printid in tht United States of America 
 
PEEFACE 
 
 This work is intended as a general introduc- 
 tion to secondary education based largely on 
 the psychology of adolescence. Parts of some 
 of the chapters have appeared in the Educa- 
 tional Review, Education, American Education, 
 the High School Quarterly, Oregon Teacher's 
 Monthly, Northwest Journal of Education, and 
 The Historical Outlook, formerly The History 
 Teacher's Magazine. Various sections have 
 been read by Dean F. E. Bolton, Mr. 0. L. 
 Luther, Mr. J. W. Graham, Professor L. F. 
 Jackson and Professor G. C. Eobinson. 
 
 It seems fitting and proper that I should base 
 the principles of secondary education partly 
 on the work of the famous educator and dis- 
 tinguished psychologist, G. Stanley Hall, Presi- 
 dent of Clark University, whose wonderful 
 power and influence are not only becoming 
 more fully recognized throughout tliis country, 
 
wi PREFACE 
 
 but also in foreign lands. His work is now 
 being **felt in every department of the school 
 system, and in all fields of activity in which 
 human welfare is an ideal, both at home and 
 abroad.'' 
 
 Dr. Hall's **distiQctively original" produc- 
 tions, i.e., his books on Adolescence, published 
 in 1904, gave him recognition in England and 
 also on the continent of Europe. Other coun- 
 tries soon realized the importance of his con- 
 tributions. It was not long until in all lands 
 his reputation for clear-sightedness and orig- 
 inality of a conspicuous order was firmly estab- 
 lished. The wide-reaching consequences of his 
 work made hinn at once a focus of international 
 interest and admiration. 
 
 Before his books *' Educational Problems," 
 consisting of two ponderous and comprehensive 
 yolumes, appeared in 1911, although he was 
 recognized as one of America's leading educa- 
 tors, he was more widely known as a psycholo- 
 gist. His new books seem to have given him 
 a slightly different and perhaps a more promin- 
 ent position in the pedagogical world. This 
 is true, not because he changed or modified his 
 original position but rather because he magni- 
 fied or rather clarified his ideas by elaborating 
 
PREFACE vu 
 
 and expounding more fully his pedagogic doc- 
 trines. 
 
 Dr. Hall has been looking forward to a new 
 order of things in education and he has been 
 very successful in his interpretations. Indeed, 
 he could truly be called a pedagogical prophet 
 because of the prophetic way in which he has 
 delineated the education of the future. The 
 world knows prophets by their fruits. The 
 fruits of Dr. Hall's work can be seen every- 
 where. His ideals are being realized, at least 
 in some respects, in that his ** pedagogy of the 
 future" is now being put into actual operation 
 in different cities and localities throughout the 
 United States. 
 
 It is encouraging to know that his pedagogic 
 philosophy based upon genetic psychology and 
 the needs of society, when in actual practice, 
 works exceedingly well ; and the fact that many 
 of his educational ideals have been put into 
 practice, and are working successfully, makes 
 more and more evident his effectiveness as an 
 educational leader and reformer. The new 
 education as expounded by Dr. Hall is meeting 
 the approval of the nation. In view of these 
 facts I have no apology for basing what I have 
 to say partly on his works. In Chapters I, 
 
viii PREFACE 
 
 V, VI, I have quoted freely from Adolescence, 
 Educational Problems, Genetic Philosophy of 
 Education, Pedagogical Seminary, and Pro- 
 ceedings of the National Education Association. 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 CBAPTHB PAOB 
 
 Introduction by G. Stanley Hall xi 
 
 I. Education dubinq Adolescence v. . 1 
 
 n. Six- Year High School Curricula . .19 
 
 in. Principle of Election in Education . 39 
 
 rV. Changes Proposed in Secondary Ed** 
 
 UCATION 59 
 
 V. Required Subjects: The Social Studies 79 
 
 VI. Required Subjects: (Continued) Eng- 
 lish 98 
 
 Vn. Required Subjects: (Continued) His- 
 tory 124 
 
INTEODUCTION 
 
 This work is the product of long thought and 
 extensive reading and ought to be in the hands 
 of every high school principal and teacher and 
 of every superintendent. It represents a point 
 of view which though not entirely new shows 
 much original and careful thought and repre- 
 sents better than anything I know the general 
 principles of what I believe to be the education 
 of the near future. Many of us have long 
 thought that the training both of children and 
 youth should be essentially based upon the 
 fresh study of the pupil's own nature and needs, 
 and we see here set forth in concise outline the 
 conclusions which many advanced pedagogues 
 have reached who believe that the prime re- 
 quisite of school organizations, methods and 
 subjects should be that they fit the nature and 
 needs of the child. 
 
Jdi INTRODUCTION 
 
 The war has compelled teachers as well as 
 politicians to go back to first principles and ask, 
 as genetic psychologists have long been doing, 
 what is the real nature of man. They have 
 done this in the belief that this is the ultimate 
 source of appeal and that there must be a wide 
 re-evaluation of human institutions and of edu- 
 cation, not least and perhaps most of all, to fit 
 the needs of the vaster future that is now open 
 before us. The old education will certainly not 
 suffice for the new era. Everything must be 
 re-evaluated in terms of man's innate capacities 
 and spontaneities, and many old topics are sure 
 to be seen in a new light. There should es- 
 pecially be a redistribution between required 
 and elective work. The relative stress laid upon 
 ancient versus modern languages and the in- 
 creased importance of English language and 
 literature are among the most imperative and 
 certain changes, as is the new stress to be laid 
 upon practical and applied subjects. 
 
 Greek has already lost its former place in 
 the high school, and Latin is likely to lose much 
 of its prominence despite the very active and 
 well-organized propaganda of the classicists to 
 represent it as the only resource of culture 
 against Kultur. We can no longer ignore the 
 
INTRODUCTION xiii 
 
 vast waste of time, energy, and money spent 
 in Latin by those who drop it before any profi- 
 ciency is acquired and whose wretched transla- 
 tion into English, dulls, in fact, just that finer 
 sense of style which Latinists claim that it 
 gives. The fact is the modern world, especially 
 since the war, has become vastly more interest- 
 ing and important than anything which clas- 
 sical culture can give us. We are prone to for- 
 get that any, even vocational, topics can be made 
 more or less cultural. We forget, too, that 
 the Greek and Latin authors knew no other 
 language than their own, and their style would 
 in all probability have been marred if they had 
 dabbled in dead languages as we do. In Eng- 
 lish, too, we need a radical change from the 
 present excessive attention given to form in 
 order to give content the chief place. Exten- 
 sive reading in English for the young is vastly 
 more effective than the study of verbiage and 
 style now so stressed. Moreover, it is too often 
 practically forgotten that English has its root 
 in the Anglo-Saxon language and that if we 
 really would imitate the French educators who 
 are now urging that Latin be restored and 
 stressed in the Lycee, we should, by the same 
 token, stress Anglo-Saxon, for the roots of our 
 
adr INTRODUCTION 
 
 mother tongue grew in the atmosphere of the 
 North Sea and not in the Adriatic. 
 
 We must bear in mind that interest is the 
 very Holy Ghost of education and that so-called 
 formal studies and methods of discipline are 
 only, for the most part, a delusion and a snare. 
 They make degenerate mental tissue. It is not 
 culture to learn to speak or write well upon 
 trivial or indefinite subjects but rather to keep 
 up with the great human interests, which will 
 come to expression spontaneously if they are 
 given a fair chance to do so. 
 
 Even our educational psychology is for the 
 most part antiquated. It lives, moves, and has 
 its being in a pre-evolutionary age, and was, 
 with a few striking exceptions, developed by 
 those who had no knowledge of the wonderful 
 advances that had been lately made in our 
 knowledge of the will, feelings, sentiments, and 
 especially of the great surge of racial life that 
 always and everywhere tends to expand the soul 
 of the individual in the teens toward the dimen- 
 sions of that of the race. These changes our 
 system in general tends to ignore when they 
 ought, on the contrary, to be more and more 
 stressed. 
 
 Mr. MacMe has seen these new tendencies, 
 
INTRODUCTION xv 
 
 which have already begun to work their great 
 transformations, so that his book, coming as it 
 does when the minds of educators the world 
 over are more open than ever before, appears 
 at the psychological moment. 
 
 G. STANLEY HALL. 
 Clark UniveriUy 
 July, 18ia 
 
EDUCATION DURING 
 ADOLESCENCE 
 
EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 
 
 CHAPTER I 
 
 EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE ^ 
 
 Pbesident G. Stanley Hall of Clark Univer- 
 sity, basing his views not only on the needs 
 of society, but on the needs of the adolescent, 
 maintains that the main purpose of secondary 
 education is to ^Hrain character, to suggest, 
 to awaken, to graft interest, to give range and 
 loftiness of sentiment of view,^ to broaden 
 knowledge and to bring everything in touch 
 with life.^ 
 
 *Iii connection with this statement, Dr. HaU reminds us 
 that "the Greek teacher of youth chose to be called an 
 inspirer." See his article in the School Review for Dec, 
 1901, p. 651, Ped. Sem., Mar., 1902, p. 94. 
 
 'See Genetic Philosophy of Education: An epitome of 
 
'.2,1 ;/; .^yx:!4.TiON' OTaiNG adolescence 
 
 Education during adolescence, Dr. Hall be- 
 lieves, ** should seek to feed the interests and 
 capacities peculiar to the adolescent age; it 
 should aim to fill and develop mind, heart, will, 
 and body rather than attempt to distill a budget 
 of prepared knowledge decreed by professors 
 who know no more of the needs of this age 
 than teachers of other grades.^ The only 
 specialization that should be stressed far more 
 is the vocational. The boy should be helped on 
 toward ability to earn a living and the girl 
 toward what is necessary in the conduct of 
 a home,'** 
 
 To fulfill these aims not only the materials 
 of education, but the methods of instruction 
 should be vitalized, humanized. 
 
 G. S. HaU's Writings, by Dr. George E. Partridge, p. 213. 
 See also G. S. HaU's "The High School as the People's 
 CoUege versus the Fitting School." Ped. Sem., Mar., 1902, 
 pp. 70-71. Proc. N. E. A. 1902. 
 
 »G. S. Hall, Ideal School Based on Child Study. Proc 
 N. E. A., 1901, p. 487, The Forum, Sept., 1901, Vol. XXXII, 
 p. 37. "Adolescence, 2 Vols., D. Appleton & Company (1904) 
 Educational Problems, 2 Vols., (1911). These works con- 
 sider education from the point of view of genetic psy- 
 chology and the needs of society. 
 
 •G. S. HaU, Educational Problems, Vol. II, p. 651. 
 
EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCB 3 
 
 It is not difficult to understand why Dr. Hall 
 holds such views. It is because he bases his 
 high school pedagogy largely on the psychology 
 of adolescence. He calls attention to the sig- 
 nificance and some of the psychic characteristics 
 of youth in the following statements: ** Prob- 
 ably the most important changes for the 
 educator to study are those which begin be- 
 tween the ages of twelve and sixteen and are 
 completed only some years later when the 
 young adolescent receives from nature a new 
 capital of energy and altruistic feeling. It is a 
 physiological second birth, and success in life 
 depends upon the care and wisdom with which 
 this new and final invoice of energy is hus- 
 banded."' 
 
 During later childhood pupils **need much 
 drill, habituation, authority and memory work ; 
 K I but as adolescence slowly supervenes and boy- 
 / hood is molted, the method of freedom and ap- 
 peal to interest and spontaneity should be in- 
 creased. Now the best things are springing up 
 
 •G. S. HaU, Youth: Its Education, Regimen, and Hy- 
 giene, p. 359. 
 
4 EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 
 
 in the human soul. If there is any genius or 
 talent, enthusiasm for work or for ideals, they 
 begin now to be felt. If the race is ever to 
 advance, it will not be by increasing the aver- 
 age longevity or directly by enriching the last 
 Btages of life, but by prolonging this period of 
 development so that youth shall not die and its 
 zest and enthusiasm grow pale.'"* 
 
 Further, **It is the time when there is the 
 most rapid development of the heart and all 
 the feelings and emotions. Fear, anger, love, 
 pity, jealousy, emulation, ambition and sym- 
 pathy are either now born or springing into 
 their most intense life. Now young people are 
 interested in adults, and one of their strongest 
 passions is to be treated as if they were mature. 
 They desire to know, do, and be, all that be- 
 comes a man or woman. Childhood is ending 
 and plans for future vocations now spring into 
 existence, and slowly grow definite and con- 
 trolling."^ 
 
 • G. S. HaU, School Review, Dec, 1901, "How Far is the 
 Present High School and Early College Training Adapted 
 to the Nature and Needs of Adolescents?" 
 
 'Proceedings N. E. A, 1901, p. 483. 
 
EDUCATION DUBING ADOLESCENCE 5 
 
 According to the last statement vocational 
 education is in harmony with the psychology of 
 adolescence. **We must provide all opportunity 
 for selective interests, for giving scope to 
 special ability and inclination, keeping youth in 
 touch with real life, and at the same time mak- 
 ing training truly cultural. There must be 
 many kinds of courses and schools, technical 
 and every other kind of industrial institute, 
 open day and evening. We greatly need, too, 
 vocational experts who, by studying the capaci- 
 ties of individuals, will help to eliminate the 
 waste in human energy now so prevalent, and 
 to bring the young more successfully to the stage 
 of citizenship and self-respect which comes 
 only through self-support.''® 
 
 The idea that some educators have that fit- 
 ting for college and fitting for life are identical 
 is a pernicious doctrine, according to Dr. HalL v 
 He thinks that it can more truly be said that 
 fitting for college is unfitting for life, so 
 
 •Genetic Philosophy of Education, p. 139. See also 
 Educational Problems, Vol. I. Chapter on ''Industrial 
 Education." 
 
« EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 
 
 clerical, sedentary, bookish, and arbitrary is 
 the high school teaching. Almost nothing of 
 the current high school courses appeals to the 
 best powers of the youth, and those subjects 
 that perhaps are best fitted for the time are 
 likely to be taught in such a way as to rob 
 them of all their educative value. The logical 
 order and divisions of subjects everywhere 
 prevail and take precedence over the psy- 
 chological.® 
 
 The college professors are to some extent 
 responsible for this condition of affairs for 
 they tell the high schools what to do and how 
 to do it. But it should not be a question, what 
 does the college require, but rather, what does 
 the student need, what is best for the boy and 
 girl at this stage of development. The high 
 school should act independently of the college 
 and should aim to serve one period of growth 
 in the best way possible. It should give to each 
 boy and girl what is individually best at this 
 time for the youth's mental, moral, and phys- 
 
 •6. B. Partridge, Genetic Philosophy of Education, pp. 
 314-16. 
 
EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 7 
 
 ical development. If this is done, the student 
 will be well prepared for college. 
 
 The high school should dictate to the college 
 rather than take *^ dictation.'' The college is 
 going just a little too far when it tells the 
 high school what it shall teach, and what it 
 shall not teach ; what methods it shall use, and 
 what methods it shall not use. The college has 
 no right, no power, no authority whatsoever to 
 dictate to the high school. That power lies 
 Bolely, exclusively with the school authorities, 
 and ultimately with the people who support the 
 high school. It should therefore be responsive 
 to their needs and desires. The people are 
 demanding that the high school shall give each 
 student the training that will be worth while 
 in the conduct of life, and if it does this, the 
 student will be well fitted to enter college for 
 further training. The college should take the 
 high school student where it finds him, and then 
 proceed in its own way to build the next higher 
 stage. 
 
 With reference to ** college domination," a 
 point we have just discussed briefly. Dr. Hall 
 
8 BDUCATIONI DURING ADOLESCENCE 
 
 says: ''The high school should no longer be 
 content to play an ohligato for the college sym- 
 phony. The high school authorities should say 
 to the dons who manipulate the bachelor's 
 degree, 'Here are our graduates for whom we 
 have done what we deem best for their stage 
 of life. We and not you are judges of what 
 this is. Take them or leave them,' and the 
 college with its intense competition for students 
 would gladly accept the conditions and in the 
 end would greatly profit by it in the number 
 of students." '° 
 
 Everyone "who can profit more by being in 
 college than elsewhere has a right to be there. 
 , . . There is no tragedy in our system quite 
 equal to that of holding up a bright earnest 
 young man for a year before granting him the 
 high school diploma because he failed by a 
 point or two." " Further, the whole system of 
 standardization of units is wrong, for it takes^ 
 no account of **the human element by which 
 
 "Educational Problems, Vol. II, p. 622, Of. Ped. San., 
 Mar., 1902, p. 72. 
 " Ibid., p. 663. 
 
EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 9 
 
 man judges man in society, in business, and in 
 the world generally, in all affairs.''" ''The 
 only question the college has a right to ask is 
 whether or not the boy and girl can do the 
 work offered and get more out of it than in any 
 other stage." ^^ 
 
 College professors are not entirely respon- 
 sible for the present status of secondary educa- 
 tion. There is another reason for complaint: 
 As a rule teachers in high school are not in- 
 terested enough in the psychology of adoles- 
 cence. The studies are not chosen with refer- 
 ence to suitability to the capacity of the 
 student, and they are not taught in such a way 
 as to take advantage of the natural learning 
 methods of the adolescent age. In view of these 
 facts. Dr. Hall says, that *^the time has now 
 fully come when we must invoke the American 
 muse of common sense and seriously ask 
 whether the high school is doing the most and 
 best that it can and should, or is accomplishing 
 what the community has a right to expect from 
 
 "Educational Problems, VoL II, p. 647. 
 "Ibid, p. 623. 
 
10 EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 
 
 it. Dissatisfaction with the methods, matter, 
 and results are wide-spread and increasing."" 
 
 The changes needed in the high school are 
 so radical that they involve not only the 
 methods of teaching and the subjects of instruc- 
 tion, but the entire conception of the function 
 of the high school. It must fit better for life 
 the great majority who go no farther, and be 
 so changed as to prevent the loss of the three- 
 fourths who drop out of the course before the 
 end. " And in order to do this we must recog- 
 nize what Dr. Hall says, viz., the young adoles- 
 cent is **a new kind of being which demands 
 a new environment, new methods, and new 
 matter." 
 
 In regard to method, the ** drill and mechan- 
 ism of the previous period must be gradually 
 relaxed, and an appeal must be made to free- 
 dom and interest. . . . We can no longer coerce 
 and break, but must lead and inspire. To drill 
 merely is now to arrest. " The class room work 
 should be vitalized by transferring the discus- 
 
 "G. S. Hall, Educational Problems, Vol. II, p. 647. 
 "Genetic Philosopliy of Education, p. 316. 
 
EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 11 
 
 sions and conversations to the class circle. Ques- 
 tions, criticisms, and suggestions should be 
 between the students, with the teacher only,*r 
 occasionally drawn in, rather than always be- 
 tween the teacher and some student. (See 
 Chapter VTE, Section III.) 
 
 The subjects of instruction should be vital- 
 ized, as well as the methods of teaching. The 
 vitalization of the high school means, among 
 other things, the elimination of certain studies, 
 or at least parts of certain studies, and the 
 substitution therefor of studies and work of 
 social, moral, vocational, and psychological 
 significance. The new subject-matter that 
 ought to be introduced during adolescence will 
 be in harmony with the interests and capacities 
 of boys and girls in this stage of development. 
 **Each individual must be studied and made a 
 special problem and the work adapted to his 
 nature and needs if his personality is to come 
 to full maturity. Hence, there must be a wide 
 range of elective study for those who continue 
 at school." If our high school education were 
 based to a greater extent on the psychology 
 
12 EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 
 
 of adolescence it would take a stronger hold 
 on the ** interests and affections of the pupil." *• 
 
 If the aims of high school education are to 
 be approximately fulfilled, if secondary educa- 
 tion is to be vitalized — ^humanized, much is re- 
 quired of the teachers. Above all, they should 
 not be too precise, for pupils are at the age 
 **when the soul cries out for wholes, not de- 
 tails ; for facts, not formulae ; for growth, not 
 for logical order ; for crude masses of informa- 
 tion, not for accuracy or analysis. Whenever 
 we insist upon accuracy and finish we are forc- 
 ing nature, which decrees that youth should be 
 kept plastic and growing." 
 
 In teaching, large conceptions rather than 
 details should be presented, for quantity and 
 enrichment are more to be desired than ac- 
 curacy. Examinations *^ should have but little 
 place in high school education. Definite, com- 
 plete, systematic knowledge should not be 
 stressed. All studies that are merely formal, 
 
 "Forum, Sept., 1901, pp. 35-37. 
 
 "Ideal School as Based on Child Study, Proc. N. E. A., 
 1901, p. 485. 
 
EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 13 
 
 which require drill and drudgery, such as the 
 languages, should have a very subordinate 
 place in the curriculum, for in dull drill valu- 
 able time is consumed, without adequate com- 
 pensation. Everything that might cause ar- 
 rested development should be eliminated." 
 This is particularly true in regard to the educa- 
 tion of girls during adolescence. According to 
 our authority, *Hhe first aim which should 
 dominate every item, pedagogic method and 
 matter should be health, a momentous word 
 that looms up beside holiness, to which it is 
 etymologically akin. The new hygiene of the 
 last few years should be supreme and make 
 these academic areas sacred to the cult of the 
 goddess Hygeia."" 
 
 We cannot recall to mind too often what Dr. 
 Hall says in his epoch-making work Educa- 
 tional Problems : The mind during adolescence 
 ** craves masses of general and germinal knowl- 
 edge and needs to see large surfaces without 
 
 "Genetic Philosophy of Education, pp. 211-13. 
 
 »G. S. Hall, Adolescence, Vol. II, p. 637. See also Child 
 Study: The Basis of Exact Education, Forum, Dec., 1803, 
 p. 436. 
 
14 EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 
 
 the thoroughness and accuracy which is not yet 
 germane. For this they are too immature. 
 The age for doing everything well, or not at 
 all, has not yet come. The muse of exactness 
 needs older devotees. Now the soul absorbs 
 suggestions, typical facts in a vague and un- 
 accountable way. This is the time of extensive- 
 ness and not intensiveness ; culture to be best 
 instilled, should be general, and the only 
 specialization that should be stressed far more 
 than at present should be vocational. The boy 
 should be helped on toward ability to earn a 
 living and the girl toward what is necessary 
 in the conduct of a home. These are the prime 
 and essential considerations and all else rings 
 hoUow.''*« 
 
 Comment 
 
 In view of what has been said, it seems to 
 me, that the high school should have at least 
 four specific aims: 
 
 First: Physical well-being, fostered not 
 
 »G. S. HaU, Educational Problems, Vol. II, p. 651. 
 
EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 15 
 
 merely by gymnastic exercises, by reading 
 books on physiology, and by listening to lec- 
 tures on hygiene, but by a face to face study 
 of, and experience with, the conditions of 
 wholesome living. ^^ Many other things may 
 be important, but the adolescent's ** first busi- 
 ness is to grow. He may have another oppor- 
 tunity for the acquisition of knowledge, but the 
 demand for physical development cannot 
 wait, ' '^^ and furthermore, we should bear in mind 
 that ** among the habits distinctly conducive 
 to health must be reckoned active interests in 
 nature, in outdoor sports, in varied forms of 
 artistic activity, in social life and social in- 
 stitutions."" 
 
 Second: Vocational Guidance: This is of 
 fundamental importance to the great majority 
 of high school students. The teachers should 
 do everything possible to awaken, arouse, 
 stimulate, and direct the interests and en- 
 
 "Cf. David Snedden*s article in Charities and Commonfl, 
 April 25, 1908. 
 
 »W. H. Burnham, Proc. N. E. A., pp. 727-734. 
 
 "W. H. Burnham's article In Monroe's Cyclopedia of 
 Education, Vol. I, pp. 44-46. 
 
16 EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 
 
 thusiasm of the student and besides a syste- 
 matic effort should be made to discover the 
 student's dominant interests and powers and 
 thus assist him in the choice of the vocation 
 in which he is most likely to succeed. But this 
 is not all. The high school should actually give 
 some vocational instruction for those who do 
 not care to, or cannot go on to some higher 
 institution of learning. A suggestion might be 
 added : The work should me made entirely flex- 
 ible and should offer numerous opportunities 
 for a change of course as a student's inclina- 
 tions are modified or his tendencies are de- 
 veloped. 
 
 Third: Personal Culture. " This is not to 
 be attained by studying Greek, Latin, other 
 foreign languages, and mathematics^" accord- 
 ing to contemporary authorities, but rather 
 through the influence of cultured people and by 
 receiving instruction in subjects that have a 
 direct bearing on the conduct and problems of 
 
 *« Henry SuzzaUo, tntroduction to C. W. Eliot*s mono- 
 graph, Education for Efficiency. 
 
 "David Snedden, What of Liberal Education. Atlantic 
 Monthly, Jan., 1912. 
 
EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 17 
 
 life. Although no study will necessarily make 
 a person cultured, and while the classics and 
 other foreign languages and mathematics may 
 do something toward fulfilling the personal cul- 
 ture aim, history, literature and modern civic 
 and social problems will undoubtedly do more 
 in this direction than the foreign languages and 
 mathematics. In order to be truly cultural, 
 education during adolescence should, as already 
 pointed out, aim **to train character, to sug- 
 gest, to awaken, to graft interests, to give 
 range and loftiness of sentiment of view." It 
 ought **to develop mind, heart, will and b'ody, 
 rather than attempt to distill a budget of pre- 
 pared knowledge decreed by professors who 
 know no more of the needs of this age than 
 teachers of other grades."^® 
 
 Fourth: Social efficiency in the sense of 
 awareness of civic and moral responsibility, 
 and the desire and ability to co-operate with 
 one's fellows to promote the common welfare. 
 Social efficiency, which will contribute both 
 
 * G. S. HaU, The Ideal School as Based on Child Study. 
 Forum, Sept, 1901, pp. 24-30. 
 
18 EDUCATION DtJRING ADOLESCENCE 
 
 directly and indirectly to a person's vocational 
 efficiency may be promoted, from the academic 
 standpoint, in the same way as personal culture 
 is promoted, by developing a permanent inter- 
 est in reading the best literature and in study- 
 ing practical problems pertaining to society 
 and government and the essential facts of the 
 history of civilization. Emphasis should be 
 placed on preparing for service because ** serv- 
 ice is the highest criterion of the worth of lives. 
 We are learning that, whether in history or in 
 romance, the names that shine with the fairest 
 and brightest light and last longest are those 
 that have done most service. The great mo- 
 ments in great lives are those when the supreme 
 choice is to be made between self and the wel- 
 fare of others, and the best criterion of su- 
 preme manhood and womanhood is when the 
 latter prevails. More and more enlightened 
 public opinion is coming to distinguish between 
 those who live and die for themselves and those 
 who live and die by the gospel of helpful- 
 ness.'' '^ 
 "Educational Problems, Vol. II, p. 668. 
 
CHAPTER n 
 
 SIX-YEAR HIGH SCHOOL CURRICULA 
 
 High schools throughout the United States 
 are beginning to base their courses of study on 
 adolescent psychology and the needs of society, 
 and ^ few of the most progressive high schools 
 of the country have already put into actual 
 operation and * administration, features that 
 are almost in harmony with the fundamental 
 aims or purposes of education during adoles- 
 cence as stated in the first chapter. 
 
 Perhaps one of the best examples ^ of these 
 advanced schools is the one in Berkeley, Cali- 
 fornia, which will now be considered. The rea- 
 son for the selection of this institution is not 
 merely because it represents present tendencies, 
 but because, in some respects, it approximates 
 the ideal, and thus serves to illustrate some 
 admirable features in progressive high school 
 reorganization. 
 
 '"One example Is worth a thousand arguments." 
 
 19 
 
ao 
 
 EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 
 
 Instead of the usual eight years of elementary 
 and four years for high school work, the twelve 
 grades of the public schools in Berkeley are 
 divided into elementary education, comprising 
 the first six grades and secondary education, 
 comprising the grades seven to twelve inclusive. 
 In order to understand just why the high school 
 should be extended downward, we must speak 
 of elementary as well as secondary school work. 
 We must consider the whole system. 
 
 Educational Periods. 
 
 Schools. 
 
 Ages. 
 
 Grades. 
 
 Elementary 
 
 Primary School 
 
 Granmiar School. .. 
 
 6to 9 
 9 to 12 
 
 1 
 2 
 3 
 4 
 5 
 6 
 
 Secondary 
 
 Jmiior High School . 
 Senior High School. 
 
 12 to 15 
 15 to 18 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 11 
 
 12 
 
 The question naturally suggests itself : What 
 is the reason for so radical a change from the 
 ordinary divisions of the curriculum! Why 
 does Berkeley have just six years for elemen- 
 tary education! To answer this question, it is 
 
SIX-YEAR HIGH SCHOOL CURRICULA. 21 
 
 necessary to consider the aim of the first six 
 years of schooling. The fundamental aim is to 
 obtain the use of the tools of learning ; that is, 
 the pupil should learn to read and write fairly 
 well and to perform accurately and with some 
 degree of rapidity the fundamental operations 
 of arithmetic. Of course other studies may and 
 should be added, but obtaining the use of the 
 ** tools of learning" is the main purpose. 
 
 Six years is certainly long enough in which 
 to accomplish this. To spend more time than 
 six years on elementary education exaggerates 
 its importance and leads to the belief that it is 
 education itself instead of preparation for an 
 education. )The first six years of school should 
 emphasize chiefly the formal aspects of educa- 
 tion. ) The mission of elementary education is 
 to prepare for further school work. It aims 
 not at knowledge itself, but at supplying the 
 tools of the mind and at inculcating attitudes 
 and habits of mind that will enable the in- 
 dividual later to pursue knowledge and in- 
 dustry. * 
 
 'Dr. C. O. Davis, Reorganization of Secondary Educa- 
 tion, Educational Review, Oct., 1911. 
 
22 EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 
 
 Statistics show that the masses are held in 
 school only through the fifth grade, after which 
 they drop out in very large numbers, which 
 means, educationally, that whatever is to be 
 taught to the masses must be given in the first 
 five or six years.^ By terminating a cycle of 
 work with the sixth year, unquestionably the 
 tendency will be to hold such pupils at least 
 one year longer, namely to the end of the sixth 
 grade.* 
 
 ' Something should be said briefly concerning 
 the curriculum of this unique school. The first 
 six years of the course is uniform for all 
 children and somewhat narrow in its scope. 
 The studies emphasized are those which the 
 masses must have, even if they wish to start 
 life with the smallest amount of preparation. 
 Whether or not the pupils get anything else, 
 they learn how to read, write and use their own 
 language, both in oral and written form; how 
 
 ■F. M. Leavitt, Examples of Industrial Education, p. 84. 
 Ginn & Co., N. Y. 
 
 • F. F. Bunker, Reorganization of the Public School Sys- 
 tem, Government Printing Ofllce, Washington, D. C. 1916, 
 p. 113. 
 
SIX-YEAR HIGH SCHOOL CURRICULA 23 
 
 to perform with facility and accuracy the simple 
 operations of arithmetic and accounting; and 
 they get, also in these first six years, some 
 knowledge of their city, state, and national gov- 
 ernment. In addition, the pupils learn the 
 elementary principles of sanitation and health 
 conditions which everybody should know, not 
 only to protect themselves as individuals, but 
 to protect society as well. All of this is effi- 
 ciently accomplished in the six-year elementary 
 school at Berkeley. 
 
 As shown in the diagram on page 20, the Six- 
 Year Berkeley High School curriculum is di- 
 vided into two periods of three years each. The 
 Introductory or Junior high school comprises 
 the seventh, eighth and ninth grades, while the 
 Senior or High School proper ^ is made up of 
 the tenth, eleventh and twelfth grades. 
 
 By an examination of the following program 
 you may see what subjects are taught in the 
 Introductory or Lower High School : 
 
 »lu the Upper or Senior High School the only requfred 
 studies are English, (3 years), Science, (1 year), and 
 United States History and Government, (1 year). Physical 
 Education, (1 year), and Assembly Singing, (3 years). 
 
24 
 
 EDUCATION DURixa adolesce:tce 
 
 to tQwto loio eouMo 
 
 
 
 ^ £l^ 
 
 lO toioto 
 
SIX-YEAR fflGH SCHOOL CURRICULA 25 
 
 Two main criticisms of tliis program might 
 be offered: First, Plays, Games and Personal 
 Hygiene ought to be emphasized; and second, 
 General Science, General Mathematics and 
 Vocational Information should be offered in the 
 ninth grade. 
 
 The majority of the children enter the in- 
 troductory high school, at the beginning of the 
 period of adolescence, when by nature they 
 naturally crave an opportunity to* dip into a 
 wide range of subjects and activities, which is 
 Nature's way of insuring freedom of choice in 
 determining occupation. 
 
 The work .of the seventh, eighth and ninth 
 grades comprising the Introductory high school 
 is related very closely to life, and as far away 
 as possible from that which is purely academic 
 in education. Much emphasis is placed on learn- 
 ing how to study, and how to use the library. 
 
 The work of the Introductory High School is 
 arranged in such a way as to make a more 
 easy transition from the work of the elementary 
 grades to the work of the high school proper. 
 In regard to the need of a better transition 
 
26 EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 
 
 and the way the new plan meets this need F. 
 P. Bunker says : * * The explanation for the break 
 in attendance between the ninth and tenth years, 
 which experience shows to be a very heavy one 
 under the usual grouping of grades, lies largely 
 in the fact that the pupil, coming into the high 
 school from the grades, fails to make a proper 
 adjustment. In consequence he begins to fail 
 in his work, becomes disheartened and discour- 
 aged, and drops out before he reaches the tenth 
 grade; and worst of all, he drops out because 
 he has failed. Throwing the seventh, eighth 
 and ninth grades together in a second cycle of 
 work which shall have distinguishing character- 
 istics from that which precedes it, as well as 
 from that which follows ; arranging everything 
 connected therewith to make his work a three- 
 year transition period from the elementary 
 school to the upper high school, and yet shap- 
 ing the work so that it is a unit in itself which 
 can be terminated if necessary, at the end of 
 the ninth year — ^will not only tend to hold a 
 year longer the pupil who would otherwise 
 drop out at the end of the eighth year, but will 
 
SIX-YEAR HIGH SCHOOL CURRICUIA 27 
 
 go very far toward insuring a complete adjust- 
 ment to the conditions which prevail in the 
 upper high school. ® It likewise offers, at the 
 end of the ninth year, an opportunity for the 
 pupil to check up his own judgment, and to 
 determine whether his circumstances, as well 
 as his tastes, are such as to justify him in going 
 on for three years more in secondary work. 
 If, after making a careful survey of such mat- 
 ters, he decides to leave school, he leaves con- 
 scious of having succeeded rather than because 
 he had failed — causing a very different reaction 
 upon his character."^ 
 
 It is interesting to note what is said concern- 
 ing the success of the new plan: **The response 
 in lessening the mortality between the ninth 
 and tenth grades through arranging the school 
 work in three cycles, has been so immediate and 
 decisive as to admit of no doubt respecting the 
 
 • "Approximately 85 per cent of the children entering th6 
 public schools of the United States leave between the ages 
 of twelve and fifteen," F. M. Leavitt, Examples of Indus- 
 trial Education, p. 54, Ginn & Co., 1912. 
 
 »F. F. Bunker, The Better Articulation of the Parts of 
 the Public School System, Educational Review, March, 1914, 
 Vol. XLVII, pages 263-66. 
 
28 EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 
 
 tendency/* It is added, however, that "per- 
 haps, the consideration of greatest significance 
 which such a plan of school organization offers, 
 lies in the opportunity that it gives of radically 
 changing ihe nature and content of the course 
 of study.''® 
 
 ^Advantages of the New Plan of Organization 
 
 The advantages of the six-year plan may be 
 summarized as follows: 
 
 First: It not only mitigates the abruptness 
 of the transition from the elementary school 
 and checks the loss of pupils at this critical 
 period,® but it prevents pupils from leaving 
 school before this time, and one of the reasons 
 for this is that the new plan, among other 
 things, forces the elimination of non-essentials 
 in the elementary curriculum, especially in- 
 herited puzzles, ^^ and besides, it makes **pos- 
 
 ■F. F. Bunker, Reorganization of the Public School Sys- 
 tem, p. 114, Government Printing Office, 1916. Washington, 
 D. C. 
 
 •Proceedings, National Education Association, 1908, p. 
 625. 
 
 *» Edward Robinson. The Reorganization of the Grades 
 and the High SchooL School Review, Dec, 1912. 
 
SIX-YEAR HIGH SCHOOL CURRICULA 29 
 
 sible the teaching of subjects at the time when 
 the mind is best fitted to receive them.'' It is 
 well known that a large percentage of the pupils, 
 especially the boys, drop out because they lack 
 interest in elementary school work; so some con- 
 tend that if we could get the student weU set- 
 tled in the high school course of study, even 
 a short time before he reaches the adolescent 
 period, we should have a better opportunity to 
 interest and inspire him in the work of the high 
 school ; and, if once interested and inspired, it 
 is likely he would continue through the entire 
 high school course. 
 
 Second: It is conceded by most educators 
 that young adolescents should be taught by 
 more men teachers than are employed under 
 the present regime. Since there are more male 
 teachers in the high schools this condition is 
 fulfilled. Dr. Hall emphasizes the fact, that 
 under the old regime, the vast majority of boys 
 and girls, perhaps nineteen out of twenty, and 
 often ninety-nine out of a hundred, leave school 
 without ever having been, for a single day, under 
 the influence of a male teacher. This he calls 
 
80 EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 
 
 a ** positive scandal''" which has been minim- 
 ized wherever the **Six and Six plan'' has been 
 introduced, for men accept positions where they 
 are allowed to present secondary school sub- 
 jects in the seventh and eighth grades. He then 
 mentions the effect this has on the pupils, es- 
 pecially the boys. **When they reach the teens 
 and their manhood begins to bourgeon," he 
 says, **they do not instantly think of school as 
 a 'sissy' affair, to be thrown off," and adds, 
 that **ten years of secondary education in 
 Europe is essentially in the hands of men."" 
 Third: As the departmental plan of instruc- 
 tion exists in high schools and is an essential 
 part of the new plan, the pupils at the dawn 
 of adolescence receive the benefit of * * daily con- 
 tact with several personalities instead of that 
 all day association with one teacher which often 
 breeds abnormal psychic atmosphere." Au- 
 thorities are practically unanimous in their con- 
 tention that *'the variety of teachers, equip- 
 ment, methods and general conditions, the 
 
 "Educational Problems, Vol. II, page 650. 
 "Ibid., Vol II, p. 650. 
 
SIX-YEAR HIGH SCHOOL CURRICULA 31 
 
 physical relief in changing rooms, the continuity 
 of superior teaching, the greater educative 
 freedom, all serve to stimulate a child to his 
 best endeavor. Nothing is more deadening to 
 a child than to listen to the same voice, see 
 the same surroundings, witness the same 
 methods, and all within the narrow confines of 
 a single room, and under the eye of the same 
 teacher. Children become weary of this eternal 
 'sameness.'"^® Furthermore, the new plan 
 gives the pupils the advantage of being taught 
 by teachers especially trained for the different 
 branches, the gain coming from the better 
 teaching that results from the adaptation of 
 the teacher to the work for which he is best 
 fitted and for which he has made special prep- 
 aration. When an instructor teaches allied 
 subjects he is able to specialize and do the work 
 weU. ^* 
 
 Fourth: The six-year high school curriculum 
 is fully consistent with established principles 
 
 " V. E. Kilpatrick, Departmental Teaching in Elementary 
 Schools, Macmillan Co. (An excellent work.) 
 
 ** Proceedings, National Education Association, 1908, p. 
 626. 
 
S2 EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 
 
 of genetic pedagogy and psychology. The six- 
 year elementary school may be completed and 
 the pupils may be ready to enter the Intro- 
 ductory high school when they are about twelve 
 or thirteen years of age. This period is recog- 
 nized by distinguished psychologists as the be- 
 ginning of adolescence, and the beginning of 
 adolescence, many authorities maintain, should 
 be the beginning of secondary education. As 
 pointed out in the first chapter, adolescence de- 
 mands, according to genetic psychology, that 
 new matter and new methods must be intro- 
 duced. This is precisely the view held by Dr. 
 Hall, for he contends that **we must take 
 account of the nature of the great upheaval at 
 the dawn of the teens, which marks the pubes- 
 cent ferment, and which requires distinct 
 change in matter and method of education. . . . 
 It is a period of very rapid if not fulminating 
 psychic expansion. . . . The drill to which they 
 have been subjected before pubescence becomes 
 irksome when they reach this crisis.'' And 
 speaking specifically of the new six-year plan, 
 he says: *^It would bring about the change of 
 
SIX-YEAR HIGH SCHOOL CURRICULA 33 
 
 external conditions which always ought to 
 mark the great change within, that takes place 
 at the dawn of pubescent years, which our sys- 
 tem now, instead of stressing as the world — 
 savage and civilized — ^has everywhere done, 
 tends to obliterate. Mankind, throughout all 
 its history, has marked the faint dawn of 
 sexual maturity by initiations, training in new 
 modes of life, confirmation, etc., as befits the 
 nature and needs of this stage of evolution.^** 
 Children are now approaching maturity, and 
 are impressed in a very new and strange way 
 by the lives of those older than themselves, 
 and by adults, and it is just this association 
 and spur that the present system cuts off, for 
 the boy in the upper grammar grades has no 
 higher classmates to admire and imitate. These 
 two evils, namely, the obliteration of pubes- 
 cence, and the elimination of the influence of 
 those older, are very real and very grave evils 
 in our system which must be remedied, if we 
 are to work with, and not against nature." **I 
 am fully convinced," says the same authority, 
 » Educational Problems, Vol. II, p. 648. 
 
U EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 
 
 speaking further of the six-year high school, 
 **that the interests of both community and 
 child demand some such extension downward, 
 and also that it is inevitable. Of course, it 
 would involve some additional expense to bring 
 boys of twelve under more male teachers, and 
 would require larger appropriations, but, as it 
 is needed, this change must come. ' ' ^' 
 
 There seems to be an increasing demand 
 throughout the country for courses of study 
 similar to those that follow: 
 
 "Educational Problems, Vol. II, p. 648. 
 
SIX-YEAR HIGH SCHOOL CUHEICUIA 36 
 
36 
 
 EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 
 
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SIX-YEAR HIGH SCHOOL CURRICULA 37 
 
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EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 
 
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CHAPTER m 
 
 PRINCIPLE OF ELECTION IN EDUCATION 
 
 The fact that some of the greatest colleges 
 and universities of this country recognize the 
 limited elective system of high school studies 
 for admission shows that there is a strong 
 tendency in that direction. ^ Two of the most 
 progressive institutions to adopt this policy 
 recently are Reed College, founded in 1912 at 
 Portland, Oregon, and the University of 
 Chicago, which changed in 1911 its require- 
 ments for admission and graduation. ^ 
 
 *It seems to me that the State CoUege of Washington 
 and the University of Chicago have approximated the ideal 
 in regard to admission requirements, while Reed College 
 and Stanford University have approximated the ideal with 
 reference to requirements for graduation. 
 
 'Some excellent papers have been written on the new 
 requirements at the University of Chicago. See articles by 
 O. H. Judd (Education, Jan., 1912, Vol. XXXII, No. 5, pp. 
 266-277), C. R. Mann (Educational Review, Sept, 1911, VoL 
 
40 EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 
 
 One of the first institutions of higher learn- 
 ing that not merely formulated the elective 
 system in theory but put it into actual opera- 
 tion, was Stanford University. I quote these 
 words from the Stanford catalogue: **No pre- 
 scription other than English will be made." 
 The catalogue here refers to the entrance re- 
 quirements of the University. 
 
 President Emeritus David Starr Jordan in 
 his admirable book entitled, **The Care and 
 Culture of Men,'' maintains that **we must let 
 the student have, to a great extent, his own 
 way as to what his studies shall be. We can 
 see that he does his work well, and we can help 
 hiTTi in many ways, but the direction of his 
 efforts must in the end rest with him.'' 
 
 Many of the most progressive school men to- 
 day contend that as soon as the common 
 branches are mastered each student should be 
 given the privilege of selecting his own studies, 
 but not without careful advice and direction by 
 parents and teachers. It is worse than useless, 
 
 XLII, No. 2, pp. 186-191), J. R. Angell (School Review, 
 Sept., 1911, Vol. XIX, No. 7, pp, 489-497). 
 
PRINCIPLE OF ELECTION IN EDUCATION 41 
 
 it is claimed, to try to change the course of a 
 student's life by compelling him to do work 
 which he knows will only be of little use to 
 him. 
 
 High school authorities everywhere are be- 
 ginning to recognize the truth of the statement 
 made by the Committee of Nine of the 1911 
 National Education Association concerning the 
 most effective way of securing good work. The 
 Committee maintained that the school must take 
 into account individual differences and must 
 emphasize interest rather than difficulty as a 
 stimulant to the student. 
 
 Many leading educators have long held this 
 yiew. Dr. Bolton has always maintained that 
 interest is of pre-eminent and fundamental 
 importance, ^ and Dr. Suzzallo seems to be of 
 the same opinion, for he says: **Too many of 
 the able and willing of mind are only half en- 
 grossed with their school tasks . . • and we find 
 that many children, whom we have considered 
 
 °See Dean F. E. Bolton's discussion of "Interest and 
 Education" in his Principles of Education. Charles Scrib- 
 ner's Sons, 1910. 
 
42 EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 
 
 backward or perverse, are merely bored by tHe 
 unappealing tasks and formalities of school 
 life. The major difficulty with our schools is 
 that they have not adequately enlisted the in- 
 terests and energies of children in school 
 work."* 
 
 Most authorities would give the student con- 
 siderable freedom in selecting his studies dur- 
 ing later adolescence. Dr. C. W. Eliot, whose 
 work in forwarding the ** elective system'' in 
 education cannot be estimated, says: **The saf- 
 est guides to a wise choice will be the taste, 
 incHnation and special capacity of each indi- 
 vidual. ... It is only the individual youth who 
 can select that course of study which will most 
 profit him, because it will most interest him. 
 The very fact of choice goes far to secure the 
 co-operation of his will. It is for the happi- 
 ness of the individual and the benefit of society 
 alike that these mental diversities should be 
 cultivated, not suppressed. The individual en- 
 
 « See the editor's introduction to John Dewey's monograph 
 "Interest and Effort in Education." Houghton, Mifflin Co., 
 N. Y. 
 
PRINCIPLE OF ELECTION IN EDUCATION 43 
 
 joys most that intellectnal labor for which hie 
 is most fit; and society is best served when 
 every man's peculiar skill, faculty, or aptitude 
 is developed and utilized to the highest possible 
 degree."* 
 
 Dr. Eliot thinks our courses of study should 
 be flexible for the younger as well as the older 
 students. He holds that ** every individual 
 child's peculiar gifts and powers should be 
 discovered early and developed and trained 
 assiduously. . . . There should be some choice 
 of subjects of study by ten years of age, and 
 much variety by fifteen years of age." Many 
 would agree with him when he says that there 
 should be much variety by fifteen years of age 
 but very few, I think, believe that there should 
 be any choice of subjects by ten years of age. 
 And again does he not go to the extreme when 
 he asserts that **in the ideal democratic school 
 no two children would follow the same course 
 of study or have the same tasks, except that 
 they would all need to learn the use of the 
 
 ■C. W. EUot, Educational Reform, pp. 134-136, The Cen- 
 tury Company, N. Y., 1901. 
 
U EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 
 
 elementary tools of education : reading, writing 
 and ciphering/'® 
 
 The principle of election has reached all 
 classes in the ** General High Schools'' in Bos- 
 ton, and other cities are rapidly adopting the 
 plan. The reason for this, nndoubtedly, is the 
 '* growing diversity of knowledge," the break- 
 ing down of the *'old ideal of the scholar," the 
 **need of specialization," the necessity of civic, 
 moral, hygienic and vocational instruction and 
 training, and the '* opening of educational op- 
 portunities to all the people." 
 
 In the Boise, Idaho, High School, all studies, 
 except English are elective. **The students are 
 aided in selecting a unified course in accordance 
 with their needs." ^ In Boston in all the ** Gen- 
 eral High Schools" the only required studies 
 are English, Hygiene and Physical Training. 
 Eecently, a year of science has been added to 
 the list of constants. 
 
 More than one-half of the studies of the 
 
 •O. W. EUot, Educational Reform, p. 262, and pp. 408-10. 
 ' See Stout, The High School, p. 312, D. O. Heath & Co., 
 
 1914. 
 
PRINCIPLE OF ELECTION IN EDUCATION 45 
 
 '* General Course" of the Seattle High Schools 
 are elective. The required studies are English 
 (3 years), mathematics (1 year), history and 
 civics (2 years) and laboratory science (1 year). 
 The rest of the studies (16 credits) are elective. 
 Each pupil must, however, earn six credits (3 
 years) in one subject other than English. This 
 is an excellent course for the purpose for which 
 it is designed. It is meant for all who *^have 
 not reached a decision as to their future." 
 
 It might be added that although this course 
 is not intended to prepare students for college, 
 many upon the completion of it would be al- 
 lowed to enter Stanford University or the Uni- 
 versity of Chicago, two of the best institutions 
 in the United States. Both belong to the 
 Assocation of American Universities. English 
 is the only required study for admission to 
 Stanford. The University of Chicago demands 
 three years' work in English, a major of three 
 years and a minor of two years in any of the 
 standard high school subjects. I quote from 
 Dr. J. E. AngelPs article, '*New Eequirements 
 for Entrance and Graduation at the Universitjr 
 
46 EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 
 
 of Cliicago'* (School Eeview, Sept., 1911, page 
 493): ** English is the only subject definitely, 
 required of all candidates for entrance to the 
 University. Apart from this, the two most 
 essential demands are : first, the presentation of 
 two groups of subjects, of which at least three 
 units shall be offered in one and at least two 
 units in the other ; and, second, the requirement 
 that at least ten of the fifteen units offered shall 
 be the familiar academic subjects/' 
 
 Some educators favor the elective principle 
 for colleges but not for high schools. They 
 talk of ** laying a good foundation.'' Accord- 
 ing to Dr. Jordan, **we have tried, as we used 
 to say, to make well rounded men, men who 
 stand four-square to every wind that blows.'* 
 But he says, **This is a training better fitted 
 for hitching-posts or windmills than for men." ' 
 
 Often the very people who speak of * laying 
 a good foundation" are also enthusiastic ad- 
 vocates of * thorough mental discipline" for 
 each student so that when he receives his di- 
 
 » D. S. Jordan, Care and Culture of Men, p. 163, Whitaker 
 & Ray Co., 1903. 
 
PRINCIPLE OF ELECTION IN EDUCATION 47 
 
 ploma, leaves the school, and goes **out in the 
 world," he will be prepared to cope with any 
 situation, and the best and only way, they say, 
 * ^ to train the mind, ' ' for this purpose, is to study 
 the foreign languages and higher mathematics. 
 But is this argument sound? Do not the studies 
 that have a more direct bearing on the conduct 
 and problems of life ** train the mind" quite as 
 well, if not better than the languages and mathe- 
 matics! 
 
 We have good authority to answer the last 
 question in the affirmative, for Herbert Spencer 
 contends that knowledge that is best for life 
 is also best for development of power® and I 
 am sure that G. Stanley Hall would also sup- 
 port my contention, for he maintains that the 
 **very existence of any such thing" as a ''gen- 
 eralized type of ability or general culture" is 
 **now disputed by psychologists." Then he 
 says emphatically: ''The power which is trained 
 for efficiency in one direction cannot be applied 
 
 •See Spencer's Education, p. 74, D. Appleton Co., N. T. 
 Also see Graves, Great Educators of Three Centuries, pp. 
 878-279, MacmUlan Co., N. Y., 1912. 
 
48 EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 
 
 in any other without very great abatement and 
 loss, if indeed it can be at all." " 
 
 If the positions held by Herbert Spencer and 
 G. Stanley Hall be correct, and if Professor 
 Home's contention" that mental discipline 
 gained in one field will aid in another just in so 
 far as the two subjects are similar, be sound, 
 ought not the pupil study subjects in which he 
 has a genuiQe interest or work that will be of 
 more use to hiTn in later life instead of being 
 forced to take Latin, advanced algebra*^ or 
 solid geometry?" Should not the student be 
 allowed to select, with assistance, studies in 
 harmony with his nature, interests, capacities, 
 needs and aims in life? But some contend that 
 many high school students are not greatly in- 
 terested in anything in the curriculum and do 
 not know their needs ^* and aims in life. Al- 
 
 *° Educational Problems, Vol. II, p. 653. D. Appleton Co. 
 
 "H. H. Home, Psychological Principles of Education, 
 p. 71, Macmillian Co., N. Y., 1907. 
 
 " See Dr. M. V. O' Shea's Editorial Comments in the May, 
 (1916), issue of the Wisconsin Journal of Education. 
 
 "See David Snedden's article, "What of Liberal Educa- 
 tion." Atlantic Monthly, Jan., 1912, Vol. CIX, pp. 111-117. 
 
 "Dr. E. O. HoUand maintains that "the schoolmaster 
 
^ 
 
 PRINCIPLE OF ELECTION IN EDUCATION 49 
 
 though this situation presents a difficult prob- 
 lem, could not the secondary school do much 
 more than it is now doing for this class of 
 students! If a student does not know his 
 dominant interests, capabilities and needs, the 
 teachers should endeavor to discover them, and 
 I believe this could be done by means of short 
 general courses in various subjects. 
 
 After discussing this problem from every 
 possible standpoint at the meeting of the N. E. 
 A. in 1911, it was the consensus of opinion of 
 the committee on secondary education that *Hhe 
 high school period is the testing time, the time 
 I for trying out different powers, the time for 
 forming life purposes. . . .'' further, the com- 
 mittee maintained that '*in high school the boy 
 or girl may very properly make a start along 
 
 must go out into the industrial life of a community and 
 learn at first hand what is expected of the young people 
 when they leave the school. Then he must have sufficient 
 courage and initiative to do two things: first, make such 
 changes in the course of study as wiU give better prepara- 
 tion to the children who must enter the vocations at an 
 early age; and, second, make possible for any child to 
 continue iminterruptedly his course through the grades, 
 the high school, and the university." (Proc. N. E. A., 1913, 
 pp. 711-712). 
 
GO EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 
 
 the line of his chosen vocation, but final choice 
 should not be forced upon him at the beginning 
 of that career. If he makes a provisional choice 
 early in the course there should be ample op- 
 portunity for adjustment later in the high 
 school."" 
 
 In a classic on election in education we find 
 these words: **At every turn the elective sys- 
 tem has met a * stone wall of conservatism.' 
 For one educated under the old prescribed 
 regime and indoctrined with the venerable idea 
 of what constitutes a liberal education, it is dif- 
 ficult to eliminate the personal equation. . . . 
 Scholars cling naturally to old ideas, old ideals, 
 old methods; no body of men is more averse 
 to change. In business such men fail, driven 
 to the wall by competition with those who are 
 ready to adopt new methods. But education 
 fosters conservatism; as a rule, men prefer to 
 teach the things they were taught, and to teach 
 them in the same way. So the mistakes of 
 fathers are visited upon children and upon 
 
 "Proc. N. E. A., 1911, p. 560. 
 
PRINCIPLE OF ELECTION IN EDUCATION 51 
 
 children's children unto how many generations 
 only the history of education can tell.'' 
 
 Someone has said that the opponents of the 
 elective system free its advocates from the need 
 of any discussion of relative value of studies; 
 the reason is plain — the final incontestable rea- 
 son why no high school studies can be sensibly 
 prescribed for all — the opponents of free choice 
 are utterly unable to agree among themselves 
 as to what the prescribed subjects should be. 
 There is much truth in this argument, but it is 
 not as forceful to-day as it was a decade ago, 
 for educators are beginning to agree on at least 
 three studies that ought to be required. These 
 are discussed in the following chapters. 
 
 Prior to 1910 I examined the catalogues of 
 nearly all of the colleges and universities in 
 the Northwest, and no two agreed as to the 
 required work for entrance to the Freshman 
 class in the B. A. course. So we can readily 
 see that it depends on the individual or group 
 of individuals, who make the lists of required 
 studies — ^it depends absolutely upon what they 
 
52 EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 
 
 consider important and positively necessary 
 for a **good foundation." 
 
 An authority writing on the subject asks this 
 question: **When there are not a half-dozen 
 high schools in the entire country, under 
 separate management, with identical courses of 
 study, is it not preposterous to maintain that 
 there is a vital, fixed interrelation and one 
 natural sequence of subjects T' One group of 
 educators says : **So in a program, much should 
 be insisted on,'' and they insist on one program. 
 Another says : *' All studies should be required/' 
 and they insist on another program. 
 
 So much for prescription of courses. Let us 
 speak now of the positive advantages of the 
 elective system. In the first place, the elective 
 plan will attract more grammar school grad- 
 uates to the high school and it will hold them 
 in school longer than if the courses were 
 prescribed. This is something that is ardently 
 to be desired for the percentage of population 
 that secure a high school education should be 
 increased. 
 
 A recent report of the United States Com- 
 
PRINCIPLE OF ELECTION IN EDUCATION 53 
 
 missioner of Education shows that ahont seven 
 per cent of the students of the country are in 
 secondary schools. Just think of it, only seven 
 per cent! Surely something should be done to 
 attract more eighth grade graduates to the high 
 schools of our country. This can be done by 
 introducing the elective system into high schools 
 and to prove this statement let us refer to the 
 high school at Galesburg, Illinois. 
 
 **Two years after the introduction of the new 
 system, the school building had to be more than 
 doubled to accommodate the applicants for ad- 
 mission. Formerly one pupil out of eleven in 
 the lower grades entered the high school, two 
 years later, one out of five entered high school." 
 Many of the students would not have continued 
 in school had they not been permitted to elect a 
 course which seemed to them suited to their 
 needs. " 
 
 ''If we should admit that the studies that 
 these pupils selected did not do them as much 
 
 "See the History of the Galesburg Schools. In this 
 work the author, Dr. Steele, who is superintendent, shows 
 definitely and conclusively that the elective system increases 
 attendance. 
 
64 EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 
 
 good as some that might have been prescribed, 
 yet it must be conceded that these elective 
 studies did them more good than remaining out 
 of school entirely would have done,*' 
 
 Moreover, tlie elective plan has a good effect 
 on teachers. It gets students and teachers to- 
 gether who are vitally interested in the same 
 subject. In this way a teacher can see the 
 effect of his work. It also gives the scEool a; 
 chance to rid itself of inefficient teachers. Under 
 the prescribed plan pupils are forced to go to 
 teachers who are not interesting — ^teachers who 
 are teachers only in name — and often are in- 
 tolerant, sluggish and unprogressive. The 
 elective system tends to force such persons to 
 become better teachers or leave the profession. 
 
 We are now going to introduce an argument 
 which seems to be most essential It is this: 
 The elective system arouses the interest and 
 willingness of the student and fills him with en- 
 thusiasm to do better work. It also makes him 
 feel his responsibility as no other system can 
 do. If a person selects a certain study because 
 he likes the subject and the teacher, he studies 
 
PRINCIPLE OF ELECTION IN EDUCATION 65 
 
 harder and he desires to learn more than if 
 that study were prescribed. Furthermore, the 
 elective plan makes the student conscious of 
 what he is doing, trains him in independent 
 choice, and in this way makes him feel his own 
 individual responsibility. 
 
 The stock argument of the opponents of the 
 elective system, is that there are some students 
 who, from pure laziness, select only the easiest 
 studies and go through school with the very 
 easiest work possible. **But this is no new 
 thing, and it is not for such students that the 
 school exists. The school should not obstruct 
 the work of its earnest students to keep its 
 idlers and sneaks from wasting their useless 
 time.'' As Dr. Angell has said: *^No plan will 
 make the school career of lazy students bril- 
 liant. The work should be organized to meet 
 the needs of the earnest and aspiring, rather 
 than the infirmities and defects of the indolent/' 
 
 But, Dr. Jordan contends that most students, 
 as a matter of fact do not select the easiest 
 studies, as statistics certainly show. He says 
 further, **It is simple nonsense to call any 
 
56 EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 
 
 study easy, if pursued in a serious manner for 
 a serious purpose. If any subject draws to it- 
 self the idlers solely because it is easy, the fault 
 lies with the teacher. The success of the elec- 
 tive system, as of any other system, demands 
 the removal of inefficient teachers. The elective 
 system can never wholly succeed unless each 
 teacher has the power and the will to enforce 
 good work or to remove from his classes all 
 idle or inefficient students. The average course, 
 however, as chosen by the students themselves, 
 is as capable of serious defense as the average 
 established course evolved from the pulling and 
 hauling and patching and fitting of the average 
 faculty.''" 
 
 Dr. C. W. Eliot asks this pertinent question : 
 ^*What becomes of the careless, indifferent, 
 lazy boys who have no bent or ambition of any 
 sortf and answers it by saying: *^What be- 
 comes of such boys under the uniform com- 
 pulsory system?. . . It really does not make 
 much difference what these unawakened minds 
 
 " Dr. O. W. Eliot is of the same opinion. See his Educa- 
 tional Reform, p. 138. Century Co., New York, 1901. 
 
PRINCIPLE OF ELECTION IN EDUCATION 57 
 
 dawdle with. There is, however, much more 
 chance that such young men will get roused 
 from their lethargy under an elective system 
 than under a required."" 
 
 **But you may say: * Would you let a student 
 graduate ignorant of Chemistry, of Latin, of 
 Logic, of Botany?' '' *'Well, yes," says Dr. 
 Jordan, *4f superficiality in everything is the 
 alternative. It is well for a scholar to know 
 something of each of these and of each of the 
 subjects in the most extended curriculum. But 
 he purchases this knowledge too dearly if he 
 buys it at the expense of thoroughness in some 
 line of study in which a real interest has been 
 awakened." 
 
 Although those who advocate the almost 
 purely elective system seem to be able to meet 
 the arguments of their opponents, nevertheless, 
 it seems to me, it is not a question of '*free 
 election" or absolute "prescription," but it is 
 rather what studies should be chosen by each 
 student, for to-day it is recognized that each 
 person needs an education fitted to his indi- 
 
 ** Educational Reform, p. 140. 
 
68 EDUCATION DURING ADOLESENCE 
 
 vidual needs. If any studies should be pre- 
 scribed, should they not be in the field of the 
 humanities, rather than in the field of mathe- 
 matics and the classiest For instance, does it 
 not seem reasonable that all students should 
 be required to study, besides English, some of 
 the essential facts of the history of the world 
 from the earliest times to the present, and be- 
 sides, would it not be desirable to advise all 
 to study at least the elementary problems in 
 ethics, civics, hygiene, sociology, economics, and 
 psychology? 
 
CHAPTER IV: 
 
 CHANGES PEOPOSED IN SECONDARY EDUCATION 
 
 By an examination of some of the most pro- 
 gressive high schools of the United States, we 
 find that there is a tendency to provide not 
 merely for the vocational needs of their stu- 
 dents, but also for the civic, social and cultural 
 needs as well. And it is right that it should 
 be thus, for the aim of the modern high school 
 should be to provide instruction tending to 
 produce cultured, self-supi>orting, self-respect- 
 ing, efficient members of society. 
 
 But how is this to be done? Partly by a wise 
 selection of subject matter. Then the question 
 arises: What studies should be prescribed for 
 all students. The answer must be, the studies 
 that are recognized as supremely useful to all. 
 But what are the specific studies? 
 
60 EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 
 
 Constants 
 
 The required subjects should be English, 
 some phases of the history of civilization, and 
 modern civic and social problems, and the 
 
 Electives 
 
 i.e., the rest of the studies, will depend absolutely 
 upon the student's aptitudes, interests, needs 
 and aims in life. For instance, if the student 
 is reasonably sure that he will go to college, 
 normal, or technical school, his electives should 
 be chosen with this particular aim clearly in 
 view. If the student intends to go into busi- 
 ness, he should take the commercial course. If 
 he wishes to learn a trade, of course he will 
 select industrial subjects, and take some of his 
 work in a factory or in a shop as provided for 
 by the part-time schools. * If he does not know 
 what course to enter, the teachers should try 
 to discover the student's dominant interests 
 
 *The Fitchburg Plan. See H. Schneider, Partial Time 
 Trade Schools, Annals of Am. Acad, of Pol. & S.S., 1909, 
 Volume XXXIII, pp. 50-55. See also J. S. Taylor, Handbook 
 of Vocational Education, Macmillan Co., N. Y., 1914. 
 
CHANGES IN SECONDARY EDUCATION 61 
 
 and capabilities by means of short courses in 
 various subjects. 
 
 Although not exclusively, a large part of the 
 school time should be devoted to vocational 
 education or in discovering vocational aptitudes. 
 The vocational instruction, however, will not 
 crowd out the so-called cultural subjects. The 
 instruction will be both cultural and vocational. 
 But this is not all. It will develop social effi- 
 ciency. It will help all to be better citizens and 
 will aid each individual to enjoy life irrespec- 
 tive of vocation. 
 
 In the ideal high school the pupils, parents, 
 and teachers working together will select the 
 student's program. This is now done in 
 Boston and Seattle. There is no uniform 
 ** course" for all individuals, but each student's 
 nature, interests, and plans for the future are 
 fully recognized and the studies are selected 
 with these things in mind. The aim is to de- 
 velop the pupil's interests and aptitudes. The 
 largest liberty of choice is given to each student. 
 The teachers and parents advise, the students 
 choose, and the flexibility of the course makes 
 
62 EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 
 
 it possible for every individual, no matter what 
 his talent may be, to receive the proper educa- 
 tion and culture. 
 
 The ** General High Schools" of Boston and 
 the general courses of the Seattle High Schools 
 are especially adapted to the nature and needs 
 of adolescents. Aside from a very few re- 
 quired studies, each student's program depends 
 solely upon his dominant interests and capaci- 
 ties. The characteristic features are (1) the 
 limited elective system and (2) the flexibility 
 of the courses of study. The required studies — 
 English, Civics, and History — give some of the 
 knowledge and training every American citizen 
 should receive, while the electives give each in- 
 dividual an opportunity to discover and de- 
 velop his dominant interests, which simply 
 means each student has an opportunity to stress 
 the subjects that will be of use later and to 
 study problems closely related to our social, 
 civic, and industrial life. The program is 
 entirely flexible and offers numerous oppor- 
 tunities for a change of course as a student's 
 inclinations are modified or his tendencies are 
 
CHANGES IN SECONDARY EDUCATION 63 
 
 developed. Thus the individual is not made to 
 fit the education, but the education is made to 
 fit the individual. 
 
 Electives and Constants 
 
 It devolves upon the modem high school to 
 teach not merely those subjects that give ** cul- 
 ture" but it must give, as the Fitchburg schools 
 do, instruction that will lead the student to be- 
 come a self-supporting citizen in the com- 
 munity. 
 
 Appropriate vocational training will be pro- 
 vided to meet the capacities, interests and needs 
 of all classes of students. Aside from the re- 
 quired studies — English, the history of civiliza- 
 tion, and civic and social problems — all work 
 will depend absolutely upon the individual 
 student's natural aptitudes, capacities, inter- 
 ests, needs and aims in life. His interests and 
 capacities will, of course, largely determine his 
 needs or aims in life. 
 
 There are, it is true, many pupils in the high 
 school who are in the finding process, and who 
 
M EDUCATION DtJRING ADOLESCENCE 
 
 do not need or wish to select their future work. 
 It is highly desirable that there be providec" the 
 best possible instruction in subjects that are 
 likely to find the widest range of application 
 in adult life. The vocational instruction and 
 the elective studies together serve an excellent 
 purpose in enabling the student to discover his 
 tastes, ability, interests and in this way he is 
 able to **fiiid himself." 
 
 In having different courses for different 
 students as many high schools have, it is recog- 
 nized that what the Committee of Nine of the 
 iNational Education Association in 1911 said is 
 true, that **hard work is to be secured not by 
 insistence upon uniformity of tastes and in- 
 terests, but by the encouragement of special 
 effort along lines that appeal to the individ- 
 ual/'^ Dr. W. H. Burnham says that *Hhe 
 child's mind can no more give attention to the 
 absolutely uninteresting than the eye can per- 
 ceive the ultra-violet rays of the spectrum." 
 
 The work of the high school should be spent 
 mostly in developing dominant interests and 
 
 »Proc. N. E. A., 1911, p. 560. 
 
CHANGES IN SECONDARY EDUCATION 05 
 
 should stress instruction tending toward the 
 professional, industrial, business, or agricul- 
 tural career in which the student is most in- 
 terested. But the high school has another dis- 
 tinct function aside from the vocational. It 
 must be deeply concerned not only in prepar- 
 ing for a vocation, but it must do its best to give 
 some general culture and prepare for efficient 
 citizenship. 
 
 It is scarcely necessary to give the reasons 
 why all should study English, for I know of no 
 first-class high school anywhere that does not 
 require at least two or three years of every 
 student who is to graduate. And when I men- 
 tioned on page 60 that history too should be 
 required of all I was not stating a new view, 
 for this study is already prescribed in the 
 great majority of high schools throughout the 
 country.' 
 
 Although the study of modern civic and social 
 problems is not a required subject in every 
 secondary school, some of the most progressive 
 
 ■For justification of prescribing liistory we refer to 
 Chapter VII of this book. 
 
66 EDUCATION DUlirNG ADOLESCENCE 
 
 educators to-day think it should be. President 
 Nicholas M. Butler of Columbia University, 
 says: **The public education of a great demo- 
 cratic people has other aims to fulfill than the 
 extension of scientific knowledge or the develop- 
 ment of literary culture. It must prepare for 
 intelligent citizenship." He says further, **We 
 can leave questions as to the undulatory theory 
 of light and as to Grimm's and Verner 'slaws to 
 the specialist, but we may not do the same with 
 questions as to production and exchange, as to 
 monetary policy and taxation. The course of 
 study is not liberal, in this country, that does 
 not recognize these facts and emphasize eco- 
 nomics as it deserves." 
 
 We should bear in mind that most students 
 who enter high school never go to college, but 
 within a few years become voters and have all 
 the responsibilities of citizenship to discharge. 
 In view of these facts, it is essential that the 
 students should be required to study practical 
 problems pertaining to society and government. 
 They may not make great progress in the study 
 of modern problems, but a little knowledge may 
 
CHANGES IN SECONDARY EDUCATION 67 
 
 stimnlate them to acquire more, and it will cer- 
 tainly give them a deeper interest in the wel- 
 fare of their country and the well-being of their 
 fellow citizens. 
 
 American statesmen always have in the past 
 urged what many sociologists and educators 
 are to-day vigorously contending, that because 
 of our form of government, the people must 
 have knowledge concerning political affairs. 
 This contention is sound at present even more 
 so than it was in the past because of the wide- 
 spread adoption of the *' Initiative and Eefer- 
 endum. ' ' Direct legislation by the people needs 
 not only more political, but social and economic 
 knowledge. 
 
 If the people become legislators or law-makers 
 as they do under the Initiative and Eef erendum, 
 they must be enlightened in the practical 
 present-day problems pertaining to just legisla- 
 tion. It is absurd to think that it is possible to 
 give an intelligent decision upon the laws that 
 come before the people without social, political, 
 and economic knowledge. 
 
 In answer to this contention some maintain 
 
es EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 
 
 tHat the Initiative and Referendum may not be 
 adopted in all the states. But even if this should 
 be the ease, the argument is still forceful, as 
 these devices of government are already in full 
 operation in nearly all municipalities through- 
 out the country. Furthermore, such knowledge 
 is needed to know whether or not the platforms 
 of the various political parties are just, reason- 
 able and otherwise desirable. 
 
 In order for the student **to work" as Dr. 
 Hanus says, "for the continuous improvement 
 and happiness of his race, his nation, and his» 
 own immediate community'' the student must 
 have social knowledge ; he must have knowledge 
 concerning the actual conditions, he must study 
 the evils as well as the proposed remedies, and 
 these are some of the reasons why all should 
 study the social sciences. 
 
 We sincerely hope it will not be long before 
 the high schools everywhere will follow the ex- 
 ample of some of the secondary schools of the 
 Middle West which lay great stress on, not only 
 civic and social instruction, but on English 
 literature and English expression, and the 
 
CHANGES IN SECONDARY EDUCATION 69 
 
 history of civilization. This is ardently to be 
 desired, for an education must not only help to 
 make the individual self-supporting, but it must 
 give culture and prepare the student for social 
 service, and besides, it ought to train, as Dr. 
 Eliot says, **some permanent capacity for 
 productiveness or enjoyment and aid in the 
 development of character." 
 
 Some attention could be devoted to civic and 
 social questions along with the course in his- 
 tory, but perhaps to a greater extent could they 
 be emphasized in connection with the course in 
 English literature and English expression. In- 
 stead of reading all of the ''English Classics'' 
 now required, some books might be studied 
 dealing with the questions just mentioned. The 
 students in their English course might, for ex- 
 ample, study Towne's Social Problems or Ell- 
 wood's Sociology and Modern Social Problems. 
 Many books are appearing now like these which 
 deal with current problems in a practical and 
 interesting manner. Such work would vitalize 
 the high school English course, and in addition 
 it would give the students valuable information. 
 
70 EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 
 
 Since physical training is not one of the 
 formal studies, we did not include it in the 
 small group of constants. Nevertheless, we 
 believe it is extremely important for all, and 
 should be * ^fostered not merely by gymnastic 
 exercises and lectures on hygiene, but by a face 
 to face study of, and experience with, the con- 
 ditions of wholesome living,'' * and this is more 
 important than any one or all of the studies 
 mentioned as required, for **the acquisition of 
 knowledge may be deferred, but the demands 
 of physical development cannot wait." This 
 is in harmony with common sense and an 
 eminent authority'' who states further that 
 ''among the habits distinctly conducive to 
 health must be reckoned active interests in 
 nature, in outdoor sports, in varied forms of 
 artistic activity, iu social life, and social in- 
 stitutions.'' 
 
 Of course, we realize that in all knowledge 
 
 •David Snedden. 
 
 "This view is held by President HaU's most intimate 
 coUaborator, Dr. W. H. Burnham, in whom America has 
 a briUiant exponent of scientific mental hygiene. See his 
 contributions in Monroe's Cyclopedia of Education. Also 
 School Review, Dec, 1897, pp. 652-666. 
 
CHANGES IN SECONDARY EDUCATION 71 
 
 there is profit, and the wider the student's 
 learning the better prepared he will be to do 
 his best work, and that while the student must 
 consider first his actual and immediate voca- 
 tional needs, we should never lose sight of the 
 fact that he should strive to secure some general 
 culture, and become as nearly as possible so- 
 cially efficient. However, we should bear in 
 mind that the course of study will fulfill these 
 aims but imperfectly and that other knowledge 
 and other culture are desirable, not only in a 
 general way but also as bearing directly upon 
 his success in life. 
 
 Intelligent people everywhere recognize the 
 importance of personal culture and social effi- 
 ciency, but how are they to be attained! In 
 nearly every important meeting of high school 
 men this question is discussed: What studies 
 are best for these purposes? May the student 
 become cultured and socially efficient by study- 
 ing the foreign languages and mathematics, or 
 by receiving instruction in the branches having 
 a direct bearing on the conduct and problems 
 of life! Neither, it is generally conceded will 
 
72 EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 
 
 necessarily make a person cultured and socially 
 efficient, but according to a large and increas-* 
 ing number of eminent authorities, literature, 
 history, and modem civic and social problems 
 are undoubtedly some of the chief sources. 
 
 While the classics, other foreign languages, 
 and mathematics may be important to some 
 students for some purposes, personal culture 
 and social efficiency (which will, broadly speak- 
 ing, contribute, both directly and indirectly, to 
 the individual's vocational efficiency) may be 
 promoted better by developing a permanent in- 
 terest in reading the best literature and in 
 studying modern civic and social problems and 
 the essential facts of the history of civilization. 
 
 Dr. Chas. W. Eliot, who for forty years was 
 President of Harvard University, in his 
 monograph entitled Education for Efficiency 
 and The New Definition of the Cultivated Man, 
 after speaking of the increased importance of 
 character and the power of literary apprecia- 
 tion and expression says: **The next great ele- 
 ment in cultivation ... is acquaintance with 
 some part of the store of knowledge which hu- 
 
CHANGES IN SECONDiiRY EDUCATION 73 
 
 manity in its progress from barbarism has 
 acquired and laid up. This is the prodigous 
 store of recorded, rationalized, and systema- 
 tized discoveries, experiences, and ideas. . . . 
 It is too vast for any man to master, though 
 he had a hundred lives instead of one ; and its 
 growth in the nineteenth century was greater 
 than in all the thirty preceding centuries put 
 together. In the eighteenth century a diligent 
 student with quick powers of apprehension and 
 a strong memory need not have despaired of 
 mastering a large fraction of this store of 
 knowledge. Long before the end of the nine- 
 teenth century such a task had become impos- 
 sible. Culture, therefore, can no longer imply 
 a knowledge of everything — ^not even a little 
 knowledge of everything. It must be content 
 with general knowledge of some things, and a 
 real mastery of some small portion of the hu- 
 man store. Here is a profound modification of 
 the idea of cultivation which the nineteenth 
 century has brought about." 
 
 Dr. Eliot then asks this question: ''What 
 portion or portions of the infinite human stores 
 
n EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 
 
 are most proper to the cultivated manT' and 
 answers it by saying: ** Those which enable him, 
 with his individual personal qualities to deal 
 best and sympathize most with nature and with 
 other human beings. It is here that the pas- 
 sion for service must fuse with the passion for 
 knowledge." 
 
 Now does it not seem almost self evident that 
 the student who has acquainted himself with 
 English literature, the history of civilization, 
 and practical problems in civics, economics and 
 sociology, **has a better chance of fusing the 
 passion for knowledge with the passion for do- 
 ing good*' than the student who has neglected 
 these studies! 
 
 From the standpoint of social service, the 
 study of these branches equips the student, as 
 nothing else can, academically, for an active, 
 useful, earnest and profitable life, and anything 
 like a mastery of these studies brings with it 
 a high degree of culture, according to the defi- 
 nition formulated by Dr. Eliot. 
 
 To sum up: If a student expects to enter a 
 profession he should take studies bearing in 
 
CHANGES IN SECONDARY EDUCATION 75 
 
 some way on that particular profession, but in 
 addition he should study English literature and 
 expression, some phases of the history of civil- 
 ization, and at least a few practical problems 
 in sociology and government. 
 
 If the student is interested in agriculture and 
 intends to become a farmer obviously he should 
 take the agricultural course. But although he 
 intends to be a farmer he must assume the 
 ' duties of citizenship, and herein lies the reason 
 for studying the subjects I have just mentioned. 
 
 If the student intends to become a merchant 
 he should take the business or commercial 
 course; but he too should study the subjects 
 that are regarded as useful to all, for the 
 merchant like the farmer has to discharge the 
 duties of citizenship. 
 
 If the student in high school decides to learn 
 a trade, of course he will enter one of the in- 
 dustrial courses. So we might go on naming 
 courses, but the real point is simply this : The 
 course for each individual will depend exclu- 
 sively upon the student's interests, capabilities, 
 needs and aims in life. But no matter what 
 
^6 EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 
 
 his interests and capacities are ; no matter what 
 his needs and aims in life may be; no matter 
 what trade or profession he may enter; no mat- 
 ter what vocation he may pursue ; he must be- 
 come a self-respecting citizen; he must be 
 trained in the work of genuine citizenship ; and 
 herein lies the reason for requiring all to study 
 English literature and expression, the history 
 of civilization, and practical problems in 
 sociology and government. 
 
 It is evident that not only social efficiency or 
 citizenship, but also general culture demands 
 that instruction in these branches be required. 
 These subjects have cultural value in them- 
 selves and practical worth for life. The reason 
 why they should be taught to everybody is be- 
 cause they are supremely useful to everybody. 
 They will not only contribute to each citizen's 
 usefulness but also to each citizen's happiness 
 regardless of his probable vocation. These 
 studies prove their worth and justify them- 
 selves by their fruits. 
 
 Now let us state our general conclusion as 
 concisely as possible. In order to be self -sup- 
 
CHANGES IN SECONDARY EDUCATION 77 
 
 porting, each individual should take studies 
 bearing either directly or indirectly on some 
 trade, occupation, or profession. But no mat- 
 ter what vocation a student is to follow he must 
 become a citizen, and should be trained for 
 genuine citizenship, which necessitates active 
 participation in human affairs, and it is also 
 extremely desirable that he should secure some 
 ** general culture.'' Therefore every pupil, 
 sometime during the high school course, should 
 be required to pursue three studies and their 
 correlates, namely: (1) English literature and 
 English expression, (2) the essential facts of 
 the history of civilization, and (3) practical 
 problems pertaining to society and government. 
 Many other studies are desirable, interesting 
 and stimulating and what they should be will 
 depend solely upon the nature, interests and 
 capacities, needs and aims in life of each par- 
 ticular student, but the three required courses 
 just enumerated are absolutely essential, indis- 
 pensable to every cultured, socially efficient 
 citizen. The three studies were selected first, 
 with reference to the knowledge they will givej 
 
78 EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 
 
 and second, with reference to social eflSciency, 
 and tlie value of the culture their mastery will 
 bring. The constants will help to make the 
 student socially efficient and ** self-respecting" 
 while the electives will give the student a 
 chance to **find himself" and an opportunity 
 to stress vocational training if he so desires, 
 thus helping him to become vocationally efficient 
 and therefore ** self-supporting." 
 
CHAPTER V 
 
 REQUIRED SUBJEC5TS: THE SOCIAL STUDIES 
 
 The study of practical problems pertaining 
 to society^ and government will not only tend 
 to make one cultured, but will tend to make 
 one socially efficient. We admit that in all 
 knowledge there is some culture, but the culture 
 obtained in studying modern problems relating 
 to politics and sociology is of a kind which noth- 
 ing else can claim to give, while the practical 
 use of such a course is by no means small, even 
 if we confine the study to the elementary prob- 
 lems and measure the value by the strictest of 
 utilitarian rules. Besides, the study of sociology 
 and government will help one to get the most 
 out of life, not only by contributing to the en- 
 
 » See G. W. Bate, An Experiment in Teaching a Course In 
 Elementary Sociology. School Review, May, 1915. 
 
 79 
 
80 EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 
 
 joyment of leisure, but also by creating both 
 the desire and ability to share effectively in 
 making others better and happier. This study 
 will arouse one's interest, and will give one 
 insight into our municipal, state, and national 
 institutions, our political, industrial, commer- 
 cial and educational affairs. If presented in 
 the right way, it will help any person to work 
 better with his fellowmen for the continuous 
 improvement and happiness of his race, his na- 
 tion, and his own immediate community. There 
 are, then, two important things that work in 
 this field will do for the individual: (1) It 
 will help him to enjoy life and prepare him 
 for duty, and (2) it will give him a desire to 
 participate intelligently in the world's work 
 and to render genuine social service, and what 
 else can the study of society and government 
 give that can in any way compare with the 
 sincere desire to have even a small share in 
 solving some of the problems of civilization! 
 
 Dr. Hall * maintains that '*the one word now 
 written across the very zenith of the educa- 
 
 » Educational Problems, II, 667. 
 
REQUIRED SUBJECTS: SOCIAL STUDIES 81 
 
 tional skies, high above all others, is the word 
 service. This is coming to be, as it should be, 
 the supreme goal of all pedagogic endeavor, 
 the standard by which all other values are 
 measured. It includes the highest of all duties. 
 The individual is an end to himself only that 
 and in so far as he may be a means of helping 
 his fellow men. . . . We serve God best by 
 serving mankind. . . . We save our souls most 
 surely by saving our fellow beings to the best 
 that is possible in this life. ... It is those that 
 do most for the race that will shine as the stars 
 forever and ever. . . . This, indeed, is the new 
 religion of to-day, which lies concealed in the 
 old and is now standing forth revealed. The 
 hope of this new dispensation is the most preci- 
 ous of all the deepest and best aspirations of 
 the present, and its progressive realization is 
 the purpose of all modern reforms. Its begin- 
 ning in this direction in the field of education 
 is so full of the hope and promise of better 
 things. . . . that we cannot lose heart" in spite 
 of ineffective pedagogic agencies for teaching 
 practical problems in sociology and govern- 
 
82 EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 
 
 ment. **The civilized world is realiziog as 
 never before that all who live for themselves 
 live in vain. The very best thing the schools 
 are now beginning to do is to inculcate some 
 knowledge of, and sympathy with, the simple 
 duties of civic virtue, which is the prime re- 
 quisite of a good social order. But this is a 
 hard lesson and must be begun early and taught 
 late, in season and out of season. The cause 
 of civic righteousness is so vast and all-condi- 
 tioning, especially in a democracy, that it often 
 makes feeble and untrained minds fanatics who 
 discredit the very cause they would advance; 
 but we are slowly if surely leamiug temperance 
 and moderation and are finding the broad mid- 
 dle way of permanent progress. We are learn- 
 ing that, whether in history or romance, the 
 names that shine with the fairest and brightest 
 light and last longest are those that have done 
 most service. The great moments in great lives 
 are those when the supreme choice is to be made 
 between self and the welfare of others, and 
 the best criterion of supreme manhood and 
 yromanhood is when the latter prevails. More 
 
REQUIRED SUBJECTS: SOCIAL STUDIES 83 
 
 and more enlightened public opinion is coming 
 to distinguish between those who live for them- 
 selves and those who live and die by the gospel 
 of helpfulness. Measured and judged by this 
 criterion, many moral values are being trans- 
 valued. Some of the great and rich are re- 
 vealed as small and mean, while obscure and 
 poor lives shine with new glory. Here we have 
 the basis for a new order of nobility which all 
 may enter by merit. Indeed, without this new 
 spirit, knowledge itself may be a niggardly 
 I thing and a more refined form of self-indul- 
 gence. It must not be hoarded or stowed away 
 in tombs only, but dispensed and brought to 
 bear where it will do most good. ^ 
 
 "Many of our rich men are now diligently 
 and earnestly seeking new modes of public help- 
 fulness and finding new needs. Men and women 
 with leisure, strength, and youth are devoting 
 themselves to social welfare in numbers and 
 with an enthusiasm hitherto unknown, and we 
 need not go to France or Japan, where civic 
 virtue and patriotism have been deliberately 
 
 *G. S. HaU*s Educational Problems, Vol. II, p. 672. 
 
8f EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 
 
 made the only religion of the state, to find a 
 large and growing rich literature upon the new 
 duties of man to man. We are now happily 
 demanding more and better th ings of the 
 family, the school, the state, and the church 
 than they are now doing. . . . Public sentiment 
 is becoming wiser and better. We are testing 
 ourselves as well as our institutions by this 
 new touchstone of service. It is the modem 
 version of the judgment-day function. Its still 
 small voice is now murmuring in the ears of all 
 who can hear and it is asking each, 'What are 
 you doing to help the world, you, here, and now 
 to make those you come in contact with better 
 and happier! . . .* 
 
 **The basis of all education for citizenship 
 is to rectify and broaden the group spirit and 
 prevent its degeneration, to which the pathology 
 of the crowd shows it is so prone. Hoodlumism 
 should be set forth and kept down; social, civic, 
 and charitable institutions should be described 
 and visited if possible, as is indeed now done 
 in some places, even with the upi)er grammar 
 
REQUIRED STBJBCTS: SOCIAL STUDIES 
 
 . . Mimcipal leagues, 
 movements, junior republics, sdiool and gardes 
 cities, shonld be at least told of in the s^diool, 
 and boys espedaJty be sympatbetically tangjit 
 how their own mimicii>ality is governed, and no 
 longer leave school, in almost ntter ignoraaee 
 of the above things, for the life of the eom- 
 nnmity does not go throng the schooL . . . 
 Perhaps stress npon the machinery of govern- 
 ment, esi)ecially that of the nation, shonld be 
 mainly reserved for the high school, bnt here 
 at tiie very latest, this instmction shonld be 
 stressed and, if possible, be made the work of 
 the best teacher, perhaps the specialty of tiie 
 principal Here, too, the work of good govern- 
 ment cfaibs, civic leagues, and ^eir national 
 federation, the ethics of taxation, the obligation 
 and responsibilities of wealth, the duties of tiie 
 ballot, something about public works, epoA- 
 making bills, arbitration, conservation, pnblie 
 landgj administration, economy, basal principleB 
 of thrift, personal, domestic, city and national, 
 shonld be emphasized. Indeed, these things 
 
86 EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 
 
 should now be taught with ahnost religious, if 
 not Pentecostal fervor.''* 
 
 **Our schools were established to give an in- 
 telligent basis to government of, by and for 
 the people, and in civics we are restoring the 
 school to its prime original function, the need 
 of which has greatly increased by reason of the 
 growing complexity of governmental machin- 
 ery. ' ' Our voting public is changing continually, 
 due to the great forces existing iq our modem 
 cities. Our boys and girls must be fitted for 
 service in this complex life. '^The civic move- 
 ment would make every school and university 
 a solidarity of mutual helpfulness, would arouse 
 and capture the very greatest power for good 
 
 *G. S. Hairs Educational Problems, Vol. II, p. 678. 
 
 Nicholas M. Butler, President of Columbia University 
 in his book The Meaning of Education, p. 91 (Macmillan 
 Ck)., N. Y., 1904), makes this significant statement: "In a 
 democracy at least an education is a failure that does not 
 relate itself to the duties and opportunities of citizenship. 
 ... In society as it exists to-day the dominant note run- 
 ning through all of our struggles and problems, is economic, 
 what the old Greeks might have called political. Yet it 
 Is a constant fight to get any proper teaching from the 
 economic and social point of view put before high-school 
 and coUege students." 
 
EEQUIRED SUBJECTS: SOCIAL STUDIES 87 
 
 that exists in the world, which is the enthusiasm 
 of youth. Civics is a virile subject and appeals 
 most to boys and should always be taught by 
 public-spirited men. It should re-enlist the in- 
 terests of boys at the age when most now leave 
 school, in continuing it. Some contend that 
 themes of burning present zest should be ex- 
 cluded from the school because their lessons 
 cannot be given without partisanship; while 
 others maintain that both sides of every public 
 question might be stated impartially. It has been 
 found practical sometimes to have representa- 
 tives of both sides present their views to high 
 school students. Surely the school cannot be 
 a place where nothing of vital present concern 
 is taught. Citizenship is the only profession 
 which all young men should be trained for. 
 Teachers have frequently of late entered the 
 arena of politics for their own interests, why 
 should they not do so for those of their 
 pupils I'*' 
 
 Since social, economic, and political interests 
 
 • G. S. HaU's Educational Problems, Vol. II, p. 677. 
 
88 EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 
 
 now occupy the center of tlie stage * would the 
 state which supports the high school, ask too 
 much if it demanded that every high school 
 graduate know something of all, if not all of 
 any one, of such topics as the referendum, the 
 recall of officials, the primaries, the caucus, 
 direct nominations, court procedure; delays; 
 juries ; free legal as well as medical and religious 
 advice for the poor; public utilities and move- 
 ments ; the tariff, free food, and raw material ; 
 compulsion by warrants of all able-bodied citi- 
 zens to go to the polls to vote; the infamy of 
 getting everything possible from, and giving 
 nothing to the community ; the expenses of elec- 
 tions; gerrymandering versus laying political 
 districts by engineers; government by commis- 
 sion; taxation, its forms, land, direct, income, 
 etc. ; city, home rule ; parcels post, currency and 
 banking, trusts, stocks and bonds ; public health, 
 hygiene and its legislation, disease, child labor; 
 habeas corpus; a bureau for the purchase df 
 state supplies; creation of judges; garbage; 
 pawn, junk and rag shops; sweating; bill- 
 
 •G. G. HaU's Educational Problems, VoL II, p. 677. 
 
REQUIRED SUBJECTS; SOCIAL STUDIES 89 
 
 boards, and disfigurement by posters and 'ads'; 
 immigration and its regulation, property and 
 contracts; the problems of transportation; 
 municipal research, police systems; fire, acci- 
 dent, life and other forms of insurance? Here 
 we have a list of subjects which might be ex- 
 tended indefinitely. Since ignorance of such 
 themes makes voting hardly better than il- 
 literacy itself, may we not rightly ask: Are 
 the high schools giving the hundreds of thou- 
 sands of boys under their charge, whose educa- 
 tion will go no farther, a square deal if they 
 contribute nothing to make them better citizens 
 and do not touch this highest domain of ap- 
 plied morality? This time of civic awakening 
 constitutes a pedagogic opportunity too valu- 
 able to be lost. There is a new social conscious- 
 ness abroad, the sentiment of which is: each 
 for all and all for each. ^ 
 
 **The time will come when every unmarried 
 young lady of leisure will be ashamed to devote 
 all her time to the vanities of fashionable 
 society and selfish amusements, but will feel it 
 
 »G. S. HaU's Educational Problems, VoL II, p. 678. 
 
90 EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 
 
 incumbent upon her to do something for others, 
 to perhaps be a big sister to some one or more 
 young girls who need her ministrations. 
 Women's clubs, that now have in this country 
 over 700,000 members, will instruct themselves 
 in such topics as front door and window garden- 
 ing among the poor, better housing, etc. We 
 shall have many a 1915 or 1920 movement and 
 shall multiply social settlements. Good citizens 
 would be ashamed where there are city slums, 
 filthy back yards, cesspools or plague spots, 
 physical or moral, and will feel it a function 
 not only of the boards of trade, but of all busi- 
 ness leaders and other concerns to improve the 
 civic conditions. The leaders of industry and 
 commercial organizations are realizing that if 
 a city is to be great in business, it must be great 
 civically, as Pittsburg has realized in the no 
 less than fourteen new agencies that have been 
 established there to this end. This is the new 
 standpoint of the citizen of the twentieth cen- 
 tury, and intelligent public opinion and expert 
 service must carry on the work."® 
 
 •G. S. HaU's Educational Problems, Vol. II, p. 679. 
 
REQUIRED SUBJECTS: SOCIAL STUDIES 91 
 
 ** Conscience, current custom, and law often 
 constitute three very different standards hard 
 to harmonize on such problems unless it is pro- 
 foundly realized that the public welfare is the 
 supreme criterion. ^ ... If we understand how 
 most of the evils of our day come, not because 
 the people do not mean well and wish the best, 
 but because they are densely ignorant and do 
 not know it; if we realize that we live in a 
 civic renaissance when a new humanity and a 
 wider philanthropy are abroad; if we recog- 
 nize how flexible men and women must now be 
 up to the very end of their lives in order to 
 keep up with the times; if we would educate 
 the whole boy; then we must not allow him 
 to leave the high school uninoculated with at 
 least an attenuated culture of such things, 
 many if not most of them, and must give him 
 a little of the orientation that hints can often 
 implant forever at this plastic age. Teachers 
 could cull from popular magazines a series of 
 inspiring stories of the many cities which in 
 recent years have arisen in their might to sweep 
 
 •G. S. HaU's Educational Problems, Vol. II. p. 280. 
 
92 EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 
 
 away abuses, to clean up morally and physically, 
 could tell of some of the magnificent concerted 
 efforts which some large municipalities have 
 made to control and direct their own further 
 development along well-considered and unitary 
 plans that look toward architectural, transpor- 
 tational, aesthetic and ethical harmony by rally- 
 ing together of good men."^° 
 
 **The school is the training ship for the ship 
 of state and is freighted, like it, with all our 
 hopes and fears, and on the fate of one we 
 hang no less breathlessly than on the other. It 
 is chartered by the people and plies between 
 the river of childhood and the open sea of adult 
 life. It should not be idly moored in shallow 
 waters in some sheltered nook, but hoist anchor, 
 spread sail, and boldly venture out where the 
 tide and current buffet each other. It should 
 teach not mere ship discipline, but the art and 
 craft of sailing and this it cannot do without 
 braving at least some of the slighter dangers 
 of navigation in open seas. If the timorous 
 counsels of safeness constitute our only wisdom, 
 
 *G. S. HaU's Educational Problems, Vol. II, p. 681. 
 
REQUIRED SUBJECTS: SOCIAL STUDIES 93 
 
 then every topic on whieh there are vital dif- 
 ferences of opinion must be tabooed, and the 
 school loses its vitality. . . . Civics in the 
 above large sense must be the new religion of 
 the secular schools. The old religion gave but 
 the motive that created and, for centuries 
 dominated, education through all its grades. 
 ... In the new civics, however, we have the 
 best substitute, a philanthropic social religion. 
 . . . We seem to be at the dawn of a new 
 dispensation, imminent rather than trans- 
 cendent.''" 
 
 A Committee of the N. E. A. which made a 
 report relating to the social studies " believes 
 that the training of youth for citizenship must 
 include instruction in economic questions that 
 lie at the foundation of civic life. Emphasis is 
 given to economic topics in the outline for 
 "community civics" (see circular No. 5) and 
 
 »G. S. HaU's Educational Problems, Vol. II, p. 682. 
 
 " U. S. Bureau of Education, Civic Education, Series No. 
 6, Civic Education in Secondary Schools (Abstract of Re- 
 port of N. E. A. Committee on Social Studies continued 
 from Civic Education Series, No. 5). Survey of Vocations 
 and Economics. 
 
94 EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 
 
 opportunity is presented for much more tHan 
 is directly suggested in the outline. The com- 
 mittee favors something of specific vocational 
 bearing in the first year of the high school, and 
 suggests a ** survey of vocations." 
 
 **The committee has in mind (1) That the 
 economic well-being of the individual and of 
 the community is fundamental to good civic 
 life, and that the youth needs help in finding 
 a vocation for which he is fitted and by which 
 he can render a maximum of service. (2) That, 
 since every youth has an interest in the choice 
 of his vocation, it serves as an effective avenue 
 of approach to a study of the broader civil 
 relations, many of which are clearly illustrated 
 in industrial or economic life. ^* 
 
 In the fourth year the committee suggests a 
 course to unfold the broader principles of 
 economics further and more systematically 
 than can be done in earlier courses. The com- 
 mittee is not ready to make precise recommen- ' 
 dations as to its organization, or as to its 
 
 " Abstract of Report of N. E. A. Committee on the Social 
 Studies. 
 
REQUIRED SUBJECTS: SOCIAL STUDIES 95 
 
 articulation with the '* advanced civics'' of the 
 same year and with the other social studies. 
 The articulation should be as close and the 
 study as concrete as possible, with special em- 
 phasis upon the divisions of consumption and 
 production. H. R. Burch of the Manual Train- 
 ing High School of Philadelphia, and a member 
 of the committee says: 
 
 '*The high school work in economics should 
 center around concrete problems. For instance, 
 a discussion of the consumption of wealth can 
 readily be focused upon the cost of the neces- 
 saries of life; the relation between wages and 
 such costs ; the standard of living of groups of 
 people in the immediate neighborhood. Pupils 
 can analyze expenditures of their own families 
 to show the proportion devoted to food, rent, 
 clothing, etc. They may formulate the expen- 
 diture of $1500 a year for a family containing, 
 four children. 
 
 **0n the side of production the best concrete 
 material is that which relates to labor. Pupils 
 can ob'serve the characteristics of the labor in 
 a given section of the city, or in a given indus- 
 
96 EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 
 
 try. In almost any manufacturing center their 
 observations will lead directly into the prob- 
 lems of immigration, which is concrete and as 
 vital as any question connected with the modem 
 industrial system. 
 
 *' Another subject for concrete analysis is the 
 way in which labor is organized in different 
 industries, the proportion of men who are com- 
 mon laborers, the proportion of those who are 
 skilled, and the relation of these numbers to 
 the number of higher officials. Conservation 
 may be discussed in connection with the use 
 of natural resources. In almost any section of 
 the country pupils can observe the waste in 
 agricultural land and in manufacturing pro- 
 cesses. Constructive work may be done by 
 showing how these wastes are utilized through 
 conversion into forms commercially valuable. 
 
 **One of the most important developments 
 of the next ten years in the work of the public 
 schools will involve the closer correlation of 
 school work and the industrial and commercial 
 work of the districts in which the schools are 
 located. Newspaper and magazine reading will 
 
REQUIRED SUBJECTS: SOCIAL STUDIES 97 
 
 enable the students to take up some of the 
 larger phases of economic life. The trusts can 
 be studied; the tariff discussed. Labor legisla- 
 tion, pure food laws, and other forms of legis- 
 lative control of industry can be emphasized. 
 The social movements of the day form valuable 
 topics for class discussion." 
 
CHAPTER VI 
 
 BEQUIEED subjects: (CONTINUED) — ^ENGLISH 
 
 OuB efforts in regard to how to study and 
 how to teach English ** reminds us of the con- 
 dition of many Christians described by Dante 
 who strove by prayers to get nearer to God, 
 when in fact with every petition they were de- 
 parting farther from Him." According to G. 
 Stanley Hall, the present degeneration in the 
 command of the English language is due to four 
 causes, namely: (1) too much time is devoted 
 to foreign languages, (2) the study of litera- 
 ture and content is too often subordinated to 
 language study and mere form, (3) reading 
 and writing are too early substituted for hear- 
 ing and speaking, (4) the growing preponder- 
 ance of concrete words for designating things 
 of sense and physical acts over and against 
 
 98 
 
REQUIRED SUBJECTS: ENGLISH 99 
 
 higher elements of language which deal with 
 concepts, with ideals, and non-material things. 
 In this chapter we shall consider the first three 
 points. 
 
 First: One of the main reasons for poor 
 English in high school is because of the exces- 
 sive time given to other languages just at the 
 psychological period of greatest linguistic 
 plasticity and capacity for growth. Dr. Hall 
 aptly says, '*Very grave is the danger that the 
 idiomatic use of the mother tongue will be de- 
 stroyed by 'translation English.' '' A boy 
 pieces together into an English sentence, which 
 is as weird as it is literal, a series of definitions, 
 and tolerance of this style impairs his sentence 
 sense and fine feeling for his mother tongue. 
 He never learns to fuse the sense of it in a cru- 
 cible of his own intelligence and to recast it in 
 the most effective way which the genius of his 
 own tongue makes possible. It is a psychological 
 impossibility to pass through the apprentice- 
 ship stage of learning foreign languages at the 
 age when the vernacular is setting without 
 crippling it. 
 
100 EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 
 
 ** There is little educational value — ^and per- 
 haps it is de-educational — ^to learn to tell the 
 time of day or name a spade in several different 
 tongues or to learn to say the Lord's Prayer 
 in many different languages, any one of which 
 the Lord only can understand. Some declare 
 it a shame for a boy to excel in Latin composi- 
 tion and in the high schools of Sweden and Nor- 
 way it has been practically abandoned. Prime 
 regard is had for what pupils will need as self- 
 supporting, self-respecting, and efficient mem- 
 bers of society. As a result illiteracy is, in 
 Norway, a vanishing fraction of 1 per cent. 
 The extremes are the youth in ancient Greece 
 studying his own language only and the modern 
 high school boy dabbling in three or four 
 languages. '^ 
 
 Although Dr. Hall is opposed to Latin as a 
 required study in high school, nevertheless, he 
 believes profoundly in it both as a university 
 specialty and for all students who even ap- 
 proach mastery. It is for the vast numbers 
 who stop studying the subject in the early 
 stages of proficiency that he speaks ; to these it 
 
REQUIRED SUBjtedTS: * ^JNGli'SS* '^ ' '101 
 
 is disastrous to tlie vernacular. The psychology 
 of translation shows that it gives the novice 
 a consciousness of etymologies which rather 
 impedes than helps the free movement of the 
 mind. Dr. Jowett is of the same opinion. He 
 said in substance that it is almost impossible 
 to render either of the great dead languages 
 into English without compromise, and this 
 tends to injure the idiomatic mastery of one's 
 own tongue, which ^an be got only by much 
 hard experience in uttering our thoughts before 
 trying to shape the dead thoughts of others in 
 our language. We realize that this argument 
 is sound if we compare the evils of * translation 
 English' which not even the most competent 
 and laborious teaching can wholly prevent and 
 which careless mechanical instruction directly 
 fosters, with the vigorous fresh productions of 
 a boy or girl writing or speaking of something 
 of vital present interest. 
 
 Often the question is asked, '*Has not Latin 
 value merely as a * linguistic discipline?' " In 
 answering this question Dr. Conradi ^ says that 
 
 ' See article on Latin In the Ped. Sem. for March, 1905, 
 
102' • lEBtCA'MOr'DtfeilffG ADOLESCENCE 
 
 Latin is a linguistic discipline is true, any 
 language is, but whether it is the best, the most 
 fruitful linguistic discipline for the high school 
 student who knows only his mother tongue and 
 who will drop Latin as soon as, or before, his 
 high school course is ended, is a question that 
 should be seriously considered. 
 
 Says C. W. Eliot, '*It is a waste to society 
 and an outrage upon the individual to make 
 the boy spend the years when he is most teach- 
 able in a discipline the end of which he can 
 never reach when he might have spent them in 
 a different discipline, which would have been 
 rewarded by achievement. ^ Our literatures the 
 world over . . . are so rich, so full of thought, 
 feeling, and action, that there is no time to 
 waste . . . upon lifeless material, when we 
 may be occupying ourselves in those exercises 
 and for the same purpose of discipline, with 
 material that enriches the human mind and re- 
 fines and touches the human heart. Modern 
 
 by Dr. Edward Conradi, now President of Florida State 
 College. 
 
 »C. W. EUot, Educational Reform, p. 117, The Century 
 Co., 1901. 
 
REQUIRED SUBJECTS: ENGLISH 103 
 
 edncation in its adjustment is bringing the child 
 into its literary inheritance in a new spirit." 
 
 **The modern world has developed a culture 
 of its own. . . . The first question," says Dr. 
 N. M. Butler, **to be asked of any course of 
 study is, *Does it lead to a knowledge of our 
 contemporary civilization T If not, it is neither 
 efficient nor liberal." ** Culture," said 0. W. 
 Holmes, **in the form of fruitless knowledge, 
 I utterly abhor." 
 
 One of the chief reasons advanced for giving 
 Latin such a prominent place in the high school 
 is that the English vocabulary is so largely de- 
 rived from Latin. We have, it is true, many 
 words from the Latin directly, or through the 
 French. An exact estimate of the foreign ele- 
 ment in our language is impossible, but roughly 
 speaking, about two-fifths, according to one 
 authority* of the words found in the English 
 dictionary are derived from Latin. The con- 
 tributions of the Latin language to the English 
 are next in importance and amount to those of 
 
 •Dp. C. D. staples, A Critique of High School Latin. 
 Ped. Sem., Dec, 1912. 
 
104 EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 
 
 the Anglo-Saxon. It is interesting to note here 
 that 96 per cent of the words of Chapters, I, IV, 
 and XVII of the Gospel according to John, and 
 87 per cent of the words used by Longfellow in 
 writing Miles Standish are Anglo-Saxon. 
 
 When we consider the number of words de- 
 rived from Latin we naturally assume that the 
 study of Latin is very important to the high 
 school student, but when we learn that the * * 2000 
 Latin words studied in the high school do not 
 at all fairly represent the Latin element in 
 English speech," and especially when we learn 
 that **only 99 words out of the entire 2000 Latin 
 words studied in the complete four-year high 
 school course are worth studying because they 
 throw light and information upon English 
 words," * do we not modify our views in regard 
 to the importance of Latin as a required study 
 in high school. 
 
 We are coining and borrowing words every 
 day from foreign languages, but with all of its 
 borrowings English has remained true to itself 
 and no amount of study of Latin grammar can 
 
 *Dr. C. D. staples, A Critique of High School Latin, 
 Ped. Sem., Dec, 1912. 
 
REQUIRED SUBJECTS: ENGLISH 105 
 
 give US the force of living English idiom. The 
 structure of English is English. Latin and 
 Greek are ** incidents or accidents, not necessi- 
 ties'' of our mother tongue, in fact **no 
 language is a model for another.'' For the 
 ordinary boy or girl the inflections and conjuga- 
 tions of the foreign languages are ** simply a 
 millstone around the neck. ' ' Not ^ ' fossil gram- 
 mar, but living speech is a matter for education. ' ' 
 ** Latin has no more shaped the English tongue 
 than Rome has built the Saxon heart or made 
 the Saxon arm. English grammar is soundly 
 Anglo-Saxon run through the sieve of the mind 
 that never had a Latin bent."® 
 
 A few years' study of Latin in the high school \ 
 does not necessarily give one a command of ^ 
 an English vocabulary. '* Statistical studies 
 show that five hours a week for a year give 
 command of but a few hundred words, that two 
 years do not double this number, and that the 
 command of the language and its resources in 
 the original is almost never attained, but that 
 it is abandoned not only by the increasing per- 
 
 •Dr. Alexander F. Chamberlain. 
 
106 EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 
 
 centage who do not go to college, but also by 
 the increasing percentage who drop it forever 
 at the college door."' Latin is a language so 
 different from ours that it presents baffling diffi- 
 culties to the young beginner. Paulsen thinks 
 this difference is an obstacle which can be over- 
 come only by an exclusive sojourn for many 
 years in the world of antiquity. 
 
 Speaking of *Hhe acquisition of a competent 
 knowledge of English'' Dr. C. W. Eliot says: 
 ^* Indeed there is no subject in which competent 
 guidance and systematic instruction are of 
 greater value." He believes, however, that the 
 study of Latin is not an effective way to acquire 
 a '* competent knowledge of English."^ 
 
 Dr. Conradi® contends that we ought to let 
 the high school student study the English words 
 in their natural habitat as they live among 
 other words, in poetry and in prose, instead of 
 worshiping their ancestors. The history of 
 
 •Youth, p. 242. 
 
 »C. W. EUot, Educational Reform, pp. 99-100, Century 
 Co., 1901. 
 •Ped. Sem., March, 1905. 
 
BEQUIRED SUBJECTS: ENGLISH 107 
 
 a word has little meaning for him until he 
 knows the word in its present use, then and 
 then only can derivation have value. Suppose 
 a pupil knows the etymology of a word; sup- 
 pose he does know the Latin meaning of res 
 and puhlica; does that give him the meaning 
 of the word '^republican" as used to-day? 
 
 Moreover, says Dr. Conradi, must the student 
 worry through all the intricacies of Latin gram- 
 mar with its innumerable rules and countless 
 exceptions in order to know a little about the 
 meaning that the Romans attached to the word 
 virtue? Some of the noblest interpretations of 
 such words have been given by men and women 
 who never wrestled once, neither with a Latin 
 ablative nor with a Latin subjunctive. Is it 
 not of more importance that the pupils should 
 know the force of a word in current use? 
 
 The roots that the student finds by the long 
 and wearisome Latin road are often not ap- 
 preciated because of the company in which they 
 are found. Moreover, language did not begin 
 with Latin nor was it created in any other 
 
108 EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 
 
 period of the past. It is being created now 
 as well as in the past ages. It is ever changing; 
 and this living, ever-creating activity is of vital 
 importance and not the burnt cinders of ages 
 past. Whatever value they may have, they do 
 not represent our language. 
 
 ** Language as used on the platform, and in 
 the pulpit, by the common laborer, and by the 
 press, as used by the writers and singers of 
 this age . . . when intellect is at white heat, 
 and passion in its every throe . . . that repre- 
 sents the language of to-day. Such language 
 studied in the height of its activity gives the 
 true meaning of words. Whether the word was 
 borrowed from Latin, from Greek, from He- 
 brew, or Choctaw, it now is English, and as 
 English we study it; the etymology is a sec- 
 ondary matter. This idea was recognized by 
 the makers of the Standard Dictionary when 
 they placed the etymology after the definition. ' ' " 
 
 Second: Another reason for poor results in 
 English is that too often literature and content 
 are subordinated to language work. The 
 
 •Dr. A. F. Chamberlain. 
 
REQUIRED SUBJECTS: ENGLISH 109 
 
 feachers of English are often critical rather 
 than creative, Dr. Hall asserts. They prefer 
 the minute and careful reading of a few master- 
 pieces to a wide general knowledge, whereas 
 the way to teach language, he contends, is to 
 focus the mind upon story, history, oratory, 
 drama, Bible, for their esthetic, mental and 
 above all their moral content. And it is this 
 wide, sympathetic, general knowledge that the 
 youthful mind chiefly seeks. 
 
 "Oral and written vents for interests so in- 
 tense that they must be told and shared, are 
 what teach us how to command the resources 
 of our mother tongue. The prescriptions and 
 corrections and consciousness of the manifold 
 ways of error are never so peculiarly likely to 
 hinder rather than to help as in early adoles- 
 cence, when the soul has a new content, and a 
 new sense for it, and so abhors and is so in- 
 capable of precision and propriety of diction. '^® 
 
 **We see its results in the ultra-fastidious 
 effusions of many writers for college journals, 
 whose art culminates in the over-refined elabor- 
 
 » Youth, p. 245. 
 
UO EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 
 
 ation of some petty trifle, all form and no con- 
 tent.*^ . . . Some want everything done in a 
 minute and exact way. How different all this 
 from the standpoint of those who believe in 
 consulting human nature and needs." . . . The 
 graces of speech and reading aloud and story 
 telling are too often subordinated."" 
 1 Teachers must guide, incite, provide, pre- 
 scribe, allure by story, reading lists, display of 
 books, and by reading aloud, says Dr. Hall. 
 Moreover, he declares, **The current detailed 
 study of a few standard texts I believe to be 
 often pernicious. To be intensive, reading 
 must be extensive and rapid enough to sustain 
 interest to the end. There should always be a 
 glow and heat about it. Form is best impressed 
 by eager zest in the subject matter which should 
 always lead. Eeading for philological or 
 rhetorical study of texts is for pretty mature 
 men and women and not for youth and still 
 less for children." 
 
 »G. S. HaU, School Review, Dec, 1901, p. 658. 
 "Ibid., p. 658. 
 "Ibid., p. 659. 
 
REQUIRED SUBJECTS: ENGLISH 111 
 
 ** School pressure should not suppress the in- 
 stinct of omnivorous reading, which at this age 
 sometimes prompts the resolve to read ency- 
 clopedias, and even libraries, or to sample every- 
 thing to be found in books at home. Along 
 with, but never suppressing it, there should be 
 some stated reading, but this should lay down 
 only kinds of reading or offer a goodly number 
 of alternative groups of books and authors and 
 permit wide liberty of choice to both teacher 
 and pupil. Few triumphs of the uniformi- 
 tarians, who sacrifice individual needs to 
 mechanical convenience in dealing with youth 
 in masses, have been so sad as marking off and 
 standardizing a definite quantum of knowledge 
 in this great field. The wide acceptance of re- 
 quirement books and authors mark a pedagogic 
 decadence as one of the most disastrous tri- 
 umphs of mechanism and convenience over 
 mental needs.'* ^* 
 
 When the public high school really becomes, 
 as it surely will, the people's college, permeated 
 with ideals of fitting for life, which is very 
 
 "G. S. HaU, School Review, Dec, 1901, p. 660. 
 
U2 EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 
 
 different from fitting for college, then secondary 
 education will become truly democratic; it will 
 have plenty of local color and fitting for college 
 will become, as Dr. Jordan well says it should 
 be, a mere incident. The public high school will 
 say to the college, * Fitting is not our chief busi- 
 ness; you are not our pacemaker; our business 
 is to do the best we can for the youth at this 
 stage ; take our finished product or leave it, but 
 if either of us bend, it must be the college.' 
 
 **Eeading for style or even with chief atten- 
 tion to it is for young students an affectation. 
 I would have at least half a dozen plays of 
 Shakespeare in the same time now usually de- 
 voted to one. To study Ivanhoe, instead of 
 passing on to the other of Scott's novels after 
 having once read it, is working with dulled tools. 
 Did this critical study of one of anyone's works 
 ever prompt the student to read another by the 
 same author!'' 
 
 The time for critical reading has not yet come, 
 and that for philology is still farther ahead. 
 The best thing youth gets from literature is 
 not linguistic and is not examinable; content 
 
REQUIEED SUBJECTS: ENGLISH 113 
 
 shonld be forever uppermost, for only then can 
 the other culture effects here sought be attained. 
 
 **The psycho-genetic theory gives a new and 
 higher psychology and pedagogy of reading not 
 yet worked out in detail, but the outlines of 
 which can already be roughly indicated some- 
 what as follows: Its supreme function is not 
 utilitarian, or to help us in all vocational bread- 
 winning activities in life, important as this is, 
 but it is humanistic, cultural, liberal. It should 
 aim to give vent to all possibilities of the soul, 
 most of which otherwise slumber through life 
 and perhaps atrophy." . o • A book, or some- 
 times an article, at the right moment has often 
 changed the current of a whole lifetime."^® 
 
 '*The chief thing and the best I got from 
 my college course,'' says Dr. Hall, **was due 
 to a series of reading fevers, stimulated by a 
 group of nine classmates called the Junto, who 
 met weekly to pool the results of their reading. 
 There was almost no class of English literature 
 that we did not sample . . . and the farther we 
 
 « Educational Problems, II, p. 482. 
 ••Ibid., p. 483. 
 
/ 
 
 114 EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 
 
 got from the curriculum the better work we did 
 and the more we knew. ... I never could pass 
 an examination on any one of all these works 
 as examinations now go, nor scores and perhaps 
 hundreds of others that have flown lightly 
 through my mind as diversions any more than 
 I could on all the plays I have seen in the 
 theater, but I would not exchange this habit of 
 desultory reading in a field outside my specialty 
 for the schoolbred habit of accurate and pains- 
 taking familiarity with a few things such as 
 professors of literature inculcate, for this would 
 greatly slow down my pace and cool my ardor. ' ' 
 Dr. C. W. Eliot says, '*From the total train- 
 ing during childhood there should result in the 
 child a taste for interesting and improving 
 reading, which should direct and inspire its sub- 
 sequent intellectual life. . . . Guided and ani- 
 mated by this impulse to acquire knowledge, the 
 individual will continue to educate himself all 
 through life. .Without that deep-rooted impul- 
 sion he will soon cease to draw on the accu- 
 mulated wisdom of the past and the new 
 resources of the present; and as he grows older, 
 
REQUIRED SUBJECTS: ENGLISH 115 
 
 he will live in a mental atmosphere which is 
 always growing thinner and emptier. ... Do 
 we not all know many people who seem to live 
 in a mental vacuum — ^to whom, indeed, we have 
 great difficulty in attributing immortality, be- 
 cause they apparently have so little life except 
 that of the body? The uplifting of the demo- 
 cratic masses depends on this implanting at 
 school of the taste for good reading." 
 
 The pupils should write themes occasionally, ! 
 but they should never be compelled to say any- 1 
 thing unless they have something to say. In 
 order to write well, they must have something 
 definite in mind that presses for utterance: 
 ideas to set forth, knowledge to impart, feelings 
 to utter, convictions to state, experiences to 
 describe, facts or thoughts to put down, other- 
 wise literary efforts are but verbiage. When- 
 ever children speak and especially write with- 
 out a very real and urgent content, they are 
 demoralized and their education is anti-social. 
 The habit of utterance without having some- 
 thing that presses for expression undermines 
 
116 EDUCATIOIT DURING ADOLESCENCE 
 
 tlie foundation of honesty between man and 
 man, and loosens the social bond. " 
 
 *'If the pupils read, it must be what absorbs 
 and carries them along, be what their curiosity 
 burns to know. They must be impelled by 
 some strong interests and impulses character- 
 istic of youth. If there are plenty of these 
 things the big P's of the rhetorics — purity, 
 precision and propriety — come of themselves 
 untaught or are inculcated by the method that 
 suffices for genius, whether in teacher or taught 
 — Yiz,, that of hints. Some familiarity with the 
 best contemporary writers whose pages hum 
 with the problems of the present and that strike 
 home by their inherent appeal and to approach 
 which it is not necessary to waste half of the 
 energies of the teacher in getting and keeping 
 up interest, gives a culture which is not a sickly 
 cellar plant and which does not desiccate when 
 school is abandoned."^® 
 
 In his *' Educational Problems'' Dr. Hall 
 makes a strong plea for the study of contem- 
 
 "G. S.Han. 
 
 "Ibid. 
 
REQUIRED SUBJECTS; ENGLISH 117 
 
 porary writers and modes of expression. He 
 says, **A3 for Burke, Macaulay, Addison, now 
 so often required, their language and style 
 would not be tolerated in Congress, in a modern 
 historical society, nor in a history journal. . . . 
 Youth has its own lingua franca, crispy, con- 
 densed, pointed, picturesque, staccato, and its 
 nature and needs fit the ponderous Latin style 
 of the above English authors as Saul's armor 
 fitted young David. As for Scott, he should 
 be read rapidly as romance and not studied in 
 a detailed way as literature." 
 
 Dr. David Snedden is of the same opinion as 
 Dr. Hall for he says in a recent contribution, 
 ** Certainly the possibilities of literature teach- 
 ing are very great. Should not the teachers 
 see that the material chosen and the methods 
 of presentation are such as will bring the 
 children to a better appreciation of the litera- 
 ture and reading by which they will be sur- 
 rounded later in life and leave them in a con- 
 dition to demand the slightly better rather than 
 the slightly worse? Should not the teacher deal 
 much with the best of our current magazines 
 
118 EDUCATION 'DURING ADOLESCENCE 
 
 and newspapers? Should he hold aloof from 
 the current fiction, in view of the certainty that 
 it will form the staple reading after these boys 
 and girls leave school? This is no defense of 
 the poor and cheap in literature or art; it is 
 simply a statement of the now accepted peda- 
 gogical truth that education proceeds most 
 effectively by utilizing the best materials of the 
 environment, in such a way as best to fit the 
 pupil for the environment in which he will spend 
 his adult life.'' 
 
 One of the most important of all educational 
 services of the near future is to re-write and 
 re-edit" all the world's great literatures upon 
 all themes ; for the student, is to-day confronted 
 by a mass of literature and must read for dear 
 life or he is swamped. . . . For the most alert, 
 the function of judicious epitomes, reviews, 
 year-books, etc., is increasingly necessary. 
 Every scientific journal should stress the de- 
 velopment of resumes of both books and articles, 
 and indeed owes a duty if not its very raison 
 d'etre largely in this direction. As it is, there 
 
 » Genetic Philosophy of Education, p. 233. 
 
REQUIRED SUBJECTS: ENGLISH 119 
 
 is mucli wastage of work done over and over 
 again by those who did not know that others 
 before them had covered their ground and 
 reached their own conclusions.^^ In Germany 
 **many careful digests of great standard works 
 have been made embodying salient phrases and 
 quotations from the original, epic and lyric 
 poetry, exploration, adventure, biography, and 
 even jests and humorous tales, which must be 
 read as part of the course in literature with 
 a little of it studied in detail and memorized 
 — all this marks a new and important step 
 toward the practical solution of the great prob- 
 lem of language and literature in secondary 
 education."" 
 
 Third: We might get better results in our 
 English work if reading and writing were not 
 too early substituted for hearing and speaking. 
 **It is hard and, in the history of the race, a 
 late change to receive language through the eye 
 which reads instead of through the ear which 
 hears.^^ . . . The invention of letters is a 
 
 * Educational Problems, Ii; pp. 48t>-487. 
 " G. S. Hall, Ped. Sem., Mar., 1902, p. 101. 
 "Youth, p. 246. 
 
120 EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 
 
 novelty in the history of the race that spoke for 
 countless ages before it wrote. . . . The book 
 is dead and more or less impersonal, best ap- 
 prehended in solitude, its matter more intel- 
 lectualized; it deals in remoter second-hand 
 knowledge so that Plato reproached Aristotle 
 as a reader, one removed from the first spon- 
 taneous source of original impression and 
 ideas; the doughty medieval knights scorned 
 reading as a mere clerk's trick, not wishing to 
 muddle their wits with other people's ideas 
 when their own were good enough for 
 them. . . ." 
 
 **The printed page must not be too suddenly 
 or too early thrust between the child and life. 
 The plea is for more oral and objective work, 
 more stories, narratives, and even vivid read- 
 ings, as is now done statedly in more than a 
 dozen of the public libraries of the country, 
 not so often by teachers as by librarians, all 
 to the end that the ear, the chief receptacle of 
 language, be maintained in its dominance, that 
 the fine sense of sound, rhythm, cadence, pro- 
 nunciation, and speech-music generally be not 
 
REQUIRED SUBJECTS: ENGLISH 121 
 
 atrophied, that the eye which normally ranges 
 freely from far to near be not injured by the 
 confined treadmill and zig-zag of the printed 
 page.''"" 
 
 ** Closely connected with this, and perhaps 
 psychologically worse, is the substitution of the 
 pen and the scribbling fingers for the mouth 
 and tongue. Speech is directly to and from the 
 soul. Writing, the deliberation of which fits 
 age better than youth, slows down its im- 
 petuosity many fold, and is in every way 
 farther removed from vocal utterance than is 
 the eye from the ear. Never have there been 
 so many pencils, and such excessive scribbling 
 as in the calamopapyrus ^* pedagogy of to-day 
 and in this country. Not only has the daily 
 theme spread as an infection, but the daily les- 
 son is now extracted through the point of a 
 pencil instead of from the mouth." ^^ 
 
 **0f course the pupils must write, and write 
 well, just as they must read, and read much; 
 
 »G. S. HaU, Youth, p. 247. 
 
 *• Pen-paper. 
 
 » G. S. HaU, Youth, p. 247, 
 
122 EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 
 
 but English suffers from insisting upon this 
 double long circuit too early and cultivating it 
 to excess; it devitalizes school language and 
 makes it a little unreal, like other affectations 
 of adult ways, so that on escaping from its 
 thraldom the child and youth slump back to the 
 language of the street as never before.'' ^® 
 
 **This is a false application of the principle 
 of learning to do by doing. The young do not 
 learn to write by writing, but by reading and 
 hearing. For the young the spoken should 
 have constant precedence over written words. 
 Language does its social function best in free 
 conversation between pupils and teacher, pro- 
 vided, only the topics and methods are well 
 chosen, and the teacher's mind is full to over- 
 flowing. Nothing so sharpens the mind and 
 quickens thought as seeking and finding facts 
 and truths in common. To become a good 
 writer one must read, feel, think, experience, 
 until he has something to say that others want 
 to hear. The golden age of French Literature, 
 as Gaston Deschamps and Brunetiere have 
 
 »Cf. G. S. HaU, School Review, Dec, 1901, p. 659. 
 
REQUIRED SUBJECTS: ENGLISH 123 
 
 lately told us, was that of the salon, when con- 
 versation dominated letters, set fashions, and 
 made the charm of French style. Its lowest 
 ebb was when bookishness led and people began 
 to talk as they wrote. The best literature is 
 fashioned on the best conversation, while if 
 talk becomes bookish, it loses vitality." ^^ 
 
 « G. S. HaU. 
 
CHAPTER Vn 
 
 EBQUIEED subjects: (CONTINUED) — ^HISTOBY 
 
 Why should all students be required to study 
 at least some phases of history from prehistoric 
 times to the present? What is the value or 
 the purpose of history! What can and should 
 it do for the student! What phases of history 
 should be emphasized and, finally, what methods 
 should be employed in teaching the subject! 
 We shall discuss these questions in the order 
 stated. 
 
 L THE VALUE OF HISTORY 
 
 The study of history is valuable because of 
 the knowledge gained, and especially so if the 
 essential facts of selected subjects are empha- 
 sized. And this some contend is the funda- 
 
 124 
 
REQUIRED SUBJECTS: HISTORY 125 
 
 mental purpose. We are told that in addition 
 to getting a general view of universal history 
 we ought to emphasize certain *' mountain 
 peaks'' — ^we ought to form, if possible, an ade- 
 quate conception of the most notable things 
 done by the human race. But **what for" it 
 may be asked. Surely the study of history is 
 not merely to know what has happened and 
 what man has accomplished in all fields of 
 human endeavor, although this is highly desir- 
 able. Truth for truth's sake, or history for 
 history's sake is important. We get consider- 
 able pleasure just in knowing facts and know- 
 ing that we know. But we cannot stop here. 
 Kjiowledge must be applied. 
 
 Educators who believe in the new pedagogy 
 contend, and you have heard the statement over 
 and over again, that the study of the past helps 
 us to sympathize with, to explain and to appre- 
 ciate the present, and aids in solving contem- 
 porary problems pertaining to sociology, 
 economics, and government. By learning of 
 the successes and triumphs of the past in these 
 fields of knowledge, we may profit by them, and 
 
126 EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 
 
 by learning of the mistakes and failures, we 
 may avoid them. Dr. Jordan tells a story in 
 one of his books ^ about a ** Chinese emperor 
 who decreed that he was to be first; that all 
 history was to begin with him, and that nothing 
 was to be before him. But we cannot enforce 
 such a decree.'' For, says Dr. Jordan, **We 
 are not emperors of China. The world's work 
 and the world's experience does not begin with 
 us. We must know the paths our predecessors 
 have trodden, if we would tread them farther; 
 we must stand upon their shoulders — dwarfs 
 upon the shoulders of giants — if we would look 
 farther into the future than they. . . . Science, 
 philosophy, statesmanship, cannot for a mo- 
 ment let go of the past. The present we know, 
 but we can know it thoroughly only in the light 
 of the past. What has been must determine 
 what is, and the present is bound to the past 
 by unchanging law." 
 
 ** Assuming that good citizenship and pa- 
 triotism are the religion of the public school, 
 should it not be our prime object to make in- 
 
 ■D. S. Jordan, Care and Culture of Men, pp. 4-5. 
 
REQUIRED SUBJECTS: HISTORY 127 
 
 telligent citizen voters, and lay the first stress 
 upon duties to the state and society!"^ Can 
 this not be done through the study of history! 
 The view that history should prepare students 
 for citizenship **is greatly emphasized by the 
 modern interest in sociology and the need of 
 amelioration and reform and immensely re-en- 
 forced by the needs of modem political and 
 social life. ' ' ^ 
 
 ** Granted that history should give a growing 
 self knowledge in the present living progressive 
 age, can we truly fit for this except by living 
 through all the important stages of the past and 
 repeating each significant step by which the 
 present was reached? . . . Indeed, is not fitting 
 for life in the present, the best way of fit- 
 ting for life in the ever larger future T' 
 
 But this is not all. Besides giving the stu- 
 dent knowledge of facts and aiding him to see 
 the value of the past in explaining the present, 
 and helping him to solve the contemporary 
 problems, thus making him a better citizen, his- 
 
 «G. S. HaU, Educational Problems, II, p. 285. 
 •Ibid. p. 285. 
 
128 EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 
 
 tory teaches the student **to think historically 
 and helps him to acquire the habit of seeing all 
 events in temporal perspective * as products of 
 growth and development.'' '^ It shows him how 
 the law of cause and effect works in human 
 affairs. Even if the student is unable to re- 
 member many historical facts, he nevertheless 
 ** comes to see that one thing leads to another; 
 he begins quite unconsciously to see that events 
 do not simply succeed each other in time, but 
 that one grows out of another, or rather out 
 of a combination of many others. He thus ac- 
 quires some power of seeing relationships and 
 detecting analogies."® 
 
 Again, courses in history tend to establish 
 habits of correct thinking and sound methods 
 of study. And this is just as important as the 
 accumulation of information. '*In the ordinary 
 class room, both in science and mathematics, 
 there is little opportunity for discussion, for 
 
 • Of. Professor Leroy F. Jackson's article, "A Single Aim 
 in History Teaching" in History Teacher's Magazine, Oct., 
 1914. 
 
 "G. S. Hall, Educational Problems, II, p. 285. 
 
 •Report of Committee of Seven, pp. 21-22. 
 
REQUIRED SUBJECTS: HISTORY 120 
 
 differences of opinion, for balancing of prob- 
 abilities; and yet in every day life we do not 
 deal with mathematical demonstrations, or con- 
 cern ourselves with scientific observations; we 
 reach conclusions, some of them in apparent 
 conjQiict with one another, and none of them sus- 
 ceptible of exact measurement and determina- 
 tion/'^ 
 
 Courses in history not only **give training 
 in acquiring facts, but in arranging and sys- 
 tematizing them and putting them forth as an 
 individual product. ... By means of the or- 
 dinary oral recitation if properly conducted, 
 the student may be taught to express himself 
 in well chosen words. In the study of foreign 
 language, he learns words and sees distinctions 
 in their meanings; in the study of science, he 
 learns to speak with technical exactness and 
 care; in the study of history, while he must 
 speak truthfully and accurately, he must seek 
 to find apt words of his own with which to 
 describe past conditions and to clothe his ideas 
 in a broad field of work which has no tech- 
 
 » Report of Committee of Seven, p. 22. 
 
130 EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 
 
 nical method of expression and no peculiar 
 phraseology."* 
 
 All recognize the fact that the ability to 
 gather ** information is important, and this 
 ability the study of history cultivates,'' but the 
 ability to use information *4s of greater im- 
 portance,'' and this ability too is developed by 
 historical work. If a student is taught **to get 
 ideas and facts from various books, and to put 
 these ideas and facts together into a new form, 
 his ability to make use of knowledge is in- 
 creased and strengthened. . . . He develops 
 capacity for effective work, not capacity for 
 absorption alone. History is also helpful in 
 developing what is sometimes called the scien- 
 tific habit of mind and thought. In a sense this 
 may mean the habit of thorough investigation 
 for one's self of all sources of information be- 
 fore one reaches conclusions or expresses de- 
 cided opinions."^ Although the student must 
 accept the work of others, the scientific spirit 
 gained through the study of history will lead 
 
 •Report of the Committee of Seven, p. 26. 
 •Ibid., p. 23. 
 
REQUIRED SUBJECTS: HISTORY 131 
 
 him to study and examine many accounts and 
 cause him to think long and hard on the subject 
 under consideration before he positively asserts. 
 In connection with this, a suggestion to the 
 teacher might be added. He should point out 
 the advantage of approaching every question 
 without prejudice, and he should have the stu- 
 dent learn tiiat **open mindedness, candor, 
 honesty, are requisites" for the attainment of 
 exact knowledge/® 
 
 In view of these facts, a few authorities main- 
 tain, and I believe they are right, that history 
 supplies a kind of intellectual training that can 
 be secured in but few other ways. In accumu- 
 lating ideas, facts and illustrations from his- 
 tory, by reading good collateral books and by 
 constant efforts to re-create the real past and 
 make it live again, the student enlarges his 
 mind, cultivates his perception, stimulates and 
 exercises his imagination, strengthens his mem- 
 ory, and trains his judgment. The student must 
 weigh evidence, draw inferences, make com- 
 parisons, invent solutions, and form judg- 
 
 " Report of the Committee of Seven, p. 24. 
 
132 EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 
 
 ments." He is thus trained in logical and 
 philosophical reasoning. 
 
 Again the study of history trains in the use 
 of books. It aids the student in learning how 
 and where to find information. There is, per- 
 haps, no study which offers such opportuni- 
 ties as history does for gaining facility in using 
 books and in securing desired material, and 
 this is a highly important result of historical 
 study, for no man can be considered educated 
 unless he knows how and where to find informa- 
 tion. In fact, **the inability to discover what 
 a book contains or where information may be 
 found, is one of the common failings of the un- 
 schooled and untrained man." " 
 
 Furthermore, history, if presented in the 
 right way, will inspire the student. He will 
 
 "If this be the value of history, much responsibility 
 rests upon the teacher. The problem is to get the student 
 **to weigh evidence, draw accurate inferences, make fair 
 comparisons, invent solutions and form judgments;" this 
 Is the serious problem in teaching history as it is in all 
 education for efficiency according to Dr. Eliot. (O. W. 
 Eliot's Education for Efficiency and the New Definition of 
 the Cultivated Man, p. 18, Houghton Mifflin Co., New York, 
 1909.) 
 
 "Report of the Committee of Seven, p. 25. 
 
REQUIRED SUBJECTS: HISTORY 133 
 
 desire to go farther — to see and explore new 
 fields; thus the habit of research and a taste 
 for good reading will be cultivated. This aim, 
 however, is not fulfilled at present, for too 
 much time is devoted to '* lesson setting and 
 hearing'' and there is **too much examination 
 of the memory which always makes learning 
 superficial. . . . Precious time is lost in hear- 
 ing recitations which should be given to inspir- 
 ing and suggesting.''" If the student is 
 compelled to make a minute analysis of the text 
 and required to memorize much of it, he has 
 little time for supplementary reading. Even 
 when this method is not followed and when the 
 student has time for collateral reading, often 
 it is not suited to his interests and capacities. 
 Books on the lives of great men and women 
 should be studied diligently. If we are to es- 
 tablish the habit of research and cultivate a 
 taste for good reading, we must allow the stu- 
 dent more freedom in selecting his collateral 
 reading and encourage him to relate the events 
 
 "G. E. Partridge, Genetic Pliilosophy of Education, p. 
 270. 
 
134 EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 
 
 in tlie classroom that appeal to him. The stu- 
 dent will be stimulated to read more if he is 
 permitted to tell of the things that are inter- 
 esting, unusual, striking, and impressive. 
 
 Finally, history, when taught as it should be, 
 instills in the mind of the student high ideals, 
 gives a sense of appreciation, teaches morality 
 by stimulating thought and interest in the 
 moral behavior of men and races, develops a 
 healthy philosophy of life, and thus aids in the 
 formation and development of character. This 
 is the poiQt most emphasized by Dr. Hall in 
 his discussion of the subject. He says that 
 ** there must be one dominant aim (in teaching 
 history) to which all others, while not eliminated 
 should be subordinated." If the high school 
 teacher will **take his cue from the nature and 
 needs of youth, the highest criterion of all 
 educational value . . . the moral aim will be 
 found fittest to be ijaade supreme. This con- 
 clusion is not based chiefly on the fact that in 
 every land the percentage of juvenile crime is 
 both increasing and becoming more precocious, 
 significant as this indication is of the general 
 
REQUIRED SUBJECTS: HISTORY 135 
 
 need, but on the fact that ethical purposes by 
 their very nature can best include and har- 
 monize while they also overtop all others.'' " 
 
 ** Especially at adolescence the moral pur- 
 pose of history should never be lost from sight. 
 It should determine every choice, both of 
 method, and subject matter'* in the history 
 courses in high school. ** History should so im- 
 press intelligence and will as to inspire to the 
 greatest degree ideals of social service and un- 
 selfishness." " 
 
 **Does not history fill all, and must it not 
 especially for the young suggest as its supreme 
 lesson the power in man and nature that makes 
 for righteousness, and is it not this that the 
 progress of events from age to age reveals ever 
 more clearly?" ^* Bunsen spoke of God in His- 
 tory.^^ Few would define history as Gibbon did 
 when he called it a ** record of crime, folly, and 
 calamity. For Luther as for Salzmann, it was 
 a thesaurus of inspiring ethical examples to 
 
 "G. S. HaU, Educational Problems, II, p. 286. 
 "Genetic Philosophy of Education, p. 267. 
 "G. S. Hall, Educational Problems, II, p. 296. 
 "Ibid., p. 296. 
 
136 EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 
 
 show how all got their deserts in the end. For 
 Schmidt it was to illustrate God's ways in the 
 world. For Thomas Arnold it demonstrated 
 the power working for righteousness, and was 
 to give a practical philosophy of life. For 
 Droysen, it warns by showing the blindness, 
 temptation and folly of men, and inspires them 
 by contagion to the emulation of the greatest 
 deeds of the greatest and best men of the 
 past."" For Chas. W. Eliot, ** History shows 
 the young the springs of public honor and dis- 
 honor; sets before them the national failings, 
 weaknesses and sins ; warns them agaiifst future 
 dangers by exhibiting the losses and sufferings 
 of the past; enshrines in their hearts the na- 
 tional heroes and strengthens in them the 
 precious love of country/'" 
 
 Summary 
 
 There are several good reasons wEj^ all 
 should study history: 
 First : This study is valuable because of the 
 
 » G. S. Hall, Educational Problems, Vol. II, p. 296. 
 »C. W. Eliot, Educational Reform, p. 105. 
 
REQUIRED SUBJECTS: HISTORY 137 
 
 knowledge gained, and especially so if the es- 
 sential facts of selected subjects are empha- 
 sized. 
 
 Second: It helps one to understand and to 
 appreciate the present and aids in solving con- 
 temporary problems pertaining to sociology, 
 economics, and government. 
 
 Third: History teaches the student to think 
 historically and helps him to acquire the habit 
 of seeing all events in temporal perspective, as 
 the products of growth and development. 
 
 Fourth: It aids the student in establishing 
 habits of correct thinking and sound methods 
 of study, and supplies a most fruitful kind of 
 intellectual training, which is fully as important 
 as the accumulation of information. 
 
 Fifth: The study of history trains the stu- 
 dent in the use of books, and this is a highly 
 important reason for studying history, for no 
 man is considered educated to-day who does 
 not know how and where to find information. 
 
 Sixth : History, if presented in the right way, 
 will inspire the student. He will desire to go 
 farther — to see and explore new fields, and thus 
 
138 EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 
 
 the habit of research and a taste for good read- 
 ing will be cultivated. 
 
 Seventh: It instills in the mind of the stu- 
 dent high ideals, gives a sensetof appreciation, 
 teaches morality by stimulating thought and 
 interest in moral behavior of* men and races, 
 develops a healthy philosophy of life, and 
 thus aids in the formation and development of 
 character. 
 
 n. METHOD IN HISTORY 
 
 Since the teacher should think more of 
 quality than of quantity of work, and since 
 quality and quantity of work rarely go together, 
 the question naturally arises, what events and 
 phases of history should be emphasized! There 
 are so many facts to consider that the teacher 
 has time only for the essentials. Events great 
 in their consequences, it is generally conceded, 
 should be selected and emphasized. Just facts 
 that are characteristic should be stressed. 
 
 If we accept this, the next question to be an- 
 swered is : From what field shall we select most 
 
REQUIRED SUBJECTS: HISTORY 139 
 
 of the characteristic facts — from political his- 
 tory or from the history of civilization? His- 
 torians are beginning to agree that the former 
 should not be emphasized as much as the latter. 
 However, they do not contend that political his- 
 tory or that part of history dealing with wars, 
 dynasties, and political parties should be 
 eliminated, but that the history of civilization 
 should receive far more attention than it has 
 in the past; and, that the time devoted to 
 political history should be greatly reduced. 
 
 Any fact of supreme importance in whatever 
 field found should be selected and emphasized, 
 for one should form, if possible, an adequate 
 conception of the most notable things that have 
 happened, and of what man has accomplished 
 in all fields of human endeavor. Much time 
 should be devoted to biography and social his- 
 tory. In the past the ordinary text-books, and 
 consequently the schools, have stressed prin- 
 cipally military history and politics. At pres- 
 ent the concensus of educational opinion seems 
 to be that our future courses should deal not 
 merely with wars, politics and rulers, but rather 
 
140 EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE. 
 
 with the arts and occupations of peace, with 
 science, morals, architecture, sculpture, paint- 
 ing, language, literature, religious ideas and 
 institutions, commerce and industry, social and 
 economic conditions, modern imperialism, social 
 life and general culture, the humanitarian 
 movements, education and philanthropy. 
 
 To-day, writers on the pedagogy of history 
 are practically unanimous in asserting that 
 wars especially have, in the past, received too 
 much attention. Take the history of our own 
 country, for example. *' There was a time," 
 according to a well-known authority,^^ **when 
 textbooks indicated that the Revolution, the 
 Mexican War, and the Civil War with a few 
 connecting paragraphs, were about all that 
 were necessary to record. Such treatment now 
 seems ridiculous in the light of the splendid 
 achievements of peace.'' The following state- 
 ment taken from the preface of a recent text- 
 book ^^ indicates the present tendency of his- 
 
 *» Professor Edmund S. Meany, Suggestions to Teachers 
 In his United States History for Schools, MacmiUan Co., 
 N. Y., 1912. 
 
 «HaU, Smither and Ousley, Student's History of Our 
 Country, Southern Publishing Co., DaUas, Texas, 1912. 
 
REQUIRED SUBJECTS: HISTORY 141 
 
 torical writing: *' Short biographical sketches 
 of many of our great countrymen are given 
 because the lives of leaders typify the people 
 they lead. Deeds of heroism and human in- 
 terest have been related as space would allow. 
 The labors of peace no less than the strife of 
 conflict show forth the spirit, the character, and 
 the growth of a people, and particular stress 
 is laid upon social and economic history as re- 
 vealing the most potential forces in the evolu- 
 tion of a nation and the most important factors 
 in the prosperity and happiness of its people." 
 Professors Hart and Channing maintain that 
 there is no general method suited to all ages 
 or circumstances or minds, or even to all parts 
 of the subject. Perhaps the most fruitful 
 method for pupils of the grammar school age 
 and above is the **topicaP' — the assignment of 
 very limited subjects on which pupils are to 
 prepare themselves with special care, using a 
 variety of material. The advantages of such 
 a system are obvious ; it breaks up the servile 
 adherence to the limited text of a single book; 
 it trains in the use of books, in the selection 
 
142 EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 
 
 of pertinent facts out of a mass of material; 
 it leads to the comparison of authors, the ex- 
 planation of discrepancies, the weighing of 
 authorities; it adds life and interest to the 
 work. 
 
 Dr. Hall emphasizes the importance of a text- 
 book when he says: ** While pleading for more 
 and better oral narrative teaching we should 
 surely always have a good text-book to anchor 
 to;" " and in regard to the lecture method he 
 maintains that *4t is not so much the abolition 
 of the lecture method that is wanted in the high 
 school as the transformation from monologue 
 to dialogue or a kind of active teaching that 
 involves constant response and is punctuated 
 with question and answer.'' 
 
 In most high schools. Dr. Hall thinks precious 
 time is lost in hearing recitations which should 
 be given to inspiring and suggesting. **Note 
 taking with some dictation, if careful and judi- 
 cious, is a grateful variant for the pupil and 
 gives the teacher by simple inspection perhaps 
 the best of all tests for promotion. The library, 
 
 "Educational Problems, II, p. 293. 
 
REQUIRED SUBJECTS: HISTORY 143 
 
 collateral reading, with co-operative methods 
 and efforts, learning to work together and to 
 work for the common good, suggest also a much 
 larger collection of books and a comparative 
 use of them in every school and may mark a 
 new epoch in the habits of study. ' ' ^^ 
 
 **Too many maps, even large ones from the 
 government, too incessant reference to geog- 
 raphy, and especially too many pictures, 
 lantern slides, perhaps games with historical 
 cards, it seems to me, some authorities to the 
 contrary notwithstanding, we can hardly have. 
 Colored chronological charts of both universal 
 history and that of special countries, genealog- 
 ical schemes of dynasties and reigning families, 
 statistical diagrams from the census depart- 
 ment, curves of financial, industrial, and vital 
 data, the cycle and spiral method — seems to 
 be too little favored by The Committee of 
 Seven.''" 
 
 **Are not both the unit block and the inten- 
 sive method involving any high degree of ae- 
 
 " Educational Problems, II, p. 293. 
 ••Ibid., p. 293. 
 
144 EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 
 
 curacy and detail too academic and should the 
 high school teacher have to think much of satis- 
 fying college entrance examinations? Is that 
 teacher not a poor devil, in the printer's sense 
 at least, who brings into much prominence the 
 collecting of, and class work upon, old entrance 
 examination papers! ^^ Should he not sow a 
 great deal of seed upon the waters which he 
 never expects to see again in recitation or ex- 
 amination, and trust something to the intuitive 
 apperceptive powers of the young! ^® Does not 
 the examination type of memory often tend to 
 keep things near the surface and in the merely 
 cognitive stage that should sink deeper and at 
 once affect conduct and character?'' ^^ 
 
 Although Dr. Hall is opposed to the examina- 
 tion type of memory, he nevertheless believes 
 in the accumulation of significant facts. How- 
 ever, he contends it is not always necessary to 
 arrange these facts in logical order, for he says 
 that **some teachers have come to fear that the 
 
 "Educational Problems, II, p. 293. 
 "•Ibid., p. 294. 
 "Ibid., p. 294. 
 
REQUIRED SUBJECTS: HISTORY 145 
 
 pupil in the high school is actually in danger 
 of accumulating a mass of undigested, unsys- 
 tematized knowledge and perhaps to fancy that 
 this peril is awful and ever impending. But 
 have any of us ever seen a dangerous mass of 
 knowledge in any youthful mind unless in the 
 memory of a freak, and even then are we so 
 oblivious to the laws of mental work and 
 growth as to think that such a mass of erudi- 
 tion could exist in the mind without being as- 
 similated in the child's manner, or that even if 
 it were a floating plankton, our petty artificial 
 devices of correlating, associating, linking can 
 have any other possible effect than to prevent 
 it from sinking deep into the soul and keep- 
 ing it on the surface against the day of ex- 
 amination?"^^ 
 
 ''History is a story to be told, not 
 crammed."^® ** There should not be too much 
 accuracy tind detail in teaching, for this hampers 
 the larger view. If the teacher follows this sug- 
 gestion he should not be afraid of the charge 
 
 " Educational Problems, II, p. 295. 
 "Ibid., p. 300. 
 
146 EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 
 
 of being unsystematic and superficial, pro- 
 vided he can thus better convey his message'* 
 and approximately fulfill the aims of historical 
 study. There is a place for superficiality, Dr. 
 Hall thinks, which is not sufficiently recognized 
 by high school teachers of history. * * Connected- 
 ness, completeness and unity are not needed in 
 the history work up to the time of college. 
 Rather the striking, the impressive, that which 
 may have the deepest moral effect, must be 
 selected, and the dullness of sequences and 
 casual chains avoided. The child must be af- 
 fected, must absorb and imbibe, and there must 
 not be too much learning of facts, nor training 
 of the judgment and reason. . . . History must 
 be made to impart the power that makes for 
 righteousness. . . . The difference, at the great- 
 est, is between learning a few dates and facts 
 and having the mind filled with moral lessons 
 and ideals which will remain as living forces 
 throughout life, influencing conduct in fields 
 very remote from all the lessons set or 
 taught.'' ^^ 
 
 "The Genetic Philosophy of Education, p. 260-71. 
 
REQUIRED SUBJECTS: HISTORY 147 
 
 The assignments in history should be given 
 in such a way that the students will know ex- 
 actly what they are expected to learn. Aside 
 from assigning a very few pages in the text, 
 the teacher should point out some of the most 
 important things for the students to stress in 
 their collateral reading. He ought to give them 
 something definite to do— a question to answer, 
 a topic to discuss, an outline to make, a problem 
 to solve. (Often half the recitation period 
 should be devoted to debating some important 
 historical question.) If the teacher assigns 
 well-chosen topics, questions, and problems 
 that are adapted to the capacity of the pupils 
 and by requiring them to gather their informa- 
 tion from various books, papers, and magazines 
 the pupils are trained to collect historical ma- 
 terial, to arrange it, and to put it forth. This 
 practice^ we repeat, develops capacity for effec- 
 tive work, not capacity for absorption alone." 
 
 This thought cannot be repeated too often: 
 The library, collateral reading, with co-opera- 
 tive methods and efforts, learning to work to- 
 
 " Report of the Committee of Seven, p. 23. 
 
148 EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 
 
 gether and to work for the common good, 
 suggest also a much larger collection of books 
 and a comparative use of them in every school. 
 In assigning collateral reading, the teacher 
 should ask the students to read books suited 
 to their interests and capabilities, and those 
 phases of history which have the deepest moral 
 effect, as just mentioned, should be stressed. 
 For this purpose the lives of great men and 
 women should be studied in high school far 
 more than they are at present. 
 
 **The use of the note-book to supplement and 
 occasionally replace the former straight text- 
 book course is largely an outgrowth of, or at 
 least a close analogy to, the laboratory method 
 of science. It grows out of an effort to make 
 knowledge concrete and definite, first hand, and 
 authoritative. The note-book has small use if 
 notes are based entirely upon the text.'' When 
 notes include a few extracts from "source and 
 parallel reading, illustrations, and corrective 
 and supplementary comments by teacher, with 
 best of all some reflections and comparisons by 
 the student himself, the kinship with the labora- 
 
REQUIRED SUBJECTS: HISTORY 149 
 
 tory method becomes apparent. K it were 
 practicable to go farther and require students 
 to draw sketches showing and comparing ele- 
 ments of architecture, illustrating costumes and 
 geography, representing plants and animals, 
 weapons and tools, and other things of his- 
 torical importance which might be studied in 
 museums, pictures, stereopticon views, build- 
 ings, etc., these sketches, with the notes, would 
 approach the laboratory method even more 
 closely. If this were done wisely, history 
 teaching would be much more effective,'' but 
 it cannot be done to any extent because it takes 
 too much time. However, if the students were 
 given a day or two **off" occasionally from 
 their studies, the time could be profitably spent. 
 If the sources of history study are drawn 
 from a wide range of readings and illustrations, 
 the note-book becomes a necessity. Some of 
 the work should be written with care, so that, 
 it may be preserved in later life with justifiable 
 pride. In practice the note-book may be of 
 more importance than the text-book.^* 
 
 "J. E. Pearce, "The Use of the Note Book," In the Texas 
 History Teacher's Bulletin, Nov. 15, 1913. 
 
150 EDUCATIO]^ DURING ADOLESCENCE 
 
 ''Notes should be taken upon some of the 
 assigned and other supplementary reading. 
 The advantages are obvious. It places the 
 garnered information in definite and effective 
 relation with the organized course; it enables 
 the teacher to check up assigned reading and 
 lastly, it forces the student to reproduce in 
 written form the gist of his reading and to sift 
 and pass judgment upon it. Student made out- 
 lines based upon the text and written into the 
 notes are, I think, always more helpful than 
 even the best printed ones. If a student or- 
 ganizes the subject matter himself, he is com- 
 pelled to seek and find relations. This is always 
 worth while, even if done clumsily. These out- 
 lines may often be a part of a good general 
 epitome. " ^^ 
 
 Finally, the main advantage of the note-book 
 may be summarized as follows: It forces the 
 student into habits of accuracy particularly if 
 his notes are examined by someone else. Ex- 
 amination of the note-book and the correction 
 of errors is essential. It may be done by the 
 
 " J. E. Pearce, "The Use of the Note Book," in the Texas 
 History Teacher's Bulletin, Nov. 15, 1913. 
 
REQUIRED SUBJECTS: HISTORY 151 
 
 students themselves and will be a valuable 
 exercise. There is no difficulty involved. Let 
 the students exchange books, make corrections 
 and return to the teacher, and the teacher will 
 have a fair indication of the accuracy and 
 character of the notes with little effort. The 
 student, on the other hand, has benefited by the 
 criticism, in that he has discovered what is 
 correct, and what is incorrect. Even outlines 
 should generally be thrown into the form of 
 clear and definite sentences for the sake of cor- 
 rect habits of expression." 
 
 The views expressed in the last few para- 
 graphs present perhaps the best theory in regard 
 to the history note-book and supplementary 
 reading, but difficult indeed to put in actual 
 practice because the student generally has three 
 other courses in addition to history. 
 
 The instructor in history should be careful 
 
 not to insist on too much work and should not 
 
 expect the same amount from every member 
 
 of the class, for to some students history is 
 
 exceedingly difficult to learn. Work should be 
 
 *• J. B. Pearce, "The Use of the Note Book," in the Texas 
 History Teacher's Bulletin, Nov. 15, 1913. 
 
152 EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 
 
 done according to ability, all of us realize; but, 
 whether it is difl&cult or not, all students should 
 gain some important knowledge of selected sub- 
 jects even if it has to be secured by special 
 written reports. If the student has the desire 
 to learn and the ability to think long and hard 
 on the subject, the aims of historical study will 
 be fulfilled approximately, and much good will 
 be accomplished. It will, I repeat, instill in the 
 mind of the student high ideals, will give a 
 sense of appreciation, will develop a healthy 
 philosophy of life, and will aid in the formation 
 and development of character. It will help to 
 establish sound methods of study, and will 
 supply excellent intellectual training. The ac- 
 curacy of conception and statement required, 
 the mastery of principles, the solution of prob- 
 lems — all these develop habits of mind of the 
 most healthful and useful kind. There is hardly 
 any business in which the processes employed 
 in studying history are not in constant use, and 
 there can be no position in life in which the 
 mental discipline gained is valueless; while the 
 
REQUIRED SUBJECTS: HISTORY ^53 
 
 facts learned are almost indispensable to every 
 cultured man and woman. 
 
 m. HISTORY RECITATION SOCIALIZED 
 
 7. The Aims of the Plan:^ 
 
 1. To do away with passivity in the class- 
 room. 
 
 2. To stimulate initiative and originality. 
 
 3. To correct wrong impressions. 
 
 4. To train the pupil in expression. 
 
 5. To enlarge the pupil's experience. 
 
 6. To help the pupil overcome individual 
 weaknesses. 
 
 7. To enable the pupil to form the habit of 
 concentrated effort and attention. 
 
 8. To build up in an orderly, logical way, a 
 definite store of information. 
 
 > W. T. Whitney in his monograph, The Socialized Recita- 
 tion (A. S. Barnes Co., New York City), gives some of 
 the aims stated above imder the heading "Purpose of the 
 SodaUzed Recitation" but most of them are given as 
 "Objects" of the recitation; i. e., the ordinary recitation. 
 It seems to me that aU may be presented as the "Aims 
 of the Socialized Recitation.'* 
 
154 EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 
 
 9. To enable the pupil to express his own in- 
 dividuality and to receive a modifying influence 
 from the class. 
 
 10. To give opportunity for the student to 
 do and to he rather than merely to know, by 
 thinking, reasoning, judging, and making de- 
 cisions. 
 
 77. How My Classes in History Are Conducted 
 
 Often the assignment is given in the form 
 of a problem with references, but if no suitable 
 problem can be found in the lesson for the day, 
 the assignment is made as follows: 
 
 The lesson is divided into two or three parts 
 and a leader is assigned for each part. The 
 duty of each leader is to outline his part of 
 the lesson, prepare questions and gather out- 
 side information pertaining to every subdivi- 
 sion of his outline and bearing on all the 
 questions he has prepared. 
 
 In the recitation, from such an assignment, 
 the leaders who have made special preparation 
 (as given in the preceding paragraph) are re- 
 
REQUIRED SUBJECTS: HISTORY 155 
 
 quested to question the class just as the teacher 
 would. Volunteers are not called upon until 
 two other pupils have attempted to answer the 
 question. If the two students do not satisfy 
 the leader and the other students, volunteers 
 are called upon to correct any errors or to give 
 additional information. 
 
 The members of the class are allowed to ask 
 any questions not previously made clear or they 
 may present new questions. Then volunteers 
 present new material based on collateral read- 
 ing. The leader finally offers his additional in- 
 formation. In case all the important points 
 are not brought out clearly, the teacher asks 
 his questions in order to emphasize those es- 
 sentials. 
 
 The new plan tends to make the students 
 active, happy, earnest, hard-working, enthu- 
 siastic, and democratic. 
 
 The Socialised Recitation is *'an example of 
 true democracy, development of all, through 
 all, under the leadership of the test students" 
 and the teacher,^ 
 
 * Report to the Seattle High School History Teachers. 
 
156 EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 
 
 Conversations and discussions are trans- 
 ferred to the class circle. Discussions, ques- 
 tions, criticisms are between pupils with the 
 teacher only occasionally drawn in. There is 
 quite a contrast between this plan and the old, 
 when the recitation was always between teacher 
 and some pupil. 
 
 The teacher is a guide and does not do the 
 reciting for the class. He encourages both 
 freedom and desire to offer additional facts or 
 to make inquiry concerning points discussed. 
 Most of the corrections are noticed and dis- 
 cussed by the pupils. In this phase of the work, 
 the students are advised to make constructive, 
 rather than destructive criticisms. 
 
 If the students allow misstatements of facts 
 to go unchallenged, or if they permit unsup- 
 ported expression of personal opinion to escape, 
 the teacher's work is evident: He corrects 
 errors, criticises, and supplements the work of 
 the students. However, he takes part only when 
 necessary. Generally the teacher merely di- 
 rects the work, counsels with the pupils, advises 
 
REQUIRED SUBJECTS: HISTORY 157 
 
 and leads, without dominating and suppressing 
 the physical and mental life within the room. 
 
 It has been said that the new plan takes time. 
 **Yes, training, development, growth, always 
 take time. A fence can be built around a school 
 in one day by a large force of men, but if a 
 hedge is to be grown, it may require years. 
 Mushrooms attain their full power in a night, 
 oaks require decades."® 
 
 In nearly every class there are at least a few 
 students having initiative who show good judg- 
 ment and ability in analyzing subject-matter, 
 general principles and their organic relations 
 and who express thought in a clear and con- 
 vincing maimer. One of such qualifications is ap- 
 pointed secretary. After each discussion on an 
 important topic the secretary is requested to 
 present the essentials and to state the main 
 conclusions, or announce the desirability of 
 further investigation. 
 
 Often, when some important question arises 
 which cannot be settled by the students at the 
 
 •J. p. Zlmmers, Teaching Boys and Girls How to Study. 
 The Parker Educational Co., Madison, Wisconsin. 19ia 
 
158 EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 
 
 time, the class is given a few days — sometimes 
 longer — for study and research. Last year, for 
 example, in discussing the government of Eng- 
 land one boy said that he had heard that the 
 English government is more democratic than 
 our own. The members of the class immediately 
 took sides in a discussion which followed. As 
 they were unable to convince each other, they 
 decided to have a debate on the question. 
 Nearly every- member of the class spent a half- 
 hour or so about every day for two weeks study- 
 ing in order to get * * evidence ' ' to prove or dis- 
 prove that the American government is more 
 democratic than the English government. And 
 if the study of government is important, who 
 will say that the time was not profitably spent 
 in investigating the working of two of the most 
 democratic governments in the world! 
 
 III. The Problem Method and the Socialized 
 Recitation* 
 
 Dr. William T. Bawden of the United States 
 Bureau of Education suggested that a state- 
 •By a High School Student— Miss Marian Tworoger. 
 
REQUIRED SUBJECTS: HISTORY 159 
 
 ment of the types of problems selected for dis- 
 cussion by the students, be presented together 
 with an analysis of one or two problems with 
 statements as to just how the students handled 
 the parts assigned to them. The following will, 
 it is hoped, fulfill these requests. The problems 
 given below are just a few of the many studied 
 in the history course. 
 
 1. Prove that James I tried to hinder the 
 growth of Democracy. 
 
 2. Prove that the Constitution provides for 
 careful and deliberate legislation. 
 
 3. Prove that Arbitration has already been 
 of great value in settling disputes. 
 
 4. Prove that the time from 1783 to 1789 was 
 the ** Critical Period" in American history. 
 
 5. Prove that the American government is 
 more democratic than the English government. 
 
 6. Prove that the Versailles peace conference 
 (1919) was more progressive than the Congress 
 of Vienna (1814-1815). 
 
 The problem selected for analysis was studied 
 in connection with the making of the Con- 
 stitution. 
 
160 EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 
 
 Text; Muzzey's ** American History." 
 Chapter VI, Pages 159-183. 
 
 Collateral Reading: 
 
 John Fiske, The Critical Period in American 
 History. 
 
 Bassett, a Short History of the United States. 
 
 McLaughlin, The Confederation and the Con- 
 stitution. 
 
 Roosevelt, Winning of the West, and other 
 references given at the end of the chapter. 
 
 Our class spent three days in considering the 
 problem: ** Prove that the National Convention 
 of 1787 solved the difficulties existing under the 
 Articles of Confederation by giving the people 
 of the United States the Constitution.'' When 
 the problem was assigned, the class discussed 
 it and found that it could be divided into five 
 parts, namely, 1 — old conditions, 2 — defects of 
 the confederation, 3 — ^the problem, what to do, 
 4 — the solution, what happened, 5 — favorable 
 results. Each of these points was assigned to 
 one or more of the students, who made a special 
 study of it, and in the recitation the following 
 day^ each in turn took the floor and questioned 
 
REQUIRED SUBJECTS: HISTORY 161 
 
 the class upon his point, and acted as leader 
 during the ensuing discussion, and finally, pre- 
 sented to the class the material gained through 
 his collateral reading. 
 
 Under the first point — old conditions — ^we 
 discussed the conditions which made the colon- 
 ists attempt some form of union, the early 
 attempts at union, and the confederation. In 
 considering the second part — the defects of the 
 confederation — it was brought out that under 
 the Articles of Confederation, Congress con- 
 sisted of only one house, in which all the states 
 had an equal number of votes. The students 
 further emphasized the idea that this congress 
 was based on the representation of the states 
 rather than the people ; the government had no 
 executive or judicial departments; and the 
 Congress had little executive power; e.g., it 
 could make treaties but could not compel the 
 states to obey them ; could apportion taxes, but 
 could not collect them. '* Congress could advise, 
 request and implore, but could not command.'' 
 We showed that as the Articles of Confedera- 
 tion could be amended only by a unanimous 
 
162 EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 
 
 vote of the states, it was impossible to remedy 
 these defects, so we took up the third point, the 
 problem — what to do. Under this heading we 
 discussed the problems which confronted the 
 makers of the Constitution : 
 
 The Virginia and New Jersey plans, the 
 slavery question, the question of taxes, the 
 representation of negroes, the control of com- 
 merce, and the other difficulties which had to 
 be solved by the Constitutional Convention. 
 Fourth, the solution — ^what happened, was a 
 discussion of the constitution as finally adopted, 
 bringing out particularly the compromises 
 reached between the various factions, such as 
 those concerning the representation of large and 
 small states, the representation of negroes, the 
 abolition of the slave trade, and the control of 
 commerce. 
 
 We showed that: 
 
 1. (a) Small states were afraid of being 
 overpowered by large ones. This difficulty was 
 overcome by giving them equal representation 
 in the Senate. 
 
 (b) In the Continental Congress only the 
 
REQUIRED SUBJECTS: HISTORY 163 
 
 states, not the people, had been represented. 
 The rights of the people were now provided 
 for in the House of Eepresentatives, and to 
 pacify the large states, representation was to 
 be according to population. 
 
 2. (a) In apportioning taxation and deciding 
 representation, five negroes were to be counted 
 as equal to three white people. 
 
 3. (a) Commercial questions were to be de- 
 cided in Congress by majority vote instead of 
 two-thirds vote. (This was a concession to the 
 North.) 
 
 (b) The slave trade was to continue without 
 interference for twenty years. (This was a 
 concession to the South.) 
 
 Under the fifth heading — favorable results, 
 we showed that the Constitution did solve the 
 difficulties existing under the Confederation, 
 because it provided the necessary centralization 
 lacking in the Confederation, thereby giving us 
 a real national government, rather than a mere 
 confederation of states. It created executive 
 and judicial departments, and gave Congress 
 
164 EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 
 
 definite powers, with proper authority to exer- 
 cise them. 
 
 It gave a Congress made up of two houses, 
 the Senate, representing the States, and the 
 House of Eepresentatives, the people. 
 
 It gave Congress full power of taxation, 
 power to regulate trade, control foreign com- 
 merce, and levy duties. 
 
 It gave equal rights to all citizens in all the 
 states. The convention of 1787 created a con- 
 stitution which has stood successfully the test 
 of a century, and is still the supreme law of one 
 of the most civilized nations of the world. 
 
 By taking the problem up in this manner each 
 member of the class is required to do consider- 
 able outside research work, and by pooling the 
 information thus obtained, the pupils gain a 
 much wider knowledge of the subject than 
 would be possible if each attempted to cover 
 the entire field for himself. 
 
REQUIRED SUBJECTS: HISTORY 165 
 
 IV. An Example of a Project m Modern 
 History^ 
 
 Problem : Prove that the Eenaissance was a 
 period of tremendous change in Europe from 
 the middle of the fourteenth century to the end 
 of the sixteenth in all the realms of human 
 activity, especially in painting, sculpture, archi- 
 tecture, language, literature, science, invention, 
 discovery, education, and religion. 
 
 Time : We devoted eight days to this problem. 
 
 Texts: 1. West's Modern World (Pages 310- 
 324). 
 
 2. Webster's Early European History (Pages 
 589-642). 
 
 Eef erences : 
 
 1. Hayes, Modern Europe, Vol. I. 
 
 2. Field, Study of the Eenaissance. 
 
 3. Hulme, Eenaissance and Eeformation. 
 
 4. Hudson, Story of the Eenaissance. 
 
 5. Burckhart, Civilization of the Eenaissance. 
 
 6. Encyclopedia : Brittanica or International. 
 
 •By two high school students— Miriam Luten and Ade- 
 laide Brown. 
 
166 EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 
 
 7. Further Eeferences see end of Chapter V 
 of Hayes, Modern Europe, Vol. I, pp. 201-203. 
 
 In the study and discussion of early modern 
 history many problems arise of interest to the 
 pupils. The period of the Renaissance, since 
 it influenced later history to such a great extent, 
 is very important. 
 
 The problem on this period of history as 
 given to the class to develop was: Prove that 
 the Renaissance was a period of tremendous 
 change in Europe from the middle of the four- 
 teenth century to the end of the sixteenth, in 
 all realms of human activity. 
 
 In discussing the problem the class agreed 
 that the important changes of the period ap- 
 peared in painting, sculpture, architecture, 
 language, literature, science, invention, dis- 
 covery, education, and religion. 
 
 We were given time to consider the possibili- 
 ties of each subject and then choose the one 
 that was best suited to our own interests. Be- 
 sides the general references given on the pre- 
 ceding page each student used special references' 
 dealing with his particular problem. 
 
REQUIRED SUBJECTS: HISTORY 167 
 
 The class discussion of the problem extended 
 over eight lessons. The problem of the first 
 lesson was: Prove that there was a revival of 
 painting during the Renaissance. In doing this 
 we contrasted the painting of the Middle Ages 
 with that of the Eenaissance. Throughout the 
 lesson, we followed this outline of the problem : 
 l__01d Conditions, 2— Defects of Old Condi- 
 tions, 3 — Problem to be solved, 4 — Events, or 
 what happened, 5 — ^Favorable or Unfavorable 
 Results. 
 
 In the recitation, Laura first told about the 
 Art of the Middle Ages. She stated that nearly 
 all the paintings were frescoes done directly 
 on the plaster walls, and that primarily, their 
 purpose was not beauty, but rather to help save 
 the soul of the beholder.® Florence developed 
 the second point, the defects. She explained 
 that these early paintings were imitations of 
 Byzantine mosaics and enamels ; that they were 
 all highly conventionalized and with strict ad- 
 herence to tradition; that they showed little 
 knowledge of anatomy, proportion, perspective, 
 
 'E. M. Hulme, Renaissance and Reformation, p. 116. 
 
169 EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 
 
 or distance. Harold volunteered information 
 on their symbolic character, how a clasped 
 hand, two raised fingers, the color of the gar- 
 ments, a bunch of keys, a sword, all had a 
 specific part in making the meaning of the pic- 
 ture evident at a glance. John dealt with the 
 third part, the problem to be solved. He 
 showed the class how the old narrow concep- 
 tion of painting was at variance with the new 
 humanistic movement which was springing up. 
 He pointed out how the new interest in classic 
 literature, architecture, and sculpture, could 
 not help but extend to painters and make them 
 try to raise their art with the other arts. 
 Nearly all the pupils contributed facts about 
 the fourth point, the events, or rather work ac- 
 complished, Louise named Giotto as the first 
 artist to cast aside the old binding traditions 
 and to infuse life into his paintings and to give 
 them an air of reality. She told how he utilized 
 arrangement, scenery, buildings and gesture to 
 bring this about. Other students made con- 
 tributions pertaining to the chief characteristics 
 of the works of one or more of the famous 
 
REQUIRED SUBJECTS: HISTORY 169 
 
 painters: Leonardo Da Vinci, Michael Angelo, 
 Eaphael, Titian, Del Sarto, Holbein, Eubens, 
 iVan Dyck, and Eembrandt, and suggested how 
 they contributed to the Eenaissance. At the 
 close of the period, Adelaide spoke on the fifth 
 division, the results, and summed up the value 
 of these painters to the world as founders of 
 our principles and examples of the highest art. 
 
 In a similar way we handled the problems of 
 all of the lessons. 
 
 The problem of the second lesson was: Prove 
 that there was a revival of sculpture during thej- 
 Eenaissance. In developing the problem we 
 compared the sculpture of the Eenaissance with 
 that of the Middle Ages. We showed that the 
 great sculptors of the later period, Pisano, 
 Ghiberti, Brunelleschi, Donatello, Delia Eobbia, 
 Sansovina and Michael Angelo contributed 
 much to the Eenaissance. 
 
 In the third lesson we proved that there was 
 a revival of architecture during the Eenaissance 
 period. We proved by referring to the works 
 of Pisano, Brunelleschi, Alberti, Bramante, 
 Michael Angelo, and Palladio that the architeo- 
 
170 EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 
 
 ture was distinctly different from the Gothic 
 style of the previous period. 
 
 To prove that there was a revival of language 
 and literature during the Eenaissance was the 
 problem of the fourth lesson. The remarkable 
 change from the literature of the Middle Ages 
 we showed began with Dante (1265-1321) and 
 included the work of Petrarch, Boccaccio, Lang- 
 land, Froissart, Chaucer, Chrysoloras, Valla, 
 Eeuchlin, Colet, Erasmus, Machiavelli, Von 
 Hutten, Montaigne, Cervantes, Francis Bacon 
 and Shakespeare. In literature we showed the 
 reversion from the study of the dull writings 
 of the schoolmen to the brilliant productions 
 of the Greek and Roman authors. The class 
 devoted much time to the consideration of the 
 development of the modern languages and 
 literature. 
 
 We proved in the fifth lesson that there was 
 a revival of science and invention during the 
 Renaissance. That much progress was made 
 in science was shown by discussing the work 
 of such men as Roger Bacon, Gutenberg, 
 Lorentius Valla, Behaim, Copernicus, Servetus, 
 
REQUIRED SUBJECTS: HISTORY 171 
 
 Francis Bacon, Galileo, Kepler, Harvey, and 
 Newton. We also showed how valuable the 
 contributions of these men were to later history. 
 The members of the class were especially in- 
 terested in the inventions : printing, gunpowder, 
 the compass, and the telescope and their effect 
 on civilization. 
 
 The problem of the sixth lesson was : Prove 
 that the Renaissance was an age of discovery 
 and exploration. We pointed out the im- 
 portance of the discoveries and explorations of 
 such men as Marco Polo, Prince Henry the 
 Navigator, Diaz, Da Gama, Columbus, Cabot, 
 Vespuccius, Pizzaro, Balboa, Magellan, Cortez, 
 Cartier, Hudson, Raleigh, Champlain, De Soto, 
 Ponce De Leon, telling of the influence of the 
 Renaissance period and why discoveries were 
 not made before this time. 
 
 Prove that there was a revival of education 
 during the Renaissance, was the problem of 
 the seventh lesson. We contrasted the educa- 
 tion of the Middle Ages with that of the Renais- 
 sance period. In doing so, we emphasized 
 especially the views and accomplishments of 
 
172 fiTDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 
 
 Chrysoloras, Eeuchlin, Erasmus, Colet, Sturm, 
 Ascham, Luther, Melanchthon, Zwingli, Calvin, 
 Loyola, Eabelais, Mulcaster, Montaigne, and 
 Francis Bacon. 
 
 Li the last lesson we proved that a revival 
 of religion occurred during the Eenaissance. 
 We discussed men whose writings and doctrines 
 contributed to the Eef ormation ; among those 
 considered were John Wyclif, John Tauler, 
 John Huss, Thomas a Kempis, John Goch, John 
 Wessel, Savonarola, Lorentius Valla, Erasmus, 
 John Colet, Sir Thomas More, William Tyn- 
 dale, Martin Luther, Ulrich Zwingli, Ignatius 
 Loyola, John Calvin, Thomas Cranmer and 
 John Knox. 
 
 Every lesson was discussed very enthusiast- 
 ically by all the members of the class. 
 
 F. The Socialized Recitation from the Stu- 
 dents' Standpoint 
 
 We are beginning to-day a new era. Free- 
 dom has become the motto of the world; free- 
 
 »By a High School Student— Miss Violet Harrison. 
 
REQUIRED SUBJECTS: HISTORY 173 
 
 dom from old tyrannies, freedom of thought, 
 in fact true freedom. 
 
 Surely when new and efficient methods are 
 replacing the old in so many things a change 
 in school methods which would encourage 
 greater freedom of thought on the part of the 
 pupil deserves earnest consideration. 
 
 The socialized recitation gives to the student 
 freedom of thought and requires from him 
 greater efficiency. It also stimulates his initia- 
 tive and originality. 
 
 In my class in modern history a critic is ap- 
 pointed to preside. The chairman works with 
 the teacher to see that all errors are corrected 
 and all important facts are emphasized. 
 
 In the assignment the lesson is divided into 
 two or three parts, and a leader is assigned by 
 the teacher for each part. The duty of the 
 leader is to outline his part of the lesson, pre- 
 pare questions, and to gather outside informa- 
 tion pertaining to his subject. 
 
 When the class meets the following day the 
 leaders are called to question the class in their 
 order. Two pupils are appointed by the leader 
 
174 EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 
 
 to answer every question. If they fail, or the 
 pupils are not satisfied, volunteers are called 
 to correct any errors or give additional in- 
 formation. 
 
 As a student, the socialized recitation appeals 
 to me because the former dullness and dryness 
 of the period is eliminated and it becomes a 
 period of mental activity. This change comes 
 from the fact that the pupils are interested in 
 their work rather than in the grade they will 
 receive. 
 
 By the question and answer method little real 
 interest in the subject was aroused in the pupils. 
 It was too monotonous. A class conducted ac- 
 cording to our plan is not monotonous, because 
 each day something new and interesting is 
 brought to the pupils' attention. 
 
 Questions are brought before the class and 
 often problems arise from them for the stu- 
 dents to discuss. 
 
 Class discussion converts the recitation 
 period into one of hard and quick thinking, in 
 which the student does his best studying under 
 the stimulus of his fellow students and teacher. 
 
REQUIRED SUBJECTS: HISTORY 175 
 
 The text-book serves as an outline of topics to 
 be considered. 
 
 The pupils, to prove their points, must neces- 
 sarily read outside information, and this they 
 are willing to do because they have the proper 
 incentive. Questions or suggestions put the stu- 
 dent into action. The teacher is there to formu- 
 late problems, not to supply answers before 
 the questions have been raised within Ihe 
 learner's mind. 
 
 Where there is no interest in a subject ; where 
 there is no question in the student's mind, there 
 can be no searching for an answer. 
 
 Where there is no problem there is no occa- 
 sion for the mind to think hard. The problems 
 we discuss are not only those given by the 
 teacher, but those coming from the pupils and 
 therefore interesting to them. 
 
 The student's viewpoint is broadened; the 
 teacher and the text-books are not the only 
 authorities. Through class discussions the 
 opinions of the other students are heard and 
 the pupils learn by experience to form opin- 
 
176 EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 
 
 ions of their own, regarding the problems 
 brought up. 
 
 The socialized recitation is one of expression 
 rather than repression. The student is given 
 the opportunity to express himself without the 
 restraint usually felt in classes. 
 
 The socialized recitation is more democratic 
 than the old method as the students help in 
 governing, not depending on one person, the 
 teacher. 
 
 As the class must work together to gain the 
 desired results, co-operation becomes a part of 
 the training. Instead of each pupil working 
 solely for his own benefit each works for the 
 benefit of the whole class. 
 
 Because the students feel that the respon- 
 sibility rests on them rather than the teacher, 
 they become more self-assured and this en- 
 courages democratic control and management. 
 
 Progress is made by considering new ideas. 
 A student under the socialized recitation must 
 make progress not only in the subject, but also 
 along other lines. 
 
 The student's interests are widened, new; 
 
REQUIRED SUBJECTS; mSTORY 177 
 
 paths of knowledge open for him. He is started 
 thinking along new lines and awakened to bet- 
 ter things. 
 
 The business world of to-day is looking for 
 men and women with initiative and originality. 
 The socialized recitation stimulates both of 
 these qualities in the students. 
 
 It is interesting to note what the pupils think 
 of the new plan of recitation. The following 
 comments were selected from J. P. Zitnmer's 
 monograph, Teaching Boys and Girls How to 
 Study: 
 
 **It makes us use our minds during IKe re- 
 citation.'' 
 
 **It makes me study more.'' 
 
 **It teaches me to think for myself/' 
 
 **I get more out of my lesson." 
 
 **We learn to ask questions that have some 
 meaning." 
 
 ** Pupils find out things for themselves." 
 
 **It teaches me to find the most important 
 things." 
 
 **I like to hear the things others have read 
 in other books," 
 
178 EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 
 
 '*It helps me to be accurate.'* 
 
 **It makes me use all the time I have." 
 
 **I learn to use good English." 
 
 **I am glad to hear things that others get 
 out of a lesson that I did not get." 
 
 **This method teaches me to think, to use my 
 brain, to answer and to ask questions." 
 
 **This method of teaching is very good, as 
 it makes me think or learn how to study and 
 also to talk to the class. It will not be so hard 
 to learn next year's work." 
 
 **I like this system of teaching because the 
 lessons are more interesting and I learn many 
 more things from the questions the other pupils 
 ask, and every child gets an equal chance." 
 
 **This method of teaching has taught me to 
 think and reason for myself. The children's 
 questions can get at certain parts of the studies 
 that learned people do not always think of." 
 
 "It makes us think and reason. I cannot 
 criticise our new way and I hope they keep it. 
 The old way we had kept the bright children 
 busy, while the others sat there and naturally 
 had low reports. I think some children do not 
 
REQUIRED SUBJECTS: HISTORY 179 
 
 understand what they read, but get the mean- 
 ing by our new method/' 
 
 **If you do not know what anything means 
 you have to ask questions in order to learn the 
 answer. If a pupil is asked a question, he must 
 think very hard to answer it. If you do not 
 know what the word means you have to look 
 it up in the dictionary or ask the class. I think 
 it helps me a great deal." 
 
 **The following statement was written by a 
 boy who had been in the local schools only one 
 week.'" 
 
 **I like this method of recitation because it 
 gives every pupil a chance to say something. 
 It helps me when I am reciting because I would 
 much rather have the pupils correct me than 
 the teacher, and it shows me my mistakes. I 
 have been in nine different schools besides this 
 one and had many different methods, but this 
 is the best. I have had poorer deportment than 
 here as a result of the teachers' asking and 
 correcting everything." 
 
 •J. p. Zimmers, Teaching Boys and Girls How to Study, 
 pp. 51-52. 
 
180 EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 
 
 VI. What Are the Advantages of the Socialized 
 Recitation? 
 
 To think, to become responsible, to be inter- 
 ested, to be aroused, to want to put forth effort, 
 to do something for others, to feel their part 
 in the recitation — this social consciousness is 
 stimulated by the new plan of recitation.® Many 
 students tell me that *4t does away with the 
 old monotony." **It makes the schoolroom real, 
 life-like and natural. The students become 
 members of a working community which adopt 
 the principles of character and good citizenship 
 as the standard of living and working.*'" 
 
 It is simply a way of giving the self-reliance 
 and initiative within a group the maximum 
 opportunity to develop. This form of recita- 
 tion arouses more interest, more sense of co- 
 operation between the students and between the 
 teacher and the students and a wider freedom 
 of self-expression than does the ordinary reci- 
 tation. Eesponsibility and leadership become 
 
 •WiUiam WWtney, The Socialized Recitation. 
 "Ibid. 
 
REQUIRED SUBJECTS: HISTORY 181 
 
 pleasurable realities in boys and girls who feel 
 themselves expanding under its burdens. The 
 spirit of the group is more friendly and earnest. 
 But the greatest of all the advantages is the 
 training given the student in how to study, how 
 to think, and how to express thought.^^ It gives 
 a chance for analysis, for comparison, for 
 logical reasoning, for reflective judgment, and 
 for oral expression." 
 
 Frank Herbert Palmer says that the plan and 
 its details are so full of interest, so dynamic, 
 so fruitful of good to the average pupil, so 
 fascinating as a method of teaching that every 
 instructor will find it worthy of serious con- 
 sideration. This method of recitation makes the 
 pupil think for himself. Instead of being re- 
 quired to listen most of the time to the teacher 
 and to remember what he has expressed, the 
 pupil himself becomes an investigator, and hav- 
 ing found out for himself, expresses his 
 thoughts in the recitation. He is cross-ques- 
 
 "A. S. Beatman, The Social Recitation. Published by 
 "The Independent." 
 "Report to the Seattle High School History Teachers. 
 
182 EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 
 
 tioned by the class and made to defend his posi- 
 tion. The doing of these things makes him 
 careful and accurate. It cultivates habits of 
 expression. It makes him confident. It de- 
 velops leadership. Graduates of elementary 
 schools where this method is followed usually 
 get all the best honors and class leadership 
 offices in the high schools which they afterward 
 enter." The plan solves the question of order 
 and discipline. Disorder is usually the result 
 of idleness and inattention. These do not exist 
 where the socialized recitation plan is followed. 
 After reviewing the answers to a questionnaire 
 pertaining to methods employed by teachers of 
 history, civics, and economics in Seattle High 
 Schools, Superintendent Frank B. Cooper 
 stated that the teachers agree that "the method 
 is necessary to arouse interest and to encourage 
 intelligent thinking, an essential for citizenship 
 in a democracy; to develop initiative and fair- 
 mindedness; to teach the American way of 
 arriving at a conclusion; to get a clear under- 
 
 " Editor Frank H. Palmer in "Education" for January, 
 1919. 
 
REQUIRED SUBJECTS: HISTORY 183 
 
 standing of problems; to cultivate a sense of 
 truth and a realization of the need of it; to 
 establish the habit of consulting authorities and 
 of speaking the truth; to cultivate a sense of 
 knowing different views in arriving at conclu- 
 sions based on a broad knowledge; because 
 pupils learn not to swallow blindly one author- 
 ity; because the test of authority is investiga- 
 tion; because the teacher is not in a class to 
 impose personal opinions; because wrong per- 
 sonal views are corrected ; because hearsay evi- 
 dence is discredited.'' 
 
 Superintendent Cooper said further: **It 
 tends to induce the thinking habit, to encourage 
 the weighing of opinions, and a comparison of 
 facts before decision. It aims to blaze the way 
 fo just conclusions, rather than to arrive at 
 conclusions, for there are numerous problems 
 studied as to which satisfactory conclusions 
 have not yet been reached. My only comment 
 upon these returns is that this city is highly 
 fortunate in being served by a body of teachers 
 which shows the intelligence, wisdom and fine 
 spirit of service and patriotism that are dis- 
 
184 EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 
 
 closed in the answers to these questions.** The 
 report was adopted. 
 
 Dr. William T. Whitney in his mongraph en- 
 titled the Socialized Recitation," maintains that 
 **the recitation period should be devoted to 
 training the student, rather than instructing 
 the student. The student will get the instruc- 
 tion of necessity, if the material or content of 
 instruction is placed at his disposal in such a 
 way that he may, as a worker, use it in practic- 
 ing good speech, good manners, thinking, doing, 
 co-operating and building up habits that be- 
 come right moral action.'' 
 
 *' Morality does not consist of abstract 
 thoughts. Good citizenship does not consist of 
 talk about ideals. The highest morality and 
 best citizenship is in doing an honest piece of 
 work with a sincere motive and purpose. 
 
 **For the mechanic, for the student, morality 
 and citizenship mean doing effectively and effi- 
 ciently, with right motives the thing that should 
 be done. This may be termed a working 
 
 " W. T. Whitney, The SodaUzed Recitation, A. S. Bames 
 Co., N. Y. 
 
REQUIRED SUBJECTS: HISTORY 185 
 
 morality, but it is the type of moral training 
 most needed to-day. 
 
 '*No opportunity is provided in the ordinary 
 recitation for the student to receive that train- 
 ing in thought, in courtesy, in manners and 
 practical morals, in language and power of 
 adaptability, which constitutes the valuable 
 part of the recitation. The Socialized Recita- 
 tion admits of all these elements which are im- 
 perative if the student is to be educated. 
 
 **The ordinary recitation means an artificial 
 and unnatural way of mentally digesting in- 
 formation and subject-matter. The question 
 and answer method as well as the so-called de- 
 velopment method seldom touches the student's 
 real interest. It is evident also that in the 
 ordinary recitation no plan or preparation is 
 made for the student to take a conversatidnal 
 interest in the work. He is confined and re- 
 stricted to the few thoughts that the teacher 
 may have in mind which may or may not be 
 the student's viewpoint and* which may in no 
 sense be educational so far as the student is 
 concerned.'' 
 
186 EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 
 
 TJnder the old plan of recitation the students 
 relied too much upon the teacher. They de- 
 pended on him. Was there anything to be 
 done? Was there any responsibility to be as- 
 sumed! Was there any disorder to be sup- 
 pressed? Was there any unfavorable condi- 
 tions to be attended to? The teacher was the 
 one to look after all such matters. The pupils 
 felt no responsibility resting upon them. The 
 only part the pupils played was to repeat the 
 facts learned, to rehearse the lesson. 
 
 **The Socialized Recitation gives a better 
 opportunity for the teacher to study and know 
 the individual pupil. The recitation period be- 
 comes an active period of pupil responsibility, 
 and no longer a listening period. The student 
 becomes a doer and not a passive listener. The 
 class is the active part of the recitation, not 
 the teacher. If there are cases of discipline, 
 the pride and honor of the class will help settle 
 these. If there are members of the class whose 
 conduct, speech, actions and manners, are detri- 
 mental to good citizenship, the honor and re- 
 spect of the class will do much to remedy that. 
 
REQUIRED SUBJECTS: HISTORY 187 
 
 '"The Socialized Eecitation avoids the artifi- 
 cial conditions of the classroom and recitation. 
 The subject-matter is a means for the expres- 
 sion of the student's own ideas and to develop 
 his power. The subject-matter of a given les- 
 son is so planned by the teacher that it becomes 
 material to be used by the student in creating 
 experiences, and in giving and receiving im- 
 pressions. Thus to a very large degree drill 
 is eliminated, but the facts are nevertheless fixed, 
 because of the concrete situation in which the 
 student uses them." 
 
 After commenting on an article pertaining to 
 the Socialized Eecitation by Lotta A. Clark en- 
 titled ** A Good Way to Teach History'' (School 
 Eeview, April, 1909) Dr. Colvin A. Scott makes 
 this cogent statement: **Such an organization 
 of work consists in something much more than 
 a mere change of method. Methods are only 
 means for carrying out a given plan or aim. 
 What is proposed here is to allow the public, 
 and particularly that part of it the school is 
 directly in contact with, i.e., the pupils, to help 
 to shape the content of the course of study in 
 
188 EDUCATION DURINa ADOLESCENCE 
 
 harmony with their most lively and productive 
 interests. This will not exclude the full im- 
 pingement of the best of the teacher's contribu- 
 tion. He will probably find a greater oppor- 
 tunity than ever before to impress his best 
 ideas upon his pupils. They become more will- 
 ing to hear and to co-operate with him when he 
 has already shown his willingness to co-operate 
 with them.''" 
 Questions on Social Phases of the Recitation, 
 
 1. Do the students do most of the talking! 
 
 2. Do the students ask questions of each 
 other? 
 
 3. Are the students arranged during the reci- 
 tation period so as to be able to see each other! 
 
 4. Is it a habit of the student to speak to 
 all the members of the group, rather than to 
 the teacher! 
 
 5. Are the questions which the teacher and 
 the students ask, such as to stimulate discussion 
 among the pupils! 
 
 6. Do the students feel that it is worth while 
 
 »C. H. Johnson, Modem High School, pp. 240-244. 
 
REQUIRED SUBJECTS: HISTORY 189 
 
 to help each other and do they commonly feel 
 responsible for the progress of the class! 
 
 ?• Do the students answer questions which 
 are put by the teacher or by the other students 
 after careful thought, and are they still willing 
 to defend their positions against the sugges- 
 tions of doubt which may be expressed by the 
 other pupils? 
 
 References'^^ 
 Some of G. 8. EalVs Writings 
 
 1. Adolescence: Its Psychology and Its Re- 
 lations to Physiology, Anthropology, Sociology, 
 Sex, Crime, Eeligion and Education. Two 
 monumental and epoch-making volumes. D. 
 Appleton & Company, 1904. 
 
 2. Educational Problems. In this work, con- 
 
 '•Note: A complete biblography of Dr. HaU*s Writings 
 may be found in L. N. Wilson's life of G. Stanley Hall, 
 G. E. Stechert & Co., N. Y., 1914 (pp. 119-144). G. E. 
 Partridge's Genetic Philosophy of Education (pp. 383-394), 
 contains a bibUography of G. S. HaU's Writings to 1912. 
 
190 EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 
 
 sisting of two ponderous and comprehensive 
 volumes, Dr. Hall discusses educational prob- 
 lems from the point of view of genetic psy- 
 chology and the needs of society. D. Appleton, 
 1911. 
 
 3. Youth: Its Education, Regimen and 
 Hygiene. Selections from ** Adolescence.'' 
 ** Youth,'' contains besides other valuable dis- 
 cussions, chapters on sports, games, and plays, 
 the education of girls, and biographies of 
 adolescents. D. Appleton, 1904. 
 
 4. Aspects of Child Life and Education. This 
 book of 326 pages deals with the contents of 
 children's minds, day dreams, curiosity, dolls, 
 collecting, ownership, fetishism, boy life forty 
 years ago, and other topics. Ginn & Co., Bos- 
 ton, 1907. 
 
 5. The Ideal School as Based on Child Study. 
 The Forum, Sept., 1901, Vol. XXXII, pp. 24-39. 
 Also Proceedings of the National Education 
 Association, 1901, pp. 475-488. See Dr. Hall's 
 Introduction to P. W. Search's book, ** An Ideal 
 School." D. Appleton, 1901. 
 
REQUIRED SUBJECTS: HISTORY 191 
 
 6. How Far is the Present High School and 
 Early College Training Adapted to the Nature 
 and Needs of Adolescents! Ofl&cial Eeport of 
 the 16th Annual Meeting of the N. E. Ass'n of 
 Colleges and Secondary Schools, pp. 72-104. 
 Also in School Review, Dec, 1901. 
 
 7. The High School as the People's College. 
 Proceedings of the Department of Superinten- 
 dence, National Education Association, Chicago, 
 Feb. 27, 1902. Cf. The High School as the 
 People's College Versus the Fitting School'. 
 Ped. Sem., March, 1902, Vol. IX, pp. 63-73. 
 
 8. Some Criticisms of High School Physics 
 and Manual Training and Mechanic Arts High 
 Schools with Suggested Correlations. Ped. 
 Sem., June, 1902, Vol. IX, pp. 193-204. See also 
 Adolescents and High School English, Latin 
 and Algebra. Ped. Sem., March, 1902, Vol. IX, 
 pp. 92-105. 
 
 9. The Genetic Philosophy of Education. 
 This is the only summary of G. Stanley Hall's 
 pedagogic doctrine. In this work Dr. Partridge 
 attempted to epitomize President Hall's books 
 
192 EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 
 
 and about 300 of his magazine articles. He has 
 done an enviable piece of work. This book is 
 of inestimable value to every teacher. Sturgis 
 & Walton Company, 1912. 400 pages. 
 
BIBLIOGRAPHY OF BOOKS AND ARTICLES BY 
 OTHER AUTHORITIES 
 
 1. Andrews, F. F. The New Citizenship. Proceedings, 
 
 National Education Association, 1915, pp. 702-705. 
 
 2. Anderson, R. E. A Preliminary Study of the Read- 
 ying Tastes of High School Pupils. Ped. Sem., Dec, 
 
 1912, Vol, XIX, pp. 438-460. 
 
 3. Angell, J. R. New Requirements for Entrance and 
 
 Graduation at the University of Chicago. School 
 Review, Sept., 1911, Vol. XIX, No. 7, pp. 489-497. 
 
 4. Avert, L. B. The Future High School. Proc. N. 
 
 E. A., 1915, pp. 748-753. 
 
 5. Baglet, W. C. The Professional Training of High 
 
 School Teachers. Proc. N. E. A., 1912, pp. 686-691. 
 
 6. Bagley, W. C. The Determination of Minimum Es- 
 
 sentials in Elementary Geography and History. 
 Yearbook, National Society for the Study of Educa- 
 tion. Chicago, 1915, pp. 131-146. 
 
 7. Baldwin, J. M. Mental Development in the Child 
 
 and the Race. Macmillan Co., 1910. 
 
 8. Balliet, T. M. Discussion of the Report of the 
 
 Committee on Economy of Time in Elementary 
 Education. Proc. N. E. A., 1915, pp. 410-416. 
 103 
 
194 EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 
 
 9. Banks, L. A. Youth of Famous Americans. Metho- 
 dist Book Company, 150 Fifth Avenue, New York. 
 
 10. Baenes, M. S. Studies in Historical Method. D. C. 
 
 Heath & Co., 1904. 
 
 11. Bate, W. G. An Experiment in Teaching a Course 
 
 in Elementary Sociology. School Review, May, 
 1915, Vol. XXIII, pp. 331-340. (An outline of the 
 course is given.) 
 
 12. Betts, G. H. The Recitation. Houghton Mifflin Co., 
 
 1910, New York. 
 
 13. Blackmar, F. Elements of Sociology, Macmillan 
 
 Co., 1906. 
 
 14. Blairsdell, T. C. Should Colleges Admit High 
 
 School Graduates without Regard to Subjects 
 Studied in the High School? School and Society, 
 March 11, 1916, Vol. Ill, No. 63, pp. 366-370. (In 
 this article the author maintains that "ability to do 
 college work can be attained during four years of 
 study in high school without regard to the subjects 
 pursued.") 
 
 15. Bloomfield, M. Youth, School and Vocation. Hough- 
 
 ton Mifflin Co., New York, 1915. 
 
 16. Bolton, F. E. Principles of Education. Charles 
 
 Scribner's Sons, New York, 1910. 790 pages. The 
 facts in this book have been admirably well selected, 
 carefully organized, and forcibly stated by Dr. Bol- 
 ton, who discusses pedagogy from the biological and 
 psychological points of view. 
 
 17. Bolton, F. E. Facts and Fictions Concerning Educa- 
 
 tional Values. School Review, Feb., 1904, Vol. XII, 
 p. 170-189. 
 
BIBLIOGRAPHY OF BOOKS AND ARTICLES 195 
 
 18. Bolton, F. E. What is the True Function of the 
 
 Free Public High School. Published by the North- 
 western University, 1913. Proceedings of National 
 Conference of Secondary Education. 
 
 19. BosTWicK, A. E. The Twenty-seventh Annual Con- 
 
 ference of Academies and High Schools in Relation 
 with the University of Chicago. School Review, 
 June, 1915, Vol. XXIII, pp. 394-405. 
 
 20. Bowers, F. T. What Constitutes Preparation for 
 
 College; a Layman's View. Education, Sept., 1911, 
 VoL XXXII, pp. 16-19. 
 
 21. Bourne, H. E. The Teaching of History and Civics 
 
 in the Elementary and Secondary School. Long- 
 mans, Green & Co., New York, 1903. 
 
 22. Brigqs, T. H. Secondary Education. Report of the 
 
 Commissioner of Education, 1915, pp. 113-130. 
 
 23. Brooks, S. D. School Document, No. 10, 1910, Boston 
 
 Public Schools. 
 
 24. Brooks, S. D. School Document, No. 11, 1911, Boston 
 
 Public Schools. 
 
 25. Brown, E. E. The Making of Our Middle Schools. 
 
 Longmans, Green & Co., 1910. (A comprehensive 
 treatment of the history of secondary education.) 
 
 26. Brown, J. F. The Training of Teachers for Sec- 
 
 ondary Schools. Macmillan Co., N. Y., 1911. 
 
 27. Brown, J. F. The American High School. Macmillan 
 
 Co., 1909, N. Y., 462 pages. (An excellent text- 
 book to use in teaching secondary education.) 
 
196 EDUCATION DUUlNG ADOLESCENCE 
 
 28. Brown, J. S. Future Outlook and Possibilities of 
 
 Secondary Education. Proc. N. E. A., 1915, pp. 
 616-621. 
 
 29. Brown, S. W. Some Experiments in Elementary 
 
 School Organization. Proc. N. E. A., 1913, pp. 
 458-463. 
 
 30. Bryce, James. The Hindrances to Good Government. 
 
 Yale University Press. 
 
 31. BuiTKER, F. F. Reorganization of the Public School 
 
 System, Bureau of Education, Washington, D. C. 
 Bulletin, No. 8, 1916, 186 pages. 
 
 32. Bunker, F. F. The Reorganization of the Schools of 
 
 Berkeley. A Plan. Report to the Board of Educa- 
 tion of Berkeley, California, Nov. 30, 1909. 
 
 33. Bunker, F. F. The Better Articulation of the Parts 
 
 of the Public School System. Educational Review, 
 March, 1914, Vol. XLVII, pp. 249-269. 
 
 34. Bunker, F. F. The Plan to Secure a Functional 
 
 Articulation of the Parts of the Public School Sys- 
 tem in Effect at Berkeley. (Chapter of a book in 
 preparation.) 
 
 35. BuBNHAM, W. H. The Study of Adolescence. Fed. 
 
 Sem., 1891, June, Vol. I, No. 2, pp. 174-196. 
 
 36. BuRNHAM, W. H. Child Study as the Basis of Peda- 
 
 gogy. Proc. N. E. A., 1893, pp. 718-720. 
 
 *^ 37. BuRNHAM, W. H. Education from the Genetic Point 
 of View. Proc. N. E. A., 1005, pp. 727-734. 
 
 38. BuRNHAM, W. H. The Group as a Stimulus to Men- 
 tal Activity. Science N. S., Vol. XIII, pp. 761-766, 
 
BIBLIOGRAPHY OF BOOKS AND ARTICLES 197 
 
 May 20, 1910. See quotation in Irving King's 
 Education for Social Efficiency, p. 235. In another 
 work, Social Aspects of Education (Macmillan Co., 
 1912), Dr. King quotes several pages of Professor 
 Bumham's article (pp. 358-363). 
 
 ^ 39. BuRNHAM, W. H. Hygiene of Adolescence. A 
 Cyclopedia of Education edited by Paul Monroe 
 with the assistance of Departmental editors. Vol. I, 
 pp. 44-46, New York, 1911. (Dr. Bumham is De- 
 partmental Editor of Hygiene.) 
 
 l^^^^, BuRNHAM, W. H. Suggestions from the Psychology 
 
 r ef Adolescence. Report of the New England 
 
 Association of Colleges and Preparatory Schools. 
 School Review, Dec, 1897, Vol. V, pp. 652-666. 
 (An explicit and forcible presentation of the spirit 
 of the new education.) 
 
 41. BuENHAM, S. History in the Schools: 'A study of 
 100 replies of students as to how they were taught 
 history. Educational Review, May, 1904, Vol. 
 XXVII, pp. 521-528. 
 
 42." Burr, G. L. What History Shall We' Teach t History 
 Teacher's Magazine, Nov., 1914, pp. 283-287. 
 
 43. Burr, G. L. Definition of the Field of Secondary 
 
 History. History Teacher's Magazine, June, 1916, 
 Vol. VII, pp. 201-202. (Papers by H. D. Foster, 
 H. E. Bourne, M. McGill, E. M. Violette, J. Sullivan, 
 C. Harford, J. E. Berringer, J. R. Sutton, appear 
 in the same issue.) 
 
 44. Burr, H. M. Studies in Adolescent Boyhood. Seminar 
 
 Publishing Co., Springfield, Mass., 1910. 
 
198 EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 
 
 45. Butler, N. M. The Meaning of Education with Other 
 
 Essays and Addresses. Macmillan Co., N. Y., 1905. 
 230 pages. 
 
 46. Caldwell, 0. W. The Influence of Prolonged and 
 
 Carefully Directed Work. Proc. N. E. A., 1912, 
 pp. 691-700. 
 
 47. Capen, S. p. Higher Education. (See Entrance Re- 
 
 quirements) Report of the Commissioner of Educa- 
 tion, Department of the Interior, 1915, pp. 131-167. 
 
 48. Chambers, W. G. Why Children Play. Proc. N. E. 
 
 A., 1909, pp. 720-726. 
 
 49. Chambers, W. G. The Evolution of Ideals. Ped. 
 
 Sem., March, 1903, Vol. X, pp. 101-143. 
 
 60. Chamberlain, A. F. The Teaching of English. Ped. 
 Sem., June, 1902, Vol. IX, No. 2, pp. 161-170. 
 
 5L Chapman, I. T. Obstacles to be Encountered in the 
 Estabhshment of the Junior High School. Journal 
 of Education (A. E. Winship, editor). May 18, 1916, 
 Vol. LXXXIII, No. 20, pp. 538-541. 
 
 52. Claparede. Experimental Pedagogy. Longmans, 
 
 Green & Co., New York. 
 
 53. Clark, L. A. A Good Way to Teach History. 
 
 School Review, April, 1909, Vol. XVII, pp. 255-266. 
 (The author tells how she "socialized" the recita- 
 tions in history in one of the Boston high schools.) 
 
 54. Claxton, p. p. R^jport of the Commissioner of 
 
 Education, Department of Interior, 1915. 
 
 55. Claxton, P. P. The Organization of High Schools 
 
 into Junior and Senior Sections. Proc. N. E. A., 
 1915, pp. 747-748. (Commissioner Claxton strongly 
 commends the "Six-Three-Three Plan.") 
 
BIBLIOGRAPHY OF BOOKS AND ARTICLES 199 
 
 56. Cole, T. R. Learning to Be a Schoolmaster. C. C. 
 
 Bras, Publisher, Seattle, Wash. 
 
 57. Cole, T. R. Segregation at the Broadway High 
 
 School, Seattle. School Review, Oct., 1915, Vol. 
 XXV, pp. 550-554. 
 
 58. COLVIN, S. S. Learning Process. Macmillan Co., 
 
 1911, N. Y. 
 
 59. Committee op Seven. The Study of History in 
 
 Schools. Report to the American Historical Associa- 
 tion. Macmillan Company, 1900, N. Y. 
 
 60. CoNEADi, E. Latin in High School. Ped. Sem., 
 
 March, 1905, Vol. XII, No. 12, pp. 1-27. 
 
 6L COOKSON, C. W. The Ethical as the Essential in 
 Training for Efficient Citizenship in a Democracy. 
 High School Quarterly, April, 1916, Vol. IV, No. 3, 
 pp. 209-216. 
 
 62. COOLEY, E. G. The Part-time School. School and 
 
 Society, Vol. Ill, No. 76, pp. 843-847. 
 
 63. Cooper, F. B. Report on Methods of Instruction 
 
 employed by teachers of History, Civics and 
 Economics in Seattle High Schools. 
 
 64. Crabtree, J. W. Personality in Supervision. Proc. 
 
 N. E. A., 1915, pp. 516-519. 
 
 65. Crabtree, J. W. Harmonizing Vocational and Cul- 
 
 tural Education. Proc. N. E. A., 1914, pp. 384-385. 
 
 66. CuBBERLEY, E. P. Changing Conceptions of Educa- 
 
 tion. Houghton Mifflin Co., 1909. (One of the 
 Riverside Educational Monographs, edited by Henry 
 Suzzallo.) 
 
/, 
 
 200 EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 
 
 67. CUBBERLET, E. P., and Others, Does the Present Trend 
 
 toward Vocational Education Threaten Liberal Cul- 
 ture? School Review, Sept., 1911, Vol. XIX, pp. 
 454-488. 
 
 68. CuBBERLET, E. P. The Portland Survey. A Text- 
 
 book on City School Administration Based on a 
 Concrete Study. World Book Co., N. Y., 1915. 
 (Professor Cubberley was assisted by F. B. Dresslar, 
 E. C. Elliot, J. H. Francis, F. E. Spaulding, L. M. 
 Terman, and W. R. Tanner. See Chapter XI, 
 Needed Reorganization and Expansions of the School 
 System, pp. 250-279.) 
 
 69. Curtis, H. S. Education through Play. Macmillan 
 
 Co., 1915. 
 
 70. Davis, C. 0. Realizable Educational Values in His- 
 
 tory. History Teacher's Magazine, Vol. VI, pp. 
 167-178. 
 
 71. Davis, C. 0. High School Courses of Study. A 
 
 constructive study Applied to New York City. 
 World Book Co., 1914. 
 
 72. Davis, C. 0. Reorganization of Secondary Educa- 
 
 tion. Educational Review, Oct., 1911, Vol. XLII, 
 pp. 270-300. 
 
 73. Davis, C. 0. Guide to Methods and Observation in 
 
 History Studies in High School Observation. Rand, 
 McNally & Co., 1914. 
 
 74. Davis, C. 0. Continuation Work in the High SchooL 
 
 A chapter in Johnson and Others, The Modern High 
 School, pp. 546-591. Charles Scribner's Sons, N. Y. 
 
BIBLIOGRAPHY OF BOOKS AND ARTICLES 201 
 
 75. Davis, C. 0. Principles and Plans for Reorganizing 
 
 Secondary Education. A chapter in Johnson and 
 Others, High School Education, pp. 67-106. Charles 
 Scribner's Sons, 1912. 
 
 76. Davison, C. The Education of Charles Darwin. 
 
 Educational Review, Feb., 1912, Vol. XLIII, No. 
 2, pp. 125-133. 
 
 77. Dealey, W. L. The Theoretical Gary. Ped. Sem., 
 
 June, 1916, Vol. XXIII, No. 2, pp. 269-282. "This 
 study is a digest of the Gary literature." 
 
 78. Dewey, J. Democracy and Education. Macmillan 
 
 Co., 1916, New York. 
 
 79. Dewey, J. Schools of To-morrow. E. P. Dutton 
 
 & Co., New York, 1915. "Almost every chapter 
 gives descriptions of socialized school work." 
 
 80. Dewey, J. Interest and Effort in Education. 
 
 Houghton Mifflin Co., New York. 
 
 81. Dewey, J. The School and Society. N. Y. McClure, 
 
 Phillips & Co., 1900. 
 
 82. Dewey, J. The School and Society. (Revised Edi- 
 
 tion), 1915. The University of Chicago Press. 164 
 pages. 
 
 83. Dole, C. The American Citizen. D. C. Heath & Co., 
 
 Boston. (This work "teaches civics, elementary 
 economics, patriotism, and social responsibility.") 
 
 84. Dunn, A. W. The Community and the Citizen. D. 
 
 C. Heath & Co., Boston, 1910. 
 
 85. Dutton, S. T. Social Phases of Education in the 
 
 School and the Home, Macmillan Co., New York, 
 1899, pp. 257. 
 
202 EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 
 
 86. DuTTON and Snedden. The Administration of Public 
 Education in the United States. Macmillan Co., 
 N. Y., 1909, pp. 600. 
 
 ^^7. Earhart, L. B. Types of Teaching. Houghton 
 Mifflin Co., 1915, New York. Ch. IX, Recitation 
 Exercise, Ch. XI, Socializing Exercises, Ch. XIV, 
 Training Pupils to Study. 
 
 88. Eliot, C. W. Educational Reform (Essays and Ad- 
 
 dresses). The Century Co., New York, 1905, pp. 418. 
 
 89. Eliot, C. W. Education for Efficiency and the New 
 
 Definition of the Cultivated Man. Houghton Mifflin 
 Co., Boston, 1910. 
 
 90. Eliot, C. W. Present Problems of Education. Educa- 
 
 tional Review, March, 1914, Vol. XLVII, pp. 237- 
 
 248. 
 
 91. Eliot, C. W. Needed Changes in Secondary Educa- 
 
 tion. U. S. Bureau of Education. Bulletin No. 10, 
 1910, Washington, D. C. 
 
 92. Eliot, C. W. Changes Needed in American Sec- 
 
 ondary Education. School and Society, March 18, 
 1916, Vol. Ill, No. 64, pp. 397-408. 
 
 93. Elliot, E. C. Instruction: Its Organization and 
 
 Control. A chapter in Johnson and Others, High 
 School Education, pp. 106-128. Charles Scribner's 
 Sons, 1914, N. Y. 
 
 94. Ellwood, C. a. The Sociological Basis of the Science 
 
 of Education. Education, Nov., 1911, Vol. XXXII, 
 pp. 133-140. 
 
 95. Ellwood, C. A. Sociology and Modem Social Prob- 
 
 lems. American Book Co., 1911, N. Y. 
 
BIBLIOGRAPHY OF BOOKS AND ARTICLES 203 
 
 96. Fenwick, a. M. a Modem City's High School Sys- 
 tem. School Review, Feb., 1916, Vol. XXIV, pp. 
 116-129. 
 
 ^97. Fish, E. V. The Boy and Girl; The Period of 
 Adolescence. A. H. Crist Co., Cooperstown, N. Y., 
 1912. 
 
 98. Flexner, a. a Modem School. General Education 
 
 Board, New York City. 
 
 99. FoRBUSH, W. B. The Coming Generation. D. Apple- 
 
 ton & Co., N. Y., 1912. 
 100. Foster, W. T. Reed College. School Review, Feb., 
 
 1915, Vol. XXni, pp. 98-104. 
 101 Graves, F. P. A Student's History of Education. 
 
 Macmillan Co., 1915, New York. 
 
 102. Graves, F. P. Great Educators of Three Centuries: 
 
 Their Work and Its Influence on Modem Education. 
 MacmiUan Co., N. Y., 1912. 
 
 103. Greene, I. K. English in the High Schools, High 
 
 School Bulletin No. 5, Department of Education, 
 Olympia, Washington. 
 
 104. Gregory, B. C. Better Schools. Macmillan, New 
 
 York, pp. 260, 1912. 
 
 105. Griffin, J. T. Pedagogical Leaflets, Edited by J. 
 
 T. Griffin. New York School of Method, 1800 East 
 New York Avenue, Brooklyn, New York. 
 
 106. GuTH, W. W. The Latin Entrance Requirement. 
 
 School and Society, May 13, 1916, Vol. Ill, No. 72, 
 pp. 701-705. 
 
 107. Hanus, p. H. a Modem School. Macmillan Com- 
 
 pany, New York, 1904, 306 pages. 
 
204 EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 
 
 108. Hanus, p. H. Educational Aims and Educational 
 
 Values. Macmillan Co., New York, 1899. pp. 211. 
 
 109. Hargreaves, R. T. The Possibilities of the High 
 
 School Library. Proc. N. E. A., 1915, pp. 730-734. 
 
 110. Hartwell, E. C. The Teaching of History. Houghton 
 
 Mifflin Co., 1913. (One of the Riverside Educa- 
 tional Monographs, edited by Dr. Henry Suzzallo.) 
 lU. Heck, W. H. Mental Discipline and Educational 
 Values. John Lane Co., New York, 1909, p. 147. 
 (A summary of the arguments opposed to the dogma 
 of formal discipline.) 
 
 112. Hegland, M. The Danish People's High School. U. 
 
 S. Bureau of Education. Bulletin No. 45, 1915. 
 Washington, D. C. 
 
 113. HiCHMAN, W. S. Where the College Fails. Educa- 
 
 tional Review, June, 1916, Vol. LI, pp. 57-70. 
 (Some of the statements made in this article may 
 be applied to the high school.) 
 
 114. Hinsdale, B. A. How to Study and Teach History. 
 
 D. Appleton & Co., New York, 1894. 
 
 115. Holland, E. 0. What the Schools Can Do to Meet 
 
 the Demands of Both Industry and General Science. 
 Proc. N. E. A., 1913, pp. 707-712. 
 
 116. HoLLiSTER, H. A. Administration of Education in 
 
 a Democracy. Charles Scribner's Sons, N. Y., 1914. 
 
 117. HOLLiSTER, H. A. High School Administration, D. 
 
 C. Heath & Co., Boston, 1911. 373 pages. (An 
 excellent text-book.) 
 
 118. HoLLiSTER, H. A. Constants and Variables in the 
 
 High School Program of Studies'. Education, Oct., 
 1911, Vol. XXXII, pp. 69-74. 
 
BIBLIOGRAPHY OF BOOKS AND ARTICLES 205 
 
 119. HOLLISTER, H. A. High School and Class Manage- 
 
 ment. D. C. Heath & Co., 1915. (Chapters on the 
 teaching of English and History.) 
 
 120. Holmes, W. H. Plans of Classification in the Public 
 
 Schools. Ped. Sem., Dec., 1911, Vol. XVHI, No. 
 4, pp. 475^22. 
 
 121. Holmes, W. H. School Organization and the In- 
 
 dividual Child. (A book for school executives and 
 teachers, being an exposition of plans that have 
 been evolved to adapt school organization to the 
 needs of the individual.) Davis Press, Worcester, 
 Mass., 1912. 
 
 122. Horn, P. W. The Junior High School in Houston, 
 
 Texas. Elem. School Journal, Oct., 1915, VoL XVI, 
 pp. 91-95. 
 
 123. HoRTON-, D. W. A Plan of Vocational Guidance. 
 
 School Review, April, 1915, Vol. XXIII, pp. 236- 
 243. (A list of books on vocations is given in this 
 article.) 
 
 124. Hosic, J. r. A Summary of the Report of the Com- 
 
 mittee on English, N. E. A., Commission on Re- 
 organization of High Schools. High School Quar- 
 terly, April, 1916, Vol. IV, No. 3, pp. 180-186. 
 
 125. Hyde, Wm. De Witt. The Teacher's Philosophy in 
 
 and out of School. Houghton Mifflin Co., 1910. 
 (Riverside Educational Monographs.) 
 
 126. Inglis, a. a Fundamental Problem in the Reor- 
 
 ganization of the High School. School Review, May, 
 1915, Vol. XXIII, pp. 307-318. 
 
206 EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 
 
 127. Jackson, L. F, A Single Aim in History Teaching. 
 
 History Teacher^s Magazine, Vol. V, pp. 245-248. 
 ("History alone attempts to show matters in their 
 relation to time, to emphasize the importance of 
 sequence in life.") 
 
 128. Jenks, p. R. a Manual of Latin Word Formation 
 
 for Secondary Schools. D. C. Heath & Co. 
 
 129. Johnson, C. H., and Others. High School Education. 
 
 Charles Scribner's Sons, New York, 1912. 
 
 130. Johnson, C. H., and Others. The Modem High 
 
 School, Charles Scribner's Sons, New York, 1914. 
 
 131. Johnson, C. H. The "Social Science," Department 
 
 of Public Administration and Supervision, June, 
 1916, Vol. II, No. 6, pp. 398-401. 
 
 132. Johnson, H. Teaching of History. Macmillan Co., 
 ^==^ 1915, New York. 
 
 133. Johnson, F. W. Waste in Elementary and Sec- 
 
 ondary Education. Popular Science Monthly, July, 
 1914, Vol. LXXXV, pp. 40-55. 
 
 134. Johnson, G. R. Qualitative Elimination from High 
 
 Schools. School Review, Dec, 1910, Vol. XVIII, 
 No. 10, pp. 680-694. 
 
 135. Jordan, D. S. The Care and Culture of Men. 
 
 Whitaker, Ray & Co., San Francisco, 1896, pp. 267. 
 
 136. Jordan, D. S. The Voice of the Scholar. 
 
 137. Jordan, D. S. A Quarter Century of Stanford Uni- 
 
 versity. School and Society, July 1, 1916, Vol. IV, 
 No. 79, pp. 1-9. 
 
BIBLIOGRAPHY OF BOOKS AND ARTICLES 207 
 
 138. Jordan, D. S. The High School Course. Popular 
 
 Science Monthly, July, 1908, Vol. LXXIII, pp. 28- 
 31. Also in the Educational Review, Nov., 1908, 
 Vol. XXXVI, No. 8, pp. 372-376. 
 
 139. JuDD, C. H. Psychology of High School Subjects. 
 
 Ginn & Co., N. Y., 1915. 
 
 140. JuDD, C. H. A Seven-year Elementary School. Proc. 
 
 N. E. A., 1913, pp. 225-234. 
 
 141. JuDD, C. H. The Junior High School. School Re- 
 
 view, Jan., 1915, Vol. XXIII, pp. 25-33. 
 
 142. JuDD, C. H. The Junior High School. School Re- 
 
 view, April, 1916, Vol. XXIV, pp. 249-260. 
 
 143. JuDD, C. H. Reasons for Modifying Entrance Re- 
 
 quirements at University of Chicago. Education, 
 Jan., 1912, Vol. XXXII, No. 5, pp. 266-277. 
 
 144. JUDSON, H. P. Waste in Educational Curricula. 
 
 School Review, Sept., 1912, Vol. XX, pp. 433-441. 
 
 145. Kelsey, R. W. The Text-Book Method. (An ex- 
 
 cellent article upholding the text-book method, in 
 The History Teacher^s Magazine, Philadelphia, June, 
 1914.) 
 
 146. Kemp, E. W. Outline of Method in History. Inland 
 
 Publishing Co., Terre Haute, Ind., 1897, pp. 264- 
 295. "A general discussion of the use of biography 
 in schooL Chief emphasis upon moral value." 
 
 147. Keith, J. A. H. The Place and Scope of Sociology. 
 
 Proc N. E. A., 1915, pp. 764-766. 
 
 148. Kennedy, J. The Dam is Out I Educational Review, 
 
 March, 1912, Vol. XLIII, No. 3, pp. 274-281. 
 
208 EDUCATION DITRING ADOLESCENCE 
 
 149. Kerschensteiner, G. The Idea of the Industrial 
 
 School. Macmillan Co., New York, 1913. 
 
 150. B^ERSCHENSTEiNER, G. The Schools and the Nation. 
 
 (Contains four illustrations of Continuation Schools.) 
 Macmillan Co., London, 1914. 
 
 151. KiLPATRiCK, V. E. Departmental Teaching in Ele- 
 
 mentary School. Macmillan Co., New York, 1908, 
 pp. 130. 
 
 152. King, I. The High School Age, Bobbs-Merrill Com- 
 
 pany, Indianapolis, 1914. 
 
 153. King, I. Education for Social Efficiency. D. Apple- 
 
 ton, 1913. 
 
 154. King, I. Social Aspects of Education, Macmillan 
 
 Co., 1913, New York. See Dr. Bumham's article. The 
 Group as a Stimulus to Mental Activity, pp. 358- 
 363. 
 
 155. King, I. Psychology of Child Development, Univ. 
 
 of Chicago Press, 1907. ( See chapter on adolescence. ) 
 
 156. Kingsley, C. D. Report of the Committee of Nine 
 
 on the Articulation of High School and College. 
 Proc. N. E. A., 1911, pp. 559-560. 
 
 157. Kingsley, C. D. Problems Confronting the Commis- 
 
 sion on the Reorganization of Secondary Education. 
 Proc. N. E. A., 1914, pp. 483-488. 
 
 158. KiRKPATRiCK, E. A. The Individual in the Making. 
 
 Houghton Mifflin Co., N. Y., 1911. 
 
 159. KiRPATRiCK, E. A. Fundamentals of Child Study. 
 
 "A Discussion of instincts and other factors in 
 human development with practical applications." 
 Macmillan Co., New York, 1903, pp. 377. 
 
BIBLIOGRAPHY OF BOOKS AND ARTICLES 209 
 
 160. KuNO, E. E. How a Knowledge of A lolescent 
 Characteristics May Aid One in Directing His Con- 
 duct. Ped. Sem., Sept., 1914. 
 
 181, Leavitt, F. M. Examples of Industrial Education. 
 Ginn & Co., Chicago, 1912. (This book gives many 
 different plans of school organization.) 
 
 162. Lee, J. Play in Education. Macmillan Co., New 
 York, 1915. 
 
 163.^ Lewis, H. T. The Social Sciences in Secondary 
 " - Schools. School Review, Sept., 1915, Vol., XXIII, 
 pp. 455-464. 
 
 164. Mann, C. R. Changes in Entrance Requirements at 
 
 the University of Chicago, School Review, Sept., 
 1911, Vol. XLH, No. 2, pp. 186-191. 
 
 165. Mace, W. H. Method in History. Ginn & Co., 
 
 Boston. 
 
 136. Mace, W. H. Method in History for Teacher and 
 Student. Rand, McNally & Co., Chicago, 1914. 
 
 167. McDouQALL, W. An Introduction to Social Psy- 
 
 chology. John W. Luce & Co., Boston, 1909. Pub- 
 lished also by Methuen & Co., 36 Essex St., London. 
 The edition published by Methuen & Co., contains 
 a few more chapters than the edition published by 
 J. W. Luce & Co. 
 
 168. McLaughlin, A. C. The Study of History in Schools. 
 
 Report of the American Historical Association by 
 the Committee of Seven composed of A. C. Mc- 
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810 EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 
 
 169. MoIiAUGHLm, A. C. The Study of History in 
 
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 170. McManis, J. T. Vocational Training in Chicago 
 
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 171. McMuRBAT, C. A. Special Method in History. Mao- 
 
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 172. MiLLiMAN, L. D. Manual of English Prose Composi- 
 
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 173. Monroe, P. Principles of Secondary Education. 
 
 Written by a number of specialists. Macmillan 
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 174. Monroe, P. Cyclopedia of Education (Five volumes). 
 
 Many of the greatest contemporary educators are 
 associated with Dr. Monroe as departmental editors, 
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 175. MoNTESSORi, M. My System of Education. Proc. 
 
 N. E. A., 1915, pp. 64-73. 
 
 176. Moore, E. C. What is Education? (Hnn & Co., 1916. 
 
 177. MuLFORD, R. J. College Entrance Requirements. See 
 
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 ^'* 178. O'Shea, M. V. Dynamic Factors in Education. Mac- 
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BIBLIOGRAPHY OF BOOKS AND ARTICLES 211 
 
 179. O'Shea, M. V. Work and Play of Youth, Proc. 
 
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 180. Parker, S. C. Methods of Teaching in High Schools. 
 
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 181. Parsons and Shephard. Causes of Leaving Schools. 
 
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 184. Phelps, "W. L. Teaching in School and College. 
 
 Macmillan Co., 1912, New York. (The author de- 
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 185. Phillips, D. E. The Elective System in American 
 
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 187. Potter, M. C. High School Courses. Proc. N. E. A., 
 
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 189. Pylb, W. H. Educational Psychology. Baltimore, 
 
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212 EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 
 
 190. Rapeer, L. W. College Entrance Requirements. 
 
 School and Society, April 15, 1916, Vol. Ill, No. 
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 191. Rapeer, L. W. College Entrance Requirements — ^the 
 
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 192. Robertson, W. S. A Brief list of Books on the 
 
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 193. Robinson, E. V. D. Reorganization of the Grades 
 
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 194. Robinson, J. H. The New History. Macmillan Co., 
 
 N. Y., 1912. 
 
 195. Roosevelt, T. The High School and the College. 
 
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 196. Roosevelt, T. History as literature. American 
 
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 197. Royce, J. Herbert Spencer. Fox, Duffield & Co., 
 
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 198. Rusk, R. R. Introduction to Experimental Educa- 
 
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 199. Sarin, H. Common Sense Didactics. Rand, McNally 
 
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 200. Sachs, J. The American Secondary School, and 
 
 Some of Its Problems. Macmillan Co., 1912, N. Y. 
 
BIBLIOGRAPHY OF BOOKS AND ARTICLES 213 
 
 lOL Sanders, F. W. The Reorganization of Our Schools. 
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 202. SAin)WicK, B. L. How to Study and What to Study^ 
 
 D. C. Heath & Co., 1915, pp. 170, Boston. 
 
 203. SooTT, C. A. Social Education, Ginn & Co., New 
 
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 204. Scott, C. A. Socialized High School Curriculuma 
 
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 205. SissON, E. 0. The Essentials of Character. Mac- 
 
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 206. Smith, W. H. All the Children of all the People. 
 
 MacmiUan Co., 1912, N. Y. 
 
 207. Smith, W. R. The Future of Economics! and tH« 
 
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 Houghton Mifflin Company, 1917. 
 
 209. Shaw, E. B. School Hygiene. Macmillan Co., N. 
 
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 210. SHAWBarr, M. P. Some New Problems for lEe Old 
 
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 211. SiDERS, W. R. The American High School: Its Rela- 
 
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214 EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 
 
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 215. Snedden, D., and Dutton, S. T. The Administra- 
 
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 216. Snedden, D. The Pros and Cons of the Gary SyS^ 
 
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 217. Snedden, D. New Problems in Secondary Educa- 
 
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 218. Snedden, D. The Opportunity of the Small High 
 
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 219. Snedden, D. An Educational Quest. School and 
 
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 220. Snedden, D. High School Education as a Social 
 
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 221. Snedden, D. The Reorganization of Secondary Educa- 
 
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 222. Snedden, D. Social Opportunities of New York City 
 
 High Schools. Charities and the Commons, April 
 25, 1908, Vol. XX, pp. 133-138. 
 
BIBLIOGRAPHY OF BOOKS AND ARTICLES 215 
 
 223. Snedden", D. Teaching of History in Secondary 
 
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 pp. 277-282. (See G. L. Burr's article in the same 
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 224. Snedden, Weeks, Cubberlet. Vocational Educa- 
 
 tion: Its Theory, Administration and Practice. 
 Houghton Mifflin Co., New York, 1910. 
 
 22K Snedden, D. The Character and Extent of Desirable 
 
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 for Youths of 12 to 14 years of Age. Educational 
 
 Administration and Supervision, April, 1916, Vol. 
 
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 226. Spaulding, F. E. Problems of Vocational Guidance. 
 
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 227. Spencer, H. Education — Intellectual, Moral and 
 
 Physical. D. Appleton Co., N. Y., 1910. 
 
 228. Staples, C. L. A Critique of High School Latin. 
 
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 229. Starr, L. The Adolescent Period. P. BlaMston's 
 
 Sons & Co., Philadelphia, Pa., 1915. 
 
 230. Stout, J. E. The High School: Its Function, Or- 
 
 ganization and Administration. D. C. Heath & Co., 
 Boston, 1914. (See Chapter XI, The Social Studies, 
 and Chapter XIII, EngUsh.) 
 
 231. Strachan, G. C. Future Outlook and Possibilities of 
 
 Elementary Education. Proc. N. E. A., 1915, pp. 
 616. 
 
 232. Strayer, G. D. A Brief Course in the Teaching 
 
 Process. Macmillan Co., N. Y., 1911. (An excel- 
 lent work.) 
 
216 EDUCATION DmtlNG ADOLESCENCE 
 
 233. Strong, F., and Others. Economy of Time in Educa- 
 
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 234. SuzzALLO, Henry. Educational Methods, Cyclopedia 
 
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 235. SuzzALLO, Heitrt, and Burnham, W. H. History 
 
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 236. SuzzALLO, Henry. Introductons to the Riverside 
 
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 237. Talkinqton, H. L. How to Study and Teach His- 
 
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 238. Tanner, A. E. The Child (Revised Edition) Rand, 
 
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 239. Taylor, J. S. A Handbook of Vocational Education. 
 
 Macmillan Co., N. Y., 1914. 
 
 240. Teacher's College Record. History Course in the 
 
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 ("Principles in Teaching English" with questions 
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 243. Thompson, F. V. Vocational Guidance in Boston. 
 
 School Review, Feb., 1915, Vol. XXIII, pp. 105-112, 
 
BIBLIOGRAPHY OF BOOKS AND ARTICLES 217 
 
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 245. Thorndike, E. L. Education— A First Book. Mac- 
 
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 247. Tract, F. and Sinclair, S. B. Introductory Educa- 
 
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 1913. 
 
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 Macmillan Co., New York, 1914. 
 
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 255. Whipple, G. M. Psychology and Hygiene of 
 Adolescence. A chapter in Paul Monroe's Prin- 
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218 EDUCATION DURING ADOLESCENCE 
 
 266. Wilson, G. M., and H. B. The Motivation of School 
 Work. Houghton Mifflin Co., 1916, Boston. 
 
 257. Wilson, H. B. Report of Committee on Economy 
 
 of Time in Elementary Education. Proc. N, E. A., 
 1915, pp. 402-410. 
 
 258. Wilson, Woodrow. Mere Literature and Other 
 
 Essays, 1896, pp. 161-186. Houghton Mifflin Co., 
 N. Y., 1900. 
 
 259. Wheatley, W. A. Vocational Information for 
 
 Pupils in a Small City. School Review, March, 
 1915, Vol. XXIII, pp. 175-180. 
 
 260. WiNSHiP, A. E. Standards— Wise and Otherwise. 
 
 Proc. N. E. A., 1915, pp. 528-533. 
 
 261. ZiMMERS, J. P. Teaching Boys and Girls How to 
 
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INDEX 
 
 Adolescent psychology, 3-5, 42, 49. 
 Advantages of the Socialized Recitation, 180-189. 
 Advantages of the Six and Six Plan of Organization, 28-34, 
 Aims of the high school, 14-18. 
 Aims of the SociaUzed Recitation, 153-154. 
 Angell, J. R., author of an article in the School Review, 
 Sept., 1911, 40 n., 45, 46. 
 
 Berkeley, Calif., high school, 19-28. 
 
 Boise, Idaho, high school course, 44. 
 
 Bolton, F. E., Reference to his Principles of Education and 
 
 his views on the Doctrine of Interest in Education, 
 
 41 n. 
 Boston, "General High School Course," 44, 61, 62. 
 Bunker, F. F., 22, 27. 
 Burnham, W. H., 15 n., 64, 70 n. 
 Butler, N. M., quoted 66, 86 n., 103. 
 
 Changes Proposed in Secondary Education, 59-78. 
 Chicago University Entrance Requirements, 39 n., 45, 46. 
 Civics, sociology, and economics, 17, 37, 58, 62, 63, 65-69, 
 
 79, 93. 
 College entrance requirements, 39 n., 40, 43, 45, 46, 51, 52. 
 College professors and the high school situation, 6-9. 
 Conduct of classes in history, 154-158. 
 Constants and Electives in the High School, 57-78. 
 Cooper, F. B., quoted, 182, 183. 
 Course in Elementary Sociology in High School, 79 n. 
 
 219 
 
220 INDEX 
 
 Criticism of the Junior High School of Berkeley, Cali- 
 fornia, 25. 
 "Cultivated Man," Dr. EUot's definition, 72-74. 
 Cultural subjects and vocational instruction, 61-65. 
 
 Davis, C. O., 21. 
 
 Diversity of college entrance requirements, 39 n., 40, 43, 45, 
 46, 51, 52. 
 
 Education for Citizenship, 59-78. 
 
 Educators on Election in Education, 39-58. 
 
 Elective System in High School, 39-58, 60, 63, 78. 
 
 Elementary education, 20-23. 
 
 Eliot, C. W., quoted, 42, 43, 56, 72-74, 102, 106, 114-115. 
 
 Eliot, C. W., on the safest guides to a wise choice of 
 
 studies, 42. 
 BngUsh, 23 n., 37, 40, 58, 62, 63, 69, 98-123. 
 Example of a Project in Modern History, 165-172. 
 Experiment in teaching a high school course in Elementary 
 
 Sociology, 79 n. 
 
 Fitting for college versus fitting for life, 5-7. 
 
 FlexibiUty of the course, 61-63. 
 
 Foreign languages, 16, 17. 
 
 Formal Discipline, 47, 48. 
 
 Foster, W. T., on the elective system, 50-55. 
 
 "General Course" of the Seattle High Schools, 45, 61, 62. 
 
 Hall's, G. S., Views, 1-14, 18, 29, 30, 32-34, 47, 48, 80-93, 
 
 98-101, 109-123. 
 High School, Berkeley, California, 19-28. 
 History, 17, 23 n., 24. 35, 37, 58, 62, 63, 124-138. 
 
 1. Value of History, 124-138. 
 
 2. Method in History, 138-153. 
 
 3. History Recitation Socialized, 153-189. 
 
 (1). The Aims of the Plan, 153-154. 
 
 (2). How Classes are Conducted, 154-158. 
 
INDEX 221 
 
 (3). Problem Method and Socialized Bedtatloii, 
 
 158-165. 
 (4). Example of a Project In Modem History, 
 
 165-172. 
 (5). Socialized Recitation from Student's Stand- 
 point, 172-179. 
 (6). What are the Advantages of the Socialized 
 BecitaUon, 180-189. 
 Holding students in high school, 25-28. 
 Holland, E. O., quoted 48 n., 49 n. 
 Hulme, E. M., 165, 167 n. 
 
 Individuality recognized, 6-11, 41. 
 Ideal high school course, 45, 46, 61, 62. 
 Initiative and Referendum, 67. 
 
 Judd, G. H., author of an article on Education, J^., 1912, 
 
 39 n. 
 Jordan, D. S., quoted, 40, 46, 55, 57. 
 Junior High School Curriculum, 24, 35, 36w 
 
 Latin in high school, 100-108. 
 Leavitt, F. M., 22, 27 n. 
 
 Mann, G. R., author of an article In the Educational B^ 
 
 view, Sept., 1911, 39 n. 
 Meany, E. S., quoted, 140. 
 Method in History, 138-153. 
 
 N. R A., Committee on secondary education, 49, 64, 
 
 O'Shea, M. V., 48. 
 
 Palmer, F. H., quoted, 181, 182. 
 Part-time schools, 60. 
 Percentage of those who leave school, 27. 
 Personal culture, 16, 71-74. 
 
222 INDEX 
 
 Physical well-being, 14. 
 
 Principle of Election in Education, 39-58. 
 
 Problem Method and Socialized Recitation, 158-172. 
 
 Proposed Junior High School Program, 35-36. 
 
 Proposed Senior High School Program, 37, 38. 
 
 Psychology of Adolescence, 3-5, 42, 49. 
 
 Recitation SociaUzed, 153-189. 
 
 Recognition of individual differences by the 1911 Committee 
 
 of Nine of the N. E. A., 41. 
 Reed College Entrance Requirements, 39. 
 Reorganization of the high school, 19-38, 59-78. 
 Required Studies in the High School, 23, 37, eO, 62, 70. 
 
 77, 78. 
 
 Seattle High School Courses, 45, 61, 62. 
 
 Senior High School Program, 37, 38. 
 
 Six year high school curricula, 19-38. 
 
 Snedden, David, 16 n., 48 n., 117-118. 
 
 Social efficiency, 17, 71-74. 
 
 Social Problems, 69, 74, 79. 
 
 Socialized Recitation, 153-189. 
 
 Spencer, H., and G. Stanley Hall, quoted, 47, 48. 
 
 Stanford University Entrance Requirements, 40, 45. 
 
 State College of Washington Entrance Requirements, 39 n. 
 
 Students' Opinion of the Socialized Recitation, 172-179. 
 
 Suzzallo, Henry, Editor of Riverside Educational Mono- 
 
 ,. graphSt 16 n., 41, 42 n. 
 
 Teachers* duty, 60. 
 
 Training for Citizenship, 59-78. 
 
 University of Chicago Entrance Requirements, 39 n., 45, 46. 
 
 Value of History, 138-153. 
 Vocational guidance, 15, 75-78. 
 
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